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THE
PENNY CYCLOPEDIA
ov
THE SOCIETY
FOR THE
DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
VOLUME V.
BLOIS BUFFALO.
* * ..** •**
LONDON:
CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE STREET.
MDCCCXXXVI.
Pria Seven ShUlinQs and Sixpence^ boimd in cloth.
Digitized by vriOO^lC
COMMITTEE.
Wt^ Hoa. LORD BROUGHAM. P.ll.8., Mtmbcr of the Natt««»l Isstllatt Qf ftm
Viet-Ckmrnmrnm^iOnS WOOD. Kaq.
rrv«M«r— WILLIAM TOOKE. Rw|.. M.P^ F.RA
W. AUm. R*^., r.R. »Ml R.A.S.
CApt. F. Bmnfort, R.N.. P.R. tad
.HydracrBphcr to tlw A4mlfmltf.
O. Barrow*. M.D.
Peter Staibrd Carer. K^*
Wllllem CottlMfi, Esq.
R. I>. Crelf . R«Q.
Win. Cnwford. S«q.
J. Frederick Daolell. Eaq. F.R.S.
J.F.DeTls.E«4..PR.S-
H. T. DelaBeclie. Ea^ TJLS.
RL Hob. Lord Deaman.
Bamoel Duekwortb, Btq.
Hie Rt. Ree. the Ulsbop of Dnrhaa, DJI.
RL Hon. Viae. KUrioston. M.P.
Sir Beary Bllla. Prln. Lib. Brit. Mtia«
T. F. RiHa, Kaq.. A.M.. F.R.A.8
John Rlllolaon. M.U., F.Rt.
TliMiBa Falconer, Baq.
iCftea, Sfa/brdiJkre— Ree. J. P. Joaet.
^mgttum^VUr, K. WUUa«a.
Rev. W. Johnaon.
Mr. Miller.
^tAUrlen— J. F. Klnfa^n, Baq.
rttffL— — Bancralt, Esq.
iniam Qribble. Btq.
Willi
BfMul^Dr. DrammoDd.
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Panl Moon Jamea, Baq., T^agnnr.
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^ca Wllllama. Baq.
Britfof— J. N. Saadera. Btq^ Ckmlrmmm.
J. Reynolda, Biq.. TVaaiwer. ^
J. B. BatUn. Bai|^ F.L.8.. Saerafnfir.
Cflfcatta— Lord Wm. BeatUck.
Sir Edward Rfan.
Jamea Yoanff. Baq.
C«aUr<^»-Ree. Jaaica Bewatead, M.A.
Bee. Prof. Renalow, M.A., F.L.8.lka.8.
Bee. Leoaard Jenrna, M.A.. F.L.8.
Bee. John Lodge, M.A.
Bee. Geo. Peacock, MJi., F.R.8.ftO.&
R. W.Rothn aa, E«q.,V. A., F.R. A.8Aa.8.
Ree. Prof. Scdf wick. U.A., F.R.8.ft G.8.
Proftaaor SairUi, M.A.
Ree.C.Thlrt wall, M.A.
Cwtiiiarjf John Brent. Btq.,
William Maatera, Esq.
Cmmgmm Bee. J. Blackwelt, M.A.
C««ila— Thomaa Baroea, M.D., F.R.8.B.
Carwm-sew R. A. Poole, Baq.
WllUam Roberta, Baq.
CAasfer^Bajraa Lvoo, Baq.
Henry PoAla, R«q.
L*Maft«fei^-Joha Forbasb MJD^ F.B^
C. C. Df ndr. Ksq, .....
Vftym .'Jdhft Crawford. Baq. •
, . Mr.nalh'PetrUUa.
C«eealr7*^Arthnr Gregory; Caq. '
IM|^4-Joha.H>ilMk^ biq.
Taamaa Rva*i4.*P.so: .
D§rkm JMeph'gtnUt. Baq.
MvafdHtfuCc; Bi^iTil.'P.
Daeaayiif mfi 5toaal^^ J<^a CoK Kaq-
I. L. Goldamid, Esq.. F.R. and R.A.S.
B. Gomperts. Esq., F.R. and R.A.S.
G. B. Greenoogh. Esq., F.R. and L.8.
B. Hallam, Baq. F.R.8., M JL
M. D. Bill, Emi.
Rowland Hill, Esq., F.R. A. 8.
Edwin HUl, Eaq.
Rt. Hon. Sfr J. C. Hobhooae, Bart M.P.
Daeld Jardine, Eaq., AJI.
Henry B. Ker, Esq.
The RL Hon. the Earl of Kerry, M.P.
Th. Hewitt Key. Esq., AJf.
J.T. Leader. Esq.. M.P.
George C. Lewis, Eaq., A.M.
Thomaa Henry Liater, Esq.
Jamea Loch, Esq., M.P.. K.G.S.
George Long, Esq., A.M.
J. W. Lubbock, Esq.. F.R., R.A. and L.8.8.
H. Maiden, Esq. A.M.
LOCAL COMMITTEES.
Lt.CoL C. Hamilton Smith. F.R.S.
DaUJa— T. l>mmmond. Esq. R.E.. F.R.A.8.
.Bdiaftaiy*— Sir C. Bell. F.R.S.L. and B.
^frana— Joa. Wedgwood, Eaq.
f eater— J. Tyrrell, Esq.
John Mllford. Esq. (Ceaoar.)
ffle^fsw K. Flnlay, Ksq.
Professor Mylne.
Alexander UcOrigor, Eaq.
Charles Tcaaanr, Eaq.
Jamea Cowper. Eiiq.
OrcaMryaartIre- Dr. Malkln, Cowbrldga.
W. Wllllama, Esq., Aberpergwm.
Gaenuey— F. C. Lukis, Esq.
Hatf-J. C. Parker, Esq.
JTs^Alay, FerfaiUre-Ree. T. Dury, M JL.
taMcatfea— Ree. J. BarfitL
Ltmmimgt»m SlM"Dr. London, M.D.
Laedi— J. Marshall. Esq.
y^ewat— J. W. Woollgar, Eaq.
/MerM^Wm. O'Brien. Baq.
iA99rpo0l Loe. At.^W' W. Carrie, Baq. Ch,
J. Mnllenea«i Baq., 1>«atarsr.
Ree. W. Shepherd. -
J. Aahtoa Yates, Esq.
Ludiow^T, A. Knight, Esq., P.H.8.
jr«rtfeii*«ad..R. Goolden. Esq., F.LJS.
JgaUilDNe— Olement T. Smyth. Baq.
John Caae. Baq.
.Vn/me^^ry-R. C. Thomaa. Raq.
UunchatUr /.oc, if a.— G. W. Wood. Eaq.. Ck,
Benjeniin Hey wood. Eaq.,'2Vea«arar.
T. W. Winaunley, Raq., Hon. Kae.
Sir G. Phillpa, Bart., M.P.
Benj. Gott, Kaq.
JfoiAasi—ReT. Geoffe Waddiagton, MJU
Merthyr TyMl-^, J. Gttcat, Esq. M.P.
JginciUfiAamplen— John G. Ball, Eaq.
JiMswafA-J. B. Moggridge. Esq.
WaalA— John Rowland, Esq.
ilTamenflto— Rer. W. Turner.
T. Soparith, Eaq.
jrmerf. /«lsa/ ITifAf— Ab. Clarke^ Baq.
T. Cooke. Jan., Eaq.
R. G. Ktrkpatrick, Esq.
Wewporf Pmmm^Ur-i, Millar. Esq.
JITmtleien, IfaafgewMtytAirs— W. Piigh. Baq.
A. T. Malkln. Esq..*A.M.
Jamea Manning. B*q.
J. Herman .Merieale, Esq.. A JT,. WAJt,)
Jamea Mill, Esq.
The Right Hon. Lord Naftal.
W. H. Ord, Esq. M.P.
The Right Hon. Sir H. Paraell, B«t, M.P.
Dr. RogeC Sec. R.8.. F.R.A.8.
Bdward RomlUy. Eaq.
Right Hon. Lord John Roaaelt, M.P.
Sir M. A. Shee. P.R.A., F.II.8.
John Abel Smith, Esq., M.P.
Rlcht Boo. Earl Spenoer.
John Taylor. Esq. F.RJI.
Dr. A. T. Thomson. P.L.S.
H. Waymouth, Esq.
J. Whlshaw. Esq.. A.M., F.B.S.
John Wrotteairy. Esq., A.M., F.BJk.8.
J. A. Yatea, Esq.
yenakA— Richard Bacon, Eaq.
Onsft. AaavDr. Corbetr, M.D.
O^fknf-Dr. Daobeny, F.U.8. Prat of Ohtak
Ree. Prof. Powell.
Ree. John Jordan, B.A.
B. W. Head, Esq., M.A.
Penaiy~81r B. H. Malkln.
PaiM, £fai^Bfy— Count SaechtayL
Pigmmttk-'H. Woollcofflbe,Baq., F.A.8.,CA,
Snow Barrla. Esq.. F.a.8.
B. Moore, M.D.rF.L.8n8«trelary.
G. WIghtwIck, Esq.
I*rar<aj«n— Dr. A. W. Daelea, M.D
Rlpea- Ree. H. P. Hamilton, MJl., F.R4.
and G.S.
Rev. P. Ewart. M.A.
BalAea-Rev. the Warden of
Humphreya Jonea, Esq.
Bfde. /. qr /^Af-81r Rd. Slmcmi.Bt.. M.P.
8As#bW-^. H. Abraham, Esq.
^Aeptoa J/allef— G. F. Bnrrougha, Esa
.SArewf^ary-R. A.Slaney. Eaq., M.P.
Snmtk PefAerfen— John Nlcholetta, Esq.
8f. ifaa^A.-Bev. George Strong.
Sfadkvoff— H. Maraland, Esq., Tk^saiarar.
Henry Coppock, Esq., S^erttmrw,
roaitlocA-Ree. W. Eeaaa.
John Handle, Rsq.
IVare Richard Taunton. M.D.
Henry Scwell Slokca, Esq.
TwmM4^ ITeMi-Dr. Yeata, M.D.
e/Oajeto^-Robert Blarton. Eaq.
IFaii^eA— Dr. Conolly.
The Ree. William Field, {r.0mmimgtw.)
ir«lar/brd— Sir John Nearport, Bt.
ITo/eerAam^a— J. Pearaon, Rtq,
WorenUr~~
Dr. Haatlnga, M.D.
C. H. Hebb, Bso.
BVaeAam— Thomaa Edgworth, Eaq
J. E. Bowman, Eaq.. F.L.8., ZVaawrer.
MiOot William Lloyd.
ranM«<A-C. E. Rumbold. Esq. M.P,
Dawaon Tomer. Eaq.
PerA—Ree. J. Kenrich. M.A.
J. Phllllpa, Esq., F.R.S.. F.G.8.
THOMAS COATES. Esq., SoerHmtf, No. A9, Uacola'a laa FMda.
tsa<Da t WtLUAH Cteaas A^sSvra, Pri»«ra, f tuii*ird ItTMC
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THE PENNY CYCLOPEDIA
OF
THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF
USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
B L O
BLOIS, an important city of France on the river Loire,
in the department of I^oir et Cher. It is 96 miles from
Paris in a straight line, S.W. hy S., or 105 miles by the
road through Etampes and Orleans. It is in 47^ 35' N.
lat., 1° 20' E. long.
Blois is a town of considerable antiquity. An aqueduct
cut in the rock, which brings water from a spring at the
distance of half a mile to a reservoir close to the walls of the
town, is thought to be a Roman work ; but no Roman geo-
grapher has mentioned any place that can be identified with
Blois. Gregory, bishop of Tours, a writer of the sixth cen-
tury (in his Hutory of Prance), is the first who makes any
clear and distinct mention of this town : he calls it BIossb.
Under Charles le Chauve, or the Bald (grandson of Charle-
magne), who reigned from 840 to 877, it was a place of some
consequence ; and under the princes of the second, or Car-
lovingian, race, money was coined here. Under these
princes Blois with its surrounding territory was erected into
a county, and the counts of Blois seem to have acquired
considerable power, but their history and succession are con-
fused and uncertain. Stephen, who usurped the throne of
England upon the death of Henry I. in 1 135, and his brother
Henry, bishop of Winchester, were sons of one of the counts
of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror ; and
the house of Blois was more than once united by marriage
with the royal family of France. At length the county of
Blois, having been sold to Louis, duke of Orleans, brother
of Charles VI., came by inheritance to his grandson, Louis;
and upon the accession of this prince in 1498 to the throne
of France, under the title of Louis XII., his domains, in-
cluding this county, became attached to the crown. (Expilly,
Dictionnaire des Oaules, ^c; Millin, Voyage dans lee
Departements dii Midi de la France,) The county of Blois
was subsequently made part of the apoanage of Gaston,
duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIiL, and of Philip,
only brother of Louis XIV ., from whom it was inherited by
the subsequent dukes of Orl^ns.
After the county was united to the crown, Blois was
not unfrequently the residence of the court, and the scene
of several important events. Here Louis XII. signed
several treaties ; and here were celebrated the feasts and
tournaments which signalized the marrii^ of the Duke of
Alen9on with Margaret, sister of Francis L Blois was also
the scene of festivity in the reign of Henry II., son and suc-
cessor of Francis ; and here Henry IV. married Margaret
of Valois, daughter of Henry II. But the most remarkable
event of which this city was the scene, was the assassination
in the castle of the Duke of Guise and his brother the Car-
dinal, in the year 1588, during the reign, and by the order,
of the king, Henry III. [See Guisk.I
The city stands on the north or right bank of the Loire
about midway between Orleans and Tours. It is built on
the slope of a hill, the summit of which is crowned by the
castle : a bridge, erected in 1724, in the place of a more an-
tient structure, the date of whose foundation was unknown,
and which had been carried away by the breaking up of the
B LO
ice after the hard winter of 1709, unites it with the suburb
of Vienne on the opposite side of the river. The upper part
of the town, which is the most antient, has steep and
narrow streets: more modern edifices occupy the lower
part, and accord well with t le fine quay that Ime^ the bank
of the Loire. According to local tradition, the most antient
building, if indeed it yet remains*, is the prison. The
bridge over the Loire is of stone and has eleven arches.
The curve formed by the road-way is considerable, and
the centre is consequently much raised above the bed
of the river: in the middle of the bridge rises a pyramid
of about 60 feet high (exaggerated in some geographical
works to 100), the effect of which is described as at once
striking and agreeable. The castle was originally built
by the Counts of Blois, and some part Of the structure
erected by them (viz., a large tower) still remains. The
eastern front, under which is the gateway of the court, was
built by Louis XII., whose statue, representing him on
horseback, which once adorned this part of the building,
has been thrown down. The northern front of the building
was erected in the reign of Francis I., and another part to-
wards the west bv the celebrated architect Mansard at the
order of Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIIL, to
whom (aft already noticed) the county of Blois was given as
an appanage. When M. Millin visited Blois (in the eariy
part of the present century) the castle was occupied as a
barrack ; to what use it is devoted at present we are unable
to say. The * hall of the States* waA, at the time of M.
Millings visit, used as a place for exercisins recruits in bad
weather. A tower in this castle is called * the tower of Chd-
teau Renault or Regnard,* because from it that place, which
is distant eighteen miles, can be seen. The garden at-
tached to the castle was planted by Henry IV., and im-
5 roved while in the possession of Gaston of Orleans,
lorison, an Englishman (who having followed tiie dis-
astrous fortunes of Charles I., found an asylum in France),
published a catalogue of the plants of this garden, which
had acquired considerable celebrity.
Of the other public buildings at Blois, the bishop^t pa-
lace, which appears to have served ibr a time as the hotel or
office of the prefecture, is one of the handsomest : from its
terraced gardens there is one of the most agreeable prospects
in France. The present office of the prefecture, built in a
large place, or open space; the Hotel de Ville, or town
house, containing the valuable public Hbrary ; the nunnery
of the Carmelites, now used as a dep6t dee Stolons; and the
Palais de Justice, or court-house, a building erected at
various periods, are among the objects best worthy of no-
tice. The public fountains contribute to the cleanliness
of the place and the health of the inhabitanU. These
fountains are supplied by means of leaden channels or
conduits from a reservoir to which the water is brought
by the Roman aqueduct already noticed. The public walk.
Cor tlM oUt-
par !•»
Citoy*
No. 272.
[THBPBNNY cyCLOPJSDIA.]
• We fpeak doabtftiny on Ihh head, for our UtMt ^fSunftr Cor U
■oe of tbe pmon !• the Vv^age dans let J)9paHem0M d$ la Fnmte,
itoyeiu J. I. La VaUee, ftc, 13 tomes, PBrto, 17Sa-10O9.
Digitized b^ou V^B^lC
B L O
B LO
wbich is very beautiful, ttretehes along the river. (Malte-
Bran.)
Before the Revolution Blois possessed many religious
bouses; there were two abbeys, one of Benedictines (called
the Abbey of St. Laumer), very antient, and celebrated for
its school as early as the twelfth century ; and one of the
order of St. Augustin, called the Abbey of Bourg Moyen ;
eonvents for Cordeliers, Capuchins, and Minimes; and
nunneries for Cannelitas, Nuns of the Visitation, and those
called P?rontgue#, There was a JesuiU' college pre-
vious to 17«4, when that order of ecclesiastics was expelled
from France. There was also an hospital for the sick
{H$tel'Dieu\ attended by the nuns called Hospitalidres, an
hospital for the poor (or poor-house), and a seminary for
the education of the priesthood. The churches at Blois were
very much injured by the Protestants in the religious wars
of the sixteenth century. The buildings of the Abbey of
St. Laumer are now used as an hospital, and those of the
Abbey of Bourg Moyen for the college or high school. The
church of the Abbey of St. Laumer, now called St. Nicholas,
is a remarkable monument of the architecture of a period
when the Gallo-Roman style was passing away.
The gates of Blois have an image of the Virgin placed
over them all, in commemoration of the deliverance of the
townsmen from a dreadful pestilence which ravaged the
place in 1631, and from which they were, as they deemed
it, miraculously delivered in oonscquence of a vow which
they made to the Virgin. (Expilly, Dictiotuiaire des
Gaulet, &c.)
On the side of the Loire opposite to Blois is the populous
suburb of Vienne. As it is not mentioned separately in
the returns of the population for 1832, we presume its
population was included in that of Blois, which at tliat
time amounted to 11,002 for the town and 13,138 for the
whole commune. The people of this town have the repu-
tation of speaking French with great purity, free from any
provincialism ; but the justness of the eulogy has been dis-
puted by some, who consider it to have been a mere com-
]4imentary inference from the frequent residence of the
couit here. There ore at Bkns a College or high school,
which however is not of any great importance or repute, two
hospitals, a cabinet of natural history, an agricultural so-
ciety, a public library (already noticed), and a tlieatre. (lii.
Robert, Dictummare Geographiqus ; Reichard, Descriptive
Road Book of France.) Near Blois are the schools of
Menara, established by the Prince of Chimay, of which an
account is given in No. XI IL of the Journal of Education,
and of which we subgoin the following particulars transmitted
to us (1635) from Blois.
Menara is a village five miles N.E. from Blois on the
bank of the Loire, containing in the midst of a large park a
very fine chitoau, which was for some time the residence of
Madame de Pompadour. A new and more powerful inte-
rest now attaches to this beautiful residence : Prince Joseph
de Chimay, the owner of the ' Chateau de Menars,* has
formc<l, under the title of the ' Prytaneum,' extensive esta-
blishments fur instruction, rational in its character, and
designed for special purposes, — instruction which corresponds
to the varied wants of the different classes of which society
is eomposed. Thus the first division of the Prytaneum,
called tlie 'Institute of Commerce and the Belles Lettres,*
embraces on the one hand a complete course of scientific
and literary instruction, and on the other a complete com-
mercial education. The second division is the * School of
Aru and Trades/ There are seven workshops in this de-
partment ; those of the wheelwright, joiner and cabinet-
maker, blacksmith, polisher and finisher of hardwares,
turner in wood, saddler, and cutler. Theoretical and prao^
tical inatraction are combined in the School of Arts and
Trades. Lastly, the third division, called the ' School of
Ptoneera' (Ecoie des Pionniere), a term employed in an
enlarged sense, comprehends the trades of tailor, shoe-
inaker, bricklayer imapon), sawyer, gardener, £lc. Dif-
ferent localities are assigned to each division of the Pry-
taneum.
The success of the Prytaneum, which was founded on«y
thTM years ago, has settled the question of education for
special purposes which has so long occupied attention, and
which 8o«ie men of liberal minds have at difierent tiroes
sought to bfing to the test of experience, but which has
never yet been solved as it now is by the ' Prytaneum de
Menara.* This work of civilixation and of moral improve-
ment has iiMchbed in t\M list of benefactors to Uieir couotry
the name of Prince Joseph de Chimay, who, with_ rare per-
severance, and at great sacrifices, has so completely de
voted himself to the noble labour of improving education,
at an age when so many men have scarcely fini:>hcd their
own.
The manufactures of this town consist of serges and
other light woollens, leather (which branch of industry bus
rather declined), cutlery and nardware, glass, gloves, and
liquorice. Beside these articles, there are others in which
trade is carried on, as timber, drugs, wine, brandy, and
vinegar.
Blois is the capital of the denartment It has a tribunal
de premiere instance, or suborainate court of justice, and a
tribunal de commerce, tft court for tlie settlement of mer-
cantile disputes. The arrondissement of Blois compreheiuls
718 square miles, or 459,520 acres, and had, in 1832, a po-
puUtk>n of 114,307. It wu subdivided into ten cantons
and 140 communes.
Blois was made the seat of a bishopric in the year 1G97,
and was, with the ezoeptton of the bishoprics of Dgon and
St. Claude, the latest of those established up to the Revo-
lution. Under the reduced hierarchy of the present day it
maintatiis its episcopal rank. The diocese comprehends the
department of Loir et Cher ; the bishop is a suffragan uf
the Archbishop of Paris. The odebrated M. Gr^goire was
bishop of Blois, or rather of the department of Loir et Cher
under the constitution of Civild du Clerg^, 1791 ; but as tho
church has always protested against that act, he is not
counted in the succession of bishops.
Among the more eminent natives of Blois may be men-
tioned the good king Louis XII., under whom, as already
noticed, theoounty of Blois was united to the crown ; Father
Jean Morin (Morinus), a learned orientalist and biblical
scholar ; and the Marquis de Favras, who was executed
at Paris in the year 1790 upon a charge (whether true
or false) of having formed the project of a counter- re\ u-
lution.
The oountv of Blois (commonly called in maps Le Blaisoi^,
but written by some Le Blisoie) is bounded on the north
by Le Dunois and L'Orl^anais, properly so called, on the
east and south by Berri, from which it is separated in uuc
part by the Cher, and on the west by Touraine and Ias
VendOmois. It is divided into two parts bv the Loire;
the part to the south of that river comprehends part of tlie
district of Sologne, one of the most barren tracts in France.
The Louw is the only river of any importance which flows
through it ; the Beuvron and the Cosson, which fall into
that river on the south side, are of minor importance, iis
also the Cisse, which falls into the Loire on the north bank.
The Sauldre, a tributary of the Cher, waters the southern
part The chief towns in the Bl^sois, beside Blois, already
described, were Romorantin, St. Di6, and Mer. Romorantiii
had, in 1832, 6537 inhabitants, or 6985 for the whole com-
mune; and Mer, 1717 for the town, or 3733 for the whole
commune ; the others are probably of less importance. Tlie
Bl^sois was reputed one of the finest districts in Franre,
abounding in game, poultry, and fish. It is now included
in the department of Loir et Cher. The changes which
this county passed through in the middle and later npes
have been already noticed in speaking of the town of Blots.
This country, in the time of the Romans, formed part of tho
territory of the Camutes. (Malte-Brun ; Expilly ; MilUn ;
Communication from Blois.)
BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS, A.M., F.S.A., rector of
Fresfield in Norfolk, and author of a very excellent history
of that county, was bom at Fresfield on July 23rd, 1 705.
He was first educated at Diss, and then at Thetford, from
whence he was sent to Gonville and Cains College, Cam-
bridge, in 1724. He took his degree of B.A. in 1727. and
in the same year was ordained deacon of the church of St.
Giles's in the Fields, London ; and in the following year
was made a licensed preacher by Dr. Tanner, then chan-
cellor of Norwich. In 1729 he was instituted rector of
Hargham in Norfolk, on the presentation of Thomas Hare,
Esq. ; and in September of the same year he was instituted
rector of Fresfield, on the presentation of his own father,
Henry Blomefield, Glent. He continued to hold both rec*
tories till 1730, when he relinquished Hargham. Tho
above particulars are derived from the genealogical table
which he has given of his family in the * History.' Wo
have found it dlifl&cult to get any further information con-
cerning him, as the continuator of his work and the editor
of the new edition do not fiirnish any w^itional facta, Tb«
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
Bird
B L O
pabHsbers of the lasf efition, is «ie^m v«tfl^ SfD., omb^
meneed in 1805, efxerted tlienMeltet to iiroeiire a Kkeiiess of
Blomefield, and having aaeertained that thare wm nona in
existence, had recoune to the rather euiiottB expedienl of
ftirnishing a portrait intended for another perBon, but which
was eonaidered a strOung fikeBess of the historian of
Norfolk.
Blomefleld's death must hava taken plaoo in or iohse-
quently to 1751, as his last work* printed in hii own house
at Norwich, is dated in that year. Mr. Ckmgh intimates
that he died in bad ctreomstanees. His great worl[» which
in its completed form constitutes one of the best eounty his-
tories we possess, was jrablished under the HK)dest title of
* An Essay towards the Topographaeal History of the County^
of Norfolk.* It was printed in his own house at Fresfleld,
and the publication began in number* in 1739. II was left
unfinished at his death, when he had eaftied it to nearty iSbe
end of the third (folio) volume, and the completioi^ was
ultimately undertaken by the Rev. C. Parkin, rector of
Oxburgh, who had rendeied some assistance to Blomefield
in the previous portion, and had himself formed consider-
able collections. This gentleman finished the third volume,
and added two more, which are considered inferior to those
by Bbmefield. However^ no part of Mr. Parkin's conti-
nuation was published until after his death, when it was
issued by the bookseller who had purchased his library,
which included that of Blomefield. Tte seeond volome was
published in 1743, the third, completed by Farkin, not till
1769, and the fifth and final volume appeared in 1775.
Blomefield was greatly assisted in his work by the eoUeo-
tions which had been formed by Peter Le N«ve, nomy
king-at-arms, who spent above ibrty years in amassing at
great expense and tronble the greatest collection of facta for
the histoiy of Norfolk that was ever formed for any county
in the kingdom. He was also greatly aided by Bishop
Tanner, who, having been chaneeltor of the diocese, was ac-
quainted with a vast number of records relative to the county.
Farkin also had the benefit of Le Neve's conections, u
well as of those wbioh had been formed by Blomefield bom*
self. Blomefield's own last-printed work was the * Col-
lectanea Cantabrigiensia,' a eolleetion relating to Cambridge
University, town^ and eoonty. Although printed so lata,
the materials seem to have been cdlected beibie he began
the * History of Norfolk,' that is, between the years 1 724
and 1734, including the period of hia lesidenee at the uni-
versity.
(Htstory cf Noffolkt Mao and ^o« aditions; GkNigh*8
British Topography.)
BLONDBL, or BLONDIAUX, a Freneh minstnl of
the twelfth century, and the friend «f Richard L of Bng-
land, whom be accompanied to Plalestine. He is also called
Blondel de Nesles, from the name d his native town ; but
Fauchet {Origine de la Langue et Poesie FnmpoiM,
Paris, 1581), in his series of Ftenoh poets anterior to 1300,
expresses doubts whether the Blondel da Nesles waa iden-
tical with Richard's minstrel. Aeeordin^rij. he bestows a
separate article on each, giving under the aead of Blondel
de Nesles extracts from some of his sone«» written in the
Norman Freneh, or *Langue d*oui;* while under tha head
of Blondel, Richard's favourite, he relates tha story of his
wandering through Germany in 1193 in seaich of his
master, ^o, on bis return from Palestina^ had been made
a prisoner by Leopold doke of Austria, and confined in.
some unknown fortress. On arriving under the walla of
the castle of Lbwenstein, Blondel, who, from some intelli-
gence he had obtained, suspected that to be Ri^ard's
prison, began smging an siir which tiiey bad composed
together, when to his joy he heard Ridiard*a voioe re-
sponding and concluding the song. The discovery led to
Richard's release. This tale, which Fauchet gives on the
authority of some old French ehronicle, has furnished tha
subject of a well-known opera by Oretry. The truth of the
story however is doubted. (See Berhigton's Hiitory of
Richard /., and the article BUmd^ in the Biographtg
Universelle.) This last styles Richard*s Blondel 'Blondel
de Nesles,* couMdering them as one person, and it states that
there are twenty-nine cf his songs in MS. in the National
or Royal JAbtBiy, and in the Lbrary ot the Arsenal at
Paris.
BLOOD, the animal fluid contained in the tubes called
from their office blood-vessels. As long as it is retained in
its proper vessel, and as long as the vessel remains alive,
the blood is always found in a fluid state^ but essenUaUy it
is a aohd Sttbatance. It ia the most complex aubatanoe of
the animal body. It is composed of several distinct con-
stitnents, each of which is endowed with specific properties,
and the combination of the whole ia so peculiar that there ia
nothing perfectly analogous to it.
On first flowing from its vessel tha blood is a thick, viscid,
and tenacious fluid. In all the mora highly-organised ani-
mals it is of a red colour ; but redness is not an essential
property of it In several tribes of animals which possess
true anid proper blood, this fluid is not of a red colour, md
there is no animal whose blood is red in all the parts of the
body. In the transparont cornea of the human eye there ia
abundance of blood ; but the blood contained in the minuta
vessels of this delicate membrane is not red. The Uood o^
the insect is colourless and transparent; that of the reptile
is of a yellowish colour ; in the main part of the body of tha
fish, that is, in the whole of its muscular system, the blood
is without colour ; hence the whiteness of the general sub-
stance of the body of the fish : but in the more important
<Hrgans, and especially in those which constitute the circle
of nutrition, called the organic organs, the blood is of a red
colour, as in the heart, the branchim or gills, and so on. In
the bird the blood is of a deep- red ; but it is the deepest of
all in the quadruped* In some species of quadrupeds it is
deeper than in others ; in the hare, for examine, it is much
deeper than in the rabbit. It is deeper in some varieties of
the same species than in others, and more es|»eoiaUy in dif-
ferent varieties of the human family. Nay, it ia deeper in
some individuals of the same race than in others, and even
in the same individual it is different at different periods, ac-
cording to age, to the states of health and of diaeascr and to
different species of disease.
In man and all the higher animals the body contains two
kinds of blood, each of which is distinguished by a striking
difference of cc^ur. Each kind of blwd is contained in its
own peculiar set of vessels: the one in the vessel called a
vein, hence called venous blood; the other in the veaoel
called an artery, arterial blood. Venous blood is of a dark
<nr Modena-red colour ; arterial blood is of a bright scarlet
eolonr. Venous differs from arterial blood in its most es-
sential properties no less than in its colottr : venous blood
ia incapable of nourishing the body and of stimulating the
organs ; arterial blood ia the proper nutriont and stimulant
of the system.
The specific gravity of human blood (water being 1000)
may be stated to be about 1050, from which standard it is
capable of increasing to 1120, and of sinking to 1026, this
being the extreme range of variation hitherto observed.
Venous is heavier than arterial blood, the former being
commonly estimated at 1052, and the latter at 1049: the
difference in weight depends^ as will be seen immediately,
on the excess in venous blood of carbonaceous matter. The
higher the organization of the blood the greater is its specific
gravity : hence the specific gravity of the blood of the higher
ia greater than that of the lower animals, and the change
prmluced in the human blood by disease is generally aV*
tended with a diminution of ita weight In one instance on
record the specific gravity is stat& to have been aa knr
as 1022.
There is a lamarkable difihrence in different classes of
animals in the temperature of the blood. In some it is only
a degree or two above that of the surrounding mediuan.
Creatures with blood of this low temperature are called ooUr
blooded, in contraiUstinction to warm-blooded animals, whose
temperature is maintained, under whatever variety of dr-
cumstances they nay be placed, oonsiderablv above that of
the surrounding air. The temperatora of the blood of tha
bird ia higher than that of any other creature. In the du<A:
it is u high as 107^. In many qoadmpeda it ia considerw
ably higher than in man : as in the sheep^ in which it ranges
from 102^ to 103^. In man it is 98^. Arterial ia warmer
by one degree than venous blood.
Disease is capable of effecting a considerable chuige in
the temperature of tiie blood. In almost every case of fever
the temperature of the blood differs from the natural stan-
dard. In the oold fit of intermittent fever (ague) it some-
times sinka as low aa 94^ ; in some types of continued Aver
it rises aa high as 102°. In inflammation of modeiate se-
verity it exceeds the natural standard by 4° ; in idtense in-
flammation it is capable of rising above it as high as 7^.
The chemical properties of the blood are highly curious*
When blood is taken from its blood-veSsel, and allowed to
remain at rest, it soon separates speotanaoaoly into twa dia«
Digitized by V:jO?WIC
B L O
B LO
tinct ptrto, inlo a miM, maM and into a fluid matter, in which
the solid mass swims. The solid portion of the hlood is
termed the clott or the crasMamenium ; the fluid portion is
called the terum ; and the prooess by which the separation
takes place is denominated eoagulaiion.
The change in the constitution of the hlood by which this
separation into a solid and a fluid portion is effected, pro-
bably commences the very instant the blood leaves the
bloM-TcsseL In the space of three minutes and a half it is
suflleiently advanced to be manifest to the eye ; in seven
minutes tne fluid is separated from the solid portion ; while
the change progreuively advances until, in the space of
from tw.Ne to twenty mmutes, the separation may be said
to be complete.
The nature of this curious prooess is imnerfectly under-
stood. It is a process mi generii, there being no other
with which we are acquainted perfectly analogous to it. It
is really, as will be shown immediately, a process of death ;
it is the mode in which the blood dies.
A watery vapour, called the halitus, begins to arise from
the blood the moment coagulation commences, and con-
tinues to issue from it until the termination of the prooess.
The halttus consists of water containing some animal
matter in solution. It possesses a very peculiar odour, and
it is this which gives to the slaughter-house its characteris-
tic taint
The elst or eroisamentumt the solid part of the blood,
ftirther separates into two portions, a substance of a yel-
lowish white colour forming the top of the clot, and a red
mass always found at the bottom of the clot. IV hen the
yellowish substance forming the top of the clot is completely
separated from the red mass, it is found to be a solid of
considerable consistence, soft, firm, elastic, and tenacious,
or ^uey. Its distinctive character is derived from the dis-
position manifested by its component particles to arrange
themselves into minute threads or fibres ; these threads or
fibres are often so disposed as to form a complete net- work.
In its general aspect, as well as in its chemical relations,
this substance bears a striking resemblance to pure mus
cnlar fibre; that is, to muscular fibre deprived of its enve-
loping membrane and of its colouring matter.
Several names have been given to this substance, gluten,
ooaeulable lymph, fibre of the blood, nndjibrin ; the latter
is the name commonly appropriated to it. Of all the con-
stituents of the blood fiarin ts by far the most important
Whatever other constituent may bie absent, this, in all ;ini-
mals whieh possess blood, is invariably present The main
part of ail the solid structures of the body is composed of it :
It foms the basis of muscle, and in the lower animals, in
which distinct muscular fibres cannot be traced, it probably
performs the function of muscle.
The second constituent of the clot, the red matter, being
heavier than the fibrin, gradually subsides to the lower sur-
face, where, as haa just been stated, it is always found
Arming the bottom of the clot The proportion of this red
matter to the fibrin diilers exceedingly in different classes of
anhnab, and even in the same animal at different times,
the diflbrence depending on circumstances mainly connected
with the general health and vigour of the system. The
greater the energy and activity of the animal, the larger is
the proportion of this red matter, and it is also generally
iarge in proportion to the elevation of the animal tempo-
imture.
Considerable diversity of opinion prevails respecting the
intimate nature of this constituent of the blood. What is
oertain is, that it is composed of innumerable minute par-
tiolea which varv in sise in different animals. It is univer-
sallv admitted that these particles, minute as they are, are
highly organised ; but pbysiok>gists are not agreed respect-
ing their sirueture. By some observers they are supposed
to be formed of solid colourless nuclei euclosed in an ex-
ternal envelope of a red colour, to which the colour of the
blood is owiDg. By others they are described as consisting
of circular, flattened, and transparent cakes, which when
seen singly appear to be nearly or quite colourless, but
which assume a reddish tinge when aggregated in con-
mderable masses. According to these physiologists, the
edge U these cakes is rounded, and this being their thickest
part, thet« is consequently a slight depression in the middle,
on both suK%ces. The familiar object which these bodies
are conceived most nearly to resemble is a penny-piece,
with Its thickened margin and slightly concave surface.
AMocding to this acooant, the red particles an wholly des-
titute of an external envekype. Instead of consisting of a
solid nucleus, inekMod in a red vesu:le» the whole body is
solid. The former opinwn was that of the older physiolo-
gists, arnved at by an examination of the particles of the
blood with the microscope, when this instrument was much
less perfect than it is at present, and when the use of
it^was much less accurately understood. Mr. Lister, who
has succeeded in effecting a considerable improvement in
the microscope, and who, together with his friend Dr.
Hodgkin, has examined the red particles of the blood with
great care, describes them as flattened solid bodies without
any membranous envelope.
All observers are agreed that the sixe of these particles,
as long as they retain unimpaired the form they possess on
escaping from the bkwd-vessel, is perfectly uniform ; but
their real magnitude is variously estimated : the size of the
red particle of the human blood ii, according to
Bauer
rrVf
part of an inch<
Wollaston .
tA.
n M
Young
rAr
♦» tf
Kater . . .
ttW
*• w
Prevost and Dumas .
Wrr
»> M
Hodgkin and Lister
r^yv
t» *•
The red particles of the blood have a circular form in all
the animals constituting the class mammalia, but in tho
three other classes of vertebrated animals, the fish, the rep-
tile, and Uie bird, their figure is elliptical. The elliptical
particles are larger than the circular, but proportionally
thinner. They are larger in fishes than in any other ani-
mals, and the largest of all in the skate. They are far
more numerous in the bird than in the reptile and fish, but
ve^ much smaller.
In what manner, and even in what part of the system
the red particles are formed, we are wholly iterant. The
perfect uniformity of their size and form m the several
species of animals, and the undeviating precision with
which they assume an elongated figure in oviparous, and
a circular figure in viviparous animals, would indicate that
the power which forms them, whatever it be, is simple in
its nature and very general in its operation.
The red particles of the blood are much greater in mag-
nitude than the colourless particles of the fibrin ; hence the
fibrinous particles readily enter blood-vessels too minute to
admit of the red particles. Both sets of particles, diffused
through the body of a linng animal in a state of extreme
subdivision, appear also to be in a state of extreme self-
repulsion. By this self-repulsion the union of the particles
is prevented and the blood is maintained in a fluid state.
In blood vnthdrawn from the body of a living animal, the
property of self-repulsion, more especially among the fibri-
nous particles, ceases, and they readily cohere, this cohesion
constituting the state of coagulation.
The fluid part of the blood called the serum is a trans-
parent fluid, of a light straw-colour tinged with green.
The proportion of it to the solid part of the blood, or clot,
differs exceedingly in different species of animals and in
the same animal at different times, according to diflferent
states of the system, lliere is a strict relation between its
relative proportion and tne strength and ferocity, or weak-
ness and gentleness of the animal. It is small in pn por-
tion to the power and fierceness of the animal, and large in
proportion to its weakness and timidity: thus it is small
in the carnivorous animals, and large in the hare, sheep, and
so on. Its quantity is often very much increased in many
diseases, and more especially in fever of the typhoid typo,
in which malady the solid part of the blood is sometim4» fo
much diminished, that coagulation is incapable of taking
place, and the entire mass, instead of separating into a
transparent fluid and a firm solid, remains a fluid gore.
Serum has an adhesive consistence and a saline taste.
Its characteristic property is that of coagulating by heat
and by the application of certain chemical agents. At the
temperature of 160^ it is converted into a white, opaaue,
solid substance, exactly resembling the white of egg when
hardened by boiling, being in fact perfectly pure albumen.
Serum contains a quantity of uncombined alkali, for it con-
verts the vegetable coloura to green, and it holds in solution
various earthy and neutral salts. According to M. Le Cacu.
who has made the most recent chemical analysis of scrum,
1000 parts contain, of
Digitized by
Google
B L O
B L O
Water ..... 90600
Albumen . . . . 76' 00
Animal matter soluble in water and alcohol 1*69
Albumen combined with sodd « . 2' 10
Crystallisable fatty matter • • 1*20
Oil/ matter . . .100
Hydrochlorate of soda and potash . 600
Subcarbonate and phosphate of soda aad sul-
phate of potash . . • 210
Phosphate of lime, magnesia, and iron, with
subcarbonate of lime and magnesia • *9l
Loss ...... 1-00
100000
If a mass of coagulated serum be cut into small pieces
and placed in the mouth of a funnel, a thin fluid drains
from it, which is called seronty, and which constitutes the
gravy of meat dressed for the table.
From this account of the constitution of the blood, it is
manifest that its chief constituents are of an albuminous
nature, that is, it contains albumen in three states of modi-
fication, viz., albumen, properly so called, fibrin, and red
particles ; to these are superadded some oily matters, various
minute portions of other animal substances, tofl^ther with
saline particles, all dissolved or rather suspended in a large
quantity of water.
According to M. Le Canu the relative proportions of the
constituents of human blood to each other, as they exist in
most individuals, is as follows, this table being the mean of
two analyses : —
One thousand parts of human blood conttdn.
Of Water 783*37
Fibrin .... '8-83
Albumen .... 67*26
Colouring matters . . . K6*31
Fatty matters in various states . . 5*16
Various undefined animal matters and salts 1 5*08
1000*00
The relative proportion of the different constituents of
the blood is constantly varying. • Thus the quantity of
water, according to M. Le Canu, is capable of vaiying in
1000 parts from 853' 135, the maximum, to 778*626, the
minimum. In the male, the medium quantity is 791*944,
in the female 821*764: the watery proportion also varies
with the temperament In the lymphatic temperament, in
the male, it is 830*566 ; in the female, 803*716 ; while in the
sanguineous it is, in the male, 786*584, and in the female it
is 793007.
The proportion of albumen contuned in 1000 parts of
blood is capable of varying from 78*270, the maximum, to
57'890, the minimum. The quantity of fibrin varies ftota
1*360 to 7*236, the medium of twenty-two experiments being
4*298. It appeared to be the greatest in the young or middle
aged of the sanguineous temperament, and in the inflamma-
tory state ; and least in the lymphatic constitution, the aged,
and those suffering under congestion and haemorrhage.
The proportion of the red particles varies more remark-
ably than that of any other constituent of the blood. In
sound health the maximum was found to be in 1000 parts
of blood 148*450, and the minimum 68*349 ; the meoium
108*399. In the male, the medium Quantity is 132*150 ; in
the female, 99*169. It varies consiaerably with the tem-
perament In the lymphatic temperament, the medium
quantity was found to be in the male, 117*667, in the
female, 116*300; in the sanguineous temperament in
the male, 136*497, in the female, 126*174. According to
this statement there are contained in 1000 parts of blood, in
a sanguineous temperament 19*830 more red particles than
in the lymphatic temperament Both spontaneous haamor-
rhage and the artificial abstraction of blood firom the body
diminish the relative proportion of the red particles far
beyond that of any of the other constituents of the blood.
This is found on examination of the blood in the flemale
after an excessive loss of blood by the catamenial discharge ;
and on examining portions of blood taken horn the same
body after certain intervals, it was found that a first bleeding
furnished in 1000 parts of blood, 792*897 of water; 70*210 of
albumen; 9*163 soluble salts and extraneous matter, and
127*73 of red particles; but a third bleeding a few days
afterwards in the same patient, a female, gave 834*063 of
water, 71*111 of albumen, 7*329 of soluble saltB and extra-
neous matter, and 87*610 of red particles.
It is established oa indubitable evidence, that the blood
which maintains the life of all the oUier parts of the body is
itself alive. The phenomena which prove this ue highly
interesting.
1. It is one of the distinctive properties of living^
bodies that they are capable of resisting, within a eertaia
range, the ordinary influence of physical agents on
inanimate matter. Air, heat, moisture, and other physioal
agents have not the power of decomposing the organized
and living body as they have inert matter. There is a
principle in the living body which resists the ordinaiy phy-
sical and chemical changes produced by such agents. An
egg, for example, as long as it is fresh is alive, and as l<mg
as it remains alive it is capable of self-preservation under
circumstances which rapidly decompose it when its yitfMiy
is extinguished. During the nerioa of incubation the egg
is kept at the heat of 10^ for the space of several weeks in
succession, without undergoing the slightest degree of
Sutrefaction ; if its vitality be destroyea, which may be
one instantaneously by passing the electric fluid through
it it becomes putrid at that temperature in a few hours.
The egg has the like power of resisting cold, which was
proved in a beautifhl manner by some experiments of John
Hunter, so managed as to show at the same time both the
power of the vital principle in resisting the physical agents
and the influence of the physical agent in diminishing the
energy of the vital principle. He exposed a living egg to
the temperature of 17^ and 15'' of Fahrenheit; it took
half an hour to freeze it. When thawed and again
exposed to a temperature as hi^h as 25^ it was frozen
in a quarter of an hour. A living egg, together with
one that had been already once frozen and again thawed*
were put into a freezing mixture at 15°; the dead egg
was frozen twenty-five minutes sooner than the fVesh. in
the one case the undiminished vitality of the fresh egg
enabled it to resist the low temperature for a long time ;
in the oUier case, in consequence of the diminished or
destroyed vitality of the frozen egg, it yielded speedily to
the influence of the physical agent Now precisely analo-
gous results were obtained in similar experiments made on
the blood. On ascertaining the degree of cold and the
length of time necessary to freeze blood immediately taken
from the blood-vessel, it was found that, as in the egg, a
much shorter time and a much less degree of cold were
required to freeze blood that had previously been frozen
and again thawed, than blood recently taken from a living
vessel, and for precisely the same reason. In blood re-
cently drawn from the blood-vessel, its vitality being com-
paratively undiminished, it is able to resist cold longer than
blood the vital energy of which is already partly exhausted
by exposure to Uie influence of the physical agent
This result is analogous to a phenomenon recently ob-
served in the coagulation of the blood, dependent on the same
principle, and placing in a striking light the influence of
blood-letting in diminishing the vital energy of (he blood.
It has been stated that coagulation is a process of death,
being the mode in which the blood dies. Accordingly it is
found that coagulation is slow, that is* that the blood is
longer in dying according to the vital energy of the system.
When blood is taken from a blood-vessel in disease attended
with great debility, as in the typhoid types of feVer, it
coagulates with extreme rapidity, or is even incapable of
coagulating at all ; when, on the contrary, it is taken in
diseases attended with an exaltation of the vital energy,
as in intense inflammation, it is not coagulated in triple or
quadruple that space of time. The reason is obvious. But
it is remarkable that even during one and the same opera-
tion of blood-letting there is a manifest difference in the
time in which the blood taken at the beginning, in the
middle, and at the end of the operation coagulates. Blood
was received from a horse at four times, about a minute
and a half intervening between the filling of each cup.
Ula. 6m.
In cup No. 1 coagulation began in 1 1 10
2 • . 10 5
3 , . 9 65
4 . . 3 10
In like manner three cups were filled with the blood of a
sheep at the interval of half a minute :
Mia. Sec.
In cup No. 1 coagulation began in 2 10
2 . . 1 45
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BLO
6
BLO
Hm um9 Mfolt was obtained in blood taken firom a
bonun subject. A pound and a balf of blood was removed
from tbe arm of a woman labouring under fever» a portion
of wbicb received into a teacup on the first effusion re-
mained fluid for tbe space of seven minutes; a similar
quantity taken immediately before tying up the arm was
coagulated in three minutes, thirty seconds. These ex*
periments demonstrate that coagulation is rapid or slow as
the vital energy of tbe blood is exhausted or unexhausted,
or thai in proportion to the degree of life possessed by the
blood is the space of time it takes in dying.
8* In the second place the vitality of the blood is demon-
strated by another class of phenomena. If a living egg be
exposed to a decree of heat equal to the temperature at
which the eg^ is maintained during incubation, certain
notions or actions are observed spontaneously to arise in it
which t^nninate in the development of the chick. An ana-
bgous process takes place in the blood. If blood be effUsed
from its vessels in the living body, either upon the surfaces
of organs or into cavities, it solidifies without losing its
vitality. This is not the same process as the coagulation
of the blood out of the body ; it is a vital process, indispen-
sable to the action, and completely under the control of
the vital principle. If blood thus solidified within the body
be examined some time ader it has changed from the fluid
to the solid state. Uie solid is found to abound with blood-
vessels. Some of these vessels can be distinctly traced
passing from the surrounding living parts into the mass of
solidified blood ; with others of these vessels no communica-
tion whatever can be traced. Now those vessels, the origin
of which cannot be traced external to the solid miiss, were
supposed by Mr. Hunter to be formed within it. Were this
really the case, it is obvious that such a solid would com-
mence an action terminating in its organization ; an action
perfectly analogous to that by which the incubated egg
commences a series of movements which terminate in the
development of the chick ; an action never observed to take
place m any body not endowed with life. This argument
nowever is not really affected by the question as to the ex-
trinsio or intrinsic origin of the blood-vessels. What is
certain is, that a clot of blood surrounded by living parts
beoomes organized ; what is certain is, that no dea^ sub-
stance thus surrounded by living parts does become orean-
ixed ; tbe inference is, that the blood itself is alive. While
flowing in its living vessel the blood is always maintained
in a state of fluidity, in consequence of the state of repulsion
both of its red and of its fibrinous particles : and the main-
tenance of this fluidity is indispensable to life, for the blood
oould not circulate, and could not divide so as to permeate
through the constantly diminishing tubes of the arteries
and the capillary branches of the veins, if it approached the
solid state.
Of the changes which the blood undergoes in health and
disease (the changes of the blood in the latter case consti-
tuting its PATHOLOGY) a brief view is exhibited in the fol-
lowing extract from the Philosophy qf Health : — ' Health
and life depend on the quantity, quality, and distribution of
the blood. The chief source from which the blood itself is
derived is the chyle : hence too much or too little food, or
too great or too little activity of the organs that digest it,
may render the quantity of blood pretematurally abundant
or deficient; or, though there be neither exceunordefi-
eieney in the quantity of nourishment formed, parts of the
blood which ought to be removed may be retained, or parts
which ought to be retained may be removed, and hence the
actual quantity in the system may be superabundant or in-
auflicient.
' The relative proportion of every constituent of the
blood is capable of varying ; and of course in the degree in
which the nealthy proportion is deranged, the quality of the
mass must undergo a corresponding deterioration. The
watery portion is sometimes so deficient, that the mass is
obviously thickened ; while at other times the fluid prepon-
derates so much over the solid constituents, that the blood
is thiu and watenr. The albumen, the quantity of which
varies considerably even in health, in disease is sometimes
twice as great» and at other times is less than half its na-
tural proportion. In some cases the fibrin preponderates so
much, that the coagulum formed b? the blood is exceed-
in f^ly coherent, firm, and dense ; in other cases the quantity
of fibrin is so Moall, that the coagulation is imperfect, form-
ing only a soft, loose, and tender coagulum, and in ex-
" oasM th« Mood remains whoUy fluid. When the
vital energy of the system is great, the red particles abound ;
when it is depressed they are deficient. In the former state
they are of a bright red eokrar ; in the Utter dusky purple
or even black.
* When the depression of the vital energy is extreme, the
power of mutual repulsion exerted by the particles ^ould
seem to be so far destroyed, as to admit of their adhering to
each other partially in certain organs ; while in other cases
they seem to be actually disorganized, and to have their
structures so broken up, that they escape from the current
of the circulation as if dissolved in the serum, through the
minnte vessels intended only for the exhalation of the wa-
tery part of the blood. This fearAil change is conceived to
have an intimate connexion with a diminution of the saline
constituents. Out of the body, as has been shown, the red
particles change their figure instantaneously, and are ra-
pidly dissolved when in contact with pure water ; while they
undergo little change of form* if the water hold saline
matter in solution. It would seem that one use of the saline
constituents of the blood is to preserve entire the figure and
constitution of the red parUeles. It is certain that any
change in the proportion of the saline constituents pcoduces
a most powerful effect on the condition of the red particles*
It is no less certain that changes do take place in the pro-
portion of the saline eonstitnents. In the stale of health
the taste of the blood is distinctly salt, depending chiefly on
the quantity of muriate of soda contained in it. In eertain
violent and malignant diseases, such, to example, as the
malignant forms of fever, and more especially that form of
it termed pestilential cholera, this salt taste is scarcely, if at
all, perceptible ; and it is ascertained that, in such cases, the
proportion of saline matter is sensibly diminished.
* The Quality of the blood may be also essentially changed
by the disturbance of the balance of certain organic Ainc-
tions; digestion, absorption, circulation, respiration, are
indispensable to the formation of the blood, and to the nou-
rishment of the tissues. Absorption, nutrition, secretion,
circulation, render the blood impure, either by directly com-
municating to it hurtful ingredients, or by allowing noxious
matters to accumulate in it, or by destroying tho relative
proportion of its constituents. Organs are specially provided,
the main function of which is to separate and remove from
the blood these injurious substances. Organs of this class
are called depurating, and the process they carry on is de-
nominated that of depuration. The lungs, the Uver, the
kidneys, are depurating organs, and one result at least of
the functions thev perform is the purification or depuration
of the blood. If the lung fail to eliminate carbon, tne U> er
bile, the kidney urine, carbon, bile, urine, or at least the
constituents of which these substancea are composed, mu.^t
accumulate in the blood, contaminate it, and render it inca-
pable of duly nourishing and stimulating the organs.
' But though the blood be good in quality and just in
quantity, health and life must still depend upon its propter
distribution. It may be sent out to the system too rapidly
or too slowly. It may be distributed to different portions of
the system unequally ; too much may be sent to one organ,
and too little to another; consequently, while the latter
languishes, the former may be oppressed, overwhelmed, or
stimulated to \iolent and destructive action. In either case
health is disturbed and Ufe endangered.*
(See Hunter on the Blood; Prout, Inquiry into the
Origin and Properties qfthe Blood, in the Annals <if Me-
dicine and Surgery, vol. i. pp. 10. 133, &c. ; Prevost and
Dumas, Memoire de la Soc. de Physique, <$«., 1 1. ; Bostock s
Elements of Physiology y vol i. ; Le Canu, Nouvelles Re-
cherches sur le Sang, in Jour, de Phannacie, Sept. and
Oct, 1833; Dr. Southwood Smith's Philosophy <^ Healthy
vol. i. chap. 6.)
BLOOD, THOMAS, generally called Colonel Blood,
was a native of Ireland, and an adventurer of no ordinary
character. Whether he was the son of a blacksmith, or of
a person in better condition who had property in iron-works,
is uncertain ; but he is believed to nave been bom about
1628. He came over to England and married the daughter
of Mr. Holcralt, a Lancashire gentleman, as is supposed,
in 1648. He returned afterwards to Ireland, servwl as a
lieutenant in the parliament forces, and had a certain
quantity of land assigned to him for his pay. Henry Crom-
well put him into the commission for the peace. Alter the
king s restoration, the Act of Settlement in Ireland, bv af-
fecting Blood's fortune^ made him discontented bejona the
common feeling of the jepublicaa par^ and flading a de*
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sign on foot for a general insutreetion, which waa to be be-
gun by surprising the Castle of Dublin, and seizing the
person of the Duke of Ormond, the then lord-lieutenant, he
ioined it, and ultimately became its leader. The oon^iracy,
lowever, which had been long suspected, was discovered
upon the eve of its execution. Colonel Blood fled, but one
Lackie, a minister (his brother-in-law), with various others,
were apprehended, convicted, and executed. Blood remained
for a while in Ireland, sometimes harboured by the Oliver-
ians, and sometimes by the native Irish in the mountains ;
but he at last secured his retreat to Holland, where he is
stated to have been received into intimacy by some of the
most considerable persons in tbe republic, and particularlv
by Admiral de Ruyter. From Holland he came to England,
and joined the Fifth Monarchy men, whose plans giving no
promise of success he withdrew to Scotland, where he again
joined rebellion, and waa present in the action of Pentland
Hills, Nov. 27tb, 1666. After that defeat he fled back to
England, thence to Ireland^ and thence to England again,
where he lived for a time in disguise, meditating revenge
against the Duke of Ormond ; whom he actually seized on
the night of December 6tb, 1670, in his coach in St James s
Street, with the intent, as wa^i believed, of carrying him to
Tyburn to hang him. When the party had got into tbe
fields, the duke, who was tied on horseback to one of Blood's
associates, by a violent effort flung himself and the assassin
to the ground, and while they were struggling in the dirt,
the duke's servants reseued their master. Blood had so
contrived this enterprize, that, though the names of some of
his companions were known, he himself was not suspected
to be concerned in it; nor, though a reward of iOOOL was
offered by proclamation to discover the perpetrators of the
crime, could any of the gang be apprehended.
The miscarriage of this design put him upon one still
more strange and hazardous to repair his broken fortunes.
He proposed to the same desperate persons who had as-
sistea Imn in the former attempt, to join him in seizing the
regalia of England : he was to contrive the means, and
they were to devote themselves to the service. His scheme
was so well laid, and executed with so bold a spirit, that
on the 9th of May, 1671, he so far carried his ploint as to
get a part of the reealia (the crown and orb) into his pos-
session. Blood, who had assumed the disguise of a clergy-
man, concealed the crown beneath kis cloak, but was pur-
sued and tdcen. One of his companions, Farret, had the
orb. An authentic narrative of this affair, drawn up by
Sir Gilbert Talbot, then master of the jewel-house, from
the depositions of Edwards, who was the immediate keeper
of the jewels, and who was all but murdered on the occa-
sion, has furnished our historians with the particulars of this
transaction.
Blood and his oompanion Farret. with another of the
party of the name of Hunt, who was known to have been
concerned in the attack upon the Duke of Ormond, were
now committed to the Tower-gaol, where, strange to say, at
the instigation of the Duke of Buckingham, then tbe fa-
vourite and first minister, the king himself visited him;
finally pardoned him, took him into favour at court, and
gave him a pension. For several years applications were
constantly made to the throne though the mediation of
Colonel Blood ; and the indulgence shown to him became a
public scandal. Rochester has the following lines in his
* History of Insipids :' —
■ Blood, iliat wcwn txrann in his face,
ViUaiii complete in pwion's gown.
How much he is at court in grace.
For aieaUuir Ormond and the crown 1
Sinoe kiyaltv doei no man good,
Let'a ateal tbe king and out-do Blood.'
The last line but one probably alludes to old Edwards,
who with difficulty obtained an order upon the Exchequer
for a payment in reward for endeavouring to save the crown
of 200/., and another to his son of 100/^ ; both of whidi re-
mained so long unpaid, that the parties were each obliged
to sell the orders for half their vftlue.
When the ministry styled the 'Cabal* fbll to pieces.
Colonel Blood's eonsec^uenee at court declined. He then
became an enemy to his former patron, the Duke of Buck-
ingham, for a conspiracy to fix a scandalous imputation
upon whom he was convicted in the court of King's Bench,
and committed to prison ; but finding bail, was allowed to
retire to his house in the Bowling Alley in Westminster,
where, from disease heightened by disappointed feelings, he
died August 24th, 1680.
Tbe Society of the Literary Fund are in possession of two
daggers : the one used by Colonel Blood in his attack upon
Edwards, the other by an accomplice. The inscriptions on
the sheaths of each record the facts. They came to the
society, with other residuary property, by the bequest of
Mr. Thomas Newton.
(See Remarks on Some Eminent Passages tn the Life of
the Ran'd Mr. Blood, fol. Lend. 1680 ; Sir Gilbert Talbot's
Narrative of Bluets Attempt on the Crown in the Tower^
M.S. Harl. No. 6859 ; Biogr. Britann.y Kippis's edit. vol.
ii. p. 361 ; and The Narrative of Colonel Thomas Blood,
Concerning the Design Reported to be laid Against the
Life and Honour of George, Duke of Buckingham, folio,
London. 1680.)
BLOOD-HOUND, the name of a hound, celebrated
for its exquisite scent and unwearied perseverance, qualities
which were taken advantage of, bv traiuing it not only to
the pursuit of game, but to the chase of man. A true
blood-hound (and the pure blood is rare) stands about eight
and twenty inches in height, muscular, compact,, and strong;
the forehead is broad, and the face narrow towards the
muzzle ; the nostrils are wide and well developed ; the ears
are large, pendulous, and broad at the base ; the aspect is
serene and sagacious; the tail is long, with an upward
curve when in pursuit, at which time the hound opens with
a voice deep and sonorous, that may be heard down the
wind for a very long distance.
The colour of the true breed is stated to be almost inva-
riably a reddi&h tan, darkening gradually towards the upper
parts till it becomes mixed with black on the back ; the
lower parts, limbs, and tail being of a lighter shade, and the
muzzle tawny. Pennant adds, ' a black spot over each eye,'
but the blood-hounds in the possession of Thomas Astle,
Esq. (and they were said to have been of the original
blood) had not these marks. Some, but such instances
were not common, had a little white about them, such as a
star in the face, &c. Tbe better opinion is, that tlie ori-
ginal stock was a mixture of the deep-mouthed southern
hound, and the powerful old English stag-hound.
Gervase Markham, in his 'MaisonRustique,' speaking of
hounds, says, ' The baie-coloured ones have the second place
for goodncsse, and are of great courage, ventring far, and
of a quieke scent, finding out very well the turnes and wind-
ings they runne surely, and with great boldnesse,
commonly loving the stagge more than any other beast, but
they make no account of hares. It is true, that they be
more head-strong and harde to redaime than the white, nnd
put men to more paine and travaill about the same. The
bc»t of the fallow sort of dogges, are those which are of a
brighter haire, drawing more unto the colour of red. and
having therewithall a white spot in the forehead, or in the
neeke, in like manner those which are all fallow : but such
as incline to a light yellow colour, being graie or blacke
spotted, are nothing worth: such as are trussed up and
have dewclawes, are good to make bloudhounds.'
Our ancestors soon discovered the infallibility of the
bloodhound in tracing any animal, living or dead, to its
resting place. To train it, the young dog accompanied by
a staunch dd hound was led to the spot whence a deer
or other animal had been taken on for a mile or two : the
hounds were then laid on and encouraged, and after hunt-
ing this 'drag' successfully, were rewaurded with a portion
of the venison which composed it. The next step was to
take tbe young dog with his seasoned tutor, to a spot whence
a man whose shoes had been rubbed with the blood of a
deer had started on a circuit of two or three miles : during
his progress the man was instructed to renew tlie blood
from time to time, to keep the scent well alive. His circuit
was gradually enlarged at each succeeding lesson, and the
young hound, thus entered and trained, became, at last, fully
equal to hunt by itself, either for the purposes of woodcraft,
war, or * following gear,' as the pursuit after the property plun-
dered in a border foray was termed. Indeed, the name of
this variety of eanis domesticus, to which Linnasus applied
the name of SagaXn cannot be mentioned without calling up
visions of feudal castles with their train of knights and
warders, and all the stirring events of those old times
when the best tenure was that of the strong hand.
Sir Walter Scott gives a striking redity to the scene, when
he makes the stark moss«trooper, WiUiam of Deloraine,
who had ' baffled Percv's best blood-hounds,* allude to tbe
pleasure of the chace, though he himself was the object of
pursuit, in pronouncing his eulogy over Rickavd Musgrave^
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with the lomw of s warrior who had lad the stern joy
aflMed hy a hero worthy of his steel
• YH rwt thM God t far v»ll 1
I D#'er th«U fttMl a aobi^r foe.
Itt all the Durtkcni rcnuitin hen,
Wbow word M toaflr. spur, and vpca^
TViU wert eb# betl lo follow gear,
*TwaB ptraaure ai w^ kiolt^ behind.
To ae^ tiow tboa th^ ehaee eoaldit wteo j
Cheer th« dark blood boand oo bi* waf«
And with the baglc route the tnj !
I'd fUe the Unda of iVknaiDe
Dark Mocfimva wwo alire afaia.*
In the saroe ' Lay ' there ts one of the best poetical de-
scriptions of the blood-hound in action, if not the best ; for
though Soroerville's lines may enter more into detail, the}*
want the vivid animation of the images brought absolutely
under the e}e by the power of Scott, where the 'noble
child,' the heir of Branksome, is left alone in his terror.
^ Surting ott, ho Jooneyed on.
And deeper in tlie wood is ijonc.—
Vitr aye the more he fouf;ht hU way.
The f4rthrr Btitl he went artray,—
lentil h^ heafd the mountain* round
Riiit; to the bnyiof of a hound.
And harl( ! and hark I the deepmoathed b.UA
Comet Di;:her ttiU and niffher ;
Bnrtt* on the path a dark blood-hound,
II i« lawny muxzle trackrd the gnnnd.
And hit red eye thol lire.
.*-'ooQ at the w ilJrrHd child caw he,
III* flew at him right furioutlie.
I wern yon wotibl have teen with Joy
The liearioff of the callant boy,
When, wnrtliy of hit noble tire.
Hit wet chrek i|;lowed 'twbit fear and ire t
Up r.tccd the bUKMl-bound raanhilly,
And held hit littlo Ut on hijjh ;
Mo (lerce he ttrurk. the dog, afraid.
At raotiutit dittance hoartely bayed.
but ttill in act to tpring;
When dathed an archer through t)ie glade*
And when he taw the hound was ttayed.
He drew hit tough bow-ttring ;
But a rough voice cried * 8h<}Ot not, hoy t
IIu I ahoot not, £dwatd~'lia a bay V
Indeed, this feudal dog is frequently introduced by our
poet, from his ballads, where Smaylho'me's Lady gay, woo-
ing the Phantom Knight to come to her bower, in the * Eve
of St. John,* tells the spectre that she will 'chain the
blood-hound,' down to that grand moonlight scene in the
Legend of Montrose, where Dalgetty and Ranald of the
Mint aro traced to their wood-girt aery after their escape
from Argyle's dungeons.
The pursuit of border forayers was called the hqt-trod.
The ' harried* party and hi« friends followed the marauders
with blood hound and bugle-horn, and if his dog could
trace the ^cent into the opposite kingdom he was entitled to
purAuo them thither.
We have only to look into history, and we shall find that
inos!i-troopor». children of the mist, and adventurers, were
viot the only persons who were put to their shifts to evade
the diligence of tlie sleuth- bratch, or blood-hound. Bar-
hour and Henry the Minstrel relate events where person-
Q^cs no IcKs than the Bruce and Wallace were the principal
ttctors. The former gives accounts of the king's repealed
escapes from such pursuits, and the * wily turns* whereby
he threw the hound off the scent. On one occasion he
waded a bow-shot down a brook, and climbed a tree which
overhung the water. Barbour well describes the 'waver^
ing' of the * sleuth-hund * * ta and fra,* when it was thrown
out by the king's stratagem, and the consequent disappoint-
intMU of * Jhoii of I-K>m.' Ilenry the Minstrel, in a roman-
tically wild story, relates how, after a short skirmish at
Black- Rrne side in which Wallace was worsted, the English
followed up the retreat which he was forced to make, at-
tended by only sixteen men, with a border blood-hound.
* In OelderUod tiwre was that bmtchetbred
Siker* of tcent, to follow them that fled ;
So ^ At he ua«d lu Ktke and Liddeedail.
M'hilet the gat blood no fleeing might avail.*
To spill blood was accordingly the sure way to stop the
hound in its career; and Henry states that, upon this ooca-
sion, Wallace had been joined by Fawdon or radxean, an
Irishman of a dark and suspicious character. During the
r<*tn«at, this man refused to proceed on account of fatigue,
either n^al or fictitious. Wallace argued with him in vain,
and irrilaud by the delay of the retreat and the approach of
tho enemy, struck off his head :•— when the English came
up they found their hound by the dead body.
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Hie iWttth ttoMed at Ffliwdoii. till tlie tiood.
Noc briber would fra tioke the fend lb* blood/
*The Minstrer concludes his stor}' with the following ca
tastrophe. The lonely tower of Ga&k was Wallace's place
of refuge. A blast of a bom roused him at midnight. He
sent out bis men by two and two, but none came back. At
last he was alone— and the blast became louder. Down
went the hero sword in hand, and, at the gate of the tower,
came full upon the headless figure of Fawdon. He flo«!
back into the tower, tore open the boards of a window,
leaped down a height of fifteen feet in his terror, and rush<*d
up the river. At length, on looking back, he beheld the
tower wrapped in flame, and the dilated form of Fawdon
upon the turret hoUing in its gigantic hand a bhizing
beam.*' But
' the katghta are dost.
And their good iwordt arc raat—
Their loula are with the Sainta we trust*—
and it is necessary to bring down the history of the blood-
hound to our own unromantic times.
Sir Walter Scott states that the breed was kept up by
the Buccleuch family on their border estates till within the
eighteenth century, and records the following narrative : —
' A person was alive in the memory of man who romembered
a blood-hound being kept at Eldinhope, in Ettricke Forest*
for whose maintenance the tenant had an allowance of meal.
At that time the sheep wero always watched at night.
Upon one occasion, when the duty had fallen upon the nar-
rator, then a lad, he became exhausted with fatigue, and
fell asleep upon a bank, near sun-rising. Suddenly he was
awakened by the tread of horses, and saw five men well
mounted and armed ride briskly over the edge of the lull.
They stopped and looked at the flock ; but the day was too
far broken to admit the chance of their carrying any of
them off. One of them» in spite, leaped from his hrtV^e,
and coming to the shepherd seueed him by the belt ho wore
round his waist ; and setting his foot upon his body pulled
it till it broke, and carried it away with him. They rode off
at the gallop; and the shepherd giving the alarm, the
blood-hound was turned loose, and the people in the neigh-
bourhood alarmed. The marauders, however, escaped, not-
withstanding a sharp pursuit. This circumstance ser\'ei to
show how very long the license of the Borderers continued
in some degree to manifest itself.*
This, perhaps, is the last instance of an attempted ' Bor-
der foray' on record. The times were changed. The nobles
had ceased to pride themselves on their ignorance of all lh«»
arts save the art of war, and to make it matter of thankf^-
giving that they knew not how to use the pen.t Civiliza-
tion advanced as learning was diffused, till the law of the
strongest no longer prevailed against the law of the land.
The blood-hound, from the nobler pursuit of heroes and
knights, * niinions of the moon,' who swept away the cattle
and goods of whole districts, marking the extent of their
' raid' by all the horrors of firo and sword, sank to the
tracker of the deer-stealer and petty felon. About a cen-
tury and a quarter ago, when deer- stealing was a common
crime, the park-keepers relied upon their blMxi-hounds prin-
cipally for detecting the thief; and so adroit wero these
dogs, that when one of them was fairly laid on, the escape
of the criminal was with good reason considered to be all
but impossible. Even now the breed still lingers about
some of the great deer-parks ; and many of our readers will
remember the noble specimen at Richmond Park« bearin^r
the name of Procter, and the admirable study of his bead
engraved by T. Landseer from a painting by his brother
Edwin, published in the Sporting Magazine. In the
spring of this year (1835), there was a grand oicture of one
of these dogs in a sleeping attitude by Edwin Landseer, ex-
hibited in the British Gallery, Pall Mall. It is said that
the original unfortunately broke its neck in leaping out of
a window in London, and application was immediately made
to the painter to perpetuate the memory of so fine a hound.
This noble variety is now only kept as an object of curi-
oiity and ornament ; for its services have long since been
superseded by the justice's warrant and the police-officer.
We find it, indeed, recorded about thirty years ago, that
* the Thrapston association for the prevention of felons in
Northamptonshire have provided and trained a blood- hound
• Set Sir Walter Scotrs notet to hit • Lay of Uie Last MinilreU*
t Thanks to Saint Bothan, son of mine.
Save Gawain. ne*«r oonld pen a line :
80 swore I, and I swear tt ttill.
Let my bov-bishop fret hU f '
csdaiot • Uie DougUs' io Uarmiw, ( r^r^i^ir-%
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fbr the detection of sheep-stealers. To demonstrate ibe
unerring infallibility of this animal a day was appointed for
public trial; the person he was intended to hunt started, in
the presence of a great concourse of people, about ten o'clock
in the forenoon, and at eleven the hound was laid on. After
a chase of an hour and a half, notwithstanding a very in-
different scent, the hound ran up to the tree in which he was
secreted, at the distance of fifteen miles from the place of
starting, to the admiration and perfect satisfaction of the
very great number assembled upon the occasion*/ But this
may be considered more in the light of a proceeding in ier-
rorem than anything else.
Strong and hardy as the blood-hound seems to be, it is
unable, apparently, to encounter a low temperature. Mr.
J.loyd, in his * Field Sports,' relates that one presented to
him by Mr. Otway Cave was entirely paralyzed by the
piercing cold of the northern regions which were the scene
of his exploits.
[English blood-honnd.]
Cuban Biood-hound. — The reputation which this variety
has obtained for sagacity and fierceness, and the share that
the terror of its name had in extinguishing the last Maroon
war in Jamaica, render it an object of some interest. In
1733 these Maroons had become very troublesome, and the
Assembly, among other plans for suppressing them, ap-
pointed garrisons, from whose barracks excursions were
from timo to timo made against the insurgents. * Every
barrack,* says Bryan Edwards, ' was also furnished with a
pack of do^s, provided by the churchwardens of the re-
spective parishes, it being foreseen that these animals would
prove extremely serviceable, not only in guarding against
surprises in the night, but in tracking the enemy.' The
tiresome war went on, however, till at last articles of paci-
fication with the Maroons of Trelawney town were con-
cluded on the 1st of March, 1738. This alliance continued,
not without frequent complaints of the conduct of the Ma-
roons, till July, 1795, when two of these people from Trelaw-
ney town, having been found guilty by a jury of stealing
some pigs, were sentenced to receive thirty-nine lashes each,
and the sentence was executed. On their return to Trelaw-
ney town their account drove the Maroons into open revolt,
and a bloody and successful war was waged by these savages
against the whole force that the government could direct
against them.
At last, the Assembly, in the month of September, re-
membering the expedient of employing dogs previous to
the treaty of 1 738, resolved to send to the Island of Cuba
for one hundred blood-hounds, and to engage a sufficient
number of Spanish huntsmen to direct their operations.
The employment, according to Edwards, to which these
dogs are generally put by the Spaniards, is the pursuit of
wild bullocks, which they slaughter for the hides ; and the
great use of the dogs is to drive the cattle from such heights
and recesses in the mountainous parts of the country as are
least accessible to the hunters. This determination of the
At»8erably was not made without some opposition. It was
urged 'that the horrible enormities of the Spaniards in the
• sportsman's Calinet, vol. ii. p. 96.
conquest of the new world would be brought again to re-
membrance.* * It is mournfully true,' continues Bryan Ed-
wards, * that dogs were used by those Christian barbarians
against the peaceful and inoffensive Americans, and the
just indignation of all mankind has ever since branded, and
will continue to brand, the Spanish nation with infamy for
such atrocities. It was foreseen and strongly urged as an
argument against recurring to the same weapon in the
present case, that the prejudices of party and the virulent
zeal of faction and bigotry would place the proceedings of
the Assembly on this occasion in a point of view equally
odious with the conduct of Spain on the same blood-stained
theatre in times past. No reasonable allowance would be
made for the wide difference existing between the two cases.
Some gentlemen even thought that the co-operation of dogs
with British troops would give not only a cruel but also a
very dastardly complexion to the proceedings of government.*
In answer, it was said that the safety of the island and
the lives of the inhabitants were not to be sacrificed to per-
verse misconstruction or wilful misrepresentation of the
mother country. The use of elephants, and even of cavalry,
was brought forward in support of the determination, and
the doctrine laid down in Paley's Moral Philosophy, vol. ii.
p. 417, that if the cause and end of war be justifiable, all
the means that appear necessary to that end are justifiable
also, was quoted.
At length, after several delays, the commissioner, who had
been despatched to the Havanna, arrived at Montego Bay
on the 14th of December wiUi forty chasseurs, or Spanish
hunters, chiefiy people of colour, and about 100 Spanish
dogs.
When these new allies were landed, the wild and formi-
dable appearance of the men and dogs spread terror through
the place. The streets were cleared, the doors were shut,
not a negro ventured to stir out, as the muzzled dogs, fero-
ciously making at every object, and dragging forward the
chasseurs, who with difficulty held them in with heavy
rattling chains, proceeded onwards.
Dallas, in his history of the Maroons, gives the following
account of their first appearance before the commander-in-
chief: — 'Anxious to review the chasseurs. General Walpole
left head-quarters the morning after they were landed before
day-break, and arrived in a post-chaise at Seven Rivers,
accompanied by Colonel Skinner, whom he appointed to
conduct the intended attack. Notice of his coming having
preceded him, a parade of the chasseurs was ordered ; and
they were taken to a distance from the house, in order to be
advanced when the general alighted. On his arrival, the
commissioner having paid his respects, was desired to parade
them. The Spaniards soon appeared at the end of a gentle
acclivity, drawn out in a line containing upwards of forty men,
with their dogs in front unmuzzled, and held by cotton ropes.
On receiving the command * fire ' they discharged their fusils
and advanced as upon a real attack. This was intended to
ascertain what effect would be produced on the dogs if en-
gaged under a fire of the Maroons. The volley was no
sooner discharged than the dogs rushed forward with the
greatest fury, amid the shouts of the Spaniards, who were
dragged on by them with irresistible force. Some of the
dogs maddened by the shout of attack, while held back by
the ropes, seized on the stocks of the guns in the hands of
their keepers, and tore pieces out of them. Their impetu-
osity was so great that they were with difficulty stopped
before they reached the general, who found it necessary to
get expeditiously into the chaise from which he had alighted ;
and if the most strenuous exertions had not been made to
stop them, they would most certainly have seized upon his
horses.'
This scene was well got up, and it had its effect. General
Walpole was ordered to advance on the 14th of January
following, with his Spanish dogs in the rear. Their fame,
however, had reached the Maroons, and the general had
penetrated but a short way into the woods when a supplica-
tion for mercy was brought from the enemy, and 260 of
them soon afterwards surrendered on no other condition
than a promise of their lives. *It is pleasing to observe.'
adds Bryan Edwards, * that not a drop^of blood was spilt
after the dogs arrived in the island.' The war, as is well
known, terminated with the expatriation of the Maroons in
June, 1796. to Halifax in North America.
It is stated that these dogs, when properly trained, will
not kill or harm the pursued unless they are resisted. * On
reaching a fugitive they bark at him till he stops, and^hen
No. 273.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPAEDIA.]
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oouAh near him, terrifying him with a ferocious (prowling if
he stirs. They then hark at intervals to give notice to the
chasseurs, till they come up and secure their prisoner. Each
chasseur is obliged to have three dogs, though he hunts
with two only, and these he maintains at his own expense :
he lives with his dogs, and is inseparable from them. At
home Uiey are kept chained, and when walking with their
masters are never unmuzzled or slipped from their ropes,
except for attack. One or two small dogs called finders,
whose scent is very keen at hitting off a track, accompany
them. Dogs and bitches hunt equall? well, and the chas«
seurs rear no more than will supply the required number.*
Though the breed is said not to be so prolific as the com-
moner varieties of the dog, it is stated to he infinitely stronger
and hardier. It is described as of the size of the largest
hound, with erect ears, which are usually cropped at the
points, with the nose rather pointed, but widening much to-
wards the hinder part of the jaw. The skin and coat, it is
added, are much harder than those of most dogs, and it is
said that the severe correction which they undergo in train-
ing would almost kill any other description of dog ; this,
however, may be doubted. There are some whose nose is
more obtuse, and whose frame in general is more square,
and these it is thought have been crossed with the mastiff;
but if the bulk of the animal has been a little increased by
the cross, it is not considered that the mixture has added
anything to the strength, height, beauty, or agility of the
native breed. [See Mastiff.]
Bryan Edwards, in a note to his appendix, gives a very
different account of these Cuban blood-hounds : — * Though
these dogs,* he obsen'es, • are not in general larger.than the
shepherd's dogs in Great Britain (which in truth they much
resemble), they were represented as equal to the mastiff in
bulk, to the bulldog in courage, to the blood-hound in scent,
and to the gray hound in agility. If entire credence had
been given to the description that was transmitted through
the country of this extraordinary animal, it might have been
supposed that the Spaniards had obtained the antient and
genuine breed of Cerberus himself, the many-headed mon-
ster that guarded the infernal regions.'
Dallas, who had his information from the commissioner
himself, William Dawes Quarrell. to whom his work is dedi-
cated, gives a description and representation of one of these
[Cbaiteiur with Cuban blood^honnds.]
Spanish chasseurs with his dogs ; and he relates the follow-
ing instances of the strength and determined ferocity of
the latter.
• Tlie party had scarcely erected their huts when the bark-
ing of a dog wa* heard near them. They got immediately
under arms, and, proceeding in the direction of the sound,
discovered a negro endeavouring to make his escape. On«
of the Spanish dogs was sent after him. On coming up,
the negro cut him twice with his muschet,* on which tho
dog seized him by the nape of the neck and secured him.
He proved to be a runaway, said that he and two other
negroes had deserted the Maroons a few days before, and
that the party was at a great distance from the town, but
that he would conduct them to it by noon next day.*
In the next anecdote recorded by Dallas, the attack was
fatal both to the unhappy object of it and to the dog. * One
of the dogs that had been unmuzzled to drink when there
was not the least apprehension of any mischief, went up to
an old woman, who was sitting attending to a pot in which
she was preparing a mess. The dog smellod at it and was
troublesome ; this provoked her ; she took up a stick and
began to beat him, on which be seized on ner throat, which
he would not let go till his head was severed from his body
by his master. The windpipe of the woman being much
torn, she could not be saved.*
When there is such discrepancy it becomes interesting to
ascertain what the Cuban blood-hound is really like. A
dog and a bitch, said to be of the tnie breed, were lately
brought to this country, where, soon after their amva], the
bitch littered ten pups, one of them deformed. Here, at
least, the statement that the Cuban blood-hound is not so
prolific as the common dog was not borne out. Some of
these pups we have seen, and we are enabled to give a de
scription and figure of the variety. They are snorter on
their legs than the English variety ; the muzzle is shorter,
and the animal is altogether smaller, with less of the hound
about it than the English blood-hound has ; the height is
abgut two feet; the colour generally tawny, with black
about the muzzle, or brindled like some of the Ban-dogs.
They show great attachment, and are very gentle till se-
riously provoked, and tlien their ferocity is alarming.
[Cnbao hlood-liound^ t
In Cuba, the common employment of these dogs was to
traverse the country in pursuit of murderers and rilur
felons, and an extraordinary proof of their activity is re-
corded by Dallas, who stales that the event occurred al> wi
a month before the arrival of the commishioner at the Ha-
vanna. A fleet from Jamaica, under convoy to Great Bri-
tain, passing through the Gulf of Mexico, beat up ou iLu
north side of Cuba. One of the ships, manned with fo-
reigners, chiefly renegado Spaniards, being a dull sailer,
and consequently lagging astern, standing in with the laiui
at nipht, was run on shore, the captain, otficers, and the tV\r
British hands on board murdered, and the vessel plundon^l
by the Spanish renegadoes. The oart of the coast on which
the ship was stranded being wild and unfrequente«J. the
• A lorn; str:\>ijht mtncb«»t, or coultan. louper thnn a drairoon't s«x»rd..ir«i
twice as thirk. fcomethinir like a flat iron bar «hhJ-|M<DMl «l the Icwtr i-od . f
wliich al*uiil I'iiihieon iut.hf-< at*- n* sliarn as a rawr. The poinl i» mu tj , We
Ihf <>l I Il'im.in svsord. Surh i* Dallas «ile«-crii)iioiiof Ihc cha^vcar'* ma^rhrt,
-f Our dr.iwiui; was takcu from a dog which had uot attained itafuU giv*ib.
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assassins retired with their booty to the mountains, intend-
ing to penetrate through the woods to some remote settle-
ments on the south side, where they hoped to secure them-
selves and elude all pursuit. Early intelligence of the crime,
however, had been conveyed to the Havanna, and the
assassins were pursued by a detachment of twelve of the
chasseurs del Key with their dogs. In a few days the
criminals were all brought in and executed, not one of them
being in the least hurt by the dogs when captured.
4f^can Bloodhound.— ^n his return from Africa, the
late Colonel Denham, then major, presented two dogs and a
bitch of this variety to the royal menaeerie in the Tower,
which, under the care of the keeper, Mr. Cops, then contained
a very choice collection of animals, recorded in that interest-
ing publication, The Tower Menagerie, London, 8vo. 1829.
The Major informed Mr. Cops that with them he hunted
the gazelle, and that they displayed great cunning, fre-
quently quitting the circuitous Hne of scent for the purpose
of cutting off a double, and recovoring the scent again with
ease. They would hit off and follow a scent after a lapse of
two hours from the time when the animal had been on the
spot, and this delicacy of nose had not escaped observation,
for they were applied to nearly the same purposes as the
other varieties here mentioned, and were commonly em-
ployed in Africa to trace a flying enemy to his retreat It
is well remarked in the work last above-mentioned that for
symmetry and action they were perfect models, and a regret
is expressed that, in consequence of their not having shown
any disposition to perpetuate their race, though they had, at
the time of making the observation, been three years in
England, there appeared to be no chance of crossine^ our
pointers with this breed. We agree with the writer in think-
ing that this blood so introduced would be a very valuable
acquisition. It was remarked that, of the three in the
Tower, the males were very mild, but the female was of a
very savage disposition.
[African blood-houod.]
BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT, an English pastoral poet,
the youngest of six children of George Bloomfleld, a tailor
at Honington, a village near Bury St. Edmonds in Suffolk,
where Robert was bom, December 3, 1766. Having in
early infancy lost his father, his mother obtained a scanty
subsistence for her family by keeping a little school, in whicn
he himself was taught to read. Her poverty with difficulty
affording him even necessary clothing, at the age of eleven
he was hired in the neighbourhood as a farmer's boy;
but being found too feeble for agricultural labour, he was
placed with a relative in London to become a shoemaker.
\Vith no assistance or stimulus beyond the reading of a
newspaper, and a few borrowed books of poetry, of which
his favourite was Thomson's * Seasons,* he composed his
beautiful rural poem * The Farmer s Boy ' in a poor garret.
No. 14, Bell Alley, Coleman Street, whilst at work with six
or seven others, who paid each a shilling a week for their
lodging. The MS., after being offered to, and refused by,
several London publishers, was printed under the patronage
of Capel Lofft, Esq., in 1800 ; and the admiration it produced
was so seneral that, within three years after its publication,
more than 26,000 copies were sold. The appearance of
such refinement of taste and sentiment in the person of an
indigent artisan, elicited general praise; but the extn^
vagant and indiscriminate applause of Mr. Lofit may well
be considered as more injurious to Bloomfield's reputation
even than such contemptuous derision as that of Byron in
his * English Bards.' An edition was published in the fol-
lowing year at Leipzig. At Paris a translation, entitled * Le
Valet au Fermier,' was made by Etienne Allard ; one was
also made into Italian; and in London appeared, in 1805,
* AgricolcD Puer, poema Roberti Bloomfield celeberrimum,
in versus Latinos redditum' auctore Gulielmo Clubbe,
LL.B., a very clever effort in imitation of the Georgics.
The fame of Bloomfield was increased by the subsequent
Publication of 'Rural Tales, Ballads, and Songs,' 'Good
'idings, or News from the Farm,' • Wild Flowers,' and
• Banks of the Wye.* He was kindly noticed by the Duke
of Grafton, by whom he was appointed to a situation in the
Seal Office; but suffering from constitutional ill-health, he
returned to his trade of ladies' shoemaker, to which, being
an amateur in music, he added the employment of making
iEolian harps. A pension of a shilling a day was still al-
lowed him by the duke ; yet having now, besides a wife and
children, undertaken to support several other members of
his family, he became involved in difficulties ; and. being
habitually in bad health, he retired to Shefford in Bedford-
shire, where, in 1816, a subscription, headed by the Duke of
Norfolk and other noblemen, was instituted by the friend-
ship of Sir Egerton Brydges, for the relief of his embarrass-
ments. Great anxiety of mind, occasioned by accumulated
misfortunes and losses, with violent incessant headaches, a
morbid nervous irritability, and loss of memory, reduced him
at last to a condition little short of insanity. He died at
Shefford, Aug. 19th, 1823, at the age of fifty-seven, leaving
a widow and four children, and debts to the amount of 200/.,
which sum was raised by subscription among his benevolent
friends and admirers. In the following year, at the sale of
his MSS., that of 'The Farmer's Boy," in his own hand-
writing, was sold for 14/.
The works of Bloomfield have been published in 2 vols.
l2mo. * Hazlewood Hall,* which appeared a short time be-
fore his death, has little merit in comparison with his
earlier productions. His • Remains,* consisting of Songs,
Anecdotes, Remarks on iEolian Harps, Tour on the Wye,
&c., were edited by J. Weston, Esq., 1824. The * Farmer's
Boy,' • Wild Flowers,' with several of the * Ballads and
Tales,* are his best poems ; and many critics, such as James
Montgomery, Dr. Nathan Drake, and Sir Egerton Brydges,
have expressed the highest admiration of their chaste and
unaffected beauties. The author's amiable disposition and
benevolence pervade the whole of his compositions. There
is an artless simplicity, a virtuous rectitude of sentiment,
an exquisite sensibility to the beautiful, which cannot fail
to gratify every one who respects moral excellence, and
loves the delightful scenes of English country life. Those
who are charmed only with lofty and obscure conceptions,
or a pompous parade of words, will find nothing to their
taste in the simple descriptive poetry of Robert Bloomfield.
BLOW-PIPE. The instrument to whicht his name has
been applied, was originally employed by jewellers and others
in the soldering of metals on the small scale, whence it
derives its name in the German language * Lothrohr,' from
the two words Mbthen,* to solder, and 'rohr,' a tube or
pipe. When used for such purposes it is constructed of a
simple metallic tube seven or eight inches in length, the
bore of which at the larger extremity is about one -fourth
of an inch in diameter, and gradually contracts as it ap-
proaches the other, where it terminates in an almost capillary
orifice ; and the in&trument is formed by simply bending
this tube at a right angle at an inch or an inch and a half
from its finer extremity. In this form it is used by the
workman to direct the flame of a lamp on the portion of
solder to be employed, by which he is enabled to bring it
readily and without loss of time into a state of fusion : the
solder is placed on a fragment of charcoal, which he holds
in his left hand, and upon which the flame is made to play
by blowing a gentle current of air against it by means of
the pipe.
Such was its sole use until the year 1738, when, as we
are informed by Bergman, Antony Swab, a Swedish berg-
rath, or counsellor of mines, and a many of very considerable
knowledge for his time, introduced it to the notice of the
scientific world, by employing it in determining the nature
of t-he metals in the various ores and minerais which came
under his notice. Swab however wrote^o ^oik on the
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subject, nor does it appear to have recelTctl any particular
attention from any one until Cronstedt proposed his system
of mineralogy, in which the arrangement is dependent on
the chemical composition of the minerals. It thus became
to him of vital importance for the general adoption of
his system— we may almost say for its very existence — to
possess some ready and simple means of determining the
constituents of mineral bodies, as it was evident that those
offered by the slow and laborious operations of chemical
analysis could not be generally employed by mineralogists.
This he found in tho blow-pipe, and by the employment of
fluxes in the experiments performed with this instrument,
he may be considered as the founder of a new department
of the chemieid science. His results are to be found in his
* System of Mineralogy,* the first edition of which was pub-
lished in 1 758, and was translated into English by Von
Engestrom in 1 765 ; also in an essay by the latter, pub-
lished in London in 1770 under the title of 'An Essay
towards a System of Mineralogy/ by Cronstedt, translated
from the Swedish by Von Engestrum. revised and corrected
by Mendez da Costa. London, 1770.
The employment of the blow-pipe in detecting the con-
stituents of minerals being thus brought into notice, ex-
cited the attention of the cnemists and mineralogists to the
cultivation of this branch of chemistry, and its applica-
tion to chemical analysis and to the determination of the
mlneralogical species. In Sweden however it still appears
to have l^n studied with the greatest success ; and it is to
the chemists and mineralogists of Sweden that we are
indebted for the greater portion of the information which
has been received on this subject, and more particularly to
Bergman, Gahn, and Berzelius. Bergman, alter extending
its limits by a series of original researches, in which he
investigated the properties of most of the then known
species of minerals, and by a more general application to
cuemical analysis, published the results of his observations
in a treatise written in the Latin language, which appeared
at Vienna in 1779 under the following title, * De Tubo Fer-
ruminatorio, ejusdemque usu in explorandis Corporibus,
presortim Mineralibus.* A translation of the above into
English will be found in tho second volume of Bergman's
* Chemical and Physical Essays,' by Dr. CuUen, I^ndon,
1 788. Gahn, though indefatigable in his observations and
experiments with the blow-pipe, and though far exceeding
any of his predecessors both in the conception and execu-
tion of his experiments, has however left no work on the
subject. As an instance of his power of detecting tho pre-
sence of metallic bodies, we are told by Berzelius that he
has often seen him extract from the ashes of a quarter of a
sheet of paper distinct portions of copper, and that too before
the knowledge of the occurrence of this metal in vegetables
was known, and therefore before he could have l^en led
from this circumstance to suspect its presence in paper.
Although we cannot but feci regret at having received
no work from a man so eminently qualified to instruct on
this subject as Gahn, still we must consider ourselves most
happy that under such circumstances the loss of the know-
ledge and experience of so long and laborious a life is not
also to be lamented. Fortunately for science, accident, as
it were, made Berzelius the medium through which this
information was to be communicated to the world; and
while his good fortune in thus having it in his power to add
another to the many benefits he has bestowed on mankind
cannot but be envied, it must be universally felt and ac-
knowledged that if he has been favoured by fortune he has
proved himself one of the most worthy of her favour by the
manner in which he has fulfilled the task assigned to
him. The assiduity of Gahn in this study, together with
the circumstances to which we are indebted for the preser-
vation of his labours, cannot be better told than in the
words of BerzeUus himself. ' Gahn,* says he, ' was never
without his blow- pipe, not even during his shortest journeys.
Every new substance, or any thing with which he was not
previously acquainted, was immediately submitted to an
examination Mfore the blow-pipe ; and it was indeed an in-
teresting sight to observe with what astonishing rapidity
and certainty he was thus enabled to determine the nature
of a body, which from its appearance and exterior properties
could not have been recognised. Through this constant
habit of using the blow- pipe he was led to invent many im-
provements, and to make many conveniences, which he
could have at hand whether at home or abroad: he ex-
amined the action of a number of re-agents, fyt the purpose
of £nding new methods of recognising bodies, and this he
did in such detail, and conducted his operations with such
accuracy, that all his results may be relied upon with the
greatest confidence. Nevertheless it never occurred to him
to give a written description of his new or improved methods ;
he gave himself however all possible trouble to instruct all
who were willing to learn, ana many foreign men of science,
who passed some time with him, have made known his
great dexterity in this subject ; but no one has communi-
cated a perfect knowledge of his methods.
' I had the good fortune, during the last ten years of the
life of this in many respects most remarkable man, to enjoy
his most intimate acquaintance. He spared himself no
trouble to communicate to me all the results of his expe-
rience, and 1 have consequently held it as a sacred duty to
allow nothing of this experience and of his labours to be
lost.*
Such then is the origin of Berzelius's treatise, a work
which must be considered as the highest authority on this
subject; and as there are translations in the English.
French, and German languages, we cannot too highly re-
commend it to the study of those desirous of obtaining a
more intimate acquaintance with the uses to which the
blow-pipe may be applied. The English translation is how-
ever unfortunately taken from the first edition of the text ;
the title is ' The use of the Blowpipe in Chemical Analysis,
and m the Examination of Minerals,* by J. J. Berzelius.
Translated from the French of M. Fresnel, by J. G. Chil-
dren, London, 1822.
As our limits will not allow of our entering into the de-
scription of the phenomena presented by the different chc- '
mical elements and minerals, when experimented on by the
blow-pipe, we must confine ourselves to a general description
of the nature of the experiments performed by this instru-
ment, and the conclusions to which it leads in determinin:;
the chemical constitution of a mineral, and consequently
in recognizing to what species it belongs. For this purpose
it may be convenient to class the experiments under four
heads: —
1. The characteristic changes produced on bodies when
exposed to a high temperature.
2. The deoxidizing effect of the flame, and the reduction
of metals from their ores.
3. The oxidizing effect, or the changes produced by the
oxygen of the air on the body.
4. The action produced by the apphcation of fluxes or re-
agents.
The first three classes are dependent on the unaided
action of the blow-pipe flame, and as the total effect is pro-
duced by properties peculiar to particular parts of the flame
even in the cases where fluxes are employed, it becomes a
matter of great importance to possess a good knowledge uf
the flame itself, a description of which will therefore l»e fir^t
given. If a burning lamp or candle be carefully observed,
it will be found that the flame may be divided into four
parts, which may readily be distinguished from each other.
Firstly, on the lower extremity of the flame, where it is in
contact with the wick, will be seen a blue portion, which
extends from the wick and terminates at the points e flg. I,
where the boundaries of the flame assume a vertical direc-
tion. The second most striking part of the flame is the
bright intensely luminous portion o, which rising ts it wvte
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from out of the cup produced by the blue, ascends in the
form of a cone. In close connexion with this cone wiH be
observed a smaller one a contained within it, of a dark
colour, and rising from the upper extremity of the wick ; and
by a very careful examination it will be found that the outer
surface of the luminous cone is bounded by a thin coating
of a slightly luminous flame e b, which forms the continua-
tion of the blue ring, and increases a little in thickness as
it approaches the upper extremity.
The three cones thus enveloping each other differ not
only in their appearance, but also in their temperature and
chemical condition. Flame, as was shown by Sir Hum-
phrey Davy in the course of his beautiful and philosophical
inquiries into its nature, which terminated with the disco-
very of his safety-lamp, is gaseous matter heated to white-
ness : its most striking properties are evidently its power of
communicating light and heat, and however closely these
may appear to be connected, the circumstances by which
the one may be developed to its greatest extent in a flame
is unfavourable to the production of the other. The expla-
nation of this is simple and obvious : the heat depends on
the rapidity and energy of the chemical combinations
taking place ; the light on the contrary on the quantity of
the matter kept at the white heat, and on the length of
time it remains in that state. If therefore into a stream of
burning gas (to take a particular case, let it be coal gas) a
jet of oxygen be conducted, the combustion will be imme-
diately rendered more rapid, the temperature of the tlame
will consequently rise, while its illuminating power dimi-
nishes, as will probably have been observed by many who
have seen the oxy-hydrogen flames, where the light is de-
rived only from the strongly heated chalk, not from the
burning gases. On applying these views to the common
flame, the existence of the three concentric cones will be
readily understood : in the exterior cone, the inflammable
gases arising from the decomposition of the burning ma-
terial come in direct contact with the atmosphere, are well
supplied with oxygen, and they consequently here undergo
a more rapid combustion than the interior enclosed portions :
here therefore will be found the hottest points of the flame.
That such is really the fact may be proved experimentally,
by holding a fine iron or platinum wire across the flame,
when it will be found to glow most strongly in the points
of its emergence from the luminous cone, and by holding
the wire at different elevations in the flame, it will be found
that the portion of the outer cone immediately above c, the
upper ridge of the blue cup, is the point of greatest heat.
In the most luminous cone the combustion is slower, and in
the interior darker portion, the gases have not yet come into
contact with the air, and are still unchanged.
If a fine current of air be now directed into the flame by
means of the blow- pipe, it will assume the appearance seen
in flg. 2 : in the centre of the flame, and immediately pro-
ceeding from the orifice of the tube, a long and thin blue
portion in the position de ot the figure will be seen : this
corresponds with the blue cup of the natural flame. But it
was in the upper edge of this cup, in which were found the
points of greatest heat, and the same is true here also, with
this difference however, that while in the natural flame
these points were spread over a considerable circle, c c, in
the blow- pipe flame they are all collected into the one point
e, where their united effect is of course proportionably great.
The reason therefore of the high temperature which may
be produced by the blow-pipe is the result of the concentra-
tion of the hottest points of the flame into a focus ; and an-
other circumstance tends also to heighten this effect, that
while in the natural flame the points of greatest heat are on
its outer boundaries, and are therefore rapidly robbed of
their temperature, they here occur encased by the luminous
flame which thus protects them against the loss of tem-
perature from this cause.
The blow-pipe employed by the workman in the soldering
of metals, and constructed as was first described, cannot be
employed in these operations, owing to the collection of the
water from the condensed moisture of the breath on con-
tinuing the blast any time. This inconvenience is avoided
by making the blow-pipe of two pieces, and by interposing
between these a receptacle for retaining the water, which is
thus prevented from entering into the finer part of the pipe
where it would obstruct the current of air. In using the
blow-pipe the operator must not employ his lung? in pro-
ducing the current of air, as it would not only be detri-
mental to hia healthy but he would be unable to sustain the
blast a sufficient length of time to ensure the necessary
effects : it is produced by inflating the mouth vrith air,
which is then forced through the tube by contracting the
muscles of the cheek, and by a little practice the blast
may be thus sustained for a considerable time, the pro-
cess of respiration being unaffected, the only inconvenience
arising from the fatigue of the muscles of the cheek from
their unusual exercise. The power of being able to per-
form this depends on the individual being able to keep
his mouth inflated while he respires. After this has been
learnt, some little experience will be required to enable the
operator to regulate the strength of the blast, so as to pro-
duce the most powerful heat, as it must be neither too
strong nor too weak ; in the first case the heat is diminished
in its action by an excess of air, and in the second too feeble
a flame is produced.
We now proceed to the experiments themselves to which
the blow- pipe may be applied, and we commence wiih those
which fall under the first class, — The changes produced
on a body when exposed to a high temperature. Of these,
four are particularly worthy of notice : —
Its fusibility.
The changes produced in its colour.
The volatijcation of the substance under examination.
The volatization of one or more of its component parts.
When the various elements or their compounds, which
occur in a solid form at the usual temperature, for these
alone can here be considered, are exposed to heat, there is
always evidence of a force tending to overcome that cohesion
of their particles to which they owe their solid form, and it
is believed that by a sufficient degree of temperature any
body whatever mi^ht be made to pass to the state of vapour,
either immediately or through tlie intermediate stage of
fluidity. However this may be, it is well known that the
temperature at which such changes are effected varies with
each element, and the point which the blow-pipe first in-
forms us upon is, whether the body is one of those which
are unchanged or not at the degree of heat capable of being
produced by means of it ; and according to the result we
know among what class of bodies the one under considera-
tion will be found. Nor is this mere fact the sole guide to
the knowledge of the body under examination ; the facility
or difficulty with which the change is effected, the charac-
ters of the substance in its changed form, the appearance
it assumes on being again allowed to cool, open to us new
sources of information, and each must be carefully observed.
Thus in some minerals the fusion is produced with ease ;
in others again it can only be effected slowly and by the
strongest heat we can produce ; while in a third case our
efforts will only be sufilcient to round off the sharp edge of
a fine fragment.
But these are by no means the most important changes,
the relations of the elements to oxygen gas being decidedly
more interesting and instructive. When any substance
combines with oxygen gas it is said to be oxidized, and
when a compound of oxygen with any base loses oxygen,
it is said to be deoxidized or reduced to a lower state of
oxidation, according as it has lost the whole or a part of its
oxygen. 3iost bodies, and particularly all the metals, are
capable of undergoing the one or the other of these changes ;
and as by means of the blow-pipe we have it in our power to
produce at pleasure the conditions under which a metal is
liable to be oxidized, as well as those which are favourable
to its reduction, should it be present in the form of an oxide ;
and as these changes are usually accompanied with striking
and characteristic phenomena, the blow-pipe is thus the
most powerful instrument in detecting the presence of me-
tals, which may in many cases be extracted in their perfect
metallic form from the smallest fragment of their ore.
The oxidation will be produced by holding the body
before the outer extremity of the flame, where the elements
being heated in contact with the oxygen of the air, are
placed in the most favourable circumstances for combining
with it. This takes place the more readily the further the
assay is held from the flame, provided a sufilcient tem-
perature is at the same time obtained ; nor is it necessary
that this should be very great, since too great a heat is dis-
advantageous, particularly when the support is of charcoal.
This process will be best performed with a pipe of compa-
ratively large orifice, and when the material is kept at a
low red heat.
The deoxidation or reduction requires a small orifice, and
the substance under examination should W>as muchias
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possible surrounded by the luminous flame, hy which means
U is cut off from oontaet with the atmospheric oxygen, and
is surrounded with a glowing combustible gas, by which it
is deprived of its oxygen. In performing this operation,
which is infinitely more difficult than that of oxidation, par-
ticular attention must be paid to keep the assay constantly
in the luminous flame, as the action is but little assisted
by the charcoal on which the substance rests. Berzelius
recommends the beginner to practice himself in the reduc-
tion of metals by fusing small grains of tin on charcoal, and
to endeavour to keep it in that state without allowing its
surface to lose the metallic glance, which it does owing to
the formation of the oxide, the instant it is removed from
the deoxidizing flame. This operation should flr^t be
attempted on very small fragments, as the difllculty in-
creases with the size of the tin grains.
We now come to speak of the experiments in which fluxes
are employed, the most important of which and their uses
will be briefly described. They are, carbonate of soda, borate
of soda, the double phosphate of soda and ammonia, salt-
petre, boracic acid, bisulphate of potash, gyps, fluor-spar,
nitrate of cobalt, tin, iron, lead. Of these the first three only
are of general use, while the others are employed to test the
presence of particular bodies: we shall confine our attention
therefore to the former, as to touch upon the particular cases
in which the others may be advantageous would not only lead
us too much itrto detail, but belongs more particularly to the
chemical description of the properties of these bodies.
Care should be taken that the carbonate of soda employed
for these experiments be free from any impurities, particu-
larly from the sulphate. The purest which can be pur-
chased is the bicarbonate of commerce : if this cannot be
obtained, a saturated solution of the ordinary carbonate
should be taken, ihrou^h which a current of carbonic acid
must be transmitted, when the bicarbonate will be precipi-
tated in the form of fine grains, which must be washed with
cold water and then dried. It may be tested for sulphuric
acid by means of the blow-pipe itself in the following man-
ner : — Let a glass be formed by fusing a portion of the car-
bonate of soda with a small quantity of pure silica, and let
the resulting glass be well acted on by the deoxidizing
flame. If on cooling it retains its colourless condition, the
soda may be considered free from sulphuric acid, the pre-
sence of which would be indicated by the glass assuming a
yellow passing into a hyacinth-red colour, owing to the
presence of the liver of sulphur. The application of soda
answers two purposes: to determine whether the body is
fusible in it as a flux, and to assist in the reduction of metals.
The soda is best applied by mixing it in powder with the
subatance to be examined, which should also be in powder :
tlie mixture is formed into a paste by the addition of a Uttle
water, a small portion of which must then be placed on the
charcoal, where, after drying, it must be brought into a
state of fusion. It is usual for the soda, as soon as it is
fused, to be entirely absorbed by the cliarcoal. but it is not
on that account less active: a continued effencscence is
obsened on the substance under examination, and its fusi-
bility is indicated by the formation of a glass globule.
But the greatest use of swla is decidedly in promoting the
reduction of metals, which it does in a most unaccountable
manner. If a small quantity of the oxide of tin be placed
on the charcoal, a dexterous blower, at some expense of
time and trouble, will be able to obtain from it a small glo-
bule of metallic tin. If however a little carbonate of soda
be added to the oxide of tin, the reduction is effected with
case and rapidity.
The influence of the soda in this operation is not under-
stood, but its action is constant ; and Gahn has given the
following process, by which the metals platinum, gold,
silver, molybdenum, tungsten, antimony, tellurium, bis-
muth« tin, lead, copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron may be ob-
tumed, and consequently their presence detected, whenever
they occur in any ore.
llie assay u reduced to powder, and formed as before into
a paste with the moistened soda : this must then be placed
on the charcoal, and submitted to the action of a good re-
ducing flame. Atitit some time an additional quantity of
stMla must be added, and the blast must be again renewed,
and thik pnccbs must bo repeated until the whole of the
astay is abM>rhed by the charcoal. When this is entirely
efli>cled, tho»e portions of the charcoal which have thus be-
a>m« saturated h ith soda, must be moistened by a few drops
of water, and they must then bo carefully removed with a
knife and reduced to powder in an agate mortar. This must
then be washed, by which the fine and light particles of
charcoal may be readily removed from the metallic particles,
which, if any be present, will be found in a pure metallic
form in the mortar. The form in which the metal will be
found depends on its fusibility and malleability : should it
possess these properties, it will be formed into small thin
leaves ; if not, it will be found as a metallic powder. By
this process Uie operator should be aware that the metals
antimony, bismuth, and tellurium may have escaped hi^
observation, from having been volatilized as soon as nducotl,
which is also always the case with selenium, arsenic, cad-
mium, zinc, and mercury, which can only be obtained by
sublimation.
The borate of soda of commerce is never suflSciently pure
for these purposes, but it mav readily be obtained fit for use
by solution in pure water and re-crystallization. It may be
employed either in the form of small grains, or of powder,
or It may be first fused to free it from its water of cr>stal-
lization. The advantages of its use in the blow-pipe an'
dependent on its forming a most powerful flux, by wnicli a
number of otherwise refractory substances may readily l>e
brought into a state of fusion. It is usual, in the first place,
to endeavour to fuse a small fragment of the assay ; as, if
this process be successful, we are able to observe the pheno-
mena taking place during the fusion better than when it is
applied in the form of a powder ; and what is the most im-
portant, we see whether the assay is partially or entirely
fusible in this flux. The principal fiicts to be observed are,
whether the fusion is accompanied with effervescence, or
whether it takes place tranquilly ; to examine the colour of
the glass when obtained, and the changes it undergoes ac*
cording as it is acted on by the oxidizing or reducing flame,
and also to observe whether any changes take place either
in the colour or transparency of the gloss as it cools.
The phosphor salt, to use the term by which it is usually
designated in works on this subject, is a double salt of phos-
phoric acid, ammonia, and soda. It is best prepared, ac-
cording to Berzelius, by adding to a solution of 16 parts of
chlorate of ammonia in a small quantity of boiling water
lUO parts of crystallized phosphate of soda: this latter must
then be brought also to a state of solution over the fire, after
which the solution must be immediately filtered, and then
be allowed to C(X>1 slowly, when the double salt will be depo-
sited as crystals. It may be considered as pure if the crv s-
talswhen fused give a glass, which does not become opaque
on cooling. The object of this salt is to enable us to try the
action of a free and strong acid on the assay, which is best
obtained by this means, as on heating the ammonia is driven
off*, and the acid with which it was combined is then nt
liberty to exercise its influence on the body tested. It is
therefore a powerful agent in proving the presence of the
metallic oxides, with which it frequently forms characteristic
coloured salts : and i^is also a good test for determining the
presence of silica in biineruls, the phosphoric acid depnving
it of the bases with which it was combined, and presentin<^
it in the form of a gelatinous substance.
It now only remains once more to call the attention of all
our readers, who may be in any way engaged in any manu-
facture dependent on the applications of chemistry, to the
great advanta<;es to be derived from the possession of some
skill in the use of this little instrument. For instance, of
what advantage would it be to the apothecary, in enabling
him, at the cost of a few minutes, to prove the absence ot
impurities in the medicines he purchases— to the chemical
manufacturer, to the dyer, the miner, the assayer. Nor ate
there any difficulties arising from the size or expense of the
necessary apparatus ; all that is most commonly necessary
might be conveniently carried in the pocket. Nor is the
reouisite knowledge difficult of acquirement ; nor need the
individual, in order to be able to employ this instrument m
a manner practically useful to himself, be a scientific c lie-
mist : it is one thing to be able to apply a particular part of
a science, another to extend it by discoveries.
BLUBBER. [Sec Whalb-Fishbry,]
BLUCHER. LEBRECHT VON, prince of Wahlstatt,
field-marshal of the king of Prussia, was bom Dec 16th,
1 742. at Rostock, a town near the shore of the Baltic, in the
duchy of Mecklenburgh Schwerin. His father was a cap-
tain of cavalry in the service of Hesse Cassel. At an eariy
age he manifested a strong predilection for the military pro-
fession : and, in opposition to the advice of his relatives,
entered, in his fourteenth )ear, a regiment of Swedish
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bufisars as eosign. In a campaign against the Prussians*
at tlie commencement of the Seven years' war, in which
the Swedes were allied with Russia and Austria against
Frederic the Great, he was taken prisoner in Pomerania by
the same regiment of Prussian hussars in which he after-
wards became so distinguished. The colonel of the regi-
ment. Von Belling, being favourably impressed with his
frank and gallant character, persuaded him to join the
Prussian army, and contrived to give in exchange for him
another Swedish officer. In the service of Frederic he
rose from a lieutenant to senior-captain, when his pride
being ruffled by the promotion of a person of higher birth
than himself to the vacant post of major, and finding no
use in remonstrance, he caused a reauest for leave to resign
to be delivered to his royal master— that singular personage,
to whom in stoical endurance of hardships and energy of
character he was so remarkably similar. The reply of the
king was — ' Captain Bliicher has permission to quit my ser-
vice, and may go to the devil if he thinks fit' Upon re-
ceiving this unexpected incivility he retired to the duchy
of Silesia, became a farmer, and by persevering assiduity
acquired possession of a considerable estate. He remained
thus employed for fifteen years, until the accession, in 1786,
of Frederic William II., by whom he was courteously re-
called, and again introduced in the rank of major to his old
regiment of black hussars, which he commanded with ho-
nourable distinction in several campaigns against the French.
In 1789 he obtained the Order of Merit; and subse-
quently in 1793-4. as colonel and major-general, at the
battles of Orchies, Luxemburg, Frankenstein, Oppenheim,
Kirchweiller, and Edesheim in the palatinate, he acquired
reputation as a soldier by his vigilance, promptitude, and
astonishing energy. In the name of the king of Prussia
he took possession in 1802 of Erfurt and Miihlhausen. In
the same year, after the victory gained by the French at
Jena, having, with a remnant of 10,000 or 12,000 Prussians,
become separated from the rest, be succeeded without dis-
order in forcing his retreat westward as far as Lubeck, and,
though harassed by the forces of the marshals Soult, Marat,
and Bernadotte, he resisted to the last, and finally accepted
a capitulation only on condition that the cause of surrender
should in writing be stated to be ' want of ammunition and
provisions.' Whilst a prisoner of war he was treated by
Napoleon with a courteous politeness, for which the motive
could not be misunderstood; but the name of Bliicher
never appeared among those Prussian officers who con-
sented to serve the emperor in his projects against Russia.
Having been exchanged for General Victor, he was sent
into Pomerania to assist the Swedes. He was afterwards
employed in the war department at Konigsberg and Berlin ;
and when in 1813 his country rose in opposition to France,
he was appointed to take the command of a numerous army
uf Prussians and Russians combined. The order of St.
George was bestowed upon him by the Emperor Alexander
in acknowledgment of his conduct at the battle of Liitzen ;
at those also of Bautzen and HaynaJ he was no less con-
spicuous. In the battle fought August 26th, 1813, on the
banks of a small river near Liegnitz in Silesia, called the
Katzbach, Bliicher first held undivided command; and with
60,000 men, the largest portion but raw militia, defeated
the French marshals Macdonald, Ney, Lauriston, and Se-
bastiani. In consequence of a heavy rain during the four
previous days, a great number of muskets were not useable;
the infantry were therefore brought hand to hand with the
bayonet: a hideous slaughter ensued, and the army of
Bliicher gained the first great victory of that eventful cam-
))aign by a furious attack that precipitated the French by
thousands into the flooded river. The general's proclama-
tion upon this occasion exhibits his characteristic fervour
and laconic eloquence : — * Silesia is delivered I audaciously
the enemy came upon you>-brave soldiers I swift as the
lightning you rushed upon them — your bayonets have
plunged them headlong into the Katzbach — you have
I8«000 prisoners and all their baggage — offer thanks to the
God of Armies.* He now marclied with amazing rapidity
to the Elbe, passed over by means of pontoons, and pushed
on to the important battle of Leipzig, to the victorious re-
sults of which his services greatly contributed. With his
Russo- Prussian troops he now formed the left wing of the
great army of the allies in their pursuit of Napoleon re-
treating towards France. Having passed over the Rhine
at Kaub and Coblentz, he took possession of Nancy in
January, 1814. At Brienne he received a fierce attack
from Napoleon ; but, though repulsed with great loss, tt*
turned to the combat, as usual, on the following day, and
succeeded in getting some advantage. The rash and reck-
less rapidity of his movements at this time having obliged
hint to make a retreat, and exposed his army to disasters
which prudence might have avoided, an alarm began to
arise in England about the final result of the contest;
when, after various battles lost and won on the way to
Paris, he finally entered that metropolis, March 31, 1814;
and, but for the intervention of the other commanders, it
would, by him, have been made a scene of revengeful reti'i-
bution. Among his less extravagant demands, he firmly
insisted upon the restitution of every picture and work of
art which had been plundered from Prussia to adorn the
Louvre. As field-marshal and prince of Wahlstadt he
accompanied the allied sovereigns to England, where his
personal appearance excited intense curiosity. All the most
illustrious mihtary orders of Europe having already been
conferred upon him, the king of Prussia created for him a
new one, with the badge of a cross of iron, in compliment to
his invincible courage. The Prince Regent of England
gave him his portrait; and the university of Oxford, not to be
deficient in proof of admiration, bestowed upon the veteran
warrior the academical degree of LL.D. In possession of
these honours he retired to his Silesian estate, residing there
until the return of Napoleon from Elba in 1816, when
again he returned to the great theatre of war, and assumed
the command of the Prussian army in Belgium. His cha-
racteristic over-confidence and precipitancy occasioned his
defeat at the battle of Ligny, June 16th! It was at the
close of this desperate engagement, in which the fighting
continued until ten at night, that his horse was shot dead,
and fell upon him, so that he lay in that position unable to
move, whilst several regiments of French cuirassiers passed
over him in charging his troops. A report of his death
was soon in circulation; and Napoleon, who commonly
named him levieuxdi able {the old devil), made the roost of
it in cheering the hopes of his soldiers in the struggle at
Waterloo on the 18th. But late in the evening of that me-
morable day, when victory seemed to hang doubtful, Prince
Bliichisr, who on the night of his accident had, owing to the
darkness, escaped unhurt, appeared suddenly emerging from
the forest of Frichemont at the head of a great portion of
his Prussian array. At first Napoleon took it for the French
division of Marshal Grouchy arriving from Wavre ; that
illusion however was quickly dispelled, and a simultaneous
panic having seized upon the whole of the French forces
and produced the utmost confusion, a general attack was
ordered by the Duke of Wellington, which at once ter-
minated in their perfect defeat. Bliicher, although his
troops had been marching all day, immediately gave orders
to pursue the flying enemy; and the moon being bright, a
fierce and hot pursuit by sixteen regiments of Prussians
was kept up the whole night, until the roads were choked
with the dying and the dead. Having arrived with his
army at Paris, and assisted in the reinstatement of the
Bourbon dynasty, he remained there several months, very
frequently attending the tables for rouge et noir. When
the Prussians returned to (Germany, Bliicher, on the anni-
versary of the battle of Katzbach, paid a visit to Rostock,
his native place, where all the inhabitants united to raise a
public monument to his fame : those of Berlin presented to
him a medal with a representation of the angel Raphael
trampling upon a dragon. His health now beginning to
decline, ne finally retired to his chateau of Kriblowitz in
Silesia, where the king of Prussia visited and took leave of
him in his latest moments. ' 1 know I shall die,' said the old
general ; ' I am not sorry for it, because I can be no longer
of any use.' Having requested that he might be buried
without any parade, in a neighbouring field by the road-
side, under three linden trees, he died on the 12th of Sep-
tember, 1819, aged 77. The whole army went into mourn-
ing for eight days. He had been in the serxrice of Prussia
during forty-five years, and at the battle of Waterloo was at
the age of 73. In the year 1826 his statue in bronze, twelve
feet in height, modelled by the sculptor Ranch, was erected
in Berlin. The merit of Bliicher lay nearly altogether in
his fearless courage and his personal advantiiges: as a pru-
dent, scientific general he has no claims at all to distinction.
With a piercing eye, a loud and sonorous voice, a bold outline
of figure, accoutred and armed as a cossack. and a masterly
style of manoeuvring his horse, his presence, as he rode in
front of his men, never failed to inspire them with hope of
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ioeeess in followinf^ a capUin so daring and full of energy*
The astonishing celerity of his movements got him the
appellation of Marshal Forwards, by which he was gene-
rally known in Germany and Russia; Ifutequallvwell known
was the fact, that to the able plans of General Gnetsenau,
one of his ofTicers, he owed almost all his success.
BLUE, as a pigment. The substances used for this
purpose arc of very different natures, and derived from
various sources: they are all compound bodies, some are
natural and others artificial. They are derived almost
entirely from the vegetable and mineral kingdoms, though
the first which we shall describe is partly prepared from
animal matter, viz. : —
Pnusian B/u«.— This beautiful pigment was discovered
by accident in 1710 by Diesbach, a manufacturer of Berlin ;
but the method of preparing it was first described by Wood-
ward in the Philosophical Transactions of 1724. The first
step in the operation is to calcine a mixture of potash or
its carbonate, with animal matter that contains azote, as
blood, hoofs, or horns, in an iron vessel, till it ceases to
bum with flame. The residual matter is then suffered to
cool, the soluble portion of it dissolved in water, and the
solution when sufficiently concentrated yicMs fine yellow
crystals on cooling. This salt was formerly called phlo-
gistijatcd alkali, and triple prussiate of potash : according
to Berzclius it is a double cyanide of potassium and iron,
consisting of
Cyanide of potassium . .62.
„ iron • . .25.3
Water . . . .12.7
100.
When a solution of this salt is poured into one of proto-
sulphate of iron a perfectly white precipitate is formed, pro-
vided no persulphate be present; but if there is, then the
precipitate is of a bluish gray colour ; in both cases it bo-
comes, by exposure to the air, of a fine blue, and is then
washed and dried for use. In this precipitation and by a
complicated play of aflSnities the potassium is replaced by
iron, and the Prussian blue procured consists of nearly
Cyanogen . . .59.3
Iron . . . .40.7
100.
V^ery commonly the solution of cyanide of potassium and
iron, procured from the residue of the calcination, is not put
to cr3'stallize, but is added at once to the solution of sulphate
of iron. In this case, on account of the excess of potash
which it contains, a portion of iron in a state of oxide is pre-
cipitated uncombined with the colouring matter ; in order to
prevent this from injuring the colour of the pigment, either
diluto sulphuric acid is added, which dissolves it without
acting on the Prussian blue : or alum is mixed with the
sulphate of iron, and the uncombined potash uniting with
its sulphuric acid, alumina is precipitated instead of oxide
of iron, which merely dilutes without otherwise injuring the
colour of the product. When a solution of a persalt of iron,
such as the nitrate, is used, the precipitate is immediately
obtained of a fine blue ; but this process does not answer
in manufiicturing.
Prussian blue is inodorous, tasteless, insoluble in water,
alcohol, cDther, and oils. It is hygrometric, attracting water
strongly from the air, which it retains until heated to nearly
2SU°. Diluted acids do not act upon this substance, but
strong sulphuric acid dissolves it, forming a white com-
pound similar to that of starch and water in appearance.
On the addition of water the blue colour is restorea. Nitric
acid and muriatic acid, when concentrated, both decompose
it, and the same effect is produced by the alkalis and alka-
line earths, but with different results. It is also decom-
posed by a strong heat. Prussian blue is employed both
as a water colour and in oil ; in the latter case, on account
of the deficiency of what is termed bodyt it is usually mixed
with white lead, and it will bear admixture with a lar^e
]x)rtion of this on account of the intensity of its colour. ltt>
stability is very considerable, and it is not only used as a
pi<;raent but also as a dye. According to Berzclius it was
U'«c<l in Sweden instead of smalt, to give writing-paper a
blue tint, but the paper was found to acquire a disagreeable
greenish hue.
/m/i>o.~This fine Mue is extracted from different species
oftmitRnfrrawx the East Indies and Guatimala in South
America, of which the hitter is most cs teemed. For the
methods of procuring the colour from the plant and the
various substances with which it is mixed, wo refer to the
article Indigo, here merely stating the properties of the
blue pigment usually met with by that name m small
cubic pieces. The colour is extremely deep, the frac-
ture is earthy, but becomes brilliant and of a copper red
colour when rubbed by a hard bodv, and according to the
degree to which this effect is produced, the better is the
indigo reckoned. Even in this state however it is mixed
with some foreign matters, which may generally be separated
by water, alcohol, solution of potash and dilute acia, in all
of which pure indigo is insoluble. It may also be purified
by sublimation, but the process is difficult of management,
for if the heat be rather greater than necessary the indij^o
is decomposed. Another method of procuring pure indigo is
to take the solution of indigo prepared by dyers, and agitate
it in contact with atmospheric air. This solution is prepared
by mixing blue indigo in powder with lime and a solution of
protosulphate of iron ; the lime decomposes the sulphate of
iron, precipitating its protoxide ; this acting upon the indigo
takes oxygen from it, and then it is rendered colourless
and also soluble in water by the action of the excess of lime ;
this solution when agitated with atmospheric air, tlie indigo
regaining oxygen and colour, is precipitated, and when
washed with a little dilute muriatic acid and dried, it is pure.
Indigo, except when used as a water-colour, requires white
lead to give it body ; it is a colour of considerable perma-
nency. Strong nitric acid decomposes it, but it differs from
most vegetable products, and especially vegetable colours,
in being perfectly soluble and without decomposition in
concentrated sulphuric acid. The colour is most intense, and
this solution is employed in dyeing what it called Saxon
blue. Chemists are not agreed as to the exact nature of
this solution. Chlorine immediately destroys the colour of
indigo.
Blue Verditer. — This pigment is used as a water-colour,
and chiefly in the manufacture of naper-haugings. It is a
gritty powder of a very fine light blue. It is a carbonate of
copper, composed of nearly
Peroxide of copper , . .70.
Carbonic acid • . . .25.4
Water . . . .4.6
100.0
It is prepared by precipitation from the solution of nitrate
of copper which results from the refining of silver by pre-
cipitating the silver by copper. The exact mode of opera-
ting is not generally known, and success probably depends
upon some miitUte circumstance in the manipulation.
This colour is readily acted upon by the acids even in
their dilute state ; they evolve its carbonic acid, and dissohe
the peroxide of copper ; the alkalis, potash and soda, and
lime water, combine with the carbonic acid, and separate
peroxide of copper ; it is blackened by sulphuretted hydro-
gen, and it is decomposed at a high temperature.
Ultra-marine. — ^This splendid and permanent blue pig-
ment was originally, and indeed until within a few years
exclusively, prepared from a mineral called Azure Stone, or
Lapis Lazuli, the finest kinds of which are brought rr<>m
China, Persia, and Great Bucharia. In the 80th vol. o(
the Annales de Chimie, M. Tassaert has noticed the air t-
dental formation of ultra-marine in a furnace used for tlio
manufacture of soda; and about the year 1828. M. Gmehii
of Tiibingen, and M. Guimet of Lyons, both succeeded in
forming this colour artificially, and it is now prepared in
large quantity, of quality equal to the natural product. The
former of these chemists has given the following process lor
making this pigment, and bo asserts that it will infallibly
succeed: — Prepare hydrate of silica and alumina, the fir^t
by fusing powdered quartz with four times its weight of
carbonate of potash, dissolving the fused mass in water and
precipitating the silica by muriatic acid ; the second by de-
composing a solution of alum with ammonia. Wash these
two earths carefully with boiling water; and by drying
portions of the moist precipitates, ascertain the quantity of
dry earths which they contain. Then dissolve as much of
the hydrato of silica as a solution of soda will take up. and
determine the quantitv. Lastly, for 72 p:)rts of anhydrous
silica take 70 parts of dry alumina, add them to the alkaline
solution of silica, and evaporate, constantly stirring till the
residue is nearly dry : this is the basis of the colour.
Put into a Hessian crucible, which has a cover that fits
closely, a mixture of two parts of sulphur and one part of an-
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hydrous carbonate of soda ; cover and heat the mixture mo-
derately till it (Uses ; then gradually throw in small portions of
the mixture above described, waiting till the effervescence is
over before a fresh portion is added. Keep the mixture at
a moderate red heat for an hour. If there be an excess of
sulphur it is to be expelled by a moderate beat, and if all
parts should not be equally coloured, the finer portions
after powdering may be separated by washing with water.
Annates de Chtmie et de Physique, 37. 409. According to
the author of this process, sulphuret of sodium is the colour-
ing principle of the lapis lazuli, and of course of the artificial
as well as the natural ultramarine.
This pigment loses its colour totally by being put into an
aoid, and although there is no perceptible effervescence, a
slight smell of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is recognised ;
the residue is of a dirty white colour ; the alkalis do not act
upon this colour, nor is it destroyed by exposure to a red
heat.
It has hitherto, on account of its high price, been used
almost exclusively by artists, both as a water-colour and in
oil ; but on account of the reduced charge at which it will
probably be hereafter obtained, it will doubtless be rendered
much more extensively useful.
Cobalt Blue, — This was proposed as a substitute for ultra-
marine before the invention above described had rendered
this latter colour easily obtainable at a moderate price. Ac-
cording to Thenard {Traite de Chimie, tome i.) this pig-
ment, the base of which is either a phosphate or arseniate of
cobalt, is prepared by adding a solution of phosphate of soda
to one of nitrate of cobalt ; the precipitated phosphate of
cobalt, after due washing, is to be mixed with moist hydrate
of alumina, the proportions being one of the phosphate to
eight parts of the hydrate ; or half the quantity of arseniate
of cobalt may be substituted for the phosphate.
These substances are to be thoroughly mixed and then
dried in a stove, and when the mass has become brittle it
is to be calcined in a covered crucible at a cherry-red heat
for half an hour.
This colour is one of great permanence, but is not so fine
as the ultramarine, and will hereafter be probably little em-
ployed.
Smaii is a blue colour also prepared from cobalt, but is
generally used rather to diminish the yellow tint of writing
paper and of linen, and to give a bluish colour to starch,
than strictly speaking as a pigment; it is merely glass ren-
dered blue by oxide of cobalt, and this when reduced to a
very fine powder is commonly called powder-blue. [See
Cobalt.]
BLUE -BIRD (zoology), the American name for the
Motacilla sialie of Linnaeus, Sylvia sialis of Wilson,
Saxicola sialis of Bonaparte, Ampelis sialis of Nuttall,
and Erythaca (siaUq) Wttsonii of Swainson.
[Blue-bird]
Like our red-breast, this harbinger of spring to the Ame-
ricans ' is known to almost every child) and shews,* says
Wilson, ' as much confidence in man by associating with
him in summer, as the other by his familiarity in winter/
* So early as the middle of February, if the weather bo
open, he usually makes his appearance about his old haunts,
the barn, orchard, and fence-posts. Storms and deep snows
sometimes succeeding, he disappears for a time ; but about
the middle of March is again seen accompanied by his
mate, visiting the box in the garden, or the nole in the old
apple-tree, the cradle of some generations of his ancestors.*
v V # < '\Yhen he first begins his amours,' says a curious and
correct observer, ' it is nleasing to behold his courtship, his
solicitude to please and to secure the favour of his beloved
female. He uses the tenderest expressions, sits close by
her, caresses and sings to her his most endearini^ warblings.
When seated together, if he espies an insect delicious to her
taste, he takes it up, flies with it to her, spreads his wing
over her, and puts it in her mouth.*
The food of the blue-bird consists principally of insects,
particularly large beetles and other coleopiera, frequently
of spiders, and sometimes of firuits and seeds.
The nest is built in holes in trees and similar situations.
The bird is very prolific, for though the eggs, which are of
a pale-blue colour, seldom exceed six, and are more fre-
quently five in number, two and sometimes three broods
are produced in a season.
Its song is cheerfbl, continuing with little interruption
from March to October, but is most frequently heard in the
serene days of the spring.
With regard to its geographical distribution, Catesby says,
' These birds are common in most parts of North America ;
for I have seen them in Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and
the Bermuda Islands.* Wilson gives the United States,
the Bahamas, Mexico, Brazil, and Guiana, as its localities.
About November it takes its departure from the United
States. The whole upper part of the bird, which is about
seven inches and a half long, is of a rich sky-blue shot with
purple. The bill and legs are black. Shafts of the wing
and tail, feathers black. Throat, neck, breast, and sides,
partially under the wings, reddish chestnut. Wings dusky
black at the tips. Belly and vent white. The female is
duller in its colours.
It is said to be much infested with tape- worms.
This bird must not be confounded with the Arctic BluC"
bird {Erythaca Arctica, Swainson, Sialia Arcticoy Nuttall),
another species of Swainson*s subgenus Sialia, The latter
has no red or chestnut about it, the colours being ultra-
marine-blue above, greenish-blue beneath, and whitish on
the posterior part of the belly and under tail-coverts. The
specimen figured in the Fauna Boreali-Americana was
shot at Fort Franklin in July, 1825.
Swainson mentions another species, his Sialia Mexicana,
from the Table-land of Mexico.
BLUE-BOTTLE, a pretty wild flower, commonly found
in corn-fields. It is the Centaurea cyanus of botanists.
BLUE-BREAST (zoology), the English name for the
pretty bird, which, as Bechstein observes, may be considered
rBlue-breast.]
No. 274.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
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M the link between the redstart and common wagtail,
having strong poinU of reseroblanoe to both. It is the
Qorge-bleue of ine French, the BlaukehMn of the Germans,
Peito iurchino of the Italians, the Cyanecuia of Brisson,
Afoianlla Suecica of Linnsun, Syivia eycmecula of Meyer,
the Blue-throated warbler and Syivia Suecica of Latham.
According to Temminek, the blue-breast is found in the
same countries which are inhabited by the red- breast, and
particularly on the bonlers of forests, but is more rare in
France and Holland than the latter bird. Bonaparte notes
it as accidental and very rare in the neighbourhood of
Rome, and as only appearing in severe winters. Bechstein
says, * I often hear it said that the blue breast is a rare
bird ; that in some parts of Germany it appears only every
five or even ten years, but I can declare that this opinion
arises from a want of observation. Since I have taugnt my
neighbours to be more attentive to the timeof their paa-
sage, they every year catch as manv as they please. If in
the first fortnight of April, up to the 20th, cold and snow
return, plenty may be found by merely following the
streams, rivers, and ponds, especially in the neighbourhood
of a wood.*
In England it is very rarely seen.
The food of the blue-breast, according to Temminek, con-
siHts of flies, the larvse of insects, and worms. Beehatein
says that it also eats elderberries. It is one of those un-
fortunate birds which is called by some a Beccafioo. The
nest is said to be built in bushes and in the holes of trees.
The eggs, of a greenish-blue, are six in number.
The following is Bechstein's accurate description of the
male :— ' Its length is five inches and a half, of which the
tail occupies two and a quarter. The beak is sharp and
blackish, yellow at the angles ; the iris is brown ; the shanks
are fourteen lines high, of a reddish-brown, and the toes
blackish ; the head, the back, and the wing-coverts are
ashy -brown, mottled with a darker tint; a reddish- white
line passes above the eyes; the cheeks are dark-brown,
spotted with rust-red, and edged at the side with deep ash-
grey ; a briUiant sky-blue covers the throat and half-way
down the breast ; this is set ofi" by a spot of the most daz-
zling white, the size of a pea, placed precisely over the la-
rynx, which, enlarging and dimmishing successively by the
movement of this part when the bird sings, produces the
most lieautiful effect The blue passes into a black band,
and the latter into a fine orange ; the belly is dusky-white,
yellowish towards the vent ; the thighs and sides are red-
dish ; the qui 11- feathers dark-brown ; the tail-feathers red
at the base, and half the summit black ; the two interme-
diate ones are entirely dark-brown. Some males have two
little white s]X)ts on the throat, some even have three,
while others have none ; these latter are probably very old,
for I have obsen-ed that, as the bird grows older the blue
deepens, and the orange band becomes almost maroon.'
Temminek describes the very old male as having a white
stroak above the eyes, followed by a black one ; no white
space on the throat, and some blueish-black between the
eye and the beak ; the red band of the breast much larger,
and that, as well as the origin of the tail-feathers, of a more
lively red.
The femalo resembles the male in the upper parts. On
each side of the neck is a blackish longitudinal streak
passing on the upper parts of the breast into a large blackish
space tinged with ash-colour. On tho middle of the neck
is a great spot of pure white. Flanks clouded with olive,
the rest of the lower parts white. The very old females
ha\*e the throat sometimes of a very bright blue. This is
probably a sign that they have done laying, and are putting
on the plumage of the male. Bechstein says tliat the fe-
males, when youne, are of a celestial blue tint on the sides
of the throat, which deepens with age and forms the two
longitudinal lines.
The young, according to Temminek, are brown spotted
with white, and have all a large white space upon the
throat. * Its song,' says Bechstein, * is very agreeable; it
sounds like two voices at once ; one deep, resembling the
gentle humming of a violin string, the other the soft sound
of a flute.*
BLUE MOUNTAINS, in Australia, may be considered
as begioning at Bass's Strait with the rocks of Cape Wil-
son, and runn in t; in a north-eastern direction parallel to the
shore as far as Cnpe Howe. We are not acquainted with
the ilixtancc of the rnmre from the sea in this part of the
country. Opposite Cape Hoym the mountain-chain changes
its direction and again extending parallel to the shore runs
nearly due north, declining one or two points to the ca«t, »«
fiir as the sources of the Morrumbidgee river, between 36'
and 30° S. lat In this tract the distance of the mountains
from the sea seems to vary between seventy and eighty nulex.
To the south of the upper branches of the Mo^rumblll^l'e
river the principal range of the mountains extends eastward
and approaches the sea within forty miles or perhaps lch!» :
it then suddenly turns to the north, encloses Lake Geurtte,
and continues north of it in the same direction under the
name of Cullarin Range. At nearly an equal distance fnui
35^ and 34^ the chain again turns to the east and approaches
the sea within forty or fifty mites. Running at this dibtanix)
parallel to the shore (that is N.N.E.),it extends as far as 33^
and perhaps a little to the north of it, where it again turnt
northward, and continues in that direction till it has pasbed
the 32nd parallel and attained a distance of about 140 milc«
irom the sea. Here it meets with another extensive chain,
the Liverpool Range, which runs east and west and seems
to be the southern part of a mountain system which ex-
tends over a greater space than the Blue Mountains, in tlie
direction from west to cast, and whose continuation north-
ward is not farther known. It is possible that it continues
up to Cape York, the north-eastern cape of Australia on
Torres Strait.
The highest part of this mountain-range is the W^arra-
gong Mountains, between 36" and 35% whose peaks bein^
covered with perpetual snow, have received the name of the
Australian Alps. But the chain extending from thc«c
alps to the Liverpool Range, which is more properly called
the Blue Mountains, does not attain a very great elevation.
Its average height may be 3000 feet, and though doubtless
several of its summits approach 4000 feet, it dues not seem
that any of them exceed that height These mountains are
difficult to be crossed on account of the steep rocks whi< h
crown the upper part of the chain, and which are only broken
by narrow and deep ravines. Twenty-'five years elapwd
after the foundation of the colony of Port Jackson before
our countrymen succeeded in passing over these mountain-.
The Liverpool Range attains a much greater height, its
summits rising to 6500 feet above the sea; but the pasbos
can be traversed with greater ease.
The country between the Blue Mountains and tho sea ii
partly filled with its lower branches, and partly with sand;
plains between them and the sea. In some places the hills
oome down to the very shores, as at lUawarra and Newcastle ;
at other places they terminate at a distance of thirty miles
and upwards from the sea. On the western side the moun*
tains are less steep, and descend in terraces of considiTahle
extent till they terminate in the low plains lii hich occufty
the interior of Austraha.
In order to go from the coast to these plains, the mountains
of course must bo passed. Up to tho present time this ha*
been effected at two places only. One of the mounla.n
passes lies a little to the north of the parallel of Sydney, and
a carriage- road has been made through it. It begins on
the banks of the Nepean River, the principal branch of
Hawkesbury River, at Emu Ford, ond ascending the «to»'p
Lapstone Hill continues rising to Spring- wood, tv^clvc and
a half miles distant from Emu Ford. Farther on to We.!-
ther-Board Hut, sixteen miles from Spring-wood, the a.Mcnt
is not considerable. Weather- Board Hut is on Kini:>lai.d
Table, 2727 feet above the sea. Hence the n»ad pa-vs
through the vale of Clwdd, on the eastern side of ^I<ii:nt
York, which vale is 2496 feet above the sea: Mount York n is
to 3292 feet. From this vale tho road bkirts the 8(u:tb< n\
declivity of Mount York and leads to Coxs Pass, on il •'
banks of Cox's River, which pass is twenty-one raile*. dis-
tant from Weather-Board Hut, and may be regsrdid as
the western extremity of the mountain pass ; the rt^raaindtr
of the road to Bathurst leads over an undulating plain.
Bathurst is 1970 feet above the sea, according to Oxley.
This portion of the mountains is formed of sandh tone, ttliii'h
extends to Mount York and even to Cox's River, where it
is succeeded by granite, which afterwards at Molou^, to
the N.W. of Bathurst, gives woy to a limestone formatim
with numerous caves, and at the junction of the Bell Rjter
with the Macquarie is supersede^ by freestone. But os the
country falls rapidly from that point, the free-stone forma-
tion soon disappears and is succot»<led by the flat country.
The second mountain pass lies farther to the south, near
the 3:<th parullel, beginning at the point where tho WoJi-n-
dilly River turns to the north. It ascends along the course
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of this river to Goulbum Plains, tfaen passes through a
narrow ridge to Bredalbane Plains* and again through
another to Yass Plains, which extend on the other side of
the range between Yass River and Morrumbidgee River.
This range is not rich in metals. Copper has been found
near Bathurst, and tin and lead in some other places ; but
coal seems to be abundant, especially at Newcastle, to-
wards the Hunter River. Besides, there is plenty of granite
and whinstone, pipe and potter's clay, limestone, gypsum
or plaster of Pans, and alum. (Oxley; Stuit; P.Cunning-
ham ; Society's Map.)
BLUE RIDGE. [See Appalachian Mountains.]
BLUNDELL MUSEUM, an assemblage of choice spe-
cimens of sculpture, consisting of statues, busts, bas-re-
liefs, sarcophagi, cinerary urns, and other antient marbles,
collected by the late Henry Blundell, Esq., and preserved at
his seat at Ince-Blundell in the parish of Sefton in Lanca-
shire, about nine miles north of Liverpool. A large por-
tion are placed in a building attached to the mansion called
the Pantheon, exactly resembling the edifice of that name
in Rome, though one-third less in lineal dimensions, erected
for the purpose of containing them ; a few modern sculp-
tures are also in this collection, among which a Psyche by
Canova is the most valuable.
Two folio volumes of * Engravings and Etchings,* from
the principal of these marbles, were prepared by Mr. Blundell
for distribution among his friends in 1809: some of these
had been made at Rome, before the marbles left that city,
and others were executed in London. Mr. Blundell was m
Italy at the same time with his friend Mr. Charles Townley,
and not only collected with a kindred taste, but was fre-
quently guided in his choice of purchases by Mr. Townley's
advice.
Among the statues of highest character in the Blundell
Museum are— 1. A Minerva found at Ostia, for many years
ill the Lanti palace, and afterwards the property of Mr.
Jenkins, from whom it was bought ; larger tnan life. 2.
Diana, found in the ruins of the Emperor Gordian*s viUa ;
the full size of life : bought of the sculptor Albacini. 3.
Theseus, seven feet two inches high ; found in Hadrian*8
villa : purchased from the Duke of Modena, in the centre
of the saloon at whose villa at Tivoli it stood. 4. ^scula-
pius, from the Villa Mattei, nearly seven feet high. 5. A
cunsular figure, in good preservation, nearly resembling that
called Cicero in ^e Arundelian Collection at Oxford ; this
also was bought from the Prince Mattei. 6. Another
Minerva, seven feet high, which formerly belonged to Pope
Sixtus V. ; bought out of the Ne^^ni collection. 7. A
statue representing the province Bithynia, bought out of
the Villa D'Este from the Duke of Modena. 8. Faustina,
tho wife of Marcus Aurelius ; the head, feet, and hands
of Parian marble; the drapery in Lesbian marble, a
kind of opaque basalt. 9. A group of two statues, an old
faun and an hermaphrodite, toe work of Bupalus, whose
name is upon the plinth ; it was found by Niccola la Pie-
cola in an excavation on the PriDneste road, 1776; small
life, about three feet high. Among the busts are tiiose of
Septimius Severus and Otho^both bought out of the Mattei
Villa ; Augustus and Marciana, found at Ostia ; and ^lius
CsDsar, the adopted heir of Hadrian, which was also pur-
chased from the Prince Mattei. Among the misoellaneous
marbles of this collection are three tragic masks of rare and
unusual size ; two from the Villa Negroni, three feet each
in height ; the third from the Altieri Villa. Some idea
may be formed of the extent of this collection from the fact
that it consists of near 100 statues, 150 busts, above 100 bas-
reliefs, 90 sarcophagi and cinerary urns, besides stelo, and
other misoellaneous antiquities.
(See the Beauties of England and Walei, vol. ix. Lan-
cashire, pp. 308, 309 ; the Engravings and Etchings al-
ready quoted ; and Dallaway's Ane^otes of the Arts, 8vo.
1800.)
BLUNDERBUSS. [See Arms.]
BLYTH, or SOUTH BLYTH, or BLYTH NOOK,
a small seaport town in the county of Northumberland,
partly in the parish of Horton. but chiefly in that of Earsdon,
and in the east division of Castle ward, distant from Lon-
don 257 miles, N. by W., and from Newcastle 12 miles N.
by E. It derives its name from its situation on the south
side of the river BIyth, at its confluence with the German
Ocean. The town owes its origin and prosperity to its
commodious and safe haven for small vessels. The navi-
gable river and port of Blyth are mentioned as of con-
sequenoo to the bishops of Durham in former times* and
are named in their records with the Tyne, Wear, and Tees;
as being subject to their jurisdiction. The prelates of
that diocese still have jurisdiction over the river and the
wastes between high and low water marks. The river
Blyth rises about twenty-five miles inland, and its general
course is east by north, from which it makes one great
bend to the north after it has passed Stamfordham. On
resuming its general course it receives its largest tributaiy
from the north-west, after which it goes on nearly in the
same direction for about nine miles, when it receives an-
other stream from the north-west, after which it inclines to
the south-east, and enters the ocean, after a total course of
about thirty-seven miles. The Blyth abounds with sea fish
near its mouth ; and those fresh-water fish that frequent the
higher parts of the stream are of very fine quality. The
shore near its sastuary affords abundance of muscles, which
are used for bait by the fishermen of the neighbouring places.
Blyth harbour is so safe that an instance rarely occurs
of a vessel sustaining damage in entering it in the most
tempestuous weather. In full tides there are ten feet of
water on the bar; when there are only eight feet, sta-
tionary Ughts are exhibited in the harbour. The tide flows
up to the dam at the Bedlington iron-works, four miles and
a naif from the mouth of the river. The place was of very
trifling consequence previously to the Restoration, when it
appears to have contained scarcely any houses. It must after
that have rapidly increased, as we find that in 1 728 not fewer
than 200 vessels are entered in the custom-house books as
having sailed from this port. Its trade would seem to have
declined after this : towards the latter part of the last century
there were only a few small sloops belonging to the port; but
the opening of the Cowpen colliery, near the end oi the cen-
tury, materially contributed to the increase of its trade,
which consists chiefly in the export of coal and iron froni
Bedlington, and sometimes corn. Thirty or forty sail of
laden vessels sometimes sail in one tide. They usually re-
turn in ballast ; few articles are imported, except such timber
and stores as are required for the shipping. About 100
vessels now belong to the port, which is regarded as a sort
of creek to that of Newcastle.
Blyth is a pleasant and well built little place. It has
a custom-house, subject to that of Newcastle ; two ship
insurance companies, and several dock-yards, in which
vessels of 430 tons have been built. There is a neat chapel
of ease, which was erected in 1751 by Sir M. W. Ridley,
the proprietor of the estate ; and to which a Sunday-school
has since been annexed. Different denominations of dis-
senters have four places of worship at Blyth.
The township of South Blyth and Newsham contained
248 houses in 1831, when the population was 1769, of whom
977 were females. This however does not convey a true
idea of the extent and population of the town, as it only
comprehends that part of it which lies in the parish of Ears-
don, but, adding to tho account that part in the township of
Cowpen, parish of Horton, the actual population must ex-
ceed 3000.
(Hutchinson 8 View qf Northumberlwid ; Historical
and Descriptive View of Northumberland^ if-c.)
BOA (zoology), the name of a family of serpents which
are without venom, the absence of which is amply com-
pensated by immense muscular power, enabling some of
the species to kill large animals by constriction, prepai'atory
to swallowing them whole.
There are few fables which have not some truth for their
origin. The voyages of Sinbad have become proverbial;
but the stories of the monstrous serpents in the valley of
diamonds, and of the 'serpent of surprising length and
thickness, whose scales made a rustUng as he wound him-
self along,' that swallowed up two of his companions, pro-
bably had their foundation in traditions of tne dize and
strength 'of a family of serpents belonging to the old world,
but nearly alUed in their organization and habits to those
which we are about to consider. Sinbad*s description in-
deed of the fate of the first of the two victims brings to our
memory a terrible anecdote of the murderous power and
voracity of the Indian boas or pythons related in modern*
times, and recorded on canvas by Daniell. [See Python.]
' It (the serpent) swallowed up,' says the fictitious sailor,
' one of my comrades, notwithstanding his loud cries and
the efforts he made to extricate himself.'
Of the same race probably were the monsters to whioh
the following allusions are ffl»de by antient l^riten. T
Digitized by VJJDMjy IC
BOA
20
BOA
Ariftotle (book \\i\. c. 28) writes of libjan leipents of
enormout sixe, and relates, that certain Toyagers to thai
coast were pursued by some of them so large that they
oTerset one of the triremes. The two monstrous snakes
(alvA wiXmfa) sent bv Juno to strangle the infant Her-
cules in his cradle, described by Theocritus in his 24 th
Idyll, exhibit some of the peculiarities of these reptiles.
The way in which Theocritus represents them to have
3olled their folds around the boy, and relaxed them when
liying in his grasp, indicates the habit of a constricting
serpent*. Virgil's Laoooon, and the unrivalled marble
group, which the poet's description most probably called
into existence, owe their origin undoubtedly to the stories
current of constricting serpents. Valerius Maxirous (book
i. c. 8, s. 19), quoting Livy, gives a relation of the alarm
into which the Romans under Regulus were thrown by an
enormous snake, which had its lair on the banks of the
Baffradas, or Magradas (Mejerda), near TJtica. It is said
to nave swallowed many of the soldiers, to have killed others
in its folds, and to have kept the army from the river ; till
at length, being invulnerable by oruinory weapons, it was
destroyed by heavy stones slung from the military engines
used in sieges. But, according to the historian, its perse-
cution of the army did not cease with its death ; for the
waters were polluted with its gore, and the air with the
steams from its corrupted carcase, to such a decree, that the
Komans were obliged to move tlieir camp, taking with
them however the skin, one hundred and twenty feet in
length, which was sent to Rome t. Gellius, Orosius, Flo-
rus, Silius Italicus, and Zonaras, make mention of the
same serpent nearly to the same effect. Pliny (viii. 14,
De Serpentibus MaximU ei Bois) says, that Megasthenes
writes that serpents grow to such a size in India, that
they swallowed entire stags and bulls. (See also Near-
chus, quoted by Arrian. Jndic. 15.) He speaks too of
the Bagradian serpent above-mentioned as matter of no-
toriety, observing that it was one hundred and twenty feet
long, and that its skin and jaws were preserved in a temple
at nome till the time of the Numantine war : and he adds,
that the serpents called Bom in Italy confirm this, for that
they grow to such a size, that in the belly of one killed on the
Vatican hill iu the reign of Claudius an entire infant was
found {• Suetonius (in Octav, 43) mentions the exhibition
of a serpent, fifty cubits in length, in front of the comitium.
But, without multiplying instances from iElian and others,
we will now come to more modern accounts. Bontius
(V. 23) says, ' The Indian serpents are so multitudinous, tiiat
my paper would fail me before I enumerated them all ; never-
theless, I must say something about the great ones, which
sometimes exceed thirty-six feet in length, and are of such
capacity of throat and stomach that they swallow entire
boars.* He then speaks of the great power of distention in
the jaws, adding, * To confirm this, there are those alive
who partook with General Peter Both of a recently swal-
lowed hog, cut out of the belly of a serpent of this kind.
They are not venomous, but they strangle by powerfully
applying their folds around the body of a man or other
animal.' Mr. M*Leod, in his interesting 'Voyage of
H. M. S. Alccste,* p. 312, gives the following account:
' It may here be mentioned, that during a captivity of
some months at Whidah, in the kingdom of Dahomey, on
the coast of Africa, the author of this narrative had oppor-
tunities of observing snakes more than double the size of
this one just described $; but he cannot venture to say
whether or not they were of the same species, though he
has no doubt of their being of the genus Boa. They killed
their prey, howe\'er, precisely in a similar manner ; and,
from their superior bulk, were capable of swallowing ani-
mals much ku^er than goats or sheep. Governor Abson,
who had for thirty- seven years resided at Fort William (one
of the African Company's settlements there), described
■ome desperate struggles which he had either seen, or had
come to his knowledge, between the snakes and wild beasu,
u weU as th« smaJiler cattle, in which the former were
* TIm «iii«klt9 beautr of the Idyll can onW b« equalled by the graadeur
prdesicD attd caecntloa duiplayea by Reynolds in hti picture.
t The paauM ritrd by Valeriiu ftom Liry must ixuve been in the lost de-
cade (the Siid\ The trader will And however the story tecorded in the
aappleneot to Livy (xaIU. IS).
t JmuSod. after qootins this passage, add«. that it is probable that the Boa
grows to tMs stie Id Calitbri*. for that Cacctnus, bishop of St. AnccU., writes
Id ThoaiasiDiM. that one which had deroured the flocks and liPtds » a% killwl.
in a fleld near tha town sod within his dincese. bv a shepherd, and iluit the
mandiblat. two palms in leDgth, were to be sevn In the church of the Virgin.
(Deiparssde Uresolo.)
f £•l^Mt,^taL
always victorious. A negro herdsman belonging to Mr.
Abson (who afterwards hmpcd for many years about the
fort) had been seized by one of these monstcn by the thigh ;
but from his situation in a wood, the serpent, in attempting
to throw himself around him, got entangled with a tree ;
and the man, being thus preserved from a state of compres-
sion, which would instantly have rendered him quite power-
less, had presence of mind enough to cut with a large knife.
which he carried about with him, deep gashes in the neck
and throat of his antagonist, thereby killing him, and dis-
engaging himself from his frightful situation. He ncNcr
afterwaras, however, recovered the use of that limb, wbich
had sustained considerable injury from his fangs and the
mere force of his jaws.* All these gigantic serpents were,
most probably, the Pythons of modem nomenclature.
According to Pliny, the name Boa was given to thc*c
serpents because they were said to be at first nourished hy
the milk of cows ; and Jonston and others observe, that
they derived the name not so much from their power of
swallowing oxen, as from a story current in old times uf
their following the herds and sucking their udders. Boa is
also stated by some to be the Brazilian name for a serpent.
Among modem systematic writers, Linnaeus may be con-
sidered as the first establisher of the genus. Laure»ti»
Boddaert, Daubenton, Schneider, Lac^pede, Latreille. ami
others adopted it, in many instances with alterations and
corrections. At one time the genus comprehended all
serpents, venomous or not, the under part of whose b(xl)
and tail were furnished with scaly transverse bands, or
scuta, formed of one piece only, and which had neither spur
nor rattle at the end of the tail. Alter the venomous
serpents were separated from Uiem, they were found sutli-
ciently numerous and were again subdivided.
The following is Cuviers definition of a true Boa in mo-
dem nomenclature :
The BooD more especially so called, have a spur on ca^h
side of the vent, the body comnressed, largest in the middl*-.
the tail prehensile, and small scales on the posterior part
of the head. Among them are found the largest of serpent x.
Some of the species attain thirty or forty feet in length, ui- i
become capable of swallowing dogs, deer, and even om-i;,
according to travellers, after having crushed them in their
folds, lubricated them with their saliva, and enormously di-
lated their jaws and throat : this operation is a ver}' lon<; on«>.
A remarkable part of their anatomy is. that their smaller
lung is only one half shorter than the other.
Before we enter upon the subdivision of this family, >u>
will examine some of the most remarkable points in tlic
structure and organization of the serpent, admirably adapts 1
to its habits.
On looking at this representation of the skeleton of a Ui
constrictor, drawn from the beautiful preparation in tic
British Museum, we first observe the strong close -set tei'ili.
of which there is a double row on each side of the uppir
jaw, all pointing backwards, and giving the serpent ti o
firmest hold of its struggling victim, which is thus depri\ni
of the power of withdrawing itself when once locked witli.n
the deadly jaws. Serpents do not masticate. The prey >«
swallowed whole ; and to assist deglutition, their under jaw
consists of two bones easily separable at the sympht/sn, or
point of jimction, while the bone similar to iheos quadruium
in birds, by the inter^•cntion of which it is fitted to the
cranium, further facilitates the act. The upper jaw more-
over is so constmcted as to admit of consideraole rooti<>n.
We next observe the spine, formed for the most extensive
mobility, and the multitude of ribs constructed as orp p.j
of rapid progression, when joined to the lielly scales, «t
scuta, with which the whole inferior surface of the U •'}
may be said to be shod. * When the snake,* wnle'< N
Everard Home, * begins to put itself in motion, the n'>^ <■.
the opposite sides are drawn apart from each other, and ihr
small cartilaj^cs at the end of them are bent upon the upm
surfaces of the abdominal scuta, on which the ends of lij •
ribs rest ; and, as the ribs move in pairs, the scutum un<!' r
each pair is carried along with it. This scutum b) it>
posterior edge lays hold of the ground, and becomes a fix^d
point from whence to set out anew. This motion is l^iu-
tifully seen when a snake is climbing over an angle to lyt
upon a flat surface. When the animal is moving, it alti r>
its shape from a circular or oval form to soroethinf; ap*
preaching to a triangle, of which the surface on the ground
forms the baso. The coluber and boa having large ab lo-
minal scuta, which may be con8iden9d,.as hoofs or shoes, are
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BOA
21
BOA
[Skeleton of boa conttrictor.]
the best fitted for this kind of progressive motion/ {Lectures
on Comparative Anatomy, vol. i.)
Sir Everard, in the sauae lecture, speaking of the ribs as
organs of locomotion, says — * An observation of Sir Joseph
Banks during the exhibition of a coluber of unusual size
first led to this discovery. While it was moving briskly
along the carpet, he said he thought he saw the ribs come
forward in succession, like the feet of a caterpillar. This
remark led me to examine the animal's motion with more
accuracy, and on putting the hand under its belly, while the
snake was in the act of passing over the palm, the ends of 1
tlie ribs were distinctly felt pressing upon the surface in
regular succession, so as to leave no doubt of the ribs form-
ing so many pairs of levers, by which the animal moves
its body from place to place/
It is not intended to detract in the least from the mas-
terly descriptions given in the lecture here quoted; but
it is due to the sharp-sighted Tyson to observe, that the
locomotive power of the ribs was detected and published
by him in his excellent observations on the anatomy of the
rattle-snake. (See Phil. Trans.)
Sir Everard Home informs us by what additional mecha-
nism this faculty is effected. The ribs, he observes, are not
articulated in snakes between the vertebrae, but each vertebra
has a rib attached to it by two slightly concave surfaces,
that move upon a convex protuberance on the side of the
vertebra, by which means the extent of motion is unusually
great, and the lower end of each vertebra having a globular
form fitted to a concavity in the upper end of the vertebra
below it, they move readily on one another in all directions.
The muscles which bring the ribs forward, according to Sir
Everard, consist of five sets, one from the transverse pro-
cess of each vertebra to the rib immediately behind it,
which rib is attached to the next vertebra. The next set
goes from the rib a little way from the spine, just beyond
where the former terminates,' it passes over two ribs, send-
ing a slip to each, and is inserted into the third ; there is
a slip also connecting it with the next muscle in succession.
Under this is the third set, which arises from tlie posterior
side of each rib, passes over two ribs, sending a lateral slip
to the next muscle, and is inserted into the third rib behind
it The fourth set passes from one rib over the next, and
is inserted into the second rib. The fifth set goes from rib
to rib. On the inside of the chest there is a strong set of
muscles attached to the anterior surface of each vertebra,
and passing obliquely forwards over four ribs to be inserted
into the fifth, nearly at the middle part between the two
extremities. From this part of each rib a strong flat muscle
comes forward on each side before the viscera, forming the
abdominal muscles, and uniting in a beautiful middle
tendon, so that the lower half of each rib, which is beyond
the origin of this muscle, and which is only laterally con-
nected to it by loose cellular membrane, is external to the
belly of the animal, and is used for the purpose of progres-
sive motion ; while that half of each rib next the spine, as
far as the lungs extend, is employed in respiration. At
the termination of each rib is a small cartilage, in shape
corresponding to the rib, only tapering to the point Those
of the opposite ribs have no connexion, and when the ribs
are drawn outwards by the muscles, they are separated to
some distance, and rest through their whole length on the
inner surface of the abdominal scuta, to which they are con-
nected by a set of short muscles ; they have also a con-
nexion with the cartilages of the neighbouring ribs by a set of
short straight muscles. These observations apply to snakes
in general ; but the muscles have been exammed in a boa
constrictor, three feet nine inches long, preserved in the
Hunterian Museum. In all snakes, adds the author, the
ribs are continued to the anus, but the lungs seldom occupy
more than one half of the extent of the cavity covered by
the ribs. Consequently these lower ribs can only be em-
ployed for the purpose of progressive motion, and therefore
correspond in that respect with the ribs in the Draco volans
superadded to form the wings. [See Dragon.]
The subjoined cut, copied from that given as an illustra
tion by Sir Everai'd Home, will explain the articulating
surfaces of the vertebrae and ribs ; and on the under surface
of the former will bo seen the protuberance for the attach-
ment of the muscles which are employed in crushing the
animals round which the snake entwines itsell^ i
Lioogle
Digitized by ^
BOA
22
BOA
The cut exhibits two vertebrae and portions of two ribs of
A so-oalled boa constrictor, drawn with his usual accurate
fidelity and skill by W. Clift, Esq., from a skeleton sent
from the East Indies by the late Sir William Jones, and
deposited in the Hunterian Museum. The letters a, a point
to the protuberance on the under surface for the attach-
ment of the constricting muscles, according to Sir Everaid
Home.
Though the term boa constrictor is used throughout by
Sir Everard Home in his lecture, there can be little doubt
that the serpent sent from India by Sir William Jones was
a python. The small specimen from which the description
of the organs employea in prot^ressive motion was taken
may have been a boa. But whether boa or python, it would
have had the hooks or spurs near the vent« and the bones
and muscles belonging to these spurs, which are of no
small consequence in the organization of a boa or a python,
rudiments of limbs though they be ; these appear to have
escaped Sir Everard Home*s observation, occupied as he
was in following out the mechanism of progressive motion.
No one can read of the habits of these reptiles in a state
of nature without perceiving the advantage which they ^^ain
when, holding on by their tails on a tree, their heads and
bodies in ambush, and half floating on some sedgy river,
they surprise the thirsty animal that seeks the stream.
These hooks help the serpent to maintain a fixed point ; they
become a fulcrum which gives a double power to his
energies. Dr. Mayer detected these rudiments of limbs,
and has well explained their anatomy*. He makes boa the
first genus of his family of Phojnopoda (Ophidians having
the rudiments of a foot visible externally), adding the genera
Python, Eryx, Tortrix. After adverting to what Morrem,
Schneider, Kussel, Lacepede. Daudin,Oppel, Cuvier, Oken,
and Blainville have said or figured relative to these hooks
or spurs, he proceeds to his own observations made on Bo€B
Constrictor, ScytaU, and Cenchrit. He says, that the spur
or nail on each side of the vent in the boa constrictor and
other species of the genus is a true nail, in the cavity of
which is a little demi-cartila<^nous bone, or ungual phalanx,
articulated with another bone much stronger whicn is con-
cealed under the skin. This second bone of the rudiment
of a foot in the Bose has an external thick condyle, with
which the ungual phalanx is articulated, as above stated :
it presents, Asides, a smaller internal apophysis, which
places it in connexion with the other bones of the skeleton.
These bones are the appendages of a tibia or leg bone, the
form and relative position of which will be understood by a
reference to the subjoined cuts, copied from Dr. Mayer's
* Memoir/
The figure above given represents the tail of a boa con-
strictor : a, the vent ; b, the hook or spur of the lefl side ;
0, the subcutaneous muscle ; d, ribs and intercostal muscles;
e, transverse muscle of the abdomen ; /, bone of the leg en-
veloped in its muscles ; g, abductor muscle of the toot ;
A, aoductor muscle of the foot The arrangement of the
scuta, or shields, of one entire piece under the tail, charac-
teristic of the true boas, will be here obser\'ed. In the py-
thons the shields beneath the tail are ranged in pairs.
• Dr. Mayrra panrr KpiM-anMl in thr Trnm$. Soc. Xat. Cvriof.: ami waa
a/lriwarilt trantlatrd in Uie stnrftin drt Sntnre$/or I8'i6. But CuTter.whoae
•ecottd c<Utiou of ibo Rfjne J„u,ui v, as pubiishea in 18^. doea oot ootke it
We here have a representation of the osteology of this ru-
dimentary hmb, taken from the same author. Figure 2.
represents the left posterior limb of the Boa Sc)tale, scon
anteriorly: a, tibia or leg-bone; 6, external bono of the
tarsus ; c, internal bone of the tarsus ; d, bone of the meta-
tarsus with its apophysis ; e, nail or hook.
Figure 3 represents the same limb, seen posteriorly.
Doctors Hopkinson and Pancoast have given in the
• Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,' held
at Philadelphia, for promoting useful knowletlge (vol. v.
new series, part i.). an interesting account of the visceral
anatomy of the Python (Cuvier), described by Daudin as
the Boa reticulata. And here it may be as well to remark
that the differences between the Boa) and the Pythons ano
so small, that the accounts given of the constricting powers
and even of the principal anatomical details of the one, roay
be taken as illustrative of the same points in the history of
the other. We select from the paper above mentioned an
account of the respiratory and urinary organs, because thc;r
structure appears to be peculiarly adapted to the habiia of
the animal.
• The larynx consists of a single cartilage, having a nar-
row oblique slit in it, about six Imes in length, for the trans-
mi-sion of air ; the trachea is one foot eii^lit inches in length,
and threccighths of an inch in diameter, and pa^>es
duwn attached to the ventral face of the oesophagus. It
consists of a great number of imperfect cartilaginous
rin^s, interrupted posteriorly, but joined by an elastic s»ul)-
stance which keeps their extremities in contact. Eacu
ring is connected to the adjoining one by a membrane
also elastic, so that when the trachea is stretched length-
wise, it will easily rej^ain its former condition. It passes
behind the heart, and while there concealed, divides into
two bronchisD, appropriated to the two lungs. The lun;r».
in a collapsed state, lie much concealed, being covered in
part by the liver ; but when inflated, are brought into \ifw
and c 'use the liver to be raised up. These organs cons'i'it
in two (lislinct vesicles or bags, united above along their
middle, but terminating below, each in a separate ait de ^ar.
They differ materially in size, but vary less in this respect
than those of snakes in general. The right lung is two
feet ten inci.es long, and about four inches broad, and ex-
tends dowi' as fur as the gall-bladder rupposite the spleens.
Digitized by vrii
BOA
23
BOA
which are on its left, it has a considerable contraction of its
diameter. The smaller veside lies on the left side, and is
loose at its lower end ; it is only one foot nine inches long,
and three inches broad ; it terminates near the lower ex-
tremity of the liver. The lower four-fifths of each lung are
thin, semi-transparent, and supplied with fewer blood-vessels
than the upper portion. The parietes are marked by circular
lines or stris, along which are strung small white bodies,
apparently vesicular, from half a line to two lines distant
from each other ; they are much more numerous above, and
appear to be merely attached to the inner surface. The
upper portion of each lung is composed of a more spongy
titructure ; the parietes are much thicker, and present on
their inner surface a loose reticulated texture, somewhat
resembling a section of the corpus oavemostim penis, the
cells however being much larger. A free passage is left
through the centre, so that the air, in inspiration, is not
obliged necessarily to pass through the cells, which seem to
present merely a more extensive surface for the purposes of
respiration. Both lungs contained many worms, found
most abundant above among the cells, and even in the
trachea; they were of various dimensions, being from one
to three inches in length, whitish, cylindrical, tapering, and
surrounded in their whole length by elevated rings or cords.
The authors of the foregoing description do not seem to
have observed a part of the mechanism of the organs of
respiration detected by Joseph Henry Green, Esq., F.R.S.,
&c. That gentleman, in his lectures at the Royal College
of Surgeons, after alluding to Mr. Brodcrip's paper on the
mode in which the boa constrictor takes its prey, and of the
adaptation of its organization to its habits, hereinafter given,
and especially that part where the author states that the
larynx is, during the operation of swallowing, protruded
beyond the edge of the dilated lower jaw, exhibited a drawing
of two muscles which he had detected in the lower jaw for
the purpose of bringing the larynx forward, in consequence
of his attention having been drawn to the point by the
statement made in the paper.
Without going into a detail of the anatomy of the other
organs given by Drs. Hopkinson and Pancoast, it will
be sufficient to remark that they detected a peculiarity of
structure which suggests the idea that it is intended to ob-
viate the injurious effects of an impeded circulation when
the stomach is distended with food ; a disteniton, from the
habits of the ahimal, likely to be great and of long duration.
Under such circumstances they remark that the peculiarly
constructed vessels may, by a circuitous route, carry a large
proportion of blood to the heart, which the vena cava alone
would be unable to aex:omplish in a state of partial com-
pression.
Having endeavoured to give the reader some insight into
the organization of these serpents, we now proceed to lay
before him descriptions by eye-witnesses of the manner in
which that organization is brought into action for the pur-
pose of killing and swallowing their prey.
Mr. M*Leod, in his * Voyage of H.M.6. Alceste,' gives
the following painfully vivid account of a serpent, a native
of Borneo, sixteen feet long, and of about eighteen inches
in circumference, which was on board. There were ori-
ginally two; but one, to use Mr. M*Leod*s expression,
• sprawled overboard and was drowned.'
* During his stay at Ryswick,* says Mr. M*Leod, speaking
of the survivor, * he is said to have been usually entertained
with a goat for dinner, once in every three or four weeks,
with occasionally a duck or a fowl by way of a dessert. The
live-stock for his use during the passage, consisting of six
goats of the ordinary size, were sent with him on board,
five being considered as a fair allowance for as many months.
' At an early period of the voyage we had an exhibition
of his talent in the way of eating, which was publicly per-
formed on the quarter-deck, upon which his crib stood. The
shding part being opened, one of the goats was thrust in,
and the door of the cage was shut. The poor goat, as if
instantly aware of all the horrors of its perilous situation,
immediately began to utter the most piercing and distressing
chc!), butting instinctively, at the same time, with its head
towards the serpent, in self-defence.
• The snake, which at first appeared scarcely to notice the
poor animal, soon began to stir a little, ani, turning his
head in the direction of the goat, he at length fixed a deadly
and malignant eye on the trembhng victim, whose agony
and terror seemed to increase ; for, previous to the snake
seizing hia prey, it shook in every limb, but still continuing
its unavailing show of attack, by butting at the serpent,
whica now &came sufficiently animated to prepare for the
banquet. The first operation was that of darting out bis
forked tongue, and at the same time rearing a little his
head ; then suddenly seizing the goat by the fore-leg with
his fangs, and throwing it down, it was encircled in an in-
stant in his horrid folds. So quick indeed and so instanta-
neous was the act, that it was impossible for the eye to fol-
low the rapid convolution of bis elongated body. It was not
a regular screw-like turn that was formed, but resembling
rather a knot, one part of the body overlaying the other, as
if to add weight to the muscular pressure, the more effec-
tually to crush the object. During this time he continued
to grasp with his fangs, though it appeared an unnecessary
pi*ecaution, that part of the animal which be had first seized.
He then slowly and cautiously unfolded himself, till the
goat fell dead ftom his monstrous embrace, when he began
to prepare himself for swallowing it. Placing his mouth in
front of the dead animal, he commenced by lubricating with
his saliva that part of the goat, and then taking its muzzle
into his mouth, which had, and indeed always has, the ap-
pearance of a raw lacerated wound, he sucked it in, as far as
the horns would allow. These protuberances opposed some
little difficulty, not so much from their extent as from their
points ; however, they also in a very short time disappeared,
that is to say, externally ; but their progress was still to be
traced very distinctly on the outside, threatening every mo-
ment to protrude Uirough the skin. The victim had now
descended as far as the shoulders ; and it was an astonishing
sight to observe the extraordinary action of the snake's
muscles when stretched to such an unnatural extent — an
extent which must have utterly destroyed all muscular
power in any animal that was not, like himself, endowed
with very peculiar faculties of expansion and action at the
same time. When his head and neck had no other appear-
ance than that of a serpent's skin stuffed almost to bursting,
still the workings of the muscles were evident ; and his
power of suction, as it is erroneously called, unabated ; it
was, in fact, the effect of a contractile muscular power,
assisted by two rows of strong hooked teeth. With all this
he must be so formed as to be able to suspend for a time
his respiration ; for it is impossible to conceive that the pro-
cess of breathing could be carried on while the mouth and
throat were so completely stuffed and expanded by the body
of the goat, and the lungs themselves (admitting the trachea
to be ever so hard) compressed, as they must have been, by
its passage downwards.
'The whole operation of completely gorging the goat occu-
pied about two hours and twenty minutes, at the end of
which time the tumefaction was confined to the middle part
of the body, or stomach, the superior parts, which bad been
80 much distended, having resumed their natural dimen-
sions. He now coiled himself up again, and lay quietly in
his usual torpid state for about three weeks or a month,
when his last meal appearing to be completely digested and
dissolved, he was presented with another goat, which he
killed and devoured with equal facility. It would appear
that almost all he swallows is converted into nutrition, tor a
small quantity of calcareous matter* (and that perhaps not
a tenth part of the bones of the animal), with occasionally
some of the hairs, seemed to compose his general fieces. . . .
' It was remarked, especially by the ofiiicers of the watch,
who had better opportunities of noticing this circumstance,
that the goats had always a great horror of the serpent, and
evidently avoided that side of the deck on which his cage
stood.' P. 305.
Mr. Broderip, in tho second volume of the ' Zoological
Journal,' after referring to Mr. M'Lcods interesting nan-a-
tive, of the correctness of which, as far as it goes, he says he
has not a single doubt, and observing that two points in
that description struck him forcibly, tne one as being con-
trary to the probable structure of the animid, and the other
as being contrary to Mr. Broderip's observations, proceeds
to give the following account of the manner in which the
serpent t takes its prey in this country.
* This was most probably the urine of the animal, which ia often Vblded ia
inspissated Inrnpa. like moist pla.«ter-of- Paris in appearance, and has been fre-
quently taken for feces. Dr. John Davy deaertbes it in the rhilosophical
Transactions as of a butyraceous consistence, becoming bard like chalk by
exposure to air, and as being a form of pure uric acid.
t The serpent whose actions are described by Mr. Broderip, and that which
(bruished Mr. M'Ltod's narrative, were Indian boos or pvthons. Tliese Ijave
been oommonlv exhibited under the popular name of ' Boa constrii'tor/ and
thoni^h. as wo liaTe already stated. there are points of difference in the nrran^e-
ment of the scuta below the rent, &e^ the general sUucture^oMfae true Souui
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Mr. Cops' of the Lion Office in the Tower/ writes
Broderip, ' sent to inform me that one of these reptiles had
just cast his skin, at which period they, in common with
other serpents, are most active and eager for prey. Ac-
cordingly I repaired with some friends to the Tower, where
we found a spacious cage, the floor of which consisted of a
tin case covered with red haixe and filled with warm water,
so as to produce a proper temperature. There was the
snake, *' positis novus exuviis," gracefully examining the
height and extent of his prison as he raised, without any
apparent effort, his towering head to the roof and upper
paru of it, full of life, and brandishing his tongue.
' A large bock rabbit was tntroduced into the cage. The
snake was down and motionless in a moment. There he
lay like a log without one symptom of life, save that which
glared in the small bright eye twinkling in his depressed
head. The rabbit appeared to take no notice of him, but
Sresently negan to walk about the cage. The snake sud-
enly, but ^most imperceptibly, turned his head according
to the rabbit's movements, as if to keep the object within
the range of his eye. At length the rabbit, totally un-
conscious of his situation, approached the ambushed head.
The snake dashed at him like lightning. There was a
blow—a scream— and instantly the victim was locked in
the coils of the serpent. This was done almost too rapidly
for the eye to follow : at one instant the snake was motion-
less ; in the next he was one congeries of coils round his
prey. He had seized the rabbit by the neck just under
the ear, and was evidently exerting the strongest pressure
round the thorax of the quadruped ; thereby preventing the
expansion of the chest, and at the same time depri\'ing the
anterior extremities of motion. The rabbit never cried
alter the first seizure :— he lay with his hind legs stretched
out, still breathing with diiliculty, as could be seen by the
motion of his flanks. Presently he made one desperate
struggle with his hind legs; but the snake cautiously
appUed another coil with such dexterity as completely to
manacle the lower extremities, and, in about eight minutes,
the rabbit was quite dead. The snake then gradually and
earefully uncoiled himself, and, finding that his victim
moved not, opened his mouth, let go his hold, and placed
his head opposite to the fore part of the rabbit. The boa
generally, I have observed, begins with the head ; but in
this instance the serpent, having begun with the fore-legs,
was longer in gorging his prey than usual, and in conse-
quence of the difficulty presented by the awkward position
of the rabbit, the dilatation and secretion of lubricating
mucus were excessive. The serpent first got the fore-legs
into his mouth ; he then coiled himself round the rabbit,
and appeared to draw out the dead body through his folds ;
he then began to dilate his jaws, and holding the rabbit
firmly in a coil as a point of resistance, appeared to exercise
at intervals the whole of his anterior muscles in protruding
his stretched jaws and lubricated mouth and throat at first
against, and soon after gradually upon, and over his prey,
llie curious mechanism in toe jaws of serpents which
enables tliem to swallow bodies so disproportioned to their
apparent bulk is too well known to need description ; but it
may be as well to state that the symphysis of the under
aw was separated in this case, and in others which I have
ad an opportunity of observing. When the prey was com-
pletely ingulphed, the serpent lay for a few moments with
nis dislocate<l jaws still dropping with the mucus which had
lubricated the parts, and at this time he looked quite sufiS-
ciently disgusting. He then stretched out his neck, and
at the same moment the muscles seemed to push the prey
further downwards. After a few efforts to replace the
parts, the jaws appeared much the same as they did pre-
vious to the monstrous repast.
* I now proceed to the first of the two points above alluded
to, and have to state my opinion that the boa constrictor
does respire " when his head and neck have no other appear-
ance than that of a serpent's skin stuffed almost to burst-
ing;*' and I think that, upon a more close examination, the
tame phenomenon would have been observable in the ser-
pent shipped at Batavia. It is to be regretted that the
dissection of that serpent appears to have been confined to
the stomach ; at least nothing is said of any other part of
the animaL I have never had an opportunity of disiocting
American hrm to mnrh trt.'mbl.** t>ial of tlie Indian boa, or mthoo, and the
Ikdbitt of l>a»>, i>»tiirularl> \u inUtin their pr«'y, are »o »jmiiar, thai a true
dr«cri|>tuia of ilit* |itcUntoi)- Uaba* uf lbs pyUMn will give a ftalisfvvctory i(k*a
of thoM o( Ui« buo.
t
the pulmonary system of a boa*, or of satisfying myself as
to the structure of the extremely long trachea, which must
be very firm to resist such an immense pressui'e, but I
believe, from a near and accurate inspection, in company
with others, that respiration goes on during the period of
the greatest dilatation. While these serpents are in the
act of constringing or of swallowing their prey, they appear
to be so entirely pervaded by the optliQf which then governs
them, that I am convinced they would suffer themselves to
be cut in pieces before they would relinquish their victim.
I have assisted in taking them up and removing them with
their prey in their coils, without their appearing to be in
the least disturbed by the motion, exceptmg that, if after
the victim is no more and the constriction is somewhat re-
laxed, an artificial motion be ^ven to the dead body, they
instantly renew the constriction. When thus employed
they may be approached closely and with perfect security
for the reason above stated, and I have uniformly found
that the larynx is, during the operation of swallowing, pro-
truded sometimes as much as a quarter of an inch beyonl
the edge of the dilated lower iaw^. I have seen, in company
with others, the valves of tne glottis onen and shut, and
the dead rabbit's fur immediately before the aperture stirred,
apparently by the serpent's breath, when his jaws and
throat were stuffed and stretched to excess. In the case
above mentioned, where the prey was taken very awkwardly,
and the dilatation was consequently much greater than
usual, I saw this wonderful adaptation of means to the
exigencies of the animal much more clearly than I hud
ever seen it before.
' With regard to the next point, it is more difficult to ac-
count for the variance between the agony of antipathy
shown by the goat as described by Mr. M'Leod, and the
indifference which I have uniformly observed in the full
grown fowls and rabbits presented to Uiese serpents for
prey. Immediately after our boa had swallowed his first
rabbit, a second was introduced ; but the serpent now exhi-
bited a very different appearance. The left side of his
lower jaw was hardly in its place, and he moved about the
cage instead of lying in wait as on the former occasion. As
for the rabbit, after he had been incarcerated a Uttle whilo.
he treated the snake with the utmost contempt, biting it
when in his way, and moving it aside with his head. Tne
snake, not having his tackle in order, for his jaw was n« i
yet quite right, appeared anxious to avoid the rabbit, which
at last stumbled upon the snake s head in his walks. an«]
began to treat it so roughly, that the rabbit was withdrawn
for fear of his injuring the snake. This treatment of the
snake by the rabbit did not appear to be the effect of anger
or hatred, but to be adopted merely as a mode of removu)^
something, which he did not app^r to understand, out «>f
his way. I have seen many rabbits and fowls presented lo
different speciipens of boa for prey, and I never saw tlic
least symptom of uneasiness either in the birds or qua-
drupeds. They appear at first to take no notice of tlie
serpent, large as it is, and when they do discover it they do
not start, but seem to treat it with the greatest indifference.
I remember one evening going up into the room where one
of these snakes was kept at Exeter 'Change, and seeing the
hen which was destined for the prey of the boa, very com-
fortably at roost upon the serpent. The keeper took the
hen in his hands and held it opposite to the head of the
snake, without succeeding in inducmg him to take the bird,
which, when let out of the keeper's hands again, settled
herself down upon the serpent for the night.
' The only solution which I can offer of the diflference be-
tween Mr. M'Leod's descriotion and my experience, is one
which I do not propose as absolately satisfactory, but which
may nevertheless be found to approach the truth. Tlio
goats put on board at Batavia for the serpent, which it ap-
pears was brought from Borneo, were in all probability
natives of Java, and if so, they would, according to the
wonderful instinct which nature has implanted in animals
for their preservation, be likely to have a violent antipathy
to large serpents, such as those which there lurk for their
prey. The great Python is a native of Java, and if the^
lioats were wild, or originally from the wild stock of the
island, their instinctive horror at the sight of the destroyer
may be thus accounted for. But our domestic fowls and
rabbits (the stock of the latter most probably indigenous,
and that of the former of such remote importation, and ^'l
much changed by descent, as to be almost on the saxuc
• Sec ante, p. 23 f AppctUr. t Sec anlA v. 0.
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footing), having no snob natoral enemy as a large serpent,
against which it is necessary for them to be on their guard,
are entirely without this instinct, although it is strong
enough in the case of their ordinary enemies, such as
hawks, dogs, and cats ; and they consequently view the hoa
which is about to dash at them with the same indifference
as if he were a log of wood.'
The author of the foregoing paper, in conclusion, gives to
persons who have the care of these reptiles a hint not to
expose their hands too much in holding fowls, &c., to the
head of a boa when near shedding its skin, and conse-
quently nearly blind (for the skin of the eye is changed
with the rest), in order to induce it to take its prey. Mr.
Cops, the keeper of the lion-office, was holding a fowl to
the head of the largest of the five snakes which were there
kept, when the serpent was in this condition. The snake
darted at the bird, missed it, but seized the keeper by the
left thumb, and coiled round his arm and neck in a mo-
ment. Mr. Cops, who was alone, did not lose his presence
of mind, and immediately attempted to relieve himself from
the powerful constriction by getting at the snake*8 head.
But the serpent had so knotted himself upon his own head,
that Mr. Cops could not reach it, and had thrown himself
on the floor, in order to grapple with a better chance of
success, when two other keepers coming in, broke the teeth
of the serpent, and with some difficulty relieved Mr. Cops
from his perilous situation. Two broken teeth were ex-
tracted from the thumb, which soon healed ; and no incon-
venience of any consequence was the result of this frightful
adventure.
In this instance, the snake fixed itself by its tail to one of
the posts of its cage, thus bringing the spurs into action and
giving itself greater power.
We now proceed to a consideration of the subdivisions of
the genus Boa, properly so called, founded on the integu-
ments of their head and jaws, adopted by Cuvier.
Head covered to the end of the muzzle with small scales
like those of the body. The plates unth which the jaws
are provided not dimpled (ereusies defossettes).
Example. Boa Constrictor of LinnsDus; Devin, or Em-
peror Boa, of Daudin.
[Bo* Constrictor.]
This powerful species is distinguished by a large chain
extending the whole lepgth of the back, composed alter-
nately of great blackish stains or spots irregularly hexagonal,
and of pale oval stains or spots notched or jagged at either
end, the whole forming a very elegant pattern. Shaw, in
his lectures, mentions a skin of this species, measuring
thirty-five feet, preserved in the British Museum, and adds,
that it is probable that many ages ago much larger speci-
mens might have occurred than any at present to be found,
the increased population and cultivation of most countries
having tended more and more to lessen the number of sudh
animids. The locality of this species, according to the best
authorities, is confined to the New World. Daudin, indeed,
believed that it was found in the antient continent, but
without sufficient grounds for his opinion. Le Vaillant and
Humboldt brought it from Guiana, and the Prince de Wied
found it in Brazil. Cuvier gives it as his opinion that there
are no true boas of large size in the old world.
LinnoDus, quoting E^hlberg, says that the Boa Constrictor
was worshipped by the Americans.
* Snake-worship,* says Dr. Southey, in his notes to Ma-
doe, 'was common in America. Bema Dios,* p. 3. 7. 125.
The idol described, vii. p. 25, somewhat resembles what the
Spaniards found at Campeche, which is thus described by
the oldest historian of the discoveries. '* Our men were
conducted to a broade crosse-way, standing on the side of
the towne. Here they shew them a square stage or pulpit
foure steppes high> partly of clammy bitumen, and partly
of small stones, whereto the image of a man cut in marble
was joyned, two foure-footed unknown beastes fastening
upon him, which, like madde dogges, seemed they would
tear the marble man*8 guts out of his belly. And by the
image stood a serpent, besmeared all with goare bloud, de-
vouring a marble lion, which serpent, compacted of bitumen
and small stones incorporated together, was seven and fortie
feete in length, and as thicke as a great oxe. Next unto
it were three rafters or stakes fastened to the grounde,
which three others crossed under-propped with stones ; in
which place they punish malefactors condemned, for proof
whereof they saw innumerable broken arrowea, all bloudie,
scattered on the grounde, and the bones of the dead cast
into an inclosed courte neere unto it." — Pietro Martire."
Bullock, in his ' Six Months in Mexico/ speaks of a
noble specimen of the great serpent-idol, almost perfect
and of fine workmanship, in the cloisters behind the Do-
minican convent. This monstrous divinity is represented,
according to him, in the act of swallowing a human victim,
which is seen crushed and struggling in its horrid jaws.
That these Mexican serpent-idols were fashioned fix>m boas,
there can, we think, be but little doubtt Such were most
probably the Tlilcoatl, Temacuilcahuilia,^ and the Bitis of
Hernandez, who describes the latter as of the thickness of
a man, and says that it ascends trees, whence it vibrates,
being fixed by its tail, * and snatches men and boars and
other animals of that kind, sometimes devouring them
whole.' This serpent he mentions indeed as a production
of the island 'Cubu,' and as seen in the island Lutaya by
the Spaniards when they were anxious to disburthen' their
ships. The Tlilcoatl and TemacuQcahuilia appear to have
been continental ; and of the serpent last named he gives so
formidable an account that there appears every reason for
supposing it to have been the prototype of the snake-god
of the Mexicans. ' It derives its name,* says Hernan-
dez, * from its strength, for Temacuilcahuilia is, fighting
with five men ; it attacks those it meets, and overpowers
them with such force that if it once coils itself round
their necks it strangles and kills them, unless it bursts
itself by the violence of its own efforts ;' and he ^s on to
state how its attack is avoided by the man opposmg a tree
or other object to its constriction, so Uiat whue the serpent
fancies that it is compressing the man it may be torn
asunder by its own act, and so die. The same author states
that he had seen serpents as thick as a man*s thigh, which
had been taken when young by the Indians and tamed,
and how they were provided with a cask strewn with htter»
in the place of a cavern, where they lived and were for the
most part quiescent except at meal times, when they came
forth and amicably climbed about the couch or shoulders
of their master, who placidly bore the serpent-embrsoe
• Bernard (or Bonul, or Bmiardo) Dias del Castfllo.
t B««idM the name of Constrictor ftmnodMimoi, expreMtre of ili beraljr.
LaorenU, aeeording to Omelhi. giTca the following aptwllatiooe to the Boa
constrictor : — Constrictor rex serpentnm. Coostrietor anspes, Conttrietor
diviniloqaus. The two Utter plainly indicate the anpeiatitioas fteling with
which It was regarded by the nattrea,
X See post. p. S7.
No. 275.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPAEDIA.]
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(amplexus) of the terrific animal* or how» lying coiled up
in iolds and cauallinff a large wheel in size, they harm-
lesily received the fooa offered to them. In the description
of the Temacuilcahuilia we have, allowing for some exagge-
rations, the predatory hahits of an enormous hoa ( and in
the relation of the manners of the tamed constricting ser*
pents which fblbws it, we find an engine which might be,
and no doubt was, turned to account by the antient Mexican
priests. Such a piece of priestcraft is well introduced by
Southey, who in the following masterly lines brings before
the eye of the reader the priest and his snake-god*
_ ' On came th« migktj •nake.
And twined, in many a wreath, roiuid Nooliiv'
Darting aright, aleft. his atnuon* neek.
With Marching tf, and lifted Jaw and toagn*
Quivering, and hiee as of a heary diower
Upoo the aainnier woods. The Britons ttood
Astounded at the powerful reptile's bnlk.
And that stranm sifht. H is girth was aa oC man*
But easily oould be nave overtopped
Goliath's helmed head* or that nuge king
Of Basaa, hngeat of the Anakim :
What then was hnman strength, if once inTolvad
Within those dreadful colls? . . . The multitude
Fell prone, and worshipped.*
Uadoct book vU.
Without entering into the details of Captain Btadman s
well-known description of his encounter with one of these
serpents at Surinam.— of the power exerted by tfaa reptile
in Its dying agonies, and of tne appearance of his naked
and gory negro David, as, clinging to the yet writhing
serpent which had been made last to a strong forked bough,
he stripped off its skin as he deecended,— we may advert
to the alleged length of the snake which, though it was
Eronounced to be a young one by the natives, is stated to
ave measured twenty-two feet and some inches in length.
The captain says that he obtained from this boa four gallons
of fine clarified fat, or rather oil, though there was wasted
perhaps as much more. The negroes cut the flesh to
gieccs for the purpose of dressing it. Captain Stedman
owever would not suffer them to eat it, although they
declared that it was exceedingly good and wholesome.
The following extract from a letter dated * City of Ca-
racas,' and written by Sir Robert Ker Porter, has been
published. The letter accompanied a fine specimen of boa,
nineteen feet and a half in length, presented by Sir Robert
to the United Service Museum, where it is now (1835) pre-
served.
The specimen is exhibited and was probably presented
under the name of boa constrictor. It is not wall preserved,
but it has more the appearanoe of a Boa Soytale than of
the former species : — * The name which this colossal reptile
goes by in Venezuela is that of "La Culebra de Agua,'' or
•* Water Serpent;" and also that of ** El Traga Venado." or
*' Deer Swallower." It is not venomous, nor known to injure
man (at least not in this part of the New World) ; however
the natives of the plains stand in great fear of it, never
bathing in waters where it is known to exist: Its common
haunt, or rather domicile, is invariably near lakes, swamps,
and rivers ; likewise close to wet ravines produeed by inun-
dations of the periodical rains; benon* from its aquatic
habits, its first appellation. Fish and those animila which
repair there to drink are the objects of its |vey. The
creature lurks watchfully under cover of the wstar, and
whiUt the unsuspecting animal is drinking, suddanly makea
a dash at its nose, and with a grip of ita baak^ffeeUwDg
double range of teeth, never fails to leouie the lerrtibd
beast beyond the power of escape. In aa tnstenl the
sluggish wators are in turbulenoe and foam, the whole form
of the Culebra is in motion, its huge and rapid ooilings
soon encircle the struggling rictim^ and but a short moment
elapses ere every bone is broken lu the body of the expiring
prey. On its ceasing to exist the Heshy tongue of the
reptile is protnided (taking a long and thinnish form),
passing over the whole of the hfeless beast, leaving on it a
kurt oi' irlutinous saliva that greatly facilitates the act of
deglutition, which it performs gradually by gulping it
down through its extended jaws, — a power of extension of
theui it possesses to so frightful and extraordinary a degree
as not to be believed when looking at the comparative
smallness of the mouth and throat in their tranquil state.
After having completelv devoured or rather hidden its prey
in the way described, it becomes powerless as to motion,
and rctnains in an almost torpid stato for some days, or
until nature silently digeeu the swallowed animal. The
snake now sent was killed with Uoces^ when jttst regaining
its powers of action.
' The flesh of this serpent is white, and abundant in ikt
The people of the plains never eat it, but make use of tho
fat as a remedy for rheumatic pains, ruptures, strains, &c.
When these creatures are young the colours on the akia
are very bright, and gradually lose their brilliancy with age.'
There is generally in these descriptions an account of
the fleshy tongue of the reptile, and of its application to
the dead animal for the purpose of covering it with saliva,
previous to the operation of swallowing it A glance at the
tongue of a Boa or a Python will convince the observer that
few worse instruments for such a purpose oould have been
contrived. The delusion is kept up by the mode in which
these serpents are sometimes preserved in museums, where
they may be occasionally seen with fine artificial* thick,
fleshy, vermilion tongues in the place of the small dark-co-
Ipured extensile organs with which nature has f^imished
them. We have frequentlv watohed constricting serpents
while taking their prev, and it is almost superfluous to add
that they never covered the victim with saliva ttom the tongue
before deglutition. When the prey is dead and the serpent
is about to swallow it. the tongue of the destroyer is fie-
Quently thrust forth and vibrated, m if indicatwy of the
ileiife lor food ; but the mucus is not poured out till il is
required to lubricate the dilated jaws and thrott for the
diimroportiooed feast
The Re?. Lansdown Guilding thus recorda the capa-
bility of the Boa to eross the seas:—* A noble spednan of
the Boa Constrictor,' says that hunented loologiat, ' waa
Utely eonveyed to us by the eurrento twisted nwad the
trunk of a large sound cedar-tree, which had probably been
washed out of the bank by the floods of some great South
Ameriean river, while its huge folds hung on &e branches
as it waited for its prey. The monster was fortunately
destroyed after kilUng a few sheep, and his skeleton now
hangs befi)re me in my study, putting me in mind how
much reason I might have had to fear in my ftiture rambler
through St Vincent had this formidable reptile been a
pregnant female, and escaped to a safe retreat'
Scaiy plates from the eyes to the end qf the muzzle.
No dimples on the jaws.
Example. Boa Scytale and Boa murina of LinnoDus, B^fi
aquatica of Prince Maximilian. This species referred tj
v^'
-1
^di
'^
\ ■
\9*
CBoaSeyUls.]
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hj lionttos under two 8|>eci0c names, a^ordiog to Guvier,
is the Boa aqualxca of Prince Maximilian and the Anaconda
according to the same authority. Mr. Bennett observes in
* The Tower Menagerie' that the name of Anaconda, like
that of Boa Constrictor, has been popularly applied to all
the larger and more powerful snakes. He adds that the
word appears to be of Ceylonese origin, and applies it to
the Python Tigris.
Brownish, with a double series of roundish black blotches
all down the back. The lateral spots annular and ocellated,
the disks being white, surrounded by blackish rings. In-
habits South America. The trivial name Marina was given
to it from its being said to lie in wait for mice, and oeba
has given a representation of it about to dart upon an
American mouse, which he says is its usual food. Such
* small deer may be the prey of this species when very
young, but it grows to a size equalling that of Boa con-
strictor and Boa cenchria. We think it very probable that
this is the • Culebra de Agua'* of the Venezuelans men-
tioned above.t The other provincial name, * El Traga Ve-
il ado,* or 'Deer Swallower,' indicates the prey of the serpent
when of mature age. Linnoeus says of his Boa Scytale,
* Constringit et deglutit capras, oves,* &c. ' It constricts
and swallows goats, sneep,' &c. The Boa murina, then,
was probably only a young Boa Scytale,
Scaly nlmtu on ike muMtle ; and dimpUi upon ths plate$
at tM ndei qf the jatoi.
ExAMPLK. Boa cenchria of Linnceus, Boa cenchris of Gme-
lin, Boa cenchrya of Prince Maximilian, Aboma and Porte-
anneau of Daudin.
[Boa cenchmj
Yellowish, with a row of large hrown rings running the
whole length of the back, and variable spots on the sides*
These are generally dark, often containing a whitish semi-
lunar mark. This species, according to Seba, who describes
it as Mexican, is the Temacuilcahuilia (or Tamacuilla HuQia,
as Seba writes the word) described by Hernandez, and
hereinbefore mcntioned.J TBe three species here described,
acconling to Cuvier, grow neariy to the same size, and
haunt the marshy places of the warm parts of South
America. There, adhering by the tail to some aquatic tree,
Ihey suffer the anterior part of the body to float upon the
•BoaaqiuUdu t SMMito.p.96. t See ante^ p. tf.
water, and patiently wait to seize upon the quadrupeds
which come tb drink.
*«**
Plates upon the muzzle^ and the sides qf the jaw hol-
lowed into a kind of slit under the eye, and beyond it.
[Head of Boa canina.]
ExAUPLB. Boa canina of Linnaeus, Xiphosoma araram'
boja of Spix.
[Boeeaaiaa.]
GrMBish, with white irregular longish spots somewhat
annularly disposed. This is the Boaviridis of Boddaert.
the Baa thalassina of Laurenti, the Bqjobt of the Brazilians,
tiie THrauehoatl Tleoa* (a Mexican name) according to
Seba, and the Cotfra verde of the Portuguese, who relate
that these serpents sometimes remain in the houses, doing
no harm tfll irritated, when they at last bite and inflict
a wound full of danger, not from injected poison, for the
serpent has none, but on account of the injury sustained
by the nerves fh)m the very sharp, slender, and long teeth.
Great mflammation follows, ana the symptoms are aggra-
vated by terror, so that a gangrene is the consequence
uiilMs the proper remedies are applied. In the absence
of these certain death is said to be the consequence of a
severe bite from this serpent. The immediate cause of
death is not stated bv Seba, hut from the long and pene-
trating teeth of the Boa canina it may be presumed to be
often tetanus or locked jaw. Seba says that this species
varies m size, adding that the specimen from which his
figure was Uken was more than two cubits in length.
Cuyier is of opinion that the Boa hipnale is only a young
BqjoU ox Boa canina. j / &
[A portion of tho tinder part of the tail of Boa canine, ahowibg the beokB
near the rent, and the arrangement of the scuta.]
[See Cbnchris, Erpktow, Eryx, Pskudo-Boa, Sct-
TALK, Xiphosoma.]
•'Tkoa^'aooorJIiiftoSebismeam'aflerywrgent' .
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ftOADICE'A* BOODICBA, BONDICEA, or BOUN- 1
DORICEA (BovBo^ica in Dion Cattiu8).lived in the middle
o( the first century, and was the wife of PraButagut, the
kins of the Iceni, a tribe of Britons inhabiting Norfolk and
Suflf'lk. Prasutagus at his death bequeathed his wealth,
which was very great, to his two daughters and to ihe
Roman emperor, a device resorted to in thote times with
the hope that it would confine the emperor to a share of the
deceased*s possessions, and would rescue the remainder
(torn his officers. Nero was at tlus time emperor ; and
Suetonius PauUinus, a g»neral of great skill and energy,
commanded in Britain. While Suetonius was occupied in
attacking the Isle of Anglesey (then called Mona), Catus,
the procurator or collector of the revenue, was guilty of great
rapacity among the Britons in the east He caused Boa-
dksea, on whom the government of her nation had devolved
by the death of her husband, to be scourged, and her
daughters to be violated. The provocation for this outrage
is not recorded. Probably it was the same which instigated
the cruelty once inflicted by the English on native princesses
in India: the government wanted monev. The crime
however brought its punishment The Iceni and their
neighbours, the Trinobantes (who dwelt in what is now
Essex and Middlesex), flew to arms. They first attacked
and destroyed the Roman colony of Camalodunum
(Oolchestcr), and defeated a Roman legion which was
coming to the rehef of the place, under the command
of Petilius Cerialis. The insurgents also massacred the
Romans at Verolamium (St. All^n*s), a considerable mu-
nicipium [see Municipium], and at London, which was then
famous for its commerce. Catus tied into Gaul. Tacitus
says that the Romans and their allies were destroyed to
the number of 70,000, many of whom perished under
torture.
Suetonius hastened to the scene of this revolt ; and aban-
doning London, which he had no means of defending, posted
himself with an army of about 10,000 men in a narrow pass,
his rear being guarded by a wood, a.d. 6 1. The Britons were
commanded by Boadicea, who, in a chariot with her two
daughters, went from one tribe to another exhorting them to
fight bravely. They seem however to have met the usual fate
of uncivilised armies. Without combination, encumbered
by their very multitude, impeded by their women who sur-
rounded them, and by their unwieldy chariots, they suffered
a universal carnage. Tacitus, a nearly contemporarv his-
torian, estimates the destruction at 80,000 persons, an incre-
dible number, although he says that the Romans did not
spare even the women and the animals, who added to the
heaps of slain. Boadicea, he tells us, killed herself by poison.
Dion Cassius however (Ixii. 12), who Hved about a century
after Tacitus, attributes her death to disease, if the passage
is not corrupt. See Ernesti's noie on Tacitus, xiv. 37.
(Taciti Annal. xiv. 31, &c.)
BOAR. [See Hoc]
BOARD, a word used to denote, in their collective capa-
city, certain persons to whom is intrusted the manage-
ment of some ofi&ce or department, usuallv of a public or
corporate character. Thus, the lords of the treasury and
admiralty, the commissioners of customs, the lords of the
committee of the privy council for the affairs of trade, &c.,
are, when met together for the transaction of the business
of their resixictive olfices, st)led the Board of Treasury, the
Board of Admiralty, the Board of Customs, the Board of
Trade, &c. The same word is used to designate the persons
chosen from among the proprietors to manage the operations
of any joint-stock association, who are styled the Board of
Directors. In parochial government the guardians of the
Door, &c., are called the Board of Guardians, &c. The word
Oureau in France is an equivalent expression.
BOA'RMI A (Stephens, in entomology), a genus of moths
of the family Geometrida, All the species of this genus
are of an ashy colour, or white minutely dotted with brown,
and adorned with several fascis of a deeper colour ; the
antennsD of the males instead of being pectinated, a cha-
racter common in the GeomeiridiP, are oilose ; palpi short,
clothed with short scales, three-jointed, the two basal joints
of ttQual length, the terminal joint concealed; antenna)
simple in the females ; thorax small, velvety ; wings, when
at rest, placed horisontally ; body slender in the males, in
the females shorter and more robust.
Mr. Stephens, in his lUuitratiom of British Entomo-
logy^ enumerates seven speeies of this genus, most of which
«io found in woods in the neighbourhood of London* For
descriptiont of these ipeciet we refer oar readers to the work
above-mentioned.
BOAT. [See Lipb-Boat.]
BOAT-BILL (zoology), the English name for the genus
CochleariuM of Brisson, Cancroma of Linnseus, Let Suva-
com of the French.
This genus of the familv Ardeida (heron-like bird»)
would approach quite closely, as Cuvier observes, to the
herons (genus Ardea, Cuv.), in regard to their bill and tho
kind of food which it indicates, were it not for the extra-
ordinary form of that organ, which is nevertheless, when
closely observed, the bill of a heron or a bittern very much
flattened out. This bill is of an oval form, longer than the
head, very much depressed, and not unUke the bowls of two
spoons placed one upon another, with the rims in contact.
The mandibles are strong, with sharp edges, and dilated
towards the middle. The upper mandible is carinated, and
hooked at its point, which nas a small tooth or notch on
each side of it. The lower mandible is flatter than tlie
upper, straight, membranous in the centre, and terminated
by a sharp point Tho nostrils are oblique, longitudinal,
and closed.
The first quill is short; the five next are the longest
The feet are furnished with four toes, all long, and almost
without membranes.
Though zoologists have described more than one species,
it appears that they may be referred to the only species yet
known, Cochlearius /uscu* of Brisson, Cancroma cochie^
aria of Linnsus, Le Savacou of Buffon, the differences on
which Cancroma cancrophaga (Linn., &c.) is founded
not being allowed to be specific. Leach, in his Zoohgiral
Miscellany^ figures and aescribes * the common boat-bill *
under the title of Cancroma vulgaris, but assigns no reason
for altering the specific name given by LinnsDus.
[Cancroma eoelilMiiia, nude.]
The common boat-bill is about the size of a domestic ben.
In the male, the forehead, and upper parts of the neck and
breast are dirty white ; the back and lower part of the belly
rusty-reddish ; the bill Is black, and the legs and feel are
brown. From the head depends a long crest of black fea-
thers, falhng backwards.
The female has the top of the head black, without the
elongated crest; the back and the belly rusty-reddi^ ; the
wings grey ; the forehead and rest of the plumage white ;
and the bill, legs, and feet brown.
' This species.* says Latham in his Synopsis, ' for I refer
all that has been treated of above to one only, inhabits Cay-
enne» Quiana, and Braiil, and du«fly frequente luch paiti
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as &r6 nut the water. In tuch places it perches on the
trees which hang oyer the streams, and, like the kingfisher,
drops down on the fish which swim beneath. It has been
thought to live on crabs likewise, whence the Linnnan name ;
but Uiis is not dear, though it cannot be denied ; yet we are
certain that fish is the most common, if not the only food/
Lesson, in his Manuel (1828), says, ' the boat-bill perches
on trees by the side of rivers, where it lives on fish, and not
on orabs, as its name indicates ;* and speaks of it as inha-
biting the inundated savannahs of South America, and as
being especially common in Guiana.
Leach, in his Zoological Miscellany (1815), says that it
inhabtts Southern America, and feeds on fishes, v^rm^x and
Crustacea^ in quest of which it is continually traversing the
borders of the sea.
Cuvier, in his Regne Animal (1829), says that it inhabits
the warm and moist parts of South America, and perches
on trees bv the side of rivers, whence it precipitates itself on
the fish which afibrd its ordinary nourishment.
We saw this bird alive in Exeter Change some years ago.
In captivity it had the melancholy air and gait of the herons
and bitterns, which it has also, according to authors, in a
state of nature. The food of this captive bird was princi-
pally fish.
BOATSWAIN, a warrant officer in a ship of war who
has the care of the rigging, cables, cordage, anchors, sails,
boats, flags, colours, and other stores, which are committed
to his charge by indenture from the surveyor of the navy.
He has particular charge of the long boat and its furniture,
and it is his duty to steer it, either himself or by his mate.
One of the chief duties which devolve upon this officer is
to attend to the rigging of the vessel, which he is charged
to inspect every morning ; not only to observe that every-
thing is properly fitted and arranged in its place, but to
see that all things are in good condition, to remo^'e what-
ever may be judged unfit for service, and to supply what-
ever may be deficient. He cannot however eat up or
otherwise appropriate any cordage or canvass for the public
uses of the ship without a written order firom the captain,
and under the inspection of the master. His instructions
inculcate the utmost frug^ty in the use of the stores in-
trusted to him; and at the end of a voyage he must present
to the surveyor of the navy minute acoounta, previously
audited and vouched by the captain and master, of the pur-
poses to which b\\ the stores in his department have been
appUed, or of the circumstances under which they may have
been lost, stolen, misapplied, or returned to the dock-yud. He
cannot receive his pay till his accounta have been approved.
In this department the boatswain is much under the con-
trol of the master ; his more exclusive function is that
superintendence and control which he exercises over the
men. He summons the crew to their duty, assisto with his
mates in the necessary business of the ship, and relieves
the watch when its time expires. His calls on the erew
are made by a silver whistle of a peculiar construction,
well-known as the * boatswain's whistle.* He must ob-
serve that the men attend when called, and that they
properly perform their duties; and he is enjoined to oh-
serve, * that the working of the ship be performed with
as little noise and confusion as possible.* The boat-
swain is a sort of provost-marshal in the ship, taking
offenders into custody and inflicting such punishments as
may be awarded by the captain or by a comt-martial. These
latter functions he performs through his mates, whose office
is perhaps the most unpopular in the navy. A boatewain
is entitled to superannuation after fourteen years* service.
His pay during service varies, according to the rate of his
ship, from 4/. to 2L per month, and he is allowed two ser-
vanto in all ships the crew of which exceeds 100 men. The
number of his mates varies from four to one, according to
the size of the vessel, and their pay similarly varies from
3/. 10#. to 2/. per month. {RegtUaHons and Instructions
relating to hts Majesty s Sea Service; Harris's Zertcon
Teehntcum ; Table of Naval Allowances, &c.)
BOBBR, THE, a large river in Prussian Silesia, has ita
source near Oppau, to the north-west of Schatzlar, on the
north slope of the Giant Mountains (Riesengebirge), and
close upon the borders of Bohemia. It traverses the plateau
of Hirschberg, and during this course, as well as until it
reaches Braunau, a village in the Silesian circle of Liegnita,
flows through a narrow and, in ^neral, rocky valley. From
Hirschberg its general course is north past Bunzlau to the
joaction of the Sprotte, whence it takes a general N.N.W.
course to ita junction with the Oder at Krossen, or Crossetx*
Ita waters are increased by several small rivets and streams,
the most considerable of which are the Zacken, which issues
from the Zackenfall, one of the Bohemian Giant Mountains,
about 2150 feet in height, and falls into the Bober near
Hausberg ; and the Queiss, which rises near Giehren, and
empties itself into the Bober, on the left bank, at Machen
above Sagan. The Bober is about 140 miles in length, and
flows through the towns of Hirschberg and Bunzlau in
Prussian Suesia, and through Bobersberg and Krossen in
Brandenburgh. It contains pearls.
BOB-O-UNK, or BOB-LINK (Zoology), the usual
name by which the • rice-bird,' or • reed-bird ' — ^the • skunk-
bird* iSeecawk-petheesew) of the Cree Indians, the 'rice-
bunting* of Pennant and of Wilson, • rice-troopial ' of
authors, Horiulanus Carolinensis of Catesby, Emheriza.
orizyvora of Linneeus, Icteris agripennis of Bonaparte,.
Doltchonyx orizyvorus of Swainson — is known in the
United States.
[DoUchonys orisyronta.]
Catesby, Wilson, Audubon, and Nuttall give the most
complete accounta of this well-known bird : — ' The whole
continent of America,* says the latter, ' from Labrador to
Mexico, and the great Antilles, are the oecasional residence
of this truly migratory species. About the middle of March,
or beginning of April, the cheerfhl bob-o-link makes his ap-
pearance in the southern extremity of the United States,
becoming gradually arrayed in his nuptial Kvery, and ac-
companied by troops of his companions, who of^cm prececls
the arrival of their more tardy mates.* (Bartram's Travel^^
p. 295, edit Lond.) • Their wintering resort appears to be
rather the West Indies than the tropical continent, as their
migrations are observed to take place generally to the east
of Louisiana, where their visits are rare and irregular/
(Audubons Ornithological Biography, vol. i. p. 283.) At
this season also they make their approaches chiefly by night,
obeying, as it were, more distinctlv the mandates of an over>
ruling instinct, which prompta them to seek out their natal
regions ; while in autumn their progress, by day only, is
alone instigated by the natural quest of food. About the-
1st of May the meadows of Massachusetta begin to re-echo
their lively ditty. At this season in wet places, and by
newly ploughed fields, they destroy manv insecta and their
larvn, but, while on theur way through the southern States,
they cannot resist the temptation of feeding on the early
wheat and tender barley. According to their success in
this way, parties often delav their final northern movement
as late as the middle of May, so that they appear to be in
no haste to arrive at their destination at any exact period.
The principal business of 6ieir lives, however, the rearing of
their young, does not take place until thev have left the
parallel of the 40th degree. In the savannahs of Ohio and
Michigan, and the cool grassy meadows of New York,
Canacta, and New Eoglaod, they fix their abode, and oh*
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tain a laffidenoy of fbod Ihtongliottt the lummer without
mdesting the hanreitof the fanner; until the ripening of
tlie latest cirops of oata atid barley, when, in their autumnal
and changed dreis, hardly known now aa the same apeoiea,
they sometimes show their taste for jplunder, and flock to-
gether like the greedy and predatory blackbiids/
The song of the male generally oeasea about the first
week in July, and about the same time his Tariegated dress,
which, from a resemblanoo in its colours to that of the qua-
druped, obtained for it the name of * skunk-bird * among the
Cree Indians, is exchanged for the sombre hues of the
plumage of the female. The author above quoted thus de-
scribes the autumnal migration :*«
* About tho middle of August, in congregating numbers,
divested already of all selective attachment, vast foraging
parties enter New York and Pennsylvania on their way to
the south. Here, along the shores of the large rivers, lined
with floating fields of the wild rice iZizania), they find an
abundant means of subsistence during their short stay ; and
as their flesh, now fat, is little inferior to that of the Eu-
ropean ortolan, the reed, or rice-birds, as they are then called
in their sparrow dress, form a favourite sport for gunners of
all descriptions, who turn out on the occasion, and commit
prodi^^ious havock among the almost silent and greedy
roosting throng. The markets are then filled with this deU-
eious game, and tlie pursuit, both for success and amuse-
ment, along the picturesque and reedy shores of the Dela-
ware and other rivers, is second to none but that of rail-
shooting. As soon as the coot nights of October commence,
and as the wild rice crops begin to fhil, the reed-birds take
their departure firom Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and in
th«ir further progress through the southern States they
swarm in the rice-fields ; and before the crop is gathered
they have already made their appearance in the islands of
Cuba and Jamaica, where they also feed on the seeds of the
Guinea grass {Sorghum), becoming so fkt as to deserve the
name of ** butter-birds,** and are in niffh esteem for the table.*
Catesby, under the name of Carolina ortolan, gives the
following interesting account of the rice*bird, from which it
appears that the damage done to the fanner by this compa-
ratively weak agent is very great :—
* In the beginning of Beptember, while the grain of rice
i3 yet soft and milky, innumerable flights of these birds ar-
rive fh)m some remote parts, to the great detriment of the
inhabitants. In 1724 an inhabitant near Ashley river had
forty acres of rice so devoured by them, that he was in doubt
whether what they had left was worth Uie expense of gather-
ing in. They are esteemed in Carolina the greatest delicacy
of all other birds. When they first arrive they are lean, but
in a few days become so excessive &t that they fly slug-
gishly and with difficulty ; and when shot frequently burst
with tlie fall. They continue about three weeks, and retire
by the time the rice first begins to harden. There is some-
what so singular and extraordinary in this bird that I can-
not pass it over without notice. In September, when they
arrive in infinite swarms to devour the rice, they are all hens,
not being accompanied with any cock. Observing them to
be all feathered alike, I imagined they were young of both
sexes not perfected in their colours ; but by opening some
scores prepared for the spit, I found them to be all females,
and, that I might leave no room for doubt, repeated the
search often on many of them, but could never find a cock
nt that time of the year. Early in the spring both cocks
and hens make a transient visit together, at which time I
made the like search as before, and both sexes were plainly
diittinKnifihable In September, 1725, lying upon the
deck of a sloop in a bay at Anctros Island, I and the company
with me heard tliree nights successively flights of these
birds (their note being plainly distinguishable from others)
passing over our heads northerly, which is their direct way
from Cuba to Carolina, from whidi I oonoeive, afler par-
taking of the earlier crop of rice at Cuba, they travel over
sea to Carolina for tho same intent, the rioe there being at
that time fit for them.'
It is evident that Catesby was not aware of the change of
the nlumage of the adult male at the termination of the
breeding season, but it is singular that he should never have
met with a cock among the scores which he opened in the
autumn. Is it not possible tliat tome temporary separation
of the sexes may take place in Carolina at that time, as it
does in the case of the cnaffineh with us in the winter ? It
appears, fVom Bartram*s account quoted by Nuttall, that the
nalea frequently amve in the spring before the females*
and we know thai there is a temponry Mparation of tlie
sexes among other birds beaidea the ehaffineh, ' Thii sepa-
ration of the sexes,* says Selby, speaking of the last- men-
tioned btfd, * I am induoed to believe, takes place in many
other species, with respect to their migratory movements, aa
I have before remarked in the account of the anow^bunting.
This appears also to be the case with the woodcook, having
observed that the first flight of these birds (which seldom
remains longer than for a few days io recruit, and then
passes southward) oonaists chiefly of Ibmales ; whilst, on
the contrary, the subsequent and latest flighta (which con*
tinue with us) are principally composed of males/
Dr. Richardson says that the 64 th parallel* wnieh it
reaches in June, appears to be the most northern limit of
the bob-o-link, and gives a description of a male in its nup*
tial dress, which was killed on the Saskatchewan in that
month in the year 1827.
Swainson places it as a genus of his third subfamily,
Agelainee^ in the third, or aberrant group of bis Siumidtr,
Grassy meadows are the spots usually selected by the
bird for its nest, which is made on tlie ground, generally in
some slightly depressed spot, of withered grass, so carelessly
bedded together as scarcely to be distinguishable from the
neighbouring parts of the field. Here five or six eggs of
purplish-white, blotched all over with purplish, and »potte<l
with brown round the larger end, are laid.
The length of the bob-o-link is about seven inches and a
half. The male in his nuptial dress has the head, forepart
of the back, shoulders, wings, tail, and the whole of the
under plumage black, going off in the middle of the bock to
greyish ; scapulars, rump, and upper tail-coverts white ;
there is a large patch of ochreous yellow on the nape and
back of the neck ; bill bluish-black, which in the female,
young male, and adult male in his autumnal diess. is pale
flesh-colour; the feathers of the tail are sharp at the end,
like a woodpecker's ; legs brown.
The female, whose nlumage the adult male assumes afler
the breeding season, nas the back streaked with brownish-
black, not unlike that of a lark, acoordingto Catesby, and
the whole under paits of a dirty yellow. The young males
resemble the females.
BOBROV, SEMBN SBROiBBVITCH, a Russian
poet of some distinction, who commenced his literary career
about 1784. His most important, if not most extensive
work is the * Khersonida,* a poem descriptive of the wild
scenery, natural history, and antiquities of the Taurida.
In this production, which first appeared in 1803, and was
afterwards corrected and enlarged, there is much originality
both of subject and manner, and it is fhrther remarkable for
being written in blank verse, a form before unknown to Rua*
sian poetry. Besides containing many very animated pic-
tures of nature in the mountainous regions of the Tauridan
peninsula, there are many lyrical passages of great rigour,
which, while they relieve the sameness of landscape descrip-
tion, breathe a powerful moral strain, and are replete with
elevated sentiment and religious fervour. Some of the
episodical parts are of a dramatic cast, being thrown into
the form of dialogue, and along with these may be classed
the narrative of the aged Shereef Omar, in the course of
which he relates the history of the Taurida from the fa-
bulous ages of Greece. One or two short extracts from this
poem are translated in the first volume of Bowring's * Rus-
sian Anthology,* but being mere fragments, they convey no
idea of the general subject or plan. By the author himself
it is termed a * lyrico-epic' poem, which has misled Bowring
himself, who elsewhere calls it an epic, at the same time
intimating that it bears a resemblance to * Lalla Rookh,*
whereas there exists not the slightest analogy between the
two compositions, — except it be that the ' Khersonida* baa
a certain oriental colouring of stvle and expression.
Bobrov was gifted with much imagination and feeling
but m aiming at energy and loftiness he was occasionally in-
fiated in his language. He was exceedingly well read in
English poetry, to which he is perhaps in some meastsre
indebted fbr the best characteristics of his own. He died at
St. Petersburg in 1810.
B0CA6E, LE, a district in Normandy, between the
rivers Vire and Ome, of which the town of Vire (population,
in 1832, 7500 for the town, 8043 for the whole commune)
was the capital : it now forms part of the department of
Calvados. The inhabitantB are distinguished by the infe-
riority of their stature to that of the inhebitanta of the plain
of Caen« who are their neighbours* by the paleness of thitk
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complexion and the liyolineas of their look, by their attach-
inent to their natire soO, and their wilUngneie to labour.
The women share with the men the toils of field labour ;
they are lean, jut robust in their bodily frame, and fruitful
in bearing children. Civilization makes little progress
among the inhabitants of this district, and the dress of ooth
sexes has undergone tittle change for ages pasi. The ani-
mals, tike the men, are distinguished by their small size ;
not merely the domestic animals, oows, horses, and sheep,
but even the wild animals, hares, rabbits, and partridges.
The large fowls of the neighbouring district of the Vdilee
d'Auge degenerate if transferred to Le Boeage, The dis-
trict yields little grain except oats, rye, and buckwheat, but
there is some g(x>d pasture land. It contains wood ; and
some iron is wrought here. (Malte-Brun ; ExptUy.)
BOCCA, the Italian word for 'mouth,* is used by the
Italians either in the singular or in the plural ' bocche,* to
designate the mouths of rivers, as * Bocca d* Amo,* the
mouth of the Amo, or the narrow straits leading into a
bay, as ' Bocche di Cattaro,* the entrance into the Bay of
Cattaro in Albania. By an analogous figure, the narrow
pass in the Apennines on the old rcNid from Piedmont to Ge-
noa is called * la Bocchetta,' the little mouth. But the word
Bocca is more finequently used with reference to sea than
land. The Spaniards use the word ' Boca* with onlj one e,
according to their orthoepy, to designate similar narrow en-
trances of rivers or bays : ' Boca Chiea,' 4. e, the little
mouth, is the entrance into the hariyour of Carthagena in
South Ameriea. * Booa del Drago,* the dragon's mouth, is
the straits leading finm the north into the gulf of Psria,
between the island of Trinidad and the mainland of Cumana.
Booca Tigre is the name given by Europeans to the en-
trance of the river of Canton in China.
BOCCA'CCIO^ GIOVANNI, born in 1313. was the son
of Boccaccio di Cheltino, a merchant of Certaldo in the Val
d*£lsa in the territory of Florence. His mother was a
French woman whom his fiither had become acquainted
with during a visit to Paris ; but whether he was bom at
Paris or Florence is not ascertained. He studied at Flo-
rence under the grammarian Giovanni da Strada until he
was ten years of age, when his fiither apprenticed him to a
merchant, with whom he went to Paris, where he spent six
years. On his return to Florence, having expressed a dis-
like of mercantile pursuits, his father set him to study the
canon law. After some years passed in this studv, he was
sent to Naples, where he became acquainted with several
learned men about the court of King Robert, who was a
patron of learning. Boccaccio says that the sight of Virgil's
tomb near Naples determined his Uterary vocation for life,
and that ho then renounced all other pursuits.
In 134li on Easter-eve, as he was attending service in
the church of San Lorenzo, he was struck by the appearance
of a beautiful young lady, with whom he fell deeply in love.
His friend Petrarch feU in love with Laura in the same
manner, by seeing her in the church of Sainte Claire in
Avignon during the holy week of the year 1327. [See
PsTRARCA.] The object of Boocaccio's admiration proved
to be Mary, of the family of Aquino, and a presumed
daughter of King Robert of Naples. Boccaccio's attach-
ment was return^ ; and to please his mistress he wrote * II
Fiiocopo,' a romance in prose, at the beginning of which he
relates the history of their love, and afterwards ' La Te-
seide.* a poem in ottava rima on the fabulous adventures of
Theseus. This was the first romantic and chivalrous poem
in the Italian language. The metre of the ottava rima he
probably took firom some of the Provencal poets who lived
before him. (See Crescimbeni, Commentarii^ lib. iii.) Chau-
cer borrowed from the * Teseide ' his ' Knighte's Tale,* after-
wards remodelled by Dryden under the name of * Palamon
and Arcite.' Boccaccio dedicated the * Teseide * to his Fiam-
metta, the name which ho gave to his mistress Marv.
In 1342 Boccaccio was recalled home by his fiither, but
in 1344 he returned to Naples, where he remained fi>r
several years. He there wrote the ' Amorosa Fiammetta,*
in which he describes the pangs of absence firom a beloved
object. He also wrote 'II Filostrato/ a poem in ottava
rima, and ' L' Amorosa Visione,* a poem in tersa rima, of
which the initial letters of the first line of each terzina
being placed in succession together by way of acrostic, eom-
pose two sonnets and a canzone in praise of his mistress,
and this is the only way in which lie has called her by her
real name * liirja.* At this time he frequented tlie court of
Queen Joanna, who had succeeded her father Robert. He
read his works to the queen, and at her desire, as it appean,
he wrote his * Decamerone,' a hundred tales, ten of wmoh are
supposed to be told every afternoon of ten successive days
by a society of seven young women and three young men,
who, having fled fh>m the plague whioh afflicted Florence
in 1348, had retired to a oount]7-house some distance fiom
the town. Most of the stories turn upon love-intrigues ;
they are fhll of humour and admirably told, but the details
are often very licentious. Several of the tales however are
unexceptionable, and are even moral. Some of the subjects
of these tales are taken firom older works, but most of them '
are original. (See Manni, Storia del Deeamerone,)
While at Naples Booeaoeio amused himself with writing
in the Neapolitan dialect, in whioh there is extant a hu-
morous letter addressed by him to Francesco de* Baidi, a
Florentine merehant, in the year 1349. It appears that
Booeaccio went firom Naples to Calabria, and some say also
to Sicily, either fisr the purpose of studying Greek, or in
order to collect MSS. fbr his library. He seems also to
have been acquainted with the Monk Barlaam, who was
well versed in Greek, During his researehes he visited
Monte Casino, wherb he found the library in a sad state of
dilapidation, through the negleet of the monks. (See Benve*
nuto da Imola's CtMumentory on Dante, Paradiio^ c xxii.)
About the year 1350 Boccaccio returned to Florence,
where, by the death of his father, he had become possessed
of his inheritance, whioh he spent in travelling and in pur-
chasing MSS. chiefly of the Greek and Latin classics. What
MSS. he could not purohase he contrived to copy.
His merits being now known and appreciated by hb
countrymen, he was employed by the state in several
offices and missfons. He was sent several times to Ro-
magna, to the lords of Ravenna and Forli, and afterwards
on a mission to Louis of Bavaria, Marquis of Brandenburg
in Germany, and again to Pope Innocent VI. In 1351 he
was sent to Petraren, who was then at Padua, to commu-
nicate to him the revocation of the sentence of exile passed
against his fiither during the factions of 1 302, as well as the
restoration of his paternal property, which had been con-
fiscated. Petraren was at the same time invited to come
and dwell in his paternal country, but he declined the in-
vitation.
In 1355 Boccaccio wrote ' II Corbaccio, ossia il Labirinto
di Amore,* a kind of satire agaitist women, fhll of indecent
passages. It is said that he wrote it to revenge himself on
a certain widow who had slighted his addresses. His
Fiammetta appears to have died at Naples some time be-
fi>re. In 1360, having induced the Florentines to found a
chair of Greek literature in their university, he repaired to
Venice fiir a professor, and brought home with him Leontins
Pilatus, a native of Calabria, who wished to pass himself
off for a Greek, as Petrarch says. {Efdstola Senil. lib. iii.
6.) Pilatus was a learned but uncouth man. Boccaccio
lodged him in his own house, and treated him with great
kindness notwithstanding his repulsive mannera and bad
temper. Three yeara after licontius left Florence and went
to Venice, and afterwards to Constantinople. On his return
to Itoly he was killed by lightning on board ship. Boc-
caccio learned Greek firom Pilatus, who made for his pupil's
use a Latin translation of Homer : a copy of this transla-
tion, made by Nicool6 Nicooli, still exists m the Benedictine
Library at Florence. (Tirabosehi, Storia, vol. v. lib. iii.
cap. 1.) This translation by Pilatus has been ignorant) y
attributed to Pedrarch. Petrareh only bespoke a copy of it,
whioh Boccaeeio sent him. (See HcKly, de Qnecit JUus-
trihu9t London, 1742.) It seems however that there was an
older Latin translation of part at least of Homers poems
previous to that of Pilatus.
In 1361 a great change took place in Boccaccio's moral
conduct* His lilb had till then been irreguUr, and most of
his writings Itoeatioas, but in that year Father Ciani, a Can-
thusian monk, eame to him and stated that Father Petroni
of Siena of the same order, who had died shortly before in
odour of sanctity, had eommifisioned him to exhort Boc«
caocio to forego his profkne studies, reform his loose life,
and prepare fi>r death. To prove the truth of his mis^
sion, Ciani told Boccaccio several ciroumstanoes, known
only to Boccaccio and Petrareh. Boccaccio wrote imme-
diately in great sgitation to his firiend Petrarch, expressing
his resolution to quit tlie world and shut himself up in a
Carthusian convent. Petrareh's answer, which is among
his Latin epistles, is remarkable for its sound and clear
sense. Without ascribing much weight to the myste-
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a
^ 1^ 'laig n i» y I !■■■ rf
&rr-QRir*«. j: v» *««. is&cr
rpc.TB c< sae fcae
mmt V. «& 1^ icarr wva. a=ji x «^» :&.-< if i
fr-jbatSTjcii. Be :A.««r<«r ^■^x.iel t
Ix >i. Boforarr . -v«rX :c Nw; «s 1
cat;bflL^ lAfr KS«»ci. 'jf Uie ft xriu
caae li»cuil«c at ixt afVervarda iCati
pnur of bai::. A:«ac>-jl^ H« gtri Na^ycrt 1 1 >:J » $:v Vez::
be ipeitt lu^e? xdxi::^ v.t^ P«crarci. Afier k3 »-
to TMonanot, be vaa aer:.! bf li^ ir^^i^ to Pape
Crtf«a V^ tbcb M At ^rs^ux a.:id an^x t: iiie aaae pope al
KoHK in 13t7. Ax ti^> ytmd £^ &» lif e be appean to
ksv« bam diatiiBM^d m lu» rzruxx^UikQea, and to bave aa-
cetf ad firraawmal aaaistaDcc fnen L^ k^^ fr^md PeCnzcb.
vbo alao, on bu deaiL-bed. kfft bja br vui lity fudec
§ana§ * to boy bim a vttter peLite to pn4ert Ka fraM cc^
vhde is bia atadj at aur^t,' ad^r.ju tbax d be djd bo m <«
§ot Borcarcio, it vaa ozA} tbrTcirn vast of meaaa. Tae
laatioK fhend^ip between tlke«e tvo men n a verr ptni rg
faatqre of tbeir cbaraetcr. About tbe tcv ISrft «c £xai
Boctaucio a^ain at Nafuea, and afteraarda kr a ibart
taaar t& tbe ouorcnt of Sai.to SaeCano a Caiabro. In I3T2
be vrai to Fiimiea. and tbcc W^ it Sic NapLea. In 1373
hm retBxned to rionnee, vbear be vat appcaated to lecture
mm Itarte • Conmedia, and to explain and ocnunent ape
the obarnre paiaacet aC tbat poem. He vrole a cufnaentafy
an tbe Ini<Tir> vbjrb it icncb arteeSMd, ai^i aUo a lie of
Danie. vbir^ i» n 4 kA4ed spun aa vcrr accurate. A dia-
arder sn tbe laocaacn. a^^zraTated \fj mieme app.jcation,
a^ .red nm to r^^e sp ks lectoreahzp in tbe CsIjvid^: jcar,
van be rpLre*d to La paternal b jmw at Ccnaki i. vbere
ka toarde Lis w^ kxT^ne bu buie propertj to bia tvo
rtJoefL b.s U^rarr, vLirb be beqacatbcd to bis
Fatiaer Martm of Stzna. an Aornatuie friar* and
aAcr bit ^0nf2^ t9 tbe euc^mt of Santo Spinto at FVorenee,
iM t>» aM «r « vir7,tft. A ftiv wt.^b o>.t jif^ m the eooTent
a er— •••T afSrr dev^r.^ed tb a TalbaUIe cj^^ctioo, tbe wwk
«r %^Ttfr^s % wi. j0t lie. A^r itn^mnf fcr acreral
iBaa.'^«, B»xar«-x. d«d at Ceru^io oo tije ^Iftt Daccinbcr,
ir^ tc tne ajv 'if ft.-xtY-tvx luieen aoctba after die
4nca «f :^ frje?^ Pccrar^a He va* bcned in tbe cbnicb
af ^ Jaaci ajyi St. Miebaei at Certa^do. and a aodest
^^ipraed W b.swJ^ vaa pCaeed over 1
> :. a f*Stf<apii'v:!b k^ bu« m marble was
wrmmrf ara*t.«c me uiie vail of tbe cboicb. Tbia
r. ' rx «iu. bet L^ rrmre vaa opened a 1 7%X and bis •
ifc^: toa^ fi^.^ not tbr-jbcb fknatnai aa Byron baa aa- !
msmmi ' ^ at i# Ha^M.i, easso it.k bot tbraofh a mto-intcr- '
^a«r.iR if tna«n.£aaneor Lec^ld acaoMC bomla witbin ;
•i» tA-^Sira. #S«e Ftumt iT^cios dW Sfp^jlcro db Mttttr \
toa^ aM )p*^ in pa i \ b« tbe pit*cut owner. I
Btv be r«:sa^icTvd aa tba fbtber of Italian I
Tae avrrts of b^ Became ran with rerard to laa-
•i^ to«n perSApa •gari.iiateii, bat ttui it baa tbe
1^ *i»-r tba ev^icac pr»e vork vnttott in port
? • Vr fmrnK:,. Vttcw^t^. Si jrifo tul Tttto del Derm-
w m^A h.m» ' I-mn^ of Ed'w4«taon.' No. x^ On lA^
r f Mr b^mm Lmg^ma^^ } Bocvnmo and Prtovrb
.i^^^-^rt «r "'*•»««. .-awatarem Iialw. Ther inared
g.iaa^aae afa— y a ai-a^wnf Aa dtaak and Lntm
Pni^a«Ljau.anc&jEtfs. Scie ^
asdeiicacec aanc'cse ai Para^ vbac^M tniaaarij ace.
c^s^rcjanfia iar ajrxi and a pantie tam. tier
bar ytKSk ana ueasiT at^ftred to aSSnct una-
tamnrd pr^oa^y by tbe baboa of
I
af tbnt cpaeb, «bo <ie-
tbe pervd af aiddke hir ki
a tner zati ace to devoti o.
Is tbe year 'I'-ii "iiai^Tiy cc BauLagi int ipptaiud a»
Pkx alteraasif cntiv it%
tbe ftnt pnaa g&^cc
Icadeay. Sbc was
cj«rtod» and cn^^inxed by all
tba das '-r;,.^-ifd ixg^ :f France. F n'mriW cnlkd brr
bii darr^ter; V:A^a.-e p .arad a c^vn af Uorel oa brr
bead, ix% .=4E it vaa iitt x^j li^rc vanui^ to ber drca» .
and tbe v:ri^/tf^u J Vkm ar?f .Utnflrv vara aaai^incd be"
aa a aatto^ Biii ajlduvs:: so u^^t cxt:xjed, ber product* n%
db-phy Lii> i«al res:.a*» aai Ln^ tbat can oxaniand the
adantkon of pi«iaer.ty. Taor ci.jef acnt seeaa to ba e^^
and eorrecc rcr^rs^ij-Q. Her pocCiai aocba oonai&t (
an naiuijun vf * Pkradiae Loss, analber of G«aorr «
* Dkaib of AtieV * Les Aaaizoeea.' a tragedy (vbich «a»
acted evcTcn Ljnesi. 'La C:^ s'uade.' aa epic poea, a: <i
•ereral caaL poecea. Tae * Cvmjahiade** aa bar moat am-
b^tkAs attfTBpt. vaa that k^xjq vbicb ber fnaa cbiell«
reated, though cjv it u pr^ca^ly never read. Her V4jr*j»
ran throcirb kmr e«L:>3Q» betveea tba jaars 1749 ar^i
I77«, and vcre tra&ftiatad icta Ecfbsb, Gciaan, Spanish.
and ItaLan. Her prose leticra, vnttoa dnring bar travtU
tbrocrb EcirUztd. HoUai^i, as4 Italy, vbi^ vara Uttk
tboc4tbt of at tbe tiae, w^ probabC; be valued long after
ber poeCzy is forcocien. llaiaac da Booeaga sarri%ed bcx
adminni; coaieaf^jrar:e«. and v^b tbea bar cxaggciatad ra-
potation. Sbedjipd at tbeazvof cicety>tvck.intbe>car 1 vi.
(J^fawaar i>ki#H^ ii"^ £«-y -l-'pmLt ; Btogrmpkte t*%i-
rertei^; Cbal mere's /tt ,rnn4ira/ Lhrtt^marg; Bouter>
veck, Grwckt-k:* ier St^^^-m PvAe aatf Btrtdiamkett \
BOCCAU'NL TRAJA'NO. bom at Loiato in l>v<.
studied at Rocne, and ai^crvards applied biaaelf to tbe
professaoo of tbe hv. He vas capiotad by tbe Court uf
Rocaa m several adaimstrat.^e o£cca« and Gregory XIIL
acnt bia as irnrcmor to Bcoetentx He vaa veil ae-
quaiDtod vitb tbe poLt:cs of tbe dillerent eoaita in b»
naa, and vroCe ntincal ft>:ciaents opoa tbea. in vb-icb
be vas paiti^uIarlT rebeaei»t agamst tbe Coart of Sna^^
in tbat aea tbe prrpoDderatinc pover in EaiupaL Like
Balxac, be depots in atronc colours tbe aabtttooa dark
policy of tbat cabinet, and lU i>ppfessiva svay orvr Kapb^
Smly. and Loabaidy. (See B uaac.) His prineipal v . rk
IS / Kagz^ULzh dk i\fraa#o, in vbicb ApoUo is sii|»pi-M^
to sit in judcaest and bear tbe cbarges and eoaplatota \.i
pnncea^ vamora, and aaibocv Hits vocb aada hia man t
eoeeues. He also vrote Lm Pietn dei iWa^par FotUf \
vbicb be left in MS. in tbe bands of a friend. Inthisvuia«
vbKb is a kind of contunatwn of tba otber. ha eapac^allf
attacks Spanish despotism. It vas published after Lu
death in 1 65i. and translated into EniEbsb by Haar^ Karl ^
Monmooth, vitb tba tuie Folthtk roactoaar, f^aadoa^ U*i
Boccalifu also vroto coavMBtaria apon Tadtas, Otarjtia
Mipmi tugii Ammah di Cormtlio Ibctio, in vhkb be dave-
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lopes lufl Tiews of antient politics, and makes frequent con-
pvisons between them and the events of his own time.
Spain is frequently alluded to in them. These oommen-
taries* which also extend to the life of Agrioola, were pub-
lished in two volumes, 4to., 1678, under the title of La Bu
landa politiea di tutle le Opere di Trajano BoccaUni^ with
notes by Louis du May. The notes are written with greater
freedom than the text, especially on religious subjects, for
which reason the work was put in the Index of forbidden
books. The work contains, besides the commentaries, a
number of letters on historical and political subjects, pre-
tended to be written by Boocalini, and collected and pub-
lished by Gregorio Leti, but which, it is believed, were
written by Boccalini's son and by Leti himself conjointly.
Owing to his invectives against Spain, Boccalini, being
afraid of the power of that government, took refuge at Venice,
the only Italian state that kept itself comparatively independ-
ent of Spanish influence. He did not live there much more
than one year, and died on the 16th November, 1613. It
was said that he was murdered in his lodgings and in his
own bed, by several hired assassins, who beat him to death
with bags filled with sand. This however is disbelieved by
Mazzuchelli, Zeno, Tiraboschi, and other Italian critics,
who give several reasons for their dissent from this story.
In the registers of the parish of Santa Mana Formosa, in
which Boocalini died, it is stated that he died of the colic
accompanied by fever. This statement in the registers
however is but weak evidence against the alleged crime.
BOCCANE'RA, SIMCyNE, the first doge of Genoa,
was ele\'ted by popular acclamation in 1339. Until that
time the republic had been governed by two capitani chosen
from among the patrician families, between whom frequent
disputes occurred, Uiey being divided into the factions of
Guelphs and Guibelines. These disputes often terminated
in bloodshed, banishment, and confiscation of property. The
citizens of Genoa, tired of this, appointed a doge, or elective
supreme magistrate, after the example of Venice. It was
resolved at the same time that the doge should be chosen
from among the private citizens, and not from any of the
patrician families. The doges were appointed for lifo ; but
they were often driven from office by civil commotions.
Boccanera himself was driven away in 1 344, but returned
some years after, and was reinstated. His son Battista was
elected doge in 1400, but was soon after beheaded. The in-
stitution of the dojres for life lasted till 1528. [See Doqe.]
BOCCHERI^I, LUIGI, a name too familiar in modem
musical history to be omitted here; yet, well as he was
known, and highly and deservedly as he was valued, during
the latter«part of the last century and the commencement
of the present, his compositions have already fallen into
neglect, and it is not unlikely that in a few years they will
bo entirely forgotten. He was born at Lucca, in 1740.
His first instructions in music were from the Abb6 Van-
nucci, and he subsequently studied composition generally,
and the \ioloncello particularly, at Rome, whither His father,
a performer on the contra-oasso, sent him to finish his
professional education. Some time afterwards, Charles IV.
of Splkin, a great connoisseur in music, engaged Boccherini
as court composer, and during many years he lived in the
sunshine of royal favour ; but indiscreetly wounding the
vanity of the royal dilettante, he was dismissed from his
envied situation. About the same time Lacien Bonaparte,
then ambassador at Madrid, took him under his protection,
and settled on him a pension of a thousand crowns, on
condition of his supplying him with six quintets every year.
This seasonable appointment was willingly accepted, and
the composer continued to reside in the Spanish capital till
his death, which took place in 1806.
Boccherini producea little else besides quintets for two
violins, viola, and two violoncellos, which are remarkable
fbr sweetness, not boldness, of harmony, and gracefulness
of melody ; and, what renders them unlike all other com-
positions of the kind, he most commonly assigns the prin-
cipal part to the first violoncello. Of these he composed no
less than ninety-three, which were published after his de-
cease by Janet and Cotelle. But the more elaborate, and
undoubtedly the superior works of the same class, by
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, have completely super-
seded those of Boccherini, which are now rarely, if ever,
heard.
BOCHART, SAMUEL, of the family de Bochari
Champigny, de la brancke de MentUet, became by his great
learning the most distinguished member of his illustrious
No. 276.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
'fiimily , although he did not enjoy such splendid titles as many
of his relations. He was the son of a Protestant minister*
and himself minister of a persecuted religious body. Etienne
Seigneur de Menillet, son of Jean Bochart II., married
Marie Blot, and had among other children Marc, PrUident
aiuc Enquites du Partement de Paris, who died childless ;
and Rend, minister of the reformed religion at Rouen, who
married Esther du Moulin, sister of the famous Petrus Mo-
linsBUS, or Pierre du Moulin, by whom he had Samuel, the
subject of this notice, who was born in the year 1599.
When Samuel Bochart was thirteen years old he com-
posed forty-four Greek verses, which Thomas Dempster, or
Derosterus, under whom he studied the classics at Paris,
piefixed to his 'Corpus Antiquitatum Romanarum,* in 1612.
At that time Samuel Bochart probably lived with his uncle»
Pierre du Moulin, at Paris. It is said that he read at an
early age not merely the Hebrew Bible, but also the rab-
binical commentators. Soon afterwards he studied philoso-
phy at Sedan under the professor D. J. Smith, and defended
his theses with great applause in 1615. These theses he
dedicated, in some good verses, to his grandfather, Joachim
du Moulin, who was pastor at Orleans, and to his uncle,
Pierre du Moulin, then pastor at Paris. Several other speci-
mens of his ready and elegant versification are still extant.
He studied divinity probaUy at Saumur, under Camdro, or
Cameron ; and the Syriac, Chaldee, and Arabic under Cape],
When Cameron escaped from the civil commotions to Lon^
don in 1621, Bochart followed him and attended his private
instructions. He went with Cam6ron to see King James I.
dine. There he heard a reader, who read the 27th chapter
of Ezekiel, in order to furnish the king with some matter for
conversation at dinner. The king asked why, in v. 11, a&-
cording to the versions of Aquila and tho Vulgate, the
PygnuBi were said to be watchmen over the towers of Tyre ?
One of the royal guests replied, that the name Pygmroi
originated ftom the Greek wiixvQ (peekhus), a cubits and he
proved from Ctesiasthat the stature of the greatest of these
dwarfs was two cubits, but of most of them only half a cubit.
They said that these dwarfs were chosen for the defence of
the towers of T^re, in order to show the uncommon strength
of the fortifications, which were so well constructed that no
defenders were needed: other guests observed that the
Pygmtei, in their constant warfare with the cranes, became
especially wakeful and apt for town-defence : others proved
that the Pygmeei were, according to Ctesias, good marks-
men: others observed that the Hebrew text had DHD^t
• T-
Gammadtm, which signi'fles fortes^ audaces (strong, bold),
and that these Gammadim were, accx)rding to Pliny, a war^*
like nation of Phoenicia, who enlisted in the milita^ servico
of Tyre. Cam6ro being asked his opinion, obsen'ed, that the
Pygmsei, in Ez. xxvii. 1 1, were warriors or combatants, who
derived their name from irvy/xaxoc, pugil^ one who tights
with his irvyiii}, flst ; which word is related to tne Latin
pugnare and pugna, with which Cam6ro compared the
Latin manus militaris and the Greek bfKurvx^ipt the French
homme de main and the English armstrong.
The king was pleased with Cam6ron*B explanation, who
wai» about to confirm his observations still more, when the
klng*s fool, whose name was Armstrongs cast himself at
Cameron's feet, thanking him for having proved the antiouity
of the name of Armstrong by the holy authority of the
prophet.
About this time Bochart visited Oxford, where be re-
quested, in Latin, one of the di^itarics to show him a
comfortable seat from which he might behold the taking of
degrees. The doctor, who understcwd only the English pro-
nunciation of Latin, replied, that the university was tnen
rather poor, and that he could not offer much money, but he
would help him with a little viaticum, which Bochart of
course declined. After a short stay in England, Bochart
went, towards the close of the year 1621, to Leyden, where
he studied Hebrew and Arabic under Thomas Erpenius,
and divinity under A. Rivetus, who had also married a sister
of P. du Moulin. Rivetus dedicated his ' Catholicus Qrtho-
doxus* to Bochart. It is said that Bochart learned the
Ethiopic from Job. Ludolf.
Having finished his studies at Leyden, Bochart returned
home. His father was then dead, but his mother still sur*
vived, He was soon invited by the Protestants at Caen to
accept among them the office of pastor, and he became a
zealous and popular preacher, aamired even by Roman
Catholics. During the siege of Rochelle^^^ number lof
Digitized by V:jOOQIC
V01.V.-F o
BOC 3
Wft U«.'.^ '•/ '£M Jv^.'Jk. vat ;«v« tnri* . -.^ l;«r^.rft
w-ir •-«^- •.^/'^.rfv: 'V ».^i». ^'«. vr 3r & U ''^ BM'^ Ob
Urft : .r • <•• / ^-^vxvrr. <rf t* t*?*9ii Bc^'^rt to %
^* . ^. t - >«i«- • .1 V ' '. 1 ^.« f «^'^ :^ I 'je ca.*:^ la tike
^"^^^.'M A % A-v* >•*•-= t '^ s» •» k**i r«rt.irf. Bad
..**-^e( '• .ra '.\0t .^-/C / •fc-o^^-y w \'^ iri of Oct^uef.
V^-^r -J^* ' ''- I>**.^ ' ti'.iJ^r^ Jt. ^/tjrT'jj of N'-r^aDJ?,
A T^ ' » .• ->-t. Ti t -^ •«-— * z^ B'X'-*rt &nl Ver>a oe-
MbF^ IK '.^ aavr^rtrr U :.^ Fr*r'r£ Ter».>n. t£«p f%.u.u «/
^4«M ^i^i.*. t.«M. 1^*^' '*^*» * ''- — -'• •-"^« **• i**^, ctr-
^- f itf ttk ^ - . ».*". r.f yf u.< B. .e. Uje ciurr.n,
t^^^r^ s.. .1. «r« ''I i^r *.*>e vn.i« a.ix..«r o^ ft&rn3i<T.t4,
<«■«' ^m' w^ . ^JK. A^, 1: «M B£T»trd tBBS iLe itir.uies .
^ « • . >.^-^ %i-.-d •>► vr':«. '^-vn Irt a P-T*»n »
^r . M •« a #*«- V!r«*^*.t nu^r^x. '•la «e:v to re^d UtcaT i>>>ie»
ac • -« • -1- .- lA vf r-*-*^ •*-* -« la IK prv**^'* '»f the
9 te w Ma ^"'^ « . 1 * ^'T wtie tw be ». jT«ei br trte
>*.^««'.«': w-i t-» i«e :w* c • :.-•*--:♦- ar.-i i:.tn pr.i.ie-i.
yr ^ ^. -.1*.- •. -a**^ '. ^ \ m - -t S.4-. :.z u-::- ^l'jc-i lie
t «c ^« - i>-^ ..- et-/' - 1 1 * 'A^se* '-e .a *- T.vrerne
»^ • • ^^ •-••»*••. ^ B*- * i-t. rf J'-.'i B« etitrtje,
< # -• i- ^ '• • --. •' I ■ -* a j» «. ? w ^ - - -x 1 • ♦ . 2 X U.
<M- •- ■- •»--**•. •- • ■ • '• -a ;r«6 fs' r-v »Lih prv^tr
li. 1^ •«■ «• -*-*< -•.'-• --^ty-i .< jc,.-:: -7.
i:. 'g •^-/•t •- •i-'^. "-- Or-**.* f/ i-» '"..'.*rre-jatiofi,
jff ^n/s^^-'. «.*<: V *e .*. B 1 « I.4'iv-.l:.^ B fcet of
1 ^ t « » #"^ *-»*•.• *' " ••* ^e r.i- :i(e pif-****. 4i of
»»^ • ^ iL«^-u. V .«. « •* .^ te ^ '^ ..ft c: « c^.jLtfT.
? lOTM ^•. fc^ •-•,■• .^'t » -i ten. -.iie w T!! Gtn bL
« #-<.a**«--»--^'- -o-rw 'B»: — ^•Ue ParB'ii'O
^'■—« *- O ^••;'^ *--r*. »r . p-Lcr, el Ctcaia :'
i? -i^ « ^ (t JL '.Jtf ^- ^-*.» :^^:.:.>e«eN: .3 trje B.: ie.' He
»- fi* fc wv wir -- t •.i-^^-.- - • •: i:.« p a- u at^ feas bkd-
- - . . ^ -, ^ -; < ' ^-^ iL-' > fnrT.rr.u rerra^n.
1 m Y' *-*-! »•••- "-^ " ^ a--a43 »*^* :•-: . *s^i A- o 1646-
Tii» !• :• '«• ;r - VT i B' .>^ Ji':«^':::«, of Sedan, vas
Jt !lwB iu • •^ V- •.>f -•.'I-- t^e pr-Lt-I*Z: b^^erthtrleaB
».*j t «*-rf^ »r^ '. t"* *>-!. T.e a:T.-/**iT:v«i with wnif-h
Y % ^ mA * a<-«*s •♦•• fwr,.',^j tT tbe teamed in-
»^^ 3#^wftfr. mmb^ a ^j«er»r/i u^ n t he * H ierj<uM*on,*
iruB vo •a*' -.-*<*.- >-#^ >*a». r<< > i«. Dr. Mi.iej, ire©
*».•, «- *♦ ^ "-r ' :.ir^» II. '.f E z.jr.'!. 9nrta*l»^i on &>-
rt ^" to ••-V • «<*i«^ «i K; -«- ; »«-« ar. i Prv^bUtrrtanuni,
M, ." ^f V : A' '• v^ &.. •-*.« / \i^ Ec;..*h at»iQt tzietime of
v^ * ^-v*^ . • .' Kf*^« f r > L'tfr^ m M"r ^v. «iaUii March,
i4,« « f^t^ - >^ .L B'L^rt • ««rk oilier tLe iii.t* * Ept%kiU
VHB ^«tP'..«:jr a.: trM <*u»»tp -t^ea: I. Ue Pre»b%teraKa
M %pm^» b; . : JI iBp pe*>« ^-at^une a judjrat ccei^iBstJCta ;
l& .• .i Bx:.«rt «M .f.i ••-! W an au*«>rrafh letter of
Cbti^ *.«, Q;r*« 4f >»'Ml»fi. Co rrfse to htorktkjlia. vhere '
a^v kki •br'«'4««l L'^Br f «»th learmsd men. Boehait
wwm M«i«8^r.^ M H^'.a«. or Hoet. TlieT viaited o« ^
tiv;r ^»'wr:>« t£.r#w/t» U ':\tA the Warned o^ those daTt, ■
•• Hcu.«.«B «t Lrti^n, B'ld the &m' ua Anna Mans 4
p _Br»ai 1 t!.'b Bf L'ir»- .L The? pB%Mrd throaefa Ubbi-
b«^ •!>! C «fi^tiLA/*n to htf^khum, vbert tbcy wera well I
mm%4»I ^ ikm <|u«-«ii. but Birhart wbb much anmned by I
^a iv^Bv Bf tijr njuft'pfx He bul been in«ited on the ro- 1
•■B^r.4*:»4i of V>iM.a«« but before he amicd b certain '
^««iraa vbotte real naaae «b« Mi<-h«n« hut who called
B ««#'f 9§km B UarTfC^l un^le Bninkiot, had fucccedvd in
pH««B4i«b« C^tf^atiDB ti>U IrarBiriff waa iiijun>ttB lo health,
mA f^f •^^ * . a^. B*jurd« 1 4 Laf! been rrrotBBBended t» the
^■•BB B« ^a.iaaft«a» but, aa be had no leaniinK himaelf, he
U*\ uar- •B<i«na •« at ruurt, Bftd endea^oureil lo tuppUnt
V iBi n. %. B"«>«n. Bikd ttM other learned men «ho had bb- '
mm/^^A Bft Hu^B> .a.
fcifcBtft iaf»«Bi PI US1uC*BBfi.«Ueiebe«BB«clcnined
If *• BiAbBn •€ the BCBdeay, vhwh ba4 been ftmnded
BOO
Ib ^e B«yy
tt..JB lie BBiA luLiiB B^? OneBBai
iur B.a * HKfnftwjc : and
BKJB HBet tB CS.:«.JB BOB
tBTiet bT Or^sex, fcoa a cuaex m tke BifBl kbmy at Stork-
£>'xa. AfserBariBrtBaeCBn he kadalnclydekalB wttb
Ub«t i%^jsrm^a6A Bsatf^af Ai htOfarhaviagqBiitBBd ua
^yw dc^«« r«« lL7"»«v isM mm ii iifawj cbt* Abtb rk tOUnv c<
r^ s«^j«y fMVtt CM ff< mmr^mmm ii^BXJUfH. HiMt MlA
t&at he rad fr«e-i K>fcea «.
Ib l!ii. t^T^r craBB taaa a^BHBMHtvitk a Londea
bo-kae:^ fcr tae •HxnB'jK;daL,' wbck is tte bast af b«
ut L^ nmasicr^B. iukrtuBB. a evdv tet ka angkt d«M>ftB
hia t.ae to tiw cBMytrtaaa bC m. llariBBB vas aftarvards
Lil b; •sTBpbtf, Bad tt s iriaa bia liaaCiM. Dt timnmimm
lk»rJkir$9 ef 'jmmmu fjwM KTwptaa^ thai «a daiia oar ia-
t'^^BBtijB. Bar;:an died saddaaij bC B^apisy M tha l€th
of Mbj, ie«K — ^^ -f--'' If in ft iMfblj af tht tiailu
BicsacB at Caea. Ta ths deatk tka alBcaat aaitaah bv
lLdeBneiiXB^..dBB:— " ^^
I 7 « * m«-» ^ .al» «■-:» avcacte fMI :
.taSt
it of
Hit aaiod bbi ckaefbL and W body ««Qj
tLjuirh a<»air« l^t ukder tae maddie i
the suaTiTT of bjs laaciiefB be m^* kaa B»jWBBd ta tiM prx*
•ecutiju <!/ th je« daja t£*Ba nftaay ath« dutinpiMbid Phh
te»tBiktB. but lie <UI 1MB ceca^ catoaly. Be laft a larae
pT'pertT. Utt vorss baie beca edoad at I^^^n by J«^
tiani.e* Lntsidrn, and PeCraa de Vi'iliaimdj. * Opera omau,
but e^, P{«B^rc. t hBaaaa, el UieBL>BaMua, qiiibai aoetB^eruot
DiMerUtkiCiea VBnaw Abc. PnHamtftiu Vita Aactoria b 8le*
pbBDo Monno acnpca, ed.uo qoBita, 1712.* This edUion ■
the be»t of tiie emapWie aura*; bat tba * HicroBoiocKi baa
been pt:ba^bed br F. C. Roaeaiaulkr, lipB. 17t^-96, in
three %oIuBeis qoanew with aodiuoaa fron ondeni traveUerv
Siich IS the eateem va vL«ch tbe aerka vi Bockart are
stiii he<«L aeariy :ov jvara Binca tkev pabbaatioQ. that Gc-
tenma has proposed to tbe atudealB ia tbe Tbaob^ipcBl Se-
minary Bt Hb^ la Saxoay. aa a Bofafeot fcr a pciaa ea^aa
U€ the ptaeeot year, iBia, aa eaigiaaw * Da nia ct tuertue
Bochaiti. By tbu pnK. a ia tba alfiect eC GeBCDiua to
tndure the students to ftiusm dih^BBl^ BodMit'B %<dtttDCB«
a Ljch are fuU of ieamioi?.
(See tbe IMrttomanet of Marari aad Bsyle ; aUo tfaa I'lia
by M annus : Pet. Dan. Harta Efue^fi Jbhrncums Cum--
menUinmM de rehmt, d-r >
BOC HART, MATTHISC. PMHtaat mmialer at
Aler.coa in tbe aevvMeantb aeataiy, pabUaked a TVoi/e
rmtrm U* Reitqme4^ and a rrasli caaira U merif^ dr /«•
i/(»4««. Judioal pf accediafB w«a caMiaepaed againal bua
fur harinff |mea in this tnatiae tke faibiddeQ title eC paau ra
to Pn>t<»tant nunirterB. He pubbahad bIbqw IMaiogtm aar
/ef diJk'Mite4 ^me Um ifiaatoaaine Jom mmM Prmi^mUm*
Ue Aniare, Thia diaktfae on tka talefanfiB ef LalbaAa
errora induced the Klertor Palatiae Ib tiy if ba aanbl uaiia
the tvo refunaed ebaicbaa ia Oarsaay, m^ tba Latbcrana
and tbe CalvimatB, aod aBtoidisgly ba adaBcalBd tkrir
union ia tbe aawaably of PiatmlBUt pnaoM at Fraarfvt.
UpoB bearing tbia. M attbiea Bocbait pubiiakad bia * Dial-
laeticon' i. e. a comaliaton^ immiim^ 16€i» vbkb ka dedi-
cated to tke Kleetor PbIbubb. It aaataiM tba pla
projected unioii. Matlbiea baa 1
with hit iBOffe learned aaaiia Sanaal» ef vksat w
just spoken.
BUCUNIA. a paa^aaa ar akde la tka aoitb-«
part of tbe AustriaB kiaitdoa af Galiria } boandad on ih*
north by Poland, and oa tka nartk-vast hy tka lefnaory ^
the lapa'blic of Ctarow ; aantataiag, aeomding to KipfcHine.
an area of about 1040 sQuaia aiilea^ wbicb will laaka it
nesrW equal to that of Cbaabifa. It baa batwaen 4t* 4a'
and io' 14' N. lat^ and 19' SO' and SO' 40* R. kiQ|r.
The ineBtar part of B<icbnia baa an aadalating auifaiB? :
but in tbe aoutbern distncta, a branch af tba Caipatkjaan
fn^'Bs the eountnr a mountaiaous cbaiactet. In tkaa dtrac^
tion are tho«e extensive foresu and rich mtoeial taaootawa
which make the re^iooa about tka towns of BoekAia aft4
Wiol.ryka so Taluable to tbe Austrian crava. Tb» pioBnat^
baa tbe Bdvaatage af bauif skirtal<«it tka aatUa fay i^
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Itaaatainstks plan af tbia
oogi
BOO
35
BOO
Tifltula, and on thi MSt hy the Dunayee, wbieb 86pftrtite«
it ftom ^ prorilice of Tamcnr : it is aUe traversed by the
Raab or Ralm. The soil is inferior in fertility to that of
most other parts of the kingdom. It is less adapted for
the plough than fbr rearing eattie, to whieh great attention
is paid, while the eultivation of grain is neglected. The
fbrests of Boehnia are Of no Httle importance to its pros*
perity, but the principal source of its wealth is the salt-
mines about the capital and in the rieinity of Wieliczka,
whose total produce is between 37,000 and 40,000 tons
per annum. Some iron ia also raised amone the Carpa-
thians, and manufactured in the country ; and a few linens
are made. Boehnia also ei^oys the benefit of some transit
trade. It contains flte towns, nme market-towns, and nearly
400 villages. In 1817 its population was 178,760 souls : it
is at present estimated at about 205,000.
The capital, which bears the same name as the province,
lies about a mile from the Raba* among a low range of hills
which run as far as Wieliczka. It is moderately well built,
has several churches, a eymnasium, a board of mining, an
office for the direction of the saltworks, a head district-
school and other seminaries, and is tb seat of government
for the circle.
The salt raised in the vicinity is the produce of a bed
which spreads for 1000 lachter (about 1 l-7th miles), from
east to west : its depth has not been ascertained beyond 720
feet. This great bed is Intermixed with clay and gypsum.
The Saltmines here afFbrd employment to SOO labourers,
and yield about 12,500 tons annually.
Boehnia contains 660 houses, and about 5600 inhabitants,
according to Horschelmaun. It is in 49® 57' N. lat, 20°
25' E. long. To the west of it lies Wieliczka, the next town
of importance in the province, with a population of 3500
souls, and extensive mines in its neighbourhood. The
remaining three towns are, Wisnics, with a suburb set
apart for the Jews, a castle, and a monastery of Carmelites ;
\Vovnict, a small town near the banks of the Dunayec ; and
Podgorze, br Podhorze, a royal freetown on the Vistula,
opposite Cracow, and of modem construction : it contains
about 340 houses and 2000 inhabitants, and has some linen
manufactures, and an hicreasing trade* There is an iron-
work, a manufactorv of arms, ehalk-pitt, and flint-stones fbr
fire-armft in the neighbourhood.
BOCHOLT-AAHAUS, a principally in the circle of
Miinster, In the Prussian prorince of Westphalia, which,
together with the sovereignty of Anhalt, a domain in the
same quarter, belongs to the prince of Salm-Salm, and con-
tains an area of about 620 square miles, and about 57,000
inhabitants. [See Salm-Salic.] Bocholt, on the A a,
in the above-mentioned circle, is the residence of the
princes ; and posse^es an orphan asylum, a large asylum
for the poor, a silk manufactory employing 420 looms, a
brandy distillery, cotton and soap manufactories, &c. Much
grain is cultivated round it, and there is an iron-factory in
its neighbourhood. The town contains two Roman Catholic
churches. 718 houses, and about 4300 inhabitants. It is
situated in 51° 50' N. lat., 6** 35' E. long.
BOCLAND, land held by book or charter. The two
great distinctions of lands in the Anglo-Saxon times were
those of hoc-land and folc-land. The former means land
which had been severed from the fblc-land, and converted
into an estate of perpetual inheritance. Folc-land, on the
other hand, was the property of the community. Sir Henry
Spelman describes folc-land as ' terra popularis, quse jure
communi possidetur— sine scripto. {Gioigar, v. ' Folcland'.)
In another-place (v. 'Bocland*) he says, 'Prsedia Saxones
duplici titulo possidebant i vel scripti authoritate, quod Boc-
land vocabant— vel populi testimonio, quod Folcland dixere.*
The author of a Dissertation on the Polclande and Boc-
lande qf the Saxons, 4to., Lond. 1777, p. 12, says, 'the
Boclande and Foldande ara first discovered in an ordinance
of iCthelbert, which informs us that the country was divided
into two portions, one of them more immediately appertain-
ing to the King and his Thains, the other under the juris-
diction of the £arl, who was annually elected b^ the free-
men of every shire, and was denominated Eorl, Ealdorman,
or Gcrefa, and in latter times Greve, or Reve ; he it was
that convened the Folcmote. which was composed of the
possessors of Folnlande. and together with the bishop ad-
ministered the oath of allegiance to the freemen, over whom
he presided when they sat in their jutficial capacity, and
whose decrees it was his duty to enforce.*
Mr. Allen, in hia Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of
the Roifal Prerogative in Bn§;land, 8vo., Lond. 1S30, soeg
more at length into this subject : he says that Bocland
might belong to the church, to the king, or to a subject. It
might be alienable and devisable at the will of the pro-
prietor. It might be limited in its descent, without any
power of alienation in the possessor. It was often granted
for a single life or for more lives than one, with remainder
in perpetuity to the church. It was forfeited for various
delinquencies to the state. Bocland, moreover, was released
from all services to the public, except those which were com-
prised in the phrase ' trinoda necessitas,* which were said to
be incumbent on all persons : these were the contributing to
military expeditions, and to the reparation of castles and
bridges. Bocland also might be held by freemen of all
ranks and degrees. A ceorl might possess bocland and
perform for it military service to the state. If he had five
hides of bocland with the other requisites demanded by
law, he was entitled to the privileges of a Thegn. (See
Wilkins's Leg, An^lo-Sax, pp. 70, 71.) Gesiths (compa-
nions or partners) might receive grants of bocland. (Hickes,
Gramm. Anglo-Sax. p. 139. Bedie, Hist, Eccf. cura Smith,
p. 786.) Thegns might also possess bocland. But the
estate of a thegn in bocland must not be confounded with
the thegn-lands which he held, by a beneficiary tenure from
the king or from a private lord, for military service. Tliegn-
lands held of the king or state are repeatedly mentioned in
Domesday ; and the Saxon laws carefully distinguish the
bocland possessed by a thegn, from the land given him by
his hlafora (or lord). (See Leg, Can, p. 75.) It is probable
that thegn-lands were originally granted for life, as bene-
ficiary lands were on the continent ; but before the end of
the Saton period, the possessions given to a man by hia
hlaford descended in certain cases to his children. {Ibid,)
The estates of the higher nobility consisted chietly of boc-
land. Bishops and abbots might have bocland of their
own, in addition to what they held in right of the chorch.
The Anglo-Saxon kings had private estates of bocland ;
and these estates did not merge in the crown, but were
devisable by will, alienable by git\, or sale, and transmissible
by inheritance in the same' manner as bocland held by a
Bu^ect.
Offa, kinff of the Mercians, had a hundred and ten cas-
sates of land in Kent converted into bocland for himself and
his heu-s, with remainder to the church. These lands did
not descend, after the death of his son Ecgferth, to Cyn-
wulf, his successor in the Mercian throne, but to Cyne-
dritha, abbess of Cotham. Other lands, of which he'had
possessed himself without a legal title, went also to Cyne-
dritha and not to his successors in Mercia. (Wilkins, ton-
cil, vol. i. p. 163.)
AVhen bocland was created, the proprietor, unless fettered
by the original grant, or bv a subsequent settlement of the
estate, appears to have had an unlimited power to dispose
of it as he chose. (Somner*s Gavelkynd, pp. 88, 89.) In
the exercise of that power he might transfer it by grant or
bequeath it by will, in such quantities, for such periods, and
on such conditions as he was pleased to appoint. If con-
veyed by a written instrument, whatever might be the sti-
pulations annexed to the ^rant, the land was still denomi-
nated bocland. (See Heming's Chartul. pp. 129. 140, 141.
180. 182. 195. 206. Smith's ^tfc/e, pp. 769, 771.) When
once severed from the folcland, or property of the com-
munity, an estate retained the name or bocland, whatever
were the burthens and services imposed on it, provided it
was alienated by deed. When transferred in a difibrent
manner, though held on the same conditions, it seems to
have, been called Icenland. This appears from a transaction
recorded in the Chartulary of Worcester. (Heming, p. 158,
see also t^tV/., pp. 204, 205.) We are there told that arch-
bishop Oswald granted to iElfsige a tenement in Worcester,
with the croi\ attached to it, for three lives, to be held as
amply in the form of bocland as it had been held before in
the form of Icenland. Leenland might be an estate for life, or
it might be held at will ; and if the possessor was convicted
of felony, it reverted to the donor. (Compare Hickes, Diss,
Epist, pp. 58, 59 ; Textus Boffensis, pp. 115, 116 ; Hom-
ing, p. 94 ; MS. Ch, Ch. Cant.)
Bocland, says Mr. Allen, when alienated by grant or will,
might be free, or in the scignory of some churcn, manor, or
individual. (Hickes, Dias. Epist. p. 62; Heming, pp. 96,
384 ; Somner, Gavefkytid. pp. 205, 206 : Smith s Hede, p.
782 ) It might be subjected to payments in kind or in money.
(Hickes, ut supr. pp. 10, 55, Gramm, Anglo-Sax, pp. 140»
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B O C
38.
BOD
U'2 ; Lye, Did, App. ii. 1, 2. 3, 5, &c) It might be liable
to seniccs. free, servile, or mixed. (Heroing, pp. 134, 184,
189, 292. Domesd. torn. i. fol. 269 b.) It might be granted
on the condition that the possessor discharged the military
or other services due by the proprietor to the state. (Hem-
in?, pp. 81. 96, 232, 265 : Smith's Bede, pp. 773. 778, 779,
780.) It might be let for annual rent or for the perform-
ance of menial offices. (Heroing. pp. 2G4, 267. 230.) It
might be held fur lives or at will ; (Smith's Bede, p. 770,
&c ; Lye, App. ii. 1, &c.) for services certain or indefinite,
or with no reservation of services whatever. (Madox, Far-
wiilare, cxxv ; Hicke*s Oramm, p. 141 ; Smith's Bede, p.
779.) Tenants of bocland might be persons of the same
description with the lowest and most dependent of the occu*
piers of folcland. The only difference between them seems
to have been, that the tenants of folcland held their lands
directly from the public authorities of the state, while the
others held their land of some proprietor, to whom it had
been previously granted as a private inheritance. The vil-
lain of later times and the copyholder of the present day
are not derived from the one more than from the other.
Bocland might be forfeited for various offences, and when
ibrfeited, it escheated to the king as the representative of
the sUte. (Legeg Mthelredi Regis, 2 ; Leg, Cnuti, 12. 75 ;
Taxt, Boff, pp. 44. 136; Hickes, Dint, Lp. p. 114; Gale,
torn. i. pp. 484, 488.) Land held of a subject, when forfeited
ibr the same dclinquencv, escheated to the lord. (Leg.
Cnuti, 75; Judic, Civ, Land. Wilk. p. 65.) When boc-
land WDS granted on lives, it was usual to insert a clause
in the charter, declaring that whatever offence the tenant
might commit, his land should revert without forfeiture to the
grantor. (Heming. pp. 96, 126, 128, 131, 146, 161, 184, &c. ;
Monasiicon Angl, new edit. vol. iii. p. 37.)
From the view that has been taken of the distinction
between folcland and bocland, it follows that the folcland,
or land of the community, like the fisc of the continental
nations, was the fund out of which the boclands, allodial
possessions or estates of inheritance, were carved. At what
time the folcland, or land of the public, began to be con-
verted into bocland we are not informed. It was probably
soon after the establisi^hment of the Saxons in England ; for
though a more rude and uncultivated people than the
nations which had enjoyed greater opportunities of inter-
course with the Romans, they must have found private pro-
perty in land among the Britons whom they expellea or
subdued, and could not long remain insensible to the ad-
vantages arising from it Certain it is, that in one of the
earliest charters giving land to the church, it is implied,
though not expressly asserted in the grant, that the land
contained in the donation had been previously tlie private
property of the donor. (Between a.d. 665 and 694, see
Smith's Bede, p. 748.) But though commenced at an early
period, the conversion of folcland into bocland seems to
have been slowly and gradually cff'ectcd. Evei-y charter
creating bocland is a proof that the land had formcily been
folcland. A charter of Archbishop Wilfred, who died abjut
830, asserts in direct terms, that the land which he gives
away had never been any man s bocland before it became
his, and appeals to general practice, whether a proprietor of
bocland might not sell it or dispose of it as he pleased.
(Somner's Gavelkynd, p. 88.) In a charter of Burhred.
king of the Mercians, the land he grants to an individual
is said to have been the property of the kingdom before the
donation was made. (' Ego Burgred, cum consensu et con-
silio seniorum meorum, libenti animo concedens, donabo
aliquam partem agri legni mei.* Smith's Bede, p. 770.)
Burhred was king of the Mercians firom 852 to 874.
Folcland being the property of the community, could not
be converted into bocland except by an act of government.
In earlv times this was probably done in the gemot or public
assembly of the tribe, as temporary allotments to iudi-
vidualt were made in the gemot or assembly of the district.
But when the king came to be considered as the repre-
sentative of the state, all charters of lK>claud ran in his
name* and appeared to emanate firom his bounty. The
power of creating allodial property, by which was meant an
estate of inheritance, is enumerated in tho Texius Roffensi*
among the prerogatives of the crown. (Text, Boff, cap.
xxvii. p. 44.) But though bocland could not be created
without the authority of the king, it was not in his power to
convert folcland into bocland without the consent of his
witan, principes, seniores, optimates, magnates, or other
penons, by whatever name they were called, who assisted
him in the administratioD of Iria kingdom. There is hardly
a Saxon charter creating bocland which is not said to havo
been granted by the king with consent aiid leave of bis
nobles and ^eat men. ifthat consent was withheld, bi«
grant was mvalid. In the proceedings of a council held at
Kingston-upon-Thames by Egbert, we are told that hLs
predecessor. Baldred, king of the Kentish men. had glvec
to Christ Church, Canterbury, the manor of Mailings ic
Sussex ; but that prince, it is added, having oflfeuded bis
nobles, they refused to ratify his grant, which had therefore
remained without effect (Wilkins, Condi, vol. i. p. 178;
Somner's Gcu>elkynd, "p, 114.) In conveyances of bocland
on lives, the consent of the king or of the superior lord is
oftentimes mentioned by the proprietor, but is frequently
omitted.
When tho king became the representative of the slate,
the folcland, or land of the public, began to be called and
considered his property. It was his land in the same
sense that the servants of the public were his servants,
the laws his laws, and the army his army. In his politic
capacity he was the state, and whatever belonged to the
state belonged to him. If folcland was assigned to any
one for life, or for a shorter terra, it was given by his aa
thority, and apparently for his service. When it was con-
verted by charter into bocland, or land of inheritance, the
deed was executed in his name, and though the grant was
of no validity without the concurrence of his witan, the di>-
nation seemed in form the spontaneous act of his muni
ficence.
In fact, there seemis but little doubt that the folcland of
our Saxon ancestors, which, in contradistinction to bocland,
has so long puzzled English antiquaries, was no other tlian
the public land, which in the lapse of time ultimately re-
ceived another appellation, that of terra lU'gis, or crown
land. In the original returns of the Exon Dome&day, p.
75, the terra Regis of Devonshire is termed demesne laiul
of the king belonging to the kingdom. The term Bocland,
as has been already noticed, was appropriated to such por-
tions as from time to time had been severed from it, and
granted out by written instrument.
It is remarkable, that in the Domesday Survey the
term Bo<'hcland occurs but onco in its proper acceptation
(Domesd. torn. i. fol. lib.): though as the name of a place
it frequently occurs. (See Ellis's Gmeral Introd. to
Domesd, Book, vol. i. p. 230, note.) Mr. Allen. Inquiry, ^^c^
p. 154, ohscn'es that numerous entries in Domei^day distin-
guish lands which in Saxon times must have been bocland
into free lands and lands in seignory. (See Domesd. torn,
i. fol. 72 a, col. 2. 80, a. col. 1. 84 b. col. 2. &o.)
Exclusive of the works already quoted, the reader may
refer for less definite opinions to Dalrymplo's Essay to-
wards a general History of Feudal Property in Great Bri-
tain, 8vo. Lond. 1759, and to a Discourse on the Bockland
and Folkland of the Saxons, in refutation of Dalrymple,
8vo. Cambr. 1775.
BODENSEE. [See Const anck, Lakk of.]
BODLEY, SIR THOMAS, from whom the Bodleian or
public library at Oxford takes its name, was the eldest %on
of Mr. JuhnBodley of Exeter, by Joan, daughter and heiress
of Robert Home, Esq.. of Ottery St. Mary. By his father's
side he was descended from the autient iamily of the Bod*
leys or Bodleighs of Dunscombe near Crediton. He was
born at Exeter, March 2nd, 1544. He was about twelve
years of age when his father, being obliged to leave England
on account of religion, settled with his family at Geneva,
where he lived a voluntary exile during the reign of Queen
Mary. In that university, then newly erected, young Mr.
Bodley applied himself to tho study of the learned lan-
guages and divinity under the most celebrated profeisors.
He frequented the public lectures of Chevalerius on tha
Hebrew tongue, of Beroaldus on tbe Greek, and of Calvin
and Beza on divinity, and had also domestic teachers in the
house of Philibertus Saracenus, a physician of that cit\,
with whom he boarded, where Robert Constantino, author
of the Greek Lexicon, read Homer to him. Upon tbe ac*
cession of Queen Elizabeth, in 1558, he returned to Eui(-
land with his father and familv, who settled in London,
and was soon after sent to Magdalen College, Oxford,
where he was placed under tlie tuition of Dr. Humphrc),
aflerwards president of that soriety. In 1563 he took the
degree of B.A., was chosen probationer of Merton College
the same year, and the year following was admitted fellow.
In 1566 he took the degree of M.A., and in tlic samo }car
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BOi)
lead natural philosophy in the public schoolsi In 1569 he
was elected one of the proctors of the university, and after
that, for a considerable time, supplied the place of university
orator. Hitherto Mr. Bodlev had applied himself to the
study of various faculties without any inclination to profess
any one more than the rest In 1576, being desirous to im-
prove himself in the modem languages, and to qualify him-
self for public business, he began his travels, and passed
nearly four years in visiting mnce, Germany, and Italy.
Afterwards, returning to his college, he applied himself to
the study of history and politics. In 1583 he was made
gentleman usher to Queen Elizabeth, and in 1585 married
Anne, daughter of Mr. Carew of Bristol, and widow of Mr.
Ball, a lady, as Wood informs us, of considerable fortune.
Soon after, he was employed by Queen Elizabeth in several
embassies to Frederic King of Denmark, Julius Duke of
Brunswick, William LAndgrave of Hesse, and other Ger-
man princes, to engage them to join their forces with those
of the English for the assistance of the King of Navarre,
aAerwards Henry IV. of France ; and having discharged
that commission, he was sent to King Henry III., at the
time when that prince was forced by the Duke of Guise to
quit Paris. This commission, he himself tells us, he per-
formed with extraordinary secrecy, not being accompanied
by anv one servant (for so he was commanded), nor with
any otner letters than such as were written with the queen's
own hand to the king, and some select persons about him.
' The effect,* he continues, *of that message it is fit I should
conceal ; but it tended greatly to the advantage of all the
Protestants in France, and to the duke's apparent over-
throw, which followed soon upon it* In 1 588 Mr. Bodley
was sent to the Hague to manage the queen's affairs in the
United Provinces, where, according to an agreement be-
tween the queen and the States, be was admitted one of
the Council of State, and took his ])lace next to Count Mau-
rice, giving his vote in every proposition made to that assem-
bly. In this stetion he behaved greatly to the satisfaction
of his royal mistress and the advancement of the public
service. A more particular account of his negociations with
the Stetes may be seen in Camden's * Annals of Queen
Elizabeth,* under the year 1595, and in a short piece written
by Mr. Bodley himself, and published by Hearne in his
notes upon that passage of Camden entitled 'An Account
of an Agreement between Queen Elizabeth and the United
Provinces, wherein she supported them, and they stood not
to their ^recment.* After nearly five years' residence in
Holland, Mr. Bodley obtained leave to return into England
to look after his private affairs, but was shortly afterwards
remanded back to the Hague. About a year afterwards he
came into England again, to communicate some private dis-
coveries to the queen, an(l presently returned to the States
for the execution of those counsels which he bad secretly
proposed. At length, having succeeded in all his negocia-
tions, he obtained his final recall in 1597. After his return,
finding his advancement at court obstructed by the jealousies
and intrigues of the great men, he retired from it and from
all public business, and never could be prevailed with to
return, or to accept any new employment. In the ac-
count of his own life he has minutelv detailed the particu-
lars of tlie rivalry between the Earl of Essex and the Cecils,
which caused his disappointment. In the same year he set
about the noble work of restoring or rather founding anew
the public library at Oxford, which was completed in 1599.
After King James's accession to the throne. Sir Thomas
Bodley received the honour of knighthood. He died the
28th of January, 1612, and was burtedwith great solemnity
at the upper end of Mcrton College choir. Sir Thomas
Bodley wrote his own life to the year 1609, which, together
with the first draught of his statutes for his library, and a
collection of his letters, were published from the originals
in the Bodleian by Thomas Hearne under the title of ' Re-
liqutfld Bodleianffi, or some genuine Remains of Sir Thomas
Bodley,' 8vo. Lond. 1703. The Life alone had been pre-
viously published in 4to. Oxford, 1647. (See theBeliquia
Bodleiancf ; Biographia Britannica, Kippis's edition, vol. ii.
p. 388-393 ; Chalmers's Biogr. Diet, vol. v. p. 468-484.)
Materials exi^t for an extended Life of Sir Thomas Bod-
ley, in his public capacity, in several of our libraries ; more
especially in the Cottonian and Harleian collections of ma-
nuscripts in the British Museum, and among the Bacon
p«pers in the Archiepisconal Library at Lambelh. Sir
Thomas Bodley 's original drafte for the Statutes of his Li-
brary will be found in the RcliquioD Bodleianse.
BODLEY AN, or BODLEIAN LIBRARY, the Publid
Library of the University of Oxford, founded in 1597 by
Sir Thomas Bodley, in the very year in which he retired
altogether from public employment.
The first public hbrary in Oxford was esteblished in what
was then called Durham (since Trinity) College, by Richard
de Bury, or Aungerville, bishop of Durham and lord trea-
surer of England, in the time of Edward III. He died in
1345, and left his books to the students of Durham College^
who preserved them in chests, until the time that Thomas
de Hatfeld, his successor in the see of Durham, built the
Hbrary in 1370. Chalmers, however, in his Hutory of the
Colleges^ HcdU, and Public BuildingM of Oxford, vol. ii.
p. 458, says, it is not very clear whether this was a public
library in the usual meaning of the term, or one restricted
to the use of the monks of Durham College only.
The next we read of was called Cobham's Library, which
would have been the first, if Thomas Cobham, bishop of
Worcester^ had lived to have executed his own purpose.
About the year 1320 he began to make some preparations
for a library over the old Congregation -House, in tne North
Church-yard of St Mary*s ; but, dying soon after, little pro^
gress was made in the work till 1367, when his books wer9
deposited in it, and the scholars permitted to consult them
on certain conditions. But the property of the site being
contended between the Universitv and Oriel College, the
dispute was tiot finally determined till 1409, when the room
was fitted up with desks, windows, &c., by tlic benefactions
of King Henry IV., of his four sons Henry, Thomas, John,,
and Humphrey, of Thomas Arundel archbishop of Canter-
bury, Philip BLepindon bishop of Lincoln, Edmund carl of
March, ana Richard Courtney chancellor of the university,,
in whose time it was completed about the year 1411. Tliir
appears to have been the first Public Library, and con-r
tinned in use until 1480, when the books were added to»
Duke Humphrey's collection, for the reception of which la
library-room had been completed.
Humphrey, surnamed the Good Duke of Gloucester, a
man superior to the age in which he lived, was the real
founder of the library which was afterwards restored and re^
founded by Sir Thomas Bodley. The number of lK>oks given
by Duke Humphrey is variously represented. Wood {Hist:,
and Antiq, of the Univ. of Oxford, vol. ii. pt. ii. 4to. Oxf:
1796, p. 715) says the different treatises amounted to si^a
hundred : one only specimen at present remains, a manu-
script in folio of Valerius Maximus, enriched with the mesa
elegant decorations, and written in Duke Humphrey's age,,
evidently with the design of being placed in his sumptuous
collection. The rest of the books, which, like tlvis, being
highly ornamented, and looking like missajb^ were s«pposedl
to convey ideas of Popish superstition, were destroyed or
removed by the visitors of the university in the time of
Edward VI., whose zeal was equalled only by their igno-
rance. A manuscript commentary on Genesis, by Johm
Capgrave, belonging^ to Duke Humphrey's library, is still'
preserved in that of Oriel College, Oxford ; and one, if not*
more manuscripts, formerly belonging to the collection, are
in the British Museum; most of them, at the end, had"
usually this inscription written in the duke's own hand,.
' C est Itvre est a moy Humfrey Duo de Gloucestre.* Before*
the year 1555 the Duke of Gloucester s Library was totally^
despoiled of its contenU, and the desks and benches ordered^
to be sold ; the room continued empty until restored by Sir
Thomas Bodley.
It was in 1597 that, as Camden justly observes. Sir Tho-
mas Bodley set himself a task which would have suited the*
character of a crowned head — ^the restoration of the Public*
Library. With this view he sent a letter from London to*
the vice-chancellor Dr. Ravis, dean of Christ Church, oflfer-
ing to restore the building, and settle a fund for the pur-
chase of l^ks, as well as the maintenance of proper ofiicers^
This offer being gladly accepted, he commencecl his under-*
taking by presenting a large collection of books purchased!
on the continent, and valued at 10,000/. Other collections
and contributions were sent in, by his example and pei^-
suasions, from various noblemen, clergymen, and others, to*
such an amount, that the old building was no longer sufii-
cient to contain them. He then proposed to enlarge the*
building ; and the first stone of the new foundation was laid,
with great solemn it)% July 17, 1610, and so amply promoted!
by his liberality, as well as by the benefactions of many emi-
nent persons, that the University was enabled to add thre»
other sides, forming the quadrangle and rgqpis for tha
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schools, &c. He did not howorer live to see the wbok eom-
ploU'il, as the time of his death, ahready nooi^ed, will ex-
plain.
When Sir Thomas Bodley had suoceeded in enriching his
collection, probahly far bevond his expectation, he drew up
a body of statutes, which have been since incorporated with
those of the university. According to them, the librarian is
to be a graduate, unmarried, and without cure of souls ; and
to be allowed deputies or assistants. One or two points in
these regulations have been since altered ; the librarian is
allowed to marry, and he can hold parochial preferment
with his Itbrarianship. The revenues for the maintenance
of the library are intrusted to the vice-chancellor and proc^
tors for the time being ; and the vice-ohancellor and proc-
tors, the three professors of divinity* law, and physic, and
the two regius professors of Greek and Hebrew are appointed
visitors.
The first catalogue of the printed books of the Bodleian
was published in 4to. in 1605, by Dr. Thomas James, Sir
Thomas Bodley's first librarian. It was dedicated to Henry
Prince of Wales ; and the books were classed in four facul-
ties, divinity, medicine, jurisprudenoei and arts, completed
b> an index of authors* names. A more extensive cata-
logue, in an alphabetical form, was published by Dr. James
in 4to., OKford, 1625; and another catalogue, which had
been compiled by him, of works in the Bodleian, printed
and manuscript, in interpretation of the Scriptures, was
printe<l in a thin 4 to. at Oxford in 1635. ' A Nomenclator
of such Tracts and Sermons as have been printed or trans-
lateil into English unon any place or books of Holy Scrip-
ture ; now to be had in the most famous Library of Sir
Thomas Bodley in Oxford,* was also printed ia 18mo. in
1642, by John Veneuil.
In 1 674 a new catalogue of the printed books of the Bod-
leian was published in a folio volume, under tlie care of Dr.
Thomas Hyde ; and another of the manuscripts, distinguish-
in<; the different collections, was inserted in the general Cata-
logue of the Manuscripts of England, folio, 1697. A still more
extensive Catalogue of the Printed Books was published in
two volumes in folio, in 1 738, which was thought so suffi*
ciently perfect in its day, that almost every college library
in the university had a copy interleaved* to marx off the
books in the catalogue which they themselves possessed,
and to insert additions. This is the last general catalogue
which has been published of the books in the Bodleian Li-
brary ; but from the immense increase of the collection it
has become but of little use. Another was undertaken a
few years ago. and had ptipoeeded, under the direction of the
present librarian, Dr. Bandinel, to some extent in the
printing; but we are informed that the publication has
been since abandoned.
A few catalogues of particular portions of the Bodleian
collections have been published at different times. Dr. Uri
printed the first part of a catalogue of the oriental manu-
scripts in folio, in 1787 ; which was continued in 1821, in a
catalogue of the Arabic manuscripts, prepared by Mr. after-
wards Dr. Alexander Nicol. After the acquisitions made
at the Pinolli and some other sales, a small octavo volume,
entitled ' Notilia Editionum quoad libros Hebr. Or. et Lat.
quso vel primarin, vel Sisc. xv. impresse, vel Aldinis, in
Bibliotheca Bodleiana adservantur,* was published in 1 795 :
another catalogue, entitled * Codices Manuscripti et Impressi,
cum Noiis Manuscriptis, olim D Orvilliani, qui in Bibliotheca
Boilleiana adservantur,* was printed by Mr. Gaisford, since
dean of Christ Church, in 4 to. 1806 ; and the first part of an-
other catalogue, of the manuscripts collected in the East by
Dr. £. D. Clarke, and purchased from him for the Bodleian,
was published also by Mr. Gaisford in 4to. 1812; followed
by a second part in 1815, containing the Oriental MSS.,
edited by Mr. Nicol. In IS 14, a cataaogue of the books re-
lating to British (including Welsh, Scottish, and Irish) topo-
graphy, and Saxon and northern literature, beaueathed by
Rieliard Gougb, Esq., was printed at the Clarendon press by
Dr. Bandinel. The curators of the Bodleian have for many
yeiirs published, or rather printed and distributed, and con-
tinue to print and distribute, annual alphabetical catalogues
of its acquisitions in the department of printed books, for the
iiir)rmatum of the university.
A catalogue of the coins in the cabinet of the Bodleian
was Duliliiihod by Mr. Francis Wise in 1750, in folio, illus-
traloil by numerous plates, undet the title of * Catalogue
Nummorum Antiquorum in Seriniis Bodleianis recondito-
rum, cum Commentario/
An annual speisch in praise of Sir Thomas Bodler via
founded in 1681, by Dr. John Morris, canon of Christ
Church ; the speaker to be nominated by the dean of Chnst
Church, and confirmed by the vice-chancellor. TbeM
speeches are delivered at the visitation-day of the hbrmry.
November the 8th.
It would require a volume to enumerate the many im-
portant additions, in books and manuscripts, made to this
library by its numerous benefactors, or to give even a super-
ficial sketch of its ample contents in eveir branch of science
and learning. Among the earliest benemctors were Roltert
Devereux Earl of Essex, Thomas Sackville Lord Buckhursi
and Earl of Dorset, Robert Sidney Lord Sidney of Pens-
hurst, Viscount Lisle and Earl of Leicester, €reorgeCarvy
Lord Hunsdon, William Gent, Esa., Anthony Browne Vift-
count Montacute, John Lord Lumiey, Philip Scudamore of
London, Esq., and Lawrence Bodley, younger brother to
the founder. The contributions of all these persons were
made before the year 1600.
In 1601 collections of books and manuscripts were pr»«
sented by Thomas Allen, some time fellow of Trinity College,
Thomas James, the first librarian, Herbert WMtphalin:r
bishop of Hereford, Sir John Fortescue, knight, Alexnndcr
Nowell dean of St. Paul's, John Crooke recorder of Ivrndon
and chief -just ice of the Common Pleas, and Nicholas Boml,
D.D., president of Magdalen College.
The most extensive and important ooUecttons however
are those of the Earl of Pembroke, the celebrated Mr. John
Selden, Archbishop Laud, Sir Thomas Roe, Sir Kenelm
Digby, Greneral Fairfax, Dr. Marshall, Dr. Barlow binhop
of Lincoln, Dr. Richard Rawlinson, Mr. St. Amand, Bi>hop
Tanner, Browne Willis, Thomas Hearne, Mr. Nathaniel
Crynes, and Mr. Godwin. The library bequeathed by Richard
Gough, Esq., which came to the Bodleian in 1812 (the
catalogue of which has been already noticed), is perhaps
the most perfect series of English topographical works ever
formed, and is particularly rich in topographical manusoript^.
prints, drawings, and books illustrated by the manuscript
notes of eminent antiquaries. The last collections of prcat
importance bequeathed to the Bodleian have been tbo«>c of
Etdmond Malone. Esq. in 1818, and of Franeis Douce, £m|.
in 1834.
The Bodleian Library was first opened to the public on
November 8th, 1602, and by the charter of mortmain ob-
tained of King James, Sir Thomas, then lately knighted by
htm, was declared founder; and, in 1605, Lord Buckhur^t
earl of Dorset and chancellor of the university, placed the
bust of Sir Thomas in the library. Since the year 1 7S0 a
fund of more than 400/. a year has been established for the
purchase of books. This arises fVom a small addition to the
matriculation fees, and a moderate contribution annually
from such members of the university as are admitted to the
use of the library, or on their taking their first degrees : to
which is to be added the privilege claimed as a matter of
right under the copyright act of a copy of every book printed
in Great Britain and Ireland.
The principal librarians since the foundation by Sir Tito-
mas Bodley have been, I. Thomas James, fellow of New
College, 1598; 2. John Rouse, fellow of Oriel, 16*?^: 3.
Thomas Barlow, fellow, afterwards provost of Queen's, bishop
of Lincoln, 1653; 4. Thomas Lockey, student and after-
wards canon of Christ Church, 1660; 5. Thomas H>de. of
Queen's College, afterwards Laudian professor of Arabic,
regius professor of Hebrew, and canon of Christchurch,
1665; 6. John Hudson, of Queen's, afterwards principal of
St. Mary Hall, 1701; 7. Joseph Bowles, fellow of OriH.
1 719; 8. Robert Fysher, fellow of Oriel. 1729 : 9. Humphrey
Owen, fellow and afterwards principal of Jesus CoUe^rr,
1747; 10. John Price, B.D. of Jesus College, afterwards
of Trinity, 1768 ; II. Bulkeley Bandinel, D.D. late fellow
of New College, 1813, the present librarian.
All members of the university who have taken a degree
are admitted to study in the horary : no books have ever
been suffered to be taken from it. Literary persons, either
native or foreign, are also allowed, on being properly recom-
mended, to road and take extracts from the lyooks in this
collection. By the provisions of a statute promulgated and
confirmed in full convocation, Dec. 2, 1813, the ofTicers of
the library were increased to a principal librarian, two on-
der-librarians, with the degrees of M.A. or B.C.L. at lea^^t.
and two assistants, cither B. A. or Under-eraduates. The
library is open between Lady-day and Michaelmas from
, nine m the morning till four in tbe^^emoon ; ^ad during
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BOD
39
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tbe oilier ludf-year from ten till three. It is closed on Sun*
days and state holidays; from Christmas-eve to the 1st of
January inclusively ; on the feast of the Bpiphany ; from
Good- Friday to Buter Tuesday inclusively ; on the days of
Encssnia and commemoration ; seven days immediately fol-
lowing the 1st of September, and eight days peceding
the visitation of the library. On all other holidays it is
opened immediately after the university- sermon. (See the
Beliquiof BwUeiaruB, 8vo. London, 1703 ; Wood*8 Account
of Bodley's Library, Hist and Antiq. of the Umversity of
Oxford, 4to. 1796, vol. ii. P. ii. p. 920-953; Chalmerses
Hiatary of the ColUge$^ HalU, and Public BuildingM at-
tacked to the University of Oxford, vol. ii. p. 458-464;
Oxford University and City Guide, 8vo. ; and the Oxfbrd
University Calendar for 1835.)
BODMER, JOHANN JACOB, the son of a clergy-
man, was born at Ziirieh in July, 1698. He applied himself
particularly to the study of history and to poetry. Bodmer
was struck with the want of national cnaracter in the
Gkrman literature of his time, of the school of Gellert,
Weiss, &c., the style and manner of which were heavy
imitations of the French. Bodmer and his friend Breitinger
be^an publishing a series of critical articles on the subject,
which were violently opposed by Gottsched, the Aristarchus
of Germany in those days, who treated the two Swiss critics
with great superciliousness. This controversy, which was
carried on for years, and filled up a number of pamphlets
and journals, ultimately efiected a complete revolution in
German literature. Several young and gifted writers em-
braced Bodmer s views, and a new and true German school
was formed, which produced Klopstock, Lessing, Schiller,
Goethe, and a host of others.
Bodmer was deeply read in the Greek and Latin, as well
as in the English poets, and he translated Homer and
Milton into German. He published in 1758 a collection of
the Minnesinger, or old German romantic poets, from a
MS. in the Royal Library at Paris. Benecke has since
published an improved edition of this collection under the
title of * Minnelieder, ergiinzung d^r Sammlung von Min-
netiingern,* Gottingen, 18L0. Bodmer published the ' Hel-
vetische Bibliothek,* Zurich, 1735-41, which is a collection
of tracts relative to the history of Switzerland. He also
wrote a poem in twelve cantos on the Deluge, which was
translated into English under the title of * Noah,' by J.
Collyer, London, 1767. Bodmer filled for fifty years the
chair of literature in the Academy of his native town,
Zurich.
He died at a very advanced age in January, 1783. In
the latter part of his life he was considered as the patriarch
of German literature, and he took a delight in airecttng
and encouraging young men in their studies. His books
and MSS.he bequeathed to the National Library of Ziirieh.
His correspondence was published, together with that of his
countryman Solomon Gessner, by K5rte, Ziirieh, 1804.
BODMIN, a borough and market-town in the hundred
of Trii^g and county of Cornwall, 20^ miles 8.W. by W.
from Launceston, and 234^ W.S.W. fh)m London. The
parish, which includes the borough, contains 6310 English
staiiito acres, and the borough itself 2840 acres. The
bounds are surveyed once a year, and a record of the per-
ambulations is preserved.
Bodmin or Bodman, in Cornish Bosvenna or Bosuenna,
* tho Houses on the Hill,* and in some of the antient char-
ters called Bosmana and Bodminian, 'the Abode of the
Monks,* owes its origin to the circumstance of St. Petroc's
having taken up his abode in the valley now occupied by
the present town, about the year 520. Tliat saint, to whom
St. Guron (a solitary recluse) had resigned his hermitage,
greatly enlarged it for the residence of himself and three
other devout men, who accompanied him with the intention
of leading a monastic life according to the rules of St.
Benedict.' St. Petroc, who died about the middle of the
sixth century, was buried here, and according to William
of Worcester and Leiand, his shrine was preserved in a
firaall chapel to the east of Bodmin cburcn. Leiand in
speaking of it says, * The shrine and tumbe of St. Petrock
]f et standith in thest part of the chirt^he.* The hermitage was
Inhabited by Benedictine monks till 936,when King Athelstan
founded a prioty near the spot of the old hermitage. This
monastery soon fell into disuse, and its large possessions
were seized by Robert, earl of Moreton and Cornwall, and
after the death of his son William they became the property
of the crown* After havuig passed through various hands.
and been alternately inhabitsd by Benedictine and St.
Augustine monks, nuns, and secular priests, it was granted
to one Algar,* who with the licence of William Warlewast,
bishop of Exeter, refounded the monastery in 11*25, and
filled it with Austhn eanons, who continued in it till the
dissolution of monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII.
when its revenue amounted, according to Dugdale, to
270/. OS. \ld, and according to Speed to 28B/. Us. l\d.
The last prior was Thomas Vivian, alias Wanny worth : an
award in his time shows that the convent received consi-
derable benefit f^om the tin works in the neighbourhood.
Among other privileges the prior held a market and a fair,
and possessed a pillory, gallows, &c.. fiom the latter of
which we may fairly presume that he had the power of in-
flicting capital punishment. The site of the monastery,
with its large demeenes and dependencies, was ^ranted to
Thomas Stemhold, one of the first translators of tne Psalms
of David into English metre, and was subsequently pur-*
chased by some of the Rashleigh family. Dr. Borlase,
Carew, and many other eminent antiauarians, have, and
not without some foundation, supposed that Bodmin was the
primary seat of the bishops of Cornwall, and that this honour
was conferred on it in 905, when the bishops made it their
residence till the end of the year 981 , at which date the town
and church having been burned and sacked by the Danes,
they removed to St. German's. But the fallacy of this snp>
position has been satisfactorily proved by Mr. Whitaker in his
' Ancient Cathedral of Cornwall historically surveyed/ in
which work he shows that the see was founded as early as
614» and that St German's was made the original seat of it,
though he asserts, on the authority of a grant from King
Ethdred, that the monastery of Bodmin was annexed to St
German's, and that both these places continued to give a
title to future prelates until the annexation of the bishopric
of Cornwall to that of Crediton in Devon in 1031, alx)ut
twenty years after which time Exeter was made the head
of the dioeese. The same writer also states that it was
another religious house dedicated to St. Petroc at Padstow
that was burnt by the Danes. An imperfect impression of
the abbey seal is attached to the surrender preserved in the
Augmentation Office. In its area the Virgin and infant
Jesus and St. Petroc are represented under canopies of
Gothic tracery, with the words ' S. Maria et S. Petroc,'
below them. The wwd Bodmyn is all that is left of the
lesend which went round. (Dugdale's Monasticon,)
Bodmin is said to be one of the towns which had the
power of stamping tin ; but it seems that the privilege was
lost before 1347, fbr in that year the burgesses petitioned
parliament, complaining that although they were authorized
to deal in all kinds of merchandise, yet they were hindered
by the prince from buying or coining tin. They were
nnsuceessfbl in their application, and their petition was dis-
missed. Some centuries ago Bodmin must have been a
place of considerable extent, for we find that in 1351 no
less than 1500 persons died of the pestilence. William of
Worcester, who visited Cornwall in the reign of Edward IV.,
speaks of this as recorded in the registry of the friars, and
at the same time he adds that, during that same year, there
died in various parts of the world 13,883 persons of the
order of friars. Bodmin was one of those decayed towns, to
repair whieh an act was passed in the 3 2d of Henry the
Eighth.
In 1496, Perkin Warbeck, tne pretended Duke of York,
landed in Cornwall, and assembled here a force of 3000
men, with which he attacked the city of Exeter. A serious
insurrection of the Comishmen took place in 1498, when
Thomas Flamraoe, a lawyer, and Michael Joseph, a farrier,
of this town, were chosen leaders. These two men joined
their forces to those of Lord Audley at Wells in Somerset-
shire, and marched with this nobleman as far as Eltham in
Kent, where there was then a royal palace ; but the insur-
Smts were defeated by the king's troops at the battle of
lackheath, and their leaders, I^rd Audley, Flammoc, and
Joseph, were executed.
In 1550, in the reign of Edward VI., the Cornish rebels
superstitiously attributing the depression of trade and agri-
oulture to the Reformation, assembled to the number of
10,000, and placing themselves under the command of
Humphrey Arundel, ffovernor of St Michael's Mount, they
encamped at Castle Kynock near this town. After a se«
* I^lna4 doe* not neein quit« to »gr«« to lliit poiut, ' for/ tnyi he, * William
Warlewiat, Ushun of ExetiT, erected the last fouodiition of tliia priory, awl h^d
to himself part of the auoctrat landes of Bodmin M«n«itener-> t
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■ *^. m^T" ^. V va <-v^ i«^ at. i all torts of pr\t\i»4aii.
i^^-a^ a 101 1 ^ A t^m mmrijgi m bis day. oais that it
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BOD
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taste for design, and at hours of Jeisure engraved vignettes
on wood, which have heen since sought for by the amateurs.
At eighteen years of age a desire to improve his condition
induced him to undertake a journey to Rome. He left Sa-
lu2zo with a school-fellow, Dominic Costa, who expected to
receive assistance from an uncle, at that time secretary to a
Roman prelate. The two friends proceeded on their jour-
ney, but their money failed. Bodoni, bv selling some of his
engravings on wood to printers, procured sufficient to enable
them to get to Rome. But, upon their arrival there, Costa*8
uncle told them he could do nothing for them, and advised
them to return. Bodoni, discouraged by this unexpected
reception, yielded to the advice ; but, before he quitted Rome,
thought he would visit the printins-house of the Propa-
ganda. His general demeanour and vivacity on this occa-
sion attracted the notice of the Abbate Ruggieri, the super-
intendant of that establishment, and, after an explanation,
Bodoni had the good fortune to be engaged there as a work-
man. In this employment he attracted the notice of the
Cardinal Spinelli, at that time the head of the Propaganda,
who became his patron, and by whose advice he attended a
course of lectures on the Oriental languages in the Uni-
versity of La Snpienza, and learned to read Arabic and He-
brew. Beinff intrusted with the printing of the • Arab-Copht
Missal,* ana the * Alphabetum Tibetanum,' edited by Pere
Giorgi, he so acquitted himself, that Ruggieri put his name
at the end of the volume, with that of his town : ' Romsa ex<
cudebat Johannes Baptista Bodonus Salutiensis, mdcclxii.*
Ruggieri's suicide, however, in 1 766 (or as other accounts
say, as early as 1762) rendered Bodoni's longer stay at
Rome insupportable from regret. At this time he had also
occepted a proposal to come to England, but going to Sa-
luzzo to sec his parents, he fell ill ; and the Marquis de
Feline, in the interval, offering to place him at the head of
the press intended to be established at Parma, upon the
model of that of the Louvre, Bodoni broke through his en-
gagements, and settled there in 176S.
In 1771 he published specimens of his art in ' Saggio
Tipogroflco di fregi e majuscole,* in 8vo. ; followed in 1774
by ' Iscriaioni esotiche,* composed by J. B. de Rossi ; and,
in 1775, on occasion of the marriage of the Prince of Pied-
mont with the Princess Clotilde of France, a third work of
the same description, entitled ' Epithalamia exoticis Unguis
rcddita,* exhibiting the alphabets of twenty-five languages.
Between 1755 and 1788, although his fame became uni-
versal, his press was not over- actively employed.
In 1788 the Chevalier d'Azara, the Spanish minister to
Rome, mode an offer to Bodoni to establish a press in his
Falaoe in that city, to print editions of the Greek, Latin, and
talian classics. Bodoni however refused his solicitations ;
and in 1 789 the Duke of Parma, unwilling that so eminent
a printer should be drawn away by any one from his do-
minions, formed a similar project, and furnishing Bodoni
with a portion of his palace and a press, some of the most
beautirul editions of the classics known issued from it : more
especially a Horace in folio, in a single volume, in 1791 ;
Yirgil, in two volumes in folio, in 1793 ; Catullus, Tibullus,
and Propertius, in 1794; and Tacitus's Annals, in three
volumes, folio, in 1795. Dibdin says, of this last work,
only thirtv copies were printed, with a few on large paper.
In 1794 Bodoni produced a most beautiful edition of the
* Gerusalemme Liberata' of Tasso, in three volumes folio.
His most sumptuous work of all was his Homer, in
three volumes in folio, printed in 1808, with a prefatory
dedication to the Emperor Napoleon in Italian, French, and
Latin. When the French armies entered Ital^, in the
early part of the revolutionary war, Bodoni and his labours
had received a marked protection. On the 2 1 st of January,
1810, Bodoni presented a copy of this splendid work, printed
upon vellum, in two volumes, to the emperor, in the
gallery at St. Cloud, and in return, received a pension of
3000 francs.
After this time, while Italy was under the French rule,
Bodoni received the most tempting offers to quit Parma.
Prince Eugene Beauharnois offered him the superinten-
dence of the press at Milan, and Murat that of Naples ;
but he pleaded age and infirmities, and his wish to remain
at Parma. In 1811, having received the Cross of the Two
Sicilies from Murat, he proposed to publish for the education
of the young prince, the son of Murat, a series of French
classics, and commenced the execution of his project by a
folio ' Telemachui' in 1 8 1 2. ' Racine' was to have followed ;
bat it was not published till 1814, after Bodoni's death.
Bodoni had long suffered from the gout, to which a fever
was at last superadded. He died November 20th, 1813.
Within a few months of his death the Emperor Napoleon
nominated him a 'Chevalier de la Reunion,' and sent him
a present of 18,000 francs to aid him in the publication of
the French classics.
In 1816 Bodoni's widow sent forth a work which Bodoni
had prepared as long before as 1809, the date of which year
appears on the title-page, entitled ' Le piu insigni Pittura
Parmensi indicati agli Amatori delle Belle Arti«' accom-
panied by engravings of the different pictures.
In 1818 the 'Manuale Tipographico del Cavaliere Gtam-
battista Bodoni,' containing specimens of his various types,
appeared from the Bodonian press, the business of which
was still carried on by his widow. It forms two splendid
volnmes in 4to. with his porti-ait prefixed.
Two works were printed by Boaoni in English ; an edition
of Lord Orford's * Castle of Otranto,' printed for Edwards of
Pall Mall, in 1791, 8vo. ; and an edition of Thomson's * Sea-
sons,* in two sizes, folio and quarto, 1794.
Bodoni's classics were not all as correct as they were beau-
tiful. Didot discovered about thirty errors in the Virgil,
which are noticed in the preface to his own edition. Among
the books of King George III. in the British Museum, is
one of twenty-five copies of the Homer on the largest paper,
a most splendid specimen of typography.
For more minute details of Bodoni's life, tlie reader may
refer to Joseph de Lama's Vita del Cavaliere GiambaithUi
Bodoni, 2 tom. Parma, 1816, the second volume of which is
filled with an analytical catalogue of the productions of his
press. To this book, and to the Supplement of the Uio-
grap/iie UniverseUe, vol. Iviii. pp. 421-427. we have been
chiefly indebted for the present account The reader may
likewise refer to Memone AnedoUi per sern're un giomn
alia vita di G, B. Bodoni^ par le P. Passeroni, 8vo., and to
the Biographie des trots illustres Pietnoniais, Lagrange,
Denina^et Bodoni^ dec^6s en 1813, par M. de Gregory
Verceil, 8vo. 1814. A medallion with a portrait of Bodoni
appears in the frontispiece to the first volume of De Lama's
life of him.
BOECE, or BOETIUS. HECTOR, the Scottbh histo-
rian, was of the family of Boece of Balbride, or Panbride, in
the shire of Angus (now Forfar), a property which an im-
mediate ancestor of his acquired by marriage with the
heiress. He was bom about the year 1463-66 in the town
of Dundee : whence he had the apnellation of Deidonanus,
as he is styled in the edition of nis history published by
Ferrarius. The particulars of his earlv life are not ascer-
tained ; but it appears that he received his grammar educa-
tion first in his native town and then at Aberdeen, whence
he went to Montague College in the University of Paris,
where he proceeded A.M., in the year 1494, and in 1497
was appointed professor of philosophy. This academy he
in his after-life highly extolled, and continued gratefully to
remember. It was here he became acquainted with many of
the learned persons of his time; amongst others Erasmus,
who kept up an epistolary correspondence with him, and,
as a mark of his regard, dedicated to him a catalogue of his
works. He calls Boece * vir singularis ingenii, felicitatis, et
facundi oris ;' and says of him that ' he knew not to lie.*
In the beginning of the sixteenth centuiy, Boece was in-
vited home by Bishop Blphinstone of Aberdeen, to be prin-
cipal of the college about to be erected in that city. This
invitation, considering the distinguished person from whom
it came, and the high office to uniich it pointed, must have
been flattering to Boece ; but he was unwilling to forego
the literary honours and enjoyments which his present
situation held out to him, and he was induced to accept
the invitation by means, as himself says, of ' gifts and pro-
mises.* When he came to Aberdeen he was made a canon
of the cathedral. The magistrates and council of the city,
having acquired right to the patronage of the chantry of St.
Ninian, then also presented him to the chaplainrv of the
altar with its emoluments during his life. (Kennedy's An-
nals of Aberdeen, vol. ii. p. 30.) But the main inducement
of course was his appointment to the office of principal of
the new college.
The learned author of the life of Mehnlle (M'Crie's Mel-
ville, vol. i. pp. 210, 21 1) tells us that prior to the fifteenth
century no university existed in Scotland, and that tne
earliest of such seminaries there was the University of St.
Andrews. Both propositions are certainly erroneous. Boece
expressly says that a university was founded at Aberdeen
No. 277.
ITHK PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
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B O E
42
BO E
\i R : n-l. \'*b"^ •/ t- Jt •*«• T» lK« mi-l^ne of th« twelfth
• , V* ■" t •.*»i- •»* ♦"•.▼ ?"* *T **^r-^^ of Bt^hiip
ft • . ;«u ^ t.«? 'i»*t -.f b.4 ^T.*t*r..*K ih€rc can be no
.-•'• .r n '/ fl:«* ♦^ f' -a M Vlirh W A^y?rdet?D
. ..--• *#-i -ft E 1 »-*r*., b.^h. ? if il^ ♦• e Kett.i fi.'.-.d
: t.f ♦ .p':'T tn«» ■'i^f.«-'»-r.-y : b :t «*e Conncl On
p. :> * W^ ft-.d ai»* ir.it B.^h .p AlftaiKlrr
^ • IL - ■ - r L
t -.1
!.o r*.t-H tbe •• e of A^»<!»r»le«fn fr>ni 1157
I j«T to wh.it ♦•-••m.* ti h.ive been the corn-
-ir-.^ >r t-e p;u:«, tei.:h ;he ciTu and canon la*s on
• I* 3*> ur» -"f Ei^H p rpLi-.^ti'Ce were Tct wunlir.ff.
-». -• •; jf AVri»^*T, 1.** man) of the rjre.;rn nni-
^. i".i parr-.lirlf that -f pAn*. tr.e jr*^at p:ut.it)pe
•3 ^o* ri*. I*, fr'm the t.nie ^f C'Larletaac^e to tue
r** : . •• f •--« *.♦ rv^-^.'h cer.'ury, wa* without any fixed
^ :... \-''0X=.*. or *.'j»lj.'.ri. TL»^* WPTC pr.biMy in the
r .' .- I'll. *••■'. -^rt* -.r prTate d»c...r. J4 of ti,e rit>*, aft wai
m. ^ * -»n :h« *rMt m th the Un.v«r».".«* of St. Andrei*
a .*t O n.'.v. A zr^^'.'n d-f-rt wif it* rr^nirirted c-,ur»e
f f «t ; ;» w. «-h wa% ..-r. 'M ti lUr.'. 'ZJ ^vA the la-r*. Tue
i« i-.«:.j u:d ai-T t« pri i!*- *e? h x-wrlf to rtm'^ly U*th tlw'^e
e*. .« . *• -1 iC :..• n-^..-.'it the k.r./, Jimei IV^ ajpLcd to
th • y r^ *.. r*' * .!e t ur.»\»:r»in it Aberleen c«/mpreE,«frid-
,^ ^ ^. i^ 'j,/ .; 'i. i'*f , A*^ "■' '- j!y. Pi^pe Alexan-ler IV.,
hx a 1.-., :avd at R'rr.e, l"th Fcbr-anr. 1491, instituted
•u-ii 1 7»r.«»r*! ••»:!. r.anr .n t:.e r.tv of Old AU;nie»n. TLa
> •..! VM p'* ...'
>.▼ . ^^^--^ X
H.* . .»> E ;r..r.-t..r.«» t> erc«-t a rt,..*'^ ^.thin the university.
It IV' f'lrrr.er bu'.U were w-iuM fr-.m Rome for secur.ng
t'..» pr.-. '.'jT^ ijf ti.e un %t-r*itv. and •t'il)ing at Old Aber-
d. .-ri. a-'..i in 1 S04 B««h..p E*j...nU'r.e L**ucd hi» [Gr-^l]
ji,'* . li'-Hj of SC Msir'a, afterward* King i Collejre, «Lich
w M « if.rinncd the fcllowini^ year by the pope and then by
t .i> k...r
It -.4 i../t irk-^ly that during any part of Elphin*tone*i con-
pei '/o •.th i:.e Un»ier-it> of Ab^erdeen llie academical
anpf •j.t'i.t'ntt wt,u!d be carv'.c^sly maile; and a« that dU-
Ut.Z'* '•^•d prelate bad n'»w been bi^Lupof the rlmce**: nearly
tw» ..M y'ir%, we may rttt->naM> «up(>o*4* that the uni\er»ity
r' a.r* wrrevoll fiiiif*!. Yet wt find that B<J€ee bruu;^ht with
h 'n and x*m\ fur hi* rt.l!«*a;:uv Mr. WiKiirn Hay. wimj wa» a
ra*i\e uf tl.<' «ame th re of AnfOisK and had been eilucated
a 'Cff «;'.n h.:n; ct^n^i lenr.'j. ai it appears, nor.e of the
tr (••««ur« uj fit ti lie hi« coU«*a?uc as Hay. We learn from
l*^ < *< 1 ho were the oth^r pr >fr>v)r» in the col!i';;e, but it is
uf.r.r*-. ««ftr} to notu-e tLvm here; and there arc uo mate-
r..t « 1 " jul.'iri/ With accuracy how Buece c 'titiimed to
-d .- I 4''^. afid i:.e next year K»njf Jam*-s,
r.5nna:y>n, 2ir. i May. I19r. ea.p^wered
curate ; when eoonminieatioa vaa diffleult, and inleironr^*
nrt; and when ph}«ical vience was in its infancy — wc»Lk.^w..
then no doubt adm:t that B*iere merited «hat he tvr« «
In ISirthe kicz ^^t Lm a penUoa of 50/. Si-ots yt.u'U. u
be pa^d by t'ne fther.ffof AberdecD out of the royal ca»ti.j7.« <•
T«o years afterward* tlus pension was duvetcd to be pia.d i
the cu^t 'mar« * of Aberdeen until the king should prota. *
Bo»?ce f ) a benefice of loO merks Soots of yearly value. h\ \
subsequent refrulat.on the pen»i jo was paid partly hy i'«
k.ns'« com ptr .tier and partly by the trea^^urer. T Treasurer «
AcriiuDts,' ap. Pitcaim's Criminal TriaU > The piAymf • :
appears lir the last time in the treasurer s Ujuks f^rr 1 ^ \
It is probable that aUjut that time the king was erabUr ** i
advan'e Boece to a benefice, and that the kamed pni.
then '/jUmei the rectory of Fy%ie in the show of Arieru- .
which he h^ul at his death in 1 ^36. The same y e ir ( 1 :
' Ee.lenden's translation of Boeces HUtory nas puM.sK^^i .:
&linburgh. This translatii>n was made at the romnsan i :
Kiujr Jamea \^ whose limited education precluded l.iiu i. -.
poru^.nft the Latin ori^naL While it proceeded* Bellen ..
' as we see from the trea.sarer*s accounts, had a yearly a. i -
a nee from the king of 30/. Scots. In the same arcu : >.
June, la 13 (Fucaim's Crim. Trials), we find a sum of i.:.
Scuts entered to Bellenden ' fur ane new Ciunikle ei>eu i.
tlie Kin^is grace;* but whether this * new CrobiiJe ' «<•
the cliranoloipcal compeivdium of Scottish hiAtorj wriiu..
that year by a brviher of the minor Obaerrants at JnA.>«:'..
(Nicholson's Scottish Historical Lthrary^ p. 35), or Bc.wt:*-
den*s own performance, does not appear. Belleniden*s tr«:>-
lation of Boece was a /ree translation, the author h i\ ■ .:
a<ldod and altered as he thought proper ; and it ai:aju ^ ««
put from the &>oitish dialect, m which it was wntten, r ; •
Enslish. with aoual freedom, by Harrison. (Ap. Uu..^-
' shed's Chron, voL L)
In 1527, Boece's hrother Arthur, who waa a docttr of t- *
canon law, and a licentiate in the civil, and the author ••: &
book of Excerpts from the anun law. apoears to have > .
appointed canonist uf King's College. (jCcnoedy's Aun, .•
of Aberdeen.) The next year Boece himself took the tli^
gree of (!u< tur in divinity in the college; and on tht^ ur< .•
slon the magistrates and town-eouncd of Aberdeen y^x-^
him a present of a tun of wine, when the new wme^ arm ..
or 20/. to buy a new bonneL (' Coancil Register.' •«>.
Kennedy's Jitnj/s. Tol. ii. p. 367.) The year lo.lowii.i:. a
S'jva Erectio of King's College was is»ued for tlie U -r
prxjvisiun of its members, into which un'|uestiooably t •
wisdom and experience of Boece entered, but to what v\ir'.t
is uncertain.
He died about the year 1 536, and was huried in the rh if--:
of the college near to the tomb of Buhop Elphinaione. li
the front of the chapel n his coat of arms: asaltirr a..i
chief, IL B. ob, 1536. (Kennedy s Annals,)
BOSOTI A was the antient name ol that part of the i! *•
l^rd r.n the duties of Lu place. In the end of the year trict uf Livadia which was bounded on the west by Pii
l^t 4 MS friervl and p^trun. Bishop Elphmstune, died.
In the be«':Rn:ng '»f I5i2 Buere published at Paris his
' Vit» E^-iM- /ffi.ra'n MurthlarenMum et Aberdoitensium,* a
w rk t>> «i.^ !i he «as, it seems, led by the exemplary life of
the U:e b.«'«-<p. an aerount of whom, indeed, occupies the
greater part 'ff it. Tne dedication, which is to Bishop
I>u:i 4r. » datM from the College of Alierdeen, prid. Cal.
H«pt. \i:i. The tame year his printer. Badtus Ascensiua,
giT«* t> the world Hjj t s *Ht«tory of StN^land.* composed
by M«ir (principal ngent of Glasgow C**iiege, and after*
wards (nt.r pal uf St. Sahator s CoI.ege. St. Andrews) when
be vas attrr«ding M'>nUgue C allege in the Uniwrsity of
PsrM Sittne jears pre«t-.u«. Several other hi»l«»ries of Scot-
land eti«l«d at t!.ts time, partr ularly Prior Wynton's me*
tnral *( rifivkd.' arid Fonlun's * Sr«>tJchroniri»n,' long the
greit fuuiitain of Sootti«h history. Btshup Elphmstone ap*
pi.'d h.ni*elf to t)<e »ame department of Iranung, and com-
}..cd irn-edf u'it uf Forduni a histi>ry of hit cxmntry ; but
It » pO'OabU that Mitrs book at once settled the Cite of
E.pt«in%ua<e't wurk <«hich b vet in uianusrnpt). and deter-
t* '.'d B.t^^up Duo bar to r>u*e the buher abihlies and
kr ««B rrtai arf^uirementt of Boece to the task.
Ia iw.'s thtfi brtf r<hiAon of Burce's Hutory of Scotland
ess ^ . • '"d. If «c attpl^ to tint work, as some appear
t. hate d • .<-. t!.e siandarit wl.irh w^uld be applieU to
l.ttc«#s <f ,At oao da|. ttt htrraiy character alone couU
s«w ,1 f a r '. 4 ':.pt . • jt we must a^.p!y to it the standaid
v. Uk' ;av n«a't*it«as sisued' wl^en knowledge was m
^ k«. aad la thoM few hands meagre and umc-
on tlie north and east by the Opuntian Loerians and tu
EuboK* sea, and on the south by Attica and the Ualrv r.. a
sea. This country may be described' as consisting of ttu
basins of very irregular form and of unequal dimensi •:.%.
the valley of the Asopus, and the lower part of the lan (
the Ophisus. The valley of the Asopus is bounded on t. #
south bi tlie range of Fames and Citharrun; the sii.*.;
basin of the Lake Hylike may perhaps be considered as
belonging to this division, which eontaiiied the towns Thel^^
Tanagra, Thespue, PUtcm, and Ascra. The oortLvra
division was not completely surrounded by natural bcLik-
daries, inasmuch aa the upper vale of the Cepbisua bei^ingtd
to the Phocians. It included the lake i^opais, and tiic
towns Orchocnenua, Ch»rooea, Corooea. Lebadee, a U
Haliartus. The following resemhlanoe or comparison has
been suggested between the two natural divisions uf t-.e
country: each of them had its lake and ita rivor; arid as
those who dwelt by the Cepbisua wera called Bpicepti •■.
so those who inhabited the marshy land near the A^tf'Os
acre called Paraaopii; perhapa also Plarapotamti. as ««
would infer fiom a passage in Euripides cBerrA^r, t^t'
Herm.). There waa also a Phodan town called Para^v-
tamii on the Cepbisus. In antient timet the two v «.•
levs were under the separate dominwn of the two t* ••>?■«
which in each of them were mo»t distinguished by ti.< -
eealth and populatioo. In the northern Oiehomenus i. - s
UmL l>wfcrm»rly iiiw prutw t>4lwH fWihiM l»W»— 4 mO^
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BOB
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B O E
long tine took tbe lead, and the Qity on tlie Ismenus, under
the different names of Cadmea and Thebes, was always the
ruling power in the southern portion. On the coast of the
Euboic sea were the towns of Anthedon and Anlis ; and a
few miles N.W. of the latter, at the foot of the mountain
of the same name« was the unfortunate Mycalessus.
According to the recent survey of Captain Copeland, a
mountain wall lines the whole continental coast of the Eu-
ripus. from the valley of the Asopus to the flats at the
outlet of the Sperchius. From Cape Grados, which is im-
mediately opposite to the islet called Strongile or round, the
mountains run westward and form the boundary between
the basin of the Cephisus and the Sperchius, known in
former times as the range of Oeta. This high mountain-
barrier from the outlet of the Asopus, nearly as far north as
tbe bold rocky coast of Capo Stalamata, which is a little
north of the ruins of Larymna, belongs tp the antient
Bceotia. The heights marked along this coast, beginning
with that nearest to the mouth of the Asopus, are as follows :
names are not ^iven to all of, them in the survey— 1 780 feet,
1909, Mount Ktypa34dl feet; one of these three is pro-
bably the Salganeus of Strabo. North of these elevations,
still following the coast, the following are marked — 1303,
2655. 2272, C. Skropo-neri 1319, 1630, hills near the ruins
on the site of Larymna, 1856 feet. The whole length of the
coast of Bcaotia, following the indentations, is perhaps about
thirty miles. The coast of Eubcea opposite to Stalamata
and Larymna rises still higher, and the narrow sea between
the two coasts is in some places more than siitty fathoms
deep. There is also deep water along tbe Bmotian and
Eub(je;in coasts, southward to where the Euripus narrows
at AuUs. From the point where the contractea channel of
the Euripus begins to widen again, a low tract which con-
tains the outlet of the Asopus continues for some miles
aion^ the coast to where the high lands of the range of
J^iiraes abut on the sea.
After describing the coast, Strabo observes (p. 405. Ca-
saub.) * that the interior consists of hollow plains, surrounded
on all sides by mountains : on the south by those of Attica,
on the north by those of Phocis ; on the west Cithseron
enters the province in an oblique direction, having its origin
a little above the Crisseoan gulf, where it joins the moun-
tains of Attica and Megaris, and then turning into the plain
country subsides in the territory of Thebes.' The basin of
the lake Copais must no doubt be at a considerable ele-
vation. Thiersch asserts that the level of the lake Copais
is more than 1000 feet above the sea, but this is an exagge-
ration, and the statement appears to be only a guess. This
lake is the receptacle of an extensive drainage. The Ce-
phisus, which rises in the high central mountains of this
part of the continent, runs in a long vallev by a general
south-east course into the lake Copais, which receives also
the waters of the small streams of the Melas and Laphys*
tius. The lake is separated from the sea by the range
of Mount Ploon, about four or five miles across. Between
the eastern end of the lake and the sea there are subterra-
neous channels, but the wells or shafts which communicate
with them are now choked up. (See Thiersch, Etat actuel da
la Grece, ii. p. 23.) The great work for draining the lake is
one of the oldest existing memorials of the civilization of
the country. These conduits having become choked up
from neglect. Crates of Chalcis, in the time of Alexander,
began to restore them, and be succeeded so fur, in spite of
the civil troubles, that the sites of the antient Orchomenu^
and Eleusis were discovered. When Strabo says that the
Cephisus discharges itself into the sea near Larymna, he
does not probably mean to say that this is a natural outlet.
He says in another passage (p. 406) ' that a chasm having
opened close upon the l^e near CopsD, made an under-
ground passage for the stream thurty stadia long, which
received the river. The Cephisus emerged at Larymna of
Locris, where there is a lake of the same name, and entered
the sea.' A small stream is marked in Captain Copeland' s
map near Larymna, which may probably be the stream
mentioned by Strabo. The basin of the Copais contains a
large amount of fertile land, capable of growing cotton
and other products in abundance.
According to Dica^archus, the length of BcBotia was
500, its breadth 270 stadia. Its surface is 1080 square
miles, and its population, according to Mr. Clinton's deduc-
tions, was, in the timo of Thucydides and Xenophon,
130,500 (Fast. Bell. ii. 399); but we do not consider either
of these estimates as resting on any solid reason. If we
admit the area to approximate to the truth, whiob we doubti
the population given is unreasonably low for a country
which is very mrtile, and was probably well cultivatecL
Kent, an agricultural county, which contains a very large
proportion of poor land, has a population of 480,000 on a
surface of 1557 square miles. Xenophon says that the
Athenians and Bceotians were on a par in point of popula-
tion, but probably there were not so many slaves in Boeotia
as in Attica. Boeotia was remarkable in antient times for
its extraordinary fertility, and we agree with Mr. Thirlwall
in thinking * that it was this cause more than the dampness
and thickness of their atmosphere that depressed the intel-
lectual and moral energies of the Boeotians, and justified
the ridicule which their temperate and wittv neighbours so
freely poured on their proverbial failing.' iHist. qf Greece,
p. 12.) We might add that among the Greeks piggishness
was another name for sensuality, not for stupidity and dull-
ness. Some of the principal productions and manufactures
of the country are enumerated in the Acliarnians of Aris-
tophanes, V. 781, seq. The linen fabrics of Bceotia were
held in great estimation, and the iron mines which were
antiently worked in the eastern chain of mountains supplied
the material for the famed Boeotian cutlery ; hence we read
in antient writers of Aonian iron, Aonian weapons, and
helmets of B<notian workmanship, when excellence is meant
to be described.
There is perhaps no country of Hellas, with respect to the
antient inhabitants of which so many and such complicated
traditions exist. We may divide the earliest of these tra-
ditions into two classes, one including those which refer to
the Egyptians as the earliest inhubitants of Boeotia, the
other containing those traditions to which we owe the old
story of a Phoenician colony. It is very difficult to dis«
tinguish between truth and fiction in these narratives.
With respect to the former class we are inclined to reject
them altogether. The arguments urged in support of them
are principally derived from the similarities existing be-
tween Egypt and Boeotia ; the Melas used to overtiow its
banks like the Nile ; the lake Copais was covered with
swimming islands like those near Bute; the Nymphaea
alba and melons grew both in Egypt and in Boeotia, whirh
were equally celebrated for their linen manufactures, and
the same veneration was paid to the eel in both countries.
Besides, the name of the traditionary king of Orohomenus,
Minyas, is nearly the same with that of the first Egyptian
monarch, Menes or Min. But these arguments are quite
fallacious, for the similarity of products may be suflolciently
accounted for from other causes, and the fundamental
worship of the Orchomenians, namely, that of the Cha-
rites or Graces, had nothing corresponding to it in Egypt
(Herod, ii. 50). As to the similarity between the legend
of Trophonius and Agamedes, and the story told in
Herodotus (ii. 121) of the treasury of Rhampsinitus, C. O.
Miiller has shown (Orchom. p. 100) that the former ex-
isted among the Triphylian Minyans before the time of
Psammetichus, when the connexion between Egypt and
Greece became more intimate, and therefore that it could
not have been derived from Egypt after that time. This-
does not indeed altogether remove the difiiculty, for the
story may have existed in Egypt at the time when the
supposed colony sailed for B(£Otia, and may have been
carried thither \ but when we consider how commonly the
Egyptian priests appropriated the Greek legends, and how
easily, when there was one point of resemblance between
two legends existing in the dinerent countries, they invented
an identity, we shall scarcely hesitate to add this to the nu-
merous forgeries with which they imposed upon the credu-
lity of the Greek travellers.
The traditions of the second class, which are much older,
and consequently more involved than the former, relate that
Thebes was founded by a Phoenician prince named Cadmus,
when in search of his sister Europa, who had been carried
ott hy Jupiter. But this legend admits of the following
plausible solution, which is due to C. O. Miiller iOrchom.
p. 118) :— It was the custom of the Greeks to refer to Cad-
mus, when they had once transformed him from a PelaHgic
god into a Phoenician prince, all the actions of the Pliud-
nicians in Greece and in the iEgean Sea. For example,
the Phoenicians were the first workers of the gold mines in
Thasos: hence Thasos is set down as a brother of Cadmus,
and the relation of the Phoenicians to the Thasians is re-
ferred to the search after Europa. Similarly, as the Phoa-
nicians taught the Greeks the characters pf the alphabet, ,
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44
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the fiipposed Phoenician, Cadmus, was made tho personifl-
cation of this action. Now it is not probable that Thobes,
an inland towp, which hod no internal commerce, and where
trading was in fact stigmatised, should have been founded
by the PhoBnictans, who generally built no cities but as
emporia for traffic. We are therefore thrown back upon
the supposition that the whole story is a fiction, arising out
of a misunderstanding of the completely Greek name
Phoenix, and that Cadmus was, as there are many reasons
for supposing, an indigenous Theban name. Tho old in-
habitants of Thebes were called Cadmeans, their city Cad-
meia, and they carried this ethnic name with them into
their colonies. Cadmus was probably a deity of the Tyrr-
henian Pelasgt, a tribe whom Muller considers to have been
originally one and the same with the Cadmeans {Orchom.
p. 121); and this appears to be confirmed by the etymology
of the word KaSfio^ (cad, found in ca2;*w, Ki-KaS'fuyog)^ and
by what Herodotus says (ii. 52) about the Pelas$*ic deriva-
tion of the word Otot. Besides, the effect produced by Cad-
mus sowing the dragon's teeth, in the supposed PhcBnician
legend, is the same as taat experienced by Jason. Now
Jason is an lolcian Minyan, that is, a Pelat^gian ; therefore,
if, as is generally supposed, a sameness of mythi argues a
relationship of the people in which they exist, Cadmus and
the Cadmeans were Pelasgian also. The Cadmean dynasty,
celebrated in antient poetry, and especially in the Greek
drama, is purely mythical ; the wholo genealogy is nothing
but the development of the idea of an offended primitive
power, and a statement in the form of a narrative of tho pu-
rifications necessary to conciliate it. (See Miiller's Second
Es$ay on the Eumenides, sec. 81.)
The Cadmeans and the cognate tribe of the Minyana oc-
cupied BcBotia till about sixty years after the taking of
Troy, when they were driven out by the iEolian BcBotions,
a Thessalian people, settled in tho upper vale of the Api-
danus, and in the neighbourhood of the Pagasetic bay, who
had themselves been forced to leave their settlements by the
Thessalian immigration from Thesprotia. According to
one tradition tbe Boeotians not only expelled tho Cadmeans,
but also a Thracian tribe, who had taken up their abode in
Ascra and other towns at the foot of Mount Helicon. These
Thracians were a half-Greek people, and were connected
with the Pierian Tluracians. as is proved by their common
worship of the muses, and their Orphic-Dionysian rites.
Their bionysius however was not the same with the Cad-
mean, who was represented as a co-deity of the Tlieban
Demeter. [See Bacchus and Dbmeter.] Tliucydides
says (i. 12) — *The Boeotians who now inhabit the country
were expelled from Arne by the Thessalians sixty years
after the taking of Troy, and colonized the laud now called
BoBOtia, but formerly known by the name Cadmeis.* He
adds, parenthetically—' There was however a portion of
them (i&ro^aa/ioc) in this country, even before that time, and
to this belong the Boeotians who took part in the expedition
against Troy.* Now it seems probable that Homer, or who-
ever drew up the catalogue of the ships, introduced the
Bosotians into it merely to please the then inhabitants of
that country, to whom his wanderings probably extended,
and the remark of Thucydides is perhaps only a proviso to
reconcile the historical fact with the authority of the poet,
which was in his time considered incontrovertible. (See
Miiller's Orchom, p. 394.) The BoBotians having thus ex-
pelled the Minyans from Orchomenus, and the Cadmeans
from Thebes, the former fled to Laconia, whence thev were
driven by the Dorian invasion twenty years afterwards, and
took refuge some of them in Triphylia, others in Thera, and
these at a later period went with the colony to Cyrene. (See
Thriges Res Cyrenensium.) Tho Gephyncans and the
iBguls, who were priest-families of the Cadmeans, proceeded
to Athens and Sparta ; but the old Pelasgic people, the Cad-
mean commonalty, first went to Athens and thence to Lem-
nos, Samothrace, and the roasts of ^Eolis. Twenty years
after tho iKolian conauest of BoBotia, the Dorian invasion of
the Peloponnesus took place, and the expelled Pelopids and
Achaeans, on their way to Asia through Bceotia, were joined
by so many of the MoM^n Bmotisns, that the settlement is
generally known by the name of the ifiolian or Boeotian
colony. (Strabo, 402, c.)
We have only fragmentary information with respect to
the eariy history of the people, which from this time con-
tinued to be the inhabitants of Bcsotia, nor are we able to
speak with much certainty of tbe constitutions of the dif-
ferent towns, sod of their relation to one mother. We know
from iEschines that the Boeotians were members of the
Amphictyonic assembly, and we are informed by vsirioui
authors that the Bcei)tian towns soon became nicmlteni I'f a
league of which the Theban state was the head, llie il«-
puties of the confederate states met in the nlain bcf* ic
Coroneia, at the temple of Athena of Iton ; anu this mct*t-
ing took place at the festival of the PambcDutia. £ver> oii<*
of the confederate states was, as such, free, but scvrrnl i f
them had smaller towns dependent upon thom. (See Tliu-
cydides, iv. 76, and Dr. Arnold's note.) It is \cry drllU-uU
to determine the number of the independent states ; Imt a>k
wo are told that at the antient festival of the Dtedala, whkli
was celebrated every sixty years at PlattcsD, fourteen wt^nlen
images were carried in proceesion to the summit of Cithirrc*n,
and as we know that seven was a holy number among the
Boeotians, we may infer that fourteen was originally the
number of the members of the confederacy, just as we fiod
in other states that hol^ numbers are made the ba^is of
political divisions. (Mullcr's Orchom, p. 22*2 ; Nicbuhr\
Bome, vol. ii. p. 84, English translation.) Muller conjec-
tures (p. 403, note) that theso fourteen states were, Tliebe».
Orchomenus, Lebadeia, Coroneia, Copea, HaHartus,Tl)esipi«',
Tanagra, Ocalem, Onchestus, Anthedon, Chalia, Plata^R>.
and Kleuthera). We are pretty certain that tho firft ci^ht
and Anthedon were members of the confederacy ; for OcaU-a>
we would substitute Oropus. Now it appears that at the
time of the battle of Delium (nx. 424) there were (ncconl-
ing to our interpretation of Thucydides. iv. Ul, an interpre-
tation which Muller once adopted, Orchom, p. 409, r.otc, lut
now rejects, Gott. Gel. Anz. 1830. p. 1072) twelve Bopo-
tarchs. These Boeotarchs were the representatives of the
different towns of the confederacy, Thebes having two vutcf«
among them. There were therefore at that time elc\cu
confederate towns, which is easily accounted for by the fart
that Plata^o) was not in existence, and that Eleuihenc ai.d
Oropus wero under the dominion of Athens ; and a simi!..!
dimmution of the confederacy was perhaps the rea>on wI«y
at the battle of Leuctra there were only seven Boe^turchn.
The affairs of the confederacy were debated at four nali^-nul
councils, the BaK)tarchs having the initiative authority. liic
members of the council the power of confirmation. (Thuc>-
dides, V. 38.) The Boeotian confederacy was dissolved tn
B.C. 171, after having undergone many changes and fluc-
tuations. (See Clinton's Fast, HelL ii. 398, h.)
With regard to the form of govemroeut which pre\ ailed
in the several Boeotian towns, we have good reason fur be-
lieving that it was the same with that of Thebes, which wai
in tho historical times generally a rigid oligarchy. In or
shortly after the 13th Olympiad, Philolaus, a Corinthian
noble, retired to Thebes, where he undertook the business
of legislating, apparently with the view to correct some of
those instabilities which were constantly taking place, ami
threatening to destroy the equilibrium of the antient aris-
tocracies. This object he seems to have effecteil bv the in-
troduction of v6/Mi Ofniroi, or adoptive laws, by which pro-
bably the adoption of younger sons from other families was
insisted upon in cases where a member of the ruling cas>te
had no offspring of his own, and so a diminution of I be
nunibers of the privileged order was obviated. ( ArtsU't.
Polit. ii. 12.) The executive power was vested in an
archon, chosen yearly by ballot. With such a government
the Boeotians must naturally have been oppmed to the
neighbouring democrat ical state of Attica; and aax>n«insly
we find them about the year 607 B.C. joining the Pelopoo-
nesians and Chalcidians in an attack upon Uie Athenians
(Herod, v. 74, &c.), and probably the same cause made
them go over to the Persians in 480 b.c. The victory at
PlatmiD deprived them of their authority in the Boeotian
league, until the Lacedcemonians, from interested con«>i-
derations, acceded to the wishes of the oligarchical party in
tho lesser states, and restored to them in 467 B.C., the
power which they had taken from them. In the year 4^5
B.C., the decisive battle of GSnophyta subjected all BoBt.t&i
to the Athenians, and Thebes became democratical ; tiut a
few years after (447 B.C.) in consequence of some abuse of
po>ver on the part of the democracy, the oligarchical form uf
government was restored (see Aristot Pol, v. 2. eomp. v.
6.), and the signal defeat sustained by the Atheni.ins o:
Coroneia freed Boeotia from her foreign yoke. The Thel».» ui
were active partisans of Sparta in the Peloponnesian «ar.
and contributed mainly to the downfall of Athens ; but xi\
the year 395 n.c, they became members of the confederacy
against Lacedoemon, which was broken up in the coune of the
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fbllowingn^ear by tbe victory which Agesilaus gained over
them at Coroneia. The peace of Antalcidas followed (387
B.c.)i and five years after the treacherous seizure of the Cad-
mea or citadel of Tliebes, by Phosbidas the Lacedaemonian
and its subsequent recovery by Pelopidas, brought about an-
other war between BoDotia and Lacedcemon, in which the
great abilities of the Theban p;enerals, Epaminondas and
Pelopidas, made BcBotia the leading power in Greece. But
the furraer fell at Mantineia, and the power of Thebes fell
with him. The Macedonian influence now began to pre-
vail ; Athens and Thebes were overthrown by Philip at
ChoDroneia (338 B.C.), and three years afler the latter city
was entirely destroyed by Alexander the Great, and its ter-
ritory divided amon;; the Periceci. In the year 315 B.C.,
CassunJer rebuilt Thebes, with the zealous co-operation of
the Aihenians, but it never regained its political import-
ance. Thebes favoured the Roman cause in the war with
Perseus, but it dwindled away to a mere nothing under the
Roman dominion. (Pausan. viii. 33. 1.)
Notwithstanding the proverbial dullness of the Bceotians,
some of the great writers of Greece were natives of this dis-
trict. Hesiod was born at Ascra, Corinna at Tanagra,
Pindar at Cynoscephalse, and Plutarch at Chasroneia.
AVe refer those who wish to investigate fully the difficult
subject of the early history and government of the BcBotian
towns to C, O. Miiller's work, Orchomenos und die Minr/er,
Brcslau, 1820, which we have often quoted ; to G. A.
Kliitz, De Faedere BoboU'co, Berol, 1821; and to Wach-
smuth's Hellen. Allerthumsk. L i. p. 128.
BOERHAAVE, HERMANN, was bom on the 31st of
December, IGG8, at Voorhout, a village two miles fVom Ley-
den, of which his father, James Boerhaave, was the minister.
Being designed for the church, he was instructed by his
father in the classical languages, and at the age of eleven
he was already able to translate both Greek and Latin with
tolerable accuracy. About this time an accident occurred
which perhaps first turned his thoughts to that profession of
which ne became so brilliant an ornament. In the twelfth
year of his ago a malignant ulcer broke out upon his left
thigh, which not only set all the resources of medicine at
deliance, but exposed'him to such painful applications, that
it was hard to say whether the remedies were not more tor-
menting than the disease. Tired of these useless experi-
ments, he took the management of his case into his own
hands, and finally effected a cure by dressing the ulcer
with salt and urine. Partly for the sake of his education,
and partly that he might have the benefit of surgical ad-
vice, he was taken by his father in 1682 to Leyden, where
he was placed iu the fourth class of the public school. His
genius and industry soon raised him to the sixth, from which
it was usual, after six months, to bo transferred to the uni-
versity. But on the 12th of November, 1682, his father
died, leaving a very slender provision for his widow and
nine children. Triglandius (one of his father's friends, who
was soon after made professor of divinity at Lcyden) recom-
mended young Boerhaave to Van Alpen, in whom he found
a generous and constant patron.
Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Chaldee, with antient, modem,
and ecclesiastical history, and the mathematics, were among
his more especial studies, and he soon began to give
public proofs of bis eloquence and erudition. In 1688
he delivered an oration before Gronorins, the professor of
Greek. (' Oratio academica, quS probatur, ben^ intellectam
\ Cicerone, et confutatam esse, sententiam Epicuri de sum-
mo bono,* Lugduni Bat. 1690.) In 1689 he took the de-
gree of doctor of philosophy, the subject of his inaugural
thesis being the distinction between the soul and the body.
(* Dissertatio inauguralis de distinctione mentis d corpore,*
Lugduni Bat. 1690.) In this, as in his former discourse, he
refuted the atheistical doctrines of Epicurus and Spinosa,
and obtained a great reputation for piety and learning.
About this time, having exhausted bis scanty resources,
he taught the mathematics as a means of enabling him to
continue his studies. Without giving up his intention of
entering the ministry, he now began the study ofphysic by
a diligent perusal of Vesalius, Bartholinus, and rallopius ;
he was a constant attendant at Nuck*s anatomical demon-
strations, and examined the anatomy of different animals
himself. After he had gone through a course of medical
reading, finding, as he tells us, that Hippocrates was the
fountain of all medical knowledge, and that all later writers
were little more than transcribers from him, he returned to
him, and spent much time in making extracts from his
writings, digesting them in order, and fixing them in his
memory. Among the modems none engag^ him longer,
or with more profit, than Sydenham, to whose merits he
has left the attestation, ' that he perused him frequently
and each time with greater eagerness.' He prosecuted
chemistry and botany with equal ardour, and, in conjunction
with all these inquiries, still pursued his theological studies.
He took the doCTee of doctor of physic at Hardewick in
1693, having held a public disputation ' De utilitate explo-
randorum excrementorum in segris, ut sigtioram.* (Harde-
wick, 1693 ; Lugduni Bat. 1742.) He now returned to
Leyden with the design of undertaking the ministry, but
was diverted from his purpose by a singular accident. A
short time before, Boerhaave happened to be in a public
boat, when a conversation arose among the passengers con-
cerning the doctrines of Spinosa, which, as they all agreed,
tended to the utter o^•crlh^ow of religion. At last one of
them began to inveigh against Spinosa in so violent a
strain, that Boerhaave, wearied with his angry invectives,
asked if he had ever read the author against whom he was
declaiming. The speakei^ was checked in the midst of his
invectives ; this was observed by a stranger, who inquired
the name of the young man whose question had put an end
to the discourse, and set it down in his pocket-book. In a
few days it was the common talk at Leyden that Boerhaave
had gone over to Spinosa. Had Boerhaave been at this
time firmly rooted in his design of entering the church, it is
diflScult to conceive that tliis absurd calumny could hai'e
made him change his resolution. It seems more probable
that, feeling himself eminently skilled both in tlieology and
physic, he was wavering in his choice of a profession; and
as the slightest weight will turn a loaded but well-balanced
beam, so even the breath of a slanderer made Boerhaave
a physician.
He now commenced the practice ofphysic, and his time
was taken up with visiting the sick, studying, making che-
mical experiments, investigating every part of medicine
with the utmost diligence, teaching the mathematics, and
reading the Scriptures. In 1701 he was recommended by
Van Berg to the university as a proper person to succeed
Drelincourt in the lectureship of the theory of medicine.
He was elected on the 18th of May, and his inaugural dis-
course was on the study of Hippocrates. (' Oratio de com-
mendando studio Hippocratico,* Lugduni Bat 1701.) His
lectures were receit'ed with groat applause, and he was soon
prevailed upon by his audience to enlarge his original de-
sign, and instruct them in chemistry. This he undertook,
not only to the advantage of his pupils, but to that of the
science itself.
It was then, in 1703, that be delivered his lecture ' De
usu ratiocinii mechanic! in medicind,* and also began, in
theory at least, to leave the Htppocratic method of simple
observation, and to intrude mechanical speculations into the
domain of the art of healing. Thus he supposed that the
adaptation of the calibre of the vessels to the size of the
globules of the animal iluids was the principle which regu-
lated the circulation of the humours, their separation from
the blood in the different organs of secretion, as well as tho
morbid congestion of the blood in detiuxions, tumours, and
inHammations ; so that, in the treatment of disease, all the
efforts of the physician were to be directed to the re-esta-
blishment of this mechanical equilibrium, and the medicines
g'ven with this intention were called deobstruents, incisives,
c. To these mechanical hypotheses he joined chemical
ones ; thus he supposed many morbid phenomena to arise
fh>m acrimony of the blood, which it was the business of the
physician to neutralise. This part of his doctrine, the hu-
moral pathology, as it is called, though banished fur a time
fh>m the schools, has always kept its hold on popular belief,
and bids fair to revive again. Late investigations into ani-
mal chemistry have shown that certain deviations from the
healthy composition of the blood accompany, if they do not
produce, certain diseases. Thus in jaundice the blood con-
tains both the colouring matter and the resin of the bile; in
gout the blood is loaded with earthy phosphates; and in
cholera it is deficient both in water and in alkaline salts.
But the most remarkable of all these statements respects
chlorosis : in this disease, where the sickly pallor of the pa-
tient would naturally be attributed by the ordinary obsener
to deficiency or poorness of the blood, we find a singular
deficiency of colouring matter : a thousand parts of blood,
which ought to contain 133 parts of colouring matter, in one
case contained only 62 \ in another but 48 * 7, (Jennings on
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tna Chemittry of the Blood, in the Trans, of thoProv.lffod.
and Surg. Auociation, vol. iii.)
The reputation of Boerhaave now began to bear some
proportion to his merit, and accordingly in 1703 the pro-
fesgornhip of physic being vacant at Oroningen, he was
invited thither, but he preferred remaining at Loyden.
He had now read lectures on physic for eight years with-
out the title or dignity of a professor, when in 1709 he
obtained the choir of medicine and botany vacant by the
death of Hotton. His inauKural discourse was on simplicity
in the practice of physic, * Oratio quit repurgatse meaicinsB
facilis asseritur simpHcitas/ Lugdun. Bat. 1709. At this
time alsio he published the ' Institutiones medicss in usus
annusB exercitationis domesticos.* Lugdun. Bat. 1708, 1713,
1720. 1727, 1734. 1746; and Lutetin, 1722, 1737, 1747;
and the * Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandia morbis, in
u«um doctrine raedicinn,* Lugdun. Bat. 1709, 1715, 1728,
1734. 1742; Lutetis, 1720, 1726, 1728. 1745, 1747.
On these two great works the reputation of Boerhaave is
founded : they have been translated into several European
languages and even into Arabic ; and Van Swieten, him-
self a physician of no ordinary talent, illustrated the apho-
risms with a commentary extending to five miarto volumes.
H alter published a commentary on the 'Institutions' in
seven quarto volumes, Leyden, 1 750 ; and Lamettrie pub-
Hi^hed a French translation with notes, 'Institutions et
Aphorismes,' Paris, 1 743, 8 vols. 12mo.
In the 'Institutions* Boerhaave indicates the plan of
study to be followed by a physician ; be gives a compen-
dious history of the art, and an account of the preliminary
knowledge which is necessary for its practice ; then, enter*
ing upon his subject, in five successive chapters he describes
the parts and functions of the body, their alterations, the
signs of health and disease, together with hygiene and the
art of prolonging life. Lastly, he treats of the aids which
art affbrds to medicine ; here he details the system on the
principles of which we slightly touched above. It was the
broadest and most comprehensive view that had yet been
taken ; a model of erudition and method, embellished rather
than encumbered by his opinions on the acrimony of the
fluids, and his mechanical and hydraulic theories. In his
'Aphorisms* Boerhaave gives a classification of diseases,
and sets forth their causes, their nature, and their treat-
ment, with a short but accurate summary of the whole of
antient and modem medicine. This, like the former work,
is a masterpiece of learning, order, and correctness of style.
Boerhaave shed almost eaual lustre upon the chair of
botany, which he held with tnat of medicine, by the publi-
cation of his ' Index Plantarum que in horto academico
Lu^duno-Batavo repcriuntur,' Lugduni, Bat. 1710, 1718,
fivo. An enlarged edition of this work, with plates, ap-
peared under the title of ' Index alter plantarum quas in
horto academico Lugduno-Batavo aluntur,* Lugduni, Bat.
1 720. 4to., 1 727, 2 vols. 4to. Boerhaave greatly increased
the number of specimens in the botanical garden ; he
figured new plants, established new genera, and was one
of the first who introduced the stamina and the sexual
dilferences among their characteristic distinctions.
In 1715 Boerhaave was made rector of the university of
Loyden, and in the same year was appointed physician to
St. Augustine's Hospital, and professor of practical medi-
cine, having already delivered the lectures more than ten
years. Twice a week he gave clinical lectures at the hos-
pital, aiid, like other great physicians, forgetting his theories
for awhile, distinguished and treated the complex forms of
disease before him with that unrivalled tact which stamped
him the fimt practitioner of his age. On laving down his
office of rector, Boerhaave delivered one of his finest ora-
tions. 'Oratio de coinparando certo in physicis,* Lugduni
But. 1715, 4to.
He already held the chain of theoretical medicine, proo-
ticil medicine, and botany, and on the death of Lemort in
1718, that of chemistry was added to the number, a subject
oil which he had lectured since 1703. In conformity with
hi^ ruAtoin. he opened his course by a general discourse
worthy of hit other performances of that kind, ' Oratio de
clicMii.i ftuuH nrrores expurgante,' Lugduni Bat. 1718, 4to.
H<K»rliaave wim one of the first who made chemistry de-
lichiliil and inlcUi^ible; and though the rapid progress
ot i\w ftcicitcc h:iM made hiii works on i\\\* subject ub»olete,
hi» \\\\\ «*viT he mentii»n»Ml wiih voneration in its history.
Ho exrelUnl m experiments, and repeated them with un-
wearied patience ; ho performed one experiment 300^ and
another 877 timet. He was skilled in organic chemiitry,
and showed how the animal fluids might be decomposed
by simple means, and how to avoid destructive distillation
over the open fire, in the manner then practised. The
fame acouired by his elements of chemistrjr may in some
measure be judged by the following list of Us editions: —
' Elementa Chemise qun anniversario labore docuit in pub-
licis privatisque scholis,* Lutet. 1724, 2 vols. 8vo. ; Lugduni
Bat 1732, 4to.; Lutet. 1733, 1763, 2 vols. 4to., with tho
author's minor works : another edition printed at the Hague
in 1746, in 8vo , translated into French by Allamand and
enlarged by Tarin, Paris, 1754, 6 vols. 12mo. ; of this La-
meltrie published a compendium under the title of ' Abr^;;^
de la Tn6orie Chimiaue tir6e des Merits de Boerhaave, avt r
le Traits du Vertige,* Paris, 1741, 12mo. There are also
English editions published in 1735 and 1741, and an abridg-
ment with critical notes in 1732.
The reader who is desirous of weighing Boerhaave'i
merits as a chemist must not consult the editions printed
before 1732, as they were published merely iVom his pupils*
notes. Boerhaave, of course, was not pleased with the in-
discreet seal of his pupils, who often published works which
in hia opinion were not yet ripe for the press : he complains
of it in the Leyden Gazette for 1726.
So many offices discharged with unparalleled success
obtained for Boerhaave a reputation which was almo»t with-
out a precedent, and which scarcely knew any other limits
than those of the civilized world. The learned of eveiy
Sart of Europe corresponded with him, and every academy
esired to be honoured by dissertations from the hand of
the most distinguished master of his art. There is a story
that a Chinese mandarin wrote him a letter, which eaMly
reached him, addressed merely To Boerhaave in Jiurop^,
The anecdote may be apocryphal, but it shows the univer-
sality of his fame. Much of his time was of course taken
up with patients, some of whom came to consult him from
the most distant countries of Europe ; and in answering
letters, which in urgent cases were sent to ask the advice
of the first physician in the world. The pecuniary proceeds
of his practice must have been enormous, for at his death
he left more than two millions of tlorins. He was elected
a correspondent of the Academy of Sciences at Paris in
1715, and a foreign associate in 1728; in 1730 he wa«
elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. He com-
municated to the Royal Society and to the French Academy
some observations on mercury, which were published in the
Philosophical Transactions and in the Memoirs of the Aca-
demy of Sciences for 1 734.
In 1 722 his course both of lectures and practice was in-
terrupted by the gout, which he brought upon himself, he
says, by an imprudent confidence in the strength of his
constitution, and by transgressing those rules which he had
a thousand times inculcated upon his friends and pupiK.
Rising before day 'break, he had gone hot and perspinni;
from his bed into the open air, and exposed himself to the
chill breezes of the morning. In consequence of his illnc»s
he lay five months in bed without daring to move, becau<»e
any effi)rt renewed his torments, which were so exouUiCc.
that he was at length not only deprived of motion but ut
sense. In the sixth month of his illness, having obtained
some remission, he took simple medicines in large Quanti-
ties, and got well. His unexpected recovery was eelebrate<I
on the 1 1th January, 1723, by a public illumination. Frt»-h
attacks of illness in 1 727 and 1 729 shattered his constitution
and forced him to resign the professorships of chemistry and
botany : on this occasion he delivered tne lecture entitled
' Oratio quam habuit cum botanicam et chemicam profes-
sionem public^ poneret/ Lugduni Bat 1729, 4to.
In 1 730 he was again elected rector of the university, and
on Quitting this honourable office he delivered a disoourn*
on the subserviency of the physician to nature, * De honore
medici servitute,* Lugduni Bat. 1 731, 4to. About the mid-
dle of 1737 that illness began which proved fatal. In a
letter to a friend in London, dated September 8th, 173S, he
details the symptoms with a masterly hand ; and it appears
clearly from his description that ho was labouring under
organic disease of the ueart, with its ordinary concomitants
— general dropsy, disturbed sleep, and a distressing sense
of suffocation. He expired on the 23rd of September,
1738, in his seventieth year.
Boerhaave was the most remarkable physician of hit
age, perhaps the greatest of modem times : a man who,
when we contemplate his genius, his erudition, the
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angular variety of his talents, his unfeigned piety, his
spoilets character, and the impress which he left not only
on contemporaneous practice, hut on that of succeeding
generations, stands forth as one of the brightest names on
the page of history, and may be quoted as an example
not only to physicians, but to mankind at large. ' He was
of a robust and athletic constitution of body/ says Hutchin-
son, ' so hardened by early severities and wholesome fatigue,
that he was insensible of any sharpness of air or inclemency
of weather. He was tall, and remarkable for extraordinary
strength. There was in his air and motion something
rough and artless, but so majestic and ^reat at the same
titne, that no man ever looked upon him without veneration,
and a kind of tacit submission to the superiority of his
genius. He was always cheerful and desirous of promoting
mirth by a facetious and humorous conversation. He was
never soured by calumny and detraction, nor ever thought
it necessary to confute them ; ' for they are sparks,* said he,
' which, if you do not blow them, will go out of themselves.*
The town of Leyden, which, on his recovery from his first
illness, had given him so signal a proof of its affection,
erected a monument to his memory in Su Peter's church.
He married, September 10th, 1710, Mary Drolenveaux,
the only daughter of a burgomaster of Leyden, by whom he
had four chudren, of whom one alone, Joanna Maria, sur-
vived her father ; the others died in their infancy.
In addition to the works which we have already men-
tioned, he published the following :—' O ratio de Vit^ et
Obitu Qarissimi Bernhardi Albini,* Lugduni Bat. 1721, 4to.
— ' Kpistola ad Ruyschium Clarissimum pro Sententifi Mai*
pighiand de Glandulis,' Amstelodami, 1 722. — * Atrocis nee
descripti priiks Morbi Historia, secundum Medico Artis
Leg:es consoripta,* Lugduni Bat. 1754, 8vo.— 'Atrocis Raris-
simique Morbi Historia Altera,' Lugduni Bat. 1 728, Svo.
The following works have been attributed to him, but are
not recognised as genuine in his own catalogue ; many of
them were in fact surreptitious editions of parts of his lec-
tures, of which some did not appear till after his death : —
* Tractatttsde Peste.* — ' Consul tationes Medicoe, sive Sylloge
Epistolarum cum Responsis ;* the ftrnt edition was published
at the Hague in 1 743, but it has been frequently reprinted.
— * Proelectiones Publico de Morbis Oculorum,* dictated by
Boerhaave in 1708 ; 6ottingen, 1746; frequently reprinted;
the best edition is Hallers, printed at Venice in 1748. —
* Introductio in Praxim Clinioam, sive Regulm Grenerales in
Praxi Clinicfiobeervandn,' Lugduni Bat. 1 740, Svo. — 'Praxis
Medica,* Londini, 1716, 12mo. — 'De Viribus Medicamen-
torum,' taken from the notes of his lecttures in 1711 and
17)2; Paris, 1 723, and many other editions.—' Experimenta
et Institutiones Cbe'mio,* Luteties, 1 728, 8vo., taken from
his lectures from 1718 to 1724. — 'Methodus discendi Medi-
cinara,' Amstelodami, 1726, 1734, 8vo., and other editions;
enlarged by Haller, who published it in two volumes, 4to.,
in 1751, under the title of 'Hermanni Boerhaave, Viri
Sum mi, suique Prseoeptoris, Methodus Studii Medici emen^
data et Accessionibus locupletata,* Amstelodami ; reprinted
at Venice in 1 753, two vols. Svo. There is a useful Index
renim et verborum«by Cornelius Pereboom, which it is well
to annex to it. — ' Historia Plantarum quee in Horto Acade-
mico Lugduni Batavorum crescunt,' printed at Leyden in
1712, but with Rome on the title-page» TheMi are London
editions of 1731 and 1^38, taken from his lectures from
1709 to 1728.
To these we may add an anonymous ' Index Plantarum ;*
' Commentaries on the Aphorisms,* 1 738, 8vo. \ ' A Lecture
on the Ston^,* London, 1740; and ' Lectures on Diseases of
the Nerves,' Leyden, 1761, and Frankfort, 1762.
Tlie works which he edited are— the works of Drelin-
court; the observations of Piso; the anatomical and surgical
works of Vetalius, edited in comunction with Albinus ; the
' Tractattts Medicus de Lue Venerea, prasflxus Aphrodl*
siaco;* the smaller anatomical works of Eustadiius^ Bellini
' On the Urine and Pulse ;' Prosper Alpinus ' On the Prog-
nosis of Life and Death;* and the celebrated edition of
AretsBUs.
Three works came out under the auspices of Boerhaave,
which probaUy would never have been published but for
his friendly aid : these ar^— ' The Physical Biatorv of the
Sea,* by Count Marsigli, Amsterdam> 1726, fol. ; the 'Bo-
tanioon Parisiense,* by Le Vaillant, who when dying sent
him the MS., Leyden, 1727, fol. ; and Swammerdam'a * His-
tory of Insect^,' printed at Amsterdam in 1737 in two vols,
folio, with plates, and a preftice by Boerhaave^
{Biographie Umverselle ; Hutchinson*s Biographia
BOE'THIUS, ANNIUS MANLIUS TORQUATUS
SEVERINUS, the most learned and almost the only
Latin philosopher of his time, descended from an antieat
and noble family, was bom at Rome a.d. 455, forty-six
years after the taking of tliat city by Alaric. Hams, in his
* Hermes,' observes that with Boethius the Latin tongue and
the last remains of Roman dignity may be said to have
sunk in the western world ; and Gibbon, that he was the
last of the Romans whom Cato or Tully would have acknow*
lodged for a countryman. His father was put to death by
Valentinian III., to whom he had been prssfect of the
palace, in the very vear in which his son was born. Though
deprived of his father, his other relations gave Boethius a
good education, and encouraged in him an early taste for
philosophy and letters. They sent him to Athens, where
these studies still flourished, and where he remained for
eighteen years, studying every branch of literature, but
more especially philosophy and mathematics. Plato, Aris-
totle, Euclid, and Ptolemy were his favourite authora.
Upon his return to Rome he soon attracted public attention,
and the most eminent persons of the city sought his friend-
sliip, foreseeing that his merit would advance him in the
state. His alliance, too, was consequently courted, and his
choice at last fixed on Elpis, a lady of literary attainments,
descended from one of the most considerable families of
Messina, who bore him two sons.
Boethius, as was expected, soon obtained the highest
honour his country could b3stow ; he was made consul in
the year 487, at the age of thirty-two, under Odoacer, king
of the Heruli, who at that time reigned in Italy. Two
years after the advancement of Boethius to this dignity,
Theodoric, king of the Goths, invaded the country, put
Odoacer to death, and fixed the seat of his government at
Ravenna. The Romans, and the inhabitimts of Italy
generally, became reconciled to the administration of affairs
under Theodoric, who ruled them by the same laws to which
they had been accustomed under the emperors ; and Boethius
had the singular felicity, in the eighth year of Theodoric's
reign, to see his two sons, Patricius and Hypatius, raised to
the consular dignity. During their continuance in office
Theodoric came to Rome. He was received by the senate
and people with the greatest joy, and Boethius pronounced
an elegant panegyric before him in the senate. Theodoric
answered in obUging terms, and promised never to encroach
upon the privileges of the Senate. In the eighteenth year
of Theodoric Boethius was advanced a second time to the
dignity of consul. The care of public affairs did not, however,
engross his whole attention. This year, as he himself in-
forms us, he wrote his ' Commentary upon the Predicaments,
or the Ten Categories of Aristotle.* In imitation of Cato,
Cicero, and Brutus, he devoted the whole of his time to the
service of the Commonwealth, and the cultivation of the
sciences. He published a variety of writings, in which he
treated upon almost every branch of literature. Besides the
Commentary upon Aristotle's Categories, he wrote an expla-
nation of that philo8opher*8 Topics, in eight books ; another,
of his Sophisms, in two books; and commentaries upon
many other parts of his writings. He translated the whole
of Plato's works; he wrote a commentary, in six books,
upon Cicero's Topics ; he commented also upon Porphyry's
writings; he published a discourse on Rhetoric, in one
book ; a treatise on Arithmetic, in two books ; and another,
in five books, upon Music; he wrote three books upon
Cieometry, the last of which is lost; he translated Euclid,
and wrote a treatise upon the quadrature of the Circle,
neither of which performances is now extant ; he published
also translations of the works of Ptolemy of Alexandria;
and of the writings of the celebrated Archimedes ; and
several treatises upon theological and metaphysical sub-
jects, which are extant.
The acuteness and profound erudition displayed in such
a diversity of works, upon all subjects, acquired Boethius a
great reputation, not only among his countrymen, but with
foreigners. Gondebald, king of the Burgundians, who had
married a daughter of Theodoric, came to Ravenna on a
visit io his father-in-law, and thence went to Rome, not
only with a view to see the beauties of the city, but that he
might have the pleasure of conversing with Boethius. The
philosopher showed him several curious mechanical works
of his own invention, particularly two time-keepers, one of
which pointed out the sun's diurnal and annual motion ia
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the ecliptic, upon a moveable sphere; and tbc olLcr Ca
clepsydra) indicated the hours of the day by the drop-
ping of water from one vessel into another. Gundebald
vas so well pleased with these contrivances, that upon
his return home he dispatched ambassadors to Theodonc,
praying that ho would procure for him the two wonderlhl
time nieces which he had seen at Rome. The letter which
Thcodoric wrote to Boethius on this occasion, expressing
Gondobald's importunity, and requesting the philosopher's
compliance, is preserved by Cassiodorus.
During the course of these transactions Boethius lost his
wife Klpis, but married a second time, Rusticiana, the
daughter of Symmachus, along with whom, in the year
522, he was a tuiitl time elected consul. It was during this
consulship that he fell under the displeasure of Thcodoric.
Theodoric was an Arian ; and Boethms, who was a Catho-
lic, published about this time a book upon the unity of the
Trinity, in opposition to the Arians. Nestorians, and Euty-
chians. Tins treatise, which was universally read, maoe
him many enemies at court, who insinuated that Boethius
wanted not only to destroy Arianism, but to effect a change
of government, and deliver Italy from the dominion of the
Goths. From his credit and his inlluence he was represented
as the most likely person to bring about such a revolution.
Whilo his enemies were thus busied at Ravenna, they
employed emissaries to sow the seeds of discontent at Rome,
and to excite factious people to oppose him there in the ex-
ercise of bis office of consul. Boethius persisted resolutely
in his endeavours to promote the public welfare, but his in-
tegrity and steadiness only hastened his fall. Tlieodoric,
corrupted probably by a long scries of good fortune, began
now to throw off the mask. This prince, though an Arian,
had hitherto expressed sentiments of moderation toward the
Catholics ; but probably fearing that they bad an intention
to overthrow his government, he began to treat them with
severity. Boethius was one of the first w ho became a victim
to his rigour. He had continued long in favour with his
{iriiwje, and was more beloved by him tlian anv other person :
)ut neither the remembrance of former adbction, nor the
absolute certainty which the king had of his innocence, pre-
Tented him prosecuting the philosopher, upon the evidence of
three )>ersons of infamous reputation. The offences laid to
his charge as we are informed in the first book of the Con-
solation of Philosophy, were, * That he wished to preserve
the Senate and its authority : that he hindered an informer
from producing prools which would have convicted tliat as-
sembly of treason ; and that he formed a scheme for the
restoration of the Roman liberty.* In proof of the last article
ilie witnesses produced forged letters, which they averred
liad been written by Boethius. For these supposed crimes,
as we Icaru from the same authority, he was, unheard and
undefended, at the distance of five hundred miles, proscribed
and condemned to death. Thcodoric, conscious that his
severiiy would be blamed, did not at this time carry his
sentence fully into execution, but contented himself with
confiscating his effects, banishing him to Pavia, and there
confining him to prison.
Soon after this, Justin, the Catholic emperor of the east,
finding himself thoroughly established upon the throne,
published an edict against the Arians, depriving them of
all their churches. Thcodoric being highly offended at tliis
edict, obliged Pope John I., together with four of the prin-
cipal senatora of Rome (among whom was Symmachus, the
father-in-law of Boethius), to go on an embassy to Constan-
tinople, and commanded them to threaten that he would
abolish the Catholic religion throughout Italy, if Justin did
not immediately revoke his edict against the Arians. John
was received at Constantinople with pomp, and treated with
respect. He tried to compromise matters between the two
princes; but so far was he from inducing Justin to re-
voke his edict, that, in compliance with the tenor of it, lie
reconciled many of the Arian churches to the Catholic faith.
Theodoric became so incensed at the conduct of Pope John
and his colleagues, that, upon their return, he threw them
all into prison at Ravenna. Boethius, tliough innocent of
what was done at Constantinople, was at the same time
ordered into stricter confinement at Pavia, tlie king having
probably come to the resolution of proceeding to e&tromities
against him.
Though conflne<l in prison, and deserted by the world.
Boethius preserved bis vigour and oomposure of mind, and
wrote during his confinement, in five books, his excellent
treatise on the * Consolation of Philosophy,* tho work upon
which his fame chiefly rests. He had scarcely coneltidnl
this work, or, according to some of his commentators had
not concluded it, when. Pope John being famished to death
in prison, and Symmachus and the other senators pui to
death, Theodoric ordered Boethius to be beheaded. Hi^
execution took place in prison, Oct. 23, 526. His borjv
was interred by the inhaWants of Pavia, in the church
of St. Augustine, near the steps of the chancel, where his
monument existed till the last century, when that church
was deiitroyed. The tomb had been erected to hira by
Otho III. in 996. llieodonc, who did not long snrvi\*e
Boethius, is said in his last hours to have repented of his
cruelly. Gibbon {Decline and Fall nfthe Roman Emttir/',
chap, xxxix.) sa) s, the tower of Boethius subsisted at iStvia
till the year 1584.
The most celebrated production of Boethius, • Dc Con-
solattonc Philosophic,* has always been admired both f*r
the style and sentiments. It is an imaginary conference
between the author and Philosophy personified, who en-
deavours to console and soothe him in his afflictions. Tlie
topics of consolation contained in this work arc de«lured
from the tenets of Plato, Zeno, and Aristotle, but without
any notice of the sources of consolation which are pecu-
liar to the Christian system, which circumstance has led
many to think him more of a Stoic than a Christian. It is
partly in prose and partly in verse ; and was translated into
Saxon by King Alfred, and illustrated with a commentary
by Asser, bishop of St. David's. Two manuscripts of an
English version of this work made by John Walton, cani'ii
of Oseney (commonly called John of Osency) in MIO are
nresened among the Harleian manuscripts in the British
Museum. Chaucer and Queen Elizabeth were also trans-
lators of Boethius*s treatise ' De Consolatione ;* with Geor<:o
Colville, or Coldewcl, Richard (Graham) Visct>unt Preston,
W. Causton, the Rev. Philip Rid path, and R. Dunran of
Edinburgh. King Alfred's translation into Saxon naf
published at Oxford in 6vo., 1698, by Mr. Christopher Raw-
linson, and again with an English version from it by J. 8«
Cardale, 8vo., Lend. 1829. A translation into French by
Jean de Meun, was printed at Paris by Verard in 1 loi.
Few books were more popular than this treatise in tlie
middle ages ; and few have passed through a greater num-
ber of editions in almost all languages. The first edition
of Boethius ' De Consolatione,* was printed at Nurember*;
in 1476, in folio. The best edition of Boethius's whf>!e
works is that ' cum commentariis, enarrationibus, et not is
Jo. Murmclii, Rodolphi Agricolao, Gilbert! Porrette. Hen-
rici Lorriti Glarcani, et Martian i Rotse,* printed in 2 vi^U
folio, at Basle in 1570. (See the life prefixed to Ridpath'f
translation of the Treatise De Consolatione, 8vo., Lend.
1785 ; Chalmer8*s Biogr, Dict^ vol. v. p. 609-514 ; Fabric
BibLLaU 4to. Ven. 1728, torn. ii. p. 146-165; Bruckeri
IJistoria Philos,; and Baillet, Vies des Saints^ vol. lii.
p. 365, in which work ' Saint Boece* is included, * 13 Oc-
tobre.*)
BOG. The name of bog has been given indiscriminately
to very different kinds of substances. In all cases the ex-
pression signifies an earthy substance wanting in firmness
or consistency, which state seems to arise generally (perhaps
not always) from the presence of a superabundant supply of
moisture having no natural outlet or drain.
In some cases, where springs of water, or the drainage
from an extensive area, are pent np near the 6urfait^ of
the soil, they simply render it soft or boggy, and in il.i»
state the land is perhaps more properly called a quagmire.
A second state of bog is where, in addition to the conthiiou
just described, a formation of vegetable matter is induced,
which dyinjp^ and being reprodudd on the surface, assumei
the state of a spongy mass of sufficient consistence to bear
a considerable weight. Bogs of this description are nunic*
rous and extensive in Ireland, where they are valuable fram
the use made of the solid vegetable matter, both as fuel and
as a principal ingredient in composts for manures. Whenp
the turf has been cut away for these purposes, several Uigs
have been reclaimed by draining ; and tne subsoil is then
readily brought into cultivation. Bogs also occur in all
parts of Great Britain where the form of the surface aial
the nature of the earth favour the general condition under
which bog is formed. Thus there are bogs on the high
granitic plateau of Cornwall, on the road (tarn L4iunc««toa
to Bodmin ; and in the large granitic mass, of which Brown
Willy is the centre, the bottoms of the valleys are oovared
with bogs, tho lower pan of which ia^naolidated into peau
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Although peat moss altrap springs from some moist spot, it
wiil grow and spread over sound ground* and if not stopped
by some natural or artificial imnediment, such as a wall»
would overrun whole districts, in this case it absorbs any
moisture which reaches it, and retains it like a sponge.
The depth of a hog depends on the level of the surround-
ing grounds. It cannot rise much higher than the lowest
outlet for the water. Where there is no immediate outlet
the bog increases, until the evaporation is equal to the
supply of the springs and rains, or till it nses to a level
with its lowest boundary, where it becomes the source of a
stream or river, and forms a lake. The mud beinf; depo-
sited at the bottom, gradually becomes a true peat, or is
quite reduced to its elementary earths. In this case it may
become a stratum of rich alluvial soil, which some convul-
sion of nature may lay dry, for the benefit of future ages.
From this circumstance has arisen the great advantage of
draining bogs, to which the attention of agriculturists and
men of science has often been profitably directed. This
subject is treated in the article on Draining.
The bogs of Ireland are estimated in the whole to exceed
in extent two millions eight hundred thousand English
acres. The greater part of these bogs may be considered
as formine one connected mass. If a line were drawn from
Wicklow head on the east coast to Gralway, and another line
from Howth head, also on the east coast, to Sligo, the space
included between those lines, which would occupy about one-
fourth part of the entire superficial extent of Ireland, would
contain about six-sevenths of the bogs in the island, exclu-
sive of mere mountain-bogs, and bogs of no greater extent
than 800 English acres. This district resembles in form a
broad belt drawn from east to west across the centre of
Ireland, having its narrowest end nearest to Dublin, and
graduallyextending its breadth as it approaches the western
ocean. This ffreat division is traversed bv the river Shan*
non from north to south, which thus divides the great sys-
tem of bogs into two parts. Of these, the division to the
west of the river contams more than double the extent of
bogs in the eastern division, so that if we suppose the
whole of the bogs of Ireland (exclusive of mere mountain*
bogs, and of bogs of less extent than 800 acres) to he divided
into twenty parts, twelve of these parts will be found in the
western division, and five parts in the eastern division of
the district already describea, while, of the remaining three
parts, two are to the south and one to the north of that
district.
The smaller bogs, excluded from the foregoing computa-
tion, are very numerous in some parts. In the single county
of Cavan there are above ninety bogs, not one of which ex-
ceeds 800 English acres, but which collectively contain about
) 1,000 Irish, or 17,600 English, acres, without taking into
the account many bogs, the extent of which is from five to
twenty acres each.
Most of the bogs which lie to the eastward of the Shan-
non, and which occupy a considerable portion of the King's
County and the county of Kildare, are generally known by
the name of the Bog of Allen. It must not however be
supposed that this name is applied to any one neat morass ;
on the contrary, the bogs to which it is applied are perfectly
distinct from each other, often separated by high ridges of
dry country, and inclining towards different rivers as their
natural directions for drainage.
The surface of the land rises very quickly from the Bog
of Allen on all sides, particularly to the north-west, where it
is composed, to a considerable depth, of limestone gravel,
forming very abrupt hills. In places where the face of the
hilU has been opened the mass is found to be composed of
rounded limestone, varying in size from two feet in dia-
meter to less than one inch ; the largest pieces are not so
much rounded as the small, and frequently their sharp
angles are merely rubbed off. They are usually penetrated
by contemporaneous veins of Lydian stone, varying in colour
from black to hght grey. The colour of the limestone is
usually light smoke grey, rarely bluish black : when it is
bluish blank, the fracture is large conchoidal ; that of the
grey is uneven, approaching to earthy. The Lydian stone,
when unattached to the limestone, has usually a tendency to
a rUomboidal form, sometimes cubical ; the edges are more
or less rounded ; the longitudinal fracture is even, the cross
fracture is conchoidal.
The Grand Canal from Dublin to Shannon Harbour
passes through a considerable part of the great bog-district
of Ireland. In forming this canal it was necessary to make
considerable embankments, the surface-water of the canal
being generally on a higher level than the surfiice of the
immediately adjoining bogs. Where this was not the case
advantage was taken of the circumstance to conduct the
drainage of the bogs into trenches for the supply of the
canal.
The bogs situated to the south of the great belt in the
centre of Ireland occur in Tipperary, Kilkenny, Clare, and
Queen's County ; those to the north of that belt occur in
Antrim, Down, Armagh, Tyrone, and Londonderry.
It appeared from the axamination of the sun'eyors ap-
pointed by parliament in 1810 to investigate the nature
and extent of the bogs in Ireland, that they consist of < a
mass of the peculiar substance called peat, of the averogcf
thickness of twenty-five feet, no where less than twelve, no#
found to exceed forty-two— this substance varying ma-
terially in its appearances and properties in proportion to
the depth at which it lies : the upper surface is covered
with moss of various species, and to the depth of about ten
feet is composed of a mass of the fibres of similar Tegetable»
in different stages of decomposition, proportioned to theif
depth from the surface, generally however too open in tbeif
texture to be applied to the purposes of fuel; below thi«
generally Ues a light blackisn-brown turf, containing the
fibres of moss, still visible though not perfect, and extend-
ing to a further depth of perhaps ten feet under this. At
a greater depth the fibres of vegetable matter cease to be
visible, the colour of the turf becomes blacker, and the sub-
stance much more compact, its properties as fhel more va-
luable, and gradually increasing in the degree of blackness
and compactness proportionate to its depth ; near the bottom
of the bog it forms a black mass, wnich when dry has a
strong resemblance to pitch or bituminous coal, having a
conchoidal fracture in every direction, with a black shining
lustre, and susceptible of receiving a considerable polish.*
The surface of Irish bogs is not in general level ; indeed
it is most commonly uneven, sometimes swelling into hills
and divided by valleys, thus affording great facilities for drain-
age. None of the bogs of Ireland which have been described
occur on low ground, a fact which seemed to strengthen the
opinion of their having always originated from the decay of
forests. This theory of the original formation of bogs was
at one time very generally adopted, but the result of more
recent investigations shows that it cannot be supported.
That some bogs may have been formed in this manner
is not denied. It is stated in the Philo9ophical Transac-
tions, No. 275, that — 'The Romans under Ostorius, having
slain many Britons, drove the rest into the forest of Hatfield
(in Yorkshire), which at that time ON'erspread all the low
country ; and the conqueror, taking advantage of a strong
south-west wind, set fire to the pitch trees of which the forest
was chiefly composed, and when the greater part of tlie
trees were thus destroyed, the Roman soldiers and captive
Britons cut down the remainder, except a few large ones,
which were left growing as remembrancers of the destruction
of the rest. These single trees did not long withstand the
action of the winds, but falling into the rivers intercepted
their currents, and caused the waters to rise and flood the
whole flat country ; hence the origin of the mosses and
moorv bogs which were afterwards formed there.* This
moorland near Hatfield, seven miles north-east of Doncaster,
and about Thorne, is now a bog^y peat covered with heath,
several feet higher than the adjoining land, and very wet ;
whence it has l^en aptly compared to a sponge full of water.
The Thorne waste with some adjacent tracts, and the Hat-
field moor, contain about 12,000 acres.
In the Ordnance Survey^ of the County of Londonderry,
presented by Lord Mulgrave to the British Association
during its recent meeting (Aug. 1835) in Dublin, are some
remarks on the subject which are deserving of attention :—
' In the production of bog, sphagnum* is allowed on all
hands, to have been a principal agent, and superabundant
moisture the inducing cause. To account for such moisture
various opinions have been advanced, more especially tbat
of the destruction of large forests, which, by obstructing in
their fall the usual channels of drainage, were supposed to
have caused an accnmulation of water. That opinion how-
ever cannot be supported ; for, as Mr. Aher remarks in the
Bog Reports, sucn trees as are found have genera^ six or
seven feet of compact peat under their roots, wbioh are
found standing as they grew, evidently proving the foraia-
tion of peat to have been previous to the growth of the t«M8v
* Sphagnum palottre.
No, 278.
fTHE PENNY CYCLOPiBpiA.]
Digitizi
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slbel wUeh» ia nlatkni to fin, may be verified in jirobebW
every bog in thie parish, turf iVom three to five feet thick
nnderlying ibe lowest layer of such trees. This fact is in-
deed so strongly marked in the bog which on the Donegal
side bounds the road to Muff, that the turf-cutters, having
arrived at the last depth of turf, find timber no longer,
though fonneriy it was abundant, as is proved by their own
testimony from experience, and by the few scattered stumps
whioh still remain resting on the present surface. Not so
however with oaks, as their stumps are commonly found
resting on the gravel at the base, or on the sides of the
small hillocks of gravel and sand which so often stud the
surfaces of bogs, and have by Mr. Aher been aptly called
islands. He further adds that in the counties of Tipperary,
Kilkenny, &c., Uiey are popularly called derries (signifying
a place o/oaks), a name deserving attention, whether viewed
as expressive of the exiiting fact, or as resulting from a lin-
gering traditionary remembrance of their former condition,
when, crowned with oaks, they were distinguishable from
the dense forest of firs skirting the marshy plains around
them. The strong resemblance to antient water-courses of
the valleys and basins which now contain bogs, and the oc-
currence of marl and shells at the bottoms of many, natu-
rally suggest the idea of shallow lakes, a view of the sub-
ject adopted in the Bog Reports by Messrs. Nimmo and
Griffiths. Such lakes may nave originated in the natural
inequalities of the ground, or been formed by the choking
up of channels of drainage by heaps of clay and gravel, or
they may have been reduced to the necessary state of shal-
lowness by the gradual wearing away of obstacles which had
dammed up and retained their waters at a higher level.'
The probable process of the formation of bog in such
eases is thus explained in the Ordnance Survey: — 'A
shallow pool induced and favoured the vegetation of aquatic
plants, which gradually crept in from the borders towards
the deeper centre. Mud accumulated round their root and
stalks, and a spongy semi-tiuid muss was thus formed, well
fitted for the growth of moss, which now, especially spha^-
num, began to luxuriate. This, absorbing a large quantity
of water, and continuing to shoot out new plants above,
while the old were decaying, rotting, and compressing into
' a solid substance below, ^fradually replaced the water by a
mass of vegetable matter. In this manner the marsh might
be tflled up, while the central or moister portion, continuing
to excite a more rapid growth of the moss, it would be gra-
dually raised above the edges, until the whole surface had
attained an elevation sufficient to discharge the surface-
water by existing channels of drainage, and calculated by
its slope to facilitate their passage, when a limit would be
in some degree set to its further increase.*
According to the personal observations of Mr. Griffiths,
made during many years, the growth of turf in these bogs
is very rapid, amounting sometimes to two inches in depth
in one year: this however is stated to be an excessive
growth under peculiarly favourable circumstances.
The roots which were attached to the ground decay, and
the whole of the surface becomes a floating mass of long
interlaced fibres, which when taken out has been signifi-
eantly called in Ireland old wives' tow. The black mass
of the bog IS a mud almost entirely formed of decomposed
vegetable fibres, but not of sufficient specific gravity to sink
to the bottom ; thus producing that semi-liquid state which
distinguishes a quaking bog from a peat moss. The vegeta-
tion which continues on the surface and at some depth
below, has the appearance of a fine green turf. In many
cases the roots are so matted together, and so strong, as to
fbrm a web capable of bearing the gentle and light tread of
a man accustomed to walk over bogs, bending and waving
under him without breaking ; and while a person unskil-
fully attempting to walk upon it would infallibly break
through ana he plunged in the bog, Uke a venturous skater
on unsound ice, the practised bog-trotter, with proper pre-
cautions, passes over them in safety. This has oHen been
of considerable advantage in war, or in the pursuit of illegal
employments. The fugitive escapes over his native bogs,
where the pursuer cannot venture to follow, or if he does,
he generally pays the penalty of his ignorance or rashness,
by sinking in them. Many examples of this were wit-
nessed in Ireland during the last rebelhon, and many bodies
have been found in bogs years after, preserved from decay,
and tanned in a manner by the astringent principle, which
ie always found where vegetable fibre has been decomposed
under water.
When bogs become eoniolidated or eompreaied, tfiey ue
called peat-mosses. The consolidation here mentioned must
be carried to a considerable extent before the soil is capable
of sustaining such a growth of timber as it is seen to have
frequently borne.
* Successive layers of trees (or stamps) in the erect posi-
tion, and furnished with all their roots, are,' as stated in the
Ordnance Survey, * found at distinctly different levels, and
at a small vertical distance from each other. It anpears
that the consolidation of the lower portion of the turf wa« a
necessary preparation for the first growth of timber, and
considering the huge size of the roots thrown out by thete
trees, and the extent of space over which they spread, tlie
mode is readily perceived by which they obtam a ba^is of
support sufficiently firm and extensive to uphold their hbing
and increasing stems. The first layer of turf was now
matted by the roots, and covered by the trunks of the first
growth of^ timber, but as the bog still continued to vegetate,
and to accumulate round the growing stem, a new layer of
turf was created to support a second growth of timber, tlie
roots of which passed over those of the preceding, and so un
with a third or more, until at length the singular snectacle
was exhibited of several stages of trees growing at tne same
time. Such seems a natural way of viewing the sul^ect,
but it is often stated that one stump is found actually on
the top of another, which would imply that the lower tree
had been destroyed before the turf had ascended to the
level of the broken stump. In such an instance, using Mr.
Griffiths* example of the rate of increase of recent bog, and
supposing it compressed by growth into one-fifth of its
original bulk, little more than one hundred yean would
have elapsed between the two periods.*
An extensive tract of peat-moss (Chatmoss) in the county
of Lancaster has lately attracted pubhc attention from the
circumstance of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway
having been C4irried through it. The length of Chatmoss
is about six miles, its greatest breadth about three miles,
and its depth varies from ton to upwards of thirty feet,
the whole of which is pure vegetable matter throughout,
without the slightest mixture of sand, gravel, or other ma-
terial. On the surface it is light and fibrous, but it be-
comes more dense below. At a considerable depth it is
found to be black, compact, and heavy, and in some respcrts
resembles coal : it is in fact exactly similar to the compoM-
tion of the bogs of Ireland, as alreadv described^
The moss is bounded on all sides by ridges of rolled
stones mixed with clay, which prevent the immediate di<»-
charge of its waters. It is probable that this bar, by inter-
rupting the course of the waters, originally caused the growth
of Chatmoss. This moss presents at its edges nearly an
upright face ; the spongy surface of the moss being elevati-d
at a very short distance from tho edge from ten to twenty
feet above the level of the immediately adjoining land. The
immediate substratum to the bog is a bed of siUceous sand,
which varies from one to five feet in thickness, below which
is a bed of bluish and sometimes reddish clay marl of ex-
cellent quality. This marl varies in thickness very con-
siderably ; in some parts it is not more than three feci, m
others its depth has not been ascertained ; below the marl
is a bed of sandstone gravel of unknown thickness. It is
this bed of gravel which extends beyond the edge of the
bog, and prevents the direct discharge of the waters from
the flat country to the north into the river Irwell. Tlie
depth of Chatmoss varies from fifteen to thirty feet. (So«
also Camden's remarks oi tliis moss, vol. ii. p. 966,6ibsou's
edition.)
About 1797 the late Mr. Roscoe of Liverpool began to
improve Trafford moss, a tract of 300 acres, lying two ttiri'*'»
east of Chatmoss, which operation was so successful a* to
encourage him to proceed with the improvement of Chat-
moss, the most extensive lowland bog in England, indudipc
7000 acres. After first constructing sufficient drain*, tho
heath and herbage on the moss were burnt down as far as
practicable; a thin sod was then ploughed with a ver-
sharp horse-plough, burned in small heaps, and the a.<shrs
spread around. Being then tolerably dry, and the surface
level, the moss was ploughed six inches deep, and the
necessary Quantity of marl, generally not less than 200 ru>-ic
yards to the acre, was set upon it. When this begvn t-i
crumble and fall by the action of the sun or fVost^ it wa«
spread over the land with great exactness, and the fir^t
crop was put in as speedily as possible, with the additi*<a
of about twenty tone of manure tojthe 9at,_ Tins lint
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crop, which mast be pat in with the plough, or with the
horse-scuifie or scarifier, may be either a green crop, as
potatoes, turnips, &c^ or any kind of grain. After making
a great variety of experiments Mr. Koscoe gave it as his de-
cided opinion, ' that the best method of improving moss-
land is that just stated, of the application of a calcareous
substance, in sufficient quantity to convert the moss into a
soil, and by the occasional use of animal or other extraneous
manures, such as the course of cultivation and the nature
of the crops may be found to require/ The cost of marling
was stated by Mr.Roscoe at 10/. per acre, at which cheap rate
it would not have been possible to have performed the work
but for the assistance of an iron railwav, laid upon boards or
sleepers, and moveable at pleasure. Along such a road the
marl was conveyed in Waggons with small iron wheels ;
each waggon, carrying about 15 cwt., was drawn by a man,
and this quantity was as much as, without^he employment
of the railway, could have been conveyed over the moss by
a cart with a driver and two horses.
In June, 183.3, an antient wooden house was discovered
in Drumkelin Bog, in the pari^ of Invernon, near the
north coast of the county of Donegal in Ireland, by James
Kilpathck, while he was searching for bog timber. The
description of the house and the omer circumstances con-
ncctea with it were given by Captain Mudge, who was then
engaged in surveying the coast, to the Hydrographer of
the Admiralty, and by him communicated to the Society of
Antiquaries in the November following. The roof of the
house was four feet below the present surface of the bog ;
but it is estimated, by comparing the present surface with
that of adjacent parts from which no peat has been taken,
that the top of the roof must have been about sixteen feet
below the surface before any peat was removed. The frame-
work of the house was very firmly put together, without
any iron ; the roof was flat and made of thick oak planks.
The house was twelve feet square and nine high : it con-
sisted of two floors one above the other, each about four
feet high; one side of the house was entirely open. The
whole stood on a thick layer of sand spread on the bog,
which continues to the depth of fifteen feet below the foun-
dation of the bouse. Captain Mudge supposes that a stone
chisel, which was found on the floor of the house, had been
used in making the grooves and holes in the timbers, as
tho chisel corresponded exactly to the cuts and holes.
When the house was removed from the bog, and a drain
had been opened to carry off the water which flowed into
the hollow, a paved pathway was traced for several yards,
at the end of which was discovered a hearthstone made of
flat freestone slabs. The hearthslone was covered with
ashes, and near it were several bushels of half-burnt char-
coal, with nut- shells, some broken and others charred, be-
sides some blocks of wood partly burned. On the same
level as the foundation of the house stumps of oak trees
were found standing, just such as had supplied the timber
of the house ; and beneath all this, as already observed,
there are still fifteen feet of peat It is the opinion of Cap-
tain Mudge that this house must have been suddenly over-
whelmed by boggy matter, a conclusion which appears
necessary to explain all the circumstances.
Bogs not unfrequently burst out and suddenly cover large
tracts. This phenomenon happened in the present year (1 835)
in Ireland on a part of Lord CNeill's estate, on the Bally«
mena road, in the neighbourhood of Randalstown. On the
19 th September an individual near the ground was surprised
by hearmg a rumbling noise as if under the earth, and im-
mediately after a portion of the bog moved forward a few
perches, when it exhibited a broken, rugged appearance,
with a soft peaty substance boiling up through the chinks.
It remained in this state until the 22nd» when it again
moved suddenly forward, covering corn-fields, potato-
fields, turf-stacks, hay-ricks, &c. The noise made by its
burst was so loud as to alarm the inhabitants adjoining,
who. on perceiving the flow of the bog, immediately fled.
It directed its course towards the river Maine which lay
below it; and so great was its force, that the moving mass
was carried a considerable way across the river. Owing to
the heavy rain which had fallen for some time previously,
the river forced its channel through the matter deposited
in its bed, and considerable damage was thus obviated,
nrhich would otherwise have occurred from the forcing back
of the waters. It is stated that upwards of 150 acres of
arable land have been covered by this outbreaking of the
bog.
BOQ-EARTH, is an earth or soil composed of light 6iU<>
ceous sand and a considerable portion of vegetable fibre in a
half decomposed state, such as is often found accumulated
over an impervious substratum, where the waters have de-
posited the mud carried off from boggy places. It is in high
repute with gardeners, being excellent K>r flowers, especiaAv
for some American plants, which thrive best in such a soil.
The most fertile kind consists of nearly 25 per cent, of
vegetable matter, and when mixed up with good mould,
and if necessary with some quicklime, to promote the
further decomposition of the fibres, it is far superior to any
artificial manure. Where it is not to be obtained in a na^
tural state, it is easily imitated artificially, by mixing the
mud of ponds or ditches, where the soil is light, in pits, with
leaves, weeds, and grass, keeping the mixture well watered
and frequently turned. It must then be exposed to the air
for a considerable time in heaps, until the requisite texture
is produced. Some sharp sand is an essential ingrediientt
and must be added if there is none in the soil.
BOG or BUG. [Vistula.]
BOG (the Hjfpanis of the Greek and Roman writersX
a considerable tributary of the Dnieper, rises to the south of
Proskuroff, south-east of Tamopol in Podolia, in the elevated
platean which extends from the Carpathian Mountains to
Kieff, and receives the waters of the Ingul, Balta, Tshertal,
and Salonicha before it quits the territory of Podolia. Thence
it flows in a south-easterly direction towards Nikolaieffsk,
bounded on its right bank by the high land. It descends by
a succession of fslls in the vicinity of Sekolnie, into the low
country which lies between its left bank and the right bank
of the Dnieper, where it winds its way through a liman,
formed by its own inundations, nearly fifty miles in length,
and falls into the Dnieper to the east of the town of Oczakoff,
It is between 470 and 480 miles in length, and in the latter
part of its course attains a breadth of 500 feet ; but its bed
is so much obstructed by rocks and sandbanks, that it is only
navigable when its waters are much swollen. The Senintha
falls into the Boe at Olviopol, in the Russian province of
Cherson, and the Yekul at Nikolaieffsk, or Sebastopol, in
the same province. By the treaty between Russia and
Turkey in the year 1 774, the Bog became the line of frontier
between the two oountried, from the mouth of the Seninka
to the Black Sea ; but the encroachments made by the Mus-
covite upon the Ottoman in more recent times have now
brought the whole course of the Bog within the Russian ter-
ritory. Its current is extremely gentle, and its waters, in its
lower course, are of a saline taste. (Herod, iv. 52.) Ilie
principal towns situated on its banks are Bratzlaff, Bobopol,
Olviopol, Vosnesensk, and Nikolaieffsk. [Dnibpka.]
BOGDANOVITCH, HIPPOLYTUS THKODORO-
VITCH, was bom December 3rd, 1 743, in the town of Pe-
revolotchna in Little Russia, where his father practised as %
physician. When eleven years old he was sent to Moscow
to be educated in the College of Justice, where he soon
began to display a passionate fondness for poetry and the
dramd. So greatly was he for a time captivated by the
latter, that at the age of fifteen he determined to make the
stage his profession, and for that purpose presented himself
to Kheraskov, the author of the Rossiada, and at that time
the director of the Moscow theatre. Regarding this appli-
cation as a boyish freak, Kheraskov represented to him
the impropriety of the step he was anxious to take, but at
the same time was so struck bv the youth*s manner and
intelUgence, that he exhorted nim to pursue his studiesf
and proffered his assistance and instruction in literary com*
position. Bogdanovitch had the good sense to adopt this
friendly counsel, and forthwith began to apply himself dili-
gently to the acquirement of foreign languages and the
perusal of the best authors. His own industry was seconded
by the judicious advice and good taste of Kheraskov, with
whom he had now taken up his abode ; and he began to
try his pen in some pieces which were published in the Uni
versity Journal entitled Po/««iio« Uveseienie (Profitable Re-
creation).
In 1761 he was appointed inspector at t2ie university of
Moscow, and also translator in the foreign office ; but in
less than two years he went with Count Bieloselsky a*
secretary of legation to Dresden. During his residence in
that city he wrote, at least commenced, his delightful poem
entitled ' Dushenka,' for it was not published till long
afterwards— 1775. It is upon those three cantos that hia.
reputation rests, and they earned for him celebrity and fa-
vour on their first appearance. The Empress^ Catherine
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wu cbarmetl y/xxh a production, so unlfke any Xhin^ tbat
had preceded it in the language; and it almost imme-
diately became a favourite with all classes. Its author be-
came the idol of the court and the miblic: this rather
intoxicating popularity did not inspire nim with incressed
ponfidence in his own powers, but seems rather to have
ohilled his invention; for although he afterwards wrote
much, he never attempted anything else in the same rein,
nor produced anything that was calculated to win a second
wreath for the author of * Dushenka.* Even that poem
itself is more distinguished by felicity of execution than by
originality of subject or materials, its fable being the mytho-
logical story of Psyche, which has been variously treated
by different writers from the time of Apuleius to the present
day, but by none perhaps has it been versified more ele-
gantly than by Bogdanovitch. He bestowed upon the nar-
rative all the captivating graces of style in a language
which, although it could boast of many productions marked
by the lofty eloquence of poetry, did not, until then, contain
any finished model of playfulness of language and a tone
of refined vivacity. It is not to be wondered at, therefore,
)hat it should have obtained as many admirers as readers,
f n^ almost as many readers as there were persons capable
of pejrjising it. It was a phenomenon in their literature, of
which tl)e Russians were proud, and th^ have accordingly
rather pve^tited than undervalued it. This partiality displays
itself sufficiently in Koramzin's remarks on the poem ; yet
although criticism cannot go to the fUll extent of his eulo-
ffiuro^ it will allow that there are many nositive beauties in
U, as well as striking comparative excellence. Some idea
of its pecidtar attraction may best be conveyed by saying
Chat it is in the Russian language what Moore*s poetry » in
our own: its characteristics are a flowing sweetness of
poetic diction, and a captivating ease and felicity of expres-
sion. There is also something of the same mingled gaiety
f^nd tenderness, of the same 4i\'eliness of fancy which per-
ya^es the poems of the English or Anglo-Irish bard. Had
^nacreon written the legend of Psyche, he would pro-
bably )iave taken the same view of it that Bogdanovitch
has donov who has thrown over the whole a gay and lively
colouring, but is deficient in the pathos requisite to give
full eflect to some of the incidents.
Notwithstanding his early predilection for the stage, Bog-
danovitch wrote only two dramatic pieces, one of them a
comedy in verse entitled the * Joy of Dushenka.* Except
many short poetical productions and other contributions to
various journals, by far the greater part of his remaining
publications consist of translations.
In 1795 he retired from St. Petersburg With the salary of
prenident of the archives continued to him as a pension,
and passed his latter years in the peaceful solitude of Little
Russia, where he diea on the 8th of December, 1803, leav-
ing a name which has yet obtained no rival or associate
in that particular species of poem with which be was the
first to adorn the literature of his country.
B06ERM AN. who signed himself Johannes Bogerma-
nus Pastor Ecclesiid Leowardensis, Synodi Dortrechtano
Prssses, was born a.d. 1576, in the village of Oplewert in
Frieslaod« and studied divinity at Heidelberg and Geneva,
then the two principal seats of reformed theology. At Ge-
neva be became imbued with the intolerant principles of
the then octogenarian Beza. When Bogerman became
minister at Snoek, he showed his own intolerance by endea-
vouring to compel the Mennonites there to a recantation.
In 1604 he was made minister at Leeuwarden. In the
eilcmics of his age he joined Gomarus against Arminios.
e approved, translated, and commented on Beza's work
on the capital punishment of heretics. He also wrote a
* Mirror of the Jesuits,' in Dutch, Leeuw. 1608, 4to. ; a pole-
mical work against Grotius, about or before 1614 ; and other
polemical works which are now forgotten. In 1617 he
effected the deprivation of a preacher who held Remonstrant
opinions, and greatly contributed to the victory of the Go-
raarists, or Contra- Remonstrants, over the Remonstrants, or
Arroinians. He was not without learning, but obtained
eelebrity especially by his zeal against the Remonstrants.
Count William Lewis of Nassau, an enemy to the Remon-
•trants, recommended Bogerman to the stadtholder Mau-
rice, who, for political reasons, opposed the Remonstrants.
Boeerman is said to have published an essay in which he
endeavoured to prove that heretics deserve capital punish-
ment, but we suppose this to be the above-men tionej trans-
litkm of Besa*li tract, to which Bogerman and Geldorp wrote
a prefcce. Bogerman the president, and four olWr ncn-
hers of the synod of Dort, were oomniMkmed to translate
the Bible. Their translation, especially tbat of the Old Tes*
tament, is chiefly Bogennan*a work. It is still used in Out
churches of Holland, and is admired fbr itaoorractneM, orioii-
tal taste, and purity of language. It is said tbat Bogerman
declined some locratt\*e invitatwns to the Hague mnU to
Amsterdam, in order that he might devote hie tioi« tp this
translation of the Bible. But the esteem in which he wns
held was not uniform among the members of the s>noiL
Tlie foreign members oomplamed that he and his fol-
lowers formed a separate synod among themselves, which
bad its separate meetings, in which they agnsed upon mea-
sures which they wisli^ to carry* Davenantius proposed
that the debates of the synod should be published, but Bo*
gcrman opposed this motion successfully. The synod gave
to Bogerman six assistants for drawing up the deemea, one
of whom, Johannes Deodatns, said, that the eanona of the
8)'nod of Dort had taken off the head of Bamereldt.
When Bogerman returned home he waa sharply re-
proved by the states and the synod of Friesland, to which
province he belonged. He was also accused of having ex
oeeded his instructions, and it waa proposed to depoea him
fVom his office. On his comphiining of ingratitude and of
being ill-rewarded for all his exertions, in which be had
sacrificed his health at Dortrecht, it was replied that he had
manifestlv been well pleased with his daily stipend ef thir
teen gulden, otherwise he would not have hroiight into
account twenty-nine days more Chan he could do with pro
priety, namely, the days of vacations. This wta the same
thing as accusing him of ha\ing defrauded the government
of 377 gulden. But this seems to be ineonaisient with the
good report of his general disinterestedness. We therefore
suppose this accusation to have arisen from that party sptnt
which his fanaticism had so strongly nrovoked. Bugerman
remained a partisan of the stadtholder Maurice, and wrote an
account of his death. Bogerman died in 1633, at profeasot
primarius at Franeker.
(See the second volume of Brand t*8 HuiM§ der R^or-
ma/t>— this work has been translated into Bnglish and into
French ; Le Clerc, Hi9t, der Vereenif^ds NederL ii. d.
bl. 441 ; E. L. Vriemont's Athefut Frigiae^^ p. ^84: V.>n
Kampen, in Encydop. von Ersch und Gruber ; The H'arkt
o/Arminiiu, translated by James 'NichoUs, i. pp. 44.1, 444;
Acta Synodi NationalU Dortrechti habiiet^ Lugd. B<»L
1620, fol.; Gefchiehtn der Synod§ wn Dordrecht von
Matthias Graf, Basel, 1825, 8vo. jip. 79— 8S ; Arnold s Ket-
zer^eschtchte ; Stuart on the Life of Armimui^ in the
Biblical Repository, Andover, 1831 ; Letters of John Haie* )
B06UP0RB (BlfAGELPUR), adistriel in the pro-
vince of Bahar, formerly known as the cirear of Mongtur.
conaprehending in its souih-east quarter the territory of
Rajamahal, which forms a part of the Mogul jpitmnce of
Bengal. Boglipore is bounded on the north by Tirhoot and
Purneah, on the east by Pumeah and Moorshadabad. on
the south by Bh'bhoom and Ramghur, and on the west by
Ramghur and the district of Bahar. The district thefefons
lies between 24** and 26* N. lat. and 86* and 88° R lonjj..
and occupies the south-eastern comer of the province of
Bahar. Its gteatest length in the N.N.W. direction isaU^ut
133 miles, and its greatest breadth is about 80 miles: lU
total area is about 8200 English square miles, as laid down
by Major Rennell ; but the boundaries, as is very common
in Hindustan, are not very accurately defined, except in
partial coses, where the courts of justice have been called
upon to determine the disputes of rival zamindars.
The district contains several chains and groups of lulU.
which form part of the Vindhya mountains. The two pt.n.
cipal groups are situatel res))ectively near the north eA%i
and north-west limits of the district. The former, which
are near Rajamahal, are tolerably well cultivated* but the
hills to the west are for the most part waste, and in many
places almost impenetrable, the natix'cs having in former
times allowed the trees and underwood to gmw aa a pro-
tection to their strongholds.
A considerable part of the surface of the level land is
occupied by mere rock, and is altogether incanable of cuiti-
vation. In other parts the ground is studded at intervals
with fragmenhi of rock of various sises. On tha waaterc
hills similar masses of rock occur so frequently, that, vhcn
the declivity would admit of the use of the plough, the*e
rocks render such a mode of cnltivalion impraeiicable. It
his been estimated that the level ffmind in Ihk aaodition
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k vpvttds of .1700 sqiiace miles. an4 il»ai t)ie hilU wbu^b
are uncultiTAble «re to tba extent of 11^0. squaw miles.
Tile lemaining porttoos, wUioh are fit for the plougk, eon*
tut of rich aDfii productive soil. In tho north-eastora part
of the diitrioU oo the level lands overtlowed by the Ganges,
oppotite to Purneah district, aire spots from which the
washermen of the vicinity collect oairbonate of sodar which
they call kmnca maii. The saline matter effloresces on the
surfooe in the month of October after the retirement of the
wsters of tlie Gangesi and may be coUooted several times
ih>m the same spot. It is remarked that no particle of this
substance is formed after rains, but only follows the inun-
dattona of the river, and also that on digging to a small
* depth pure water uoimpregnated with the carbonate of soda
is obtained.
The Gkmgres flows to the eastward throagh the district of
Bogbpore from above- Monghir (where it forms the boun-
dary between this district and Tirhoot) to toe north- eastern
corner of the I^jamahal territory. The district is besides
watered by many small streams which fall into the Ganges
on eacli side. The largest of these streams are the Keyul,
the Maura, tlie Ulayi, the Nagini, the Augjana, the
Naeti, tbe Haghdar, the Ghorghat, the Mohane, the Ba-
ru)a, the Bilasi, the Dobee, and the Mooteiharna. None
of 'these streams are navigable except during the flooding
of the Ganges, when some of them are used by small
boats and for tioatiug down timber and bamboos. In the
dry season, unless near their sources, the channels of most
of these rivers are dry. There are besides many jceU or
stagnant pools, apparently the old channeU of rivers which
have found other outlets, and in many of these jeels water
is found throughout the year. One of them, called Dom-
jals, situated to the south of Rigamahal, is in the rainy
season seven and a half miles long and thi-ee and a half
miles broad, and even in the dry season is four miles long
by one and a half mile broad.
From June to the following February the wind blowa
almost constantly from the east; during the other four
months-of the year the west wind prevails. These westerly
wmds are the most vicdent, and are often extremely dr)r and
parching. The winters are less cold than in the adjoining
district of Purneah, and the summer season is frequently
most oppressively hot.
Besides Boglipore, the capital, the district contains the
towns of Rajamahal, Champanagur, Surtgeghur, Colgong*
Monghir. Bogwangola, and Oudanulla. The population
Qonsists of rather more than two millions, of whom 460,000
are Mohammedans, and the remainder Hindus. The inha-
bitants are verv unequally distributed, some pcrgunnahs
overflowing with people, while other parts, as already de-
aeribed, are mere wastes and almost deserted* •
The mountaineers residing to the south and west of Raja-
mahal in this district are described as an uncivilised race,
diilering in manners, customs, and religion from the inba-
bitonts of the surrounding plains, never submitting to the
native governments, subsisting by plunder, often desolating
the neighbouring districts by their incursions, and only kept
in onler by means of certain necuniary allowances made to
their chie& on the condition ot their preserving the peace of
the country. In the year 1782 the privilege was granted to
them of having criminal justice administer^ by an assembly
of their cbiefe, under the superintendence of a European
magistrate, and subject, in certain cases, to confirmation of
the governor-general in council. This latter description of
control was. in 1796, transferred to the Court of Nizamut
Adaulut By a regulation passed in the year just men-
tioned, the resident magistraie was directed to convene the
hiU-ebie& twice in each year for the purpose of forming a
court for the trial of criminal ofienders. At the same time
tlie custom which had previously been followed by these
people of givipg to the next of kin of a murdered person the
right of pardoning the murderer, or of demanding retalia-
tion or pecuniary compensation, was aboUshed, and mur-
derers were in all cases brought under the jurisdiction of the
court already described. All sentences, tbe severity of which
exceeded fourteen years* imprisonment, were referred for
oonftrmatioD to the Supreme Court of Nizamut Adaulut in
Calcutta. A further alteration in regard to the distribution
of justice among these people was made in l;a27. when, by
a regulation of the supreme government, the hill-people of
BoKliporewere declared amenable to the general regulations
of toe pfoviace, with this modification however, that in cri^
minai tfiaU/a cQmmittee of not less than three hill-chiefs, ^
called Ma^jees, were to sit as assessoci, and to declare their
opinion, according to the laws and' customs of the hills, which
was to he subject to the coufirmation of the judge of circuit
l^lbre^whom the trial was had/ The Manjees were to be
summoned to the number of not less than twelve whenever
a prisoner of the hill-tribes was committed for trial, and the
chiefs acting as assessors were to be selected by ballot from
among those summoned. The three first selected might be
challenged peremptorily, and any others for reasons assigned
by the prisoner.
Unqualified slavery exists throughout tbe district, and
the owner may sell his slaves in any way he chooses. In
^enei-al these people are well used, and they are said to be
industrious.
Great numbers of pilgrims, soldiers, and European tra«
vellers are continually passing through the district both by
laud and by water, and this forms a principal source of
piofit to the inhabitants, who furnish travellers wiUi pro-
visions and other necessary articles of consumption. It is
estimated that at certain seasons as many as 100 passage-
boats stop in one day at Rajamahal alone.
Rice, wheat, barley, and mai^e form the principal articles
of agricultural produce, their relative importance being in
the order in which they are here named. Potatoes are cul-
tivated about the towns of Monghir and Boglipore. The
growth of cotton is not sufficient for supplying the looms in
the district. Small quantities of silk and saltpetre are pro-
duced, and about 70uO maunds of indigo are exported an-
nually on an average.
Black bears are found in the woods, but rarely occasion
any harm. There is another species of these animals,
called by the natives hard-hears, which subsist on frogs and
white ants, with other reptiles and insects. A species of
baboon, the Hunimaun, exists in considerable numbers, and
comniits great depi-edations with impunity, being held so
sacred by the inhabitants, that to kill ohe is considered as a
crime, sure to be fullgwed by ill luck. The Ratuya, a short-
tailed nxonkey, is likewise common, but as he does not hold
a sacred character in the eyes of the natives, he is not suf-
fered to commit depredations with impunitv.
(Tennanfs Indian Peoreatiotis ; Renneirs Memoir of a
Map of Hindustan; Regulations of the East India Com-
panv, as contained in the Appendix to the Judicial Division
of the Beport of the Commitiee of the House of Commone
on the Affairs qfthe Easl India Company, 1832.)
60GLIP0RK, the capital of the district last described,
is a town of modern erection, beautifully situated on the
right bank of the Ganges, in 25"* 13' N. lat, and 86'' d8'
£• long. Tl)e town consists of about 5000 dwellings, and
eontains about 30,000 inhabitants, the greater part of whom
are Mohammedans. A small number of persons, about
fifty, who profess the Christian religion according to the
ritual of the Church of Rome, have a church in I&glipore.
These people are partly the descendants of Portuguese
settlers, and partly native converts. They are under the
spiritual charge of a Romish priest, a native of Milan, sent
by the society De Propa^andd Fide, who likewise numbers
amon^ his flock a small society of Roman Catholics in the
adjoining district of Purneah.
A Mohammedan college exists in the town, but is now in
a state of decay, A school was established here in 1823,
under the patronage of the supreme government in Cal-
cutta, and is supported by the public monev. The object of
this school, when first established, was the instruction of
native soldiers and their children. For sonoe few years after
its formation, the success of this school was doubtful, and
at one time it was proposed to discontinue it ; other coun-
sels prevailed however, and the plan first adopted was en-
larged in 1828, so as to admit the children of persons not
attached to the army. In 1830 the school contained 134
pupils, the greater part of whom were children of chiefs
from the hills ; and as these scholars are quite free fVom
the prejudices of caste, and apply themselves readily to
learn the English language as a qualification for their ap-
pointment to public othces, there is reason to hope that the
institution may prove instrumental towards the civilization
of tlie people to whom these scholars belong.
. The few houses in the town which are inhabited by Eu-
ropeans are handsomely built, and the Mohammedan mosques
are also ornamental buildings, but with these exceptjons
the dwellings are of a mean character, and are generally
scattered about without order.
About a mile north-west from the town there .are two
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roQiul towefB, supposed to be of Jain origin, which are
eonridered sufficiently holy to be the objects of pilgrimages,
SSee Jain.] Many natives visit them from a considerable
listance, and for their accommodation a building has been
erected near the spot by the rajah of Jeypoor, who numbers
many persons of tne Jain sect among his subjects.
Bogiipore is 1 1 0 miles north-west from Moorshedabad.
{Report of Committee of the House of Commons in 1832
on the Avoirs of the East India Company, Public Section,
Appendix.)
BOGOTA', or, as it was called till lately, Santa F6 de
BogotA, was the capital of the Spanish vice- royalty of New
Granada up to 1811. then to 1819 of the republic ofCun-
dinamarca, afterwards of the republic of Columbia, and
since its dissolution in 1831, the metropolis of the new re-
public of New Granada, is situated in 4° 30' N. lat., and
74** 10' W. long. Bogoti was founded by Quesade in
1538.
This town is situated at the foot of two lofty and rocky
mountains, Montserrat and Guadaloupe, which belong to
the hi^h range which, running nearly from N. to S., sepa-
rates the affluents of the Rio de la Magdalen a from those
of the Orinoco; these mountains completely shelter the
town from easterly winds, end supply it with water. Bogota
is slightly elevated above an extensive plain which lies to
the west of it. and which measures about lorty five miles from
south to north, and nearly half as much in the other direction.
This plain, which is surrounded by mountains which rise to
a considerable height, is nearly 8640 feet above the sea.
The soil is very rich, but by far the greatest portion of it
is either overgrown with shrubs, or covered by marshes and
swamps ; only that part which immediately joins the town
is partly cultivated and partly formed into Potreros, or
places for grazing cattle. The river BogotiL, or Funza,
from which the town has received its name, winds through
the centre of the plain, at the distance of nine or ten miles
from the town.
The climate of this plain is very temperate, the thermo-
meter seldom rising above 60^ or 65** in summer, and falling
in winter only to 45° or 48°. As the town is only a few
degrees from the equator, the mildness of the climate must
bo ascribed to its high elevation above the level of the sea,
and in some degree also to the heavy rains. There are two
rainy seasons, one during the months of April and May,
and the other from the beginning of September to the end
of December. During these months the rain is nearly con-
tmual. In June, July, and August the weather ts un-
settled and showery, and only from the beginning of
January to the end of March it is rather dry. Plains
which rise to a considerable elevation above the sea have
generally a very dry climate, and rather suffer from want
of rain ; the diflbrence observed in the plain of Bogota is
to be attributed to its comparatively small extent, and the
great elevation of the mountain-ranges which surround it
But notwithstanding this excessive humidity the chraate is
not unhealthy. Epidemic diseases are unknown, and Eu-
ropeans commonly enjoy good health, after having had on
their arrival a fever for a few days.
Like many other towns built by the Spaniards in Ame-'
rica. Bo^td presents the figure of a cross, of which the
principal square and church form the centre. The streets
are narrow, intersect one another at right ansrles, and are
tolerably regular. All of them are paved, and the prin-
cipal have {«)0tpaths, where the passengers are sheltered
frr>m the rain by the projecting roofs of the houses. A
stream of water is constantly flowing through the middle
of the streets. The principal street, Calle Real, is well
pa%ed. and built with the greatest regularity. At the ex-
tremity of it is the principal square, where on Friday a
market is held. One side of the bquare is occupied by the
palace, the other side by the custom-house, the cathedral,
and its offices. The other squares also are spacious, and
all of them are ornamented with fountains. At night the
streets are imperfectly lighted by a few lamps placed at the
comer of the streets.
The market place is well supplied with every kind of pro-
visions, especially fruits and vegetables, and those of Europe
are mingled with others peculiar to America. At one place
are seen hampers full of strawberries, apples, and peaches,
and near them pine-apples and aquacates ; at another, heaps
of cabbages, carrots, and p<>t:Uor*s, by the side of yuccas and
bananas ; between sacks of maize, barley, and wheat, are
pOM of oocoft and loaf sugar. In one place are told Ttuioos
medicinal herbs gathered by the Indians in the mouotaint^
and not far from them pinks, roses, and jessamine.
As BogotiL is subject to frequent earthquakes, moat of the
houses consist of one or two stories only ; they are built of
baked bricks ; the greater part are covered with tiles, and
the external walls are whitewashed. The Spaniards intro-
duced the mode of building houses which they inherited
from the Arabs of Northern Africa into all the large towns
of America, and consequently the houses in these places
more resemble those of Morocco and Algiers than those of
England or France. The front wall presents only a few
windows of different dimensions, without glass sasnea, and
defended by large iron or wooden bars. Two gates and an
inter\'ening passage lead to a spacious court-yard, which is
surrounded by a projection of the roof and a gallery when
the house consists only of a ground floor, but by a veranda
if it is of two stories. Round this gallery is a long suite of
rooms, which receive daylight only through the doors. The
kitchen, which commonly occupies a comer of the court-yard,
is spacious, less on account of the quantity of provisions
cooked than the number of useless servants who assemble
there. There are no chimneys, stoves only being in use.
The fhmiture is simple. The use of carpets is general ; the
antient straw mats of the Indians however are no longer
used by fashionable people, and have been superseded by
carpets of European manufacture. There is nothing in the
drawing-rooms but two sofas covered with cotton, two small
tables, a few leathern chairs, after the fashion of the six-
teenth century, a looking-glass, and three lamps suspended
from the ceiling. The bedsteads are somewhat ornamented,
but feather-beds are never used: woollen mattresses are
substituted for them.
The cathedral of Bogota which was a noble building, was
ruined by an earthquake in 1827. It contained an imago
of the Virgin, which was covered with diamonds and other
precious stones. The other churches, to the number of
twenty-six, are in their interior resplendent with gold. A
great number of churches are dependent upon convents, the
revenues of which are very considerable. There are nine
monasteries and three nunneries : those of the Dominicans
and of the monks of San Juan de Dios are the most richly
endowed; half of the houses in Bogota belong to them.
These monasteries are more remarkable for solidity than
beauty of architectiure, and are arranged nearly in the same
manner as the private houses.
The palace, which once was the residence of the Spanish
viceroys, and at present is inhabited by the president of
the republic, is a flat-roofed house; two adjoining ones,
much lower, ornamented with galleries, constitute its de-
pendencies. The palace of tho deputies is nothing but a
large house at the corner of a street ; the ground-floor is ht
for shops. The senate assembles in a wing of the c»nveu
of the Dominicans, which has been fitted up for the purpose.
There are three colleges in Bogotd, all well situated and
well built. The principal one, that of the Jesuits, possesses
the character of solidity peculiar to all the edifices erected
by that famous order. The majority of the professors are
monks or priests. The course of instruction in these esta-
blishments consists of the lAtin language, philosophy, the
mathematics, and theology.
An hospital is dependent on the convent of San Juan de
Dios, but it is far from being well managed. The other
public buildings in Bogota are the Mint and a theatre.
The majority of the inhabitants are Creoles. The half-
bred Indians however are numerous, being alone employed
as servants. Mulattoes are not freouent, and negroes viry
rare. The whole number of inhabitants is estimated at
30,000 or 40,000. The inhabitants of Bogota are mild,
polite, and cheerful.
The alameda, or public walk, which forms one of the prin-
cipal entrances of the town, is a fine piece of ground, inter*
sected by fragrant hedges of rose-bushes and a variety of
wild flowers of luxuriant growth. It is the usual prome-
nade on Sundays and festivals for all classes of society.
The other amusements consist of balls, cock and buU fights«
and occasionally the theatre ; but more fi^uently games of
chance are resorted to, at which bets run as high as 10,000
piastres. The pomp displayed in the religious processions,
and the great number of saints* days, greatly contribute to
the amu<iement of the lower classes.
Bogota owes its importance solely to the circumstance of
its having been so long the seat of government, for which it
is well adapted, owing to the ready communication mth fkn
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country to the noith and east. In three days tbe town of
Honda on the banks of the Rio de Magdalen a is reached,
from whence the post generally arrives at the coast in
seven days, owin^ to the great velocity of the current, which
however delays its return after the rainy season, somo-
times fifty or sixty days. To remedy this inconvenience
the establishment of a steam-vessel has been projected.
A)i|ain, the river Meta runs to the east of the mountains
which stand at the back of the town. This stream falls into
the Orinoco, and thus gives facilities for sending information
down that river. (Humboldt; 'ilLoWiexi's Leiten/rom Co-
lumbia.)
BOGWANGOLA (BHAGAVAN GOLA), a consi-
derable town in the district of Boglipore, on the right bank
of the Ganges, in 24*" 21 ' N. lat., and 88° 29' £. long. : about
eight miles N.E. from Moorshedabad. It is a place of con-
siderable trade, and forms an important grain market, from
which the inhabitants of the town of Boglipore are princi-
pally supplied. To Europeans Bogwangola would nardly
present the appearance of a town, the dwellings being built
entirely of bamboos and mats. This unsubstantial mode of
building has been used, because, owing to the encroach-
ments of the Ganges, it has been more than once necessary
to change the site. The water of the Ganges is here of
sufficient depth to admit of trade being carried on at all
times.
BOHEMIA (in German, Bohmen), also termed Boheim
in many antient records, derives its name from the Boii,
who onoe occupied the parts about the sources of the
Elbe and Moldau. It now constitutes a kingdom forming
part of the empire of Austria, and comprising Bohemia
Proper, the margraviate of Moravia, and that small portion of
the duchy of Upper Silesia, which was not ceded to Prussia
under the treaty of Hubertsburg in 1 763. The margraviates
of Upper and Lower Lusatia also formed part of the Bohemian
dominions, until the treaty of Prague in 1 635 transferred
them to the electorate of Saxony. The details which we
are about to give will be oonftned to the territory generally
known by the designation of Bohemia ; which is an irre-
gular quadrangle m the S.E. of Germany, extending be-
tween 48° 33' and 51° 5' N. lat., and 12^ and 16° 46' E.
long.; it contains a superficies of about 20,010 square
miles, or 12,60tS,400 acres, which is more than two-thirds of
the area of Ireland or Bavaria. It is bounded on the north
by ff entle depresaions. The short slope is towards Bohevua.
and the longer one towards Saxony. The highest points oi
this range are the Schwarzwald or Sunnenwirbel, near
Joachimsthal, 4125 feet (or according to Hallaschka, 40U5
only) ; the Lesser Fichtelberg, near Wiesenthal, 3999, or
according to some 3709 only ; the Kupferberg 2749, towards
the southern end of the range ; and the ScLneeberg, near
Tetschen on the Elbe, 229 1 , at the northern end of the range.
The western and south-western borders of Bohemia are de-
fined by the Bohmerwald-gebirge (Bohemian Forest Moun-
tains). The Sudetsh chain, of which the principal range is
more peculiarly designated the Sudeten- gebirge (Sudetsh
mountains), extends from the right or eastern bank of the
Elbe as far to the eastern side of Bohemia as Grulich.
Certain portions of this range bear particular names; such
as the north-western, called the Isergebirge (Mountains of
the Iser), and that small portion lying next to the Elbe,
which is called the Lausitzer Bergplatte (Mountain -plateau
of Lusatia).
In the last-mentioned quarter the loftiest summit on
the side of Bohemia is the Tafel-fichte, which lies at the
extreme point of the Bohemian frontier next to Silesia
and Saxony, and, according to Gersdorf, has an elevation
of 3780 feet. Commencing from the eastern banks of the
Iser, the frontier line between Bohemia and Silesia runs
along the crest of the remaining and principal arm of the
Sudetsh chain, termed the Riesengebirge (or Giant Moun-
tains), a name frequently applied to designate that chain
in general. Seen from a certain distance, this range describes
a waving line, with a few elevated points, which present
the appearance of having been cut short off at their upper
extremities. The highest of these abrupt and naked sum-
mits is the Riesen or Schneekoppe (Giant or Snow-oap),
upon which a circular chapel dedicated to St. Lawrence hag
been erected ; its elevation according to some is 5400, but
according to others, not more than 5206 feet Next in
height are the double-capped Brunn or Bomberg, and the
Great Sturmhaube (Tempest-hood) ; the former of which is
5008, and the latter 4745 feet above the level of the sea.
The Sudetsh chain, which runs S.S.E. to the vicinity of
Grulich, is called the Glatz Mountains (Glatzischegebirge).
the waving outline of whose occasionally cap-crowned ridge
ibrms a pleasing object to tbe eve. Its highest point, though
it belongs rather to Moravia than Bohemia, is the Grulich
Silesia, on the south-east by Moravia, on the south by the
Archduchy of Austria, and on the south-west by the king-
dom of Bavaria. The whole circuit ot Bohemia is estimated
at about 810 miles, of which 165 lie next to Prussia, 294
to Saxony, and 175 to Bavaria: so that 176 miles only of
this circuit are skirted by other parts of the Austrian do-
minions. Inclusive of the metropolitan district of Prague,
Bohemia is divided into seventeen provinces or circles,
which are subdivided into 1332 judiciary circles:
west by the kingdom of Saxony, on the north-east by the or SpiegTitz Sohneeberg ; but the most elevated on the Bo-
Prussian province of Saxony, and by Austrian and Prussian hemian side are the Deschnay, Hohekoppe, or Grenskoppe*
oM__-- __ .L .t ___.. i-_ 't.r :- ._ ..u- __...!- 1... *i.^ gg ^ jg j^^gQ termed, which rises to the height of 3748 feet
above the sea, and the Marienberg near GruUch, to which
some assign an elevation of 4545 feet The highest ranges
of the Sudetsh mountains consist of primitive formations,
and are in some parts rich in ores : those of inferior height
are composed of clay-slate and limestone, intermixed with
beds of coal ; and the offsets of lower elevation are formed
in some parts of quartz and sandstone, and in others of
grauwack^ and basalt.
A lower range runs along the south-eastern boundary of
Bohemia, termed the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains, and
forms a connecting link with the Glatz Mountains towards
tbe north, and with the Mannhart Mountains, in the arch-
duchy of Austria, towards the south. This range, which is
of moderate elevation and gentle ascent, separates the basin
of the Elbe and Moldau from those of the Danube and the
March.
Tbe range which forms the boundary line between Bo-
hemia and Bavaria and nart of Austria, is known by the
name of the ' Bohmerwaldgebirge* (Bohemian forest moun-
tains), which is wholly of primitive formation, and charac-
terised by naked and precipitous features and deep ravines.
Towards Bavaria its slope is extremely abrupt, but on the
Bohemian side the descent is gradual ; and on this side the
loftiest heights are the Heidelberg, whose summit forms a
spacious plateau, at an elevation of 4622 feet, the Kubani
or Boubin, 4496 feet high, the Rachel (which some however
place in the Bavarian territory), 4394 feet, and the Dreis-
sesselberg (mount of three seats), 4054 feet
Bohemia is also intersected by several ranges of inferior
elevation ; the northern, called the Northern Ball, or Trapp
Mountains, spreads in various directions; and the mom
southerly, called the Midland Mountains, which are anna
of the Bohemian Forest chain, consist of the Berann, Mol-
dau, Euler, &c., ranges.
The interior of Bohemia presents an undulating surfaoe*
very frequently studded with high and pointed emineneaa*
ProviBMi.
H Mlki.
Tawm.
VUlH-.
PopulaUon.
ChlrfTowni.
PopulatiMi
RakoDitX . «
966
18
508
168.999
SchUn . . .
3600
nemnn . .
Ilia
S4
76:*
17*2,389
Beraun . .
S900
Kauriim . .
Hid
43
est
190.631
Kaurxim . .
1900
BttiisUa • .
1617
46
1034
893.}'d9 iJuDK-Bonilaa
4950
Bia»chow . .
9S4
98
619
950.7.«
OiUhin . .
8800
Koniggrats. •
Chrudim . .
1960
40
811
395.103
Kuntg^fir&U .
7500
183S
84
769
300.096
Chradim . .
6650
Czaslaa • .
1S38
44
840
938.690
CxasUu . .
8330
Tabor . . .
1155
35
716
195.979
Tabor . . .
4100
Uudwcb • .
1617
87
897
904.509
Bohmish- 1
Budwsis. j
7500
Pnehio . .
1865
57
985
959.110
171.139
Ptwk . . .
6500
KlatUa . .
966
96
640
Klatun . .
5700
Pil«?« . .
14S8
99
663
195.583
Pilien . . .
8800
Ellbogea . .
1176
40
615
930.103
Elbogen « . .
90S0
Snaig .
903
99
464
135.656
Saatx . . .
4950
Leitmeritz . .
1498
43
964
350.119
LeitDerits .
4300
Pngwi. . .
8
'
120.000
Plrague. . .
190.000
90.010
863
11.961
3.909.875
193.890
Bohemia is inclosed on every side by lolly and in parts
wild and dreary mountains. On the west side, and from
a point close upon the Fichtel gebirge, issue two ranges, the
one taking a N.E., and the other a S.E. direction. The
first of these ranges, which separates Bohemia from Saxony,
and may be termed ' the left arm of the Sudetsh chain,' is
known under the name of the Erzgebirge (Ore-mountains).
It runs to the left bank of the Elbe between Tetschen and
Schandau, and is neither precipitous nor of a wild cha-
racter, but with few exceptions wooded nearly to its summit.
Ita lidget fona an undulating line, here and there broken
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bot with a general slope towatds the eentre of the ooimtry.
The moet extensive piainn are in tlie provinces of Konig-
f^ratx and Chrudim, from Neustadt to the Nassaberg accli-
vities. The country is full of valleys and mountain passes,
among which we may mention the deltjchtful valleys of the
Elbe and Beraun ; but tho deepest is the Riesengrund or
Giint's Glen among the Giant Mountains. From Zippe's
Survey it would appear that the whole of the mountains
which inclose Bohemia are of primitive formation, with
the exception of two points* the one in the north where
the Elbe quits Bohemia, and the other in the north-west,
about Braunau and Trautenau, which are of a later forma-
tion. A very extensive formation of sandstone is ob-
served in the heart of the country ; and there is one most
remarkable mass, the Steinwald, near Adersbach, which is
nearly five miles in length and above a mile in breadth. It
stands at some points in compact masses, and in others is
shaped into lofty columns, pyramids, cones, &c., forming
immense labyrinths. In many parts, again, there are hilU
and mountama composed of one solid mass of basalt. Al-
though some consider the Kammerbiihl, near E^r, and
the Wolfflberg, in the pro\ince of Pilsen, to be extinct volca-
noes, there is no positive evidence that any part of Bohemia
has ever been the scene of volcanic eruption.
The whole of Bohemia being at a considerable elevation,
its rivers rise either within or close upon its borders. The
Elbe (the antient A Ibis, or the Labe of the Bohemians)
traverses the N.B. part of the country. It originates in
the junction of two brooks, the White- water and Elbe-brook,
whose sources lie ten miles apart in the Giant Mountains ;
it descends as an impetuous torrent into the hill-country,
receives a multitude of minor streams in its course, and
assumes a blood-red tint after heavy showers, which is par-
ticularly remarkable in the neighbourhood of Josephatadt
and Koniggrats. It forms in many parts a rich alluvium
by the overflowing of its banks, and quits Bohemia after a
course of about 190 miles at Herrenskretschen, near Schan
dau, where it ente^ the kingdom of Saxony. Its sources
are 4260 feet above the level of the sea, while its bed, at
the point where it leaves the Boliemian territory, is not more
than about 287 feet above it Its principal tributaries within
the borders of Bohemia are the Moldau and Eger. The
Moldau rises from the Black Mountain (Schwarsberg) in
the Bohemian Forest Mountains, close upon the confines of
the Bavarian bailiwick of Wolfstein : it first flows S.E., and
when it has reached Rosenberg at the southernmost extre-
mity of the kingdom, takes a northerly direction thruiiirh
the heart of the country, and falls into the Elbe near Melnik
after a short bend to the east. The Moldau, termed the
Wltwa by the natives, runs for about 2R0 miles before its
junction with the Elbe : it generally runs between steep
rocks, and at ito confioence with the Elbe is nearly as
broad as that river. From Budweis, where it becomes navi-
gable, to Prague, its length is about 130 miles, and from
Prague to Melnik about eighteen. lu breadth at Prague
varies from 250 to 286 paoes ; and the height of iU surface,
whieh is 1511 feet at Krummau, declines at the bridge in
Prague to about 529. The Eger, called the Cheb by the
Bohemians, rises on the east side of the Fichtelberg in the
Baiwan eircle of the Upper Main, whence it soon after
enters Bohemia and flows eastwards for about eighty miles
until it joins the Elbe on the west bank near Theresienstadt.
The minor tributaries of the Elbe are the Aupa, the Krlitz
or Adier, which rises near Koniggrats and skirts the prin-
cipality of Glatz in Prussian Silesia fbr a short distance, the
Mettau, whieh flows from the vicinity of Josephstadt, and
the Iser, which deseends from the S. slope of the Giant
Mountains, not far from Brandeis. The streams that join
the Moldau are the Luschnttz, which flows from the neigh-
bourhood of Moldautein, the Wottowa or Watawa, which
flows from the Bohemian Forest Mountains, and for some
distanoe flnt bears the name of the Widra, the Sazawa or
Csasawa, whose source lies near Hradishka, and the Beraun
or Beraunkat which rises near Kontgsaal. The whole
drainage of Bohemia finds an outlet through the narrow
Sass of the Elbe at Herrenskretschen. As this outlet, in-
ependently of its confined width, bears evident marks of
vwlent disruption, and as every other side of Bohemia is
walled in with mountains, it has been conjectured that the
whole of Bohemia must at one time have formed an im-
meate lake, which has been drained by a disruption taking
place at the point where the Elbe ceases to be a Bohemian
Among thie ottmerous &11b of water in Bohemia
the most interesting are those of the Elbe, of l!be IfoMao
across the Devil's VTaW^ and those in the vicinity of Neuwohl.
Tbouffli full of small pieces of water, Bohemia has no
lakes. There are several large swamps and morasses, por-
tioularly the Servina swamp (or Gezera), between Briir ana
Postelberg, and the Slatina swamp near I>o.an on the
Eger : a considerable portion of the first of these has how-
ever been drained and converted into pasture land. The
country is extremely rich in mineral waters, and several of
them are in great repute. A recent enumeration of such as
are publicly known amounts to upwards of 160 : at Uie bead
of the ferruginous springs are the Franzens brunnen. ncar
Eger, the three springs at Marienbad, and that at GieM-
hiibl ; among the alkaline springs are those of Carlsbad and
Teplitz, one at Marienbad, and others at Bilin, Liebwerda,
&c; there are bitter waters at Sedlitz, Saidschitz, and
Piillna; sulphurous springs at TepUtz, Soberschao. &c ;
aluminous and vitriolio springs at StecknitZt Mocbenob
Zlonitz, &c. ; carbonic acia waters at Carlstadt; and saline
springs at 8chlan and in other places. The virtues of the
springs of CarUbad, as well as the beauty of the adjacent
scenery, have placed that spot at the bead of the baths of
Germany, and acquired for it the designation of ' the Pearl
of Bohemia ;* they yield 1500 aulms (22,500 gallons) per
hour, of which the Springer alone yields 2475 gallons. The
temperature of some of them at the moment of their first
emis^sion is not less than from 59^ to 60^ of Reaumur (about
165° of Fahrenheit); that of the springs of TepliU is 3o^
(98° Fahr.); the Franzens brunnen near Eger not more
than 9° or 10° (54^ Fnbr.). The whole quantitv of mineral
water exported from the Bohemian springs in the year 1825
was 223,320 quarts.
The elevation of the interior of Bohemia and its nmole*
ness from any coast, for it is nearly equidistant from the
Baltic and Mediterranean, give it a clear and salubrious
atmosphere and general constancy of weather. The climate
naturally becomes keener and bleaker as the chains of
mountains which encircle Bohemia rise in height The
regions about Crottesgab (Qod's gift) in the Ore Meantaina
are considered the coldest in Bohemia* and there are few
months of the year in which there is not need of fire ; nor
will grain ripen in them. In the Bohemian Forest mnge,
where the snow freouently lies twelve feet deep, and d<jce
not disappear until tne middle of April, as well as in those
parts of the province of Budweis which are saturased wich
moisture, there are many districts, in general covered with
woofls or forests, which are not habitable. Fcpm obeenratit^
it appears that the mean temperature at Prague is 7<^»V
Reaumur (47^"* Fahr.) whilst on theelevated site of Reh*
berg it is not more than 4iVit° (^iTh** Fahr.). Intheaeigb*
bourhood of Reichenberg, where the harvest is two or three
weeks later than in the low country, the highest degiee of
heat has been found to be 12° Reau. (59° Fahr.)* and the
severest degree of cold —6^ (16*5" Fahr.). The prevalent
winds blow from west to some points norUi* and mm west
to some points south. The winds from these qnarlers. ae^
cording to Diask's observations, invariably bring dry weather
with them in winter, but wet in summer ; the more aonlheriy
their point of departure in summer, the liner Uie weather.
In winter it is precisely the reverse, they being usually ac-
companied by rains and thaws. On the other band, the
nearer to the north their point of departure, the noce fre*
quent and the more violent are the storms by whioh tbey
are attended.
The soil of Bohemia varies considerably in productivenes,
but it is nowhere entirely sterile except in cnrtain parts
of the Bohemian Forest, on the Ore, and Giant Mountains*
those lands along the banks of the Elbe, partioalaily ftnm
Kunieritzerberge to Koniggratz, which are coated with drift
sand, and in some of the districts where swamps abound.
The rest of the low country is in general rich and produc*
tive, particulariy the province of Saatz. No soil in Bobemia
is however more fertile than that which has been foraeHv
the site of large sheets pt water, its deep Hack loam being
highly favourable to the growth of wheat, rye, and bariey.
Bohemia produces almost every description of grain and pod
seeds, but not much maize : the quantity of arable land is
said to be about 5.346,300 acres (3,805,430 yochs), and the
yeariy crops of wheat are estimated at 6.086,000 Imperial
bushels; of rye, at 25,430,000; of barley, at Il.020,oe0;
and of oats, at 22,035,000 : among other prodnetiona ere
nuts, potatoes. ve|etablea, liqnoriee*root, ohickory, exeeUent
bops, &C. Flax IS grown in everjr pros^nos, bai of wipsn
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qualitr, and hemp is raised in some fs\r quarters; rape-
seed IS also largely cultivated for the sake of the oil. Fruit
abounds in all parts except the more elevated districts ; wine
is obtained m none, exceptini^ the vicinities of the Elbe and
Moldau, which yield annually about 392,000 gallons. The
border mountain ranges, from which however some of those
which adjoin Moravia must be excluded, contain rich sup-
plies of timber and fuel, though their wasteful consumption
renders those supplies no longer so abundant as in former
times. Mosses, particularly the Iceland sort, herbs, grasses,
and medicinal plants, many of them of rare occurrence else-
where, are plentiful in the mountain regions.
Bohemia contains large masses of quartz, granite, and
sandstoae ; precious stones, particularly the celebrated Bo-
hemian garnet or pyrope, rubies, sapphires, topazes, chry-
solites, amethysts, cornelians, chalcedonies, and agates;
limestone, beautiful marbles, porcelain earth, slates, potter's
clay, between twenty and thirty species of serpentine, basalt,
porphyry, &c. The mountain districts yield gold and silver,
quicksilver, tin, lead, iron, bismuth, zinc, cobalt, arsenic,
manganese, nickel, chrome, &e. Of salts EJohemia fhmishes
native alum, natron, several kinds of vitriol, and almost
every variety of officinal salts from its mineral springs ; and
as common salt is extracted from some of the springs, it
has been inferred that beds of rock-salt exist in some
quarters. Considerable strata of sulphurous slate, as well
as coals, have been found, and in some directions peat-turf
is dug : black-lead of good quality likewise freauently occura.
Bohemia has a very superior breed of horses. This
breed, though not of large size, has undoubtedly the advan-
tage over that of any immediately adjacent country from
its loftier stature and finer limbs : the number is upwards
of 140,000. The supply of homed cattle, amounting to
about 244,000 oxen and 651,000 cows, is not adequate to
the home demand. The native race is in general small and
of inferior shape; and, on account of the insufficient
supply, large importatk>ns are made from Poland and
Moldavia. The sheep, of which there are about 1,500,000
heads, afford excellent wool. The stock of goats and swine
is abundant. Poultry, particularly turkeys and geese, are
reared everywhere ; honey and wax are produced in all the
provinces. The stock of game has fallen <^ in those quar-
ters where the population has increased, but no where m so
marked a manner as in the ' GKant-mountains ;* it cannot
however be termed scanty ; and Bohemia still possesses stags,
deer, hares, wild hogs, pheasants, and partridges in abun-
dance. Some of the wild animals, such as l^ars, wolves,
and lynxes, continue partially to infest certain districts,
chiefly those adjoining the * Bohemian-fbrest mountains.*
The fox, marten, pole-cat, weazle, and squirrel also inhabit
the Bohemian woods. Birds of prey abound. Considerable
supplies of fish are obtained not only from the rivers and
brooks, but from the extensive ponds in various parts of this
country ; amongst them is the salmon, which finds its way
from the North Sea into the Moldau and Wottowa. The
mountain-streams are full of trout ; and eels and craw-fish
are found in many rivulets. The Moldau contains a mussel,
from whioli pearls are extracted, which are also obtained
in the Wottowa and White Bister, near Steingriin, in the
district of Eger.
We have already siven a statement of the present popu-
lation of Bohemia, which amounts to 3,902,875 souls. To
tlii^ amount about 30«0 00 military and persons connected
with the military establishment must be added ; so that the
actual number of inhabitants is about 3,932,000, or about
196 to every square mile. There has been a progressive
increase, as will be seen from the subsequent data. In
1 786 they amounted to 2,716,084; in 1795, to 2,879,793;
in 1805, to 3>263,879; in 1815, to 3,142,450; in 1625, to
3.629,192; and in 1831, to 3,86S,828> of whom 1,848,530
were males* and 2,d40,298 were females^ In the sixteen
years between 1815 and 1831, therefore, the increase was
746,378, or 46,648 per annum: in the six years between
1825 cnd.1881.it was 359,636, or 59,939 per annum; and
in the.twoyeara 1832 and 1833 it was 74,047, or 37,023
per annum, a diminution which is ascribed to Uie destruox
live epidemic that prevailed during that period, particularly
in the year 1832. Of the present . pojpulation about one-
third live in towns* and the remainder form the rural popu-
lation. The total number of houses in 1834 was 555,448,
which gives an average of rather more than seven indivi-
duals to each house. Bohemia, with the exception of the
ca|}italt contains no town of the second or thinl rank ; none
I of which the population is between 50,000 and 1 00,000
or between 15,000 and 50,000; and it has but twelve even
of the fourth rank, namely between 5000 and 15,000. The
number of ecclesiastics is 410*7, cr about 1 to every 950
souls, and of persons of noble blood, 2134, or about T to
every 1829. ' We may here remark, that the population is
comparatively greatest in these parts where the soil is by no
means the most productive ; we allude to the mountainous
districts of the north and east of Bohemia. The least popu-
lous part is the province of Prachin.
Nearly two-thirds of the inhabitants of Bohemia, parti-
cularly those in the central and eastern provinces, are of
Sclavonian blood, and call themselves Czeches or Tscheches •
they differ from every other class of Sclavonians in the Aus-
trian dominions, according to Professor Schnabel, from the
superior antiquity of their literature, and the greater sup-
pleness and refinement of their dialect, both as it exists at
present, and as it existed in past ages. In common with'
the Slowaks and their brethren in Moravia, they are
descendants of the Lechi or north-western branch of the
Sclavonians, who were the first to cultivate and refine their'
native language. The Czeches are passionately fond of
music and singing, and generally remarkable for intelli-
gence and strength of memory. Next to this race, the
G^ermans, who are about 900,000, ar^ the most numerous ;
they chiefly inhabit the districts bordering upon Prussia,
Bavaria, and Saxony, and spread themselves from the pro-'
vince of Pilsen, through those of EUbogen, Saatz, Leit-*
merilz, and Bidschow or Biczow, as far as that of Konig-
gratz. In mechanical and mercantile purauits they are supe-'
rior to the Sclavonian inhabitants; and their language has
become that of the educated classes throughout the country.
The Jews, said to he at present 62,000 or more (in 1797
they did not exceed 3600 families), appear fVom the inscrip-
tions on several antient tomb-stones to have been settled'
in Bohemia as far back as the first century ; then: principal
occupation is trading and money transactions : m*:>st of the
brandy distilleries and many breweries are in their hands, '
and they generally rent the government potash works. At
Prague there is a colony of Italians who settled there in
e&rly times, and are exclusively employed in trading.'
The climate of Bohemia bein^, on the whole, a healthy one,
there is less mortality among ths inhabitants than in many'
other countries, and longevity is of frequent occurrence.'
The average proportion of the deaths to the whole popula-'
tion is 3 in every hundred souls, which includes the mor -
tality of the capital : in the low cotmtry it does not exceed
1 in 39.
The Roman Catholic religion is professed by the ma-
jority of the inhabitants. The secular eleigy consist of the*
metropolitan archbishop of Prague, the three bishops ot-
Leitmeritz, Koniggratz, and Budweis, a titular bishop, and
twelve prelates^ and the affiura of the Bohemian church-
are conducted by the metropolitan and the three above-
mentioned bishops. There are ehapters and collegiate
bodies composed of provosts, deans, and members of chap-^
tors ; and an episcopal consistory is attaohed to ev^y chap-'
ter. The remainder of the establishment comprehends
7 provostries, II archdeaconries, 133 deaneries, 1197 bene-
fices or cures of souls, 83 parochial administrations {pfarr»
adminiatraiionen)tS4B ministries {loeaiien^t and 82 preacher-
ships iexposituren). Considerable limitations have been
imposed on the regular clergy, who still possess 75 mo-
nasteries and 6 convents, including an English sisterhood. '
The Protestants are most numerous in the north-eastern
parta of Bohemia ; but there are none in the south-western :
they are composed of 10 congregations of the Augsburg
rule of faith, in number about 13,000 souls, and of 3S con-
gregations of the Calvinistio persuasion, in number about
45,000. Besides these, there are about 7000 Mennonites,
Hussites, and foUowera of a sect closely resembling the
Quakers. There was a time, indeed, when sects maintain-'
ing the most absurd opinions started up in Bohemia; but'
we shall only instance the credulous adherents of Grill, the
enthusiast of Czernikov, a place about five miles from*
Koniggratz, who metamorphosed Josephstadt into the
valley of Josaphat, and Koniggratz into the city of Jericho.
Othere of his cast had long before him afiKrmed that Bohe*
mia was nothing less than Judsea itself, the land of Sion
and Bethlehem. Tabor and Emmaus, Horeb and Jerusalem ;
and in one corner of Bohemia a remnant of Adamites sub-
sists even at the present day.
The houses ox the Bohemians possess in geoerul fow
No. 279.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
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cjiinu toelegaiice of strueture, or even wmHoH in their
erranirement; find tbero i& scarcely a town which it not
ill Imilt and badly laid out Places of anv magnitude ore
usually constructed of stone, but here and there of slate ;
ia the SKricultural and mountainous districts, the houses
are rarely built with any other material than wood. The
whole number of ikmilies in the year 1830 waa 678,633.
The Bohemians may be described as being, with few ex**
eeptions, a peaceably inclined and religiously disposed race
of men, devotedly attached to the government under which
they live, and brave and resolute under the endurance of
hardships : they are remarkable for hospitality and kindness
towards the needy and afflicted. The moral condition of
the people too is good, as may be inferred from the average
3f offeaoes which were the subject of investigation or trial
uring the five years* interval between 1624 and 1828 ; this
average amounted to 2579 caaea per annum, which did
not exceed 1 in every 1428 individuals. The number of
illegitimate births amounted in 1629 to 16,509, of which
Q442 were males and 6067 females; every eighth birth
ooming under this description. The annual average num*
her of births for the period of thirty years between 1785
and 1814 was 126,279; and for the fourteen subsequent
years (1815 to 1H28) it was 143,087. The average of
deaths for the flrst-mentioned period was 100,399 ; and for
the last^mentioned, 100,289. With respect to marriages,
the annual average between 1785 and 1814 was 24,089;
%ad between 1815 and 1828, 27,387.
. The cultivation of the soil is susceptible of great improve*
ment. The great mass of the peasantry are held in servitude,
i^nd have litUe interest in the produce of their labour. The
landed property of Bohemia is, in fact, almost universally
IB the hands of the nobility and a few free peasants, who
are proprietors of the actual labourers on their estates, and
•xact heavy service from them* Owing to the inadequate
aupply of fodder for horses and cattle, there is an insuf-
ficient supply of manure. The whole extent of available
soil is estimated at about U. 106,090 aei-es (7,7 74,264 Vienna
yochs) ; the remainder consists of rock, marbhes, tracts of
aand, roads, and paths. In some parts the produce of the
l^nd is tolerably abundant ; for instance, in the province of
Saatz and the vicinity of Prague, wheat and rye bear seven
or eight fold, barley ninefold, and oats tenfold. Potatoes are
i;niversally rulti%'ated, particularly in the mountainous parts
of Bohemia. There are about 1,140,000 acres (796,721
yoehs) of meadow land in Bohemia, and the yearly quantity
ctf hay whioh they produce is estimated at 1,200,000 tons ;
nor does the supply, including crops from fallow land, average
more than 1 ,500,000. The growth of clover has so much iu-
ereased, that in some years the quantity of seed exported has
amounted to 18,200 cwt. The cultivation of fruit ia pursued
to the greatest extent in all the northern provinces, with the
nxeeption of the districts about Eger, where the people appear
to entertain an extraordinary aversion to it ; its extension
and improvement have been essentially promoted by the en-
oouragement given by the * Patriotio-Eoonomicar and ' Po-
mologio' societies in Prague. The finest orchards, or rather
groves of fruit-trees, exist in the vicinity of Neustadt above
ihe Mettau ; whole woodii of plum-trees are met with near
llelclu>wek. Weltrus. and other spou. Bohemia is, in fact,
a Urge exporting eountry for apples, quinces, dried plums,
pears, cherries, &c. ; and the extent of ^rden-ground under
euluvation is estimated at 121,560 acres (85,014 yochs).
The production of tiox, although it is grown in every pro-
nnoe, is by no means sufficient for the internal consump-
tion ; and this remark applies equally to hemp : the im-
portation of these articles, which are chiefly derived from
Sasonv and Silesia, is said to amount to about 300 tons
annually. Among dyeing plants the ehief is madder-roots,
which are raised in lar«e quantities about SolniU and Liboch.
Bohemia is celebrated for an excellent kind of hops, of which
the produce Ts eonsiderable ; those grown in the province
of Seats, and next to tliese, the hops cultivated in the pro-
vinces of Rakoniu, Bunslau. and Pilsen, are in highest
eateem. The quantity exported appears to vary between
HkOOe and 11,000 cwt The vine, there is reason to be-
Leva, was much mora extensively cultivated in former times
than at nresent; but the climate is undoubtedly unfkvour-
able, and henoe the surface devoted to its cultivation is not
more than 6400 acres (4481 yochs), of which, as before
observwl, the produce in wine does not much exceed 392,000
'nns. The Burgundy grape was transplanted lo the
ihonrhgod of Mehriek about the year 1 348» and the wine [
derived from it in frtvouxable seesoat ii aeeoonted little in*
ferior to the parent-juice. An ordinary kind of tparUTng
champagne, called * Csemoseker,' is made near Au»*i(r;
but the other descriptions of wine produced near Prstf ue,
Beohliu, Raudnitz, &c., are but of indiflferent quality. The
woods and forests of Bohemia occupy about 3,314,000 acres
(2.319,811 yochs), and their yearly produce ia estimated at
1,932,000 quadr-klaflers, or square iathoms« of soil wcod«
and 237,000 of hard.
Few branches of industry are more valuable to Bohemia
than the working of its mines ; and although the produce
of the precious metals has declined, the whole annual supply
of these mines, which is Cbtimated at 215,000/., haa not
fallen ofl* in value. The quunlity of gold and silver, now
principally got near Przibram, Joachimsthal, Eulew and
Balbin, ii» but small compared with what was obtained in
the sixteenth century, when the mines yielded as much as
1,090,900 marks, or about 9,917,300 ounces of silver, up to
the year 1689 alone. Between the years 1755 and Is 17,
however, the produce of this metal sent into the public miut
was not altogether more than 255,783 marks* or about
2,298,000 ounces; and in 1827 the annual produce had »uuk
to 1202 marks. Quicksilver has hitherto been found only m
the form of cinnabar ; the copper mines have ceased to be
productive, and are abandoned ; those of tin (and it may be
ncre observed that Bohemia is the only part of the Austrian
dominions where it is found) have so much declined. tiiAt
between the years 1817 and 1828 their annual produce tcU
from 1844 cwt. to 879 cwt., and the working of them has
been abandoned by the government to private individuals.
The lead mines, principally situated about Prxibam, Miea,
and Bleistadt, continue to yield abundantly: their produce
in 1825 consisted of 14,168 cwt. of lead containing siher,
18,022 cwt. of pure lead, and 10,9041 cwt. of litharge;
making in all 43,094} cwt Lastly, the iron mines, tho
richest of which lie in the districts of Harxowitx and Ginets
in the province of Beraun, and in that of Pilsen, employ
about eighty furnaces and 6000 hands ; and have increased
since the year 1825 from an annual produce of about laao
tons to about 1 7,500 ; but the article is inferior to the
Styrian and Carinthian iron. Quarries are worked in every
part of Bohemia; and there is scarcely a province in whicli
lime is not prepared. Marble is obtained at SteiumeU;
sandstone in several places; the Przilep, Breitenstein. .uid
other quarries, yield excellent mill-stones ; large quanttue«
of basalt are worked into form for building and paving u
Parchen, Rodau, &c. ; quartx of superior quality is gi»i At
Bohmisch-Aicha, Weisswasser, GiesshiigeU and elsewh"rc.
Among the precious stones found in Bohemia, the cele-
brated garnet, which ia equal to that of the East in bnl-
liancy, as well as colour and hardness, is principallv fuuuil
at Swietlau in the province of Czaslau» and Dlaschkowm
in the province of Leitmeritx. The produce of the cual-
mines has greatly increased of late years in consequence of
the increasing price of wood, particularly in tlie northern
provinces: between the years 1819 and 1828 ^ae the an-
nual supply rose from 45.0i!0 to nearly 80,000 tons. The
southern parts of the province of Rakonitx, in particular,
furnish a coal of very superior description. Graphite or
hlack-lead is found in considerable layers near Krummau
and Swojanow, and is extensively worked ; but is far infen t
to the English. About 4000 cwt. of aulphur are annuallf
obtained, and vitriol and sulphuric aekl are prepared from
the residua.
Bohemia is one of the most manufacturing oonntries m
the Austrian territory ; and the northern provinces. e»pe«
cially the parU adjacent to Reichenberg. Rumburg, and
Trautenau, whero the rawness of the climate, or an mdif-
ferent soil is unfavourable to agriouUure, are the mincipal
seats of manufiicturing industry. The glau of Bohemia
haa been in repute for its cheapness, lightness* and dura-
bility ever since the thirteenth century ; although il» pro-
duct has sensibly declined in modern times, it sUU employs
nearly aixty works, and about 4000 hands, and keep* a
capiul of 800«000/. and upwards proQtably engaged. The
bobt manufactories of this article are at Neuwald and
Gratxen ; and the vicinity of Haida is also celebrated for irs
polished and cut irlass. The best mirroia and enamcl'Dd
warea are produced at Neuhurkenthal and Biirgstein. The*
eultivation and workmg up of flax constitutes a chief
means of subsistence among the inhabiUnu of the highUod
districU. Many parts of the districU adjoining the northern
and eastem lan^ee of mottntaioafom oneoooti&uad j
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factory of linens, in which thousands of humble eabina per-
petually resound with the noise of the jenny or loom;
500,0u0 hands at least (a considerable proportion at their
leisure hours only) are employed in the manufacture of
yarn, and as many as 55,000 weavers in that of linen ; 1 100
ihdividuals depend on the making of tapes and ribbons,
and full 20,000 on lace-making. The yearly value of the
iereral products which their united industry supplies is
estimated at 1,200,000/. sterling. But this branch of ma^
nufacture is on the decline, in eonsequence of the progress
making in that of cottons. With regard to the last, much
twist of the inferior numbers is spun by machinery at and
near Neumarkersdorf, Wernstadtl, Rothenhaus, Joachim-
fthal, and Schonlinde, &c., but the higher numbers are im-
ported from England and the archduchy of Austria. The
weaving of plain calicoes, of which the annual value is esti-
mated at 3(i0,000/., is principally carried on in the provinces
of Leitmeritz, Bunzlau. JSllbo^en, and Biosow ; the finer
descriptions, to the extent of about 250,000/. a year, are
manufactured in the same quarters, as well as at Prague ;
and cotton- printing, which has greatly advanced of late
years, is best done at Cosmanos, Reichstadt, Jung-Bunzlau,
and Prague. The niimber of pieces made throughout
Bohemia is said to be upwards of 100,000, over and aboive
what is produced by machinery. Its cotton manufkctures
of all kinds employ about 20.000 hand-spinnerB» and be*
tween 9000 and 10,000 weavers; these however are inde-
pendent of about 18,000 individuals who are employed in
roakin«r hosiery, the yearly value of which is estimated at
150.000/. The bleaching^grounds are nnmerout, and many
of them, particularly that at liindskron in the province of
Chrudim, are on an eiLtensive scale ; the quauttty of cottons
bleached by all these establislnxients is computed to amount
to 40,000,000 pieces of twist, 200,000 shocks of linena, and
1 00,000 pieces of cotton, and the expense of bleaching Is about
160,000/. per annum. The potash manufaetoiies employ
about 6000 hands, and the annual value of the article pro-
duced is about 200,000/. Large quantities of worsted stuib
and woollens of an inferior quality are made; woollen-oloths
nnd'kerseymeres alone employ above 8000 hands, and are
nanufiictured to the extent of about 500,000/. or 600,000/1
yearly value, and 60,000 owt. of the raw material; of theso
tiearlV one- half are made in the province of Bonclau, in which
lies Reichenberg, the ?reat seat of manufacture for the mid-
dllng descriptions of Bohemian woollens. It has been esti-
mate that the trade in wool and woollen manufaeturea affords
subsistence to 70,000 individuals and upwards $ namely, about
55,000 spinners, 11,000 to 12,000 weavers of piece-gooda,
3000 to 4000 weavers of worsted atufls, and 2000 to 3000
stocking-makers. Of silks the manufhcture has hitherto
l^en inconsiderable, and it is almost wholly confined to
Prague. Leather and manufkctures from it give employ-
ment to about 4000 hands, and the value of the articles pro-
duced may be estimated at between 300,000^. and 400,000/.
-a year. The manuiacture of china has been brought to
much perfection at Bchlaggenwald, Ellbogen, Pirkonham-
mcr, and in other places ; and that of earthenware is carried
on in several parts of the country. Iron ware is made to
the extent of about 1 70,000/. per annum ; steel, cutlery, and
needles are manufiictured principally, and of the best quality
at Prague, Nixdorf, and Carlsbad. Bohemia also possesses
copper and tin manufactories, but so little brass is made
that it depends for its supply on the archduchy of Austria.
The number of paper-mills exceeds 100, and the yearlv
value of their various products is estimated at about 150,000/.
One- third at least of the population of Bohemia depend
upon manufactures Ibr the chief means of subsistence.
Schnabel calculates the clear profit derived from manu-
factures of an kinds at nearly 2,000.000/. sterling a year.
Bohemia, wfaieh possesses peculiar facilities for internal
and external intereourse by means of the natural lines of
eommunication of the Elbe and Moldau, carries on an active
trade with the other parts of Austria, ai^ wHh fbreign
eountries. Its exports amount to about 1,500,000/., which
amount is composed, so far as respects indigenous articles,
of about 400,000/. in value of mineral products (principalYy
glass), 500,000/. of vegetable productions, and 9(0,000/.
animal products, particularly wool and quills ; ofti the ether
hand, the imports are computed at about 1,400,000/. per
annum. Prague is the centre of the chief commercial
and money transactions, for which its situation peeuliatly
fifes it. The country possesses roads, in general kept
te eftoiriloM •rAtr, l» xi» extoal of Mtrly 1700 taiAm}
and it has tvte b'n^ of iron railways, the first eoitttnitfleA
in Austria on a large scale ; the one running between^
Budweis and Linz, and the otb«r, whidi is ninetv miles in
length, between Pilsen and Prague. Muoh benent baa so--
crued to the country from the establinhment of a periodical
exhibition of native productions and manufactures* as well
as the recent foundstion of a seoiety at Prague for the pro-
motion of national industry.
The intellectual wants of the people do not, on the whole,
appear to have been neglected. The national schools con-
sist of a normal seminary for educating teachers, 4o head
sdiools, and 2556 common schools, of which 2500 are Roman
Catholic 36 Protestant, and 20 Jewish. For the higher
branches of education Bohemia possesses a university at
Prague, 86 ^mnasia or public schools, three philosoi^icaU
and three ueolc^ical seminaries, a polytechnic institution,
an academy of painting, a conservatory of music, several
military schools, and other establishments. In Prague there
is an academy of the arts and sciences, the only institution
of the kind in the hereditary dominions of the house of
Austria, and an eeonomic-patriotR society, which has dona
much for the encouragement and improvement of agri-«-
eulture.
The civil administration of the country is vested in a eeiM
tral government, subordinate to the higher authorities in
Vienna ; its seat is Prague, and its president is styled the
superior burgrave. Judicial affairs fall under the superior
cognisance and controul of a court of appeal and bench of
criminal justice in the same capital.
(Blumenbach*s Bohemia; Austrian National Encyeh^
ptedia; Hassel's Austrian Empire; Liohtenstem» Neu«
mann, Schnabel. Malchns, v. Bicxes, &c.)
BOHBMIA, FOREST OF, called in German Bokmet^
WMj and by the aborigines of Bohemia or Gzeches^
Stumava, is a mountain-range of considerable extent II
sepaiates in the greatest part of its coarse Bohemia ftom
Bavaria. Its direction is neariy N.W. and S.B.
It commences at its north-western extremity near the
plaoe where the fiftieth parallel is cut by the meridian of
1^ 20^, to tha south of the town of Bger : &e depression by
which it is divided fVom the neighbouring Fiebtelgebirga
is upwards of 1500 feet above the level of &e sea. In this
depression rise two toirents, the Wondra, which ninning
north-east falls into the Eger and the Wald-naah, which
flowing south-west empties itself into the Naab. The
range terminates at its south-eastern extremity with the
hills which advance close to the banks of the Danube oppo<
site the town of Linz in Upper Austria, where the surface
of the Dairabe is still about 840 feet above the sea.
This mountain-ridge is very distinctly marked on its
soQth-wesfesm dedivitv, where it descends very abruptly
towards the table-land of Southern Germany, which is at
a mean upwards of 1000 feet above the sea; towards its
southern extremity, fiem the source of the Miihlbach te
Linz, it slopes down by a continuation of hills. The nortlf-
eastem declivity fbwaids the course of the M oldan and
Elbe tivefs is not abrupt ; and here several lateral ridges
detach themselves, and gndnally sink as they approach
the banks of the rivers.
The principal ridge, whfoh extends about 112 miles, does
not Tiso to a great height. The northern half presents oft
its summit extensive flats, overtopped here and there by
some hills, which never attain an absolute altitude of more
than 2500 feet. The southern half however is much more
elevated, and some summits attain the elevation of the
highest mountains in Scotland. Mount HetAelberg is the
highest, and rises to 4622 feet; Mount Kubani to 449a,
Mount Arber to 4582, Mount Raehel 4304, and Dreises-
solberg tor 4054 feet The last monntain is on the hou»-
daries of Bavaria, Bohemia, and Austria.
The lateral ridges which branch off to the north-east are
much lower and do not contain any lof^ summits, but
some of them are of oonsidereble extent; such paitioulariy
is the ridge which branches off nearly in the middle of the
range where the high summits begin to rise, andwhieli
fills the country between the Wolinka and Beraunka rivere
with htgh hills. This ridge is called Brdy-Wald. Farther
south is the Lissi-Wald, which afterwards declines more
to the south and advances into the great bend which the
Moldau forms in ite upper course. [Elbr.]
The breadth of this range averages only from twelve to
sixteen miles, yet it oppOMS great obstacles to the intei>-
apune betvom tho oountnst along its sktes, ou aeeoujfc
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«r the fite*.'pnest of iU soutb-wostern descent, Ui tiarrow
gleas, and its ru{;ged \'alleys, which arc sometimes covered
y a swampy surface. Only a few roads traverse it. The
most northern, which traverses the pass of Tirschenrenth,
runs through the depression at its northern extremity,
and connecU the town of Eger with Ratishon. Farther
south is the road which connects Numbers with Pilsen,
and leads through the pass of Frauenber^. The road from
Ratisbon to Pilsen runs through the pass of Waldmiinchen.
From Passau two roads load to Bohemia ; one terminating
at Klettau traverses the pass of Eisenstein, and the other
leading to StrakoniU, the pass of Winterberg : lastly, the
road between Linz and Budweis goes by the pass of Freis-
tadt. Tlius we find that only six roads run over a moun-
tain range extending 112 miles in length, and two of them
are at its extremities ; thev are consequently from twenty
to twenty- five miles asunrfer. The difficulties of crossing
these mountains have probably long prevented the Germans
from spreading farther to the east, and maintained the
aborigines of Bohemia in the nossession of their country ;
and perhaps the Germans woula never have entered it, had
they not found the other mountain-ranges inclosing Bo-
hemia more easy of access. Even now the number of Ger-
raants inhabiting the country which skirts the Bohemian
side of these mountains is smaller than in other districts of
Bohemia, the population being almost entirely composed of
Czcches.
Manv rivers descend from this range. Some of them go
to the banube, and send their waters to the Black Sea ;
mhers fall into the Elbe, and go to the North Sea. Those
on the south-western declivity have a short course, and
fall into the Danube, which runs at no great distance from
its base. The largest is the Regen, which joins the Danube
opposite Ratisbon. On the side of Bohemia the rivers have
a longer course. Here rises the Moldau, which is the true
source of the Elbe river, and two of its most considerable
affluents, the Wottowa with the Wolinka and the Beraunka.
The forest of Bohemia is mostly composed of primitive
rocks. The highest part of the ridge and its most elevated
summits consist of granite. Gneiss everywhere accom-
panies the granite, but prevails in the forest of Brdy, where
it advances far into the interior of Bohemia. Mica-slate is
also (Vequentlv met with in the same tract. Primitive clay-
slate frequently covers the granite and gneiss formation.
Though the highest part of the ridge is barren and nearly
without vegetation, the lower parts of its slopes are cohered
with cxlcnsive forests of lofty trees ; but as the difficulties
of the transport are great, it is impossible to bring the
timber to a market, and consequently the forests would be
ne:\rly useless but for a fine white sand which is found in
many places on the eastern slopes. This has given rise to
numerous glass-houses, where the glass is made which is
known all over the world under the the name of Bohemian,
and is preferred to English glass in most countries of
Europe.
Metals are found in many places. Native gold is met
with at Przibrara and Horzowicz in the district of Beraun
and in several other places, but in small quantity. Some
rivers bring gold sand down, which is washeid, especially the
Moldau, the Sazawa, and the Wottowa. Silver is more
abundant and worked with advantage in some places, espe-
cially at Przibram, where it is extracted from lead-ore. A
amull quantity of cinnabar is got near Horzowicz. Tin is
worke<i in a few places. Lead is very abundant at Mies,
Przibram, and Bleistadt. The iron mines are numerous,
and are worked with great industry. Antimony, zinc, and
cobalt are also common.
Some precious stones also occur, especially opals, chalce-
donies, and jasper, but the famous Bohemian garnets are
not found in this ranr;e. Coals are found in considerable
quantity on the northern lateral ranges, though they arc
lessTrequent than in the north -eastern districts of Bohemia.
Great quantities of fine clav, fit for the manufacture of
china ware, are found in tiie neighbourhood of Passau,
and sent to many parts of Germany.
BOHEMIANS. [Gipsies]
BOHEMOND, the eldest son of Robert Guiscard, the
Norman connueror of Apulia and Calabria in the eleventh
century. Aftor Robert had become duke of Apulia and
Calabria, and his brother Rojrcr had made himself count of
Sicily, Bfihemond accompanied his father in his various
expeditions to Greece and Illyria, against the emperor
Alexis Comnenuii. They took Corfu, and defeated the
Greeks near Duraszo. His father retamiftg td Tuly,
Bohemond remained in Illyria with h«« Normaii and Apu-
lian army. He defeated the Greeks near Area, entered
Thessaly, and besief|[ed Larissa. At his fatber'a death, la
1085, R^ger, Robert s second aon, took posiesaion of Apu-
lia and Calabria, and Bohemond on his return fron Greece
found himself deprived of all ahare of hie paternal inbenc-
tance. Roger, count of Sicily, Robert's brother. Cook the
part of his nephew and namesake against Bohemond. A
war ensued between the two brothers, which tenninated by
Bohemond accepting the principality of Tarenton, and
leaving his brother Roger in possession of the rest When
the great Crusade was resolved upon in 1092, part of tlie
Crusaders took their way through Italy, and assembled at
Bari to embark there. Bohemond, bold and aspiring, re*
solved upon joining them, and trying his fortune in the
East. Being at the time in his brotheKa camp near Amalii,
which town had revolted against Roger, he addressed the
assembled warriors, painting to them in glowing colours
the attractions and the merit of that holy war which was
going to be carried on in Palestine ; and he succeeded no
well, that nearly the whole of his brother's army detenmned
on taking the cross, amidst cries of ' Dieu le veut,* and pro-
olaimed Bohemond for their commander. Roger being
thus deserted by his troops was obliged to raise the siege of
AmalA. Both the prince of Salerno, and Tancred, the hero
of romance, immortalised by Tas8o» and who was Bohe-
mond'a cousin, being the son of Emma, sister of Robert
Guiscard, agreed to follow Bohemond a banner. The Ncir-
man and ApiUian expedition embarked at Ban* and lau>le«l
at Durazzo, the scene of Bohemond's former exploits. Bo-
hemond took his way by land across Macedonia, and his
approach to Constantinople mainly contributed to induce
the emperor Alexis to offer peaoeful terms to the Crusader*.
He was introduced to the emperor, who treated him v^ith
great distinction, and by his polite behaviour, aided by
splendid presents, he prevailed on Bohemond and several of
the other chiefs to swear allegiance to him for the conque^u
they should make in the East Anna Coronena, the daughter
of Alexis, has left a striking portrait of Bohemond. * He
was remarkably tail and handsome, his eyes were blue, his
complexion florid, his demeanour haughty* his look fierce,
and vet his smile was sdt and insinuating;' but she sa>s
that he was crafty and deceitful, a despiier of laws and pro-
mises. In the arts of cunning policy he appears to lia\o
been quite a match for her father. After the capture of
Nicssa, 1096, Bohemond, who commanded the left division
of the Crusaders, was attacked by avast multitude of Turks
near Dorylienm, and his division was mostly cut to pieces,
but by his exertions he maintained the conflict until dA*
frey of Bouillon came to his assistance and routed the
enemy. At the siege of Antiooh. when the Crusaders
despaired of obtaining possession of the town. Bohemond
fonnd out an Armenian renegade who enjoyed the conO-
dence of the Turkish commander, and who agreed to inti^
duee him and his men by night within the walls. Taking
advantage of this, he offered his brother Crusaders to ^w
them possession of Antiodi on the condition tliat they
should bestow upon him the principahty of the towa. ^uru«
of the leaden demurred to this, but' the Armenian n*uu\
treat with Bohemond only ; the Christian camp was frutiV^r-
ing for want of provisions, and Kerboga, the sulUu uf
Mosul, was ailvancing against thom wiili a large force. No
time was to bo lost, and all the chiefs, with the exception
of Raymond of Toulouse, agreed that Bohemond should t«
prince of Antioch. The fullowing night Phiroua, tlie Ar-
menian, introduced Bohemond avd his men into the towc«
when nearly all the Mussulman population was massacrvd,
June, 1098. At break of day Boheuiond's red standard
was seen flying over the loftiest tower of Antioch. Tlc
Christians were soon aQer besieged in their turn by Ker<
boga, and after suffering the extremities of hunger they cane
out to offer the Sultan liattle, in which the Saracens and
Turks were completely routed, and Bohemond irreally «l}^
nalized himself. When the Crusaders left Antioch in t;«e
spring of 1099 for Jerusalem, Bohemond aecompanied tbna
as far as Laodicoa, and then returned to Antioch to «m>o-
lidate his new possession. lie afterwards received ikeio-
vestiture of his principality from the patriarch DaimberC at
Jerusalem. In an excursion into Mesopotamia he was
taken prisoner by a Turkish emir, and remained two years
in captivity. Both the sultan of loonium and the emoenr
Alexia offered large turns to the emir in order to ^taaa
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BOH,
popsesftionof Bob^nond, ^ho hoi?ever oontrMred to persuade,
the emir io tceept his owu ransom, altbougli of less amount^
and to malw alUanoe with the Christians against the sultan
of looniara. Returning to Antioch he found there the
fetthful Tancred, who had taken care of his interests during
bis abseckce. In 1103 Bohemond returned to Italy, intent
upon raising enemies against his old antagonist the emperor
Alexis, whom he accused of hein; secretly leagued with
the Turks against the Franks. In 1106 he repaired to
France, where Philip I. gave him his daughter Constance
in marriage: Philip's natural daughter Cecil married Tan-
ored. Upon Bohemond*s return to Italy he collected a large
fbioe, and sailed irom Bari for Durazzo. After several com-
bats with Alexis' troops, he had an interview with the em-
peror, in which the latter acknowledged him prince of
Antioch. Bohemond died in Apulia in 1111, and was
buried at Canosa. His son, Bohemond II., succeeded him
as prince of Antioch. (See Gibbon, William of Tyre, Ma-
taterra's chronicle of Robert Guiscard, and Michaud, His-
toire de» Croisades,}
BOHME, or BOHM, frequently mis-written BEHMEN.
In relating Bobme's life we retain the ebaraetenstie quaint*
ness of his age.
There is a small market-town in the Upper Lusatia
called Alt-Seidenberg (Brucker writes PalcBo-Seidenbur-
{*um), distant from GorUtz about a mile and a half, in
which lived a man whose name was Jacob, and his wife^
name was Ursula. They were poot-, but saber and honest.
In the year TS75 they had a son» whom they named Jaeob.
This was that Jacob Bohme who was afterwards called
the Tentonio philo^her. His' first emplo3Fnient was the
care of cattle, but when grown older he was placed at a
flchooY, where be learnt to read and to write, and was after-
wards apprenticed to a shoemaker in Goriitz. Hating serred
his time, in the year 1594 be took to wife Catharine the
daughter of the butcher Johann Hunsehmann, a citizen of
Goriitz, by whom he had four sons. His sons he placed to
honest trades. He himself became master-shoemakw in
1595.
Jacob Bobme relatea that wbon a herdsboy he had a re-
markable trial. In the heat of mid*day, retiring from bis
pYay-fellows he went to a stony crag called the Landskron,
and, finding an entranoe or aperture OTergrown with boshes,
he went in, and saw there a large wooden vessel full of
money, at which sight, being in a sudden astonishment, he
retired' in haste without touching it, and related his fortuno
to the rest of the boys, who, coming with him, sought often
an entranoe but could never find any. Some years after a
foreign artist, as Jacob BBhme himself related, skilled in
finding out magical treasures, took it away and thereby
much enriched himmlf ; yet he perished by an infamous
death, that treasure being' lodged thera and covered with a
curse to him that should find and take it «way.
He also i^ates that when he was an apprentice, his
master and his mistress being abroad, there camo to the
shop a stranger, of a reverend and graTe conntenance, yet in
mean apparel, and taking up a pair of shoes desired to buy
^em. l*he boy, being yet scarce promoted higher than
aweepine the shop, would not pvesame to set a price on
them ; but the stranger being very importunate, Jacob at
last named a price which he was certain would keep him
harmless in parting with them. The old man paid the
money, took the shoes, and went from the shop a little way,
when standing still, with a loud and earaest voice he c^led,
* Jacob, Jacob, come forth.* The boy came out in a great
fright, amazed that the stranger should call him by his
Christian name. The man with a seret^ but friendly counte-
nance; fixing his eyes upon him, which were bright and
sparkling, tdok him by his right hand and said to him •^
* Jacob Uiou art Httle but shalt be great, and become an-
other man, snob a one as the world shall wonder at ; there-
fore be pious, fear God-, and reverence his word. Read dili-
gently the Holy 8oriptures, wherein thou hast comfort ami
instruction. For thou must endure much mieery and
poverty, and suffer persecution, but be courageous and per^
severe', for God loves and is gracioua unto thee ; ' and there-
with pressing his hand, with a bright sparkling eye fixed
on his fbee, he departed.
This prediction made a deep impression upon Jacob's
mind, and made him bethink himself, and grow serious in
his actions, keeping his thoughta stirring in cmisideration of
tiie caution received. Thenceibrward he frequented public
worship much mote, and profited thereby to the oiUwacd re-
rormatiott of his life. Considering Luke xi. 13 — 'My
Father in Heaven will give his spirit to him that asks him, *
he desired that Comforter. He says that he was at last
' surrounded with a divine light for seven days, and stood in
the highest contemplation and in the kingdom of jovs
whilst ne was with his master in the country about t^e
afifuirs of his vocation.* He then grew still more atten-
tive to his duties, read the Scriptures, and Uted in all
the observance of outward ministrations. Scurrilous and
blasphemous words he would rebuke even in his own master,
who, being not ableto bear this, set him at liberty with full
permission to seek his livelihood as he liked best. About
the year 1600, in the twenty- fifth year of his age, Jacob was
again surrounded by the divine light, and viewing the herbs
aud grass in tlie fields near Goriitz in his inward light, he
saw into tlieir essences, use, and properties, which were dis-
covered to him by their lineaments, figures, and signatures.
In like manner he beheld the whole creation, and from
that fountain of »«velation he wrote his book De Signatura
Return, In unfolding these mysteries he had great joy,
yet he looked carefully after his family, and Uved in peace
and silence, scarce intimating to any these wonderful things,
till in the year 1610 he wrote his nrst book, called Aurora^
or the Morning Redness.
This manuscript he did not choose to intrust to any man,
till a gentleman of rank, an intimate friend of his, having
got sight of it, prevailed upon him to indulge him with the
perusal of it. This gentleman immediately took it to
pieces, and with his own haad, assisted by other tran-
scribers, copied it with amazing dispatch. Thus, contrary
to the author s intention, it became public, and fell into the
hands of Gregory Richter, superintendent of Goriitz, who
making use of his pulpit for speaking without a gainsaycr,
to revile what and whom he pleased, endeavoured to stir up
the magistracy to exercise their jurisdiction in rooting out
this supposed church-wecd.
The senate convened Jacob Bohme, seized his book
and admonished him to stick to his last, and leave off writ-
ing books. The original manuscript of the Aurora, in
Bolime's own handwriting, was (after having been seven
and twenty years in the custody of the senate at Goriitz)
on Nov. 26, 1641, presented by Dr. Paul Scipio, the then
ourgermaster or mayor there, to George Pflug, marshal tc
the court of the elector at Dresden. Pflug, who was weL
affected to Bohme, was then on a visit at Goriitz. Pflug
dispatched tliis manuscript to Abraham Wilhelm van Beyer-
land» a citizen and merchant of Amsteixlam.
Upon the command of the senate he abstained from
writing for seven years, after which he was moved again to
write. The list of his works stands as follows. The books
which he left unfinished are put in parentheses.
1. Aurora. 2. Of the Three Principles, 1619. 3. Of
the Threefold Life of Han, 1620. 4. Answers to the
Forty Questions of the ^oul. 5. Of the Incarnation of
Jesus Christ Of the Suffering, Death, and Resurrection
of Christ. Of tlie Tree of Faith. 6, Of the Six Points,
great and small. 7. Of the Heavenly and Earthly Mys-
tery. 8. Of tho last times, to P. K. 9. De Signatura
Rerum. 10. A Consolatory Book of the Four Com-
plexions. lU An Apology to Balthasar Tilken, in two
parts. 12. Considerations upon Isaias Stiefcl's book.
)3. Of true Repentance, 1622. 14. Of true Resignation.
15. A Book of Regeneration. 16. A Book of Predestina-
tion and Election of God, 1623. 17. A Compendium of
Repentance. IB. Hvsterium Magnum, or an Exposition
upon Genesis. 19. A Table of the Principles, or a Key of
his Writings. 20. Of the Supersensual Life. 21. (Of tho
Divine Vision.) 22. Of the two Testamenbs of Christ,
Baptism and. the Supper. 23. A Dialogue between the
enlightened and unenlightened Soul. 24. An Apology for
the Book on true Repentance, against a Pamphlet of the
Primate of GurUtz, Gregory Richter. 25. (A Book of 177
Tlieosophick Questions.) 26. An Epitome of the Myste-
rium Magnum* 27. (The Holy Weeks, or the Prayer
Book.) 28. A Table of the Divine Manifestation. 29. Of
the Errors of the SecU of Ezekiel Meths and Isaias Stiefel,
or Anlistiefelius II. 30. A Book of tho I^ist Judgment.
31. Letters to divers Persons with Keys for hidden Words*
The publication of his first book made many learned
men visit him. wiih wiiom much conversing he got the use
of lUoso Greek and Latin words that are frequent in hia
works.
Among tho learned that conversed with him was a phy
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ncian, Balthasa? Walter, from Silesia, who had travelled in
tearch of antient magical learning through Egypt, Syria,
Arabia* &c., where he found such small remnants of it,
that he returned unsatisfied to his own country, where ho
became inspector of tho chemical laboratory at Dresden.
Having become acquainted with B5hme, ho rejoiced that at
last he had found at home, in a poor cottage, that for which
he had travelled so far in vain. Walter introduced the ap-
pellation of Philo9ophu9 Teutonicus.
B. Walter went to the German universities, and collected
such questions concerning the soul as were thought and
accounted impossible to be resolved fundamentally, of which
he made a catalogue, being forty in number, and sent them
to Bohme, from whom he received answers to his satisfac-
tion (which answers are public in many languages). Bal-
thasar Walter came to Bohme and professed that he had
received more solid answers than he had found among
the best wits of those and more promi^ng climates.
The translator of the said answers into English pre-
sented a copy to King Charles I., who a month after said,
that if Bohme were no scholar, the Holy Ghost was now in
pen ; but if he were a scholar, he was one of the best.
Doctor Wcisner. after giving in a letter a curious account
of the persecution of Bohme by Gregorius Richter, the pri-
mate of Gorlitz, of Jacob's banishment by the senate, of their
repealing their absurd and unjust order, goes on to say, —
' Yet still tired with the prelate s incessant clamour, thev at
length sent for him again, and entreated him that in love
to the city's quiet he would seek himself a habitation else-
where ; which if he would do they should hold themselves
obliged to him for it, as an acceptable service. In com-
pliance with this friendly request of theirs he removed from
thence. After this upon a citation, Jacob Bohme came to
Dresden before his highness the prince elector of Saxony,
where were assembled six doctora of divinity, Dr. Hoe,
Dr. Meisncr, Dr. Balduin, Dr. Gerhard, Dr. Leysem, and
another doctor, and two professors of the mathematics.
And these, in the presence of his highness the prince
elector, began to examine him concerning his writings, and
the high mysteries therein ; and many profound queries in
divinity, philosophy, and the mathematics they proposed to
him. To all which he replied with such meekness of spirit,
such depth of knowled(;e and fulness of matter, that none
of those doctora and professors returned one word of dislike
or contradiction. The prince his highness much admired
him, and required to know the result of their judgments in
what they had heard. But the doctors and examiners
desired to be excused, and entreated his highness that he
would have patience till the spirit of the man had more
plainly declared itself, for in many particulars they could
not understand him.
•To Jacob Bohroe's questions they returned answen with
much modesty, being amazed to hear from a man of that
mean quality such mysterious depths.
' There were two astrologers present to whom, having dis-
coursed of their science, he said, ** Thus far is the knowledge
of your art right and good, grounded in the mystery of
nature ; but what is over and above are heathenish additions.**
' The elector being satisfied with his answers took him
apart, and discoursed with him concerning difficult points,
and courteously dismissed him.
After this Dr. Meisner and Dr. Gerhard, meeting at
Wittenberg, expressed how greatlv they admired the con-
tinued harmony of Scriptures proauced at his e.camtnation.
Many learned men and preachers now taught those doctrines
of regeneration antl the means of attaining it against ^hich
they formerly exclaimed as heretical. Bohme wrote in the
albums of his friends,
* Wem Zeit ist wU» KwicVHl
T'n«l EMii'keit wie dip Zeit
Dvr ist bi»ft«it vob Jkllein Strei* **
'Soon after Bohme's return to Gorlitz died his adversary
the Dastor priroarius Gregorius Richter ; and Bohme him-
self died three months and a half later.
• On Sunday, Nov. 1 8, 1 624, early in the morning, he
msked his son Tobias if he heard the excellent music ? The
•on replied •• No," •• Open," said he. •' the door, that it may
be better heard.** Afterward he asked what the clock had
struck, and said, "Three hours hence is my time.**
• When it was near six he look leave of his wife and son,
blessed them, and sai.l, •« Now j;o I hence into Paradise ;*'
and biddin*; his son to turn hiin, he fetched a deep sigh
tad deputed. The new priaiarios reAised U fniik at
his funeral, fbigntng to be unwell, and his colleague. Ma-*
gister Elias Theodorus, being compelled by the magistracy
to preach on his death, began by saying he woulcT rather
have walked 100 miles than preach the funeral semon.
' The physician at Gorlitz, Dr. Kober, arran^ his burial*
which was performed with the usual ceremontes. to the doe
performance of which the clergy were eompelled by th«
magistrates. His friends placed a cross on nts grave, but
his enemies pelted it with mud, and broke it to pieces. Ja-
cob Bohme's wife died of the plague two years later. One
of his four sons was a goldsmith t the others had learned
other trades. All died soon after J. Bohme.*
He was lean, and of small stature ; had a low forehead ;
his temples were prominent ; was somewhat hawk-nosed :
his eyes were grey and %'ery azure ; his beard was thin and
short ; his voice low, but he had a pleasing speech, and was
modest and humble in his oonversation. He wrote very
slowly but legibly, and seldom or never struck out and cor-
rected what he had written.
After Bohme's death his opinions spread over Germany,
Holland, and England. Even a son of his persecutor Rich-
ter, being then a merchant's clerk at Thorn, edited at hi*
own expense an epitome of Bohme's works in 8 volumet, and
arranged their contents in a sort of index. The younger
Richter became fond of Bohme's doctrines whtW h* at-
tempted to refute them. He printed of his extracts only
about 100 copies; consequently they are now extrenely
scarce. The first collection of Bohme's works was pub-
lished by Heinrich Betke, Amst 1675, 4to. At the condu-
sion of the seventeenth, and in the first yeara of the
eighteenth century, the works of Bohme were published
and translated into Dutch at the expense of and by Abra-
ham Wilhelm van Beyerland, who had bought a complete
copy of Bohme's works from the advocate Hans Rothen von
Baumgarten, at Gorlitz. Beyeriand also prooured autograph
copies, which he collated for his edition. Beyerland 's
editions are in 12mo., 8vo., and 4to. More complete than
Beyerland's is the edition by Gichtel in 10 vols. 8va Amst.
1682. For this edition the manuscripts were bought from
the heirs of Beyerland. This was reprinted with Gichtel %
manuscript marginalia, Altona, 1715, 2 vols. 4to., and again
with a notice of former editions and some additions from
Giehters ' Memorial ia,' 1730. There are some later ecli-
tiuns of separate works. The best translation of hie works
into English is that by the celebrated William I^w of
Oxford, Lend. 1764, in two volumes 4to. Compare also Ja-
cob Bohme's ' Theosophic Philosophy, unfolded by Edward
Taylor, with a short account of the life of J. B. London.
1691-4; Jacob Bbhm ein biographischer Versuch. Piroo*
1801-8 ; Jacob Bohm's Werke, Amsterdam, 1620, four \o*
lumes 8V0., 1682-8, 1698, and 1730, in ten volumes 8va.
Auszug aus Bohm's Schriften, Amst 1718, and Frandurl*
1801-8. There are also Dutch translations. The preacher
and physician John Pordage, who was bom about 1625, and
died in London 1698, endeavoured to syateniatise the opi-
nions of Bohme in the following works : * Metaphysice vera
et divina.* This is translated into German in three volumes,
Prancf. and Leipzig. 1725-28; ' Sophia s. detectio cce^Atis
sapientim de mundo interne et extemo,' Amst. 1699 ; * Theo-
logia mystica sive arcana mysticaque doctrina de inviMbi-
libus s&temis, &c. non ratk>nalt arte sed cognitbne itttuitiT%
descripta,* Amst. 1698; Comp. Jac. Bruckers * Hist cnt.
PhilosophisB,* T. iv. P. I. Lipsiss, 1766. 4, p. 695—706;
' Weismanni introduct in memorab. eoel. hist, saer.* 8tutttr.
1719, 4 T. II. p. 1231, seq. ; • Speners theoiogbche Bedm-
ken Theil.* 3 u. 4 ; AmoM's * Kirchen-und Keiser His-
toric,'Frankf. 1700, H. 629—652; *Jo. Chr. HoUhauM>n
capistrata Bohmicolarum rabula ;' * The Life of Jarob Beb-
men,' by Durand Hotham, Esq., 1654, 4io.; ^Ifemou^of
the Life, Death, Burial, and wonderftil Writings of J«n>b
Behmen, now first done at large into English from llie bcu
edition of his works in the original German, with an intio-
ductory preface of the translator, directing to the doe antl
right use of this mysterious and extnordinaiy Theoaepber.*
by Francis Okely, formerly of St John's CoUeiee, Cam-
bridge, Northampton, 1780, 8vo. Claude 8t Martin, who
died at the be^nning of the present century, published
French translations under the title of * Aurore NattKante:*
* Des Trois Principes ;' * De la Triple Vie ;* * Dea Queimnte
Questions ;* * Censura Philosophiss Teutonic* sen episiole
de Bohmio illiusque philosophia in Henr. Mori Oper, omn.'
(pliilos.) Loud. 1679, fuL torn. i. p. 529 seq.; extrmded wiib
•dditiMtt tt J. Wolilr, JMgeri • Wat Jkd. S^
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bttig, mt Ibl. ft. |»p* 945-854. Agaiiist Uieie additions
B* Mori OD«ra i. p. 4U1. iL pp. 347, 402, 446, 447, 610.
One of the most zealous supporters of Bbhme's theosophy
^us Charles Hotham, who belonged to the noble family of
that name, which has produeed not only political but also
theosophical martyrs. See ' Ad Philosophiam Teutonicam
paanuductio seu ^terminatio de origine anims humanao,
viz. An a Deo creetur et infundatur, an a pareutibus tra-
ducatur. habita Cantabrigise in Soholis publicis in comitiis
Martii 3, 1646. A Carolo Hotham socio Petrensi et tunc
uno ex procaratoribus academtse. Load. 1648/
The following title will show that the disputes about Bohme
beeame very warm. * A true state of the case of Mr. Ho-
tham, late fellow of Peter House, declaring the grounds
and reasons of hia appeal to parliament against the sen-
tence of those members of the committee for reformation of
the universities, who on May 22 )a»t resolved the writing
and publishing of hU book entitled ** The Petition am
Argument," ^. to be scandalous and against the privilege
of parliament, and himself to be deprived of his fellowship
in that college.* Printed in the year 1651.
Bohme and his followers were especially persecuted by
the clergy, who seemed to deem his writing on theosophical
subjects an infringement of the prerogatives of the clerical
order. The ecclesiastics at Gorlits perseeuted Bohme during
his life, and reAised to bury his corpse until they were com*
pelled by the magistrates not to disgrace the earthly re-
mains of a man who had led a harmless life and always
been in strict communion with the Lutheran church. The
admirers of Bohme were for the greater part not pro«
fessional divines, but noblemen, country gentlemen, cour-
tiers, physicians, chemists, merchants, and in genersd, men
who were eager in the pursuit of truth, and who did not
stickle for modes of speech and established formalities.
Tlie persecutions iiuaea against him brought Bohme first
into the notice of men of rank, who took delight in con-
versing with the poor shoemaker and his followers, while
universities and ecclesiastical courts enacted laws against
his opinions, and his persecuted disciples appealed even in
England to the high court of parliament Sir Isaac Newton,
William Law, Schelling, and Hegel, were all readers of
Bohme.
William Law, in the appendix to the second edition oi
his * Appeal to all that doubt or disbelieve the Truths of the
Gospel/ 1 756, mentions, tliat among the papers ol Newton
were found many autograph extracts from the works of
Bohme. Law conjectures that Newton derived his system
of fundamental powers from Bohine. and that he avoided
mentioning Bohme as the originator of his system, lest it
should come into disrepute.
Bohme's theoiophy consists in the endeavour to demon-
strate in every thing its necessity by tracing its origin to the
attributes of God. Consequently some of Bohme's phrases
sound hke the doctrines of Manichnan emanation, and
have been misinterpreted as being such. Bohme traces
the parallelism between the visible physical, and the in-
visible metaphysical world. His comparisons and images
are not the essence of his theosophy, but only illustrative
of thoughts which have commanded the admiration and
approbation of some of the deepest thinkers, while others
are apt to neglect him entirely on account of his errors
in subordinate non-essentials. Bohme forms undoubtedly
an important link in the chain of thought, which connects
the present state of philosophy with the Iwginnings of former
ages. He often nroduoes magnifleent ideas, but he ooea-
stonally supports nis theory by false etymologies, and by
chemical and astrological notions whi^ have been lonp
ago rejected. A ^Moimen of false etymology is his deri-
vation of the word qualitat (t. e. qualiU) from the German
Sual, t. e, pain, and quelle, t. e. well, fimniedn^ emiree,
e has now again many admirers in Germany, but perhaps
no one would approve of this mode of demonstration.
The articles on Bohme in English works are often very
incomet, of which the following is a ludicrous instance : —
* Behmen (Jacob), a shoemaker, liv*d at GorUts, was re-
markable for the multitude of his patrons and adversaries.
He derived aU his mystical and rapturous doetrine from
Wood's ** Athenss Oxonienses/* vol. L p. 610, et ** Htstor.et
Antiq. Academic Oxoniensis,'* lib. 2, p. 308/ Wood was
bom A.D. 1632, eight years after Bohme's death.
BOHMTSCH LEIPA. [Lbipa.]
BOHODUKHOFP, or BOGODUKOFF, a town in the
Uttsaiaa government of Charkoff in the Ukraine, and the
capital of a ciiele of the same name, is situaied on ih«
Merla, a small river which flows into the Vorskla. It was
built in the year 1667, and is surrounded by ramparts of
earth and a ditch. It contains four churches, about 1050
houses, and nearlv 7000 inhabitants, who«e chief occupa-
tion is tanning ana preparing leather, as well as working it
up into boots and shoes. Large flocks and herds are reared
in its neighbourhood, and the place accordingly carries on a
brisk trade in cow-hides, goat-skins, and neeces. Consi-
derable quantities of fruits and vegetables are also raised
about Bohodukhoff. 50° 10' N. lat. 35° 40' E. long. ; 1451
versts (about 967 miles) distant from St Petersburg.
The circle to which this town gives its name, lies between
49° 42' and 50^ 40' N. lat., and 32" 56' and 36° 20' £. long. ;
its area is about 1160 square miles; above three-fourths of
this area are cultivated by the plough or the spade, and
less than one-seventh part is occupied by woods. The
number of inhabitants has increased during the last fifty
years from 91,190 to upwards of 130,000. It contains four
towns: Bohodukhoff; Khormynsk, a walled town with three
churches and about 1 700 inhabitants ; Krasnokutsk on the
Merla, with five churches, 800 houses, and about 5000 in-
habitants ; and Solotsheff, a walled town on the Uda. with
four churches, nearly 1000 houses, and about 5000 inha-
bitants who are actively employed in cultivating grain, fruit,
and vesetables, and rearing cattle.
BOlI, a nation of antient Gaul, which made various imrni*
grations into Italy and Germany. The district whence they
originally came is not ascertained CD^Anville, Notice de
lAncienne Gaule), but it would appear that they were near
the Lingones and the Helvetii. They are mentioned as
forming part of the first Graulish emigration recorded by
Livy, Justinus, and others, which set off in quest of new
lands, and under two chiefs, Bellovesus and Segovesus, both
nephews of Ambigatus, king of the Bituriges. Bellovesus
went over the Alps into Italy, while Segovesus crossed the
Rhino into Germany, and penetrated to the skirts of the
great Heroyntan forest. The Boii would appear to have
followed Segovesus, and to have settled in the neart of Ger-
many, in the country called after them Boiohemum (Bohe-
mia), trom which they were aflen\'ards driven away by the
Mareomanni, a German nation, and withdrew south of the
Danubius, to the banks of the GBnus (Inn). Bojodurum,
now Innstadt, took its name from them. The Boii are
mentioned also as having immigrated into Italy, together
with the Lingones and other tribes, by passing over the
Pennine or Helvetic Alps. The epoch of this immigration
is a matter of doubt : some believe it to have been contem-
porary with that of Segovesus and Bellovesus, and they place
it as early as 600 years B.C., whilst others believe it to have
taken place nearly 200 years after, and not long before the
march of the Grtuils against Rome. (Niebuhr*s Hietory
of Rome, voL L, on the Gaule and their immigralione into
lialy,) The Boii crossed the Po, and settled in the country
between theTarus, the Silarus, and the Apennines, and they
took possession of the Etruscan city of Felsina, afterwards
Bononia. [Bologna.] The Boii were often en<raged in
war with Rome, and they obtained at times advantnges over
the Roman arms, but they were finally subjugate<l by Scipio
Nasica, and part of their lands was taken frara them. As
they still continued restless, they were oUogether removed
by the Romans and sent across the Noric Alps, when they
settled on the banks of the Dravus, near the Scordisct.
Having afterwards engaged in wars with the Get as. th^
were Mmost entirely destroyed; and we find in Pliny (iii.
84.) a vast tract between the Drams and the Danubius called
' Deserta Boiorum.*
We find the Boii engaged in the Helvetian immigration
into Gaul in the time of CsBsar. Whether these were from
some part of their tribe which had remained in Gaul, or
whether they came back from Germany into Helvetia, is not
known. Alter the defeat of the Helvetians, the iEdui begged
of CsBsar that the Boii might remain among them, which
being assented to, the iEdui settled them in a district be-
tween theLifferis and the Elaver (Allier).
The Boii, JVom Bohemia, who had settled on the banks of
theCSnus, beeame subject to the Roman empire, and formed
part of the pTt>vince of Vindelicia. During the decline of
the empire tney were exposed to the irruptions of the Mar-
eomanni, the Thuringii, and other tribes who occupied their
oountry, which afterwards took the name of Boioaria, or
Boiaria. some say from the united names of the Boii and the
, Avari, a Pannonisn tribe. From Boiaria tLe modem appel •
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B O I
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B O 1
Uivm of Bsvaiia is derived. ( Aventinus, Annaies Boitfrum,)
There vas Also 8 district in Aquitania called Boti, near
the seft, in the neighbourhood of Burdegala (Bordeaux.)
<D*Anville, Notice de FAncienne Gaule,)
- fiOIL, oalled also phlegmon and Aininculus, from furo,
to rage, on account or the violence of the heat and intiam-
mation attending it. A boil is a tumor of an inflammatorv
fiatnre seated in the skin and in the cellular tissue benenth
it. It may occur on any part of the external surface of the
body, and it is of various sises from the bulk of a pea to
that of a pigeon's egg, which latter it seldom exceeds. The
tumor is circumscribed, prominent, hard, of a conical figure,
the base of the oone being broad, deep, and intensely red.
The whole surfkce of the tumor is exquisitely tender, and
is commonly attended with a very painfhl sense of burning
and thiobbmg. Its natural termination is in suppuration,
that is, in the formation of the matter called pus, but the
progress is always slow and the process itself imperfect, the
pus formed being generally scanty and never healthy.
Only a few drops of purulent matter commonly mixed with
blood flow from the most prominent or pointed part of the
tumor, while there remains behind the germ, or what is
commonly called the core, a purulent sloushy substance so
thick and tenacious that it appears like a solid body. When
this core is discharged, the pain entirely ceases and the
opening heals spontaneously, but the removal of this is in-
dispensable to the cure of the disease.
The complaint is never attended with danger, and seldom
aoeompanied with fever, excepting when the tumor is seated
over some peeuUarly sensitive part, or when (as occasionally
happens) several tumors occur at the same time in several
E laces. Under such circumstances, in adults of irritable
abits, and almost always in children, a good deal of con-
stitutional disturbance is excited.
The disease, though local in its seat, is constitutional in
its origin, and affords a good example of a class of maladies,
a very large one, whicli are limited in their seat to a small
spot, perhaps on the external surface of the body, but
which nave their source in the disturbance of some internal
organ or of the system in general.
The internal organs, the derangement of which most
commonly produces this external disease, are those which
belong either to the digestive or to the excrementitious
systems, or to both. In consequence of the disordered state
of these organs, either perfectly pure chyle is not elimi*
nated, or the blood is not properly depurated, or excreraen-
titioua matter is reabsorbed into it, the circulating fluids
become contaminated, and the result is the irritation and
inflammation cf the surface.
The rational and successful treatment of this disease must
therefore combine two objects,— the removal of the local
malady, and the correction of the disordered state of the
system in which it has its origin. The first intention is
accomplished by assisting the process of suppuration, which,
as already stated, is always tardy and imperfect, but must
ho rendered complete before the malaily can be removed.
It is only losing time and protracting suffering to attempt
the discussion, or, as it is termed, the resolution of the
tumor. In the first place, the practitioner is in possession
of no means by which he can accomplish this object ; and
in the second place, if he oould accomplish it, he would
only send hack into the system what the system has already
sent to the surface in order to be discharged, and the re-
entrance of which into the system, if it do not produce some
internal mischief, will cause the re-appearance of the dis-
ease on some other part of the surface in an aggravated
form. The proper external applications are repeated emol-
lient poultices, as those made of Unseed meal, which may be
mixed, when the pain is violent, with coniuro, hyoscyamus,
or opium. The suppuration is so imperfect that even the
diligent use of poultices seldom causes the tumor to burst
spontaneously viiiXi an aperture sufficiently large to allow
of the discharge of the pus, together with the doughy cel-
lular substance that forms the core. As soon as ony matter
can he perceived in the tumor a free opening should there-
fore be made into it with a lancet, and as much of'the mat-
ter and slough as can bo forced out of it by tolerably firm
pressure should bo removed. Until the suppuration becomes
nealihy and the sloughy substance is entirely discharged,
the linnccd poultice should be continued. When healthy
granulations liegin to fill up the cavitv, the application of a
bit of hilt and a simple pledget are tLe only dressings that
«ro ucco^sazy.
While recourse is had to these exferiial applieaticbs it b
indispensable to correct the disordered state of the organs.
This may be effected hy a ccyirse of mild alterative medi-
cines: the bowels should always be freely opened at tnU
and then regulated by gentle unirritating laxatives. At
the same time strict attention should be paid to the diet,
which should be of the plainest and simplest nature, nutri-
tive but not stimulating, consisting of a moderate portion
of plainly cooked animal food, without fermented liquors,
without paptrv, and without fruit.
BOILEAtJ, NICOLAS, SIEUR DESPREAUX,
was bom at Crosne. near Paris, or in Paris itself, on Nor.
1, 1636, and was the eleventh child of Gilles Boileau, flr»t
Registrar (GreflScr) of the Great Chamber of the Parliament
of Paris. His mother, the second wife of Gilles. was Anno
de Niells. Boilean has written inscriptions, little worthy of
remembrance, for a portrait of each of his parents. He
eulogises his father as a man of probity and of gentle dis-
position, rather than as possessed of much talent ; and of
his mother, who died during his infancy, ho savs nothing
more than that she pleased her husband by reflecting his
good qualities.
Each of two. elder brothers of Nicolas Boileau attained
some distinction in his time. Gillbs, born in 163 1 > pursui'^
the law, and became successively Paymaster of the lldtel
de Ville in Paris, and Controller of the Royal Treasury.
He gained also the coveted honour of admission into the
French Academy ; but his entrance to that body was much
opposed by a literary coterie, with which he lived in almof.t
perpetual warfare; and Pelisson, Manage, and Geor«;e
Scudcry are mentioned among his most powerful ad\er-
saries. Nicolas satirized his brother, in some lines which
he afterwards cancelled, for having obtained a pension from
Colbert, through llie interest of Chapelaine: but he has
allowed a dull epigram to be transmitted to us, in wfaiel),
perhaps ironically, ho extols the Uterary and oratorical
merits of Gilles at the expense of his fraternal qualities.
They were reconciled, however, before the death of GtlUs
Boileau, which occurred in 1669. In his lifetime Gilles pub-
lished a translation of the Encheiridion of Epictetus and uf
the Tablet of Ccbes, and another of Diogenes Laortius : a
controversial pamphlet addressed to Manage, and one al^
to Costar. An unfinished translation of Aristotle's Poetic
was found among his papers after his death ; and his
posthumous works, consisting of Poems, Letters, his Spectrh
en admission into the Academy, and a translation of the
fourth book of the /Eneid into French verse, were col lee led
by Nicolas in one volume, 12mo.
Jacques Boileau was bom in 1635, and studied at the
College of Harcourt, where he graduated in theology. He
appears to have inherited his father's gentleness of spirit,
for we are told that on the destruction by fire of a library
which he had spent many years and much money in
forming, he recommenced his collection without any ex-
pression of regret ; a story which probably means that he
bore a heavy misfortune with becoming manliness, and \WaI
he sought to remedy it by an obvious method suited both to
his power and his inclination. He became Dean, Grand
Vicar, and Official of the Diocese of Sens. In 1694 he was
Eromoted to a Canonry inthe Sainte Chapellc at Paris, at.d
e died in 1716, at the advanced age of eighty- two. Hut
avowed works are numcrous,but chiefly on forgotten questions
of theology; and he wrote much also either anoiumously
or under feigned names, as Marcellus Ancyranus, Claudius
Fonteius, Jacques Barnab^, &c. A complete list of his works
is given in the twelfth volume of the Mcmoires of Niceron ;
and we shall here mention the only one which is now occa-
sionally remembered, * Historia Flagellantium, sive de redo
et perverse Flagellorum usu apud Christianos,* Paris, 1 700.
12mo. The word recto was inserted before this volume
could obtain the approbation of the censor ; and the flreedom
with which the author has visited the abuses of supersti-
tious penance occasioned much scandal, and exposed him
to numerous attacks by zealots, which probably be had
anticipated, and which certainly he disregarded. The
treatise might as well have been left in the original Latin
garb, but it was translated into French about a year afurr
its appearance; and this version was republished in ir?2
with many omissions, much softening, and an historiryLl
preface. It has also been rendered into English by De
Lolme. Two repartees of Jacques Boileau which are pre-
served, show that he was a man of wit. When some otse
asked his opinion of the Jesuits, he described thorn as peopU
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ihUvoot M Operas and Romances/—^ Ah, my Mend/ liitor-
|«pted the eunfesaor in concluision, ' there U no harm in
this, and I have nothing more to say to you.*
It is but justly therefore that he puto into his g^ardener's
fsouth a couplett which speaks no more than truth of the
^haiaeter of his poetry
* Mob maltre, ditoit-Ui, imm« poor oa Doeienr/
St p«rle qu«lqtt«lbl* mlcux qu* on Pri<liealear>
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The eulogy indeed is only the versification of a compli-
ment which he reaUv did receive from some citizens of
Paris, who had parsed the day in his compainr. At parting,
they assured him that they had occasionallv travelled in
the same diligence with even Doctors of the SEorhonno, but
that they never before had heard so many fine things said
by a single mouth. 'In fact, Sir, you talk a hundred
times better than any Pulpiteer.*
His purse was always open for purposes of benevolence.
When indigence compelled the Advocate Pat in to dispose
of his library, Boileau paid down a third more purchase-
money than had been offered for the collection, at the same
time signifying that he bought only the reversion, and that
the books were to remain the property of their original
owner during his lifetime. In a similar spirit, he prevailed
upon the King to continue the pension to Comeille, which
had been revoked on Colbert's death ; observing, that he
himsielf should feel ashamed of participating in the national
bounty, if so great a writer as Corneille were excluded
from it
The French critics are much inclined to compare Boileau
with Pope, and naturally to give preference to the former ;
but, we think, so <ar as they admit comparison, the Snglish
poet may encounter it without apprehension. Both of them
were great imitators ; and as Pope was twenty-one years of
age at the time of Boileau s death, the former had the ad-
vantage of one additional model, which there cannot be a
doubt ne studied very attentively. There are passages in
the works of Pope which are undisguised translationa. and
which he avowed to be so. Every reader will at once per-
ceive that the Fable of 'Justice and the Oyster* is one of
these, which apologue Boileau transferred fh>m the close of
his first Epistle to the f^ing, where it originally stood, to its
present more appropriate place, at the end of the second
Epistle. Pope has applied to Dryden that which Boileau
oud of Holiire :
L'lnorftDce ei Varrtar )k ms naiaMiitct pitcM,
En lubits d« If arquia, an robes des Comt«Me*,
V«MiaBl pottr dcfsmer ton ehefd'cittVNi BMVMtk*
PtkW. malic*. itUf . affftiart Dryin tom,
in varkwa thapea of parauoa. eriUca, bMoa ;'
•ndt yet more literally, he declares that it is his intentioQ
* happily to tUer
Fwm gnrt to gay. ttam lively to acTere,*
«• Boileau had already determined
' d'une Toix l^gera
Vwnet An gnra an doux. da plai««iit aa witkn*
Memory or observation will supply innumerable other dose
mirallels; and the 'Essay on Criticism* especially, one of
Pope's earliest works, is very largely indebted to the 'Art
of Poetry.' A remark however which has been made on
Boileau himself, is not less applicable to Pope also ; and is
nerhaps mottt of all applicable to him when he imitates Boi-
leau—that ho seldom borrows but to improve; that he
seems, according to a forcible phrase of Le Bruy^re, crier les
pensees (tautrui.
Que striking example of inferiority is adduced by Warton.
Pope says (and he says it weakly and obscurely, notwith-
standing the concluding line has become proverbial), —
• No ^Uw >o sacred from such tout is barr'd.
Nur la Paul's church more safe thao Paul's e
Nay. flv to altars, then they'll talk yoa
For fiiolt ruah ia wh«ra aiigvls fear to In
This satire is forced and unnatural, whereas the passage
from which it is borrowed was suggested by a leai in-
cident:—
' Gardrf-Tooa dMmltar ot rimaiir fVirknis.
Qui lie aes vaius ^rita Iect«>ur harmooieox
Aborde en recitasi quiconque k sjiric,
Kt poursuit d« see vers let paauDs dans U n» i
l\ n'efti trmi>l« si saint dvs alines n*«p(>cU:
Qui suit eoutxa aa muse un lieu de sirK-tr;'
• which verses.' says Warton, • allude to the impertinence of
a Frenoh poet, called Du Perrier, who finding Boileau one
day at church, insihtetl upon repeating to him «n Ode.
during the elevation of the Host, and desired his opinion
whether ur no it wa» in the manner of Malhcrbe/
Th# * Moral Essays* are immeasurably superior to the
■ chioch-yud:
» tread.'
' Satires,* inumuoh aa Pope looked abroad into the world
and npon mankind, while the narrower view of Boileau waa
circumscribed by Paris and the courtiers of the Grand Mo-
narque. Each has failed in lyric poetry; and it almost
seems as if the caparisons of the herotck couplet were indis-
pensable for the. development of their full powers, for tho
exhibition, if we may so speak, of their paces : yet Pope,
happiljr for his reputation, has escaped any approach to the
downnght epigram with which the * Ode aur 4a Prise de
Namur * concludes. The ' Rape of the Lock * is far ridicr
in imagery and much more playful in expression Uian the
* Lutrin ;' and after- thought, which added to the one its
graceful machinery of Sylphs and Gnomes, gave to the other
onlvtwo more cantos with the lumbering personifications
of Poetry and Justice. Of the sentiments which inspired
the greatest effort of the'Snglish bard, the ' Eloise to Abe*
lard,* Boileau, as we have already hinted, was perhaps
physically incapable; and from the labour required hy
the version of Homer there can be little doubt that be
would have shrunk in dismay.
Yet, alter all the assertions of minute criticism, Boilean
deserves a much higher station than he is allowed by
Fontenelle From the charge of a want of poeti<^ fecUug
he has been well defended bv La Harpe, who says even of
the ' Satires * (among which ne reckons the eleventh as the
eh^f-dannfre)—* I like to read them* because I like good
poetry, good wit, and good sense.' La Harpe is by no
means an indiscriminate eulogist; and he unequivocally
censures the 'Ode on the Capture of Namur.* Ue
also very searchingly examines an opinion expressed
by Boileau that MoliSre was the greatest genius of the
age of Louis XIV.; and the whole chapter <3lhe 'Lyc^e,*
which is set apart to Boileau, affords the best com-
mentary with which we are acquainted on a silly lite-
rary dispute, which has been agitated more violently upi^a
the Continent than among ourselves, and which will la>t
as long as the tempers of men continue to be divided as
sanguine or saturnine ; vi2., the comparative exoelleoco of
the Romantic and the Didactic Schools of Poetry.
Boileau generally produced the last verse of his moat
elaborate couplets first in order. In his second * Satire *
occurs the following line^
* Doat mea Ten rooousua xneitrt en pUcei Malhetbe,*
La Fontaine, Molicre, and other critical friends despaired
of an appropriate rhyme to * Malherbe/ when he enun-
ciated—
* Et tnntpoaant cent Ibia et le nom at la verbe.*
La Fontaine was enraptured, and declared that he would
willingly barter the most celebrated of his ' Talea* for this
single discovery. Whatever may be thought of this ex-
aggerated flattery, the anecdote at least proves that La
Fontaine was by no means jealous dT the silence which
Boileau has obse^^'ed regarding him in the • Art of Poetiy ;*
a silence which La Harpe conjectures might arise from the
scandal occasioned by the * Conies ' during one of the rioia
fits to which the latter years of Louis XIV. were subjecu
Marmontel denies the sensibiliii of Boileau. Voltaire, itt cae
place, speaks of him as having * more wit than graeefulne^ ;
m another, giving him the languid praise of being the cor-
rect autlior of a few good nieces, he neutralizes even tii^
measured applause, by adding that he waa the Zoilus uf
Qumault, and the flatterer of Louis; and finally, he con-
tradicts himself by stating in a third passage, that without
any doubt the * Art of Poetry ' is the work which rellccu
more honour than any other on the French laniruafte.
BOILING OF FLUIDS. When certain fluidsare heated
to such a degree as to be strongly agitated and produce
much vapour, they are said to boil, or suffer ebulliiioou Und«r
similar circumstances the temperature at which thia ocrur«
is always the same in the same fluid, and m called its bcti-
ing point, being the greatest heat which the fluid is capable
of aOTuiring ; when the vapour which arises from a boiUng
fluid IS condensed, the resulting liquid is perfectly similar
to that from which its vapour was produced, hating auflvcd
no chemical change.
There are some substances which usually exist in the
fluid form, or which may be made to aasume it by beuig
heated, that cannot in strictness be s^id to have anv fixed
boihng point: and there are others that cannot be maie ij
boil: thus when certain fixed oils are heated, instead (^
being converted into a\apour coodensible again into oti,
they suffer decomposition and yield inflammable gaa; and
the greatex number of the netals» when heatwl aad i«a
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iered fluid* fuffer no ftlmllitioii, b0e&UM they are iaisapftble
of being Taporised.
The eircumstooces attendant upon the boiling of water
will sttpply a more familiar illustration of the nature of
ebullition than those accompanying the boiling of any other
fluid: we shall therefore commence with an account of
them.
When water is heated, there Is a point, just befbre it has
acmiired its highest temperature, at which a slight noise, or
rather a succession of noises is heard, usually called sim-
mering. This is occasioned by the formation of minute
bubblesof vapour, at the bottom of the vessel, and nearest
the source of heat, which, being speciflcally lighter than the
water in which they are formed, rise into the upper and
cooler part of it, and are then condensed. Soon after this,
and when the whole of the water has acquired its highest
temperature, the bubbles of vapour rise to the surfhce, and
there bursting constitute steam, which, being transparent
and colourless, is consequently invisible, but when it comes
into contact with the cold air, it undergoes partial condensa-
tion, and is then visible, and appears as a mist.
The boiling point of water, which on Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer, used in this country, is 212°, is subject to variation
by altering the ciroumstances under which the ebullition
takes place. Thus when it is stated to occur at 212'' Fah-
renheit, it Is understood that the water is freely exposed to
the air» and that the barometer stands at 30 mches, which
U the average atmospheric pressure.
It is wen known that the atmosphere presses with a force
equivalent to a weight of fifteen pounds on every s(^uare
inch of surface. By variations of this pressure the boiling
points of fluids suffer great alteration ; when it is increased
the temperature of the boiling fluid is raised, and it is lowered
by diminishing the pressure. Boyle appears first to have
noticed these circumstances during his experiments with the
air-pump ; and it was afterwards observed by Fahrenheit
that there was an occasional variation in the boiling point
of ¥rater, even when the same thermometer was used at
different times : this he found to depend upon the altera-
tions of barometric pressure.
Ckneml Roy instituted a set of experiments to determine
the temperatures at which water boils at the difierent
heights of the barometer, and the following table contains a
statement of his results :—
BuwatUfi "BdOing polat,
26 inches • • 204'9l
26-5 . • . 206-79
27 . . . 206*67
27-6 . . 207-55
28 . • . 208*43
28'S . . 209-31
29 • . « 210*^9
29-5 . • 2ir07
80 . « • 212-00
30.A • • 212-88
31 > . • 213*76
It appears from this table that the boiling point of water
▼aries 0*88 of a degree for every half inch of variation of
the barometer, and consequently every tenth of an inch
which it rises or &ll9 altera the boiling point of water 01 76
of a degree of Fahrenheit's scale.
Dr. Thomson (Heat and Electricity, p. 207) states that
since the year 1817 to 1829 (both inclusive) the barometer
has never been higher in Glasgow than 30*8 inches, nor
lower than 28*417 inches, so that the boiling point of water
has varied during that period from 213 408^ to 209*164°,
or almost 4^*^ of Fahrenheit.
On ascending mountainB, by the consequent diminution
of atmospheric pressure, and in proportion to it, water is
found to boll at a lower temperature. Thus on the sum-
mit of Mont Blano, which is about 15,000 fbet above the
level of the sea, Saussure found water to boil at 178" of
•Fahrenheit, or 34° below its usual temperature.
The elfeot of diminished pressure in lowering the boiling
point may he readily exhibited : remove some boiling water
fivm the fife, and ebuUition soon ceases, but it is renewed
Vy plaetng it under the receiver of an air-pump, and quickly
cfshaustinf the air. Another, and very simple method of
producing the same effect is to boil some water in a Florence
Hash; cork it while boBing, remove it immediately from
the fee, and immerse it almost entirely in oold water, and
then ebullition will leeommencqj This is ooeasioned by
I of the 8fcs8iB which oeniiued loe
upper part of the fktlc, ai>l the consequent formatioii of «
vacuum ; the existence of which is proved by the rush af aif
into the flask on removing the cork.
According to the Rev. Mr. WoUaston (PkiL Trans. 18l7)i
an elevation of 530 feet causes a diminution of 1° of Fah«
renheit in the temperature of boiling water ; but it will be
observed that this determination, which is probably an ac-
curate one, does not agree with the stated neight of Mont
Blanc, or the temperature at which water boils on its summiftt
Professor Robison states that fluids boil in vacuo at 140*
lower than under atmospheric pressure ; consequently watet
so cireumstanced will boil at 72"^. Dr. Thomson infcMins Uf
that he has seen water boiling briskly at 98P in Mr. Barry's
apparatus for distilling oils in vacuo.
We have now described the cireumstancos under which
the boiling point of water is lowered by diminishing the
pressure ; and we shall proceed to show how, by increasing
the pressure, the bojling point is raised.
When water is heated in vessels from which its vapour
cannot escape except by overcoming pressure, its boiling
point is very much raised. This experiment may be made
m Papin's digester, which is a strong iron or copper vessel,
with a tight-fitting lid screwed down, and provided with a
safety valve, loaded with any proper quantity of weights. In
this way water may be heated to upwsrds of 400° ; indeed,
aceordine to Muschenbroek, the temperature of water ean
be raised so as to melt tin, which fuses at 442^. A more
convenient apparatus for this purpose was invented by the
late Dr. Marect. In this the pressure is indicated by the
height to which the steam raises a column of mercurv, and
the temperature is shown by a thermometer. (Dr. Henry's
Ckemiitr^, voL i. p. 126.)
Aocordmg to Southem*s experiments, the following atm»
spheres produce the annexed pressures and temperatures «
IiraliM of mncvtf.
T«Bipefat«».
29*8
212^
69*6
250*3
89-4
276
119*2
293-4
149
309-2
178*8
322*7
208*6
334^4
238*4
343*6
1
a
3
4
0
6
7
8 .
It is to be observed that the temperature of the steam is
always equal to that of the water from which it is gene-
rated. When however what is termed high-prassure steam
is suffered to escape into the atmosphere, its temperature is
greatly reduced, not merely on account of the emd air wiUi
which it eomes into contact, but by the great expansion
which it undergoes, and the conseauent conversion of sen-
sible into latent heat. In this case it is so far from scalding
like atmospheric steam, that it may be received upon the
hand without feeling unpleasantly hot* When water is
boiled in vessels which are not furnished with safety valvei^
or when firom any accident they do not act or are overloaded,
the strongest bojlera burst with a tremendous explosion.
There are several circumstances which influence the boil-
ing point of watpr besides those already noticed, though not
to so great a degree. M. Qav Lussae found that water
boiled exactly at 212*" in a vessel made of tin plate, while in
a glass one it acquired 214°; and he concludes that tho
boiling point varies according to the nature of the different
vessels, and the state of their surfaces, in which the ebulU-
tion takes place* and consequently depends on their con-
ducting power and the polish.
Dr. Bostock also found (Annali qf Philosophy, vol. xxv*
p. 196) that the boiling point of water is materially influ-
enced by the presence of extraneous bodies. A saturated
solution of common salt was placed over a lamp, and gra-
dually heated up to 222^ when it boiled strongly ; a test
tube, containing water deprived of aur by boiling, was
plunged into the heated brine, and in a second or two k
began to boil ; the lamp was then withdrawn, and the
brine soon ceased to boil, but the ebullition continued in
the water for seme time longer; it subsided at ab9ut218^or
217°, hut was constantly renewed by dropping in pieces of
cedar wood. The brine was again placed over the lamp,
and a test tube was plunged into it, containing a portion of
water, together with a thermometer. The water in the
tube did not begin to boil until the thermometer had risen
to between 216^ and 2 17^ when ebu^ition first commenced;
the fiagments of wood were then dropped in, aqd as usual
xerytaveh teeieeied the ebullition i mi4 ^ssfeund tiial
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tlid vater, kept nt thb temperature, bad its ebullition pro-
motad or suspended, accordint^ to the presence or absence
of the extraneous bodies. Dr. Bostock concludes that in
water the difference of boiling point occasioned by the cir-
cumstances described amounts to 4^ or 5\ but in setber oe-
eask>nally to 50° or nkore.
The boilin<^ point of water is also very materially altered
by the presence of saline matter ; there is indeed no one salt
trhich aiminishes it, but almost every one increases it, and
commonly each to a diflferent degree. The following are a
few of tho variatioi^ taken from the experiments of Mr.
Griffiths:—
100 parU by weight
of solution owotua*
ill g pATisliy Height Boiling
of dry salt. teoipentttro.
213*
214
215
216
217
218
220
222
224
234
235
236
238
240
246
25G
Name of mIL
Sulphate of soda • 31*5
Nitrate of barytes . 26*5
Sulphate of potash • 1 7*5
Sulphate of copper . 45
Sulphate of potash and copper 40
Chlorate of potash • 40
Alum . • 52
Sulphate of magnesia • 57*5
Common salt . . « 30
Tartrate of potash • 68
Sulphate of nickel • 65
Muriate of ammonia • 50
Nitrate of potash . 74
Tartrate of potash and soda 90
Nitrate of soda . 60
Acctato of soda . 60
In these experiments it is stated that dry salt was used,
but as it is not mentioned whether the salts were or were not
anhydrous, it is impossible to draw any very satisfactory in-
ferences as to the nature and quantity of the substance
producing the variatiou of temperature, except in a very
few cases ; two of which may be remarked, as showing that
the increase of temperature is not in direct proportion to the
quantity of salt dissolved, and must<theroibre in some de-
gree depend upon its nature. Tlius 30 parts of common
salt raise the boilin<^ |)oint 12% while -50 parts of muriate of
ammonia raise it 24% but if quantity alone produced the
effect, it should have required 60 parts of muriate of am-
monia.
The following are the boiling points of some substances,
which probably exhibit examples of the lowest and highest
temperatures at which ebullition takes place ; tho l^ies
are considoed as under the average atmospheric pressure : —
Bofling point.
Muriatio nther ... 52^
Sulphuric aether (sp. gr. 0*7365 at 48°) 113
Bisulphuret of carbon . . 113
Acetic sethcr . . . 160
Nitric acid (sp.gr. 1*5) . • 210
Oil of turpentine . . . 314
Naphtha . . • ♦ 320
Phosphorus • • • 554
Sulphur . . . • 570
Sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1*848) . 600
Mercury .... 6G2
BOIS-LE-DUC, a fortified town, the chief place of the
province of North Brabant in the kingdom of Holland,
51<* 42' N. lat., and 5* 16' E. long.
This town was founded in 1 184 by Godfrey III., Duke of
Bnbant, who possessed on the same spot a house in the middle
of a forest in which he was accustomed to hunt, and hence
the town has derived its name; Bois-le-Duc in the French,
and 8TIertogen}>osch in tho Dutch language, sij^iiifVing • the
Duke*s forest.* Henry, the son and successor of Godfrey,
cansed the forest to be cut down, and surrounded the town
with walla. In 1 579 the town separated itself from the states,
and was besieged both in 1601 and 1603 by Prince Maurice
of Nassau. In 1629 it fell into the hands of the Dutch after
m siege of four months, which is spoken of as having been
one of the most remarkable that occurred during the Eighty
years* war. In 1672 it was attacked by the French, who
were obliged to raise the siege in consequence of continual
rains, which caused the submersion of the marshy lands by
which the fortress is surrounded. An action was fought
near Boisle-Duc in September, 1794, between the English
and French, in which the advantage was gained by the
latter, and m the following month the place surrendered to
tho ans/ uador Ge&enI Picbegm, The la«t occasion on
which Bois-Ie-Duc waa the scene of bostiKtiea was in !S14«
when, after being int'ested for several weeks, it sun«nd«rv4
to the Prussians under General Bulow. By a deore* of
Napoleon the town was declared in 1810 to be unitod to tho
French empire.
Boia-le-Dnc is situated near the conlluoQce of the hrem
Dommcl and Aa, the waters of which after their junction
receive the name of the Diest or Diezo, and flowing to tho
north-east for about ten miles fkll into the Maaa at Crave-
cxBur. Bois-le-Due is a clean and well*built town, abotu
five miles in circumference, and contains many good atrcvts
and squares : it is intersected by canals, over which are up-
wards of eighty hridges. Tho town-hall, whieli stands in
the principal square, is a handsome building, resembling tho
Stadt-house of Amsterdam, but on a smaller scale : it lias
a steeple with a fine chime of bells. Tho town contains
six churches, four of which are appropriated to tho service
of the Romish, and two to the Reformed religion. St. John's
Church is one of the finest in tho kingdom : ita fonndations
were laid in 1280, and it was not finished until 1318 : its
roof is supported by 150 cx)lumn8. During the reign of
Louis Bonaparte this church was taken (1810) from tho
Protestants, by whom it had been held since 1629, and
given to the Catholics, who are very numerous in tbo town.
A citadel was built here in 1629 bv Prince Frederiek Henry
of Nassau under the direction of tne states-general, in onler
to keep the Catholics in check, and the name Panenbril was
given to it, a name which indicates its obiect ana vie.
Accordmg to statistical tables published by tho Dutch
government in 1829, the population of Bois-le-Due in De-
cember, 1814, amounted to 13,071 souls. During twenty^fivo
years, from 1790 to 1814, the number of births waa li.5«9,
and of deaths 1 1 ,932, showing a rate of mortality of 1 in ,* 7.
a result which indicates an unhealthy climate, and may pro-
bably be attributed to the marshy nature of thosurronudir.g
district.
The town contains an academy of painting, sculpture; and
architecture, and a grammar-school, in which Erasmus and
Grayesandc received instruction.
Linen thread, ribbons, pins, needles, and cutlery, »re
manufactured in Bois-le-Duc, which is favourably situated
for carr}'ing on trade by means of the Diest, tho Muc«.e.
and the canal recently constructed from this town to M.i '.»-
tricht, which goes bv its name.
BOJADOR. CAPE, on the west coast of Africa. 26' 1 2'
N. Int., ond 14*^ 10' W. long., forms ono of the prnjocui.;:
points of the Great Desert, or the Sahara. It risrs to a
considerable height, and is the western extremity of a rix*kv
ridge, which runs eastwards into the desert, but it is not
known to what distance. This ridge is called by tho Mo* t«
Jebel Khal, or the Black Mountain, according to Jacks'tn.
The coast which extends nortliward to Cape Nun is one
of the most dangerous on the whole globe, being ao fi.if,
that one may walk a mile into the sea without ticing in
water over the knees. Vessels consequently strike at a \-ery
considerable distance from the beach. Betides, this low
coast is always enveloped in a haiy atmosphere, which ex-
tends for many miles out at sea. Jackson thinks that this
phenomenon is produced by the strong winds raising the
sand of which the numerous hills at some distance from the
shore are composed, and filling the air with it. But it mu»t
be remarked that the phenomenon which is here chacr\ v<\
between the shore of the Sahara and the Canary Islands i%
rept'iitM more to the south, between Cape Verd and the
Cape Verxl Island;*, and his explanation is hardly adni:«'
sible in the latter instance. The danger caused' by the
combinutiou of such disadvantageous circumstances is MiU
increased by the currents along the whole coaAt from \i'.r
Straits of Gibraltar to Cape Blanco setting in towards tnc
land with great force and rapidity. The trade-winds al-o
which prevail in the Sahara, and generally in the sea to ibe
westward of the Canary Islands, rarely blow in tfaochsnn'^
which divides these islands from the continent, but are h^rv
replaced by a wesleriy or north-westerly wind, ftt>m whu m
it will be evident that the dangers which hero await i:/»
unwary navigator are of no common description. It sornc^
times happens that a vessel strikes on the sands of tt\n
coast when the captain thinks he is about to nmke the
Great Canary or Teneriflc ; and we can hardly bo sorfn*^
that 80 manv vessels are wrecked on a coast which is n<
visited for the purpose of trade, except by a few fi>hir e
barks from tlie Canaries. Jackson savs that ho knew oif
thirty vessels, seventeen of them EngMi, whieh had bwa
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69
B O J
lost on it between 1790 and 1805; ftnd he is iBelined fa
think thmt their number was much greater, because most
of them are quickly destroyed and never heard of. The
unhappy sailors whose fate it is to be oast away upon this
shore fall into the hands of the Moors, and have to un«
dergo all the hardships of a most severe slavery la the
desert.
The difficulties which oppose the progress of vessels near
Cope Bojador was the reason why the Portuguese navi-
(rators in the beginning of the fifteenth century employed
eighteen years in discovering the coast between Cape Nun
and Cape Bojador. Though the former had been doubled
in 1415, it was not till 1432 or 1433 that Gilianes succeeded
in passing the second* The name Bojador is from the Por-
tuguese verb bojar, which signifies to bend outwards^ and
make a convex projection, and hence it is applied to a
part of a coast or a cape, which pr^ects into the sea in a
rounded form. (Barros, Dec L liv. i c. 2, 4 ; RenuelVs
InvutigaUtm o/th$ Currents^ and Jackson's Account of
Morocco,)
BOJARDO. MATTE'O MARI'A, Count of Scandiano,
was bom at So&ndiano in 1434> of a noble and anticnt fa-
mily. His ancestors were lords of Rubiera, a small town
between Refugio and Modena, but they exchanged this fief
for that of Scandiano, tlio feudal castle of which lies at the
foot of the Apennines, 8e\'en miles south of Reggie. To
the fief of Scandiano were added several villages and t^ri-
tories arofund, given to the Bojardo family by the princes of
Kste, who were sovereigns of Modena and Ferrara. . Bojardo
was the son of Qiovanni Count of Scandiano and of Lucia
Stroasi of Fenrara, who was related to the Strozzi of Florence,
and sister to Tito Vespasiano Strozzi, who, as well as his
son Eroole, were known as Latin poets of considerable cele-
brity in their time. Young Bojardo studied philosophy,
medicme, and law at the university of Ferrara, and he made
himself well acquainted with the Latin and Greek lan-
guages. After oompleting his studies he became attached
to the oourt of hia sovereign, Duke Borso d Este, and was
one of the noblemen who accompanied that prince to Rome
in 1471, when Pope Paul IL gave Borso the investiture of
the dukedom of Ferrara. Alter Borso's death, which oc-
curred the same year, Bojardo enjoyed the friendship of
his brother aad successor, Duke Ercole I. In 14 72 Bojardo
married Taddea, daughter of the Count Novellara of the
house of Gonzsga. In 1473 he went to meet and escort to
Ferrara Eroole's bride, Eleonora, daughter of King Ferdi-
nand of Naples. In 1478 he was made governor of Res:gio,
and in 1481 governor of Modena, which place he held till
1487, when he resumed his former station of governor of
Reggiow Ho died at Reggio, .20th December, 1494, and
was boried in the church of Scandiano. H is administration
is recorded to have b€«n equitable and mild : he was averse
to severe punishments, and especially to that of death.
His attachment to the Duke Ercole appears to have been
E»rsonal and sincere, if we are to judge firom his writings,
ojardo was a wealthy noble who had a small court of his
own at his castle of Scandiano, and the tone of his poetry
bespeaks his independence and lofly bearing. He was a
favoumUe specimen of the later generations of the feudal
barons of Italy, before French invasion and Spanish con*
quest transformed them into servile courtiers.
Bojardo wrote a comedy, ' II Timone,* which is partly taken
from Lucian s Timon. He also translated into Italian the
Goldeu Ass of Apuleius, and Lucian's dialogue of ' Lucius
or the Ass,' He likewise translated Herodotus and Xeno-
plion's *Cyiop9»dia,* which latter however has never been
printed*
Bojardo wrote many lyrical pieces of considerable poetical
merit, which were published after his death : ' Sonetti e Can-
zoQi/ 4to. Reggio, 1499. He also wrote some Latin as well as
Italian eclogues, which Venturi has lately published for the
firet time, together witli a selection of his lyrics and the
Timone under the title of ' Poesio di Mattco Maria Bojardo,'
8vo. Modena, 1820. But the work for which he is best
known is the ' Orlando Innamorato,' a romantic poem in
ottava rima, in sixty-nine cantos. Bojardo took for his
subject the fabulous wars of Charlemagne against the Sara-
eeus, the theme of many an old legend and romance, but
he placed the scene in France and under the walls of Paris,
wUich he represents as besieged by two hosts of Infidels, one
from Spain and another which had landed from Africa on
the south of France. He adopted Orlando, the Roland of
tho French iMnanoesi for his hero ; but while others had re-
presented him as the champion of Christendom, passionless
and above frailty, Bojardo makes him fall in love with Ange-
lica, a consummate coquette, who had come all the way
from tho farthest Asia to sow dissension among the Chris*
tians. By these means Bojardo introduced a fresh plot in
the action of his poem. Bojardo, a feudal lord, living at a
court where gallantry was in fashion, and where he was on
a footing almost of equahty with the highest, was led b/
the taste of his audience to employ the language of lovo
and flattery in his poem. His lordly style is very different
from the easy though nervous simplicity of his con-
temporary Pulci, who composed his ' Morgante* for the
amusement of the domestic circle of Lorenzo de* Medici, a
citizen of the republic of Florence. At Ferrara, as well as
in the other Italian principalities of the time, the spirit of
feudal chivalry, although fast declining, was not altogether
extinct The laws, tlie duties, the customs, and courtesies
of chivalry were studied as a science, in which Bojardo,
owing to his birth and rank, was early initiated, and he
therefore could describe them with a feeling of conscious-
ness and with a gravity which is not found in other romantic
poets who did not enjoy the same advantages. Even among
the flights of romantic hyperbole Bojardo appears perfectly
serious. His mind, stored with classical learning, was fami-
bar with the conduct of epic narrative. The design of his
poem is grand, the characters are well delineated, the
various threads of his argument cross each other without
confusion, but they are all left interrupted by the abrupt
breaking off of the poem at the end of the ninth canto of the
third IxMk, when the author was perhaps hardly arrived at
the middle of his narrative. Bojardo himself accounts for
this interruption by alluding to the ' Gallic storm* which
was then bursting upon Italy, and scared away his roman-
tic muse.
* Mentre chio omto (oime Dio r«dentore)
VegKio rttalia tutta k flamiua e a foco
Vet qiiestl GalU. die «oa grab valore
" fon per djaartar aon ao che loco ;
Per6 ^i laacio in questo vano amore
Di TVordeBpina ardeule a poiMi a poco:
Ub altm flata, ta mi fla eooc«s««j,
Raocoaterovvi il tntto per rapresso.*
(Last atanaa of the last eaato of the iMnamorato^
Bojardo was writing this towards the close of 1494, when
Charles VIII., with a formidable army, had just invaded
Italy, and was marching to the conquest of Naples. He
entered Florence in November, spreading consternation
everywhere before him. On the 20th of the following De-
cember Bojardo died at Reggio. The subject of his poem
was afterwards resumed by Ariosto. [Ariosto.]
The first two bookK, containing sixty cantos of the ' Inna-
morato,* were printed at Venice in 1486. They were printed
again together with the nine cantoiiof the tliird book, which
were all Bojardo wrote, at Scandiano in 1493, under the
direction of Count Camillo, his son. Several reprints were
afterwards made at Venice and at Milan, all more or less
incorrect. Nico16 degli Agostini wrote a continuation of
tho •Innamorato' in three books, which however is very
inferior to the original. In 1 545 Lodovico Domenichi pub-
lished an edition of Bojardo*s * Innamorato' with many
verbal and orthographical corrections. But before this,
Bemi had written his Rifacimento of the * Innanaprato,*
which was published in 1541-2, and obhterated the edi-
tions of the original poem of Bojaido, the copies of which
became very scarce, and the very name of Bojardo was
almost forgotten. [Bbrni.] After three centuries of un-
merited neglect, a new and correct edition of Bojardo's text
of tho ' Innamorato* has been lately made by Panizzi, with
notes and a life of Bojardo, London, 1831.
Boiardo wrote also a sort of chionicle of the dark ages of
Charlemagne and his successors, of the crusades, the wars
of the Normans and Saracens in South Italy, &c., * Istoria
Imperiale di Riccobaldo Ferrarese tradotta del Latino.*
He called it a translation from Riccobaldi, a chronicler of
tlie thirteenth century, but it is, in fact, a compilation,
partly from Riccobaldi's work, ' Pomarium, sive H istoria
Universalis,* and partly from othor sources. Muratori, * Rer.
Ital. Scriptores,' has published both Riccobaldi's * Poma-
rium* and Bojardo*s 'Istoria Imperiale.' The latter con-
tains many strange historical blunders and anachronisms*
which serve to snow how imperfect historical knowledge
was in Bojardo's time, while they throw much lighten those
popular and confused traditions which gave rise to the
stories conUined in the romantic poems of Italy, and espe*
cially in the ' Innamorato/
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BOK
.W
BOK
IftttoohaDt ImpabUAQdA nudtlin liis«oll6etiMi,wlikb
WAS straok in honour of Bojardo in the year 1490, having
bis likeness on one side, and on the other a Vulcan forging
darts, assisted by Venus and Cupidi with the legend ' Amor
vincit omnia.' {Muuum MaxguckeUianum^ torn. i. tab. 89.)
The castle of Scandiano, which siill exists, though in a
dilapidated condition, is now used as a storehouse for com.
The family of Bojardo has been long extinct (See on
Bqisrdo's poem, Dr. Ferrario, 5/oria m analiii degli an-
iidii Rnmanzi di Cavalleria, &a, as well as PsnixSi's edi>
tion and Life of Bojardo, already mentioned.)
BOKHA'RA. called also USBBKHISTAN. is a country
situated in Central Asia between 36° and 48° N. lat., and
63° and 70° B. long.
This country, which by the Greeks and Romans was
ealled Sogdiana or Transoxiana, and by the Persian and
Arabian authors of the middle age was celebrated under the
name of Mawaralnahr, borders on the north on an extensive
desert called Kizil Koom, and on the north-east is divided
fh)m the kbanat of Khokand by the mountain -range of Akh-
4agh. The small khanats of Ilamid and Hisser separate it
from Badakshan on the east ; on the south it is separated
from the highlands of Afghanistan by the khanat of Koondoo
and the desert of Kharasm or Desht Kowan, which extend-
ing farther north on both sides of the river Amoo t Amoo-
Ddria). joins the desert of Kisil Koom and separates Bok-
hara trom Khiwa.
Bokhara forms the south-eastern corner of that remark-
able depression which extends northwards to Saratow on
the Volga in Southern Russia, and southwards to the Hin-
doo Koosh. The surface of this extensive depression, which
occupies all the countries to the north and east of the
•Caspian Sea and those surrounding the Sea of Aral on
all sides to a great distance, is nearly a desert, the soil of
which is commonly a stiff clay of great aridity, covered here
and there by sandv hills of small elevation. Bokhara par-
takes of the disaavantages of such a soil, but being sur-
rounded by high mountain-ranges at a short distance on
the east and south, it enjoys a considerable supply of water,
by means of which the mdustry of the inhabitants has
cnanged considerable tracts into fertile fields and beautiful
gardens.
Neither the gi-eat range of mountains which border the
high table-land of the Chinese province of Thian Shan
Nanlu on the west, and on our maps are called Bolor Tai^h,
but more pronerly Tartash Dagh, nor the range of the Hm-
doo Koosh, aavanoe to the boundary of Bokhara. They re-
main at the distance of sixty miles and upwards from it ; but
some ofiseU of the Tartash Dagh enter the country. Such
are the Akh-Tagh (White Mountains), which advance to
the neighbourhood of Samarcand north of the river Zar-
afshan, and the Kara-Tagh (Black Mountains), which ex-
texid to the south of the same river about the same distance,
if not farther, west These ridges, and a few others of less
magnitude, make at least one-fourth of Bokhara rather
mountainous, and supply the remainder of it with the
water necessary to agriculture. The remainder is an open
plain, on which small insulated hills rise to the height of
from eight to twenty feet, sometimes extending only a few
yards, and sometimes a hundred or even two hundred.
Tliese hills, as well as the plain on which they stand, are
composed of clay, covered with moving sand which also
forms hills in some places, but these hills are of a different
form and still lower.
This plain is also uncultivated, except along the banks
of the rivers, where the fields and gardens extend some-
times to a distance of only half a mile, but sometimes to ten
miles. The three principal risers, alon^ which perhaps
nine-tenths of the cultivated lands are situated, run from
east to west, and are the Zur-uishan, the Kashka, and the
AmooIXria.
The Zar-afshan, called also Kohik, and formerly Sogd,
rises in the high mountains, where the Akh-Tagh and
Kara-Tagh branch off from them a great distance east of
Samarcand, and first traverses the valley formed by these
two ranees. Near Samarcand it enters the plain, and be-
tween that place and the town of Bokhara it fertilities the
Meeankal, the most populous, rich, and fertile district of
the whole country. Before it reaches Bokhara it divides
into two branches, of which the northern, eallcd Vafkend.
after having fertilised the country along its banks for many
miles, is at last exhausted and lost in the cUyey sand. The
southern branch passes the town of Bokhara to the north at
the diatanee of six or w&nm m\\e% then dadiMft to 1hi9
south, and terminates at a distance of irtiottl twontjr mOeo
from the Amoo-D6ria in a lake called Kara-kool or Dtogis
(the lake). This lake, which is about twenty-flve bUm io
circumference, is surrounded on aU sides by saad-hiQa. It
is verv deep and its water is salt, though its only feedar is
a fresh river. It is connected wi*h the river Amoo by eooM
canals of irrigation, which terminate in tho river near
Chard-jooee.
The Kashka or Kurshee risee in tho Kar^-Tagfa noarly
in the meridian of Samarcand, and passes through 8h«br
Subi and the town of Kurshee, below which it is oxfaouated
and lost in the desert The district of Shuhr Subi jieMo
rich crops of rice and cotton, and tho neighboariuwd of
Kurshee is covered with gardens and orohardi.
For a description of the river Amoo, we refer to tho orticl*
Oxns, We shall here only observe that the fertile la&ds
along the Zar-afshan extend fix>m Moodjan east of Soimuw
cand to Chard-jooee, upwards of 800 miles, and those oloiig
the Kashka probably more than sixty : along the Amoo tboy
are not continuous, but frequently intermptod by uneulu
vated lands. The most fertile district on the bonks of th#
Oxus is that which surrounds the town of Balkh, whero tho
river Balkh, a tributary of the Amoo, is divided into nu*
merous canals. [Balkh.]
These cultivated tracts offer a very pleasing aspect. Few
lands are better cultivated than these plains, oovoitMi with
houses, orchards, and fields divided into small squarve
called tanab, of which the edges are formed by a fine turf
raised about a foot above the plain for tho pucpoae of re-
taining the water which has been introdooed into thooL
The numerous canals, as weU as the roads, whidb aro very
narrow, have commonly rows of large trees planted okmg^
side them. As the water of Uieso canals does not run on
the same level, they form at their junotion •aaU faUa. all
which, taken togetheri renders these tracts a very ogroeablo
countiy.
The climate is re|^ilar and constant* The aumiDor com
mences at the begmningof March and lasta tttl Ootobor.
In this season it does not rain : the thormometor rieea in tho
cultivated grounds to about 90°, and in the deeefts to 100^.
The nights are cold. October is the firat aeason of rmin,
which continues for two or three weeks. In Noivn^hor and
December it begins to freeze a little, and sometimoa « aamU
quantity of snow falls ; but even in the latter month
fruits, as melons, are left in the gardens. The
month is January, in which the thermometor gonoraliy
falls to twenty-seven degrees of Fahrenheit, and aomotime%
though not frequently, to six. Occasionally the snow eoven
the ground for a fortnight Tho rains begin agaia on the
7th or 15th February, ahd last to theendofthia month.
They are immediately followed by a considorablo decree ol
warmth, and in a few days vegetation has attained its full
vigour. The mildness of the climate shows that the aorloee
cannot be at any oonsiderable elevation; probably it is
not more than 8U0 feet above the level of tho f^^rn*.
or 500 above that of the Black Se^i In winter and in sum*
mer violent storms blow more especially from tho N.W.,
which raise a great quantity of fine sand* by whieb toe
atmosphere is so filled, that it assumes a grey hue like a fox,
and distant objects become invisible. In the desoit. lra%el*
lers are not able to distinguish objects which aro only a few
steps distant. To these winds may be attributed the fre«
Quency of ophthalmia among the inhabitants: that this
disease is very common is proved by an hospitsl for hkttU
persons which exists in the town of Bokhara. la other
respects the climate is healthy.
The industry of the natives is moat consnieiumo in the
cultivation of their lands. The larger and tho amaller
cauals, both of which are numerous, must have roqaircd a
good deal of labour when they were first made« and they
are still kept up at a considerable expense. Bosidoa ihia
the agricultural labour is rather more difficult than in Eo*
rope. The irrigation of the fields can omy be elEseted in
winter, from December to the middle of March, adid in
cummer when the rivers are supplied with water by tho
melting of the snow on the mountains. Even tho Zn*
afslian is dry for three or four months in summer.
Rice is only cultivated in the Meeankal and in Sliuhr
Subz ; tho rice of Shuhr Subz is more esteemed than thai
of tlie Meeankal, but it is less valued than that brought fnan
India. Wheat is sown in autumn, and eut in July ; and d»->
rectly al^e'^ards the ground is prepared for peasi whioh giv*
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B O K
Tl
B O K
a erop the 9ua» Ntson, Buroes savs that ' south of tho
Oxu» ibo wheat yields a crop for three Buecessive years.
WhoD the harvest is finished the cattle are turned in upon
the stuhble fields, and in the ensuing year the same stalks
grow up to ear. The second crop is good, the next more
scanty, hut it is reaped a third time.' The other grains which
are cultivated are harley and jawaree {Hoicus 9accharatus)»
As there are no natural pastures in Bokhara, trefoil and
the jawaree are cultivated for that purpose. Of pulse, peas,
beans, and haricots are raised in great quantity.
Cotton, which forms one of the principal exports of this
country, is carefully cultivated every where. Hemp also is
raised, but not used as in Europe ; it serves only to produce
an inebriating drug, called in India bang^ and from its
seed oil is pressed. The latter is also obtained from the
seed of cotton and the sesamum.
On the low hills near Kurshee and Balkh is a small yellow
flower called esharuok, which is used as a dye. and produces
a better colour than the rind of the pomegranate. The
creeping roots of the vine yield a colour that is dark-red, and
is as much used as madder, which is also raised. Indigo
ia imported from India. Sugar is not grown, but a sao*
oharine gum exudes from the shrub called the camels
thorn, wlueh ia collected and used as sugar very extensively.
Tobacco is cultivated in many places : that of Kurshee is
the best
The vegetables raised are turnips, oarrots, onions, ra-
dishes, bri^jals, and a variety of greens; the beet-root is
cultivated in extensive fields.
Bokhara ia celebrated for its fruits, but more for quantity
than quahty. The orchards contain the peach, plum, apricot,
cherry, apple, pear, quince, walnut, fig, pomegranate, mul-
berry, and grape. But Bnrnes found most of the stone-fruit
inferior to that of Persia, only excepting the apricots of
Balkh. There are several sorts of grapes, and some of a very
fine flavour. The ndsina prepared here are not inferior to
any in the world ; but the wines of Bokhara have little flavour.
This howfliver seems only to proceed firom the defective mode
of making them; for some persons who have paid more at*
tention to their preparation have obtained wines similar to
port and hermitage. Mulberries are dried like raisins, and
a avrup is extracted from them as well as from grapes.
In tiie gardena great quaxltities of melons, pumpkins, and
cucumbers are nused. Of melons there are two different
species, and some of them grow to such a size, that they
measure four feet in circumference : in tasto they surpass
the oelebiated fruit of Isfahan* A kind of molasses is ex-
tracted from meloiia: Bokhara appears to be the native
countiy of this fruit.
The mountainoua portion of the country yields timber,
whioh is Moated down the Zar^afshan as far as Bokhara and
Kara^kool in lafls. In the plain only willows and poplars
ate found; the latter are used for house-building.
Sheep and goats constitute one of the prineipSsl riches of
Bokhaia* The sheep have large tails, which sometimes
grow to sueh a sise as to yield fifteen pounds of tallow. A
peculiar description of sheep has a jet-black curly fleece,
which is much esteemed in western Asia and eastern Eu-
rope. It is peculiar to the district of Karakool, and cannot
be transplanted to other places without degenerating. The
skins of the male lambs are most higUy prixod, and the
lambs are commonly killed a few days after their birth,
never later than a fortnight The annual export of these
skins amounts to about 200,000. The goats of Bokhara
are the same kind as those of the Kirgbis: they yiekl a
shawl-wool only inferior to that from Tibet.
Camels are numerous but high priced, on account of the
eontimied demand, all the tmffio of the country being eai^
ried on with them. They shed their hair in summer, firom
which a water-proof cloth is made. The camel with two
humps is frequent : it is lower than the dromedary, yet
bears greater burdens by 140 pounds ; the one earriea 640,
and tiM other only 500 pounds Bnglish.
Hones are not raised in Bokhm, but are brought from
the desert of Desht Kowan, where the Toorkmans have a
wry good breed, more remarkable for strength and swift-
ness than beauty. The horned eattle are of moderate sise,
and not numerous. The Toorkmans bring butter to Bok-
hara in sheep-skins. The asses are large and strong, and
used bolh for saddle and bnrden.
The wild anhnals are fbw : tigers of a diminutive species,
wiM hogs, antelopes, wild asses, foxes, wolves, jackals^ and
oatft are moit oommon, Bean are found in the moun-
tains, and rats, tortoiaei, and Hiards in the deserts^ hut no
serpents.
Uf birds only eagles, hawks, cranes, plovers, water-fowl^
and wild pigeons have been noticed. Fish abound in the
Amoo river and Lake of Dengls ; in the former some spe-
cies attain a large size.
Silk is a staple article in Bokhara, and is raised in consi-
derable quantities, especially along the banks of the AmoO
river, where even the wandering tribes for nearly three
months in the year are engaged in rearing silk-worms.
Gold is found among the sands of the Amoo, and collected
from it in many places along its banks. All other metatt
are imported from Russia. Salt is dug out in masses in
some parts of the desert, and on the banks of the Amoo^
below Chard-jooee. Alum and brimstone are got in the
neighbourhood of Samarcand, and sal ammoniac in its na-
tive state occurs in the mountainous district
The most remarkable towns of Bokhara are the present
capital of the same name, Samarcand, and Balkh. Besides
these are Kurshee, which, according to Bumes, contains
10,000 inhabitants; and Kara-kool, to which Meyendorff
assigns 30,000 inhabitants, observing however that it h
sinaller than Kurshee. There are some towns of moderate •
sise in the Meeankal, but the rest are small, containing
only from 300 to 500 houses.
Bokhara, being situated between the two elevated table-
lands of Asia, has freouently been invaded hj the nations
who inhabit each of them, and on such occasions a portion
of the conquering nation has remained in the country and
settled there. At present eleven different nations may
easily be distinguished according to Meyendorff, namely
Uzbecks, Tadjicks, Toorkmans, Arabs, Persians, MongoU
or Kalmucks, Kirghis, and Kara-Kalpaks, Jews, Afghans,
Lesshis, and gipsies.
The Uzbecks compose by far the greatest number of the
inhabitants. They are the last of the nations who have
sul^cted this country to their sway : they say that, before
this event, they inhabited the countries about Astrakhan.
About the beginning of the sixteenth century they invaded
Tooran. The structure of their body and their language
prove that they belong to that widely-spread race, which
up to our times was known by the name of Tartars, but is
now, with more propriety, distinguished by the name of
Turks. The characteristics of their face are a flattened
nose, projeotine cheek-bones, narrow eyes, which frequently
have a somewhat oblique position, and very little beard.
The Uzbecks partly continue the erratic life which the
whole nation led before their arrival in Bokhara ; others are
employed as officers by government; and a few apply them-
selves to agriculture, commerce, or the mechanical arts.
These latter inhabit the large cities and their vicinity.
The Tadjicks consider inemsdves as the aborigines of
the country, and as the descendants of the antient Sogdi
and Bactrians. Their body is stout and short, their com-
plexion florid, and in features they resemble the European.
The Tadjicks are very industrious. They cultivate the soil,
and apply themselves to commerce, manufactures, and all
the mechanical arts. The merchants who visit Orenbui^
and the great fair of Nishnei Novogorod are there called
Bokharians, but they are Ta^icks.
The Toorkmans, Kirghis, and Kara-Kalpaks belong to
the Turkish nation. The Toorkmans inhabit the desert
plain to the west of the Amoo river, and acknowledge their
dependency on the khan of Bokhara only when it suits their
interests. The Kirehis and Kara-Kalpaks are few in
number, and live nortn of the Zar-afshan, and in the vicinity
of Kurshee.
The Arabs and Persians settled here at the time when
this country was subjected to the kalinhs of Bagdad. Many
of the latter have also been brougnt to this country as
slaves.
The Mongols and Kalmuks settled here at the time of
Tshengis Khan's conquest ; some families also about 1 770,
when the Turgot Mongols abandoned Russia and emigrated
to Zungaria, or the Chuiese province of Jhian Shan relu.
The few Afghans and Lesghis in Bokhara are said to be
the descendants of hostages which were brought here by
the famous Timur when h^ subjected their respective coun-
tries. Both at present speak tlieir own languages.
The Jews and gipsies have settled here voluntarily.
Meyendorff, who visited Bokhara in 1820-21, estimated
the whole population at nearly two millions and a hal^,
namely:— Uzbecks, 1,500,000; Tadjicks, 65Mpo ; Toork-
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mans, 200,000; Arabs. 5ft,000: Persians. 40.000; Mongols.
20.000; Kirffhis and Kara-Kalpaks, nOOO; Jews. 4000;
Afghans. 4l'00; Lesghia. 2000; gipsies. 2000: total.
2,478,000. He estimated the surface of the cultivated dis-
tricts at about 6500 square miles, and thinks that they are
inliabited by about one million and a half, so that those
Iribes who live entirely a nomadic life would amount to about
a million. Bumes however thinks that the whole popula-
tion of the country can only be estimated at one million. It
is easy to see that such estimates cannot be relied on.
The mechanical arts are not neglected in Bokhara, and
tome commodities are even made for exportation. The most
extensive manufactures are those of cotton and silk ; and
some kinds of cloth, in which both materials are combined,
are in great demand in Russia for morning dresses of the
rich nobility. The dye of all their manufactured goo<ls is
excellent. The Bokharians do not undei-stand the art of
tanning so well as the Russians, but they make excellent
Maroceo leather. Their swoi-ds are good, but much inferior
to those of Persia.
The towns of Samarcand and Bokhara were some cen-
turies ago famous as seats of learning, and were much
resorted to by students from all the Mohammedan coun-
tries of Asia. At present the number of foreigners who
live here for the sake of study is considerable: the
medresses. or colleges, are numerous, though the instruc-
tion is now limited to the study of the Koran and its nu-
merous commentaries, and some metaphysical subtleties.
After having acquired this stock of learning, the students
become muderris or mollas. But the lower classes of the
people are less instructed than in other Mohamme<lan
countries, and the greatest part of them can neither read
nor write. The Tadjicks. who wish to employ their children
m commerce, take greater caro of their instniction than the
other tribes. The childi-en of rich people learn to read,
write, and repeat the Koran by heart
Two languages are spoken in Bokhara, the Persian and
the Turkish, the former by the Tadjicks, the inhabitants of
the towns, and the better instructed and richer portion of
the Uzbecks. This language differs very little from that
which is used in Persia. The Turkish language is generol
among the Toorkmans, Kirghis, and those UrbccUs wlio
still lead a nomadic life.
The government is despotic, but, as it is regulated on the
laws of the Koran, the authority of the sovereign is con-
trolled by the ul6roas, or the corporation of priests and
lawyers.
The khan of Bokhara is the most powerful of the princes
of Toorkistan. and maintains a standing army of about
25,000 men. of which only 4000 are infantry. The artillery
consists of forty-one pieces of cannon, mostly small field-
pieces, with four mortars. But as a great portion of his
subjects are nomadic tribes, who are always ready for
military enterprises, and bound to send, if required, a
certain number of horsemen, he may easily raise his army
to 90.000 or even 100.000 men.
(Meyendorff's Voyage ttOrenbimrgd Bouhhara; Bnmes's
Travels into Bokhara ; Arrowsmith's Map of Central Asia ;
Borghnus* Map of Iran and Turan,)
BOKHARA, the capital of the khanat of the same
name, is in 39® 48' N. lat. 64° 26' E. long., in a level country,
surrounded by gardens, which render it impossible to see
it except at a small distance. It is from eight to nine miles
in circumference, and is said to contain 8000 houses and
70^000 inhabitants; Burnes estimates its population at
160.000.
Bokhara is of a triangular shape, and enclosed by a wall
of earth about twenty -fuur feet high, and as wide at its base,
but only four feet wide at the top. In this wall are eleven
gates, built of bricks, with a round tower on each side, in
which a small number of soldiers are stationed. The widest
street measures about seven, and the narrowest only three
or four feet in width. The houses are built of sun-dried
bricks on a frame work of wood, and are all flat roofed.
They are arranged in the Oriental manner, presenting to-
wards the street a mere wall without windows, with a gate
in the middle leading to a eourt-yard, round which the
rooms are placed, which generally receive the light through
the doors. The town is intersected by canals, which receive
their water from tlie river Zar-af»han. which is six or seven
miles from the town. It is afterwards distributed to sixty-
ei'4ht wells, or rather cisterns, each about 120 feet in cir-
cumference. But this distribution is made only once a
fortnight. The palaco of the khan stands on a hill, about
200 feet ^igh, having the form of a truncitcd cone. It
is enclosed by a wall about sixty feet high, which has
only one gate, opening Into a large corridor. This corrid. r,
formed by vaults which seem to have been built many
centuries ago, leads to the flat top of the bill, where the
edifices stand in which the khan and his court are lo'!ir<'«L
They are composed of a mosque, the dwellings of the khan
and his children, the harem, which is surrounded by a
garden and conceale<l by tree.^, and a house in which'tl.o
vizir of the khan, callecl cooch-be(>hi, performs the dnti«.*<
of his station : there are also lodgings for the guards and
slaves, and stable<<.
The most remarkable edifices of Bokhara are the raosqurij,
of which there are about 360 in the town alone. The prin-
cipal mosque, named Meegich'-Kahn, stands opposite the
royal palace, on the other side of the great square callc<l
Sf*^r'stan, and occupies a souare of 300 feet, its dome is
about 100 feet high. On the front bricks of diflfercnt co-
lours are so disposed as to form different designs of flcw-T^
tied together, and others contain sentences of the Khoran.
The prevailing colour of these bricks is blue, but thost* of
the inscriptions are white. Some mosques are only built
of earth.
Attached to the principal mosque is the rainayet of Mir-
gharnb, which is 180 feet high, and its lniseupw«r<U of
seventy feet in circumference. It diminishes in width as it
rises, and Mcyendorff considered it the finest monument of
architecttire in Bokhara.
Bokhara contains a greater number of eollefea, called
medresses. than any other Mohammedan town of equal wfc,
and partly on this account it is called El Shenfiah, th«
siiint, or noble. The number of medresses amounts to
al>out sixty, great and small, a third of which, according to
Hurnes, contain upwards of seventy stwlents, hut many
have only twenty, and some only ten. These ediftees are
generally in the form of a parallelogram, two stories high,
and enclose a spacious court-yard. In each story are two
rows of chambers, one having its windows and doors to ti.e
court-ynrd, and the other to the street. These chamlien
are sold to the students, who in this manner acquire m claim
to a certain yearly maintenance fhim the college. The
medresses hvive considerable revenues, the whote of the
bazaars and baths of the city having been erected by pioi:t
persons, and left for the maintenance of the medreases and
mosques.
Tiie number of publie baths is eighteen. Several Taulted
chambers are built about a large basin fiHed with warm
water. The fuel is brought from the desert, and oonstct«. of
small shrubs. Some of them are of large dimensions
generally they produce an income of about XOOL
As Bokhara is the most commercial town of Central
Asia, mueh has been done to facilitate the sale and tra; it-
port of merchandise. There are fourteen caravansataift, ad
of them built on the same plan, though of very different di-
mensions. They are square buildings of two stones, en-
closing a court-yard. The rooms round the couTt-yard are
used as warehouses, and let to the merchants. The' bazaars
are numerous and extensive, some of them being upttaids
of a quarter of a mile in length. In the shops with vhirh
they are lined on both sides, every sort of merehandtMr t«
exposed to sale, with the exception of woven goods, wh:ca
are sold in large edifices built for that purpose. Sererai of
them, consisting of some hundreds of small simps, contaMi
only the silk goods which are manufactured in the ioun»
and others the cottons, linens, and brocades of India, Pet ».a,
England, and Rusi^ia.
1 he number of shops on the great square, or Segistan, i^
likewise considerable. Tents of different colours are filled
with the more common manufactures of the country ; but
the greater part of the place is a market, in wluch the
fruits of the country* consisting of grapes, melons cf an
extraordinary size, apricots, apples, peaches, peare. and
plums, are sold ; here likewise are exposed to sale the irrain
of the country, as rice, wheat, barley, jawaree, eottun t^w'.
&c.. in short all the necessaries of hte. The active ruir .
meree ^\*hich Bokhara carries on with all the neigbbourr ^
countries brings to this town the merehants of nearly .11
the nations of Asia. On the Segistan a stran^rer may con-
verse with Persians. Jews, Turks, Russians, Khin^hiN. LI ;.
nese, Toorkmans. Mongnh, Cosaoks, Hindoos, and Afj^hi - >^
besides the Tadjiks and the Uzbecks, Uie inhabiumu ^t
the town.
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The Tacyiks compote by far the greater part of the in-
habitants, amounting to three*fi)urtha of the whole. They
are merchants, manu&cturen, and artists. The number of
Jews and Hindoos settled at Bokhara is considerable, and
they eiuoy a sufficient degree of toleraUon to enahle them
to live happily* Though they are not permitted to build
ttiinples, to set up idols^ or walk in procession, they live un«-
molested ; and in all trials they haye equal justice with the
Mohammedans.
No duties are levied on the commodities which are ex-
ported, and only a small duty on those which are imported,
and these are only paid when the articles are sold. A Mo-
hammedan merchant has mly to swear by the name of the
prophet and tp declare Kimself poor, to be relieved from aU
duties. Justice is strictly administered according to the
Khoran.
^Bokhara has for many centuries been a place of exten-
sive commerce, and its geographical position must always
ensure it considerable advantages in this respect. It is
probable that the countries north of the Caspian Sea and
the sea of Aral would be entirely debarred from any com^
mercial intercourse by land with those of southerii Asia by
the great deserts that lie between them, were it not for the
fertile oasis in which Bokhara is situated. The same
deserts, and in addition to them impassable mountains,
would prevent all immediate commerce between the tables
land of Central Asia and thai of Persia or Iran, had not
the merchants of Bokhara devised means for traversing
both with safety. ' Conseqaently we find that Bokhara is a
centre, from which six commercisl routes diverge ; three
towards the north lead to Russia and the table-land of
Central Asia, and three towards the south connect it with
Persia* Afgham'stan, and India.
The road which leads to the high table-land of Central
Asia runs from Bokhara along the banks of the Zar-
afiihan to Samarcand, here passes the river, and then extends
iu a north-eastern direction through the desert to Oorutapa,
beyond which place it trav^ses the mountain-range which
divides Bokhara from Khokand, and afterwards descends to.
the banks of the Sir Beria (Jaxartes of the antients).
Alon^ this river it passes through the towns of Khoend
and Khokand to Marghilan, and then in a south-eastern
direction to Oush, from which place it leads over the moun-
tain-pass of Tereok to Koksoo and Khashgar. The Bok-
harians take to Khashgar woollen cloth, coral, pearls,
cochineal, brocade, velvet* fur, especially of otters and
martinsi leather* sugar, large looking-glasses^ copper, tin,
needles, glass, and some iron utensus. They bring back
in exchange a great quantity of indifferent tea, china,
some silk goods, raw silk, rhubarb, and silver. In this
'branch of commerce from 700 to 800 camels are employed.
Tw:o roads lead to Russia, one on the east of the sea of
Aral, and the other between it and the Caspian. The
latter is shorter, and posses along the Amoo Deria to Khiwa,
and thence tlurough Baraitshik and Astrakhan. But this
road can only be used when the Bokharians are at peace
with the khan of Khiwa, and the Russians exercise a severe
authority over the little horde of the Khirghis, which
inhabits the desert between the northern extremity of the
sea of Aral and that of the Caspian. When the Bokharians
fear being pillaged either by the inhabitants of Khiwa or
the Khirghis^ they take the other and longer road, which
masses through the desert of the Great Horde of the Khir-
ghis* and afterwards runs to Orenbourg or Troisk. From
these places, as well as from Astrakhan, the goods are trans-
ported to the fair of Nishnei Novogorod, where nine- tenths
are sokL The Bokharians bring to Russia chiefly rhubarb,
raw cotton, cotton goods, skins of martins, lamb-skins, fox-
skins, dry fruits, silken goods, especially for morning-dresses,
carpets, shawls of Cashmere and of Persia, and tea ; and
take in exchange cochineal, spices, sugar, tin, sandal-wood,
woollen-cloth, leather, wax, iron, copper, steel, small look-
ing-glasses, otter-skins, pearls, Russian nankin, utensils of
caat-iron, needles, coral, cotton-Tolvet, cotton-handkerchiefs,
some brocade, glass, and a small quantity of linens and
Indian muslins. They employ 3000 camels in this trade.
Three roads lead from Bokhara to Persia and A&ha-
nistan» one to Meshed, the second to Herat, and the third'
to Cabool. The first passes in a south-western direction
from Bokhara to Charjooee on the Amoo Deria, traverses in
the same ^Urection the Desht Kowan to Merve and Se-
rukhs, and then passes off westward to Meshed. The road
to Herat passes west of Kurshee to Kirhee on the Amoo
Deria, and hence through the eastern atid smaller portkm
of the Desht Kowan to Andkhoo. At this place it turns
west to Meimoona, passes the Moorghaub river, and travers-
ing a mountain-range enters Herat. The Bokharians bring
to Persia a portion of the goods imported from Russia, and
besides raw cotton, silk, doth of their own manufacture,
woollens, spices, and rhubarb ; they take back the common
shawls of Fersia, used in Bokhara as turbans, g^les of a
yellow colour, wooden oombSi carpets, and turquoises. About
000 cameU are employed annually in this branch of com-
merce.
The road to Cabool passes from Bokhara to Kurshee, and
thenoe through a desert to the Amoo Deria, which it passes
at Khojusalu. Hence it turns eastward, and passes through
Balkh and Khooloom, from which latter place it runs south-
ward along the river Khooloom, till it enters the mountains
which extend to the neighbourhood of the town of Cabool.
Before it reaches that town it traverses the valley of Bi^
meean. This road and its continuation through Peshawur,
Attoek, and I^ahore, connects Central Asia with India, but
it is less freouented than the others on account of the un-
settled state ot Af<{hanistan, and the small authority which
the sovereign of Calxxd possesses among the mountaineers
of this counfry. This commerce is entirely in the hands of
the merchants of Cabool, and of the Hindoos of the Punjab
and Shikarpore. . Th^ import shawls of Cashmere and
Cabool, silken brocade, fine muslins, pearls, and precious
stones, and a great quantity of indigo; and export raw
cotton, paper, iron, copper, glass, cochineal, and some of the
goods manufoctured in the country. (Meyendorff and
Bumes.)
BOLBEC, a town in France in the department of Seine
Infcrieure (Lower Seine) on the road between Le Hivre
and Rouen, 1 7 n^iles from the foriaer, and 34 from the
latter, and 1 1 0 miles N.W. of Paris ; it is in 49° 35' N. lat,
0° 28^ £. long.
Bolbeo was not a place of any note in the early or middle
ages. It was a dependency of the county of Eu, and was
in the district of Caux. Bxpilly, in his Diciionnaire (k9
Qatdes^ ^e. (Paris, 1762), speaks of it as a place of some
trade, especially in leather and lace ; he si^s there were
also some manufactures of woollen stuffs, and one of knives,
which were in good repute on account of having been well
tempered. In 1765 the town was almost entirely destroyed
by fire : it w^ rebuilt and has since greatly increased, the
improvement of the cotton manufacture having been the
great cause of its prosperity. '* A few years since and
Bolbec was only a poor little country town C une fklUe
bourgade ') ; it is now one of the most important manufac-
turing towns. There is no poor-house, and, so to speak, no
poor at Bolbec, a town of 9000 inhabitants. ' This town,*
says M. Cartier (and his observation deserves attention
because he is sub-prefect), * has no local tax on commodities
C octroi*), yet it jeoeives daily embellishment, because the
order and economy which prevail in a private family regu-
late the municipal expenditure/ '* (Dupin, Fbreea FroUuc-
tiveM et Commerpiij^g de la Erttnee, Paris, 1827.)
Bolbec and the neighbouring town of Lillebonne were the
first places in which machinery was applied to the spinning
of cotton yarn. From near the commencement of the pre-
sent century the inhabitants have been much engaged in
this branch of business, and in weaving cheap and sub-
stantial &bries of middling degrees of fineness, as well as in
printing cottons. The following table, taken from M.
Dupin, will show the activity of the district of which Bolbeo
is the centre :—
Workmea. Value of good* produced.
In Spinning • 886 2,481,600 francs. £106,749
„ preparing for
weaving • 3,650 9,949,800 • 428,004
„ weaving . 11,226 2,047,600 . 88,076
„ the manufacture
of printed calicoes 2,410 10,612,600 • 456,615
» tanning . 34 220,340 . 9.478
18,206 25*311,840 £1,088,822
valuing the pound sterling, aooording to M. Bftlbi's toble,
at 23.247 francs. To the prodbctions of the industry of
Bolbec already mentioned maybe added cutlery, lace, cover-
leto and ticking for beds, linen and cotton bandkerchiefr,
woollens, hosiery, and ribbons. We know not whether its
cutlery maintains its reputation for goodness.
The town is situated in a very picturesgue valley, watered
ifo. 281.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIAJ
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by the little met Bolbee, which ilowi iiito the Seine. It is
a handsome plsee, with a welUhuilt parish church, said to
have been erected while the English were in possession of
N>rmandy. The situation is excellent for trade. Itomanu-
fkctuxers draw their supply of cotton (the nw material for
their manufkctures) fiom Hftvre« their coal from the districts
of Fdeamp and Harfleur. They find a market for their
productions in Rouen, the great mart for cotton goods;
while the port of Hftvre enables them to export those
articles which are suited to the wanU of the colonies.
(Dupin ; Robert ; Dictionnaire QSographi^ ; Reichard,
Dttrripiive Road Book, <f«.) There is a considerable market
for horses. The population by the census of 1838 was 7063
for the town itself, or 9630 fbr the whole commune.
Before the Revolution Bolbee had a priory in the nomi-
nation of Uie abbot of BemaT.
The industry of the district in which Bolbee is situated
may be estimated from the table given above, from M.
Dupin. It is further shown by the fact that the little river
Bolbee, whose whole course does not probably exceed ten
miles, supplies water, or acts as the moving power to 113
different works. It passes the towns of Bolbee and Lille-
bonne.
BOLBCyCERUS (Entomology), a genus of coleopterous
insects of the fkmily Oeotrupiaa, Scarabteui of Linmsus.
The species of this genus are remarkable fbr their short
compact form, above appearing almost spherical ; the male
is armed with an erect horn springing nom the head, the
female has merely a tubercle m the same part ; the thorax
has freauently four small horns, or tooth-like processes,
arranged in a transverse line on the anterior part ; the an-
tenns are eleven jointed, the three terminal joints form a
compact round knob, the middle joint being almost en-
closed by the other two ; one mandible is armed internally
with two teeth, the other is simple ; the anterior portion of
the mentum is entire ; the elytra are striated.-
These insects live upon dung, and excavate cylindrical
holes in the ground under the mass, in which they deposit
their eggs enveloped in a ball of the excrement
There are about sixteen species known : their most com-
mon colour is brown or yellowish, and sometimes black. In
this country but two species have occurred, B. mobiHcomis
and B, teitaceui, a. mobiUcomU is of a pitchy black
colour, and about one-third of an inch long ; the head in
the male sex has a recurved horn; antennas with the club
led ; thorax punctured, and furnished with Ibur tooth-like
proiections on the fore part ; elytra striated ; legs and body
mcliuing to a red colour.
B. te$taoeu» is entirely of an ochre colour ; head with two
tubercles ; thorax spanngly punctured ; elvtra with puno-
tured stri». About the same size as the fast, of which by
some it is supposed to be a variety. Both of these species are
▼erv rare.
60LCH0W, a circle in the northern part of the province
of Orel in European Russia ; between 53* 43^ and 54^ 50'
of N. lat., and 34"* 58' and se"" 86' of B. long. ; it is watered
by the Oka, Nugra, and Bolchowka, possesses a soil well
adapted fbr the growth of grain, and is diiefly valuable in
an agricultural point of view. It is well peopled, and a
portion of the inhabitants are employed in stocking^knit-
ting; the Bolchow stockings indeed find their way into
distant markets in Russia. Bolchow, the chief town of
this circle, is the most considerable place in the whole pro-
vince, Orel only excepted. It is situated at the confluence
of the Nugra with the Bolchowka, the first of which streams
falls into the Oka about ten miles E. or W. of the town.
Though all the houses, with the exception of six, are of
wood, it h well built. Its foundation is of remote date, fbr
it was an ancient family possession of the Russian sove-
reigns, and is known to nave suffered great disasters during
the inroads of the Crimean Tartars, as well as in the civil
wars with which Russia has been distracted at various
periods. It contains twenty- two churches, fourteen of which
are of stone and eight of wood, a monastery, and the con-
vent of Nova-Petsherskoi, 1800 houses, and a population of
nearly 15,000. The town has manufactures of leather,
soap, hats, shoes, gloves, stockings, &c. and carries on a
brisk trade with the interior in hemp, rape oil, tallow, hides,
eolonial produce, shoes, stockings, &c. together with fruit,
raised in the immediate neighbourhood. 63** 26' N. lat.,
$^ 53' B. long.
BOLE. £i earthy mineral which occurs in amorphous
ia Tuioua countries, as In Atmeniai Soxonjr, in
Tuaeany, at Sienitt, in Iraknd* wbA ia flwUlMi! In tba
laleofSkye.
The ootour of bols ia various, either yettow* brown* re4
or bxownish, and pitch hlaek ; it is dulU haa a graaay leel«
and adheres to tiw tongue. Its fraetnre is coooooidsJ,
yields to the nail, and the streak is shininff. IVhen pat
into water it readily ebsorba it, emits bubbrea ef air. and
fklls to pieces. The Armenian boftot acoording to Wicgieb»
consists nearly of
Bilica • • • 63.13
Alumhia • • • St.67
Iron . • • • 11.00
Loss ... . a.so
100.
The Lemnian bole, oalled also Lemnian eaith« waa an*
tiently an article of materia medica, and kept by apothecariea
in small pieces under the name of terree ngUtattB : these
were impressed on one side with the figure of a goat, &c
According to Pliny it was also used as red pigment.
Klaprotn found the composition of this bole to be
Silica • • • 66
Alumina • • # 14.5
Oxide of inn • • • 0.
Boda . • • 3.6
Water • • 8.5
Atraeeofluneandi
98.5
The oulv bole at present used is as a eoarse rad nigmenl»
for whicn purpoae it ia calcined and levigated, ana vended
in German;^ under the name of Berlin and English red.
(Aikin's Dictionary qf ChemUtiy,)
These earths were Ibrmeriy emjdoyed as astringent, ab-
sorbent, and tonic medicines. They might be sltgbtly
serviceable as absorbents, in the same wav as putty powder
is used in the present day, when snrinkled over exeoriations
of the skin. Any tonic |>ower which they possessed waa doe
to the oxide of iron, which is now administered in a pater
state. These once celebrated articles have fallen into
merited disuse : they are still however employed in the Bast,
and occasionally as veterinary medicines in Europe, where
earths of a similar kind are fbund abundantly amons vol-
canic, basaltic, and the older calcareous rocks, ana ars
called after the different oountries in which they are found.
Those which have less colour are called Bolmt otto, are
procured in Bohemia, 8alxbui]g, &e., and consist of Utho-
marge, which is formed of silica and alumina with water,
and a little oxide of inm. The bole Armenian mnst not
be confounded with the lapii Armeniui, which is a native
carbonate of copper. The terra Lemma is sometimes em-
ployed to signify the pulp of the fruit of the Adantonia
digitata^ the baobab or monkey-bread, which is used as an
astringent for the cure of dysentery by the inhabitants of
Senegal.
BOLETIC ACID was first procured by BraoonnoC from
the boletus pieudo^gniariui by the fbllowing proceaa: the
expressed juice is to be evaporated to the consistence of a
syrup, and then treated with alcohol, which leaves a white
matter; this is to be washed with alcohol, then dissolved in
water, and precipitated with a solution of nitrsteof lead ;
the precipitate diffused through water is to be deeompoacd
by sulphuretted hydrogen gas ; by evaporating the remain-
ing solution there are obtained impure crysUls of bofetw
acid, and a very acid mother-water, composed of fhngk and
phosphoric acids. The crystals of boletic acid are redksolved
m alcohol, which leaves a calcareous salt, and by evapo-
rating the solution purer crystals of boletic acid are procured.
Boletic acid is colourless, ciystaHises in four-sided |krisms ;
its taste is acid, like that of bitartrate of potash; it reddens
litmus, does not alter by exposure to the air ; is gritty, like
sand, between the teeth. It is soluble in 1 80 paits of water
at 68", and in 45 parts of alcohol. By heat the greater
part of it is sublimed either in prismatic crystals or m Una
powder; but towards the end of the operation some empv-
reumatie oil is formed, and there is a strong smeU of acetic
acid. It has the peculiar property of precipitating the
peroxide of iron from solutions, but not the protoxide.
This acid forms salts with the alkalis, earths, and with
metallic oxides ; they are called boletatee. They are not
important compounds, none of them being applied U>
any use. (Berselius, TYoM ik (MtUe, torn, 5. p. 103.)
Digitized by
BO L
75
BOL
BOLBTOnSIXMI (Bntomology), a genus of poleopterous
insects of the section Brackelytra (Macleay), and family
Tachyporidm, Stapkj^nus of older authors. Generio cha-
racters : head long, and pointed anteriorly ; antennss with
the hasal joint rather long and slender; the three next
joints slender, and nearly of equal length, the remainmg
joints gradually increasing in width to the last» inclusive ;
palpi rather long and slender; thorax narrower before than
behind, the hinder angles rounded ; elytra smooth, or in-
distinctly striated ; body long, widest at the base, and ta-
pering to a point at the apex ; legs moderate, tibi» spinose,
the four posterior with long spines at their apices.
The species of this genus reside in boleti and fUngi : in
the latter they occur in the greatest abundance, particularly
when in a state of decay. They are all exceedingly active,
and their smooth slender bodies and pointed heads render
it an easy task for them to thread fheir way with rapidity
tbrouf^h the putrescent fungi.
B, lunaiua (Linnseus) is one of the most beautiilil and
largest species of ^e genus, and is not uncommon ; it is
about a quarter of an inch lon^. The head is black ; the
antenncD have the three basal joints yellow, the remaining
black, with the exception of the terminal joint, which is
yellow ; the thorax and legs are yellow ; the wing-cases
are of a blue-black colour, with an oblique yellow spot on
the shoulders ; the body is yellow, with the apex black.
About eighteen species of this genus have been found in
this country, almost all of which are varied with yellow and
black. Many have the wing-cases yellow, with two black
spots, one on each side at the apex ; some have also the
region of the scntellum black. (Stephens's Blusiratiom
of British Entomohgy.)
BOLE'TUS, an extensive genus of fungi, consisting, ac-
cording to the old botanists, of leathery masses, which are
sometimes of considerable thickness, and having the spores
lodged in tubes which occupy the same situation as the
plates in the gills (or hymeninm) of the common mushroom.
Fries, the great modern describer of fiingi, defines the
genus thus: hymenium formed of a pect3iar substance,
altogether distinct from the cap, entirely composed of tubes
united into a porous layer ; these tub^ are undivided, se-
parable from each other, long, cylindrical, or angular, open
from end to end. and bear asci (spore-cases) on their inside ;
asci cylindrical, with small roundish spores ; the stalk is
central, and often netted ; the cap is fleshy, soft, spread out
into a hemispherical form ; veil present in many of them.
He includes within his definition but a small number of the
old Boleti, referring^ the prinoipal part to Polyporus, which is
especiallv eharaeterized by having the tubes of its hymenium
inseparable from the cap, which is more leathery, and usually
without a staUu
The true Boleti are generally Amnd growing on the
Sound in woods and meadows, especially in pine woods ,
e Polypori are commonly met with on trees, especially
pollards. Of the former several species are eatable, as B,
9dMdi9^ iubtomentonts, and granuiaius; others are acrid
and dangerous. Of the Polypori, 8ubsqu€unosus, ovimis, and
several others are eatable, especially an Italian sort called
tuberaater, which has a great reputation at Naples. B, oji-
einalis, supposed to have been the agarikon of Dioscorides,
is an dd-fashioned medicine remarkable for the extreme
acridity of its powder ; it acts as a powerful purgative, but
is never employed at the present day. B, igniarius when
dried and sliced fUrnishes the Grerman tinder, or amadou, a
leathery substance sold in the tobacconists' shops. B, de*
siructor is one of the many species of fungi the ravages of
which are too well known under the name of dry rot ; their
destructive qualities are not however caused by the fruc-
tification, or the pan which we commonly consider the
fungus itself, but by the ramifications, through the substance
of the wood, of what botanists call the thallus and gardeners
the spdum of such plants, which is in effect their stem and
root in a mixed state. The most dangerous of the dry rots
is Mbrulius Lachrymans.
BOLE'TUS, MEDICAL USES OF. Several different
species, all confounded under the name B» iffniarius, fur-
nished the means of stanching the flow of blood fbom
wounds. They were supposed to do this bv an astringent pro-
perty, and, being erroneously referred to the genus ^aricus,
were termed agaric, which word is often used as syno-
nymous with styptic. Boletus possesses however no peculiar
power of arresting the flow of blood, but acts mechanically
like a sponge, and favours the formation of a clot. It is
now almost entirely disused by British surgeons, but in-
some cases it merits a preference over other means of cleft-
ing a bleeding vessel. When it is to be used, it must be
rubbed firmlv between the hands, doubled, and applied over
the orifice wnenoe the blood proceeds, and bound down by a
compress. It should not be removed till after twenty-four
hours, and the clot should be softened with cold, not warm
water. Though the Crerman tinder seems to offer a con-
venient substitute for the prepared agaric in case of an
emergency, it would be very improper to employ it, as the
nitrate of potass or saltpetre in which it is steeped would
irritate anil influence the edges of the wound. [Amadoit,
vol. i. p. 410.) The Grerman tinder however forms a very
excellent moxa. The different kinds of boleti used as
styptics were formerly designated Agaricus chirurgorum,
it is less on account of their uses than Of their peculiar
habitudes that the boleti merit our notice. In cnemical
composition, odour, and habitudes, they resemble animals
more than vegetables. When cut into, some of them ex-
hibit almost a muscular structure (B. hepaticus, or Fisttdina
hevatica), hence called by the French langue de hceuf. The
boietus igmariw, when divided, has been stated by Professor
Eaton to heal like a flesh-wound by the first intention, at
complete re-union of its divided edges, scarcely exhibiting
a cicatrix or trace of the injury. (Silliman*s Journal,
vol vi. p. 1 77.) Nitrogen enters into their composition ;
and in regard to their relations with the atmosphere, they
inhale oxygen, and exhale carbonic acid gas. The boletus
luridus has been ascertained to abstract twelve per cent
of oxygen from the atmosphere in twelve hours. {Inquiry
into the Changes which the Atmosphere undergoes when
in Contact with certain Vegetables which are destitute
qf Green Leaves, by M. F. Marcet ; Jameson's Edin, New
Phil. Journal, October. 1835, p. 232.)
Boleti consist largely ot fungin, with some boletic acid.
Unlike most fungi, which grow rapidly and perish quickly,
most of the boleti grow veiy slowly, acquire a firm texture,
and last perhaps 100 years if not exposed to much moisture.
According to Sir William Jones, the B. igniarius \9. found
in India, and used in nearly the same manner as in Europe.
(Ainslie's Materia Medica Jndica, vol. i p. 6.)
BOLEYN, ANNE, or, more properly, BULLEN, or
BULLEYNE, was the daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen,
afterwards created Viscount Rochford and Earl of Wiltshire.
He was the representetive of an autient line in Norfolk,
which had in three descents been allied to the noblest fli-
milies in England ; and he had himself filled important
offices in the stete. Anne*s mother was Lady Elizabeth
Howard, daughter of the Duke of Norfolk.
Anne Boleyn was bom in the year 1507, and in her child-
iMod aeeoB^aiued llary, the slater of H^^ VlII^ so
Digitized by V:jd?)QlC
BOL
76
BOL
IVuiM, whMe tbe' remained in the emirt of ^at queen and
of her suocenior, the wife of Fraucta I., for many years. She
was afterwards attached to the honaehold of the Dacfaett of
Alen^on. The time of her return from France is doubtful,
but Burnet places it in 1527, when her father was sent in
an embassy to France. At that time she became a maid
of honour to Queen Katharine, the wife of Heury VIII.,
and was receiving the addresses of Lord Percy, the eldest
son of the Duke of Northumberland.
If the assertion of Henry VIII. is to be credited, he
had long entertained scruples concerning the lawfulness
of bis marriage with his brother*8 widow ; and had attri-
buted to this violation of God*s law the premature death
of all his children by Katharine, excepting the Princess
Mary. The most charitable and credulous however
cannot abstain from remarking that the moment of
his proceeding openly to annul the marriage was identical
with the commencement of his addresses to Anne Bolevn,
and that a similar coincidence marks the catastrophe of this
unhappy woman. A letter from the king to her in 1528
alludes to his having been one whole year struck with the
dart of love ; and her engagement with Lord Percjr was at
this time broken off by the intervention of Wolsey, in whose
household that nobleman was brought up. Anne retired
into the country during the early part of Henry s process
for the divorce, but she kept up a corresoondence bv letters
with him. Some of the king's letters to ner are still extant
in the Librarv of the Vatican ; they are in bad French, and
were copied by direction of Bishop Burnet, and afterwards
printed by his order. Burnet says that although not con-
sistent with the delicacy of expression usual in these days,
they show unquestionably that Anne Boleyn was the lover
not the mistress of the king. In 1 52D she returned to court,
and was known to be intended by Henry for his iUture
queen.
In the meantime the king's divorce fVom Katharine was
retarded by various delays ; and at the beginning of the
year 1533 Henry married Anne Boleyn secretly, in the
Sresence of her uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, and of her
ither and mother. Dr. Rowland Lee, afterwards bishop of
Litchfield, performed the ceremony ' much about St. PauVs
day,* which is probably the 26th of January, the feast of
the conversion of St Paul, or perhaps the 4th of January,
another St. Paul*8 day. This date is established by a letter
from Cranmer in the British Museum, quoted by Burnet,
and printed in £llb*s Letters, first series, P- 34, and Cran-
mer s assertion is corroborated by that of Stow ; although
Hall, and after him Holinshed and Speed, mention St.
£rkenwald*s day, the preceding Uth of November. It was
not until the 23rd of May following that the nullity of the
king's previous marriage was declared by Cranmer, who
five days afterwards confirmed that of Anne Boleyn ; and
on the Ist of June Queen Anne was crowned with ereat
pomp. On the 13th of the following September the Prin-
cess Elizabeth was born.
Of the events of the queen's life during the two subse*
quent years little is known, except that she favoured the
Keformation, and promoted the translation of the Bible. In
January, 1 536, she brought forth a dead child, and it was
at that time and during her previous pregnancy that the
affections of her husband were alienated from her, and
fixed upon Jane Seymour, daughter of Sir John Seymour,
and one of the maids of honour to the queen. Whether
Henry believed the reports which Lady Rochford,her sister-
in-law, spread concerning Anne it is needless to inquire ;
nor is it very important to know by what device a despotio
monarch, who could count upon corrupt judges and a par**
liament of incredible servility, clothed with the forms of law
the destruction of his victim. Queen Anne was accused of
criminal intercourse with her brother, Viscount Rochford ;
the evidence to support the charge proved that he had leant
on her bed. She was accused also of grossly criminal
intercourse with Henrv Norris, groom of the stole; Sir
Francis Weston and William Brereton. gentlemen of the
chamber; and Mark Smeton, a groom of ue chamber. To
support these charges aomeU&in^ said by Lady Wingfield
before her death was adduced, which amounted only to this,
that the queen had told each of these persons that she loved
him better than any person whatever. This was stretched
into high treason, under the act of the 26th of Henry VIIL,
which made those who slandered the issue begotten between
the king and Queen Anne guil^ of that crime. The other
evidenoe agii&st her wee llaxk Smeton* wlio was never
eonfronted with her, but who was said te have fooressed
thai he had three times known the queen. Two days after
she was condemned to death Cranmer pronounoed the
nullity of her marriage, in consequence of certain lawful
impediments confessed by her.
Of her conduct in the Tower an exact account may be
derived from the letters of Sir William Kingston, the lieu-
tenant, of which five, together with one from Edward
Baynton, have been nrint^ by Sir H. Ellis from tlie ori-
ginals in the British Museum. From the dav of her com-
mittal she seems to have been certain of her fate ; and she
displayed by fits the anguish of despair and the levity which
often accompanies it. ' For won owre,* says Kingston in a
letter to Seccetary Cromwell, * she ys determined to d}\ and
the next owre much contrary to that.* To her aunt, the
Lady Boleyn, she confessed that she had allowed somewhat
too fkmiliar . approaches by her courtiers, but she never
varied in her denial of any criminal act. On the 15th of
May she was arraigned, together with her brother, before a
special commission, of which her uncle, the Duke of Norfolk,
was president. The sitting of this commission was secret,
and the record of its proceedings must have been imme-
diately destroyed; it is certain however that none of the
ladies of her household were examined. The tradition of
all contemporary writers agrees that the queen, unaasisU^l
by legal advisers, defended herself firmlv and skilfully, not-
withstanding the indecent impatience of the president ; but,
according to the practice of tliat and the three subsequent
reigns, she was of course convicted. AAer her conviction
her feelings seem to have been absorbed in indignation at
the baseness of her persecutors, and anxiety for her own
posthumous fame. There is in the British Museum the
copy of a letter, unquestionably authentic, addressed by her
to the king, which is written in such a strain of conscious
innocence and of unbending and indignant reproof, that it
sets her immeasurably above her oppressor. Sne tells lum,
* Neither did I at any time so forget myself in my exalta-
tion, or received queenship, but Umt I always looked lor
such an alteration as I now find ; for the ground of my
preferment being on no surer foundation than your Grac«'s
fancy, the least alteration was fit and sufilcient I know to
draw that fancy to some other subject Try me,
{^ood king, but let me have a lawful trial ; and let not
my sworn enemies sit as my accusers aud iudges; yea let
me receive an open trial, for my truth shtJl fear no open
shames/
Sir William Kingston, with the aid of his wife, and of
the Lady Boleyn (the queen*s aunt and known enemy),
acted as a constant spy on her; reporting to Secretary
Cromwell, for the • king's information, all that escaped the
prisoners lips. On the 16th of May, Kingston writes im-
patiently to * know the king s pleasure as shortly as may be,
that we here ms.^ prepare for the same which is necessary
for to do execution.* On the 18th he writea: 'and in the
writing of this she sent for me, and at my coming she aaid«
'* Mr. ICingston, I hear say I shall not die afore noon, and I
am very sorry therefore, for I thought to be dead by this
time and past my pain.'* I told her it should be no pain, iC
was so subtle. And then she said, " I heard say the execu*
tioner was very good, and I have a little neck ;** and put lier
hands about it, laughing heartilv.* On the 19th of May
she was executed on the green before the Tower, denying
her guilt, but speaking charitably of the king* no doubt
with a view to protect her daughter from bis vengeanee.
' Her body was thrown into a common chest of elm tree.
used to put arrows in.* Lord BLochford, Norris. Weetoiu
Brereton, and Smeton were also put to death.
A living historian sees something mysterious in the
hatred exhibited by Henry to his queen. The mystery is
sufiiciently solved when we learn that the day aTur the
queen's execution Henry married Jane Seymour ; and be
afterwards procured an act of parliament (28 Hen. VlII^
c. 7) declanng his marriage with Anne void, and the i»Mie
of it and of his former marriage illegitimate.
If Anne Boleyn were only remarkable as the rietim of
the lusts, the caprice, and the heartless selfishness of Henry
VI II. her history would bo interesting, as an illustratiea of
the state of our jurisprudence in her time, and of the teoper
of a king whose personal character exercised more influence
over the affairs of England than that of any of our kinirs
since the Conqueror. But the name of Anne B<^yn t«
atill more remarkable by her connexion with the RewnMi-
tion in England, of which th» waa tbe_grixae cause. Heoar
Digitized by
BM^ruae cause.
Googl(
BOh
n
BOX
Vin. eould only obtoin her hand b^ |^lBulltllff hia ikrevious
iDurriage ; and the refusal of the pope to do this led to the
severance of England from the Romish communion. Thus
it is that the character of Anne Boleyn (a matter utterly
beside the questions agitated between the Catholic and Pro-
testant churches) has become a suliject of fierce ooutroversy
which three centuries have not extinguished. Catholio
writer* strive elaborately to prove that, after a courtship
of more than five yearn, her chastity did not repel the
advances of Henry up to the very day of her marriage ;
while Protestants indignantly deny tlie charge, and appeal
in her vindication to the dates of the principal events of her
life.
Burnet, who has taken great pains with the subject, is
the writer on whom we have principally relied. Slow. Hall,
and the other historians who wrote in the time of Henry
VIII. and of Queen Elizabeth, axe cautiously meagre in
their details.
BOLINGBROKE. HENRY ST. JOHN. VISCOUNT,
was the son of Sir Henry St. John, Bart., afterwards Vis-
count St. John, of Battersea, where he was born October 1st,
1678. His mother was Mary, daughter of Robert Rich.
Earl of Warwick. He was sent to school at Eton, from
which ha proceeded to Christ Church, Oxfonl; and on
leaving tiie university he appears to have gone to travel on
the Oontiilent. He is supposed to have been abroad during
the years 1698 and 1699, but all that is known of his travels
is that he visited Milan. In 1 700, soon after his return, he
married Frances, daughter and one of the co-heiresses of
Sir Henry "Winchcomb, by which alliance he came into
the possession of considerable property. His wife and he
however could not agree, and they soon parted.
He had before this produced a few short poetical pieces
of little merit ; but he was chiefly known as one of the most
dissipated among the young men of fashion of the day. He
now however entered upon a new scene. He was returned
to the parliament which met in February, 1701, for Wotton
Basset, a family boroiu;h, from which his father retired to
make room for him. At this time the Tories, with Rochester
and Godolphin at their head, were in power ; and to this
party, which was also dominant in the new House of Com*
mons, St John from the first attached himself. He appears
indeed, even in this his first session, to have distinguished
himself on various occasions as one of the most active and
efficient members of their body. Their leader Harley,
whom they had placed in the chair, and St. John were al-
ready intimate friends.
He sat also both in the next parliament, which met in
December of the same year, the last called by King William,
and in the first held l^ Queen Anne, which assembled in
October, 1 702. On Harley being made secretary of state
in 1704, lifs friend St. John was brought into the ministry
as secretary at war. This oflioe he continued to hold for
nearly four years, till February, 1708, when, upon the for-
mation of a Whig administration under Marlborough and
Godolphin (who bad by this time changed their politics) he
and Harley went out together.
He did not seek a place in the next parliament, which
met in November, 1 708 ; but, retiring to the country, with-
drew altogether from politics, and gave himself up for two
years to study. By the end of this period another complete
revolution in the cabinet had taken place ; and the dismissal
of Godolphin in the beginning of August, 1710, had again
elevated the Tories to power, with Harley at their herol. In
this new arrangement St John was made one of the secre-
taries of state; and, a new parliament having been called,
he was returned both for his old borough of Wotton Basset
and for the county cf Berks, for which latter he elected
to sit.
The biography of St. John for the next four years forms
a principal part of the historv of the memorable administra-
tion of which he was one of the leading members. That
administration remained at the head of affairs till it was
suddenly upset by the death of the queen in the beginning
of August, 1714. During its tenure of power it had termi-
nated bv the peace of Utrecht (signed 1 1th April, 1713) the
war with France, which had lasted since 1 702 ; and this
forms the great public act by which it has left the mark of
its existence behind it upon the history both of these king-
doms and of Europe. In the negociationv by which tms
event was brought about St John bore not only an eminent
but the ohief part There is much reason for doubting
bowerer if the reitom^on of pieace was the ultimate or prin-
eipal.iAijact of his sealoui exertions. There ia indeed strong
ground lor believing not only that both he and uarley, al-
most from their first entrance upon office, contemplated the
restoration of the Stuart family to the throne, if circum-
stances should prove favourable for such an attempt or if
their own interests should appear to demand the measure, but
that eventually St John had actually committed himself to
the cause of the Pretender. He had been called to the House
of Lords by the title of Viscount Bolingbroke in July, 1 712 ;
and soon after this, from rarioas causes, an estrangement
and rivalry arose between him and' his old friend Harley
(now Earl of Oxford and lord treasurer), which broke out
at last in an open contest for ascendency. Principally,
as it is understood, through the aid of Lady Masham, by
whose intiuence with her royal mistress Harley had been
placed in bis present situation, but who in the end de-
clared heiself tor Bolingbroke, the latter was enabled to
effect the removal of his competiUtf on the 27th of July,
1714.
The death of the queen, however, which followed within
a week, and the prompt axid decisive measures taken at the
instant by the friends of the House of Hanover, made
Bolingbroke*8 triumph only th§t of a moment. After
having been treated by the Lords Justices in a manner
which sufficiently showed what he had to expect, he
wa3 on the 2dth of August b^ the king's order dismissed
from his post. He remained m the oeuntry for some time
after this, and even appeared in parliament, and took an
active part in debate, as if he had nothing to fear ; but
alarmed at length by the temper shown by the new House
of Commons, which had commenced its sittings on the
17 th of March, 1715, on the 25th of the same month he
suddenly left London in disguise, and succeeded in making
his escajpe to France. On the 9th of August fullowing, by
order of the Commons, he was impeached by Walpole at
the bar cf the House of Lords of nigh tieason ana other
high crimes and misdcmeanoursr and iiaving failed to sur-
render himself to take his trial, he was attainted by act of
parliament on the 10th of September. In the meantime
he had entered into the service of the Pretender, who ap-
pointed him his secretary of state, or prime minister, and
by whom he was employed in the first instance to solicit
the aid of the French government to the expedition then in
preparation with the object of effecting a rising in favour of
the exiled family in Great Britain. When the prince
set out in person for Scotland at the end of the year,
Bolingbroke was left in charge of his affairs in France. On
his return, however, af\er an absence of about six weeks, the
prince suddenly dismissed him from his employment, and
soon after had him formally impeached before what he
called his parliament fbx neglect of the duties of his office.
Bolingbroke now endeavoured to make his peace with the
court of St. Jameses, and a negociation was opened with
him by Lord Stair, the English ambassador in Paris, with
the view of making arrangements for liis pardon and restora-
tion to his country, in consideration of tlie scr\ices he might
now be able to render against the parly and the cause by
which he had just been flung off. It is probable however
that more was expected of him in this way than he was
disposed to engage for ; at any rate the minii^try eventually
declined granting the pardon for the present
He remained in exile for the next seven years, during
which he kept up a correspondence with Swift, Pupe,
and other literary friends in England, and also drew
around him a circle of new acquaintances comprising some
of the most eminent men of the continent He resided
principally on a small property called La Source, near
Orleans, which he had purchased in 1 7 1 9, and which he hud
taken great delight in laying out and decorating. His wife
having died in November, 1718, in May. 1 720, he privately
married the widow of the Marquis de Villette, a lady with
whom he had lived for some time previously. She was a
niece of Madame de Maintenon, and brought him a consi-
derable fbi-tune. It was to this lady's exertions and ma-
nagement tliat he was eventually indebted for liberty to
return to his own country, which he obtained in May, 1 723,
principally it is understood through the intervention of the
King's mistress, the Duchess of Kendal, whom Lady Boling-
broke bribed with a sum of eleven thousand pounds. Bo-
lingbroke however, although he came over for a short time
in June of this year, did not take up his residence in
England till September, 1724. He now petitioned for the
restoration of his property, imd that also was granted to
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Um by an act of purHament, wliielineeinad ffa« nyalauaiit
on the 31 at of Mav, 1725. The complete reversal of bis
attainder however, the operation of which still excluded him
from the House of Lords, was steadily refused to all his
solicitations. Upon finding the doors of parliament thus
shut against him, be engagra in a course of active opposition
to the ministry through the medium of the press ; and his
political papers, published first under the title of the 'Occa-
sional Writer,' and afterwards continued in the ' Craftsman,*
excited for some years much attention. It was in the
* Craftsman* that the series of papers from his pen origi-
nally appeared which were afterwards collected and pub-
lished separately under the title of * Letters upon the His-
tory of England, by Humphrey Oldcastle,* and also the
subsequent series of letters forming his ' Dissertation upon
Parties.'
While thus employed he resided at the villa of Dawley,
near Uxbridge, which he had purchased on his return.
Here he occupied himself not only in carrying on this po-
litical war, but also, as it afterwuds appeared, in writing
various treatises upon moral and metaphysical subjects
which he did not send to the press. In January, 1735,
however, he suddenly left England, and returned to France,
with the resolution of spending the remainder of his life in
that country. This step is supposed to have been connected
with some political reasons, but what they were has never
been satisfactorily explained. In this year, as appears
firom a note in Tindal's ' History of England,* there was
published in London an octavo pamphlet containing a cor-
respondence of some length which had taken place between
Bolinebroke and the secretary of the Pretender immediately
after his dismissal fVom the Pretender's service in 1716.
The pamphlet was immediately suppressed, but Tindal has
printed the letters at large ; and their contents are such
as it certainly could not have been agreeable toBolingbroke
to see laid before the public
He remained in France, residing at a seat called Chan-
telou, in Touraiue with the exception of a short visit
which he paid to England to dispose of Dawley, till the
death of his father in 1742. He now returned to take
possession of the family estate at Battersea; where he
resided for the most part till his death on the 15th of
December, 1751. The year before, the death of his wife,
by whom he had no family, had terminated a union which
seems to the last to have been one of great happiness and
strong affection on both sides. Most of his old friends also,
both literary and political, among the number Pope, Swift,
Gay, and Atterbury, were now gone. In politics he had
almost ceased to take any active part for some years before
his death ; the fall of Walpole, in 1742, the event to which
he had looked for so many years for his full restoration to
the rights of citizenship, and probably his readmission to
political power, having, when it came, brought no advantage
either to himself or his party.
Bolingbroke beoueathed all his manuscripts, with liberty
to print them, to David Mallet, the poet and Scotchman,
who had gained his favour by consenting some years before
to appear as the editor of his work, entitled ' The Idea of a
Patriot King,* and to put his name to an advertisement pre-
fixed to it, in which some very injurious and, in the circum-
stances, unbecoming reflections were made upon Uie conduct
of his recently deceased friend'*Pope, who, shortly before
bis death, had, without the knowledge of the author, got an
impression of the work thrown off from the manuscript which
had been lent to him. Mallet published the several treatises
which had thus been left to him, along with all Boling-
broke*s writings which had previously appeared, in 5 vols.
4to. in 1754. The first volume of this collection contains
the * Letter to Sir William Windham' (which had been first
published in 1752 along with some other pieces); a short
tract, entitled * Reflections upon Exile* (dated 1716, and
first published in English in 1 752, at the end of the ' Letters
on the Study and Use of History,* though part of it had,
it is stated, been shortly before printed in French in a
' Monthly Mercury') ; several short political papers, some
originally published under the title of the ' Occasional
Writer,* and others which had appeared in the ' Craftsman ;*
and the ' Remarks on the History of England/ in twenty-
four letters (originally published in the 'Craftsman,* and
afterwards pubUslied separately under the name of * Hum-
phrey Oldcastle,' with a dedication to Sir Robert Walpcte,
and a pre&ce, which are here omitted, as having been
'written by another and a very ixdmx hand.*) The oon*
tents of the seeondtolnma axe * ADisMitalion upon Putica*
(in nineteen letters, originally published in the ' Craftsman/
and also afteiwards printed separately) ; * Bight Letters on
the Study and Use of History* (dated 1735, and first pub-
lished in 1752, in 2 vols. 8vo., although a portion of^ the
work had been privately printed in the lifetime of the au-
thor) ; a * Plan for a (General History of Europe,* and a
' Letter to Lord Bathurst on the Use of Retirement and
Study.* Volume third consists of * A Letter on the Spirit
of Patriotism* (dated 1736) ; ' The Idea of a Patriot King
(dated 1738) ; ' A Letter on the State of Parties at the Ac-
cession of George I. ;* ' Some Reflections on the Present
State of the Nation* (unfinished, dated 1749, and first pub-
lished in 1752 along with the Letter to Windham); the
'Substance of some Letters (on moral and metaphvsical
subjects) written originally in F^nch, about 1 720, to if. de
Pouilly ;* and * A letter concerning the Nature, Extent*
and Reality of Human Knowledge* (first published in 1752
along with the Letter to Windham), being the introduction
to the series of letters or essays addressed to Alexander
Pope, Esq. The fourth volume contains the second of tliese
essays, entitled ' On the Folly and Presumption of Philoso-
phers;* the third, *On the Rise and Progress of Mono-
theism ;* and the fourth, ' Concerning Authority in Matters
of Religion.' The fifth volume is made up of fragments
and minutes of essays, in continuation of the above. In
1798 there apoeared in 2 vols. 4to. (sometimes designated
the 6th and 7tn volumes of Bolingbroke's works) and also
in 4 vols. 8vo., * A Collection of the Letters and Correspond-
ence of Bolingbroke, Public and Private, during the time
he was Secretary of State to Queen Anne, with Explana-
tory Notes, &c., by Gilbert Parke, of Wadham College, Ox-
ford.* These letters and other papers had been aecund
when Bolingbroke took flight for France, by his under-
secretary, Thomas Hare, Eu. afterwards Sir Tnomas Hare,
Bart, of Stow Hall, in Norfolk, where they had ever since
been preserved, their existence having been little noticed or
known. There also appeared at Paris m 1808, in 3 vols. 8vo^
a collection of letters by Bolingbroke, in French, edited by
Greneral Grimoard, who has prefixed an historical essay on
the life of the writer. This collection consists for the most
part of letters written in French by Bolingbroke to Madame
de Ferriol, between 1712 and 1736, and to the Abb6 Alari,
between 1718 and 1726. An octavo volume of letters, ad-
dressed by Bolingbroke to the Right Hon. William Pitt (the
first Lord Chatham), is said to have been printed at Dublin
in 1 796, but we have not seen it
Lord Bo1ingbroke*s writings are now little read, and indeed,
in matter at least, they contain very little for which th^ are
worth reading. He had no accurate or profound knowledge
of any kind, and his reasonings and reflections, though they
have often a certain spaciousness, have rarely much solidity.
A violent partizan, and, we believe, a thoroughly unprineiplal
one, he has even in what he has written on the transaetiooa
of his own time, and on those in which he was himself eoo-
cemed, only perplexed and obscured history; and this aeema
to have been his object. His most important performances
of this kind, though they sometimes profess to have been pre*
pared immediately after the events to which they rdate, and
although in one or two instances a very few copies dTthem
may have been privately printed and confided to certain
intimate friends, appear to nave been carefully concealed by
their author from the public so long as he himself lived to
be called to account for what they contained, or any of the
persons who could best have eitner refuted or confirmed
them. As a mere rhetorician, however. Lord Bolingbroke
has very considerable merit and in this capacity he may
even be allowed, though he added little if anything of much
value to the general intelligence from his own stores, to
have for the first time familiarized some important truths to
the public mind. His style was a happy medium between
that of the scholar and that of the man of society— or rather
it was a happy combination of the best qualitiea of both,
heightening the ease, freedom, fluency, and liv^ineas of
elegant conversation with many of the deeper and richer
tones of the eloquence of formal orations and ctf books. The
example he thus set has probably produced a very consider^
able efiect in moulding the stvle of popular writing since his
time. The opposition of Bolingbioke s philosoiMiiad sen-
timents, as disclosed in those writings which appeared
after his death, to revealed religion, is generally known, as
well as the severe remark which the manner of their publK
cation drew hm Johnson—' Having loaded a blundeiiuas
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and pointed it a^biaai Otarigtiaiuty, be kad not tke oounge
to diflobaiige it himself, but left balf-arcrown to a hungry
Sootcfaman to pull the trigger after his death.* It is now,
we believe, admitted od all bands that Christianity has not
found a very formidable opponent in Bolingbroke, and that
bis objections for the most part only betray his own half-
learning. His olyeotions, and the system whioh he would
substitute in place of religion, are principally detailed in
the third of bis ' Letters on the Study of History/ and in
his ' Essays ' addressed to Pope.
BOLITOTHA6US, Fabridus (Entomology) Eiedona
of Latreille, Leach, and Mitlard, and Opairum of some
other authors : a genus of coleopterous insects of the sec-
tion Heteromeia and iamily TenebrioniiJUe. The principal
generic characters are as follows: bead short, partially
hidden by the thorax, in the males sometimes armed with
a horn or tubercle; antennae very short and thick, the
three or four apical joints much broader than the rest;
maxillary palpi rather large and distinct, the terminal joint
truncated, its length equalling that of the two preceding
joints; labial palpi smAll; thorax coarsely punctured or
rugose, the lateral margins mom or less toothed; elytra
deeply striated; legs imort and thick, the anterior tibia
oompressed.
There are about six species of this genus known : they
live in bdeti, and are of a small size, a short ovate form, and
their prevailing colours are brown-black. In this country
but one species has as yet been discovered, B. Agarioola or
AgarideUa, It is of a brown colour, and i^ut one-twelfth
of an inch long. It is rather locaU but where it dees occur
it is found in tSerable abundance.
BOLIVAR, SIMON. In giving a sketch of the life of
this celebrated man, the difficulty of selecting facts that
have most probability can be appreciated only by those who
have examined and.ooUated the conflicting accounts of
different partisans* which exhibit, on the one hand, the
extravagant praises of friends, and on tlie other, the violraoe
of personid and political enemies. The statements of the pre-
sent article are derived from several works which, as they
Will occasionally be referred to, it will be convenient in the
first place to name. The most important are, The AnnutU
Reguter; The American Annual Rerieter; The North
American Review^ especially vols. 1 9 and 21 ; Hietoria de la
Revolucion de la Repubhea de Colombia^ por Jose Manuel
Restrepo. Paris, 1827: this work is dedicated to Bolivar,
as the intimate friend of the author, who was secretary
of the Colombian repubUc. OuUine qf the Revolution in
Spanieh America, by a South American ; Memoire of Gene-
ral MiUer, in the Service of the Republic of Penh 2 vols^
London, 1828 ; Travele in ColombiOj by Captain Cochrane,
2 vols., London, IS2B; A Memoir qfBoUvar in El Mensa-
gero, por el Rev. Jos. Blanco White, Londr^s, 1823; Me-
moirs ofBofivair^ by General Ducoudray Holstein, 2 vols.,
London, 1830— «a work in whioh the author's personal
rancour is displayed by his misrepresentations. A similar
caution is requisite in referring to An Bxpedttion to the
Orinoco^ by Colonel Hippesley, London, 1819; Mimoires
de Simon Bolivar were published in Paris in 2 vols., in
1829» a sight of which we have not been able to obtain.
The discrepancy of the various accounts in these works is
oocasionalW very perplexing. Indeed Bolivar himself, as
General Miller asserts, declared in 1824 that all the nume-
rous accounts of him were very inaccurate. It is therefore
necessary to premise, that, in some of the following parti-
culars, especially the dates, it is not unlikely that inaccnraey
may be oiscovered by persons whose information has been
acquired on better authority than that of the inconsistent
narratives hitherto published. It is much to be regretted
that no impartial bistovy of the South American war of
independence has yet appeared.
Simon Bolivar was bom in the city of Osracas, on the
S4th, or, aeeording to General Miller, the 25th of July,
1 783. His fatiier was Don Juan Vicente BoUvar y Ponte,
a ookmel in the militia of the vale of Aragua, his mother
Dona Maria Conoepeion Palados y Sojo; both of very
opulent fkrailies in Venesnela, of the rank cf nobility called
urn Mantuanas. He was sent, when about fourteen, to
Madrid, for the completion of his education. By some
of his biographers it is said that in his voyage he visited
Mexioo and Havanna, places lying certainly somewhat oat
of the way of a ship*s passage from Venesuela to Spain.
After remaining several veare in Madrid, and paying some
MontiMi ta tiia etttdy of jurii|^en«a» be nidi lb»lottr«f
Italy, Switierlend, Germany, England, and Fraiioe; and
after a long reaidenoe at Paris, devoting his time, as some
assert, to the society of the learned, and a diligent attend-
ance at all the scientific and literary lectures — according to
others, revelling in all the licentiousness of the Palais
Royal— he returned in 1802 to Biadrid, and there married
the daughter of Don Tore, uncle of the Marmiis Tore of
Caracas, or, as others say, the daughter of the Marquis de
Ustorix de Cro, his age being then only nineteen, and
sixteen that of his wifOf who is described as being remark-
ably beautiful and accomplished. In 1809 he returned to
his native country, where, in company with the new captain-
general of the colony, Don Emparan, he arrived March
24th at the port of La Guayra, and retired with his wife to
domestic seclusion on one of his large patrimonial estates
in the beautiful vale of Aragua near Caracas. The yellow
fever, so prevalent in that climate, soon terminated his
domestic happiness ; for his wife, shortly after her arrival,
fell ill and died. The natural intensity of his affections
threw him into a state of frantic grief, which he sought to
alleviate by returning to Europe. From Europe he pro-
ceeded to the United States, where he ^thered some useful
poUtical knowledge, and about the begmning of 181 0 again
landed in Venesuela, in company with Greneral Miranda,
and retired to his estate of San Mateo.
It may be useful here to say a few words in explanation of
the state of things immediately prerious to the entrance
of BoUvar upon nis revolutionary career. The Spanish
colonies of South America appear to have remained during
a period of about 300 years in quiet submission to the
arbitrary government of the mother country ; that is, from
the time of Columbus to the commencement of the pre-
sent oentury, when the political principles developed first
by the revolution of the Anglo-American colonies, and
afterwards by that of France, began to be earnestly dis-
cussed by the patriots of the souQiem continent, who, in
aggravated eircumstances of oppression, far exceeded the
point of suffering at which the N«rth Americans had com-
menced resistance. Never indeed were despotism, avariee,
and slavish obsequiousness to power so dissustingly shown
in any country as in Spanish Ameriea, under the govern-
ment of the viceroys and captains-general, who, with all the
principal officers of the vioe-royal court, and even the subor-
dinate official clerks, were sent from Madrid, and without
being, in reality, under any responsibihty, revelled in every
kind of tyranny and venality. Justice was bought and
sold: the most important legal decisions were made in
favour of the highest bidder. The mercantile policy of the
parent country was equally despotic and rapacious ; to pre-
serve her monopoly of the wine trade, the culture of the
vine in America, though very appopriate to the climate^
was strictly inhibited : the estabVfihment of manufactures
was not permitted, while cargoes of commodities, the refuse
of Spanish city shops, were forced, in barter for bullion,
upon a balfHsivilixed people who neither wanted nor could
possibly use them ; foreign commerce was interdicted on
pain of death ; all social improvement was suppressed; and
to prevent them from knowing the greatness of their degra*
dation, all intercourae whatever was strictly forbidden with
any country or people besides Spain and Spaniards, and
allowed even with them only under many restrictions. In
short every species of wrong appears to have been inflicted,
and above all was the domination of the priesthood, whose
ranks were reinforced by recruits from the lowest and worst
description of monks in the monasteries of Spain. By them
superstition and ignorance were upheld is the surest support
of the poUcy of the Spanish colonial system ; so that before
1810, throughout the whole continent between Lima and
Monte Video, there was but one craxy old printing-press,
and that in the hands of the monks, who consigned to the
dungeons of the Inquisition every possessor of a disallowed
book. {Quarterly Review, vol. vii., and North American Re*
view^ vol X.) U is stated that for some time previous to
the first revolutionary movement in Venesuela a spirit of
inquiry was aroused by a secret importation of the works of
the French writers on rehgious toleration and dbmocraey,
the 'Rights of Man,' and similar productions; and that
the danger of possessing them, occasioned by the violent
denunciations of the priesthood, so strongly stimulated the
derire to read them, tnat many individuals retired to seclu-
sion in the eonntry for that purpose. However, before 1810,
the disposition to shake off the tyranny of Spain had already
-^ mffidanay stoottg to aoeavoa Mfml desperate
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ttt«m{iti; but tenor soon quelled Umm purtitl eIRirta, ttfler
those concerned were destroyed bj the cruellest kinds of
death. The first decisive movement of the revolutionists
was made on a solemn Catholic feativaU Maunday Thursday,
the day preceding Good Friday, April 19, 1810, when the
csptain- general of Caracas was arrested and deposed, and
a supreme junta or congress assembled to organise a new
government for the state of Venesuela. (See in Outline
of the Revolution die Declaration of Independence.) On
the 20th of the following July or August, the same was done
at Bogota, the capital of New Granada, which formed for
itself a separate republican government ; but it does not
appear at all certain that Bolivar had any share in these
first insurrections, though it is positively asserted in several
aceounU that he was one of the principal actors. On the
contrary it seems to be evident that he at first regarded the
project as impracticable ; or, as some assert, he disapproved
of the plans then adopted by the revolutionists, who still
partially retained a veneration for ' the adorable Ferdinand,*
for even after the establishment of the independent legis-
lature at Caracas, he does not appear to have held any ap-
pointment, though importuned to do so by some of its mem-
bers, especially by his cousin, Don Felix Ribas.
He accepted however soon afterwards the proposition to
Sroceed to England, for the purpose of soliciting the
tritish Cabinet to aid the cause of the iudeiiendent party,
and, with Don Luis Mendcz, arrived in London in June,
1810. Finding that the English government professed to
maintain a strict neutrality, Bolivar, who himself paid the
expenses of the mission, after a short stay in England, left
bis companion, and returned in disgust to Caracas. Upon
the appearance of M[iranda as commander-in-chief of the
patriot army in 1811, the declaration of independence was
boldly maintained by military force : the th-coloured flag
was hoisted, and the Spanish standard cut down and de-
stroyed. Bolivar was appointed colonel in the independent
army, and governor of Puerto Cabello, the strongest for-
tress in Venezuela. The patriots were successful until the
following year, 1812, when an earthquake destroyed, in the
cities of Caracas, La Guayra, and Merida, about 20,000
persons ; and as it happened on the very day and hour in
which the revolution had broken out two years before,
the clergy seized upon the accident to benefit, by a powerful
effort, the cause of the royalists— representing the awful
calamity as a just visitation upon the revolutionists. Priests,
monks, and fnars were stationed in the streets, vociferating
in the midst of credulous multitudes trembling with fear,
while the royalist troops under Monteverde were ^tting
possession of the whole province. About 1200 royalist pri-
sonera of war, who were confined in the fortress of Puerto
Cabello, having shortly after broken loose, murdered some
of the garrison, apd by the treachery of the officer on guard,
taken possession of the ciudel, Bolivar, being unable to re-
gain it by storm without destroying the town, embarked in
the night, and on the 1st of July, 1812, returned by sea to
his esute near Caracas. Generel Miranda, on learning at
Vittoria that this very important place, with all iU stores of
ammunition and provisions, was deserted, capitulated in
despair to Monteverde the royalist general, and prepared to
leave the country, when he was unexpectedly arrested by a
party of patriot leaden, of whom one was Bolivar himself;
by him Miranda was accused of being a tnitor and secretlv
allied with the British Cabinet, and being delivered with
nine or ten hundred of his soldiers to Monteverde, was sent
in irons to Spain, where he died in a dungeon. For this
conduct Bolivar and his eompatriote have been severely re-
proached with treachery and ingretitude. There were how-
ever many cireamstances which appear to justify a suspicion
of Mtranda^s collusion with the English Cabinet. He had
been long resident in London, was patronized and paid by
the English, was in oonstant intercourse with the English
ofllcers stationed at the neighbouring islands, and was
about to dspart in the vessel of an English captain. He
had also made himself disliked by his contempt of the
natives and preference of foreignen. Bolivar received firom
Monteverde, as an especial mvour, a passport lo Cura^oa,
where, with his cousin Ribas, he remained during the
autumn of 1812. Venezuela was now again entirely in the
hands of the royalists, and deeds of revolting ferocity and
plunder reduced the whole country to a frightful state of
misery : on pretexts the moat trivial, old men, women, and
children were arrested, maimed, and massaerad as rebels.
Aeeetding lo Qtnenl HeisteiD,friMiand miUtaiy butcliert
reigned triumphant ; and one of Mooterenle'a oileefa. Co-
lonel Suasola, cut off the ears of a great number of patnou,
and had them stuck in his soldiera* caps for cockades. It
was now, on reflecting upon these atrooities, diat Bolivar
became a more enthusiastic convert to the patriot cause*
and, with his cousin Ribas, proceeded from the island of
Cura^oa to Carthagena, in order lo raise a liberating army.
Tliera, by the influence of Manuel Torrioes, the republican
president of New Granada, about 300 men were flued out,
and Castillo, the president's cousin, having joined with 600
more, in January, 1813, Bolivar, as commander- in* chieC
and Ribas as major-general, undertook to drive the Spanish
royalists from Tenerife, on the river Magdalene. Having
succeeded at Tenerife, he advanced in December to Mom-
pox, in January, 1813, to Ocana, and in February to Cu-
cut&, whence he expelled the Spanish commander Coma,
and attracted great notice by surmounting every difficulty,
dispersing the enemv, and gaining several hundred volun-
teers, proviaions, and monev. With this encouragement he
planned an expedition for the relief of Venezuela, after first
proceeding to Bogota, where the congress of New Granada
received him well, and added largely to his means. By con-
tinual recruits from the towns through which he passed, his
army increased to more than 2000, whom he marehed along
the Andes by Tunja and Pamplona, entered Venezuela
defeated the royalists at Grita, Merida, and various other
places, and took possession of the whole province of Varina*.
Castillo, who in slow and cautious formality was totally
different from Bolivar, denounced as rashness and madness
his precipitous decision, his repid forced nutrches and
daring expedients. He therefore separated and led away
his troops to Tunja near Bogota: but the whole country
rising and joining the ranks of Bolivar he was enabled
to divide his army ; Ribas led one division, himself the
other, and both, by forced marehes along diffnent roads
advanced repidly on Caracas. The revolutionary eptrit
was, previous to this time, confined to very few : but the
almost incredible cruelties of the oflRcen of Monteverde
had driven thousands to desperation and reven^s; and
hence arose, on the part of the patriots, the manifosto of
guerra d muerte^ war to death. In justice to Bolivar, it is
requisite to relate the cireumstanees which oocasbned this
dreadful expedient A detachment under Colonel Bnoena
having been taken prisoners, Don Tiscar, the governor
of Varinas, caused the Colonel, with sixteen of his com-
panions and several patriot citizens, to be delibeiaiely
shot. This, in addition to numerous similar instances, and
the report that the patriots showed mercy to priaonm
and the royalists vengeance, by which the wavering and
timid were induced to prefer enlisting against BioU%ar,
determined him to proclaim that ' the executioners who en-
title themselves our enemies, have beheaded thousands of
our brethren : our fathers, chUdren, friends they have buried
alive in the subterranean dungeons and vaults of our
country: thev have immolated the president and com-
mandant of Popayan, with all their captive oorapanipn* :
they have perpetrated in Varinas a horrid butchery of our
fellow-soldiers made prisoners of war, and of many peaceful
citizens : these victims shall be avenged — the executiooers
shall be exterminated-H>ur oppressors compel us to a mortal
struggle — thev shall disappear from America— the war
shall be unto death !* The date of this manifeeto h Me-
rida, June 8th. ) S13. It is said by General Holstein. that
Bolivar himself never signed it. At Lostaguaoes Monte-
verde was routed, and obliged to take refuge in Puerto Ca-
bello ; and on August 4th, 1813, the liberating army entered
the city of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela. The joy of
the people exceeded all bounds: it was certainly the moat
gratifyiag event in Bolivar's military career. Greeted by
shouting thousands, artillery, bells, and music, the liberator
was drawn into the city in a triumphal car by twelve beau-
tiful young ladies of the first families of Caracas, dreaaed in
white, and adorned with the patriot odloun ; while others
crowned him with laurel, and strewed h^ way with flowers.
All the prisons were thrown open, and hundreds eame out
pale and emaciated to thank him for their liberation. The
royalists throughout the province capitulated, and the triumph
waa eomplete. Even General Holstein, the bitter enemy of
Bolivar, says, in speaking of this event, 'he deaempa great
praise lor his perseverance, and for the eonceptioaof aiich an
undertaking, in which he sacrificed a consideraUe part of hia
fortune to Aimish the troops with the means of following bias.*
Maiino, who had reoently laiaed an umy in CttiBaaa» and
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from iriRAB ^e royaliit gienenl eseaped dtily by "betiig caugbt
m the arms and carried off upon the hone of a brawny
Capuchin who was fig:hting; at his side, had a^eumed the
name of Dictator and Ltt>eilitOr of the Eastern provinces of
Venezuela. The same titkfwaa iidopted by BoHtar for those
of the West. At this time he was in possession of un-
Kmited power; bnt he did not prevent the prevalence of
popular dissatisfkction, which the conduct of his officers hsid
excited; and though on his entry into Caracas he proclaimed
that no royalist should in any way be injured, atill, an
arbitrary and burdensome military fi^iremment, necessory
perhaps to correct the effects of previous anarchy, induced
many to emigrate to the neighbouring islanda for the sake
of greater security. The legislutite, executive, and judicial
powers being \mited in the ' perton of the dictator, occa-
sioned great oilence to the democratical party, and sus-
picions arose that the primary object of the liberator was his
own aggrandisement. A consciousness of this opinion in-
duced him, in the congress assembled at Caracas, Jan. 1,
1B14, to declare, ' I have consented to accept and keep the
supreme power tosare you from anarchy: citizens, T am not
the sovereign ; your representatives will give you laws ; the
revenues of the government are not the property of those
who govern. Judge now yourselves if I have sought to
elevate myself; if I have not sacrificed my life to constitute
you a nation : I desire that yon will permit me to resign
the ofBce I hold : my only request is that you will leave me
the honour of combating your enemies.* His retention of
the dictatorial power was however agreed upon, for a great
enthusiasm still prevailed in his ftivour, in consequence of
the royalists beginning again to rally their forces and arm
•the negro slaves : a desperate expedient by which they wete
much assisted in raising a numerous army.
At Flofes and other places the patriots were surprised,
and all put to the sword. The royalist generals Boves,
Rosette, and Morales, in committing the greatest cruelties,
and destroying even women and children, appeared to
emulate the ferocity of the first invaders. The first two,
throughout a marfth of 400 miles, from the Orinoco to
Ocuroare, with an army of slaves and vagabonds, murdered
every individual who refused to join them ; and General
Puy, a negro assassin and robber, hanng on two occasions
arrested and murdered many hundreds of the patriot inha-
bitants of Varinas, BoKvar, in revenge, and for the sake, it is
said, of deterring the enemy from the repetition of such
atrocities, ordeitid about 800 Spaniards in La Guayra and
Caracas, to be arrested and shot, which accordingly, on the
14th February, Y614, was done, and immediately was reta-
liated by the royalists, who shot several hundreds of patriot
prisoners in Puerto Cabello. This appears to be the only
recorded instance of the patriot army's resorting to the
savage expedient so continually practised by the royalist
commanders; and afterwards, at Ocumare, in July, 1816, it
was formally proclaimed by Bolivar that 'no Spaniard
shall be put to death except in battle: the war of death
shall cease.' After several sanguinary contiicts, in which
the patriots were victorious, Bolivar was beaten on the 14th
of June, 1814, at La Puerta, between Cura and S. Juan
Los Morros, where he lost 1500 men, in consequence of
over-conildence, and the dividing of his army : again, on
the 1 7th of August, at his estate of San Mateo, where * the
infernal division * of Boves, a legion of negro cavalry with
black crape on their lances, rushing with hideous shouts
f^om an ambush, scattered his remaining forces, and, but
for the fleetness of his horse, would have taken him prisoner.
His cousin Ribas was seized and shot, at)d his head was
stuok on the walls of Caracas. Bolivar s beautiful family-
mansion was burnt to the ground, and be was ultimately
compelled, in September, to leave the Spanish generals
agam in complete possession of all the provinces c? Vene-
zuela ; wlien thousands of the patriot armv deserted to their
ranks. Tiie two dictators, Bolivar and Marino, repaired as
fugitives to Carthagena. They were received with great
respect bv the repnbhcan congress of New Granada, then
assf'mbled, in consequence of civil dissension, at Tunja^ a
small town about sixty milee north of Bogota. Bolivar
was commissioned to compel the revolted province of Cun-
dinamarca to join that republic. With 2000 men he
marched, in December, 1814, upon the city of Bogota,
which, after the outworks were stormed fbt two days> capi-
tulatod, and became the seat of congress. He was then
employed to attack the ibrttfied town of SanU Martha,
ifhUsht in oonieqiieiice of the imbecility of Labuta, the
No. 282
[THE PENNY CYCLOPuBDIA.]
gnt«nior, had fblten into t^e iumds of the ro}'iilis{s. 9u^
Sie governor of Carthagena, Colonel Castillo, who bad
formerly withdrawn from Bolivar's command, having ve^
ftised to furnish some supplies, and after issuing defamatory
mantfestos, haWng poisoned the neighbouring wells, the
troops of Bolivar, in resentment of this conduct, were en-
gaged in reducing Carthagena ; when, in April, 1815, in Dm
midst of this untortunate citil strife, which occasioned the
greatest injtfry to the patriot cause, the arrival was sud-
denly announced of General Morilio from Spato, with an
army of 12,000 Spaniards. The peace of 18 14 with France
had enabled the Spanish government to make a vigoroun
eilbrt to regain the revolted colonies. Bolivar, disgusted
with the calumnies and pen'erseness of Castillo^ retired in
May, 1815, to Jamaica, leaving Morilio to overrun the whc^e
country. ' It appears that, being in despair of his country'!
ability at that moment to make any successful resistance^
he determined to wait for a time more favourable. During
his absence Morilio continued to ravage the two repubUcs
with fire and sword: at Bogota 500 inhabitants, and at
Zimiti, a town sixty miles south of that city, 1500 were
shot and hanged. While at Kingston in Jamaica, Bolivaf
employed himself in writing a defenoe of his conduct in
the civil wa¥ of New Granada, and issued several spirited
exhortations to the patriots, for which his assassination
was attempted by the royalist party; and the Spaniard
who undertook it for the reward of 50,000 dollars and
perfect absolution, employed a negro who stabbed to the
heart his secretary, who accidentally occupied the ham^
mock in which he usually slept. The island of Hayti be-
came his next asylum. By the president Petion he waa
supplied with fonr negro battalions, in addition to a body of
aet-eral hundred patriot emigrants ; and in May, 1816* was
enabled, in conjunction with Brion, the commander of the
republican naval forces, to land in the island of Margarita,
where General Arismendi had again assembled tlie inde^*
pendent forces. With these various recruits, in July he
appeared in Cumana, where he was suddenly surrounded by
the royalists, and defeated with great slaughter at Ocumare ;
after he had proclaimed the cessation of the Ufar to death,
and that no one should be injured for having deserted to
the royalist ranks. He now took ship to the Dutch island
Buen Ayre. and thence proceeded to Hayti. In the follow-'
tng December he re-appeared in Margarita, whence, having
issued a proclamation convoking the patriots of Venesuela
to a general congress, he sailed to Barcelona and collected
a force sufficient to repel Morilio, then advancing upon him
with a powerftil army. A battle of three days ended in
the defeat and ' disorderly liight of Morilk), who was sur->
prised in retreating, and again defeated by the ferocious
Llaneroa of General Psei. Bolivar, being now again recoff-*
nized as supreme chief and captain- general, fixed his head-
quarters, in 1817, at Angostura, on the Orinoco. With an
^arrny of 5000, half infhntry, he marehed thence to the west-
ward, a distance of 600 miles in a month, to attack the fortresa
of Calabozo, wheie Morilio was collecting his forces. After
numerous and obstinate battles, which are individually tod
unimportant to be named in the present outline, the repub-
lican party obtained a decided superiority; being greatly
assisted by some foreign mercenary volunteers, of whom
them were at this time in Venezuela about 3000 from Hol-
land, Ireland, and England. On the 1 5th February, 1819,
a aolemn installation of the congress of the Venezuelan
Republic was made at Angostura, which has also the name
of 2San Tone. The oration of Bolivar before the assembly
was translated and published at the time in London, and
may be found reprinted in the appendix to the memoirs of
Oen. Miller ; it is an excellent specimen of that impassionea
and lofty eloquence in which his afdent temperament and
entlmsiastic imagination led him to indulge, and to which
the stately phrasei^ogy of the Spanish language ia so well
adapted : indeed, much of the turgid extravagance of Boli-
var's style, for which he is censured, is attributable to the
idiom of his mother tongue, which abounds in hyperbole.
However, his bad taste as a rhetorician is more than com-
pensated by the philanthropy and good sense of most of his
moral and political opinions ; for instance, ^ (wpular educa-
tion ought to be the first concern of the congress ; morals
and knowledge are the cardinal points of republican pros-
perity, and morals and knowledge are what we most want.*
The devoted earnestness in which* at all times, Bolivar urged
the importance of moral and mental zeform, can be appre-
ciated only by sefleeimg upon tiie piofligaoy and barbarous
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iflAortOM of bii ooantmiftiL The strange oombination of
oemocratie and roonarcuical principles roust astonish every
one who examines this exposition of Bolivar's theory of
government, which on the one hand asserts the social
tauality and universal brotherhood of man. and on the
Other as solemnly apd fervently advises the adoption of a
government system, in which the sovereign power is cen-
tred in one presiding individual. This advice of course
created much distrust of Bolivar's republican professions;
but the mural condition of his countrymen, and the state of
exasperated factions, may well be allowed to account for the
recommendation of a * strong government/ without reRorting
to the uncharitable imputation of tyrannical designs : for he
asserts that ' inexorable necessity alone could have imposed
upon me the terrible and dangerous charge of supreme
vhief : I feel to breathe again in returning to you this au-
thority, which I have endeavoured to maintain in the midst
of the most horrible troubles that can afflict a social body.*
|Iis authority as supreme chief, though resigned into the
hands of the congress, was continued to him under the title of
President, until the more violent commotions of societv should
subside, and the enemy be utterly expelled. In the same
vear he marched to the assistance of'General Santander, in
New Granada, and in July arrived at Tunja, which, after
a daring and well- planned engagement on the neighbouring
heights of the Andes, he took from the royalists ; and, on tho
7th of August, a decisive victory at Bojaca, in addition to
several othera, at once gave him possessiop of the whole of
New Granada. Sanano, the viceroy reinstated by Morillo,
precipitately lied; and Bolivar entered Bogota in triumph,
amid the most joyful acclamations of the inhabitants, who
hailed him as their liberator : the congress appointed him
president and captain general of that republic, and sup-
plied him with men, money, and munitions, sufficient to
ensure the complete expulsion of the Spanish troops. At
Angostura, during his absence, the popularity of General
Arismendi had gained him many adherents, and occasioned,
ill the Venezuelan coni;ress, the formation of a party who
encouraged suspiciot s of Bolivar's ultimate object. Intelli*
gence of this disseus..m had no sooner reached Bogota, than
Bolivar, apprehensive of the ruinous consequence of disunion,
hurried away with aoou chosen soldiers, and by his presence
in Angostura immediately restored tranquillity. Those who
desired a central 8>stem of g«>vernment. for the sake of
union and strength while the enemy still contended, made
his entry into the city a magnificent triumuh, and Arismendi
l)iras sent into exile. A general congress from the provinces
of Venezuela and New Granada was summoned, and De-
cember 17, 1819, the decree was passed by which theaic. two
republics were united under the name of Colombia: the
office of president was given of cou«ie to Bolivar.
In November, 1820, after numerous advantages gained
by the liberating army, an armistice for six months was
agreed upon ; in negociating which at Truxillo, it is said
that Morillo twice passed tlie night in the same chamber
with Bolivar. Ho appeared in fact to be weary of hopeless
slaughter, and in January, 1821, returned worn out to
Spain, leaving the command to General La Torre. Previous
to his departure he said to Bolivar's deputies, * My name
will probably pass to posterity branded with cruelty and
tyranny ; but let it be remembered, that had I completely
obeyed the orders of my government, this country would
remain an uninhabited desert.* For a full description of
the despotism and ferocity of the Spanish rovalists, see the
two first chapters of the Memoirs of Gen. Miller. On the
SUt, or, according to others, the 2-ith or 26th of June,
1821, General La Torre was totally defeated by Bolivar at
Carabobo, near il e city of Valencia, when the royalists lost
abo\e 6000 men with all their artillery and bafs^age. ^It
ap|)eani thut Bolivar at first was far from being confident of
the result, and that the victory was secured by the intre-
pidtiy of a body of English and Irish volunteers. This de-
i:is.\e battle concluded the war in Venezuela. The rem-
nant of Spanish troops who escaped to the fortress of Puerto
Cttbello were compelled to surrender to General Paez. Bo-
I'*»r the third lime entered the city of Caracas in triumph,
•lit the priiici|ml inhabitants having emigrated during the
w ir. the tttreetii presented a scene of desolation and misery,
n I I i»ni»ips onl> of raifyed mendicanis, who at once cned
Mltotin* and implored relief. A republican constitution
^ .* d uvu, up, and Milopied on the I'Olh of August, 1821,
Ic r cmg tliat it» arruii^^eroents should continue until 1834.
CvWiaU.a waa now cleared of the royalist troops, except the
provinoe of QuitOi wUch vas Uberatad by tlie 'great Tictorf
of General Sucre on the 24th of May, 1822. at Pichincha,
one of the mountains of the Chimborazo overlooking the city
of Quito. It was still deemed expedient, for the sake of se*
curitv to the southern frontier of New Granada, to deprive
the Spaniards of their possessions in Peru, and General Sao
Martin, tne founder of^ Peruvian independence, having soli-
cited Bolivar to assist in the final struggle, he left the ad«
ministration of government to the vice-president. General
Santander, and putting himself at the head of the Colom*
bian army at Popayan, marched to Paste, thence to Guay-
aquil, where, on the 2Gth of July, 1822, he had an inter>iew
with San Martin, and thence embarked his troo|)s for Callaa
On the 1st of Sept. he entered Lima. The royalists on hie
approach evacuated the city : and the inhabitants, with evety
demonstration of delight, received him, and gave him the
command of all the country's resources for the completion
of its liberation. A republican constitution was adopted on
the 13th of November, 1823. by a congress from the pro-
vinces of Northern, or Ix>wer Peru, of which Lima is the
capital. Bolivar, in the following December, marched froia
Lima with 5000 Colombians, to Pativilca and Huaraa.
The congress, unable to govern, in February, 1824, dia*
solved itself, and appointed him dictator; 'an act,* says Geo.
Miller, ' of unquestionable wisdom, when the country could
be saved from party insurrection and the national enemy
only by the energy and promptitude of military dictation.* An
active dissentient faction at Lima declared that Colombia,
in sending her army into Peru, had designs of territorial
aggrandisement, and that Bolivar was actuated solely by
sinistter views of ambition. San Martin had been similarly
taunted, and having said in his address of September 20th.
1 822, ' I am disgusted with hearing that I wish to make
my self a sovereign,* retired to Europe. The reply of Bolivar
was, * Your chiefs, your internal enemies, have calumniated
Colombia, her brave men, and myself. The congress has
confided to me the odious office of dictator ; but I declare
that after the enemv is vanquished, my authority shaU
cease— that you shall be governed by vour own laws, and
your own magistrates, and that, in returning with my fellow*
soldiers to Colombia, I will leave to you perfect liberty,
and not take away from Peru even a grain of her sand.'
His army, consisting now of 6000 Colombians under Gen.
Sucre, and 4U00 Peruvians under Gen. Miller, advanced m
July from Huaras towards Pasco. In a tedious passage of
the Andes, the greatest hardships and dangers were endured,
and by no one with greater fortitude than Bolivar : tlie car
volry having sometimes to stand throughout the nij^ht upon
the snow- path of a precipice without any room to he do^rn
or to turn, while the therinometer was several degrees below
the freezing point. On the 2nd of August, Bolivar reviewed
and harangued his army on the lofty table -land between
Rancas and Pasco upon the margin of the Lake of Reyea,
and on the 6th came in sight of the Spanish columns m a
valley below, called the Plains of Junin. His cavalry, with
their reins fastened on their knees, to enable them to wield
with both hands their lances, fourteen feet in length, rushed
down unon the royalii^ts with such impetuous fury, thai
many who were struck were lifted two or three feet out of
their saddles. After this \ictory the main army was left
under Sucre and Miller; and Bolivar with a detachment
proceeded to Lima; where, on the 22nd of December, he
summoned a congress which re-organised the government,
continued to the liberator the authority of dictator, and. la
acknowledgment of his services, urged the acceptance of a
million of dollars, which he refused, with the assurance that
the honour of receiving their confidence was the only rewsrd
he desired. Before the senate, on the opening of this ses-
sion of congress, he declared, * I would that all £uro|ie and
America knew the horror i feel at irresponsible power, un-
der what name soever it is exercised.* In the mean ume
the Generals Sucra and Miller, on the 9th of Decemlier,
won the great victory of Ayacucho. when the royalikU «vre
defeated with irreparable loss of men and means. Thus
ended the revolutionary war of the Spanish American e.*io«
nies, in which, for the possession of national indepeiulcnre, at
least 100,000 hves were sacrificed. On 10th Fehruury. Ib'j,
the congress was again convoked by Bolivar, who resijriud
the dictatorship in the following words: 'I fi-licitiite Peru
on being dehvered from that which, of all things ou earih
is most dreadtbl — war, by the victory of Ayacucho and
despotism, by this my resignation.* He set out m citmpAuy
with Generals Sucre and MiUer,oa the 10th of tho following
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Apnl, to visit the provinces of Southern, or Upper Peru ;
and proceeded to Arequipa, Cuzco, La Paz, and Potosi.
The whole expedition was one continued scene of triumph
and extravagant exultation ; of dinners, halls, hull-fights.
Illuminations, triumphal arches, and processions. A sump-
tuous banquet was given on- the top of the far-farmed
Cerro of Potosi, and the liherator, in the enthusiasm ex-
cited by the excessive adulation he received, exclaimed
on that occasion, 'The value of all the riches that are
buried in the Andes beneath my feet is nothing com-
Sartid to the glory of having home the standard of in-
ependence from the sultry banks of the Orinoco, to fix
it on the frozen peak of this mountain, whose wealth
has excited the envy and astonishment of the world/
After a month of festinty at Potosi (see vol. ii. of Miller),
Bolivar, with his military retinue, moved to Chuquisacoa,
the capital of these provinces, which had recently become
detached from the government of Buenos Ayres. A eon-
veMion of representatives here vied with each other in
rhetorical resolutions of gratitude to Bolivar and Sucre,
whom they designated 'Grand Prince and Valiant Duke;*
and having assumed for their countr)' the name of Bolim,
they appointed Bolivar perpetual protector, and requested
hira to prepare for them a plan of government A million of
dollars were offered to him, which he accepted, on the con-
dition that they should be appropriated to the purchase and
liberation of 1000 ne^^ro slaves in Bolivia. In January,
1826, he returned foLiraa, and on the 25th of the following
May, the famous Bolivian code was presented to the con-
gress of Bolivia. A transcript of the whole is given in the
appendix of the Memoirs of General Miller, and various
strictures upon it may be found in the American and Eng-
lish periodicals named at the bead of this article. On the
22na of June, the great congress of deputies from Colombia,
Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, and Guatimala was convened at
Panama. The idea of this * Grand Amphictyonic Council *
arose first in the mind of Bolivar, which often conceived
projects too vast for his means of performance. The object
m view was the annual assemblage of state representatives
to discuss diplomatic affairs, and decide international dis-
putes ; promote liberal principles, and ensure an union of
strength in repelling any foreign attack. In the first and
only session a great profusion of eloquence was displayed to
little purpose, in the philanthropic commendation of poli-
tical liberality, religious toleration, and the abolition of
slavery. The code of Bolivar was adopted in Bolivia,
^h(tugh not without partial dissatisfaction, on the 9th of
December, 1826, the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho,
and General Sucre was appointed president It was soon
afterwards adopted by the congress of Lima, where Bolivar
himself was made the president. The prominent principle
of this constitution is the appointment of a president for
life, with the privilege of naming his successor, and the
assigning to him an irresponsible executive power; and
yet this apparent institution of absolute monarchy is
accompanied with a declaration of the necessity for a
{general and enlightened exercise of the elective privi-
ege ; asserting that * no object is of more importance to
a citizen tlMin the election of his legislators, magistrates,
I'udges, and pastors : none are excluded from being electors
»ut those who are vicious, idle, and grossly ignorant;
knowledge and honesty, not money, are what is required
for the exercise of popular righu.* It should, in justice to
Bolivar, be considered that the society over which he was
called to preside, was breaking loose from a despotism of
300 years ; and that the excessive ignorance of the great
mass of the people required at first, in onler to be restrained
fhim anarchy and civil war, a government in which almost
unlimited power should be centred in the president. It
should also not be overlooked, that a clause of^the code pro-
vided for its future alteration, when tlie progress of events
should require it. But the suspicion of a people just libe-
rated from arbitrary power imputed to its author the most
unworthy designs of usurpation. Universal alarm was
excited, especially as the large bodies of Colombian troops,
though unemployed, were still retained in Peru, of which
Bolivar now was absolute governor for life, in virtue of his
own act, and in consequence, as it was said, of intrigue and
intimidation.
In Colombia, his long absence had occasioned the pre-
valence of much disaffection and party strife. General
Paez, who, with hia numerous cavali^ of wild Llaneros, had
done utteh Iqx the patfiot oftuMy bad excited iu Venezuela
an insurreodoti in favour of a federal instead of the exntinf
central government. Another portion of the republic was
determined to adopt the code of Bolivia, so that two-thirdfe
of Colombia were in a state of rebellion, that was daily
increasing, and blood was beginning to (low. The presence
of the lil^rator being tbue demanded in the north, he de-
parted from Lima, still leaving in Peru his Colombian
forces, and proceeded rapidly to Bogota, where he assumed
the extraordinary powers which are authorized by the con-
stitution in eales of rebellion ; hot, at the same time, he
proposed to reduce the army from 40.000 to 6000 ; to dimi-
nish the number of civil officers; to reduce the annua!
expenses from 14,000,000 dollars to 3,000,000, and to sell
the ships of war. In a very impassioned address, he ex-
claimed, ' Colombians ! I am among you—let the scandal of
your violence, and the crime of your disunion cease at once.
There is but one to blame — I am he — I have too long de-
layed mv return.' All parties, however conflicting, desired
the appearance of Bolivar. There was still a charm in his
name, and he was thought to be the only man who could
save the republic from rum. Paez himself issued a procla-
mation from Valencia, calling upon the people to ' receive
him as the thirsty earth receives the fertilizing dew of
heaven.* In the end of December, the liherator arrived at
Puerto Cabello, where he met General Paez : but instead
of imposing any punishment for his rebellion, he confirmed
him in his command in Venezuela, and issued a proclama-
tion of amnesty to all the insurgents ; a course of oonduet
that was readily taken to be a proof of his having himself
imitigated the insurrection, in order to furnish a pretext for
assuming the power of dictator. An elaborate discussion
of the particulars of this affair may be found in the 1 6th
and 2tst volumes of the ' North American Review.* It is
said that Paez, in exciting insurrectionary tumults, was in
deep collusion with Bolivar ; that the introduction of a mo-
narchy was anxiously intended, and that the lenity and
even rewards of Bolivar constitute proof of the plot ; but it
is equally probable that the conduct of Bolivar was dictated
by a prudent desire to conciliate the good will rather than to
irritate the ferocity of a man whose great authority over
hordes of savage Llaneros enabled him, as an enemy, to
produce the greatest mischief However this may be, on the
presence of Bohvar all disposition to rebel immediately dis-
appeared ; and in February, 1827, he addressed to the senate*
a letter, in which he states that ' suspicions of tyrannous
usurpation rest upon my name, and disturb the nearts of
Colombians. Republicans, jealous of their liberties, regard
me with a secret dread. I desire to free my fellow-countrv-
men from all inquietude, and therefore I renounce, again
and again, the presidency of the republic, and entreat the
congress to make me only a private citizen." The discussion
of this matter was prolonged by the collision of party
opinions : in Jane it was finally decided by a majority of
members not to accept the resignation, and Bolivar was
consequently induced to retain his office. Still a very great
mistrust of his assurances continued to prevail ; and twenty-
four members of the congress had voted for the acceptance
of his resignation. In the meantime the Colombian troops
in Peru being informed that Bolivar was making arrange-
ments for the adoption of his code in Colombia, promoted a
violent insurrection : for though it appears they were satis-
fied that Peru should adopt it, they would not permit its
establishment in their own republic. The people of Peru
being equally dissatisfied with their new institutions, on the
26th of January, 1827, a complete revolution ensued in the
governments of Lima and Bolivia ; so that the code of
Bolivar was rejected onlv six weeks after its adoption.
Another congress elected another president: the troops
returned to Bolivar in Colombia, and after assurance of
contrition their conduct was forgiven. Before a general
assembly of Colombian representatives at Ocana, on the
2nd of March, 18*28, an address was delivered by Bolivar,
in which he insisted upon principles similar to those de-
veloped in his code ; and attributed the un prosperous state
of the republic to the deficiency of the executive power.
His adherents, including the military, asserted with much
appearance of truth, that the people were not prepared to
appreciate the excellence of institutions purely republican ;
and that, for the sake of greater vigour and promptitude in
the government, it was requisite to intrust to the president
an absolute discretionary power. A majority disapproved
of this opinion, especially the vice-president Santander, who
declarea the piopositidn of ereating Boliviurdictator toibe
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*perfoo(ly detestable/ Tbo friends of BoJivar finding them-
seives ill a minority vacated their teats, by which the
meeting was left without a quorum, and Uiua became
extincL
In consequence of this event* a convention of the civil and
military inhabitants of Bogota resolved to confer upon the
liberator the title of Supreme Chief of Colombia, with abso-
lute power to regulate the whole affurs of government. On
the 20th of June, 1828, he accordingly entered that city in
magnificent state, and assumed an authority which the
eoBtenders for the inviolability of the coustitution most
daringly denounced. Shortly afterwards several assassins
broke into his chamber, and two colonels were shot dead in
the struggle, while Bolivar e&caped only by leaping head-
long in the dark from the balcony of the window, and lying
concealed under a bridge. Santander, with several military
ol&cers who were convicte<l of having participated in the
conspiracy, was condemned to death, but eventually suffered
only banishment from Colombia. In 1829 the republic was
disturbed by violent factions : many military Icadera were
aspiring to supreme command, and the efforts of Bolivar to
prevent disunion excited insun*ections. At the head of one
was General Cordova, who declared that ' In despair at
the conduct and aims of General Bolivar, who oppresses
the whole republic, I place myself at the head of all true
patriots and freemen to prostrate his ambitious views, and
restore the lost liberties of the nation.' Another was
headed by General Poez, protesting that. ' As I drove out
the Spanish tyrants, so, with the same zeal and constancy,
I will free Venezuela from the tyranny of Bolivar, the do-
mestic despot, who has dared to attempt her slavery/ Vene-
luela became afterwards separated from the rest of the
republic ; Paez was made her president ; and a declaration,
aigncd by 486 leading mm of Caraccis, the scene of so many
of Bolivar's splendid triumphs, denounced his ambition,
•nd rejected his authority. Under these circumstances a
general convention, in January, 1830, was held at Bogota,
in order to frame a new oonbtitutioa fur Colombia. The
proceedings were opened by Bolivar in a solemn address : —
* I am taunte'l,' he baiil, * with Obpiriog to tyranny ; set me,
I beseech you, beyond the reach of tlial censure : if you per-
sist in electing me the state is ruined : give to another the
presidency, which I now respectfully abdicate.' His resig-
nation* as on former occasions, was not accepted ; he wus
even entreated to retain his authority, and at»sured that, * if
you now abandon us, anarchy will succeed.' But he had
finally determined to resign liis station : he therefore at
once took leave of public life, and retired to Cartliagena,
broken down and exhausted in mind and bo^ly. Joachim
Mosquera had been some time before &olicit<.>d by Bolivar
to become the president; he now accepted the otfirc ; but
after a few monUis he resigned, in despair of contro^lint; the
fierce contentions of the numcnuis aspirants to power.
Bolivar, who had determined to take leave of his country
and retire to Europe, was a::ain importuned to come for-
ward: but his health now rapidly declined.
In December, 1831, he sent to the people of Colombia a
farewell address, in which he vindicates his conduct, and
bitterly complains of calumny and ingratitude. 'Colom-
bians.' he says, ' I have unceasingly and disinterestedly
exerted my energies for your welfare ; I have abandoned my
fortune and my personal tranquillity in your cause : I am
the victim of my persecutors, who have now conducted me
to my grave — but I pardon them. Colombians ? I leave
you^my last prayers are offered up for tlie tranquillity of
my country ; and if my death will contribute to this de-
sirable end, by a discontinuance of party feeling, I shall
descend with feelings of contentment into the tomb that is
•oon to receive me.' A week after the writing of this address
he expired at San Pedro, near Carthapena, on Friday the
17th of December, 1831, at the age of forty-eight. It is
•aid that, in his last moments, he conformed to all the rites
of the Catholic religion, that he manifested great calm-
ness and resignation, and constantly showed the utmost
anxiety for the prosperity of his country.
The reflection that the man who had devoted all his time,
bis fortune, and his hfe to the liberation and improvement
of his country, had at last sunk beneath the weight of unde-
•erved reproaches, and died broken-hearted, touched the
callous hearts of his countr)'men with a passionate grief and
veneration, which, in every town of Colombia, was exhibited
in orations and funeral processions. Tlie ' United Service
Journal, m noticing tlui oocurrenoe (vol. for 1831), says,
* This extraordinary man, it would now appear, was a disin
tei'este<l patriot, and had consequently been basely requited
by the country he had liberated. Since the event of bis
death, which occurred under circumstances very aflectint;,
his merits as usual have been discovered by the rabble whom
he served ; and honours are paid to his memory, which, U>
his living person, were ungratefully denied.*
In reviewing the career of Bolivar, his never-ceasing ap-
prehension of Uie dangers of anarchy will serve to account
for much of his inclination to recommend the exercine of
absolute power as a means to an end, which even bis ene-
mies allow to have been good. The question is, what was
the object for which he desired the pos:>ession of power ? It
ap))ears to have been the reduction of rontiicttng parties to
a unity of purpose in establishing republican government.
His denunciation of slavery, the liberation of all his patri-
monial slaves, nearly a thousand in number, the sacrifice of
the whole of his large fortune in the cause of independence,
and the generous rewards he bestowed upon its defenders,
as well as his li})eral views on popular education, cannot
leave a doubt of his ultimate object having been the political
freedom and moral reformation of his country. It is com-
mon to make comparison between Bolivar and Washington ;
but, in justice to Bolivar, the great difference of circum-
stances ought to be regarded in forming an estimate of their
comparative merits. The liberator of Colombia and Peru
had almost evcrv possible disadvantage: he received nei-
ther the powerful aid of French allies, nor the intellectoal
assistance of Jeflersons and Franklins: every thing de-
pended upon his own vigour in the suggestion of means.
Further, it is impossible to imagine two nations more c^.m-
pletely dissimilar in physical and moral character than the
Spanish and English colonies at the time of their respective
revolutions. Tlic Anglo-Americans, for the most part, were
frugal and industrious, with a general equahty of property
and education ; but the countrymen of Bolivar, one-half
Spanish Creoles more or less mixed with the aboriginal rare.
the other half Indians, Africans, and intermediate colours,
formed separate and conflicting castes, equal only in th^Mr
ignorance and indolent habits — a few in possession of
immense wealth, even 100,000/. aycar, and thousands in a
state of meiidicitv and hunger. The army of Washington,
independent of tiis foreign allies, was composed of Ick-.-i1
militia, each individual having a home and property nmre
or less to return to : that of Bolivar often consisted chiefly
of destitute adventurers, eager only for pay and plunder:
raiiged Creoles, Indians, naked negroes, and cavalry of
half-sava«re Llaneros and Guerrillas mounted on wild hors>e«.
The desertion of whole regiments first to one side, then to
the other, according to the momentary chance of surreM,
sufficiently shows their degraded moral condition. The
generals, too, with whom his command was divided, wcrv
principally of the most unci\*iUzed description : Arisro^niii
could neither write nor read ; Paez was a brutal mulatto
bull-hunter, out of the deserts; and General Bermi"'f2
always took the field in a dirty blanket, with a hole in I ho
centre for his head: while envy and fierce ambition were
common to them all. The character and habits of surh a
people and of such an army greatly enhance the merit t»r
the individual who conducts them from an abject state of
oppression to independence and social improvement. Tne
task undertaken and completed by Bolivar was the explo-
sion of Spanish authority, and the secure establishment ot
republican institutions ; but it is doubtless in his chara<ter
as a military commander rather than as a statc»«ni.\n
that his excellence consists. In enterprising promptiiu'lo
and enthusiasm he difl'ered greatly from Washington, and,
on that account, wos better qualified to succeed uxMk^t
circumstances^ essentially different from those in \\u rii
the North American general was placed. His iniincible
perseverance in spite of every discouragement and di^a^tcr«
his ingenuity in devising expedients and raising resoiircesk
for war, his skill in impressing upon wavering minds a con-
fldence in the final result; the firmness with which he con-
trolled the spirit of faction, and kept together eonflirtinig
interests until the termination of the struggle, entitle h.m
to the reputation of a great man. His passive virtues w»r«
remarkably great : in the endurance of fatigue, in marchers
often of more than a thousand miles, both in the it^md
heat and desert wilds of the Llanos, and over the fhnen
summits of the Andes, in hardships and dangers of every
description, his fortitude for nearly twenty years ia worthy
of the highest admiration. Of the sincerity of his pa-
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4% 13,000 feet, runs in its southern portion neatly paraUel
to the meridian, hut north of lau 17^ it forms an anf^le
of ulniottt 36° with that line, runaing verv nearly north-
west-hy-north. and south-east-hy-south. Not having any
outlet toward* the sea« the rivers which descend into it
are either lost in the sandy soil, or empty them8«lves into
the lake of Titicaca at its northern extremity. ' This lake,
the lurge^t in the South American continent, occupies an
area of abimt 4600 square miles, and its surface ist 12,795
feet above that of the Pacific. In some places its depth has
been ascertained to be 120 fathoms, but many parU are
probably much deeper. This lake receives numerous
streams at its northern extremity, but not all the waters
which descend from the sides of the mountain-ridges. It is
remarkable that the watei'shed on the eastern part of the
valley of the Desaguailero, and as it would seem also on
the western, is not formed by the high ranges, but by two
low lateral ridges distant from twenty to thirty miles from
the lake, and generally rising from 500 to 1 000 feet above^
its level. The waters cnllei^ted between these lateral ridues
and the high mountain -ranges descend eastward to the plains
traversed by the river Madeira anil its upper branches ; and
westward towards the sea. The only outlet of the lake of
Titicaca is tlie river Desaguaflero, which issues from its
south-western extremity in lat. 16° 38' 10*', and is a small
stream when compared with the immense extent of the
lake. Its depth however is considerable, but its velocity is
scarcely two miles an hotur. It runs southward, and forms
near 19*^ a lake, called Lago del Desai^uadero, in which it is
lost. Its course between both lakes may be 180 miles.
The lake of Titicaca contains numerous small islands
which rise directly from the water's edge to a considerable
height. That from which it has taken its name, and which
is known in the history of the antient Peruvians as the
place where Manco Capac made his appearance, is situated
at the south-east extremity. Both the southern part of this
lake, whioh bears the name of Laguna de Umamarea, and
the eastern shores, nearly in their whole extent, belong to
Bolivia.
The climate of the valley of the Desaguadero offers many
peculiarities. Being in its lowest parts upwards of 13,000
feet above the level of the sea, the heat is never great, nor is
the cold very sensible, except during the night from May to
November. This season, which is the winter, is extremely
dry, the sky is cloudless, and neither rain nor snow is known
to fall. But snow precedes and follows the rainy season,
which in this valley begins at the end of November, and
continues through the summer months to the beginning of
April. During these months it rains nearly every day, more
or less ; hut during the night the sky is clear, and no clouds
are observed : snow falls only in November and April.
The vegetation of this valley has also a very peculiar
character. There are no trees, but the lower districts, es-
pecially near the great lake, are covered with the most
tieautiful green turf where the land is not cultivated. The
oultivation is limited to a few things ; wheat, rye, and barley
are indeed sown, but they do not ripen, and are cut green
as fodder for the llamas. The plantations of quinoa {Che-
n»ipodiurn quinoa, Linn.) are extensive, and also of pota-
toes, which are found growing wild in some more elevated
places ; these plantations extend to a considerable distance
up the sides of the adjacent hills. There are no peculiar sea-
sons for sowing or harvest, and the natives are continually
occupied either in performing the one or the other operation.
The country which extends between the ridges of hills
and the high ranges contains for the most part undulating
plains, covered with a coarse grass, on which numerous herds
of llamas are fed. Here also the guanacos, alpacas, and
vicunas feed in a wild state. Besides these no wild animals
have been observed in the valley of the Desaguadero. except
a peculiar kind of hare, described by Mr. Bennet under the
name of Lagotit Cuvitri in the first volume of the * Trans-
actions of the Zoological Society ;' and a small animal of
the family Rodentia* which in some places has so burrowed
the soil as to render travelling on horseback unsafe. The
numerous birds which visit the lake of Titicaca, and the ish,
have not yet been described, nor even enumerated. The
condor is frequently met with on the mountains. Among
the spontaneous planu the rushes which grow along the
banks of the lake deserve to be noticed, as the entire want
of trees lias compelled the natives to apply them to nearly
B» many usee as the bamboo is employed in India. With
Ihftsa ruahw the natives build their hutSi and mako the
boats and sails with which they navigate the take: meU
made of them are the bed of the poor, and serve in the
houses of the rich as carpets.
From this valley six roountain-passes traverse the western
Cordillera to the Pacific Ocean. Their highest poinU ri«e
to nearly 1 5,000 feet above the sea, and cunseoeently they
are not inferior to the mountain-passes of the Himalaya in
elevation. The ascent to these passes firom the valley is
only 20U0 feet, and the slope is gentle ; but the descent
to the sea is exceedingly rapid. The highest point of Uie
great range being close on the maritime deciivitv of tiie
Cordillera, and consequently at an inconsiderable eiistaocir,
not exceeding sixty miles, from the sea, the descent musl
be extremely precipitate and abrupt. A traveller coming
from the coast finds himself transported in a few hours frv^m
the valleys on the Pacifio to the arid regions of the Cordtl-
lera, at an elevation exceeding 15,000 feet
That portion of Bolivia which extends between the Andes
and the Pacifio, in length upward of 250 miles between the
Bahia de Nuestra Seiiora and the small river Loa, does niA
differ much from the coast which extends northward to
Guayaquil in Columbia, ond southward to Coquimbo io
Chile. All this roast, whioh is nearly 1 800 miles \n lengthy
with a breadth varying from thirty to sixty miles, may b«»
considered as a line of sandy deserts. It presents great
undulations of surface, and were it not for the stupendous
back -ground, which reduces every other object Io a eoni-
uaratively diminutive size, the sand hills might sometimes
be called mountains. This long line of deserts is inter-
sected by rivers and streams, which are seldom lees than
twenty, nor more than eighty or ninetv miles apart. Alonp
them are found the only places which are inhabited ; and
the narrow strips on each bank of every stream are pe-ipM
in proportion to the supply of water. During tho rainy
season in the interior the rivers swell prodigiously, and cjin
only be crossed by a balsa, which is a raft of frame-work
fostened upon four bull -hides sewed up, made air-tight, and
filled with wind. A few of the large rivers reach the >ea,
but most of those of the second order are cons**med io irri-
gating the cultivated patches, or are absorbed by the desert,
where neither birds, beasts, nor reptiles are ever seen, and
where a blade of vegetation never grows. Sometimes the
banks of the rivers are too steep and rugged Io admit of
the water being applied to the purposes of irrigation, ar.<I
consequently tne surrounding country cannot be cuUi\ale«l.
No traveller can go from valley to valley without a gui<lc.
for there are no marks to guide his steps. The sand is fr^-
quently raised into immense clouds by the wind, to the
great annoyance of the traveller, who generally rides with
his face mulUed up.
That portion of this coast called Atacama, which be-
longs to Bolivia, is by far the worst. But the greate«t
part of Bolivia is situated to the east of the Andes, and
this portion may be divided into the mountainous di>tnrt
and the plains. The mountain-district extends along the
eastern side of the Andes, and is not of great extent to the
north of 1 T' 40^ because the slope of the Eastern Cordilleri
towards the plains is nearly as rapid as that of the Western
towards the sea, and the branches which this chain sends
off extend to no great distance from the principal ranee.
But at about 17^ 10' S. lat.. a mountain-range detacher it-
self from the Eastern Cordillera, which runs generally dtie
east for upwards of 200 miles. This branch rites near the
city of Coehabamba, above the line of perpetual snow, m
the pointed peak called Nevado de Tinaira ; faither ease-
ward it gradually declines till it terminates on or near the
banks of the Rio Ouapai or Grande, at ne greet dislanre
west of the town of Santa Crus de la Sierra. This chain
is commonly called the Sierra of Santa Crux. Between
this ndge and that forming the boundary line towards
Buenos Ayres, which we have already noticed, extends
the mountainous portion of Eastern Bolivia. Its wi^tern
boundary may be fixed at about 63^* W. Kmg. This country
is traversed by many lateral ridges, which are oisets from
the great chain of the Andes, and fbrm extensive valley v
Many of these valleys sir.k slowly, and often maintain them*
selves for a considerable extent at nearly the same elevaliort.
This circumstance, as well as the width of the veiled n^
renders them particularly fit for agriculture, ami for the
cultivation of tmpical as well as extra- tropical pruduciioiis.
Many persons have considered these valleys as the ni>^t
fertile, and the most beautiful parts of South Ameiiae. Here
the slopes of the mountains are generally covered wish tnm
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tNM to»gn»i Uiglii Thk d«ieri»tioii howorvor appliM
only to the northern part» between 1 r 30' and 20^ Farther
south the valleys are narrower, and the ranges which enclose
them without wood, and nearly without vegetation; with
the exception of a few valleys, the only pasture for llamas
and guanacoea.
No part of America has a greater abundance of water
than this region. The rivers which descend from the eastern
declivities are very numerous and contain a volume of water
which cannot be exhausted by irrigation. These rivers
may be considered as the true sources of the Amazon and
La Plata rivers, being at a greater distance from the mouths
of these rivers than any other streams. This is certainly
true, aa far as regards the Amazon ; for the Cordillera Real
contains the sources of the greatest of its tributaries, of the
Rio Madeira. This large river is formed by the junction of
two considerable streams, the Rio Beni and the Rio Mamore,
both of which descend from the Cordillera Real and unite
their waters between ) 0° and ITS. lat The upper branches
of the Rio Beni are the Rio Caca, the Rio Chuqueapo, and
the Rio Quetoto. The Rio Quetoto, the most souths rn of
them, rises where the Sierra de Santa Cruz detaches itself
from the eastern Cordillera, and taking a N.E. and N. course
enters the plain* where it soon meets the Chuqueapo, whie.h
has its origin in the valley of the Desaguadero to the north-
west of the Nevado de Illimani. The Chuqueapo, which
is only prevented by a low rid^e from entering that river,
after having passed the town of La Pas, truver^ies the great
chain (16^ 550 through an enormous chasm. It then runs
for nearly a hundred miles through a fine valley and joins
the Quetoto on entering the plain. After this junction
the river ccmtinues its northern course, dividing the
mountainous country fimm the eastern plains till it meets
the Rio Caca. The Caca, under the name of Mapiri,
rises likewise in the valley of the Desaguadero, at no great
distance from the Nevado de Sorata towards the west, and
running first north and then east, traverses by a deep
chasm, the Cordillera Real north of the Nevailo de Yani. a
high snow-capped peak. During a very tortuous course
the Mapiri is joined by a great number of streams which
descend from the eastern declivity of the same Cordillera,
and by their union the Rio Caca is formed. This stream
joins the united rivers Quetoto and Chuqueapo about 13^
ao', and the river formed by their junciion is called Beni,
which name it preser\*es in its northern and north- north-
eastern course to its junction with the Maroore. Thus the
Beni brings to the Madeira all the waters from tlie eastern
and from a portbn of the western declivities of the Conlillera
Real, as well as a portion of those from the Sierra de Santa
Cruz.
The other great branch of the Madeira, the Mamore,
rises under the name of Cochabamba in the western extre-
mity of the valley which bears the same name, and is dis-
tinguished by its cultivation and its numerous products. It
first runs £. by S. and afterwards due E.. when beinsE
swelled by many small rivers, it assumes the name of Rio
Grande. It afterwards makes a very large seuiicircular
sweep, by which it arrives at the town of Santa Cruz de la
Sierra, whence it runs N.W., and after uniting with the
Chapar6 at about 16° 30' receives the name of Mamore,
and by degrees changes its N W. course into a N. one.
The Cbapu^ is formed by four or five streams descending
from the northern decUvity of the Sierra de Santa Cruz.
Before the Mamore* unites with the Itanez, a large river
which rises in the western parts of Brazil, it receives the
waters of the Yaeuma, whose source is at no great distance
from the banks of the Rio Beni, and which runs through an
extremely flat country. The Itanez [Brazil] is increased
before its junction with the Mamore by the river Ubahy,
which rises in a lake called Laguna Grande, in the country
of the Chiquitos, and is therefore also called Rio de Chiqui-
tos. It is said to run nearly parallel to the Mamore, but al
a considerable distance from it; but as this part of Bolivia
is very little known, we have no certain information about
it. After the junction of the Mamore with the Itanez, the
river continues its northern course till it meets the Beni at
the most northern angle of Bolivia, from which point the
river has the name of Madeira.
The waters which descend firom tlie eastern declivity of
the Andos south of 18^ S. lat. go to the Pilcomayo, one of
the prm:|^ branches of the La Plata river. The Piloo-
aayoriaea at neacly the iune distance from the Pacific aa
UiA FftTiM, tlM eilur great bmieh of the La Pktalkmtt
the Atlantic Ocean : this distance hardly exceeds sixty or
seventy miles. Both these great rivers also rise nearly in
the same parallel between 20° and 21°; their souicea ai«
25° of long, distant from each other, or upwards of 1000
miles.
The Filcomayo rises on the southern declivity of the
mountain-knot called Cordillera de los Lipez, and running
generally due east, is soon increased by numerous other
streams, some of which are considerable, as the S. Juan,
which rises about 22"" 30', and fails into the Pilcomayo firom
the south ; the Paspaya, which rises in the neighbourhood
of Potosi on the southern declivity of the eastern Cordillera
and soon becomes navigable ; and the Cachyraayo, which
rises not far from the source of the Cochabamba, and tra-
verses the beautiful and well-cultivated valley of Chuquisaca.
Soon alter the junction with the Cachymayo, the Pilco^
mayo, continuing its eastern course, forms for about 10^
miles the boundary- line between Bolivia and Buenos Ay res,
when turning suddenly to the south it enters the desert
called Grande Chaco, and leaves the territories of Bolivia.
The whole eastern portion of Bolivia, from the banks of
the Pilcomayo and the frontier of Buenos Ayres to the
junction of the Mamore and Beni, is one extensive plain,
wliich from east to west extends about 200 miles, and from
south-east to north-west upwards of 700. A few isolated
ranges of hills rise in some parts, but neither their place
nor their height has been determined with any degree ci
accuracy. In the southern part of Uiis plain lies the water*
shed between the attluents of the Amazon river and those of
the La Plata, but as far as our information goes it does not
appear to rise to any gr^at height above the sea. This plain
is principally watered by the Beni, the Mamore, and the
Ubahy, which in the rainy season, from October to April, in-
undate the country along their banks to a considerable ex-
tent. In many places there are lakes, and though none of
them are very large, the exhalations, united with those from
the inundations, render the chraate excessively humid. This
humidity, added to the heat which prevails all the year
round, gives rise to many dangerous diseases, and renders
this phiin very unhealthy, especnally for Europeans. This
part of the republic has consequently been almost abandoned
by the Creoles, though its great fertihty would better repay
the labour of the cultivator than any other district of the
country. Immense forests of high trees cover nearly the
whole of these plains, but their valuable products are entirely
neglected, except that a considerable quantity of cocoa is
gathered by the natives and brought to the towns of San
Lorenzo de la Frontera, La Paz, and Cochabamba. The
plantations consist commonly of mandtocca and maize, those
of cotton and rice being rare ; all the other tropical produc-
tions which might be cultivated with the greatest advantage
are almost entirely neglected. ^
Where the borders of Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay meet,
the Lake of Xarages extends along both banks of the river
Paraguay, and their lake has repeatedly disappeared and re-
appeared on our maps. As far as it is known, there seems
to be in this part of South America an extensive depression
of the surface, which being traversed by a large river sub-
ject to a considerable annual increase of water, is by turns
inundated and drained ; but how far this depression of tho
surfooe extends is not determined, this portion of the South
American continent being very little known.
Ram never falls on the ooast along the Pacific. In the
valley of the Desaguadero, in the mountain-region, and in
the plains, the summer is the rainy season ; but the rain is
oentinual only in the plains. The mountains are subject
to tremendous hail-storms, during which the traveller is
obliged to halt, and the parts of the body which are exnosed
are so severely bruised and cut by the hailstones as to bleed
copk>usly. Thunder-storms are also pecuUarly severe in
these elevated regions. In winter the traveller is subject
to a temporary blindness called turumpi, which is caused by
the rays of the sun being reflected from the snow, and ren-
dering it impossible to open the eyelids for a single moment $
the smallest ray of light becomes absolutely insupportable.
This complaint generally continues two days. Barthquakes
are verv common along the coast of the Pacific, less so in
the valley of the Desaguadero and the mountain-region,
but in the plains they have not been observed.
The scanty productions of the Valley of the Desaguaders
bsve been notioed. The Uw places on the eoait whidt era
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BOL
MOh
^llivtft^d proia(!e no gnyln but msSie* excellent limits
hdwerer grow, especially flgs, ottveB, and nielona, besides
pomef^netes, plantains, and alrarrovtu {ProiopU dulcii,
fiumb.)* a kind of pulse, which grows to the length of a
foot, wi/h its seeds enveloped in a substance like ootton,
which is eaten. It is of a sourish taste, but rery cooling.
Cotton* a Mttle sugar-cane, and the Artmdo donax, of which
there are larg*e plantations, are also cultivated.
The other portions of the republie, especially the beautiful
vales wsterea by the Coohabamba and Caohy Mayo, are
more fertile. As the levela which ooeur along their banks
are at different eleratioas above the sea, they abound in all
the fruits, grains, and other agricultural productions com>
ttion to Enrope and to tropical oountriea. Among the spon-
taneous products are cocoa, sarsaparilla, different species of
vanilla, copaii*a balsam* and caoutchouc. The mighty forests
whioh line the riven abound in the finest timber for all pur-
poses, especially for ship-bnilding, and in trees whioh distil
aromatic and medicinal gums. The plantain is found in
abundance ; and there is a species of cinnamon called by
the Creoles the canela de ciavo, which only differs in the
greater thickness of the bark and its darker cok>ur from
that of the East Indies.
Besides the animals peculiar to the valley of the Deaa-
guadero, there are the tapir, the jaguar> the leopard, six or
seven sorts of monkeys, and several amphibious creatures.
Of domestic animals, there are horses, asses, and mules,
but for sheep the climate is too warm. Great herds of
homed cattle find abundant pastures on the banks of the
rivers in the plains.
Many of the birds seem to be unknown to the naturalist.
There have however been noticed difiierent kinds of parrots,
several species of turkeys, and a multitude of beautiful
singing birds, as the thrush, the whistler, and the maltico,
remarkable for its plumage and the sweetness of its note.
All the rivers, but especially those of the plains, abound
in fish ; but the names giveu to them by travoUers render
it difficult to determine if any of them resemble those of
Europe.
Gold is found in abundance in many places, but espe-
cially on the eastern declivity of the eastern Cordillera,
where it is washed down by rivers which run between slate-
mountains in narrow ravines. All tho waters descending
from this range, which fall into the Beni or its branches,
carry down gold sand, but more particularly the small
river Tipuani, which falls into the Mapiri. The mines of
Potoei have long been considered as the richest in the world
for their produce of silver, but they are now little worked,
which is also the case with other silver mines. Copper is
likewise abundant : at Corucuero, a small place about
■e\'enty miles from La Paz, enormous masses of native
copper are found crystallized in the form of perfect cubes.
Though, according to some experiments, this ore contains
•even-eighths of pure copper, it cannot be turned to
any use, being found in very high mountains and at a
great distance from tlie coast. Besides tliesie metals there
are ores of lead and tin ; and saltpetre, brimstone, and
■alt.
The inhabitants of Bolivia are composed of aborigines,
and of neople of foreign extraction. The aborigines form
by far the greater portion of the population, prolMibly more
than three fourths. They may be divided into those who
speak the Quichua language, and thoae who speak different
dialects. The Quichua language prevails among all the
inhabitanta of the coast and of the valley of tho Desa-
guadero. Agriculture had been adopted by them before
the arrival oi the Europeans, and even at present it is
their principal if not their exclusive occupation. But they
make no improvement in agricultural operations, which may
be attributed to their very feeble mental powera. They
have been converted to the Catholic faithj but retain
•ome ceremonies of tlieir antient religioOi
The natives who do not speak the Quichua language in-
habit the eastern declivities of the Andes and the plains
extending to the east of them. They are divided into a
great number of tribes who speak different languages : in
the province of Moxoe alone there are thirteen tribes.
8ome of them have been converted to the Christian reli-
gion, and with their change of faith they have also
partly changed their mannen and mode of living. Instead
of going naked, they wear a light dress of cotton, have fixed
4weUin(p-plao68, and apply chiefly to agridUtural pursuits.
tteugh Iheir food still conaeU poitif of fish tnd _
Some of them make excellent cotton cloth, and in general
they have a taste for mechanwal arts, and are good car-
pentera. They show also aoma talent for music and paint-
ing, in which they were initiated by the JesuiU. But the
Indians who inhabit the Lower Beni below Reyes, and tho««
on both sides of the Ubahy, aa well as the Chiquit^a* who
occupy the country bordering on Braxil aud Parasuay. atiU
lead a roving life, live mostly on wikl roots and (ruiti^ and
on game, and go naked«
The inhabitants of foreign extraction are either tlie do-
acendants of Spaniards, or of Africans and the mixed vace&.
The descendants of the Spaniards are most nunecous in
the mining districts, and in the valleys of the Cocbabatulia
and Cachy Piloo, where they may be said to compose
the great bulk of the inhabitants ; tlwy are much less nu-
merous on the coast and in the valley of the Desaguadtfto,
and their number in the plains is very smalL The people of
pure African blood are few in number, but the mixed races,
which owe their origin to a mixture with negroes, are nu-
merous on the coast; much leas so in the mining districu,
and in other parts very few of them are found.
The population of Bolivia has been differently stated. At
first it was asserted that it amounted to 1,200,000 souU;
but this is evidently an exaggeration. Immense tincts
consist of barren deserts, otliors, though fertile, are not
cultivated, and nearly uninhabited, and the bulk of tiie
population is concentrated in two larger and several amallcr
valleys. More recent information has reduced the popu-
lution to 630,000. As however no recent census has been
taken, and several extensive districts, possessed by tho
independent Indians, are not even visited by £uropean:».
the population cannot be ascertained with any degree of
certain ty.
The republic of Bolivia is politically divided into five de-
partmonts, and each department into provinces.
I. The department of Potosi comprehends the uo»t
southern portion of Bolivia, namely, the whole of the cv>b*t
along the Pacidc, the south-western part of the valley of tho
Desaguadero, and the southern partof themountain-regic>n
as far north as the banks of the Pilco Mayo and Pasp.'i}A
rivers. Nearly the whole of its surface is covered wi.h
sand or barren mountains, but as it contains numerous
mines of bilver at Putosi, Poreo, aud other places in the
northern range, which have been long worked with ooiui-
derable success, the country about Uiem is more pn^pu-
lous than any part of the republic, except the valle>&i>f
the Cachy Mayo and Cochabamba. It ia divided intJ five
provinces, Atacama, Lipez, Porco, Chayanta, and Cliic^s.
Bxcept the capital, Potoei, this department containa no
considerable place. Along the rocky coast there are s*4iie
good harbours, and though the communication between the
other parts of the country is rendered exceedingly dithcult
and expensive on account of the high mountains and the
sandy desert along the coast, one of them, Cob^a, at present
called Puerto de la Mar, has been declared a free p(<rt,
though it only contains about fifty families of Indians.
Farther southward is the harbour of Tucapila.
II. The department of Charoas or Chuquisoca extends
over the mountainous counti'y between the rivers P^spav x
and Rio Grande de la Plata, in which the vallev o^ tue
Cachy Mayo is comprehended in all its extent, and a great
portion of that of Cochabamba* A small part of the \uUcv
of the Desaguadero is also included within its limits. It
contains some considerable mines, and is, \iilh the fullun iuz
department, the most populous portion of Bolivia, ou ui -
count of its fertility and the healthfulucss of its cliiuaUr.
It is divided into six provinces, Zinti, Yamparles, Tomiu.i.
P4ria, Oruro, and Carangas. Chuquisaca is tlie ca|vul
of Bolivia. Crura in tlie valley of the Desaguadero, ticaxU*
13,000 feet above the sea, contains upwards of ^000 inLa-
bitants, in whose neighbourhood considerable sdver-mim ^
are worked. A road leading from Oriiro to Potosi traverses
the southern part of the eastern Cordillera, and rises in the
mountain-pass of Tolapalia to 14,075 feet.
III. The department of Cochabamba lies to the north of
tlie preceding, and coui'prehends the greatest part of the
rich and well-cultivated valley of the Cochabamba or Gua->
))iii, the Sierra de Santa Cruz, and the fine valleys wluch
lie ou the northern declivity of this chain. Every kiml
of agricultural produce is here grown in abundance, niid la
some of the rivers which fall into the Chapu£ gold is col •
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BO t
89
B O L
i«eted This deoartment is divided into «x provinces* 8a-
c&ba, Tapaearf, Ar(|u«, Palia, Clissa, Misque.
The capital of this departiDent, OropeM, contains about
16.000 inhabitants, and is the most industrious of the towns
of Bolivia, the manufacture of cotton goods and of glass
being carried on to some extent It is situated at the
western extremitjr of the department in a fine ralley, tra-
versed by the Codorillo, a branch of the Cochabamba. The
small town Coohabamba, from which the department has
received its name, lies on the banks of the river Guapai or
Coehabamba.
IV. The department of La Pftz extends over more than
hulf of that part of the valley of the Desaguadero which be-
longs to Bolivia, and more particularly over the northern
portion. It oontains also the eastern CorAllera from
the Nevado de lUimani northward, the numerous valleys
which lie on the eastern declivity of that range, and
that portion of the plain to the west of the Rio Beni.
The lower part of the valleys and the plain are very fertile,
but only a few spots are cultivated. The rivers bring down
a great quantity of eold sand. It is divided into six pro-
vinces, Pacayes, Sica-sica, Chulumani, Omasuyos, Lare-
c&ja, and Apolobamba. It contains only one town of im-
portance, the capital La Pas.
V. The department of Sanu Cruz de la Sierra is by far
the largest, and extends over nearly the whole plain which
constitutes the eastern part of Bolivia. The greater part
of it is still occupied by independent tribes of Indians ; and
other districts, where the Creoles had formerlv settled, have
been abandoned on account of their unhealthiness. It is
divided into five provinces, Moxos, Chiquitos, Valle Grande,
Pampas, and Baures. Some time ago it was reported that
the inhabitants of this department were not inclined to join
the republic, but intended to form a separate state under
the name of Santa Cru2 de la Sierra, but no certain infor-
mation has reached us on this subject The capital of it is
San Lorenzo de la Frontera, not far from the old town
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, on the banks of the Rio Grande
de la Plata, with about 10,000 inhabitants.
Very little is known of the present political condition
of this country. In 1825, when Buenos Ayres had re-
nounced its claim on Upper Peru, and the representati%*es
of the country determined to form an independent state,
they adopted a constitution proposed by Bolivar, according
to which the executive power was to be placed in the hands
of a president chosen for life, and the legislative was to
consist of three bodies, the senate, the tribunes, and the
censors. At the same time Bolivar was chosen president
But the military fonse which Bolivar had sent to Bolivia,
which consisted of Columbian troops, being expelled by an
army from Peru, the constitution of Bolivar was abolished,
and the Bolivians were left at liberty to make a new con-
stitution. What kind of constitution has been adopted is
not known.
No country, perhaps, is under greater disadvantages with
reipect to commercial intercourse with foreign countries
than Bolivia, though possessing a coast of more than 250
miles, with several g(X)d harbours. The part which is con-
tiguous to the coast is a sandy desert, which produces nothing
fit for a foreign market, and it is separated from the rest
ci the country by a chain of high and nearly impassable
mountains, up to the parallel of Potosi. Even if a road
were made in these parts, it would traverse a country
probably not less than 300 miles in extent, where neither
jnen nor animals could find food. The only road which
connects the coast with the internal districts of the republic,
runs on the comparatively level country along the shores,
and passes to the valley of the Desaguadero by the pass
of Lenas (19^ 45') which rises to 14,210 feet, and thence
runs to Ordro and La Paz. But this road, like all others
in this country, is only practicable for mules and llamas,
and consequently does not allow the transport of very heavy
or very bulky commodities. To go from La Paz to the
more populous districts on the eastern side of the eastern
Cordillera, this high chain must be traversed by the pass
of Pacuani (16^330. which rises to 15,226 feet Another
mountain-pass which leads from Oniro to Chuquisaca,
waich rises to 14,700 feet is called the Pass of Challa
(17* 40^). The difficulties encountered in travelling from
the port of Cobija to Or&ro are so great, that though the
Bolivians have declared Cobija a f^e port they hardly use
it, and prefer importing the small quantities of foreign com-
modities for which there is a demand, through Arica and
Taena. The load eonneoting Taena with La Pas tmvarset
one of the two passes called Las Gualillias, of which the
northern (17^ 43') rises to 14,200, and the southern (17^
50^) to 14,830 feet and though foreign commodities pass-
ing through any part of Peru have to pay a transit-
duty of 3 per cent, this road is preferred for ue transport
of merchandise. Few foreign commodities are imported
into Bolivia. They are chiefly iron and hardware, with a
fow articles of finery, as silk, &o. The exports are nearly
altogether limited to the precious metals, and to different
kincb of woollens, made of the wool of tlie llamas and
alpacas, and to hats made of the wool of the vicunas. The
Bj^cultural products of this country will never be exported,
till commerce has made its way up the Amazon mid Ma-
deira rivers.
Being as it were excluded from foreign commerce, the
Bolivians are obliged to satisfy their wants by their own in-
dustry. The manufactures of eotton are the most extensive.
The better kinds are made in Oropesa ; but in many dis-
tricts the Indians make grelit quantities, which are coarse
though strong. Next to these are the woollens, made of
the hair of the llamas and alpacas. The coarser kind,
called hanascas, is used by the lower classes for dress, and
likewise for blankets ; the finer sorts, called camlris, are em-
broidered with great care, and used as carpets by the
rich. The best are made at La Paz, and are very dear. At
San Francesco de Atac&ma very fine hats are made of the
wool of the vicuiia, and at Oropesa very good glass is made.
In some • towns in the neighbourhood of the silver-mines
they make vessels of silver-wire, which are not without
elegance, but Meyen thinks that those made in China
are superior in taste and much cheaper. In some dis-
tricts the Indians dye the plumes of the American ostrich
with brilliant colours, and make of them fons and a kind
of parasols. (Pentland and Parish in Geogr. Joum, V, ;
Meyen s Refteumdie Welt; Memoir* of General Miller;
Capt. Basil Hall ; Temple ; Azara.)
BOLLANDUS, JOHN, a learned Jesuit, was bom at
Tliienen (Tirlemont) in the Netherlands, August 13th,
1 596. He entered the Society of Jesus at the early though
not unusual age of sixteen, and became eminent in it as a
teacher both in the Netherlands and other countries. The
share which he took in the Ada Sanctorum^ or 'Lives of
the Saints,* entitles him to especial notice.
The history of this work is not uninteresting, although
the work itself, otherwise than for occasional consultation,
defies time and patience. It consists of fifty-one volumes
in folio, of the larger size and bulk. The design of this
vast collection was first projected by P^re Heribert Ros-
weida, a Jesuit then of the age of sixty, and consequently
too fiCr advanced to execute much of his plan, which was
to extend no further tlian sixteen volumes folio, with two
volumes of illustrations : a trifle in those days, had he
begun earlier. In 1607 he had begun by printing an octavo
volume, entitled Fasti Sanctorum, consisting of the manu-
script lives of some saints which he happened to find in
the Netherlands ; but he died Oct. 5th, 1629, before he
could accomplish what he had undertaken. The exe-
cution of his project was then entrusted to Bollandus,
who was about this time thirty-four years of age, and
who removed from Mechlin to Antwerp for the purpose.
After examining Rosweida's collections, he established a
general correspondence all over Europe, instructing his
friends to search every library, register, or repository of
any kind, where information might be found; but be-
coming soon sensible of the weight of his undertaking, he
called in theassistanceof another Jesuit, Godfrey Henschen
of Guelderland, younger than himself, more healthy, and
equally quaUfled in other respects. With this aid he was
enabled to publish the first two voltnnes, folio, Antwerp,
1643, which contain the Kves of the saints of the month of
January, the order of the Calendar having been preferred.
In 1658 he published those of February in three volumes ,
and two years after, his labours still increasing, he engaged
with another associate, PSre Daniel Papebroch, at that time
about thirty-two years old, whom he sent with Henschen to
Italy and France, to collect manuscripts, but he died before
the publication of another volume, Sept. I2th, 1665. After
his death the work was continued by various hands, who
were called ' BoUandists.* Henschen and Papebroch pub-
lished the lives of the sainU of the month of March in
three volumes, Antw. 1668 ; and those of April in throe
volumes, 1675. The saints of the month of May occupy
No. 283.
eras PENNY CYCLOPiEDLA.]
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dor.
ieven Tolnmed, the secoTid and thirds liy tlcnschen and I
Papebroch only, were published in 1683 ; the first, fourth, I
una fifth bear the date of 1685, and had the assistance of
Francis Baert and Conrad Jauning ; the sixth and seventh
Volumes were publif^hed by the same parties, in 1689.
Benschen*s personal labours however had been concluded
by his death, Sept. 1 Tth, 1681. The sainU of June 611 six
volumes ; the first published in 1695 ; the second in 1698 ;
Ihe third in 1701 ; the fourth in 1707, by the same parties ;
in the fiflh, 1 709. John Baptist Sollier was addea as an
editor; the sixth volume of this month, 1716 in two parts,
was edited by Conrad Jauning alone : the * Martvrotogium
Usuardi Monachi* being added by Solder, t'apebroch
died June 25th, 1714. The saints of July extended to
uven volumes ; the two first by Jauning, Sollier, and John
'Pinei, published in 1719 and 1721 ; the title of the third
volume had the addition of the name of William Cuper ; in
'the fourth volume, 1725, the name of Peter Bosch was
addei; and these names were continued in vol. v. 1727,
vol. vi. 1729, and vol. vii. 1731, The same names also
appear as editors of the first three of the six volumes of
August, 1733, 1735, 1737; the fourth volume of Aujfust
Was by Pinei and Cuper only, 1739; the fifth and sixth.
1741 and 1743. by Pinei, Cuper. and John Stiltinj;. The
'saints of September fill eieht volumes. The first, 1 746, is
by Pinei, Sliltinjf, John Limpen, and John Veldius ; the
second, 1 748, by Stilting, Limpen, Veldius, and Omstan
'tine Suyskhen ; the third, 1750, by the same parties, with
the addition of John Perier; the fourth, 1753, by Stilting,
Suyskhen, and Perier; the fiilh, 1755. by the same, with
the addition of Urban Sticken ; the sixtli, seventh, and
eighth, 1757, 1760, and 1762, bjr Stilting. Suy^khen, Pe-
rier, and John Cleus. The saints to October 14th fill >»ix
volumes; the first, 1765, edited by Stilting, Suyskhen, Pe-
rier, Cornelius Bye, Jacobus Bue, and Joseph Ghesquiere ;
the second, 1768, and the third, 1770, by Suyskhen, Bye,
and Ghesquiere. Hitherto the editors are all designated
as members of the Society of the Jesuits; and the volumes
uniformly printed at Antwerp. The fourth volume of Ocloher
was printed at Brussels, ' typis Re^iis,' 1780. by the same
editors, with the addition of Ignace Hubens. and all mre now
styled • Presbyteri Theologi.' The fifth volume, printed at
Brussels * typis Csesareo-regiis,' 1786, is by Corn. Bye, Ja-
cobus Bue, and John Baptist Fonson. The sixth volume,
'Tongerlo©, typis AbbaticB,* printed at the Abbey of Ton-
'gerloo, 1794. is described as * parlim il Corn el io Bveo, Jo-
anne Baptista Fontono, preshb. Ansel mo Berthoao Ord.
S. Benedicti P. M. partim i. Joanne Bueo presb. Sardo
Dyckio, C\priaDo Goorio, Mathia Stalsio, Ord. Prxm. Cann.
Regul.'
It is to be regretted that a work so full of curfous infor-
mation as the ' Acta Sanctorum,* continued through a series
of volumes for a hundred and sixty-five years, should re*
'main unfinished: but the great mass of monasteries in
Europe has been suppressed : no purchasers can now be
found for long sets of legendary reading ; and it seems
likely that the remaining lives will never be added to the
collection. The continuation was interrupted, probably for
ever, by the entrance of the French troops into Belgium in
1704.
Bollandus published separately,—!. • Vita S. Liborii Epis-
copi,* 8vo. Antw. 1648. 2. ' Brevis Notitia Italia) ex Actis
SS. Januarii et Februarii,* 8vo. Antw. 1648. 3. * Brevis
Kotitia triplici status, Ecclesiastici, Monastic!, et Ssecularis,
excerpta ex Actis SS. vulgatis i Bollando et sociis,* 8vo.
Antw. 1648.
The following works may be considered as connected with
the preat set of the * Acta Sanctorum f — 1. ' Exhibitio £r-
rorum (juos Papebrochius suis in notis ad Acta Sanctorum
eommisit^per Seb. a Sancto Paulo,' ito. 1 693. 2. * Examen
Juridico-lnealogicum prsanibulorum Sebastiani d Sancto
?aulo,* auctore N. Ray»'\ 4io. 1698. 3. * Respousio * D.
apehrochii. 3 torn. 4to. 1606-1698. 4. * Acta Sanctorum
B«>l)andiana apologetic<H libris vindicata,' fol. Antw. 1755.
Thi» last Work is usually found as an accompaniment to the
Mt of ihe * Acta.'
(Life of Bollandus prefixed to the first volume of the
month of March in the Acta Sanctorum, where is also
the portrait of Bollandus; Foppens, Bihliofheca Bel^ica,
4to. Krux. 1739, torn i. p. 584; Morcri, Dictionn, HU-
iorufue, torn. ii. fol- Par. 1759 ; Chalmers's Biographiccu
^lionarg, vol. vi. pp. 23, 20 ; Biogr, Vniverseile, lorn, v
0.)
BOLCyONA (Lat *ON<yNrA), a city to ttie l»apii
State, next to Rome in population and importance. It
is situated in 44*" 30' N. lat. and 1 1° 20' E. long, in a niam
north of the Apennine ridge and between the rivers xUtmo
and Savena. A canal, called Naviglio, navigable (br larg«
boats, connects Bologna with Ferrtra, Prom whence, by
means of the Po, the Adige, and the intermediate canals,
the water-communication extends to Venice. The popuia>
tion of Bologna is about 70,000, but with its surrounding
territory or commune about 74,300. (Caltndrl Saffgio S/<«-
tisticodello Stato Pontijlcio, 1830.) Towards the end of
the laiit century, when Savioli wrote his Annali BoWnesi,*
the population of Bologna was then also reckoned at 7o.0oo.
Bologna is a thriving city, with an industrious population :
the higher classes, who consist chiefly of landed pro-
Iirietors, are wealthy. Many noble families reside at R>-
ogna, where they have fine palaces, the most remarkable
of which, the palaces Fava, Magnani, Bentivoglio. Zam-
beccari, Marescalchi, Bevilacqua, Lambertini, BaciocfhY.
whose owner is Napoleon's brother-in-law, Ercolani, Mal-
vezzi, Sampieri, have valuable galleries and fresco paintings
by the great masters. The palace of the Podesti, in ubit-h
Hentzius, son of ths Emperor Frederic II., and nominal
king of Sardinia, spent in confinement twenty-two yeai>» of
his life, and in which he died in 1272. contains the archie cit
of the city. The Pnlazzo del Pubblico, a large structure,
is the residence of the cardinal legate and the seat of the
various courts of justice. In the square before ft is a
handsome fountain with the colossal statue of Neptune by
Giovanni da Bologna.
Bologna abounds with churches, most of which ars rich
in paintings The principal are San Petronio, a magnificent
though incomplete structure, which has a meridian Ime
traced on its pavement by the astronomer Cassini: t'ne
cathedral : and the church of San Domenico, with the .oml't
of Hentzius, of Taddeo Pepoli, the best magistrate of B^»-
loirna in the time of the republic; of Guide and his pu]ni
Elisahctta Sirani ; of Count Marsigli, and other tUiistrioiii
individuals. The adjoining convent is the residence of th«
Tribnnnl del Smt* Uffizioor Inquisition, which still e\ir»
in the Roman States, where however its power is little f. it,
and it has none of the terrors of the Inquisition such a» it
existed till lately in Snain and Portugal.
Bologna is surrounaed by walls and has twelve gate^ .
the streets are tolerably wide, and most of them hnw 1 w
arcades on each side to shelter pedestrian* from the ra u.
In the centre of the city are two lofty towers, the hisrhi-*i
of which called Asinelli from the name of its founder, ts
320 feet high; the other, Garisenda, is only about onr-.
half of the height of its neighbour, but Inclines on opt
side about nine feet. This inclination, it is said, like t) ai
of the tower of Pisa, was the result of a depression of tVt
ground under its foundations, and the fearful eflTeet it pm<
duces on tlie beholders is finely alluded to by DaTtte m
canto 31 of the * Inferno.' The Asinelli is also a little out
of the perpendicular, though in a much slighter decree.
Both towers date from the twelfth century. It has been
observed that Bologna, seen ft^m the neiehoonring hilN.
has in its outline the appearance of a vessel with one uiavt,
represented by the Asinelli, while the inclined Garisenda
represents the chains.
Tlie University of Bologna is the oldest and still one of
the first in Italy. Its origin is stated to have been under
Theodosius II., and it is said to have been aestored by
Charlemagne. We find it enjoying great celebrity early in
the twelfth century. It has the following classes,— theoUVt*
medicine, law, philosophy and mathematics, and belles let-
trcs. The faculty of medicine has the most and the bt st
filled chairs. For the distribution of the various cour>o<.
and other details concerning the method *"* instruction, i»c
refer to an article in No. XVI, of the Quarterly J^urti^l
of Education' on the Statistics of Education in Italy. A •)-
nexed to the university are a museum, a botanical pnr)« 'u
an anatomical cabinet, and a library containing S0,OCt^ '-
lumes and 4U00 MSS. Among the actual or late profosri- «
of the University of Bologna the following names dos«»^*
mention,— Galvani, Zannotti, Monti, Orioli, Tomnin.s 'i.
Mezzofanti, and Clotilde Tambroni; the last was a 1a^«
professor of Greek, who died in 1817. Bologna boasts <
other female professors, especially Novella d Andrea, w i
taught canon law in the fourteenth century; and JLniii
Bassi, professor of physics, in the eighteenth century*
Besides the library of the uliivertily» the city of no!o. .
Digitize «=••
ffQ%
91.
«QI*
afCDanu wliicli iiccupies three roomR of the convent of Sun
Donoenico, an(i contains 83,000 volumee. The academy of
the fine arts has a splendid gallery of paintings, chiedy of
the Bolognese school. The Institute delle Scienze, founded
by Coum Marsigli, has an ohservatory. The Philharmonic
Lyceum» in which 100 pupils are maintained at the expense
of tl)e town, possesses a Taluable musical library of 17,000
volumes, collected by Father Martini, a ^reat Bolognese
composer of the eighteenth century. The College Venturoli,
founded in 1825, is devoted to students of architecture.
There is also a college for Spanish students, founded by Car-
dinal Albornoz ; and another for Flemi.>h students, who are
sent here by the goldsmiths' company of Brussels. It was
founded by John Jacobs, a JHemish goldsmith, and a friend
of Guido. The public school ior the children of the poorer
classes is a fine building by the Bolo^^nese architect Terri-
bilia ; the children are taught, gratuitously, Latin, arith-
metic, ifioging, and drawing. (VaUry, Voyage Litteraire
eii iiaiie, 1833.)
Bulogna is an archbishop's see, and fhe series of its
bishops asi'ends as far back as the fourth century. St.
Petronius, who lived about 430, was the tenth bishop of
Bologna. The city as well as its province, called Legation,
are administered by a cardinal legate appointed by the pope.
The court of appeu for the four provinces of Bologna, Fer-
raxa, Ravenna, and Forli. sits at Bolof^na, and consists of
six judges*
There are several manufactures of silks, paper, and
pottery. The large sausages of Bologna, called mortadelle,
have along established reputation, as well as its li(^ueurs
and confitures. The people of Bologna are frank, spirited,
and fond of gaiety ; they are the most independent in mind
and bearing of any in the Papal State, owing probably to
the long enjoyment of their municipal liberties; the lower
classes are noisy, and their dialect is the most uncouth and
rough sounding in all Italy. The women are generally
good looking. Among the educated classes there is much
int'ormation, and Bologna is still one of the most learned
towns of Italy. There is a casino, or assembly-rooms for the
nobility, besides reading-rooms and private conversazioni.
There are several theutres, at which some of the best per-
formers of Italy are generally engaged.
The air of Bologna is pure, but the sudden changes of its
temperature, owing to the proi^imity of the Apennines,
occasion frequent inflammatory diseases. Cutaneous dis-
eases were formerly common among tlie people, but the
increase of cleanliness, and a better diet, have contributed
^reatl^ to extirpate them. Bologna is one of the Italian
cities in which there are most foundlings \ about one-seventh
of the births are illegitimate.
Bologna has produced many distinguished individuals.
Ko less than eight popes have heeu natives of this city,
among whom Benedict XIV. is the most illustrious. The
naturalist Aldovrandi, the anatomist Mondino, who was the
reviver of anatomy in Europe at the beginning of the four-
teenth century, the physician and naturalist Malpighi, the
naturalist and astronomer Marsigli, the mathematician and
enemeer ^ustachio Manfredi, the brothers Zannotti, Galvani
and his nephew Aldini, Zambeccari, and many more scien-
tific and Uterary men were natives of Bologna. Fanluzzi
has devoted no less than 9 vols, foho to the biographies of
Bol>gnese writers: Noiizie degli ScriUori Boiognesi,
l;31-94.
Outside of the walls, the Campo Santo, or cemetery, con-
tains nnany handsome monuments, which have been illus-
trated in a recent work : ' CoUezione seelta di Cento Me-
nu men ti Sepolcrali del Cimitero di Bologna.' On the hill
called Delia Guardia, about three miles from Bologna, is
the handsome church of La Madonna di S. Luca, which is
jnmed to the town by a long arcade consisting of 635 arches.
The once splendid monastery of S. Michele in Bosco was
sadlv dilapidated during the French wars, and its frescoes
by the Caracci and others were nearly efiiaiced by the hands
of the soldiers.
The origin of Bologna is lost in obscurity. It was the
principal city of the Etruscans north of the Apennines, and
was then called Felsina. When the Gauls invaded Lom-
bardy, the Boii, one of their tribes, crossed the Po, and esta-
blished themselves in Felsina and the neighbouring country.
Afterwards the Boii became involved in wars with Rome,
vid they wore favourable to Hannibal in his invasion of Italy.
A^ tfi9 ^ of that WW tbe Boii, with th« other Cisalj^ino ,
Gauls, were coiiqiitered ky the Consul Seipio Natica» an^
Fejsina became a Roman colony B.C. 191. The Romant
changed its name into Bononia. The Via .£milia. a con-
tinuation of the Via Flaminia, was carried from Ariminum
through Bononia. In the civil war between Antony and
the senate, Bononia was attached to the narty of the former*
and it was here that the Consul Pansa, aefeated by Antony
in the first battle of Mutina, died of his wounds B.C. 43.
In the autumn of the same year the famous meeting took
place between Antony and Octavius in a small island foroned
by the river Rhenus (Reno) between Bononia and Mutina.
Tlie precise »te of that island has been a matter of dispute.
There are documents as late as the thirteenth century ia
which the appellation Isola Rheni occurs as being in the
district of Borgo Panigale, which is a village about four Of
five miles north-west of Bologna, and two or three miles
north of the point on which the road from Bologna to Mo«
dena crosses the Reno. It appears also that the little river
Lavinius, still called Lavino di Sopra, which now flows
northwards into the Samoggia, whence the united streams
run to join the Reno above Cento, formerly on descending
from the Apennines into the plain of Bologna took a short
cut to the eastward into the Reno, not far from the town*
and somewhere ahout the spot where the island is supposed
to have been, and this junction would serve to explain the
words ad confitieniet used by some historians in speaking of
the place of meeting. The Reno, like all Apennine streams^
is subject to overflowings, and consequent alterations in
its bed, and it forms even now several little islands near
Bologna.
A fire consumed great part of Bononia under Claudius
(Tacit, ^ii. 58). when 10.000,000 sestertii were eranted from
the public treasury for rebuilding the town. On this occa^
sion young Nero pleaded before the senate in favour of
Bononia. (Sueton.. Nero, vii.) In the third century the
first Christian church was built in Bononia, and dedicate4
to St. Felix, which was afterwards destroyed in the per*
secution under Diocletian, when Pruculus, Agricola, Vi«
talis, and other Christians of Bononia, suffered martyr-*
dom. Bononia escaped with comparatively little damage
the invasions of the northern barharians. A Uric besieged
but did not take this city. It also seems to have escaped
the ravages of Attila. In the time of the Longobards
Dononia formed part of the exarchate of Ravenna under
the eastern empire, until Liutprand occupied it with the
rest of that province. Bononia was one of the towns given
by Pepin to the see of St. Peter, after his defeat of the
I>>ngobard8. Under the church, Bononia was administered
hy dukes, probably of Longobard race. In the confusion of
Italian affairs after the extinction of the Car]ovingiandynastj|rt
the towns of the exarchate no longer rccognize<l the domi-
nion of the church, whose tenoporal sway was not acknow*
ledged even at Rome itself The bishops, and the various
dukes and marquesses: divided among them the dominion of
the country. Under the Othos of Saxony, Bononia, as well
as the other cities of North Italy, ohtained privileges and
franchises as imperial towns governed by their own municipal
laws. Under Conrad the Salic we find counts of Bononia,
who administered justice together with the Missi of the
emperor.
In the wars of the investitures between the church and
the empire, the towns became de facto independent of the
latter. The municipal independence of Bononia or Bologna
was acknowledged by the Emperor Henry V. in 1112, by a
charter. The commune had the right of coining money.
The citizens assembled in general comitia, and appointed
the magistrates, at the head of whom were the consuls, who
were chosen from among the class of milites or nobles only.
The judges and notaries were to be approved by th»
emperor, in whose name the judges administered justice.
The lown wa* divided into four wards, the militia of which
were commanded by their respective vexilliferi. The countrv
districts were subject to the town, the territory of which
was at first extremely limited, being surrounded on every
side by a host of feudal nobles, and by the domains of tba
churches and monasteries, which were independent of the
jurisdiction of the town. By degrees however several oi
the surrounding nobles applied for the citiisenship, and being
admitted came to resifle in the town. Others lost their
territory in wars again.<t the city, so that Bolo};na came is
rule over a great part of illniilia, the country now generally
called Romagna, which extends from Bologna to Rimini.
^^ tha war b^twee^ fxed^qn^L ^d thaL)^bard Le««|
Digitized by L:r^6gle
BO L
BO L
Boloi^na joined tHo latter. It Klnwiie fought ftgwnst
Frederic II., on wh..*h occasion the Bolognese took pri*
loncr Hentxiui^ the natural son of the emperor, whom tney
detained in captivity till the time of hia death. The war of
tile Bolognese against the Modenese, who were of the im*
penal party, has heen immortalized hv Taaioni in hia dever
burlesque poem * La Secchia Rapita. The faetiona of the
Guelphs and Quibelinea proved tne ruin of the liberties and
independence of Bologna, as well as of the other North
Italian cities. Ambitious and rival familiea sided under
either banner. The Larobertazsi, the head of the Guibeline
Sirty, being worsted in the city by the Oeremei, the chief
mily of the Guelphs. were, a(ier much bloodshed, driven
away in 1274 with 15,000 of their partisans and dependents,
men, women, and children. They however rallied in the
towns of Romagna, where they were joined by Guide da
Montefeltro, lord of Urbtno, and made incuiaions to the very
gates of Bologna. The Getemei applied to the pope for
assistance, offering to acknowledge him as liege lord of
Bologna. Pope ^ficholas III. accordingly sent a legate to
Roma^na to restore peace to that province, and through his
mediatioQ the Guibeline exiles were recalled. The pope
was now acknowledged protector and suzerain of Bologna.
In 1 334 the pope*s legate. Cardinal Bertrand du Poiet,
having rendered himself odious to the people by his tyranny,
was driven out of th^ city, and soon after Taddeo de* Pepoli,
* wealthy citizen, was proclaimed lord. He used his autho-
rity with temperance and justice and for the good of the
eommonwealth for twelve years, but after his denth his two
sons, not able to maintain their power, sold the town to the
Arohbishop Visconti of Milan. The yoke of the Viseonti
was hard and cruel, and after several rebellions and reHX)n-
euests, sometimes under the Visconti, sometimes ruled by
tne papal legates, now a pre>' to popular anarchy, and now
subject to some of its own principal families, among which
that of Bentivoglio stood highest in influence, Giovanni
Bentivoglio was made Principe del Senato, or first magistrate
of Bologna, in 1462, and he retained the chief authority over
the state for fbrty-four years, under the nominal high do-
minion of the papal see. [BKNTtvoGLio.] Giovanni how-
ever incurred the displeasure of the haughty pontiff, Julius
II., who marched an army against him in 1506, and took
the city, where he established the direct dominion of the
church. In 1511 the sons of the lata Giovanni Bentivoglio,
supported by the French, regained possession of Bologna,
where they remained until the following year, when, after
the battle of Ravenna and the retreat of the French
armies, the town surrendered again to Pope Julius, who
built a castle to keep the citizens in awe. From that time
till the end of the eighteenth century Bologna remained
ftubject to the papal see, retaining however its senate, the
members of which were appointed for life by the pope, and
appointed in their turn all subordinate civil officers, and
administered the finances of the commune ; a gonfaloniere
di giustizia, and eight anziani, who were changed every
two months ; and tlie tribuni della plebe, and massari dell'
arti, who were the heads of the respective trades or com-
panies. The senate coined money in the name of the city,
and the word * Libertas ' was retained on its escutcheon.
In June, 1 796, Bonaparte entered Bologna, and drove
away the papal authorities. In February, 1797, Bologna
became the chief town of the Cispadane republic, which
after a few mouths was united to tne Cisalpine republic,
afterwards called the Italian republic, and lastly transformed
into the kingdom of Italy in 1 804. Bologna was then the
Capitol of the department Del Reno. In 1814 Bologna was
occupied by the Austrians. In 1815 General Stefanini, in
the name of Austria, restored Bologna and the other lega-
tions to the papal authorities. In 1831 an insurrection
broke out at Bologna against the papal government, which
was put down by the arrival of an Austrian auxiliary force.
For the antiquities of Bologna see Malvasia, Marmora
FisMnea^ and Montalbani, AntichUa di Bologna ; and for
its history Savioli, Afmali; and Leandro Alberti, Istorie
(H Bologna,
BOLOGNA, LKGAZIONB DI, a province of the papal
state, is bounded on the east by the province of Ravenna,
en the north by that of Ferrara, on the west by the duchy
of Modena, and on the south by the central ridge of the
Apennines, which divides it from Tusoany. lu length
torn iouth-west to north-eeat tern the toniiDes of the Reno
fibove U PoriettA to the conflnee of Fenrars beyond MaUU*
Hip^ IllbOVt flll^ Orilflr 114 tt» CI9MII tm^
Panaro^ whkh divided H from Modena, to the Bikro, wfatch
divides it ttom Imola in the province ct Ravenna, is atout
thirty. It is watered in its length by the Reno, which enter*
the Po near Ferrara, and by numerous torrents deseendlog
from tlie Apennines. The north-east part of the provinee
near the Po is very marshy and subject to inundations, and
^ southern part is mountainous, but the middle part or
plain of Bologna is very productive, and in a high state of
oultivstion. The lower hills also, and valleys at the foot
of the Apennine chain, are well cultivated. Com, wine^
fruit, all sorts of vegeUbles, hemp, fiax, and silk are tb«
principal products of the country. A great quantity of
cattle is also reared*
The population, including the city, is 824,000. (Calindrr,
Saggio StatisHco, 1832.) The territory is divided into ^bO
communes or parishes, and has a number of large villages
and market -towns: the principal are, St. Agata, SOOO; Sl
Agostino, 5000 ; Argetata, 3000 ; Argile, 2600 ; Baricclla,
5U00; Bazzano^ 2200; Borgo Panigale, 3400; Budno,
10,000; Calderara, 3000; Castelfranco^ 5500; Castel Guelfo,
2400; Castelmaggiore, 3400; Castel 8. Pietro, 6600; Caa^
tiglione, 2800 ; Crespellano, 3400 ; Crevalcore, 6800 ; Gal-
liera, 3200; S. Giorgk) di Piano, 3300; 8. Giovanni in
Persiceto, 6700; Granaglione, 2700; Lojano, 8000; Malal-
bergo, 4700; Medicine, 9000; Molinella, 7000; Minerbio,
5000 ; S. Pietro in Casale, 4500 ; Porretta, 2200. Each o.
these numbers includes the whole population of the re-
spective territory or commune, of which, generally speaking,
about one-half may be reckoned as the resident populatton
of the town, the rest living in detached farm-housos, cot*
tages, or hamlets. All the abore towns are styled terre,
they are all parishes and market-places, and many of them
are surrounded by waUs. They have each a municipal
council composed of twenty-four or eighteen members, taken
one-half among the nobles or chief proprietors, and the other
half among the tenants or Ikrmers. Seats in the municrpa
councils are hereditory, subject however to the qualifieati<yr.
of holding possessions or domicile within the commune
being past twenty-four years of age, and having a gone
moral character. Two relatives in the first degree cannot
sit in the same council. Vacancies in the councils are filhs.
by the councils themselves by majority of votes. The coun
oils appoint the magistrates, t. e. the gonfiiloniere, and foot
elders, and all the other communal ofBcere and servants
The gonfaloniere is renewed yearly, the elders are renewed
by halves every year. The councils vote every year the
municipal expenditure, as well as the communal taxes an^
other means to provide for it This budget must be ap
f>roved of by the legate, after which it is printed and pub
ished. The council administer the communal property
subject likewise to the inspection and approbation of the
legate. This municipal system exists in all the ptpel »tate
The peasants of the province of Bologna are seldom pro
prietors, few have even leases, but they hold their tkrvc
from father to son by a tacit agreement, giving one>half o
the produce to the landlord and paying half the taxes
Seversl branches of the same family are often seen Kving
and working together on the same farm. They are eobrr
peaceful, and industrious, and generally superior in mormhtv
to the lower classes of the cities. The farms are not sc
large as in Lombardy, but the peasantry live better en the
produce of the farm than the hired and poorly paid labourers
of the latter country. This metayer system prervils ovet
most of the northern papal provinces, and also in Tuacanv.
Upon the whole the province of Bologna is one of the
finest and richest in the papal state. The mineral waters
of La Porretta in the Apennines are much frequented by
invahds.
BOLOGNESE SCHOOL OF PAINTING. The his-
torians of the fine arts employ the word school, as it ij
often used in reference to other pursuits, only to denote a
similarity of opinion, aim, or practice among many indi-
viduals ; but the term is so fkr true to its litem import, that
the similarity of taste alluded to does not so much art»e
ftom the accidental coincidence of independent modes o»
thinking, as iVom some conunon influenoe, and generallv
fl'om the example of one powerful mind. Nor does thM
always involve a defect of originality : in the oompltcate*)
art of painting the advances to perfection were of neee»Mty
very gradual ; the greatest masters were largriy indebted to
the labours of their predeeesson, and eaeh of tham may
thaa be said to hatf sprung from a school as certainly a^
thsl ho Ibuiided ^"^ But whan aioillfliiaB muoDoa as
•• Digitized by V^OOQ IC
A<>h
^
B O t
odginalUy fte«med only 60iifp«ttble with a
lifltirenoe in Ihe mode, sinee a difTerenoe of degree appeared
to be no longer possible; and while the desire of norelty
sometimea degenerated to caprice, and iimtatioa ended in
insipiditpr, the moat plau&ible ambition seemed to be that
which aimed at combining exoeUenoea not hitherto tmited
in anj one achooL This was at leaat the professed object
or the .Caracci, the roost celebrated among the Bcdogneae
masters. It (lappens that this new effort took place in a
school which had not before distinguished itself so greatly
as the I'eat. The most brilliant epochs of art, south of the
Alps, concur; the greatest masters having been oontem-
porary with each other in the beginning of the 1 6th century.
To this rule, whioh applies to Venice, Parma, Florence, and
Rome, the Bolognese school is an exoeptioni since it attained
its comparative perfection nearly a century after the pro-
duction of the finest works of Italian art.
The merits of the moat distinguished later masters o£ the
Bolognese school have been done ample justice to by many
historians and biographen, but it must be confessed that
the Florentine Yaaari, who was naturally anxious to extol
the geniuaof the Tuscan artists, sometimes betrays a dis-
position to undervalue or to vilify the earlier Bolognese
painters whom he notices in his work, and he did not live
to see the revolution which the Caraoci produced. The
chief historian of the Bolognese school, Malvasia (Felsioa
Pittrioe), on the other hand, in his eagerness to defend his
countrymen, has not unfVequentlv exaggerated their merits,
and the two should be compared with the more impartial
opinions of recent writers, among whom Lanai» thoUgh
again perhaps disposed to exalt his own Florence, will be
found the most rational.
The arts of design were kept alive during the middle
agea by mosaics and by illuminated manuscripts ; Uie former
were oommoner at Rome and Ravenna, than in the other
Italian cities, but the art of missaUpainting, which was
practised wherever there was a monastery, seems to have
attained some perfection at Bologna at an early period.
The Franco Bolognese mentioned by Dante (Purgaiorio,
canto 11) as superior in this art to his master, Oderigi di
Agubbio, it appears sometimes painted in larger dimen*
sions, and tbe recorded dates of still earlier painters might
enable Bologna to contend for the palm of antiquity not
only with Florence but with Siena and Pisa. Franco, who
ha4 been called the Giotto of his school, is the supposed
founder of the style of the Bolognese painters of the 1 4 th
century. Many of their now foding works exist in the
church di Mezsamtta, a gallery, as it were, of antient spe-
cimens which, as Lanxi remarks, is to this »ra of the Bo-
lognese school what the Campo Santo at Pisa is to that of
the early Florentines. In order, however, that this com-
parison should be just, it would be necessary to select cor-
responding dates ; some of the works in the Campo Santo,
as fof instance those of Benozjso, were executed after the
middle of the ] 5ih century.
About 1400 the most prominent name ia Lippo Dalmasio,
called, from the subjects to which he almost confined him-
self, Lippo delle Madonne t some of his works remain, and
Malvaaia relatea, with reference to one in the church of S.
Proook}, that he heard Guido extol its purity and grandeur
of expression, and assert that, notwithstanding the subse-
quent advancement of the art» no modern painter oould
infuse so ho|y a feeling into similar subjects* In this early
epoch of the school the predilection A>r the style of the
Greek paintings, the common prototypes of Italian art, seems
to have been more decided, and to have lasted longer than
any other. It may be here observed that the modes of
representation to which the Byzantine painters and their
Italian followers adhered were in many cases consecrated
by tradition, but independently of this the works themselves,
rude as they were, often exhibited a solemnity of treatment
which may in some degree account for the veneration in
which, they were held. The Florentines who viaited Bo-
logna and painted there left no permanent impression ; a
native artist* Marco Zoppo, who studied «t Padua (where
he was the rival of Mantegna) and afterwards at Venice,
introduoed the arrangement of the Venetian altar-pieces in
some works subsequently done by him in Bologna ; but the
early simplicity or seventy was preferred permips as fitter
for religious subjeots, and was rather confirmed than dis-
carded by the greatest painter of the first epoch, Franceses
Fraocia, This astitt* who wascontompei^ry with Raphael,
pA mrfmi him ism ywn MXK^dinf W fUnimi^ w»i
celebrated to a ginsmith and engrareir e# medals before he
betook himself to the pencil at a comparatively advanced
age. Vasari says that he was born in 1450, and that his
first picture was'dated 1490. He is celebrated as a painter
Who succeeded beyond most others in giving an expression
of sanctity and purity to his Madonnas, and a letter of
Raphael's is extant in which this merit is particularly
alluded to. Franda, who, in that middle style which the
Italians huve called anii&hfnodemo^ ranks with Pemgino
and Bellini, should, like them, have preceded the highest
development of the art in a Raphael or a Titian ; but it
ia precisely in this highest ooriesponding point that the
Bolognese school is wanting, and the eulogists of Francia
have in vain endeavoured to exalt him to a level with the
painters of the first rank with whom he happens nearly
to coincide in date. Vasari relates that when the 8t Ce«
cilia of Raphael made its appearance in Bolojgna; accord-
ing to him in 1516, Francia, to whose care it had been
consigned by the great painter himself, was so amazed at
its vast superiority to his own efforts that he soon after died
of mortification. It has lieen satisfactorily provedi by the
date of some pictures of Franda, that he lived some years
after this, but the story has been recently repeated by
Quatrem^ do Quhicy in his life of Raphael, and by Tieclc
iPhantarien iiber die Kunti). Tho school of Francia pre-
sents no distinguished names. The summit of the art had
been already reached elsewhere, and his followers, who were
inferkur to him, were eclipsed by the disciples of Raphael.
These introduced a more or less servile imitation of the
style of their great model into Bologna ; the best were
Ramenghi called Bagnacavallo, and Innocenza da Imola.
It is in the account of Bagnacavallo (whioh includes a
notice of Innocenza, Aapertini, and Girolamo da Cotignola)
that Vasari speaks so contemptuously of the Bolognese
school. Bagnacavallo was however occasionally original^
and some of his productions were considered worthy of the
particular attention and study of succeeding masters. Three
distinguished names precede the epoch of the Caracci*
Primaticcio, Niccol6 dell' Abate, and Pellegrino Tibaldi.
Niccol6 deir Abate belongs strictly to the school of Modena«
but he is associated with the Bolognese painters by som^
works at Bologna, by his joint labours with Primaticcio at
Fontainebleau. and by the extravagant compliment paid to
him in a tonnet by Agostino Caracci, in which he is said
to unite all the excellences of all the great masters. Prima*
ticcio and Tibaldi began their studies, though at very differ-
ent times, under Bagnacavallo ; the first, who was the elder
by many years, assisted Giulio Romano at Mantua, and
under his direction acquired a faoihty and a classic taste
which he afterwards displayed in a series of designs for the
ceihngs of Fontainebleau, where he was empk)yed by
Francis I. and bis successors. The frescoes painted from
these designs, and which are now no longer in existence,
were ohieily executed by Niccol6 dell* Abate. Pellegrino
Tibaldi soon left Ramenghi for Rome and Michael An-
gelo, to whose style be devoted himself; his successful imi<»
tation of the great Fkirentine master, whose powerful de-
sign he sometimes blended with the excellences of other
schools, places him in a relation to bis prototype similar to
that which Bagnacavallo holds to Raphael, and the Caracci
honoured him with the appellation of * the Reformed Mi-
chael Angeb.* Tibaldi was employed in Milan and aftep-
wards in Spain, and thus the three greatest masters of this
intermediate period were absent from BQh>gna a great part
of their lives.
The name of Prospcro Fontana stands at the head of
those who, living from ihe earlier to the latter part of the
sixteenth century, and inheriting but little of the genius of
the great masters, survived their own slender reputation to
witness the rising fome of the Caracci. In the same class
may be mentioned Passerotti, as the latest Bolognese painter
alluded to by Vasari. The others may be passed over, with
the exception of Denis Calvart, a native of Antwerp, who,
after setthng in Bologna, where he opened a school, not
only had the honour of partly instructing Guido, Domeni-
chino, and other celebrated Bolognese painters, but also o.f
introducing that elevated style of landscape-painting which
afterwards added a new lustre to the school in the hands of
the Caraoei, Domenichino, Grimaldi, and others.
Thus the imitation of the two great Florentine and Ror
man mast^ lasto4 with iip oth^r change thai) ^hat of
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|be Mer Zucearo in Rome ftnd thoge of Bronzimo in Flo-
rence may be ranked with the Fontanas and the Passerottid
of Bologna. The characteristic excellence of the Venetian
school bad been occasionally blended with the other styles,
but in general the influence of each was separate and
exclusive : meanwhile, owing to the ascendancy of the two
ilrst, the imitation of Correggio can hardly be said to have
extended unioterruptedlv beyond his own date, since Par-
niigiano, \»uu luaeea rather holds the rank of an original
mastor, survived him but a very few years. Baroccio may
therefore be considered to have led the way, about 1565,
Dot only in including Correggio among the great models
proposed for imitation, but even in preferring him to the rest.
The example thus set to the Roman school was followed
soon afYer by Cigolt in Florence, viz. about 1530, a period
which immediately precedes the dawning influence and fame
of the Caracoi. They too, from whatever cause, partook of
tlie new admiration, and in their attempt to unite the excel-
lences of the different schools, it was natural that a style,
which had been hitherto in a great measure overlooked,
should form a chief element of that eclectic perfection which
was proposed as the object of attainment Accordinglv* the
imitation of Correggio preponderates in the first works of
these masters; and Annibale Caracci's letters from Parma
Srove that, like many other painters of the day, he consi-
ered the excellence of Correggio as a new discovery,
Lodovico Caracci, who had studied in Venice, Florence,
and Parma, cx)nceived the plan of introducing a new style,
according to his biographers, when alone and unassisted,
and it is said that he persuaded his younger cousins Agos-
tino and Annibale to devote themselves to painting in order
to aid him in effecting his purpose. He sent them, after
well-grounded elementary studies, to Parma and Venice,
from the latter of which schools it may be obser^*ed the Bo-
logncse painters seem to have borrowed least. The first
work of importance done after their return to Bologna was
a series of compositions, representing the story of Jdson, in
an apartment of the Palazzo Fava : Lodovico himself as-
sisted, but the greater part was the work of Annibale. The
severe criticisms and opposition which this performance ex-
cited induced the Caracci to strengthen their party, and
the famous school was opened which shortly attracted most
of the rising painters who were studying with Denis Cal-
%'art, Cesi, and Fontana : — ample details as to the mode of
study in the school of the Caracci may be found in Mai-
vasia. The fame of these masters was soon after firmly
established by their works ; and Agostino, as an engraver
as well as a painter, contributed to spread and sustain their
name : but the enmity of the abettors of the old style was
not completely silenced till the frescoes in the Palazzo Mag-
nani were executed. Denis Calvart was the last to fall in
with the general approbation ; and it appears from Malvasia
that his cnief objection to the new mode of study was the
constant reference to nature which was now deemed indis-
pensable: from this objection the previous state of the
schools and the manner of the painters of Bologna may be
inferred.
Annibale Caracci repaired to Rome shortly before 1 600,
and painted in various churches ; but his great work, the
monument of his powers, and the specimen of the school
most frequentiv quoted, although not perhaps the most cha-
racteristic, is the series of frescoes in the Famese palace.
In this work Agostino among others assisted : the Cephalus
and the Galatea, according to Bellori, were painted entirely
by him. The admirers of the antique and of the Roman
ftcliool prefer this work even to Lodovico*s performances hi
Bologna: Poussin and other painters, who visited Rome
early in the seventeenth century, gave it the highest praise.
The followers of Lodovico at Bologna were however true
to the founder of the school : posterity seems to have con-
firmed the opinion, and to have decided that this great
painter, with les^s academic power than Annibale, is more
orii^inal in style. Sir Joshua Reynolds thus speaks of Lo-
dovico Caracci : * His unaffiected breadth of light and sha-
dow, the simplicity of his colouring, which, holding its proper
rank, docs* not draw aside the least part of the attention
from the subject, and the solemn effect of that twilight which
seems difi'used over his pictures, appear to me to correspond
with grave and dignified subjecU better than the more arti-
ficial brilliancy of sunshine which enlightens the pictures of
Titian/
The principles and practice of the Caracci and their
(Kholai» A4pe»eded for a time every other style in Italy, yet it
may be remarked that the efibrte of LodoTiM eoa htiil? b«
considered so spontaneous and independent as the bistortona
of art have commonly asserted. It has been already sbowo
that a new impulse had manifested itself in the Roman and
Florentine schools even previously to the revolution whtch
the Caracci effected; and whatever may have been %bm
origin of that impulse, the tadden rise of various and power*
ful talents in Bologna may be considered a synipioiii nuJbef
than the cause of general improvement
Among the numerous scholars of the Caracoi, Donein-
chino holds the first rank ; but the merit of this pointer was
long unnoticed in Rome, where he resided some time, owing
in some degree to the intrigues of his rivals. Poussin bad tbo
honour of bringing some of his best works into notieot and
declared him to be, in his opinion, the greatest painter after
Raohael. By some modern critics, too, be has been preferred
to the Caracci themselves : his cluef excellence, and that m
which he approaches Raphael, is his expression. The grace*
ful Albani, who left the school of Calvart for that of the Ca*
racci, perhaps like Domenichino imbibed his taste in land-
scape from the Fleming : he communicated it to Frsnce»co
and Giovanni Battista Mola, who often suffered it to prvdo*
minate in their own historical works, and who oceasion.iUy
painted the landscape backgrounds to the figures of AlUanu
these consisted frequently of females and children in subje<*ts
connected with poetry or allegory, and be excelled in thea
perhaps more than in sacred subjects. The more brilliant
talents of Guido excited the jealousy of the Caraoei from
the beginning. Lodovico encouraged Gueieino as a rival to
him. and Domenichino was put forward, it is said, for no
other reason, by Annibale in Rome. The light and sihery
tone which is observable in some of Guide's best works ts
said to have been owing to an accidental expression of Anni*
bale Caracci, who at a time when the dark st}le of Cars*
vaggio excited general attention, and was imitated among
others by Guido himself, remarked that the opposite treat-
ment, with appropriate subjects, would perhaps be still murw
attractive. Caravaggio, who was born in the Milanese, and
painted in Rome, Naples, and elsewhere, eannot be placed
in the Bolognese school, which however be greatly in«
Uuenced : he belongs to the successful innovators wbo. at
the close of the sixteenth century, sought to oppose literal
and unselected nature to the insipid imitation of Ibe purer
styles, and may be considered the chief representative of a
class of painters called by the Italians the Naturaii$ti and
the Tenebrosi. Among the painters of the Bolognese scho-ii
Gucrcino. born at Cento, seems to have been most smitten
with the vigorous effects of Caravaggio, altbougb in hts
latest practice he acknowledged the charm of Guide's st>le
by attempting to unite it, perhaps with little success, to hxs
own. His dark pictures are generally his liest, and be some-
times united the higher qualities of expression and of form
with the magic of his relief. Both Caravaggio and GuersiM
studied in Venice, and the former particularly aimed at Xim
style of Giorgione ; yet their works, however admirable, pro*
sent but few traces of Venetian principles, and this is to be
accounted for by the spirit of innovation which manifested
itself in every branch of the art, and which took the oppo-
site of the vices of the day. The negative and somewhat
heavy colour of the two masters alluded to was opposed to a
llorid and weak imitation of the colourists, the excttsses ol
which are ridiculed by Boschini in lus * Carta del Nnve^ax
Pittoresco.'
Lanfranox), bom at Parma, was another distiaffuished
scholar of the Caracci, and assisted Annibale in ibe For*
nese paUce in Rome : his own great work, the cupoU of
St. Andrea della Valle in the same city, is the best snecinien
of his powers, and it is here that as a machinist (the term
applied by the Italians to painters of large oompositioo^ on
ceilings and in galleries) he aimed at the grandeur of man*
ner and boldness of foreshortening which he bed kng
studied in the works ef Correggio at Parma.
Of the remaining disciples of the Caracci it may he suf-
ficient to mention the names of Tiarini, Lionello SjMsdo, aod
Cavedone. AH the more noted scholars before mentioned
had numerous followers, and perhaps none more than Gunix
In these the manner of the respective masters natiiraU> de-
generated, and no new talent arose. The taste in landscape
which the Caracci introduced or improved was inberiu>i
and almost exclusively practised by Giovanin Battista V t- >\^
the Grimakli,and others : the most perfect specimens of this
branch of art, as proptised in the school, are liowevot* to b«
sought in the works of Donei^cbut^^Md Anpibibi C^ipcst
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M
66 1
Aliottl Cb« yMr 1700 the greatest ntme was Carlo Cig-
nani, a painter of oonsiiderable repute in his day, and who
so fiLr re%iTed the principles of the school that he professed
to unite the anatomical science of Annibale Caracci with
the more attractife qualities of Correg<;io. Under his aus-
piees the Clementine Academy of Bologna was instituted
to prevenre as much as possible the acknowledged principles
•f the art, and to point out the best models for imitation.
But while the impulse which the Caracci and their scholars
bad communicatiMl to the school was gradually exhausting
itself, a pemieioas and iA many respects opposite tendency
bad been gaining ground. The specious facility and con-
sequent popularity of the machinists who imitated Vasari in
Florence and the Zuceari and Arpino in Romo hid been
With diffieulty opposed by the united efforts of the Caracci,
and appear to have been the chief causes of the neglect of
Domenkhino. This empty fiicility, no longer contrasted
with such distinguished talents, was naturally considered
the highest proof of ability, and by degrees almost extin-
guished the taste ibr welUstudied imitation. A Bolognese
writer and painter, Zanotti, who was long professor of the
Clementine Academy, was one of the first to i-aise his voice
against this destructive mannerism, and to recommend a
more f^eauent reference to nature. He has been considered
to have led the way to opinions far more decided than his
own as to the necessity of returning to the first principles
of imitation, and indeed to the methods of the earliest mas-
ters. These notions have been openly expressed in Ger-
many, where the writers on art, allowing for some exagge-
ration in their views, have had the merit of directing the
uttention of the world of taste to the simple but impressive
productions of the older Italian painters, from whom Ra-
phael caught the fbehng which aided him in his study of
^nature.
To recapitulate, the school of the Carxcci has been often
described as merely imitative, but perhaps this has arisen
rather from the well- known and professed object of its insti-
tutors and followers thali from a particular evidence of that
object in their productions. If a certain resemblance of
manner, whatever it be derived from, characterise the mas-
ters, it may be admitted that no schojl presents so much
variety as is to be met with in the works of their disciples.
This, it must be confessed, cannot be said of the followers
of Michael Angelo and Raphael. The example of an eclec-
tie style may thus lead to a more original style, whereas the
example of an original style, if it cannot be surpassed, can
only end in a weaker copy. Yet assuming that the (Jararci
were as independent of the spirit of their age and as free to
choose their path as their biographers would lead us to
suppose, had they endeavoured to follow up the feeling of
Francia (not to return to Lippo Dalmaslo or to Giotto), iTicy
might have succeeded in connecting the highest effort of
the school with that earlier, national, or local style, which,
as we bare seen, was nipped in its growth before it was
fully developed, partly perhaps because Francia devoted
liiniself so lato )n life to the art, and thus still adhered to
the incomplete and, as it were, preparatory mode of imita-
tion when the perfect one had already been introduced.
The merit of this painter, as one of the characteristic Italian
masters, should not however be forgotten, and his style is
bot the less interesting from being connected with that
original school of Umbria, distinct from the Florentine,
which was remarkable for purity of expression, and which
had so much influence on the education and genius of
Raphael.
BOLOGNIAN PHOSPHORUS. [Phosphorus.]
BOLOGNIAN STONE, a variety of sulphate of ba-
rytes. [BariumJ
BOLOR, or BELUR TAGH, a name on all our maps,
down to the latest, given to the extensive mountain-range
which encloses the high table-land of eastern Asia on the
west, and separates it from the deep depression which sur-
rotxnds the sea of Aral on all sides and the Caspian on
three. This name, we believe, is first found on some Rus-
sian maps made in the beginning of the last century, and
afterwards adopted by D'Anville in his Atlas of the Chinese
empire, since which time it has been continued. But as
this name is not known in the countries contiguous to the
range, at least not in those of which we have obtained
any information, it may be asked whence is it derived. It
Is found to rest on the authority of Marco Polo, the Vene-
tian lnive(ter« and on thai of the Arabian geographer Na^ir
Ettdia. But on examiaiog the passages m which these
ftnthors speak of ^olor, ft is evident that the namd li n<^
properly applied to this range, and it is uncertein whether
it can be applied to any mountain-range at all Marco
Polo, after leaving Badakhshan, or Balascia, and traversing
a country called Yocam, arrives at the highest mountains
in the world, and having passed them, to the table-land of
Pamer. Travelling from it in a north-eastern direction, for
forty days, over a mountain-rcfrion of great extent and ele-
vation, he adds that this country was called Belor. After-
wards he arrives at Khashghar. But Nasir Eddin evidently
gives the name of Belur to a place which, according to liis
(let ermination, lies 3° 36'£., and lO'S. of the town of Badakh-
shan. Mr. Erskine, in his introduction to the history of the
Emperor Baber (xxvii. note), was the first who observed that
there was a variance between Marco Polo and Nasir Eddin,
and a still greater between them and our maps. Julius
Klaproth, at a later date, compared the passages of Marco
Polo with the great Chinese map, and found the naine of
Bolor inserted on it not far fouth of the position which Nasir
Eddin has assigned to Belur. To reconcile the passage of
Marco Polo with the position of Nasir Eddin and the Chinese
map, Klaproth reasonably supposed that the first part of
Marco Polo's route had been towards the east, and that conse-
quently Belor and Bolor mean the same place. The opinion
of Klaproth has been adopted by Ritter, and the respective
positions of the places have been inserted on Grimm's
' Atlas von Asien.' As we think that this determination is
well founded, and that consequently the name of Bolor will
disappear from the place which it now occupies in our maps,
we do not describe that mountain-range which lies between
40'* and 35^ N. lat. on both sides of the meridian 72*" E. of
Greenwich under this name of Bolor, but under that of
Tart ASH 1*aoh, the name by which it is known among
the natives. The Chinese map gives it the name of Tar-
tash-i-ling.
BOLS&^A, a town in the papal state, in the province
of Viterbo, situated on the slope of a hill near the northern
bank of the lake of Bolsena. It is an old decayed-looking
town, rather unhealthy in summer, with about 1 500 inha-
bitants. Bolsena is near the site of the antient Volsinii,
one of the principal cities of the Etruscans, which sustained
several wars against Rome, and, owing to its strong position,
mainteined its independence after the rest of Etruria had
been conquered. But the citizens of Volsinii in the pride
of wealth and security, having become addicted to in-
dolence and pleasure, emancipated their slaves, and en-
trusted them with arms for the defence of the town, and
even admitted them into the senate. By degrees the liberti
or frcedmen, becoming possessed of all the power in the
slate, tyrannized over their former masters, held their
persons and property at their mercy, and violated the
honour of their wives and daughters. The citizens secretly
sent deputies to Rome imploring assistance. A Roman
army, under the Consul Fabius Gurges, marched against
Volsinii, and defeated the revolted liberti, but the consul
was killed in the engagement. A new consul, M. Fulvius
Flaccus, was sent from Rome, who after a siege took Vol-
sinii, B.C. 266. Most of the revolted liberti were put to
death, but at the same time Fulvius Flaccus lazed tht
city which had so long withstood the power of Rome. He
carried away the spoils, among which it was said there
were 2000 sUtues, a number evidently exaggerated. (See
Livy's narrative of this event, with Niebuhr's remarks
upon it, Romuche Geschichte, 3rd vol.) The inhabitants
built themselves a new town in the neighbourhood. This
new Volsinii is little noticefl in subsequent history. Se-
janus, the favourite of Tiberius, was a native of it. The
Via Cassia passed through Volsinii. Among the few re-
mains of antiquity at or near Bolsena are some ruins of a
temple, said to have been dedicated to the Etruscan goddess
Nursia. Two antient urns are in the vestry of the churcn
of Santa Cristina, and in the place before the church is
another urn with curious basso- rilievi, renresentinff satyrs
and bacchantes, and near it is likewise a large ana elegant
vase of oriental granite. It is in the church of Santa
Cristina that the miracle of the bleeding host is reported in
the eld legends to have occurred, which furnished Raphael
with the subject of one of his finescpaintinga in the Vatican.
Bolsena is 56 miles N.N.W. of Rome, on the road to Flo-
rence.
BOLSE'NA. THE LAKE OF, is in shape nearly
oval and covers about seventy souare miles. It is tdmosi
wholly surrounded by hills, which are ooveEe4 with tre«i^
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BO.L
96
BO L
Tines, and gardens. To the south?-east the town of Monte-
flascone rises on a oonical hill a short distance from the
lake, and from the summit there is a splendid view of the
sorroundin^ country. To the eastward, hehind the town
of Bolsena, is the calcaneus ridge of Bagnorea and Onrieto,
which divides the hasin of die lake from the valley of the
Tiber. [Baonorba.] South-west of the lake, the country
opens into the unwholesome plains which extend towards
the sea. At this end, the river Marta (Lartes flumen)
issues out of the lake, and after a course of about forty miles
enters the sea near Corneto. The lake is subject to over-
flowings; it is in many places shallow near its borders,
where it is covered with reeds and freouented by multitudes
of waterfowl. The air around the lake is unhealthy in
summer, though not so deleterious as that of the olains
towards the sea. The lake of Bolsena abounds with fish and
large eels, which were celebrated in the time of Dante.
(Purgaiorio, xxiv. 22.) Two small islands rise out of the
lake, Isola Bisentina and Isola Martana. It was in one of
these islands, some say the Mariana, and others the Bisen-
tina, that Queen Amalasonta, daughter of Theodoric, the
Gothic king of Italy, was confined, and died a violent death.
After her father*8 death she became regent of the kingdom,
during the minority of her son Athalaric, who dying pre-
maturely, Amalasonta took for her colleague in the cares
of the kingdom her cousin Theodatus, who soon after con-
fined her in the island on the lake of Bolsena, where she
was strangled in 535. Theodatus was himself shortly after
put to death by Vitiges. The hills that surround the lake
of Bolsena ara basaltic ; but the rock in most places has a
covering of rich mould, though in others it is bare and
shows hexagonal prisms ranged in all lines of directions,
vertical, horizontal, and oblique. The country produces
very good wine, both red and white, especially of the muscat
kind.
BOLSOVER, a parish and formerly a market-town in
the hundred of Scarsidale, county of Derby, 23 miles N.N.E.
from Derby and 130 miles N. bv W. from London. At the
time of the Domesday Surrey the manor of Bolsover (Bele-
sovre) belonged to William Peveril, who is supposed to have
built Bolsover Castle. Not long after the forfeiture of this
property by William Peveril the younger for poisoning
Kalph Earl of Chester, in 1153, we find the castle men-
tioned as having been « given with the manor by Richard I.
in 1 IS9, to his brother John on his marriage. The castle was
jn the possession of the barons in 1215, but was taken from
them by assault for the king (John) by William de Ferrers,
Earl of Derby. The manor and castle continued some-
times a direct property of the crown, and at other times it
was in the possession of various nobles under grants from the
crown. The Earl of Richmond (father of Henry VII.) died
possessed of it in 1456, together with the Castle of Hareston,
both of which were granted in 1514 to Thomas Howard
Duke of Norfolk, on the attainder of whose son it again
reverted to the crown. Edward VI. granted it to Talbot Earl
of Shrewsbury, in whose family the manor of Bolsover con-
tinued until the time of James I., when Earl Gilbert sold
it to Sir Charles Cavendish. The old castle was in ruins
long oefore. Leland mentions it as in ruins in his time,
and no vestige of it now remains. That which is now called
the castle is nothing more than an ill-contrived and incon-
venient domestic residence with somewhat of a castellated
appearance. It was begun, immediately after he made the
purchase, by Sir Charles, who appears to have removed on
the occasion what remained of the old castle. It is a
square, lofty, and embattled structure of brown stone with
a tower at each angle, of which that at the north-east angle
is much higher and larger than any of the others. The
. building stands on the brow of a steep hill overlooking a
large extent of country. A flight of steps on the east side
leads through a passage to the hall (the roof of which is
supported by stone pillars), and thence to the only room
designed for habitation on this floor. This apartment, called
the 'pillar parlour,' is 21 feet square, and has an arched
ceiling which is supported in the centre by a circular pillar,
around which the dining-table is placed. Above stairs
there is a largo room, about 45 feet by 30, called the ' star
chamber;* there are also a smaller apartment and two
loflging-rooms on this floor and eight on the attic story,
which are all very small : the floor of every room is of stone
or plaster. The residence of the family of Cavendish was
prcWbly in the magnificent range of ruined apartments
which extend to the west of the structure we luiye men<
tioned» and of whksh only the outside walls wn now strnft*
ing. In front of this mansion there was a fine terrace*
from which a magnificent flight of steps led to the entrance.
The gallery in this fine range of apartments was fiOO feet in
leng& by 22 in width ; the dining-room 78 feet by 32 ; the
two drawing-rooms are 39 feet, the other 36 feet hV 33. Dr.
Pegge, Horace Walpole, and others, tliought that tlie»«
buildings were erected after the Restoration by Wdliaa
Cavendish Duke of Newcastle, son of the Sir Charlca, who
built what is called the castle. Diepenbeok's view of BoU
sever (1652) however decides the point of their previous
existence, and that they were built before the civil wars la
more than probable, as otherwise there would have been no
room at Bolsover for the splendid entertainment which the
Earl of Newcastle (such was then his rank) gave to King
Charles, with the queen, the court, and * all the gentry of
the county.* The earl had previously entertained the aing
at Bolsover in 1633, when he went to Scotland Uf be
crowned. The dinner on this occasion cost 40601.; ard
Clarendon speaks of it as ' such an excess of feasting as
had scarce ever been known in England before.* In the
early part of the civil war the castle was garrisoned for the
king, but was taken in 1644 by Major-General Crawfurd»
who is said to have found it well manned and fortified with
great guns and strong works. During the sequestratiofi of
the Marquis of Newcastle's estates, Bolsover Castle suffered
much both in its buildings and fbmiture, and was to bate
been demolished for the sake of its materials, had it not been
purchased for the earl by his brother. Sir Charles Cavendish.
The noble owner repaired the buildings after the Restoration,
and occasionally made the place his residenoe. It now be*
longs to the Duke of Portland, whose familv derived it in
the female line from the Newcastle Cavendishes. Although
still inhabited, the mansion has long ceased to be even occa-
sionally occupied by its owners.
The small town or village of Bolsover is pleasantly sita-
ated, together with the castle, upon a point projecting into
a valley which surrounds it on every sine except the north-
east, where the separation has been made by a deep cut.
The number of houses in the parish, which includes part of
the township of Gapwell, amounted to 320 in 1831, and itie
population to 1429, of whom 695 were females. The inha-
bitants are chiefly employed in agriculture. The pan^h
church, dedicated to St Mary, is of a mixed architecture,
having portions of the Norman style intermixed with later
English architecture and with some modem additions.
The living is a discharged vicarage in the diocese of Lich-
field and Coventry, with the annual net income of 1 1 liL
There is a small charity school, endowed with 6/. per an-
num, said to have been given by the Countess of Oxford ;
the school -house was erected in 1756. The interest uf
nearly 3000/., bank annuities, bequeathed by Mrs. Smith-
son in 1 761, is applicable to the assistance of the poor at the
discretion of the minister, churchwardens, and four trustees.
(Pegge's Sketch of the History qf BoUover and Pe*ik
Castles; Bray's Tour t'n/o DerSyshire; Pilkington s Prr-
sent State of Derbyshire ; Lysons's Magna Britannia,)
BOLTE'NIA (zoology), a subgenus of Ascidids. a fa
mily of the group Tunicata, which, according to William
Sharp MacLeay,* are the animals that connect the Acrita^
or lowest primary division of the animal kingdom, with.th«
Molluscs, from which, he ohser\'es, they difier in the ibUow.
ing points : First, in having an external covering consist-
ing of an envelope distinctly organized and provided with
two apertures, of which one is branchial, the other anaL
Secondly, in their mantle forming an internal tunic com
spending to the outer covering or test, and provided hkc it
with two openings ; and thirdly, in having branchi« which
occupy all, or at least part, of the membranous canity
formed by the internal sides of the mantle. From ium
Acrita the Tunicata (or Heterobranchiata, as De Blaine iil«
calls them) differ in having distinct nervous and genetati>e
systems, while their intestinal canal is provided with two
openings, both internal. [Tunicata.] MacLeay, in hiA
excellent * Anatomical Obsenations on the Natural Group
of Tunicata,* after referring to the investigations of Cuxier,
bestows well-merited praise on the * inimitable labours' c^f
Savigny, and censures De Blainville for his obvioua wish
to obliterate them. He well observes, that dissection rau^t
• 'Anatotnleal Obflrnratiom on the Natnnl Gro%f of Tanleate. wli!i t« »
afwriptioD of thrre ipeciea eollceted in Fkix Cbannrl dnrinc tb* Inl* K«nlM-r«
K&i>e<btUm; bjr WUiiim Hhwp MnelMj. Btf, AJI^ PXA*2>«m. Uwm
, Soc, vol, xiv, f. 6a7«
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•Iwayt be retorted to vben we with to understand tiie
character of the Tunkata, whether simple or compound ;
and adds, that the naturalist who contents himself with
dcsoiibing the e](temal appearance of an Asddia may ro-
main even more ignorant of the nature of the inclosed
animal than that person is of MoUusca who knows no more
of them than the shells they inhabit. The following is the
geoeric character of Bol tenia (Savigny) as reformed by
MacLeay for satisfactory anatomical reasons, detailed in his
memoir, every word of which is worthy of the deepest atten-
tion of the comparative anatomist
External character, — Body with a coriaceous test, sup-
ported from the summit by a long pedicle, and having both
orifices lateral and cleit into four rays.
Anatomical cAaroc^tfr.— Branchial pouch divided mto
longitudinal folds, surmounted by a circle of compound ten-
tacula, and having the reticulation of its respiratory tissue
simple ; abdomen lateral ; ovary multiple.
There are three species recorded, viz. BoUenia ovifera,
BoUenia Juatformii, and Bolterda rtntformU, We select
the latter, Atddia globifera of Captain Sabine, Aiddia
davaia of Otho Fabricius, as an examplo of the subgenus.
The foUowinff is MacLeay's character and description.
Specific Mtracter, — Obscure, roughish; body subreni-
form, the orifices being somewhat prominent ; pedunde ter-
minal.
Z^Mcnp^ion.— £nvelone sub-pellucid, whitish ; mantle or
tunic very Uiin, provided with transverse, circular,, narrow
muscles, which cut each other very obliquely.
Tentaada about ten or twelve in number, very unequal,
davate, with the dava plumiform or beautifully divided into
a number of regular laciniea.
Branchial pouch marked with about fifteen or sixteen
large folds, and having the net-work simple and regular as
in the Cynthia momus of Savigny. [Cynthia.]
Dorsal sulcus having die two lateral filaments wmged
and the intermediate simple.
Q^ophagtu descending vertically to the lower end of the
body, as suspended, and mere meeting an ascending ovoidal
stomach wilnout any apparent internal folioli.
Intestine with an oblong, longitudinal, open loop, which
is prolonged to the pedicle; rectum narrow and sulAconical,
and ascending nearly parallel to the oesophagus^ only
higher ; anu« having a scolloped margin.
Liver coating the stomach behind the right ovary, and
running from the lower end of the body, as suspended, about
half way up. It is divided into several granulated globes,
some of which are separated from the others, particularly
towards the pharynx.
Ooariea two, elongate, lobate, situated on each side of the
body, and directed towm!ds Uie anal orifice ; right wary
straight, daviform, lying close within the loop of the intes-
tine ; left ovary larger and less lobate, but imdulated and
extending downwards behind the branchiil vein.
Clioiurti iwjfcfU.*)
?, redleU ; C, TmadiUl oriSoe of enT»lop« ; A. anal m\Act of •nrelope.
• TlM eat i« taken Uool tho flguie giren hy Bfr. MacUay, whoob^sttw
Uiat tho tpcciman was probably oontvaoted by being in spirits, as the ittuar
liflB of the loop of the inttttina to indimlcd by a eomaponding elevation of
the envelope.
MacLeay, after quotiiig Captain Sabine (Appendix to
Parry's Vdifoge to MelviUe IHdnd) and Fabricius {Fduna
Groenlandtca)t gives the northern seas of America as the
locality of the animaL Captain J. C. Ross (Appendix to
Sir John Ross's Second Voyage) says that a single speci-
men was dredged up from a (kpth of seventy iat^yms near
Elizabeth Harbour. He observes that he can add nothing
to Mr, MacLeay's admirable description, except that the
colour of the body is a Very light brown ; that of the pedicle
darker.
The sphere wherein this Ascidtan moves must nedsssarily
be very contracted. Anchored by its pedicle, the length of
its moorings fixes the limit of its motions, which are most
probably confined to the oscillations arising from the ogita-
timi of the waves. Both the body and pedicle, as MacLeay
observes, are scabrose or covered witu a rough surfttce,
which is formed by exceedingly short coarse hairs. The
original colour he could not ascertain ; but in spirits it was
cinereous or dirty white, which, he adds, may possibly be
the true colour of the animal, as it is not unfrequently that
of the other ascididas. MacLeay 's specimen was brought
home from Winter Island by William Nelson Griffiths, Esq.,
while under the orders of Captain (now Sir Edward) Parry.
BOLTHEAD, a chemical vessel, usually of green glass,
and of a globular form, with a narrow neck. It is chietiiy
employed in the process of sublimation.
BOLTON-LE-MOORS, a borough town in the popu*
lous parish to which it sives name, in the hundred of Sal-
ford, county palatine of Lancaster, comprising the township
of Great Bolton, and the chapelry of Little Bolton ; 1 1 miles
N.W. of Manchester, 6 miles W.S.W. of Bury, 12 miles S.
of Blackburn, 11 miles SJS. of Chorley, 43 miles S.S.E. of
Lancaster, and 197 miles N.W. by N. of London. It is in
53° 33' N. lat, and 3° 34' W. long.
The parish of Bolton contains twelve townships and six
chapelnes, of which the following is a list, with the esti-
mated annual rental of the lands, &c., of each : —
Population Beiimated Value
Anglesarke, township
Blackiod, chapelry
Bolton, GreaX, township
Bolton, Little, chapelry
Bradsbaw, ehapelxV
Breightmet, township
Edgworth, township
Entwistle, township
Harwood, township
Lever, Dercy, chapelry
Lever, Little, township
Longworth, township
Lostock, hamlet
Quariton, township
Riviuffton, chapelry
Shar^M, township
Tonge with Haulgb, township 2,20 1
Turton, chapelry
Total . 63,034 • £77,997
The increase in the population of the town of Bolton has
been very rapid since the year 1773, when there were only
5339 inhabitants in the two townships. In 1801 they
amounted to 17,416, in 1811 to 24,149, in 1821 to3L295,
and in the census of 1 831 thev are returned at 4 1 ,195, snow-
ing an increase in 58 years of 35,856 persons. The returns
for the whole parish during 30 years preceding the year
1831 exhibit a proportionate increase. In 1801 the parish
contained 29,826 inhabitants; in 1811 this number was
raised to 39,701, in 1821 to 50,197, and in 1831 to 63,031.
The tables drawn up at the last census exhibit the fol-
lowing partici:dar8 connected with the population of this
borough : —
168 •
£975
2,591
4,618
28,299
27.887
12,896 .
11.747
773 .
2.I6C
1,026 .
2.307
2,168 .
2,989
701 .
1,684
2,011 .
2,492
1,119 •
1,378
2,231 •
2,611
179 .
545
606 .
1,668
376 .
1,327
537 .
2,650
2,589 .
3.228
p 2,201
2,632
2,563 .
4,193
No. 284.
[THB PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA]
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The boondwriet of the bonnigli. m laid down in ibe
Boundary Act. 3 and 3 Will. IV. cap. 64, are not the boun-
daries of the town : a portion of Little BuUon lying to the
north of Astley Bridge, and extending as far as Horrook's
Fold, is excluded from cne franrbise, and the small ad-
joining township of Tonge with Haulgh is included in it
The tovough returns two members to parliament.
The name of Bolton is involved m obscurity, though
its affix of le Moors evidently points to a Norman origin,
and affords proof of the early importance of the place, which
lequired to be thus distinguished from other towns of the
•ame name. If, as it has been lupposed, Bolton is a cor*
ruption of Bodelton or Bothelton, a town which is men-
tioned in Uie * Calendarium Rotulorum Chartarum * pre-
served in the Tower of London, the manor belonged at the
time of the Conquest to Roger de Merscheya, by whom it
was sold, along with his other lands between the Ribble
and the Mersey, to Ranulf de Blunderville, Sari of Chester,
teem whom it came into the possession of the Earl of Ferrers,
and from him to an antient Lancashire family of the name
of Pilkington. In the possession of this family the manor
remained for nearly a century, until 8ir Roger Pilkington,
then high sheriff of the county ,'Was attainted and beheaded
at the commencement of the reign of Henry VIL, for ad-
hering to the cause of Richard III. at the battle of Bosworth
field. His estates were confiscated and given to Sir Thomas
Stanlev, then created Earl of Derby. In this way the Earl
of Derby beoame possessed of nearly all the land in the town
of Bolton, which tie held until part of it was again coufis-
oated during the Commonwealth, in consequence of the
conduct of the Earl of Derby in the civil commotions of
those times. By a series of mutations, not easily traced,
the manorial rights became divided among several indivi-
duals, by whom they are still held. The earls of Di'rby and
Bradibrd have each one-third part, two other individuals
have each one-twel(\h, and a fifth party holds one-six ih.
The manor of Little Bolton is in the poadesiion of Titumos
Tipping, Esq.
During the political dissensions in the reign of Charles,
Bolton began to .rise into notice, owing to the ardent spirit
manifested by the inhabitants in favour of the Common-
wealth. During the long strife between the royalists and
the parliamentarians the town was garrisoned by the latter,
in whose possession it remained till 16*44. After Prince
Ruperts successful attack upon the parliamentary troops
who besieged Lathom House, the then residence of the
Stenley family, finding that they took refuge in Bolton, he
followed them with his armv, where, being joined by the
earl of Derby, he attempted to take the town by storm.
After several assaults the royalists, being repulsed with
great loss* retired, until the earl of Derby, having collected
bis tenantry and levied new troops, returned to the attack,
and Bueoeeded in dislodging t^e parliamentary forces, and
obtaining possession of the town. It did not remain lon^
in their hands, for by one of the singubr ncissitudes of
those eventful times it was again surrendered to the parlia-
ment; and after the battle of Worcester the unfortunate
earl, who had sigpaliaed himself in the attack upon Bolton,
being taken prisoner, was condemned by a military tribunal
at Chester, and sent under an escort to Bolton, where he
was beheaded October loth, 1651.
Several centuries prior to this date the town was famous
for its manufactures. Leland speaks of its being a market
fi»r cottons and coarse yarns ; and another writer (Blome),
who wrote somewhat later, describes it as 'a fair well-built
town, with broad streets, with a market on Mondays, which
is very good for clothing and provisions ; and it is a place of
great trade for fustians.* There seems to be littlb doubt
that the making of woollens was imported by some Flemish
clothiers, who came over in the fourteenth century ; that
other branches of trade were introduced by the French re-
fiigee roenufHcturers, who were attracted by the prosperity
of the neighbourhood; and that the manufacture of cotton
cloth was improved, and in many of its kinds introduced,
by sume emigrant weaversi who came from the iwlatinate
of the Rhine.
Bolton made no great advances in population until the
improvements in the maohineiy for spinning ootton gave
in impetus to the trade, which has been gradually in-
creasing ever since. Almost the first invention in point
of impoftance originated in this town. It was a machine
which combined the principles of the spinning-jenny and
th« water-frame* and was called from that circumstance
a MuU. TOt wu tha diseovary of a maa ti tii* naBM of
Samuel Crompton, who lived in a patt of an intereiling old
house itbout a niile from Bolton ealled * Hall in the l\'o>jd/
where the ex[ierimenta were earned on which reaut*ed in
this valuable invention. Fortunat^y for the puttie, but
unfortunately fbr the inventor, no patent was taken out Ut
the machine. It consequently came into immediate use.
and made the fortunes of thoasands, whOe the ingenious
discoverer, after receiving the product of two subscriptions
of 105/. and 400/., raisea with difl&culty from these wbom
his invention had enriched, was remunerated by a parlia-
mentary grant of 5000/. In the mean time Sir Hirhrtrd
Arkwright, another native of Bolton, who had risen from a
very obscure condition, had established large f^rtorio^ in
Derbyshire, where he carried the ootton machinery to the
greatest perfection. The opposition made by the labour-
ing classes in Bolton to the improvements in machinery
has, at various times, driven the most lucrative brancl.r^
of employment from that town to other places. The in-
troduction of the mule and of the power-loom was not ac-
complished until they had enrichea other communities for
some time. After a while cotton fhctories began lo h»e np
in various parts of the town, filled with machinery upm
the best principle. Foundries and machine munufurtoru*%
followed them, and a great extension was immediately gt«i*n
to the trading interests of the place. Some of the larir^ot
mills in the county are in BoU3n. Two of the princ.} .1
spinners have each more than 100,000 spindles empire «••;,
and there are nearly ftAy factories in the town and tie
immediate neigbboarhood. The cotton manufacture wh^n
is carried on in tliese mills, comprehending the dres^tr.;:
and carding of the raw material, and the spinning :t
into yam, employs steam-power equivalent to about 1 1* u
horses. About fifty steam-eaginea are used In the spintiiui^-
mills alone. At seven persons to one horse power (\» huh
is Baines s calculation) there would therefore be 7700 per-
sons, old and young, engaged in the mills alone in Bolton.
But this average is taken too high ; fijro would he m*>rv
accurate, giving a totU of 5500» which corresponds ^ery
ncai-ly with the returns. In 1831 the whole number of
men employed in the cotton and silk trade in the townships
of Great and Little Bolton was 6100. The womon und
children would quadruple the number.
The weavers of Bolton produee a great variety of Ikbrii^s,
probably a greater variety than an^ other single place m
the county, plain and fiiney muslras, quiltings, A^unt r-
panes, and dimities, are the ehief kinds of cloth, but cam-
brics, ginghams, &c. are also woven. Fbmerly fustians,
jeans, thicksctts, and similar fabrics, were the pnncipal ar
tides made in the town, but these descriptions of doth arr
now chiefly produced in the power-loom, as well as ealicucs
and dimities. Silk goods are not produced here to any ex-
tent. Several attempts have been made to introdooe Ihera
among the Bolton weavers, bat without much success.
The bleach works in the town and neighbourhncd ar«
among the largest in the kingdom, and employ a cons»idvr-
able number of persons, ten millions of pieces being tl:e
average number annually bleached in the parish of Bolton.
The steam-power used in these works is calculated lo be
equal to the power of nearly 5C0 horses.
In the foundries it is nearly as great, twenty-five steam-
engines being employed in them. The iron foundries aud
machine shops in Bolton are numerous and extenstxe.
Steam-engines are made at several of them, and, together
with the machinery that is manufactured here, are con^-
dered of the first quality.
Many other branches of trade connected with the alxn ••
are carried on to a considerable extent ; and there are sere: ..I
large chemical and paper-works in the town and its vicxnttT.
A great proportion of the cotton goods manufactun'^l
here are sold in Manchester, where the manufacturers
have warehouses for the stormg and sale of their cloth «.
They meet their customers there from all parts of tho
country, one, two, or three days of each week, but a]va)>
on Tuesday, which is the cotton market dav in that metA>-
polis of the cotton trade. On that dajr all the principal^ or
their representatives torn every estabhshment in the couttt>
connected with the cotton trade, more particularly Uearhei>
and manufacturers, meet in Manchester, The practice,
though apparently inconvenient, and certainly attendotl
with much trouble, has so many advantages that tbeiw ts
no wish, even among those who are most mnote hom the
market, to alter it.
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BoltDti U well aecomtaodated with the netiifl of convey-
ance to all parta of the kingdom. Being on the direct line
of the north road from Manchester, coaches [are constantly
oassin^ through it in that direction. The intercourse with
Manchester, already very easy and frequent, will be ren-
dered much more so by the new rail-road which is being
laid (1835) between the two towns, the completion of which
is expected in the course of a year. There is also a railway,
which was opened in 1831, connecting Bolton with the
Manchester and Liverpool line at Kenyon, by which pas-
sengers are conveyed to either of the two great towns. The
distance by it to Liverpool is thirty-two miles, to Manches-
ter twenty-two miles. The advantages of inland navigation
have been ei^oyed since 1791, when a canal was made
flom Manchester to Bolton, with a branch to Bury. It
begins on the western side of Manchester from the river
Irwell, to which it runs nearly parallel, crossing it at
Clifton, and again near Little Lever, where its two branches
to Bolton and Bury separate. • Its whole length is fifteen
miles one ftiflong* with a rise of 167 feet The two towns
thus connected with Manchester, being on the same level,
no lock is required between them. The distance by canal
from Bolton to Manchester is twelve milea ; firom Bolton to
Bury six miles.
The whole district through which the canal runs abounds
with eeal. The mines, though not perhaps so close to the
town, appear to have been worked when Leland wrote his
* Itinerary/ He says ' They burne at Bolton sum canale
but more se cole, of the wich the pittes bo not far off.* The
principal mines for cannel coal belong to the earl of Bal-
carras, and are in the vicinity of Wigan : but some of an
inferior quality is found nearer Bolton. The common coal
lies round the town, and is the main source of it? pi-osperity.
The two townships of which the borough of Bolton con-
sists are separated by a small river called the Crole, which
risod at Red Moss in the hamlet of Lostock, and runs due
wcAt into the Irwell, dividing in its course Great and Little
Bolton, the south side of it being the township of Great
Bulton, and the north side the chapelry of Little BoUon.
Though an antient town, the streets of Bolton are wide and
straight, and the houses generally well built The roads
leading to and from the town in every direction are kept in
good condition, and the princdpal entrances are good. The
town covers nearly a square mile, having been very consi-
derably extended in the S.W. direction, under an act of
parliament obtained in 1792 for inclosing BoUon Moor, a
lar^e tract of waste land comprising nearly 300 acres, which
was divided into allotments and sold by public auction on a
perpetual chief-rent to be secured by buildings, and made
payable to trustees appointed in the aforementioned act. A
fifteenth part was deducted C3 a compensation to the lords
of the manor, to whom were reserved also the mines and
minerals underneath the surfiice. The powers of these
trustees were extended by another act in 1617, by which
they wens empowered to raise a rate to the amount of 2s, 6d,
in the pound upon the annual value of the property of the
town for the purposes specified in a former act for light-
ing, cleansing, paving, and improving the town of Great-
BoUon. The manv expensive improvements which were
made previous and subsequent to the passing of the last
act involved the trustees in expenses beyond the amount
of tlieir annual receipts from the Moor, which, united vsith a
waut of proper economy, rendered it necessary fbr them to get
an enlargement of their powers, in order to obtain a mort-
gas^e upon the Moor rents. In tliis way they raised 12,000/.,
to (iefhiy the interest of which, together with other de-
mands, a police rate, varying from U. to 2«. 6d. in the
pound, was annually laid upon the inhabitants, and paid
for a number of years, until, in the year 1835, the tax was
discontinued, and by a better administration of the funds
yielded by the chie^ rents on Bolton Moor, not only have
they been found equal to defray the annual disbursements
for the lighting, paving, cleansing, and improving the town,
but, in aaditton, 200o/. of the debt has been discharged.
The income of the whole property is 2500/., 400/. of which
is absorbed by the interest of the mortgage.
The powers of the trustees of Great Bolton, who are ap-
pointed under the Police Act do not extend to the preserva-
tion of public order. Officers are annually selected at a
ruuit ^.eel called by the lords of the manor, in each township
respectively, under the names of a boroughreeve, two con-
stubles, and a deputy-constable, in whom all authority is
Tested, during thetr continuance in office, ft>r the preservation
of the public peace. The oonseqnenoe of this mode of tp'
pointing such important officers ia the same as in meat
other towns similarly situated,— a most inefficient police —
an evil which is so strongly fielt by the inhabitant!) tliat it
is likely they will seek to remove it by incorporating them*
selves under the provisions of the Corporation Reform Bill.
little Bolton has a police act distinct from Great Bolton*
which vesta the appointment of a certain number of trustees
annually in the rate-payers. The sum raised last year ht
the purposes of, lighting, paving, and cleansing Little Bol-
ton, amounted to 1918/. 58, lOJ., being U. 6d, in the pound
upon the annual value. The parochial conoems of the two
townships are each as separata as their municipal afiairt*
and in both are well managed. In Great Bolton, the sum
collected for the relief of the poor was about 4000/., being
2s. in the pound upon the annual value. In Little Bolton,
during the same year, 1674/. 6s, iOd, was collected fbr the
relief of the poor, being is. ad. in the pound upon the annual
value of the property in the township.
The town is well lighted with gas by a company inccnv
porated in 1820. It is also admirably supplied with water»
brought irom a distance of four miles N.E. of the town.
The springs are first collected in a large reservoir near their
source, firom which the water is conveyed in earthenwaie
pipes into another reservoir, about a mile from the town,
from whence it is again conveyed through an iron main of
thirteen inchea diameter to the varioua parts of the town.
The water descends from an elevation of about 700 feet )
but the elevation of the reservoir from which the inhabitants
are supplied is not more than eighty feet, and is not found
to give sufficient pressure to raise the water to the height
at which it is wanted. The company are about to remedy
this, by making another reservoir on a higher level, which
will make the water available to all the purposea for which
it is required. This undertaking was effected at an expense
of 40,000/., subscribed in shares of 50/. each, by a company
established by act of parliament in 1824. The scale of
charges is so moderate as to put it within the power of the
poorest inhabitants to have tne water brought into their
own houses. Dwellings under 10/. are charged 10«. a year
and houses of greater value one shilling in the pound upon
the annual rent
The churches and chapels, the exchange, news-room, and
library, the dispensary, the workhouse, and the town-hall itt
Little Bolton, are the only edifices that can be considered
as public buildings. Of those the large parish church, dedi-
cated to St. Peter, is supposed to be several centuries old,
but has few pretensions to architecture. It has a low toweri
and is surrounded with a very extensive burial-groimdL
The living is a discharged vicarage in the deanery of Man-
chester, and in the archdeacpury apd diocese of Chester,
and is returned of the yearly value of 464/. in the Scde-
siastical Returns. Another church was recently erected
in Great Bolton, at an expense of 13,412/., part <3i which
was defrayed by a grant from the parliamentary com-
missioners. It is a handsome building with a tower» in
the English-Gothic style, and contains 923 free sit*
tings. The living is e perpetual curacy in the gift of the
vicar of Bolton. The largest church in Little Bolton, St.
George's, a bnck buildings with a .tower and bells, was
built by subscription in 1796. I'he. living is a perpetual
curacy, to which the subscribers had tkree presentations*
which are now exhausted, and it reverts to the bishop of
Chester. There is also a chapel of ease in the same town-
ship, dedicated to All Saints, in the g[ilt of Thomas Tip-
ping, Esq., lord of the manor, which is also a perpetual
curacy, it is endowed with 200/. private benefaction, 200/.
royal bounty, and 2200/. parliamentary grant. The places
of worship belonging to the dissenters in Bolton are nume-
rous and spacious. There are two each for Baptists, Inde-
pendents, and Unitarians, one each for the Society of
Friends and Swedenborgians, a Roman Cethdie Chapel»
and seven places for the various denominations of Me-
thodists.
The institutions for education in Bolton are numerous. The
fi-ee grammar-school, contiguous to the parish chnrohyard^
educates 1?0 boys. It was founded in 1641 by Robert
Lever, citizen and clothier of London ; and in 1651 an old
school, of unrecorded foundation, was, with its revenue atld
property, united to it; since which time both have been
considered as one school. The income is 485/. per annum
of which the head master receives n salary of 160/., the se-
cond master 100/., and the writing-master 7&lr^r anmmh
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100
BOM
The appointment of matten and the government of the
school are vested in twelve governors, who supply vacancies
in their nuroher as they occur. No hoys are admitted into
the school except on the foundation, and they are all selected
from the parish of Bolton. The children of dissenters are
admitted if they are willing to conform to the rules of the
school. The only payment is one shilling on entrance to
the head master, who superintends the whole school, and
has a class of thirty, who are instructed hy himseir chiefly
in Latin and Greek. In the lower school the second roaster
teaches English, geography, and the rudiments of Latin.
The hoys Irath in the upper and lower school attend the
writing-master, and receive instruction according to their
capacities in writing, arithmetic, algebra, and mathematics :
French has heen discontinued. The boys learn the Church
Catechism and read other religious books, principally se-
lected from those nublished by the Christian Knowledge
Society. Among tne masters who have presided over this
school are Robert Ainsworth, the compiler of the Latin
dictionary, and Dr. Lempriere, the author of the * Classical
Dictionary.* ^
At another school, endowed by Mr. Nathaniel Hulton, in
School-street, Moor-lanc, 120 boys and 80 girls are in-
structed in reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography,
and the girls in sewing, on the system of the British and
Foreign School Society. It was not founded by the tes-
tator, but established in 1794. bv his trustees, in compliance
with his will, out of the surplus proceeds of money be-
queathed for other purposes. The children pay a small
sum weekly towards their education.
Marsden's and Popplewell's Charity-school, in Church-
•^ate, was founded in 1714, for teaching twenty children,
oys and girls, reading and the church catechism, without
ny charge. Mrs. Susannah Brookes left a further sum to in-
struct twelve more in the same manner, and latterly an-
other considerable bequest has been received from the exe-
cutors of the late Mr, Popplewell, which will soon render
it desirable to place the school in a situation more adapted
to its usefulness to the labouring classes. (Report of Com-
musionera concerning Charities, pp. 155-1 76.) The num-
ber of private day-schools in Bolton is about eighty; of
which forty-four are for children between the ages of three
and nine ; fifteen for girls only, from five upwards ; seven
for boys only, of the same a^e ; and the rest for pupils of
both sexes, between the ages of four and twelve. The
'number of children educated in Sunday schools is very con-
siderable, as may be seen from the following statement,
taken with some of the above particulars from the Journal
of Education (No. xviL p. 74) : —
Parish School • . «
St George's School • •
All Saints ....
Methodist — old and new i
connexion . . . /
Primitive and Independ-1
ent Methodists . j
Independent Schools
New Jerusalem . . .
CathoUc School . . .
Unitarian ....
Besides these institutions, funds are raised for the esta-
blishment of two new schools, one in each of the townships.
on the system of the British and Foreign School Society, for
the education of a thousand children, 600 boys and 400 girls.
In addition to the school charities, considerable sums are
distributed to the poor from various bequests connected with
the town. From Hulton's Charity, 25/. ; Parker's, 5/. ; Gos-
nell's Charity, 5/.; Crompton's Charity. 7/. 10*.; Astley's
Charity. 3/. ; Cocker's Charity, 5/. 9». ; Aspendell's Charity,
fi/. I5t. ; Mort's Charity,!/.; Lomaxs Charity, 1/. 10#. ;
6reenhalgh*s Charity, 4/. 10#.; and Poppleweirs Charity,
30/. {Report qf Commitiionera concerning Charities,
1828, pp. 168-184.)
The dispensarv was established in 1814, and is hberally
•apported. A clothing sOcietv, and a society for the relief
of poor women during child-birth, are supported chiefly by
ladies.
Petty sessions are held on Monday and Thursday in
•^ week, which are attended by several magistrates, the
Boyt.
Girls.
ToUl.
430
720
1150
310
490
800
75
125
200
1164 1744
370
3-10
3208
710
430
570
1000
69
39
108
no
120
230
174
158
332
3432
4306
7738
bttsinesi of which has undergone a meet extneidinary ds*
minution since the Poor- Law Bill came into operation.
There is a lar^e weekly market on Mondaye and Satar-
days, well supplied with all sorts of provisi(»» and vejre-
tables. There are two annual fain, one on the 31tt of July,
and the other on the 14th of October, for hardware, toy a, &c.,
and on the day preceding each is a fair for homecl cattle.
A fortnight fair is abo held for lean cattle on Wcdaeadays,
from the 5th of January to the 1 2th of May. A newspaper,
under the title of the * Bolton Chronicle,* is published every
Saturday. {Communication from Bolton.)
BOMB, the original name of what is now called a shell, is
n hollow globe of iron, which, when charged with a certain
quantity of gunpowder, is projected from a mortar or how-
itzer, generally at a considerable angle with the horiaon : in
order that, by the momentum acquired in its descent, it may
crush the roofs, end, by exploding, destroy the buildings on
which it may fall. The name is thought to have been given
as an expression of the sound produced either in the explo-
sion, or at its discharge from the piece of artillery employed
to project it.
It IS said by Strada, in his account of the wan in the
Low Countries, that bombs were employed for the flnt time
in 1 588 by Ernest, the father of Charles, Count of Manafeldt.
at the siege of Wachtendonk, a town near Gelden. He
adds that they were invented, a few days before that 8tc;:o
commenced, by an inhabitant of Venlo ; and it is stated
that the people of this city, wishing to exhibit the iuventioa
in presence of the Duke of Cleves, discharged a bomb,
which falling on one of the houses set fire to it, and, the
flames spreading, three fourths of the town were destroyccl
before they c^ula be extinguished. (Pdre Daniel, Histinre
de la Milice Fran^aise, liv. vii. chap. G.) But Grose rv
lates that a French translation, made in 1555, of a work bv
Valturinus, was accompanied by a print reprej»enting a ean*
non just fired, with a ball in the air and another on the
ground, both of which were burning at the vent. A title to
the print denoted that this was a contrivance for firing a
ball filled with powder ; and as the first edition of Valtu-
rinus is dated 1472, it appears from thence that bombs
must hare been invented about the middle of the fifteenth
century. Bloudel however, in his treatise entitled L'Art de
Jetter les Bombes, remarks tliat bombs were used by tb«
French for the first time in 1634, at the siege of La Mot he,
under the direction of one Mai thus, an English engineer,
who was invited firom Holland by Ijouis XIII., and w;u
afterwards killed at the siege of Gravelines.
In 1688 there was cast in France an enormous bomb,
which is said to have been in the form of an egg. and to
have been capable of containing 7000 or 8000 poonds of
powder; it was nine feet long and five feet in diameter,
and the iron was six inches thick. The bomb was to ha^e
been discharged against the Algerines, and the ship in
which it was embarked was to have been blown up with iL
It was not however employed, probably in consenuenre "f
an opinion that it would not have had the intended elleci,
and no attempt has since been made to project such an mi-
mense mass of metal. While the Citadel of Antwerp »:.%
besieged by the French army in 1832, shells twenty -four
inches in diameter were thrown from the largest mortar
whicli has been employed in modem war&re; the shell or
bomb was capable of containing ninety-nine pounds uf
powder, and when charged weighed 1015 pounds.
The word bomb being now nearly superseded, except :t%
a component in those which express the subjects of the tlin>r
following articles, and in the term bombardier, which i*
applied to the soldier whose duty it is to serve the «.til
nance from which shells are projected, the deeeription of
this missile will with most propriety be introduced un<ler
the words which denote the aifferent species at pfresient m
use : as Carcass, Cass-Shot, Grknadi, and Shsll.
BOMB-PROOF. This name is given to a military
mapazine, or other building, when iu roof has sufficiciu
thickness to resist the shock of shells fUling on it, after
being projected from mortars at considerable elevan^n
Under the word Blindaos is given the construction nf
such buildings of timber as are intended to secure troops or
artillery from the effects of what are called vertical firr« ,
and under the word Caskm atb is shown that of the vaults
Mhich are formed in the masses of ramparts U> serve ru:
the like purposes. A bomb-proof, however, is generally
understood to signify an isolated building, rectangular oo
the plan, formed of briek or stone aalaivecedwitb a vmoltcd
ae
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roofof the fame material. The mtrados, or interior line,
in a Tertical and txansverse section of the vault, is sometimes
a semieirele, but now more generally a parabola ; and the
exterior Burfaee of the roof has the form of two inclined
planes meeting in a ridge which is parallel to the sides of
the building and over fte middle of its breadth. By this
construction the greatest thickness is given to the crown, or
upper part, where a falling shot or shell would be most in-
jurious to the stability of the vault It is intended to serve
as a powder, or store-magaxine, an hospital, or to cover a
battery of guns or mortars ; and when constructed in a
fortress for the first of these purposes, it should not only be
isolated, but should also be situated in some spot at a dis-
tance from the fronts likely to be attacked, and secured
as much as possible against accidents.
As the oetails of the construction and uses of such
buildings are given under MAOAZiifB, it is only necessary
to obserre here, that the span, or interior width of a bomb-
proof vaidt, is usually about eighteen feet, and the thick-
ness of the areh three feet at the hances or sides. But
the extrados, or exterior of the vault, should be covered
with a bed of earth about five feet deep, to deaden the
concussion produced by the shells which may ^ke it;
this earth should be renewed as &st as it is blowup away by
the explosions* to prevent the shell from fiilling on the
naked vault, for, as each shell would tear off the masonry
to the depth of two or three inches, it is evident that the
building would be totally destroyed after a few successive
shocks.
BOMB-VESSEL, a ship of about 350 tons burthen,
usually forming part of a fleet intended by a bombardment
to destroy or compel the surrender of some town situated
on the sea-eoast It carries one 13 inch and one 10 inch
mortar, besides two 6-pounder guns, one 12-pounder, and
eight 24 -pounder carronades ; we crew consists of sixty-
seven men, with the usual complement of officers for ships
of the same class, besides a detachment of marine artillery-
men, with their oflScers, for the service of the guns and
mortars. The mortars are mounted on their beds, which
are placed on traversing platforms in the middle of tlie gun-
deck, and they may be fired over either side of the ship at
elevations never less than 45^. In taking their stations
previously to a bombardment, it is desirable that the vessels
should keep beyond the range of the enemy's batteries, and
that they snould have springs upon their cables.
For particulars concerning the ordnance and stores on
board of bomb-vessels, and for the management of the
latter when in action, see the Brituh Qutmer, by Captain
M. Spearman.
BOMBA'CE^ a group of plants considered by some a
distinct natural order, by others as a mere section of Ster-
culiac€€B, They are usually large trees, with broad deep-
green leaves, and flowers of considerable sixe. Technically
they differ from Maioactm in having two cells to their
anthers, which are often doubled down upon themselves,
in Uieir calyx opening in an irregular rather than a valvate
manner, and in their stamens being usually collected into
five parcels. Their anthers are often described as having
only one cell ; but this is an inaccurate mode of speaking of
thorn, inasmuch as they are formed upon the common two-
celled type, and merely have the cells united at the point of
the connective.
This group contains some of the most majestic and beauti-
ful trees that are known, but nothing of much medical or
economical importance is furnished by t^em. Their wood
is light and spongy; the long cottony substance found
within their fruit, and which has gained for some of them
the name of cotton-trees, is too short in the staple to be
manulactured into linen ; and the sUghtly acid or mucila-
ginous quahties that occur in the group are altogether in-
ferior to those of many Molvacem* Adansoma, or the Bao-
bob tree* already mentioned in its proper place, is one of them.
It is remarkable for the excessive thickness of its trunk as
compared with its height, and this is a character of common
occurrence. Several American species spread enormously
near the ground, forming huge buttresses with the angles
of their trunk. This is especially the case with the genus
Eriodendron, which is moreover often defended by very
large conical prickles, which do not fall off till they are
exfoliated by the gradual distention of the trunk. Among
these plants is a singular instance of a flower resembling
the paw of some animal. The tree which produces so strange
a conformation is called the Mamia, and will be described
under CtfxiRQBTSXON. No bombaceoos plants are found
far beyond the tropics.
BOMBARDIER, a non-commissioned ofiicer of the royal
regiment of artillery, whose duty it is to load shells, grenaaes,
&c. ; to make and fix the fuzes, and who is particularly ap-
pointed to the service of mortars and howitzers. A certain
number of bombardiers are attached to each company of
artillery.
BOMBARDMENT. This is the action of throwing
shells, carcasses, and shot into an enemy's town in order to
destroy the buildings, and chiefly the military magazines ;
for wmch purpose mortar, howitzer, and gun- batteries are
constructed in convenient situations, generally opposite to
the most densely inhabited quarters. If the town is a sea-
port, bomb- vessels also are moored along the shore, and the
firing is kept up simultaneously on the land and sea-sides
of the place.
When an army invests a fortress, whether it proceed
against it by the operations of a regular siege, or simply
keep it in a state of blockade, a bombardment is one of the
means resorted to in order to accelerate the surrender, by
rendering its occupation dangerous to the citizens, and
ruining the buildings in which the ammunition is secured,
or in which the garrison while not on duty find repose.
Among civilised nations it has become a principle to
spare as much as possible the lives and property of indi-
viduals who are not actually engaged in the military ser\'ice
of the state against which an army is employed ; since, be-
sides the cruelty of acting otherwise, the end thereby to bo
gained, which is the finsd termination of hostilities, is not
iu the smallest degree advanced. The practice of besieging
fortresses is now so far reduced to a regular process that the
time of their surrender may be confidenUv anticipated by so
employing the artillery, that, while it efiectually dismounts
that of the enemy, and lays the rampart in ruins in the
ditch, it scarcely produces the smallest injury to any but
the defenders of the works: hence the simple bombardment
of towns occurs so much less frequently now than in former
times, and no circumstance is considered as a justification
of the measure except the absolute inability to reduce a
place by other means.
When a town is, fi^m the fate of war, about to become
subject to a bombardment, the garrison should endeavour to
rct:&rd the calamity by the erection of advanced works about
the place, or by keeping troops in the suburbs and neigh-
bouring villa^s as long as possible. By this measure pro-,
visions, materials, and even workmen will be obtainea in
abundance for the service of the defenders ; the inhabitants
of the fortress also, finding that the garrison is not shut up
within the walls, will be inspired with confidence in its pro-
tecting power, and thus induced to suffer less unwillingly
the privations and dangers to which they must inevitably
become exposed. The enemy moreover will be compelled
either to abstain from constructing a line of eountervailor
Hon, as it is called, to prevent the sorties of the garrison ;
or, if such is attempted, the line must be so extensive as to
require a long time for its formation, and the works consti-
tuting it must be so far asunder as to render it impossible
to watch the avenues of the place with sufieient care to
prevent all communication between the town and country.
The power of acting offensively may thus be not wholly
taken away from the garrison, and the enemy may be kept
at such a distance as to lessen materially the effect of tiie
bombardment. What has been said must not be understood
to imply that any village, suburb, or building, which, by
falling into the power of the enemy, might facilitate his
operations, is not to be destroyed before he can get posses-
sion of it ; but it is evident that the object in view, which is
the preservation of the place, and of its docks and arsenals,
if it be a naval station, will be most effectually obtained by
keeping the enemy as long as possible at a distance firom
them beyond the range of his artillery.
The garrison must of course employ a fire of the heaviest
artillery to destroy the enemy's batteries as soon as they are
formed. The casemates and blinded buildings in the town
should be repaired and multiplied ; and the ammunition
should be kept in small quantities in each, in order to avoid
the loss and damage which would be occasioned by the ex-
plosion of a large and full magazine; for which reason also,
it should be disposed in the quarters least subject to the
fire of the enemy. Wells and cisterns should be protectei
by shell-proof blindages, the fire-engines carefully secured,
and companies of men formed whose duty should be t9
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pnM^ imfliedistoly with tlw esgiiiM to mij fpol Wbare e
fire loay have broken out. Tbe utmost uitrepidity m r«.
quired in men employod on this aervioe» which is rendered
particulirljF dangerous, because the enemy always eonlinneJ
to direot hw fire towaids any spot at which flames are se€U
to rise, in order to prevent if possible the defenders from
extinguishing them. When ied«hol shot are thrown into a
town, men snould also be appointed to seek them and, by
pincers or otherwise, remove them to places where they can
do no harm.
A strict police is to be maintained, and every precaution
used to prevent eonspinuaes among the citiiens fur deliver-
ing up the place. For now, since the loss of a town does
not, as in antient warfare, entail upon the inhabitants the
loss of life or liberty, it is easy to conceive that their interest
in their property must unavoidably lead them to desire the
cessation of the bombardment, thou^^h at the price of the
transfer of the town to the enemies of their country ; and it
must be expected that they will use every means in their
power, whether of persuasion or force, to compel the com-
mander to surrender.
The most celebrated bombardments mentioned in history
are those of Gibraltar, Copenhagen, and Algiers. The first
of these places was invested on the land-side by a Spanish
army, which was afterwards united to thai of France, and on
the sea-side by the combined fleets of the two nations. The
investment took place in 1779, but no remarkable actions
occurred till 1782. The town was twice distressed for want
of provisions ; the highest works of the fortress, though
1340 feet above the level of the enemy*s batteries, were de-
stroyed by shells irum the latter several times ; attempts
were also made by the besiegers both to fire the ships in
the harbour, and to annoy the British army by gun-boats.
On the other hand, the garrison was employed in
strengthening the old fortifications and adding new bat-
teries, and in making occasional sorties against the Spanish
lines. In the last mentioned year, however, the besiegers
converted some of their large ahips into floating batteries,
which, on September 13, commenced a tremendous fire on
the towui while tlie land-batteries cannonaded the works in
flank and rear ; the garrison, in return, paying little atten-
tion to these, poured on the ships a corresponding Are of
eareasses, shells, and red- hot balls. This work of destruc-
tion continued on both sides till about seven or eight p.m.,
when it nearly ceased. The utmost confUsion and distress
by this time prevailed in the fleet of the besiegers ; several
of their largest ships caught fire, and two of them blew up
with tremendous explosion. The general peace, which was
made in the beginning of the next year, put an end to this
memorable siege after it had been earned on nearly four
years.
Tlie bombardment ef Copenhagen took place in 1807,
and was efllbcted by a British army under Lord Cathcart,
which closely invested the city on the land-side, while the
fleet under Admiral Gambier blockaded the harbour. The
fire fi-om the land-batteries and bomb-vessels opened on the
evening of September 8, and continued till the night of
September 4, when a capitulation tiiok plaoe. In this
bombardment the rockeU invented by Sir William Congieve
vera used for the first time, and it is said that the cathe-
dral, with above three hundred houses, was destroyed by
the shot and shells which were thrown into the town. The
last action of this nature occurred in 1816, when the united
fleets of England and Holland, consisting of fifteen ships
of war, besides gim-boats. umler the command of Lord
Exmouth, bombarded Algiers. The firing continued during
twelve hours, in which time all the enemy's ships in the
harbour wens destroyed and great part of the town.
BOMBAY, an island on the western coast of Hin-
dustan, lying off the shore of the Concan in the province
of Btjapore. The town, which is ot the south-eastern ex-
tremity of the island, is in 18"* 56' N. lat., and 72- 57' E.
long. It lies to the south of the island of Salsette, which is
considered to be a dependency of Bombay ; the two islands
are connected by a causeway wbieh was constructed in 1805
by Mr. Duncan, at that time governor of the presidency.
Bombay is little more than eight nailes long from north
to south, and about three miles broad . in iU widest part.
It is formed by two ranges of whinstone rock of unequal
length, running parallel to each other on opposite sides of
tlie inland, and at the dUtance of between two and three
miles from each other. The eastern range is about seven
and ihe weatera abovl five nilM long; and they an
united tft Ui# nortb and eottth by belta of I
are only a few feet above the level of tho sea. Th» iik*
terior or the island was formerly liable to be flooded a*
a« to |ive to the whole the appearance of a group oi
small islands. This flooding is now prevented by thm
construction of several substantial works which keep oat
the spring-tides, but as the lower parts of the isknd ar>e
ten or twelve feet under high-water mark* e greet pai t
of the interior is, during the rainy season, reduced to •
swamp. The site of the new town of Bombay is subject
to this disadvantage, so that during the oontinuenoe oC th«»
wet monsoon the houses are separated from eaeh other by
water sometimes for seven or eight months of the year :
this spot was reoovered flrom the sea in the latter part vi
the last century.
The natural difficulties of the ishuid must have prevented
any settlement upon it by Europeans but for the ad\'ao*
tages of its position for commerce, and its harbour, which le
unequalled for safety throughout the British Empire in
India. This excellent harbour, on acoount of which the
island received its name (Bom Bahia) fitwi the Portuguese*
is bounded on the north and west by the islands ef Salsette,
Bombay, and Colabba, or Okl Woman's Island, which last
is a small island or narrow promontory, naturally oonnected
by a mass of rock, which rises near the surfrce of the water,
with the south-east extsemity of Bombay, and now united to
it by a causeway which is overflowed at spring-tides* The
cantonments for the European troops are situat^ on Colabbeu
On the east side of the harbour, about four miles from Bom*
bay, is Butcher s Island, and behind this the island of
Elephanta, celebrated for its eaves and temples, and which te
only five miles firom the Mahratta shore. Three miles south of
Butchers Island and Ave miles east from Bombay is Cera nj a
Island, on the western side of which is an extensive slioaL
The entrance to the harbour thus formed is betwivn
Colabba and Carai^a Islands, or rather between the alvjal
just mentioned and a reef of rocks surrounding on all sidca
the point of Colabba, and extending about three mile« to
the southward. The channel between these is about three
miles wide, and seven to eight fathoms deep. In entcrin?
the harbour it is necessary to clear a sunken rock an : a
bank which occur in the passage. There is a liuht-hoiiM;
built on the southern extremity of Colabha Island^ 1 JO feet
above the level of the sea, which may be seen seven league*
oS the coast
There is no other important harbour in Britiah Indi4
where the rise and fall of the tides ore suflieient to adieu uf
the formation of wet docks: the rise at onlinary spnn^-
tides is fourteen feet : occasionally it is three feet higher.
In the age of the Periplus this island, then called Kal-
lieua, was litUe frequented. It hsd previously been an
established commercial port, but Sandanea, one el the
sovereigns of Barugasa, prohibited any of the Eg> plun
trading vessels from entering the harbour, and if any wc n>
compelled to do so by accident or stress of weather, a guax^
was immediately put on board, and they were taken 1 1
Barugasa.
Bombay was ceded by the Moguls to the Portugucee in
1530, and came into the possession of the English on ti>e
marriage of Charles II. with the Infanta Catherine of Por-
tugal. By the marriage-contract the king waa to rereuv
500,000/. m money, the town of Tangier, in Africa, and the
island of Bombay with its dependencies, together with per-
mission fyr his subjecto to carry on a free trade with all the
Portuguese settlements in India and Braiil. A fleet of
five ships of war, commanded by the earl of MarlborouA;h,
with 500 soldiers on board, was sent to receive poeieswn of
Bombay, where they arrived on the IBth September, Ub2.
Under the pretext that the instrument by which the soi «-
reignty of the island was made over did not aooord with the
usages of Portugal, but realljr, as it is said, instigated bv
the priests, who could not endure the thought of suiTender>
ing the place te heretics, the Portuguese govetnor refused
to complete the cession, and the fleet returned to England.
This matter was not arranged betvreen the two govemmcnlt
until 1664, when possession was taken in the nanseof the
king of England by Mr. Cooke, and Bombay has since
that time remained in the possesion of the English. The
trade carried on from this settlement by ofiScere in the
king's service, who paid no freight Ibr the goods which they
received from Europe, and who consequently were able to
undersell the factors of the East India Company, caused
great dismtiafacttoa eg the part of thelj
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Iha ottmr hind, the etpenset which the settlemeiit occa-
sioned beyond the revenue to the king made hhn willing to
transibr flie island to the Company. Tlie instriiment by
which this transfer was effected bears date 1668, and states
that the island is 'to be held of the king in firee and com-
mon soocage, as of the manor of East Greenwich, on the
payment of the annnal rent of 10/. in gold on the 30th Sep-
tember in each year.* With the place itself the Company
rMeived anthority to exercise all political powers necessary
for its defence and government. Bombay is therefore the
oldest of the East India Company's settlements in Hindus-
tan, and the terms upon which it was acquired first invested
them with that political power which they have since exer-
cised in India. In 1674-5 a mutiny broke out in Bombay,
but was easily repressed, when the ringleaders were tried
and executed, the Company then first exercising the power
of enforcing martial law. Another insurrection in 1683
was not so easily quelled. The commander of the troops,
dissatisfied with the proceedings of the Company, and
being joined by the soldiers as well as the great body of
the settlers, renonnced the authority of the Company, and
by a proclamation dated- Deo; 27, 1683, declared that the
island belonged to the king. This proceeding was not
approved by the erown, and orders were sent to deliver the
island to the ofiicera of the Company, who were directed to
proceed by force to their execution. It was only under the
promine of free pavdon to all the insurgents that possession
was obtained, and at this liroe it was deemed expedient to
guard against any similar insurrection in future by trans-
ferring to Bombay the seat of the Company's government
in India, which had previously been plaeed at Sural In
1687 the title of regency was given to the administration
at Bombay, and unlimited power over the rest of the Com-
pany's settlements in the East was given to the governor.
The only natural vegetable production of the island, with
the exception of some rank grasses, was the cocoa-nut tree,
whioh grew ^^erj abundantly, it being a property of that
tree to be uninjmiid by sea-water. It was necessary to
clear away great numbers of this tree in order to erect the
fort and buildings of the town. The spoto capable of being
cultivated in the island will hardly yield a week s supply of
Drovisions for iu inhabitants, who are dependent upon the
farmers and gardeners of Salsette, which is well cultivated.
The fort and town of Bombay stand (principally en a
narrow neck of land) at the south-eastern extremity of the
island. The fortjficatipns are extensive, and would require
a numerous garrison for their defence ; towards the sea the
works are extremely strong, but on the land-side, supposing
an enemy to have made good a footing on the island, they
would offer comparatively little resistance. The houses
within the walls are bnilt of wood, with verandahs and
sloping roofs covered with tiles. In 1803 a great fire de-
stroyed many houses ; after which a great number of dwell
ings were built on a salt ground then newly recovered from
the sea as already mentioned. The adoption of this spot
for building ground appears to have been a matter of neces-
sity arising from the denseness of the population in propor-
tion to the quantity of land cleared or capable of being
converted to building purposes. Many of the dwellings,
both within and beyond the walls of the fort, are constructed
in a commodious manner, particularly in what is called the
European quarter. The shops and warehouses belonging
both to European and to native merchants and traders are
upon a large scale. The northern quarter of the fort, which
is principally inhabited by Parsee families, is dirty and un-
inviting. The government-house within the fort is a large
convenient huilaing, used principally for conducting the
public business. Hie governor has two other residences ;
one at Malabar point, the S.W. extremity of the island ;
the other at Parell, about four miles from the fort near the
eastern shore of the island. The first of these, which is a
cottage beautifiilly situated on a rocky promontory, is in-
habited hy the governor during the hottest season. The
house at Parell is handsome, and contains rooms of noble
proportions ; this building is said to have been formerly a
church belonging to the Jesuits, from whom it was pur-
oissed by the Company.
Niebuhr remarked that the temperature at Bombay was
voy moderate, owing to the sea-winds and the quantity of
^n thdt falls in the wet season. He admits that many
Kuropeans died suddenly, but he attributed this nearly alto-
gether to their injudicious mode of living.
The barracks, arsenal, and docks are all within the fort
Aeeordfng to a vahiatlon made in 1819 fhe bnllAings wHhin*
the walls were worth rather more than one million sterling,
and the rent of houses, including the annual value of the
Company's buildings, was £2,796/.
Since the first occupation of the island by the English,
its resident population has increased more than tenfold.
At that time it amounted to about 15,000. In 1716 the
number was 16,000, and in 1816, 161,550, divided into the
following classes : —
British residents, not military . .1,840
Do. military and marine 2,460
Native Christians, Armenians, and descend-
ants of Portuguese . , • 11,500
Jews . . • . . 800
Mohammedans • • . 28,000
Hindus • . • 103,800
Parsees . • . .13,150
161,550
Including the fluctuating population, which is at all times
very great, it is estimatefl that Bombay at this time con-
tarns 229,000 souls. The number of houses, according to
the government census in 1816, was 20,786. The floating
population, being drawn together by commercial pursuits
fh>m various parts of India, is necessarily of a very mixed
character, and consists principally of Persians, Arabs, Mah-
rattas, Carnatas, Portuguese, Indians from Goa, and a
great number of sailors. The lower classes of residents
occupy small clay huts withouts'de the fort, thatched with
palmyra leaves. There is only one English ohurch, which
IS within the fort. Portuguese and Armenian churches are
numerous both within and without the walls; there are
likewise three Jewish synagogues, and a great number of
mosqnes and Hindu tempkn ; the largest Hindu temple,
which is about a mile and a half firam Sie fort, is dedicated
to Momba Devi.
The propert) of the island is principally in the Parsee inha-»
bitants, who are active and intelligent, taller, better formed,
more athletic and with handsomer features than Hindus.
In early youth their females are delicate and handsome, but
they very soon grow coarse in their persons, and show the
marks of age sooner than Indian women in general. The
principal merchants on the island are Parsees, and it ia
usual for every European house of commerce to contain one
or more Parsee partners, wlio supply a great part of the
capital. These people wear the Asiatic costume, but they
assimilate more than other eastern people to the customs of
Europeans, and nearly tlie whole of them speak English ;
their children are invariablv taught the language, and
many of them speak it as fluently as Europeans ; at the
same time they adhere most rigidly to their religious cus-
toms and observances. In the morning and evening they
crowd to the shore, where they prostrate themselves in
adoration before the sun. They deposit their dead in large
cylindrical buildings, each twenty-five feet high, the interior
of which is built up solidly with masonry to within five feet of
the top, with the exception of a kind of well fifteen feet in
diameter in the centre. The bodies are deposited between
this well and the wall, and being only loosely wrapped in
cloth, are speedily devoured by vultures, many of wnich are
always to be observed hovering about these enai-nel-houses«
From time to time the bones are thrown into the well in the
centre, from the bottom of which they can be removed
through subterraneous passages. There are five of these
pukdio tombs in the island, all of which are from two to
three miles distant from the fort ; the more wealthy of the
sect have private tombs of similar construction.
The docks within the fort, although the property of the
East India Company, are entirely under the management
of Parsees, by whom merchant-vessels of 1000 to 1200 tons
burden, frigates, and even line-of*battle ships are built.
These doeka wore about twenty-five years ago enlarged and
improved under the superintendence of Major Cooper of
the Engineers. The buildings are greatly admired for their
architectural beauty ; the slips and basins are calculated
for vessels of any size. Two ships of tho line, or one ship
of the line and two frigates, can be completely built and
equipped in tiiese docks every eighteen months. Bombay
being situated between the forests of Malabar and Guserat,
receives supplies of timber with every wind that blows.
Ships built of teak-wood are much more durable than those
bnilt with European timber; they have been known to last
iBOfe tfian nfiy yeafs. ooBBe jfeisBay ■ wiii* SBipsy alter
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beiD|f employed as traders during fourteen or fifteen yearg,
have been bought by government and added to the naval
force of the country, being then oontiderad much stronger
than newly-built European vessels. From the cheapness
of labour, ships may be buUt at Bombay for three-fourths
of the cost in England. The Minden, a seventy-four gun
ship, which was launched at Bombay in 1810, was con-
structed entirely by Parsees, without any assistance from
Europeans, and since that time several frigates and line-of-
battle ships have been built at these docks.
[MapofBonUy.]
In addition to its trade with Europe and with China, a
very great tra£Be is carried on by coasting-vessels with all
the ports on the western side of India, from Cape Comorin
to the Gulf of Cutch. The vessels thus employed vary in
sixe from ten to near two hundred tons burden, and nearly
800 of them are registered belonging to the port. The
articles which form the principal part of this trade from Bom-
bay are European manufactures and the produce of Bengal
and China, the returns being made in ootton-wool and
cloths, timber, oil, and grain from the northern ports, and
from the south, cotton, hemp, coir, timber, pepper, lice, and
cocoa-nuts.
The merchandise thus brought to Bombay is in great part
re-exported in larger ships to different parts of Europe, to
North and South America, to Canton, to the Arabian and
Persian Gulfs, and to the Bay of Bengal. The value of this
export trade during three years ending with 1831-32, as far
as relates to Europe and America, was as follows : —
1899^.
1B30.31.
1831^.
ToOrMtBrilaJn .
,. Foreign Kurop* .
n North aad &>aih ABOTka .
£347.339
13.145
IS. 034
684,009
11.417
8,960
636.0S6
U.0C3
8,990
£.579,506
704.386
656.078
No separata aooonnt has been given of the valos of tiie
exports made flrom Bombay to Canton. We know tU«?
aggregate value of the shipments so made from the thnee
presidencies, and also the number and tonnage of the shjp^
despatched with the same; ftom which last information it
would appear that more than two- thirds of the whole ooontry
trade between India and China is, as far as export is con-
eemed, carried on from Bombay. In the three years endii ; tr
with 1831-32, the tonnage so employed was as follows : —
CaknlU.
Madru.
BoDbaj.
ToUL
Ships.
Tom.
Shipc
TOBl.
Ship*.
Tooa.
Ship..
Tom.
189M0 .
1880^1 .
1831-3S .
18
83
ss
6.373
10.119
8.485
4
4
9
4,449
s.ira
679
as
as
87
25.7C9
96.C95
16.656
54
64
54
35. :» .-.
95/. »a
The total value of this trade in each of these three year^
was
1829-30
1830-31
1831-32
£.3,996.881
4,765,948
4,450,218
The goods sent from India to China comprise priDcipalir
cotton wool, opium, metals, spices, dye-woods, and w<><)r.tn
goods. Their value has been employed chiefly in pajii;r
for the purchases of tea by the East India Company, wb« »*v.-
agents at Canton have drawn bills upon the Indian pn*-:
dendes, and upon the directors in London, for the re-ua-
bursement of the merchants by whom the funds have Ki i
so supplied to them.
The imports into Bombay from Europe and America h^\ c
been as follows : —
189»^.
laao^u
l-Ol .'i
rion Oraai Dritain • • • •
rt Foreign Europe . • • «
« North and South Amarica .
£^11.606
41.639
16.035
1.106.G37
as,u«
83.605
it '
^.970.173
1. 170.380
w:.-*-
The value of the trade between Bombay and the Eastern
Islands has been,
ImporU. Expocta.
1829-30 . . £.7,743 • . £.69,749
1830-31 • • 83,603 . • 4l,S93
1831-32 . . 87,924 . . 51,133
With the Arabian and Persian Gul& the trade in c^L of
the same yean was.
YEARS.
189940
1830-31
1831-69
IMPORTS.
English.
TVms.
5.699
■1.765
4.563
Arab.
Tona.
89.509
12 9.678
4 1.986
Valoe
of
la porta-
56i,il3
598,688
360.409
EXPORTS.
Eafliah.
Ito...
13 9.877
US.005
16 8.766
Arab.
Toaa.
EsiM.ri«
d.
dl.i66 kl45.:«-
16 9.556 \yc^'.
n.sis
Through these channels Bombay receives from Per- i
raw silk, copper, pearls, galls, coffee, ffum-arabic, coful.
myrrh, olibanum, bdellium, assafcstida, dried fhiita, bor^.*.
and bullion. The returns are grain, Bengal and China
su^, British manufactured goods, cotton and woollen, &: a
sptoes. The merohandise sent to Calcutta from Bombay, in
return for sugar, indigo, and rice, are timber, coir, cocoa-
nuts, sandal-wood, and cotton.
The shipments from England to Bombay consist of the
usual assortment of British manufactures and metals : ta-*
returns for which are made in Persian raw silk, cotton -wo >1.
spices, ^ms, and drugs.
The heavy duties levied by the Ameers of Scind, at th *
mouth of the Indus, together with the unsettled sut.' t
Afghanistan, have reduced the inland commerce of Boml>".«
with Central Asia to a comparatively trifling amount. T.>
little trade now carried on between those (quarters is o >.
ducted by means of a tedious and expensive land rouw
through Surat
Among the mercantile establishments condoeted u»
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Bumbaj U an insurance company with a capital of 200, OOOA
flterlln^.
The seamen (rom the port of Bombay are considered to
bd the best among the natives of India. It is usual for
ships of considerable burthen to be under the charge of
European commanders and oncers.
The irestem coasts of India are infested by numerous
piratical vessels, and to keep these in dieck it has been
necessary for the East India Company to maintain a con-
siderable naval force at this station. The expense of main-
taining this force is included among the charges of govern-
ment in the Bombay presidency, and this forms one among
other reasons why its revenues are invariably so greatly
below its expenditure. The navy is thus maintain^ not
for the exclusive benefit of Bombay, but for the protection
of an extensive and nrofitable commerce from which every
part of British India derives benefit.
The travelling dj/itances between Bombay and the most
considerable cities and towns in India are given by Major
Rennell as follows : —
Ajmeer, 650 miles; Allahabad, 977; Ahmedabad, 321 ;
Ahmednuggur, 181 ; Aroot, 722; Aurungabad, 260; Ba-
roach, 221; Bassein, 27; Bednore,452; 6\janaghur, 398;
Calcutta, 1301; Canoge, 889; Cashmere, 1233; Cuttock,
1034; Cochin, 780; Delhi, 880; Dowlatabad, 258; Goa,
292; 6olconda,475; Gwalior, 768; Hydrabad, 480 ; Jug-
gemauth, 1052; Indore, 456; Lahore, 1010; Lucknow,
923 ; Madras, 758 ; Masulipatam, 686 ; Mirzapore, 952 ;
Moorshedabad, 1259 ; Moultan, 920 ; Mysore, 630 ; Nag-
pore, 552; Oude, 1013; Oojein, 4S6; Patna,l]45; Pon-
dicherry, 805; Poonah, 98; Seringapatam, 622; Sum-
bhulpore, 826; Surat, 177; Tellecherry, 615:
BOMBAY, PRESIDENCY OF. Bombay is the seat
of one of the three presidencies into which the British em-
pire in India is divided. Together with the presidency of
Fort Saint George, or Madras, it is subordinate to the Go-
vernor-General of India, whose residence is in Calcutta.
The territory under the immediate jurisdiction of the go-
vernor and council of Bombay is situated between the 14th
and 24th degrees of N. lat. and the 71st and 77th degrees
of £. long. ; and comprehends the following districts - —
Ahmedabad, 1
^^' I North of the Island of Bombay.
Baroach, J
Bombay, Island.
Darwar,
Candeish,
Northern Concan,
Southern Concan,
Poonah,
Ahmednuggur,
The following statement of the extent and population of
the districts comprehended in the presidency of Bombay
was given in eviaenee before a committee of the House of
Commons which sat in 1831* to inquire concerning the
afiairs of India.
South of the Island of Bombay.
Bombaylsland, including Colabba or
Old Woman's Island
Surat, comprehending the city and
suburbs* the town of Randier, and
the twelve pergunnafas which con-
stitute the coUectorate of Surat •
Baroach coUectorate • •
Ahmedabad coUectorate «
Kaira coUectorate .
Southern Concan cc^ectorate
Poonah coUectorate I
Ahmednuggur coUectorate '
Candeish coUectorate
Darwar coUectorate 1
The Southern Jaghires \
Sattara J
Total
The above is exclusive of the district
of the Northern Cancan, from which
there are no retuma; its area and
population are estunated at .
No. 285.
Eog^Uh
Scioara Milof.
18*
1,350
1,600
4,600
1,850
6,770
20,870
18,430
9,950
Population.
162,570
454,431
229,527
528,073
484,735
640,857
(484,717
(650,000
417,976
(684,193
< 778,183
1736,284
59,438i 6,251,546
5,500
387,264
64,938i 6,638,810
Among the population thus stated, which is composed of
different races of people speaking different languages, and
who, up to a recent date, lutve Uved under different systems
of religion, laws, and government, the g[reatest variety must
necessarily exist. The number of resident Europeans ii^
this presidency is smaller, when oompared with its area and
native popttlation»than the number of EurqpeanB in Bengal
and Madras.
On the subject of education, the same general remarks
as are made in regard to Bengal (vol. iv. p. 233), apply
equally to Bombay. By a recent report from the Sudder
IXBwannee Adawlut, it is stated that in the British terri-
tories dependant on Bombay there are 1705 schools, at
which 35,153 schdars were receiving instruction. Twenty-
five of these schools, containing 1315 scholars, were main-
tained by the government &f the company, and the remain-
ing 1680 were mere viUage schools, with 33,838 scholars.
The proportion of the population attending upon the schools
is thus shown to be exceedingly small, besides which it may
be said that the village-system of education is of the lowest
description, and the same that has been handed down from
time immemorial. The books read are some silly stories,
and the writing acquired goes Uttle beyond the abiUty of
signing the name.
The sums annually chargeable on the revenues of India
for the support of native schools within the presidency was
thus given in 1832, from the records of the company : —
Bopem.
Bombay school . . • .
Society for Promoting the Education of the
Poor within the Government of Bombay .
Bombay Native School-book and School So-
ciety .....
Native School Society, Southern Concan
For the education of natives on Capt Suther-
land's plan • •
Dhuksna, in the Deccan
College at Poonah •
Engineer Institution at Bombay
For an English class •
3,600
11,385
12,720
500
4,800
50,000
15,250
180
960
Total rupees • . .99,395
equal to 9939/. 10«. sterling.
The number of schools and of scholars are thus distri-
buted through part of the presidency, as to which only the
details are given :-^
Sehools. Scholars
Ahmedabad— city, 21 ; vUlage, 63, 84 2,651
Southern Concan— in private dweU-
ings, 58 ; in temples, 28
Northern Concan
Kaira District
Kaira Sudder Station •
Surat ZUlah
Surat Town •
Broach ZiUah
Broach Town
Kandeish • . •
Poena City • •
Poena District . >
Ahmednuggur • •
Darwar . . •
86 1,500
9 390
139 13,900
2 230
139 3,000
136 3,046
98 not stated
16 373
169 2,022
222 not sUted
149 2,445
161 not staled
150 2,351
The number of vUlages in these districts is stated to be
15,492, while the number of vUlage schools is only 1185,
showing only one school for more than thirteen villages.
The chief obstacle in the way of establishing new schools
is stated to be the difficulty of obtaining qualified teachers :
many of those at present emploved are indeed far from
answering this description ; but tnis is an obstacle which,
if the government were so disposed, might surely be ma-
teriaUy lessened, or indeed removed, in the course of a few
years, by the establishment of normal schools in the chief
town of each district.
A literary society has been established for many years in
Bombay. Three quarto volumes of its transactions were
printed between 1819 and 1823. In 1819 the society be-
came a branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of I^ondon.
There is alao a Geographical Society recently established *
at Bombay.
Our information concerning the state of crime throughout
the Bombay presidency, is very insufficient Returns have
been made uom the greater part of the districts, stating
PBE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
Digiti
zed^GpPgle
SOM
m
9QM
the Qumlwr of penoDf wbo bate b^eo eharg^^ with die
mnmlwioii of ofltoces during the fit e yean ending with
1839. The returnt made ftnr w last ^eer of this aeries are
nora eomi^ete than those for the eariier years, and enable
OS Is €#v the following abstraet of the number of offenders,
and the punishments awarded to those of them who were
eottTieted on triaL Not any rtatement is yiten as to iLa
nature of the crimes, nor as to tlie connexion between tha
crimes and the puuUhments awarded* The inconTeou*neo
of this deficiency has been felt by the home got ermuentp
and we perceive that instructions have been given to supply
the omissions in hiture returns.
AVstraelof the Pieosedsngs of the Criminal CourU and thf Police under the Presidency of Bombay, in the year 18^.
■Unt
ta
la
Gom.
AppM-
Ao
^'S!*'
giiUa.
iog
npjd
*^r**i^^^
icac^
' "'
•
Jriv.t^
^r
li».
h£LL
qvttttd.
dUM.
Tripu.
Re-
leateO.
WrkiJ..
KprU
9m
Ufa.
DQiat • • •
1.350
464,431
4,007
3,908
2,240
1.665
3
1.830
238
8ft
1
3
9
Ahmedabad
5.4^0
1,013,808
1.254
2.960
421
2.639
—
2.286
127
119
1
S
1
North Conean •
5^00
387,261
1.751
1,950
326
1,624
—
1,475
16
80
92
18
3
South Conean .
6,790
040,857
1,573
2,851
485
2,366
—
2,255
38
61
3
6
4
Poena and 8hela-l
pore
484,717
1,946
2,962
1,524
1,374
64
1,330
2
W
37
—
1
Ahmednug^ur
>
83,300
<
and Candiesh
[l,067,976
1,858
2.235
903
1,273
59
1,147
31
•4
7
4
Total . .
A3,370
4,048,053
13,448
16.866
5,899
10,841
126
9,823
472
433
53
38
22
The military force maintained by the East India Com-
pany in the* di!»trtcts comprehended within the Bombay
presidency, was as follows, in the year 1830, the latest date
for which returns have been given to parliament : —
Bngineers-^Officers, Europeans 21
„ • n Natives . , 3
— 24
,, Non-commissioned OfRcers
' and Privates, Europeans 14
,. •„ „ Natives 147
Artillery — ^Bnn>pean; Horse, Officers SO
„ Non-«om. Officers and Priv. 562
„ Foot. Officers . 32
„ Non-com. Officers aud Prtv. 1,81 1
„ Native— Foot, Offic.Europ. 20
„ „ „ Natives 23
,, Non-commistiioned Officers
and JMvates, Europeans 2
,9 ., ., Natives 890
„ Ordnance Drivers, 8&c. . 109
161
582
1,843
185
1,044
CaTahry— King s. Officers . ; . • 36
„ ' Non-commissioned Officers
and Privates 679
„ Company*s, Officers, Europ. . 45
M „ „ . Natives 75
„ Non-commissioned Officers
and Privates, Europeans * %
n 99 Natives • 2|695
3»469
705
Brought forward
Hospital— Surgeons and A£sisit.-Surg.
t, Native Doctors
Staff— Commissariat, Evrppcan Officers
„ Other Staff. European Officers ,
„ European Non-commis. Officers
Regulars— Europeans
„ Natives
Totol
7,657
28.613
. 3«;,703
156
136
?dl
9
82
57
148
40,148
- 36,270
3,817
lufantry— King's, Officers, Europeans 133
,p M Privates . 3,321
w Company's, Officers, Europ. 473
•• n w Natives 46^
„ Non-commissioned Officers
and Privatel^ Europeans 934
H w Natives 24,424
3,522
3.4M
36,207
Invalids — Europeans
„ Natives
SSooaers— Officers .
„ Pri\-atei
66
1,797
16
902
Carried forvard
-29,751
1,863
918
39,708
Irregulars and Invalids— Europeans 70
„ „ Natives . y,808
3,878
Europeans. 7,727— Natives, 32,421. Total . . 40.1 4fi»
The expense of maintaining this fbrce amounted tu
1,849.510/., exclusive of the cost of military storey bent
from Europe.
The public revenue and charges of aovernment in thw
presideucy during thrao years, hon^ 1831-32 to lii33-^i,
were as i'ollows : —
1831-32. 1832-33. 1833-34.
Revenue . £2,096,343 £2,125,340 £2,232,€8>
Charges, including
interest on debU 2,754^925 2,662,741 2,C60.036
Deficiency £658,582 £537,401 £367.354
The above charges are exclusive of any proportion of ihe
expenditure incurred i« S«8toiid fiir the general aaoage-
meat. The statement from wjiich this abstraet has bene
drawn does not afford the meaas of apporiioaiog 4be amuuuu
to the different districts, frioh a srstoi»ea> was gtvea (or
the year 1827-28, for the undeimentioned districU, sho^ini:
the gross aggrojgalo coUeotious, and the chargea m the
revenue and judiciai departments. It was aslblUi»a ^
SpailMm Cquord
Nurtharu C^ocab
Sunt
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Alimedabad •
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the H«T«>init.
RtUNica.
18.41.845
14.15.7S5
t9.93,687
24.1 1. SS5
17.01 .764
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ss.?a,Ms
Km
3.02,S9.009
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Digitized by
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im
BOM
Otehnetl^s Hfemofr qfa Map qfilindustafl ; MilVd HiV
toty of British India ; tabled of th Revenue, Poptttation,
Commeree, ^c, qf the United Kingdom and its Depend-
enrief, pdm iff. and Iv. ; M'Pheraon's History of the
BvnpeaH Commefce Unih Ind^a; Niebuhfs Description
of Bombay, \o\,iu Copenhagen ed.; Vincent's Periplus of
the Erythtean Sea, part ii. ; Reports of Committees of
both Houses of Parliament appoiniedio inquire concerning
the Affairs of the East India Company in 1831 and 1832.)
BOMBAZlNfi. Thifi\^ord is denved from the Greek
bombyx {P6fifivth denoting both a allk-worm and the silk
spun bv that insect.
Bombazine is the hAtne of a febric woven of worsted and
silk ; the Warp being the silk, the weft (also called shoot)
the worsted. The worsted is thrown on the right side,
which has a twill upoti it. The tnanufacture of bombaxine
originated In Norwich, and is noW almost entirely confined
to that city, to Kidderminster, atid Halilax in Yorkshire.
The weaving of worsted stuffs Was originally introduced
into England m the reign of Henry I. by a Dutch colony,
who, being driven from Holland by an inundation, settled
at Wnrsted or Worsted (hence the name), in Norfolk. The
first charter granted to the city of Nmwich by Henry I.
enabled the Flemings, Who had long frequented the city for
the puRshase of iHool, to settle there and vest their property
with greater security in the manufacture of worsted stuffs.
Norwich became in contequehce one of the most flourishing
cities in England, and during the reicn of Edward III.
the government thought fit to protect the worsted weaving
and wool trade by many statbtes, Writfe, and proclamations,
and by granting great privileges to foreign artificers settling
in the city.
In 1467 an act Was passed foi" the true making of worsteds
in Norwich and Norfolk; inlhtJrising the weavers yearly to
elect eight wardens, with the power to survey all worskfeds,
and make such regulations as were judged to be for the
good of the craft. In 1575 the I5utch elders prasented in
court in Norwich a new work called bombazines, praying
to have the search and seal of them td their use, exclusive
of the Walloons, wh©, on their narts, insisted that all white,
works belonged to them ; but tM Ddtch. as first inventors,
had their petition granted them. From this time the bom-
bazine trade gradually inereased, and the article was largely
exported to various parts of Euh)pe, especially to Spain, and
the Spanish colonies in Sotith AineVica, where it was used as
the dress of some of the t^igioos oilers, and of the women.
The mantilla, an indispensable arlicto bf female attire among
the Spaniards, was univenalty made of black bombazine.
It has however oNate been greatly superseded by black silk.
The great increase in tho manufacture of boibbazine took
place soon af\er the introduction of spinning wool into yam
by machinery. It is worthy of rentkrk that an ihyention,
which was in the first instance so Obstinately opposed by the
operatives^ and which is even now ignorandy condemned by
many as destructive of the interests of the poor, was. in
reality, thte cause of the increase of the bombazine trader
and of the consequent employment of many thousand hands.
In order to prove this, it is neceisary to state that yam
was originnUy spun by the handi the wool, after combing,
was given out to the spinners by persons who weekly
went the round of the country fbr this purpose, and re-
ceived it nrhen span into yam. It was required that a
given weight of wool should be converted into not less than
a given number of hanks of skeins of yam, containing 560
yardk, but it was at the same time desirable this number
fihomld be exceeded as ttiu^ as possible, in ordbr to prodire
a finer article. The yam, when received from the various
spinners, was fbnnd to be uneven in size from the tnode of
spinning, and from the diflfereht hands employed npoti the
same paitsel. The bombazines were consequently equally
uneven. Upon the introduction of spinning machinery, the
wool was sorted and the yam spun of an even thickness,
but of various ^l^ds. This dtange et\abled the bombazine
manufacturet to dye the yams of varioUs colours, and to
prodttce an ^^n, soft, and elagant article, fitted fin hue
and texture fb^ alt seasons. A large demand was itarae-
diately created fbr coloured bombazines; and this manu-
facture alone employed in Norwich, in the years 1814,
Ul9, and 1 dl6, about 1^,900 hands, an increase which could
not have been obtained by any other means than by the
ase of mill-spun yam.
The changes ti fashion have thrown the coloured bemba-
liMottk bf nse^and thte aMide te tM# mide dnly iti blttdL
ibr n^ouming ahd fbr expoHation. It must however always
continue in demand while custom prescribes it as the
mourning dress appropriate to females.
The capital employed in Norwich dnring the most
flourishing period of the bombazine trade amounted to
about 300,000f. At the prestmt moment the capital em-
ployed does not reach lOO.OOOl. (Communication ft-om
Norwich.)
BOMBELLI, RAPHAEL, a Bolognese mathematician
of the sixteenth century. We know nothing of his birth,
life, or death, except his work on Algebra, published in
1572 (Hutton), or m 1579 (Montucla. Bo^sut, Wallis, De-
chSles, De Thou*s Catalogue, «}^.), or in both (Lacroix,
Biog. Vhiv,) The book itself is very scarce. Bombelli is
principally known as the first who attempted the solution
of what is called the irreducible ease in cubic equations.
He gave &e geometrical solution which depends upon the
trisection of an anglb, and observed that the latter problem
may be reduced to a cubic equation. He is also toe first
who attempted the actual extraction of the cube root in the
result of Cardan's (or Tartalea's) well-known formula.
Bombelli states that he discovered a manuscript of IKo-
phantus in the Vatican Library, and with another had
translated the greater part for publication. He says, that
he found frequent references to Indian authors, from which
he leamed that algebra was known to the Hindoos earlier
than to the Aral». This assertion has been much quoted
and frequently censured: Cossali caused all the Vatican
manuscripts now existing (three in numbed to be closely
examined, but without finding any thing to confirm Bom-
belli*B assertion ; which remains a pu^le, since there is no
suspicion of deceit, and the work of Diophantus is in reality
fiill of questions akin to those treats in the Hindoo Viga
Ganita. But as Bombelli is said, in the Toulouse edition
of Diophantus, to have misinterpreted the questions from
that writer which he inserted in his own algebra, it is pos-
sible that he may have not well understood the Greek.
[Alobbra., DtoPHATfTTJsJ For ftirther information, see
Hutton*s ifcdhematical Tracts, vol. ii., p. 252 ; Montucla,
Hist, des Math., vol. i, p. 598 ; also Cossali. Sforia di AU
eebra. If there be any mention of Bombelli in Kastner* a
History or Murhard*s Bibliography, we cannot find it.
BOMBIC ACID. The silkworm, especially in the
chrysalis state, contains an acid liquor, and hence the name
of bombic acid. It was discovered ftt>m the circumstance of
hivte paper, whidi had been accidentally laid near these
insects while changing to the state df cfturysaUs, being found
covered with ted spots, as if drops <»f acid had been spilled
upon it.
When the insect is sulj«cted to piressnie it ttlso yields a
liquor iVom which alcohol pYvcipitates mucilage, oil, and
glutinous matter, and leaves bombic acid in solution ; by
evaporating this there is obtained an acid pangent fluid of
an amber colour, which reddens vesetable blue colours, and
foims salts with the alkalies, earuis, and metallic oxides*
which have been called bombiates*
This acid product has not been examined of late years*.
and is scaroely noticed by modem authoiSb Neither its;
nature nor that of Its salts is aconrately known ; and it iss
not even certain that it is a peculiar acid. It is probable:
that a re-examination would show that it is eimiltr to the
formio acid, or acid of ants.
BO'MBUS (entomology), the generic name of those in*
sects commonly called humble-bees : this latter naa&e was
derived (Messrs. Ktrby and Spence ooi\jectuie) from the
German hummel or hummel-biene, a name probably given
to these insects from the humming sound which they emit..
The Bombi belong to thtf order Hymenoptera and feraii^.
ApidsB, and, as regards the English species^ are by ftr the*
lar^st of the tribe. They may be distinguished by tbe Ma-
lowing characters :— body thickly eovered with hak ; head'
with a longitudinal groove and an indentation extending,
across from the upper part of the eyes ; in this indentation^
the three stemmata are placed, being arranged nearly in a
straight line ; and it is from the central atemmatttm that
the longitudinal groove has its origin, whence it eattends
downwards; antennsd with twelve joints; lahram with its
surface uneven ; mandibles with several longitudinal grooves
on the upper side ; posterior tibisa comprised, smooth,
margined with strong recurved hairs,* and armed wi^h spines
at the apex.
* Thttrt *eei!ty«l balrft {corVaU) form, m it wex«bft Unto teilwU in whUi^
tbie Bombi ewiy to their nesfs Xbk Birihar Whick tbey collejpi4);om flowva. ,
Digitized by
C^e)gle
BOM
106
BOM
The above are the peeuliahties of the femalet. In the
males the antennn are thirtcen-jointcd and considerably
longer than those of the other sex ; the hinder tibiiD want
the corbicula ; the mandibles are bidentate at the apex and
each furnished with a tuft of curved hairs ; they diner Uke-
wise in possessing no sting and in the structure of their
claws, but these two last characters are common to the
whole tribe of Apida).
The neuter bees resemble the females in every respect
excepting size ; in this they are inferior U) the males, which
latter are rather less than the females.
Kirby, in his monograph on the bees of this country,
enumerates thirty-seven species as belonging to his section
* * * c. 2 :' this section, with the exception of a few specjcc
[PsYTRiRus], now constitutes the genus of which this
article treats.
The prevailing colours of the scecies are yellow, red, and
black ; and as these colours are aisposed with a certain de-
gree of uniformity, we hare arranged the following, which
form the principal part of the British species, under three
heads, viz., those which have the apex or the body more or
less red, those which have that part white, and those in
which the groundcolour of the body is yellow or buff: b^
this arrangement much repetition in the descriptions is
avoided.
Section h-^apex of the body red*
B, lapidaritu (female), black : the male is rather long
and narrow; head and anterior and posterior portions of
the thorax yellow.
This species, well known by the name ' red-tailed bee,' is
one of the largest and commonest of the genus ; the fe-
males ore to be seen in the spring and summer months ; in
the autumn, when the males make their appearance, they
are less common.
B. Raiellus (female), smaller and shorter in proportion
than the last, from which it may moreover be distinguished
by havinff red hair on the hinder tibisd.
B, Derhamellua^ colour ashy-brown ,* thorax and abdomen
each with a black fascia ; most probably the male of the
last described.
B. mbinterruptu9 (female), black : anterior portion of the
thorax yellow ; abdomen with a subinterrupted fascia of the
same colour towards the base.
B, pratorum, black : anterior portion of the thorax yellow.
B. Burreiianus (male), yellow: thorax with the central
portion black; abdomen with a black fascia near the middle.
B, Cullumanus (male), like the last, but the fascia of the
abdomen is very narrow, occupying only one segment.
B, Donomnellus (female), black : thorax with the ante-
rior portion yellow ; abdomen with the basal portion yellow.
In the male the anterior portion of the thorax is obscurely
coloured.
SicTioN 2,^-having the apex of the abdomen tchite.
B. terrestri*. — ^Tliis is the largest and most common of
the yellow and black humble-bees ; it has the anterior mar-
gin of the thorax and the segment next the basal one of
the abdomen of a yellow or buff colour ; the rest of the
body is black, with the exception of the apex, which is some-
times of a dirty yellow colour and at others white.
The neuters of all the species are very variable in size,
but in this there appears to be the greatest extreme; we
have specimens which are scarcely as large as the common
ht\*e-bee.
B. Hortorum^ black : thorax with the anterior and pos-
terior portions yellow ; abdomen with the base yellow ; rather
less than the preceding species.
B. TUmtallanue ifemaXe), black: thorax with the ante-
rior and posterior margins narrowly edged with yellow.
The insect described by Kirby under the name of La-
treiUella has lately been discovered by Mr. Pickering to be
the male of this species; it is of a pale yellow colour, with
the central portion of the thorax and two indistinct fascia)
towards the base of the abdomen black.
B. Jonellus (male), yellow : thorax and abdomen each
with a black fascia.
B. iueorum (male), yellow: thorax with the central por-
tion black ; abdomen with the two basal segments yellow,
and the two following black, the remainder white.
Section Z.-'groundrcolour of the body yellow or buff.
B, Muecorum, yellow : thorax orange.
tb« boiW ItMir bciBB quit* black Id all ih« ipaciliL ^ <w«w.
B.JhraUt, yoUow : abdomen with a black spot on each
side of the second segment, the three following iegmcoU
with their bases black.
B, Beckwithellus^ pale buff colour : thorax and apex of
the abdomen reddish yellow, the latter with a black ^jicLa
in the middle.
B. Curtuellue, like the last, but the abdomen is blatk,
with the base of reddish-yellow.
B. Fosterellus: thorax buff-coloured, with the anterior
part blackish ; abdomen with three obscure black fescisD.
Obs. — We have reason to believe the four last to be va*
rieties of the same species.
B, tylvarum, yellowish white : thorax with a black fas-
cia; abdomen with two black fascio ; the apex red inu*r-
spersed with white.
B.fragrarUt bright yellow ; thorax with a black fascia*
Of the above species B. terresiris and Lapidarius ate tU*
largest ; B.fragrans, Tunstalianus, and Hortorum, are the
next in size ; all the rest of the species are nearly of a siz^,
with the exception of B, pratorum, which see description.
For the habits of the species see Humblk-Bxx, and far
more detailed descriptions we refer our readers to Kirb> 'a
Monographia Apum Anglice,
BOMBY'CIDiE (entomology), a family of the order Le>
pidoptera, belonging to the section Lepidoptera-noctuma
of LatreiUe.
The principal characteristics of this family are their pos-
sessing only rudimentary maxilla), remarkably small palpi «
and bipectinated antenns.
Some of the species fly very rapidly, and make their ap-
pearance in the day-time as well as m the evening. The
caterpillars of most of the species are hairy (some produeo
great irritation to the hand when touched), and a^&um«$
tne pupa state in a cocoon spun for its protection. Tho
pupa is simple.
o nmd ft Bombsrx mori ; e llie eggi ; d the papa ; e tilkvonB or eaUr|»tUar.
One of the most interesting of the family is the Bomb^ x
mori, well known as the moth to which the silkworm tun'is.
This species, which was originally from China* is oTa vhae
or cream-colour, with a brown fascia and two or more wm%t^d
lines of a deeper colour crossing the upper wings. In thu
country the eggs of this moth hatch early in May ; the
caterpillar or silkworm is at first of a dark colour, but sooo
becomes light, and in its tints much resembles the per^e^
insect, a circumstance common in caterpillars. Its proper
food is the mulberry, though it will likewise eat the lettuw
and some few other plants ; on the latter however it di«f«
not thrive equally well, and the silk yidd^ is of a poor
quality.
The silkworm is about eight weeks in arriving at maturity,
during which period it changes its skin four or five tinier.
When about to cast its skin it ceases to eat, raises the lurv-
part of the body slightly, and remains in perfect repose. In
this state it is necessary that it should continue fiir sgut
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BOM
109
BOM
Htt!e time, in order that the new gkini whicb iff at. this time
forming, may become sufficientiy mature to enable the cater-
p/ilar to buret through the old one. This operation, which
19 apparently one of considerable difficulty, is performed
thus :— the rore-part of the old skin is burst ; the silkworm
then by continually writhing its body (but not moving^ from
the spot) contriTes to thrust the skin back to the tail, and
ultimately to disengage itself altogether : this last part of
the operation however is the most difficult, since it is no
uncommon occurrence for them to die from not being able
to disengage fhe last segment of the body from the old
skin.
Those who have reared silkworms must have observed
how large the head is in proportion to the body in those
which have just changed their skins : this circumstance is
worthy of observation, for in it will be found a most beau-
tiful contrivance.
When the larva of an insect has just changed its skin,
every part is soft, and in many cases (such as caterpillars) the
freater portion of the body still remains in this flexible state ;
ut the skin of the head and some few other parts, in all
instances, soon become hardened, after which it never grows.
The same happens with those larvm which have the body in a
great measure covered with hard plates, which circumstance
leaves no parts to enlarge but such as are flexible. In the
instance of a caterpillar the bodv increases in size rapidly
aAer change of skin, but the head, it will be observed, does
not enlarge, and although the body may have increased very
much it does not appear that the skin has grown ; it seems
only to be stretched with the increase of size of the inner
parts. In the case of those larvee which have the body
covered with hard plates, it is the skin between the plates
til at stretches to allow of growth in the inner parts, so that
just before dianging skin all the plates are considerably
soparatefl.
From the above we conclude that the external covering
of insects does not grow at all, except at the time of re-
pose previous to the casting off the old skin, after which
operation the head, and those parts which soon become hard,
are sufficiently grown to last until the next change ; and also
that the soft parts of the external covering will bear stretching
to a certain extent and no further, when it becomes necessary
that they should change that covering for a larger one. With
respect to the silkworm and other caterpillars, an unobserving
person would not readily understand now the head, which
is much larger than the one the case of which has just been
cast off, can have come out of it ; but if the silkworm be
examined just before it is about to change its skin, it will
be seen that such is not exaotly the case, for part of the
new head may be seen thrust out behind the old one, so
that the ibre-part only ia inclosed by the latter.
When full grown the silkworm eommences spinning its
web in some convenient spot, and as it does not change the
position of the hinder portion of its body much, but continues
drawing its thread ^m various points and attaching it to
othere, it follows that after a time its body becomes in a
great measure inclosed bv the thread. The work is then
continued finom one thread to another, the silkworm moving
its hc»id and spinning in a zigsag way, bendine the fore
part of the body back to spin in au directions wiUiin reach,
and shifting the body only, to cover with silk the part which
was beneaUi it As the silkworm spins its web by thus
bending ^e fore part of the body back, and moves the
ainder part of the body in such a way only as to enable it to
reach the farther back with the fore part, it follows that it in-
closes itself in a cocoon much shorts than its own body, for
soon after the beginning the whole is continued with the
body in a bent position. From the foregoing account it ap-
peaxa that with the most simple instinctive principles all the
ends necessary are gained. If the silkworm were gifted
with a desire for shifting its position much at the beginning
of the work it could never inclose itself in a cocoon ; but by
its mode of proceeding, as above explained, it incloses itself
in a oocoon which only consumes as much silk as is neces-
sary to hold the chrysalis.
Daring the time of spinning the cocoon the silkworm
decreases in length very considerably, and after it is com-
pleted, it is not half its original length ; at this time it
becomes quite torpid, soon e&nges its skin, and appears in
the form of a chrysaliB. The time required to complete the
cocoon is about five days. In the chrysalis state the animal
remaint from a fortnight to three weeks; it then bursts its
case and comes forth in the hnago state, the moth having
previously dissolved a portion of the cocoon by meanii of a
fluid which it ejects.
The moth is short-lived : the female, in many instances,
dies almost immediately after she has laid her eggs ; the
male survives her but a short time.
It is a curious fact that all those animals which are most
useful to man are likewise most manageable. There is
scarcely a caterpillar which is so easily reared as that which
turns to the silkworm- moth. [Silk.j
BOMBYCILLA (zoology). The name of a genus of
tooth-billed birds {Dentirostres), Cuvier places the genus
among the Dentirostral genera of his second order Passe-
reaux; Latreille also arranges it under that order, but does
not allow it to belong to the Dentirostres, and classes it
among his first family, that of the broad-billed birds
(Lattrostres). Temminck, considering it to be an omni-
vorous bird, finds a place for it, under the name of Bom-
bydwrcL, in his second order Omnivores. Vieillot*s second
order {Sylvan Birds, Sylvicoke) contains two tribes ; and
in the sixteenth family (Baccivori, or berry-eaters) of the
second tribe {Anisodactylt), the genus in question will be
fbund. Vigors places it in the second tribe Dentirostres of
his second order, Insessores or perehing-birds ; and, after
some hesitation, and expressing his doubt whether its natu-
ral situation is not in the family MeruHcUe, is inclined to
arrange it provisionally among the Pipridce, his last family
of Dentirostres. Bonaparte makes it a genus of his family
Sericaii, Swainson, in Fiiuna Boreali-Americana, arranges
it under his Bombycillinte, a sub-family belonging to the
aberrant group of his AmpeHcke, or fVuit-eaters ; but, in
firing his table of Ampelidee, he expresses considerable
oubts on the true nature of the aberrant divisions. Lin^
neus at one time made it a butcher-bird {Latiius), and
afterwards an Atnpelis, Brisson classed it among the
thrushes (Tardus), and lUiger among the crows (Corvus).
The buds of this genus are known by the English names
of Wax- firings or Waxen-chatterers; and the following are
the principal generic charactera according to Temminck :
BUI short, straight, elevated ; upper mandible cun'ed
towards its extremity, with a strongly marked tooth.
Nostrils basal, ovoVd, open, hidden by strong hairs directed
forwards.
Feet, with three toes before and one behind, [the exterior
toe connected (soudS) with the middle one.
Wings moderate, the first and second quills^longest.
Only three species have been recorded. The first has a
wide geographical ran^e ; the second is confined to North
America, and the third is Oriental. *'
EuBOPBAN Wax-Winq or Chattbrkr.
This elegant species, which is also known by the English
names of the Bohemian Chatterer^ Bohemian Wax-wing
and Siik-taUM Le Jaseur de Boheme (Buffon, &c.). Grand
Jaseur (Temminck) and Geay de Boheme of the French ;
Garrulo di Boemia of the Italians ; Rothlicherauer Sei-
denschwantz (Meyer), Europdischer Seidenscmoanz and
Der Gemeine Seidenschwanz (Bechstein) of the (jermans;
Garrulus Bohemicus of Cresner, BomhydUa, Schwenck.,
Ampelis, Aldrovand, BombyciUa Bohemica of Brisson;
AmpeHs garrulus of Linnsdus ; Bombydphora garrula,
Brehm; Bombydphora polioccelia of yLeyex ; Bonwydvora
garruta of Temminck, and Bombydlla garrula of V ieillot.
In addition to the nomenclature above given, the bird is
said to be named by the Italians in some localities Becco-
Fnsone, in othen» Galletto del bosco; and by the bird-
catchera of Bologna Uccello del mondo novo ; by the Ger-
mans ZinzereUe, Wipstertz, Schnee-vogel and Schnee^
Leschke, and by those in the neighbourhtwd of Nuremberg
Beemerle and Behemle ; by the Swedes Sidenswantz ; by
the Bohemians Brkoslaw ; and by the Poles Jedwabniczka
and Jemiolucha.
That the Bohemian Chatterer was known to the antients
there can be little doubt ; but a great deal of obscurity pre-
vails as to the names by which it was distinguished. Some
have taken it to be the Incendiada Avis of Pliny (Book x,
c. 13), the inauspicious bird, on account of whose appear-
ance Rome more than once underwent lustration, but more
especially in the consulship of L. Cassius and C. Marius,
when the apparition of a great owl (Bubo) was added to the
horrors of the year. Othere have supposed that it was the
biid of the Heroynian forest (Book x, c. 47), whose feathere
shone in the night like fire. Aldrovandus, who collected
the opinions on this point, has taken some pains to show
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ibftt it Mold be neither the one nor the other. The
worthy Italian gravely assures his readers that its feathers
de not shine in the night ; for he says he kept one alive
Ibr three months, and observed it at all hours (quilTis noetis
horft coctemplatus sum).
It is by no means improbable that this biid was the
T^Afakoc (Gnaphalus) of Aristotle (Hut Anim,, Book ix.
e.16).
The geographical range of the Bohemian Chatterer is
extensive, comprehending a great portion of the arctic
world. It appears generally in Hocks, and a fatality was,
at one time, believed to accompany their movements. Thus
Aldrovandus observes that large flights of them appeared
in Febmary, 1 530, when Charles V. was crowned at Bologna ;
and again in 1551, when they spread through tiie dnchies
of Modena, Piacenza, and otlier Italian districti, carefully
a'l^ing that of Ferrara, which was afterwards convulsed by
an eartbqdake. In 1552, according to Gesner» they visited
the banks of the Rhine, near Ments, in such myriads that
they darkened the air. In 1571 troops of them were seen
flying about the north of Italy, in the month of December,
when the Ferrarese earthquake, according to Aldrovandus,
took place, and the rivers overflowed their banks.
Necker, in his memoir on the birds of Geneva, observes
that from the beginning of this century only two consi-
derable flights have been observed in that canton, one in
January, 1807, and the other in 1814, when they were veiy
numerous, and, having spent the winter there, took their
departure in March. In the first of those years they were
scattered over a considerable part of Europe, and, early in
January, were seen near Edinburgh. Savi observes that
they are not seen in Tuscany except in very severe winters,
and that the years 1806 and 1807 were remarkable for the
number of them which entered Piedmont, especially the
valleys of Lanzo and Suza.
It has been said that it is always rare in France, and that
of late years it has become scarce in Italy and Germany ;
but Becbstein observes, that in moderate seasons it is found
in great flights in the skifts of the forests throughout the
greater part of Germany and Bohemia, and that it is to be
seen in Thuringia only m the winter ; if the season be mild,
in very small numbers, the greater portion remaining in the
north ; if the weather be severe, it advances fhrther south.
The Bohemian Chatterer must be considered only as an
occasional visitant to the British islands, though Pennant
says that they appear only by accident in South Britain, but
that about Edinburgh they come annually in Febmaiy,
and feed on the berries of the mountain-ash ; adding, that
they also appear as far south as Northumberland, and, like
the fieldfare, make the berries of the white thorn their food :
he records the death of one which was killed at Garth-
meilio in Denbighshire, in a fir tree, dnring the severe frost
of December, 1788. Latham, in a note to this statement,
says, that the late Mr. Tunstall informed him that, in the
winter of 1 787, many flocks were seen all over the county of
York, and that towards the spring a flock of between twenty
and thirty were observed within two miles of WycliflTe, his
place of resilience. Bewick states that, in the years 1 790,
1791, and 1803, several of them were taken in Northum-
berland and Durham, as early as the month of November.
Sulby says that, in the winter of 1810, large flocks were dis-
persed through various parts of the kingdom ; and that, from
that period, it does not seem to have visited our island till
the month of February, 1822, when a few came under bis
inspection, and several were again observed during the se-
vere storm in the winter of 18'23. Montagu says that he
received it out of Stafibrdshire, and that he has known others
killed in the more southern counties in the autumn and
winter. In Mr. Rennie's edition of the • Ornithological
Dictionary * (1833) it appears that one had been shot in the
park of Lord Boringdon, at Saltram, in Devonshire, and
that not less than twenty have been killed in the counties of
Suffolk and Norfolk during the last three winters. Graves
says, that about Christmas, IS 03, a number were shot in
the netffhbourhood of Camberwell, from one of which, being
but slightly wonnded, his figure was taaen. In Loudon's
Magazine, whe.e nmch valuable information is preserved, it
is stated that a fine specimen was shot near Coventry, in
December, 1830. where it appeared to associate with
starlings, and that during the same month of the same
year six were killed in the vicinity of Iphwich. From the
■ame source we derive the following additional records.
The Bohemian wax-wiBg» or ehatteier» was unuaaalh
plentilhl in the neighbourhood of Bury St Edmunds, BnlTolk
in the fbw days in January, I A3 5, m which snow lay up<»n
the ground. On the 19tb, four were seen in Rnshbroc'k ;
on the 2 1st, a partv of nine or ten was observed in the
neighbourhood of kougham ; and on the same day one wb«
ibot at Liverpool, feeding on the hips (fruit) of a tose ; and
either two or three Were seen in Ickworth Park. About the
■ame time one was shot at Norton, and fbtir were seen m
Nowton, and one in the gardens of Hatdwicke Rouse. On
the, I beliete, 24th, five or six were seen fbedlng on th'^
hawa of hedges in the neighbourhood of Ixworth. The one
shot at Norton had several haws in its stomach, as hs4
another that vras ihol In the neighbouthood of Bnn^rAv.
Two, at least, additional have been shot in or about Thet-
ibrd. (Henry Turner, Curator of the BoCanle Garden.
Bury St. Edmunds, Jan. SO* 1833.)
In Worcestershire, a male was shot at Radford, near
Evesham, and a female at Claines, both dnring the pa^t
winter; and of the two, deemed * a fine pair,* the Dre«erved
finrns are in the museum of the Worcester Natural Htstnry
Society. (Berrow*s Woreetier Journal^ April 16, 1835.)
A very fine individual (a male it was jxreaumed to be>,
which had its cplours remarkably bright and vivid, and the
four eentral of its tail-feathers terminated each with a
homy appendage, the colour of red sealing-wax, and iden-
tical in kmd with that with which each of certain feather>
in the wings is terminated, was killed near Hamaby Bnde**.
in the neighbourhood of Carlisle, Cumberland, on Decem-
ber 8, 1 831. This was a second individual with appendagi-^
to certain feathers of tho tail, which had been taaen in tl.o
neighbourhood of Cariisle, Cumberland. {niL Mas:^
Feb. 1832, p. 84.)
An individual was taken alive early this winter. 1 634-3 ',
with birdlime, near Netherwilton, Northumbertand ; and I
saw it lately (April, 1835), very tame and healthy, in the
g3ssession of the captor, who feeds it ehiefly with bren I.
ome other individuals, its companions, trere shot, at about
the same time, which he baa preserved. (W. C. Trevelyan,
Wallinqrton, Northumberland.*)
In northern Russia, and the extreme north of Norway,
according to Bonaparte, Prince of Musignano, they are seen
in great numbers every winter, being ooserved there earlier
than *n temperate countries. In northern Asia and eastern
Europe their migrations are tolerably regular. Very nu-
merous flocks pass through Scania in November, and are
again seen on their return in the spring.
But ^e species is not confined to Europe and Asia. * Bv
It singular coincidence,* says the author hist quoted, ' whiWt
we were proclaiming this species as Americin, it was re-
ceived by Temminck fhmi Japan, together with a oew
species, the thini known of the genus.* Bonaparte suvs
that his beat specimen was shot on the SOth March, 38£'>.
on the Athabasca river, near the Rodiy Mountains ; and hr
observes that the species appears to be spread widely, as he
had been credibly informed by htraters, that 'cedar-birds of
a large kind * had been shot a little beyond the Miasiseippi :
adding, that he is at a loss to conceive why it should newr
have been observed on this side of the last-mentkmed rtrer.
Mr. Drummond, in the spring of 1826, saw it nesT the
sources of the Athabasca; and Eh-. Kiehardson observed it
in the same season at Great Bear Lake, in lat 65^ where a
male, of which he gives a description, was shot on the 24th
May of that year. * Specimens,* writes Dr. Richard!«on«
* procured at the former place, and transmitted to England
by the 8er^'ants of the Hudson's Bay Coiiipany, werc'rom-
mnnicated by Mr. I^eadbeater to the Prioee of Musignano,
who has introduced the species into his great work on the
birds of the United States. In its autumn migration ioulh-
wards, this bird must cross the territory of the United States^
if it does not actuallv winter within it ; but I have not heard
of its having been hitherto seen in Americm to the south-
ward of the fifty-fifth parallel of latitude.
•The mountainous nature of the country skirting the
Northern Pacific Ocean being congenial to the babrta of
this species, it is probably more generally diftiaed in New
(^aledonia and the Russian-Ameriean territohea, than to
the eastward of the Rocky Mountain chain. It appears in
flocks at Cfreat Bear Lake about the 24th of May, when the
spring thaw has exposed the berries of the Alpine arbutu«,
marsh vaccinium, &c^ that have been frocen and eovererl
during winter. It stays only for a few days, and none of
the Indiana of that quarter with whom I convttaed lad
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seen ill Deata; bat I have r^Ason tp beU^ve that it retires
in the breeding season to the rugged and secluded n^ouo-
tain limestone districts, in the sixty-seventh and sixty-
eighth parallels, when it feeds on the fruit of the common
juniper, which abounds in these places.' Dr. Richardson
adds, that he observed a large tlock of at least three or
four hundred en the banks of the Saskatchewan, at Carlton
House, early in May, 1827, They ahghted in a grove of
poplars, settling all on one or two trees, and making a loud
twittering noise. They stayed only about an hour in the
morning, and wer» tQO shy to allow him to approach within
gunshot.
We have hitherto only spoken of these birds in a mi-
gratory state, and the question presents itself, where do
tiiey breed ? To this no one has yet been able to give a
satisfactory answer. Bonaparte thinks it probable that their
chief place of abode is in the oriental parts of the old conti-
nent, and hazards an opinion that the extensive and ele-
vated table-land of Central Asia is their princ^)al rendez-
vous, whence, hke the Tartars in former times, they make
their irregular excursions. Temminck is obliged to say,
I Propagation inconnue,* adding an ' on dit,' that it makes
its nest far up in the north, preferring mountainous coun-
tries, and building in the crevices of rocks. Bonaparte ex-
presses his disbelief of this, judging firom anabgy. Bech-
steiu says that it does not build in Germany when wild, but
within the Arctic circle.
Bonaparte gives a very amiable character of these birds
in a state of nature, attribut'mg to them a particular senti-
ment of benevolence, even independent of reciprocal sexual
attraction, * Not only,' says tlie Prince, * do tho male and
female caress and feed each other, but the same proofs of
mutual kindness have been observed between individuals
of the same sex/ Speaking of their habits he says, ' They
always alight on tr^es, hopping awkwardly pn the grouni
Their flight is very rapid : when taking wing, they utter a
note resembling the syllables zi, zi, ri, but are generally
silent, notwithstanding the name that has been given them/
Bcchstein says, * when wild we see it in the spring eating,
Hke thrushes, all sorts of liles and other insects ; in autumn
and winter, dificrent kinds of berries; and in time of need,
the buds and sprouts of the beech, maple, and various fruit-
trees.' Willughby states that it feeds unon fruit, especially
grapes, of which it is very greedy. * Wherefore it seems
to me,* he adds, ' not without reason, to be called by that
name {ampelis),* Bonaparte makes their food to consist of
different kinds of juicy berries, or of insects, observing that
they are fbnd of the berries of the mountain-ash and phy-
tolacea, and that they are extremely greedy of grapes, and
also, though in a less degree, ofjuniper and laurel berries,
apples, currants, figs, ana other Kuits. He artds that they
drink often, dipping their bills repeatedly.
In captivity its qualities do not appear to be very at-
tf^tive, according to Bechstein, who says that nothin.:; but
its beauty and scarcity can render the possession of it de-
sirable, for that it is a stupid and lazy bird. Indeedt he
draws such a picture of its greediness and dirty habits that,
if it be not ovenJiarged, few, we should thin(, would wish
to have it as an inmate. Leaving out the more unpleasant
parts of his description, we take the following extract from
Bis cage-hurds or stove-birds : — • During the ten oi* twelve
years that it can exist in confinement, and on very meagre
food, it does nothing but e^t and repose for digestion. If
hunger induces it to move, its step is awkward, and its
jumps so clumsy as to be disagreeable to the eye. Its song
consists only of weak and uncertain whisthng, a little re-
sembling the thrush, but not so loud. While singing, it
moves the crest, but hardly moves the throat. If this
warbling is somewhat unmusical, it has the merit of conti-
nuing throughout every season of the year. When angry,
which happens sometimes near the common feeding-trough,
it knocks very violently with its beak. It is easily tamed/
The same author says, that in confinement the two uni-
versal pastes appear delicacies to it ; and it is even satisfied
with hran steeped in water. It swallows everything vora-
ciously, and refuses nothing eatable, such as potatoes, cab-
bage, salad, fruit of all sorts, and especially white bread. It
hkes to bathe, or rather to sprinkle itself with water, fmr it
does not wet itself so much as other birds.
It is taken in nooses, to which berries are fixed. Which,
ftr this porpoae, says the author last quoted, * should always
be kept in store till February. It appears to be frightened
at nothing, for it fli«8 into nets and traps, though it ^i^^ its
companions caught and hanging 'and uttering ones of
distress and fear/
Description, Length about eight inches ; the size alto-
gether approaching that of a starUng.
McUe, Bill strong, black, except at the base, where tho
colour inclines to a yellowish white ; nostrils hidden under
small black feathers. Irides purplish-red. Chin and throat
velvety black, as is also the streak (in the midst of which
is the oye> oassing from the bill to the hinder part of the
head. Forehead reddish-browu. Head feathers long, silky,
forming a recUning crest approaching to reddish-chestnut,
which the bird can erect or depress at pleasure. Upper
parts purpUsh-r«d, or vinaceous-brown oashed with ash-
oolour, tho rump lightest. Breast and belly pale purplish-
ash, tinged with pade brownish-n:ed. Vent and under tail-
coverts orange-brown, inclining to reddish-orange. Greater
wing-ooverts black, tipped with white. Lesser wing-coverts
of a shade darker than (he general tint of the upper plu-
mage. Primaries black, with a bright-yellow spot near the
white tips of their outer webs. Montagu saya that the
threo first are tipped with white, and the othera with yellow
on their outer margins. Secondaries grey, tipped with
white on the outer web, and seven or eight of t&em termi-
nated with small iiattish oval horny appendages, of the
colour of pod sealing-wax. Sometimes there are not more
than five or six of these wax-4ike tips, and in Montagu's
specimen there were five on one side and six on the other.
Graves gives the number at firom six to nine (Bechstein at
from five to nine),* and mentions the specimen in Mr. Ha«
worth's collection, which had some en the tail, which ia
black tipped with yellow, and dashed with ash-colour at the
base. Shanks, toes, and claws, black.
Female, Generally similar to the male ; but the yellow
on tlie wings and tail is not so bright, nor are the wax-Uke
appendages so large or so numerous.
Some have said that the female wants both the yellow
and the wax- like ornaments. Graves says that the female
lias white on the wing where the male has yellow, and that
she ia wholly destitute of the waxen appendages. Some
females may h;ive been taken with the plumage last-men-
tioned ; but in general, the first description will be found
the most correct. Bonaparte's specimen shot on the Atha-
basca river was a female. It was, according to him, eight
and a half inches in length, and fifteen in extent The
bill was three-quarters of an inch long, black, but paler
at the base of the under mandible. There was no yellow
whatever on the wing. The tail was tipped with pale-
yellow for half an inch, and four only of the secondaries
were furnished with the bright-red appendages. Bechstein
says that the narrow wax. tips at the end of the tail de^
note that the bird is a very old male. The liesh of this
species ia said to be delioata food.
[Bombyoaia Bobemica, male.]
^ In ft fioe •p»;im«B diot in Juiiunr, 1815. by Mr. J<«1m Cio«aiv«U«, of
a.iU.Ci<irtU.iii Tlipri)il»W4J^.«l9i»' to bis dVO be«Mi> Um. moj>ttAnwa WMO
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American Wax-wixo.
Ths Ameriean wax^mng, or cedar-hird, was considered
bv some of the older natnralists to be identieal with the
European species from which it had degenerated. Latham
was of this opinion which oil now agree in considering erro-
neous. The specific differences are too strongly marked to
admit of any doubt on the subject
This species is the Ampelis Garrulus var. /3. of the Sys-
tema Naturss ; Qarrulus CaroiineMii, Le Jaipur de Caro-
line, the Chatterer of Catesby ; Turdue Garrulut Caroii-
neneie of Klein ; Coquantototl of Hernandez ; Avis Ante-
ricana cristata, XomoU dicta of Seht^ ; C/iattcrer o/ Caro-
lina of Edwards; Cedar-bird, Ampelis Americana, ot
Wilson ; ReooUet * of the Canadian Voyageurs ; BombyciUa
Carolinensis of "BriMou, Bonaparte, Audubon, and others.
It is said to be found in the whole extent between Mexico
and Canada, and parties are said occasionally to roam
as far south as the forests of Guiana. In the United
States it is a resident during the whole year, the northern
and middle states being its moro usual quarters in the
summer, and the southern in the winter season. It is
stated that the bird has been found on the north-west coast
of Ameriea,t but its northern boundary appears to fall
short of that of BombyciUa Bohemica, Say saw it near
Winnineg river, in latitude 50^, and Dr. Richardson
states his belief that it has not been hitherto observed to
the northward of the fifty-fourth parallel. He says that
Mr. Drummond saw several small tlocks on the south
branch of the Saskatchewan on the 27th June, and gives a
description of a male killed there in lat 52^*^ on that day,
1827. He adds, that it frequents the northern shores of
Lakes Huron and Superior in summer.
The cedar-birds utter a feeble lisping sound, and ' fly,'
says Wilson, * in compact bodies of from twenty to fifty ; and
usually alight so close together on the same tree, that one
half are firequently shot down at a time. In the months
of July and August, they collect together in flocks, and
retire to the hilly parts of the state, the Blue Mountains,
and other collateral ridges of the Alleffhany, to enjoy the
fruit of the Vdcdnium uliginosum, whortleberries, which
grow there in great abundance, whole mountains for many
miles being almost entirely covered with them ; and where,
in the month of August, I have myself found the cedar-
birds numerous. In October they descend to the lower
cultivated parts of the country, to feed on the berries of the
sour gum, and red cedar, of which last they are immo-
derately fond ; and thirty or forty may sometimes be seen
fluttering among the branches of one small cedar-tree,
plucking off the berries In the fall, and begin-
ning of summer, when they become very fat, they are in
considerate esteem for the table ; and great numbers are
brought to the maiket of Philadelphia, where they are sold
at firom twelve to twenty-five cents per dozen. During
the whde winter and spring they are occasionally seen ;
and about the 25th of May appear in numerous parties,
making great havoo among the early cherries, selecting
the best and ripest of the fruit.' Audubon says that they
reach Louisiana about the beginning of November, and
retire towards the middle districts in the beginning of
March. • The holly,* writes the author last quoted, • the
vines, the persimon, the pride of China, and various other
trees, supply them with plenty of berries and fruits, on
which they fatten, and become so tender and juicy as to be
sought by every epicure for the table. I have known an
instance of a basketful of these little birds having been
forwarded to New Orleans as a Christmas present. And
delicious these fruit-eating birds (for such is their general
diet, albeit they are said to be excellent fly-catchers) un-
doubtedly are; though Hernandez, who met witJi them
near Tetzeuco (apud Tetzcoquenses), says that neither in
their song nor in the flavour of their flesh are they better
than other small birds, ' neque est cantu aut nutrimento
cssteris aviculis commendatior.* Their appetite is extra-
ordinary : * they gorge themselves,* observes Audubon» * to
linpMl with yslVyv, md th«» wpte ftve only of the nppendagei or tipi on one
t°'i ?"** »*venou lh«» other. It ia »d«I.Ml th»t thU is the only individual
which ha« ')ocn ih »'. In this part tiuce 18u3. f L«'w*on*« Manaxiiu for 1H35
4Ittottng the CmrltMlv Jomtnnl.)
• l*rohttblir.u L«thAa obwrve*. from Uio colour and appearance of ili cre«t
leaemhUag the hooiH^rucuUuM) of an order of friat b of thnt deiionunttliou. Thij
ere«t the bird cjui lower and contract at pleaaun. w that it can hardly be ob-
•jniwL lo Mm* puts of Uie coaatiy th«y ara called chtrry-biri$ and erowm-
' "* ""khardMrn wall obierrat, that Cook and othera who hara mada this
liSht aaaUj BtotAke tte pnoidiBt tTMiet C0. SaAfMica; for that
such excess, as sometimes to be unable to fly, and suffer
themselves to be taken by the hand. Indeed I haw iK'en
some vhich, although wounded and confined in a caL-*-.
have eaten of apples until sufibcjition deprived them of lil.%
in the course of a few days. When opened afterwards, ihcj
were found to be gorged to the month.*
Notwithstanding this greediness they are, aecordinjr to
some writers, remarkable for their social and kindly dif pew
sition in a state of nature. Nuttall, on the authority of xn
eye-witness, states that one among a row of these bir:«.
seated upon a branch, darted after an insect, and offered it
to his associate when caught, who very disinterestetll^
passed it to the next, and each delicately declining th».-
offer, the morsel went backwards and forwaras before it wa«
appropriated.
After fattening on the fruits of May and early June they
begin to turn their attention to the continuation of thi*
species, and commence, about the tenth or twelflh of the
latter month, building a nest large in proportion to thu
bird, sometimes in their favourite cedar-tree (Junipfroj
Virgimana, Willd.j, but more frequently in the orchard •*,
generally choosing a forked or horizontal branch of an
apple-tree some ten or twelve feet from the ground. Out-
wardly and at bottom is laid a mass of coarse dry stalks of
Sass; the inside is lined entirely with very fine stalk» of
e same material. The eggs are three or four, of a Aimr}
bluish white, thick at the great end, tapering suddenly, an>i
becoming very narrow at the other, marked with fcm:»U
roundish spots of black of various sixes and shades ; and the
great end is of a pale dull purple tinge, marked likewise
with touches of various shades of purple and black. About
the last week in June the young are hatched, and an* a:
first fed on insects and their larvo) ; but as they advance iii
growth, on berries of various kinds. * The femde,' says
Wilson, from whose personal observation the foregoing fact*
are given, ' if disturbed, darts from the nest in silence to a
considerable distance ; no notes of wading or lamentatiur.
are heard from either parent, nor are they even seen, not-
withstanding you are in the tree examinmg the nest ani
young. . . . The season of love, which makes ahnost every
other small bird musical, has no such effect on them ; fur
they continue at that interesting period as silent as before.*
Nuttall, who observes that they are so sociable even in
the breeding season that several nests may be observed in
the same vicinity, gives the following interesting account of
their nidification :— • Two nests in the .Botanic Garden ax
Cambridge were found in small hemlock trees,* at the dii-
tance of sixteen or eighteen feet from the ground, in the
forks of the main branches. One of these was composed o<
dry coarse grass, interwoven roughly with a considerable
quantity of dead hemlock sprigs, fUrther oonnectad bv a
sinall quantity of silk-weed t lint, and lined with a few strips
of thin grape-vine bark, and dry leaves of the silver fir. In
the second nest the lining was merely fine root fibres. On
the 4th of June this nest contained two eggs * the whole
number is generally about four or five; these an of the
usual form, not remarkable for any disproportion at the two
ends, of a pale clay white, inclining to olive; with a few
well-defined black or deep umber spots at the great en i«
and with others seen, as it were, beneath the surface of iLe
shell. Two or three other nests were made in the apple-
trees of the adjoining orchard, one in a plaoe of difiieult ac-
cess, the other on a depending branch easily reached by the
hand. These were securely fixed horixontaUy among the
ascending twigs, and were formed externally of a mas^ <.i
dry wiry weeds ; the materials being firmly held toget]:« r
by a large quantity of cordweed down,t in some placx*
softened with glutinous sahva, so as to be ibrmed into coarse
connecting shreds. The round edge of the nest was made
of coils of the wiry stolons of a common einqaefotl,( thtrn
lined with exceedingly fine root-fibres; over the whole, t.i
give elasticity, were laid fine stalks of a slender ^tmevf, cr
minute rush. In these nests the eggs were, as deecnbcd
by Wilson (except as to form), marked with amaller aivi
more numerous spots than the preceding. From the late-
ness of the autumn, at which period mcubatioa is 6tU;
going on, it would appear that this species is reir pioh6c.
and must have at least two hatches in a season ; for as late
as the 7th of September a brood in this vidnity were yet ia
the nest The period of sitting is about fifteen or aixleea
days.*
* Abiet Cauadeniii, L.
t Gnaphalioffl plantagineum. |
Digitized by
t Aaelepiaa.
BOM
113
BOM
Haying MideaTOvred to give the reader some idea of tae
hibiU of the oedar-bird in a state of nature, we proceed to
lay before him Nuttall's account of its manners in cap-
tivity :—
' A young bird« from one of the nests described in the
hemlock, was thrown upon my protection, having been by
some means ejected from his cradle. In this critical situa-
tion however he had been well fed or rather gorged with
berries, and was merely scratched by the fall ne had re-
ceived. Fed on cherries and mulberries he was soon well
fledged, while his mate in the nest was suffered to perish
by the forgetfulness of his natural protectors. Coeval with
the growth of his wing-feathers, were already seen the re-
markable red waxen appendages, showing that their ap-
pearance indicates no particular age or sex ; many birds, m
fact, being without these ornaments during their whole
lives, I soon found my interesting protegee impatient of
the cage, and extremely voracious, gorging himself to the
very mouth with the soil fruits on which he was often fed.
The throat, in fact, like a craw, admits of distention, and
the contents are only gradually passed off into the stomach.
I now suffered the bird to fly at large, and for several days
he descended from the trees in which he perched to my arm
for food ; but the moment he was satisfied he avoided the
cage, and appeared bv his restlessness unable to survive
the loss of Uberty. He now came seldomer to me, and
finally joined the lisping muster cry of tze, tze, ize^ and
was enticed away, after two or three attempts, by his more
attractive and suitable associates. When youn^, nature
provided him with a loud impatient voice, and te-cUdt te-did,
nai te-did (often also the clamorous cry of the young Balti-
more) was his deafenine and almost incessant call u>r food.
Another young bird of the first brood, probably nef^Iected,
cried so loud and plaintively to a male Baltimore bred in
the same tree, that he commenced feeding it. Mr. Winship
of Brighton informs me that one of the young cedar-birds
who frequented the front of his house in quest of honey-
suckle berries, at length, on receiving food, probably also
abandoned by his roving parents, threw himself wholly on
his protection. At large, day and night, he still regularly
attended the dessert of the dinner-table for his portion of
fruit, and remained steadfast in his attachment to Mr. Win«
ship till killed by an accident, being unfortunately trodden
QDder foot.*
[BombydlU Carolineofli^ male.)
The following is Wilson's description :— Length seven
mches, extent eleven inches ; head, neck, breast, upper
part of the baek and wing-ooTert8« a dark fawn colour ;
darkest on the baek, and brightest on the front ; head or«
namented with a high pointed, almost upright erest ; line
from the nostril over the eye to the hind head velvety black,
bordered above with a fine line of white, and another lino
of white passes ftom the lower mandible; chin black, gra-
dually brightening into fawn colour, the feathers there
lying extremely close ; bill black, upper mandible nearly
triangular at the base, without bristles, short, rounding at
the point, where it is deeply notched ; the lower scolloped
at the tip, and turning up ; tongue as in the rest of the
genus, broad, thin, cartUaguious and lacerated at the end ;
belly yellow ; vent white ; wings deep-slate, except the two
secondaries next the body, whose exterior vanes are of a
fawn colour, and interior ones white, forming two whitish
strips there, which are very conspicuous ; rump and tail-
coverts pale light blue, tail the same, ^dually deepening
into black, and tipped for half an inch with rich yellow. Six
or seven, and sometimes the whole nine, secondary feathers
.f the wings are ornamented at the tips with small red ob-
long appendages, resembling red sealine-wax ; these appear
to ^ a prolongation of the shafts, and to be intended for
preserving the ends, and consequently the vanes of the quills
from being broken and worn away by the almost continual
fluttering of the bird among the thick branches of the cedar.
The feathers of those birds which are without these ap-
pendages are uniformly found ragged on the edges ; but
smooth and perfect in those on whom the marks are full
and numerous. These singular, marks have been considered
as belonging to the male alone, from the circumstance per-
haps of finding female birds without them. They are how-
ever common to both male and female. Six of the latter
are now lying before me, each with large and numerous
clusters of egs^s, and having the waxen appendages in fbll
perfection. The young binls do not receive them until the
second fall,* when, in moulting lime, they may be seen fully
formed, as the feather is developed from its sheath. I have
once or twice found a solitary one on the extremity of one
of the tail feathers. The eye is of a dark blood colour ; the
legs and claws black ; the inside of the mouth orange ; gap
wide ; and the gullet capable of such distention as often to
contain twelve or fifteen cedar-berries, and serving as a
kind of craw to prepare them Ibr digestion. The chief dif-
ference in the plumage of the male and female consists in
the dullness of the tints of the latter, the inferior appearance
of the crest, and the narrowness of the yellow bar at the tip
of the tail.*
Audubofl gives the following dimensiens :~Length six
inches and three-fourths, extent of wings eleven, bill along
the ridge fi\-e-twelfths, along the gap three-fourths, tarsus
three-fourths. The length of the male described by Dr.
Richardson was seven inches six lines. The Doctor ob-
serves that a female procured by Mr. Drummond wanted
entirely the waxen appendages to the secondaries, and savs
that a young bird m Mr. Swainson*s collection has the
upifer plumage of the head and body of a hair-brown colour,
paler on the neck and rump : the wings and tail as in the
mature bird, except that the former want the waxen ap-
pendages. The black iVental mark is narrower, and there
IS no black on the chin. The under plumage is mostly
hair-brown, edG;ed with yellowish-grey, the belly and vent
being straw-yellow.
Asiatic Wax-wino.
The discovery of the Bed-winged Chatterer, or Japanese
Wax-wing, is one of the fruits of Dr. De Siebold's scientific
mission to Japan by the government of the Netherlands.
In size it bears a greater resemblance to the Cedar-bird
than to the Bohemian Wax-wing, but differs from both in
the nakedness of the nostrils (which are not hidden by the
small feathers of the front, like the nostrils of the other two
species of this small but natural group), in the length of
the crest, and the beautiful black plumes witii which it is
ornamented, and by the entire absence of the wax-like ap-
pendages that tip the secondaries of its congeners.
The length of the Japanese Wax-wing is six inches and
six lines. The base of the bill is bordered by a black band,
which passes to the back of the head, surrounding the eye
in its way, and terminates in the lower crest-feathers, which
are of the same colour throughout ; the chin and throat are
black ; the crest is long, composed above of feathers of an
aahy-reddish colour with an inferior layer of the black
* Bnt tM Nnttall*! Mcoaiit abofvcb
No. 286.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDlA.]
Digitize
mO^gl^
B O M
114
BON
plumM already alluded to; the breast, u|iper parts, and
winf(-€0vert9 are of a brownish > ash, and a red band tra-
verses the wins about the middle of it ; all the quills are
of an ashy-black, the greater cjuills terminated with black
and tipped with white ; the tail is of an ashy-black, tipped
with vivid red ; the middle of the belly is of a whitish-
vellow ; and the lower tail-ooverts chestnut ; shanks and
leet black.
The species is found in the neighbourhood of Nangasaki.
Temminck, to whom we are indebted for our knowledge
of the bird, which is described and figured in his Planches
Colorizes, says that there is a specimen in the galleries of
the Museum of the Pays-Bas, and another in the collection
of M. Blomhof. the rchident at Japan ; and he observes that
the absence of the nostril-plumes furnishes a proof, also af-
fonled in the genera Corvus and Garrula, in contradiction
to the opinion of those systematists who would separate the
omnivorous birds with covere<l nostrils from Ihose which
have those organs smooth or naked, and divide them into
distinct groups. He also considers the proper position of
the genus to be near the Pirolles (Kitta), and the Rollet
(Colaris of Cuvier, Euryttomus of Vieillot).
[Bombycilla pboBnicopten, male.]
BOMBVLIDiE (entomology), a family of insects of the
order Diptera, distinguished chiefly by having a long pro-
boscis. The body is short and very hairy. Antenn© mo-
derate, four-jointed, the basal joint long, second very short,
third longest, the apical joint minute and tapering to a fine
point The legs are long and very slender. Wings hori-
zontal.
The species of this tribe are all remarkable for their great
swiftness of flight: two species of the genus Bombylius are
not uncommon in open parts of woods, frequenting sunny
banks, where they may be seen, in the month of April,
hovering over flowers from which they sip the sweets by
means of their long proboscis, which enables them to do
this without settling on the flowers.
At one time they will be seen apparently quite motion-
less in the air — for their wings vibrate so rapidly that they
cannot be discerned — a moment after they will make their
appearance at a few yards distance, ha\ing darted from one
spot to the other with such rapidity that the eye cannot
follow them. In their flight they emit a humming sound.
The two species here spoken of are B. major and mediu9 ;
they are about one- third of an inch long and of a brown
colour : the former has the anterior part of its wings clouded
with an opaque brown colour, and the posterior part trans-
i)drent-the latter has the wings adorned with numerous
brown spots, and their anteirior portion but slightly clouded.
[Bomfafylioa iMdiuc]
Mr. Stephens enumerates seven species of this get^us
as indigenous to this country : they are sometimes called
humble-bee flies.
BONA, a corruption of the antient name Hippona,
called by the Arabs Beled el Aneb, or ' country of tlie
jujubes.' is a seaport town of the regency of Algiers, in tlie
beylik or province of Constantina, in sr^'N. lat. and 8" IS
£. long., and about 265 miles E. of Algiers. It Ues on the
west side of a bay in which there is good anchorage. Tb«
harbour of Bona is now choked up with mud, but therv
are good landing-places in the vicinity of the town. Tbe
Seiboos, a considerable river, enters the sea about two miles
to the S.E. of Bona. Between the town and the river is a
marsh, which is crossed by two small rivers, Wadi el Daah
and Wadi el Boojimah, which flow into the Seibooe ju^c
above its entrance into the sea. This marsh is believed tu
have been the antient harbour of Hippo Regius, the scantv
remains of which town are seen about a mile and a h-Lif
south of Bona. Between the walls of Bona and the mat^h
are gardens planted with jujube- trees, and to tbe west und
south-west is a plain which extends far into the inu*r:.»r
in the direction of Constantina. Bona is built at the fo ^
of a hill which rises to the north and north-we^ of t.c
town, and wliich forms the extremity of a ridge whi< L
runs westwards parallel to the sea, as far as the gulf • f
Store. On the summit of the hill and about 500 }ar^i^
above the town is the Casabah, or citadel, which is stnu .;
by its situation. The town itself is surrounded by a « x.i
with towci-8. An aqueduct which brought water into tLt
town has been cut off by the Arabs since the French occu-
pation of the place. Previous to that event Bona c^ n-
tained between three and four thousand inhabitants, »t.<i
earned on a considerable trade by sea; it exported cntilt-.
corn, wool, hides, wax, and other produce. It wa« i- -
cupied by the French in 1830, but soon after was e^.-
cuated, when many of the inhabitants emigrated. It « .^
again occupied in 1831, but after a few months a rc\ li
among the inhabitants and the Turkish garrison in t . ••
Casabah obliged the French to evacuate the place a kco !
time. In 1832 the Arabs and Kabyles, on the arrival ' «
French force by sea, set fire to the town and left it. T..-
French again took possession of the place, but the courin
around continues hostile to them. Through all these \ic«wm-
tudes the population of Bona has dwindled away to a i.M
hundred individuals besides the French garrison. (Shu -. .
Pichon, Alser sous la Domination Pran^aiie; Bertheic*. • .
DiX'huit Mois d Alger,) Along the coast eastward of Bo: .i
were the French settlements of La Calle and Bastion 1 *
France, which France retained by antient treaties with tn-
regency of Algiers and for tlie protection ot tbe corai
fishery, which is carried on along this eoast chiefly Vv
French and Italian boats. These settkmenta howeMr
were destroyed by the late Dey Hussein in 1827 in c^>r.>e^
quence of the brealung out of hostihties. In Uie Errur^
sions in the Mediterranean, by Major Sir Greville TempV.
1835, there is an account of Bona in 1832, and of the ru;u^
of Hippo Regius, which he visited.
BON ACCI. LEONARDO. rL«0!f ard of Pisa.]
BONAPA'RTE,NAPOLEO^NE,was bora al Ajaer...
in the island of Corsica, the 15th of August, 1769. He ^-as
the second son (his brother Joseph being the eldeeii .^f
Carlo Bonaparte and of Letizia Ramolini. both natives « if
Corsica. The house in which he was bora fbrms one sk: .•
of a court leading out of the Rue Charles. [Ajacct-^.^
In his baptismal register, which is in the parish books, h.-^
name is written Bonaparte, but his father generally !ue''H>i
himself Buonaparte, a mode of spelling which seems nh*r%.*
accordant with Italian orthoepy, although there are tun^pr
Italian names in which the first component part is writitrn
and pronounced bona^ as, for instance, Bonaventura, Boom:-
corsi, &c., besides common nouni, sii^ilarly oompounda^
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BON
115
BON
iuch at bonarieta, bonaoeia, &o. Thia appears in itself a
queslion of little moment, but it has been made the subject
of much controversy, to which a sort of national importance
has been given, as if the dropping of the u had been
done for the purpose of Frenchifying the name. (Louis
Bonaparte*s Eipome d Sir fFaiier Scott) Bonaparte be-
ing a family name, the oonectness of the spelling must de-
pnd upon custom, and we find that Napoleon after he
became general of tiie army of Italy always signed his name
without the ii, probably, as Bouhenne observes, because it
was a shorter way of signing, and probably also because it
was better adapted to French pronunciation ; it corresponded
likewise to the common way of speaking of most Italians,
who, with the exception of the Tuscans, pronounce in fa-
miliar conversation ' bono * instead of ' buono/ Napoleon^s
name first became known to the world as Bonaparte, as such
it is registered m his proclamations, dispatches, and other
documents, and as such therefore it ought to be written in
history. His brothers have likewise adopted the same way
of writing it.
Napoleon*8 fatber*s family was originally firom Tuscany,
but had been settled in Corsica for several generations.
There is a comedy written by one of his ancestors, Niceol6
Buonaparte of San liiniato, citizen of Florence, stvled ' La
Vedova,* Florence, 1568 and 1592. There is likewise a
narrative of the pillage of Rome under Charles V., written
by a Jaoopo Buonaparte, *Ragguaglio Storico del Sacco di
Roma deir anno 1527,' Cologne, 1736. Charles, Napoleon's
father, was educated at Pisa for the profession of the law.
Some relatives of the family still lived in Tuscany, and one
of them was canon of San Miniato in Napoleon*s time.
Before the birth of Napoleon, his father had served under
Paoli in the defence of his country against the French, to
whom the Grenoese had basely sold the island. The entire
submission of Corsica to France took place in June, 1 769,
about a month before Napoleon's birth, who therefore, legally
speaking, was bom a subject of France. In the following
September, when Count Marboeuf, the French commis-
sioner, convoked by the king*s letters patent the States of
Corsica, consisting of three orders, nobility, clergy, and com-
mons, Uie family of Bonaparte* having shown their titles,
was registered among the nobility; and Charles, some years
after, repaired to Paris as member of a deputation of his
order to Louis XVI. He was soon after appointed assessor
to the judicial court of Ajacdo. He was then in straitened
circumstances, as he had spent most of his little property
in a bad speculation of some salt-pans, after having pre-
viously lost a lawsuit against the Jesuits about an in-
heritance which he claimed. Through Count MarboBuf *s
interest he obtained the admission of his son Napoleon
to the mihtary school of Brienne as a king's pensioner.
Napoleon left Corsica for Brienne, when he was in his
tenth year, in April, 1779. At Brienne, where he passed
five years and a half, he made great progress in mathe-
matios, but showed less disposition for literature and the
study of languages. Pichegni was for a time his monitor
in the class of mathematics. The annual report made
to the king by ft. de Keralio, inspector general of the
military schools of France, in 1784, has the following re-
marks on young Napoleon : — * Distinguished in mathe-
matical Btudies, tolerably versed in history and geography,
much behind in his Latin and in belles lettres, and other
aooompliahments ; of regular habits, studious and well be-
haved, and eigoying excellent healUi.* (Bourienne*s Me^
mof'rt.) Much has been said of young Napoleon s taci-
turnity and moroseness while at schooL Bourienne, who
was his schoolfellow, states the facts very simply. Napoleon
was a stranger, for the French considered the Corsicans as
such ; be spoke his own dialect, until he learnt French at
the school ; he had no connexions in France, he was com-
paratively poor, and yet proud-minded, as Corsicans gene-
rally are ; the other boys, more fortunate or more lively in
their disposition, teased him and taunted him, and therefore
he kept himself distant and was often alone. But that he
was susceptible of social and friendly feeUngs towards those
who showed him sympathy, his intimacy with Bourienne
suflkiently proves. Many stories have also been told of his
assuming an authority over his comrades, showing a pre-
coeiotis ambition, and an instinct for command ; mit these
are flatly contradicted by Bourienne, with the exception that
m one instance when the snow had fallen very thick on the
ffround, and the boys were at a loss what to do to amuse
themselves, lie proposed to make entrenchments with the
snow, and to perform a sham attack, of which he Iras th^
leader.
There was nothing extraordinary in young Napoleons
school life ; he was a clever, steady, studious lad, and no-
thing more. The school of Brienne was under the direction
of the monks of the order of St. Francis de Paula, called
' Minimi/ and Bourienne speaks rather indifferently of thehr
learning and system of education, though the teacher of
mathematics seems to have been a favourable exception.
Bourienne also states that Napoleon had made more profit
ciency in history than the report above mentioned gives him
credit for : his &vourite authors were Cessar, Plutarch, and
Arrian ; the last two he probably read in Latin, or perhaps
French translations, for he does not appear to have studied
Greek.
Napoleon left Brienne in October, 1784: some say m
1 783 ; but Bourienne is positive as to the date * 17th Octo-
ber, 1784, after Napoleon had been five years and six months
at Brienne,* and he accompanied him part of the way to
Paris, with four of his companions, to proceed to the mili-
tary school there, to continue his course of studies, until
he had attained the age required for entering the army.
The Paris school, and the students' manner of living, were
on an expensive footing, which shocked young Napoleon,
who wrote to Father Berton, his superior at Brienne, a long
letter, in which he forcibly exposed the error of such a sys-
tem of education, as luxury and comforts were a bad pr&*
paration for the hardships and privations attendant on
the military profession. Bourienne gives a copy of this
remarkable letter. In the regulations which he afterwards
drew up for his military school at Fontainebleau, Napo-
leon followed the principles he had thus early manifested.
Napoleon *s spirit of observation, his active and inquisitive
character, his censorious frankness, would appear to have
excited the attention of the superiors of the Paris school,
who hastened the epoch of his examination, as if anxious to
get rid of a troublesome guest. He was likewise remarked
for the wild energy and strange amplifications in his style
of expressing himself when excited, a peculiarity which
distinguished many of his subsequent speeches and prcH
cUmations. In September, 1785, he left the school, and
received his commission as sub-lieutenant in the regiment
of artillery de la Fere, and was soon after promoted to a first
lieutenancy in the artillery regiment of Grenoble, stati<med at
Valence. His father had j ust died at Montpellier of a sdrrhua
in the stomach. An old great uncle, the Archdeacon Lucien
of Ajaccio, now acted as father to the fiimily ; he was rich,
and Charles had left his children poor. Kapoleon's elder
brother Joseph, after receiving his education at the College of
Autun in Burgundy, returned to Corsica, where his mother,
sisters, and younger brothers resided, as well as a half-brothet
of his mother, of the name of Fesch, whose father had beea
an officer in a Swiss regiment in the Genoese service, formeriy
stationed in Corsica. Napoleon, while at Valence with fa&
regiment, was allowed 1200 francs yearly from his family,
probably fi^m the archdeacon, which, added to his pay^
enabled him to live comfortably and to go into company.
He appears to have entered cheerfully into the sports and
amusements of his brother officers, while at the same time
he did not neglect improvinghimself in the studies con*
nected with his profession. vSThile at Valence he wrote a
dissertation in answer to Raynal's question, * What are the
principles and institutions by which mankind can obtain
the greatest possible happiness ?* He sent his MS. anony
mously to the Academy of Lyons, which adjudged to him
the prize attached to the best essay on the subject. Many
years after, when at the height of his power, he happened
to mention the circumstance, and Talleyrand having sought
the forgotten MS. among the archives of the Academy, pre-
sented it to him one morning. Napoleon, after reading a
few pages of it, threw it into the fire, and no copy having
been taken of it, we do not know what his early ideas might
have been about the happiness of mankind. (Las CasesT
yottrna/, vol. i.) Napoleon had become acquainted with
Ravnal while at Paris. Having made an excursion from
Valence to Mont Cenis, he designed writing a * sentimental
journey,* in imitation of Siemens work, translations of which
were much read in France at the time, but he ultimately
resisted the temptation. The first outbreaking of the Revo-
lution found him at Valence with his regiment He took
a lively interest in the proceedings of the first National
Assembly. The officers of his regiment, like those of the
army in general, were divided into royalists and democrats ;^
Digitized by ' Q 2
BON
116
BON
Mv«n! of tha former emigrated to }om tne Prince of (>Kid^
Nepdleon however reftued to follow the lame ooune: he
tooK the popuUr side, and his example and his argaments
inflaeneed many of his hrother officers in the regiment In
1792 Nspoleon hecame a capUin in the regiment of Gre-
noble artillery (Las Casest vol. i.), bis promotion heing
ihvoured probably by the emigration of so many officers.
By others it is stated that he was made a captain in
July, 1793, after his return from Corsica. He nowever
was at Paris in 1792, and there met his old friend Bou-
rienne, with whom he renewed his intimacy. He appears
to have been then unempbyed, probably unattached, while
the army was undergoing a new organization. Napoleon
and Bourienne happened to be, on the 20th of June* 1 792.
at a coifee-house in the street St. Honorc» when the mob
lirom the fauxbourgs (a motley crowd armed with pikes,
sticks, axes, &c.) were proceednig to the Tuileries. * Let
ns follow this canaiUe,' whispered Napoleon to his friend.
They went accordingly, and saw the mob break into the
palace widiout any opposition, and the king afterwards ap-
pear at one of the windows with the red cap on his head.
* It is all over henceforth with that man !' exclaimed Na-
poleon ; and returning with his friend to the coffee-house to
dinner, he explained to Bourienne all the oonsequenoes he
foresaw from the degradation of the monarchy on that fatal
day, now and then exclaiming indignantly, *How could
they allow those despicable wretches to enter the palace I
why. a few discharges of grape-shot amongst them would
have made them all take to their heels; they would be
running yet at this moment !' He was collected and ex-
tremely ffrave all the remainder of that day ; the sight had
made a deep impression upon him. He witnessed also the
scenes of the 1 0th of August, after which he left Paris to
return to his family in Corsica. General de Paoli then
held the chief authority in that island from the king and
the French National Assembly, and Napoleon was appointed
by him to the temporary command of a battalion of national
(^uafds. Paoli had approved of the constitutional monarchy
m France, but not of the excesses of the Jacobins, nor of
the attempts to establish a republic* Factions had broken
out in Corsica also, which Paoli endeavoured to repress. In
January, 1793, a French lieet» under Admiral Truguet,
sailed from Toulon, for the purpose of attacking the island
of Sardinia. Napoleon, with his battalion, was ordered to
make a diversion by taking possession of the small islands
which lie on tho northern coast of Sardinia, which he
effected; butTruguet^s fleet having been repulsed in the
attack upon Cagliari, Napoleon returned to Corsica with
his men. Paoli had now openly renounced all obedience to
the French Convention, and called upon his oountrymen to
ahake off its yoke. Napoleon, on the contrary, rallied with
the French troops under Lacombe St. Michel and Saliceti,
and he was sent with a body of men to attack his native
lawn Ajaooio, which was in possession of Paoli* s party. He
however did not succeed, and was obliged to return to Bastia.
The Bnglish fleet soon after appeared on the coast, landed
troops, and assisted Paoli, and the French were obliged to
quit the island. Napoleon also left it about May, 1793, and
his mother and sisters with him. After seeing them safe to
Marseilles, he went to join the 4th regiment of artillery,
which was stationed at Nice with the army intended to act
against Italy. So at least his brother Louis says, but from
MS Cases* account it would appear that he repaired to
Paris to ask for active employment It was during his short
residence at Marseilles and in the neighbourhood, that he
wrote a political pamphlet, called Le Sotwer de Beaucaire,
m supposed conversation between men of different parties : a
Marseiilese, a man of Nismes. a military man. and a manu-
Ikcturer of MontpeUier. Bonaparte speaks his own senti-
ments aa the mditary man, and reoommends union and
obedience to the Convention, against which the Marseiilese
wera then in a state of revolt. This curious pamphlet be-
came very rare afterwards. Napoleon was said to ha>e
suppressed it Bourienne gives a copy of it from a MS.
given to him by Bonaparte in 1795. His language was
then strongly republican, though not of that turvid absurd
strain which was then so muah m vogue» and of which some
anecimens* signed Biutus B<aiaparte, appeared in the papera
01 the day. Napoleon, in his memoirs, disavows these, and
says that 'perhaps they were the productions of his brother
Lueien, who was then a much more violent democrat than
bimselt*
Bonaparte vae at Paris m September, 1793. Being
known as a good artillery offie«r, he wai sent lo jfoia tua
besieging armv before Toulon, with the rank of lieutenant-
colonel of artillery, and with a letter for Cartaux, the repub*
liean general, a vain, vulgar, and extremely ignorant man*
Napoleon himself has given, in Las Cases* joumal, a nio«t
amusing account of his first interview with Cartaux, of tb#
wretched state in which he found the artilletr, of the tot»l
want of common sense in the dispositions that had been
made for the attack, of his own remonstrances, of his diffi«
culty in making Cartaux understand the simplest notiorui
concerning a battery, &c At last, luckily for him, Gaa*
parin, a commissioner from the Convention, arrived at ihm
camp. He had seen a little service, and understood Bona*
partes plain statements. A council of war was assembled*
and although the orders of the Convention were to attack
Toulon and carry the town, Napoleon succeeded in per-
suading them to attack first the outer works that coon*
manded the harbour, the taking of which would insure the
surrender of the place. It was decided that Bonaparte's
plan should be adopted, even at the serious risk of ineurriog
the displeasure of the Convention* Soon after, Cartaux
was recalled, and another mock general, a physician, waa
sent in his place, but he was soon frightened away by tbo
whistling of the shots. Du^mmier, a brave veteran, then
came to command the besieging army, and he and Bona*
parte agreed perfectly. Napoleon constructed his batteries
with great skill, and having opened his fire with great effect,
the works which commanded the harbour were carried by
the French, after a sharp resistance from the English, in
which the British commander. General O'Hara, was taken
prisoner, and Bonaparte received a bavonet wound. Upon thu
the evacuation of the place was resolved upon by the allies,
as Bonaparte hail foreseen. A scene of confusion, destruc-
tion, and conflagration took place, which it is not within our
object to dwell upon : the English, Spanish, and Neapolitan
fleets sailed out of the harbour, carrying along with them
about 14,000 of the inhabitanti, whose only saiety was iu
flight. The deputies of the Convention, Barras, Frefun.
Fouch^, and the younger Robespierre, entered Toulon, and
exercised their vengeance Upon the few that remained. 4 to
of whom were assembled in the souare and exterminated
by grape-shot Bonaparte says tliat neither he nor the
regular troops had anything to do with this butchery, which
was executed by what was called ' the revolutionary army,'
a set of wretches, the real sans culottes of Paris and other
towns, who followed the army as volunteers.
Throughout that frightful period which has been styled
' the reign of terror; it was not, generally speaking, the
officers of the regular army, but the civilians^ the deputies
of the Convention attached to the armies, who directed and
presided at the massacres. There is an atrocious letter bv
Fouch6 to Collet d'Herbois, testifying his joy at the exter*
mination of the rebels ; and another from Saliceti, Barru,
and Freron, jointly expressing the same sentiments. (Ses
Napoleon's Memoirs, by Qourgaud, vol. i. Appendix.)
In consequence of his services at the taking of louion,
Bonaparte was recommended by General Dugommier for
promotion, and was accordingly raised to the rank of bri^-
dier-general of artillery, in February, 1794, with the chlcj*
command of that department of the army in the south. In
this capacity he inspected the coasts, ordered the weak
points to be fortified, strengthened the fortifications already
existing, and displayed his ability in these matters. 11«
then joined the army under General Dumorbion, which was
stationed at the foot of the Maritime Alps, and with which
he made the campaign of 1794 against the PieduMmtefte
troops. In that campaign, the French disregarding ti*c
neutrality of Genoa, and advancing by VentmiigUa and
San Remo, turned the Piedmontese position at Saorgiu.
obtained possession of the Col de Tende, and penetrated
into the valleys on the Piedmontese side of the Alps. A
battle was fought at Cairo, in the valley of the Bormida,
2 1 St September, in which the French had the advantaec.
But the rainy season coming on, terminated the campaign*
in which Bonaparte had taken an important part, together
with Massena.
Previous however to the battle of Cairo. Bonaparte had
run considerable risk from the factions that divided France.
On the 13th July, 1794, the Deputies of the ConvenU..^a
who were superintending the operations of th^ army g^aw
him a commission to proceed to Genoa, with secret instruc-
tions to examine the state of the fortifications as well as tlte
nature of the country, and also to obaexre UiejDra4ttct of tha
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Cksnoese government 'towards the English and other belli-
gerent powtfTB. These instraotions were dated Loano, and
signed Rieord« Rioord and the younger Robespierre were
then eommlssioners. Bonaparte went to Grenoa and ful-
filled his commission. Meantime, the revolution of the 9th
and lOth Thermidor (27th and 26th July) took place,
Robespierre fell, and his party was proscribed. Albitte,
8ah'ceti, and Laporte, were the new commissioners ap-
pointed to the army of Italy. On Bonaparte's return from
Genoa to head-quarters, he was placed under arrest, his
papers were seized, and an order was issued by the oommis^
stooers, stating that he had lost their confidence by his
suspicious conduct, and especially by Yds journey to Genoa ;
he was suspended Arom his functions of commander of the
artillery, and ordered to proceed to Paris under an escort
to appear before toe committee of public safety. This order
was dated Baroelonnette, 6th August* and signed by the
three commissioners, and countersigned by Uumorbion,
general-in-chie^ Bonaparte remained under arrest for a
fortnight. He wrote a pithy remonstrance, which he ad-
dressed to Albitte and Saliceti, without taking any notice
of the third commissioner Laporte. In it he complains of
being disgraced, and having his character injured without
trial : he appeals to his known patriotism, his services, his
attachment to tne principles of the revolution ; he appeals
to Saliceti, who had known him he says for five years, &c.
This remonstrance induced the commissioners to make a
more precise investigation of the affair, and the result was
a counter order from them, dated Nice, 20th August,
stating that citixen Bonaparte had been arrested in conse-
quence of measures of general safety after the death of the
traitor Robespierre ; but that the commissioners ' having
examined his conduct previous to his journey to Genoa,
and also the report of that mission, had not found any po-
sitive reason to justify the suspicions thev might have en-
tertained of his conduct and principles, and that considering
moreover the advantage derived from his military information
and knowledge of localities to the service of the republic,
they, the commissioners, order him to be restored pfoviHon-
ally to liberty, and to remain at head-<iuarters until further
instructions fVom the committee of public safety.* This cu-
rious document serves to show the kind of justice dealt out
by the French republic in those times. Bonaparte however
seems to have had no further annoyance on the subject.
Tlie real grounds of his accusation have never been known,
and he himself, at the close of his life, professed himself to
be ignorant of them. (Bonaparte's Memoirs dictated to
Gourgaud and Montholon.)
After the close of the campaign of 1794, Bonaparte re-
paired to Marseilles, where his family then was. It would
seem that he had been superseded in his command of the
artillery, for we find him early in the following year at
Paris soliciting employment. Aubry, an old officer of artil-
lery, was then president of the milita^^ committee. Bona-
parte was coldly received by this officer, who made some
remarks on bis youth, which Bonaparte resented ; Aubry
tiien appointed him general of a brigade of infantry, in the
army of La Vend^, an appointment which he refused, con-
sidering it a sort of degradation. He remained therefore
without active employment, retaining his rank of ge-
neral of brigade. He now took lodgings in the Rue du
Mail, near the Place des Victoires, and led a private life.
Bourienne states, that he had then some idea of going into
the Turkish service, and gives a copy of a prqject which
Bonaparte laid before the war-office, showing the advanta|fes
that would result to France by forming a closer connexion
with the Porte, and sending officers of artillery with a body of
gunners to instruct the troops of the sultan. Meantime, a
new crisis arrived in the affairs of FVance. The Convention
had framed a new constitution, establishing a council of
elders, a council of juniors, and an executive directory of five
members. This is known by the name of the constitution
of the year iii., and was in fact the third constitution pro-
claimed since the beginning of the revolution. But the
Convention, previously to its own dissolution, passed a reso-
lution to the eflbct, that at least two-thirds of the members
of the two legislative councils should be taken from the
members of the actual Convention. This resolution was
laid before the primary assemblies of the departments, and
6very kind of iniSuence, legal and illegal, was used to ensure
its approbation. The department of raris however refused,
and the sections or districts of that city being assembled,
demanded a strict scrutiny of the retuma of the votes of the
assemblies of the departments, and protested against the
attempt of the Convention to perpetuate its owh power*
They declared they would no lutiger obey the orders of that
body. It was said that the sections were urged or encou-*
raged in their resistance by the . royalists, who hoped to
derive benefit from it. But it is also well known that the
Convention, many of whose members were implicated in
the bloodshed and atrocities of the rei^ of terror, was
odious to the Parisians. On the other side the members of
the Convention fbr this very reason were afraid of returning
to the rank of private citizens. They determined therefore
to risk every thing in order to cairy their object by force.
They had at their disposal about 5000 regular troops in or
near Paris, with a considerable quantity of artillery, and a
body of volunteers from the suburbs. The command of
these forces was given to B arras, a leading member of the
Convention, who had mainly contributed to the fall ol
Robespierre. Barras, who had become acquainted with Bo-
naparte at the siege of Toulon, proposed to intrust him with
the actual direction of the troops for the defence of the
Convention. Bonaparte was also known to Camot and
Tallien, and other members of the Convention, as an able
artillery ofiloer. The choice being unanimously approved,
Bonaparte quickly drew his hne of defence round the Tuil
eries where the Convention was sitting, and along the adjoin*
ing quay on the north bank of the Seine. He depended mainly
upon his cannon loaded with grape-shot, which he had placed
at the bead of the various avenues through which the na-
tional guards, the force of the citizens, must advance. The
national guards had no cannon. They advanced on the
morning of the 13th Vendemiaire (4th October, 1795^
nearly 30,000 in number, in several columns, along the
quays and the street of St. Honors. As soon as they were
within musket-shot, they were ordered -to disperse in the
name of the Convention ; they answered by discharging
their firelocks, and their fire was returned by discharges of
grape-shot and canister, which did great execution among
the thick masses, cooped up in narrow streets. They
however returned several times to the charge, and attempted
but in vain to carry the guns; the fire of the cannon
swept away the foremost, vmd threw the rest into diii>
order. Foiled at all points, after two hours* fighting, the
national guards withdrew in the evening to their respective
districts, where they made a stand in some churches and
other buUdinffs; but being followed by the troops of tho
Convention, their disunited resistance was of no avail ; they
were obliged to surrender, and were disarmed in the night.
By the next morning all Paris was subdued.* The Conven*
tion and its troops did not use their victory with cruelty ;
except those who were killed in the fight* few of the citizens
were put to death, and only two of the leaders were publicly
executed, others being sentenced to transportation. General
Berruyer, Verdier, and others, served with Bonaparte on
the occasion, but to Bonaparte chiefly the merit of the
victory was justly attributed. He was appointed by a
decree of the Convention second in command of the army
of the interior, Barras retaining the nominal chief command
himself; and soon after the new constitution coming into
operation, Barras being appointed one of the directors, re-
signed his military command, and Bonaparte became ge*
neral of the interior.
About this time, Bonaparte became acquainted with
Josephine Beauhamois, a i^ative of Martinique, and the
widow of the Viscount Alexandre de Beauhamois. This
lady had suffered imprisonment, but was liberated at the
fall of Robespierre. The Director Barras, an old acquaint*
ance of her husband, frequented her society, and she
was also intimate with Madame Tallien, and other persons
of note and influence at that time. She was amiable,
elegant, and accomplished, Bonaparte saw her often, and
became attached to her. She was several years older thaa
he was. He was now rapidly rising in his fortunes, and
his marriage with a lady of rank and fhshion (for rank,
although nominally proscribed, began again to exercise a
sort of influence in society), who was upon tsrms of inti*.
macy with the poKtical leaders of that period, could not but
prove advantageous to him. Such was the advice given to
him by his friends, and particularly, it is reported, by Tal-
leyrand. Barras, having heard of the projected marriage,
approveii of it also. Meantime, Bonaparte had been apply-
ing to Camot, the then minister at war, for active empk^-
ment The directors had at that time turned their attention
towards Italy, where the French army, under General
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Scherer, was making no great progresa. Alter gaining a
victory over the AustriaDs at Loano, in November* 1 795, the
French were still cooped up in the weatem Riviera of Genoa,
between the mountains and the sea, without being able to pe-
netrate into Piedmont ; and this was the fourth year of that
war carried on at the foot or in the defllea of the Alps and
the Liguhan Apennines. Barras and Camot agreed to
give Bonaparte the command of the army of Italy, and the
other directors approved of it. This appointment waa signed
the 23rd February, 1796; oa the 9th of March follow-
ing he married Josephine, and a few days after parted from
bis bride to assume the command of the army of Italy.
The stories that have been propagated about his marriage
being made the condition of his appointment, and all the
inuendos built upon that assumption, appear to have no
foundation. He was appointed to the army of Italy, because
be was thought capable of succeeding, because he was
already acquainted with the ground, perhaps also it waa
thought that his Italian origin might afford him faciUtiea with
the people of that country ; and lastly, because the directors
were not sorry to have a general at the head of one of their
armies who was a man of their choice, and seemingly
dependent upon their favour, one whose growing reputation
might serve as a counterpoise to the widely-extended popu-
larity of Moreau, Pichegru, Hoche, and the other generals
of tlie first years of tne Republic.
The army at Bonaparte's disposal consisted of about
50,C00 men, of whom only two-thirds were fit for the
field. It was in a wretched state as to clothing, and ill
supplied with provisions ; the pay of the soldiers was in
arrears, and the army was almost without horses. The
discipline also was very relaxed. The Piedmonteae and
Austrian combined army was commanded by Beaulieu, a
gallant veteran, past seventy years of age : it was posted
along the ridge of the Apennines, at the foot of which the
French were advancing. Bonaparte, in his despatches to
the Directory, stated the allied armies at 75,000 men, and
hia own effective troops at 35,000. On the 27th of March
he arrived at Nice, and immediately moving his head-quar-
ters to Albenga, pushed his advanced guard as faras Voltri,
near Genoa. Beaulieu, with the Austnans' left, attacked
Voltri and drove the French back ; he at the same time
ordered D*Areenteau, who commanded his centre, to
descend by Monlenotte upon Savona, and thus take the
French in flank. On this road the French Colonel Rampon
was posted with 1600 men on the heights of Montelegino.
He was repeatedly attacked on the 10th April by D'Argen-
teau, but stood firm, and all the assaults of the Austrians
could not dislodge him from the redoubt. This gave time
to Bonaparte to collef't his forces, and to march round in
the night by Altare to the rear of D'Argenteau, whom he
attacked on every side on the foUowiniir day, and obliged to
make a disorderly retreat beyond Montenotte after losing
tlie best part of his division, before Beaulieu, on the lef^
or Colli, who commanded the Piedmontese at Ceva on
the right, could come to his support. Bonaparte had
now pushed into the valley of the Bormida, between
the two wings of the allied army. Beaulieu and Colli
hastened to repair this disaster, and re-establish their com-
munications by Millesimo and Dego. On the 13th April,
Bonaparte sent Au^reau to attack Millesimo, which
he carried ; but the Austrian General Provera, with 2000
men, threw himself into the old castle of Cossaria on the
summit of a hill, where he withstood all the assaults of the
French for that day. Two French general officers were
killetl in leading the attack, and another, Joubert, was
severely wounded. On the 14th the whole of the two
armies were engaged. Colli, after an unsuccessful endea-
vour to relieve Provera, was driven back towards Ceva,
while Massena attacked Beaulieu at Dego, and forced him
to retire towards AcquL Provera, without provisions or
water, was obliged to surrender. The Piedmontese were
now completely separated from the Austrians, which was
the ^reat object of Bonaparte's movements. The French
remained fur the night at Magliani, near Dego. All at
once, early in the morning of the 15tli, an Austrian division
5000 strong under General Wnkaasowich, coming from
Voltri by SaHsello, and expecting to find their countrymen at
Dei^o, were astonished to find the French there, who were
equally surprised at seeing the Austrians, whom they had
driven j&u- away in their front, reappear in their rear.
Wukassowich did not hesitate ; he chained into the village
of Magliani, «nd took iL Masaena hunied to the apot
to drive away the Austrians; Libarpe cam* also vilft
reinforcements, but they could not succeed* until Boom-
parte himself oame and led a fresh charge, and at laac
obliged Wukassowich to retire. This waa called the battle
of I>Bf(o, but more properlv of Magliani, the last of a eertea
of combats which opened to Bonaparte the toad into tlie
plains of North Italy.
Beaulieu retired to the Po with the intention of defeodinic
the Milanese territory, leaving Colli and the Piedmoole«e
to their fate. Bonaparte turned against Colli, drove hum
from Ceva, and afterwards from Mondovl, and beyoo4
Cherasco. Colli withdrew to Carignano, near Turin. Tbe
provinces of Piedmont, south of the Po, were now open ia
the French; the king, Victor Amadeua III., beeanae
alarmed, and asked for a truoe, which Bonaparte mntod
on condition that the fortresses of Cuneo and ToiIoqa
should be placed in his hands. A peace waa afterwarrls
made between the king and the Directory, by which the
other Piedmontese fortresses and all the paaaes of the Alps
were given up to the French, and Piedmont in ftct was
surrendered at discretion. This defection of the kinie oi
Sardinia ensured the success of the French armjt. Fnim
his bead* quarters at Cherasco Bonaparto issued an ovder to
his soldiers, in which, after justly praising their vfiloar, and
recapitulating their auccesses, he promised to lead them oo
to further victory, but enjoined them at the same time to
desist from the frightful course of plunder and violenee
which had already marked their progress into Italy.
Being now safe with regard to Piedmont, Bonaparte tU
vanced to encounter Beaulieu, who had posted himaelf
on the left bank of the Po, opposite to Valenaa, his
troops extending eastwards as far as Pavia. Bonaparte
made a feint of crossing the river at Valensa, while be die-
patched a body of cavalry along the right bank into the
state of Parma, where they met with no enemy, aeutfd
some boata near Piaoenza, crossed over to the liilaoefe
side, and dispersed some Austrian piquets who were posted
there ; Bonaparte, quickly following with a chosen body of
infantry, crossed the river nearly thirty milea below Pavut.
Beaulieu was now obliged to fall back upon the Adda
after a sharp engagement at Fombio, on the road from
Piacenza to Milan. Milan was evacuated by the Auathans
with the exception of the castle. Bonaparte leaolved to
dislodge Beaulieu from his new position, and aeeordioirly
he attacked the bpdge of Lodi, on the Adda, which the Aua>
trians defended with a numerous artillery. He carried tt by
the daring bravery of his grenadiers and the bad dispositit^nii
of the Austrian commander, who had not placed hia infantry
near enough to support his guns. The Austrian army was
panic-struck. Beaulieu attempted to defend the line of the
Mincio, but he had only time to throw a garrison into Man*
tua, and then withdraw behind the Adige into the T>roL
Bonaparte took possession of Milan and of all Lombaidy.
with the exception of Mantua, which he blockaded* Thm
ended the firat Italian campaign of 1 796*
At the first entrance of the Frenoh the people of Lom*
bardy showed a quiet, passive spirit There waa no enthu-
siasm among them either for or against the invader*; they
had enjoyed half a century of peace under the administra*
tion of Austria, which under Maria Theresa and Joaeph bad
eflfected many useful reforms, and acted m aa enlightened,
liberal spirit. The country was rich and thriving, aa it
always must be from iu natural fertility as kmg aa it enjoys
peace and se<furit^ to property. The Milanese looked upivi
the French invasion rather with wonder than either aatn*
faction or hostility. Ideaeof a republic exulted only in 4
few speculative heads; but there were many who aided
with the. French, in order to share their auperiority and
advantages as conquerors. The people of the towns behaved
hospitably to tbe French troops, who on their aide maintained
a stricter discipline than they had done in paaaing tinougb
Piedmont But the army waa to be supported, equipped.
and paid by the conquered countriea ; such was the avatea
of the Directory and of Bonanarte. The Diieetory, beaidee,
wished to receive a share of tne golden harveat to reeruit iu
own finanees, and its orders were to draw money firom all Um
Italian atates. Bonaparte accordingly put upon Lomberdy
a eontribution of twenty millions of uranca, which fell ehielly
on the rich proprietors and the eoclesiaaticel bodje«L
Meantime he autnoriaed the commissariea to seise pre*
visions, stores, horses, and other thinga required, pvmg
cheques to be paid out of the oontributiooa. Thii was dene
in the towna with a oertain nguLuit]^ but in the i
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plMM, awty Iram the eyes of the general, the oommissaries
snd soldiers often seized whatever they liked without any
•oknowledgment The owners who remonstrated were
Insulted or ill used; and many of the Italians ealhng
themselves repDhlicans assisted the French in the work of
plunder, of which they took their share. The horses and
carriages of the nobility were seized because it was said
they belonged to the aristocrats. All property belonging,
or suppoeed to belong, to the arohduke and the late govern-
ment, WAS sequestrated. But an act which exasperated
the Milanese was the violation of the Monte di Pieti of
Milan, a place of deposit for plate, jewels, &e., which were
either left for security, or as pledges for money lent upon
them. The Monte was broken into by orders from Bona-
parte and Saliceti, who accompanied the army as oommis-
sioner of the Directory. They seized upon this deposit of
private property, took away the most valuable objects, and
sent them to €ienoa to be at the disposal of the Directory.
Many of the smaller articles belonged to poor people ; many
were placed there by the parents of young giris as a dowry
when they came to be married. Although these smaller
objects were not intended by Bonaparte to be detained, yet
in the disorder of the seizure many of them disappeared,
and a report spread through Milan that all had been
seized. The same thing hcui been practised at Piacenza
when Bonaparte and Saliceti passed through it ; and after-
wards the plunder, either partial or entire, of the Monte di
Pieik, became a common practice of the French army in all
the towns they entered.
These excesses led to insurrections in different ports of the
country, in which French soldiers were killed by the peasantry.
The inhabitants of Binasoo, a large village between Milan
and Pavia, rose and killed a number of the French and their
Italian pvtizans. The country people ran towards Pavia,
atul were joined by the lower classes of that town, who had
been irritated at the hoisting of a tree of liberty in one of their
squares, where an equestrian statue of an emperor had been
throw n down by the republicans. On the 23rd of May Pavia
was in open insurrection. The French soldiers took refuge
in the castle ; those scattered about the town were seized
and ill treated ; some were killed, but most had their lives
saved by the interference of the municipal magistrates and
other respectable people. General Haquin, who happened
to pass through on his way to Milan, was attacked by the
frantic populace and wounded, but the magistrates, at their
own risk, saved his life. In all this tumult the country
people were the chief actors, by the acknowledgment of
Haquin himself. Bonaparte, alarmed by this movement in
hid rear, and at the possibility of its spreading, determined
to make an example, and * strike terror into the people/ a
sentence which was afterwards frequently carried into effect
in the progress of his arms. A strong body of French troops
marched on Binasco, killed or dispersed the inhabitants,
burned the place, and then marched against Pavia, which
being a walled town was capable of making some defence.
Bonaparte sent the archbishop of Milan, who, from the
baleony of the town-house, addressed the multitude, and
exhorted them to lay down their arms and quietly to dis-
perse, explaining to them the fiititity of their attempts
at resistance. The ignorant and deluded people would
not listen to his advice; the French soon ibreed one of
the gates, and the cavalry entering the town, cut down
all they met in the streets. The country people ran away
by the other gates, and left the unfortunate city to the
conqueror. Bonaparte then deliberately ordered Pavia to
be given up to plunder for twenty-four hours* as if Pavia
bad been a fortified town taken by storm, and while it was
well known that the great majority of the inhabitants had
taken no part in the insurrection, and had made no resist-
ance to the F^ncfa. This order was publicly signified to
the inhabitants and the troops, and during the rest of that
day, 25th May, and the whc^e of that night, the soldiers
rioted in plunder, debauchery, and every sort of violence
within the houses of the unfortunate Pavese. Murder
however was not added to pillage and rape, and it is
recorded that several of the French officers and soldiers
spared the honour and property of those who were at their
mercy, and screened them at the risk of their hves from
their more brutal companions. Next morning (the 26th)
at twelve o*clock the pillage ceased, but Pavia for a long
time felt the effects of this cruel treatment. It is not
true, as has been stated by some, that the municipal ma-
giniates wore shot; tiiey were only sent lor a time as
hostages to France. Four of the leaders of the msuneOtioir
were publicly executed, and about 100 hod been killed on
the first irruption of the Flrench into the city. The uni-
versity and the houses of some of the professors, Spallan-
zani's in particular, were exempted from pillage. General
Haquin, who was sent after this to Pavia as governor, en<
deavoured to heal the wounds of that fatal day.
B<maparte imposed on the Duke of Parma, who hod not
yet acknowledged the French Republic, a sort of peace, on
condition of his paying to France a million and a half of
francs, besides giving provisions and clothes for the army,
and twenty of his best paintings to be sent to Paris. The
Duke of Modena, alarmed for his own safety, fled to Venice
with the greater part of his treasures, leaving a regency at
Modena, who sent to Bonaparte to sue for peace. Modena
had committed no hostilities against France, but the duke
was allied to the house of Austria by the marriage of his
daughter with one of the archdukes : he was also considered
as a feudatory of the emperor of Glermany. He was required
to pay six millions of francs in cash, besides two millions
more in provisions, cattle, horses, carts, &c., and fifteen
of his choice paintings ; but as he was not quick enough in
paying the whole of the money his duchy was taken from
him a few months after. The Directory wanted cash, and
Bonaparte says that he sent during his first Italian cam-
paigns fifty millions of francs from Italy to Paris.
The Grand Duke of Tuscany, although brother to the
Emperor of Austria, was an independent sovereign ; he
had long acknowledged the French Republic, and kept
an ambassador at Paris ; but the Directory ordered Bona-
parte to seize Leghorn, and confiscate the property of the
English, Austrians, Portuguese, and other enemies of the
republic. Bonaparte executed the order, took Leghorn
without any opposition, put a garrison in it, seized the Eng-
lish, Portuguese, and otlier goods in the warehouses, which
were sold by auction, and insisted upon the native merchants
delivering up all the property in their hands belonging to the^
enemies of the French republic. The Leghornese merchants/
to avoid this odious act, agreed to pay five millions of francs,
as a ransom for the whole. The pope's turn came next.
That sovereign was really in a state of hostility towards the
French republic, which he had never acknowledged, in con-
sequence of the abolition of the Catholic church in France.
On the 18th of June the French entered Bologna, whence
Bonaparte ordered away the papal authorities, and esta-
blished a municipal government. He did the same at
Ferrara; and at the same time laid heavy contributions
on lK)th those provinces. The Monte di Fieik of Bologna
shared the same fate as that of Milan, only the deposits or
pledges (not exceeding 200 livres each. 8/. sterling) were
ordered to be returned to the owners. The people of Lugo,
a town between Imola and Ravenna, rose against the in-
vaders. Augereau was sent against Lugo : after three hours*
fight, in which 1000 of the natives and 200 French soldiers
fell, Lugo was taken, given up to plunder, and partly burnt
the women and children were spared. Proclamations were
then issued that every town or village that took up arms
a^inst the French should be burnt, and that every indi-
vidual not a regular soldier taken with arms in his hands
should ha put to death ; and yet the French had loudly ex-
claimed against the Duke of Brunswick for using a similar
threat when he entered France in 1792.
The court of Rome was now in great alarm, and Pius VL
sent envoys to Bonaparte to sue for terms. An armistice
was signed on the 23rd of June, preparatory to a definitive
treaty of peace between the pope and the Directory. The
conditions of the armistice were, that the pope should give
up the provinces of Ferrara and Bologna, and the citadel of
Anoona, should close his ports against the enemies of
France, should pay fifteen millions of livres in gold or
silver, and six millions in goods, provisions, horses, cattle,
&G., besides surrendering a certain number of paintings,
statues, vases, and 500 manuscripts, at the choice of the
commissaries sent by the Directory. This new species of
spoliation, unprecedented in modem history, was brought
into a regular system, and carried on in all countries con-
quered by Uie French armies until the fall of Napoleon.
Some of the scientific and learned men of France, among
whom were Monge and Berthollet, went in succession to
Parma, Milan, Bologna, Rome, and afterwards to Venice
and Naples, to take an inventory of the works of art, from
among which they chose the best, and sent them to Paris.
WUle these things were going on south of the Po* the
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court of Vienna was preparing a fresh army for ihe re-
covery of Lombard y. Marshal Wurmser» a veteran officer
of considerable reputation, was detached with. 30,000 men
from the Austrian army of the Rhine» and marched into the
Tyrol, where he collected the remains of Beaulieu*8 troops
and the Tyrolese levies, forming altogether an army of be-
tween 50,000 and 60,000 men. Bonaparte's annv was not
quite 50,000, of which part was stationed round Mantua to
blockade that fortress, ^hich was garrisoned by 8000 Aus-
trians. Towards the end of July, Wurmser, with the main
body of his troops, advanced from Trento by the eastern
shore of the Lake of Guarda, towards Verona, while another
corps under Quosnadowich marched by the western shore
to Sal6 and Brescia, from which places they drove the
French away. Bonaparte, after some hesitation, hastiljT
raised the siege of Mantua, leaving his battering train,
and collected the best part of his forces to meet Quosnado-
wich as the weaker of the two generals. He attacked
him at Lonato, drove him back into the mountains> and
then turned quickly to the right to face Wurmser, who hav-
ing passed Verona, had entered Mantua, destroyed the French
entrenchments, and was now advancing by Castiglione,
from whence he had driven away the French under General
Valctte. This was a critical moment in Bonanarte's career,
and it is said he was in doubt whether to fall back on the
Vo, hut was dissuaded by Augereau. On the 3rd of August
the French retook Castiglione after an obstinate oomoat.
Wiirmser however took up a position near the town, where
he was attacked again on the 5th, and completely defeated,
with tlie loss of his cannon and several thousand men.
Wurmser withdrew beyond the Mincio, and afterwards up
the Adige into the Tyrol, followed by the French, who at-
tacked and defeated an Austrian division at Roveredo on the
4th September, and entered the city of Trento. Wurmser then
suddenly crossed the mountains that divide the valley of the
Adige from that of the Brenta, aad entered Bassano, where
he was joined by some reinforcements from Carinthia, intend-
ing to march down again towards Verona and Mantua.
But Bonaparte followed him quickly by tlie same road, and
attacked and routed him at Bassano. Wurmser had now
hardly 16,000 men left, and his artillery being lost, and bis
retreat cut off, he took the bold resolution to cut his way to
Mantua, and shut himself up in that fortress* With a ra-
pidity of movements then unusual in an Austrian army, he
avoided the French divisions moving against him from vari-
ous quarters, surprised the bridge of Legnago, passed the
Adige, marched day and night followed by Bonaparte, beat a
French division at Cerea, cut down scveml other bodies
who attempted to oppose him, and at last reached Mantua
on the J 4 th September. Thus, in the course of six weeks,
a second Austrian army was destroyed in detaQ. The
rapidity of movements of tlie French diviswns, and the
intricacy of their manoeuvres, can only be appreciated by
an attentive examination of the map of tne country.
A third general and a third army were sent by Austria
into Italy in the autumn of the same year. Marshal Al«
vinsi, an officer of some reputation, advanced irom Carin-
thia by the way of Belluno with 30,000 men, while Gene-
ral Davidowich, with 20,000, descended from the Tyrol
bv the valley of the Adige. They were to meet between
reschicra and Verona, and proceed to relieve Wurmser at
Mantua. Bonaparte, who was determined to attack Alvinzi
before he could form his junction, gave him battle at Le
Nove, near Bassano, 6th November; but in spite of all the
efforts of Massena and Augereau, he could not break the
Austrian line, and next day he retreated by Vicenxa to
Verona. On the same day Vaubois, whom Bonaparte had
opposed to Davidowich, was driven away from Trento
and Roveredo with great loss, and obliged to fall back to
Rivoli and La Corona. Had Davidowich followed up his
success, he might have pushed on to the plains on the right
bank of the Adige near Verona, and have placed Bonaparte
in a very critical position, with Alvinsi in front, Davidowich
on his left flank, and Mantua in his rear. Instead of this,
Davidowich stayed ten days at Roveredo. Alvinsi meantime
had advanced by Vicenaa and ViUanova to the heights of
Caldiero facing Verona, where he waited for Davidowich's
appearance. Bonaparte attempted, on the 12th November,
to dislodge Alvinzi from Caldiero, but after considerable
loss he was obliged to withdraw bis troops again into Ve*
rona. He wrote next day a desponding letter to Paris, in
which he recapitulates his losses, his best officers killed or
wounded, his soldiers exhausted by fatiguet and himself in
danger of being surrounded. He however datermined lo
make a last effort to dislodge Alvinzi by turning Uis posit loo.
With two divisions under Massena and Augereau he marched
quietly out of Verona in the night of the Hth, followed the
right bank of the Adige, crossed that river at Ronco early
next morning, and moved quickly by a cross road leading
through a marshy country towards Villanova in the rear of
Alvinzi, where the Austrian baggage, storest &c., were
stationed. The Alpoue, a mountain stream* ran be-
tween the French and Villanova. The French attempted
to pass it by the bridge of Arcole, but found it de&ndtrd,
and this led to the celebrated battle of that name, which
lasted three days, and which was unquestionably the hard'. »t
fought in all those Italian campaigns. [Abcolb.] Ou
the 1 7th Bonaparte succeeded in turning the position of
Arcole, when Alvinzi thought it nmdent to retire upon
Vicenza and Bassano, where the Austrians took up their
winter quarters. Bonaparte wrote to Carnot after the actit n
of the third day ; * Never was a field of battle so obstinate I v
contested : our enemies were numerous and determined. I
have hardly anv general officers left.' They were alm^t
all killed, wounded, or prisoners.
On the same day that Bonaparte obliged Alvinzi to rctlco
from the Adige, Davidowich, rousing himself from his incou*
ceivable inaction, pushed down by Ala on the Adige. dru\c
Vaubois before him, and entered the plains between Pear
chiera and Verona. But it was now too late : Bonaparte
turned against him, and obliged him ouickly to retrace hi»
steps to Ala and Roveredo. Thus endea the third campaign
of the year 1 796.
Bonaparte had now some leisure to turn his attention to
the int'trnal affairs of the conquered countries. The Kli-
lanese in general remained passive, but the people of M<^
dena and Bologna seemed anxious to constitute themielvci
into an independent state. Bonaparte himself had not
directly encouraged such manifestations, but his subalierxii
had ; and indeed the revolt of Reggio, which was the fii^c
Italian city*^hat proclaimed its independence, was begun l»/
a body of Corsican pontoneers, who were passing throu^u
on their way to the army. (Count Paradisi, Lettera a Car^)
BoitcL) Bonaparte allowed Modena, Reggio, Bologna, acd
Ferrara to form themselves into a republic, which was calbd
Cispadana. As for the Milanese, tlie Directory wrote in^t
it was not yet certain whether they should not be obliircd to
restore that country to the emperor at the peace. Bvna
narte has clearly stated his policy at that time towards^ the
North Italians in a letter to the Directory 28th Deccmbor,
1796. * There are in Lombardy (Milanese) three part.cs *
1st, that which is subservient to France and follows obr
directions ; Snd, that which aims at liberty and a natiuu4l
government, and that with some degree of impatiuuct ;
3rd, the party friendly to Austria and hostile to us. I sup-
port the first, restrain tlie second, and put down the tUnl
As for the states south of the Po (Modena, Bologna, S^t ).
there are also there three parties : 1st, the friends of ti:e
old governments ; 2nd, the partizans of a free coostltulion.
though somewhat aristocratical ; 3rd, the partizans of pure
democracy. I endeavour to put down the first; I suppvt
the second because it is the party of the great proprictur»
and of the clergy, who exercise the greatest influence o\cr
the masses of Uie people, whom it is our interest to wiu owr
to us ; I restrain the third, which is composed ch ieU} lT
young men, of writers, and of people who, as in France ai»<I
everywhere else, bve Uberty merely for the sake of x<e vo-
lution.*
The pope found that he could not agree to a peaee wiih
the Directory, whose conditions were too hard, and conse-
quently, after paying five millions of livres, he stopped all
further remittance. Bonaparte, after disafHftfoving in hts
dispatches the abruptness of the Directory, aind saying that
it was impolitic to make too many enemies at oooe while
Austria was still m the field, repaired to Bologna in Januaxy,
1797, to threaten the Roman states, when he heaid that
Alvinai was preparing to move down again upon the Adi^e.
The Austrian marshal had received reinforcementa whvh
raised his army again to 50,000 men. Ue migrhftd then
in several columns, threaten-ng several points a( oacaof
the French line on the Adige, and Bonaparte for awhile
was perplexed as to where Uie principal attack would be
made. He learnt however through a spy that th* nuun
body of Alvinai was moving down from the Tyrol along the
right bank of the Adige upon Rivoli, where Joubert was
posted On the Uth Bonaparte hurried from Veipna with
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Mt8Una*s divinon to RiToli, and on tbe 14tb the batUe of
Riroli took place. Alvinzi. calculating upon haTing before
him Joubert't corps only, had extended his line with the
Tiew of surrounding him. Twice was Rivoli carried by the
Austrians, and twice retaken b^ the French. Massena,
and afterwards Rey» with his division, coming to Joubert's
usistance, carried the day. AWin2i*s scattered divisions
were routed in detail with immense loss. Another Austrian
division under General Provera had meantime forced the
passage of the Adige near Legnaeo, and arrived outside of
Mantua, when Provera attacked uie entrenchments of the
besiegers, while Wurmser made a sortie with part of the
carrison. Bonaparte hurried with Massena's division from
Rivoli, and arrived just in time to prevent the junction of
Provera and Wurmser. Provera, attacked on all sides, was
obliged to surrender with his division of 5000 men, and
Wurmser was driven back into the fortress. Alvinzi, witii
the remainder of his army, was at the same time driven
back to Belluno at the foot of the Noric Alps. Soon after,
Wurmser being reduced to extremities for want of provi-
sions, the garrison having exhausted their last supply of
horse-flesh, and being much reduced by disease, offered to
capitulate. Bonaparte granted him honourable conditions,
and behaved to the old marshal with the considerate regard
due to his age and his bravery.
During thdte hard-fought campaigns the condition of the
unfortunate inhabitants of North Italy, and especially of
the Venetian provinces, where the seat of war lay, was
miserable in the extreme: both armies treated them as
enemies. The Austrian soldiers, especially in their hurried
retreats, when discipline became relaxed, plundered and
killed those who resisted : the P^neh plundered, violated
the women, and committed murder too. This happened
in the villages and scattered habitations ; the towns were
laid under a more regular system of plunder by the French
commissaries, by requisitions of provisions, clothes, horses
and carts, and forced contributions of money. At the same
time the greater part of these enormous exactions oontri-
buted h Jtle to the comforts of the soldiers, but went to enrich
commissaries, purveyors, contractors, and all the predatory
crew that foHows an invadine army. Bonaparte, although
he resorted to the system of forced contributions, was in-
dignant at the prodigal waste of the resources thus extorted
from the natives, while his soldiers were in a state of utter
destitution. ' Four millions of English goods,* he wrote to
the Directory in October and November, 1796, from Milan,
'hare been seized at Leghorn, the Duke of Modena has
paid two millions more, Ferrara and Bolo^a have made
large payments, and yet the soldiers are without shoes, in
want of clothes, the chests without money, the sick in the
hospitals sleeping on the ground. • . . The town of Cremona
has given 50,000 ells of linen cloth for the hospitals, and
the commissaries, agents, &c., have sold it : they sell every
atrnfi one has sold even a chest of hBtk sent us from
Spam ; others have sold the mattresses furnished fbr the
hospitals. I am continually arresting some of them and
teadtng tliem before the military courts, but they bribe the
judges; it it a complete fair; every thing is sold. An
emplov^ charged with having levied for his own profit a
contrioution ox 18,000 francs on the town of Sal6 in the
Venetian states, has been condemned only to two months*
imprisonment. It is impossible to produce evidence ; they
an hold together. . • / And he goes on naming the different
commiasanes, contractors* &c., ooncludine. with very few
exceptionsv that Uhejr are all thieves.* He recommends
the Diivelory to dismiss them and replace them by more
honest men, or at least more discreet ones. *If I had
fifteen honest commissaries, yon might make a present of
100,000 crowm to each of them an£ yet save fifteen mil-
lions. , • • Had I a monk's time to attend to these matters,
there is hardhjr one of these fellows but I could have shot ;
bet I am obhged to set off to-morrow fbr the army, which
it a great matter of rejoicing for the thieves, whom I have
St had time to notice by casting my eyes on the accounts.*
e system of plunder however went on during the whole
of those and the following campaigns vntil Bonaparte be-
came First Consul, when he found means to repress, in
tome degree, the odious abuse ; stiU the commissariat con*
tinoed, even under the empire, to be the worst^administered
department of the Freneh armies.
konapaite being now tecure from the Austrians in the
north turned against the pope, who had reftised the heavy
Iflnnsimposediipeahimbyt&eDirecloty. The papal troops.
to the number of about SDOO, were posted along ttie river
Senio between Imola and Faenza, but after a short resistance
they gave way before the French, who immediately occupied
Ancona and the Marches. Bonaparte advanced to Tolentino,
where he received deputies from rius VI., who sued for peace.
The conditions dictated were fifteen millions of livres, part
in cash, part in diamonds within one month, and as many
again within two months, besides horses, cattle, &c., the
possession of the town of Ancona till the general peace, and
an additional number of paintings, statues, and MSS. On
these terms the pope was allowed to remain at Rome a little
longer. The Directory wished at first to remove him alto-
gether, but Bonaparte dissuaded them from pushing matters
to extremes, considering the spiritual influence which the
pope still exercised over the Catholics in France and other
countries. Bonaparte manifested in this affair a cool and
considerate judgment very different from the revolutionary
fanaticism of the times ; he felt the importance of religious
influence over nations, and he treated the pope's legate.
Cardinal Mattel, with a courtesy that astonished the free-
thinking soldiers of the republic.
Austria had meantime assembled a new army on the
frontiers of Italy, and the command was given to the Arch-
duke Charles, who had acquired a military reputation in
the campaigns of the Rhine. But this fourth Austrian
army no longer consisted of veteran regiments like those
that had fought under Beaulieu, Wurmser, and Alvinzi ;
it was made up chiefly of recruits joined with the remnants
of those troops that had survived the disasters of the former
campaigns. Bonaparte, on the contrary, had an army now
superior in number to that of the Austrians, flushed with
success, and reinforced by a corps of 20,000 men from the
Rhine under the command of General Bemadotte.
Bonaparte attacked the archduke on the river Taglia-
mento, the pass of which he forced ; he then pushed on
Massena, who forced the pass of La Ponteba in the Norio
Alps, which was badly defended by the Austrian General
Ocksay. The archduke made a stout resistance at Tarvis,
where he fought in person ; but was at last obliged to retire,
which he did slowly and in an orderly manner, being now
intent only on gaining time to receive reinforcements and
to defend the road to Vienna. Bonaparte's object was to
advance rapidly upon the capital of Austria and to frighten
the emperor into a peace. He was not himself very secure
concerning his rear, as he could not trust in the neutrality
of Venice which he had himself openly violated. He was
also informed that an Austrian corps in the Tvrol under
General Laudon, after driving back the French opposed
to it, had advanced again by the valley of the Adige to-
wards Lombardy. Hsd this movement been supported by
a rising in the Venetian territory, Bonaparte's communica-
tions with Italy would have been cut off. He thetefore,
dissemblrag his anxiety, wrote to the archduke from Kla-
genfurth a flattering letter, in which, after calling him the
saviour of Germany, he appealed to his feelings in favour
of humanity at large. * This is the sixth campaign,* he
said, ' between our armies. How long shall two brave na-
tions continue to destroy each other? Were you even to
conquer, your own Germany would feel all the ravages of
war. Cannot we come to an amicable understanding? The
French Directory wishes for peace. . . / To this note the
archduke returned a civil answer, saying he had no com-
mission for treating of peace, but that he had written
to Vienna to inform the emperor of his (Bonaparte's) over-
tures. Meantime Bonaparte continued to advance towards
Vienna and the archduke to retire before him, without any
regular engagement between them. It would appear that
the archduke's advice was to draw the enemy farther and
farther into the interior of the hereditary states, and then
make a bold stand under the walls of Vienna, while fresh
troops would have time to come fh>m Hungary and from
the Rhine, and the whole population would rise in the rear
of the fVench army and place Bonaparte in a desperate
situation. But there was a party at the court of Vienna
anxious for peace. Bonaparte had now arrived at luden-
burg in Upper Styria, about eight days' march from Vienna.
The citizens of that capital, who had not seen an enemy
under their walls for more than a century, were greatly
alarmed. The cabinet of Vienna resolved for peace, and
€ienerals Bellegarde and Meerfeldt were sent to Bonaparte's
head-quarters to arrange the preliminaries. After a suspen-
sion of arms was agreed upon on the 7th April, 1797, the
negotiationa began at the village of Leoben, and the pre-
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liminaries of the fence were signed by BonRparte on the
I8th« Of the conditions of this convention some articles
only were made known at the time, such as the cession by
the emperor of the Austrian Netherlands and of Lombardy.
The secret articles were that Austria should have a com-
pensatbn for the above losses out of the territory of neutral
Venice. This is a transaction which has been loudly stig-
matized as disgraceful to all parties concerned in it, in spite
of the palliation attempted by Bonaparte's advocates, who
pretend that the Venetian senate had first violated their
neutrality, and that tliey had organized an insurrection in
the rear of the French army while Bonaparte was engaged
with the Archduke Charles in Carinthia. This matter will
be best investigated in treating of Venice. [Vbnicb.]
Meantime we can only refer our readers to the Raccolta m
doeumenti inediti che formano la Storia diplomatica della
rivoluzione e caduta della Repubblica di Venesia, 2 vols.
4to. Florence, 1800, which Daru himself nuotos in his ^f*-
toire de Venue. A careful attention to dates is sufficient
to refute every attempt to palliate the dishonesty of the
French Directory and of Bonaparte in their conduct towards
Venice. The correspondence of Bonaparte, published by
Panckoucke, serves to confirm this view of the subject. He
says that he seized upon the opportunity of the Austrians
having entered Pcschiera by stratagem, and without the
Venetian senate's consent, in order to frighten the senate
into submission to his will. * If your object,* ho said to the
Directoryi * is to draw five or six millions from Venice^ you
have now a fair pretence for it If you have further views
respecting Venice, we may protract this subject of com-
plaint until more favourable opportunities.* This was written
in June, 1796. He then seized upon the castles of Ber-
ffamo, Brescia, Verona, and other fortified places of the
Venetian state, he made the country support his army, and
meantime he favoured the disafTected against the senate,
who at last, assisted by the Lombards and Poles in his
army, revolted at Bergamo and Brescia and drove away the
Venetian authorities. When the senate armed to put down
the insurrection, the French officers stationed on the Vene-
tian territory obstructed its measures, and accused it of
arming agamst the French. They dispersed by force the
militia who assembled in obedience to the senate. At last
the conduct of the French having driven the people of Ve-
rona to desperation, a dreadful insurrection broke out in
April, 1797, whieh ended by Verona being plundered by
the French. Bonaparte now insisted upon a total change
in the Venetian government, and Freneh troops being sur-
reptitiously introduced into Venice, the Doge and all autho-
rities resigned.
A provisional government was then formed, but meantime
Bopauarte bartered away Venice to Austria, and thus set-
tled tlie account with both aristocrats and democrats. He
wrote to the Directory ' that the Venetians were not fit for
liberty, and that there were no more than 300 democrats in
all Venice.* By the definitive treaty of peace signed at
Camp^iformio near Udine on the 17th October, 1797, the
cMiipcror ceded to France the Netherlands and the left bank
of the Rhine with the city of Mainz ; he arkno\vled<;ed the
independence of the Milanese and Mantuan states under the
name of the Cisalpine republic ; and he consented that the
French republic should have the Ionian Islands and the
ViMietian possessions in Albania, The French republic on
iU part consented (such was the word) that the emperor
should have Venice and its territory as far as the Adipe,
with Istria and Dalmatia. The provinces between the
Adige and the Adda were to be incorporated with the Cisal-
pine republic The emperor was also to have an increase
of territory at the expense of the elector of Bavaria, and
the Duke of Modena was to have the Brisgau.
All this time the democrats of Venice were still thinking
of a republic and independence; they had planted, with
great solemnity* the tree of liberty in the square of St.
Mark« and the French garrison graced the show. Berna-
dotte, who knew the conditions of the treaty, forbade a
similar pageant at Udine, where he commanded ; hut
another French commander put a heavy contribution on a
small town of the Paduan province, because the inhabitants
had cut down their tree of liberty. At last the time ap-
proached when the French were to evacuate Venice. Bona-
parte wrote to Villetard, the French secretary of letration,
a young enthusiastic republican, who had been a main in-
strument of the Venetian revolution, that all the Venetian
democrats who cho6« to emigrate would find a refuge at
Milan, and that the naval and military ttorei and other
objects belonging to the lute Venetian goveniment might
be sold to make a fund for tlieir support. Villetard corn*
municated this last proposal to the municipal eouncil. but
it was at once rejected ; • thny had not accepted,' thev said.
' a brief authority for the sake of concurring in the spoliati'>n
of their country. They had been too confiding, it was tni«*.
but they would not prove lUeniselves guilty also;' and th« v
gave in their resignation Villetard, sincere in his prin-
ciples, wrote a strong Ictier to Bniaparte, in wliich he mxaU
an affecting picture of th< d-^pair of these men, who had
trusted in him and now l. i.:>d tlieniselves cruelly decvi^i-l.
This drew from Bonajmrte an answer which has U u
often quoted for its unReling sneering tone. * I h.» e
received your letter, but do not understand its conieut*.
The French republic does not make war for other pc«»| .»•.
We are under no obligation to sacrifice 40,000 Frenchiijt »:.
against the interest of France, to please a band of dc-
claimers whom I should more properly qualify as uiadium.
who have taken a fancy to have a universal republic. I
wish these gentlemen would try a winter campaign vii:;
me . . . .' And then he went on quibbling on the wc»pI»
of the treaty, that the French republic did not deli\«:
Venice into'the hands of Austria; that when the Frei.ci
garrison evacuated the place and before the Austn .t:%
came, the citizens might defend themselves if they thouj* t
proper, &c. And this aitcr the troops were disbanded, iiv
Sclavonians sent home, the cannons and other arm& r> -
mo^»ed, the fleet carried off by the French to Corfu, Istria, a i -i
Dalmatia already occupied by the Austrians, and the c(mi.
trydraincdof all resources. However, Serrurierwiuord* r. ■
by Bonaparte to complete the sacrifice of Venice. II a....
emptied the arsenal, and the stores of biscuit and salt, ha> .: j
sent to sea the ships of war, sunk those that were i *
fit for sea, and stripped the famous state barge c.u
Bucintoro of all its ornaments and gold, he departed v .
the French garrison, and the next day the Au^tr. .
entered Venice. The Venetian senator Pesaro ramv -
imperial commissioner to administer the oaths. The . .
Doge Manin while tendering his oath fell into a swo>i). .
died soon after. Thus ended the republic of Venice. <..
an existence of nearly fourteen centuries. With it the •.! >
naval power of Italy became extinct, and Italy lost lite i . .
colonies which she still possessed.
During the several months that the negociations for ;'
peace lasted, Bonaparte had time to effect other chanci-^ ..
Italy. He began with Genoa. That republic ei-er sir.ct- ; . -
time of Andrea Dona had been governed bv pathcian», : :
the patrician order was not exclusive as at Venice, and i •>
families were admitted into it from time to time. A ■ m.
of democrats secretly encouraf^ed by Saliceti, Faipoult. :. .
other agents of the French Directory, conspired against •
senate, and effected an insurrection. The lower clas»<>
the people, however, rose in arms against the dem4j< r i
and routed them: several Frenchmen were also kiUf. .
the affray. Bonaparte immediately wrote threatc:*! :
letters to demand satisfaction, the arrest of seven- 1 ] •
tricians, the liberty of the prisoners, the disarming ut u •
people, and a change in the constitution of the n*pu. .
All this was done ; a sura of four millions of livre» wu> { .
by the principal nobles to the Directory, the French jdac« .i
garrison within Genoa, and a constitution modelled upon \i
then existing in France, with councils of elders and jum. t
a Directory, &c., was put in operation. The peopW ol t.
neighbouring valleys, who did not reUsh these Do\t>i'u«.
revolted, but were put down by the French troops: ar ■
many of tlie prisoners were tried by court martial, aud *hi:.
The king of Sardinia, by a treaty with the French 1>.
rectory, remained ibr the present in possession of Piednii>ii(
Bonaparte showed a marked favour towards that toverei$;ii .
he spoke highly of the Piedmontese troops, and wiote t >
the Directory that the king of Sanlinia with one leeimriit
was stronger than the whole Cisalpine republic. in>u*
rections broke out in several towns of PiedmonU «L}<h
Bonaparte however openly dit»countenanced, profeasing. .t
the same time, a deep regard for the House of Savoy. ii.«
letters to the Marquis of St Marsan, minister of the Lnu-
were ma.le public, and the insurgents having thus i ■»!
all hope of support from him, were easily subdued by tU
king's troops, and many of them weru exeeuted. i'Lti«
at one and the same tiuie the democrats of Genoa wtr
encoura^^ed by Bonaparte, those of Piedmont were abao-
doncd to the severity ol the kiuffr^hose of Venice »irj
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STen up to Austria, and those of Lombtrdy were desfiised,
onaparte wrote to the Directory tliat he had with him
onl> 2500 Cisalpine soldiers, the refuse of the towns, that
no reliance could he placed on the democrats, who were but
a handflil, and that were it not for the presence of the
French they would be all murdered by the people. (Bona-
parte's Correspondence.) He however thought proper to
consolidate the Cisalpine republic, and to give it a constitu-
tion after the model of France. The instaUation of the new
authorities took place at Milan on the 9th of July with great
solemnity. Bonaparte appointed the members of the legis-
lative committees, of the Directory, the ministers, the magis-
trates, &c. His choice was generally good ; it fell mostly
upon men of steady character, attach^ to order, men of
property, men of science, or men who had distinguished
themselves in their respective professions. The republic
consisted of the Milanese and Mantuan territories, of that
part of the Venetian territory situated between the Adda
and the Adige, of Modena, Maasa, and Carrara, and of the
papal provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, Faenza, and
Rimini, as far as the Rubicon. Tuscany, Parma, Rome,
and Naples remained under their old princes ; all, however,
with the exception of Naples, in complete subjection to
France.
In all these important transactions Bonaparte acted
almost as if he were uncontrolled by any authority at home,
and often at variance with the suggestions of the French
Directory, though he afterwards obtained its sanction to all
that he did. He was in fact the umpire of Italy. He at
the same time supported the power of the Directory in
France by offers of his services and addresses fh)m his army,
and he sent to Paris Augereau, who sided with the Direc-
tory in the afiair of the 18th Frucddor. Bonaparte, however,
evinced on several occasions but an indifferent opinion of
the Directory, calling it a government of lawyers and rheto-
ricians, unfit to rule over a great nation. (Bourienne, and
Napoleon's Memoira by Gourgaud, &c.) He flatly refused,
after his first Italian victories, to divide his command with
'Kellerman ; he strongly censured the policy of the Directory
with the Italian powers; he signed the preliminaries of
Leoben, and withdrew his army nrom the hereditary states,
without waiting for the Directory's ratification. He insisted
upon concluding peace with the emperor, and threatened to
give in his resignation if not allowed to do so ; he made
that peace on his own conditions, though some of those
were contrary to the wishes expressed by the Directory, and
in the end the Directory approved of all he had done. ' It
was a peace worthy of Bonaparte. The Itahans may per-
haps break out into vociferations, but that is of little conse-
quence.* 6uch were the words of the Directory's minister
far foreign affairs, Talleyrand. (Bonaparte's Coirespond-
ence and Botta, Storia d* Italia,)
After the treaty of Campoformio Bonaparte was appointed
minister plenipotentiary of the French republic at the con-
gress of Rastadt for the settlement of the questions con-
cerning the German Empire. He now took leave of Italy
and of his fine army, who had become enthusiastically
attached to him. His personal conduct while in Italy had
been marked by fni<;ality. regularity, and temperance.
There is no evidence of his having shown himself ^^ersonally
fond of money ; he had exacted millions, but it was to
satisfy the craving of the Directory, and partly to support
his army and to reward his friends.
On faoa way to Rastadt Bonaparte went throngh 8wit-
seriand, where he showed a haughty, hostile bearing towards
Bern, and the other aristocratic republics of that country.
He did not stop long at Rastadt, but proceeded to Paris,
where he arrived in December, 1797. He was received
with the greatest honour by the Directory : splendid public
festivals were given to the conqueror of Italy ; and writers,
poets, and artists vied with each other in celebrating his
triumphs. Great as his successes were, flattery contrived to
outstrip truth. He however appeared distant and reserved.
He was appointed general in chief of the * Army of Eng*
land,* but after a rapid inspection of the French coasts and of
the troops stationed near them, he returned to Paris. The
expedition of Egypt was then secretly contemplated by the
Directory. A project concerning that country was found
in the archives among the papers of the Duke de Choiseul,
minister of Louis XV., and it was revived by the ministers
of the Directory. The Directory on their part were not
nrrv to temofve from France a man whose presence in Paris
gave them vneuinesi^ and Bonaparte warmly approved of
a plan which opened to his view the prospect of an inde^
pendent command, while visions of an Eastern empire
floated before his mind. He had in his composition some-
thing of that Vague enthusiasm of the imagination for
remote countries and high-sounding names. At the same
time he saw there was nothing at present in France to
satisfy his excited ambition, for he does not seem to have
thought as yet of the possibility of his attaining supreme
power. He was still faithful to the Republic, though he
foresaw that its government must undergo further changes.
The expedition having been got ready, partly with the
treasures that the French seized at Bern in their invasion
of Switzerland in March, 1798, in which Bonaparte took no
active part, Bonaparte repaired to Toulon, from whence ho
sailed on board the admlraVs ship I'Orient in the night of
the 19th May, while Nelson's blockading fleet had been
forced by violent winds to remove from that coast. The
destination of the French fleet was kept a profound secret :
30,000. men, chiefly from the army of Italy, composed the
land force.
The fleet arrived before Malta on the 9 th of June.
The Order of St. John of Jerusalem, as it was called, had
never acknowledged the French republic, and were there-
fore considered at war with it The grand master Hom-
pesch, a weak old man, made no preparations against an
attack ; yet the fortifications of La Valette were such that
they might have baffled the whole power of the French
fleet and army, even supposing that Bonaparte could have
spared time for the siege. But he was extremely anxious
to pursue his way to Egypt, expecting every moment to be
overtaken by Nelson and the English fleet, who having
received information of his sailing from Toulon were eagerly
looking out for him. Every moment was therefore of value
to Bonaparte. With his usual boldness, he summoned the
Grand Master to surrender on the 11th, and the Grand
Master obeyed the summons. It is well known that there
were traitors among the knights in high offices, who
forced the Grand Master to capitulate. As the French
general and his staff passed through the triple line of forti-
fications. General Caffarelli observed to Bonaparte that ' It
was lucky there was some one within to open the massive
gates to them, for had the place been altogether empty they
would have found it rather difficult to get into it.' After
the usual spoliation of the churches, the alberghi, and other
establishments of the Order, the gold and silver of which
were melted into bars and taken on board the French fleet,
Bonaparte left a garrison at Malta under General Vaubois,
and embarked on the 19th for Egypt. As the French
fleet sailed by the island of Candia it passed near the Eng-
lish fleet, which having been at Alexandria, and hearing
nothing of the French there, was sailing back towards
Syracuse. Denon says the English were seen by some of
the French ships on the 26th, but the French were not
seen by Nelson*s fleet, owing to the hazy weather. On
the 29th of June Bonaparte came in sight of Alexandria,
and landed a few miles from that city without any oppo-
sition. France was at peace with the Porte, its charge
d'affaires, Ruffin, was at Constantinople, and the Turkish
ambassador, Ali Effendi, was at Paris ; the Turks of Egypt
therefore did not expect the invasion. When they saw
the French marching towards Alexandria, the garrison
shut the gates and prepared for defence. The town, how-
ever, was easily taken ; when Bonaparte issued a proclama-
tion to the inhabitants of Egypt, in which he told them
that he came as the friend of the Sultan to deliver them
from the oppression of the Mamelukes, and that he and
his soldiers respected God, the Prophet, and the Koran.
On the 7th of July the army moved on towards Cairo.
They were much annoyed on the road by parties of Mame-
lukes and Arabs, who watched for any stragglers that fell
out of the ranks, and immediately cut them down, without
the French being able to check them, as they had no
cavalry. At last, after a harassing march, the French on
the 21st arrived in sight of the great pyramids, and saw
the whole Mameluke force under Mourad and Ibrahim
Beys encamped before them at Embabeh. The Mame-
lukes formed a splendid cavalry of about 6000 men, besides
the Arab auxiliaries ; but their infkntry, composed chiefly
of Fellahs, was contemptible. The Mamelukes had no idea
of the resistance of which squares of disciplined infhntry
are capable. They charged furiously, and for a moment
disordered one of the French squares, but succeeded no
further, having no gmi» to suppoii them. The voUeya
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of musketry ftnd grape shot made fetifaX bavoo atnotig^
them ; and after losin? most of their men in desperate
attempts to break the French ranks, the remnants of this
brilltant cavalry retreated towards Upper Egypt; others
crossed the Nile, and retreated towards Syria. This was
called the battle of the Pyramids, in which victory was
cheaply bought over a barbarian cavalry unacquainted
with European tactics. Bonaparte two days after entered
Cairo without resistance, and assembled a divan or eoun-
cil of the principal Turks and Arab sheiks, who were to
have the civil administration of the country. He pro-
ibssed a determination to administer equal justice and
m^tection to all classes of people, even to the humblest
rellah, a tiling unknown in that country for ages. He
established an institute of sciences at Cairo : and he en«-
deavoured to conciliate the good will of the Ulemas and of
the Imams, and to some extent he succeeded. It is not
true however that he or any of his generals, except Menou,
made profession of Islamism. The report originated in a
desultory conversation he had with some of the sheiks, who
hinted at the advantages that might result to him and his
army fttmi the adoption of the religion of the country. It
was however a wild idea, unsuited both to him and the sort
of men he commanded. 1 1 would have made him ridiculous
in the eyes of his soldiers, and would not probably have
conciliated the Moslem natives. While he was engaged in
organizing the internal affairs of Egypt, the destruction of
bis fleet by Nelson took place in the roads of Aboukir on
the 1st and 2nd of August. He was now shut out from all
oemmunieation with Europe. The sultan at the same time
issued an indignant manifesto, dated 10th September, de-
daring war against France for having invaded one of his
pfovinoes, and prepared to send an army for the recovery of
Egypt. A popular insurrection broke out at Cairo on the
22nd of September ; and the French found scattered in the
streeti were killed. Many however, and especially the women
and children, were saved in the houses of the better sort
of inhabitants. (Denon*8 account of that event) Bona-
parte, who was absent, returned quickly with troops ; the
insurgents were killed in the streets, and the survivors
took refuge in the Oreat Mosque, the doors of which they
barricaded. Bonaparte ordered them to be forced with
cannon. A dreadful massacre ensued within the mosque,
even afteir alt resistance had been abandoned ; five thousand
Moslems were killed on that day. Bonaparte then issued
a proclamation, in which, imitating the Oriental style, he
told the Egyptians that he was tne man of fate who had
been foretold in the Koran, and that any resistance to him
was impious as well as unavailing, and that he could call
them to account even for their most secret thoughts, as
nothing was concealed from him.
In the month of December Bonaparte went lo Sues, where
ho reeeived deputations from several Arab tribes, as well as
irom the shereef of Mekka, whom he had propitiated by
giving protecticm to the great caravan of the pilgrims
proceeding to that sanctuary. From Suez he crossed, at
ebb tide* over the head of the gulf to the Arabian coast,
where he received a deputation finnn the monks of Mount
Sinai. On his return to Suez he was overtaken by the
rising tide, and wsa in some danger of being drowned. This
he told Las Cases at St Helena.
Meantime the Turks were assembling foroea in Syria,
and I)jessar Pacha of Acre was appointed seraskier or com-
mander. Bonaparte resolved on an expedition to Syria.
In February, 1799, he erosaed the desert with 10,000 men,
took El Arish and Gaia, and on the 7th March he stormed
Jaffa* which was bnivcly defended by several thousand
Tkvks, A summons had been sent to them, but tbev cut
off the bead of the messenger. A great number of the
garrison were put to the sword, and the town was given up
to plunder, the horrors of which Bonaparte himseu in his
dispatefaes to the Directory acknowledges to have been
ftightfiiL Fifteen hundred men of the garrison held out
in the fert and oth«r buildings* until at last they surren-
dered as prisonera. They were then mustered* and the
natives of Egypt being separated from the Turks and
Amaouts, the latter were put under a strong guard* but
were supplied with provisions* &e. Two days after* on
the 9th* this body of prisonera was maiehed out of Jaffa iu
the oentre of a square batulion commanded by General
Ben. They proceeded to the sand-hills S.E. of Jaffa* and
there being divided into small bodies* they were put to
death in masses by ToUeys of musketry. Those who fell
wounded were lliiislied with the bayoMt Thebodieti
heaped up into the shape of a pyramid* and their bleacfae^
bones were still to be seen not many years ainoa. Sueh waa tbm
massacre of Jaffa* which Napoleon at St Helena pretended
to justify hf saying that these men had famed part of ibe
garrisons of El Arish and Gaza* i^pon the suirader of
whicn they had been allowed to return hone on eonditioii
of not serving against the French ;— on arriving at Jaffa
however, through which they must pass* Iheir coontiymeo
retained them to strengthen the defence of that placA. It
may be safely doubted whether the whole of these men
were the identical men of El Arish or Gaza, Bui bow*
ever tliis may be, it is true that the Turks did not at that
time observe the rules of war among eiviliied nations* and
therefore* it may be said, were liable to be treated with the
extreme rigour of war&re. Still it was an act of cruelty,
because done in cold blood and two days after their sur-
render. The motive of the act however was not wanton
cruelty* but policy, in thus getting rid of a body of deter-
mined men, who would have embarrasaod the French as
prisoners, or increased the ranks of their enemies if set at
liberty. This is the only apokigy* if apology it be* to the
deed. Another and a worse reaion was* the old principle of
Bonsparte of striking terror into the oountrv which be waa
invading. But this system, which aueceeded piett^ well
with the North Italians or the Fellahs of Egypt* Ibiled of
its effect when, applied to the Turks or the Arabs ; it only
made them more desperate, as the delenee of Aiore soon
after proved. Miot in his Memoiia has* it seem% made a
mistake as to the number of the victims* whom he stales at
two or three thousand ; they were about 1200.
At Jaffa the French troops began to feel the first attack
of the plague, and their hospitals were estabUshed in that
town. On the 14th the armymarched towards Acre, which
they reached on the 17th. Djeuar Pacha, a cruel but re-
solute old Turk, had prepared himself for a siege. Sir Sid-
ney Smith* with the Tiger and Theseus Eufflisb shipa of the
line* after assisting him in repairing the old fortifications of
the place* brought his shipa dose to the town* which project«
into the sea* ready to take part in the defence. ThellMeus
intercepted a French flotilla with heavy cannon and ammu*
nition destined for the siege, and the pieces were muse-
diately mounted on Uie walls and turned against the French.
Colonel Philippeanx, an able officer of enaineers. who had
been Bonaparte's schoolfellow at Paris, and afterwards emi-
grated; directed the artillery of Acre. Bonaparte waa com-
pelled to batter the walls with only 12-poundera: by the
28th of March however he had effected a breach. The
French went to the assault, crossed the ditch* and mounted
the broach, but were repulsed by the Turks led on bv Djezxar
himself. The Turks, joined by English sailors ana marines,
made several sorties, and partly desUuyed the French worki
and mines. Meantime the mountaineers of Nanlous and vf
the countries east of the Jordan, joined by Turks from Da*
mascus* had assembled a large force near Tiberias for the
relief of Acre. Bonaparte* leaving part of his forces to
guard the trenches* marched agsinst the Syriana* defeaud
their undisciplined crowds at Nasareth and near Mount
Tabor, and completely dispersed them: the fugitives took
the road to Damascus. Bonaparte quickly returned toius
camp beforo Acre* when the arrival of several pieees of
heavy ordnance from Jaffa enabled him to canr on lu*
operations with redoubled v^ur. The month of April was
spent in useless attempts to storm the place. Philippeaux
died on the 2nd of May* of illness and over-exertiou* hut
was replaced by Colonel Douglas of the marines* assisted b>
Sir Sidney Smith and the other officers of the squadron. The
French* after repeated assaults, made a lodgment in a large
tower which commanded the rest of the fortifications* upcn
which the Turks and the British sailors, armed with pikes.
hastened to dislodge them. At this moment the long-expected
Turkish fleet arrived with fresh troons, under the command
of Hassan Bey, and the regiment Tcniffilik, of the Nixam or
regular infantry* was immediately landed. Sir Sidney
Smith* without losing time* sent uem on a sortie against
the French trendies, which the Turke forced* seising on a
battery and spikingjlbe guns. This diversion had the effect
of dislodging the rVenc^ ftom the tower. After se> crxl
other attempts Bonaparte ordered an assault on a wide breach
which had been effected in the curtain. General Lannrs
led the column. Dljeszar gave orders to let the Frenrh
come in, and then close upon them man against man, in
which sort of combat the Turks were sure to have the ad-
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TiB(iig«». Tli»fimilort of tlieassailttiitstdfaiMadiiito.tiia
fCttden of the tmefas's paltee, whert they wcfe all cut down ;
Geoeial RsmtMnd was killed* and Lannes canned away
wmmded. On Hie ilOth of May Bonaparte made a laai efibri
in whick Oeneral Bon and Colonel Veneux were killed,
with noat of the atorming party. General Ca0areUi bad
died before. The army now began to mnrmur: seven or
eif^C aaaanlts had been made, the trenchea and ditches
were filled with the slain, whieh the fire of the besieged
pveirented then from bnrying ; and disease, assisted by the
heat of the climate, was spreading fhst in their camp. After
flfty*'(binr days since the opening of the trenches, Bonacparta
stw hiftM^f under the neeessin^^of mising the siege. The
people of Mount Lebanon, the Dmses, and Mutualts^ who
wens at one time disposed to join him against mesaar,
seeing his'foilnre before Acre, altered their mind, and sent
a deputation on board the Turkish and English fleet. At
the aame thne Bonaparte learnt that the great Turkish anna*
ment firom Rhodes was about to set sail for Egypt; the
Mamelukes had also assembled in considerable nnmbera
in Upper Egypt, and were threatening Cairo* Accordingly
he resolved to return to Egypt
On the 81 si of May the French army broke up from be^
fore Acre, and began its retreat* In the order of ^e day
which be issued on that occasion, Bonaparte a!ffieted to treat
with disdain the cheek he had met with, but he expressed
himself very differently to Murat and his other confidants,
and we find him, towards the end of his lifo at St. Helena,
rsveiting to the subject with expressions of disappointment
aad regret. ' Possessed of Acre, the army would have gone
to Damascus and the Euphrates ; the Christians of Syria,
the Drusea, tfie Armenians, would have joined us. The
provinces of the Ottoman Empire which speak Arabic were
ready for a change, they were only waiting for a man. • • ».
With 100.090 men on the banks of tlie Euphrates, I might
have gone to Constantinople or to India; I might have
changed the foce of the world. I should have founded an
empire in the Bast, and the destinies of Fruice would have
run into a different course. (Bonaparte'a conversationa
in Las Cases.) Whatever may be thought of the chances
of nlttmate success, there is no doubt that Bonujarte, after
taking Acre, would have become master of all Syria* But
his position, and that of the countries around nim, were
very difl^rent fh>m those of Alexander and the Persians.
The French army retreated through Jaffa, burning every
thing behind them, harvest and all. *■ The whole oountry is
on flre in our rear,* is Berthier*s laconic expression in his
report of that campaign. Before continuing their retreat
from Jaffa, Bonaparte ordered the hospitals to be cleared,
and all those who could be removed to be forwarded to
Egypt by sea. There remained about twenty patients,
chictiy suffering from the plague, who were in a desperate
condition, and could not be removeO. To leave them bO"
hind would have exposed them to the barbarity of the Turks.
Napoleon, some say another officer, asked Desgenettes, the
chief physieian, whether it would not be an act of humanity
to adminieter opium to them. Desgenettes replied that
' his business was to cure and not to kill.' A rear-guard
was then left behind at Jaffa for the protection of these men,
whreh remained there three days after the departure of the
annv. When the rear-guard left, all the patients were
dead except one or two, who fell into the hands of the
English, and they, or some other of the sick who were sent
by sea and were also taken, having heard something of the
tuKgestkm about the opium, propagated the report Uiat the
sick had been reaHv poisonea, which was believed both in
IVance and in England for many years after« Such is the
result of Las Cases investigation of this business, both firom
Napoleon himself and from the chief persons who were at
Jaffk at the time.
Bonaparte entered Cairo on the 14th of June. The By*
nan campaign lasted little more than three months, and it
eost the French about 4000 men, who were killed or died of
tbe plague. Ti^ history of that memorable campaign is
encn in Berthier*s official account, as ehief of the staff, Sir
oidney Smith's dispatches, and Miot s * Memoirs :* the last
appear to be rathetr exaggerated in some instances, but all
^ree in giving a sad picture of die condition and sufferings
of the French army.
While Bonaparte was in Syria, Desaix had driven the
Mamelukes from Upper Egynt, and beyond the cataracts
of Assouan. The French haa also occupied Cosscir. The
division of Dtmt contained the French savants, and Denon
among the rest, who examined the uonumenca of Thebes^
Deodera, Etfou, &c. From their observations *he splendid
work on Egypt was afterwards compiled.
Towards the end of Jul v Bonaparte being informed that
the Turkish fieethad lanaed 18^00 men at Aboukir, under
Seid mustapha Pacha, immediately assembled his army
to attack them. He had formed a cavalry, which waa
commanded by Murat; the Turks had none. The Turks
had entrenched themselves near the sea, and the French
attacked their advanced posts and dinve them back upon
their entrenchments; but the Turkish guns checked their
advance, and threw the foremost of tbe assailants into dis-
order* The main body of the Turks then sallied out, but in
the eagerness of their pursuit falling into complete disorder
they were charged by the French, both infantry and cavalry*
routed, and followed into their entrenbhmenta, where they
fell into inextricable oonfusion. About 10,000 of them
perished, either by the bayonet or in the sea, where they
threw themselves in hopes of regaining their ships. The sea
appeared covered with their turbans. Six thousand men
received quarter, together with the pacha» whom Bonaparte
condesoended to praise for the courage he had displayed. This
victory of Aboukir, fought on the 35th of July. 1799, closed
Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign. It waa after this battle
that Bonaparte received intelligence of the state of France,
through the newspapers, and also by letters from his bro-
thers and other personal friends. He learnt the disaatera
of the French armies, the loss of Italy, the general dissatis-
faction prevailing in France against the Directory, and the
intrigues and animosities among the directors themselves,
and between them and the legislative councils. He deter*
mined at once to return to France. He kept it however a
secret from the army, and ordered two frigates in the har^
hour of Alexandria to be got ready for sea, and having
ordered his favourite officers^ Murat, Lannes, Bertbier,
Marmont, and also MM. Monge, Denon» and Berthollet
to meet him at Alexandria, he left Cairo on the 18 th Au-
gust, and on arriving at Alexandria embarked secretly on
board the ftigate La Muiron on the 2drd. He took leave
of Kleber, wlu)m he left in command, only by letter. He
left in Egypt 20,000 men, having lost about 9000 in his
campaigns. The English fleet had gone to Cyprus to get pro*
visions, and Bonaparte was again fortunate enough to avoid
the English cnnaers. He is said to have read during the
passage both the Bible and the Koran with great assiduity.
On the 30th September the two frigates entered the gulf
of Ajaeeio ; on the 7th October they sailed again, and
passing nnnotieed through the Enghsh squadron, they
angered on the 9di in the gulf of Frejus, to the eastward
of Toulon. The usual forma of quarantine were dispensed
with, and on his landing he was received with applause by
the inhabitants of the various towns on his road to Paris,
and especially at Lyons, which had suffered so much in the
Revolution. People were tired of the DirecU^, which had
shown both incapacity and corruption, and to which they
attributed all the late misfortunes of France* [BarraswJ
On arriving at Paris Bonaparte found himself courted, aa
he probably expected, by the various parties. The repub-*
licans, with Generals Jourdan, Bemaaotte^ Augereau, and
a majority in the council of 500, wished to restrain the
power of the Directory, to turn out Barras, but to maintain
the constitution of the year i ii . Sieyes, one of the directors,
with a majority of the CouucmI of Eiders, wished for a new
constitution, less democratic, of which he had sketched the
outline. Barras strove to maintain the power of the Di-
rectory, of which till then he had been the most influential
member. But his party waa small and in bad odour with
the people* Bonaparte decided on joining Sieyes, aad
giving him his miUtary support; the day n>r attempting
the proposed change in the constitution was fixed between
them and their firtends»
The Conneil of Elders met at sa o'clock in the morning
of the 16th Brumaire (9th Oot 1799) at the Tuileries ; but
several of the leading members of the republican party
were not aumnoned. Comndet, Le^run, and other mem*
here in the mtereat of Sieyes, spoke of dangers which
threatened the Republic, of con^iracies of the Jacobina,
of a return of the reign of tenor, &c. The majority of the
council were either in the secret, or were really agitated by
fear of the Jacobins.. The council adopted a resolution,
according to the powers given to it by the eonstitution, by
which the two councils were appointed to meet at St. Cloud
the next day, in order to be safer ikom any attempts of the
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n ob of the capital. By another retolution GeDoral Bonaparte
waa appointee! commander* in-chief of tho military di^imon of
Paris, and charged with protecting the safe removal of the
councils. A message signifying this appointment, and
summoning him to appear before the elders, was earned
to Bonaparte while he was in the midst of his military
leree. He immediately mounted on horseback, and invited
all the officers to follow'him. The greater number did so ;
but Bemadotte and a few more declined the invitation.
Bonaparte had been talking privately with Bcrnadottet but
could not win him over to his side ; he found him ' as
stubborn as a bar of iron.' (Bourienne.) Bonaparte having
given his orders to the adjutants of the various battalions
of the national guards and to the commanding officers of
the regular troops which were formed in the Champs Elys^es,
repaired to the Council of Elders, surrounded by a nume-
rous retinue, among whom were Moreau, Bertbier, LAnnes,
Murat, and Le Fdvre, who commanded the National Guards.
He told the council that they represented the wisdom of the
nation, that by their resolutions of that morning they had
saved the Republic, that he and his brave companions
would support them, and he swore this in his and their
names. Coming out of the hall he read to the assembled
triK)ps the resolutions of the elders, which were received by
the soldiers with bursts of applause.
Meantime the three directors, Barros, Moulins, and
Gohier, who remained at the Luxembourg, after Sieyes
and Ducos had gone to the Tuileries, and given in their
resignation, became alarmed. They had no force at their
dis(>usal ; even their own personal (mard had deserted them.
Barras sent his secretary Bottot to endeavour to negociate
with Bonaparte. The general received him in public in
the midst of his officers, and assuming the tone of an angry
master upbraided the directors with their misconduct: —
' What have you done with that France which I left to you
prosperous and glorious ? I left her at peace, and I find
ner at war ; I left her triumphant, and I find nothing but
spoliations and misery. What have you done with a hun-
dred thousand Frenchmen whom I left behind, my com-
Sinions in arms and in glory ? They are no more . . . .*
e then signified to Bottot in private his friendly senti-
ments towards Barras, and assured him of his personal
protection if he immediately abdicated. Talleyrand had
meantime seen Barras, who. fearing perhaps to expose him-
self to an investigation of his official conduct, consented to
resign. He wrote a letter to the Council of Elders to that
effect, and then set off for his estate in the country under
an escort which Bonaparte gave him. [Barra.s.] Gohier
and Moulins being thus left alone did not constitute the num-
ber required by the constitution in order to give to their de-
liberations the authority of an executive council. Moreau was
sent by Bonaparte to guard the palace of the Luxembourg,
and in fact to keep the two directors prisoners there.
The Council of Five Hundred having met at 10 o'clock
on the same day, received a message from the elders, ad-
journing; the sitting to 6t Cloud for the next day. They
separated amidst cries of * The Republic and the Constitu-
tion for ever V
Fouch^, the minister of police, Cambaceres, minister of
justice, Talleyrand, and other influential men, seconded the
views of Bonaparte and of Sieyes. The power of the di-
rectory was at an end. The question was, what form of
gmemment should be substituted for it. It was agreed at
last that the council should adjourn themselves to the fol-
lowinir year, after appointing a commission for the purpose
of framing a new constitution, and that meantime an exe-
cutive should be formed consisting of three consuls. Sieves, [
Ducos, and Bonaparte. These measures it was known
would obtain a majority in t 'p C-^ii ..:. of Elders, but would
meet wiih a determined opposition in that of the Five
Hundred.
On the 19th Brumaire (10th November) the councils
assembled at St. Cloud. Tlie republican minority in the
Council of Elders complained loudly of the hasty and irre-
gular convocation of the precedinsc day. In the midst of
the debate Bonaparte appeared at the bar, accompanied by
Bertbier and his secretary Bourienne, the latter of whom
gives an account of the scene. He told the deputies that
they were treading upon a volcano, that he and his brethren
in arms came to offer their assistance, that his views were
disinterested, 'and yet," he added, •! am calumniated, I
am compared to Cromwell, to Cnsar.* This was uttered
in a rambling, brok<» manner. Unglet, one of the mino-
rity, said to him, * General, will you swear to tiio ooostitu
tionofthe year i it?' Bonaparte then became animated
* The Constitution 1' he cried out, * you violated it on tho
18th Fruetidor [Auobrrau]. you violated it on the 22nd
Flor£al, you violated it on the 30th Prairial. All parties
by turns have appealed to the ConstitutioUt and all
parties by turns have violated it As we cannot preserve
the Constitution, let us at least preserve liberty and equality/
He then talkecl of conspiracies, of danger to the Republic,
&c. Several members insisted on the General revealing
these conspiracies, explaining these dangers. Bonaparte,
after some hesitation, named Moulins and Banns, who he
said had proposed to him to take the lead in the conspiracy.
This increased the vociferations among the members : * The
General must explain himself, every thing must be ti»i
before all France/ But he had nothing to reveal. He
spoke of a party in the Council of Five Hundred which
wanted to re-establish the convention and the reign of terror.
His sentences became incoherent* he was confused, but a{
last he said, ' If any orator, paid by foreignerst attempts Ui
put me out of the pale of the law, let him beware ! I shall
appeal to my brave companions, whoso caps I perceive si
the entrance of this hall/ Bourienne and Bertbier advised
him now to withdraw, and they came out together, wlicn
Bonaparte was received with acclamations by the militar}-
assembled before the palace.
The Council of Five Hundred had also assembled^ It%
president, Lucien Bonaparte, read aloud the resignation of
Barras, which had been forwarded by the Council of EhUn.
Some of the leaders then proposed to repeat the oath uf
fidelity to the Constitution, which was carried by acclami
tion. * No dictator, no new Cromwell !' resounded thn»u:rti
the hall. Augereau, who was present, went out and v>\<\
Bonaparte what was passing in the counciL * You ha*. •
placed yourself in a pretty situation/— 'Augereau,* rvpl*-!
Bonaparte, 'remember Arcule; things appeared still w«>r«'
there at one time. Keep quiet, and in hair an hour you v u\
see.' He then entered the Council of the Five Hundred, ac-
companied by four grenadiers. The soldiers remained r.
the entrance, he advanced towards the middle of the hall, u*:
covered. He was received with loud and indignant vocd>. *-
tions. 'Wo will have no dictator, no soldiers in the saM*-.
tuary of the laws. Let him be outlawed ! he is a trait, r !
Bonaparte attempted to speak, but his voice was di\>« iiol
in the general clamour. He was confused, and seemed u.:
certain what to do. Several members crowded around htm *
a cry of ' I^t us save our General !* was heard coming ^vin
the door of the hall, and a party of grenadiers rushed in.
placed Bonaparte in the midst of them* and brought lii.n
out of the hall. One of the grenadiers had his coat torn n*
struggling with a deputy ; but tho 8tor>' of the dagg«^r»
drawn against Bonaparte appears to be unfounded. In tt.<»
confusion of the moment Bonaparte may have fancied *:.
Lucien, after the departure of his brother, attempted i<.>
pacify the councU, hut the exasperation of the memU*-*
was too gieat. A motion was put to outlaw General Boiu-
parte. Lucien refused to put it to the vote, saying, * 1 can-
not outlaw my own brother,* and he deposited the insiji i
of president, and left the chair. He then asked to be heard
ill his brother's defence, but he was not listened to. Ai
this moment, a party of grenadiers sent by N^ioleon «;•
tered the hall. Lucien put himself in the midst of them,
and they marched out. He found the military oui*i«lr
already exasperated at the treatment their general had rt •
ceivcd. Lucien mounted on horseback, and in a loud vuk«>
cried out to them, that factious men, armed with dag^o.-x
and in the pay of England, had interrupted by violence t:.«-
deliberations of the Council of Five Hundred, and that hr.
iu his quality of president of that assembly, requested thou
to employ force against tlu: disturbers. * I proclaim that
the assembly of the Five Hundred is dissolved.' Ti <>
arldress of Lucien decided the business. The soldiers Vli
no more scruples in obeying tlie orders of the nresidtnt.
Murat entered the hall of the Council, at the head of a de-
tachment of grenadiers with fixed bayonets. He sum
raonod the deputies to disperse, but was answered by Umd
vociferations, execrations, and shouts of 'Tho Republic
for ever I' The drums were then ordered to beat, and t>^
soldiers to clear the hall. They levelled their muskets. afi<«
ailvanced to the charge. The deputies now fled« max \
jumped out of the windows, others went out quietly t»v
the door. In a few minutes the hall was entirely clean-<u
In this affair the military were the instnunantai mid Lucha
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tion, although he had greatly modified it by strengthening
the executive to a vast extent * Napoleon,' thus he spoke
afterwards of himself at St. Helena, ' was convinced that
France could only exist as a monarchy ; but the French
people being more desirous of equalitjr than of liberty, and
the very principle of the revolution bcmg established in the
equalization of all classes, there was of necessity a complete
aboUtion of Uie aristocracy. If it was difficult to construct
a republic on a solid basis without an aristocracy, the diffi-
ctdty of establishing a monarchy was much greater. To
form a constitution in a country without any kind of aris-
tocracy would be as vain as to attempt to navieate in one
element only. The French revolution undertook to solve a
problem as difficult as the direction of a balloon. • • . The
ideas of Napoleon were fixed, but the aid of time and events
were necessary for their realization. The organization of
the consulate presented nothing in contradiction to them :
it taught unanimity, and that was the first step. This
point gained, Napoleon was quite indifferent as to the forms
and denominations of the several constituted bodies; he
was a stranger to the revolution ; it was natural that the
will of those men who had followed it through all its
phases should prevail in questions as difficult as they were
abstract. Tlie wisest plan was to go on from day to day
without deviating from one fixed point, the polar star by
which Napoleon meant to suide the revolution to the haven
he desired.* {Memuiri of riapoleon^ dictated to Gourgaud,
vol. i.) The above senteuces furnish a clue to Bonaparte's
subsequent policy with regard to tlie internal administration
of France, Towards the end of January, 1800, Bonaparte
removed from the palace of the Luxembourg to the
Tuileries, Of his pubUc entrance into that royal residence
amidst tiie acclamations of the multitude Madame de Stael
has given a striking account.
The finances wore left by the Directory in a wretched
atate : the treasury was empty ; forced loans arbitrarily as-
sessed had been till then the chief resource of the govern-
ment. Gaudin, the new minister appointed b^ Bonaparte,
repealed the odious system, for which he substituted 25 per
cent, additional upon all contributions direct or indirect.
Confidence beins thus restored, the merchants and bankers
of Paris supplied a loan of twelve millions, the taxes were
paid without difficulty, the sales of national domains were re-
aumedy and monev was no longer wanting for tbe expenses
of the state. Cambacdres continued to be minister of justice.
The tTrannical law of hostages, by which nearly 200,000
Frenchmen were placed out of the pale of the law because
they happened to be relatives of emigrants or of Vendeans,
and were made answerable for the offences of the latter, was
repealed. About 20,000 priests who had been banished or
imprisoned were allowed to return, or were set at liberty on
taking the oath of fidelity to the established government.
All persons arrested on mere suspicion, or for their opinions,
were set free. * Opinions,* said Bonaparte, ' are not amenable
to the law ; the right of the sovereign extends only to the
exaction of obedience to the laws.*
The subordinate situations under government were filled
with men from all parties, chosen for their fitness. 'We are
creating a new nra,' said Bonaparte ; ' of the past we must
remember only the good, and forget the evil. Times, habits
of business and experience, have formed many able men
and modified many characters.* Agreeably to this principle,
Fouche was retained as minister of police. Berthier was
made minister at war instead of Dubois Crance, the minister
of the Directory, who could give no returns of Uie different
corps, and who answered all questions by saying— 'We
neither pay, nor victual, nor clothe the army ; it subsists
and clothes itself by requisitions on the inhabitants.*
The churches which had been closed by the Convention
were re-opened, and Christian worship was allowed to be
performed all over France. The Sabbath was again recog-
nised as a day of rest, the law of the Decades was repealed,
and the computation by weeks resumed. The festival of
the 2Ut January, being the anniversary of the death of
Louis X VI.» was discontinued. The oath of hatred to royalty
was suppreued as useless, now that tbe republic was firmly
established and acknowledged by all, and as being an ob-
stacle to the good understanding between France and the
other powers. At the same time the sentence of transport-
ation passed on the 19th Brumaire,on fifty-nine members of
the former Council of Five Hundred, was changed into
their remaining at a distance fiom Paris, under the sur-
Teillaaoe of the police*
France was still at war with Austria, England, and tbe
Porte. Bonaparte sent Duroc on a mission to Berlin, by
which he confirmed Prussia in iu neutrality. The Empervr
Paul of Russia had withdrawn from the confederation after
the battle of Zurich, 25th Sentember, 1 799, in which Maa-
sena gained a victory over the Russian army. Bonaparte now
wrote a letter to the king of England, expresting a wish for
peace between the two nations. Lord Granville, secretary of
state for foreign affairs, returned an evasive answer, express-
ing doubts as to the stability of the present govetoment of
France, an uncertainty which would affect the security of
the negotiations; ' but disclaiming at the same time any
claim to prescribe to France what shall be the form of her
government, or in whose hands she shall vest the authority
necessary for conducting the affairs of a great and oowerful
nation. His Majesty looks only to the security of his own
dominions and those of his allies, and to the general safety
of Europe. Whenever he shall judge that such security
can in any manner be attained, His Majesty will eagerly
embrace the opportunity to concert with his alUes the means
of immediate and general pacification. Unhappily no such
security hitherto exists; no sufiBcient evidence of tbe prin-
ciples by which the new government of France will be di-
reeted, no reasonable grounds by whicly to judge of its sta-
bility.* This correspondence was the subject of animated
debates in the British parliament {Parliameniary Be-
gisterfor the year 1800.)
Bonaparte had made the overture in compliance with the
general wish for peace, but he says himself that he was not
sorry it was rejected, and ' that the answer fhnn Londi«u
filled him with secret satisfaction, as war was necessary tj
maintain energy and union in the state, which was ill or-
ganized, as well as his own influence over the imaginat2< ns
of the people.' (Montholon, Memoin qf yttpoUan^ %ol. l
note on Pitt's policy.) Bonaparte at the same time suc-
ceeded in putting an end to the civil war in La Vend^ : he
entered into negotiations with the principal Vendean chicf^s
offering a complete amnestv for the past» and at the saai^
time he sent troops to La Yendde to put down any further
resistance. The rovahst party had gained considerable
strength ; owing to the weak and immoral policy of the Di-
rectory, many officers of the republic, both civil and militajT*
had entered into correspondence with it, because, aa th^
confessed to Bonaparte, they preferred anything to anarrh; .
and the return of the reign of terror. But tSe tempenie
and jret firm policy of the first consul effected a great al-
teration in public opinion. The Vendeans themselves were
affected by it The principal of them, ChatiUon, D'Auti-
champ, the Abb^ Bemier, Bourmont, and others, niade their
peace with the government by the treaty of Montluf on m
January, 1 800. Georges capitulated to General Brune, ani
the Vendean war was at an end.
Bonaparte now turned all his attention to the war against
Austria. He gave to Moreau the command of the army i (
the Rhine, and himself assumed the direction of that cf
Italy. Massena was shut up in Genoa, and tbe Aostriacs
under General Melas occupied Piedmont and the Genoe>«
territory as far as the French frontiers. Bonaparte made a
demonstration of assembling an army of reserve at Dijon .i
Burgundy» which was composed of a few thousand me:u
chiefly conscripts or old invalids. The Austrians, lulled iuto
seciinty, continued their operations against Genoa and t'»-
wards Nice, while Bonaparte secretly directed a number r
regiments from the intenor of France to assemble in Switrir*
land on the banks of the Lake of Geneva. He himself rt -
paked to Lausanne on the 13th of May, and marched, wt'i
about 36,000 men and fort^ pieces of cannon, up the Grtat
St Bernard, which had till then been considered tmprar-
ticable fbr the passage of an armv, and especially for artilUr'%
The cannons were dismounted, put into holiow tiunk* o:
trees, and dragged by thesoldiers ; the carriages wert uL< a
to pieces, and carried on mules. The French army dcsceu'L I
to Aosta, turned the fort of Bard, and found itself in the nix n •
of Lombardy, in the rear of Melas* Austrian armj, which « a«
south of the Po, and intercepting its communicatio&s with
the Austrian States. Bonaparte entered Milan on the *2rvi
of June, without meeting with any tmpositioa. and w^
there joined by other divisions which had ]>aMed by th^
Simplon and the St Gothard. He now mardied to is^aa
Melas, who had hastily assembled his armv near Alesaandri x.
Passing the Po at Piacenxa he drove back Mdaa* advancr !
guard at Casteggio near Voghera, and took a position .u
the plain of Marengo, on the xight-bank of the nvcr Bvt*
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mida in front of Alessandria. On the 1 4th of June Melas
crossed the Bormida in three columns, and attaclced the
FreDcb» The Austrians carried the village of Marengo^
and drove the French hack upon that of San Giuliano^
which was attacked hy a column of 5000 Hungarian grena-
diers. At four o'clock in the afternoon the hattle seemed
lost to the French, who were retiring on all points, and in
considerable disorder, when Desaix arriving with a fresh
division attacked the advancing column, while the younger
Kellerman with a body of heavy horse charged it in Hank.
The column was broken, and General Zach, the Austrian
second in command, and his staff, were taken prisoners.
The commander-in-chief, Melas, an old and gallant officer,
exhausted with fatigue, and thinking the hattle won,
had just left the field and returned to Alessandria. The
other French divisions now advanced in their turn, a panic
spread among the Austrians, who, after fighting hard all
day. had thought themselves sure of victory, and they fled
in confusion towards the Bormida, many being trampled
down by their own cavalry, which partook of Uie general
disorder. The Austrian official report stated their loss in
killed* . wounded, and prisoners at 9069 men, and 1423
horses. The French stated their own loss at 4000 only,
and that of the Austrians at 12,000. But the loss of
the French must liave been greater. Desaix was shot
through the breast in the charge ; he fell from his horse, and
telling those around him not to say anything to his men, he
expired. He and Kellerman turned the fate of the battle.
An armistice was concluded on the 16th of June between
the two armies, by which Melas was allowed to withdraw
his troops to the Une of Mantua and the Mincio, the French
keeping Lombardv as far as the river Oglio. Melas, on his
side, gave up Piedmont and the Genoese territory, with all
their fortresses, including Grenoa and Alessandria, to the
French.
Bonaparte having established provisional governments at
Milan, Turin, and Genoa, returned to Paris, where he ar-
rived on the 3rd of July, and was received with the greatest
pntlmsiasm. The battle of Marengo had wonderfully con-
solidated his power, and increased his influence on the opinion
of the Frencn. Negotiations for peace took place between
Austria and France ; Austria however refused to treat without
£n{rland, and Bonaparte demanded an armistice by sea as a
preliminary to the negotiations with England. Malta and
Egypt were then on the point of surrendering to the Eng-
liJi, and Bonaparte wished to send reinforcements to those
countries during the naval armistice. This was refused bv
England, and hostilities were resumed by sea and by land.
Moreau defeated the Austrians commanded by the Arch-
duke John, in the great battle of Hohenlinden, and ad-
vanced towards Vienna. The French in Italy drove the
Austrians beyond the Adige and the Brenta. (For all this
war of 1800 see Pricis des Evenemem Militaires, par Ma-
ihieu Dumas.)
Austria was now obliged to make a separate peace. The
treaty of Luneville, 9th February^ 1801, arranged by the two
plenipotentiaries. Count Cobentzel and Joseph Bonaparte,
was mainly grounded on that of Campoformio. Austria re-
tained the Venetian territories, but Tuscany was taken away
from the Grand Duke Ferdinand, and bestowed upon Louis,
son of the Duke of Parma, who had married a princess of
Spain. Through the mediation of the Emperor Paul of
Russia, with whom Bonaparte was now on very friendly
terras, the king of Naples also obtained peace. The new nope,
Pius VII., was likewise acknowledged by Bonaparte, ana left
in full possession of his territories, except the legations which
had been annexed to the Cisalpine republic. In the course
of the same year negotiations were begun with England,
\^liere Mr. Addington had succeeded Mr. Pitt as prime
minister. Egypt and Malta having surrendered to the
English, the chief obstacles to peace were removed. The
preliminaries of peace were signed at Paris on the 10th of
Octo>jer, 1801, and the definitive treaty was signed at
Amiens, 27th of March, 1802. The principal conditions
were, that Malta should be restored to the Knights of St
John, and the forts be occupied by a Neapolitan garrison.
The independence of the Cisalpine, Batavian, Helvetic, and
Ligurian republics was guaranteed. Egypt was restored to
the sultan, the Cape of Good Hope to' Holland, and the
French West India Islands to France. England retained
the island of Ceylon.
Bonaparte had shown at this period an earnest desire for
peace, which France stood gieatly in need of. Both royal-
ists and republicans were dissatisfied with his dictatorship.
Joseph Arena, a Corsican, and brother of Bartolomeo Arena
of the Council of Five Hundred, who had warmly opposed
Bonaparte on the 19th Brumaire, Ccracchi and Diana,
Italian refhgees, and several other violent republii;an8,
formed a conspiracy against Bonaparte's life; but they
were discovered and imprisoned. Soon after a fresh con-
spiracy of the royalists, some say of the royalists and Jaco-
bins united, was near terminating the life of the first consul.
As Bonaparte was passing in his carriage through tht; Rue
Nicaise on his way to the Opiera, 24 th Dcceml^Br, 1800, a
tremendous explosion of several barrels of gunpowder in a
waggon, that was drawn up on one side of the street, destroyed
several houses and killed many persons. Bonaparte's carriage
had just passed, owing to the Virions driving of tlie coachman,
who was half intoxicated, and who made his way through
all obstacles that had been purposely placed on the road.
The police discovered the conspirators, who were fanatical
royalists connected with the Chouans in the west of France.
They were tried and executed. At the same time Arena ami
his republican friends, who had been already found guilty,
although, it was said, upon evidence not quite conclusive,
were brought out of their confinement and executed. By a
Senatus Consultum, for such the decrees of the Senate were
styled, 130 known leaders of the old Jacobin party, several
of whom had participated in the atrocities of the reign of
terror, were oraered to be transported beyond the seas. Bo-
naparte expressed his determination to put down both
Jacobins and Bourbonists. A law passed the legislative
body empowering the executive to banish from Paris, and
even fh)m France, persons who should express opinions
inimical to the present government. . By another law, which
passed the Tribunate by a majority of only eight, and Was
afterwards sanctioned by the legislative body, special crimi-
nal courts were established to try all persons accused of
treason against the state. The secret police was now or-
ganised with the utmost skill by FoucW, and numerous
informers frokn all classes were taken into its pay. Besides
the general police, there was a mditary police, and another
police establishment under Bonaparte himself, in his own
nousehold.
In April, 1801, a general amnesty was granted to all
emigrants who chose to return to France and take the oath
of fidelity to the government within a certain period. From
this amnesty about 500 were excepted, including those who
had been at the head of armed bodies of royalists, those who
belonged to the household of the Bourbon princes, those
Frencn officers who had been guilty of treason, and those
who had held rank in foreign armies against France. The
property of the returned emigrants which had not been
sola was restored to them. Another conciliatory measure
was the concordat concluded between Joseph Bonaparte
and Cardinal Consalvi, which was signed by Pius VII. in
September, 1801. The pope made several concessions sel-
dom if ever granted by his predecessors. He suppressed
many bishoprics, he sanctioned the sale of church property
which had taken place, he superseded all bishops who had
refused the oath to the republic, and he agreed that the
first consul should appoint the bishops, subject to the appro-
bation of the pontiff, who was to bestow upon them the
canonical institution. The bishops, in coneert with the
government, were to make a new distribution of the parishes
of their respective dioceses, and the incumbents appointed
by them were to be approved by the civil authorities. The
bishops, as well as the mcumbents, were to take the oath of
fidelity to the government, with the clause of revealing any
Slots they might hear of against the state. With these con-
itions it was proclaimed, on the part of the French govern-
ment, that the Catholic religion was that of the majority of
Frenchmen; that its worship should be free, public, and
protected by the authorities, but under such regulations as
the civil power should think proper to prescribe for the sake
of public tranquiUity; that its clergy should be provided
for by the state ; that the cUhedrals and parish churches
should be restored to them. The total abohtion of convents
was also confirmed. This concordat was not agreed to by
the pope without some scruples, nor without much op-
position from several of the theologians and canonists of
the court of Rome. (Compendio Storico 9u Pio VIL,
Milan, 1824 ; and also Botta, Stofia d Italia del 1789 al
1814.) On Easter Sunday, 1802, the concordat was pub-
lished at Paris, together with a decree of regulations upon
matters of discipline, which were so worded as to make
No. 28a
[THE PENNY OYCLOPiBDIA.]
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tlieni appear part of tbe text of the original con(!ordat The
regulations were that no bull, brief, or decision from Rome
should be aekaowledged in Prance without the previous
approbation of the government; no nuncio or apostolic
commissioner to appear in France, and no eouncil to be
held without a similar consent ; appeals against abuses of
discipline to be laid before the council of state ; professors
of seminaries to subscribe to the four articles of the Galltean
Church of 1682; no priest to be ordained unless he be
twenty-Rve years of age, and have an income of at least 300
iVancs ; and lastly, that the grand vicars of the respective
dioceses should exercise the episcopal authority after the
demise of the bishop, and until the election of his successor,
instead of vicars elected ad hoc by the respective chapters,
as prescribed by the Council of Trent. This last article
grieved most the court of Rome, as it affected the spiritual
jurisdiction of the church. The pope made remonstrances,
to which Bonaparte turned a deaf ear. Regulations con-
cerning the discipline of the Protestant churches in France
were issued at the same time with those concerning the
Catholic church. The Protestant ministers were also paid
by the state.
On llie occasion of the solemn promulption of the con-
cordat in the cathedral of Ndtre Uame the Archbishop of
Aix officiated, and Bonaparte attended in fliU state. The
old generals Of the republic had been ihvited by Berthier in
the morning to attend the levee of the first consul, who
took them unawares with him to Ndtre Dame. Bonaparte
said at St. Helena that he never rcnented having signed
the concordat : that it was a great political measure ; that
it gave him inlluencc over the pope, and through him
over a grent part of the world, and especially over Italy, and
that ho niignt one day have ended by directing the pope's
coutirils altogether. • Had there been no pope,' he added,
' one ou<rht to have been made for the occasion.* (Gourgaud
and Lns Cases. See also a copy of the concordat in the
appendix to Montholon's Memotrs, vol. i.)
Bonaparte established an order of knighthood both fbr
military men and civilians, which he called the Legion of
Honour. This measure met with considerable opposition
in tho tribunate. At the first renewal of one-flf^h of the
members of that body, the senate contrived to eject the
most decided members of the opposition.
In January, 1 802, Bonaparte convoked together at Lyons
the members of the provisional government of the Cisal-
pine republic, together with deputations of the bishops, of
the courts of justice, of the universities and academies, of
the several towns and departments, and the national guards,
of the regular army, and of the chambers of commerce.
The number of deputies amounted to about 500, out of
whom a commission of thirty members was selected, which
made a report to the first consul of France on the actual
state of the Cisalpine republic. The report stated, that
owing to the heterogeneous parts of which that republic
Was composed, there was a want of confidence among them ;
that the republic Was in a state of infancy, which required
for some time to come the tutelarv support of France;
and it ended by requesting that the first consul would
assume the chief direction of its affairs. Bonaparte Uien
repahvd to the hall of the deputies, and delivered a speech
which was an echo of the report : he agreed with all its
conclusions, and confirmed them in more positive language.
He told them that ' they should still be protected by the
strong arm of the first nation in Europe, and that as he
found no one among them who had sufficient claims to the
chief magistracy, he was willing to assume the direction
of their affairs, with tho title of President of the Italian Re-
public, and to retain it as long as circumstances should re-
auire it.* The new constitution of the Italian republic was
len piDclaimed : three electoral colleges — 1. of proprietors ;
8. of the learned ; 3. of the merchants — ^represented the na-
tion, and appointed the membert of the legislature and the
judges of tne upper courts. The legislative body of seventy-
five members voted without discussion on the projects of law
presented to it by the executive. There were two councils,
under the names of Consulta of State and Legislative Coun-
cil, which examined the projects of law proposal by the
president, the treaties with foreign states. &c. The prin-
cipal difference between this constitution and that of France
was in the composition of the electoral colleges, they being
selected in Italy by classes, and in France by communes
and denartments, without distinction of classes ; and also
that ia lUly there was no tribunate to discuss the projects
of law proposed by the exectitive. As to the rest the elee
tion of members to the legislature in both countries was
not made by the body of the people : in both, the executive
power had the exclusive right of proposing the laws : tn
both the government was monarchical, under retmblicsin
names, and tempered by constitutional forms. Tno presi-
dent was for ten years, and re-eligible. He appointed to
all civil and military offices, transacted all dipk>raaticaffair^
&e. Bonaparte appointed Melsi d'Eril as vice-president
to reside at Milan in his absence. This choice was irenerally
apptoved of. Bonaparte gave also a new constitution to
the Ligurian or Genoese republic, similar to thst of the
Italiin republic : he did not assume the chief magistrary
himself, but placed a native doge at the head of the state.
On the 2nd August, 1802, Bonaparte was proclaimed con-
sul for life by a decree of the senate, which Was sanctioned
by the votes of the people in the departments to the nnmbrr
of three millions and a half. A few days after, an<ith(*r
Senatus Consultum appeared, altering the' fbrmation of the
electoral bodies, reducing the tribunate to fifty inember««
and paWng the way in fact for absolute power. Tbe M-
moires ntr le Connnlat^ by Thibaudeau, explain the in«
trigues that took place at the time.
Switzerland was at this time distracted by civil wmr. The
French troops had evacuated the country after the peace nf
Amiens, but the spirit of dissension among the different
cantons remained. Bonaparte called to Paris deputations
from every part of Switzerland, and after listening to their
various claims, he told them that he would mediate among
them : he rejected the schemes of unity and uniformity,
saying, that nature itself had made Switserland for a federal
country ; that the old forest cantons, the democracies of
the Alps, being the cradle of Helvetic liberty, sttil fbnned
the chief claim of Switzerland to the sympathies of Europe.
' Destmy those free primitive commonwealths, the monu«
ment of five centuries,* he added, * and you destroy your
historical associations, you become a mere common people,
liable to be swamped in the whirlpool of European polttir^.*
The new Helvetic federation was formed of nineteen can-
tons on the principle of equal rights between towns and
country, the respective constitutions varying howetcr ac-
cording to localities. The general Diets of tbe confedera-
tion were re-established. The neutrality of Switzerland
was recognized ; no foreign troops were to touch its territarv :
but the Swiss were to maintain a body of 16,000 men in
the service of France, as they formerly did under the o!!
monarchy. Bonaparte assumed the title of Mediator of the
Helvetic league. He retained however Geneva uid tbe
bishoprick of Basle, which had been seized by tbe Diiectorr,
and he separated the Valais* which he afterwards aegre-
gated to France. To the end of his reign Bonaparte re-
spected the boundaries of Switzerland, as settled by the act
of mediation ; that and little San Marino were the only Re-
publics in Europe whose independence he maintained.
Bonaparte had directed a commission of lawyers of the
first eminence under the presidency of Cambac^res tn
frame or digest a code of civil laws for' France. He hims If
frequently attended their meetings, and took great intervft
in the discussions. The result of their labours was tbe
Civil Code, Which has continued ever since to be the kw of
France. It was styled «Code citil des Fran9ais,* and it
was accompanied by a Code de procedure. A Code penaU
accompanied likewise by a Code d'instructioa crimtnell^
a commercial code [Azuni], and a military code, wore
afterwards compiled and promulgated under Bonaparte's
administration. These several codes, which are very dif-
ferent in their respective merits, and are often eonfbsediv
designated by the name of Code Napoleon, will form the
subject of a separate article. [Codb.J The Civil Code it
considered by fkr the best, and constitutes perhaps the mo?t
useful bequest of Bonaparte's rclgn.
The various branches of public instruction also attracte)
Bonaparte's attention, though in very unequal proportions.
The task of providing elementary education was tntownupon
the communes, but the communes being mostly very puor,
the establishment of primary schools met with many diffi-
culties, and elementary education remained in a languishing
and precarious state during the whole of Napoleon's reiipn.
Several reports delivered by tbe councilloi of state, Foureroy.
to the legislative bo<ly under the consulate and the empiri\
show the wretched state of primary and secondary instruc-
tion throughout France. The secondary instruction was
chiefly given in private establishments. Foureroy stated
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tlia vmlMr ftf pspOa wder ten yttn of age in tb# fmwj
aid aacaadnrj sebooli al onljr 75,000» and tlus in i^ popu-
lation of thiity-tvo millions. Claastcal and literary instruc-
tion vas affimlfld by the Lyooa to about 4000 pupils, whose
expeniM waie dafrayed by the State, besides boarders Igept
8t tfaa duMga of their parents. The diaeipline of these esta-
biishments was altogether military. Latin, matbematiea,
and military maniBUTMa were the chief objects of instruo-
tion at ^m Lyeea. Seientifio education wea givnn in the
speaial sehoois in the ehi^ towns of Fmnee. sueh M the
Mhools of law and of medicine, the college of Franoo^ and
the polytechnic school at Paris, the military school at Fon-
tainebleau, the sohool oi artillery and engineers at Mainz,
that of bridges and highways, or dvil engineers, the schools
for the mines, &c. Speeulatire, philosophieal, or pditioal
studies met with little enoonnigement under fionaparte*s
administration. He aneesed at all snoh studies as ideology,
and censured them as an idle and dangerous occupation.
The provincial administration of France was now organ-
ised upon one uniibna plan, and was made imtirely de-
pendent on the oentral power or exooudve. Eaeh depart-
ment had a prefbct, who had the chief civil authority ; he
was generally a stranger to the department, reoeived a large
salary, and was removed or dismissed at the will of Boaa-^
pai>Ce. The mayors of the towiu of 5000 inhabitants and
upwards were appointed by Bonaparte ; those of the com-
rounes under 5000 inhabitants, as well as all the members
of the municipal eouneils, were appointed by tiie respective
pre roots. Thus all remains of munioipal or communal
liberty and popular eleetion were quietly abrogated in
France. * I was a dictator,* says Napoleon, < ealled to that
office by the force of circumstances. It was necessary that
the strings of the government, which extended all over the
state, should be in harmony with the key-note which was to
influence them. The organization which I had extended
all over the empire rec^uirod to be maintained with a high
degree of pressure, and to possess a prodigious force of elas-
ticity, &o.' (Las Coses, vol. iv.) His power in foot was much
greater than that of the kings of the old monarchy, as his
prefeets were not men distinguished by rank and fortune
and connexions, as the former governors and lieutenant-
generals; they owed their whole power to their immediate
commissions s they had no personal influence on opinion,
and no foroe except the impulse they received from the
chief of the state.
After the peaee with England, Bonaparte sent a fleet
and an army under his brother-in-law. General Leclere, to
St. Domingo, to reduce the blacks, who had revolted. A
dreadful war ensued, which was marked by atrocities on
both sides, and ended in the destmetion of the French force,
and the total emancipation of the blacks. At the same
time he re-established the slavery of the blacks in Guada-
loape amd Martinique^ «id authorized afresh the slave trade.
By a treaty with Spain, that country gave up Louisiana to
France, which France afterwards sold to the United States
for fifteen millions of dollars. By another treaty with Por-
tugal, France acquired Portuguese Guiana. In Italy,
France took possession of the duchy of Parma, at the death
or the duke rerdinand, in October, 1802. She likewise took
possession of the island of Elba, by an agreement with
Naples and Tuscany. The annexation c^ Piedmont to
France next filled up the measure of alarm of the other
powers at Bonaparte*s encroachments. Since the victory of
Marengo, Piedmont had been provisionally occupied by the
French, and Bonaparte had given out hopes that he would
restore it to the old king, for whom Paul of Russia evinced
a personal interest He was then still at war with England,
and he had formed a scheme of an offensive alliance with
Russia at the expense of Turkey, with a view to march a
combined army to India. The yiolent death of Paul having
Sut an end to this scheme, he immediately procured a
ecree of llio senate constituting Piedmont into a military
division of the French empire, under a council of adminis-
tration, vrith General Monou at the head. Still the ultimate
fkte of Piedmont remained in suspense, as it was under-
9U)od that the emperor Alexander interested himself for the
king of Sardinia. But after the assumption of the presi-
dency of the Italian republic, and the annexation of Parma
and Elba, and other stretches of power on the side of Hol-
land and the Rhine, at which Alexander openly expressed
his displeasure, Bonaparte having no further reason to
humour him, a Senatus Consultum appeared in Septem-
ber, 1S02, dofinitlTely incorporating Piedmont with the
French rapuMiPf ^Od dividing it into six departmoni^i
Po, Dora, Sesia, Stura, Marengo, and Tanaro. England
on her side refused to deliver up Malta, as a Neapolitan
garrison would have been a poor security against a sudden
visit of the French. L.ord Whitworth had a long and
stormy oonference with Bonaparte at the Tuileries on this
subjeol. The English minister having represented to him
that the state of things whieh the treaty of Amiens had
contemplated was fXimpletely altered by his enormous ac-
cession of power in Italy, Bonaparte peremptorily lejected
England's claim to interfere in his arrangements concern*
ing other states ) he insisted upon Malta being delivered
up to some neutral power ; and at the same time did not
even disguise his further views upon Egypt He com-
plained of the attacks of the English press upon him (see
Mackintosh on Peltier's trial), talked of conspiracies hatched
in England against him, which he assumed that the English
govomment was privy to, although Chanes Fox himself,
who was in opposition to the English minister of the day,
had onoe during his visit to Paris told him with honest
bluntness to drive that nonsense out of his head ; he com?
plained that every wind that blew fntm England was fraught
witk mischief for him ; and at last, after an hour and a half of
almost incessant talking, he dismissed the English minister
to prepare for the renewal of hostilities. (See the instrue^
tions given by Bonaparte in his own handwriting to Talley-
rand concerning the manner in which he was ta receive
Lord Whitworth at the last conference between them, in
No. IV. Appendix to Sir W. Scott's Ufg of NapoUon,
See also in the Memoines sur U Consulat by Thibaudeau,
the real opinion of Bonaparte concerning the peace of
Amiens, expressed by him confidentially soon after the
ratifieation :-?-' It was but a truce ; his government stood in
need of fiesh victories to consolidate itself; it must be either
the first govomment in Europe, or it must fall/) On the
35th of March, 1 803, a Senatus Consultum placed at the
disposal of the first consul 120,000 conscripts. England on
her aide was making active preparations. On the 18th May
England declared war against France, and laid an em-
bargo upon all French vessels in her ports. In retaliation
for this, a deaee of the 22d May ordered that all the
English of whatever condition ibund on the territory of
FVance should be detained as prisoners of war, under
pretence that many of them belonged to the militia. General
Mortier was sent to occupy the Electorate of Hanover be*
longing to the king of Great Britain.
In the following September a decree of the consuls, ' in
order,* as it stated, ' to secure the liberty of the press,* for-
bade any bookseller to publish any work until he had sub-
mitted a copy of it to the commission of revision. Journals
had already been placed under still greater restrietions.
In February, 1804, the police discovered that a number
of emigrants and Vendeans were concealed at Paris ; that
General PichegrUt who, after his escape ftrom Guiana, had
openly espoused the cause of the Bourbons, was with them,
and that he had had some interviews with General Moreau^
Georges Cadoudal, the Chouan chief, who had once before
submitted to the first consul, was likewise lurking about
Paris. Pichegni, Moreau, and Georges were arrested. Tlio
real purpose of the conspirators has never been clearly
known. Georges, it seems, proposed to tako away the life
of the first consul, but it was not proved that the rest as-
sented to this. (See Bourienne.) It was also reported iD
Bonaparte that the young Duke of Engbien, son of the
Duke of Bouibon, and grandson of the Prince of Condft,
who was living at EttenKeim in the grand duchy of Baden^
was in correspondence with some of the Paris conspirators,
and that he was to enter Fhince as soon as the intended
insurrection should break out ^naparte, worried with re-
ports of plots and conspiracies against him, gave orders to
arrest Ae duke, although on a neutral territory. On the
14th of March a party of gendarmes from Strasburg crossed
the Rhine, entered the Baden territory, surrounded the
chateau of Ettenheim. seized the duke and his attendants^
and took him to tbe citadel of Strasburg. On ^e morning
of the I8th tiie duke was put into a carriage, and taken
under an escort to the castle of Vincennes, near Paris,
where he arrived in the evening of the 20th. A military
court of seven members was ordered by the first consul to
assemble at Vincennes that very night. The members wero
appointed by General Murat, commandant of Paris. General
Hulin was president. The captain rapporteur, IVAutan-
court, interrogated the dtdie. (See copy of the interrogatory
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and of tbe dake's aniwen in Bourienne's Memoiri, vol. t.)
The chargeti laid before the court against tbe prisoner were:
that he had borne arms against the French repubhc ; that
lie had offered bis services to the English government ; that
he was at the head of a partv of emigrants assembled near
the frontiers of France, and had treasonable correspondence
with tbe neighbouring departments; and lastly, that he
was an accomplice in the conspiracy formed at Paris against
the hfe of the first consuL This last charge the dolce in-
dignantly denied, and there is not the least evidence that
he was implicated in it, nor that he bad corresponded
with either Pichegru or Georges. (Bourienne.) He was
however found guilty of all the charges. The duke ex-
Pressed a desire to have an interview with the first consul,
'his however was overruled by Savary, who was present at
the trial, though not one of the members, and who abruptly
told the court that it was inexpedient to grant the prisoner's
request The duke was sentenced, by the same court, to
death for crimes of espionage, of correspondence with the
enemies of the republic, and of attempts against the safety,
internal and external, of the state. (Jugement rendu
par la Comminion MUiiaire SpSciale seante d Vincennes,
30 Ventose, An XI L formee en vertu de I'arr^e du Gou-
vemement du 29 Veniose, compoeee dapree la loi du 19
Fhictidor^ An V. de sept memoree^ nommis par le General
en Ch^ MuraU Gouvemeur de Paris, d fefifet de juger le
nommi Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Due d'Efi^hien,
ni d Chaniilly le 2 Aout, 1772.) Savary had orders from
Bonaparte to see the sentence carried into execution, which
was done that very night, or rather early in the morning of
the 21st March. The duke asked for a priest, which was
refused ; he then knelt down, and prayed for a minute or
two, after which he was led down by torch-lieht to a postern
gate, which opened into the castle ditch, where a party of
gendarmes was drawn up, and a grave had been dug. It
was dawn. Savary finom the parapet gave the signal for
firing. The duke fell dead, and was immediately buried
in the dress he had on, without any funeral ceremony,
(Savary*s Memoirs^ and General Hulin's pamphlet in exte-
nuation of his share in the transaction.) It is remarkable
that Murat, afterwards king of Naples, when himself under
sentence of death* told Captain Stratti, who guarded him,
' I took no part in the tragedy of the Duke of Engbien, and
1 swear this before that G^ into whose presence I am soon
to apoear.* (CoUetta, Storia del Reame di Napoli.) In
fact. Murat, as governor of Paris, merely appointed the
members of tbe court-martial according to the orders he re-
ceived. It is not true that the duke wrote a letter to Bona-
parte which was not delivered to him, as Bonararte him-
self seems to have beUeved. (Las Cases and Bourienne.)
Tbe apology which Bonaparte made at St Helena for this
judicial murder, was. that he believed the duke was privy to
the conspiracy against his life, and that he was obliged to
strike terror among the royalists, and put an end to their
plots by showing that be was not a man to be trifled with.
An additional motive has been ascribed to him, namely,
that of re-assuring the party implicated in the former French
revolution against any fears they might hav^ of his ever re-
storing the Bourbons.
On the 6 th April Pichegni was found dead in his prison.
About the same time. Captain Wright of the English navy,
who, having been employed in landing Pichegru and the
other emigrants in Britanny, was afterwuxis captured by the
French, and brought to Paris for the purpose of being ex-
amined concerning the conspiracy, was likewise reported to
have been found dead. The death of these two men is still
involved in mystery. Bonaparte has positively denied any
knowledge of Captain Wright's death, and has asserted his
belief that Pichegru reallv strangled himself, as it was re-
ported. Yet, even freely admitting the sincerity of his state-
ments, one may suspect that the agents of his police, screened
as they were m>m all public responsibility, might, in their
eagerness to serve their master, or rather themselves, have
resorted to foul means to get rid of these men when they
could not extract from them confessions that would suit their
purpose. Bonaparte has repeatedly complained of the hasty
xeal of some of bis agents. It is stated by Bourienne that
Picbegru's depositions did not inculpate Moreau, whom
there was an apparent eagerness to find guilty. Some
dark rumours were circulated about CapUin Wright having
been put to excruciating torture. It is very possible that
Bonaparte himself did not know at that time all tlie sccreU
of hii prison-bouses. There is a remarkable pa&sage in |
Bourienne, who, when he was French agent at HamViif g.
kidnapped a spv, a really bad character, and sent him to
Paris, ' where,* he says, * Fouch^ no doubt took good care
of him.* These are ominous words. See Monthobn's Me-
moirs, vol. i., where Napoleon speaks of the arbitrary ty
ranny which the minister of police and bia agente exercised
until by his decree on stete prisons, 13th lAarch, 16 1 0, he
stripped them ' of that terrible power of oommitling any
individual at their own pleasure and keeping him in their
own hands, without the tribunals taking anv oo^^iiMAce o(
the case.' This abuse had existed (torn the time of tbe
convention.
The trial of Horeau, Georges, and tbe others, did not teke
place for several months alter Pichegru a death. Mean-
time a motion was made in the Tribunate, by one Curce, to
bestow upon Wapoleon Bonaparte the title of emperor, with
the hereaitary succession in his family. Camot alone spoke
against the motion, which however was passed by a great
majority on the 3rd of May. The resolution of the Tribu-
nate was then carried to the Senate, where it was unani-
mously agreed to. It was then submitted to the votes of
the people in the departments. Above three millions of
the registered votes were favourable, and between three and
four thousand contrary. It was said that in many places
those who did not vote were registered as assentienta, and
that this was the case at Geneva among others. However,
even before the votes were collected, r^apoleon aiaumcd
the title of emperor at St. Cloud on the 18tn of May, IbO-l.
On the 1 9th he issued a decree appointing eighteen of bi«
first generals marshals of the French empire. DeputotKou
with congratulatory addresses soon began to pour in frum
tbe departments, and the clergy followed in the wake. Tbe
first decrees of the new sovereign were headed — * Napoleon,
by the grace of God, and the constitution of the republic
emperor of the French,* &c ; but the name of tbe republic
was soon after dropped altogether.
In the month of June tbe trial of Moreau, Georges, anU
the others concerned in the conspiracy, took place before a
special court. A decree of the Senate had previously sus-
pended, for two years, the functions of the jury in cases of
attempts against tbe person of Napoleon Bonaparte. Twent}
of the accused, with Georges at their head, were condemned
to death ; Moreau, with four more, to two yean' imprisun-
ment; and the rest were acquitted, but the polioe M^ui-d
them on coming out of court, and replaced them in prt^^n
at the command of the emperor. Riviore* Polignac* bii'l
some others who had been condemned to death, were re-
prieved by Napoleon through tbe entreaties of his wife and
sisters. Georges and some of his more stubborn frieD<i«
were executed. Moreau had his sentence of imprisonmi^fit
exchanged for perpetual banishment, and sailed fur tb«
United Stetes. The proceedings of the trial, and Moreau »
defence, were published in the newspapers of the time.
Napoleon requested the pope to perform the ceremony o(
his coronation. After consulting with his cardinals, l^us
VII. determined to comply with his wish, and came to Purs
at the end of November, 1804. The coronation took pUc«
in the church of Notre Dame on the 2nd of December.
The crown having been blessed bv the ])ope. Napoleon took
it himself from the altar and placed it on his head, after
which he crowned his wife as empress. The heralds then
proclaimed the accession ' of the high and mighty Napoleon
I., emperor of the French,' &c. &c.
The Italian republic was soon after transformed into a
kingdom. A deputation of tbe consulto or senate proeeed<d
to Paris in March, 1805, humbly requesting Napoleon to
accept the antient iron crown, the crown of lUly, with the
condition that the two crowns of France and lUly should
remain united only on Napoleon*s head, and that he should
appoint a separate successor to tbe Kalian kingdom. On
the 26th May the ceremony was performed in the cathedral
of Milan by the archbishop of that city. Napoleon seucd
the iron crown of the old Longobard kings and placed it im
his brow, saying, ' God has given it to me; woe to him «ko
shall attempt to lav hands on it.* He appointed his step>
son, Eugene Beaubarnois, his viceroy of the kingdom vi
Italy. On the 7th June Napoleon opened in penoo the
session of the Itelian legislative body. (See his speech on
the occasion in Storia dell Amministraxione del Hrgn »
d' Italia durante il dominio Prancese, under tbe fictitious
name of Coraccini, Lugano, 1823, which is the best U..^
of reference for the history of the administration of Northern
Italy under Napoleon.) About the same Ume the Dogc 1 1
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Genoa, Dorazso, repairad to Milan with a de|ratation of
aenators, and expressed a wish on the part of the Genoese
to be united to the French empire. A decree of Napoleon,
9th of June, united Crenoa to France. Soon after the re-
public of Lucca was tranafonned into a principality, and
given to Elisa, Napoleon's sister, and her husband Ba-
cioochi, to be holden as a fief of the French empire. Thus
two more Italian repubUcs disappeared ; San Marino alone
remained.
In the preceding year (1804) Napoleon had assembled
a larfre force on the shores of the British channel, with
a flotilla at Boulogne, and had given it the name of ' the
army of England/ The invasion of England and the
plunder of I^ondon were confidently talked of among his
soldiers. After bis return from Milan he gave a new im-
pulse to the preparations for the projected invasion, and
spoke of it pubUcly as an attempt resolved upon. His
real intentions however have been a matter of much doubt
and controversy. Bourienne, who was then still near
Bonaparte's penon, positively states that he did not enter-
tain any serious view of ianchng in England ; that be was
fully aware of the difficulty and risk of such an under-
taking; that even had he succeeded in landing 100,000
men, which was no easy matter, he might have lost one-
half or two-thirds in taking possession of London ; and
then, had the English nation persevered, he, not having the
superiority at sea, could not have obtained reinforcements,
&c. Bonaparte, at St. Helena, spoke differently. He said
be had takien all his measures; he had dispersed his ships
all over the sea ; and while the English were sailing after
them to different parte of the world, his ships were to
return suddenly and at the same time ; he would have had
seventy or eighty French and Spanish ships in the channel,
with which he could have remained master of the narrow
seas for two mouths. Three or four thousand boate and
100,000 men were ready at a signal. The enterprise was
popular with the French, and was supported. Napoleon
said, by the wishes of a great number of English. One
pitched battle after landing, the result of which could not
be doubtful, and in four days he would have been in Lon-
don, as the nature of the country does not admit of a war
of mancDUvres ; his army should have preserved the strictest
discipline, be would have presented himself to the English
people with the magical words of hberty and equality, and
as having come to restore to them their righto and liberties,
&c. (Las Cases, vol. L part it.) It must be observed that
all this declamation applies to his preparations towards the
end of 1803 and the beginning of 1804, when he was still
first oon sul and preserv^ a show of respect for the liberties
of the people. To O'Meara he spoke in a rather different
strain. He said he would have gone straight to Loudon,
and hav^ seized the capital, that he would have had all
the mol» for him, all the low, dissipated, and loose charac-
ters, all the restless discontented, who abound in great cities,
and who are everywhere the same, fond of change, and
riot, and revolution. He would have excited the democratic
element against the aristocracy, he would have revolu-
tionised England, &c. Whether, with such instrumente let
loose, he would have preserved the discipline of his army,
and prevented the horrors that attended his invasion of
Spain and other countries, he did not say. Luckily, per-
haps for all parties, the triidwas not made. While his army
was assembled near Boulogne, a new storm burst on the
side of Germany.
Austria had remonstrated against the never-ending en-
croachment of Napoleon in Italy. The Emperor of Russia
and Gustavus, King of Sweden, protested against the vio-
lation of the German territory on ue occasion of the seizure
of the Dnke of Enghien ; the Moniteur answered them by
taunts and jibes against the two sovereigns. By the treaty
of LuneviUe the Itelian, Batevian, and Ligurian republics
were acknowledged as independent states, but Napoleon
bad now seized the crown of Italy, had annexed Liguria to
France, and Holland as well as Hanover were occupied by
his troops. Both Russia and Austria complained, but their
oomplainte remained unheeded. A new coalition was formed
in the summer of 1805 between England, Russia, Austria,
and Sweden. Prussia was urged to join it ; she hesiteted,
increased her armies, but remained neutral, looking forward
to the events of the war. Austria, without waiting for the
arrival of the Russians, who were assembling on Uie fron-
tiers of Gallicia, marched an army into the electorate of
Bavaria; and on the elector refusing to join the coalition, they
entered Munich. General Mack, who had given sufficient
proofs of incapacity in the field while commanding the
Neapolitans in 1 798, was by some strange influence placed
at the head of the great Austrian army. The Archduke
Charles commanded the Austrian forces on the side of Itely.
Napoleon directed his army of England to march quickly
to the Rhine : other troops from Holland, Hanover, and the
interior of France, were ordered to mai^h to the same
quarter. He appointed Massena to command the army
in Italy.
On the 23nl September, 1805, Bonaparte went in 'state
to the senate, where he delivered a speech on the occa-
sion of the war. As this is a fair specimen of his pecu-
liar style of oratory, we shall quote some extracte. 'The
wishes of the eternal enemies of the continent,' he said,
' are at last fulfilled ; war is begun in the middle of Ger-
many. Austria and Russia have joined England, and our
generation is plunged again into all the calamities of war.
• . . The Austrian army has crossed the Inn ; the elector
of Bavaria has been driven away from his capital ; all my
hopes of the preservation of peace have vanished. In this
instence the wickedness of the enemies of the continent
has fully revealed itself. They feared the manifestetion of
my deep love for peace ; they feared that Austria, at the
sight of the precipice they have dog under her feet, might
return to sentimente of justice and moderation, and they
have hurried her into war. I sigh in thinking of the blood
that this will cost Europe, but the French name shall de-
rive a fresh lustre from it. Senators, when, at your request,
at the voice of the whole French people, I assumed the im-
perial crown, I received of you and of all citizens a solemn
engagement to preserve it pure and without stain. My
people will rush to the standard of its emperor and of his
army, which in a few days shall have crossed the frontiers.
Magistrates, soldiers, citizens, all are determined to keep
our country fkee from the influence of England, who, if she
should prevail, would grant us none but an ignominious
peace, the principal conditions of which would be the burn-
ing of our flecte, the filling up of our harbours, and the
annihilation of our industry, i have fulfilled all the pro-
mises which I made to the French people, who in their turn
have exceeded all their engagements towards me. In the
present crisis, so important to their glory and mine, they will
continue to deserve the name of the great people by which
I have repeatedly saluted them on the fields of battle.*
It was by oonstently throwing all the blame of the war
upon the English, by continually representing them as a
sort of incarnation of the evil principle ever intent on the
ruin of France, that Bonaparte succeeded, in a country
whore great ignorance prevailed on political subjecte, and
where the press was sure not to contradict him, to create
that spirit of bitter and deep animosity against England
which continued to exist long after his death. It is curious
to read the Moniteur of those times, and to see the bare-
faced assertions and charges against England with which
ito columns are filled. {Recueil de decrets, ordonnance9^
traites de fxxix, manifested, proclamations, discours, 4f*^.,
de Napoleon Bonaparte et des membres du Qouvemement
Francois depuis /e 18 brumaire an 8 [Novemln'e, 1799]
jusqu d Vannee 1812 inclusivement, extraits du Moniteur,
4 vols. 8vo. 1813, a very useful book of reference.) In one
instance the English were gravely accused of having thrown
bales of infected cotton on the coast of France in 1804, in
order to introduce the plague into that country ; and the
Moniteur (the official journal) added, *the English cannot
conquer us by the sword, they assail us with the plague ;*
and strai.ge to say, this absurd story has been revived in
the ' Memoirs of Marshal Ney,* published at Fiiris in 1832.
Napoleon repaired to Mainz, where he took the com-
mand of the grand army, a name which was afterwards
always applied to the army while he commanded in person.
He also liegan in this campaign to issue reeular bulletins of
the evente of the war. Coloured as these documents gene-
rally are (Bourienne, in his account of the Egyptian war,
shows the process by which Napoleon used to frame them),
they constitute however a series of important historical
papers. "•
We cannot enter into the details of the campaign of
1805, and we must refer our readers to the professional state-
ments of military men of both sides who were in it, such as
Stutterheim's Campaign of Austerlitz ; Rapp's Memnirs,
&c. Suffice it to say that General Mack allowed himself to
be surrounded at Ulm, and then surrendered, on the 1 7th
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of Oetober. without fighting, with mw than 80,000 men.
all his stair, artillery, &e. The other Amtrian divisions
being now scattered about oould make no effectual resist-
ance, and the French entered Viminaon the 13(h of Nov.
The Russian army had by this time assembled in Moravia,
under the Emperor Alexander in person. Being joined by
•ome Austrian divisions it amounted to about 80,000 men.
Napoleon told his soldiers that thev were now going to
meet a new enemy, * who had been brought ftom the ends
of the world by the gold of England.' Alluding to the high
eharacter home bv the Russian infantry, he added :— * This
eontest is of mueh importance to the honour of the French
infantry. The question must be now finally settled whether
the French infantry be the first or the sooond in Europe.'
The great battle of Austorlits was fought on the and of
December, 1806. The two armies were nearly equal in
number. The Russians, oonOdent of suooesa, extended their
line too much. Bonaparte broke through it and separated
their divisions, which, after a stout resistanoe, especially on
the part of the Russian Guards, were routed in detail. The
loss of tlie allies was tremendous ; thousands were drowned in
the froaen lakes in the rear of their position* The emperor of
Austria had an interview with Napoleon the day after, and
an armistice was concluded, by which the remaining Russian
troops were allowed to retire to their own country. Peace
between Austria and Franee was signed at Presburg on
the 26th of December. Austria gave up the Venetian pro-
vinces and Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy, Tyrol to the
elector of Bavaria, and other districts. be:<ides a contribution
of one hundred millions of francs. This war, which was to
have checkod the preponderance of Napoleon in Italy, left
that country entirely at his disposal, and established liis
influence over a great part of Germany, where, having
raised the electors of Bavaria and Wiirtomberg to the
rank of kings, he placed himself at the head of all the
smaller states, which he furmed into the confederation of
the Rhine under his protection. The old Gorman empire
was thus dissolved. Soon after, the Emperor Fi*anois for-
mally renounoed his title of emperor of Germany, and as-
sumed the title of Francis I., emperor of Austria and of his
other hereditary states.
It must be observed that the position of Napoleon after
the battle of Austerlitx in the heart of Moravia, the winter
having set in, and he lur from the frontiers of France and
from his reinforcements and supplies, the Russians, who were
expecting ratnforcemonts, in his front, Prussia wavering on
his flank, Bohemia untouched, the Archduke Charles and
the Hungarian insurrection in his rear, was extremely cri-
tical, had he chosen to protract the war. This of course
induced him to grant Austria better terms than what she
appeared to have a right to, on a mere su|>erficial view of
the condition of the two powers. The Austrian empire was
not overthrown because Vienna was in the power of the in-
vader. But Napoleon calculated on the nabits and the
fears of the Emperor Francis, and on his afibction for the
good citixens of Vienna ; and he was not misUken on this
occasion.
The king of Naples, breaking his racent treaty with
France, had allowed a Russian and English army to land in
bis dominions, where they remained useless during the great
struggle that was going ibrward in Germany. Napoleon
sent an army to Naples in February, 1806 ; and King Fer-
dinand took refiige in Sicily. A decree of Napoleon, March,
1806, appointed his brother Joseph king of Naples and of
Sicily. On the 6th of June following he appointed by an-
other decree his brother Louis king of Holland, thus trans-
forming bv a stroke of the pen the BaUvian republic into a
kingdom dependent on Franee. His brother-in-law, Murat,
was made grand duke of Berg. [Bbro.]
Daring his victorious progress in Germany, Napoleon ro-
eeived the news of the total destruction of the Fieneh and
Spanish fleeta by Nelson at the battle of Trafolgar, on the
illst of October, 180A. His peevish remark on the oceasion
ia said to have been — * I cannot be everywhere ;* and he
threw all the blame on his unfortunate admiral, Villeneuve,
who soon after killed himself. From this time Napoleon
renounced his plans of invading England, and he applied
himself to destroy all English trade and correspondence
with the Continent Charies Fox. who had succeeded Pitt
as minister, was known to be favourable to peace. Nego-
tiations accordingly were entered into by Napoleon, on the
basts of the uti pomdetU, Lord Yarmouth, and afterwards
Lord Uuderdale, were the English negotiators. Napoleon
howwer Mquired that Bbily should b« gifw mp to Jotapk
Bonaparte. But Sicily had never bean oonqnared by tlit
French, it had been throughout the war the ally of 'Eng-
land, and, owing to that alliance, its sovereign bad lost h-.n
continental dominions of Naples, To have bartered aa a i
Sicily to France would have been, on the part of Bnirlaiifj.
an act of bad faith equal to if not worse than the former
barter of Venice by the French. The English miituu^r
refused, and, Fox dying soon after, the negotiationa Ijiuke
off.
The conduct of Prussia had been one of targiversatit^n.
Napoleon knew that she had felt the wish, witlmt havinK
the resolution, to strike a blow while he was engsfced in
Moravia against the Russians. To keep bar in ^ood bumfiur
he had given Hanover up to her, which Prussia, though at
peace with the king of England, scrupled not to aec4>'pt.
She moreover shut her porta against British vesaela. Bona-
parte, after having settled his affairs with Austria, altered
his tone towards l^russia. The Moniieur began to talk nf
Prussia as a secondarv power, whieh asaum^ a tone tiiat
its extent and position did not warrant. In his negotiation*
with Lord Lauderdale Napoleon had offered to rrsUirc
Hanover to the king of England. The oonfoderation of Uie
Rhine extended round a great part of the Prussian fron-
tiers. The Prussian minister at Paris, Von Knobelsdurf. iii a
note which he delivered to Talleyrand on the 1st of Octobf r.
IS 06, said truly. * that the king his master saw around hi<
territories none but French soldiers or vassals of FrancD,
ready to march at her beck.' The note demanded that ihr
French troops should evaouate the territory of Germ ati).
Napoleon answered in a tone of sneer and deflaaoe, sai \nz
|hat * to provoke the enmity of France waa aa aeniiete»« t
course as to pretend to withstand tha wavea of the ocesn.'
The king of Prussia issued a long manifesto from bia Im>4 1-
quarters at Erfurt on the 9th of October, 1S06. in whicb U-
recapitulated the long series of Napoleon's enonachmont*.
which all the world was acquainted with, but which tliv
king of Prussia seemed now to discover for the first time.
Napoleon was speedily in the field ; he attacked the Prut*
sians first, and this time he had on his side a large supe-
riority of numbers, added to his superiority of tactica. 1 lit
double battle of Auerstadt and Jena (16th of Oetober) de-
cided the campaign. The Prussian troops fbught bravi-li.
but their generals committed the same error aa the Aufr-
trian generals had committed before, of extending too murh
their line of operations. The eonsequenees of die Prus-
sian defeat were most disastrous. Most of thair divi^i^iu
were surrounded and obliged to lay doam thetr ann«.
Almost all their strong fortresses, Magdeburg. Spaodau.
Kustrin, Stettin, Hamelu, surrendered without firing a sl.M.
The work of the great Frederic's whote life crumbled t>
pieces in a few weeks. Bliicher and Lestooq were the onU
officers who kept some regimente together, with whieh \Xu\
made a gallant stend in the northern provinces.
Bonaparte entered Berlin on the 81st of Ootober. Hr
dispatched Mortier to occupy Hamburg, and seiao nil
Enghsh property there. On the 21st of Noveaber, 1»( ^.
Napoleon issued his well-known Berlin deerae against Br
tish commerce. *The British islands were to be eonsidertt)
as in a state of blockade by all the Continent. All corrt-
spondence or trade with England was forbidden under itio«t
severe penalties. All articles of English manufapiun* < r
produce of tho British colonies were oonsidered aa mnur.x-
band. Property of every kind belonging to Briti«th subjiH i«,
wherever found, was declared lawful prise. AU leller> t .
and from England to be detained and opened at the po^t*
offices.* The English government retohated by ito orders
in council^ 11th November, 1807.
Meantime the king of Prussia had fled to Konigsbertr.
and the Russian armies advanced to the Vistula: thr
French occupied Warsaw. French agents had pr««iM»H
penetrated into Russian Poland, and had spread a tvpitrt
that Kosciusko was at Napoleon s heed-quarters. Napoleon
had invited Kosciusko, who waa then living in SwiUeriand.
to come, but that single-minded patriot, mistrusting the
views of tho conqueror, declined the invitation. (J/*.
moirei de Miehfl OginM $ur la Pologns et te$ PoiomdM§
depuif llSSjuiqu'en 1815.)
Napoleon received at his head-quaiiers at Atsen nume-
rous addresses from various parte of Poland, entreating
him to restore that country to ite. independence. His au •
swera were cold and cautious. He began hia winter cam-
paign against the Ruaaians by di^ batOe ct Poltnsk
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and Ferdinand, orerwlielmed by insults and threats, re-
nounced his claim to the crown of Spain on the 6th May.
(Concerning the real sentiments of Ferdinand expressed in
his intercepted letters, see Bausset« Mimoirei anecdotiques
9ur tinierteur du Palaii,) Charles likewise resigned all his
rights ' in favour of his friend and ally the emperor of the
French/ Napoleon now issued a decree, appointing * his
dearly-beloTed brother Joseph Napoleon, king of Naples and
Sicily, to the crowns of Spain and the Indies.* By a sub-
sequent decree, 15th July, he appointed 'his dearlv-beloved
cousin, Joachim Murat, grand duke of Berg, to the throne
of Naples and Sicily, which remained vacant by the acces-
sion of Joseph Napoleon to the kingdoms of Spain and the
Indies.* Both these curious documents are signed Na-
poleon, and countersigned by the minister secretary of state,
Maret.
The memorable events which resulted from these nefs'
rious transactions, the occupation of Madrid by Murat, the
revolt and subsequent massacre of the people of that city on
the 2nd of May, the insurrection which broke out simul-
taneously in all parts of the Peninsula against the invaders,
— the heroic though often unfortunate resistance of the
Spaniards,— the atrocities committed by the French trooos,
and the cruel retaliations by the Spanish guerrillas, — the
long, murderous war of seven years, from 1808 till 1814, in
which the British army acted a conspicuous part, — all these
may be read in the numerous works written expressly on
the subject of the Peninsular war. For the military trans-
actions see Colonel Napier, Greneral Foy, and Major
Vacani, and the Annals of the Peninsular Camoaigns^ by
Captain Hamilton. For the Spanish view of the subject,
see Count Toreno, Historic del LevantamientOt Guerra, y
Jtevolueion deEspana, Madrid, 1835 ; and Canga Arguelles,
Observaciones sobre las Historias de Southey, Londonderry,
Clarke, y Napier. For a general, hii^toncal, and political
view of Spain during that period, see Southey's History of
the Peninsular fVar. But the work that gives perhaps the
best insight into the feelings and conduct of the Spaniards
in the various provinces throughout that memorable struggle
is the Histoire de la Revolution dEspagne, by Colonel
Schepeler, a Prussian officer, who was himseLf in the Spa-
nish service during the whole time.
During the seven years of the Peninsular war 600,000
Frenchmen entered Spain at different times by the two
^reat roads of Bayonno and Perpignan. There returned
into France at various times about 250,000. The other
350,000 did not return. Making full deduction for those
who remained prisoners in the hands of the Spaniards
and English and were afterwards set free at the peace
of 1814, tlie number who perished during that war can-
not be estimated at less than 250,000, if it does not ap-
proach r&ther 300,000. (Schepeler and Foy.) The loss
of the Spaniards, soldiers and peasants, who were destroyed
in detail on almost every spot in the Peninsula, cannot be
calculated, but it must have been greater than that of the
French.
In the year 1808 Napoleon re-established titles of nobility
in France. Lefi^bvre, who had taken Danzig the year be-
fore, was the first duke that he created. Many others, both
military and civilians, received titles from towns in Italy and
Germany, with an income charged upon the revenues or
national domains of the conquered countries. Both the
titles and the incomes attached to them were made here-
ditary.
In September, 1808, Napoleon repaired to Erfurt to hold
conferences with the Emperor Alexander. The subject of
these conferences remained a secret, but it would seem that
the question of Turkey was agitated. Napoleon says that
the principal obstacle to a partition of that country was
Constantinople. It seems however that he consented to
Russia encroaching on the frontier provinces of Turkey, as
the Russian troops invaded Moldavia and Wallachia soon
after the conference. On returning from Erfurt, Napoleon
told his Senate that he and the emperor of Russia were
irrevocably united in a bond of alliance.
The English in the mean time had reconquered Portugal,
and were advancing to the assistance of the Spaniards. King
Joseph had been obliged to leave Madrid, and the French
armies had withdrawn behind the Ebro. Napoleon resolved
to set out for Spain himself. On the 25th October he opened
in perv>n the ses^iDn of the lej^islative body with one of his
characteristic speeches:— • The hideous presence of the
EngliUi leopards contaminates the continent of Spain and
Portugal. I go to place myself at the head of my armiefc.
to crown my brother at Madrid, and to plant the Frei»rh
eagles on the ramparts of Lisbon.' Two days afterwards be
set off for Spain.
On the 23rd November, 1808, Napoleon defeiUcd tli*
Spanish troops at Tudela, and on the 4th December Madrid
capitulated. He told the Spanish deputation that tlK*ir
grand children would bless his memory. He then set nff
for Astorga, expecting to intercept Sir John Moore in hi^
retreat. In this however he did not succeed, and leavjiii;
the task of pursuing the English to Soult and Ney. be sud-
denly (quitted Astorga. and returned in great hast« to
France m January, 1 809.
A new Austrian war was on the point of breaking ouc.
This time Austria came single into the field. She had ma !r
astonishing exertions to recruit her armies to the number of
nearly half a million of men. Austria had apparentlv no new
personal subject of complaint, except the alarm she natu-
rally felt at the rapid strides of Napoleon towards univcrtal
dominion. The Archduke Charles commanded the Au^trun
army of Germany, and the Archduke John that of lul}.
The Austrian s crossed the Inn on the 9th ApriU uid orcu-
Eied Bavaria and the Tyrol. Napoleon ouickly aaaembUnI
is army beyond the Rhine, repaired to Augsbnrg, and b>
one of his skilful manoeuvres broke the line of the Austriai**.
gained the battle of Eckmiihl, and obliged the Archduke.-
Charles to retire into Bohemia, leaving Uie road to Vient.a
open to the French. (For the details of this campaign k-c
General Pelet, Memoires sur la Guerre de 1809, 4 vols. Sv".
Paris, 1824-26.) On the 12ai May the French entcrvl
Vienna. The archduke now collected his army on tt^
left bank of the Danube. Bonaparte crossed the river t^)
attack him, and the great battle of Aspem took place, *iJ ^t
May. The battle remained undecided; but on the folluv*
ing da)^it was renewed with fury on both sides, when, i:«
the midst of the action, Bonaparte was informed that t?^
bridge in his rear, which communicated with the rigl.t
bank of the Danube, had been carried off by a flood. Hr
then ordered a retreat, and withdrew his army into tbr
island of Lobau in the middle of the Danube. The loss nf
the French was verv great : Marshal Lanncs was among th«
generals killed. Napoleon remained for six weeks on the
island. Having re-established the bridgci and received n.-*
inforcements, he crossed once more to the left bank, when
he fought the battle of Wagram, 6th July, in which he de-
feated the Austrians, with a tremendous loss on both sidr«.
Still the Austrian army was not destroyed or dispened, ari'l
the Archduke Charles was for continuing the stniirjW.
Other counsels however prevailed, and an armistice was
concluded at Znaim, and this led to the peace of Schonbrunn,
which was not signed however till the 14th of Cetuber.
Napoleon had entertained some idea of dismembering the
Austrian empire ; he had even addressed an invitation U
the Hungarians to form an independent kingdom under a
native ruler, but this address produced no effect. German t
began to be agitated by a spirit of pqpular resistance agaiu»t
him ; bands of partizans under Schill, the Duke of Bruns-
wick, and others, had appeared ; Tyrol was still in arms,
and he was not quite sure of Russia. The war in Spajn
continued with dubious success, and the English had landed
a considerable force at Flushing. He thought best thert^
foro to grant peace to Austria on moderate conditions
The Archduke Charles disapproved of tlie peace, and gaxc
up his command. Austria ceded Trieste, Camiola, ar*i
part of Croatia, Salzburg, Cracow, and Western GalbctJL
and several other districts, to the amount of about i'*o
millions and a half of inhabitants. The brave TyTx>I«^r
were abandoned to their fate. Hofer and others of their
chiefs were seized by the French, taken to Mantua, and
there shot {U/e of Andrew Ilo/er, by Hall ; and lngl^'»
Tyrol.)
Whether the subsequent marriage of Napoleon with a
daughter of the Emperor Francis was in course of nego-
tiation at the time of the peace of Schunbrunn has bcr:.
doubted, but soon after his return to Paris he made kno^v n
to his wife Josephine his determination to divorce her. A
painful scene took place on this occasion, which is well <}r
scribed by De Bausset, prefect of the imperial household. ..i
his Memoires Anecdottques sur Vlnterieur du Pau:'*
Napoleon himself seems to have been sincerely affected . :
Josephine's grief, but his notion of the necessity uf ha\ii:z
an heir to the empire subdued his feelings. It is know n tL^t
from the time of the conferences of Erfurt* and pcrliap» uf
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TQsit. he had had in view a marriage with one of Akxander's
listen* and the prqject had been eommunicated to the Rus-
sian court, but the empress-mother had always objected
to it on the plea of difference of religion. The divorce
being consented to by Josephine in presence of commis-
sioners from the Senate, the act was solemnly passed and
registered on the 16th of December, 1809. On the 1 1th of
March. 1810, Napoleon married by proxy the Archduchess
Maria LouiMi, who soon after set off for Paris. The mar-
riage ceremony was performed at Paris by Cardinal Fesoh.
The years 1810 and 1811 were the period of Napoleon*s
greatest power. There is an interesting report made by
Count Montalivet of the situation of the French empire in
1810, which displays the gigantic extent of its dominions.
One passage which refers to Holland is curious. That
country was under the government of Louis Bonaparte, who
felt really anxious for the welfare of his Dutch subjects, and
did not enforce very strictly the continental system, as it
was styled, against English trade. This led to frequent
reproof from his imperious brother, who at last resolved
to enforce his own decrees himself by uniting Holland to
the French empire. (Louis Bonaparte's HUtorical Docu-
menu and Reflections on the Government qf Holkmd.)
Count Montalivet in his report made use of a curious argu-
ment to prepare the people's minds for this measure : —
' Holland,* he said, ' is in reality a continuation of France ;
it may be defined as being formed out of the alluvia of the
Rhine, the Mouse, and the Scheldt, which are the great
arteries of the empire.* And Champagny, minister for
foreign affiurs, in a report to the emperor said : — ' Holland
is an emanation of the FVenoh empire. In order to possess
the Rhine, your Majesty must extend your tenitory to the
Zuyderzee.* But even the Zuyderaee was not far enough.
By a Senatus Consultum, 13th December, 1810, Holland,
Friesland, Oldenburg, Bremen, and all the (line of coast to
Hamburg, and the country between that town and Lubeck,
were annexed to the French em^are, of which this new
territory formed ten additional departments. The French
empire now extended from the frontiers of Denmark to
those of Naples, for Napoleon had finally annexed Rome
and the southern papal provinces to France. The pope
launched a bull of exoommunioation against Napoleon, upon
which he was arrested in his palace on the Quirinal in the
middle of the night of the 5th July, 1809, by a party of
fsndarmes who escaladed the walls, and was carried off to
avona, where he was kept prisoner until he was removed
to Fontainebleau. (For an account of these proceedings
see Memarie del Cardinal Pacca^ with the J?^^toyi ae
r Enlevement du Pope Pie VII . et de eon Vofoge jtuqu'd
Florence, par le Baron Radet, in the Appendix.) Radet
was the colonel of gendarmes who seized the person of the
pope. T he papal territory was divided into two departments
of the FVench empire, called of Rome and of the Thra-
symene, of which last Perugia was the head town. Napo-
leon gave his ' good city of Rome * the rank of second town
in the French empire.
Besides the French empire, which, thus extended, reck-
oned 130 departments and 42 millions of people. Napoleon
held under his swa3r the kingdom of Italy, which included
Lombardy and Venice, Modena, Bologim, and the other
lei^ations and the marches, with above six mUlions of inha-
bitants; and tibe lUyrian provinces, including Dalmatia,
Carniola, and part of Croatia, which formed a separate
^vemment The kingdom of Naples, with about five mil-
lions more, was also dependent on his will, as well as the
kingdom of Westphalia, the grand duchy of Berg,8cc. The
policy of Napoleon towards the countries which he bestowed
on his brothers and other relatives was plainly stated by
himself to his brother Lucien, in an interview at Mantua in
1 S 1 1. * In the interior, as well as the exterior, all my rela-
tives must folbw my orders : every thing must be subser-
vient to the interest of France ; conscription, laws, taxes, all
must be in your respective states for the advantage and sup-
port of my crown, i should otherwise act against my duty
and my interest. No doubt you would like to act the part
of a Medici at Florence* (there had been some talk about
placing Lucien over Tuscany), 'but were I to allow you to
do so, it is clear that Tuscany, happy and tranquil, would
become an object of envy to the French.* He would not
allow his brothers to identify themselves with their subjects,
and to strengthen themselves on their thrones, because he
foresaw that it might suit him some day to remove them on
the occasion of a general peace, or upon some new scheme
No. 289.
of his own. He sacrificed the people of those countries and
their interests, as well as the happiness and the greatness
of his brothers, to what he conceived to be the interest and
the glory of France. {Ripanse de Lucien Bonaparte aux
Memoiree de Lamarque.) But even his brothers were restive
under this discipline. Louis ran away from his kingdom of
Holland ; Murat was in continual diaputes with his brother*
in-law (Colletta, Storia del Reame d% NapoH), and Lucien
would not accept any crown under such conditions.
As Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, Napoleon
had under his orders the Kings of Saxony, Bavaria, and
Wurtemberg, the Grand Duke of Baden, and the other
German princes. He had also under his protection the Hel-
vetic Confederation, which was bound to furnish him with
troops, and to follow his policy. Prussia, humbled and dis-
membered, lay entirely at his mercy. He could thus dis-
pose of more than eighty millions of people. Never, since
the faU of the Roman empire, had so great a part of Europe
been subject to the will of one man. Austria was his ally
through fear as well as by family connexion; Russia
through prudence and self-interest. In Sweden, General
Bemwlotte had been chosen Crown Prince, and, after ob-
taining Napoleon*s consent, had repaired to Stockholm.
Spain, bleeding at every pore, struggled hard, and appa-
rently with htUe hope of ultimate success. Britain alone
continued to defy his power, and held Sicily and Portugal
under her protection. Such was the political condition of
Europe at the beginning of 181 1. In the month of March
of that year Maria Louisa was delivered of a son, who was
saluted by Napoleon as ' King of Rome,* an ominous title
to those Italians who still fancied that the crown of Italy
was to be, according to Napoleon's promise, separated from
that of France.
In 1811 the first symptoms of coolness between Alex-
ander and Napoleon manifested themselves. The com-
plaints of the Russian landholders against the continental
system, which prevented their exporting by sea the pro-
duce of their vast estates, had induced Alexander to is^ue
an ukase, 31st December, 1810, by which colonial and other
goods were allowed to be imported into the ports of Russia,
unless they appeared to belong to subjects of Grreat Britain.
This last restriction was of course easily evaded, and the
trade with England might be said to be in reality opened
again. This was soon made a ground of com})laint on the
part of Napoleon. The Russian emperor, on his side, com-
plained that his relative, the Duke of Oldenburg, had been
dispossessed of his territory contrary to the treaty of Tilsit.
A third subject of difference was concerning Poland. Na-
poleon having, by the peace of Schonbrunn, united western
Gallicia and Cracow to the duchy of Warsaw, seemed to
encourage the prospect of re-establishing the whole of Po-
land as an independent state. But there was another and a
deeper feeling of mistrust and insecurity on the part of the
emperor, and the nobihty of Russia yn general, at the evi-
dent assumption of universal dictatorship by Napoleon,
especially since his marriage with an Austrian archduchess.
At Tilsit he had been willing to share the empire of the
world with Russia, but now he would ' have no brother near
his throne.' He summoned Sweden, in an imperious man-
ner, to enforce his decrees against the British trade, while
his armed vessels and privateers in the Baltic seized upon
fifty Swedish merchantmen, which were confiscated, upon
the charge of contraband trade with England. Lastly, iv
January, 1812, General Davoust was sent to take possessioa
of Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rugen. This ac**
of aggression induced the crown prince, Bemadotte, to sigv.
a treaty of alliance with the Emperor Alexander in March,
1812. In the interview between these two princes at Abo
in Finland, the plan of resistance to Napoleon was settled.
Russia had not yet declared war, but she reinforced her
armies, waiting to be attacked. Napoleon was pouring
troops into Prussia, Pomerania, and the duchy of Warsaw.
Some of the older and wiser counsellors of Napoleon had
the courage to remonstrate with him, not on the imustice, but
on the impoticy of this new act of aggression. Fouch^ pre-
sented him an eloquent memorial on the occasion. ' I regu-
late my conduct,' answered Napoleon, ' chiefly by the opi-
nion of my army. A¥ith 800,000 men I can obUge all
Europe to do my bidding. I will destroy all English in-
fluence in Russia, and then Spain will easily fall. My
destiny is not yet accomplished ; my present situation is but
the outline of a picture, which I must fill up. I must make
one nation out of all the European states, and Paris most bo
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the capital of the world. Then must be all over Europe
but one code, one court of appeal, one eurrency. one Bystem
of weights and measures. Am I to blame if the great power
which I have alreadv attained forces me to assume the dic-
tatorship of the world?* (Fouch^'s Memoir$.) And to De
Pradt at Dresden he said, ' I will destroy Russian influence
in Europe. Two battles will do the busmess : the Emperor
Alexander will come on his knees, and Russia shall be
disarmed. Spain costs me very dear : without that I should
be master of the world ; but when I become such, my son
will have nothing to do but to retain my place.* In
calmer times, and after the full experience of disappoint-
ment, we find him confirming the sentiments he had ex-
pressed on the former memorable occasions. After his
return from Elba, he said to Beinamin Constant, * I desired
the einpire of the world, and who in my situation would
not? The world invited me to govern it; sovereigns and
subjects vied with each other in bending bofore mv sceptre.
I have rarely found any opposition in France.* And later
at St. Helena, ' If I have been on the point of accomplishing
the universal monarchy, it was without any original design,
and because I was led to it step after step. The last eflfort
wanting to arrive at it seemed so trifling, was it unreasonable
to attempt it ? . . . But I had no ambition distinct from
that of France, her glory, her ascendency, her majesty, with
which my own were identified. Had I lived in America, I
should willingly have been a Washington ; but had Wash-
ington been in France, exposed to discord within and attack
from without, I would have defied him to be what he was in
America.* . . . (Las Cases, vol. i.) ' I have been spoiled
by success. I have always been in supreme command:
from my first entrance into life I have eigoyed high power ;
and circumstances, and my own energy of character, have
been such, that from the instant I gained military supe-
riority, I acknowledged neither masters nor laws.* (Las
Cases, vol. iv., part i.)
The events of the memorable Russian campaign of 1812
are known to the world. We can only refer our readers to
the works of Segur, and of Colonel Boutourlin, aide-de-camp
to the Emperor Alexander ; to the memoirs of Oginski ; and
to the Italian account of Captain Laugier, Gt Italiani in
BiMsia. By consulting these various authorities, a sum of
very correct information concerning that stupendooa catas-
trophe may be obtained.
Before Napoleon set off from Paris for the Russian expe-
dition, he directed Maret, Duke of Bassano, to write a letter
to Lord Castlereagh proposingnegotiations for peace* on the
basis of the uH postidetU, He was willing this time to let
Sicily remain under Ferdinand, and Portugal under the
House of Braganza, but he insisted on Spain being secured
to his brother Joseph. It must be observed that Lord
Wellington had just taken possession of Badsyoi and Ciudad
Rodrigo, and was advancing into Spain towards Madrid,
which he shortly after entered upon gaining the battle of
Salamanca. The English minister immediately replied,
that England's engagements with the Spanish Cortes,
acting in the name of King Ferdinand VII., rendered the
acknowledgment of Joseph impossible.
The Russian minister. Prince Kourakin. still remained at
Paris. Early in May he presented an official note to the
Duke of Bissano, stating that the matters in dispute between
the two empires might easily be made the subject of ami-
cable negotiations, provided the French troops should eva-
ruate Pomerania and the duchy of Warsaw, where they
could be for no other puq^ose than that of threatening the
frontiers of Russia. Napoleon pretended to be exceedingly
angry at this dematid, which he said was insolent, adding
that he was not used to be addressed in such a style, and to
have his movements dictated by a foreign sovereign ; and
he sent Prince Kourakin his passports. On the 9th of May
he himself sot off with his empress for Dresden, where he
had invited the kings of his own creation, Bavaria* Wiir-
temberg. Saxony, Westphalia, and his other tributaries, to
meet him. The emperor of Austria also repaired to Dresden
with his empress. The king of Prussia came too, as he
had just signed a treaty with Napoleon, by which he placed
20,ouo men at his disposal in the approaching campaign.
Austria agreed to furnish 30,000 men to act against Russian
Poland. Napoleon sent the Count de Narbonne to Wilna,
where the emperor Alexander then was, to invite him to
come to Dresden, but Alexander declined. After brilliant
festivals. Napoleon quilted Dresden for Thorn, where he
arnvcd on the 2iid of June. His immense army was assem-
bled chiefly between tlieVistalaand the Niemei^ which lat-
ter river formed the boundary of the Russian empire. Tbcru
were 270,000 French, ^0,000 Germans of the Conlcderati n
of the Rhine, 30,000 Poles under Prince Poniatiiw>ki,
20,000 Italians under Eugene, and 20,000 Prussians. On
the 22nd of June Napoleon issued a proclamation to Lis
soldiers, saying ' that the second war of Poland had begun.
The fate of Russia must be fulfilled. Let us cross the N te-
men, and carry the war into her own territory,* &c. On
the 24th and 25th of June Napoleon^s army, in three larire
masses, crossed the Niemen, and entered Lithuania without
meeting with any opposition. The Russian armv, undor
General Barclay deTolli, 120,000 strong, evacuated Wilna,
and retired to the hanks of the Dwina. Another Russian
army, 80,000 strong, under Prince Bagration, was stationcil
near the Dnieper. On the 28th of June Napoleon cnter^-d
Wilna, where ne remained till the 16th of July. He there
received a deputation from the diet of the duchv of Warsaw,
entreating him to proclaim the union and inaependeuce of
Poland. Napoleon's answer was still cold and cautiou^i : he
told them that he had guaranteed to the emperor of Austria
the part of Poland he still retained ; that for the rest they
must depend chiefly on their own efibrts. (De Pradt, Am-
bassade de Pohgne.)
In the meantime, the French soldiers treated Lithuania
as an enemy s cound7. The provisions ordered by Napoleon
to follow his army not having arrived, and the Ru&Hian»
having removed all the stores, the French and Germ in
soldiers went about marauding, plundering alike the nuu-
sions of the nobility and the huts of the peasants, fee«Li: j
their horses on the green corn, violating the women, jtm
killing those who resented such treatment (Oginski and
Segur.) Lithuania, a poor and thinly- inhabited cuuntr),
which had suffered from the bad harvest of the prccedn'g
year (1811), was utterly devastated. At the same timr,
disorganization and demoralization spread fearfully through
the enormous masses of the invaders ; disease thinned the r
ranks; 25,000 patients were crowded within Wilna in a
few weeks, where there was not accommodation for one-
third of the number ; heavy rains rendered the roads lui-
passable, and 10,000 horses were lost
After partial engagements at Mohilow and Witepsk, th«-
Russians continued their retreat upon Smolensk, io the in-
terior of Russia. Napoleon determined to follow them.
* Forward marches alone,' he observed, ' can keep such a
vast army in its present condition together ; to halt or retire
would be the signal of dissolution, it is an army of attack,
not of defence ; an army of operation, not of position. We
must advance upon Moscow, and strike a blow in order t.>
obtain peace, or resting quarters and supplies.* (Segur i
He crossed the Dnieper, and entered Russia Proper w^tii
about 180,000 men, leaving a body of reserve at Wilna ar.'l
the corps of Macdonald on the Dwina, towards Riga. In
his maroh through Lithuania, no less than 100,000 me.]
had dropped off from his ranks, and were either dead iC
sick, or had been taken prisoners by the Cossacks, or wen
straggling and marauding about the country.
On the 16th of August the two hostile armies met un^er
the walls of Smolensk. But the Russians, after carr}:r.t'
off or destroying the provisions, and allowing time to tU>
inhabitants to remove themselves, evacuated Smolensk,
which their rear- guard set on fire. They continued tlu-
retreat upon Moscow, and Napoleon followed them. The
battle of Borodino, near the banks of the river Moskwa, «-..^
fought on the 7th September. The two armies were nearly
equal in numbers, 120,000 each. After a dreadful slaughtrr
on both sides, the Russian general sounded a retreat a:.Li
the French were left in possession of the bloody field ; but
the French took hardly any prisoners or guns : 13»Ouo Ru»-
sians, and about 10,000 Frenchmen lay dead. Ne^t*i:i>
the Russian army continued its retreat ; and on the Ur :*
September it traversed the city of Moscow, which mo»t «..r
the inhabitants had already evacuated. On that same du%
the French entered Moscow and found it deserted, excrf.
by the comicts and some of the lowest class, who lingerie!
behind for the sake of plunder. On the evening of thia da \
a fire broke out in the coachmakers* street, but it was p^:
down in tiie night On the next day, 15th, Napoleon tool \. y
his residence in the Kremlin, the antient palace of the Tr xr^
On the following night the fire burst out again in diffirv r.t
quarters of the city, and no exertions of toe French ixn
stop it: the wind spread the tlames all over the citv, a- .1
on the third day Napoleon was oblige touleave the knriu-
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Un^ where he stood in immhient danger. The flie laeed till
the 19tb. when it abated, after destroying 7682 houses,
eboat four-fifths of the town. This burning of Moscow has
been attributed to a premeditated plan of the Russians ; hut
Count Rostopchin, the governor, has denied this positively.
Several individuals,* he says, ' set fire to their own houses,
rather than leave them in possession of the invaders, and
the French soldiers seeking for plunder, or for wine and
spirits in the cellars, where they got intoxicated, did the
rest.* {La VeriU sur tlncenUe de Moscow^ par le Comte
Rostopchin, Paris, 1823.)
The markets of Moscow used to be supplied, notfirom the
immediate neighbourhood, but from a considerable distance
in the interior, and especially from the southern distri<*ts
towards Kaluga, where Uie Russian army was now posted.
The French therefore could get no provisions, and they were
obliged to live chiefly on the flesh of their horses, which was
salted down.
Napoleon remained among the ruins of Moscow for five
weeks. He had sent Lauriston to the Russian head-quarters
with a letter for the Bmperor Alexander ; the letter was
forwarded to Petersburg, but no answer was returned. Na-
poleon was deceived in his calculations upon the temper of
Alexander, and of the Russian people. At last, on the
]9th October, seeing no chance of making peace. Napoleon
began his retreat. The weather was fine and moderately
cold. He attempted first to retire by Kaluga, where he
expected to find provisions, but the stout resistance he
met at Male Yaroslavetz induced him reluctantly to turn
again to the road by Vareia and Viaama to Smolensk, by
which he had advanced. He was closely followed by the
Russian army, but was more especially harassed by swarms
of Cossacks under the Hetman Platoff. His rear divisions
had sharp engagements at Viazma and at the passage of
the Wop. (G/* Italiani in Rtuiia.) His army dwindled
away apace, through fatigue, privations, and the constant
attacks of the Cossacks. It had left Moscow 120,000 strong,
but was now reduced to one-half that number of fighting
men : the rest formed a confused and disorderly mass in
the rear, with an immense train of baggage and artillery.
In this condition they were overtaken on the 6th No-
yember by the Russian winter, which that year set
in earlier than usual. The emaciated firames of soldiers
and horses could not resist this fi-esh enemy, and they
dropped by thousands on the road, where the^ were soon
buried under the snow. The bitter fh)8ty nights killed
thousands more; but the winter only completed the de-
struction of the army, which had begun diirin^ the advance
in the summer. The wretchedness and the sufferings of the
retreat from Moscow must be read in the works already re-
ferred to. The French at last reached Smolensk, where
they found their stores, which had come up so far. Many
had not tasted a piece of bread or biscuit since they had ad-
vanced through that town three months before. On the
14th November Napoleon left Smolensk with about 40,000
men able to carry arms. His rear divisions had now to
sustain repeated attacks from the Russians, and when he
arrived at Orcsa, in Lithuania, he had only 12,000 men
with arms in their hands. Of 40,000 horses there were
hardly 3000 left In this plight he reached the banks of
the Berezina, where he was joined by a corps of reserve of
nearly 50,000 men, under Victor and Oudinot. The passage
of the Berezina, 26th and 27th November, cost him about
one-half of his army thus reinforced. On the 3rd December
Napoleon arrived at Malodeczno, whence he issued the fa-
mous 29th bulletin, which came like a clap of thunder to
awaken Europe. This tune he told the whole truth in all
its sternness : except the guards, he had no longer an army.
At Smorgoni, where he arrived on the 5 th December, he
took leave of his generals, left the command of the army,
such as it was, to Murat, and set off in a sledge with Cau-
laincourt to return to Paris. He arrived at Warsaw on the
loth, where he had that curious oonversation with De Pradt,
which the latter has so humorously related. Continuing
his route, he passed through Dresden on the 14th, and ar-
rived at Paris on the 1 8th December at night The remains
of his unfortunate army were collected by Murat on the
line of the Vistula. The tepoti of the chief of the staff,
Berthier, dated i6th December, gives a dismal picture of
the sUte of the troops after Napoleon left them:— * The
plunder, insubordination, and disorganization have reached
the highest pitch.* The loss of the French and their auxi-
liaries in this campaign is reckoned by Boutourlin at
125,000 slain, 132,000 dead of fatigue, hunger, disease, and
cold, and 193,000 prisoners, including 3000 officers and 48
generals. The 'St. Petersburg Gazette* stated that the
bodies burnt in the spring after the thaw, in Russia Proper
and Lithuania, amounted to 308,000, of which of course a
considerable proportion were Russians. In the Berezina
alone, and the adjoining marshes, 36,000 dead bodies were
said to have been found. The French left behind 900
pieces of cannon and 25,000 waggons, cassoons, &c.
Napoleon, after his return to Paris, exerted himself to
recruit his army bv firesh conscriptions, by drafting the na-
tional guards into his skeleton battalions, by recalling all the
men he could spare firom Spain, and by sending the sailors
of his fleet to serve on land. He thus collected again in
Germany, in the spring of 1813, an army of 350,000 men.
The King of Prussia had now allied himself to Alexander,
and the Allies had advanced as fhr as the Elbe. Austria
remained neutral ; she offered her mediation, but Napoleon
would hear of no cession on his part, in either Germany,
Italy, or Spain. He soon after repaired to Germany, where
he fought and won the battle of Lutzen, 2nd May, 1813,
from the Russians and Prussians united. On the 21st he
attacked them again at Bautzen, and obliged them to retire.
But these victories led to no decisive results ; the Allies re-
tired in good order, and lost few prisoners and no guns.
Bonaparte bitterly complained of this, and his generals ob-
served to each other, that these were no longer the days of
Marengo, Austerlitz, or Jena, when one battle decided the
fate of the war. On the 22nd May, in another engagement
with the retreating Allies, Duroc, his old and most faithful
companion, who was one of the few personally attached to
him, was struck by a cannon-ball and dreadfully mangled.
The dying man was taken to the house of a clergyman near
the spot Napoleon went to see him and was deeply affected.
It was the only instance in which he refused to attend to the
military reports which were brought to him. 'Every thing
to-morrow,* was his answer to his aides-de-camp. He had
a few days before lost another of his old brother-officers,
Bessieres.
An armistioe was now agreed to on the 4th June, and
Bonaparte returned to Dresden, where Mettemich came
with fresh offers of mediation on the part of Austria. Aus
tria proposed, as a principal condition, that Germany should
be evacuated by the French arms, and the boundaries of the
French empire should be fixed at the Rhine, as Napoleon
himself had repeatedly declared. But Napoleon would not
hear of giving up the new departments which he had annexed
as far as Hamburg and Lubeck, nor would he resign the
Protectorate of Germany. This led to a warm discussion, in
which Napoleon said he only wished Austria to remain
neutral while he fought the Russians and Prussians, and he
offered to restore to ner the lUyrian provinces as the price
of her neutrality. Mettemich replied that things had come
to that pass that Austria could no longer remain neutral ;
she must be either with France or against France : that
Grermany had been long enough tormented by these wars,
and it was time she should be left to rest and to national
independence. The conferences however were carried on
at Prague, without coming to any agreement; and in the
midst of this the armistice expired 10th August, and Aus-
tria joined the allies.
A series of battles were fought about Dresden on the
24th, 25th, and 27th August between the Austrians and
Prussians on one side and the French on the other, in
which the latter had the advantage. But in pursuing the
allies into Bohemia, Vandamme, with a corps of 30,000,
was surrounded, and made prisoner with 8000 men at Culm.
Oudinot was likewise worsted at Gross Beeren by the
Swedes and Prussians under Bemadotte. Ney, who was
sent by Napoleon to replace Oudinot, lost the battle of
Dennewitz 6th September, near Berlin. On the KaUbach,
in Silesia, Bliicher routed the French opposed to him.
The month of September passed in this desultory warfare.
Napoleon s armies losing ground and strength on every
side. Bavaria made a separate peace with Austria. The
Saxons and other German troops began to forsake the
French cause. At last, after a painful struggle between
pride and necessity. Napoleon was obliged to ^gin his re-
treat upon Leipzig, followed by the allies. At Leipzig he
determined to make a final stand. ' One victory alone,* he
said, 'and Germany might still be his.' On the 16th
October the first battle of Leipzig took place. It was
fought gallantly on both sides, but the alhes had now a
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great superiority in numbers, and the French were driven
close upon the ramparts of the town. The 17th passed
without fighting; on the 18th the battle wa< renewed, the
French divisions lost ground, and a body of 10,000 Saxons
left them and went over to the enemy. Napoleon now
made his dispositions to effect his retreat towards the Rhine.
But while ms army w%8 filing out of Leipzig by a long
bridge, or raiher a succession (u bridges in the morning of
the 19 th, the allies forced their way mto the town after a
desperate resistance, and the bridge being blown up, 25,000
Frenchmen were oblij^ed to surrender prisoners of war.
The retreat from Leipzig was nearly as disastrous to Napo-
leon as that from Moscow. His army was completely dis-
organized. He was however able to fight his way at Hanau,
30th October, through the Bavarians, his late allies, who
now wanted to oppose his passage. At last he reached the
Rhine, and passing over the 70,000 or 80,000 men, all that
remained out of an army of 350,000, with which he had
begun the campaign, he placed them on the left bank while
he set off for Paris, where he arrived on the 9th November.
(For the particulars of this hard-contested campaign of 1813,
sec Odeleben*s narrative.) About 80,000 men left in the
Prussian garrisons Magdeburg, Danzig, Stettin, &c. sur-
rendered to the allies.
The enormous losses and reverses of the French armies,
and the approach of the allies to the finontiers of France,
produced a strong feeling of dissatisfaction in that country.
The legislative body showed for the first time a spirit of
opposition to the headlong system of Napoleon. A com-
mittee was appointed to draw up a report on the state of
tlie nation ; Kaynouard, Lain^, Gallois, and other members
^vho had a character for independence, were of the com-
mittee. The report which they laid before the legislative
body 28th December, 1813, expressed a desire for peace
consistent with the honour and the welfare of France, and
a wish to know what steps the emperor had taken to attain
so desirable an object, and it ended by saying that ' while
the government will take the most effective measures for
the safety of the country, his Majesty should be entreated
to maintain and enforce the entire and constant execution
of the laws which ensure to the French citizens the rights
uf liberty, property, and security, and to the nation the free
exercise of its political rights. The legislative body by a
large majority ordered the report to be printed. This was
a language which Napoleon had not been used to. He
immediately ordered the doors of the hall of the legislative
body to be closed and guarded by soldiers, and the copies
of the report to be seized at the printer's. On the 31 st an
imperial decree adjourned the legislative body. On the 1st
of January, 1814, several mem^rs of the legislative body
having appeared at his levee, he gave vent to ms ill humour
in a violent and coarse address, told them that they were not
the representatives of the nation, but only the representa-
tives of the individual departments ; that he was the only
representative of the people; that their report and the
address founded upon it were seditious; that they ought
not thus publicly to have commented on his conduct ; and
he ended by saymg — ' France stands more in need of me
than I stand in need of France.' The senate, more sub-
Bcr^'ient, had already passed a decree for a new con-
scription of 300,000 men, including all those who had
escaped the conscriptions of former years. The taxes were
at the same time ordered to be doubled ; but the people
were weary of these never-ending sacrifices, and in many
departments it was found difficult to collect either men or
money. Napoleon's disposable army on the Rhine amounted
to no more than from 70,000 to 80,000 men. He had to
contend with twice that number, besides numerous rein-
forcements which were hastening through Germany. Mean-
time conferences were held at ChatiUon, in which the allies
proposed to flX the limits of France as they were in 1792,
that is to say, with the exclusion of Belgium ; but Napoleon
would not listen to this. It was his last chance of peace. At
the end of January, 1814, Napoleon began the campaign,
which has been considered by tacticians as that in which he
most strikingly displayed his astonishing genius for mili-
tary combinations, fertility of resources, and quickness of
movements. For more than two months he held at bay the
various armies of the allies, now beating one corps and
then flying to attack another ; at times severely cnecked
himself, and yet recovering his strength the next day. (Me-
moirs qf ihB Operations qf the AlHed Armies in 1813-14.
London, 1822, and Koohi Mimoires vow servir i IHiitoire
de la Campagne de 1814.) But the odds were too many
against him. While he by a bold movement placed him
self in the rear of the allies, the latter marched upon Pari**
and after a hard-fought battle, 30th Mareb, took posseasioa
of the whole line of defence which protected Imit city on
the north-eastern side. The empress had left it for BUjU,
and Joseph Bonaparte, after the battle of the 30th, quitted
Paris also. Marshal Marmont asked for an armistiee, and
this led to the capitulation of Paris, which the emperor
Alexander and the king of Prussia entered on the 3Ut,
amidst the loud acclamationsof the Parisians. Napolc<»n
hearing of the attack upon Paris had fallen back to the
relief of the capital, but it was too late. He met near
Fontainebleau tne columns of the garrison, which were
evacuating the city. His own generals told him that
he ought now to abdicate, as the allied sovereigns had de-
clared that they would no bnger treat with him. Mean-
time a decree of the senate declared that Napoleon &/-
naparte, in consequence of sundry arbitrary acts aiA
violations of the constitution (which were specified ai.d
classed under various heads in the preamble to the dectx't.).
and by his refusing to treat with the allies upon honour-
able oonditions, had forfeited the throne and the right if
inheritance established in his family, and that the p<K»pic
and the army of France were freed from their oath *>t
alle^ance to him. A provisional government was formed,
consisting of Talleyrand, Boumonville, Dalberg, and others.
Upon this, Bonaparte, after much reluctance, and upon hi»
generals refusing to join him in a last desperate attempt
upon Paris, which he meditated, signed the act of abdica
tion at Fontamebleau on the 4th of April, 1814. In iii>
first act there was a reservation in favour of the righu <ir
the empress and of his son. By a second act however l.c
' renounced unconditionally* for himself and his heirs tuc
throne of France and Italy. The emperor Alexander pn>-
posed that he should retain the title of emperor witli the
sovereignty of the island of Elba, and a revenue of ^ix
millions of francs to be paid by France. This was agreK^l
to by Prussia and Austria ; and England, though no party
to the treaty, afterwards acceded to it. On the 20th Apr.i,
Nanoleon, after taking an affectionate leave of his gencr;LU
and his guards, left Fontainebleau for Elba. He ran some
danger from the populace in passing throagh Pro\'eni4».
but arrived safe at Frejus, where he embarked on board the
British frigate the Undaunted, and on the 4tb of Mav
landed at Porto Ferrajo, in the island of Elba. (See for itie
history of all these transactions in France, Baron Fairi.
Manuscrit de 1814. See also the Narrative qfN€poifs>n
Bonaparte's Journey from Fontainebleau to Fr^us in April.
1814, by Count Truchses Waldbuig, attendant Prai^sun
commissary.) Napoleon's interview on the road with Ac-
gereau, who had issued an abusive proclamatioa agaii «t
him, and other curious particulars concerning Napoleon &
conduct on his journey, are contained in the latter work.
Napoleon remained in the Ish&nd of Elba about tro
months. At first he seemed reconciled to his lot, set about
making roads, improving the fortifications. Sec ; but aftt r
some months, he was ol»erved to become more reserMd.
gloomy, and freauently absent and lost in thought Ik-
was, in fact, at the time, engaged in secret oorTespondeiico
with his friends in France and Italy. During so man\
years of supreme power, attended by moat splendia succe^^e^
he had formed, of course, many adherents: men iihu>^'
fortune was dependent on his ; most of whom had kwt Un »r
emoluments and prospects by his fall : the bold and aspinr.t:,
the reckless and restless, saw no further prospect of o ti-
quest and new organization of foreign states, which left oc
Napoleon's disposal thousands of oflSoes and situations wita
which to reward his partisans. The old soldiera, to whi ->j
the camp had become a home, regretted him who unnA x *
lead them from victory to victory, affording them fx«e qu^->
ters, a continual change of scenery, and pleasant cant' :j-
ments in the finest cities of Europe. His brothera* sister^,
and other relatives, all rich, some still powerftil, as Murat
at Naples, felt that by his fall they had lost the main pn ••
of their family. On the other side, the restored Bourbv«.'>
had committed faults, and had listened poinpa too much t.*
the old emigrants by whom they were soiroanded ; an<i
lastly, France in general had been too long in a stale «. f
violent excitement to subside at onoe into quiet and ci«i*
tented repose. Many of the subordinate agents of the poh(.>s
post office, and other departments, were in Napoleon's in*
terest. Awideoonspiiacywaafoniiedytheold xvpublioaiu
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Joined tbo Bbnaparttsts, and Napoleon was inyited to return
to France. (See, in Fleory de Cnabulon's Hiitctryqfthe 1 00
Dags, an account of the intrigues carried on with Elba.)
On the 26th of February, 1815, Napoleon embarked with
about 1000 men of his old guards, who had followed him to
Elba, and landed on the 1 st of March at Cannes, not far fh)m
FfBJus. At Grenoble, the first defection of the army took
place : Colonel Labedoyere, commanding the 7th regt of
the line, joined Napoleon ; the rest of the march to Paris
was a triumphant one. The Bourbons were abandoned by
the whole army ; and Marshal Ney, sent by Louis XVIII.
to stop Napoleon*8 progress, went over to him ; Macdonald
and Marmont, and several other Marshals remained faithful
to the oath they had taken to the King. Augereau also
kept aloof from' Napoleon; but the Bourbons had no troops
they could depend upon. Napoleon arrived at the Tuileries
on the 20th of March, Louis XVIII. having left the capital
early in the morning by the road to Flanders. Napoleon's
return to Paris was accompanied with the acclamations of the
military, and the lower classes in the suburbs ; but the great
body of the citizens looked on 'astounded and silent : he
was recalled by a party, but evidently not by the body of the
nation.
The Congress of Vienna was still sitting, when Talley-
rand laid before them the news of Bonap|arte*s landing at
Cannes. They immediately agreed to join again £eir
forces, in order to frustrate his attempt, and to maintain
entire the execution of the treaty of Pans, of the 30th May,
1814, made with France under the constitutional monarchy
of the Bouibon dynasty. The Austrian, Russian* and
Prussian armies, which had evacuated France, resumed
their march towaurds the frontiers of that country.
Napoleon found, on his return to Paris, that he could not
resume the unlimited authority which he had before his abdi-
cation. The republicans and constitutionalists who had as-
sisted, or not opposed his return, with Camot, Fouch^, Ben-
jamin Constant, and his own brother Lucien at their head,
would support him onlv on condition of his reigning as a con-
stitutional sovereign : ne therefore proclaimed a constitution
under the title of ' Acte additionnel aux Constitutions de
r Empire,* which greatly resembled the charter granted by
Louis XVIII. the year before. There were to be an here-
ditary chamber of peers appointed by the emperor, a
chamber of representatives elected by the electoral colleges,
and to be renewed every five years, by which all taxes
were to be voted ; ministers were to be responsible ; judges
irremovable ; the right of petition was acknowledged, and
property was declared inviolable. Lastly, the French nation
was made to declare, that they would never recall the Bour-
bons ; deputies from the departments came to Paris to swear
to the additional act, at the Champ de Mai, as it was called,
although held on the Ist of June. The Emperor and his
brothers were present at the ceremony.
The chambers opened on the 4th of June, while Napoleon
prepared to march towards the frontiers of Flanders, where
the allied English and Prussian armies were gathering.
He assembled an army of about 125,000 men, chiefly old
troops, of whom 25,000 were cavalry, and 350 pieces of cannon,
with which he advanced upon Charleroi on the 15th June.
Ney, Soult, and Grouchy held commands under Napoleon.
On the 1 6th Napoleon attacked in person Marshcd Blii-
cher, who was posted with 80,000 men at Ligny, and drove
him back with great loss. At the same time he sent Ney
again&t part of the English army at Quatre Bras, which,
alter sustaining a severe attack, retained possession of the
field. In the morning of the 1 7th, the Duke of Wellington,
in consequence of Blueher's retreat, fell back with his army
to the position of Waterloo. Napoleon followed him, after
dispatching, on the 1 7th, Grouchy, with a body of 30, 000
men, to fellow the retreat of the Prussians. (Grouchy*s
Observaiion$ sur la ReUUvm de la Campagne de 1815,
par le General Gourgaud, Philadelphia, 1818.) On the
I8th the fiimous battle of Waterioo took place. Napoleon*s
army on the field was about 75,000, and Wellington's ferce
opposed to him consisted of 54,000 men actually engaged
at WaterUxH the rest, about 16,000, being stationed near
Hal, and covering the approach to Brussels on that side.
There were 32,000 British soldiers, including the German
Legion ; the rest was composed of Belgians, Dutch, and
Nassau troops. The events of the battle are well known.
The French made several furious attacks with infantry and
cavalry upon the British line, gained some advantages,
took posseasioQ of La Haye Sainte^ but aU the efforts of,
their cavalry could not break the British squares. In these
repeated attacks, the French cavalry was nearly destroyed.
At six o*clock, Bulow's Prussian corns appeared on the
field of battle, and soon after, Bliicner came in person
with two more corps. Napoleon now made a last desperate
efibrt to break the English line, before the Prussians could
act : he directed his guard, which had not yet taken part
in the action, to advance in two columns* against the
English. They were received with a tremendous fire of
artillery and musketry; they attempted to deploy, but
in so doing became confused, and at last gave way. Na-
poleon, who was following with his eye, through a spy
glass, the motions of his favourite guards, turned pale
and exclaimed, * They are mixed together I* and galloped
off the field. (See and compare the various accounts of the
battle of Waterloo, by English, French, and Prussian mili-
tary writers ; among the rest. Captain Pringle, of the En-
gineers ; Captain Batty ; Baron Muifling, under the as-
sumed initials of C. de W., Histoire de la Campagne de
tarmie Anglaxse et de Parmee Prussienne en 1815, Stut-
gart, 1817 ; Gourgaud's Narrative of the War o/" 1815,
with Grouchy's important comments upon it ; Foy, Cam-
pagne de 1815 ; Napoleon*s own account in Montholon and
Las Cases, and in the Memoires Hisioriques, published by
O'Meara; Ney*8 Letter to the Duke of Otranio, Paris,
1815 ; Rogniat*s account of the battle, and the account in
Sir W. Scott's life of Napoleon.)
The French accounts are evidently inaccurate as to se-
veral circumstances of the battle. One thing is certain, that
Napoleon attacked the English repeatedly, with all his
force, and was repulsed, with the loss of the flower of his
troops : that after the last attack by his guards, at seven in
the evening, which also failed, he had no reserve left ; when
the arrival of Blucher, with fresh troops on the field of battle,
changed the repulse into a total defeat. The astonishing
firmness of the British infantry (to which several French
Generals, and Foy among the rest, have paid an eloquent
tribute of praise) gained tne day ; Bonaparte's army fled in
dreadful confusion, pursued bv the Prussians, and lost
cannon, baggage, and all. The loss of the English was
15,000 men in killed and wounded. On the same day.
Grouchy was engaged at Wavre, thirteen miles distant,
with one division of the Prussian army, which gave him full
employment, while the other Prussian divisions were march-
ing on to Waterloo. His orders were to follow the Prus-
sians, and attack them wherever he met them. (Grouchy *s
Observations.) Napoleon seems to have underrated the
strength of the Prussians, when he thought Grouchy*8 corps
sufficient to keep in check the whole of their army.
The battle of Waterloo finally closed a war, or rather a
succession of wars, which had lasted with little interruption
for twenty-three years, beginning with 1 792. As to these
wars. Napoleon is only strictly accountable for those that
took place after he had attained supreme power in France :
in some of them, such as those of Spain and of Russia, he
was decidedly the aggressor. Whether he did not likewise
give sufficient provocation to those which Austria, England,
and Prussia waged against him, the reader must judge for
himself. His determination to be the dictator, the umpire
of all Europe, left no chance of national independence to
any one country : had he subjected all Europe, he would
have reverted to his old scheme of the conquest of the East.
Even his peace establishment, supposing him ever to have
been at peace, was to consist of an army of 800,000 men,
besides 400,000 of reserve. (Montholon's Mimoirs of Na-
poleon, vol. i.) During the ten years of the empire, he
raised by conscription two mQlions one hundred and seventy-
three thousand men, of whom two-thirds, at the least, pe-
rished in foreign lands, or were maimed for life. See the
Memoirs of Larrey, one of the chief surgeons of his army,
about this frightful waste of human lives.
Aft;er the defeat of Waterloo, Napoleon having given his
brother Jerome directions to rally the remains of the army,
hurried back to Paris. The house of representatives de-
clared itself permanent, and demanded his abdication.
Lucien appeared before the house, and spoke eloquently of
the former services of his broUier, and of the claims which he
had on the gratitude of Prance. * We have followed your
brother (answered Lafayette) over the sands of Africa, and
through the frozen deserts of Russia; the whitened bones of
Frenchmen scattered oyer every part of the globe bear witness
to our long fidelity to him.* Lucien made no impression on
the assembly. He advised his brother to dissolve the cham-
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ber ; Napoleon refused : ' It would be the sif^nal/ ho said,
' of civil war.* The bouse of peers had adopted the same
Tiews as the lower house. There was but one man, it was
openly stated, between France and peace. Napoleon signed
his second abdication on the 22nd of June; but this time it
was of his own accord, and against the advice of his inti-
mate friends, Camot, Lueien, &c. {Repanse de Lucien
aux MemoireM de Lamarque.) The aodication was in
favour of his son, Napoleon ll. A provisional government was
appointed by the chambers, and they required that Napo-
leon should leave France, and embark at Rochefort for the
United Stotes. General Becker was appointed to escort him
to Rochefort, where he arrived on the 3rd of July. All this
did not take place, however, without many violeiU alter-
cations in the chambers, and much reluctance on the part
of Napoleon ; for which, see Hobhouse's Letters Jrom Parte
during the last reign of Napoleon, and Chabulon's History
qfthe 100 Days. The allies, who entered Paris on the 7tn
of July, refused to acknowledge Napoleon's right to abdicate
in favour of his son, and on the following day I^uis
XVIII. re-entered the capital, and resumed the govern-
ment.
Napoleon at Rochefort, seeing that the whole country
around him was submitting to the Bourbons, and finding
that he had no chance of escaping by sea, through the vi-
gilance of the English cruisers stationed along Uie coast,
sent Count Las Cases and Savary to Captain Maitland, who
commanded the English ship Bellerophon, to ask for leave
to proceed to America, either in a French or a neutral
vessel ; Captain Maitland replied, * That his instructions
forbade this, hut that if Napoleon chose to proceed to
£n(;land, he would take him there on board the Belle-
rophon, without, however, entering into any promise as
to the reception he might meet with there, as he was in
total ignorance of the intentions of the British government
as to his future disposal.* (Captain Maitland*s state-
ment of the whole transaction.) This offer was made by
Captain Maitland, in his second interview with Las Cases,
on the 14th July, and Napoleon had already, the day
before, written a letter, addressed to the Prince Regent of
England, saying, that ' he came like Themistocles, to
claim the hospitality of the British people, and the protec-
tion of its laws.* Captain Maitland offered to dispatch
General Gourgaud4o England with this letter immediately,
repeating at the same time to him * that he was not autho-
rised to stipulate as to the reception of Bonaparte in Eng-
land, where he must consider himself at the aisposal of the
Prince Regent' On the 15th Napoleon left Rochefort
and came on board the Bellerophon with his suite: as
Captain Maitland advanced to meet him on the quarter-
deck. Napoleon said to him, ' I come to place myself under
the protection of your Prince and your laws.* On the 24th
the ship entered Torbay. On the 31st of July Admiral
Lord Keith and Sir Henry Bunbury, under secretarv of
state, came on board the Bellerophon, to announce to nim
the final resolution of the British government, — that the
Island of St. Helena should be his future residence. Na-
poleon protested against this determination, said he was not
a prisoner of war, that he had come as a voluntary passenger
on board the Bellerophon, that he wished to be allowed to
remain in England as a private citizen, &c. On the 6th of
August however Napoleon frankly acknowledged to Cap-
tain MaiUand, that ' he had certainly made no conditions
on coming on board the Bellerophon, that he had only
claimed hospitality, and that he had no reason to complain
of the Captain's conduct, which had been that of a man of
honour.* On the 7th Napoleon removed from the Bellero-
phon to the Northumberland, Sir George Cockbnm's flag
sliip, which was appointed to carry him to St. Helena. (For
the particulars of Bonaparte's voyage, his landing at St
Helena, his residence, first at Briars and afterwards at
Longwcod, of his altercations first with Sir G. Cockbum,
and afterwards with Sir Hudson Lowe, we must refer our
readers to the minute work of Ccunt Las Cases.) He
landed at St. Helena on the 16th of October, 1815.
By a convention signed at Paris, 20th August, 1815, be-
tween Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, the cus-
tody of Napoleon*s person was intrusted to the British
government, and commissioners were appointed by Russia,
Austria, and France to reside at St. Helena to look after his
safe detention. In July, 1816, General Sir Hudson Lowe
arrived at St. Helena as governor of the island. From the
▼ery first interview Bonaparte behaved uncivilly, or rather
insultingly, to that officer, and this treatment was mMtad
with aggravatbn at every subsequent opportunity. One of
Napoleon s great grievances was his being styled General
Bonaparte ; another, his not being allowed to struU about
the island unattended by a British officer. He was allowed
a space measuring eight and afterwards twelve miles in cir-
cumference round Longwood, through which he might range
at his pleasure ; beyond these limits he was to l^ aoooin-
paniefi by an officer. But the real grievance was that of beini^
detained as a prisoner at all. The governor however bad no
power to remedy these subjects of complaint Various minor
matters of dispute with the governor were laid bold of by
Bonaparte and his attendants, as if with the view of keepinif
alive an interest in the public mind in favour of the exile of
St Helena. We cannot enter into the particulars of this
petty system of warfare, in which, as it generally happen*,
both parties may have occasionally been in the wrong. But
it is impossible to read even Napoleon's statements, mode
through Las Cases, Santini, Antommarchi, &c., without per-
ceiving that there was a determination on his part not to be
pleased with anything the governor could do for him, unle«4
he had disobeyed his orders. Napoleon's mind was in a
state of irriution whenever it recurred to the subject of km
confinement which made him querulous and peevish. He
seems also to have had, almost to the last some latent
hope of making his escape. In other respects the par-
ticulars of his life and conversations at St. Helena are hiizbty
interesting. He could be very agreeable towards viKiiers
who were admitted to pay their respects to him, as we tn.iT
see from Mr. Ellis s and Captain Hall's accounts of ihr\r
interviews with him. In September, 1818, Napolettn t
health began to be visibly affected, but he would take oii
medicines. He also refused to ride out as odvis<N], L«>
cause he would not submit to the attendance of a British
officer. In September, 1819, Dr. Antommarchi, of the Un •
versity of Pisa, came to St. Helena as physician to Napi«le(.>n.
Two clergymen came also from Italy to act as his rhtfv.
lains. Towards the end of 1 82 0 he grew worse, and remainrd
in a weak state until the following April, when the disea.*«
assumed an alarming character. It was then that Bona-
parte said that he believed it was the same disorder wbirh
killed his father, namely a scirrhus in the pylorus ; and be
desired Dr. Antommarchi to examine his stomach after
bis death. He made his will, leaving larce bequests to
his friends and attendants (Testament de Napolerm}, and
on the 3d of May, 1821, the chaplain Vignali admmi«-
tered to him extreme unction. Napoleon stated 'that
he believed in God, and was of the religion of bis father :
that he was born a Catholic, and would fulfil all the duti< »
of the Catholic church.' On the 5ih of May, after lie:n>?
some time delirious, he breathed his last about eleven
minutes before six o'clock in the evening. The follow mc
day the body was opened by Dr. Antommarchi, in pre^enrr
of several British staff and medical officers, when a lar^t*
ulcer was found to occupy the greater part of the stomacti.
On the 8th May his remains were interred with military
honours in Slane's Valley, near a fountain overhung Sf
weeping willows. This had been a favourite spot with Na-
poleon. The procession was followed to the grave hv th«
governor, the admiral, Napoleon^s attendants, and all h o
civil and military authorities. The grave was afterwar i*
enclosed by a railing, and a sentry is kept on duty to gtiard
the spot
For the acts of Napo1eon*s internal administratioo s^se*
Bulletin des Lots de I Empire and the EoqposUotbxf^ minis-
ters ; for the state of the finances see the various CompUi
rendus, or report of the duke of Gaeta (Gaudin), and ol*-)
Bresson, Histoire Financiere de France ; for the military in-
stitutions and organization of the army, see Tableau i^c^t-
tique et Militaire, which precedes Foy*s history of the Pen-
insular war. Also Memo^res sur t Empire, bv Thibaudcau,
which is a continuation of his *Memovson tne Consulate/
the duchess of Abrantes' Memoires, and the numeruu«
Memoirs of Napoleon*s generals and ministers.
BONAPARTE. NAPOLEON FRANgOIS. •[>n of
the emperor and of Maria Louisa of Austria, was bom at
Paris March 20, 181 1. From his birth he was styled ' Kzr-
of Rome.* After his father's first abdication in 18U be
went with his mother to Vienna, where he was brought up
at the court of his griutdfather, the emperor Fraocts, who
made him duke of Keichstadt His education was care-
fully attended to, and he was early trained up to the mili-
tary profession. After passing through the faiioat nihor*
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dinate grades be ms made a Ueutenani-eoloiiel in June,
1 831, and he took the command of a battalion of Hungarian
infontiy then in garrison at Vienna. He was extremely
assiduous in his military duties, but his constitution was
weak ; he had grown very tall and slender, and symptoms
of a consumptive habit had early shown themselves. His
physician advised a removal to Schonbrunn, which had at
first a beneficial effect, but a relapse soon followed, and
after lingering for several months young Napoleon died on
the 22iid July, 1832, in the palace of Schonbrunn, at-
ended by his mother, who had come from Parma to visit
him. He seems to have been generally regretted at the
Austrian court, especially by his grandfather, the emperor,
«ho had always behaved to him with paternal kindness.
There is an interesting account of this young man's short
career by M. de Montbel, Le Due de Reichstadt^ Paris. 1 832.
BON A'SI A (Zoology), a subgenus of the true TetraonicUg
(^use family), separated by Charles Lucian Bonaparte,
I'rince of Musignano, and thus characterised * —
Lower portion of the tarsus or shank and the toes naked ;
tail long and rounded ; the head adorned with a crest, and
the sides of the neck with a rtt>ff. The plumage of the
female nearly the same as that of the male, ana varying
but little throughout the year ; the flesh white.
Swainson retains the Linniiean name for the bird, and
makes Tetrao the typical group of the subgenera, into which
he dindes the genus, expressing, however, considerable
duubt on the value of the types.
The Ruffed Grouse, Bonasia UmbeUus of Bonaparte ;
Tetrao Utnbellus and Tetrao togatue of LinnsDus ; Tetrao
UmbeUus of Linneeus and Swainson, is the Shoulder-Knot
Grouse of Latham ; the Ruffed Heathcock or Grouse of
Edwards ; La CfeUnoie hupSe de Pensilvanie of Brisson ;
La Grosse GShnotte de Canada and Le Coq de Bruyere d
/raise of Buifon ; the Pheasant of the Pennsylvanians, and
of the inhabitants of the southern States ; the White Fleshef
and Pheasant of the Anglo-Americans generally, and the
Puspusquew of the Cree Indians.
Audubon says that to the west of the Alleghanies, and
on those mountains, the term pheasant is generally used to
designate the bird , and that the same appellation is em-
ployed in the middle States to the east of the mountains,
tillthe state of Connectiout is entered, where the name of
fiartridge prevails. Lawson uses the term pheasant* * The
pheasant of Carolina differs some small matter from the
En^^lish pheasant, being not so big, and having some
difference in feather; yet he is not any wise inferior in
delicacy, but is as good meat, or rather finer. He haunts
the backwoods, and is seldom found near the inhabitants.*
Wilson calls it throughout * pheasant,* except in one place,
where lie terms it the * pheasant or partridge of New
£ni;lan«].*
According to the author last quoted, this bird is known in
almost every quarter of the United States ; is common at
Moose Fort, on Hudson s Bay, in lat. 51^; firequent in the
npper part of Georgia, and very abundant in Kentucky and
Indiana. In the lower parts of Carolina, Georgia, and
Florida, according to the same authority, it is very seldom
observed, but on advancing inland to the mountains it again
makes its appearance ; and though it is occasionally met
with in the lower parts of New Jersey, its occurrence
there ia considered to be owing to the more northerly situ-
ation of the country ; for even here they are far less nume-
rous than among the mountains.
Captains Lewis and Clarke found it in crossing the Rocky
Mountains which divide the basin of the Columbia from that
of the Mississippi, more than three thousand miles, by their
measurement, from the mouth of the latter river. Dr.
Richardson savs that it exists as far north as the fifty sixth
parallel, and that it is very plentiful on the banks of the
Saskatchewan ; adding, in a note, that Mr. Drummond pro-
cured specimens on the sources of the Peace River, in the
valleys of the Rocky Mountains, which do not differ from
those killed on the Saskatchewan. The limit of its southern
range has been stated to be the Gulf of Mexico. Audubon
Ibund these birds most numerous in the States of Pennsyl-
vania and New York, and says that they are to be met with
a* you travel towards the south, through the whole of Ten-
nessee and the Choctaw territory ; but that as you approach
tile city of Natchez they disappear : nor bad he ever heard
of one of these birds having been seen in the State of
Louisiana.
*The manners of the pheasant, says Wilson, * are soli-
tary ; they are sddom ibnnd in coveys of more than four or
five together, and more usually in pairs or singly. They
leave their sequestered haunts in the woods early in the
morning, and seek the path or road to pick up gravel, and
glean among the droppings of the horses. In travelling
among the mountains that bound Susquehanna, I was
always able to fUmish myself with an abundant supply of
these birds every morning without leaving the path. If the
weather be foggy or lowering, they are sure to be seen in
such situations. They generally move along with great
stateliness, with their broad Ian- like tail spread out.*
Audubon states that, although they are attached to the
craggy sides of mountains and hills, and rocky borders of
small streams, thickly mantled with evergreen trees and
shrubs, they at times remove to the lowlands, and even
enter the thickest cane-brakes, where they sometimes breed,
and where he shot some, and heard them drumming when
there were no hills nearer than fifteen or twenty miles. The
lower parts of the State of Indiana, and also those of Ken-
tucky, were amongst the places where he so discovered
them. The following is his account of their autumnal mi-
grations, which he seems to have first observed : —
'The ruffed grouse, although a constant resident in the
districts which it frequents, performs partial sorties at the
approach of autumn. These are not equsd in extent to the
peregrinations of the wild turkey, our little partridge, or
the pinnated grouse, but are sufficiently so to become ob-
servable during the seasons when certain portions of the
mountainous districts which they inhabit become less abun-
dantly supplied with food than others. These partial mov-
ings mi^ht not be noticed, were not the. birds obliged to tly
across nvers of great breadth, as whilst in the mountain
lands their groups are as numerous as those which attempt
these migrations ; but on the north-west banks of the Ohio
and Susquehanna rivers, no one who pays the least atten-
tion to the manners and habits of our birds can fail to ob-
serve them. The grouse approach the banks of the Ohio m
parties of eight or ten, now and then of twelve or fifteen,
and, on arriving there, linger in the woods close bv for a
week or a fortnight, as if fea^ul of encountering the danger
to be incurred in crossing the stream. This usually happens
in the beginning of October, when these birds are in the
very best order for the table, and at this period great num-
bers of them are killed. If started fi-om the ground, >> ith
or without the assistance of a dog, they immediately alight
on the nearest trees and are easily shot. At length, how
ever, they resolve upon crossing the river; and this they
accomplish with so much ease, that I never saw any uf them
drop into the water. Not more than two or three days
elapse, after they have reached the opposite shore, when
they at once proceed to the interior of the forests in search
of places congenial to the general character of their habits.
They now resume their ordinary manner of living, which
they continue until the approach of spring, when the males,
as if leading the way, proceed singly towards the country
fi-om which they had retreated. Tlie femrales follow in small
parties of three or four. In the month of October, 1 820, 1
observed a larger number of ruffed grouse migrating thus
fh)m the States of Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana into Kentucky,
than I had ever before remarked. During the short period
of their lingering along the north-west shore of the Ohio
that season, a great number of them was killed, and they
were sold in the Cincinnati market for so small a sum as
124 cents each.'
Wilson says that the ruffed grouse is in the best order for
the table in September and October. At this season they
fbed chiefly on whortle-berries, and the little red aromatic
partridge-berries, the last of which give their flesh a pecu
liarly delicate flavour. With the former the mountains are
literally covered from August to November ; and these con
stitute at that season the greater part of their food. During
the deep snows of winter they have recourse to the buds of
alder, and the tender buds of the laurel.* He frequently
found their crops distended with a large handful of these
latter alone; and adds, that it has been confidently as
serted, that after having fed fbr some time on the laurel
buds, their flesh becomes highly dangerous to eat of, par-
taking of the poisonous qualities of the plant. The same
has been asserted of the flesh of the deer, when in severe
weather and deep snows they subsist on the leaves and bark
of the laurel. • Though,' continues Wilson, • I have mj^self
eat freely of the flesh of the pheasant, after emptying it of
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Um quantitiM of launl buds, without expoiienoing any
badcongequenoeB, yet from the lespectability of those, some
of them eminent physicians, who have particularized cases
in which it has proved deleterious, and even fetal, I am
inclined to believe that in certain cases where this kind of
food has been long continued, and the birds allowed to re-
main undrawn for several days, until the contents of the crop
and stomach have had time to diffuse themselves through
the flesh, as is too often the case, it may be unwholesome
and dangerous. Great numbers of these birds are brought
to our markets at all times during fall and winter, some of
which are brought from a distance of more than a hundred
miles, and have been probably dead a week or two, unpicked
and undrawn, before they are purchased for the table. Kegu-
lations prohibiting them from being brought to market unless
picked and drawn would very probably be a sufficient secu-
rity from all danger. At these inclement seasons, however,
they are generally lean and dry, and indeed at all times their
liesh is far inferior to that of the quail or of the pinnated
grouse. They are usually sold in Philadelphia market at
from three-quarters of a dollar to a dollar and a quarter a
pair, and sometimes higher.*
Most of our readers will remember the incident in Miss
Edgeworth's admirable story of * To-morrow,* where it is
related that, in consequence of Basil's procrastination, Mr.
Hudson and three gentlemen who had been dining with
him were suddenly seized with convulsions after eating of a
vheasanU in whose crop Basil had seen what he believed to
be, and what turned out to be, the loaves of Kaknia kUi-
folia. Audubon, however, corroborates Wilson on this
point; for, though he allows that it is said that when
they have fed for several weeks on the leaves of the Kalmia
lat{fijlia it is dangerous to eat their flesh, and adds his
belief that laws have been passed to prevent their being
sold at that season, he states that he has eaten them at all
seasons ; and, when ho has found their crops distended with
those leaves, he has never felt the least inconrenienoe after
eating them, nor even perceived any difference of flavour in
tlieir liesh. He suspects with Wilson that it is only when
the birds have been kept a long time undrawn and un-
plucked that the flesh becomes impregnated with the juice
of these leaves. But Audubon entirely differs from Wilson
in opinion with regard to the merit of these birds as food ;
for tho former places them, in that respect, above the pin-
nated grouse, and prefers their flesh to that of every other
land-bird in the United States, except the wild turkey when
in condition. Nuttall agrees with Audubon in the praise
of the flavour of the bird ; and Bonaparte says of it,
'Came bianca eccellente.* Audubon observes that they
are brought to the market in great numbers during the
winter months, and sell at from 75 cents to a dollar a piece
in the eastern cities. At Pittsburg he bought them some
years ago at 12} cents tlie pair. Nuttall says that they are
now greatly thinned throughout the more populous parts
of the Union, and that they sell in Philadelphia and New
York at from 75 cents to a dollar a-piece.
The food of the ruffed grouse consists commonly in the
spring and fall, according to the author last quoted, of the
buds of trees, the catkins of the hazel and alder, even fern
buds, acorns, and seeds of various kinds, among which he
detected tlie capsules, including the seeds, of the common
small Canadian Cistus * At times he has seen the crop
almost entirely filled with the buds of the apple-tree, each
connected with a portion of the twig, tho wood of which
appears to remain a good while undigested ; cinquefoil and
strawberry leaves, buds of the Azaleas and of the broad-
leaved Kalmia, with the favorite partridge berries,t ivy
berries,]: and gravel pebbles are also some of the many
articles which form the winter fare of the bird. In sum-
mer they seem often to prefer berries of various kinds,
pwticulariy dewberries, strawberries, grapes, and whortle-
berries.
We will now lay before the reader the modes of capturing
the bird. The following is Wilson's account • —
• The pheasant generally springs within a few yards, with
a loud whirring noise, and flies with great vigour through
the woods beyond reach of view, before it alighu. With a
good dog, however, they are easily found ; and at some times
exhibit a siugnlar degree of infatuation, by looking down
from the branches where they sit on the dog below, who, the
more noise he keeps up, seems the more to confuse and
slupify them, so that they may be shot down one by one
• UciUn^MBom. f GuUheda praciaaUM. t Ciuiit hgdegafwi.
till the whole an killed, witfaoitt 9»Ump6ag to ftfdL fa
such cases those on the lower limbs must be taken first, for
should the upper ones be first killed, in their fall they alarm
those below, who immediately fly oS, In deep snows tbcy
are usually taken in traps, eommonly dead traps* aupparted
by a figure 4 trigger. At this season, whini suddenly
alarmed, they frequently dive into the snow* psrticnlarir
when it is newly fallen, and coming out at a ooDsidermbU
distance, again take wing. They are piet^ haid to kill^
and will often carry off a large md to the mstanee of two
hundred yards and drop down dead. Sometimes in the
depth of winter they approach the farm-house and lurk near
the barn, or about the garden. They have also been dtea
taken young and tamed, so as to associate with fowls; and
their eggs have frequently been hatched under the oomason
hen ; but these rarely survive until iUU grown. They sje
exceedingly fond of the seeds of grapes ; oeeasioDally est
ants, chesnuts, blackberries, and various vegetables. For- I
merly they were numerous in the immediate vicinity of
Philadelphia; but as the woods were cleared and popu-
lation increased they retreated to the interior. At present
(1812) there are very few to be found within several miles
of the city, and those only singly, in the most solitaiy and
retired woody recesses.'
Some parts of this aooount are impugned by Audubon.
He says, * The prevailing notion which exists in almost
every district where these birds are numerous, that on firing
at the lowest bird perched on a tree, the next above will not
fly, and that by continuing to shoot at the lowest in succes-
sion the whole may be killed, is contradicted by my expo*
rience ; for on every attempt which I have mai^e to shoot
several in this manner on the same tree, my efims have
proved unsuccessful, unless indeed during a fall of snow,
when I have killed three and sometimes four.* Audubon
adds that it is a prevalent opinion among sportsmen and
naturalists, that the whirring sound product^ by the birds
of this genus is a necessary effect of their usual mode of
flight * But that this is an error,' he continues, *I hs^e
abundantly satisfied myself by numberiess observations.
When this bird rises from the pound when pursued by an
eneoiy or tracked by a dog, it produces a loud whirring*
sound resembling that of Uie whole tribe, excepting the
Blaek Cock * of Europe, which has less of it than any other
species. In fact, I do not believe that it is emittedby any
species of grouse, unless when surprised and forced to nst. !
I have often been lying on the ground, in the woods or the i
fields, for hours at a time, for the expross purpose of obserr. '
ing the movemenU and habits of differont birds, and ha\«
frequently seen a partridge or a grouse rise on the wmi^
from within a few yards of the spot on which I lay ttnob«
served by them, as gently and softly as any other bini,
and without producing any whirring sound.* The same
author speaks of the difficulty of shooting when a oovey of
these birds is raised fh>m amongst ]aurels,t or the largest
species of bay,{ and of the necessity for having a quick eye
and roady hand, without which the first chance is lost by
the intercepting shrubs. The second is very uncertain ;
for on being sprung a second time they fly lower and dodp;
among the bushes so effectually that the sportsman is com-
pletely baffled.
The pairing time of these birds is marked by a corions
and sonorous act on the part of the male. Most of the
grouse family gesticulate oonsidenbly at this period, and
some produce very peculiar vocal noises: but the ruffed
grouse makes the woods echo with the vibrations of hts
wmgs. The reader will be best made acquainted with this
peculiarity by the statement of eye and ear witnesses. Wil-
son's account is very good ; but, as Audubon's is more par-
ticular, and our limiu do not permit us to give both, t^e
select the latter :—
•Early in April.' says this indefiitigable observer, • the
ruffed grouse begins to drum immediately after dawn,
and agam towards the close of day. As the season ad-
vances, the drumming is repeated more frequently at all
hours of the day ; and whero these birds are abundant, this
cunous sound is heard from all parts of tbe woods in which
they reside. The drumming is performed in the following
manner :— The male bird, standing erect on a prostrate de-
• Id the arUele ' BUekooek.' * Dutmoor and Settraov la DenmMm' mm
~n amonffthe locUUe. (roL W. p. 489), ThewTpivwIoii oorun ia buth
be UtU« doubt that S«1ffem(wr in SoiMTwUUI^k whm th« Okm^tMrnZ
mouth wu defeated, is the locality intended. ^^ ^^
t KiOadt latifeiia. i
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cAved trank, raises the feathers of its body, in the manner
of a turkey-cock, draws its head towards its tail, erecting
the feathers of the latter at the same time, and raising its
ruff around the neck, suffers its wings to droop and struts
about on the log. A few moments elapse, when the bird
draws the whole of its feathers close to its body, and stretch-
ing itself out, b^ts its sides with its wings, in the manner
of the domestic cock, but more loudly, and with such ra-
pidity of motion, after a few of the first strokes, as to cause
a tremor in the air not unUke the rumbling of distant
thunder. In perfectly calm weather, it may be heard at
the distance of two hundred yards, but might be supposed
to piroceed from a much greater distance. The female,
which never drums, flies directly to the place where the
male is thus engaged, and on approaching him, opens her
wings before him, balances her body to the right and left,
and then receives his caresses/ * * * * I have shot many
a fine cock by imitating the sound of its own win^ striking
against the body, which I did by beating a large mtlated
bullock's bladder with a stick, keeping up as much as pos-
sible the same Hme as that in which the bird beats. At
the sound produced b^ the bladder and the stick, the male
grouse, inflamed with jealousy, haa flown directly towards
me, when, being prepared, I have easily shot it*
The pairing time in April is succeeded by the nidifica-
tion in tbe early part of May. The root of a bush^ the side
of a fallen log, or some other sheltered nook in the thickest
part of the woods, is selected by the hen, and there she
forms a rude nest of withered leaves and grass on tho
ground. The egss, from nine to fifteen in number, are of a
uniform dull yellowish colour, or brownish- white, and are
nearly as large as those of a pullet As soon as the young
are out of the shell they begin to run about and are con-
ducted by the mother, ducking as she goes, very much like
the domestb hen. like her, too, at night and in bad
weather, she covers her young ones beneath her wings, and
in a week or ten days they begin to try their powers of
flight
The mancBuvres of this affectionate mother to decoy the
intruder flrom the spot where her young are concealed, by
counterfeiting lameness and by mimicry of distress, are
well known ; but Wilson gives a particular instance of de-
viation from the usual course of proceeding in such cases,
adapted to a peculiar occasion, well worth the consideration
of those who are in the habit of considering that faculty
which is termed instinct in animals.
* I once started,' says Wilson, ' a hen pheasant with a
tingle voung one, seemingly only a few days old ; there
might have been more, but I observed only this one. The
mother fluttered before me for a moment; but suddenly
darting towards the young one, seiaed it in her bill, and
flew off along the surface through the woods, with great
steadiness and rapidity, till she was beyond my sight, leav-
ing me iii great surprise at the incident. I made a very
close and active search around the spot for the rest but
without suocees.* * * ' Here,* continues our author, ' was
a striking instance of something more than what is termed
blind instinct in this remarkable deviation from her usual
manbuvres when she has a numerous brood. It would
have been impossible for me to have injured this affectionate
mother, who nad exhibited such an example of presence of
mind, reason, and sound judgment as must have convinced
the most bigoted advocates of mere instinct. To carry off
a whole brood in this manner would be impossible, and to
attempt to save one at the expense of the rest would be un-
natural. She, therefore, usually takes the only possible
mode of saving them in that case, by decoying the person
in pursuit of herself, by such a natural imitation of lame-
ness as to impose on most people. But here in the case of
a single solitary young one, she instantly altered her plan,
andi^pted the most simple and effectual means for its
preservation.*
The ruffed grouse is surrounded by enemies. In addi-
tion to the common persecutor man, the different species of
hawks are on the watch for theso birds, and particularly the
red-tailed hawk and the Stanley hawk, according to Audu-
bon. The former of these hawks, silently nercbed on the
tops of trees, seizes his opportunity and dashes irresistibly
down upon them ; the latter, gliding rapidly through the
woods, pounces upon them before they are aware of their
danger. Among the quadrupeds, pole-cats, weasels, ra-
coons, oponums, and foxes, are said by the same author to
be destructive foes to them.
The follovnng is Dr. Richardson*s description of a male
killed on the 4th May, on the Saskatchewan plains :
Colour, Back, rump, and upper tail-coverts chestnut-
brown, mottled and finely undulated with blackish-brown ;
the broad tips and a cordiform central mark on each feather
Eale-grev. Back of the neck, scapulars, and wing-coverts
aving the same colours, but the grey tips very narrow, the
blackish-brown in large blotches, and instead of centra!
marks, stripes along the shafts of orange-brown and
brownish-white. Top and sides of the head, the tertiaries,
and outer edges of the secondaries, mottled with the same.
Eye stripe from the nostrils whitish. Shoulder-tufts velvet-
black, glossed with dark-green. Quills liver-brown, the
outer webs barred near the base and mottled towards the
tips with cream-yellow. Tail grey, finely undulated, and
also crossed bv about nine narrow bars and a broad subter-
minal one of blackish-brown. Under p/umoge .'—throat
atl breast yellowish-brown, belly and vent brownish-white ;
are remotely barred, but most broadly on the sides of the
belly, with blackish-brown, which also forms a band across
the upper nart of the breast between the ruffs. Inner wing-
coverts and axillaries clove-brown, barred and tipped with
white. Bill and nails dark horn-colour. A male killed at
the same time with the preceding, and of eqnal dimensions,
shows more of the chestnut or orange-brown in its plumage,
and the ground colour of its tail is yellowish-brown, tho
extreme tips and a bar next the broad subterminal dark
one being grey.
Females have less of the blackish-brovm colour; the
shoulder tufts are orange-brown mstead of black ; and tho
subterminal bar on the tail is chestnut-coloured.
Young birds. In these orange-brown is the prevailing
tint of colour.
i^&rm.— A short crest on the top of the head : a fringed
comb over the eye in the male. Shoulder tufts consisting
of about fifteen fhn-shaped feathers. Fourth quill the
longest, slightly exceeding tlie third and fifth. Tail fan-
shaped, of eighteen feathers, the central pair more than
half an inch longer than the outer ones: the individual
feathers nearly square at the end. Tarsus feathered more
than haMHvay down anteriorly, and about half an inch lower
posteriorly. All the toes strongly pectinated.
The dimensions, on an average, may be taken as eighteen
inehes in length, and twenty-three or twenty-four in extent
ira.290.
[THB PENNY CY<?W)P-«DIA.]
• BrauJaVmbeUnitiMl..] ^^
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Dr. Riebudion ttatos that* after a eateftil eompariwm of
the specimens of Mr. DougWs Teirao Sabim, deposited
Id the Bdinburgh Museum, they appeared to differ in no
respect from the young of TWroo UmbeUm (Bonasia), and
that the characters by which Mr. Douglas distinguishes his
bird* are equally applicable to the latter.
Douglas, whose premature and violent death we have to
deplore in common with all who are interested in the pro-
ffress of natoral history, found in the valleys of the Rocky
Ifountains, 54" N. lat, and a few miles northward, near
the sources of Peace River, a supposed variety of Bonasia
Umbelius. On comparing his specimens from that countnr
with some which he prepared in the States of New York
and Pennsylvania^ and on the shores on the chain of lakes
in Upper Canada, he found the following differences : —
First, the northern bird was constantly one-third smaller,
of a very light speckled mixed grey, having little of that
rusty colour so oonspicuous in the southern bird : — secondly,
the ruffle consists invariably of only twenty feathers, short,
black, and with but little azure glossiness ; the crest fea-
thers were few and short ' Should these characters,' adds
the author, ' hereafter be considered of sufficient importance
for constituting a distinct spedes, it might perhaps be well
to call it Tetrao umbeUoide$'
Whether the bird above described be variety or species,
it would certainly belong, to Bonaparte's subgenus Bonatia.
We cannot conclude \his article without earnestly press-
ing upon the consideration of those who are interested in
such subjects, the ease with which the ruffed grouse might
be added to the Fauna of Europe ; and we entirely agree
with Audubon, that in England and Scotland there are
thousands of situations perfectly suited to the habits of this
noble species of game. Audubon even goes so &r as to
say that he has not a doubt that a few years of attention
wtMild be sufficient to render them quite as common as the
grey partridge ; and we hope that this hint will not be lost
on the sportsmen of Great Britain.
BON ASOT^I, OIULIO. a native of Bologna. The pre-
cise date of his birth is unknown, but it was probably about
1498 ; the date of his death is equally uncertain ; we only
know Uiat he wss alive in 1672. It is conjectured, but
without sufficient authority, that he studied painting under
Lorenzo Sabbatini. 'fhe few of his productions that re-
main do not exhibit any extraordinary power. As an en-
graver he is excelled by few, for though we should now
consider him very defective in the mechanical treatment of
the plate, he worked* with the gusto of a genuine artist
He wrought almost entirely with the burin ; and if he fails
occasionallv in the outline, he always catches the spirit of
his original. His copies are so free, and yet so delicate and
expressive, that they might be taken for original designs.
His back grounds are flat and hard, his drawing sometimes
uncertain, and his handlinflr frequently very harsh; but
there is so much grace and delicacy in his females and
children— so much activity in his young men and majesty
in the elder — so fine a breadth of light and shade— so for-
cible is the expression of his heads, — that his versions of the
great works which he copied are more valuable than those
of many later and more dexterous artists. He has en-
graved from the works of Raphael, Michel Angelo, Titian,
Parmigiano, and many of the great painters ; fur he dis-
played his taste as much in the choice of his subjects as in
the execution. He has left many engravings from original
designs which are characterised bjr much grace and agree-
able simplicity, but are wanting m force, and rather scat-
tered in the erou|>ing. Many of his works are very scarce.
;Ma1vasia; Lanxi; Strutt; Cumberland.)
BONASSUS. [BisoifJ
BONAVENTU'RA, ST., was bom at Bagnorea in 1221.
At twenty-one years of age he became a friar of the Order
of St. Francis, and was sent by his superiors to Paris. He,
as well as Thomas Aquinas, of the Dominican Order, be-
came involved in contentions with the University of Paris,
which denied the academical honours, as well as the exer-
cise of public professorship, to individuals of the mendicant
orders. Pope Alexander 1 V., being appealed to, summoned
the parties before him at Anagni. The mendicant oiders
ohose Bonaventora and Albertus Magnus to plead their
* Linn. IVaai. toI. ztL v. 18?. Balltthould be nmembered that Doa-
gUf dewribm the 9m of hb 7«(r«« Sabimi to be dingy white with red ipott ;
whereas the eggs of AnMuia Uw^Mbu are deeeribed as being tpoUeee. The
vender thoiUa hoiraTer be aware that the eggt of diir«rent indiTiduaU of the
MOM ^pecke olUaTuy toafMertblj In tbcit marUagi.
cause. The pope g^ve sentence in their kvom mat atiU
the Parisian university refused to grant the laurea to Bona*
Ventura and Thomas A<}uinas, and Gerard of Abbeville
wrote in an abusive strain against the mendicant orden.
Bonaventura replied to him powerfully, though temperately,
in his * Apologia Pauperum.* At last, in 1257, a sort uf
compromise took place, and Bonaventura received his duo-
tor's de^;ree. He had already been elected general of hit
order, m which capacity he enforced a stnct discipline,
giving himself the first example of implicit adherence tu
the monastic rules and regulations. He wrote upon Xiiu
subject *£pistola encyclica ad Ministros Provinciales ct
Custodes,' and * Determinationes Qussstionum circa Repilaiii
Sancti Franoisci.' He then retired to the convent on Mouiii
Alvemia in Tuscany, where he wrote ' Vita Sancti Fran-
cisci,* and also an ascetic work, ' Itinerarium Mentis in
Deum,* for which last he received the appellation of the
' Seraphic Doctor.' On the death of Pope Clement IV. in
1268, the cardinals could not agree for a long time in the
choice of his successor, and the see of Rome had remained
vacant for nearly three years, when Bonaventura succeeded
by his eloquent exhortations in reconciling their differences
and producing unanimity of votes in favour of Tedaldus
Visconti, afterwards Gregory X. The new pope appointed
Bonaventura Bishop of Albanoi and took him with him to
the council of Lyons. Bonaventura was actively engaged
in the labours of the council when he was stopped by d^oh
in 1274. His funeral was attended by the pope, the cardi-
nals, the patriarchs of Constantinople and of Antioch, and
by mure than 500 bishops. His character for sanctity «!»
already established in the popular opinion, and Dante, wh i
wrote not many years after his death, places him amont
the saints in canto 12 of the ' Psradiso.* Bonaventura wa«
afterwards regularly canonised by the church. His worki
have been collected in 9 vols, folio, Rome, 1588» and ) J
vols. 4to. Venice, 1761, to which last edition a weU-written
life of Bonaventura is prefixed. He has been praised for
having avoided scholastic cavils and ambiguities in fau
style, and for having spoken the language of earnest fai!h
and sincere piety : such is the opinion of Brucker and of
Condillao. Luther placed Bonaventura above all scholastM:
theologians. Several works have been attributed to Bona-
ventura which do not belong to him, but which have fur-
nished an opportunitv to Voltaire and other critics for throw-
ing ridicule upon the supposed author. (DisserUtio i>
Suppositiis and Life of Bonaventura^ prefixed to the > e-
nice edition of his works.)
BONAVISTA, or BOAVISTA, the most easterly and
one of the largest of the Cape Verde Islands, lies 21 miles S.
of Sal, and 300 miles W. by N. of Cape Verde, the nearest
point of the African coast. It was so called from the beau-
tify appearance it presented to the first discoverers <;ho
Portuguese) in 1450, and, from all accounts, was formeri)
more fertile than it now is. The island is generally a low
plain, with some elevated parts near the centre. Salt is ihf
principal article of trade, which the inhabitants exchance
for clothing and necessaries. Pigs, goats, sheep, and poultry
may also be had, but thev are all lean, and of an infvn f
quality. The town is on the western side of the island, and
consists only of about forty or fifW^ houses, mostly built by ne-
groes, and rudely constructed. The population of the ulaivi
in 1822 was estimated at about 3000, of whom 300 are ir-
^lar soldiers. The colour of the inhabitants is at all thr
intermediate shades from white to negro jet, owing to intcc-
marriage.
Bonavista is of an irregular ^ape, nearly octagonal, sik-
teen miles in length, N. and S., and the same in breadth: it
is surrounded by many rocks and shoals. Theve an t«o
anchorages, one off the town, called English Road, and the
other off the S.E. point, called Portuguese Road; of the>«
the former is the more secure, and is perfectly safe in thtf
summer months when the N.E. trade blows constantly. Six-
teen miles to the S.W. is a very dangerous rock called the
Leton Rock, about a mile in extent, nearly level with the
water's edge, and with deep water round it. The town Iks
in 16" 9' N. lat, and 22* 57' W. long,
(North Atlantic Memoir, 4^.)
BOND. A bond or obligation, in law, ia • dead b«
which he who makes it, called the obligor, binds kimt«^.l
to another called the obligee, to pay a sum of money, or to
do, or not to do, any other act. It is, in fact, a species o.
covenant [CoYxwAifT.]
Bonds for the payment of raone
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BON
147
BON
Tiiey are employed instead of firoiiiiees by word, or by un-
sealed writing, for the following reasons. First, a bond
(like every coTenant) to pay a sum of money may be en-
forced against tUe obligor, although no legal motive or con-^
nderation existed for making it (which is not the case with
a verbal promise or a promissory note fbr its payment), for a
deed cannot be set aside by the maker of it, though gra-
tuitous. Hence, yoluntary engagements which are in-
tended to be binding in law shomd be made by bond or
covenant Secondly, though the sum of money which a
person is to oblige himself to pay is a debt already existing,
or though any legal consideration for its payment exists, so
that a promise by word or by unsealed writing to pay it
would be binding in law, yet a bond is a better security ;
for if the debtor dies befbre the debt, though due, is paid,
the creditor being, by virtue of the bond, among those who
are called creditors by xpeeialty, will be entitled to be satis-
fied out of the personal and real assets [Assets] of the de-
ceased before creditors by timpie contract (among whom,
if he had only the verbal promise or promissory note of his
debtor, he would be reckoned) receive any part of the debts
due to them. (2 Bl. Com, 340. 511. Stat 1 W. lY. e. 47.
3 and 4 W. IV. c. 104.) In order, however, that a bond
debt may be thus payable out of the reed assets of the
debtor (his lands of which he died seized) before his simple
contract debts, the debtor must, by the bond, have ex-
pressly bound hiuaeXt and hU heir* to pay the debt
Another advantage which a bond has over a bill of ex-
change or promissory note is that an action may be brought
upon it at any time within twenty years alter it is due
(Stat. 3 and 4 W. IV. c. 42, s. 3) ; whereas a simple eon-
tract debt is barred by the statute of limitations after six
years. [Liititation.]
A bond, though thus a better security in many respects
than a promissory note or bill of exchange, is inferior to
them in one particular ; ibr it cannot be assigned in law, so
as to give the assignee the ri^t of suing, in his own name,
the obligor for the debt (2 Bl. Com, 442.) The courts of
equity, however, support, as far as they can, assignments of
bonds to purchasers, and acknowledge and enforce the right
of such assignees to receive the bond debts out of the assets
of the debtors.
A bond is so good a security for the payment of a sum of
money, that it is often employed not only when a elebt is to
be established, but when a pecuniary penalttf is to be pro-
vided. When a man is required to oblige himself to do or
not to do any act, he often enters into a bond for payment
of a certain sum of money, as a penalty, in case he de-
parts from his agreement A bond of this kind, which is
called a penal bond, is always prepared as follows. It is
a simple bond ibr payment of the penal sum, no time
or event being mentioned when that shall be due: but a
condition is added for making the bond void, in case the
obligor performs his duty ; the nature of such duty being
expressed in the condition. This may seem not to be the
most accurate mode of securing a contingent penalty ; but
construed by law, such a bona answers its purpose. For
^ugh, generally, when a bond for payment of a sum
of money mentions no time of payment, an action may be
brought upon it immediately ; yet in this case the penal sum
is not considered to be due or recoverable till the condition
annexed to the bond foils of e^ct by the obligor neglecting
or departing from his duty. These penal bonds are further
rendered equitable in their operation by the liberal con-
struction ^hich the law puts upon the conditions annexed
to them ; often holding that such conditions take effect and
that their terms have been sufficiently observed, when, ac-
cording to a more rigid construction, the penalties would
have been forfeited; and often restraining obligeea from
taking advantage of the failure of such conditions, when
they ought not in justice, to receive the penalties. Even
when the obligee in a penal bond is allowed to recover the
penalty, he cannot generally, take any more of it than
what is a reasonable compensation for the damage sustained
by him ; and the amount of such compensation will he as-
certained by the verdict of a jury. (Stat 8 and 9 W.
in. ell.)
The obligor m a penal bond being thus protected, it may
seem that equal relief should, be given to tne obligee, when
the penalty is not as usual,' greater than the amount of
damage sustained by him, but less. However, it is a gene-
nl rule, that the obligee cannot recover upon his bond any
pecunivy oompenBatian beyond the penal sum expressly
secured. But the Geiuis of Equity eonaider the eonditioii
of every penal bond to be evidence of an agreement on the
part of the obligor to perform the duty whose performance
IS to reheve him from the penalty. Thus a condition for
making a bond void in case the obligor does or does not do
any act, shows, in contemplation of equi^, an agreement
by him to do or not to do such act ; and this agreement
will, in many cases, be enforced against him, at the suit of
the obligee, by a decree for specific performance of the
agreement, or by an injunction against its breach; and
thus, even where the penalty in a bond ia insuf^ent the
obligee is not always without remedy.
Ine courts of Law do not consider that an implied
covenant is created by the eondition of a bond, so as to allow
the obligee to bring an action upon it ; but they, as well as
those of equity, so fhr take the condition to be evidence of
a contract upon which the bond is founded, as to hold the
bond to be void, if the eonditicm is unlawful. For though,
as before said, a Ixxid without consideration may be valid,
yet a bond made for an unlawful consideration, or upon an
unlawful contract is void, like every other deed so circum-
stanced.
Penal bonds have almost superseded, in general use,
bonds without condition, or single bonds. Even when a
bond is intended to secure the payment of money, the con-
stant practice is to make it in the ftnrm of a bond for pay-
ment of a penal sum, double the principal sum which is
really to be paid, with a condition, makmg the bond de-
feasible upon the latter sum being duly paid with interest
The chief advantage of such a bond over a single bond was,
not that any more money than was foirly due to the obligee
could or can be recovered under it (for the stat. 4 and 5 Ann,
e. 16, forbids that), but that full interest up to tibe day on
which the debt was satisfied, might be obtained, if within
the penalty ; whereas, under a single bond for payment of
the principal and interest at a certain day, no interest be-
yond that day could be claimed. That defect of the single
bond, however, is supplied by stat 3 and 4 W. IV., c. 42,
8.28.
A bond is sometimes made by or to several persons toge-
ther. In such case, the bond may have different effects,
according as it is prepared, as either a joint bond, a several
bond, or a joint and several bond. This distinction applies
equally to covenants, and is noticed under that title.
[COVKNAWT.]
The several modes in which a bond maybe discharged
(when not actually satisfied) may also be learned by refor-
ring to the same title ; where the principal rules relating to
the discharge of covenants, which equally apply to bonds,
are mentioned.
BONE, a living organ of complex structure, forming in
the higher animals the basis of the fhbric of the body. The
.creatures placed at the bottom of the animal scale, com-
posed of soft gelatinous matter and buoyant in water, need
no solid support; but all animals that possess solid organs,
and whose body rests upon particular points, must have
some substance of a dense and inflexible nature to afford to
those various tissues and structures the requisite resistance
and support Throughout the animal kingdom the sub-
stances that serve this purpose are the salts of hme, some-
times the carbonate, sometimes the phosphate, and at other
times both combined in different proportions. When in
the composition of the solid support of the body the carbo-
nate of lime predominates, it constitutes the substance cdled
shell; when there is a greater proportion of the phosphate
it is called a crust as in the coverings of the lobster, the
crab, and so on ; but when the earthy matter consists al-
most wholly of the phosphate it constitutes bone.
When an animal possesses bone as the solid support of
its fabric, it indicates a high degree in the scale of organi-
zation. Bone is an elaborate structure found in no class
below the vertebrata. Even the lowest order of this, which
is the highest class of animals, is wholly destitute of it ;
for it is not found in large tribes of fishes, the shark, the
sturgeon, the ray, &c. In these, the less highly organized
substance called cartilage is substituted, and accordingly
these fishes are called cartilaginous, in contradistinction to
the osseous ; and in all classes below the cartilaginous fishes,
the dense and inflexible substance which sustains the soft
parts of the body, and which affords points of resistance for
the action of those parts, consists either of shell or crust, or
of some modification of these inorganic matters, ajid not cf
true organized bone. ^^ ,
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BON
.U&.
B O^
In general the inorganic matter which performs tue ofllce
of hone in the lower animals is placed on the exterior of the
hody, and often indeed forms its external envelope ; true
hone, on the contrary, is always placed in the interior.
Eyen when it approaches the surface, hone is always covered
hy some soft part, as muscle, membrane, skin, &c. Crust,
shell, horn, the substances which form the skeleton of the
inferior animak, are thus external, the soft parU being
internal ; but in the higher animals the skeleton is always
interna], and the soft parts, which are. sustained by it, and
which re-act upon it, are external.
The office of bone in the animal economy is chiefly me-
chanical, and the mechanical purposes to which it is sub-
servient require that it should be of different sizes and
forms. In the human skeleton there are commonly enu-
merated 260 different hones, which present every variety
of size and figure. But all these varieties may be xe-
duced to three classes : the long and round, as the bones of
the upper and lower extremities : the broad and flat, as the
lioncs of the skull ; or the short and square, as tlie separate
hones that compose the vertebral column. The long bones
are adapted for motion, the flat for protection, and the
square for motion combined with strength. Accordingly
the long bones, which are adapted to communicate a free
mnge of motion, are moulded into lengthened cylinders,
and form so many levers, constituting organs of locomotion,
cxquisitelv constructed and combined for the accomplish-
ment of their office, as is seen in the fin of the fish, in the
wing of the bird, and in the limb of the quadruped. In the
employment of the flat bones for the covering of some of
tbo more tender and delicate organs, as the brain and spinal
cord, the form of these bones is such as to add to their
strength, as is manifest in the vaulted roof of the skull ;
while in the construction of the vertebral column, composed
of the short and square bones, which are so adjusted as to
afford a limited range of motion with a groat degree of
strength, so many and such opposite purposes are effected,
by means so simple yet so efficient, that no fabric con-
structed by human ingenuity approaches the perfection of
this admirable piece of mechanism.
The structure, disposition, and connexion of the indi-
vidual bones accomplish in the most perfect manner
the following mechanical uses:—!. By their hardness and
firmness they afford a support to the soft parts, forming
pil'ars to which the more delicate and flexible organs are
attached, and kept in their relative positions. 2. By tlie
tame properties of hardness and firmness they defend the
soft and tender organs, by forming solid and strong cases
in which such organs are lodged and protected, as the case
formed by the hones of the cranium for the lodgment and
protection of the brain ; by the bones of the vertebral column
for the lodgment and protection of the spiikal cord ; and by
the bones of the thorax, for the lodgment and protection of
the lungs, the heart, and the great vessels connected with it.
3. By affording fixed points for the action of the muscles,
and by assisting in the formation of joints, they aid and are
indeed indispensable adjuncts to the muscles in accomplisli-
ing the fhnction of locomotion.
Bone is a complex organ, and the arrangement and com-
bination of its constituent parts are highly curious. It is
composed essentially of two distinct substances, an animal
and an earthy matter. The animal matter is analogous,
both in its nature and in its arrangement, to cellular mem-
brane ; the earthy matter consists of phosphoric acid com-
bined with lime, forming phosphate of Umc. The cellular
membrane is aggregated into plates or lamina), super-
imposed one upon another, lei^ving between them inter-
spaces or cells, in which is deposited the earthy matter,
phosphate of lime.
This structure of bone is rendered manifest by subjecting
it to certain chemical processes. If a bone be placed in a
charcoal fire, and the heat be gradually raised to whiteness,
it'appears, on cooling, as white as chalk ; it is extremely
brittle ; it haa lost very much of its weight, yet its bulk
and shape are little changed. In this case the mem-
branous matter is wholly consumed by the fire, while the
earth is left unaltered. Over the surface of a bone so
treated are visible a number of minute crevices, the spaces
which were filled, in the natural state of the buuc, witn the
animal matter; and on breaking the bone across, the size
and shape of the cavities which contained the marrow be-
come manifest. If, on the other hand, the same bone be
lUaoed in an acid aufficiently diluted to prevent its injuring
the animal memhnne, and yet itnmg eiKiagli t» dinob •
the pliosphate of lime,^if fiar this purpose it be maneratful in
diluted nitric or muriatic acid. — eveiy particle of the phos-
phate of lime may be removed, and the animal matter aloue
will remain perfectly uninjured and unaltered. Accordingly,
the remaining substance retains the exact figure and dimen-
sions of Uie original bone, but it has lost all its other me-
chanical properties. It is so soft and flexible, that if either
of the long bones of the human arm, that for example called
the radius, be treated in this manner, it can with the ut-
most ease he tied in a knot. By the first process the earth
is obtained, deprived of its animal constituent; hv tUe
second, the membranous matter free from the earth. In the
bone both are combined; in every constituent atom of it
there is an earthy in intimate combination with an animal
matter. The first gives it hardness ; the second tenacity ;
and thus by the intimate combination of these elements two
qualities, which in unorganized matter are scarcely com-
patible, are combined. By increasing the pn^portion of
phosphate of lime any degree of hardness can be obtainetl :
the bony portions of the ear, the bony portions of the teeth,
for example, are as hard as marble, or even flint ; but sub-
stances so hard would not do for the ordinary purposes oi
bone, because they would be brittle in proportion to their
hardness, and womd be productive of fatal mischief wbcu-
ever thev were subject to any sudden and violent concus-
sion. But all evils of this kind are effectuallv guarded
against by the elastic matter which is the basis of the struc-
ture, and not only acts as a strong cement interposed l^e-
tween the cfdoareous particles, but, by the increase of it^
relative proportion, is capable of modifying the rigidity uX
the earthy matter to any extent.
Bones not only differ so much from one another in tlu >
comparative hardness, according to the office which e..f b
has to serve, that no two bones possjess the same degree uf
rij^idity, but no bone is equally hard in its entire substaun-.
When a section of a bone is made in such a manner ab t .
show its structure throughout, it is seen to consist of t«u
varieties, a hard or compact, and an alveolar or spongy &uV
stance. In general the compact forms the external and tKc
apongy the internal portion of tlie bone: the compacti>i
part of the bone forms a completely solid body, exhibit! i ;;
scaix;ely any visible arrangement, without apparent filn>
and laminsd ; but towards the inner part of the bone the sul-
stance becomes less and less dense, until at length it prefer.:*
the appearance of minute and delicate fibres, which intcru- 1
each other in every direction, forming the cells termed can-
colli (lattice- work). The transition from the compact to i\ie
spongy or cancellated part is not marked b^ any distinct
boundary ; the one passes into the other by msensiblc de-
grees, showing that there is no essential difference between
them ; and indeed the evidence is complete, that, althou;;U
in the densest part of the bone there is scarcely anv trace cf
si)ecific organization, it is made up of fibres and mates per-
fectly similar to those of the spongy or cancellated part, dif-
fering from it principally in its greater degree of condensa-
tion. Often in the centre of the bone there is scarcely an)
even of the spongy matter, but a hollow space is left, whirL
is filled up with a series of membranous cells in which tl.c
substance called marrow is lodeed.
In the arrangement of the fibres in different bones, so :»«
to adapt them to the specific offices they have to serve,lhcrc
is exquisite mechanism. Where the princinal object is cixhvt
extensive protection, or tl^e provision of broad surfaceti f i
the attachment of muscles, the osseous fibres are so di$4>o«i.l
as to form flattened nlates, as in the bones of the skuli
When, on the other hand, a system of levers is wantetl. at
in the limbs which have to sustain the weight of the truck,
and to confer extensive powers of locomotion, the bone» an?
modelled into lengthened cylinders, generally somew Ira t
expanded at the extremities for greater convenience of mu-
tual connexion. The shank or lK)dy of this hollow c)lindci
consists principally of compact with but little spong}' mat-
ter, while the extremitv or nead of it is princinally compo«(^
of spongy matter, with only a thin crust or oomrMict »ub
stance. The principd mechanical property requires in e\rr«
cylindrical lever is rigiditv, and more especially the power
of resi)»ting forces appliea transversely, that is, tending to
break the cylinder across : it has been often stated that a
given Quantity of materials could not possibly have been
disposed in a manner better calculated for such retistanre
than those in the form of a tube or hollow cylinder. The
hollow stems of vegetables derive their chief strengUi torn
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BON
149
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pOMesaiD^ tliia Ibim. Bcmes alio are nnderod both lighter
and stronger by being made hollow than if the cylinder had
been aolid ; and as it is in tbe middle of the shaft that the
stram is greatest^ so it is here that the cikvity is largest and
the resistance most effectual.
The chemical composition of bone may be easily under-
stood from the preceding statements. The earthy salt is
the phosphate of lime ; the animal matter is condensed albu-
men. Albumen constitutes the basis of membranous matter
of all descriptions. As it actually exists in bone, it bears a
close resemblance to cartilage, and is probably identical
with it Into the composition of bone there likewise enters
a quantity of jelly» which may be extracted from it by
boiling, and the younger the animal the larger is the pro-
portion of jelly.
It has been stated that the central cavities of some of the
larger bones are filled with the substance (»lled marrow, an
oily matter contained in a series of membranous cells, which,
like those in which the fat is deposited [Adifosx Tissue],
do not communicate with each other. Even the pores and
cancelli of bone also contain a kind of oily matter, which is
supposed to differ from marrow only in possessing a greater
degree of fluidity. This oily matter is deposited in longi-
tudinal canals, which pass through the solid substance of
the bone, together with its nutrient vessels. The use of the
marrow, and of the modification of it which constitutes the
oily matter, is not well understood. Without doubt it serves
the same general use in the economy as the other oily secre-
tions. [Adiposb Tissue.]
All bones are covered by a membrane named, on account
of its affording them an external envelope, periMteum.
The outer surface of this enveloping membrane is connected
to the surrounding parts by cellular tissue, but its inner sur-
fiice is firmly adherent to the substance of the bone. This
adhesion is effected by innumerable fibres or threads, which
on examination are found to consist of blood-vessels. The
periosteum is in fact the membrane on which the nutrient
arteries of the bone rest, divide, and ramify in order to enter
the osseous substance. These threads are much more
numerous in the cluld than in the adult ; and accordingly
the adhesion of the periosteum to the bone is much firmer
in the former than m the latter, as the quantity of blood
distributed to die bone is greater. Moreover, in generid the
inner surface of bones is also lined by a fine and delicate
membrane, commonly termed the internal periosteum, the
continuation of which forms the membranous bags in which
the marrow is contained.
Great attention has been paid to the phenomena attending
the growth of bone, and the fkcts ascertained relative to its
progressive development are not only interesting and im-
portant in their own nature, but afford a singular oonfirma-
tion of the correctness of the preceding statements as to its
genecal structure. If the human embryo be examined at a
very early period of its existence, that is, about the seventh
or eighth week dter conception, the parts destined to be-
come bone are found soft, gelatinous, and semi-fluid ; but
the figure of several of the larger bones can already be dis-
tinctlv traced. As ^et there is not a particle of bone con-
tained in these gelatinous masses, nor anything approaching
the consistence of a solid compact substance. It is merely
a semi-fluid matter contained in a delicate membrane. The
newlv-formed arteries of the system, by the agency of which
the different structures are to be developed, gradually ex-
tending over the nascent organization, those arteries which
are to form bone at length arrive at these pulpy masses. By
dei^rees these masses are observed to acquire more consist-
ence ; and at length pass from a soft and semi-fluid state
into that of a solid and firm substance, which assumes the
appearance and exhibits the properties of cartilage. This
cartilage, at first transparent and colourless, after some time
exhibits indifferent parts of its surface opaque whitish spots.
Tliese spots, when examined by the microscope, are found
to consist of a number of delicate lines, which progressively
iacrease in size and density. Red points are also seen to
tm dispersed through them, indicating that the blood-vessels
01 the parts are so much enlarged as to be capable of ad-
mitting the red particles of the blood ; and now particles of
bone are copiously and rapidly deposited, insomuch that the
parts which were recently hard and elastic soon become hard
and rigid, and this rigidity increases to such a degree that
the blood seems to be scarcely capable of forcing a passage
tluough its vessels, compressed as they are by the dense
matter which accumulates around them in all ^rectionSk
Thus the first animal matter that forms the basis of bone
appears to be jelly ; for jelly albumen, a more highly or^
ganized substance, is soon substituted ; as the process of
ossification advances* the proportion of jelly gradually dimi-
nishes, while that of albumen increases. Tae first deposi-
tion of bony particles takes place in cartilage ; this cartilage^
which forms the earliest deposit or nidus of the bony par-
ticles, does not remain as a permanent part of bone, but is
carried away by the absorbent vessels as the osseous matter
continues to be deposited, and this first-formed cartilage is
replaced by a totally new deposition of animal matter,
namely, the membranous substance which subsequently
forms a constituent part of bone.
Such is the process of ossification, in regard to which it
has been justly and beautifully said by Dr. Roget, that as
sculptors, before working upon the marble, first execute a
model of a coarser and more plastic material, so the first
business of the arteries is to prepare a model of the future
bone, constructed, not with the same material of which it ia
afterwards to consist, but with another of a simpler and
softer nature, namely cartilage. Until the other parts of
the fabric have proceeded so far in their development as to
have acquired a certain degree of solidity and firmness, and
to bear as well as to require the support of more massive
and rigid structures, this flexible and elastic cartilage may
be employed with great advantage as its substitute. A
hard and unyielding structure would, in the early stages of
its formation, have even been injurious. But in proportion
as the fabric is enlarged, the necessity for mechanical sup-
port increases, and further provision must be made for re*
sistance to external violence. The removal of the cartilage
may be compared to the taking down of the scaffolding which
had been erected for the intended building. But this scaf-
folding is not taken down at once ; each part is carried away
piece by piece, as the operation of fixing in their position
the beams and pillars of the edifice proceeds. The way is
cleared at first by the absorption of the central part of the
cartilage, and a few particles of ossific matter are deposited
in its room. Greater activity is now displayed in the ar-
teries, which rapidly enlarge in diameter, assume more
active functions, and hasten to execute their task by depo-
siting granules of calcareous phosphate : these are laid down
particle by particle, in a certain determinate order, and in
regular lines, so as to form continuous fibres. When a great
number of these delicate fibres are gathered together, and
connected by other fibres, which shoot in various directions
across them, a texture composed of an assemblage of long
spicula or thin plates is constituted. In the cyUndrical
bones the spicula prevail, and are arranged longitudinally,
parallel to one another and to the axis of the bone. In the
flat bones the fibres have a radiated arrangement, shooting
out firom the spot where the first deposit took place as from
a common centre. The union of the fibres as they proceed
firom different centres is not indiscriminate, but is regulated
by definite laws. Each distinct bone is fbrmed from a cer
tain number of ossific centres, which altogether constitute
a system appertaining to that bone only, and not extending
to the adjacent bones. These pieces unite tojgether as if
by a natural affinity, and they refuse to unite with the bony
fibres proceeding from neighbouring centres and belonging
to other groups.
Were this the whole of what takes place in the formation
of a bone, the process would not perhaps differ very mate-
rially from that by which a shell is produced ; for a shell is
the result of successive depositions of calcareous matter,
forming one layer after another, in union with a corre-
sponding deposit of animal membrane. But the subse-
quent changes which occur show that the constitution of
bone is totally dissimilar to that of shell; for no portion of
the shell that is once formed and has not been removed is
subject to any further alteration. It ia a dead though
perhaps not wholly inorganic mass; appended indeed to
the living system, but placed beyond the sphere of its in-
fluence. But a bone continues during the whole of life to
be an integrant part of the system, partaking of iU changes*
modified by its powers, and undergoing continual alterations
of shape, and even renewal of substance, by the actions of
the living vessels.
The form which had at first been rudely sketched stowly
advances towards perfection in the course of its growth, and
the general proportions of the parts are still preserved, the
finished bone exhibiting prominences and depressions in
the same relative situation as at first, and not only having
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tinflar intenial eavitie9» Irat bein^ IVequently excavated in
Cwbtoh had before been tolia. During all these f^-
alterations of shape, however, there is no stretching of
elastie parts, for all the osseom fibres and laminse are ri^id
and unyielding, and in this respect retain an analogy with
•hell. The changes thus observed can have been effected
in no other way than bv the actual removal of such parts
^the young bone as had occupied the situations where
Vacuities are found to exist in the old bone. We find,
for instance, that in the early state of a bone there are no
internal ea%ities, but the whole is a uniform solid mass.
At a certain stage of ossification cells are excavated by the
action of the absorbent vessels, which carry away portions
ef bony matter lying in the axis of the cylindrical or in the
middle layer of the flat bones. Their place is supplied by
an oily matter, which is the marrow. As the growth pro-
ceeds, while new layers are deposited on the outside of the
bone and at the end of the long fibres, the internal layers
near the centre are removed by the absorbent vessels, so
that the cavity is forther enlarged. In this manner the
outermost layer of the young bone gradually changes its
relative situation, becoming more and more deeply buried
by the new layers which are successively deposited, and
which cover and surround it ; until by the removal of all
the layers situated nearer to the centre it becomes the inner-
most layer, and is itself destined in its turn to disappear,
leaving the new bone without a single particle which had
entered into the composition of the original structure.
It has been found that, by mixing certain colouring sub-
stances with the food of animals, the bones will soon become
deeply tinged by them. This fact was discovered acci-
dentally by Mr. Belchier, who gives the following account
of the circumstances that led him to notice it. Happening
to be dining with a calico-printer on a leg of fresh pork, he
was surprised to observe that the bones, instead of being
white as usual, were of a deep red colour; and on inauiring
into the circumstances he learned that the pig had been
fud upon the refiise of the dyeing vats, which contained a
large quantity of the colouring substance of madder. So
curious a fact naturally attracted a good deal of attention
among physiologists, and many experiments were under-
taken to ascertain the time required to produce this change,
and to determine whether the effect was permanent or only
temporary. The red tinge was found to be communicated
miu'h more ouickly to the bones of Rowing animals than to
tiiose which had idready attained tiieir full siae. Thus the
bones of a young pigeon were tinged of a rose colour in
twenty-four hours, and of a deep scarlet in three days;
while in the adult bird fifteen days were required merely to
produce the rose colour. The dye was more intense in the
solid parta of those bones which were nearest to the centre
ckf circulation, while in bones of equal solidity, but more
remote firom the heart, the tinge was fainter. The bone
wa» of a deeper dye in proportion to the length of time the
animal had been fed upon the madder. When this diet
bad been discontinued the colour became gradually more
faint till it entirely disappeared.
From the whole of what has been stated it is manifest
that bone poesesses blood-vessels, nerves, absorbents, and
all the parU that form the essential constituents of an
organixed and living body. It is as much ali^'e as the
boart or the brain, in its natural and healthy state it has
indeed but fow blood- vessela, and still fewer nerves, and the
existence of absorbents is rather inferred than demonstrated,
these viessela being too minute to be visible ; but their ex-
istence is inforred as well from analogy as from many of
the phenomena which have been detailed, and which are
wholly inexplieable but upon the supposition of the existence
and aetionof these vesseh. More j\\.r, bone is subject to
all the diseases of living parts, inflammation, tumefaction,
suppuration* and gangrene, and when diseased it often
becomes exquisitely sensible. There is indeed no difficulty
in supposing that the animal matter ia alive, but how is it
possible for life to be attached to an earthy salt ? Yet on
a caieAtl examination of this subject* as has been forcibly
urged by i>r. Bostock, it will be found no easy matter to
pomt out any essential difference between the earthy and
the animal substance. Both are derived from the blood ;
buth are deposited by vessels connected with the arterial
syblem ; both possess a specific determinate arrangement ;
both after a certain period are taken up by the absorbents
and again carried into the mass of the circulating fluids ;
both, before they aie ultimately expelled from the system
or are again applied to any other usa in it, undergo deeom
position, in order that part of their elements may be em-
ployed in forming new compounds, while the remainder may
be rejected by some of the excretory passages. * I should be
inclined therefore,' says this physiologist, * to aay that the
phosphate of lime while forming a part of an organised body
is alive, because the bone is so generally ; but the phosphftie
of lime or its elements while they are cireulating in the
blood or passing off by the kidney or alimentary eanal. cease
to be so, in the same manner as the carbon which is expire«l
from the lungs, or the mucus which is expelled fh>re the
mouth, are not considered as being alive, although they
may perhaps a short time before have been employed in the
composition of a muscle or nerve. This. view of the aut>-
ject will lead us to reject the mechanical idea whkh has
been entertained by some physiologists, that the earth v
matter of the bones is simply deposited in the interstic^
of the membrane, and has its particles kept together mervl>
by the cells in which they are lodged. I conceive that the
earthy particles have an afllnity for each other, and perhap«»
for the membrane by which they are oorabined in a form
that belongs to them as necessarily as to any of the soft
parts, although it produces in them a peculiar arrange-
ment which may not be found in any other aubatanre.*
(Monroes Outlines qf the Anatomy of ths Hwnttn Botfy :
Bostock*s Klements of Physiology; Roget*s Animal amd
Vegetable Physiology ; Sir Charles Beirs Lecturss on the
Hunterian Preparations in the Mtueum qfthe Royai Oil-
lege of Surgeons, in illustration of Anatomy and Physio-
logy; Abernethy's Physiological Lectures; Bootbwool
Smith's Philosophy of Health.)
BONES have been of late years very exteasively Ui4<d
as manure, especially on poor and dr^ sands and gisvvU.
Many cargoes from abroad have been imported for this pur-
pose into the eastern ports of Britain. Bones have thne be-
come a considerable article of commerco with German v,
Belgium, and Holland : so much so that tho govornraenu
of some of these countries have had it in contamplatioo to
snbject them to an export duty.
Experiments on bones as a manure were made long before
their use was extensively adopted, and these, in general,
were not attended with a very fovourable result, in ooam*-
quence of the bones not being broken into suiBoiently snail
pieces, or being put upon the land in too fl%sh a itale. But
since mills have been erected to crush them to a small sue,
and the proper use of them has been ascertained, tho ad-
vantage of this manure, in distant and unoultivatod spot*,
where the carriage of common atable or yard manuro would
have been too expensive, and where it could not be made
ibr want of food for cattle, is incalculable. By meana of
bones large tracts of barren sands and heaths have been
converted into fertile fields.
The bruising or grinding of bones has become a &tinrt
business, and they may be bought in London and at the
principal ports ready to put upon the land* Thej are
broken into different sizes, and are accordingly called inrJk
bones, half-inch bones, and dust. Most of the bonea pro-
cured from London and the manufacturing towns hate
tmdergone the process of boiling, by which the oil sad a
great part of the gelatine which they contain have beeo
extracted.
At first sight we should be led to imacina, that havinit
lost much of the rich animal matter whidi they eentainod,
they would be proportionably less eifeetive in the soiU Thia,
however, does not seem to be the case from the oomparativw
experiments made with bonea which had been aubjecaed lo
boiling, and those which were quite fresh. All thooe who
have used bones extensively report, that little diflerenee can
be observed between them : some eveii give the prefcsenr«
to those from which the oil and glue have been extracted.
But oil and glue form excellent manures^ How ia this to
be explained ? It appears, firom the nsult of many expe-
riments, that bones do not Ornish much nourishment to the
roots of plants until they have undemne a certain degiwe of
decomposition. The fat and the raatine, being inthnalelv
blended with the bony matter, and oontainad in cnvitiea oV
cells, may remain a long time in the earth without decwm-
position. As a proof of this, it has been fonnd that bonea
which had lain in the earth for many centuries* on spK4»
where antient battles were fought, afforded, on analvaia,
nearly as much gelatinous matter, by the ahstraction of the
earthy parts, aa fresh bones would have done. Bonea ana-
lysed by Fouieioy and Vauquelin were found to eoBaat of
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Solid oaitilage, gelatine end oil
Phosphate of lime • •
Carbonate of lime
Phosphate of magnesia
Parts.
61
37*7
10
1-3
100
It would 8eem» then» that the great effeot of bones, as a
manure, must depend on the phosphate of lime ; and the
effect of bone-ashes seems to 'strengthen this opinion. But
a close examination of the fields manured wim bones has
led Qs to surmise, that much of their imnortanee depends
on the mechpmicaBl texture of the bone, and on its power of
absorbing and retaining meisture; for if a plant, which
vegetates with peculiar vigour in a field manured with
bones be puUed up, it will be almost invariably found that
small pieces of bone are attached to the roots ; and when
these are minutely examined, the smaller fibres of the roots
will be ibund to have grasped them, and to pervade their
cavities, wbii^ will always be found more or less moist.
The moisture, then* and a small portion of the remaining
gelatine dissolved in it, forms the food on which the plant
has thriven. The more the bones have undergone fermen-
tation, the more soluble the gelatine will be. In its fresh
state, it is only solubk in very warm water, and the oil
repels moisture. This accounts ibr the seeming anomaly
of the superiority of boiled bones. They have undergone a
fermentation. The residue, although not deprived of all its
animal matter, is much more porous, and will imbibe and
retain moisture in its pores. The food of the plants is here
ready prepared and dissolved, and kept in store without
being in danger of being washed through a porous soil or
evaporated by the heat. The solid substance, which is
chiefly phosphate of Hme, has a stimulating effect, and
assists that of the more soluble parts. But phosphate of
lime is not soluble in water, and does not decompose readily
in the earth ; its effect therefore is not so great as to account
for the general result. The universal experience of all those
who have used bones as a manure proves that they are of little
or no use in very stiff or wet soils. In stiff clays the pieces
of bone are bedded in a tough substance, which prevents
their decomposition ; and in very wet soils the advantage of
these small but numerous reservoirs of moisture is lost.
Hence it is easily seen why bones are of less use in such
soils.
But it is ascertained that the effect of bones on the crop
is much increased when they have been previously mixed in
heaps with ashes, burnt cUiy, or light loam, or made into a
compost with the dung of animals, and with vegetable sub-
stances. In this case, the firesh bones will evidently be
much more advantageous than those which have been
boiled ; for the fermentation will extract and decompose the
oil and a great part of the gelatine, which, mixed with the
other ingredients of the compost, will much enrich them ;
while Uie bony residue will be in the same state as it would
have been if the bones had come from the boiling-house.
By comparing all the facts, we naturally come to the con-
elusion, that the most economical use of oones is to extract
from them the oil and gelatine, which, if not of sufficient
value for the manufacture of glue or of ammonia, may be
used as a supplementary food for pigs, in the form of a
broth or pot liquor, which, mixed with meal, will greatly
accelerate their growth or increase .their fat. For this pur-
pose the bones should be broken in the mill to a moderate
sixe, like those called inch bones ; thev should then be
boiled or steamed for several hours, and the liquor strained ;
this, on cooling, will be found to form an animal jelly of
more or less strength, which may be thickened by boiling,
and finally dried into a glue or portable soup, which will
keep for a considerable time.
The price of fuel and attendance being calculated, it will
be seen whether this operation is a real economy or not;
if not, the bones may be allowed to ferment in a heap, being
mixed with sand or coal-ashes. In this case, they may be
ground at once to the size called half-inch ; in the other,
they may be passed again through the mill after having
been boiled.
The mode of applying bone-manure to the land is either
by sowing from twenty to forty bushels of them per acre
by the hand broadcast, as is done with com, and harrowing
them in with the seed; or by putting them into the drills
by a maehme nuule for the purposot which is an addition
to the eommon drilling maofain«. Thi» is the most ap- 1
proved method, and the crop for which they are best aJ anted
is turnips, after the land has been well cleaned and tilled.
About twenty-five bushels per acre is sufficient to produce
a good crop on poor light sands, and it does not appear that
beyond this quantity they have a proportional effect. It is
better therefore to repeat the dressing than to put on much
at once. When used as a top-dressing for grass-land, they
have, in some instances, produced a great and very durable
improvement, when the quantity was large ; but in most
other cases it has been found much more advantageous to
reserve them for turnips or com. Bones have been drilled
with wheat, at the rate of thirty bushels of bones and two
and a half of wheat per acre, and a good crop (twenty -four
bushels per acre) has been obtained on very poor soil : while
portions of the same field sown without any bones, in order
to ascertain the effect, did not produce sufficient plants to
cover the ground or return the seed.
When bones are compared with farm-yard dung the re-
sult has been various, and chiefly owing to the seasons and
the nature of the land. In strong loams or in very moist
seasons the farm*yard dung, put on at the rate of from ten
to fifteen tens per acre, has decidedly the advantage, not
only for the turnips but for the subsequent crops. On very
dry gravelly soils and in dry summers the bones produced
the best turnips ; and when the comparative cost is taken
into consideration, and the saving of time in the light car-
riage of the bones, it will be seen that the bones are much
more economical. Besides this, farm-yard or stable dung
cannot always be procured in any considerable quantity,
while bones may be had almost to any amount, if bespoken
in proper time. Many large tracts of waste land have been
brought into cultivation by means of bones, as the only
manure which could be procured, and without which they
must have remained in a barren state. Bones have also
been compared with rape-cake and malt-dust, but there has
not been a sufficient number of experiments, made care*
fully, to give an accurate comparison. It is highly probable
that these last, when they can be procured sufficiently cheapo
would greatly assist the effect of bones if mixed with them,
and would render the success of a crop of tumira more oer^
tain under all cireumstances of soil or aeasoh. Every prac*
tical farmer knows that a good crop of turnips is the founda*
tion of all the subsequent crops in the course, A great
advantage of manuring land with bones is that they intro^
duce no weeds, which farm-yard dung inevitably does. This
is probably the reason why they have been chiefly used on
laud which has been fallowed ; and turnips being the usual
crop first sown on sueh Ught lands as are most benefited by
bone-manure, the greatest number of experiments have been
made with this crop. That they are an excellent addition
to the list of artificial manures previously used is very clearly
shown by the answers to queries ' made by the Doncaster
Agricultural Association* qf which an interesting report
has been published. Whatever difference there may be
in the opinion of some of the numerous affriculturists
who have sent answers on this subjeet, as to die effect of
bones on different soils, all who have tried them to any ex«
tent have continued the use of them. This simple circum-
stance says more in favour of bones than the most elaborate
argument, and the only question will be, at what expense
they may be procured, and on what lands they have the
best effect. When the immense quantity of bones from the
cattle daily slaughtered is considered, and the readiness
with which any commodity for which there is a demand is
procured in commerce, there can be no great fear of a de-
ficient supply. But it is probable that the price may be so
increased by a great demand as to make it a matter of nice
calculation, whether their use may be attended with profit
or not. If once they are very generally used, their price nvill
arrive at a maximum, and find its natural level At present
they may be obtained in London and at the principal ports
for about 2«. per bushel coarsely ground, and 2#. 6d, to 39.
when in a finer state ; and at that price, with a small addi-
tion for carriage, thev will be found the cheapest manure
that can be purchased for dry, gravelly, and sandy soils.
The mill which is used to break and grind bones consists
of two iron or steel cylinders, with grooves running round
their cireumference, the projections being out so as to form
strong teeth. These turn upon one another by means of
machinery, so that the teeth of one run in the groove be-
tween the teeth of the other, as may be seen in the annexed
cut.
An instnunent has alaa been invenled for iUslributing
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bones, ashes, rape- dufit, and similar dry manures in tlic drills
at the same time with the seed. It consists of a very simple
addition to the common drilling machine, and is described
under the word Drill.
[Side Plan of the Bone-grinrling Machine.]
A. A« it the fr«ine of a bone-mill strongly fixed to the floor; B. the axis of
thr maehincry, which it turned by the lever C. C. to which the p<^er if ap-
{lif^ ; R, B. it a horitoaUl wheel with bevelled tMtb moving a vertieal wheel
^ on the axia of which one of the cvlindert vvilh groovet and teeth it fixed.
At the oth^r end of the axit it a tmaller wheH G. turning a timilar one. II,'on
Uie nxit of the oU.er cylinder, makins the toothed ttirfaoM turn towardt eaeh
other, and thut crothing between them the bones which the hopper O tap-
plies. Another pair of cylinders similar to the first, but with smaller teeto.
are turned by means of the intermediate wheel I vrorkini; in the wheel L fixed
to the axis on which is a larger wheel M. working In a pink>B which taru the
cylindrical ai«v« N. llie arrows indicate the direction of the motion.
The bones put in the hopper O are seized by the teeth of
the two upper cylinders and broken in pieces, which fall in
between the lower pair, where they are reduced to a smaller
nize. From these they fall on a slanting board D and
slide into the wire cylinder. All the smaller pieces pass
through the intersttoes of the wire : those whicn have not
been sufficiently broken come out at the end and are re-
tamed into the upper hopper. Where a machine of this
description can be attached to a water or windmill, or to a
steam-engine, the bones are broken at a small expense ;
when horses are used the expense is greater ; and a hand-
mill can only be of use where there is a great superabun-
dance of manual labour, and only a small quantity of bones
are required.
BONE'LLIA (zoology), a genus of Echinodermaiims
Zoophytes formed by Rolando, and placed by Cuvier in the
tentn order of his first class of Zoophytes, the Echinoderms
iEchinodermtUout radiana) of Lainarck. This tenth order
consists of the Footless Echinoderms^ and Bonellia forms
its sixth genus. Cuvier, who observes that M. Rolando in
liis deiciiptioQ mistakes the Tent for the mouth, an4 vice
versti, says that Bonellia has an oval body and a |irabosrtt
formed of a folded Ueshy plate {la^ne) suscepUbUs of crent
elongation and forked at its extremity. The vent la at the
opposite end of the body : the intestine is very long, bcin^
folded several times, and near the vent are two ramified
organs for the purpose of respiration. The egga are con-
tained in an obiong sac which has its opening near the base
of the probosois.
The animal is described as living deep in the aand, and
projecting its proboscis till it arrives at the water when it m
high, or till it reaches the air when the water is low.
The cut represents Bonellia viridii^ which is ibund io the
Mediterranean
{BonellU rlridla.]
BONET (JOHN PAUL), is said to have baen attached
to the secret service of the king of Spain ; he was also se-
cretary to the constable of Castile, out of fHendsbip towards
whom he undertook the instruction of hia brother, who had
been deaf and dumb from the age of two years. Only one
person is known to have approached to sucoeas in the art of
mstructing deaf-mutes, previous to Bonet This was Pct«r
Ponce, also a Spaniard, and a monk of the order of St. Be-
nedict, who must be regarded as the first instmctor of the
deaf and dumb. It does not appear that Bonet had any
acquaintance with the means pursued by his predecease «r':
he represents himself as the inventor of the methods which
he describes. (De Gerando, De t Education dee Sourds-
MuetSt tom. L p. 312.) 'Great knowledge and UDcomoMm
learning,* says the translator of De I'Eple's method of m-
structing the deaf and dumb, * qualified Bonet for the pro-
vince of tuition ; in which he suooeeded beyond every l^pe.*
The work which he published at Madria in 16S0 is now
very rare : it is entitled Reducdon de las Lettrae^ y arte
para ensenar a hablar los Mudos. It oommencea «ilh
showing that the deaf-mute must be made to distinguish
and to form the letters of the alphabet, which for this
purpose are reduced to their most simple elements. Havmg
remarked that the deaf are only mute by reason of th^ir
deafness, he explains how various kinds of knowledge mmj
be imparted to them by means of sight, to which they are
unable to arrive by the ear. These means are indicated \>j
nature, the language of action being a natural language.
The deaf and dumb who have never associated togecher
would very soon come to understand each other bj tM ca-
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163
BON
ployment of ngni, wVieb thoQBli in Aoiao ^iagtwt JOAlikeat
first, would become modified and assimUated by intercourse.
The auxiliaries which Bonet made use of in the instruction
of deaf-mutes were artificial pronunciation, tbe manual
aipkabit, writing, and gesture or the language ofngm.
Minute details of the proceedings of the instructor on these
WTeral heads are eontained in his work. He taught his
nupiU to understand the Spanish language, and the rules
of grammar. His work fully explains how he proceeded
with the three sorts of words into whioh he divides the lan-
guage, namelyt nouns^ verbs, and conjunctions; and from
the simple name of an object to words which express the
moral dispositions and the aflfections of the hearts The
manner of teaching the different kinds of conjunctions and
verbs is also carefully explained. The philosophical views
presented in the latter portion of his work are replete with
practical utility, and are in many respects similar to those
which are acted upon at the different institutions for the
deaf and dumb* in this and other countries. This is the
work which the AbbS de i'£p6e designates as one of his
'excellent guides* in the earlier part of his experience as
an instructor of the deaf and dumb, and the manual alpha-
bet which the abb^ adopted, and which is al present used
in the institutions on the continent of Europe and in Ame-
rica, is nearly the same as the one given in that work. An
account of the success of Bonet has been left by Sir Kenelm
Digby. in his treatise ' Of Bodies,* from which it appears
that the pupil not only understood others when they spoke,
but also spoke himself so that others could understand him.
' What at the first he was laughed at for made him, after
some years, be looked on as if he had wrought a miracle.
In a word, after strange patience, constancy, and pains, he
brought the young lord to speak as distinctly as any man
whoever ; and to understand so perfectly what others said,
that he would not lose a word in a whole day*s conversation.*
{Of Bodies and qf Maris Soul, chao. 28. p. 319.) Sir Kenelm
Digby and other authors speak or Bonet as a priest : he is
also said to have been in the service of the prince of Carig-
nan, and to have continued his employment as a teacher of
the deaf and dumb for many years.
BONET, THEOPHILUS, an eminent physician, was
bom at Geneva on the 5th of March, 1620. His family
was originally Italian and of noble rank, but his ancestors
had removed from Romo to the south of France about a
century previous, in order to enjoy the free etercise of their
religion. His grandfather being compelled to have recourse
to some means of gaining a livelihocd, chose the profession
of medicine, and obtained such eminence, that he was in-
vited to Turin to become physician to Charles-Emmanuel,
Duke of Savoy. But he appears to have possessed too
much independence of mind to have retained the court fa-
vour, and he consequently removed to Lyons. Here, in
1 556, Andrew Bonet was l>orn. He also practised medicine,
and after losinff his first wife he temoved to Geneva, where,
having mamed a second time, he had two sons, John and
Theophiitis^ The hereditary celebrity of the £imily deter-
mined both to study medicine; but though the former
arrived at great eminence, he left no work to testify his
ability. Tl^ophilus, after having visited many of the most
celebrated universities, took the degree of doctor of medi-
cine in 1643. Soon after this the Duke of Longneville ap-
pointed him his physician, and he quickly rose to eminence
by the saeoess of his treatment
During the course of his practice he was dihgent in col-
lectmg obianations on the progress and terminations of
diseases, 'which formed the basis of his subsequent publica-
tions. His earliest work was ' Pharos Medicorum, id est,
Cautelas Animadversiones et Observationes Practic®,*
Geneva, 1668, 2 vols. 12mo. Each time this work was re-
prmted he enlarged it and altered the title, so that the edi-
tion of 16f 9 was called *Labyrinthua Medicus extricatus,*
4to. Geneva; and that of l'687» *Methodus Yitandorum
Errorum out in Praxi occurrunt* 4to.
Incurable deafiiess having compelled him to retire from
practice, he devoted his time to digesting his observations,
and published his celebrated work, in 1679, entitled ' Se-
ptikhretum, sou Anatomia Practica,' 2 vols, folio, Cteneva,
which MangetuB republished with additions at Geneva in
7700, 3 vols, folio. This formed the basis of the great work
of Morgagni, * De Causis et Bedibus Morborum,* who highly
esteemed the labours of his predecessor. Lieutaud also
availed himself of this valuable repertory of facts in morbid
The other works of Bonet attest his industry, but are of
less utility : * Mercurius Compilatitius, sen Index Medico-
Practicus,' Geneva, 1683, foL; 'Medicina Septentrionalis
CoUatitia,* Geneva, 1685, 2 vols. fol. ; • Polyalthes,' 3 vols,
fol. Geneva, 1690. 1691, 1693. This is a bulky commentary
on ' Johnstoni Syntagma Nosocomices.*
Bonet became subject to dropsy, and died on the 29th of
March, 1689, in the seventieth year of bis age. He pos-
sessed great knowledge, and was distinguished for his mo-
desty and affability. (Eloy, Diciionnaire Historique.)
BONFA'DIO, JA'COPO, was born in the beginning of
the sixteenth century at Gazzano, near Sal6, on the banks
of the lake of Garda. He studied at Padua, and after-
wards proceeded to Rome, where he became secretary to
Cardinal di Bari, with whom he remained tlu-ee years,
which he mentions in his letters as the happiest of his life.
Cardinal di Bari having died, Boufadio entered the service
of Cardinal Ghinucci, but here he met with an enemy
in the person of another dependant of the Cardinal, on
whose account Bonfadio left. He was on the point of going
to Spain with an envoy of the Duke of Mantua to Charles V.
when the envoy suddenly died. He then went to Naples,
where he became intimate with Pietro Camesecchi, who was
afterwards burnt at Rome for heresy. From Naples Bon-
fadio wandered about several parts of Italy, until he was in-
vited by Bembo, who was then living at Padua, to come to his
house, about 1540, and undertake the education of Bembo's
son Torquato. Bonfadio appears to have remained at Padua
five years. From Padua he now and then visited the banks
of his native lake, and also occasionally Coloniola, a villa of
his learned friend Marc Antonio Flaminio. He has praised,
both in his Italian letters and in his Latin verses, the pleasant
scenery of those planes. At one time he had the idea of
founding an Academy on the banks of the lake of Gaida,
and he applied to Count Martinengo and other noblemen of
Brescia to countenance his project. Having accepted in
1^45 the professorship of philosophy in Genoa, he was com-
missioned to write the history of the republic. He began it
from the year 1 528* where Foglietta had closed his narra-
tive, and continued it till the year 1550. The work, which
is written* in Latin, is entitled Ahnalium Genuentium Libri
Quinque, and was published after his death at Pavia, 1586.
It was translated into Italian and published at Genoa the
same year. Both the text and the translation were published
at Brescia, 1 759. In describing the organic changes effected
in the constitution by Andrea Dona in 1528, the conspiracy
of Fieschi, and other then recent events* Bonfadio spoke of
several individuals connected with those factions in a tone
which probably offended their relatives, who were still power^'
ful at Genoa. However this may be, he was arrested in
the year 1550, beheaded in prison, and his body publkly
burnt. Of the contemporary writers who relate this catas-
trophe, some are silent about the charges against him, and
others hint that he was sentenced upon an accusation of
unnatural practices, but in reality through political ani-
mosity, or. as it was called, * reason of state.* Mazzuchelli
gives at length, with his usual accuracy, all these various
authorities, and concludes by leaving the question of Bon-
fadio's guilt involved in doubt, as hb could find no docu-
ments existing at Genoa of the trial. The register of the
prison merely states the sentence, but does not give the
charge. The proceedings of trials at that time were secret,
and even the charges on which capital sentences were
founded were not always made known to the public^ Bon-
fadio's * Genoese Annals' are generally admired for their
style, which in many passages reminds the reader of Sal-
lust. Bonfadio's Italian Letters, already mentioned, have
been collected and published by Mazzuchelli, Brescia, 1 746.
They are considered among the best specimens of Italian
epistolary composition, and are also interesting for the de-
scriptions of places, manners, and incidents. He also
wrote Camdna. 12mo.» Verona, 1740; Rime^ which are
praised by Creacimbeni, and are found scattered in va
rious collections ; and an Italian translation of Cioero pro
Milone.
BONIFACE I. was elected bishop of Rome after the
death of Zosimus, a.d. 419. Part of the clergy^ supported
by Symmachus, prefect of Rome, elected EulaUus, but the
Emperor Honorius. who was then at Ravenna, confirmed
Boniface's election. Several letters from Boniface to the
bishops of Gaul, concerning matters of discipline, and to
the bishops of Africa, who would not allow of appeals to the
see of Rome, are in Constant a ooUeetkni, and gi?e a &v0iir-
N0.29L
[THK PENNY CVCLOPiBDIA.]
Digitizei
^Qi¥>gle
BON
154
BOH
alikf (fpinUm of Us eh«taetet and letrnififi;. He fllMrrtad
the authority of the Roman see oter the churches of Illy-
ricmn, upon which contested point there are letters extant
from Boniface to Rufus, bishop of Thessalonica, and also
between the two emperors, Aivadius and Honoiius. Boni-
fiu» died A.D. 423, and was succeeded bv Celcstinus I.
BONIFACE II. succeeded Felix IV. in 530. It is
recorded of him that, althouf^h a native of Rome, he was the
son of a Goth. His was also a disputed election. Part of
the Roman clergy assembled in the Basilica Julia chose
Dioscoms, while the rest met in the Basilica of Constan-
tino for the election of Boniface. The schism lasted only
twenty-eight days, when Dioscorus fell ill and died. Boni-
face passed several regulations against bribery in the elec-
tions of bishops, and he also condemned the practice of a
bishop appointing his own successor. Platina, Vitee Pontif.
He died in 532, and was succeeded by John II.
BONIFACE III. was elected in March, 607, and died in
November of the same year. He obtained of the Emperor
Fhocas the acknowledgment of the supremacy of the see of
Rome over all other churches. This circumstance renders
his pontificate remarkable. He was succeeded by
BONIFACE IV., who consecrated the Pantheon, having
first removed the images of the heathen gods, and dedi-
cated it to the Virgin Mary and all the martyrs. He
transformed his paternal house in the country of the Marsi
into a monastery, on which he bestowed all his propertv.
He died in 615, and was buried in St. Peter's church.
Boniface has been canonized by the church of Rome. He
was succeeded by Deusdedit, who was himself succeeded
in 619 by
BONIFACE v., a Neapolitan, who died in 622, and was
succeeded by Honorius I. i
BONIFACE VI., a native of Tuscany, and son of the
Bishop Adrian, succeeded Formosus in 895, and died fifteen
days after his election. He was succeeded by Stephen VII.
bONIFACE VII., Cardinal Franco or Francone, was
elected in a popular tumult, when Benedict VI. was seized
and strangled in 974. Boniface himself was expelled from
Rome in the following year, having incurred general de-
testation through his licentiousness and cruelty. Boniface
is not considered a legitimate pope, though his name is re-
gistered as such in most chronological tables. He returned
to Rome in 985, and put John XI Y. in prison, where he died
of hunger, as it is reported. Boniface again assumed the
papal dignity, which he retained a few months, till August
of the same year, when he died, and John XV. was elected
pope.
BONIFACE VI1I.« Cardinal Benedetto Gaetani of
Anagni, succeeded in January, 1294, Celestine V., whom he
had persuaded to abdicate on the ground of incapacity, and
whom he afterwards confined in the castle of Furaone, where
Celrstine died a few months after, under suspicious circum-
stances. Boniface interposed between Charles II. of Anjou,
king of Naples, and James of Aragon and of Sicily, and
made the latter consent to give up Sicily to Charles. But
the Sirihans would not be surrendered to their hereditary
enemy ; they proclaimed Frederic, James's brother, their
king, and resisted both the arms of Charles and the in-
trigues and the threats of Boniface, who launched his excom-
munications against them without effect. In 1297 James
of Aragon came to Rome and was induced by Boniface to
turn his arms against his brother Frederic, on which con-
dition the pope granted him the investiture of the crown of
Sardinia.
In the contest about the succession to the German em-
pire, after the death of Rudolf of Hapsburg, Boniface took
the part of Adolf of Nassau against Albert of Austria,
Rudolfs son. At the same time Boniface waged a war of
destruction against the Colonna, a powerful feudal family,
which held possession of several towns and estates in the
countries of Rome and Naples. The origin of this quarrel
is not clearty ascertained. It appears that two cardinals of
the house of Colonna had opposed Boniface's election, and
afterwatds refused to admit papal garrisons into their castles.
Bomfaoe accused them of having dissipated the treasures of
the church, of holding correspondence with Frederic of
Sicily, and other charges. The two cardinals wrote to the
French and other kings against Boniface, complaining of
liis arrogance, and questioning the validity of his election.
Upon this the pope excommunicated the whole family of
Colonna and tbeir adherents, ealUng them heretics, and
cbcUnng that they had forfeited their honours and estates
slid property of etefy soft. Furthef, lie fvoelaiflieQ ft cvo*
sade against them, besieged Preneste, whicb he took aiii
razed to the ground; and he destroyed likewise Zagaiulo
and Colonna, fiefs of the same family. The two carduiaU
escaped to France, and Sciarra their unelc was oYdigcd
to conceal himself in the forests near Aneio, whence i.e
afterwards escaped by sea only to fkll into the hands uf
pirates.
Boniface proelaimed the first jubilee in the year 1.1(h>,
granting by a hull a plenary indulgence to all those « Im
should visit the sanctuaries of Rome in that year. T^m
attracted an immense multitude of foreigners to Rome. The
historian Villani, who went there himself, reckons ilie
number of strangers at 200,000 at one time, and tlie chr>-
nicle of Asti states the number of all those who %udti*cl
Rome during that year at two millions. This jubilee
brought to Rome a vast quantity of money. Before Boni-
face's time plenary indulgence had been granted only \o
those who went to the crusades for the deliverance of the
Holy Land.
Boniface, still aiming at the reduction of Sicily, sent for
Charles de Valois, brother of Philip le Bel, kinj; of France.
On arriving at Florence Charles supported the faction of
the Nert, by which Dante and many others were exiicd.
He then went over to Sicily, but after a desultonr warfare
peace was made, and Frederic was acknowledged as kin^
of Trinacria in 1303, on condition of his paying to the
Roman see a tribute of 3000 onze, or I5,00u florins. A
serious quarrel soon after broke out between the pope and
Philip le Bel. The pope pretended to share with the km;;
the tithes levied on the clergy : he also created the Tit*
bishoprick of Pamiers without the king's consent, and he
appointed the bishop his legate in France. The bisliup
bebavod insolently to the king, who arrested him and gave
him in charge to the Archbishop of Nar bonne. Upon this
Boniface excommunicated the king, placed his kingdom
under interdict, and wrote to Albert of Austria. confirmiM,c
his election and inviting him to make war against France.
Philip assembled the stales of the kingdom and laid before
them twenty-nine charges against the pone, aoeusing him
of simony, of heresy, of licentiousness, ana even of sorrery,
and appealing to a general council of the church. Some ^f
the chaiges were either invented or exaggerated bv Philip,
who was a most unprincipled man, although at the same
time Boniface's conauct was far from irreproachable. TIr*
next measure of the pope was to proclaim all Phihp*s aub>
jects released from their allegiance. The king resolving to
put an end to this to him dangerous struggle, sent GuilUume
de Nogaret, a bold unscrupulous man, to Italy, witk moiH'y
and letters for the partizans of the Colonna and the other
enemies of the pope. Nogaret was joined by Sciarra, « h«>
had escaped from captivity. The pope w4s at Anagoj,
when Nogaret and Sciarra suddenly entered the town til-
lowed by armed men, overcame the pope*s guards, and
arrested Boniface himself. Nogaret was for taking him U>
Lyons, where the council was to assemble; but Sciam lu
sisted upon Boniface abdicating, abused him. and e\<n
struck the old man with his gauntlet Boniface behave «!
with dignity and firmness ; he was kept three days in con-
finement, during which it is said he would not take any
food. At last Cardinal del Fiesco induced the people of
Anagni to rise and deliver the pontiff, and Sciaira and
Nogaret were obliged to leave the town. Bontfaoe re-
turned to Rome, but his health had leoeived so severe a
shock, that he fell ill and died, October, 1303, after about
nine years of a most turbulent pontificate. P. Dumiy and
A. Baillet have written the history of the qnarrel betneen
Boniface and Philip le Bel. Bomfaoe was one of the naa
strenuous assertors of the assumed supremaov of the pope
over princes and nations in temporal as well as spiritual
matters. He was an inveterate persecutor of the GuiMines,
for which Dante has alluded to him at length in canto
xxvii. of the * Inferno.*
BONIFACE IX., Cardinal Pietro Tomaoelli, a Nca-
politun by birth, was elected in 1369 by the i^w<i«^l» at
Rome af^er the death of Urban VI. This was the tOBc oc
the great Western schism as it is called, which began Lc*
tween Urban and Clement, styled the VII th, who held hte
court at Avignon. Clemeut having died in I394t the car-
dinals of his party elected Pedro de Luna by the name of
Benedict XIII. Boniface however continued to 9xvm*m
the papal authority at Rome, regardless of the Ai^gooa
popes and conokves. Sndeavoun wcve mde W saT^mi
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
fiON
155
BON
|0 Hi— iHr a Manoil and* pul fti? and to the
lobifDirtMift baih Bontfaia and Banedict were avene to this
Bonifcoa diad at Rona in 1404, and was saeoaeded by
Inaoeent VII. ' The ohurah of Rome has evar since ac-
knowMgad Uiten and Bonifaoa and thair successors as
legiiimata popas, and oonaidared Clament and Benedict as
snti-popes. [BairxDicT, Anti-popb.]
During his poniillaatoof nearly flftaen years Boni&ca was
involved in the Italian wan of that turbulent period. Ha
flrst faTOured tke eUmna of the Angevins to the throne of
Naples, but aftarmda recognised the more fortunate
Ladislaus aa king. Perugia and other towns of Umbrla
and the M ardiea acknowledged the pope as their suzerain
in BoniiMe'a tine. Bont&ae ia charged with being addicted
to a worldly poliay, having satsad upon the ecclesiastical
r«fvanues for tamporai pucpoias, and anri^iad his brother^
and nephews.
BONIPACS, SAINT, a nativa of Devonshire, was born
about A.D. 61)0. Ha became a monk> and lesided for a time
in a convent at Sonthampion, where he acquired reputation
for learning and piety. When thirtv-iixVears of age ha
set out for Rome, where ha expressod to Pope Gregory II.
his wish to preaah the gospel to the heathen nations of
Germany, whexa two of hia oonntrymen, Wilfred and Willi-
brod, from Northumberland, as well as Kilian, an Irish
bishop, had preceded him. The pope having sanctioned
his vocation, BoHifaea joinad Wiliihrod in Frisia, from
whence he repaired to Thuringia, Franoonia, and other
parts of oenlrai Germany. Tfam he found a strange mix-
ture of tdolatroas and Ghrisiian ntes, and the people plunged
in ignonuiee and barbarism. For more than thirty yean
he laboured in oonverting and civilizing the rude natiyes,
and ha well deserved the title which has been given him of
' the Apostle of Germany.* Ha founded four cathedrals,
Erfrirt,' Bonaberg, Aiehatadt and Wiirsburg, with a school
attached to eaoh, and ha established numerous monasteries
both for monks and nuna. These monaaterias were generally
built upon uncultivated grounds, which were cleared and
tilled by tlie new inmates, and thus agriouUure kept pace
with the diffusion of Christianity. The monastery of Fulda,
founded by SCarm, one of Boniface*s disciples, was the means
of reclaiming a vast traot of ground which had been till
tlien oovered by foresta. In discussing in our days the
question of the use and abuse of monastie institutions, we
oufirht not to overtook the fbct, that monka were the great
ei>ili2erB of modem Europe in the dark ages which followed
the destruction af the Roman Empire. Boniface was made
archbishop af Mains, and metropolitan of all the new die-
oetea on the right bauk of the Rhine. He sent for mis-
sionaries fmra Britain to assist him in his arduous task, and
Wilitbald* Wunibakl. Burehard, LuUus, Lebuin, Willihad,
and the nuns Lioba, Theda, Walberg and other^ obeyed
his summons. Bonifoce was supported by Carloman, and
afterwards by P^pin, sons of Charles Martel, whose authority
or influence extended over a oonsiderable part of Germany.
' Without the protection of the Frank prince (he observes
in one oT his letter^ to his friends at Winchester) I could
neither govern the people nor protect the priests and vir-
gins confueerated la God ; without his prohibitions, without
the penalties which he denounces on those who refuse to
obey me, ^aia would be the attempt in this canntry to abolish
heathen oeremonies or idolatrous sacrifices.* iEpitioia 8.
Bffnffam, ouoCed bv Dunham in History of the Germanic
Empire, vol. ii.) In reading tlie regulationa of Boniface
for the diaetpline of his Hocks, we are enabled to judge of
the low state of morality which he found in Garmany, of the
difficulties he had to encounter, not only on the part of the
heathens, bat from the converts themselves, and of the
beneficial effecta which bis injunctions and example must
have had on the people at large. In 755 Boniface again
v!«ited Frista, a country still in great meaaure pagan.
Havmgr assembled a multitude of conveits he pitched tents
in a field fbr the purpose of giving themoonfirmation, when
a band of heathens f4M upon the encampment, and killed
or dispersed the congregation. Boniface waa among the
kiHed. ( yit& 8, Bonifadi in Mabillon, torn, iv., and Dun-
hamV Hintmy of the Germanie Empire,)
BONIFAX3IO. a town of Corsica, on the S. extremity of
Ihe island, fhcing tbe coast of Sardinia. It ia a fortified
tnwn, has a good haibour, and about 3,000 tnhahitanta.
Th« town is buHt on a hill wiik^ '^
nifeeio w^ erigteiaHy «
into the aaa. Bo-
inlhaldlh
century. The country near Bonifacio is one of the most
fertile and pleasant districts of Corsica. It produces com,
fruit, and has good pastures. Bonifacio is 44 m. S.£. o.
Ajacdo. in 41'' 23' N. lat. and 9° 10' E. long.
BONIFA'CIO, STRAITS OF, divide Sardinia from Cor-
sica. The narrowest part between Longosardo in Sardinia and
the southernmost point of Corsica, £. of the town of Boni-
facio, is about 10 m. wide. At the £. entrance of the Straits
are several clusters of islands, the principal of which is the
Island of Maddalena, belonging to Sardinia. Near the
Corsican coast is the Island of Cavallo, and between that
and Maddalena is Santa Maria^ with several other islets
and rocks, which make the Mediterranean sailors in general
avoid passing through the Straits, unless they are compelled.
The land on both sides of the Straits is mountainous. The
islands in these Straits were noted for contraband trade
during the maritime war in the time of Napoleon.
BONIN, or ARZOBISPO ISLANDS, a group of
ialanda in tbe North Pacific, lying about N. by £., extend-
inff from %t 44' N. lat., seen as far to the southward as
26 30', and probably running much farther in that di-
rection. In longitude the known portion is comprised be-
tween 143'' and 144° £. long. The only account of thaaa is
from the visit of the Bbssom in 1627 ; and Captain Beechey
observes that they correspond so well with the description
of a group called Yslas del Arzobispo in a work published
many years ago at Manilla {Naingacion Especulativa y
PrcUica), as to leave no doubt of their being the same. They
had been expunged from the chart dl but three, called
Los Volcanos, as Gore, Perouse, and Kruzenstem had passed
to the N. and S. without seeing any other than these ; but
in 1823 they reai^ared in Arrowsmith's map.
They consist of three distinct groups : the northern, called
Parry's Group, are mostly small islands and rocks. The
central, called Baily's Group, consists of larger islands, sepa-
rated from each other by narrow and deep ^nneb. In the
southern group the islands appear to be stiU larger and
higher, but of this portion little is known, as Captain
Beechey had not time to examine them. It appears that in
1823 a whale-ship commanded by Mr. Coffin anchored
among this southern group, and that Mr. C. gave his name
to tlie port, and was the first who furnished any certain in-
form aiion concerning this arcnipelago.
The islands are of volcanic formation, and smoke is seen
to issue from some of them : they are steep and high, and
wooded to the shores. The coasts are steep and craggy -
in many places basaltic columns of a grey or greenish
hue appear, resembling the Giant's Causewav in minia-
ture ; olivine, hornblende, and chalcedony are found. The
islands are surrounded with sharp rugeed rocks, and
often with eoral reefs: the water around them is very
deep< They are quite uninhabited, but at the time of the
Blo8aom*s visit two of the crew of a whaler which had been
wrecked in Port Lloyd were living on one of tiie islands,
and had got a piece of ground under cultivation. The reat
of the crew had been taken off ^j another whal^, but these
two preferred remaining. The islands abound in the
cabbage and fan palms, the former of which is an ex*
eellent vegetable, areca, pandanus, tamanu of Otaheite, anrl
various other trees : the sea also contains abundance of turtle
ray, eels, cray-fish, and a groat variety of others, of the
moat beautiful colours. Of birds, there are brown herons,
plover, rails, snipe, wood-pigeons, crows, and small birds ;
also a species of vampire bat, some of which measured
three feet across the extended wings, with a body eight
or nine inches in length. No quadn^eds were seen. The
islands are subject to eatthquakes, and in winter to violent
storms, in one of which (January, 1826) the water rose
twelve feet in Port Uoyd. The currents about tha islands
run very strong, and priadpaUy to the northward.
The name Bonin, l^ which they are known on our BMpa,
is derived from Japanese accounts of a group called Bon-in
Sima ; but setting aside the geographioal inaceuraey of the
positicm thero assigned them, it appears from the daaeription
given by M. Ab^ RemMsat, in the Journal 4i$ Swatu^
September, 1817, that these casnot be the awaie. They
appear to abound in good harbours* and are now frequently
visited by whalers, who go to them fer turtle, fish, and the
cabbage palm. (Beecheys Foyage to ihe Pacific md
Behring'e Straits.)
BONN, one of the elevan minor circles af the cirele ot
Cologne, which forms that part of the Rhenidi praviimM
hplongipg Aa tks onwn of Pniaaia, m hioh is dnaigna^ ' *
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province of Clevea, Juliera, and Berg.' It consists of a por*
tion of the former posseHsions of the archhishops of Cologne,
and contains within an area of about 105 square miles, 1 town,
58 villages, and 28 hamlete, 78 churches and other places
of worship, 114 public buildings, and about 6800 private
dwelling-houses. The Rhine, with the exception of the
burgomastership of Vilich, which lies on the right bank
of that river, is its eastern boundary. The soil is
throughout productive, and favourable to the growth of all
descriptions of grain; the average annual produce of which
in good years is estimated at about 393,800 Berlin bushels,
or 72,800 British imperial quarters. Wine and tobacco are
also raised. The population, which was 35,202 in 1816,
38,952 in 1825, and 42.447 in 1831, is at present about
44,800. Exclusive of the chief town and university, the
circle contains one gymnasium, and one Protestant and
forty-four Roman Catholic national or elementary schools.
In every forty inhabitants there is not more than about
one ^testant. The burgomastership of Bonn, one of the
nine into which the circle is divided, contains the town
and university of the same name, a place of some antiquity,
situated on a gentle eminence, in a pleasant and fertile
country, on the left bank of the Rhine. In records of a
remote date it was called Bunna, a word which Amdt de-
rives from the Celtic 'Buhn,* a spot containing productive
fields, pastures, and water-courses. Bonna became the
head -quarters of the sixth Roman legion, and, according to
Antoninus's 'Itinerary,' was afterwards kept up as one of
the Roman strong-holds on the Rhine. It rose ultimately to
be a place of some note, and was attached to the seeond of
the Germanic pro%inces A..D. 70. According to Tacitus {Hist
iv. 20), the Romon troops under Hcrennius Gallus were de-
feated near Bonn by the Batavians under Claudius Civilis :
the ditches of the place were filled with dead bodies, and
numbers were slain during the confusion by the an-ows of
their brother combatants. JSonna and Novesiuni (or Neuss)
are repeatedly mentioned in the subsequent lu-couut of
the Batavian contest as places where the Rinnan ge-
nerals mustered their forces. Bonn is less frequently
almded to after this time : it is affirmed by some, though
scarcely on sufficient grounds, to have embraced Chris-
tianity in the 88th year of the Christian sera, in conse-
quence of the preaching of Maternus, bishop of Cologne ; and
it is known that Helena, the mother of Constantino the
Great, about the year 316 built the church in this town, on
tho site of which' the Minster church was afterwards built.
In the year 355 Bonn was destroyed by an irruption of Ger-
man tribes, and in 359 was rebuilt by the Emperar Julian.
Under the Prankish sovereigns it is said to have borne the
name of Verona : in 755 Charlemagne crossid the Rhine at
Bonn, in his second campaign again^^t the Saxons ; and in
881 it was almost ruined by the Normans. In 1240 it was
surrounded with walls and a ditch by the archbishop of Co-
logne, who conferred a variety of immunities upon it : from
the year 1320 it was the constant residence of the arch-
bishops of Cologne. The Emperor Charles IV. was crowned
here in 1346, about which time it had risen into sufficient
importance to conclude a treaty of defensive alliance with
Cbiogne and other towns on the Rhine, when it under-
took to funiish an auxiliary force of 500 men. During the
Thirty years* war Bonn was exposed to great sufferings and
vicissitudes. In 1673 the French, who had possessed them-
selves of the place, were besieged in it by the prince of
Orange and Montecuculi, and surrendered after a slight
resistance : having regained possession of It fifteen years
afterwards, they extended and greatly strengthened iu de-
fences. In 1689 it was taken by Frederic III., elector of
Brandenburg, after a three-months' siege ; and in 1 703 was
captured by the duke of Marihorough, the operations of the
siege having been conducted by the celebrated Marshal
Coeborn. The fortifications were razed in 1717; and in
1777 Maximilian Frederic, elector of Cologne, founded the
academy, which was enUiged into a university in 1784.
This university was dissolved by the French, and remained
in abeyance while they held Bonn in Napoleon's time, but
was re-established upon a more extensive scale by ttfe pre-
sent king of Prussia, on the 1 8th October, 1818, the twenty-
fourth article of the act of the congress of Vienna having
transferred it to him as part of the provinces of the Rhine.
The town of Bonn has the Rhine for its eastern boun-
dary : it is skirted oa the south bv the former electoral
paUoe, and on the north and west by the Minster church,
•od t fUooNtion of gaidens which stretch at far as the
banks of the river. It has at present fbe appearanee rather
of a modem than of an antient town* and though it cannot
be termed a well-built pUioe, for several of the streets are
narrow and ill-lighted, iU appearance at a distance, with us
white palaee, now the university building, the steeples
behind, and the gardens all round it, is cheerful and pl«a.<(-
ing. The air is at times Ueak and cold, in consequence ot
the currento occasioned by the heights that hang over lU
low site, which is placed at the point where the Rhine
emerges from between those heighU; the evaporation from
the river also renders the atmosohere damp. Bonn forms
a circular figure of nearly eoual diameter from north to
south and east to west : the cistance from the Cologne ia
the Cobleaz gate does not exceed ten or twelve minutes* mo-
derate walk. It contains above 1 100 houses, built in a sub-
stantial manner, twenty-nine nublio edifices, eight churclie!»
and chapels, nine mills and manufactories, five gat«^,
and a population of about 12,000 (1789. 9ft60; 1800. 86JJ ;
1811,9167; 1823, 10,860; and 1828, 11,526), besides Uie
garrison, and between 700 and 800 students. The inha*
bitants derive the principal means of their subsistence
from the university, from their fields, gardens, and vine-
yards. The chief manufactures in the town are cotton^,
silks, and sulphuric acid. The buildings without the
gate are on the increase, and so disposed, under the ui*
rection of- a board of embdlishment iVerschvnerung*'
cofumission)^ as to be ornamental to the town. Auon:;
the open areas the market-place is the most spacious ; but
the square planted with trees next the Minster, antl
thence called the Minster-square, is the finest. There ts
no public edifice iu Bonn to be compared with the Miu^ier
or church of St. Cassius, an antient Gothic structure, pru-
bahly of the twelfth or thirteenth century. In the in-
terior is a bronze statue of St. Helena, kneeling at the
feet of the cross, as well as bassorilien in white marble,
representing the birth and baptism of the Saviour. In
the church of St. Remigius, there is a fine altarpiece m
oils, in which Spielberg the painter has represented the
baptism of Clovis, king of the Franks, by the patron
saint. The town-hall, which is on one side of the markc:-
place, is a handsome edifice in the modern st)1e, with
a double flight of stone steps in flront. Bonn has also a
gA'mnasiura ; is the seot of the superior board of mme«
for the Rhenish possessions of Prussia, of two tribunsU Wtt
civil and criminal aflfairs, and of a central department fiir
taxes and crown revenues. Among other scientific asM^*
ciations it possesses an academy of naturalists, styled * the
I^^opold- Caroline Academy* (which was first instituted al
Schweinfurt in 1652, received extensi^'e privileges from the
emperors l^opold I. and Charles VII., was afterwards f«-
moved to Erlangen, and ultimately transferred to this plat«
in 1818), and the society of the J^wer Rhine for promounfr
the sciences of natural history and medicine* Upon the rv-
establishment of the university in the year 1818, Fredern*-
William, the present king of Prussia, appropriated the
electoral palace at the southern end of the town to aca-
demical purposes ; in the rescript under which it wa^ rc-
0))encd his majesty expresses his expectatkin tliat *tl4
university will proceed in the spirit of the act for iu endnw*
ment, and promote true piety, sound learning, and »Ih>1(>-
some morals among the youth resorting to it for stud>.
It received the title of * the Rhenish University of Frederic-
William,' in the year 1828, and is composed of fi\'efacu It k'>,
Protestant theology, Roman Catholic theology, medu-iue.
jurisprudence, and philosophy. There are attached lo i;
forty professors in ortiinary, and ten acyuncts iau9.teroni>^ul'
liche Pm/essoren)^ und four seminaries, vis., one for studootft
of Protestant theology, and another for students of bomtlei'C
catechetical Protestant theology, a third for philological
students, and a fourth for the natural seiences. It ha» a
library of about 80.000 volumes, a medical institute for chn>r,
and another for poly-clinic, with which an establishment At
the cure of invalid students is combined, a clinicum f.^r
surgery and diseases of tlie eye, another for obstetncK, an
anatomical theatre and museum, a cabinetof surgical in-
struments, an agricultural institute, a botanical garden, a
museumof natural history, geological collections, an appa-
ratus for natural and experimental philosophy, a museum of
antiquities, &c., and an observatory. At a distance of h'^^^
than fifteen minutes walk from the town lies the country
residence of the former electors of Cologi'e, Clenaen5nihe«
near the village of Poppelsdorf, which contains the co]lec«-
tions in natural hxstory» geology» fso^ the chspucal ami
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teehnologieal kboratory, the oollectionB belonging to the
Leopold-Caroline Academy, a gallery of paintings and tn*
gravings, and lecture-rooms, besides apartments for the
accommodation or use of the offioeia and professors. The
university opened in the autumn of 1818, with forty-five
students; at the close of 1826 they amounted to 1002; at
th&tof 1829, to 923 ; but the numbers at the end of 1834
had declined to 887. There are five elementary schools
in the town, as well as a free-school for 300 poor ohiidren,
several private cabinets of coins, engravings, &c., an e&cel-
lent library of sdentific publications and a mineralogical
collection attached to the board of mining, and several
benevolent institutions. The agricultural institute, with
an area of 120 acres devoted to its purposes, and a ma-
nufactory of earthenware and pottery, are likewise situated
at Poppelsdorf. Bonn lies in 50^ 44' N. lat., and 9° 44'
£. lonrr.
BONNEFOY or BONFIDIUS, EDMUND, a writer
on Oriental law, or law of the Eastern Empire, was bom 20th
October, 1 536, at Chabeuil near Valence, in France. Having
applied himself to the law, he was early appointed ooUeague
to the celebrated Cujaclus, in the chair of law, in the uni-
versity of Valence, in which situation Cujaeius thought so
highly of his virtues, and also of his talents and acquire-
ments, as in one of his works to declare that, were he on his
death-bed, and asked, like Aristotle, to name his successor,
he could name none but Bonnefoy. Bonnefoy was neai*
bein^ assassinated in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and
was only rescued from the fury of the people by his friend
Cujucius. He then went to Greneva, where, having been
appointed to a chair, he lecture<l three times a week on
Oriental jurisprudence,^ a chair for which he was eminently
qualified by his knowledge of the languages, particularly
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. In 1573 be published 'Juris
Orientalis libri tres, ImperatorisB Constitutiones,* &c. The
Greek text was accompanied by a Latin translation by
the author, and was meant to comprise the laws civil and
ccoleHiastical of the Eastern or Greek empire. The first
hook contains the constitutions of the emperors of the East,
from Heraclius to Michael Palneologus; the secoud con-
tains tlio decrees of the archbishops and patriarchs of
Constantinople ; and the third the decrees and letters of the
other patriarchs and pontifl^s. Bonnefoy died at Geneva,
bih February, 1574, being then about thirty-eigiit years of
A^. The historian DeThou, who studied under him, gives
him an excellent character, calling him ' homo probus et
simplex.* ( De Thou, Hist. lib. 59 ; V erdier, Bibl. Franfoise,
torn. vi. ; Senebier, Liti, Uisi, da Gemve, torn, iu p. 7 ;
M'Crie's Melv., toI. i. p. 45.)
BONNEA, EDMUND, Bishop of London, died 1569.
He was bom at Hanley in Worcestershire, and according
to tradition was the natural son of a priest named Savage
)ty Elisabeth Frodaham, who afterwards married Edmund
Bonner, a sawyer at Hanley. Strype, who wrote in 1721,
asserts that he was the legitimate son of this Bonner, citing
as his authority Baron Lechmon, whose ancestor had been
ail intimate fnend and patron of the bishop. The opinion
<>r Bonner's contemporaries was that Savage was his father.
An epigram written on tbe picture of him in Fox's * Acts
and Monuments' whipping Thomas Hinsbaw, says,
' Noneo nrc matm, nee gent ilia pakrit,
Qni p«kt« SttTaco nabu. falso que Bonrrus
Dicilur : hunc melius dtxeris Orbilitim.'
In the year 1512 he was admitted a student at Pembroke
CoUegei Oxford (then Broad-Gate Hall), where in 1519 he
took on two sucoessive days the degrees of Bachelor of the
Canon and Civil Laws, and he was^rdained about the same
time. In 1525 he was admitted to the degree of doctor,
ftod had acquired a high reputation as a canonist, so that
Cardinal Wolsey made him one of his chaplains and mas-
ter of his faculties and jurisdictions. In consequence of
the»e offices, Bonner was attending on the cardinal at
Cawood, where the latter was arrested ; and Stow mentions
that, at the very moment when Sir John Walsh mounted liis
honie to proceed to Cawood with the king's warrant for
Wolsey *s airest, the cardinal and his household were at
dinner in the haJl at Cawood, and his great cross fell on the
bead of Bonner and drew blood ; wherewith Wolsey said,
shaking his head, * Malum omen \ and saying grace, with-
drew to his chamber ; * and so/ says Stow, 'this must needs
be taken lor a sign or token of that which followeth/
Soon afterwards we find Bonner cluipkiu to Henry VlII.,
inoumbent of th» livings of Blaydou and Cherry Burton in
Yoricsbire, of Ripple ki Wn^oestershire, and of East Dei^
ham in Norfolk, and a prebendary of St. Paurs. Much of
this promotion was due to the favour of Cromwell, whose
schemes for the reformation of religion Bonner promoted.
In 1533 he was sent a second time to the pope, who was
then at Marseilles, to appeal to a general council against
Clement's decree of excommunication against Henry VIII.
on account of the divorce ; and Burnet says that * Bonner
delivered the threatenings that he was ordered to make
with so much vehemency and fury, that the pope talked of
throwing him into a cauldron of melted lead, or burning
him alive ; and he, apprehending some danger, made his
escape.* In 1538 he was made bishop of Hereford whilst
he was on an embassy to Paris, and before his consecration
he was titmslated to London and took his commission from
the king in 1540.
Thus far Bonner not only concurred in, but zealously pro-
moted the Reformation, and the separation from Rome.
But when death had removed the despot whose ungovern-
able temper seems to have obtained submission even from
men of virtue and of ordinary firmness, Bonner's compliance
ceased; he protested against Cranmer*s injunctions and
homilies, and scrupled to take the oath of supremacy. For
these offences he was committed to the Fleet, from which
however upon submission he was soon afler released. From
this time Bonner was so negligent in all that related to the
Reformation as to draw on himself, in two instances, the
censure of the privy council ; but as he had committed no
offence which subjected him to prosecution, the council, ac-
cording to tlie bad practice of those times, required him to
do an act extraneous from his ordinary duties, knowing that
he would be reluctant to perform it. They made him preach
a sermon at Paul's Cross on four points. One of these
Bonner omitted, and commissioners were accordingly ap-
pointed to try him, before whom he appeared seven days. At
the end of October, 1549, he was committed to the Mar-
shalsea, and deprived of his bishopric. What he said during
his defeune is characteristic of the man and of the times :
* Wlitire I preached and affirmed the very true body and
blood of our Saviour Jesus Christ to be in die sacrament of
the altar tbe self-same in substance that was hanged and
shed upon the cross, be (Hooper), hke an ass (as he is an
ass indeed), falsely changed and turned the word that into
aSf like an ass, saying that I had said as it hanged, and as
it was shed upon the cross.' At another time he said to one
of his accusers that he spake like a goose, and to another,
that he spake like a woodcock.
After the death of Edward VI. Bonner was restored by
Queen Mary. His first acts were to deprive the married
priests in his diocese, ' and set up the mass in St Paul's'
before the queen's ordinance to that eflfecL It would be
tedious to fiillow him in all the long list of executions fw
rcligion, which make the history of that reign a mere nar-
rative of bloodshed. Fox enumerates 125 persons burnt in
his diocese and through his agency during this reign ; and
a letter from him to Cardinal Pole (dated at Fulham, 26th
December, 1556) is copied by Holinshed, in which Bonner
justifies himself fur proceeding to the condemnation of
twenty-two heretics who had been sent up to him from Col-
chester. These persons were saved by the influence of
Cardinal Pole, who checked Bonner's sanguinary activity.
When Queen Elizabeth succeeded totlie throne, Bonner,
with the other bishops, went to meet her at Highgate (19th
November, 1558), * who kneeling (says Stow) acknowledged
their allegiance, which she very graciously accepted, giving
to every of them her hand to kiss except Bishop Bonner,
which she omitted for sundry severities in the time of his
authority.'
In May, 1559, he was summoned before the privy council,
and on the oath of supremacy being tendered, and his re-
fusal to take it, he was deprived a second time of his
bishopric and indicted for a prsemunire. He escaped the
penalties attached to this charge, but he was confined for the
rest of his Ufe to the Marshalsea, where he died on Sep-
tember 5th, 1569.
The public acts of Bonner's life sufficiently show the cha-
racter of the man ; but there are anecdotes of him which
afford additional proof, if anjr were wanting, that a certain
gaiety of temper is not inconsistent with cruelty. When he
was taken to the Marshalsea from the council where the
oath had been administered to him, a man exclaimed—* The
Lord confound or else turn thy heart !' Bonner answered
* The Lord send thee to keep thv breath to cool U^r porridge*
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AlUr hif dcfprivftlioii a mtn coiXki «ut to liifli^' Good mot'
rov» Bishop quondam :* ' Farowell/ ansvered he, * knavo
semper/
Boraet §ay& of him thai be liUle understood divinity* but
was a great master of the canon law, wherein he was e:^-
celled by very few in his time.
Besides the autliorities quoted above, Wood s * Athens
Oxoniensea* and the * Btographia Britannica* contain valu-
able notices of Bonner : the article in the latter is written
with p^eat care (Dr. Kippis's edition).
BONNET, a name applied, in permanent fortification,
to a work consisting of two faces forming with each otlier a
salient angle, on the plan. It was employed to cover the
angle of a ravelin when the faces only of the latter were
protected by ienailhtu or lunettes: tho fire from the bonnet
defends the fronts and salient angles of the tenaillons, and
the faces of the former work are reciprocally defended by
those of the latter. [Tbnaillon.] When the parapet about
the salient angle of any work, as a bastion or ravelin, is
raised above the general level of the faces of the worii,
the elevated part is no«rcalled a bonnet.
BONNET DS PRETRE was a term in field fortifica-
tion, allied by the French engineers to an indented line
of parapet having three salient points, on account of some
ai^posed rasemmanoe to the object from which it was
named. [Rbdan.]
BONNE'TABLB, or BONNESTABLS, a amaU town
in France, in the department of Sarthe, on a cross-road
from Mortagne and BeU^me to Le Mans, 17 miles N.E.
of Ls Mans, the capital of the department, and 1 10 S.W. of
Paris, through Dreux and Belldme : in 48° 10' N. lat., and
0° 24' B. long. It was formerly called Makstable, as
aflTording insumoient accommodation for travellors ; but the
former lorda of the town having made it more populous
and more secure, by surrounding it with walls, changed
its designation to its present more fovourable one. (Piganiol
do la Force.) There is a castle, built in the fifteenth cen-
tury by Jean D Harcourt, flanked by round towers. The
inhabitants in 1832 amounted to 3872 for the town, or 5803
for the whole commune. They manufacture druggets, cot-
ton goods, and hosiery : the market is well supplied with
grain and cattle. The corn*market appears to have been
oonsiderable in the early part of the last centur>\
BONNY, a river which falls into the Bi^ht of Biafra, be-
tween 5° and 4° SO' N. lat., and near 7® £. long. It was
kmg conaidered a sepajcate river, and is so represented on
our maps. But it seems much more probable that it is one
of the nnmerons brancheB into which the Quorra river di-
vides on approaching the aea. At least it is certain that
there is a water communication between it and the upper
course of the. Quorra. thurmal of the London Geo^or
phical Society^ \'oL ii.)
BONONCrNI, GIOVANKI (a name which once ri-
valled Handers, but is now chiefly known through the
medium ef Swift's epigram), was, according to conjecture,
Imm about the year 1660 at Bologna, where his father,
Giovanni-Maria, fi>Uowed the profession of music, and in
1673 published a book* // Munco Practico, from which
we aro inclined to infer that he was neither a very sound
musician nor possessed of much good sense.
When the Itolian opera, under the title of 7%tf Corpora-
tion cf ike Royal Academy qf Music, was established in
London by a party of nobilitv and gentry, who subscribed
50,000/. for the purpose, to wnich George I. as patron con-
tributed I #60/., the Bsanagers engaged Handel* then living
at Cannons, Bononcint, who was sent for from Rome, and
Ariostt, who came from Bologna, to compose for the the-
atre. Handel's productions displayed every great quality :
Bononcini's were marked by tenderness and elegance, but
wanted invention and vigour : Ariosti seems to have been
a good musician without genius, whose name would soon
ha\*e been consigned to obUvion but for his connexion with
the other two. The first new work presented by the aca-
demy was Mugio Setpcola, of which Ariosti* the senior of
tho three, furnished the first act, Bononcini the second, and
Handel, as youngest of the party, tho third. The com-
parative merits of the two last composers were judged, not
by critical rules, but party feelings. Handel was patronised
by the king, his rival had the support of the Marlborough
ismily ; and, struiae as the fact appears, Handel was the
fiivourite of the Tories, Bononcini of the Whigs. The
public gMieiaUy however were on the side of the former, who
Sainad a oimptoto aaDeadeocy and ga^tttAimiJ a- \m ]u8
rival eontinued en the eatahliabment till Wff timgh b»
produced little, and then retired, after whieb be ewftned
his services to the duchess of Marlborough, who had pre-
viously taken him into her family, and settled on him n
Gtnsion of 500/. per annum. His imperiona tempor did noi
ng permit him to enjoy his good fortune; Md his disho*
nourable conduct in presenting to the Academy of Antifnt
Muaui a madrigal as his own, though the composition oi
Lotli of Venice, completed his downfall in this country.
wiiich lie quitted in 1 733. lie tlien went to leaide in Parks
where he wrote much sacred music for the Chapelle du lioi.
and at the peace of Ai)^-la-ChapeUe was invited to Vienna
by the emperor, to compose music for tho lejoicinga on that
occasion.
The exact period of his decease does not anpear, but it is
supposed that he almost attained his hundreoth year. For
the King's Theatre he composed several operas, now en-
tirely forgotten; and in 1721 ho published a volume « f
Caniate e Duettu dedicated to George I., at a subscnptwn
of two guineaa, by which it is calculated that he gauici
1000/. These are engraved on copper, and the rank. a«
well as number, of the subscribeia shows by what patioiu^*c
Bononcini was at first supported*
BONNYCASTLE, JOHN, late profosser of mathem;^-
tics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, where Le
died May 16, 182l« He was bom at Whitehurch in Buii.-
inghamshire^ uid came to London early, when he marrK-l
at the age of nineteen. His wife dying soon after iijtit
marriage, he became tutor to the sons of a nobletuan.
after which he resided at Euston in Northamptun^inrc.
till he obtained a place at the Woolwich Academy. %Ik-<
he finally became professor. These particuUrs are all t:. it
we find in the periodical pubUcations of the time of ii.»
death. He is stated to have been a good scholar, and mui i
attached to poetry, particularly to Shakspean«
Bonnycastle is known by a large number of excclU i.t
elementary works, which bein^ still on sale, it is not ne<x »•
sary to enumerate. His 'Guide to Arithmetic* ha» !• j
had a great cireulation. His treatises on mensurati ••
and astronomy are very good of their kind ; but hiii * K •.-
ments of Algebra* (not the abridgment, but the work la
two volumes, octavo, 1813) is a very excellent perfonnsu2i >•
and shows great knowledge of the state of the science, i: r
does not enter much into princinles, but his maoaisament • t
the mechanism of algebra, and his almost singular frlf u
in separating the most striking and powerful parte fhun i..c
rest, render his work very useful to the reader.
Bonnycastle passes for the translator of Boasat*s 'Hi^ r«
of Mathematics,* but a correspondent of the 'Gentletij^.i ,
Magazine,' for 1621, pw 482, states, as of his own knowleU.' .
that he only wrote the prefiice, and added the Ikt of uirft/..--
maticians at the end, the translation being by Mr. T. o.
Churchill. His name however is prefixed to the work.
BONPLANDIA, a plant producing a kind of ferer b;ui
called Angostura. [Galipba.]
BONUS HENRI'CUS, a kind of weed, formorlysuppo. :
to possess medicinal properties. [Cbbnopooihii.]
BONZES is the name by which the priesto of BoilJr-.
are usually designated in Japan. The form of the namv lu
the Japanese Unguage is bonsasit which woid ia aupit-^M-^
by Mr. B. H. Hodgson {Journal qf the Romgl Asiai. < •.
1 835, vol. ii. p. 293) to be a corruption of the Saneerit Itmi'. i
(vandya, ' laudable, deserving praise * ?) Hey go with t h - -
heads entirely shorn, whence they are often ironk^y car-
kami-naga, or 'long-haired men.* The highest in rank 3
the dai'ri, or spiritual sovereign of Japan, who resides ai
Miaco. Till towards the conclusion of the twelfth crocur^
(▲.o. 1185) the power of the dam in Japan waa nearly a.«
solute; since then the supreme government has be<> i.
vested in the djo^n, or secular commander-in-chief of tt«
empire, and the mfluence of the dairi in temporal aJTairs >
now next to none, though he still continuea to enjoy tr-
honours of a merely nominal sovereignty. (Titringh. / -
lustrations of Japan, translated by I^ Scbobert, I^ndv:.
1822, 4to. pp. 3, 300, 301.)
The Bonzes are under a vowof eelibacy, and form a larr^
corporation of male and female eoelesiastics. They are :.-
vided into two sects, hostile to eadi other, and extera.-^ >
distinguished bv the colour of their robes, the one drt^*^ - z
in black and the other in grey. They maintain thea* .
fluence chiefly by the popular belief in the eSeaey of th • r
intercession for others by prayer. Once m every IdrtDii:- : :
they deliver a puhlio leligioaa diwromw iB '
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mfiuXtf Wfom AuiDeimif Mngngitioas. Tfa« JwoH nris-
wmwij, OaBpw Vittela, who attondtd ssveral pttbtie niMl-
iDgt of this ktnd« sfieaks in high tonns of the eloqneneo of
the paBfaccra whom ha heard, and of their impreesite and
dif mfied mode of d^ifery. £?en the ftmale Bonieg ore
Mid ocflaaionally to piMch.
The Japaneie pneathood oompriaes Individuala of all
ranka of aociety. Peiaona of high birth, eten the aona of
Uaga, are known to hate entered the order of Bonies, hnt
the majority belong to the lower and poorer elaaaeB. Many
Bonzea earn their livelihood by anperintending fanerala.
All claim it &a the exclnaite prerogative of their order to
speak unon the religion of Buddha, the doetrinea of which
they will not allow to be touched upon by any one else.
The prineipal moral preeepta which they incnlcate are five,
Tiz.,->not to kill, not to ateol, chaatity, Teraeity, and absti-
nence fhnn apirituoaa liquors.
There are eonTento for the male as well aa for the female
Bonzea, aome of which have their own ixed annual reve-
nues, while othera are maintained bv voluntary contribu-
tiena from the people. The diaeiphne enforced in these
convents is described as rather strict. At different hours
daring the day the sounding of a bell summons tlie inmates
to their oommon devotions. In the evening the prefect
sssigns to every one a speeial theme for his meditations.
After midnight all assemble to sing hymns before the altar.
Their meals they take in common, and those who conform
strictly to the rule abstain from meat and fish, as well as
from wine and all spirituous liquors. 8ome of the oonveota
arc said to contain large libraries.
There is a sect of Bonzes distinguished by the name Iko,
the members of which are permitted to marry, but only
those who are rich avail themselves of that privilege.
[Lamas and Talapoizvs.J
(Bern. Yarenii, Descnptio Regni Japonici, Cantabrig.
1673, p. 149, ieq,; Kampfer, Seschretbung von Japan,
vol. i. p. 251.)
BOOBY (zoology), the English name for a genus of
Pelecanidm, Dytporua of Illiger, Morus of Vieillot, Zm
f^iis of the French, separated, with good reason, from the
tnie pelicans by Brisson under the name of Sula.
The Boobies or Ganneti are thus characterised :— the
bill strong, longer than the head, conically elongated, very
stout at the base, cleft beyond the eyes, compressed towards
the point, which is slightly curved ; edges of both mandi-
bles somewhat serrated ; nostrils basal, long, linear, almost
bidden in the flirrow of the bill \* face and throat naked ;
feet short, robust, very much drawn up into the abdomen ;
three toes in front and one behind, short and articulated
intranlly, alt connected by a single membrane ; the nail of
the middle toe sen-ated; wings long, the first primary
loiip:eEt, or of equal length with the second ; tail conical or
wedjje-shaped, composed of twelve feathers.
The term • Booby is more particularly applied by naviga-
tors to that species {Sula fmca of Brisson) which inhabits
the desolate Islands and coasts where the climate Is warm
or even temperate throughout the greater part of the globe.
The apparent stupidity of the boobies is proverbial : cadmly
waiting to b« knocked on the head as they sit on shore, or
perching on the yard of a ship till the sailor climbs to their
resting-plaeo and takes them off with his hand, they fall
an easy prer to the most artless bhtl-eatcher. Even Byron's
shipwrecked wretches, though
Stagaant on tlid bm
Thef lay like eareaaet,*
'caught two boobies and a noddy ;' and the incident actu-
ally did occur in BHgh*s celebrated boat-voyage, conseouent
on the mutiny on board the Bounty, when he ana his
boat*s crew were in a most deplorable state.
'Monday, the 25th,' says Bligh, *at noon, some noddies
came so near to ua that one of them was caught by hand.
* * In the evening, several boobies fifing very near to ua,
we had the good fortune to catch one oi them. * * I directed
the bird to be killed for supper, and the blood to be given
to three of the people who were the most distressed for want
of food. The body, with the entrails, beak, and feet, I di-
vided into eighteen shares. * * * Tuesday, the 26th. In
the morning we caught another booby, so that Providence
Appealed to bo relieving our wants in an extraordinary
manner. The people were oveijoyed at the addition to their
dinner, which was diatributed in the same manner as on th«
•ay* UiiSIIis Oumal, JW«
prooedhig evening, giifing the blood io those who w«m (tM
most in want of food.'
Dampier says that in the Alcrane Islands (Alacranes), on
the coast of Yucatan, the crowds of these birds were so great
that he could not pass their haunts without being incom*
moded by their pecking. lie observed that they were ranged
in pairs, and conjectured that they were male and female.
He succeeded in making some fiy away by the blows he be^
stowed on them, but the greater part remained in spite of
his efforts to compel them to take flight. De Gennes, in hi9
voyage to the Straits of Magalhaens, says, that in the Island
of Ascension there were such quantities of boobies, that the
sailors killed five or six at a time with one blow of a stick.
The Vieomte de Querhoent says that the French soldiers
killed an immense quantity at this same island, and that
their loud cries when disturbed at night were quite over-
powering.
This apparent exception to the general rule of self-pre-
serving instinct is so remarkable, that we are led to look for
some cause, and perhaps this is to be found in the srructnre
of the animal ; for, according to many writers whose ve^
racity cannot be questioned, the boobies stay to be taken
and killed after they have become familiar with the effect
produced by the blows or shot of their persecutors. In the
ease of most other animals which, from not knowing his
power, have suffered man to approach them to their de-
struction, alarm has been soon taken, the idea of danget
has been speedily associated with his appearance, and
safety has been sought in flight ; but the wings of the
booby ore so long and its legs so short, that, when once
at rest on level ground, the bird has great difficulty in
bringing the former into action, and, when so surprised,
it has no resource but to put on a show of resistance with
its beilk, whieh is, to be sure, generally despised by the
aggressor.
In the cases recorded by Bligh, the birds were probably
fatigued by wandering too far from the rocky shores, which
are their ordinary haunts. There they are generally to be
seen constantly on the wing over the waves which beat at
the foot of the crags, intent on fishing. Though so well
furnished with oarS, they are said to swim but seldom, and
never to dive. Their mode of taking their prey i§ by dash-
ing down from on high with unerring aim upon those fishes
which ft^equent the surface, and instantly rising again into
the air. They walk with difficulty, and, when at rest ow
land, their attitude is nearly vertical, and they lean oti the
stiff feathers of the tail, like the cormorants, as a third
Eoint of support The ledges of rocks or cliffs covered with
erbage are the places generally selected for the nest, and
there, in great companies, they lay their^ oggs, each hen
bird depositing from two to three. The 'y^^n? birds, for
some davs after their exclusion, are covered with a down so
long and thick, that they resemble powdef pm^ made of
swan's down.
The boobies seldom wander more than twenty leagties
from land, to which they usuallv return every evening, and
their appearance is considered by mariners is a sure token
of their vicinity to some island or \
Gannbts Oft BooBiBS ov Wa&ii Cuhatss.
The state of our information as to this division of tlie
genus is by no means iatisfactory ; for the species are not
well determined. As an example, we may take the bird
above alluded to, &ula fu9ca of Brisson and others, Pcle-
canw Sula of linneaus, La Fbu brun of the French, tho
Booby of Sloane and Ray.
The colour of this species is bl8ckish*hrown or ashy-
brown above and whitish beneath ; the primaries are black,
and the naked skin about the fiice is reddish ; the orbits
and base of the bill are yellow, and the point of the bill is
brown ; the lega are of a straw eolour.
In length the brown booby is about two feet five inches,
the bill measuring four and a half inches or thereabout and
the tail ten : the young burds are spotted with white and
brown.
It is almost impossible to open the pages of the old voy-
agers who have fallen in with these boobies without finding
some entertaining accounts of tho constant persecution to
which the latter are suWected by the frigates or man-of-
toar birds. [Frioati.] Lesson, indeed, doubu this. He
say8, ' the boobies have been so named because it has been
supposed that tho frigates compelled them to disgorge the
fish which they had taken; but this appears to us to bw
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•rroneoufl. The booby is warlike, ho lives fearlessly near
the frigate, and swallows the fish which be has captured in
peace/ Buffon, Cuvier, and Terominck, on the contrary,
evidently give credence to the namitives of the frigate per-
secution, and indeed it is difficult to believe that so many
eye-witnesses should be mistaken.
FeuiU^ says, ' I have had the pleasure of seeing the
frigates give chase to the boobies. When they return in
bands towards evening from their fishing, the frigates are
in waiting, and dashing upon them com]>el them all to cry for
succour, as it were, and, m cr}ing, to disgorge some of the
fish which they are carrying to their young ones. Thus
do the firigates profit by the fishing of the boobies, which
they then leave to pursue their route.* Leguat, in his voy-
age, thus writes : ' The boobies come to repose at night upon
the Island Rodriguez,* and the frigates, which are large
birds, so called from their lightness and speed in sailing
through the air, wait for the boobies every evening on the
tops of the trees. They rise on the approach of £e latter
very high in the air and dash down upon them like a fidcon
on his prey, not to kill them but to make them disgorge.
The booby, struck in this manner by the frigate, gives up
his fish, which the frigate catches in the air. The booby
often shrieks and shows his unwillingness to abandon his
prey, but the frigate mocks at his cries, and rising, dashes
down upon him anew till he has compelled the booby to
obey.' William Dampier observes that he remarked that
the man-of-war birds and the boobies always left sentinels
near their young ones, especially while the old birds were
gone to sea on their fishing expeditions; and that there
were a great number of sick or crippled man-of-war birds
which appeared to be no longer in a state to go out for pro-
vision. They dwelt not with the rest of Uieir species, and
whether they were excluded from their society or had sepa-
rated themselves voluntarily, they were disperse in various
nlaces waiting apparently for an opportunity of pillage.t
He adds, that one day he saw more than twenty on one of
the islands (the Alcranes), which from time to time made
sorties to procure booty. The man-of-war bird that sur-
prised a young booby without its guard gave it a great peck
upon the back to make it disgorge (which it instantly did)
a fish or two as big as one's wrist, which the old man-of-
war bird quickly swallowed. He further speaks of the ixjr-
secution of the parent boobies by the able-bodied frigates,
and says that he himself saw a frigate fly right against a
booby and with one blow of its bill make the booby give up
[SuU Auca.J
• Tbe«c may have been ihe specins known in the island by tlie naiD<» of
***^» *«■«/. nplMrenily rrfwmble to Sula Candida, Uriasou. and i'ilrranus i'u
tater, Linn.~^4N;. ZtM4. Froe., 1853, p. 33.
t Nuttall obMrvea that thcM •eporatlita were probably the malea ufk-r
a fish just swallowed^ upon wbieh the fngate dtiiad wilh
such celerity that he seized it before it reaehed tha wmttr,
Catesby and others mention similar encotintert. Nuttall
says, 'the boobies have a domestic enemy mora steairly.
though lesa sanguine in his peraectttioni, than man ; this i*
tlie frigate peUean or man-of-war bird, who with a kaen e\^
descrying his humble vassal at a distance, pursues bim
without intermission, and obliges him by blows with tt^
wings and bill to surrender his finny prey, which the piraif
instantly seizes and swallows. * * * The booby utten a lm'«i
cry, something in sound betwixt that of the raven and ti ••
goose ; and this quailing is beard more particularly wb«'n
they are pursued by the frigate, or, when assembled tot«c-
ther, they happen to be seizeil by any sudden panic.'
Their nests, according to Dampier, are built in tret*& ti.
the isle of Aves, though they have been observed in ntlv ;
places to nestle on the ground. They always associate i:i
numbers in the same spot, and lay one or two eggs. 11 <•
young arc covered with a very soft and white down. Nut-
tall says that they abound on rocky islets off the coa>t < f
Cayenne, and along the shores of New Spain and Cararx*.
as well as in Brazil and on the Bahamas, where lbc>' :.r.-
said to breed almost every month in the year. In <utnnit .
he adds, they are not uncommon on the coasts of the Soui.-
ern States. The tiesh he describes as black and un --
voury.
Gannets or Boobibs op comparatively cold
climates.
The Gannet of the English ; the Solan*^ Gt)Mtt, or ^
land Goose, of the Scotch and English ; Sula of the F. r..
Isles ; seems to be the only recorded species of this di\ i*
This bird is the Fou de Bassan and Oie de Bcusan oi t.
French; the Solend-Gmiss, or Schoiten-Gant, of the G' :-
mans ; Jaen van Gml of the Dutch ; Gan and Gan« ul %.
anticnt British: Der Bassunische Pelikofi of Bech*i.
JVcissrr Tolpel of Meyer; Le grand Fou and Lc } .
tachete of Buffon ; Anser Bassanus of Sibbald, Gct»ner. a;»
others ; and Anser Scoticus, Sula Bassana, and Sula X*
jar of Brisson ; Sula Hoieri of Clusius ; Sula alba of Me\. - .
Pelecanus Hassanus of Linnaus; Pelecanus Baasaaus^r.^
P. maculaius of Gmelin; and Gannet Corvorant of l\'.\
uant.
Its geographical distribution may be stated, as a (renrr..
proposition, to be over the arctic regions of the old ami ut .
world, lor it is one of those marine birds which is foumi -.
each side of the Atlantic, though in its migrations for I- v
it is said to have been seen plunging for ss^nes as !</« t«
the mauth of the Tagus. In Europe the strongholds ol i.
s>)Ian-gcose seem to be in Norway and the Hebrides^ ^ .
Kilda, and the Bass in the Firth of ForUi, are favoun'
haunts. Pennant observed their northern migration* ; .
Caithness, and says they were passing the whole d»y. i:.
Iloeks of from five to fifteen each. They appear micrsi- r.
on the shores of Holland, and are seen on the coast of C\in •
wall at the end of the summer, arriving with the pUch ju un
and disappearing with them about the end of Wo^emUr.
according to Pennant ; but Montagu observes that tht r
have been frequently seen in the English Clutnnd dunv.j
the winter, and as late as the month of AjNriL In IceUv :
t!iey breed, and are numerous; and they are occasionu..^
seen in Greenland. They are found on the coast of Nc.»
foundland, and they are common on the north-west coo&i . '
xlmerica. In the summer they are extremely abundant .
some rocky islands in the bay of St. Lawrence, and not ui
common on the coasts of the United States, especlalW to L>n-
south of Cape Hatteras. On the south side of Long Isla- '
and the neighbouring coast they are seen in numbers m tii
month of October, associating with ^e velvei duck* ^.-i
arotrrsi', Bonaparte (Prince of Musignano) notes it £^
rare and occasional at Philadelphia.
To give the reader some idea of the multitudes of tb«^-L*
birds, we will select one or two accounts from the manv i * ,:
mi^'ht he quoted The surface of the Bass island, accord ~ .
to Dr IIar%'ey, is almost entirely covered in the months . :
May and June with their nests, eggs, and young, so thi* ♦
is scarcely possible to walk without treading on them. \V". .
in flight they overshadow like clouds, and make such
stunning noise, that it is scarcelv possible to hoar your i:«x '
nei^hbuur. The sea all around is covered with them, i^ .
• Marlia snys that 'solan^ is di*rivra from an IrUi »t>r«l «nrrMh,
qiucktHks or»i;;Ia. a quality fur which the solaa-fooM brvaatluMft.
t N.ittall— N. I). Meti-ick sutes that they ara said lo ba mM «tah ia r- **
Dumbcis abgut New UoUaivi aiui>Ncw Z«iiaadr4»«l be |
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tin fMsB in ^ dSstaniiDe can mlf be eompared to Tast
siranns of beesw Martin Mates that the inhabitants of the
small island of St Kilda consame annually upwards of
22,000 young birds of this species* in addition to an immense
?uaotit]r of their eg^ whicn form their principal support *.
he isme author says that at the small isle of Borea the
liesvens ware darkened by those flying overhead, and that
their excrements were in such quantity, that they gave a
tiacture to the sea, and at the same time sullied the boat
and clothes of the party. The Gannet Rock in the Bay of
the St Lawrence is about 400 feet in height, and of several
aem in extent on the summit On the 8th of June, ac-
cording to Audubon, this rock was covered with innume-
rable gannets upon their nests, so crowded or olosely ar-
ranged as to give the appearance of a huge mass of snow,
while the hovering crowds seen around that inaccessible
marine mountain fbrdbly presented at a distance the appear-
ance of a snow-storm.
Before we enter into a description of the habits of the
gannet, it may not be uninteresting to give a sketch of its
organization, which is somewhat peculiar, and admirably
adapted to promote the buoyancy of the bird and the ra-
pidity of its descent on its prey. Montagues observations on
this part of its economy (the situation and connection of the
air^ells, see Supplement* to Ornithological Dictionary,
article ' Gannet*) are very interesting, but as the researehes
of Owen and Yarrell differ in some particulars from his, it
will be sufficient to refer to the former ; and we proceed to
Sive Mr. Owen's notes of the examination of a gannet that
ied in the garden of the Zoological Society of London in
1 83 1 . It will be seen, on reference to Montagu's statement,
that he says ' by reason of some valvular contrivance, the
skin could not be artificially inflated through the lungs.* * * *
* It is also dear that there is no direct communication be-
tween the sides.*
' In the examination,* writes Owen in the Prooeedings
of the Zoological Society, ' our attention was chiefly directed
to the air-cells, which, in this bird, as in the pelican, have a
most extensive distribution. We commenced by a gentle
but continued inflation through the trachea, a pipe having
been introduced into the upper larynx : in a short time the
integuments of the whole of the lateral and inferior parts of
the body rose^ and the air-cells seemed completely filled,
especially that which is situated in front of the os furciforme.
Being thus satisfied that they all had a fi^e communication
with the chest, we next proceeded to see at what points
these communications took place, and in what degree the
air-cells communicated with each other. For that purpose
the air-cells on the left side of the body were laid open, and,
shortly after, those of the opposite side collapsed, indicating
the existence of apertures of communication, although the
septum which ran along the middle line of the body ap-
peared at first sight imperforate. There was a free commu-
nication between the lateral air^sells of the same side of the
body from the os fordforme to the side of the pelvis ; but
the air-cell in front of the os furciforme remained still
tensely inflated. The lateral air-cells had a free communi-
cation with the cavity of the chest at the axilla, at which
part the air had entered these cells during the inflation.
The pectoral muscles and those of the thigh presented a
sin^lar appearance, being, as it were, cleanly dissected,
having the air extended above and below them ; the axil-
lary vessels and nerves also passing bare and unsupported
by any surrounding substance through these cavities. We
traced the air-cells down the side of the humerus, ulna, and
metacarpal bone, into all of which the air entered, and even
into the hone corresponding to the first phalanx, which ag^rees
with what Mr. Himter has described of the pelican {Animal
(Bcon. p. 92). As none of these proceedings had any effect
on the air-cell in front of the os furciforme, which still con-
tinued distended, it was evident that inflation by the hume-
rus oould not have filled it except through the medium of
the lungs themselves. We next proceeded to detach the
integument from this air-cell to see its shape and extent :
this required to be done witb great care, as it adhered pretty
closely to the skin and roots of the feathers ; it was of a glo-
bular form, about four inches in diameter, and communi-
cated with the thorax at its anterior aperture below the
trachea. Numerous strips of muscular fibres passed from
various parts of the surface of the body, and were firmly
* SooM idaaof Uidr ToiadiT and miinbsn may he knamd from the aner-
tkm of BiMhaiiaD, ^Hw. in hte -View of Um FislMry of Ovaal Britain.' roajeo-
luKs tbia Um gannato of St. KJIda dattzoy annoaUy ona hundred and flTa
nSBkmaoriieRlBfi,
attached to the skin; a beautiftil fan^shaped muscle was
also spread over the external surface of the air-cell anterior
to the OS furciforme. The use of these muscles appeared to
be to produce instantaneous expulsion of the air from these
external cells, and by thus increasing the specific gravity of
the bird, to enable it to descend with the rapidity necessary
to the capture of a living prey while swimming near the
surfoce of the water.*
This is a beautifld adaptation of means to an end. The
descent of the bird on its prey has been not unaptly com-
pared to that of an arrow, the beak of the bird forming the
arrow-head, and the body and wings the feathered shaft of
the weapon : we here have the secret of its heavy fall ; the
same machinery restores the buoyancy at the proper mo-
ment, and the bird rises with its fish aloft
Some idea will be formed of the rate of the gannefs
descent from the following authentic anecdote recorded by
Pennant : — * About four years ago* one of these birds flying
over Penzance (a thing that rarely happenst), and seeing
some pilchards lying on a fir-plank in a cellar used for
curing fish, darted itself down with such violence, that it
struck its bill quite through the board (about an inch and a
quarter thick) and broke its neck.* To this Pennant adds
that these birds are sometimes taken at sea by a deception
of the like kind. The fishermen fasten a pilchard to a
board and leave it floating, and the gannet is decoyed to
its own destruction. Peter Pindar has imniortalized this
mode of booby-catching in those droll lines with which our
readers are doubtless familiar.
There are some parts of Aristotle's description of his
Karapf^am'tic (catarructes) (Hist. Anim, ii. 17. ix. 12.) that
suit wen with our birds, and the very name accords with its
habits. Bochart and Michaelis both leave the question in
doubt, and Camus leans to the opinion that it is a guU (JDa-
rus Catarractes, Linn.) ; but no gull precipitates itself into
the sea with the violent plunge described by Aristotle (ix. 12).
Pennant hints that in the cataracta of Juba (Pliny, x. 44)
some characters of the gannet may be found.
T*he bird hardly deserves the reputation which its alliance
with the other boobies has in some places procured for it.
Its habits and its struggles for liberty show that the self-
preserving instinct is as strong as in other birds except at
the breeding season, when every other feeling seems to be
merged in the ardour of incubation. Thus it has been
stated that some of their number always keep watch at
night, and that the sentinel, by varying his intonation,
apprizes the flock of the approach of danger. The speci-
men sent by Dr. Borlase to Pennant was killed at Chandour,
near Mountbay, but not till after a long struggle with a
water-spaniel, assisted by the boatmen, for it was strong
and pugnacious. ' The person who took it,* adds the doctor*
' observed that it had a transparent membrane]: under the
eyelid, with which it covered at pleasure the whole eye,
without obscuring the sight or shutting the eyelid ; a gra-
cious provision for the security of Uie eyes of so weighty a
creature, whose method of taking its prey is by darting
headlong on it from a height of a hundred and fifty feet or
more into the water/
The organization above alluded to gives the gannet great
buoyancy when swimming, and it swims high like a gull.
When one which Montagu kept alive was placed on the
water of a pond, nothing could induce it to attempt to dive $
and from the manner of its putting the bill and sometimes
the whole head under water, as if searching for fish, it ap-
peared to Montagu that the prey is frequently taken in
this manner.
Withered grasses and sea-weeds, ' bleached by many a
sun and shower,' form the nest, which is placed on the
ledges of the overhanging precipice, or in the fissures on
the rock. Martin says that they frequently rob each other
and that one which had pillaged a nest flew out towards
the sea with the spoil, and returned again as if it had
gathered the stuff from a different quarter ; but the owner,
though at a distance from his nest, had observed the rob-
bery, and waited the return of the thief, which he attacked
with the utmost fury. • This bloody battle,' adds the nar-
rator, ' was fought above our heads, and proved fatal to the
thief, who fell dead so near our boat that our men took him
up, and presently dressed and ate him.*
* Prom a date In ih« letter of iTr. Borlata. to whom it appean that Pan-
nant was indebted for hb oommonicatioD, the time aUudad to moat hw
been wmiewhere about 1758.
t The ganneta are suppoMd generally to fly ooaatwiae.
t The nictitating membrane. [Bibdi.]
No. 292.
[THB PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA]
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The nnmber of #ggs m ttatod at one, t«o« or
three, if the two first laid are taken. Temminck gives two
as the nuinber others \hree^ where none have been ab-
stracted. They are white, eaually pointed at each end*
rough on the sorfaoe^ and leas tnan those of a goose. These
birds sit close together. It is said that the wale and female
hatch and fish by turnp^ and that the fisher eomes back to
the nest with five or six herrings in lis gorget* all entire
and undigested, which the hatcher ^ulls out from tho throat
of its provider and swallows, malung at the same time a
loud noise.
The young birds are a favourite dish with the North
Britons» and Pennant observes that, during the season,
they are constantly brought from the Baas lale to Edin-
burgh, where they are sold roasted, and served up as a whet
Our readers will remember that ' the relishing Solan goose,
whose smell is so powerful that he is never cooked within
doors,* formed a part of Mr. OldbucVs dinner, though the
state in which the ' odoriferous offering* was presented ex-
cited the antiquary*s just indignation.
The proprietor of the Bass is said to derive a considerable
profit by taking the young and sending them to market,
and by an old Scottish law he has a right, it is said, to visit
the neighbouring isles and drive away his wandering gan-
nets to his own domain.
The variations ip the plumage of the gannet are very
great, and, as in the instances of many other birds, the
changes have given rise to the record of species which have
no foundation but the natural alteration in the feathery
ooverinR.
Old birds at the age of three years. Summit of the
head and occiput of a clear ochreous yellow. The rest df
the plumage milk-white, with the exception of the qiulls
and the bastard wing, which are black. Bill of an ashy
blue* at the base, but white at the ooint. Naked membrane
surrounding the eyes bluish, and that which forms the pro-
lon|?ation df the opening of the billt and extends to the
middle of the throat, dusky blue. Iris yellow. Legs dusky,
in front bluish-yellow (Temminck says clear green) ; con-
necting membrane of the forward toes very strong, and
nearly as transparent as glass (Temminck says blackish).
Nails white. Tail cuneiform, or wedge-shaped. The two
exterior quills have the end of the barbs truncated, accord-
ing to Temminck. Length two feet seven to two foet nine
inches. The female is less than the male
Young, a few days qfier their exclusion from the egg.
The covering is a white and lustrous down, making the
nestlings look hke powder-puf&.
V. t
rSuUBasiaoa. OldmaU.}
• When th«» Wnl N nllre the bill U of a bri|{1it blidth-gny.
X f*****^ *'"* '•'••<' of the upper mandililf i» a •harp proce«t ond Mturc,
vhich i:DaliU« ;l,« bird to move 11 a lUUe la the oci «f svallawij^ a lasge fi>li.
Fttmiffrnt. AUdie^lmiMMaffllMmtfMitiipetkia.
blaekish-brown. Lower parts lirown varied with asb-ootoor.
Bill, naked paHs, and iiis brown. The tail loondsd.
One year oH or seeend momU. Head, neck, and breast
of an ashy brown, eoveied with fmall laneaolated mhxve
spots very closely appioximated. Poatbers of the bark«
rump, and wings of tha sama eoltvr, and narked with
spou of the same kind but more distant ftom eaeta other.
Lower parts whitish, varied with ashy brown. Tail and
iiuills brown. The first eonioal with white shafts. Bill
ashy brown, but whitish towards tha point Naked parts
of a bluish-brown. Iris yellowish. Fmt of legs and upprr
part of toes oceenish-brown. Membranes of an ashy brown.
Nails whitida.
Tujo years old, and during the wiomlt. At this ag« the
bird is already partially covered with white feathers, whil«
the rest of the plumage is still brown and spotted with
white. The young of the age of one and two years are thr
8ula mt^or of Brbson, Peieoanue maeukUus of Gmelm,
Le Grand Fvu and Le Fou taeheti of Buffbn, and IA# GrrtU
and Spotted Booby (the head of which is given by Caumby >
of LaUiam. *
BOOK-KBEPINQ. Book-keeping is that art by which
all the transactions of eommeroe are so methodically re-
corded as to exhibit a perfect picture of a merchant's affiirs.
When we consider that propertjr embarked in oommerre
is in a state of constant fiux, by whteh it undeigoes perpetual
transformatk>ns, and reflect upon the intricate natunt iff
many mercantile operations, especially those arising out uf
joint adventures and foreign exchanges, wo cannot heaiute
to admire the ingenious though unknown oontri^xsr of a
system which enables the merchant not onlv to registrr
with clearness every fisket touching his estate, but to ascrr*
Uin with certainty the result of aU those faets whenever b^
chooses to collect them together.
As an art it is not easy to overrate its vahie. The wonder
indeed is, that both in and out of trade tbere are sny
persons who are insensible to its importanee. To ererr
man engaged in business the utmost aeeuraoy of aooountt
is essential, and yet it is notorious that in this ?rcas
trading community the praetioe of book-keeping, partiru
larly among retailers, is extremely loose and unsetisfkclarr.
As an invention book-keeping n undoubtedly modem
being with great probability referred to the ftfteentb cen
tury. VenioB is said to be its birtb-plaee, and the first
known author was Lucas do Burgo, who pubUsbed in 14*^3
a regular treatise in the Italian language. Franee, Snclaitd.
Italy, and Germany, have subseouently produced a gns:
variety of works, in all of which tbe true principle is Laid
down with sufficient perspieuity ; but studenU in search of
serviceable instruotion should consult the moat reeent ao-
thors, who, being either practu»il man themselves, or m
ckMc communication with those who wero so, have greet] t
simplified the plans of their predeeessora, and by adammf"
successive expedients to the real exigencies of trade, ha^c
introduced a high degree of elegance and neatness into tbt-tr
methods, combining aoouraoy with expedition and bre\-it^
with clearness and completeness, wbk^h is the very perfect
tion of the art.
In order to accomplish these objects, every ewnt aflectin;
the property must be recorded in such a manner as to sbov
in the simplest form and with the utmoet per^>ieuily all
the essentials of each transaction, that is to say, tbo subiect-
matter of it, the day of its occurronce, the peteon on wboee
account and the person with whom it takes plsBCe. together
with the mode of its perfermance.
It is evident that in wy large eoneama there nrast br
always a tendency to intricacy and confusion, where eoncur-
rent operations are in constant progress, and cirettinetanrc*
of great variety are crowded into a short spaeo of time.
Malcolm, who published his * New Treatiae' at Bdin-
burffh in 1718, is tliereforo justified in deelarine it to be a
work of no small skill and labour to evolve ont of this ronfii-
sion the lucid statemeat which a perfect balance-abset nr«^
sents. Yet it is in large concwns^ generally apeaktng, &at
fulness and fbdlity are to he found, beeaase the eonductors*
strongly hnpressed with the ruinons eonseqneneea of ob-
scurity, take effectual means to guard against it by main-
taining an establishment and a system commensurate wuh
the extent of their hasfness. The principle of book-kerrm:^
is of such infiaxible rigour, that it never admita ef leittx-
ation under any conceivable circumstancvSto althocigh «:
Temminck
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idtptoHMlf intiaeqvdiMaiijto ewrypouible BUiMef of
With Mgmidto the partlcalir iikaa wliioh oogbt lobe put
* r individittls it woaid be vain to enter into mi
DOttdiraotiona, linoe overr iienon engaged in trade ia in
•ffiDt raepeoli litoated diflmntly from erery one eiie, and
it tke general pHndpk ia undovatood and iDBpt in Tiew* d^
tmk may be aaftly tnuted to experienee. It frill bo more
ttMftil to lay down general nilet in auoh a way as to aniwer
the double purpoie of iUuitratang tbe tree ebaracter of peN
kd book-keeping, and of aflbiding a vnide to thoee who
iMy have oeeaibn to conitmot a eel of oooka ibr any par*
tjenlar undertaking.
The outline of the art of book-keeping may be oonve*
niently skelehed by the words * Inwaida,' < Outwarda/ * On
Hand;
Bverything brought Into the conoern, either at ita ori-
gination or in subsequent dealings, is, of eourse, property
' Inwards/ but the generie term ' Property * must, in re-
spect to book-keeping, be subdivided into as many species
as tbe nature of the particular business requires. Hie
broad subdivision is into Casb— Bills— Book-debts — Stock,
and, in confinrmity with it, every regular house of business
keeps a separate place ibr the registoy of all its transactions
uoder one or other of these heads.
The cash-book is perfectly simple in its fhime, containing
on the left hand page separate spaces for the date — ^tbe per-
son who has brought any cash * Inwards, * and the exact
sum, all ranged in a horiaontal line. These sums are placed
one under another, so as to be easfly oast up in a colnmn«
at the side of which runs a seoond oolumn shewing the fblio
where the amount of each entry has been carried forward
into another book to tbe credit of each payer respectively.
On tbe right-hand page provision is made in the ruling foi"
the same particulars, in the same arrangement, respecting
cssh paid ' Outwards* ' with a posting column also to show
where each entry has passed onward to tbe debit of the re-
c«iv9r. Solomon, aoeording to the city proverb, was a wise
man and Sampson was a strong man, but neither could pay
away money uiat he had Aever received. It follows as on
undeniable consequence that the left-hand side of a cash-
book, correotly kept, can never amount to a less sum than
the right-hand side. The difference, if anjr, of the totals
will so aoeurately point out the balance remaining on hand,
that, should any aiscrepancy appear, the book-keeper has,
in that eironmstance, a convincing proof of error, and in-
stantly addresses himself to its discovery.
The oash*book being familiar to the generality of persons,
is best fitted for exemplifleation, but, in truth, every account,
when well kept, is equally simple and exhibits the very
ume features. An aooount, whether of persons or things,
in the book-keeping sense of the term, is a chronological
collection of all the events by which the property of a con-
cern has been affected by the person or thing in ques-
tion, the events ' Inwards * being ranged on one side and
confronted with the events * Outwards on the other side.
The book-keeper ia therefore bistoriogrspher of the pro-
perty.
Bills, which form the second head of subdivision, are
either receivable or payable, and each description requires
a book to itself. They aet upon the concern in directly
opposite ways, bills receivable being one of the avenues
through whieh debts are eoUeoted <h>m the world, and bills
payable being one of the channels through which the con-
cern discharges its oMigations. From this consideration it
is clear that the identical bill, which the acceptor enters in
his books as a bill payable, appears as a bill receivable in
the books of the party for whom he accepts it, and this cir-
cumstance elucidates the nature of book-keeping in ge-
neral, since what is true of bills is equally true of all
other tramaetions. The same indentation takes place uni-
versally, so that if two men accurately record their mutual
dealings thdr books must be counterparts of each other,
exaedy dovetailed at every point of their connexion. It
sometunea happens that a man's own acoeptance is remitted
to him, in whicncase the same piece of PJ^por is entered both
u bill payable and bill receivable. The bills-receivable
book should contain spaces ibr all parflcuAars, both inherent
and relati^w. Those inherent in tbe bill itself are, — the
drawer — his residence— to whom payable— on whom drawn
—where payable— date — time — ^when due^-amount
The relative or eontingent particulars are, — when received
— ftom wbom^on whoea aeeoisQl«»folio when eredited in
aaotiier book— when and ti* whom paid away— folio where
debited in another book*
On the Continent it is customary with those who nego-
date foreign bills to copv into their bill-book tbe names of
all endorsers. With inland bills such minuteness is not
so neoesaary, and is a practice never observed*
The bills-payable book contains the same inherent parti-
Ottlars, exoept the name of the drawee, which is in fact
the conoern itself. The relative circumstances are also re-
corded, but in a reverse order, to correspond with the oppo-
site character of the transaction. Both books are furnished
with a column for a running series of numbers, written also
on the fhee of each bill respectively, by which means it is
pointedly rsferred to in subsequent entries, and readily iden
tified when occasion arises.
Book debts are personal demands for which no accept*
anoes have been given. The record of each sale being
originally made in a sold day-book, with full particulars aa
to quantities and prices, the sum is carried forward into a
ledger to the debit of the buyers, who are respectively
charged under their names with the value delivered to them,
eaeh account having a distinct folio or division to itself.
This constitutes a list of ' debts receivable,* and is ealled
the sold ledger.
The bought ledger, on the contrary, exhibits a list of
' debts payable,* digested under the names of persons from
whom gooids have been received into the concern, and is
ibnnded upon entries, with full particulars, in a book kept
for the purpose called * invoices inwards,* or * bought day-
book.*
The remaining subdivision is stock, a term loosely em-
ployed, sometimes to signify all the property possessed by a
ooncem and sometimes the surplus property— more strictly
called capital->in the concern, alter aeducting every obliga-
tion. Its more definite sense is limited to goods of all de^
scriptions bought or manufactured with a view to profit*
With reg^axd to stock, it cannot be denied that its in-
comings and outgoings are exactly as much entitled to a
regular record as any other portion of the property, since
that which is stock to-day may become book-debt to-mor->
row, take the shape of bills reoeivable the next day, and in
course of time form part of the balance at the banker's.
There can be no reason whatever why the banker's aoeounti
the bills receivable, and the sold ledger, should be carefullv
kept, which does not apply with equal force to the stock
account. The method here, as everywhere else throughout
the entire range of book-keeping, is simple. Each descrip-
tion of goods, bought or made, should have a place of its
own, f 'ither a book or a page as the case may require, for an
accurate register of the dates and quantities * inwaids, * on
the left hand, confronted with the dates and quantities
' outwards, * whether the delivery ' outward* take place to a
buyer or only from one department to another within the
concern. For example, in a brewery the account of malt
should show the quantity deposited in the malt-room con-
fronted with the quantity taken out of the malt-room, so as
to give the balance of malt on hand by deduoting the
smaller from the larger total, exaotiy as in the inatanoo of
the cash-book.
One of the fundamental and indispensable laws in perfect
book-keeping is that every discharge must be epecifiCi When
the account is with pereone^ the discharge answera in vcHue
to the oharge ; but when the account is of thinge^ the dia«
charge must answer in kind.
Thus if a brewer receives inwards 1000 quarters of malt
his books are not perfect unless they tell him speoifioally
how that quantity was disposed of. By ohargthg to the
buyers the quantity resoUl, and charging to the aooount of
his own mash-tub the quantity actually put into it, he gives
himself the means, and the only means, of knowing whether
he has had the fbll benefit of all his malt; and if he finda
a deficiency, he can instantiy address himself to the disootefy
of the cause, just aa he would have done if his cash had
been deficient
There is one mischievous error in seme of the mora
antient treatises, against the misleading influenee of whioh
the youthful student should be effMtually guarded. It ie
sometimes stated that among the devices of book-keeping
imaginofy accounts are raised. Nothing can be further
from the truth*. The book-keeper, if he understands his
duty and adheres to it, knows well that the imagination
would be altogether out of place, and plods his way from
ftiel to fiiet» with pakistaking peneverance, using bis utmost
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care to pravent the admission of whatever is fiJse, and tbe
omission of any fact bearing upon tbe property.
It is customary, even in modem treatises intended for the
use of schools, to divide book-keeping into two kinds, under
tbe names of double entry and single entry. This fallacious
representation of so important a subject cannot be too
speedily exploded, as there is reason to think that the ab-
sence of system, so prevalent in the book-keeping of retail
traders and professional men, may be ascribed to this origi-
nal vice in their education.
There is this in common between the two, that the trans-
actions, as they occur in business, may be primarily regis-
tered in the same way by both methodsp— tnat is to say —
aingle entry has its oasb-book, its bill-book, its day-book,
and its ledger, for personal accounts ; but even in these, so
completely is the caprice of the book-keeper free ftom the
control of principle, that matters the most distinct in their
nature are frequently jumbled together, bills receivable and
stock being coniused with cash, and the day-book being
perverted, from its only proper purpose, into a receptacle for
all sorts of incongruous transactions.
But here the similarity ends, and here begins tbe supe-
rioritv in power and beauty of double entry, historically
called the Italian method.
That method, grounding itself upon the scientific axiom
that ' the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts,' is satis-
fied with nothing less than a perfect equilibrium between
the total amount of all the debtor accounts on one side, com-
pared with the total amount of all the creditor accounts on
the other side. It arrives at this ultimate result by exact-
ing, at every step of its progress, the same eauilibrium be-
tween debtor and creditor in each entry ; ana by suffering
no event either inwards, internal, or outwards, to take place
without a self-balancing entry, it secures at last its great
object of presenting a perfect nicture whenever all these
•eparate parts are collected togetner as a whole.
It effects this purpose by resorting to every original entry,
whether that entry relates to the delivery of gocKis inwards
or outwards, or to cash, or to bills, or to wages, salaries,
brokerages, insurances, del credere commissions, or to any
of the numerous labours of body or mind which constitute the
ground of debt from one man to another. For these origi-
nal entries too many treatises unskilfully refer the learner to
one general waste-book ; but the true theory of a waste-book
is, that it is that book where the first entry of a fact is
made in the handwriting of the person who was cognizant
of that fact ; and to preserve the chain of responsibility un-
broken throughout any establishment, it is an excellent
regulation to make each person answerable, by means of his
own handwriting, for the accurate record of all events within
his own department In this corrected new, the cash-book
is the waste-book for cash, the bill-book is the waste-book
for bills, the day-book is the waste-book for goods, and so on
through all the original books.
In double entry these original particulars are digested
into various heads of account, without the omission of a
tingle event
The act of digesting these original entries is technically
called Journalizing, because they are collected together in
a book called The Journal, where they for the first time
put off their individuality, and are massed together accord-
mg to aome rule of affinity previously established in the
mind of die book-keeper, who is held to this indispensable
eondition, that he must raise exactly as much matter qf
aeoount to the debit as to the credit.
The distinction between single and double entry becomes
apparent in the different ways in which they dispose of the
very same facts. Thus, suppose the book-keeper by double
entry to be occupied with the invoices inwards, and to find
that ainoe ho made his last Journal entry from that book,
his employer has contracted debts amounting in the
whole to 3690/. ie#. 4d. By the contrivance of journaliz-
ing, the book-keeper not only states this total, and assigns
the amount due to each creditor, but he charges also the
fame total to one or more debtors, asking himself in each
instance the particular reason why each debt has been
contracted, and charging the amount of it to that reason ;
or, in other words, he considers the sources from which his
employers must seek a return of their outlay, and charges
the due {quantity to each source.
To avoid multiplicity, let us suppose three causes to have
E'ven rise to this amount of debt, and these three causes to
iva beea the purchase of iron, the repair of Premises, and
the Bunpiy of provender to the StabUs. U is evideol that
each of these causes differs from the other two iu its natunt*
and at the annual summing up it is of great importanoe t.-»
distinguish them in the accounts. Tbe first cause m tiie
purchase of an article for sale or manufacture. The sea^iMl
18 a permanent addition to the eost and value of the pUtx*.
The third is one of the expenses of trade. Double eouy
requires and provides for the statement of this important
distinction. Single entry indolently or ignorantly aatufii^
itself with carrying to the personal credit of die parties the
amounts respectively due to them, omitting altogether a
separate record of the reason why the debts were cuo-
tracted, and thus shutting out some of the moat interesting
points of information.
Aoooiding to the customary mode of book-keeping by
double entry, the supposed facta would take the foUuwjikg
form in the journal, the word 'sundries' being an abbre
viation for ' sundry aooounts i"
Ihov. Dr. to FrKnans.*
Jonet ft Ca I Juj. 800 tou £S 0 9
Smilfa ft Ca 19Ut • S60 « 4 17 6
ThdDpwB ft Co. 24tb - I9i „ 4 15 0
I
Psumitss. Dr. to C vpenter ft Co.
BUlforrepain
Stasuc. Dr. to Chandler ft Co.
BQI Ibr Hay ft Stnir, &c .
1000
907
10, 0^
at74i& p
45J< '
ou .«
These ioumal entries are then carried forward to tbe
ledger, where not only the personal accounts are credit^ L
but the tmptfr^na/ accounts are debited. Turning to tic
index of his ledger, the book-keeper finds the folio appro-
priated to all transactions in Iron to be, perhaps, 29 ~ the
fVemises account to be at folio 36, and the Stable acotruni
at 16.
He accordingly opens folio 29 in his ledger, where he
had previously written the word 'Iron' in large characters at
the top of the page, and annexing the proper date, ^^u
the sum of 3174/. I5f. to the debit of that account, ar i
refers in a column ruled for that purpose to the page of tr •*
i'oumal. He then looks to his index for the accounts A
Tones & Co., Smith & Co., and Thompson & Co. ; or if
there had been no previous dealings with them, he oper %
an account with each of these parties on separate paige« '
his ledger, and posts to their credit the several sums vi.
he finds in the journal, carefully stating in his ledger t ••
page in the journal where the entry came from, and m t i
journal the folio of the ledger where the entry is gone t>. .':
conformity with an invariable rule that no entry shouM, .^
any instance, be carried forward from book to book, witbo it
a distinct reference in each book to the page of the other.
After postins: the three supposed journal entries, the
ledger will exhibit the same facts in a new form.
Dr. Imov. Vu
1835 Toni.
Jaoy. ToSunariai 651
8174 IB 9
Dr.
Jones ft Ca
1835
Jan. 1. By Iran
CV.
1800 0 0
Dr.
Smith ft Ca
18S5
Jan. 13. By Ixtm
Ct.
1S«7 10 9
Dr
ThompioD ft Ook
1635
Jan. S4. By rnm
Cr.
987 > .
Dr.
1835
J«ny. To Carpeater ft Co.
PuMisKa.
459 8 6
Cr.
Dr.
Carpenter ft Co.
1838
Jan. ByPremiiea
451 - <
Dr.
Stablu
C«.
Jany. To ChaacUar ft Co.
83 14 10
Chandler ft Co.
Jan. ByStabks
<3 U W
Tlie attentive reader will have taken notice that the ir •.
purchased of Thompson & Co. on the 24th of the mentti .^
journalized in the same entry with the iron puirhoM-^
twenty-three da}'B before, from Jones & Co., and will iiif ^^
that in many conjunctures of business, such a delay mtc . :
be highly inconvenient, especiallv in cash and bilU. Su - :.
an inference is quite correct, and the only pretext that c &x;
be alleged for persisting in singhM&try is, iImI it carriv:*
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the efentrdireedy firom the original iMokainto tbe ledger
without the dilatory mtervantion of a joumaL
The wfiter of this aiticle has .for many years been in the
habit of employing a method which combines the quickneas
of single entry, as it regards the per#oftoi accounts, with the
satisfaction of double entcy, aa it roguds the entiie body
of the books. He considers this * combined method' weU
worthy of the attention of all who either as principals or
book-keepers are interested in the aooounts of any exten-
sive business. By the method here alluded to a summary
ledger is kept, and this is the only ledger that has a journal
attached to it. These two books, namely the summary
journal and summary ledger, are devoted exclusi?ely to the
imp^sonal accounts, together with the bankers', travellers*,
and other personal aooounts of that nature. The results
are collected into the joumal ftom tiie subsidiary books at
convenient periods, wheUier weekly, fortnightly, or monthly.
According to this method the debts oontracted, by the sup-
position above, for Iron, Premises, and Stable, would be
placed respectively to the credit of the parties in the bought
ledger, as soon as the accounts could be examined and
passed. On the other hand, every payment made against
the parchases, whether by cash, by bills receivable, or by
bills payable, would be charged to the proper personal ac-
count in the bought ledser at the very moment of making
the payment By this plan the bought ledger is made to
exhibit the state of every account it contains, and may be
referred to at any time, with the certainty of finding the
last event recorded. This is the advantage of single entry,
that there is no joumal to obstruct the progress of the
record which arrives instantaneously at its ultimate destina-
tion, and appears without dela^ in its proper place, namely
the MT^ona/^ account to which it relates.
The summary joumal, in registering these same pur-
chases, throws away all consideration of particular persons,
except for clearness of reference, by raising a single account
comprehending them all under the general name of * bought
ledger,* thus—
Dr. to BouavT Luxin.
toodrira.
I»ON.
PazMitit.
Staslc.
Jones aOOtODi S 0 0 1000 0 0
Smith 960 • 4 17 6 1967 10 0
Tbompaon 191 ^ 4 15 0 907 ft 0
Carpenter ft COb
ChuMUer & Co.
3174 15 0
459 8 6
83 14 10
3690 18 4
The severance of these personal ftom the impersonal,
wiUi a separate ledger allotted to each, will be found ex-
tremely Taluable to those book-keepers to whom the con-
trivance may be new, and after a short experience they will
feel it to be a decided advance in their professional know-
ledge to be possessed of a method which, without surren-
denng one jot of scientific certainty, carries forward the bu-
siness of the day to immediate completion.
With respect to the skill required in journalizing, that is
to say, in assigning every occurrence to its proper account,
it may here be remarked, that if motives of convenience or
advantage are in any particular case sufficient to outweigh
the evila which always follow upon too minute a subdivision,
the Iron account might be split into pig-iron and bar-iron,
with a separate space in the ledger for each description of
goods. So also the Stable expenses, instead of forming a
separate head of account, might be made to take their place
in the ledger as part of a more general account under the
name of Trade Expenses ; or, on the contrary, they might
themseWes be distributed into a variety of heads — such as
hay, straw, oats, farriery, the ultimate effect upon the profit
and loss being of course the same, but the means of watch-
ing and controlling the progress of particular outgoings
being greatly facilitated.
Aft^ having posted his joumal, the « book-keeper avails
himself of the font leisure to ascertain that his work is free
from error, and with that view extracts all the balances from
his ledger — ^technically called a balance-sheet If he finds
the total amount of all the debtor balances to agree exactly
with the total amount of all the creditor balances, he has a
presumptive though by no means a conclusive proof that
ois books are eorr^ since one or more errors on one side
may happen to be precisely equal in amount to one or more
errors on the other side. If, however, there is any difference
between the totals, he is sure that error lurks somewhere.
The young accountant should propose to himself nothing
abort of absolute troth as his standard, and should be, at his
very outset, strongly imbued with the feeling, that as his art
is perfect in principle, it only requires fixed and watchful
habits of accuracy to render it perfect in practice.
The Balance Sheet, however useful to the book-keeper ns
a test of his accuracy, is far more important to his em-
pl^ers as a bird*s-eye view of their affairs.
If, for example, the journal entries already given are
properly posted into a ledger, they will result in the fol
lowing balance sheet :
Dr. Cr.
Iron. 651 «m« . 3174 15 0 Bought Ledger . 3690 18 4
Pmnieee . 459 8 6
Stable . • 63 14 10
3690 18 4 8690 18 4
Upon the face of the balance-sheet, double entry speaks
at once to the eye, and informs the parties interested
not only of the amount of debt incmred, but the means of
discharging it, by showing the property divided into pro-
portions of saleable (iron), mortgageable (premises), and
consumable (stable): thus distinguishing the effects into
those which are more or less available and those which are
unavailable for the discharge of immediate obligations.
If a short series of pro forma suppositions is added to the
above, the value of the balance-sheet will be more distinctly
seen in the strong and steady light it sheds upon the vital
question of profit and loss.
Suppose, then, that the conductor of the business has
sold out 4000/. consols at 92^ less \ brokerage — tiiat he has
paid the proceeds directly into his banker's hands for tho
use of the business — that he has effected sales of 550 tons
of iron at 5/. \bs, per ton to a variety of customers — that he
has received out of these accounts cash to the amount of
758/. 16«., and 18 bills, amoimting to 2232/. 12«., besides
allowing 12/. 12«. in abatements and discount — ^that out of
these cash receipts he has paid taxes 22/. 1 Off., other charges
to the amount of 28/. lbs, 6d., and his bankers 650/.~that
he has settled Chandler and Go's, demand by a check on
his bankers for 63/. 14ff., abating lOe/. — ^that he has drawn
checks for salaries and other charges to the amount of
55/. 1 7s, 3d. — that he has accepted a bill addressed at his
bankers at 2 months to Jones and C!o. (No. 1) for 975/.,
deducting 2^ per cent in discharge of their demand— that
he has accepted a biU (No. 2) at 6 months to Smith and
Co. 1267/. IQs., and another bill (No. 3) at the same date
to Thompson and Co. 907/. 5s., and another bill (No. 4) at
2 months to Carpenter and Co. 452/. Bs. Bd. — that the bills
accepted at 2 months have ikllen due and been regularly paid
by the bankers, and that the two acceptances at 6 months
are still running — that he has compromised a debt of
28/. I4s. Bd. for lOs. in the pound, which he has received in
cash, forming part of the above sum of 756/. 16;. Suppose
further that of the 1 8 bills receivable, No. 8 had fallen due
and been received in. cash, value 8/. I As., and that six
others, namely, 1,4, 5, 12, 13, 16, amounting to 898/. 1 7s, Ad.,
paid short into the banker's, had fallen due and been regu-
larly taken up in full by the acceptor, except Mr. Athel-
stan's, who, requiring the assistance of 55/., had 25/. lent to
him out of the cash, and a bill receivable (No. 7) for 30/.
Suppose also a horse to be bought, by cheek 35/. The ori-
ginid entries recording the above transactions would be
made as follows : — The sale of the consols and disposal of
the proceeds would first appear in the summary joumal —
the sales of iron would be stated with particulars of date,
person, quantity, and price in the sold aay-book, according
to the order of time, and the same facts would be carried
forward into the sold ledger, according to the division of
persons. The cash-book would show in the order of time
the various sums received fh>m the particular buyers, whose
accounts would be immediatelv credited in the sold
ledger. The bQls-receivable book would give day by day
the names of the buyers from whom each bill had been
received, and show the pace in the sold ledger where it
had been carried to his credit. With regard to abatements
and discounts, the sold ledger and the bought ledger
should each have a sufficient number of folios set apart to
contain a list of all such allowances regularly reconied at
the time of their occurrence ; and these allowances, under
the names of 'discounts outwards' and 'discounts inwards,"
should be journalized at convenient periods in the sum-
mary joumal. The bills-payable book would show the date
and amount of each acceptance, with a reference to the
folio in the bought ledger where each drawer has be^i
debited.
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These trannetions* when digeeled in tb« jeuniilf trould
give liie to entriei of the following eif^el :«-
DAWKSBa. Dr. lo Oohmul
£4000. t Wj. tow Bwlifagi j . MJ^ 0 0
SouD LsMSB. Dr. to Imoir.
^ AmowDk Mid u per Day Book, mum 1 to S9 «
aiti 10 0
Cash. Dr. to SmtPBiu*
Soto LCDOBB.M per Cftah Book . • 75B 10 0
Biuo KMCdVABLs, No. 8 . 8 14 0
7«7100
SuNDBiKt. Dr. to CaOh.
BAimat, AS per Cash Book . , 660 0 0
Sold LsDOSB (AthtfUtan) . . SS • 0
TAMt . . . . , MM 0
Chabou . • , 98 16 6
706 g g
UvKDBics. Dr.to8oT,DLtDOita. ..^ ,. «
BixAs Rkcbivabli. No, 1 to 18. a* per BilURec. Book . MM It 0
Duoocirr Outwabdi. paitlculara from Sold Led^r. 16 }■ '5 S
Bao DiBTt, oomproCDlMd iESS U 6 • • ^* 7 ^
8219 1) 8
iSuif BBxit. Dr. to BiU4 Rboeiyablv.
8AirxxB«-1.4,6.1S,14,l6 , 898 17 4
8ou> Lbmbb CAiheUtan) • . 80 0 0
998 17 4
BOTJOHT LlDOXB. Df. to BiLU PATABZ.B.
Ab per Billa- Payable Book . • .
8609 8 6
StTKDBIKf.
Biuf Patablb,
Dr. to BAicKBBf.
Nal 976 0 0
Na4 469 8 6
BovoiiT LiMsft— Chaadler h Coi.
HoBsa • , •
Chamm . • « •
1497 8 8
63 14 0
86 0 0
66 17 8
1681 19 9
BoiTOBT Lkdobb. Dr. to Diteov jrr Ihwa r d.
JoBM^95w-ChaiidlerlO«. , . 96 0 10
When these entries have been properly posted in the
sommary ledger, and added to the accounts already there
of Premises, Iron, Stable, and Bought Ledger, the general
effect will come out in the following balances
Banken . . 3661 17
Cash 41 4
BOla rwMfrable 1396 0
BoMLed«er. 199 9
2
8
9
Iit» .
Pwnilseo
SUble
Horse
Tasee • •
Charges . .
Dlscounk oatw.
Bod debts •
•
•
•
99 10
84 19
19 19
14 7
«
9
0
8
Consols . • 8093 0 0
BilU payable . 9174 15 0
niicottnt Inw. 96 0 10
6197 6 6
19 6 0
468 8 6
63 14 10
86 0 0
184 9 0
6894 16 10
6894 16 10
Should a itock-tahing be determined upon at this point,
the book-keeper, grounding himself upon bis balance-sheet,
transfers to an account of ' profit and loss * all those hns-
Unees which represent absolute loas or absolute gain, inde-
pendently of existing property, because they are matters of
mere account, and not matters of opinion, under the sup-
posed state of things, he would therefore of his own accord
make the following entries in his Journal : —
pBoriT and Loss.
Taxbs. Balanoa oC iliii Moamit
Chaboks . , .
Diso'i/jrr Otrrt ,
Bad Dbbvb •
Dr. to SoirvBiBs.
. ^£99 10 0
84 19 9
. 13 19 0
. 14 7 8
-184 8 0
DtSCOVXT I v.
B«lBQee of disoouBC la.
Dr. to PRoriT and Loss.
' : : ^6 0 10
The balance-sheet being presented to the employer in the
improved state thus produced, is examined, item by item,
to ascertain that the property mentioned in the ledger is in
actual existence. The cash, the bills payable and receivable,
and the balance at the bankers, are disposed of in a few
minutes, in all concerns which have the least pretension to
rcgularitv of aocounts. The sold ledger and bought ledger
ought to be thoroughly investigated, and the balance, if any,
apiHsaring in the summary ledger, ought to be sustained
and elucidated by a schedule of the debu composing that
balance, not only for the 2*ake of proving that so much pro-
perty really exuU in the sold, and that all the demands
have been discharged from th^ bought, but also for the pur-
pose of securing the speedy collection of those debU which
may have fallen behind in point of time. With regard to
iron, it would be seen bv the led^r that 651 tons had been
bought and ddO tons had been sold. There ought, therefore,
to ba 101 tone eo hand ;«MaMfo or lota tbore eannot t«
without either erron or fraud. AfUr aatMbotory proof «»f
tbo faot, a valuation may Wo made, either at the markoc
prieo or the eoet prieo, aeeording to the purpose intended by
tbo stoetk«4aking, whieh ia aometinios to pay out the share
of a deeeasod or retiring partner, oomethnea to admit a new
one, and ■oaotimea in salutary eoaplianee with an annual
onstom. Suppose in this case the valwUfcin lo be Si!, per
ton, the oonsequenee would be the foUowmg Journal entry :— >
Uoir. Dr. to Fbamt md Last.
101 tons oa band UOsd^y , d» 805 0 0
Loss Dr. balaooo of Irtm aooouni in Lsdger 19 6 0
4.09 1S 0
Suppose tho oonsols were sold out half a year befcio, and
consequently a dividend due ; suppose, also, the valae of
provender in the stable to be 91i. 8#. 6d, ; the horse to be
considered onoHMventh lose valuable than when ho was
bought, and the nremiseB to have nndergone a detorioratinn
of 10 per oent, tnese matlera would be mua reeordod in the
journal :-~
Paom and LoMb Dr. Ownans.
HoBfB. U4s«BaUaaB • 06 0 0
ValnodtUsdayat • , . 80 0 0
■ ■ 6 0 9
PasMtns. Udon BsImih . 410 0 6
ValowlUiUdBTat , , 407 0 0
46 6
BrAnu. mtr^BUaaM . 03 14 10
BtoekoihandUiUdajr » . 91 8 0
41 0 4
Covsota.
HaUYoal'BDMdMddnB OB 44000 • • • 00 0 0
4^159 14 10
The effect of all these entries, when posted in the ledgrr.
appears in a new balance-sheet, which now represents thr
actual state of the concern, with every account in the ledgiT
adjusted to the tame moment of time ; for the bookkeeper
who does not, on these occasions, refor every account to the
same moment of time diMovers that sort of ignorance rn
his art which Hogarth exposes and satirixes, for the benefit
of other artists, in his celebrated picture of ' False Per-
spective.'
MBW BALANCBJHEET.
i
I
Sanktfi
ash
Bills rccdvabte .
SohiLrdcer
Iron
8661 17 7
41 4 6
1295 0 8
199 9 9
aubia
Bono
-6197 6 6
606 0 0
407 0 0
81 8 6
30 0 0
il6160 14 0
CbBSols . 3766 f 0
Bill* I>ayabl» 9174 IS -
. 880 19 •
^MO 14 •
The proprietor of the concern, with these authent-.^
data before him, easily collects together all the acc^urr^
which are similar in their nature, and draws from tlic
result the most useful practical inferences. Thiu, Isr
finds that in cash and cash-like accounts he jpossesscs a
Property of .... £$\97 S 0
Out of which his bills payable will require 2174 15 0
To which he adds his iron
3022 10 6
505 0 0
And finds a A-ee disposable fond of £352/ 10 G
Having thus marshalled the floating against tlie tfiiaiin^
accounts, he compares the fixed with the fixed, and Cnd.^
the premises, horse, and stable to constitute a
Total of . . • . , £45S 8 i*
more or less unavailable, from wbkh deducting
The Profit • . . . • 230 19 0
for whieh he is his own creditor, he adda
The Difference « , , . 227 9 6
to the above dispoBable fond • • 3527 10 &
£3755 0 0
and perceives that if the price of consols is the same as
when he sold them out, he can replace them, U^lher with
the dividend, even although his premises, horse, and pro-
vender should yield him only 227/. 9«. 6d. If he rontinu«s
in business, he periodioallv extracte from his books the same
sort of information, and by comparing the results in the
same way asoerteins the progress he has made in a givten
time. In this case the means of living are supposed lo be
derived from sources faidopendent of the bueinase. If tke
proprietor had drawn any money for private paxpoMB» he
Digitized by
ftOO
im
soo
wmll lum bMtt diaiged vttli ft itt'a Mfiftte Meouiit
under his oim name.
So, whera levertl pftitMn «ra intensted in any nndef-
taking, the books are kept as if they were the books of one
iodividual, eaoh partner being debited or credited in his
penonal aeeount, like a stranger, with all tiiat he takes out
•r brings inwards. At the stock-taking the aeeoant of profit
and losa is balanced by transferring to the prlfate aooount
of each partner his respective share.
In examining this new balanoe-aheet, the reader will
hsFe remarked that, in pomt of fact, eaoh acoount repre-
•ents the concern itself under different aspects, the debtor
aide forming an inventory of property so digested as to
show at onoe what and where the several heads of property
are, and the creditor side exhibiting the natuie and amount
of the demands upon the coneem. The account of bills
payable, for example, shows the amount which the concern
IS bound to pnmde ibr the satisihotfon of claims which will
be brought against it ibr aptual payment $ the account of
consols shows the sum of money which the proprietor has
embarked in this patHoular undertaking ; and the account
of profit and loss jwints out the amount of advantage he
has derived fiom his transactions, provided all the accounts
on the debtor side should realise the sums standing against
them.
Another view suggested hf this analysis of the new
balance-sheet is, that although it may seem at first sight
indiilbrent whether a man is his own debtor or his own cre-
ditor, since, in either case, he has no actual payment to
provide for ; yet in reality it makes an important dlflbrence
to a trader at his stook-taking, whether he finds the account
of profit and loss standing at the debtor or the creditor side
of bis balance-sheet ; since on the debtor side it indteates
the absence or destruction of prep&rtH, and on the credit
aide it indicates the absence or destruction of Migaiion,
This is indeed the whole strugsle. It is ibr profit thut
the labours, cares, and hazards of trade are encountered,
and in books well kept the issue of the struggle is pointed
out by this account of profit and loss. In tiie progress of
the business sketched above more profits would accrue, and
woukl swell the credit side of that aeeeunt, but at the same
time expenses and other inroads upon the property would*
likewise be going fbrword, and wouM ultimately array ttiem-
aelves under the several heads ibr whwh the concern would
be its own debtor. The important questton is on which
side the preponderance shows itself.
At this point it may be advisable to admonish the youns
accountant not to be led away by a sophism which wlB
frequently assail him, vie that whether he keep his books
by one method or another the result is the same. Who-
ever duly considers that the purpose of book'-keeping is
not only to ascertain the actual state of a concern, but to
know what that state ought to be by virtue of all its trans-
actions, will immediately see the impossibility of arriving
at that complete knowledge by single entry. One example
will make this clear. In weighing the iirm, the quantt^
would be found as heavy by smgle as by double entry, bnt
it is by double entry alone that you can know whether that
quantity is the right one. If you wish ibr satisfiiction, as
you naturally must, on so interesting a point, double entry
gives you at once, and upon system, that satisfaction whicn
single entry drives you to obtain through the laborious un-
certain process of 'picking out,* carrying within itself no
principle of certainty, and harassing the mind with the con-
sciousness of perpetual liabihty to error. Single entry is in
iact little better Uian loose memorandums of account, vain*
able undoubtedly as far as they go, but so incomplete and
diqointed, that they throw no useful light upon the past
progress of aflhlrs, and are utterly incapable oC showing
what the present ihcts ought to be,
IX>uble entry Is of quite a diflbrent character. It begins,
proeeeds, and ends in as much certamty as human falli-
bility admits of. Whatever may become of the property in
a concern, the matter of account is subject to no possible
diminution. Not a single atom can be admitted into its
r* lere without being ranged under two heads of acoount, to
credit of one and to the debit of the other. Not an atom
within the sphere can change its character, as, for instance,
when a bill receivable is paid in cash, without producing
a credit in the account it has abandoned, and a debit or
equal valne in the account it has entered.
BOOM, a commune in the province of Antwerp, ten
mites ecmth pf Antwem, with which it communicates by
of a paved road. The town stands on the banka
of the navigable river Rupel; it contains 1045 houses
and 6223 inhabitants. A considerable trade is carried on
between this place and Antwerp, Mechlin, and firuAseW,
which is much facilitated by the navigation oi the Rupel
and by the Brussels canal, which joins the Rupel opposite
to the town. Great numbers of bricks and tiles are made
here ; the building of vessels for river and canal navigation
is also carried on ; there are two large salt-refineries and
seventeen breweries, besides distilleries, rope-walks, tan*
neries, and establishments for other manufactures. Boom
supports two communal schools, in which sixty-five boys and
eighty girls are taught. {Die, Geog. de la Prov. dAnvers,
par Van der Maelen.)
BOOM-DAS. [Htrax.]
BOONDEE, a principality in the S.B. quarter of Raj-
pootana, under the protection of the Anglo-Indian govern-
ment, between which and the Rajah of Boondee, Bishen
Sing Behauder, a treaty was concluded in February, 1818.
The territory of Boondee formerly comprehended the
petty state of iLotah, and with it occupied that division of
the province of Ajmeer (Rajpootana) which is known as
Harraoutee or Haravati, a name derived from the ruling
fiimily, who are of the Hara tribe. The boundaries of Boon-
dee are Kotah on the S. and E., the ih>ntier being about five
miles from the river Chumbul ; Jeypoor and Oonjara on the
Nn iind Jajghur on the W.
The R^ah of Boondee having brought upon himself the
enmity of the Maharatta chiefs, Holkar and Scindia, in
consequence of the aid afforded by him to the British army
under General Monson, when retreating in 1804, a part
of the territory and more than one-half of the revenues of
the principality were exacted by those chiefs in the name
of tribute. The subsequent success of its operations against
Holkar and Scindia having enabled the Bntish government
to insist upon the surrender in its favour of the tribute thus
exacted, that portion which was paid to Holkar by the Rajah
of Boondee was remitted to the latter, together with certain
pergunnahs, of which Holkar had taken possession.' By
another article of the treaty of 1818 the Rajah of Boondee
engaged to pay to the British government the tribute before
paid to Scindia, amounting to 80,000 sicca rupees (9000iL
per annum). In addition to the pecunianr relief thus
afibrded to the Rajah, he received, under this treaty, an
accession of territory to the extent of 2500 sq. m.. including
the town of Patun. [RaipootanaJ
(Mill's Bn/. India; Report of Committee cf House q^
Commons on the Affairs qf India, 1832, political section.)
BOONDEE, the capital, in 25" 28' N. lat. and 76° 42' E,
lon^. Properly speaking, the town consists of two parts,
distinguished as Old Boondee and New Boondee. The old
town, which is to the W. of the modern buildings, is nearly
deserted by the inhabitants, and for the most part in ruins :
it contains however some fine pagodas, and some fountains.
The new town is inclosed by high stone walls and con-
nected with fortifications on a clifi^ behind the town, and
commanding it. The greater part of the houses are built
of stone, and are two stories high. The principal street
has a very striking appearance. At one end stands an ex-
tensive temple, dedicated to Krishna, covered with groups
in rilievo, and at the other end is the ^reat palace of the
Rig ah, built on the side of the hill : the intermediate space *
is occupied by two rows of shops rantastically ornamented.
At the lower end of the street and near the temple are
figures of the natural size, cut in stone, of a horse and an
elephant— the latter raised on a pedestal.
On the N.B. side oi the city is a lake which is supplied
With water during the rainy season by another great lake
artificially formed by embankments on the high ground.
The pass through the hills to the N. of the city is more than
e m. long, and at three spots is defbnded by barriers. Near
to one of these barriers is a summer residence of the Rajah»
and some Hindn temples. Adjoining the second hairier is
the cemetery of the Rsgah*s family, containing many highly
ornamented tombs, with figures of elephants and war-
horses. (Hamilton's Basi Ind. Oaz.)
BO'OPS, a genus of fishes of the (H^er acanthopterygii,
and, according to Cuvier's arrangement, belonging to the
fourth famly of that tribe called sparoides or sparidee.
This genus is chiefly characterized by the species pos-
sessing trenchant teeth ; the mouth is small and not pro
tractile. The species are generally of brilliant eolouringt
Moat of them occur in the Mediterranean
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B OO
Boops Balpa iSparus talpa of Linnous) is of an oUong-
ovate form: the f^and colour of Us body is bluish, on
irhich are several lonritudiDal yellow stripes.
BOORHANPORE, a lar^e and ancient city, formerly
the capital of the province of Candeish, on the N.W. bank
of the Tuptee River, '29^ 19' N. lat, and 76° 18' E. long.
This city is one of the best built in the southern part of
Hindustan ; the houses are generally constructed of brick,
and are two or three stories high. Many of the streets
are wide, and paved with stone ; the market-place is a large
and substantial building, but the city is without architec-
tural ornament The principal mosoue is the only building
which is any exception to this remark. It is of gray stone,
with an extensive fa9ade supported on arches, and it has
two handsome minars of an octagonal form : in front are a
fine terrace and a reservoir of water.
Boorhanpore, which had been made the seat of govern-
ment for the Soubah or Viceroyalty of Candeish by Au-
rungzebe, was taken, together with the rest of the Soubah,
by the Maharattas, about 1760. In October, 1803, shortly
after the battle of Assye, this city was taken by a detach-
ment of the army under General Wellesley, but was re-
stored to the Maharajah, Dowlut Rao Scindia, on the con-
elusion of peace in the month of Deoember in the same
year, and the city has since continued subject to his go-
vernment
The principal commerce of the place is carried on by a
peculiar sect of Mohammedans, known as Bohrah^ but who
call themselves Ismaeliah from one of the followers of Mo-
hammed, who lived in the age immediately succeeding that
of the prophet These people, to judse from their personal
appeal ance, are of Arab origin, and they adhere to the
Arabian costume ; many of them are very wealthy, and in-
habit the best houses in the city : their mosque and ceme-
tery are about two miles from Boorhanpore.
The Tuptee is here a narrow river, and fordable in the
dry season. Water for the supply of the city is brought by
means of an aqueduct from a distance of 4 m., and is plen-
tifully distributed through every street. The grapes, which
grow abundantly in the neighbourhood of the city, are said
to be the finest in India.
Boorhanpore is distant from Oojein 154 m.,from Bombay
240, from Nagpoie 256, from Poonah 288, from Agra 508f
and from Calcutta 978 m.» travelling distances.
(Mills Brit. IwL; Hamilton's E(ui Ind. Qaz.)
BOORO, an island in the Eastern seas, situated between
the S. £. coast of Celebes and Amboyna, between a*" and
4° S. lat, and 126"* and 127^ £. long.
This island is of an oval shape ; its length from E. to
W. is 75, and its average breadth about 40 miles. The
inhabiunts of the coast who are Mohammedans, acknow-
ledge the authority of the Dutch settlers, but are governed
immediately by their own chiefs, or oran cayot. The inha-
bitants of the interior, which consists for tho most part of
very high mountains, are the aboriginal Horaforas, and
subsist upon wild fruits and the produce of the chase. The
south si<to of the island was formerly much infested by
the Papuas, and was in consequence deserted by the natives.
At Cajelli or Booro bay, at the N. E. end of the island,
is Fort Defence, the settlement of the Dutch. This port is
frequented by South Sea whalers for shelter during the
monsoons, as well as to obtain wood and water, which are
plentiful. The principal productions are rice, sago, and
various kinds of dye and aromatic woods, for which many
Chinese vessels come to the island. The Cajeputi tree is
a native of Booro, and its product, known in Europe as
Cajeput oil, may be obtained in considerable quantity.
(Stavorinus*s Voyages^ vol. i. ; Forrest s Voyagt to New
Guinea ; Porter's Tropical Agriculturist,)
BOOT AN, or BHOOTAN, a name formerly employed
to designate an indefinite tract of country to the N. £.
of Hindustan, is at present limited to the Alpine region,
which extends from the banks of the river Teesta eastward,
and terminates to the N. of Asam, as it is supposed,
about 92^ 40' £. long. As the western boundary reaches to
88^ 40', the length of tho country may be 150 miles, or
nearly so. Its extent from N. to S. is only about 100 miles,
and is supposed to be included between the parallels of
26^ 30' and 28'. Thus, Bootan would occupy an area of
25,000 sq. m., or nearly that of Scotland.
It is bounded on the W. by the territories of the Raja
of Sikkim, on the N. by Tibet, and on the S. by Bengal
andBahar; but we are not iuformcd what peopW inhabit
the eountry along ita eattem borders* and it is only <
jectured that they are the Ankas or Akas, a nation which
possesses the mountains N. of Asam, and is otherwise hitle
known.
The extensive plains which occuoy the southern refoona
of Central Asia, and are known as the table-land of Tibet«
are situated at a great elevation above the sea. There aro
good reasons for supposing that on an average this el^a-
tion is above 10,000 feet The disUnce between this Uble-
land and the low plains on the banks of the Ganges, harliy
exceeds in a straight line eighty miles, and as these low
Elains, where they approach nearest the table-land, art:
ardly 300 feet above tho sea, it is easily conceived that
the descent from the table-land to the low plains must Us
exceedingly rapid and uneven. Bootan occupies the whole
of this descent and a narrow tract of country at the fool
of it
As far as our information goes, the surfkce of Bootan t«
covered with enormous masses of rocky mountains, many of
which rise to a considerable height. Between the moun-
tains the valleys, which are extremely narrow, extend south
and north, or nearly so, and are traversed by rivers, whi^^h
for many miles are a succession of cataracts and mpula.
Different parts however of this country exhibit different
physical features.
Recent observation has shown that elevated plains are
generally, if not alwavs, bounded by high lands, which ri»«*
oonsiderablv above the level of the plains, and it would
seem that the height of these mountain-ranees is in some
measure proportionate to the elevation of the plains. At
least, the taole-land of Tibet, the highest of all elevated
Elains of great extent, is bounded on its southern border
y the highest mountains of the globe, the Himalaya ran^e.
llie mountains rise in their lowest parts at least 5000 feet
above the table-land ; for the mountain-passes by whirh
the Himalaya are traversed are found to attain an absolute
altitude of between 15,000 and 16,000 feet The summits
are still many thousand feet higher, and a few of them ns«
above 25,000 feet
Bootan includes the southern declivity of the Himalara
range, and here on the boundary of Tibet stands the Cha-
malari which rises to about 25.000 feet ; somewhat more to
the east is Mount Ghassa, whose elevation has not been de-
termined. The number of passes over the Himalaya in
this country is said to be eighteen, but we have information
only about one, the Soomoonang-pass, which traverses the
range to the west of Chamalari, and according to the calcu-
lation of Berghaus, deduced from the thermometrical ohsufr-
vationsof Saunders, is 15,744 feet above the level of Cal-
cutta. It is therefore more than 800 feet lower than thf
famous Nheetee Pass in Kumaon, which aeoording ij
Webb rises 16,569 feet above the same level.
The northern parts of Bootan, which belong to the Alp:n?
region, extend southward from the boundary of Tibet an-i
along the southern slope of the Himalaya fbr about tm
miles. It appears that within these narrow limits the hxh
land descencU more than 10,000 feet; for the temperaiur?
indicates that the valleys, which are about ten miles fr<'*u
the northern boundary and the high passes into Tibet ?7t>
hardly more than 5000 feet above the sea, and in maxM
places less. The valley of Tassisndon, aoooiding to B^r?-
haus, is 4811 feet above Calcutta, and that of Pteinkka u
still much lower. This rapid descent oonstitaces the cha-
racter of the northern districts of Bootan. Summits which
are covered with eternal snow, are eontiguoas to enonnou<
mountain-masses of bare, black roeks, which, as they d^
cline in height begin to display short herbage, with 'here
and there a straggling barberry-bush. Farther down, the
hollies make the most conspicuous figure on the slopes, axtd
give way in some places to stunted pines, but this scanty
covering of vegetation is frequently interrupted by steep
bare rocks, on which here and there a fir starts thwi a de-
vice. The valleys are so narrow and deep, and the moitp*
tains which bound them so steep and high, that the nvt i*f
the sun are shut out every hour of the dsy, exeept when it
is nearly vertical. The rivers rush forth Vke torrents
foaming violently among huge masses of roek that ob»mics
their tortuous course, in which they dash from one s«de to
the other. Their progress is only interrupted by numeroas
rapids, which continue sometimes for great distances, sod
their volume is continually increased by the strsema wh-rU
descend from the conti^ous heights with the qnidmess c/
an arrow. The spray rising from the numerous w^ieHkLs
Digitized by
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BOO
169
BOO
bads the atmosphere with vapours, and renders the air ex-
tremely chilly, even in summer. In September or October
tiie frMt begins in the more elevated parts, which are
uninhabited for four or five months of the year. In sum-
mer however they are visited by numerous herds of chowry-
tailed cattle and their herdsmen, as they offer abundant
pasture at that season. At the approach of winter, the
cattle are removed to a few deep glens.
Ck)ntiguou8 to this inhospitable Alpine region is the most
pleasant and best cultivated part of Bootan, which occupies
about one-half of the whole country, extending about fiihr
miles from north to south. The mountains, though still
covering by far the greatest part of the surface, probably
never, or rarely, attain the height of 10,000 feet, and they
descend with gentle declivities. These, as well as their sum-
mits, are clothed with high trees, especially pines and firs;
and in other places with birch, aspen, maple, and yew ; but
no oak has been found. The valleys are open, and in many
places they present to the husbandman a level from one
to two miles broad, but he has extended his dominion to a
considerable distance up the gentle declivities of the adja-
cent mountains, where he cultivates rice and the grains of
Europe, while his orchards jHroduce apples, pears, peaches,
apricots, oranges, and walnuts, and the uncultivated spots
are covered with strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries.
The rivers which traverse the larger valleys bring down
from the Alpine cegion great volumes of water, but as the
slope of the valleys is not ver^ great, they continue their
course by a tranquil though rapid current, while the smaller
streams, whidi aescend from the neighbouring mountains,
rush down with the violence of torrents. Numerous villages,
hermitages, and farm-houses are distributed up and down
the hills and along the banks of the rivers. The climate
resembles that of the southern countries of Europe. At
Tassisudon, in summer, the thermometer never descends
below 60*^ nor rises above 80°. The summer is the rainy
season, when showers are frequent, but there are no heavy
rains, such as accompany the south-western monsoon in the
low plajns of Bengal. In winter the country is for some
time covered with snow, except at Panukka and Andipore
(Wandipore) in the valley of the Tahan-tchien, where snow
is only occasionally seen. This valley, which begins at
Mount Ghassa, descends more rapidly and much deeper
than the other valleys, and Saunders found the temperature
at Panukka nearly equal to that of Rungpore in Bengal.
The inhabitants of that place are careful not to expose
themselves to a vertical sun, while those of Ghassa feel all
the risour of winter, and are chilled by perpetual snow ; yet
both these places are in view of each other. On account of
this mildness of the climate, the Daeb Raja, or sovereign
of Bootan, has chosen Panukka for his winter-residence,
though it is situated farther north than Tassisudon, where
he passes the summer.
Before the rivers reach the low plains of Bengal, they
still descend another slope, which in somewhat more than
ten miles ginks from upwards of 3000 feet to less than 300.
Here the valleys are again close and deep, and so narrow
that they often do not present along the rivers room enough
fur men and horses to pass, and the roads have conse-
quently been made on the side of high mountains along
deep preoii^ioes. The sides of the mountains are in many
places too steep to admit any kind of vegetation upon
them ; in other places they are covered with forests of fine
trees, which however are useless, being inaccessible : they
consist of saul, bamboo, plantains, and others peculiar
to this tract, and known to the natives by the names of
boumbtbi, toumbshi, and rindshL These large trees are
clothed with moss smd with creepers of surprising length
and thickness, and not less remarkable for their fiexibility
and strength ; hence they are an excellent substitute for
rope. Agriculture in this district is confined to a few small
•pots; for though the rocks are covered with a rich and
fertile soil, it is hardly ever level enough to be cultivated.
Cattle, however, and hogs find abundant food in the spon-
taneous produce of the woods. This region is exposed to
the full south-west monsoon, and is unhealthy, at least to
strangers, from tho month of May till towards the end of
Septemben The swelling of the neck called in Switzerland
goitre is more frequent here than in other parts of Bootan.
To the aoutH of this mountain-region, and only divided
from it by a few miles of gently sloping ground, extends the
Tariyani, noted all over Bengal for its forests and its un-
healtliineBa. It belongs partly to Bootan. This region,
No. 293.
which runs along the whole extent of the Himalaya range
finom the Brahmapootra to the Ganges at Hurdwar, with
an average breadth of twenty or twenty-five miles, is an
entire swamp. Numerous springs issue from the base of
the mountains, and unite in rivulets ; but as the country is
a perfect level, the declivity of the soil is not sufficient to
draw off this large volume of water, which consequently
becomes stagnant, and forms a swamp abounding with the
most exuberant vegetation. The soil is covered with rank
grass, reeds, fern, and underwood, among which the bam-
boo grows to the height of thirty feet, and as thick as a
man's wrist It is overtopped by the most compact and
loftiest timber of the forest. From this exhaustless store
the remotest provinces of India, but especially Bengal, de«
rive an ample supply of the best materials for constructing
boats, and for all purposes of building. This swampy coun-
try is the haunt of great numbers of elephants, rhinoceroses,
tigers, and wild buffaloes ; but the exhalations from such
a surface of vegetable matter and swamps, increased by an
additional degree of heat reflected from the hills, render
the air highly injurious to the health of man. It is conse-
quently very thinly inhabited, and by a very miserable
class of people. Goitres are frequent among them.
Travelling in a country like Bootan is by no means easy
and convenient. In the Tariyani it is performed by means
of elephants ; but in the mountainous parts, which have no
carriage-roads, it can only be undertaken on horseback, for
which purpose the Tangun horse, the native breed of this
country, is the only one that is suitable. Sometimes
persons must be carried over some steep parts of the
mountains on the backs of men. But every kind of com-
munication would be quite impossible if the natives
had not shown great industry in building bridges. The
great variety of these bridges, and their Being always
adapted to the river and other circumstances, evince no
small degree of ingenuity and judgment. They are gene-
rally of timber, and if the width of the river will admit, they
are laid horizontally from rock to rock. Over broader
streams, a triple or quadruple row of timbers, one row pro-
jecting over the other, ana inserted into the rock, sustain
two sloping sides, which are united by a horizontal plat-
form : thus, the centre is raised very much above the cur-
rent, and the whole bridge forms nearly three sides of an
octagon. Piers are very seldom used, on account of the
unequal heights of the banks and the extreme rapidity of the
rivers. The widest river of Bootan has an iron bridge, con-
sisting of a number of iron chains, which support a matted
platform ; and two chains are stretched above parallel to the
sides, to support a matted border, which is absolutely neces-
sary to the safety of the passenger, who is not quite at his
ease till he has landed from this swinging, unsteady footing.
At another place, a bridge for foot-passengers is formed of
two parallel chains, round which creepers are loosely twisted,
from which suitable planks are suspended, the end of one
plank resting upon the end of the other, without being con-
fined. Over deep chasms, two ropes, commonly of rattan,
or some stout and flexible osier, are stretched from one
mountain to another, and they are endroled by a hoop of
the same material. The passenger places himself between
them, sitting in the hoop, and seizing a rope in each hand,
slides himself along with fecility and speed, over a tre-
mendous abyss. (Turner.)
The most considerable river of Bootan is the Tehin-tohien,
which traverses the whole country from north to south, rising
in the mountain-range between the Chamalari and Mount
Ghassa, and running by Tassisudon. Being several miles
lower down swelled by two considerable tributaries, the
Pa-tchien, which rises near Paro and the Ha-tchien, it
finds a passage between the mountains of the lower range,
from whence it is precipitated in tremendous cataracts, and
rushing^ with rapidity between the high cliffs and rocks that
oppose its progress, it descends at length into the plain a
few miles east of Buxadewar, and finally joins the Brahma-
pootra, not much below Rangamatty, under the name of
Gadadhar. Its whole course may be about 150 miles.
Parallel to the Tehin-tchien, but ferther to the east, runs
the Chaan-tchien, of which however only the upper course
is known. Two rivers, which rise in the neighbourhood of
Mount Ghassa, the Ma-tchien and Pa-tchien, unite at the
castle of Panukka, and run to Andipore, or Wandipore,
where they are joined by a third river, the Tahan-tcnien,
and the united waters are callefl Chaan-tchien. Farther
down the course of this river is not known, hut it. isLSuph
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BOO
m
BOO
poMd, aft«r having dMoended from Xh% bigblandi, U Oow
ttiroogh the flat surface of the district of Bijoee, and to
ioin &e Brahmapootra several miles belowr its entry into
Bengal.
The rapidity of all the rivers of Bootan is far too great to
allow either navigation or irrigation. The latter circum-
stance however is not of great importance, as the level
country along their banks is of very small extent, most
of the cultivated ground being situated on the sides of the
hills, from which numerous rills descend. The slopes are
cut into stages, und the rice planted on them is watered
by the descending streams, wnich are made to overflow
the beds successively. The natives show much industry
in the cultivation of their fields, which are always neatly
dressed. Besides rice, they cultivate wheat, barley, and a
species of the polygonum of LinnsDus, which produces a
triangular seed, nearly the size of barley, and is the com-
mon food of the people in many places. The level tracts
along the Tehin-tchien yield two crops in the year; the
first, of wheat and barley, is cut in June, and the rioe»
which is planted immediately after, enjoys the benefit of
the rains.
Horticulture is less attended to, though the country it
fitted for the production of every fruit and vegetable com-
mon without the tropics, and in some situations will bring to
perfection many tropical fruits. The most common fruits
are apples, pears, peaches, aprijsots, mulberries, oranges,
{wme^ranates, and walnuts. The apples arc coarse, harsh*
and ill-tasted, but the peaches ana apricots are excellent.
The culture of vegetables is also neglected, except that of
turnips, which are equal to those of the northern countries
of Europe. They also grow shallots, cucumbers, gourds,
and melons. The sugar-cane is cultivated at Andipore.
In the rocky soil, near the mountains covered with snow,
a species of rhubarb plant (rheum widulatum) is found ;
and in some other parts a kind of cinnamon tree, the leaves
of which are much used in cookery in Bengal, and known
by the name of teeznant Paper is made from the bark of
a tret*
Of domestic animals only horses, cattle, and hogs are
kept. The horses are nearly all of them of a peculiar
species, indigenous in Bootan, and found in none of the
neighbouring countries. Tliey are called tangun, vulgarly
tanniun, f>om Tangust&n, the general appellation of the
mountains of Bootan, but they are chiefly bred in the valley
of the Pa-tchien, the tributary of the Tehin-tchien. They
are usually thirteen hands high, and remarkable for their
just proportions, uniting in an eminent degree both strength
and beauty. They are short-bodied, clean-limbed, and
though deep in the chest, yet extremely active. They are
coranvnily of a piebald colour, with various shades of black,
bay, and sorrel upon a ground of the purest white. Those
of one colour are rare, and not so valuable in the opinion
of the Booteeas, though much more esteemed by the English
ill Bon<7al, to which country a great number is annually
exported.
Tlie ehoNvry-tailed cattle, or yak {Bo$ grunniem) [Asia,
p. 48 2], pastures in summer among the snow-topped moun-
tains which constitute the boundary between Bootan and
Tibet, and in the winter it descemu into the deep glens
farther to the south.
Wild animals are so extremely rare in the mountainous
districts of Bootan, that Turner does not notice any, except
a kind of monkey, the hunnoowunt of India, the largest in
these countries, and the gentlest of the monkev tribe. They
have black faces, surrounded by a streak of white hair, and
very long slen<ler tails. They are only found in the mild
climate near Panukka, and are held sacred by the Boo-
teeas as well as by the Bindus. Bees are common, and
managed with great care. Among the troublesome animals,
leeches and a kind of pestiferous ti^ are noticed.
The mineral riches are little known, and still less used.
Of metals only iron and copper are found, and only the
former worked.
There are no towns in Bootan, and even large villages
are rare, consisting generally of not more than tenor twelve
houses. Only the palaces of the lamas, of the Daeb ray ah,
and the governors of the provinces, and the numerous for-
tresses, deserve notice: a drawing and description of the
palace of Tassisudon are given in Turner's Embassy to t/te
Court of Tehhoo Lama, p. 90, &c. The fortresses are al-
ways built on very advantageous sites, generally at the con-
fluence of two riven.
Tim natives of Bootan, oaUedl^tfiaHiiidiMi
Botivas, belong to a very extensive nation* which oeeopi«a
the higher regions of the Himalaya range westward to thm
valley of Cashmere; in Bootan alone thay aia in posseMi(»n
of the whole mountain-traot. The stnietnie of tb^ir body
and their features prove ^hat they belong to the same race
which is spread over the souU) of ]Ba^#m Asia* and uwu-
prebends the Birmans as well as the Cniqaia.
The Booteeas are Buddhist; bul in ^ir prtigjoiis care
monies they differ wi4ely from other pations, Their templiM
are small squares, ii^ woieh the imag# of Buddha is pn.
served. They are n^ver opened, and the wl^ole aivin* Uf€-
vice of the people consists in pipoessions nada round the
temple, accompanied with the mystic word#, * Cm man iti
pad me hi^m f* They uncover tbeir hoa4s when they uaa* a
temple, and if travelling on horseback, dismount ana «A<k
by. Near the temples are many iall flagstais, which U^y
narrow banners of white cloth, reaching nearly from t-^*,)
to bottom, and inscribed with the same mystie words. IU>
sides this there are lonf^ walls, conimonly about ta-aUe or
flileen foot in length, six feet high, and {mo thick, »iih «
central part distinguished by being Ihicker and higher thui;
the sides. On both faces near the top are inserted Iai^i-
tablets, with the same mystic words cut in relief.
Tho import of these words, according U> the explanatiMfi
of Schmidt, is 'The jewel of the Quddistio fullness is u«.ly
revealed in the Padma (Lotus) flower.*
They consider the Dherma Haja as an incarnation of !:<••
Divinity, and be is their ecclesiastical rhief as well as thv.i
sovereign. Being entirely absorbed in tlie oontempIat.fi
of tho divinity, he takes no part in the internal or txirr
nal affairs of the country, which are entirely left to lu-:
management of the Daeb Raja, except that the Dherru »
Raja appoints one member pf the state council. Titi*
council consists of eight persons, without the assistance of
whom the Daeb Raja can do notliing of oonsequen'^c.
This sovereign has to receive the public money, and to dis-
tribute it among the officers of government, or to empk>> a
for the support of religion, all which i| done aocerding u
rules established by custom.
The number of priests, called gyloags, is considerabh .
and amounts to upwards of 5000. Their principal durv
consists in the study of the religious books, which seem t..
be numerous, and full of metaphysical distinctions. Thct
are excluded from all oommeree with the other sex. and
are not permitted to cultivate the ground; but they miv
enter into trade, and accept public offices.
The Booteeas do not kill any animal, hut they eat il.c
meat of those which have been killed by othera, or have
died. New-born children are washed the flcsl day wmh
warm water, and the ibllowing day they are inuoeryvi
in a cold river. No religious ceremonies are observed on
entering into matrimony. Rich people take as many wi^r»
as they hke, and among the poor fimr or five brother^
have only one ; the children in such cases are oooaidimp;
as belonging to the eldest brother. Thus we ind is
Bootan both polygamy and polyandry. Woman abaod< -i
themselves to a depraved h(b up to their twenty-fifth «.r
thirtieth year, after which thay mariy. Tha daad azv
burned, and the gylongs officiate on such oocaswns ; ttir
ashes are thrown mto the river. On the Igmtm id tiK
burned person flagstaffs are eiectad, in ixte la aecefarate
the regeneration of the owner.
Bootan has some commerce with all tha neifthbounn;
countries : the most important is thai with Bengal and T
bet. The commodities ibr Bengal consist of Tangun bor^r*.
linen-cloth, moschus, chowriee, orangBC wahittia* a&i
mungit (a kind of red colour) : they are bmnght lo RuDfr<
pore, where they are axchaoged for woollen cloth, eoar»«.
cottons, indigo, sandal-wood, assafcstida, and epsees. a:
^ich articles are consumed in the country or eant t<i TUm •.
Tlie same commodities are sent to Nepaul and Asam. ^lu-
the addition of rock-salt. Part of the e<wreoditins bruurai
from Bengal are sent to H'Lussa, in Tibet, with naa, a beet,
and flour. Tea* gold, silver, and embroideriM ara rarvt^r
in exchange. The Booteeas import fimn Cuuk Bch&r
cattle, hogs, dried fish, betel, tohacccb and eaama eelson%
Commerce in Bootan is monopolixed by the gowninenC Ia*
governon of the provinces, and their officers^ (Turwer «
Embassy to the T$shoo Lma^ ani Mithm JTmI J^cae, r^
Asiatic Besearchu, xv.)
BOOl^ES (from the Greek Bofc. hot. 'an as*Ji mm «f
the old oonstellationa, lu name lijniiat tha ."
Digitized by
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171
BOO
bat ft fa as fteqnently called Arefyfph^lax}Sf tbe antients,
which means the guard of the dear. Amtltt eaUa it hj
bothntmes.
' Alttopkykx. valco qui dUHdt MM BooIm.*
if the ▼tfnion of Cicero. Both Aratus and Hygintis place
AacrtrRUfl in or under the girdle; bat it is usual to
drair it between the legs of the figure. Manilius also
uses both names. The eonsUAlation is connected mytho^-
loipcallf with the fkbles of Areas, leartis, Lycaon, and
others. The Arabio translators of Ptolemy rendered Bo6tes
by belloiffer or tocy^ior. According to the cid figures at-
tached to Hyeinus, he is refiressnted as a man with a spear
in the right hand (viewed iVora the back— Batsr) and a
sickle in the left. The modem figures represent a man
with a club in the right band (viewed in front), and in the
left the string which holds the two ddgs (CaneS Yenatici).
It would seem to be probable that the Greai Bear was ori-
ginally either an agricultural animal or instrument (an ox,
an as9, or a waggon), and Bo6t0s the driver.
The stars in ^)6tes are as folloirs :
n
/?
d
V?
n
X
No.U
CataJogae of
hi
1^
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11
12
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
1555
1557
15C8
1569
1577
I57S
1583
I5S7
1590
1599
1611
1616
1618
1620
1627
1623
1628 5
54
W
Mo.ta
Catalogue of
21
«2
23
24
45
26
27
29
29
30
dl
32
34
35
36
37
41
i^
1625
1639
1643
1643
1646
1650
1659
1660
1862
1664
1666 6
1670
1672
1686
707
31
41
KaIo
Catalogue of
42
43
44
45
II
1708
1710
1714
1715
46 1719
47
48
49
51
(36)
(69)
(73)
6
173t)
1733
1749
1737
1632
1636
(145)1658
(193)1685
(226)
(291)
[1848]
1698
1720
1621
5»
6
6
6
6
6
In the preceding, we have availed ourselves of the edition
of FlAmsteed*s Catalogue, just printed by the Admiraltv,
under the Ibperintendence of Mr. Bally We have entirely
followed his magnitudes so far as they go ; and tfie query
attached to a letter indicates that it is the letter which has
been comtBonly used, but which has not been admitted by
Mr.Baily in his revision of the nomenclature and restoration
of Bayer. We shall adopt the same plan in fUture. The
numbers are Flamsteeds: those in ( ) are Piazzrs: those
in n Bradley *s.
BOOTH, BARTON. This eminent actor was de-
Aoended froth an antient and honourable family, being the
third son of John Booth, Esq., a near relation of Henry
Booth, Bsurl of Warrington, In Lancashire. He was bom
in 1681, and educated at Westminster by the famous Dr.
Bufiby. Becoming at a very early age remarkable for the
grace of hts acttott and the sweetness of his voice, he was
aelceted to peribrm the character of Pampbilus in the ' An-
dria of Terence, at one of the customary School- exhibitions.
The great applause he met with ati this occasion was, by
his own confession, the first spur to his theatrical ambition;
and on being rembved to Cambridge at the age of seven-
teen, to the great annoyance of liis parents, who had in-
tended him for the church, he ran away from Trinity Ctol-
Wgc, and joined a company of strolling players. The mis-
deeds of one of the actors, while at Bury in Suffolk, caused
the dispersion of the company, and young Booth returned
to Lonaon in sreat distress. He was speeaily forgiven, and
kindly received by his fiimily ; but his stage-fever had by no
means abated, and in one of its fielrcest paroxysms he abso-
lutely engaged with a Mrs. Mins to perform at Bartholo-
mew Fair, where he achieved such rtenown, that Betterton
beard of him. and was prevented eniraging him for Drury-
Lane only by the fear of offending the noble family to
which hiS was related. Shortly afterwards Booth formed an
•cqtttintance with Aahbnry, thd manager tif the Dubliti
theatre, who chanced to be in London, and with him ha
went to Ireland in June, 1698. His first appearance ia
Dublin was in the part of Oronoko, and his success, de-
cided from the commencement, continued for two years
increasing daily, when he determined to return to England*
and having by letter reconciled himself a second time with
his family, he obtained from Lord Fitsharding a recom*
mendatioh to Mr. Betterton, who with great candour and
kindness engaged and assisted him to the extent of his
power. In 1701 Mr. Booth made his first bow in the
Theatre Royal, Dmry-Lane, in the character of Maximus,
in Lord Rochester's ' Valentinian.* His reception was en-
thusiastic, and he shortly established himself in publie
fsvour, as second only to his great friend and instructor
Betterton. In 1712, on the production of Mr. Addison's
' Gato,* Mr. Booth performed the principal character, and
was complimented by the Tories, who presented him with
fifty guineas, collected in the boxes during the performance,
' as a slight acknowledgment of his honest opposition to a
perpetual dictator, and his dying so bravely in the cause of
liberty.* The managers of the theatre also presented him
with an equal sum, in consideration of the great success his
talents had secured to the play; and shortly afterwards
Queen Anne, at the request of Lord Bolingbroke, g^ranted
a special license recalling all former ones, and nommating
Mr. Booth joint manager with Wilks, Gibber, and Dogget.
In 1 727 Booth was attacked hj a violent fever, which
lasted forty-six successive days without intermission, and
from the effects of which he never perfectly recovered. In
1729 he was prevailed on to play, for seven nights only, in
• The Double Falsehood,' and they were his last perform-
ances. After ibur years' distressing alienation of mind, he
expired. May 10, 1733, of a complication of disorders, in the
fifty -third year of his age. Mr. Booth was twice married *
first in 1704, to a daughter of Sir William Barkham of Nor-
folk, Bart, who died in 1710 without issue ; and, secondly,
in 1719, to MLbs Hester Santlow, or Saintlow, a celebrated
beautiful and wealthy actress, who survived him, but also
without issue. His will, a cony of which is printed in the
London Magazine fbr 1 733, bears strong testimony of his
regard for her, and assigns his reasons for bequeathing to
her the whole of his fortune, which he acknowledges he
received fhmi her on the day of then: marriage, but which
he had diminished at least ohe-third.
Booth's masterpiece as an actor is sslid by Gibber to have
been Othello, but his favourite part was the far less im-
nortant one of the Ghost in * Hamlet,* a performance, says
Macklin, which has never been imitated successfully. His
tone, manner, and gait were so solemn and uneartmy, that
the audience appeared to be under the impression that a
positive spectre stood before them. The soles of his shoes
were covered with felt so as to make no noise upon the stage,
which he glided more than walked over, thus completing
the illusion. Victor, speaking of his person, says • he was
of a middle stature, five feet eight, his form rather inclining
to the athletic, though nothins clumsy or heavy, his air and
deportment naturally graceful, with a marking eye, and a
manly sweetness in his countenance. His voice was com-
pletely harmonious, from the softness of the flute to the
extent of the trumpet : his attitudes were all picturesque ;
he was noble in his designs, and happy in his execution.
He was an amiable, good-nearted man, a lively companion,
and diffident of his own abilities, by which means, says his
biographer, he acquired the love and esteem of every one.
So much was he in favour with the rich and noble of his
day, that though he had no equipage of his own, there was
not a nobleman in the kingdom, says Chetwood, who had so
many sets of horses at his command. The chariot-and-six
of some one or another was sure to be waiting for him every
night to take him. after the play, to Windsor, where the
court was then kept, ^nd to bring him back the following
day in time fbr the theatre.
BOOTHIA. [N. West Passaob.]
BOOTON, an island of the eastern seas, lying off the
S.E. extremity of the island of Celebes. The 5th parallel S.
and the 123rd meridian E. intersect one another about thb
middle of the island. Booton is about 85 m. bn^ from N. to
S., and its average breadth is about 20 m.: it is separated
fh)m the island of Panaansane, or Passangane, bv a narrow
strait, the water in which is deep enough to allow the passage
of large vessels : this passage is called the Strait of Booton.
The island is mountainous and woody, but is well culti-
vated in parts, yielding abundant crops of ricfe, maise, yamibi ,
Digitized by Z 2
BOP
172
B O R
•nd tbe usual variety of tropical fruits. Fowls and goats
are reared for food» and buflfaioes are pretty numerous.
On the east side of Booton is a deep bay, called by the
Dutch Dwaal, or Mistake Bay. There is danj^er in calm
weather of ships being drawn by the set of the currents into
tiiis bay, in which case they can only get out again at the
coming in of the west monsoon. When Mr. De Clerk was
on his Yoyage to assume the ^vernment of Banda, he was
detained during a whole year in this inlet
The inhabitants profess the Mohammedan faith; those
who reside on the sea-coast speak the Malayan language.
The island is an independent government under its own
jJng, who rules likewise oyer the neighbouring small
island. The Dutch East India Company formerly main-
tained a settlement on the island, to which they every year
sent an officer to destroy the clove trees. Tills was done
under a treaty with the king of Booton, to whom the com-
pany made an annual payment of 360 guilders (about 30/.)
as an equivalent for the privilege, and for the assistance
which he bound himself to give them in destroying the trees.
The Dutch officer thus employed received the appropriate
title of the extirpator. (Stavorinus's Voyages; Forrests
Foyoffff to New Guinea.)
BOPAUL, or BHOPAL, a small independent principa-
lity in Central India« lying between 22*^ 33' and 23^ 45' N.
lat. and 76° ^0' and 7d° 83^ £. long. ; ito extreme length
ttom E. te W. is 120, and its extreme breadth from N. to 6.
60 m. ; its area is computed at about 5000 sq m. This prin-
cipality is bounded on the N. and W. by the dominions of
the Mahratta Chief Dowlut Rao Scindia, and on the S. and
E. by the ceded districts on the Nerbudda, in the nossession
of the British East India Company ; the river Nerbudda
forms a natural boundary through the whole extent of the S.
frontier. Bopaul is one of the native states of India under
British protection ; but the Company's government has not
fbrmed any subsidiary treaty with the Nabob.
A hilly tract, forming part of the Vindhya mountains,
passes tnrough the centre of Bopaul from E. to W. The
soil is generally fertile, especially in the valleys, where it
consists either of a loose, rich, black loam, or of a more
compact femiginouc mould. The principal vegetable pro-
ducts are wheat, maize, peas, and some other grains (gram,
jowary, &c.) peculiar to Central India. Rice is not largely
cultivated, but sugar, tobaccoi ootton and ginger are raised
in ouantities beyond the wants of the inhabitants, and are
exchanged fdrsalt and manufactured goods. Bopaul is
well watered, having, besides the Nerbudda, numerous
smaller streams, of which the Betwah is the most consider-
ate. This river rises on the N. slope of the Vindhya
mountains, near the S. frontier of Bopaul, and flows N.
across the principality, passing within 16 ra. to the E. of
the town ofBopaul. It then flows to the N.E., through the
N.E. quarter of the province of Malwa, passes the town of
Ereecht in Allahabad, and falls into the Jumna below
Kalpee, having completed a course of about 340 m. ; the
Betwah is not navigable at any season. On the S.W. side
of the town of 'Bopaul is a large tank, 4^ m. long and 1} m.
broad, formed by an embankment at the confluence of
several streams. The river Bess issues from this tank and
flows to the N.E. for 32 m., when it falls into the Betwah,
1 m. N. of the town of Bilsa in Scindia's dominions. On
the E. of the town of Bopaul is a smaller tank about 2 m.
long from N. to S.
The town of Bopaul, which is the residence of the Nabob,
is in 23° 17' N. lat. and 77* 27' E. lone. It is surrounded
by a stone wall, and on the S.W. side has a fort built on a
rock, but it is in a dilapidated condition, and indeed the
whole town exhibits the appearance of decay.
In 1820 the principalit/contained 4130 villages, of which
714 were uninhabited. The only towns of note besides the
capital are Ashta and Islamnagur. Ashta is near the
western frontier, and 40 miles' JS.W.'from Bopaul. Islam-
nagur is a fortified town, 5 m. N. from BopauU and was con-
sidered impregnable. Through the treachery of the officer
to- whom it was intrusted it had been delivered up to
Scindia, but the operations of war having given the British
possession of some territory desirable to Scindia, he was in-
duced to take the same in exchange for Islamnagur, which
was, in the year 1818, made over as a gift to the Nabob of
Bopaul. Islamnagur sUnds at the confluence of three
streams, forming a natural defence on three sides, and on
tbe fourth side the fort is protected by a morass.
The prinoipaUty of Bopaul was founded, at the beginning
of the eighteenth century, by Dost Mohammed, an A%bAii
adventurer in tho service of Aurungsebe, by whom th«>
territory was assigned to him. The govemmaot remained 1
in the family of Sie fonnder for nearly a century, aiul « .««
then usurped by Vizier Mohammed. Thin pvince ««is
attacked in 1812 by the eombined foroea of Seiodia ar. I
the R^jah of Nagpore, against whom ha made a sueoesiiiui
defence, but was reduced to such distress as repeated! t ca
solicit aid f^om the British government This was Unxi;
withheld from the dread of oifending Scindia, notwithfetaii I-
ing the claims which tho Nabob had upon our gratitude f< r
services rendered on a former occasion 'when be bad »«>M
all his jewels, that he might be able to maintain tioope lU
aid of our exertions.* In 1816 the power of the Pmdarn«a
had grown to such a height as threatened destruction to
BopaUl, and the princiuality was then taken under Bna«b
prdteetion. At the close of the war with the Mabrmtuj
m 1818 permission was given to some of the chie& of Pin-
darries to reside in BopauX and pensions were assigned ti.cm
by the British government, the payment of which « i^
made to depend upon the peaceable conduct of the chiefa^
Since that time the principality has enjoyed poUtical repa^e«
and the govenmient being administered with a due rv<rari
to the interests of the people by making a settlement of t:.i.>
revenue upon equitable prindoles, the country is under-
stood to be in a nourishing conaition.
(Mills Hiit. Brit. IruL ; Origin of the Pindarrtei ; R- :-
nell's Memoir t^c^; Bep, Com, H. C. on India, 1832. c<^:.t*
ral appendix.)
BORA, CATHERINE. [Luthkb.]
BORACIC ACID, formerly called Homberg's eeiiat^r*
salt and sedative salt ofborax^ is a compound of the «..• -
mentary body of boron and oxygen. It exists not oniy >^s
above mentioned, but also in large quantity in combinat: < .
with soda in the East Indies, forming borax or the bibom Ui
of soda. From this salt, which is mentioned under the hci 1
of salts of boracic acid, termed borates, it is procured h)
dissolving four parts of it in sixteen pails of boiling wa* <>.
and adding one part of concentrated sulphuric acid Xo \\ .-
filtered solution. Owing to the superior affinity of tht* sul-
phuric acid for the soda, sulphate of soda is formed, and t.i'<
boracio acid separated crystallixes as the solution cools : it
is to be allowed to drain, to be redisaolved in boUing watrr.
and again crystallised to separate the sulphuric acid wh.< i
adheres to it In order to purify it entirely from thi» a-; :.
Berzelius recommends that it should be fused in a plauii...j
crucible, and again dissolved in boihng water and rr>btw-
lized.
Boracic acid has tbe form of small scdy brilliant colour-
less crystals, which have a greasy feel. This acM is inoda-
rous ; its taste is not strong, and scarcely at all aciiL It
reddens litmus paper but slightly, and turns turmeric paper
brown, as the alkalis do. Water at 60° dissolvea abjut
1 -26th of its weight of this acid, and boiling water iieari>
one-third. It contains about forty-four per cent, of water uf
crystallization, which is entirely expelled when it is gradual: >
heated to redness in a platinum crucible. If the crystals arv
suddenly heated, a portion of the add is carried off by the
vapour of the expelled water. When fused botadc acul
cools and becomes solid, it splits, and during this operati -a
it is luminous in the dark ; the light is probably electric
Boracic acid in crystals has a specific gravity of 1 . ^-^ ;
when fiised it is 1.83. It is soluble in alcohol, and tbe solu-
tion bums with a green flame. Although it acts weakly
as an acid upon litmus paper, it decomposes tbe alkaline
carbonates with effervescence, and at a red heat it ex{H-l%
most of the volatila acids from their bases.
Boracic acid is composed, according to
BcrttUiu. Thoown.
3 equivalents oxygen 24 ' 03 2 equivalents oxygen 1 6
1 do. boron 10*91 1 do. boron S
Equivalent 34*94 24*
Boracic acid is sometimes used in chemical investigations
and was formerly employed in medicine.
Borates are the salts which contain boracic aaid : of thi'va
the only important one is
Borax, a compound of boracic acid and soda, the •«».
rect appellation of which is biborate of soda. This salt is
imported from the East Indies under the name of hncal ur
rough borax. It is supposed to be the substance called b«
Pliny chrysocoUa. GJeber in the seventh century nentioixa
borax its nature was pointed out fay-GeolBroy i& 1738 aad
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B O R
173
B O R
Baron in 1 748. It is said to be brought ^m Persia, Ceylon,
and also from Tibet, from a lake entirely supplied by
sprinj^t fifteen days' journey from Teesho Lumbo the capi-
tal. Tincal as imported is mixed with a fatty matter, which
may be separated by acids.
The crystals of tincal are bluish or greenish white, and
are sometimes nearly transparent, but more commonly opake.
They are soft and brittle. The primary form is an oUique
rbombto prism. Tincal is purified by solution in water and
crystallixation, and is then sold as borax.
Borax has rather an alkaline and sweetish tase, acts like
alkalis upon turmeric paper, and is soluble in twelve parts
of cold and two of boiling water. It effloresces slowly by
exposure to the air, and when two pieces are rubbed together
in the dark they become luminous. When moderately
heated, borax swelb and loses about four-tenths of its weight,
and assumes the form of a light porous friable mass, and is
called caldned borax. When very strongly heated, it melts
into a transparent glass. It is composed of, according to
Beneliofl. Thomson.
2 equivalents boracic acid 69*88 2 equivalents .48
I do. soda , 31-32 1 do. 32
:o do. water • 90*10 8 do. 72
191-30
152
Borax is also prepared, both in England and France, from
soda and the boracic acid imported from Tuscany. This
salt is a little employed in medicine, but is used extensively
both in chemical investigations and in the arts as a flux.
The primary form of common borax is an oblique rhombic
prism, variously modified ; but it has been found by Mr.
Payen that if a saturated solution of borax at 1 74** be slowly
cooled, it deposits crystals when the temperature is above
1 03^, which are in the form of the regular octohedron.
These crystals contain only half as much water as those just
described.
BORAGI'NEiB, a natural order of regular-flowered mo-
nopetcUous dicotyledons^ which are readily distinguished
from all others by having their ovary deeply divided into four
[PttlaoBaria anfOftUblia.]
Itftoorolla; S.Um lame cut open ; 3, the tube of the tame; 4,thehaieof
tke MBM with tiba oraiy and Us four lobes : 6. an anther; 6. calyx; 7,aee«>
tftnof tht oal|X|ilM«iBg tbt fiMir-lobadfruit; 8, a ii)M calyx; 9, an acheaium.
lobes, from the middle of which arises a single style. Ther
are moreover characterised by their flowers being arranged
in a gyrate manner before they expand. The common
borage is often taken as the type of this order, and in fact
represents not only its peculiarities of structure, but sen-
sible properties ; for all the known species agree in having
an insipid juice, and their surface covered over with stiff
white hairs, which communicate a pecuhar asperity to the
skin, whence these plants were formerly called asperifoUcB^
or rough-leaved. Some few of the species, with perennial
woody roots, yield from those parts a purplish colouring
matter, used by dyers under the name of cUmnet. Anchusa
tincioria, Litnospermum tinciorium, and some kinds of
O/io^moa are the best known far this quality.
BORA'SSUS, a kind of palm-tree, called Tola in Sanscrit
and Palmyra by the English, in imitation of the Portu-
guese, who name it Palmeira brava. It is defined by Rox-
burgh as having dicecious hexandrous flowers ; the calyx
and corolla in d^e males consisting each of three distinct
pieces, and in the females of from eight to twelve in a con-
fused state ; and the ovary of three cells, changing to a
three-seeded drupe. There is but one species according to
writers on Indian botany ; but it is not certain that more
than one distinct palm is not confounded under the common
name of Palmyra. That which is recognized is called
BorassiisJlabelUfomm, This plant grows all over India
both on the continent and in the islands, where it is esteemed
of the greatest use on account of the vinous sap and the
sugar which are extracted from it. Its trunk is from twenty-
five to forty feet high when full grown, and is perceptibly
thicker at the base than at the summit The leaves are
fan-shaped, about four feet long, and placed upon stalks of
about the same length, which are spiny at their ed^es ; each
Isaf is divided into from seventy or eighty rays, which are
ragged at the end, and the largest of which are placed in
the centre. The fruit is about as big as a child's head,
three-cornered, with the angles rounded off, and a little
furrowed. It consists of a thick, fibrous, rather succulent,
yellowish brown rind, containing throe seeds the size of
a goose-egg. When young the shell of the seed is so soft
that it may bo readily pierced by the finger, and the pulpy
[BonuMUB flabellifomla.]
matter which it then contams is cool and sweet and re-
freshing ; but when ripe all this changes to a hard bloudi
Digitized by
Google
B O R
174
B O R
1. a male •rftJlx: 9. • frraaV hifl(>r««eenf« wiOi lite vpalhrt at iU Uoae*.
1^ the back of a m«*o flvftrr ; 4» tlic fiottt of \he tAinr; 6, a femaU; flu«i«r ;
6. Oy> MOM fldppcO uf itt acalra and thuwitis Uan«n ataffieui •n\eU>piug iii«
orary.
albumen which it iiuipid and uneatable. The outer wood
of ^e stem when old beoomet very hard and brown, and
altliou^h fecarcely to be cut transversely, nevertheless divides
freely in a longitudinal direction : it is capable of taking a
fine polish, and ta frequently made use of for bows: the
young wood in the centre i^ white, so(\, and worthless.
* This magnificent palm/ says Sir William Jones, * is justly
considered the king of its order, which the .Hindus call
tHna druma^ or gras4-trees. Van lUiuede meiitiona the
bluish, gelatinous, pellucid substance of the young seeds,
which ill the hot teas' n is coolinir Aud rather agreeable to
the taste; but the liquor extmcU^ fh)m the tree is the
moKt seducing and pernicious of tntoxicaliiig juices. When
just drawn it is as pleasant as Pouhon water Ircnh from the
spring, and almost equal to the bc^t mild champagne.
From this liquor, according to Rbeede, sugar is extracted ;
and It would be happy for these provinces if it were always
applied to so innocent a purpose.*
The mode of obtaining the sap of this inlin is stated by
Rumf to be by crushing the youn^ inflorescence, and ampu-
tating tho upper half; the lower is then tied to a leafstalk,
and baa a ves^l, usually of bambo^i, attarhed to its end.
Tha vrtatl gradualU fills with sap, and is removed every
morning; when replared, a fresh slice is rut (tarn xhv
woundrtl end of the inftorcscenrc,— an operation which is
rrpratcd dail> until the whole of the raceme is sliced away.
In procuring the sugar exactly the karoe dtoccm it followiMl,
but the inaide of the riHXMver is powdervu with lime, which
prevetiu frrairntation taking plaro: tha juice is afterwards
Unlol dovin and flually dried by exposura to imuke in little
baftkfts.
IlOKAX. a romprmnd of boracie arid and soda. It is
qi.iti* II' .li. ^( in alrt'hol. It \% navipitatcd from its solu-
tioiH t'> all inn* 'ol an«l« and alkaliea, and nott alkaline
and mrttliir aiiia. Tbeae are therefore incompthbto with
It m jnvtcnptAont.
Dr. A. T. Thomson ttatet, that when biborats of s.-U
and honey are mixed in equal portions, a chcmica! un. n
takes place, by which a deliqucsrcnt talt it formed. Tu.s
likewise happens when the biborate it added to a aoluii.n
or mixture of honey and water.
The titte of borax it tweetish, tlightlj alkaline, an4
refHgerant
In Britain borax it chieflv employed at a local apphV.l.'. i
to aphthout lorct, particularly of the mouths of chii^na.
and it applied either in powder, dissolvc<l in water, or mixci
with tui^ar or honey. If the opinion entertainctl by Dr.
Thomson bo correct, that it it the new salt resulting fr-m
the union with honey which it the useful agent in tb* ««
cases, and not tha borax simply, the last method is ihe
onlv proper one : it is also the uio^t agreeable, and th«:n-! -e
to be preferred, especially when the honey of n^cs {tztt
rosarum) is employed to form the compound.
The compound of borax with honey of rows, ad<le<l u> x
proper quantity of warm water, forms, when cold, a t • rr
cfBcacims gargle in many cases of ulceraftod sore-t.'ir ii.
But the employment of borax is much too limited in Br.u o.
It pos>e><cs an influence over the uterus similar to thii -f
eruot of rye. which renders it as useful in protracted par* -
rition. while it is much safer both for mother and cu ..
(Hufcland's Journal, December, 1823, p. 114; and Novvq
bcr. 1824. p. 123.)
It is also serviceable at a refrigerant in alight fc^ r
affectiont. But itt external employment b more worth) i
notice: in several cutaneous diseatet it forma a k^i^ r-
groat efllcary. A weak tolution of it in rote-water, k . :
constantly applied by means of a thin linen cloth, owt ti c
re<lness which often afieott the nose of delirate per*. -.*.
relieves the tenie of heat, and removes the flond c- : ..*.
Many other spots on the face may be removed in a at u: ir
wav. It it also a very usefUl application to inHame<l p. «.
and also to chilblains. {Geiger. Muf^uz, fur pharmac, > w.
xxii. p. 26.)
BO'RBORUS (/pAi^rormiof Latreillcn a genua of i i-
torous. or two-winged flies, of the family Mtucidtt, Its f •... f
characters exist in tlie posterior ihiyhn. which are much < •
pressed, and the two basal joints of the posterior tarwi. «...
are conbiderahly larger thau the following, Tho hv.i u
concave in front and retiexcd towards the mouth : the j -
tcnnflc diverge, and are sometimes almost as lung a* ;. «
fore part of the head. The second cell of the p«>Uenor cv-
tremity of tho wing (the la<t of the two which occur. v t t
middle of its length) is close«l before it reaches the m ^r.. ^
Those httle tlies are found in mar»hy nlacet, ai^i ^t.
putrid substances, but more particularly dung htA\%, >..
wliich probably their ltr^a) rcMde; they are al«a\« . . :.
dant about cucumber frames, and are of a bruwni«l> o 1 ..r
most of the s}iecies when expanded would scarcel) Dca». -
a quarter of an inch.
BORDA, JKAN CHARLES, lH>m at Pax. Ma, 4.
1733, of an antient family, distinguiahed in th<» n . * -\
tervice. He showed an early ta^te for mathetaau. a, • .
overcoming the objections of bin father, began hi% siw*! ,
in militarv engineering, but afterwards entem) the cAf • .w
Ugera, This change he made in onler to rvmaiu at Vhs ^
where DAlembvrt, to whom he had been pn^a^nic*), L
recommende<l him to fix himKclf, an4 h)ok fonvarl to i •
Academy of {Sciences. In 17^6 some matbciuu.irwl a*
moirs procured him admission into that body. Hcwcs .i
the battle of HnHtcmheck in 1757, after which he rric r .
to the engineer i^rvice (into which he was adraltlrd « <..
examination), as interfering lest with his pursuits. He w.i
immediately employed at a sea port, and thia cirrtani^'.... .
decided his future career. From this time to 1 769 be | . -
lislud various memoirs as well on h\drositatira as no \^'z
analysis. He tried, lk>th by experiment and throiy, \ir. t
niattet4 connertiKl with na\igatton and ship Imildiuf . 1l
17G7 hi* entered the naval service. In 1771 he emuari :
in the Flora for America, with MM. Verdun am! l\t «: •
The object of the voyage was to find methods of imprr-. ^
tho |H.'rl(irmance of watches at st« ; the obsert atiur.v «». .
made were published in 1778, under the talc of * \ u% .
fail par onlre du roi, 8tc. par MM. de Verdun, 9lc. Id i "%
he was sent with two frigates t^i suney tlie Canary Ula*.iv
He ascended the peak of Teneriffo, ascertained its hctarlu
and corrected some tables he had fbrm4*rly made fur fir ! z
tho distance of a ship from it bv meant of itt ap;^-^ ".t
height Ueiv ho introduced into tiko French na%al turrets
tho lite of reiiectiDg instnuMAtav^oitaad ol dcteraum^^
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BOB
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BOB
poiitiong hj compass-bearings. He served under D*Estaing
m 1777 and 1778, and in 1788 was sent with a sixtj^-four
gun ship to conTcy troops to Martinique. He then joined
De 6rasse*8 squadron, and being detached with a smal]
force of frigates on a cruise, he found himself, on the
clearing up of a mist, in the midst of an English squadron.
He defended himself stoutly, enabled the rest of his ships
to escape, and was then obliged to give up his own vessel
(the Sohtaire) a perfect wreck. On readins this extraordi-
nary account of a single ship defending itself for three hours
a^^inst a squadron in the midst of which it was at the be-
ginning of the action, we thought it might be safe to com-
pare it with the official account of the English admiral, and
we find another- version, namely, that in the month of De-
cember, 1782, the Solitaire fell in with the squadron of Sir
R. Hughes, and of course endeavoured to escape ; that the
Ruby, of 60 guns, commanded by Captain Collins, otertook
her by dint of sailing, and captured her in forty-one mi'
nutes, a perfect wreck, the only circumstance in which the
two accounts agree, and on which the admiral takes occa-
sion to notice the very great superiority of the fire of the
Ruby. Borda was honourably treated* and allowed to return
to France on parole. From that time to the end of a very
useful life, he was mostly employed on the great ineasure-
ment of the meridian. He died February 19-20, 1 799. The
preceding summary is on the authority of the dhge in the
4th volume of the Memoirs of the Institute.
A sketch of this kind is not the nlace to describe in-
ventions or methods, which will be found in their proper
places. In 1767 Mayer had proposed a ithole circle of re-
liexion for astronomical purposes. Borda published the
account of his own improvement of the idea, since so well
known, in 1 787, under the title of ' Description et usage du
Cercle de Reflexion.* The repeating circle (a further modi-
fication of the ideas of Mayer) was not described by himself,
but appeared first, so far as we can find^ in the * Expos6 des
Operations,' &c., (94 pages) published m 1791 by tne three
commissioners, Cassini, M6chain, and Legendre, appointed
to superintend the French part of the junction of the obser-
vatories of Paris and Greenwich.
In 1790 he found by experiment the length of the pen-
dulum at Paris (which at that time was contemplated as
the basis of the new system of measures). His means
and result are described under Pknoulumt. From that
time to the end of his life he was employed in devising and
executing the means of forwarding the great survey : the
methods for measuring the base were formed under his In-
spection, and he was in fact the inventor of most of the
original instruments employed. It has been said that to
him and Coulomb must be traced the rise of the sound $apT
perimeniaJ philosophy for which the French have sinte be-
come distinguished; and it certainly appean to us that
there is some truth in the observation.
In the meanwhile be had charged himself witli the ex-
pense of calculating and printing new tables of logarithmip
sines, &c.,. corresponding with t^e new division of the circle
into 400 degrees. Tliese were published in 1801, under
the title of 'Tables Trigonom^triques Ddcimales,' ^. (An.
u.) with revision and an explanation, by Delambra.
Borda was of a quick and lively turn. When a boy, ha
is said to have been able to maJce two translations from
French into Latin at once, in different terms, from dictation,
one for himself and one for bis next class-fellow, ^e was
fond of poetry and the antient writers, and particularly at-
tached to the Odyssey of Homer.
BORDA'RII, one of the classes of agricultural occupiers
of land mentioned in the Domesday Survey, and, with the
exception of the villani, the largest The origin of t)^eir
name, and the exact nature of their tenure, |iave hoejfi
variously interpreted. Lord Coke {Inst. lib. i. $. i. fol. 6 b.
edit. 1628) calls them 'boors holding a little house with
some land of husbandry, bigger than a cottage. Nichols,
in his 'Introduction to the History of Leicestershire,' p.xly.,
considers them as cottagers, taking their name from living
on the borders of a village or manor : but this is sufficiently
refuted by Domesday itself, where we find them not only
mentionea generally among the agricultural occupiers of
land, but m one instance as ' circa aulam manentes, dwell-
ing near the manor house ; and even residing in some of
the larger towns. In two quarters of the town of Hunting-
don, at the time of forming the Survey, as well as in king
Edward the Confessor's time, ^eie were 116 burgesses, and
subordinate to them 100 bordarii, who aided wem in t)ie
payment of the geld or tax. (Dotneed, Book^ torn, i^ fol. 303.)
In Norwich there were 420 bordarii : and 20 are mentioned
as living in Thetford. {Uid, tom. ii. fol. 116 b. 173.)
Bishop Kennett says, 'The bordarii often mentioned in
the Domesday Inquisition were distinct from the servi and
villani, and seem to be those of a less servile condition, who
bad a herd qr cottage with a small parcel of land allowed to
them, on condition they should supply the lord with poultry
and eggs and other small provisions for his board and enter-
tainment.' {Gloes, Paroch. Antiq,) Such also is the inter-
pretation given by Blomfield in his ' History of Norfolk.*
Brady says ' they were drudges, and performed vile services,
which were reserved by the lord upon a poor little house,
and a small parcel of land, and might perhaps be domestio
works, such as grinding, threshing, drawing water, cutting
wood, Ste.' iPref, p. 56^.)
fiojib, as Bishop Kennett has already noticed, was a cot-
tage. Bordarii, it should seem, wore cottagers merely. In
one of the Ely Registers we find bordarii, where the breviate
of the same entry m Domesday itself reads cotarii. Their
condition was probably different on different manprs. In
some entries in the JDomesday Survey, 'bordarii arantes*
otcur. At Evesham, on the abbey demesne, 27 bordarii
are described as 'servientesouriaB. cZ)ome<(f., tom. L, ^ol.
175 b.)
On the demesne appertaining to Ihe castle of Ewias,
there were 12 bordarii, who are described as performing
personal labour on one day in every week. {Ibid, fol. 186.)
At St Edmdndsbury in Suffolk, the abbot had 118
homagers, and under them 52 boidarii. The total num-
ber of bordarii noticed in the different counties of England
in Domesday Book is 82,634. (Ellis's General Introd, to
Domesday Booh, edit'. 1833, vol. i. p. 82, ii. p. 511 ; Hev-
wood's Dissert, upon the Ranks of the People under the
Anglo- Saron Governments, pp. 303, 305.)
BORDEAUX, or BOURDEAUX* (antiently BOUR-
DE AUS and BORDEAULX), one of the most important
cities in Frauoe, in the department of Gironde : 371 miles
S.S.W. from Paris by Orl6ans, Vicrzon, ChStcauroux, Li-
moges, and Perigueux; 376 by Chartres, VeodOme, Tours,
and AngoulSme; and 378 by Orl6ans, Blois, Tours, and
Angouiame. It is in 44° 50' 25" N. lat, and 0** 33' 35" W.
long.
Bordeaux is on the left or western bank of the river
Garonne, which here makes a considerable bend, having the
city on its concave bank, which is lined with extensive
quays ; and as the buildings extend to the greatest distance
from the river about the centre of these quays, and cover a
narrower space as they approach the extremities, the whole
forni of the place neariy resembles that of the crescent
moon. The bend of the river is so great, that a line or
chord drawn from N. by W. to S. by E. and joining the
two extremities or horns of the crescent, not only includes a
portion of the river, but also of the opposite or convex bank,
on which is the suburb of La Bastide. The length of such
line or chord (measured pn the Plan of Bordeaux, pub-
lishe4 \)y the Society for the Diffusion of Useful JCnow-
ledge) is about two miles : the distance between the same
points along the bank of the river is about two miles and a
half; and along the convex boundary of the town towards
the open country, more than four miles and a half: the
greatest breadth from the river towards the country, drawn
from W. by S. to E. by N., is about a mile.
Bordeaux is a very antient city. It was an important
place in the time of Strabo, who was contemporary with Our
Lord. In the Geography of Strabo it is mentioned as the
IfiKopiiov (emporeion), or chief trading-place of the Bcroiv-
pcyfc (in Latin Biturigea), Who were sumamed 'Io<rico2 (losci)
according to Strabo, Ubisci or Vibisci accosding to others,
or Vivisci according to Ausonius. These Bituriges were
a Celtic nation (a branch probably of the Bitunges Cubi
who inhabited the provinee of Bern), and had settled within
the limits which Caasar assigns to the Aquitani. Strabo
describes the town, which he calls Bovodiyaka (Bourdigala),
as situated XiiivoBdKdrt^ nvi, which p*Anyille interprets as
meaning a place up to which the sea (or tide) tiows. Pto-
lemy wntes the name in the same manner as Strabo ; bu|
• The foTm«r of tlie« two 1» bow th© ptevalMit modf of writing Utft nauy;
in the time of M. D* AnvUle U»e practice eeemt to have been more variable,
D*AnrlIle hlmielf give* some re«Bon» for pTefenlng 'Bourdeaux.* Devienne.
the Benedlctine.in hb Hietory of Bordeaux, eontenda for Uie ' ou.' bnt lavs that
CQStom had eeiabUshed the u»e of • ^rdeanz/— It ip obeorvable that Viennf
•aye this i> an old form, more antient indeed than that of Bourdeaux ; and ui
a very antient map of France in the British Muienm (Venioe^ 166S)ilM
I wttlten Bocdeaols.
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176
fiOR
A* The tliMkd putt of Um map mn the llmitt oT
Ihr lloaaii BurdffaU, and lh« portion encir-
cled nearrtt the river b the antic n I port of the
B. L« Palaie Gal1le« or AmykklhmHn,
(;, Th^ Mream Pivitia.
I), lintel de Vilte.
K, Chilean Troapettn.
F. CaAio ul Ha. now a prieoo.
«, Fort Ste. rruix, or St. Louie.
H. The Hri«U>v.
I. Tlie Cn««oa Ho«i».
K, The exchange.
L, RfTTai BuUdinf Yard.
M. PlaenRoyale.
the Lfttin writers giTe Burdigik tnd Burd'egala. The im-
portmoce of Burdigmla in shown hy the circumstance, that
It was made the capital of the proviooe of ' Aquitania Se-
cunda* in the suhdivision of the Gallic provinces, about the
middle or latter end of the fourth century. Ausonius. a
Latin poet of the fourth century, himself a native of this
place, has left a description of it in his poem Clara Urb$$^
or Ordo NobUium Urfkum^ fkom which we tak« the follow-
ing extract :
Inpfai lamdndoi eoBdemno ellnitia, qnod te,
O petne. iostfnrai Bnocho.flaaiieque, nirieqiM,
Munbiu in^rmiKiu* hominum, prurenunqov eennio,
Nnn intrr |>rlina« Bemorcm : qnad oooaria* arhle
Kaica*, iMBMTitae dnhilea eontmfer* laudca.
Nott pudor hine nubia. NW rnim nuhi barbnn Rh«al
i*r*. n^ Arrtuo domut ret flarulis in Hvmo;
B»r«li(iU «>*t nataW* •nlua : dementia cfrli
Mm* nl4, rX rifTUi larya Indulfmiia temR:
N rr I'ln^uin. bruai»qu« brrta^^ lufa froodaa tnhMnl.
Frruriit •<i|<wrr\M imitaU fli^nta meatua.
O is«lrua ••ttfurun •prrir*. air luinUne allie
AH>.«. at arrM* lnir«^l favftfia anb^^
|(t*'iiirlAa tntrra* uiat mirrrY. duMurum
f »i*|«wttaBi. rt tataa Ddtnni arniair pUl«aa :
T«'a r— DonMentee <ttrecu In camfita ponea,
Prr »rdluo»i|iir arbu funtaai fliimiota •la««un :
Qarm pater Orraaaa rviiau cum iiB|il^tMrr1t Kattt,
AdlaU lotaa epKtaMe «iaeeib«a« »qu<>r.
Oter* Vrhm, xk. B.
N, nan» PBOphioe.
O. ioum XII M*rm.
P, A \.''v% d'AoL'uult me and de B<«mu d,
U. Kur rhap-.m Uuu^. e.
K. I'luce LajiW-. /.
S. I'/ilaia vr Diitrau Royal. a,
T. Trinripal Ttiralrr. X,
I', Catheilral. i.
v. Tablic Camelery, furmcrly Vineyaid of lh« *.
Chnrtreuae. i,
W. ('«Uc»:e Ro^Til, or IIlRh Sclmol. I.
X. Schoc.1 for the Draf and Unmb S.
Y. Hotel d« TAead^mie Moyale. 9,
Z, Kunadliag Uoapital. . 4.
I. c WalU of Bonrdmox In I
hy a alinne line.
Coxxtt d" Albret
Coiira de Tourny.
Coara du Jardin Pubtt*.
A licet de Tourny.
guai de Chartrona.
Qiiai de Bacalan.
Jardln Publie.
La Daatide.
!«tc. Croix Bnbnrtk.
Kt Jttlien do.
Su. Eulal^ do.
St Sanrin do.
Chartroni do.
' I have long been eoodemninf my impious silence, in not
mentioning among the chief [citiesl, thee, O my country,
renowned for wine, and streams, and men : (or the manners
and talents of thy inhabitants, and [thy] council of the
nolile« : — as though conscious of the small [extent of my
nau\e] city, 1 h«etut«d to touch apoo nnmcnCed praises.
No shame do I feel for this reason. Not mine tne bar-
barous bank of the Rhenus. nor is my icy dwelling in the
Bortlitni HMntia. Boidtgak it ay birtb^iplaoea wbare the
temperature of the sky is mild, and grant the libeimlity 4i. «(.
fertility) of the watered earth. Long is the apnng and
short the winters ; and close at hand are wood-crowned rat-
nences.* The waters are ruffled with tides like thoee of
the coean.t The form of the walls is quadrangular, nod m
lofty with its hij^h towers, that [their] sommils piarre the
airy clouds. You will admire the well-arranged (dishneiat^
adorned] streets within, the disposition of the
and that the broad-wa^ [piatea$] still [justly] preeene
their name : and then [you will admire] the gatin cerv^
spending to the streets wbieh eroaa at right angles, [dtnctm
eompita^] and the bed of the stream from a aprmg, llowuiff
through the midst of the city:t Bud when Father Obmb
has filled this with his up- flowing tide, you will aee the
whole water covered with fleets.*
Besides the stream mentioned in the above estnet, An»-
nius notices another which atipplied a handsomely aduriMd
and copious fountain, and which he calls Divona.' The was
of the Roman Biurdigala, as we gather from the abspiw
extract, was a quadrangle: the greater dtameCrr ot thas
quadrangle extended nearly ftmn K. lo W. TVe galas
appear to have been fourteen in number : four on the asfth.
and as many on the south side, and three eeeli am i:m
eattem and western sides. La Porte Beaee, the ka oi tW
gates, was demolished about twenty or Ats and twenty Teera
since. Of the walls and towers some rematna it ta prbiaUs
exist still. The slones used in the fbundatioos of tne wall
were of a great sixe. Two Roman edifleet snrmed the
vaiiotts devastations of the city, and came down lo i
* Aa the («>untry on th<> wvai aide of the Garonne ie lot, w i
the port to trtrt to th<» htlla on the t>|i|i«ite b«tth.
f The tade Seera np the (Uroonn oooaidetably above Bel iMns,
t Called the DhitiA (uo« La I>e«iM): of tha dock whieh ««a ktw I in «
channel ^nov covrrrd oter) no vvettMs rtnuia. See KUae Nlaecvk Ch»>
AMUiy m Aar— ^
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dtys. Th6 ruiiks of one of these, the ainphiUieatre, or, as it
U coiled, Le PalaU Qalien^ * the palace of Gallienus,' yet
remain, though much dilapidated; the other edifice, the
* Piilats Tutele.* as it is called by Vlnet, was demolished
when Louis XIV. rebuilt Ch&teau Trompette, in the latter
pirt of the seventeenth century. It stood on what was the
esplanade of the castle, which has in its turn been demo-
liibed, and the site is now occupied by the grand ^ Place de
Louis XVI/ Some authorities speak of an ' amphitheatre *
distinct from the Palace of Gallienus, but we think this has
arisen from some misapprehension on their part.
The amphitheatre is in the outekirts of the town, or rather
in the Fauxbourg St. Sunn, just to the left of the road to
Hedoc Its greater diameter when entire was 226 Ftench,
or about 2tl English feet ; its smaller diameter 1 66 French,
(HT 177 English feet; its external elevation 60 French, or
64 English feet During the Revolution the site was sold
as national property, and the arena defaced with a parcel of
little houses, to which the most perfect remains of the am-
phitheatre were made to serve as foundations, or for the
erection of which the stones of this interesting monument
of a former age were appropriated. The circuit of the arena
may be traced however all round, and there remain many
arches constructed with alternate courses of brick- work
and of small square stones When Vinet published his
LAntiquite de Bourdeaus (1574), this building was in
much better preservation. He has given an engraving of
it in his work. Le Palais Tutele is supposed by some to
have been a temple consecrated to the tutelary genius or
divinity of the city. It consisted of a basement about 96
English feet long by about 70 wide, and 23 or 24 high,
upon which had l^en erected twenty-four Corinthian pillars,
eight being presented at the side, and six at the front.
Upon these columns, and supported by them, was an attic,
having open spaces corresponoing in number to the spaces
between the columns. The pilasters between the spaces
of this attic were adorned with caryatid figures on the
front and back. In the basement was an apartment nine
feet high, occupied at a later period as a wine-cellar.
(Stuart*s and Revett*s Antiquities of Athens, last edit. vol.
iii. p. 1 20 note.) There are few other remains of Roman
antiquity. Some inscriptions and some statues, part of
them mutilated, which have been found, have been collected
together. (Millin, Voyage dans les DSpartemenis du Midi
de la France ; Devienne, Histoire de Bourdeaux.)
Notwithstanding these remains of antiquity have been
found in the city, some learned men (and among them
Adrian de Valois), misled by some passages in Gregory of
Tours and another antient writer, have contended that the
Roman Bordigala was on the right bank of the Garonne ;
and that it was not till the sack of the city by the Saracens
that the citixens transferred their abode to the other side of
the river.
Under the Romans Burdigala was not the scene of any
important historical event, except the assumption of the
purple by Tetricus (one of those commonly but inaccurately
designated ' the thirty tyrants '), in the reign of GalUenus,
in the third century: it derives its reputation rather from
the seal with which literature was cultivated. Ausonius
has sung the praises of its numerous professors. Devienne,
in his * Histoire de Bordeaux,* tells us that iu the school of
this city religious profession formed no bar to entrance ; that
Christians and Pagans studied there alike, and thai even
females received instruction in the establishment.
Early in the fifth century (412) the Visigoths first
attacked Ganl and possessed themselves of Burdigala and
other places. Being obliged to withdraw into Spain, they
burnt part of this city. After some years they became
masters of it again, and it continued in their power, form-
ing part ^ their kingdom, of which Tolosa or Toulonse was
the capitaL Under its new masters Burdigala declined ;
and the penecution of the Catholic Christians by the Arian
VisigoUis is represented as one cause of its downnll. After
remaining unaer the dominion of the Visigoths for nearly
a century* it eame into the hands of the Prankish con-
queror Cbvis, who, after the battle of Vouill6, in which he
defeated and slew Alaric. king of the Visigoths, wintered
in this town. In the troubles which agitated France under
the descendants of Clevis, it was the object of contest* and
when the successftil ambition of Charles Martel seemed to
promise a more vigorous government and greater internal
tranquillity, this unfortunate city was attacked by the Sara-
cens, and being unable to resist their fury, the greater part
of the public buildings were burned, and the inhabitants
nearly all put to the sword. This event occurred about
731 or 732.
Domestic troubles, caused by the attempts of the Dukes
of Aquitaine to become independent of the kings of
France, agitated afresh the south-west of France, after the
defeat and expulsion of the Saracens by Charles Martel :
but we have no account that Burdigala suffered by these
commotions ; it was perhaps too much reduced by the disaster
it had lately sustained to be an object of ambition to either
party. Under Charlemagne it was under a count of its
own, and began to recover firom its downfall. Its prosperity-
was advanced by its being incorporated by Charles le
Chauve (the Bald), who reigned about the middle of the
ninth century, with the duchy of Grascogne, of which it
became the capital. But prosperity in those dark ages onlj
rendered it more the object of attack ; Burdigala, or, as we
may now call it, Bordeaux, was taken by the Normans, and
underwent a more complete destruction than any which it
had yet experienced. The houses were almost entirely de-
stroyed, and the unhappy Bordelois abandoned for a time
their native city.
When the Normans received from Charles the Simple,
about the close of the ninth or beginning of the tenth cen-
tury, the province called from them Normandie, they de-
sisted from ravaging the rest of France ; and Bordeaux was
rebuilt and repeopled, and became again the residence of
the dukes of (^ascogne, who built here the castle or palace
of L'Ombridre. Upon the union of the duchies of Guienne
and Grascogne, the dukes abandoned Bordeaux for Poitiers,
which had been the capital of the duchy of Guienne; and
Bordeaux was reduced to tbe capital of a county, to the
possessor of which it gave title. Vet it still continued to
be an important place, and it may be (questioned whether it
did not resume its rank Of ducal capital ; for here it was
that Louis VII. of France (le Jeune) espoused Alienor or
Eleanor, heiress of the united duchies of Guienne and Gas*
cogne. The divorce of this princess, and her subsequent
union with Henry, count of Ai^ou and king of England
(Henry II.), caused Bordeaux to become part of the exten-
sive dominions which tbe English monarch^ possessed in
France.
Bordeaux now became the capital of Guienne, a duohf
formed of the districts of Bordelois, Agenois, Quercy, Peri-
gord, Limousin, and Saintonge. This province remained to
the English kings when Philippe Auguste, in the beginning
of the thirteenu century, stripped them of all their other
French possessions. Among those who held during this
time the title of dukes of Guienne by the appointment of
the English crown, were Richard CoBur de Lion, during the
lifetime of his father, Heni^ II. ; and Richard, duke of
Cornwall, better known as king of the Romans, brother of
Henry III. In the reign of this lastruamed king, the Hotel
de Ville of Bordeaux was built, and the municipal govern-
ment established or revived ; and Henry hitnself made a
long, needless, and expensive stay at Bordeaux, to the
regret and the cost of his English subjects. The weakness
of this prince, and the harshness of Simon de Montfbrt,
earl of Leicester, whom he had nominated to the govern-
ment of Guienne (after having wrested the duchy from
Richard, duke of Cornwall, in order to bestow it upon his
own then infant son, afterwards Edward I.), led to revolts
on the part of the Gascons, and the earl was compelled to
fly to England. He returned, however, with an army, and
Bordeaux was oompdled to open its gates to him ; but as
he continued his severities, new troubles arose. The king
was now inclined to listen to the complaints of his subjects
in Guienne : but the barons in the parliament of England,
to which the al&ir was referred, supported Leicester ; and
the king encouraged the inhabitanto of Guienne to rovolt
against the governor of his own appointment The Borde-
lois raised troops and attacked Leicester ; but the valour
and military skill of this celebrated man gained him the
victory, and Bordeaux was obliged again to submit upon
very hard conditions. The troubles of -the province were
not, however, aUayed, until Edward, son of Henrv HI., to
whom, as already noticed, the duchy of Guienne had been
given, took up his residence there, and acquired by his good
qualities the esteem of his subjects.
In the roign of Edward I. of England, a dispute having
arisen between him and the King of France, Philippe I v.
(le Bel), Edward, whose attention was occupied by his wars
in Scotland, agreed to deliver up Bordeaux an^ the rest of
Na294.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.1
Digiti^d^y|£^qpgle
B O R
178
B O R
Girienne to Ibt French, upon a promiso that it should im-
mediately be restored. Tlila was intended to satisfy the
indication of Philippe, to whom Edward owed fealty for
his French possessions. Vihen the cession had been made,
and restoration, agreeably to the convention, was demanded,
Philippe eluded Uie demand. War ensued, and it was not
VijktSX ten years after that the king of England le-entered
into the possession of this pari of his inheritance. Edward
11., son and successor of Edward I., having quarrelled with
Charles IV. (le Bel) of France, lost all Guienne except
Bordeaux, and one or two other nlaces ; Guienne was given
up by Charles, not to Edward himself, but to his son
Edward, prince of Wales. This was in the early part of
the fourteenth century. Either by Edward II. or by Ed-
wmd III., when he became king of England, upon the
deposition of his father, Bordeaux was annexed by a pi^ti-
ouW charter to the crown of England: this connexion,
which was declared to be inseparable on any ground what-
ever, was formed by the desire of the municipal authorities.
In the war between France and England which has
signalised the reign of Edward III., Bordeaux became a
place of great importance. From it the Black Prince set out
on that expedition which led to the battle of Poitiers, and
to it he conducted Jean II., king of France, who was taken
prisoner in that memorable engagement This was a period
of great splendour to Bordeaux : it became the capital of
the principaUty of Guienne, which Edward III. formed in
favour of his valiant son, from the provinces of Poitou,
Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, Quercy, Bigorre,
the tgrritorv of Jaure, Angoumois, Rouergue, and all that
was comprehended in Guienno proper and Gascogne. Eleven
years were passed by this prince at his new capital in all
the splendour of sovereign^ ; and here was bom his son,
the degenerate and unhappy Richard II. When the affairs
of the English declined, and there seemed a probability that
Guienne (which was now reduced to the limits which
bounded it before the erection of the principality in favour
of the Black Prince) would be conquered by the French,
the inhabitants of Bordeaux formed a convention with those
of several other cities for mutual succour and defence.
They retained their attachment to the English ; and when
Richard II. ceded the duchy of Guienne to his uncle, John
of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, they refUsed to be separated
from the English crown. So warmly were they attached to
Richard as a native of their city, that when one of those
who were suspected of having murdered him arrived in
their city, they rose and massacred him.
Bordeaux, and the province of which it was the capital,
maintained its connexion with England during the reigns
of Henry IV. and V. ; but in the reign of Henry VI., upon
the downfall of the English power in France, the connexion
was broken. In 1451 the Bordclois capitulated to Charles
VII. of France on favourable terms; but very shortly
after they revolted to the English, and the valiant Talbot,
Earl of Shrewsbury, then upwards of eighty, was sent with
an army to their support. The death of Talbot and the
destruction of his army forced them again to submit to
the French king (1453), on much harder conditions.
To secure the fidelity of the Bordelois, and to prevent any
attempts from the Knglish, Chafles caused to be erected
the Chateau Trompette and the Castle of Ha.
The events which preceded and accompanied the submis-
sion of Bordeaux to the French tended much to reduce its
nulation and to diminish its grandeur ; the favour shown to
y the Kings of France tended, however, to revive it. But
an insurrection excited by the oppressive effect of the gabelle,
or tax upon salt, brought now calamities. In the year ld48
the people rose, and being assisted by the country folks of
Guienne or the neighbouring provinces, committed great
excesses; and when the tumult was quelled, the brutal
Montmorenci, constable of France, inflicted terrible seve-
rities upon the unhappy townsmen.
The prograes of the Reformation in France having
alarmed the supporters of the dominant church, several
Protestants were put to death. In this persecution the local
authorities of Bonlcaux took a conspicuous part, and several
persons were burnt by their order. The new opinions how-
ever spread, and in 1A6I there were about seven thousand
of the Reformed in this city. When the religious animo-
sities broke out into open warfare, the Protestants, in 1 563,
endeavoured to surprise the Chateau Trompette, but the
attempt failed. When the massacre of St. Bartholomew
~ ) thff tignal of a general attack on the Protestants
throughout France, Bordeaux had iu shave in tlw ttrocky.
Two hundred and sixty-four Proteetaats were btttdMrad
here. In the reign of Louis XIII. in li3i» the vwght of
taxation gave rise to another insurrection, and tome bicod
was shed in its suppression, which was efibcted by the raao-*
lution and activity of the Duo d^Bpamon, gov«nMr o#
Guienne.
In 1649, during the minority of Lcniia XIV., new trouble*
arose between tbs local authoritiea in the parliament * of
Bordeaux and the Due d'Epemon, son of the oa0 Jvst
mentioned, governor of Guienne. Troops were imisecl«
and hostilities ensued both by land and sea. The euurt
supported the Duo d'Epernon: the parliament of Parie
supported that of Boraeaux* The commandant of Um
Chateau Trompette having fired on the oity, thnt for*
tress was attacked and taken bv the troops of the parlsa
ment. A short peace was only the prelude to new troubles
between the parliament and the court, at whidi C«rdmal
Mazarine was then paramount. Bordeaux was besieged by
the royal forces ; but peace was concluded in Uie autumn
of 1649 or 1650. When the war of the Fronde broke
out, on the return of Cardinal Mazarine to Flranee in 166i,
the Bordelois took part with the Prince of Cond6 agataat the
Cardinal ; and their city was consequently blookadad io 1 663.
The troubles were concluded by a treaty agreed to the aame
year ; and Dureteste, one of the leaders of the Bordelois,
was executed ; the other chiefs escaped by flight or the in-
tercession of those who had influence at court New teoubiva
having sprung up in 1675, the parliament of Bordeaux vaa
removed from that city by a royal ediot; part of the cii>
wall was broken down ; troops were quartered upon the tn*
habitants ; and other measures of severity were resorted to Co
bridle the population of a city which had given so much un-
easiness! to the central government. In 1690 the pariiatnent
which had been transferred successively to Condom and La
Reole, was re-established at Bordeaux ; and the city enjoye J
a century of peace until the outbreak of the French Revo-
lution. (Hutoire de la Ville de Bordeaux* par I>evienao i
When the municipal freedom of Bordeaux was reatnct«4
by the advance of arbitrary power under Louia XIV., the cit v
had not by any means reached its mesent extent. BiA
yond the walls, which Piganiol de la roroe (a4>. 1722) de-
scribes as old and strengthened here and there with square
and round towers, were the Fauxbourgs les Chartrons too
the river just below Bordeaux), 8t Seurin, St Bulalie; St
Julien, and Ste. Croix. The three forts, Chfiteau Tiom*
pette, Ha, and Ste. Croix, or St. Louis, served at once to pro-
tect the city from foreign attacks, and to restrain the laox^
ments of the citizens. The erection of the first and aeeoni
by Charles VII. has been already noticed ; the third wa«
built by order of Louis XIV. after the suppiBsaioa of the
disturbances of 1675. The Ch&teau Trompette atood on
the bank of the river at the entrance of the part» and was
between the city itself and the suburb of Les Chartn>ns.
Louis XIV. caused Vauban to strengthen it by new w^orks ;
and it remained entire till the RevdluUon; after which its
advanced works were demolished, and a oommimioation thus
opened between the Quai des Chartrons and Quaia of the
city. It was intended to remove the whole building, but its
existence was prolonged under the empire of iCspoleoo.
Upon the restoration of the Bourbons the citiienfl d««ircd
and obtained its demolition ; and handsome streets or fini»
plantations and walks now occupy the space not long since
covered by barracks, or else auite vacant The Gaslle of
Ha was towards the land, ana was suffered to fall into de-
cay under the monarchy. There only remains of it one
tower, occupied as a prison. The fort of St. Lonis, or Ste
Croix, has almost disappeared. It stood near the river at
the opposite extremity of the town to the Chftteau Tiompette.
The walls ha^-e for the most part been demolished« and the
turrets of the antient palace de l*Ombridre ate hidden bv a
triumnhal arch and by the custom-house.
Although the disasters of Bordeaux in the seventeenth
century deprived it of the power of resistance to the m^
narchy, yet in local aflkirs the city appears to have be«:n
left in the enjoyment of some degree of fiie^om. Tiie
inunicipal government was in the hands of a * mom * and
six * jurats :" these jurats.were elective officers, and ebaeea«
two each, from the nobility, the body of advocate*, and Um
merchants. These authorities possessed, under the
Digitized I
•TiMparlUiBeaUorFraaeewcneMultof Jwliw«f UiliMlteiaN IWv
were compoMd both oT Uyaem wul -r^^-hiVti. VhMi^fa^Mi iSi w^^
Oecreet •sA tnoMDiUtd Uiem to th« lower eottfUT^ T ^'^
ibyt^oogle
BO R
179
B O R
oarehfi greater powetf than the munieipaliiy has enjoyed
MOM. The polite nf the town and the puhUe instniction
were under their eharge, and in respect of the latter Bor-
(leaoi seems to have lost rather than gained hy suhseqnent
poiitical changes. Bven under the arbitrary government of
Loms XIV. and his snctessors these local authorities seem
to hate acted with considerable judgment and public spirit.
When the Revolution broke out in 1789 the Bordelois
partook of the general ftrvour in the cause of hliorty. Their
intercourse with the Anglo-American States had prepared
their minde for rejoioing in the establishment of a iVeer go-
vernmenti The eity bMme ike capital of the department
of CHronde ; ftem wnich were sent some of the most eloquent
members of the Legislative Assembly, Vergniaud, Guadet,
Gensonn^ end ethers. Frota the influence of these men,
the party in the Assembly to which they belonged took the
name of Qinmdiets. When the Royalists committed great
excesses agahnt the Protestants of Montauban, Bordeaux
eontributed largely to the military force which marched
against that city. When the Girondist parts was over-
thrown^ and several of its loaders executed, others took
refuse in the south of France, and of these Valadi, Salles,
Guadet, and Barbaroux, havins been discovered, were exe-
cuted at B6rdeauXj and dreadful severities were perpetrated
by the deputies whom the Convention sent thither. When
the Royalists sought in 1799 to excite a re-action in the
south, they opetied some communications with their adhe-
ronts in this city, but the movement was defeated. Under
the empire, the Inhabitants desired the return of peace, the
long interruption to which caused the decay of their com-
merce ; but they received with honours the Eniperor Na-
poleon and his empress Josephine in 1808. The kings of
Sf)alri, Ferdinand VII. and his father, Charles I V„ passed
throu^fh the city the same year.
In 1814 the combined English, Spanish, and Portuguese
forces, under the Duke of Wellington, invaded France.
Their advance encouraged the Royalist part}', which had
continued to exist at Bordeaux, though in a vtir feeble
state ; and on the 12th of March, M. Lynch, the mayor,
advanced to meet a detachment of English troops, received
iUem into the city, and hoisted the white flag. When Bona-
parte returned from Elba in 1815, and the royal family fled
in different directionsi the Duchesse d*An^oul§me sought
to make a stand at Bordeaux ; but the national guard and
tiie troops of the line refusing their aid^ slie was compelled
to withdraw. Upon the arrival of the intelligence of the
* Ordonnafiees * of Charles X. in 1830, the Bordelois broke
out into inaurrection, and ^e trl-color was substituted for
the white flag of the Bourbons before the news arrived of
the suecessful Insurrection at Paris.
The ptindpal increase of the buildings of Bordeaux
lias taken place towards the north, or, following the course
of the river, the lower part of the city, with which the
farmer suburbs of Les Chartrons and 8t. Senrin are now
ontted. In the older part, that is in Bordeaux properly so
called, the etreets are narrow and cfooked, and the places or
open spacee irregular ; but not so in the new parts, in the
Quartier dee Chartrons, which is the residence of the mer-
chants, and id the Quartier du Chapeau Rouge, which is on
the site of the Chdteau Trompette. The approach bjr water
is magnificent The Width of the Garonne, which is here
from 609 to 800 yards Wide, twkse the breadth of the Thames
at l4>ndoa, and the curve which it makes, render the pro-
spect of the eity on this side very striking. The dock-yards,
the rope-walk, the Custom-house, the Exchange, and the fine
buildings of the Qnai des Chartrons, extend along the Hue
of the river to a gretit distance.* The bridge excites asto-
nishment by its length | and the quantity of shipping in
this noble port^ which will contain 1000 vessels, and admits
tho4e of greatest tonnage, adds liveliness te the scene.
The iMdees afe of great magnificence, and fitted up in h
manner eorfesponding to the wealth and commerce of the
place. The inhabitants afe teputed to Uve in a style of
ixcenter splendotnr afid luxury then in any town in Frsnce,
Pari^ only except^. Many private equipages are kept,
ftnd the fiacres are superior to the hackney cOaches of
Loudon. The Place Royale, which is on the bank of the
river, is remarkable rather fbr the buildings which surround
it than for its extent. It wss formerly adorned With an
eqaeatrian atatae of Louis XV.; but this was overthrown at
• Expltly, m hii ' DicUonnalw drt Gtiulcs pl de la Francd' ( 176S). spei^Ls
•(\\w Cb.irtnnu «« perli«i«s ttie finest and most sstPURiv* •uburbofany ia
Eurt>|M M artinktie. at a tiiU eartier dvtr. fpcaks in tlw mbw msQUw.
the devolution ; and the Place itself assumed for the tnne
the designation of Place de la Libert^. The Place Dau«
phine is of tolerably regular form and considerable extent*
but the houses are not remarkably good. The most noble
of the Places of Bordeaux is that formed on the site of Hm
Ch&teau Trompette, and ealled formerly Place de Louis
Seize, and now Place de Louis Philippe Premier; This U
open to the river on one side, on the other it is crossed by
the Cours Douse Mars,* beyond which the Place is enclesed
bv a range of'houaes fbrming a crescent. On the sides are
plantations of trees, forming the Allies d'Angoul6me and
de Berri. This Place or square, including the Allies, is
about a quarter of a mile in diameter each way. The most
magnificent street is that of the Chapeau Rouge, which is
scarcely inferior to any in Europe. In length and breadth
it may be compared with Portland Place in London: it
contains most elegant shops. There are several Cours^
public walks, or streets lined with trees, some of great
length : the Cours d* Albret is nearly half a mile long, and the
Cours de Tourny and du Jardin Public form together a linO
of three-quarters of a mile. The Jardin Public itself is partly
planted, and partly open, and occupies a space about equal
to that of the Place Louis Philippe Premier, but is more ir-
regular in form. The All£es de Tourny oonsinted of three
rows Of treed, fbrming a charming promenade, much fire-
quented in summer evenings : these trees have been de-
stroyed. (Milford's Observations during a Tour, <f c, Lond.
1818 ; Mathews's Diary of an Jnvahd, Lond. 1820 ; Malte
Brun ; Balbi ; Plan of Bordeaux, by the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.)
The public buildings are numerous and splendid. The
Bourse or Exchange, and the Douane or Custom House,
(brm the two sides of the Place Royale. The Bourse is a
square building, inclosing a square court surrounded by a
piazza ; this court is now converted into a room, being co«
vered with a light glazed dome, which, according to one
writer (Malte Brun), is remarkable for its beauty and light-
ness ; while according to another (M. MiUin) it injures the
effect which the building would otherwise produce. The
height of this dome or roof from the floor is seventy-eight
fbet, and the space which it covers is ninety-eight feet by
sixty-five. The Entrepdt or store for Colonial Produce on
the Place Laine, which opens on to the Quai des Chartrons,
is remarkable for its extent and beauty ; and there are various
other buildings for the purposes of commerce which deserve
the notice of the traveller. The ship -building yards are to-
wards the southern extremity of the line of quays, and the
Victualling Office is on the Quaide Bacalan at the northern
end. Ships of war are occasionally built here; a frigate
and two brigs were built for Ferdinand YII. of Spain, on
occasion of one of the expeditions fitted out against the
colonies of South America. The Hdtel de Yille, or Town
hall, is of Gothic architecture, and has no particular beauty
to recommend it. Tlie Palais de Justice has in its
hall a statue of Montesquieu. The Palais or Chateau
Royal is an extensive and handsome building, with a
good garden at the back of it : it was formerly the resi-
dence of the Archbishop, and vras converted to its present
use at the restoration of the Bourbons. There are several
theatres : the principal one is in the Rue Chapeau Rouge,
but fronts the Place de la Comedie, and is on a scale, both
as to extent and magnificence, which renders it equal to
most in Europe. It was built in the reign of Louis AVI.,
and is capable of accommodating 4000 persons. Its front has
a portico of twelve Corinthian columns, and the frieze is
crowned by a balustrade adorned with twelve statues.
(Malte Brun ; Balbi ; Reichard ; Mathews, &c.)
The bridge over the Garonne is of stone and about 531
English yards long. It has seventeen arches ; the seven
in the centre are of the same size, their span being
eighty-seven English ibet; the arch nearest to the bank
on each side is of sixty- eight feet span. The breadth
of the bridge between the parapets is fifty feet; the road-
way is nearly level. This bridge was begun during the
reign of Napoleon in 1811, but was not finished until
after the Restoration in 1821. The road firom Paris to
Bordeaux passes over it ; and after crossing the bridge the
traveller enters the city through the Porte de Bourgo^e
(Gate of Burgundy), which was erected on occasion of the
birth of the Duo de Bourgogne, grandson of Louis XIV.
• The ISth of Much, ISli, was th9 day on whicli th« mualeiptl euthoritiM
surrondored the keyt of Af towa to tkfl Bnglkh, and •mbrace4 the party «
Digitized by
Gbbgle
BOR
180
BOB
Tfce diiBenltf of metmg the bridge wis ineietsed by the
depth of the nwer, wbkh in one part is twenty^six feet at
Icnr wiler» with a rising tide of twelve to etghteen feet» by
the rapidity of the ourrent, whieh is often ten feet in a
aeoond, and by the shifting and sandy bottom.
Of the ecclesiastieal edifices of Bordeaux the cathedral is
the most worUiy of notiee. It is an antaent Gothic edifice,
not far ftom the old cattle of Ha. Like some of the other
finest monuments of this kind of arohiteoture in France, it
owes its origin to the English, though a church stood upon
the same spot prior to their domination. It it irregular in
ito arohiteoture, owing to the tarious dates at which it
was built or repaired, but it oommands admiration by the
boldness of its arched roof and flying buttresses, the num-
ber and elegance of its spires and the richnoM of its orna-
ments, especiBlly its altar. The nave is about 85 English
foet high, 53 wide* and 193 long from the end of the church
to the mteraection of the transepts. (M. Millin.) The whole
length of the church is about 413 feet It is adorned with
painted windows, sculptures, and bas-reliefs, and is dedicated
to 8t. Andr6, or Andrew. The front is adorned with two
spires upwards of 150 feet high ; they were restored in 1810
after having become much dilapidated. Near the cathedral
is a tower built by one of the archbishops (Pierre) in 1440,
and commonly called St Pey-Berland. The staircase by
which it is ascended has 200 steps. It is now used as a
shot tower. The church of St Michel, built by the English
in the twelfth century, is a specimen of purer and more
regular Gothic architecture than the cathedral Its tower,
built separate from the church in the fifteenth century,
after the expulsion of the English, once remarkable for
its height has suffered much from the weather. The
church of the Feuillana is only remarkable as the burial-
place of Montaigne. Eleven Catholic and three Pro-
testant churches are mentioned in Reichard's Descriptive
Road-Book qf Pranoe^ and there is a magnificent Jews'
synagogue, built in the time of Napoleon.
Bordeaux had an abbey, that of Ste. Croix of the Bene-
dictine order, which was held in commendam when £x-
pilly wrote* in 1 762. There were also before Che Revolution
three seminaries for the education of the priesthood, a rich
commandery of the order of Malta, and sevend religious
houses both for men and women. The Chartreuse or mo-
nastery of the CarUiusians in the suburb of St Seurin was
very magnificent The church formerly atuched to it is richly
decorated. The vineyard of this Chartreuse is now converted
ante a public cemetery. like that of Pdre la Chaise at Paris.
As a place of trade Bordeaux is eminent. Its oommerce
In the early part of the eighteenth century was very con-
siderable, and Martini^re iOrand DicHonnaire) enume-
rates among the articles of trade dried plums, resin, vinegar,
and especially wine, of which in time of peace 100,000 casks
were exported annually. This wine was the produce not
only of the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, but also of Langue-
doc and the district of Montauban. The opening of the
great Canal du Midi, which united the Garonne with the
Mediterranean, tended much to promote the trade of this
place. It enables the Bordelois to supply the south of
France with colonial produce almost as cheap as the Mar-
seillois. The k>ss of St Domingo was injurious to Bor-
deaux, with which that colony had many important con-
nexions, and to which much of its produce was consigned.
But of late years this injury has been more than repaired
by the increase of manufacturing industry, especially in
nrticles of perfhmery, in the distillation of various liqueurs,
&C., in weaving stockings, carpets, and cottons, and the
naaking of earthenware, porcelain, lottlee, casks, hats, paper,
vinegar, and nitric acid. Among the liqueurs prepared
here, the aniseed is much celebrated. Tnero is a royal
snuff manufactory near the castle of Ha, in which 500 per-
sona are constantly employed, many refining houses fbr
sugar, some iron foundries, and ropewalks. These mami-
&cturea furnish articles for exportation, especially to the
French colonies. Cattle, hides, provisioiu, flour, clover seed,
brandy, almonds, prunes, chestnuts, walnuts, cork, turpen-
tine, resin, tartar, eream of tartar, verdigris, linens, and co-
lonial produce are shipped to various parU of Europe, to
the French colonies, to America, or to India. Wine is
however the staple export of Bordeaux, which is the prin-
cipal outlet for the wines of the western districts of France,
and even of the southern and midland districts. Claret is
chiedv shipped at Bordeaux, and is the produce of the
MighUmnngoottBtiy, The first growths* those of CMteaul
Martaux. Lafltte, Latour, and Hani Brion, an from tW
district of MMoc on the left bank of the river Gaiooim
below the dty. Bordeaux imports cotton, indigo, tobaeoo,
sugar, cofiee, cocoa, and other articles, from the Preach
West Indian ooloniea ; tin* lead, copper, coal, hardwaivs.
timber fbr ship building, masts, hemo, hides, hums, «aU
beef, and salted salmon from England, Holland. Nonhtfrn
Europe, and Amerioa. Many vessels are built and mskny
hundred workmen employed in the vast building vanls
whieh extend along the Garonne. There are at Bonieaux
two large fain, one of which opens on the 1st of March,
the other on the 15th of October. (Malle Bnm; Balbt^
Dictiotmaire Qeogropkiqu^t par Robert ; Maoeullocha Die
iwnary of Commsree, &c.>
The shipping belonging to the port of Bordmnx amoontiil
in 1833 to 76,916 tons; in 1831 it was as much as 98.737
tons, including 15 steam-vessels of the aggregate burtbeA
of about 3000 tons. The number and tonnage of veeaek
that entered the port exdusive of eoaating vessels, in e
of the three years ending with 1832* were as foUows : —
idao.
1831.
ISQI
Shipe.
ToDt.
Shlpc
Tone.
ShiV..
TeM.
Fnneli VetteU
Foreign Trade • •
Tnula with FMndi OoloafM
Fiihiu TfMU •
ForeigD Venek
From Coootriei wliMa Sair\
they bear . X
From other Foveicn Coon- 1
trie. . .• . J
147
817
68
M.It7
26.373
7.337
87,180
11.4U
146
103
23i
83
S6
8T.2J6
t4.7fiS
9.165
12.113
4.340
lis
75
97. 'Ti
ia.ao
ToUl • • .
098
111.437
W
77.366, 7l«
WO^ntM
The coasting trade during the same three years to and
from the town of Bordeaux was—
1880.
iShlpe.
ImrtMB
OuVivmrdt
8596
8408
Tone.
188.486 9341
181.431 9141
1831.
8Mp«. Tene.
168. 370
91.887
isat.
8479
XmA
I90.«ii«
Very few of the vessels belonging to Bordeaux are en-
gaged in the cod fliibery, and only two ships are emplo>rd
in the whale fisherv. Between one-iburth and ooo- third at
the French colonial trade is earned on by the mecchaiu* vJ
Bordeaux.
The (quantities of wine and brandy exported from tbt
Gironde in the same years were— -
Wine* Bmn4y.
1829 imperial gallons 9,643,053 2,013.795
1830 ^ ,, 6,281,412 687^61
1831 „ n 5,370,110 655.193
About a twentieth part of the wine and a tenth part oi
the brandy were sent to this kingdom.
The population of Bordeaux in 1832 was 100,262 for it.«
city, or 109,467 for the whole commune. The popula:j»r
of the town in 1810 was 93,699, and in 1820, 69.20i. T..e
patois of the country is spoken by the Jews, by the ual^iu
cated classes, and the population of the outskirts ; tlie otbcr
inhabitants speak Frencn.
This city has numerous establishmenu for educstion ai '!
the promotion of science. It has an Academic UniYt-r-.*
taire and a College Royal, or high school ; schools of an hi-
tecture» hydrography, and navigation; botany and natunl
history ; drawing and painting ; medicine and surgery. Thcr
is a school for the deaf and dumb, founded in 1785. 'W Ikcj
Mr. Milford \isited this institution in 1814 it contained itu
persons, chiefly young; the establishment waa in high re-
pute« There are several learned societies, as the Academur
Koyale des Sciences, Arts, et Belles Lettres; La Satic-
Royale de M^ioine; La Society Medico-Chinugicalc. k.r.
The public library contains 1 10,000 volumes, among « lu« :
is a copy of MonUigne's Essays^ with the author's mari;u.4
corrections. The botanic garden is maintained by the go^ cm-
ment for the purpose of naturalizing exotic plants* or wLicli.
as well as of indigenous plants, it contains a good vanei i .
There are a museum of anti<)uities and a gallery of pirsurr'^
which occupy several rooms in one of the wings of the p.% a
palace ; and a cabinet of natural history, which is well k* . t
up, in the hdtel of the Academic Royale. In the mu»t « a
of antiquities are the inscriptioDs and bas-rehefii dug u: .
the citiTand ito environs. There is an observatory. (Balli.;
Malta BnmeJBs.)
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Boidflaox his gonie line hospitak« Le Grand R^tal de
St Ao^ra is near the cathedral It is spoken of hy M.
Mfllin {Voyage done tes Departments du Midi) as well
managed, )>ut in too close a situation. There are a lunatic
atfylnm and a Ibandling hospital. The latter is near the
fiver, in the sooth quarter of the city ; the building is very
ettensire md eommodious; end many hundred children,
fnm inftoiey up to twelve years of age and mors, are shel-
fcied and brought up in it. In 1814 there were 790 children
in it, and SOOO out-pensionera in the country. For an ac-
count of the Mpot de Mendicity, and of the state of the
wretchedly poor in this city, the reader is referred to the
parliamentaiy veport on the state of the fbreign poor.
Bordeaux is the capital of the department of Gironde, the
largest department in France. The arrondissement of Bor-
deaux comprehends 1668 square miles, or 1,067,520 acres,
and is consequently larger than the county of Kent, but
much less populous; it is subdivided into 18 cantons, or
153 communes. It had, in 1833, 245,348 mhabitants.
Bordeaux is also the seat of a Cour Royale, or high tri-
bunal, the jurisdiiftion of which extends over the depart-
ments of Gironde, Charente, and Dordogne. It is the
capital of the eleventh military division, which includes the
departments of Landes, Gironde^ Dordogne, Lot, Lot et
Garounct and Basses Pyr^nto.
The diocese of Bordeaux is doubtless very antient. Some
have attempted to carry its ori^n as far back as to the first
century, but it is scarcely needless to observe that this sup-
position is unsupported by proof. There were however
bishops of this plaoe about the year 300, for one of them as-
sisted at the first council Of Aries, held in 314. When the
diocesan was raised to the rank of metropc^itan is not cer-
tain. The archbishops took the style of rrimates of Aqui-
taine, but this dignity was disDUted with them by the Arch-
bishops of Bourges. They had nine suffragans, the Bishops
of Afen, AngoiUSme, Condom, Lufon, P^rigueux, Poitiers,
La Kochelle, Saintes, and Sarlat. At present the diocese
is co-extensive with the department of. Gironde ; and the
archbishop has six suffragans, namely, the Bishops of Agen,
AngoulSme, Li^on, Perigueux, Poitiers, and La Rochelle.
Bordeaux is the native country of some eminent men, the
p>et Deeins Magnus Ausonius; St Paalinus, bishop of
Nola, a father of the fifth century ; Berquin, the author of
the *Idy11es,**L*Am{ des Enfan8,'&c. ; and Gensonne, one
of the eminent men of the early period of the Revolution.
Montesquieu was bom at the Chdteau de Brdde, about ten
miles finom Bordeaux.
BORDBLOIS, or BOURDELOIS, the district of which
Bordeaux was the capital. It included several subordinate
districts, such as the 3ordelois properly so called, Medoc,
Les Landes de Bordeaux, and many others ; and extended
on both sides of the Garonne, the Dordogne, and the Gi-
ronde. It was bounded on the N. by Saintonge, on the fi.
by P^rigord and Bazadois, on the S.E. and 8. by Les
Grandes Landes, on the W. side it was washed by the ocean.
It is included in the present department of Gironde, to
which we refer the reader for a fuller description of its phy-
sical features. Suffice it to say here that it includes one of
the most important wine countries in France. The im-
mediate neighbourhood of Bordeaux is well watered, no less
than six brooks flow through that town, and to the west of
it is a marsh the level of vmich is bebw that of the streams
which cross it The streams which flow toward the sea be-
ing prevented flrom reachmg it by sand hills, form the etangs
or pools which line the coast of the Bordelois. A great
part of the Bordelois is a mere sandy heath, and in the midst
of this are several marshes. [GiRom>B, DxpARTnxrr or.]
BORB, a phenomenon which occurs in some rivets, near
Iheir mouth at spring tides. Bore is probably an Indian
word, but we cannot suggest any etymology unless it come
from the Hindustani 'bdr,' signifying 'deep.' When the
tide entets the river, the waters suddenly rise to a great
height, in some rivers many ifeet above the surfoce of the
stream, and rush with tremendous noise against the current
fora considerable distance. Sometimes the waters do not
subside till they have almost reached the limit of tide-water.
As thb swell does not occur in all rivers where there is
a tide, it is evident that it must be caused by some confor-
mation of the banks or bed of the river, or by both combined.
It seems to be necessary, in order that there should be
a bore, that the river should fhll into an estuary, that this
Mtnary be subject to high tides, and that it contract gra-
<huilly; and iMtly that the river also naixow by degrees.
The Hs« of the sea at spring tides pushes a gveat t
of water into the wide entranee of the nstuary, wheiw it
accomnlates, not bding able to flow off quick enough into
the narrower part The tide Aerefore enters with the
greater force ttie narrower the osstoary becomes, and when
it reaches the month of the river, the awell has already
obtained a considerable height abofe the desoendmg stream,
and rushes on like a torrent
In Bngland the bore is observed in some rivers, more
especially in the Severn, Trent (Stark*s Qaimbo^ugh)^
Wye, in Solwajr Frith, and probably in other rivers and
8»stuaries also, in which the water rises suddenly a few feet,
and then rushes on against the eurrentof the river. Th^
bore is called in some parts of England, fat instance ih the
T^nt and Severn, Uie Eagre or Hygre. (Gibson's Cam-
den^ i. 268 ; Stark.) The most remarkable botes hitherto
described are those of the Ganges and Brahmapootra. In the
Hoogly branch of the Ganges the bore is so qu&k, that it
takes only four hours in travelling from Fnltah to Nia^^serai,
above Hoogly town, a distance of nearly 70 m. At Cal-
cutta it sometimes causes an instantaneous rise of five feet,
which would occasion great damage among the smaller
vessels, if it did not run along one bank only, so that the
barges, on hearing the noise which precedes it, can be safely
brought to the other side of the river, or to the middle,
where the swell is indeed considerable, but not so sudden
as to endanger vessels which are skilfully managed. In
the channels between the islands at the mouth of the Meg-
na or Brahmapootra, the height of the bore is said to exceed
12 ft., and it is so terrific in its appearances, and so dan-
gerous in its consequences, that no boat will ventuie to na-
vigate there at spring-tide ; but it does not ascend to anv
great distance in tiiia river, which is probably owing to
the great width of the channel of the Megna.
The phenomenon observed in the months of the Indus
must be of the same lund. Bumes remarks (London
Geog. J. vol. iii.) that 'the tides rise in the months of the
Indus about 9 feet at ftill moon ; and ilow and ebb with
great violence, paitieulariy near the sea, where they flood
and abandon the banks with equal and incredible velocity*
It is dangerous to drop the anchor unless at low water, as
the channel is fVequently obscured, and the vessel may be
left dry. The tides are only perceptible 75 m. ftom the sea.*
The boats of Alexander experienced these dangerous tides
in the Indus (Alexander, vol. i. p. 301), and his historian,
Arrian, is the fiiet who has described them. (^ito^. vi. 19.)
On the N. coast of Brazil, especially on the shores of the
provinces Pard. and Maraahiio, a similar phenomenon is ob-
served in some rivers, and in the channel whioh extends
between the coast and a series of islands from Cape Norte
to the mouth of the river Maciq>pi ; but it does not oceur at
the mouth of the Amason river, as is stated by Malta Bran.
This phenomenon, which is colled by the Indians poror6ea^
is particularly strong in the Araguari river, which runs into
the sea near Cape Norte, and in the rivers Guama and
Capim near Par&, and also in the river Meary in Maranhao.
The description of the poror6ca does not d^fer materially
from that of the bore of the rivers in India, exrept that it
rises to 15 feet and forms three or even four swells, whioh
follow in rapid succession* If the last circumstance be true,
the poror6ea must be the eflhct of circumstances different
from those which we h»m supposed to unite to produce the
bore. It is also said that some parts of these rivers being
obstructed by shoals, the poror6ca is only observable on
these shoals, and that it disap jiears in deep water, for whiCh
reason the barges are moored in these paits, where they are
only exposed to a strong agitation of the waters. (Rennell*s
Hindoostan; Ayre's Con^rq/laBratiUea; andBschwege'e
Brasilien,)
BORBCOLB, a kind of cabbage with curly leaves, aud no
disposition to form a heart or head. It is chiefly valued for
winter use. After the more delicate kinds of vegetables have
been rendered unfit for cooking by the severity of frost, this
form of the cabbage tribe is in ito stete of greatest excellence.
The interior leaves are thin, tender, and excellent Seveml
sorts are met with in gardens, the best of whioh, as being
the hardiest are the dwoff or Colebrook-dale borecole, and
what is called German greene, or Scotch kail These plante
are raised in all respeete like other hardy cabbages, and the
duration of their crop is prolonged by sowing the seed at in-
tervals of about a month, commencing at the end of March,
and ceasing with the beginning of August. As they are
apt te prodvoe long naked stenis, it is iisualXeaiUi
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VIS irliAi lUl ifMim, MM to prerent tlie wind from bloiwing
Ihein oter.
Besides the nse of borecole fbr boiling, the .'resh leaves
are often employed for garnishing other dishes, ibr which
some of them are particularly well adapted, in consequence
of the gay colours with which the leaves are often varie-
gated. A variety called the Suda kail is also blanched for
winter and spring use by putting a flower-pot over the leaves,
bnt it is inferior to sea kail, and more troublesome to pro-
cure.
Borecole, like all other cabbages, toay be increased by
^slips of its stem, without the necessity of raising it annn-
'ally from seed ; and, provided care is taken to perform this
operation in dry weatner, it is attended with almost certain
success. This method is however little practised in Eng-
land.
BOREL and BORELLI. Our object here is to prevent
two contemporaries being confounded, who have the same
Latin name* Borellus.
Pierre Borcl, of Castres, bom 1620, died 1689, was the
author of the treatise ' De vero TelescopU inventore,' Hague,
1655, a work often cited. He was a physician by pro-
fession.
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, of Naples, bom 1608, was
also a physician. He wrote ^Euclides Rcstitutus,* 1628,
discovered and translated the lost books of Apollonius
[Apollonius Pero-kus], and also wrote the first theory
of Jupiter*s satellites, entitled ' TheoricsD Mediceorum
Planetarum ex caussLs physicis deductsD* (published in
1666; the title is from Weidler). Weidler and Lalande
unite in affirming that he suggested, or rather revived,
the notion of attraction in this work. But as Lalande has
evidently copied Weidler's words (compare Montucla, iv.
235, and Weidler, p. 513) and as the latter speaks from his
own old notes, not having the work before nim, we rather
incline to believe with Delambre {Jst. Mud, ii. 333), who
evidently WTites with the work before him, and says II
n'indique aucune cause physique.* Borelli also wrote * Ob-
servatione dell' Ecclisi Lunare fatta in Roma,* 1675, in-
serted in the Journal of Rome for 1675, p. 34.
O. A. Borelli was one of the leaders of the iatro-ma-
thematical sect, or of those who have attempted to apply
mathematics to medicine. He was sent to Rome to com-
plete his education, where, under the tuition of Castelli, he
made such progress, that he was invited at an early age to
Messina to teach the mathematics. As he had made me-
dicine as well as mathematics his study, he wrote an ac-
count of a malignant fever which raged in SicUv during
the years 1647 and 1648, in a treatise entitled 'Delle
Caj^ioni delle FebriMaligni di Sicilia,* Cosenza, 1649, 12ino.
Having become tired of his situation he accepted a pro-
fi?SHor*s chair at Pisa in 1656, where he lectured with great
applause. The fame of his abilities procured him the fa-
vour of the Grand Duke Ferdinand and Prince Leopold,
who obtained him the honour of being elected a member of
the Acudemia del Cimento. It was about this time probably
that he first conceived the design of employing mathema-
tical principles in explaining the animal functions, and he
now applied himself diligently to the dissection of animals.
Several of his letters on the subject of anatomy, written
between 1659 and 1664, are published in Malpighi's pqst-
humous works. In 1658 he published at Pisa a second
tract on the nature and treatment of malignant fevers,
* Delia Causa delle Febri Malicni.' 4to. His first physio-
lojjical work, • De Renum Usu Judicium,* appeared in 1664,
with the treatise of Bellini. * De Structurd Renum,* Stras-
burgh, 8vo. In 1 669 he published, in the Giom, di LeiL an
essay on the fhct, that in most persons the eyes are of un-
equal power, the one seeing more distinctly than the other,
• Osservazioni intorno alia Virtii Inegiiale degli Occhi.* In
1667 he published bis 'Tractatus de Vi Percussionis,' Bonon.
4to., of which there is another edition, printed at Leydcn in
1686; and soon afterwards the ' Historia et Meteorologia
Inccndii i^tnci. 1669; accedit Responsio ad Censuras R.
P. Honorati Fabri contra Librum de Vi Percussionis,'
ReggiiD, 1670, 4 to. He was present at the eruption of
.^tna, having the prect.*ding year quitted Pisa and returned
to Messina. The account was written at the request of the
Royal So<ioty of London, with which he corresponded, and
was printed in their • Transactions.' In 1670 he pubhshed
his treatise • De Motionibus Naturalibus ik Gravitate Pen-
dentibus,' a prelude to his j^reat vork * De Motu Animal ium»'
which did not appear until after his decease.
Being supposed to have fttvoured the influrgents a: Uie
revolt of Messina, to which city he had returned* he w ^s
obliged to quit the place. Christina, queen of Sweden, w htj
was then residing at Rome, invited nim thither, and he
continued to enjoy her patronage till the termination of h.i
liffe. Whether from poverty or other motives he spent t ;.«•
last two years of his life in teaching the mathemaur* \ %
youth at the convent of St. Pantaleor . tailed the \ \^*\^t
schools, where he died December 31st, 1679, in the seventh «
econd year of his age.
The first volume of his work * De Motu Animal ium,'
which appeared in 1680, Rome, 4to..is dedicated toCliri«t:ni,
and was printed at her expense; the second volume, \^i.ic•h
completed the book, came out the following year. Tl.vra
arc many other editions of this ^reat work, such as tlui^e i.f
Leyden, 1685, 2 vols. 4to.r with piates ; Leydon, 1 71 1 » 2 «o!*.
4to., with the dissertations of John Bernoulli on the m >% -
ments of the muscles, and on* effervescence ; Naples, \7 M,
2 vols. 4to. ; at the Hague, 1743, 4to., with the same dis-
sertations ; and in the ' Bibliothdque Anatomiqiiu ' id
Manget, Geneva, 1GS5. folio.
It 18 on this work that the medical reputation of BorvTli
depends. In the second part indeed, where he endeavour* t>i
explain the action of the heart, lungs, liver, and other vtacer.
on mechanical principles, he is as much mistaken as the ot her
physicians of the iatro-mathematical school ; but in the ficut
part ho successfully applies the principles of mechanics t.>
the explanation of the active and passive movements of the
body. He shows that the bones are true levers, and thdi
the muscles attached to them may be considered as il.t ^
moving powers ; and he proves that the length of the Umlw
and the distance at which the muscle or power is inj!^TtA.^
from the extremity of the limb| or centre of articulation, Ui
fluence the quantity of force required for the contraction u(
the muscle, and the execution of the motion : just a* m
mechanics the length of the lever and the dislunce of the
power from the fulcrum alter the quantity of force required. ,
He demonstrated too, that the muhcles act at a disadvaut4;:c;
considered merely as levers. In bis attempts to e-i^uiuaie
the force of muscles in numbers, he. fails where buc^r^t
was probably impossible. He calculates the propul>r.«
power of the heart to be equal to a weight of 1 80,000 pound*,
a calculation shown to be erroneous by Keil. Though ia |
this and other computations Borelli was shown to haw err^U
considerably, yet his general principles were long ap|M r.!H
to ; and even the operations of medicines were BUp{>o>od to
be explicable on mechanical principles.
Borelli invented an apparatus by which persons might p«
a considerable depth uuuer water, remain there, mo^e f;oui
place to place, and sink or rise at pleasure; ana uIsaj a Ucl
m which two or more persons might row themselves undci
water.
BO'REUS (Latreille), a genus of inserts of tlie ort! ■\
neuroptera, and family panornidro. This ({enus, of «K: ;i
only one species is known {H.nyemalis), is not only remar St-
able for its structure, but from the curious circum«tanc< •.:
its having been found in the winter months only, fku . >
said even to have been seen on the Alps running ab->ut « n
the snow : its most common abode however appear> iu l>«
in moss.
B, hyemaJis is about one quarter of an inoh lon^ ;.: •»
of a greenish colour, with the legs Inclining to rv^J ; .'R*>.
unlike the rest of its tribe, the female poss«fl»cs no vu..:.,
and those of the male are only rudimentary. The ant on jc
are long and thread-like, the parts of the moulh aru i .o
duccd into a kind of proboscis; the ab^umen of iLc fo;i *
is furnished with a large ovipositor: it is laUier a M:«nv
insect in this country.
BORGHE'SE, an Italian family originally from Sui.a,
whero they ranked among the patricians of tliat repu hi .r.
In the early part of the sixteentn century. Mare Aatf;i:i<i
Borghcse, a jurisconsult of some distinction* settkod at
Rome, where he was employed as advocate of the |up»l
court He had several sons and daughters. His thinl miii.
Camillo, born in 156-2, became pope in May, 16U5 iPau<
V.) Tho eldest son, Oiovan Battii^ta. married Vir^ima
Lanti of Piea, by whoni he had Mare Adtonio BorKlie«e«
who by the intiuence of bis uncle the ]X)pe was made ps mrv
of Sulmona, and ^andee of Spain. Paul V. bestowed im
him other domains in the papal state* Marc Antomo besan
the line of the princes Borgbeso, which still 0Mitai»ii««.
His son Paolo marrie<l Ohmpia Aldobraodini* the onlj
child of tho prince of Rossano, and grand nieoe to B3p«
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Aldolnndini (ClemeBt YIII.), and thus the Aldobrandiiti
inheritance came into the Borgheae family. Paolo's son,
Giovan Battista, prince of Sulmona and Rossano, duke of
Palombara, &c., was ambassador of Philip V. of Spain at
the court of Rome, where he died in 1717, and was buried
in the splendid family chapel at Sta. Maria Maggiore. He
loft numerqas legacies for charitable purposes, and remitted
to all his vassals their arrears of rept, fees, and other dues,
which they had owed him since the year 1700. His son,
Marc Antonio Borghese* was made viceroy of Naples for
the emperor in 1 721. Another Marc Antonio, a descendant
of the viceroy, was Prince Borghese in the second half of
the last century, who was well known as a patron of the
fine arts, and a great collector of statues and other antiqui-
ties, with which he enriched his fine villa on the Pincian
Hill. He left two sons, the eldest Don Camillo, who early
embraced the part of the French, and went to Paris, where
he married in 1803 Marie Pauline Bonaparte, Napoleon's
»ister, and widow of General Leclerc. He was made in
1S05 prince of the French empire, afterwards duke of
Gaastalla, and lastly governor-general of the departments
beyond the Alps, which included the former states of Pied-
mont and Genoa, then annexed to France. In his new ca-
pacity, Prince Borghese fixed his residence at Turin, where
he held a sort of court, and seems to have behaved so
as to eonciliat« the inhabitants. Ho sold to Napoleon his
fine museum of the villa Borghese, at Rome, for thirteen
millions of francs, the amount of which he received in
demesnial estates situated in Piedmont. On the fall of
Napoleon Prince Borghese returned to Rome, and after-
wards ftxed his residence at Florence, where he built a
magnificent palace, and lived in great splendour. He gave
splendid balls, which .were much frequented by foreigners,
and especially by the English at Florence. At the same
time he did not neglect his Roman residence, and he re-
placed in great measure by fresh acquisitions of statues and
rilievi for his villa, the former eolleotion which is in the
museum of the Louvre. Prince Don Camillo died in 1832 ;
his wife Pauline had died in 1825. As they left no issue,
his younger brother, who tiU then went by the title of
Prince Aldobrandini, has assumed the title of Prince
Borehole.
The House of Borghese has estates 'in the papal terri-
tory, in the kingdom of Naples, and in Tuscany. In the
immediate neiffhbaurhood of Rome alone it is possessed of
45.000 acres of ground, besides the estate of Palombara in
Sabiua. The vast town palace Borghese at Rome has
a rich gallery of paintings. Besides the celebrated villa
on the Pinctan Mount, the family has the fine villa Aldo-
brandini, called also Belvedere, at Frescati, and other
mansions on their various estates. The villa Borghese or
Pincijna at Rome has been described in several works.
(Montelatici, Filla Borghese fuori di Porta Pindana^ con
pU omamenti, figure^ ^., Roma, 1 700 ; Lamberti, Sculture
4fl Palazzo dew Villa Borghesef and lately by Yisconti.
Rome, 1821.)
There have been several cardinals of the Borghese fa-
mily, one of whom, Soioioae, nephew to Paul V., figured in
the disputes between tnat pope and the republic of Venice.
He began the Villa Borghese. (Toumon, Etudes Statu-
tiquee eur Rome; VLQism% Dictionary ; Valery, Voyages
e(i liaMe, *c)
BOHGIA. or BORJA, a family originally from Valencia
in Spain. Alfonso Borja was raised to the pontificate in
1445 by the name of Calixtus HI. One of his sisters mar-
ried Gcoffroy Lensoli, likewise a Spaniard, who assumed
the name and arms of Boija, there being no male heir of that
family. Geofifroy had two sons, one of whom became Pre*
ftct of Rome, and the other, Rodriguez, was afterwards Pope
Alexander VI. Before his exaltation to the Pontificate
Alexander hxA ibur sons and one daughter by Vanozia, a
woman whoso parentage is not exactly known. iThe eldest
son John was made Duke of Gandia in Spain by King Fer-
dinand of Aragon ; the next, Cesare Borgia, is famous in
Italian history. When his father was elected pope, in 1499,
Cesare was studying at Pisa. He immediately went to
Rome, where he was soon after \nade Archbishop of Va-
lensa in Italy, and afterwards cardinal. Cesare was early
noted for his profligacy as well as for his abilities and deep
conning. His younger brother Geoffrey having married, in
1494, Sancia, natural daughter of Alfonso ll. King of
Naples, was made Duke of Squillace. The arrival of the
French nnder Charles VIII. at Rome, in 1495, obliged
Alexander VI. to forsake Alfonso, and apparently to counte*-
nancc Charles's invasion of the kingdom of Naples. Charles
even required Cardinal Cesare Borgia to accompany him to
Naples as hostage for his father s fidelity. Cesare however
bad not gone farther than Velletri, on his fi.ght from the
French camp and return to Rome, when both he and his
father turned against the French, after whose retreat from
Italy they renewed their connexion with the Aragonese
dynasty at Naples. Cesare joined his father and brother
(the Duke of Gandia) in waging a war of exterminatbn
against the Orsini. Colonna, Savelli, and other baronial
families of the Roman state, whose castles and lands they
seized. In June, 1497, John Borgia Duke of Gandia was '
murdered in the night, and his body thrown into the Tiber,
by unknown assassins. His brother Cesare was strongly
suspected of the murder, as he had expressed his jealousy
of his brother's secular rank and honours, while he himself
felt no relish for his ecclesiastical dignities. The charge
however against Cesare rests on mere suspicion, but his
character was so bad, that he was considered capable of any
deed, however atrocious. Soon afterwards Cesare resigned
his cardinalate, and in 1498 was sent by the pope to France
with the bull of divorce between Louis XII. and his wife
Jeanne, daughter of Louis XI., afler which Louis XII.
married Anne of Britanny. On this occasion Louis made
Cesare Duke of Valentinois in Dauphiny, from which cir-
cumstance he has been eenerallv styled by the Italian his-
torians * Duca Valentino. In May, 1499, he married Char-
lotte, sister of Jean D' Albret, king of Navarre. The French
having again crossed the Alps and taken the Milanese,
Louis XIl, sent a body of troops under Yvon d'Alegre to
join those of Cesare 6orgia, who was then waging war
against the petty Lords of the towns of Romagna, who
refused to acknowledge the supremacy of the court of
Rome. He began by taking Imola, and afterwards besieged
the castle of Forli, which was bravely defended by Caterina
Sforza ; but the place was stormed, the garrison massacred,
and Caterina sent prisoner to Rome, where she was liberated
through D'AlSgre's intercession. The French being re-
called to Lombard^, Cesare returned to Rome, which he
entered in triumph m February* 1500, when the pope created
him Duke of Romagna and Gonfalionere of the Holy See.
He then turned his arms against Giovanni Sforza, whom he
drove out of Pesaro ; he likewise took Rimini from the
Malatesti. The people of Faenza defended themselves
bravely for nearly a year on behalf of their young prince
Astorre Manfredi, then fifteen years of age ; al last they
surrendered on condition that both Astorre and his brother
Evangelista should be firee. Borgia however sent them
both prisoners to Rome, where thev were cruelly put to
death in 1501. He then attacked Bologna, but was stoutly
resisted by Giovanni Bentivoglio, with whom he conoiuded a
truce. In the same year he marched against Florence, but
was obliged to desist by peremptory orders from the pope.
He next accompanied the French army in its invasion of
Naples, under d'Aubigny, and was present at the taking of
Capua, where the greatest atrocities were committed by the
invaders. Borgia seised upon a number of women whom
he sent to his palace at Rome ; others were publicly sold.
In 1502 betook Urbino andCamerino* where he put to
death Giulio da Varimo and his sons.
The armv of Borgia was composed chiefly of meroenaries ;
and he had severt^ condottieri under him, such as Vitel-
lozzo VitelU of Citti di Castello and Baglioni of Perugia,
Oliverotto of Fenno, Paolo Orsino, and others. These men,
either jealous of his powqr or afraid of his ambition and
treachery, deserted his cause while he had gone to Lom-
bardy to meet King Louis XII. On his return to Romagna.
Borgia resorted to his usual stratagems. He affected a re-
conciliation with the revolted condottieri, and induced them
to repair to Smigaglia, where he went himself, accompanied
by a troop of men. He there seized upon their persons, ex-
cept Petrucoi of Siena and Baglione of Perugia, who were
fortunate enough to escape, and put them to death, together
with many of tbeur followers. Sinigagha was plundered on
that joocasion. Maohiavelli, who was with Borgia as envoy of
the Florentine republic, gives a mphic account of the whole
tragedy in his characteristic cool and concise style. When
Alexander VI. received the news, he arrested Cardinal
Orsini and other members of the same family, and ordered
them to be put to death in prison. Borgia at this time was
the terror of all Central Italy, from the Adriatic to the Me-
diterranean : he aimod at making himselfi with the eonnto
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BO R
naiUM of the pope, independent sovereign of Rom&gna* the
Marches and Umbria. On the 1 8th August, 1503, Alex-
ander VI. died, after a great supper, at which Cesare was
present, who felt himself dangerously ill at the same time,
and it has been said, though without sufficient evidence,
that they both drank by mistake some poisoned wine which
they intended for Cardinal di Gometo. The death of the
pope ruined Borgia*8 fortunes. His troops were defeated by
Baglione and Orsini Giordano (Duke of tfracciano), he was
driven out of the Vatican, and most of the towns of Romogna
rose against him. Cardinal Delia Rovere, who was elected
pope, and was an old enemy of the Borgias, arrested Cesare
and obliged him to give orders to his lieutenants to deliver
up the fbrtresses they held of him. Borgia took refuge at
^faple8, where he olftred his services to Gonzalo of Cordova,
who however, notwithstanding a safe-conduct he had given
hivnt arrested him, and sent him prisoner to Spain. He
was confined by King Ferdinand in the fortress of Medina
del Campo, where he remained about two years. Having
found means to escape, he went to his brother-in-law, the
King of Navarre, who was then at war with one of his feu-
datories. Cesare served in the Navarrese army as a volun*
teer, and was killed in 1707 by a musket- shot at the siege of
the small town of Viana near the Ebro. His body was
buried without any honours in a church of Pamplona. (To-
masi, Ftia di Cesare Borgia,)
BORGIA, LUCRE'ZIA, sister to Cesare, was betrothed
while yet a child to a Spanish nobleman, but her father
having become pope, married her, in 1493, to Giovanni
Sforza, Lord of Pesaro, with whom she remained four years,
when her father dissolved the marriage, and gave her, in
1798, to Alfonso Duke of Bisceglia, natural son of Alfonso
II. King of Naples. On this occasion she was created
Duchess of Spoleto and of Sermoneta. She had by Alfonso
a son Rodrigo, who was brought up at the papal court, but
died young. In June, 1500, Alfonso was attacked on the
steps of St Peter's Church by a party of assassins, and
stabbed in several places; he was carried to the pontifical
palace, where he died two months after. Cesare Borgia, as
usual, was suspected of the crime. Lucrezia then retired for
some time to Nepi, but was afterwards recalled to Rome by
her father, and intrusted with the affairs of the government
during his absence. Such at least is the report of Burchard,
the correctness of which however is doubted. (Roscoe's
Di4sertaH(m on Lucrezia Borgia, in the 1st vol. of his Life
qfLeo X. and also Bossi's Notes to the Italian translation of
that work.) Towards the end of 1501 she married Alfonso
d'Este, son of Ercole Duke of Ferrara, and made her en-
trance into Ferrara with great pomp on the 2nd February,
1502. Gibbon, in his posthumous work. Antiquities of the
House of Brunswick, has assumed that the negotiations for
Lucrezia's marriage with d*Este took place while her former
husband was still living, and that he was put out of the way
to make room for his successor, an assumption perfectly
gratuitous, as the negotiation did not begin till nearly a
twelvemonth after her husband^s death.
At Ferrara Lucrezia appeared as the patroness of litera-
ture. Bembo, who was tnen at that court, conceived an
attachment for her which appears to have been of a platoi^ic
nature. (Mazzuchelli : art Bembo and Lucrezia Borgia.) Ten
autograph letters of Lucrezia to Bembo are preser^-ed in the
Ambrosian Ubrary, together with a lock of her hair which
she sent him in one of them, and some Spanish verses ad-
dressed to her by Bembo. Bembo continued to correspond
with the Duchess of Este long after he had left Ferrara
and till 1517. His later letters to her are in the style of
respectfhl friendship. Lueresia was the mother of three
sons by Alfonso, who had a high opink>n of her, and in-
trusted her with the eare of the government whUe he was
absent in the field, in which capacity she seems to have con-
ducted herself so as to gain general approbation. In the
latter years of her life she became more rigid in her man-
ners and more assiduous in the practice of devotion and
charitable woika. In short, her behaviour after she be-
came Duchess of Ferrara affords no grounds for censuie.
Her former conduct, while at Rome with her father, has
been the subject of much obloquy, whieh seems to rest how-
ever chiefly on inferences from her living in a flagitious
court where she witnessed the most profligate scenes. Still
there is no individual charge substantiated against her.
The accusation of incest besides being improbable, as
Rosooe has shown, is not even grounded on Burchard's
Diariumf but on some epigrams of Pontano and other Nea-
ts, the natural enemies of her fkmfly, and frm
whom Guicciardini probably derived the report for he statci
u as ' a rumour wnich it is difficult to believe ;* and yd
upon this subsequent writers, and Gibbon among the rv^t,
have grounded their assertions of the charge. Ot any par-
ticipation in the murder of her husband, or in any of hn
brother's atrocious deeds, she has never been aoeused. At
Ferrara she was highly praised by Strozii, 11baldeo» Ariostu
and other poets of the court. Bembo dedicated bis Aiolam
to her, ana Aldo Manusio, in the dedication prefixed to hit
edition of Strozii's works, speaks of her as an aooomplisbcd
princess and a liberal patroness of his art ; the hixtonant
Giraldi, Sard!, Libanori, mention her intermB\)f the hight>»t
commendation. All this can hardly be mere flattery, for
even flattery from so many different writers could not have
been lavished on a person so profligate and debased as »l'«
has been representea, A drama fuU of horribly but irratu!-
tons fictions concerning her life was published and |^«^r-
formed at Paris in 1833, under the title of ' Luciece Borj^iii *
A likeness of Lucrezia is found in a medallion in the coWtc-
tion of R. Heber, Esq. Lucrezia died at Ferrara in i:^:;.
(Roscoe, Bossi, and Mazzuchelli.)
John Duke of Gandia left a son who perpetuated tl:<»
famiW of Borgia. One of his descendants was canoniied i«
St. Francis de Borgia. Another Borgia was Viocroy f(
Peru, and died in 1658. Lastly, Cardinal Stefano Bor^na
(Prefect of Propaganda), a learned and amiable man, ^^bi
died in 1804, while accompanying Pius VU. on his joum.7
to Paris. The Museum Borgia at Velletri* rich in E^p-
tian and Mexican antiquities, belonged to tfiis cardir.iL
He has left several learned works, among others a //.•(•
iory 0/ Benevento, in 3 vols. 4to.; De Cruce Velitrr^i
Commentarii, Roma, 1780; Bassiriiievi in terra r^trj
dipinti in varij colori trovati nella eittd di VeV^tn.
Roma, 1785; Storia delta cittd di Tadino; De Cruet
Vaticana, &c.
BORGNE, LAKE. [Mississippi.]
BO'RGO, an Italian appellative, which occurs in t\*
name of several towns, as Borgo San Donnino, Borgo Tarr,
&c. Borgo is a word of Teutonic ori^, 'burg,' which t«
said to have been first adopted by the Romans on the Ger-
man frontiers of the empire to signify an assemblage fji
houses not enclosed by walls, Burgus or Bur6:um. It w.;*
afterwards applied to the fortified villages of the Germ ai
soldiers in the service of Rome. Vegetius (lib. 4, c 1 0) m.*
Burgus * Castellum Parvulum.* The Germanic nations, m
their invasions of Italy, introduced the appellation into that
country, where it was generally applied to the houses ar.<i
streets built outside of the gates of a walled town, corTr-
spondin^ to the Roman suburbia. The French faoxbnur;
had a similar meaning, being derived from fors burg or
foris burg, a ' burg outside of the town.' Several districts in
the Italian cities have retained their original name uf
Borgo, although they are now enclosed within the wallt.
The district of Rome which is between the bridge of S.n
Angelo and St. Peter^s church is called II Borgo. 80 th<*rv
are several districts at Florence caUed Borgo, as Borgo ^jh
Pinti, because they were originally outside of the city wa:':«.
There are however also towns standing by themselves which
have the name of Borgo, and were colonies boht by tre
citizens of some neighbouring town (such as Borgofbrle on
the Po, which was built by the citizens of Mantna in the
beginning of the thirteenth century), or they were originally
small assemblages of houses built near the castle of some
feudal lord, which have gradually beoome towns after the
castle has disappeared.
Boreo San Donnino, between Parma «nd Piac«oza,
forroeriy a feudal castle of the house of PsUaTidni, is now
a town of 5000 inhabitants, with some fine buildings asd
an old cathedral. It is the chief town of the ptofiuce of
the same name, and a bishop's see; has a seoondai^ sthcvH
or college with forty-five boarders, two elementary schools
for boys, and several manufactures.
Borgo Taro is a small town also in the duchy of Pknsa,
situated in the Apennines near the sources of the nt«
Taro. 30 m. S.W. of Parma, with about 2000 inhabitants, .a
secondary school with twenty-five boaiders, and two elr-
mentary schools. A mountain road, practicable onlr f^r
mules, leads from Borgo Taro over the Apennines Vv
the villaffe of Centocroci to Chiavari in the Riviera k4
Genoa. The* castle of Compiano near Borgo Taro w^
one of the state prisons of the Freneh empin ander Na
poleon«
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Borgo San Sepolcro, a toWu of tbe province of Arezzo in
Tuscany, in the valley of the upper Tiber, and close upon
the frontiers of the papal state. It originated in the
tenth century mth. two pilgrims, who having been to Pa-
lestine brought back a piece of the stone of tlie Holy Sc>
pulchre, and built a hermitage on this spot. The fame of
tboir sanctity attracted many people, and a number of houses
were built, to which the name of Borgo San Sepolcro was
given. The town was enclosed by walls, and, after long
retaining its municipal independence, submitted in the six*
teenth century to Cosmo I., grand duke of Tuscany. It is
a bishop's see, and has several churches, besides the
cathedral, with good paintings, and a seminary for clerical
students.
There are other towns in Italy called Borgo, such as
Borgo San Dalmaiio near Cuneo in Piedmont, 3000 inhabit-
ants ; Borgo Sesia in the province of Valsesia, with 2500;
Borgo Vercelli in the province of Novara, with 2000 ; Borgo
d'AIes in the province of Vercelli, with 2400 ; Borgomanero
in the province of Novara, with 6000.
Tiiere are also several places called Borghetto, ' small
Borco,* in the papal state.
BORGOGNO^NE, JA'COPO CORTE'SI. called from
his pluce of birth Borgognone, was born in 1621 in the city
of St. Hippolito, in Burgundy (Ital. Borgogna). His father,
Giovanni Cortesi, was a painter of sacr^ subjects, and very
successful in his way. Owing to an accidental temptation,
Jacopo went into the army for three years ; after which he
returned to his art, and studied at Bolosna, where Guide,
then at the height of his fame, was residing. Guido, hap*
pening to see a picture of his in a window, inquired into his
circumstances, and took him home with him ; which, during
the remaining six months that he stayed in Bologna, afibrded
him a fine opportunity of improving his colouring. Here
he occasionally saw Albano, from whom, among other things,
he learned this ma3um, * That a painter, before setting to
work upon any subject, should recal to mind something which
he had seen in reality i a saying which Jacopo kept con-
stantly in view. Baldinucci, having invited him to his house
many years after to see some of his own pictures, which he
had purchased, asked him in a burst of admiration, ' How
he had given his battles so much truth, with expression so
just, and accidents so various ?' — he replied, that all he had
painted he had really seen.
Borgognone subsequently realised a handsome independ-
ence, and visited his native country for three years, but re-
turned to Italy, and painted for a considerable time in
Florence with great reputation* In 1665 he conceived
himself under a call to renounce the vanities of the
world, and accordingly betook himself to Rome, where he
begged to be admitted into the order of Jesus, and was re-
ceived as a novice. His feelings were doubtless modified by
early assoeiation and the kindness he had met with from
rL'iigious orders. During his noviciate he painted, at the
suggestion of his fellow-monks, pictures of sacred subjects,
but could not keep entirely from such as suited his peculiar
sivle. In such esteem was he held by the 'community to
which he belonged, that the second year of noviciate was
dispensed with ; and he never gave his order reason to re-
pent of their confidence. His religious profession however
did not make him idle, and he worked as vigorously as ever.
He died of apoplexy, November 14th, 1676.
As he painted with great facility and rapidity, his pictures
are very numerous. His execution was in dashing strokes,
the colour laid on thick, and better suited therefore to a distant
than a close view, a manner which has been ascribed to his
living with Guido, and to his seeing the works of Paolo
Veronese when at Venice ; but partly ascribable perhaps
to his habit of sketching before he was thoroughly practised
in the art.
His pictures have excellencies corresponding to the pecu-
liarity of his style. ' If,* says one of his biographers, * they
do not convey sounds, they express with horror to the mind
the cries of the buffeting soldiers, the shrieks of the wounded,
the lamentations of the death-stricken, the thunders of the
bombarding, the bursting of mines,' and truly there is a
ireedom of design, a force and suddenness in the action, a
unity of composition, with a most natural variety in the ac-
cidents, whicn leem to show the gallery-visiter a real battle-
field.
Jacopo had a brother, Guglielmo Cortesi, also called
Borgognone, a painter of merit, who sometimes assisted his
hro^ in his pMntings» but he never attained the same emi*
Np.295.
[THE PENNY CYClOPiBDIA.]
nence. He was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona, but rather
modelled himself after the style of Carlo Maratta,
BORING. [Cannon, Gun, Mining, Aktesi an Wklls,
and other operations of which boring forms a part.]
BORKUM, an island about 14 m. in circumference,
situated in the North Sea about 18 m. from the coast of
East Friesland, and off the mouth of the Ems, is com-
prehended in the circle or bailiwick of Pensum, which
forms part of the Hanoverian province of Aurich. The
middle of the island lies so much below the level of the
sea, that the water at high tide flows through the island
and divides it into two parts. Borkum is a parish, with a
village and church, and about 500 inhabitants, who derive
their subsistence from husbandry, cultivating vegetables
and fruit, rearing cattle, fishing, and serving on board
of Dutch and Hamburg whalers. The light-house on
the island, which is built of stone and provided with pumps
and parabolic reflectors, is about 150 fL high, and serves
as a landmark both by day and night for ships navigating
these seas or making for the Ems ; it is in 53^ 35' N.
lat.. and 60'' 38' E. long.
BORLASE, WILLIAM, was bom at Pendeen, in the
parish of St Just in Cornwall, Feb. 2nd, 1695-6, where his
family had been settled (xom the reign of King William
Rufus. He was the second son of John Borlase, Esq. of
Pendeen : he was placed early at school at Penzance,
where his master used to say * he could learn, but did not;*
and was thence removed in 1709 to Plymouth under tl^
care of the Rev. Mr. Bedford, at that time a master of
eminence ; he was entered of Exeter College, Oxford, in
March 1712-13, where he tuok his bachelor's and master's
degrees. He was admitted into deacon's orders in 17J9,
and was ordained priest in 1720. In 1722 he was instituted
by Dr. Weston, bishop of Exeter^ to the rectory of Ludg\an
in Cornwall, on the presentation of Charles duke of Bolton ;
was married in 1724 to Anne, eldest surviving daughter and
coheir of the Rev. William Smith, rector of the parishes of
Camborn and Illuggan; and in 1732 presented by Lord
Chancellor King to the vicarage of St. Just, his native
parish, where his father had considerable property. This
vicarage and the rectory of Ludgvan were the only prefer-
ments he ever received.
At Ludgvan, a retired but delightful situation, Mr. Bor-
lase soon recommended himself as a clergyman, a gentle-
man, and a man of learning. His mind being of an in-
quisitive turn, he could not survev with indifference the
peculiar objects which surrounded him. The parish of
Ludgvan contained rich copper-works, abounding witli
mineral fossils, which Mr. Borlase collected from time to
time ; and his collection increasing by degrees, he was en-
couraged to study the natural history of ms native county.
While enffaged in this design he could not avoid being
struck wi£ the numerous monuments of remote antiquity
in several parts of Cornwall, which had till then been
nearly neglected. Enlarging his plan, he determined Xo
gain as accurate an acquaintance as possible with the reli-
gion and customs of the antient Britons, to which he was
encouraged by several gentlemen of his neighbourhood, who
were lovers of British autiquities, particularly by Sir John
St. Aubyn and the Rev. Edward Collins, vicar of Garth.
His friendship and correspondence also with Dr. Lyttelton,
then dean of Exeter, and afterwards bishop of CarUsle, and
with Dr. Milles, who succeeded Dr. Lyttelton both as dean
of Exeter and president of the Society of Antio uaries, were
a further stimulus to the prosecution of his stuaies.
In i 750, being at London, he was admitted a fellow of
the Royal Society, into which he had been chosen the year
before, after having communicated a paper on the nature and
properties of spar and sparry productions, particularly on the
spars or crystals found in the Cornish mines, printed in the
Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlvi. p. 250. His next
Memoir was an account of the great alterations which the
Islands of Scilly have undergone since the time of the
antients who mention them, as to their number, extent,
and position. PhiL Trans. voL xlviii. p. 55. Various other
communications firom him, some reUting to the antiquities,
some to the natural history of his native county, are in
volumes xlviii. p. 86 ; xUx. 378 ; 1. 51, 499 ; 11. 13 ; lii. 418,
507 ; liii. 27; liv. 59; Ivi. 35; Iviii. 89; lix. 47; Ix. 230;
Ixi. 195 ; Ixii. 365 ; between the years 1752 and 1771.
The Antiquities of Cornwall were published at Oxford in
February, 1753, under the title of * Observations on the
Antiquities, Historical and Monumental,
Digitized I
Vol. v.— 2 B
^Dservaiions on lao
BOR
186
BOB
C3orawaU»* foL OxferiL 1754. It paned tlmmg^li a leocmd
edition at London in 1769. It was at the request of Dr. Lyt-
telton that his memoir on the Scilly Islands was published
as a distinct treatise in an enlarged form, entitled ' Obser-
rations on the Antient and Present State of the Islands of
Scilly, and their iroportanoe to the Trade of Great Britain ;'
in a Letter to the Rev. Charles Lyttelton, LLD., dean of
Exeter, 4to. Oif. 1756.
Mr. Borlase printed at the Oxford nress his * Natural
History of Cornwall,' for which he had been many years
making collections ; it was published in Iblio in April, 1758.
He presented a variety of fossils and remains of antiquity,
which he had described in his works, to the Ashmolean
Museum, to which he continued to send every thing curious
that fell in his way. In 1766 the University o? Oxford
conferred upon him the degree of LL.D. by diploma.
Dr. Borlase continued to exert his usual diligence in his
pastoral duties and the study of the scriptures. He made
a paraphrase of the books of Job and the books of Solomon,
•and wrole some other pieces of a religious kind. He
occupied himself in superintending his parish, and particu-
larly the improvement of the high roaoii, which were more
numerous than in any parish in Cornwall. The belles-
lettres and painting also formed part of his amusements,
rhe correction and enlargement of his History of Cornwall
fi>r a second edition en^jaged some part of his time ; and
when this wus completed he minutely revised his * Natural
History.' His ' Private Thoughts concerning the Creation
and Deluge,* after being sent to the printer, were recalled
when a few pages were printed, chiefly owing to his severe
illness in Jan. 1771. From this time his health began to
decline. He died Aug. 31st, 1772, in his seventy-seventh
year.
Dr. Borlase corresponded with many of the most eminent
men of his time. Nichols, in his 'Literary Anecdotes of
the Eighteenth Century,' says that there is still extant a
large collection of Letters written to our author by Mr.
Pope, whom he furnished with the greatest part of the
materials for forming his grotto at Twickenham, consisting
of such curious fossils as the county of Cornwall abounds
with. Dr. Borlase's name in capitals composed of crystals
is still there. On this occasion a very handsome letter was
written to the doctor by Pope, in which he says, ' I am
much obliged to you for vour valuable collection of Cornish
diamonds. I have placed them where they may best repre-
sent yourself, in a shades but shining" (See Dr. Borlase's
Life of himself, printed with Additions, in Nichols's Lite-
rary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, vol. v. p. 291 —
303 ; Biogr, Brittann., Kippis's edition ; and Chalmers s
BioffT, Did. vol. vi. p. 119—122.)
BO'RMIO, a town in the prov. of Sondrio in the Lom-
bardo- Venetian kingdom, near the sources of the Adda,
and at the foot of the Rhetian Alps. The great Orteler-
Spitz, one of the highest summits of the Alps, rises near
Bormio. The new road over the Stilfer Joch, or Mount
Stelvio as the Italians call it, passes round the N. W. flank
of the Orteler. This fine road, which was begun by the
Austrian government in 1819 and finished in 1825, forms
the most direct communication between Milan and the Ty-
rol, leading from Bormio in the \'alley of the Adda to Glurens
m that of the upper Etseh (Adige), and from thence to
Innsbruck over the Brenner. The highest point of the road
on the Stilfer Joch is 9000 It. above the sea, and conse-
quently considerably higher than any of the other roads
over the Alps into Italy. The road is wide and the ascent
easy. It is well secured by parapets on the side of the pre-
cipice, and protected in many places by paravalanches, or
strongly built wooden galleries, with roofs and supports mas-
sive enough to resist and break the descending avalanches.
Stations of cantonieri are established at intervals to keep
the road in repair, and clear away the snow. The bridges
on this road are remarkable for their solidity, and the tun-
nels cut through the rock for their width and length. The
road cost about two millions of francs.
Bormio is a town of about 3000 inhabitants. It had been
in decay ever since 1 799, when it was partly burnt by the
French, but the opening of the new road has given it fresh
activity. The country around is not productive^ and the
climate is cold; but it has good pastures. Some barley
and rye and excellent honey are the principal productions.
Bormio has several churches : that of St. Antonio contains
tome good paintings by CaneUuo, a native of this place.
The mineral -water baths of San Martino near Bormio are
liroquented bj invalids from the Tyipl tnd tbe Valtdlo*, but
the acoommodations are bad. In the Valfurva, B. of Bor-
mio, is the chalybeate spring of Santa Caterin^t which u
also in great repute. There is a rich iron mine in the same
neighbourhood.
Bormio, called by the Genaans Wonns, was formerly the
head town of a bailiwick subject to the Grisons. from whoa
it was taken by Bonaparto in 1796, together with the neigb>
bouring Valtehna and Chiavenna* and annexed to I^m-
hardy. For the road of the Stilfer Joeb Me l^trobe's
Pedestrian Tour, and Meroey, L$ TVnrf et k ^'ord dt
VUalie, .
BORNEO is the largest island in the Indian Archi-
pelago, and the largest in the globe, if wo except the conti-
nent of Australia. It ooeupies the centre of the Indian
Archipelago, and is divided by the equator into two ntarij
equal parts, though the most southern poinU ^ape Salaum,
is only a little more than four degrees S. of the equator, and
the most northern, Cape Sampan mangio, extends a few \x*\*
nutes to the north of 7® N. lat Thp most eastern ex-
tremity, Cape Konneeoogan, reaches nearly 119' 3o' E.
long. ; and the most western shore, about one decree N. of
the equator, is in about 109^ 30' £. long.
The seas which enclose Borneo are portions of the Indias
Ocean, but 'being for the most part separated from uue
another by chains of islands and united by straits, particular
names have been given to these parts of the Indian »«•.
The sea between Java and the islands to the east of it, uo
one side, and Borneo on the other, is called the sea of J^va
or Sunda ; the latter name comes from the straits oi Sui.tii.
which divide Java from Sumatra, and afford the safe»t %iul
most frequented passage from the W, to China and SingsjKirt.
The Java sea is divided from the southern portion of t^e
China sea, which encloses the western and northern shufc*
of Borneo, by the islands of Banca and BilUton, and umieri t >
it by the straits of Banca and Biiliton and the Carimata V^ir
sage, which latter divides Borneo from Biiliton ialond. T L.-
China sea afibrds the safest passage to China, being in ^u
centre and along the shores of Cochin China comparative )
free from rocks and islands. To the east of Borneo exiMjd
the Mindoro sea, the sea of Sooloo or Celebes, and u.e
straits of Macassar. The Mindoro sea is separated Ouoi
the China sea by the large island of Palawan and itit
smaller islands of Calamianes and Busvagon; Busvagou u
separated from the island of Mindoro by the straits uf ^I :;•
doro. The sea of Celebes is separated from the sea of U.ih
doro by an extensive chain of smaller islands, called t;.^
Sooloo Islands. The straits of Macassar unite the m^ >if
Celebes with the Java seas, and divide Borneo from Celeutt.
The greatest length of Borneo, from Cape Sambar, th4
most S.W. point, to Cape Sampanmaogio at its mou N
extremity, is about 860 m. ; its greatest breadth in tl*e pa-
rallel of Cape Konneeoogan 6 BO m., and the surface of ibt
whole island is estimated by Walter Hamilton at ir.i, km
sq. m. But this is evidently somewhat below the mark fvr
if we con.%ider that the portion of the island whicl) lies iv t. c
S. of 2^"" N. lat. extends on an average 550 m. in length « la
a breadth of 450 m., it gives an area of nearly 250,000 tq. m.
To this must be added that portion which runs in the shiApt
of a peninsula to the N. E. from 2"" 30' N. laU to Cape 2»am-
panmangio. which with an average width of 1^0 m. h.i» a
length of upwards of 300, and consequently an area oi u^
wards of 36,000 m. The whole surface may thec^fikre I*.*
al)out 286*000 sq. m., or nearly twice the area of the Bnu»h
Islands, and one-half that area besides.
None of the large islands, except New Guinea, are k«A
known to Europeans than Borneo, though the Dutch h^^r
had an establishment on its S. coast for upwards of ha. i a
century. This circumstanoe is doubtless owing to its pvru*
liar figure, which is one mass of continuous land. witU wt
any considerable indentation. Our knowledge of this i<^U: !
is limited to the shores, a few harbours and mouths of t:;c
rivers, and to the country a short distance inland from ihem
The eastern shores south of Cape Kcinneeoogmo, the wti. a.
extent of the southern shores, and the western up to Ca^tf
Dattu, are low, and fur above thirty miles inland mar>ki.i
and alluvial, intersected here and tUere by small XxwtL
The coast which runs in a N.E. direction frum Capv Vbt-.u
to Cape Sampanmangio is seldom visited by Bura|feas
vessels, on account of the perilous navigation anion ;£ t:«
numerous i^lets and rocks which line it lo aootttid«ra'.)»*
distance from the shore. This fact leads us lo sup^3»c thxl
it is rocky ; which is eertaioly th$i oaat with the n^MiA
ROR
187
B O R
eatteni |mtdaul« from th# neighbourhood of Cape San-
panmangio as far as Cape Konneeoogan.
Tlie interior of the country is very little known. Till
lately it wui supposed that it was covered with extensive
ranges of mountains of eonsiderable heifrht, but this sup-
position has not been conOrmed by the Dutch expedition,
which was undertaken m 1823 from the western shores for
the purpose of getting possession of the gold and diamond
mines. The expedition, it is said, advanced about 3Qh
miles inland without meeting with such obstacles as moun-
tains would have opposed to their progress. But the north-
eastern portion of the island is known to contain mountains
nhich rise to a considerable elevation. The rivers are nu-
merous and of oonsideruble size at their outlets, but their
len£^th is not known, as none of their sources have been
visited. They are commonly navigated fifty miles and up-
wards from their mouths, but not farther, which may lead
U8 to conjecture that at this distance from the coast the
land has a considerable rise. The largest rivers seem to
be the Banjarmassin and Borneo on the southern coast,
the Ponliansk and the Sambas on the western ; another
Borneo on the north-western, and the Passir on the eastern.
It is probable that the island contains some considerable
lakes, and it is remarkable that here, as in the peninsula
without the Ganges, the natives assign dn extensive lake
as the common source of all the large rivers. Towards the
northern extremity, and at no great distance from Cape
Sam panmangio, is the lake of Keeneebaloo, which is said
to be 100 miles in circumference, with an average depth
from five to six fathoms. The Dutch, in their late ex
pcdition, came also to a large lake, called Danao Malayu,
which extends from twenty-five to thirt) miles in length,
^ith an average breadth of above twelve. But its situation
is not yet known with sufficient accuracy tx) be laid down on
the maps.
The climate Of this island, as far as it is known, is very
hot and moi:»t, owing to the extensive marshes along the
coast, and the wide-spreading fore^ which cover the hilly
country at the north- eastern extremity. It is particularly
destructive to Europeans. In the districts situated on the
western shores the wet season takes place during the south-
east monsoon, from April to September ; but on the north-
em shores, along the straits of Macassar, and in the Java
seas, it occurs with the north-eastern monsoon, from Sep-
tember to April. The average summer-heat is ^'aguely
estimated at 64" Fahrenheit
A countrv with a good soil and abundance of moisture,
situated under the equator, canst be extremely rich in vege-
.able productions.
Most, if not all, of the tribes inhabiting Borneo cultivate
the ground. Rice (oryta sativa\ being the chief article of
'ood over nearly the whole of the island except the eastern
»)ast, is principally cultivated. Where the land can be
flooded, two crops are generally got within the year. The
cultivation does not depend on the seasons, and therefore
rithin the compass of a few acres rice may be seen in every
state of progress. In one little field, or rather compart-
ment, the tiusbandman is nloughing or harrowing ; in a
second he is sowing ; in a tnird transplanting ; in a fourth
the giam is beginning to flower ; in a fifth it is yellow ; and
in the sixth the women, children, and old men are busy
reaping. It yields twenty-five to thirty-fold of the seed.
Maize (Zea Mms)t which yields a hondred-fold, is not much
ruUivated. Two kinds of pulse, Phcueolus Max and Pha-
ieUttt radiatus, are cultivated extensively. Of roots they
cultivate especially yams (Diogcorea alaia)^ of which they
grow many varieties, which are planted in the poorer dis-
tricts, sweet potatoes or batatas, the kantang {Ocymum 7\t-
beroswn), the mandioca ilatrooha manihot), and a species
of dioscorea (D. triphvlla), which they oall ^adang, and
which also grows wild in every part of the island. The
Arum escuientum^ Lin., is cultivated in the upland soils.
The culinarv plants most extensively cultivated are the
(ucurober and the chiU or capsicum. Both are used in
immense quantities, especially the latter, which is as uni
versally consumed by the natives as salt There is a great
consumption of oil as an article of food, and as the natives
have no substitute from the animal kingdom, they cultivate
many plants which produce oil. Such are especially the
coco-nut tree (eocoifiuci/era), the ground pistachio (Arachii
hffngf^a), the ricinus or palm a Christi, the sesamum, and
a tnee called by them k&nari, the kernel of which is as deli-
cate as a filbert and abowida in oU« The sago palm {Me-
iroaevhn St^o) is not cultivated in the southern and west
em districts, because its medullary matter, which serves as
bread, is less valued than rice ; but in several parts of the
eastern coast, where the soil is less favourable to the culti-
vation of rice, it is planted very extensively. According to
the calculation of Crawfurd, an English acre planted with
sago-trees yields above 8000 pounds of raw meal a year.
The areca palm is extensively planted, and its fruit eaten
both in its unripe and mature state ; in the latter it is a
great object of commerce. Another palm-tree cultivated here
is the sag wire or gomuti {Borastus flabelliformia)^ which
affords the principal supply of that saccharine liquor, which
is used as a beverage and for the extraction of bugar ; tho
interior of the fruit is used by the Chinese as a sweetmeat.
The betel pepper {Piper betel) is another article of agricul-
ture, and also the gambir {Nauclea Gambir), a climbing
plant, of which tho inspissated juice, also called gambir, is
Kimilar to the catechu, and is an article of extensive traffic.
Tobacco is raised everywhere in small quantities, for do-
mestic consumption only.
Of fruit-trees there are the banana (Musa Paradisiaca),
and the bread- tree {Artocarpus incisa). The banana grows
in the greatest perfection, and at least thirteen distinct
species are cultivated. The bread-fruit is common, but held
in very little estimation. There are two varieties, one with
seed and another without : the latter is the true bread-fruit,
and is culti\*ated in some districts; the former grows wild.
Fruits, more strictly so called, are found in Borneo in the
greatest variety, and some of the richest and finest on
the globe. The greater number are indigenous; but
several of the most delicate of other equatorial regions
have been introduced and are now naturalized. The man-
gustin is considered the most delicious of all fruits. It is a
peculiar production of the Indian islands and the Malay
peninsula, and all attempts to propagate it elsewhere have
proved unsuccessiUl. The natives give the preference to the
durian {Duno Ziheifnnus), another indigenous tree of these
islands, which will grow nowhere else. The fruit of one spe-
cies is larger than a man's head. Besides these, there are two
species of jack trees {Ariocarpus iniegrifoliaU the mango
(Mangifera Indica), some species of orange and lemon-trees,
which are partly indigenous and partly exotic; the pumple-
noos {Citruf decumana), which is indigenous ; the citron ;
the pine-apple, which though three times the sixe of those
raised in our hothouses, is not much esteemed by the na-
tives, nor by the resident 'Europeans ; the jambu {EugeniaU
which is indigenous, and found in a wild state ; tbe guava
iPsidium pomiferuM)^ the papaya {Carica papaya), the
custard-apple (Anona squamosa ei rsticulaia), the cashew
tree {Anacardium oecidentaie), the dukuh, next in esteem
to the mangustin and duri4n, the rambutan {Nephelium
iapp^aceum), the pomegranate {Punitn granatum), the ta-
marind {Tamarindus Indica), and some others.
The horticulture of Borneo comprises also the calabash,
the gourd, the pumpkin, the musk- melon, the water-melon,
and a variety of cucumbers, most of which are exotic, and
not distinguished either by size or flavour, except the
cucumbers. The attempts to introduce the fruits of tempe-
rate countries have, not been successful.
Cotton is extensively cultivated. Two species of it are
known, the shrub-cotton {Gossypium hsrbaceum), and the
tree-cotton (Gossypium arboreum): of the former there
are many varieties. Many plants which have a fibrous
bark afford materials for cordage. Such are the rami
(Ramium majus, Rumph.), a species of urtica or nettle^
which is cultivated and used for almost every purpose for
which we use hemp, but particularly for the mamifacture of
fishing-nets; ganja or hemp {cannabis saiiva), not era-
ployed in the manufacture of cordage, but used for its
juices as a narcotic ; the bagu (gnetum gnemon), the want
(Hibiscus tiiiaeeus), the cocoa-nut tree, the sagwiie, or
gomuti. The most useful however in domestic and rural
economy is the ratten (Calamus Roiang), which is con-
stantly used for cordage. There are a great many varieties*
from the size of a goose-quill to several inches in diameter.
One variety is cultivated on account of its fruit; but tha
others grow wild, and afford an abundant supply for domes-
tic use and exportetion. The bamboo is found evarywherei
both in the wild and cultivated state.
Among the forest-trees are two kinds of palm-trw«, tha
nibung (Caryota urens), and the nipah (Cocos nypa), of
which the former is the true cabbage-tree. The teak Is not
found in Boroeo» and tka common timbar'treeB are tha
Digitized by
fiBS
i'e
B O R
168
B O R
biUnger, a species of uvuria, the mtrboa (Metrondero$),
the pinaga, and the snrenw Other trees are used for cabinet
or fine work, bat most of them have not yet found a place
in our botanical catalogues. The forests of Borneo contain
many trees which yield gums or resins useful in the arts.
The most important of these products is dammar, a kind of
indurated pitch or turpentine, which exudes spontaneously
from the pine-trees of that name through the bark, and is
either found adhering to the trunk and branches in large
lumps, or in masses on the ground under the trees. It is
used for all purposes to which we apply pitch, but chiefly on
the bottoms of ships and vessels. It is exported in large
quantities to the continent of India, especially to Bengal
and China. In different districts vines or trailing planto
grow, the milky juices of which form, when inspissated, a
true caoutchouc.
Plants which yield dyeing materials are numerous. Indigo,
the most important and valuable, grows wild, and is also
cultivated. Next to it the safflower iCarihamtu tinctariui)
deserves notice, and then the arnotto (Bioca OrelUma), Tur-
meric {Curcuma length L.) is cultivated to a considerable
amount, but less used for dye than as an aromatic for sea-
soning food. Dyeing woods are the sappan, or Brazil wood
iCigsalpinia Sappan), but it is less esteemed than that of
Luconia or S&mbawa. The root of the mangkudu {Morinda)
IS extensively employed as a dye-stuff for giving a red colour.
The antiaris, or poison -tree {Upas), is also found in the
forests of Borneo, and its inner bark is used by the natives
for wearing apparel.
The sugar-cane is indigenous, and extensively cultivated
by the natives, and still more by the Chinese, who also distil
arrack from it. The pepper vines (Piper nigrum, Lin.)
are cultivated, but grow also in a wild sUte, and their pro-
duce forms a considerable article of exportation. There are
also some species of nutmeg-trees, but their produce is not
equal to that brought from the Banda islands. The culit-
lawan {Laurus culitlawan, Lin.) yields the clove-bark, which
name is derived from the resemblance of its taste and fra-
grance to that of the clove : this bark is exported to China.
The cayaputi (Melaleuca leucodendron), which in less warm
climates is only a shrub, here becomes a tree, and yields the
cajeput-oil; it is only found on the south-eastern coast.
The cinnamon is not found here, but the cassia-tree is com-
mon, especially in the northern districts. Ginger is widely
diffused, and in pretty general use among the natives, but
in quality it is inferior to that of Malabar or Bengal.
Among the most remarkable vegetable productions of
Borneo and the adjacent island of Sumatra is the camphor-
tree (Dryobalanopt camphora, Colebr.). It is found no
where in the world but in these two islands, and even here
not to the south of the line, nor beyond the third degree of
N. hit. It is a large forest-tree, used for building vessels,
and the camphor is exported, especially to China. The
price of this camphor, compared with that of Japan, is
m the ratio of 20 to 1. The frankincense or benzoin (Sty-
rax benzoin) is collected from a tree growing in the same
districts, though it is occasionally found to the S. of the line.
It is an object of cultivation, and the gum is obtained by
making incisions in the bark; the greatest part of the pro-
duce is exported to Mohammedan and Catholic countries.
The incense called aquila wood, eagle wood, or lignum
ak)es, is collected in some of the eastern districts.
The elephant inhabits only the north-eastern parts of
the island, especially the peninsula of Unsang, the most
eastern part of the globe where this animal is found; the
rhinoceros also is said to exist here. The royal tiger is not
known, but the leopard is common. Among the wild ani-
mals the buffalo attains here its greatest size and strength.
There are also deer and wUd hogs. The flesh of the bu&lo,
as well as of the two latter animals, is jerked, and exported
under the name otdendong to CUna. The variety of the
ape and monkey tribes is endless ; and among them is the
orang-outang, or the ' man of the woods/ as the name
implies.
Of domestic animals only homed cattle and hogs are nu-
merous. There are neiUier sheep nor asses, and horses seem
not to be common. The flesh of the ox is jerked, and with
the horns and hides sent to China, the latter alwavs in the
hair and not tanned. Conunon fowl and ducks abound in
most places.
Among the numerous birds the most remarkable is the
hirundo eeeulenta, whose nests are carried to China, and
fetch an enormous piioe. This bird however is only found
on the north-eastern extremity on the pentufiila of Uneng
and its neighbourhood.
Both sea and river flsh abound, partieulariy the former.
The waters which surround this and the neighbouring islandt
are so tranquil, and the numerous banks afford the fksh upon
them such abundance of fbod, that no part of the world has a
better supply of fine fish, especially where the shores are flat.
The edible flsh are here very numerous, among which the
pomfret, the calcap, and the sole are the most delicate. A
great variety of fish are dried in the sun, and form a consider-
able article of commerce ; fish in this state is an article of as
universal consumption among the Indian islanders as fl«»h
in cold countries. Some kinds of fish, especially shrimps, are
reduced to a state half pickled and half putrid, and form an
article of internal commerce under the name of blanch and.
But the tripang swala, or sea-slug (holotburion), is a rain-
able article of exportation to China. This animal is on I r
found among the rocks which line the north-western and
north-eastern coasts of Borneo, and extends hence eaitv jnl
to New Guinea, and southward to the north-eastern h\wu%
of Australia, where the sea is dotted with numerous corat
reefs. Besides Uie tripang, fish maws and shark's fins are
also exported to China, where they are considered grrat
delicacies. Tortoises are very abundant, especially oii
the northern and north-eastern coast. Those foond fartb<ff
west are smaller, and the shell is thinner and less valnab>.
Tortoise-shells are exported to China, whence many of th»»m
find their way to Europe, on account of their low pncr.
Pearls and mother-of-pearl oysters are fished along thr
north-eastern coast, but they are not so much esteemed a*
those of the Sooloo Islands.
The lac insect is found in the forests, but as its produce i»
inferior to that of Bengal and Birma it forms only an mam-
siderable article of trade. Bees abound here, as all o%er
Southern Asia, but only in a wild sUte. They make a
little honey, and great quantities of wax, which is expoctd
to China.
The mineral riches of Borneo are little known. Iron k
found in the southern part. Copper has of late been rf*^
covered, and worked in Sambas, on the western coast Sr. \ . r
seems only to occur united with gold ; but antimony is pit n-
tiful at Sadang and Sararwah; gold, however, and dn-
monds constitute perhaps the most important branch of the*
commercial riches of this island.
The inhabitants of Borneo are either aborigines or fo-
reign settlers. The former are dirided into a great nuroK •-
of tribes. The Dayacks occupy the western and so^itbcrn
districts, the Biajoos and Itaan the peninsula exiendmg to
the north-east, and the Tiroon live on the western coast, la
the interior are the Kayan, the Dusun, the Marut, the Ta-
taoeU, &c., but they are not farther known. It does not seetn
that any part of the interior is inhabited by tribes akin to tix
Australian aborigines. The foreign settlers are Malai*.
Javanese, Bugis, Macassars, Chinese, and a few Arabians.
All the inhabitants, witli the exception of the two lux
named, belong to one race, which is called the Malay ra^r .
Their persons are short, squat, and robust The mediom
height may be reckoned for the men about fi\Q feet two
inches, and for the women four feet eleven inches, which is
about four inches less than the average stature of Euro-
peans. Their lower limbs are large and heavy, and their
arms rather fleshy than muscular. The face is of a round
form, the mouth wide, the ohin somewhat square, the cheek-
bones are prominent, and the cheek oonsequendy rather
hollow ; the nose is short and small, never prominenu but
never flat; the eyes are small, and always black ; the com-
plexion is generally brown, but varies a httle in the differrnc
tribes, the Dayacks inhabiting the interior of the uland
being fairer than those of the coast ; the hair is lontr, lank,
harsh, and always black. The languages of the dilTetvnt
aboriginal tribes differ widely from one another, and th«n
have no literature, though some of the foreign settlers* a>
the Javanese and Bugis, have cultivated their languages
and have many books written in them.
The aboriginal tribes have not attained a high deeree «^f
dvilixation. Agriculture however seems generally diffu«<<i
among them, as well as the most necessary arts of Ufi*.
They eultivata chiefly rice, and collect gold-dust and d«a-
monds. They trade also in rattans, dammar, and other ptv-
ducts of their forests. Their dress consists only of a snaU
wrapper round their loins. Their houses are wooden build-
ings, often large enough to contain upwards of lUO persociu
In the oonstiuctioQ of their boats an^^me of thair uieoak
5le
Digitized by VjOOQIC
B O R
^89
BOR
they display oonndenAle mgenuity. Tbcae tribeSt though
otherwise mild and simple, are cannibala, or at least some
of them are. They kill their prisoners, and eat their flesh.
Among other tribes the skulls of enemies are piled as tro^
phies round their habitations, and in some a youth is not
entitled to a wife until he has produced the head of a man*
Seme devour the heart of an enemy when they have killed
bim. Some who live on the ooast have embraeed the
Mohammedan religion, but the greater part are idolaters.
Polygamy is in general use among those who are able to
maintain many wives and large families. One part of the
Biajoos inhabits the north-westem coast, but another leads
a maritime life, and may be considered as sea-gipsies, or
itinerant fishermen. They live in small covered boats, and
shift to leeward from island to island with the variations
of the monsoons. Their fishinff-boats, in which they live
with their whole families, are about five tons burthen, and
their principal occupation is the catching of the sea-slugs,
for which they frequently dive in seven or eight fathoms
water.
The number of the Chinese settlers is considerable. In
every pnrt of the island some families are found near the
mouths and ou the banks of the rivers. They follow the
occupations of merchants, mechanics, and labourers ; ctd-
ttvate the ground, distil arack, make sugar, search for gold*
dnst, and trade to the interior as well as on the coast. They
are not rich, being too fond of good living, and addicted to
^^nibling, opium, and mcrry-makinff.
The Bugis, jrho come from the island of Celebes, are re-
markable among the nations of Southern Asia for theur in-
dustry and activity. They chiefly apply themselves to trade,
to manufactures of Bugis cloth, and the working of raw.
silk into cloth. Many of them are possessed of property
amounting to above 100,000 dollars. They ara generally
piM>r when they come from Bugisland, but they are ex-
tremely economical and even penurious in their manner of
living. The daily expenses of a Bugisman's family, how-
ever great his property may be, does not amount to above
three or four toangs; when the meanest Chinese labourer
will contrive to spend a rupee, and a wang is only the
twelfth part of a rupee. These Bugis are very active sea-
men, and visit all the islands and countries round Borneo.
Their small vessels, or proas, generally cost from 150 to 300
dollars ; and the whole outfit, as far as respects sails, cord-
age, provisions, stores, &c., for one of their voyages seldom
exceeds the sum of forty or fifty dollars, while the value of
the cargo is generally from 20*000 to 40,000 dollars. The
crew receive no wages, but only a share of the adventure,
according to certain regulations. Many of these proas are
lost at sea ; but few are taken by pirates, as the men defend
themselves desperately and never surrender. More than a
hundred come annually to the harbour of Singapore.
The Malays are the most numerous of the foreign settlers.
They occupy nearly the whole coast, only a few tracts along
it being still in possession of the Dayacks. Though rather
indolent they are not deficient in military spirit, and have
formed a great number of small states, and subjected the
aborigines. But these petty sovereigns are not absolute,
their power being limited by a state-council and a nobility.
The only European nation that has hitherto permanently
uttled on this island is the Dutch, who have got possession
of about one third of the coast, and extended their dominion
far inland an some places, so that the rich gold and diamond
mines are in their possession. All the Dutch establish-
ments are on the southern and western coast, and they
govern the territories of the sovereigns of Banjurmassin,
Succadana, Pontianak, Mampava, Sambas, and Matan, and
of some others farther inland. This great tract of country
is governed by three residences, established at Banjar-
massin, Pontianak, and Sambas, with two subordinate resi-
dences at Mampava and Landak.
In the territories possessed by the Dutch there are two
places of considerable trade, Banjarmosstn and Pontianak.
Gold is found at six different places, at Ombak, Sanga,
Lsrak, Bai^ar-lant, Sambas, Pontianak, and Montradak,
but especially at the two latter places. The metal is found
in idluvial deposits, which are channelled by the beds of
numerous rivers, and the situation of the gold is generally
very superficiid, not usually above five or six feet from the
surface. Forty feet is the oommon width for the stratum
which contains it. The ore is in general very rich, con-
taining in a hundred parts, rarely more than fourteen,
and tequenUy only three parte of drosAr but a
quantity of silver is always combined with it. According
to the calculation of Crawftud the annual produce of the
mines of Borneo is 88.362 ounces : Eschwege, in his * Pluto
Brasiliensis,' states that of the mines of Brazil as not ex-
ceeding 8000 marks, or 64,000 ounces.
The diamonds are found in the territories of the princes
ofBaigarmassin and Pontianak. The principal mines are
at a place called Landak, whence the diamonds of Borneo
are called Landak diamonds. These precious stones are
not found here, as in Brazil, in the rivers, but they are dug by
means of perpendicular and lateral shafts. The mines are
only wrought by the Dayacks, but those of gold are mostly
worked by the Chinese. The Bugis resident merchants are
the great dealers in diamonds. In this island there is one of
the largest diamonds in the world ; it is either in the hands
of the Prince of Matan, or in the possession of the Prince of
Pontianak. It weighs 367 carats, and its real value, oc-
eording to Crawfurd, is 269,378/. which is 34,822/. less than
that of the Russian diamond, and 119,773/. lOf. more than
that of the Pitt diamond.
To the north-east of the territories of the princes depend-
ant on the Dutch, and along the north-western coast, ex-
tends the kingdom of Borneo Proper. It is not well known
at what point on the coast its south-western boundary lies,
but towards the north-east it extends to the mouth of the
river Kimanis, which is traversed by the 11th parallel. It
oonsequently contains a sea-coast of between 600 or 700
miles, and is said to extend from 100 to 150 miles towards
the interior of the island. But no part of Borneo is less
known : the approach to the coast is very dangerous for ves-
sels of considerable burden, and it is rarely visited by Eu-
ropeans. Still the intercourse between Borneo Proper and
Singapore is greater than with any other part of the island,
but it is entirely carried on by Bugis merchants and Bugis
navigators. The capital is Borneo. From Sadang, towards
its western frontier, great quantities of antimony are brought
to Singapore. The mountain which contains the antimony
is about one day's journey from the coast. The sultan, as
well OS a considerable portion of the population, ore
Malays.
The north-eastern part of the island is under the sultan
of tlie Sooloo Islands : it extends from the river Kimanis
on the north-western ooast as far as Cape Konneeoogan,
which forms the northern entrance of the Straits of Ma-
cassar. This part also is rarely visited and little known.
The inhabitants, the Tiroons, are notorious pirates, like the
Sooloo islanders, and they cruize especially in the seas of
Mindoro and Celebes, and among the Philippines. Their
country produces immense quantities of sago, which is sold
to the Chinese, who seem to have the whole commerce of
this coast in their hands. There is no important trading
place on this coast At the Island of Balambangan, oppo-
site Cape Sampanmangia, the English had formerly a set-
tlement, but it was soon abandoned.
The coast extending from Cape Konneeoogan to Cape
Salatam seems to be divided among a great number of petty
sovereigns, and here the aboriginal tribes are still in pos-
session of the sea-shores. Its commerce however is chiefly
carried on by the Bugis, who have settled on different places
along the coast, but especially at Passir, a town of some
note, which is sometimes visited by European vessels.
The commercial intercourse of Borneo with China is
much more extensive than with Europe, which is partly
to be attributed to the great number of the Chinese who
have settled on the island, and still more to the citcum-
stance of many of its productions being either entirely unfit
for European markets, or too high-priced. To the first
class belong the edible swallow- nests, the sea-slugs, and
the aquila woods ; to the second the camphor. The Chinese
porto with which this commerce is most active are Canton,
Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghae. It is remarkable, that the
Chinese junks, though unarmed, pass unmolested through
these seas, where European vessels are in continual danger
of being attacked by the numerous pirates.
Among the European nations, the Dutch, who exercise
authority over one-third of the coast, carry on a most active
commerce, exporting pepper, gold, and other products. But
the commercial intercourse with Singapore is far from
being inconsiderable, as upwards of forty vessels annually
go there from the kingdom of Borneo Proper.
(Dr. Leyden's Detcription qf Borneo in the Aeiatie
Journ.; Crawfurd's Hutory of the Indian Archipelago i
Asiatic Journal ; Stavorinus's Foyagee). ^ t
Digitized by VnOOQlC
B OR
190
BOB
BORNEO, the capital of the kinsdom of Borneo Pkoper,
or Brunei, is situated on the north-western coast of the
Island of Borneo, 4°S6^N. let and 114''44'E. long., on
the banks of a river, about ten miles from the sea. The
mouth of the river is narrow, with a bar in fVont of it, on
which there are scarcely 17 feet jof water at high tides.
Farther t p the river has a considerable depth, on an average
six fathoms, and here the shipping lies, particularly the
Chinese junks, which are moored nead and stem. The
town, which is on low ground on both sides of the river,
contains a considerable number of houses, built on posts
four or five feet high, which, at the rise of the tides, allow
U\e water freely to pass under them. The streets are formed
by canals, either natural or artificial, which facilitate com-
munication, and they are always covered with boats* which
are managed by women with great dexterity.
Borneo is a place of oonsioerable trade. Its commerce
was principally limited to its intercourse with China, the
Philippines, and the Sooloo Islands, the countries on the
peninsula of Malacca not being much frequented by the
Borneo navigators. But since (he foundation of Sing^ore,
the Bugis merchants of Borneo often visit that port The
exports are rice, black pepper, camphor, cinnamon, bees' -
wax, sea-slugs, turtle-shell, pearls, and mother-of-pearl,
with tea, wrought and raw silk, and nankeen, the three
last articles being imported from China. At Singapore they
take in exchange cottons and woollens, opium, iron, arms,
and ammunition. This port is rarely visited by European
vessels, but many Chinese junks come fi-om Amoy and
Ningpo. The Chinese find it advantajreous to build their
junks here, for though the island has no teak, it produces
other kinds of good ship-timber, among which is the
camphor-tree. (Dr. Leyden's description of Borneo in the
Asiatic Joumcd,)
BORN HEM, a town and commune in the province of
Antwerp, about 12 m. W. from Mechlin, and 10 m. S.W.
of Antwerp, The commune \a bounded on the N. and the
W. by the Scheldt, which separates it from East Flanders.
The town contains 594 houses and 4043 inhabitants, among
whom, in 1829, occurred 121 births, 104 deaths, and 27
marriages. Bornhem supports a communal school, in which
203 boys and 103 girls were taught in 1833.
The principal trade of the place is in corn, flax, and linen
cloth, considerable quantities of which are made there. In
cutting a sluice, in 1781, a great number of Roman bronse
medals were found, thirty feet below the kurface, and seven
or eight feet below the level of the Scheldt. These medals
were of the emperors Commodus and Caracalla.
The river Rupel having, in February, 1825, forced down
the dyke of the polder of Eykenbroek, a great part of the
commune of Bornhem was overflowed, so that nearly all the
inhabitants were obliged to abandon their houses, and were
unable to return to them for two months. {Diet, Geog, de
la Prov, d'Anvers, par Van der Maelen.)
BORNHOLM, an island and bailiwick attached to the
Danish province of Seeland, is situated in the Baltic,
90 m. B. of the island of Seeland, about 40 m. E. by S.
of Ystad on the coast of Sweden, and about 60 from the
N.B. shores of the Prussian island of Riigen. It is about
32 m. in length from N. to S., and varies from 9 to 12 in
breadth, except at the N. extremity; inclusive of three
islets, it contains an area of about 216 sq. m. Born-
holm presents features the very reverse of those which
characterise the other Danish islands, for it is not only
a complete rock, but mountainous in the interior, parti-
cularly towards the N. ; and it is so walled in by pre-
cipitous cliffs and dangerous reefs that, at certain seasons
of the year, the approach to it is extremely hazardous.
The whole channel between the island and the coast
of Pomerania is dangerous to vessels that draw much
water, arising mainly from the shifting sand-bank called
the • Dueoddc' or Pigeon's Point. A high range which
stretches across Bornholm from N. to S., called the • Almin-
dingen, contains the ' Rytterknecht,' or Knight's fol-
lower, the most elevated point in the island, about 500 ft.
in height The Almindingen does not form a continuous
elevation, but is intersected by fertile valleys lined with
underwoods of oak. There is also a spacious moor, 'the
Lyntfinark, in the interior, on which nothing will ^row
but low juniper and other wild shrubs, with some coarse
grass : the inlia .iiati!s l.owever use it as common pasture
ground. Th(t lernainder of the islund lias a stony soil, por-
tialiv intennmif lud with Iracu of deep loaiii« and on three I
spots with drifting tand. Bornholm is watered by A num
her of rivulets, possesses some excellent springs, and has
several sheets of water. Every spot is dihgently cultivated.
The climate is colder but drier than that of the adjacent
islands, and it is accounted very healthy. The agricultural
produce of the island is principally oats, rye, barley, pease,
and some small quantities of flax, hemp, hops, and potatoes.
The cattle are small but of good quality, and the wool i» of
a finer and better description than that from the neighbour-
ing islands ; the stock in hand is estimated at 9000 horses,
20,000 oxen and cows* and 25,000 sheep. Bees are every
where reared; poultry, particularly ducks and geese, u
abundant, and marine fowl are plentiful, but game is
scanty. The coast abounds with fish, mostlv salmon, had-
docks, and small-sized herrings. Bornholm is nch m
mineral productions; coal is partially raised for domestic
use; quarries of sandstone and mUlstonea are worked;
and there is also marble, slate, and potter's-earth.
The inhabitants of Bornholm, about 20,000 in numbet
(in 1801 18,902), are wholly of Danish extraction; they art
a remarkably industrious race, quick in temperament* en-
ternrising, and sober, and make good sailora, tJiough roui^
ana somewhat perverse. They speak a peculiar djaiect
of the Danish mixed with German words ; and are expert
in the manufacture of woollens, pottery, and clocks and
watches, the last mentioned being made in the Iowqi.
General comfort prevails throughout Bornholm ; the
farmers are the owners of the lands they cultivate. It it
the custom of the island for the lands to descend to \\w
youngest son, but, on the failure of male issue, the eldett
daughter, not tho youngest, inherits them. Among othcfr
privileges which tho Bornholmers enjoy are those of p^.-
ing only half the taxes imposed on their fellow subjects
and providing for the defence of the island out of tuvxr
own resources. The military force, which is confined to
natives, and cannot be removed out of the island, is ooon-
posed of two companies of artillery, four squadrons of
dragoons, four companies of regular infantry, a compaDj
of riflemen, and eleven companies of civie and proviac»^
militia.
Bornholm is divided into four districts or *hardes,' th«
northern, western, southpra, and eastern, and oontaii.t
twenty- one parishes, five towns, two hamlets, and 948 fann-.ri*
establishments ; the last stand wholly isdated, nor are there
any regular villages throughout the island. Though tnefv
is but one public school, most of the inhabitanU are able lu
read and write.
In very remote ages Bornholm belonged to Denmark, bm
in the sixteenth century it was made over to the citiim
of Liibeck for fifty years. In 1646 it was captored by tbc
Swedes, who retained possession of it by the subsequmt
treaty of Roeskild; in 1668 however the inhabitants rx««
against their new masters, under the conduct of J«&<
Korfoed, and having declared their island an heir-loom < f
the crown of Denmark, it has ever since maintained ii%
allegiance to it.
The chief town of Bornholm hes on a high flat eai tbe
W. coast, and is called Ronne, Ronnedy, or Rottum. It u
an open place, irregularly built, and has a singular ap-
pearance in consequence of the walls of the houses beir.r
whitewashed, and the woodwork being smeared with tmr.
The castle, now reduced to an old tower, is all that is Kfi
of the fortifications raised in the times of Christian \. : they
have been superseded by batteries of modern eonstructi-.n.
There are a large market-place in the town, a cburch,
grammar-school, town hall, arsenal, and hoepitaU feveni^
streets, nearly 600 houses, and about 2800 inbtbitAnta, vb?
SUOHlsl Uy liLiiiLi. 114 t:i'>iiu IiIlIkiui^ t;iorK« WLJi^-l »*lir Jrt'- -:
pottery-uacLV und upon Ihu prutluei? of ibeif iibtflttk iWir
trade wiUi ttie LiiterEi>r and fartii|ra piirii« m^
tion. The liiirbiiur ):* utnaH. and vanes in
9 ft. the (h^t mentioned being the _ __
but it atl'ithU & ^ale ar^charai^ against HiMtl
the seat I if govornmvnt, and the rsiidMa
bailiff" or Aifirnrnftn, and of the mditafV
66° 6' ^. Jut., und 14^ 40' E. im^^ 1% fiVl
portanre ih Ni?v>*!, on tht S.f
elevated im.i^^ nf rockst \h
sted, a chufili, <'lhnf
house. The pofi. m ..
quarrius of ijiiii.! "
vernmciJt, T^
iehor» wliich is i^» ^^k ^^v
Digitized by ^
firtti
BOR
191
BOR
i hiodBome black nuble chnreh, the finest in Bomholm,
A hospital and public store, and about 460 inhabitants:
Hasle, on the W. coast, with nn indifferent harbour ana
about 500 inhab. Svanike, on the eastern coast, lying in a
small bight which forms an insignificant harbour with bad
iQchorage, has a church, hospital, charity-school, and ^tore-
house, and about 670 inhab. ; and Sandvig, on the N.E.
point of the island, a town which does not contain more than
SO bouses, and about 200 inhab. Maltgvam is said to con-
tain 1400 pNop, The three small islands or rocks of Christ ian-
soe, Fredericks-holm, and Grasholmen, are about 17 m. B. of
the N. point of Bomholm, and belong to the larger island.
Christiansue and Fredericks-holm are inhabited ai)d forti-
fied, and on Christiansoe theit. *B a lighthouse. The fisheries
and the taking of sea-fowl are very productive. The pop.,
including the gainson, is about 500.
BORNOU, a kingdom situated nearly in the centre of
North Africa, between the ] 0th and 15th parallels of N. lat..
and |h)m 12'' to 18° E. long. It borders on the N. op the
eastern portion of the great desert of Sahara, and partly also
on the kingdom of Kanem, which extends on the N. banks
of the lake Tchad. This lake forms its £. boundary to the
mouth of the Shary, and hence it runs along the course of
this rifer, probably up to the place where it issues from the
mountains of Mandara. The latter kingdom, which com-
prehends the northern declivity of an extensive range of
primitive mountains, extends to the S. of Bomou, and on
the W. lies the Felatah kingdom of Howssa.
The whole country presents nearly a perfect level, with a
few very gentle ascents and descents. The level is so little
above the neighbouring lake of Tchad, that in the rainy
season great tracts of land along its bt^iks are inundated,
when both the inhabitants of the villages and the woods
are compelled to retreat farther to the west. But even the
remainder of the country is partially subject to inundations,
the alow rivers and rivulets which intersect the country
being unable to carry off the immense supply of vaster during
the rainy season; and thus extensive tracts which skirt
their banks on both sides are covered with water, and re-
main inundated generally for three months.
It does not appear that Bomou extends to the lower ranges
ef the Mandara Mountains, though these mountains are
visible in the southern districts of the kingdom. The rivers
are numerous, but have generally a short course, falling
either into the Tchad, or into one of the two principal hvers,
the Shary and the Yeou. The Shary has its source in the
Mandtira Mountains, and seems to form tlie boundary be-
tween Bornou and Begharmi, nearly the whole length of its
course in tbe plains. Towards its niouth it divides into
many braucbc^, and forms numerous islands ; those which
lie Clearest to the mouths of these branches are complete
swamps, and unfit for agriculture even during the dry
season. The Yeou river rise^ in the more hilly country
of Howi%sa, near IQ^B. long., where it is called Shoohum,
and alter having traversed in the first half of its course a
country niostly covered with low rocky hills, it runs for
tbe remainder of its course, which in general is in an
eastern direction, through the extensive plain of Bomou
to the Tchad. This lake covers many thousand square
miles, and contains many inhabited islands. It extends
from N.W. to S.E. about 200 m., but it has not yet been
ascertained how far it extends to the N.E. It abounds
m fish.
The heat in Bornou is very great, but not uniform. The
hottest season is fropi March to May, when there is no rain,
and tbe thermometer sometimes tines to 105^ and 107^ at
two o'clock in the ^teraoon. The prevaiUng winds of this
season are from S. and S.E., and they are suffocating and
scorching. In night the thermometer sometimes falls to
86" and 88^ This hot season is followed by violent thunder,
lightning, »nd rain towards the middle of May, when the
inhabitants prepare the ground for their com. At the
end of June the inundations of the rivers and lakes begin.
The rains are then nearly continual, and the weather cloudy,
damp, and sultry. The winds are hot and violent at the
same time* and blow commonly from the £• and S. In
Octotier the rains become less frequent, the air is milder
and more fresh, and the weather serene ; breeses blow from
the N. We, with a clearer atmosphere. Towards the end pf
December and in the beginning of January it begins to be
cold, and in these months Bornou is colder than might be
expected fom its latitude. The thermometer never rises
above 74'' or 75^ and in the morning it descends to 58° and
60^. The prevailing winds in this season blow from the
N. & N.W.
The only implement of agriculture is an ill shaped hoe,
made from the iron found in the Mandara Mountains. All
the labours of the field devolve almost entirely on women.
The most valuable products are maize, cotton, and indigo,
of which the two last grow wild close to the Tchad and in the
overflowed grounds. The indigo is of a superior quality, and
the dark-blue colour of their tobes, or large shirts (the only
dress the people wear), is probably not excelled in any part
of the world. The senna nlant is also found wild. Rit-e is
not much cultivated, and wnat is raised is of inferior quality;
considerable quantities are imported from Soudan. Very
little wh<2at is grown, and barley is not abundant. The grain
most used as food for men and animals is a species of millet
called gitssub, which is raised in great quantities, and pre-
pared as food in different ways. The seed of a grass called
kasheiaf which grows wild in swampy places, is made into
flour, or eaten like rice, when boiled. Bomou is almost
entirely destitute of fruit-trees. Mangoes are only found
in the southern districts near Mandara, and date-trees only
to the N. of Woodie, four days N. of Kouka, and even there
they are sickly, and produce an indifferent fruit
The wealth of the inhabitants principally consists of
slaves and domestic animals, especially bullocks and horses.
Black cattle are most numerous. Thc'Shouaas on the banks
of the Tchad have probably more than 20,000 heads, and
those on the river Shary not less. They breed also many
horses, and send to Soudan annually from 2000 to 3000,
where they fetch a good price, the horses of that country
being very inferior. The other domestic animals are dogs,
sheep, and goats. The common fowl is small but well fla-
voured, and reared in immense numbers. Bees and locusts
are numerous; the latter are eaten by the natives with
avidity, both roisted and boiled, and formed into balls as a
paste. The beasts of burden are the bullock and the ass.
There is a very fine breed of asses in the Mandara valleys.
Camels are only used by foreigners or persons of rnnk.
The lion, the panther, a species of ti«jer-rat, the leopard,
the hymna, the jackal, the civet cat, the fox, and several
species of monkeys, black, grey, and brown, are found in
Bornou. The elephant is so numerous near the Tchad that
herds of from fifty to two hundred are sometimes seen ; they
are hunted for the ivory as well as for tlieir flesh. Other
wild animals whose flesh is eaten arc the buffalo, the croco-
dile, and the hippopotamus. The flesh of the crocodile is
extremely fine, U * has a green firm fat, resembling the
turtle ; and the calipee has the colour, firmness, and flavour
of the fii>e§t veal,* (Denham.) The giraffe is found in the
woods and marshy grounds near the Tchad \ there are also
antelopes, gazelles, bares, and an animal of the size of a red
deer, witli annulated horns, called koorigum.
Partridges are abundant and large, but the grouse are of
a small kind. Besides these birds many others abound, as
wild ducks, geese, snipes, and ostriches, which latter are as
much killed for their tiesh as their feathers. In the marshy
|px)unds are great numbers of pelicans, spoon-bills, and
Balearic cranes, with a variety of other large birds of the
crane species. Guinea-fowl abound in the woods.
Reptiles, especially scorpions, centipedes, large toads, and
serpents of several kinds, arc very common. A snake of
the Congo kind measures sometimes from fourteen to sixteen
feet in length, but is said to be harmless.
Iron is found in the Mandara Mountains, and imported
into Bornou, but in no great quantity. The best comes
from Soudan, mostly worked up into good pots and kettles.
The inhabitants speak ten different languages, or rather
dfalects of the same language. The Shouaas inhabiting
the borders of the lake Tchad are Beduins, and have pre-
served the. Arabic, which they speak nearly pure. They are
the best troops of Bomou, and it is said that this country
can muster 1 5,000 Shouaas. The aborigines of Bomou, who
call themselves Kanowry, have large unmeaning faces, with
flat Negro noses and mouths of great dimensions, with good
teeth and large foreheads. Their dress consists of one, two^
or tliree tobes, aecording to the means of the bearer. Per-
sons of rank wear a cap of dark-blue, but common people
eo bare-headed, and take care to keep the head constantly
fiie from hair. They are Mohammedans, and very strict
about the external rites of prajing and bathing. They are
leas tolerant than the Ara^s. They tattoo their bodies like
the other negro nations of these latitudes.
The principal towns or cities are thirteenTalnong which
Digitized by Vri^
B O R
ie2
BO R
the moat important arc Kouka< Angomou, (he residence of
the sheikh, and Birnie, the residence of the sultan.
The government is an absolute monarchy ; but the sul-
tan has lost all his authority, having heen formerly com-
pelled by the Felataha to abdicate the throne. When these
enemies were vanquished by the sheikh, he replaced the
aiitient royal family on the throne, but keiit all tlie power
himself. H'm soldiers are well disciplinea and armed, and
he can if necessary collect an army of 20,000 men.
The commerce of this country is not great. But as a
great portion of Soudan has no commercial intercourse with
any part of the world except by the road traversing Bornou,
and proceeding hence through Bilma and Mourzuk to Tri-
poli, a considerable barter takes place in this country be-
tween tho merchants of Soudan and the Moors of Northern
Africa. The Moors bring different sorts of cotton and silk,
a few woollen cloths, and various utensils of metal : they
receive in exchange only slaves, though the country could
offer ostrich skins, elephants' teeth, and raw hides. The
retail commerco is carried on by means of a peculiar kind of
coin. Strips of cotton, about three inches wide and a yard
in length, are called gubbuck, and used as small coin;
three, four, or five of these, according to their texture, go to
a rottala, and ten rottala are equal to a dollar. (Denhani.) .
BORODl'NO. a village*in the Russian province of Mos-
cow, is situated on the Kolotsha. within a short distance
from the banks of the Moskwa, alnmt 70 m. W. of the city
of Moscow. The desperate battle between the French and
Russian armies, which was fought here on the 5th Septem-
ber, 1812, preceded the sanguinary conflict at Moshaisk,
which took place two days afterwards, and opened the
gates of the antient metropolis of Russia to the French.
In 65"* 25' N, lat., and 35° 40^ E. long.
BOROVSK, the capital of a circle of the same name in
the Russian province of Kaluga, lies on the Prorva, 891
Tcrsts (about 594 m.) S.E. of St Petersburg, and about
50 m. N.E. of Kaluga. It is an old town, contains
3 stone and 7 wooden churches, 2 asylums for the indi*
gent, several public buildings, about 730 houses, of which
not more than 6 are of stone, 1 23 stores, or rather sub-
stantial booths of wood, and a pop. of about 6000, to which
number they have increased since 1783, when they
amounted to 5176. A variety of manufkctures are
carried on in the town; and among them 5 of sail-
cloth, some of which employ from 200 to 250 weavers
and more, 5 works for melting down tallow, and 4 tan-
neries. Borovsk carries on a brisk trade with the interior
and the ports of Russia, in the various products of the adja-
cent country, sail-cloth, hemp, flax, leather, tallow, &&,
and has a large annual fair. The environs raise large
quantities of vegetables and fruit, particularly garlic and
onions, of which there is a considerable export for the Pe-
tersburg market. It was formerly an apanage of the post-
humous sons of the princes of the reigning families at
Moscow, and is celebrated in the Russian annals for the
Sillant defence made against the forces of the second * false
imitry* by Prince Michael Volkousky, in 1010. Being
expelled from every part of the town by his assailants,
he carried on the brave but fruitless contest in the con-
vent of St. Paphnutius, about 2 m. out of the place, and
ultimately fell, covered with wounds, near the nave of the
chapel. There is an iron-mine in the neighbourhood, which
is now closed. It lies in 55'' 14' N. lat., and 36° 10' E.
lon«?., according to Hassel.
BORON. Minerals containing boron or any of its com-
pounds as an essential component part are comparatively
few in number, and only found in a few spots ; it may be
therefore considered as one of the least predominating of
the elements. It is the basis of sassoline, or native boracic
acid ; borax, or borate of soda ; boracite, or borate of mag-
nesia; datholite, or borate and silicate of lime ; and botryolite.
It also enters as boracic acid into the composition of
axinite and tourmahne, but only in small quantit}', most
analyses giving between two and three per cent, of the acid
in the former, and between four and five per cent, in the
latter mineral.
The presence of boron in any mineral may be readily
detected with the blow-pipe, owing to tho beautiful green
tint communicated to tho flame by the boracic acid. The
facility with which tho tint .is obtained depends on the ele-
ment with which the boracic acid is combined; in every
instance however it may be detected by the following pro-
cess :— let a flux, composed of 4^ parta of bisulpHate of
potash and one of flne«y-powdered fluorspar, be well mixtl
with about an equal quantity of the assay, which must t}.**n
be formed into a paste by the addition of a little moisture. .\
small quantity of this being taken up on the extremity of
a platinum wire must first be dried and then exposed to a
high temi)erature until it is fhsed, being held within liut
near the extremity of the blue flame. When the mass is
fused it appears for a few momenta enveloped in a pum
green flame, which soon disappeara, and cannot be atf^^M
nroduced. The theory of the changes is this :— the flu tr;* *-
ttf the flux being set free by the excess of sulphuric ar-1
unites with the boron of the assay, forming the fluobi>ni'>><
acid, which at tho moment of its volatilization eommunt-
cates the green tint to the flame. This process is howoi^
only necessary for the detection of the boracic acid in
axinite and tourmaline, as the flame is permanently colour* t
by sassolino, boracite, datholite, and botryolite, and t^'*
same eflcct is produced by moistening the glass of borrMt
with sulphuric acid and again fusing it.
The native boracic acid is found as a deposit in ser^^r^l
of the lagunca of Tuscany, and in considerable abundant*
from the hot springs near Sassoin the same country, whon*^
it has been called sassoline. It occurs in the form of xh:n
scaly particles, or crystalline grains either loose or ajf^r*-
jjatcd in the form of a crust. These cr}'?talline grains a^'
hydratcd boracic acid, tho constitution of which may U
expressed by the formula —
l+6b
as given by Bcrzclius, 100 parts of sassoline being corap - I
of boracic acid, 56*37, water. 43*C3 ; their specific gra\it) %
1'48. The lustre is pearly, and the colour is gre>i»a /r
yellowish white : they are slightly translucent.
It loses its water of crystallization and fuses at a very 1 *
temperature, forming a glassy globule, which is a non-r«'. -
ductor of electricity, and becomes resinously elertrir ;»
friction. It has also been found more recently by Dr. II \-
land to be a deposit of the solfatara within the crater ■'
Volcano, one of the Lipari Isles, being an exhalation of t.»'
fumaroled, around the edges of which it forms thin fix*
ment or cakes on the surface of the sulphur.
Boi*ax, or borate of soda, is principally employed (is stat<-l
under Boracic Acid) in the arts as a flux in several ni. -
tallurgical processes, and is very advantageously usel ;u
the process of soldering metals. To the chemist it i^ a:,
invaluable re-agent in experimenting with the blow-pipe.
Borax is soluble in twelve times iU weight of cold 2*.l
twice its weight of boiling water, from which it ma} b*
readily obtained in very perfect crystals of the oblique pr s-
matic system. The more usual form of these is repr«M>u!t^i
in the accompanying figure, where the faces r are the \c r-
tical prism, the angles of which arc, according to tL*
measurements of Phillips, 86" 30' and 93^30', the •Co**'
edge of which is truncated by M, the obtuser by T, nl i-
P is the inclined terminal plane, and makes with BI a.i
angle of 106° 30' ; O are the faces of a hemi-octL>hcd:v...
The following arc the measurements given by Phillips
86^30'
101° SO'
ron r
Ponr
M on r
Pen M
PonO
OonO
1 33*20'
106^30'
139«> 15'
153° 34'
It is very common to find the edges between O atf^ '
truncated. The specific gravity varies from 1*5 to IT : ♦
hardness from '2 to 2*5. When coloured it is of m Ij.i
yellowish- green : the fracture is conchoidal and of a re* -
nous lustre.
Ita chemical composition is expressed by Berselins h\ tbt
formula N a B + 10 H, correspondm^ to the anal.
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BO R
193
B OR
Boracio acid • • . 36*52
Soda .... 16*37
Water . . . . 47M1
Boneite is in many respects one of the most interesting
bodies of the inorganic kingdom. It was first described by
Lasiua in 1787 under the name of cubic quartz, and was
found in the Gyps rocks near Luneburg in Brunswick,
where it occurs in small crystals, which are perfectly deve-
loped on every side and imbedded in the gyps. The crystals
usually present a combination of the cube, dodecahedron,
and the two hemi-octohedrons, in which combinations some-
times the one sometimes the other form predominates. The
locality was for some time the only spot where boracite was
found, until they were discovered in a gyps rock called
Segeberg in Holstein, at the foot of which is situated a
small village of the same name. The boracite of this spot
possess the same characters as those of Luneburg, and add
considerable interest to the very peculiar rock in which they
are found, which is itself a very remarkable object fiom its
abrupt elevation over the sandy plain of Holstein. It is
described in the ' Geognostitschen Aufsabzen* of Steffens,
who considers it to be of the same formation as the Gyps of
the Paris basin.
Boracite has been analysed by Stromeyer, who found it
composed of boracic acid 67, magnesia 33.
Berzelius expresses its atomic constitution by the formula
M g» Bo
but this differs from the proportions of the analyses, which
it must also be stated vary considerably from each other.
The specific gravity is 2*9; it is transparent, but also
frequently opaque; the hardness is 6*5 to 7; it is brittle
and has a conchoidal fracture ; its lustre is vitreous, in-
clining to adamantine.
The colour is usually a yellowish or greenish grey ; it
fuses easily before the blowpipe, at first with much foam,
and then forms a glass globule, which crystallizeti on cool-
ing, so that the sunace is covered with fine acicular points.
Wnen just so much soda is added as will form with it a
clear glass, it will then crystallize as perfectly as the phos-
phate of lead.
The most remarkable properties of boracite are its opti-
cal and electrical characters. Though belonging to the
regular system of crystallography, it nevertheless, accord-
mg to the experiments of Brewster, refracts light doubly
and in a similar manner to crystals of the rhombohedron
system, the axis of refraction being coincident with an axis
joining the opposite angles of the ^cube. These (bur axes
were also found by Hauy to possess the remarkable pro-
perty of beooming electric when the crystal was heated, the
vitreous eleetrieity being accumulated on one extremity of
each axis and the resinous on the other.
BORON, an elementary body, and one of the consti-
tuents of boracic acid, oxygen being the other. This sub-
stance was first obtained by Davy in 1807, and he procured
it by e^osing slightly moistened boracic acid to the action of
a Voltaic battery, placed between two sur&oes of platinum ; a
dark coloured substance separated on tho negative plate, to
which he gave first the name of boradunh supposing it
would be found to be metallic ; but having afterwards ascer-
tained it to be more analogous to carbon than to any other sub-
stance, he called it boron. In this way however little boron
was obtained, and its properties were imperfectly examined
till 1808, when Gay liuasae and Thenard procured it in
larger quantity by heating boracic acid with potassium in a
copper tube ; by this metal the oxygen was separated from
the boron, potash was formed, and boron developed ; and
the residue of the operation being washed first with water,
and then with dilute muriatic acid, the boron remains. Ac-
cording to Berzehus, boron is more economically obtained
by deoomposing an alkaline fluoborate by potassium; for
this purpose liquid fluoric acid is to be saturafed with boracic
acid, and into this solution one of fluoride of potassium is to
be ^adnally dropped until no fhrther precipitate is formed :
the salt obtainea is to be well washed, and dried at nearly
a red heat : then mix it well with an equal weight of po-
tassium, and stir the mixture with an iron rod, and heat the
tube till it is nearly red hot, and the residual mass will be
found to consist of boron mixed with fluoride of potassium ;
the fluoride is dissolved by water and the boron left. If
liowever it be washed with pure water a quantity of it is
dissolved, and therefore towards the end of the washing it
No. 296.
is better to employ a weak aolntion of muriate of ammonia
and lastly only aloohoL
Boron is a powder of a deep brown colour with a shade o«
green, and when it has been heated in vacuo or iu gases
which contain no oxygen, it is insoluble in water ; and is
not dissolved bv alcohol, cether, or oils, whether hot or cold.
It is devoid of smell and taste. It is not altered by ex-
posure to the air or to oxygen gas at the usual tempera-
tures ; but when heated to about 600° it absorbs oxygen, and
buming with considerable brilliancy it is converted into bo-
racio acid ; a portion however of the boron is so envcdoped
by the add formed, that it is impossible to bum the whole
of a given quantity of boron at one operetion.
The density of boron when recedtly prepared is 1*1 83,
but when it has been exposed to a strong heat in close
vessels its density is increased to 1*844, and it suffers no
other change, being neither fused nor volatilized. It is a
non-conductor of electricity ; the alkalis and acids produce
no effect upon it, except the nitric which it decomposes, and
is by acquiring oxygen converted into boracic acid.
Boron combines with various elementary bodies, forming
with the metals compounds which are termed borurets.
Hydrogen and Boron, It appears that, under peculiar
ciroumstances, hydrogen is capable of dissolving a small
portion of boron ; but no definite compound to which the
term of boruret of hydrogen could be applied is known.
Oxygen and Boron unite, and only in one proportion ; the
compound is described under Boracic Acid.
Boron and Sulphur form sulphuret of boron. [Sul-
PilUR.]
Boron and Fluorine combined. [Fluoboric Acid.]
Boron and metals. (See the various metals.)
BOROUGHS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. The
teim borough^ in famihar language, seems to have been, in
latter times, rather vaguely used. The long agitation of the
great question of parliamentary reform, and the absorbing
interest of the recent struggle to obtain that great constitu-
tional amelioration, made this term synonymous, in the
popular apprehension, with a town eending one or more
repreeentcdivei to the Commone' House. But the still more
recent discussions on the bill for the reform of municipal
corporations have turned the public attention to that cha-
racteristic of a borough in which its existence originally
and essentially resides — its organiaation for local govern-
ment forming the natural and necessary basis of its politi-
cal character and efficiency.
The vital importance to the welfare and security of a
civilized society, of the general estabhshment of a wisely-
regulated municipal organisation, is becoming daily more
and more understood ; and the part of Uiis subject which is
of primary importance is manifestly that which relates to
the local government of considerable towns. To enable tlie
reader distinctly to appreciate tho general change now
operating in the town-constitutions of England and Wales,
it is indispensable that we should first take a full though
oompendious view>f their general history and previous state.
The word borough is itself a monument, older than all
written records, of the state of society in which, in these
islands, the institution originated. The Anglo-Saxon byrig,
bvrg^ burhf ^. (fcur the word is written in a great variety
of ways), like the German imrg of the present day, was the
generic term for anv place, large or small, fbrtifled by walls
or mounds. The fortifications of the continental Saxons,
before their inroads on the Roman empire, it is well known,
were mere earth-works : in their half-nomadic state, they
had neither means nor motive fiv constructing any other.
But their conquest and coloniiation of Uie greater part of
Roman Britain put them in possession of a more folid and
artificial class of fortifications, of which, when the first fury
of their devastating violence against everything Roman had
exhausted itself, thej must in some degree have appreciated
the utility. The new ciroumstances ui which the Saxons
found themselves — in possession of regularly-cultivated
fields, of town^ of ports—must of necessity have led to a
change in the jimu of their civil institutions, though the
fact of their constituting the great minority of the popuktion
in the districts in which thejr settled, enabled them to keep
inviolate the republican sfnrit of those institutions embo-
died in the practice of election.
The municipal organisation of the Anglo-Saxons was
not confined to their towns; it pervaded the whole ter-
ritory; the modem distinction between personal and po-
litical fieedom was unknown; the right to/rweapon for
Digitized by V:jOOQ[C
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.] Vol. V.-2 0 ^
BO R
1»4
BO R
bis penonal defence and a vote in the affain of his town or
district were regarded as inalienably attached to every free-
man. This leading principle of the Anglo-Saxon polity,
directly descended from those continental Germans whose
free spirit Tacitus has so clearly and forcibly exhibited,
must be borne in mind, in order to estimate the relative
position of the Anglo-Saxon boroughs. They were not, like
the boroughs of modem times, isolated municipalities in the
midst of large tracts of country subject, in matters of local
judicature and taxation, to magistrates directly nominated
by the central authority of the state ; they were only partH
of one great municipal system, extending over the whole
territory. The principal boroughs existing at the period of
the Norman conquest were the towns still girt by the walls
and towers erected under the Roman regime. The state of
the age, the prevalence of warfare both on the large and the
petty scale, the constant liability to foreign incursion, made
walls and trenches necessary to the security not only of
trading towns, but of isolated mansions ; and byrig, byrg, or
borough as it is now written, was still the generic term for
all. But the boroughs by distinction, the boroughs in poli*
tical estimation, were those towns (apparently all the consi-
derable ones) which had each, under the name usually of
burgh-reve or port-revet an elective municipal officer exer-
cising functions analogous to those of the elective-re ve of
the shire or Mre-reve.
The deluge of the Norman invasion, and the immediate
interest which the conquerors had in effacing, as far as in
their power, all traces of the political system which they were
subverting, have rendered it difficult to trace the precise mode
in which the local legislatures, the borough and the shire
assemblies, operated on the composition or the acts of the
general legislature ; but of the local organization enough is
isooverable to show most clearly that it had never been
moulded by a central authority, but, on the contrary, that
the central authority had been, as it were, built up on the
broad basis of a free municipal organization. The Anglo-
Saxon kingdom, in shott, made up of the various free states
of the heptarchy, was, in its constitutional spirit and maxims
(which in no country depend exclusively on the state of its
general civilization), much more like a federative republic
under a president for life, than Uke any monarchy of
modem Europe.
For a clear exposition of the necessarily republican basis
of all the 4»ublic institutions of the Anglo-Saxons, up to
their kingship itself, — which, though now becoming generally
understood, it is necessary to insist upon again and again,
in opposition to the mis-statements on the subject, which
are even yet being propagated, — we would refer to Mr.
Allen*s learned and sap:acious • Inquiry into the Rise and
Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England,* 8vo., 1830.
• The undiscriminating use, by our historians, of the words
king and ktngdomt as if bearing precisely the same import
after the Norman conauest as before it, has contributed not
a little to the confused apprehension of the matter which
has generally prevailed. The very etymology of the Saxon
compounds cyn-ing and q/ne-dom (according to modem
orthography fttn-irig and kin-dom) denotes an elective
national head. The cyne or kin of the Saxons was synony-
mous with nation or people; and cyn-ing or kin ing (by
contraction, king) implied, as Mr. Allen well remarks, that
the individual so designated, was, in his public capacity,
not, as some modern sovereigns have been willing to be
entitled, the /a/A^r of the people, but their o^vpnif of. In
the iniroduction and use of the modern word kingdom, we
trace a still more remarkaUle perversion. The Anjjlo-Saxon
cyne-dom or kindom denoted the extent of territory occu-
pied and possessed by the kin or nation — an import diame-
trically differing from that of kwgdom, which, in the decline
of the Norman tongue as the language of the government
implanted by the conquest, was suUsiitutcd for the Norman
royaulme (in modern Knglish, realm) — as the word king !
itself, with as little regard to its etymological derivation, w as I
substituted for the Norman roy. Thus it is manifest that
the difference of meaning between kin-dnm and king-dom is !
aa wide as that between the principle which recognized the i
nation at large as the orit:;inal proprietor of the soil, and that '
which vests such abs*)lute proprietorship exclusively in the I
crown — ^a distinction which it is most important to perceive '
and to bear in mind.
It is not possible to form any just conception of the politi- '
cal history of the Bnglish municipal towns, without first
poMeuing a more correct notion than it to be gathered from )
the greater nart of oar modem hiitoritnt, ^ the real
character of toe great revolution effected in England by a
foreign conqueror towards the close of the elevenui centurr.
Want of diligence or of candour has betrayed them into
giving always a faint and oflen a false representation of that
transaction. A sagacious and eloquent continental wnttr
(Thierry) has lately, indeed, thrown a strong and true \\\ihx
on its real nature; but for the seneral English reader ti:c
history of that great revolution nas yet to m written. N*-
thing can be more fallacious than the idea that it was nothi x.g
more, or little more, than a change of dynasty, resnUirg
from a mere personal contest between two pretenders to &n
hereditary crown. The kingship of the Anglo-Saxons vt .- 1
not hereditary ; nor had they any such thing as an herv^i
tary office, municipal or political, legislative, executive, or
judicial. It is the want of carefully distinguishing in tht it
own minds the constitutional maxims respecting EngL-h
royalty established at the present day from those held i.x\ 1
acted upon by our Anglo-Saxon ancestors, that has mi{»^ d
so many writers in treating of the latter neriod. It has n^
cently betrayed both Mr. Turner and Mr. Palgrav«, mm h
praise as may be due to them for their industrious cootntu*
tions towards illustrating that lon^-neglected period of i>ur
constitutional history, into an obliquity of political view i:;
treating of the latter portion of it, which calls for serious
remark. The successor in the Anglo- Saxon kingship, or
executive office of the state, was constantly selectet! (c
approved by the national council ; and. as I^rd Lytlelt ".
has candidly acknowledged in his introduction to the * Li:c-
of Henry II,* not only did Harold possess the only rifbt L)
the crown which the English nation then recognised. Imi
the nation itself had clearly made the wisest selection it
could, in choosing as the guardian of its independence m.
that age, the ablest and most generous-spirited stmtc%mji>
and warrior that it then possessed. No unprejudiced mirii.
indeed, can draw any other inference from a carofUl exacK-
nation of the contemporary documents and testimonies, \^\\\
of English and of continental writers, than this. — that Han ^
fully and admirably represented the free, bold spirit of th?
Anglo-Saxon people, prompt to strive, * to tha last of tb«xr
blood and their breath,' against spiritual or temporal a{rirn>«-
sion upon their national independence; while in WiUwu.
was finely personified the combination of subtletr with U . c-
city, the passion for military enterprise, and the ptunen€»«
to confederate with the great spiritual despotism of the a^,
which so remarkably characterized the leading Normaot.
then but a few descents removed from the piratical settler*
on the southern shores of the Channel. As regards t:.r
relation between the invaded and the invaders durii::
the actual struggle, we may sum it up in the words of
Sir James Mackintosh (Iiist, qf England, I. lOS) : — * 1:
was a slow, not a sudden conquest. Tlie suceessi\ie o. n
tests ill which the conqueror was engaged ought not t .
be regarded as on his part measures to quell rebelli. u
They were a series of wars, levied by a fereigo prin«* •
against unconquered and unbending portioDs of the S«^ i
people. Their resistance was not a flame casually light* ..
up by the oppression of rulers: it was the defensive wuri^r.
of a nation, who took up arms to preserve, not to rvco> t r,
their independence. There are few examples of a pco'.^•
who have suffered more for national dignity and leg it in. ^t
freedom.' They suffered much, indeed, not only in the i;:^ i:
conflict of Hastings, but throughout the land^ For in»cifcr r< ,
* the country from the Humber northwards,* as Sir Jame» ..^
serves, ' was ravaged with such ferocity, as to he desenbetl ' »
the friends as well as the enemies of William in terms oftn-
diffnation. which show that it far exceeded the (»nlinary nii^-
deeds of conouerors, in an age when the mildest warfarv va%
atrocious.* \ et their sufferings during the struggle wcr« in -
vial in amount, compared with the protracted torture, mor...
as well as physical, which they endured under the i^m ^
established on their final subjugation. It had been a tn-
oessary condition of William's making this great atten.r«:
nt all. that he should hold out the lands, the gouds« and t( ^'
bodies of the Kn;:lish, as a pr^ to his Norman lbllawer>, m%
well as to the mere mercenaries whom he banded logv^uti :
frum every quarter of we»tern Europe. The ftilfllment . .
this pVomise was necessary, both to keep his fellov-adTrr.>
turers 'rue tu his service, and to keep possession, for bim»-':
and his de>cenf}unts. of his violent acquisition. The authen
tic record of I>imesday. compiled by his own authority, com-
bines with the unanimous testimonyof both the Non&an
and Saxon writers of the period, V>M[^ how complcca
d OB
199
BOB
wastheexpropristioa of the Anglo-Saxon possessors, and
the introduction of the ibreign military tenants. Indepen-
dent of the nersonally despotic character of William, his
position, as tne commander of a conquering army, which hfe
himself had brought together to prosecute an enterprise
«hich he had inditidually planned and determined on, ne-
eessarilv made him the supreme arhiter in the division of
the spoU. Reserving in his owtx immediate possession * the
lion s share,* that is to say, all the larger cities and boroughs,
and about fifteen hundred manors, he distributed the re-
mainder of the lands and towns among about seven hun-
dred tenanta-ln-chief, that is, possessors on the feudal con-
dition of military service rendered immediately to himself.
In making this distribution, regard was no doubt paid to
the military rank and amount of service of the Norman
claimant, aS also to his length of possession previotisly to
the digesting of the ^reat register of the conquest ; hut it
was from the individual will of the conqueror, as now re-
corded, that the claim of each proprietor thenceforward
derived its sanction ; and from this period must be dated
the legal maxim in England, that all landed property is
derived originally from royal grant. The greater tenants-
in-chief, in like manner, retaining portions for their imme-
diate use, subdivided their domains amon^ the higher grade
of their military followers, and these again among the rank
beneath them ; so that the whole territory was parcelled out,
on this regular system of military organization, into about
sixty thousand knights* fees, as they were called; each
knight*s fee being a portion estimated sufficient to furnish,
when requisite, a man and horse completely armed for war-
like expedition.
But every title to property, by inheritance or otherwise,
derived from a date anterior to the Norman invasion, was
now declared null and void. Very few Anglo-Saxon names
were admitted on the list of William's immediate or second-
ary feudatories ; and thus, against the great body of Anglo-
Saxon freeholders in the country and in the towns, the doom
of final expropriation was pronounced. With the loss of all
property In the soil, the conquered people, ibrming the vast
majority of William's subjects in England, fell into civil and
political nullitv. The Domesday. book itself shows us, that
the very guildhalls of their municipal towns were given
away, like everything else, in the division of the spoil. The
highest condition of the English In the rural districts was
now that of the humble nirmer and the rustic artisan,
whom their Norman masters called mliains; and in the
municipal towns, the townsman, or resident householder,
—according to the Normans, the burgess, — ^no longer a
freeholder, was nlftced on precisely the same social level
as the villain — tnat of men not Indeed personally enslaved,
like the serft or bondmen, but wholly excluded from political
rights, and therefore subject, according to the feudal max-
ims of the Nofmans, besides the rent of their individual
holdings, Und hesides the rigorous payment of the rents and
services due hy the old English custom, in the nature of
contributions to the general exigencies of the stote, to
arbitrary taxation by the crown, in the shape of occasional
levies, called by the Normans taillages or tallages.
Under the Anglo-Saxon government, the revenue of the
king, or rather of the state, nad been collected in each shire
hf the shire-reve, and in each municipal town bjr the
bomagh-reve or port-reve. But in the one case, as in the
other, this officer was the elective head of the municipality ;
for the shire itself was no other than a certain extent of
territory manidpally organised. But now. instead of the
elective Saxon reve, there was placed over each shire a
Norman vucount, and over eacn municipal town a bailiff,
both appointed by the Norman king. How intolerable such
a yoke as this must have been to the members of each once
ijree community It is easy to conceive ; when, in lieu of a
local executive and magisterial officer of their own choice,
not only their countryman, but their fellow-toi*nsthan, they
were placed under a petty agent of foreign extortion, alien
to them in race, in language, and in feeling, regardless
of their interests, and insolent hy virtue of his imme-
^te delegation from the conqueror or the conqueror's
hrir. When, also, we take into account the practice con-
stantly resorted to by the first Norman kings, of farm-
ing these bailiwicks to the highest bidder, we may
woll cease to be amazed at the sickening pictures exhibitecl
to us by the contemporary chroniclers of cruel and reck-
\ts> extortion perpetrated upon the unfortunate townsmen of
England in tho8» reigns. The vitalxty of commercial indua*
try, however, in all its grades and varieties, is graat, or it mntt
have sunk under a regime like this, following upon the
seizure of their mbst valuable moveablea in the general
spoliation during the actual conquest. After the first shock
of its establishment, the burgesses seem soon to have rallied
their energies for the recovery of their municipal fi-eedono. It
woUld have been tain for them to appeal to the mercy of a
Norman king, but they found means of appealin|^ to his
cupidity. He discovered that their eager desire to nd them-
selves of the great scourge and curse of their community,
the royal hainS*, urged tnem to offer him a higher sum to
be collected from and hy themselves, and transmitted dii-
rectly to his exchequer, than he could farm their town Ibr
to an individual ; and that their dread of the return of such
a scourge would keep them punctual in their payments ;—
that, in short, he could make no better hargain than to farm
their town to themselves instead of a bailiff'; — and hence
the frequent chatters which we soon find issuing to one
borough after another, granting it to th^ burgesses in fee^
farm, that is, in permanent possession so long as they should
punctually pay the stipulated crown- rent.
The interference of a royal provost in their Internal con-
cerns being thus withdrawn, the towns returned naturally
to their former free municipal organization. They had once
more a chief administrator of their own choice ; though in
few cases was he allowed to resume either of the old designa^-
tions, borough-retie and port-reve. In all cases he now
acted as baulff of the Norman king; accounted at the
exchequer for the farm or crown-rent of the borough : in
most, he received the Norman appellation of mayor, which,
denoting in that language a municipal chief officer, was less
odious to the Saxon townsmen than that of bailiff; though
in some, he received and kept the title of bailiff only.
Still, so long as the burgher communities remained wholly
excluded from poHllcal existence, and their newly-recovered
municipal freedom depended on the personal good faith of
the monarch, who to them was an absolute despot, it was
subject to frequent infringement on the part of the con-
queror's successors, according Us thoy were prompted either
by caprice or by the pecuniary necessities attendant on the
contests in which they became involved with powerful parties
of that military aristocracy, between Whom and themselves
all political power Was shared. Hence the frequent for-
feitures of this species of charters at this period ; and in
many instances, the repeated re-granting, on payment of a
fine, of the same liberties to the same town. London itself,
thoug[h by reason of its primary importance, it was, fi'om
political expediency, the most favoured of all the Enclish
municipalities, yet was not exempt from extortion by tncse
arbitrary stretches of power. Hence the active part which,
with other large towns, it took with the barons in procuring
and enforcing that solemn settlement of the limits of the
roval prerogative, which was embodied in • the Great Charter,*
wherein it is distinctly expressed, that all cities, boroughs,
and ports*, shall have • their liberties and free customs,* —
the established formula which denoted the restoration, h^
charter, of their old municipal freedom.
The formation of this instrument, however, in which tho
leading portion of the burgess population concurred, marks
one stage in the progress of Anglo-Norman society from
that dismal period when a broad and impassable line of dis-
tinction separated, throughout the land, the conquered from
the conquerors, the Saxon from the Norman. In a century
and more which had elapsed since the Anglo-Saxon peoplo
had finally sunk into prostration and despair, the sullen
hatred on the one hand and the fierce contempt on the
other, had of necessity much abated ; and this progress had
been accelerated by the violent dissensions between the
crown and the bai^nage, and the necessity in which the
latter found themselves of courting the aid, both personal
and pecuniary, of the municipal communities, then strug-
gling into fenewed freedom and activity, ftgainst the fresh
bands of military foreigners whom their kings were con-
stantly bringing itl to coerce them, and to whom they were
constantly threatening to transfer their seigniories. Thus
was the first tendency to political co-opetation established
between the landed proprietary deriving from the conquest,
and the trading population aspiring to regain a recognized
political existence ; and this tendency we shall find rapidly
increasing.
* TlwM two dIstiiietioM, iiinoQg tlu muBlcipal town naestUy, oleStUi
and cuupt4-porth tho formtr mcrelj npmUiaL tbo latter impIyiDg aclttal p«ea
natif Si pmi]*ges, were introdHBed by tlie JtonuAi. ^^^
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Long after the first tignine of the great charter, however,
the Iflvying of tallage upon ue burgesaei, as upon the vil-
l»n9, was Btill claimed as an inherent right of the Anglo-
Norman crown, and was of itself an abundant souroe of vex-
atious oppression. To show the galling nature of this ex-
action, we may instance the Jevy made by Henry II., on
pretext of a crusade, in 1087, one of the last years of his
reign :-'He had a list made out of the richest citisens and
burgesses of all the municipal towns, and had them indivi-
dually summoned to appear before him at an appointed time
and place. The honour of being admitted into the presence of
the Conqueror's great grandson was in this manner granted
to two hundred citizens of London, one hundred of York,
and to a proportionate number in the other cities and bo-
roughs. The letters of convocation admitted, neither of ex-
cuse nor of delay. Tlie burgesses thus summoned were
received a certain number at a time,' at several different
days and places ; and as each band presented themselves,
it was noUfled to them, from the Norman sovereign, through
an interpreter, what sum he required from them. * And
thus/ says a contemporary historian (Roger de Hoveden,
Annalei), ' did the king take from them a tenlh of their
properties, according to the estimate of good men and true,
that knew what income they had,, as likewise what goods
and chattels. Such as he found refractory he sent forthwith
to prison, and kept them there until they had payed the
uttermost farthing. In like manner did he to the Jews
within his realm, which brought him incalculable sums.*
This assimilation of the great mass of Anglo-Saxon bur-
gesses to the Jews gives us the exact measure of their poli-
tical condition at the commencement of the second century
of the regime of the conquest.
To the sagacity of Simon de Montfort, the great earl or
rather count of Leicester, who led the national resistance to
the tyranny of the weak and treacherous Henry III., the first
general summoning of representative citizens and burgesses
to parliament seems to be attributable, for it was in the year
1265, while Henrv was a captive in De Montfort's power,
after the battle of Lewes, that, in calling a parliament, he
ibsued the earliest writs requiring each sheriiF of a county to
return, toother with two knights for the shire under his
jurisdiction, two citizens for each city and two burgesses for
each borough within its limits. Although the defeat and
destruction of De Montfort, shortly after, by the exertions
of Prince Edward, appears to have prevented this plan of
representation of the commons from taking immediate effect,
yet it was permanently adopted by Bdwaid himself, at least
from the twenty-third year of his reign, as an amelioration
which, under the existing internal eiieumstanoes of the
countr>\ sound policy dictated.
It is plain, however, that in this little was immediately oon-
teipplated by Edward beyond the (koilitating of the extraor-
dinary supplies of mone^, indispensable for the fnosecntion
of those schemes of national aggrandizement which so ac-
tively and steadily occupied his vigorous reign. The barba-
rous contempt with which a military aristocraoy, so recently
sprung from a desolating and expropriating conquest, re-
garded the great agent of civilization, commerce, though
its harshness was abating in proportion as the broad dis-
tinction between Norman and Saxon was disappearing in
the fusion of blood and language which produced the Anglo-
Norman stage of society in England, still subsistea in
almost its original fi)roe. A curious illustration of this ap-
pears in a statute of the middle of the preceding reign,
which enacts that feudal ' lords, who marry those they have
in ward to villains or others, as burgetses, whereby they are
disparaged, shall lose wardship, and the profit shall be con-
verted to the use of the heir for the shame done to him.*
The advantage immediately derived to the burgess popula-
tion from the substitution for the arbitrary and vexatious
mode already described of summoning tiieir deputies to the
king's court for the purposes of taxation, of tne uniform
practioe of ealUng them tosether at the same times and
places at whioh the established estates of the Anflo-Nor-
man parliament were oonvened, was, not so much tne light-
ening of their pecuniary burdens on the whole, as the
effecting and mamtaining a more equal and regular distribu-
tion of* them. The Anglo-Norman king and his great
council, into which, among the laity, none but his imme-
diate feudal tenants and a few summoned by his personal let-
ters were yet admitted, still claimed and exercised the power
of taxine the burgesses almost at diaoretion. Although
ihitkmgMiqftJU «Mre#9 at thai paiod, that it, the xepre-
sentatitet of the oounty freeholdera at large, were Aral wfa -
larly summoned to attend on parUament at the same Umc
as the representative burgesses, and, like them, lor the pur-
pose of taxation only, yet they and the burgesaea were
fur some time longer regarded as forming two distinct re-
presentative bodies. Thus the writs for the parliament of
the 23rd of Edward I. expressly direct that the eWoted citi-
zens and burgesses shall nave full power to act on behalf of
the citizens and burgesses at large separately idntsim)
from the county representatives, for transacting what i>liaU
be ordained by the great council (whose composition i»
above described) ' in the premises,* that is, in providing re-
medies for the dangers of the kingdom, as set forth iu ihe
preamble of the writ, sufficiently intimating that a * grant uf
supply,' as it is now termed, was a primary object of thu
parliamentary convocation. And we find that while the
county freeholders at large, as regards the rate of impokl on
their personal property, wexe placed on the same level as vie
tenants-in-chief, the citizens and burgesses were consunily
called upon to ^ive a full third more.
This very circumstance, however, the large proportioo
which they were made to bear of the bOrdeu which ea« h
great pecuniary exigency of the state imposed, ineviuht>
accelerated their advance towards the attainment of a per-
manent control over all the great operations of go^rrn-
ment, by rendering their peaceable assent to the several i.s
positions the more indispensable. The lasting e«taUU*h>
ment just described, of the practioe of convoking them o U
lectively, at the same places and times as the 1cgislaii\e
estates of parliament, indicates the first great step in tl ^^
progression. Arbitrary intimidation was no longer fiflt t >
be ttie best means of exacting through the town delegau «
the desired contributions. It was found expedient that tliry
should at least hear the objects stated and discussed, t •
whioh the proceeds were to be applied. Their second au-p
naturally was, to exercise a judgment on the wisdom and
fitness, first of Uie objects themselves and next of the mcan^
by which they were to be prosecuted. So rapid was iX.r
march of the delegated body of citizens and burgesses in ihi*>
career that, in the vear 1297, the 25th of Edward I., «e
arrive at the first solemn recognition of their political exig-
ence in the iiatutum de taUagiOt ^Inch has been oommonlt
called 9tatutum de tallagio non eoncedendo, by which tbt
right of taxing them arbitrarily was finally relinquiUied.
The statute declares—* No tallage or aid shall be taken cr
levied by us or our heirs in our realm without the good wiU
and assent of the archbishops, bishops, earls, bartMiis
knights, burgesses, and other freemen of the IsAid.* Ai
this date then we may fix that important step in the eoo-
stitutional progression, the union of the representative free-
holders or knights of the shire with the representative citi-
zens and burgesses in one assembly.
In the great national measure of the vear 1327, wh«ch
closed the calamitous reign of the second ISdward, we txA
them confounded together under the general name of com-
mcmi, by whose * council and assent,' as well as by thai of * tte
prelates, earU, barons, and other great men * of the kiii^-
dpm, it is stated in the writs issued to the sheriffs on tkit
occasion by the young Edward to proclaim the latter kms:.
that his father had 'removed himself (that is» had been
deposed), and he (the younger Edward) had taken opoo bua
the government.
And according to the preamble of the statutes made at
the first parliament of Edward III., the acts were passed * ai
the petition of the commons presented to the kmg in h^
council of parliament, by the assent of the prelates, earii^
barons, and other great men/ This form of petitiomt^
the king in parliament, that is, in the baronial assembly or
house of loitls, was long the only mode possessed bv the
commons of introducing a measure sanctioned by tbem-
selves into that higher assembly, and remained a memonal
of their first seemmgly timid advances towards the ooku-
plete legislative character, until, on their attainment of tbr
latter station, they abandoned the term petition for the taun
businesslike and less submissive one of bill.
In this very reign of Edward III., they proceeded m far
as to claim an absolute veto upon all enactmenta affecting
those great bodies of the people which they represented, \%
declaring to the king in parliament that they would not U-
compell^ by any of his statutes or ordinances, nkide trt •
out their assent. Edward III. had too much general s>a
eacity, and was too mindful of the popular coocumncc vi
Um revolution which had deposed^^ firther, to seek w
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oppoM or enidothit legislative asunt of the GonuiiODe; but
under his misguided g^randson and sueoetsor, BLiohard II.,
the principle of tieatxDg the government of a nation as
a private patrimony was revived. The contest between
the court of Richard and the great body of the nation
foims one of the most interesting epochs of English par-
liamentary history. In this place it is only important to
exhibit a clear outline of it, as forcibly marking the com-
plete attainment by the representative citisens and bur-
ge«Mft of that legislative character to which tiiey had
been constantly tending since the time of Sdward I.,
the Qi^quisition of which revived in die munioHnl bodies,
by and from which they were elected, that political life
which, under the regime of the Oonquest, had so long been
extinct
In the seventh year of Richard's reign the commons in
parliament made complaints of the government of the
realm, and of the abuses which existed in every department
of the sute, especially in those of law. The king con-
sented that certain prelates and lords should be appointed
to examine into these abuses. The commons, recounting
their grievances, demanded redress : this he refused until
they should have granted him a further supply ; to which
they would not accede. In the tenth of his reign, the com-
mons sent him the following message: — *We have it
settled and confirmed by antient constitution from a laud-
able and approved custom, which none can gainsay, that
the king ought to assemble his nobles and commons of the
kingdom once a year unto his parliament, as the highest
court of the realm, in which all equity ought to shine bright,
without any spot, clear as the sun, and wherein poor as
well as rich may find a never-failing shelter for their re-
freshment, by restoring tranquillity and peace, and remov-
ing all kinds of injuries; where all public grievances or
errors are to be redressed : and wherein, with the most pru-
dent counsel, the state and good government of the king-
dom is to be treated of; and considering that the king and
nation's foes at home, and their enemies abroad, may be
discovered and repulsed by such means as most conveniently
and honourably may be done; and also with wholesome
deliberation therein to foresee and order how the necessary
burthens of the king and kingdom may, with most ease
(the public wants considered), be supplied : they conceive
also, that since they are to support all public charges in-
cumbent, they should have the supervisal how and by
whom their goods and fortunes are to be expended: they
say, moreover, that this is their privilege by antient consti-
tution ; that if the king wilfully estrange himself from his
parliament fno infirmity or necessary cause disabling him),
but obstinately, by his ungovernable will, shall withdraw
himself, and be absent from them fbr the space of forty
days, not regarding the vexations of his people, nor their
grievous expenses ; that then, from that time, it shall be
lawful for all and every of them, without any damage fiom
the king, to go home, and return into thehr own countries ;
and now yon, for a longer time, have absented yourself;
and, for what cause they know not, have reftised to come
among them.* The king, in his answer, declared his inten*
tion of calling in the French to assist him in the attack
which he meditated on the national liberties. The barons
replied, that such a step would lead to his destruction ; that
all his misfortunes were onring to his ministers, who go-
verned him and the kingdom; Uiat unless some means
^ere used to put an end to these grievanoes, the state
would be ruined, and that by the antient constitution, if
the \mg refused to govern by the laws and statutes of the
realm, it was lawful for his people, by their fhll and free
assent, to depose him. The king felt himself constrained to
yield ; and eleven commissioners were named in parliament,
to reform all abuses that had arisen since the reign of Ed-
ward III. On this occasion, the commons asserted their cha-
racter and exercised their power, as guardians of the public
purse, by calling Sir Simon hurley to account for a large
sum of the public money which he had wrongfully ex-
pended; and not giving a satisfactory answer, he was com-
mitted to the Tower. Another striking illustration of the
political importance they had attained appears at this time,
in their first conspicuous exercise of the right of impeach-
ment, against Richard's chancellor and prime minister, Do
la Pole. But eleven years afterwards, in 1398, this king,
to procure a house of commons more suited to his own pur-
poses, resorted to a perilous expedient He summoned the
wvenl sheriiby^and charged them to soflTer none to be
I elected and returned members to this parliament who
would not promise to agree to the kings measures ; at the
same time declaring he would raise an army to punish
such of his subjects as should offer to oppose his inten-
tions, and asking them what force each county could
assemble. The uierifis answered that the people would
never bear being deprived of the freedom of elections;
and that, as for raising an army, they would never take up
arms to oppose those barons who had gained the affections
of the people by defending their rights and privileges.
Richard however, by one means or other, succeeded in ob-
taining his packed house of commons, which by ministering
servilely to his tyrannical will hastened his overthrow. The
very next year, the national indignation and resistance,
coinciding with the personal views of the exiled Henry of
Lancaster, swept away the falselv-based &bric of his power,
reduced him to the condition of a suppliant captive, and
compelled him to call ' ayr^e parliament,' the first act of
which was his own solenm impeachment, condemnation, and
deposition.
The greater regularity of proceeding in this revolution
than in that which had set aside Edward II. marks the
rapid growth of political intelligence among the body of
the people, and more particularly of that town population
which furnished so preponderating a numerical proportion
of the commons* house* On this occasion, as we find in
the rolls of parliament, the new king and the lords made a
full and explicit acknowledgment of the equal rights which
the eommons possessed with the latter in matters of legis-
lation, of taxation, and of counsel to the crown.
Under the regime of the Conquest, the aspirations of the
townsmen for Sie recovery of their antient municipal and
political freedom were embodied in prayers for the restora-
tion of * the laws of Edward the Confessor.* When, in the
progress of Anglo-Norman society, the municipal rights of
cities and boroughs were included with the civil and poli-
tical rights of the barons, knights, and freeholders, in ' the
Great Charter,* the latter solemn instrument became the
watchword of the burgess population. But from the histo-
rical period at which we have now arrived, when to the
restoration of their municipal independence were added the
recovery and full recognition of their political existence, ' a
free parliament* became the constant cry of the citizens and
burgesses in common with the great mass of the nation,
when the common liberties were conceived to be in danger.
The support of a house of commons possessing the po-
pular confidence was henceforward indispensable to the
security of any government in England. The rash and
blind attempt to govern without a house of commons at all
was never again made until a Stuart reigned; and the
scarcely less rash attempt to govern by a house packed in de-
fiance of so many solemn enactments to secure the purity of
elections, was the true cause of the fall of the house of
Lancaster in the reign of Hexuf VI. ; as the sanction of a
real popular representation formed the basis of its perma-
nent restoration in that of Henry YIL Until the accession
of the Stuart family, almost evei^ administration, even the
most arbitrarily inclined, was persuaded that management,
not coercion, was the only safe course to be pursued by the
crown towards that assembly. There were two modes of
exercising this management ; first, by influencing the re
turns of members ; secondly, by tampering with individual
members when returned. The latter expedient could be
little resorted to until later periods, and belongs indeed
rather to the history of the Commons* House in general ;
but the practice of the former demands a brief notice, in as
fiir as it relates to the immediate object of this article.
The great instruments of the crown in influencing the
eomporition of the popular representation, especially of the
borough portion of it, were, the aherij^ of the several
counties returning members, of which, m the time of Ed-
ward I., there were thirty-seven ; Durham and Cheshire
having then palatinate parliaments of their own, and Mon-
mouthshire being part of Wales, which was not yet legis-
latively incorporated with England, nwr even effectively
subjected to the English crown. It was as the king*8
bailiff, that is, as local superintendent and collector of the
crown r^enues, that the precepts for election of knighto,
citizens, and burgesses, were addressed to this officer ; ho
was to make returns for every city and borough in his baili-
foic^,— another mark of the original purpose for which the
popular representatives were convened, that of taxation only.
So long OS this oontintied to be the sole object of their con
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Toeation, and so long at the delegated burgeues themselves
had little voice in fixing the rate of impost to be levied on
their constituents, it is not surprising that the smaller bo-
roughs in particular should oflen have petitioned to be ex-
cused from the sending of delegates on these occasions,
which added to their share of the public burden, the expense,
to them considerable, of the wages which by royal writ they
« were to pay their representatives during their absence on this
parliamentary service, and which were fixed at two shillings
each per day, being one half the amount appointed to be paid
by the county freeholders on the like occasion to a knight of
the shire. As the king s writ addressed to the sheriff spe-
cified no particular city or borough, but rec[uired him in
general terms ' to cause to be elected two citizens for each
city, and two burgesses for each borough in your bailiwick,'
a sort of discretionary power seems to have rested with the
sheriff of determining what towns were qualified to send
representatives. Thus we find the returns made by these
ofiicors concluding sometimes with the words ' there are no
more cities or boroughs in mv bailiwick/ though there were
in fact more boroughs ; and sometimes ending with * there
are not any other cities or boroughs within the county from
which any citizens or burgesses can or are accustomed to
be sent to the said parliament, by reason of their deca)r or
poverty.' Immaterial as this circumstance in the original
framing of the parliamentary writs might appear at the
time, its results have been momentous. It must have
been remote indeed from the contemplation both of Simon
de Montfort and of Edward I., that in convoking so large a
number of delegates from towns, in order to tax them with
greater facility and uniformity, they were laying the foun-
dation of a separate house of legislature, wherein the repre-
sentatives of that part of the population most alien to the
feudal organization should vastly preponderate. They evi-
dently looked not so far, nor suspected any latent danger in
the generahty of the terms in which these precepts were
couched. But when the commons came to assert and esta-
blish their claim to a full and free legislative voice, and it
consequently became of the highest importance to the
crown to secure to itself any and every means of influencing
the composition of that assembly, there was one expedient
to which it was too late to resort, that of singling out bo-
roughs for representation, or omitting them at pleasure.
The contrary precedent was firmly established— that,
throuffh the sheriff, every city and borough was to be sum-
moned ; the original terms of the writ were grown into an
inviolable constitutional maxim ; and in the fifth of Richard
II., the Commons were already sufficiently powerful to pro-
cure statutory enactments imDosinjj a fine on any sheriff
who should not literally obey tne writ, and subjecting citi-
zens and burgesses, as well as others having parliamentary
summons, to be • amerced or otherwise punished ' for non-
attendance. And although notorious inability, from devas-
tation by war or other calamity, to pay the parliamentarv
wages of representatives, continued long after to be aa-
milted as a valid plea of exemption from electing in the
case of individual boroughs, the great principle of the right
of every municipal town to be summoned, and its duty to
return members, if capable, was constantly and firmly main-
tained.
"the power of interference on the part of the crown there-
fore was thus limited to the influencing, chiefiy through
the agency of the sheriffs, of the returns of individual mcm-
l>ers. And here an important innovation introduced by the
Norman conquest must be borne in mind. The shlre-reve
of the Anglo-Saxons was subject to annual election by the
fieeholdcrs of the shire; but the Anglo-Norman sheriff, at
the period in question, as at present, was nominated by the
king, and consequently was immediately responsible for
the exercise of his various fniictions, not to any popular
constituency, but to the crown. Accordingly we find early
symptoms of the indirect influence which the crown, by
mpans of this offii-er. exercised in parliamentary elections,
in the statute of t!ie 7lh of Henry IV. (1406), passed * on
|he grievous complaints of the commons ajjainst undue elec-
tions for shires fmm the partiality of sheriffs.' and enforced
by another of the eleventh of the same reign, enacting
heavy penalties upon sheriffs who proceeded irregulaily in
elections, or made ille^al returns ; as also, probably, in that
of the ftrstyear of Henry v., which, amongst other provi-
sions for the due conduct of elections, enacts that the citizens
and burgesses should be chosen out of those who were iV«e
of and dwelling in the respective cities and boroughs.
the preamble of a stnttite of the 4Srd of Henry VI., eem
firming former acts relative to elections, is more etphcit on
this head. It recites, * That the citizens and burgesses of
cities and horoughs coming to the t)arliameut should b*
chosen men, citizens, and bur^'esses, resident, abiding, and
free, In the same cities and boroughs, and none other;
which citizens and burgesses ha\o alwavs in cities ami
borough<( been chosen by citizens and btirgesses, and no
other, and to the sheriffs of the counties returned, &c., until
now oblate that divers sherifft of the counties df the reilm
of England, for their singular avail and lucre, bate not
made due election of the Knights, nor in convenient time,
nor good men and true returned, and sometimes no return
of the knights, citizens, and burgesses lawfully chosen ti>
come to the parliament, but such knights, citizens, or bur-
gesses have been returned which were never duly cho.vn.
and other citizens and burgesses than those which by t: t
said mayors and bailiffs were to the said sheriffs returniil,
and sometimes the sherifls have not returned the wnt4
which they had to make election of knights to come to the
parliament, but the said writs have imheflled, and moreen er
made no precept to the mayor or bailiff, or to the baihtfji or
bailiff where no mayor is, of cities and boroughs, for iLo
election of citizens and burgesses to come to parliament, by
colour of these words contamed in the said writs, " Quod in
pleno comitatu tuo eligi facias pro comitatu tuo diu*%
milites, et pro quillibet civitate in comitatu tuo duosci>es,
et pro quolibet burgo in comitatu tuo duos burgenses."
Herein we find a remarkable illustration of the darlni?
attempts which the shortsighted advisers of the imbei*i.o
king Henry VI. were making to vitiate the constituti >n of
the commons' house. The interpretation which the sheriffs
were instructed to put upon the somewhat ambiguotis terni'*
of the established formula of the writs is peculiarly charac-
teristic of their Jiiie of policy in this matter. The llaiin tex t
given above, literally rendered, would run thus:—* Thai in
full county court you cause to be elected for your couocy
two knights, and for each city in your county two citizen*,
and fur each borough in your county two burgesses.* It
required no small stretch of temeritv, in an age when the
people were peculiarly jealous of tne fk'eedom of parlia-
mentary election, to venture, in spite of the plainest com-
mon sense and of the notoriously prescriptive usage, to
assert, and act upon the assertion, that the original purport
of the writ wa9, that the citizens and burgesses, as well .u
the knights, should be elected, under the sheriffs super
intendence, in the county court.
The government of the day however had no doubt been
emboldened to these proceedings against the pohucal
liberty of the municipal towns by the success of their fir^t
steps against the freedom of parliamentary election in the
enactment and operation of the disfranchising statutes of
the 8th and lOth of this reign, which limitea the county
suffrage to the freeholders of forty shillings a year— an
amount in that day considerable. But their practic^^
against the representative freedom of the cities and boruuui-«
produced the following enactment, in pursuance of 7l o
preamble given above :—• That everj* sheriff, afier the dt>
livery of any such writ to JiicQ made, shall make ant
deliver, without fjaud, a sufficient precept under his seal i»
every inayor and bailiff, or to bailiffs or bailiff where no
mayor is, of the cities and boroughs within his county, re-
citing the said writ, commanding them by the said precept «
if it be a city, to choose, by citizens of the same city, c»iw
zens ; and in the same manner and form, if it be a bo'tuxiuh,
burgesses by the burgesses of the same, to come to pat \ x-
ment. And that the same mayor and builiff, or bailiff* ur
baiUff where no mayor is, shallreturn lawfully the prticpt
to the same sheriffs by indentures betwixt the same «lifr»fE»
and them to be made, of the same elections, and of ch«
names of the said citizens and burgesses by them so cho»<>n ;
and thereupon every sheriff shall make a good and rightful
return of every suoh writ, and of every return by ihc ma\c>r
and baiUff, or bailiffs or bailiff where no mayor is, to hira
made. And that every sheriff, at every time thai ht dutu
contrary to this statute, or any other statutes for the tlectk^Q
of knights, citizens, and burgesses, to come to the parlia-
ment before this time made, shall incur the pain contaihoil
in the said statute,' &c. And such, as regards the ol.li-
gation of the sheriff duly to issue his precept to the citK-*
and boroughs, and duly to receive and transmit the returiu^
has the law continued to be iititit the present Lme,
The parliamentary incorporation v^tE JBngUmf cf iom
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199
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yf9»%tk f^rritoiy, and of Um palatine counter of Chester,
one of the most beneficial operations of the reign of Henry
yjll., next demands our notice, as bringing a permanent
secession of thirty-one members to the English House of
Commons, of .whom fifteen vera returned for cities and
boroughs. In this legislative incorporation of Wales and
Cheshire a new principle was introduced, that of deter-
mining by parliamentary epaptmeqt what towns within a
particulaf territory should elect members, and what number
ihey should elect The case indeed was perfectly noveli
no teiritonal extension of the parliamentary representation
having ever been agitated since the time when the House
of Commons was in embryo in the earliest royal convoca*
tions of knights, citizens, and burgesses for the assessment
of taxes. The Welsh had been smarting under the yoke
of conquest since their final sulg'ugation by Edward I. ;
their continued exclusion from the English legislature
must have mainly contributed to stimulate their vigorous
and persevering resistance under Qlendower in the reigns
of Henry IV. a^d V. ; and their admission into it was be-
come a measure most desirable for the national peace and
security. But the free concurrence of the House of Com*
mons itself was now indispensable. The nature and uses
of popular representation too, and the importance of having
some regard to the proportion between the number of a con-
stituency and that of the representatives which it should be
permitted to elect, were now better understood. Accordingly
the act for Wales, passed in the 27th of Henry VIII., though
il excluded none of the boroughs from a share in the repre-
sentation, yet, having regard to the inconsiderable size of
most of them, enacted that, while the county of the town of
Haverfordwest should send one member for itself alone, the
boroughs of each of the other thirteen shires now created
(including Monmouthshire, now first detached from Wales)
should send one member collectively, excepting only Me-
rionethshire, which contained no borough of importance.
This perfect union with Wales rendering the palatine go-
vernment of Cheshire, originally established as a bulwark
against the Welsh inroads, no longer necessary, another
act, of the 34th of this reign, incorporated it in like manner
with England, in like manner also expressly limiting the
town representation to the city of Chester.
Here we must pause in our sketch of the political rela-
tions of the English boroughs, to trace the progress of their
internal organization from the state of simplicity in whioh
it revived on the first relaxation of the yoke of the Con-
quest. It is only necessary to recollect the nature of the
relation subsisting betwen the English boroughs and the
Norman kings in the period during which they successively
purchased their civil redemption, in order to be convinced
that the local comfort and welfare of the burgesses were
objects of little solicitude to those monarchs — ^that their
primary aim was the securing of the regular, punctual, and
viUing payment of the stipulated rent, and the ensuring in
each locality of so much internal peace and order at least as
to them might seem requisite for enabling the community
to perform this stipulation with exactness. Further than
this they eoneerned themselves not at all about the internal
regulations of the municipality. Its whole community,
now rising again ih>m one and the same level of civil
nullity, were at liberty to adopt either the antient customs
and usages of ^e place as existing before the Conquest, or
sudi oihera as they might think proper to establish in
accordance with the common law of the land. The charters
were constantly addressed to ' the citizens,' * the burgesses,'
or * the men' of such a city or borough ; and the sum of the
description of a burgess, townsman, or member of the com-
monity of the borough, as Madox in his Mrma Burgi ob-
serves, VM this : — * They were deemed townsmen who had
a settled dwelling in the town, who merchandized there,
who were of the bans or guild, who were in lot and soot
with the townsmen, and who used and enjoyed the Hberties
and free customs of the town.' The municipal body, in
shcnt, eontisted of the resident and trading inhabitants,
sharing in the payment of the local taxes and the per-
formance of the loogd duties. This formed substantially a
household franchise. Strangers residing temporarily in
the town for purposes of trade had no voice in the affairs of
the borough nor any liability to its burdens, which, at com-
mon law, could not be imposed upon them without ad-
mission to the local franchise. The titles to borough free-
dom by birth* apprenticeship, and marriage, all known to
many modes of ascertaining the general condition of esta
Wished residence. The title by purchase was a necessary
condition for the admission of an individual previously un-
connected with that particular community, in those days
when such admission conferred peculiar advantages of
trading ; and the right of bestowing the freedom on any
individual by free gift, for any reason to them sufficient,
was one necessarily inherent in the community, for the
exercise of which they were not responsible to any authority
whatever. The freemen's right of exclusive trading too
had some ground of justice when they who enjoyed it ex-
clusively supported the local burdens. Edward III/s laws
of the staple authorized the residence of non- freemen in
the staple towns, but at the same time empowered the com-
munity of the borough to compel them to contribute to the
public burdens ; and under these regulations it is that the
residence of non-freemen appears first to have become fre-
quent.
The progress of wealth, populatioiv and the useful arts,
produced, in many of the greater towns, the subdivision cf
the seneral community into guilds of particular trades,
called, in many instances since the Norman sBra, companies,
which thus became avenues for admission to the general
franchise of the municipality. In their greatest prosperity
these fraternities, more especially in the metropoUs, became
important bodies, in which the whole community was en-
rolled; each had its dintinct common-hall, made by-^ws
for the regulation of its particular trade, and had its com-
mon property ; while the rights of the individuals composing
them, as members of the great general community, re-
mained the same.
But for several centuries after the Conquest, any select
body forming, within a municipal town, a corporation, in
the modern sense of the term, was entirely unknown. When
the men of a town became answerable to the crown for a
ferm or other payment due from their community, then the
barons of the exchequer, the king's attorney, or his other
clerks and officers, charged, impleaded, and sued the towns-
men collectively, by any name by which they could be
accurately designated, and they answered by one or more
of their number, deputed for that purpose by the rest.
There was also a method of summoning a community to
appear in the king's courts of law, by six or some other
number of ' the better and more discreet* inhabitants, to be
nominated by the rest. The duties of the boroughs to the
king were rendered entirely by their executive officers,
elected yearly by the whole community. Generally it was
granted to them to elect a' single chief magistrate, bearing,
as already observed, the Norman titlo of mayor> who be-
came answerable to the crown for all things in which the
bailiff or baili£& were previously responsible, and the officers
bearing the latter title declined to an inferior rank. The
executive officer, thus elected, it was always necessary to
present to the king, or some one appointed by him, to be
accepted and sworn faithfully to discharge his duties both
to the crown and to the community ; and to receive these
presentations, accept the officer elected, and take his oath,
became a part of the duties of the treanurer and barons of
the exchequer. To these, when the citizens or burgesses
had made their election, it was notified by letters under
their common seal, and the mayor elect was presented to
them at the exchequer by two of his fcUow-burgesses. The
same proceeding was observed with regard to sherijft, which
some of the larger cities and towns acquired power to elect
as counties of themselves ; and for the like reason, because
of the duties they had to render to the king. In course of
time communities acquired by charter thepriWlege of takins
the oaths of their own officers, or they might be tendered
to the constable of the nearest royal castle. If such officer
Serformed any official duty without being duly sworn, it was
eemed a contempt, and the liberties were liable to be
seized into the king's hands, unless redeemed by fine or a
valid excuse.
But the sole legishitive assembly in every municipal town
or borough was originally the Saxon folk-mote, or meeting
of the whole community, called in many places the hun-
dred, and where held within doors, the hus-ting or the
common halL This assembly was held for mutual advice
and general determination on the affairs of the community,
whether in the enacting of local regulations, called burpk"
laws (by contraction by-latDs, since often corrupted mto
., ^^ ^, _^ . ^tf-tec*), the levying of local taxes, the selling or leasing
DO of Wiy remote antiquity,' seem to have been only loi of public property, the administiation of justice, the ap«.
B O R
200
B O R
pointment of mttnioipal offioert, or any other maltor affect-
ing the general interests. In this assembly, held commonly
once a week, appeared the body of burgesses in person, to
whom, together with their officers, whom they elected an-
nually, every general privilege conveyed by the royal char-
ters was granted ; and however vested in later times, every
power exercised in the antient boroughs has derived its
origin fifom the acts of this assembly. How the increase
of population and extension of trade in the larger towns
led naturally to the introduction of the represenUtive prin-
ciple in local legislation, &c., and the natural tendency of
its operation towards the production of an aristocratic or*
ganization, will be best illustrated in a succinct view of the
history of the metrapolitan municipality itself, the magni-
tude of which has afforded the AiUest scope for the distinct
development of these tendencies.
Although William of Normandy, in consolidating his
conquest, had trampled out even tnose scattered sparks of
political vitality which in the course of his invading career
ne had spared in order to deaden or shorten local resistance,
yet his successors soon found it to their purpose, though
still retaining the arbitrary grasp of the Norman crown
upon the municipal liberties and properties of the Anglo-
Saxon townsmen, to exercise that power in the case of the
more important cities and ports with somewhat less harsh*
ness than William had done. Thus it was that London in
particular, and the sea-ports on the south-eastern coast,
then of primary importance to the Norman crown for main-
taining a free communication with its continental dominions,
as well as supplying its naval force, were early objects of
royal favour — for some time indeed capriciously extended
nnd withdrawn, but settling into permanence with the
growth of Anglo-Norman society. Another circumstance
contributed to g^ve to these towns the lead in the general
progress of the burgess population towards the recovery of
their civil and political freedom. Though the great ma-
jority of the burgesses, even in these favoured towns, were
necessarily of Anglo-Saxon blood, yet there were soon
ibund among them a certain number of foreign descent,
Norman, Angevin, or French, whose ancestors, having set-
tled in England at the Conquest, had applied themselves to
various branches of trade. To these individuals, on ac-
count of the identity of race and language, the favour of
the Norman government was least reluctantly extended;
they became, too, the natural interpreters and mediators
between the government and the great body of their fellow-
townsmen ; and the necessary tendency of these two cir-
cumstances combined, was to establish in the great metro-
Slitan municipality a Norman party, vastly inferior to the
nglish one in numbers, but dominant in position. This
is tne true key to the solution of many remarkable and,
without it, scarcely intelligible transactions in the early
municipal history of London. The operation of these cir-
cumstances is very clearly and strikingly exhibited in the
f[^at civic commotion in the time of Richard L, in which
tiie most conspicuous actor on the popular side was a citiien
of Saxon descent, to whom, iVom his adherence to the cus-
tom of his forefktfiers in wearing his beard long, the Nor-
mans gave the cognomen d la barbe, and whom our modem
historians call Wmiam Long-Beard. We find this transac-
tion very particularly detailed in the Latin historians of the
time, both on the popular and on the Norman side — Ro-
ger de Hoveden, Math. Paris, Math, of Westminster. Ger-
yase of Canterbury &c The facto collected from their
joint testimony, as fkr as they relate to our present in-
quiry, are these: —
Amonff the vexations which the poorer and more nu-
merous class of the citizens had to endure from the more
opulent, one of the most frequent was the un&ir ap«
portioning of the payment of the taiUes or tallages, the
nature of which arbitrary exaction? we have already de-
scribed ; for sometimes the mayor and aldeimen, to whom
the royal demand of a fixed sum was addressed, would
exempt those who were most able to pay from contri-
buting at all ; sometimes they ordamed that each citizen
should contribute the same sum, without any regard to
the respective amount of property ; so that the heaviest
burden conatontly fell on ihose who were the least able
to bear it. In the year 1195, when Richard I. was en-
gaged abroad in making war upon the King of France,
and his officers in England were raising money for the ex-
penses of his campaigns, and for paying the remainder of
Ail raoiom due to the Duke of Auttria* Uie city of London
was snmmoned to pay a tallage extraordinary. The mayor
and hia'Counctllora accordingly convoked a husting* or com*
mon-hall, to deliberate as to the proportions in which tha
gross sum required should be individually imposed. The
leading citizens were, as usual, for a partition of the burden,
so made as that the lightest portion of it would fall upon
themselves. But the Man of the Long Beard stood forward
to oppose their intention. He had often before pleaded the
cause of his poor English fellow-citizens with more ardour
than success, and had gained from them the title of defender
or advocate of the poor. Inheriting fW>m industrious pa-
rents a competent personal property, he had retired from
business, anci gave all his leisure to the study of the law. to
enable him to extricate the poorer citizens from the toils
cast about them by the Norman lawyers. While L;h
English eloquence was vigorous and popular, no Norman
clerk excelled him in the art of pleading in French, the
only language then admitted in the tribunals. While the
use to which he devoted these talento made him dear to the
citizens of the middling and lower rate ef fortune, the
Norman party charged him with misleading the multitud«^.
by filling them with ' an inordinate desire of libertr and
happiness.' On the occasion in question, they loaded him
with reproaches, and accused him of rebellion and trea-
son against the king. * The traitors to the king.* rcplici
the Englishman, ' are they who defraud his excbequt r
b^ exempting themselves from paying what tlicy «)ict^
him, ana I myself will denounce them to him.' Ar-
cordingly, he crossed the sea, went to King Richani-*
camp, knelt before him, and solicited his peace and protec-
tion for the poor people of London. Richard received liii
complaint, promised redress, and when the petitioner « oj
gone, thought no mora of it, being too much occupied witU
his great political concerns to attend to a quarrd amont;
mere burgesses. But the Norman barons and prelate»,
filling the high offices of the chancery and the exchequer,
gave their attention to it, and took part warndy, throut^b
national and aristocratic instinct, with the dominantparty,
against the poorer classes and their advocate. Hubeit
Walter, Arohbishop of Canterbury, and grand justuitr or
chief justice of England, provoked that a Saxon ahouU
have dared to lay an information beforo the king against
men of Norman blood, and resolved to prevent the recur^
rence of such a scandal, issued an ordinance, forbidding any
man of the commonalty of London to go out of the citv. on
pain of being seised as a traitor to the king and kingdom ;
and accordingly, a number of traders, who, notwithstanding
the chief justice*s orders, went on their ordinary business to
the groat fair at Stamford, were seized and thrown inu
prison. These acto of violence caused a great femem la
the city, and the poorer classes of the citizens entered into
an association for their oommon defence. William Long-
Beard, relying probably on the king s promise, was the soul
and leader of this secret society, in which we are told by
several historians of the time that fifty thoiisand per-
sons engaged. Thev gathered together such weapons
as were accessible to burgesses in their state oC half-bond-
age,— as staves shod with iron, axes, and iron erows, — 1»
attack, in case of a conflict, the fortified dwellings of the
Normans. They then held several meetings in Che open
air, at which William addressed them, and eneooraged
their enthusiasm. Meanwhile, the high Norman fimctioD-
aries convoking in parliament, at London, the bishoos,
counto, and barons of the neighbouring provinces^ cited the
people*s orator to appear before that assembly. WiUiam
obeyed the summons, escorted by a great multitude, eallinc
him saviour and king of the poor. This uneauivoeal indi-
cation of an immense popularity intimidated the barons
in parliament. They postponed the oonsideratioa of the
charge to an early sitting, which never took place ; and
used all their efforts, by skilful emissaries, to work upon the
popular mind. False promises and false alarms, allaniateiy
circulated, lulled the public ferment, and disoovraged iht
partisans of the insurrection. The arohbishop and the other
justices then themselves called several meetines of the
poorer Londoners, and addressing them, now oa toe neces-
sity of keeping poaee and order, now upon the lung's powvr
to cmsh the seaitious, they succeeded in sowing £ttbt mw\
hesitation among the conspirators. Seising that aMMnent
of languor which has always been fatal to a popular partv .
they required to have delivered to them, as hostages for lil^
public tranquillity, the children of a great many famahe> «.f
the middle and lower classes. The citizens wanted ie«oiis-
Digitized by
Bon
2()1
B O R
tion to resist this demand ; and the canse of arbitrary power
was ^ined as soon as (he hostages were led away from
Ix)n(Iaii to confinement in different fortresses. The particu-
lars of the subsequent seiiure, summary condemnation,
and execution of the popular advocate, and the reputation
of martyrdom bestowed upon him by the P<>pQlAr affection,
are immaterial to our present purpose. This historical
aiimlote is introduced merely to exhibit distinctly the
source and operation of the first aristocretical distinction
liiat arose in the leading English cities and towns.
Hut as the dii^tinctiun of race became lost in the fusion of
bloxl and the rise of the modern English tongue, other
circumstances sprung up« tending to create and perpetuate
a distinction of civic das9e», ^e progress of individual
wealth, as commercial property became more secure against
exactions by arbitrary power, and the commercial resources
uf the country became developed, was among the most
powerful of these causes. The necessity, too, for the con-
venient transaction of the affairs of a multitudinous body.
of establishing a representative council for the management
of all ordinary business, was another cause operating in the
same direction. In London, as early as the close of Henry
II I. 's reign, the aldermen* and those calling themselves
* the more discreek of the oity,* made an attempt to elect a
mayor, in opposition to the popular voice ; which, however,
ended in the triumph of the latter, in a general folk-mote
held at St. Paul's uross. In the reigns of the first three
Edwards, it appears that the same election was made by
the mayor, aldermen, and a v^arying number of freemen
elected out of each ward. The aldermen, in their original
constitution, were only a council to the mayor in the ad-
ministration of justice and in his other duties, elected
annually by the freemen of the several wards ; and from
them the mayor might resort for adWce to the commonalty
in general meeting. At an early period, however, the
^eat number of the citizens, and the variety of business
to be transacted, made it necessary for them to have a sort
of standing committee of their body, to be consulted by the
.aayor and aldermen, and to exercise the power belonging
ti) t\ie common -hall, in the enacting of bye-laws, and the
^en c ral administration of the affairs of the communi ty . The
whole of tliis legislative and administrative body, being
chosen yearly by and.fix)m the commonalty at large, acted
under the most direct responsibility to their constituents.
Surh a council appears, Irom the city records, to have
existed as early as the year 1284: but though it is now
deemed in law to be a prescriptive body, this is attributable
rather to its not deriving its existence from royal charter,
than to any certainty of its existence before the time of
legal memory. Its numbers and constitution were often
changed. Nearly thirty years after the express recognition,
by charter, of the 1 5th of Edward III., of the power in the
citizens to make bye-laws, it was, by consent of all the com-
mons of the city ordained that each of the mysteriei (tnas-
teriet or crqfis), that is, each of the trading companies, should
choose certain persons to assent to and ordain, with the lord-
mayor and aldermen, whatever they should deem advisable ;
to elect the mayor and sheriffs ; and to give counsel in all
cases where it was formerly sought of the commons. This
was in the 43rd or 44th of Edward III., and was confirmed
in the 50tli of the same reign : but the common-hall or
court of hustings of the whole community still retained the
right of re-Tnodelling the municipal legislature; and in tlic
7th of Richard II., the common-council was placed on its
present footing by an act of common-hall, passed in the
presenre of tl\e * immense community,* to the effect that,
as in such large assemblies things had been done more
by clamour than by reason, the aldermen, when, on St.
Gregory's day in each year, they were appointed for the
year ensuing, should be firmly charged, fifteen days after
the said day, to assemble their respective wards, and, by
good deliberation, charge them to cnoose four of the most
sttlRcient persons in their ward, to be of the common- council
for the year ensuing, &c., provided that of the whole num-
ber no more than eight should be of one mystery. Except
as to the prescribed numbers, which were not strictly ad-
hered to, this act of common-hall took full effect ; the
whole administrative powers of the community were trans-
ferred to the legislative body, composed of mayor, aldermen,
tud common-council men, all subject to annual election ;
and the antient hustings-court fell into comparative de-
suetude ; although, on one subsequent occasion, in the 23rd
of Henry VII., we find the mayor, aldermen, common-
oouncH, and commons, acting together as one great commolH
hall, in aceordance with the original constitution.
Such was the natural origin of the courts of aldermen and
common-council in the city of London; and how closely
analogous was their rise in other communities, is abundantly
testified by existing documents.
In those instances where the whole of the citizens or
burgesses were numbered in the several trading companies,
these, for convenience' sake, sometimes formed the basis of
the internal polity of the community, and tho election of
borough oflicers and members of the common council be-
came vested in them. I4ondon itself presents at this day a
remarkable instance of incomplete progression from the
household franchise to the adoption of that of the guilds '.
the inhabitant freemen elect the aldermen and commoa-
councilmen; while the liverymen, or members of the several
companies (so denominated from the distinguishing pecu-
liarities of costume adopted by each fraternity), resident or
non-resident» elect the mayor, sheriffs, chamberlain, and
other officers. But, in many boroughs, this basis of tlic
guilds wholly superseded the original scot-and-lot franchise;
and in the changes of society which have gradually reduced
the guilds from their original position, that thorough sub-
stitution has been one constantly growing cause of unfair
exclusion. The richest and most inlluential persons, too,
being generally chosen by the inhabitants at large to tlu^
highest places in the municiiJEil councils, were often tcuipied
to seek the perpetuation of their authority without i'lm
necessity of frequent appeals to the popular voice, and evcii
to usurp powers which it had not delegated at all. Such
usurpations however were often vigorously resisted by tiic
community at large ; and the contests were sometimes ^o
violent and obstinate aa to lead to bloodshed. But in courso
of time, the Crown itself, so long indifferent to the details
of munioipal arrangements, found sufficient motives for
encouraging these endeavours of internal parties to form
close ruling bodies, irresponsible to the general community.
In order to trace the development of this policy, we must
resume the thread of the political history of Uie munici-
palities of England.
We find faint indications of it in several of Henry Vllth's
charters ; as in one to Bristol in 1499, establishing a self-
eleotive council of aldermen ; who yet, though justices, luul
no exclusive power of municipal government. But the fierce-
ness of religious dissension, which divided the whole nation at
the close of the following reign, made the management of
the House of Commons an object of primary importance to
either Catholic or Protestant successor to the crown. This
therefore was the sera of the most active exercise of the pic-
soriptively discretional power of the sheriffi to determine
within their several bailiwicks, in issuing their precepts for
a general election, which of the municipal towns should,
and which should not, be held to be parliamentary boroughs.
To arbitrarily omit any of the larger towns, or even of tho
smaller ones, which in public estimation had a prescriptive
right to be summoned, was too open an attack on the free-
dom of parliament to be now ventured upon. The calling of
this right into action in boroughs wherein it had lain doimaut
from the beginning, or, though once exercised, had fallen
into disuse from alleged poverty, decay, or other causes, was
a more plausible course of proceeding ; and notwithstanding
the evident partiality with which it was conducted, was per-
mitted to pass without legislative interference.
Accordingly we find in the reigns of Edward VI.,
Mary, and Elizabeth, besides seventeen boroughs re-
stored to parliamentary existence, forty-six now fii-st be-
ginning to send members, making altogether an addition to
the former representation (as no places were now omitted) of
sixty- three places, returning 123 members. But the most
important feature in this policy of the crown at this period —
that which mainly contributed to attain the object of that
pohcy — was its novel assumption of the right of remoulding,
by governing charters, the municipal constitution of these
new or revived parliamentary boroughs. Most of tliese
charters expressly vested the local government, and some-
times tho immediate election of the pailiamentary repie-
sentatives. in small councils, originally nominated by the
crown, to be ever after self-elected.
This was the first great fctep on the part of the crown in
undermining the political independence of the English mu-
nicipalities. The successful working of the application of this
novel piinciplc to the new or restored parliamentary borouglii,
encouraged the Stuarts not only to continue this system ot
No. 297.
TTHE PENNY CYCLOP-liDIA.]
Digiti
^^i^doogle
DOR
ao2
BO E
eMctlng close boroughs, bat to make a second and a bolder
advance in the same direction, by attacking the constitutions
of the prescript ively parliamentary municipalities themselves.
Alreadv, in Michaelmas term, 40th and 41st of Kltsabeth,
the juciges had given a remarkable decision, extremely fa-
vourable to the prosecution of this object. Attempts appear
to have been then making in several of the boroughs to
have popular elections of the principal officers, in opposition
to a custom which had grown up of leaving the elections in
the hands of the common councils. It was now, therefore,
desired to be known whether such elections were legal, in
opposition to the words of a charier vesting the elections
indeBnitely in the commonalty. It was on application by
the Privy Council, that the two chief justices, the chief
baron, and the other judges, determined that such custom
was good, because the several boroughs had power to make
bye-laws ; and that where no bye-law making such regu-
lation was to be found, it might nevertheless be presumed
that such bye-law had existed, because such custom must
have originated in common consent And thus it was judi-
cially decided, not only that elections of municipal oinoers
by select common councils were legal, but that where such
custom had grown up, the community at large were for ever
excluded ftoro such elections.
The incongruities involved in this decision, and the disre-
gard of all constitutional principle, are very notable. That
the plenitude of royal prerogative established at the Ck>n-
quest should have excluded, for ages before, all appeal to
the inherent right of freemen to a voice in the appointment
of those who were to have the direction of their common
aflkirs, is perfectly intelligible. That on the royal charier ,
and that alone, they constantly rested their title to such
power of internal organization as they claimed to exer-
cise, is sufficiently manifest. Here the burgesses and
the royal judges should seem to have been meeting on com-
mon ground. The burgesses simply appealed against a
vicious custom of later growth to the superior and anterior
authority of their charter. The jude^s, insteod of vindi-
cating that authority, as it Bhould have been the primary
interest of the prerogative to do» asserted — first, that the
power of making bye -laws, given by the charter, empowered
the community to make a law contravening an express pro-
vision of the same charter ; secondly, that there was a par-
ticular kind of bye-law, which, though the community had
power to enact, they had no power to repeal ; and thirdly,
that in a certain case, the existence of an express law was
to be presumed from a usof^e commencing within time of
memoir. This transaction, therefore, presents a most curious
Example of tho compromising, by the crown itself, of the
very principles on which the stability of the prerogative
most firmly rested, in tho eager pursuit of its immediate
policy.
The judicial authority being thus once brought into play
to decide, for the crown*s own immediate convenience, upon
the extent and durability of its powers in the granting of
municipal charters, was kept in active operation throughout
the Stuart reigns. In the twelfth year of James I. it
proceeded so far as to declare that the king could, by his
charter, incorporate the people of a town in the form of select
classes and commonalty, and vest in the whole corporation
the right of sending representatives to parliament, at the
same time restraininff the exercise of that right to the
select classes; and such was thenceibrward the fonn of all
the corporations which royal charters created or remodelled.
After this fashion it was that, under James I. and Charles
I., seventeen more parliamentary boroughs were revivecl;
and that James created four, making a total addition to the
borough representation of forty-one members, besides the
four memben for the two English universities, which James
first introduced.
That all these arts combined were insufficient to counter-
act in the representative house the popular spirit, and the
spread of political knowledge consequent on the diffusion of
printing, so far as to render that assembly thoroughly sub-
servient to the views of the Court at that period, is a fact too
notorious to be here enlarged upon. Charles I. attempted,
and persevered in attempting, that which even Edward I.
had found it expedient solemnly to forego — the levying of
general taxes without consent of the Commons in par-
Hament This was the true commencement of the struggle.
The narrative of the consequent events— of the necessity
which drove him once more to have recourse to parliament —
the neoaasitr, not lets urgent, which drove the Commons to
extort from him the aet which prevented their being diaaolvad
without their own consent — the distrust which eventuallr
arose between the people and that House of Commons wbicd
so long continued in self-constituted permanency- and lU
final dissolution by force, to make mtif for the arbitrary mo-
difications introduced by a military dictator — forms railter
an episode in parliamentary history than a link in Uie chain
of that history itself. The endeavours of the Protector to
mould a House of CHNnmons which should both second h*s
political views and possess the confidence of the pei»pte
proved abortive ; although, by omitting the mote inc4>u«}-
derable boroughs, proportioning the representation ui' tb«
others to the population of the several places, and inAreamnir
that of the counties, he seems to have made a show %i U-att
of seeking to place the general representation on a Ham*
more accordant with the relative numbeni and imporunnr <•'
the several constituencies.
* A free parliament* was as much the national watehwiml
in 1660 as it had been in 1640 ; and Charles ll.s A^#-
cUtanf claim would have availed him little without that par-
Uament's declaration of it.
The thirteenth year of this reign is memorable for the
enactment of the statute, commonly known as the Corpo-
ration Act, which so long c^rated to Uie exclusion both i>f
Roman Catholics and of Dissenters from all corporate offirct.
It provides that ' no person or persons shall be placed, ela^tt d.
or chosen, in or to any of the offices of mayor, aldermen, n-
corders, bailiffs, town clerks, common-councilmen* or c4hf*
offices of magistracy, or place or trust, or other empli>>mri<t
relating to or concerning the government of any city, rtir-
poration, borough, cinque port, or any of their member*, ••r
other port-town, within England, Wales, and Berwick-up^.n-
Tweed, that shall not have, one year before such elect M>ti or
choice, taken the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper acr\.nliii:;
to the rites of the Church of England.' But this legi^Uu^ e
measure, which was dictated by the pubhc opinion of ilv
time, and so long operated to the exclusion of Roman Cath(»-
Ucs as well as Dissenters from all municipal officea, va« lyn
at all conducive to the views of the Court. AfVer lavishine
every means at its disposal for the management if t'>> •
House of Commons by the dispensing of bribes and pen<k»nft
to individual members that Court, ever prodigal and e^tr
needy, meditated at once a cheaper and more permanent; t
effective pix>eefls of ensuring parliamentary subeervieiic^ . by
pushing to its furthest limit the old policy of remodelhnir
municipal rorporatiuns. Even this was felt to be a Wi
attempt; but it was deemed less hazardous than the en-
deavour to rei^n without a pariiament, in which Cbarln I
had failed.
As the proceedings now adopted against such of ti.'» .- -
verning charters of cities and boroughs as still sanotK>n<.d a
too popular municipal constitution, was a general filmr -f
what are technically termed informations in the natun* J
quo warranto, from the prominence of those wurds in the
old Latin formula of the instrument itself, it is nect-^^ur
that we should brielly explain the origin and use • f :hl:
form of proceeding on the part of tho legal advise. < i- !
officers of the crown.
Although many of the antient boroughs reccive<l t^-.r
first Anglo-Norman charters of liberty from the succr**-»rs
of those military leaders who had received from tlu? C>.:>-
queror the largest shares of tho national spoil, yet t^<*
general relaxation of the feudal bonds at the same tune
that the relations of the boroughs with the crown became
more determinate and regular, brought nearly all of tl»*"n,
at an early period, into immediate dependence, as *.he t'.t
mesne boroughs were from the first, upon the validity -f
royal charters for the maintenance of their most itijpi*rurit
privileges. When some degree of regularity aruM r.ut .*
the judicial chaos necessarily introduced bv such a r n-
quest, the justices itinerant were empowered by the crovn
to inquire, in their circuit, hy tehat warrant all «b-w
claimed any franchise in derogation of the crown, fr.ira
which all local liberties were assumed to emanate, mt-i
tained their title. In the 18lh year of Edward I.. «h •
laboured strenuously in various ways to infuse order asfl
permanence into the internal administration of the rcw^xn.
we find the following statute, the terms of which sts-ix
directed to an object quite contrary to that which in thi
use of the proceeding in question the crown so eagerlv pur-
sued at a later period .— • Concerning the writ that ia'caiU-d
quo warranto, our lord the king, at the feast of PeiHcccv^t,
in the eighteenth year of his reign, hath establiehcfi, thas
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•n thoM who daiia to hATe qniet poiMwilm of any franehiw
More the time of JCing RkJiaid, without interruption, and
can show the same by a lawful inquest, shall well eigoy
their pofisession ; and in case that possession be demanded
for osuse reasonable, our lord the king shall oonarm it by
title. And those that have old charters of privileges shall
have the said charters adfjudged according to the tenor and
£>rm of them ; and those that have lost their liberties sinoe
Easter last past by the aforesaid writ, aooording to the
eourae of pleading in the same writ heretofore used, shall
have restitution of their franchise lost, and from henceforth
they shall have according to the nature of this present con-
stitutioo/ The proceeding by quo warranto^ however, had
long been obsolete when the crown lawyers of Charies IL
ventured to revive it on so extensive a scale. The selection
of this mode of proceeding seems to have been as injudicious
OS the purpose of it was dishonest • The crown lawyers,
more violent than learned/ observes Mr. Willcock, in the
introduction to his ' Law of Municipal Corporations/ ' instead
oC first proceeding by 9€ire facias to repeal the charters on
pretence of forfeiture, which would have given the subse-
quent judgments at least the semblance of being conclusive,
mistook their proceeding, and by filing informations in the
nature of quo warranto against all the obnoxious corpora-
tions, proceeded in such a manner that it was impossible to
obtain even the appearance of a lawful judgment against
them, sinoe it could be sustained only upon two grounds :
either that there were no such corporations ever established,
and the bodies assuming to act as such were merely self-
constituted ; to which the charters and well-known usage
throughout the land offered a manifest contradiction ;— or
that all the corpomtions had been dissolved fbr want of
officers and members, and the persons assuming to act as
such were all mere usurpers ; to which the very form of
the information offered a plain inconsistency, by admitting
that the corporations of which they were accused as usurping
the offices were still in existence. Ill-chosen and unjust as
the mcasuro was, judges were found* vile enough for the
royal purpose.' London, which in latter times had usually
taken the lead in asserting the political independence of the
more important English municipalities, and the example
of which, fh>m this ciroumstanoe as well as from its supe-
rior wealth and power, had ever been so influential, was
selected as the first object of attack. At this particular
time it was in especial disfkvour; fbr the king having, with
a view to deprive the last parliament which he held of the
encoura^ment which was derived fhmi the vicinity of that
{x)\rerful and independent city, summoned it to meet at
(Ir/nrd^ London not only re-elected the members which it
had returned to the last parliament at Westminster, but
voted them their thanks for their spirited conduct Now,
therefore, ' after the most learned advocates in the land had
been heard on the proceedings against London, judgment
was given of seixure of its franchise to be a corporation into
the king s hands, as fbrfeited/ The determination of the
information against the metropolis spread consternation
through the kingdom, by the assistance of which and the
intrigues of the court party, almost all the other municipali-
ties were prevailed on either to suffer judgment against
them by default of which the crown made a use as erro-
neous as of the original proceeding, by treating it as a final
and conclusive judgment, or to surrender their charters in
hope of conciliating the despot's favour. Here, too, the
crown lawjrers mistook the law, or, confiding in the plenitude
of arbitrary prerogative, thought its rules unworthy theur
consideration. New charters were granted without using
the precaution to enrol many of the surrenders, on account
of which they were wholly inoperative, even should we ad-
mit that a municipal ooiporation has power to surrender
the franchise of being a corporation.
'The laboun of this prince were productive of no advan-
tsee to himself; fbr although the co-operation of his par-
tisans, the servility of judges, and the verdicts of party
juries, effected the subvereion of the corporations and pro-
mised a parliament venal as the realm could produce, his
alarm at any assembly which might pretend to represent
the people, and be possibly influenced by their opinions,
was so great, that he deferred the period of their convention
until death undermined the system of contrivance which
* Pnnberlon, Chirf JmtSee of the Kinv's Bench, wns remofved to he ChtoT
Jwtice tit the ComaMm PWm ; aud Sannden. who had dcmmi the pleadingt
Md mKImkI on kh« pnrt of llie crown, was Dused to be Chief JutttRe of the
Kiaqi'e Bench Juet befhre the tena ta which the Judgment was gt^n.
with his maoagBBMnt might have anbvertad the oonMifta«
tkin. This system soon fell after it came under the
management of a sueoessor, against whom the whole na-
tion was exasperated. The first and only parliament of
James IL displayed the full influence of his brother's mea->
sues, — the effect of laying corporations under the control
of the crown and vesting the election of their magistrates
in the select classes ; a parliament convened ready to forge
ohatns for themselves and the nation, — a parliament whose
servility needed only a little duplicity in the king to render
him the most arbitrary sovereign in Europe.' This prince*
' after having tried in vain to avail himself of his brother*s
arrangements, ondeavouring when too late to regain popular
favour, abandoned them in despair, and issued a proclamar
Cion to restore corporations to their original state.
' Some availed themselves of this advantage and a more
constitutional reign ; but the select classes of corporations,
unwilling to relinquish the influence they had acquired
under the new constitutions of Charles, still retained in thair
grasp the municipal power, and by this means prevented
the restoration of popular elections. It was a new case for
the tribunals. The operation of the recent proceedings
under the shadow of legal form, and of such surrendera
and new incorporations, was not generally undentood.
Many of the former officers had died or removed from the
municipalities, the new oflicere were of the royal party, and
the aristocratic ascendency was not easily overthrown. The
doctrine of the case of corporatk)ns,' above cited, *that by a
bye-law the corporation at large might be divested of the
elective vote, that it might by the same method be reposed
in the select classes, and that modern usage was sufficient
ovidenoe of such a bye-law— in many instances continued
the oonstitutton of corporations in the form instituted by
Charles, under pretext of lost bye-laws, after the chartera
were professedly abandoned.
' So dilatory and expensive was it fbr the freemen to vin-
dicate their rights, so much were they under the private
oontrol of the memben of the select claases, so easy was it
by compromise with the more active individuals to defer the
inquiry, and so unimportant did this firanchise in some
cases appear, that at the present day many corporations are
not emancipated fh>m the influence of these tyrannical pro-
ceedings. The struggle has been violent and expensive ;
the lapse of time had involved the question in new diffiouU
ties ; and several important points on this part of the law
were not settled untd the decision of the case of Chester*
in the House of Lords, after two trials in the country and
one at bar.
' Since the abdication of King James, the government
has abstained fh>m open interfbrence with the liberties of
corporations ; but they have been incessantly disturbed by
the calmls of private parties, for the purpose of influencing
the returns of membera to parliament, the effect of which
has been to bring them more frequently under the inspeo*
tion of ti^e Court of King's Bench, and to introduce a new
system of legal proceedings for the investigation of their
conduct. The ancient writ of Quo Warranto has long ago
fhllen into disuse. The information in the nature of a Quo
Warranto has been moulded into a regular form of action
by the statute of the ninth year of the reign of Anne, aided
by that of the thirty-second of George tbe Third ; and the
determinations of the court. Proceedings on the Writ of
Mandamus have also assumed a similar regularity through
the liberal interpretation of the same statute of Queen Anne,
and those of the eleventh and twelfth yean of George the
Third.'
' But although, since the reign of James IL, no attempt
has been made to recur to the Stuart measures against such
of the corporations as still retained, in whole or in part, a
popular constitution ; yet, as the municipal corporation com-
missionera observe in their late report, ' the chartera which
have been granted since the Revolution are framed nearly
on the model of those of the preceding ere ; they show tf
disregard of any settled or consistent plan for the improve-
ment of municipal policy corresponding with the progress
of society. The chartera of George III. do not differ in this
respect from those granted in the wont period of the history
of these boroughs.'
Resuming the history of their parliamentary relations,
we must observe that under Charles II. was made the latest
addition to the town representation. In that reign, after
repeated attempts, since the time of Henry VIII., made ill
the House of Commons, but defeated by the^ House el
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Lords or the witbhol^nfr of tbe royal assonU to procure it to
be enacted tbat the palatine county of Durham, as well as
that of Chester, should send representatives to the Com-
moos* House, it was at length passed into an act, that the
city of Durham, as well as the county, should thenceforth
send two members; and two members were granted to
Newark by royal charter in reward of its exertions for
Charles I. during the civil war.
It may be remarked, that in tbe assembly which addressed
the Prince of Orange to issue letters for a convention par-
liament, the dty of London again figured very prominently ;
the mayor, aldermen, and fifty of the common council, be-
ing added to the invitation sent to all who had sat in any
House of Commons during the reign of Charles II.
The last important modification in the exercise of the
parliamentary i'ranohise in cities and boroughs generally,
enacted before the present lera, was the provision of an act
of the ninth year of Queen Anne, which disqualifies every
person (except the eldest son of a peer or of a person quali-
Hed to be a knight of the shire) from becoming a member
for a city, borough, or port, who is not possessed of a free-
hold or copyhold estate of 300/. annual value, clear of aJl
incumbrances*
Both the Corporation Act, already specified, and the Test
Act, which required every officer, civil or military, to receive
the Lord's Supper according to the forms of the Established
Church, and to make the declaration against transubstanti-
ation, had for many yean been comparatively imperative,
when, in the year 1828, after their repeal had long been ad-
vocated by the liberal opposition in the House of Commons,
it was made a government measure, and passed into an act.
For some time previous the public opinion against the exclu-
sion for religious opinions, perpetuated by these statutes,
had so fiir preponderated, that it was usual, at the close of
each session of parUament, to pass an act to indemnify such
as had exercised office without complying with their re-
quisitions.
This measure, and the more important one which speedily
followed it, the complete political emancipation of the Ro-
man Catholics, were passed without any direct view to the
amelioration of the representative system. The revolution
of 1688, as we have seen, though it restored a popular con-
stitution to some of the municipalities which bad most re-
cently been deprived of it, removed none of the vices in the
general system. The history of the long period between
tliat event and the introduction of the bill for an extensive
and systematic amelioration of the representative system,
brought into the House of Commons by the ministers of
the crown in 1831, is in a groat measure the history of the
transfer, from various causes, of the political inlluenoe over
parliamentary boroughs from the hands of the crown,
which, for its own purposes, had moulded and adapted them
io be so influenced, to those of private proprietors and
patrons, among whom were always many members of
the House of Lords. Thus there arose a new and un-
precedented parliamentary system. That command of
a majurtty of borough votes in the House of Commons,
which even the later Stuarts had wanted means to realize,
was obtained in the course of the last century, through
the vastly augmented amount of government patronage
arising from the great increase of Llie army, navy, colo-
nial, and all other public departments, the establishment
and rapid growth of the customs and excise, &c., &c.
That, we say, which the Stuart government could not com-
pass by the distribution of money^ later administrations
wero enabled to aooomplish by the distribution of jdace.
The trafficking in the close boroughs, or as they were more
popularly termed, the rotten boroughs—that is, Uie pur-
chasing the power of directly influencing the election of, or
absolutely nominating their members, — became, to use tbe
well-known words of a minister, dehvered in the Commons'
House itself, ' as notorious as the sun at noon-day,' and for
% lon^ and eventful period was almost as little the subject
of animadversion with any considerable portion of tbe
publio.
It belongs to the general history of the House of Com-
mons, to trace in detail the progress of tbe great ques-
tion of ' parliamentary reform,* as the desired amelioration of
the representative house of parliament was so long desig-
nated. [COMMO.NS, HOUSR OF.]
We now come to consiiler the operation of the great
change in the political relations of the cities and boroughs,
lA bringing about th# change in their municipal constitu-
tions. In following tbe new order of mo^wnenls which re*
ceivod its first impulse in the Reform Act, we may alreadv
trace a progress the reverse of that whieh bad been guin^r
on for centuries before. As tbe vitiation of the minifrip«il
constitutions of the towns had been requisite to prepare the
way for their political prostration, —so their political eman>
cipation to so large an extent opened the way towards tbitr
municipal regeneration. The means which tbe wIeMcr* of
prerogative have at all times deemed necessary t> ti^
attainment of their politieal ends, inevitably Mcame a
source uf local evil in the several municipalities* Tlie new
organisation of the representatit'e - system immednte^l^
operated in various ways to force the state of the muninpil
system into consideration. In tbe first place, the extinction
of the most extremely insignificant or decaved parha-
mentary boroughs under that Actt—the extension of die
boundaries of other boroughs, in a measure corresponding
with the growth of the places beyond their antient limits ~
the enfranchising of the groat modem towns,«*->and abot e all,
the vesting of the franchise substantially in the inhabitant
householders,— all combined to exhibit in strong relief I he
great defects of the yet standing corporation system. The
almost superstitious reverence for the mysterious ebarDrter
attributed to corporaiions^A reverence which tbe n\}?ittr
language of crown lawyers respecting them had coiist;intH
been cherishing — was now utterly dissolved ; and men wore
in a condition to place coolly side by side in their contrn.-
plation the proper and legitimate ends of town goTenirn«*nt
itself, and the character of the associated bodies whirh
asserted an imprescriptible right to act as the only iMiru-
ments for attaining those ends.
One singular result of the mystery which, for pnr^«^t««^
which we have already sufficiently indicated, had bc..i
thrown about the being and end of a corporation^ now be-
came distinctly apparent So little, it should seem, ha>l ii
been understood that good local government should be tl.t*
primary object of this body's existenoe, that in the la-^l
acts of parliament which in latter times have been pa^^.-d
fi>r the improvement of nearly all the m^re oonaideniblr
towns, tlie superintendence of the police, and the po«rr«
necessary for watching, paving, lighting, cleaiMin?. ami
supplying the towns with water, instead of being intrusted
to the municipal authorities, had for the roost part bc<»n
committed to various distinct and independent bodics,^<>
although none of these towns were too extensive to be em-
braced by one system of municipal government ; — not indeed
that the inhabitants in any case droired that their munici(«l
authorities should exercise these new powers : for akboocfc
they had not yet discovered what was or should be tbe use of
a municii)al corporation, they were convinced that in the
great majority of instances, constituted as it ihma was, a
was not an engine working to the production of ibeir kcal
well-being.
It is the less wonderful that the inhabitants ofeorponu
towns should have come to this conclusion, when we find,
as appeared in the recent inquiry, tbat few corpoFatioiis ad-
mitted any positive obhgation to spend the surplvs of tbttr
income for objects of public advantage. They regarded
such expenditure as a spontaneous act of private genemuty,
rather than a well-considered application of tbe imblic re^
venue ; and the credit to which tne corporation, lo such a
case, generally considered itself entithsl, was not ihat uf
judicious admtnistratore, but of liberal ben^nKlon^ From
this rooted opinion that the corporate property was held in
trust for the corporate body only, distinct from the commu-
nity with which it was locally connected, the tranaUion was
not unnatural to the opinion that individual corporal r%
might justifiably derive a personal advantage from thai pr^
perty; and aceordingly we find that at Camhrid|:e (be
practice of turning the cornoration property to the profit <if
individuals was avowed ana defended before the utuoitif-;.!
commissioners by a member of the common council.
The operation of the parliamentary Reform Act upon
tbe local affairs of those boroughs in particular wlurb it
wholly disfranchised, and of others in which it de«tro}«ti
the exclusive influence, aflbrded additional iUoatvation as
least as to what was not the use of a raunieipal oorpocm-
tion on the old principle. In many of these the reventM*
were inadequate to the wantsof the municipality, and ti»«
deficiency bad been supplied either from the funds ot tt/.»
patron or by the members for tbe borough. In soaw. bef«HY
the passing of the Reform Act, the members or the patnMi
paid all the municipal expenses ; butj^n«e that epoch thco*
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eoDthboikms had censod, and sneh oorpontiDiiB had no
longer the means of maintaming municipal institotiona of
any JiimL In the case of 6rampound» the mayor had left
the borough upon its disfranchisement, and the corporation
books and accounts had not heen found since ; nor had any
new mayor been elected until the year in which the late
oommiisicMi of municipal inquiry issued.
In compliance with an address of tho House of Commons,
this royal commission to * inquire as to the existing state of
the municipal corporations in England and Wales, and to
collect information respecting the defeots in their consti-
tution ; and to make inouiry also into their jurisdictions and
powers, and the admimstretion of justice, and in all other
respecta ; and also into the mode of electing and appointing
the members and officers of such corporations, and into the
privileges of the freemen and other members thereof, and
into the nature and management of the income, revenues,
and funds of the said corporations, and into the several
local jurisdictions existing within the hmits of England and
Wales,' was issued in July, 1833 ; and the general report of
the commissioners was laid before the king, and before
the House of Commonsi who ordered it to be printed, in
Mareh, 1835. On this general report, with the particular
reports upon the several places appended to it, was founded
the ministerial bill * for the regulation of municipal corpora-
tions in England and Wales/
The total number of municipal corporations in England
and Wales was found by the commissioners to be 246. A
certain number of these, the most inconsiderable in size and
population, beine left for future legislation, and London,
the greatest and most compUcated of all, with its many
wealthy trading companies, each an important corporation,
being reserved as the subject of a distinct bill not yet
brought before parliament, the total number of the cities,
towns, and ports, reconstituted, under the general name of
'boroughs,' bv the Municipal Reform Act, is 178. The
act arranges these in two schedules, each divided into two
sections. The first schedule (A) comprises those boroughs
which are positively to have a commission of the peace.
Their number is 128, and includes all tliose whose popular
tion is large enough to admit of their division into two or
more wards, as also a certain number of those which
are not to be so divided ; die members of their respective
oouucila to be elected under the act vary, acconling to the
population, from 4 aldermen and 12 councillors, which is
the number for Aberystwitb, Abingdon, Andevor, &o., and
is the lowest number allotted by the Act, up to 1 6 aldermen
and 48 councillors, the highest number fixed by the Act,
and assigned only to Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, and Norwich.
This schedule is arranged in two sections ; the first com-
prises those boroughs, 84 in number, the enlarged parlia-
mentary limits of which, as settled by the Boundary Act
accompanying the Parliamentary Reform Act for England
and Waloi* are to be taken as the municipal limits until
altered by act of parliament These, of course, are all par-
liamentary boroughs as well as mimicipah They are :^
Aberystwith, Abingdon, Barnstaple, Bath, Bedford,
Berwick-upon-Tweed, Bridgewater, Bridport, Bristol, Bury
St Edmunds, Cambridge, Canterbury, Cardiff, Carlisle,
Carmarthen, Carnarvon, Chester, Chichester, Colchester,
Dartmoatb, Denbigh* Derby, Devizes, Dorchester, Dover,
Durham, Evesham, Gateshead, Gloucester, Guildford,
Harwich, Haverford-west, Hereford, Hertford, Ipswich,
Kendal, Kidderminster, Kingston-unon-HuU, King's Lynn,
Leeds, Leicester, Leominster, Lichfield, Liverpool, Mac-
desfidd, Monmouth, Neath, Newark, Newcastle- under-
Lyne, Neweastle-upon-Tyne, Newport (Monmouthshire),
Newport (Isle of Wight), Northampton, Norwich, Not-
tingham, Oxford, Pembroke, Peole, Portsmouth, Preston.
Reading. Ripon, Rochester, St Albans, New Serum (Salis-
bury), Scarborough, Shrewsbury, Southampton, Stafford,
Stamrord, Stockport, Sudbury, Sunderland, Swansea, Tiver-
ton, Truro, Warwick, WoUs, Weymouth and Melcombe
Rej»is, Wigan, Winchester, Windsor, Worcester, Great
Yarmouth.
Tho second section of this schedule contains those bo-
roughs, in number 44, the municipal limits of which are to
remain as before the passing of this Act until altere«l by act
of parliament. Of tliese 29 are also parliamentary ; vis.
Andevor, Banbury, Beverley, Bowdley, Boston, Brecon,
Bridgenortb, Clitheroe^ Coventry, Exeter, Falmouth, Gran-
tham, Qrirosby, Hastings, Lancaster, Lincoln, Liskcard,
LMoWf Maidatonoi Maldon, Plymoutbi Pontelhtct, Rich-
mond, St. Ives, TewkesbttiT, Walsafi, Welchpoole, Wen-
lock. York.
And 15 are municipal only >—
Bideford, Chesterfield, Congleton, Deal, Doncaster,
Gravesend, Kingston-upon-Thames, Louth, Newbury. Os-
westry, Penzance, Romsey, Saffron Walden, Stockton^
Wisbech.
The second schedule (6) comprises that portion of the
boroughs of the smallest class not divided into wards, and
having only 4 aldermen and 12 councillors, which are not
to have a commis^on of the peace, except upon petition of
their council and grant by the crown. This schedule, too,
is divided into two sections, ai\er the same manner as the
former. The first section comprises those parliamentary
boroughs whose parliamentary boundary is to be token untd
further legislated upon, in number 9 :—
Arundel, Beaumaris, Cardigan, Llanidloes, Pwlhelt.
Ruthin, Tenby, Thetford, Totnes.
Of the 4 1 contained in the second section of this sche-^
dule, whose municipal limits are to remain as before the
Act until altered by parliament 23 are also parliamentary :—
Bodmin, Buckingham, Calne, Chippenham, Droitwicli*
Eye, Flint Helstone, Huntingdon, Hythe, liaunceston
Lyme Regis, Lymington, MarllMirough, Morpeth, Penryn,
East Reltbrd, Rye, Sandwich, Shaftesbury, Tamworth,
WalUngfonl, Chipping Wycombe.
And 1 8 are municipal only : —
Basingstoke, Beccles, Blandford Forum, Chard, Chipping
Norton, Daventry, Faversham, Folkestone, Glastonbury,
CrodaJming, Godmanchester, Llandovery, Maidenhead, South
Mohon, South Wold, Stratford-on-Avon, Tentenlen, Tor-
rin^ton.
The fixing of the new municipal boundaries is the task
of a distinct commission, which has been actively at work
since the passing of the act Anciently there was no dis-
tinction iHStween municipal and parliamentary limits, be«
cause it was by virtue of its being a municipal town that
each borough sent representatives. But in fixing the new
parliamentary limits under tiie Reform Act regard was
bad to various circumstances, which, in many instances,
occasioned the tracing of a boundary much too wide to
serve conveniently as the limit of a borough inhabitancy.
In many cases however it is probable that the boundaries
will remain as already indicated in the schedules affixed
to the Act, especially in those larger parliamentary boroughs
whose great amount of population made it least necessary,
in settling their limits, to describe a circuit extending
far beyond the more densely inhabited space.
Resides the general inadequacy at the present day of the
antient borough limits in the more populous towns, there
were two other classes of anomalies in the old system, in
relation to this matter, which it is of some importance to
notice. The first was, that in some cases, as at Grrantham
and Brecon, the corporate boundary was not continuous,
but included outlying parcels of ground. The most re-
markable instances of this occur in the Cinque Porte. At
Hastings, for instance, the corporate magistrates had autho-
rity, amongst other places, over two detached precincts dis-
tant from that town forty and fifty miles respectively. And
the town of Ramsgate, as well as the corporate town of
Deal, both at some distance from Sandwich, were under
the jurisdiction of the corporation of the latter town. The
second class- of these anomalies consisted in the precincts
being often locally situated within the limits of the
corporate authority, but exempted from its jurisdiction.
Such existed at York, Lincoln, Norwich, Winchester, and
Chichester. These had usually originated in ecclesiastical
privileges, or had been the site of the castle of the lord of
the borough. In the city of Canterbury there were fifteen
such precincte, though somo of them were in dispute be-
tween the county of Kent and the county of the city.
The Municipal Reform Act removes both the above de-
scriptions of inconveniences. In each borouffh every place
included within the general boundary indicated in the
schedules is to form part of that borough ; but any place
hitherto forming part of a city or borough, but not in-
cluded within tho boundary thus indicated, is henceforward
to be held as part of the county within which it is locally
situated, and not as part of the borough.
In analyzing tho change made by the act in the internal
constitution of the horoughs, we find that the facts natu-
rally resolve themselves into three divisions. The first and
most important coDsists of those relating to t^oonstitutioii
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of the eleoU)vnl hody ; tne second division regtids its orga-
nization for the purposes of local legislation, taxation, and
the other branches of public economy, as the administra-
tion of public property, whether absolute or in trust ; the
appointment, surveillance, and payment of ma^strates,
officers of justice, police, and other departmonte ; the main-
tenance of public works and buildings ; the paving, light-
ing, and cleansing of the town ; the maintaining and im-
provement of thoroughfares, and supply of water. The
tiiird division regards the organization for purposes of local
judicature, comprising all Uiat relates to the constitution
and powers of the local courts and magistracies.
To make the municipal change now effecting distinctly
intelligible, we shall compare, under each of these heads,
the state of the municipalities previous to the late Act, with
the several provisions of the Act itself.
I.— Municipal Oroanuation.
:. Electoral Body or Locai Constituency.
?.Iosl of the governing charters incorporated the men and
inhabitants of Ae borough ; yet, thou^jh very few of them
unequivocally designated the corporate body as a small and
definite number of persons, custom (supported by the si-
lence of the charters as to any general right to the fran-
Miise, and by its disuse and oblivion where any such might
formerly have existed) had in many places practically esta-
blished the same restrietetl constitution. A very numerous
class of corporations existed which might be considered as
occupying a mid^Uc place lii:tNvecu those in which ttie num-
l>er of corporators was indefinite and those in which it was
now treated as nocehsarily definite : this class con8i«te<l of
tiie corporations in which, although there is no doubt, both
from the wording of the charters and the modern practice,
that the number of corporators might be indefinite, it had
been the policy of the ruling body to restrict the number,
so as to retain all the privileges constitutionally belonging
to u lart^e and indefinite bod^ in the hands of a small one.
In a great proportion of the mstances in which the number
of corporators was, both in constitution and fact, large and
indefinite, the freemen had no share in the management
of tlie corporation affairs : this prevailed to so great an
extent, that in such corporations the municipal commis-
sioners often found that the freemen had lon^ ceased to
consider themselves as a part of the corporation ; which
term, in popular language, was applied exclusively to the
ruling body. In some places this notion had been further
refined upon, and a distinction drawn in the large indefinite
body of corporators, between those elected by the ruUng
body and those claiming by an independent right, the
former class alune being treated as forming an integral
part of the corporation.
In those boroughs where the number of corporators was
definite, or hadalways been kept small, the principal mode
of entering the corporation was by nomination of the ruling
body. In some cases, the election must be from among
persons qualified, the most usual qualification being re-
sidence in the borough ; in others the choice was unfettered
by any conditions. This mode of acquiring the freedom
was usually said to be by gift or purchase ; and in fact, a
sum of money varying with the circumstances of the corpo-
ration and supposed value of the franchise, was usually
paid by each corporator on his election. In the boroughs
where, both by charter and in practice, the number of cor-
porators was unlimited, the circumstances under which the
freedom might be demanded of right were very various ;
but almost all might be classed under the general titles of
freedom by birth, by marriage, and by servitude. In a few
places the possession or occupation of property gave a title
to the freedom. Kverywhere, a very few places only ex-
cepted, a distinction was made between the freemen and
the inhabitants. The right of conferring the freedom by
sale or free gift was claimed and exercised by the ruling
body of almost every corporation. Particular officers of the
aorporation, usually the mayor, were frequently allowed to
name a certain number of persons to be admitted to tho
freedom; but although this practice had nearly acquired
the force of positive law, it is not distinguishable in its
origin from the general power exercised by the ruling bod^,
who seem in these instances to have simply acquiesced m
then* officers* nomination.
In many towns, as still in London, it was necess;iry, in
oidor to oomplsto his title* that the party should be first
admitted a membei of eertein guilds or ttading '
of antient institution within the borough, and stiU preaerv*
ing various degrees of coanexion with, and subordination to
the municipal corporation ; a practice which seems to have
been formerly still more prevalent The derivative titW
conferring a right of admission to these guilds was usuahy
of the same kind as that by which the munieipel oorporaiiu*
itself was entered. These guilds were also aocustoncd tu
admit by purchase; but such purchasers neither arquiri^
nor could convey any absolute right to admission into itie
municipal corporation. Occasionally, an incorporated iruii«l
has continuea to exist after its connexion with the muni-
cipal corporation has been almost or wholly dissolved.
The titles from birth, marriage, and apprentioeship, werr
very various in different places. In some^ the right b^
birth was enjoyed only by the children of freemen h'^n
within the borough; in others, by children of freeonn
wherever born ; in some, the father's admission at any umo
conferred the inchoate right on all his ohildiei) whenr%cr
born; in others, only on those bom after, and in ma.i%.
only on the first son born after his admission. Less var.i*i«
is found in the nature of the title which a freemai ^
daughter or widow roust possess, to enable her toottntt
the privilege. The right by apprenticeship has usuaiW \u .
crued by service under indeiitaros lor scTOn years to a ir* •
man within Uic borough : service at sea has geoeially U • «
considered m the light of service witliin the borough wh* r.
the vessel belonged to its port: in some banrnglu having
trading companies, the binding and service must be u> ut.*-
of the company in the trade peculiar to that company.
Defects of late system, — The capital defect was that u.
corporate bodies existed independently of theoommuiiUv <-
in which they were. In most of them, the right to t! ?
freedom, or citizenship, or burgess- ship, had been restri (< i
to a much smaller class than that which formerly ptr^e?^ !
it. ' Without inquiring,* say the municipal commissi 'i.*-^
*when corporations in this country assumed their pu^ :
form, it may be safely asserted that the body, lM9i«i'vr
named, which was originally intended to share, aud w: :• .
in fact did share, in the rights which the early charter* ft. .
ferred, embraced the great mass of the householders ar -
habitants. By degrees, exclusive qualifications wen* i -
sisted on with increasing strictness, and with new e\o:»
tions, as the privileges to whioh these exclusive bodies la .
claim rose in importance. This importaBce agam «n.
enhanced by the narrowing of the access to the pnviW-^r^ ,
and the consequent diminution of the number of individ*. .
sharing in its advantages.*
Accordingly in most places all identity of inteieat betw ^
the corporation and the inhabitants had disappeared. T.
was the case even where the corporation induOMl a large U* .«
of inhabitant freemen. It appeared in a more striking de^ •
as the powers of the corporation became restricted to smaut-r
proportions of the resident population, and still more ^''^ -
mglv when the local privileges ha!i been conferred on lv. .•
resident freemen to the exclusion of * the inhabtlantK : •
whom,* say the commissioners, 'they rightfully ought '
belong.' Some corporations, inde^, were oeca^ion. .
spoken of as exercising their privileges through a popu .
body ; but in the widest sense in which the term popu.xr
body was apphed to corporate towns, it designated only tu
whole body of freemen; and in most towns the frvetuto
were a small number compared with the respectable mim-
bitants interested in their municipal govMmment* and \* •^
sessing every qualification, except a legal one, to take v ' ^
in it. In Plymouth, for instance, where the populaXi
including Devonport, exceeded 75,000, the number of ir*-
men was only 437, of whom 145 were non-residenu i'l
Norwich, the great majority of inhabitant houaeholden st* i
rate-payers were excluded from the corporate body : w....^
pau pel's, lodgers, and others, paying neither rates nor taxr«.
were admitted to the functions of freemen, and formrvi i
considerable part of the corporation. The case of Ip^v k.m
affords another remarkable iliustration. Out of more tl- i.i
20,000 inhabitants, the resident freemen formed about s
fifty -fifth part Of these more than one* third wen i
rated; and of those who were rated many were exitu-^ i
Dayment. About one-ninth of the whole were poup. . •
More than ll-12ths of all the property assessed in •: «
borough belonged to those excluded from the eorporatt .
Of the inhabitants taxed under a local aet for munu- > «t
purposes, less than 1-I5th were freemen: and of the a>*
sesMd taxes paid in the boioHgh less then l-20lh «ae paid
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ky IIm whole corporate body. The ocfndition or these he^
men expoMd tliem to bribery and undue influence, and
advsnU^ was taken of that condition to establish the most
deoionUizing practices. A further illustration of the vast
disproportion existing under the old system between the
%etaal basis of constituency and that which the inhabitancy
would have suggested, appears in a table given in the com-
laiftioiiftrs* Report, of sixteen of the largest English cities
and boroughs, which, with a collective population of 715,702
within their parliamenUry boundaries, had only 34,697
freemen of all classes, resident and non-resident.
The political importance which the election of members
of parliament has in later times conferred upon these go-
verning bodies, and the revrards for political services thus
brought within the reach of the ruling corporators, had
caused the exercise of the parliamentary franchise to be
oft«n regarded as the sole purpose of a municipal institu-
tion ; and in some boroughs this right has even survived all
other traces of municipal authority. The custom of keep-
ing the corporators as few as possible is referable rather to
thui cause than to the mere desire of monopolizing the mu-
nicipal authority, which has been coveted almost exclu-
sively as the means of securing the other and more highly
prised privilege. Hence a great number of corporations
iia^-e been preserved solely as political engines, the re-
spective towns deriving no benefit, biit often much injury,
irom their existence. 'To maintain the political ascend-
ancy of a party,* say the commissioners, * or the pNolitical
influence of a family, has been the one end and object for
which the powers intrusted to a numerous class of these
))odies have been exercised.' The most flagrant abuses
arose from this perversion of municipal privileges to political
ends. The commissioners generally found that those cor-
porstions which had not possessed the pariiamentary fran-
chise, had most faithftilly performed the duties of town
k'ovemment, and had consequently acouired more than
others the confidence and good- will of the communities to
winch they were attached. Such was found to be the case
in some where the ruling body was strictly self-elected, and
the general constitution liable to the same objections as the
HI eat majority of corporations.
It yvsis likewise with a view to the lucrative exercise of
tho elective franchise that admission into the corporate body
was commonly sought. In those towns where a large bodv
of freemen returned the members, the years in which
elections happened, or immediately preceding those in
which they were expected, have been marked by the ad-
mission of a number greatly exceeding the average. Mal-
dun and Bristol present two remarkable instances : at the
former, in one election year, 1870 freemen were admitted,
the annual average since then being only 17 ; at the latter,
in another election year, 1720 were admitted in lien of the
aooual average of 50. The number of admissions, since the
Reform Acst abolished the exclusiveness of the freemen's
right of parliamentsry election, had remarkably fallen olF;
and the corporate officers, in the course of the recent in-
luiry, expressed their conviction that the revenue from
admission fees would thenceforward diminish, and in some
places entirely fail
The election to municipal offices, too, has often been a
trial of strength between political parties ; and instances of
(systematic bribery to secure such elections, appear at Maid-
stone, Norwich, Ipswich, Liverpool. Oxford, Hull. &c.
Thus have the inhabitants had to complain, not only that
the choice of their magistrates and their miinicipal func-
tionaries was made by an inferior class of themselves, or by
persons uneonnected with the town, but also of the disgrace-
ful practices by which the magisterial office was fVequ^ntly
attained ; while those who, by character, residence, and pro-
perty, were best qualified to direct its municipal affairs,
were excluded from any share either in the management or
tlie elections.
Another great source, in the late system, of unfair and in-
jurious limitation of the municipal franchise, must not be
'j^erlooked. Ilie Test and Corporation Acts, until their
repeal not many years ago, excluded from the corporate
Ujdies the whole mass of English Roman Catholics and
'iissentofs. Against the latter especially, whose numerical
{proportion to iSe whole population of the kingdom has in
ater times so rapidly increased, the operation of those acts
was most seriously prejudicial to the public welfare ; and
since their repeal the measure has been found to have little
ptietieal eftet, owing to the self-elective constitution of the
old ruling bodies, still leaving in their hands an arbitraiT
power of admission or exclusion.
Changes introduced into the local constituencies by the
Municipal Reform Act for England and Wales,— The most
important change Is the recognition and adoption of the two
great principles upon which alone a municipal establish-
ment can be usefully based ; — first, that the primary
object of such an establishment should be the welfare of the
residents within the municipality ; — secondly and conse-
quently, that the constituency should comprise all those,
and only those, who contribute to the local burdens and are
liable to the local services. A termination is thus put to
that mischievous power so long exercised by the general ^
vernment of the country, and by individuals holding politi-
cal patronage, in modifying, enlarging, or restricting the
nominal constituencies of so large a portion of the English
municipalities, for the promotion of political or private ob-
jects exclusively, to the total disregard, and often in open
contempt, of the well-being of the communities which they
professed to regulate.
The Act provides, that every male person of full age, not
an alien, who, on the last day of August in any year, shall
have occupied any house, warehouse, counting-house, or
shop, within any borough during that year and the whole of
the two years preceding, and during that period shall have
been an inhabitant householder within such borough or
within seven miles of it by the nearest route, shall be a
burgess of that borough, if duly enrolled in that year as
below stated. But to be entitled to this enrolment he must
have been rated to the relief of the poor, during such time
of occupancy, for his premises within the borough, and must
have paid, on or before the last day of August in that year,
all poor-rates and all borough-rates (if any) under this Act,
payable by him in respect of such premises, except such as
become payable within six calendar months before the said
last day of August. It is not necessary that, during the
period in question, he should have continued to occupy the
same premises. Any person occupying as above stated
may claim to be rated to the relief of the poor, whether the
landlord of the premises be liable to be so rated or not. And
upon his so claiming, and paying or tendering the amount
of the rate last payable, the overseers are bound to put his
name upon the rate ; and if they omit to do so, he is still to
be deemed to be rated from the period of making such rate.
And where any such premises shall come to any person by
descent, marriage, marriage settlement, devise, or promo-
tion to any benefice or office, he will be entitled to reckon
the occupancy and rating of the former possessor as his
own, and to add it to his own period of occupancy for the
purpose of enrolment as a burgess. No person may be so
enrolled who within twelve months before the last day of
August in any year shall have received parochial relief or
other alms, or any pension or charitable allowance from any
fund hold by trustees in the borough ; but neither charitable
medical or surgical aid given by trustees of the borough,
nor the education of achHd in any public or endowed school,
is to disqualify for enrolment.
On the 5th of September in every year, the overseers of
tho poor of each parish or township, wholly or partly within
any borough, aro to make out an alphabetical list, to be
culled ' The Burgess List,' of all persons who shall bo entitled,
by the qualification above stated, to be enrolled in the
burgess-roll of that year in respect of property within such
parish, &c. ; inserting therein the Christian name and sur-
name of each person at full length, the nature of the pro-
perty rated, and the street, lane, or other place in the parish
or township where the property is situated. The over-
seers are to sign these lists and deliver them to the town-
clerk of the borough (appointed as hereafter stated), or to
the person acting in his stead, on the said 5th of Sep-
tember, and to keep a true copy of them to be perused by
any person, without payment of any fee, at all reasonable
hours between the 5th and 1 5th of September ; and the town-
clerk is to have copies of all the lists printed, for sale to any
Serson, at a reasonable price per copy, and to have a copy
xed in a public situation within the borough, on every day
during the week preceding tbe 15th of September.
Every person whose name shall have been omitted In the
list, and who shall claim to have it inserted, must give no-
tice in writing to the town-clerk or his deputy, on or before
the 15th of September, describing the nature, period, parish
or other place of his occupancy and rating, and subscribed
with his name and place of abode.
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The bur^esi-HsU, when revised by tlie mayor and two
ns-.cs'ors (elected as hereafter described), and sii^ned (as
provided ft)r in the Act), are to be deUvered !)y the mayor
to the town- clerk, who is to keep them, and cause them
to be accurately copied into one general alphabetical list,
in a book provided by hira for that purpose, with every
name numbered in regular series. If any burgess be
rated for distinct premises in more wards than one, he will
be entitled to be enrolled and to rote in such ward as he
shall select, but not in more than one. And for the better
ascertaining who are the burgesses of any ward, the town-
clerk of any borough divided into wards is to cause the bur-
gess-roll to be made out in alphabetical lists of the bur-
gesses, to be called • Ward Lists/ The books are to be com-
pletefl on or before the i2nd of October in every year; and
the town-clerk, at the expiration of his office, must deliver
them, together with the lists, to his successor. Every such
book into which the burgess-lists have been copied, is to be
the burgess-roll of the burgesses of the borough entitled to
vote in any election of councillors, assessors, or auditors of
the borough that may take place between the 1st of Novem-
ber inclusive in the year in which such burgess-roll shall
have been made, and the 1st of November in the following
year. The admission, registry, and enrolment of burgesses
are to be free from stamp-duty, which, in a large proportion
of cases, formed, under the old system, the heaviest part of
the expense of admissions to borough freedom.
The town- clerk is also to cause copies of the bur^ss-roU
in every year to be written or printed, and is to dispose of
them to all persons applying for copies, at a reasonable price
for each. The proceeds or the sale of thescof the over-
seers' lists, and of the hsts of claims and objections, are
to be paid to the treasurer of the borough on account of the
borough fund, out of which the expenses of their preparation
are to be defrayed ; and the council are to reimburse to the
overseers of the poor, out of the borough fund, all reason-
able expenses incurred by them in relation to the burgess-
list^.
The reader may refer to the Act itself, or to the abstract in
the ' Companion to the Almanac fur 1 836,* for many of the
details of this and other parts of the Act, which it would be
unnecessary to insert here.
IL— Organization for Local Governmknt.
This part of our subject involves the consideration of three
distinct though closely relative departments, the legislative,
the executive, and the viinisteiial,
1. Constitution, Designation, and Powers of the Legis-
lative Body.
Under the late system the legislative body generally
consisted of a single select assembly called the common
counril, presided over by the executive officer of the muni-
cipality ; though in some boroughs, as Ipswich, Carmarthen,
and Berwick-upon-Tweed, it consisted of the freemen at
large. The body of the council however was often com-
posed of two classes, the superior class being generally de-
signated as aldermen, the inferior simply as common coun-
rilmen. In manv places the aldermen, or those of analo-
gous station in the corporation, had real municipal powers
beyond those of the other members of the council ; in others
the distinction was merely honorary ; in a few there were
more than two classes in the common council : in many,
the presence of a majority of each class of the common
council was necessary to constitute it a legal assembly, the
instances being rare in which the aldermen met also bv
themselves as a separate deliberative chamber; although
in some, as at Hull and Pontefract, the executive officer and
the aldermen, or analogous functionaries, constituted the
whole council. The recorder, a legal officer, was occa-
sionally constituted by charter a memltcr of the common
council ; and in some towns other corporate officers were
members of it ex officio. The same form of legislation, by
a mayor and common council, had been pres^ rved in the
corporations whose number was definite, and in those in
which the number, though indefinite, had been purposely
kept low : in the former case, the common council generally
comprised the whole corporation, and in the latter neariy
the whole.
The members of the council were elected, in the great
majority of instances, by the council itself, or by that divi-
sion of it commonly designated as aldermen. In some eases I
they were nominated by the exeeotita mmieiptl oill<«r
usuallv term^ mayor. The election was generally fof
life : the qualification of residence, though sometimes ne-
cessary, was often little regarded. The aldermen generally
filled up vacancies in their own body from the other branch
of the common council ; in other cases their class consisted
of all who had filled the executive office : the aldermen, like
the common councilmen, were usually chosen for life. Xjtwi
don and Norwich afford instances of the election, by 1ar<-o
bodies of freemen, both of aldermen and common counrH ,
the latter in both cities being chosen annually.
The functions of the governing councils, which tJie
original charters of most boroughs must be considertMl a%
having sanctioned rather than created, might be rlasxrd
under four distinct heads— the appointment of officers, tlie
making of bye-laws or local regulations, the le^^tng of tl c*
various denominations of rates or local taxes, and the ma-
nagement of the corporate property and revenues. In i
great number of corporations however the power of makif.^
bye-laws had long fallen into disuse. In some case* il^cy
were offered for approval or confirmation to a more p^uMr
assembly ; and some charters required them to be approt «■ *
by the judges of assize. Many corporations had the po % rr
of enforcing their bye-laws by fine and imprisonment* lust
these powers had of late been little exercised. In scarrch
any instance have the members of the council, as sun*.
legally received any salary or emolument In London i -
deed allowances are made for regular attendance on \\. •
committees, in which the great mass of business is prepait*:
for the consideration of the common council.
The acknowledged defects in the late legislative const 'f*x-
tion of the English boroughs bear a close affinity to Ukw
above indicated in the composition of the general con>?!<
tuency. As the commissioners remark, the exclusive sri
party spirit which belonged to the whole corporate U'i«.
appeared still more strikingly in the councils by which, tn
most cases, it was governed. It has been stated that tfiv
members of these councils were usually self-elected and i'^^
life. They were commonly of one political party, and tl«" •
proceedings were usually directed to secure and perpetuate
that party's ascendency. Individuals of adverse politu-i:
oninions were, in most cases, systematically excluded f^•n
tuo legislative council. Since the repeal of the Corpora t: o
and Test Acts, and the removal of the civil disabi!itj^« c-'
the Roman Catholics, we find very few instances in wh^-j
either Catholics or Dissenters, though often forming a c:
merous. respectable, and wealthy portion of the inhabrtan'^.
have been chosen into the governing body. These cooonls
embodying the opinions of a single party, were intn:*t--:
with the nomination of magistrates, of the civil and cnm r :.
judges, frequently of the superintendenU of police, and »«r •.
or ought to have been, the leaders in every measure that r ..- -
cemed the welfare of their town ; yet, so far from being ih-'
representatives either of its population or its property , thi %
did not even represent the privileged class of memen : ir« .
being elected for life, their proceedings were unchecked • ^
any consciousness of responsibility. The discharge of tSe .-
functions was rendered difficult by the dislike and suspte : .
which the mode of their election inevitably entailed up '
them. Hence also the carelessness often observable in tn
performance of their duties ; while persons well qualifier! f •
the council were excluded, sometimes for want or vacanrir-
sometimes through rejection by the electing body, smti*^
times through their own refusal to identify themcelVes w »:
a system of which they disapproved. The common coun-
of London is cited by the commissioners as a sttikinc «-x
ception to the system of self-election for life, and a rem?- v-
able instance of the absence of the oonseouent evils. As i .:.
it has been part of the general system of close eor^orat: i «
that all their affairs should be managed with the strKt'-^:
secrecy, sometimes even enforced by oaths admtnist<>Tv^ t
the members of the common council. The inhabitnnts sv -
ject to their authority had often very imperfect inform&ti
as to its nature and extent ; knew not whether it flowed frv iz
prescription, from charters, or from bye-laws, uid had t> •
means of ascertaining it but the troublesome and expen^i*
one of applying to the superior courts for a writ of vsondbv^ •
or quo warranto. The bye-laws made or repnicU «f-.-
scldom published, and the publio generally learned IN -
provisions only from common rumour. This ignoranrv ^ :
sometimes shared by the members of the corpomtioii ir<«- ■'
so that both charters and bye-Uws were frequently \ic<rv ^
with impunity. r^ r\r\c^\o
Digitized by VnOOV IC
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% Conihiutioih Designation, and Powen of ike Executive
Office.
The executive officer of the muxiicipalit7» or 'head of the
eorpontion,* as he has commonly been called, has, in all
instances* heen constituted by annual election. In a very
few corporations of indefinite number, as at Berwick-upon-
Tweed and Ipswich, the freemen at lar^e had an unrestricted
power of choosing any one from iheu: own number. In
some, they chose him from the aldermen or the common
oouncilmen ; in others, from two or more nominated by the
gOTeming body. Most commonly, the court of aldermen or
common council elected him from the aldermen or common
councilmen. In some places, he was presented by the jurors
of the court leet. In several, the same person was re-
eligible only ^er a given interval. In a great majority of
the Eugliah and Webb boroughs, the executive officer bore
the Anglo-Norman designation of mayor; in a few, that of
baiUff'; and occasionally, but rarely, the old Saxon title of
portreve. Some of the governing charters gave him the
power of appointing a deputy.
The head of the corporation, beiides presiding over the
goveminf council and acting as its executive arean, has
univers^y been, by virtue of his office, the head of the
local judicature also. He commonly received a salary : in
some small boroughs he has taken the whole corporate
revenue without account ; but more usually a fixed sum has
been paid him, besides tolls, which have often been collected
exclusively in his name and on his behalf. Having been
generally expected to exercise hospitality towards the other
members of the corporation, and distinguished visitors of the
town, it is probable that, on the whole, more has been ex-
pended in this way than has been realised from the ordinary
emoluments of the office. In some boroughs no emolument
whatever has been attached to it
In some cases, the duties of the mayor have been wholly
neglected, either firom want of capacity or of will ; occa-
sionally from non-residence. In some Doroufflu the same
mayor was continued from year to ^ear; and in others it
was customary to elect two or three individuals in rotation.
The effect of entrusting his* election to the freemen, consti-
tuted OS their body has generally been, was to degrade the
office in the estimation of the persons to be governed. The
charters usually limit the executive officer's power of ap-
pointing a depu^ to occasions of his illness or necessary
absence, plainly importing that residence in the town was
an implied condition of his holding such office. But al-
though the mayor was usually resident, the practice of de-
viating from the charter by appointing a deputy for the
whole year had become generaL
Changes made hy the Municipal Reform Act in the Con^
stitution. Designation, and Powers of the Legislative
Bndy.
It i« here that the House of Peers in its legislative
capacity has most decidedly and impwtantly interposed.
Living the constituency on the broaa basis fixed for it by
the fir«t bill sent up from the Commons, that is, on the
rate- paying^ quahfication, more extensive than the 10/. suf-
Irage of the parhamentary constituencies, it proceeded to
re-model Uie simple constitution which the Commons had
fixed for the governing councils. Ttiey had enacted that
fur the future each municij^ bodv should be styled simply
' The mayor and burgesses of such or such a borough, and
the constitution of each was to be purely popular; the go-
verning QouncU, consisting of one class only, to be chosen
one-third yearly by the burgesses at large, and subject to no
qualification of property, fiut the Lords have introduced a
distinct class of aldermen elected for a term of years, so that
the future style of every corporate body is to be * The mayor,
aldermen^ and burgesses of the borough of » and they
bare also made high pecuniary quslifications requisite for
the holding of any municipal office, even as a member of
the council or local representative assembly.
The governing council then, or local legislature of each
borough, is to consist of a mayor, aldermen, and councillors,
and to be called ' the council of the borough.*
The ntunber of councillors to .be elected for each ward in
boroughs so divided is to be fixed by the revising barristers
who deterxnine the limits of the wards; and who are, in as-
signing the proportions, to have regard to the number of
persons rated, and the amount of the poor-rates paid in each
respectively. The number of couDciUors in each ward is to
No. 298.
(THE PBNNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
be a number divisible by three (as one>tYiird quit office
every year), and the particulars of the number ass gned to
each /Ward are to be submitted to the king in council, and
published in the * London Gazette/ and a copy is to be de-
posited with the town-clerk of the borough.
The councillors are to be elected by the burgesses who
have been duly enrolled in each borough, and in boroughs
divided into wards the councillors for each ward are to be
elected by the burgesses of that ward only ; and should the
same person be elected councillor for more than one ward at
the same election, he must make choice of one within three
days, or in default the mayor is to name the ward for which
he shall serve. One-thiid of Uie number is to go out of
office every year, and an annual election of one thinl of the
whole numoer of councillors is to take place. The order in
which those who may be chosen at the first election are
annually to retire, is to be that of being returned by the
smallest number of votes; and, in case of an equality of
votes, the determination is to be made by a majority of the
council ; and after two-thirds have thus retired, those always
who have been for the longest time in office without re-
election are to go out ; but they may be immediately re-
elected if duly qualified.
The number of aldermen in every borough is to be one-
third of the number of councillors. They are to be elected
every Uiird year by the council for the time being from the
councillors, or firom the burgesses qualified to be councillors,
and one-half only of their number is to go out of office at
each election ; so that each alderman willin fact be elected
for six years. Immediately after the first election the al-
dermen who shall retire at the expiration of the/r#/ three
years are to be named by the councillors, and afterwards
the order of retiring will be that of length of time in office
without re-election ; but the retiring aldermen are not to
vote at the election of a new alderman.
We shall here speak of the mayor only as head of the
local legislature, leaving his executive and magtsteria*
functions for subsequent notice. He is to be annually
elected by the council out of the aldermen or councillors.
The property qualification for mayor, alderman, or coun-
cillor is the same ; namely, in boroughs divided into four
wards or mors, the clear possession of 1000/. in real or per-
sonal estate, or being ratea to the relief of the poor upon Uie
annual value of not less than 30/. ; and in boroughs not
divided into wards, or divided into less than four, tne clear
possession of 500/., or being rated upon the annual value
of IS/. In order to be elected councillor or alderman a
Con must be entitled to be on the burgess^roU of the
ugh; and during his continuance in either of these
offices, or in that of mayor, he must also continue to possess
the above-named quahfication in property or rating to die
relief of the poor.
Every person on being elected mayor, alderman, or coun-
cillor must make or subscribe before two or more aldermen
or councillors the folbwing declaration, or one to the same
effect: —
* I, A. B., having been elected mayor (or alderman, or
councillor) for the borough of • do hereby declare that
I take the same office upon myself, and will duly and faith-
fully fulfil the duties thereof according to the best of my
judgment and ability ; [and in the case of the party being
qutui/hed by estate, «av]— And I do hereby declare that!
am seised or possessed of real or personal estate, or both [as
the case may be], to the amount of 1000/., or 500/. [as the
case may require], over and above what will satisfy all my
debts.*
The mayor and aldermen are to continue ex officio mem-
bers of the council while they hold their respective offices,
notwithstanding that it is provided that councillors shall go
out of office at the end of three years.
No person in holy wden, or being the regular minister
of a dissenting congregation, or holding any office or place
of profit, other than that of mayor, in the aift or disposal of
the council, or having directly or indirectly, by himself or
his partner, any share or interest in any contract or em-
ployment connected with the council, is to be qualified to
be elected, or to be a member of the council ; but the pro-
prietors or shareholders of any company for insuring, light-
ing, or supplying water to the borougb, are not to be dis-
qualified thereby.
Bvery person duly qualified who shall have been elected
to the office of mayor, alderman, or counciUoc, must accept
such office, or pay to the corporation such a fine, not ex-
Digitiz^^b^^Q.9Pgle
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oeeding lOOL ia the cue of mayor, or 50/. in the ease of
alderman or councillor, as may be determined by a bye-law
of the council. Or if he do not make and subscribe the
required declaration within five days after his election, he
will be liable to pay the same fine, and a new election is to
take place.
Every person above sixty-five years of age, or who has
served the ofiice, or paid a fine for not serving, within five
years previously, is to be exempted from serving if he claim
exemption within five days after notice of his election. Mi-
litary, naval, and marine officers on full pay, and persons
employed and residing in any of his Majesty's dock-yards,
victuallinff establishments, arsenals, or barracks, are not to
he compelled to accept office.
Councillors, — The election of councillors is to tahe place
on the 1st of November in every year. Every burgess en*
rolled at the time of the election, and such only, will be eu'
titled to vote. At any election the mayor, if he shall deem
it expedient for the purpose of taking the poll, may cause
booths to be erected or rooms to be hired for different parts
of the borough. He is to appoint a poll-clerk at each booth
or compartment of a booth, and is to cause to be fixed con-
spicuously on the booths the names of the parts for which
they are respectively allotted. It is expressly provided that
henceforth no municipal election (as in the Parliamentary
Reform Act it was provided respecting parliamentary elec-
tions) shall be held in any churcn, chapel, or place of public
worship.
Every election of councillors must be held before the
mayor for the time being and the assessors, acting by
deputy in the different booths, except in boroughs divided
into wards. In the latter case the first election after such
division is to be held before the mayor, or the person whom
he shall appoint in each ward ; and in each succeeding year
the election in each ward is to be held before the aldetman
whom the councillors of that ward shall yearly appoint for
that purpose, and before the two assessors of that ward, in
the same manner as the elections for undivided boroughs
are to be held before the mayor and assessors.
The mayor and assessors are to examine the voting-
papers delivered in by the electors; and in case of an
equality in the number of votes for any two or more persons,
the mayor and assessors, or any two of them, are to name
from among those having the equal number of votes one or
more, as may be necessary to make up the number requisite
to be chosen. The mayor id to cause the voting-paper to
be kept in the town-clerk's office for six calendar months at
Isast after each election ; and the town-clerk is to permit
any burgess to inspect the voting* papers of any year on
payment of \s. for each search. If at the time when an
election must take place the mayor should be dead, absent,
or otherwise incapable of acting, the council is forthwith to
elect one of the aldermen to execute these powers and
duties in place of the mayor. In the first election (1835) of
councillors, assessors, and auditors, the mayor alone is to
act in the same manner in which it is provided that the
mayor and assessors shall do jointly in succeeding elections,
Aldermen. — Alter the first year (1835), the council of
eac*h b<>rou)^h for the time being are to elect one half of the
total number of aldermen on the 9th of November in every
third year. Any extraordinary vacancy is to be filled up
h^ the council electing some qualified person, within ten
days after its occurrence, on a day to be fixed by the mayor.
And in case any councillor shall be elected alderman, then
the vacancy thus created in the council is to be supplied in
the manner above described. But after the full number of
councillors regularly elected in any year shall have declared
their acceptance of office, no new election is to take place
on account of an extraordinary vacancy alone, unless by it
the remaining number of councillors is reduced to two-thirds
or less of the whole number for the borough. Every person
chosen alderman to supply a vacancy, is to hold office until
his predecessor would regularly have gone out.
Mayor. — The mayor is to be elected by the council. The
first election being postponed by Order in Council to the
Ist of January, 1836; future elections are to take plao^
yearly on the 9th of November, commencing with the No-
vember of the same year. In case of a vacancy ocx:urring
during the year of office by non-acceptance, death, or resig-
nation, the council are to elect another qualified person
within ten days, to hold office for the remainder of the cur-
rent year.
For the prevention of bribery at municipal elections* »
penalty of 50/. is enacted against the party either takm;* or
offering a bribe, to be recovered, with full costs, by an> (^r*.i*
who will sue for it in any of his majesty's courts of m*< ^rd
at Westminster.
Powers of the Council, and RegtUation qfits Meehn^s —
The appointing of officers, the enacting of local regulauoii^.
and the levving of local taxes, are distinctly reooguizod ) v
the Act as the three principal powers to be exercised by t:.c
local legislature.
The council are to appoint the town-elerfc, the treasurer,
and such other officers as have been yearly appointe«l /.r
the borough, or as they shall think necessary for the exe-
cution of the powers and duties vested in them by this An.
and may discontinue such appointments as in their opiii. u
may cease to be necessary ; they may take such iecuru> a«
they think proper from each, and are to direct such aWfw-
anoes to be paid to the mayor, town-clerk* treasurer, sl-!
other officers, as they shall think reasonable. They ^-c
empowered to remove any ministerial officer of the corpoi . -
tion who may be in office at the date of the first election • t
councillors under this Act, and to fix the compensauon t^
be paid to such officer, subject to appeal to the Lords oi tli?
Treasury.
They are also empowered to make byis-laws 'for the gond
rule and government of the borough, and for prevent*.! n
and suppression of all such nuisances as are not already p-.:.
nishabie in a summary manner by virtue of any act in fur- '.•
throughout such borough,* and to appoint fines for ^^l.. :.
offences, not exceeding 5/. But all bye-laws must be ma '••
by two- thirds of the council at least, and are not tot.ik'
effect until forty days after a copy shall have been *^t.:,
sealed with the borough seal, to one of the principal se<"
taries of state, and have been fixed up in some pubhc p! .
in the borough— within which perioa the king in cour,< :
may disallow any such by-law wholly or in part, or r
some later day for its coming into force. The council :
further empowered to levy a borough-rate and a teatrh-m- .
to appoint a toatch^committee, and to demise and lease t: -^
borough lands, tenements, &c. under certain restrictions.
All acts done by the council, and all questions bru^i:! '
before them, are to be decided by a majority of the uh-:.
hers present ; but the whole number present muss n< -t >
less than one-third of the whole number of the counc
The mayor, if present, is to preside ; or, in his absence, •^u -.
alderman, or in the absence of all the aldermen, such ron-
cillor, as the assembled council shall choose for chairman -
that meeting ; and the chairman is to have the castiii<; i-
Minutes of the proceedings of all such meetings are t >
kept, signed by the presiding member, and to be opcu t
the inspection of any burgess, on payment of one shiUru'
In every instance a summons, signed by the t«>«
clerk, stating the business of the meeting, is to be \vf\ :i
the residence or premises of every member of the coun .
three days before the meeting, and no business is t -
transacted at such meeting but that specified in the ootir-.
There must be four quarterlv meetings of the couofni t
every year for the transaction of general business, of u :.. .;
no notice need be given.
Mayor, as an executive head q/* the borough watder tf,
new Act. — ^The mayor has already been spoken of a« t -
presid/ent of the borough legislature. In this plaoe ne m^-.
mention that precedence within the borough is di»tii;i*i. .
assigned him in the Act; and that, in accordance with .i.;
previous usage, he is to be returning officer in all pari a-
mentary boroughs, excepting those cities and towns whsrii.
being counties of themselves, have sheriffs of their v^i
And if from any cause, in any borough wherein the mj^ .iz
is returning officer, there be no mayor at the time of a p^: -
liamentary election, the council are to elect one of the al<i r
men to be returning officer. And in any case in «): ..
there ahall be more than one mayor within the limits 1 1 ^
parliamentary borough, the mayor of that municipal boctn*.. ..
to which the writ of election is directed is to be the retu . •
ing officer.
A new class of officers, under the name of assessrtri, :%
created by the Act, to assist in each borough, and in ea-:i
ward in boroughs divided into wards, in revising the bur^r^^
lists, and presiding at municipal elections. Of tl.. ^>
officers there are to be two in boroughs not divided u ;
wards, and two for each ward in bodruughs which are ^ •
divided. They are to be annually elected by the bux^*»^-.
at large ; and their pecuniary qualifieation must be* :t •
same in avexy respect as thai of coimniUoca^ j^rpry perbM:.
Digitized by '
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211
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must accept office when elected; and must make and
Bubseribe the declaration of aoeeptance and qualificalion
within fire days, as required in the case of mayor, alder-
man, and councillor.
The office of the assessors is» to revise the burgess-ksts
in conjunction with the mayor, at the annual courts to be
held for that purpose ; to be present with the mayor or an
alderman, in the respective boroughs or wards, at each an-
nual election of councillors, auditors, and of those who are
to succeed them in the office of assessor ; and to ascertain
and declare the result of such elections.
3. Minuterial Officers ; their Appointment^ Designation,
tmd Functions.
The chief ministerial officers of a borough, as hitherto
constituted, have been the public secreUry and general
adviser of the corporation, called most frequently the town-
clerk, though sometimes the common-clerk ; and ^he trea-
surer, or depositary of the public revenue and keeper of the
public accounts, commonly stvled chamberlain. Both these
officers have been appointed during good behaviour, usually
by the common council ; the former sometimes, and the latter
in a great majority of instances, out of their own body.
In a fbw places, the town-clerk wai named by the re-
corder, and occasionally he was nominated or approved by
the crown. In some towns he was elected yearly by the
freemen from themselves ; and in most, it was necessary
that he should be a freeman. He was generally required
to reside in the borough, and usually was an attorney. He
had generally a salary, which however in most cases was
little more than nomintd ; the real indueement fbr holding
the situation being the legal business, for which he was
paid according to the usual scale of professional Charges^ or
the introduction to private practice through his connexion
with the members of the oorpHoration.
The chamberlain's duties have been, to receive the reve-
nues, make the requisite payments to the order of the com-
petent authorities, keep Uie acoountSb and superintend the
corporation property. In some instances the head of the
corporation acted as treasurer ; in which case* as in eveiy
other in which the chamberlain was a member of the com-
mon council, he commonly bebnged to the body by which
his accounts were audited. But in some larg^ towns, as
London, Bath, and Bristol, this has never been the case.
The chamberlain has been sometimes paid by a poundage
on the income collected by him, but more frequently by a
salary, and by the profit of balances left in his hands : in
corporations where his receipts were considerable, he was
often required to give security.
Inferior officers were found, more or less numerous, in all
the corporate cities and towns. These were eitlier officers of
ceremony, as sword-bearers, mace-bearers, &c.,— of police,
as constables, Serjeants at mace, or town-seijeants,— and
others, as beadles, criers, Stc.» whose functions are suffi-
ciently indicated by their appellations. They were nearly
alvays iVeemen under the control of the governing body.
Many of them had neither duties, fees, nor salaries ; yet
they were yearly elected and solemnly sworn to the fUlftl-
nient of tbeir nominal functions, the corporations doubting
M hether they could legally cease to elect any officers named
in their charters. The common council of London however
has assumed the authority of abolishing some useless
olfircs, consolidating others, and attaching to them new
an«l useful functions.
Defects in the old Constitution of the Ministeriai Offices.
— ' One vice,' say the commissioners, ' which we regard as
inherent in the constitution of municipal corporetions in
England and Wales is, that officers chosen for particular
functions are regarded as a necessary part of the legislative
body. This notion appears to have originated in times
when the separation of constitutiohal authorities was not
understood ; when legislative, judicial, and executive fhnc-
tions were confounded^ .... There are serious objections
to the practice of aUowing the mayor to act as the treasurer
of the corporation, when the examination and audit of his
accounts is placed in the body over which he presides^ In-
convenience of an opposite kind occurs where several per-
sons are reouired to concur in Executing the duties of a
iint^le office.
Tlie extent to which some corporations carried the prin-
ciple of treating the corporate oMces as matter of mere
patronage, is illustrated in the commissioners' general
Import, by two instances where, in two oonsidevable towns,
that principle had been applied to the very important office
of town-cletki
Ministerial Offices, a» now to be regulatetL — ^The new
Act provides not only for the discontinuance of useless offices,
but Tor the more effective, regular, and faithftil discharge of
those of essential utility. Tbe principal ministerial officer is
still to be styled town-clerk ; but for tae designation oicham-
berlain, that of treasurer is in all eases to Iw substituted.
It id directed in the Act, that the council of every bo-
rough, on the 9th of November, 1835, shall appoint a fit
person to be a town-clerk ; but by an order in council of
October 6th, the /Irst appointment of town-clerk under this
Act was postponed to the 1st of January, 1836. The town-
clerk so appointed is to hold his office during pleasure. He
may be an attorney of one of the superior courts at West-
minster, notwithstanding any law or custom now existing
to the contrary : he must give such security as the councfi
may require, for the due execution of his office; but he
must not be the treasurer of the borough, nor a member of
the council, nor will he be eligible as auditor or assessor ;
and his s^ai^ is to be determined by the council, who may
fill up any vacancy in the office by a fresh appointment.
The town-clerk of every borough is to perform the duties
connected with the registering and enrolment of burgesses.
In cities or boroughs returning a member or members to
Parliament, he is likewise to do all things appertaining to
the due registration of the freemen or butgesses, according
to the provisions of the Reform Act. He is to be exempted
from serving on any jury, either in the borough, or in the
county wherein the borough is situated. He is alto to have
the custody of the borough charters, deeds, and records.
The council are directed to appoint every year a fit person
to be trmsuret ; he is to give such security as the council
may requure. He must not be the town-clerk of the borough,
not a member of the council, nor will he be eligible as
auditor or assessor. His salary is to be determined by the
council, who may fill up any vacancy by a fresh appoint-
ment He is to keep true accounts, entered in books kept
for that purpose, of all sums received and paid by him, and
of the severd matters for which such sums shall have been
received and paid ; and the books containing the accounts
are to be open at all reasonable times to the inspection of
any of the alderinen or councillors of the borough. And he
is to submit all the accounts, with all vouchers and papers
thereto relating, to the auditors twice in every year ; and
after they have been examined and audited by the auditora
in the month of September in every year, he is to make out
in writing, and cause to be printed, a fidl abstract of hia
accounts for the year ; a copy of which is to be open to the
inspection of all the rate-payers of the borough, and copiea
are to be delivered to all rate-payers applying for them, on
payment of a reasonable price for each copy.
III. Operation op Old OkoANizATiow por Local Go-
VSRNMVNT, AND DlFFKRSNT ArRANOSMBNTS tJNDBR
THB Rkforh Act for ErroLANo and Walks:—!. In
Local Regulations.— 2. In Managrbcxnt of Corpo-
RATK Property and Revenues.— 3. In Local Taxa-
tion.—4. As to specific Trusts and Patronage.
1. Local Kegulations,
The police belonging to municipal corporations, under the*
old system, was for the most part very insufficient. In a
great number of towns there were no watchmen, nor police-
officers of any kind, except the constables, who were un-
salaried officere, appointed sometimes at a court leet, but
more frequently by the corporate authorities. Where thero^
were fSairs and markets held within the borough limits, the
municipal corporation had inmost cases the superintendence-
and management of them, as incident both to its property
and to its general municipal authority. Many of these had
courts of pte^poudrCy which were disused in the majority of
instances.
Already we have remarked the general resort which has
been had to local Acts of Parliament to supply the seriou»
deficiencies of the old municipal regulations ; Rnd that the
superintehdence of the police, and tub pdwers nebessary for
watching, paving, lighting, cleansinff, and supplying the
towns with water, were fbr the most part committed, in
each town, under these acts, to one or more bodies of com-
missioners, independent of the municipal corporation.
Bomotimes, indeed, these powers were shared between the
corporate autberities and the commissioners; and often ^
2EJi
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212
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many of the corporate ftinctionaries were named m these
acts aa commissioners, by virtue of tbeir corporate offices.
But much confusion resulted from this divided authority.
In several towns, owing to the general distrust of the oor-
pomte authorities, the inhabitants showed little alacrity to
avail themselves of the provisions of these local acts. Great
jealousy often subsisted between the officers of police acting
under the corporation, and those under the local commis-
sioners: and the corporate body seldom took any active
share in the duties of the board of which its members formed
a part At Bristol (one of the principal towns of which
the corporations, after the Revolution, clung to the new
governing charter imposed b)^ Charles II.) a notoriously
ineffective police ooula not be improved, chiefly through the
jealousy with which the corporation was regarded by the
inhabitants. At Hull, owing to the disunion between the
ffoveming body and the inhabitants, arising chiefly out of a
dispute about the tolls and duties, only seven persons at-
teiraed to suppress a riot, out of a thousand who had been
sworn in as special constables; and on another similar
occasion none whatever attended. At Coventry serious riots
and disturbances frequently occurred ; and the officers of
pohce, being usually chosen fh>m one political party, often
actively fomented Ihem. In some instances the separate and
oonflicting authority of the commissioners was avowedly used
to counterbalance the political influence of the corporation.
An ineffectual endeavour to obviate the evils resultmg from
the want of a well-organized system has been made in some
towns by subscriptions for private watchmen. Nor has the
superintendence of the pavm^, lighting, &c., of the various
corporate towns been hitherto m a more satisfactory state.
For the police of the reformed municipalities, the Act of
1835 makes, among others, the following uniform provi-
sions : —
The council, immediately after their first election, and
from time to time, are to appoint, for such time as they
may think proper, a toatch committee, consisting of the
mayor and a sufficient number of councillors, of whom three
are to be a quorum. Within three weeks after their first
appointment, and fVom time to time, this committee are to
appoint, and cause to be sworn in before a justice having
jurisdbtion within the borough, a sufficient number of fit
men to act as constabiee by day and night, for preserving
the peace, preventing felonies, and apprehending offeiniers.
The constables are to have the usual powers, privileges,
duties, and responsibilities, not only withm the borough, but
also in the county in which the borough or part of it is
situated ; every county that is within seven miles of any part
of the borough, and all liberties within such county ; and
are to obey all lawful commands of any justice of the peace
having jurisdiction in such borough or county.
The treasurer of the borough is to pay such wages and
allowances as the watch committee, subject to the approba-
tion of the council, shall direct to be paid to the constables ;
and also such sums as they may award, subject to the same
approbation, as a reward for extraordinary diligence and
exertion, or as a compensation for wounds and injuries
received in the performance of duty, or as an allowance to
those that may be disabled or worn out by length of service;
and any other expenses for the constabulary force, so directed
and approved ; also any extraordinary expenses necessarily
incurred in apprehending offenders and executing any
orders of any justice of the peace for the borough, ordered
by the council to be paid, such expenses having been first
approved by the justices.
TWO or more justices having lurisdiction within any
borough are, in the month of October in every year, to ap-
point, under their hands, so many inhabitants (not legally
exempt) as they shall think fit, to act as epecud constables
when required by a justice's warrant, reciting that in the
opinion of the justice granting it the ordinary police force is
insufficient at that time to maintain the peace. And every
person appointed a special constable is to take the oath set
forth in the Act of 1 & 2 Will. IV. cap. 41, and to have the
powers and immunities, and be liable to the duties and
penalties therein enacted; and is to receive out of the
oorough ftmd 3t. 6dL for each day during which he is called
out to act
The watch committee, on the Ist of January, April, July,
and October, in every year, are to transmit to one of the
secretaries of state a report of the number of constables or
policemen, the description of arms, accoutrements, clothing, I
\ neceisaries, furnlihed to eaeb maa» their wages and I
allowances, and the number and situation of all station-
houses in the boroui^h ; as also a copy of all rulen, o^lerB,
&c., made from time to time for the regulation of the con-
stables or policemen.
With a view to the merging in the general authority of
the municipal council of the powers vested in so many of
the boroughs, by the local ants of which we have already
spoken, in the hands of independent boai^s of commis-
sioners, it is provided that the trustees appointed by virtue
of an]^ Act of Parliament, for paving, lighting, cleansing.
watching, regulating, supplying with water, or Jmprovin|(
any borough or part thereof, wherein they or the perMJiis
whose trustees they may be are not beneficially iiJtet>»ted,
may, at a meeting called for that purpose, transfer, in writiot;
under theur hands and seals, all the powers so vested in
them by any such act, to the body corporate of such
borough, who shall thenceforth be trustee for executing;, I5
the council of the borough, the several powers and provisions
of such act ; and the members of the council are in that
case to have the same powers and be subject to the same
duties as if their names had been originally inserted in the
act, or they had been elected under its provisions. A list
of boroughs, and of the Acts of Parliament for the aU>\e-
named purposes, the powers and duties under wh&cb the
trustees are by this section of this act empowered to transfer
to the council of such boroughs, is given in schedule <E>
appended to the act ; but it is provided that no such transfer
shall be made of powers under the acts therein mentioned,
relating to the town of Cambridge, without the consent of
the chancellor, master, and scholars of the university tl>ere.
With respect to lightings it is further provided that the
council of any borough having a local act for lighting purt
thereof only, may make an onier to include any other part
within its i»t>visions after a certain day named. And alter
such day it is to be so included, so far as relates to lightu)g
or to any rates authorixed to be levied for that purpose.
And every such part is to be lighted like the other pans of
the borough, ana to pay for that purpose a rate not exceed-
ing the average expebse in the pound of the lighting of
those other parts, if the council of any borough shall, by
notice fixed in a public place within tne borough, decUre
that on a certain day named (not within twenty 'one da>ft),
they will take upon themselves the powers given to in-
spectors named in the Act of 3 & 4 William IV. cap. 90, so
far as it relates to Ughting the whole or any part of a bo-
rough not within the provisions of any local act, or in which
there is no power of levying rates for lighting, the counctl of
such borough aro to have, after the day named, the sanM
powers and duties as the inspectors under the last- men-
tioned act, for lighting and levying rates for that purpose,
so far as they are consistent with the provisions of this act.
And the council alone are to fix the sum to be called for in
any year for lighting such part, which must not exceed six-
pence in the pound on the annual value of the rateable pn^
party theroin ; and in such case, the inhabitants of such
part of the borough aro not to have power to decide that tk«
provisions of the above-named act shall cease to be acted
upon.
2. Management qf Corporate Property and Pevenuft.
Many of the old corporations had considerable revenues
derived from various sources; from lands, leases of tithes
and other property; from tolls of markets and fairs; from
tolls or duties on the import or export of goods and cncr>
chandise, commonly called town dues ; from oth«r duties, as
quay dues, anchorage. &c. ; and from fees payable on tic
admission of corporate officers and burgesses, as well as fmm
fines imposed on persons reftising municipal office. In
many corporations the revenue was sufficient for the main-
tenance of all necessary municipal institutions ; but in these
they were often but partially applied to really muninpa]
purposes. In most, however, the commissioners decUi«
that they would have been inadequate to these purposes^
even though they had been wholly expanded upon them.
There were many instances among the pariiamenurf
boroughs in which, the revenues being inadequate to the
wants of the municipality, the deficiency had been snpphcd
either by the political patron or by the members for the
borough. In some, before the passing of the Parliamentvy
Reform Act of 1832, the members or the patron paid all the
municipal eippenses ; and these contributions having cea»eW
since that time, such corporations have no longer had tbe
means of naintainiog municipal iuHHutions ofimay kiud.
• Digitized by VjjOOQIC
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213
B O R
In num«roil8 instances, too, indrndaal oorporators wera sa-
customed to receive pecaniary allowances uom the patron ;
which sources of emolument having likewise ceased in great
measure since the passing of the Reform Act, a principal
iflducemem to belong to the corporate body has been
thereby in many places taken away.
Botli the income derived from market and fair tolls, and
that from town dues, have been subjects of general com-
plaint, grounded as well on the consideration that the money
thus levied has seldom been applied for the good of the
community, as on the vexatious and injurious nature of that
kiiul of taxation — arising, in some places, from the exorbi-
tancy of the tax— in others, as at Bristol, from its tendency
to limit the trade of the port; besides that, whatever may
liave been the origin of these tolls, in latter times they have
been paid, in many instances, without any equivalent being
rendered by the corporations which have enforced them.
The income arising from fines levied on persons refusing
to serve corporate offices has also been a source of rea-
sonable complaint, where such fines have been levied, not
really for the purpose of compelling individuals to serve, but
for the sake of increasing the funds of the corporation.
Tlic most glaring eviU have resulted from mismanage-
ment of the corporate property. Some corporations have
been accustomed to let their lands by private contract to
ineiiibers of their own body, on rents and at fines wholly
disproportioncd to their value, and frequently for long terms
of years. Others have alienated in fee much of their pro-
]>erty for inadequate considerations. In large towns how-
ever the prevalent species of malversation has been, not so
much the clandestine appropriation of the corporate pro-
perty, as carelessness and extravagance in the administra-
tion of the municipal funds, and an exclusive distribution of
patronage among friends and partisans.
In some towns large sums have been spent in bribery and
other illegal practices at contested parliamentary elections.
The corporation of Leicester, for instance, in 1826. expended
10,000/. to secure the return of a political partisan, and
mortgfiged some of their property to discharge the liabilities
thus incurred. At Barnstaple and Liverpool, in like man-
ner, the funds of the corporation have been wasted in de-
fend in <7 from threatened disfiranchisement a body of fi-eemen
who had been proved guilty of bribery. In general, the
corporate funds have been only partially applied to municipal
putposes, as the providing an efficient police, the watching
and lighting the town, &c., but have frequently been ex-
pended in feasting and in paying the salaries of unimportant
olfices. The allowance to the head of the corporation was
ofren veiy large ; and it was well understood that he was to
spend it in public entertainments. The practice of having
|i«nodical dinners, &c. for the members of the common
eouncil and their friends, the cost of which was defrayed out
of the corporate funds, was almost universal, and in some
places consumed a large portion of the revenues.
The commissioners found the debt of many corporations
to be extremely heavy, owing often to negligent and impro-
per management In some, the payment of the interest
absorbed a very large proportion of the income ; others were
absolutely insolvent. Many of the close corporations had
become indebted to the patron of the borough for sums of
money advanced to them for municipal and other purposes.
Some check might have been imposed on these various
abuses by the force of public opinion, had the corporate
accounts been regularly kept and regularly subjected to
public iuspection : but so irregularly had they been kept,
that in the course of the late municipal inquir}', the fiicts
relative to the amount and management of corporate pro-
perty, the expenditure, and the debts, were in many places
elicited with difficulty and imperfectly. In some places no
accounts at all were kept ; in others they were kept very
incompletely ; in very few was there any regular and efficient
audit, and in still fewer any pubUcatbn of them.
The new Act will be found to provide efficient remedies
for these defects in the financial department of municipid
government.
AAer the election of the treasurer, the rents and profits of
all hereditaments, and the interest, dividends, and annual
proceeds of all monies, dues, chattels, and valuable secu-
nttes belonging to Uie former body corporate of such borough,
named in the schedules (A) and (6), or to any member or
of&ctT thereof in his corporate capacity, and every fine and
|)euaUy for any ofleiice against this act, the application of
vliicb •£ not otherwise therein provided for, is to be paid to
the treasurer of the borough, and to be carried by him to the
account of a fund to be cidled ' the borough fund.*
This fund, subject to the payment of aU lawful debts due
from the late body corporate contracted before the passing
of this act, with all interest accruing while any part shall
remain unredeemed, and saving all rights or claims in or
upon the real or personal estate of such body corporate by
virtue of any proceedings in law or equity, or of any mort-
gage or otherwise, is to be applied towards the payment of
Uie salary of the mayor, and of the recorder and the police-
magistrate (where the latter functionaries shall be created),
the salaries of the town-clerk, treasurer, and every other
officer appointed by the council ; as also towards the pay-
ment of the expenses incurred from time to time in pre-
paring burgess lists, ward lists, and notices, and in other
matters connected with the borough elections, and for other
necessary and useful purposes mentioned in the act
The council are not permitted to sell, mortgage, or alienate
any part of the borough lands, tenements, or hereditaments ;
and leases granted by them are to be for a term not exceed-
ing thirty-one years from the date of the lease, or of a pre-
vious agreement, should there be one; and leases are to
be at a clear yearly rent, without any fine : except the
vearly value of the property shall arise principally from
buildings, or the property shall consist of land for the erec-
tion of buildings, on which the lessee shall covenant to erect
buildings of greater yearly value than the land, or for lay-
ing out gardens, yards, or other appurtenances to buildings,
in which case the lease may be for any term not exceeding
seventy-five years.
In special cases the council may sell, or alienate, or de-
mise, or lease for a longer term than thirty-one years, by
representing the circumstances to the Lords of the Treasury,
and obtaining their approbation of the act, and of the terms
and conditions; but in such case the council must give one
month's notice, fixed in some public place in the trough,
of theur intended application, and a copy of the memorial to
be sent to the Lords of the Treasury must tie during that
period in the town-clerk*s office, open to the inspection of
every burgess.
Not only the regular keeping and the publicity of accounts,
but that important article in the financial department of bo-
rough government, the regular and responsible auditing of
them, are now first uniformly and eflSBctively provided for.
Two auditors are to be elected for each botxiugh or ward by
the bur^^esses, in precisely the same manner as already de^
scribed in the case of assessors. Twice in every year they
are to examine and audit the treasurer's accounts, in con-
junction with a member of the council to be named by thw
mayor.
3. Local Taxation,
Municipal taxation under the old system was as irregular
as all its other financial arrangements. The almost uni-
versal persuasion on the part of the members of corpora-
tions, that the permanent income derived from rents, tblls^
dues, &C., was of right appUcablc to the sole benefit of the
corporators themselves, and the consequent unprofitablo
expenditure of that income, called the powers of local tax-
ation, where the corporation possessed them, into additional
activity, though generally with no equivalent advantage to
the inhabitants. The introduction, too, in so many places,
of local acts of parUament for the realisation of objects of
public utility, which, according to their nature, should have
follen strictly within the province of municipal administra-
tion, must often have brought them, in the levying of local
rates, into an actual or seeming collision with the boards of
commissioners appointed under those acts. In some bo-
roughs the corporation levied on the inhabitants a rate in
the nature of a county-rate, and destined to similar objects^
The Municipal Reform Act, as we have already observed,,
opens the way for transferring the powers of the local boards-
to tibe municipal councils, and so introducing one general
and uniform system of municipal taxation. Afler provid»*
ing, as above described, for the faithful appropriation of th»
standing revenue of the borough to public objects, it nro-
oeeds to direct how such additional funds are to be raised a»
may be necessary to defray the charges of those arrange^
ments for the public convenience and security of which it
ensures the execution.
4. ^eci/c TrusU and Patronage.
Besides the property applicable t9 dl municipal purposes^
pigitized by '
uujjai purposes^
Google
BOB
214
B O R
various ftindi and Tev«nii6s have at dtftnnt timas been en-
trusted to concrations for tpecific objects. Tolls and dues,
for instance, nave been granted for some purpose of local
utility, as the maintenance of a navigation or a barbour,
and granted for such purpose exdositeW. Financial abuses,
of the same nature as those which we nave already noticed,
have appeared in the management and application of those
funds. Other special trusts are connected with charitable
institutions and the administration of charity funds ; and
here again we find mbmanagement and misappropriation
to a considerable extent : the patronage connected with
&ese trusts has very often been eierolsed by the corporate
authorities to gain or reward votes both in the municipal and
the parliamentary elections. In many instances, too* the
corporations have possessed ecclesiastical patronage, pre-
senting to living, and appointing lecturers j as well as the
masters of hospitals and endowed schools.
The new body corporate of any borough named in the
schedules to the Municipal Reform Act are to be trustees
for executing, through the council, the provisions of all Acts
of Parliament made before the passing of this Act, and of
all trusts (except under Acts of Parliament or for charitable
purposes) of which the former body corporate, or any of its
members as such, were $ole trustees. In like manner,
wherever the former body corporate, or any of its members
as such, or any particular number of persons appointed by it,
were trustees join//y with others, under any Act of Parlia-
ment or trust, — or were, by any statute, charter, by-law, or
custom, lawfnllv exercising any powers or ftinetions not
otherwise provided for b^ this Act, — provision is made for
the transferring of such joint trusteesnip to so many mem-
bers of the new municipal council, appointed by the council
at large, as shall be equal in number to the members or
nominees of the former corporate body acting as such
tmstees or exercising such functions.
As regards charitable trusts, it is deemed expedient that
their administration should be kept &tinct from thai of
the public funds of the municipality : therefore, wherever
the former body corporate, or any of its members as such,
stood solely, or together with other persons elected solely by
them, in the exercise of any trust of this nature, it is, under
the Act, to continue in the hands of the same individuals
(notwithstanding that thev may have ceased to hold any
office by virtue of which they were such trustees) until the
1st of August, 1836; when, if Parliament shall not in the
mean time have otherwise directed, the Lord Chancellor, or
Lords Commissioners of the Great Seal, are to make such
orders as he or they shall deem fit for the administration of
such charitable trust estates.
The anticipated influx of dissenters into the new municipal
councils renaered the ecdetioitical patronage of the corpora-
tions a subject of grave debate in the discussions on the mea-
sure of municipal reform. The difficulty has been obviated
thus. Where any former body corporate, or any number of its
members as such, possessed any property (otherwise than as
charitable trustees) to which any advowson or right of pre-
sentation or nomination to a benefice or ecclesiastical prefer-
ment was attached, or possessed any advowson in gross, or
any right so to present or nominate, every such advowson,
and right of presentation or nomination, is to be sold under
the direction of the ecclesiastical commissioners, so that the
best price may be obtained. The council are accordingly
authorized to convey such right to the purchaser under the
common seal of the borough ; and the proceeds of the sale
are to be paid to the treasurer, to be invested in government
securities for the use of the new body corporate, and the
annual interest is to be carried to the account of the borough
fund. Any vacancy occurring before the effecting of such
sale is directed to be filled up by the bishop of the diocese
in which the preferment is situated.
IV. Organ izATioir for Local Judicaturs.
MagiHracy.'-^ln almost all the principal boroughs there
were municipal magistrates whose authority as justices of
the pesos extended over the whole borough. In some cases
the county magistrates exercised a concurrent jurisdiction
within the borough ; but more commonly that of the bo-
rough magistrates was exclusive; and even where the
county magistrates possessed a concurrent jurisdiction
wuhin the municipal limits, they rarely exefciscd it. The
head of the corporation has always been the chief municipal
magistrate named in the charters; and in some few in-
stanoes he haa been, by virtue of hu municipal office, a
magistrate idso of the fieiglibouring eotmty. lo man> ot'
the large cities and boiongns all the aldermen were ma^ri^ -
trates ; in others only those who had * passed the chair.* ti.^'
is, who had served the executive office. At Norwich, tinr
ridermen who had not passed the chair were mai^tiatrs in
their several wards. In other towns only a certain number
of the aldermen were elected magistrates yearly ; in m.irA .
only the senior aldermen were magistrates : in DoncoAti-r.
three aldermen were chosen to be magistrates as long as the* >
continued aldermen : in Ripon, the two aldermen who li;i I
last been mayors were magistrates : in Richmond, the la.*-:
muror only was so constituted.
The judicial officer staled Recorder was also usually oi.r
of the justices. Tho chief amount of magisterial bosiDt'««
was done by the mayor : in some corporations his magi»teruJ
anthoritv continued for a year, or a longer time b6}ond th<-
period of his mayoralty, either by the terms of the chan« :
or by a customary election.
De/eeU, ^. — The magistrates were usually chosen from
the aldermen, and the aldermen were generallv pr>litj<M;
partisans. Hence, even in those cases iniere itjustjce «a«>
not absolutely committed, a strong suspicion of it wm» ex-
cited ; so that the corporate magistrates generally were ni>t
regarded by the inhabitants withfovour or respect, but oft en
with positive distrust and dislike. In many places there-
were neavy complaints of their non-residence.
MagiMtracy under the Municipal Reform Act. — Ami-nsr
the municipal officers, the mayor alone is to be a juaUce
of the peace by virtue of his office, in every borough, iv^t
only during his year of office, but during the whole of xLr
year next following, if he continue to be pecuniarily qualifit^L
But an important change is worked by the Act in the mn-
stitution of the boroush-magistracy in general. The excru •
tive officer of each borougn will henceforth be its orjli
elective magistrate. Wherever th^re is to be a body x»:
justices in addition, and wherever there are to be one • r
more police-magistrates, they are to be appointed by absofutr
nomination of the Crown.
It is to be lawfol for his Majesty from time to timi; t «
assign a commission to act as justices of the peace in tn.-t
for each borough and city named in the schedule t.4;:
and to assign one likewise, upon petition of the eounnl. **
any of the boroughs in the schedule (B) ; every such ju«tuc
to reside in, or within seven miles of, the borough for »]].• 1.
he acts. And if the council of any borough thmk it req •
site to have one or more salaried police-magistrates, ili. v
■re to make a by-law fixing the salary, and to transmit it t*
one of the Secretaries of State ; and his Majesty, if be ihini
fit, will appoint one or more persons, as required, barn^tf «%-
at-lawof five years' standing, to be, during his pleas-j. ,
police-magistrates and justices of the peace ; and will d*.ii •
the payment of a salary to each, not exceeding the amvu:.'
fixed bv the council, through tlie treasurer of the borrrijuti,
out of the borough fund, in four quarterly payments. \Vb«D
any vacancy occurs, a new appUcation, as before, muu L«
made by the council.
Recorder. — Almost every Bnglish municipality hi-i
among its principal officers a recorder^ sometimes 'emlled
fitftmref, who was always the principal judicial adfiser .4
the corporation, and commonly exercised magisterial ar^t!
judicial functions. He was elected in the majority of ca-^**
by the common-council ; in many others, by the aldermen :
in some, by the fk^emen at large: occasionally his appm/ji •
mentwas subject to approbation by the crown. By tht
terms of most of the charters he was required to be learn ••*
in the law. This condition was sometimes considered to i-
complied with by electing a peer of the realm, who, bwn- x
judge by the constitution of Parliament, was held tu c re.-
within that technical description. Sometimes, hov«^.r.
recorders were chosen, notwithstanding such provision r-
the charter, who were neither peers nor educated to t: •*
legal profession : the office was sometimes filled by the in-
dividual who was commonly styled the patron of the (•*
rough : but in most of such cases, either there were no n-«:
functions to be exercised by the recorder, or he had t:.c
power of appointing a deputy, by whom most of his dot o»
could be performed. The recorder generally held his c^.(x
during good behaviour : he was seldom required to be rt*;
dent in the borough. His deputy was sometimes a barri>tr-
but in numerous instances the town-derii praetieallv n^
ciated as such. The recorder's salary was in m<»»t'ex<^»
nearly nominal, and in many had not been r«c«i^cd f.^
several years ; in others the salary waa^large. t
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Defect9^ ^.^Th« method of ^ypointiiig tbu influatttial
officer is reported bjr the EngliBh commissioDecs to have
been often very objectionable. At Newnort, in the Isle of
Wight, for instance, he was appointea fbrmall> by the
crown, but actually on the patron's dictation. On one
occasion a nobleman was chosen recorder there whose con-
nexion with the corporation consisted in his being a trusty
for roanagins the property of a deceased patron. At Wood-
stock the office had neen vacant for several years because
the patron's nominee was opposed. In some boroughs t^jB
recorder was elected by one of those demoralised coi^stitu-
encies of freemen which we have already described ; and at
Berwick a recorder so chosen tried capital felonies. In some
cases, too, this officer united functions improperly joined :
as, for instance, when, living in the neighbourhood, he acted
as a resident magistrate at the same time that, by virtue of
his office, he was nresidiqg judge \ji the criminal court
In many instances ne performed no duties whatever ; and
his nominal connexion with the borough was merely a form
through which he exercised ove^r it an unwarrantdi^le con-
trol. The power of appointing deputies, as hitherto exer-
cised, is strongly objected to by the commissioners. ' Such
exercise,' say they, ' has been occasionally useliil ; but the
practice of appointing a deputy permanently to discharge
all the duties of the recorder has been very mischievous.'
Recorder under the newAci,-'l[i the appointment of thif
leading judicial officer, as in that of |ill the borough jus-
tices exepting the mayor, nomination by the c^wn is to l^
substituted for election by the members of the corporation.
The council of every borough, desirous of having a sepa-
rate court of (quarter-sessions, is to petition the king ^n
council, setting forth the grounds of the application, the
state of the ^1, and the salary they will pay the reconder :
and his Majesty, if he be pleased to grant such court, will
appoint a recorder of the oorough, or ohe for two or more
boroughs conjointly, who is to be a barrister of ftve years-
Manding, to hold office during good behaviour ; and will,
when any vacancy occurs, appoint another such person to
fill the office.
Town Clerk a» a Judicial Qfflcer, — ^In some boroughs thi9
duties of town clerk have been separated from tnose of at-
torney and solicitor to the corporation ; but generally, and
almost necessarily, be has been an attorney; and the intluence
attendant on his office as general legal adviser, coqibin^d
with his intimate knowledge of all the corporate affairs, led
in most instances to his being appointed the recording
officer, not only of the public transactions of the corporate
txjdy, but of all the magisterial and judicial proceedings of
the corporate justices ; — in technical language, he wa9 not
only town-clerk, but also derk to the magistrates, or jus-
tices* clerk ; clerk of the peace^ that is, of the criminal
court of sessions of the peace ; and registrar of the court
of record^ or civil court. Moreover, he was often appointed
deputy recorder, and usually conducted inquests when the
head of the corporation was coroner ex officio.
Defects^ ^c. — • Tlie most incompatible (^ces,* observe
the commissioners, * are often united in the person of the
lown-clerk. He very frequently acts as deputy recorder j
which practice, in our opinion, cannot be too strongly con-
demned. He is often, practically, the principal attorney for
the prosecution of offenders tried at the borough sesi^ions,
whose comisitment he had previously advised m his cha-
racter of clerk to the magistrates. Even when his name
does not appear to the prosecution, the same evil often
ensues from its being in the hands of his partner. Jn York
and Hull great complaints have been made of the conduct
of prosecutions by the town-clerk's partner, and in the latter
place of the advantages which the rules of practicie give him
over other attorneys. In Preston the town-clerk is a mem-
ber of the council, and his partner is the senior ^Iderman,
a magistrate^ and a coroner. A strange incongruity spme-
limes appears in the election of the town derk to the office
of mayor : in some places where this has occurred an at-
tempt has been made to gloss over the irregularity, by
appointing another town-clerk during the year of his mayor-
alty. Whilst the same officer thus unites the characters of
jud^e and prosecutor, the selection of the juries is often
entirely committed to his discretion, and it cannot be a
matter of surprise that suspicions of unfairness and parti-
ahty should he excited.* In the civil courts, likewise, when
th«» recorder did not attend, the town-clerk became the real
judire, from the incompetence of the other magistrates to
perform the duty. * At Reading,' say the com^iissioners.
' th0 tovn-etorkt duiin|^ his mayoralty, taed and taxed tli0
costs of a cause in which his partner was one of the attor-
neys. In many towns, although he does not practise in the
court of record as an attorney in his own name, he is the
real attorney in the cause. At Kendal the town-olerk's
oartner, who is an alderman» practises in the civil court.
The saiiM thing occurs U Scarborough, where the town-
clerk acta as assessor in the civil court, and also taxes the
costs. This union of ron^ictiog duties is very adverse tt^
the proper admiuistration of justice ; it ia a frequent cause
of suspicion and jealousy amongst the inhabitants, even
where the charaoter of the officer is a security against im-
proper conduct. It is justly made the subject of complaint,
that the town-clerk should act as an attorney of the court,
either ii^ his own pame or in that of his partner or agent*
as in fact it places the whols power over the proceedings of
the suit in the bands of the attorney of one of the parties.'
Besides that the town-clerk often selected the juries in
these as well aii in the criminal courts.
Improvements, 4^c. — Provision is made by the Corporation
Reform Act for obviating that vicious union of incompatible
functions, especially in ttio magisterial and judicial depart-
ments, which niade the office c? town-derk ene of the mosi
ii^urious anomalief ifi the old municipal system, and in
particular lor keeping the office of clerk of the peaee dis^
tinct finw^ that t^f ol«^ to the justices.
The justices of every borough to whieh a separate eom-
missiou of the pfsycie shall be granted are to appoint a derk,
removable at theii pleasure : but the clerk to tbi justices must
not be an alderman or coundllor of the borough ; nor must
be b^ the cUtrh of the peace of the borough, or bis partner,
or any clerk or person employed by him. Also the clerk
to tbfi jiistioea mu#t not be, by himself or bis partner,
directly pr indirectly engaged in the prosepution of any
offender coipinit;e4 for trial hy the justices to whom he ia
clerk.
immediately o^ the appointment pf a recorder of the
borou^ by tb^ crown, as above described, the borough
couficil are to appoint ^, clerk of the peaee, to hold once
dji^ring fffod behaviour.
Sheriffs.— In the twenty-ope cities and boroughs of
Englani^ and ^ales which posses a county jurisdiction,
two sheri^s ^rfi chonen yearly, whj9se office is stcictly ana-
logouf to that of the sheriff of an ordinary shire, but whose
appointment is never, like that of the latter, made by thr
crown, but by election on the part of the whole corporalo
body, or soine class of that body. Thus, in London they are
chosen by the liverymen from two lists, consisting of the
aldermen and the mi^yor's nominees; besides which any
elector may name a candidate. At Curmarthen and Poole
they were chosen by thefreeijaen from among themselves;
at Bristol, Exeter, and Gloucester, by the common council
from among themselves ; at Canterbury, by the ino>yor and
aldermen from tb^ citizens ; at Haverfordwest, by the free-
men from the nominees of the pommon council ; in Hull,
by the freemen from two persons nominated by the common
council; at Southampton, practically, by the common
council from those who had served the subordinate office of
bailiff; at Newcastl^-upon-Ty^e, by the mayor; at Lincoln,
one by the common council, the ptner by the mayor elect,
both from the fre^en who had served the office of cham-
berlain.
The city and borough sheriffii have often had the care of
the gaol and th,e custody of the prisoners ponftned there.
Their emoluments have been the ordinary ppes attached
to the same offipe in counties ; besides which, in some towns
tbey have risceived salaries. They usually performed the
duties by deputy.
The office of sneriff in corporate counties remains elective
as before, with the same powers and duties. The Municipal
Reform Act of 1835 simply provides that the election shall
in all cases be made by the council, on the Ist of November
in every year ; the sheriff elected according to former cus-
tom remainipg in office until the first election under this
Act, and no bnger. , . , . ., ^
Bailiffs, ^.— In those boroughs m which batltffs were
found among the chief officers subordinate to the head of
the corporation, they performed the duties of sheriffs.
* They seem to have been originally receivers and managers
for the crown, or other lord of the borough, and not to have
had any duties in connexion with the corporate body, until
after the property of the soil became vested in the corpora^
tion, when the bailiffs also became corporate officers.* Thef
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often had the mittodyof the gmol. In many plaees the office
had become entirely nominal ; in others its original duties
had been superseded by those of treasurer, &e. It was
sometimes filled by one person, oftener by two ; at Ber-
wick it was vested jointly in five, by three of whom bailable
process must be signed. Their emoluments arose fifom the
same sources as those of thesheriiEi; in some towns they
received a salary, in others they were remunerated by the
profits of part of the corporate property.
Criminal Courts.^ A court of criminal judicature has
heen held until the present time in most of the boroughs of
England and Wales, though in some this branch of juris-
diction has long been disused, and in others it has been of
lata but partially exercised, all serious cases being sent by
many to the county sessions or assises. Some of those
which formerly exercised iurisdiotion over capital offences
had since abandoned it: others, as Salisbury, Southampton,
and Chichester, still tried capital offences ; but where capital
punishment was expected to follow conviction, an arrange-
ment was made to prevent a trial before the corporate autho-
rities solely. Sevml corporations* as those of Berwick,
Bristol, Canterbury, Exeter, and Rochester, stQl exercised
their chartered power of trying and executing for capital
offences. In a few instances the criminal jurisdiction in-
cluded that of a court of admiralty ; at Bristol, for example,
felonies committed on a part of the Bristol channel were
triable at the ordinary court of gaol delivery, not as at a
court of admiralty, but as committed within the limits of the
eorporate county. A t Mariborough, where the justices were
nominated by the mayor, felonies were tried until 1824,
when it was discovered that the corporation possessed no
such jurisdiction.
The ordinary criminal courts were those of general ses-
sions and quarter-sessions. Courts of general gaol delivery
existed in very few places : in some of these they were held
under charter without any commission issuing ttom the
erown, while in London, Oxford, and some ouier places,
they were never held without such a commission : where no
commission issued, the corporate magistrates were the solo
judges ; the time of holding these courts was sometimes
discretionary with the corporate magistrates, sometimes re-
gulated by the charter, as at Exeter, where they must be
held four times a year, and in practice have been opened at
the same time as the quarter-sessions. The general ses-
sions, too, the ordinary criminal court of the cities and bo-
roughs, seldom differed, as to the time and manner of hold-
ing them, from the county quarter-sessions. In all the cor-
porate courts one or more magistrates were specially named,
without whose presence the court could not be held ; usually
it was the mayor or the recorder, sometimes both. In some
eases where the presence of the recorder was not necessary
for holding the court, he did not attend, but in many the
whole business was conducted before him. At Bristol he
fried the prisoners at the gaol delivery, but did not attend
the quarter-sessions, the prisoners at the latter being tried
before the mayor and aldermen, but virtually by the town-
clerk, who there was necessarily a barrister.
The jurorw were generally summoned from the inhabit-
ants at large, without strict reference to any qualification ;
sometimes from the freemen alone. In the latter case, the
number out of whom they were chosen was often inconve-
niently small.
In many boroughs no fund was provided for paying the
expenses of prosecutions ; in some they were paid from the
oounty-rate ; in others from a borough-rate in the nature of
a county-rate ; in dthers from the poor-rate. In many of
the principal towns, as Liverpool, Leeds, Bristol, Hull,
York, Newcastle, Berwick, the criminal courts were attended
by barristers ; but in most of the smaller places the business
was conducted solely by attorneys.
Civil Courts.— A great majority of the English and
Welsh municipalities possessed also a civil jurisdiction co-
extensive with the borough limits. These in general had
their origin in particular charters, but occasionally existed
by prescription. They varied considerably as to the nature
of tne actions they might entertain. In general they had
cognizance of all personal actions ; and in some instances
of actions real, per:»onal, and mixed. The amount for which
such actions could be brou(?ht was often unlimited (subject
to the power of removal), while in several cases it was re-
stricted to the recovery of debts under a given amount.
The presiding judge in these courts was generally the
mayor, whence they were not unfVequently termed the
fnayof^i court Sometimes the bailiffs presided with tlie
mayor; in other instances the recorder, and occa&iona!*>
some of the aldermen were judges; in other cases the re-
corder, though a magistrate of the borough, was not a ju^Ige
of the court of record ; in many the town-clerk ptactically
oiRciated as such. The officers of these courts were geiic-
rnlly the town-clerk and the bailiffs or seijeantsat-mace.
The town- clerk usually performed all the duties* except
those belonging to the office of sheriff; he issued writs, file*!
and enrolled the proceedings^granted rules, taxed the cmtA,
and signed the judgments. The bailifls or serieants-at-raace
perfbrmed the duties which, in actions brought in the supc^
rior courts of common law, devolved upon the sheriffs of
counties. To them writs were directed ; by them they were
•erved and returned, and generally they were answerable,
like sheriffii of counties, for any irregularity in the servioe.
It must be understood, however, that the character of the
officers described by these names varied in different bo-
roughs ; but in every court there was, under ^ome name, a
functionary performing these duties.
The borough courts of record, in their general eoastitu-
tion, resembled the superior courts of common law. Wherv
created by charter, the proceedings were accotding lo the
graetice of some one of the courts at Westminster. Being
owever seldom regulated by any printed or written fuIm,
their practice was very ill defined, though in some few ifa>
stances rules have been prepared and published, after ap-
proval, by the judges of assize. Suits were generally com-
menced, in case of 8er\iceable process, by summons, and of
bailable process, by capias. A* regards the times of the
returning of process, and consequently the period of obtain-
ing judgment, the practice has been various. In many
courts, precepts in the nature of writs were returnable, ai^'i
the other steps in the cause were taken, weekly ; in others,
only every fortnight or three weeks. In contested ease«.
judgment could be pbtaincfl in few under six weeks ; m
S9neral the period was longer. In some boroughs, as
ridgewater, tney had adopted the short and improved Conni
of pleading promulgated bv the courts of common law. In
some the process was by distringas, or distraint of the dt-
fendanfs goods, and venditioni exponas^ or exposure to sale,
in cases where the debt exceeded 40#. This was general. i
founded on affidavit of the debt ; but at Berwidt. it issued
without affidavit when the demand was under lU^ and at
Lancaster when it was under 40s, At Preston* bnrgesfecs
were exempt from this process. Several eourta, as in Lon-
don, Bristol, and Exeter, have had the custom oifomgm af>
tachment, by which a plaintiff may distrain the goods of his
debtor in the hands of a third party within the borouirs.
and in default of -appearance, cause them to be ^plied m
satisfaction of his debt. In Lancaster, only the goods ef
non-freemen could be thus attached. This custom* when
existing, has been extensively used.
Defects qf the Judicial Organization in gemeroL — The
corporate magistrates were often selected from a ciaaa inean-
petent to the discharge of judicial ftinctiona. The maeis-
trates of one borough (Malmesbury) were often ooable eitur
to write or read ; and at another, having extensivie and exclc-
sive jurisdiction, they have been known to sign blank war-
rants. Even where they have belonged to a superior claaa, ihe«
were often selected from the senior aldermen only* who, thio
age and infirmity, soon became incapable of peAnninir the
duties of their office, while a mistaken notion ef dignity ke\.x
them from resigning it All these evils were hei^bleiicd bv
^ss defects in other parts of the judicial sfHeou TV
juries of the borough courts were oRen taken exclus;vvl>
from the freemen, who, besides being of an inferior dav, weie
strongly tainted with party-feelings. At Carmarthen, for
instance, the commissioners show that verdieta were fre-
quentlv given against justice, from party bias; and st
Haverfordwest, where juries could only be impanneUed
from the freemen, they had been openly reprinaaded b%
judges and magistrates for improper acquittals of burgeeet«
on criminal prosecutions ; and the genwal opinion was tha:
it was ' impossible to convict a burgess.*
Closely similar were the defects in the adminiairation of
civil justice. The vicious consequences of the union of in
compatible functions in the person of the town-clerk «e
have already pointed out Here, too, the juries were oaei:
chosen from the same objectionable elass as in the rrimmal
courts ; at Portsmouth they were selected hf one of the mt-
jeants-at-mace, ehosMi out of two bv tiie plaintiff's attorDey :
at Chichester they were fummonedrby an oflkp who wws
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Mieof Um ibur nomkiial attorneys io comU the real attorney
in the caiue having the power of selecting the nominal
attorney. The seigeants-at-mace and other ministerial
officers of the court, exercising the functions of sheriff, were
often persons whose pecuniary lesponsihility was inadequate
to afford any security to the suitors. The coats of a suit
were in general very considerahle : those of a plaintiff often
TArying from 15/. to 20/., of a defendant from 6/. to 12/.
The whole system of costs and fees was ohjectionable ;
there was generally no authorized table of them, and fre-
quently no well-defined practice ; they were most commonly
in the town-clerk*s discretion, though in some places taxed
by the mayor ; they here little relation to the services in
respect of which they were paid, and no reasonable proper*
tiontothe average value of the matter in question. One
cause among others which led to the disuse of these coiurts
was the want of professional skill in the judges. Nor can
we douht that the intimacy which must often have neces-
sarily subsisted between the judge and the parties appear-
ing before him, was one source of disinclination to resort to
these tribunals, at which a few minutes would convert the
tradesman and the customer into the judge and the suitor.
Another reason was, the iacility of removing the causes, and
the general inclination of legal practitioners to sue in the
superior courts. When a plaintiff had procured execution,
he could use it only within the limits of the local jurisdic-
tion ; hence his process was often fruitless, the defendant re-
moving himself and his goods beyond the limits of the court.
The unlimited power of imprisonment possessed by these
courts was in some instances very oppressivelv exercised.
One general observation remains to be made on the judi*
cial powers lately exercised b^ the municipal corporations
of England and Wales. Their extent was wholly dispro-
portioned to the importance of the town or the probable
respectability and intelligence of its magistrates, in Bath,
for instance, with a population exceeding 50,000, no felonies
could be tried, but all must be sent to a distance varying
from eighteen to fifty miles ; while in Winchelsea, with a
population of only 772, and in Dunwich, with only 232, the
jurisdiction included capital felonies. Nor was the condi-
tion of concurrent or exclusive authority more correspondent
to the relative importance of the respective places, or to
the principles of expediency arising out of their situation
and their means of communicating with the seat of county
jurisdiction. The grant of exclusive power seems either to
have depended entirely on accident or caprice, or to have
been determined by circumstances which have long ceased.
Many corporations have disused the jurisdiction conferred
by charter ; generally from unwillingness in the corporate
magistratea to undertake the responsibility attending its
exercise. On the other hand, many of the evils above
enumerated in the administration of criminal and civil
justice have resulted from the continuance of jur^ictton
after the decay of the borough. In many instances, the
limited population has prechided the possibility of finding
competent persons to act as magistrates, even in petty
sessions, altnmigh a sufficient number might be found ca-
pable of auperintending the police, and the paving, light-
ing, &e. of the town. Sven 4n the more important bo-
roughs, great injustice resulted from intrusting the powers
of sitting as magistrates in quarter-sessions, and as judges
of civil procedure, to persons without professional knowledge
and experience. -^
Notvrithatanding all the defects of the local civil courts,
the commissioners bear marked testimony to the general
deaire of the inhabitants for their continuance or revival.
* Any ayatem,* say they, * which would have the effect of
distributing justice where the parties interested reside,
would be regarded as one of the greatest boons which the
legislature could confer.*
Borough CouH$ under the Rrform Act of \ 875.
Criminal Courte. — ^Aiter the 1st of May, 1836, all cri-
minal powers and jurisdictions whatsoever, and however
granted to any corporate or chartered officer or justice in
any borough, and all right to elect or nominate any justice
of the peace for the borough, or to act as such, other than
as is provided in this act, are to cease. But any court now
held in and for any borough ma]^ be held as usual, till
the 1st of May, 1836. On the passing of this act, all claims
whatsoever by boroughs, or their freemen or inhabitants, of
exemption from the jurisdiction of the Court of Admiralty,
or of possession of any sueh local admiralty jurisdiction.
however granted, are repealed — except the jurisdiction and
office of the lord warden as admiral of the Cinque Ports.
Once in every quarter of a year, or oftener, at his discre-
tion, or at his majesty.'s direction, the recorder is to hold a
court of quarter-sessions for the borough, of which he is to
sit as sole judge. It is to be a court of record, and have
cognizance of all crimes, offences, and matters cognizable
by any county court of quarter-sessions, the powers of which
the recorder is to possess. But be is not to make or levy
any county or similar rate, or to grant tavern licences, or
exercise any of the powers specially vested in the council.
In the absence of the recorder and deputy recorder, the
mayor is to open and adjourn the court of quarter-sessions,
at the proper times, and to require recognizances until a
further day, to be proclaimed by him ; but the mayor is to
have no power to act as judge, or to do anything more
therein than is above stated.
Afler the 1st of May, 1836, every person then committed
for trial at any borough court, charged with any offence
which the recorder will not then have jurisdiction to try,
may be removed to the prison of the county, to take his
trial at the next sessions or assizes.
Also, after the 1st Of May, 1836, the justices of the
county in which any borough, not having received the grant
of a separate court of quarter-sessions, is situated, are to
exercise full jurisdiction within such borough. But no part
of any borough that shall have a separate court of quarter-
sessioDS is to be within the jurisdiction of the justices of
any county from which the borough was exempt before the
passing of this act.
EveiT county gaol, house of correction, or lunatic asylum,
court of justice, or judge's lodging, which at the time of the
passing of this act was for any purpose taken to be within a
coun^, is, for all such purposes, still to be so taken, although
included within the limits of a borough as defined by this act.
Civil Courte. — In every borough in which, by charter or
custom, there is or ought to be held a court of record for the
trial of civil actions, not regulated by any local act, or in
which, at the time of the passing of this act, a barrister of
five years* standing did not act as judge or assessor, the re*
corder, or in his absence, or if there fa« not one, such officer
of the borough as, by charter or custom, is the judge of
the court, is to continue (md act as such. The council, in
every case, is to have the power of appointing the neces-
sary officer, if he be not the recorder ; and every such judge
or assessor, except he be the mayor, is to hold his office
during good behaviour. And he is to hold lUs court at such
times and places, and with such rules of practice, and with
the same powers and jurisdiction, as before the passing of
this act
The authority of any such court, in which a barrister of
five years' stknding shall act as judge or assessor, is to be
extended (if it have not already such authority) to the trial
of actions of assumpsit, covenant, de'bt by specialty or on
simple contract, trespass or trover for taking goods and
chattels, if the damages sought shall not exceed 20/., and
of ejectment between landlord and tenant where the annual
rent shall not exceed 20/. without any fine. And any such
judge may make rules, from time to time, for reflating
the practice of his court, which rules are not to be in force
till allowed and confirmed by three or more jud^s of the
superior courts of common law at Westminster. The juris-
diction of such court is to extend to the bounds of the
borough under this act. But no action is to be tried by any
such Judge, wherein the title to land or any other tenure, or
to tithe, toll, market, fair, or other franchise, shall be in
question, in an^ court which, before the psssing of this act,
had not authority to try actions respecting such titles.
The council of every borough in which a court of record
as above shall be held is to appoint a registrar, except
where the town-clerk acts as registrar, and other officers and
servants to carry on the business and execute the process of
the court.
Jwriw.— Every burgess of a horough having a separate
court of quarter-sessions or of record is to be qualified and
Uable to serve on grand juries, and on juriea for the trial of
issues in such court (unless exempt or disqualified, other-
wise than in respect of property, under the Act of 6 Geo. IV
cap. 50). But no person is to be summoned as a juror
oftener than once in one year. The burgesses of every
borough having a separate court of quarter-sessions are to
be exempt. from serving on juries at any sessions for the
eounty. After the passing of this act, no person in any
No. 299.
[THB FENNY CYCIOP^DIA.]
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boroagh ii taoonttnM •MmpC horn Msnrhg m Jutmi hf
virtue of any grant, charter, or other tpeoial exemption ;
and so mnoh of the Act of 6 Qeo. IV. cap. 60 aa oontinnet
•uch exemption it repealed.
/ito.^The cooneit of etrerjr borough which thall have a
separate court of auerter-sestions* or a oommiMien of the
peace, or a court of record, are to make and lettle, within
gix monthi after their election, a table of feei to be taken by
the clerk of the peace, the clerk to the justices, and the re*
gistrar and officers of the court of record ; and such tables
are to be submitted to one of the secretaries of sUte, to be
conformed with or without alterations, as he shall think
prt)))er. The council may from time to time make new
tables to be conformed, as above directed
PenaUiet and Progechtian*.'^ AW penalties recoverable
in a summary manner, and by any act made payable to tlie
kin?, to a body corporate, or to any person whatever, except
it be the informer or some partr aggrievcil, are, if recovered
before any justice of a borough having a separate court of
quarter-sessions, to be adjudged to be paid to the treasurer
on account of the boroqgh fund, and to no one else ; ex«*
eeption being made of aU penalties or forfeitures recovered
Kttder any act relating to the customs, excise, or post-office,
to trade or navigation, or to any branch of the king's
revenue. The prosecution for any offence punishable on
summary conviction under this act must be commenced
within three months aA^r its commission.
The justices before whom any person shall be summarily
convicted are to cause the conviction, under their hands, to
be drawn up according to a form prescribed in this clause of
the act; setting forth the names of the justices, with the
date and place of the conviction, the name of the offender,
with the time, place, and nature of the offiince, the amotmt
of the penalty, and the time fixed for its payment to the
treasurer of the borough. It is expressly enacted that all
offences committed against any bye-law or regulation made
by virtue of this act, are to be punishable on summarv oon«
Tiction in Uke manner. Provision ii made for appeal from
such conviction to the next court of general or quarter-
sessions that shell be held after the lapse of twelve days,
mid for the offender's liberatiotl in the interim, on entering
Into a recognisance with a sufficient surety to appear per-
sonally at the sessions. But no conviction, order, warrant,
or other proceeding by virtue of this act is to be quashed
through mere informality, nor removed into anj of the
courts at Westminster.
Onois.— In nearlv all the boroughs having criminal juris*
diction are gaols which have been under the superinten-
dence of the corporation or the municipal magistrates.
Their expenses were defrayed, in some cases, from the corw
poration funds ; in others, from a borough- rate ; in others,
from the poor-rate. In many boroughs the same gaol was
used indiscriminately for criminals and fbr prisoners com*
mitted by the civil court. In some few the poor debtors,
while confined, received a small allowance fVom the cor-
poration. In those where the municipal magistrates com-
mitted to the county gaol, the borough gaols were used only
for temporary detention. Sometimes prisoners were com-
mitted at once to the county gaol until trial, brought back
for trial to the borough sessions, and finally sent again to
the county gaol to undergo their punishment. But debtors
taken under process from the civil court must remain in
the borough gao). . . , ,.
D^ecU, ^i;.— The state of the borough gao s naa fUr-
ilished additional proofs of the evils of continuing the late
constitution of the local tribunals. They have rarely ad-
mitted of any proper classification of the prisoners. In
some large towns, as Berwick, Southampton, and South-
wark, they were found in a very discreditable condition : in
many of the smaller ones, they were ' totally unfit for the
confinement of human beings,* often without suffiofient air
and light, frequently mere dungeons under the town-hftU,
In such receptacles it was impossible to set a prisoner to
work, or to separate the criminals from the debtors. FekNis
might often be committed to the county gaol when the
borough gaol was in an unfit state ; but as this power did
not extend te prisoners committed from the civil court,
debtors might be lodged in places of eontnement thought
unfit for the reception of criminals. It was fluently stated
to the commissioners that the nol of the borough was in so
notoriously improper a state for receiving prisoners, that
plaintifib were unwillinff to eonsign to it defsiidants against
wbem they had obtained exeention. AtooipllUMtbe
flMling was said to pravsnt tiia prssseutioa oC <
Where the corporate bodies have had the means of im-
proving Uie state of the gaols, their neglect, as the oommis*
sioners remark, admits of no palliation ; but many, tb«y
state, were unable to defiray the expense of more suitable
places of confinement— another illustration (we may ob-
serve) of the evil of perpetuating the machinery of loeei
judicature in a town too decayed to support it.
The new municipal system is calculated to obviate the
flagrant and often revolting evils of the old regulations re-
specting borough gaols and committals. It makes uniform
provision for the transfer of prisoners to the county gaol
when destined for trial at the county sessions or nsaixes ;
and such of the boroughs as are too inconsiderable for the
due support of a local court and prison will now be brought
entirelj under the county jurisdiction. To Ikcilitate the
providing of more commodious places of confinement, it is
directed in the act, that if it be satisfketorily shown to one
of the secretaries of state that there is in any other tonmgh
a gad or house of correction fit for the oonftnemeot of pri-
soners, the municipal council may contract respeeting them
with the parties having control over them, as tbeynay with
the justioes of the countv ; also, to prevent another of toe in-
eonveniences which we have indicated above, that of the re-
peated removal of prisoners, if the borough contmning aueh
prison have likewise a separate court of qttarter««eseiona»
offenders committed to such prison may be thert tried and
sentenced for all offences of which the court has oogniaanor*
Cdnmer, — Under the old borough system the exereue of
the important and delicate office of coroner was moat de-
fectively provided for. In many boroughs the mayor or
other head of the corporation was coroner est ojido. in
others the bailiff or town-clerk. When a separate officer
was appointed to this function, the election was generally in
the common council. His duties and his emdumenta were
the same as those of a county coroner. In moat places he
was not required to be either of the legal or the medical
profession, and often he was an inferior tradesman.
Henceforward, the council of every borough wherein a
separate oourt of quarter-sessions shall be held, are, withm
ten days after receiving the grant of holding such court, t^^
appoint a fit person (not being an alderman or council! r)
to be coroner of the borough, w no is to hold the offiee dunnr
^ood behaviour. The council are also to fill up any varanry
in it occasioned by death, resignation, or removal, with-n
ten days after it shall have occurred. No one is to take
any coroner's inquisition within such borough hut the c* -
roner of that borough. For every inquisition he is to rr-
ceive 20?., as also 9d, for each mile above two that he »>: .Ii
travel from his residence to hold any inquest, to be paid <><:t
of the borou|;h fund. He is to transmit to one of the pr r-
cipal secretaries of state on or before the Ist of February -n
every year, a return in writing of all the cases in whtrh he
may' have been called upon to hold an inquest durint; \ha
year ending oyi the 31st of December preceding. But <n
any borough in which no separate quarter-sessions shall \ «
held, no person is to take any coroners inquisition but i! •*
coroner ror the county or district in which such boroaeh -5
situated, who is to be entitled to such fees and aalan &«
would be allowed for any other inquisition taken by him
within his o?m oounty.*
In the view which we have here taken of each di^tin* :
feature of the municipal system, both as it has been. an<l a^
it is to be under the Reform Act of 1835, we hate eousht \o
compare and contrast, as far as our limits wooM pcmii*.
the internal state of the boroughs as it lately was with i>.ii
which they will assume when the new regulations shall ^ ^
brought into /kUl operat\pn. To complete our kitttm-J
view, it remains for us to notice briefly the prineipal «tr;^
of transition by which this entire chance is to be arrived a*.
The proviaion of the act which will Uie longeat retard x\tt
complete extinction of the old system is that which repiiti«
the reservation to a certain extent of the inchoate or latf i :
rights to the acquisition, or the conveyance by marriaire, **f
the old borough freedom. These rights, by birth, marria^.
and apprenticeship, present or latent, are reserved to x'A
persons having any share in them at the dissolution of the
old corporations, in so fer as regards their claim, by cbartyr.
law, or custom, to a portion in the real and perwnal
estate, the rents and profits of any borough, or in any cb^
flv-.^
• For tba refolMttoM awtebrth* MtMtotiMloml
of tbfi jMtkN, courU of ovvtcrMHioii^ and cato—t, of tt* C
MtOiiiwrsBnri
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riuble trusts, tbe benefit of whleh latter was in many in-
stanGes exclusively appropriated to the fbeemen, their
widows, or children. But, before the proeeedt of any sudi
property are so divided, it is directed that the interest of all
lawful debts chargeable npon it, the salaries of mnnioipal
officers, and all other lawful expenses that on the 6di June,
1635, were defrayed out of it, shall be diseharged. In like
manner every person possessing, on the 5th June, 1835, any
such active or inchoate title to freedom, is to have the same
exemption as formerly from any borough tolls or dues, pro-
vided that he pays any sum of money whioh, in considera-
tion of his freedom or of any suoh right, he would, on the
old system, have been liable to pay, and fhlfils every other
condition heretofore required, as far as is eonsistent With
the provisions of this act. But all other exemptions firom
municipal tolls or dues, and the exoluaive rights of trading
which existed in many boroughs, are at onee abolished.
The reservation of the Areemen's title to the^parliamentary
franchise, included in the Parliamentary Reform Act of 1833,
is distinctljr maintained in the Municipal Regulation Act
In anticipation that the several provisions of this act could
not be carried into elfeet in the first year (1835), within the
periods fixed in the act itself for that and all succeeding
years, one of its clauses empowered the king in oonnoil to
appoint, for the first year only, any other days before the
1st of February, 1836, in lieu of those named in the act for
the several stages in the introduction of the new system ;
accordingly, the times for the several proceedinss in ques-
tion, as regards the fir9i yea/r otUy, have been, by order in
council, extended about two months respectively* The fol-
lowing table will be found usefVil, as exhibiting in one clear,
compact, and chronological view, each separate stage of the
proceedings under the new system, with the precise date of
each for the first year, in oomparison with that fixed by the
act for all ft>llowing years.
Dfttet fixrd b^
Orders in Comio
cil as In flnt
Yeiu's Praceed*
ingt.
Nqv. 7. 1835 .
Between Tlh and
l7Ui Not. 1835
Week preceding
Nov. 17, im
Nov. 17, 1835 .
Datm iUed by
the Art u to
t^ tubeaqaeBl
Yavt.
8«pt.5^uuittUj
Between SepLS
and 16« yeexlv
Week precrd*
Ing Sept 15.
iSt'Sb
Sept. 1\ ytarlj
Bkhl days lie- Blgbt dayi be-
fiire
lt)35 . « .
BetveoM Deo. 1.
end Dee. 16,
1835 .. .
0^.16^1885 .
Dw. S1 1886
Decssasaft .
Pee.2S.183S, two
Dee.31.lS86 .
Ju. 1. 1836 . .
Jaa. 1,1888. .
tan Ott,
yearly . .
Bedweeo Oet. 1
and 1ft, yearly.
Ootl.1838 .
Oet.l8byMrly
Oet.89,yMriy
Vow. l.aBBoaUy
Nov.3.an]iaally,
two o'doek .
Nor. a. 1888 .
Native of ProoeediBg.
Overaeen to make out Ufta of Hurgessea,
and deliver the tame to Town-clerk.
Overteeca to keep Lfata of Buvgeaaee (or
penuaU gratia, no demand.
(iists to be fixed ap by Town- clerk at
Court Houae.
Laat day of claiming or objecting— Claima
moat be aent to tne Town-clerk.
NotiAe of ol^eetUma mnet be given to
the Town.elerk. and alao to peraoua
objected to, or left on premiiea rated.
Llata of etaSma and olijeetl<iBa to be made
bvTowB-clerk,and llxod op at Court
Houae* and Tovn-derk to keep copiea
ibr peraaal. and aell the aame fttr l«.each.
Liafta lo be roviaed af^ three daya' uo-
tiee; firat year by Barriatera* and in
aubaeonent yeara oy Mayor and Aaaea-
aora of the Hayoi^ Want.
BevinoB of LiaU to boeomploted, aignod,
and delivered by the Reviecra. to the
Town-elerk.
Iphabetieal Ward Liato lo be made oat
by Town*clerk, and to take effect (hw
Kov. 1, yearly.
OooneiOm to be eleetedi ono tkird aa-
Bually to vaeate oflee-
Mayor to nubliah Liata of pemooa elected
Ifori
Jan. 1, 1896, IWn-
Cfoonciliora.
AldemoQ to be Snt okotad. ond^thMi
onehaif trieoiiiaUy
Nov. 9, yearly . Mayor to be elected.
Nov. 1. yearly . She'iilTa in eertain Towna to be appointed.
Nov. 9, yearly • Towp GooBcila to meet at twelve o'eloek,
and quarterly aftcrwarda, except on
Spedal Summona.
'k, Treaanrert and OSeera to be appointed.
Bg 1886, Two Anditora to be oleotMi tor eaeh
Boroogh, with two Aaaeaaora in
Boroughs not Warded: and two
Aaaeeaora for eaeh Ward In Bo-
looghn divided into Warda.
May ]« 1836 • • • • • • • IVmrr of preaent Jusiiceatoceaae—
preaent ounstitution of See-
to oeaae. and Conaeil nay
I lion for a grant of power to
d Seaslooa ; iod within ten daya
after aneh grnnt made. Coroner to
be appuinted by ConanU, and Be-
eorder to be the aole Judge at Sea-
alona In fiiture.
potiU
bold!
As regaida the ceaaing of tfae old offices anil the oom-
mencement of the new, it is directed that, after the first
election of councillors under this act, the mayor, aldermen,
and all other membert of tbe old governing body of th« ho-
migbf aa naand in tha acbedulea to the act, by whaled,
style they may be designated, are to go out of office, and
their whole powera and dutiea are to oaase ; but any of ihem
may be elected according to the new regulations. Bvery
perBon holding, on the day of the passing of thid act, any
offiee, a new election to which would by statuta* bye-law,
charter, or eustom, have taken plaoe between that day and
the 1st of May, 1886, ia to continue to hold such office, with
all its daties and emoluments, until tbe time provided by
this Act for his going out of office. * Every bailiSi traa-
surer, or chamberlain, and every other ministerial or ex*
eentive officer ' who ahaU be in office at the time of the first
election of councillors* may.be removed by the council, but
is to continue in office and be paid as heretofore until ho
shall be removed or re-appo<nted under the Act. He must
deiivnr up and account for all corporation property in his posr
seaaion to the eoimoil, who. in default, are to have the same
remedy against him as against their own officers. Persona
who, in any borough scheduled in this act, were justices of
the peace under the old system at the time of its passing,
are to continue to act as such until the Ist of May, 1836»
but no longer.
Every paid officer of a corporation whose office shall be
abolished, or who shall be removed from it under thii Act,
is to receive adequate compmfation trom the borough fund*
the amount to be fixed by the council, who in so doing are
to have regard to the manner of his appointment, his term
or intarest in it, and all other oiroumatanoes of his case.
Of the 246 municipalities which the commissioners state
in their General Report to be existing in England and Wales,
about sixty-seven of the more inconsiderable still remain Lo
be legialated upon ; the criminal and civil jurisdictions of
which it will doubtless be deemed expedient to abolish,
although the moat eligible course to be adopted in dealing
with their other franchises and their property may furnish
matter for mature deliberation. London, as we have alreadv
renmrked, is reserved to be the sufaject of a separate bill.
And as regards the laree or considerable unincorporated
towna (including most of the new parliamentary boroughs
ereated by the Reform Act of 1833), a clause of the Muni-
cipal Act of 1835 recites that ' sundry towns and boroughs
of England and Wales are not towns corporate, and it is
expedient that several of them should be incorporated ;*
and enacts, that if the inhabitant householders in any town
or borou^ in England or Wales shall petition the king to
grant them a charter of incorporation, it shall be lawful for
him, if he think fit, by advice of his privy council, to
extend to the inhabitants of such town or borough, within
the district to be described in the charter, the provisions of
this act Notice of such petition however, and of the time
when it is to be taken into consideration by the privy coun-
cil, is to be published bv royal proclamation in the * London
Gaiette,' one month at least before such time. .
We have now traced the history of the boroughs of England
and Wales, whioh has recently acquired so fresh and strong
an intttieat. up to the time at which we write. It is not for
us here to speculate at large upon its future course. That
it will be marked by a steady advance in political and social
amelioration there is hardly room to doubt. Tbe decided
reflux of that political tide which had so long been setting
towards the sacrifice of all sound internal organization to
the immediattt material interests of individuals, of parties,
and of classes, wielding the executive powers or sharing in
the patronage of government, we have already bad occasion
to note. The days when that equal and salutary municipal
organisation to which the instincts of a free community
must ever tend, oould be made the mero sport of irrespon-
siUo ' prerogative,* it may safely be asserted, are gone for
ever in England. It is now the province of the legislature
alone to mould by external authority the internal arrange-
ments of each municipal commonwealth; and notwith-
standing the instinctive bias of a large muority of the here-
ditary house of legislature towards the discouraging and
shackling of the practice of election— notwithstandine their
indulgence of this bias in the important changes which they
have mada in the bill of municipal reform sent up to them by
the representative house— yet the beneflcfal grcundwork of
that original measure — that which affords a basis for all fur-
ther improvement—the practical application of the principle
that tfae primarp olgect of a municipal constitution should
be the immediate locisl security and convenience of the whok
yeaident community, remains unimpaired. The towns of
Saglend being even now in the state of transition firom the
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old mitnictpftl order to the new, it is not ftirns to ostimate
with what degree of uniformity or rapidity that local and
general good shall result which we so confidently anticipate.
Bnt this we will venture to predict —that as, in former days,
municipal corruption was found to be the grand inlet to
parliamentary subserviency, so municipal regeneration, by
promoting civic virtue, activity, and intelligence, among the
inhabitanti of towns, thus brought to ezarcise a free voice,
and Uke a lively interest in the operations of their local go-
vernment, will eventually accelerate the thorough infUsion
into the representative house itself, of that steadUy popular
and independent spirit which alone can give the highest
usefulness and stabihty to the government of a great empire
in an age of general and advancing political information.
BOROUGHS OF SCOTLAND. The social principles
of our nature must have manifested themselves here as in
other countries ; and villages, towns, and cities must have
risen into existence wherever there were strength for protec-
tion, resorts for devotion, or peculiar facilities for trade and
commerce. But the early history of the Scottish communities
is involved in much obscurity, and it is not till about the
twelfth century that we have a steady and continued light
of record to guide us. Vfe then find various places deno-
minated ' burgi' or burghs, and some with that term as a
component part of their name, as Edinburgh, Roxburgh,
Jedburgh, Musselburgh. The towns now mentioned will
also illustrate the condition of the Scottish boroughs, some
being the property of the sovereign, and others, as Mussel-
burgh, the property of a subject. Musselburgh belonged to
the church, and from the territory on which it stood being
erected first into a barony, and afterwards into a regality
with exclusive jurisdiction, it was successively a burgh of
barony and a burgh of regality. Other communities were
mere villages, but some, like Berwick, were raised from that
and higher conditions to be burghs of the king in demesne.
The burghs were at this time the property of the sovereign
or other lord, and disposed of accordingly. Thus in the muni-
ficent grant by King David to Walter son of Alan, steward
of Scotland, Renfrew was included. So the burgh of Dun-
dee was bestowed by William the Lyon on his brmer David
Earl of Huntingdon, who also received a grant of Inver-
bervie from the same monarch, as Cospatrick Earl of Nor«
thumberland received a grant of Dunbar from King Mal-
colm IV. In like manner King Maleolm IV. bestowed on
the steward of Scotland, by grant, a portion of land in every
royal burgh in the kingdom as a place of residence ; and we
fitid that the constable of Scotland had likewise, of right* a
tenement in each of the royal burghs, derived no doubt in a
similar way.
The following series of the royal boroughs of Scotland
has been made by Chalmers {CalecUmia, vol. i. p. 775), as
they successively appeared to him in charters. Under
Alexander I., Edinburgh, Berwick, Roxburgh, Stirling,
Inverkeithing, Perth, and Aberdeen; the three last of
which obtained their respective charters from King William
the Lyon. Under David I., Jedburgh, Haddington, Lin-
lithgow, Rutherglen, Renfrew, St Andrews, Dunfermline,
Crail, Elgin, Forres, and Inverness. Under Wilham, who
granted many charters to boroughs, Dumfries, Lanark,
Glasgow, Irvine, Ayr, Forfar, Dundee, Arbroath, Montrose,
Inverury, Kintore, Banff, Cullen, and Nairn. Under Alex-
ander II., Annan, Dumbarton, Dingwall, and Rosemarkie.
Under Alexander III., Kinghom, Peebles, and Selkirk.
Under Robert I., Kirkcaldy, Queensferry, and Lochmaben.
Under David IL, Cupar, Inverbervie, Dunbar, Brechin,
Lauder, and Wigton. Under Robert IIJ.* North Berwick
and Rothesay. Under James II., Kirkcudbright Under
James III., Kirkwall. Under James V., Pittenweem, Burnt-
island, and Dysart Under James VI., Anstruther Easter
and Wester, Culross, Wick, Sanquhar, and Stranraer.
Under Charles I., Dornoch, Inveraray, New Galloway, and
Newburgh. Under Charles II., Tain, Cromarty, and Kil-
renny. Under William III., Campbeltown. This list how^
ever must not be taken as perfectly accurate, and indeed
Chalmers himself furnishes materials for its oorrectton.
Thus Lanark is placed under the teign of WiHiam the
Lyon, but in the third volume of the CaUdcmia we find the
author saying, * it was certainly a royal town as early, at
•east, as the reign of Maloohn I v., who in granting a toft in
Lanark, tiays it is in bur go tneoJ' {Cakdoma, vol. iii. p. 607.)
On the other hand, he tells us (vol. ii. p. 8d8) that Queens-
ferrv, though long a port, was not a borough so late as 1556.
The most antient existing eharteis to the bocoughaof.
Scotland are, for the most part, grants or ooDflmalions of
particular privileges to the burgesses, and do not any more
than the eariy charters to the towns of England, cont;iu>
words of incorporation : so it would apnear that the ni'^^t
artificial stage in the progress of the boroughs had brvu
already passed, namely, that of their erection into b<yli^
corporate, if indeed the mere association of the inhabitants
had not in those days this effect Nay, the earliest ro\ al
charter on the subject yet discovered is not of a local but nf
a personal and ambulatory nature. It is by King Malc:>lm
IV. * to the burgesses of the Bishop of St Andrews,* othI
confirms to them all the liberties and customs which th«
king's own burgesses have, *pertotam terram meam, et qui-
buscunque portibus appUcuerint* (Connel On the Elect hm
Laws, p. 470.) The charters are however generally of one
description, and convey to the burgh and burgesses, or tp
the burgesses of the burgh, the privileges mentioned in the
deed. The usual privileges are, that their goods shall U
free of toll or tribute, that they shall not be distrained but
for their own debts, and that they shall have a certain
market. Other privileges are sometimes conferred, such i%
the right of a merchant gild. These privileges vere not
conflned to the royal burghs; similar concessions were
granted by the sovereign to the burghs of subjects ; &tid
they in their turn imitated the royal example, and, liUc the
monastery of Dunfermline, to • our burgesses of Dunferm-
line and their heirs for ever,* confirmed or bestowed various
mercantile privileges.
The antient foundation of burgess-ship appears to have
been possession of a tenement of land within burgh. An
exception was early made in favour of a son not yet fun»>
familiated, and this was subsequently extended in varioa^
directions, but the prime qualification was property. Evor;
person who thus became a burgess swore fealty to the kir.;:
and his bailies and the community of the burgh, and lie-
came bound to pay to the king a certain annual sum f /r .
and to watch and wurd his land. The borough maiH^t
thus due to the king formed a considerable part of tlie r'>aJ
revenue, and it was the duty of the great chamberUm ^f
the kingdom to take account of their payment The othn
principal source of the royal revenue from the burghs vs^ re
the customs, great and small ; and every town, at least tbo><
holding of the crown, had its custumariuSt who levied ihe
customs and paid them over to die chamberlain, under ik^
duction of course not only of accustomed charges, but al^o
of sums directed by royal precept to be paid out of the cus-
toms or firms of ibe borough*. About the beginniDg of
the fourteenth century the kings of Scotland adopted tit
method which had been followed in England, of granting
feus or perpetual leases of the boroughs and of the pctTi
customs to the communities of these boroughs, in return fur
which they stipulated a fixed annual reddendum of money.
This of course caused a change in the form of the rvy'ii
charters granted to boroughs ; which, instead of coocessioiL^
of particular mercantile privileges, began tlien to take tltc
form of regular feudal grants of the town in fee-farm to th<
burgesses and community for a money reddendum. Kir.T
Robert Bruce seems to have been the first of the Souti;«d
monarchs who adopted this practice, and his example was
followed not only by his royal successors, but also b^. drc
monasteries and lay nobles towards their burghs. On tlw
accession of King James I. however, probably from an idn
that such grants, and grants of pensions and the like out uf
the customs and rents of burghs, were {u^udicial to tiio
revenue, an act was passed annexing the cuiioms and bo-
rough mailles to the crown tx the king s mainisnaoce ; and
by a statute passed in 1597 all alienations, assedatkuis, and
pensions of the annexed pn^rty, and especially of the
customs, made before lawfhl dissolution (duannexationj in
parliament were declared null. But neither of these kta*
tutes appear to have interfered with the method of grantmir
royal charters to the boroughs, and it is certain thai this
monasteries continued as before to feu out their boron^hs.
In eariy times no diffeienoe seems to have oxiatra be-
tween the privileges granted by the crown to the kind's own
burghs and those so granted to the burghs of subjects.
Thus King David 1. granted to the eanoos of Holjmi a
charter in which he allowed them to build a town between
their church and his borough of Edinburgh, and tW bur-
gesses were enabled by him to buy end sell and traffic as
ireely and fully as his burgesses of Edinbucgh. So Dius-
* It was long usual U> direct the luval pentioni to be paUl ia.tMi vn) .aW
ws haTt aliMdy seco u iofUnoe in the caae oTH^^ Bmci,
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barton was made a royal borough by King Alexander I. ;
yet the same king, twenty years afterwards, granted a
charter to the Bishop of Glasgow, allowing his burgesses
and mea to trade within Argyle and Lennox as freely as
ihev had done before Dumbarton was made a royal bargh,
and without any hindrance from the bailies of Dumbarton.
By various acts of the Scottish legislature also, mercantile
privileges were conferred on the free boroughs generally
without distinguishing whether they were boroughs of the
crown or boroughs of barony or regality. However, by an
act of the first parliament of King Charles I., the privileges
of exporting merchandise, of using merchandise, and buy-
ing wine, wax. silk, and the like, and of packing and poll-
ing were declared ' only propter and comp^nt to the free
burrowes royal that have vote in parliament and bear burden
with the rest of the burrowes, and to no others ;' and though
its extent has since that time varied at different times, an ex-
clusive monopoly is still enjoyed by the royal boroughs, and
such of the other boroughs as accede to the terms on which
it is communicable to them. When we find that it was so
long before the monopoly of the royal boroughs showed itself,
it may be thought strange to say that monopoly is the spirit
of the system ; but an account can easily be given for its late
ajtpcaranrc ; it could not appear till the mfluence of the papal
clmrch and of the lay nobility in fovour of their respective
horou^hs had fallen, and the influence of the crown pre-
vailed. But within burgh the spirit of monopoly reigned
universally and from the earliest times. In almost all the
boroughs minor associations are to be found, consiifting of
])articular portions of the community asserting exclusive
privileges. Of these the most antlent is the guildry which
appears in Scotland to have always designated properiy
an association of merchants. The artisans imitated the
example of their merchant fellow-burgesses, and formed
themselves into crafts, which, notwithstanding much oppo-
sition, at last obtained a legal establishment; they now
exist in the towns of Scotland by royal charter, by seal of
cause, and by prescription. And thus what the burghs were
doing throughout the kingdom, Uie same were the burghid
fraternities doing within the boroughs, — contending with
each other and with all strangers to their communities for
the monopoly of trade and manufacture. The burghal
fraternities however went farther in their demands than
their parent boroughs, and at length got also into their own
bauds the election of the borough magistrates and the ad-
ministration of borough aifiairs.
When we recollect the crown's interest in the bavtrngh
mailles and customs, and see the great chamberlain of the
kingdom superintending the boroughs and levying the royal
revenue there as the king*s officer, we may conclude that
the magistrates of the boroughs would, as bis subordinate
stewards, be nominated by the crown ; and the term baiiivi,
by which the magistrates were usually described, as well as
the practice adopted both on the continent and in England
of presenting them to some of the king*s great officers on
their obtaining the magistracy, seem to countenance the
idea. But whatever m&y be the quality of the evidence
elsewhere, it is in Scotland, from the want of records, littie
bettor than conjecture. As early as the 'Leges Burgorum*
the magistrates were elected at the Michaelmas head oourt,
'de consilio communi proborum hominum viUse qui sunt
fideles atque bonse fame ;' and in the borough of Aberdeen,
where we have the oldest lioroagh records extant, they were
elected, prior to the year 1469, either by the whole bargesses
or at least by the guildry. In the year now mentioned
however an important change in Uie whole system of bo-
rough election took place, and a method of election was
introduced which lasted nearly four centuries, and well nigh
proved the ruin of the boroughs. By the act 1469, e. 30,
* Touching the election of offioera in burrowes, as aldermen,
baillies. and other officiates, because of great contention
yeirly for the chusing of the samin, throw multitude and
clamour of commounes, simple persona:* it is thought ex-
pedient that na offieiares nor eouncel be continued afier the
kingis lawes of burrowes, further than ane yeir, and that
the chusing of new offieiares be in this wise : that is to say,
the auld oouneel of the toune sail chuse the new oouneel,
in sik number as accordes to the toone ; and the new eoun-
* Thb cupreMioa, taken perbapt in its nodera acceptation* cauied con-
•Merabte meniicent in the debates of tbe House of Commoos on the Scottish
Refonii Bill, by which the sutute in the text was repealed. But we appre*
hmd the phraee U to be taken as descriptive not of mental character but of
s mil eonditton ; aad was employed, as in numeroos other instances in oar
jtdar writers, to designate the commonalt^r as dlstingnished from tiie fsntry,
aad to Ui b« Bifiely e»pletivt ol Um gceoediiif tena in the acti <"
eel and the auld, in the yeir fnetaid, tall ehnse all offidami
pertaining to the toune, as aldeman, bailies, dean of gild,
and other offieiares. And that ilk craft sail cbuse a person
of the samin craft, that sail have voit in tiie said electi^ of
offieiares, fbr the time, in Ukewise yeir by yeir/
As in England, so in eariv times in Scotland* there were
certain borough courts at which all the burgesses were re-
quired to attend ; the most eminent of which were the Uiree
head courts, similar to the courts of the same name without
borough, where tenants owed suit to theur lords. Here, as
we have seen, the burgesses elected their magistrates, and
the chief business of tbe borough was transacted. But
these burgess courts soon fell into disuse : the attendance
became narrower ; the nomination of the magistrates came
into the hands of a few persons, and the magistrates alone
exercised burghal jurisdiction. This juriadiction also be-
came very ample, particularly in the royal burghs ; in per-
sonal actions it was unlimited, and in possessory actions it
WHS large: the magistrates could issue flight warmnts and
imprnon debtors till they found bail ; they had jurisdiction
in brieves, in sequestrations, and in the registration of
deeds ; they acted also aa oommissioners of supply and as
justices of the peace ; and their criminal jurisdiction ex-
tended in special eases to capital crimes ; and of this juris-
diction the greater part still remains. For its due execu-
tion most of the boroughs have aueasortf learned in the
law ; and the dean of guild and his council acquired ediie
Cers and a maritime jurisdiction within borough. Several
»ughs were also, as in England, erected into counties
corporate, with a jurisdiction of sheriffiihip within them-
selves; such are Edinburgh, Stirling, Linlithgow, Perth,
Inverness, and Forres.,
The control of the magistrates, and generally of the whole
affairs of the boroughs, particularly of the king*a boroughs.
Was vested in the great chamberlain of Scotland, a high
officer of the crown, who impears in the full exercise of his
powers before the reign of King David I. in the twelfth cen-
tury. This great cSicer held ayree or itinerant courts
throughout the kingdom, at which the magistrates and
burgesses of the several boroughs were bound to give at-
tendance, and where the chamberlain heard and determined
the various charges for breach of official or other duties
brought against tbe magistrates and other officers, and also
against the various • classes of the inhabitants, such as
butchers, bakers, brewers, and the like. He also levied the
diflbrent revenues accruing to the crown from the boroughs,
and investigated into the employment or disposal of tbo
common good, that is to say, the lands and revenues be-
longing to the community of the boroughs. For about, two
centuries and upwards the office of chamberlain was mostly
held by ecclesiastics ; it afterwards came to be vested in the
nobility and higher gentry ; and at length in the beginning
of the sixteenth century it ceased to be exercised in person.
We sbidl have further evidence of this immediately ; but
here it may be noticed that though by statute so late as
1491, the common good of boroughs was directed to be in-
quired into yearly in the chamberlain-ayre, yet in less than
forty years afterwaxds it was directed to hB accounted for
in exchequer ; the chamberlain ayres having then, it is pro-
bable, ceased to be holden. They had certainly ceased in
Aberdeen before that time, for in 1512 a large sum was
raised by assessment from the inhabitants of that borough
and paid to the erown &r relieving it from the grievance, as
the ayres were then centered. Another court held by the
chamberlain ceased about the same time.. This was the
court of Four Boroughs, an antient court so called because
composed of delegates from four royal boroughs, originally
the boroughs of Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick, and Kox-
burgh, but from the year 1368 (at which time the two last
were in the hands of the English by conquest) the burghs
of Edinburgh, Stirling, Lanark, and Linlithgow. These
delegates were assembled yearly at Haddington before tlie
chamberlain of Scotland, and formed for appeals from the
chamberlain ayres and from the various borough courts of
the kingdom, a tribunal which was to the inhabiUnU of the
borougl&wbat the high court of parliament was to the other
inhabitants of the realm, ^e last and highest court of ap-
peal. The jurisdiction of this court was probably swallowed
up by the court of session which was established in 1632 ;
subsequent to that time we hear nothing of it. Before its
disuse however it had given burth to an assembly which has
continued to our own day. This was the parliament or con-
vention of royal boroughs. In the year 1405, when the
regent Robert Duke of Albany, uncle to Kit^g Jamesi.*
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wu diamborialiiof fioofland, ind jatt before his resignation
of the oiBoe in fayour of his eldest son, a court of the Four
Boroughs was held at Stirling, where it was resolved that
two or three deputies from each of the royal boroughs touth
of the Speff should convene yearly with the court of Four
Boroughs to oonsider and conclude on all matters affecting
the common weal of the royal boroughs, their liberties, and
court No explanation has hitherto, we bdieve, been given
of the eireumstanee that the boroughs north of the Spey
were excluded from this assembly, any more than for the
fact that boroughs so far south and so few in number, as
Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick, and Roxburgh, should have
formed the court of Four Boroughs, though it is known that
the north of Scotland had long been possessed by a trading
and industrious people. But the fact is, that the burgesses
of the north were enjoying their own hanfe. So early as
the reign of William the Lvon a royal charter was granted
to the king's burgesses of Aberdeen, and of Moray, and all
beyond the Grampians, to hold their free * ausum' or hanse
as fully and honourably as their predecessors had done in
the time of the royal grantor*s grandfather. (Kennedy's
AfUuUt qf Aberdeen, vol. i. p. 8.) There appear to be no
records extant of this northern convention ; but there can
be little doubt that it was wi^ reference to it, if not in its
imitation, that the convention of boroughs south of the
Spey was formed. This latter assembly, though it was ap-
pointed to meet in the same place with the court of Four
boroughs, formed no constituent part of that court^ and
soon also disregarded both the time and place of meeting of
that assembly; and in 1487, when probably the superior
advantages of one general mercantile convention was per-
ceived, deputies from all the boroughs * baith s<mih and
north' were by statute of that year appointed to meet yearly
on the day named in the act at the borough of Inverkeithing,
* there to commoune and treate upon the weilfare of mer-
chandise, the gude rule and statutes for thecommoun profit
of burrowes, and to provide for remeid upon the skaith and
injuries sustained within the burrowes.* It was then that
the chamberlain ayres were Substantially superseded, and a
foundation laid for the entire abolition of the office of lord
chamberlain, whose place in the convention is now occupied
by the lord provost of Edinburgh, who, though not a mem-
ber, is yet its constant prases. The origin of this last cir-
cumstance is not to be met with in the books of the Scottish
lawyers : but it appears to be this. The convention did not
continue long to assemble at the antient yet little borough
of Inverkeithing, but like the other supreme courts of Scot-
land removed to Edinburgh. This was so early as the time
of Alexander Lord Home, who was appointed great cham-
berlain almost immediately after the piassing of the above
act of 1487 ; and as that person was at one time both lord
provost of Edinburgh and lord chamberlain of the kingdom,
and also, as it would seem, the last in the Utter office who
exercised its duties in person, hence no doubt arose the
practice of the lord provost of Edinburgh being the perma»
nent preses, and the town-clerk of Edinburgh the perpetual
clerk of the convention. This civic parliament nas con-
tinued to the present day, meeting annually at Edinburgh
on the second Tuesday of July.
The precise time at which the royal burghs first sent re-
presentatives to the general parliament of the kingdom is
uncertain. In the year 1326, when the tenth penny of all
the revenues from land was yielded to King Robert Bruce,
the burghs appear as a constituent part of parliament ; but
perhaps they d.d not continue permanently to do so till
some time afterwards. After their admission the parliament
consisted of the bishops, the barons, and the representatives
of the boroughs, who all deliberated together in one house,
in matters of subsidy as in other matters. After the union,
when the royal burghs were appointed to send 15 ropre*
sentatives to the imperial parliament, Edinburgh sent one
member, and the remainder of the boroughs were divided
into 14 districts, evh of which hltewise sent one. The
member for Edinburgh was chosen by the magistrates and
council of the city. The other members were chosen in this
way : each borough of every electoral district made choice
of a delegate, and the delegates chosen met and nominated
the men.tier for the district Thus, in all cases, the elec-
tion of the roembt;r essenttall) depended on the magistrates
and town councils, who were Siipointed in nearly all* the
boroughs ou the system of gfffeiectton, introduced, as we
have seen, by iho stat. of 1469- a statute, we tl»en also re-
marked, which well uiffh proved the ruin of the boroughs.
No sooner was it passea than complaints began of paitiUity
and undue influenee in the election of boroogb i
and then of the dilapidation of the common goo& of bo*
roughs for personal aAd party ends. These complaints ap-
pear in numerous statutes, and they were uttered ny the «xe-
eutive government in Scotland— in the Scottish claim of rigbt
at .the revolution — ^in supplications of particular boroogha—
and by the general convention of boroughs. Varioua mo-
tions were accordingly made in parliament on the sub-
ject, and commissions of inquiry appointed ; but except the
act 3 Geo. IV. c. 91, which limited the powers of feuing aud
contracting debt, no remedy of consequence was a|]fibed t*U
the borough reform act of August, 1833, foltowing on the
act of July, 1832, to amend the representation of the people
of Scotland in Parliament— by which last stat. 2 and J
Will. IV., c. 65, the number of representatives to parliament
from the Scottish boroughs was raised from 15 to 23, and
the right of election enlarged and distributed anew. Threv
small boroaghs were withdrawn from the list of pariia*
mentary boroughs, and several places which had risen into
importance were added to them : Edinburgh and Olas^Mit
were allowed two members each ; Aberdeen, Paisley, £hin-
dee, Greenock, and Perth, one each; and the remain in^f
boroughs and towns were associated into 14 distriels. each
of which returns one member. Instead also of the metn-
bers being chosen, as heretofine, by the town councils* they
are to be elected directiy by the inhabitants as set forth m
the Act, namely : 1. Every person not legally incapacitated,
nor lor twelve months in the receipt of pjarish aid, who
shall havo been in the ocoupanoy as proprietor, tenant, or
life-renter of an V house or other building within the town.
which, either alone or jointly (a) with any other buildiii;:
within the same limits, or (b) witii any land therein owned
or occupied by him, or occupied under the same landlonl,
shall be of the yearly value of 10/. sterling ; 2. Every ptT-
son not incapacitated or receiving aid as aforesaid* who u
the true owner of oremises within the town of the yearty
value of 10/.» provided the party has resided for six moniil*
within seven nules of the town ; 3. Husbands, in respect oi
premises owned by their wives, either in the lifetime of \ht
wife or holding by the courtesy ; and 4. Joint ooonpantk oi
premises of 20/. and upwards may elaim and votet. if ii:r
share or interest of each is 10/. This important statu
paved the way for the other acts above alluded to. name U
3 and 4 Will. IV., c. 76 and c. 77, whereby the election *>:
the common conncils for the royal boroughs, and for baroui^x>
not royal, but which now return or contrihule to rvUim
members to parliament, was vested in the 10/. househoUc:*
as already described, the councillors so elected choosing tut
provost and magistrates, except in the small borough* *.:
Dornoch, New Galloway, Culioss, Lochmaben, Ber^xv
Wester Anstruther, Kilrenny, Kinghorn, and Kmw.-v.
where the election of both magistrates and council is to pr.-
ceed in the way and manner hitherto practised there.
To the preceding account of the boroughs of Scotlan I.
we have not thought it neoessary to add any observation* •>
the authenticity of the ' leges burgorum;*' an examinaun..
of the question would necessarily be extensive, and i* ou .
perhaps more of professional than of public inteif»t.
(Chalmers's Caledonia, vol. i. ; Connel On tks Kltrh- \
Lowe of Scotland; and Beporte of the Commieiiune q/ r^-
House qf Commone on the State qfthe Scottuh Borvuizhi >
BOROUGHS, IRISH. [CoRPonATiONs (Mwsicip^l)
OF Irxland ; CoMicoNS, Inrsu Housk of.]
BOROUGH-ENGLISH is a customary deM«nt of land,
or tenements, whereby, in all places wbere'thifr custom ho\ t v
lands and tenements descend to the youngest son ; or if itu
owner of land have no issue, then to the younger bmhcr.
as in Edmonton, some parts of Richmond, and othor plact^
and the reason of this custom, says Littleton, is, for that xt^i
Youngest son is presumed in law to be least able to shift i> r
himself.
Blackstone, who divides the common law into three di\ i-
sions, treats of Borough-English under the seoond diviMi>a
vis. :— ' Particular customs, which for the most part affect
only the inhabitants of particular districts.' In the 0 a
volume of the 'Commentaries * he gives a definition of the
term similar to that contained in Dr. Cowrila Dti*tkmarr ;
and in the second volume he recurs to it, and obtfer^e* ^
•Other authors have indeed given a much stronger nea-ou
for this custom, as if the lord of the fee bad antien tly a n^ . i ;
to break the seventh commandment with bis teiaint's «.v*
on her weddint;-night ; and that theretbre the f enemenc d^
scended not to the eldest but llie youngest son, u iiu «i ••
more certainly the ofispring of tho^ldMiiL!>. Blaekstvioe.
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howevir, stalat that he ouinol kam tbftt Ihit Tig^t «u ex*
ercised in England, although it certainly is^a in Scotland,
until abolishra by Malcolm III., and in some parts of
Fraooe; and eren if it were, the reason, aa it regarda the
youngest son only^ is obYioudy absurd. * Perhaxis (he adds)
a uiore rational aoeoant than either may be fetched (though
at a sulReient distance) from the practice of the Tartan ;
among whom, according to Father Duhalde, this custom dT
descent to the youngest son also prevails. That nation is oom-
posed totally of shepherds and herdsmen, and the elder sons,
as soon as they are capable of leading a pastoral life, migrate
fiom Iheir fathers with a oertain allotment of cattle, and go to
seek a new habitation. The youngest son, therefore, who con*
tinues latest with the fhther, is naturally the heir of his house,
the rest being already provided for. So that possibly this cos-
torn, wherever it prevails, may be the remnant of that pastoral
state of our British and (German ancestors which Csssar and
Tacitus describe.* But it is unnecessary to go so far for the
origin of a custom which the name itself anid other cirmim*
stances show to be of Snglish origin.
BO ROUGH-REE VB. [Bokouoh, page 1 94.]
BOROU6HBRIDGE, a m. t.. bor., and t, in the par. of
Aldborough, in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, and in the
lower division of the wapb of Claro. It is situated on the S.
bank of the Ure, over which there is a stone bridge. Pop. 950.
It h about 205 m. N. by W. from London, being about half
way between the metropolis and Edinburgh. It seqt two
members to parliament from 1553 to the time of the Reform
Act, when it was disfranchised. Borou^hbridge arose out
of the remains of Aldborough, the antient Iseur or Isu-
rium, derived, according to Button, from Isis, a deity wor-
shipped here, and Uer or Ure, the river on which the city
stoou. In accounting for the decav of Isurium (Aid-
borough) and the rise of Boroughbnage, Button remarks,
* The first depression Isurium felt was the removal of the
royal residence from this city to York, in the days of
Severus. The second calamity was the Danes burning the
city to ashes in the eighth century ; and the third, which
completed her destruction, was turning the great north road,
which ran through the centre, by removing the bridge.
This made Boroughbridge a thoroughfare, and left Isurium
desolate.* (Button's TVip to Coatnam,)
This town was granted, together with Aldborough and
Knaresborough Castle, to Bubert de Burgh in the fifteenth
of Benry III. ; but it was forfeited by his son for aiding
Simon de Hontfort at the battle of Evesham. Edward if.
afterwards gave it to his favourite. Piers Gaveston. In 1321
a sanguinary battle was fought here between Edward II.
and the discontented barons, headed by Thomas Earl of
Lancaster, who was afterwards beheaded at Pontefract
Till very lately the manor was in the possession of the
Duke of Newcastle, by whose ancestors it was purchased in
1701. The town and par. abound with antiquities, which are
continually being turned up by the plough. In 1831 a
beautiful teaselated pavement was discovered, which is the
best in the place, if not superior to any in the kingdom.
The most curious remains are perhaps the Arrows, which
are at a abort distance on the W. side of the town. The
following sketch, with slight additions, is from Button, and
will explain the situation of some of these interesting objects.
^^^^=^.=^1
i» Ihii^ Haii a Aattwt WaUa; S, Btnl— StwHi 4^ Road Is Kmim*
W'Tongli; S. KoAd to Boroii«taihtldg«i 6^ Old Koftd to York; 7, Tb« ChtiTeh{
I. PktvnMnta ; 9, Tkfi PHTament recsotty diieoTrrad
Many of tbe ilifa. hate British and Homftn intiquitiea to
show and for sale ; — small heads of brass, chains of gold,
signet stones, urns, lamps, tiles, and coins. Some coins
have been found of gold, and some of silver ; but the greater
number are of braas, uid include those of the Emperors
Augustus, Claudius, Vespasian, Domitian, Severus, Idax*
iminus. Valerian, Aurelian, Diocletian, Constantine, Carau-
sius, and Julian. The chief importance which Borough-
bridee at present ponesses is from ita situatk>n on the great
north road, the antient Ermine Street. It was formerly
noted for its traffic in hardwares, but at present its principal
business consists in the shipment of agricultural produce.
The Ure is navigable as high as Ripon for small craft, and
several warehouses connected with its commerce have been
lately erected on the 8. bank of the river. Boroughbridge
communicates with Selby and Bull by the Ure and the
Ouse ; with Leeds, Wakefield, and the manufacturing dis-
tricts, by the Ure, the Ouse, and the Aire and Calder
navigation.
The chapel of ease is a perpetual curacy in the patronage
of the vicar of Aldborough, and in the diocese of Chester.
There is a national school for 100 childran, established in
1814; and an infant school of recent date. The Methodists
have a place of worship here. The town also supports a
small subscription-library and news>room. The houses are
neat and well built. In the market-place is a fluted Doric
column ; the market is held on Satuinday, and is chiefly for
corn ; several fkirs are held in the course of the vear; that
in June was formerly of great importance for tne sale of
hardwares, and lasted for a fortnight ; it was attended by
some of the principal manufoctuj:ers fhim various parts of
the kingdom. It is still frequented by dealers firom Shef-
field, Wolverhampton, and Birmingham, and continues for
several days; the other fairs are chiefly for cattle. {Com"
muni cation from Yorkshire,)
BORROMEAN ISLES. [Maooiorb, Lago.j
BORROME'O, Sy. CBARLES, son of Gilberto Bor-
romeo. Count of Arona, Lord of Anghieri, &c., and of Mar-
5herita de' Medici, sister to Pope Pius IV., was born at
Lrona, in October, 153S. He studied at Pavia under
Alciati, and took his doctor's degree at twenty- two years of
age. Shortly after, his uncle Pius IV. called him to Rome,
and made him a cardinal and archbishop of Milan, and
gave him all his confidence. Borromeo established an
academy in the Vatican for the promotion of learning, and
he published its conferences, under the name of Naetes
VaticancB. He urged the Pope to hasten the termination
of the Council of Trent; and upon its conclusion in 1563,
he was commissioned to draw up an exposition of the doc-
trine of the Roman Catholic Church, as sanctioned by that
council. This exposition is known by the name of * Cateohis-
mus Tridentinus.' After the death of Pius IV., in 1 565,
Cardinal Borromeo went to his diocese, where he devoted
himself entirely to his episcopal duties. He reformed bia
expensive style of living, and employed the greater part of
his revenues in charitable purposes. He also enforced a
refbrm in the clersy, especially among the monastic orders.
The monks called Umiliati gave most scandal by their
openly licentious conduct; and Borromeo having exerted
himself to check their disorders, one of them made aa
attempt upon the life of the cardinal, by firing at him as he
was praying in his chapel. The ball perforated his gar-
ments without hurting his person. The assassin, named
Farina, was taken and executed, together with two of
his superiors who had instigated" the crime. Pope Pius V.
suppressed the order, and applied their revenues to other
purposes.
Cardinal Borromeo used to visit every part of his diocese,
reforming abuses, examining the conduct of his clergy, and
providing for the wants of the poor. He establiahed colleges
and schools, and asylums for destitute children. Beheld
several provincial svnods, the transactions of which are found
in his Ada Bcden^d Medioianemis, fol. 1599. When the
plague broke out at Milan in 1576, he exerted himself, at
the risk of his life, in assisting the sick, and relieving the
wants of the population in that calamitous time. Be was
aooused by his enemies of having overstepped the Umits of
his authority ; and he had several duputes with the Spanish
governors of Lombardv on matters of jurisdiction. In some
particulars Cardinal Borromeo shared the errors and preju-
dices of his age, for we find that he believed in the existence
of soroery. Bis conduct, however, was exemplary ; and hia
xeal for the flock committed to his care uncemittlng. He
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died the dfd of Nov«ab«r» 1594* HU bodf, dntsed in his
pontifical robes, is to be seen in a sarcophagus of natural
crytital, in the subterraneous chapel of the cathedral of Milan.
Charles Borromeo was canonized by Pope Paul V. in 1610.
He has left many theological and ascetic works, homilies, and
sermons, of which a catalogue is given by MazzuchellL
Ripamonti and Bascap^ have written his life.
BORROME'O, FEDERI'CO, the son of Giulio Cesare
Borromeo, uncle of St. Charles, and of Margherita Tri-
vulzio, was bom at Milan, in 1564. He resided first
at Bologna and then at Pavia, and afterwards went to
Rome where he was made a cardinal, in 1587. He was
both a classical and oriental scholar ; and was intimate at
Rome with Baronio, Bellarmino, and the pious philanthro-
pist Filippo Neri. In 1595 he was made Archbishop of
Milan, where he soon after made his entrance in the midst
of public rejoicings and acclamations. He adopted the views
of his cousin and predecessor St. Charles, ana enforced his
regulations concerning discipUne with great success. He
used to visit by turns all the districts, however remote and
obscure, in his diocese ; and his indefatigable zeal for the
good of his flock, his charity and enlightened piety, are
attested by Ripamonti and other contemporary writers, and
have been lately a^ain eloquently eulosized bv Manzoni, in
his Promessi Spost. He was the founder of the Ambrosian
Librar}*, on which he spent verv large sums ; and he em-
ployed various learned men, who went about several parts
of Europe and the East, for the purpose of collecting
MSS. Olgiati was sent to Germany, Holland, and France ;
Ferrari to Spain, Salroazi to Greece, a Maronite priest,
called Michael, to Syria, &c. About 9000 MSS. were thus
collected. Cardinal Borromeo established a printing press,
annexed to the library ; and appointed several learned pro-
fessors to examine and make known to the world these
literary treasures. He also established several academies,
schools, and charitable foundations. His philanthropy,
charity, and energy of mind, were exhibited es|)ecially on
tlie occasion of the famine which afflicted Milan in 1627-8;
and also during the great plague of 1630. He died the
22nd of September, 1631, universally regretted, and was
buried in the cathedral, near the monument of his cousin,
St. Charles. Mazzuchelli gives a list of his printed works.
He left also a number of works in MS.
BORROMFNI, FRANCIS. Such is the injurious cele-
brity which this architect's caprices have obtained for him,
almost rendering his name a synonym with bad taste, that
it Bocures him a place in every work of general biography.
Even the very excess of his demerit and his capricious ex-
travagance render him a sort of landmark in the history of
the art, for both his works and his example deteriorated it
to that degree as almost to create a distinct style. He
was bom in the district of Como, in the year 1599, and at
the early age of nine was sent by his father, who was an
architect, to study sculpture at Milan. After passing seven
years in that city he proceeded to Rome, where his relative.
Carlo Mademo, was then employed in finishing St. Peter's.
On the death of Mademo, in 1629, although Bernini was
appointed to succeed him as architect to tliat building, Bor-
rominl continued under him as he had done under his pre-
decessor; yet, instead of the connexion thus established
leading to any friendship between them, it only occasioned
extreme jealousy — at least on the part of Borromini, who
could not brook the superiority conferred upon one who was
his senior only by a few months. He therefore endea-
voured by all means to supplant him whenever occasion
offered, and so far succeeded as to ingratiate himself with
Urban VIII. Owing to the ])atronage of that pontiff, he
was employed upon a variety of important works, most of
which would have afforded ample scope for the display of
architectural talent, had he not chosen to throw away the
opportunities thus offered him. Instead of seeking to dis-
tinguish himself by showing that he was capable of tuming
his art to greater account than either his predecessors or
contmporaries, he sought only to astonish by downright
vagaries, and by caprices altogether at variance wiUi every
principle both of the art itself and of construction, alter-
mg and reversing members, and applying them contrary
to all analogy, freouenUy in defiance of common sense.
His designs are of the most heterogeneous description;
nothing in them seems to have been dictated by either reason,
propriety, or motive, ft)r there is hardly any feature or part
that might not just as well have been altogether different.
Stili even some of those who have otherwise severely cen-
MBed bim, hive afioired that be paimjiori fatflily of inven-
tion and imagination ; and certainly if those teiVM can be
applied to the imagining all sorts of preposterous whuav
they are not misapi^ied in regard to him. But the metviy
doing that which its very absurdity has probably pre%«iii*-i
others from doing, is not invention , because invention, in trie
language of art, must be supposed to implv, that what ;t
produces is not only new but commendable also« It require^
no genius to produce mere monsters and monstrMUici^ ^n
art, such as ore nearly all the productions of Borrvtniiii,
whose buildings offer to the eye a mass of unmeaning conf u*
sion, and for the most part as ugly as unmeaning. To thciu
may very well be applied the expression Vasari has mauv
use of when he stigmatizes Gothic architecture as Unt\^
una maledezione di/abbriche, and in fact what be sa\s uf
that style will exactly serve to characterize that of Borri.^
mini ; with this difference, that what the critic enumeruws
as so many vices produces consistency in the former, whortaj
the other has no consistency, nor exhibits any kind of pr.:;-
ciple. It must nevertheless be acknowledged that Uitiv
are occasionally some happv random accidents — ^9od3«
glimpses and glimmerings of beauty and graoefulnc^ in
the productions of this architect; and indeed it would have
been almost a miracle hod he not, in the course of bis nume-
rous caprices, now and then, bv mere chance hit upon some
pleasing combinations, although only in detached psits.
It must also be allowed that so far from being deficient lu
constmctive skill, he frequently exhibited an unusual dt^cr^x:
of mastery in it; in fact, it required no ordinary ab.l.sv
to contrive the execution of some of his designs, bccau^ti
the supports are all disguised, and what ought to contnbuU!
to strength, required no little artifice to make itsupi-m
itself. He appears to have been a man of per\'crse di^(M.»:-
tion as well as taste ; for although he obtaiued great »tu! i
as well as fame— and of the latter far more than he wask «. ..•
titled to by his professional desert — ^he nourished surU an
envy of Bernini's superior reputation, that he at length U ..
into a state of hypochondria. In order to dissipate lU, hi
made a iourney through Italy, but on his return a^^in t <
Rome shut himself up in seclusion, occupying hirn»{.i'
solely in drawing whatever fantastic architectural idea» i«r.
curred to him, with the intention of having them eogra^*^i.
But before the work was brought out, his disorder li ad lu-
creased to such degree as to render him nearly a madiuar. ;
and it was perhaps increased by his attendants not {kt*
mitting him to applv himself any longer to the stutlu^
which they considered the cause of his malady. One niL^ :
when he was unable te sleep, and had ordered nens a: •:
paper to be brought him, he leaped out of bed ana stabU%'
himself with a sword that happened to be hanging up to h ^
chamber. This desperate act was committed in the }^*r
1667, when he baa reached the advanced age of si\t;-
eight. Such was the miserable end of a man« who. n ':•
withstanding his career had been so eminently prospcn> .s
embittered his own existence by allowing his mcr^ !
feelings to obtain the mastery over him. Setting x^ ' •
his jealousy of temper and inordinate ambition, Borrcc: :
possessed many estimable qualities : he was senerous ,\:\.i
disinterested, and his morals were unblembhed.
Among his principal works is the church of La Sapicor*.
at Rome, which he was commissioned to execute b) b'>
patron. Pope Urban, and which bears ample testimonv of
nis singularly vicious taste, both withoutside and nilh..:
(the dome is formed externally by steps, and therv is .t
spiral staircase placed above its lantern) ; the ehurrh of
the College di Propaganda ; the oratory of the fathers (
Chiesa Nuova, which is perhaps one of his kast faul:^
productions, after the church of St Agnes; the fa^do f
the Doria Palace, *a building,* says Woods, 'monsti«u> .n
every sense, and yet in spite of its absurdity, the Ur^
range of similar windows loaded with enormous mouldings
and overcharged in all parts, produces an effect of irrv^:
grandeur, as seen obliquely in the narrow Corso.* H..-#
ever his church of San Carlino die Quattro Fontane is r^-
nerally considered his masterpiece of extravagance, cbu^fft
perhaps on account of the waving lines and surfkces erf* it«
ia9ade ; not but that there is even stronger evidenee of ba^l
taste in other respects, and of a kind not easily to be de-
scribed by words. Besides tbe above and a great manv
other works which it would be tedious to enumerate, be rv-
stored, or more properly speaking, modernized, tbe navv c4
San Giovanni Laterano, which, capricious as the vmn* %M
decorations are, has nevettheless Bometfaing grana uid in>-
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B O R
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foiblff in ili general eliaiteler. It ii net unlikely that even
the abmidities and extravagancies of this architeol earned
atong vich them their own antidote; and after the mere
ftabiott of the time had passed away, served hy their very
exeoH to lead to the rejection of sneli pneriUties.
BORROWDALB, a valley in Cumherland, remarkahle
lor besuty of scenery. Its lower houndary may he placed
at the stream which forms the waterfall at Barrow, ahoat
S m. S. of Keswick. From Orsinge Bridge it runs S., tend-
ing slightly to the Wh to the N. skirt of Seawfell, the
nucleus of the Cnmhrian group of mountains. It is watered
in its whole length hy the river Grange, which takes its rise
in two streams mm ScawfeU : one coming from Sprinkling
Tarn, through Sty Head Tarn, the other descending from
Esk Hause (the tlack, to use a provincial term, or depres-
sion between Scawfell and Bowfrll), which, with the bluff
face of rock called Oreat End, forms the true termination
of the great valley of Borrowdale. At the head of Borrow-
dale stands the Pikes, which is 3160 ft. above the sea.
These streamB,after their junction, form a powerful mountain
torrent, which traversing Derwentwater, takes the name of
Derwent after it issues from that lake. Tlie level ground
of the valley hardly begins before their junction ; from
which to Grange Bridge is about 6 miles. The breadth
is very various. At the gorge where Castle Crag juts
out into the centre of the vdley, there is only room for
the bed of the river ; and this is one of the most beau-
tiful spots in England : higher up the vaUey expands, vary-
ing in width fh>m a quarter of a mile to a mile and upwards.
Generally it is narrow, and the sides are lofty and abrupt :
it h broadest at Rosthwaite, where 'the main valley throws
off a branch running £. by the hamlet of Stonethwaite.
This again divides itself into two hranches: one hardly
more than a mountain ravine forms the small valley of
Greenup, wluch is separated fVom Grasmere by a moun-
tain ; the other running nearly parallel to Borrowdale, is
called Langstreth, a wud upland valley about 4 m. long,
and in some places about | m. broad, entirely devoted to
panturage, and terminated by BowfelL
Borrowdale is a chapelry of the parish of Crosthwaite,
and the living is a perpetual curacy m the g^ift of the vicar
of that parish. The chapel, which was rebuilt and a little
enlarged, about twelve years ago, is near Rosthwaite. It is
divided into four hamlets. Grange, Rosthwaite, Seathwaite,
and Stonethwaite. Borrowdale formerly belonged to the
abbey of Fumess.
The flat bottom of the valley contains about 2000 acres :
there are about 800 acres of arable land, of which about
120 acres are ploughed annually. Hay is grown in the
meadows ; but in the upper valley it frequently is not housed
before September, the climate being wet and cold. The
mountain sheep-walks form the chief dependence of the
farmer. There is a good deal of copse-wood, but very little
timber in the valley ; hazel-nuts are so plentiful as in good
seasons to form an article of some account to the small pro-
prietors. A sheep-fair is held on the first Wednesday in
September, lliere is slate of good quality in the hill side
opposite Oastle Crag, but it has not been worked for upwards
of 20 years. Formerly a quarry was worked on the top of that
eminence ; it is now we believe discontinued. Traces of forti-
fication attributed to the Romans were formerly visible on it ;
but the combined effects of quarrying and planting have
rendered it difficult to find them, and perhaps they are
entirely obliterated. The most remarkable product of the
valley b gr^hite, plumbago, or black-lead (provincially
ttad), which is found in one spot near the head of the
valler. of autJity fax superior to any which has been disco-
vered elsewnere. The population of Borrowdale was in 1 80 1 ,
342; 1811, 310; 1821,346; 1831, 356. They are almost
exilasively emploved in mining and agriculture.
There u a tolerably good carriage«road from Grango
Bhd|^ to the &rm of oeatollar, between four and five
miles; from thence to Seathwaite it is hardly practicable
except for caits. From thence there is a horse-track across
the well-known pass of Sty Head to Wasdale and the west
eoast This, though scarcelv passable except by the countiy
hortes (for the ascent from Borrowdale is very steep, and the
descent to Wasdale Head is as steep and considerably longer,
comprising probably not less than 1250 feet of perpendicular
<leMent, the whole of which is seen at a glance), is more fre-
quented than might be supposed, not only by tourists, but
as the readiest means of communication between the central
mountain dirtriet and the coast. Horses laden with heavy
paoks of wool, &e., tmverae it ; and ihe path is kept in some
sort of repair by the parishes. Two roads diverge from this
main line; one a mere horse-path, leading by Stonethwaite
and Langstreth over the high pas^ called the Stake, (which
is hardly surpassed in grandeur even hy Sty Head) to Lang-
dale, and thence to Ambleside, or Coniston; the other,
which is just praetkable for light carts, from SeatoUar to
Buttermere. Both these routes are very beautifuL There it
a small inn at Rosthwaite, the only one in the vaUey.
Borrowdale belongs to the central, division of the Cum-
brian sUte formation, which contains the highest peaks
and the most romantic scenery. The most remarkable ob-
jects in it, next to the wad mine, are the Bowder stone,
an immense detached block of stone, estimated to contain
23,000 cubic feet, and a remarkable group of yew-trees
(celebrated in verse by Wordsworth) between Seatolbr
and the wad mine, on the W. side of the valley. The
largest is said to be 21 ft in girth, and is in perfect fresh-
ness and vigour : it is one of the most imposing vegetable
productions which we have seen in Englana.
BORROWSTOUNNESS. [LmLiTHOOWsHiRB.I
BORSOD, BORSCHOD, or BORSSODSKA, a co. in
the prov. of the Hither Theiss, in the N. part of the king-
dom of Hungary, is bounded by ihe following counties: on
the N. bv Gomor and Toma, on the B. by Abaujvar, Zem-
plin, and Szabolts, and on the 8. and W. by Heves
and Szabolts. Its area is 1365 sq. m. The mountains
which traverse it in the W., are the last declivities of
the Tserhit and Neitra branches of the Carpathians, both
of which subside in this county ; the first separating into
two branches at H&mor, and forming the celebrated valley
of Dies Gyoma. Both branches also throw out a number
of subsidiary ones into the N. and S. of the county. The
highest points of the Tserh^t ranee within its borders are the
Osztra, N. of Verbo, and the Ny&ryuk near Vsinyo. The
last branches of the Neitra range occupy a corner of Borsod
between the Bodva and Say6, and the mountains in the
N.B. parts, likewise branches of that range, subside into
the plains between Hidas and Kemeti, and the Karapta.
The S.E. districts are one continued and beautiful plain,
irrigated by rivers in every quarter. The principal rivers in
Borsod are the Say6, which enters its N.W. border at Put-
nok, and winds in a S.E. direction to Onod, where it re-
ceives the Lesser Hem&d, and thence joins the-Theisst
after having received the Grreater Hemad. The Hernad
skirts the county for a short distance in ti^e E. The Bodva
}Misses into it from Toma, and flows past Szendro and Ede-
leny, and the Theiss touches its 8.E. extremity. The soil
of Borsod i& in general highly productive and equally
adapted for grain, the vine, and the rearing of cattle. The
finest wheat in Hungary is raised in the neighbourhood of
Miskoltz, and of this wheat as well as of rye, barley, oats,
and buck'Wheat, considerable quantities are exported.
Much wine is made, and of a superior quality ; the best is
the growth of Miskoltz, St. Peter, Kars^, and Kars&nye.
The other vegetable productions are fruit, including almonds
and chestnuts, tobacco (particularly in the S. districts),
hemp, flax, and timber in abundance from the mountain-
ous parts. The extent of available soil is estinfated at
about 731,530 acres, about four-fifths of the whole surface
of the country ; and of these there are actually under the
plough 307,800, converted into vineyards 40,000, and used
as meadows 38,160. The remainder consists mostly of
grazing land, woods and forests. The mountains, valfeys«
and pasture pounds, support a great quantity of cattle,
sheep, and swine ; the wooos abound in game, and the rivers
in fish. A great number of horses are likewise bred in the
county.
Borsod possesses considerable mineral resources ; copper
is raised at Rudo Banya, and excellent iron, from which
the best common and cast steel in all the kingdom is manu-
factured, near Uppony, Tapolts&n, and other places. A
beautiful kind of^ marble is obtained from Felso- Jarkany ;
clay- slate, of which there is a large export, is raised near
Visnyo ; and coals are dus at Say6-N<6meti and Dies Gytir.
In every respect indeed Borsod has justly been designated
Hungaiy in miniature.
The pop. is estimated at about 170,000» more than one-
half of Whom are Roman Catholics ; the county contains
10 m. U 167 vil., and 57 pnedia, or privileged settlements.
Many of the Jews settled in it are farmers ; but the enter-
prising Greek has contrived to monopolise the trade of this
and several other provinces in Hungary, and he has no
No. 300.
[THE PENNY CVCLOPiEDIA.]
Digiti
mSf¥^S^^
BOH
22(>
BOS
mal In Mi»koltx either Cor the splendour of hU dwelling,
the beauty of his vltievards, fields, and meadows* or the
luxury of his domestic habits. Though education is by no
meana neglected (for in Miskoltz alone five different sects
have distinct schools), more than common depravity is said
to preyail among the people in general. Bor&od pays
63,41 1 florins (about 6300/.) as its quota to the war depart-
ment. Its elimate is temperate and agreeable. It is di-
vided into four circles ;— Miskoltz, in the 8.E., the capital
of which is the m. t of the same name, a large well-built
place on the banks of the Synzva, and at ono end of the
valley of Dios Gvorna, with about 14,000 inh.j— Erlau, in
the S.W., of which tlie chief towns are Mczo-Kereztes
(2500 inh.), and Mezo-Kovesb (5600 inh.) ;— St Peter, in
the N.W., capital Save St. Peter, on the right bank of the
Sayo, a town hill of Jews, and noted for the excellent wine
its environs produce ;— and Szendro, in the K.E., of which
the town of that name, on the Bodva, is the principal place.
BORTHWICK. DAVID, of Lochhill. lord advocate of
Scotland in the reign of King James VI., afterwards King
James L of England. The early history of this learned
person is involved in the obscurity which shrouds the rise
of some of the brightest names in the juridical and literary
annals of the country, no particulars being known of his
birth or early life. When he fir:»t appears in the records
he is desipiated ' Mr. David Borthwick of Auldistone/ an
estate which he probably acquired by descent Whether
the ' Mr.' prefixed to his name indicated any literary or
ecclesiastical character is uncertain : it frequently did so
at that time ; and we know that nearly all the first advo-
cates of the college of justice, of which he became one, were
more or less connected with the church. In the spring of
1549, which was just about seventeen years after the insti-
tution of the court of session, or college of justice, that court
made choice of nine advocates * being persons of gude con-
science and understanding, to procure (t. e, practice in suits)
befoir thame in all actions and causes.* Borthwick was
one of these ; and in 1552 he was made a member of the
public commission then appointed to treat with the com-
missioners of England on the affairs of the borders between
the two kingdoms. On the 6th May, 1562, Lc appears as
one of the prosecutors in the indictment against two indi-
viduals, Ferguson and Wriglit, for haraesuckcn* and the
murder of John Borthwick of Restalrig. (Pitcairn's Criminal
Tn'ah.) On the 6th June, 1564, he was of counsel for the
magistrates and town council of the city of Edinburgh in
the prosecution against them for liberating on bail a pri-
tioncr committed on a charge of assault and muitlcr {Id. tb.),
and afterwards he was employed on several important
o<^easi<tns. He seems to ha\e bcun standing rounscl for
the noble families of Huntley and Bothwell (Act Pari, vol.
ii. p. 573). which had recently been united by the inter-
marriage of Lady Jean Gordon with the noted James earl
of Bothwell; and on behalf of that nobleman took instru-
ments of Queen Mary*s pardon and fort^ivenoss of him and
his accomplices for her abduction to Dunbar, wliich her
Majesty pronounced in court on 12th May, 1567 (Act, Sed,
10). On the death of Spens of Condie, in 1573, Borthwick
was associated with Creighton of EUiok. father of the admi-
rable Crichton, and who had been colleague to Spens in
the office of king's advocate, and also advanced to the scat
on the bench of the court of session vacant by Spens s de-
cease ; for it was then usual to make the king's advocate
(or in the case of the office being held by two or more,
one of them) a lord of session. The like practice existed
in the old parliaments of France, after which, indeed, the
court of session is said to have been at first modelled;
and in both cases, we apprehend, for the sr.me reason,
namely, to attend te the crown's interest there ; both courts
at that time deliberating (like the ecclesiastical tribunals
from whence they were derived) in secret with shut doors.
Accordingly, besides the king's advocate, other officers of
the crown had also^eats on the bench, such us the treasurer
and the justice clerk. The latter ofiiccr wss originally the
clerk of tlie lord justiciar of Scotland, but for about a cen-
tury and a half he had acted also as public prosecutor in
the justiciar's court, and for the preceding fifty years had
devolved hia duties at the table on a deputy. The king's
* Thia In a term known in the old law boMi of Entland and Scotland, and
■UU in naa la tha latter country. Blackatona aiaif U to bo synonvmon*
with burglary, or nocturnal hontebronkiiui : but tkU it not its meauinj; In
the Uw of Scotland. There it it the iHonloui scekinK <«r invoMon of n
fieraon ia hU dwell iu(-hon«e} a breakioK into a d well ing- houte «ith intent
IQ aaMttlt tha owner : ^nd tbia dther by oigbt «r day. '
advocate however was now advancing on the ckrk'a Uiurp* 1
provinceu &nd by the beginning of the following centu.y
entirely superseded him in his oflice of public proM-xutrr^
Borthwick is also remarkable in beii)^, as it seems, the ti: it
who had the title of * Lord Advocate.* The learned Bar^:i
Hume iCommeniaries, vol. ii. p. 131) luppoie* tbia title t^
occur in the records for the first time in the year 1098. But
this is a mistake, for we find the king*s advocate v> ad*
dressed at llie bar in the year 1573 (Pitcainrt Crirn,
Trialt), and again on the 23ni Oct 15^6 (/<! i^.); au<l tu
the Act 1587, c, 115, the title appears as the accustom i: 1
btylc of that officer. Tlio salary of the lord advocate at this
time was 40/. Scots yearly, and that of a lord ofses^^/n
amounted to about the same sum. What the profits of tiie
bar then were may be guessed from Sir David Lindsa} s
' Puirman and Pardoner,' where the former says
I haif na gair bot jntt an Enf liah gtoat,
Qubilk 1 purposa to give ane roan of law.*
So that the emoluments and practice ot the learned Und
must have yielded him at least 100/. per annum, wh»<:ti
though but hi. 6«. 8ii. sterling was a large income in lh< a«
days. Borthwick retained the situations of a lord of seMi.^n
and lord advocate till his death, which tooknlsco id J.tiu
1581, when his colleague Creighton, to whom toe places ha«l
long been objects of much desire, became sole lord advoca!-,
and also succeeded to the vacant seat on the bcnrh.
An anecdote of this learned person is told by Scott • (
Scotstarvet. Borthwick had acquired various land^ n
different counties of Scotland, Berwick, Haddington, a;> *
Fife ; but having seised his son James in several of thv ;n.
he had the mortification to see them sold or charged v;:m
debt by the thriillcse youth. When on his deathbed. ) - •
ing that his son had sold the estate of BallencrielT, tlie i; . *
of which Borthwick had changed to Lochhill, and lu-^ 1
would descend with that of his posterity, the old ma.:i i*
said to have bitterlv cried out, 'What shall I say ? It.,
give him to the devil that doth get a fool and maketh xnA «
fool of him :* which words became proverbial as Mr. Da-> . i
Borthwick's testament.
BORY'STHENES. [Dnibpkr.1
BOS. [Bison. Buffalo. Ox.]
BOS, LAMBERT, an eminent philologist, was bom :v
Worcum in Friesland, November 23, 1670, where his fauac
was rector of the college, under whom ho received hva ca;<r
education in Greek and Latin. His mother, a woman vt
abilities, was aunt to Vitringa. Having gone tbroo;;b :'.i>
classes in his father's school he became private tutor to i
children of a man of rank, in whose houM) he contit; «
to improve himself in clus&ical studies. In 1694 hi: - ;
to the University of Franeker, where his relation Viu.:' >
was professor of the Oriental languages, divinitv, and >.. • 4
history. In October. 1 69C, ho was permitted tu teach d
in the university, and in the month of February of tlw .
lowing year, upon Sibranda's death, l>ecame the preUi t-r . .
that language. In 1704. when the Greek profess. >r>lt.; ...
tliat university became vacant by tlie death of Nu. ^
Blancanl. the curators appointed Bos to be hi* succc - ••.
who on taking the chair read a dissertation on tha px- > •. >
tion of learning by the Greeks through their c...*
About the end of 1716 he was attacked by a ma.^-. ... t
fever, which ended in a consumption, a disorder »'\... '.
inherited from his mother. He died Jan uar>' 3rd, l' :.
About five years before bis death he married the w.<J-. ; ..
a clergyman, by whom be left two sons. The cxt, ui of
Boss learning may be estimated by his works. I-i L «
studies he was so indefatigable, that he is said lo Ua%e r.*-
gretted every moment which was not employed in tl.. '.-.
In his personal character ho was candid, amiable, and j... . •.
He published. 1. 'Thomse Magistri Dictionum Att.r.ir>.t- .
EclogcD,' cum notis, 8vo. Francq. 1698; 2. ' £xerciui..:> ^
PhilologiciD, in quibus Non Feedcris nonnulla loca e pi
fanis maxima auctoribus Grocis illustrantur,' 8vo» Fran*. \
1700 ; republished in an enlarged form with the addiLt n .
a dissertation * De Etymologic Grieca,* 8vo. Frauec|. IT'.;.
3. *Mysterii EUipsios' Grmco) expositi Specimen,* IJ.. .
Francq. 1702. Of this work there have been Dutnc:« k.-^
editions. It was edited by Chr. Schocttgen, 12mo. L \ -
1713; by Nich. Schwebel, Bvo. Norimb. 1703; and w v.»
additions by Chr. B. Michaelis, 8vo. Hal. 1765. An»t; wr
edition of the Ellipses was published by F. II. Scbair«..%
8vo. I^ips. 1809. 4. 'Oratio Inaug. de eruditione Grxi.»*
rum per Colonias eorum propagata,' fol. Franeq. \:vi .
5. ' Observatioues Miscellanea) ad looa qundam cum N^*a
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BOS
appointed coniAATicier-iit-ehief of die ex|Mdiiioii* In Feb-
ruary, 1758, accompanied by General, afterwards Lord Abb-
herst and General Wolfe, he sailed with these forces for
Halifax, and on the 2nd of June arrived off the fortress of
Louisbourg, which, with the islanas of Cape Breton and
Bt. John, were taken, after some severe engagemeiits» by
the English admiral. In the following year, 1759, he
was stationed with fourteen ships of the line and several
iKgates in the Mediterranean, and pursued the French
fleet of Toulon, consisting of twelve large ships of war,
through the Straits of Gibraltar to the Bav of Lagos;
where he overtook them and fought a fhrious battle, which
terminated in the burning of two of the enemy's ships, and
the taking of three others, with 2000 prisoners. The
French admiral, Do La Clue, was carried on shore and
died, in consequence of being struck by a cannon-ball
which carried off both his legs. Upon the return of Bos-
eawen to England, the thanks of parliament were again
eonferred, with a pension of 3000/. a year, and he was
sworn a member of the privy council. At Uiis time he re-
ceived also the additional appointment of general of the
Marines. In the summer of 1760 his fleet was lying un-
employed in the Bay of Quiberon, on the western coast of
France, and it is worth recording, as honourable to the hu-
manity of the admiral, that when a great many among his
crews were sufferin<7 from the scurvy, to which soamen were
at that time very liable, he landed on a little island near
the river Vannes, and daily for several months employed
himself with a party of his men in cultivating a garden, in
order to supply the sick with fresh and wholesome vege-
tables. On January 10th, 1761, he died at Hatchland Park,
his residence, neor Guildford, at the age of fifty, and was
interred in the church of St. Michael Penkevel in Cornwall,
where a beautiful monument by Rysbrach was erected to
bis memory. The mind of Boscawen appears to have been
wholly intent upon his proibssional pursuits, and but little
influenced by the spirit of political parties. His ability
and courage as a naval and even as a military officer were
highly appreciated by Lord Chatham, who is said to have
often observed, that when he proposed expeditions to other
commanders he heard of nottiing but difficulties ; but that
when he applied to Boscawen, expedients were immediately
suggested.
BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH, was bom at Raguso,
May 11, 1711 (May 18, 1701, according to Lalande), and
entered the order of Jesuits in 1725. He was appoir.ied
professor at the Collegio Romano in 1740 (I^landu), and
was employed in various scientific duties by several popes.
He was at' Vienna on the part of the republic of Lucca in a
dispute between that state and Tuscany, and at London in
a similar character on behalf of his native place (1762).
He was recommended by the Royal Society as a proper
person to be appointed to obser>'e the transit of Venus at
California, but the suppression of his order prevented his
acceptance of the appointment. After this event he was
made professor at JPavia and subsequently at Milan. In
1773 he was invited to Paris, where the post of Directeur
dOpiique pour la Marine was created for him. He left
France in 1787, either because he found he might more
easily publish an edition of his works in Italy, as Delambre
supposes, or on aooount of the hostiUty of Condorcet and
D*Alembert, as Lalande affirms, or because he disUked the
irrehgion of the French' $avan9, as Hutton states, appa-
rently from Fabroni (the Italian eulogist of Boscovich, whose
Here we have not been able to find). He settled however
at Milan, where he was received with distinction, and was
appointed to measure a degree in Lombordy. He was
seized witti melancholy, omounting almost to madness (Hut-
ton from Fabroni), and died February 13, 1787.
Boscovich was a man of very varied attainments and oon-
aiderable mathematical power. The different accounts of
him partake of the bias of their several authors. His coun-
tryman, Fabroni, rates him as a man to whom Greece
would have raised statues, even bad she been obliged to
throw down a hero or two to make room. Lalande, to whom
a voluminous and misoellaueous writer was a brother in
arms, affirms he had as much talent as D*Alembert, though
not so much of the integral calculus. The Jesuits were
not in favour with the Encyclopedists, so that probably thero
U some truth in the account of Lalande with respect to
J>*AlemberU Delambro says, ' in all his dissertations we
aee a pmlBssor who kyvea to converse much better than to
obiarTf or nknhtei' whiohieomt to us perfectly true; but
BOS
at the same timeBoiooTich was a man of tdeiti,tlMMiA uA
of flrstrrate power or energy ; exceedingly fertile in ideas </
merit, but not of first-rate merit. The excessive nasnber
and length of his dissertations has rendered bis name le^i
known than it deserves to be, since there is not among thtm
any one point d'appid for the highest sort of renown,
Botcovich was one of the earliest of the continental New-
tonians, and introduced thedootrine of gravitatioo at Rome.
His first appearance as a writer on this subject is in an ex-
planatory tract published at Rome in 1743; but in Lu
• Philosophi© Naturalis Theoria,' &c., Venice, 1758, be en-
deavours to apply the same principle to the actions of m-'.c-
cules on each other. It is remarkable that in spite of tu«
prohibition of the Copemican theory (and in consequerro
of the Newtonian) by the superintendents of the Ind'-r
Expurgatorius, two Jesuits published an edition of Newt t.
in 1739, and a thurd began to teach it at Rome in i;;vf
But previously to this (1736) he had distinguished inui-
self by a solution of the problem of finding the sun's equat-T
and rotation by observation of the spots, which DeUmbrv
calls one of the most elegant which had been given. Ii
was the first of its kind.
In 1 750 he began to measure an arc of the meridian fxom
Rome to Rimini, by order of the pope, and the accouul ot
this celebrated and useful operation (which was carried on
in conjunction with Christopher Maire, another Jesuit) «a«
published in 1755. But Boscovich informs us,tbat«hii«
he was riding about or waiting for his observations, be «u«
engaged in composing Latin verses on the eclipses of the
sun and moon. These verses wero published at London in
1760 by Millar and Dodsley, in six books, entitled * l>
Solis et LunsB defer.tibus.' It is lucky for the fame of Bi.»-
covich that the degree he measured was not as poetical ««
his poem is long and minute : the first has alwaya U«n
held a good observation, and the second is best describe:! li^
Delambre's remark, that it is uninstructive to an astruno:..er
and unintelligible to any body else. We have notic*^l .t
because we conceive it is the best channel through v b. L
an Englishman who reads Latin (and Boscovich vk rote 1. 1
other langiiage) can make a personal acquaintance with t/ i
author. Being published in England it is frequently Tclt 1
among the second -hand booksellers; and the notes, wh.cl.
are often mora poetical than the text, contain a large coiiic-
tion of his opinions.
The degree of the meridian above-mentioned, his theonr
of comets, application of mathematics to the thaory of \\*'
telescope, and to the perturbations of Saturn and Jup.tcr
(of which Lagrange said that the motto ' Irm olinip iiutr
turbat amor natumque patremque* was the onlv good t^:t ,*
in it), the discussion relative to the invention of the dou' l-
refraction micrometer, the application of the difienfri.:
calculus to problems of spherical trigonometry, together « .ir
his dissertations on various points of phvsics, will be notkt i
in their proper places, so far as they intluence the hisUi:} c f
the several sciences advanced or applied. We will b;v
merely notice 1. The 'Elementa Univenue Matheseos^'ccc^
Rome, 1 754, a course of mathematics for his pupils; S. Tl>
collection of works alluded to above, ' Opera pertinenlid ca
Opticam et Astronomiam,* &c., 5 vols. Bassano, 1785; r i
3. The work on the degree of the meridian above-mention i-C.
* De Litterarifi Expeditione per Pontificam Ditionem ad Lh-
metiendos Duos Meridiani Gradus,' &c., Rome, 1 755. Tli»
work is much more esteemed than the French translaiii)n.
Paris, 1770, as the map given in the latter \% ineorrvctf>
reduced. {Biog. Univ.) We may refer for inlbrmatvon jo
the usual authorities and also to the iiof^e of Lalande ( l^*-
sides that of Fabroni above-mentioned) in the * Journal cc^
Savans,M792, p. 411.
BOSJESMANS, literally < bushmen,* is the r:ir^
which the Dutch colonists at the Cape of Giood II :**
have given to a wild and roaming race of people, wha l^t
about the northern skirts of the colony, and aa &r as :h^
Orange river, without any settled habitations or kraaK ar i
who do not rear cattle or constitute tribes like the Hotttn>
tots. It seems however ascertained that the Bosje&mar.*
are a branch of the Hottentot race, which separated fr^-ji
the rest long before the establishment of the Europeans hi
Southern Africa, and took to a wandering life in t: <*
northern and more inland parts of the country. Ai v r
know nothing of the origin of the Hottentots, it is impo«-
sible to say whether the Bosjesmans remained in a v i
state while other tribes became settled and partially cl^ilixt i.
ox whether they were stragglers horn the settled HoUea:ot
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BO S
229
BOS
tribes wlio ftll back to a Tffld state. Their lan^age a(v
pears to bear some analogy to ffaat of the Hottentot, although
the Bosjespians and the Hottentots do not understand each
other. They have both the same clacking sound of the
ton^e, only the Bosjesmans have it stronger and more
frequent, and they drawl oat more the ends of their sen-
tences.
Lichtenstetn says that the Bosjesmans are a distinct peo-
ple, but he acknowledges that * they have the universally
distinguishing features of the Hottentots, their broad flat
nose, the long prominent cheek-bones, and the yellow-brown
hue of the skin/ and that ' their physiognomy has the sai^
characteristic features as that of the Hottentots, only more
wild and animated, owing to their insecure and wandermg
habits of life/ They are neither husbandmen nor shep-
herds; they have no cattle or flocks, but kill wild animals
with their arrows, catch fish, and also feed on locusts,
snakes, ants* eggs, and insects, and upon roots and berries.
They are capable of bearing hunger for a long time, and,
like other savages, they eat voraciously when they ^U in
with plenty. The Bosjesmans are generally v«ry lean,
and of a low stature, as if stunted in their growth. A
sheep-skin fastened round the neck with the woolly part
inside, a greasy leather-cap on the head, with their woolly
hair smeared with grease and dust, and tied in a number of
knots hanging down, a jackal-skin fiistened with a leather
thong round the middle of the body, sandals of ox-leather
bound round the feet, a bow and a quiver with poisoned
arrows, a gourd or broken ostrich egg to fetch water, and two
or three straw mats, which being placed on sticks form a
sort of tent, — these constitute all their apparel, furniture,
and utensils. They catch sea-cows in pits on the banks of
the Orange river. They sleep in caves, or more commonly
squat among the bushes, fVom whence their name. They do
not associate in any considerable numbers, but wander about
in small parties, consisting of individuals of one family,
or such as meet by chance. • Their wild, shy, suspicious
eve, and crafty expression of countenance/ says Lichten-
stoin, ' form a striking contrast with the frank open phy-
siognomy of the Hottentot' "When the Europneans first
extended their settlements to the Snow Mountains, there
were no Bosjesmans there; the country was peopled by
settled tribes of Hdhentots, but the repoi-t of the wealth of
the colonists attracted the Bosjesmans from the north,
where they lived near the banks of the Orange river. They
were then, and had been from time out of date, in a state
of war with the settled tribes of both Hottentots and Caffres,
whose cattle they stole whenever they had an opportunity.
They carried on the same system of predatory war£su*e
against the Dutch colonists, who, in their turn, waged a war
of extermination against them. At last, towards the be-
pnning of the present century, attempts were made to
establish some sort of truce between the Bosjesmans and
the border colonists, by means of presents of beads, but-
tons, tobacco, and other artwles. In one instance, the colo-
nists gave to a party of Bosjesmans a number of cattle
and sheep, that they might become settled and tend their
Hocks ; but other parties came from the interior, killed the
cAttle, fed on the flesh as long as it lasted, and then re-
sumed their wandering life.
It appears however that the rapid spread of civilization
during the last thirty years has had some effect, even on
the wild Bosjesmans. The Rev. John Campbell gives a
more favourable account of them than Lichtenstein. He
met them both south and north of the Orange river ; he
employed them as guides, saw many of them employed as
domestics by the colonists, or by the Koranna Hottentots,
and they appeared to behave well and faithfully in their
rcspecti>'e capacities. He met kraals of Bosjesmans north
of the Orange river who seemed to live ifi peace under a
chief, who told him * that they had plenty of game and
water, that the^ took nothing from anybody, and that they
should be glad if any one came to teach them what they did
not know.* But yet these people had no means of in-
dustry, and no suMistence beyond hunting and fishing, no
dress but skins, and no weapons but arrows. The great
tract between the northern border of the cobny and the
Orange river is still occupied by wild Bosjesmans. who how-
ever seem to have become more shy of attacking the colonists.
The Koranna Hottentots, who live north of the Orange
river, are also a check upon them. In fact, the Bosjesmans
Are beginning to be surrounded f^ civilization, and con-
Mquently tiiey must either become civiliMd themselves
or become exifoct <Liditensteiii» BurchelU GamiMU
Thompson.)
BOSKOWITZ, a t in the circle of Briinn in Moravia,
situated on a high hill in the bosom of a fertile valley
near the borders of the circle of Olmiitz; tlie hill itself is
encircled by the riv. Biala and that side of it behind the
town is a mass of precipitous rocks. It is ^e property of
Count Dietrichstein, and is remarkable both from its site
and the industry of its inh., who carry on the manufacture
of alum, Berlin blue, potashes, glass, liqueurs, &c. Bosko-
witz contains a pop. of neariy 4000 souls, among whom are
300 Jewish families, who live in a distinct quarter of the
town. The Dietrichstein family have a palace at Boskowitz,
and are proprietors of the gold and silver mines near it.
B08NA-SARAX (or SARAJEVO), formerly the ca-
pital of the kingdom of Bosnia, and at present one of
the principal towns in the Turkish eyalet or province of
Bosna, is built upon the ruins of the antient Tiberiopolis,
and still retains some trace of its former splendour; 43^ 54^
N. lat., 18° 26' £. long. It stands on the Melaska or Mig-
liazza, which falls into the Bosna at no great distance from
the town, and has a massive stone bridge across it The
old walls which encompassed it when it fell into the hands
of Prince Eugene in 1697, are completely decayed, and it is
now an open place ; its sole defence consisting of a citadel
of considerable strength, upon the ramparts of which eighty
cannon are mounted. This citadel is situated some distance
to the E. of the town, and is usually garrisoned by 10,000 or
12,000 Turkish soldiery. Bosna-Sarai is reputed to be as
large in circuit as Adrianople; it contains 100 mosques,
great and small, among which that of Chosrem-beg with its
dock (a great rarity in Turkish towns) best deserves
notice; one serai or palace, erected by the great sultan
Mahmoud I., four Christian churches, three monasteries of
the Minorite order, a number of medress^s or schools* baths,
and charitable institutions ; two large bazaars or besestans,
several market-places, between 14,000 and 15,000 houses,
mostly built of wood, with latticed windows, and a pop. of
about 60,000, one-thkd of whom are Mohammedans, and
the remainder Romaa Catholics, Jews* Greeks, &c. The
town is handsomely built, uid has a gay oriental appearance
from the number of minarets and steeples which embellish
it. Bosna was the residence of the governors of the prov.,
who are pashas of three tails, until the atrocities committed
by one of them drove the inh. to revolt, and he was obliged
to flee to Travnik, where his successors have since conti-
nued to reside. The people are an industrious race, and
manufiicture arms* utenuls of copper, which they gild and
tin, and with which they almost exclusively supply the
Turkish markets, iron-ware^ woollen and worsted stuflTs,
morocco-leather, horse-hair bags for holding rice, cottons,
&a : there are also seveml tanneries in the town. Bosna-
Sarai, being the staple mart lor the whole prov., is a place
of considerable trade. The eflBwt of two lofty mountains to
the B. of it, as well as of its situation on the declivity of the
Dinaric Alps, is to render the dimate chilly and bleak,
though not to such an extent as to prevent fruit or even
grapes from ripening. On a plain which stretches W. of
the town as ikr aa the banks of the Bosna, are the baths of
Serajevesko. ■
BOSNIA, or BOSNA, one of the eyalets or prov. of
Turkey in Euiope, derives its name from the riv, Bosna,
which runs thnragh the heart of it; it extends from 42" 40'
to 45° 20^ N. lat, and from IS"" 50^ to 19® 10' of £. long.
AcomtLing to the subdivision laid down by the Toriush go-
vemment in 1824, it comprehends 6 sandisbuaki^ or cufcles ;
namely, Travmk, Banyaluka, Srebemik, Isvomik, Novi-
bazar, and Hersek, the first four being composed of Bosnia
Proper and Turkish Croatia, while Novibazar consists of
that part of Servia which was added to Bosnia in 1815, and
bore the name of Rascia from its being watered by the
Rasca, and Hersek of the Herzegovina and Turkish Dal-
matia. These six sandshaks are again subdivided into 48
minor circles. Bosnia, therefore, as at present constituted,
is bounded on the N. by Austrian Sclavonia, the Unna and
Save partly forming the line of demarcation, on the B. by
Servia, on the 8.E. by Albania, on the S.W. by Austrian
Dalmatia, and on the N.W. by Austrian Croatia. It is the
most W. possession of Turkey, and in its present state con-
tains, according to a recent writer (von Zedlitt) about
22,300 so. m. ; though others, who have probably omitted
to include the late additions of territory in their estimale,
do not assign it • gvetttov arat Ihan 18»040 aq. inileg.
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Bosnia is a mountainous country, and contains many
deep valleys, but only one plain of any considerable extent.
The mountains are branches of the Dinaric and Julian
Alps, which enter it on the side of Austria. The Dinaric
range, indeed, after traversing the prov. from N.W. to S.E.
continues along the 8. frontiers, where some of its peaks
are above 6000 ft. high ; distinct parts of it are known in
the country itself by various designations, such as the
Utlasza Kossa, Czrnagora, Velicki, Radacza, iN-an-Planina,
Nissova-Gora, Baba, and Torba-Planina. There are three
offsets from the main mass of these Alps, which slope down
to the banks of the Save, and divide the land into four na-
tural portions ; the one lying between the Unna and Verbas,
the second between the Verbas and Bosna, the third be-
tween the Bosna and Drinna, and the fourth between the
Drinna and Morava. The lower regions of the Dinaric
range are in many parts entirely naked, those immediately
above them are covered with pines and rich pastures, and
the uppermost consist of rocks thinly interspersed with wild
rosemary, thyme, and other low plants.
The Save, the principal riv. in Bosnia, first waters its ter-
ritory in the N.W. at the point where tlie Unna falls into
it, and running in an E. direction somewhat inclined to the
S., constitutes the whole N. boundary between Bosnia and
the Austrian possessions; its frequent inundations make
extensive swamps, the largest of which, the Shirma, lies to
the W. of Bogurdia. The Unna, one of the tributaries of
the Sai'e, rises in the W. part of Bosnia, near Mounts Sta-
retina and Vitoyogo, not far from Oberunnacz, winds N.
past Bihacz and Novi, at which last place it receives the
Sanna, and ultimately tlows into the Save, after forming
part of the N.W. .frontier on the Hungarian side; namely,
from Iskanda to Uscitza, somewhat above Gradisca, where
it has its etflux. This riv. is not navigable, though even
when not liooded it is from 6 to 7 ft. deep, and from 200 to
•400 ft. wide. Tlie Verbas, another Bosnian river, rises in
the heart of the country at the foot of Mount Radussa or
Radovna, part of the great chain which separates Turkish
Croatia from the Herzegovina, flows in a N. direction past
Bodsacz and Banyalnka, receiving on its right bank the
Vdiki, Ugar, and Verbanya, and on its left the Pliva,
and unites with the Save to the E. of Gradisca, after a
course of about 130 miles. The Bosna rises to the W. of
Scrazero on Mount Trebevics, part of the N. declivity of
the Ivan-Planina range, flows N., receiving in its course
the Migliazza, Szabina, Sprecza, &c. on its right bank, and
the Misna, Foinicza, Lepemicza, &c. on its left, and after
ninning about 140 m., falls into the Save near the Lukat-
scher Schanlze (L. FQrt), below Brod. Vissoko, Zenieza,
Vranduck, Shebshe, Doboi, Kotorsko, and Dehor lie upon
its banks. The Drinna, another considerable riv., springs
•fiom the font of the Lcsina range to the W. of Sreberrticza,
•divides the N.E. districts of Bosnia from the Servian terri-
tory, runs N. past Zvomik until it reaches Leshnicza,
where it enters a level country, and afterwards joins the
Save opposite to Racsa, and not ftir to the W. of Shabacz :
its channel in this quarter is again narrowed by mountains.
In its course it receives the Tara, Pima, and Limus. This
riv., as well as tho Verbas and Drinna, is navigable for
vessels of about 50 tons, and its waters, liV.e those of the
Verbas, brin^ gold-dust down with them, which the Turks,
it is conceived From jealousy, will not allow to be collected.
The smaller riv. of Bosnia are the Western Morava, in the
•8.E. part of the country, and the Moraka or Boyana in the
sandshak of Hersck, which runs through the Boyana lake
and falls into the Adriatic on the Austrian coast: together
with the Baba, Nerctva, or Narenta, Rama, and other tri-
butaries of these two rivers. Bosnia has no lakes of any
importance, the largest being tho Mostarska Blato. It con-
tains a number of mineral springs, among which the warm-
baths of Novibiizai* and Budimir, and the acidulous waters
of I^peniczH or Kisoli-.it, arc most in repute.
The climate is mild and temperate, though the country is
liable in the spring to heavy falls of snow, which lie on the
low lands for many weeks. In summer heavy falls of rain
and 'burstings of water spouts are of common occurrence,
but they are highly btMicfitial in moderating the heat. Tho
character of t lie climate, indeed, may be inj'enied from these
fkcts; that wheat is harveste<l in .lulv, and grapes are ripe
in August. The air is said to be Healthy at all seasons,
though the dry nipping Borra, or north-easter, is frequently
prevalent.
The soil of Boanta, as might be expected from the moun- 1
tainous character of the cotinlry, is in gcncnd oft wclcy a^•l
stony nattire, adapted rather for rearing cattle than tai«>.:ii:
grain : some parts of it, however, particularly the nlains azi «
valleys near the. rivers, are very productive. AVbcat ar >{
barley, but not much rye, arc grown in the level landf . or I
maize is a favourite object of cultivation about Novi )ia 7.1 r
and along the banks of the Unna; the greatest c<»i:i-
districts are about Gradasacz, Potrovacz, and Gros.<tu/ :.
and the produce is seldom made into bread, but const; n. !
in the shape of cakes or mamaliga. Pease and bean« - - •
extensively raised; and flax and tobacco are gro«n ;.•
the neighlxiurhood of Zvornik and Novibazar. Tmit
course is abundant in a country which has whole fonc^t^ >•
finiit trees ; the chestnut and mulberry arc common, I ■ t 1.
silk is produced. The plum is of ^at use in maki; j .
species of h randy, called Stivavicza, which is chieflj • • •
sumed by the Bosnians themselves; and a luscious \:ry
termed Pekmcs, is extracted fVom the pear. The •» .:
are strong and flery, but owing to ignorance of tho a:t t
making them, they will not keep: the best are made 11: i'.
environs of Mostar and Novibazar.
The high lands and mountains of Bosnia are so d^/i^ *v
covered with forests, as in many parts to form mpenetr:k '
wildernesses; the trees of which they are princinally cuu\-
posed are the oak, beech, pine, ilr» and linden; nence t' •
country produces and exports timber for all purpot*.-N
whether for building or fuel, and much pitch, tar, ; !
potash. Zvornik is the great mart fbr dealers in tim':** r.
who despatch large quantities from that spot to Zemlin ar i
other parta of Turkey, by water-carriage along the Drinri .
Save, Danube, &c. The Bosnian woods abound in \ •'>
animals ; deer, boora, bears, wolves, lynies, and foXe*: *<< !
hunting is a favourite and profl table occupation. Th« r.- -
ing of domestic animals -has received little attention : 1 -
instance the breeding of hones, of which Bosnia posse^v.*. :,
strong and hardy race, is neglected almost every t; . •
except in the inhospitable districts of Kliucz and Glatr.
which are wholly tenanted by Turks. Largo herds of l
cattle are kept, and bullocks form a considerable artit *>
Bosnian export. The only buffaloes are those fed for ^
vate use in the sandshak of Novibazar. Many of the sh -
have upright winding horns, and coarse knotted wnc>!. -" .
are of a largo size ; the Wallachian and Dalmatian b^ . ^
have also been introduced. The Bosnians in genera. • » .
much attention to their liocks, and the wool they fr 1 :
market is considered the beat in the Levant. G<>:k' •'.
common ; swine are fed by all who reside near the S
and Drinna, where they have the advantage of wt'^n^ .
woods of oak and beech ; and poultry are abundant c •- .
where. The rivers abound with Ash, but the supr i *
mostly consumed in tho country itself. Much bon\>t ,
made, but the wax is of indifferent quality.
Mining has not been carried to the extent whi-.-it '
undoubted resources of Bosnia point out; for the Tu'.»
have hitherto manifested an almost unaccountable rv; ■ .
ntince to allow them to be turned to account. The li '. •
tains round Bosna-Sarai are said to contain large quiit/ *
of gold and silver ; and in the centre of an e.\tensnc d-.:-
wood about 7 m. from Tra\'nik, the excavations of the r .
bratcd gold-mine of Ilatnizza (literally signifying ltI J ■
the Bosnian tongue) are still visible; but the'inhali ... .
are so timid as to be afraid of venturing near tiicm. 7 . -c
are silver-mines near Srebeniizza on the Drinna. Krup; • . •«
the Unna, and Kamengrad within a short distance ot *.'.
Verbas. The iron-mines in the vicinity of Bosna- Sat ' i .«
worked by gypsies with the simplest mechantrjd mean* : •
can be imagined. They are situated ne.ir the Fran< ;-?
monasteries of Feinirza, Suttiska, and Kressovo, \.
there is a number of smithies, in which horse-sh'.yrfk r
locks, iron-plates, and other wares are manufactun.>d ; *
iron is also raised at Vakup. Stari-Maidan, Kamt nj* .
Vissoko, and Varesh. The quicksilver-mines near t' • r .
nastery of Kressovo are rich, but wholly negiecttNl : a '
mine is at work in the neighbourhood ofZvoniik. T
are fine quarries of fVee-stone and mill-*tones. alal'i^J .
and marble, as well as coal-mines and saline springs : i
most remarkable of these springs flows out of a cavern r
Tuzla, but it is turned to no account, and ell the .*alt '
sumed in the country is imported from Wallachia.
Bosnia possesses some inconsiderable ninnrf rtnrc**
leather, coarse woollens, worsted coverlids, and other w «• ' :
BtulTs. There is a manufactorv of cannun-baUs at K .
mengrod, a saltpetm work at /aicz^and powdfr^milU «;
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BOS
232
SOS
on one of whidi be ii styled lulios, and oq another Tibe*
riut laliiu. R. Roohette ooigectures that Rhescuporis took
this title about a.d. 6 or 7, when Tiberius, during the reign
of Augustus, vas in Illyria with a powerful army. (Dion
Cass. lib. Iv. c. 27, &c. ; Sueton. Tiber. 1 6, 1 7.) Two coins
of Cotys are also published by R. Rochette. but it is difficult
to determine to what prince or princes these medals are to
be assigned*
(Strabo, pp. 309. 493, &c. ; Raoul-Rochette, AntiquitU
QrecqueM du Bosphore-Cimmerien, Paris, 1822.)
BOSSINEY with TREVENNA. abor. and m. t in the
par. of Tintaffell, bund, of Lesnewth, and co. of Cornwall,
18 m. W. by M. from Launceston, and 231 W. by S. from
London.
The bor. of Bossiney extends over a great part of the par.
of Tintagell, and comprises about 350 English acres. The
corporation claim to be a corporation by prescription ; but
it appears that a charter was granted them by Richard
Earl of Cornwall, brother of Henry III. Bossiney enjoyed
the elective franchise from the seventh year of the reign of
King Edward VI. until the passing of the Reform Act,
when it was totally disfranchised. The revenue of the
corporation is very small, arising only from the tolls of fairs
and markets, and the rent of a mill, altogether not exceed-
ing 4/. 4s.
The pop. is returned with the par. of Tintagell, which in
1831 was 1006 : males, 487 ; females, 519. It appears from
the Corporation Report, that in 1830 there was only one
house above the value of 10/., and none above that of 20/.
The assessed taxes ending 5 th April, 1831, were 45/. 15«. 4c/.
Bossiney has a market on Thursday, and a fair, which is
now held at Trevenna, principally for homed cattle, on the
first Monday after the 19th of October. The town-hall is
chiefly used as a charity-school, to the master of which the
corporation pay a salary of 10/. per annum.
Bossiney is situated on a wild bleak part of the N. coast
of Cornwall, and appears formerly to have been a place of
some importance. Leland, in speaking of it, says — * Bos-
seney hath beene a bygge thing of a fischar towne, and
hath great privileges graunted unto it. A man may see
tiiere the ruines of a greate number of houses.'
Near this place is the castle of Tintagell, supposed to
have been the birth-place of the famous King Arthur. Built
on a high rock that juts out into the sea, by which it is
nearly surrounded, this castle must have been a place of
considerable strength. Both Norden and Carew speak of it
as almost inaccessible, and Leland calls it ' a marvellous
strong and notable fortress, and almost situ loci inexpug-
nabile.' In his time a chapel seems to have occupied part
of the site of the keep, which he calls the dungeon of St.
Ulette, alias Ulianne.
' The church of Tintagell is supposed by the author of the
Magna Britannia to have been appropriated to the abbess
and convent of Fontevralt in Normandy, and that, having
passed in the same manner as Leighton-Buzzard in Bed-
fordshire, it was given by Edward IV. to the collegiate
church of Windsor. The net income of the vicarage is 220/.
The dean and chapter of Windsor are the patrons.
(Lysons* Magna Britannia; Correspondence from Bos-
siney ; Lelanfs Collection; CarewV Survey of Com-
tra//, &c.)
BOSSU, RENE' DE. was bom at Paris, March 16,
1631. His father was Jean de Bossu, Seigneur de Cour-
bevoie,a king's counsellor and an advocate in the court of
Aides ; his mother was Magdalene de la Lairo ; he studied
at Nanterre, was admitted as a regular canon in the abbey
of St. Genevieve in 1650, and took priest's orders in 1657«
Twelve years of his life were occupied in teaching philoso-
phy and the Belles Lettres; the remainder were spent in the
solitude of his cloister, in which he died March 14, 1680.
His first work Parallcle de la Philosophie de Descartes et
dAristote, Paris, 1674, was not very favourably received at
the time of its appearance, and is now altogether forgotten ;
but his second, which was published only a few months
afterwards, TYaite du Poeme Epique, although it has ulti-
mately shaied a fate similar to that of its predecessor, at one
time attracted considerable attention. The learned hypo-
thesis of this chimerical essay teaches that an epic poem
is essentially an allegory; thus the writer, before com-
mencing his work, fixes upon some one great moral text
which he designs to illustrate, considers fable, machinery,
action, character, and all other accidents of poetry only as
so many modes aubservient to his grand object. Thus,
says Bossu, Homer, who saw ih» Oroeks eoDStttatioiialW
divided into a great number of independent states, which
it was often necessary to unite against a common enemy,
feigned in his Iliad the quarrel b^ween Achillas and Ain^
memnon as productive of evil, in order that he might illu^
trate the advantages of a oonfederaev. On the reeoncihaUon
of those princes, victory, which had long been delay i^il, is
rapidly achieved. There can be no doubt that the JUud docM
illustrate the effects of disunion, but are there not also othix
moral truths which are equally illustrated by it ? The m«>-
tive which led the Grecian chiefs to Troy was not unju^u
and Homer certainly has no intention of representiuir it
to be so. As the capture of Troy could not have been ci^m-
pleted without their presence, the poet taoitlv admits thea**
fore that there may be sound reasons to induce a princ? t^
absent himself from his dominions. Yet we are told that u*
design of the Odyssey wta to inculcate a direcUy oppu*.'.e
doctrine— to show the national calamities which mu»t in-
evitably result when a monarch quits the helm at wbtch ur
ought to preside. If this be so, the moral truths incalrated
by the two greatest existing epics, the woriis of a ^mule
hand (if they are both by the same hand, which is at ituiat
doubtful), are in direct opposition to each other.
A defence of Boileau against some attacks by St. 8or\ta«
introduced Bossu advantageously to the friendship of the
poet. A few unimportant particulars of his private life are
prefixed by Courayer to an edition of the Treatise on Bp<c
Poetry, published in 1714. Bossu bequeathed a number «>/
MSS. which have not yet seen light (and whieh perh^^^
may remain in darkness without much disadvantage u
his memory) to the Abb^ of Sl. John of Chartres, of which
he became sub-priest al)out 1677. In the 9th vi^ume vi
the Mem. de I' Acad, des Inscriptions^ the Abb£ Vatry tnu-e
appears as the champion of some of his exploded noUons«
which are more soberly examined by the Abbe Batteux ;a
the 39th vol. of the same work ; and at a later season ina
dentally by La Harpe.
BOSSUET, JACQUES BENIGNE. second too of a
counsellor of the parliament of Metz, and descended ta>\i
a respectable Burgundian family for the most part eng«o*i
in the law, was born at Dijon, September 27, 1627. He
was placed by a maternal uncle, president of the parliament
of that city, in the college of the Jesuits, where his L>
borious application to study soon procured for him a dxk
name containing a punning allusion to his real name, li t
suetus aratro. At a fitting age (1642) he was removed r >
the college of Navarre in Paris, where, after a ten ^ear^
course, he received the degree of Doctor and the OnU-r ."'
Priesthood. He tlien retired to perform the clerical d '.^
of a canon in the cathedral of Metz, of which cUurv.. c.r
afterwards became archdeacon and dean, and where he.>-
tinguished himself by lalx)uring arduously for the ron)'*r-
sion of the Huguenots. The neighbourhood of the cap '-i*
led him to preach frequently before Anne of Austria. ^^ ;
was so pleased by his pulpit eloquence, that she nomir^w J
him to deliver the Advent Sermons at court in the e!*.
of the Louvre in 1661, and the Lent Sermons in it. .'.
The king was hi|;hly gratified by his discourses, an<i n
1669 presented him to the bishopric of Condom. In tp'
year after his consecration he was appointed to tlie tmpt>rt .".;
oflice of preceptor to the dauphin, and finding his nect:*-,.'\
attendance at court incompatible with the performaiirf :
his episcopal duties, he asked and received permi^>:un to
resign the see. The priory of Plessis-Grisnou, whtch he
received in compensation, produced about 300^. a year, ^u-
cording to which revenue he framed his establishment. 1 ».
promotion to the Abbey of St. Luden de Bcauvais, a tkUt
benefice, he assigned all its surplus to charity, in no manrtr
altering his personal expenditure. The Due de Montau^.ir
was governor, the learned Huet, afterwards Bishop «'f
Avranches, was sub-prece]^tor to the young prince. T.t
method in which his education was conductea by these thnr
most able men is fully exhibited in a letter written by £k»-
suet to Pope Innocent XI. Under the cans of HuVt ^i-
peared the well-known edition of the Delphin ClssMr-* f- i
forth ostensibly in usum Serenissimi Ptincipis. Ax t. •
express wish of the king, ^ossuet studied anatomy, in .oii •
to afford his royal pupil some elementary instruction* in i. :
science. For that purpose he attended tlie lectuxt* .:'
Nicolas Steron, a Parisian professor ; from which he c rr. •
piled a short manual of two and thirty octavo pag& wb «-■.
has shared the fate of most other amateur treatise*. i\ r
tho use of the dauphin Bossuet composed also bk Dt$c\-vs
Digitized by vnOOQlC
BOS
23^
B O ^
fur tffistoire Umvei'selle, which he published in 1681.
It consists of three parts, the first of which contains an
abridgment of universal history, from the Creation to the
reign of Charlemagne; the second embraces the chief
proofi of Christianity ; and the third attempts to unravel
(be rauses of the rise and decline of nations. Upon this work
Voltaire founded his opinion of Bossuet's pre-eminent elo*
qucnce ; and of the first part, which most readers would
suppose to be little more than a dry index, a later critic (Mr.
Charles Butler) has declared that ' it scarcely contains a sen-
tence in which there is not some noun or Terb that conTeys
an image or suggests a sentiment of the noblest kind.*
The chief reward with which Louis compensated the
ser%ioes of Bossuet in the education of the Datiphin was the
bishopric of MeauY, to which see he was consecrated in
1681. He filled also the high posts of almoner to the
dauphiness, principal of the college of Navarre, warden of
the Sorbonne, counsellor of state, and first almoner to the
duchess of Burgundy. He had the distinguished honour
of heading, jointiy with Mlid. de Maintenon, the deputation
Appointed to receive the last-named princess when she
came finom Bavaria on her marriage. On that occasion,
Madame de Sevign^ writes, with not less truth than causti-
city, * if the duchess thinks all the men and women in
France resemble the two who have been sent to her she
will be egregiously disappointed.*
The bishop's time, however, was chiefly occupied in his
diocese, where he devoted himself to the humble but use*
ful task of pastoral instruction. Among his posthumous
works are three cateohisms, respectively, fur beginners,
for the instructed, and for the well-instructed. He com-
posed also a manual of prayer, and translated many of
the church hymns. His health continued uniformly good,
and allowed the performance of all ministerial duties till the
last year of his life, when he suffered under the stone.
During intervals of ease he framed a commentary on the
twenty-second psalm (the twenty-first of the Vulgate), many
passages of which are equal in vigour to any of his earlier
compositions. On the 12th of April, 1704, he died at Paris,
having passed his seventy- sixth year. 8oon after the death
of Bossuet his works were collected in twelve 4to. volumes,
to which three posthumous writings were afterwards added.
The Benedictines of St Maur undertook a complete collec-
tion of his works, which, we believe, is still unfinished, after
extending to twenty quarto volumes.
Bossuet is esteemed by the Roman Catholics as the most
eminent advocate of their creed ; but whatever might be the
influence which his controversial writings exereiMd at the
time of their appeamnce, it is not upon these that his fame
rests most securely at present. To give an exact catalogue
of his works would far exceed our limits, and we shall confine
ourselves to his chief productions. He commenced in 1655
with a ' Reftitation du Catechisme de Paul Fenri,' a Hu-
guenot minister at Mets ; we find him, not long afterwards,
vehemently engased with Caffaro, a Theatine monk, in the
reprobation of Uieatrioal entertainments. Boursaut, a
dramatic writer who enjoyed some contemporary reputation,
was affected by scruples of conscience concerning the sub-
jects to which his talents had been directed, and was re-
lieved from his penitentiarv burthen by a letter which
Father Caffaro addressed to him, and which may be found
(if it is now to be found at all) printed separately, and also
prefixed to the 'Thditre de Boursaut,* 1725. Bossuet re-
plied to this letter in more polished language indeed, but
^ith ttcafcely less severity c« censure upon the diversions
which he condemned than animated Prynneor Jeremie C<^-
lier. The argument was afterwards remoulded into an essay,
published under the title of ' Maximes sur la Com^die.*
But the most celebrated of Bossuet's polemical works are
bis ' Exposition de la Doctrine de I'BgUse Catholi()ue sur
les matieres de Controversie' (1671) and his * Histoire des
Variations des TEglises Protestantes.' The former was com-
posed for the private use of the marquis de Dangeau, and
it is said that an accidental perusal of it greatly contributed
to the conversion of Uie Marshal de Tureune. It was
circulated in MS. long before its publication, and attained
the final state which it now exhibits by very slow degrees.
Its most important chapters, namely, those on the Eucharist,
on Tradition, and on the Authority of the Church, were
wanting in the original sketch, and the Sorbonne, when ap-
plied to for their approbation, privately censured many parts
which they conceived to be unsound.
Nine years elapsed and considerable alterations took
place before it received the approval of the Holy See, ani it
is averred that many of the doctrines when preached by
others were declared to be scandalous and pernicious.
Clement IX. positively refused to acknowledge it, but
two briefs were issued in its behalf by Innocent 3&th ; one,
Nov. 2-2nd, 1675 ; the other, July 12th, in the year follow-
ing. The Gallican clergy, assembled in 1682» declared
that it contained their doctrine, and an authority of our
own time, which few of the Romish persuasion will be in-
clined to dispute (Mr. Charles Butler) has stated that * the
Romish Church has but one opinion of it ; in private and
in public, by the learned and the unlearned, it is equally
acknowledged to be a foil and faithful exhibition of the
doctrine of their church.* It has been translated into
almost every European language, but unhappily the Eng-
lish version by the Abb^ Montagu in 1 672 bears a bad
character. The assertion that it was translated by Dryden,
rests, as Sir Walter Scott has shown, on very slight autho-
rity {Ufe of Dryden, Works, i. 339). In the Bodleian
Library (Oxford) there is a translation published in London
1663, in the title page of which is the following note in
Baron Barlow's handwriting :— ' By Mr. Dryden, then only
a poet, now a papist too ; may be he was a papist before,
but not known till of late.* Wake, afterwards archbishop
of Canterbury, and M. de St. Bastide, a French Protestant
minister, are Uie most distinguished opponents of the points
in which it invites controversy.
The 'Exposition* awakencKl much attention in France;
and out of it arose a personal conference between Bossuet
and M. Claude, whom the Protestants considered to be
their head, held in 1681, in the presence and at the request
of Mademoiselle de Duras, a niece of Turenne, who sought
an excuse for the change of faith in which she had resolved
to imitate her uncle. One of the chief questions debated
was the authority by which Jesus Christ directed that his
future church should be guided in case of dissensions
concerning doctrine. The debate was conducted with
much regard to courtesy, but terminated, like all simi-
lar debates, without any approach to conviction. Bach
party published its own account of the conference, and each
claimcKl the victory, after representing the contest with so
wide a difference of facts that they might be supposed to
relate to wholly distinct occurrences. The language in
which Bossuet expressed himself concerning this disagree-
ment is singularly free firom the bitterness which has too
frequently distinguished controversy, and which has ren-
dered the mutual hatred of theologians a proverb. * It is
not my intentk)n,* he says, 'to accuse M. Ulaude of wilful
misrepresentation. It is difficult to remember with pre-
cision the things which have been said, or the order in
which they have been spoken. The mind often confounds
things which were spoken with things which occurred after-
ward, and thus, witnout the slightest intentional aberration
from it, truth is often disfigured.* Bossuet was admitted to
the academy in 1671, and bis next great controversial work
appeared in 1688. The first five books of his ' Hist des
Variations des Eglises Protestantes' narrate the rise and
progress of the Reformation in Crermany; the sixth is
devoted to a consideration of the sanction given by Luther
and Melancthon to the adulterous marriage of the Land-
grave of Hesse ; the seventh and eighth books contain the
ecclesiastical history of England during the reigns of Henry
VIII. and of Edward VI., and a continuation of that of
Germany. The French Calvinists are discussed in book
ix., and the assistance afforded to them by Queen Elizabeth,
on the avowed principle that subjects might levy war
against Uieir sovereign on account of religious differences (a
doctrine which Bossuet asserts to have ^n inculcated by
the reformers), forms the groundwork of book x. Book xi.
treats of the Albigenses and other sects from the ninth to
the twelfth centuries, who aro usually esteemed precursors
of the reformed. Books xiu and xiii. continue the Hu-
guenot history till the synod of (5ap. The xivth gives an
account of the dissensions at Dort, Charenton, and Geneva ;
and the xvth and last book endeavours to prove the divine
authority and therefore the infallibility of the true church,
and to exhibit the marks by which Rome asserts her claim
to that title. Basnage. Jurieu, and Bishop Burnet may be
mentioned among the chief opponents of this work, to a
perusal of which, in conjunction with that of the * Exposi-
tion,' Gibbon attributes his short-lived adherence to popery.
* I saw, I applauded, I believed, and surely I fell by a
noble hand.'
1^0. 301.
CTHK PENNY CYCLOPiBDlA.]
Digit¥et. V,
.-2^ogle
BOS
234
BOS
The IkneiAil |mgeek of a mikm between tbe Lutheran
and Galilean churches ooevpied much of Boiauet*8 atten*
tion, and led to a oorrespondenoe of deep interest with
Leihnitz. On matters of discipline the Bishop of Meaux
proressed an inclination to be induleent. On tnoie of faith
(concerning which the Council of Trent was his final ap-
peal) he peremptorily declared that there could not be an^
compromise. *rbe discussion lasted during ten years : it is
replete with learning, but it proved utterly Ihiitless.
In 1682 Bossuet assisted at the general assembly of the
clergy of France, convened in order to restrain the aggres'
sions made by Innocent XII. on the rigale : a right uways
claimed by the kings of that country, and almost always
virtually tolerated by tbe Holy See, which vested in the
French crown the revenues of any vacant Inshoprio, and
the collation to simple benefices within th^ dominions.
The Bishop of Meaux was selected to preach at the opening
of (his synod ; and the four foUowinc articles, which were
published as its declaration, registered oy all the parliaments,
and confirmed by a royal edict which forbade the appointp
ment cf any person as professor of theology who did not pre-
viously consent to preach the doctrines contained in them,
are known to be his production. ' The last three,* Mr. But-
ler remarks, *aie still subjects of dispute; but the Pope's
claim to temporal power by divine right has not perhaps at
this time a single advocate.*
The first article declares that the power which Jesus
Christ has given to St. Peter and his successors, vicars
of Christ, relates onlv to spiritual things and those which
concern salvation, and not to things civil and temporal ; so
that in temooral, kings and princes are not subject to the
ecclesiastical power, and cannot indirectly or directly be
deposed by power of the keys, or their subjects discharged
by it from the obedience which they owe to their sovereigns,
or from their oaths of allegiance.
The second article declares that the plenitude of the power
which resides in the Holy See and the successors of St.
Peter, in respect to spiritual concerns, does not derogate
from what the Council of Constance has defined in its
fourth and fifth sessions on the superior authority of Gene-
ral Councils.
The third article declares that the exercise of the Apos-
tolical power of the Holy See should be governed by the
canons which have been enacted by the Spirit of God, and
are respected by all the Christian world ; and that the
rules, customs, and usages received by the kingdom and
churches of France, and approved by the Holy See, should
be inviolablv preserved.
The fourtn article declares, that in questions of faith, the
Pope has the principal authoritv, and that his decisions ex-
tend over the universal churcn and each church in par-
ticular; but that, unless they have the consent of the
church, they are not irreformable. (Butler's Life qfEoiSuet,
p. 105.)
In the dispute with the nuns of Port Royal, relating
to the five condemned propositions in Jansenius, Bossuet
exerted himself to bring the fair enthusiasts to reason ; and
in like manner he opposed Quietism and Mad. Guyon, till
he incurred opposition from Fenelon and displeasure IVom
Mad. de Main tenon. The controversy with Fenelon is per-
haps the single transaction in the life of Bossuet which
his admirers would desire not to be remembered. Now
that the question is almost as much forgotten, even among
theologians, as if it had never existed, if any of the nume-
rous writings by the Bishop of Meaux, to which it gave
birth, are ever opened by some curious inquirer, he lays
them aside with pain. They create indeed a strong wish
that Bossuet baa imitated the meekness of his antago-
nist ; and that he had not made the better cause, which he
had the good fortune to plead, appear the worse bv un-
seemly violence. He carefully watched the biblical labours
of Pire Simon, whom he accused of Socinianism. But it is
chiefly by his sermons that he is now remembered ; al-
though perhaps those by which he attained most celebrity,
the Ormsom Funebres, are ill calculated for the English
taste. They belong to a style of composition far too the-
atrical and dramatic for our temperament, but especially
adapted to the court of the grand monarquet in which reli-
gion, like everything else, was reduced to mere show. The
death to the world, which Madame de la Valhdre volun-
tarily encountered by her conventual seclusion, is among
the most pathetic occurrences related in modem history;
but few things are less likely to suggest Christian devotion
than a show trioked out with ecclesiastical pomo^ to exlubit.
In the presence of the aueen consort whom she nad injure !«
the retirement of a royal mistress, discarded by her Hcentiuus
and unfeeling lover. Three volumes of the Benedictii.f*
edition of Bossuet *s works are filled with sermons. Th<*t
are, for the most part, well known ; but we will not force*
the pleasure of transcribing one passage* which, eloquent ^^
it is, Ss not unfkirly seleded, and which certainly has n.>t
lost any of its sublimi^ by the version of Mr. Butler, frum
which we ^ive it : * uuman life resembles a road which
ends in a frightful precipice. We are told of this at tK*.
first step we take ; but our destiny is fixed ; we must pn»-
oeed. Advance ! advance t An invincible power, a.n irn-
sistible force, impels us forward ; and we must continue >
advance to the precipice. A thousand crosses, a thousan J
pains, fatigues, and-disturbances. vex us on the load. If « r
could but avoid the terrible precipice 1 No! advance*
You must run on; such is the rapid flight of years. St :'
on the way we occasionally meet with some objects tiut
divert us, a flowing stream, a passing flower; we on-
amused by them and we wish to stop. Advance ! advance *
We see that everything around us tumbles down, a fn^l.t
ful crash I an inevitame ruin! Still here and there we
pluck some flowers which fade in our hands, some fruits
which vanish while we taste them, which however oomfu';
us for the moment. But all is enchantment and illusion :
we are still hurried on to the frightful gulf. By dejrrc •%
everything begins to fade ; the ganlens seem less fair, tll<^
flowers less lively, the colours less fresh, the mcadow« Ic«*
?;ay, the waters less bright ; everything decays ; evcrytb nj
alls away. At length the spectre of death rises upon u- *
We begin to be sensible of our near approach to the i\'^'
gulf I We touch its brink ; one step more ! and
horror now seizes our senses, the head turns, the €•■-«
wander! We must advance! Oh that we might ret-.r '
But there are no means of returning ; all is fallen ! Aj .«
vanished and gone.* (Butler's Life qfBoisuet, p. 135).
The high rank which Bossuet still maintains amone > •
countrymen, appears from tbe following criticism of I.i
Harpe :— • One man, if I may venture to express mj • ::
nion, seems to me to have neen more profusely endo^tnt
than any other; since in his single person be has atur •>!
the highest degree of excellence m subjects belonging eith**:
to knowledge or to genius. It is Bossuet. He is noequa'it-*
in eloquence, whe&er it be tliat peculiar to cbe foneml
oration or to history ; whether that which is to twsy tbr
religious afiections or to guide the controversial judsnn^^t
Yet at the same time no one is more deeply acquain*-!
with a science without bounds and embracing many cfihr*^
in itself, that of religion. He appears to me to be the toj*.
of latter times who does most honour both to France and t^
the church : yet nevertheless he was not by anv me3n» i
universal genius. In physics, in the exact sciences, a
jurisprudence, and in poetry, he was altogether tinvervi'
Court de LittSrature, torn. xii. p. 196.
A life of Bossuet was published by M. de Bniignr. Pkr*.
12mo, 1761. That written by Mr. Charies Butler p(M«e<w-^
a raciness which could not be imparted by any biogrsp' » •
unless he shared the Romish persuasion; and yet, l.i.*
most other writings of the same distinguished person, it
is singularly free from the oiTensiveness of exclusive pre-
judices.
BOSSUT, CHARLES, was bom at Tartans, io the .If-
partment of the Rhone and Loire, August, II, 1710. Ih*
family was, like that of the Bernoullis, Belgian, and expft.
triated during the civil troubles. He was eilucatef\ partK
by an uncle and partly by the college of Jesuite at Lyn.«^.
Happening to meet with the Singes of scientific men ^t
Fontenelle at an early age, he was struck with Ac desirr •
making his own career resemble those of which he b . j
read : and finding no one to advise with, he wrote to For tr-
nelle himself, who, though then ninety years of ape, t--
swered his letter, bogged for an account of his future yr •
gress, and said he felt a presentiment that hu vounir <* r>
respondent would rise to eminence. This benevolent polits^
ness (which b made a prophecy bv its ftilfilment) bnoQi:IiS
Bossut to Paris, where be was cordially received by F«r.-.<-
nelle, and introduced to D'Alembert and Clmiruut The
former became his friend and initruetor, and so w#n ver^l
did Bossut become in his works, that D^Alembert w^t
accustomed to send those who asked him for explanatior. t.-
Bossut, as Newton did to De Moivie. Camus, in i::j:.
procured for him the piofessonhip of mathematies in tbe
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BOS
•eKool of tia^mn at MM^im, and in Uie lame yaar lie
was made a eofrespondiog member of Ae Academy of
Scieoeet. He had previously presented a memoir contain-
ing new methods in the integral calculus.
He continued at M^zi^res sixteen years, during which
time he obtained alone, or in conjunction with others, sere-
ral of the pnaes of the academy. He divided one with
Albert Buler (son o(ihe Kuler) another with the son of
Daniel BemoulIL He published, during this period, his
course of mathematics, which for a long time was in high
reputation, and pfocurod bim the means of living when he
lost his professorship by the revolution. He succeeded his
friend Camns as member of the Academy of Sciences,
and as examiner of the candidates for the artillery and en-
gineers. He was one of the contributors to the Bncych'
pSditM, and wrote the introductory discourse to the mathe-
matical volumes. His articles are signed I. B. in that work.
He gave, in 1779, a complete edition of Pascal, of whose
writings he was a great admirer.
His treatise of Hydrodynamics, and his memoirs on that
subject in the memoirs of the academy, contributed mate-
rially to the connexion between the theory and practice of
that science. Tt it not that much has been done, but of that
little Bossut may claim an important part In a memoir
which gained the prize in 1 796, he endeavoured to account
for the acceleration of the moon^s mean motion by the sup-
position of a resisting medium.
When he lost all his places by the revolution he went
into retirement, and wrote his sketch of the history of
mathematics. rBoNirrcASTLx.] The second edition of
this work he publbhed in 1810 : it is a lively and interesting
sketch, but written, as it appears to us, in strong colouring.
Delambre asserts that a mtsanthropic feelingr, the conse-
quence of his misfortunes, made him ui\just towards his con-
temporaries ; hut at the same time it is the only compen-
dium which is likely to be useM to the student Bossut
was not likely to be either intentionally unjust or com-
plaisant: Delambre remarks that his impartial intentions
would necessarily be a conseauence of that * roideur de
caractdre * which distinguished liim. Perhaps he conied his
early friend D*Alembert: he certainly did so in a descrip-
tion of himself in the third person [D*Alkmbbrt], the
tone of which is curiously like the one in the article
cited.
Bossut was originally intended for the church, and was
indeed an abbe, which title he bore until the abolition of
clerical distinctions. He died Jan. 14, 1814. The preceding
account is entirely (as to facts) from Delambre's ifloge in the
Memoirs of the Institute for 181 6. We do not know of any
other account whatsoever.
BOSTANJI, from Boitan, a garden. The class of men
who bear this name, who now perform a curious variety of
functions, and whose head or chief (Bostaxgi-Bashi) is one of
the grand dignitaries of the Turkish empire, seem originally
to have been nothinsr more than the sultan's gardeners, at-
tached to the imperiu residence or seraglio of Constantinople.
They still work as gardeners in the sultan's pleasure-
grounds at Constantmople and on the Bosporus, but the
more conspicuous of their duties are, to mount guard in the
seraglio, to row the sultan's barge, to row the caiques of all
the officers of the palace, to follow those great men, on foot,
when they ride on business through the city, and to attend
to the execution of the numerous orders of the bostanji-
bashi. They were aggregated with the janissaries, with
whom they formerly did military duty in the field, but the
bostanjis were not suppressed at the sanguinary dissolution
of that turbulent militia, although their number has been
considerably decreased. When the Ottoman Court was in
its splendour, the bostanji corps amounted to 2500 men, who
were divided into ortas, or companies, like the janissaries.
The distinctive part of their costume was an enormous bonnet,
or caook, made of scarlet cloth.
The bostanji-bashi. who has the rank of a pasha, is go-
vernor of the seraglio and the other imperial residences.
He is inspector-general of the woods and forests in the
neighbourhood of Constantinople. The shores of the Bos-
porus and the Sea of Marmora, from the mouth of the
Black Sea to the Straits of the Dardanelles, are under his
jurisdiction, and formerly no person whatsoever could build
or even repair a house on those coasts without his permis-
sion. For this license fees were exacted, which were gene-
lally fixed in the most arbitrary manner. Whenever the
sultan makes an excursion by water (and in the fine seasons
he rarely travels in any oiher way) th* baslaivi-bashi itpads
or sits behind hinh and stecn the magnifleent barge, which
is rowed by the bostanjis. This brings him into frequent
oonlaot and conversation with the sovereign, who never
appoints any but personal fhvourites to the post At court
the bostanji-baahi is almost as great a man as the kisfaur-
agha (chidfof the black eunuchs) or the selictar (the sultan's
sword bearar). He used also to exercise the functions of
provost-master-general, presiding at the bow-stringing of
the Turkish rarandees when the execution took place within
the walls of the seraglio, and superintending the tortures
applied in the prison of that palace, to force from oUtinate
ministers and government ftinotionanes the confession of
their guilt and the disckisure of their property, which latter
was always confiscated to the sultan.
Except when at the helm of the imperial barge, the
bostatyi-bashi used rarely to be seen abroad by daylight ;
' no doubty' says D'Ohsson, with much na'ivetd, * on account
of the sensation produced by the presence of the supreme
minister of executions.*
Another very luomtive duty attached to this composite
office was the inspection of the trade in wine, and lime, or
mortar for building, carried on in the capital and its vicinity.
Of late years, however, since Sultan Mahmoud has become
a reformer, both the money-getting branches of the office,
and the more horrible functions of the bostanji-bashi, have
been considerably abridged ; and in time we may hope to
see bim as harmless a character as the commander of a
royal yacht or a court chamberlain in Christendom.
BOSTON (Lincolnshire), a sea port bor., and m. t, on
the Witham ; partly in the wap. of Skirbeck, and partly in
that of Kirton. The church is in 53" 10' N. lat, 0^ «6' W.
long. Its measured distance from London is 116 m. ; its
computed distance, in a straight line, 93 m. It is 36 m.
S.S.B. of Lincoln. Previous to the Reform Act it wa« in
the division of Holland ; it is now in the parts of Kesteven
and Holland, which form the 8. division of the co., and is one
of the polling-places for the election of knights of the shire.
* A small addition is made to the par. by the Boundary Act
toconstitute the new borough.' (Corp. Hep,) These additions
are the parish of Skirbeck, the hamlet of Skirl>eck Quarter,
and the fen-allotment of Skirbeck-Quarter. Boston has sent
two members to parliament since the 37th Henry VIIL,
when it was first made a free borough. It sent members to
three councils in the ret^ of Edward III.
Origin^ Hisiory, Antiquitiee. — ^The origin and antient
history of Boston are obscure. The great canal or drain,
called the Car-dyke^ which extendi forty miles in length
from the Welland, in the S. of the county, near Lincoln, to
the Witham, is generally attributed to the Romans. It is
stated on various authorities that Roman coins have been
found on the banks of this dyke. The Foes-dyke is a con-
tinuation of the drain fh>m Lincoln to the Trent at Torksey,
and appears to have been the work of the same hands. The
WeeittHie, another antient drain in the parts of Holland,
carries off the upland waters, by its communication with the
Welland at Spalding. The old sea-dyke is a great bank
erected along the coast, in order to render the drains safe
from the influx of the ocean. (Dugdale's Histof-y qf Km^
banking and Draining.')
* The marshes and fens which had been hitherto, or at
least fbr some previous centuries, extensive lakes of stag-
nant water, were now drained, and fUrnished large tracts of
rich land, suitable for every agricultural purpose. The
country was intersected with canals, and gusirded from the
future inroads of the sea by stupendous works of embank-
ment, erected under the directions and by the skill of the
Roman generals and commanders.* (Noble's Gazetteer f^
Lincohuhire.) Several of the gceat works here alluded to
are said to have been performed in Nero*s time, and during
the procuratorship of Catus Decianus. The county of
Lincoln was included in the Roroau province of Ftatna
Cteearientie, and there were several military stations m
different parts of the county. Whether Boston was one of
them is a disputed point among antiquaries. By one au-
thority it is considered, »nth a great degree of plausibility.
as theCaueennie of the Romans. (Reynolds s Commentary
on the Itinerary qf Antoninue.) To those who are curioue
on the subject oif these antient military stations, the iHn^
rarium of br.WilUam Stukeley, and his * account of Richard
of Cirencester,' may be consulted with satisfaction. Three
of the principal Roman roads were carried through Lin-
colnshire, but none of them passed through Boston, and il
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BOS
is fay no meani ctttain that th«re wm a branch rood
to it. Lincolnshire was a nait oC the kingdom of Meicia
during the heptarchy, and the Saxon Chronicle informa ua
that * Sl Botolph built a monastery here, a.d. 654,* which
existed till the county was ravaged by the Danes, aj). 870.
Bede says that St. Botolph had a monastery at leanhoe.
Leland claims Lincoln as the site of leanhoe^ the spot
where the monastery was built. From the testimony of
many antiquaries, Boston appears to have been the antient
Icanhoe, and the site of St. BotoIph*s monastery. Some
topographers are satisfied with concluding that Boston is a
corruption of Botolph*s town. Dr. Stukeley says, ' Icanhoe,
Icanhoe, or as it was commonly called, according to Dug-
dale, Wenno, is supposed to have been the antient name
of Boston ;* and also that it was the last bounds north-
wards of the Iceni; he therefore concludes its old name
was Icanhoe. (Thompsons Collections for a Hutory qf
Boston.)
Boston not being mentioned in ' Domesday Book,* Mr. P.
Thompson supposes that it was included with Skirbeck, for
' at the present day, it is very nearly surrounded by Skir-
beck, and appears to occupy the very centre of the land
which, in the Domesday Survey, was returned as belonging
to that parish.*
Modem History, — Little worthy of notice is recorded of
Boston during the early part of the Noi-man government.
In the year 1204 it was a wealthy town; for when the
quinzieme was levied (a duty which was raised on the
flfleenth part of land and goods, at the several ports of
England), the merchants of Boston paid 780/.; London
paid 836/. (Madox's Hist, of the Exc/iequer.) London paid
the largest sum of any port, and Boston was the second in
amount. (Thompson.) A great annual fair was held at Bos-
ton ; at what date established is unknown, but it is on record
that it was resorted to from Norwich, Bridlington, and Craven
during the thirteenth century. Articles of dress, wine, and
groceries formed part of ito commerce. In 1 28 1 part of Boston
was destroyed by fire ; and in 1286 a great part of the town
and the surrounding district suffered from an inundation.
This tlood is ])robabIy the same as that mentioned in
Stowe*s Chronicle, p. 229. * An intolerable number of
men, women, and children were overwhelmed with the
water, especially the towne of Boston, or Buttolphe's-towne,
a great part whereof was destroyed.* It was one of the
towns, appointed by the statute of stople (27th Edward III.),
where the staple of ' wools, leather, woolfels, and lead,'
should be held. A staple town is described by Weever as
a ' place to which, by authority and privilege, wool, hid^,
wine, com, and other foreign merchandize are conveyed to
be sold ; or, it is a town or city whither the merchants of
England, by command, order, or commandment* did carry
their lead, tin, or other home produce for sale to foreign
merchants.' Many merchante from the importent com-
mercial towns of the continent resided at Boston during
this early period, and it is probable that both the above
characteristics of a staple town were combined in it. It
also ranked high as one of the sea-ports of the kingdom, its
situation at the mouth of the Witham giving it advantages
eoual to those of any other port on the eastern coast. The
advantages which Boston possessed as a place of trade,
brought over the merchants of the Hanseatic league, who
established their guild here. In 1329 Edward III. assessed
eighty-two towns to provide ships and men for the invasion
of Brittany. • Boston furnished to this navy seventeen
ships and 361 men, a greater number of vessels than was
supplied by Portsmouth, Hull, Harwich, or Lynn; and
equal in number of ships, and superior in number of men
to those furnished by Newcastle ; out of the eighty-two
towns, only eleven sent a superior number of ships to
Boston.* iArchaologia, and Thompsons Collections.)
About 1470 the trade of Boston received a check in con-
sequence of some dispute, when ' one Humphrey Littlebyri,
marchant of Boston, did kill one of the Esterlinges ;' (sup-
posed to be the same as the Hanseatic merchants) ; ' this
caused the Esterlinges to quit Boston, and syns the town
sore decayed.* ( Leland's Itinerary, vol. vii.) At the time
when Leiaud wrote his account of Boston (1530), the com-
merce of the town had begun to decline. He speaks of
the • great and famous fair,' and of the • old glory and
riches that it had,' as matters of history, and says, • the
•taple and the stilliard houses yet there remayne. but the
atilliard is Uttle or nothing at all occupied.* The stilliard-
house was the antient custom-house, and the merchants of
the steelyard were so called, trom th« circiiinatanoe of their
trading almost entirely by weight, and using the stevlyaid
as their weighing apparatus. Boston was still further re-
duced by the dissolution of the monasteries by Heniy VI II.
Some amends were made by Henry in granting the town
a charter of incorporation ; it was thus made a free bo-
rough, and enjoyed many important privileges. By thi<
charter, granted in the 37th of Henry VlII., the borough is
at present chiefly governed. Philip and Mary, in the fir»(
year of their reiffn, endowed the corporation with a ridi
grant of lands and messuages, to assist in maintaining iht
bridge and port, for supporting a school in the town, for
finding two presbyters for the celebration of divine worship
in the parish church, and for the maintenance of fuui
beadsmen to pray there for ever for the good and prosper-
ous state of the queen while living, lliis valuable enoov-
ment, according to the original record, in the Chapel of the
Rolls, consisted of filtf messuages, ten gardens, and 2ir
acres of land, situated immediately near Boston. The lata
municipal inquiry however shows the property to be '611
acres, 1 rood, and 21 perches of land, and some houses, and
yields a yearly rent of 2142/. 16<. Sd.* This diflerenoe u
accounted for partly by a presumed inaccuracy in the mea-
surements, ana partly by the circumstance of many allot-
ments having been made to the corporation under Inclofture
AcU. (Corporation Reports.)
During the reign of Elizabeth the port continued to d<-
chne, though she granted the mayor and burgesses a charter
of admiralty, giving them power to levy certain duties on
ships entering the 'Norman Deeps.* In 1571 Boston and
the surroundmg district suffered much from a violent tem-
pest, an account of which is given by Hollinshed. Duhr.jr
the latter part of that century it was visited by the plague,
and in 1625 it had a similar visitation. In 1643 Boston «a»
strongly fortified for the king and parliament, but it vis
soon crowded with the parliamentary soldiery, and made the
head-quarters of Cromwell's army. The principal men o(
the district favoured the CAuse of the Protector. In Juiie.
1643, Colonel Cavendish defeated the parliamentary tioops
at Donington, near Boston, and soon after Cromwell remo\«iI
his quarters to Sleaford. On the restoration of Charle» It.
a warrant was issued, by which some of the officers of thr
borough were removed, in consequence of the favour they
had shown in the cause of Cromwell. About the middle vi
the eighteenth centurv, the commerce of Boston fell into
still greater decay, ' throueh the ruinous state into vhic*a
the river and haven had ndlen, in consequence of neglect
and mismanagement, and from errors committed in tL«
execution of works of drainage.* (Thompson.)
Ecclesiastical History.— Dr. Stukeley supposea that the
monastery of St. Botolph stood ' on the south of the present
church ;* he saw * vast stone walls dug up there, and a plam
leaden cross.* Nothing is known of this establishment ex-
cept the dates of ite foundation and destruction, which hate
been mentioned. The Dominican, or black friars, vera
established at Boston in the early part of the thirteenth
century: in a.d. 1288 their church was burnt in a ii4
(Tanners Notitia Monastiea); but they were aftemacdi
re-esteblished. The Carmelite friars had a priory at Boston,
founded in 1301, and various small granU of land fr^^m
pbus individuals, and from Henry IV.; and their order
was patronized by Thomas Earl of Rutland. Not a reUige of
this priory remains : at the dissolutbn of the religious Jiouxs
its site was granted to the mayor and burgesses of Bostoii«
The Augustine friars had also an establishment at Boston,
founded in 1307 ; and also the Franciscans, or grey friai^
one founded in 1 332, and under the wardenship of the mo-
nastery at York. The sites of these houses were granted W
the corporation at the Reformation. Some other minor
religious houses are recorded as having existed at Bo>toti.
Several associations, called Guilds, exitted at Boston, some
of which seem to have had a mixed diaracter. The moiiL%
are supposed to have been their first founders. The guilu
of St Botolph was a fraternity of merchants, which appears
to have had only mercantile objecte in view. The guild uf
Corpus Christi is thought to have been a religious one ; zi
the Dissolution it was called a college. The guild of xL:
Blessed Mary was one of greater imporUnee, and in is
purposes partly religious. Its hall is at present us«i l\
the corporation for their judicial proceedings, public dini:<r>,
&c. The council-chamber contains a portrait of Sir Jo»rT>^
Banks, by Lawrence, which was presented by him to tl..*
corporation on his election to the omce of recorder of Boak^n.
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In 1809. Tho guild of St P«ter and St. Paul was a relU
gious establMhment, and had a chapel, or an altar in tho
parish church. St. George's guild was a trading commu-
nity, and respecting that of the Holy Trinity nothing is
known. The posseuious of all these guilds were vested in
the corporation of Boston when the religious houses were
dissolved.
The 6rst stono of the present ehuroh of St. Botolph was
laid in 1309, hut the existence of a church at Boston is re-
corded so early as 1090. The vicarage is now in the i^ift
of the corporation, and its annual value is 360/. {Ecclesifu-
tiral Reports), which is paid out of the grant of Philip and
Mary. This church is one of the laigest parish churches
without transepts in the kingdom, ft is 245 feet long,
and 98 feet wide within the w^lls. Its tower is one of the
loOiest in the kingdom, being 300 feet high, and ascended
by 365 steps. The tower, which is visible at sea for more
than forty miles, is surmounted by an elegant octagonal
lantern, which is a guide to mariners on entering the Bos-
ton and Lynn Deeps. ' This lantern,* says Rickman, ' is
panelled throughout, and each side is pierced with a large
two- light window, having double transoms; this compo-
sition gives to the upper part of the steeple a richness
and ligrhtness scarcely equalled in the kingdom. The
church is principally decorated, and the tower perpendicular,
both excellent in their kind. The chancel is partly de-
corated and partly perpendicular, and there is a good south
porch. The tower, which is one of the finest compositions
of the perpendieular style, is a complete arrangement of
panelling over walls and buttresses, except the belfry story,
tn which the window is so large as nearlv to occupy the
whole fade of the tower.' (Rickman on Gothic Architecture,
p. 25).) The altar-piece, set up in 174], is in four com-
partments, and represents the Crucifixion, the Annuncia-
tion, the Presentation in the Temple, and the Ascension ;
it is a copy from the celebrated one by Rubens in the great
church at Antwerp. In a chamber over the south door is
the parish library, which contains several hundred volumes,
among which are many valuable and scarce works on
divinity ; it was formed by Anthony Tuckney. (Britton s
Architectural Antiquities qf Great Britain,)
The chapel of ease, which was erected by subscription in
1 822, is a perpetual curacy, in the gift of the subscribers,
for fifleen years from the time of its erection ; after which
time the corporation become its patrons. There was formerly
a church cailed St. John s, which was taken down nearly
200 years ago ; its burying-ground is still used as a place
of interment. The dissenting places of worship in Boston
are for Independents, Wesle^ran and Primitive Methodists,
General and Particular Baptists, Unitarians, and Quakers.
Most of these denominations have their own Sunday-
schoob, which altogether educate nearly a thousand chil-
dren.
The Haven.-'The history of the Witham, and the harbonr,
and the influence of the drainage of the fens upon them,
abound with interesting details. The changes which have
taken place from local circumstances appear to have greatly
affcrted the prosperity of the town. Speaking of the fall in
tho Witham from Lincoln to the sea. Sir William Dugdale
says, * the descent of the stream is so little, that the water,
having a slow passage, cannot keep it wide and deep enough
either for navigation or for draining the adjacent marshes.*
It appears, notwithstanding, that during the commercial
prosperity of Boston, ships of a heavy burden could get up to
the town ; it appears also that in those days great attention
was paid to the removal of obstructions, and to the cleansing
of the river. In 1751 it was stated that thirty years before a
ahip of 250 tons could get up to Boston ; but that then even a
»mall sloop of forty or fifty tons, drawing only six ft of water,
could not sail to or from the town except at a spring- tide.
One of the causes of this decay of the haven is attributed
to the diversion of the waters of the neighbouring fens from
their antient entrance into the Witham, above ' Boston,
which had formerly discharged themselves in such large
quantities, as to assist in scouring away the sediment
brought up by every tide. (Kinderley's Report, and Chap-
man's Facts and Remarks relative to the Witham.) An
act of parliament was obtained in 1 762, empowering the
corporation to cut a canal, and to construct a great sluice,
to assist in the drainage, and to remove the impediments
in the navigation of Boston haven. This was done, and
the sluioo was opened in 1766. Various subsequent acts of
parliament for minor improvements in draining, deepening,
and embanking have also been obtained. The most favour-
able results have followed these measures, which began to
be visible as soon as the larger works were completed.
Town Government, Population, ETpensfS,S^,^Boston
has been chiefly governed by the charter of Henry VIII.,
already mentioned. The title of the corporation was, ' The
Mayor and Burgesses of the borough of Boston ;* the officers
being a mayor, recorder, deputy-recorder, twelve aldermen,
eighteen common councilmen, coroner, town-clerk, judge
of the court of admiralty, gaoler, and subordinate ofiicers
connected either with the borough or port. Freemen were
created by birth, servitude, gift, and purchase. The num-
ber of resident freemen was about four hundred and eighty;
that of non-residents, about forty. Under the new Muni-
cipal Act, it is placed in the second section of the boroughs
which are to have a commission of the peace, to be divided
into three wards, to have six aldermen, eighteen common-
council men, and the other ofiicers provided in the Act, by
which the government of the borough will be materially
changed. The court of quarter-sessons is held before the
mayor, deputy-recorder, and other magistrates. There is a
court of requests for the recovery of small debts, which
seems to be oeneficial. The borough gaol is very inadequate
for that classification of the prisoners which the law re-
quires, as ' there is no provision for a separation of the un-
tried from the convicted,* and the young ofiender has to
associate, day and night, with the hardened culprit. The
number of prisoners committed to this gaol was, in 1830,
308; in 1831, 290; in 1832, 289. For details respecting
the income and application of the corporate funds, we refer
to the * Corporation Reports.* The town is but indifferently
supplied with water ; attempts have been made to supply
this deficiency by boring, but they have not been suc-
cessful. In 1828, a depth of 600 feet was attained without
any favourable result, and the object was then abandoned.
In dry seasons, the inhabitants have to buy water. It is
well supplied with coal by the coasting vessels from Sunder-
land, Newcastle, &c. Its foreign trade is chiefly with the
Baltic, whence it imports hemp, iron, timber, and tar ; it
exports com, particularly oats. 'In the years 1811 and
1812, one-thircTof the whole quantity of oats which arrived
in the port of London, were shipped from Boston.*
The borough and parish of Boston contains 7923 acres
39 poles. Its pop., in 1801, was 5926; in 181 1, 8180; in
1821, 10,373; m 1831, 11,240; of whom 5094 were males,
and 6146 females. Under its extended boundary by the
Reform Act, the pop. of the borough is 12,818.
Families employed in agriculture, 149 ; in trade, manu-
factures, &c., 1234 ; not comprised in the above, 1104.
Annual value of real property, in 1833, 40,000/.
Assessed taxes, for years ending 5th of April, 1829,
3064/. 13*. Bd. ; 1830, 2979/. 1*. ^id. ; 1831, 2952/. 14*. 7d. ;
1832, 3005/. 4#. 6id.
Parochial assessments, for vears ending 25th of March,
1829, 4863/. 3*. ; 1830, 8810/. 18*. 6</. ; 1831, 8451/. 3*. ;
1832, 9091/. 19*. Sd; 1833, 8578/. 19*.
Number of houses, in 1 833 (as charged to tho house-
duty), 10/. and under 20/. rent, 310; 20/. and under 40/.,
161: 40/. and upwards, 79. {Municipal Report.)
Public Buildings, Trade, «J-c.— The town on the E. side
of the river consists of one long street, called Bargate, the
market-place, and some minor streets ; there is another long
street on the W. side of the river, called High-street The
market-place is spacious, and very suitable for the well- at-
tended and well-supplied hxn and markets which are held *
the market days are Wednesdays and Saturdays, and aro
particularly noted for sea and river fish. Immense numbers
of sheep and homed cattle are sold at the markets, and there
are convenient areas in several adjacent parts of the town,
where the cattle are folded and penned during the time of
sale. As an out-port in the centre of a very fertile agricul-
tural district, equally adapted to pasturage and corn, and with
a breed of cattle of a very fine description— being remarkably
large and famed for their symmetry^Boston is favoured above
many coast-towns. The drainage and inclosure of the neigh-
bouring fens have materiallv increased its internal means
of wealth, by enabling it to bring into its market immense
quantities of agricultural produce ; while the conveyance
of this produce to I^ndon and other places gives occupa-
tion to its shipping. There are some few manufactures at
Boston for sail-cloth, canvass, and sacking ; there are also
iron and brass founderies. By means of the Witham and
tho canals connected with it, Boston has a navigable com-
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nunication with lincoln, Gainsborough, Nottingham, and
Derby, and by them with all the inland towns. The new
market-house, erected in 1819. indudes a convenient corn-
market : there are also butter, poultry, fish, and stock mar-
kets. The assembly-rooms are over the new market-house,
whioh altogether forms a verv handsome building, E.of the
haven, and near the iron bridge. This bridge, which is of a
single arch, and of cast-iron, is an elegant structure ; it was
commenced in 1802, and opened for carria^s in 1 807. Its
convexity is so slight* that the road over it is nearly hori-
xontal. lu dimensions are 86 ft. 6 in. in span, and 39 ft.
broad ; it was built at the expense of the corporation, and
cost, including the purchase of buildings, 22,000/. The
petty sessions for the wapentakes of Kirton and Skirbeck
are held every Wednesday, The customhouse is a plain,
substantial building, near the quay ; it was taken down and
rebuilt in its present shape abuut a century aeo. The poor-
house is in St, John 8 Row ; it was built aSout the year
) 730. * The corporation have no share in its management*
iCorporcUion Rmorts.) The dispensary, commenced in
1795, is supportea by subscription; the patients generally
are visited at their houses. The town is lighted with gas.
There are two subscription libraries and two news-rooms.
The amusements of the theatre are not so well encouraged
as formerly.
Educ<Uion and Chcaritiei.'^A erammar-school was pro-
vided for by the rich grant of Philip and Mary in 1554.
The building was erected by the mayor and burgesses in
1667 ; it is in the mart-yard, so called from the great an-
nual fair having oeen held in it The school-room is de-
scribed as a spacious, lofty, and airy room, and there is a
high wall round the play-ground. The corporation have
the appointment of the schoolmaster, to whom they pay
220/. per annum. A portion of this sum is allowed dunng
the approbation and pleasure of the corporate body. The
corporation lately expended the sum of 1800/. in providing a
house for the master, who pays them a rent of 40/. a-year ;
he also pays an u^er 60/. a-year. An annual sum of 80^
is paid oy the corporation to the late master. The school
was under his charge thirty-five years, and the number of
pupils, which had formerly been large, decreased to three.
The pension was given him to induce him to resign his
ofiice, and a most ^irable change has been producea ; the
number of punils now being forty, nearly all of whom are
free boys. The usual education of a grammar-school is
free to the children of every inhabitant of the parish ; for
a commercial education, a guinea a quarter is charged.
The children of members of the Established Church are
taught its catechism, those of Dissenters are not (Further
particulars in Carlisle's Endowed Schooh^ and in the Cop-
poration Reports.) The Blue Coat School, established in
(he year 1713, by subscriptions and donations, is for the
education of boys and girls. The master and mistress have
100/. a-year. The number of children in the school is 30
boys ana 25 girls. The National and British Schools were
both established in the year 1815; at each of them one
penny a-week is faid by the children. The National
School contains 94 boys and 80 girls. The British or
Public School, 150 boys and 70 girls. There is also an
Infant School, which takes charge of 120 childrei|.
Laughton*s Charity School was estabushed by a gentleman
of that name in 1 707 ; it was intended for th« poorest free-
men's sons, and for placing out a certain number of them
as apprentices eyery year. There have been several bene-
factors to this school since its founder ; in 1819 its annual
income was 200/., since that time it has increased. The
number of pupils is thirty- five ; the sum of money given
to them as an apprentioe-iee, on their attaining the age of
fourteen, yaries according to the state of the nmds at the
time they leave the schocu; it is ffenerallj 10/. The names
of other charities sufficienUy explain their object : they are
a Bible Society, a Dorcas Charity, the Poor Freemen's and
Apprentices' Charities.
Two interesting remains of antiquity have yet to be
noticed,— the Kprne Tbwer, and the Hussey Tower. The
former is situated about two m. E. of Boston; it is of brick,
quadrangular, and has an octagonal turret at its south-east
angle, containing a flight of about twenty steps. It is said
to have been a baronial residence of the Earls of Richmond;
it passed into the Rochford family, from thence into that
of the Kymes, and finally escheated to the crown, in conse-
quence of some political transgression of its owner. It is
now the property of the Dean and Chapter of Westminster.
The Hussev Tower ii situataA in the town, near St Jofaii*s
Row, and is the remains of a baronial residence of Lpt
Hussey. F^om what is now standing no idea can be fotm^
of the original form or extent of this building. <Thompeon •
Collections /or a History of Boston; Commumcations fr* m
Boston^ Scalding, ^c.)
BOSTON. The capital of the state of Massaehusett i.
is situated in 42° 21' N. lat, and 71*4' W. long., at t).e
bottom of Massachusetts Bay, on a peninsula aboye ivo
miles long, and in no part more than one mile broad. Tbt
narrow isthmus by wnich the peninsula is Joined to t^«
main land is called Boston neck, and the arm of the ses
which washes the peninsula on its N. and W. sides, a
named Charles River.
Boston was founded about the year 1690, by the setAen
established at Charlestown, on the shore of Massachusetrf
Bay, contiguous to Boston peninsula. The name was gi^m
in compliment to the Rev. John Cotton, who had been t
clergyman at Boston in Lincolnshire, from whidi plaee he
was oriyen by the religious persecution, to which the onmn^l
settlement of the New England Oolonies must b^ ascnbed.
Hie early settlers, themselves the victims of perwcotion
for conscience* sake, seem to have entertained no enlars^ed
ideas of religious freedom. They claimed, and by their
voluntary expatriation took effectual means Ibr seenrtng, the
right of regmating their own church discipline and doctnnc,
but they did not learn the justice of tolerating reliirious
systems different fVom their own. At the very first r nirt
of election held in the colony, a law was passed enartin?
that ' none should thereafter be admitted ftreemen, or bt
entitled to any share in the government, or be capable jf
being chosen magistrates, or even of serving as jurrm^n.
but such as had been or should hereafter be received into
the church as members.* It would appear IhMn this, that
'the pilgrim fkthers' did not indeed disapnroye of iwltgiou«
persecution, but only objected to being made its vietims.
The scheme of taxing America by Uie British parliament,
met no where with a more decided opposition than in Bos-
ton. The Stamp Act, which receivea the royal assent <.n
the 22nd of March, 1765, was to come into operation oo Vt
1st of November of the same year ; but previously to th^t
day serious riots took place in the streets of Boston ,* tht
building intended for the reception of the stamps was pulIH
down» and the lieutenant-governor was forced to quit th^
city. From that time the inhabitants of Bostoa took on a!(
occasions a prominent part in the dispute with Englan*],
which led to the recognition of the independence of the
States. One of the roost memorable events that accno-
panied this dispute, was the destruction in Boston barb ur
of the cargoes of tea which, burthencd with an exception-
able duty, had been consigned to that port for sale \y
the East India Company. On the arrival of these o>c-
signments in December* 1733, the inhabitants of Bos: n
held meetings in their town-hall, to consider of mean^ l«r
opposing the introduction of the tea, and negocia(ion> to
that end were entered into with the governor. Findir.^
there was little probability of these negociations eommi; b
a satisfactory issue, a party of men, alwut fifty In number,
disguised as Mohawk Indians, proceeded late in the e\eu-
ning on board the tea ships then lying at the vhar( aid
emptied the contents of every chest into the sea ; tt was
never discovered who the individuals were by whom this
daring act was committed. As one of its eooseqaenre»,
the British pariiament passed the Act known as *the
Boston Port Bill,' bv which the landing and shipping of
goods at the town or harbour of Boston were made ulegai
until full compensation should be made by the town to the
Bast India Company, and until the king in council sbouVi
be satisfied of the re* establishment of order in the tovn.
By a subsequent Act of the same session (1744), the char-
ter of the province was in effect subverted, by vesting in th?
crown the aopoinlment of all municipal and judicial of&rrr^ ;
and by a third Act, the governSr was invested with jiu«vr
to send for trial to England all persons accused of oocnor«
against the revenue, or of rioting in the colony.
Early in the revolutionary war Boston became the scvne
of hosUlities. The royalist forces under Geneiml Hove,
having made this town their head-quarters, were blotka'i<-:
b^ the American troops under General Putnam, who occ;.-
pied the heights of IXirchester south of Ute town, and i .
eminence called Bunker's Hill on the north, teparatt'i
from the peninsula by Charles River. In Jnne, 1775, t^e
English attacked this last-named pg^ and after han.-^
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been twice drivea back, succeeded in dislodgisg their oppo-
nents, but with a loss of 1100 kUled and wounded, incluaing
eigbty-aine officers. In the heat of the action, Charles-
town, a suburb of Boston on the north side of Charles
River, containing several hundred houses, was set on fire
by the British and entirely consumed. In the following
month General Washington, then newly appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the ' American forces, arrived before
Boston, which he continued to invest until the following Fe-
bruary. He Uien commenced offensive operations, and
having with a considerable force obtained posisession of the
heights of Dorchester, and thrown up some works by which
the town was commanded, the British general was forced
to evacuate the town, which Washington entered on the
17th March, 1766.
With the exception of a spot in the south-western part of
the city, called the Common, and containing about seventy-
five acres, the whole of the peninsula is occupied by build-
ings. Tbe citv is connected with the main land by six
bridges— C banes River Bridge, leading to Charles- town
on the north, is 1503 feet long; West Boston Bridge,
leading to Cambridge port on the west, is 7810 feet \ons;
between these two b Canal Bridge connected with Lech-
mere point, 2796 feet long ; two bridges unite the penin-
sula to a suburb on the main land, ^led South Boston ;
and the sixth connexion with the main land is by means of
a mill-dam, which serves also for a bridge on the south-
west side of the city : this mill-dam is nearly two miles long,
and 50 feet wide.
Boston Bay or harbour is formed by numerous small
islands, on one of which, at the entrance, is a light-house
sixty- five feet high with a revolving light The islands,
and the numerous shoals, render it necessary for vessels to
take on board a pilot. There is in general sufficient depth
of water within the bay at all times of the tide, to enable
the largest vessels to reach the to¥m where they are moored
alongside wharfli, of which there are about sixty, some of
them of extensive dimensions : one, called * Lon^ic Wharf/
is 550 vards long ; and another, called ' Central Wharf,* is
more tnan 400 yards long and 50 broad, with a range of
lofty brick warehouses along its entire length: vessels
lie nere in PJ^rfect safety from whatever quarter the wind
may blow. The entrance to the harbour is so narrow as
scarcely to adout two ships abreast; it is defended by forts
constructed on several of the islands, close to which 6h^M
must pass.
In the oldest part of the town, those streets which remain
as they were originally planned, are narrow and crooked,
the houses are of small dimensions, and plainly built of
wood. The more modem parts of the city are planned in
better taste, the streets are wide and straight^ and the
houses spscious : several are constructed of granite. Many
of the old streets have also been improved, and tbe antient
wooden buildings replaced by others of brick and stone.
Among the public ouildings are the State House; the
County Court House ; the Municipal Court House ; Fa-
neuil Hall, in which the citizens hold their public meetings ;
two theatres, and several halls belonging to different asso-
ciations. The State House stands on an elevated spot, and
commands an extensive view of the bay and surrounding
country: it contains a fine statue of Washington. There
are in the city between forty and filtychurches. some of
which are handsome buildings. St. FauVs Church, in
Common Street, contains a monument to the memory of
Dr. Warren, who was killed at the battle of Bunker's Hill.
Boston, which was the birth-place of Franklin, is also the
place of his burial. He was interred in the Granary
ground, where the spot is marked by a cenotaph.
The progress 'of the city will be seen from the following
statement of the amount of its population at various dates
from the beginning of the last century : —
Ye».
PopQlfttlOll.
Yew.
l^lp1l!Btlon.
1700 .
. 7,000
1800
. . 24.937
1722 .
• 10,567* .
1810
. . 33,250
1742 .
. 16,382
1820
. • 43,298
1752 .
. 17.574
1826
. . 68,281
1765 .
. 15,520
1630
• . 61,392
1790 .
. 18,038
From tliis statement it appears that the increase since
the beeinning of the present century has been 146 per
cent. : the numbers given are exclusive of the population
of Charlestown. The whole are free citizens, the constitu-
tion of the state having declared that ' all men are born
free and equal,* which declaration was decided by the eu<
preme court of Massachusetts in 1783, to be equivalent to
the abolition of slavery.
The trade of Boston is very extensive, both with foreign
countries and with the southern states of the American
Union, to which it sends lar^ sunplies of salted meat and
cured fish, as well as domestic ana European manufactures*
receiving in return cotton, rice, tobacco, staves, and flour.
The quantity of shipping employed from, and beloncing
to, the port of Boston, and the nature of their employment,
may be seen from the following table :
ForeifffiTnda . •
Omcttnff Trade • •
Whftle Fiihenr
Cod and Maewrel Trade .
1689.
Ships. Tons.
817
505
159
1,400
179.W1
SO.STS
47,80fi
61.705
9.081 348.460
1830.
Ship*.
580
85
1.600
8.095
Tons.
189.399
6S.67S
S7.034
60.S81
399.877 3.990
Shi^
8SD
ISO
1.650
Tom.
200,000
56.000
45.000
65.000
368.000
The value of imports and exports from and to foreign
countries during the same years, was as follows:
1899.
1830.
1881.
Impocte.
lmpotU.|Exporta.
ImpoHe,
ISKpDKie.
BSpoeve.
£.
£,
£,
£
£.
£.
Rfisria . . .
818.750
38.090
166.666
43,999 384.64(^
36.750
Sweden aadDmBMrk
M.16S
3S.»ti
76.041
89.789, 67.850
59.500
BrasiU . .
59,791
62.916
71.197
73.677 89.604
89.970
Great Britain
83S.3sa
79.916
735.59(1
31.950 1.956.950
41.666
Britkh Baet Indiee
856,041
57.062
135,000
68.708 142.708
88.750
„ West Indiee
• 1
,,
19.166
16.770
„ North Ame.>
tfannCWIoalee S
..
..
18.864
86,589
19.166
110.695
Cuba and Spuiiih)
Wwt Indiee . J
153,195
919,888
948.968
187.916
414,854
994.375
China . . •
989.5B3
141,145
900.504
39.770
158.750
67.708
Olheteoiulriea .
416.666
416.066
833.833
416.666
908,333
416,666
9^1^456
1.041.669
1.981.073 961.007|9.703J96|l.I58j080
The imports consist principally of woollen, cotton, linen,
and silk manufactures, sugar, cofiee, indigo, hemp, and
iron ; the quantity of iron annually imported amounts to
15.000 tons. The exports consist of fish and fish oils,
salted meat, flour, soao, and candles, with a small quan-
tity of the cotton manufactures of the country. The amount
of tonnage frequenting the port from foreign places during
the three years from 1829 to 1631 was : —
Inwaida. Oatwaide.
1829 . . 120,952 • • 89,114
1830 • • 107,007 • • 91,722
1631 . . 130,717 . . 109,685
nearly the whole of which was under the American flag;
the amount of customs duties collected at this port in 1831
was 5,227.592 dollars, or 1,089,081/. sterling.
Boston contained in October, 1833, twenty-fire banks,
with an aggregate capital of upwards of sixteen millions of
dollars. Thehighest rate of dividend made by any of these
establishments is seven per cent per annum, and the
lowest is five per cent per annum : the greatest number
divide six per cent annually. [For further particulars re-
specting the banks of Boston see the article Bank and
Banking, voL iii. page 388.] There are also twenty-nine
companies incorporated for fire and marine insurances, the
aggregate of whose capitals is 8,100,000 dollars.
The trade of Boston is facilitated by means of the Mid-
dlesex canal, which was completed in 1808. and runs from
Boston harbour to Merrimack river at Chelmsford, thus
opening a cheap communication with the central part
of New Hampshire. More than 120 stage coaches leave
Boston, and as many arrive daily with passengers to and
from aU parts of the Union.
The *Greneral Court of MassaohusetU,* consisting of a
senate and house of representatives, the former having
forty and the latter an indefinite number, sometimes ex-
ceeding 500 members, meet at Boston twice in every year,
in January and May. The supreme courts of judicature
for the state are likewise held in the citv. There is also a
court consisting of three justices, styled the police court
for the city of Boston, and a municipal court, consisting of
one judge, who has cognizance of all crimes, not capital,
committed within the city and the county of Suffolk, in
which it stands.
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Boston contains sereral literary institutions. Amone
these the Athensum has a library of 25,000 volumes, and
a museum with a larf^e collection of rare coins and medals.
The Massachusetts Historical Societv, the Boston Library
Society, and the Columbian Library hare likewise good col-
lections of books. The New England Museum is one of
the most extensive in the United States. There are,
besides, a Gallery of Fine Arts, an Academy of Arts and
Sciences, and a Mechanics Institution in the city, which are
liberally supported.
The Massachusetts General Hospital, which was founded
in 1818, has been handsomely endowed by the joint contri-
bution of the state and of individuals. An Hospital for the
Insane and a House of Industry are supported by the in-
habitants of the city. The institution for the Education of
the Blind is perhaps one of the best of its kind in the world.
Its establishment ts of recent formation, having commenced
in 1833 with slender means, and undertaking at first the
instruction of only six poor blind children. The success
attending this first experiment proved so satisfactory that
within six months the state legislature made an appro-
priation of 6000 dollars per annum to the institution,
upon the condition that it should receive and educate,
iVee of cost, twenty poor blind persons from the state of
Massachusetts. A private individual, Mr. Perkins, gave
up his own residence, one of the best houses in the city, for
the purposes of the institution, on condition that the sum
of 50,000 dollars should be contributed for its support by
other individuals, a condition which was satisfied within
one month. At the date of the last annual report (15th
January, 1835) the institution contained twenty- two female
and twenty male scholars, being all that the building could
contain. The studies of the children comprise arithmetic,
grammar, geography, history, the French and Latin lan-
guages, tor which may be added the study of music, both
vocal and instrumental, as a science, with a view to
enabling the pupils to obtain a livelihood, either as
teachers or organists. One class is instructed in natural
philosophy, and several pupils are studying algebra and
astronomy with success. The chUdren are also taught
mechanical or handicraft labour. They sew, knit, braid,
and weave, and can make mattresses, cushions, door-mats,
and baskets: these occupations being considered advan-
tageous, not only as the means of earning their support,
but also for imparting a faciUty of exercising the physical
powers of the pupils. The point in which the managers of
the institution have been most successful is the art of
printing in raised characters, in which their performances
are said to excel those of any institution in Europe. A
specimen of this method of printing, which fully justi-
fies this assertion, is a quarto volume of sixty-nine leaves,
containing an epitome of Lindley Murray's English Gram-
mar, the cost of which in sheets is little more than
four shillings sterling. The institution is provided with
a printing-press, and much of the work, such as laying on
the sheets and working off the impressions, is done by
the pupils themselves. They have also a perfect assortment
of the type required for printing in raised characters, and
have already printed, besides the Grammar, the ' Acts of
the Apostles,* a child's book of first lessons, and a hymn-
book. In June, 1835, they were engaged in printing a
spelling-book, and were preparing for press the whole of the
New Testament. The superiority of the books printed in
raised letters at this Boston press over others that we have
seen consists in the clearness and perfect formation of the
letters, and in the economy as regards the space which they
occupy. In the books printed at Paris there are on a page
of eight inches by seven, or fifty-six square inches, 408
letters ; at Edinburgh by the improved method 590 letters
are included in that space, while at Boston, a pa^e of equal
dimensions is made to contain 787 letters, being nearly
double the contents of the Paris page. By being careful
in the operation of working off, a thinner paper is em-
ployed, and altogether the quantity of reading matter in
the Boston volumes is e<|ual to three times that contained
in a like bulk of the Paris volumes.
The number of public schools of various descriptions in
Boston in Januarv, 1 830, was ci$;hty, and the number of
scholars in attendance 7430. Of these institutions nine
were grammar-schools, nine writing- schools, one Latin and
one English high school for boys, fifty-seven primary
schools for children between four and seven years of age,
two schools iu the House of Industry, and one school de-
nominated ' the House of Reformation.* The expenses in-
curred for the support of these schools in 1829 was C 5.600
dollars. The whole number of schools in the city, |>ublic
and private, was 235, and the number of pupils in attetidunre
11,448. The whole expense for tuition, books. See, ^ns
196.829 dollars (41,000/.). Hansard Universitpr. the bckt
endowed institution of the kind in America, is at Cam-
bridge, three miles N.N.W. of Boston.
The provident institution for savings in the city of Boston
possessed on the 15th July, 1834, deposits from 11,6 16 d -
positors, amounting to 1 ,700,000 dollars (354,000/.). There
IS a similar institution for receiving the savings of seam^o,
but no statement has been given respecting its financial
condition.
The first Anglo-American newspaper, entitled *Tbc
Boston News Letter/ was published m this city on the 24tb
of April, 1704 ; it continued to be published during seventh -
four years, and for fifteen years or that period was the only
newspaper printed in the English colonies in America* Tne
second of these papers in point of time was likewise printed
in Boston. The third Boston paper, first published in 1 72!.
was printed by James the brotner of Benjamin Frankhn, in
whose name the publication was for some time rarried on,
in consequence or some diflBculties in which James Frank-
lin was involved with the government Some of tbe ear-
liest writings of Franklin were given to the world in the
columns of this paper, which was called ' The New Ensr-
land Courant* Tne number of newspapers printed in Bott n
in 1834 was forty-two, of which nine were publbbed diMs
seven twice a week, and twenty*six weekly. The Cr^t
daily paper was pubhshed in 1813.
Several periodical works are published in Boston. Amcnc
these may be mentioned, < The North American Re^ie^v
(Quarterly) ; Woodbridge*8 ' Annals of Education ;' thtf
' Christian Examiner,* established in 1 81 3, under the titk
of the ' Christian Disciple,* whieh was changed to its pn^or.c
title in 1824, pubhshed once in two months; and *T{.^
American Almanac and Companion,' a valuable work con-
ducted on the model of the Briti^ Almanac and Gem-
panion. The * Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviewa»* and son^e
other English periodical works, are regularly reprinted in |
Boston.
The Massachusetts state prison is situated in Cbarifs-
town, adjoining Boston. Only male convicts ara received
into this building, which is conducted upon the same pn»-
ciple as that at Auburn. This prison was found by Mr.
Crawford on his official visit in 1833 to be extremelv \i ::!
conducted. The attention which is paid to the mora) anJ
religious improvement of the convicts is highly erediubW to
the state. The discipline is strictly maintained, but i*.«
enforcement difiers from the practice at Aubnm in xl.%
respect, that' flogging is never inflicted until the paitiruUr»
of the case have been fully investigated by the warden <-r
his deputy, and an opportunity has been afforded to tbe p**.
soner of being heard in his defence.' From atatemenu
given by Mr. Crawford, it appears that the profits dcmcl
from the labour of the convicU arc sufficient to promie fit
all the expenses of the establishment, and to leave a li-
lance of profits amounting to 7000 dollars in the year.
The number of convicts remaining in confinenaent on th<
30th of September, 1833, was 250, whose ages were :«-
From 15 to 20 years , • 19
„ 20 „ 30 „ • . lOS
•> 30 „ 40 „ . , 76
„ 40 „ 50 „ . . 38
•> 50 „ 60 „ . , 9
„ 60 „ 70 „ . . 2
M 70 „ 80 M • • I
250
The terms of imprisonment to which they were aent^ncrc
were : —
For six months • • . • «
„ one year . . . . ♦ 2«
Between one and three years • * 9«i
M three and seven n • • €9
„ seven and fourteen „ . . I o
„ fourteen and tjrenty „ • , 4
ForUfe . . . . 40
Exactly three-fidhs of this number were comicti'Hl
Digitized by '
Google
BOS
24)
BOS
laiceny, twenty-one had oommitted barg1ary» ten bad been
guilty of offeones against the currency, thirty-six had been
convicted of crimes against the person, and the remainder
were cunBned for minor offences against property. The
proportion of re-commitments to the whole number of con-
victs in the fi(\ecu years from 1819 to 1833 was one to five ;
the proportion was somewhat less durinir the last than it
bad been during the first half of the period.
{Life ami Correspondence of Dr. Franklin, 4 to. edition ;
Hinton's History atid Topogtxxphy of the United States;
American Almanac and Companion » 1830-1835 ; Crawford's
Repo^ on the Penitentiary System of the United States ;
Tables of the Revenue^ Population^ Commerce, ^., of the
United Kingdom^ part iii.)
BO'STRlCHUS (LatreilleX a genus of insects of the
family Xylophagi. Generic characters :— body oblong, cy-
lindrical, or nearly so; head rounded, capable of being
retracted within the thorax as far as the eyes ; eyes dis-
tinctly projecting; antennsa ten-jointed, short, the three
terminal joints large and distinct, twice as broad as the
remainder ; the fk\'Q following joints small and close toge-
ther; the two remaining, or two basal joints, slightly thick-
ened : palpi tolerably distinct, about equal in lengtU to the
mandibles, short, and three-jointed ; thorax convex above,
the anterior part humped; legs rather short, tarsi four-
jointed, simple. The insects of this tribe are found on old
trees, upon which their lar\'te feed, and in so doing they
generally construct their burrows under the bnrk.
Bostrichus capudnue (a rare species in this country) is
ibout half an mch long; the head, antcnnm, thorax, and
legs are black ; the rest of the body is red.
BOS WELL, JAMES, was born at Edinburgh, October
29. 1740. His father was Alexander Boswell, Esq., of
Auchinleck (pronounced Affleck), in Ayrshire, who lieing
in 1754 made a lord of session, assumed the title of Lord
Auchinleck. His mother was Euphemia Erskine, great-
grand-daughter of John, the twenty-third earl of Mar,
who was lord high-treasurer of Scotland from 1615tol630.
After having studied law at the uniTersities of Edinburgh
and Glasf^oWf Boswell visited London for the first time in
)7C0, and made many acquaintances both in the fashion-
able world and among the literary men of the day. In 1 76'J
he made, as far as is known, his first essay in authorship
by contributing some verses to a miscellany which appeared
that year at Edinburgh, under the title of ' A Collection of
Original Poems, by Scotch Qentlemen.* In 1763 he pub-
hihed a small volume of Letters which had passed between
himself and the honourable Andrew Erskine (the brother
of Thomas, the sixth earl of Kellie, the eminent musical
performer and composer). This is a very oharactcristic
volume, sufficiently prognosticating, by its style of frank
exposure and good-natured self-complacency, the most re-
markable qualities of the autliofs subseouent productions.
With his father's consent he determined to make the tour
of the continent before being called to the bar ; and accord-
ingly he set out early in 1763. While passing through Lon-
don he was introduced to Dr. Johnson, on the 16th of May in
that year, in the back shop of Mr. Thomas Dayies, the book-
seller, in RusMll-street, Covent Garden. He proceeded in
the first insUnce to Utrecht, where he spent the winter in
attending the law classes at the university. After visiting
various places in the Netherlands, he continued his route,
in company with his friend the Earl Marischal, through
Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. With his passion for
making the acquaintance of remarkable i)ersons, he had,
while in the neighliourhood of Geneva, visited both Rous-
seau and Voltaire; and he now crossed over toCk>rsica,
and introduced himself by means of a letter from Rousseau
to (^neral Paoli, then in the height of his celebrity as the
leader of his countrymen in their resistance to the Genoese.
Returning home by the way of Paris in 1 766, he passe<l as
advocate in July of that year. He soon after publishetl a
pamphlet, which was considered creditable to his abilities,
entitled * The Essence of the Douglas Cause,* being a de-
fence of the claim of Mr. Archibald Douglas (afterwards
Lord Douglas), to he considered as the nenhew of the last
Duke of Douglas, and as such to succeed to his property,
against the counter-claim of the Hamilton family, who dis-
puted his alleged birth. Although he thus signalized the
enmmencement of his professional course, his business at
the bar was from the first but a secondary object He had
oome back from his travels so full of the Corsican chief,
that ho was speedily known by the nickname of Paoli Bos-
ii^30Si.
rTHB PENNY CYCLOPiSDIA.]
well. In 1 76S he published at Glasgow * An Account of
Corsica, with Memoirs of General Paoli ; which was fol-
lowed the next year by a duodecimo volume which ho
printed at London, under the title of 'British Essays in
favour of the brave Corsicans, by several hands.'
In November, 1 769, he married his cousin. Miss Mar-
garet Montgomery of Lainshaw. About the same time his
intimacy with his literary friends in London, and especially
with Dr. Johnson, was drawn closer by another visit to the
metropolis. In 1 773 he accompanied Johnson on his journey
to the Western Islands of Scotland. In 1 774 he sent to the
press another professional tract, being a * Report of the De-
cision of the Court of Session upon the question of Literary
Property, in the cause John Hinton, Bookseller, London,
against Alexander Donaldson and others, Edinburgh.' It
is a mere report of the judgments delivered by the Lords of
Session in this cause, in which he had been engaged as
counsel. In 1782, on his father's death, he succeeded to
the fiimily estate, a»ul soon after removing to London en-
tered himself at the English bar. In 1 784 he published a
pamphlet in support of the new ministi-y of IMr. Pitt, under
tho title of • A Letter to the People of Scotland on the pre-
sent State of the Nation.' His great frfond Johnson died to-
"wards the end of this year; and in 1785 he published the
first and not the least remarkable sample of his John*
soniana, in a Journal of the Tour to tho Hebrides. It ap*
pearwl at Edinburgh in an octavo volume. The same year
he publislicd another * Letter to tho People of Scotland, re-
•specling the alarming attempt to infringe the Articles of tho
Union, and introduce a most pcrnirioiis innovation, by dimi-
nishing the number of the Lords of Session.' Becoming
now ambitious to make a figure in the political world, hu
made various unsuccessful attempts to obtain a seat in par-
liament. At the general election in 1790 he stood for tho
county of Ayr, but was defeated after an expensive contest
Before the close of the same year appeared in two volumes
quarto the work which has preserved his name, and made
it universally known, his ' Life of Johnson.* The sensation
excited by this extraordinary production was very great;
and if it be always an evidence of superior talent to do any
thing whatever better than it has ever been done before,
the work undoubtedly deserved all the immediate success it
met with, and also the celebrity it has ever since enjoyed :
for whatever may be thought of the character of either the
intellectual or the moral qualities which its composition de-
manded, it cannot be disputed that the same qualities had
never before been half so skilfully or felicitously exerted.
Nor has any work of the same kind since appeared that can
be compared with BoswelVs. The best editions of this cele-
brated work are the two that have been lately published by
Mr. Murray ; the first in 5 vols, octavo, edited by Mr. Croker ;
the other in 10 vols, duodecimo. Both these editions con-
tain Bosweirs • Journal of the Tour to the Hebrides,* and
also many other pieces relating to Johnson never before
incorporated with the present books. Boswell is said to
have contributed a series of papers, entitled the Hypochon-
driac, to the first sixty-two numbers of the ' London Maga-
zine' (from 1777 to 1782), which are said to be otvery little
merit ; and a series of his Epistolary Correspondence and
Conversations with many eminent Persons, according to
Watt's *BibliothecaBritannica,' appeared at London in two
volumes quarto in 1791, and again in three volumes octavo
in 1793. He Was preparing a second edition of his *Li!'e
of Johnson ' at the time of his death, May 19th, 1 795. Ho
left two sons and three daughters. (The fullest and best
account we have met with of the life of James Boswell is
given in Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 199, fur
Nov. 21st, 1835.)
BOSWE'LLIA, a genua of balsamic plants belonging to
the natural order Burseracese, and consisting of two species,
one of which is believed by Colebrooke to be the Libancs
of Theophrastus, and the Thurea virga of the Romans.
For the reasons upon which this opinion is founded see
Asiatic Researches, vol. ix.
It appears that the gum resin called olibanum is the
frankincense that was used by the antients in their reU-
gious ceremonies. Linnmus was of opinion that it waa
yielded by the Lycian juniper ; but that plant is a native of
the south of France as well as of the Levant, and the
botanists of that country deny that any such substance is
produced by theu: juniper. The Greeks obtained their
frankincense from Arabia. The Arabians call oUbanum botii
Lubdn and Cundur; but as benxoin is mostiiBed at the
Digitiz^^by^QOgle
6 08
242
BOS
present day ibr relipous purposes, the Mohammedan writers
of India on materia mc^dica apply only the term Cundur
to olibanum. This Cundur has been ascertained by Messrs.
Colcbrooke, Hunter, and Roxburgh to be the subject of the
present article.
BonceUia ihur\fera^ as hotanists call it, is a lar|;e timber-
tree found in the mountainous parts ofrln'dia, yielding a most
fragrant resin from wounds made in the bark. Its leaves
are pinnate, and consist of about ten pairs of hairy serrated
oblong leaflets, each of whieh is from an inch to an inch
and a half in length. The flowers are pale pink, small, and
numerous. The calyx is five-lobed, the corolla of five downy
petals, the disk a fleshy crenelled cup, and the stamens
ten, alternately shorter. The fruit is a three-sided, three-
valved, three-celled capsule, containing a single-win^d
pendulous seed in each cell.
From this Roxburgh distinguishes as a different species
Boswellia glabra, a plant also yielding a resin which is
used for incense and as pitch in some parts of India, It
differs from the last in having no hairs on its leaves, in its
leaflets being often toothless, and in its flowers being
panicled.
BOSWE'LLIA THURI'FERA. (Colebrooke,^«al.i?c.
searches, ix. p. 377; Roxb. Ft. Ind. ii. p. 383.) It is ne-
cessary to be precise in referring to the authorities where
this plant is described, as it is very uncertain whether it be
the same as the B, serrata of Stackh. extr. Bruce (p. 19.
t. 3), which is generally regarded as a synonome of this
plant. For the reasons for distinguishing them, see Wight
and Arnott's Prodomus Ftorte Penins. Ind, Orient,^ vol. i.
p. 1 74. A native of the mountainous parts of India (see above)
yields the gum-resin (improperly termed gum) ohbanum,
the frankincense or thus of the antients. This substance
was long supposed to be obtained from various species of
Juniperus of the family of the Coniferm^ such as X phoMP-
cea, Linn., J. lycia, Linn., J. tetragona, Mbnch, the J. thu-
rifera, Linn., or J. hispanicat Lam., and even from the
J. oxycedrus, Linn. Some persons are still of opinion
that the Arabian olibanum is derived from a juniperus;
wliich, independent of our positive knowledge of the source
of the Indian olibanum, is very improbable, for as Nees
von Esembeck justly remarks, the conifisrss yield only pure
resins, or resins consisting of resin, volatile oil, and sub-
resins, but in no case any gum-resins. Indeed, if the Ara-
bian olibanum be not obtained from a Boswellia, it is most
probably yielded by a Balsamodendron : (Kafal? Forsk.
possibly only a variety oT B. Katqf. Forsk.) at least the
wood of this tree is used to hum as a perfume in the
mosques.
A substance analogous to olibanum, and used in a si-
milar way in various parts of the world, is procured from
several different trees, such as, in America, the Croton m-
tens (Schwartz), C.thurifer (Kunth), Cadipatus (Kunth):
in Columbia, Baillieria neriifolia (Kunth), yields the Ame-
rican frankincense; also the Amyris {Idea Taoamahaca,
Kunth) ambrosiaca, (Linn.) yields the resin coumier, like-
wise called American frankincense.
Ldetia apetala (Jacq.) also yields a suhstanee similar to
frankincense.
Olibanum occurs in commerce of two kinds, the Arabian
and East Indian : the former kind is now seldom met with,
and its origin is a subject of doubt ; the latter is obtained
from the tree above described, and to it we limit our re-
marks. There are two varieties or degrees of fineness of it,
the best called olibanum electrum, or in grants, sometimes
called Thus mannce or Thus masculum ; me other is term^
olibanum commune, or in sortis, also foemineum. The
first occurs in pieces varying from the site of a hasel-nut
to that of a walnut, or larger, which are roundish or irre-
gular in shape, of a light yellowish colour, varying to red or
brown in some pieces, opaque or semi-transparent, ^e out-
side often covered with a white powder, and upon being
pounded the whole becomes a white powder. It is very
friable, and breaks with a dull, sometimes even, sometimes
splintery fracture.
The second sort is generally in larger pieces, mostly of a
dirty-grey or fawn colour, and intermingled with pieces of
wood and other impurities.
The odour of olibanum is faint and peculiar, but plea-
santly balsamic, which is increased by heat, and when in-
flamed it bums with a steady clear light, which is not easily
extinguished, diffusing a most fragrant smoke. It leaves
behind it a black ash. The taste is balsamic, slightly acrid |
and bitter. Being a gum-resin, it is not perleetly solt:^ u
either in water or alcohol ; with the fl)rmer it forms a m.I « }
fluid. It consists of gum-resin and volatile oil: the laticr
principle has the odour of oil of lemon. The Indian oli -i-
num is not often adulterated, but an inferior or the Ara> y.
kind is often substituted. The latter is frequently inivr-
mixed with mastic, gum-sandarac, or Burgundj^ pitch
when there is much of this last article, it may be disooverui
by the greater solubility in alcohol.
Olibanum is now seldom used in medicine: itposw>^-t
the properties eommon to balsamic substances, and m«k> .a
the absence of inflammatory symptoms, or after appropr.wii-
antiphlogistic treatment, he used as an expectorant. I . •«
more useful externally as a rubefacient and antispeAiB< *l.t
especially applied as a plaister over the stomach in i^^t.
cases of cramp or spasm of that organ. It is however p. t)
cipally employed to bum as incense in Catholic churcbex
BOS WORTH (commonly called MARKET BUS-
WORTH, to distinguish it from another place of t:.'
same name in the hundred pf Gastre), a par. and m. t.
in the bund, of Sparkenhoe, co. of Leicester, 9$ m. N.M*.
hy N. from London, and 12 m. W. from Leicester. It i»
called Boseworde indie 'Domesday Survey,' which mcntiun*
the demesne as containing a wood one league Iuhk atd
half a league broad, and names a priest and deacon a>
among the occupants. After mentioning Boseworile ai. 1
some other demesnes, it concludes rather curiously with.—
' all these lands Saxi held, and might go whitherk06> er iu
pleased.* This Saxi lived before the Conmicst, it would set- :.-. .
as one Huso de Grentesmainell and the Earl of Mellcnt j:<
named as the existing proprietors.
The small town of Bosworth is pleasantly aitnaled u|» -
an eminence, in the centre of a very fertile district, a. •!
contains several good houses. It has no manufactuiv > t
any consequence, except that of worsted stockinga, vL l
affords occupation to many persons here and in the ne);:u
bourhood. The Ashby canal, which passes within a m.!.-
of the town, has ^ven facilities fbr the obtaining of co^;
and other commodities. There are now two regular fa.i^ \< r
cattle held at Bosworth, on the 8th of May and 10th uf Ju;>
every year. The parish contained fifty-four houses in 1 s U .
when the pop. was 2630, of whom 1806 were females.
There is a free grammar-school at Bosworth, £)und«d \ ^
Sir Wolstan Dixie, lord mayor of London in the rvij.:
of Elizabeth. He built in his lifetime the plain but neii
school-house, which has within these few yean b** >
taken down and rebuilt in a more oommodioua form. 1 1
endowment produced, some years since, upwarda of re.
per annum. Sir Wolstan also founded two fellowahiu ai «
four scholarships at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, for t..-
benefit of persons either related to the Dixie famil). <■
educated at the school. Owing to the charity bein^: r. >•
managed by the founder's representatives, a suit in (. t.«i>-
eery was instituted, which continued above twenty-five }<««.
and the operation of the charity was suspended; but :.•
proceeds of the estates, being paid into Chancery, acruiu.
lated in that time to a very large sum, the judicious apt r •
priation of which may render the Dixie free-«cbool a n. *
important establishment. Simpson, the eminent aelf-tauj .
mathematician (a native of the town), was usher of :: •
school ; and also Dr. Johnson, when a young man.
The decisive battle between Richard III. and the E.ir) • '
Richmond, when the death of the former, aAer a hU^t'.,
struggle of two hours* duration, terminated the long »t; •
between the houses of York ahd Lancaster, was fou^...
August 22, 1485, on a plain, commencing about one m.
south of the town. This fine and spacious plain, uluch i«
nearly surrounded hy hills, was formerly ciulcd Reds*
Plain, from the colour of the soil ; but since the l^tilc 1 «
been called Bosworth Fiel4, from the name of the xmar-^.
town.
The plain is rather of an oval form, about two xa\\^ -
length and one in breadth. At the time of the batt!« .
was one piece of uncultivated land, without hedge or t" .
her, but is now so altered by both, that notlims «.r . •
former appearance remains except the general form of ..
ground. The spot where Lord Stanley placed the baiie.
erown upon the head of Richmond, and hailed him kjn>: .
now known tmder the name of Crown Hill. Tlierv v -
also a well which was called King Richanl's Well, u:
the notion that the monarch quenched his thu^t ;
during the battle. Dr. Parr, who visited the spot in ! ^ .
found that it had been drained and^«losed upjifi^ he «
Digitized by
BOT
243
BOT
then six <w Mven yetn prevurosly ; his repretentations pto-
eui^ i ftubteription for the purpose of rusiDg a suitable
moQument on the spot, for which he Aarnished an appro-
priate Latin inscription.
Numerous r«licsof the battle have at diffiBrent times been
turned up in digging and ploughing the soil, — such as
shields, crossbows, arrow-heads, halberds, pieces of armour,
rings, spurs, tod sometimes human bones and skeletons.
(Nichols's Hutinrvof Leieetterthire ; Carlisle s EndtHted
Schools; Kniian's BiUii0 of BoiworthFieid; GenHeman'i
MnsazifM, 1813; &c.>
BOSZOBRMBNY, or BOESZOBRMENY, aHaiduck
town in the Hungarian oo. of Ssabolts, not fta N.W. from
the town of Debreesyn. It has a civil tribunal, a Protestant
and a Ondco-Catholic chureh ; the inhab. subsist principally
on the produce of their herds : it possesses a pop. of about
13i000 ; and is the seat of the captaincy of the Haiduck
d\alri«U, 47^ 3^ N. lat., 21* 3(K E. long. We may hei« re-
mark that these districts cotisist of level tracts of liountry,
on which a few corps of Hungarians, Servians, and Walla-
chians, raised by John Corvinus,viee-lieiitenant of Hungary,
received permission to settle (h)m Stephen Botskay, pHtlCe
of Transsylvania; to whom they had rendered very important
services in the field. The plreAent possessors of the Haiduck
districts are their desbehdants^ iWd enjoy the privileges
secured to them bjr the constitution ^hich was granted them
on their first Settlement in the time of Mathias I. king of
Hungry. ThbV Were placed Uhder the bentnol ef a can-
tnin-general, and the Subsequent kings bf Hungary (latterly
emperors of Germany or Austria) have continued their
privileges to them. The H^hole extebt of the Haiduck dfs-
tricu, which is divided into three distinct pOKiotls, chiefly in
the CO. of Szaboltst and partly in that of Bihari amounts
to about 37t sq. m. The people speak the Hungarian
tongue, and flve-Aixihs of them are Calvinists ; the re-
mainder are Roman Cilth6lics. In 1784 their numbers
were 28,736; in 1831 they appear to have declined to
27 732.
BOTANICAL GARDENS. [GAanaits.]
BOTANY is that branch of science which comprehends
all that relates to the vegetable kingdom. The term Bo-
tany is derived fh)m the Greek, in Which b6taM (PorAvri)
signifies any kind of grass or herb, and botdin'kB i^rainxri)
the art which teaches the nature of plants and herbs. The
structure of plants, their mode of growth, their habits of
life, their mutual relations, their uses to man, or the danger
that results firom their employment, the station they occupy
in the scale of the creation^ and many other similar consi-
derations, form each an extensive field of inquiry which
botany combines into one connected whole. This statement
will serve to show how imperfect a view of the subject is
taken by those who imagine that the art of naming and
classifying plants is the great end of the science, and not
one of the most humble of its means, unless it is conducted
upon great general views and sound philosophical principles.
In an article of this kind it would be impossible to enter
^ery minutely into atiy of these subjects» or indeed at all
into many of them ; we shall therefore confine ourselves to,
1. A general view qf the nature qftolanie : 2. The hUtory of
the ttepe by tphich botany hoe aavanced from ite rtAest
ttate to ite present condition as a science : and 3. The prac-
tical purvoses to which it is capable of being applied ; to
which will 1)0 appended a glossary of the botamcal terms
most frequently in use.
I. To oar oidinary apprehension a pltot is an organized
body, Bllacbed to the surface of the earth bv roots, which at
once keep it stationary and feed it ; incapable of motion ex-
cept from the agency of external influences, destitute of
perceptibility, living by aid of its leaves, and multiplying
by the power of Its flowers, fruit, and seeds«
To enable it to execute the (Unctions of nutrition, its
leaves poaaese the property of decomposing and assimilating
the fluid or gaseous matters which are obtained by the roots
from the soil and conveyed into the leaves through the stem :
these parts are alto capable of returning the elaborated matter
back into the stem, or to those organs in which its presence is
most required. To bring about the phenomena of reproduc-
tion, the leaves are modified in form and nature, and be-
come successively a calyx, which protects the interior of the
flower, and a corolla which gives it beauty ; stamens, whose
points are filled with a fertilizing powder, and a pistil which
IS furnished with the means of imbibing the fertilizing in-
fluence and conveying it to the young seeds enclosed within
its cavity. The latter are fed by the nutritive matter elBi>
berated by the genuine leaves until they are fiill grown ;
they are in the mean while guarded from external injury
by the fruit which grows with their growth, and at last con-
tain a miniature representation of their parent enveloped in
many folds of tough protecting matter, and capable of re-
producing a being exactly like that by which it was itself
produced, whenever it is committed to the soil fh>m which it
is in its turn to obtain its food.
In a more general point of view, a plant is to be consi-
dered as a mass of closed, transpai«nt« elastic, irritable bags*
called tissue, formed of an excessively delicate membrane^
and combined into various organs, by means of which the
Ainetions of its life are carried on. This tissue occurs in
several different forms, all of which are reducible to the eel*
luiar, the fibrous, and the vascular. Of these, the most im-
portant is the cellular. This kind of tissue consists of little
bladders or vesicles, which, if developed in a medium in
which they experience no resistance, would be of a sphe-
roidal figdre^ but which lose that form by being exposed to
various degrees of compression, in consequence of which
they are found in a state varying from the form of a
rhomboidal dodecaedfon to that of extremely elongated
t>iihillelbgram8. Such tissue as this constitutes the basis
of all vegetables, generally by fiir the largest part of them,
Utad often their entire structure. The two other forms are
of seoondary importance, are genereted subsequently, and
are probably mere modifications of it. It appears to be in-
dispehsaUe to the propagation of Species, forming the fer-
tilizing matter in flowering plants, and being that by means
of Which the species of flowerless plants are exclusively pro-
pagated.
Fibrous tissue consists of tubes of variable length packed
elosely side by side.
Vascular tissue has the appearance of transparent threads
twisted spirally like a bell-wire within a membrane, and
either readily unrolling in consequence of the want of co-
hesion of the cK)ntiguous spues and then contracting when
the force th&. was required to unroll them is removed, or
not capable oi* unrolling, in consequence of the cohesion
of the spires, and assuming the appearance of a tube
streaked crosswise with fine hues ; or else, in consequence
of an interruption of the continuity of the cohering spires,
that of a cylinder covered with broken bars or interrupted
fissures.
It may possibly be supposed that these elementary organs
are readily recognized upon a mere casual inspection, that
they bear some considerable proportion in size to the
plants themselves to which they belong, and that nothing
more is necessary than to pull a portion of any vegetable
matter in pieces to discover those bladders, fibres, and
spirally twisted vessels. So far however is this firom being
the case, that an observer would certainly recognize nothine
of what has been mentioned, by inspection wiui the naked
eye, except perhaps in the pith of a few plants, such as the
elder for instance, in which it is possible to distinguish the
cells of cellular tissue. The fact is, that countless multi-
tudes of individual cells, or vessels, or fibres, are required to
form but a very small portion of vegetable matter. So ex-
ceedingly minute are they, that it has been calculated that
above 10*000,000 vesicles of cellular tissue are contained in
a fungus called Reticularia maxima, three or four inches
broad, and something less than half an inch diick. A single
^read of hemp, which is not thicker than a human hair, is
composed of a considerable number of tubes of woody tissue
glued together; and the stalk of a strawberry leaf conceals
hundreds of spiral vessels in its centre. From such mate-
rials, thus infinitelv minute, and as we must suppose infi-
nitely weak in each individual case, though of surprising
strength and force in a state of aggregation, is the whole
vegetable worid constituted, and by their agency are all the
delicate actions of vegetable life maintained in a state of
ceaseless activity.
For the adequate performance of such functions tissue
has certain special powen; the most remarkable of which
are cohesion and permeability to fluid or gaseous matter.
It would be difficult to conceive how vesicles, or fibrous or
spiral threads, could be combined into bodies of regular
and uniform figure, unless the propertjr of mutual cohesion
were to exist We know in feet that this power is universal
in the vegetable kingdom, and that all contiguous surfaces
in planu either uniformly do. or frequently will cohere*
and BO firmly that no traces of the union can subsequently
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bo discorered. Thus, cellule adheres to cellule; a dode-
caedron has anotlier cellule firmly united to each of its
twelve plane faces, a parallelogram is surrounded by six,
and so on ; and cylinders cohere side by side where their
surfaces touch each other. In like manner as cellule grows
to cellule and fibre to fibre, lo do contiguous masses of
such tissue form a vital union ; leaves will grow to leaves,
and stems to stems, approximated bracts cohere into in-
volucres, the margins of petals grow together and form mo-
nopetalous corollas ; nay, even the stamens and pistils con-
tract adhesions of various kinds, not only with their own
parts, but with one another, thus arriving at a most com-
plete state of hermaphroditism ; and finally, one plant may
be made so to grow to another, that in a short time no
traces of the union are left, and to our senses a complete
amalgamation of their respective individuality is effected.
Allusion is not here made to the natural union of one
species with another which takes place between parasites,
properly so called, and the tree that bears them ; but
rather to the artificial combinations which man has from
very distant ages had tho power of making for his profit
or his pleasure. Thus we Uuce a branch of one plant and
apply its tissue to that of another even of a different
species ; a strict adhesion speedily takes place, and a new
individual is the result, consisting of two species firmly
united to each other, each possessing its own particular
system, exercising its own peculiar functions, and only to
lie separated in death. Upon this property depend the gar-
dening operations of grafting, buading, inarching, and so
forth.
In the next place, tissue has the power of transmitting
fluids in all directions through its membrane. This mem-
brane has been already described as transparent, nearly as
much so as glass or talc ; it is also perfectly continuous,
without the slightest trace of perforation or pore. It has
been supposed, indeed, to be furnished with pores visible
under the microscope, but all observers are now agreed that
this is not the fact. It is however undoubtedly permeable,
not only to gases or the more subtile fluids, but also to
water and substances held in solution by it, which pass
til rough the membrane with the greatest facility. Hence,
notwithstanding the want of distinct orifices by which nu-
trition can be received by plants, and superfluous matter
expelled, the processes of absorption and perspiration are
as constantly ond regularly in action as in the animal world.
How perfect must be that permeability, and how efiicient
the means fur the transmission of the fiuids, by which
plants are nourished, may be easily collected from this fact,
that the tiny leaves of the pigantic pine-trees of North-
west America must some of them be fed from a distance
of 250 feet, through all the sinuosities and obstructions of
tortuous branches, and still more tortuous roots : in such
a case as this the nourishing system of a single leaf would
be at least 5000 times greater than the leaf itself.
Wo are accustomed to regard a plant as an individual
consisting of a central part, called a root and stem, round
which various organs known by tho name of scales, leaves,
bracts, llowcrs, and finally fruit, are arrangml in a certain
order; and to consider an individual plant as of a nature ana-
logous to that of an individual animal, having a term of
time within which the duration of its life is fixed. Thus
there are plants that are born and die in a day, such as the
race of muoors : and there arc animals whose existence is
perhaps not much longer, such as infusoria; other plants
arc animated for a few months, increase their species, and
die, like many insects— while the remainder of the vege-
table world having, like the higher orders of animals, no
A\c(\ limits of existence, perish only by accident or disease.
Undoubtedly, in one sense, a plant is to be considered as an
individual, but not in the sense to which we have ad-
verted. In an individual animal the loss of any limb
is pro tanto destructive of its functions : the removal of a
leg for instance renders it less capable of walking, of an
eye of seeing, of a hand of holding, and so on, while the
removal of some organs, as tlie head or the heart, is in-
stantly destructive of life altogether, and the individual pe-
rishes. And again, the individual animal has but one ap-
paratus for propagating its sj^ecies, which, once removed or
injured, can never be replaced. Not so plants. From an
individual plant limb after limb may lie lopped away with-
out detriment ; its head, its roots, may be mutilated, or even
reinove|l, and yet '\i% \\ii\\iy remain unimpaired ; its very
heart (i. c» heart- wood) may be scooped out or rot away by dis-
ease, and yet its life and all its functions go on at before* If
deprived of the power of procreation in one part, an hundred
other sets of apparatus arc ready to supply the deficieiKn-.
If plants wore to ixjrish as readily as animals, the wor>l
would soon be a barren waste, — so exposed are tbey to
accidents, and lo constantly destroyed for the purposes of
roan : rooted to the soil, without the power of evasion, or of
defence, injuries such as are fatal to animals are of constant
occurrence with them. Their organs of reproduction arc
eitlier in the form of llowers or of fi-uit, tho moat attrartire
or most useful parts that they possess, and are continual ly
torn from them to administer to the pleasures or neeeasiiiei
of animals. Undoubtedly such an explanation of the cau*e
of the difference between animals and plants isbothpleasinj;
and true. But the philosopher cannot pause thus at the
threshold of his inouiry; he must also seek to explain
the exact nature of the difference between animal ami
vegetable vitality, and to discover how it happens that
the individuality of the two kingdoms is so essentially dif-
ferent
The first person who ventured fairly to approach thu
subject was Dr. Darwin, who about forty years ago pub-
lished his opinion, that plants were a lower order of animaU
analogous to corals, and endeavoured lo prove the truth of
his theory, by demonstrating a direct analogy betwiH^'n
plants and animals in every organ of nutrition or reproduc-
tion. His views have been little attended to in this country,
which may be easily accounted for by the facts on which he.
reliedjbeing so much mixed up with fanciful and inaccurate
matter, that discredit was cast upon his whole theory. And
yet it cannot now be doubted tnat the analogy that he la-
boured to demonstrate between plants and animals is e>f'r>
day becoming more and more certain, even to the point ff
a distinct circulation of blood in the vegetable kingdom :
but that what wo are justified in calling the most oncin^
and most important part of his theory was strictly true, vc
shall proceed to explain.
If we look a little closely into the structure of a tree, we
shall find that it is composed throughout of tissue anan^i-!
in the same onler, exactly, in eveir part : for instance, it at
the bottom of the stem there is cellular tissue in the centrr.
and fibrous and vascular tissue arranged in a particular
manner round it, exactly the same tissue arran^ in tix
very same manner will exist in every division of the stem.
So that except in diameter there is no essential dillerencr
between the trunk of an oak, for example, and ita nu>^
slender twig. Again, with regard to the manner in whuh
the stem, or the branches, or the twigs are surrounded with
leaves, and flowers, and fruit, it will be found upon accunte
obsen'ation, that whatever may be their disposition, or pn>-
portion, or nature in the first shoot that a germinating Hcd
shall have made, the same will be the disposition, prof«c>
tion, and nature of the shoots in all succeeding brancbcv
so that if a tree consists of a million twigs, it will consist ol
a certain arrangement of external and internal oremn«, a
million times uniformly repeated. It will be further re-
marked that the original twig, produced upon germinatioR,
sprang from a vital point, or bud, never varying in po»itu>.i.
that existed in the seed ; that the second race of iwtgs cr
shoots was generated from new vital points or buda iom.'^i
in the first shoot, and invariably in tne same position »/.'*
relation to the leaves of that shoot as the first or seroir ol
vit.al point bore to the seed leaves ; that the third fleneratmn
originated from the second exactlv as the second ttom tiie
first, and so on. A fourth observation woidd to an atteniwc
obser\'er be connected with these. It would he seen tViat a«
the development of the seed tiaok place in two opposite A^-
rections, the one upward, the otlier downward, so in \ k.*
manner did tho buus develop ; that while tho seed scm a
stem upwards to bear leaves and to generate vital pcuutv
and a root downwards, to support them, so does each I i
send upwards leaves and other buds, and downwards ro»):« .
the latter however creeping under the bark, whde ihtnc .:'
the seed creep beneath the soil.
Such observations as these cannot fail to lead to thi» tx ->
elusion, that the cause of plants bearing the most extent % .-
mutilations with impunity, in which they so espcr.. .
differ from animals, is, tlia't they are not simple, hut d :-.
pound individuals, wilh as many distinct seats of vitality
they contain buds ; and that cunsequcntly when branc . -
arc lopped off, or llowers and fruit gathered, we only >* j i-
rate from a large mass of individuals a small ])ortiun o! i . .
community, the absence of which is no more misled l»%. .
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inrodttdire of no greater inconvenience to those tlmt remein,
than the awanning of hees is to their parent hive.
It is obvious therefore that they in reality bear a close
analog to corals and polypes ; and this leads us to the
inauiry as to how plants differ from the animal •kingdom.
Ifanimals consisted only of quadrupeds, and birds, and
fishes, and vegetables were confined to trees and herbs, no
conceivable difficulty of assigning to each kingdom the roost
positive limits could be experienced. For every person
sees how wide a difference exists between the larger ani-
mals and the more conspicuous plants : the less indeed we
are accjuainted with the subject, the more easy is the task
of distinguishing them ; but to those who are acquainted
with the infinite Varieties of fbrm, structure, and nature,
which are included within these kingdoms, the limits which
divide them will be found to present one of the most difficult
problems in the philosophy of natural history.
As an ingenious Frendi physiologist has well remarked,
it is not a Question about what are the characters peculiar
to animals, but what are common to them all. We know
very well that they only have brain, ner\'es, muscles, a
heart, lungs, a stomach, and a skeleton ; that they move,
digest, respire ; that they have blood, and appear to ha%'e
sensation ; but what remains of all these characters when
we descend the long chain that they form, from the first link
to the last. Almost nothing. Lungs, glands, brain, ske-
leton, heart, arteries, blood, nerves, and muscles, succes-
sively disappear, till at last we are not sure whether we have
even a stomach left. {Isid. Bourdon, Phys. compar. p. 10.)
If a comparison is instituted between the highest form
of development in either kingdom, between a human being
and a tree, the differences are too striking to escape the
mo^t ordinary observation. We see that animals are en-
dued with sensation or perception ; that they possess loco-
rootivity, or the power of transporting themselves from place
to place ; that they live upon organic substances which their
powers of locomotion and perception enable them to select ;
that their food passes through an alimentary cavity, from
which its nutritive properties are transfused by means of
absorbent vessels into the system. Plants, on the contrary,
are destitute of all traces of a nervous system and conse-
quently of perception ; they are fixed to a particular spot
whence nothing but mechanical power can remove them ;
they are incapable of all motion, except from some internal
mechanical agency ; they subsist upon snch inor^nie mat-
ter as surrounds them, and their food is at once mtrofluced
into their system by absorption through their external sur&ce
onlv.
Vegetablea are also said to be compound beings, animals
simple beings. For illustration, whatever objections mav
be taken to such a comparison, the latter may be considered,
with Link and Blumenbach, to have only one seat of life, the
lensorium commune, and to have but one provision made
by nature tar their propagation ; the former, which are ca-
pable of reproduction by various means from various points
of their body, must have the seats of vitality as numerous as
the pnrts which are thus capable of self-perpetuation. Hence
articulations, buds either latent or developed, and seeds, are
in plants so many distinct seats of vegetable life. While
all-powerful man has but ono feeble means granted him of
perpetuating his race, millions of millions of individuals,
which in a. physiological sense are identically the same,
have been produced by the half-dozen potatoes brought to
Europe by Kalei^h, in 1584, and this without any aid from
the ordinary means which nature lias given plants for their
multiplication.
Among the distinctions between the animal and vegetable
kin<^om, that which demands the first consideration is the
dilTercnt means possessed by animals and vegetables of pro-
curing food and of imbibing nourishment. Animals have
the power of moving from place to place, and are gifted
with perception, which enables them to distinguish what is
proper for their sustenance. Thev arc also furnished with
organs of mastication, which enaole them to reduce to mi-
nute pieces very hard substances. As their food is only pro-
cured by an act of exertion on the part of the animal, and as
this exertion is not continual and uninterrupted, but only
takes place at intervals of time, they are also provided with
an internal reservoir in which the food that is so procured is
deposited ; from this rcservoirt called the stomach, the ab-
sorbent vessels conduct the elaborable parts into the system,
while the solid useless parts are rejected : animals therefore
ve nourished by internal absorption. Vegetables which are
continually rooted to the same spot, which have no power
of roaming from place to place in search of aliment, which
have no capability of distinguishing between the useful
and the hurtful, the wholesome and the poisonous, but
wbich are compelled to derive their support from such
matter as chance taay place immediately and continually
in contact with them, and which therefore experience no
cessation to the supply of fbod, are not provided by nature
with organs of mastication. The want of Uiese organs
renders a stomach unnecessary ; internal absorption or in-
tussusception of nutriment cannot take place ; and we ac-
cordingly find that their existence is sustained not by an
uncertain periodical introduction of food into an internal
ca^ity, but by the perpetual absorption of food from the
matter perpetually about them, through pores of their
surface too fine for hnman perception. Nothing therefore
which requires to be divided by mechanical force, nothing
which needs to be altered in its texture or substance before
it can be used, or to 60 digested, nothing which has to be
sought for, nothing in short but matter which is so delicate
as to pass through perforations, which the human senses,
aided by the most powerful microscopes cannot distinguish,
is fitted for the support of plants ; and no inorganic matter
exists which answers to this description, but water or air, or
substances held in solution by these two elements, and
such in fact are the materials by which vegetables are sup-
ported.
As in animals, nourishment is derived from their centre,
so it £)llows that all their absorbent vessels have a direction
towards that centre ; and for the same reason, as in plants,
nutrition is communicated from the outside, so is it in that
direction that all the absorbent vessels of tho vegetable are
directed. The oonsequence of these two laws is, that while
a term is prescribed to the growth of the most perfect ani-
mals, no limit seems to be fixed for that of the most perfect
vegetables. The former perish as soon as their original ves-
sels become incapable of performing their functions ; the
latter endure until the power 'of forming new vessels shall
cease. The period to the former is fixed, to the latter un-
limited. Hence an eloquent French writer has ingeniously
said, that animals die of old age or accidents, vegetables of
accidents alone. Hence also the incredible age to which
certain trees arrive. The cedars of Mount Lebanon are said
to be of an antiquity far beyond all history ; and it has been
calculated by a French botanist, from actqal inspection, that
the age of the baobab trees of Senegal must have exceeded
6000 years. These are the most decided differences between
animal and vegetable life, and are almost without exception.
Some plants, indeed, having onlv an annual or biennial ex-
istence, have a term fixed to their lives, just as animals
have, but no plants can be pointed out in which nourish-
ment does not take place from the outside. When we de-
scend in the scale of being, when we arrive at those limits
of the world where life first arises out of death, in which
sensation is indistinguishable, and from which the two king-
doms seem to diverge as from a common point, even there
we find the polypes, which are so simple in their structure
that they may be turned inside out like a glove, always con-
forming to this law. Zoologists assure us that they still
absorb Arom the inside even when that part of the body
which was once the outside has to perform the duties of a
stomach.
But with this exception we know of no absolute external
distinction which has yet been discovered between animals
and vegetables. The ingenious idea of Mirbel, that animals
live upon organic, vegetables upon inorganic matter, must,
as respects the infusorial animalculm, be a purely hypo-
thetical difference, and in more perfect animals is not true,
as has been shown by Mr. William MaeLeay, who asserts
that ' many animals of the lower tribes, and some Hetero-
merous Coleoptera, have been observed to feed upon in-
organic matter.* (Mora Bntcmologie^t ii. 193.)
If we now reconsider the observations which have just
been made, and endeavour to see to what the distinction of
animals and vegetables is really reducible, we shall find that
it consists in animals being organic beings, possessed of
sensation and locomotion, and sustained bv the absorntion
of nutriment through an internal canal, while plants have
no sensation or locomotion, and are nourished by absorption
through their cuticle. But how are we to apply these dis-
tinctions to the lower ordere of created beings ? Among
these we find productions, which it is impossible, by the
characters now assigned, to refer with any ezactneu either
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to the one kingdom or the other. A drop of water and a
little brown or green slime from a ditch will often afford
abundant evidence of the accuracv of this remark.
If we place a drop of water and a few fragments of con-
fervce under a microscope, we shall probably discover an
abundance of little bodies shaped like a weaver's shuttle,
transparent at the extremities and in the middle, with two
or four semi-opaque brownish cavities in thei^ inside : these
bodies have a sort of starting motion, very distinct and con-
tinued, but they do not seem capable of turning on either
axis ; nor is any motion of contraction visible ; tney vary in
length, according to De Blainville(I>fcr.rfe# &. Nat, 34, 367),
from the five-hundredth to the hundredth of a line, and
when full grown exceed these dimensions considerably. By
Miiller, a standard writer upon infusorial animalcule^, they
are considered animals, and referred to his genus Vibrio,
part of which consists of bodies of an undoubted animal
nature. By modem observers they have been named Navi-
cula. When young they are attached to confery© by a
stalk so delicate as to bo almost invisible with the aid of the
most perfect microscopes, and during this period they have,
accoraing to M. Bory do St. Vincent, no visible motion
whatever ; but when the Navicula is fully foimed it sepa-
rates from the plant on which it grew, swimming and start-
ing about in the water in the way described. Are such
productions animal or vegetable ? W i^l young they are
motionless and vegetable like a minute plant; when^fuU
grown they acquire the movement of animals. Perhaps one
may sav they are the latter, and compare their vegetating
state when young to that of the Polype, called Vorticella, an
undoubted animal, if rapid and varied motion can make it so.
Among confervQB in ditches are often found little frag-
ments of organized bodies ; some like ribbands, separable
completely into numberless narrow transverse poiiions,
others dividing partially at their articulations, but ad-
hering at their angles like chains of square transparent
cases. These enter the genera called by naturalistj Dia-
toma, Fragiiaria, Exilaria, Achnanthes. Are they animals
or plants ? When combined they are motionless^ with
all the appearance of confi^voo, their transparent joints
filled with the ^reen reproductive matter of such plants ;
but when they disarticulate, their senarate portions have a
distinct sliding or starting motion. Snail we call them, with
M. Gaillon, chains of animals assembled in a voluntary cap-
tivity which no one has seen them assume ; or shall we not
be rather iustifled in viewing them as links between the
animal and vegetable kingdoms, and endowed with the cha-
racters of both.
Conferva mutabilis, or Drapamaldia, is a plant-like body,
which, according to Messrs. Mortens and Gaillon, is some-
times an animal, sometimes a planL The former says tliat
he has frequently seen it undergo its transformation, parti-
cularly in August, 1822. On the 3rd of that month he
showed it to a great number of persons in a state of plant ;
on the 5th it had disarticulated into portions distinctly mov-
ing in water, which on the 6th began again to unite, and on
the 1 0th became finally combined into their primitive state
of conferva. {Diet, des Sc, Nat., 84. 373.)
It perhaps may |l)e said that the instances yet siven are
not at variance with the distinction of animals and ve^ta-
bles by their power of niotion ; and that as they are all mert
when in their most perfect state, their giving birth to moving
bodies does not make them animals any more than the pro»
(luction of motionless eggs by birds, reptiles, and mollusca
makes them vegetables.
In which kingdom then are we to station the curious Poly-
physa, a most undoubted polyp, according to Lamouroux,
Leroan, and De Blainville ; an equally certain plant if we
are to believe Turner, Agardh. and Gaudichaud, the last of
whom found it living, and describes it thus. It grows in thick
tufts to the shells which are thrown ashore u{k>n the barren
coast of Shark's Bay in New Holland. Bach individual
consists of a fistular, capillary, greenish stalk, about an inck
or an inch and a half long, expanding at the base into a
sort of root-like claw, by which it is fixed. At the end it
bears from fifteen to eighteen sacs, which are entire, rounded
at the end, and slightly attenuated to the base ; each con-
tains a multitude of little round green globules, which
finally expand and break through the thin case in which
they are included. They are filled with a green unctuous
matter, and the colour of the parent body is entirely due to
their presence, for when they have all escaped fxom their
sacs, the mother body is perfectly coioorless.
To which kingdom are we to refer the beautifhl 9i\'
macis and all the tribe by some botanists called Con'V*!^ -c-
conjugata, or Zygncmas, which Messrs. Gaillon and U*
Blainville assert to be of animal nature, but whirh trr- •
like vegetables, from which they are undistinguishablc \ .
external characters. They are transparent tutiet, havn ^
distinct articulations and transverse partitions, the ca%- ^
being filled with brilliant green spherules arranged with the
most beautiful symmetry in one or more spires, whu t .
separating at a certain period of their existence, and pa-isrir;
through the sides of the tube, develop in the form of m -r
tubes exactly like their parent. When in a perfect stat^
the contiguous tubes or filaments unite in a manner c'>ns •
plctely animal in appearan**?, uniting at one period, sept-
rating at another, and finally combining themselves intn
a single and uniform being.
Lastly, where are we to place the oscillating ronfrrr*.
those sltme-like masses which cover the earth in damp and
shady places, or form mucous patches amone the eonfbr^a>
and polypes of stagnant water, or appear under the form o(
a ricn carmine stain, borderea with resplendent violet and
blue, on the surfat^ of hot springs, iti all parts of the world ;
productions which, according to the speculations of an inee-
nious Swedish naturalist, , have once postessed an aniro-xl
lifb, of which they now only Iretain the appeanncc. Thw-
osciilatoKas eonsUt of articulated tubes filled with irre^
granules, and grow and increase like coilfertn, and the rr-
productive particles to ^hich they give birth have tio mo-
tioU that is apparent. But the tubes themselves haie a
writhing, twisting, undulating, creeping, distinctly animil
motion, which it is impossible to mistake; they are tnon
active in warm than in cold weather, and in the latter cii
be excited to action by the application of warmth. WV'M
chemically examined, they have been fbund to exhibit mar t
of the characters peculiar to the animal kingdom; a<<(i
when burnt, yield a carbon of the most fetid odoitr, exactly
reseinbling that of decaying animal substances.
Such are a few of the difficulties which that naturalist b ><
to overcome who would fix the limits between the anma]
and vegetable kingdoms, tt is clear that the power oi
voluntary motion exists in belrlgs having a distinetly Trea-
table structure, both in the most perfbct state and In a sti'.«
of disintegration; that the absorption of nutnmcat lh>m
the inside in the one family, and from thb outside in the
other, is a character not appreciable iti tfuch ereatarcs a& the
monads, and the vivifying animalcules of flowering ptantt
and, finally, that chemicad differences dre destroyed by acj
baina and oscillatorias. In this difficulty shall we admit,
with M. Bory de St. Vincent, a new kingdom ifcitermoLatr
between animals and plants, characterized as ronsisttnsr "f
insensible individuals, that develop and increase in tl»
manner of vegetables, np to the period when they sepm'e
into animated germs oi* t-eproductive (Vagments ; or «hj!l
not we rather consider the absence of all exact limits l»--
tween animal and vegetable nature as a striking proof ••!
the l)eautiful harmony of nature, and of that unity of pur-
pose which is so visible in all the wdrks of the Creator: s.«
an evidence that all the forms of life are but assemblajtH
in insensible gradation of the same living matter diilbrenih
combined by the great Spirit that pervades all matter ac<i
all space ?
II. In treating of the history of this science, we hate n •
intention of entering upon details which can only interv^t
the systematical botanist, or of criticising every step which
its followers may have taken; but, on the contnry, we shall
confine ourselves to a mere sketch of the progress thai ba»
been made in elucidating the great principles by which its
rank as a branch of philosophy is to he determined.
It is obvious from various passages in the moat antie**.t
writers, that the art of distinguishing certain plants ba«-:nc
medical vutues was taught at the earliest period of whir h
we have any w^tten record; and that (hfe cultivation •:?
something more than corn was already undentood in iht
Homeric days is sufficiently attested by the refemcei t»
the vineyards of Laertes and the gardens of AJeinqna. ii> 1
by the employment assigned to Lycaon, the son ef Priioi.
of pruning figs in his father's garden.
The earliest tangible evidence that we possessor the n*.l
state of knowledge upon this subject is afforded by the re-
mains of the writings of Aristotle and his school. Ttom t f
absurd superstitions of the root-cutters {rhizotnmi} of ti *
period it might be imagined that at this time botany wa% Ur
from having any real existence ; Ibirlt is to them that vc
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\wn to tr^oe the belief in the neeessi^ of magical oexemoniea
and personal purification or preparation in collecting herbs ;
some sorts, they tell us, are to be cut against the wind, others
afler the body of the rhizotomisthas been veil oiled, some at
night some by day. Alliaceous food was a necessary prepara-
tion for procuring this herb, a draught of wine for that, and
so on. But in fact at this very time the Peripatetic philoso-
phers were in possession of a considerable mass of correct
information concernine the nature of vegetable life, mixed
up indeed with much that was fanciful and hypothetical,
but calculated to give us a high opinion of their acuteness
and of the amount of positive knowledge upon such sub-
jects which bad by that time been collected. It is by this
school that botany must be considered to have been first
formed into a science. Aristotle, in all probability, was its
founder ; for it is obvious from the remarks upon plants
scattered through his books concerning animus, that his
knowledge of vegetable physiology was, for his day, of a
most remarkable kind. But as the books immediately con-
cerning plants ascribed to this philosopher are undoubted
forgeries, it will be more convenient to take the works of
Tbeophrastus as our principal guide to a determination of
the state of botany at the commencement of this —
T^tf First J?ra.— At the time when Theojjhrastus suc-
ceeded to the chair of AristoUe (b.c. 324) no idea seems to
have existed of classification, nor indeed was its necessity by
any means apparent, for Tbeophrastus does not appear to
have been acquainted with above 355 plants in all. In the
application of their names, even to these, there was so much
uncertainty that the labours of commentators must be to a
great extent bestowed in vain in endeavouring to elucidate
them : for instance, Sprengel asserts that the name Aphake
is applied indifferently to the dandelion and to a kind of vetch
{Lathyrus aphaca), and Scorpios to a species of broom, to
Arnica scorpioidest and to a kind of ranunculus. 9ut while
Tbeophrastus was thus careless in his denominations of spe-
cies, he has the great credit of having iittended aoeurately
to diflbrenees in tne organs of plants, to some of which he
gave new and speoiu names ; the form of leaves, their
margin, the manner of their indentation, and the nature of
the leafstalk, especially attracted his attention. He distin-
guished naked-seeded from capsular plants, and he demon-
strated the absence of all phflosophical distinction between
trees, shrubs, and herbs, for he saw that myrtle-trees would
degenerate into shrubs, and certain oleraceous plants be-
come arborescent Cellular tissue is spoken of as a sort of
fiesh interposed between the woody tissue or vegetable fibre ;
and even spiral vessels ^pear to be indicated under the name
of ines (7y<() : leaves are correctly said to have their veins
composed both of woody tissue and spiral vessels, and the
parallelism of the veins of grasses is particularly pointed
out; palm-vrood ia shown to be extremely different from
that of trees with concentric layers ; bark is correctly di-
vided into liber and cortical integument, and the loss of the
former is said to be usu^ly destructive of life. The nutri-
tive properties of leaves are dearly pointed out, and the
power wnich both surfaces possess of absorbing atmospheric
nourishment. Some notion appears to have existed of the
sexes of plants, contrary to the opinion of AristoUe, who
denied them to the vegetable kingdom ; in particular Tbeo-
phrastus speaks of the necessity of bringing the male dates
mto contact with the females, a fact which had been stated
quite as clearly by Herodotus (i. 193) 100 years before ; but
it is plain that he had no correct idea upon this suMect,
for in another place he compares the male catkins of the
hazel to the galls of the Kermes oak.
These points are abundantly sufficient to show that among
the Peripatetics a considerable amount of tolerably exact
knowledge of botany really existed, and that a solid foun-
dation had been laid for their suocessors.
And in fact it appears that the impulse they gave to in-
vestigation did for some considerable time afterwards pro-
duce a perceptible effect ; for by the time of Pliny it is
evident that a considerable addition had been made to the
stock of botanical knowledge. It is true that it was much
diaiigured by the poets, who then, as now. appear to have
had only a smattering of the science of their day ; but it is
incredible that Uiey should have been able to ^lean that
•mattering out of any other field than a very rich one. For
<^xample, the sexuality of plants, which .Aristotle had de-
nied, which Tbeophrastus nad adverted to, is spoken of in
poftitive terms ; grafting, in more ways than one, and even
budding, are spoken of in language which is remarkably
precise for tbe words of a poet; and although to thesa
operations were attributed powers which they £d not pos-
sess, yet it is abundantly plain that the processes wero
thoroughly understood. The
ABfustui in Ipso
Fit nodo ilniu; hue alieda ez orbore ffem«tt
loelttdant'ttdoqae docent inokscara libra.
is as correct a description of the operation called budding as,
any modem could give in so many words ; and it is impos-
sible that such an operation should ever have been devised
without a much more large and accurate knowledge of
vegetable physiology than it is generally believed that tb^
antients possessed.
From this time forward all inquiry into matters of science
began to decline ; under the later Roman emperors science
became gradually extinguished ; under the Byzantine princes
it can scarcely be said to have been preserved, and the little
attention it subsequently received fit)m a few obscure writers
rather hastened than arrested its downfall.
Upon the revival of science in Europe the writings
of the classical and Arabian herbalists were taken as the
text-books of the schools, but their errors were multiplied
by false translations, their superstitions were admitted with-
out question, and so little was added by the monkish authors.
that between the time of Ebn Beithar, who flourished in the
thirteenth century, and the vear 1532, when the Herbarum
viv€e eicones Of Otho Brunsfels, a Bernese physician, made
their appearance, scarcely a single addition nad been made
to the slender stock of knowledge of about 1400 species,
which are computed by Sprengel to have formed the total
amount discovered by all Dotanists, Greek, Roman, and
Arabian, up to the death of Abdallatif of Bagdad. Bruns-
fels describes the state of botany as being in his day most
deplorable, as being principallv in the hands of the most
ignorant persons^ and as consisting of a farrago of long and
idle comn^entanes, disfigured *by myriads of barbarous,
obsolete, and ridiculous names.* He deserves to be men-
tioned aa the first reformer in this science, and as the ear-
liest writer who eajmestlv endeavoured to purify the cor-
rupted streams which had flowed through so many ages of
barbarism from the antient Greek and Roman fountains.
His example was speedily fbllowed by Tragus, Fuchsius,
Matthiolus, and others ; the knowledge of species rapidly
augmented} partly by the examination of indigenous plants
and partlv by the remarks of the earlier travellers, who about
the year 1460 begfin to turn their attention to the vegetable
kingdou) ; till at last their abundance became so great as to
call for the assistance of compilers capohle of digesting what
and already begun to be scattered through numberless works.
The first undertaking of the kind was by Conrad Gesner, a
native of Ziirich, who died in the year 1565. This excel-
lent man spent the latter part of his life in collecting
materials for a general history of plants ; he is stated to
have caused above 1500 drawings to be prepared for the
illustration of his undertaking, but, unfortunately, he died
before his project was executed, and his materials were
afterwards dispersed. He appears however to have brought
about one most im|K>rtant change in science, by discovering
that the distinctions and true nature of plants were to be
sought in their organs of reproduction rather than jn those
of nutrition. This was assuredly the first step that had
been taken forward in the science since the fall of the Ro-
man Empire, and is abundant evidence of the great supe-
riority of Gesner over all those who hc^ preceded him.
From this time collections of species were made by nume-
rous writers; our countryman Turner, Dodoens, Lobel,
Clusius, CsBsalpinus, and the Bauhins, were the most dis-
tinguished writers between the yearn 1550 and 1600 ; and
among them the namber of known species was so exceed-
ingly Increased, especially by the discoveries of Clusius,
that it became impossible to reduee them into any order
without the adoption of some principle ol classification.
Hence originated the first attempte 9Li9ysieinaiieal arrange-
ment, with which commences _
ne Second ^ra.— It is to Matthew Lobel. a Dutch phy-
sician residing in England in the time of Elizabeth, that
the honour is to be ascribed of having been the first to
strike out a method by which plants could be so arranged
that those which are most alike should be placed next to
each other, or in other words which should bo an expression
of their natural relations. As may be supposed, this early
attempt at the discovery of a natural system was exceed-
ingly rude and imperfect; it is however remarkable for
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having comprehended several combinations which are re*
cognized at the present day : Cucurbitacea, SteUatte, Gra-
minea, Labiatte, Boraginete, Legundnotm, Filiees, were all
distinctly indicated ; and it may be added that under the
name of Asphodels he grouped the princioal part of modern
petaloid monocotyledons. The reasons however why such
groups were constituted were not then susceptible of defini-
5on ; the true principles of classification had to be elicited by
the long and patient study of succeeding ages. Among
the foremost to take up this important subject was Cfosal-
pinust a Roman physician attached to the court of Pope
Sixtus V. This naturalist possessed a degree of insight
into the science far beyond that of his age, and U memo-
rable for the justness with which he appreciated many of the
less obvious circumstances which his predecessors had over-
looked. For example, he was aware of the circulation of
the sap ; he believed that its ascent from the roots wus
caused by heat ; he knew that leaves are cortical expan-
sions traversed by veins, proceeding hi part from the liber ;
he estimated the pith of plants at its true value, and seeds
he compared to eggs, in which there exists a vital principle
without hfe ; but he denied the existence of sexes in the
vegetable kingdom. Improving upon the views of Gesner,
he showed how great is tlie value of the fructification in
systematic botany ; the (lower he said was nothing but the
wrapper of the fruit ; the essential part of the seed he con-
sidered to be what is called the corculum, that is the double
cone of plumule and radicle which connects the cotyledons.
In general his views of vegetable physiology were much
more just than those of his predecessors, and if he did not
avoid the error of supposing certain plants to be mere abor-
tions of more perfect species, as many grasses of com, he
amply redeemed his fame by the correction of other mis-
takes. From differences in the fruit and the seed of plants,
he formed a system which, though purely artificial, and
never much employed, had the merit of calling attention
strongly to the existence of a class of important characters
which had previously been either overlooked or undervalued.
But notwithstanding the attempts thus made by a few
distinguished men to elevate the science to a higher sta-
tion, and to reduce it to some general principles, it still con-
tinued to languish and to remain for the most part in the
hands of the most ignorant pretenders, and in no country
more so than in England. We find, upon the authority of
the celebrated Ray, that in this country in the middle of
the seventeenth century it was in the most lamentable state.
At that time the standard book of English botanists was a
publication called Gerarde's * Herbal,* which was, as Ray tells
us, the production of a man almost entuely ignorant of the
learned languages, in which nevertheless all books on science
were at that time written. The principal part of the work
was pirated from the * Pemptades ' of Dodoens, turned into
English by one Priest, and, in order to conceal the plunder,
the arrangement of Dodoens was exchanged for that of
Lobel, whue the whole was made up with the wood-blocks
of TabemsBmontanus' Kriiuterbuch, often unskilfully trans-
posed and confounded. At last a change, as sudden as it
was important, was produced in the science by the applica-
tion of the microscope to botanical purposes.
Tha Third Ji^ro.— About the middle of the seventeenth
centunr this instrument was firs^ employed in the examina-
tion of the elemenbiry organs of plants, about which no-
thing had been previously learned since the time of Theo-
phrastus. The discovery of spiral vessels by Henshaw in
1661, the examination of the cellular tissue by Hook at a
somewhat later date, at once excited the attention of ob-
•ervers, and led at nearly the same time to the appearance
of two works upon vegetable anatomy, which at once so
nearly exhausted the subject, that it can scarcely be said to
have again advanced till the beginning of the present cen-
tury. Grew and Malpighi, the writers thus adverted to,
but more especially the former, combined with rare powers
of observation a degree of patience which few men have ever
possessed. They each examined the anatomy of vegetation
in its minutest details, the former principally in the abstract,
the latter more comparatively wilh the animal kingdom.
Various forms of cellular tissue, inter-cellular passages, spi-
ral vessels, woody tubes, ducu, the nature of hairs, the true
ftnicture of wood, were made at once familiar to the bo-
tanist ; the real nature of sexes in plants was demonstrated ;
and it is quite surprising to look back on those days from
the present high ground on which botany has taken its
ttaadf and to tee how little the views of Grew at least have
subsequently required correction. From him phyiioloicv*il
botany, properly speaking, took its origin. Clear and di*-
tinct ideas of the true causes of vegetable phenomena ;:»•
dually arose out of a consideration of the physical prupertie*
of the minute parts through whose combined action tncry arc
brought about; and a solid foundation was laid fur the
theories of vegetation which subse<)uent botanists have pro-
pounded : to Grew may also be ascribed the honour of haviu;;
first pointed out the important difference between secd%
with one cotyledon, and those with two, and of having thtt»
been the discoverer of the two great natural clasae^ into
which the tiowering part of the vegetable kingdom is now
divided. Grew, however, was no systematist; it was re-
sensed for another Englishman to discover the true pnc-
ciples of classification, and thus to commence
The Fourth JSra,^ John Ray, a man of a capacious mu)d,
of singular powers of observation, and of extensive Icamiu:;.
driven from his collegiate employments by the infamoua com-
mands of a profligate prince, sought consolation in the study
of natural historv, to which he had been attached from hu
youth. Botany he found was fast settling back ioto tlm
chaos of the middle ages, partly beneath the weight of un-
digested materials, but more from the want of some fixed
principles by which the knowledge of the day should be
methodized. Profiting by the discoveries of Grew and the
other vci^etable anatomists, to which he added a great storv
of original observation, he in his * Historia Plantarum,' !l.c
first volume of which appeared in 1686, embodied in one
connected series all the facts that had been collected oun-
ceming the structure and functions of plants : to these he
added an exposition of what he considered the philwoplij
of classification, as indicated partly by human reason, nA
partly by ex])ericnce ; and from the whole he doluccU a
classification which is unquestionably the basis of thsit which,
under the name of the system of Jussicu, is every where zr-
cognized at the present day. For proofs of this, we refer
our readers to Uie memoir of Rav in the present work : «e
will only observe in this place that he separated floweruis:
from flowerless plants ; that he divided the former into mo^
nocotyledons and dicotyledons, and that under these three
heads he arranged a considerable number of groups, pan 15
his own, partly taken from Loliel and others ; which ai^
substantially the same as what are received by botanists v(
the present day under the name of natural ordera. Ic u
singular enough that the merits of this artans^meut of
John Ray should have been so little appreciated by L«s
contemporaries and immediate successont, as to ha\e been
but little adopted ; and that, instead of endeavourinjt to cor-
rect its errors and to remove its imperfections, boUtii»u
occupied themselves for several suc^^ediiig yearn in attcuipu
at discovering other systems, the greater part of which vers
abandoned almost as soon as they were made knovu
Rivinus, Magnol, Toumefoit, and Linnieus were the mc^i
celebrated of these writers ; but the two last alone have baJ
any permanent reputation. Tournefort, who for a long tiiae
stood at the head of the French school of botany, propc^cd
in 1694, a method of arrangement, in its principle* entircli
artificial, but which in some cases was accidentally in ac-
cordance with natural affinities. It was founded clurfl%
upon diflferences in the corolla, without the shgbtest iv^
ference to physiological pecuUarities ; and is now forguttcti,
except in consequence of its having furnished some uac/ul
ideas to Jussieu, as will be hereafter shown.
The Fifth Mr a. — Linnieus was a genius of a diiferent and
a higher order. Educated in the severe school of adversity,
accustomed from his earliest youth to estimate higher than
all other things verbal accuracy and a logical preri*kiO.
which are often most seductive when least applicable ; m*
dowed by nature with a most brilliant under»tanding, and
capable, from constitutional strength, of any fatigue cithrr
of mind or body, this extraordinary man was destined *4U
produce a revolution in botany, among other brancbe* «if
natural history, which in some respects advanced and in
othera retarded its' progress far more than (he acta of anv
one who had preceded him. He found the phraseology VaiI*
and ho improved it; the nomenclature was awkward and ic-
convenient, he simplified it ; the distinctions of geoerm axul
species, however much the former had been improwd b«
Tournefort, were vague and too often empirical ; he defin«*l
them with an apparent rigour, which the world thought au
rairable, but which Nature spurned ; he found thecia*5tfica-
tions of his day so vague and uncertain, that no two perMK«*
wero agreed as to their value, and fof4bem he subatiuited a
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irheme of the most specious aspect, in which all things
feemed ss clearly circumscribed by rule and line as the
fields in the map of an estate ; he fancied ho had gained
the mutery over nature, that he had discovered a mighty
spoil that would bind her down to be dissected and anato-
mised, and the world believed him ; in short, he seiied upon
all the wardrobe of creation, and his followers never doubted
that the bodiless puppets which he set in action were really
(he divine soul and essence of the organic world. Such was
Linnssns ; the mighty spirit of his day. Let us do this great
man that justice which exaggeration on the one hand, and
detraction on the other, have too often refused to him ; and
let us view his character soberly and without prejudice. We
shall then admit that no naturalist has ever been his supe-
rior ; and that he richly merited that high station in science
which he held for so many years. His verbal accuracy,
upon which his fame greatly depends, together with the re-
markable terseness of his technical language, reduced the
crude matter that was stored up in the folios of his predeces-
sors into a form that was accessible to all men. He sepa-
rated with singular skill the important from the unimportant
in their descriptions. He arrayed their endless synonyms
with a patience and lucid order that were quite inimitable.
By requiring all species to be capable of a rigorous defini-
tion not exceeding twelve words, he purified botany of the
endless varieties of the gardeners and herbalists ; by apply-
in*^ the same strict principles to genera, and reducing every
eharacter to its differential terms, he got rid of all the cum-
brous descriptions of the old writers. Finally, by the inven-
tion of an artificial system, every division of which was de-
fined in the most rigorous manner, he was able so to classify
alt the materials thus purified and simplified, that it seemed
ss it every one could become a botanist without more pre-
vious study than would be required to learn how to discover
words in a dictionary. Add to all this, the liveliness of his
imagination, the skill with which he applied his botanical
knowledge to practical objects, and the ingenuity he showed
in tumin;^ to the purposes of his classification the newly-
discovered sexes of plants, and we shall at once comprehend
what it was that exalted Linneeus so far above his contem-
poraries. But great as the impulse undoubtedly was which
LinnsDus ffave to botany, there were vices in his principles
which, altnough overlooked during his life, have subse-
Qoently been productive of infinite evil. There is no such
thing as a rigorous definition in natural history ; this fact
Ray had demonstrated to arise out of the very nature of
things ; and consequently the short phrases by which spe-
cies and genera were characterized by Linnsus were found
equally applicable to many other plants besides those for
which they were intended : hence arose a new source of con-
cision, inferior only to that which it was intended to correct
Differential characters, which would be invaluable if we had
sll nature before us, were found in practice to lead to inces-
sant errors, so soon as some new species was introduced into
the calculation : they also laboured under the great fault
of conveying^ no idea whatever of the general nature of the
plants to which they related : thus the Portuguese botanist
Jxureiro, who attempted to determine the plants of China
by the systematic writings of linnffius fell into the singular
error that the hydrangea was a primrose. With regard to
his artificial system St classification, it was found that it
looked better in the closet than in the field ; that the neat-
ness and accuracy of the distinctions upon which it was di-
rided into groups existed only upon paper, and that excep-
tions without end encumbered it at every turn. This, which
is periiaps inseparable from all systematic arrangements,
would not have been felt as so great an evil, if there had
been any secondary characterv by which the primary ones
could be checked, or if the svstem had' really led with all its
difiicuUics to a knowledge of things. But it was impossible
not to perceive that it led in reality to litde more than a
knowledge of names, and that it could be looked upon as
nothing beyond an index of genera and species. Let us
repeat, however, that these objections were of little weight
in the time of linnsBus ; the force of many of them was
hardly felt, when scarcely a twelfth part of the species now
known to exist was upon record ; and the world was natu-
nlly inclined to embrace with ardour the clearness and pre-
cision of the Liiinean language, notwithstanding all its
faults, in exchange for the cumbrous, \ague, or unmethod-
ical descriptions of those who preceded it. The great
tyJX that has arisen out of the system of Linnseus has hecn
this : that it has led to the formation of a large school of
No. 303.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
superficial botanists ; of men who supposed that nomen-
clature and verbal criticism constitute the whole objects of
the science ; who have been distinguished more for their
total neglect of everything beyond mere technicalities, than
the old botanists for their disregard of the latter ; who have
had no general views, and apparently no power of applying
their means to any mtelligible end, and who, consequently,
in the countries where they have flourished, have so far
lessened the science in public estimation, and done as much
to retard its progress as LinnflDUs did to advance it.
The maxims however of Ray, and the great general views
of that illustrious naturaUst, were destin^ not to fade even
before the meteoric brilliancy that surrounded the throne of
Linnaeus. A French botanist, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu,
soon entered the field to oppose the latter. In the year 1789*
just eleven years after the death of Linnseus, he produced,
under the name of * Genera Plantarum,* an arrangement
of plants according to their natural relations, in which
the principles of the great English botanist are tacitly ad-
mitted, and his fundamental divisions adopted in oombi-
nation in part with those of Tournefort, and in part with what
are peculiar to the author himself. Jussieu possessed in a
happier degree than any man that has succeeded him the
art of adapting the simplicity and accuracy of the language
of LinnsBus to the exigencies of science, without encumber-
ing himself with its pedantry. He knew the impossibility ■
of employing anjr single characters to distinguish objects
so variable in their nature as plants ; and he clearly saw to
what evils all artificial systems must of necessity give rise.
Without pretending then to the concisenesa of Linnssus in
forming his generic characters, he rendered them as brief as
was consistent with clearness ; without peremptorily exclud-
ing all distinctions not derived from the fructification,
he nevertheless made the latter the essential consider-
ation ; instead of defining his classes and orders by a few
artificial marks, he formed them from a view of all
the most essential parts of structure; and thus he col-
lected under the same divisions all those plants which are
most nearly allied to each other. Hence while a knowledge
of one plant does not by any means lead to that of another
in the system of Linnoeus, it leads directly to the knowledge
of many more in the classification of Jussieu ; which has
accordingly gained the name of the natural system. This
at once brought the science back to a healthy state; it
demonstrated the possibility of reducing the characters of
natural groups to words, contrary to the opinion of Linnaeus,
who found tnat task altogether beyond his powers ; it did
away with the necessity of artificial arrangements, and
giving a death-blow to verbal botany, it laid the foundation
of that beautiful but still imperfect superstructure, which
has been erected by the labours of Brown, De Candolle,
and others. If the system of Jussieu were not a return
to that of Ray, modified only and improved by modem dis-
coveries, we should certainly have taken this period for the
commencement of
The fixth and latest €tra in our science. But it was
reserved for a man whose fame lies chiefly in the literary
world to effect the last great revolution that the ideas of
botanists have undergone. In 1790, one year after the
appearance of Jussieu s Genera Plantarum, the German poet
Gothe published a pamphlet called ' The Metamorphosis
of PlanU.* At that time the various organs of which
plants consist had been pretty well ascertained, the dis-
tinctions between the leaf, the calyx, the corolla, the
stamens, and the pistil, were in a great measure understood,
and the botanists were not a few who fancied there was
nothing more to learn* about them. Nevertheless even
in tho time of Tbeophrastus a notion had existed that
certain forms of leaves were mere modifications of others
that appeared very difierent, as the angular leaves in
croton of the round cotyledons or seminal leaves of that
plant Linnaeus himself had entertained the opinion that
all the parts of a flower are mere modifications of leaves
whose period of development is anticipated (prolewii plan-
tarum) ; Ludwig in 1757, and more especially Wolff in
1 768, had stated in express terms that all the organs of
plants are reducible to the axis and its appendages, of the
latter of which the leaf is to be taken as the universal type.
But tlie theory of Linnaeus was fanciful ; Ludwig was a
writer of too little authority in his day to succeed m esta-
blishing a doctrine so much at variance with received
opinions ; and the theory of Wolff was propounded in a
paper upon the formation of the intestines in animab, which
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aectna altogether to have escaped the observation of boto*
nists. Entirely unacquainted with the writings of the two
latter naturalists, hut aware of the Prolepsis Plantarum of
Linnnus, Gbthe took up this important theory, and demon-
strated that all those organs to which so many diflferent
names were applied, and which, in fact, have so many dis-
similar functions to perform, were all modifications of one
common type— the leaf ; that the braet is a contracted leaf,
the calyx a combination of several, the corolla a union of
several more in a coloured state, the stamens contracted
and coloured leaves with their parenchyma in a state of
disintegration* and the pistil another arrangement of leaves
rolled up and combined according to certain invariable laws.
All this he stated in such clear and precise terms, the
arguments upon which he supported his propositions were
so simple ana so just, and the whole doctrine was explained
in language so sober and philosophical, that the mere cir-
cumstance of its not having been immediately received all
over the scientific world shows in the clearest light how
baneful the inttuence of Linnean botany had already be-
come ; for this beautiful theory, which is the very corner-
stone of structural botany, and which is now on all hands
admitted to bo unassailable, was treated as the idle dream
of a poet, and neglected for above twenty years. It has
however wrought a change in the ideas of mankind re-
garding the nature of plants which has already produced
the most important results by banishing fW>m the science
the complicated and unintelligible distinctions and descrip-
tions with which botany was formerly encumbered, by fixing
the manifold combinations of the organs of plants at their
true value, and by introducing more just ideas of vegetable
physiology.
Here we must bring our sketch of the history of botany
to a close. There is no longer any great discovery to an-
nounce as having produced a sudden and universal chancre
in the science ; its general principles are apparently well
understood, and all that botanists of the present century
have been able to do has been to work out tbose principles
in detail, to substantiate or modify them by isolated obser^
vations, to combine into one consistent whole the multitude
of species whose attributes are as numerous as themselves,
and gradually to reduce into lucid order the seemingly dis-
cordant materials which constitute the vegetable kingdom.
The rapidity with which this has been effecting of late
years has been in proportion to the disappearance of the
Linnean school; wnere the system of Linnoeus has con-
tinued to prevail, as in Sweden, Spain, Portugal, and Italy,
progress has been the slowest ; where it has only maintained
a doubtful struggle with the principles of Ray, as in Grermany
and England, advance has been more rapid ; but it has only
heen in France, in which the doctrines of Linneeus never
could take root, that the march of discovery has been
steady and uninterrupted. At the present moment Great
Britam, Germany, and France are m the same position ;
they are all freed from the prejudices of the Swedish school,
and are proceeding with equal steps, all guided by the
same sound and recognized principles.
The ugefiU purpose* to which botany is applied are so
numerous, that we can only find room for a short expla-
nation of the most remarkable. Agriculture and horti-
culture are the two arts with which its relation is the
most obvious ; for although a considerable part of all the
practices in each of them grew out of mere experience,
or was discovered by chance, yet there is no possibility of
improving them except by other fortunate accidents, or of
advancing them at a more rapid rate unless by the appli-
cation of vegetable physiology. The world, especially that
pare of it to which these arts belong, is little accustomed to
trace to their source the common practices with which it
has been familiar from its infancy ; and it is far from sus-
pecting that many of the operations which are intrusted to
the most ignorant rustics have one by one and piecemeal been
hit upon during the careful study of nature by philosophers
whose names it never heard. Grardening and husbandry
may bo defined as the arts, firstly, of improving the quality
of various useful plants, and, secondly, of increasing the
Quantity which a given space of earth is capable of pro-
aucing.
To improve the quality of any one plant, and to render it
better adapted to the uses of mankind upon scientific prin-
ciples, is a very complicated process, and is to be efleoted in
many different ways, all of which require an intimate
knowledge of the nature of the vital actions of plants, and'
of the degree in which they are affected by either external
or internal causes. For example, a particular kind of Uax
produces fibres which are too coarse for the manufacturer ;
It is impossible to know bow those delicate elementary tubes
are to be rendered fine without being aware of the manner
in which vegetable tissue is affected by light, air, and cmrtb.
The flavour of some fruit is too acid ; it is the botanist only
who could have discovered how to increase the quantuy of
saccharine matter. Potatoes are sometimes watery and
unfit for food ; we learn firom vegetable physiology that ihci
is often caused by the leaves, in which the nutrittoua flour "1
the potato is originally formed, not being sufficiently ex-
posed to solar light, the great agent in causing the production
of vegetable secretions. The leaves of the tea plant are
harmless and only slightly stimulating in certain Uiuudrs
they become narcotic and unwholesome in othera; this
apfMirent puzale is explained by the connexion thai exists
between climate and vegetation, a purely botanical quertioo.
Certain races of plants may exist, of which one is too vi^ur-
ous, the other too debilitated for the purposes of the culti-
vator ; the botanist shows how an intermediate nee may
be created, having the best qualities of both.
Certain vegetable . productions are susceptible of bems
produced in particular latitudes, others are not, or not to
any usefhl purpose : for instance, in England the vine will
never yield grapes capable of making such wine aa even
that of champagne, nor will tobacco ever acquire that pecu-
liar principle which gives it so great a value if grown m
other countries ; and yet both these plants flourish in the
soil of England. The botanist can explain why this is, and
thus prevent the commencement of speculationa which can
never end except in loss and disappointment.
The quantity of produce which may be procured from a
given spare of ground vanes verv much accordtni; to tit?
skill of the cultivator, but that skill is in reality the mrrf
application of the rules of vegetable physiology to each par-
ticular case ; an application that is most frequentlv made'
unconsciously, but which nevertheless is made. \Ve ar*
too apt to overlook causes in effects, and to ascribe the ibh
provements we witness to a mere advance in art* with**ut
considering that that advance must have had a cause, iM
that the cause can only be the working of some ma.«tri
hand, which is afterwards blindly followed by the ciimm':-
nity. The crops of orchard fruit are doubled and trebled :q
many places ; old exhausted races are replaced by yofunjr.
vigorous, and prolific ones; the cider and perry fknner «i I
feel the benefit of this, but he will forget that be owes t'u*
change to the patient skill of a vegetable phyaiologisC Tuf
produce of the potato is augmented in the same proportion :
twice at least the ordinary quantity of this important artirV
of fi)od may now be obtained from every field : the pea^sDi
will feel the additional comfort thus diffused around htm.
but he will never have heard of the name of Knight : luir
will he know after a few years that the produce of the land
was ever smaller.
Nor ui it alone to articles of food that this science u to be
applied ; next in importance to food are fire and shelter,
both of which are mainly furnished by timber. The Uv«
of nature which regulate the production o( this substsncv
are among the most curious in aoienoe; we poasecs xh*
most absolute control over them ; we4iold in our very haiid«
the means of regulating their action, and if we neclc^'t
them, as is too often the case, it is not seieoee which is to
blame, but those who undervalue and neglect her. Because
trees will grow without assistance, and because, vol apite U
neglect and ignorance, timber is perpetually Tenew\i\;
itself upon the earth, we forget that either iu r«te of pr/-
duction may be accelerated, or its quality improved. The
writer of this has seen plantations, in this country, mide
for particular purposes at a large expense, totally ruio<^\
with reference to the objects of those who planted thf<n.
from ignorance of the simplest laws of vegetable phj-aiolivv.
Some allusion has already been made to the impoctir .
results which arise out of the study of the connexion bvtw«f«
vegetation and climate. The quality of all vegetable f rv
ductions is influenced essentially by external cau>*<»;
intensity of light, atmospheric pressure, humidity, tcibj^.^
rature, and seasons, are the great agents wliich modif> ti c
tissue, which control development, and which regolai* i:u-
formation of- sensible properties. Various eombinatiom <•'
these and other external causes are what eonstttuti^ di^rr
si ties of climate, and it i» therefore obvious that the <^'^>
nexion between the latter and vc^e&Ltiqn.ifxclr. ibe muA
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intimfttanaiiire. Bat m Uub i« a bmneh of the scienw of
oomparfttively modem origin, there are few instances of its
Epplicatioo: one of the most striking was the declaration of
Mr. Royle, that cotton might he obtained in the East Indies
equal to the finest from America, a prophecy which has
already been fhlfilled in consequence of tne practical adop-
tion of plans similar to those which he theoretically sug-
gested. Can tea be cultivated as advantageously elsewhere
as in China» and what are the causes of tne failure of the
attempt in Brazil, in Madeira, and in the Indian Archi-
pelaf^? Here is a single question of immense importance,
involving the interests of millions of human beings, and
affecting the pecuniary interests of Gkeat Britain as much
as any commercial problem ever did ; the botanist, and the
botanist only« can give a safe and certain answer to it.
The cases hitherto cited refer chiefly to the objects of
vegetable physiology ; systematic botany bears upon prac-
tice not less usefhlly, but in a different vray. If the only
advantage of classifying plants were to acquire the power of
discovering their scientific names, even that would have a
certain kind of interest, because it would insure a uni-
formity of language in speaking of them ; if it had the addi-
tional property of demonstrating the gradual connexion that
ii disooveiable between all the beings in the organized part
of the creation, .of proving that there is an insensible tran-
sition from one fbrn^f living matter to another, without
break or interruption, and of explaining in a clear and in-
tellif^ble manner the nature of that universal harmony of
which philosophers are used to talk, the interest and import-
ance of botanical classifications would be still further en-
hanced ; but the practical importance of them would still be
extremely limited. It is only when we look to the coinci-
dence between botanical affinities and sensible properties,
and to the external indications of internal qualities, tnat we
perceive the great features of its utility to man. If the
qualities of eveiy plant required to be ascertained by a
circuitous and tedious series of experiments, no life oould be
long enough fbr the task, nor, if it were, could any memory
however powerful remember so extensive a series of facts ;
and if, under such circumstances, botanists whose whole
life is occupied in the study should be unable to master the
difficulties, systematic botany oould never be applied at all
to any usefiil purpose, because it must of necessity be far
beyond the acquirement of those persons who would be
most likely to have occasion to employ it But it was long
imce suspected that plants whieh agree with each other in
or^anixation also agree in the secretions which may be sup-
posed to be the result of that organization. LinnsBus, in
his dissertation upon the properties of plants, declares that
species of the same genus possess similar virtues ; that those
of the same natural order are near each other in properties,
and that those which belong to the same natural class have
uWo some relation to each other in their sensible properties.
Thu doctrine is now admitted on all hands, among men of
science, to be incontrovertible, and places the practical
utility of systematic botany in the most striking light In*
stead of endless experiments leading to multitudes of in«
congruous and isolated facts, the whole historv of the medi-
cind or eoonomical uses of the vegetable kingaom is reduced
to a com^Muatively small number of general laws ; and a
student, instead of being compelled to entangle himself in a
maze of specific distinctions, is only obliged in practice
to make himself acc^uainted with the more striking groups;
and having accomplished this, he is enabled to judge oF the
properties of a species he had never seen before, by what
ne knows of some other species to which it is related. Some
idea of the extett to which this power of judging of plants
d priori is practically useful may be formed from this — that
supposing the Tegetable kingdom to consist of 100,000 spe-
cies, arranged in 6 or 7000 genera, the vast mass of cha-
racters reouired to distinguish them will be collected under
about 300 heads, a knowledge of not more than two-thirds
of which will be required for the purposes of the general
observer. Thus the common hedge mallow is a mucila-
ginous, inert plant, whose woody tissue is tough enough to
be manufactured into cordage ; it has certain botanical cha-
racters, which are readily observed and remembered ; and it
belongs to a group of plants consisting of not fewer than TOO
species. It is only necessary to understand the structure of the
common mallow to recognize all the remainder of the group,
and to be aware of their uses and properties ; so that a per-
son in a foreign country who finds a plant agreeing with
the mallow in those marks by which the Malvaceous order
is known, although he should never have seen or heard of
the plant before, would immediately recognize it to be mu-
cilaginous and inert, and would expect to find its vegetable
fibre tough enough to be manufactured into cordage. It is
this class of facts which alone can lead with any certainty
to the discovery in one country of substitutes for the useful
plants of another; it has shown the similarity between the
violet roots of Europe and one of the kuids of ipecacuanha
of South America ; that the astringency of the alum-root
of the United States finds a parallel in those of the gera-
niums of England ; that madder has its representative in
the Isle of France, cinchona in India, and that Indian-rub-
ber trees exist in the East as well as in the West.
It is not however every kind of systematic botany which
leads to these important results : it is not arrangements,
however clear, which depend upon accordances in one or
two arbitrary and unimportant points of structure ; but it
is that philosophical view of nature which separates to the
greatest distance species which are the most dissimilar in
their organization, and which places side by side such as
are more like each other than anything else, filling up all
the space between such extremes upon exactly the same
principle ; till at Ust, take a species where you will, it will
be found in the midst of its nearest kindred and most
natural allies. This, which is called the natural sysientp
will be explained hereafter under the head of Classifi
CATIONS in botany.
A Ol09sary of the Technical Terms most commonly employed in Botany,
Aittontalt eouiraij to general rules
^ttunhtnl, lying against anything, ia
(listincttun to lying upon; as tlie coty-
ledons of »ome cruciferoun plants
^rcTMr, stiff azid slender and sharp-pointed,
a« the leavea of a pine-tree
Aekenwm, a small, hard, one*ieeded fruit,
r«»enibliii^ a aeed
jioaUate, nmllc-shaped
Acimcifonmf scymhar-shaped
Annmtj a bvuich of succulent berries, as of
crapes
Ai-0ogem^ a plant which grows at its end
ualy, without increasing in diameter, as
f«ras« and all flowerless plants
Aculat», a prickle
Aruhate^ covered with prickles
Antminaie, tapering to the point, but flat
Adnate, growing to anything by the whols
leog:th
Adventttiom»t appearing accidentally
^'tttvaiiom^ th« arraogement of the parts of
tiie fldwer befors they expand
A/abuttns, a flower-bud
AAumen^u, Substance interposed insome seeds
lietwceB thu embryo and the seed coats
A/byrmtttHj the yoong wood; sap-wood
Amentum, a catkin; the male infloresceoee
ofthehaael,&c.
AmpUxictmi, clasping a stem
Aruutomoxinfff the growing together of two
parts which meet from diflerent directions
Androut, a Greek termination expressive of
the male sex
An/raetwnu, doubled abruptly in several
di^rent directions
Angiocarpom, having seeds enclosed in a
pericarp
Annotimems, a year old
AniAer, the case containing pollen
Ap^pkjfm, the enlarged base of the theca of
^^ArciM0i,the shield, or mass of reproduc-
tive matter of a lichen
Appendicuiale, having some kind of ap*
|»endages
ApttaloMt, having no petals
Apiculait, abruptly pointed
Apocarpous, where the carpels are distinct
from each other
Arachnoid, resembling a spider's web
Areolule, divided into little spaces
AriJ, a p«caliar wrapper of some seedsy as
the mace of the nutmeg
Ariita, the beard or awn of g^rasses
Asci, the cases in which the spores of
lichens are enclosed
Aacidiumf a hollow leaf looking like a water
vessel,' as the pitcher of Nepenthes
Attenuated, gradually tapering to a jioint
without becoming flat
Auricuiate, having two lobes (like ears) at
the base
Aum, see Arista
Ajm, the root and stem either taken toge-
ther or separately
Axil, the acute angle formed by the junc-
tion of the leaf, &c. to its axis
AsiUary, growing in an axil
Baccate, fruit covered with soft flesh
Barbate, covered with long hairs resera-
bling a beard
Bcardi a tuft of long hairs
Bicot^fuffatf, in two pairs, placed side by
side
Bidentate, having two teeth
Bi/arioua, arranged in two rows
Bj/ld, divided into two shallow lobes
BifoUate^ haring two leaflet^"^ r^r^rAr^
Bi/ureate, twice forkedsl by Vrr OOV It!
B O T
252
HOT
B^fugout, in two pairs, pUoed end to end
Binale, growing in pairs
Bipartite, divided into two deep lobes
Biftinnate, twice pianate
Buerraiey twice serrate
Brackiaie, when branches stand nearly at
right anglvs to the stem from which they
proceed
Bract, the leaf or leaflet from the axil of
which a flower grows
Bu/b, a scaly, undergronnd bud
Buibotuber, a short, roundish, undergroimd
stem resembling a bulb
Caducoua, falling off sooner or- later
Ctemut, of a bluish grey colour
Ceespiiose, growing in tufts
Calcar, a spur or horn ; as in the nasturtium
Ca/curate, having a spur or horn
Ca/gcu/ate, having a whorl of brads on the
outside of a calyx, or of an involucre
Cu/tfptra, the hood of a moss
Cn/yx, the external envelope of a flower
Ctmbuim, a viscid secretion formed in the
spring between the bark and wood of
Kxugens
Campanulate, bell-shaped
Cuna/tculate, channelled
Cunce//<itf, a leaf which has veins without
connecting parenchyma
Capitate J growing in a head
Capitufum, a collection of flowers in a head
Capaule, any dry many-seeded fruit
Carinaie, having a kind of keel
CarnoK, fleshy
Carpett one of the parts of a compound
pistil ; a single leaf rolled up into one of
the integers of a pistil
CaruHcutate, a seed having fungous ex-
creatcences growing near its hilum
Cargoptis, a dry one-seeded fruit resem-
bling a seed, but with no distinction be-
tween the seed coat and pericarp
Caudate, prolonged into a sort of tail
Cauii/ie, of or belonging to the stem
C^rnuou9, drooping
Chaiaza, a spot on a seed indicating the
place where the nucleus is united to the
seminal integuments
CUkUed, fringed with hairs tike an eyelash
CinereouMf ash-coloured
Ctrcinate, rolled inwards from the point to
the basts
CircmMCiMiUe, dividing into two parts by a
spontaneous trausverse se juration
CirrhoHt, terminating in a tendril
Clavate, club-shaped
C/tfv, the italk of a petal
C/jfpeate, re»embling a round buckler
Cachleaie, resembling the bowl of a spoon
Co//i(m, the point 'where the stem and root
are combined
ColumeHa, a central part of the fruit of a
moss, round which the spores are depo-
sited
Column, the combination of stamens and
style in Orchideous and other plants
Cvmosr, having hairs at one or both ends, if
speaking of seeds ; being terminated by
coloured empty bracts, if applied to inflo-
rescences
Condup/tcm/et doubled together
Con/fuent, growing together so that the line
of junction is lost to the sight
Conjygale, growing in pairs
Cotmate, growing together so that the line
of junction remains perceptible
Connective, the fleshy part that combines
the two lobes of an anther
Conmvent^ converging, as the anther of a
potato blossom
Comoidaif approaching a conical form
Continuou*, proceeding from something else
without apparent interruption
Contorted, twitted in such a way that all
the parts have a similar direction, aa the
segments of the flower of an Oleander
Conpoiute, rolled together
CoraUum, the ntdimcntary axis which con-
nects the cotyledons of the embryo
Csrdait, heart-shaped
Coriaeeoytf of a leathery lexturt
Carmw, a 8olid| roundish, undeigionnd
stem, as in Crocus
ComeouM, of a horny texture
Curnicylate, shaped like a slender horn
Corolla^ the second of the two envelopes
that surround the stamens and pistil
Corona, a combination of fertile and barren
stamens into u disk, as in Stapelia
Corgmbote, when the branches surrounding
a common axis are shortest at the top
and longest at the bottom, so as to form
a level-topped whole
CoMta, the midrib of a leaf
Coiyiedons, the leaves of the embryo
Crateriform, shaped like a goblet
CrenelUd or Crenated, having rounded
notches at the edges
Crested, having some unusual and striking
appendage arising from the middle
Cruciate, when four parts are so arranged
as to resemble the arms of a Maltese
cross
CucuUatet hooded, rolled inwards so as to
conceal anything lying within
Cuim, the straw of grasses
Cuneate, wedge-shaped
Cupu/e, the cup of the acorn, the husk of
the filbert, chestnut, &c. ; a peculiar com-
bination of bracts
Cuspidate, abruptly rounded off with a pro-
jecting {X)int in the middle
Cuticie, the external skin
Cgathiform, cup- shaped, more contracted
at the orifice than crateriform
Cyme, an inflorescence having a corymbose
form, but consisting of repeatedly-branch-
ed divisions
Cymbiform, having the form of a boat
Cymote, resembling a cyme in appearance
Decandrout, having ten stamens
DeciduouM, falling off
Declinate, curved downwards
Decumbent, lying prostrate, but rising again
Decttrrent, produced downwards, as the
base of a leaf down the stem
Decuttate, crossing at right angles
Vehitcence, the act of opening of anther or
fruit
Deitoid, having the form of a triangle or
Greek A
Dendroidal^ resembling a small tree
Dentate^ with sharp-ixiinted notches aud
intermediate curves instead of re-entering
angles
Depauperated, imperfectly developed ; look-
ing as if ill-formed from want of sufficient
nutriment
DeprtMted, flattened from point to base
Di(»delphom, having the stamens in two
parcels
Dieecioua, having stamens on one plant and
pistils on another
Diandrout, having two stamens
Dichotomoue, repeatedly divided into two
branches
Dieoty/edonout, having two cotyledons
Didynamous, having two pairs of stamens
of unequal length
Didynume, growing in pairs, or twins ; only
applied to solids and not to flat surfaces
Digitate, fingered, diverging from a com-
mon centre, as the fingers from the palm
Dimidiate, half-formed, or halved, or split
iuto two halves
Dipterous, having two wings
Diicoidal, with the central part of a flut
body difierently coloured or marked from
the margin
Disk, a fleshy circle interposed between the
stamens and pistils
Distepiments, the vertical partitions of a
compound fruit
Distichous, arranged in two rows
Divaricating, diverging at an obtuse angle
Dodecandrous, having 12 stamens
Dolabrt/orm, hatchet-shaped
Drupe, such a fruit as the peach, consisting
of a stem tmrounded by flesh or fibrous
matter
Drnds, spiral vessela that will not qbtoU
Dunsom, having a compact bushy tona
Durmmm, the heart-wood of timber
Bdkinaie, covered with bard sharp po!ot«
Elaters, little spirally-twisted hygroif.«. t .r./.
threads that disperse the spores ol J
gennanoias
Elementary organs, the minute parts uf « 1 1
the texture of plants is composed
Bmargmaie, having a notch at the rc>iiit
Embryo^ the rudimentary plant heiorv i;t '
minntion commences
Endocarp, the hard lining of soise pr*:-
carps
Endogen, a plant which increasca in (V.--
meter by addition to itscentie, aa a y^Lic-
tree
Enneandrous, having 9 stamens
Entiform, having the form of a straight &'•■!
narrow sword blade
Fpityirpt the external Isyer of the pericarp
Epidermis, the skin of a |ilant, in the lan-
guage of some writers; Ibe corliral inic-
gument according to others
Epigynous, growing upon the top oC tk«
ovary, or seeming to do so
Equiiant, when Itraves are so arranged th.it
the base of each is enclosed withm tLt
opposite base of that which is next Ul %
it ; as in Iris
Estivation, see Aestivation
Exogen, a plant which increases in dia-x &:. r
by the addition of new wood to the <. iS
side of the old wood ; as an oak-tr«.«
Farinaceous, mealy
Fasciated, banded
fbscieulattd, collected in dusteia
Fa«/^»a/e, when the branches of any^lj-t
are pressed close to the main stem, b» o:
the Lombardy poplar
Filament, the stalk of the anther
Filiform, slender and round like a thre <«!
Fisiular, tubular but closed at each enJ -. «s
the leaf of an onion
Flabellifurm, fan>shape<l
Flageliiform, resembling the thoog of «
whip
Ftexuose, wavy
Floccose, covered with little irreguW p&'c^>c s
of woulUiiess
Floret, a little flower
Floscule, ditto
Foliactuys, having the colour and texlutc af
a common green leaf
Foliation, the arrangement of }'uung !r.i t •»
within the leaf-btid
FsUieie, a simple fruit opening by lU %v:/-
tral suture only
Foramen, the passage through the mtrc'
ments of an ovule by which im| ri c
nating matter is introduced into il.«
nucleus
Fovilla, the fertilisinr principle of rolh n
Frond, the leaf of a fern or of a poim
Fruit, the full-grown ripened pistii
Fugacious, lasting but a short lime
Fungoid, resembling a fungus ; that is, Vrn:-
gular in form and fleshy in texture
FunicuAts, the stalk by which some stcJ^
are attached to the placenta
Fuu/orm, spindle-shaped, thickest m tbc
middle, and tapering to each end
Galbulus, a small cone whose scales mtv
consolidated into a flvshy ball, a% . .
Juniper
Galea, the upper lip of a labiate flowrr
Genicutate, knee-jointed, when a strtn Iv .
suddenly in its middle
Gibbous, prominent, projecting
Glabrous, having no hairs
Gladiate, the same as ensiform, but I .-^a
and shorter
Gland, 1. the fruit of the oak. the h t
&c.i 2. an elevation of the cuticle «^.
usually secretes either acrid or nrxir. .
matter
Glandular, covered with glanda of the &«-
cond kind
B OT
253
B O T
O/aueout, covered with bloom like a plum
Qtotkidttiet covered with hairs which an
rigid and hooked at their point
G/umtf ODO of the bracts of grasses
Ofinnogpermoua^ having seeds which ripen
without being enclosed in a pericarp
GifHoboMe, an elevated part of the growing
point of a flower-bud, rising between (he
carpels and throwing them into an oblique
position
GynUc, see Circmate. Also> surrounded by
an elastic ring, as the theca of ferns
llattottt having the form of a halberi-head ;
that is, with a lance-shaped centre crossed
at the base bv two lobes of a similar form
standing at right angles with the centre
Helmety i& hooded upper lip of some flowers
HtpiantirouMf having 7 stamens
Hfxandrout, having 6 itamens
Ui/um, the «car left upon a seed when it is
separated frum the placenta
Hirsute, covered with harsh long hairs
Hymemum, the gills of a mushroom ; that
part in Fungi where the siiorett are placed
Htfpocrateri/orm, salver-sha^ied ; having a
c}-liudrical tube and a flat border spread-
ing away from it
Htfpogifnout, arising from immediately below
the pi«itil
Icomuulroys, having 20 or more peng}'nous
stamens
Imbricated, overlapping, as tiles overlie
each other on the roof of a house
Iftcumbenlf lying upon any thin^
hdehincentf not opening when ripe
liwLtp/icaUy doubled inwards
Jndusitim, the membrane that overlies the
Bori of ferns
Inferior i is »aid of a calyx when it does not
adhere to the ovary ; is said of an ovary
when it does adhere to the cal)'X
JnJIoretceitce, the collection of flowers upoa
a plant
hfumdibu/i/orm, shaped like a funnel
Innate, growing upon any thing by one end
Innovations, the young shooUi of mosses
Intercellular y that which lies between the
cells or elementary bladders of plants
Inlemodty the space between two nodes
Inferruptetl, when variations in continuity,
iixe, ur de-velopment alternately occur m
parts whicli are sometimes uniform ; as
when pinnated leaves have the alternate
leaflets m uch the smallest, and when
dense spilces are here and there broken
by the extamsiou of intemodes
hvolucre, a collection of bracts placed in
a whorl on the outside a calyx or flower-
head
Involute^ rolled inwards
labellumy one segment of a corolla, which
is lower than the others, and often pen-
dulous
Labiate, divided into an upper and a lower
lip, as the corolla of dead nettle
Lacnnose, having numerous large deep de-
pressions or excavations on its surface
lamina, the blade of a leaf
I^utcevlaie, shaped like a lance-head ; that
is, oval, tapering to both extremities
Laterai, originating from the side of any-
thing
lutes, the vital fluid of vegetation
^•r, Out compact or dense
leaflet, a division of a compound leaf
I^'juHiey a kind of fruit like the pod of a pea
lenticular, small, depressed, and doubly
cunvex
Upidote, covered with a sort of Kurfiness
Itprous, the same
^bery the newly-formed inner bark of
Kxogens
Liyula, a membranous expansion from the
tup of the p«tioIe in grasses
l^nb, the blade or expanded part of a petal
line'tr, very narrow, with the two sides
nearly parallel
Loettliddai, when the carpels of a com-
pound fruit dehisce in such a way that
the cells are broken through at their back
Locustoy the spikelet, or collection of florets
of a grass
Lomentumf a legume which is interrupted
between the seeds, so as to separate into
numerous tranverse portions
Lunttte, formed like a crescent
Afanicatey when hairs are interwoven into a
mass that can be easily separated from
the surface
Marginal, of or belonging to the edge of
any thing
MeduUaryy of or belonging io the pith
Micropylcy a small passage through the
seed, called the foramen when speaking
of the ovule. See Foramen
Mitri/brm, conical, hollow, open at the base,
and either entire there or irregularly cut
Monetde/phausy with the stamens united into
one parcel
Manandrousy with one stamen only
Monili/ormy shaped like a necklace
Monopetalousy with several petals united
into one body by their edges
Mueronate, tipped by a hard point
MuUiJxd, divided into many shallow lobes
Multipartite, divided into many deep lobes
Muricatedy covered with short, broad, sharp-
pointed tubercles
Muriformy resembling the bricks in the
wall of a house
Navieuiary shaped like a very small boat
Nectary, any organ that secretes honey
Nerves, the stronger veins of a leaf
Node, the part of a stem from which a
normal leaf-bud arises
Normal, according to general rules
Nucleus, the central part of an ovule, or a
seed
Nucule, a small hard see'd-like pericarp
Oblique, larger on one side than on the other
Ochrea, two stipules united round the stem
into a kind of sheath
Octandrousy having eight stamens
Operculum, the lia of the theca of a moss
Ovaryy the hollow part of a pistil contain-
ing the ovules
Ovate, having the figure of an egg
Ovule, a rudimentary seed
Palatty the lower surface of the throat of a
labiate corolla
Paleaceosu, covered with palea
Palea, either the inner bracts of the inflo-
rescence of a grass, or the bracts upon
the receptacle of the flower-head of a
Composita
Palmate, the same as digitate, only the
divisions more shallow and broader
Panduri/orm, oblong, narrowing towards
tlie base, and contracted below the middle
Pamele, a compound raceme ; a loose kind
of inflorescence
Papilionaeeouty a flower consisting of stand-
ard, wings, and keel, like that of a pea
Pappus, the calyx of a Composite, as of
dandelion
Parenchyma, the pulp that connects the
veins of leaves
Parietal, growing from the lining of any
thing
Ptciniate, divided into long, dose, narrow
teeth like a comb
Pedate, palmate, with the lateral segments
lengthened and bbed
Pedicel, one ef a great many peduncles
Peduncle, a flower-stalk
Peltate, attached within the margin
Pentandrous, having five stamens
Perfoliate, surrounding a stem by the base,
which grows together where the margins
touch
Perianth, a collection of floral envelopes,
among which the calyx cannot be dis-
tinguished from the corolla, though both
are present
Pericarpy the shell of a fruit of any kind
Perichmtiumy the leaves at the base of the
stalk of the fruit of a moss
Perigone, same as Perianth
Periffynous, growing fVom the sides of a
calyx
Perisperm, same as albumen
Peristome, a curious set of processes sur-
rounding the orifice of the theca of a moss
Peronate, laid thickly over with a woolly
substance ending iu a sort of meal
Personate, labiate, with the palate of the
lower lip pressing against the upper lip
Petal, one of the parts of a corolla
Petaloid, resembling a petal in colour and
texture
Petioley the stalk of a leaf
Peiiolar, of or belonging to the petiole
PhifUodium, a petiole transformed into a flat
leaf- like body
Pileus, the cap of a mushroom
Pilose, covered with short fine hairs
Pinnate, divided into a number of pairs of
leaflets; bipinnate, each leaflet is also
pinnate ; tripinnate, each secondary leaf-
let pinnated also
Pinnatijid, divided in a f>innated manner
nearlv down to the midrib
Pistil, the combination of ovary, style, and
stigma
Pith, the central column of cellular tissue
in an Exogen
Placenta, the part of the ovary to which the
ovules are attached
Plane, quite flat
Plumule, the rudiment of a stem in the
embr)-o
Pollen, the powder contained in an anther
Pollen-tubes, the membranous tubes emit-
ted by pollen after they fall on the stigma
Polyadelphous, when the stamens are com-
bined into more than two parcels
Polyandrous, when there are more than 20
hypogynous stamens
Poltfpetalous, when the petals are all distinct
Pome, a fruit like that of the apple, pear, &c*
Prmfloration, same as Estivation
Prickle^ same as aculeus
Primine, the external integument of the
ovule
Pseudobulh, the solid above-ground tuber
of some OrchidesB
Pubescent, covered with ^ety fine soft down
Pulverulent, covered with a powdery ap-
pearance
Putamen, same as Endocarp
Pyriformt shaped like a pear
Quartine, the innermost integument but
one of the ovule ^
Quinatcy combined in fives
Quintine, the innermost integument of the
ovule
Racewte, an inflorescence like that of the
currant
Rachis, the axis of inflorescence
Radical, arising from the root
Radicle, the rudimentary root in the em-
bryo
Ramenia, soft, ragged, chaff-like hairs
growing upon the petiole of ferns
Raphe, the line of communication between
the hilum and chaJaza
Raphides, acicular or other crystals scat-
tered among vegetable tissue
Remform, kidney-shaped
Resupinate, inverted, so that the part which
is naturally lowermost becomes uppermost
Reticulated, traversed by veins having the
appearance of network
Refuse, blunt, and turned inwards more
than obtuse
Rhitoma, a creeping stem like that of Iris
Rinyent, same as Personate
Root-stock, same as Rhizoma
Rostrate, furnished with a sort of beak
Rosulate^ having the leaves arranged in
little rose-like clusters
Ruminated, pierced by numerous perfora-
tions full of chaffy matter like a nutmeg >
BOT
254
BOT
Rmmer, Um {Kottrate slam of such pUnti as
the strawberry
SagUMe^ resembllBg Um head of an antieat
Samara, a land of oDo-seeded indehiscent
l^ricaxp, with a wing at ono ood
SapwooiL, tho newlv-ionnad wood, which
has not been harden4»d by tho deposit of
secreted matter
Sarcocarp, the intermediate fleshy layer
between the epicarp and endocarp
Scape, the flowering-stem of a plant
Sca/e, an abortire leaf
iSearioKfl, dry, thin, and shrivelled
Scrobieuiate, irregularly pitted
Scuteihtm^ the fructifying space upon tho
thallus of a lichen
Stetmditu, tho second integument of the
ovule
SecunJ, arranged or turned to one sido
Stpaii, the leaves of the calyx
Septa, same as Dissepiment
Septicidal, when the disMpiments of a fruit
are divided into two plates at the period
of dehiscence
Septifra^, when the diisepiments of a fruit
are broken through their middle by the
separation of the back of tho carpels
from the centre
Sericeotu^ silky
Serrate, toothed like the edge of a taw
Seuiie, seated dose upon any thing, without
a stalk
Seiote, covered with setn or bristles
SAie/U, the fructification of lichens
Sigmoid, bent like the letter S
SUieie, a short two-valved pod, such as is
found in garden crsss
SUiiiue, the same but longeri aa in the
cabbdigo
Sinuate, tuning in and out in aa inegular
manner
Sort, the fructification of ferns
Spttdijp, the ioflorascence of an arum ; aa
axis closely covered with sessile flowers,
and enclosed in a spathe
Spadicewt, resembling a spadix, or bearing
that kind of inflorescence
SpatKacemt9, enclosed within a spathe, or
beariog that kind of bract
Spathe, a large coloured bract which en-
closes a spadix
Spatuiate, shaped like a druggists spatula ;
that is, long, narrow, and broadsat at the
point
Spikti an inflorescence in which the flowets
are sessile upon their axis
Spikelelf one of a great many small spikes
collected in a mass as in grasses
Spine, a stiff, sharp-pointed, leafless branch
Spongiok,m Sp<mgtietgih9 iendei, growing
tip of the root
Sporg, or SpontU, the reproductive body of
floweriess plants, analogous to the seed
of flowering plants
Squarrou, composed of parts which diverge
at rieht angles^ and are irregular in size
and direction
Stamen^ the fertilising organ of a floweri
convistiog of filament and anther
Standard, the upper single petal of a papi-
lionaceous flower
SteHate, arranged in the form of a star
Stigma, the upper end of the style, on which
the pollen falls
iSrt^«,the stalk that bears the head of a muvh*
room ; also the stalk of the leaf of a fern }
alao the stalk of any thing except of a
leaf or a flower
Stipule, the scale at the base of some leaf-
stalks
Stipulate, furnished with stipules; exttipu-
late, havinj^ no stipules
StomuUe, a minute hole in a leaf, through
which respiration is supposed to be car-
ried on ; a breathing pore
Strigoie, covered with stiff unequal hairs
Strvphiolattt having little fungous ex-
crescences surrounding the hilum
Stupote, having a tuft of hairs in the middle
or at the end
Style, the stalk of the stigma
Subulate, awl-shaped
Sgneurpoutf having the carpels consolidated
Terete, taper
7>»iNa/e, united in threes
Testa, the skin of the seed
Tetradifnamout, having six stamens in four
parcels ; two of which consist of two sta-
mens, and two of one each
Tetrandrous, having four stamens
ThalluM, the leafy uart of a lichen ; the
union of stem and leaf in those and some
other tribes of imperfect plants
Theca, the case which contains the sporules
of floweriess plants
TomentoMe, eo^end with short close down
Toothed, the same as Dentate
Torulote, alternately contracted and dis-
tended
Torvs, the growing point of a flower, on
which the carpels are placed
THandrouM, having three stamens
TVifarioua, arranged in three rows
Trijidf divided into three lobes
'Dr^liotate, having three leaflets
Tripartite, divided into three deep dxvisiimt
Thpinnate, when each leaflet of a ptnnaivii
leaf is pinnate ; and the leaflets of Um
latter are pinnate also
Tritemate, when each leaflet of a trrcat'
leaf is ternate, and the leaflets of xlt
latter are ternate also
Truncate, ahruptlv cut off
Tube^ the part or a flower where the hx% i
of the sepals, petals, or stamens are uzittfi
T\tbfr, a deformed, fleshy kind of undrr.
ground stem
Turbinate, shaped like a s^niag top
Umbel, an inflorescence whose branches a'i
radiate from one common point
Umbilicate, having a depression in thv
middle
Umbonate, having a boss or elevated jtomt
in the middle
XJnduIated, wavy^
Unguiculattf furnished with a claw, or short
sulk
Urceolate, shaped like a pitcher
Utricle, a small bladder
FaginOfihe sheath formed by the coorohiluni
of a flat petiole round a stem
Valve, one of the parts into which a^,
dehiscent body divides
VoMcular, containing veuels ; that is, spin'
vessels or ducts
Fentricote^ inflated
Fentation, the manner in which the )Uia^
leaves are arranged in their leaf-bud
Ferrucoie, covered with warts
Fertatile, swinging lightly upon a sort /
pivot
Ferticellate, arranged in a whorl
Vexiltum, same as standard
Fil/ous, covered with long, soft, •h^ftry h.i.
Firgate, having long, slender lodlikc s^« u «
Fitellui, a fleshy bag, interposed tqrt««*-t*
the embryo and albumen in some «rcili
Fittaie, striped, as distinguished from fb>
ciate or banded
H'horly an arrangement of more leaves th ^
two around a common centre upon t:.
plane.
BOTANY BAY is situated on the £. coast of Australia,
which coast is commonly called New South Wales, but
should properly be called Cook's Land, having been disco-
▼ered by this great navigator in his first voyage. He en-
tered Botany Bay and exammed it as well as his short
stay permitted. He found the bay capacious, safe, and con-
venient. The entrance is a little more than a mile broad,
but the bay afterwards enlarges to about three miles in
width. He describes the soil about it as either a sWamp or
as light sand, and the face of the country as finely diversi-
fied bv wood and lawn. The trees, he adds, are tall and
straight, and without underwood, standing at such a distance
from each other, that the whole country, at least where the
•wamps do not render it incapable .'of cultivation, might be
cultivated without cutting down one of them ; between the
trees the ground is covered with grass, of which there is
abundance. The great quantity of plants found there by
the naturalist accompanying him in his first voyage in-
duced him to call it Botany Bay, and he considered it a
suitable place for a new settlement.
In 1788 it wis resolved to found in the southern hemi-
sphere a penal settlement, and Botany Bay was thought ttie
fittest place. Governor Phillip accordingly set sail directlv
for it, but he was soon convinced that this place laboured
under great disadvanUges. The bay indeed is extensive,
and good anchorage is found in 4, 6, 6 and 7 fathoms water ;
but both on the N. and S. sides and on the bottom of
the bay Hats extend to a great distance from the shore,
having only 4 or 5 ft. water on them. The river which
fklU into the boy at its W. extremity, and is now called
George*s River, can only be navigated by boats. It w.»
also found that the anchorage which lies contiguous tc
the entrance of the bay was in its whole extent expiM- ^
to £. winds, which, especially from the N.E. and S> E
quarter set in a prodigious sea. Governor Phillip there r>.-^
resolved to examine the neighbouring coast, in the hope (>;
finding a more advantageous place for the new settlement
Not many miles to the north of Botany Bay he enteral
Port Jackson, a similar inlet, which was likewise discos rrod
and named by Cook, who however did not think it worth his
while to enter it« because it had the appearance of an o\>«*n
bay. Governor Phillip discovered on its southern shore ex-
cellent anchorage sheltered from all winds, and here he
founded the town of Sidney.
Botany Bay has remained neglected, but the new^i
maps indicate that on its northern shores some place* an
inhabited and cultivated, probably on account of tnc neitru
bourhood of Sidney, and of the facility of disposing of agr.>
cultural produce. It is in 34° S. lat., and 15^ E.lor.:..
according to the determination of Cook. (Cook's htrB.
Voyage; Governor Phillips Voyage, and Htmter's i/i«-
eweries^
BOTH, JOHN and ANDRBW, two eminent painter..
were bom at Utrecht, the former in the year 1610: x^-
birth of the latter is of uncertain date. Their father wm% u
painter on glass, and it isprobable they received their fir^i
instructions from him. They were placed at an early ace
under Abraham Bloemart; and in their youth went (o luiy
to perfect themselves in their art Here they acquired a
great repuution, John painting Undacapes after tba
B O T
256
B O T
ner of Claude (to whom onlf be has been considered
inferior), and Andrew adorning bis brother's scenes with
il^rures in the style of Bamboccio. They continued in Italy
working in concert until separated b^ death. There is
much confusion among writers as to which died first. One
of them was drowned by ikiling into a canal at Venice, in
the year 1650, returning late m)m a supper party; and the
survivor then left Italy, and returned to settle at Utrecht.
From the fact of his painting portraits and conversation
pieces, it is most probable that Andrew was the survivor,
and that John, the landscape-painter, perished in Italy.
Andrew died six years after his brother, nis end being has-
tened by grief.
The landscapes of John are glowing with colour and sun-
shine, and rich in beauty and natural effects ; his handling
is Ii<;ht, free, and facile, so that he sometimes painted with-
out an outline. A fulvous tint which occasionally pervades
his landscapes has been objected to ; but in his best pro-
ductions this fault is corrected. He has less studied ele-
gance than C1aude» and his pictures are more like common
nature; but his composition is far less perfect, and his
artifices less artfully concealed. The extreme beauty of his
colouring however procured him the title, by which he is
still known, of Both of Italy. The figures by Andrew are
above all comparison superior to those of Claude ; and the
joint productions of the brothers, in which each laboured to
set off the other, have ever been considered of the highest
value.
BOTHNIA, or BOTTENA, is a name which was given
at some remote period to the countries on both sides oi the
Gulf of Bothnia as far S. as the straits called the Quarken.
It was formerly divided into E. and W. Bothnia, but the
former has been ceded to Russia, and constitutes the greater
part of the lately-erected government of Uleaborg.
Western Bothnia constitutes with Lapland the most
northern portion of Sweden, and contains about three-
eighths of its surface. On the N. E. it is bounded by
Russia, from which it is divided by the rivers Muonio-Elf
and Tomea-Elf. On the N. and N. W. the range of the
Kiolen (pron. Tiblen) mountains separates it firom Norway.
On the S. it joins the Swedish provinces of Jamtland and
Angermanlard, and the remainder of its boundary on the
S. K. and £. is formed by the Gulf of Bothnia. Its most
N. point touches, or passes the sixty-ninth parallel, and the
most S. lies nearly at equal distance from the sixty -third
and sixty-fourth parallel. It extends firom 14® 20' to 24°
£. long. Its surface is calculated at 62,543 sq. m., or a
little more than half the British islands.
This province contains the greatest plain in Sweden,
which occupies the most northern part of it It is properly
speaking an inclined plane, which begins where the boun-
daries of Sweden. Russia, and Norway meet, and extends
towards the S. S. £. to the shores of the gulf. The lowest
part of the plain runs along the boundary of Russia, on the
banks of the Muonio-EIf and Tomea-£lf. At the foot of
the rocky range which divides it from Norway it is about
1300 (t. above the level of the sea, and presents to the eye
nearly a level surface covered with swamps and innumerable
small lakes ; between which a few small hills rise to 300 or
COO ft. The summits of these hills are covered with white
rvindeer moss, and between the lakes are bushes of dwarf
birch. The country then lowers rapidly, and within 20
or 30 m. the birch has already the appearance of a full-
grown tree, and soon mingles with the pine (pinus sylvet-
tris) ; lower down grows the fir (pinus aoies). About half
way towards the gulf, and before the Muonio-Elf falls into
the Tornea-Elf; the country i^ less than 400 ft. above the
sea, and is covered with forest trees, except along the banks
of the rivers, where agriculture has been introduced within
a century and has made considerable progress, though the
climate only allows the cultivation of barley, oats, and
potatoes.
Along both banks of the Upper Tornea-Elf some hills of
considerable height rise on the plain. These hills are im-
uiense heaps of iron-ore, nearly useless to man on account
of their situation.
The Tomea-Elf rises in the lake of Tomea (Tornea-
TrXsk), which is imbedded in the rocky mountains of the
Kiuien, and extends about 36 m. m length, with an average
breadth of 10 m., its N.E. extremity being only about 15
m. from the Ocean. From this lake the river runs be-
tween the hills of iron-ore, forming numerous rapids and
small cataracts, which however would not be an insuperable
obstacle to navigation, were it not for a catamct near its
confluence with Uie Muonio, where the river, in a distanee
of about 1000 ft., descends 72 ft. in perpendicular height.
The Muonio, which through its whole course is the boun-
dary between Russia and Sweden, is called in its upper
part Kon^mii, and is navigable for many miles above its
mouth, though it has some rapids. Before the Tomea-Elf
turns to the K. to unite with the Muonio-Elf, it sends off a
branch to the right called the T3rende-Elf, which, after a
tortuous course of about 30 m. to the S., joins the Calix-
Elf, fbrming in this way a natural canal between two river
systems. The Tornea-Elf runs upwards of 230 m. and falls
into the N. part of the Gulf of Bothnia, a few miles below
the town of Tomea.
The Calix-Elf rises at no great distance to the S. of
Tomea-Trask in the Kiblen mountains, whence it carries off
the waters of ibur or five large lakes. It descends on the
same plain to the S. of the great group of iron hills, and
runs nearly parallel to the Tomea-Elf E, 8. E. for about
half its course. Where it receives the Tarende-Elf it turns
to the S. and continues in that direction. It is less rapid
than the other large rivers of Bothnia ; it reaches the most
northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia alter a course of nearly
250 m.
The country between the Calix-Elf and the Lulea-Elf
forms the southern part of the plain, which may be consi-
dered as terminating near the banks of the latter river,
where stupendous rocsy masses rise, which skirt its banks
as fkr as its confluence with the lAlla (Little) Lulea-Eif.
These high rocks are called Norra Ananas. In the middle
of the plain between the Calix-Elf and Lulca-Elf, rises
Mount Dunduri, about four miles S. of the church of Gel-
livare, which is never entirely free ttom snow, and con-
sequently may rise to above 4000 ft. To the N. of it lies
another group of iron-hills, less extensive than that on the
banks of the Tomea-Elf. These heights divide the plam
into two portions different in character. Between it and
the Kiolen range the country is covered with swamps, and
here and there with reindeer moss; the dwarf-birch is
rarely met with. This proves that this portion of the plain
rises to about 1 800 ft. above the sea. The same descrip-
tion applies partly to the country between Mount Dunduri
and Norra Ananas, called Stora Maddus. It is a swamp,
extending above 20 m. in every direction. The E. portion
of the plam is partly covered with forest-trees, and cultivated
along the water-courses, though its soil is rather indifferent,
and much inferior to that on the other side of the Calix-
Elf, except where it approaches the sea.
The Lulea-Elf is the most ranid of the rivers of Sweden
and perhaps of Europe, a rival of the Glommon-Elf in
Norway. Rising on me E. declivity of the Kiolen Moun-
tains it soon enters a succession of lakes, situated at dif-
ferent levels and united by short channels, which are gene-
rally cataracts of considerable height. Such is its course
for about 100 m. when the lakes terminate, but the cataracts
continue. Some miles after the river has left the last lake,
its waters are narrowed by steep rocks on each side, and
rush down 400 it. in the space of less than 1 m. This most
remarkable cataract is called Niaumelsaskas (the hare*s
leap), where the vapours arising from the water are directly
condensed and freeze in winter, forming a vault strong enough
to afford a passage to hares. (Schubert's Reisen, p. 362.)
Farther down the river mns between two ranges of high
rocks, of which the N., the Norra Ananas, is the highest;
and here the first solitary habitation is found about 120 m.
from the boundary of Norway. Where the rocks terminate
the river unites with the Lilla Lulea (Little Lulea), but even
farther down, where some patches of ground are cultivated
on its banks, numerous rapids and considerable cataracts ren-
der it entirely unfit for navigation, except a few miles from its
mouth. It enters the Gulf of Bothnia about 2 m. below the
town of Lulea, after a course of 200 m. Its largest tribu-
tary, the Lilla Lulea Elf. which likewise rises in the Kiiiltn
Mountains a little farther S., traverses a succession of seven
large lakes, which extend upwanl of 80 m. W. and E. ;
and after issuing from them rons above 20 m. before it
joins the Lulea-Elf. Its bed lies in a deeper valley; it
forms fewer and smaller rapids and cataracts, and its banks
are inhabited m several places.
The country between the Lulea-Elf and Skellextea-£lf is
nearly equally divided between mountains and plains. In
his part the Kiolen range rises to its greatest height in
Mount SuUtelma, and extensive ranges ^^{^^^^^^J^^
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B O T
256
B OT
eovenNl with snow. The ridgea branchings off from it £.
extcod from 60 to 80 m., and are divided by wide valleys,
which in their upper parts rise above iho line of the birch
(2000 ft.), and are only covered with swamps and reindeer
moss. In their lower parts foresls of pines, fir, and birch
are frequent, and the habitations of men soon begin to
appear, but the soil is unfit for cultivation, except a few
small patches. Sven lower down, in the plain itself, the
surface is generally covered with swamps, in which a great
number of loose stones occur. Along the water-codrses
Uie pasture is good, but in very few places can the soil be
eultivated with advantage. About GO m. from the shore,
agriculture begins to be the ])rincipal occupation of the in-
habitants, and villages are more numerous ; but even here
woods cover the greatest part of the country.
The Pitea-Elf rises in the exteuBive lake of Peskejaure,
which is enclosed by high mountain rocks, and running
through the mountainous country in a S.S. direction, tra-
verses many smaller lakes. Here it formi numerous rapids,
and some considerable cataracts. In the plain it continues
its S.E. course, but about 60 m. from the coast, it turns due
£. and falls into the sea a Uttle below the town of Pitea,
after a course of about 180 m. It is only navigable a few
miles from its mouth.
The Skelleftea-EIf rises in the N.E. declivity of the
Nasa-fiall, in which there are some mines of silver, which
since 1808 have not been worked. In the mountainous
portion of the country, this river likewise traverses some
considerable lakes, and receives the waters of others by
narrow channels. So far it runs S.S.E., but in the plain it
soon turns to E.S.E., and continues in that direction to
its mouth, below the church of Skelleftea. The rapids in
this river are more numerous than in the others ; but it has
fewer cataracts, so that the salmon ascend nearly to its
sources. The greatest cataracts are a few miles above the
church of Skelleftea, and of course the river is only navi-
gable for a few miles above its mouth. Its course is about
180 m.
On the banks of this river the great plain of Bothnia
ceases, the country S. of it being entirely hilly or moun-
tainous, and the level tracts few and of comparatively
small extent The hills cease at a short distance from the
shores. Farther inland they rise into mountains, with de-
clivities covered with forests, consisting chiefly of pine,
birch, and fir. The level tracts along the rivers afford
pasture, and are sometimes cultivated. Agriculture is car-
ried on to a much greater extent in the E. and hilly parts of
the country.
In this most S. portion of Bothnia the mountains in the
W. districts form ranges, rather than groups. Some miles
N of 65^ N. lat a range branches off from the Kiulen
chain, which running nearly E. traverses almost the whole
of the Scandinavian peninsula, terminating about 30 m. W.
of the moulh of the Umea-Elf. This range, called the
Slotting- fiiill, approaches the snow-line, and though its sum-
mits are formed of barren rocks, the sides are clothed with
fir, birch, and aspen, and afford good pasture.
To the N. of this chain runs the Oran-EIf, a considerable
river, rising at some distance from the Kiolen and running
iiearly E., and parallel to the Stutting-fiiill. It turns to the
S. E., where this mountain-range terminates, and soon
after enters Angermanland, where it still runs from 40 to
45 m., till it falls into the sea between the villat^es of
Angersjo and Lefvar. Its whole course may be upwards of
150 m.
To the N. of the Oran-Elf runs the Umea-Elf, which
rises in the Kiolen-range about 66° N. lat. It first runs S..
traversing some lakes, and then turns to the S.E. and Hows
into the large lake of Stora Umea. It continues in the same
direction till about 20 m. from the sea it is joined by the
Windol-Elf, and falls into the gulf after a course of about
1 80 m. The Windel-Elf which rises in the Kiolen range,
about 66° 30', on the S. declivity of the Nasa-fiull, and de-
scends in a S.E. direction with numerous bendings, is more
free from cataracts than the other rivers of Bothnia, and the
Swedish government has in later times succeeded in ren-
dering a considerable part of it navigable, at least so far
that timber and wood may be floated down.
Bothnia, extending on both sides of the polar circle, has.
of course, a very cold climate, tliough it is much milder than
other parts of the globe in the same latitude. Winter lasts,
m general, eight months, from the beginning of October to
Uie end of May, and the cold is very severe. It is followed
almost immediately by summer, a liiw moderata days
only intervening between the frost and a great degree «<f
heat. In the beginning of June all traces of winter have
disappeared, and the grain is sown. The great beat pny-
ducea by the long (Uys of 18 or 20 hours, united to iLt
moisture which has accumulated during the long winter.
give rise to a very rapid vegetation. Corn is sown anl
reaped in some places m the course of seven or eight week*,
and nowhere remains in the ground more than ten we«-k>.
Nevertheless it is sometimes destroyed by night frost, vhirh
generally appears about the 20th of August for three or
four nights in succession. These nights are called iron
nights, and are followed by about six weeks of moderate
warmth.
The quantity of snow which falls during the winter ii
very great ; but in summer rain is scarce : which circum-
stance would be very injurious to the growth of grass, wcn*
it not for the inundations of the rivers. The rivers of
Bothnia overflow the low tracts along their banks tvnre
a year ; the first time in the beginning of June, after tb«
melting of the snow in the lower parts of the country ; th«
second towards the middle of July, when a soeoessioii of
long days has produced the same effect on tbe mountains.
The latter inundation is more favourable to the growth of
grass than the former, and enables the inhabilanls to main-
tain a much larger stock of cattle during the eight winter
months.
The soil is of an indifferent quality, sandy and stony,
except along the Tomea-Elf and Muonio-Elf, where it \%
rather good, especially towards the shores of the gulf. TU«
worst poition is that along both sides of the Lulea-Elf. arid
the high valleys along the foot of tbe Kiolen. Alon^; the
shores of the gulf of Bothnia the land is much better. aoU
the crops sufllcient for the consumption of the inhabiunts ;
but as that is not the case with the more inland districts, a
certain quantity of corn is annually imported from FinUt -l
Wheat is only cultivated at one place, in the mii»t S.
corner of the province, and here hardly a few bushels srv
annually obtamed. Rye is grown nearly up to 66^ N. lat.. Bn4
oats ana barley even to 68^ Potatoes, which have been intro-
duced only in the last forty or fiftv years, sucoeed in mi.s:
places very well ; turnips and cabbages do not thri^v.
Black cattle form one of the principal sources of wealth la
the provinces, but the stock is hmited by the senreitv i f
meadows; pasture-walks however are so extensii-e, that
ten times the present number of cattle could easily be mam
tained in summer. Butter and hides, which are the prin-
cipal articles of export, are sent to Stockholm. Horses i-i:
rather numerous, and of a middling size. Sheep are ot..'*
found in the S. districts, and their wool is coarse. Hio
are not kept. The Laplanders have considerable herds cf
rein-deer, and live upon their flesh and other produce.
The inhabitants of the more inland districts gam thi r
living chiefly by fishing in the lakes, which abound m mir^
kinds of fish, as pike, tench, trout, but especially tbe /a.' • >
lavaretus. The salmon ascends those rivers which La\
not high cataracts, and the number of fish taken x< c ( -
siderable.
The greatest part of the country is still covecvd «i '-
forests. Only the high plain lietween the CaUx-Eif &i .
Lulea-Elf rises above the line of the birch trecji. Tli» d.-
trict and the upper parts of the mountains, with the btjsi n
valleys, are only covered with reindeer moss; the jy
mainder forms nearly an interminable forest, espertallr i^t
the inland country. The most common trees are bCn \ .
pine, fir, alder, and aspen. The birch grows to a stat*>*«
tree on the banks of the Tomea-Elf. But it is db&ert«Nl
that the growth of the trees is very slow, probably on arty^w t
of the length of the winter. The inhabitants have hither: >
derived very little advantage from this vast treasure, t*«
rivers not being navigable even for floating down wood. 1 •
some parts along the coast tar and pitch are made fur ex-
portation, but in no great quantity.
Tliree nations inhabit Bothnia,'the Finlanders, the L<*-
landers, and the Swedes. The Finlanders hai-e sef
cliiefly along the banks of the Muonio- Elf and Tomra >. '
where they form the bulk of the population. Tbe> api'^
themselves especially to the rearing of cattle, and siv^'di^t
guislied by their skill in the management of tlie dairy. 1
Ijiplanders inhabit the inland district, and conduet tV. -
herds of reindeer in the summer to the up|)cr valleys in i "
mountains, and even to Norway, but in winter they'dearx r 1
to the lower plains on the shores. SoQie of them 'faa^-e U. -
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B O T
257
BOX
come agrieultamts, and partly adoDted tbe manners and
customs of the Swedes. Tbe Swedes occupy the eountry
along the shores, and extend always farther np into the
valleys along the larger rivers. They occupy themselves
nearly exclusively with agriculture, except a few families in
the inland districts, who gain their sustenance by fishing in
the lakes.
Bothnia with Lapland is politically divided into two lans
or districts, of which the S. is called Wbstbrbotten, or
Umea Lan, and the N. NbRRBoiTBN, or Pitea Lan. (Buch*s
Travels; Schubert's Travels in Sweden; Maps 0/ Baron
Hermelin.)
BOTHNIA (the Gulf of ), the most northern part of the
Baltic Sea, extends from 60° to nearly 66'' N. lat. Between
60^ and 64° it lies due S. and N., but the remainder declines
to the N.E. Its whole length may be nearly 450 m.
Its entrance is formed by a strait called Alands Haf,
which divides the Scandinanan pen. from the Aland Islands,
that belong to the Russian government of Abo, a part
of the antient prov. of Finland. This strait is from 36 to
50 m. wide. North of it the gulf widens suddenly, the
coasts of Sweden trending to the N.W., so that before it
reaches 61° it has attained a width of upwards of 240 m. ;
which breadth it preserves nearly to 62°. Farther N, it
narrows gradually, till near 64° it forms another strait, called
the Quarken. Tbat portion of the gulf extending from Alands
Haf to the Quarken is called Bottniska Halfet (the sea of
B >thnia). At the Quarken the eoast of Sweden is hardly
niore than 60 m. from that of Russia, but the straits are still
farther narrowed by the Swedish island Holmoe and the
Russian islands Walloe, so that the free passage is only
about 25 m. wide. To the N. of the Quarken the gulf pre-
serves a width of from 50 to 60 m. for some distance, but it
afterwards widens to 100 and even 120 m., which breadth
continues to its northern termination. The portion of it
N. of the Quarken is properly called Bottniska Wicken
(the gulf of Bothnia).
The coasts 8. of the Quarken are rocky though not high
on both sides of the gulf, but in general higher on the western
side, where at a few places they rise to 60 ft, and upwards.
To the N. of the Quarken the coasts are low and sandy, with
the exception of a tract near the straits on the Russian side,
where they are rocky but likewise low. The largest part
(»r the coasts of this northern portion is formed by an alluvial
deposit brought down by numerous rivers.
Under Baltic (p. 347) is noticed the small degree of
faltness of the waters of that sea, and of the gulf of Bothnia
in particular; and also that the surface of the latter is fre-
(|uently covered with ice, so that it is possible to pass over it
imni the town of Wasa in Russia to Umea in Sweden.
1 he most remarkable instance in modem times was the
pa^sin^ of a corps of the Russian army under the command
of Barclay de Tolly in the last war (1 809). It was eifected
in the month of March ; the soldiers were obliged to pass
r;. 0 nights on rocky islands and on the ice, and reached
\'»nea ihe third evening.
There is no want of good harbours in the gulf; but the
navigation is interrupted by the ice for five months to the S.
«if ihe Quarken, and for six to the N. of it The latter por-
tion of the gulf is very rarely visited by foreign vessels ; the
pruduce of the adjacent countries being brought in the
small coasting vessels of the country to Stockholm and
the larger towns of Fmland. The southern part of the
i!u1f is however annually navigated by some English vessels,
which export timber and naval stores. Swedish and Norwe-
gian vessels also bring these articles to England. Fish is
IV >t abundant, with the exception of a kind of small herrings,
called by tbe Swedes strommings, which appear in summer
in jrreat numbers on the W. coast of the gulf, especially
S. of the Quarken, when nearly all the inhabitants of the
roast S. and N. of Hernosand are occupied in catching
them. The greater part are dried, but a considerable por-
ti'jn undergo a fermentation in a closed cask, after having
previously been a little salted, and exposed to the air for
a short time. The first thus acquires a sour taste, and is
ciUed surstromming. Both the dried and sour strommings
sre exported to the neighbouring countries, and are used by
the lower classes in a great part of Sweden.
BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN, EARL OF. was
the only son of Patrick, third earl of Bothwell, of the Hep-
burn family. His mother. Agnes, daughter of Henry Lord
Sinclair, by a daughter of Patrick Hepburn, first earl of
Bothwell, Uved many yean in a state of divorce from her
husband, but for what reason is not certam.y known. Eari
Patrick was notoriously profligate in his public character*
He died in September, 1556, at the age of 51 ; when his son
James succeeded to his honours, offices, and estates. The
offices which he transmitted were those of Great Admiral of
Scotland, Sheriffs of the Shores of Berwick, Edinburgh, and
Haddington, and Baillie of Lauderdale, all which he had
himself inherited. The Hepburns were originally mere
tenants of the earl of March ; but in a short time they coped
with their potent chief, and, on his forfeiture in the fifteenth
century, they rose to be immediate tenants of the crown,
and shortly afterwards the head of the house was made a
lord of parliament. The affiuence and power of the family
reached its height in the time of Patrick Hepburn, second
Lord Hales, who received from the crown, among other
grants, the lands and lordships of Bothwell and Crichton,
which were thereupon erected into an earldom. Tbe lands
of the lordship of Bothwell however were hardly in his pos-
session, when, at the king's command, they were transferred
to the earl of Angus, in exchange for the turbulent border
country of Lidderaale, the king then saying there was no
order to be had with the earls of Angus so long as they kept
Liddesdale. The second earl of Bothwell succeeded to his
father's titles, heritable offices, and vast estates in the several
counties of Edinburgh, Haddington, Roxburgh, Dumfries,
Kirkcudbright, and Lanark, which, on his fall at the fatal
field of Fl^den, passed to the father of Earl James, who,
notwithstanding the misconduct of his parent, was by
descent the most powerful noble of the south of Scotland,
and had the castles of Hermitage, in Liddesdale; Hales, in
the shire of Haddington; and Crichton. in the shire of
Edinburgh. These fortresses are now mouldering into dust,
and the surrounding country is rich with the peaceful
labours of the plough. In the times we speak of, the for-
tresses were furnished for a feud, and the adjacent country
was scoured by predatory bands. The church and a few
great lay proprietors mutually rivalled and despoiled each
other, and a series of regal minorities allowed them all to
attack and despoil the crown. It had. also become the policy
of tbe English kings to hire a secret party in Scotland to
divide the nation; and in the year immediately preceding
Earl James* succession to the Bothwell estates, the Scottish
reformer Knox had begun to denounce in the capital the
errors of the established faith and the baneful spirit of its
ecclesiastics.
Till his father's death, Earl James remained, as it seems,
abroad, probably with his father, who, after allying himself
with Edward, king of England, against his sovereign, fled
into foreign parts ; but immediately on his father's decease,
Bothwell entered on the busy stage of publie life, being
then about 30 years of age. He was served heir to his
father on the 3rd of November, 1556, and he attended the
parliament of December, 1557, when a commission of the
estates of (he realm was appointed for negotiating the mar-
riage of the infant oueen of Scots with the dauphin of
France. In the parliament of November, 1558, he waa
named one of the lords of the articles ; soon afterwards, we
find him as lieutenant of the borders meeting, with the earl
of Northumberland, the English lieutenant, to adjust some
border differences ; on the 30th October, 1559, he is fbund,
under the orders of the queen regent, intercepting Cockburn,
of Ormtston, near Haddington, when that baron was bring-
ing supplies from England to the party of the reformation ;
and the following month, when the reformers retreated
before the regent's forces, he proclaimed the earl of Arran,
one of the reform leaders, a traitor to the government. Next
year the queen regent died, and soon afterwards the presby-
terian form of protestantism was formally established, the
reform leaders or lords of the congregation taking the reins
of administration. In the end of the same vear, Francis 11.
of France, died ; and in contemplation of Mary his widowed
queen's return to Scotland, several nobles of the protestaiit
party were despatched to France with a tender of their
serA'ices. In this company we find Bothwell, who, with all
his father's suppleness, had changed with the times and
acceded to the congregation. Mary, then scarce 20 years
old, landed at Leith on the I9th August, 1561 ; and in
forming her government, she set her bastard brother. Lord
James Stewart, a protestant, at the head of the administra-
tion, and made Bothwell, whose sister Lord James had
recently married, one of her privy council ; the other mem-
bers of the government and chief officers of state being also
protestants. The government however of w^ieh Bothwel^
No. 304.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDLA.]
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258
BOT
was thus a part, was frequently disturbed by his violence,
hia contesU with the earl of Arran, his brother-in-law, and
his outrai(es on individuals. For his misconduct he was, in
December, 1561, summoned to court, and then ordered to
Suit Edinburgh till the 8lh of the following month. In
larch, 1562, he endeavoured to get Arran, to whom he
had become reconciled, to conspire with him in seizing the
queen at Falkland, in her progress to the north, in order to
£ut her brother hi possession of the forfeited earldom of
lurray ; and detaining licr in captivity till she should ac-
quiesce in their measures. But Arran having revealed the
matter, he and Bothwell were both committed to Edinburgh
castle, whence however Bothwell escaped; and after for-
tifying himself awhile in his own retreat at Hermitage, got
to sea, but was taken again at Holy Island. Randolph
pressed his detention much, representing him as the * deter-
mined enemy of England, despiteful out of measure, false
and untrue as a devil/ Notwithstanding he got to France;
but soon afterwards he returned to Scotland again. ' The
Sueen,' (Mary), says Randi)lph, in one of his despatches to
ecil at this time, * misliketh BothwcU's coming home, and
hath summoned him to undergo the law or be proclaimed a
rebel. He is charged to have spoken dishonourably of the
queen, and to have threatened to kill Murray and Lething-
ton.' The dishonour here alluded to was probably the same
as that mentioned in another despatch to Cecil of date
30th March, where he says * Bothwell hath grievously of-
fended the queen of Scots by words spoken against the
English queen, and also against herself, calling her the
cardinaVs (Beaton) whore : she hath sworn unto me upon
her honour that he shall never receive favour at her hands/
The following month we find a despatch from Bedford to
Cecil, in which Bothwell is represented as addicted to vice
and unnatural crime ; and. about the same time, Bedford
writes to the same minister that Bothwell *hath been in
divers places, at Haddington, with his mother, and else-
where, and findeth no safety any where« Murray followeth
him so earnestly, as he hath said Scotland shall not fuM us
both," By the queen's directions, he was, for his treason-
able conspiracy of March, 1562. indicted before the lord
justiciar on the 2nd of May. On that occasion, the earl of
Ar;;yle. the justiciary, and the earl of Murray, came to
Edinburgh at the head uf 6000 men, to hold a justice
court ; but Bothwell had embarked at North Berwick for
foreign parts, and not appearing at the trial, was outlawed.
In this depth of debasement however Bothwell watched
every opportunity to spring again into royal favour ; and
when the queen married her cousin Darnley, he returned
to Scotland. In the beginning of October of the same year we
And him one of the now privy councillors, and a leader of
the royal army against Murray, Arran, and others who
opposed the match ; and on the 31st of the same month
Randolph writes to Cecil, * My Lord Bothwell, for his great
virtue, doth now all, next to the Earl of Athol/ The fol-
lowing spring, Bothwell, then at the age of 41, married
Lady Jane Gordon, sister of the Earl of Huntley, whose
father had been Lord Chancellor of Scotland. In the mur-
der of Rizzio, the queen's secretary, at the instigation of
the jealous Darnley, Bothwell stood by the queen and was
opposed to the enterprise ; and the following niuht we find
him among other nobles attendmg the royal pair within the
castle of Dunbar in his shire of Haddington, whither the
qneen persuaded Darnley to tlee with her, and of which fort
Bothwell had the custody. The king and queen soon after-
wards returned in a sort of triumph to Edinburgh and pro-
ceeded to the castle, where she immediately sent for Argyle
and Murray, and had them reconciled to Huntley, Bothwell,
and Athol. But Bothwell had only obtained the apparent
friendship of the nobility. In a letter from Alnwick, of date
3rd of April, 1 565, it is stated that one of Both welPs servants
confessed that he and four more of his fellow-servants had
been en^^aged by Lethington to murder Bothwell, the other
servants on their examination making the like confession ;
and on the 2Qd August, 1566, Bedford wrote to Cecil that
' the Lords Maxwell and Bothwell are now enemies. Both-
well is generally hated, and is more insolent than even
David Rizzio was/ With the sovereign however Bothwell
was, as Bedford afterwards writes to Cecil, * in favour, and
baa a great hand in the management of affairs.* He
attended the king when he went to Tweedale in August,
1566. to enjoy the amusement of the chace; he returned
with him to Edinburgn, where we find him in the council
b«ld in September of the above year, and also in the great
council which voted a supply of 12,OD0t for defraying the
expense of the infant prince's baptism ; and from Ed i •
burgh he proceeded with the royal party to Stirling t4» ^ -
the Prince. It being afterwards detcrmmed that the qu* *
should hold a justice ayre on the borders, Bothwell wa^ t..*>
patched, as lieutenant of the marches, to I^eddesdalc, i
chief seat of outrage. But the people of that district h. •!
been gained to the English interest, and when Both v. ..
arrived he was attacked and severely wounded. On tl*e -* :
October, 1566, he was, says Birrel, * deidly wounded by J
Ellcte, alias John of the Park, whose head was wnt i: *
Edinburgh thereafter/ The queen, on hearing of ilic i •
jury Bothwell had sustained, immediately rode off fn»m J-
burgh, whore she then was, to Hermitage castle, a d>t <• • *
of about 40 miles, through a rugged country, to vi*it t^titi
and returned to Jedburgh the same day— a journey vl; .
from the anxiety and exertions attendant on it, bruugl.i ..
a violent fever that threatened her life. She became. • •.
Birrel * deidly sick, and desired the bells to be rung, ami ' :
people to resort to the kirk to pray for her/ Bothweli * .«
also, on the same occasion, conveyed to Jedburgh, where ;
queen lay ; and as the Bishop of Koss wrote from Jcdht: ^'..
on the 27th October, 1566, to Archbishop Beaton at I'ar.^.
* My Lord Bothwell is here, wha convalesres well ot i..»
wounds,' 80 the queen also gradually recovered wviU I. • ..
She now made a tour through the Merse, and arnvi- ! .:
Craigmillar castle near Edinburgh, where she remained * .
her removal to Stirling to attend the baptism of her wi
While at Craigmillar, the project of her divorce U :.
Darnley was opened to her, but she declined the pro7«'«
fearing her own reputation and her son's succession. U- t:-
well, to Quiet her fears on the latter point, quoted hi« •
case, as naving succeeded to his paternal e^tates not« \
standing a subsisting dU'orce bct\^ecn his parents. But <
queen appearing to dislike it, the subject was nut i. • -
pressed. When at Stirling, en occasion of the prmci* «■
tism, she agreed to restore Morton and the other niv.:- •
of Rizzio, and on the 25th December, 1566, thvi( p^
was signed. The following month Bedford wrote tti ^ i
' the Earl of Morton, having now obtaiiied hi» p^ni u, u
think himself much beholden to you fur your fa^nu: .
good-will therein. There were some that thooxhi tn i .
the same, but his friends stuck so to it on hib It]. .
prevailed therein. In the which, the Earl o( UoUi'^i^n, .
a very friend, joined with my L)rd of Mun^y : > .
Athol and others/ It is likely that an ambition v» ^ ->
the queen had already filled the mind of B^thvicU. ui
having failed in obtaining a divorce he had peice»xe«i N.
ton to be a fit instrument for his purpose. On iLc .
December, 1566, Darnley went to visit his father at ». •
gow, where he was soon laid up with bmall-p^ix. Dr
20th of next month Mary went to visit him. and on i: '.
the king and queen came to Edinburgh, where tlu* .
was conveyed to lodgings in the kirk of Field. I>.
the whole of January Bothwell was in inter couro*
Morton and others, to whom be said * it was tWt> , \
mind that the king should be taken away.* Tlie '•*«
spent the evening of the 9th February in Darnle> > i •:. .
and at 12 o'clock she left him for a masque, havti.::
kissed him and put one of hor rings on his finger. ';
hours after, the house where Darnley lay wa.% blovin up.
he and his servant destroyed in the explosion. Thv pt.'
voice was unanimous in declaring Bothwell scressary f" '
murder, and placards were put up on tbe streets a<-ei.« . ^
him of the crime ; but though he con tmued in^lmVmr.
no steps were taken asrainst him till tbe 2BthHarrh, u.
Lennox, the father of Darnley, avowing himself hts %tr.-^^'
the privy council directed him and others to be indidt-i
the murder. Three days before the trial Murray ti-i i ti ♦
France without any known business; and at the triAl B '
well stood and was acquitted ; but when the mode m « : *
trials were at that time conducted in Scotland is con»> dm •.
his acquittal will be held as really immatenal in detrn-? -
ing the question of his innocence or guilt. Two day» ai -
wards the parliament assembled at Ediobnn^h an«l H *.
well was one of the commissioners who met the eatate«. V
also carried the sword of state before the queen wbeo -
came to the parliament in person; and in the sani«* f^'
ment he was chosen one of the lords of the articles. CK.
last day of the parliament various ratifications werv rs<>-
in favoiu* of different persons. The Earl of M urray . (1; .
absent, obtained a ratification of bis lamia and ear** : .
Morton got a ratiflcatioa of bis lands^ with tbots of A:
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a. Body triply divided.
Genus Polyclinum (Savigny).
Of this section the violet Botryllus {Bolryllug violaeeus)
is an example.
b. Body entire ; disposition in many concentric circles.
Genus Polycycluh (Lamarck).
Of this section Renier s Botryllus {Botryllus Renierii) is
an example.
Body entire; disposition radiatifig; eight tentacula,
the four smallest of which are at the external orifice.
Genus Botryllus (Lamarck).
Of this division the stellated Botr>'llus {Botryllus stel-
lotus) is an example.
The species are European.
[BotryUttt ateUatna.]
a. a roup of Botryttrnt tteUaha upon Atddia inieiHrnaliMi 6. a disk magnifteJ.
BOTRYOLTTE. [Datholitb.]
BOX RY 'TIS, one of the ohscure parasitical genera of
fungi, to which what is called mildew is often attrihuuble.
The plants consist of little cells adhering end to end ; of
these a part lies prostrate on the surface of the plant that
bears them, the other rises erect from the surface and bears
a collection of roundish seed-cases at the extremity. From
the spores contained in these cases the plants are propa-
gated, and seeing that their size is so microscopic in all
cases as to escape our vision unaided by glasses, and that
what seems to the naked eye a thin l)rownish white patch
upon a leaf is in reality a dense forest of such plants, their
power of dissemination must be very great. They attack
the fibres of vegetable fabrics, such as linen and cotton when
placed in damp places, and the decayed stems of various
plants, decaying apples, pears, grapes, &c. &c. They are
always superficial and never intestinal.
BOTS are the larvie or caterpillars of the gadHy, belong-
ing to the order Diptera and the genus (Estrus, and dis-
tinguished by this peculiarity, that they pass the larval state
of their existence within some living animal, and feed on
the juices or substance of that animal. There are numerous
species of them. Every quadruped on which they prey has
its peculiar fly. The notice of a few of those most com-
monly known will suffice.
The CBstrus equi, or gad-fly of the horse, belongs to the
species (the genus of some entomologists) Gasterophilus,
so called from its larvoD inhabiting the stomach of that
animal. It is distinguished from the other (Estri by the
smoothness of the thorax, and by the eyes in both sexes
being eauidistant from each other, not quite half an inch
in lenutn, with gauze-like yellow and brown wings, its
chest of a rusty colour approaching to a brown hue on
the sides and with a yellow tinge posteriorly, its belly of a
reddish brown superiorly and a diity grey beneath, with its
extremity almost black ; the whole insect is thickly covered
with down. The gad-fly is seen in the latter part of the
summer very busy about horses : this is the impregnated
female depositing her eggs. She approaches the horse,
selects some part which he can reach with his tongue, and
which he is in the frequent habit of licking ; she balances
herself for a moment, and Uien, suddenly darting down,
deposits an egg on (me of the hairs, which adheres by a glu-
tinous substance that surrounds it She continues her
labour with wonderful perseverance until she has parted
with fifty or a hundred cggt, and then haTing exhantted
herself, she slowly flies away, or drops at once and dies.
If a horse at grass is carefully examined in August, %«rr*
hundreds of these minute eggs will be found about its h .
and the back part of the shoulder, and few Oi* none out • '
the reach of his tongue. In two or three days these «-kv -
are sufliciently matured to be hatched. Possibly the lor-
feels a little inconvenience from all this glutinous mat:«t
sticking about and stiffening the hair, and he licks the paii.
and by the pressure of the tongue, and the mingled inftu
ence of the warmth and moisture of it, the ova arc bur*f,
and a small worm escapes from each. It clings to il..-
tongue, and is thus conveyed into the mouth ; thence it i«
either carried with the food into the stomach, or, impclle?! by
instinct, it travels down tha gullet, being of too tiny j»iz€ t .
inconvenience or annoy the horse. Thus it reaches the s: -
mach, and, by means of a hook on each side of its mout}:.
affixes itself to the cuticular or insensible coat of thjt
viscus. It scoops out a little hole, into which its muxiV
is plunged, and there it remains until the early part of the
summer of the following year, feeding on the mucous ur
other matter which the coats of tho stomach aflbrd. It bus
now become an inch in length and of corresponding bulk.
and ready to undergo its change of form. It detaches itself
from the cuticular coat to whicli it had adhered, and pluiig' «
into the food which the other and digestive portion of ih«»
stomach rx)n tains ; it passes with the food through the i* li.>lf
length of the intestines, and is discharged with the dun/
Sometimes it is not perfectly enveloped in the fecal m*** ,
it then clings to the sides of the anus, and hangs then*
firmly until there is a soft place beneath on which it mj>
drop ; it then hastens to burrow into the earth, and« li it
has escaped the birds that are eagerly watching for it, .i
has no sooner hollowed for itself a convenient habitatf iS
than a shelly covering is formed around it, and it appears
in the state of a pupa or chrysalis.
It here lies torpid for a few weeks preparing to under/?>
its last change. It assumes the form of a perfect flj ; iC
then bursts from its prison, rises in the air, and seeks it^
mate. The work of fecundation being aceomplished, tr.«
male immediately dies : the female lingers a dav or two m
order to find the proper deposit for her eggs, and her short
life also terminates.
It is in the larva or caterpillar state that the boC is mobX
known. The stomach of the horse sometimes contains au
almost incredible number of them, the cuticuVar poriioc^ of
that organ being in a manner covered with them. In a fr«
instances they have been decidedly injurious ; having mis-
taken the upper part of the windpipe for their resideDcr,
and, fastening themselves on the edges of the opeo.nc
into it, have produced a cough which no medicine c«>u<i
alleviate, and which increased with the growth of the Uit^
until a degree of irritation was excited under which tLc
animal sunk. They have also travelled farther than u-.r
stomach, and have irritated and choked the first mte%rte.
and thus destroyed the horse ; and, even in their natuni
habitation, under probably some diseased state of th<^ >i -
mach arising from other causes, they have perforated it at: 1
caused death.
These however are rare occurrences ; they are exception %
to a general rule. The pUin matter of fiict ia, that a
horse that has been turned out in July and August, atil
therefore almost necessarily has hots, enjoys just as ei*mi
health as another that has been stabled during this pe/u>d.
He is in as good condition, and as fully capable of work >Bibon
the cuticular coat is crowded with full-formed bou as be v^ ..t
any other time ; and his health is unaffected when tbe\ arr
passing through the intestines to seek a new habitatioii.
Some persons have maintained that their pre^en^ n
the stomach is beneficial. It has been said that, b> tir.r
constant action on it, in the suction of their food, :i * \
rouse it to the fUU exercise of its di^tive powers. It • >•
forgotten however that their habitation is not the di|^rst:^•
portion of the stomach. They have been said to as»t>t, t-.
the hard and irregular surface which they present, in t*
trituration of the food ; but the function diM;harged b> tr«
portion of the stomach on which they are (bund is sixni ^
one of maceration. There is no necessity for supposing xhi'
their presence is beneficial to the horse. The truth is, the ^
insects find here a secure and comfortable abode dur.^«-
thcir larval state, without, eenerally speaking, produeini! ^' '
other inconvenience to the horse than the temporary trruati. i.
which they occasionally excite when making their escape.
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B O T
The horae^wner therefore win care very little about tLem.
He will remove them when they are hanging around the
anus ; but he will never have recourse to physic on their ac-
rownt, because it is rare indeed that they do any harm, and,
if they did, their muzzles are huried so deeply in the cu-
ticular coat that no medicine that is safe to administer
cun possibly have any effect upon them.
A smaller species of hot, called from its colour the red-
bo f, is occasionally found in the stomach ; but the fly from
which it proceeds has never been accurately described.
There is no ground for the assertion that the red-hot is
more injurious than the common hot.
A third species, the CBstrus hemorrhoidalis, or funda-
nientbot, is better known. The fly is considerably smaller
than the common (Estrus equi ; it is of a brown colour,
with the extremity of the body rounded and yellow, and the
mouth is furnished witli exceedingly sharp pincers. This
fly may be seen darting between the thighs of the horse and
around its croup, and following the motions of the tail until
the animal is preparing to dung. During the evacua-
tion of the dung, and the subsequent protrusion of the in-
testine, it darts upon and tears the gut with its pincers, and
deposits an egg in every wound. The horse does not seem
to suffer any pain during this operation, for he stands pas-
sive ; and the little worm, soon produced from the ejrg, esta-
Mi^hes its abode in the place in which it was deposited. It
likewise remains its stated time in the intestine, and escapes
at the same time that the common hot does from the
8ti)mach. These bots are often seen within the verge of
tlie anus, and occasionally seem to be productive of a slight
degree of irritation. They are smaller than the common
Lot, and distinguished from the red-hot by their colour. An
injection of linseed-oil will generally dislodge them.*
The CEsirus ovis, or (Estrus of the sheep, is a more for-
midable insect It is smaller than the (Estrus of the horse :
its body is of a dark-brown colour, spotted with white, the
white sometimes so much prevailing as to give a greyish
hue to the fly. It may often be seen in copses, and par-
ticularly on rails in the neighbourhood of a copse. Every
shepherd ought to make himself acquainted with it, for it
may then be easily crushed and destroyed. It prevails
most in June and July, and is sometimes an intolerable
nuisance in woody countries. If only one of them appears
the whole flock is struck with terror ; and if there is any
place in the field devoid of pasture the sheep crowd to it,
turning their heads towards the centre of the group, with
tboir muzzles to the sand, and their feet in continual
motion in order to secure themselves from the attack of
their foe. The (Estrus endeavours to get at the inner
margin of the nostril, and, darting upon it with the quick-
ness of lightning, deposits her egg. The warmth and
moisture of the port speedily hatch it, and the little worm
c>cupes. It crawls up the nostril, it threads all the sinu-
osities of the passage, and finds its way to some of the
Mnuses connected with the nose. The irritation which it
Oicasions as it travels up the nose seems to be exceedingly
Ktvat. The poor animal gallops furiously about, snorting
violently, ana almost maddened by tlie annoyance. At
len;;th the worm reaches some of the convolutions of the
turbinated bones of the nose, or the antrum or cavity of the
upper jaw, or the frontal sinuses, it fastens itelf on the
membrane by the two hooks with which, like the others, it
is provided, and there it remains until April or May in the
succeeding year.
There are seldom more than three or four of these bots
in each sheep; and when they have reached their ap-
pointed home, Uke the bots in the stomach of the horse,
they are harmless. Some strange but groundless stories
have been told of gleet from the nose, giddiness, and in-
tl&romation of the brain having been produced by them.
The larva or hot remains in the sinus until it has fully
^rown. It then detaches itself from the membrane, creeps
out the same way by which it entered, and again sadly an-
noys the animal for a little while, the sheep making the
most violent efforts to sneeze it out. At length the grub
being dropped, burrows in the earth, becomes an oval
and motionless chrysalis, and, six weeks or two months
aflerwarda it breaks from its prison a perfect fly. The
work of propagation being effected, the male, like that of
the (Estrus equi, dies ; the female Ungers on a little while
* Both the red«bot and the h«morrhoid«Ut belong to the tpeeie* gailero-
t-HtliH ; and to Uie \tuvm of tliete three the term but bas been by tnany authors
r^tneted : bat as the larva of all th« ostri pass this iwrtion of tlieir exiHtcnee
v4hm S9me living animal, it Mema natural to extand the term to them aU.
until she has safely deposited her ova ; she takes no food,
for she has no organs to receive or digest it ; she accom-
plishes her task and expires.
The (Estrus bovis, or gad-fly of the ox, is larger than
either of the others. Its chest is dark-brown, with a yellow
patch on the back, and the rounded abdomen has alternate
rings of a brown and orange colour. The fatty and cel-
lular substance beneath the skin of the ox is the rchi-
dence of its larva). The fly almost uniformly selects a
young beast in good condition, and ahghting on the back, a
little on one side of the spine, it punctures the skin and
drops one of its eggs into the perforation, and with it, pror
bably, some acrid fluid which causes temporary but intense
pain. The ox darts away, and runs bellowing over the
field with his head protruded and his tail extended. His
companions, smarting from the same pain, or dreading a
similar attack, also gallop wildly in every direction, hasten-
ing, if it be in their power, to some pond or stream, where
their enemy is afraid to follow them'*'. A small tumour, a
warble, presently appears on the back, which being care-
fully examinod is found to contain a little white worm. This
worm grows and assumes a darker colour, and becomes a
perfect bot ; and there it remains, abundantly nourished by
the fatty matter around it, until the following June, when
it begins to eat its way through the wall of its cell. Many
a bii3, aware from the uneasiness of the beast of what is
going forward, is ready to seize the bot as it is forcing itself
through the aperture which it has made ; and the cattle too*
instinctively crowd to the water in order that the intruder
may fall into the stream and thus be lost. In one of these
ways the great majority of the larvse perish; but a few
reach the ground, speedily burrow into it, pass through
their chrysaline state, and re-appear in August in their
last and perfect form. They also immediately set to work
to secure the perpetuation of their species, regardless of
the annoyance to the animals within whose frame they
find a refuge.
1. The female of the (Estrus eqni nearly double its uatural sixe.
& The ei^RB, alau maj^ilied, depo«tled on and ailheriug to the hair.
3. The boLf— one- half of their natural size— adhering by their tentucula. or
hooked mouths, to the cuttcular portion of tho stomach. Some of them are
supposed to be recently detiched, and the excavations wluch they had mode
in the cuUcular coat are seen.
4. Ths fuUgrown bot detached.
5. The (Estrus ovis, or gad-fly of the sheep.
The farmer does not pay the attention which he ought to
these warbles. It is true that the cattle, when the tumour
has once formed, do not appear to suffer any inconvenience
from its existence ; and the farmer is accustomed to asso-
ciate with the appearance of a few warbles the certainty of
the thriving condition of the beasts ; but he forgets the pain
and terror which the animal has already suffered, and that
which he has yet to undergo ; and he also forgets the de-
terioration of the bide. The hole made by the bot in hia
escape will apparently close, but not until after a consider-
able period has elapsed, and never with a substance so firm
and durable as the first. It is easy to destroy the creature
in its cell. The pressure of the finger and thumb will effect
it, and while the beast will escape considerable annoyance,
the hide will not be damaged.
The goat and the different species of deer, and, in fact,
• It is probably this fly. or some one like it. that VirgU ((horgie, ill* 146)
deaerib«s m driTing th* catUe mad in the lonth of Ualy*
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almost all animals, have their peculiar tormentors, hut the
distinctions and hahits of these varieties of the (Estru» are
not well known.
BOTTA'RI, GIOVA'NNI, was horn at Florence in
1689, studied Latin and helles lettres under the learned
Biscioni,and Greek under Salvini, and afterwards philosophy,
mathematics, and theology, in which last he took his doctor s
def^tee in 1716 in the University of Florence. The Academy
of La Crusca made him one of its members, and entrusted
him with the task of preparing a new edition of its great
vocabulary, in company with Andrea Alamanni, and Rosso
Martini. This laborious work lasted several years, and the
new edition was published in 1738, in 6 vols. fol. Bottari
was also made superintendent of the grand ducal printing
establishment at Florence, where he published new editions
of several Tuscan writers with notes and comments, such as
Varchi's Ercolano, the works of Sacchetti, of Fri Guitton
d*Arezzo» &c. In 1729, he wrote Lexioni tri Sopra il
tremuoto on the occasion of an earthquake which occurred
at Florence in that year. In 1 730 he went to Rome, where
he fixed his residence. Clement XII. gave him a canonry,
and also the chair of ecclesiastical history in the Univer-
sity of La Sapienza, and employed him in 1 732 together
with Eustachio Manfredi, on a survey of the Tiber through-
out Umbria, in order to ascertain whether it could be rendered
navigable. The result of this survey was published : * Rela-
zione della visita del flume Tevere da Ponte Nuovo sotto
Perugia fino alia foce della Nera.' Bottari made a similar
survey of the Teverone. His next publication was a learned
work on the monuments found in the numerous and vast
subterraneous vaults near Rome, commonly known by the
name of catacombs: • Sculture e pitture sacre estratte
dai cimiterj di Roma, pubblicate gid dagli autori della
Roma Sotterranea, ed ora nuovamente date in lure colla
spiegazione ed indici,' 3 vol. fol. Rome, 1 737—54. He
used the plates of the Roma Sotterranea of Boslo, which
Clement XII. had purchased ; but the letter-press may be
said to be entirely Bottari's. He also published • Storia
doi SS. Barlaam e Giosaftitte ridotta alia sua antica puritd
di favella coll'ajuto degli antichi testi a penna con prefa-
zione,* 4to. 1734, Clement XII. being pleased with his
exertions, bestowed on him several preferments, made him a
prelate of the Pontifical Court, andlibrarianof the Vatican.
Benedict XIV., who succeeded Clement in 1740, made
Bottari take up his abode near him in the Pontifical Palace.
* Here I am,' Bottari wrote soon after to a friend at Brescia,
' because his Holiness would have it so, and here I shall
remain, without however expecting or demanding, wishing
or deser\-ing anjr further promotion, which would not be of
any use either tor my body or my soul.' And in fact he
rose no farther in the career of ecclesiastical dijjnities. He
published, in 1741, 'Del Museo Capilohno, tomo i. conte-
nente le imajfini d'uomini illustri, fol. ; and afterwards * Mu-
sei Capitolini tomus secundus, Auguslorum et Augustarum
hermas continens, cum Observation ibus,* fol. 1750. Also
• Antiquissimi Virgiliani Codicis fragmcnta et pictuno ex
Vatican a Bibliotheca ad priscas imaginum formas a Petro
S. Bartoli incisro,' 1741. fol. Bottari contributed to this
work an important preface, with a disquisition on the age
of two MSS. of Virgil in the Vatican, and notes, variantes,
&c. * Descrizione del palazzo Apostolico Vaticano, opera
postuma di Agostino Taja, rivista e accresciuta Roma, 1750.*
Taja had begun this work, which Bottari recast and com-
pleted. Bottari died at Rome m June 1775, at the age of
86. He was one of the most distinguished scholars at the
Roman Court in the 1 8th century. Among his minor works
are. Dissertations on the origin of the invention of Dante s
poem ; two Lectures upon Boccaccio, in which Bottari refutes
tiie charge of infidelity brought against that writer ; two
Lectures on Livy, defending the Roman historian against
the charge of too great credulity in narrating prodigies ;
Letters on the fine arts. Dialogues on the same subject, &c.
(Grazzini eiogio di Monsignor Bottari ; Mazzuchelli Scrit-
tori dltaliaA
BOTTLES, GLASS, in common with other descriptions
of glass wares, were first subjected to a duty by the 6 and 7
Will, and Mary, but the duty then imposed, after undergoing
various modifications, was repealed four years after, by an
act, the preamble of which recited that it was * found by ex-
perience that the duties on glass and glass-wares are very
vexatious and troublesome in the levying and collecting the
same, and of small advantage to the Crown, and should the
same be continued would lessen the duty on ooals much I
more than the said duties on glass-ware would tmoant to
would hinder the employing great numbers of poor, an«l
endanger the loss of so beneficial a manuftcture to th «
kingdom.* The experience thus recorded did not howevc-r
prevent recourse being had to glass as a means for rai^kintr
revenue, and in 1746 various rates of duties were imp"*-' «1
upon the materials used for making different kinds of gl»« s
in Great Britain, and among the rest 2t. Ad. per cwt. ujk.-i
the materials of which common bottles were made ; in 1 rr -i
this rate was increased to Zs, 6d, per cwt. : in the follow ;. .r
year it was made 3s. 8ef. ; in 1781 the rate was advanced t .•
3s. lOd. ; and in 1787 to 4«. Oid., at which it continued ur.i
1804, when it was made 4s. \d. In 1813, the duties up^^r*
glass, generally, were doubled, and the rate upon bottler K-«
came Ss. 2d. per cwt. ; at which it remained until 1828. vht* n
it was reduced to 78., and at this rate it has since eontinuc i.
Until the year 1826, Ireland enjoyed an exemption fn^ni
duty upon all kinds of glass made at home, with the i-xrv}»-
tion of common bottles, upon which a duty of 1#. Sftl i»r
cwt. was imposed in 1797; this rate was continued ui * !
1828, when it was advanced to 7s. per cwt the rate parab!.
in Great Britain, and no alteration has since been mailo.
At the time the duty on glass bottles was doubled n ^*i .? ;,
a tax of 2s. 6d. per cwt. on stone bottles was imposed at the
instance of the makers of glass bottles, who feared that tl.e
advanced cost of their own manufacture would give n-.
advantage to the makers of stone bottles. This rate was
doubled in 1817. This duty on stone bottles never pro-
duced much beyond 3000/. per annum on the gross recet^-t,
and it was repealed in 1834.
The quantity of bottle glass made in Great Britain. up> n
which excise duties were paid at different periods from 1 7 ")'.-.
are as follows : —
1790...
.215.084 cwt
1815.
...160,175 cwt
1795...
.205,330
1820.
..167,200
1800...
.159.334
1825.
..248.616
1805...
.215.094
1830.
..139.157
1810...
.252,872
1834..
..215.03«
The amount of duty collected, and drawback pai-^. •
the United Kingdom, during the five years fh)m IhZv \ .
1 834, was as follows : —
Grov Duty. Draw. 6n Export. N^t SrTroQe.
1830 . . . .£1 19,277. . . £56,070. . . £63.-^07
183 1 102,854 50, 1 97 52.657
1832 1 0y,298 53,765 55.533
1833 113.120 55,724 57,396
1834 102,406 52,456 49.950
The whole duty is drawn hack on exportation.
The manufacture is treated of under Glass.
BOTTOM HEAT, a term in horticulture exprewtfY* r
an artificial temperature communicated by means of f •
menting vegetable matter to the soil in which plants rrv ■
It is usually obtained either by leaves, or tan. or fn-^
stable-litter thrown into a heap, and enclosed within t* *>
walls of a brick pit, the surface of which is covered «:: .
soil. The object of the cultivator is by such means to jt-^
vent the temperature of the soil from becoming lesis than >
Fahr. or more than 90°. The plants to which this ktnd •:
temperature is applied are piue-apples. melons, cucumber^.
&c., and certahi tropical plants cultivated in stoves.
It is probable that this operation took its rise at a t : *
when it was extremely difficult to procure an equable fdn-
perature of the atmosphere by other means: ^ttd mbrti. xl
the heat of smoke in tlues was employed, it bad rhe efr«> c
of drying the air in which plants were culti^-ated till it w •>
unfit fbr their respiration. Fermenting matter, the temt .-
rature of which was prolonged and steady, had in addi- n
the great but hardly appreciated convenience, of keep ' ,-
the air also gently moistened ; and in this the greate>i •
vantage was found to result Physiologists tell tt> th..'.
although plants may not derive much direct adrant:..:
from atmospheric moisture, inasmuch as the principal part . f
the water of vegetation is derived from the soil, jret t-rr
are exceedingly benefited by the presence of a certain quan-
tity of vapour in the circumambient air, because it present*
a too rapid evaporation fW>m the leaves.
By modern improvements it has been found praeticaH* t>>
maintain the atmosphere of a hothouse in any requ^rt*)
state of humidity or temperature ; and when staistB or t: t
water are made use of, this may be carried to a great nirctv.
and the means of doing this are within the reach oC n.Y<
gardeners. One would therefore have thought that tb^
system of bottom heat would be abandoned. So ftr bovv«er
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u this ih>m being the case that it is just as much employed
a« ever, and in combination with these additional powers,
\\hich were originally intended to supersede it Such is the
nuture of prejudice, and such the inevitable consequence of
blind practice unassisted by science. In procuring this
b jitom heat large sums are annually expended, without the
Miuiliest return. All that bottom heating can possibly do
ia better done by ordinary heating apparatus, and the cost
oCtlie bottom heat is altogether thrown away.
It is an axiom in horticulture that the more closely we
a()proach nature in our management of plants the more
certain are we to succeed in our attempts at cultivation. It
(iieierore becomes an important question whether bottom
htat has any existence in nature; of course it can only be
1 K)ked for in equinoctial climates. Now the data that we
P«»se^s upon this subject, although not very precise, are
suilicient to enable us to answer in the negative. The
u ater vines of the woods of Africa and India abound in a
fluid which is much cooler than that of the atmosphere ; its
coolness is owing to that of the soil from which it is rapidly
attracted; there can be no bottom heat in such cases,
'i'lie most vigorous vegetation of the tropics is in woods
where the soil is shaded from the direct action of the solar
rd>s ; we cannot suppose that bottom heat has any existence
there. On the contrary when any such temperature as
that which we artificially create is really met with, as on
the shores of the north coast of New Holland, or in the
naked plains of Peru, where it has been noticed by M.
Boussingaull* the effects of it are lo prejudicial that vege-
tation can scarcely struggle against it.
A^in, looking to practice, we find that the melons of
Cashmere derive their nourishment firom the cold waters of
lakes ; that in Persia, and even in Spain, the earth in which
the roots of such plants feed is perpetually cooled by the
evaporation of the water by which the soil is irrigated ; and
that even in this country the finest crops of pine*apples
have been obtained in cases where the practice of giving
bottom heat has been neglected (Horticultural Tram-
actions^ vol. i n.ser. p. 388); and it is perfectly certain from
experiments hitherto unrecorded that in other cases it is
equally unnecessary. All that is required is to maintain
the air in a proper state of warmth and humidity ; this
done the earth must of necessity partake in the tempera-
ture, and any effect of l^ttom heat that is desirable is
pained. It is therefore to be recommended that the whole
^ystem of bottom heat be done away with where other
monies of regulating temperature exist.
BOTTOMRY, BOTTOMREE, or BUMMAREE. is a
term derived into the English maritime law from the Dutch
or Low German. In Dutch the term is Bomerie or Bodem-
ery, and in German Bodmerei. It is said to be originally
derived from Boden or Bodem, which in Low German and
Dutch formerly signified the bottom or keel of a ship ; and
according to a common process in language, the part being
applied to the whole, also denoted the ship itself. The same
i«ord, differently spelt, has been used in a similar manner
in the English language; the expression bottom having
t>cen commonly used to signify a ship, previously to the
seventeenth century, and being at the present day well
known in that sense as a mercantile phrase. Thus it is a
familiar mode of expression among merchants to speak of
* shippmg goods in foreign bottomM.*
The contract of bottomry in maritime law, is a pledge of
the bhip as a security for the repayment of money advanced
to an owner or master, for the purpose of enabling him to
carry on the voyage. It is understood in this contract,
which is usually expressed in the form of a bond, called a
Bottomry Bond, that if the ship be lost on the voyage, the
lender loses the whole of his money ; but if the ship and
tarkle reach the destined port, they become immediately
liable, as well as the person of the borrower, for the money
lent, and also the premium or interest stipulated to be paid
up in the loan. No objection can be made on the ground
of usury, though the stipulated premium exceeds the le^
rate of interest, because the lender is hable to the casualties
of the voyage, and is not to reeeive his money again at all
events. In France the contract of bottomry is called Con-
tra t d la frro$$e, and in Italy Cambio maritimo^ and is
6ubj<?ct to diffeient regulations by the respective maritime
lavs of those countries. By the Germans it is termed Bod-
merei, and is different in many of its incidents from Bot-
tomry in this country.
In taking up money upon Bottomry, the loan is made
upon the security of the ship alone ; but when the advance
is made upon the lading, then the borrower is said to take
up money at reipondentia. In this distinction as to ti>e
subject matter of the security, consists the only difference
between Bottomry and Respondentia ; the rules of English
maritime law being equally applicable to both.
The practice of lendmg money on ships was common in
Athens, and in other Greek commercial towns. Money thus
lent was sometimes called {vavrucd xprifMra) ship-money.
Demosthenes (I. Against Aphobus), in making a statement
of the property left him by his father, enumerates seventy
minsB lent on bottomry. If the ship and cargo were lost,
the lender could not recover his principal or interest ; which
stipulation was often expressly made in the i<Tvyypa^i)) bond.
{Demosthenes against Phormion, and against Dionyso^
dorust c. 6. 10.) The nature of the bottomry contract is
shown in the Oration of Demosthenes against Dionyso-
dor us : — 3000 drachmoD were lent on a ship, on condition of
her sailing to Egypt and returning to Athens ; the money
was lent on the double voyage, and the borrower contracted
in writing to return direct to Athens, and not dispose of
his cargo of Egyptian grain at any other place. He violated
his contract by selling his cargo at Rhodes, having been
advised by his partner at Athens that the price of grain
had fallen in that city since the departure of the vessel.
The plaintiff sought to recover principal and interest, of
which the borrower attempted to defraud him : damages
also were claimed, conformably to the terms of the bond.
As neither principal nor interest could be demanded if the
vessel were lost, it was a common plea on the part of ffie
borrower that the ship was wrecked.
Money was also lent, under the name of pecunia trajec-
ticia, on ships among the Romans, and regulated by
various legal provisions. The rate of interest was not
limited by law, as in the case of other loans, for the lender
ran the risk of losing all if the ship was wrecked; but
this extraordinary rate of interest was only due while the
vessel was actmdly at sea. (Di^. 32, tit. 2. De Nautico
Foenere ; Molloy, De Jure Marittmo, lib. ii. c. 11; Parke
on Insurance, chap, xxi ; Benecke^s System des Assecuranz
und Bodmereiuyesens, bd. 4.)
BOTZEN, CIRCLE OF, is one of the 7 circles or ad-
ministrative divisions into which the government of Tyrol is
divided. It is also called the circle of the Etsch ( Adige)
from the river of that name which runs through it, first in
a S. direction from its source to Glurens, then E. as far as
Meran, where it bends to the S.E. as far as the confluence
of the Eisack near Botzen, from whence the imited stream
flows direct S. towards Trent. The valley of the Etsch
from Glurens to the confluence of the Eisack, a length of
about 45 m., forms the principal part of the circle of Botzen.
From Glurens to Meran it bears the name of the Vinschgau,
and is a fine alpine district, rich in pasture and also in fruit
trees. Meran is a small town with old walls and towers,
and was formerly the capital of the original county of Tyrol,
which was much smaller in extent than the present Tyrol.
The castle of the former counts rises on a hill about 3 n..
from Meran. N. of Meran is a tranverse valley opening
into the great valley of the Etsch, which is called the
Passeyrthal, and is known in contemporary history as the
native district of Andreas Hofer, the Tyrolese chief, who
fought against the French and Bavarians united in 1809,
and was taken and shot at Mantua in 1810. Hofer's house
is to be seen in the Passeyrthal, about 10 m. N. of Meran.
The Etsch above Meran forms a continuation of falls or
rapids for the space of I m., which have a very striking effect.
Below Meran, towards Botzen, the valley becomes wider,
and Botzen itself is in a kind of plain formed by the meeting
of several valleys. This part of the country produces good
wine and fruit in abundance. The system of irrigating the
fields by means of small canals and locks is establit>licd
here as well as in other valleys of the Alps. The circle of
Botzen is bounded on the E. by the circle of Pustherthal or
Eisack ; on the S. by that of Trent; on the N. by that of
the Oberinnthal, from which it is divided by the chain of
the RhsBtian Alps; and on the W. by the Valtelina and
by the Munsterthtd in the Grisons, being divided from the
former by the Stilfser Joch and the Ortler, and from tiio
latter by the Wormser Joch and the high ridge called
Surras. The pop. of the circle is 104,000 inh. The towns,
besides Botzen, are Meran and Glurens, each with a pop.
of between 2000 and 3000 inh., and many large villages.
The language of the people is German, thoiM;h>at Botzeik
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264
B O U
and in the neighbourhood a dialect of the Italian is spoken
almost universally. In the upper part of the valley, about
Meran, the primitive simplicity of the Tyrolese manners still
prevails. ( Voyage Pittoresque dans le Tyrol, ei dans une
pitrtie de la Baviere, par le Comte de Bray ; Ingliss Tyrol;
Malte Brun's Geography,)
BOTZEN, in Italian Bolz&no, the chief t. of the circle of
the Etsch, in the principality of Tyrol. It is situated in a plea-
sant valley, sheltered from the N. winds, on the riv. Ei^ack,
an affluent of the Etsch or Adige, and just above the con-
fluence of the two rivers. The traveller coming from Inns-
bruck, after havine passed the ridge of the Brenner and
the t. of Brixen, finds at Botzen the climate and the produc-
tions of Italy. Even the habits and the language of the
people are in a great measure Italian, although German is
also commonly spoken. This part of Tyrol, S. of Mount
Brenner, is commonly called the Italian Tyrol, and it com-
municates with the plains of Lombardy by the valley of the
Adige.
Botzen is a neatly built t of near 8000 inh., and is known
chietiy for its fairs, which are frequented by commercial tra-
vellers from all parts of Italy and Germany. The country
near Botzen produces wine and fruits in abundance. Botzen
is on the high road from Italy by Roveredo and Trento to
Innsbruck, which was the only communication between the
Tyrol and Lombardy, before the opening of the new road
over the Stilfser Joch. [Borm lo.] A cross road strikes off from
Botzen to the W., ascends the valley of the upper Etsch by
Meran, and meets the new road at Mais near Glurens. From
this place, the traveller coming from Italy by the Stilfser
Joch can go to Innsbruck, either by Botzen and the pass of
the Brenner, or proceed from MaU up to the sources of the
Etsch and then descend by Nauders into the valley of tlie
Inn which he then follows to Innsbruck, meeting at Lan-
deck the high road leading from Switzerland into the Tyrol.
Botzen is 32 miles N. by E. of Trento.
BOUCHAIN, a t in France, dep. of Nord, of no great
importance except from its fortifications, and from some his-
torical interest attached to it. It is on the Escaut or Scheld,
and on the road between Cambray and Valenciennes, about
10 m. from each, and 115 m. N.N.E. from Paris; 50° 17'
N. lat., and 3° 17' E. Ion
In 1711 the Duke of Marlborough invested Bouchain,
having, by the most skilful manceuvring, passed without
bloodshed the strong lines with which Mar^chal Villars had
covered the French frontier in this quarter. The French com-
mander had boasted of these lines as impregnable, saying
that he had brought Marlborough to his ne plus ultra. The
siege of the town was a work of considerable diflRculty, for the
neighbouring country was partly laid under water ; a French
army superior in force to that of the allies, and commanded
by a general of the greatest ability, watched every opportunity
for interrupting the siege ; and the town itself was secured
by a strong garrison. But the skill of Marlborough triumphed
over all difficulties, and the garrison was forced to capitulate
in sight of the French army, which could not relieve the
place. This exploit closed the campaign, and with it the
long and brilliant successes of the English general. Bou-
chaiuwas retaken in 1712 by Marechal Villars, and the
possession of the town secured to France by the treaties of
Utrecht and Rastadt, which were concluded shortly after.
Bouchain consists of two parts, the upper town and the
lower town, which are separated from each other by ditches,
filled from the Scheld and the Senset, which also fill the broad
deep ditches which surround the fortifications. The parish
church and the town-hall are in the upper town. The
population is given in the Dictionnaire Universel de la
Prance (Paris, i804) at 1128 : we have no later authority.
(Coxes Life of the Duke of Marlboroush,)
BOUCHER. REV. JONATHAN, bom 1737, died
1 804, a divine, a pohtical writer, a general scholar, and an
English philologist of the last century, to whose memory
justice has hitherto been imperfectly rendered.
He was bom in Cumberland, near the little town of
Wigton, at a place called Blencogo, where his father had
a few acres of tand, and if he were not one of those Cum-
brians of whom Boucher himself says, that they • are con-
tented to live, like their rude forefathers, in wretched hovels,
on the edge of moors and mosses, amidst dust, smoke, and
indigence,* yet he Tived in a style of firugality somewhat primi-
tive, not unlike what the travellers in that part of the king-
dom may now see in the houses of the small landed pro-
prietors. It is not however unusual to find in the families
inhabiting such houses that there is an uncle, a brother, or a.
son who is a schoolmaster in some distant county, or perhaps
who is in the church ; and the number is not small of pcrfot. •
of this Cumbrian origin who have attained a well-desened
eminence.
Bouchtsr was trained first at a school at Blencogo. snl
afterwards at Wigton in grammar loaining. At Wut n
he had for his master, the clergyman of Grayttock, >I r.
Blaine, with whom he read some of the higher Latin ar. 1
Greek classics. Mr. Blaine is described by one who vi-^
acquainted with him, as 'a man of true piety and Icxns-
ing, but affecting the rusticity which prevailed in t:.'
farmers around him, instead of endeavouring by a Uttt :
example to show them how all the virtues they pasM*^^.!
might be exhibited in union with the deoenciea *..
proprieties of life.' It is added, * he spoke in the tone a:; :
dialect of his rustic countrymen, and took particular «m;v
that its Doric strength should not be debilitated by the in
troduction of courtly phrases.*
Under this master Boucher pursued his studies with irr^at
assiduity, and at the age of seventeen or eighteen be en ten-' i
on the business of school -instruction. A gentleman restdut -^
at Wigton placed his children under his care ; but in a litite
time he became an usher in the grammar-school at Saint Bee 4,
which at that time, about 1756, enjoyed a high reputaii -n
under Dr. James, a good and learned master. While hcrr*.
the instruction of youth in the rudiments of dasaical know-
ledge was his business ; the perusal and study of tlie grest
writers, and especially of the great poets of antiquit). i. •
recreation. He is said to have here executed a translatuM
ofTvrtoDUs.
About the year 1756 or 1757, as we may collect born nr-
cumstances, when he was about nineteen or twenty yezn * f
age, he left England, and took up his residence amon^«:
the American colonists.
Such a man could not but be araluable acquisition to an
colony. His services were soon engaged by a gentlenuo in
Virginia of wealth and respectability, as tutor to his children.
That power which natural talent, attainment and cbarart :
united, never fail to give, where the natural tendency i^ l^.:
counteracted by some one of tlie various forms in which ::<
over-estimate of them by the party himself appears, tit,
soon manifested. It was perceived that while he cou. .
make boys learned, he had the ability also to instruct xiit i
and make them better. The vestry of the parish of Haf.
over in the county of King George, Virginia, nomine t i
him to the rectory of that parish in 1761, when be wa* ^...S
four-and-twenty. This nomination he acxicpted, and n-
stantly repaired to England, where he received otdmat. }
from the Bishop of London both as deacon and prie»t ou *li'
same day. After visiting his native county, he returi'^i
to take upon himself his new charge.
From this time to 1775 he continued in an assiduous i:.«
charge of his ministerial duties, and in endeavours Cu \i^
prove as far as was in his power, the moral and inteDcrrt .il
state of the parts of America in which he was placed. K r
removed from the parish of Hanover to that of Samt W. ;.
in Caroline county, Virginia, lying on the Rappabaoic^
When Sir Robert Eden became governor of Mary bind. : •
appointed Mr. Boucher to the rectory of Saint Aunt* s ::
Annapolis, and afterwards of Queen Anne's ta Pnn •
George's county, where he was living in 1775, when f>!Lrt
was a violent and sudden change in his afbtrs. Thv^^
fourteen years were a critical period in the history of t\.e
A merican colonies. Mr. Boucner has afforded us the tnc .. r ,
of judging with tolerable accuracy how his talents, stat. • .
and character, were made to bear upon the feeling i;- .
action of the people with whose interests he had connec*-. :
his own. Manv years after, he published a volume vS •! >•
courses which be had delivered from the pulpit at var<> .:•
times during those years. Most of them were pnr- !
at the time when they were delivered. They are t«'. -
entitled discourses than sermons. They are in f^ct * *
the most part political sermons, preached however u%u2.'
on public occasions^ when it is allowed to the iniaistcr% «. .
religion to enlarge somewhat the usual limits of pulpic
struction. They exhibit a robust sense, a mind stored « « '
classical erudition, and there are occasionally burets i t •
simple eloquence. The first is on the peace of IT'
intended to rebuke and check the, spirit of a lore of a-n «
Another contends for a liberal to^leration to dinsenter^ & .
papists. In his discourse on the education suitable t^ t ' ^
American oolonitts which he wroteiiffi 772Lat^fiMi rvqu---;
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B O U
of one of tbe gOTemon, be insists more on tlie necessity of
a Christian education, though at tho expense of h\A own
farouritfr classics. He gave all the weight of his influence
against the delusions of the wild sectaries who seem to h*ivc
abounded in Virginia. On tbe Question of the Stamp Act
be partook of the popular enthusiasm : and on the whole he
seems to haye been inclined to a liberal policy, and to the
maintenance of the independence and just rights of the
colonies.
But when tbe time came tbat all connexion with tbe
mother country was to be renounced, and all allegiance to
the British throne, Mr. Boucher was one of those who
neither admitted tbe principle, nor thought themselves at
liberty to remain entirely passive. He continued to use in
his church the public liturgy, and to read the prayers for
the kins and the royal family as he had been accustomed,
when all around him was resistance and rel)ellion. He was
now regarded in the light of one who was a traitor to the
common interest It was intimated to him that he must
either desist from reading those prayers or resign his charge.
His conduct was decided. He resigned his charge, and in
his farewell sermon which was preached at the lower church
in the parish of Queen Anne in Maryland, be thus fearlessly
takes bis ground;— 'Entertaining all due respect for my
ordination tow, I am firm in my resolution, whilst I pray in
public at all, to conform to the unmutilated liturgy of my
church ; and, reverencing tbe injunction of an apostle, I will
continue to pray for the king and all tbat are in authority
under him ; and I will do so, not only because I am so com-
manded, but that, as the apostle adds, we may continue to
lead quiet and peaceable lives, in all godliness and honesty.
Inclination, as well as duty, confirm me in this purpose.
As long as I live therefore, vea, while I have being, will I
with Zadoc tbe priest and Nathan the propbet, proclaim —
God save the king.*
This was a time when there could be no compromise.
His property, all of which was in America, was lost. He
was so much an object of popular dislike tbat bis person
was in hourly danger, and, in 1775, he finally quitted tbe
American shores, and returned to bis native land. His
prospects thus blighted, he had to begin tbe world anew,
aided by some compensation from the government at home
for the losses which be had sustained with other American
loyalists. Little is known of him during the next nine
years ^f his life. But it is believed tbat be had recourse
to his original profession, and that be established a school
at I'addington. In the church he obtained no preferment
till 1784, when Parkhurst, a clergyman, tbe author of two
well-known scripture lexicons, to' whom be bad become
known, presented him to tbe vicarage of Epsom in Surrey,
at which place it is behoved be went immediately to reside,
and where he died.
In this last twenty years of hisUfe we find him devoted, as
in the former period, to relieion, to politics, and to literature.
He collected and published, in 1797, the discourses before
spoken of, and prefixed to them a dedication to Washington,
with whom before tbe war be had been on terms of inti-
macy, and for whom be never ceased to feel a high personal
respect He added also a long preface, entitling tbe whole
collection ' A View of the Causes and Consequences of the
American Revolution.' He printed also two assize ser-
mons, and in every way supported to tbe utmost of bis power
the Pitt policy in respect of France, adhering to the prin-
ciples which he bad maintained in Maryland in such dan-
gerous timos and for which he had been so great a sufferer.
But the kind of literature to which be directed bis attention
was changed. It became more English. The love of his
native country, which is said to be stronger in those bom in
mountainous regions than in other persons, appeared in
various forms. He addressed his Cumbrian friends on the
backwardness which they showed in following in the track of
public improvement He wrote some of tbe best portions of
Hutchinson's History of tbat county. He erected in the
church of Sebergham a monument to the memory ofRelpb,
a Cumbrian poet He also became a Fellow of the Society
of Antiquaries of London, and was made an honorary mem-
ber of the Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh and also of
the Stirling Literary Society. His acquaintance among the
men devoted to antiquarian and especially English philolo-
Kical literature became extended, and be enjoyed the inti-
macy and particular friendship of several of tliem.
His mind at length became determined towards a particu-
lar object: it was to prepare a kind of supplement to tbe
, Dictionary of tbe English Language by Dr. Johnson, in
I which ho should introiduco words provincial and archaical.
By provincial, he meant words which are still found in the
speech of certain parts of England, though not found in
writing or heard in tbe conversation of the cultivated and
polite ; words however which are genuine portions of the
English language, and to be found, most or them at least,
in our early and almost forgotten writers. By archaical,
he meant words which are found in those writers, though
now regarded as obsolete, and which are not now, and per-
haps never were, in any general use by the common people.
These words it was bis intention to illustrate by quotations
from tbe authors in which they occur, and also by disserta-
tions on their history in a -manner much more at large than
Dr. Johnson bad thought it necessary to do in respect of
the purer and better terms which he had allowed to find
a place in his Dictionary.
This was a design of great magnitude : and Boucher set
himself to the accomplishment of it with great earnestness
of purpose, and proceeded with an unwearied perseverance
which was truly admirable. He made his classical know-
ledge bear upon it with efiect, and he obtained no mean
acquaintance with tbe languages cognate to our own and the
other modern languages of Europe. He bad an intimate ac-
quaintance with the dialect of Cumberland and Westmor-
land, where perhaps more of peculiar terms remain than in
other counties, which he bad acquired when a youth, a time
of life when such knowledge is best attained. He made a
large collection of books applicable to his purpose, and be
established a correspondence with persons in many of the
counties of England, from whom he received contributions
for his vocabulary, and sometimes valuable remarks.
But the plan on which he proceeded incladed more than
is generally understood to fall within tbe province of lexico-
graphy. He made his dictionary the deposit of what he
was able to collect concerning many of the usages of the
English nation — dress, sports, superstitions, whatever in
short falls under tbe not strictlyAlefined term of popular
antiquities : so tbat his work may, in many portions
of it, be read for amusing or interesting information, as well
as consulted as a dictionary for the illustration of tbe words
which it contains. In this respect it resembles Dr. Jamieson'a
valuable Dictionary of tbe Scottish language.
Mr. Boucher began this work in or about 1790. It was
not too late a peri^ of life for him to indulge tbe hope and
a reasonable expectation of being able to complete it, well-
furnished as he already was with much of tbe information
needed for such an undertaking. In 1802 it bad so far ad-
vanced towards maturity tbat be issued a prospectus of the
work, and proposals for publication. His health however
was then beginning to decline. In 1803 he visited bis na-
tive county. He lived till the 27th of April in the following
year, when he died without having committed any part of
his largo manuscript to the press.
Of the dictionary thus left unfinished tbe letter A was
published after his death as a specimen, by his friend
and frequent correspondent Sir Frederick M. Eden. Tbe
merits and the value of bis collection were understood
from this specimen, and appreciated in every way highly,
by those who take an interest in such inquiries. But still
there was not sufficient encouragement given to tbe family
to risk tbe publication of so large a manuscript It re-
mained, with other papers connected with it, in the bands
of the family till 1831, when it was purchased with the in-
tention of immediate publication. Two numbers of the pro-
jected work are all that have yet appeared, containing Mr.
Boucher's learned introduction to his work, which happily
was left completed by him, and the words of tbe alphabet as
far as Blade. It is to be hoped tbat the work will proceed,
for though perhaps not entirely adapted to the present im-
proved state of philological knowledge, and to be regarded
rather as anecdotes of the language than as a complete
lexicon of archaic and provincial words, it contains much
valuable information, tbe result of original reading and ori-
ginal reflection.
For tlie facts in this life we have been principally in-
debted to Boucher s own writings, to tbe Gentleman's Ma-
gazine, vol. 74, p. 591, where is a biographical notice of
him inserted at the time of his decease, and to a little
volume printed at Cariisle in 1829, entitled The Life and
Literary Remains of Thomas Sanderson.
BOUCHES DU RHONE, a dep. in the S. of France,
containing part of tbe former militiury government of Pro-
Now 305.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPifiDIA.l
DigitizH
mvi^gl^
BO 0
266
BOO
Tenoe. The dep. lies along ihe eoatt of the Mediterranean,
by which it is washed on the S.8.W. : on the N.N.E. it is
bounded by the dep. of Vaucluse, from which it is separated
by the Durance : on the E. it is bounded b^ the dep. of Var ;
and on the N.W. by that of Gard, from which it is separated
by the Rbdne. The lie de la Camargue, or Carmague, an
island of alluvial formation, enclosed by the sea and the two
principal arms or outlets of the Hbdne, is included in this
department. The dep* is of a quadrilateral figure, having
its N.W. and B. sides respectively 41 or 42 m.; but the
seacuast, which is about 71 m. lonff in a straight line,
exceeds by about 24 miles the side which runs along the
bank of the Durance. The area of the dep. is 601,960
hectares (according to the last edit, of Malto Brun), which*
computing the hectare as equal to 2*471143 English acres,
will give 1.467,529 English acres for the area, or 2324 sq. m.,
being equal to about 1 0-1 Iths of the county of Devon. The
surface of the department in ' square leagues/ as given by
Malte Brun, differs materially from the above measurement,
which, however, we beheve to be the more correct ' The
chief town is Marseille, which is 497 m. S. by %. fh>m Paris,
through Auxerre, Autun, Ch&lons sur Sadne, Lyon, Va-
lence, Avignon, and Aix.
The dep. is not, on the whole, mountainous, but there
are some considerable elevations. The branches of the
Alps, which stretch through the adjoining dep. of Var, and
skirt the S. bank of the Durance in the upper part of its
course, reach into the Bouches du Rhdne, and cover the £.
parts. Other eminences extend fi*om these towards the W.,
presenting barren table-lands, and terminating in steep
and abrupt descents, while the branches of the Alps are
distinguished by their gradual declivities. The lie ds
Cartnague, and that part of the dep. adjacent to it, are very
marshy, and the sea forms several pools or itanga, two of
which, those of Berre and Valcards, the latter in the He
de Carmague, are of considerable extent. [Brrrb.] The
sea-coast, low in the neighbourhood of the Rhdne, is in
other parts bold and lofty. Opposite to the coast are several
small islands— Ratoneau, Pomegue, If (on which is a strong
castle), all near the mouth of the port of Marseille ; Le
Maire, Jaros, Riou and Planier. They are all of little im-
portance. There is a tower on the lie de Planier, which
lies farthest out to sea. The principal rivers are the Rh6ne,
and ito tributary the Durance, which bound the dep. on the
N.W. and N.N.E. sides : the others are of minor import-
ance, such as the Arc, V'hich rises in the dep. of Var, and
flows into the Stang de Berre, after a course of about 45m.;
the Touloubre, which flows into the same itang, after a
course of from 30 to 35 m. ; and the Verne, which falls
into the sea very near Marseille, after a course not quite
equal to that of the Touloubre.
The island of Carmague, y^hich. forms a Delta, has Trin-
quetaille, a suburb of the city of Aries, at its apex. The
testimony of the antients makes it appear that the mouths
of the Rhdne have varied materiallv both in number and
configuration. The most W. of tne two streams already
noticed has shifted its bed towards the W., enlarging the
He de la Carmague in that direction ; while the accumula-
tion of materials brought down by the stream has ele-
vated the soil about the mouths of the river, and caused the
land to gain considerably on the sea. The E. arm of
the Rhdne there is reason to believe has been less variable :
but the formation of small alluvial islands causes its waters
to be subdivided into several channels just before it reaches
the sea. There are soma traces of a canal cut from Aries to
the sea by the Roman General Caius Marius. Hie quan-
tity of satid brought down by the Rhdne is so considerable
as to cause the nangation of its channel to vary continually,
and persons are kept in pay by the government whose
regular business is to sound the lied of the river and make
known iU variations to shipmasters.
The lie de Carmague approaches in form to an equilateral
trianicle of about 25 m. each side. It is composed of a fine
gravelly soil intermingled with marshy land. The interior
of the island is the receptacle of stagnant waters, and is
in great part occupied b£^the Slang of Valcaree and by
others of less extent. These itongs and marshes often
communicate with the sea, especially during the prevalence
of the easterlpr wind. The whole island reste en a bed of
sea sand which, having preserved a great quantity of salt,
imparte this Quality to the herbage and renders it particu-
larly acceptable to the cattle which are put to graze. To so
great a degree is the soil in some parts impregnated with
salt, that it would be unproductive, if Ihe iiihalitttnta did
not flood the land by the waters of the Rhdne, the rich mu'l
of which corrects the drought that the salt would others i*<
produce. There are brine springs in diflerent parte of lU^
island and saltworks are carried on. {Encye. Method. >
Near the E. bank of the B. channel of the Rhor.r.
between it and the Hang de Berre, is the plain of La Out,
* the most singular stony desert,' says Mr. Arthur Your v*.
' that is to be met with in France or perhaps in EurofM .
It conteins, according to the estimate of the same intelli-
gent traveller, from 140.000 to 1 70,000 English acres. Ii if
composed entirely of shingle, the stones varvtn^ in fi/e
from that of a pea to that of a pumpkin ; and it is a« (rev
from any intermixture of soil as the shingle upon the sea*
shore. In places these stones have become united so as to
form a species of marble capable of rccei^in^ a poL^h.
Beneath these stones is a soil which Mr. Younff de.«cnl>e<k .i«
not so much a sand as a kind of cemented marble, a small
mixture of loam with fragments of stone. Vegetation it
poor and miserable, yet the district supplies winter pasturace
to immense flocks of sheep which are fed in summer in iUc
Alps about Barcelonette. By means of the Cana/ de CV.i-
ponne, parte of this naturally sterile region have been bntkrn
up into com and meadow laqd, and rendered product i\l%
forming a striking contrast with the part which yet remains
an arid desert The lower grounds (fbr the surface i^ nt*t
level) produce oaks, walnut-trees, mulberry-trees thcuiili
not of great size, olives, and vines. The almund-tree dm- 5
not succeed. (Young*s Travels in France; Encyc, MHhmi \
The soil of the dep. varies considerably. The N- E. a»<i
N. districts along the bank of the Durance are sterile ai>d
require great labour to make them productive, but the N.W.
part is of great fertility. Unhappily this district is expiineii
to the disastrous inundations of the Rhdne. The itanst
and marshes render a considerable part of the land near tl>j
coast incapable of cultivation. The produce of the d«:p.
in com is not great, being scarcely equal to a third vi
what is required for home consumption. Rice is amon<; tb .*
grain cultivated here. (Robert, Diet Giog.) A con&iderat >
quantity of wine is produced, and some kinds, as thuM* % t
Cassis and La Ciotet (white wines), are much e$teemtii.
Olives form one of the chief objects of attention with the
cultivators, and oil is one of the most important of its pr^>
ductions; and almonds, nute, capers, oranges, vome^tMnAte^,
and fi^s, are abundant. The mildness of the cSmiOe i»
favourable to the growth of shrubs and flowers, acncnc
which may be mentioned the cypress, the laurel, the m\TtW.
the cistus, and the ph illy rea. The pasturages of thisdrp.
are chiefly resorted to in winter: in summer thcr ist
abandoned from the great heat, and the cattle are dn^cn
to the more refreshing plains of Drdme, Is^re, and Hautcx
and Basses Alp^s. The use of the plain of La Crau V-
this winter pasturage has been alroaay noticed. It 19 «l 4
that 700,000 sheep and an immense number of soals «.-f
pastured in the department The quantity of cattle mr^ .
is also very great; and a large number of light a j
horses are produced. The lie de la Carmague b c\.u r* 1
occupied in pasturage. The cattle are here left at hUi:.
night and day, from which cause they are very wild. Tlu :
are in this island nine villages, many country houses a* :
nearly 350 farms, the occupiers of wliich rear annua:. f
40,000 sheep, 3000 oxen, and as many horses. Jo (. >
island is the royal sheep farm of L*ArmiIlidre. Tberlt»tn t
of Crau produces manna and an insect called kerm^, wh rK
is well adapted to make \'ermilion. The rearins of silk-
worms is much attended to in the department of B^ur::.*»
du Rhdne. The salt marshes yield herbs of vhkh the lu-
habitants make kelp.
In the S.F. dep. coal is dug, and there are qusmes cf
marble of all' colours and of great value, freestone, sUtc,
gypsum, limestone, whetetonea, and aUibaster, or a »to-?
capable of bein g wrought like alabaster. The KncffdofM f' • •
Mithodique adds that there are several mines of irou ahu
lead.
The climate, as may be inferred from its productio&v .1
warm: and would be most delightful to the inhabiU'.t*,
were they not, at least in the neighbourhood of MarariUc
exposed to the annoyance of swarms of gnate. The violencv
of the wind called Mielral is also a greu drawback.
The manufactures are very various. Cotton goods, paper,
woollens of various kinds, morocco and other leather, p:r-
ceUin, earthenware, glass, and soda are iiiaau&ctuv«L
Brandy is distilled : and hqueun ttod vinegar are oiade.
Digitized by VnOOQR
B O U
267
B O U
fiat perhBBt tbe ehief btftneh df nailufteture is that of
soap, wbictt ei^jovs a liigh and doserved Deputation all
over France. Too elports of the dep. ooraprehend its
natural produotiona, wine^ oil* honey, wax, dried fruits, &c.,
the fish (anchovies, sardinas, tunnies, &o.) eaueht and
cured by the flshermen of its coast, and its manufaetures.
Marseille is the chief port in the dep., and indeed, ex-
eepting Bordeauz^ in all France. [Mabskillb.] The
internal trade i^ faotlitated by the navigation of the Rhdne
snd by the canal of Aries, which runs nom Aries to the sea
nearly parallel to the main stream of tbe Rhdne. The
canals do Craponne, du R^l, de Boisgelin, and du
V^^gueyral, are raUier ioi the purpose of irrigation or
drainage. The eani^l de Craponne runs from the Purance
to the RhOne at Aries, with branches to Istres and to fit.
Cbamas, both of which places are near the Etang de Berre :
the canod du Rial is hi the N.W. part of the department :
that of Boisgelin runs from and again into the Durance ;
that of V^gueyral drains the marshes £. of Aries. The
Durance, we believe, is, from its rapidity, not navigable.
The dop. is subdivided into the three ariDndissements of
Marseille (which is the capital of the department), of Aix,
and of Aries : and contains %7 cantons and 105 communes.
The pop. in 1832 was 359,473 : about 154 or 156 toa sq. m.
The pop. at the previous census of 1 826 was 326»302, show-
ing an increase of 33,1 71, or of more than 10 per cent The
pop. of 1832 was thus divide among the three arrondisse-
ments: arrond. of Marseille, 178,866; arrond. of Aix,
102,674 ; arrond. of Arlee, 77,933. The dep. for ecclesias-
tical purposes is divided into the diocese of Marseille,
including that city and its arrond., and the arch-diocese of
Aix. The district included in the dep. was formerly divided
among the dioceses of Aix« Aries, and Marseille : but the
diocese of Arlaa is now (it is pkobable) incorporated with
that of Aix, the archbishop of that see taking his title from
Aix, Aries, and Embrun. The Bishop of Marseille is one
of bis suffragans. The dep. is under the jurisdiction of the
Cour RoyaUofAix ; and is included in the Vlllth Military
division, of which Marseille is the capital. It sends five
members to the Ohamber of Deputies. There is an AeadS-
mie Univerntaire at Aix, which includes a faculty of
theology and one of law.
Tlie chief towns (with their pop. in 1832.) are i-^Mar-'
•eille (121,272 inh. in the town, 145,115 in the whole com-
mune), on the sea; Aix (15,916 inh. in the town, 22,575 in
the whole commune); Aries (14.894 inh. in the (own*
20.236 in the whole commune), Tarascon (9225 inh. in the
tovn, 10,967 in Uie whole commune), on the Rhone op-
posite Beauoaire ; Martigues (5335 inh. in the towni or 7379
in the whole commune), on the channel communicating
between the sea and the Etang de Berre ; La Ciotat (4345
inh. in the town, or 5427 in the whole commune), on the
lea 8.E. of Marseille; Salon (4187 inh. in the town, or
5987 in the whole eommune), upon that branch of the canal
de Craponne whieh branches off to Istres ; Aubagne (3925
inh. in the town, or 6349 in the whole commune), on the
river Verne on the road from Marseille to Toulon ; Auriol
(3373 inh. in the town, or 6320 in the whole commune),
also on the river Verne; and St. Rami (3213 inh. in the
town, or 5464 in the whole commune), on the canal du
Real.
The population returns for 1832 give the fbllowing com-
munes as aontaining above 2Q00 and under 6000 inhabitants :
PopaUtloa of the population of th«
Town. Commune. Town. Commune
Allanoh , |,741 3,711 Gardanne 2,459 3,234
Barbentanna 1»864 2,800 Istre^ , 2,483 3,023
Cbamas, St. 2,502 2,632 Lambesc 2,923 3,898
Chateau Renaid 4.152 I^n^on • 1,703 2,060
BKudles , 1,847 2,280 Orgon , 1,691 2,584
Eyguidras » 9,614 2,987 P^lissanne 2,334 2,500
E)ragues . 1,811 2,227 Roquevaii© — - 3.218
FontviatUe. 1,580 2,056 Trets • 2,504 3,014
Fuveau , 1,513 2,004
This department baa produced several eminent men.
Pietronius Arbiter, a Latin writer of some note ; Adanson, the
naturalist, the Abb6 Barthclemi'; Brueys, the dramatist ;
MasBillon,oneofthe chief ornaments of the French pulpit:
Nostradamna ; Vuiloo, the painter ; Toomefbrt, the botaniat
Mid traveller, &e.
B0UFLER8, LOUIS-FRANQOIS DUO DE, de-
Mended from one of the most antient and noble fcmilies in
Piflardy, tibeeeeotid ton of FTaa^na It.» eoiint of Bouflen
and Cagni, was bom January 10, 1644. Heenteiedtfae
royal guards as aoomet in 1663, during which year he was
present at the aiege of Marsal in Lorraine. In tbe follow-
ing campaign he was engaged in an expedition to Oigsri
in Africa ; and so much talent did he afterwards exhibit in
Flanders, that he was allowed to purchase from the Due de
Lauzun the colonelcy of the royal dragoons. In all the
enterprises of Turenne he bore a distinguished part ; and
he was severely wounded at the battle of Woerden, under
tbe marlchal of Luxemburg, in the winter of 1 673. Having
passed into Germany, he was again wounded at the battle
of Einsheim in 1674. and received the thanks of Turenne
for having greatly contributed to the success of that day. In
the memorable retreat after the death of Turenne, in 1675,
he commanded the French rear ; and from that time till the
peace of Niroeguen, in 1678, he waa employed on active
aervice. He then commanded in Dauphin^ and on the
frontiers of Spain. His gallantry at the siege of Luxem-
burg was rewarded with the government of that city- and
province in 1686 ; and the seasonable detachment of a corps
from the army of the Moselle, which he commanded in
1690, decided the event of the battle of Fleurus. In 1601
be was again wounded in an attack upon a homwork at
Mens; but during the remainder of that campaign he
triumphantly kept the field against the allies, who were
more than threefold his number, and continued the blockade
of LiBge and of Huy. On his return to court during the
winter, he was personally invested by the king with the
collars of the several orders into which he had hitherto
been admitted only by proxy. When Williatn III. moved
to the relief of Namur, Boufters was selected to oppose him.
He then partook of the glories of Steenkerken. In 1603 he
was elevated to the dignity of marshal of France, and re-
ceived the new order of St. Louis. . He defendbd Namur
against the allies, commanded by William III., for sixty
three days of open trenches in 1695, and repulsed four
general assaults. After its capitulation, he was detained a
prisoner of war for a fortnight ; and the king, in recompense
ibr bis great services, erected the county of Cagni and some
adjoining domains in Beauvaisis into the dukedom of Bou-
tiers. In 1696 he superintended some preparations fbr a
projected invasion of England in support of James II.,
which was not put in execution. In the war of the 6pa?itf(h
saooBSsion, he commanded in the Netherlands; and on
June 31, 1703, in cot\junction with the Marquis de B^mar,
he obtained a signal advantage over the Dutch at Erkaren,
fbr whieh he received from tbe king of Spain the coUsr of
the Golden Fleece. In 1708, after the battle of Oudenarde,
he undertook to defend Lille against Prince-Eugene : and he
maintained the town from August 1 2th till October 26th,
when he capitulated, after having repeatedly declined the
king's urgent wish that he should cease to expose himself;
but the citadel into which he retired held out till the 1 1th
December following. The king loaded him with new
honours for the brilliant defence, and made his duchy into
a peerage. His presence in the capital in March, 1 700, and
his deserved popularity among the citisens, contributed to
allay a tumult which had arisen on account of scarcity of
bread ; after which, hastening to Flanders, he tendered his
services tu the mar^chal Villars, an officer junior to him,
and brought off the right Wing of his army in good order,
losing neither cannon nor prisoneis at the diastrous bsfttlo
of Malplaquet. This was his last public ae4 ; he died at
Fontainebleau, March 22, 1711, in the sixty-eighth year of
his age, and was buried with great military splendour in the
church of St. Paul at Paris.
The above sketch of the exploits of this distinguished
captain is necessarily very incomplete ; his history, in truth,
forms the military history of the half oentury during which
he served, and its details must be sought in the general
annals of Europe. Many detached anecdotes redound
greatly to his honour. Winte Eugene congratulated him
upon the glory which he had acquired in defending Lille,
as far superior to that accruing to himself by its capture ;
and it was remarked that horse-flenh was the only food
served during that siege at a table, which, on other occa-
sions, was pre-eminent for its costliness^ fio magniUcent
were the banquets with which Bcuflers regaled his officers,
while he held the command of a mimic camp formed by the
king at Compi^gne, for the instrilction and amusement
of his grandson the duke of Burgundy, that Louis XIV.
observed that tbe young prinoe must decline all oompe->
titkmt and remain content to be a guest The detention
2M2
#
B O U
268
B O U
Bouflers after the surrender of Narour was a breach of the
articles of capitulation, and was defended as a reprisal for
similar violence which had been offered to the ^rrisons of
Dixmuiden and of Deinse. When Bouflers justly remarked
that in that case not the commander, but the garrison ought
to be responsible, he was silenced by the high and not over-
charged compliment, that his single person was esteemed
equivalent to 1 0,000 men. We do not recollect a more true
appreciation of feminine grace than is exhibited by a repartee
ascribed to the duke of Bouflers. When he was extolling
some young beauty of the day, a coxcomb asked, A-t-elle de
t esprit f and was left mute by the veteran s ready answer,
Comme une rose,
BOUGAINVILLE. JEAN PIERRE DE, was born at
Paris December Ist, 1722, and during his short career dis-
tinguished himself by some publications now forgotten;
among them was a French translation of the Anti-Lucretius
of Cardinal Polignac, and a Parallel between the expedition
of Kouli Khan and that of Alexander. Some poems, among
wh^ch is the germ of Pope's Universal Prayer, and several
papers in the Memoires of the Academy, also were printed by
him. He held numerous employments of high literary dis-
tinction, as secretary to the Academy of Inscriptions, censor
royal, keeper of the antiquities in the louvre, and secretary
in ordinary to the Duke of Orleans, &c. He died at Loches
June 22nd, 1763.
His younger brother, LOUIS ANTOINE DE BOU-
GAINVILLE, who more than doubled his years, led also
a much more active existence. He was born at Paris
November lUh, 1729, and studied in the university of
that capital, with the intention of proceeding to the bar.
Much of his time had been devoted to mathematics, and
instead of commencing as an advocate at the Palais, he
surprised his friends by enrolling himself in the Mousque-
taires Noirs, and by publishing a treatise on the in-
tegral calculus within fifteen days from his enlistment. We
know not in what manner he passed from military to di-
plomauc pursuits, but we afterwards find him employed
as secretary of embassy in London, where he was elected
fellow of the Royal Society. Returning to the army, he
served in Canada with some distinction till 1759; and in
1763, when the merchants of St. Malo wished to colonize
the barren territory of Falkland's Islands (the Malouines,
as they were called, from their pretended discoverer),
Bougainville was active in promoting the settlement. The
Spaniards however were not willing that the French
should invade their imaginary right of sovereignty in the
western hemisphere ; and the French government also
speedily discovered that the mere possession of a rocky
domain, which did not yield any return, and which de-
rived its entire support from the mother country, was by
no means worth the hazard of war. They gave orders
therefore for the surrender of the settlement, and Bou-
gainville was employed to undo his own work. The po-
sition which he had chosen for the establishment was at
Port Louis, on the eastern side of the lesser of the two
large Islands, on a part of the coast which afforded a good
harbour ; and he was sanguine in his expectations that the
new colony would in a great degree indemnify his country
for the loss of the Canadas. The Parisian cabinet however
thought otherwise ; and in 1 766 they bartered for the sur-
render of Port Louis to the Spaniards, who gave it the less
sweUing but perhaps more appropriate name of Port Soltdad.
Bougainville was instructed to execute the transfer, and his
commission authorized him afterwards to traverse the South
Sea between the tropics, for the purpose of making disco-
veries, and to return home by the East Indies. For this
circumnavigation of the globe, a frigate. La Boudetise, car-
rying twenty-six twelve pounders, and a store ship, LEtoile,
were placed under his command. His crew consisted of
eleven commissioned ofiicers, three volunteers, and 200
mariners ; and the Prince of Nassau Sieghen obtained per-
mission to accompany him. His voyage, although not to
be compared in point of interest to that of Cook or Anson,
is very agreeably related by himself. It was translated into
EngHsh by Forster in 1772, and an abridgment of it is given
in the appendix to the thirteenth volume of Kerr's General
Collection of Voyages and Travels,
Bougainville sailed from Nantes November 1 5th, 1766.
On the 1st of April following he surrendered Falkland's
Islands to some Spanish frigates which had been dispatched
for the purpose, and he was then delayed till November at
Monte Video by the non-arrival and the necessary repairs
of his store-ship. In working oiT the shores of Tierra del
Fuego he suffered much ftom boisterous weather. What
little intercourse he established with the PaUgonians «ms
amicable ; and he confirms the general opinion of their
height and muscular strength, though he by no meatift
extends either to gigantic dimensions. Stoims, mt«aa«
sunken rocks, difficult currents, and an archipelago whifh
appropriately received the name of The Dan^erous^ were en-
countered before he arrived in sight off Otaheite on April
2nd ; and the well-known blandishments of that i»latid
appear to have exposed him to scarcely less peril than be
had undergone at sea. At parting he carried with hini
as a volunteer Aotourou, the son of a native chief. The
youth* s talents appear unhappily to have been verj- sletidt r.
and he acauired little benefit from mixing with the civi-
lized worm at Paris. Even that little was of no ad-
vantage to his countrymen, for he died on his homenard
passage in 1 770. Almost the only circumstance demanding
notice in the remainder of Bougainvillc^s voyage was the
discovery that one of his crew, named Bar6, was a woman.
' She had always behaved with the most scrupulous morte^t^ .
was neither ugly nor handsome, and not more than twenty^
six or twenty- seven years of age.'
Scurvy and a failure of provisions occasbned very severe
sufiTering during the latter part of this voyage, M\\ on Sep-
tember 28th, Bougainville, having been at sea for ten
months and a half, cast anchor oif Batavia, which miserable
station was not inaptly named by Aotourou in his native
language, Enotia mate^ * the land which kills.* At the Ule
of France he parted company from L'Etoile, the aervicev i»f
which were no longer necessary, and on March I6ih he
entered St Malo, having been engaged upon bis expe
dition two years and four months.
Bougainville commanded a ship of war during the Ame-
rican revolutionary contest. He died at the advanced s^e
of eighty-two years on August 31st, 1811.
BOUGAINVILLE ISLAND. [New Gboroix Am
CH1FBLAOO.]
BOUGUER, PIERRE, was bom at Croisic, in Bat**"
Bretagne, February 16, 1698. The father was profnaor ^t
hydrography at that place ; the son, after receiving the in-
structions of his father in mathematics, and making con-
siderable progress by himself, taught first at Croisic, and
afterwards at H&vre-de- Grace. In 1727 he gtined the pnre
of the Academy of Sciences for a memoir on the method of
masting ships ; in 1 729, for one on the method of oibser\'tnc
the stars at sea and on astronomical refractions, his for-
mula and results being the same as those afterwards given
by Simpson, but more complicated in form ; in 1731. for a
method of obser\'ing the dip of the compass at sea. In 1 73^2
he presented a memoir on the inclinations of the planet*'
orbits, in which he treats the subject on the theor}' uf Dt%
Cartes: he was the last of the academicians who hcM by
that system. In 1729 he published a memoir on the gradual
extinction of light in passing through successive imperfectly
transparent substances. By a series of experiments, ^f
which M. Biot speaks in high terms {Biog, Vniv.)^ he luia
gined he had proved that the light from the edges of the
sun is weaker than that from the centre. M. Aiago has
disproved this assertion by new experiments.
The reputation ofBouguer being established as a prcHountl
mathematician, and particularly (to use a phrase ofM. Con
dorcet when speaking of him in his Hoge of La Condamine)
as * possessing that sort of talent which is able to distinguish
the little causes of error, and to find the means of remedy in ;r
them,' he was chosen, in company with La Condamine arid
others, together with two Spanish commissioners, to proreeti
to Peru, for the purpose of measuring a degree of tfake meri-
dian. Thither he accordingly departed in May, 1735. ami
remained till 1 743. The most essential parts of the Kyper*-
tion necessarily fell upon him, as La Condamine was com*
paratively new to the subject This important operatMti.
which is one of the best of its kind, was carried on under
diflUculties as great as were ever encountered by any scieo
tific expedition. The inhabitants of the country wr»
jealous of the French commissioners, and supposed tbem
either to be heretics or sorcerers, or to hare come in srar* t
of new gold mines. Even persons attached to the admnts-
tration employed themselves in stirring up the minda of the
people, and when at last they had procured the asaass»ma-
tion of the surgeon of the expedition, one was able to e<np»
the consequences by procuring a verdict of lunacy again ;
himself, and another by taking ordm» The eofntn it»rl:
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w&i difficult and dangerous : and this obstacle was increased
by jealousies which arose between the French and Spani:ih
commissioners, as well as between Bou^uer and La Conda-
mine. The former, who felt that he was the main resource
of the expedition, suspected that the latter would appro-
priate an undue share of the merit to himself. The conse-
quence was however of no harm to the real objects of the
expedition, but perhaps rather the contrary ; for it caused
Bouguer, La Condamme, and the Spaniards George Juan
and Antonio de Ulloa to conduct their operations separately/
while the near accordance of the three in their results was
a favourable presumption for their accuracy. The results
did not differ from their average by a five-thousandth part
of the whole, in the length of a degree of the meridian.
The leisure which impediments occasionally gave enabled
Bouguer to apply himself to the determination of points
not immediately connected with the main object. Among
other things, he ascertained the amount of refraction at
considerable heights aboTe the sea. He found reason to
suspect the eflfect of the attraction of Chimbora9o upon
the plumb-line, but not knowing the mean density of the
mountain, could not perform the task which Maskelyne
afterwards undertook. [Attraction.] A part of the ob-
servations (on the obliquity of the ecliptic) were forwarded
as soon as made to Halley, who published them in 1739 in
England : but an account of the whole was published in
Paris, in 1 740, under the title of * Figure de la terre,* &c.
In 1752 followed a justificatory tract on several disputed
points; in 1753 a treatise on navigation, abridged in octavo
by LacaiUe in 1769, and reprinted in 1781 and in 1792,
^ith notes by Lalande. In 1754 Bouguer published an
attack on La Condamine, relative to the part of the great
survey claimed by both. The latter replied with temper ;
and as his tract was the more amusing or the two (an obser-
vation both ofCondorcet and Biot), he carried the public
with him. It seems to be admitted on all sides, that Bou-
fruer had no ground of offence whatsoever, and that La
Condamine behaved towards him with great respect and
moderation.
Bouguer was afterwards employed to verify the degree
tneasured by Dominic Cassini between Paris and Amiens.
This he did in conjunction with Cassini de Thury, Camus,
and Pingt£. The results were published in 1 757. He died
August 15, 1 758, while preparing a new edition of his work
on the gradual extinction of light, which was afterwards
completed and published by Lacaille in 1760. In this work
he mentions an invention of his in 1748, which he calls the
Miometer, and which is in fact the first double object ^lass
micrometer, and was properly so called. That of Doilond,
which is the more easily used, and is esteemed the better
instrument, was invented independently a few years after-
wards, and consists in an object-glass divided into two
halves. [Micromkter.] Bouguer attacks the Royal So-
ciety of London, which a secot^' Ume had had recourse to
the proceeding mentioned in the life of Auzout, and had
published (but not till after Bouguer 's discovery had been
made known) the prior invention of an Englishman named
Savery . He reminds them of the circumstance to which we
have just referred, and, as Delambre remarks, having a
better case than against La Condamine, he is more mode-
rate in his language.
As a scientific character, Bouguer must stand in the first
rank of utiUty. The operations in Peru are among the first
of their species, and the species one of the most difficult
kind of scientific investigations.
BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE, was bom at Paris, 1628.
He studied at the college of Clermont, professed with the
Jesuits at sixteen years of age, and was appointed by that
society to read lectures in the Belles I^ttres and rhetoric,
both at Tours and at Paris. A heavy infirmity soon dis-
qualified him from the task, and he was compelled by the
recurrence of grievous headaches to embrace an occupation
apparently just as ill-adapted as that which he quitted to re-
lieve his peculiar complaint. He entered upon the tuition
of the sons of Henry, due de Longueville. That nobleman,
who regarded him with singular affection, died in his arms,
an«l Bouhours published an account of his illness and last
moments, Paris, 1663. His second publication was Histoire
de Pierre dAubusson, Grand Maitre de Rhodes, 8vo., 1667,
which has been translated into English. He was then en-
i;age«l on a commission to the Roman Cathohc refugees from
England to Dunkirk ; and was introduced to the substantial
patronage of Colbert by two critical works, Remarquee et
Doutes sur laLangueF^anfoise, and Les Entretiens dAriste
et d" Eugene, 1671. In the latter occurs a question most
offensive to (jerman national pride, 'Whether it be pos-
sible for a German to be a wit ?* These works awakened
a host of critics. Baillet affirmed that few exceeded Bou-
hours in knowledge of French stiles et des locutions : and
the Juvremens des Savans contain more than one very
favourable opinion from the censors of Trevoux. Manage,
on the contrary, stated that Bouhours wrote with politeness,
but without either judgment or learning ; that he was un-
acquainted with Greek and Hebrew, scholastic divinity,
and canon law ; that he had not read the fathers, the coun-
cils, nor ecclesiastical history ; that he was but a poor gram-
marian in his native tongue, and the most ignorant person
in the world as to the general principles of grammar ; that
his Doutes contained more faults in language, learning, and
judgment, than they filled pages; that he had never read
the bible; that he was unversed in Italian, concerning
which he made great parade ; was an unskilful etymologist*
and an unsound logician. Notwithstanding this most
cutting and ferocious declamation, it is said that Bouhours
cultivated and enjoyed the friendship of Menage ; and Col-
bert certainly assigned to him the education of his son, the
Marquis de Seignelai. His other chief works were Dia-
logues sur la maniere de bien penser dans les Ouvrages
d Esprit, 1687, in which the interlocutors Eudoxe and Phi-
lantfae address each other in a strain of adulatory compli-
ments little suited to the investigation of truth. Voiture is
the hero of the piece, and Rapin is extolled as fully equal
to VirgiL This false criticism received a very severe hand-
ling from Barbier d* Aucour, the wtiter of Les Sentimens da
Cli'ante, 2 vols., 1671-2, in La Harpe's opinion the only
polemical tract, excepting Les Provindales of Pascal, which
ever was worthy of more than temporary reputation. In
1683 Bouhours published a Li/e of Ignatius, and not long
afterwards one of Francis Xavier, Tlie latter is chiefly
remarkable as having been selected for translation by Dry-
den soon after his profession of the Romish faith. Xavier
was the saint, to whose prayers Ann of Austria believed
that she was indebted for her son, Louis XIV., after twenty *
years of barrenness ; and Dryden, in his Preface to Mary of
Est^, states that the queen of England in hke manner has
chosen the apostle of the Indies as * one of her celestial
patrons.* A judicious abridgment of the Li/e of Xavier,
excluding all that is incredible, profane, trivial, and absurd,
but fully exhibiting the heroic self-devotion, the courage,
the patience, the acuteness, and the perfection of the indefa-
tigable missionary, would be a work of deep interest, and
we think, of not a little utility. Bouhours published in
1697, a French translation of the Vulgate New Testament,
in which he is confessed on all hands to have failed. Some
minor devotional pieces may be added to the list of his
writings. He died in the college at Clermont at Paris,
May 27, 1 702, in the 74th year of his age.
BOUILLAUD, or BOULLIAU, latinized BULLI AL-
DUS (ISMAEL), born at Loudun, Sept. 28, 1605, died
Nov. 25, 1694, at Paris. He was originally a Protestant,
but became a Roman Catholic, and retired into the Abbey
of St. Victor, at Paris. He travelled in various parts of
Europe in the service of John Casimir, king of Poland.
Nothing more of his hfe is remembered ; but such of his
works (which were many, see the Biogr. Univ. and Lalande
Bibliogr. Astron.) as by themselves or their consequences
entitle him to a place here, are in the following list. Bouil-
laud was a combination of a fanciful speculator and a hard-
working calculator, a good scholar, and well versed in the
history of astronomy. His notion that light is a sort of sub-
stance intermediate between mind and matter entitles him
to the first appellation, and his PMlolaic astronomy to the
rest.
The earlier followers of Copernicus were accustomed to
rank themselves, and to be considered by others, as followers
of some one or other among the antients who advocated, or
were supposed to have advocated, the motion of the earth ;
either Pythagoras, ^ristarchus, or Philolaus. The first
work we shall notice of Bouillaud is his Philolaus, seu de
vero Systemate Mundi, 1639. After this he gave an edition
ofTheonof Smyrna, 1644, and in the following year his
Attronomia Ph'ilolaica (in his own catalogue of De Thou's
library he calls it Astrologia,) which contams: 1. Prolego-
mena on the history of astronomy, which are often cited,
and are the basis of several facts. 2. An exposition of a
system of astronomy, which is Copeniican as to the annual
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motion of the evtb and Ptolemaio as to the diurnal notion,
and the precession of the rauinoxes. It is throughout an
attack upon the lavs of Kepler, of which he only admits
that which asserts the planets to move in ellipses. Each
ellipse he treats as the section of an oblique cone, ene of the
foci of which is in the axis, (the sun beini^ in the other
focus,) and he asserts that the planets describe equal angles
in equal times round the axis, or rather that a plane passing
through the planet and the axis describes equal angles in
equal times. The celebrated hypothesis of Dr. Seth Ward
consists in supposing the planet to describe equal angles in
equal times about the focus in which the sun is not. Both
hypotheses are rery nearly true for ellipses of small cxcen-
tricity, and of the two, that of Bouillaiid is said to come a
little nearer. Seth Ward replied to Bouillaud in his Idea
THgonometriig Demonstrata, &c. Oxford. 1654, and the
latter rejoined in a tract entitled Astr. Phil.fundamenta
ciarius erplicata, Paris, 1657. 3. A set of tables, st>led
Philoiaicce, calculated for the meridian of Uraniburg (Tycho
Brahe's Observatory). Bouillaud here makes use of various
Arab observations detected by himself in the Bibliotheque
Royale. It must also be noticed that he was the first who
disinterred the observations of Thlus [Astrop^omt, vol. ii.
p. 532]. These tables have received great praise, and are
not without their merits : hut most of their value consists in
what is taken IVom Keplefs methods, or fhnn the Rudol-
ph ine Tables.
Bouillaud imap:ined that the laws of the planetary mo-
tions could be entirely deduced fh>m geometrical reasoning.
He blames Kepler for attending to any other method of de-
termining a law. But still he had the good ibrtune to make
a guess, which, had he been Newton, would not have lain
idle in his hands. He asserts, in opposition to Kepler, that
the law of the attracting force of tho sun, if such a thing be,
cannot be inversely as the distances, but inversely as the
square of the distances. He is thus the first Who started
this notion. He has certainly the advantage of Kepler in
another point, when he dsks why the sun only attracts the
planets, and why the planets only resist motion, and do not
produce it As the first sentence in which the law was
(though but as a supposition) announced, which has since
been found to regulate the motions of all the planets,
must be a curiosity, we shall give it at length fVom p. 23 of
Astr. Phil, * Virtus autcm ilia, cjuS sol prehendit seu har-
pagat planetas, corporalls que ipsi pro manibus est, lineis
rcctis in omnem tnundi amplitudinem emissa quasi species
Bolis cum illius corpore rotatur : cum ergo sit corporalis, im-
minuitur, et extenaatur in majori spatio et interuallo, ratio
autem hujus imminutionis eadcm est, ac luminls, in ratione
nempe dupld interiLallorum^ sed eversH, Hoc non negaUit
Keplerus, attamen vlrtutem motricem in simpld tantum
ratione interuallorum contendit imminui :* &c.
We shall also mention of Bouillaud his Opus novum ad
Arithmeticam ir^finitorum, Paris, 1682, which is a continua-
tion of the researches contained in the Arith. infln, of Wallis,
hut not applied to geometry : and also his Catalogus Biblio-
thecee Thuanm, made by him in conjunotion with James
and Peter Dupuis (Puteanus), Paris, 1679. This is an ex-
cellent representation of the state of a library of the time,
and we shall have frequent occasion to quote it. (Biog.
Univ,, Life by Pelambre, and Delambre Hist. Ast, Mod.)
Among the tablas of the Astronomia Philolaica are the
Rudolphine catalogue of stars ; the catalogue of southern
stars famished to Bayer by Americus Vespusius and others,
sent to Kepler by Bartschius from Bayer's manuscripts ; and
some Persian tables brought into Europe by George Cbiryso-
cocca.
BOUILLON, the capital of an antient duchy of that
name, now forming part of the prov. of Luxembourg, is
situated on the left hank of the river Semoy, and 14 m. fh)m
its junction with the Maese^ ih 40'* 48' N. lat., and 4? 59'
E. long. The duchy is on the W. side of Luxembourg, be-
tween it and Champagne, and under the French empire
was included in the dep. of the Sambre and the Maas. It
is a hilly district lying in the middle of the Ardennes.
Bouillon is a small neatly built town and contains about
2500 inh. It has two communal schools, in which 178
boys and 160 girls are instructed. The castle of Bouillon,
which was formerly thought to be impregnable, is built upon
a steep rock overlooking the town, but is itself commanded
* by the neighbouring hills.
The town and duehv of Bouillon were the hereditarv pos-
lessions of Godfrey, the leader of the lint crusade ana king
of Jerusalem, which citjr he took in 1 099. To proridA fUnda
for his expedition, Godfrey sold the duchy to Albert, bisiivp
of Ladge, subject to the right of redemption on the part of
the vendor or his immediate heirs. Godfrey having oied in
the Holy Land, this sale became the cause of dispute oetwet^n
his heirs and the bishop, each party having recoune to
arras in support of their pretensions. After this petty wur
had been renewed at so many different times as to obtain
for the duchy the name of *The debateable land,' it re-
mained fur some time in the peaceable possession of thr
prince Bishop of Lidge. The bishop having taken part in
the war against France, Louis XIY. caused the town ati'l
castle of Bouillon to be seized in 1672, and at the eongre««
of Nimeguen in 1678 stipulated that France should retain
possession, until arbitrators to be appointed fbr the purp"^4;
should have decided between the claims for the duchy ^».:
up by the descendants of the heirs of Godfrey and tlj**
Bishop of Lidge. In the meanwhile Louis had invest4»d i\w
family of La Tour d'Auvergne with the duchy. A de>ccr>fi-
ant of that house, Philip d'Auvergne, a captain in tlio
English navy, assumed in 1792 the title of Prtnrc «>}'
Bouillon, which he continued to bear until his deadi in
1816. The long disputed territory was adjudged by iVe
congress which met at Vienna in 18)9, to belong to tlu*
king of the United Netherlands, in his qualitv of duke uf
Luxembourg : in the division of that duchy consequent U| !i
the revolution of 1830, Bouillon fbll to the share of Bel? i up..
Bouillon is 49 m. W. from Luxembourg, and 6 m. N.Nl .
from Sedan, the French frontier being about midway Ik -
tween Sedan and Bouillon. (Gautier's Voyageur danr /.•♦
Pays-Bos ; Kampen ; Recueil, dJ'C., par Van der Maelen.)
BOUILLON, GODFREY (GODEFROY). DUKE OK.
in the Ardennes, was the eldest son of Gustavus II., count rf
Boulogne, a descendant bv the female line fh)m ChaHema:;iK'.
and of Ida, sister of Godfrey le Bossu, duke of Brabant, r
Basse-Lorraine. The date of his birth is not given, but tl <*
marriage of his parents took place in Decemto*, 1099. lu
his youth, Godfrey bore the great standard of the empire u.
the service of Henry IV. At the battle of Merseberg. Octo-
ber 2, 1 C81, his sword sheared off the right hand of the Pre-
tender !lodolph, who died on the ibllowing day in cott^-
quence of his wound; and Godfrey, whose distinguished
bravery had been rewarded by the ducal title, was axm^ni:
the first who scaled the walls of Rome in the subseqiKin
attack upon it. It is believed that remorse for the violation
of the holv city of the west occasioned his vow of ioinlnf^ lu
the crusade which was to rescue the still more holy orient:,
metropolis. His celebrity in arms, his noble descent, a: i
his general high reputation for both morals and valour.
readily procured him the chief command of the project.ti
expedition; and 80,000 foot and 10,000 horsemen «c^
placed under his immediate orders by the confederates. H «
gathering was formed on the hanks of the Mouse and of tii:
Moselle, and thence he advanced through Germany, BoU«*
mia, and Hungary. Bv discretion, and by fearlessly trustinc
himself to the good laith of Carloman, king of the Un-
named country, he removed the suspicions which had bc^.i
justly excited in that prince and his subjects by the lu^n-
tiousness of former pilgrims ; and after a short delay* he m .l^
greatly assisted in his maroh upon the Saracens by an esctir:
of Hungarian cavalry. In union with the other divi«ons of
the Latin army tmder the towers of Constantinople, he wa»
employed in dispelling the not unreasonaUe jealousy dis-
played by the femperor Alexius ; and afterwards, by the
capture of Nicsea and by retrieving the battle of Dorylseum.
he opened the passage through Asia Minor. Antioch next
ibll before his arms, but not until it had detained him many
months and had occasioned fearfhl loss. Among the pr.*-
digies of valour (and the phrase, however common •pla<«',
may here be received in its literal sense) which the ong'n .:
historians of the crusades delight to recoid of their faetwrs
is an instance that Godfrey, on one occasion, durin{; tr..%
siege, by a single stroke of his sword, split a Saracen fn>u
the left shoulder to the right hauncb, and that the cnt.n'
head and a moiety of the trunk of the Infidel fell up :
the spot into the river Orontes, while the sittmg half <n-
tefed the town on horseback. In May, 1099» the cru-
saders advanced ftom Antioch and Laodioea tu Jeni^ali^iii
but of their own mighty host scarcely 40,000 men remi^nu-:
alive, of whom one-half was unfit for combat. Gvidtrti.
while pursuing the hazardous diversion of the chace durii.^
his march through Pisidia, had been torn by a vikl bc«r .
and so greatly was he injured in /hb rough cneourur.
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that a litter bawme Aeeeiaary fi>r his oonTeyance over
Mount Taanii. On arriving lit Jenismlem he encamped
bis divisioo on Mount Calvary, and after five weeks of
severe struggle and acute suffering, the Holy City was
carried by storm on July 15, 460 years after its conquest
by Omar. Three days of unsparing butchery succeeded
this Drilliant triumph, during which the exertions of God-
frey were wholly inadequate to restrain the lawless passions
of (he soldiery flushed with victory. The unanimous voice
of the Christian army, after much intrigue, proclaimed
him first Latin King of Jerusalem ; but his piety and mo-
dest forbearance rejected the title } and even when in the
end he consented to assume the inferior style of ' Defender
and Baron of the Holy Sepulchre/ he persisted in refusing
to wear any diadem in that ol^ in which his Redeemer bad
been crowned with thoms. lie secured himself in the go-
vernment to which he had been thus honourably elevated,
by totally overthrowing the myriads brought against him by
the sultan of figypt, at Ascalon, Aug. 12, 1099. With the
assistance and advice of those pilgrims who were best skilled
in European jurisprudence, Ciodfrev compiled and promul-
gated a code named Lf9 Assiies ae Jerusalem ; which, as
iinally revised towards the close of the fourteenth century for
tlio use of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus, is printed in old law
French in Beaumanoir*s * Cautumes de Beauvaisaie," Bourges
and Paris, 1690. Godfrey died in the year 1100, after much
too short a reign for the glory and happiness of his newly-
established kingdom. His virtues and talents are now
cliiefly remembered by the glowing eulogy of Tasso ; but
they are fully avouched by the concurrent testimony of his-
torians frequently di&ring on other points.
BOULAC. [Cairo.]
BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI DS, Count of St.
Saire, in Normandy, was of an antient and noble family, of
Picard extraction. He was the eldest son of Francois, Count
uf St. Saire, and of Susanne de Manneville ; born at the
place from which he derived his hereditary title, October
Vltt, 1658. He studied at Bu Julien. where he particularly
addicted himself to the somewhat dry pursuit of genealos^ictfl
history. After a short period of militarv service, embar-
rassed family circumstances, arising chielly fieom an impru-
dent second marriage which liis fiither contracted late in life,
induced him to quit the army, and to live upon his estates
in retirement. His time was devoted to literature ; but
none of his writings were pubUshed from his own MSS. till
after bis death, wliieh took plaoe on January 23rd, 1722.
His works on dfiiferent portions of the feudal history of his
own countrr occupy three volumes folio, and are charac-
terised by u&e President H^nault to be so rigidly framed
on a false system, as to permit their author to appear * ni
h<in critique^ ni ton publieiste.* Montesquieu and Vol-
taire however give a more ikvourable judgment. A marked
antipathy to revelation pervades his writings, and exhibits
itself in sinf^lar contrast with a superstitious reverence for
judicial astrology, and the mystic sciences, which he culti-
vated with much diligence. A Life of Mohammed extends
only to the fiegira, and represents him as a blameless
hero. Langtiet du Presnoy committed to the press the
MS. of the treatise which is called Refutation dee Erreure
d^ Benmi de Spinoea^ par M. de FhtSlon, Archevique de
Cambray,p^ir U Phr^ Louie BStiSdictin, ei par M, le
Comie de Bwdaifwilliere ; avee la Vie de Spinosa, icrite
p^r Jean Colerue, minietre de tEsliee Lutherienne d la
Haye, oMigmentie de beimeoup de J^rtioularitie tires dune
Vie manuscrite de ce phiheiphe faite par un de see amis
( Lucas, a phvsvian), Brussels, 1 7S 1 , 8vo. The tract, instead
of being, as its title imports, a recitation of Spinoso, is an at^
rangement and a defence of his materialism. In the well-
known letters on ^e Parliaments of France, which were
translated into English, the author shows clearly that he was
fully aware of the defects of the political system of France, as
exhibited in the want of an efficient national legislature.
BOULEVARD, or BOULEVART, a French word cor-
responding to our own terms bulwark and rampart, the former
of which is obviously akin to the French * Boulevard.* The
^ord, according to Dueange, is an altered form of Bourg-
ward, the territory of a Bourg, or collection of houses. It is
applied to all the spaee occupied by a bastion or curtain ;
(DicL de FAcad.) and also to the promenades which in
tome French towns have been formed on the site of fortift-
cations now demolished. Thus the promenades which sur-
round the city of Bourgea have the title of ' Les Boulevards
ViUeAeuw;
The boule««idi of Fans form a remarkable featnro of
that capiul. Those on the N. aide of the Seine form a
continuous line of wide street or toad, planted on each side
with elm-trees; approaching in form to a semicircle or
rather a semi-ellipse, and extending in length to nearly
three miles, from the church of La Madeleine to Uie site of the
Bastile. They are about midway between the river and the
wall of Paris, which agaiQ is surrounded by a road planted
with trees, and called * Boulevards Sxteneurs ;* but these
are not worthy of much notice. They abound with places
of amusement for the working classes of Paris; and as the
duty on wine is not paid except it is actually conveyed
within the barriers, all the cheap wine-shops are on these
boulevards, which are not generaUy inviting as a mere pro-
menade.
The boulevards on the B. side of the Seine are planted
and laid out like Chose above mentioned, but are more ex-
tensive, and approach in some places close to the wall and
coincide with it The length of these is perhaps between
four and five miles. The rf . boulevards are distinguished
by the magnificence of their buildings, tlh9 shops, cafiSs,
hotels, and places of public amusement which adorn them,
and the gav multitude by which they are thronged. The
S. boulevards are less frequented by the Parisians.
These boulevards are on the site of the walls of Paris de-
molished by Louis XIV. (Paris and its Historical Scenes
in the Library of Entertaining Knnwledge^
BOULOGNE, or, as it is sometimes called, to distinguish
it from other places of the same name, B0UL06NB-SUR-
MER (t. e., on the sea), a sea-port and town of France, in
the dep. of Pas de Calaia It lies about 10 or 11 m. S. of
the Cap de Oris Nez, and at the mouth of the little river
Ltanne or Liane. which falls into the English Channel
and forms the bar. : it is 181 m. N. by W. of Paris in a
straight line, or 137 m. by the road through Beauvais,
Abbeville, and Montreuil ; in dO"* 44' N. lat and ]** 35' E.
long.
Boulogne is a place of great antiquity. It was in the
country of the Morini, a tribe of the Belgse, and was known
to the Romans by the name of Gesoriacum, according to
the testimony of Mela, a geographer who flourished in the
time of the ifmperor Claudius. The manner in which Mela
speaks of it ifnplies that it was of Gallic origin ; and it
was in his time the place of greatest note on that coast.*
Some writers, and among them Montfaucon, Cluverius,
Sanson, and Le Quien, have endeavoured to show that Bou-
logne was also the Portus Itius, firom which Julius Ctosar
embarked for Britain, in his first (according to Strabo) and
second expeditions to that Island; but their opinion is
rejected by D'Anville, who agrees with Du Cange, and
with our own antiquary Camden, in fixing the Portus
Itius at Witsand or Wissan, a small town near Cap de
Gris Nez. Gesoriacum became, under the Homans, the
chief port of embarkation for Britain: here, D'Anvillo
thinks, was the tower erected by Caligula, when he marched
to the coast of Gaul in order to mvade Britain ; and the Em-
peror Claudius, according to Suetonius, embarked here for
that island. The port in Britain with which a communication
was chiefly maintained was Rutupiss, now Richborough,
near Sandwich. About the time of ^e Emperor Constan-
tino, the name of Bononia was substituted for that of Gesoria-
cum, and tho latter is not used by Ammianus Marcellinus,
Eutropius, and other writers of a later period. In the No-
titia Provinciarum Galliarum, subjoined to the Itinerary of
Antoninus, mention is made of the Civitas Bononensium as
distinct from the Civitas Morinorum, which indicates that
the country of the Morini had been divided between two
communities, of one of which Bononia was the capital.
When, in the latter part of the third century, Carausius
was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain, he pos-
sessed himself of Bononia, which appears to have been one
of the Roman naval stations, for Carausius, before his
revolt, had been directed to fit out from it a fleet to dear the
sea of pirates. This town was in consequence besieged by the
Crosar Constantius Chlorus, father of Constantino the Great.
The siege, which ended in the capture of the town, was the
occasion of serious detriment to it. In the fifth century
Bononia is said to have been unsuccessfully attacked by
Attila king of the Huns ; and in the ninth century it was
* Tb« word* of MeU are ' pertinetqiM (from lltornn) ad nltimot Galliea
rum K^ntium. Morinot, rm porta quern Oetoriaeum voeant quiequam notiuf
Imbet'— cut). Ui. «. 9, «dit Abr. OroniMti] ; • and ttaa tu» oftlM alior* reachH
to the country of th« Morini, th« most xemote of Iha Oallit oatlona ; and \hatn
ia n«Uung on it bttttr kfiovn than tkil haxlmir, wbl«k b tslkd OMoitecvm*
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laid waste bjr the Northmen, who had landed jusi by.
(D^Anvilie ; cxpillf. Diet.) From the discovery of a ring
to which the cables of vessels were fastened, it is thought
that tbe sea flowed up as far as the present upper town of
Boulogne, in which case Gesoriacum must have been at
the bottom of a small bay.
Several Roman antiquities have been discovered at Bou-
logne ; among these are medals and tombs. During 1 823,
1826, and 1827, several tombs were discovered. Those
discovered in 1823 were close to the sea ; those discovered
in 1826 and 1827 were a little out of the town, on the right
of the road to Paris. The coffins in these last-mentioned
tombs were ranged in regular order, and the bones (some of
which bore the marks of deep wounds) were in good pre-
servation. Several wells, a Roman road, and the founda^
tions of what was considered to be a votive altar, were disco-
vered at the same place ; also many vases of different forms,
and a great number of medals. Similar discoveries had been
made before. On a cUff near the entrance of the port there
stood a tower, which tower D*Anville considers to be one
built by Caligula, as mentioned above. It was an octagon,
and each side is said to have been about 24 or 25 French
(eotial to 25^ or 264 English) (t. (at the base we presume),
and it rose to the height of 126 ft.* It had twelve stages or
floors, and the diameter of the tower appears to have dimi-
nished 3 ft. at each stage, so as to form so many external gal-
leries of a foot and a half in width, going all round the tower.
On the top of the tower lights were place<l, so that it served
as a light- house to vessels navigating the channel. The
tower was built in a manner somewhat similar to that of
tbe Palais des Thermes, a Roman edifice at Paris. It was
built with iron grey-stone, three tiers together, succeeded
by a double tier of a yellow stone of a softer texture, and
on this a double tier of verv hard and red bricks. At the
time of its erection it stood more thdn a bow-shot from the
sea, but the cliff was so much excavated by the waves, and
fell in so far, that the tower was at last undermined and
overthrown in the year 1644. It had been repaired by
Charlemagne in the early part of the ninth century ; and
when the English were in possession of Boulogne they sur-
rounded this tower with a wall and towers, so as to convert
it into a donjon or keep of a fortress. These walls and
towers shared the fate of the original Roman work in being
overthrown by the advance of the sea. The tower was
named in the middle ages * Turris ordans* (supposed to be
a corruption of aniens, burning) or ordensis ; and it is still
spoken of as the Tour d'Ordre. There were in the middle
of the last century some ruins of the Roman walls, built of
the same materials as the above-mentioned towers.
In the year 1231 Philippe of France, son of the King Phi-
lippe Auguste, casued new walls to be built inclosing a
smaller space than bad been occupied by the Roman town.
This inclosure was that of tlio upper town (as it is now
termed) at the eastern angle of which a citadel or castle
was built by the same Philippe. Boulogne had before this
time been erected into a county, of which he had acquired
possession by marriage. Boulogne now became a frontier
fortress, and resisted various attacks made upon it. In 1544
it was however taken by the English under King Henry
VIII., owing to the cowardice of the governor (according
to Expilly) who refused to comply with tbe entreaties
of the more gallant townsmen to hold out The English
monarch set himself to strengthen the town by every
means in his power: he fortified the Tour d'Ordre, as
already noticed, ordered another fort to be built between
that and the town called la Maison Rouge, and some others
in different places. But by treatv, in 1550, Edward VI.
of England restored Boulogne to 1* ranee. While Boulogne
was in possession of the English Henry II. of France built
two forts very near the town in order to straiten and annoy
the garrison.
After the recovery of the place from foreign dominion,
the lower town, which had risen as a suburb oT the upper
town, on the side next to tbe riv., was surrounded by walls
and the upper town strengthened by towers and other new
works ; but in 1687, by order of the king, the towers were
blown up, and there remained to the upper town only the
wall which encircled it, the castle, and one boulevard or
bulwark ; and to the lower town only a portion of its wall.
The walls of the upper town are still standing : they are
planted with a double row of trees, and afibrd a delightful
promenade, commanding a view of the lower town, the sea,
Wt w not sw* whctbtf thMt •!• FctBch or EogUali U9U
and in fine weather of the coast of England. Ther<» arw
three gates by which to enter the town. The walls uf t'l.c
lower town have been destroyed. The citadel or castle, w htt :i
yet remains, is used as an armoury and barrack, and its \ault«
are converted into a powder magaxine.
At the commencement of the present century BouIo^tk
rose into celebrity from its having been made bv Napole* o
the central rendezvous of the * Grande Arm6e,* which he h.^*!
assembled avowedly for the invasion of England. Tbe prv-
parations of the French ruler were on a vast scale ; Dear!)i
200«000 men were oollected and encamped on tbe nviul*-
bouring heights ; towers were erected and cannons mour«t«-d
along Uie coast, and a numerous flotilla filled the |iort.
This armament had been commenced before the short pe^xv
of Amiens ; and an unsuccessful attack had been madi* I >
an English fleet under Nelson on the French flotilla on t: v
night of the 15th August, 1801. On the. rupture of tl.<-
peace the flotilla and town again became the object* < :
attack, and on the 10th August, 1804, Admiral Keith ma'.--
an attempt as unsuccessful as that of Nelson had been. Ti.**
plan of invasion was however broken through bv the deft-.*:
of the combined Spanish and French fleets off Feirol b> Ou*
English under Sir Robert Calder, 22nd July, J805,'an<J
by the coalition of England, Russia and Austria aeam^^t
France. The army encamped about Boulogne was suddenly
marched to the Rhine, and Boulogne sunk again into the
comparative obscurity from which these mighty prepamtuir.^
had raised it. The column, the erection of which wa.4 nuu-
menced by the army in honour of the emperor, perpeiuau^
the memory of this armament
Since the peace of 1815 Boulogne has much increa»ed :o
extent and population, and also much improved in its gencr i
appearance. It is much resorted to as a bathing- place, a: -j
many English families have made it their permanent rc< -
dence. In 181 5 it had onlv 13,000 inhabitants ; the retur .»
of 1832 give 20,856, and the guide books of two or tiircv
years later 25,000.
The town is on the right bank of the lianne, tbe ciku ><
of which is here to the N.W. Tbe upper town, which jf^
preaches to the form of a parallelogram* the direction >
whose sides is N.E and S.W., and N.W. and S.E.. £i 1
has the old castle at its eastern angle, is about a quart, r
of a mile from the riv. This is tbe most ancient par.
of Boulogne, and has narrow irregular streets, but k^- >!
houses. The lower town extends along the riv. De.iri«
to its mouth, and occupies the space between ibc r.».
and the upper town. This part is regularly built ; there
is a kind of suburb called Capieure, on the left bank uf t..»
Lianne, which has been lately added to Boulogne b; ir.
edict of tbe king. The lower town is much larger, i&t»nr
populous and more commercial than the upper town. ar. 1
contains the greater part of the public buildings. Tbe »i«f
ply of water, which is not of good quality, is by meann o:
fountains, of which there are five in the upper and t«e> •
in the lower town : the latter are supplied from a re«4m><:r
near the column of Napoleon. Arrangements ha%r U«r.
made, and are probably by this time nearly eompleted« %jc
lighting the town by means of gas. There are promenadrk
on the ramparts of the upper town ; and there is an v.fi« i
space, called the Tinterelles^ on the N. side of tbe town, t
a neighbourhood adorned with new streets and elei^a.: ;
houses. The sands are of considerable extent* and Ibna aa
excellent promenade at low water.
Among the principal public buildings of the upper to\( r
are the Hotel de Ville or Town Hall, behind which t» as
antient tower, the Bejffroi (belfry), formerly belonein:; r
a larger building of which it is the relic ;* the PuSots
Justice, where the courts of law sit ; an antient c|c.^ ..
pulaco^ now used as a boarding-school, and tbe Xu* \
d' Arret, or prison. Besides these are some reli«!ti>u» c** •-
bli&hments. In the lower town are — ^the Hotel or olLtf . '
the Sub-prefecture; the building formerly a seminaj> i
the priesthood and now occupied by several instituu-r.^ -
the promotion of science ; the barracks ; the hospital ; .:
u building lately erected for various charitable purpovc^
There are in Boulogne two churches and three cic«f n%
for nuns, the most considerable of which is Uiatof the :i^^t.'i
Grises (Grey Sisters) containing about seventy nuns. x«
British Episcopalian chapels and one British \\v%U ^ . .
chapel. There are several chariuble institutions: the t. •
pital contains above 200 inmates, aged and infirm pco.^ «.
and foundling or orphan children ; and there are dcl:.;
300 children (foundlmgs) under ISUf ears of «m mt ouvi
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in the country: an infant asylum for children from 18
months to 6 year^ provides for 120 yoimg children of des-
titute parents, lliere is a humane society for the recovery
of drowned persons. There are two girls* free-schools,
managed hy the Somrs Grises, and attended by about
750 children ; elementary free-schools fi)r about 1200 boys
under the direction of the Freret de la Doctrine Chre-
h'enne; a I^ancasterian free-school; a free-school for navi-
f^tion, and two or three institutions which may be de-
scribed as schools of industry. There does not appear to
be any College Royal or higb school at Boulogne* but there
ii an abundance of private seminaries both French and
Kn<;lish ; and there are academies for music and drawing, in
which gratuitous instruction is given. There is a museum
of natural history, antiquities, objects of art, &c. ; also a good
public library of above 22.000 volumes and 300 MSS. : an
agricultural society, a society of the friends of the arts, and
a philharmonic society. Of places of amusement may be
mentioned the theatre, and the splendid bathing establish-
ment, comprehending reading, music, assembly and card
rooms. Horse-races have just been established, and balls ;
fairs, and several fStes in the neighbourhood called Ducasses*
fill up the circle of amusements.
The bar. of Boulogne has been much improved of late
years, but is still difficult of access, and has not water
enough when the tide is out. It consists of the channel
of the riv. Lianne, and of a semicircular basin on the' left
bank of the riv. At low w»ter the vessels rest in the
mud, through which the stream finds its way to the ocean.
From the mouth of the riv. two piers are carried out about
2000 ft. into the sea. The trade of the town is consi-
derable and is increasing. The fisheries are important.
The herring and mackerel seasons call into employment a
ronsidcrablc cnpital, and several vessels are fitted out for-
the Newfoundland cod fishery. The fishermen form a pe-
culiar class in society, and their customs, dress, language
and habits remain almost the same amidst the changes
which the intercourse with foreigners has been working
in other classes. They are very superstitious.
Before the Revolution Boulogne was the seat of a bishop-
ric, erected in the 1 6th century from part of the former
diocese of Therouenne. It has now again lost its episcopal
rank. The cathedral, which was destroyed in the Revolution,
wa.s considered one of the most ancient religious edifices in
France. Before the Revolution were some monasteries now
suppressed.
Boulogne was the birth-place of Thurot, an eminent
French naval officer : Le Sagie, the author of * Gil Bias,' and
the English poet Churchill died here.
Boulogne is the capital of an arrond. which contains 348 sq.
m., and is subdivided into six cantons and 100 communes.
The inhabitants, by the census of 1832, were 98,099.
About a mile from Boulogne on the Calais road is the
column voted by the grand army to Napoleon as an expres-
sion of their esteem and admiration. It was also designed to
commemorate the institution of the I^egion of Honour.
Kach soldier contributed a portion of his pay, and the first
stone was laid by Marshal Soult ; but the work was not
finished till the reign of Louis XVIII., when the monument
was perverted from its original purpose, being made to com-
memorate the return of the Bourbons, and in place of the
statue of Napoleon, by which it was to have been sur-
mounted, a gilt globe, adorned with flours de lis, has been
substituted. It is now however likely to be restored to its
original purpose of a monument in honour of Napoleon, and
the present government of France has promisea to furnish
the bronze for the intended statue. The column is of the
Composite order, above 160 English ft. high, and more than
13 in diameter. There is a staircase within by which
ri^itors ascend to an iron gallery round the ball which sur-
mounts the column, fh>m which gallery is a very extensive
prospect. The column is composed of marble from the
quarries of Marquise in the neighbourhood. In the envi-
rons of Boulogne is the botanical garden, formed in 1 784
by the Baron de Courset, considered to be one of the finest
Slid most extensive in France. It contains a numerous and
beautiful collection of plants, and is much visited by the in-
haliitants or visitors of Boulogne.
BOULOGNE, a village in the immediate neighbour-
)''Xk1 of Paris, to the S.W. of that city, is upon the right bank
of the Seine, and just opposite St. Cloud. It was formerly
railed Menus. About the fourteenth century a brother-
hood was formed here in honour of the Virgin ty some
No. 306.
[THK PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
inhabitants of Paris who had returned from a pilgrimage
to Boulogne-sur-Mer. The chapel built by the brethren
of this community became crowded by the devotees from
Paris, and the vil. acquired the name of Boulogne, from
the pilgrimage which its founders had undertaken. The
pop. of the com. was, in 1832, 5391 ; of the vil. itself,
5210. Between Paris and the vil. of Boulogne extends the
Bois de Boulogne, an extensive wood intersected in all di-
rections by alleys and roads. Many of the fine trees which
once adorned it have been cut down, and it is now merely
an extensive copse thinly scattered with young plants.
Much of the wood was destroyed by the Prussians, when
they had their camp here at the clusc of the late war. In
passion week, the wood is the scene of an annual procession,
formerly partaking of a religious character, but now formed
of little else than a string of vehicles filled by people desirous
of being as gay and merry as possible.
In the Bois de Boulogne were three Chdleaux be-
longing to the royal family. That of Muette, whfch was
frequented by Louis XV., is close to the vil. of Passy. The
Chateau de Madrid is said to have been built by
Francis I. after his return from captivity. This was de-
stroyed at the Revolution ; of the present condition or use of
the Chateau de Muette we have no late account. The third
chdteau is that oi Bagatelle, built by the ex- King of France,
Charles X., while Count d'Artois; and occupied, after the
restoration of the Bourbons, by his son the Due de Bern.
The inscription over the portal, parva aed apta * small but
convenient,' gives the true character of the place. (Planta*s
Picture of Paris).
BOULONNOIS, a district in the former prov. of Pi-
cardie, deriving its name from its capital Boulogne-sur-
Mer, now forming part of the dep. of Pas de Calais. The
climate is rather cold, but the land is fertile in grain,
and aflfords pasturage to a great number of cattle, from
whose milk good butter is made. Some coal is dug, and
there are mineral springs. The Boulonnois was bounded on
the N. by the district in which Calais is situated, called the
Pavi Reconquis, on the £. by Artois, on the S. by Ponthieu,
ana on the W. by the sea. It formed part of the country of
the Morini, a Belgic tribe. It appears to have become an here-
ditary CO. in the 9 th century, and underwent various changes ;
but its history does not present any noints of interest. It
was re-united to the crown by Louis Al. (Expilly, Diet.)
BOUI^TON, MATTHEW, was born Sept. 3rd, 1728,
at Birmingham, where his father carried on the business of
a hardwareman. He received an ordinary education at a
school at Deritend ; and also acquired a knowledge of draw-
ing and mathematics. At the age of seventeen he efiected
some improvements in shoe-buckles> buttons, and several
other articles of Birmingham manufacture. The death of
his father left him in possession of considerable property ;
and in order to extend his commercial operations, he pur-
chased, about 1 762, a lease of Soho, near Handsworth, which
though only two miles from Birmingham, is not in the same
county, but in StafiTordshire. It would scarcely be possible
to select a more striking instance of the beneficial changes
effected by the combined operations of industry, ingenuity,
and commerce, than that which was presented by Soho
after it had been some time in Mr. Boulton's possession. It
had previously been a bleak and barren heath, but was
soon diversified by pleasure grounds, in the midst of which
stood Mr. Boultons spacious mansion, and a range of ex-
tensive and commodious workshops capable of receiving
above a thousand artisans. These workshops were described
by a tourist (Warner), thirty-five years ago, as being equally
striking both for their neatness and magnificence. In 1797
Mr. Boulton purchased the fee-simple of this estate with a
considerable portion of land adjoining.
To Mr. Boulton*s active mind this country is eminently
indebted for the manner in which he extended its resources,
and brought into repute its manufacturing ingenuity.
Water was an inadequate moving power in seconding his
designs, and he had recourse to steam. The old engine on
Savary*s plan was not adapted for some purposes in which
it was requisite that great power should be combined with
dehcacy and precision of action. In 1769 Mr. Boulton
having entered into communication witu Watt, who had
obtained a patent for some improvements in the steam-
engine. Watt was induced to settle at Soho. In 1775 par-
liament granted him a farther extension of the privileges of
his patent for improvements in the steam-engine ; and on
his entering into partnership) with Mr, BouUqn, the Soho
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vrorks soon became famous for their excellent engines. Dr.
Ure remarks (Philosophy of Manufactures, p. 29) that
there are many engines mude by Boulton and Watt forty
yean* ago, which have continued in constant work all that
time with very slight repairs. Not only was the steam*
engine itself brought to greater perfection, but its powers
were applied to a variety of new purposes. In none of tlicse
was the success so remarkable as in the machiner]^ for
coining, which was put in motion by steam. The coining
apparatus was first put into operation in 1 783, but it soon
underwent important improvements, until it was at length
brought to an astonishing degi^ee of perfection. One engine
put in motion eight macliines, each of which stamped on
both sides and milled it the edges from seventy to eighty-
four pieces in a minute ; and the eight machines together
completed in a style far superior to anything which ha4
previously been accoraphshed, from 30,000 to 40,000 coins
in an hour. The manufacture of plated wares, of works iii
bronze, and or molu, such as vases, candelabra, and other
ornamental articles, was successively introduced at Soho,
and the taste and excellence which these productions dis-
played soon obtained for them an unrivalled reputation in
every part of the world. Artists and men of taste were
warmly encouraged, and their talents called forth by Mr.
Boultons liberal spirit. The united labours of the two
partners contributed to give that impulse to British industry
which has never since ceased.
Mr. Boulton has been described by Playfair as possess-
ing a most generous and ardent mind, to which was added
an enterprising spirit that led him to grapple with great and
difficult undertakings. * He was a man of address' (con-
tinues the same writer), 'delighting in society, active, and
mixing with people of all ranks with great freedom and
without ceremony.' Watt, who survived Mr. Boulton,
spoke of his deceased partner in the highest terms. Ho
said, ' To his friendly encouragement, to his partiality (or
scientific improvements, and to his ready application of
them to the purposes of art, to his intimate knowledge o\
business and manufactures, and to his extended views and
liberal sphit, may in a great measure be ascribed whatever
success may have attended my exertions.* Mr. Boulton
expended about 47,000/. in the course of experiments on
the steam-engine, befure Watt perfected (he construction
and occasioned any return o( profit.
Mr. Boulton died August I7tli, 1809, in his BIstyear.
His remains were attended to the grave by several thousand
individuals, to whom medals were ^iven, recording ttie at^e
of tiie deceased and the day of his death. Yhe body was
borne to the grave by the oldest workmen connected with
the works at Soho, and about five huudred persons belongm^
to that establishment joined in the procession. Mr. Boulton
left an only son, to whom the Soho works at present belong.
BOUNTY, a term used (o signify a premium paid by
government to tie pnxtiicers, exporters, or importers of
certain articles, or to those who employ ships in certain
trades. (M*CuUoch's Dictionary of Commerce,) A dis-
tinction must be made betweeii a bouniy and a arawbacli,
whicii latter is not hable io the same objection as (lie
former. l*remiums given by {he public to artists and ma-
nufacturers who excel in their particular occupations must
also 1)0 regarded in a difierent lii^lit from bounties applied
to the maintenance of particular branches of commerce.
[Drawback; Pkhmium.J
Perhaps the most objectionable and vicious mode of pro-
tecting the interests of commerce is fcy means of bounties.
A tariff may be framed on such narrow and exclusive views
as to be nearly as injurious to a country, but the evil conse-
quences are less palpable ; and hence bounties have ceased
to be considered as advantageous to the general interest,
while high or prohibitory import duties are ^ore or' less
adopted by all commercial nations. X^>c question of boun-
ties and their impolicy is discus!«;d bv Adam Smith in his
* Wealth of Nations,* book iv. chap. 5 ; arid the subject has
also been treated in a very comptete manner by (he late
Mr. Ricardo in his * Principles of t'olitical ficoiiomy and
Taxation.' P'ostlelhwaite, in his ' Dictionary of Commerce,'
published in 1774 in two vols, folio, under the head * Bouii-
lies," refers to a work specially dedicated to this and simi-
lar subjects ; and the reason he alleges for so doing is that
• they ure so very numerous.' After the publiratfon of
Adam Smith's work bounties began to be regarded with
less favour, and have at length sunk into complete dis-
crediL Thcv are now no more relied upon as a means of
farthering the true interests of cx)mmerce than the balance
of trade, as it was termed, is regai-ded as an unfailing iiuli
cation of the increase or diminution of national prosper iu.
With tins latter notion, indeed, the policv of bounties u av
very materially connected. It was thought that they ope-
rated in turning the balance in our favour. Adam Smitli
remarks :— ' By means of bounties our merchants and mc-
nufacturers, it is pretended, will be enabled to sell tluir
goods as cheap or cheaper than their rivals in the furvi;:'*
markets IVe cannot (be adds) force foreigner to
biiy their goods, as we have done our own countrymen. Tttf
next best expedient, it has been thought, therefore, is to ^-tiii
them for buying,* Bounties in truth eflfect nothing more
than this, and the chapter from which the above extiai*i»
are made affords the most satisfactory proofs of their ilj-
policy. The propositions maintained are, that every Xn.*\<y
is in a natural state when goods are sold for a price wlueh
replaces the whole capital employed in preparing and stnd-
ing them to the market with something in addition in tho
shape of profit. Such a trade needs no bounties. Indi-
vidual interest is sufficient to prompt men to engage lu
carr^ ing it oti. On the other hand, when ^oods ar? ioUl ui
a price which does not replace the cost of tne raw macerial,
the wages of labour and all the incidental expends wUicli
have been incurred in bringing them into a state fit lor the
market, together with the manufacturer's profits ; that is,
when they are sold at a loss, the manufacturer will cea^^e to
produce an unprofitable article, and this particular bnin< h
of industry will soon become extinct. It perhaps bappvn^
that tlie general interests of the country are thought to l»c
peculiarly connected >fith the species of industry in quv%-
tion, and th&t it therefore behoves government to take mean*
for preventing its falling into decay. At this point com-
mences the operation of bounties, which are devised for the
purpose of producing an equilibrium between the C(>»t ol
f>roauctioti, the xparket price, and a remunerating price, tiu
ast of which alon6 promotes the constant activity of c\ irv
species ^f ip(Iustry, Smith observes 'The bounty is gj\«ii
ir¥ order to hiake up this loss, and to encourage a man to
continue or perhaps to begin a trade of which the ex|teri^
is supposed to be greater than the returns ; of whicb c\*--\-
operation eats up a part of the capital emp1oye<l in it, »:. I
wtii^h is of such a nature, that if all other trades rcsemh.t- !
it there would soon be no capital left in the country,* Ai.d
he adds :— * The trades, it is to be obsened, which a re
carried on by means of bounties are the only ones wlwh
can be carried on between two nations for any con>idi-r.i\» e
time ^gethor, in such a maimer as that one of them sn .j
always and regularly lose, or sell its goo(Ts for le^s v ..i
they really cost .... The effect of bounties, ther*.l r ,
can only oe to force the trade of a country into a rh.iT;i.rl
much less advantageous than that in which it would nau-
rally run of its own accord.*
One of ttie most striking instances of the failure of il.c
bount]^^ system occurred ahout the middle of the last cci nr\
in connexion with the white herring fishery. A joinlst.- k
company was created, with a capital of aOO.OOu/., f»r i' •»
purpose of vigorously prosecuting tliis branch of ov.r
fisheries; and though in addition to a bounty of30«. a t< a
the Company was allowed an exportation bounty of 2», > L
a barrel, the delivery of British and foreign salt dut> fr^*\
and* though for every 100/. subscribed 3/. a- year JHicr.. -;
was paid by the government, yet, in spite of such exir.i. r
dinar j encouragement, the greatest portion of the C4p;'.il
employed was lost. Individuals, for the sake of the b*uai-
ties, rashly ventured into tlie business without a knowWl^*
of (he mode of carrying it on in the most economical a: i
jiicficious manner.
The bounty oh the exportation of com was given up m
18I5i, and those on the exportation of linen and fewr .i
other articles ceased in 1830. The following (Goverumi- t
Otiicial Tables, p. 4) shows that bounties will prx>babl> u^tx
cease to t>e considered as forming any part of our c«iui-
mercial policy : —
Bounties for promoting Fisheries, Linen MMtu/aciure*\
<$'C. in the Untied Kingdom,
d.
Iv
^i
£. *.
d.
£. *•
1822
. 445,162 13
4
182S . 2^3,269 14
1823
. 483.066 6
H
18.»9 . 233,«?41 9
18-24
. 53.5,223 ti
":]
1830 . 199.263 5
1825
. 429,162* 3
14
1831 . 170,999 5
1826
. 315,339 5
4
1832 . 7M72 3
1827
• 204,208 10
6
Digit
1633 . 14.713 9 1
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B O U
276
BO U
xeal to the study of strategics. He selected for his friends
and masters La TremoiUe, Bayard, and others, who were
distinguished as military leaders. He conversed with them
on plans of campaigns, marches, encampments, on the de-
tails of discipline and subsistence. From the generals be
went to subordinate officers who had acquired reputation.
At night, when he retired to his tent or ois cabinet, he re-
duced to writing his observations and the result of his con-
ferences. Such is the labour of those, if we may be allowed
to transfer the sentence of Johnson, who fight for immor-
tahty.
Bourbon returned to France in 1509. In the war of the
league of Cambray he had an opportunity of displaying his
talents for war.
Upon the death of Gaston de Foix, in 1512, the army of
Italy demanded with acclamations Bourbon for their leader.
But Louis XII. did not comply with its wishes. It is re-
ported that he appeared to be somewhat afraid of Bourbon ;
that he was heard to say that he should have wished to see
in him more openness, more gaiety, and less taciturnity.
* Notliing is worse,* added he, * than the water which
sleeps.*
Upon the accession of Francis I. to the crown, Bourbon
was immediately (1515) appointed constable. It will afford
some notion both of the character of the times and the mag-
niGconco of the duke de Bourbon, to mention that at the
king's coronation, when Bourbon represented the duke of
Normandy, his suite consisted of two hundred noblemen.
The constable devoted himself assiduously to the duties
of his new office, the highest in a military government like
what France then was. He introduced saany important
regulations respecting the discipline of the troops. He par-
ticularly directed his attention to the protection of the citi-
zens and peasants against the insolence and oppression of
the soldiery. His regulations under tbis head exhibit con-
siderable administrative talent : and his unbending auste-
rity in enforcing the rules he had laid down showed that he
fully understood how much a severe discipline conduces to
victory. The salutary effects of tbis system were shown
very soon in the victory of Marignano, which was mainly
owing to Bourbon's skill and valour.
Our space will only permit the notice of as many of the
events in which Bourbon was engaged as are necessary to
the understanding of the main incidents that determined
his character and shaped his destiny. And these even in
a work like the present, are of more importance than per-
haps they may appear to superficial inquirers ; for tbe events
of Bourbon's later career might be said to have influenced
in no inconsiderable degree the destinies of Europe, and
hence those of mankind.
When Francis I. returned to France in 1516, he left the
constable in Lombardy as his lieutenant-general. While
here he proposed to tbe court the conquest of the kingdom
of Naples. But while he was making preparations for this
expedition, an unexpected invasion of the Milanese by the
Emperor Maximilian of Austria took place. Against this
irruption Bourbon's first proceeding was to repair the forti-
fications of Milan, for which purpose he levied a body of 6000
pioneers, by means of a loan, which his high character
enabled him to raise. Aware that Francis was not in a
condition to grant him any aid, he applied to Albert de la
Pierre, a renowned captain of the canton of Ziirich ; and he
obtained, by his own credit, permission to levy a body of
12,000 Swiss. These, after considerable delay, having at
length arrived and received three months' pay in advance,
refused to go out and attack the emperor, who was encamped
at the gates of the town, on the plea that they would not
slaughter their fellow-countrymen attached to the service of
the emperor. Bourbon disbanded them on the spot ; and
they coolly departed with his money in their pockets, with
the exception of Albert de la Pierre and his company of
300 men. It happened fortunately however that the Swiss
in the emperor's army, to tbe number of 14,000, mutinied
for their pay, which was one month in arrear, and which the
emperor had reckoned on discharging at the expense of the
inhabitants of Milan. This event and its immediate conse-
quences caused the dispersion of the formidable army of
Maximilian.
When Bourbon appeared after these events at the French
court, which was then at Lyons, he was received by Francis
with great distinction. But gradually the king was'observed
to cool. Historians have usually ascribed this alteration of
the king's behaviour towards Bourbon to the influence of
his mother, Louisa of Savoy, Duchesse d' Aogouldme. This
princess, who at forty retained striking remains of beauty,
and who was not a woman of %-ery nice morality, is said tu
have entertained a violent passion for Bourbon ; and Bour-
bon is said to have treated her advances with coldness and
even disdain. The rage of a woman thus slighted ha* be-
come proverbial ; and Louisa of Savoy was not one to beUe
the proverb. The king e8{K>used the quarrel of his mother,
of the cause of which charity would suppose him igounuit.
The consequence was, one of the most signal examples of
ingratitude and injustice upon record.
They began by refusing the payment of the sums which
he haa borrowed in order to save the Milanese, as well as
of all his appointments as prince of the blood, constable and
chamberlain of France, and governor of Languedoc Thit,
however, was light compared to what followed; and «a»
the less to be considerea as a wanton insult firom the cir-
cumstance that Francis, partly by his own profligate expen-
diture, partly by the cupidity of his mother, was always m
want of money, notwithstanding the resources opened to
him by the chancellor Du Prat, in the sale of the offices of
the magistracy. A breach between Francis and Buurboo
was more easily effected from the contrast between the ir
characters, which was great. Francis was gay, open, gal-
lant, superficial, fond of pleasure, and averse from busine«»si ;
Bourbon was grave, reserved, thoughtful, profound, and
laborious.
In April, 1521, the constable's wife, Suzanne deBoutbon,
died. He had previously lost the three children he hA&l
by her.
Tbe breach between the court and the constable daJy
widened. In a northern campaign against Charles V.,
Francis gave the command of the vanguard, which, b\ a
practice established in the French armies, belonged to the
constable, to the Duke d'Alen^on. From that roomint
Bourbon regarded himself as degraded from his digmi«.
He was frequently heard to quote that answer of a courtan
to Charles VII., who asked if anything was capable «>1
shaking his fidelity : — ' No, Sire, no, not the offer of thnx
kingdoms such as yours ; but an affront is.*
Fresh injuries and insults were heaped upon Boarboo.
The chancellor Du Prat, in the spirit of the \ilest petuf :;.
ger, by examining the titles of the house of Bourbon, thou j at
he saw, that by per\'erting the use of some words, he mi^^iit
be able to deprive the constable of his estates, and ooovey
them to the Duchesse d*Angouldme, or to the km)(. Hi
explained to the duchess that she had a right to the greatest
part of the property of the house of Bourl»n, as the ncarc»t
relative of Suzanne de Bourbon, and that the rest tvs'erUxi
to the crown. Madame admired the ability and seal of \\n
chancellor, and entered fully into his views. She now
flattered herself that Bourbon would choose rather to secure
his rights by marrying her, than be reduced to mi»or>.
But the haughty and austere Bourbon, when hU fnendi
pressed him to marry the princess, placing in tbe m«At
favourable light her power, wit, and riches, said that he
was so sure of his right that he was ready to tr]^ it befive
any or all of the courts ; he dedved, moreover, tlut honour
was far dearer to him than property, and that he woaid
never incur the renroach of having degraded himself so far
as to share his bea with a profligate woman. The result ol
such a trial, under such a government as that of France at
that time, may be easily foreseen. The parliament decreevl
that all the property in litigation should be sequestrated :
which was to reduce Bourbon to beggary.
It will be unnecessary in a work hke this, to follow Boor-
bon step by step in the disastrous route that conducted ham
from being the first subject in France, to be an exile and
an outlaw. We have traced his career hitherto with «oa«
minuteness, as tending to throw light on the nature of tbt
European governments in the sixteenth century. If such
a thing had happened in France, two or perhaps c\*en one
ceptury earlier, to a man so powerful as Bourbon, at oT^e
by station and by talent and energy, the probable i«»uit
would have l)een very different The struggle would m^mX
likely have terminated in Charles of Bouroon filUng tZic
throne of France in the room of Francis of Valois. But
about or somewhat before this time had arisen that devot>?n
to royalty, which would seem to have been first intnxlurxd
by the plebeian legisU or lawyers ; who were probably 1 <i
by self-interest to adopt such a measure, in order at vztcK
to obtain favour with royaltv, and render royalty mwfv
able to advance and support them anui^st the old| ni>V1fBtf=tT
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B O U
277
B O U
of the sword. As it was, another fate was reserved for
Bourbon.
Francis having obtained intelligence that Bourbon had
entered into a secret correspondence with the Emperor
Charles V., Bourbon was obliged to make his escape from
France, which he did with some difficulty. Some proposals
which were afterwards made to him by Francis were rejected
by Bourbon, who had good reason to distrust his sincerity.
Bourbon was now thrown upon Charles V., who, though
not a little disappointed at receiving a banished man in-
stead of a powerful ally, as he had first expected, appointed
him his lieutenant-general in Italy. He surrounded him
however with colleagues and spies.
In 1525 the result of the fhmous battle of Pnvia, where
Bourbon commanded a body of about 19,000 Germans, whom
be had raised professedly for the emperor*s bervice, chiefly
by means of his high military reputation, afforded him
ample vengeance for his wrongs, in the destruction of the
French army, and particularly in the capture of Francis,
and the death of Bonnivet, his chief personal enemy.
But Bourbon, although to his military talents and skill
the victory at Pavia had been mainly owing, found that he
Wis still regarded with distrust by Charles, and with jealousy
by his generals. The slights and mortifications, too, to
which his fighting against his king and his native country
subjected him, rendered his position anything but an agree-
able or easy one ; and contributed, with the roving and un-
settled life he had led since his exile, to produce in him
something of the recklessness, and even ferocity of the
brigands he commanded, and to give to his natural ambition
much of the genuine and legitimate character of large and
wholesale robbery. It was in the complex state of mind,
made up of some such elements as these, that he came to
the resolution of acting independently of the emperor, and
commencing business, as king, on his own account. For-
tune seemed to throw in his way one means of accomplishing
this object, in attaching to himself, by the allurement of
an immense booty, the army which the emperor did not
pay. He formed the daring resolution of leading that army
to Rome, and giving up to it the riches of that famous city ;
and he immediately proceeded to put it in execution.
This expedition has been considered one of the boldest
recorded in history. Bourbon was obliged to abandon his
cominunication with the Milanese, to march for more than
a hundred leagues through an enemy's count rv, to cross
ri\ers, to pass the Apennines, and to keep in check three
armies. Add to this, what rendered the enterprise import-
ant as distinguishing it from others of a similar nature
undertaken by large robbers, the moral danger and diffi-
culty of attacking the very centre of the power of catholi-
cijim. as it were laying bare the mysteries of its sanc-
tuary, and, to a certain extent, destroying the powerful spell
by which it had so long bound up the faculties of mankind.
We do not think that the praise of any high exercise of moral
courage is due on this score to Bourbon, for it does not ap-
pear that he was guided by a consideration of the conse-
quences hinted at above, but chiefly, if not solely, by the
necessity of the circumstances in which he was placed.
Ou the evening of the 5th of May, 1527, Bourbon arrived
before Rome. On the following morning, at day-break, he
commenced the assault, being himself the first who mourited
the wall, and also, according to the French historian, the
first who fell, by a shot fired, it is said, by a priest. Ben-
venuto Cellini says, that it was he who shot Bourbon ; and
Guicciardini does not clear up the point. It is however of
small consequence, two facts being certain, that he fell in
the beginning of the assault, and that his army took the
city, in which they committed all, and more than all, the
uaual excesses of a sack.
Charles V. made it one of the conditions of peace with
Francis that the possessions of the constable should be
restored to bis family, and his memory re-established.
Francis eluded, as much as he was able, the fulfilment of
this condition. But the wreck of the constable's fortune
vas sufficient to render his nephew, Louis de Bourbon.
Prince de la Roche-sur-Yon, and afterwards Duke de
MoQtpensier, one of the richest princes of the blood, although
it did not form, perhaps, a third part of the revenues of the
Duke de Bourbon.
Bourbon is reputed to have been one of the handsomest
men of liis age ; and he is said to have been an exemplary
husband, and IVcc from the gross licentiousness of the times.
He was much beloved by his vassals, who with that resolute
incredulity which is sometimes observed in uneducated
persons with respect to any report injurious to those they
love or respect, refused to believe the account of his death,
and persisted in expecting to see him return one day covered
with glory, and reconciled to the king.
The authorities the same as in the preceding article, with
the addition of the French historians and Guicciardini.
BOURBON is situated in the Indian Ocean to the E. of
Madagascar. The -town of St. Denis at its N.W. ex-
tremity is in 20^" 51' 30" S. lat., and 55° 30' E. long. ; from
this place the island extends in a §. £. direction for about
60 m. with a breadth of about 45 m. The whole surface
may be about 2400 sq. m., or about 400 sq. m. more than
the area of Norfolk.
This island was discovered by the Portuguese navigator
Mascarenhas in 1 542, and at tliat time was not inhabited.
It received the name of Mascarenhas or Mascareigne. The
French in 1642 sent some criminals from Madagascar to it,
and settled a colony in 1649, when they gave it the name of
Bourbon, which at the beginning of the French revolution
was changed into that of Reunion, and afterwards into
Bonaparte and Napoleon. In 1815, on the restoration of
the Bourbons, the island resumed its old name of Bourbon.
Probably all the island owes its origin to volcanic agency.
The greater part of its surface consists of lava, basalt and
other volcanic productions, and on the remainder traces of
such rocks are frequent. Towards the SE. extremity there
is a volcano constantly in action, and naturalists who have
had an opportunity of examining the high mountains
toward the N. W. extremity believe that this part also has
been an active volcano at some remote date.
The island consists of two systems of volcanic mountains
and rocks, and a kind of plain which divides them. The
north-western mountains form the larger system and cover
about half the surface of the island. Nearly in their centre
rises a huge mass of lava with three inaccessible peaks,
called the Salazes, whose absolute elevation is estimated by
Bory de St. Vincent at nearly 1500 toises, or 9600 feet. The
country surrounding this mass exhibits large tracts of lava
or basaltic rocks of tne most various description, and between
them some basins or vales. The basaltic prisms are fre-
quently disposed m regular columns, but these as well
as the lava rocks are frequently spUt by deep narrow
crevices. The soil which covers only a small portion of this
region is evidently the product of decomposed lava, and for
the most part is still incapable of supporting any vegetation.
It is of a red colour and resembles clay indufated by fire.
At some places however it is softer, and has been planted
with cofiee-trees ; and in others, forests of timber- trees are
growing. The rivers are only torrents, which descend from
a great elevation. Sometimes they are nearly dry; at
others they carry great volumes of water, which they pour
down the steep declivities with incredible impetuosity.
Their course is through extremely narrow gorf^es, and m
deep beds. None of them can be used in irngating the
adjacent country. The shores of the island are rocky, but
not generally very high, except along the S. W. coast
between St. Paul and St. Petre. In a few places a narrow
beach separates the rocks from the sea; it is composed
of pieces of basalt and broken lava, which have undergone
trituration in the sea, and afterwards been thrown ashore,
intermixed with some calcareous pebbles and shells. At
the N.W. point of this region lies St. Denis, the capital of
the island, with a pop. of 7000 or 8000. It has no harbour,
and only an open and dangerous roadstead. A pier secured
by iron chains has been constructed for the purpose of
enabling boats to land ; at the end of it is a ladder by
which persons who wish to go ashore may ascend ; in all
other parts of the island they must jump into the water.
Besides the roadstead of St Denis, Uiere is another at St.
Paul, which is perhaps better, but no other place round the
island oflert an anchoring ground for vessels.
The plains which separate this volcanic region from that
in the S.E. district of the island, occupy perhaps one-third of
the island. The two principal plains which extend across
the island, the plains of the Caffres and of the Palmists,
are divided by a rampart of volcanic rocks, and are at
a considerable elevation above the level of the sea. From
the S. shores the country rises gradually for some miles,
and then extends in a kind of uneven plain, called that of
the Caffres. Its surface is a succession of small plains,
rising above one another and intersected by hillocks. At
the S. extremity this plain is 3600 ft. above/the sea. buti
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B O U
278
B O U
wbero it joins the plain of Cil&OB, towards the S. E. volcanic
region, its elevation may be nearly 5000 ft. Its soil is en-
tirely composed of triturated lava and other volcanic matter :
a great part of it is without any kind of vegetation ; in some
places there are shrubs, but no trees. To the N. 6f it ex-
tends the plain of the Palmists, which rises to about 3000 ft.
It is a perfect loYel, in the form of a circus, enclosed on all
sides, except towards the shores on the N., by a nearly
perpendicular wall of mountains from 1500 to 2000 ft.
eleYation, which are partly covered with high trees and rich
vegetation: on the plain itself many trees are found, among
which thb species of palms abounds, ftom which it derives
its name. The descent to the shore is Somewhat longer
than on the S. declivity of the island. The traveller ascends
from the plain of the CaffreS to the S.B. volcanic region by
two other extremely sterile plains, those of Cilaos and of the
Sands (aux Babies).
This volcanic region at the S.B. extremity, which pro-
bably does not occupy inore than otie-seventh of the island,
is called the burned land (pavs hMi), from its soil being
entirely coiAposed of recent lava. There are few places in
which signs of vegetation are seen. Nearly in its centre is
the present crater of the volcano, which nearly every year
changes its place over an extent of 5 to 6 iq. m. This pre-
sent centre of volcanic agency is only fitom 8 to 9 m. from the
8.W. extremity of the island, and the high mountains n^ar
it are estimated to have an absolute elevation of about 7000
ft. The eruptions of this volcano succeed one another at
short intervals.
A soil so arid as that of Bburbon could not maintain a
vigorous vegetation if it were not continually supplied with
sufficient moisture by the regular succession of land and
sea-breezes, f The first, blowing from the high mountains
of the interior, are always cool, frequently cold; and in
the gorges they blow with great force. The wind is some-
times felt from five to eight miles from the shore. It
ceases at about 10 o'clock in the morning, and is succeeded
by the sea-breeze, which brings with it fogs. These fogs
are afterwards dissipated by the rays of the sun, and driven
again to the sea. This circulation of the vapours produces
a great humidity, and rains are consecmently frequent,
especially during the S.E. winds, from July to October.
During the N.E. winds, from January to April, the rains
are still more frequent, and often continual for inany days,
and very heavy. But in despite of this humidity of the air,
the climate is pleasant and healthy. During the winter,
from April to August, the highest peaks are covered with
snow. Hurricanes occur twice or thrice a-year.
The interior of the island is not inhabited, and perhaps
not habitable, on account of the sterility of its soil. The
cultivated ground in no place extends more than 5 or 6 m.
from the sea. Within these limits are cultivated maize,
corn, a little rice, mandioca, sweet potatoes, ignames and
haricots ; and for exportation, a httle sugar and cocoa, and
a great quantity of cofiee, which is of excellent quality.
There are some plantations of cloves and nutmeg-trees, but
the produce is neither abundant nor of good quality. The
most common fruits are guavas, bananas, citrons, tamarinds,
lemons and oranges. In many parts of the interior, espe-
cially at the feet of the higher mountains, are extensive
forests of timber-treetf, which furnish a considerable article
of exportation.
In 1825 there were, of domestic animals, 3718 horses,
1803 mules, 505 asses, 4303 black cattle, and 2881 sheep.
In the woodtf are wild goats and wild hogs ; and land-
turtles occur in the western districts. There are spiders as
large as a pigeon's egg, and their web is so strong that
many have supposed it could be used like silk. Bats are
numerous, and eaten as a great delicacy. On the shores
are found ambergris, coral, and ma^y beautiful shells.
The inhabitants are composed of a few fomilies of pure
Euronean blood, and a gieater number of such as have
mixed with the African races. There is a considerable
number of free negroes, and a still greater number of slaves.
In 1692 the population amounted to 17,037 whites, 5159
free negroes, and 45,375 slaves. The number of the latter
is rapidly decreasing.
The island has a commercial intercourse with France,
and with the ports along the E. shores of Africa, with
Madagascar, and with Mauritius. It is entirely carried on
in French and foreign vessels. In 1824 the number of
French vesncU visiting Bourbon amounted to 117, and their
erews to 2018 men; their tonnage was 28,168. Of foreign
vessels there arrived 107, their erews amountiog to 151 1,
and their tonnage to 11,707. In 1825 Bourbon was M^r.-.
by 153 French vessels, of which the crews amountcl r .
24 14 men, and the tonnage to 31,833. The foreign ve>«'. -.
93 in number, had on board 1056 men* and their tonnii^' •
amounted to 9944.
The articles of exportation are coffee, sugar, coco^, c1ot,» .
and nutmegs, and a considerable quantity of timber, n < *.:
some articles imported from France. The following 1 ■:
shows the amount of the exportations in 18S5, and to «L :
countries they went :—
Prodoctiont.*
France 8,629,755 fr.
India 674,Q48
aauritius 137,754
adagascar 60,028
PoreigB MBUDOdiUr^
289,992 it.
386,904
635,984
863,724
9,502,585 2,176,605
The island of Bourbon is the only settlement which t).
French now possess between Africa and India. (Bory rfe s:,
Vincent, Voyage dans hs Quatre Isles dtt la Met .{fn*^*. - ■
and Thomas, hssai de StatistiqUe de Vhle de Bourh*m, }
BOURBON, the name of se\^ral places in France : *-'
which only three are of sufficient importance to mcnl xxA-
vidual notice — ^vis., Bourbon Vendue, Bourbon L'Arcl.r;:-
bault, and Bourbon Lancy.
Bourboti Vendee, the capital of the dep. of Vend^, ^.tnn* \
oil the little river Yon. a branch of the Lay. It i« 2i7 *
in a straight Ihie S. W. from Paris, or 253 m. by the r
through Origans, Touri^, Saumur, ChoUet, and llont^j- *
It is in 46® 41' N. lat, and 1° 29' "VT. long.
The importance of this place is quite of modem or .
and, notwithstanding its ifame, is due to the favour *.. *
to it by Napoleon, ft was known in the middle agc» ht i •
name of Roche-sur-Yon, and was a small country r>
ibourg) of little importance, except for a strong 'i^irr^ -^
which was delivered up to the English in 1369 by t -
treachery of the governor, Jean Blondeau. This man h\ ^ .
afterwai^s fallen into the power of the duke of Arj-m,
by his orders put into a sack and drowned. Roche sur-V *
was a principality belonging to the house of Bourl :
Conti.
* The town had sunk Into obscurity and decay, when Br>r .
parte thought proper to rebuild and constitute it the ct:
place of the dep. of La Vend^, appointing it for the ^ -
of the prefecture. He gave it his own name, Na;«>. .
made it a military station ; had a barrack, a guild ha.
exchange, and a handsome hotel erected, and strveN y 1
squares planned ; so that there are afl the requisite ' •; t
principal town, save houses and inhabitants. He v!»h*-<1 *
induce the people of La Vendue to live in towns, where t.
would be less under the influence of their chiefs, ami m •
orderly subjects : but it is not easy to break throuch r. -
tional habits ; the Vend^a^s preferred remaining in t) -
half-burnt villages to settling in his new town, wb:rl;.
navigable river being near, offered them no ^riliLes * *
trade, nor any other advantages to allure them from x\ -
rural haunts, their rural employments, and their r. .
sports.* (Journal 6/ a Tour tn France in 1816 and l^:'.
by Frances Jane Carey.)
•When Louis XVIII. was called to the throne, tbo p.:r-.
of the town was changed to Bourbon VeD<l<e. ao<f v; < r
Bonaparte returned from Elba, to Napoleoft again ; and ;t >
now Bourbon Vendue once more.' {Ibid,)
Napoleon devoted the sum of 3,000,000 francs, or .n^-
125,000/., to the construction of the edifices needftil Co c:
tain its rank of a departmental capital. The rma, \
traced by him remains however yet incomplete frsjm ^ -
of funds, and the large straight streets are almost u
habited. A canal, called by Malte Brun the Canal • < .
Brdt, but the course of which is not mentioned, ba« r-
projected, and may serve when completed to improve \
ill-chosen site, and dsaw some commerce to the town : ^ ^
trade is carried on at present is in com, cattle, and pj -
There is a handsome church in the Place Rorale:
small as the town is, it has a library, a high srho«>l« »
society of agriculture, sciences, and arts. There ar\
baths. The pop. by the last return, previous to that of i ^
was 3129 (we believe this return was of 1826) ; and Xr*
return of 1832 it was 3904, of whom 3494 were in the *
itself.
The arrond. of Bourbon Vend^jeomprebeoda 690 sq. rr.
Digitized by
B O U
279
B O U
or 403,200 acres, and is subdivided into 8 cantons and 73
cummunes. The nop. in 1832 was 115,988.
Hour&on L'Archambault, or LArchambaud, is in the dep.
of Xllier, and near the little river Barge, a feeder of the
Ours, which falls into the Allier. It is about 160 or 162 m.
S. by E. of Paris in a straight line, or 197 m. by the road
to Fontainebleau, Montargis, Nevers, and Moulins, It is
in A^"" 36' N. lat., apd 3^ 1' £. long.
This town appears to have been known for its mineral
waters to the Romans, who called them by the napae of
A'{uiB Bormonis. It was a plac^ of some importance in the
ei^'bth qentuiy ; for in the war^ which Pepin le Bref, father
of Charlemagne, carried on against the duke of Aquitaine,
Buurbon is mentioned as one of the places taken by him.
It is thought to have obtained its name fropi the mud
(bourbe) contained in its waters, or perhaps from a deity
called Borvo [Bousbonns lss Bai^s]. About the tenth
century Charles le Simple granted Bourbon, with the sur-
rounding district, to a ikvourite of his named Aymard ; and
bis descendants, the sires or lords of bourbon, having in
Uiost cases borne the name of Archambaud, that name was
attached to the town itself (DicHonnaire Universel de la
France). Others make thQ origin of the lordship of Bourbon
to have been a century later. By n^arriage this lordship
came to a younger branch of the royal fan^ily of France,
and was in 1329 erected into a duchy by Philip Y I. (de
Valois), or according to others, in 1327, bv Charles IV. (le
Bel). From the first duke, Louis, ^rand^pn of Louis IX.
(St. Louis) of France, descended a line of nobles, of whom
the male descendants failed in the early part of the sixteenth
century, and the duchy Came by th^ marriage of th^ heiress
to the count of Montpensier, who assuw^ w title of duke
of Bourbon. [Bourbom.]
The town of Bourbon is in a beautiful and rich vallef or
hollow, between four hills, a few miles from the left bank of
the Allier ; but the air is considered far Irpm whol^somcu
owing to the neighbourhood of a marshy pool, and the situa-
tion of the town in a hollow, surrounded by steep hills, On
one of the hills is the ruin of an ancient pastle of the sires
or dukes of Bourbon : the ruin consists of three towec$ in
pretty good preser\'ation. The cht^rch, which appears to have
been the chapel of the dukes of Bourbop, and an appendage
to the castle, is remarkable ibr its beautiful stained glass
windows. The town depends mainly oh its mineral waters,
which attract a number of invalid^, who resort hither to
find rehef from rheiunatic or paralytic attacks. The waters
are contained in three wells, and have a temperature of 58°
10 60"" of R6aumur, or 16^ to 167^ of Fahrenheit. The
season lasts from the middle of lfa| to the end of Sep-
tember. The celebtited Madame de Mootespan, misUreu
of Louis XIV. died heie in disgrace, if not in exile. The
pop. is given in round numbers by Malte Brun and Balbi
at 3000.
The river Barge, near which the town atandSf seems tp
expand into a marshy pooL It abounds in fish.
Bourbon L»ancy is in the dep. of Saone et Loire, a short
distance from the right bank of the Loire, about 166 to 168
m. in a straight line S.S.E. of Paris, or 2ia m* by the road
through Sens, Auxerre, and Autun. It is in 46° 37' N.
lat.. and 3^ 46' E. long.
Bourbon liancy, like the town above mentioned, was
known to the Romans for its mineral waters. It appears in
the Theodoslan table under the name of Aquse Nisineii. It
i^i supposed to have derived its distinguishing epithet of
Lancy, or as the geographers of seventy years since wrote
it, L'Anci or L'Aney, from one of the feudal lords of the
place, who was named Ancettus or Anoean, otherwise
Anceaume or Ancelme.
The baths, which give to this town its chief claim to
notice, axe in the suburb of St. Leger. There are several
springs , seveir accoxding to some authors (Expilly ; Dtc-
ttonnaire Univertelle; Encyclopedia Mithodique), nine
according to the more modern statement of M. Robert (Z>ic-
tionnmre Geographiqtis, Paris, 1618) ; of which nine, one is
^ery cold, the rest warm, the temperature being about SO"*
of R^umur, or 146^ of Fahrenheit The great bath is
thought to be a Roman work ; it is circular, 60 French or 64
Engltih feet, or according to Reichard only 42 feet in dia-
meter, paved with marble, and capable of containing 500
ponons. Near this is a large square bath, built for ^he
poor. The waters are described as being limpid, tasteless,
and without smell (so that they may be used in making
bread>» yet they are said to contain sea-salt, sulphur, and
bitumen. They are used in nervous and rheumatic affec-
tions. It is remarkable that although the great bath, which
is a Roman work, has continued to the present day, the
springs fell into, neglect and oblivion. In 1580 they were
aeain brought into notice, and the baths re-established by
Henry III. The war of the league interrupted the im-
provements going on, which w«re however resumed and
continued by Henry IV. and Lquis XIY. Many remains
of antiquity, statues, medals, and the relics of antient build-
ings, have been from time to time dug up in and about the
place. The pop. i^ giv^n by Malte Brun at 2500 in round
nuinbers. Visitors come hither in spring and autumn, and
seldom stay above a mon^u {Dictionnaire Vnivevsel de la
France ; Malte Brun ; Expilly, &c.)
BOURBONNE-LES-8AINS. a town in France, in tlie
dep. of Haute Marne. It is in the S.E. part of the dep.
and at the confluence of the sinall rivers, the Borne and
Apance, which latter riv. is ^ tributary of the Saone, 165
m. in Brue's map of France, qj; 1 7p in that published by the
Soc, for the Qiffus. of Useful Know., in a direct line S.E. by
E. from Paris; or 179 m. by the road through Provjns,
Troyes and Chaumont-ep-Bassigny : in 47^ 57' N. lai. and
5° 46' E. long.
D'Anville considers that this tpwn was known to the
Romans, and that it is marked in thp Theodosian Table by
a souare building, similar to thosf^ which in that table are
used to indicate mineral waters; though no name is extant
as applied to this placQ, A Roman inscription hi^ been
found* here which P*Anville says wa^ sacred, Borvoni ei
Mofkv Ikp ; §nd frpm this he has given tq the place the
name of AqusQ Borvonis. (Notice de r4ncienne Gaule,)
The inscription i^ however given by Expilly at full length,
as follows : —
BORBONT THBRMARUM DEO MAMMON.B
CALATINIUS ROMANUS IN GALLIA
PRO SALUTE
C6CILI^ UXORIS EJUS EX VOTO EREXIT.
From this mention of Borbo or Borbon, as the presiding
deity of the baths, it is likely we may deduce the etymology
of the name Bourbon more correctly than is commonly done.
[Bqurbok L'Archambault,'}
In the beginning of the sarenth century, a castle was
built here to which an antient writer gives the name of
Veryona; but it does not appear that any historical in-
terest attaches to Bourbonne. In 1717 the town was burnt
almost entirely, and the antient castle shared the same
fate.
The town stands on a declivity, and presets little that is
pleasing in its aspect. It would not claim notice except for
its waters and its military hospital. The temperature of
the springs varies from 30° to 48° of Reaumur ; pr about
100° to 140° of Fahrenheit, (Malte Brun) ; or to 62° of Reau-
mur, or 172° of Fahrenheit. (Encychpidi^ Method."^
Although ton hot ibr one to bear the finger in them, they
are drunk without scalding the mouth. (Malte Brun.) There
appear to be three baths, or rather three establishments of
two baths each, called Le Bain du Seigneur^ from having
formerly belonged to the lords of the soil ; Les Bains det
Pauvres ; and Le Bain Patrice. (Expilly, and Diet. Uni-
verselle de la France.) The waters are said to he good foe
gout, rheumatism, scurvy, gravel, venereal complaints,
j^lsy, and nervous aflections ; also for gun-shot wounds.
They are taken by drinking and bathing; and the very
mud or sediment is said to be serviceable used as a poul-
tice. The season includes June, July, August, and Sep-
tember.
The military hospital contains move than 500 beds. The
pop. of the town is given in round numbers by Malte Brun
at 3500 ; and by M. Balbi at 4000. There are some plea*
sant promenades. (Malte Brun ; Expilly ; Reichard's De-
ecripHve Boad'-hook of France.)
BOURBONNOIS, a district of Central France, one of
the thirty-two provinces or military governments into which,
before the revolution, ihat kingdom was divided. It was
bounded on tho N. by Berri and the Nivernois ; on the E.
by Bourgogne or Burgundy ; on the S.E. by the Lyonnais ;
and on the S. by Auvergne ; on the S.W. by La Marche ;
and on the W. by Berri. Its form was very u-regular : the
greatest length from W.N.W. to B.S.E. was 92 m., and tho
greatest breadth was 56. The greater part of it is included
in the dep. of Allier.
The province waa separated from Bourgogne^partly l^
Digitized by VnOOQlC
B O IT
280
BOU
tho river Loire ; and it was watered by differant branches
of that principal stream, as the Bebre, the AUier, and the
Cher, and by the various tributaries of these, so that the
whole was included within the basin of the Loire. The
Bourbonnois was usually divided into high and low: the
former being the E. and the latter the W. part. Moulins,
on the AUier, was the capital of the whole (pop. in 1832,
14,672) : and the other chief towns were Bourlx>n I'Archam-
bault (pop. about 3000) ; Gannat, on the Andelot, a feeder
of the AUier (pop. in 1832, 4674 for the town, or 5246 for
the whole commune) ; and Montlucon, on the Cher (pop.
in 1832, 4470 for the town, or 4491 for the whole commune).
BOURCHIER. JOHN. [Bernbrs, Lord.]
BOURCHIER. 01 BOURGCHIER, THOMAS, arch-
bishop of Canterbury in the successive reigns of Henry VI.,
Edward IV., Edward V.. Richaid III., and Henry VII..
was son of William Bourcbier, Earl of Eu in Normandy, by
Anne, daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, sixth son of
Edward III. His brother was Henry, Earl of Essex. He
received his education at Oxford, and was chancellor of that
University from 1434 to 1437. His first dignity in the
church was tlie deanery of St. Martin in London, from which
in 1434 he was advanced by Pope Euffonius IV. to the see
of Worcester. In 1436 he was elected by the monks of Ely
bishop of that see, but the king refusing his consent the
election was not complied with, and the see continued va-
cant till 1443, when the king yielding his consent Bourcbier
was translated thither. In April, 1454, Bourcbier was
elected archbishop of Canterbury ; and in December fol-
lowing received the red hat from Rome, being created car-
dinal-priest of St. Cyriacus in Thermis. In 1456 he be-
came lord chancellor of England, but resigned that office in
October of the following year.
Several acts of Cardinal Bourchier*s life were memorable.
He was one of the chief persons by whose means the art of
printing was introduced into England. He was the person
who, seduced by the specious pretences of Richard, Duke
of Gloucester, persuaded the queen to deliver up the Duke
of York, her son ; and he performed the marriage cere-
mony between Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York.
He died at his palace of Knowle near Sevenoaks on the
30th of March, 1486. and was buried at Canterbury, where
his tomb still remains on the north side of the choir near
the high altar. It cannot be unknown to our readers that
the archbishops of Canterbury and York, and the bishops of
Durham had antiently the privilege of coining money. A
half-groat of Edward IV„ struck at Canterbury during
Bourchier's primacy, has the fiaimily cognizance, the Bour-
cbier knot, under the king's head. This is unnoticed by
any of the writers on English coins.
( Wharton's ilfi^or'ta Sacra, tom. i. p. 63 ; Bentham's //m^
0/ Ely. p. 1 73 ; Biogr, Brit. vol. il p. 436.)
BdURDALOUE. LOUIS, was bom at Bourses, Aug.
20, 1632, and professed among the Jesuits on Nov. 30,
1648. Having lectured successively in grammar, rhetoric,
humanity, and moral philosophy, with considerable repute,
he commenced as preacher in the Jesuit church of St.
Louis at Paris in the year 1669. It was not long before
Louis XIV. became a personal attendant upon his sermons,
which were heard with undiminished delight by overflowing
congregations in the seasons of Advent and I^nt for four-
und-twonty years. After the revocation of the edict of
Nantes, Bourdaloue was despatched, in 1686, on an especial
mission into Languedoc, in which province he produced a
deep impression, chiefly at MontpelUer. His latter years
were principally devoted to charity sermons, and he con-
tinued to be a frequent occupant of the pulpit till a very
few days before his death, which occurred on May 13, 1704.
His sermons have often been reprinted. They abound more
in sound reasoning and theological learning than in orato-
rical power, and they are better suited to the chastened taste
of protestantism than the e£forts of most o^er celebrated
French divines. It has been said with more justice than
usually belongs to antithesis, that Bossuet is sublime from
elevation, Bourdaloue from depth of thought
BOURDON. SEBAStlAN, one of the most eminent
paintcii that Fran(.*e has produced, was born at Montpellier,
in IGio. His father, a painter on glass, instructed him in
the elements of his art At the age of seven, a relation
took him to Pans and placed him under an artist of no great
ability ; but the genius of the pupil supplied the deficiencies
of tho master. While yet a boy, being in want of other
employment, he enlisted in the army. Luckily his com- 1
man ding officer possessed taste enough to discern ti«
natural powers of the young recruit and he gave him ^ i
discharge. At eighteen he passed into Italv, where I
made acquaintance with Claude Lorraine, tit rentam-l
there but three years, being obliged to leave the cofintrv (n
consequence of a quarrel with a painter, who threatenoi t
denounce him as a Calvinist During bis stay he ocf uf. •< '
himself in practice, studying, and imitating the «ark« t'
Titian. Poussin, Claude, Andrea Saccbi, Michel An^ :
delle Battaelie, and Bamboccio. So retentive was hi^ im-
mory, that he copied a picture of Claude's from reoolWrt •«<
a performance which astonished that great master as lu^.^*
as any who saw it
On his return to France, Bourdon received some instrur
tion from Du Guemier, a miniature painter in great rr^n 'i
whose sister he married ; a connexion which procurv>d ) >::
an increase of employment His occupations being intr-.
rupted by the civil wars in 1652, he went into Sweden, »r< .
Christina, who then occupied the throne, appointed h>m tf
principal painter. In this capacity he executed many pu -
turcs, and among them a portrait of his royal mistni*«< *>-
horseback. While he was at work upon it, the quwii r« • ..
occasion to mention some pictures which her friher 1m .
become possessed of, and desired him to examine tlf^ni.
Bourdon returned a very favourable report of tke coWcrt i. r
particularly of some by Correggio ; and his generous j .
troness at once made him a present of them. The pa > ! ■*.
howevef, with no less generosity, declined the offer ; ^..^l -
that the pictures were among the finest in Europe, :ui(\ i
she ought not to part with them. The queen kept \u*
accordingly, and taking them to Rome with her alwr .-•
abdication, they ultimately found their way into the Oi.*...*
collection.
Wl^n Christina vacated the throne. Bourdon retumc«!
France, which had become somewhat quieter, and iir". .
ment offered itself in abundance. At this period bo p» .. *-
the 'Dead Christ* and the 'Woman taken in arU i! -
two of his most famous pictures. He does not <i . ; .
however, to have ever amassed any sura of nio(K\;
while on a visit to his native place, an admu'in^ t
made him a suit of clothes, witli a red cap, and sent it * ::
him by a brother painter, as a tribute of admir.!
Bourdon painted a portrait of himself dressed in tbrcl r *
with his friend the bearer by his side. Being much f'c ..*
with his success, he had not the heart to send the p.rUii .
the munificent tailor, as he had intended, but he ma>le .-> c .
which he gave him instead. In 1648 ho assisted in d^.i. .
the Royal Academy of Painting, and was elected ii> !'-
rector. He died at Paris in 1671, aged 55. He had «
daughters, miniature painters, who survived hiui. C
lerot M. and F. Vaurose, and Nicholas Loir, wcixr .
pupils.
Bourdon had a most fertile genius, an ardent spin!, i
great fiicility, which enabled him to indulge too much '
careless mode of study. He bad no fixed style of pa t.i.i..
but followed his own caprice, imitating many : and b« »* >
celled equally in all kinds, history, landscapes, bat(lc>| : •-
and comic subjects. His colour is fresh, and his touch ....
and sharp ; his expressions lively, and his iu%'ention n-j'^
but his drawing is hurried, and his extremities modclKtl -w •/
great carelessness. He did not finish highly ; nor are i «
most finished pictures his best His execution va« «
rapid that he is said to have completed twelve liei«is ^ :; -
nature, and the size of life, in a single day; and lliie> mt*.
esteemed equal to some of his best productions. T\u« --ut
prising facility enabled him to enridi his landscape* \ .*
some of the most singular and happy effects from r.zt i
When at Venice he had studied the works of Titi »n « -
great attention, and his admirers trace some of the be* • *
of the Venetian in his landscapes ; they partake sbm i t
style of Poussin, and have a wildiiess and singularity 1 1« .
liar to himself. (D'Argenville ; De Pdds.)
BOURG, the name of several places in France^ of :
principal of which we subjoin an account Tli* <«
denotes town, like our own burgh or borough [Bi>k<
BoRoo], and in Franco is applied especially to sea.
places which do not take the title of*'iUe.
Bourff, capiul of the dep. of Ain. called also B»Mr^ -
Bresse, from its situation in the district of Bresae, a ^.
vision of the Duchy of Bourgogtie [Bovroooxe. Hk> -
is on the river Reyssouse, a small tributary of the S
about 230 ro. in a straight line S.S E. from Pari«, or . <
by the road through Auxcrre, AutJbmrChalon&mnd \l -
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B O U
281
B O U
aoid 50 m. by tbe it>Bd N.N.E. of Lyon. It is in 46' 13' N.
lat.aad5<'l2'B. long.
M. de Thoti, in speaking of a uege Vhlch ibis town sus-
tained in 1659, calls it F^rum Sesunanorum olim Tonus;
and M. Malte Bran, following, it is likely, M. de Thou,
says, that in the 4th century it was called Tanus. D* Anville,
however, does not fix «ny town upon the site of Bourg ; nor
does he notice Tonus ; and Forum Segusianorum is, accord-
iag to him, Feur or Feurs, on the lioire. It seems then
better to prefer the account given by Longuerae {Descrip-
Hon de la France^ Ancienne et Modeme, liv. iii.)t that
Bourg was founded by the lords of Baug^ or Bag^, formerly
capital of Bresse, and that it does not appear to have been
of earlier date than the 13th century; about which time
the name appears in several records. Guy, last lord of
Bauge, and marquis of Bresse, granted to Bourg the privi-
leges of a free town, in oonsecjuence of which the place in-
creased and became of some miportance under the govern-
ment of tbe counts and dukes of Savoy, to whom Bresse
came by mairiage in the 13th century. In 1561, or 1569, the
then reigning dufte of Savoy, Emanuel Philibert, caused a
strong citadel to be built at Bourg, on a height, which,
however, was demolished by order of the regent Mary
of Medici, mother of Louis XIII., about ten years after
Bresse had come (by the treaty of Lyon) into the hands
of the kings of France.
The town, which is in an agreeable situation, is adorned
with some handsome buildings and fountains, and farther
embellished by promenades. It has a church of beautiful
Gothic architecture, which for some few years was raised to
the dignity of a cathedral : previously to the revolution it
was a collegiate church. Tn^re were in the town three
monssteries for Jacobins, Capuchins, and Cordeliers ; three
nunneries, of the orders of St. Clara, St Ursula, and the
Visitation ; and two hospitals, one for the sick, which was
attended by the Nuns Hospitalidres, and one for poor girls.
There was a college once in the hands of the Jesuits. There
was also, in 1 804, the ruin of an old castle of the dukes of
Savoy, used as a prison. The town possesses a college, or
high school, Ubrary, museum, and collection of philoso-
phical instruments; also an agricultural society. The
manufactures consist of coarse woollens, silk stockings,
leather, and clocks and watches, but the latter is not
flourishing. An older authority {DicHonnaire Universe]
de la France, 1804) adds to these articles, linen, lace, hats,
and combs. The chief trade is in corn, cattle, horses, and
the articles of manufacture above mentioned. Its situation,
remote from any navigable river, prevents it becoming a
place of much commerce. The pop. in 1832 was 7826
for the town, or 8996 for the whole commune.
In the year 1515 Bourg was, ^a bull of Pope Leo X.,
made the seat of a bishopric. The bull was, however,
revoked in 1516. In 1521 the town was again raised to
episcc^al rank ; but in 1 536 the bishopric of Bourg was
finally suppressed.
The anond* of Bourg contained, in 1832, a pop. of I ] 7,289
persons. Close to tiie town of Bourg, in the village of
Brou, is a church once remarkable for its fine monuments of
the family of the Dukes of Savoy ; but they were destroyed
during the F^noh revolution. Vaugelas, a French writer
of some note, and the astronomer Lslande, were natives of
Bourg. [Martini^re; SxpiUy; Robert.]
Bourg^ called ahto Bourg-sur-Mer, a town and port in
the dep. of Gironde, near the confluence of the Garonne and
Dordogne, on the right bank of the Gironde riv., which is
formed bv their united streams. It is about 10 m. above
Blaye, which is on the same bank of the riv., and about
15 m. belo^ Bourdeaux, following the course of the Ga*
Sonne.
This is an antient town. Sidonins Apollinaris, in die
5th century, speaks of it under the name of Burgus, and
has written a poem of above 230 lines upon it. It is, how-
ever, now inconsiderable. Its chief traoe is in the export of
the wines of the neighbouring district Our latest autho-
rity for the pop. of the place is the DicHonnaire Umversel
de la France (1804), which gives it at 2200. The hills
in the neighbourhood of Bourg yield a greyish white stone
(gris-blanc), which the inhabitants call bastard marble.
Thou^ for inforior in hardness to marble it will take a
polish.
Bourg' Argenial^ a small town in the dep. of Loire, near
the bor&r oithe dep. of Ardfobe. It is close to the little riv.
Diaume, which flows into the Cance, a feeder of the Rhdne.
Some laces and cranes are made, and silk of daxsling
whiteness is preparea here. The pop. in 1832 was 1734
for the town, or 2502 for the whole commune.
This town is not of very high antiquity, but was once
more considerable than it is at present. It su&red much
in the religious wars of the 16th century. In 1562 it was
much iiyured by the Calvinists, who also attacked it in
1588, when it had scarcely recovered from the efibcts of
fiimine and pestilence, which had nearly depopulated it in
1585 and 86. The attack was, however, repelled; and a
solemn annual procession long commemorated the defeat of
the assailants. In 1569 it was taken from the party of the
League, in whose hands it then was, and pilla^ by the
duke of Ventadour ; but he was driven from it m 15!»l by
the duke of Nemours, who replaced it in the power of the
Leasue. It had a castle, which was demolished in 1595.
(Malte Brun ; Ex^lly.)
Bourg DMs, or Bourg Dieu^ a town very near ChUf
teauroux, of which it mav almost be regarded as a suburb.
It is however on the other, viz., the right bank of the
Indre. It was once a place of importance, and capital of the
principality of D^ols. The town appears to have had, at one
period, three parish churches and a castle, which in the lOth
century Raoul de IXols gave up to the monks of an abbey
which his father had founded; and erected for himself a
castle at Chfiteauroux, in the immediate neighbourhood.
The abbey flourished exceedingly; and although it fell into
ruin at a subsequent period, yet the remains of the build-
ings were sufficiently superb to show the munificence of its
benefoetors. In the middle of the last century only part of
the building remained in occupation ; and the three par.
churches hwl been reduced to one. The pop. in 1833 was
1 792 for the town, or 2 1 13 for the whde commune. [Cba
TBAUROnX.]
Bourg d'Oisans or d'Oysans, a small town in the dep.
of Isere, on the road from Grrenoble to Bnangon, and close to
the riv. Romanche, which flows into the Drac, a feeder of
the Isdre. There is a lead mine in the neighbourhood, and
gold is also found. {Encyc. Mithod,) The pop. of the com-
mune in 1832 was 3052.
This little town is seated in a valley in the midst of the
mountains, which, branching out ftom the main chain of
the Alps, cover a considerable portion of the dep. Travel-
ling from Grenoble towards Uie town, there is yet to be seen
the dyke of the Lake of St Laurent, which once covered
this valley in its whole extent The following account of
this lake we translate fh>m the IHneraire DfscHpH/de la
France of M. Vaysse de Yilliers, quoted in Malte Brunts
Giographie Universelle (3me. ed.).
' This lake owed its existence of two centuries to one of
the most terrible accidents to which the valleys of the Alps
are exposed. Two rapid streams (torrens) rush opposite to
each other from the summit of the mountains into the Ro-
manche, at the very spot where this riv. quits the large hollow
(bassin) of the Bourg dOisans to enter the pass. These
two streams suddenly swelled, in the 1 1th century, to such
a degree as to carry with them to the bottom of the valley
an immense quantity of rock, earth, and gravel, which
uniting from the two sides, at last closed up the valley,
and the waters of the Romanche, retained by this dyke, rose
to the level of it, covering all the valley to the depth of
60 to 80 (French) ft A relic of the bridge, which may
be seen on the road that leads to the Bourg d'Oisans, still
points out to travellers the depth of the lake, and conse-
quently the height of the dyke. Formed and cemented by
nature, it was nature which destroyed it : — ^the waters of the
lake, which had been undermining it for a long time, at
length burst through it in the 13th century (in Sept 1229),
and rushed impetuously over into the valley below, and
from thence into that of the Drac, and finaUy into Chat of
the Isdre. Thev carried with them all the villages and all
the houses which lay in their course, and flooded the city of
(Srenoble. There was nobody saved except those who had
time before the flood came on to take refhge either in the
mountains, or in the \otty towers and steeples of the city .
all the bridges were overthrown. The first accident had
buri«l the plain of Oisans ; the seccmd raised it from its
grave. But the catastrophe which overwhelmed it may
occur again; the cause always exists, and may, at any
moment lead to the same effect The violence of the two
streams, and the debris of the mountains which they faring
with them, mav again elose up the valley, by oppoeinff a
new barrier to the Romanohe^ and form a new lake, whi<di»
No. 307.
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n like manner, oould only find an ouflet by riling to the
height of thie liarrier/
BouTf^ Si. Andeol, oiherwiae Bourg-mr-Rhone^ a town
in the former district of Vivarais in Languedoc, and now
included in the dep. of Ardtehe. It is on the right bank
of the Rhftne, about midway between Viviers and Le
Pont St. Esprit, in 44'' 23' N. lat, and 4° 36' E. long.
It is said to owe ito name. to St. And^l, who suffered
martvidom in the reign of Septimius Sevcrus, at the
commencement of the third contunr. It was, before the
Revolution, the usual place of residence of the bishop of
Viviers, and had a seminary for the education of the priest-
hood, which was in good estimation. The relics of St.
And6ol were said to be preserved in the par. chuich. The
tomb which was shown as his was however of pagan
origin. This town is situated at the mouth of a small
stream.which flows from the mountains of the Vivarais, and
throws itself into the Rhdne. It carries on some trade by
the riv. Pop. in 1832, 3782 for the town, and 4268 for
the whole commune.
Near Bourg St And^l is a remarkable monument of
antiquity, a has relief, which seems to have been conse-
crated to the god Mithras, or the sun. It is carved on the
face of a calcareous rock, from which a mineral water
flows ; and beneath it is an inscription in Ijatin almost
efiaced. The baa relief is also much defaced ; but there
may be distinguished a bull which a dog has seize<l by
the neck, while a scorpion and a serpent attack him eUe-
where, and a man is apparently about to sacrifice him.
Above this group is a figure surrounded with rays and sup-
posed to represent the sun, from which, as well as the in-
scription, the destination of the monument has been ascer-
tained. Another figure with horns represents the moon.
The whole of the has relief is included in an oblong square,
about four ft. and a quarter high, and nearly lix ft. and a
half wide. The inscription, if the many gaps in it have
been rightly filled up, indicates that the monument was
dedicated to Mithras by Maxsumus and Mominus. The
worship of this deity had been introduced at Rome by the
soldiers of Pompey on their return from the East, and from
thence it spread into the provinces. The monument is
supposed to be of the third or fourth century. (Millin,
Vof^afCff dans ie$ Dep. du Midi de la France.)
BOUR6ANEUF, a town in France in the dep. of
Creuse, not far from the left bank of the riv. Thorion, a
feeder of the Vienne, which is a tributary of the Loire. It
is 266 m. from Paris by a circuitous route through Limoges.
Bourganeuf is in 45° 57' N. laL, and 1° 44' E. long.
The town contains a tower of considerable height built
for Zizim or Djim. son of Mahomet II., and brother of
Bajazet II., emperors of the Turks. This prince, after
having been defeated by his brother in two attempts to dis-
pute with him the pomession of the throne, took refuge
with the grand master of the Knights Hospitallers, who
were then settled at Rhodes. By virtue of a treaty with
Bajaiet, in which the grand master stipulated carefully to
detain his guest, Zizim was sent to France, where he was
detained in different castles. Among the other places at
which he sojourned during his captivity was Bourganeuf,
which was the residence of the grand pnor of the Order, of
the language of Auvergne. Here he was twice detained ;
and the tower above mentioned was built for him during his
second abode here. It is six or seven stories high, and the
walls are so thick as to admit of a spiral staircase being
made in them. In the lowest story are the baths which
were constructed either by the prince, or out of regard to
his eastern habits by those who had charge of him. (Ex-
piily. Diet, ; Diog. Univ., art * Zizim.')
Bourganeuf has two manufactories of porcelain, and one
of paper. Tiles are also said to be made here. The pop.
in 1832 was 21 10 for the town, or 2849 for the whole com-
mune.
The town is the capital of an arrond., which in 1832 con-
tained a pop. of 3^,965 (Malta Brun.)
BOURGEOIS, SIR FRANCIS, was the descendant of
a family of respectability in Switzerland, where, it has been
ia*d, many of his ancestors filled offices of considerable
trust in tfaie state. The father of Sir Francis however re-
sided for several years in England, it is believed, under the
patronage of Lord Heathfield; and Francis was born in
London in 1 756. His early destination was the army, but
having been instructed, while a child, in some of the rudi-
Bienti of painting by ft foreigner of inoocsiderabla nerii as
a painter of horses, he became so altaehed to tbt tttsilf ,
that he soon reUnquished all thoughu of the military pro-
fession, and resolved to devote his attention solely to paint-
ing. For this purpose he was placed under the tuition of
Loutherbourg ; and having from his connexioiia and ar-
quaintanoe access to many of the most distingnished col*
lections in the country, he soon acquired oonsidmble repu-
tation by his landscapes and sea pieces. > In 1776 be tra-
velled through Italy, France, and Holland, where hit
correct knowledge of' the languages of eaeh country* addH
to the politeness of his address, and the pleasures of his
conversation, procured him an introduction to the beat so-
ciety and most valuable repositories of the arts. At fau
return to England Bourgeois exhibited several speeimens of
his studies at the Royal Academy, whieh dbtaiaed him
reputation and patronage. In 1791 he was appoisied
painter to the king of Poland, whose brother, the prince
Srimate, had been much pleased with his perfimaanets
uring his residence in this country ; and at the •anw time
he received the knighthood of the Order of Merit, which
was afterwards confirmed by the king of England* who in
1794 appointed him his landscape painter. Ptwtkna Up
this he had, in 1792, been elected ft member of the Royai
Academy.
As a painter Sir Francis cannot be very higUir eatoened.
While his pictures display a feeling for nature, tMy equally
exhibit the want of power to express it on the eanras ; his
sub(jects are often beautiftil, and his grouping happy : on
the other hand, his drawing is tame and liiblesa, hia colour*
ing leaden and monotonous, and his touch heavy ; and
though there is an appearance of labour in the prooese, the
result is insipid and unfinished. He very elosdy imiuted
the manner of his instructor.
It is as the bequeather of the Bourgeois eolleetiDn to the
custody of Dulwich college, for the use of the public, thst
he has most claim to our gratitude. The colleetioa was
formed by Noel Desenfiuis, an aminent picture-dealer, who
dying left it to Sir Francis^ with whom he had lived m
close friendship. Sir Francis, at his death, left it lo the
widow of his friend, with the greater part of his propertr,
for life ; bequeathing 2U00/. to Dulwicn college lor the pur-
pose of building a gallery ibr the pictures, the reven^ion
of which they were to have, together with the rest of tbt
property, charged with expenses of preierving the picforr«.
and altering and enlarging the chapel. Deeenbns had
been interred in a chapel attached to Bourgeois's hou«e :
but Sir Francis desired m his will that their nodiea mieht
be removed and deposited together in a mausoteum m the
chapel of Dulwich college, which waa accordingly done.
The college was founded by an actor of the name cf
Alleyn. [Allbyn.]
The Dulwich gallery, as it is generally termed, eonpriies
upwards of 300 pictures ; they are mostly of a cabinet sue.
and, being in a dim Hght, and many of them hong some-
what high, they are not seen to the best adTaatage. The
collection however is a fine one, and containa aoBM of the
most beautiful specimens of Poussin, Cuyp, Rembrandt,
Murillo, Wouvermans. besides other maaters. (Lysons'i
Enviroru; Gentleman § Ma^axine/or 1811.)
; BOURGES, a city of France, capital of the dep. of
Cher. It is situated at the junction of the Avran with
the Evre, or as it is written in mora modem mape Lenvcte ;
whose united streams, under the name of Svie, Ikll into
the Cher, one of the great feedere of the Loire. This dry
is indeed situateu close to the junction of many atreama,
for the Levrette receives the Collins, the Luigta, and
the Moulon, either in or just above the town ; while the
Auron receives the Tarare iust above the town* Bo«rjres
is 120 m. in a straight line due S. from Paria, or 131 ou by
the road through Montargis, or 144 throngk Oritena. It
is in 47^ 5' N. lat, and 2^23' B. long.
This city may vie in antiquity and antient impqrtaiKw
with almost any in France. It was the capital of that
brench of the Biturigea whieh was known, fteeord^nf
to Strabo, Ptolemy, and Pliny, by the snmftae Cmh.
whereby it waa distinguished from the Biturigea Vivisrv. a
branch probably of the same stoek which had settled on the
lower part of the left bank of the Gammna (OammeX arjd
whose capital was Burdegala (Bordeanx). The Bitnnr«^
according to Titus Livius (Historiar. v. 34), wete iW
dominant tribe in Gallia Celtica as early aa Urn tvin
of the Roman king Tarquinius Priaeua, when their kirir
Ambigatus sent out two immense hoau of ensigmiila vmkt
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hh nepbews Bellovesus and Sigoveros, fhe former into tbe
north of Itily, the latter into the vast Hercynian forest,
whieh then extended over a considerable part of eonthem
GertDanv, Hungary, and Poland. In the time of Cnsar
they had lost their supremacy, and the Bituriges Cubi were
themselves under the protection of the ^dui. At what
period their capital, the Gallic name of which, as latinized
by CflBsar, was Avaricum, arose is uncertain ; but in Ca»ar*8
time it was a place of importance. In the struggle against
the Romans, at the head of which was Vercingetorix, near
the close of Casar*s prooonsulship, the territory of the
Bituriges became the seat of war. Agreeably to the de-
fensive plans of the natives, upon the approach of Caraar's
army, above twenty towns of the Bituriges were given up to
the flames, and in a eeneral council it was debated whether
Avaricum should be oumt or defended. The Bituriges fell
at the feet of aU the Galli, and begged * that they might not
be forced to set fire with their own hands to that which
was almost the finest city of all Gallia, and the bulwark and
ornament of their stote. They declared they could easily
defend themselves from the advantage of the situation, for
the place being surrounded on almost every side by the
rirer or a marsh had but one entrance, and that very
narrow/ Contrary to the opinion of Vercingetorix, whose
sounder judgment wished to continue the defensive warfare
which they had begun, but who yielded at last to their in-
treaties, and to the general commiseration excited by them,
it was resolved that a stand should be made at Avaricum,
and a suitable garrison was selected. (Csesar. de Bell, Gall,
lib. vii. c 15.)
Ciesar lost no time in forming the siege of the place ;
and notwithstanding Vercingetorix pitched his camp about
16 Roman m. off, and afterwards even nearer, he carried
on his operations with his usual activity and vigpour. The
garrison counteracted his efforts with considerable skill,
being, as CsDsar described them, * a people of very great in-
genuity, and very ready in the imitation and carrying into
effect of any plans which they may acquire from others.*
They diverted the attack of the Roman machines, under-
mined their works, raised their own walls higher with
wooden towers covered with hides, so as to keep pace with
the towers which the Romans built to assail them, inter-
rupted the operations of the Romans or set fire to their
works in constant daily and nightly sallies, and retarded
the continuation of the trenches iaperios cuniculos) up to
the walls of the town. These walls of the town were con-
structed, with considerable art, of alternate layers or courses
of wooden beams and of stone, so as to fbrm a secure
defence ; the stone preventing them from being consumed
by fire, and the wooaen beams deadening the shock of the
battering ram. In 25 days the Roman works had made
conBiderable progress, when the besieged managed to un-
dermine and sei fire to the mound {agger) which Caesar
had raised against the walla, and a fierce attack was made
by the garrison, which, however, after a most obstinate
struggle, was driven again into the town. The garrison in
despair now determined on abandoning the place, and it was
only when the women, who besought them not to forsake
them, gave notice of the design to the Romans bv their
nies, that they desisted from their purpose. The following
day CsBsar observing that the walb were not so watohfuUy
guarded, ordered a general assault, and thus carried the
town. The Romans nad been exasperated by the massacre
of some of their countrymen at Genabum (now Orleans),
and by the toilsomeness of the siege ; they spared neither
age nor sex ; old men, women, and children were involved
in indiscriminate slaughter ; and out of 40,000 persons who
had been shut up in the town, scarcely 800 escaped to the
<:amp of Vercingetorix. (Ceosar. de Bell, Qall. lib. vii. c.
16—28.)
By what degrees Avaricum recovered from this dreadful
blow is not known. Malte Brun says, but does not quote
his authority, that Augustus made it the capital of Aqui-
tania. It was improv^ and fortified b^ the Romans, and
became at an early period of the Christian sera (as we shall
presently notice,) the seat of a bishoprick. Of the walls of
the old town (which is comprehended nearly on all sides by
the new town) some parts remain : these are, as we gather
from a comparison of the diflferent authorities, supposed to be
Roman works, and are of extraordinary thickness and solidity.
Towards the close of the Roman period this town lost its
name of Avaricum, (said by some to have been derived firom
the name of the river Avara or Avera^-'the Svie,) and
atsnmed that of BitaTira. This we find in an old lemaoM
of chivalry transmuted into Biorgas, whence the moderK
name Bourges. (IVAnviUe, Notice de tAncimme Qaule,)
When the Roman Empire fell under the attacks of the
northern barbarians, Bourges came into the hands of the
Visigoths, firom whom it passed to the Franks, in consequence
as it seems of the victory of Clovis a*. Vouill6. The province
of Bernr, of which Bourges was the capital, became an here-
ditary lief, under nobles who took successively the titles of
counts and viscounts. They at first took their titles from
Bourges rather than from Berry. (Piganiol de la Force.)
In the early ages of the French monarchy, Bourges
suflered much from the ravages of war, but was repaired by
Charlemagne, and afterwards by Philip Augustus (Malte
Brun). In the disputes of the Houses of Burgogne and
Orl^ns in the reign of the imbecile Charles VI., it became
one of the strong holds of the Orleans party. It was be-
sieged by an immense army under Charles VI. in person ,
and the siege was very bloody and of long duration. The
intervention of the Dauphin put a stop to the attack, and
ultimately produced a temporary peace. In the civil wars
of the 16th century it was seized and garrisoned by the
Hugonots, but betrayed by the commander whom they ap-
pointed into the hands of the opposite party.
The town is divided into the old and new towns, the latter
ineludinff a much larger space, and extending on nearly
every side round the old town, which stands on rather
higher ground. The two occupy a considerable extent of
ground capable of containing a much larger population.
The appearance of Bourges shows it to be one of the most
antient and worst built cities in France. The streeu are
crooked ; and the gable ends of the houses, which are low-
built and roofed with tiles, give to the town a very homely
aspect. The new town, according to two drawn plans in
the king's library at the British Museum, was surrounded
with walls, which included also the old town within their
circuit. Malte Brun speaks of Bourges as being now sur-
rounded by promenades called Lee Boulevarde ViUeneute
(as he sa^s, from the name of the prefect who made them)
these, to judge fipom their name, probably occupy the site of
the walls of the new town. In the short space in which the
walls of the old and of the new town coincided, stood an an-
tient tower of immense dimensions, called in the plans
above referred to the Tour du Mont Hennant It was de-
stroyed about the beginning of the 18th century, and the
materials used in the erection of the seminary for the
priesthood.
Under the old regime of France, Bourges was remarkable
for the large proportion of its inhabitants who were included
in the classes of gentry, ecclesiastics, and scholars ; while the
number of persons engaged in trade was comparatively small.
Indeed the business earned on in the place was only just what
was requisite for the supply of the wants of the population.
The multiplication of the gentry may be ascribed to the rank
granted bv Louis XI. to the chief municipal magistrates, the
maire and the four ichevins (mayor and aldermen) of the
town, that of the clergy to the number of ecclesiastical
establishments of various kinds, and that of the scholars to
the university and other establishmente for education. The
want of trade caused the city to be fhr less peopled than
the extent of its site would have permitted and lead one to
expect.
About the middle of the last century Bourges contained^
besides the cathedral, of which we shall presently speak,
fbur collegiate and sixteen parish churches : one abbey for
men, and two for women, besides other religious houses,
which Expilly mentions as being very numerous, but which
he delines giving in detail, on the plea that it would occupy
too much space. All these were in a town which it is probable
did not contain more than 16 or 1 8,000 persons. The abbey for
men was of the order of St. Benedict, and was reputed to have
been founded byClotairell., who reigned about the close of
the 6th or beginning of the 7th century. The abbeys for women
were, one of Benedictine nuns, founded by Charlemagne,
whose natural daughter, St. Euphraise, was the first abbess :
and one of Cistertian nuns, supposed to have been founded
in the 12th century. Among the convents was one for the
Annunciate nuns, founded by the Princess Jeanne (Joan),
otherwise St. Jeanne, daughter of Louis XI., and wife of
Louis duke of Orl6ans, afterwards Louis XIL, who divorced
her : she was the institutor of the order of the Annuncia-
tion, and the convent of Bourges was the first convent o.
that order. Besides these institutions, which w^re in exist-
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ence when Sxpilly wrote, there was one sappreesed abbey
of the order of St. AuguitiD, whose revenues were held in
commendam; the chapters of two ooUegtate churohes had
been united to the seminary for the priesthood. This semi-
nary was under the direction of the religious of the Benedic-
tine abbey.
There was also at Bourges a university of great repute
and well frequented. It was said to have been founded by
Louis IX. (St. Louis) King of France : but this is doubtful.
It was re-established by Louis XI. in 1463. It compre-
hended the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and
arts. Hie first and last were for some time in the hands of
the Jesuits. These fathers had also a college in Bourges,
one of the finest and most extensive in the kingdom. (Ex-
piUy, Did.)
.The revolution and the political convulsions that have
fbUowed since, have of course made considerable changes in
this state of things. The cathedral has however escaj^ the
ravages of that stormy period, and is one of the noblest
(afothic edifices in the kingdom, and indeed in Europe. It is
on the highest spot in the city ; and its front, notwithstanding
the irregularity of its architecture, is remarkable for the
richness of its ornaments and the delicacy of its finish. The
ascent to the front is by a flight of steps ; and at each end of
the front is a lofty tower. Five grand entrances occupy the
front ; and one of these is adorned with sculptures repre^
sen ting the last judgment. The inside dimensions ol the
edifice (according to Expilly) are 348 English feet for the
length, and 140 English feet for the width, without in-
cluding the chapels. The vaulted roof of the nave and its side
aisles are supported by Corinthian columns (Expilly) of great
height and delicacy of workmanship. The town-hall was
formerly the houde of Jacques Ccsur, the richest subject of
his time, whose treasures enabled Charles VII. to re-con-
auer the country that had been subdued by the English in
le reigns of Henry V. and VI. Having obtained of him
considerable sums, that thankless prince caused or permitted
him to be prosecuted for imaginary crimes, or rather for
acts that were not criminal, despoiled him of much of his
wealth, and CoBur ended his days in a foreign land. Col-
bert, the celebrated minister of Ix>uis XIV., having come
by purchase into possession of this house, gave it up to the
municipality of Bourges, who made it the town-h^l. The
edifice is in the richest style of the architecture of the age in
which it was built (the 15th century), and the walls alone
are said to have cost 135,000 livres (5400/. sterling), a vast
sum for those days. The very chimneys are richly orna-
mented, and are built to resemble the towers and gates of
towns. The walls are adorned with sculptures of shells and
hearts: these are probably the arms of Jacques Codur,
which Expilly mentions as bein^ carved in several places,
and accompanied with his punnmg motto, A vaillant Cceur
rien impomble. The archiepiscopal palace is a building of
great magnificence : the garaen attached to it is used as a
public promenade, and contains an obelisk erected to the
memorv of Bethune Charost, a man whose unbounded
benevolence, and whose services to the department of which
Bourges is the capital, render him worthy of such a me-
moriaL
There is also an antient palace built by John duke of
Berry, son of John II. of France^ in the 14th century, or in the
beginning of the ]5th oentunr. - *•
Since the revolution and the abolition of the privileges of
the noblesse, the manufactures and commerce of Bourges
have been increased, but not to any great extent, for the
population has not much advanced. The DicHonnaire
Vniversel de la Prance (1804) notices a manufactory of
saltpetre, and three other manufactories, one of cloth, one
of saU-cloth, and a third of linen generally ; but Halte Brun
mffirms that there is not a linen manufactory in the whole
department, though a great quantity of hemp is grown.
The trade of the town consists chiefly in the produce of the
country around, corn, wine, cattle, and hemp. Thera are
several kinds of stone quarried in the neighbourhood. The
pop. in 1832 was 17,026 for the town, or 19,730 for the
whole commune. The openinff of the Canal de Berri which
SMses through the dep. of Cfier, though at a considerable
stance from Bourges, is expected to give increased activity
to the commerce of this part of France.
Bourges is the seat of an archbishoprick. The diocese is
very antient. St. Ursin, said to have been the first bishop,
lived about a.d. 252. The archbishop took the title and
nnk of patwch* and primate of the provinces of Aqui- 1
taine. As patriaioh he claimed juriidietk>n over the ardi
bishops of Narbonne and Toulouse ; as primate, over those
of Bordeaux and Auch, metropolitans of the second and
third Aquitaines. As metropolitan, he had at one uine
eleven su&agans, vis., the bishops of Alby, Cahon*
Castres, Clermont, St. Flour, Limoges. Mende. Ls Puy.
Rhodes, Tulle, and Vabres : but the bishop of Alby haMaip
been raised to the rank of metropolitan, and the bishops of
Cahors, Castres, Mende, Rhodes, and Vabros, made suffra-
gans to him, thera remained only five suffragans U> the
arehbishop of Bourges, vis., the bishops of Clermont* St.
Flour, Limoges, Le Puy, and Tulle. (Expilly.) These arw
still his suffragans. The diocese of Bourges includes the
departments of the Cher and Indre. Thera ara an Aca*
demie Umverhtaire, a CoUige Boyal, or high school, a te-
minary for the priesthood, and a schod for music ; besides a
society of agricultura, of commerce, and of arts, a rich pubbr
library, a cabinet or museum of natural history, and a
theatra. Thera is a Cour Royaie, or high court of justice,
the jurisdiction of which extends over the throe departments
of Cher, Indre, and Nidvra. Bourges is also the cnief place
of the fifteenth military division, which compraheods tho
several departments of Cher, Indra, AUier, Creuse, Nievre,
Haute Vienne, and Correze.
The situation of the town is pleasant. In the neighbour-
hood there is a mineral spring, called the spnng <>f ^t. Fir-
min, or the iron spring ; and another in the Faubourg St.
Priv6, which is recommended for persons afflicted with the
gravel. The arrond. of Bourges had in 1632 a pop. oi
97,537.
Among the eminent natives of Bourges may be men*
tioned the celebrated preacher Louis Bourdaloue, bom hen
in 1632 ; Pierre Joseph d'Orlcans, author of the * Historiet
of the Revolutions of England and of Spain*, bom in 1(4 !
(both these were Jesuits) ; Jacques Cceur, already noticed
and the King Louis XI., by whom, as we have seen, th«
University of Bourges was founded or re-established.
B0URG06NE (BURGUNDY), prov. of France, an.*
one of the military governments into which that eouDir>
was divided before the diWsion into denartmentv. Tl^
districts of Bresse, Bugey, Valromey, and the Pays de Gcx
were included in the military government of Bkittrgoyrne
and in the geographical part of the present article these an
considered as parts of Bourgogne. The name of Boiir-
gogne is derived fh>m the Bourguignons, one of tW
northern nations by whom the Roman Empire in the wc^
was overthrown, and who established on the fhmtiers ut
France, Italy, and Switxerland, a kingdom of some extent,
though not of long duration. As the account of tbt«
kingdom belongs to general history, and not peeuhari} u
French history, it is given under the article Bt7R6UXDixx«,
the usual English form of the name. The hiitoty aod «lc^
scription of the feudal duchy and province which inhensed
the same designation, we give, as belonging to French
topography or history, under the French designatkm ol
Bourgogne.
General dueriptwn qf Bourgogne. — Bouigoene was <rf
considerable extent and of very irregular form. Ito greatest
dimension or length was from N.N.W. to S.S.B., trjtn
the neighbourhood of Bar-sur-Seine to the extremity of
Bresse, in which direction it extended about 195 m.: the
breadth, measured at right angles to the lei^th, wied vwry
much ; the greatest measure from near Bowboo Isncy to
the neighbourhood of Pontoux being about 90 m«, and the
least about SO m. It was bounded on the M. hy Cham-
pagne; on the E. by the county of Bourgogne, (usuaUj
called La Franche Comt6,) Switxerland and Savmr ; on the
S. by Daui)hin6 and the Lyonnaii ; and on the W. by ih«
Bourbonnais, Nivemais, and Orl^nnois.
The country thus bounded comprehends portions of the
basins of three of the principal riven in Franee, the Loira,
the Rhdne, and the Seine. The W. part is watered bv the
Arroux. the Bourbinceor Brebince, the Reconce and other
smaller streams, which flow immediately or ultimately tnta
the Loire, and by the Loire itself for a short distance ; the
£. part is watered by the Vingeanne, the Tdle, the On<^,
the Dheune, the Doubs, or as it is written in mape of 70
years since, the Doux, the Seille, the Groene, and others.
tributaries of the Sa6ne, and by the Sadne iteelf, a coiim-
derable part of the course of whtch is in Bourgogne ; the N
parts contain the souree of the Seine, the aourcee of u^e
Ource, the Armancon, the Serain, and the Cuie^ all of
which, and part of the ciburse of the Ypi||ie, ultimi
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with the SeOM^ The district of Breate it boundad on the
S. by the Rhdne, and watered by the Ain whieh falls into
the Kbdne. These three basins are separated from each
other by a lanse of hills which, entering Bourgogne from
the S.. from the district of Beaigolais, run nearly due N.
to the neighbourhood of ChAteau-Chinow, separating the
basins of Uie Rhdne and the Loire» and at ChAteau-Cbinow
divides into two parts, one of which running N.W. separates
the basin of the Seine from that of the Loire; while the
olher, which includes the Cdte d'Or, runs N.E. towards
Langres and the Chain of the Vosgest and separates the
basin of the Seine from that of the Sadne, or mora properly
the Rhdne. Two important canals cross the countnr ; one,
U Canal du Centre or du CharoUaiet unites the Loire at
Di^oin near Charolles with the Sa6ne at Ch^ons sur
Sa6ne; the other, Le Canal de Bcurgytne^ unites the
Sadne at St. Jean de Losne with the Youne, between
Auxerre and Joigny, following very nearly the conrre of
the rivers Ouohe an& Arman^on.
Watered by so many rivers, possessing a fine climate and
fertile soil, Bourgogne may be regaidsd as one of the dis-
tricts of France most favoured by nature. Grain of all
kinds is plentifol, vast numbers of sheep are fed in the
pasturages, and the forests yield timber for the builder and
the shipwright, and fuel. Hemp, fhut, fish, and game, are
plentiful : but the principal article of produce is wine, which
IS among the very best in France. The following wines
may be mentioned as of the finest quality - the red wines
of Auxerre, La Roman^Conti, Chambertin, Richebourg,
Clous- Vougeot, La Romance- Saint- Vivant, La Tache, St
George, Gorton, Lea Torins, and Chenas ; and the white
wines of PuUgni (growth of Montrachet), Pouilley and
Fuissey. The wines of the district are known by the general
name of Vin de Bourgogne (Burgundy wine). For further
information as to the natural features, productions, trade,
&o. of Bourgoffne, see Aix, Aubx, Cdrs d'Or, SaAnx and
Loirs, and Yonnx, among which department this ex-
tensive and valuable territory has been shared. (Malta
Brun, Did. Univ. de la France.)
Bourgogne, in the extent we have been considering it,
was formerly divided into the prov. of Bourgogne properly
so called, and the three dependent districts of Bresse,
Bugey (including Valromey), and Gex. The prov. of
Bourgoffna was acain subdivided into the Duchy so called,
(oompr^ending Le Dyonnois, L'Autunois, Le Chdlonnois,
(or dwtricts of Dijon, Autun, and Ch&lons,) L'Auxois. and
Le Pays de la Montagne.) and the dependent counties of
Le Charollois, Le B&connois, L Auxerrois, and Bar sur-
Seine ; which counties took their names from the towns of
ChsroUois,Mdcon, Auxerre, and Bar. (Gktrraau, Deecrip-
Hon de Oouvememeni de Bourgogne,)
The principal towns of this important government, of
which Dgon was the capital, with the river on or near which
they stand, and their pop. in 1832, so fares we can ascertain
it, we give for convenience sake in a tabular form. Where
two numbers are given for the pop., the first is that of the
town itself (popuMtion aggUmeree\ the second that of the
whole commune.
IHip. ToUla.
Arnay-le Doc, near the Arronx . 2,416 2,663
AvaWn, on the Voisin, a branch of the Cure 5,u89 5,569
Antun, on the Arroux • • • 8.61 U 9,921
Auxerre, on the Yonne . • . 10,989 11,439
Auxonne, on the Sadne . • • 3,477 5,287
Bar aur Sane, on the Seine . . 2,269 9,272
Beaune, on the Bousoire, a branch of the
Dheune 9,90«
Bourbon Lanoy, near the Loire, about — ^ 2,500
Bourg, on the Reys-souse, a feeder of the
Sadne 7,826 8,996
Belley,near theFurattd,a feeder of the Rhdne 3,550 4,286
Chilona ear Sadne. on the Sadne • 12,220
Charollea, on the Reoonce . 2,781 2,984
Chfitillon sur Seine, on the Seine • 3,689 4,175
Dijon, on the Onche . . . 2^.352 25,552
(«ex, near the Valaerine, a feeder of the
Rhdne • . . . . 1.750 2,834
Jean, (St.) de Losne, on the Sadne . 1,744
Macon, OQ the Sadne 10,998
Nuits, on the Meusin, whieh unites with
the Beuxoire and flows into the Dheune
Sauljen, near the head of the Creusevaux,
abraneh ofihe Aroux • — 8,050
Pop.
3,985
ToUla.
4,088
3,574 3,591
1,919
Lemur en Auxois, on the Armanfon •
Semur en Briennois, near the Loire
Seurre, on the Sadne
Yiteaux, on the Brenne, a feeder of the
Armanfon 1,904
For an account of the above-mentioned places, we refer
the reader to their resoective articles, for the larger towns *
the others, so for as they call for notice, will be found in
the account of the departmenu of CdTx d'Ox, and SiwdNB
Aitn LoiBx.
The history of Bourgogne presents perhaps more points
of interest than that of any other district in France.
Hietory of Bourgogne— Celtic period— The Mdui. —
When (SsDsar invaded Graul, Bourgogne, for the most
part, was the territory of the ^dui, whose capital Bibracte,
afterwards Augustodunum, was the modern Autun. Por-
tions however were occupied by other tribes ; as Hresse and
Bugey by the Ambarri (dependents of the iEdui), and by a
part of the AUobroges, and of the Sequani, which last
peoplealsooccupied those portions of Challonnois and Le
Dgonnois, which were on the left or S.E. bank of the Arar
or Sadne. The Lingones possessed parts of Dijonnois,
including Dijon itself, and of L'Auxois, and Le Pays de la
Montagne ; while the Senones possessed L* Auxerrois, and
the Mandubii, a small tribe, part of the Auxois, and the
Auleroi Brannovices part of dependents of the ^dui, the
Brienneis, which is part of the duchy of Bouiigogne.
Of these people, who were all of the great Celtic race,
the Adui were the most important They had been, long
before Csssar*s arrival, the nead of one of those factions,
into which, with a remarkable propensit]^ to party division,
the Celtss were separated. Their principal rivals were the
Arvemi and the Sequani (who inhabited, respectively,
Auvergne and La Franche Comt£), but they maintained
the pr^ominance so long as the contest lay between them
and the other people of the Celtic race. Their power seems
to have been confirmed by their alliance with the Romans,
who had gradually subdued that part of Grallia which lay to tlie
S. and E. of the Rhdne and the Mons Cebenna (Cevennes
Mountains). Shortly, however, before Csssar's arrival, the
Arvemi and the Sequani, despairing to make head success-
fully against the supremacy of the iEdui, determined to
call in Vba Germani to their aid ; and a large body of these,
crossing the Rhenus (Rhine), utterly defeated the Adui
and their dependents in two battles, in which the van-
quished lost all their senate, all their nobility and all their
cavalry. The Adui were compelled to give up as hostages
the chief men of the state, and to swear that they would
neither seek aid of the Romans nor refuse perpetual sub-
mission to the victorious Sequani. (Ciesar de B. G., i. 31,
vi. 11, 1 2.) While in this depressed condition, the Helvetii
(Swu»), the most warlike of the Celtic nations, with their
allies, abandoning in a body their native country, set out for
the shores of the Atlantic (the country of the Santoni, Sain-
tonge), where they determined to settle. Their road lay
through the country of the Adui, which they ravaged, with-
out encountering any efl^tual opposition. The onW hope
of this wretched nation was now placed in their Roman
allies : and they sent ambassadors to Cnsar, who had just en-
tered upon the government of the Roman provinces of Gallia
Citerior, and Ulterior Illyricum (which comprehends the
N. of Italy and the S. of France), pleading 'that they bad
always so conducted themselves towards the Romans that
iheir lands ought not to have been wasted, their children
led intoslaverv, and their towns stormed almost under the
eyes of the Roman army.* (Cms. de B. O, i. 11.) Their
request was complied with: Ceesar marched against the
Helvetii, cut off their rear guard while on the point of
crossing the Arar, and in a second engagement entirely
defeated them with great slaughter, and compelled them to
return home. He then, by the desire of tlie Mdui anj
other Celtic people, led his victorious armjr against the
Germans and defeated them, their king Ariovistus escaping
across the Rhine, with a very few surrivors of his numerous
army.
During the greater part of (TsBsar's command in Gaul,
the Mdm appear to have adhered steadily to the interests
of the Romans ; but in the general revolt which took place
in the seventh year of his government, they were induced
to join their countrymen in the struggle for national inde-
pendence. A body of their troops under Eporedorix and
Yecdmnania^ (who had been sent by Cvm^ when he
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knew of the revolt of their countrymen), took possession
of Noviodunum (Nevers), where Cesar had deposited the
hostages of the Galli, as well as the oom» money, and bog-
ffa^e for his army ; and having carried away the hostages,
divided the spoil and burnt the town. Caesar forthwith
crossed the Liger (Loire) by a ford and marched S. Cowards
the country of the Seanani, while the Galli held a general
council at Bibracte (Autun) to determine to whom the chief
command should be intrusted. The iBdut had required
that it should be given to them, but the confederates pre-
ferred the tried courage and skill of Vercingetoriz, the
Arvemian ; and the iSdui, though mortified, were obliged to
submit. The war now assumed a very serious character,
and the affairs of the Romans were in a most critical situa-
tion. The Mdui and their allies were however defeated in
an engagement of the cavalry, with the loss of Bporedorix and
some other men of note who were taken prisoners : and the
main body of the confederates retired, closely pursued by
the Romans, to Alesia (Alise, or rather a mountain near
Alise, a little town of the Auxois in Bourgogne), under the
walls of which, in a very strong position, the Galli en-
camped. Vercingetorix, dismissing his cavalry to their
respective states, with directions to gather all their forces
and come to his relief, remained with eighty thousand
chosen men to sustain the siege which Csesar had already
begun, and endeavoured bv economy and wise management
to make his scanty store of provisions last till the return of
his countrymen.
Ceesar, aware of the inadequate number of his forces to
guard lines of circumvallation of the extent required to hem
in the enemy's army, if constructed in the usual manner,
took unusual pains in strengthening his lines. The besieged
were reduced to great distress for want of provisions ; but
their spirit was unbroken, and thev determined in a general
council, if no relief came, to kill those whom age rendered
unfit for war, and to feed upon their carcases rather than to
surrender. At last the unexpected succours came, to the
number of two hundred and forty thousand infantry,
and eight thousand horse. Repeated attacks were made
upon the Roman entrenchments both from within and
without, but in vain : the relieving force was defeated with
dreadful slaughter and dispersed, and the besieged were
left to their fate.
In this extremity the gallant Vercingetorix summoned a
council of his countrymen, declared that he had undertaken
the war, not from any peculiar interest of his own, but for
the general liberty of the country ; and that as they must
now yield to their destiny, he was willing to be the sacrifice
to the general good, whether they chose to satisfy the
Romans by putting him to death, or to deliver him up alive
to the enemy, lliey chose the latter course : and Vercin-
getorix was put into the hands of Caesar. The iEdui sub-
mitted and obtained better terms, so far as can be judged,
than they had reason to expect : their persons were restored ;
and when they had passed, with the rest of their country-
men, under the dominion of Rome, they seem to have still
been treated with peculiar distinction. The capture of
Alesia took place in B.C. 51.
Bourgogne under the Romans.— Upon the division of Gallia
into four provinces by Augustus Caesar, the districts after-
wards comprehended in Bourgogne formed part of Gallia
Lugdunensis; and upon the subdivision by the Epperor
Probus, were mostly included in Lugdunensis Prima. Some
portions were however comprehendedin Lugdunensis Quarta,
and Maxima Sequanorum, which last division had been, ac-
cording to the arrangement of Augustus, included in Gallia
Belgica, though the inhabitants of it were of Celtic race.
First Kingdom of Bourgogne,— EvLvly in the fifth cen-
tury the Burgundians, a branch of the Vandals, one of the
people occupying the antient Germany (under which name
was comprehended the country ttom the Rhine to the
Borysthenes), who had gradually approached the Roman
frontier, crossed the Rhine into Gallia, and established them-
selves there. This was probably about a.d. 407; and in a
few years they so far spread their conquests that they gave
name to the first kingdom of Bourgogne of Burgundy, com-
prehending the whole S. E. of France, and extending be-
yond the Rhdne, and even the Loire. This kingdom was
conquered (a.d. 534) by the Prankish princes, descendants
and successors of Clovis, viz., Cbildebert, king of Paris, and
Clotoire. king of Soissons, and perhaps Theodebert, king of
Austrasia. rBunouNDiANS.]
Second kingdom of Bourgogne^^Jsi 055 Clotiure» the
sole sttcceiiOf of the raee of Ctovii, vemiUiMi under his own
sway the portions of the kingdom of the Burgundknt which
at tne conquest had been albttad to the vieCorioiit princ<t« :
and in 561 (^outran, his son, who succeeded to the kingdom
of Orieans, and to a portion of the territory of the Burgun-
dians (but mueh of what these people had enbdued wu%
attached to ^e kingdom of Austrasia),UHA the title of kintr
of Bourgogne, and fixed his usual residence at ChlJoiia Mir
S&one. It is needless to trace the history of this kingdom
in the confused period which followed; iometimee it «a%
united with its sister kingdoms, Neustria, Austtmsis, an*!
Soissons, or with one or two of them ; at others it was sepa-
rate and single. It followed the fortune of war or of m*
heritance, and its boundaries varied also according to nr-
cumstances. From the year 613 or 614 it was oonstamly
united with one or more of the ot6er kingdoms of the Frank*
To the weakness and incapacity of the Merovingian pnnrv«
succeeded in 745 the more vigorous government of Pepin /«
Bref (the Short). Upon the division of the Cemtonet i>f
Pepin between his sons Carloman and Charles or Charle-
magne, the kingdom of Bourgogne fell to the former, buf
upon his death became part of the widely-extended empircf
of Charlemagne. In the partition of this empiie, after a
bloody war, among the enildren of Louis U Debonnair^^,
son and successor of Charlemagne, a.d. 843, the kmgd«ni
of Bourgogne was divided ; the part W. of the Sadne frll
to the lot of Charles le Ckauve (the Bald), the part E. of
the Sadne to the Emperor Lothaire.
Supposed Third Kingdom o/Bourgo^e, — ^In the division
of the territories of the Emperor Lothaire between his thrM
sons, some authors have asserted that one of the kivgdomi
resulting firom the division was called the kingdom of Bour-
gogne. This kingdom comprehended what has since bc^r.
known as the governments of Dauphin^ and Pro^'Vficv.
which had been included in the kingdfom established h} ihtr
Burgundians in this part of Europe, and had been &:v
partially included in the second kingdom of Bourgfnrp«
under the Merovingian Goutran. But Plancher in h:»
Histoire de B9urgogne asserts that this kingdom bore thr
name, not of Bourgogne, but of Provence ; and ftlthoush i;
was within the limits of the antient kingdom of Bour^v^^.
it does not appear to have included more than a very ^nu:]
part, if any, either of the province of Bourgogne as desrn bni
at the be^nning of this article, or of the county of Bour-
gogne or Franche Comti. Those portions of thepro%inr..
of Bourgogne which were in the dominions of the Em pen r
Lothaire (Bresse, Buges, &c.). were included in the king-
dom of Austrasia, which came to Lothaire, second sor < f
the emperor, and which took from him the name of Lriht
ringia, whence the more modern name of liorraine. T^iii
•portion of Bourgogne underwent various changes in follov-
ing years. That part of Bourgogne which was comprt-
hended in the dominions of Charies ie Chauve pas«4K! hx
succession to his son Louis le Begue (the Stammerer K \tA
in the partition of the sUtes of this .prince it fell to the 1 t
of Carloman. It continued ever after, when the dominK-^nt
of Carloman and his brother Louis II. were united into tKt*
kingdom of France, to be a portion of that kingdom.
Supposed later Kingdoms of ZJowr^ogtie.— BourRnrne
Cisjurane, Bourgogne Transjuitine, Aries. It has ht^v.
already noticed that in the partition of the states of Xif*
Emperor Lothaire, a.d. 855. one of the kingdoms, thsr f>f
Provence, formed by the partition and alloc^ to Cbarlr^,
the youngest son of Lothaire, has been inooTrecUy st^lcl
by some the kingdom of Bourgogne. This kingdom was of
short duration, ending with the life of its fin$t and vnly
king, A.D. 863. In 679 another kingdom of Provence. t>>
which some authors give the title of Bourgogne Chjunnc.
was formed by Boson, a powerful French n^lo. It comprr-
hended Provence, Dauphin^, and afterwards part of the
Lyonnois and Viennois.
During the troubles that succeeded the death of Chsrlt-f
le Qros (the Fat), king of France and emperor of Germar.% ,
under whom the empire of Charlemagne had been rrantinl.
a kingdom was formed by the successful ambitwn 'Y
Rodolph, one of the nobles of that country (eomprebendir^
the various countries east of the Sadne included in t-*«*
former kingdom of the Burgundians), to which the var'<>?
and extensively applied name of Boursogne Supcrieur^, «<-
Upper Burgundy, was given. This kingdom «as ra.V'*
Bourgogne Transjurane, and comprehended Bwitmlar.i
and some smaller districts. Rodolph, its fiisl Idng, w
elected in 888. C" r\r\c^\o
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About>.o. 930 thete kingdoms were united in the
of Rodcdph II. king of Bourgogne Tranejunuie, He was
competitor with Hugues, king of Provence, for the dominion
of northern Italy ; and Hugues, to secure the peaceable
pocaession of thi% ceded to Rodolpb, with certain reserra*
tJons, his own original kingdom of Provenee. The two
kingdoms thus united were called the kingdom of Gaule
Cisalpine and Bourg^e Jurane, and, in after ages, the
kiogaom of Aries. This kingdom may be considered as
terminating in the year 1032, when it came into the hands
of Conrad, the Salic emperor of Germany. After this time
the kingdom of Aries was divided into provinces which
foraied part of the Germanic empire, or owed feudal sub-
jection to it Some writers consider that Boson and his
sncoessots in the second kingdom of Provence bore the title
of kings of Aries before the union of the kingdoms of Pro-
rence and Bourgogne Transjurane.
County o/Bourgogn$ or Froneh$ ComtS. — Although the
lustory of this district belongs rather to Franche Comti^ yet
it formed no part of the kin^msof Bourgogne Transjurane
and Aries. It was part of the kingdom of Austrasia, given
A.D. B35 bv the Emperor Lothaire to his son of the same
name as already noticed. It was divided for a time upon
the death of Lothaire the younger, and being reunited after>
warda formed part of the kingdom of Germany. Upon the
death of Louis III. king of C^rmany (a«d. 912), it came by
succession to Charles le Simpht king of France; under
whom the county of Bourgogne, consisting at first of the
city of Besan^n, and some surrounding districts, was erected
A.D. 915 in favour of Hugues, the first count
Duchy of Bourgogne— Earlier Duhee, — ^The Duchy de
Bourgogne consisted of a considerable part of the territory
which has been described at the commencement of this
article, with some adjacent territories which were long ago
disjoined from it as the city of Langres in Champagne,
and the city of Nevers, with its surrounding district of the
Nivemois. Some add also the city of Lyon ; but the dukes
of Bourgogne seem never to have exercised any authority in
virtue of their title over that city, which therefore cannot be
regarded as part of their domain.
It appears then that the name Bourgogne as given to a
eountry has had very different applications. We have
1. The original kingdom, comprehending not only the dis-
trict which is the particular subject of this article, but also
the whole S. E. of France and Savoy. 2. After the eztino-
tion of this kingdom, the name of Bourgogne appears to
have been given to the districts composing it, though there
was no jurisdiction exercised over it under that title except
in the case of the second and later kingdoms, to which,
whether correctly or not, its name is given. Of these later
kingdoms, that formed by Goutran in the 6th century ap-
pears to have been the only one which was nearly coexten-
sive with the original kingdom. Those of later date com-
prehended only certain portions of that kingdom to the E.
atid S. of the Rhdne and Sadne. 3. The oounty or the
Franche Comptft* 4. The Duchy, n«sriy coincident with
that part of tne province or military government of later
times which lies N. W. of the Sadne, and which, be it ob-
Mrved, was from the time of Charles le Chauve part of the
kingdom of France. 5. The province including the Duchy,
the districts of Bresse, Bugey, &e. «
The earliest dukes or governors of Bourgogne under the
Prankish princes were revocable at the pleasure of the
aoreieign ; but in process of time their dignity and autho-
rity became hereditary, and from Richard le Juetieier
(brother of Boson king of Provence, already mentioned),
who held the title of duke in the latter part of the 9th cen-
tury, the dignity descended by inheritance to Henri (brother
of uugues Capet king of Franoe), in the middle and latter
Krt of the lOth century. But although the practice of in-
htance thua grew up, it was not yet recognised as legal ; it
was rather a concession made by the weakness of the kings
to the fast-inereasing power of the great nobles. Hugues
Capet however, there is good reason to suppose, granted
the Duchy as an hereditary and proprietary dignity to his
brother Henri. On the death of Henri, Bourgogne came
into the hands of Otta-GKiillaume, his step-son, and from
him again it passed (a.d. 1015), either by force or concession,
to Robert, king of France, son of Hugues Capet Robert
granted the Duchy to his son Henri, who succeeded him on
the throne of France as Henry I., and thus reunited the
dural coronet with the erown.
Firel race q/DuiiB$qfthe blood royal <2^iF^if«e.— Robert,
the son of Hngnes Capet, is said to have beqtieathed the
Duchy of Bourgogne to his younger son Robert, Henri the
elder son becoming king of Franoe. After a dispute and
war between the brothers, the testamentary disposition of
the late king was confirmed, and Robert became Duke de
Bourgogne and founder of the first royal race by which
that dignity whs held. Eudes, one of his descendants, died
on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land a.d. 1102, soon after
the time of the first crusade. Another of his descendants,
Hugues III., visited the Holy Land as a crusader in 1171,
and again he accompanied Philippe Auguste, king of Franoe,
in the crusade which he undertook in 1190-91, in conjunc-
tion with Richard I. of England. Upon the return of
Philippe to France, after the capture of Acre, the duke of
Bourgogne was placed at the head of the French crusaders
who remained in the Holy Land, and by his fear or jealousy
prevented the advance of the Christian army when within
sight of the city of Jerusalem. He withdrew with his
crusaders to Tyre, where he died in 1 192. Another of this
race, the Duke Eudes III., engaged in the war against the
Albigenses, or, as Plancher expresses it, ' he took the cross
in 1 209 and joined the other lords, who, for the love of truth
and seal for the Catholio religion, took arms to beat and
destroy the Albigenses, heretics so much the more danger-
ous, as they affected to follow an apostolic, penitent and
altogether disinterested life.' The same Eudes was present
at the great battle of Bouvines in Flanders, a. d. 1214.
The Duchy of Bourgogne, considerably augmented by dif-
ferent acquisitions, came by inheritance to Jean IL, king of
France, in the year 1861, upon the death of Philip of
Rouvre, last duke of the first race of the blood royal of
France. It was during the sway of this first race of dukes
that several of the towns of Bourgogne acquired municipal
rights and constitutions ; and their deputies took their seats
in the assembUes of the states of Boureogne, of which they
constituted the third component body, le tiers etat.
Second race o/Dukee of Bourgogne qf the blood royal
qfPrancei — These princes played a much more important
part than the preceding.
Philippe leHordi, fourth son of Jean IL, king of France,
reoeivea from his father (Sept 1363) the Duchy of Bour-
gogne, to be held by him and his lawful heirs ; and the
grant was confirmed in 1364 by Charles V., son and suc-
cessor of Jean II., and brother of Philippe. The duke was
distinguished by courage ; he was present when only fifteen
at the battle of Poitiers, where he was taken prisoner, and
he held command in the armies of his brother in the wars
which he carried on against the English. He married
Marguerite, daughter and heiress of the count of Flanders,
and upon the death of his fother-in-law came into possession
of the Comt^ de Flanders, Artois, Bourgogne (Franche
Comt^), Rethel, and Neven : by prudence and mildness
he calmed the troubles which had agitated Flanders. Upon
the death of Charles V. he was one of the guardians of the
new king, Charles VI., who came to the throne a minor, and
afterwards had the government of the kingdom when that
prince became a lunatic.
In the year 1396 he sustained a severe blow in the cap-
tivity of his son, Jean, count of Nevers, who conducted a
troop of the choicest of the young nobility of France to the
suooour of Bigismond king of Hungary against Bajaset or
Bayasid, sultan of the Turks. In diis troop, more eminent
for high birth than for numbers, were the Count d' Bu, con-
stable of France, Jean de Vienne, adminl of France (who
had formerly defended Calais against Edward HI. of Eng-
land), Le Mar^chal de Boucicaut Confident in their cou-
rage, they rashlv engaged near Niccpolis on the S. bank of
the Danube with the vastly superior forces of Bajaset and
were either killed or taken prisoners.^'^e defeat of this
presumptuous band involved that of the whole Christian
army, m which they formed the advanced guard. The aged
and heroic De Yienne perished in the field ; the duke of
Nevers, the constable, De Boucicaut and a few others of
the highest rank were ransomed ; the greater part of the
prisoners were massacred in cold blood by Bsjazet s order,
Philippe k Hardi died in 1404, aged sixty-three.
Jean, duke of Nevers, who had obtained the namo of
Sans-peur from his undaunted demeanour when before
Bajazet came to the dukedom of Bourgogne on the death
of his father, being then thirty-three years of age. He
succeeded also to the rivalry which had existed between his
father and Louis, duke of Orleans, brother of the imbecile
ChArles VI These princes had disputed the government
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and the doke of Boargofne had obtained the >uuqiwity.
But on hii demise liie dake of Orleans had held away
untU, by an unexpected march upon Paris, a.i>. 1405, Jean
Sans-peur obtained possession of the king's person and of
the capiul, which was devoted to his interest. A reconcilia-
tion was effected, and the princes carried themselves with
every appearance of cordiality to each other. But these ap-
pearances were deceitful : the duke of Orleans was assassi-
nated in the streets of Paris, and after dissembling for a
few days, the duke of Bourgogne confessed that he was the
author of the foul deed, ' at the instigation,* as he said, 'of
the Devil/ Various causes have been assigned for this
atrocity : political rivalry, revenge for an insult offered to
his honour as a husband, the desire of anticipating a similar
attempt which Uie duke of Orleans was devising, are va-
riously assigned. At first the duke of Bourgogne appeared
to feel shame, if not remorse, for this murder, and retired to
his own dominions; but growing bolder, he justified the
act, charged the late duke of Orleans with disloyalty, and
returning with an armed force to Paris, procured, under the
ldng*s hand and seal, a pardon ' for what had lately hap-
Sened to the duke of Orleans.* The kingdom now became
ivided into two factions, the Bourguignons or Burgundians,
and the Armagnacs.
A war with the Lidgeois called away Jean Sans^peur
from Paris, and enobled the opposite iaction to obtain a
short-lived supremacy. The people of Lidge, irritated by
the neglect of their bishop elect, brother-in-law of the duke,
had elected another bishop. The disputed crosier was con-
tested, not in an ecclesiastical court, but in the battle-field.
Jean Sans-peur gained a great victory on behalf of his
brother-in-law, who acquired by his cruelty after the victory
the odious and un-episcopal surname of ' Sans piti6.* Jean
now returned to Paris ; his opponents retired before him,
and abandoned the citv* but removed the king. A treaty
was however negotiated, and a forced reconciliation between
Jean and the children of the murdered prince took place at
Chartres in 1409. Jean retained his sunremaey, and his
triumph seemed to be completed bv an allianoe which he
formed with the Queen Isabella of Bavaria.
The opposite party howo'er gathered strength; and
though hostilities were not absolutely declared, armed bands,
gathered by each faction, used great license in the country.
A temporary accommodation, concluded at the palace of the
Bic6tre (originally Winchester, or in French, Vinohestre),
A.D. 1410, was only a prelude to more serious disturbances.
Open hostilities took place, and the duke of Bourgogne
allied himself with the king of England, Henry IV., who
was however detached from his interest, and won over to
that of the princes. Another accommodation, negotiated at
Bourges (a.d. 1412), restored some appearance of tran-
ouillity to Fmuce. Jean still seems to have retained pre-
dominance, at least in the capital, which was the residence
of the king and the dauphin, and where his partisans, com-
posed of the vilest of the rabble, committed great disorders.
Hostilities breaking out again, he was afterwards compelled
to leave Parts, where his opponents established themselves.
Not content with this, they pursued the duke, who had
assembled hb troops and returned to the neighbourhood of
Paris, but had retired on findin&r it was defended. Another
peace, that of Arras, put an end to these cUsturbances for a
time (a.d. 1414) : Jean was excluded from the capital, and
though stillpowerful, was no longer predominant
In 1415 Henry V. of England invaded France, and in the
ffreat battle of Afi:incourt the flower of the Armagnae party
fell. Jean upon this marched toward Paris, but with strange
irresolution stopped short at Lagny, and being ofdered by
the Constable, the Count d* Armagnae, to retire, did so.
The tyranny of the constable however soon caused the
Parisians to embrace again the Bourgognon interest: they
opened the gates in the night to the captains of that party,
upon whose entry the rabble again signaliaed their feroei^
by the massacre of the ConstiOile d*&magnao and others.
Jean entered Paris some time afterwards^ and was compelled
to witness ftirther massacres by the mob in his interest,
whom he could not restrain. His life and power were how-
ever approaching their close. Jean, with his ally the queen,
having the king in his power, was at enmity with the
dauphm, who had become chief of the Armagnacs. He
tried to negotiate with the king of England, who, amidst
ttie disputes of faction, was extending his conquests in
France, and had just taken Rouen (a.d. 1419). FaOing
however in this negotiation, he attempted a reooneiliation I
aee.
of th
with the dauphin, in an interview widi whom, al the )md?«
of lionteraau-sur-SeiiM, 1m wm assassinated iMi 8ep(.
1419. His body, aftier remaining all night naked and ca-
posed on the ground, was earned in a pauper's bier Co the
ehureh of N6tre Dame, in Monlerean. tnm whene* it was
removed, in the oontae of the following year, on tho eao-
ture of Monterean by the Boorgnignons and tho BiMrtt»h.
to Dijon, and buried in the efanrch of the Garchiisui<>
there.
Philippe, sumamed U Bon, the son of Jean 8ai»-pru*.
sncceeded to the duchy, being then tweutyHhrae jtmn *.'
e. The general cry for vengeanee against the aeaimr-M
the late duke, co-operating with the soUeitatioos of I«d-
belle de Bavidre, queen of France, as well aa with hia €Bwr.
feelings, prompted Philippe to otRnr his allianoe to HMir> V.
of England. Henry was too skilftil a potttieian to vetu**
the offer, and a treaty was ooneloded betweon the t^^n
pnnees, the object of whieh was the rain of tho dauph:::.
The duke in conseqnenee assembled troops, rsdnoed aU it.-
towns that lay in nis way. joined the English totem, jk-
duced Monterean, and entered Paris by the side of HoBr> V
Some time afterwards Philippe attacked St. Riquisr on xh*
Somme. then one of the strongest places in lieardy, ani
took prisoner with his own hand XaintraiUes.or Saintraillcv,
a celebrated French captain, who attemplsd to reUsve it.
On the deaths of Henry V. of England and Ctaartea VI.
of France in 1422, the regency of Franoe during the mi-
nority of Henry VI., son of Henry V. (to whom, bjr virtue
of the treaty of Treyes, the sueoession of the Fresich ero»i^
fell), was offered to the duke of Bourgogne ; but he deehnei^
it in favour of John duke of Bedford, undo of the yourc
king. The marriage of Bedford with the sister of Phihppr
rendered their union closer ; but that union had ooarly b^ e
broken up by a dispute and a war between Jean dnke S
Brabant, cousin to Pl|ilippe, and Humphrey dnke of GI-<-
cester. a younger brother of Bedford. Jacqueline. heirr>*
of Brabant. Hmland. Zeeland, and Friesland, had maiTcci
Jean, and brought to him the rich inheritanee just mrz-
tinned ; but mutual wrongs produced a sepancioQ. and i
divorce had been obtainwl on the plea of eoD8angvin'*T
The duke of Gloucester married the divoroed JaequeLu*
and by virtue of this marriage claimed her inheritance, a ;
embarked a considerable force to take possession of it 1\
duke of Bourgogne took up the cause of the Dnke Jeer '
Brabant, gained several advantages over the Bngliah. a: :
took Jacqueline (who had been abandoned by Hanapbr>r> i
prisoner. She escaped ; but afterwards, Duke Jean bctrx
dead, and Duke Humphrey having divoroed her. she | .t
her domains under the administration of the diik# of Bocr^
gogne, to whom, upon her death in 1436, the wbo!e «^ -
scended in full possession. Philippe acquired by be<qut^.
in the same year the county of Namur, and thus becao^
one of the most powerful princes of WeHera Emope.
Various circumstances had tended meanwhile to eaol h %
attachment to the interests of England ; and he had m> -^
than once negotiated openlv or secretly with Charles VU
nay, in 1429 he negotiated a truce for his own proviimr*.
He did not however then entirely abandon the Knglifii. t«
whom his alliance was now more than ever neeeasary, th^ r
own power having much declined ; and he even aeerp(<«.
the olRce of lieutenant-general of the ktogdom* and-:
Henry VI.. the duke of Brafbrd resigning his general au
thority aa regent, and reserving onlv tbe govemmevit .{
Normandy. It was about this time that the dnke of Botir-
gogne instituted the order of the OoMen neeee,oii oeca^t >n
of his marriage at Bruges in Januaiy. 1430. wi^ Isabelle ^:
PbrtuffaL
In the same year. 1430, the dukr took the field on f ^ o
tide of the English, and oaptured several towna in Pinnlv.
On the capture of Compidgne, the Maid of Orleans fell ict
the hands of his followers* her subsequMit ftite it w>-
known. About this time tbe Duke PhQippe engaged a> ^ \
auxiliary in the oontests about the SttoocssioB ec Lommr .
and his troops took R6n6 of Anjou one of the daiaanta r-i-
soner. The death of the duchess of Bedford, aister of P*. •
lippe. in 1 432, weakened the tics whieh bound him to BorU-- -.
and the negotiations of Arras and the death of tho duie
Bedford in 1435 dissolved it. Peace was concluded betw ei :
Charlea VII. and Philippe; the Ibrmer disnirawing t:.-
murder of the Duke Jeau Sans-peur. and promisinir -
punish the murderers, and ceding to the latter setvral d-.-
tricts acQacent to his present domains^ Soow aathocvtin
sUte that the death of the duke of Bedford did not \
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this treaty, but that it was oocasioiied by grief at the bearing
of it.
Upon the peace of Arras the dukeof Bonrgogne assisted
by his troo|w in the recovery of Paris from the English ;
sod in 1436 or 1437 he attacked Calais, which he attempted
unsuccessfully to wrest irom his late allies. Following yean
were occupied by troubles in the Netherlands, where the
contest between the rich burghers of th6 great manufac-
iuriag towns and their feudal lords was continually re-
newed. Philippe was wounded at Bruges, and had great
difficulty in quelling the disturbances.
The year 1440 was distinguished by the closing of the
breach between the houses of Orl&ins and Bourgogne.
Philippe, moved it is supposed by the activity of character
which had been unexpectedly developed by Charles VII.,
and desiring to strengthen himself against it, procured the
release of the duke of Orleans, son of that duke who was
killed in Paris by Jean Sans Peur, and gave him his niece
Maiy of Cleves in marriage.
After a campaign against the people of Luxembourg,
who had disregard^ the authority of their countess, who
was aunt of Philippe, the duke was involved in fresh
troubles in the Low Countries. The people of Ghent re-
volted, decapitated some of the duke's officers, and marched
sgsinst Oudenarde. Successive defeats humbled the high
spirit of these burshers, and negotiations were commenced ;
but the people of Ghent violated the treaty, and the war
sssumed the character of a war of extermination. At length,
in 1451, Philippe defeated the rebels in a great battle ; more
than 20,000 of the vanquished fell by the sword or were
drowned in the Scheldt ; but the clemency of the victor was
displayed in granting easier terms than could be expected.
The Ghentois were severely mulcted and deprived of a part
of their privileges ; but wo do not read that any blood was
shed.
The capture of Constantinople, in 1454, caused a great
sensation in Europe ; and Philippe among others was much
alarmed at the advance of the Ottoman power. At a great
entertainment at Liile, he took a solemn oath that if the
king of France would maintain peace in his dominions, he
would go against the great Turk and engage with him
either in personal or general conflict. The poverty of Phi*
Uppe, the consequence of his magnificence and profusion,
prevented the fulfilment of this vow.
In the troubles which disturbed the latter part of the
reign of Charles VII., the dauphin Louis, afterwards Louis
XI.. took refuge in the dominions of the duke of Bourgogne,
who assigned to the fugitive a handsome maintenance. The
old age of Philippe himself was imbittered by a similar cause
to that which darkened the close of Charles's reij^n — a dis-
sgreement with his son the count of Charollois. This young
prince, whose charscler afterwards obtained for him the epi-
thet of ie timSrodre^ or * the rash,' had many disputes with
bis father, and occasioned him much vexation. A di£fer-
ence with bis former proteg^ the dauphin, who had suc-
ceeded Charles VII., and was now king under the title of
Louis XI.9 occasioned by an attempt on the part of Louis
to extend the gabelle into the dominions of Philippe, and
some fresh troubles in the Low Countries, further imbit-
tered the duke*s declining years. Philippe died at Bruges
in 1467, having governed ue ducal possessions, which ne
bad considerably augmented, for neariy forty-eight years.
He appears to have possessed at the time of his death the
ducby and county of Boursogne (the modem Bourgogne
and Franche Gomt^) ; the duchies of Brabant, Limbourg,
and Luxembourg ; the counties of Hainault, Holland, Zee-
land, and Namur ; Khe mac«|uisate of Antwerp> and the
lordships of Friesland and Mahnes : in a word, nearlyall the
countries now comprehended in the kingdoms of Holland
snd Belgium. He appears to have been a prince of many
shining qualities, the encouraser of learning and of the arts.
He patronised Jean Van Byck of Bruges, the discoverer or
inventor of o^painting, and caused his pictures to be copied
in tapestry ; the only manufactures of which then in exist-
ence were in his dominions. The library of Bruxelles and
the university of Dole seem to have owed their origin to
him. Srasmus regarded Philippe as worthy of comparison
with the greatest men of antiquity ; and Philippe da Co-
mines says, 'His subjects had great riches on account of
the long peace which they had eigoyed, and owing to the
excellence of the prince under whom they lived, one who
flipped (UnUait) hw subjects little ; and it seems to me
that tfaeae lands might better be termed lands of promise
Na.ao6.
then any other lordships which were upon the earth.* Ha
was declared by the general council of Bftle, a. d. 1433»
* First Duke of Christendom.
Charles le Thn^aire, or the Rash, last duke of Bour-
gogne of his race, had distinguished himself by valour, rest-
lessness, and ferocity of character during his fathei**s life-
time. As count of Charollois he had engaged in a league
of the great nobles of France against Louis XI. in 1464.
At the head of this league were Charollois, the duke of
Berri, the king's brother and heir to the throne ; the dukes
of Bretagne, Alencon, and Bourbon ; the bastard of Orleans,
Dunois, who had acquired great reputation in the war
against the English ; and the counts of Foix and Ar-
magnac. They were, it is likely, prompted by apprehen-
sions of the advance of the kingly power, which was fast
verging to an absolute monarchy, and threatened the ex-
tinction of the power of the great nobles ; but they gave to
their alliance the imposing title of the Ligue du bien public^
'League of the public weal.' In this contest Charollois sig-
nalized his valour rather than his military skill in the inde-
cisive battle of Montlhery, a few miles S. of Paris. Louis*
besieged in Paris, and alarmed by unfavourable intelligence
from the provinces, hastened to agree to the demands of the
confederates; and in the treaty of Conflans made large
concessions, which he hoped to revoke at a future oppor*
tunity. During the negotiations he fearlessly trusted himp
self into the encampment of Charollois ; and' Charollois in
return ventured unconsciously within the Boulevards of
Paris. He returned however unharmed, to the great satis-
faction of his folloaers, who had not forgotten the murder
of Jean Sons Peur at the bridge of Montereau. He also
manifested his character in the troubles in the Low Coun-
tries which disturbed the close of his father's life; he
crushed the obstinate resistance of Dinant on the Maas,
and gave up the population to massacre or slavery, and the
town to the flames with the most ruthless ferocity.
In 1467 Charles le T^m^raire succeeded to the duchy of
Bourgogne; and the following year (1468) was marked by
an event, which has, through Sir Walter Scott's interesting
romance of * Quentin Durward/ become familiar to the
English reader, namely, the visit of Louis XI. to Peronne.
By his artifices and negotiations Louis had separated the
confeflerutes who had formed the Ligue du Bien PuUtc^
and had recovered much of what he had been forced to
concede to them : but his most formidable enemy remained
unimpaired in strength and resources, and Louis deter-
minea upon attempting to cajole him by negotiation. With
a show of complete confidence in Charles's honour, he
visited him at Peronne, a town of Picardie, on the Somme,
then in the duke's hands; while by his agents he was
secretly prompting the people of Li6ge to rise against their
bishop, who was under the protection of Charles. By an
unlucky concurrence the rising of the Li^geois took place
while Louis was yet in Charles's power; and when the
intelligence of the rising, with many exaggerations, reached
Peronne, Charles was moved to almost unbounded fury.
It was reported that the bishop of Li^ge, and the duke's
representative, the Sieur d'Hiinbercourt, had been mur-
dered ; and Sir Walter Scott has represented the murder
of the bishop as taking place now, whereas it did not occur
until the year 1482, i^r the death of the duke. Charles
immediately put sentinels over Louis, and after taking
a few days to moderate his rage, he compelled his pri-
soner to swear to a treaty, and to accompany him in an
expedition to punish the revolted Li^eois. The town,
though unprepared for resistance, was obstinately defended
by the burghers, who in a sally had nearly captured both
Charles and Louis ; but alter a few days it was entered by
storm ; the inhabitants, few of whom were killed in the
assault, (which took place on the Sunday, while they placed
an undue reliance on the sanctity of the day,) were driven
away ; and most of them met a lingering death from hunger,
cold, or fatigue, or ftom the peasantry of the neighbouring
countries. The town was burned with the exception of the
rehgious edifices and the houses requisite for lodging the
ecclesiastics who served them. Soon after this, Louis was
permitted to return to Paris.
The following years of Charles's reign were occupied by
the intrigues and counter-intrigues of himself and Louis,
by a brief and fruitiess attack upon France by Edward IV.
of England, who had allied himself with Charles and
with the Constable St. Pol, brother-in-law of Louis. But
Louis managed to buy off the English; and<^t. Pol, who
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sduffht to blm the balance between Bo^irgogne and ¥Vanoe,
by mtriguini? with both the princes, was detected in his
double treachery, and by a compact between the duke and
the king, was delivered up to the latter, who had him tried
and decapitated without delay. During this interval,
(%a^les managed to acquire the landgraviate of Alsace, a
poitsession well calculated to unite his else disjointed pos-
sessions ; and encouraged by the extent of his territories
and his power, he sought to obtain of the Emperor Fre-
derick III. the title of King. The emperor was once on
his way to confer this dignity, when some suspicion caused
him U> retire ; so nearly had this ambitious noble obtained
the regal dignity.
But the close of Charleses career was beset with misfor-
tunes. In the year 1474 he was involved in hostilities with
the emperor of Germany, the Swiss, and his old inveterate
enemy Louis XI. He had raised a mercenary force of
English and Italian adventurers, and the success that had
attended his enterprises for some time had increased his
natural arrogance of temper. He was however compelled
to yield to the pressure of his enemies ; and was glad to
purchase a reconciliation with the emperor. In 1475 he pos-
sess^ himself of the duchy of Lorraine; and in 1476 he
attacked the Swiss, who, though far inferior in numerical
force, defeated him in a battle at Granson, in the Pays de
Vaud, near the S.W. extremity of the L. of Neufchfitel.
Enraged at this disgrace, he assembled a force of 60,000
men, overran the Pays de Vaud, and was a^in defeated
by the Swiss, in a sanguinary battle at Morat, m the canton
of Fribourg. Stung to madness by defeat, by the deser-
tion of his allies and the treachery of his mercenaries, he
again entered Lorraine, and laid siege to Nancy. The
buke of Lorraine, aided by the Swiss, attacked him here,
defeated his small and dispirited army, and Charles him-
self perished in the route. This was in the winter of
X476'77.
The death of Charles le Timiraire extinguished the
male line of the dukes of Bourgogne; and with it the
grandeur and importance of the duchy. Charles had left
an only daughter, Mary, who succeeded to all the domi-
nions of her father out of France. Her right of succession
to Bourgogne itself was disputed by Louis XL, who
afiirmed, that as the duchy had been granted to Philippe
te HarcU as an appanage, it reverted to the crown in default
of male heirs. The states of Bourgogne in an assembly at
Oijon agreed to put themselves under the government of
the king of France, stipulating for the observance of their
rights and privileges. The rapacious Louis also wrested
Artois and Franche Comt6 from the orphan duchess ; and
even while negotiating a marriage between her and his
son, the Dauphin, afterwards Charles VIIL, he occasioned
by his treacherous intrigues a rising of the people of Ghent,
which led to the massacre, after a formal trial, of two of
Mary's ministers. Disgusted by the treachery of Louis,
Mary accepted the proposals of marriage made to her by
Maximilian, king of the Romans, son of the Emperor Fre-
derick III. Thus the Flemish possessions of the dukes of
Bourgogne passed to the house of Austria, to the Spanish
branch of which they descended. A war between Maxi-
milian and Louis enaed in the treaty of Arras, a.d. 1482,
by virtue of which Margaret, daughter of Maximilian and
Mary of Bourgogne, was betrothed to the Dauphin, and
sent to be educated at the court of France. Artois and
Franche Comt^, now held by Louis, were to form her
dower, but to be restored in case the marriage did not
take effect Flanders recognized the sovereignty of the
French king, but preserved its privileges ; and Bourgogne
remained annexed to France. Mary of Bourgogne died
shortly after this (in 1483), leaving, beside her daughter
Margaret, already mentioned, one son, Philippe, who mar-
ried Joanna of Castile, heiress of Ferdinana and Isabella,
by whom he had a son Charles, afterwards Uie Emperor
Charies V.
The title of Duke of Bourgogne has been since borne by
different branches of the royal family of France.
Those possessions of the ducal house of Bourgogne which
descended to Charles V., the Low Countries and Franchd
Cornt^, were erected in 1548 into a circle of the empire,
under the title of the circle of Burgundy.
(Plancher, IlUtoire de Bourgogne; Gtare^a, DeKcrip-
iion du Gouvernement de Bourgogne ; Barante, Histutre
deiDuce de Bourgogne, &c. ; Hallam's Middle Ages ; Ilis-
tory o/Fronce, published by the Society for the Dxffasion i
of tlsefVil Know1edg;e; Bmytoli Dieiiomff, enlngod by
Bernard and others, Lond., 1735.)
BOURGOGNE, CANAL DB, one oT die moat ia.
portant of the can. of Prance, and a portion of that syaiem uf
mland navigation by which it ia proffosed to ootineet the
Seine with the Rhine. This can. (whiek it eEther yvt un-
finished, or has been completed enlv lately) fa ini»MM to
open a communication between the Yoane (a fcedfer of tho
Seine) and the SaOne. It commenoea in the Yonne, near
the place where the Aniian90n fills into that riv.« ar.fl
follows a course narallel to that of the Arman^on to th«
neiehbourhood of MotHbard ; after a circuit it retuma airn.n
to the Arman^on, and runs side by side with that viv. u% tfs
source. It is carried by a tunnel nearly i n. loni^, under
the chain of hills which separates the basinaoft^ Se:ne
and Sadne ; and fbllowing nearly the coarse of the Ouch^,
joins the Sadne near St. Jean de Losne. Its enlire lencth
is 120 to 130 m. By thus uniting the Seine and SaAno it
opens the navigation from the Channel to tlie Mediter*
ranean ; and bv means of th^ Canal de M ontieiir, whxh
communicates from the Sadne to the Rhine, it opens the
navigation from the Channel and the Seine to tlw Rhm.*.
It is comprehended in the departments of Youie and Cf»te
d'Or.
BOURGOINa, JEAN FRANgOIS. BARON DK,
was descended from a noble house, not unknown in thi*
history and literature of France. One member of the HmA\ ,
Edroond de Bourgoing, prior of a monastery of Jaoobm« at
the time of the Ligue^ eulogized the regicide Jacobin Jarqurt
Clement, declaimed and fought oirainst Henri IV., and u *i
sentenced, by the parliament of Tours, to be torn to p^iu-^*
by four horse!*. Noel, Jean, and two Francois d« Ito^r-
going, have since successively published works, now forsr -t
ten, upon history, finance, jurisprudence, philology, -.i<J
divinity. Jean j^ran^ois, the subject of the present 'artir4«-
was born at Nevers, a.d. 1748. At the age of twenty Ik
quitted the army for diplomacy, and waa insmediAtely' cm-
ployed as Secretary of Legation. In that capacity, in tr*
year 1777, he accompanied M. deMontmonn, the Frrrtrh
Ambassador to the court of Spain, to Madrid, where he n*-
sided nine years, for the last two as Charge ttJfittrsrf
During this period he diligently colleoted infomation re -•
tive to the condition of Spain, political, statistical and mv ..i.
which, upon his return to France, he embodied in his > % •
veau Voyage en Espagne, ou Tableau de tSUai artiA '
de cette Monarchie, published in 1 789, and then esteem. •'.
the best work extant upon Spain. In 1791 Bouiif{oinar r<*-
turning to Spain as minister plenipotentiary, remain **
there until 1793, when he collected additional materiaU f*-
his book, of which a second edition, thus enlarged, appca*>('«i
in 1 797. Third and fourth editions, with aucoesSre additt n«
of new information, bringing down the picture of Spain t'.
later dates, appeared in 1803 and 1807, under the n(k» <'i
Tableau de TEspagne Modeme, It is upon this wT>r^
which has been translated into the Enghsh, Gemnn. a**!
Spanish languages at least, that the Baron deBonrgoirL- «
claims to notice rest. He lived retired, from the time o\^*
quitting Spain until Bonaparte assumed the govemin«>nt f
France, when he was again employed in sevml diptoma: <•
missions, and died, a.d. 1811, as French envoy lo 8axoii\.
His other works are Memoires Hietoriquee ei PAtM**-
phiques eur Pie VL et eon Pontiflcai ; Carrmpomd.inr'r
d un jeune MiHtaire, ou Mhnoires du Marqme 4e Lmevr*' 7
et d'Hortense de S. Just; some translations fnat the Ger-
man, and some articles fti the Bhgraphie Vntwet^t*'^.
(A Ugemeine Deutsche Beai EncyelopiUlie; Bi^^grapkw Cw-
verselle ; Biographie Contemporaine,}
BOURIGNON, ANTOIlffiTTB, was a<
gious enthusiast, and founder of a sect which
much importanOe that, under the name of the BcorigDvftn
Doctrine, it is to (his day one of the liereaiea iwnognwd > w
candidates for holy Orders in the Chnreh of SeeUand. Sth^
was the daughter of a Lille merchant, and was harm is t!*c
vear 16 16, so singularly ugly that a Ikmily conattttaHoQ « : »
held upon the propriety of destroying the tnlkm as a tn:*-^ -
ster. This fkte she escaped, but remained an object of ?:•>-
like to her mother, rn consequence of which hct childhp^ -1
was nassed in solitude and neglect, and th^ tni books ^^ii^
got hold of chancing to be ' Lives of the eariy CiniUttfi««
and mystical tracts, her ardent imagination w^uired t^<>
visionary tnm that marked her life. It baa been ttteftv^t
that her religious seal displayed itself ao early, tiwt at te.*
years of age she entreated to beraBM^ad HtLfumfClm^
Digitize )OQTf
sou
891
BOW
<ian toanirf tkui LiBe^ wbere tli« im«T«ngelical li^es of
the townspeople shocked her.
As AntoinettQ was a eonsiderahle hehvss her deformity
did not preTent her bein^ sought in marriage ; and when she
retched her twentieth year one of her suitors was accepted
by her parents. But the enthusiast had made a tow of vir-
ginity, and on the very day appointed for celebrating her
nuptials she fled in man's clothes. She now obtain^ ad-
mittance into a convent, where she first began to make
proselytes, and gained over so many of the nuns that the
confessor of the sisterhood procured her expulsion not only
from the convent but from the town. Antoinette now
wandered about France, the Netherlands, Holland and Den-
mark, every where making converts, and supporting herself
by the labour of her han£ until the year 1648, when she
inherited her fother s property. She was then appointed
governess of an hospital at Lille, but soon afterwards was
expelled the town by the police, on account of the disorders
that her doctrines occasioned. She then resumed her wan-
derings. About this time she was again persecuted with
suitors, two of whom were so violent, each severally threat-
ening to kill her if she would not marry him, that she was
obliged to apply to the police for protection, and two men
were sent V> guard her house. She died in 16 BO, and left
her property to the Lille hospital of which she had been
governess.
She taught that the true church was extinct and Go<l
had sent her to restore it She allowed no Liturgy, worship
being proDer\y internal. Her doctrines were highly mysti-
cal, and she required an impossible degree of perfection
from her disciples. She is said to have been extraordinarily
eloquent, and was at least equally diligent, for she wrote
twenty-two bulky volumes, most of which were printed at a
private press that sho carried about with her for the pur-
pose. After her death Poiret, a mystical Protestant divine,
and a disciple of the Cartesian philosophy, wrote her life,
and reduced her doothnes into a regular system. {Alge-
meine Deutuehe Real Encydopddie ; Biog, Univ.; Chal-
mers s Biographical Dictionary,)
BOURN, or BURN. [K^stbvbn, Lincolnshire.]
BOUSSAC, a town in France, in the dep. of Creuse, and
capital of one of the arrond. into which that dep. is divided.
It is upon the River Petite Creuse, about 174 m. nearly S.
of Paris, 40«> 21' N. lat. 2° 12' E. long.
' Bous^iic,* says M. Malte Brun, ' the least populous of all
the chief towns (whether of arrond. or dep.) of France,
2>tunds on a rock almost inaccessible to carriages ; sur-
rounded by walls flanked with towers, commanded by an
antient castle crowned with battlements, from whence the
eye looks down upon a pass formed by mountains of arid
and wild asfiect ; this place is the most desolate abode that
can be imagined.* The pop. of the town is omitted in the
returns for 1832, given with the last edition of Malte Brun :
by a previous census (we believe that of 1826) it was 757.
The arrond. of Boussac contained, in 1832, 36,738 inh.
BOUSSU. [Hainault.I
BOUSTROPHE'DON. [Alphabet, p. 382.]
BOUT£RWEK« FRIEDRICH, a Gterman metaphysi-
cian, professor of moral philosophy at the University of (^t-
tingen, is chiefly esteemed for his ' History of Modem Lite-
rature/ He was bom in the year 1 766, at an iron foundery
near Goslar, and completed his studies at CJottingen. He was
educated for the law, but was diverted from his legal pursuits
by the charms of lighter literature. At an early age he pub-
lished several poems and a novel, ' Graf Donamar,' which is
said to give a good picture of Gkrman life; but at the age of
25, being struck with a sense of the insufliciency of such
occupation as the business of life, he devoted himself to me-
taphysics as a disciple of the then reigning masters. Rant
and Jacobi. He was in consequence appointed to the chair of
moral philosophy at Crottingen in 1 797. Both in his lectures
and in his metaphysical writings, he has ably expound^
the doctrines of the above-nametl philosophers; but has
produced nothing brilliantly new or original. His literary
reputation rests upon his ' Greschichle der Neuera Poesie
unci Beredsamkeiv in 12 volumes 8vo.» published in 1801.
This work contains separate critical histories of the Belles
Lettres of Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, England and
Crermany, from the revival of letters to the close of the 18th
century, and is still reckoned one of the best books that
Germaiiy has produced in this kind. It is not however to be
nuitc implioitly relied upon, especiaUy in the earlier volumes ;
the aatodir etraer improved as he proceeded, or laboured
with iMartier good will upon English and Gearman litem^
tore. Portions of Bouterwek' s work have been translated
into French and English. Professor Bouterwek died on
the 8th of August, 1828. {AUgemeine DeiUsche Real Enr
eyclopadie; (Seechichte der Neuem Poeeie und Beredsam'
keit)
BOUVIGNES, a town and comm. in the distriot of
Dinant, and prov. of Namur, is situated on the left bank
of the Maas, 12 m. S. of Namur and about one mile
N.N.W. from Dinant, of which Bouvignes is a kind of
suburb, in 50° 17' N. lat., and 4'' 53' E. long.
Bouvignes, which was formerly a well-peopled place, car-
rying on a considerable trader is now a very inconsiderable
town, having mther the aspect of a village, and oontains
only 161 houses and 779 inhabitants. The town has a
church, two chapels, a town -hall, an hospital, a prison, and
a commercial school, in which 68 children are instmcted.
The commune contains two iron founderies, a pottery, two ra-
fineries of salt, and tliree breweries.
The castle of Bouvignes was in existence -in the seventh
century. In the ninth century it was sacked and burnt by
the Normans. In 1110a fort was built by Godfrey, Count
of Namur, on the side of the hill by which the town is com-
manded. In 1 1 76 the town was surrounded by walls, and
twelve years afterwards was besieged and taken by the
Count of Hainault. At the beginning of the 1 4th oentury
the inhabitants of Bouvignes and Dinant were stimulated
by commercial jealousy to make war upon each other, and it
was during the continance of these hostilities that the fertress
of Creve-cceur was built by the inhabitants of Bouvignes.
Only the ruins of a part of this fort now remain : they are
renoered memorable by the heroic death, in 1554, of three
females when the town was taken by the French. These
women, having seen their husbands killed during the siege,
threw themselves from the rocks rather than ikll into the
hands of the enemy. On this occasion the bravery of the
defenders of the town was ill reciuited by the conquerors ; the
inhabitants, who were not killea during the siege or in th^
assault, were hanged.
Bouvignes was ravaged by the plague in 1262, in 1908, in
1478, and in 1 579. It was exposed to a very disastrous in-
undation of the River Maas in 1480. {Diet Oiog. de la
Prov. de Nttmur, par Vandermaelen ; Recueil^ ^. par V.
der M. ; Gautiei^s ybyageur.)
BOU VINES, a vil. of France, in the neighbourhood of
Lille, dep. of Nord, remarkable only for a great battle
fought here in the year 1214. between the emperor Otho IV.
and his aUies, the counts of Flanders, Boulogne, and otheis,
on the one hand, and Philippe Auguste, king of France, on
the other. The forces were about equal, and by no means
so numerous as the estimates of some historians would
make them. The rival monarchs distinguished themselves
by their valour; and after a hard contest the victory re-
mained with Philippe. Otho fled, and the counts of Bos-
logne, Flanders, and others, were taken prisoners.
BOW. [Archery.]
BOW, in music, a machine used for drawing out the
sounds from — t. e. for playing on — stringed instruments of
the violin kind. The bow consists of— 1. the stick, whidi
should be of hard elastic wood, Braxil wood being generally
used for the purpose ; 2. of from eighty to a hundred horse-
hairs ; and 3. of a nut regulated by a screw, b^ which more
or less tension is given to the hairs. The violin bow was
very short in Corelli*s time, but gradually increased in
length, till Viotti, whose dictum in whatever concerned his
instrument was received as law, fixed it at twenty-eight
inches. The violoncello bow is larger and stronger. That
for the double-bass is short and strong, and the tttok is
bent, forming something like the segment of a circle, of
which the hairs when stretched are the chord.
BOW ISLAND (HE-OW), the largest of the ooral
islands in the Dangerous Archipelago, was discovered by
Bougainville in 1768, who gave it the name of La Harpe
it was visited in the following year by Cook, who gave it
the present name. Its figure however bears little resem-
blance either to a harp or a how. It lies N.W. and 8.E.,
is very irregular in shape, and 30 miles in length, with an
average breadth of five. The form is the same as that of
other coral islands, confining within a low narrow band of
coral; about a quarter of a mile wide, a spacious lagoon
studded with knolls, and an average depth of about 120
feet between them. The windward (eastern) side is higher
than the other, which, with the exception of » few T
Digitized by
2P2
i'
BOW
292
BOW
•if tre«i and hea|» of sand, is little more than a reef, over
which tiie sea washes into the lake ; but there is no passage
even for a boat, except in one spot which may be entered by
a laree ship. Tins opening Ues at the north end of the
island, and is only 115 feet broad irom reef to reef, with a
coral knoll in the centre. When, owing to the heavy surf
breaking over the reef into the lake, the latter has attained
a higher level than the ocean, the water rushes out through
the opening, sometimes at the rate of four miles an hour,
causing overfalls which would be very dangerous to boats.
Within the lagoon the anchorage is perfectly secure ;
the bottom is generally of a fine white sand. Water
may be procured by digging through the sand into the
coral rock, and at the depth of four feet it was found
to dow into the wells as fast as casks oould be filled.
In this manner the Blossom obtained ten tuns a day, which
proved tolerably good, though it does not keep so well as
spring water ; it was found to be impregnated with muriate
of soda and magnesia. Wood may also be procured, chiefly
of the pemphis acidula, of a dark- red colour, and very hard ;
there are also cocoa-nut, palm, and pandanus trees. The
lagoon abounds in shell- fish, particularly of the pearl oyster
kind. A brig belonging to the Australian Pearl Company,
which had brought a number of divers from Chain Island for
the purpose, procured sometimes 1 700 a day, but they did
not yield well, being mostlv of the seed kind.
The island is inhabited by about a hundred persons, living
in miserable huts: they are an indolent ill-looking race,
with broad flat noses, sunk eyes, thick lips, the mouths
turned down at the comers, wrinkled countenances, and
long bushy hair matted with dirt and vermin. Their sta-
ture is above the middle sise, but they are generally crooked ;
their limbs are long, muscles flaccid, and their only covering
is the maro round the waist. Hideous however as the men
were, the women presented a still more revolting appear-
ance: they are obliged to labour hard for the men in
collecting shell-fish ou the reefs, and the pandanus nuts,
which, with other fish caught by hook and line, and the
cocoa-nuts, is their only diet They have a few rudely-made
canoes. The number of house-ilies is quite incredible :
the young children lying ndied on mats become so covered
with them that it is difficult to discover any part of their skin.
There is a chief, called Areghe, among them, who appa-
rently maintains his rank by his superior bodily powers.
They appear to have been cannibals; but the bodies of ene-
mies, of those who die violent deaths, and of murderers who
have SttlTered, were the only subjects selected for these
feasts. They still show a partiality for raw food, in which
state they devour flsh, or turtle which are sometimes
found on the shore.
Every man has his own deity, of which the most com-
mon is a piece of wood with a tuft of hair attached to it ; or
the thigh bone of an enemy, which is considered more
efficacious than the wood. This is suspended to a tree,
and to it they address their pravers. Polygamy is usual ;
and they appear to believe in the transmigration of souls.
The bodies of the dead are wrapped in mats and buried,
with provisions and water placed near, as it is belie%*ed that
the soul for a time frequents the spot The manufactures
are mats, maros, baskets, fishing-hooks of the mother-of-
pearl, lines, &c. The entrance to the lake lies in 18° 4^^ S.
lat, 140^67' W. long.
(Beechey's Voyage to the Parific and Behrwg*9 Straits,)
BOWDICH, TliOMAS EDWARD, was the son of a
merchant of Bristol, where he was born in 1790. His father
at first intended to educate him for the bar, but, much against
his own wishes, it was eventually arranged that he should
engage in trade. On being admitted, while still very young,
a junior partner in his father's house, he married ; but, after
a struggle uf some years, both with his own inclinations,
and with want of success, he entered himself at Oxford,
where he only remained for a very short time. By the in<
terest of his uncle, Mr. J. Hope Smith, the govemor-in-
chief of the settlements belonging to the African Company,
he obtained a writership in that service, and proceeded to
Cape Coas: Castle in 1814. About two years afterwards he
returned far a short time to England » when he was appointed
by the Company to conduct a mission to the King of the
Ashantees ; but on his arrival at Cape Coast Castle it was
thought by his uncle and the council there that he was too
young to go at the head of the mission, and Mr. James,
the governor of the fort of Accra, was put in his place.
[Abbantkis.]
While the party was at Coomasaie» the capital of
Ashantee, Mr. Bowdich, with the eoncorrenoe of the othrr
subordinate members of the mission, superseded Mr. Jamc^,
and took the management of the negotiation into his own
hands. His conduct was afterwards approved by the
authorities at Cape Coast CasUe ; but its propriety hat
since been strongly questioned by Mr. Dupuis (in his
Journal of a Renidence in Ashantee, 4to, 1824). After re-
turning from this embassy, Mr. Bowdich again visited
England; and in 1819 he published at London, in a 4 to
volume, his account of the remarkable people among whom
he had been, under the title of ' A Mission to Asbantn*.'
Soon after the publication of this work, whi^ was r\ad
with great avidity, the author proceeded to Paris ; and m
this city he appears to have resided for some years* nrove-
cuting his studies, principally in the mathematirai and
natural sciences, which he had neglected in his youths H«
now also published a pamphlet in exposure of the system
pursued by the African Company in the manasement oi
their possessions, which is understood to have induced the
government to take these settlements into its own hmntU
This was followed by a translation, with notes, from (he
French, of a 'Treatise on Taxidermy,* to whkh he did not
put his name. He afterwards pubhshed, in meoession* the
following works:—* A Translation of Travels, by MiAlicn,
to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia ; * an Appendix
to the above, under the title of 'British and French Expe-
dition to Teembo, with Remarks on Civilization, &c. ; an
' Essay on the Geography of North Western Africa , * an
* Essay on the Superstitions, Customs, and Arts, comxn^o
to the Antient Egyptians, Abyssinians, and Athanlers ; '
three works, illustrated with lithographic figures, on Matn-
malia, on Birds, and on Shells ; a Memoir, entitled * The
Contradictions in Park's last Journal Explained ; * and a
'Mathematical Investigation, with Original Formulae, f-T
ascertaining the Longitude of the Sea bv Eclipses of t?.«-
Moon.' These titles are from the Life of the Author in tl'.
Annual Biography and Obituary, where no daU'« an
assigned to any of them. With the assistance of a fru :.«:.
and the money which he had realized by his publicatiu:i%.
Mr. Bowdich. in August, 1822, set out for Africa, in purxu-
ance of a wish which he had constantly cherished of dcrrot.T •;
himself to the exploration of that continent He had ul..^
however reachefl the nioiith of the Gambia, aocompanici *i»
his wife, when he wns attacked by fever, under which* afur
several partial recoveries, he expired on the lOthof Janusri.
1 8*24. In the same year was published from bis papc -s
(8vo., London,) 'An Account of the Discoveries of tin? P-.--
tiigucse in Angola and Mozambique,' the materials .(
which he had principallv collected at Lisbon on his b%:
journey ; and in 1825, his widow, since Mrs. Lee, p.S-
lished in 4 to. ' Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo. Ai:r.
by the late T. E. Bowdich, Esq. ; to which are added i
Narrative of Mr. Bowdich's last Voyage to Africa; Rr-
marks on the Cape de Verde Islands ; and a I>e»rr>(>th n
of the English SettlemenU on the Uiver Gambia ; t •
Mrs. Bowdich.' {Annual Biography and Obitttary 0*^
1825 (in this account tieveral of the dates are palpab.v
wrong); Literary Gazette for 1824, p. 187, \ihere il j
stated that Mr. Bowdich was born in June, 1 793.)
BOWYER, WILLIAM, the son of a printer of con.>-
derable eminence, who published many of the most distin-
guished theological, antiquarian, and scholastic works whi h
appeared during the reigns of William and Mar}*, Anne«
and George the First ; a period often, and not witKout pn>-
priety, denominated the Augustan Age of En^tah lit^ ni-
ture ; for of the numerous writers, few exhibit originaJ ;:r-
nius ; the rest merely imitating, with more or less accurtin
and elegance, the authors of Antient Rome, as they, «r;t*i
similar servility, imitated the Greeks. Among the iii>i:%^
who emploved the press of the elder Bowyer, whoee n-n-
was also William, may be noticed Derham, Pridciut.
Wake, King* Sherlock, Bull, Whitby, Hickes. Staiib >pr.
Clarke, and Hoadly. The respect which his cham*.:
commanded is shown by the fact that, having lo6t, m .
accidental fire, the whole of his property, above 15''<».
were raised by a general subscription to reinstate b.x£
in his business. William, his son, was bom in Load •:.
December 19, 1699, in Dogwell-court White Priarv. H-
was educated at Headley in Surrey, in a private acad- : i
conducted by a respectable scholar, Ambrose Bonwicke, B Li.
of Oxford, a non-juring Jacobite clergyman, eje«led« on &c-
count of hit nonoontomty» fiom tlM, h«>d BMMtunbip «tf
Digitized by VnOOQlC
^ow
293
BOW
Merclitnt T»yIoiV Sebool. Bow]fer wai entered, in June,
1716, a tixar of St. John's College, Cambridge; where he
formed an intimate friendship with several eminent indivi-
duals, whose services at a kiter period contributed to his
Sputation and prosperity, more particularly with Jeremiah
arkland* and the learned numismatic scholar, the Rev.
IV m. Clarke; with these two lellow-studente a congenial
mind, and similarity of stttdiea, occasioned an intimacy
which continued throughout the rest of their lives. Al-
though he remained at college beyond the period required
for graduating, he returned to share in his fathers business
without having taken his degree. At the close of the year
1721, during which he had been closely employed in the
correction of proofs, he became a partner with his father,
who in future superintended the mercantile and mechanical
portion of the business, while the literary and critical de-
partment was assigned to himself. In his first year of ofllce,
as corrector of the press, he received from Maittaire a most
flattering compliment, contained in the preface to his ' Mis-
cellanea GrsDoorum Carmina, 4to.* Hift predilection for
archa)ological and philological subjects was evinced in the
peculiar attention which ne bestowed upon the correction
of every work of this kind. Of the costly and classical
works which, throughout a period of 55 years, possessed
the advantage of bearing the signature 'Typis Bowyer,'
we can notice only a very few. For a complete chronological
list of them, as well as ibr a great variety of information
concerning the authors and the printer, we refer to the well-
known voluminous work of his partner and successor, en-
tilled * Literary Anecdotes of the 18ih Century, comprising
Memoirs of William Bowyer, Printer, FS.A., and many of
his learned Friends, by John Nichols, F.S.A.,* in 9 vols. 8vo.,
of which the 7th forms an elaborate index, and 6 supple-
mental vols, complete the work. As the press of B. was
corrected by himself with a critical ability possessed by no
other printer of his time, it was chiefly pr^erred for works of
learning. But typographical accuracy was far from being
the sole object of B. : he exercised a searching criticism
upon the subject matter and language of the most learned
works which he printed; supplied numerous notes, sug-
gested emendations, wrote prefaces, made indexes, and m
various ways increased their value. As specimens the fol-
lowing will suffice :— • Seldeni Opera Omnia,' collected by
Wilkins, 3 vols. foL, 1 726. Of the learned dissertetion * De
Synedriia et Prsefecturis Juridicis Veterum Ebnsorum,*
which occupies all the 2nd vol., a very judicious epitome was
made by B., while he rapidly examined the last proofs. It
exhibite, in 28 pages of English, the substauce of 1 ISO folio
pages of rugged Latin, profusely garnished with Hebrew,
Greek and Arabic In a review of ' Reliquim Baxterianoe,*
a work replete with curious grammatical erudition, contain-
ing Glossarium Antiquitatum Brit, temporibua Romano-
ruD)« Bowyer displayed an intimate acquaintance with
the subject ; the same with the ' Leges WalUcce Eccle-
si» Hywel Dda, by Dr. Wotton, 1730; and Chiahull's
* Antiouitates Asiatics,' fol. 1732. On this learned work
he made 28 quarto pages of * additions and corrections.* To
the 6th edition of Lyttleton's Latin Die, 1735, he made a
large addition of words collected in the course of his reading.
The * Greek Lexicon' of Schrevelius received the same im-
provement in passing through his press in 1774. That of
Hederic, the Hebrew Lexicon of Buxtorf, the Latin one by
Faber, and Bailey's English Die. he similarly enlarged and
corrected. In publishing, in 1 750, Bladen s English ver-
sion of * Caaar's Commenteries,' he added numerous learned
notes, in which alone consists all the worth of the book. He
printed at the same time, on his own account, ' Kiister de
vero usu verb, med.,' to which he aflixed some critical re-
marks and a preface in Latin. He supplied also an elabo-
rate preface, with numerous notes and corrections tea trans-
lation, in 1 759, of * Montesquieu's Grandeur of the Romans.*
On the * Life of Cicero,' by Dr. Middleton, he wrote a mas-
terly oommentary, in which, without any assumption of
superior learning, he rectifies many mistakes. As a sup-
I^ement to the work of his friend, William Clarke, * The
Connexion of Roman, Saxon and English Coins,' 4to^ he
wrote * Remarks on Greek and Roman Money,* which, with
*^»oteson Kennett's Roman Antiquities,* and 'Remarks
on Roman History,* exhibit, for that time, an accurate and
extensive knowledge of classical archODology. The whole of
these commentaries, irith many more, including * Papers on
5tepbens*s Thesaurus,* and a learned disquisition on ' The
'east of the Saxon Yule.* are aeparalely printed in a large,
and now extremely scarce vol. in 4to., published in 1785,
by Mr. Nichols, entitled ' Miscellaneous Tracto by the latu
Wm. Bowyer.* There yet remain in MS., inserted in mar-
gins, and interleaved copies of his &vourite works, notes in
great numbers, especially in Leigh's * Critica Sacra,' Du
raid's ' Lexicon Grsaci Test,* and many of the Greek and
Latin classics. Among the multitude of sumptuous folios,
and illustrated works which he printed, the followinzi as
specimens of typographical beauty, may be selected ; ' Mat-
tbffii Parker Cant. Arch, de Antiq. Brit. Eocles.,' fol. 1729.
Vertot's ' Knights of Malta,* 2 vols. fol. 1728. ; Ma'ittaire's
' Mormorum Arund. Inscript,' fol. 1 732 ; Churchill's * Voy-
ages and Travels,* 6 vols. fol. 1 732 ; Pococke's * Descrip-
tion of the East,' 3 vols, fol., 1 743 ; the • Coptic Pentateuch,*
by Dr. Wilkins, 1731 ; ' Lysiio Orationes,* by Dr. Taylor,
2 vols. 4to., 1739. B. published, in 1766, ' The Origin of
Printing, consisting of. — 1st., Dr. Middteton's Diss, on its
origin in Eng. ; 2nd., Moorman's account of its invention at
Haarlem, with numerous notes and corrections.* Although
the result of more recent bibliographical researches has en-
tirely discredited the legend about Laurentius Coster at Haar-
lem, the learned illustrations which B. has given to his pub-
lication must always render it one of the most important on
the subject But the reputation of Bowyer has been most ex-
tended by his * Critical Conjectures on the New Testament,'
which in part were published in the 2nd vol. of his ed. of the
Greek text, of which the title in full is ' Novum Testamentum
Groecum, ad fidem Grmcorum solum Codicum MSS., nunr
primum expressum, adstipulante Joanne Jocobo Wetstenio
juxta aectiones Jo. Alberti Bengelii diviium; etnova inter-
punctione ssopius illustratum : accessere in oltero voluuiine
Emendationes Coi^euturales virorum doctorum undecunque
collectm. Cura, typis, et sumtibus Gulielmi Bowyer ;' 2 vols.
1 2mo., 1 763. * This,' says Dr. Harwood, in the appendix of
his own edition, ' is a valuable Greek Tcstement ; Mr. Bowyer
is an excellent Greek scholar, and it is to be feared will be
the last learned printer in England.* In Le Long's Biblio-
theca Sacra, ed. ab Masch, tom. i., p. 246, it is highly ap-
proved, and the auQior is said to be ' vir doctus, et Stephano-
rum tum in arte suti, tum in Graocarum litterarum scientiii
mmulus.* The pre&ident and fellowa of Harvard University,
in Massachusetts, in returning thanks in 1 768, for a pre-
sentation copy, say, ' The very accurate editions of many
erudite authors, published under your inspection, assure us of
the greatness* of your merit as a learned editor. Your very
curious edition of the Greek Testament with critical notes,
and many happy conjectures, especially ae to punctuation,
an affair of the utmost importance in ascertaining the sense,
we esteem as a rich treasure of learning, and of more in-
trinsic value than many large volumes of the commentetors.*
The altfurations propose<l by Wetetein are inserted in the
text of Bowver. In the 2nd vol. a catelogue is given of the
readings of Wetetein which are at variance with the text
of Mill, or, which is the same thing, that of the 3rd edition
of R. Stephens; excepting the Apocalypse, in which the
variations were found to Im too many and too great (tot ae
tant») to be included. The words proposed to be^ without
substitution of others, omitted, as Rom. iv. final ver., 1 John
v. 7 and 8, are inclosed within parentheses. A critical
account of this edition is given in the Bibliotheca Theologiea
of Emestus, tom. vi. p. 867, and in Mtchaelis, Einleitmig,
vol. i. p. 664, et se^. (in the translation of Bishop Marsn,
Introduction* vol. iiO ' Many obseurities in the Greek text
are owing,* says Michaelis, p. 516, * to an improper position
of pointo : in collecting the opinions of the learned on pune-
tuation, Bowyer has acted very judicu)us]y, and rendered
his work indispensable to the commentator and the critic'
But after the assertion, p. 395, that ' a collection of critical
conjectures may be of great use in esteblishing the text of
the Greek Testement : and that such is the work published
by Bowyer, a learned London printer ; a work classical in ite
kind, to which the remarks of future critics will be annexed :*
it is stoted, with apparent inconsistency, in the folkiwing
page, that ' of the several hundreds of critical eonjeotures
which Bowyer has produced there is hardlv one which, after
an impartial examination, will be found to be probable.* An
enlarged and improved edition of the 'Conjectures* was
published in 1772. It was translated into (Serman by the
professor of Theology and Oriental Literature at Leipxig,
Dr. Schulz. A 3rd edition appeared in 1 782 ; and the 4tn
and best in 1812, in 4to. As it fum&hes the palest
evidence of Bowyer's erudition and critical sagacity, we
subjoin at length ite title * — * Critical Conjectures uii Oh-
Digitized by
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BOY
294
BOY
terr&tions on tbe New Testament, collected fttim Taiioof
authors, as well in regard to words as to pointing, with thp
reasons on which both are founded : by William Bowyer,
Bp. Barrington, Mr. Markland, Prof. Schulz, Prof. Michaelis,
Dr. Owen. Dr. Woide, Dr. Gosset, and Mr. Weston.' It
contains a large and excellent engraving of Bowyer. In 1 729
he was appointed, by the Speaker of the House of Commons,
to the lucrative office of printer of thp votes. The Society of
Antiquaries, in 1 736, appointed him their printer ; and the
subjects of their researches beine those in which he most
delighted, he constantly attended their meetings, and made
many valuable communications. He was also, at the same
time, appointed printer to the Society for the Encourage-
men<t of Learning, of which he was a zealous promoter, in
conjunction with many of the first scholars of the age. On
the death of his father, in 1737, he became sole proprietor
of the Bowyer press. Through the patronage of Lord Mac-
clesfield he was appointed printer in 1760 to the Royal
Society; and the Earl of Marchmont, in 1767, procured
his appointment to print the Rolls of the House of Lords and
the Journals of the House of Commons. In the same year
he moved from Whitefriars, where he had spent 67 years,
to more capacious premises in Red Lion Passage, Fleet-
street, where he displayed a bust of the Roman Orator, with
the inscription, * M. T. Cicero, k quo primordia preli,' in
allusion to the early impression of the Liber de Omciis, by
Fust, in 1465. He also assumed the professional title of
Architectus Verborum (vide Cic, de Clar, Orat, c. 31);
and conti|;!iued, until he arrived on the verge of 80, to correct
all the Greek works which he printed. His long career of
incessant application to study and business was terminated
by the publication, in 1777, of his edition of Bentley's Dis-
sertation on the Epistle of Phalaris. He had always mani-
fested a great veneration for Mhe mighty scholiast,* and
augmented his Dissertation with numerous remarks collected
by himself from the works of Markland, Upton, Lowth,
Owen, Clarke, Warburton, and Dr. Salter, Master of the
Charter-House School, who is responsible for its whimsical
system of spelling, as saught, re tein, disdain, reproch, &c.
In the same year, on the 1 8th of November, at the age of
78, Bowyer died, and was interred at Low Leighton, in
Essex. In his will he left considerable sums to indigent
printers. His epitaph, by the Rev. Edward Clarke, do-
scribes him truly as ' Typographorum post Stephanos et
Commelinos longe doctissimus ; linguarum Lntino), GrsocsD,
et HebraicsB pentissimus.' There were indeed, at this time,
several celebrated printers, as Baskervillc of Birmingham,
Foulis of Glasgow, and Crapelet of Paris ; but Bowyer, as
to erudition and critical accuracy, was unrivalled by any of
his profession in England or on the Continent, during more
than half a century. Among the numerous individuals of
literary eminence with whom he maintained a learned cor-
respondence, or an intimate personal friendship, were
Archbishop Seeker, Bishops Lowth, Hurd, Warburton,
Pearce, Sherlock, Clayton, Pococke, Atterbury ; Drs. VVot-
ton. Chandler, Whiston, Taylor, Prideaux, Jortin. Conyers
Middleton ; Pope and Thompson ; Garrick. Lord Lyttleton ;
Dr. Mead, Gough. ChishuU, Clarke, Ainsworth, De Missy,
Markland. Maiitaire and Palairet, who in nis Latin letters
salutes him as ' vir doctissime et carissime.' Although ' a
true Jacobite son of the Church,* he manifested a most
charitable disposition. In his remarks, for instance, on the
Emiwror Julian, of whose life bv Bleterie he published, in
1746, a imnslation, with learned notes by himself, he says,
• It is one of the hardest things in nature to give to an
enemy the praise he deserves — the idea of apostate is sup-
posed to be inconsistent with every virtue ; and the man
who has rejected the Christian religion is thought to have
abandoned humanity.* He was greatly admired and re-
spected by the author of the noted Ariaii • Essay on Spirit,'
Biiihop Clayton, who gave him the copv right of the whole
of his works. Bowyer was estimable not only for his
learning;, but for rigid probity and active unostentatious
benevolent*. In general moral rectitude and amiable sim-
plicity of manners, few have exceeded • the last of learned
printers.' His bust in marble, with a portrait of his father,
is in Stationers Hall.
BOYAR, or BOYARD, the general name for a Russian
noble. The original nobility of Russia were composed of per-
sons descended from the leading warriors of the first Russian
monarch, Rurik and his sucre^sors. who, Uke the Norman
warriors under our own William I., received large fiefs in
the country which their valour had enabled their chief to
win. The flefk teem to hvTB been held by the tole leniu*
of military servioe ; they paid np imposts to the prince, but
every boyard had in his own possession the same power %
and right of customs and tribute which himself had on A/«
domain^. The fierce struggles between kings and nublirs
which we read of in other countries ^re not known lu
Russia. Various causes have \^en assigned foe this; \liv
venerotion generally entertained for the blood of Rurik « -«
doubtless one ; to which we may ^dd the circumscan< vs
whicb combined to prevent any great power fn>iB h*:r y:
concentrated in the hands of individual nobles. In the firit
place, the scarcity of cities and strong holds prevented any
of the militarv leaders from perpetuating themschet m
their commands; and when the empire was divided intii a
multitude of small principalities, utider the ge&exal and in-
definite superiority of one Grand Duke, secondary fortunes
were subject to continual mutation in the stnigglea whicn
were always taking place among the princes ; and n hit h
resulted from the singular law of succession, by which the
brother of a deceased prince, and not his son. aupcceded (o
the vacant appanage. It was also an unfavourable cireum*
stance resulting from this law, that the prince of the lalcral
branch was usually a stranger in the appanage to which lie
succeeded, and that he generally came to it with a train ct
nobles and followers who engroiwed his favour and pre*
ference. In fact, the princes themselves had more ana-
logy than the boyards to the turbulent nobles of Franor
and England ; and the boyards themselves resembled the
knightSf who in those countries regarded the barona as xh»n
immediate superiors.
The boyards of Russia then owed their final elevation to
the extinction of the petty principalitieSv and to the esta-
blishment of the hereditary principle in the sucoeauon t.>
the grand dukedom. It was thus that the Grand Duke
Dmitry Donskoi was enabled to say to them, * Under il*
reign you were not boyards, but really Russian princes.' In
fact tlie defection of the nobles from their immediate supr>
riors, in order to avail themselves of the more certain pr\.«
tection and larger favours which the Grand Dukes «cr(
enabled to offer after the alteration of the order of surri->-
sion, sealed the ruin of the petty princes* whose oonieDt.^i.t
had before distracted the empire. From this time we C:.i
the boyards occupying trusts which only princes bad pnrTt-
ously been privileged to hold; and no pnnciple, separau.i«
from the general usages of the country, remained to ti'-:.L*
guish the Russian nobles from those of other EurTij^. .r.
countries. The distinction, while it existed, operate! u
giving a very peculiar tone to the early history oi tlu: R; ^
sian monarchy, as may be traced in Segur'a Hs4ioirr &•
Russie, or any other history of Russia.
BOY AVAL, a vil. in France, in the dep. of Pte de C .i-
lais, not far from the town of St P61. It ta remarkable < n
a well about 140 % deep« the water in which doca not uxU.-
narily rise to more than 70 ft., but occasional! v tiie* »•.« u.^
to fill the well entirely, aud even to How over tbe mooih vt
it. The time of these extraordinary flows is not reguUc tt.ir
have the circumstances bv which they are influenced 1^*.-
ascertained, except thai the water is said to rise when ii .•
K. wind blow& The vU. (which stands on a hlUi Las **
running water, nor any spring but this. Wbsn the a«. •:
overtlows it is observed that a email spring is fonoed oeir s
neighbouring wood at a greater elevation than the mouth '^i'
the welL It has been observed also that when the vc-i
overflows for some time, the neighbouring eountry becomes
sterile, an^ the com is scanty in quantity and smaU ia iLo
grain. In Feb., 1703, this well, with the spring wbirh
ad formed around it, save out such a quantity of vau r.
that united, tbey would have sufficed to turn a mill Thr
water formed a now of some extent all round the weU ; ai- 1
the inundation impaired the soundness of the cellars ani
of the walb of the houses. In 1736 another eoosidcrsb -?
inundation happened, which filled the c^ara of the nci^b.*
bouring houses. (Enq/clopidfe Mithodique ; ExdiIIt.)
BOYCB, WILLIAM, doctor in mu^ who as an Znt-
lish composer is entitled to contend with Atne fot the h.*-
nour of ranking next to Purcell, was bom in the cty iJ
London, in 1710. ^e commenced his musical «dQca:r-<¥
as a chorister of St Paurs, under Charles King, Mus. Ev: ,
and complcte<l it under Dr. Greene, then organtu of i ••
cathedral. Anxious however to become acquainted « :\
the philosophical princioles of his art, he att^iuled ; -
learned lectures ot Dr. repuscb, {roro whom h« a)H> &• -
quired a knowledge of the works xf> the eaxUi Flm.«u
Digitized by VnOO^lC
BOY
BOY
Mid Iteiian compoMn. In If 9$ h& raeoMded WeUon
as oo« of the oompoaers to the Chapels-Royal, and in per-
fyrming the duties of the office produced the two Ser-
Tiees and maay Anthema which refieet so much honour
on the Bngliah sehool of church music Some years aAer
he set fidward Moon's Solomon, a serenata, to music, in
which are the duet * Together let us range the fields/ the
airs, * Softly Uow, O southara breeie/ * Tell me, gentle
shepherd,' and other highly esteemed compositions. In
1749 he was selected to set an ode for the installation of
the Duke of Newcastle, as ehancdlor of the University of
Camhhdge, when the degree of doctor in music was, un-
solicited, conferred on him. The same year gave birth to
TAs Chapletf a drama written by Moses Mendez, tiie music
of which, composed by Boyoe, immediately became popular,
and so oontinued many years afterwards.
On the death of Dr. Greene, in 17^5, Dr. Boyce was ap-
pointed Master of his Majesty's band of Musicians, then a
lucrative and honourable office. In that year he also pro-
duced ills finest work, the grand anthem, * Lord, thou hast
been our refuge,* ivhich he wrote for The Feast o/tks Sons
of the Clergy^ and at the annual meeting of diat corpo-
ration in Sl Pauls cathedral, it has eter since been per-
formed. In 1758, on the death of Travers, he became
organist to the Chapeb-Royal, which office he held in con-
junction with that of composer. In 1760 he published in
score, in three large folio Tolumes, the Cathedral Mutic qf
the Engiish Matters of the last two hundred pears, a
splendid and useftd work, in which the disinterestedness of
the editor is not less remarkable than his deep researdi
and acute discrimination ; for not desiring any pecuniary
leoompense for his labours, he fixed a price on the publica-
tion—the sale of which was necessarily limited — which only
indemnified him for the expense he had incurred in pre-
paring and bringing it out.
Dr. Boyce during many years sufieied much ftom the
goat, the attacks of which became more frequent and severe
as he advanced in age, and terminated his life in 1779. He
vas interred in fit. Pasrs cathedral, and *his obsequies
were performed with every mark of afieetion and respect,
many persons of distinetion attending, together with almost
efery musician in London at all known for talent, or
esteemed for character.' His wife and an only son surrived
him ; the latter died many years ago, leading no issue.
The published works of this excellent composer are.
Fifteen Anthems, together with a Te Deum and Jubilate, in
score, &,c^ 1780; a grand anthem. Lord, thou hast been
our refuge, for a full band. A second. Blessed is he that
considers th the poor and needy, for the same, 1802 ; a Te
D^um, Jubiiate, and six anthems, printed in Dr. Arnold's
CoUeetion of Cathedral Music ; the Serenau of Solomon ;
the Opera of The Chaplet ; and numerous detached pieces,
which appeared in Lyra Britanmea; The British Or-
phfug ; The Vocal Musical Mask, <$«.
BOYDELX, JOHN, was bom, as asserted in the * Gen-
tleman's Mo^asine,' in Staffordshire ; at Stanton in Shrop-
shire, accord tng to the 'Biog. Diet.* of Chalmers; but ac-
cording to Hr. Nichols in his * Literary Anecdotes * (vcd. iii
p. 41 1), an acknowledged authority for such particulars, in
Derbyshire, in the year 1719. In his youth he was designed
for the profeflsion of his ikther, that of a land surveyor, to
which for some time he attended ; but having, it is said, acci-
dentally aeea a vohime of views of country seats by Bad-
deiey, his taste was developed, and he resolved to become
an engra:ver. He aecotdhigly proceeded to London, where,
though at ttie age of 21, he bound himself for seven years
to Mr. Tomms for Uie purpose of learning the art At the
expiration of his apprenticeship he publisM by subsoription,
m 1746, a volume of his own engravings, consisting of 162
views in England and Wales; price 5 guineas. They are
now interesting chietty as an indication of the imperfect
state of th6 art in Bngtand at that neriod as compared with
the improTement effected afterwards by his own exertions.
Indeed he never himself excelled as an artist, a fact which
his judgment and candour induced him often to acknow«
l«dge. These humble specimens served however to com-
mence a very tong and continuous course of prosperity ;
for with the profits of this publication he entered into busi-
ness for himself as a printseller ; and by the adoption of a
^ery liberal p<4icy in employing and kmply remunerating
the' best artists of the time, he gradually extendod his spe-
culations, and ac^|«ired a large income, and a great reputa-
tiao as an enterpnaing and generous patron of genius. He
engafed Woolett to engrave the eetebrtfted piotqiea uC
Niobe and Phaeton; paying for the former 100 guineas^
and for tlie latter 120: they were sold by Boy dell at ir.
each; but have since, at auctions, produced 10 and 11
guineas : in short, he contrived to employ every aspirant to
distinction whose energies wanted encouragement When
Boydell began business there were no very eminent English
engravers, and they were generally iaforior to those of the
Continent. Our foreign commerce in this department con*
sisted wholly in importations, and the cabinets of collectors
were principally fomished by the artists of France. But
when, aiW many years of persevering exertions, Boydell
succeeded in forming an Bngltsh school of engraving, the cir-
cumstances were reversed ; for the importation of prints was
almost entirely discontinued, and a large exportation ensued.
Holbmd. Flanders, and Germany were the principal markets -
in which the engravings of Boydell were in demand. The
complete success of his patronage in the province of en-
graving, and his indignation at the opprobrium which fo-
reigners cast upon his countr3naien for the deficient of
their taste in other departments of the fine arts, led him
to attempt a similar improvement in the art of painting.
For the accomplishment of this design he secured the ser-
vices of all the first artists in the kingdom ; and selected
for illustration the works of Shakspeare, as supplying the
most appropriate subjects for eliciting and displaying the
abilities of each individuaL An English school of historical
nainting was thus established. West, Opie, Reynolds,
Northcota, and others were all employed. Spacious pre-
mises were purehased in Pall Mall, where, in the famous
Shakspeare Gallery, were exhibited for several years those
paintings which, in the words of Boydell, may with confi<
dence be said to surpass in their g^eat originality, diversity
and peculiar freedom of conception, whatever has issued
fram the Flemish, French, or Italian schools. The following
passage, in an article on the fine arts, in the ' Edinburgh
Rev.* (vol. xvi. p. 309), is strangely at variance with the
general opinion : — * Every man conversant in art, and alive
to national reputation, rejoiced at seeing the Shakspeare
Gallery dispersed, and deprived of the means of collectively
dissracing his country.* The beautiful plates which,
under the liberal patronage of Boydell, were engraved from
these nnmerous paintings, form a magnificent volume in
royal elephant foUo. of which the dimensions are three
feet by two; the title, * A Collection of Prints from Pic-
tures painted for tiie purpose of illustrating the Dra-
matical Works of Shakspeare, by the Artists of Great
Britain, Boydell, 1803.* A most superb edition of Shak-
speare's dramatical works was at the same time undertaken
by Boydell, and printed at the press of Bulmer, 1792-1801,
in 9 vols, folio. There, is a florid description of this sump-
tuous specimen of tj^pbgraphy in Dr. Dibdin's ' Bibliogra-
phical Decameron,' 4to. vol. ii. p. 383. In regarding the
prodigious expense of the whole project, and the magnifi-
cence of the performance, it is impossible to dissent from
the assertion in the preface of the volume of plates, that it
appears to be ' unrivalled in any age or oountty,* and is
such, it may be added* as by one individcud was never be-
fore undertaken.
The services iA Boydell were universally appreciated.
He was eulogised even from the pulpit. In a sermon de-
livered before the corporation of London on the 8th of Jan.,
1804, the preacher (the Rev. John Perring), in his seal to
exhibit his merits in making the fine arts subservient to
the canse of religi<Hi, asserted, *he has at great expense
adorned with prints a magnificent Bible,* an unfortunate
mistake, for the illustrated Bible was an undertaking by
Macklin, with which Boydell had nothing to do.
Being now (in 1804) at the advanced age of eighty-five,
and having, in consequence of the commercial obstacles oc-
casioned by the wars of the FVench Revolution, become in-
volved in unavoidable difficulties, he obtained an act of
Sirliament enabling him to dispose of the paintines of his
hakspeare Gallery by a lotterv. In the memorial of his
situation he states that his enthusiasm ibr the promotion of
the arts induced him to lay nothing bv, but to employ con-
tinually the whole of his gains in nirther eft^gements
with unemployed artists ; that the sums he had laid out with
his brethren in the advancement of this object amounted
to 350,000/., and that he had accumulated a stock of copper-
plates which all the print-sellers in Europe would together
be unable to purehase. He lived only until the last ticket
of his lottery was eoHL The aAir was finaSydspidM sob^y
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BOY
CPO
BOY
Mquent to bis deaibt which occanred on the 12th of Dec.,
1804. He had been elected alderman in 1782, aheriif in
1785. and mayor in 1790. He held also the office of
master of the Stationers' Company. As the most gene-
rous iiromoter of those arts which refine and elevate the
moral sentiments of man, he was honoured with a public
funeral.
Among the collections published by Boydell was that of
120 engravings from the Houghton Gallery, which was
Surclia^ by the Empress Catharine of Russia. In 1777
e published in fol. the * Liber Veritatis/ containing copies
of ^00 of Claude Lorraine's first sketches, in the cabinet of
the duke of Devonshire ; in 1 794, the ' History of the River
Thames,' 2 vols. fol. ; and in 1803, iii 4to„ ' An Alphabetic
Catalogue of Plates engraved by the first Artists, from the
finest Pictures of the Italian, Flemish, German, French,
and Exiglish Schools.'
BO YEAU is any trench executed by the besiegers of a
fortress to serve as a covered communication, or hne of
approach, during the progress of the siege. It receives tho
denomination of a parallel, an oblique, or a zig-zag boyeau,
according to the line of its direction with respect to the ge-
neral front of the works attacked. [TrsnchT]
BOYER. [Arosns, Mjlrquis d'.]
BOYLE, RICHARD, was born at Canterbury, Oct.
3rd, 1566. His family was respectable, and under the
name of Biuvile had been settled in Herefordshire for many
generations: but it was first rendered illustrious by the
subject of the present notice, who from having been em-
ployed in the service of the chief baron of the Exchequer as
a clerk, rose to the highest honours of the state ; and as if
tliey were insufKcient to mark the sense which was gene-
rally entertained of his abilities, it has been usual to style
him * the ^reat Earl of Cork.*
From Benet College, Cambridge, Mr. Bo^lo passed to
the Middle Temple, but having lost both his father and
mother, his resources were probably not sufficient for his
maintenance during the usual course of study, and he was
thus led to offer his services to Sir R. Manwood, at that
time chief baron of the Exchequer. The circumstances
iu which he was now placed afforded him little opportunity
fur the exercise of his talents, and in his twenty-second
year he went to Dublin in quest of a situation more suitable
to the activity of his disposition. On landing in Ireland
he was not in possession of more than 27/. 3s. in money,
and a diamond ring and bracelet of gold, the gift of his
mother ; and his wardrobe, as he states in the short but in-
strurtive memoirs which he left of his life, was but slenderly
furnished. His confidence arose from his energy and a
determination to do his utmost to render himself useful.
His first employment was to draw up memorials and other
documents for individuals connected with the government,
by which means he acquired considerable insight into
public affairs.
In 1595 he married one of the co-heiresses of a gentle-
man of Limerick, who in admiration of his talents over-
looked the inadequacy of his fortune. His wife died in
giving birth to her first child, and left him in possession of
500/. a-year arising from landed estates, and a sum in cash
besides. He lived with strict economy without being parsi-
monious, and as land sold at a very cheap rate in Ireland,
he increased his property by considerable purchases in
Ulster. The envy of several influential persons was excited
by his prosperity, and they severally addressed letters to
Queen Elizabeth, stating that Mr. Boyle, who only came
into the country a few years before, made so many pur-
chases of landed property as to occasion suspicion of his
being aided by some foreign prince ; a circumstance which
was the more evident, they alleged, owing to some of his
newly-acquired possessions being on the coast, and possessed
of advantages for faciliuting an invasion, an event which at
the time was generally anticipated. Mr. Boyle, who had
been informed of these machinations, had resolved upon re-
pairing to the English court in order to defend his interests
and character, but the rebellion of Munster broke out
before he could quit Ireland. His estate was ravaged by
the rebels, and as he himself states, * I could not say that
I had one penny of certain revenue left me.'
He now returned with forlorn prospects to the Temple ;
but when the earl of Essex was sent to Ireland he was re-
ceived in the suite of that nobleman. On again reaching
the country his former enemies made another attempt to
eruth his roTiving hopes, and were so far successful as to
oeouion his bmig p«t under eonflnenMiit. H»c>mertly
sought an opportunity of meeting the eharget bfO«t|r^'t
against him, and on his cose coming before the Biiftlt>h
Privy Council, he was fortunate to secure the ytewoee «.f
the queen, who listened with interest to bit able end wue •
cessful defence. Before he concluded he exhibited ibi*
principal instigator of the proceedings (Sir Henry Welkv;^
treasucer of Ireland) in the character of a public peeolatrw.
and clearly proved that he passed his accounts in an trrt -
gular and didionest manner. When he had done epemkmtr
the queen said, * By God's death all these are but invvTi-
tions against this young man, and all Us suftrini^a mre for
bis being able to do us service, and there complaints itnt^,i
to forestall him therein ; but we find him a man At Ui tie
employed by ourselves, and will employ him in our wrvKr«.
Wallop and his adherents shall know that it shall noi l>e ir.
the power of any of them to wrong him, neither efaall Wall >
be our tressurer any longer.* A new trsesurerwas iinn«»-
diateiy appointed, and Boyle was made derk of Ibe covncr.l
of Munster; ' and this (he says) was the seeosd lire tiia:
Grod gave to mv fortunes.'
He returned to Ireland to discharge the dutios of hi<%
office, and shortly afterwards* on the £^aniaids sad Tytoce
being defeated with great loss, was sent to anseunee th«*
victory to the English court. He perfoimed this doty wish
marvellous celerity. He says in ois nenioir% ' 1 nrede a
speedy expedition 'so the court, ibr I left on lord preskUnt
at Shannon OisUe, near Cork, on the Monday raormxrr
about two of the dock, and the next day, being Ttteeda> . 1
delivered my packet and supped with Sir Robni C^ii.
being then principal secKtary, at his house in the Stra&i.
who after supper held me in discourse till two of tbe c^k
iu tlie morning ; and by seven that morniAg called opoo m^
to attend him to the court, where he presented ree to Kl*
Majesty in her bedchamb^' The queen again recci^\«l
him in a gracious manner.
His fortunes now took a more prosperous turn thus hdure.
He bought at a low price the Irish estates of Sir WaiU'
Raleigh, winch contained 12,000 aores, and by pnidcBl an^i
judicious management greatly increased their vidut.. At a
subsequent period* when Cromwell was shown the iopuA^
ments which he had effected, he remarked that if tbare hac
been an earl of Cork in every province the Irish woold nc/
have become rebels. The earl of Cork> tenants were ev^
probably of his own faith, and perhaps his own oouBUyuv^.
as he sealously promoted the imuiigrutionof Eotfti^b Hip-
testants. His endeavours to diffuse among them me hmeum
of prosperity and comfort were therefore uodiecksd by tic
outbreakings of religious and political disconteot* and thai
turbulence which was an unavoidable result of the posit n
and circumstances of the Irish ; and having suBcred -^ •
much during the rebellion of Munster, his policy to«aju«
them was generally severe.
In July, 1603, Mr. Boyle married a daughter of Sir
Greoffrey Fenton, principal secretary of state; on wUi«a
occasion his friend Sir George Carew, the lord deputy • r
Ireland, knighted him on h^ wedding-day. In l6Uu L«
was sworn a privy councillor to King James for ibe pru>
vinceof Munster; in 1612 a privy councillor for tb* kirc*
dom of Ireland ; in 1615 he was created Lord Boyle, buvn
of Youghall ; and in 1620 Viscount Dungarvan and «sx: cf
Cork. In 1629 he was constituted one of the lords ju»Ux*
of Ireland; in 1631 lord high treasurer, an office mluch fia«
made hereditary in his family.
Charles I., out of regard to the earl of C^k's thmsn^itt
and talents, and as an acknowledgment of hia scnioM,
created the earVs second son then living, Lewis* a chiUi nr
eight years old. Viscount Kynelmesky. Lewis vaa kuW^<
in the battle of LiscaroU in 1642, and bis widow was crvU'iJ
countess of Guildford in her own right by Charlea IL Iu.*
earl of Cork was a witness against Lord Strafford, with wb^^n
he had not been on cordial terms in consequence partly of lit
jealousy with which Lord Sti'afford during his re^cztcr .i
Ireland as lord lieutenant had regarded the influence **( :.«*
earl of Cork. Notwithstanding the eminent station mx^^t
this able man attained ho often looked back with ju^: ^u \
gratified pride to his early origin. He selected the loUuv*; ,:
as his family motto, and caused it to be engraved ^a tk-»
tomb : * God*s Providence is my inheritance."
The earl of Cork died Sept 16th, 1644, in tlie ftevent?-
eighth year of his age. His wife, by whom he had fiartu
children, died in 1630. (Budgell's Memoirs o/ the Kau.'/
of the Boyles, 1732; Lj/e qf the ITop RoUrtMo^U. «y
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Boy
297
BOY
Birbh ; AhmoiW writtiii lij tiM aarl oTCak In IS3S, ctUad
True Remembrancii.)
BOYLB, ROGBR, fifth ion and fliemith ehild of the
tint aarl of Cork, bom April 26, 1621» was erealed Baron
BroghilU aimoit while in his infancy, bv Charles I. He
suunad a sister of the earl of Suflblk, and landed with his
wife in Irelaad the day after the breaking out of the re-
btllion, whieh he displayed great activity in qnriling.
The death of Charles I., and the state of his possessions
io Itdand, which he almost gave up as kst, induced him to
•sek retirement in England, where ne occupied himself with
projecU for the restoration ci royalty. He had gone lo fkr
as to obtain a passport, and was on the point of leaving the
kingdom ibr tne purpose of having an interview with
Charles IL, when his proceeding^ and the ftiture course of
his life, were tamed in another direction by the dextenras
management of CmmweU,whOk with the members of the
Committee of Publio Safety, had become acquainted with
Lord Bro|[hill*s intentions. Cromwell had been strack with
the possibility of securing the services of Lord BroghiU in
the eaoae of the Commonwealth, and having the sanction of
the members of the eommittee, he sent a messaffc to his
lordship informing him of his desire to wait upon him, and
followed his own messenffer so quicUy, that he entered his
kMdsbip*8 apartments before he had time to deliberate upon
the meaning of the commimieation. Cromwell informed
Lord BroghiU that the Committee of Safety were acquainted
with his intended movements, whkh he detailed. Lord
BroghiU attempted to deny the ikcts, on which Cromwell
produced copies of papers which hts lordship had confiden-
tially addressed to friends of the royalist cause. The frank
and candid manner of Cromwell, the just compliments which
he paid to Lmd BroghUrs meriu, and the real service which
he was doing him by protecting him from the consequences
of his conduct, completely succeeded in gaining him to
Cromwell's proposals. Cromwell, who was about to proceed
with an army to Ireland, oilered Lord BroghiU the command
of n general officer, with a condition that his services should
be limited to the immediate object of the expedition. Lord
BroghiU, after some hesitation, accepted CromweU's propo-
sition* His services in Ireland proved that his abilities had
not been overrated. On one or two occasions Ixird Brog-
hiU'a boldness and activity were of signal value, especially
during the aiege of Ctonmel, when his vigilance prevented
the rebels from forming in the rear of the army during the
siege. While engaged upon this service he received an
urgent message mmi Cromwell recalling him to Clonmel,
the siege of which he feared he should be compelled to raise,
as th«re was much disease in the armv. ana it had been
twice repulsed by the Irish. At the end of three days Lord
BroghiU appeared at the head of his division before Clon-
mel, when Uromwell caused the whole army to salute him
by the cnr of 'A BroghiU! a BroghiU!* CromweU himself
embraced him, and shortly afterwards, though it was in the
depth of winter. Clonmel was taken.
Under the Protectorate Lord BroghiU was one of the
privy couneU, and at the special request of CromweU he
went to preside in Scotland. Richard CromweU selected
I^ird ^foghill as one of the cabinet council, along with Dr.
Witliama and Colonel Philips, and more than once his
lordship*8 politic talents were most dexterouslv employed
in Sttstatnine the Protector's interests. But the impossi-
bility of Richard Cromwell any longer retaining the pro-
tectorate becoming soon eviden^ Lora BroghiU, conceiving
that the country might otherwise faU into the hands of a
cabal, weed every exertion to bring about the Restoration.
He repeixed to Ireland, and by his influence secured the co-
operation of some of the most important individuals in the
army, nnd soon after sent Lord Snannon, his younger bro-
ther, with a letter encouraging Charles 11. to land in Ireland.
After the Restoration Lord BroghiU was created earl of
Orrery, and took his seat in the cabinet councfl. He also
acted as one of the lords justices for the government of Ire-
land, and was appointed lord president of the province of
Monster.
In the leisure which succeeded the active part of his Ufe,
the earl of Orrery, at the king's request, wrote several plays.
He wrote idso some verses on the death of Cowley, and
other poetical pieces; a thin folio, on the art of war; and
* Partheniasa,* a lam romance in foUo, part of which he
wrote by desire of Henrietta Maria, daughter of Charles L
These prodpctions have no great meri^ and were chiefly
written ^fmng severe attacks of the gout.
N«309.
[THE FENNT CYCLOPAEDIA.]
He opposed a petition presented to the king by the Iifrii
Catholics, praying for the restoration of their estates. Mr.
Morrice, his private chaplain, asserts in his memoirs of Lord
Orrery, that he was offered a large sum of monev, and
landed property worth 7000/. a year, on condition of with*
dmwing his opposition to the prayer of the petitioners. In
his lor&hip*s address to the privy council the Irish were
charged with having broken all the treaties into which they
had entered ; and with having made an ofler of the king-
dom of Ireland to the pope, to the king of Spain, and like-
wise to the king of France ; and he is said to have produced
authentic documents in proof of hie assertions. The claims of
the petitioners were rejected. The Act of Settlement, which
was drawn up by the earl of Orrery, contains stipulations
by whidk those Roman Catholics who had conducted them-
selves loyally were restored to their possessions. His bio-
grapher states that he conceived it highly barimrous to
persecute men for any opinions which were not utteriy in-
consistent with the good of the state ; he wished for nothing
more than to see a union between the Church and the Dis-
senters. On the Bill of Exclusion being brought in, he
declared himself averse to a change of the succession, but
wished rather that, in case of the crown devolving upon a
catholic prince, some restrictions should be provided of a
nature equally efficacious.
In a local court, in which he presided in virtue of his
office of Lord President of Munster, he is stated to have
acted with great wisdom and equity.
The earl of Orrery died Oct 16th, 1679, in hb S9th year.
BOYLE, ROBERT, was the seventh son of Richard
Boyle, earl of Cork, and his wife Catherine, only daughter
of Sir Geoffry Fenton, secretary of state for Ireland. There
were fifteen children of this marriage, and the subject of
this memoir (the fourteenth) was bom on the 25th of
January. 1626, at Usmore in the province of Munster. His
sister Catiierine, by marriage Ladv Ranelagh, afterwards
mentioned, was considerably older, having been bom on the
22nd of March, 1614.
The autobiography and correspondence of Robert Boyle
have been almost entirely forgotten in the sujierior fame
which he has attained in chemistry and medicine. If we
consider the position in which he stands among our phi-
losophers, it will not appear superfluous, having his own
words to quote, if we give the account of his earlier years at
some lexigth. The narretbn in question (in which he calls
himself Philaretus, and writes in the third person) is pre-
fixed to Dr. Birch*s edition of his works in 5 vols, fol., which
we here cite once for all— * The Works of the Hon. Robert
Boyle, in five volumes, to which is prefixed a Life of the
Author,* London, printed for A. Millar, 1744. Of his birth
and station he says, * that it so suited his inclinations and
designs, that, had he been permitted an election, bis choice
would scarce have altered God*s assignment.* His father,
having ' a perfect aversion for their fondness, who use to
breed their children so nice and tenderly that a hot sun
or a good shower of rain as much endangers them as if
they were made of butter or of sugar,* committed him to
a nurse away from home, under whose care he formed a
vigorous constitution. He lost his mother at an early age,
this being one ' great disaster ;* the other was the acquisi-
tion of a nabit of stuttering, which came upon him ftom
mocking other children. He was taught early to speak
both French and Latin, and his studiousness and veracity
endeared him to his father, ' and indeed Ijring was a vice
both so contrary to his nature, and so inconsistent with his
principles, that as there was scarcely anything he more
greedily desired than to know the trath, so was there scarcely
anything he more perfectly detested then not to speak it.
which brings into my mind a foolish story I have heard him
leered with by his sister, my Lady Ranelagh, how she
oavine given strict order toliave a fruit-tree preserved for
his sister-in-law, the Lady Dungarvon, he accidentally
coming into the garden, and ignoring the prohibition, did
eat half a score of them, for which being chidden bv his
sister Ranelagh (for he was yet a chUd), and being told by
way of aggravation Uiathe had eaten half a dosen plums,
"Nay truly, sister,** answen he simply to her, "I have
eaten half a score.*' ' At eiffht yean old he waa sent to
Eton with his elder brother, the provost being Sir Henry
Wotton, * a person that was not only a fine gentleman him-
self, but very well skilled in the art of making othera so.*
Here he was placed under the immediate care of Mr. Hci^-
risen, one of the masters, and became immoderately fond ji
Digitized by ^l^
YOL.V.-JQ ^
BOY
298
HOY
itadf from •ihib woMuM perusal 6f QiuAttts Cuititis,
irhich first made Mm in lo?e with other than pedaotio
books.* He alwaf 8 dec1ai«d that he was more obliged to
tbis author than was Alexander. Two yeiirs afterwards
the Romance of Amadis de Gaule was pat into his hands
' to divert his melancholy/ and by this and other such works
his habit of persevering study was weakened. He was
obliged afterwards systematically to conquer tbe ill efiecta
of this mental regimen, and * the most efiectaal way he
found to be the extraction of the square and cube roots, and
specially those more laborious operations of algebra wbich
to entirely exact the whole man, that the smallest distrao*
tion or heedlessness constrains us to renew our trouble, and
le-begin the operation." His fkther liad now come to Eng-
land, and settled at Stalbridge in Dorsetshire ; on which
account Robert Boyle was soon removed from Bton to his
ftther s house, and placed under the tuition of the rector of
the parish. In the autumn of 1688 he was sent to travel
with an elder brother, under the care of M. Maroombes, a
Frenchman, of whom he says» with many other encomia,
that * if he were given to any vice himself, he was oareftd
by sharply condemning it to render it uninfeotious.* ' The
worst quality he had was his cboler ; and that being the
only passion to which Philaretus was much observed to be
inclined, his desire to shun clashing with his governor, and
his aecustomeduess to bear the sudden sallies of his im-
petuous'humour, taught our youth so to subdue that passion
in himself, that he was soon able to govern it habitually
and with ease.* It bad been intended that he should have
served in a troop of horse which his eldest brother had
raised, but the illness of another brother prevented this.
He travelled through France, and settled with bis governor
at Geneva, for the prosecution of his studies. A tlmnder-
Storm whic'h happened there in the night was the cause of
those religious impressions which he retained throughout
his Ufe, and, it should be added, without giving into either
the fanaticism or the intolerance of his contemporaries. He
carried his theological studies to considerable depth. He
oultivated both Hebrew and Greek, though a professed
hater of verbal studies, that he might read the originals of
the Scriptures. On this subject he remarks in his ma-
nuscripts (Works, vol. i. pp. 29, 30) — ' When I have come
mto the Jewish schools and seen those children that were
never bred up for more than tradesmen, bred up to speak
(what hath been peculiarly called) God's tongue as soon as
their mother's, I have blushed to think how many gown*
men, that boast themselves to be the true Israelites, are
perfect strangers to the language of Canaan; which I
would learn were it but to be able to pay God the respect
usual from civil inferiors to princes, with whom they are
itont to oonverse in their own languages. And I confess
myself to be none of those lazy persons that seem to expect
tp obtain from (Sod the knowledge of the wonders of his
book upon as easy terms as Adam did a wife, by sleeping
profoundly, and having her presented to him at his
awaking.*
In September, 1641, he left Geneva, and travelled in
Italy, where he employed himself in learning the language,
and * in the new paradoxes of the great star-gazer Galileo,
whose ingenious books, perhaps because they could not be
80 otherwise, were confiited by a decree from Rome ; his
highness the pope, it seems, presuming, and that justly,
that the infallibility of his ohair extended equally to deter-
mine points in philosophy as in religion, artd loath to have
the stability of that earth questioned in which he had esta-
bUshed his kingdom.* Having seen Florence, Rome, and
Crenoa, he came to Marseilles, and here his own narrative
ends. At Marseilles he was detained for want of money,
owing to the troubles in England ; having, however, pro-
eured funds from his governor, he returned to Lohdon,
where he found (in 1644) his father dead, and himself in
possession of the manor of Stalbridge, with other property.
At that place he resided till 1650, not taking any part in
politics, and being in oommunieation with men of influence
IB both nertiea, whereby his property received protection
from bou. The epistolary correspondence of Boyle is
amusing, and furnishes one of the earliest specimens of the
lighter style. Considering the formality of the age, and the
then existing peculiarities of tlie English, the extracto we
give from a letter to Lady Ranelagh will appear original ;
while the letter immediately following, written from Boyle
when at Eton to his father (stated to be taken from the ori-
ginal in t)ie Biog, Brit.) will show the manners of the time ••—
f M^ most bommrad Lord Fatlieft
' Heartily praying for the continuaiioe of God*e f^Tor t«
yoiir LordAnp atili in 'soul end body* I humbly prDstr«tir
mysdf unto yonr honorable fiiet, to oimve your blesiuDg and
pardon for my remissness, in presenting my illiterate line*
unto your honorable kind aoceptanoe. Whereas I have
been heretofore oloyedwith our coUe^e exereiae, I oould
not so often visit your Honour inwrituig; but now beinc
by the ardent desire of our brother, and the license of Sir
Harry Wotton, and our sohoolmaater, come to London,
where we make four days' residence, have found opportunity
to offer unto your Honour that oblation due unto so icood
and so noble a fiither, that is most humble duty: deairinir
your Honour to pardoahim for his brevity, who stnvcs to
live after your Lordship's will and commandments.
* London, deoimo * Truly and obediently,
4to Martii. ' RonsKf Botlk.'
Superscribed* ' For my dear Lord Father, the EsltI ti
Cork.'
The following Is a part of his account of his first journey
to Stalbridge, written to Lady Ranelagh, March 30, 1 646 .^ —
* As we went along, we met divers little paities, with
whom we exchanged foara, and found that the malignant
humours, which were then abroad, had frightened ihA
country into a shaking ague, till we got to Fambaai« which
we found empty and unguarded. With divers oootem
plations upon this subjecU I went to supper, and thenrw
to bed, not without some little foar of having our quartera
beaten up by theoavaUeia that night; when lo! toseoon«i
my apprehensions, about the dead of my sleep, and that
night, I heard a thundering at the door, as if diey meant
to fright it out of tbe hinges and tis out (^ our wits. I
presently leaped out of my bed, ui my stockings and
clothes (my usual night-posture when I tAvel), and whil«
Roger was lighting a candle, got mv Bilboa and other in-
struments from under my pillow ; whereupon Roger open-
ing the door, saw it beset with musketeers, who no sooner
saw us, but said aloud that we were not the men they
looked for ; and being intreated to come into tbe chamlwr^
refrised it, and he that brought them thither excused therar
troubling us with as transcendent compliments as tbe
brown bill could afford. I wondered at their courtesy till I
knew that it was the town constable, that, making a aearrh
for some suspicious persons, and coming by my ehamlrr.
that wanted a lock, either bad a mina to make ua t«ae
notice of so considerable an officer, or no mind that we
should sleep while oiir betters watched; and for bis nn
coming in, some accents of fear that fell fixmi him mad^
me suspect I was obliged for that to myself; and I remeto-
her that just ut the opening of the door, he, peeping in,
espied me drawing a pistol out of one of my holatera» wbarb
I believe made him so niggardly of his company. Tbe
next day we dined lit Winchester, and evet and anon. \a
the trembling passengers we met, were as nicely cateehoei
concerning our ways, as if we were to be elected in \\ t
number of the new lay elders. From thence we reachel
Salbbury that night, though before we came thither. ««
were lain to pass in the dark through a wood, where we btA!
warning given us that about an hundred woodmen rv«
have got wild English too now) lay leiger, where the»e
night-birds, used to exercise their charity, in easing weary
travellers of such burthensome things as money and port-
manteaus. But coming nearer, and knowing the states
messenger, as be culled himself, they duitt not meddln
neither with us nor with my trunks, trhioh they eyed though
very lovingly ; and had we not been there, would. 1 bellerr,
have opened to search for malignant letters, such at q#« ta
be about the king's picture in a yeUo# boy. I am koad«d
with civil language and fair promises ; but I have alvsfi
observed that in the trooper s dictionary the paM xrt *«»
close and thick written witti promises, that there is no roon
left for such a word as performance/
From this time to the end of his lifo he appeara lo bar^
been engaged in studv. His chemioal exneriments date tT\ c-
1 646. He was one of the first members of the invisibU r^**T f
as he calU it, which has since become the Royal S .n.t.
Tbe rest of his public life Is little mor6 than tl>e \it*tnr\ *'
his printed works, whioh are voluminous, afid will prv^rr ^
be further specified. He must have written with kipl i . *
rapidity, for an argumentative ai^ elaborate letter. «r '.
as appears on the face of it. in the morning, pre\iou«t% :
making bis preparations for a juurtoeyin the afrerno-^r. .«
of a length which itrould occupy fiver^umns of lbt» «v:L
Digitized by V:j^
(
B q Y
299
BOY
Alter TUioiiB jounieys to his IrisQ estates, he settled i^t
Oxford m 1654, where he temeinad tilt 1668. Here his
life ('tforW vol. i.) states him to have invented the air-
pump, which IS not correct, though he made considerahle
xmproTcments in it [Air-puiip.1 On the accession of
Charles II. In 1660, he was mucn pressed to enter the
church, but refused, hoth as feeling the want of a sufficient
vocation towards that profession, and as desirous to add to
hts wntings in favour of Christianity all the force which
could be derived fVom his fortune not neing interested in its
defence. When he left Oxford, he took up his abode with
Lady Ranelagh, in London, and in 1663 was one of the first
council of the newly incorporated Royal Society. In the
year 1666, his name appears as attesting the miracnlous
cures (as they were called by many) of Valentine Greatraks,
an Irishman, who, by a sort of animal magnetism* made his
own hands Uie medium of giving many patients almost in-
stantaneous relief. This gentleman. Mr. Greatraks, a man
of respectable family, and an Irish magistrate, (whose
printed letter to Robert Bo?le, besides being accom-
panied by the testimonials of himself and others to &cts,
IS, as far as such a thing can be, evidence of good faith by
its style and documents,) one day believed himself enabled
by the power of God to cure diseases by his touch* and
whatever the cause might he, has left sufficient evidence at
least of this fact, that after his touch inveterate diseases
did shortly leave those who suffered from them. Hr.
Greatraks published his letter to lir. Boyle in 1666« and
some remarks written in the fly leaf of a copy we have seen
will make a good rentmi of the state of the evidence. ' In
looking over the cases stated in this pamphlet, attested as
they are hy the most learned and philosophical individuals
of that period, it is impossible to deny the existence of the
facts as attested, without r^ecting in toto the evidence of
every historical record. Credulity may have distorted and
exaggerated the neolity, as witnessed by such men even as
Boyle, Cudworth, Wilkins, Patrick, &&: but doubtless the
facts are essentially true as reported, ana as certainly to be
accounted for on the principle of mental and physical sym«
pathy, the imagination of the patient being wrought upon
by the poweri'ul emotions excited by expectation. Half a
hundred works of the most philosophical and scientific phy-
sicians might he cited in confirmation of the astonishing
effects of that agitating excitement of the nervous system
Droduced by operating upon the imagination ; which per-
fectly exnlams aU the wonders of animal magnetism.' We
may ada that the phenomena certainly witnessed at the
tomb of the Jansenist Abb^ Paris were not better attested.
and were lass extraordinary in degree, than those in question ;
and that, as we shall see^ of all the men of his time, Robert
Boyle was peculiarly the one whose qpinion it would have
been desirable to have. The reputation <tf Wr. Greatraks
extended through the three kingdoms, and Flamsteed,
among others, (Baily*8 Flamsteed, p. 12,) was among the
number of those who went to Ireland to he touched, and
calls himself ' an eye-witness of several of his ewes/ He
aho received benefit himself^ hut whether from the touch or
from subsequent sea-sickness^ he is not certain, but judges
from both. At the same time, in illustration of what we shall
presently have to say on the distinction between Boyle as an
eye-witness and Boyle as a judge of evidence, we find him
in 1669 not indisposed to receive, and that upon the hypo-
thesis implied in the words, the * tme relation of the things
which an unclean spirit did and said at Mascon, in Bur-
gundy, &0.* That he should have been inclined to prosecute
inquirieg about the transmutation of metals, needs no
excuse, considering the state of chemical knowledge io his
day ; and we find even Newton inclined to fear, fioni the
result of some e^petiments of Boyle» (the results of which
only had been steted.) and to speak in time, as beeame one
who should afterwaids he master of the mint, a word in
favour of the currency. In a letter to Oldenborgh, dated
1676. Ne^rton writes thus: *Bat yet because the way, hy
which mercury may be so imnregnated, has been thought
fit to be concealed by others tnat have known it, and may
therefore possibly be an inlet to MnuiAing^ more tioMs, not
to be comrmmicaUd without immente dtmige to the world,
if there ihouki he (my verity ta the Hermetic writere;
therefi>ro I question not but that the great wisdom of the
noble author will sway him to high silmice, till he shall be
resolved of what eonsequenee the thing may be, either hy
his own experience, or the nidgment of sokne other thi^
thoron^y nadentands ndiat ne speakaahont; that is, of a
true Hermetic philosopher, whose judgment (if there ba
any such) would be more to be rerarded in this point, than
that of all the world besides to the contrary, there being
other things beside the transmutation of metaU (if these
great pretenders brag not) which none but they understand.
Sir, because the author seems desirous of the sense of others
in this point, I have been so free as to shoot my bolt; but
pray keep this letter private to yourself. Your servant,
Isaac Nkwton.'
It appears that both Boyle and Newton were startled with
the result of the experiments of the former ; and the treat-
ment which old believers in alchemy have experienced from
the present age will render it no less than just to say, that
faith in alchemy now, and the same in the middle of the
seventeenth century, are two things so different in kind,
that to laugh at both in one shows nothing but the ignorance
of the laugher.
Boyle had been for years a director of the Bast India
Companv, and we find a letter of his, in 1676, pressing upon
that body the duty of promoting Christianity in the East.
He caused the (Sospels and the Acts of the Apostles to be
translated into Malay, at his own cost; by I)r. Thomas
Hyde ; and he promoted an Irish version. He also gave a
large reward to the translator of Grotius Be Veritate, ^.
into And)ic, and would have been at the whole expense of a
Turkish Testament, had not the East India Company re-
lieved him of ^ part. In the year 1680 he was elected
President of the noyal Society, a post which he declined, as
appears hy a letter to Hooke, (* Works,* L p. 74,) from
scruples of conscience about the rehgious tests and oaths
required. In 1 688 he advertised toe public that some of
his manuscripts had been lost or stoleut and others muti-
lated by accident; and in 1689, finding his health de-
clining, he refused most visits, and set himself to repair the
loss. In that year, being still in a sort of expectation th^t
the alchemical project might succeed, he procured the
repeal of the statute 5 Hen. XV. ' against the multiplying
of gold or silver,* and what was still more useful, the same
statute contains a provision that ' no mine of copper, &g.
shall he adjudged aioval mine, although gold or silver may
he OKtracted out of toe same.* In 1691 his complaints
began to assume a more serious character. Lady Ranelagh
died on the 23rd of December, and he followed her on the
30th of the sama month. He was buried at St. Martin's in
the Fields, Jan. 7, 1692, and a funeral sermon was preachad
on the ocoasion hy Dr. Burset, who had long been his friend,
and to the expenses of whose history of the Reformation he
had largely contributed*
Boyle was never married. In a letter to bis niece. Lady
Bairimore, on a rumour of the kind, ha says* ' You have
certainly reason, madam, to suspend your belief of a mar-
riage cttehrated by no priest hut Fame, and made unkmiwii
to the supposed bndegioom : I shall therefore only tell ymi
that the little gentleman and I are still at tlie old deflaaoe.
You have earned away too many of the perfisetiona of your
sex. to leave enough in this country for the reducing so
stubborn a heart as mine, whose conquest were a task of so
mueh difficulty, and is so little worth it^ that the latter pra-
perty is always likely to deter any that hath boanty and
merit enough to overcome the former.* He was tall, slea-
der, and emaciated; excessively abstemiona in food, and
somewhat oppressed hy low spirits : hut at the same time of
a copiottsness of conversation and wit which made Cowley
and Davenant rank him in that respect among the first men
of his a^ His benevolence hotk in action and sentiment
distinguished hmi from otheia as much as his aoqniivments
and experiments : and that in an age when toleiation was
unknown. He constantly refused a peerage, though the
personal ftiend of three snocessive kings. He was always a
moderate adherent of the Church of England ; nor is it k-
ccsded that he ever attended any other place ofworship, ek-
eept onoa when he went to hear Sir Henry Vane discourse at
his own house, on which occasion he entered into a disenasion
with the preaoher. Finally, he was a man of whom all spoke
weU. With sneh a character, it is not to he wondered at if his
private virtues were made to reflect a lustre upon his scien-
tiilc exploits which the latter could not have nined alone;
tile more especially when it is considered that his contempo-
raries, who viewed him as he was^ and from their own posi-
tion, had a right to style his genius as one which produced
reeidti of the first order, which could be but another way of
saying that it was of the first older itself. So indeed it haa
been uadentoed i and we are aoenttomed to talk of Baedn
Digitized by ^^* llC
BOY
300
bOY
tnd Newton and Boyle together. The merits of Boyle are
indeed sinsuler, and almost unprecedented ; his discoveries
are in several cases of the highest utility : hut we do not
think the inference that they were the result of a rea-
soning power, or a distinctive sagacity, of the highest kind,
would be correct. Coming aftor 0acon, feeling all the
beauty of his methods, disgusted with the spirit of system,
and strong beyond his contemporaries in common sense,
the same view of life which made him indifferent to the
political and religious disputes of his time, and content
nimself with the knowledge and practice of the things which
they all agreed in, also regulated his views of philosophy ;
so that he tossed Laud and Paracelsus on one side, Prynne
and Descartes on the other, and began to investigate for
himself, on the simple principle of examining closel]^ and
strictly relating what he saw. In this respect his writings
remind us strongly of those of Roger Bacon : thev are full
of sensible views and experiments of his own, and of absurdi-
ties derived from the relation of others. He leans too much,
for one of our day, to the attempt to discover the funda-
mental relations which touch close upon the primaty quali-
ties of matter, instead of endeavouring to connect and classify
what he had actually observed. And what we maintain is,
that his discoveries do not show him to have that talent for
suggestion and power of perceiving points of comparison,
which is the distinguishing attribute of the greatest disco-
verers. To teke an instance : in his experiments ' showing
how to make flame stable and ponderable,* he finds that
various substances gain weight by being heated. He states
it then as proved that 'either flame, or the analogous
effluxions of the fire, will be> what chemiste would call, cor-
S)rtfied with metals or minerals exposed naked to its action,*
ut it never suggests itself to him, that the additional sub-
stance added to tne metal or mineral may be air, or a part
of air.
When a character has been overrated in any respect, the
discovery of it is usually attended by what the present age
calls a reaction : the pendulum of opinion swings to the
side opposite to that on which it has heen unduly brought
out of ito position of equilibrium. ¥at instance, in a very
instructive discourse prefixed to the Bupp. Encyc, Britann.,
Mr. Brande speaks thus : * Boyle has left voluminous proofb
of his attachment to seienttilc pursuits, but his experiments
are too miscellaneous and desultory to have afforded either
brilUant or usefVil results ; his reasoning is seldom satisfac-
tory ; and a broad vein of prolixity traverses his philosophi-
cal works. He was too fond of mechanical philosophy to
thine in chemistry, and eave too much time and attention
to theological and metepnysical controversy to attain any
eoEoellence in either of the former studies. He who would
do justiee to Boyle's scientific character must found it rather
upon the indirect benefits which he conferred, than upon
any immediate aid which he lent to science. He exhibited
a variety of experiments in public, which kindled the xeal
of others more capable than himself. He was always open
to conviction, and courted opposition and controversy upon
the principle that truth is often elicited by the conflict of
opinions.* From none of this do we dissent except as to
dopree. To say that Boyle did not attain any excellence in
chemistry, or furnish ' any immediate aid* to science, is
aurely too much. Perhaps it will be a fair method to take a
foreign history of physics (where national partiality is out
of the quettion) and try the following point :— What are
those discoveries of the Briton of the seventeenth century
which would bo thought worthy of record by a Frenchman
of the nineteenth? In the Hist. Phil, du Progrh de la
Phlfnqu0, Paris, 1810, by M. Libes, we find a chapter de-
voted to the ' Pcogr^ de la Physique entre les mains de
Boyle,* and we are told that the air-pump in his hands be*
came a new maohine— that sueh means in the hands of a
man of genius multiply science, and that it is impossible to
IbUow Boyle through his labours without being astonished
at the immensity H hit resources for tearing out the secrets
of nature. The diaeovery of the propagation of sound by
the air (the more ereditable to Boyle tnat Otto von Guerieke
had been led astray as to die cause), of the absorbing power
of the atmosphere, of the elastic force and combustive power
of steam, the approximation to the weight of the air, the
discovery of the reciprocal attraction of the electrified and
non-electrified body, are mentioned as additions to the
science. Between the character implied in the two preeedins
quotations, we have no doubt the true one is to be found.
Sat then is a peculiar advantage oonsequent upon such a
labourer as Boyle in tne Infanev of snch a
mistry. Here are no observed nets of such i
rence, and the phenomena of which are so dietinctlj lusd^r
stood, that any theory receives something like asaetit •r
dissent as soon as it is proposed. The science of mocLaiiifia
must have originally stooa to chemistry much in Iho mmma
relation as the objects of botany to those of mineral^^ : the
first presenting themselves, the second to be soQot fer.
The mine was to be ibund as well as worked; aad crvaty
one who sunk a shaft diminished the labour eC kia wto-
cessors by showing at least one place where it waa noC In
this point of view it is impossible to say to what ils^iea of
obligation chemistry is to limit its acknowledgmeata to
Boyle. Searching eveiy inlet which phenomeaa presentod,
trying the whole material world in detail, and wita a dtapo-
sition to prize an error prevented, as much as a tnith <Lh
covered, it cannot be told how many were led to thai «hivh
does exist, by the previous warning of Boyle as to that
which does not. Perhaps had his genius been of a higher
order he would have made fewer experiments and belter
deductions ; but as it was, he was admirably fitted for tiim
task he undertook, and no one can say that his works* th»
eldest progeny of the ' Novum Organum** were any Ihiog
but a cr^it to the source from whence thev spruag, or
that their author is unworthy to occupy a nigh plaoe 4u
our Pantheon, though not precisely on the gmimda taken
in many biographies or popular treatises.
The characteristics of Boyle as a theological writer axe
much the same as those whicn appertain to him aa a phil(m>-
Jther. He does not enter at all into disputed articles c/
aith, and preserves a quiet and argumentative tone throuieii-
out In his discourse against customary swearings wnttcn
when he was very young, he shows a little of the vna
which distinguishes his letters : but the very great pcoiixi&j
which he falls into renders him almost uni«adable. He
was, as he informs us in his youth, a writer of verses, and
one fancy-plbce in prose, ' the Martyrdom of Theodonk' hi»
been preserved, wherein his hero and hermne mako sec
speeches to each other, of a kind somewhat like those m
diceio de Oratore, with a little dash of Amadia da Gaoii^
until the executioner relieves the reader. His * Oocasiuojii
Reflections* have fallen under the lash of tho two gtcaxot
satirists in our language. Swift and Butler, in the ' Pu>u»
Meditation upon a Broomstick* of the former, and an * Ocur
Kional Reflection on Dr. Charlton*s feeling a dog's polte u
Gresham CoUejge,* published with the posuiumous wiUinfi
of the latter. The treatises ' on Seraphic Love,* * C!oasidefv
tions on the Style of the Scriptures,' and ' on the ^ cvat
Veneration that Man*s Intellect owes to God,* have a ^ao«
in the Index librorum prohibitorum of the Roman Chuicx
(Kijmis, Biog. Brit)
The * Boyiean Lectures* were instituted by him ia Us
last will, and endowed with the proceeds of eertain praperty,
as a salary for a ' divine or preaching minister** on cob-
dition of preaching eight sermons in the year fi»r nronm
the Christian religion against notorious infidels^vis. *«h^n>^
theists, pagans, Jews, and Mahometans, not deeocndiof
lower to any controversies that are among Christiana them
selves. The minister is also required to promote the pr^
pagation of Christianity, and answer the scruples of all viia
apply to him. The stipend was made perpetual hj Aivb*
bishop Tennison. Dr. Bentley was appointed Um ttt\
Boyle lecturer. We shall not give a deteiJed list of all thfl
titles of Boyle's works, which would occupy much room u
Uttle purpose, as a complete set of the oiigiaal •^vtyffl^ ^
ver^ rarely met with, and the two collected cditiona ha^v
thenr own indexes. During his lifetime, in 1677. a v«iy
imperfect and incorrect edition was publiriied at Gaocvi.
The first complete edition was published in I M4 by Ik.
Birch, as already noticed. It is in five volumes ibbo* and
contains the life which has furnished all suooeedi^ writers
with authorities, besides a very copious index. The oolkc-
tion of letters in the fifth volume is Ughlj intetvstmg.
The second complete edition was published in 1 772, Bu
previously to either of these, in 1780. Dr. Shaw» the cdttuc
of Bacon, deserved well of the scientiflo world by puUi&hinf
an edition of Bovle in three volumes quarto. * ahnd^d,
methodized, and aisposed under general hea^* The %*>
eond edition was published in 1738. As far aa may he. t&t
various and scattered experimente are brought to^tho-,
and a good index added, but we cannot find any rel<f«oc«
to the originals. There is a list of BoyIe*s works in Hut-
ton*s mathematical dictionaiji and tm^fl^ in Mozaiu Thoa
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BOY
.dOl
^oy
is a oopioot life, taken mostly from Dr. Bireli« m the Btog,
Bni»t and tlie mne iHUt scfme additions in Dr. IUppi>*8 un-
llniihed TSpfint*
It wiU be Qsefbl to remember as to contemporary chro-
nology, that Boyle was bom in the vear in which Bacon
died, and Newton in that in which GkdUeo died ; Boyle being
flftsen Tears older than Newton.
BOYLE, CHARLES, second son of Roger, the second
earl of Oitery in Lreland, was bom at Chelsea, August,! 676.
ile was entered, in his fifteenth year, at Christ Church,
Oxford, as a nobleman. The directors of his studies were
Dr. Atterbnry, afterwards Bishop of Rochester, and Dr.
Friend, the eminent physician, or, as others say, his brother,
f he master of Westminster school. The elevated rank and
teeompUshments of their pupil appear to have given the
highest satisfliction to the master of the college. Dr. Aldrich,
Ibr, in the dedication to him of his * Manual of Logic,' since
adopted as the Oxford University text-book* he declares
htm to be * magnum ttdis nostra oraamentum.* It is requi-
site here to say a word or two in explanation of the circum-
stances which gave rise to the finnous controversy ostensibly
sustained by the Hon. Charles Boyle against the great Aris-
tarehns of Cambridge, Dr. Bentley, but which in reality was
an affair with which Boyle himself had almost nothing to
do. In addition to the particulars in the article on Bentley,
p. S50, coneeming the origin of this fietce contention of wit
nnd leanung, it may be observed that Dr. Aldrich, in order
to promote the reptttation of his college, encouraged the
students in the practice of editing, every year, some antient
classic author; and as Sir Wm. Temple, in his ' Essay on
Antient and Modem Learning/ had just then assoled
f Works, vol. L p. 166) that *The oldest books we have are
still in their kind the best : the two most antient in prose are
* iBsop's Fables* and * The Epistles of Pbalaria :* the latter
exhibit everir excellence of a statesman, soldier* wit and
•eholar ; I thrak they have a greater force of wit and genius
than any others I have ever seen either antient or modem* —
tiiese two Oreek relics of antiouity, which Temple imagined
to be of the age of Cyms ana Pythagoras, were chosen as
nubJecU fiv the stripling Christ Church editors^ ^sop was
ptttilished by Alsop, and^alaris by Boyle, who was then at
the age of 1 9. The title of his edition is ' Fhalaridis Agvi-
^ntinoram lyranni Epistolse ex MS. reoensuit* versione,
smnoUtionibns et vita insuper authoris donavit Car. Boyle ;
ex ^do Christ], Oxon., 1695.' In the preface it is stated
that the text was collated only partially with the MS. in the
King's Library, because the librarian (Bentley) had the sto-
gtUar kindness to refuse the use of it for the requisite time ;
the words are ' pro singulari sua humanitate negavit.* This
petulant passage is said to have been occasioned by Bentley *s
leoaarking, at the time of lending the MS., that it was a
spurious work, the subseouent fomeiy of a sophist, and not
worthy of a new edition. In the Dissertation on the Epistles
of Pbsdaris, which Bentley annexed to the 2nd edition of Dr.
Wotton's Reflections, in 1697, their spurious oharacter, as
W^l as that of the present ^sopian Fabfea, is clearly exhi-
bited; the Khig*s MS. is decUred to have been 'lent in
violatiott of roles, and not reclaimed (br six days* though for
eoUatinr it fbur hours would suffice.* To show all the silli-
nees ana hnpertinenoe of these epistles,* says Bentley» ■ would
be endless ; they are a fardle of common-place without life
or spirit : the dead and empty cogitations of a dreaming
pedant with his elbow on his desk.* That Boyle, in his
editorial oAce. received the aid of his tutor. Dr. Friend, is
acknowledged by himself; indeed to those who can justly
appreciate the labour of revising the text of an antient
Greek author, the great improbaoiUty needs not be sug<
Rested, that a young fashk>nahle nobleman in his teens
•hoiild, unassisted, accomplish a task so dull and difficult
Of the real dreumstances of the case Bentley appears to
havw been aware when, in his ' Dissertation/ he shrewdly de-
aignatee Boyle as the young gentleman o/great hopes whose
name is set to the e£tion, and asserts tnat the editor no
more than Phalaris wrote what is ascribed to him. This
declaration of Bentkj^'s critical judgement elicited the witty
and malijgnant attack upon him, entitled * An Examination
^the Dissertation, &c, by the Honourahb Charles Boyle^
1698,* a work whieh, in reality^ was the joint production of
the leading m^ of Christ Church, mstigated by Dr.
Aldrich, while Boyle himself was absent from the country.
Tills is the meaning of Swift in his ' Battle of the Books,'
when he represents Boylo as being ' clad in a suit of armour
given him by all the gods s* that is, Dr. Friend, Dr. King»
Dr. Snsidhidge^ Dr, Attexfoury» See, A letter of the last»
in hu * Epistolary Correspondence, vol. ii. p. 1-23., upbraids
Boyle with ungratefhlly requiting his services in planning,
writing half, and correcting the wnoleof the ' Examination.*
See alsoWarburton 8 ' Letters/ 8vo., p. 11, for a confirmation
of the fact that all the wit and erudition displayed under
the name of Charles Boyle, was the produce of his feU
low collegians. After tnis, it is somewhat amusing to
find Dr. Kippis, in his Biog. Brit., asserting that *Mr.
Boyle wrote extremely well in defence of his performance ;*
and the polite Dr. relton observing that * if we own Dr*
Bentley is the better critic, we must acknowledge that his
antagonist is much the genteelest writer/ The truth is,
the united efforts of the Oxford scholars resulted in total
fkilure. * In many parts of the Examination,* says Bishc^
Monk, * the critics seem to have parted too soon with their
grammars and lexicons.* It occasioned, however, at the
time a very great excitement in the two rival Universities ,
for though it led unimpaired the main arguments of the
'Dissertation/ yet, abounding in ready wit and satirical
vivacity, it procured for the young nobleman of Oxford a
temporary triumph. Bentley put forth« in 1699, his *Dia-
sertation' enlarged and separately printed : it effieoted the
most complete aemoHtion of the Oxford wits, who threatened
but never attempted an answer. Por many interesting par*
ticulars of this memorable controversy, see Dr. Monk's ' Life
of Bentley/ 4to., p. 45-107; Disraeli's 'Quarrels of
Authors ;* Rymer's * Essay on Curious and CritioaV Learn
ing.* Boyle, in 1700, was elected a member of parliament
for Huntington ; and, in consequence of a quarrel with his
opponent, Mr. Wortley» he fought a duel with him in a
gravel-pit near Grosvenor Gate in Hyde Park, an affiur
which, from his extreme loss of blood, was nearly fatal to
him. In 1 703 he succeeded to the title of earl of Orrery.
He entered the service of Queen Anne^ received the com-
mand of a regiment, and waa made a Knight's Companion
of the order of the Thistle. In 1709, as nuyor-geneml, he
fought at the famous battle of the Wood, under the Duke
of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, at MalpUquet, near
Mens, in Belgium. On his return to England he was sworn
a member of the privy council, and sent, at the time of the
treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, aa envmr extracndinaiy to the
states of Brabant and Flanders. For his services on this
occasion he was raised to the English peerage with the title of
lK>rd Boyle, Baron of Maraton, m Somerset. On the aoo«r
sion of George I, he was made a Lord of the Bedchamber
and beeame a confidential favourite at court In Septemb^
1722, he was abruptly committed to the Tower on a charge
of high treason, as an aoeomplice in the sedition called
Laver's Plot. After six months* imprisonment he was
bailed by Div Mead and others, and was ultimately aoquif*
ted. He amused himself in the latter part of his life with
philosophical suljects ; and patronised George Grahamt an
mgenious watchmaker, who constructed the mechAnical
instrument representing the planetary revolutions, and in
(Index*
vol. il Suppl. 8wift*8 Works.) In the 2nd vol. of the works
of Roger earl of Orraiy, are several Uterary conpositions
of Charles Boyle ; among other trifles, a oomedy called * Aa
you find it.* He publiuied also a volume of Occasional
rooms and Son^ on which Sic Ridbtard Blackmore has
the following distich .-^
«AllOTUBlbolbhrhypi««lMl1kftlflMbMidtwt '
Condndt tkey knvw who did not write hU pmnu'
He died at the age of 56, on the 98th of August, 1731.
BOYLB» JOHN, only son of Charies, fourth eari of
Orrery, was bom Feb» 3, 1706. On the death of his fkther
in 1731 he took his seat in the House of Loids, and was a
eonstont opposer of the administration of Sir Robert Wal«
pole. He resided in Ireland a good deal, and formed an
aequaintanoe with Swift; and in 1758 published * Re«
marks on the life and Writiogs of Dr. Swift.* In 1 739 he
pubhahedin two volumes 6vo. an edition of thedramatie
works of his great grandfather ; in 1 74 1 he wrote * Imitations
of two of the Odes of Horaee ;* in 1742 he edited his great
grandfather's ' State Papers,* which were pnbhshed in one
vol* folk). In 1752 he published in two Tole. 4to. « Pliny *s
Letters, with Obsertatkma on each, and an Essay on the
Life of Pliny.* In 1-759 appeared his « Life of Robert Cary»
earl of Monmooth/ He wrots aereral emays for ' The
World,* 'The Connoisseur; and the 'Gentleman's Maga-
zine.* He was ibnd of retirement, and onieh attached te
literaxy pursuits* Tho earl of Qnwy died at his seat «t '
90X
mi
»OTf
Usntoii. Somenetsbira, Nov. leth, 1762, m lut Iflth y^ar.
In 1774 appeared a volume entitled * Letteia from Italy,*
wbioh he oad written while tesiding in that country in
1754-5
BOYLSTON. ZABDIEL, an American phyaietan, wat
bom in tbe state of MasBaohuaettt, in 1684. Ho was the
first to introduce inoculation into New Bngland, whece the
practice became general before it waa common in Great
Britain. In 1721 the small-pox broke out at Boston in an
alarming manner, when Dr. Cotton Mather pointed out to
the profession an aooount of inoculation as practised in tho
east, which was <3ontained in a volume of the * Transactions'
of the Royal Society. Notwithstanding the ridicule with
which bis medical brethren treated this mode of counter*
acting a virulent disease, Boylston had the courage to
inoculate his own son. In the years 1721 and 1722, tbe
practice of inoculation spread, and, with one or two exoep-
tions, it waa attended with the most suocesaftil results. But
such were the ohstinate prejudices of the profession and the
public generally, that clamours were raised against Boylaton,
and bis life was in danger in eonsequenee of the excited
state of popular feeUng; even the ' select men* of Boston
passed a by-law prohibitory of inoculation. It waa alleged
that ^e practice increased the probabilitiea of contagion,
and also that tbe disease being a judgment ftom Heaven
on men'a sins, it was impious to adopt such means to avert
its wrath. Boylston outlived these prejudices, and acquired
a considerable fortune by the successful practice of his pro-
fession. During a visit which he paid to England, he met
with great attention, and was elected a fellow of the Royal
Bocie^. He corresponded with this body on hia return to
America, and (ome of his papers are printed in the 6oeiety*s
'Transactions.* He was the author of two works relating
to the small-pox (one a pamphlet published at Boston), both
of which are in tbe library of the British Museum. The
other work waa printed in London, during tbe visit which he
paid to this country.
BO YNB, a river of Ireland; rises near Carberry,iQ the
barony of Carberry and oo. of Kildare, whence, flowing W.
not far horn Edenderry in tbe King's County, it receives the
waters of that portion of the hog of Allen lying immediately
N. of tbe line of the Grand Canal ; then, turning to tbe
N. E., which direction it keeps throughout the remainder
of its course, it receives the Yellow and Milltown rivexa out
of the bogs extending from Crogban bill to Tyneirs
Pass in the co. of Westmeath. Soon after thia it enters
the CO. of MMth at Clonard, croases the Royal Canal, and
receives the Deel, a large stream flowing parallel to the
Yellow River ftom Mullingar in Westmeath. The Boyne
having now left the marshy skirts of the bog of Allen flows
through the rich plaina of Meatb, receiving the wateia of
many small rivers, till, pasaing Trim, where ita banks are
orowned with the lofty nuns of numerous abbeya and caatka,
it sweeps past the base of Tara hill in a men ncctheriy
direction to Navan, whara it meeta the Blaekwater» de-
soending by a 8.B. course tiom the lake of Virginia on the
confines ofCavan. The united riveia now become navi-
gable at a distance of 85 Bngliak m. direct ftom the aea,
and resuming a mora B. ooune by Slane and Oklbridge
proceed along the 8. part of the oo. of Louth to Drogheda,
and thence to the Irish channel, wkicb the Boyne entem after
a winding course of about 48 Irish m.or 60 English from its
source. "Die navigation of the Boyne from Drogheda to Navan
waa effected by a company in 1 7 70. An extension of the line
to Trim and Athboy waa projected, but never carried into
execution. The whole navigation of nearly 20 m. from
Drogheda to Navan was lor many yeara in the hands of the
oompany (The Boyne Navigation Company) ; but the title
of the company to levy tolls being disputed, it was decided
that the lower 18| m. from the Carrickdexter Look to Dtag»
heda waa legaUv Veated in the Irish Board of Works, whidi
accordingly took poasesaion in Auguat, 1834. The Boyne
divides the co. of Meath diagonally into two nearly equal
parts. Ita whole course through thia oo^ aflbrda rich land-
scape scenery, the deaofut of the river being in ^eral
gradual, and the aloping banka abounding in hiatoneal in-
terest. The river baa been called the ' Boyne of Soienoe*
from the number of monaatic inatitntiona on ok not ftur from
its banks, among which may be enumerated Clonard. Trim,
Btfctive, Donagbmore, Slane, MelUfbnt Monaateiboyca,
and the various religioua loundatioos of Droghe la.
Tbe Boyne however derives ita chief intereit U^m the
important battle fd^t upon ita banka on the 1st July,
)690» batfea» Ihn Mgtttt aoniinndar WiUianUL and
the Iriah un^er Jamof 11. The Boyne between I
Drogheda. i^ distance of • m., ia (brdaUe at three ,
one below the bridge of Slane, another at Roanane, abona a
mile farther down, and a third opposite the httle villeiee of
Oldbridge and hill of Donore, 8 m- to the W. of Dregbeda.
Round the W. baae of tho hiU of Donoie tbs Boyne lakea
a sweep and forms two imatl islands in front of Old-
bridge: the hanka hare rise gradually aowardstba bill end
church of Dooore on the B. side, and along the beautiful
ravine, still called King William'a Glen, towards the cni»al
abbey of Mellifbnt upon the N. King William bavinir
marehed from Camckferips, where he had landed on tim
I4th of June, mustered bit force of BngUah, French, Duic^
and Danea at Ihindalk on the 87th, and flnding ihml iba
Irish had retired beyond the Boyne, moved fbrwaad on the
2Uth, and encamped his army, 36,000 strong upon tbe N.
side of the river between MeUifont and Drot^eda* WiU«m
had with him tbe Duke Scbomberg and hia eon Count
Schomberg, Generals Qinkel. Douglas, and Kirk, and
other distinguished persons. Jamea, aeconpanied by iht
dukea of Berwick and Tyroonnell, the Generala Hnmilioa.
Sarsefield, and Porington, and the Count Lmmoo. «m
enoamped along the oppoaitc bank with 87»0<M Inah
and French prepared to dispute the pasaage oi the fords
at Oldbridge, wlule Lord Iveagb, occupying Dnigbeda on
his bahalfk bold the main mad to Dublin on b« ngbt.
On the evening of the 30th, while William waa yei unde-
termined what course to pursue, he rode down with bu *\mA
within range of the Irish lines, and tome field-pieeee bcif»tf
brought to bear upon hia party, be waa in imminent danzer
of being killed by a round shot which ton awajr port of uia
ooat and lacerated his tboulder* On thia the EngbOi
artillery was brought up and a brisk cannonade wna com*
menced across the .rivers but no farther step wee taken \n
either army until the next day. On the morning of tbe In.
it having been detecmined to force the passage of the nv«r.
General Douglas and Count Scbombeig wovo dispaubiii
with a body of 10,000 horse and loot to crosa the tord^ brlur
SMe. On the other side, a body of 6000 Fcenoh Ibot, %u^
ported bv Sir Neal ONeill's dragoons, moved from tbe Int
of the Irish army to oppose them. Tbe paeaaso of t:c
river was soon effected ; Sk Neale O'Neill iell at tbe bi*i
of his retciment oo the ftrst charge, and after a thmip de-
pute upon the bank, General Douglaa made goad hia p&*
tion against the French infantry. The suooeae of u.«
movement* so fiu, being announced to WiUiam, ho gox* liw
word to his eentrs^ oomnoaed of tbe Dutch guorda, t^
Bnniskillen infantnr, and two regiments of Fi«eh Uso-
nets, supported by Hanmer's and Count Nasaao a dragaju«
to orosa toe river oppoaito Oldbcidga* where tbo Iriah ocater
lay partly under cover of ditohea and breaatworfca, and pArui
concealed by intervening height^ The Duteb. eatesed the
river Arst, above the litUe islands; the FVeneb and iLixu^
killenen oroased by the upper ialand of the twow niMi Uk
Daniah cavalry between them. The Dutch, altbou^ warm.)
received! snoeeeded in disledgiag their oppononaa; hot t4
Frenob were broken by a eba^ of horse lod bv Cd
Parker, and M. Callemot their rommandftr waa alaia ;
iquadron also of the Danish horse waa driven be^ i
the river by Hamilton's dragoona, and Count Nneaau*s ez-
valry with difficulty withstood reveral trying attecka «f tiu
duke of Berwick*a guaida. While tbe oonmet waa here si
tbe hotteat, William, at the bead of tbe tMMkfot hm left
^ng, crossed the river a little below, and came to tbe sup-
Sort of his centre. Just about tbe sano time Deko Sckaxo-
erg, who commanded the reserve, ecoasing oppomto QU-
bciflge to tbe asaiatance of the broken Hugonaas, waa luOri.
and Mr. Walker, cclebnted for hia booic detaoe of Laa-
donderry, fell shortly after. The lUmkkHlen saBimeiiu*
which had fallen back, it ia said^ ^'^"'fl^ miatsl% ouv
rallied, and animated by the presence of Williaai* diai|8«d
the Iriah very bravely, who, being beaten oot of the Vjmu
of Oldbridge by the Dutch, began to fiUl back on Do»«a
bill, where Jamea ia asserted to have atood duiinir tbe to-
sagement an idle spectatof of their atrugglea in Ida cao«e
below. Hera however the Irish rallied, and lopsdaed a
charge BMde by Genenl Ginkel ; but in returning ii at cbt
bead of hia regiment General Hamiltott wea taken fnmntr
and hia men were driven back with considerable lesa. Ai
the same time General DdugbM, higher i^ tlw riiwr. b»l
puahed the French foot from tbsir poaition, and waa wui
aaing tbcm towards Duleek, a town upon tbe road le Dub-
lin about 4 m. in tbe rear. Hither tbe whole Ifiab
idiflct^ aftac began to dims
Digitized by
BOY
803
AOZ
^ofwadbftedite of Bbnnob while (SaiMiddloottdaBted
JaittM torn tl» ilflld under the proteetiati of hii own
nginent of caTaliy. Tbe Engluh, coneentrating their
Montiio foAr ertho onemy; ponued Hiom to the river
DulaektWbera the dnke of Berwiek* nfter eroding die
on in eoniiderthle oonftuion, nUied onoe tnora upon
the opposite benk^ end ftmnued hf tiio appneeh of night»
pntaetoptothe ptanidt The lots on both rides was eom-
peimtiirely trifling. The Irish eamp, beggege, end ertiUery
Ml into the victor s bends, end Drogheda sunendered next
day. Janne fled straight to Dublin, and thenee thnmgh
the eountiea of Wioklow and Wexibrd, posted to Waterfbrdi
where shipping had been prepared to earty him to SHnoe^
Bis army, freed ftom his irresolute ooonods, tetiriid vpon
Athlone* and theneelbrth fought with vigour and determi-
aat{on. An obelisk of grand proportions was erected in
oommemoiation of the battle of the Boyne ki 1786. It
namedtately faees the fl>rd at Oldbridge^ mkrUtig the
spot wheie William received his wound en the evening
before the engagement It is 150 ft in heighti by 20
sit tbe. base. Oldbridge, although only a fold in 1690>
liad been tbe site of a bridge ifit a veiy earlv date, for it9
name, which indicates as much, is found in the iwtent rolls
•ofhr back ai the reign t^ Rfehahill. The Boyne Is also
vendered ihmous in more antient histoty by the invasion of
Turgesius the Dane, who sailed up it Irith a fleet Of Norse-
men to the plunder of Meeth a.d. bSs. It iii a deep and wide
fiver at Drogheda, navistbld for vessels of 350 tons, and
would be eapMie of receiving vessels of much greater burthen
were the bar which now obsthicts Its entrance partially re-
moved. The total desoept of the river is 836 ft {Stai*
Surv. qfMeath ; ReporU m Imh Bogs i Storey's Impair^
Hdi NmrMve; Tkaffb*e HMwrf ^Ir^kM; Poii CMh
C^ffipofii oil.)
B0Y8B, SAMUEL; A writer of considerable poetical
falent, but remarkable chieliy for tbe singular contrast of
his elevated imaginatton and rectitude of motal sentiment,
Us displayed in his writings, and his dissolute pn>pensities.
He was the son of Joseph Boyse, an eminent dissentinv
minister, and was bom in Dublin, in 1708. Being destined
for the pulpit, he was sent by hift father to the University of
Glasgow, where, after spending a fow months in idleness,
he married while yet in his teens ; and, with his #ifo and
her sister, who in disripation and ihdolenoe were similar to
himself, hb returned to Dublin, and occasioned by his dis-
iolute conduct the ruin and death of his fiither. Who, as k
pauper, was buried at flie expense of his congregation. He
then went to Edinburgh, and published in 1731 a volume
of poems, with a flattering dedication to the COiiUtesi of
BgUnton, who, Mth Lord Stormont, (on the death of whose
lady, Borse had published a laudatory elegy.) patronised
him, and kindly recommended him to Lord Mansfield and
the duchess of 6<»don, by whom, arid also by Tiords Stair
and Tweedale, he wae tonished with introductorv letters to
the Lord Chancellor, Sir Peter Kin?, Pope, and other im-
portant personages in England, whither he removed; to
escape flom the importunity of his creditors in Scotland.
But his indolence and aversion to reflned society defoated
the friendly intentions of his natrons ; so that, resorting to a
squalid garret in London, ne relied upon the sale of his
verses and the charitable donations of literary individuals,
whose compassion he excited by the most eerrile and pathetic
protestatidns of hi^ mi^rable condition. iH 1740 he nub-
lished bis principal work, a poem entitled 'Deitv.* it is
fhvourably notic^ by Fielding (see a periodical called 'The
Champion,* Feb. 12; 1740$ and 'Tom Jones,* b. vii. e. I,)
and by Henrey (Medit vol. ii. p. 239, ed. 1767). It has
been reprinted m several collections of the minor poets, (in
one by William Giles, 1 776,) and by some ha^ been ttiought to
be sublime and beautiful. It is one of the numerous at-
tempts at poetical sublimity in which the most ridiculous
faults are tolerated solely on acooutit of the subject The
Allowing Unes ftom the poet*8 invocation of his muae are
1 fair s]Sclmen of this poem, which abounds more hi notes
of admiration than intelligible and consecutive ideas*—
_ iM|i0Btv«rl«lMBteththeA]mitlit|rnidflb
Wtnle Chaiw trembled at tW voiee of Godl
Thou mw when o*er Uie ImneaM hit ttoa Im divw i
Wbeo NoihlBp fton Ub Jraii niglMiM kMwr
To ihe atheist the author exclaims—
• Go! «n Um rffbikM If aliBi of iVMa nvfaf I
Tlie devotional reflections, ttiough -incoherent, and nlade
often apparently to furnish a rhyme; display an occasional
enecgf of pbetioftl oohceptbn which evto Pope dedaied ha
would not disown. But wo oan ibel only disgust at the pbua
pretensiona of a man who, often with a guinea obtained by
employing hia wife to write mendicant letters, oould gratify
his sensuality at a tavern while she and her child were sufi-
fering with oold and hunger ; and who^ in order to indulge in
his habits of intozioation, even sanctioned, it is said, and
received the wages o£ her prostitution* Boyse was a very
oopioBs contributor of verses to the ' (3entieman*8 Magaaine.*
For these compoeitions he was paid per 100 lines: they
have the signatures Y and AlcBUs ; ana, if collected, would
form about six 8vo toliimes. Among his separate ^ublica-
tiona an ' Albion's Triumph,* a poem on the battle of Det-
tingen ; 'An hiatofisal Review of the Transactions in Europe
durmg 17S1M&;* 'Chaucer's Tales in modem Bnglish«* &a
He was not deficient in ability as a classical schdar, and a
translator of Qermant Dotdu and French; but his invete-
rate habit of drinking hot beer in the lowest pothouses at
' stupifiod hia nund, and reduced him to the necessity of
ig even his clothes. In this predicament he sometimes*
several weeks, sat up in bed composing odes and elegies
fbr the ' Qentleman*a Magasine.* All the mourning he oould
aiford on tho death of his wife was a pennyworth of black
ribbon, which he tied round the neck of his little dog. His
wietehednees, like that of Savage, was oommiserated by
Dr. Johnson, who instituted for him, among his friends, a
snhsoription of sixpences* His benefactors, wearied out
with his tpplieations, at lengdi abandoned him, and, in
May, 1749, tie died in his garret hi Shoe-lane, with his pen
in his hand, as he sat in hia blanket, translating the treatise
of Fenelon on the exiatenee of God. He left a second wife
hi extreme poverty, and was buried al the expense of the
parish. (See an elaborate Biography in Gibber's Liv€9 qf
ike I\)6i4.y
BCZZARIS, MARCOS, a native of Souli in the moun
tains of Bpirus, bom about the end of the 18th century,
was vet a bov at the time of the war of extermination waeed
Sr All Pieha of Jannina against the Souliotes. [Ali
ACflA.] At the close of that war hi 1803 Bozsaris and
his fether were among the remnaht of the Souliote popula-
tioti who aueoeeded in reaohing Parga, whence they went
over to the Ionian islands, then under the t)totection of
Russia. In 1B20, When the war broke out between the
sultan and Ali, about BOO SouUotes, who were still in the
Ionian islalids, offered their servioea to the Ottoman admiral
Against their old enemy, and were accordingly landed on
the coast of Epirua. Soon after however, having reason to
oomplain Of the Turks; and at tho same time receiving
fevonirable proposala with a bribe of monev firom Ali, they
went over to the pAOha, by whom they irete replaced in
possession of their Uattve mbuntaint. This was a great
stroke of Ali'a policy, whioh enabled him to carry on the
contest against the siUtkn fer two years longer. The Sou-
Uotes now feught for him with their ^ocustomed braverf
under the comtnaod of Botsaris, and the*r ranks were
swelled by other Epirotes to about 3000 fighting men.
With this feree Bofefearis gained toveral advanti^ over the
Turkish amiy» which was acting in Enirus against Ali. In
the spring of 1821 the sultan aent Khourshid Pacha with
a fresh army; who btid siege to Jannina. Bosxaris and his
Souliotes annoyed the TurkA by bold diversions in their
rear, while the (}reek revolutk>h breaking out at the same
time added to the difficulties of the sultan. On the taking
of Jannina idid the death of Ali in Feb. 1822, the Souliotes
continued the war on their own account, and being attacked
by Khourahid in their mountains, they defeated him with
Siat loss in May and June of that year. Khourshid at
t quitted Epirus, leaving Omer Vrioni in command there,
while at tho same time Prince Maurocordato lilnded at
Mesolonghi with a body of regular troops in the Greek
lervioe, and being joined by Boasaris advanced towards
Arta. This movement led to the battle of Ftotta, July 16,
1822, whkh the Oteeks and PhilheUenes lost through the
treachery of Gogos, an old Kleftis and captain of Armatoles.
Boxxaris, after lighting bravely, was obliged to retire with
Maurocordato to MesofonghL Soon after the Souliotes, who
had remained in their mountains, signed a capitulation with
the Turks, by which thqy gave up SouU and the fortress of
Khiafe, and on receiving a sum of money, retired with their
families to Cefelotiia, in Sept. 1822. Boszaris with a hand-
fhl of Souliotes remained with Maurocordato, determined to
defend Mesolonghi to the last. He kept the Turks at bay
by various sorties, and also amused tnem by promises oi%
surrender, until a Hydriote flotilla coming to lelievejho-
BRA
301
BRA
place, tlie Tarlu raised the siege and retired iato Bjnrui,
March, 1823. The pacha of Scodra advanced next with a
numerous foroe of Albanians, determined upon taking
Mesolongbi. Boxzaria feeling the importance of that town
to the Graek caose, and knowing the weakness of the for-
tifications, which were unfit co resist a regular siese, deter-
mined to meet the enemy. He left Mesolonghi with a body
of only 1200 men, 800 of whom were his own Souliotes, and
havine inspired them with his own self-devotedness, he
arrived on the 20th of August, 1823, near Kerpenisi, where
the van of the Albanians, oonsistinff of about 4000 Mirdites
under Jeladeen Bey, was encamfMo. Having held a coun-
cil with his officers, it was determined to attack the enemy *s
camp the following night The Souliotes marched silently
to the attack and surprised the Albanians, of whom they
made a ^reat slaughter. Bossaris while leading on his
men received a shot in the loins, and soon after another in
the face, when he fell and expired. The Souliotes then
withdrew, carrying away Bouans* body, which was interred
at Mesolonghi wiui every honour. The executive govern-
ment of Greece being informed of the event issued a decree
in which they styled Bozsaris the Leonidaa of modem
Greece. His brother, Constantino Bozzaris, succeeded him
m the command of the Souliote battalion. The self-devoted-
ness of Bozzaris was the means of protracting the defence
of Mesolonghi for two years more. The Ottomans being
dispirited by the loss they had sustained, the pacha of
Scodra after some fruitless demonstrations against the town
withdrew into Albania, and no fresh attempt was made till
1825, when Mesolonghi was besieged and at last taken by
the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pacha [Mbsolonobi]. What
renders the battle of Kerpenisi moro remarkable is, that the
Mirdites, whom Bozzaris fought, were Christians like the
Souliotes, though in the Ottoman service. They were said
to have lost more than 800 of their men in the ni^ht of the
attack. (Gordon's HUtory qfthe Greek Revolution; Life
qf Ail Pacha, 8cc.)
BRABANT, DUCHY OF, formerly one of the most
important provs. of the Netherlands, was bounded on the
N. by Holland and Guelderland, on the £. by Guelderland
and JLidge, on the S. by Hainault and Namur, and on the
W. by Flanders and Zealand.
Under the successors of Charlemagne, the dukes of Bra-
bant were possessed of considerable power and influence over
the rulers of the other Netherland provinces. Joan, eldest
daughter of John III., the last duke of Brabant, bequeathed
the duchy to Anthony, second son of Philip the Bold, Duke
of Burgundy; and by degrees, through intermarriages,
inheritance and purchase, the various Netherland provs.
which composed the * Circle of Burgundy,* came under the
dominion of the dukes of that name. At the death of
Charles the Bold, the last of these dukes, whoM daughter
Mary was married to Maximilian, the son and successor of
Frederick IV., Emperor of Germany, Brabant passed under
the dominion of the house of Austna. In 1516 Charles V.,
Emperor of Germany, and grandson of Maximilian, became
King of Spain, and his Netherlands dominions were united
with the crown of Spain.
The religious persecution instituted in the reign of Philip
II. against all who would not profess the Roman Catholic
religion, caused the inh. of the seven N. provs. to rise in
defence of their liberties ; and in 1581 these provs. were
formed into an independent union, under the title of* The
United Provinces,' Prince William of Orange being de-
clared Stadtholder. The seven provs. thus allied stood
antiently in the following order as regtuded their rank : —
Guelderland, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Overys-
sell, and Groningen. To these were afterwards added, by
conquest and under treaties, Drenthe, and the ' G6n6ra1itd-
lands.* so called on account of their belonging to the Slates
General of the United Provinces. In Uiese G6ndralit6-
lands was included the existing prov. of N. Brabant.
The remaining Netherlands provs., including S. Brabant,
continued united with the crown of Spain until 1708, when,
after the battle of Ramilies, they acknowledged for their
sovereij^n Charles VI., afterwards Emperor of Germany,
and were thenceforward known as the Austrian Nether-
lands.
In the progress of these events the duchy of Brabant was
not onlv divided in the manner described into separate
provs.. but it was also limited in extent by the erection of
pa rt of its territoij into the prov. of Antwerp. In the course
of the war which broke out in 1793, the whole were united to
France, In 1806 the United Provinces were erected into a
separate kingdom under Louii Bonapahet who reaignnd
his crown in 1810, when the territory waa t^-^mittzm to
Frenoe.
At the CongresB of Vienna* the whole of the aeventeen
prove, of the United Netheiianda. induding both N. and
S. Brabant, were erected into a kingdon under the
King of Holland ; but at the revolution of 1 830 8. Brahsnt
joined tiie revolt of the provs. whioh had fomeriy ooiMCitttted
the Austrian Netherlands, and it has ainee fbirned part ti
the kingdom of Belgium.
The two divisions of Brabant thus forming separate pao«a»
and now belonging to different kingdoms, it beeaoMS naooa*
sary to describe them under distinct heads.
BRABANT, NORTH, a prov. of the kingdom eT
Holland, bounded on the N. by S. Holland and Guelder-
land, from both which it Im divided by the Haas ; on the
E. by the Belgian prov. of Limburg, and the Rheuiah
provs. of Prussia ; on the S. bv the Belgian prova. of Lin-
burg and Antwerp ; and on the W. by the Dutch pcov. </
Zealand. North Brabant lies between 51'' IS', and 51* 5¥
N. lat., and 4*" 12' and 6*" O' £. long.
This prov., which once formed part of the ' G^n^raJ it£*
lands, is generally level, but on the N. and W. tliere is some
rising ground : it contains several marshea and exlensips
heaths. It is politically divided into three depa. (arraid&.K
and nineteen districts (cantons).
The principal rivs. of North Brabant are the Ifaaa, which
forms its N. and N.B. boundary fh>m 3 m. W. of Wansanm to
its N. W. extremity ; the Dommel, which has its aouroe st
Peer, in Limburg, enters North Brabant near the vil. ol
Valkenswaart, and flows N. past Eindhoven to Bcia-le-Doc
after which, under the name of the Diexen, it j<Hns the
Maas at CrevecoBur. At Bois-le-Duc the Dommel is joined
bv the Aa, which rises in the prov. of Antwerp, about 4 m.
N.N.E. from Tumhout, and enters North Brnbant al the
commune of Hoogmeide. The Mark or Merk haa ita aooras
also near Tumhout, and running from 8. to N* enters Noctk
Brabant near to Meerle : it falls into Holhmda-Diep op-
posite the isl. of Goeree, having passed through the tov^
of Breda* This prov. is also washed on the W. by tke
channel which loins the E. and W. Scheldt, and whic^
separates the isls. of Zealand fW)m the continent ; and cu
the N. by the arm of the sea called Hollands-I>ie|s and its
continuation the Biesbosch.
The principal towns are Bois-le-Due, Breda. Petgen-e^
Zoom, Oosterhout, and Tilburg ; the other towns of tht
prov. are Geertruydenburg, WulemstaiL Flenaden. Graft.
Eindhoven, and Helmont
Geertruydenburg, a small fortified town, is situated ou ths
Biesbosch. This town was given up by treachery to tbe
duke of Parma in 1589, and was taken by Prince Maur^
in 1593. It contained on the Ist of January, 1830, Tii
males and 800 females, together 1558 inh., a great part U
whom are ensaffed in the fisheries. It haa a good hartuur,
and 18 7 m. N.N.E. from Breda.
Willemstad is situated on the HoIIands-Diep, 12 m. S«\r.
fh>m Dordrecht. Willemstad, which is fortified, vas bu:al
in 1584, by William I., prince of Orange: it haa a good
harbour ; and in 1830 contained 920 males and 947 firmaln.
together 1867 inh. It made a very gallant and aucorasfu!
defence in 1793, against the attack of the French unil«
General Dumourier.
Fleusden, a fortified town near the Maas, is 15 m. N.E.
from Breda. A great part of this town wudertro^cd in
1680, through the setting on fire by lightning of the ca«t>,
which contamed 70,000 pounds weight of gunpowder. IW
in 1830, 824 males, 1010 females.
Grave or Graf, situated on the left bank of the Maaj^ is
16 m. N.E. iVom Boia-le-Duc. It is a fortified town, snd
is considered as the key of Guelderland, on the bvdoa
of which it stands. It waa taken by the duke of Parma in
1586, and submitted to Prince Maurice in 160S. It made
a stout resistance to the French army in 1794, end did dok
capitulate until a great part of the town had been deatreyc^
Pop. in 1830, 1458 males, 1375 females.
Eindhoven, situated on the riv. Dommel, was Ibnncrif
the capital of the prov. It is now a place of eonsidcTabW
trade, and various manufactures are carried on ; axnor^g
them are cotton spinning, flax spinning and weaving. Xuv^
ing and tanning. Its grain market is considerable, ^ol
in 1830, 1490 males, and 1506 females.
Helmont, on the Aa, is about 17 m. 8.K. 1
Due This little town, which haa about 2500 inhu, ia I
for its manufkcture of damask napkinai it<
BRA
305
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naDuftetofiefl of woolbs, cotton, and linen goods. The
college of Helmont enjoys some reputation.
The pop. of Dutch brabant amounted in January, 1830,
(0 348,891.
Malct. Femalet. Total.
In towns . . . 35,399 35,550 70,949
In rural distriets 137,791 140,151 277,942
173,190 175,701 348,691
Of the above there were 41 .840 Protestants
305,446 Roman Catholics
1,476 Jews
129 not known
348,891
The movement of the pop. given in official statements for
two decennary periods ending with 1824, was as follows :—
BIRTHS
. Cowiu. countrr. total.
1004 to IS13.
17.31t 1%X79 nytfS
1815 to 1834.
S0.448 80,415 100.8S3
MARRIAGES.
tovM. country. tolaL
18S4 to 1613.
4g064 17.146 SUIO
1815 to 1824.
30,880
total
D£ATUS.
towiia. coantrr.
1804 to 18ia
16j6i6 59,tft5 75,771
1815 to 1824.
14,549 54.958 69,507
showing a progressive increase in the numbers of the people,
accompanied by an improvement as regards the duration
of life.
The area of the prov. being 1653 sq. m., gives a pop. of
211 to th« sq. m,, vrhieh is somewhat below the average
density of the kingdom, a fact which is attributable to its
larger nroportion of waste land.
North drabant, in common with all the Dutch provs., and
according to antient usage, has its particular States Assem-
bly, the members of which are elected by the nobles, the
towns, and the royal municipalities. This assembly meets
annually as a matter of course, and more frequently if con-
voked by the Kin^ of Holland. Its functions are the regu-
lation of local affairs, and the imposition of provincial taxes.
BRABANT, SOUTH, the metropolitan prov. of tlie
kingdom of Belgium, i& bounded on the N. by the prov. of
Antwerp; on the £. by Liege and Limburg; on the S.
by Hainault and Namur ; and on the W. by East Flanders.
South Brabant lies between 50"* 32' and 5r 3' N. kt, and
between 3^ 53' and 5"* 10' E. long.
South Brabant is politically £vided into three deps. (ar-
tonds.)—
Brusaellst oootaining 2 towns and 118 communes.
Louvain, „ 4 „ 110
Nivelles, », 2 „ IOC „
8 334
The principal towns are, Brussells, Hal, Louvain, Aers-
chot, Diest, Tirlemont, Nivelles, and Wavre.
Aarschot, or Aerschott, a small fortified town in the dis-
trict of Louvain and prov. of S. Brabant, situated on the riv.
I>emer. This town was the capital of the barony of Aer-
schott in 1125; it was subsequently fortified by the Duke
d'Aiemberg, into whose possession it had passed. A part
of the antient fortifications, called Aurelian*s Tower, stUl
exiits in a state of ruin.
Aarschot» which in 1829 contained a pop. of 3615, has a
municipal government, consisting of a burgomaster, 2 she-
rifis (Schevins). 9 councillors, a secretary, and a receiver.
The town contains one commercial and two private schools,
the former giving instruction to 35 and the latter to 230
children of both sexes. The principal branches of industry
are those of brewing and distilling.
Aarschot is 4 m. W. from Montaign, 18 m. N.E. from
Brussells, and 20 m. S.E. from Antwerp.
The area of the province amounts to 328,426 hectares
(B 12,41 9 acres), of which 3 16,883 are cultivated or productive
1,356 barren
1,768 occupied with buildings
8,419 roads and canals
328,426
The forest of Soignies, part of the remains of the great
forest of Ardennes, is contained within the prov., and occu-
pies 11,983 hectares (29,641 acres). Tliis forest is situated
between Brussells and Nivelles, commencing about 2 m.
to the S. of Brussells, and extending beyond the vil. of
Waterloo, a distance of 8^ m.
The pop. of South Brabant amounted on the Ist of Janu-
■17. J83l« to 556,046 souls, on an area of about 1269 sq.
fflUes.
In iOWDB.
District of Brussells 104,142
„ Louvain 44,119
„ Nivelles 12,523
180,568
106,075
108,619
395;262
ire Roman C
ProtesUn
Jews
notclatitec
was—
Females.
2,959
7,005
9,964
^ere— .
Fem&Iee.
3,296
5,355
Tot»L
284,710
150,194
121,142
Total 160,7a4
Of the above 55l,9J7 1
3,046
580
433
556,046
atholifcs
U
I
556,046
The number of births in 1833
Mklci.
In towns . . 3,151
In country. . 7,180
Total.
6,110
14,ia5
10,331
The deaths in the same year 1
MalM.
In towns . . 3,316
In country • , 5,316
20,295
Total.
6,612
10,671
No. 310.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDLA.]
8,632 8,651 17,283
The number of marriages in the year was 3952. The
proportion which these numbers bore to the whole pop. was.
Births . . 1 to 29 inhabitants
Deaths . 1 „ 41 „
Marriages. 1 ,,137 „
The average number of children born to every marriage
is stated to be 4 - 68 throughout the prov., the average num-
ber for the whole of Belgium being 4 * 72. (For the state of
education, number of electors and representatives, number
of cattle, sheep, and horses, &c., see Bkloium.)
BRABANT, Agriculture of. Dutch or N. Brabant is
naturally a poor barren country, part of which consists
of sandy heaths, part of low marshes, neither of which
are well adapted to cultivation. Industry has, in some
measure, overcome these natural disadvantages, and the
traveller will often admire fine crops of corn and flax,
and neat plantations of tobacco on spots, which, a short
time ago, were arid sands and barren heaths. Specimens
of the natural soil often appear immediately adjoming the
cultivated spots, and show the industry and perseverance of
the Inhabitants. The sands of Dutch Brabant and of the
N. part of the prov. of Antwerp are much less susceptible
of cultivation than those of £. Flanders. They are higher
above the natural waters, and are more impregnated with
carbonates and oxides of iron ; hence they are more apt to
bum and require much lime, which is not found in the
neighbourhood, to correct the natural qualities. In many
places the soil resembles the most barren spots of Bagshot-
heath in England. Where the rivers have deposited a rich
alluvial loam the land is very fertile, but it is generally situ-
ated so low, and so subject to be flooded, that it requires a
great expense to protect it by dykes, and it is mostly left
in the state of meadows.
The N. part of Austrian Brabant, now called the Pro-
vince of Antwerp, especially that part which lies N. of that
city, is almost entirely of the same barren nature. It is only
in the neighbourhood of Antwerp that there is any appear-
ance of fertility, and this is to be ascribed solely to tiie abun-
dance of manure which the town afibrds, and the demand
for all kinds of vegetables for its market
The S. part of this prov., towards Malines, improves as
you advance, and gradually loses that very flat appearance
which distinguishes the Netherlands. The surface is more
undulating, and there are some rich loamy fields in the val-
leys, and woods on the eminences.
South Brabant, which begins a little to the S. of Malines,
presents a -much more varied aspect, and possesses a much
greater extent of good soil. A line may be drawn from W. to
E. through Aerschot and Diest, along which thei^ are some
very fertile loams producing fine crops without much labour ;
as "also towards Louvain and Tirlemont. These loamy
soils, which are neither very light nor very stiff, predomi-
nate in aU the valleys throughout the province, varying in
quality and depth, and covering many risine grounds which
barely deserve the name of nills. The higher grounds
are covered with a poorer and more sandy stratum of no
great depth, as is evident from the fine trees which grow
upon them, and show plainly that there is Srgood sou be-
Digitized by VjrOOQlC
BRA
aoo
BRA
low the surface. A range of these hills runs at a little dis-
tance to the S. of Bnissells, and along their hrow are the
well-known woods, which cover 20,000 acres and skirt the
field of Waterloo, forming a kind of harrier or part of a helt
to the S. of the capital. •
The hest soils in South Brahant are towards Flanders and
Hainault, which last may he considered as possessing the
most fertile soils in the kingdom of Belgium. Judging from
the rich appearance of the crops in the neighbourhood of
Toumay and along part of the road from thence to Brussells,
travellers have been led to overrate the natural fertility of
Brahant, and to*attribute to the goodness of the soil what is
more properly due to industry and good husbandry. From
attentive personal inspection we are inclined to believe, that
the general fertility of the whole district between Malines
and Toumay in one direction, and Louvain and Namur in
another, which includes the richest part of Belgium, does
not, on the whole, exceed the average fertility of the inland
counties of England, and is decidedlv infenor to the rich
alluvial soils called the carses in Scotland. The dryness of
the summer prevents so extensive a cultivation of turnips as
in England; but this is counterbalanced by the advantage of
distilleries, which are attached to most of the principal forms,
and by means of which a great part of the produce is con-
sumed on the spot by stalled cattle, who are fatted on the
refuse wash, and make an abundance of manure. The
liquid part of the manure is collected in large tanks or re-
servoirs, and used either immediately on the land, or to acce-
lerate the fermentation of the drier portions, by pouring it
over the dung-heaps and composts.
The general system of husbandry in Brabant is very dif-
ferent from that io Flanders, and approaches much nearer
to the most improved systems in England and Scotland. In
snrae respects it is superior, in others not so ; and both
countries might improve in practical agriculture by mutually
adopting practices, as for as is consistent with the difference
of situation and climate, in which one country is more ad-
vanced than the other. The climate of Brabant is less
variable and drier than that in the same parallel in Great
Britain. The winters are colder, the frost more intense,
and the snow lies longer on the ground. They are jjpt
so subject to late Arosts in spring. In consequence* of
tliis their harvest is earlier. They have in general fine dry
weather after harvest, in which the land may be cleared of
root-weeds ; and in this they spare no pains.
The crops in Brabant are not so varied as in Flanders.
The larger extent of the farms does not allow so minute
cultivation, nor so frequent a use of the spade ; but from the
moment the crop is severed from the ground, before it is out
of the field, ploughs, rollers and harrows are at work, and
the hard ground is moved to the depth of only two or three
inches by means of light aharp ploughs ; it is repeatedly
harrowed to encourage the germination of the seeds of an-
nual weeds, and destroy those that have come up ; the root-
weeds are carefully pulled up and burnt, and thus the land
is cleaned, and all the advantages of a summer fallow are ob-
tained. In autumn, after some showers have softened the
earth to a moderate depth, the land is ploughed again to a
greater depth, and either prepared and manured for imme-
diate sowing, or laid up in ridpcs to receive the beneficial
infiuenee of the winter's frost, and be ready for spring sow-
ing. In case it should not be sufRciently clean, according to
the notions of the farmer, a crop of potatoes on light soils, or
of beans and vetches mixed, to be cut green, on the stifjfer,
afford the means of destroying weeds. Barley is mostly
ftown in autumn, and of the winter sort ; but spring barley
begins to be extensively cultivated, especially smce the che-
valier barley has been introduced from England, which is as
heavy and better for malting than the winter barley in com-
mon use before. Rye. both for bread and for distilling, is
always a principal crop, and bears a higher price, in pro{ior-
tion to wheat, than it does in England. Clover is seldom
sown with a spring crop, because they think, and perhaps
not without reason, that a genial spring brings the clover-
plant so fast forward as to injure the crop sown with it.
They prefer sowing clover amongst rye or wheat, which
being Arrived to a certain strength, is not so hkely to be
injured by the young clover; whilst it gives sufficient
shelter and protection. Wheat is often sown after winter
barley, especially if they can get some turnips on the barley
stubble, between the reaping of the one and the sowing of
the other. Turnips seem to sweeten the ground, and with
moderate manuring the wheat it generally good. The
cultivation of beans all over Belgium U the m«t imptr-
feet : they are usually sown broadcast, mixed with tares or
pease. The land is certainly kept clean by ao dote a
crop, but, except it be cut up green for fodder, the produce if
not very great ; neither beans nor pease have room aod air
to perfect their pods, and only a few on the aurface oom« to
perfection. One of the greatest improvements in Belgian
agriculture would be the drilling or dibbling of beuia, and
hoeing them by horse or hand hoes to prepare the land for
wheat ; at present they scarcely seem to know the Talut nf
this crop when well managed.
There is no particular rotation generally adhered to. The
fields are cropped according to the wants of the fanner ai^d
the state of the land. An abundance of manure allo«» tii
rapid returns of white straw crops. All the clover* with
little exception, is used green in the stable* as food f>'T
horses and cattle. Potatoes, if not used to dintil a sptnt
from them, are also chiefly consumed on the ftan hf cattle
and pigs. Little hay is made in comparison with the
quantity of the stock kept in winter* The chief reltanoe
is on roots when green food fails. As a conseqneDoe of a
scarcitv of dry fodder, the young and store cattle have
little else but straw in winter, and sometimes get to law in
condition as to suffer greatly in eold seasons, ind be a Ions
time in recovering flesh. This is a defect which the be«t
agriculturists in Belgium acknowledge and endeavour %»»
correct by their example, but prejudice and eostom nsr
every where opposed to, and retard rational improvement.
In rich deep soils hemp and flax are cultivated to a Rmt
extent, and also rape and cole for seed. These are ar«a>«
highly manured, and usually succeeded by wheat, wbH*):
thrives well after them. Tobacco has been tried In a U^
places, and seems to flourish. Mail e or Indian com ra*,r
be seen growing here and there, but not to any extent. It.
dry warm summers^like those of 1834 and 1835, this ktit.
ripens well and is very productive, but in most years thr
spring is too late and cold fbr this plant, which cannot Uzz
frost in its tender state. The variety which succeeds hest «
that called the qtuirantain. It is supposed in a warm climatt
to ripen in forty days. Tnis dwarf variety was warmW
recommended by the late William Gobbet^ who gave It
the name of Cobbett's com. An attempt has been mad*
under the auspices of the government to introduee tSe
rearing of silk-worms into Belgium, and a consulerablr
establishment has been formed near Atb in Hainault.
which appears to succeed. It is probable however that t.S-
occasional failure of the white mulberry leaf will eauae '^^
casional losses, and that as long as silk can be obtain^i
from Italy, the south of France, and India or China, tV
northern countries will never be able to rear «akwarTT«
with any advantage.
The peasantry of South Brabant and HainanH, which •
called tbe Walloon country, have a dialect of their ewn. an<i
are a very different race from the Flemish or the Dotrh
The men are tall and muscular; and many may be m";
with who recall to mind those bold meroenariee who t**
raerly served in war any one who woukl pay them, and wv-
known by the name of Braban9ons or Walloons. The w •
men of the country are large and inclined to <y>rpuler •
as they advance in years, owing probably to an abun«UrH
use of beer. They are not remarkable for elegance of fijrtir
and the total absence of stays, or any support to tbe U <)%
makes an abundance of flesh more conspicooua. The f«*
male figures in the pictures of Rubens areaver^ sccur^Tr
representation of the country women in Flanders and Bra
bant. This feature however diminishes as yon^travcl «ou* ^
ward, and towards Hainault and Liege some ytty n^ti
figures of women may be seen.
The cattle in Brabant are of a large and eoaiM kird
more calculated for strength of draught than for art1^-'.1
The Belgians have not yet discovered, that a moderat.* *
sized animal maybe more profitable than a larger; ortrw.
a small cow with slight bones, Uke the Aldemey cow. t r
Suffolk or the Ayrshire, may give as much and richer m *. ».
on less food, than one of tneir heavy and coarse animi'*
The government has taken pains to introduce impn^oi
breeds, and money has been expended (or that par|» ^^
but the prejudices of the peasants are not easily ovrrr^ka'^
and they seem not yet inclined to take advantage of t*^
goo<1 intentions of their rulers. A few individuals V.j<
availed themselves of the opportunity to pUTrha<« c*«
8Aid biills of a finer breed imported from Knglind. s i
wil\ probably be the means of opening the ejtm of ptJtmr*,
Digitized by vnOOQ IC
»R A
307
BRA
irf|m it if obteryed thit the finer breed is voire profitable
than the old.
The horses are large and strong, and on the whole fully
equal to the general run of farm horses in England. They
might be much improved bv a cross with the more active
Yorkshire or Lanarkshire horses. Most of the Belgian
horses have a great defect in the form of their hips and in
the croup, which falls suddenly towards the tail, which is
called in England being goose^rumped.
The sheep are of a very inferior kind, long in the leg,
with coarse wool and hanging ears. A few good Leicesters
and improved Cotswold sheep have been introduced, and
will probably improve the native breed. The fleece of a
very fine ram imported from England being sorted and
combed was exhibited in 1835 at Biussells at tbe annual
exhibition of the industrious products of the country, and
excited universal admiration for the length and fineness of
the staple, and especially for tbe quantity of the wool. The
whole Heece when shorn weighed twenty pounds, and of
ibis nine pounds of fine long dressed wool was obtained.
The Belgian pigs are similar to the French, and nearer
to the shape of greyhounds than of pigs, with long sbarp
snouts, and very long leg9, the whole body being in tbe
^rm of an arch of a circle, and very thin. A better breed
has however been introduced, and, from the naturally pro-
liiic nature of the anipaal, will soon spread and supersede
the old breed. There is a general spirit of agricultural im-
provement amongst landed proprietors in the country which
tba government is anxious to encourage.
The implements of husbandry used in Brabant are few
and of the simplest kind. They use the excellent Flemish
swing plough, which they call a foot plough* as it is also
called in some parts of England, in contradistinction to a
wheel plough. At tbe same time they also retain the old
and heavy turn wrest plough, with a shifting coulter and
mould board, as may be still seen in Kent and Sussex ;
yet they allow that the light Flemish plough does the work
as well in the stifiest soils, and requires less force. It is
surprising that two instruments so very opposed to each
other in principle should be used on the same farm and in
the same kind of soil, but the turn wrest plough is the in-
digenous instrument, and requires less skill in the plough*
man : the Flemish plough is of later introduction, and the
prejudices against anything new are not yet totally overcome.
The plough is universally drawn by horses two abreast, driven
in reins. Very few ox teams are seen. The land, in general,
is not so neatly tilled as in Flanders, Scotland, or the best
agricultural counties in England. There is not the same
attention to the straightness and equality of the furrows in
ploughing. The harrows are triangular, with wooden tines
set at an angle of 45^ which may scratch the surface but can-
not penetrate to any deptli. A heavy iron drag to tear up the
clods, and bring deeply-lying roots to the surface is much
wanted, but is not in use any where, as far as we could
obsene in a tour through this province. A stone roller is
used, set in a triangular frame, which drags on the ground,
and serves to break the clods, and is a simple useful instru-
ment, of which we annex a figure. The triangle ABC
drags on the ground before the roller, and the horse draws
by the hook B. A winnowing machine with a fly and sieves
is tbe only additional instrument in general use.
BR ACCIA^O, LAGO DI^, a lake in the Roman sUte,
the antient Sabatinus, about 1 7 m. N.W. of Rome. It is
of a circular form, about 18 m. in circuit, and lies at the
f(x>t of the ridge called Mount Cimino. It is almost en-
tirely surrounded by hills, except to the S., where it borders
on the wide unwholesome plain which slopes down to the
Ma. To the S.E. the lake has an outlet in the riv. Ajrone,
which flows into the sea at Maccarese. On its S.W. bank
the castle of Braociano rises with its old embattled walls and
towers, on a rock projecting into the lake, with the \\\, built
at the foot of the castle, and containing about 1500 inh.,
with several iron-works and a paper manufactory. Brac-
ciano was, ia the middle ages, an important fief- of the
Orsini family, who sold it afterwards to the Odescalchi, of
whom the estate, with the ducal title attached to it, was
purchased a few years since by the banker Torlonia for
the sum of 2,200,000 francs. The banks of the lake of
Bracciano are well cultivated, and planted with vines and
other fruit trees : there are several little towns in its neigh*
bourhood, such as Anguillara, Oriolo, Manziana, &c. The
lake is not very deep, and it abounds with fish and fine eels.
(Tournon, Etudet Statistiques sur Rome,)
BRACCIOLI'NI, PO'GGIO, sou of Guccio Bracciolini,
a notary, was born in 1380, at Terranuova, in the Florentine
territory. He studied Latin at Florence, under Giovanni da
Ravenna, a disciple of Petrarch; and afterwards Greek
under Chrysoloras, a learned Byzantine emigrant. About
1402 Poggio went to Rome, where Boniface IX. employed
him in the pontifical chancellerv, as apostolic secretary or
writer of the papal letters. Boniface having died in October,
1404, his successor Innocent VII., continued Poggio in his
ofHce, which he held for about half a century under eight
successive Popes. Poggio availed himself of the favour of
Innocent to obtain an employment in the apostolic chancel-
lery for bis friend and school-fellow Leonardo Bruni, of
Arezzo. The friendship between these two distinguished
scholars continued till death. Innocent having died in 1406,
was succeeded by Gregory XII., who was soon after deposed
by the Council of Pisa, and replaced by Alexander V. This
was tbe period of the great Western schism. [Bknedict,
Antipopb.] In the midst of these distractions Poe^gio
withdrew to Florence, where he pursued his literary studies,
and found a patron in Niccol5 ^Iicoli, a wealthy Florentine,
noted for his love of learning and his encouragement of the
learned. When John XXIII. was elected Pope, Poggio re-
turned to his duties of pontifical secretary, and as such he
accompanied the Pope to the Council of Constance in 1414.
At Constance he applied himself to the study of Hebrew •
and in his excursions into the adjoining countries he visited
the Abbey of St. Gall, and other monasteries, where he hud
the good fortune to discover the MSS. of several classical
works, which were considered as lost, or of which only imper-
fect copies existed. He complains, as Boccaceio had done
before him, of the monks taking no care of the literary
treasures which they possessed, and allowing the valuable
MSS. to rot * in cellars and dungeons unfit even for con
demned criminals.' The monastic orders bad long since
greatly degenerated from theur industrious and praiseworthy
predecessors of the earlier centuries. Poggio found, among
other MSS., copies of Quintilian*s Institutions, of Vegetius,
Silius Italicus, Ammianus Marcellinus, Columella, Asoonius
Pedianus's Commentaries upon some of Cicero*8 Orations,
the Argonautics of Valerius Flaccus, several Comedies of
Plautus, &C. Continuing his researches aflex his return to
Italy, either by himself or through his friends, he found
at Monte Casino a copy of Frontinus do Aqumductibus,
he procured from Cologne the 1 5th book of Petronius
Arbiter, and firom a monastery at Langres several of Cicero's
Orations, which had been considered as lost. Poggio either
purchased the MSS., or transcribed them, or pointed them
out to persons wealthier than himself. He repeatedly
complains, in his works, of the want of encouragement
from the great, both clerical and lay. His friends, Barto-
lommeo da Montepulciano and Cinzio, of Rome, assisted
him by their own exertions, and NicoU by his liberality.
It is worth observing, as a corrective to the frequent queru-
lousness of Uterary men, that at no epoch were scholars in
greater estimation than in the 15th century in Italy, as
IS sufficiently proved by the honours and important offices
conferred by tne princes of that country on Poggio, Leo-
nardo Bruni, Guariuo of Verona, Filelfo, Valla, Beocatelli
of Palermo, commonly called Ml Panormita,' George of
Trebisond, Pontano. Biondo, and others, simply on account
of their literary merit
While Poggio was staying at Constance, he witnessed the
trial and execution, by the sentence of that council, of
Jerome of Prague, on the charge of heresy. He gives a
most vivid account of that deplorable transaction, in a letter
to his friend Leonardo Bruni, which has been often quoted
by subsequent historians. Poggio was evidently moved by
the constancy and the eloquence of the defence of the
Bohemian reformer ; and his own knowledge of the corrup-
tions of the Roman church at that time made him, if not
openly advocate Jerome's cause, at least commiserate his
fate m terms so strong, that his more mident friend
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Leonaido imite to wum bim against mving way to bU feel-
mgs. F6ggio was still, nominally at least, papal secretary
at the time. After Martin V. was solemnly acknowledged
as legitimate Pope, and the council was dissolved in 141 7.
Pogeio followed the pontiff on his return to Italy, as far
as Mantua, where he suddenly left the papal retinue and
repairad to England. "Whether he left in disgust, or through
fear for having expressed his sentiments too freely on church
matters, is not clearly ascertained. While in Constance he
had received an invitation from Cardinal Beaufort, Bishop
of Winchester. His expectations however from Beaufort's
liberality were disappointed ; and at length, having received
through some friends in Italy an offer to resume his office
at Rome, he left England about 1421. Of his remarks
during his residence in England there are scattered frag-
ments in his published letters, and still more in the un-
edited ones. His picture of the manners and habits of
the English is not flattering. He says that they were
more addicted to the pleasures of the table than to those of
learning; and that tne few who cultivated literature were
more expert in sophisms and controversial quibbles than
in real science.
Poggio continued in his office during Martin's pontificate,
pursuing at the same time his researches after MSS. and
antiiquities, for which latter object he made excavations at
Ostia, and other parts of the Campagna. He also made
lAtin translations of the first six books of Diodorus Sieulus,
and of Xenophon's Cyropeedia. Eugenius IV. havine, in
1431, succeeded Martin V., was soon after obliged by a
popular rebellion to remove his court to Florence. Then
came the controversies between the Pope and the Council
of Basil, which lasted during the rest of Eugenius's pontifi-
cate, till his death in 1447. The greater part of this time
was spent by Poggio at Florence, or at a country-house he
had purchased in the Val d' Arno, some say with the produce
of some classical MSS. which he sold. He gives in his
letters a description of this residence, which he had adorned
with statues ajsd other remains of antiquity, that he had
collected in various places. He wrote there several works,
among others his ' Discourse on the Unhappiness of Princes,*
which he dedicated to Thomas of Saraana, afterwards Pope
Nicholas V., and his virulent invectives against Filelfo, who
had attacked the character of Poggio s friend Nicoli. In
these invectives the most horrible charges are .brought
against Filelfo, which however must not be taken literally,
for it was the practice of Italian scholars in that as well as
in the following ages, to abuse one another without any very
Itrict regard to truth. When the two fierce disputants
became reconciled, Poggio wrote a sort of disavowal of his
former accusations, which is found at the end of the in-
vectives. In 1435 Poggio married Selvaggia, of the family
of Buondelmonte, of Florence, a young and handsome lady,
with whom he hved happily. While making up his mind
to his marriage, he wrote a dialogue on the question,^-^n
sent sit uxcr ducenda f From that time Poggio reformed
his life, which had been before rather licentious. In 1437
he published a selection of his letters, written in Latin, like
all the rest of his works, according to the fashion of that
age. His friend Leonardo Bruni dying in 1444, Poggio
composed a Funeral Oration to his memory. He wrote also
other Funeral Orations,— for Cardinal Zabarella, who died
at the Council of Constance ; for the Cardinal Santa Croce,
a patron of letters ; for Lorenzo de* Medici, brother of the
great Cosmo ; for Cardinal Sant Angelo, who fell in the
battle of Varna against the Turks, &c. His friend Nicho-
las v., being raised to the pontifical throne in 1447* Poggio,
who had returned to Rome and resumed the duties of liis
office, addressed to the new pontiff an eloquent oration, of
mixed eulogy and advice on the duties and dangers of his
exalted station, — OrcUio ad summum Pontiflcem Nico-
laum V. He did not however forget his own interest, for
at the end he speaks of himself as ' a veteran in the papal
court, where he had lived for the space of forty years, and
certainly with less emolument than might have been justly
expected by one who was not entirely destitute of merit or
of learning. Nicholas, who was not displeased at Poegio's
frankness, made him liberal presents. To this time belongs
Poggio*s treatise De Varietate FjrtuncB, one of his best
works, which presents a good view of Italian pohtics at the
beginning of the 1 5th century, an interesting sketch of the
remains of antient Rome in Poegio's time, and a curious
account of the travels of the Venetian, Niccol6 Conti, in
the east He also wrote Dialogus adversus Hypocrisin^ in
which, as well as in his disquisition, De AvariHa €ilm3cmm^
he inveighs against the vices of the clergy, and espedaUy o#
the monks, which were certainly very flagrant in that age,
and were Uie main cause that led to the great reformation
in the following century. Notwithstanaing his sftlirical
freedom he preserved the good graces of NicholaS|^ia support
of whose right to the papacy he wrote a bitter invectiv*
against his rival the antipope Fchx, in whieh, as usual
with Poggio, his accusations outstripped truth. A violenc
quarrel with George of Trabisond, about some literary
matters, brought tl^ two scholars to blows, and the Greek
was in consequence obliged to quit Rome. In 1450, the
plague being in Rome, Poggio withdrew to FIoreDce,
where he wrote his Facetiee^ a collection of humocous anec-
dotes and repartees, some of which are ver^ indeoeiiL He
also wrote HUtoria Duceptaiioa ConvivialiM, or discus-
sions upon various philoloji^ical, historical, and moral sub-
jects ; Visputatio de Infelidtate Prineipum, in which he
speaks of princes in a strain of democratic oontempt,
rather odd in a man who had lived almost all his life ai
courts; De Nobilitate Dialogue, in which the Tarious
meanings of nobility are examined; De Mieeria CotuH'-
iionie Humarue. In 1453, on the death of Carlo Aretioe,
chancellor of Florence, Poggio, through the influence of
the Medici, was appointed his successor. He finally quitted
the Roman court after having been fiftv yean in its ser-
vice ; and it was not without regret that he parted from his
kind patron Pope Nicholas.
Having now access to the arohives of Florence, he under*
took a history of that republic, — Hietoriee Fterenhnie,
lib. viii., which embraces the period from 1350 to 1455. It
was translated into Italian by his son Jacopo, and printed
in 1476, and afterwards republished in a more correct and
improved form by Serdonati, Florence, 12i98. The Latin
text was not published till 1715, by Recanati, who prefixed
to it a biography of the author. Poggio has been charged
with marked partiality for his countrymen in hia history.
Another deficiency is noted bv a grave authority. Marhu*
velli, who, in the preface to his own history, observes xhit
both ' Poggio and Leonardo Bruni, two excellent hiasonaiu.
had diligently described the wars between Florence and tli>
other states and princes, but with regard to the ctvU eoo-
tentions of the republic, its internal factions and thcsr
results, they had been either silent or extremely laconic in
their account, either because they fancied them beneath the
dignity of history, or perhaps because they were afraid of
ofienc&P the relatives and aescendants of persons whe hid
figured m those transactions.'
Poggio died at Florence in 1459, and was buried viih
great honours in the church of Santa Croce, near hu fnexyl
Leonardo Bruni. A statue of him by the sculptor Doai-
telle is in the duomo or cathedral.
Poggio was one of the most distinguished scholars of the
epoch of the revival of literature, and one of those who ooa-
tributed most to the spreading of that revival. His luog
life, the offices of trust which he filled, his travels, his ex*
tensive correspondence, his multifarious learning, all con-
tribute to render him one of the most remarkable wntrn U
the fifteenth century. His works, especially his Oratiiifi*
and his Epistolss, are remarkable for their eloquence a&d
fluency of style, though their language does not equal in
classic purity that of roUziano and some other latinisU uf
the following M;e. His sentiments are noted for their inde-
pendence and frankness ; even in his addresses to the «;rcau
his language, though courtly, is free from flattery. Ue \iad
an ample same of Florentine causticity of humour, axid hu
invectives are virulent and outrageous beyond the limus
of all decency and justice ; this was however the fault cf
the generality of his contemporaries. But he ceuld mIm"*
be a staunch friend as well as a violent enemy. £\Yn
4IS a monitor he oould divest himself of all unbecoming
asperity, as he proved by his reproof to Beccatelli, oo ibi*
occasion of the latter having written an infamous twoa
called the ' Hermaphrodite,' which was burnt in rarioes
towns of Italy by the public executioner. While Valla
and others charitably wished that the author had shared
the fate of his book, Poggio wrote to the Paoonaitsw ex*
pressing his regret 'at seeing such a production from the
pen of one capable of better things, reminding him that
he was a Christian living among Christtaos» mad uai
among the worshippers of the heathet gods, and esliortia^
him to apply himself in future to graver and taam be>
coming studies.* ^^ ,
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Pe Blainvill* divides the genns into the following tectiont :
Species tthoee univalve ehell is oval, muth shorter than the
body, prolonged posteriorly into a very hng caudt/nrm
abdomen, tthich is provided at its termination with a
pair of very short appendages.
Example. Brachionus urceolarts, (Miillcr.)
Species whose oval, elongated bivalve shell almost entirely
covers the body, and is terminated by a short caudiform
abdomen^ orovided with a pair of appendages which are,
in genertu, of some length.
Genus MTTiLmA of Bory de St Vincent.
Example. Brachionus oralis, (Miiller.)
***
Species whose body is entirely covered by an ond shield,
which is nearly round, univalve, and termitmled by a
caudiform abdomen, without terminal uppeitda^ea,
Ctenus PftOBOsciDiA of Bory de St. Vincent.
Example. Brachionus patina, (Miiller).
Species whose body, entirely covered by a nearly circular
shell, is terminated behind by a pair of very long and
setaceous appendages.
Genus Squamxlla of Bory de St Vincent
Example. Brachionus bractea, (Miiller.)
BRACHIO'PODA. or BRACHIOPODOUS MOL
t,USCA (Zoology). Cuvier's lifth cla.^a of Mollusks. the
Palliubrancbiand iPalliobranchiata) of De Blainvillc, being
the first order of the lattei'i) third class of Molluskb
{Acephalophora),
This class, though comparatively low in the scale of crea-
tion, is interesting to tlie physiologist, and of considerable
value to the geologist, who Hnds in the fossil forms no small
portion of those natural medals which indicate the history of
the stratification of our globe. We have, therefore, entered
more largely into the natural history of the Brachiopoda
than their couscouence as organized beings would otherwise
warrant in a work of this description.
Cuvier, in his anatomy of Lingula anatina, in the
Annates du Museum, first made known that organization,
by which the mantle, in addition to its ofHce of secreting
the shelly defence of tliese bivalves, is made subservient to
the circulating system. Instead of the branchioD of the ordi-
nary bivalves, he found in the situation usually occupied by
them two fringed and spirally disposed arms, and that the
branchisD presented themselves on the internal surface of
botli lobes of the mantle in oblique parallel lines. He fur-
ther found that these lobes were traversed by vessels of
considerable size, which returned the blood from the organs
of respiration, and that these branr^hial veins terminate in
two symmetrical systemic hearts. Here was a new type of
eirculation, and to the mollusks which presented these in-
teresting and important modifications he eave the name at
the head of our article, significative of toe fringed arms
which in this class took the place of the foot or organ of
progression in the cockle, &c.
Lamanon and Walsh had previously taken the analogous
parts of Terebratula foF branchioD, and Pallas, who is not
quoted by Cuvier, describes the arms of Terebratula with
minuteness and accuracv, but considers them as branchio,
and compares them to those of a fish.
De Blainville, in the * Dictionnaire des Sciences Natu-
relles,* gives an account of the organization of Terebratula.
But both Cuvier and De Blainvillo were led into error in
their attempts to trace out £L:ue parts ui' the organization of
Terebratula ; and it was reserved for Mr. Owen, in his
acute, accurate, and interesting paper, ' On the Anatomy
of the Brachiopoda of Cuvier, and more especially of the
Genera Terebratula and Orbicula,' publishea in the Trans-
actions of the Zoological Society of London,* and derived
from the dissection of specimens brought to this country by
Mr. Cuming and Captain James Ross, R. N., fully to in-
vestigate the subject so as to leave litUe or nothing to be
desired upon the subject of the anatomy of Lingula and
of the two genera last named. Our limits will not permit
us to follow the learned author through his memoir, the
whole of which, together with, the beautiful illustrations that
■GGompany it» is worthy of the most attentive perusal by
• Vol.l.v.ltf.
the phvsiologist and sootomist ; and we sele<^ tli« follovipic
• General Remarks' as the part of the paper most appto-
priate for in»ertiou here, premising that the geoerali.e
system of the Brachiopoda is cryptandrous.
•On comparing together," says Mr. Owen, 'the thr»*c
^nera of Brachiopoda above described, we And that althiu^ii
Orbicula, in the muscular structure of its arms and t r.«*
proportion of the shell occupied by its viscera, is intermediaUr
to Lingula and Terebratula, yet that in the structure of it*
respiratory organs its simple alimentary cana^and its m<Hie
of attachment to foreign bodies, it has a greater affinity \o
the latter genus. The modifications that can be traced in
tlie organization of these genera have an evident reference
to the different situations which they occupy in the wat. •>
element. Lingula, living more commonly near Uie suri^< -.
and sometimes where it would be left exposed bv tlie - 1
tre.jiing tide, were it not buried in the sand of the >b«r«.
must meet with a greater variety and abundance of ao.nt .1
nutriment than can be found in those abysses in wL. ^
Terebratula is destined to reside. Hence its powers of yve-
hcnsion are greater, and Cuvier suspects it may enjo% a
sjxjcies of locomotion from the superior length of iti pcdwlv.
The organization of iU mouth and stomach indicates, huw -
ever, that it is confined to food of a minute description ; l>ut
its convoluted intestine shows a capacity for extracting a
quantity of nutriment proportioned to its superior acti%i!}
and the extent of its soft parts. A more complex and ••'.>•
vious respiratory apparatus was therefore indispeni»able, u:. i
it is not surprising that the earlier observers failed to detr. t
a corresponding organization in genera destined to a xn\- -
limited sphere of action. The respiration indeed, a« -*• ,\
as the nutriiion of animals living beneath a pressure ol' t'l »
sixty to ninety fathoms of sea water, are subjects of pe«'ut . :
interest, and prepare the mind to contemplate with .• •«
surprise the wonderful complexity exhibited in the niii^ui*.-:
parts of these diminutive creatures. In the btiUniK^i (•. :•
vuding these abysses they can only maintain existeiK «
exciting a perpetual current around them, in order to ti ^ -
pate the water already loaded with their effete parucK-^ .- .
bring within the reach of their prehensile organs thi* a. .
njalcula adapted for their suoport. The actions <»l T»
bratula and Orbicula, from the firm attachment of li. :
shells to foreign substances, are thus confined to the m •
menta of their brachial and branchial filaments, and i
slight divarication or sliding motion of their protect ^
valves ; and the simplicity of their digestive apparatii^. r
corresponding simplicity of their brancbie, and the li.. .
nishcd proportion of their soil to their hard parts^ ait
harmony with such limited powers. The soft parts in !• :
genera are, however, remarkable for the strong and unt
ing manner in which they are connected together. T.
muscular parts are in great proportion and of singular c^/:..
plexity, as compared with ordinary bivalves; and the U'\
dinous and aponeurotic parts are remarkable for the »::.
larity of theur texture and appearance to thoae of the h.jlie«:
classes. By means of all this strength they an enabU-d » *
perform the requisite motions of the valves at the dept: > r.
which they are met with. Terebratula, which is morv !\^
mark^ble for its habitat, has an internal skeleton supcFaddc^
to its outward defence, by means of which, additional supp rt
is affonled to the shell, a stronger defence to the vifto. ri,
and a more fixed ))oint of attachment to the brachial arn.
The spiral dispobiiion of the anus is common to the* u lu N-
of the brachiopodous genera whose organization has hith*::* •
been examined ; and it is therefore probable that in ti; 4'
remarkable genus Spirifer the entire brachia were >iiuiUr.\
disposed, and that the internal calcareous spiral u>pend a.* «
were their supports. If, indeed, the brachia of Terebr\i:^ ^
psittacea had been so obtained, this species would Li 1
presented in a fossil state an internal structure ver> frim..ir
to that of Spirifer.
In considering the affinities of the Brachiopoda to 1 :
other orders of Mollusca, 1 shall compare them, in tl<«- br«.
place, with the Lamellibranchiate bivalves, to which ti.« •
present tlie most obvious relations in the nature mm! U^^tz »
of their organs of defence. To these the) are tu «^ u -
respects superior. The labial arms are more eomp2c\ pr**-
hensile organs than the corresponding vascular Limma*
either side the mouth of the LainellibrAnchiata. The vk u .
muscular system is more complex ; and the openmg as v «
as the closing of the shell being regulated by niusf^i.'..
action, indicates a higher degree of organisation Uiui * t* -
the antagonizing power results from a property of the 4 or-
dinal ligament, which u indeneudent of vitality, to. c^>-
BRA
311
BRA
licity. With respect, however, to the respiratory or^ns,
the modifications which these have presented in Orbteula
and Terebraiula show the Brachiopods to be still more in-
ferior to the Lamellibranchiata than was to be inferred from
the structure of the branchiie in Lingula; and notwith-
standing the division of the systemic heart, I consider that
there is also an inferiority in the vascular system. Each
heart, for example, in the Brachiopoda is as simple as in
Ascidia, consisting of a single elongated cavity, and not
composed of a distinct auricle and ventricle, as in the ordi-
nary bivalves ; for in these, even when, as in the genus
Area, the ventricles are double, Uie auricles are also dis-
tinctly two in number ; and in the other genera, where the
ventricle is single, it is mostly supplied by a double auricle.
The two hearts of the Brachiopoda, which in structure re-
semble the two auricles in the above bivalves, form therefore
a complexity or superiority of organization more apparent
tlian real. Having been thus led to consider the circulating
an well as respiratory systems as constructed on an inferior
plan to that which pervades the same important systems in
the Lamellibranchiate bivalves, I infer tnat the position of
the Brachiopoda in the natural system is inferior to that
order of Acephaku
* Among the relations of the Brachiopoda to the Tunicated
Acephala, and more especially to the AscidioD, we may first
notico an almost similar position of the extended respiratory
membranes in relation to the mouth, so that the currents
containing the nutrient molecules must first traverse the
va ocular surface of that membrane before reaching the
mouth ; the simple condition, also, to which the branchiae
are reduced in Orbicula and Terebraiula indicates their
close affinity to the Ascidiap. But in consequence of the
form of the respiratory membranes in the Brachiopoda,
which is so opposite to that of the sacrifonn branchiae of
the Ascidiae, the digestive system derives no assistance from
that part as a receptacle for the food, and the superaddition
of prehensile organs about the mouth became a necessary
consequence. The Brachiopods again are stationary, like
tlie Ascidiae, and resemble the Boltenia in the peduncu-
lated mode of their attachment to foreign bodies.
* With the Cirripeds their relation is one of very remote
analogy ; their generative, nervous, and respiratory organs
bein^ constructed on a different type, and their brachia
manifesting no trace of their articulate structure. In all
essential points the Brachiopoda closely correspond with the
Acephalous Mottusca, and we consider them as being inter-
mediate to the Lamellibranchiate and Tunicate orders ; not
however possessing* so far as they are at present known,
distinctive character of sufficient importance to justify their
being regarded as a distinct class of Mollusks, but forming
a separate group of equal value with the Lamellibranchiata.
The following is De Blaiuville's arrangement, slightly
modified:
«
Shell Symmetrical,
Genus Tbrbbratula (Bruguidres).
Animal depressed, circular or oval, more or less elon-
gated.
Shell delicate, equilateral, subtriangular, inequivalve, one
of the valves larger and more rounded (bombee) than the
other, prolonged backwards into a sort of heel, which is some-
times recurved into a kind of hook-like process and pierced
at its extremity by a round hole, but more frequently di\ided
into a fissure more or less large and of variable form. The
opposite vadve generally smaller. Hatter, and sometimes oner-
culiforra.
Of that complicated loop or internal support to which the
arms are attached we shall presently speak at large.
Hinge on the border, condyloid, placed on a straight line,
and formed by the two obliaue articulating surfaces of the
one Talve placed between tlie corresponding projections of
the other. A sort of tendinous ligament comes forth from
the hole or fissure above described, by which the animal
fixes itself to submarine bodies.
The following is Mr. Owen s description of the peculiar,
complex, and extremely delicate testaceous apparatus, some-
iimes called * the carriage-spring * by collectors, attached to
ine internal surface of the imperforate valve :
* The principal part of this internal skeleton, as it may be
termed, consists of a slender, flattened, calcareous loop, the
extremities of which are attached to the lateral elevated
ridges of the hinge ; the crura of the loop diverge, but again
approsumate to each other as they advance for a greater or
less distance towards the opposite margin of the tdve ; the
loop then suddenly tnms towards the poribrate vidvei «id is
bent back upon itself for a greater or less extent in different
species. When the loop is very sh<»t and narrow, as in Ter.
vitrea, Brug., there is but a small tendency towards a re-
flected portion ; but where the loop is of great length and
width, as in Ter, Chilensie, Brod., Ter, dorsata. Lam., and
Ter. SowerbH, King., the reflected portion is considerable.
The loop, besides being fixed by its origins or crura, is com-
monly attached to two processes going off at right angles
from the sides, or formed by a bifurcation of the extremity,
of a central process, which is continued forwards to a greater
or less extent from the hinge ; but it is sometimes entirely
free, except at its origins, as, e, ^., in Ter. vitrea. This re-
flected loop, forming two arches on either side the mesial
Slane, towards which their concavities are directed, I have
gured as it exists in Ter, Chilensis and Ter, Soujerbii, It
is represented of a similarly perfect form in Ter. defitata^ by
M. de Blainville in his ' Malacologie ; * and the same appa-
ratus in Ter. dorsata is very well figured by Chemnitz ; by
Sowerby, and more recently by G. Fischer de Waldheim.
A similar form is also figured in another species of Tore-
bratula by Poli.
' The arches of the loop are so slender, that, notwithstand-
ing their calcareous nature, they possess a slight degree of
elasticity and yield a little to pressure ; but, for the same
reason, they readily break if the experiment be not made
with due caution. The interspace between the two folds of
the calcareous loon is filled up by a strong but extensile
membrane, which oinds them together, and forms a protect-
ing wall to the viscera: the space between the bifurcated
process in Ter. Chitensis is also similarly occupied by a
strong aponeurosis. In this species the muscular stem of
each arm is attached to the outer sides of the loop and the
intervening membrane. They commence at the pointed
processes at the origins of the loop, advance along the
lower portion, turn round upon the upper one, and are con-
tinued along it till they reach the transverse connecting
bar, where they advance again forwards and terminate by
making a half spiral twist in front of the mouth. It is these
free extremities Which form the third arm mentioned by
Cuvier. These arms are ciliate on their outer side for their
entire length, but the eilia are longer and much finer
than the brachial fringes of Linrnki; and except at the
extreme ends, which, have a slight incurvation, they are
uniformly straight. There is thus an important difference
between Lingtda and those species of Terebraiula which
resemble Ter. Chilensis in the powers of motion with which
the arms are endowed ; since from their attachment to the
calcareous loop they are fixed, and cannot be unfolded out-
wards as in Lingula. Owin^ to this mode of connexion, and
their ciliated structure, their true nature was much more
liable to be mistaken by the early observers, though it ap-
pears not to have escaped the discrimination of Linnaeus,
who^ as Cuvier has observed, founded his character of the
animal of Anomia on the organization of one of the Tere-
braiula which he included in that genus.*
The recent species are numerous and widely diffused, and
the genus appears to be capable of flourishing in extremely
warm and extremely cold regions, as well as in more tempe-
rate climates. Thus some of the species have been found in
the Indian seas and at Java {Ter, flavescens. Lam., for ex-
ample), and Ter. psittacea, brought home from the late ex-
pedition by Captain James Ross, R.N.. was fished up from
a depth of twenty-two fathoms near Felix Harbour, in lat.
70° N. on the E. side of Boothia. The average depth at
which Terebraiula has been found ranges from ten to
ninety fathoms. De Blainville has thus subdivided the
species :
A. Summit of the larger valve pierced with a round
hole, well defined.
1. Valves triangular, with a straight anterior border
Example. Terebraiula digona (fossil).
Digitized by
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3. Valves rounded at their anterior border.
EiMiple. Tif^roMa ghbota (recent).
312
BRA
2. Valves sub-Wlobated by the depreuioa or einar-
ginatioD, which is appaxent at toe anterior todex.
Example. Terebratula Caput SerptfUu (reeenp.
rrcnbMiaU gldboM.]
8. Valves raised as it were, or hollowed on the
mesidline.
Examples. Terebraiula sanguinea^ and Terebratula
dorsata (recent).
[Tf retefthiU Caput SOTpentto.]
C. The opening of the heel of the larger vahre,
ginal, triangular, and elongated.
1. Valves rounded.
Example. TerebraiulaXyra (fossil).
[T^rebntnU donaU. InUnul Tiew*.}
4. Bilobated, the valves striated from the summit to
the circumference, and deformed as it wero at the
junction of their border.
Example. Terebratula d^ormie (fossil).
M-X^i^ m ft
[TbiebrataU Lyra],
a. front view ; h, tide view.
2. The valves sub-bilobated.
Example. Terebratula canalifera (fossil).
' [TtnbratoU deibrmia.]
5. Trilobated, as it were, by the projection of the
mesial part.
Example. Terebratula alaia (fossil).
B.
[Terebratula alata.]
The heel of the larger valve deeply notched up to
the border of articulation ; notch or fissure rounded.
1. Valves rounded at their anterior border.
Example. Terebratula rubra (recent).
[Terebratula eanaliTefa.!
3. The valves rounded ; a mesial partition (cfoi>^
in the larger valve, placed between two in i:*
smaller, so as to give in the cast the representmiha
of five distinct pieces, three for one vuve and tvo
for the other.
(Genus Pentastera, Sowerby.— FotsiL)
D. Opening of the heel, marginal, triaas^ar, br
much larger transversely than longitudinally. Lot
of articulation quite straight.
1. The small valve provided in its mesial perti*
with a straight flattened support, bifaicaaad at m
free extremity ; a partition (claimm} in the othtr
valve penetrating into this biftircation.
(Grenus Strygocephalus, Defrance.— FoasiL)
Example. Strygocephedue Bur tint.
[Strygoeepbalni Bnrtlni.]
. The lateral parts of the support fonned of a Tcry
fine spiral filament, so as to produce two hottow
somewhat conical masses which neariy fill tbe
whole of the shell.
Example.
(Grcnus Spirifer, Soweiby.)
Spirifer trigonalie (fossil).
(TtMbnInU tubmO
rinteinal vieir of 0piriiBC tncowOi^ tlHpiae Ikt fffl
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E, The upper Tftlve operPuTiform or tcry flat, syHtem of
Hiippoit begmning to di^ppear.
1. Upper valve very fiat.
Genus M&gas, Sowerby (fo<sil).
Example, Magas pumiii^*
(g)
2. Upper valve very much excavated a]tx>ve, summit
of the lower valve not pierced, and divided into two
nearly equal parts by a well-developed mesial
furrow.
Genus Producta*, Sowerby (fossil). See Min. Con., pi. 320,
Example. Producta Martini.
[PiodacU Martini.]
The fossil Terebratuls (properly so called) are extremely
numerous, and assist in the identification of strata from the
supracretaceous group to some of the lowest formations in
the grauwacke series, both inclusive.
As neither J^tMtera, Strygocephalus^ Spirifer^ MagOMp
nor Producta liave living representatives, they are placed
here from the structure of their shells, which, judging from
analogy, would indicate a bracbiopodous construction allied
to Terebratula. Indeed De BlainVillo retains that name
throughout: but we think the differences of conformation
warrant the separation of the fossils above distinguished, as
stib;;enera of the Terebratulince, They occur principally
in the more ancient fossiliferous beds.
Genus Linoula, Brugui^es.
Shell subequivalve, equilateral, depressed, a little elon-
fratcd, truncated anteriorly; the summit mesial and pos-
terior with no trace of a ligament, but joined at the extre-
mity to a long fibro-gelatinous peduncle, which is supposed
to fix it vertically to submarine bodies : but in the specimen
of Lingula AudebardU examined by Mr. Owen, there was no
trace of the adhesion of any foreign body to the end of this
peduncle. Muscular impressions multiple.
Example. Lingula anatina,
f
[LtofiiU analiiia.]
* Dri^mally writira Productat by Martin, who aied it u * ipeeiSe babm
9m ■.•pe«iw«<hfeCo«cbgrlk>litho0Aaoiiill«,MlMC«U«dtiatfeHUg«Diit.
The recent species have bec^n faund at depths Tanging
from the surface to seventeen fatht5ms ; and specimens have
been taken in bard coarse a and from four to six inches below
the surface of the sand.
Lingula has been found in a fossil state in the inferior
oolite of Yorkshire, in the old red sandstone formation, ond
in other old fossil Lft^roixs hmh.
Genus Thbcidba, Defranee, Tlicciflmm, Sowerby, De
Blalnville thus describes the cenu^.
Animal entirely unknown, but very probably diflering but
little from that of Ortncula.
Shell equilateral, regular, very inequivalve, and suffi-
ciently similar to the Terehratulm of the latter sections ;
one valve hollowed, the heel or hook recurved, entire, with-
out a fissure and adhering; the other flat, opereuliform,
and without any trace of the internal support.
Hinge longitudinal ; articulation by two distant condyles,
as in the TerebratuUe, with a large mesial tooth in the flat
valve fitting between the condyloid teeth of the concave valve.
Example. Thecidium radiatum*
[Theeidium radiatum TieweU from abore.
0
0, nat aiie.]
The recent species above mentioned is an inhabitant of
the Mediterranean, and found among the common red coral
of the Tuscan Seas.
The fossil species are tolerably numerous, and Sowerby
says that those which he had seen appeared to belong to the
chalk, and were brought from Maastricht, and from Or-
glandes in Normandy.
Genus Strophomena, Rafinesque ; (fossil.)
Shell regular, equilateral, subequivalve ; one valve flat,
tbo other slightly excavated : articulation straight, trans-
verse, with a small projection notched or dentelated trans-
versely No trace of an internal support
Example. Strophomena rugosa.
No. 311.
PTHB PKNNV CYCLOPiBDIA.i
fStxopbomena rugosa.]
View of lower tide.
As Strophomena has no living representatives, at least
none yet discovered, there can be no aescription of the ani-
mal, which is however, judging from the construction of
the shell, most probably bracbiopodous.
The fossil genera Plagiostonuh Dianchora, and Podopsis
(see these titles) are placed by De Blainville under this
section. We do not however think that there is such preg-
nant evidence of a true and entire brachtopodous organiza-
tion, as to warrant this decided position under the Braehio-
pods. Indeed De Blainville himself says that some of the
Piagiostomata are of the family TerebratuUv, and that the
others (he instances Ptaeiostoma Mantellii) are entirely
different, and he allows that these last ought to form a dis-
tinct genus of the family of Subostraceans. Deftrance
places Podopsifl among the oysters.
* *
Shell unsymmeirical, irregular, always adherent.
Genus Orbicula, Lamarck.
Shell orbicular, very much compressed; inequilateral,
very inequivalve ; the lower valve very delicate, adhering ;
the upper valve patellitorm, with the summit more or less
inclined towards the posterior side. Fissure of adhesion in
the lower valve subcentral. Hinge toothless.
Example. Orbicula lameUosa,
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314
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[OfbloiU UmeUoM.]
A tlof le fpccimen, sboiriiif the dlia.
The recent species are found attached to stones, shells,
sunken wrecks, &c., and have been found at depths ranging
fVom not far below the surface to seventeen fathoms.
Fossil species are said to have been found in the lowei
green sana of Sussex, in the Speeton clay of Yorkshire, in
both the great and the inferior oolite, in the carlioniferous
limestone, and in the Ludlow rock below the old red sand-
stone.*
G. B. Sowcrby has satisfactorily proved that Lamarck's
genus Discina must be expunged, it having been formed
from specimens of Orbicula Norvegica, sent by Sowerby to
Lamarnk.
Genus Crania, Retzius and authors.
G. B. Sowerby, who has done so much in the thirteenth
volume of the • Linnean Transactions* to unravel the con-
fusion which had previously been created by authors, gives
the following generic chararters.
Shell inequi valve, generally equilateral, rafner irregular,
orbicularly subquadrate, and Hattish ; the upper valve pa-
tellit'orm, having its umbo or vertex rather behind the
centre; the lower valve attached by its outside, the greater
part of it being generally extended over the substance to
which it adheres ; (and in this respect it differs greatly from
Orbicula^ which is attached by means of a ligament which
parses through a 6ssure in the centre of the lower valve.)
There are four muscular impressions in each valve; of
those in the upper valve two are in the posterior margin
and the other two nearer the centre, but not always very
near to each other; of those in the lower valve, two are
nearly marginal and rather distant, but the other two are
nearly central, and so close together, that they appear to
form hut one : they in general have a small projection be
tween them ; and the whole of the muscular impressions
in ttie lower valve are frequently lost by decomposition in
the fossil species, so as to appear only three oblique per-
forations, as Lamarck has described them.
Example. Crania personata.
[Crank penoaata.]
ntenwl view ; 9, 8, intenul Tieir.
The recent species, and this is the only one known, is
found adhering to stones and shells at very great depths.
It is stated in the * Zoological Journal,* by the Rev. M. J.
Berkeley, that a specimen of Crania peraonata was taken
by Captain Vidal, at the depth of 855 fathoms.
There are several fossil species, mostly from the chalk.
BRACHY'CERUS, a genus of coleopterous insecU of
the family Curculionid^ (included in the genus Curculio
by Linn»us). Generic characters— rostrum short; antenn»
inserted towards the apex of the rostrum, short, nine-jointed ,*
the basal joint longest, the terminal ^oint forming a knob;
tarsi with all the joints entire, and without pubescence be-
neath. The species of this genus are apterous, and gene-
nlly very rough. They appear to be peculiar to the south
of Europe and Africa, and live upon the ground.
BRACHYPODI'NiS (Zoology.) 8wainson*s name for
a sub-family of the Mendida, containing the following ge-
nera or rather sub- genera :^
BrachypuB, Swainson, thus characterized by him : bill
short ; rtcttu (gape) bristled. Feet small, weak : lateral toes
equal. Hinder toe as long as the tarsus. Type Brackypw
dinar, Sw. ( Turdus dispar, Horsfield.)
Chloropsii, Jardine and Selby. Bill mora lengthened ;
the tip much hooked; the notch forming a small distinct
• Brodtfripi Trans ZooL Boo. foL lf,HL
tooth. Rietuiwmoc^ Feet muU ; lateral toot iiiMq[Dal;
the hinder toe rather shorter than the tarsus.
lora, Horsfield. Bill nearly as long as the head ;
lengthened conic. Bictus smooth. Tarsi somewhat length-
ened; the anterior scales divided. Tail even. T}peJora
icapularis, Horsfield.
Andropadus, Swainson. Bill short ; the upper mantvVlo
serrated near the tip. Neck with setaceous tiairs. T> pe
L'Importan, I^ Vaillant
HiBmatomis, Swainson. Bill short ; nctiu bristled. La-
teral toes uneoual. Hinder toe shorter than the iar»w«.
Types. I, Cnrysorr/io'eiu, Le Vaillant. 2. Turdus hr
marrhoWf of authors. 3. Turdus bimaculatus of Hor^fi* ; 1.
4. Erythrotis of Swainson (Lanius joa^sus of Linueusi.
Mr. Swainson does not seem to have been aware thai thv
appellation Brachypus had previously been conferred ' y
Fttzinger on a sub-genus of Saurians, belonging to tie
Chalcidei of Daudin, and it should, therefore, be no Ion ^r
used to distinguish a sub-genus of birds. The term at i.**
head of this article, which Mr. Swainson has applied t >
the sub-family, might be changed with advantage ; iur it
may be hable to create confusion when unexplained by ckm\-
texls, and leave the reader in doubt whether a sub-famny
of birds or reptiles is intended.
For Mr. Swainson's further account of ^racAM>ocbfkr, m-^
Fauna Boreali- Americana, vol. ii., where the cnarartors *A
the subgenera given above will be found.
BRACHY'PTERYX (Zoology), a genus of bird* ap
proaching to Saxicola, thus defined by Dr. Horsfield: -
Essential character. Bill with the culmcn cannatc d 1 *-
twccn the nostrils, the sides being flattened, and routi>.- i
towards the apex with tho sides convex ; edges subinlkc t. .i.
Wings very short and obtuse. Tat/ moderate and rouu.v :.
Feet elongated and weak ; the tarsi slender ; the Vies m *
slender and the claws very much compressed. Hallux .t
hind toe comparatively large.
Natural character, ^m moderate, rather strong, subri.:
trated, broader at the base than it is high, subconiral bc> ^ :. l
the middle, attenuated; the culmen, or ridge, cahnatvd' a- i
angulated between the nostrils, with the sides flattcrjvi.
and beyond that point somewhat thickened, rounded, i. r
sides being convex, arcuated towards the apex and not^btr*
Mandible depressed at the base, the sides erect, turned to-
wards towards the apex, tnvxa rather strong, subinclitK'^i.
Edges of the jaw and mandible subinllected.
Nostrils very large, placed in a somewhat roanded, ba*^* \
elongated, obtuse hollow, covered above and posteriorly - '
a membrane.
Wings very short and obtuse. Quills entire, the irst •< *•
spurious, from the second to the fifth gradually iiicrea<*-if v.
from the fifth to the tenth longer and nearly equal* the rr*:
gradually shortening. Tail moderate, roiuided ; the rV .
thcrs twelve.
Feet elongated and weak. Tarsi slender, twioe as I:-.*
as the middle toe. Toes compressed, very slender, '.tf
middle longest, the lateral toes nearly equal, the outer t -.
sub-coalescing with the middle toe at the hese. CU*4
very much compressed and very acute.
Brachypteryx montana, Horsfield, the speciea on vrhxu
the genus is founded is thus described by the autbcr :—
Wei gh t of the male five, and of the female six, drachm s. I n
the length of the two sexes scarcely any difTerence is p« r-
ceptible. The measure is nine inches and nine )ine« ft -t
the tip of the bill to the end of the tail ; to the extremi'\ -.t
the claws the length is six inches. In the male, tV.e lit-4*L
neck, and breast have a dark indigo blue tint, inclm&T^j: i
black, with a greyish reflection on the surface, vancgait 1
with lighter and darker shades ; on the throat and the luvi • *
part of the neck this colour passes into grey ; un the U"^-
head it is more intense, inchning to black. Above the r« t «
is an oblong white spot The back, the wings aboic '*
shoulders, the coverts of the tail, the vent, hypochoadr:aE» ji i
thighs are deep chestnut brown, with a ferruginous r«flt<'
tion. The wings underneath, and the tail at the extreau ;«
and underneath, are pure blackish brown ; the shafts of tt •
quill and tail feathers are black and shinmg. The in^«r
vanes of the quills and the tail feathers generalh ltk\x' s
very deep brown colour. The exterior vanes of the tail s ..
thers are slightly tinted with the ferruginous lustre *f x *
upper parts. The lower parts of the breast and ubf^ i- t
are whitish. The plumes on the posterior portion ct : -
body are very thickly disposed ; the vanes consist of loc,:.
delicate, silky, pendulous laminin w^Umenta, ion&iiu: a
[e
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lax oovenog about the lower parts of the abdomen, the hypo-
chondrisD, and the root of the tail. The irides have a dark
hue. The bill is black and the tarsi are deep brown. The
tint of the claws is somewhat lighter.
In the female, the dark blue tint, which in the male covers
the head and neck, extends over the body generally, and
also marks the exterior vanes of the quills. The interior
vanes of the latter and the toil feathers are dark brown, in-
clining to black. The throat and neck underneath have a
dark greyish tint. The abdomen is greyish white. Over
the eyes it has, like the male, a white spot, and the bill and
tarsi also agree with that. The covering of the abdomen,
vent, and thighs is likewise long, dehcate, silky, and pen-
dulous.
Dr. Horsfield met with this species in one situation only,
at an elevation of about seven thousand feet above the level
of the sea. He thinks it probable that it may be found on
all the peaks of Java, which are covered with thick forests,
accommodated to its peculiar habits. The recurrence, he
observes, of several quadrupeds and birds, at a certain ele-
vation, is as regular in that island as that of many plants
and insects. Although local in its residence. Dr. Horsfield
found the bird very numerous on Mount Prahu, which, he
says, in the luxuriance of its vegetation and gloomy thickets,
is probably not surpassed in any portion of the globe. In
his daily excursions be uniformly observed and occasionally
surprised it in its short sallies among the openings of the
forest. It was chietly found on the lowest branches of trees
or on the ground. As the shortness of its wings incapaci-
tates it for elevated or distant (lights, its motions are low,
short, and made with great exertion. It lives in the thickest
coverts, feeding on the larvsD of insects, worms, &c., and
there it forms its nest on the ground. * It utters,* says Dr.
Horsfield, ' almost without interruption, a varied song. Its
common note is a quickly reiterated babbling, resembling
that of the curruca sarrula of Brisson, and other birds of
tins family : it also has a protracted plaintive note, but it
sometimes rises to higher and melodious warblings, which,
m the general silence of those elevated regions, afford an
inexpressible sensation of delight to the mind of the soli-
tary traveller.*
Tliii* bird is the Keteh of the Javanese and Mountaineer
Warbfer of Latham. (See Dr. Horsfield's • Zoological Re-
searches in Java and the neighbouring Islands,* and ' The
Transactions of the Linneean Society,* vol. 13.)
^•"^.
{firacliypieryx montanik]
Tn upper flfun reprwent* the f«mal«s Uie lower, Uie male.
BRACHYPTE^RES (short-winged birds), Cuvier's
name for those birds generally known by the name of
• Divers.' [Divkr.]
BRA'CHYPUS. [Brachtpodinjb and Chalcides.]
BRACHyTELES (Zoology), a genus of quadrumana,
separated from A teles by Spix, on account (among other
differences) of the very small development of the thumb.
[Atblbs, snecies 7, 8.]
BRACKLEY, a bor. and m. t. in the bund, of King's
Sutton, Northamptonshire, 56 m. N.W. from London, and
18 m. S.W. Arom ^Northampton. Brackley is said to derive
its name from the brakes with which the district was once
overspread. Although it has long been a poor place, it seems
to have been in a very flourishing condition both before and
after the Conquest, being particularly eminent for its share
in the wool trade. It existed as a corporation in the 56th of
Henry III., although the place was not governed by a mayor
until the 7th of Edward III., at which time it was required
to send up three merchant staplers to a council concerning
trade hela at Westminster. It never again sent representa-
tives until the last parliament of Henry VIII., after which
it continued to sena two members till it was disfranchised
by the Reform Bill. The market is first distinctly noticed
in 1217. It is now held on Wednesday; aud there are
nominally five fairs, of which only that on St. Andrews day
is of any importance. The pop. of the bor. amounted, in
1831, to 2107 persons, of whom 1094 were females. The
town, which is chiefly built with unhewn stone, extends up
a gentle ascent on the N. bank of the Ouse, which is here
a small stream, crossed by a bridge of two arches.
Brackley is divided into two par., ecclesiastically united,
but otherwise distinct. The par. church is dedicated to St.
Peter. When erected is not known ; but the vie. was en-
dowed in 1223. The living is in the diocese of Peterborough,
and is worth 359/. per annum. The other church, dedicated
to St James, is regarded as a chapel of ease to the former ;
it was considered old even in Leland's time. The living is
a curacy, not in charge, subject to the vie. There wa.s an
hospital here, founded somewhere between 1 146 and II 6 7,
by Robert Bossu, Earl of Leicester. The estutes with
which it was endowed were afterwards given to Magdalen
College, Oxford, on condition of maintaining a pric&t
there to say mass for the soul of Lord Francis Level ; a
duty which at the Reformation was exchanged for that of
supporting a free school. This school still exists. It is
held in a plain building erected in 1787: the master receives
18/. per annum from Magdalen College; and 1/. per annum
has been left to be distributed in prizes among the free
scholars. The chapel of the old hospital had ^Uen into
a very ruined condition ; but was thoroughly repaired about
the middle of the last century, bv Mr. John Welchuian,
who also provided a stipend to enable divine service to be
performed therein every alternate Sunday. The son of the
same person let1t 100/. for the education of four poor boys
and as many girls. Since the establishment of a national
school in 1818, the interest has been paid over to its trea-
surer, in aid of voluntarv contributions. There are alms-
houses founded by Sir Thomas Crewe in 1663; and there
have been various bequests of rents and money, applicable
to the repair of churches, the apprenticing of boys, and the
relief of the poor. There is a handsome town-hall.
(Lelands Itinerary; Bridge's Hist, and Antiq. qf North-
amptonshire ; Baker's Hist, and Antiq. qf the Co. of
Northampton, &c.)
BRA'CON, a genus of insects of the order Hymenoptera
and family Ichneumonidse (of Latreille). The insects of
this genus are remarkable for the hiatus which there exisU
between the mandibles and the clypeus. The maxillse are
prolonged iuferiorly ; the second cubital cell of the wing is
tolerably large and square; the ovipositor is long.
BRACT, the last leaf, or set of leaves, that intervenes
between the true leaves and the calyx of a plant. When th«
time arrives for a plant to fructify, a change oomes over its
constitution, and parts are expanded, which although under
ordinary circumstances they would have become leaves, yet
at this peculiar time are less developed and appear in the
form of scales, or half-formed leaves. Of these the external
are bracts, the next combine with each other and become
calyx, the next assume the form of petals, and so on. There-
fore whatever intervenes between the true leaves and the
calyx is bract.
BRACTON, one of the writers who are meant when
e phrase is used • our antient law-writers,' or • the anti^i/^
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text-writen of our law.' These wnten lived from the
close of the twelfth to the iniAdle of the fifteenth cen-
tury. The oldest is GlanviUe, whose era is referred to the
te\^ of Henry II. and Richard I. Bracton ItTed in the
reign of Henry III. The others are Britton, Littleton, and
the unknown authors of ' Fleta,* ' The Mirror of Justices,*
'Tlie Doctor and Student,* and the * Old Book of Tenures.'
^ These hooks all relate to the nature, principles and opera-
* tion of the antient laws and constitution of the realm, and
together with a few minor treatises, the collections of
Welsh, Saxon, and Norman laws, the charters and statutes,
the year-books which contain notes of causes and decisions,
ihe records of Writs, inquests, surveys, and of the receipts
and issues by and from the king's revenue, and the inci-
dental information to be found in the chroniclers, form the
study of those persons who wish to become acquainted with
the history of English judicature, of the courts for the admi-
nistration of justice, and generally of the various operations
of the English law.
Braoton's work is entitled ' De Consueiudinibus et Legibus
AngUoanis.* It is divided into five books, and the following
u a slight sketch of the nature and object of the work.
In the Jfrtt book he treats of distinctions existing in
respect both of persons and things; in the Mcond of the
modes in which property may be acquired in things ; in the
Mtr J of actions or remedies at law. The fourth book is
divided into several sections, which treat on the assize of
novel duMisin, the assise of ultima preMeniatio, the assize of
mori dancestor, the writ of consanguinity, the grants in
libera eleemosynot and on dower. Theyj^/Aand last book
is also divided into sections, in which the author treats of
the writ of right, essoins, defaults, warranty and exceptions.
A larger abstract of the contents of this work may be found
in Reeves* History of the English Law, vol. ii. p. 86, &c.
A treatise so methodical in its arrangements, so precise in
its statementa* and so abundant in its information, must
have been the work of some very able person. Little how-
ever is now known of this author. The writers to whom we
are indebted fur collecting what could be recovered of the
English authors of the middle ages, are Leland, Bale and
Pitz, of whom the two former lived in the reign of Henry
VIII. and supplied Pitz, who was a Catholic writer in the
reign of Elizabeth and James I., with roost of the informa-
tion which his work, valuable as it is, contains. Their
statements that Bracton was a judge of the Common Pleas,
and that he was Chief Justice of England, are now regarded
* as questionable. There is better reason to believe that he
was a Henry de Bracton who delivered taw lectures in the
University of Oxford towards the middle of the thirteenth
century, and that he sat, once at least, as a justice itine-
rant in the reign of Henry III. The value of the work,
and the high esteem in which it was held, is manifest by
the numerous copies which were made of it before the in-
vention of printing opened so much easier and cheaper a
way of multiplving copies of valuable writings. The pains
which it must have mquired to transcribe the work, and con-
sequently the expense of it, may be collected from the ex-
tent of the work, which fills in its printed form not less
than 888 folio pages. Many of these manuscript copies
exist. It is said that there are no less than eight in the
various libraries which compose the book-department of the
British Museum. In 1569 it was printed in a folio volume,
and again in (juarto in 1640, the text of the old edition be-
ine onlated with that of some of the manuscripts. But this
eoTlation is supposed to have been imperfectly performed.
An edition founded on one of the best of the existing manu-
scripts, compared with the rest and with the printed copies,
would be acceptable, especially as the old editions, owin^
to the manner in which they are printed, are uninviting if
not repulsive, and as Bracton is not included in the edition
of our early law writers by Mons. Houard, a French lawyer,
4to. 1776, by whom they are ]Hinted with a French trans-
lation, to illustrate the connexion between the early juris-
prudence of France and that of England.
BRADDOCK, EDWARD, lost his life in Virginia, by
the French and Indians, in the war in which General Wolfe
afterwards fell on the heights at Quebec in Canada. The
Fkiench having determined to connect their Canadian colony
with their other possessions in Louisiana by a chain of forti-
fied military stations which interfered with the British terri-
tories. General Braddock, with an army of 2000 English,
was despatched to Virginia, where he arrived in February,
1755» at Richmond. With 390 waggons of provisioas.
atnmunctioii, and baggage, he leaohad in Julf the Me-
nongahela, a branch of the river Ohio. Washingloii. wha
was then at the age of twenty-three, joined him as a volm*
teer, in the capacity of aide^e^amp ; and fifom hie aecormie
knowledge of his native country, and of the Indian mode ef
warfare, would have fiimished the English conunaiider with
the information reauisite for the suceeta of bis «Bped3t>ott«
but Braddock's selr*sufficiency contemptuoosly disftgantod
the advice of Ameriean officers. Having advmeed on the
9th of July within six miles of Fort du Qoesne, now Pits-
burg, where he supposed the enemy awaited his appioarh.
his columns, in p^ing silently through a deep firaeei favinsi.
were suddenly struck with the utmost tenor by the iHgfat-
ful war-whoop of the Indians fixmi the dense thickets m
both sides, and the murderous fire of invisible tiiea that
with infallible aim killed each its maiw Rushing Ibrwmid
they were surprised and attacked in front by the FVench
forces, while the Indian warriors, leaping by hnndrtds from
their ambush, fell upon them with fuiy in the tear. Their
strange and hideous appearance, and the echo of thek piere-
ing dog-like yelp, in such a gloomy wilderness of tiees, so
startled the English soldiers, who for the first tiiae heani it,
that the panic which seized them continued until half ciie
army was destroyed. With the single exception of Washing-
ton, who received several rifie balls through his dress, and
had two horses shot under him, no one oflSeer eseaped alive.
Braddock himself, after mounting in suoceasion five h(»rse^
was shot, and carried off" on a tumbril by the remnant of bt
troops, who tied precipitously forty miles to the plaee in which
the baggage had been left, where he died. ThrongKotn
Virginia, the inhabitants of which feared an invaaion from
the French, this disastrous defeat occasioned great con-
sternation ; and to the present day it is there a sabjert
of interesting discussion, as connected with the caicer ct
Washington. {History of the late War to Ammiea and
the Campaigns against his Majesty's Indian Enmmim^ bj
Thomas Mante, 4to. 1764 ; Oent, Mag^ vol. xxv. p. 378.)
BRADFORD, GREAT, a par. and m. t^ in the hiind. ^
Bradford, Wiltshire, 93 m. W. from London, and 28 m. N.W.
firom Salisbury. The name of Bradford is a oontradion o^
the Saxon name Bradanford, or the broad foni eeer the
Avon, which divides the town into two parts, ealled the 0£»'
Town and the New Town. Most of the huikfinga are at-
ranged in three streets, rising one above another, oo tb«
brow and slope of a hill which rises abruptly on tbe N. s>^
of the river : the situation is altogether verv pleasing, as Xht
banks of the riv. below the town abound m beantifWI mzA
picturesque scenes ; and the well- wooded hilk rise in aonit
places boldly from the margin of the river. There mvseeter^
fine old mansion-houses in the neighbourhood.
The town seems to have been a i^aee of Maie oooecquenre
in tbe time of the Saxons. It was then the site of a mont^.f
institution founded by St. Adhelm, who was hinaelf u.t
abbot, until appointed Bishop of Worcester in 705. It «t«
S'ven to the groat nunnery at Shaftesbui^ in 1081, by K»af
thelred. in atonement for the murder of his half-bfotk^tr
by Queen Elfrida. After this we hear nothhig of a re}ig«>ut
society at Bradford. Bishop Gibson says the meoaster% wm
destroyed by the Danes. In 954 the celebrated St. DiMistae
was elected Bishop of Worcester, at a synod held at Brad-
ibrd. It is only by its connection with such ciieoastaiMes
as these that the importance of a town in tfaeae eariy time*
can be estimated, or even its existence dUscov«el ^wdford
seems to have rotained its former deme of rslstive insport-
anoe after the Conquest ; for we find it mentioned anocif
the towns which were privileged by Edward 1. to send
members to parliament. It does not appear how«v«r that
this right was exercised more than once. It ia unknown
whether it waa ever a chartered bor. with aeMtate jonvlie-
tion; but if so, this distinction, like the other, noA soi4t
have been lost It is still however the ehief town of the
bund, to which it gives name. Monday is the in.d.; mtA,
there is a fair on Trinity Monday. Two juitieea of the M«r«
administer the local government. The par. of Bradfcrd
which is very extensive, contained 2894 houaee in IK^l.
when the pop. amounted to 10,102 persons, of vhoos 5iM^
were females. The pop. of the town is about oiie>tfavd u{
the whole.
The town has for many centuries been noted fcr its fif«v
broad-ck>ths, which have at all times formed ita princtr^.
manufactura. ' The toune of Bradlbid stondith hy eW»'k
making,* Leland said three centuries ago ; and this is tr
true. The prosperity of the phiceyis>iigw aleo fottoh
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idilad hf <be K«inat uid Avon mOm whkh paitM by
BracUoid, and flpeni a communicatiQtt hy water wUh the
dtiea of Bath. Brittol, and London» and with the towns of
Trowbridge, Deviies* Hungerford, Reading* &c This
important ean.. in its way towards Bathford. follows the
course of the Avon, which it crosses at diflEeient parts on
visdoelSi one of which is situated in the neighbourhcod of
Bradfiird. The riv. at Bradford is crossed by two bridges.
One of these is of great but uncertain age : it was the sole
biidge in Lsland's time, and is noticed by him as having
' Dine fair arches of stone.* Over one of the piers there is
a small square building with a pyramidical roof, which may
perhaps have been originally designed as a ohapeU where
contributions were levied for the support of the hospital,
which stood at one end of the bridge. There is now another
bridge of ibur arches over the same stream.
The houses in Bradford are built with stone; but the
streets are mostly very narrow. The town has however
undergone much improvement of late years, and the streets
have in several instances been widened. There is no public
building of any note except the church, which stands at
the foot of the hill. The living is a vie., in the gift of the
Dean and Chapter of Bristol, and is valued in the recent
returns at 596/. per annum. All the nrincipal denomina-
tions of Pisaentera have chapels at Bradford.
There is a charity school at Bradford for the education of
sixty boys, which was opened in 1712, and the income of
which amounts to 43/. 8«. 4d. ; there is also a payment from
a separate source to the minister for teaching poor children
to read. There are two sets of almshouses, one for men
and the other for women, besides sundry small benefactions
for the relief of the poor.
(Leland's Itinerary; Cough's edition of Camden* m Bri-
tannia; Britten's Beauties qf WiltMre; &c)
BRADFORD, a m. t. and par. in the W. Riding of the
€0. of York, and in the Morley division of the wap. of
Morley. It is one of the new bor. under the Reform Act,
and sends two members to parliament. The bor. comprises
the t. of Bradford, Manningham, Bowling, and Horton.
The pop. of the bor. is 43,527 ; the number of houses of
10/. rent and upwards 1083. The returning officer for the
bor. is appointed by the sheriff of Uie co. The pop. of the
Sur, of Bradford is 76,996, and includes the following t. : —
radford, 23,833; Bowling, 5958; N. Bierley, 7254 ; £o-
deshill, 2^70 ; Manningham. 3564; Allerton, 1733; Clay-
ton, 4469; Haworth, 5835; Heaton, 1452 ; Horton, 10.782:
Shipley, 1926 ; Thornton, 6968; WUsden, 2252. Bradford
lA one of the polling-places for the W. Riding members. It
is 163 m. from London in a straight line; its measured dis-
tance is 1 92 m. It is 10 m. from Leeds, -and 33 from York.
The area of the par. is about 33,710 acres ; its length being
nearly 15 m. ana ita avera^ breadth 4 m.
History. — ^Bradford is situated on a small brook which
falls into the Aire, and is at present very contracted; in
earlier day a, when swollen by the floods f^om the neiglt-
houring hills, it may have been sufficiently wide to have
deserved the name of Broatfford, from which it is supposed
the present name of the town is derived. This town is
mentioned in ^Doomesday Book' (Bawdwens translation,
p. 141.) In Saxon times Bradford formed nart of the ex-
tensive par. of Dewsbury ; it was afterwards included in
Um rich barony of Pontafract, which was in the possession
of the Laoias. * The whole district was immediately de-
pendent upon Dewsbury in an ecclesiastical, and on Ponta-
fract in a civil sense.' (Whitaker s Loidis in Eimete, p.
350.) Thia powerful family had a castle at Bradford, which
served as » protection to their retainers and other persons
who would eome to settle here from a less protected district :
thus gradually would rise the vil., town, church, and market
The early history of the town is connected with that of its
cantle; the Lacies had large posssessions in Lancashire,
and it is supposed that Bradford was their frequent resting-
plsce in passing from Pontefract into that co. From an in-
quisition taken in 1316, it appears that the town consisted
of twenty-eight burgage houses \ these, with the tenants at
will and villanei» would make its pop. amount to about 300.
A corn-mill and a fulling-mill are mentioned in the inquisi-
tion ; so that the rudiments of manufactures were eaily
established* The last of the Lades, Alice, married the
Sail of Lancaster ; and Bradford, in common with the other
poisessiona of her family, went to increase the estates of
that duchy. Leland mentions Bradfind as a rising town
that ' aiondith mueh by clothing ;* oompanng it with I^eeds,
he says thai the latter, though <as large as Bradlbrd, is not
so quik as it*
During the eivil wars between the royalists and parlia-
mentarians, Bradford espoused the latter cause, held a
severe contest with, and twice defeated the royalists. .With
Sir Thomas Fairfax at their head, the inh. marched against
Leeds, and wrested that town from the cavaliers. They
were however themselves defeated a short time after by the
Earl of Newcastle on Adwalton Moor, with immense slaugh-
ter. (Scatcherd's Hist, qf Mcriey,) Though much im-
poverished, the republican spirit was not extinct at Bradford,
and the popularity of their cause was soon made manifest
throughout the co» by the successes of Fairfax, the declen-
sion of the cause of Charles, and the decisive battle of
Marston Moor.
After these wars Bradford made little progress for a long
time, and it was much depressed, in common with other
manufacturing towns, during the American revolutionary
war. On occasion of the revolutionary war in France, when
fears of invasion were predominant throughout England,
the loyalty and patriotism of the people of Bradford were
very conspicuous. They raised a corps of volunteers and itir-
nished their number of men for the navy with little difficulty.
In 1812 a spirit of insubordination was diffused through
the wide and densely-populated district of which Bradford ia
the centre, in consequence of the introduction of certain
kinds of machinery which, by lessening the demand for
manual labour, seemed opposed to the interests of the ope-
ratives, and at first threw numbers out of employment Tlie
machines most obnoxious to the woi-kmen were those em-
ploved in the dressing of woollen clotfi. ' The lawless system
under which the insurgents acted, was called Luddism^ and
an imaginary personage styled General, alias Ned Ludd, was
their reputed commander. To effect the destruction of ma-
chinery, and to attack the buildings in whidi it was con-
tained, fire-arms became necessary; hence bands of men
oonfederated for the purpose, and, bound by illegal oaths,
were found prowling about the disturbed districts by night,
rousing the inh. from their beds, and demanding the arms
provided for the defence of their dwellings. In the W.
Hiding several mills were entered, and the shears employed
in the dressing of woollen cloth by the new system broken
and destroyed.* In the course of that year government
augmented' the power of the magistracy in the disturbed dis-
tricts, and passed an act which rendered the administering
of illegal oaths a capital offence. Sixty-six persons were
apprehended and committed to the dbnnty gaol, of whom
seventeen were executed. This terrible example extin-
guished every vestige of Luddism in the co. The above
account and extracts are drawn from an interesting detail
of the circumstances attending these disturbances, which is
given in Balnea's History and Directory qf Yorkshire,
vol. i. p. 661.
In 1825 oocunred a strike for wages, which was protracted
during ten months, at an immense expense to the trades*
unions, and at a drndful sacrifice of comfort on the part of
the operatives, who were plunged into a state of poverty
from which they were long in recovering. Since that date,
the history of Uie trade of Bradford has been one of con-
tinued prosperity, the effects of which are visible in the
modem improvements of the town, and the apparent healthi-
ness and happiness of every class of its active and intelli-
gent pop. During this period schools have been established
and well attended ; a mechanics* institute, a philosophical
society, and a library have also helped to spread a knowledge
of those principles on which alone society can be safely
based.
Manttfactures, — The chief manufacture of Bradford and
the neighbourhood is worsted stuffs. The spinning of
worsted yam employs a great number of persons, and the
stuffs are woven from the yarn. Woollen yarn for the
manufacture of cloths, broad and narrow, is also spun and
woven at Bradford in considerable quantities, but the worsted
manufacture is the staple employment of the place, Leeds
and its dependencies being the more immediate seat of the
woollen manufacture. The piece hall, which is the mart
for stuff goods, is 144 ft long by 36 broad, and has a lower
and an upper chamber. The manufacturers of Bradford are
characterised by their skill, enteprrise, and diligence. The
business which is transacted in their piece hall at the
Thtirsday's market is very great, and forms ono of the most
animated commercial scenes in the kingdom. Many pro*
prieCors of woxated mills supply the small manufacturers
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with yarn, besides employing a great number of looms
themselves. Machinery, worked by steam, has almost
superseded manual labour in the stuff-manufacture, the
weaving being now generally done by power-looms. The
stulE) manufactured at Bradford are chiefly dyed at Leeds,
the proprietors of the dye-houses being among the largest
purchasers in the Bradford market.
The iron trade has long flourished in the neighbourhood
of Bradford. Mr. Hunter, the historian of Sheffield, con-
siders that the iron-mines of Yorkshire were explored by its
Roman inh., and he mentions the * remarkable fact, that in
the midst of a mass of scoria, the refuse of some antient
bloomery near Bradford, was found a deposit of Roman
coins.* There is an abundant supply of iron ore and coal,
both of excellent quality; and the well-known ironworks at
Bowling and Low Moor are only a short distance from
Bradford. At these foundries some of the most ponderous
works in cast-iron are executed. A vast number of work-
men are employed in the different departments of the esta-
blishments— from the raising of the ore and coal, to the
various marketable states of the metal. These ironworks
have the reputation of being carried on with great skiU ;
the improvements of modern times having been successfully
introduced in the different branches of the manufacture.
The principal merchants and manufacturers in the trades
of Bradford are wool- staplers, wool- combers, worsted- spin-
ners and manufacturers, worsted- stuff manufacturers, and
woollen-cloth manufacturers. Several of the trades which
are carried on are dependent upon the woollen and worsted
trade, among which are the manufactures for combs, shut-
tles, and machinery. The proportion of other occupations
is about equal to that of similar towns.
A septennial festival is held in Bradford in honour of
Bishop Blase, to whom the invention of wool-combing is
attributed. The day is kept with great rejoicing and gaiety,
iind the procession is witnessed by thousands of strangers
frum the neighbouring towns and villages. The ' Leeds
Mercury* for the 5th of February, 18'2 5, contains a good
account of one of these festivals. (Hone*s Every Day
Book, vol. i. pp. 209 — 212.)
As a seat of commerce Bradford possesses many facilities.
By the Leeds and Liverpool can. it has an unimpeded com-
munication with Hull and the German Ocean, and with
Liverpool and the Irish Sea. This can. traverses much of
the W. portion of the W. Riding, passing through or near
Leeds, Bingley, Keighley, Skipton, and Gargrave; it
enters Lancashire near Colne, ana passes through Burnley,
Blackburn, Chorley, and Wigan to Liverpool. By the Aire
and Calder navigation, Leeds and the neighbouring towns
are connected with Goole and Hull. The Leeds and Selby
railway also connects the inland towns of Yorkshire with
the Ouse, the Humber, and the German Ocean. The main
line of the Leeds and Liverpool can. does not pass through
Bradford ; a branch, three m. in length, called the Bradford
can., communicates between the town and that line.
The state of morals and health of the persons employed
in the factory districts has often been misrepresented. In
many cases the well-being of the young persons employed
is strictly attended to. In Bradford and other towns of the
district, instances might be given where the masters con-
sider it an important duty to have their young workpeople
morally and religiously educated. When the benefits of
&ctory-schools are more apparent, such schools will be-
come more numerous and effective than they have hitherto
been : it may be safely affirmed that the owners of factories
are generally wishful to do all in their power to promote the
welfare of their workmen. On the physical results of the
factory system, such works as those of Dr. Ure and Mr.
Baines on the Cotton Manufacture, and that of the late
Mr. Thackrah of Leeds * On the Effects of Arts and Trades
on Health,' may be consulted ; from which it will appear
that the evils which have been charged upon the system
have resulted from the vices and fullies of individuals,
ratlier than from any baneful tendency in their employments.
Places qf Worship, Education^ <f-c.— The par. church of
Bradford, dedicated to St. Peter, was erected in the reign
of Henr^ VI., the tower being of later dale ; a former
fabric existed, which must have been comparatively small.
(Whitaker.) It is a vie. of the annual value of 440/. It
has no remarkable exterior attraction, and is mentioned by
Rickman as being principally of the perpendicular style of
architecture. Among its monuments may be mentioned a
Tery beautiful work by Flaxman, for a gentleman of the
name of Balme, in which old age if finely perMmift(?«L
Christehurch was erected in 1813; Hs interior ia aomm^
dious, but externally it is heavy and posaesset no interest.
At the present time (1836) means are about to be taken t<>
provide additional church accommodation, wbieh is e%'ideiitU
needed, where the pop. is so large and increasing, and « h<*rf
the existing churches are so well and regularly filled. Tb^*
other places of worship in Bradford are for Catholics, Inde-
pendents, Baptists, Wesleyan Methodists, Primitive Me-
thodists, Unitarians, and the Society of Friends.
The academic establishment called Airedale CoUe^r
which is at Undercliffe immediately near Bradford, is f r
the preparation of young men for the ministry in the Indr<
pendent churches. This academy has been aereral tirr<*«
removed since its first establishment In 1665. Its ctat. •.
previous to the site it now occupies was Idle; its pmM.:
prosperity is greatly owing to the addition made to its |^r-
manent endowments by a benevolent lady of Bradfurd. ^ \ *
has also been the chief cause of the erection of tbe com-
modious buildings now occupied by the college. Tbe ni:ia
ber of students has varied from fifteen to twenty.
The Baptists have a college at Horton which was cs*\
blished in 1805. It has been aided by gifts of money artd
premises, subscriptions and beouests of money and booV% :
its present income is about 900/. a year. Upwards of li'o
ministers have been educated or are now pursuing tL>\r
studies in this institution, ninety of whom are settled &^
pastors of churches in this country or abroad.
The Wesleyan Methodists have one of their seminar'-*
for the education of the sons of ministers at Wootihu ^•
Grove, near Bradford ; it was founded in 1812, and is v. .
to be admirably managed, and to have been found exten-
sively useful. Its design is to * supply the children i
ministers with an education suitable to the station « L' <
their fathers hold in society.' It contains 100 pupils, ai .
is well supported by the religious body to which it helor j>
The expenditure for this school and the kindred cstab: . • .
ment at Kingswood, near Bristol (also containin*; .<
pupils), has been for the last year (to June, 1835), 4I2J/. •
little more than 20/. for each child. Of this expense -.'
ministers whose sons are educated pay one-sixth. {R'p -:
of the Schools, for 1835; and Wesleyan Methodist Ma^i
zine for October, 1 835.)
The grammar-school of Bradford was in existence ^
the time of Edward VI. 6v the charter of 1663 it .<
called ' The Free Grammar-school of Charles 11. at Bral-
ford.* The usual powers for its government are vestetl t.
'thirteen men of the most discreet, honest, and reti?-.j
persons of the neighbourhood, whereof the vicar of Bradf. -^
shall always be one.* The old school was an incon\ent- ..t
building, unpleasantly situated near the churchyanL .x l
act of parhament was obtained in 1818, which empower-i;
the governors to dispose of lands for the erection of a cr •
school-house, and a dwelling-house for the head ma»i':r
These buildings, which were completed in 1830, are in n*T^
respect commodious, and in addition to the sehool-room tb«r>
is a library and a porter's lodge. All boys of the par. a. re
admissible free of expense. This school is one of th.r-.
that has the privilege of sending a candidate for Ladv EI'.*.-
beth Hastings's exhibitions at Queeu*s College, Oxf ri.
The Archbishop of York for the time being is the %-i>.- r
of the school. The present income arises from lands ai:
buildings issuing out of freehold estates within the p«r. of
Bradfora. These estates have become so valuable, tbi^t tl.e
governors of the school were enabled, some years a^o. \ -
establish a writing-school, in which a number of cluldr< .
receive a useful elementary education.
There are schools in Bradford on tbe national sj-stem . *
education, and on the British and foreign system ; a %ch.«^
of industry for girls, an in&nt school, and many wcU-ci^n
ducted Sunday-schools in the town or in the immedia t-
vicinity. The Established Church has two Sunday- ^cb- - U
the Wesleyan Methodists four, the Baptists four, the Intie-
pendents three, and the Primitive Methodists one« \\c
have not procured returns from all these schools, but ff\>m
those which have been obtained an opinion may be funzie 1
of their etficiency, and of the high character they sttst&>u.
The Parish Cluirch Sunday-School oontains 430 4 TO
Christchurch Sundav-School . • • S80 330
Baptists* Sunday- Schools • « . 490 5lu
Inaependents* Sunday -Schools • « 448 4^9
Wealeyans' Sunday-iohoola /^"^^^v^rW^ *^
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The NatumAl and British Schooli each raanize a imall
weekly payment from the children; their numbers are: —
Boyik Giilt.
National • . 105 80
British • . .240 180
The Infants* School (including both sexes) • 150
School of Industry (the limited number) . • 60
A mechanics' institute was eslablished in 1829, which is
well sustained, and has about 450 members : there is also a
philosophical societ)^. A subscription library and news-
room occupy a portion of the exchange- rooms, and other
apartments in this elegant building are devoted to public
meetings and to periodical concerts. A library and depnosi-
tory of works published by the Christian Knowledge Society
U attached to one of the Church Sunday-schools, and the
Bible Society, the Church and other Missionary Societies
have active auxiliaries. The dispensary, established in
lj$'26, is liberally supported and well managed. A branch
society to the county institution for the deaf and dumb at
Doncaster furnishes considerable funds to that establish-
ment in annual subscriptions. Bradford has several minor
ch^irities for the sick and poor, similar to those of other
towns. The gas works were established in 1 822 ; the new
market, a plain and extensive building, was opened in 1824.
There are two establishments for supplying the town with
water; and it may be said that every comfort and conve-
nience is accessible to the inh. The savings bank has been
found very beneficial to the operatives of the district; and
the Temperance Society has a large number of members.
It is worthy of record that Englitli Temperance Societies
were commenced at Bradford. The town is governed by
two constables, who are elected annually at a vestry meet-
ing, and nominated by the retiring officers ; one of them is
Tor the E. and the other for the W. end of Bradford. There
ii a Court of requests for the recovery of debts under forty
shillings, and another court for the honour of Pontefract, in
which debts may be sued for under five pounds. The piece
hall was for many years used as a court-house for the meet-
ing of the magistrates, and for holding the quarter-sessions.
A new and ornamental building has just been completed for
a court-house, which is found to be very commodious. The
general aspect of Bradford is that of opulence and respec-
tability ; it is chiefly built of a fine light freestone : during
the last ten years whole streets of elegant buildings have
risen up, chietly consisting of warehouses, and are an evi*
dence of the increasing commerce and wealth of the town.
The country to the N. and W. is open and picturesque, and
is adorned with the residences of the more opulent mer-
chants.
The occupations of the families in the par. of Bradford,
according to the Enumeration Abstract of Population for
1 83 1 , were as follows : —
Families employed in agriculture . • 790
Families employed in trade, manufactures, &c. 10,913
Families not comprised in the preceding • • 3,346
15,049
The U of Bradford par, — Bowlings formerly Boiling,
about a m. and a half S.W. of Bradford, was onoe the
manor and residence of a family of that name. The hall is
an antient building, and was the head-quarters of the Earl
Qf Newcastle in the year 1642 during the siege of Bradford.
It was here, while in bed, after he had formed the purpose
of giving up the inhabitants of Bradford to military execu-
tion, that he was dissuaded from his intention by a female
apparition. It is supposed that some patriotic woman really
appeared to him and remonstrated with him on his san-
Kuinary determination, or that a dream produced the effect.
Bowling has been mentioned as the seat of extensive
ironworks.
North Bierley is about two m. S.E. from Bradford ; its
inh. are employed in the ironworks, the mines and quarries,
and the woollen trade. The hall was the residence of Dr.
Richardson, a man of refined literary taste, who gave up
much time to horticultural pursuits. There is a neat epis-
copal chapel at North Bieriey.
Kcrle»hill, Manningham, Allerton, Haworth, Heaton,
and Clayton, are all scattered vil., at short distances from
Bradford; their populations are chiefly employed in the
stuff and cloth manu&ctures. At Manningham is the beau-
tiful seat of E. C. Lister, Esq., one of the members for the
W. of Bradford.
Horhn is the most populous and impoitadt of the smaller
t : it possesses a free-school which was founded and en-
dowed by Christopher Scott, in the reign of Charles I. In
this sch(X)l 200 children are instructed. There is also another
school in which sixty children of some neighbouring hamlets
are instructed free. The places of worship are a small epis-
copal chapel, and large chapels for the Primitive and Wes
leyan Methodists. The Buptist seminary is at Horton.
Shipley is three m. N. from Bradford. A church was
built here in 1825, which will contain about 1500 persons
there are chapels for the Baptists and Wesleyan Methodists.
Worsted, woollen cloth, and paper manufactures are here
carried on.
Thornton is about four and half m. W. from Bradford ; it
has numerous manufactures of stuflfs, a church, an Inde-
pendent chapel, and a Methodist chapel. It has a school,
erected by subscription, which contains eighty children;
some of them are instructed in the classics. This school has
an endowment of about 50/. a year, derived from various
benefactions. There is also a school on the national system.
IVileden is five and a half m. N.W. of Bradford ; it has
a beautiful new church, an Independent chapel, and tvto
Methodist chapels ; it is a flourishing t, and, like the others
in the par. of Bradford, indicates by its appearance the
prosperity and activity of its pop.
Abraham Sharpe, the celebrated mathematician, and
machinist, was born at Little Horton, about 1651.
Dr. Richardson was born at Bierley Hall, in 1664. He
took the degree of M.D. at Oxford, but never practised.
He devoted his life to literature, horticulture, and the study
of antiquities. The second hot-house which was ever con-
structed in the N. of England was built at his house, and a
cedar of Lebanon which he planted still remains there, a
splendid specimen of this beautiful tree. It was sent a
seedling to Dr. Richardson from Sir Hans Sloane.
John Sharp, Archbishop of York, was born at Bradford
in 1644 ; he was a man of great eloquence, of sincere pieiy,
and of general abilities. He died in 1718, and was buried
in York minster, where an elegant monument was raised to
his memory.
(Whitaker's Loidie tn Elmete ; Baines's History and
Directory of Yorkshire; Bigland's Yorkshire; Parsons'
Leeds and the adjoining Towns; ScAtcherd's Moriey,
Communications from Bradford,)
BRADLEY, JAMES, the third Astronomer Royal, and
the first, perhaps, of all astronomers in the union of theore-
tical sagacity with practical excellence, was born at Sher-
bourn in Gloucestershire (probably in March, 1692-3). For
.all authorities, &c., we must refer the reader to the excellent
and minute account of him in the Oxford edition of his
' Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence,* Oxford, 1832,
by Professor Rigaud.
His father, William Bradley, married Jane, the sister of
the Rev. James Pound, known by the observations of the
comet of 1680 which he supplied to Newton, together with
other observations referred to in the Principia. With
this uncle James Bradley passed much of his time, and
found in his house the means of applying himself to astro-
nomical observation. As early as 1716 there is a letter of
Halley to Pound mentioning Bradley as an observer ; and
in 1718 and 1719, we find some observations of double stars
(Castor and y Virginis), which have since been used by Sir
J. Herschel in his determination of the orbits which each
of the pairs just mentioned describes round the other
{Mem, H. Astron. Snc. vol. v. pp. 195, 202). At the same
time he turned his attention to the motions of Jupiter's
satellites, and detected, by observation, the greater part of
the inequalities afterwards discussed by Bauli. Tables of
the satellites, from Bradley's observations, were published
in Halley's collection, London, 1749. and in Phtl, Trans,
vol. XXX.
Bradley was entered of Balliol College, Oxford, in 1710,
and took the degrees of B. A. and M. A. in 1714 and 1 71 7.
In 1718 he became a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1719
he was ordained to the rectory of Bridstow, in Monmouth-
shire. In 1720 he obtained another living, but in 1721
resigned his preferments on obtaining the Savilinn Pro-
fessorship of Astronomy at Oxford, with the holding of
which they are incompatible. He also resigned the office
of chaplain to Bishop Hoadly. We find him now engajred
in miscellaneous observation, particularly with the long
telescope introduced by Hutohbnm. With one of these of
812 ft. focal length, he measured the diameter of Venus in
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17S2. Prand died ht 1724, and in tbe neict year Bradley
began the observationa vhich led to his great discovery.
The drcumstanoes connected with the discovery of
Aberration are already described. The scene of the
first observations was at the house of Mr. Molyneux at
Kew, which afterwards became the palace of that name,
lately pulled down, a memorial inscription of the discovery
having been placed there by William IV. The associated
observations of Bradley and Molyneux detected the mo-
tion of y Draconis, and other stars, and established approxi-
mately the law of the motion of the first That the motion
in declination depended in some way or other on the lati-
tude of the star was evident, and in this state the matter
stood, when Bradley in 1727 erected a zenith sector for him-
self at Wanstead. Tlie original entry of the first night's ob-
servation at Kew, which confirmed the fact of an unex-
plained motion in y Draconis (Dec. 21,1 725), is preserved in
Bradley's own hand-writing. The following, written on a
torn bit of paper, is the earliest of the observed phenomena
which led to the greatest discovery of a man who has, more
than any other, contributed to render a single observation
of a star correct enough for the purposes of astronomy : —
Dec 21** Tuesday 5** 40' sider. time
Adjusted y^ mark to y« Plumb Line
& then y" Index stood at 8
5*» 48' 22" y* stor entred
49 52i Star at y« Cross
51 24 Star went out
a could
At soon as I let go y« course
screw I perceived y* Star too
much to y« right hand &
80 it continued till it passed
y* Cross thread and within a quarter
was
of a minute after it had passed
graduat
I turned y* fine screw till I saw
y* light of y* star perfectly
bissected, and after y* obser
vation I found y* index
at 1)|. so that by this
observation y*
mark is about Z'\
too much south,
but adjusting
y* mark and plumbline
I found y* Index at 8^
Bradley began his observations at Wanstead with a better
instrument than that at Kew, and capable of taking in a
larger range of the heavens. He soon confirmed the general
fact which he had observed, and it only remained to assign
the cause. There is traditional evidence to the following
anecdote, first given by Dr. Thomson in his History of the
Royal Society, and adopted by Professor Rigaud :— • When
he despaired of being able to account for the phenomena
which he had observed, a satisfactory explanation of it
ocourred to him all at once when he was not in search of it.
He accompanied a pleasure party in a sail upon the river
Thames. The boat in whicn thev were was provided with
a mast which had a vane upon the top of it. It blew a
moderate wind, and the party sailed up and down the river
for a considerable time. Dr. Bradley remarked, that every
time the boat put about, the vane at the top of the boat's
mast shifted a little, as if there had been a slight change in
the direction of the wind. He observed this three or fbur
times without speaking ; at last he mentioned it to the
Bailors, and expressed nis surprise that the wind should shift
■o regularly every time they put about. The sailors told
him that the wind had not snifted, but that the apparent
change was owing to the change in the direction of the boat,
and assured him that the same thing invariably happened
in all cases.* By tracing this phenomenon to its cause,
namely, the oombined motion of the boat and the wind, he
was enabled to give the solution of the star's motion,
namely, a small change of place arising from the spectator
giving to the ray of light the effects of his own motion, as
explained in the article ABEREATioif.
Since we wrote the above, we have found what leaves us
at liberty to say that Dr. Robison is the authority for the
preceding account, who was old enough to have possibly
heard it from one of Bradley's contemporaries. He (Dr.
Robison) has given the anecdote himself in a part of his
Mechanical Philosophy, where wt ihonld certainly dc«
have gone to look for it, nor, we hnagine. w«tld Iro*
fessor Rigaud : namely, in the chapter on Seamanship^ vpL
iv. p. 629. His story is as follows :— • The celebrated •Mh>-
nomer Dr. Bradley, taking the amusement of saOmg ta a
pinnace on the river Thames, observed this. " the pheno-
menon above described," and was surprised at it, iinagtmfiir
that the change of wind was owing to the apnroachinfE to cr
retiring from the shore. The boatmen told him that it
always happened at sea, and explained it to him tn lb*
best manner they were able. The explanation struck bus*
and set him a musing on 9Si astronomical phenomci^^ii
which he had been puzzled by for some vean.* This ac*
count differs in some material points' from that of Dr^
Thomson, and is not given by Dr. Robison in terms which
imply that he considered himself as the authority. Periupa
further e\idence may be obtainable.
Upon this discovery, several observations most be otadr,
relative to its importance in astronomy. It ia tb« tm
positively direct and unanswerable proof of the earth »
motion. In the next place, the explanation given was r*ct
purely an hypothetical one, or one which would aHow < f
any velocity being attributed to light which would b<?>i
answer to observed phenomena, but required that the Tckj« iTy
already measured by Romer's observations of the retarda-
tion of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites should be iht
sufficient reason for the annual oscillations of the fixed atari.
A very simple geometrical analysis of the problem ahovs
that when the angle of aberration is greatest, its sine moit
be the quotient of the earth^s v^/onVy divided by the veioniy
of light. Taking the first at 1 8 miles per second. dependiQ*
upon the correctness of the measurement of the earth's or lit
and of the length of the year, and the second at 200.ooo
miles per second, which depends upon a third and distinct
phenomenon, namely, the observations of the time of eclip«ci
of Jupiter s satellites at different periods of the year, we find
d priori, that the sine of the greatest angle of abemtion, if
aberration there be, must be .00009, which is the sine of I *
seconds nearly, and has been made in round numbera. T..>
greatest aberration firom the mean place observed by Bradlr.^
was 20 seconds and two-tenths, in which the most conrct
modem observations, in masses of thousands at a time, hj^r
not shown an error of more than three-tenths of a aecuol
This is one of the reasons why we have said lhat» in tlm
union of theoretical sagacitv with practical cxcellenrf.
Bradley stands unrivalled, mwton, Laplace, &c. were i>^
observers. Flamsteed, Cassini, &c. were not great th<^>r.«i%
Halley, who of all the men of Bradley's time, united tr.
largest knowledge of both, was so far from being the cq >^
of Bradley in minuteness of obKervation, that he constauilj
declared his suspicion of the impossibility of detect in; a
part of a second. Kepler was skilnil in the detection of : r
laws which phenomena follow, but not in that of pb\'«i' 4]
causes. In our opinion, Hipparchus is (difference of cir-
cumstances considered) the prototype of Bradley. The tinvs
of the discovery of the cause of aberration was probal.y
about September, 1728 (Correct Astronomy, voL ii. f.
535, where it might be inferred that both the phenomen r.
and the cause were discovered in the san^ year)» and v i^
communicated immediately to the Royal Society (PAf*.
Trans, No. 406, vol. xxxv\ p. 637). In 1726 6r«<i.«.
began lectures at Oxford, and in 1732 removed his re- *
dence to that University. We pass over the various Jalnm %
by which he sustained the character of the ' best asttuoom '-r
in Europe,* ffivento him by Newton, and proceed to tl ^
year 1742, when he was appointed astronomer royal. Th «
was almost the last act of Sir Robert Walpole's adnno:*-
tration, who, as Professor Rigaud has welt ohservrl
' appears to have determined that one of the first pmots ^ -
would secure before his retirement was the nomination a
question : he declared his intention of resigning tn t *
House of Oimmons on the 2nd of February, and Bradley «
Appointment was dated the 3rd.* From this time to 1747 'b*
was engaged (among other things) in the career of obee.*'« 1-
tion which led to nis second great discovery of «».'^
tion, communicated in that 3'ear (PAt/. TVans. No. 4^
vol. xlv. p. 1). The phenomenon in its most simple sts*.c
may be thus represented : the earth's axis, instead of ^-^
scribing a cone, describes a Jluted cone ; or, the pole of t* r
equator, instead of moving uniformly round the pole of t ^#
ecliptic in a small circle, describes a waxy or nndulatirx
curve with a milled edge, if we may so speak, with aS*.:
1400 undulations in a complete revolution. Thm nertt ^1
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Bmdley eoniifU, fintly, in his determination of so Binall n
euantity, since the greatest effect of nutation is only half
tnat of aberration, and distrihuted through 19 years instead
of one ; secondly, in his discotery of the circumstance on
which it depends, namely, the position of the moon's orbit
with respect to the equator. This orbit shifts the position
of its nodes gradually, making them complete a revolution
in about 18^ years. This was also founa to be the period
in which the pole of the equator describes one of the waves
above mentioned, and subsequent investigation has confirmed
the dependence of the greater part of the nutation on the
motion of the moon's node, hv showing the former to he a
consequence of the non-sphericity of the earth, and of the
moon*s attraction on the protuberant parts. [Nutation.]
There is a third investigation of Bradley which stands
out from the rest, and displays considerable mathematical
sagacity ; we refer to his empirical formula for the law of
refraction. He was assisted in the necessary computations
hy Maskelyne, who first appeared before the world as the
nil of Bradley. In this very delicate research, the latter
again ^ne heyond his contemporaries in the evalu-
atim of mmute quantities. His table is even yet very
good Ibr the first forty-five degrees of zenith distance;
and his determination of the latitude of Greenwich (an in-
vestigation depending for its accuracy upon that of the
tables of refraction) does not differ more than half a second
fVom that deduced hy Mr. Pond from 720 observations with
both the mural circles.
In 1 75 1 the alteration of the style took place, and Bradley
appears to have had some share in drawing up the necessary
tables, as well as> in aidinjg Lord Macclesfield, his early
friend, and the seconder of the measure in the House of
Lords, and Mr. Pelham, then minister, with his advice on
the suhject. But this procured him some unpopularity,
fbr the common people of all ranks imagined that the altera-
tion was equivalent to robbing them of eleven days of their
natural lives, and called Bradle/s subsequent illness and
decline a judgment of heaven. This was, as far as wo
know, the last expiring manifestation of a helief in the
wickedness of altering the time of religious anniversaries
which had disturbed the world, more or less, and at different
periods, for 1400 years. In the same year Bradley obtained
a pension of 250/. from the crown. From that time he con-
tinued his observations, of which we shall presently speak,
till the 1st of Sept 1761, in the observations of which date
his handwriti|ig occurs for the last time in the Greenwich
registers. He then retired among his wife's relations at
Chalford in Gloucestershire, where he died July 13, 1762,
and was buried at Minchlnhampton. His health bad been
failing for some years, though he was orieinally of a strong
constitution, and always of temperate habits. His wife
died before him in 1 757, and he left one daughter, but his
line is now extinct
Thus far we have obtained our materials for facts from
the life by professor Kigaud, above cited. This account
does not mention the subsequent history of the manuscript
obser\*ations made at the observatory of Greenwich, nor
does the life in Kippis's Biographia Britannica. The fol-
lowing is Dr. Maskelyne's account (Answer to Mudge*s
Narrative, &c. Lend. 1792): — 'Dr. Bradley's valuable
observations were made in the course of twenty years from
1 742 to 1 762, and consist of thirteen volumes in folio. They
were removed fW>m the Royal Observatory, before I was
appointed to the care of it, by the doctor's elcecutors, who
thought proper to consider them as private property ; and
during a suit instituted on the part of the crown, in the Ex-
cheouer, to recover them, they were presented in 1776 to
Lord North, now Earl of Guilford, Chancellor of the Uni-
versity of Oxford, and by him presented to the University,
on condition of their printing and publishing ihem. The
University put them immediately for that purpose into the
hands of Dr. HorQsby, Savilian professor, &c., whose bad
stale of health has been alleged as the cause of the delay of
the publication,' The account of Dr. Homsby, in the pre-
face of the publication in question, differs from the prece-
ding in an important particular. The above would allow
Us to infer that the University of Oxford accepted a donation
the right to make which was under litigation, with a strong
pnmS facie case against it Now Dr. Hornsby mentions,
1. What is very well known, that both the predecessors of
Bradley, Flamsteed and Halley, were allowed to consider
their own observations as their own property ; that the former
printed, and his ezecutoa pabliahedy hu observations as
private property, and that the daughter of the latter re-
ceived compensation for relinquishing her right to her
father's papers ; 3. That a salaried office of only 100/. a
year, with the duty of improving as much as possible the
planetary tables, and the method of finding the longitude,
by no means implied an obligation to consider the actual ob
servatious made as the property of the government ; and
3. That the Royal Society having first made and abandoned
a claim, the government instituted its suit in 1767, and
abandoned it in 1 776, tftfore the observations were presented,
not to Lord North personally, but in trust for the University
of which he was cnancellor. Dr. Maskelvne wrote under
feelings of pique at being refused the sheets of the ob-
servations as fast as they were printed; ^is, though it
would have been, under ordinary circumstances, a churlish
proceeding, might perhaps have been advisable in regard to
the officer of a government that had pretended a claim to the
property of the work, which, though dormant at the time,
the University could not know to have been formally aban-
doned. And it has been suggested to us, that there is no
method of abandoning a suit in the £xche(]^uer, as a prac-
tical relinquishment of proceedings is no bar m that court to
their revival at any future time. The observations in ques-
tion were published at Oxford in two volumes ; the first in
1 798, under the superintendence of Dr. Hornsby ; the second
in 1805f under that of Dr. Abraham Robertson. They go
from 1750 to 1 762, and are about 60,000 in number.
But these observations might have remained a useless
mass, except for occasional reference, to this day, had it not
been for the energy of a distinguished German astronomer,
Frederick William Bessel, who at lilienthal and K5nigs-
berg successively, and from 1807 to 1818, added to other
laborious occupations the enormous task of reducing and
drawing conclusions from all Bradley's observations, pub-
lished in the latter place and year under the title of Punda-
menta Astronomite pro anno 1755, dedueta ex obaerva-
Hombtu viri incomparabilie Jamee Bradley. ' This work
has always been considered one of the most valuable contri-
butions to our astronomy. It exhibits the result of all ^
Bradley's observations of stars, reduced on a uniform system,
and is always referred to by succeeding astronomers as the
representative of Bradley's observations.* (Professor Airy»
Rep. Brit. Jse. vol. i. p. 137.)
It may be said that Bradley changed the face of astro-
nomy. The discoveries of aberration and nutation, and the
improvement of the tables of refraction, the attention to
minute observation, and the tact with which every instrument
was applied to the purposes for which it was best adapted,
were so many great steps both in the art and science. Before
his time everv instrumental improvement was a new cause
of confusion, by pointing out irregularities which seemed to
baffle all attempts both at finding laws and causes. Never-
theless, the name of Bradley hardly appears in popular
works, nor will do so until the state of astronomy is better
understood. Let any man set up fbr the founder of a sect,
and begin by asserting that he has found out the cause
of attraction, or the structure of the moon ; let him exalt
himself in the daily papers, and he must be unfortunate
indeed if in three years he is not more widely known in
this country than its own Bradley, one of the first astrono-
mers of any.
BRADSHAW, JOHN, president of the court which
tried Charles I. Bradshaw was of a good family in
CheahYj-e. His mother was a daughter and coheiress of
Ralf Winnington of Offerton. Noble and Chalmers state
that the plac^ of his education is not reooided. But hia
will establishes this, fi)r he makes legacies to certain schools
at which he says he had received his education. He was a
student of law in Gray's Inn. He had considerable chamber
practice, especially among the partisans of the parliament,
and he is admitted by his enemies to have been not without
ability and legal knowledge. (Clarendon.)
In October, 1644, he was employed by the parliament, in
ooigunction with Prynne and Nudigale, to prosecute Lords
Macquire and Maomahon, the Irish rebels. In October,
1646, by a vote of the House of Ck)mmons. in which the
peers were desired to acquiesce, he was appointed one of
the three commissioners of the great seal for six months;
and in February following, by a vote of both houses, chief
justice of Chester. In June, 1647, he was named by the
parliament one of the counsel to prosecute the royalist
Judge Jenkins. October 12, 1648, by order of the parii»-
ment, he received the degree of seijeant.
No. 312.
[THS PENNY CYCLOP^DL^O
Digiti
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On January the Ut, 1648-9, it was adjudged by the
Commons that by the fiindamental laws of the land, it is
treason in the kinp^ of England for the time being to lery
war against the parliament and kingdom. On the 4th an
ordinance was passed for erecting a high court of justice
fur trial of the kin^. The commissioners for the trial of
the king elected Serjeant Bradshaw their j^esident. Lord
Clarendon says that at first he seemed much surprised and
very resolute to refuse it. The offer and the acceptance of
it are strong evidence of Bradshaw'a courage and the
staunchness of his republicanism.
The court ordered, *that John Bradshaw, 8er}eant-at-
Law, who is appointed president of this court, should be
called by the Aame, ana have the title of Lord President,
and that as well within as without the said court, during
the commission and sitting of the said court.* The deanery
house in Westminster was given him as a residence for
himself and his posterity ; and the sum of 5000/. allowed
him to procure an equipage suitable to the dignity of bis
office. The parliament further settled 4000/. a-year upon
him and his heirs, in landed property. He was also made
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He had previously
been appointed Chief Justice of Wales and of Chester,
besides heing Lord President of the Council of State. The
accumulation of so many offices in one roan certainlv looks
something like pluralism in the Commonwealth : and unless
great allowance be made on account of the dignity of the
work done, the remuneration must appear somewhat dis-
proportioned to the quantity of it.
When Cromwell seixed the government, Bradshaw was
one of those who ofibred all the opposition in their power,
and never went over to him. Bradshaw^s conduct, in courage
and firmness, almost equalled Ludlow *s. His bold answer
to Cromwell, when he came to dissolve the council, is well
known. When Cromwell insisted upon every one's taking
out a commission from himself, if they chose to retain their
places under his government, Bradshaw absolutely refused,
alleging that he had received his commission as Chief
Justice of Chester, to continue quamdiu se bene eesserit,
and he should retain it without any other, unless ne could
be proved to have justly forfeited it by want of integrity ;
and if there were any doubts upon it, he should submit it to
trial by twelve Englishmen. He soon after set out on the
circuit, without waiting further orders ; nor did Oliver think
it prudent to prevent or recal him, as he had said nothing
but force should make him desist from his duty.
It was not to be expected that such conduct would find
much favour in the eyes of Cromwell. He attempted to
oppose his election for Cheshire; and though Bradshaw
was returned by the sheriff, as others in the Cromwellian
interest returned another, neither sat, it having been so
decided in the case of double returns. Bradshaw's power
and popularity must have been very considerable ; for, not-
withstanding his having been engaged in several designs
a;(ainst the power of Cromwell, one of which was connected
with the Fiftn Monarchy-men, who were to destroy and pull
down Babylon, and bind kinp in chains and nobles in
fetters of iron, his highness did not dare to seize him, but
continued to watch and defeat his desi;;ns with his charac-
teristic policy. Bradshaw however was deprived of his
office of Chief Justice of Chester. The two former friends
watched each other with the vigilance of two crouching
tigers, each waiting for the exact moment to make the
decisive spring that was to destroy the other. And we may
give some credit to the observation of certain of the royalist
writers, that Bradshaw would have had no objection to
perform for Oliver, the unhereditary tyrant, the same office
lie had performed for Charles, the hereditary one ; and that
he would not have been sorry to have had an opportunity to
ronvince the world that he was no respecter of persons.
On the death of Oliver, and the abdication of his son
Richtird, Bradshaw obtained a seat in the Council of State,
wus elected Lord President, and appointed a Commissioner
of the Great Seal ; but his health, which had been some
time declining, became so precarious that he was unable to
perform the duties of that office.
The labt act of Bradshaw^s life was consistent with the free
and brave spirit which he had always shown. The army
had again put a force upon the House of Commons, by
hci/injr the Speaker, Lenthall, on his way thither, and
ll.ircU) suspending all further proceedings of the existing
p)\ on micnt. The almost expiring bul unsubdued spirit of
Br:rUiia\v felt lhi» iuMilt. Ho repaired to the Council of
State, wiiich sat that day ; and when Colonel Sydenban, on*
of the members of the council, endea^'oured to justifv the anny
in what they had done, and concluded his speech by savio?.
according to the cant of the day, that tliey were neceiiattat««i
to make use of this last remedy by * particular call of
the Divine Providence ;' 'weak and extenuated as be was
says Ludlow, * yet animated by his ardent zeal, and constant
affection to the common cause, he stood up, and interrupt'
ing him, declared his abhorrence of that detestable aru «n ,
and telling the council, that being now going to his G<xi,
he had not patience to sit there to hear his great name «o
openly blasphemed.' He then abruptly left the coucciL ^ul
withdrew from public employment. He survived thk« tut
a few days, dying November 22nd, 1659, of aquarian asor.
which had lasted a year. ' A stout man,' says Whiteluc*
'and learned in his profession: no friend to monarch y.
He declared, a little before his death, that ' if the king wvns
to be tried and condemned again, he would be the first ma:i
that should do it.* He was buried with great pomp in
Westminster Abbey, whence his body was dragged at the
restoration, to be exposed upon a gibbet, with tbone of
Cromwell and Ireton.
The leading feature in Bradshaw's life— that whieh nuke^
his name the property of history— waa his acting aa pre-
siding judge in the trial of tbe king; a transaction, in the
words of Hume, ' the nomp and dignity, the ceremony wf
which corresponded to the greatest conception that is sug-
gested in the annals of human kind ;— the delegates of i
great people sitting in judgment upon their supreme;*
magistrate, and trving him for bis misgovemment and
breach of trust.* bow did he conduct himself on ti. •:
occasion? With the mixture of dignity, firmness, modern
tion, and humanity, which befitted his high ofllce ? or, a«
asserted by Clarendon, 'wiih all the pride, impudence, ar..
superciliousness imaginable?* Did he, in the wonis
Noble, behave to 'fallen majesty with a rudeness rh.:
those who preside in our criminal courts never use to t:*
lowest culprit ?*t What was the fact? Charles baM. .
repeatedly refused to acknowledge the authoritv of i t
court, Bradshaw addressed him thus : — * Sir, this it t:.
third time that you have publicly disowned the courts ^: .
put an affront upon it ; but truly. Sir, men's intentions ou^-. :
to be known by their actions ; you have written your mra..
ing in bloody characters throughout the kingdom/ Lu.i..*
says, that to Charles*s repeated assertions that he wa& rv
sponsible only to God, Bradshaw answered, that * m« .
God had, by his providence, overruled that plea, the cv*.".
was determined to do so hkewise.* Bradshaw, on |:n .
sentence, resorted to precedent. He instanced the r.*9
of many kings who had been deposed and imprisoDcd -
their subjects, particularly in Charles*s native oouc? .
where, out of a hundred and nine, the greater part I. .
either been dethroned, or proceeded against for mis-go^er:
ment ; and even the prisoner's own grandmother rrmot? l
and his father, while an infant, crowned in her stead, r R* « *
worth, vii., 1396.; Whitelock, p. 376; Ludlow, HuuU:-
son. Clarendon, &c.)
His will, which is dated March 22, 1653, contains >«Ttr .
remarkable facts. He directs his brother Henry to exp-.
700/. in purchasing an annuity for maintaining a free scl,.
at Marple, 5UU/. fbr increasing the wages of the master .
Bunbury school, and 500/. to increase the wages of t: «
master and usher of Middlcton school. There are two civ«.
ciU to the will; and by one dated Septemb^ 10, 1653, !•'
gives 10/. to John Milton. The will was proved December
16, 1659. (Ormerod's Cheshire, vol iii. p. 409 ; and tbe cK ^•
racter of him by Milton, in the De/emio Stcmnda pro i -
pulo Anglicano,)
BRADY, NICOLAS, a divine whose name is knowa
chietiy in connexion with that of Nathan Tate, his ^rv{
fying collaborator in producing the new version of t..t
Psalms of David, which has since become eeneraily uk-I
in the Church of England, in the place of the ub^olrt:
version made in the reign of Edward VL by Sterol-. 1
and Hopkins. Brady was the son of an officer to t. ^
royalist army during the civil war in 1641, and wna b^
October 28, 1659, at Bandon, a town of Ireland, in i*
county of Cork. At the age of twelve be wma sent u
Westminster school, whence he proceeded to the coUecv
• Sapiwn* Ba«fatntl« to * contndieiton in Irna* ; ■nyttiaj b^
eable only to the •overFign, and nspstraW a nam* fbc % ttt^Jfvt.
though h« pralbaMd to vrtto on gorernment omtet a»r«it to 1m^ •■
lb* meanioff oC torvreiipity, ihoDgh Hobbtt IimA aMdo U nmriimfj
t LivMof UM£«ckiil«,L687
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of GhriBtChuTch, Oxford. He gubsequently graduated at
Trinity College, Dublin ; which, in testimony of hia zeal
and assiduity in the Protestant cause, conferred upon him
l^ratuitously, during his absence in England, the degree of
D.D. He was appointed chaplain to Bishop Wettenhall,
by whose patronage he obtained a prebend in the cathedral
of Cork. At the time of the Revolution he made himself
conspicuous among the most active partisans of the Prince
of Orange, and on three occasions prevented the execution
of KingJames*8 orders to destroy with fire and sword the
town of BandoQ, his native place. On the establishment of
the new dynasty of William and Mary, he was deputed by
bis fellow townsmen to present to the EngUsh parliament a
petition for redress of tne grievances which tney had suf-
fered under James ; and remaining in London, he became
minister of the church of St Catherine Cree, and lecturer
of St. Michaers in Wood-street. He was afterwards ap-
Sointed chaplain, first to the Duke of Ormond, then to
unp^ William and Queen Mary. He held also the office
of minister at Richmond in Surrey, and at Stratford*on-
Avon in Warwickshire. From his several appointments
alone he derived at least 600£ a year ; but being a bad
economist, he was obliged, for the purpose of increasing his
income, to undertake the keeping of a school at Richmond.
He died at the age of sixty-six, on tiie 20th of May, 1 726 :
the same ^ear in which be published by subscription his
* Translation of the^neids of Virgil,* in 4 vols^ 8vo., which
is now almost entirely unknown. Among several of his
smaller productions is a tragedy, entitled 'The Rape, or the
Innocent Im|»ostors.* He published at different times three
volumes of his sermons, of which three additional volumes
were published after his death by his son ; but the repu-
tation of Dr. Brady rests solely upon his share in the new
metrical version of the Paalms ; of tne merits of which every
one who possesses a Prayer Book may judge for himself.
BRA'DYPUS. [Ai and Sloth.]
BRA'GA, a oomarca of Portugal, situated almost in the
oentre of the prov. of Entre-Duero e Minho, and surroundol
by the districts of Barcellos, Viana, Valen9a, Amarante,
and Guimaraens. The territory, though very mountainous,
contains some fertile valleys, which being sheltered from the
Qorthern winds, enjoy a high degree of temperature. It is
vatered by the rivs. Cavado and Deste, or Este. The
former of these streams rises in the Serra de Gerez, N.E.
of the capital of the comarca, and flowing S.W. empties
itself into the sea near Esposende ; the latter has its source
£. of the same capital, and flowing in a direction nearly
parallel to the former, enters the ocean near Villa*do-Conde.
The productions of the soil are the same as in the rest of
the prov. The whole district comprises one city, one town,
and 101 par., containing a pop. of 49,838 inh. The chief
occupations of the people are agriculture and the manufac*
ture of hats and hardware.
BR AG A, the Braccara Augusta of theRomans^ the capi-
tal of the comarca, is one of the most antient cities in Por-
tuf^al, and wau the capital of the kingdom when the Suevians
were masters of it It is now the seat of an archbishop,
who is the primate of Portugal. Until recently ruins of a
Roman amphitheatre and an aqueduct existed ; but at pre*
xent no remains of its antient grandeur are found, except
some coins, and five milestones Monging to the Ave Roman
imds leading into Braga, which one of the archbishops re-
moved to a square in the 8. part of the city.
The town is situated on an eminence in a fertile valley,
watered by the riv. Deste on the 8. and by the Cavado on
theN., and is about 15 m. from the sea. This valley is
covered with quintas or country-houses, and planted with
oak, vine, orange, and other fruit trees. The oranges of
Brat^ are the best in Portugal. About 3 m. E. of the city
sUnds a lofty hill, commanding a delightful view of all the
plam, on the summit of which is built the renowned sanc-
l .ary of Jeaus do Monte.
The city itself contains nothing remarkable. The streets
ue very narrow and irregularly laid out. There are two
squares, and a great number of fountains. The principal
building is the cathedral, a stately fabric of the old perpen-
dicular style, which was rebuilt by Count Henrique, the
first king of Portugal. The pop. of Braga is reckoned at
I9.0i»7. 4l*» 33' N. lat, 80 23' W. long.
BRAGANQA« a comarca of Portugal, in the prov. of
Tras-os-Montes, and in its northern extremity. It is sur-
lounded by the Spanish provinces of Leon and Galicia,
•nd b? tM Portuguese comaieaa of Chaves* Mirandela,
and Mencorvo. The territory is very mountainous, being
crossed in every di/ection by the ramifications of the serras
of Gerez, Canda, and Padomelo. There are notwithstand-
ing many valleys, in which rich crops of grain and fruit
are raised. The district is irrigated by a number Oi
large streams, all of which flow generally from N. to S.,
and are affluents of the Duero. The district contains
88,896 inh. distributed in 1 city, 10 towns, and 274 pars.
BRAGANQ A, Brigantinum, the capital of the district,
is situated in a very agreeable and fertile plain on the
Tervenza, an aflluent of the Sabor ; it was erected into a
duchy by Alonso V. in 1442, the eighth possessor of which,
John II., was raised to the throne of Portugal in 1640,
under the title of John IV. From that king the present
royal family of Portugal is descended. The town was for*
merly a fortified place, and now contains a castle almost in
ruins. It has nothing remarkable except one large square
in the castle, two out of it, and a spacious plain where the
nobility and gentry of the place hold their races and other
amusements of chivalrous origin. Pop. 3373; 4r61' N.
lat; 6^ 40' W. long.
BRAGANQA, HOUSE OF, is the original title of the
reigninff dynasty of the kingdom of Portugal. The origin
of the Bragan9a family dates from the beginning of the
fifteenth century, when Afibnso, a natural son of King Joao»
or John I., was created by his father duke of Bragan^a and
lord of Guimaraens. Afibnso married Beatrix* the daughter
and heiress of Nunc Alvarez Pereira, count of Barcellos
and Ourem. From this marriage the line of the dukes of
Braganea, marouises of Villavi90sa, &c., has sprung. By
the funaamental laws of the Portuguese monarchy, passed
in the Cortes ofLamego in 1139, all foreign princes are
excluded from the succession, and the consequence has been
that, in default of legitimate heirs, the illegitimate issue of
the royal blood has been repeatedly called to the throne.
When the line of the Portuguese kings became extinct by
the death of King Sebastian in Africa, 1578, and by that of
his successor Cardinal Henrique, 1580, both dying without
issue, Antonio Prior of Crato, and natural son of the Infante
Dom Luiz, Henrique's brother, claimed the succession, but
Philip II. of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese prin-
cess, urged his own pretensions to the crown of Portugal in
despite of the laws of Lamego, and he enforced his claim by
means of an army commanded by the duke of Alba. [An-
tonio ; AiBA.] The Portuguese submitted, Antonio died
an exile, and Philip and his successors on the throne of
Spain continued to hold the crown of Portugal also till 1640,
when the Portuguese, weary of the Spanish yoke, revolted
and proclaimed Dom Joao, the then duke of Bragan9a, their
king, he being the next remaining heir to the crown. He
assumed the title of Joao IV., and was styled * the fortunate.'
The crown of Portugal has continued in his line ever since.
John IV. was succe^ed by his son Afibnso Henrique, who,
being dethroned in 1668 for his misconduct, his brother
Pedro assumed the crown. Pedro was succeeded in 1 706 by
his son Joao V., who, dying in 1 750, the crown devolved
upon his son Joseph I. Joseph was succeeded in 1777 by
his daughter Donna Maria I., who afterwards becoming in-
sane, her son Dom Joao was made prince regent in 1792,
and at the death of his mother in 1816 he assumed the title
of King Joao VI. He married a Spanish princess, by whom
he had two sons, Pedro and Miguel, and several daughters.
In 1822 his eldest son Pedro was proclaimed Constitutional
Emperor of Brazil, which became thereby independent of
Portugal. In 1826 King John VI. died at Lisbon, and his
son Dom Pedro being considered as a foreign sovereign,
Dom Pedro's infant daughter Donna Maria II. was pro-
claimed queen of Portugal. Dom Pedro died in Sep-
tember, 1834. at Lisbon. His son Pedro II. is now (1835)
eniperor of Brazil.
BRAHE', TYCHO. The influence which the labours of
this great reviver of correct astronomy exercised upon the
science of his own and succeeding ages, would justify a
more minute detail of his life than we can here give. It
will be convenient to place all references at the beginning
of this article, which we shall accordingly do. (See also
general references in Astronomy.)
The life of Tycho Brah^ was written by Gassendi ; Erst edi-
tion, Parisiis, 1654, with copperplate crown in the title-page ;
second edition with two title-pages, both * Haga Comitum,'
the first, 1665, marked *Editio secunda auctior et correctior,*
the second, 1664, without any mark of second edition, and
with an empty space for the crown. The twp^itions oc
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not appear different in matter. Both contain the *Oratio
Fiinebrii,* &o. of John Jessenius. See also Teissier, ' Eloges
des Hommes saTans,' iv. 383 ; B)ount ' Censura,* &o.; ' Epis-
tolsD ad Johannem Keplerum/ &c., 1718; Rieoioli, ' Chroni-
eon in Almagesto Novo»* v. i. p. 46. For modem accounts
of his astronomy see Delambre ' Ast. Mod. ;* and in English
the chapter on Tyeho Brahe and Kepler in Narrien*8 * Ac-
coont of the Progress of Astronomy/ Baldwin, 1833. The
lifi» in the ' Biog. Univ.* is by Malte-Brun. The writinga of
Tyeho Brah6 are as follows. The capitals serve to separate
different works.
(A) * De Novft Sielld,' anno 1572, &c. ; * Hafhio* (Copen-
hagen), 1573. Extremely scarce, afterwards inserted in the
' Progymnasmata :' English translation, 1582 (copy in the
Bodleian, Hyde, cited by Lalande). (B) ' De Mundi
^tberei recentioribus Phenomenis liber secundus, qui est de
lllustri SteU& Caudatft anno 1577, conspecta 1588 ?' Is La-
lande correct, * Btbl.' 119 ? We have a copy answering in
all respects to his description, but with title marked Prague,
1603 ; we oannot And 1588 at the end, as he says. The
statement in the preface is not the same as he gives, but the
point is of little importance. (C) ' Apologetica Responsio,'
&4;., Uraniburg, 1591, an answer to an unknown opponent
on the parallax of comets. (D) ' Epistolamm astrouomioa-
rum libri,* Uraniburg, 1596 ; some have on the title-page
Frankfort, 1610, others Nuremberflr, 1601. (E) * Astrono-
mia Instaurats Mechanica, Wandesburg, 1598, reprint,
Nuremberg, 1602; plates only reprinted in Mem. Acad.
Sci., 1763. (F) AstronomisB Instauratm Progymnasmata,*
begun at Uraniberg, finished at Prague, 1601 (in the title-
page) published posthumously: the executors preface is
dated 1602. It contains the great mass of Tyeho Brah^'s
results of observation, though headed from beginning to end
' De Nov& Stelld, annil572.* The treatise (B) with title-
page, Prague, 1603, is always calM and sold as the second
volume of these ' Progymnasmata,* and though it treats of
various other matters is headed throughout as * De Cometfi
anni 1577.* And (D) is very often made a third volume.
The same works (all three), wiUi alteration of title-page
only, Frankfort, 1610. (6) In the 'CobU et Siderum, &c. Ob-
servationes,* &c., Leyden, 1618, are two years* Bohemian
Observations of Tyeho Brah6. (H) 'De DiscipUnis mathe-
maticis Oratio in qua Astrologia defenditur/ an academical
lecture of 1574, printed, not by Tyeho, but by Curtius,
Hamburg, 1621. (I) ' Geistreiche Weiasagung,* &c., 1632 ;
translation of (A) with the astrological part, omitted in (F),
date 1632, no place mentioned by Lalande. (K) ' Opera
Omnia,' Frankfort, 1648, reprint of the two first in (F).
(L) Lucii Barretti 'Sylloge Ferdinandea,* Vienna, 1657,
contains Tvcho's observations, 1582-1601. (M) 'Historia
CoBlestis,* Augsburg, 1666, by this same Barrettus, con-
tains all Tycho's observations. Other title-pages ' Aug.
Vind.,* 1668, Ratisb., 1672, Diling., 1675. Errors pointed
out in Bartholinus ' Specimen recognitionis,* &c., Copeuh.,
1668. (N) Kepler, ' Tabulm RudolphinsB,' Ulm, 1627.
These are the final tables deduced from all Tycho's observa-
tions. There is either an original life of Tyeho, or a trans-
lation of Gassendi, in Danish, translated into German by
Weistriss, Leipzig, 1 756. Tyeho Brah£ printed his works
at his own press ofVraniburg, so long as he remained there,
and probably distributed them princiimlly in presents. When
they became dispersed, the booksellers varied the title-pages,
and' hence all the confusion of the preceding list. We sup-
pose those marked (F) were put toother after the Frankfort
reprint (K j, to look like them, if indeed that be a reprint.
The familv of Brah6 was originally Swedish, but Tyeho,
the grandfather of the astronomer, and Otto his father, be-
longed to a branch which had settled in Denmark. Tyeho
Brah^ himself was the eldest son and second child of his
father, and was born at Knudsthorp, near the Baltic (lat.
56" 46' N., according to Gassendi), on the 14th of Decem-
ber, 1546. His father had ten children, of whom the last,
Sophia Brah6, was known in her day as a Latin poetess, and
was also a mathematician and astrologer. This family was
as noble and as ignorant as sixteen undisputed quarterings
could make them ; but Steno, the maternal uncle of Tyeho,
volunteered to take charge of him. Perceiving that he had
talent, his uncle emplovM masters to teach him Latin, much
against the will of his father, who intended him to do nothing
but bear arms. In 1559 Tyeho was sent to the University of
Copenhagen, where his attention was called to astronomy by
he pretensUma of the astrologers, and by the total eclipse of
he 'jun. August 81, 1560. He began to study the doctrine
of the 'sphere, and the ephemeridea of Stadias. In 1562
his uncle, who intended him for the law, sent him to Lei p-
aig with a tutor. But he would attend no more to that scienr«
than Just enough to save appearances; he disliked the
study » and made a punning epigram on it as follows : —
* Jim palinit ei l«fum lunt nomlDeian sub UWN
GrandiA condunt et gnodia Jora ronalL'
In the meanwhile he spent his time and money on astrono-
mical instruments ; ana, while his tutor slept, used to watch
the constellations by aid of a small globe not bigger than bis
fist. With these slender means be was able to see that both
the Alphonsine and Prutenic tables gave the nlacea of the
planets visibly wrong, and particularly so in tne case of a
predicted conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in 1563. He
took strongly into his head the correction of these tables, and
his first instrument was a pair of common compasses. »hi<b
he used as an instrument for observing the angles between
stars. By drawing a cirde with the same radius as the leg
of the compasses, and laying down angles upon it, he was
able to find the Alphonsine tables more than a month ta
error, and the Prutenic several days. He procured a better
instrument, and corrected the deficiencies of its graduation
by a table. This instrument was a parallactic rule, or ra-
dius, in the manner of Glemma Frisius.
He was recalled in 1665, by the death of an uncle, and
soon became disg^ted by the contempt with which lita
equals and associates spoke of all liberal knowledge. Hii
uncle Steno, however, recommended him to follow his fa-
vourite pursuit, and he left his country once mora, and took
up his residence at Wittenberg in 1666, from whenre h«
was driven to Rostock in the autumn by the plague. Whiic
in this place, a quarrel arose between him and one Pasherj.
a Dane of familv like himself, at a public festival. 7U
affair was decided by single combat, and Tyeho lost all tU *
front part of his nose. A contemporary, cited by Gasscnci.
hints that they took this method of settling which was th-
better mathematician of the two. Tyeho always afterwan!^
wore an artificial nose made of gold, but so well formed
and coloured as to be hardly distinguishable from the <>'~'*
with which he began life; and he always carried asniii.
box of ointment, with which to anoint this artificial mcmbtr
In 1569 he went to Augsburg, where, being pleased «:tn
the place, and finding astronomers there, he determiocd ia
remain. He here caused to be constructed a lar^e qui-
drant, such as twenty strong men could hardly lift* v-.«\
which he observed while he remained there. He \r(*
Augsburg and returned home in 1571, when his un^ir
Steno offered him a part of his house, with the means (4
erecting an observatory and a laboratory ; for Tyeho hi!
become much attached to chemistry, and declares htm«c/
that from his twenty-third year he attended as much to thst
science as to astronomy. He constructed only a large sex-
tant, for he always intended to return and pursue hi» »ta-
dies in Grermany, finding the public life of a Danish v^lif
to be a hindrance. An event however happened in 15:^.
which, if our memory serves us, has been sometimes statri
in popular works as the first excitement he received to studr
astronomy— with what correctness we have seen. Retort)*
ingfrom his laboratory on the evening of November P.
1572, he cast his eyes upon the constellation Cassiopca*
and was thunderstruck by there perceiving not only a or«
star but one of greater splendour than any in that constel-
lation. The country people also saw it, and he iausc-
diately set himself to determine its pUce and motion^ if any
Happening to visit Copenhagen early in the year 15T3, be
carried with him his journal, and found that the soranj wf
the university had not yet taken notice of the pbenomrn >-.«
He excited great derision at a convivial party by ment«or'
ing his discovery, which however was changed into asloac^h -
ment on his actually showing them the star. They tbritt*
upon became urgent that he should publish bis noto,
which he refused^ being, as he afterwaras iionfcwai»qpfa'
the prejudice that it was unbecoming for a iflHaHil \*
publish any thins; : but afterwards, seeing hom Whi.li"!
worthless were the writings on the sami
pressed by his friends at Copenhagen* ^
with additions, to one of tliem for ; '
itself continued visible, though
brightness, till March, 1574. Ji}
aa Venus. [CAasiopiA.]
As soon aa Tyeho had oonaw
to being useful, he oommitteo. i
against his order by marry'
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825
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least a plebeian* girl of Kntidtthorp, named Christinna.
some say she was the daughter of a clergyman. By the
interposition of the king the fury of his family at this step
was cooled. Never were man's prejudices subjected to a
more salutary course of discipline than those of Tyoho
BrshL In two short years the proud noble became an
author, a lecturer, and the husband of a woman of inferior
rank. The students of the university desired to profit by
hii knowledge, and on his positive refusal, the king, to
whom he felt his obligations, made it his own earnest re-
quest. No choice was therefore left to the unfortunate
recusant ; and he accordingly delivered the public lecture
marked (H) in our preceding list, which, putting aside the
astrology, is a sensible discourse ; and, excepting a hint at
the beginning that nothing but the request of the king and
of the audience (for politeness* sake) had made him under*
take an office for which he was so unfit by station and me-
diocrity of talent (for modesty's sake), does not contain any
allusion to the supposed derogation. He informs his au-
dience at the end that he intends to lecture on the Prutenic
tables, and he did so accordingly. This lecture was first
published in 1610 by Conrad Aslacus (we cannot unlatinize
Gassendi*8 name), who got it from Tycho himself.
Tyeho Brah6 had all this time intended to travel again.
He set oat in 1575, leaving his wife and infant daughter
at home, and proceeded to the cmirt of the Landgrave Wil*
liam ef Hesse-Cassel, who was himself a persevering ob-
server ; so much so,* that when, during an observation of
the new star of 157*2, servants ran to tell him the house was
on fire, he would not stir till he had finished. On leaving
his court, Tycho wandered through Switzerland and Ger-
many, apparently seeking where he might best set up his
observatory, and he had fixed his thoughts upon Basle,
But in the meanwhile ambassadors had been sent from
Denmark to the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and that
prince took occasion warmly to recommend Tycho Brah6
and his studies to the notice of his own sovereign. The
latter (Frederic II.) accordingly sent for Tycho after his
return to Knudsthorp in 1576, and offered him possession
for life of the island of Hven or Hoene, taking upon him-
self all the expenses of his settlement. The offer was gladly
accepted, and the first stone of the astronomical castle called
Uraniberg or Oranienber^ (the city of the heavens) was
laid August 13, 1576. There is a full description of it in
Gassendi, as also in (D) and (£). The following drawing is
extracted fh)m the former. It is necessary to warn our
readers that the clumsiness of the old wood cut is purposely
imitated, owing to some critical remarks we have heard on
the figures in Astrolabk (which see for the character of
the instruments empbyedX
Besides this, there was an observatory sunk in the ground,
and named Stellberg (city of the stars). These two build-
ings contained 28 instruments, all extra-meridional, but
distinguished, as appears in (E), by many new contrivances
for avoiding error, and by a size and solidity which rendered
graduation to a single minute attainable ; though it may be
doubted whether the instruments themselves were calcu-
lated to Kjve so small a quantity (for that time) with cer-
tainty. Tycho's instruments are vaguely said to have cost
200,000 crowns ; the king allowed 2000 dollars a-vear, be-
tides a fief in Norway and a canonry in the church of
Roeskilde.
In 1577 he began his observations, and on November 13,
1577, saw the comet which is the subject of (B). This
Imninary, and others of the same kind, gave occasion to
^s discovery that the spheres of the planets [Primuic
*^OBiLi, ProLBMAic Systbm] could not be solid, since they
^re cut in all dire^.tions by the orbits of comets, which
must be called the first decisive blow against the received
notions. And Tycno was the first who proved comets to
hire such a oarallax as was incompatible witli their being
atmospheric, or even iublunary* bodies. He observed alto-
gether seven comets, the last in 1 596. ^ ,,
It is not our intention to follow Tycho Brahe at length
through his splendid career at Uraniberg. No space here
allowable would suffice to detail his results sufficiently for
astronomical referenoe. We must therefore content our-
selves with a few words on the state in which he found and
left astronomy. The reader may fill up various points from
the article Astronomy.*
From the time of Ptolemy it may be said that astronomy
had made some advances, but these did not certainly com-
pensate the defects which time must introduce mto tables
of pure observation, unaided by any such knowledge of the
system as will make accurate prediction possible.^ K the
• In reference to that article. «ie reader of cootm »"»*•««•**>**»
vwy Uwe a naabrr of fact, aad dale. eooU not ba taken f^ orltinal an.
tlKwkiA^ but onlv from histories of reputation, and it cannot be more eorrret
thS^ latter. Of the loose way of speaking with «««* to <tetee. ii« hare
there complained ; and there Is an imtuee in Tycho Bralw where it is said
that he began to obaenw In Ilotae in 1563. Thu is true in a sense, for he
did in that year begin the rernlar obserration of stars and planeU (Mars
particularly ) which led to the Rudolphine Ubles : but he had been obscrriaf
(thoagh not wtth ItaWMd neana or mtthods) from 1577.
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Arabs did iome good by their oibaemitiont, they did nearly
Bs inuoh mischief by their theories; and the Alphonsine
tables are a proof that the astronomers of that day did not
know their heavens so well as Ptolemy did his. It was im-
possible for any one to make s considerable advance with
such instrumente as Tycho Brah^ actually ibund in use, or
without rejecting all theories of the heavenly bodies then
in vogue, and relying entirely upon observation. Tbe test
of a theory is its accordance with nature ; those of the time
in question were so defective that their falsehood might be
perceived by merely a httle globe large enough to be held
in one hand. Those who were engaged in observation
ought to have seen this : it is the merit of Tycho Brah^
that he was the first who did see it. But he did more
than this : he saw also the means of remedying the evil, by
his mechanical knowledge in the construction of instru-
ments, his perception of tbe way in which those instruments
were to be used, and the results of observation to be com-
pared. He showed himself a sound mathematician in his
methods for determining refraction* in his deduction of the
variation and annual equation of the moon, and in many
other ways. He proved himself to be at the same time an
inventor of the means of observation and of the way of
using them, such as had not appeared since Hipparchus ;
and it is to his observations that we owe, firstly, the deduc-
tion of the real laws of a planet's motion by Kepler, and of
their proximate cause by Newton. There are many instances
in which good fortune seems to have made a result of
more importance than the discoverer had anv right to pre-
sume, either from the skill or labour employed in obtaining
it : but in the case of Tycho Brah£ we believe we are joined
by a very large majority in thinking that fortune deputed
her office, pro Me vice, to justice, and that the eminence of
the success to which he has led the way is no more than is
due to the excellence of the means which he employed, and
the sagacity he displayed in combining his materials.
Where Hipparchus and Ptolemy have left half a degree of
uncertainty, Tycho Brah6 left two minutes, if not one only.
This Bradley afterwards reduced to as many seconds, in the
case of the stars ; and the a^es of these three are the great
epochs of astronomy, as a science of pure observation.
We must now devote some space to the system which he
promulgated against that of Copernicus, and which is con-
sidered as the great defect in his astronomy. And first,
we must observe that it has been customary to keep the
name of Copernicus under every improvement which his
system has undergone in later times. His notions wei-e
received at his hands loaded with real difficulties, supported
by arguments as trivial as those of his opponents ; Galileo
has answered the mechanical objections, Bradley has pro-
duced positive proofs, Newt6n has so altered the syi^tem
that Copernicus would neither know it nor admit itt by over-
throwing the idea that the sun WMjIxed in the centre of
the universe (which is the real Copemican system) , and
thus mended in one part, augmented in another, overthrown
in a third, and positively proved in a fourth, all that is
known of the relative motions of the system in modern
times is removed back two hundred years, called Copemi-
can, and confronted with Tycho BrahS. Now the real
state of the case is this : that the latter did compound, out
of the systems of Ptolemy and Copernicus, a system of his
own. which, while it seised by far the greater portion of the
advantages of the latter, was not open to the most material
objection. (See a paper entiUed, Oid Argunimts againU
ike Motion qf the Earth, * Companion to tbe Almanac,'
1836.) And we assert, moreover, that of all tbe incon-
clusive arguments of that day. which ooncern the subject
in question, the reply of the Uopernicans to Tycho Brah6 is
the mo#< inconclusive. The system of Tycho Brahe con-
sists in supposing, 1. That Uio stars all move round the
earth as in the Ptolemaic system. 2. That all the planets,
except the earth, move round the sun as in the Copernicun
system. 3. That the sun* and the imaginary orbits in
which the planets are moving, are carried round the earth.
Imagine a planetarium on the system of Copernicus placed
over a table, above which is a light As tbe earth moves,
let the whole machine be always so moved, that the shadow
of the earth shall fall upon one and the same part of the
table. Then the motions of the shadows of the othei
?lanets and of the sun will be according to the system of
'ycho Brah^. Mathematically speaking, it does not dififer
from that of Copernicus ; ire shall now consider it phy
sically.
The stars, to the naked eve, present diameters TanrinK
from a quarter of a minute of space, or less, to as murb a«
two minutes. The telescope was not then invented vhicb
shows that this is an optical delusion, and that thc) are
5ointa of immeasurablv small diameter. It wa« certain to
*vcho Brah^ that if the earth did move, the whole moti-»n
of the earth in its orbit did not alter tbe place of tbe sU: •
by two minutes, and that consequently they muat be >o
distant, that to have two minutes of apparent diameter, th«*«
must be spheres of as great a radius at least as the di»tazjiv
from the sun to the earth. This latter distance Tvrho
Brah6 suoposed to be 1150 times the semi-diameter ui the
earth, ana the sun about 180 times as great as the earth.
Both suppositions are grossly incorrect ; but they were rum-
mon eround, being nearly those of Ptolemy and'Coperairu».
It followed then, for any thing a real Copemican oouM
show to the contrary , that some of the fixed stars must be
1520 millions of times as great as the earth, or nine milli. ns
of times as great as they supposed tbe sun to be. Now. one
of the strong arguments against Ptolemv (and tbe one
which has generally found its way into moaem works) wa*
the enormous motion which he supposed the Stan to bai^.
The Copemican of that day might have been compelled
to choose between an incomprehensibly great magnitude,
and a similar motion. Delambre, who comments with bri^^f
contempt upon the several arguments of Tycho BrabA,
has here only to say, ' We should now answer that no star
has an apparent diameter of a second.' Undoubte^y, bM
what would you have answered then, is the reply. ' Th-
stars were spheres of visible magnitude, and are so »till :
nobody can denv it who looks at the heavens without a tel**-
scope ; did Tycho reason wrong because he did not kno v
a fact which could only be known by an instrument invent^l
after bis death?
Again, the mechanical difficulties attending the earth '«
motion were without any answer which deserved attenti***i
even in that day. That a stone dropped from a hetf;!»t
fell directly under the point it was dropped from. Coper
nicus accounts for by supposing that the air carries it : he
as well as his opponents, believing that but for tbe air \x\t
spot at first directly beneath the stone would move fri ra
under it. We are of opinion that the system of Tycho Bnih<>
was the only one of that day not open to serious phy^ic^.
objections, taking as a basis the notions of mechanic^ oii-
mitted by all parties. To us tbe system of Copernicus at^
pears a premature birth: the infant lon^ remained sirk.%.
and would certainly have died if it had not Men unde r
better management than that of its own parents.
Frederick II. died in 1588, and Tycho remained imm^-
lebtc<l under bis son Christian IV. till 1596. Gasser. :.
relates that the nobles were envious when they saw :•»-
reigners of importance come to Denmark solely to eonwrM-
with Tycho; that the medical men were displeased at bis
dispensing medicines gratis to the poor ; and that the mi-
nister had a quarrel with Tycho about a dog. Malte^Brun
relates this more distinctly, apparently from tbe Daiuk*
Afagazin, or from Holbeig's 'History of Denmark,* so that
it seems most probable that the destruction of the oV«er
vatory at Hoene arose from a personal squabble between
this minister, called Walckendorf, and a dog of T}cli"
whose name has not reached us. The astronomer was' gra-
dually deprived of his different appointments, and in 15v»-^
removed, with all his smaller apparatus, to Copeohairtfn.
A commission, appointed by tbe minister, baa dtcUreti
his methods not worth prosecuting, and hia iustnimenu
worse than useless.
In the summer of 1597 he finally left his country, aiKl
removed with his wife, two sons, and four daughters^ tu
Rostock, from whence he shortly removed to Wandj^terk.
near Hamburg, at the invitation of Count Rantaao, At
the end of 1598, he received a pressing invitation from iVm*
Emperor Rudolph II., promising him every assistaooe if =«
would remove with all his apnaratus to the imperial domi-
■ rcii in the sprin
been detained during the wintei at Wittsniberfc* by the n:
nions. Thither Tvcho arrived in tiie spring of 1599, hatii:;;
cumstance of a contagious disordei raging in Ptmgxie. Tt.<
emperor settled upon him a pension of 3000 ducmu. ir»^
offered him tbe choice of three diflferent residenees. Hi
chose that of Benateck, (Benachia or Benatica. Gas#.) liir
miles from Prague, and called tbe Venice of Bohemia. I!,
sent for the remainder of bis instruments fW)m Denmark.
and remained at Benateck till February, 1601, when he
settled in Prague.
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The celebrated Kepler joined him in February, 1600.
Tycho had repeatedly written to invite him, having first
entererl into communication with him in 1598, when he
gent Tycho a copy of bis Mysteriutn Cotmographicum.
Tiie latter advised him to lay aside speculations, and apply
himself to the deduction of causes from phenomena. It is
to following this advice that Kepler owes all his iame; so
that Tycho not only furnished him with the observations
necessary, but was his adviser (and never was adviser more
wanted) in the way of using them. In the year 1601, they
were employed together in the composition of tables from
the Uraniberg observations, which tables they agreed should
be called Rudolphine. But on the 13th of October, 1601,
the effects of a convivial party, combined with inattention to
himself, produced a mortification of the bladder. He con-
tinued for many days in pain, and died on the 24th of the
n)onth. During his delirium, he several times repeated ' ne
frustra vixiste videar,* which must be interpreted as some-
thing between a hope and a declaration, that he had not lived
in vain. Nor will he be thought to have done so by any one
who ever found his longitude at sea, or slept in quiet while
a comet was in the heavens, without fear of the once sup-
posed minister of God*s anger. For if the lisit of illustrious
men be formed, to whom we owe such benefit, it will be
found that his observations form the first great step ^( the
modems in astronomy. There was a report set abroad in
Denmark, that he had been poisoned by the emperor, pro-
bably the imagination of those who had driven him from his
country. He wa3 buried at Prague, and his monument
still exists there. (Malte-Brun.) He was of moderate sta-
ture, and latterly rather corpulent, of llorid complexion and
light hair. Gassendi refers to the portrait in his own work,
in testimony of the skill with which the wound already men-
tioned was repaired ; and certainly, with the exception of a
very great fullness and cylindricality of figure about the
lower part of the nostrils, there is nothing there to excite
remark. In his younger days he cultivated astrology, but
latterly renounced it altogether. He has left no record of
his chemical and medical studies. He was a copious writer
of Latin verses. The following, which are a fair specimen,
are part of those written by him upon one of his instruments
which had belonged to Copernicus. They will show how
highly he admir^ that astn^nomer.
Quid noo ingmium rapent? bhbI montibuB olim
Innuwum montM oongetti. Pelioa, Osm,
JltDaqne teitantur, rimal his gloacratns Olympo*
InoumeriqiM alii, nee dum potaisM Gigmnles,
Corpore pnavalidot, acd menUs acumine inerteit
In •operas penelrare dOsos. Ille inclytns, iUe
Viribas ingenli ooofisua. robofc nullo,
FusUbus his parvis celsuin suneravit Olynpnm.
O tanti noDumenta v\ti 1 Sint lignea quamns ;
His tan«n inTidaat salvam. si OfMcent, aaram.
Some of his earlier observations are preserved at Copen-
bac^en. For the present state of Uraniberg, see Hoi^nb.
It is our belief that the merits of Tycho have been under-
rated, both as an inventor of instruments, and as a philo-
Bopher. As an observer, his works have spoken for them-
selves, in language which cannot be mistaken.
BRAHII^OVi^ BRAILA or IBRAHIL, a fortified
town, in Wallachia, at the mouth of the Sereth, which
falls into ttie Danube on its left or northern bank. It is
not Included in the independent territory of Wallachia, but
has b^n retained unoer exclusively Turkish dominion,
and, with its adjacent dependencies, constitutes part of the
sandshak of Silistria in Bulgaria. At this spot ttie Danube
is divided iiato six arms, one of which forms the port of Bra-
hilow, while the islands they create are considered neutral
Rround between the Turk and the Russian. The t is de-
fended by m strong citadel which commands the rivers below
it, ifthe seat of a pasha of three tails as its commandant,
possesses a pop. of about 30,000, has a valuable sturgeon
fishery, and exports great quantities of Wullachian corn to
Constantinople. S. Hall places it in 45° 15' N. kit., 27* 54'
E. long.
BRAHMA, a Sanscrit word, the name of the Supreme
Being in the religious system of the Hindus. The primitive
meaning of the word is not quite clear ; it is evidently con-
certed with the verbal root Mh, 'to grow, to expand,'
whence Mhat, • great ;' and has been explained by some as
properly implying • the widely expanded Being.' The crude
form of the word, or the name m its uninflected state, is
f^rahman, and it is of great importance well to distinguish
& t-.ro-fold use of that term, accordingly as it is declined as
& ^iibstantive of the neuter or of the masculine gender.
When inflected as a aubatantiva of the neuter gender, Ha
termination in the nominative case ia a short a, BrahrrUk
(sometimes written Brahme or Brahm in English works on
Hindu mythology), and thus declined it designates the
essence of the Supreme Being in the abstract, devoid of pen-
sonal individuality. When treated as a masculine word, it
takes a long a in the nominative case, Brahma, and thus
modified, becomes the name of the first of the three gods
who constitute the triad of principal Hindu deities.
Brahmd, the impersonal divine substance, is with the
Hindus not an object of worship, but merely of devout con-
templation. According to the VfidSnta svstem of philo^
sophv, which recognizes the ancient sacred writings of the
Hindus as the authority of the doctrines which it advances,
Brabmft is the great source from which the visible universe
and all the individual deities of mythology have sprung,
and into which all will ultimately be re-absorbed. *A8
milk changes to curd, and water to ice, so is Brahmil va-
riously transformed and diversified, without aid of tools or
exterior means of any sort In like manner the spider spins
his web out of his own substance ; spirits assume various
shapes ; and the lotus proceeds from pond to pond without
organs of motion.* * Ether and air are by Brahm& created ;
but he himself has no origin, no procreator nor maker, for
he is eternal, without beginning as without end. So fire,
and water, and earth, proceed mediately fVom him, being
evolved successively the one from the other, as fire from air
and this from ether.' The human soul, according to the
same authority, Ms a portion of the supreme ruler» as a
spark in the fire. The relation is not as that of master and
servant, ruler and ruled, but as that of whole and part' It
is subject to transmigration, and the route on which, after
the death of the human individual, it proceeds to its ulti-
mate re-absorption in the divine essence, is variously de-
scribed in divers texts of the V8das. ' But he who has
attained the true knowledge of God does not pass through
the same stages of retreat proceeding directly to re -union
with the Supreme Being, with which he is identified, as a
river, at its confluence with the sea, merges therein alto-
gether. His vital faculties and the elements of which his
body consisu are absorbed absolutely and completely ; both
name and form cease ; and he becomes immortal, without
parts or members.' (Passages from the Brahma-^trea, or
aphorisms on the VSddnta £)ctrine, by Bfidardyana; trans-
lated by Mr. Colebrooke ; Traruaet of the Boy. Aiiat. Soe.,
vol. ii. passim.)
BrahmBf as an individual deity in mythology, is the
operative creator of the universe ; forming, with J^ihnu (the
preserver or sustainer) and Siva (the destroyer), the triad of
principal Hindu gods. His epithets, which have been col*
lected by ancient Sanscrit lexilogists, are numerous : some
of the most usual are, Swayambhu, 'the self-existent;*
Paramcshthi^ 'who abides in the most exalted place;*
Pitdmaha, ' the great father ;' Prajdpati, * the lord of crea-
tures ;* LSkisa, • the ruler of the world ;' Dhdtri, * the
creator.* In the mythological poems and in sculpture he is
represented with four heads or rather faces, and holding in
his four hands a manuscript book containing a portion of
the VSdas, a pot for holding water, a rosary, and a sacri-
ficial spoon. (Moor*s Hindu Pantheon^ plates 3, 4, 5.) In
the sculptures of the cave temple of Elephanta, he is repre-
sented sitting on a lotus supported by five swans or geese.
(Traniaci, of the Lit, Soc, qf Bombay, vol. i. pp. 222-225,
&c.) Exclusive worshippers of Brahra^ and temples dedi-
cated to him do not pow seem to occur in any part of India :
homa'ge is however paid to him along with other deities. The
Brahmans, in their morning and evening worship, repeat a
prayer addressed to Brahmd, and at noon likewise they go
through certain ceremonies in his honour : on the occasion
of burnt offerings, an oblation of clarified butter is made to
him, but it does not appear that bloody sacrifices are ever
offered to Brahml At the full moon of the month Mfigha
(January-February), an earthen image of BrahmS, with
that of Siva on his right and that of Vishnu on his left
hand, is worshipped ; and dances, accompanied with songs
and music, are performed as at the other Hindu festivals.
When the festivities are over, the images of the three gods
are cast into the Ganges. A particular worship is paid to
Brahma at Pushkara or Pokher m Ajmere, and at Bithore
in the Dooab, where he is said to have performed a great
and solemn sacrifice on completing the act of creation ; and
the pin of his slipper, which he left behind him on the occa-
sion, and which is now fixed in one of the atepa^ the Brahv
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vaverto Ghat near Bithore, is still an object of adoration
there. On the full moon of Agrahfiyana (November*De-
oemher), a numerously attended fair is annually held there
in honour of BrahmS. (Wilson, in the Asiat, Res., vol. xvi.
p. 14, 15 ; Ward, View of the Hindus, &c., 2d edit.. voL ii.
p. 29, 30.)
BRAHMANS. [Hindus, Castss op.]
BRAHMAPOOTRA, one of the largest riv. of Asia
mod in many respects one of the most remarkable on the
globe. Sixt^ or seventy years ago this riv. was almost
unknown to Europeans; though they had information about
its neighbour the Ganges more than three centuries before
the beginning of our era.
The farthest branches of this riv., which has a common
embouchure with the principal branch of the Ganges, rise
between 97° and 98° £. long., and between 28? and 29^^ N.
lat Here, about 28° 30' N. lat.and 97*» 30' E. long.,
stands a snow-capped mountain range, which in the present
state of our geographical knowledge must be considered the
most easterly portion of the Himalaya range : the Taluka,
the most N. of the sourees of the Brahmapootra, has its
origin in these mountains. No European has yet seen its
source, but Wilcox was informed that it runs to the S.S.W.
in a narrow valley between high, steep, and mostly barren
n>cks» till it joins the Taluding, a riv. not inferior in size,
which descends from the mountains of Namhio (28'' N.
lat.), a ridge belonging to the Langtan chain, which latter
divides the upper branches of the Brahmapootra from those
of the Irawaddi. After the junction of the Taluka and
Taluding the river continues its oourse to the S.S.W. be-
tween high mountains, and about 20 m. lower is the most
E. point to which Wilcox advanced. Here the enclosing
mountains are covered with jungle, with now and then an
intermixture of grass in spots. The riv. is full of foam, and
the rocks in its bed are of such enormous size, that it is
hardly possible to conceive that they have been brought
down by the riv. even in the rainy season, but their great
variety shows that they are not in situ, Sienitic granite,
in which garnets are found 7-lOths of an inch in diameter,
serpentine of a flinty hardness, and primitive limestone are
most numerous.
Near this place the riv. changes its direction, flowing for
some miles to the N.W. between high mountains and in a
narrow valley ; it then turns to the S., and a few miles
Jower down it issues from the mountains by a narrow pass,
called Prabhu Kuth&r, in which the riv. is about 200 ft.
wide, and runs with great violence. Near this pass, on the
S. banks of the riv. is the Brahma-koond (the source of the
Brahma) or Deo F&ni, a place of pilgrimage among the
Hindus. It is nothing but a good sized pool, 70 ft k>ng
by 30 wide, enclosed by high projecting rocks, from which
two or three rills descend into the pool. From this place
the riv. has obtained its sacred name of Brahmapootra,
tlie ' offspring of Brahma,* though it is commonly called by
the natives U>hit, or Lohitiya (Lauhitiya in Sansc., the red
river).
After passing the Prabhu Kuth&r the Lohit enters the
valley of Upper Asam or Sadiya, where the hills retire to a
flistauoe of 30 or 36 m. from each bank. But though carry-
ing a great volume of water, the Lohit becomes navigable
fur large boats only at Sonpura, 12 m. above Sadiya. In
this distance the riv. does not intersect any rocky strata,
but the torrents descending from the hilU bring down in
the rainy season an immense and yearly accumulating col-
lection of holders and round pebbles of every size, which
blocking up the river divide it into numerous channels, and
produce frequent rapids of short extent ; all these circum-
stances render its navigation extremely difficult and nearly
impossible. In this tract the Lohit begins to display its
character of dividing its stream and forming large longi-
tudinal islands, a peculiarity which is frequently observed
in its course through Asam. Near gG"* 15' £. long., and
87^ 51' 21'' N. laL., the riv. divides into two branches, of
which the N. and larger is called the Lohit or Buri Lohit,
and the S. Sukato: those branches unite again about
10 or 12 m. farther downward. The island thus formed is
about 2 m. wide.
From the Prabhu Kuth&r to Sonpura the riv. runs
nearly W., and in this tract its waters are only increased
by small streams. But between Sonpura and Sadiya,
~here it makes a bend to the S., the Lohit is joined by the
Dihing, a considerable riv., whose upper branches rise
D a hundred miles from its mouth. The best known is
the Duifha Pani, which originates on the W. dadkiiy ct
the mountains, over which the Phungan Bum n asa {IT^
3U' N. lat) leads to the countries on the banks oi the Ira-
waddi, and atuins a height of 11,0U0 ft Hence t^
Dupha Puni flows between mountains in wild rapids to tbe
£. and unites with the other branch, called the Ke» Dthiu^c
above Logo. The upper course of the Noa Dihiag ta ka*
known, but it would appear that its source is lartfior 6«m
the place of junction than that of the Dupha Pani* aiMl
probably on the 8. declivities of the Lanf;taQ MeittUiBa*
From Logo downwards the Noa Dihing is navigable Ur
boats.
Nearly opposite the mouth of the Noa Dihing the Kim^il
joins the Lohit. On the banks of this small river sunds
Sadiya, the capital of Upper Asam : the Lohit ia here
about 1200 ft. above the level of the sea.
West of Sadiya, but at no great disUnoe» the waters ef
the Lohit are increased by those of the Dihong, vhieh bnas%
a volume at least three times as large as that of the Luhu
at their junction. A few miles from its mouth the Diboofp
is joined by the Diiong, a considerable river dteeenrting
from the N.N.E., but by far the largest volume of water »
brought down bv the Dihong itself> which flows as fitf ea it
is known from the N.N.W. This river has been eSMnioei
only to a short distance from its mouth, wbeie il waa linusd
rushing down in rapids, interrunted only by catanete. TW
great volume of its waters, added to other caresimMaacea.
rondcrs it probable that this river is the saae which »
known in Tibet by the name of Sampoo or Yam Taaag:lw>
tsin, which opinion is noticed more particularly at Hie tod of
this article.
After its junction with the Dihong, the Lohit flom in s
S.W. direotion» and forms numerous islands, so that hanil*
in any place does the whole volume of its waters ran ia oa.
bed. Here it receives on the S. the Buri DihinSi a catkm-
derable river, whose origin is near the banks of the N-*
Dihing, and separated from it by such low gmuMb, that ti
certain seasons of the year a portion of the last mentiooed
river flows to the Buri Dihing and constitutes as it were la
source, which has given rise to the opinion thai Ibe Noa
Dihing at some remote period did not discharge its waun
at the place where it now empties itself in the Lohii, Ua
constituted the upper branches of the Buri Dihing. TW
Buri Dihing runs nearly in a due western dixedaoii, pKP>
bably above 120 m.,^ut its upper course is not knofvn.
A few miles after this junction, the Lohit drridca inft
two large branches, the northern of whieh is eaUed Ben
Lohit and the southern Buri Dihing, as if it was the caa>
tinuation of the large affluent which Joined it a €tm muim*
farther up. These branches include the fertile ialaad </
Majuli, which extends from 94^ SO' to 93^ 40^ K. loM^abou
50 m. in length, with an average breadth of 9 m. Oppeai^
this island the Buri Lohit is joined by the Saben Shin« a
river not inferior in volume of water to any of the trihutarMs
of the Brahmapootra, except the Dihong. It baa not bam
examined to any great distance from its mouth, hat xha
abundance of its waters suggested to Wileox the lAaa that
it may be the lower course of the Mon-taiu, a large nxtt ^
Tibet ; an opinion which is very probable.
Into the southern brancL of the .Brahmapoolni, or tltf
Buri Dihing, falls the small river Dikho, oa whieh die pr-
sent capital of Asam, Jorhath, is situated, and lower doer«
near the place where both branches reunite, the Dht»nma\
which rises at a great distance to the S. in the territorvs a
the Raja of Moonipore, in a country not yet explored 1 4
Europeans.
After the Buri Lohit and the Buri Dihing hate rt^
united and flowed down for nearly 30 m. in one chamw'.
divided onlv at a few places by small islands, the Brahma'
pootra divides again at the town of Bishenath t93^ 1^ fi
long.) into two Targe branches, of which the northern a;i
larger retains the name of Lohit, and the southern is caltri
KuUung oc Kolong. The island enclosed by these tw
branches of the Brahmapootra extends in length ii^ari»
of 75 m^ with a width of 20 or 25 m. in the middle. A«
European travellers do not mention the native name of tk.«
island, Ritter calls it the island of Kullung. The Knltnnc
branch of the Brahmapootra here receivea a mnaderitii
river, the Deyong. whose sources are situated Ihr to the S
in the kingdom of Katohar, and which breaks thmigh lot
chain of the Naga Mountains, like the Dhunairi.
The Kullung branch of the Brahmapootra in wnitsi u
the Lohit a few miks above GowaM|y» below ,vhieh
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BRA
329
BRA
llie «xf6iiave yzJUff of Astm may be eonridered as iermi-
naUid ; for here theofbeu of the Himalaya range on the
N. and the .Garo Hills on the S. approach the river within a
sho. • distance, and in many places leave but a narrow tract
along its banks. The Brahmapootra runs here with an un-
divided stream, and is hardly 1200 yards wide, which is its
smallest breadth after its junction with the Dihong. Its
stream is so exceedingly rapid, that in the rainy season
vessels are obliged to wait for a strong westerly wind, to
enable them to stem the force of the current. Below Goyal-
para, the Brahmapootra enters the plains of Bengal, where
It is only about 120 ft above the level of the sea.
The general direction of the Brahmapootra from the
western extremity of the Island of KuUung to iu entry into
theplains of Bengal lies due £. and W., and it preserves
this direction still farther down to the town of Rangamatty.
Below Qoyalpara it receives on theN. the Bonash or Manas,
a oonsiderabla river which traverses the eastern portion of
Bootan, but whose courM is nearly unknown, except so far
as it runs through the plains of Bengal.
Near RangamaUy the Brahmapootra declines to the S.W.,
and shortly afterwards takes a due southern course to
SS^ N. lat, where it begins to run to the S.E. Between
26^ and 26^ the first communication with the Ganges com-
mences. A small branch of the Brahmapootra running due
8. faUs into the Issamutty, a branch of the Tecsta, which
joins the Ganges near Jaffiergunge; and another water-
course, which branches off from the Brahmapootra a little
ferther down, and is called Lobnee, falls into the antient
bed of the Ganges below Jaffiergunge.
The Brahmapootra continues its south-eastern course
nearly to 24^ N. lat, where it is joined by the Barak or
river of Silhet. This latter river has its still unknown origin
in the mountains of Tiperah, and enters the kingdom of
Katchar flrom the S. near 93"* £. long. ; it then turns sud-
denly to the W. and continues in this direction through the
prov. of SUhet ; but £. of 92" E. long, it branches off in
tliflbrent channels, of which the southern and most consider-
able runs W.8.W. and falls into the Brahmapootra near the
point where the parallel 24'' b out by the meridian 91^.
From its junction with the Barak the Brahmapootra runs
S.S.W. with large bends until it reaches the neighbourhood
of Fring>'bazar, where its channel widens to such a breadth,
that it struck with amazement our great geographer Rennel,
Hnd led him to sup[)ose that the Megna, which is the name
for the river from Fringybazar to the sea, had at some re-
mote period received the watere of the principal branch of
tlie Ganges in additwn to those of the Brahmapootra. He
traced the old channel of the Ganges from Fringybazar to
l)Acca and Jaffiergunge, and hence through the lakes and
morasses between Jaffiergunge and Nattore lo Pootyah
and Bauleah. At present both riven have separate em-
bouchures, though they approach so near one another that
tbeir beds at some places are hardly two miles apart. Even
sfWr they hare left the continent their currents are still
<liviiled, that of the Ganges running to the W. of the island
of Shabaapore, while the Megna sends its watera to the
Rulf of Bengal by the channel between the islands of
Sbabazpore and Hattia.
The whole course of the Brahmapootra, as here described,
Aiay be eatimated at 860 m. of which 160 m. belong to its
upper course £. of the mouth of the Dihong, 350 m. to its
middle course to Goyalpara, and the remainder to its lower
couKM to the island of Hattia. The Ganges runs 1350 m.,
and therefore exeeeds the Brahmapootra by near 500 ro.
But the Brahmapootra carries down a much greater volume
of water. It was found, in January, 1 828, that it discharged
near Goyalpara below the mouth of the Bonash, in one
wcond, 146,188 cubic ft. of water, while Rennel calculated
Usat the principal branch of the Ganices in the dry season
discbarges only 80,000 cubic ft This fact is a strons:
iea4on in support of the Dihong being the river which in
Tibet is known by the name of Sampoo ; but othera are of
the opuiian that the Sampoo joins the Irewaddy. We shall
briefly advert to this controveny.
At the time of DAnville tho Brahmapootra was hardly
luxnrn further than by name. He therefore inserted it in
bis map of southern Asia as a small river running N. and
8', nearly in the place where at present the Gadadhar or
Tebin-tstu descends from the Himalaya of Bootan. He
knew, however, that the Sampoo runs to the £., and that it
<)oes not join the Kinche-luang or Yantse-kiang. He
tberefore eoi^cctttred that this river must join one of the
large rivers of the peninsula without the Ganges, and he bit
on the largest, the Irewaddy. When Rennell surveyed
the lower course of the Brahmapootra in 1 769, he was struck
by its magnitude, and he collected some information re-
specting its upper course, which led him to conjecture that
the Sampoo of Tibet discharged its watera by this channel.
The conjecture was confirmed by the information obtained
by Turner at Teshoo Loomboo. Rennell inserted this river
in the first edition of his map of Hindoostan, where with
great ingenuity he hit nearly on the same place where al
present the Dihong is found to break through the Hhnalaya
mountains. This representation of the union of the Sampoo
and Brahmapootra was not questioned till 1824, when the
British troops entered Asam, and it was discovered that tho
sources of the Brahmapootra were situated much fartiier B.
than the place where in Renners map the Sampoo entere
the vale of Asam. Lachlan and Julius Klaproth accord-
ingly conjectured that the Sampoo runs much farther to
the *E., and, encireling the mountains at the sources of the
Brahmapootra, joins the Irawaddy. Klaproth, who had care-
fully examined the Chinese geographers, collected some
passages which he thought sufficient to support his opinion.
But the British officers, who remained in Asam, and
especially Capt Bedford and Lieut. Wilcox, ascertained
that the Dihong was a very large river. Their at-
tempts to ascend it were frustrated partly by the nature
of the river within the mountains, where it comes down
in a succession of rapids and cataracts, and partly by
the mountaineers. But Wilcox succeeded in passing the
mountain ranse between the upper branches of the Brahma-
pootra and those of the Irawaddy, and he found that
m the country of the Bor Khamtis the Irawaddy is an
inconsiderable river, only 80 yards wide, and the natives
were not acquainted with any large river in the neigh-
bourhood. This rendere it all but certain that the Sampoo
of Tibet does not join the Irawaddy, or any other river in
the adjacent countries.
On the other hand, as far as the course of the Sampoo
as well as of the Dihong has been fixed by astronomical ob-
servations, it is by no means improbable that both are the
same river. The only point which has been determined on
the banks of the Sampoo, by actual observation, is Teshoo
Loomboo, which Turner found at 89** 7' B. long. Farther
down, the position of H'Lassa, which lies at no great dis-
tance from the Sampoo on its northern bank, has been cal-
culated by Gaubil to be 88"* 4' £. long, of Paris, or 90^ 24' of
Greenwich. Below H'Lassathe Sampoo continues its course
for a considerable distance to the B., until all information
of its farther course Is lost. The Dihong issues from tlie
mountains, according to the survey, at about 95? 30' £. lon|r.
Between H'Lassa and this point there are therefore still
five degrees and six minutes for the known and unknown
portion of the course of the river.
It is impossible to draw any conclusion from the differ-
ence of lat., because the Chinese place Tibet much too far
S. In D Anville*s map to Du Halde's description of China
the known course of the Sampoo terminates at 26^ 40' N.
lat, and on the Chinese map of Kienlong in 2f* Z&, and
consequently to the S. of the valley of the Brahmapootra
Klaproth accordingly, to support his opinion, has been
obliged to place it at 28" 30', and Berghaus even at 29° 15'
N. lat. But if we even admit the lat of Klaproth, the distanoe
of the termination of the known portion of the Sampoo
would only differ 24 minutes of lat from the most northern
point on the banks of the Dihong, to which Wilcox ascended
this river (28° 6' N. lat).
Klaproth supports his opinion of the identity of tho
Sampoo and Irawaddy, by a few nassages Arom Chinese
geographera; but it is evident tnat all the countries
between the termination of the known course of the Sam-
poo and China Proper were and still are as little known
to them as to us ; and as they had no knowledge at all of
the Lohit and the vale of Asam, they thought it necessary
to unite the Sampoo with the most considerable river of
the peninsula without the Ganges, the Irawaddy. To the
passages of the Chinese geographer may be opposed the
decid^ opinion of the lamas of Tibet, who told Turner
that the Sampoo running to the S. unties its waten with
the river flowing down from the Brahmnkoond.
All these circumstances make it very probable that the
Dihong is the continuation of the Sampoo. Bv adding tins
riv. the course of the Brahmapootra is increased by upvrsrds
of 1000 miles : this circumstance would sufficiently explain
Na 313.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
Digit^^b^g90gle
BRA
33D
.^llX
xvlty tills riv. brings down a volume of wtter, which raises
it fur above the Ganges end Irawaddy, and claims for it the
fii-st place among the rivers of S. Asia. (Rennell : Francis
Hamilton ; Klaprolh's M4moire§ ; Nefville and Wilcox in
Asiatic Regearehei ; Rltter, Amn ; Mdpi ^Klaproth, Ber-
Khaus» and Wilcox.)
BRAHMBQUPTA. [Vioa Gahita.]
BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS, is known as one of the
earliest teachers of the deaf and dumb in this island.
He began this useftil career at Bdinburgh in 1760. No
authentic record of the methods which he pursued has
been made known, unless a work published by the late
Dr. Watson, formerly the head master of the London In-
stitution for the Deaf and Dumb, may be so considered.
Dr. Watsoni as an assistant to Mr. Braidwood, acquired
his mode of tuition, and says, speaking of Braidwood, ' His
method was founded upon the same principles ; and his
indefatigable industry and great success would claim from
me respectftil notioe, even if I could forget the ties of t)lood
nnd of friendship* {Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb,
Introduction, p. xxiii. London, 1809). A work entitled Vox
Ontlie Sutjecta, published at London in 1 783, the produc-
tion of an American gentleman, whose son was educated by
Braidwood, professes to give *a particular account of the
' academy of Messrs. Braidwood, of Edinburgh,' but it throws
no light upon ^e system of instruction pursued by those
gentlemen. It is chiefly valuable for its copious extracts
from the writings of Bulwer, Holder. Amman, Wall is, and
Lord Monboddo, who had all considered thb subject of
speech with philosophical attention, and in relation to those
persons who are born deaf, or who become so at an early
a^e, and who consequently labour under the de|n-i\'aiion of
speech. There was doubtless much merit in the mechanical
methods used by Braidwood and his son to produce in their
pupils an artificial articulation, and in the pei-serering ap-
plication of principles which had been previously ascertained.
Braidwood succeeded in attracting the notice of many emi-
nent persons. He is spoken of with praise by Amot {Hist,
of Edinburgh), Dr. Johnson {Tour to the Hebrides), Lord
Monboddo (Ort'^n and Progress of Language), Pennant
{Tour through Scotland), and John Uerrie^ {Etements of
Speech). In addition to these, Lord Morton, president of
the Royal Society, Lord Hailes, Dr. Robertson, Sir John
Pringle, Dr. Franklin, Dr. Hunter, and others attended the
public examinations of his pupils, and attested their pro-
gress. After having resided some years at Edinburgh,
Braidwood remo\*ed his establishment to Hackney, near
London, where he continued to instruct the deaf and dumb,
and to relieve impediments in the speech, till his death in
1806.
BRAIN, a soft and pulpy organ, which in man occupies
the cavity of the cranium, and forms one of the central
masses of the nervous system [Nervous System]. In
man and all the higher animals the nervous system consists
of four distinct parts — the while threads called ner%^s ;
knots or masses of nervous matter situated along the course
of the nerves called ganfdions; a long cord of nervous
matter filling the cavity of the vertebral or spinal column,
called the spinal cord ; and a lari^ mass of nervous matter
now generally considered as a continuation and expansion
of the spinal cord, called the brain. The spinal cord and
brain constitute the two central masses of the nervous
Bvstem, that is, the immediate seat of the functions pecu-
liar to this system.
The general mass of nervous matter designated under
the common term brain, together with its membranes,
vessels, and nerves, completely fills the cavity of the skull.
This mass is divided into three parts, the cerebrum or
brain proper, which occupies the whole of the superior part
of the cavity of the cranium ; the cerebeUum, much smaller
than the cerebrum, whence its name, little brain, which
occunies the tower and back part of the cavity of the cra-
nium ; and the medulla oblongata, by much the smallest
portion of the mass, situated at the basis of the cavity, be-
neath the cerebrum and cerebellum. The medulla ob-
longata passes out of the cavity of the cranium into that of
the vertebral canal by the foramen magnum of the occipital
bone, being continuous with and forming the commence-
ment of the spinal cord.
This* general nervous mass is closely enveloped in three
distinct membranous coverings, two of which hat*^ been
called matres, from the fanciful notion that they give
to all the otiier membranes of the body. The ex*^
ternal «eming tertnei MiA muter, ftom tta being of u
firmer texture than the other two membranes, encloses tL^
brain with all its appendages, and lines the whole interr.j:
Bur&ee of the bones of the cranium. It is of a fibrous t( x-
tura, the component fibres Interlacing each other in e^ rr^
possible direction, and forming by their firmness and den* * >
the thickest and strongest membrane of the whole hr^\.
By ita external surface the dura mater adheres evert «b»-»
to the inner surfkce of the cranium, just as the penoste-. n
adheres to other bones. When torn from the cranium t! «
surface appean somewhat rough and irregularly spott--<l
with bloody points, which are the lacerated onfloei ef veas^ i
that pass between the membrane and the sorronnd,' ^
bones. These vessels are much more numeroos in t.«
young than in the adult, and are most abundant at tL«
sutures or junctions of the bones that compose the skuiL
The inner surface of Uie dura mater, which is shining a r.-l
smooth, is lubricated and kept in a state of moisture \% ^
fluid secreted by ita own Tessels. This membrane perfnrrr i
a twofold office ; it supplies the place of the periosteum ! -
the inner surfkce of the bones of the cranium, sustain - z
their nutrient Tessels; and it serves as a defence to ti.*
brain, and a support to the different masses into which it u
divided.
The dura mater gives off sereral elongatiottB or f>rodTic -
tions called |)roee«M«, which descend between eertajn p:-
tions of the brain ; the most remarkable of which is tern. -.
the superior longitudinal process, which extends from t: •'
fore to the back part of the skull, between the lateral Ualx »
of the cerebrum. Narrow in fhmt, it becomes gra'lua '»
broader as it passes backwards, bearing, as haa been f '. -
ceived, some resemblance in shape to a sickle or scv.l.*:.
when<e the common name of it. falx cerebri.
Where the falx cerebri terminates behind, there pror^n ■
a large lateral expansion of the same membrane, exten-: : :
across the hark part of the skull beneath the posterior {i. ..
of the cerebrum, and forming a complete floor or vault . * r -
the cerebellum. This membranous expansion is called :--
torium, the obvious use of which is to nrevent the c^rctr .:
from pressing upon the cerebellum ; while fh>m the m.*'.
of the tentorium proceeds another membranous expan-- ^
which descends between the lobes of the cerebellum x. .
terminates insensibly at the edge of the foramen muj;?. .
performing for the cerebellum the same office as the *
performs for the cerebrum : hence it is eaWedfalr cerr/.^
Moreover, the component fibres of the dura mater, in '
tain parts of its course, separate into layere, which ^ri ^
disposed as to leave spaces between them, for the to^**: ^ -:
of a triangular form. These triangular spaces, whul: .'
commonly termed iinnses, are lined by a smooth mew\ -
perfectly analogous to that which lines the veins in the ^^ .
parts of the bodv, and these sinuses perform the oft •'
veins, returning the blood firom all the parts of the br^.
the neck. Nothing analogous to this structure occurs .-. ^ .
other part of the venous system. In almost every oihn r . "
of the body the pressure of surrounding parts is a mr«t -
portant aid to these vessels in enabling them to carr} oa
circulation of the blood ; but in the brain, the venous tu • -
are guarded from' pressure, the dense dura mater bcit.*.: ' -
this purpose stretched so tensely over them that the vi .^ ..
of the surrounding parts is completely taken off them.
One of the conditions essential to the perfbrmance of t' •
functions of the brain is, that it be fVee from preesure, T' •
brain is a soft substance, enclosed in a hard unrleldini; r.:^
A preternatural accumulation of blood in its vesaels «o ..
produce pressure upon its substance, becanse that tub«t.t:
cannot expand with any additional quantity of fluid t
may be poured into it ; consequently, such additional q-j .
tity of fluid would inevitably occasion a disturbanee of f u"
tion, if not organic ii^jury.
The smooth surface of the brain whieb is exposed on * -
reflection of the dura mater, is formed by its second irt«v
ing membrane, which is named the tuMca omMn^ i . ..
from the extreme tenderness and delicacy of its t^^-.
which give it a resemblance to a spider a weK Tht^ t:
eoloucless and transparent membrane is spread ur.f . -t:- *
over the surface of the brain, covering all the etnm". -•
termed convolutions {fg. i. 2, 2), but not insinuating "-
between any of the depressions between the con^o! *
ifiK' IV. ^z- On account of its extreme tenirity and it% t -
adhesion to the membrane beneath it, it cannot be n •
separated fh>m the latter ; bnt there are situation^ &t •
basis where the arachnoid membnmey a« it paasea benrr
Digitized by VjOOQTC
BR A
381
BR A
ojiposlte ftrts of tha tauQ. om be imo diftUnot (kosok (he
su^acent taiiie.
Tbfl third investing membrane, the pia mater, derives its
name, like the former, from the tenderness and delicacy of
its tissne ; but unlike the tunica araehnoidea, in which not
a single blood vessel has hitherto been discovered, the pia
mater im exceedingly vascular. The blood vessels with which
e^erj part of thii delicate membrane is covered are the
nutrient arteriea of the brain ; before they penetrate the
borain these vessels divide, subdinde, and ramify to an ex-
treme degree of minuteness upon the external surface of
this membrane, so that the blood does not enter the teriaer
cerebral substance with too great force. When a portion of
the pia mater is gently raised fVom the brain, those blood
vessels appear as exceedingly fine delicate threads, which
on account of the elasticity with which they are endowed are
capable of elongation as they are drawn out of the cerebral
suhstanoe. As the pia mater contains and supports the nu-
trient vessels of the brain, this membrane is not only spritad
as a general envelop over its entire surface, but it penetrates
between all its oonvolutions and lines every cavity which is
farmed in it
It has been stated that the large portion of the cerebral
mass, termed the cerebrum, occupies the whole of the upper
part of the cavity of the cranium. The cerebrum is divided
no. I.
[Uppn wHbM of tb« bMlo.
l.eut odfi of the iKmesof the eraaram ; t, nipulorooaMX •«!*»» of tti» two
Iitniu}ihen» ot ih« Mrebrura with their eonvulatloM i 9k Mpwrnlioa Wiw««a
Uie tvu hemispherw of the etfrebrum ciccQ|iied by the falx cerebri.
into two equal lateral halves termed hemispheres (Jig. i. %),
which have an ovoid figure somewhat resembling an egg
cut longitudinally into two equal parts. The hemispheres
are separated from each other by the membrane already
described, the lalx cerebri (Jig. i. 3) ; and their inner sides,
in apposition with the falx, are flattened, while their upper
and outer surfaces are convex, being accurately adapted
to the concavity formed by the inner surface of the bones of
the cranium.
Each hemisphere is subdivided into an anterior, a middle,
and a poeterior lobe, but it is only on the under surface of
the brain that these lobes are accurately defined (/ig, ii. 1,
2. 3). The anterior and middle lobes are separated drem
<ach other by a deep fissure, named the JiMSura stfh^
{fi^. 11. 4), which extends obliquely baokwards from the
basis to a considerable depth between the convolutions ; but
the middle is distinguished from the posterior lobe» not by
a fi'^sure but by a superficial excavation on the under surfaoe
of the posterior lobe (fif. ii. 5). The anterior lobes rest
upon the orbitar plates of the frontal bone ; the middle lobes
are lodged in the temporal foss» formed by the sphenoid
and temporal boneB» while the poaterior lobee are aupported
vpon the tantohnm.
FIG. II.
[Bate of the bnua.]
1, a«terior lobot of Iho ocrebmm ; 8. middle lobes of tho eerebrum : 3, »>••
terior lobt*! of the cerebrum ; 4. ftuure Keparating the anterior from the miadle
lobes, namfd the flMora i^lvii; 5, •itiuttton of the tupeiflcial excavatioa
log the Iwnudary between the middle aad the poateriur lobea ; 6. the two
hemiBuherea of the cerebellum composed of flattened lamin* or layers ; 7. tlie
medulla oMongata. Mrhich in this position of the braiu rests upou and coven
the Termilbrm proceaa } 8. corpora pyramidalia ; ^ corpora oiiTaria ; lO. tu>
ber aoPMiare,or puna Taioiiii ^il, awaaaation of the corpora pyramidalia;
0, 6. c, d, cerebral nerres.
The whole of the external convex surface of the hemi-
spheres is divided into numerous eminences termed convo-
lutions, which run in different directions, and are of different
sizes and lengths, in different parts of the hemisphere (Jig.
1. %), The depressions or fissures between the convolutions
termed olefU, or sulci, generally penetrate the consistence of
the brain to the depth of about an inch or an inch and a half
(fig, lY. 7). The greater number of these pursue a zigzag
course, but some run longitudinally, others obliquely ; some
communicate with each other, while others terminate sepa-
rately in the substance of the brain (Jig. it. 7).
The nervous matter constituting the cerehrum is com-
posed of two distinct substances, which differ from each other
materially both in their colour and consistence (fig. iy. 7).
The outer substance is sometimes termed cineritioiis^ from
its being of a greyish brown colour ; at other times cortical,
from its surrounding the inner part of the brain, as the bark
the inner parts of Uie tree ; by some it is also called ^/on-
duloTt and by others tecretory^ from the supposition that its
nature is that of a gland, and that it secretes a pecuUar
fluid. It is of a sof&r consistence than the inner part, and
leaves by desiccation a smaller quantity of soUd residuum.
It is composed almost entirely of blood vessels connected
and sustained by exceedingly fine cellular membrane. Its
structure is uniform throughout, presenting no appearance
whatever of a fibrous texture. It givea to the entire surface
of the cerebrum an external covering, generally about the
tenth of an inch in thickness (fig. n. 7).
The inner substance, termed white or medullary (Jig, lY. 7),
is firmer in consistence and larger in quantity than the grey
matter; and when an incision is made into it, its surface is
spotted with red points, the cut orifices of its vessels, which
vary in number and size according as they may be more or
less distended with blood. It is now universally agreed that
this part of the brain is composed of fibres. When examined
in its recent and most perfect state, especially after it has been
artificially hardened and condensed by the action of heat or
certain chemical substances, if it be carefUUy scraped with a
blunt instrument, these fibres become perfectly distinct and
are of conaiderable magnitude, with fhrrows between them»
which for the most part are placed in such a direction as to
eoQvergetowaidsthebaaeof the brain (/if. I Y. 6,6.4). The
fihrea do net merely unite, forming whftt are called conunte .
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iures, but tbey actually cross each otber and pass into the
opposite sides of the body. This decussation of the meduUary
fibres bas been demonstrated in the most aatiafactory manner
by Drs. Gall and Spurzhcim.
It is now very generally admitted that the meduUary
substance of the brain is the true and proper nervous
matter, or the nervous substance in its most perfect state ;
that tbe prey matter is entirely subservient to it, and is
indispensable, if not to its generation, at least to ite nutri-
ment and support. Drs. Gall and Spuraheim mdeed mam-
tain that the sole use of the grey is to form or secrete the
medullary matter; and this opinion they ground, first, on
the fact, that whenever the medullary matter is obviously to
be increased, it is invariably surrounded by a mass of grey
matter, which incloses it as in a bed or nucleus ; and, se-
condly, on this further fact, that in the course of the spinal
cord, wherever it sends oflf nerves, masses of grey nfatter
are always accumulated. Professor Tiedemann, who dis-
putes the correctness of the opinion of these physiologists,
on the ground that in the fcBtus the medullary is formed
before that grey substance, thinks nevertheless that the
use of the grey substance is to convey the arterial blood
which may be necessary to support the energy of the perfect
nervous matter. # .t *i
It is not intended, in this article, to pursue further the
dissection of the cerebrum in the mode usually adopted by
anatomists, both because the description could not be fol-
lowed unless the object were before the eye, while that
description, if needed, can be easily obtained in the common
anatomical books ; and because however convenient such a
mode of examining the organ may be for the purpose of
ascertaining its healthy or diseased conditions, it affords no
insight into its real structure.
The cerebellum is situated at the basis of the cerebrum, to-
wards its posterior part i^g. ii. 6, 6). Its form is elliptical, its
lartrest diameter extending transversely from one side to
the other (/ig. ii. 6). Like the cerebrum, it is divided into
two lateral halves or hemispheres (Jig. ii. 6), which are
separated by the falx cerebelli. In the centre of its upper
surface there is a distinct prominence termed the ver-
mi/orm process (fig. ii. 7). which muy be considered as
tho fundamcntiil part of the organ, because in the lower
animals, whatever other parts of the cerebellum are absent,
this is invariably present, affording thus the nucleus or
wdiment of the organ, from which, by the addition of other
parts, as the hemispheres or lateral lobes. &c.. the more
perfect organ of the higher animal is built up.
The external surface of the cerebellum is divided mto
flattened strata or layers (fg. ii. 6). separated by fissures
which correspond to the clefts or sulci between the eon-
volutions. The pia mater, bearing the nutrient arteries
of the cerebellum, passes between every one of these fis-
sures ; while the arachnoid membrane is simply extended
over them. If a vertical section be made through either he-
FIO. III.
[Vertical tection off th« breia.]
1. bundles of medulUry fibre* in ibe eentnl Mrt of the nerr^u apimratos :
f white matter forminff the centre of the fUndMsental part of th« cerebel-
lum : 3. >ertlcal eection of the eerebcUum. ihowiog the erborescent arranje-
meat of iU component Umins. and formluK the appearance raUed arbor
vita; 4, situation of the third Tentriele; 6. Abrss of white matter, forminir
the sepUiro lucidum, the mcdulUry layer which separates the two lateral
▼entrvclca from each other i ft. fibres of white matter, forming the corpus cal-
Insum. immediately beneath which are sitnated the lateral ventrielte ; 7, con-
volutions of the ccrcbiam.
misphere of the cerebellum, a thick mass of white BuhstAnce
ij Been in the centre, which, as it divides into the several |
strata, presents an arborescent appearance <»»»o^^J/J^
minated the arbor vita (fig. m. 3). These sUaU dWerip*
towards the circumference of the cerebellum. Mid are covcrt^d
externally by grey substance (fg. m. 3).
In front of the cerebellum is placed m Urge mMm of
nervous matter, forming a very considerable emiiietie^, e»-
monly termed the tuber annulare, or the pom ■otoIm
( fis II. 10). The external surface of this body la •oovex,
an Jit is divided into two lateral halves by a miililie froutre
iHs. II. 10). It is joined to the cerebrum hy two ^irk
white cords named the crura cerebri, and to ^^^^Jf^T^T
by two similar cords named the aura eefbem, ^ 1 be
crura cerebri are continued (from the tuber) outwurdsaDd
forwards to the under and middle part of earti heaHSpbcftf of
the cerebrum, in which they are lost. In fike myner f W
crura cerebelli are continued outwards and backwanis into
the hemispheres of the cerebellum, in which thev temis^.
The medulla oblongata is that portion of the «rebrw
mass which intervenes between the tuber annulare ami wk?
foramen magnum (Jig. u. 7) : beyond the foramen magnum
it takes the name of spinal cord. On the antenor surface
of the medulla oblongata there are four emmenoes cooti-
t;uous to each other (/i^. n. 7). The twu internal ar«»
named coroora pyramidalia, or the pyramids C#. ti. 8) ; and
the two internal the corpora olivaria {Jig. ii. 9), or ttie olivar>
bodies.
If the membranes which invest the medulla oblonpata
are carefully removed, and its middle groove be gently drawii
asunder, there will be discovered four or five bands of wli:ie
substance ascending obliquely ftom one side of the meduii
to the other (Jig. 1 1. 1 1 ). These bands on each side decu^^ai.-.
some of them passing above and others below those of ilic
other bide, so that they are interwoven like platted sin. «
(/ig. 11. 1 1 ). These bands are named the decussating banu.
of the corpora pyramidaha, and their decussation is r n
ceived to explain the phenomenon familiar totbe phyw.'.iL
and surgeon, that when injury is done to one wde of i.<
brain, the consequent disturbance of fVmction is manifest, i
on the opposite side of the body.
Taken as a whole, tbe nervous mass constitutini: t'l .^
brain is strictly symmetrical, that is, the diffsrent parts « (
which it is composed are so arranged, that if tho organ l*
supposed to be divided into two latoral h'alves by a pla. .
passing perpendicularly through its centre, the parte plac- 1
on each siae of this plane have a perfect oorrespcmtlrr . •
with each other, and form in fact reduplicationaof carb ot. :
(ftg. 11). The principal parts of the cerebral mass are lii •
double, but they are all united on the mediaa lioe » • ^.
their fellows of the opposite side. This union is efccu-d •
medullary bands of various sizes, and figures which r**-
fVom one to the other, called commiuurtM. Thus i
double parts of the cerebellum are united by moam of i
large mass of cerebral matter already spoken of under \
name of tuber annulare or pons varolii (fig. n. I©). 1
hemispheres of the cerebrum are united chiefly by a bn-.':
expansion of medullary matter, which extends tnttisr«n^ »
across from the bottom of one hemisphere to thai ol i
opposite side, called the corpu9 caUoevm, or tho gieai cue
missure of tbe brain (fig. iii. 6, 6). There are other r •
necling bands of smaller size, by which minor portioosot '.
cerebral mass are placed in communication, into a dr»ct f^
tion of which it is not necessary to enter hefo.
The cerebral parts are separated from one aoccher .-.
certain places, and the intervals form cavities which or-
termed ventricles. Of these ventricles iheia aia oemmof : v
enumerated four, all of which are in oorammiiDation w. '.
each other. By far the largest of these are tht two jm -i
cavities called the lateral veniriclee, which are sitoaaeHl n
the interior of the hemispheres of the cerebrtun. C^
mencing in the fore part of tho anterior lobes, tfaaso oavii.r*
proceed backwards in a direction parallel to oweh oUcr
through the middle into the posterior lobes. Their tsr^->-
is winding and exceedingly irregular, and tbey aiw scparai. 1
from each other by a tender mass of mednllary wmtitr
termed the septum lucidum (Jig* ni. 5). Tbey arw br . .:
throogliout by a fine transparent membiane, wbich oerret'«
a fluid that keeps them moist, gives them a briglu fo^mh'^i
appearance, and prevente them from uniting. Tbk n>< r<
brane is the pia mater, which is continued from the ei^trr *
surface of the brain into tliese interior cavities, and ^.
anatomists describe the arachnoid membrane as aorocDici' »
inffthe pia mater in all its course through tbe «wnmri''«.
The middle or third ventricle b avertical fissiire koia*^ :.
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ttie two large wavex eminences called the thalami optici
O^. III. 4). situated in the middle and back part of the
lateral ventriclet. The fourth ventricle, called also ventricle
of the oeiebelhim, is a cavity of considerable extent, situated
between the cerebrum, the tuber annulare, and the medulla
oblongata.
It is not necessary to enter into a more minute description
of the several parts of the cerebral mass ; but it is indis-
pensable to a elear conception of the organization of the
brain that aomething should be understood of the course of
the fibres that constitute the main part of tlie medullary
substance. For a detailed account of the course of these
fibres, the reader is referred to the admirable work of
Drs, Gall and Spuraheim, entitled Recherches sur le Sys-
ieme Nerveux en g^neralt ct iur celui du Cerveau en par-
ticuiwr in which the direction of the cerebral fibres is not
only minutely and exactly described, but illustrated by
exct;llent drawings as large as the objects. Some idea
FIO. IV.
I Conn* of the flbra» or tlM fanJD.]
1. eotnuiM of the Mitarlor njmmUb liilo 9. th« tuber aDiniUre, or pons x^
rulii I S, flbrvi of the pyramidi much increaMd as Uiey issue ttom the luber
•nnuiare; 4,5. cimtioued increase In Uie fibres of the pyramids as they ad-
vance onwanis towaida the eonrolatloos ( S, diverfenee of the Abres of the
pysunida; 7, eonrolotiooa of the eeiebrum, shoving theit depth» their grey
MAtter. and the sulci between them ; 8, cerebellum
may be fbnned of the eoiirse of the fibrea from Jig. i v., taken
ftT>m a snaller work by Dr. Sptmheim. Let us follow the
course of aome of these fibrea ; those, for example, that com-
pose the pysamids (Jig, ii. 8, undfig. it. 1), and trace them
ftom the medulla oblongata to the convolutions of the cere-
brum (/^.iv. 7). Immediately before their entrance into
the tuber annulare, the pymmids are a Uttle contracted i/lg.
ir. 8). A a soon as they enter this mass, the pyramids ore
divided into innnmerable bundles of fibres (Jig. iv. 2), which
art covered by a thick layer of traDSverse fibres (/ig. iv. 2)
that oome Iran the oerebellum (Jig. iv. 8). These fibres of
the pyramids, thus increased in number, ascend and receive
at every paint of their course fresh accessions until at their
exit (from the tuber) forward and outward, they form at least
two-thirda of the enira cerebri, as is seen at ^g. iv. 3. Fol-
lowed in their ooorse forwards from Jig. iv. 3, they are ma-
nifestly increased at every point by the accession of infinite
numben of fibres 0^. iv. 4). At the point (Jig. iv. 6) the
fibres, now exceedingly numerous, manifestly assume a di-
verging eoune, proceeding in every direction forwards, up-
wards, laterally, and backwards UIg. iv. 5, 6, 7). At length
the radiating fibres, crossing and interlacing each other in
all directions, form an expansion or tissue, which being folded
in varioua ways and covered with grey matter constitute the
convolutions (Jig. iv. 5, 6, 7, 7). Thus the pyramids pro-
gressively inoreaaed and developed form a lai-ge portion of
the anterior and middle lobes of the cerebrum. If the cor-
pora oUvara (Jtg. ii. 9) were traced in like manner, they
would be found to form the posterior lobes of the cerebrum ;
and the origin and course of the fibres constituting the main
bulk of the oerebellum can be demonstrated with the same
deameaa and exactness.
From the preceding account of the structure of the brain.
which shows it to be an exceedingly complex organ, it might
have been inferred from analogy that it would receive a
large supply of blood ; but the quantity actually sent to it
is far greater than* any analogy could have led us to sup-
poiew Hallet made a calculalionj from which he Qon-jludcd
that one-fifth of all the blood sent out of tho left ventricle
of the heart is carried to the head, yet the weight of the
brain in the human subject is not more than one-fortieth of
that of the whole body. Even if this estimate, whidi is
generally thought too large, be reduced to one-tenth, acoord-
ing to the idea of Monro, it will still leave a very great
over-proportion. There is no part of the structure of the
brain more curious than the various contrivances connected
with the circnlation through the head, which have for their
object the prevention of this prodigious quantity of blood
from producing any injurious efiects upon the tender cere-
bral substance, whether by its pressure, or by its unequal
distribution, in consequence of its stagnating in the vessels,
or of its being too violently propelled against them. Many
conjectures have been formed respecting the object of fur-
nishing this organ with such an extraordinary quantity of
blood ; but nothing is really known of the use to which it is
applied, through it may be admitted to give a degree of
plausibility to the opinion that the brain has some analogy
to a secreting organ. Without doubt, one use both of the
ventricles and the convolutions is to afford a more extended
Rurfaco by which the blood vessels may enter the cerebral
substance at a greater number, of points, and con sequel -tly
in small quantity at any one point, while at the same Ukne
they are more firmly supported in their passage by the
greater quantity of investing membrane with which they
are supplied.
The cerebral substance, when examined by a powerful
microscope, is found to be composed of a pulp containing a
number of small particles or rounded globules. The pulp
itself appears to consist of flocculi, likewise formed of
globules, connected together by fine cellular substance, the
ultimate globules being of a tolerably firm consistence and
about eight times less than the red particles of the blood.
These observations, which were first made by Prochaska,
have been confirmed in the essential points by the still more
recent and elaborate examination of the Wenzels, who by
using higher magnifiers detected more clearly the constitu-
tion of the brain as composed of a series of these small
globules, which were apparently of a cellular texture, and
which constituted the whole solia mass of the organ. Bauer
states that the globules are disposed in lines so as to give
the brain its fibrous appearance ; that the diameter of the
globules varies from ^iuo to ;^ of an inch, the general size
heing ^y ^ ; that they are both larger and in greater pro-
portion in the medullary than in the cineritious substance,
and that they are connected together by a peculiar gelatinous
matter.
Chemical analysis shows that the medullary matter con-
sists of a peculiar chemical compound, unlike any other of
the constituents of the body. In some respects this com-
pound resembles a saponaceous substance, being miscible
with water, and forming with it an emulsion which remains
for a long time without being decomposed. ' Yauquelin has
found in it two species of adipose or adiposerous matter,
soluble in alcohol; also the peculiar animal principle called
osmazome, together with a quantity of albumen, a small
quantity of phosphorus, and some saline matter, consisting
principally of the phosphates of lime, soda, and ammonia.
Sueh is a brief outline of the nature and relation of the
?rinoipal parts that enter into the composition of the brain.
*he functions of this organ will be considered in connexion
with those of the spinal cord, and of the nerve. [NxavouB
System.]
*BRAIN OF ANIMALS, ite peculiarities and diseaiei.
The most obvious distinction between the brain of man and
that of the other mammalia is its diminished size in moat
of the latter. The moment the skull-cap is raised, the dif-
ference between the full rounded appearance of the former
and the compressed flattened shape of the latter cannot fail
to be observed. The convexity of the m iddle lobes is strangely
lessened, and the posterior lobe is in a manner lost in qua*
drupeds. If the brain b now removed from the cranial ca-
viw, the difference in bulk between that of man and the
inferior animals is strikingly displayed. The brain of the ox
scarcely weighs a pound : the average weight of the brain of
the human being is more than 2ilbs.
In man the brain is supposed to constitute about 1 35th
part of the weight of his body. In the dog, averagmg the
different bieeds, it is 1-120 ih part ; in the horse it is only the
* At the reader may perceive some dbcrepencies bettreen the t««i articlM
<» the Bmia, U k aapwiery to remark that theae axiicWi coataia Um m-
Bjio^ive V iewa or yp^iooa oC tvro Uiffefent vritera.
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450tli part, in the sheep the 750th part, and in the ox the
800th part. Does there appear already a couDexion between
the relative bulk of brain and the quantity of mind ? The
bulk of the brain has alone been npoken of, but, in point of
fact, these animals have just been ranged in the order of
their intelligence and docility.
The prominences and depressions which mark the surface
of the brain in man, and which are supposed by phrenolo-
gists to indicate certain peculiarities of mind and disposition,
are tame and inexpressive in the quadruped. They are not
found in the hare, or the rabbit, or in therodentia generally.
They are not so bold or so deep in the ox as in the horse ;
nor so much so in the horse as in the dog.
The brain is composed of two substances essentially dis-
tinct from each other, the medullary deep in the base of the
organ, and the cortical or cineritious without : the one con-
nected with the animal, and the other with the intellectual
principle : the one the medium through which the impres-
sion made by surrounding objects is conveyed, and the other
the substance to which that impression is referred, and
where it is received, registered, and compared : the one
the agent by means of which the voluntary motions of the
frame are effected, and the other directing and controlling
the working of the machine.
As an illustration of the greater size and development of
the nerves of sense in animals, the olfactory one may be
selected. In man, who has other means of judging of the
qualities of his food, and of surrounding objects, than by the
sense of smell, the olfactory nerve is not one-fourth of the
siae of that of the horse ; in the ox, that is not so much
'Jomesticated as the horse, and oftener sent into the field to
ahift for himself, it is considerably larger ; it is larger still
:n the swine, who has to search for a portion of his food
huried in the earth, or deeply immersed in refuse or filth ;
and it is largest of all in the dog, whose acuteness of scent
renders him so useful a servant to man.
The difierent development of the medulla oblongata in
different animals may be adduced as another proof of the
admirable adaptation of each to the situation which ho oc-
eupies and the fhnctions whieh he discharges. The medulla
oblongata is the prolongation and condensation of the me-
dullary matter of the brain, and it is the origin of that
?[>rtion of the spinal cord which is devoted to organic life,
n the human being the breadth of it is only a seventh part
of that of the brain ; in the horse and the ox it is nearly a
third ; and in the dog it is more than a half.
In every part of the brain of the quadruped the medullary
portion preponderates, and the cineritious is deficient. In
his wild state the brute has no idea beyond his food and the
reproduction of his species : in his domesticated state, he is
the servant of man. The acuteness of his senses and the
preponderance of animal power qualify him for this service ;
but were proportionate intellectual capacity added, he would
speedily burst his bonds. It is, however, only in the pro-
portiong of the two substances that the brain of the biped
and of the quadruped differs : the cineritious and the me-
dullary parts are found in each. It was necessary that in
the. servant of man some degree of intelligence should be
added to animal power ; that he should possess the faculties
of attention, memory, and judgment, and that to these
jhould be added not only the germ, but, often, the pleasing
development of courage, fidelity, gratitude, disinterested-
ness, and a oonsoiousness of right and wrong.
In the smaller quadrupeds the comparative size of the
brain approaches nearer to that of the human being. In
the mouse it is a forty-third part of the weight of the animal.
But of what is it composed? Of the medullary matter
which is necessary to form the origin of the nerves of pure
sensation, and of those of the spinal cord, which are as
numerous as in a larger animal. This must necessarily
occupy a considerable bulk ; but there is little of the cineri-
tious matter, or that which is connected with the mind.
For several minor points of difference between the brain
of the biped and the quadruped, the reader is referred to
Coulson 'sedition of * Blumenbach's Comparative Anatomy,'
mnd to Dr. Grant's « Outlines of Comparative Anator- ' '
The brain of the larger birds agrees with that o/ the
mammalia in the smallness of its bulk, compared with the
development of the same organ in the human being. The
brain of the eagle is not more than a two-hundred-and-
•ixtieth part of the weight of the bird. The brain of the
goose IS not more than a three-hundred-and-sixtieth part.
T in some of the lesser birds, m in theohaifineh iM the
redbreast, it approaches to the proportionate sixe of Iha
of the human being, it is, ait in the smaller qtiadroned, ' r
account of the quantity of medullary matter required for the
origins of the nerves ; and the cineritious matter forms only
a very small part of the brain. The brain of the birti bat r. <>
convolutions on its surfiu^; no corpora striata in the vi-p.
tricles; no pons varolii between the brain and the sptii!
cord ; and the origins of the optic nerves are separate frcn
the brain, and lie behmd and below it.
In fishes the brain is yet more diminished in proper-
tionate size. In some species it does not constitute a t« .>-
thousandth part of the bulk of the fish. It scarcely hr . '
fills the cranial cavity, but is surrounded by a cellular ti^n. ^
containing a transparent semifluid mass. It singular^
varies in different species. It consists of at least four • '
more rounded eminences, placed in pairs opposite to (*.**. *i
other, and forming two parallel lines ; and there is oftrn
only a very slight connexion between these lines, or tK*
eminences of which either of them is composed. The t*« >
principal hemispheres of the brain and the optie thal.i* i
are always present. The olfactory nerves often ibrm a tt i
pair of tubercles anterior to these and the eerebellDD, a: 'i
is always found posteriorly on the mesian line. The <«^,t «■
nerves usually cross each other without any intermin^^ r *
of medullary matter. The cineritious substance is ibun<2 n
an exceedingly small proportion in the brain of fishes.
As for insects and worms, little needs to be said b^rtr.
In the worm the brain or upper ganglion of the ner\« •
system is placed near to, or may be said to be perforated ^'^ .
the superior portion of the oesophagus, and thence prort< •!
little white threads or cords, which run along the cour^* . C
the digestive canal. In insects, the upper ganglion usuaHv
surrounds the CBsophagus, and a ganglionic system of Derv« s
can generally be traced proceeding from it. In the \^n n
of insects the brain is inclosed in a homy cavity. T\ ^
spinal cord proceeding from it, pursues its course thrvm. >
the whole of the abdomen, presenting evident gangha ti
different points, from which nerves are distributed: vtn.-
from the intermediate spaces are given out other nertt »
without ganglia; presenting a rude but satisfisctory «kiftt ..
of the combined systems of sensitive and motor nerves d.%-
covered by modern physiologists.
A sketch of the aiseases of the brain in different anima!i
can, in this place, scarcely extend beyond those that hi^i
been domesticated by man. The preponderance of t .
medullary matter explains the cause of the nnfrH)uefir« i»
any affection of the brain that can be called imamti n
animals. If there is so small a portion of cineritious m»r*» r.
if the intellectual principle is so slightly developed, a^r-
ration of the mind is scarcely to be expected. In c^rttjf.
states of cerebral excitation, delirium is occasionally ib
served. It is one of the concomitants and chaiacten'»t.r
symptoms of rabies. Pure mental alienation unacc.m-
panied by inflammatory or other disease is however, al-
though verv rarely, seen in the quadruped. The eaj.r-
ness with which the ibraale, the sow, the bitch, the raS* .'.,
or the cat, will search out and pursue their own ofRspnn:: r
order to destroy them, and the evident delight with p . r.
they devour them, is not this insanity ? The ftirr wK
some animals, gentle in every other respect, show at iht
sight of one object, and one alone, is not this true ir .i,.»
mania ? A mare that had not the slightest frar cf . : j
other object, was alwavs roused to uncontrollable fiirr l'\
the sight or rustling of paper ; another mare would rnde T
vour to fly upon and tear to pieces every light grey h* - ^•
that came within her view; and a thira would ruih fu..-
ously against every white object, animate or inanimate : —
were not these cases of monomania ?
The brain of the quadruped is propoftionaDy muob
smaller than that of man. Comparing bulk with bulk, iV«
brain of the horse is not a twelfth, and that of the . x
's not a twentieth part so large as that of the human b*- • j.
In a state of health, a much greater quantity of blooj ?•
determined to the brain than to any other part, in order t*.
enable it to discharge its important functions. From s^mit
sudden disturbance in the circulation, a still greater quan-
tity of blood is sometimes determined to the brain of the hu-
man being. What is the consequence ? All the vessels «f
that organ are overloaded— the origins of the nerves trr
pressed upon — no cerebral functions can be discharv;cd
the man is seized with a fit of apoplexy, and unless the lut
rent is speedily diverted, and the overcharged vessels to *
certain extent drained of their coatentsi,. ha must i&aTita^f
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design, gave such sati^fiictioii as to bring him at once into
notice;, and obtain ibr him the patronage of Alexander VI.
Under that pope however he did not execute any public
vorka of importance, with the exception of the Cancelleria
or palace of the chancery ; a pile of imposing magnitude,
ana remarkable for its spacious cartile, surrounded by open
galleries formed by ranges of arches resting upon granite
columns. Although such a combination of the column and
arch constitutes in itself a mixed style, as it was here
managed by Bramante it is at least free from absurditv, for
he suppressed all appearance of entablature, and made his
arches sprins immediately from the abaci of the columns,
which with the capitals may be consid ^red as the imposts sur-
mounting circular instead of square piers : whereas blocks
made to resemble pieces of an entablature not only cause the
supports to look too much as if built up of fragments, but
call attention still more forcibly to the inconsistency of the
two systems of architecture, by exhibiting the borisontal
members, which columns were orii^inally intended to sup-
port, so mutilated as to destroy all idea of connexion in a
horizontal direction. We may therefore so far allow that
Bramante proceeded upon rational principles, and likewise
that he consulted eflfect no less than propriety ; the mode
adopted by him being more satisfactory to the eye as well
as to the judgment. In the facade of the same building,
which has two orders of pilasters above a lofty rustiest^
basement, he was not so happy ; and he either did not aim
at the character of the antique, or else failed in his attempt.
In proportion to the building the orders are too minute to
assist the idea of magnitude otherwise than at the expense
of their own importance. There is magnitude in the general
mass, but not in the constituent features. The arrangement
of the pilasters again is more unusual than agreeable, for
they cannot be said to be coupled, but distributed so as to
form wider and narrower intercolumns alternately : in the
former are placed the windows, while the others are lefl
blank — a mode which, without possessing the richness of
coupled columns or pilasters, is equally if not still more
objectionable tlian they are. Another circumstance which
does not contribute greatly to beauty is» that the windows
of tho principal floor as those of the basement are arched,
altliougn crowned by a horizontal cornice, owing to which
they have a heavy look in themselves, and also appear squat
and depressed in comparison with the range above them.
Nearly the same peculiarities, which may bo taken as in
some degree characteristic of Bramante*s style in buildings
of this class, prevail also in the fa9ade of a palace begun,
although not finished by him, in the street called Via Borgo
Nuovo. This mansion, now called the Palazzo Giraud, has
like the Cancelleria two orders of pilasters, farming narrow
and wide intercolumns alternately, and arched windows to
the first order, crowned by a horizontal friezo and cornice, but
with these differences, that the lesser intercolumns are nar-
rower than in the other instance, although still of too great
width to allow the pilasters to be termed * coupled ; * and
the arched windows are there wider and loftier than the others.
The elevation of Julius II. to the pontificate was a for-
tunate circumstance for Bramante ; for that pope, who was
no less enterprising and resolute in civil than he was in mi-
litary undertakings, was ambitious of signalizing his reign
by some noble monuments of architecture and the other
arts. By him Bramante was commissioned to project plans
for uniting the Belvedere with the buildings of the old Vati-
can palace, so as to render the whole, if not a coherent pile of
regular building, at least an imposing mass. The architect
accordingly proposed to connect the two together by means
of long wings or galleries, between which should bo a court.
On account of the inequality of the ground, this latter was
formed on two levels, with tii<Thts of steps lending up to the
large niche or tribune of the Belvedere. The design of this
tribune, within which were five lesser niches containing the
group of the Laocoon and other uiustcr-pioces of sculpture,
may be seen (very rudely expressed) in Serlio's work on
architecture ; where is likewise shown part of one of the
galleries or loggias — the same that was copied by Sir Robert
Taylor for the wings of the Bank of England as they existed
previously to the late alterations. This grand composition,
which however was not completed by Bramante uimself,
has since his lime undergone so many extensive changes,
^hat it is impossible now to judge from the place what it ori-
nally was ; for the court has been divided into two by a
nee of buildinjjs across it, at the junction of its two levels,
nch was erected by Sixtus V. for the Vatican library.
Complying with both I4ie pope's impatiene« and turevrr.
Bramante carried on the works at the Vaticeii with alt
possible dispatch, by night as well as day, in consequvncv
of which precipitation many fissures afterwards diaroverH
themselves. To reward the zeal and assiduity of his fa-
vourite architect, Julius conferred on him the oAec enliH
del Piombo, took him along with him tn bis military ex-
peditions as his chief engineer, mid otherwise manifeiit*^!
the confidence he placed in him. Tlie credit he wm hi
with the pope enabled him in time Co patronise ofhen.
and he enjoys the honour of having been the fira to
recommend Raphael at the papal court ; yet be ba* al^
been accused of availing himself of his interast witn
Julius for the purpose of thwarting the \iew8 of lliehse]
Angelo. Certain it is tliat he persuaded the pope to ates-
don the idea of the vast mausoleum which was to hare b<>rfi
ornamented with forty statues by that artist, some of them
of colossal size ; and also that he recommended him to no«
ploy Michael Angelo preferably in painting the Siatm«»
chapel : yet that he should, as some have eonjeetuied, bate
suggested the latter undertaking in the hope that tl woufal
prove a failure, is hardly credible.
At least he had no very particular reason tobcdHutisflefl
with the scheme of the mausoleum, because it was in onler
to provide a suitable situation for it that Julius d8lenniise4
upon taking down the old basilica of 8t. Peter. aadereecin|r
a new edifice, as had been intended by Nicholas V.« wlr>
had actually commenced the end tribune or ermicocle,,
which was chosen by Michael Angelo as the moat fitiing
place for the mausoleum. Such was the origin of the pre-
sent structure, called by Vasari la ttuoenda e ierribilUmmm
fabrica di San Pietro. Giuliano di Sangallo was enfloycd
to make designs as well as Bramante, but thoaeof tbeletirr
obtained the preference, and Sangallo felt so indignant tkit
he retinxl to Florence* Bramante aocordingij romnamry i
his work in 1513, and such was the expedition with which be
proceeded, that tlie four great piers and their uefaes ««rv
completed before bis death in the folk>wing year. On xb»
occasion he had recourse to a new mode of exeoutiDg the or-
naments of the soffits of the arches, by means of moiuds fixed
into the centerings of the arches, which were filled ap with
stucco and brickwork before the arches themtelrea were
turned,— a mode supposed to have been practised by the an-
tients, although ouite gone out of use until again ap|4isd hr
Bramante. As nis labours extended no furUier, aad ae tiw
subsequent mutations introduced by Michael Angelo ane
his successors were such that the original design was en-
tirely lost sight of, the present edifice can in nowise bi
considered the work of Bramante. On the contrary, thtii is
reason to imagine that it would have been a miath nohier
piece of architecture had his ideas been adhered to ; and
perhaps one of even still greater magnitude. As the nK>ic4
was not completed, we can only judge of his general intca*
tions from the nlan composed according to them by Rapb*<L
which is given by Serlio in his work, and certaislT, a» far •»
plan alone goes, this appears far be'tter oonoeiTed than ti#
one actually executed, and superior in perspective effect,
inasmuch as there would have been a greater nnmbet • {
arcades along the nave, and an uninterrupted vista in ta.:i
of the side aisles to the very extremity of the building ; l«^
sides which there would have been a spacious pMt^L:
portico in front, the entire width of the church« fenneu it
three ranks of insulated columns. Further it has hc\ a
obser>'ed, that instead of appearing less thsa its actu^%
dimensions, as is notoriously the case with the present ^t.
Peter's, which even excites astonishment on that \c;i
account, it would have looked more spacious and exle&^;^ .*
than it really was. The form of the dome too^ as pmpowi
by Bramante, would have been more simple and more kiut
the character of the antique, it being much less than a
hemisphere externally, with a series of gradini simtlar t
those of tho Pantheon at its base, above the liehM} le «..'
its tambour ;^and it may hero be observed, that it wif.
Bramante, not Michael Angelo, who first projected the ilri
of surmounting St. Peter's by a rotunda and dome tqtmX :j
the Pantheon. Another celebrated work of Brmmsntr.
although upon an exceedingly small scale^ is the htt>
Temple or Oratory in the cloister of San Pietro Moolono ..t
Rome, It is circular in plan, and surroandcd exteraal*^
by a peristyle of sixteen Doric columns, above whieh rise tlM
walls of the cella, forming a disproportionabiy lolly aOx.
with windows and niches placed alternately ^ this ctfeiiB-
stance, together with the number of doors, windows^ aiai
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luobea, fKvat the wiurfe R haav^ imd oonftised ftppeftrAnee,
utterly unlike the finished simplicity observable in the
best sntaque models. Besides all which there is a parti-
ouJariy uncouth balustmde above the entablature of the
peristyle, whose balusters are continued the whole circom^
fcienoe, without aay intervening pedestals. At the best it is
a morn showy than beautiful ai^itectural object ; yet would
have produced a good general efrect, had the circular court
with a sumninding colonnade, for the centre of which it waa
intended* bees eompleted according to the architect's design.
Numerous other buildings and projects are attributed to
Bramante, but to some of them his claims are rather dis-
nutable, and of the edifices known to have been ««eted by
nim many no loneer exist He died at Rome in 1514, at
the age ai 70, ana his remains were interred with unusual
solemnity.
BRAMBANAN, aviL in the isl. of Java, about three m.
N.N.B. from £!Jociokarta in 7^ 49^ S. lat, U(f 25' E. bng.
Brambaoan oontains extensive remains of Hindu tem-
K», which occupy an area of more than seven acres. The
ildiogs, of whiui these are the remains, apparently con-*
sisted of four rows of buildings, inclosing a laiger structure
60 ll« high* The buildings are all constructed of hewn
sloae in large blocks, and are unifiirm in their character,
each of them being of pyramidal form, and highly orna-
mented whh sculptures. The large central building is
divided inte several apartments and contains numerous
figoies of fiiTa. The smaller surrounding temples are each
fumtslied with an image of Buddha. There are four distinct
entraneea to the group, one facing eaeh cardinal point of the
compass ; each of those entrances im apparently guarded by
two ooloasal statues in a kneeling attitude. The interior
walls are ornamented with sculptures in alto and basso rilie-
vo ; a regular design is visible throughout the whole group
of buildings, which exhibit in their embellishments less of
what we consider fantastic and absurd than we are accus-
tomed to find in similar remains in the East.
It is believed that these temples were erected towards the
end of the 12th or the beginning of the 13th century.
(Crawfurd*a Hut. o/E. L Archipelago,)
BR AMBER, a decayed vil. in Sussex, which was for-
tteriy of suflSoient importance to give name to one of the
iU diTisiona of that co., to which the peculiar title of Bape
in giv>en. The Rape of Bramber is iMunded on the N. by
the cow of Sumy, on the S. by the English Channel, and
on the B. and W. respectively by the Rapes of Lewes and
Arundel. Its length from N. to S. is 22 m. ; from E. to W.
Urn. It contains ten hund., having 31 par. in the upper
division, and 11 in the lower, and comprenends the bor. of
Bramber, Horsham, New Shoreham, and Stevntng. The
bor. of Btamber was included in Schedule A of the Reform
Act, and was consequently disfranchised.
In the ^ear 1771 some scandalous practices were dis*
closed, dunn g a parliamentary investigation into the elec-
tion of members for the bor. of Shoreham. It appeared
that certaiit electors of that bor. had formed a dub which
tbey designated the Christian Society, the business of which
was to a^l tlic representation to the best bidder. The chief
magistrate, who was also returning officer for the bor., was
a member &t the club. An act passed, disfranchising the
memben of the club, and extending the franchise of Shore-
ham te the entire Rape of Bramber, which has been per-
petuated under the Reform Act, the two members for the
bor. of Shoreham bang elected by the qualified inh. of the
Rope of Bcamber. The total number of the pop. of the
Rape in 1811, was 22,777; in 1831, 30.113.
The disfranchised bor. of Bramber, which is a vil. of the
meanest kind, contains no other mark of its antient import-
ance than the ruined castle of Bramber or Brembre. The
castle and manor were granted in 1066 by William the
Conqneror to William de Braose. They now belong to the
Dake of Norfolk.
fDallaway's SiuMx; Beautiei of England and WaUi;
Th^ Oentlemaffi Masaxine.)
BRAMBLE, a wild Iruit-bearing bush, belonging to the
natural order JRa$ace€e. [Run us.]
BRAMHALL, JOHN, Archbishop of Armagh, in the
seventeenth century, was born at Pontefract, in Yorkshire,
about the year 1593. and was descended from an antient
family. He received his early education in the place of his
birth, and was then sent to Sidney College, Cambridge,
where he was admitted February 2l8t, 1608. In 1623 Uie
prebendary of York and Ripon. In 1630 lie took the degree
of Doctor in Divinity. Soon after he was invited to Ireland
by Lortl Viscount Wentworth, deputy of that kingdom, and
Sir Christopher Wandeaford. Master of the Rolls. There
he soon obtained the archdeaconry of Meath, the best in that
kingdom. In 1634 he was promoted to the bishoprick of
liondonderry ; while he held which, be doubled ^e vearly
revenue by advancing the rents and recovering lands which
had been detained from bis predecessors.
Bramhall appears to nave applied himself with about the
same seal in Ireland that Laud was then exhibiting in
England for the increase of the wealth and power of the
clergy. In pursuance of several aots passed in the Irish
parliament, which met July 14, 1634, he abolished fee
farma that were charged on church-lands ; he obtained
composition for the rent instead of the small reserved
rents ; he obtained from the Crown, and he purchased ini-
propriations. By these and other means he regained to
the Church, in the space of four years, thirty or forty
thousand pounds a year. He likewise prevailed upon the
Church of Ireland to embrace the thirty-nine Articles of
^Religion of the Church of England, agreed upon in the
convocation holden at London in the year 1562. He tried
also to get the English Canons established in Ireland, but
did not succeed farther than that a few of them should be
introduced, and other new ones framed.
On the 4 th of March, 1640-1, he was impeached, toge-
ther with several other of Strafford's coadjutors, by the Irish
House of Commons. He was in consequence imprisoned,
and after some time, through the King's interference, set at
liberty, but without any public acquittal. Some time after,
not considering himself safe in Ircdand, he went over to
England, where he remained till the battle of Marston
Moor ; after which, the prudent counsels, which according to
his biographer he bestowed upon the Marquis of Newcastle,
not being able to resist the charge of Crokuwell's Ironsides,
the bishop embarked with several persons of distinction,
and hindedat Hamburg, July 8, 1644. It was during his
exile, in the company of the Marquis of Newcastle, that he
had that argument with Hobbes about liberty and necessity,
which gave rise to the celebrated controversy, without which
the prelate's name might have perhaps been forgotten. At
the treaty of Uxbridge, Bramhall had the honour to be classed
with Laud in being excepted out of the general pardon.
At the Restoration, Bramhall was made Archbishop of
Armagh, Primate and Metropolitan of all Ireland. He
now renewed his exertions for the enrichment and aggran-
dizement of the Church. He died in 1663. Bv his wife
he had four children, a son. Sir Thomas Bramnall, hart.,
and three daughters.
Bramhall, whatever in his day might be his reputation
as a bustling and intriguing churchman, will be remem-
bered, if he be remembered at all, by posterity on account of
his controversy with Hobbes. As this controversy throws
considerable light not only on the character of Bramhall
but on that of his age, it is of importance to give some
account of it, which will be done much better than wo
could do it th the following passages, with which Hobbes
concludes the work. As the controversy is now very scarce,
this extract, even though not viewed as by any means
setting the question at rest, will scarcely be considered too
long, especially when it is regarded as a specimen of the style
of Hobbes. As we have already remarked, the contro-
versy originated in a conversation at Paris in the company
of the Marquis of Newcastle, while they were all living there
in exile. (Biog. Brit, art ' Bramhall.*)
' I shall briefly draw up the sum of what we have both
said. That which I have maintained is— that no man hath
his future will in his own present power ;--that it mav bo
changed by others, and by the change of Uiings witnout
him ; — and when it Ib changed, it is not changed nor deter-
mined to anything by itself; — and that when it is undeter-
mined, it is no will, because every one that willeth willeth
something in particular ; — that deUberation is common to
men with beasts, as being alternate appetite, and not ratio-
cination ; and the last act or appetite therein, and which is
immediately followed by the action, the only will that can
be taken notice of by others, and which only maketh an
action in public judgment volunta^ ;— that to be free is no
more than to do, if a man will, and if he will, to forbear §
and consequently that this freedom is the freedom of the
man, and not of the will;— that the will is not free, but
Aiehbiebop of York made him his chaplain. He was also | subject to change by the operation of external causes ;^
No. 314. [THE PENNY CYCLOPEDIA.] Digitiz^pyj^ V^^pglC
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tiiat all external causea depend neeefltarily on the ftnt
eternal cauae, God Almighty* who worketh in ua, both to
will and to do, by the mediation of second causes ;--that
seeing neither man nor anything else can work upon itself,
it is impossible that any man. in the framing of his own will,
should concur with God, either as an actor, or as an instru-
ment ; that there is nothing brought to pass by fortune as
by a cause, nor anything without a cause or concurrence of
causes sufficient to bring it so to pass ; and that every such
eaufie, and their ooncurrence, do proceed from the provi*
dence, good pleasure, and working of God ; and consequently,
though I do, with others, call many evenU contingent, and
say they happen, yet because they had every of them their
several sufficient causes, and thp^e causes again their former
causes, I say they happen necessarily ; and though we per-
ceive not what they are, yet there are of the most contingent
events as necessary causes as of those events whose causes
we peroeive, or else they could not possibly be foreknown,
as they are by him that'foreknoweth all things.
* On -the contrary, the bishon main taineth— that the will
is free from necessitation, and in order thereto that the
judgment of the understanding is not always practicS prac-^
ticum, nor of such a nature in itself as to oblige and oeter-
mine the will to one, though it be true that snontaneity and
determination to one may consist together ;— that the will de-
termineth itself; and that external things, when they change
the will, do work upon it not naturally but morally, not by
natural motion but by moral and metaphysical motion ; —
that when the will is determined naturally it is not by God's
general influence, whereon depend all second causes, but
by special influence, Qod concurring and pouring something
into the will ; — that the will, when it suspends not its act,
makes the act necessary ; but because it may suspend and
not assent, it is not absolutely necessary ; — that sinful acts
proceed not from God's will, but are willed by him by a
pi>rmissive will, not an operative will, and he hardeneth the
heart of man by a negative obduration ;'that man's will is
in his own power, but his molus prima primi not in his own
power, nor necessary, save only by a hypothetical necessity ;
— that the will to change is not always a change of will ;-^
that not all things which are produced are produced from
sufficient but some from deficient causes ; — that if the power
of the will be present in actu primo^ then there is nothing
wanting to the production of tne effect ;— that a cause may
be sufficient for the production of an effect, though it want
Sf)mething necessary to the production thereof, because the
will may be wanting ;— that a necessary cause doth not
always necessarily produce its effect, but only then when the
cfl'i'ct is necessarily produced. He provetb also that the
will is free, by that universal notion which the world hath
of election; for when of the six electors the votes are
divided equally, the King of Bohemia hath a casting
voire; —that the prescience of God supposeth no necessity
of the Aiturt existence of the things foreknown, because
God is not eternal but eternity ;* and eternity is a stand-
ing now, without succession of time, and therefore God
scc:i all thinr;s intuitively by the presentiality they have in
nunc stanit which comprehendeth in it all time, past, pre-
sent, and to come, not formally, but eminently and virtually :
—that the will is free even then when it acteth, but that is in
a compounded not in a divided sense ;— that to be made and
to be eternal do consist together, because God's decrees are
mode, and are nevertheless eternal ; — that the order, beauty,
and perfection of the world doth require that in the universe
there should be agents of all sorts, some necessary, some
free, some contingent ; — that though it be true that to-mor-
row it shall rain or not rain, yet neither of them is true deter-
minati /—that the doctrine of necessity is a blasphemous,
desperate, and destructive doctrine ;~that it were better to
be an atheist than to hold it, and he that maintaineth it is
fitter to be refuted with rods than with arguments.
• And now whether this his doctrine or mine be the more
intelligible, more rational, or more confurmable to God's
word, I leave it to the judgment of the reader. But what-
soever be the truth of the disputed question, the reader
may peradventure think I have not used the bishop with
that respect I ought, or without disadvantage of my cause
I might Lave done, for which I am to make a short apology.'
Th€ Qaeituin concerning Liberty^ Necessity, and Chance,
dearly Stated and Debated between Dr. Bramhall, Bisliop
of Derry. and Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury. London,
1666, sub. On.
Tliu c'oa\fri«« of tlif cxpriMiuu iiT New ton's conclaillng SchoUura->' Noa
iruiUi, led iEt«r&uft/ bcc
6RAMINS, [HiNDiia* CAsn» o».]
BRAMPTON. [CUMBKRLAND.]
BRANCALECyNK D* ANDALO\ a Bologneee nob:*
and count of Casaleechio, was oboten by tlM people uf
Rome as their senator in 1253, with the summary powers
of a dictator. The Pope, Innocent IV., was absent at iLt
time, and Rome was distracted by quanels between lU
feudal nobles, who had fortified themselves in their tespiv-
tive palaces, or in somv of the antient monnmenta. such x%
the Coloscum, the tomb of Csacilia Metella, the mauaoteuiu
of Hadrian and Augustus, &c. They had also built a num
her of lofty towers, from whieh they defied the attacks >.:
their enemies. Each baron had a band formed of lua rrla
tives, clients, or dependants, and of hired swordsmen* T:.(^
sallied frequently out of their atrongbolda, either to atu^ *
a rival faction, or to plunder the unprotected citixans su4
country people. Such was at that time the general c ..<
dition, not only of Rome, but of Florence, Milan, and otiti r
great Italian cities which lived in what was called mu:: -
cipal independence, until the citiaens, weary of this atxte xj!
anarchy, resorted to the establishment of the podeata. s
temporary magistrate, who was always chosen out of a
foreign city or state, and who had summary powen to put
down the disturbers of the public peace. TIm Romai.*
styled theirs ' Senator.* Branoaleone was a man of a hierv,
peremptory temper, and being a stranger bad no 8>'napai> »
with any of the conflicting parties. He began a war <••
destruction against the barons, attacked their atroDgho •-•,
razed their towers, hanged them and their adheivnta ml * : t*
windows of their mansions, and thus aucoeeded by tenor n.
restoring peace and security to the city. In the numcr-^t
conflicts that took place several of the antient monnmeT.u
suffered greatly. He treated the pope with little m f\
deference than the nobles. He summoned the hanj''*
Innocent IV. in the name of the Roman people to If.**
Assisi, whither he bad retired, and to return to R t: .
threatening him, in case of non-oomplianee, with a v,«
from the armed citizens, with their senator at their hi
The pope returned to Rome, where he died soon after -
1254. The people of Rome, however, fickle aa tbcy f ,\-
generally shown themselves in modem history, \>ti^.
tired of Brancatbone's severity ; they revolted against b -*:
and would have put him to death had it not been fctf- i- •
hostages they had given to the people of Bologna iir '
securitv. They appointed another senator, Maggi of Brr«
whom however they soon after accused of being too par
towards the nobles; and in 1257 they recalled Branca -r -
who resumed his authority, which he exercised «:th rv
doubled vigour. He made war against several toims in •:
neis^hbourhood of Rome, and obliged them to submit t •
authority. He threatened to destroy Anagni, but de> «**
from his purpose through the entreaties of Pope X. >
ander IV. Although that pope was the declared er.c*. •
of Manfred king of Sicily and Naplea, Branr&lr - •
maintained a gc)o<l understanding with the latter. In :.'-
Bruno a) cone diod, much rc^'retted by the cititens. «
elected his undc, Ca^tellano d' Andal^, as hie auctt^-« •.
notwithstandinty the oppoKilion of the pope. A c-oluxon *-
raised in honour of Branoaleone, \vith an urn at the t. -.
which the head of the senator was enclosed.
BRANOASTER. [Norfolk.]
BRANCHIO'PODA (Zoology). The flnt orter of x- ,
Entomosiraca [Entomostrac a], the sixth of thecla<« f'r ^ .
taeea [Crustacea], according to Latreille, who thu% r».
racterizes it. A mouth composed of a labrum (lip), two m .» r.
dibles, a little tongue {languette), and one or two pairt .-
jaws. These crustaceans, which are for the most part m < :
scopic, are always in motion when in an animated state, 4*
are generally protected by a tbell or crust in the akepc* n t
shield, or of a bivalve shell, and are furnished aomrt r? -*
with four, sometimes with two antenna. The feet, «
small exception, are entirely natatory and vary in nutn -.-
some Branchiopods having only six, while in other* u^ -
organs which so beautifully minister both to the rirrul r :
system and to locomotion, amount to from twenty to f r -
two, and, in some, to more than a hundred/ A c .
portion of these animals have but one eye. The pfv^ :
or absence of the mandibulary palpi or feelers, auccv^'i'i
used as a character in the larger crustaceans, bein? dilT- .
of detection in creatures so minute as many of the Br.-
chiopods are, Latreille, with good judgment aa we think. - ^
ponds upon the eyes, the shell, and the antenuje •« •'
guides of his classification. In that of De Geer, Fabrv .*-
and Linnmus, the genus Monocuim (linn.) appran .
BRA
339
BRA
nave been the only representative of the order. Latreille
proposes the following arrangement.
Section I.
LOPHYROPA.
Feet never more than six, the artieulations more or leas
cylindrical or conical, and never entirely lamelliform or
foliaceoiu. The BranchisB are not numerous, and there is
but one eye. Many have the mandibles furnished with a
palpus or feeler, and though M. Straus attributes this orga-
nisation exclusively to the genera Cypris and Cyiherina,
which compose his order of Ostrapoda^ the elder Jurine and
M. Ramdhor have shown that it is also characteristic of
Cyciopif, Th« antennn are almost always four in numbe:
and serw fbr locomotion. Three groups are arran ed under
this section.
Carcinoida.
Shell more or less ovoid, not folded so as to convey the
idea of a bivalve, but leavini; the lower part of the body un-
rovereil. The antenna) never in the form of ramifiefl arms.
Foft ton, more or less, cylindrical or setaceous. Females
raiTjini^ tlieir eps^ in two external bags situated at the
ImAe of their tail. Some of this division have two eyes, but
the genus Cydops has but one.
a.
Two eyes.
Shell entirely covering the thorax. Eyes large and
di»liuct. Antennae intermediate, terminated by two bristle-
like appendages.
Under this subdivision Latreille places the genera Zoea
(Bosc), NebaUa (Leach),* and Condylura"^ (Latreille). As
our limits will not permit us to describe and figure more
than one genus of each group, we select the first as an ex-
ample. Latreille considers the genus Nieothoe of Audouin
ami Milne Edwards to belong to the Paecilcwoda [Poscilo-
poda]. remarking at the same time that toe feet» with the
exception of the anterior ones, resemble much those of Cy-
clops^ and that the females also, like those of the Cyclops,
carry their eggs in two little hags situated at Uie base of
tho taiL
Zoea (Bosc) has the eye% very large, entirely exposed*
and is furnished with processes in the shape of horns upon
the thorax. The following is Bosc*s description of Zoea
pelofica which hm found in the Atlantic Ocean. Body
demi- transparent, four antennm inserted below the eyes,
tlie exterior joined icoudees) and bifid. A sort of long beak
on the front of the thorax between the eyes, and a pointed
elongated elevation directed backwards unon the back. The
feet very short and scarcely visible, with the exception of the
two last, which are elongated or natatory. The tail as long
as the thorax, curved and six-jointed, the last joint large,
crescent-shaped, and spinous.
Slabber, Desmarest, Leach, and others, have contributed
observations upon this genus, if indeed it may be so termed,
and several species have been described. But if Mr. Thomp-
son be correct, these animals have no right to any generic
appellation or rank, being no other than larger species of
Crustacea in their early state of existence. They thus
become most highly interesting, as affording, according to
him, positive evidence of the metamorphosis of the Cnuta-
ceous decapods. Having taken certain Zoeas in the har*
hour of Cove, Mr. Thompson states in the first No. of his
Zoological Kescarches, (April, 1829,) that he saw them
undergoing the change, and that enough was gained to
show that the distinctive characters of Zoect^ and of Slab-
ber's changed Zoea, {Zoea tour us,) were entirely lost, and
» M. MttM Xdwanii AesCTibM a «eir •Be«im Ui th« I3tb Tulum* oT the
' Aanales des Sciences,' to which he girea the name of Nehaiia (hf*/fr9jfi, bat
k« du'S not amnge it under Nehaiia without aome her itation, and proposea a
«ew nodtScathKi of the feiiut.
Mr. llHmpwn in his ' ZeoVottleal B«««nbes,* obaerves that Nwbaiui bean
a greater aAnily to the larraa of the Balami [CiaaxpxDAl than to any otticr,
and he eonviders that it will bear the same relation to these larva as Mjfrit
Unra to the dccapodtms Macromra,
M. MOoe Bdwatrda's NtkoHa Ott^rujfi waa found near Concaraeau in Bre-
tii^e. liring aneag small pebbles and the fragments of shells, and swimming
•n its «de.
i MilfM £4sraidi ia Us ona^ir (' Ann. dea Sdeaoet,' ton. la) describes
the IbUowing new genera, which he wusiders as approaching very near to
C'ottdylura.
Akoro. Thb waa Iband In dredgiae fbr oysters near Fort Louis, and M.
Hilae Edwards seeias conseqoently to think that it Utcs at eonsiderablc depths
ia the tea. The s|)ecies on which he founds the genua is Rhtta LatreiUH
Ommi. VboBd near Croisie upon roeks, which are not oncovered except at
very low tides. The speeiss on whhth the gvnns is figninded fa (kma Au-
SotniL (It should be remembered that the term C«iw haa beta applied by
^MsaeooebolQglctftoataibinBtedmazineshelL) '
that the members from being natatory and cleft became
simple and adapted to crawling only. To complete his
proof of metamorphosis among the orustacea, he states in
the same place, that he suoce^ed in hatohing the eggs ef
the common crab (Coyicer pagutus)^ the young of which
were fonnd to be similar in form to Zoea taurus ; and he
thence concludes that the crustaceous Decapods, generally,
undergo metamorphosis, being, in the«|lrst state of their
existence essentially natatory, and the greater namber of
them becoming afterwards, in their periKt state, incapable
of swimming, being then fhrnished with dielm (pinoere),
and with feet almost solely adapted for crawling.
But the publication of M. Ratbke's elaborate researches
on the formation and development of the crawfish (Astaeus
fluviaiilis *) shakes this general conelusion | for his obser-
vations prove beyond doubt that no such metamorphosis
takes place in the young of that orustaoean. It is right,
however, to add, that Mr. Thompson, not one whit daunted
by Kathke's publication, still holds his opinion, and, in a
letter to the editor of the ' Zoological Journal,* dated Dec,
1630, states what he trusts will convince him that if any
delusion exists, or source of error, it must rather attach to
M. Rathke than to him ; namely, that, in regard to the
Brachyurous decapods (crabs, &c.) he has ascertained the
newly-hatched animal to he a Zoeain the following genera :
Cancer, Carcinue, PortunttSt Erypkia, Oegarcinm, Thel-
phusa. Pinnotheres, AiacAtfj,— «ight in all; and that in
the Macroura (lobsters, &c.) he has actually ascertained
that the following seven genera are subject to metamor>
phosis : — Pagurus, PoreeUana, GalatheOf Crangon, Paks-
mon, Homants, Astaeus. He admits, indeed, that the
lobster {Astaeus marinus) undergoes a metamorphosis less
in degree than any other of the above enumerated genera,
and consisting in a change from a cheliferous Schizopod to
a Decapod ;—\n its first stage being what he would call a
modified Zoe with a frontal spine, spatulate tail, and want-
tnf^ sub-abdominal fins,-* in short, as he says, such an
animal as would never he considered what it really is, were
it not obtained by hatching the spawn of the lobster. He
then asks whether we are to consider the fresh-water species
of Astaeus or crawfish as an exception? or whether there is
not reason, ftom the above detail, to suspect that this pecu-
liarity must have escaped the notice of M. Rathke ; adding
that if it should be found otherwise, it can only be regarded
as one solitary exception to the generality of metamor-
phosis, and Will render it neoessaty to consider those two
animals fbr the future as the types of two distinct genera.
Our hmits will not permit us to go more amply into the
subject, and we must therefore refer our readers to numbera
I and f of Mr. Thompson's ' Zoological ReBearches,^ for
his elaborate details and illustrations, and, if they cannot
procure M. Rathke's book, to the 6th volume of the * Zoo-
logical Journal,* now completed, where an excellent ana-
lysis of the latter will be found. We cannot, however, close
this subject without earnestly exhorting those, whose locali-
ties afford them opportunity, to pursue this most interesting
subject. The following figure of Zoea davata (Leach)
taken by Mr. Cranch in the unfortunate expedition to the
Congo, under Captain Tuckey in 1816, will give some idea
of the general form of Zoea.{
\J^
[Zoea elavata.]
rdesFlusskrebsest
* Untersnehmnn neber die Bildang and Entwickelung des :
▼on Hf in rich Rathke. Mit 5 Ktipferureln. LelpxiK. I8i9, fol.
t Zoological Reaearehes and IIlttstratioQs ; or Natural History of Nonde-
seript or Imperfect Animals in a series of Memofara: illustraled by nvmerooa
figures by John V. Thompaon. Esq., F. L. S.. Snrgeou to the Forcw, Sto.,
Cork ; King and Ridings; W. Wood. Strand; O. B. Sowerby, Great RosaeU.
street. Iec. £c. Five nambers published.
t Mr. Tliompaon says, that on the S8th of April, 16SS. he took hi a small
moslin towinj^ort, while crossing the ferry at Paasagi*. Zofa Tamrus, hitherto
only found in the Great Ocean, Argmbu arwiger, and others. aetuaUy inha-
bitanUoftheneah water, and qnite aecidsntaL (Polyphemus Uenlus, C|>>
clops. Praniza. &c.)
Since the pablication of H r. Thompson's ezperlmenls. Mr. O. Westwood«
one of oar most able entomolofpsts. has giTen a carefully elaborate dfacrfption
of the devfiopmeui of the ova of a land crab ( OecarcimM), contradictory of
Mr. Thompaon*s observationa and confirmatory o( Rathke's. Ser the paners
of Mr. O. Westwood and Mr. Thompson diiaeUy ai variauoe with eaoh other*
' Phil. Trans.' fbr 1835. part ii.
The report of M. MUne Edwards ii also at Tariance with Mr. Tliompaoujs
theory. —
Digitized by
G^Dogle
B B A
340
BRA
Ono eye.
Thorax divided into many segments, as in Condylura.
The anterior and much the largest segment presents a single
•ye only placed in the middle of the tront between the supe*
rior antennob. Cyclops (Miiller), which has been so well
illustrated by the acute observations of the elder Jurine and
of RamdohTt is th^ only genus of this subdivision.
The body of the Cyclopes is more or less approaching to
oval, soft or rather gelatinous, and is divided into two por-
tions, the one anterior, consisting of the head and thorax, the
other posterior, forming what is commonly called the taiL
The segment immediately preceding the sexual organs, and
which in the females carries two supporting i^ppondages in
the form of little feet {fulcra^ Jurine), may be considered as
tlie first segment of the tail, which is not always very clearly
defined or strongly distin^ished from the thorax, and con-
sists of six aegments or joints, the second of whicli in the
males is provided on its lower side with two articulated ap-
pendages of varied form, sometimes simple, sometimes having
a small division at the internal edge, and constituting en-
tirely or in part the organs of generation. In the other sex
the female organ is placed upon the same joint. The last
segment terminates in two points forming a fork, and more
or less bordered with delicate beards or uenniform fringes.
The anterior portion of the body is diviaed into four seg-
ments* of which the first and by far the largest includes the
head and a portion of the thorax, which are thus covered by
one scale common to both. Here are situated the eye, four
antenne, two mandibles (internal mandibles of J urine) fur-
nished with a feeler (which is either simple or divided into
two articulated branches), two jaws (the external mandibles
or lip with little beards of Jurine), and four feet divided each
into two cylindrical stems, fringed with hairs or bearded.
The anterior pair representing the second pair of jaws differ
a little from the succeeding pair, and are compared by Jurine
to a kind of hands. Each of the three succeeding segments
sen*es as the point of attachment to a pair of feet. The two
superior antennn are longest, setaceous, simple, and formed
of a great number of small articulations. They facilitate by
their action the motion of the body, and perform very nearly
the office of feet. The lower antennso (antennules of Jurine)
nro filiform, consisting most frequently of not more than
four loints, and are sometimes simple, sometimes forked.
By their rapid motion they produce a small eddy in the
water. In the males the upper antennss, or one of them
only, as in Cyclops Castor, are contracted in parts, and ex-
hibit a swelling portion which is followed by a hinse joint
By means of these organs, or of one of them, the msues seize
either the hind feet or the end of the tail of their females
in their amorous approaches : when these last are unwil-
iing they carry the males about for some time. The copula-
tion is prompt and reiterated. Jurine saw three acts in a
quarter of an hour. Before his time, it was generally be-
lieved that the male organs were situated at the upper
antennn, an error which was supported by the analogy of
those of the araneids. On each side of the tail of the
females is an oval bag filled with eggs (external ovary of
Jurine), adhering by a very fine pedicle to the second seg-
ment, near its junction with the third, and where the oritice
of the deferent egg canal may be seen. The pellicle which
forms these bags is only a continuation of that of the internal
ovary. The number of contained eggs increases with age.
They are at first brown or obscure, but afterwards present a
reddish tinge and become nearly transparent, without how-
ever increasing in size, when the young are about to come
forth. When isolated or detached, up to a certain period at
least, the germ perishes. A single fecundation, which is
indispensable, suffices for successive generations, and the
same female can lay eggs ten times in the course of three
months, so that the number of births amounts to something
enormous*. The time for the fcetus to remain in the ovary
varies from two to ten days, the variation depending on the
temperature of the seasons and on other circumstances.
The oviparous bags present sometimes elongated, glandiform
bodies, more or less numerous, which are supposed to be
cooffregations of infusory animalcules.
The young at their birth have only four feet, and their
body is rounded and tailless. In this state they are the
genus Amymone of Miiller. Some time afterwards (in
• IVVinir rtght oTffMMittQDs andalloM-Inf forty Bgg* tor eaeh. It ha* bMii
•dcrUlcd that one female C]rclop» bm* be the progeollroH of Ibur thooAaad
tre hos'iffcd mllBoM.
about fifteen days in the months of Febroaiy 4ar KMchl
they acquire another pair of feet ; they arc than tha gvaus
Nauplius of the same author. After their first moult tin^y
assume Uie form and all the parts which charaeteriz* the
adult state, but with smaller pro|>ortions : their untmmm
and feet, for example, are comparatively short* Ai tlie end
of two more moults they are fit for the reproduction of tbm
species. The greater part of these entomosiraea swim npua
their backs, darting about with vivacitv, and poiaossiiig tho
power of moving either backwards or forwards. Their loid
generally consists of animal matter in preferenoe to ve:7e-
table ; but in the absence of the former thov feed on sub-
stances of the latter description, and it is saiu thftt the fluyl
in which they live never enters their stomachs. The a*i-
mentary canal extends from one extremity of the body to
the otfacr. The heart (taking Cyclops Castor «s the sub-
ject) is of a shape approaching to oval, and situated tmtned.-
ately under the second and third segment of the body. Earh
of the extremities of this organ gives off a tmsoU Che on«
going to the head, the other to the tail. Immediately
below is another analogous organ, giving off also «l each
end a vessel supposea to represent the branchioeordiac
canals observable in the circulation of the Decapod Crusta-
ceans, Jurine, who on many occasions redoced the Cy-
clopes to a state of complete asphyxia and restoced them to
life, found that in the process of reanimation the extreme y
of the intestinal canal and the supports gave the first siuii»
of approaching animation, while the irritability of the he^rt
was less energetic, and that of the antennn, espeeiallT in thr
males, of the feelers and of the feet still inferior. MThcn i
portion of an antenna is cut off no change is effected at thr
time, but the organ is entirely restored in the succeed -tu*
moult. There are differences in the form of the antei)i :>•
and body of Cyclops Slaphylinus, and in the kind of b<.rr.>
process arising on the under part of its tail and curred ba^k-
wards, which led LatreiUe to consider it as formine a f!;^.
tinct subdivision ; and he seems to be of opinion that Vyri ^r*
Castor and some others, whose lower antennsB and raai) :.<
bulary feelers are divided, beyond their base, into tn-.
branchest may form another group. Co/ewitf (Leach), i.**
observes, may be a sub-genus, if it be true that the anin.
which forms the type has no inferior antenna ; but be se€n>%
to doubt whether this absence was made .out by Lear;. %
own observations, or whether the assertion is made oc th«
authority of Miiller.
The genus Cyclops is an inhabitant of the fresh waters :
and we select the common Cyclops, Cyclops vulgcm.
Leach ; MonoctUus quadricomist Linn. ; Cvclops quaJn-
comis, Miiller; Monocle d queue /burchue, Geomoy, as an
example of the species.
The body of the common Cyclops has a somewhat swolWo
appearance and is formed of four rings, and prolonged to
about one-third of its entire length. The tail eonMst^ of
seven rings. The posterior antennm (antennules ofJunnf >
are tolerably large and composed of four joints, the aatm. r
antenniB are thrice the length of the posterior.
There are several varieties.
Var. a. Reddish; eggs brown, forming two obli^u^
masses near the sides of the tail. Total length etcH:*
twelfths of a line. This is the Monoculus guadricorT,*i
rubens of Jurine.
Var. 6. Whitish or grey, somewhat tinged with '
rather larger than the preceding. Egg-masaes meoo/\
forming nearly a ri{^ht angle with the tail. ToUj length
the same as the preceding. This is the Men, f mdr. oUn du t
of Jurine.
Vnr. c. Greenish. Direction of the two cfri?*masv^
intermediate between that of the egg*masses <tf the two
former. I.«ngth nine*twelfths of a line. Mom, ^mfJr,
viridis of Jurine.
Var. £{. Smoky red. General form nearly ovaL £;:.:«
brown composing two masses, which cover a great prnii*o
of the tail. Length six-twelfths of a line. Aion. qu^t .
/i^ctft of Jurine.
Var. e. Of a deeper green than Var. e. Ens obsct:r«
green, passing a httle into rose-oolour when hatchieg »•
near, forming two masses attached to the tail, and appearing
to be incorporate with it. Length the same as the prt«x-i-
ing. Mon, quadr. f)rasinus of Jurine.
According to Junne's obsen*ations, the eommoii Cyr^^'-'^
when hatched is nearly sphericaU and is furnished « is
four feet only and but two antenma. In this stale it crwt-
tinues till the fifteenth day, and then a smaU^oogau;.
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
BRA
341
BRA
Ultes plaee at the posterior part of the body. When twenty
days M it aequires two additional feet, which are not how-
erer ftilly developed till the expiration of fire days more.
At the age of twenty-eight days it moults, and is not in a
condition to assist in the continuation of the species till it
has changed its skin a second time, when it takes its perma-
nent form : this happens about the month of August. The
female when once fecundated makes a succession of depo-
sits of eggs without having occasion again to have recourse
to the male.
[Cyelopt TilgaTis macnifled.]
L Male of rariely a; % female of die iame; a «, aiitemi»; h h, sexanl
m^tnt of the nale ; e e, axteraaL ovlpatoaa pooehea of the female ; rf tf. iatornal
Of Arieai S, » female ef Tariety e; 4, a joang individttal of that variety
0«/r(icMia, Latreille; OstrSpoda, Straus.
The sbell of the (ktrdcoda* is formed of two nieces or
rslves representing those of a conchiferous mollusk or
b^mlve shells but homy, not testaceous. As in the bivalves,
the two pieces are united by a hinge, and when the animal
is inactive they dose upon and shut in the body and the
parts. The feet are ambulatory, six in number, and none
are terminated by a digitated swimming organ, nor accom-
panied by » branchial lamina. The antenno are simple,
filiform, or setaceous. There is but one eye, which is com-
posite and sessile. The mandibles and jaws are furnished
with a branchial lamina, and the eggs are situated on the
back.
Of this division there are two subgenera, Cy there, Miiller,
{Cytherina, Lamarck.) and Cypris. Of the former, which
IS found in salt and brackish waters, among the sea- weeds
and ooii/irnvr, very little comparatively is known. We
therefore select Cypris.
Cypris has six feet; Ramdhor indeed allows but four,
and Jurine gives eight. The first considers the two last
as masculine appendages, and the second looks upon the
palpi or feelers of the mandibles and the branchial lamina
• Thospwm obMTvee that Mac Leay. in hU Hirrc* Knbmologica, apoean
lo think, and i^oi withnul reason, that PenUlamii ihows the gTeateti amnity
«ift the Odrmist^ among cntstaoeani.
of eacn upper jaw as in the natme of feet, and excludes
from this number the presumed maseuline appendaset
above mentioned, which he considers as filaments of five
articulations proceeding laterally fipom the pouch of the
matrix, and of the use of which he is ignorant. The two
antennsD are terminated by a pencil of fine hairs. The ease
or shell is suboval, arched, and protuberant oi^ the back or
hinge side, and nearly straight or a little sinuous or kidney-
shaped on the opposite edge. A little in advance of the
hinge, and upon the mesial line, is the single large blackish
round eye. The antennse, which are inserted immediately
below, are shorter than the body, setaceous, composed of
from seven to eight joints, of which the last are the shorteal*
and terminated by a pencil of twelve or fifteen fine hairs,
which serve as swimming organs. The mouth is composed
of a carinated labrum ; of two large toothed mandibles,
each furnished with a feeler of three joints* to the first of
which a small branchial lamina of five digitations (interior
lip of Ramdhor) is attached, and of two pairs of jaws ; the
two upper, which are much the largest, nave on their in-
ternal border four moveable and silky appendages, and
externally a large branchial lamina pectinated on its an-
terior edge ; the second are formed of two joints, with ft
short, nearly conical, and jointless feeler, also silky at the
end. A sort of compressed sternum performs the ofilce of
a lower lip (external lip of Ramdhor). The feet have five
joints, the third representing the thigh, and the last the
tarsus ; the two anterior ones, much stronger than the rest,
are inserted below the antenna), directed forwards with stiflT
hairs on long hooks collected into a bundle at the extremity
of the two last joints ; the four following ffeet are without these
appendages. The second pair, situated on the middle of
the under side of the body, are directed backwards, curved,
and terminated by a long strong hook bent forwards ; the
two last, never showing themselves beyond the shell, are
applied to the sides of the body for the purpose of sustaining
the ovaries, and are terminated by two very small hooks.
There is no distinct joint obser%-able in the body, which ter-
minates posteriorly in a kind of tail, which is soft and bent
upon itself underwards, with two conic or setaceous fila-
ments fringed with three silky hairs or hooks at the end,
and directing itself backwanls so as to project beyond the
shell. Tho ovaries form two large vessels, simple and
conical, situated upon the posterior sides of the body under
the shell, and opening, one at the side of the other, at tho
anterior part of the abdomen, where the canal formed by
the tail establishes a communication between them. The
egjrs are spherical.
Generation. — The mode of continuing the species is
doubtful. Ledermuller declares that he has seen the junc-
tion of the sexes; but many modern naturalists whose
attention has been particularly directed to the point have
failed in discovering their sexual organs, and have in vain
watched for what Ledermuller declares he saw. Straus ob-
served a large conical vessel filled with a gelatinous sub-
stance inserted below the origin of the mandibles and
appearing to communicate with the cBsophagus by a straight
canal. As the individuals in which he detected this vessel
were furnished with ovaries, it would follow, if this organ
be a testicle, that the animals are true hermaphrodites ; but
he himself expresses doubts upon the subject, allowing that
the vessel may be a salivary gland — that it seems to have
more connexion with the digestive than the sexual functions
— and observing that the males can only exist at a certain
time of the year.
Habits. — These animals swim with more or less rapidity
in the still fresh waters or gently-mnning streams wHrch
they inhabit, in proportion as they bring into action (ac-
cording to Jurine) the filaments of the antennje— sometimes
they only show one. at others they put them all forth.
Latreille thinks that these filaments may also assist in
respiration. The two anterior feet are moved with the same
rapidity as the antennfo when the animal is swimming:
when it creeps over the surface of the water plants, the
proffress is slow. The female deposits her eggs in a mass,
fixirig them by means of a glutinous substance on the water
plants or on the mud. Anchored by her second pair of feet
so as to be safe from the agitation of the water, she is oc-
cupied about two hours in this operation, the produce of
which, in the largest species, amounts to twenty-four eggs.
Jurine collected some of these at the time of their ex-
elusion, and, after having insulated them, obtained another
generation without the intervention of the male. A female
which laid her eggs on the I2th of AprQ^lwiged her skin six
BRA
3412
6 R A
liBMt betwetn ttial day and the l8tb of May following. On
the 27th of the last-named month she laid again, and, two
days afterwards, made a second deposit. J urine concludes
that the number of moults in the young state corresponds
with the gradual development of the individual. Desmarest
considers that they do not undergo a metamorphosis, but
that they present, on their exclusion from Uie eg)?, the form
which they preserve throughout their life. Their food is
said to consist of dead animal substances and of con/ervr^.
In summer, when the heats have dried up the pools, they
plunge into the humid mud, and there remain in an
apocryphal kind of existence till the rains again restore
tnem to activity
. The recent species are numerous; Jurine describes
twenty- one» Of these we select the largest, Cypris omata
(one line and 2-lSths), Miiller, for an external view, and
Cyprisfwsca (i of a millimetre), Straus, to show tlie internal
orgamiation.
CyprU ornata (ma^niJflod'). Shell ypllowUl. n^e^D. bftnded.wlth n»«n. A.«ido
-»4iw; 11. vi. w »ooki«x lipon the hinye. Tlie bands commenco behind the eye,
Cypris AtWA (mnfniAcd), Slraui. Vatvfs lirown, kiilney-shaped, onverM
with flue ficatterfd hairs. AnlenutD with firieen Due (iristlf«. In iltp %ipw tlie
vnlret anv »ap]>os«d to be remorfd, thi» outline fin shcm-inu i\\r,r ^hftJ)o aud
their rHatire silnatiun \ b, ortLnn of the liiuge niembraue ; c. i*tc; d<i. anti*ntHe
df jirtved of their britUes: e wet of the first pair; /. of tlie n'ruod ; g, of the
third pair; A, tail ; i, labrum; A, mandible; 7, feeler; m.Jaw of theflrtt pair ;
a. of the second paii ; o, branchia or gill; pf, posterior portion of the left
orary ; r, insertion of the vessel regarded as a testicle by Suaus.
Fossil Ctpris.
CyprisFabcLs Desmarest, holds a place among the organic
remains of the Wealden rocks of England. Dr. Fitton has
recorded it in the Weald clay of the Isle of Wight, Swanage
Bay, &c., and Mr. Mantell in the Hastings Sands.
Desmarest notes the species as found in great abundance
near the mountain of Gergovie, in the department of the
Puy de D6rae, and at the DalrM dAilier, between Vichy-
les-Bains and Cussac. Their great fruitfulness and the
frequent moults noticed above may r^^rount in some mea-
sure for the quantities ot their petrified exuvias. Cypris
has also been found in the fresh-water hmestone, beneath
the Midlothian coal-field, at Burdiehouse. near Edinburgh.
Straus observes that Bennet asserts Baker to be the first
author who has mentioned this crustaoeous form, and that
Baker has given a figure of it in the 'Microscope made
Easy,' at plate 15; but Straus adds that neither in the
edition of 1743, nor in that of 1744, is any account given of
it, and that there is no 15th plate. There certainly is no
plate 15 in the edition of 1744, nor any figure or description
that will accord with Cypris^ while there is, at plate 9, a
V fair representation, and at p. 93, a very fair account of
ops. Baker commences his account of the latter thus :
may find in the waters of our ditches several species
»f tettaoeotts aod orustaoeous ammalcules, two of these
latter sort, which are most remarkable, are shown, hr. :*
these are of the genus Cyclops. May not Baker have \\- I
Cypris in liis eye when be wrote ' testaceous animalrult--* —
for when the valves are closed, it has all the appearance ^
an acephalous testaceous mollusk in a bivalve shell — a-
may not thi« be the paa^sge alluded to by Bennet? T. «
following authors may be coniulted on these animah. ^^* ■ •••
highly curious organization and history have cinplowM f ••
|)en8 of LinnsBus. Joblot, (ycoffroi, Mullcr, I-ederin .• ',
Bennet, De Geer, Fabriciu*, Bosc, Cuvier, Latreillc, l> u
debart, De Ferussac, Lumaick, Straus, Jurine, Desmare*:.
« « *
CladScera, Latreille ; Ddphnides, Straus.
These, which are very minute, have a single eye or '.t,
and are protected by a shell doubled as it were, but witl.'
any hinge, accx)rding to Jurine, and terminated postcnc .
in a point, llie head, which is covered with a kind oi \n.L^
like armour, proiects beyond the shell. There are ij .
antennsD, generally large, in the form of arms, dinde<l :i/
two or three branches, placed on a peduncle fringed 'n.t »
filaments always projecting, and sening the purpose < l
oars. The feet are ten in number, terminated by a <im»-
tated or pectinated swimming organ, and furnished, %\ .;:,
the exception of the two first, with a branchial lanui.a
Their eggs arc situated on the bark, and their body term
nates with a sort of tail, with two delicate hairs or filarn* • .
at the end. The anterior part of the body is sometn • %
prolonged into the form of a beak, sometimes into a ^..
approaching that of a head occupied nearly cntirel} l>> < .
large eye.
L.itreille gives the following subgenera: Po1yph*rr'.'^
Miiller; Daphnia, Miiller; Lyncf*us, Miiller {Chu>^i'*> .
Leach). Of these, Daphnia is the moht numerous *
genus, and though it is ho extremely small, the obser\ a
of naturalists, and more especially of SchcBfl*er, R.i. .
Straus, and the elder Jurine, have rendered its orgai./ •
and habits extremely well known. Straus, who hd^ .: .
an excellent monoi^raph of the Daphnida*^ adds t ^.. *.
genera, Laiona, characterized by antenna) in the !<.t.i»
oars divided into three branches, with a sinj;l«r ■
(Daphnia setifera^ Miiller) ; and Si'da, with antenna[« d \ . .
into two branches, one of which has but two jon.ts. ^
the other has three {Daphnia crystallina^ Miiller). V
regret that our limits will not allow us to go into more «!• •
upon these interesting animals, and we must content . ..
selves with referring to the authors above mentioned. '*
the addition of Swammerdam. and Latreille. for particu . •
ob>erving by the way that one junction pf the sexes w ..' -
dales the ova for many successive generations six at h^<:
that their moults arc very frequent; that they lay at :•'•:
but one e<z^, then two or three, and so on progn^^-i.^ .'
as they advance in life till their number amounts to *i^ ..
one species {Daphnia ma^na); and that the young .f • •
same deposit are generally of one sex, it beinj? lare t-^ r .
two or three males in a female batch, and i^'re vrr%d. ^ -
the winter approaches, their moults and o\iposits ct •
and the rn>st is supposed to destroy them, leaving ho*- .-
the eggs unharmed, which the genial spring season hitv *
to fill the pools wilth myriads of Daphnirr. Then :! -■
who have microscopes will find ample employment for ihv :. .
Every ditch, every pool, every garden reservoir, will furn. >.
the observer with Branchiopods.
The species are numerous. The most eofamoti w r**-
H'ater-Jlea, Monocufus Pulex of Linnaeus, Pukfx at{ua*^^.i$
arborescenft of Swammerdam. Le Perroquet dnim of i;«* r-
froy. Despised as this minute creature may be by t: —
who, like the orientalists, consider size as absotutelv'nf . f--
sary to prmluce grand ideas, it has fixed the eapeeial »tt ^ -
tion of Swammerdam, Necdham, Leuwenhoek, Schcr'* -.
De Geer, Straus, and above all of Jurine, who, in comm t
with other philosophers of great name, have found as m».- .
interesting information regarding the development of j* .-
mal life in the admirable organization of these animatx. :
specks as is aflTorded by the largest ^•ertebrated animal.
Section IL
Phy'llopa,
Distinguished by the number of feet, and by the Ian • -
lar or foliareous form of the joints, representing, aoct»r . - r
to Latreille, the Myriani)ds in the class Inserts. The e^ i
are always two in number, farmed of a sort of network, a - 1
sometimes placed on pedicles; manvj|ave boii*
Digitized by V^nOOQ
smooth eye.
ae
BRA
344
BRA
gpecies confoumled under the specific name eaneri/ormiSf
viz., Schoeffer's and Dr. Leach's, which most resemblo
Apu9 Guildingi and that described by Savigny, in which
the elonj^ated shield entirely covers the natatory members.
Mr. Thompson observes that there is a considerable ap-
proximation between Artemis and cerUin Trilobites {Bu-
ixphalithut, &c.). nor can there be any doubt that the ana-
logies of Branchipus, Serolxa and Limulus all contribute to
the illustration of that most ancient race of crustaceans.
We have not, as yet, data sufficient to fix their proper posi-
tion, but there is every reason for supposing that their or-
ganization was constructed upon the principle of having the
same organs made subservient both to locomotion and respi-
ration. [Trilobitbs.]
BRAND or BURN. Brand, a disease in vegetables by
which their leaves and tender bark are partially destroyed
as if they had been burnt; hence the name of this disease,
which is called hrulure in French. It has been observed
that after the leaves have been wetted by dews or gentle
rains, so that drops adhere to them, and a bright sunshine
has succeeded, every spot to which the wat^r had adhered
lost its natural colour, and became of a dark or yellow hue ;
and on closer examination it was found that the organiza-
tion had been partly destroyed, and that these spots no
longer possessed the power inherent in healthy leaves of
exhaling water and carbonising the sap which circulates
through them. When this disease is extensive and attacks
the bark as well as the leaves, it frequently causes the
death of the plant, and, at all events, enfeebles its growth,
and prevents its perfect fructification. The cause of this,
like that of most diseases which are common to plants, has
been vulgarly ascribed to some unknown atmospheric in-
lluence; and various guesses have been made which, for the
most part, have little or no foundation. That which ap-
peared most plausible was, that the drops of water being
apparently globular, collected the light of the sun into a
focus, and produced a sufficient degree of concentration of
ihe calorific rays to burn the tender substance of the leaves.
A little retlection will soon convince us that this will not
bear examination. The drops which adhere to the leaves
and the bark are not globes, but at best llattened hemi-
spheres, and consequently cannot collect the rays of the
sun into a focus on the surface to which they adhere ; besides,
the spots are as large as the diameter of the drops, so that
all the surface that has been covered with water is injured ;
whereas the focus of a globe, such as would actually burn
the leaf, must be very small in proportion to the lens which
concentrated the rays. It is much more probable that the
effect of the water on the tender epidermis of the leaf or bark
to which it adheres is similar to that wliich it has on vegetable
matter infused in it; it softens and dissolves a portion of it,
especially when the temperature is somewhat raised, and
destroys the vitality ; galvanic action may also be excited
and increase the effect. It is well known that light is the
great agent which produces the change in the sap circu-
lating in the leaves, and that without light the healthy
green colour af the leaves and bark, and the peculiar qua-
lities of the descending sap, are not produced. Little or no
evaporation takes place from the leaves in the night, and
the sudden excitement produced on the whole of the surface
of the leaves by the rising sun in a clear morning tends to
disorganize those parts to which the water adheres. We
do not give this as a perfect and adequate solution of the
question, but it appears nearer the truth than any of those
more commonly received. (De Candolle, Physiologie vigi-
tale, vol. iii. chap. iv. s. 2.)
It is a fact that the principal mischief arises from a
sudden change of temperature soon after sunrise, especially
when there nas been a heavy dew or hoar frost in the
night; and careful gardeners brush off the drops from
their delicate plants before sunrise to guard against the
brand. Every drop which falls on the leaves of tender
plants from the gloss which covers a hotbed in which they
grow produces a disease exactly similar to that which we have
been describing; and although the vapour of fermenting
dung has a pungent, ammoniacal smell, it will be found that
the water condensed on the glass is nearly pure, and can
have no peculiar corroding cfiect. It acts therefore simply
as a dissolvent, and by stopping the evaporation, which is
always rapid from the leaves of plants in a hotbed, produces
a derangement in their functions, and ultimately disease.
BRAND IN CORN. [Burnt Ear.]
BRANDENBURG, a prov. of the kingdom of Prussia,
deriyes it« name from the Mark of Brandenburg, tho ances-
tral dommions of the reigning family ; the Mark itself be: ^^
indebted for its own denomination to the ancient U of t! ..t
name. Its component parts, however, are not what tKt*i
were in former days ; for the N.W. districta of the Elect'-^.i
Mark (Kurmark) and the Alt-mark (01d-m.)bave been in-
corporated with the prov. of Saxony ; and the northern pur-i
of the Neumark, adjacent to Pomerania, have been unitf4
with that prov. In exchange for these, several minor cirr:t>«,
bailiwicks, and other parcels of land, all of them once firm-
ing a portion of the districts of Wittemberg, Meissen, Qut-
furt, &.C., in the kingdom of Saxony, are now oonpntitfd la
Brandenburg. With the exception of two insignifiiiot
tracts, surrounded by the territory of Mecklenburg- Sc>i«e-
rin, the prov. forms a compact mass. Its boundaries an*. '.
the N., the two grand Duchies of Mecklenburg Scbvcr.w
and Strelitx, and the Prussian prov. of Pomerania; in i:.«
£., the provinces of Western Prussia, Posen, and Stlnis . .u
the S. the provinces of Silesia and Saxony, and (he Anh. ;
Principal ities ; and in the W. the prov. of Saxony, and :h«
[anoverian dominions. Brandenburg thus extends beiurt n
61® 10' and 53° 37' N. lat. and 11° 13', and 16° 12' K. Jor z
Its area is about 15,330 sq. m., and occupies about a tevenib
part of the whole surface of the Prussian dominjonjf ; tt
ranks as the fourth prov. with reference to density of pop.
The whole of Brandenburg is an almost miintemi)>t(*i!
plain, slightly elevated above the surface of the Baltic. Iti
soil is composed of river sand, in some qnarten min^l«-d
with ferruginous earth, loam, or clay, and henee aru«» > ^
great a diversity in its character, that a general failure uf
crops is almost unknown ; for a season unfavourmble to or*
part is usually found proportionably beneficial lo anotL« f .
The more elevated and undulating parts of the surfxr,
which are most freouent in tlie S. districts, between Krat }^
fort on the Oder ana the Silesian frontier, are iuprup'; .
called ' mountains* by the inhabitants ; among these srv i i
Oderberge (m. of the Oder), the Neiss and Schlagsd^^Hr
berge, m the vicinity of Guben, the Miigeelsberge on L •
Miiggel, about 8 m. S.E. of Berlin, 340 it in height, ii
the heights which run along the Havel. TbeM are { r -
minent features however in the midst of a wide and vi:. •
some flat, and intermingling with numerous lakes, manv '
them lying in deep hollows, form landscapes of consider^, l.
variety. Of the larger class there are not fewer than \ .
The most fertile districts are the low lands, termed t
Havelland, the Briiche (or Carses) of the Oder, Warth. •
Netzel, the Spreewald (wood of the Spree), the N. atv] K
parts of the Ucker-mark, the Lenzerwische on the Pr. .
nitz, and what is denominated the * Alte Land * (Old I .
in Lower Lusatia. But Brandenburg contains man} *\
tensive heaths and moors, here call^ * Brennfi^chJa • r
burning flats), which are a oollectton of drill sand. \he -..!
tivation of which has often baffled the utmost efforts o: -
dustry. The climate of Brandenburg is tempetnte, but 1 1-
ceedingly variable : the result of several years* ohserrsi. •«
fixes the maximum of heat at between 24''and 25* Rr....-
mur (86° and 88° of Fahrenheit) ; the maximum ot txjii •
said to be — 8° R. ( 18° below freezing of Fahrenh.)» but t. .•
temperature is rarely so low as this for more than tlirw ./
four da^s. It is also stated, that upon a comparison ui .^
year with another, there are 210 clear, dry, and 15S <!..« *
and rainy days.
Brandenburg is either traversed or skirted by tvo of t' -
principal streams of Germany ; the Elbe, which Ibnus . «
N.W. boundary for a short distance, and the Od^, wi.-.
drains its E. districts. The Elbe skirts Brandenburg ct .
from Sandau to Domitz, and on this line of its ri^ht I i i
receives the Havel, Stepnitz, and Elde. The nunib<r f
tracts of land, lower than its surface, which aboimd in t *
quarter, are protected from inundation by artificial (U v< ».
The Havel, which is a channel for the efflux of the Bk'' '.:
and other small lakes in Mecklenburg-Streliti, becot > i
navigable at Fiirstenberg, below which point it «n'« *«
Brandenburg; it then flows past Liebenwalde, Or^ii -
burg and Spandau; and thence taking a W. dut«*.
through Potsdam, and the town of Brandenburg, it tu: -
to the N.W. at Plauen, where it is joined br the c ■ .
of that name, skirts Rathenow and Havelbvt);, •
falls into the Elbe by two arms, between Havelurt ^i !
Quitzobel. It passes through a low tract of oountrr.
which sand, woodlands, and pasture-grounds nltcnL:
its width at Oranienburg is 100 ft., and at Spandau i!'
in consequence of passing through several lakes : W\ •
Brandenburg it narrows again to 200. and at its nouth
creases to dOO, A branch of it strikes off at Blnoteilu:.-
Digitized by
BRA
845
BRA
«nd flowB into laks PltveiL There b no rir. in the prov«
■oimportaot for internal intercourse as the HaveL The
Stepnitz rises on the Mdcklenhurg frontier, and flows past
If eyenbuiv and Perleherg, until it reaehes Wittenherge,
where it fills into the Elbe ; the Bide issues fiiom Liuce
Plauen, and forms the houndary line hetween Brandenburg
and MecUenhurfl^ until it joins the Blbe near Domitx in
Mecklenburg. The principal tributary of the Hayel is the
Spree, which comes down from the Lusatian mountains
and passes throurii Bautzen (N. of which it enters Brandon-
borK). Kottbus, Copenick, Berlin, and Charlottenburg, in its
N. W.oourse towarda thoHavel, into which it falls at Spandau.
It is 100 ft hroad, where it is Jomed by the Hiillroso canal,
and about 200 at Berlin, and is navigable from Cossenblatt.
The Rhin and Dosse, both of which rise on the borders of
Mecklenburg, are also two tributaries of the Havel, and
chiefly useful to the N.W. parts of the prov. for floating
rafts and timber. The E. side of Brandenburg is watered by
the Oder, which leaves the Silesian territory and enters the
prov, a little to the S. of Ziillichau, winds W. past Crossen,
and somewhat above Fiirstenberg pursues a N.W. course
through Frankfort, Custrin, and Wrietzen ; quits Branden-
burs to the N, of Schwedt, above which it turns to the
N.A., and enters the prov. of Pomerania. From Ciistrin
northwards it divides into several branches, and forms a
succession of islands. At the village of Giistebiese, 9 or
10 m. N.E. of the t of Wrietzen, it separates into two large
arms, of which the E. is the most considerable ; this arm is
called the New Oder or canal of the Oder, and after making
a bend northwards, it winds round on the one hand to the
S.W., and rejoins the western arm or Old Oder N. of
Freienwalde, and on the other is conducted bv a canal to
a point lower down into the Old Oder, to the S. of Hohen-
staten. Lowlands occupy a space above 20 m. in breadth
between these two arms, and nearly the whole line of the
Oder below FVankfort is bounded on each bank by meadows
and lowlands, which are dyked in at many points. The low-
lands along the Oder are occasionally skirted by high ground
in the neighbourhood of Frankfort and Freienwalde. There
Ate bridges across it at Crossen, Frankfort, Ciistrin, and
Freienwtdde. The chief tributaries of this riv. are the Bo-
ber, which, descending fh>m Silesia, enters Brandenburg at
Naumburg, and flows N.W. to Crossen, where it joins the
Oder : its banks are flat, and the pasturage grounds about it
subject to inundations; the Neisse, or Lusatian Neisse, also
descends from Silesia, enters the prov. to the N. of Muskau,
pursues a northerly coufse to the towns of Forste and Guben,
and falls into the Oder, opposite to a viL called Schiedlow ;
the lands along its banks are low meadow grounds : it is
navigable f^m Guben downwards, and great quantities of
fhiit are sent by it to Berlin. The Wartha, a still more con-
siderable river, enters Frandenburg in the E. below Schwe-
rin, in the prov. of Posen, is 400 ft. broad where it enters
the prov. ; nas the town of Landsberg on its right bank, and
flows 8.W. through the Warthabrudi (carso of the Wartha,
about 32 m. in length) to Ciistrin, where it widens to 600 ft
snd is received by the Oder. It is navigable along its whole
line in this prov., though there are some shallows near
Landsberg, and most of the lowlands upon its banks have
been brougbt under cultivation : the Netse and Mietzel are
its tributaries in this quarter ; and the Welse, which flows
out of Laka Grimnits, near Joachimsthal, and, at a distance
of about 14 m. from its mouth, receives the Randow, which
forms part of the N. boundary between the prov. and Pome-
rania, and flows into the Oder on its left bank below Vier-
raden, in the vicinity of Schweldt. There are several
smaller rivers in the prov., such as the Finow, the Stoberow,
and the Ihna, which pour their waters into the Oder, and the
DOnmitx and Ucker, which are usefhl f6r commercial or ma-
nufkcturing purposes. The inclination of the surface is from
the N., to the level of the two great streams, the Elbe and
Oder ; but the slope is so gentle and the descent of the water-
courses in this prov. so kioonsidereble as to occasion the forma-
tion of a number of small lakes (those of Grimniti, Werbellin,
Soldin, Schwilung, Ruppin, RHeinsberg, &c.) as well as Uie
overflowing of large tracts of land near the banks* rivers. '^^
The Havel is united to the Elbe by the Plauen Canal,
^hicb leaves the Havel at Plauen, and passing Genthin
joins Brandenburg to the Elbe near the vil. of Paray. This
can. is about 21 m. in length, from 26 to 36 ft. broad, and
6 ft. deep: it has a fall of 16} ft. between the Elbe and
Bavd, and shortens the distance between Berlin and Mag-
deburg by about 5ft nu The Ruppin Canal» which lies
between the Rhin and Havel, unites Lake Ruppin with
the Havel at Oranienburg; it is about 20 m. long, and is
very useful for the conveyance of peat The Havel and
Oder are connected by toe Finow Canal; commencing at
Liebenwalde it runs £. into the Fiihne near Neustadt-
Eberswalde, thence flows in the deepened bed of the Fiihne
to Ldke Liepe, and completes a line of rather more than 25
m. by joining the Oder near Oderberg: its breadth varies
from 49 to 74 ft. ; it has 15 locks, and has a fall of 138 ft.
The Welse is also united with the Havel by tho Canal of
Werl>ellin, which leads from the lake of that name into the
Finow Canal, and as that lake is connected with Lake
Grimnits, establishes a navigable communication between
the two rivers. In the same quarter lies the Templin Ca-
nal, which is used for the transport of timber only : it begins
from Lake Lobau to the £. of Templin, passes through
several lakes, and joins the Havel above Zehdnick: Ha
leneth is about 23 m. Between the Spree and Oder there
is the Canal of Mullrose or Frederic William, the last name
being derived from the celebzifited Elector of Brandenburg,
under whom it was constructed between the ]rears 1662 and
1 668. It leads out of the Spree Irom the vil. of Neubruck
below Beeskow, and pursues an E. course past Mullrose
and Ober-Lindow into the Oder : it is about 14 m. long and
about 50 ft. wide, but not of sufficient depth when the sea-
son is dry : the fall is about 65 ft. There are also in this
prov. tho Storkow Canal for floating timber, which unites
Lake Dolgen ieith the Spree at Cbpenick, and the New
Oder Canal, between Giistebiese and Hohenstaten, which
forms part of the boundary between the circles of Frankfort
and Potsdam, and of which we have already spoken as like-*
wise denominated the New Oder. Brandenburg is much
favoured by the water communication which exists between
the Elbe, Oder and Vistula; this is effected by the line of
the Wartha, which falls into the Oder, by the flowing of
the Netze into the Wartha, and by the connexion of the
Netze and Vistula through the Bromsberg Canal. There
are a few mineral springs in the prov., but only two of any
note, that o^ Freienwidde, and another near Berlin.
The principal native productions of the prov. are com of all
descriptions, besides buck-wheat, vegjetables, and fruit, hay
and clover, &c., flax, hemp, tobacco, wine in small quantities*
timber, domestic animals of the usual kind, game, fish,
honey and wax, bog-iron, coals; lime, gypsum, and clay.
The majority of the inh. are of German descent ; some
are eho of Wend extraction, and not a few of French. Most
of the French are settled in Berlin ; the Wend colonists, in
number about 160,000, reside in Lusatia, the bailiwicks of
Senftenberg and Fiirstenwalde, and the circle of Kottbus in
the New Mark ; and in some few parts there are Herm-
huthers and Mennonites, particularly at Berlin. The pro*
Sees of the pop. during the last eighteen years is shown by
e foUowbg table : —
C.ofPotMUnw
Cof
iBcl. BerUn.
Frankfort.
Total.
laenum.
TSaBtq.n.
7«7iq.m.
I817«
tt ti
»» »t
1,297,795
$t 99
1821.
748,027
615,831
1,366,868
66,063
1825.
835,057
643,814
1.478,871
115.013
1628.
874,756
664,826
1,539,582
60,711
1831.
896,751
683,188
1,579,939
40,357
The present pop. may be estimated at 1,642,000 souls, of
whom about 920,000 form the rural pop., residing in 4379
vil., hamlets, and isolated farms; the remainder are in
152 cities and towns, of which 70 are in the circle of Frank-
fort and 82 in that of Potsdam.
The Brandenburg return for the year 1825 is—
Churches other
or placet of public DweUiag BarM^>
irorshlp. bnUdiiwt hooMs. itablee.Sce.
CbetoofPoMMB 9897 7.649 79.799 93.6SS
» „ Frukfert 1053 ^.432 87. ISO 119.8S9
.Manat
miUaand
6.om
0.334
Now 315.
[THB PBNNY.CTCLOPiBDIV
Totnllbrvholr prov. 3600 11.078 10S.909 S13.481 10.4U
The majority of the inh. are of the Lutheran religion •;
but the royal family, French refugees, or their descenaants
(commonly called Hugonots), and a small portion of the
German pop., are of the Reformed Lutheran Chureh. The
following classification for 1 821, than which we betieve none
later has been made public, brings them under four general
heads :— Protestants, 1,338,887 ; Roman Catholics, 15,4?1 ;
Mennonites, 327; and 9210 Jews. In 1831 the number
of births was 58,059, and deaths 53»614 ; the marriages
amounted to 12,125. ^^ ^
Digitized byj _
"VouViT
BRA
846
BBA
As to agriciiltaTe» It appears from Kratise*s statement for
the year 1831 that, exelading the pop. of Berlin and other
town9» the average number of acres actually brought under
cultivation is 16 to each individual ; whereas, if the agricul-
ture pop. only be included, it does not amount to more than
8' 8. It has been estimated that the number of acres in Bran-
denburg under the plough, or used for the production of to^
bacco or hops, is about 6,700,000. Potatoes as well as other
vegetables are raised in abundance, and the quantity of land
employed as garden-ground is said to be 63,000 acres. More
flax is produced than is sufficient for domestic consumption,
but hemp is of limited cultivation. Under such a lat. it is not
so much a matter of siurprise that little wine should be pro-
duced, as that the grape should attain sufficient maturity
to yield it ; the wine is however of very indifferent ouality,
and is only partially made along the banks of the Neisse,
Havel, and Oder, about ZiilUchau, and a few other spote.
The crops of fruit are not adequate to supply the demand.
The woods and forests are estimated to cover 3,300,000
acres ; the sandy eminences and plains produce mostly firs
and pines, but there are forests of oaks which yield a very
superior description of ship-timber; the largest tracts of
woodland lie in the districte N. of the Wartha and Netze,
in the New and Ucker Marks, and the S. and W. districts of
Brandenburg. Considerable quantities of tar and potashes
are manufactured.
Great attention is paid to the rearing of cattle ; the most
thriving branch is breeding sheep, the number of heads
of which, in 1821, were 1,809,512. and, in 1831, 1,943,644.
The wool produced in the New Mark, the flocks of which
coi}stitute about one-third of the whole stock, is considered
the finest in the Prussian dominions; of this stock 443,778
were, in 1831, of the most improved breed. The number of
goats at the same date was about 1 1,200. Until of late
years the breed of horses was but indifferent ; much has,
however, been done to improve it, both by the government
and private individuals, who have introduced the best Eng-
lish and other foreign breeds into the country, but they do
not seem to have effected an increase of the stock, since it
fell between the years 1828 and 1831 from 168,348 to
162,831. The greatest number of homed cattle are bred on
the reclaimed grounds and in the marshes along the rivers,
but the breed is indifferent and small in size, nor is the
stock on the whole sufficient; the numbers in 1801 were
866,141 ; but in consequence of the devastations occasioned
by the intervening wars, they did not amount to more than
523,981 in 1821, and have since diminished to 511,224.
Swine are not reared in any considerable numbers ; in 1801
they consisted of 298,189 heads, and in 1821 did not exceed
187,187. Much honey and wax is produced, particularly in
the six Lusatian circles, the heatlis or which afford abundance
of flowers for the bee. The inland consumption is amply
provided with fish, especially eels and crabs, but none are
exported ; and the woods and forests aboimd in game.
Brandenburg is .poor in metals and minerus, nor are
there any regular mines in it; small quantities of bog- iron
are obtained near Ruppin and in the Uckermark. There
are very considerable lime- works near Riidersdorf ; much
gypsum is raised at Sperenberg ; and large supplies of alum
are obtained from Freienwidde, Gleissen, and Kanich.
Coals are dug at Zilenzig ; peat is plentiful, as well as
potter's clav.
Brandenburg possesses considerable manufactures, though
it cannot be termed, upon the whole, a manufacturing prov.,
inasmuch as they are confined to a few towns, and the prov.
itself participates very partially in their operations : spinning
and weaving are the only branches in which the rural pop.
take any part. The first manufactures were established
by the Uugonot refugees, who received cordial assistance
from the government, and were liberally seconded by it in
their outset. The woollen manufactures, which are the
most important, are established in most of the towns in the
Old and New Marks ; those for the finer sorts of goods are
at Luckenwalde, ZiilUchau, Kottbus, and Guben ; kersey-
meres and merino cloths are made in Berlin, where woollen
yams are spun on a large scale by steam-machinery. The
manufacture of linens, chiefly of the middling and coarser
sorts, is extensively carried on in the Lusatian districts and
the circle of Frankfort; that of silks and cottons is mostly
confined to Berlin : the inh. have brought the manufacture
of other articles of luxury to great perfection. There are
'^ge tanneries in several quarters, particularly in Kottbus
d other towns in the circle of Frankfort. The number of
paper-mills is npwards of SO, but they ave quite inedequai*
to meet the demand for the Berlin trade, or indeed fur Ui«
prov. in general. Berlin alone supplies all Bfrnndenbur;;
with refined sum. Tobacco manufactories exist in oio«t l f
the towns ; and in the making of plate and other gla*.s
porcelain, and earthenware, no part of Germany exeeU tl^ii
prov. Iron and steel ware and east iron goods are princi-
pally manufactured at Berlin* The latter mantifacturv is
carried on at Berlin to great perfection. There is peculur
to that city the manufhcture of ladies' necklacea and bri' z-
lets of east-iron, which are much prized. Thete are smea-
ing furnaces for iron at Gottow, Vietse, Pleiske, &e. C"p-
per is also wrought at Neustadt-Bberswalde on a m<>rv
extensive scale than in any other part of Prussia, as well a* at
Crossen and Rodach ; and there is a large gunpowder Aanu-
&ctory in the neighbourhood of Berlin. Heavy duties axv
exacted on the introduction of foreign productions* particu-
larly such as are likely to interfere with the iutereats uf
the domestic manufacturer.
The trade of Brandenburg is greatly favoured by tie
multitude of its navigable riv. and can., the last of whicu
establish a long line of communication between the EU^.
Oder, Havel, and Spree. The main outlets of this tmdo
are through Hamburg by the Elbe, and through Slettin by
the Oder ; but the former is cramped by the mono|KAy uf
transport enjoyed by the guild of the Marklsh navigaturt.
Berlin is the great centre of commercial enterprise, not or.)
for this prov., but the whole of the Prussian territotr ; ai <i
next in importance to it is Frankfort on the Oder, the Um
of which are still of considerable magnitude, especially wua
reference to the sale of Brandenburg produce and manu
factures. Brandenburg, Guben, Havelberg, Kustrin» Lan< ■-
berg, Potsdam, Prenzlau, Rathcnau. and Zullichaa are jl^d
places of considerable trade. There are banks for excha: .*:
and loans in some of the towns ; but the principal eatabL'^u-
ments of this nature are at Berlin.
For the purpose of civil government, Brandenburg i»
divided into the two circles of Potsdam and Frankfort, h u
of which are subordinate to the controul of a preiident-tL-
chief (Ober-president), who is resident in Potsdam. lonie-
diately under him are the protestant bishop* the eonsi«tcn.
and board of provincial schools ; his authority also ext<^;. :«
over ecclesiastical matters, all establishments for eductL->a.
the boards of medicine and military and eivil worki^ ilc
ofiice of rents at Berlin, and the department of the mi m.
He is president also of the provincial states, which have c .
power to discuss or reject wnat the government bfings W
fore them, but are a purely administrative body. Tr i
consist of a deputy from the chapter of Brandenburg, tri
count of Solms-Baruth, 32 deputies from the aristocracy, i^
from the towns, and 12 from plebeian landowners and t^e
peasantry. In regard to mUitary matters, Brandenburg acu
Pomerania conjointly form one of the seven great miUtary
subdivisions of the Prussian dominions.
The circle of Potsdam contains an area of TS33 iq. m.
and 15 minor circles, viz. Berlin, East Havelland {rtp.
Nauen, about 3700 inhab.)> Prenslow (c Prenxlow, I !,<>(< >.
Templin, Angermiiude (c. same name, 3500), Upper B^-
nim (c. Freienwalde, 3100), Lower Bamim, Teltow-Stork^m
Jiiterbock-Luckenwalde (o. Jiiterbock, 4400), Zaocb, Belr j
Potsdam (c. Potsdam, 25,000). West HafeUand <e. Bn.-
denburg, 13,200), Ruppin (cNew Ruppin on lake R., 7tov\,
East PriegniU, and West PriegniU (c Perlebei]g, ^500).
The circle of Frankfort contains an area of 7497 sq. m.
and 17 minor circles, xiz. Konigsberg (cap^Konie^U'-*.
about 4900 inhab.), Soldin (c. Soldin, 4400), Azn^va) ..•.
(c. Amswalde, 3600), Friedeberg (o. Friedeberg, yu^
Landsberg (c. Landsberg, 9800), Kiistnn (e. Kustrin, 55^ ^ i.
Lebus (c. Frankfort, 22,000)^ Sternberg (c. Zidensig, 3vc \
Ziillichau fc. Ziillichaui 4300), Crossen (c. Crossen, 4m • •«
Guben (c Guben, 8800), Liibben (o. Lubben,3r00), Lac^iu
(c. Luckau, 3700), Kalau, Kottbus (c. Kottbus, 8100), Sortii
(c. Sorau, 4750), and Spremberg (c. Spremberg, 3900).
(Krause's Manual; Schramm, Pnt$i, Staie$; Deai.n
and Stein*s Pr. Monarchy; Hassel's Pr.MotL: Vu^^
witter ; Hiirschelmann ; Official Rtiurm^ Src,^
BRANDENBURG. ELECTORATE OF. The llr>:
known inh. of this country are the Suevi, a nee teosrut ,
by Julius Cssar as the most numerous and warlike •
any in Germany. The Suevi inhabited *lbe large tern' ^
extending from the banks of the Elbe and Saale le itt
Vistula, and for a time held the whole regioQ which lay b^^
tween the Baltic and the Rhine and Danube. In the'nsM
Digitized by
BRA
347
BRA
Stha Emp«or Augmtuf , Druius, his stepson, compelled
e Suevip who dwelt in what was afterwards oalled the
'Middle Mark,' and the Langohardi, who peopled the digtricto
subsequently termed the * Old Mark,* to accept Vannius as
their ruler. A few years after the hirth of Christ, the Lango-
bardi were sulgugaied by Maroboduns, king of the Marco-
manni, at that time aorereign of Bohemia ; and, a.d. 1 7, we
find the Semnonea, a branch of the Suevi, seekinff for pro>
lection against their oppressor from Armiains, leader of the
Cherusci, At the period of the ereat movement of the north«
•rn nations to the south, hoth the Langobaidi and Suevi
abandoned their native country and hroke into Italy, where
they established the Lomhardic empire. Their deserted home
now fell into the hands of the Vandals or Slavonians, one race
of whom, the Vilses, settling in the Middle Mark, founded
several towns, of which Brennabor or Brandenburg was one.
These new settlers were subsequently subdued by the Franks,
from whom descended Prince Sunna, who reigned over the
country in the beginning of the second century, and Prince
Brando, who founded the new town of Brandenburg^ a.d.
230. Thir^ years afterwards, the Vandals having regained
their superiority, reposseiised themselves of the country, and
maintained thmnselvea in it for the next 500 years ; but in
789 they fell under the sway of Charlemagne after a severe
contest; and in 808 he appointed a count to act as his
vicegerent in Brandenburg. His successor also sent two
princes in 823 to fill the same office. He had likewise con-
quered the Vilxes, but lus successors were unable to main-
tain the conquest or prevent them from making repeat^
inroads into Saxony and Thuringta. At last, Henry I.,
kinfj^ of Germany, brought the Vandals, of whom the
Hevelles dwelt about the Havel and the Retharii in the
Ucker-mark, under complete subjection, and in 931 ap-
pointed certain counts to watch over the Saxon borders.
These were the first markgraves of Lower Saxony, or the
Vandal-mark ; they were also denominated markgraves of
Stade, the mark having passed into the hands of the earls
of Stade. The Vandals however continued to struggle for
their independence in this Quarter until the year 1 144, when
the emperor Lotharius conrerred the North-mark as well as
the Salxwedel-mark on Albert the Handsome (also called
the Bear), count of Asoania, or Anhait, the line of Stade
having become extinct. • This prince, who extinguished the
dominion of the Vandals in these parts, was the first who
assumed the title of Markgrave of Brandenburg ; he made
Hioiself also master of theAliddle-mark, Ucker-mark, and
Priegnits, either fi)unded BerUn or raised it to the rank of
a ci^. and built Stendal and other towns. His son Otho I.
received Pomerania as a fief in addition, and was the first
arch-chamberlain of the German empire. His wife was
interred in a vault of the cathedral church of Brandenburg,
and the stone under which her remains are deposited has
the words 'Judith, the gem of the Polacks,* still legible
upon it His successors increased their patrimony by the
scquisition of the New Mark, Lebus, Sternberg, Lower
Lusatia, and other districts ; and they were the first who set
sbout reclaiming the wastes and swamps of their dominions
and ciUtivating them. Their line terminated in the person
of Markgrave Henry, a.d. 1320, whose death threatening the
dismem^nnent of Brandenburg by conflicting claimants,
Lewis of Bavaria, then emperor, declared it a lapsed fief of
the empire* and bestowed it upon his son, Lewis the elder.
This nrinoe was, in consequence of incapacitjr, induced to re-
sign tne sovereignty, and was succeeded by his brother Otho,
Who made himself so acceptable to the emperor Charles IV.,
that he obtained from him a recognition of his descendants*
right of succession to the electorate of the Mark, a digni^
lo which Charles raised it in the golden bull, declaring it
Uie seventh electorate of the holy Roman empire.
But OthOb from his sluggish habits, was so incompetent
tu the business of government, and injured the country so
much by his prodigality, that Charles forced him to sur-
render the sovereiKuty into his hands, and in 1373 bestowed
the electoral Mark upon Wenxel, his eldest son, king of
Bohemia ; and when Wenzel was raised to the dignity of
king of the Romans, he made it over to Sigismund, his
kecond son. This princeli non-residence and unconcern
involved the country In confusion, and its aflbirs growing
« orse after he had ascended the imperial throne of Germany,
he made over the electoral Mark to his cousins, Jobst and
Piocopius, princes of Moravia, and the New Mark to the
Teutonic order, in pawn for monies lent The electoral
Mark having lapsea by the decease of Jobst, Sigtsmund
pledged the electoral Mark for a sum of 400,000 guldens to
Frederic, burgrave of Nuremberg, who was of the house
of Hohenzollem, made him elector, and in 1417 conferred
upon him the dignity of arch-chamberlain of the empire,
as well as full possession of the electorate for himself and
his heirs. With this prince began a race of sovereigns
whose talents and wisdom have elevated Brandenburg and
its subsequent acquisitions to a distinguished rank among
the monarchies of Europe. Having under the name of
Frederic I. made himself respected both at home and abroad
for 23 years, he was, in 1440, succeeded by Frederic II. 'of
the Iron Teeth,* his son, who got back the New Mark from
the Teutonic knights for 100,000 guldens, and not only
added the towns and dependencies of Kottbus, Pritz,
Somersfield, Bobersberg, Storkow, and Bentkow, to his
dominions, but established his right as lord naramount of
Pomerania and as heir to the Mecklenburg domains. In
1471 he was succeeded by his brother, Albert Achilles or
Ulysses, one of the mo»t distinguished commanders of his
day; but in 1486 Albert's ill state of health induced him
to transfer the electoral dignity, together with the mark of
Brandenburg, to his son, John Cicero ; Ansbach to another
son, and Baireuth to a third. The last dying without issue,
his share fell to his brother Frederic of Ansbach, who was
the founder of the elder line of the markgraves of Bran-
denburg, in Franconia. John Cicero was noted as much
for his learning as for his wisdom and economical habits,
and no less for the enormous size to which he grew; he
died in 1499, and was followed by his son, Joachim
(Nestor) I., a prince equally distinguished for his erudition
and prudence, though a fierce persecutor of the Jews, as
well as hostile to the Reformation. The earldom of Ruppia
devolved to him by inheritance. It was reserved for Joachim
(Hector) II., his son, who succeeded him in 1535, to intro-
duce the reformed relii^ion into his states ; he was a great
patron of learning, founded the university of Frankfort on
the Oder, erected Spandau into a fortress, built a new
Salaoe at Berlin, and l)ecame joint lord paramount over the
uchy of Prussia. He was followed by John George in
1571, who inherited the new mark and principality of
Crossen from his uncle, and under whom Brandenburg en-
joyed' continued tranquillity. To this prince succeeded, in
1598, another equally paternal sovereign, Joachim Frederic,
his son, who was bishop of Havelberg, Lebus, and Bran-
denburg, and incorporated the possessions of his diocese
with the electorate. He founded the gymnasium of
Joachim sthal, now one of the best public schools in Berlin.
His reign lasted from 1598 to 1608. John Sigismund, his
son and successor, inherited not only a moiety of the
domains of Juliers, Cleves, and Berg, but shortly before his
death, the duchy of Prussia, which was at that time a
Polish fief. From the year 1618, therefore, this duchy be-
came part of the electorate, and Brandenburg and Prussia
thenceforward rank as a single state. He embraced the
Protestant reformed religion, but not without exciting some
serious commotions in Berlin. In 1619 he was succeeded
by George William, who inherited a flourishing patrimony,
but by his weak conduct during the Thirty years' war and
the double dealing of Von Schwarzenbere, his minister,
bequeathed it to his son, the ' great elector,' Frederic
William, in the most deplorable condition, exhausted and
devastated by the inroads of the Swedes and their contests
with the imperialists. Frederic William, who succeeded his
fkther in 1640, speedily restored his dominions to a state of
order and prosperity. One of the fruits of the treaty of
Westphalia was possession of part of Pomerania, of the
secularized chapters of Halberstadt, Minden, and Camin,
and of part of tne earldom of Hohenstein, as well as of the
protectorship of Magdeburg, the actual possessor of which
ne became in 1680. Bv private compact he acquired also
the remaining moiety of the territories of Clo-es, &c., and
of the Mark and Ravensberg. Though he alternately
sided with the Swedes and Poles in the campaigns of 16^7
and the following years, he succeeded in extortinjr Irom
Poland a recognition of the independence of the duchy of
Prussia, besides the cession of Lauenbur^ and Biitow.
Whether as an active ally of the Low Countries against the
aggression of France in 1 672, or as the defender of his own
dominions against the fhrious inroads of Sweden, Frederic
William displayed a degree of skill and resolution which
rank him among the first generals of his day. The Tictory
of Fehrbellin, in 1676, fbr^ the Swedes to retire from the
Sectoral Mack uA Pomeraniai «nd the si^^seouent cam*
Digitized by viOOQlC
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34U
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paign freed Prossift fh>m their preflenee. At the time of
nhi death* vhich oocurred in 1688, this illustrious prince left
the electorate in a state of renovated prosperity, and greatly
augmented pover and extent* Bus son, Frederic IIL,
assumed the regal dignity in 1701, under the style and title
of Frederic I., king of Prussia. Frederic William evinced
no little visdom hy the liberal reception which he affi>rded
to multitudes of relUgees from other parts of Germany, and
to 20,000 Hngonots, whom religious persecution expatriated
from the soil of IVance, and who introduced the silk and
cyther manufactures into the country. He was a munificent
and judicious friend to those of his subjects who had been
ruined by the calamities of war ; re-established the condition
of many towns which the same calamities had impoverished,
built numbers of villages, was a xealous promoter of agri-
culture and commerce, established a post-office in his do-
minions, erected Dinsburg into a university, founded the
royal library in Berlin, and constructed the Miilbrose or
Frederic William's Canal between the Spree and the Oder.
'—[Prussia.]
BRANDENBURG, the capital of the minor circle of
West Havelland, in Prussia, fh>m which the Old Mark of
B. derives its name, was in former times called * Brennabor/
or the Burgh of the Forest: it is situated upon the Havel,
which divides the old from the new town, with an island, on
which stand the castle, cathedral church, and equestrian col-
lege, lying between them. Between these two quarters of the
town lies a swampy district, which, from ine houses beins
built upon piles, is styled ' Venice.* Each town is surrounded
by a wall, but the new town has a rampart in addition ; the
old town has five gates, besides a smaller outlet for loot
passengers ; and the new, four gates ; the streets in the first
are narrow and crooked, but in the last-mentioned they are
broad and straight Inclusive of the cathedral church, there
are eight churches ; there is a column, called the ' Roland-
•iiule,* in the middle of the market-place in the new town,
The whole of Brandenburg contains about 13,000 inhab.
and 1400 houses; a considerable increase since the year
1816, when the numbers of the one were 10,575, and of the
other 1320. It is the seat of a court of justice and a central
tax-office, possesses a high school or gymnasium, a civic
school, an equestrian aca&my, a sunerior female seminary
{T6chter-8cnule\ five elementary schools, three schools for
indigent ohildren, five hospitals and benevolent asylums,
and a house of correction or poor-house (Strnf-anMialt or
Armen-hawf), The manufoctures consist of woollens,
linens, brandy, beer, leather, stockings, &c. ; ship-building,
fisheries, and a considerable trade with the interior, are
carried on ; and some wine is made in the neighbourhood.
The cathedral church, which has been renewed in modern
times, is remarkable for its internal architecture, and the
ancient church of St. Catherine for its baptismal font and
library. It was once the capital of the electorate of Bran-
denburg, and had the right of giving the first vote in the
assemblies of the provincial states, a right now exercised
by the city of Berlin. It is in 52^ SO' N. lat, and 12^ 32'
E. long. (Hassel), about 34 m. W. by S. of Berlin.
BRANDENBURG, NEW, a town in the grand duchy
of Mooklenburg-Strelita, on lakeTollen, is built in a circular
shape, surrounded by a substantial wall, with some remains
of ramparts and ditches, and is the chief town in the circle
of Stargard. The streets are broad, and at right angles to
one another ; it has a castle or palace, a spacious townhaU,
a hif^h sclu)ol, a lower school for townsmen's sons, another
for girls, an elementary school, 43 brandy distilleries, manu-
factures of tobacco, chemical preparations, and woollens,
three ootton-print fiu^tories, and a market for wool. It con-
tains about 660 houses and 6000 inhab. It is about 70 m.
N, of Berlin, in 53** 30' N. lat and 13® 10' E. long.
BRANDON. [Suffolk.]
BRANDY is the alcoholic or spirituous portion of wine,
separated from the aqueous part, colouring matter, &c., by
the process of distillation. This word is of German origin
(branntwein), meaning burnt wine, or wine which has
undergone the operation of fire. Although the word brandy,
when used by itself, means the spirit of wine, yet some
varieties of it have been manufkctured and used ; such are
potato-brandy, brandy from carrots, pears, and other vege-
table bodies containin|^ fermentable matter: these however
'U greatly infenor in flavour to true brandy. In
, rum, arrack, geneva, malt-spirit, &c. are compre-
ibMriodtiM ImtliofUlmHkM of tlM •Iwtonto wm iWArly »«700
hended under the name of eauds^; that from wine x%
distinguished as eau de vie de vin; and in tmating i4
brandy we shall confine our remarks almost entirely t>
what is meant by the term in its restricted and exaet sen^.
It was once a question, whether brandy or spirit exist^tl
ready 'formed in wine, and, consequently, whether it w a»
or was not produced by the operation of diitillin;. Mr.
Brande (Phil. Trans. 1811-1813) proved that teareely any
doubt could be reasonably entertained of the spirit betrc
an educt and not a product ; this Tiew of the anhfect W7^«
still ftirther elucidated by M. Gay Lussae (Aim. de Chtin.
t. Ixxxvi. p. 175). One of his experiments oonsi^fted ip
shaking wine with litharge, or oxide of lead, leduced U
fine powder, until it became as limpid as water, and after-
wards saturating it with carbonate of potash ; the aknhjl
by these means separated and floatea upon Hme aquf^^ut
portion of the wine, and was thus obtainea without distiiU-
tion. Another proof of the existence of ready-formed al-
cohol was that of distilling wine in vacuo at the temperatTinB
of 59" Fahr. ; this being a lower degree of heat than thii
occurring during fermentation, was vet sufficmtly hifrh ta
give a liquor containing much alcohol. It is now» therpfniv,
universally admitted that wine consists chiefly of alcohol,
water, colouring and saline matter, and some oU. Upon nn
argument in the Exchequer, anno 1668, whether brar^iy
were a strong water or a spirit, it was resolved to be a spirtt.
But on 25th November, 1669, it was voted to be a strum
water, perfectly made. See the statute in pursuance there-
of, 22 (jar. II. cap. 4.
Brandy is prepared hi most wine countries, as Frar^o,
Spain, Portugal, &c.; that obtained from France i% t\
much the most esteemed. It is procured not only by n »•
tilling the wine itself, but also by fermenting and subject i :
to distillation the marc or residue of the last preasinf^s of t^
grape. Various kinds of stills or alembics are empk^u-. .
probably no two manufacturers use precisely the same u^
paratUB. Some account of it may he seen by referr.n;: t^
the Ann. de Chim. t. Uxvii. p. 187| and Ann. de Chixs. c
de Phys. t. vi. p. 88.
Brandy is procured indifferently from red or white vin*.
and it follows as a matter <rf course that the stranger w.r «
yield the larger Quantity of it. The following table, (Ir«« i
up by Mr. Brande, from the results of experiaieDto i^*^
tuted for the purpose of determining the lelatinre »tr«n^: :
of wines, as evinced by the spirit they contain, showk t^«
great difference which exists not only between djAWv^^-:
kinds of wine, but the strength of wine and that of ».c:-.
other fermented liquors, as compared with brandy of u*
strength mentioned below. (Pktl. Tratu. 1811-1813)
The wines employed in the experiments on which th'
table is founded were selected with the gieatest eaie. b< .u
as to purity and quality. A given measuie of tech. tuu-
rated when necessary with potash or lune, was earefu..*
distilled nearly to dryness ; by this the colouring aad Mimi-
matter were separated, and die aqueous and spirftuoos f»r\
of the wine distilled in combination ; the bulk of the di«tiii ^i
product was made exactly equal to that of the erieiuil « u^r
by the addition of distilled water. After twenty-mr K ur«
its specific gravity was determined, and thence the quan^tt
of alcohol, by reference to Mr. Gilpen*8 tables.
The figures in the table express the proportion of akoh'
of specific eravity 0*825, at 60% by measure, existimr lu
1 00 parts of the several kinds of wine and otber hqnen :^>
SBUtprr t- •
Madeira •
do. • • •
da (Seroiatt ,
do. • • «
ATBcage «
Claret • •
do. • • •
do. • • •
do. • • •
Average «
Zante . •
Malmsey Madeira .
Lunel • «
Shiraa •
Syracuse • «
Sauterne • •
Burnm4y • f.
edbrv-^oogle-
Spirit pn cent.
by flMMure.
Lissa •
26-47
do. • •
• 24*35
Average
• 25*41
Raisin wine •
• 26-40
do. do.
25-77
do. do. •
« 23*20
Average
. 25-12
Marsala • •
. 26*03
do. •
• 25*05
Average
. 25-09
Port • «
• 25-83
do. • •
• 24-29
do. • •
. 23-71
do. • •
. 23-39
do. • •
. 22-30
do. .
. 21*40
do* • •
. 19-00
Average
• «gm.
i4'i:
lavT
tl-4j
19-4
ft r
ir-i!
18-lj
M"-
12 •»:
15M0
170,
I5--
15 J
15-^:
13 ;^
I4-*;
I6*C0
U*«
BRA
349
BRA
BiugnBoj • • 14*53
da , .
• 11-95
Aymge •
14-57
Hock . .
• 14-37
do. • . .
13-00
da (old ID eask)
. 8*88
Aveiago .
12*08
Nica .
• 14*63
Banac • «
13-86
Currant wine •
• 20*55
fiheny . •
19-81
do. • .
• 19-83
do. . .
ia-79
do. , « ;
• 18-25
Average .
t 19*17
Teneriffe •
• 19-79
Colarea
19*75
Lachryma Christi
. 19-70
Conatantta (white)
19-78
do. (zed)
. 18*92
Lisbon • •
18-94
Malaga .
Bucellas • •
. 18-94
18-49
Red Madeira . ^
• 22*30
do. do. • •
18*40
Average
• 20-35
Cape Muscat
18-25
Cape Madeira •
do. da • •
• 22*94
20-50
do. do. .
• 18-11
Average •
20-51
Grape wine •
• 18*11
Cakavella •
19-20
do.
, 18-10
Average •
18-65
Vidonia . •
• 19-25
Alba Flora .
17*26
Tent
• 13*30
Champagne (still)
13*30
ritpsrc
Champ, (sparkling)
do. (red) • •
do. (da)
Average •
Hermitage (red)
Vin de (jrrave •
do. • •
Average
12-80
12-56
11*30
12*61
12-32
13*04
12-80
13*37
Frontignac (Rivesalte) 12*79
CdteRotie . . 12-32
Gooseberry wine • 11-84
Oran^ wine, average
of SIX samples made
by a London manu-
facturer . •11*26
Tokay . . . 9-88
Elder wine • • 8*79
Cider (highest'average) 9*87
do. (lowest do.) • 5*21
Perry, average of four
samples • « 7*26
Mead . « .7*32
Ale (Burton) • 8*88
do. (Edinburgh) • 6*20
do. (Dorchester) 5*56
Average . • 6*87
Malaga • • 17*26
White Hermitage • 17-43
Roussillon • • 19-00
do. • • • 17-26
Average . 18*13
Brown Stout • • 6*80
London Porter (aver.) 4*20
do. (Small Beer,aver.) 1 - 28
Brandy • . .53*39
Rum • • • 53*68
Gin . • . 57*60
Scotch Whiskey . 54*32
Irish do. . .53*90
Mr. Faraday ((hiarteriy Journal^ vol. viii. p. 68) has
given the fUlowinff aa the quantitiea of aioohoU of the
stienffUi. and at the lemperatnra above-mentioned, con-
tained in the wines of iBtaa:—
iBtnafred) •
do. (white) • •
do. (Sercial)
da (white Falemian)
da (red da) •
It has been already stated that brandy in obtained not
only tom wine but also from the fnoraor fermented pressed
grapes: this brandy haa a more aerid flavour than that
procured finmiwine, which has generally been attributed to
an admixture of an essential oil contmned in the grape-
slonee. M. Anbergiar (Ann. de Chim. et da Phys. t xnr.)
haa pabliahed some experiments which tend to prove that
this acrid taste is derived from an oil contained in the skin
of the grape. He Ibnod that the grape-stmies^ distilled
either with water or aloohol* yielded a hquor which had a
my agieeaUe flavour of almonda; grapes sulyeoted to dis-
tillation wodneed a weakly ipirituoua liquor, which had
neither ttie imell nor taste of brandy distilled fh>m the
mare; but the skins separated from the grapes and the
stones, when fermented alone and afterwards distilled,
iielded a brandy perfectly resembling that from the mare.
[. Aubergier afterwaida succeeded in separating this oil
from the maio*fanndy» and he found it so acrid and pene-
trating^ that a single drop was sufficient to deteriorate
severaigalloBa of good brandy.
Althonzh brandy is imported into England from various
places in Fs-ance, as from &>urdeaux, RodieUe, and Nantes,
yet that of Cognac, a town in the department of Charente,
is preferred to all of them ; and M. Aubergier states that
this, as well as that from Andraye, is of superior quality
because it is obtained from white wine, fermented so as not
to become impregnated with the oil of the ^pe-skin.
Brandy, when recently distilled, Uke spirit obtained from
other iiouroes, is well known to be colourless ; by mere keep-
ing hbwever it acquires a slight colour, owing probably to
•ooe/change in the properties of the soluble matter con-
ttiam^ in it The colour ia much increased by keeping in
For Genu
18-09
18*16
19-00
18*99
20-00
casks ; and it is made of the required intensity by the ad-'
dition of colouring-matter, as bnrnt su^ar*
It haa been mentioned that spirit, sometimes called
brandy, is procorable from potatoes, carrots, beet-root, pears*
&c. The spirit nrocured from these generally retains with
g[reat obstinaey the flavour of the substance yiekling it, which
ctrcnmstance renders these brandies so mudh infericr to
French brandy.
BRANDY STATISTICS. In all wine-producing coun-
tries, a part of the produce of the vineyards is converted into
brandy, and in some of those countries a part of the spirit is
emplc^ed to give strength to the remaining portion of the
wine. The fiery wines of Spain, Portugal, Madeira, the
Cape of (Sood Hope, and other countries, are thus treated.
There are no certain means of knowing what proportion
of the produce is distilled in different placea. The only
country in which, as frir as we know, tne estimate of this
kind has been made is France, where a commission, appointed
to inquire concerning the duties levied upon liquors, haa
given an estimate of the produce of the vineyards, and the
mode of its disposal. From this it appears that about 1 5 per
cent, of the wine is made into brandy, but as the spirit whicn it
yields varies in quantity according to the quality of the wine
from which it is made, it is not possible to state its amount
with precision. It has been estimated that the quantity of
brandy annually made is equal to about twenty millions of
English gallons, of which about one-third is exported, leaving
thirteen millions of gallons for consumption in France.
The principal exportations are made from the Charente,
from Bourdeaux, and from the port of Cette in the Medi-
terranean (depu of Herault). From Charente comes the
brandy of Cognac, which is principally used in England, to
which country three^ighths of all the shipments of French
brandy are ordinarily made. About one-fourlh is taken by
the Americans, chiefly from Bourdeaux and Cette, and the
remainder is shipped in comparatively small quantities to
the French Antilles, to India* and to various countries in
Europe, chiefly to the north.
Until the early part of the present century, considerable
purchases of Spanish brandy were made by the English
government for the use of the navy ; but at that time, with
the view of encouraging our West India colonics, rum was
substituted. The shipments of brandy from Spain are
principally made at Barcelona, whence about 11,000 pipes
(about 1,200,000 gallons) an annually exported. Of this
Quantity 3000 pipes are sent to Cuba, 6000 pipes to the
former dominions of Spain in America, and 2000 pipes to
the N. of Europe.
The consumption of brandy in England was greater half
a century ago man it is at present. In the five years from
1786 to 1790, the average quantity amounted to 1,731,041
imperial gallons; and in the five years from 1831 to 1835,
the average haa been only 1,379,547 gallons; the duty in
the mean time having been advanced from 6«. to 22#. 6(L
per gallon.
The quantity warehoused under the kings lock is equal
to about one yearns supply: three-fifths of this quantity are
lodged in the docks of London. The quantity in the stocks
of dealers is usu^y about half a million of gallons.
The quantitiea imported and exported, and those iak&x
for consumption in the United Kingdom* during eeoh of
the eight years fiiom 1827 to 1834, were as follows: —
TakMte
Impoxted.
Exportod.
CoDiumptioa
GalkMU.
G«UoD>.
Gidloaa.
1827 .
1,724,805
623,526
1,312,067
1828 •
2,521,069
1,050,972
1,325,169
1829 •
1.994,649
661,097
1,300,746
1830 •
1,643,469
466,610
1,274,803
1831 •
1,461,897
504,172
1,235.101
1832 .
2.671,828
691.656
1,601.652
1833 •
2,623,313
793.487
1,357,211
1834 •
3,170,297
912,335
1.388,639
The exportations are chiefly made to India and to our
colonies in N. America, in the West Indies, and Australia.
The rate of duty per imperial gallon, which was 6«. in
1787, received several small addiuons in 1791, 1794, and
1 795, and in 1796 was raised to lOf. per gallon. In 1803
it was further raised to 16i. 7(^; in 1809, to 20«.; and in
1812, to 24f. 9cL; in the following year it was reduced to
32#. 6^., at which rate it has continued to the present time.
BRANDYWINB9 a small river which rises in Chester
county, Pennsylvania, and joins the Christiai^in the upper
\
Digitized
by Google
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850
BRA
pvt of di0 ittta of DeUwan, about a inilo from the town of
Wilmingtonp and aboat 2 m. from the Delaware river, which
the united stream enters on the rig^ht bank a little above
Newcastle. A division of the American army under
Washington* during the war of Independence, was defeated
on the banlu of the Brandywine, llth Sept. 1777. The
consequence of the battle of Brandywine was the occupation
of Philadelphia by the British troops. The Brandywine
flour- mills near Wilmington were formerly the most exten-
sive of the kind in the U. S. ; and they still ei\joy a high
reputation from the quality of the flour produced there.
The Brandywine offers a number of favourable sites for ob-
taining water-power, which have been taken advantage of.
Brandywine is the name of a township in Chester co. Penn.
(Flint's American Qeog. ; Hinton's U. S, ; Malte-Brun.)
BRANKu^ [BucKWBaAT.]
BRANTOME, the common designation of the Freneh
writer, Pierre de Bourdeilles, who was Lord Abbot (Abb4 et
Biux>n, or Seigneur de I'Abbaye) of BrantOme, in Guienne,
Ver^ little is known of the life of Brant6me, beyond the
brief and general sketch given by himself in an epitaph
which he left to be inscribed on his tomb. He was a
younger son of an antient and distinguished family of Peri*
gord, where he appears to have been bom about the year
1527. Having served his apprenticeship in arms under
Francis of Guise, he eventually obtained two companies of
foot from Charles IX. That king, with whom he was a
great flivourite, also made him a chevalier of tibe Order of
St. Michael. That of Habito de Christo was bestowed upon
him bv Don Sebastian of Portugal. He is suppoited to have
visited in the early part of his life most of the countries of
Burope, either in a military capacity or as a traveller. He
likewise tells us that Charles IX. gave him the office of one
of his gentlemen in ordinarv, and a pension of 8000 livres
a year. Another dignity which he held was that of cham*
berlain to M. de Alen^on. After the accession of Henry
III., by whom he intimates that he was not held in the same
estimation that he had enjoyed with the preceding king, he
appears to have taken his leave of the court, and retirad to
his estate of Richemont in his native province. If is sup-
posed to have been after this that he wrote his various
works. He died at Richemont on the i5th (the * Biographic
Vniverselle* says the 5th) of July, 1614.
By his last will he charged his heirs with the publication
of his works, or memoirs, as they are often collectively
called, ordering that the necessary funds should be provided
from the revenues of his estate ; although he has known,
he adds, the booksellers pay for liberty to publish books
not half so interesting or so likely to be well received by the
public. They did not, however, appear till the year 1666,
when they were printed in eight duodecimo volumes ; accord-
ing to the title-page, "at Leyden, by John Sambix the
vounger,' but in reality, it is said, at the Hague by the
brothers Steucker. The Bioffraphie VniverseUe, erro-
neously we suspect, describes this edition as consisting of
ten volumes, as dated 1666-67, and as printed by one of the
Elzevirs, but which of tliem is not stated. The works were
sent to the press by Claude de Bourdeilles, Comtede Montr£-
sor, grand-nephew of the author. Another edition appeared
in 1699, Uid another in 1722. But the most complete edition
of Brantdme is that (^ 1740 (not 1 740-41, as suted in the
•Biographie Univeraelle ') in fifteen volumes duodecimo,
which bears the impress of the Hague on the title-page, but
is said to have beeU actually printed at Rouen. No printer's
or bookseller's name appears. The editor, who has appended
some explanatory notes, was, according to the • Biographie
Universelle,' Jacob le Duchat: Watt, in the 'Bibl. Britan.,'
we believe incorrectly, attributes the edition to Prosper
Marchand. A reprint of it in the same number of volumes
appeared in 1779 at Maastricht (but with the impress of
Loudon) ; and it was onoe more reproduced in ei^rbt volumes,
octavo, in 1 787, by Bastien, as a part of the collection entitled
' M^moires pour sen'ir 4 V Histoire de France.'
Of the fifteen volumes, the first contains ' Les Vies des
Dames lUustres Pran9oiscs et Etrangeres ;' the second and
third, * Les Vies des Dames Galantes ;* the fourth and fifth,
'Les Vies des Hommes Illustres et Grands Canitaines
Etrangers ;' the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth,
'Les Vies des Hommes Illustres et Grands Capitaines
Francois ;* and the eleventh, • Le Discours sur les Duels.*
The remaining four volumes consist of pieces which had not
been previously published. The twelfth contains a collec-
tion entitled ' Rhodomontades et Gentillea Rencontres
Espagnolles,* which is stated to haf« been written bv
Brantdme in Spanish, and translated into FVench by M:r^
Phrasendorp ; and two disserUtions, the first * Sur le* 8-r-
mens et Juremens Espagnols,* the other ' Sur les B<*: i%
Retraites d* Armies de diverses Nations.* The thirteenth r- .:..
tams the author s ' Opuscules Divers,* 8e\'enteen in nnmL^^r.
the last being his Testament, a verv curious documei.t.
extending to about fifty pages. To these is added a p-vre
entitled *Maxims et Avis du Maniement de la Onerre,' \ \
Andr6 de Bourdeilles, Brantdme*s elder brother. The lett^n
of AndrA to Charles IX., Henry III., 'and their moiirr
Catherine de* Medici, with their answers, form the fbortcrM'.
volume of the collection ; and the fifteenth is filled with i,
history of the familv of BourdeOles, principally taken fr n
Dinet's 'Tk6iltre de la Noblesse Franfoise,'*and brourt
down to the time when the edition was published. In t .••
course of this long genealogical detail there ia given a ; •
of Brantdme, which fills a^ut eighty pages* His portra :
is prefixed to' the volume.
There is no English translation either of die wbole of
Brantdme's works, or, as far as we axe aware, of any part
of them. This is no doubt to be accounted for from xU
comparatively late date at which they appeared ; bad thf)
been published half or two-thirds of a century earitrf.
it IS probable that the extreme freedom of expreaaion in
which they abound would not have shut out Brantftnce fr^>*3
our literature, any more than the same objection has fit -
prived *us of his e<)ually unscnipidous eootemporane%
Kabelais and Montaigne. In this respect, as well a» \l
others, his ' M6noires* afibrd us undoubtedly the tt *
living picture that has been preserved of the age in irh. *
he lived, and of the odd system of mannefa and of n)or4-
lity then prevalent, l^o mere statement of ftcta Kh. :
maybe gathered firom more formal historians cao c(>r.\».
the vivid impression which this writer's whole sty]« ii .
tone of sentiment give us of the entirely different hK^t i
which licentiousness in both sexes was then viewed tr ^.
that in which we now regard it It seems never to tv -
Brantome's head (hat cither man or woman can be < -i
sidered dishonoured, or to have forfdted a character f -
virtue, by the most lavish indulgence in what he f-
gallantry. The most abandoned of the ftmak want • *
whose lives he details, are spoken of by him as b- t
illustrious ladies and good Christians. So complete u l.«
abstinence from every expression Uxat might denote a stam
of there being anv thing to blame in the indulgpL"*
which he has recorded, that he has been suspected Inr «rrr <
critics of composing his works with a determined purp.i4
of undermining the belief of his readers in ti^e coidic<":
distinctions between virtue and vice. This however it p*
bably an unfounded hypothesis. It can hardly be said t: .•
Brantdme's moral creed on the subject of gallantry, stn: j*
as it appears to us, is reallv diflR&rent ftom tiiat which vi^
generally in fashion when he wrote, and had been to f t
ages before. He is not more lax in his judgments ii]>>c
matters of this kind, for instance, than his prede**** '
Froissart, or, as we have already observed, than his cunti*a'
porary Montaigne. In his praises of beauty andof ksi^rK' >
prowess and courtesy, Brantdme writes with warn and i\^
quent enthusiasm.
BRASENOSE COLLEGE, Oxford. The pierise 'tv
of the foundation of this college is not known. Hie p'f.
fi>r it was concerted in 1507-8, between William Sinvrh.
bishop of Lincoln, and Richard Sutton, Esq.. a/terwirU
Sir R. Sutton of Prestburv, in Cheshire, a member of !>«
privy council to King Henry VII. ; and hi 1506 they b
tained from University College a lease of two ol the « *
halls of Oxford, Brasenosc Hall and Little Um'fwwty H>.
with their gardens and appurtenances, for the term i'
ninety-two years, at the annual rent of 3/. ; and it wa* r •:
until the expiration of the above lease that an equi^ a)<-' '
estate was made over to University College, an4 Brazen *
College obtained the freehold. On these pr^is« th'
college first rose. Other messuages or houaea or^^t^ "
for students adjoining were subsequently puicha^' •"
the first instance Salisbury Hall, to which were efV**'"'*
added Little Edmund Hal>, Haberdasher's Hall V''^
Hall,6tapleHall,andGlassHa]l,thechiefofthese r^ ■
between what is now Lincoln CoUegc-lane and the^^'
street The present lodgings of the principal Wcr« o**'
on the spot where Haberdasher's Hall stood. Th**"'
ball, from which the college took its name, was of ^ '
antiquity. In the thhteenth centun^jt was knewti I ^'
Digitized by VJjOOQ IC
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351
BRA
stme hMMf which was unquestionably owing to the cir-
cumstance of a nose of brass affixed to the gate. As the
hall must have had a name before it got one from this cir-
cumstance, perhaps we may conclude that the name Brase*
nose was originally a kind of nickname.
It appears that a society was formed almost as soon as
the college was projected. We find a principal in the
month of June, 1510. The charter of foundation granted
to Bishop Smyth and Richard Sutton, Esq., is dated Jan.
15th. 1511-12: and it is supposed that the society became
a permanent corporation on the fcast of St. Hugh, Nov.
17Lh, 1512, or perhaps a little earlier. According to the
charter, the society was to consist of a principal and sixty
scholars, to be instructed in the sciences of sophistry, logic,
and philosophy ; and afterwards in divinity, and they might
possess lands, &c, to the yearly Tjdue of 300/. beyond all
burdens and repairs. The number of fellows, however, was
not completed until their revenues, by being laid out ou
land, began to be certainly productive.
The estates which Bishop Smyth bestowed on the college
were chiefly two i Basset's Fee, in the environs of Oxford,
which formerly is supposed to have belonged to the Bassets
barons of Headington ; and the entire property of the sup-
pressed priorv of Cold Norton, with its manors and estates
in Oxfordshuo and Northamptonshire. It was sold to
Bishop Smyth, by the convent of St. Stephen's, Westmin-
ster, for eleven hundred and fifty marks.
The estates dyen by Sir Richard Sutton were, the manor
of Burgh, or Borowe, or Erdeborowe, in the parish of So-
raerby, in the county of Leicester, and other estates in the
same parish and neighbourhood ; an estate in the parish of
St Mary-le-Strand, London, which in 1673 was sold to
the commissioners for enlarging the streets after the great
fire, for the sum of 1700/., and with this an estate was pur-
chased at Burwardescot or Burscot, in Oxfordshire ; which
was subseauentlyexchanged for other lands at Stanford,
in the Vale of White Horse. Sir Richard Sutton gave
also the manor of Cropredy, in the county of Oxford, and
certain lands there, and an estate in North Ockington, or
Wokyndon, in the county of Essex.
In the same year, by indenture with Sir Richard Sutton,
the society agreed to keen an anniversarv for ever for Bishop
Smyth and Sir Richard Sutton, on the days of their re-
spective decease. Sir Richard Sutton's last benefaction to
the college, except that of 5/. for building a wall, was an
estate in Garsington and Cowley, in Oxfordshire, of which
he put the college m possession in July, 1522.
Bishop Smyth composed a body of statutes before the
year 1513, but thev are not now known to exist. In his
will he devolved to nis executors the business of correcting
and amending these sUtutes ; and accordingly a new code,
signed and sealed by four of his executors, was given to
the college, and is still preserved. In the year 1521-22 it
underwent a complete revision, and was ratified by the seal
of Sir Richard Sutton, the surviving founder. Of this how-
ever a transcript only remains. In forming these statutes
considerable use was made of those of Magdalen College,
which had been borrowed from Wykeham's statutes for
New College.
la these last stetutes the college is recognised as com-
monly called 'The King's Haule and Colledge of Brasen*
nose, in Oxford,* to consist of a principal and twelve fellows,
all of them bom within the diocese of Coventry and Lich-
field ; with preference to the natives of the counties of Lan-
caster and Chester, and especially to the natives of the
pari:»h of Prescot in Lancashire, and of Prestbury in
Cheshire. Besides those twelve, there were to be two
fellows, masters or bachelors of arts, natives of the diocese
of Sarum, or HerefiMrd, agreeably to the intent of a compo-
sition between Edmund Audley, bishop of Salisbury, and
the college, for that piupose ; but for some reason, not now
known, Uiis benefaction never took place.
In addition to the bounty of their two founders, this
society soon obtained numerous benefactions. The first
permanent benefaction was that of Elisabeth Morlev of
We:itminster, widow, who died about 1524. Sir Richard
Sutton» at her request, had settled on the college in 1512
: tlie manor of Pinchepolles, &c., in Berkshire. John Wil-
.e liamson, clerk, cave 200/. in 1 521, to purchase lands for the
I maintenance of two fellows. John Elton, alias Baker,
p ronoQ of Salisbury, founded another fellowship in 1528.
J William Porter, who had been warden of New College,
founded a feUowsbip in 1531. Edward Darby, archdeacon
of Stow, left 120/. to purchase lands, flee, for the main
tenance of a fellow in 1538. In the same year Dr. William
Clyfton also gave lands for the maintenance of a fellow.
Another fellowship was settled on the college by Brian
Hygden, dean of York, in 1549, for a native of Y'^rkshiro
and Lincolnshire, alternately. The concluding fellowship,
which is the twentieth, was founded by Mrs. Joyce Frank-
land, a distinguished benefactress not only to this and to
Lincoln College, but to Caius and to Emmanuel College, in
Cambridge. Humphrey Ogle of Chalford, or Salfo^, in
O^ifordshire, archdeacon of Salop, provided exhibitions in
1543 for two scholars born in Prescot, or in the diocese of
Chester or Lichfield ; and in defect of such, ' any fit persons
bom in the king's dominions.' John, Lord Mordaunt, in
1570, founded three scholarships. Of Alexander Nowell,
the learned dean of St. PauVs, it has been observed, that
he came to this college in the thirteenth vear of his age,
resided thirteen years, founded thirteen scholarships, and
died on tibe 13th day of February, 1601-2, at the advanced
age of ninety-five, Joyce Frankland, before mentioned,
James Binks, alias Stoddard, George Palyn, Dr. Samuel
Raddiffe, John Milward, John Cartwright, Esq., of Aynho,
Anne Walker, Hugh Henley, Thomas Church, Richard
Read, Sarah duchess- dowager of Somerset, Dr. Thomas
Yate, William Hulme, Esq., Dr. William Grimbaldston,
and others, have either founded or augmented scholarships
and exhibitions.
The scholarships founded by the Duchess of Somerset
amount at this time to twenty in number. They are appro*
priated to youths educated at the grammar-schools of Man*
Chester, Marlborough, and Herefc^d, with a permission to
the society, in respect of four, to accept of birth in the
counties of Herefora, Lancaster, and Chester as a qualifi-
cation, in defect of candidates educated in those schools.
Mr. Hulme gave lands in and near to the town of Man-
chester to certain trustees resident in that neighbourhoodt
for the support of four poor bachelors of arts, for a period of
four years from the date of that degree. Some of these lands
having been subsequently built upon, Brasenose-street (Man*
Chester) standing upon a part of tnem, and all in various ways
greatly improved in value, the trustees, who are noblemen
and ffentlemen of the counties of Lancaster and Chester,
have been incorporated by act of pai'liament; whereby they
have obtained a power of purchasing advowsons, and pre*
senting to the livings. They are bound however to present
such prieste as are, or have been exhibitioners upon Mr.
Hulme*s foundation. The nominators to the exhibitions
are the warden of Manchester and the rectors of Prestwich
and Bury in Lancashire, for the time being ; who again can
nominate none but members of Brasenose College. The
part which the society take in the foundation is only to
supply objects for the founder's bounty, and to name the
lecturer in divinity. The advowsons which have been pur-
chased are entered in tiio oollege list, as the most conve-
nient mode of giving information to the exhibitioners. The
exhibitions are now fifteen, exceeding 100/. per annum
each ; and the sum of 35/. is annually expended in the pur*
chase of books for each exhibitioner.
In addition to these and various other minor benefactions,
lectureships have also been endowed, since the fotmdation
of the college, in philosophy and humanity, in Greek, in
Hebrew, and in mathematics.
The actual society of Brasenose College at present £on«
sists of a principal and twenty fellows. There are also
thirty-two scholarships, and fifteen exhibitions. The number
of members, resident and non-resident, upon the college
books, according to the Oxford Calendar of 1835, is 396.
The Bishop of Lincoln is their visitor.
Among the more eminent members of this oollege were
Laurence Nowell dean of Lichfield, Fox the martyrologist»
Sir Henry Savile, Sir Henry Spelman, Brerewood the ma«
thematician, Humphrey Lhuyd the Welsh historian. Sir
John Stradling ; Erdeswick and Sir Peter Leycester the
Cheshire antiquaries. Lord Chancellor Egerton, Robert
Burton, author of the 'Anatomy of MeUneholy,' Sir Wil-
liam Petty. Elias Ashmole, John Prince, author of 'The
Worthies of Devon,* and Dr. Whitaker, the author of ' The
History of Manchester.'
The ecclesiastical patronage of this society oonsisto oi
thirty rectories, two chapelries, and a lectureship, producing
in all an income of about 13,439/.
The original edifice of Bishop Smyth and Sir Riebard
Sutton is still visible in the large entrance q^adxangle; but ,
Digitized by
BRA
352
B RA
A tliiid itOKT WM oonttmctad over a great part of it. with |
dormer windows. &e., about the time of James I^ for the
accommodation of additional members. The ball and tower
gateway however retain much of their former grandeur and
picturesque effect ; and the decayed parts of the latter might
be easily restored from Loggan*s print of 1675 ; at which
time it appears to have been in good preservation, and the
tracery of the windows entire. At that date, and till the
year 1770, the lodgings of the principal were on each side
of the gateway, and over it, according to the antient prac-
tice. The present frontoee of the college occupies nearly
the whole of the western side of the Radcliffe-square ; and
the site of it, including the principal s house, extends south-
ward to the High-street.
The hall, or refectory, on the south side of the principal
quadrangle, is lofty and well proportioned. Its windows
are partly embellished with the arms of the founders and
benefactors, whose portraits also adorn the walls. Among
them is the original portrait of Dean Nowell.
The first chapel used by the society was a small oratory
over the buttery, since converted into rooms. The founda-
tion stone of a new chapel was laid June 26, 1656, and it
was finished in about ten years. It is built upon the site
where Little Edmund Hall stood. Dr. Samuel Radcliffe,
the principal at the time it was erected, contributed 1850/.
to the building.
The contents of the Old Library, which stood at the
north-west comer of the large quadrangle opposite the
original chapel, were transferr^ to a new library, built over
the cloister, between the chapel and the south side of the
inner court, and finished in 1663. The design of this build-
ing is attributed to Sir Christopher Wren ; the interior was
refitted under the superindence of Mr. Wyatt, in 1 780.
The present principal, Ashurst Turner Gilbert, D.D.,
elected in 1822, is the eighteenth from the foundation of
the college. (Wood's Colleges and Halls of Oxford^ by
Gutch ; Churton*s Lives ofUte Founders o/Brasenose Col-
lege, 8vo., Oxf., 1800; Chalmers's HisL of the Colleges
and Halls of Oxford, 2 vols. 8vo., Oxf., 1810; Ingram's
Memorials qf Oxford, 4to.; Oaford Univ. Calendar for
1835.)
BRA'SIDAS, The first mention of this eminent Spar-
tan occurs in the first year of the Peloponnesian war, in
which he performed a very gallant action in throwing him-
self at the head of a body of troops into Methone when be-
sieged by the AUienians, * and for this exploit was the first
that was praised at Sparta in this war' {Tnuafd^ iL 25). In
the third year of the war he was associated with Cnemus in
the command of the Peloponnesian fleet, was present in the
second battle in which the Lacedsamonians were defeated
by Phormiou, and took probably a leading part in a well-
contrived scheme for surprising the Athenian port of
PirsDus, which failed, as Thucydides intimates, chiefly firom
the want of due energy in its execution (ii. 85—94). In the
fifth year he was associated with Alcidas in the command
of the Peloponnesian fleet. In the seventh year he com-
manded a ship in the armament which attacked the fort of
Pylos, newly erected by Demosthenes on the mainland oppo-
site the island of Sphacteria; distinguished himself by su-
perior bravery, and being severely wounded, and fainting, he
dropped his shield into the sea, which was picked up and
made part of the Athenian trophy. This little incident is
worth relating, because the loss of the shield was considered
disgraceful. It does not appear that Brasidas suffered in
reputation from this accident (iv. ] 1, 12).
Soon after a request for help was preferred to Sparta
from some cities in the Chalci^an peninsula, which had
thrown off their alliance, or rather their allegiance to
Athens. Brasidas was already so well known, that the
Chalcidians requested that he might be the leader of any
force which should be sent to their assistance ; and the text
of Thucydides (iv. 80) seems to indicate that no one con-
tested with him the command of a distant and uncertain
enterprise. The Lacednmonians gave him 700 heavy-
armed foot ; the rest of his army, consisting of Peloponne-
sian mercenaries, he was collecting in the neighbourhood of
Sicyon, where he had the opportunity of nrotectinff and pre-
serving to the Peloponnesian alliance tne city of Megara,
attacked by an Athenian army (iv. 70—74). This was
earlv in the eighth year of the war. In the same summer
lie led his army of 1700 heavy-armed foot (containing
altogether about 4000 soldiers) to Macedonia. One chief
oifiBiiDulty of tho undertaking was to xeaoh the scene
of action. The Athenians nommanded tlw •••• nd tli*
land route lay through Thessal)r. a diifioiilt and an ua-
friendly country. But by tlie assistanGe of a few principal
Thessalians, who acted as his guides, and by the diiciM«>n.
rapidity, and address of his own movementSy be eluded iim-
difficulties which he had reason to i^pprehend, and nacUii
the Macedonian frontier.
We can only give an outline of thia ezpeditaoo, whiefa u
but an episode in the Peloponnesiaii war. The thiag chMrtlv
to be remarked is the mild oonduet of Braaidaa, as ctFta
pared with the haughtiness and severitv naually awjiilevt<^i
by Spartan commanders towards their aulfiecl ai;.«A.
Thucydides observes that Brasidas did the LaoeMUftoniAn*
great service by his equity and moderation, which at iLa
time induced many cities to go over lo them ; and aRtr -
wards, even after the Sicilian war, * the wisdom and virtue
of Brasidas, to some known by experience, by others be-
lieved upon report, was the principal cause whieli made lue
Athenian confederates afibct the Laoedmnooiaas ; lor bem;
the first foreign commander (f.e. first in thia war) and
esteemed in aU points for a worthy man, be left behind hub
an assured hope that the rest also were Uke him* (iv. bi >.
The first fruits of his appearance in Chakidice wete the
revolt of Acanthus and Stagirus from Athens; and thi«
success, before winter was completely set in, waa fbUo^^rd
by the acquisition of Amphipolia on the Strymon. Th.«
was the heaviest loss which could have befaBea the Athe-
nians, inasmuch as it was the moat impcrtant of their Tbn*
cian dependencies, and they derived ixom il a oonatderabke
revenue, and plenty of timber for shipbttilding, which tL«
soil of Attica did not supply.
After the capture of Amphipolis* Braaidaa aeditaial
building a fleet in the Strymon, and he regoseled leinlEorre-
ments nom Sparta, which it certainly would have been vim*
to have sent But these were denied, partly heeause t^r
leading men were jealous of him, partly bccaos* the r^^
vemment was intent on concluding the war, and ohCaimr.;
the freedom of the Laeedssmonians made priecnecs c
Sphacteria. Accordingly, in the following aprtDg in \u
ninth vear of the war, a truce was coneliiaed, which fnr
vided that each party was to retain what it then posaeterl.
Ic became a question however to which of them S<>»jrc,
which had surrendered to Brasidas just about the raiin-^-
tion of the truce, did belong; and Braaidaa reAved to tst
it up to the Athenians. In this he was wrong, aeeordtnc U'
Thucydides, who savs (iv. 122) that Scione waa in the lut«s
of the Athenians when the truce was signed, and two dAu
afterwards ; but he probably was ill pleased with the ikrjc-
ciation, and must certainly have been reluctant m deij\«r
up that city, by which he had been eminently Inieced an-i
honoured, to the certain revenge of the Atheniana. T.i>
circumstance, and the revolt of Mende, a neaghbootinir c.n .
which he also received into the alliance of Spaita, aUe^ir-r
that the Athenians had alreadv infnnged the tenas i/f
truce, led to the continuance of hoetilitieB on dM eoast uf
Thrace. The Athenians nassed a savage dacrsa to i4lu
Scione and put to death the inhabitanta. and sent Nk\i»
and Niceratus with an army to enforoe it The year ^s^ex.
without any decisive occurrences; but in the fuUov-r
spring (B.C. 422) the Athenians sent out Cleon to aasu .-
the command, who speedily undertook the aie« of Amp ^ -
pel is. Brasidas superintended the defence, in the qui. :i
of his troops Cleon had the advantage; the numhtrs aon*
about equal. But this superiority waa more than conpro-
sated by the difference of talent in the generals. In sht^n.
Cleon was puzzled; and Brasidas, who watdied hia mo>e
mcnls from the city, took at once advantage of a false oi«-
ncBuvre, and led his troops to battle, in whsdi the Au»^
nians were completely defeated, but he himself reenvea ^
mortal wound. He was buried in the publio-iilaiee of Ai%-
phipolis at the public expense, was wonhipped as a U-r:.
and, as a still higher mark of respeet, it waa otdaic^.
that he, instead of Agnon the Athenian* ■heuM therirr-
forward be honoured as the true founder of the ci^ a:^i
colony.
If Brasidas had lived he probably would hafia heccr-<
one of the most remarkable men in the historr of Saeon ju
His militarv talents were great ; his temper polttie and c\ *
ciliatory; his accomplishmenta considerable^ at leaat .:
Sparta, for Thucydides pithily observes, that *lbr a Lan-
dmmonian, he was not unable to speak' (iv* M). That ^r
was held in high respect throughout Greece may be o
thered« not only finom the testimoQjMBf Thiieydidai eU-**
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B & A
353
BRA
quoted, bat from the expression ]^t into the mouth of Alct-
htades hy Plato, in the ' Banquet,* that * such as Achilles
wos, we may conjecture Brasidas to have been/
BRASS, ^s of the Romans, is an alloy of copper and
sine, which has been known and used from the remotest an-
tiquity ; it is now extensively employed both for useftil and
ornamental purposes.
The direct method of forming brass is by melting^ together
its constituent metals ; but it was manufactured long before
sine was obtained in its metallic form. Calamine, an ore of
zinc, was mixed with copper and charcoal, and the zinc
being, by the well-known action of the carbonaceous mat-
ter, reduced to the metallic state immediately combined with
the copper, without separately exhibiting metallic properties.
In Germany bross appears to have been made for centu-
ries before the manufacture was introduced into England :
this is stated to have been done by a German, who esta-
blished works at Esher in Surrey in the year 1649.
When the requisite furnaces have been erected, the next
step in the process is that of reducing copper to a convenient
form for ensuring its ready combination by extending its
surface. This is effected by pouring the melted metal into
water ; by which process what is called shot copper is ob-
tained, in pieces varying in size from that of small shot to
that of a beau.
The next process is to prepare the calamine, which is a
carbgnate of zinc. This is first broken into small pieces, and
then heated to redness in a rcverberatory furnace. In this
way, by the loss of carbonic acid and moisture, one ton of
calamine is generally diminished to about twelve cwt., and it
is when cold reduced to a fine powder and washed.
The materials being thus prepared, 45 pounds of the shot
copper, 60 pounds of the powdered calamine, and a quantity
of Dowdered charcoal equal to it in bulk, arecareftilly mixed
and put into eight earthen crucibles, this being the number
placed in each furnace, made of a peculiar form. There is
also commonly mixed with these ingredients a quantity of
scrap brass. When the fire has been continued fur about
seven or eight hoin^i, the operation is finished. Supposing
4 0 pounds of scrap brass to have been added to the above-
mentioned quantities of the ingredtenU, a plate of brass is
obtained by pouring the metal into granite moulds, which is
generally about 5^ ft. in length and weighs about 108
l>ound8. This plate is used for rolling into thin sheets
csalled latten. Very frequently the metal is poured into^
east-iron moulds, by which bars' about eight inches in length
are obtained : these bars are employed by those who cast brass
into small goods, or who mix it by melting with additional
quantities of copper so as to produce metal having different
shades of colour, as tombac, pinchbeck, &c. Sometimes
blende, or the sulphnret of zinc, is employed instead of cala-
mine ; it is first roasted to dissipate the sulphur, and there
remaim an oxide.
It has been stated that brass is now sometimes made by
the direct union of the metals ; but this process requires
groat caution, for if the heat be too suddenly applied, or if
t be raised too high before the metals bemn to unite, then
the zinc, on account of its great affinity for oxygen, bums,
and thus not onlv is loss occasioned, but the quality of the
product is injured by it, owing to the deficiency of zinc.
Brass lor various purposes is made of different proportions
of tlie two metals, and consequently possesses difibrent qua-
lities ; its general properties are, that it has a well-known
flno yellow colour, is susceptible of receiving a high polish,
and is only superficially acted upon by the air. It is very
malleable and ductile when cold, and consequently may be
beaten into thin leaves and drawn into fine wire : at a high
temperature it is brittle. The specific gravity of brass is
greater than that dedueible from the specific gravities of
the metals which constitute it, as shown by the following
statement.
Brass, oontaining copper 70 and zinc 30, would give a
calculated specific gravity of 8'390 ; but by experiment it is
ib\ind to be 8*443 : when the proportions are copper 80 and
zinc 20, the calculated is to the actual density as 8'490 to
8*560. Chi comparing the composition and density of dif-
ferent kinds of brass, it appears that the density increases
witli the proportion of copper, as might indeed be expected,
and that it is sometimes even equal to that of the copper
icaelf.
Brass is more i\isible, sonorous, a worse conductor of heat,
and harder than copper. It is readily turned in a lathe,
and is consequently well adapted not only for philosophical
instruments, but those used in manufacturing processes and
for domestic purposes. In the state of wire it is most ex-
tensively employed in pin-making, and for various other
purposes ; the thin leaves into which brass is made by ham-
mering are called Dutch metal or Dutch gold.
Authors differ widely as to the best proportions of copper
and zinc for making brass. It is stated, in the supplement
to the 'EncyclopsBdia Britannica,* that one part of copper and
two parts of zinc are the best proportions fur common brass ;
and that one part of each forms prince's metal of a fine yel-
low colour. Mr. Parkes, Essays, p. 2 1 0, states (and we believe
he obtained his information from an accurate source) that
the most useful proportions arc two parts of copper to ono
part of zinc, which are not far from one equivalent of each
metal. Berthier's analysis of the brass wire of Jcmappes
contlrms the probability of this statement, for he found it to
consist of
Copper . . 64*2
Zinc . . 33-1
Lead . , 8
98-1
The small quantity of lead is of course to he regarded as
annccidentol admixture. According to Dr. Thomson, also,
Bristol brass consists of
Copper , . 63*15
Zinc . . 34-85
Some old
which he
yielded
100
Diitch brass, analysed by the same chemist,
states was much approved of by watchmakers,
Copper
Ziuu
In concluding this article, we shall give the method of
analysing brass proposed by Mr. Keates, in the ' Annals of
Philosophy,' vol. iii. N,S., p. 326.
Dissolve the brass in dilute nitric acid, add a little sulphu-
ric acid and evaporate to dryness, redissolve in excess of
dilute sulphuric acid, dilute the solution and boil pieces of
polished iron in it, until the solution becomes nearly colour-
less, filter it while hot, wash the precipitated copper with
dilute sulphuric acid, and afterwards with boiling water : this
when dried is to be put into a crucible, covered with char-
coal powder and melted ; the copper being cleansed from any
adhering charcoal, is then to be weighed.
The filtered solution, from which the copper has been
separated, is to he boiled with nitric acid to peroxidize the
iron ; neutralize the acid with carbonate of soda, and preci-
pitate the iron by ammonia, using an excess of the latter so
as to redissolve the oxide of zinc at first precipitated ; filter
the solution and add to it muriatic acid, evaporate to dry*
ness and heat the dry mass in a platina crucible ; to drive ofiT
the muriate of ammonia, dissolve the residuum in dilute
muriatic acid, and precipitate by carbonate of soda ; the pre-
cipitate, after being washed and dried, is heate<l to redness :
every 40 parts of this precipitate are equal to 32 parts of me-
tallic zinc.
Another and more simple method is the following:-^
Dissolve the brass in a considerable excess of nitric acid ;
pass sulphuretted hydrogen gas, also in excess, through the
solution. The copper only is precipitated, which is to be
treated with nitric acid, the sulphur separated by filtering,
and the peroxide of copper precipitated by boiling with soda :
80 grains of this precipitate indicate 64 grains of copper.
Tlie solution remaining after the separation of the sul-
phuret of copper is to be boiled to expel the excess of sul-
phuretted hydrogen, and then precipitated by carbonate of
soda : the precipitate, when ignited, is oxide of zinc, 40 grains
of which indicate 32 grains of metallic zinc. (Smith in
Lend, and Edin. Phil. Mag, vol. \\\i.)
BRA'SSIC A, a genus of Cruciferous plants, comprehend-
ing, among other species, the cabbage, caulitlower, brocoli,
borecole, rape, turnip, colza, and the like. As these are ob-
jects of horticultural or agricultural interest only, they will
be spoken of under their respective heads. We shall in
this place consider Brassica in a botanical point of view
only. It is distinguished from other Cruciferous genera
by the following characters :— Its seeds contain an embryo,
the radicle of which is embraced in the concavity of the
folded cotyledons. Its pod is long, slcndci^ ana many-
N«. 316
fXHB PENNY CXCLOPiEDIA,] °'^""®
-*5iV29g'e
BRA
dH
BRA
seeded. The seeds are spherical. The ealyx is equal at the
base and slightly spreading ; the petals are undivided ; the
stamens entire.
In its wild state the caooage (Br, oleracea) is met with in
abundance upon the cliffs of many parU of Europe ; com-
monly in the 8. part of European Turkey, especially about
Mount Athos, on the ooast of Kent near Dover, and on that
of Cornwall, ^Vales and Yorkshire. In other places it forms
a broad-leaved glaucous plant, with a somewhat woody
stem, having but slender likeoess to its cultivated progenv ;
and it is difficult to conceive by what original discovery the
species was brought under the influence of domestication
so as to have been prepared for the numerous changes and
improvements it had to undereo before the races of cab-
bages, savoys, borecoles, cauliflowers and brocolis could
have been founded.
Swedish turnip is supposed to be Br. campesiris in a cul-
tivated state, a plant with somewhat hispid, lyrate, glaucous
leaves, found wild in the S.W. parts of Europe, and appa-
rently also in many parts ef England, by the sides of rivers,
by ditches, in marsnes and elsewhere. It is believed to
have been the Foyy vX<c (g6ng\'hs) of Theophrastus.
Rape, Br, Rapa ; Colza or Coleseed, Br. Napui, are other
species the native country of which is unknown. Common
turnips are considered by botanists to be cultivated varieties
of the former. With some it is a matter of doubt whether
the whole of these supposed species are not mere varieties
derived from one common stock, in consequence of their in-
termixing so freely with each other that it is extremely dif-
ficult to keep their races truly distinct.
BRAVA, the south-westernmost of the Cape Verde
Islands, lies eight miles to the W.S.W. of Fogo. Tbe island
is high, and its mountains rise one above another like pvra-
mids, though, compared with Fogo, it appears low, ana its
summits are generally covered by a dense atmosphere. The
climate is temperate and healthy, and the soil fertile, pro-
ducing a large ouantity of Indian corn, beans, and all sorts
of refireshments, but little wood. There is also an abundance
of salt, and more saltpetre is procured here than on any of
these islands. Brava has several bays and roads, but none
safe for vessels of burden. The best of them, called Fuma,
lies at the N.E. end of the island, where small vessels may
lie sheltered from all whids but the S.W. Along the whole
coast there is generally a heavy surf, and landing is bad.
It is only frequented by small vessels from the other islands
for archil, grain, and salt. The natives are few, and all
blacks. They are harmless, hospitable, and generous.
To the N. of Brava, about five or six miles, are two
rocky islets called Rombo, or Homes Islands, which are
connected with each other by a reef, but the passage be-
tween them and Brava is clear. The shape of the island is
nearly oval, six miles long north and south, and about four
miles broad. The south point lies in 14° 46' N. lat. 24" 46'
W. long.
(Flinders* and Kruzenstern's Foyages; Voyage of the
Leven.)
BRAVU'RA, in music (Ital. courage, intrepidity), an
air consistmg chiefly of difficult passages,— of divisions, in
which many notes are given to one syllable, therefore re-
quiring great spirit, much bravery, in the performer. (See,
under the word Air, Aria di Bravura.)
Compositions of this sort have, generally, no object but
the display of the singer's force, volubility, and distinctness
of articulation ; though some few fine airs of the kind, by
Handel, Hasse, Piccini, Guglielmi, Cimarosa, Mozart, &c.,
still keep alive a taste for this species of vocal music ; and
thus inferior works in the same style continue to be
tolerated.
BRAUNSBERG, a minor circle of the circle of Konigs-
berg, in the prov. of Eastern Prussia. Its area is about
378 sq. m. ; it is traversed bv the Passarge, a riv. of some
note, whose tributaries, the Walsh and Drewenz, also irri-
gate it ; and though it contains extensive tracts of forest, it
is well adapted for the growth of grain and flax, both of
which are raised in considerable quantities. Besides this
source of wealth, it possesses good fisheries along its N.W,
shores on the Frische Haff, produces much timber, rears
cattle, and manufactures linen yarn, linens, woollens, lea-
ther, &c. It contains 4 towns, 178 vil., and 172 par., and
in 1831 had 37,348 inh.; in 1826. 35,354. The seat of
local administration is at Braunsberg, a walled town on the
Passarge within about 5 m. of its efflux into the Haff, in
54° 19' N. lat., and 19® 54' E. long, : it is divided by the riv.
into the old and new towns. The bishop of SmoUnd (a dis-
trict which was formerly composed of the circles of Braui.s-
berg and Heilsberg) has his residence here ; tho old ca>^tU
is used in jiart for public ofiices. Braunsber^ poMes^«-%
a lyoeum, with faculties of Roman Catholic divinity aii'i
{philosophy, a Roman Catholic gymnasium and seiiufi«i%
or candidates for the priesthood, a normal school far edu-
cating teachers, 4 Roman Catholio churches and I Pr«>-
testaot, an asylum for 1 2 widows, and 3 hospitals. 1 hr
number of houses is about 700, and its pop. in l%dl »..«
7141, showing an increase of 1355 since the year !»;;
Woollens and linens, as well as leather, are noanufacturcd .
the trade of the town consists principally in yams^ gniibaw
ship-timber, and grain. The Passarge is navigable fruo
Braunsberg to its mouth. In this circle lies Frauc-n-
burg, on tne Haff, at the foot of the Domberg, on which the
cathedral of Ermeland and the residences of the memUr*
of the diocesan chapter are situated. It is an open tuan
with a churoh, had 2U21 inh. in 1831, makes yarn, woolkn^.
pottery, &c. The remains of Copernicus, who was s
member of the chapter and died here in 1543, wert
deposited in the cathedraL Frauenburg is noted far a
tower which once formed part of an aqueduct coostructoJ
by him. Mehlsack, another town in tliis circle, is situate* i
on the Walsch, has 2 Roman Catholic churches, and h»d
in 1831 a pop, of 2617 souls. It makes woolUna, yarn.
hats, leather, &c,
BRAUWER, or BROUWER. ADRIAN, was bum,
according to some authors, at Oudenaarden, but, accord tiu
to others, at Haarlem, of poor parents. He was apprenti* ' i
to Frank Hals; who, it is said, finding him unoomm«>; »
skilful, made money by his productions, while be kepi L -^
confined and almost star\'ing at home. Brouwer excci.r.l
in painting such scenes as his irregular mode of hving m.itu
him most familiar with. The singular recklessness of L.i
conduct led him into many ludicrous and disagreeable »iiu-
ations. It is related of him that, being in Antwerp dun ml
the wars in the Law Countries, his vagabond appearatM'K
caused him to be apprehended as a spy, and he was put ir.
prison. It so chanced that he was imprisoned in the uo*
place with the Duke d'Aremberg, who was intimate ^ .*.:.
Rubens, and frequently visited by him. Discovering ...»
fellow-captive to be an artist, the duke asked Ruben* t.
procure him materials for painting. As soon as be LaI
them, Brouwer set to work, taking for his subject a irrM.;
of soldiers playing at cards in the prison. D'Aremt*..:
showed the picture to Rubens, who immediately recognui i
the work of Breuwer, and offered 600 guilders for it. Ti<
duke, however, would not part with a thing he found U^ .<
so valuable; but, keeping it for himself, presented Ue
painter with a larger sum. Rubens exerted his intcr^^t,
and procured the liberation of his brother artist, took L ui
home with him, clothed him, and maintained him fur ^ ;:..»
time. But a life of quiet was not suited to Brouwer, and ;.<*
quitted Rubens again to plunge into excesses, which short) v
after terminated his existence in an hospital, at the age 1(
32, in the]^ear 1640.
His subjects are taken from low life, of the most u*;*
pleasing class; but from the extraordinary skill dispU«r-i
in the execution, the excellent colouring, ihe correct dras -
ing, and the life and character of the design, they fet^-i: a
high price.
BRAY. [Bkrkshirb.]
BRAY. [WiCKLOw.]
BRAZIL comprehends the E. portion of S. Amcr> a.
Its most N. point, at the sources ot the Rio Branco, nea: t
reaches 5° N. lat.; and the mouth of the Rio Oajap^i*.
which divides it from French Guiana, extends nearh a* f -r
N. The most S. boundary-line cuts the lake of Minm. .:«
32" 30' S. lat. The most E. projection. Cape Aufcu^am. ».
is in nearly 35^ W. long. Brazil extends W. to the r.x. r
Hyabary or Yavari, where ite boundarv-lino falls ia l-
known countries, and probably pa^ises 7Cr W. long.
Brazil extends from N. to S. above 2600 m., and ffucu ^
to W. about 2400 m.; its surface is calculated by noanr n
3,000,000, bv others at only 2.500,000 sq. m. Accocdine • •
the first calculation it is about fourteen, according U> U"
second, about twelve times as large as France.
Its vast extent brings it in contact with all the countm •
of South America, except Chih and Patagonia. At it» S
extremity it borders on the republic of Uraguav Orici.tj..
or Banda Oriental, and on the republics of Corneote» ar.i
Las Missionea, both of which are considered as jiaxt ol um
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Meral itpiMlo of La Plate* FWmb Pangnay it it
ratad partly by the Rio Parana and ita tributery Ivinheima,
and imrtly by a range of high lands which terminate on
tha banka of the Paragnay. The bonndaiy-line pastes
that riv^ and runs in a N.W. direetion along the un-
known portion of Bolivia, till it meets the Rio Guapor6
(about 13° 8. lat.)» by whicb river Brazil is separated from
Bolivia as &r as ita oonlluenee wiUi the Mamord, which
latter eontinues to form the boundary-line up to ito iunotion
with the Bent At this point begins the bonndary-line
between Brasil and Peru, but it traverses eonntries entirely
unknown, and is supposed to run due W. along the parallel
of 11° 8. lat, as for as the Hyabary, and then to the N.
along the course of this riv. to ito junction with the Rio
Amazonas. The boundary-line between Ecuador and
Brazil runs doe N. about GS*" 40^ W. long, ftom the Rio
Amazonas, to nearly 1° N. lat, and thence B. to the Rio
Brancot a tributery of the Rio Negro. The remainder of
the boundary-line runs N.E. along the mountain range
which separates the upper branches of the Rio Branoo from
those of the Orinoco, and turns at the sources of the former
to the E., extending hence along the Sierra Baracayna to
the sources of the Mazarony, where Brazil begins to border
on the British settlemente in Essequibo and Demarara.
This boundary in all its extent is formed by a mountein-
range. It runs at first S.S.B. and then E., until it joins
the Dutch colony of Surinam, and afterwards the French
settlement of Cayenne. Where the mountein-iange ceases
the Rio Oayapock constitutes the boundary between Brazil
and French Guiana to ite mouth. On the N.E. and E.
Brazil is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean.
The coast, which is probably little short of 4000 m., pre-
sente various appearances. From Cape 8. Maria in Ura-
guay, to the Mono de S. Marta (about 31^ S. lat.), an ex-
tent of upwards of 300 m., the coast is low, sandy, and
intersected by the outlets of numerous lakes, which skirt the
shores in all this extent, in which it trends from 8.W. to
N.E. At the Morro de S. Marte, where it runs to the N.,
it begins to be rocky, but rises only to any considerable
height to the N. of the island of S. Catherine. From the
island of 8. Francesco it trends to the N.E., and Irom the
harbour of Santos to Cape Frio it runs nearly due E. ; and
thence to the bay of Espirito Santo N.E. In all this extent
of nearly 1000 m. the coast is rocky, and in some parte
rather high ; it has a great number of indentations and
excellent harbours, generallr surrounded by flate of mo-
derate extent. The most rocky and highest part is between
Santos and Cape Frio.
From the bay of Espirito Santo to Bahia de Todos os
Santos, the shores extend neariy S. and N. ; this portion of
about 600 m., is in general low and level, especially between
the mouth of the Rio Dooe and the small rtver Buranhen ;
to the N. of the latter it commonly rises from four to six
yards in height, but is generally level ; towards Cape S.
Antonio it sinks bwer. Along this coast, in about 18** 8.
lat, at a distence of i^m 25 to 30 m., extend the rocky
banks of the Abrolhos ; the coasting vessels commonly pass
between them and the shores.
The ooasto of the E. projection of Brazil firom Cape S.
Antonio neariy to the mouth of the river Pamahyba are of
moderate height, rising perhaps nowhere above 30 ft., but
they contain no harbours, except those formed by the
mouths of the riv. This extent may be upwards of 800 m.
The remainder of the shore, from the mouth of the Pama-
hyba to that of the Amazonas, isextremeljr low and manhy,
a few sandy hills rising on it at great dutances from one
another. In all this extent of about 700 m. there are few
harbours.
To the N. of the Rio Amazonas die eoast is rather sandy
and somewhat higher, though of inconsiderable elevation.
Some parte are subject to a sudden rise of the sea at spring
tides, which phenomenon is called poror6ea. [Bobs.] This
coast extends about 400 miles.
The surface of Brazil is divided between upland and low-
land. As the boundaries of the two regions have been
ascerteined only in a few places, it is not possible to este-
blidh the proportions of each ; but a| a rough calculation it
may be assumed, that they occupy neariy equal portions,
the upland extending over the E. and central part, and the
lowlands principaUy along both sides of the lUo Amazonas,
with a smaller portion on the shores, and on the S.W. border.
High mounteins advance neariy to the shores between
the bay of Santos and Cape Frio. This range, the higher
sommite of whieh are haidiy anvwhera more than 90 m.
from tha coast, is called Serra do Mar (the sea range). The
highest summite ris» to about 3500 ft., and the passes
over it to from 2000 to 2500 ft. This range continues to
the S., but 8. of the bay of Santos it recedes to about 60 or
80 m. from the coast It is here occasionally called Serra
Cubatao, and runs first S.W. and then S., to a point oppo-
site the Mono de 8. Marte, where at the sources of the
Rio Uraguay it turns W., and advancing in that direction
about 200 m., terminates on the banks of the Rio Uruguay
to the N. of the junction of the Ibecuy-gua9U with it.
From the 8. side d this W. chain an elevated table-land
extends 8. between the riv. Uraguay and the shores, and
eontinues in Uraguay Oriental, where it terminates near
the vast mouth of the riv. La Plata, with the Punta Negra
and Cape de 8. Maria. This table-land, which in some
places is called Serra dos Tappes, is of moderate height, but
considerable width, approaching the banks of the Uraguay
within a short distance, but remaining about 100 m. n^m
the E. shores. A few low hills rise upon it. This table-
land may be considered as the most 8. and narrowest
portion of the upland of Brazil.
Another and higher range of mountains runs nearly
parallel to tibe Serra do Mar, at a distance of about 40 or
60 m. from the sea. It begins to the N.W. of the town of
St Paolo, where it is called Serra de laragua, and advanc-
ing thence to the N.E. it becomes higher, and is called
Serra da Mantigueira. It afterwards turns N., and conti-
nues in that direction to the town of Villa Rica, where it
may be considered to terminate with Mount Itaoolumi, being
divided from the range extending farther to the N. by a
deep but narrow depression. At the source of the Rio
Tiete, a tributery of the Parana, this range is united to the
Serra do Mar by a tract of high ground. It conteins the
highest moonteins of Brazil, which are situated where it
begins to run due N. between the sources of the Rio
Grande, the principal branch of the Parana, and the Rio
Preto, a small tributary of the Parahyba. The Pico dos
Orgaos rises to 7786 ft, the Morro de Papagaio to 7466 ft.,
and another summit which has not yet been distinguished
by any name, to 8426 ft. The Itacolumi is 6080 ft. high.
Iiie passes across this chain rise to upwards of 3000 ft.
To the N. of Villa Rica the chain again rises and r- ti-
nues to the N., declining by degrees some pointe to the £.
till it reaches the banks of the Rio de S. Francesco, which
breaks through the chain, where it forms the cataract called
Cachoeira (fsdl) de Santo Affbnso. This chain, which had
not obtained any peculiar name among the inhabitants, is
now called Serra Espinhago. It is of considerable height
in ite S. part but does not attain that of the Serra Manti-
gueira; ite highest summit the Itamb6, near Villa do
Principe, rises only to the height of the Itacolumi In
proceeding N. it sinks considerably, and hardly any summit
in the prov. of Bahia rises to 4000 ft, while the passes do
not exceed 1800 ft. This chain remains generally 150 m.
ftvm the coast but ite offsete m some places approach it
within 20 miles.
North of the great cataract of Affonso the moun
tains, called here Serra Araii^pe or dos Cayriris, rise again
to a considerable elevation, and form between 7^ and ^ S.
lat a table-land of considerable extent, from which several
ranges of high hills are detached to the E. and N., some of
which terminate at no great distance from the shore between
the Rio 8. Francesco and the Rio Paraahyba. The most
considerable of these lateral ranges are the Serra Borbordma,
which separates the prov. of Rio Grande do Norte from that
of S£ar4 and the Serra Ibumaba, which constitutes the
boundary between Seari and Piauhy. The elevation of no
one point in this mountain-system, which covers the greater
part of the B. projection of Brazil, has been determined by
measurement though some portion of it rises to a consider-
able height
From ite S.W. comer a mountain-range of moderate
elevation runs S.W. along the Rio 8. Francesco, and then
W. to the sources of the Rio Pamahyba, where it turns N.,
and running in that direction at a distance of from 40 to 60
m. fiom the Rio Tocantins, terminates with a range of low
hills at about 180 m. above the mouth of that riv. Between
the Sertao of Pemambuco and the prov. of I^auhy the
passes rise to between 1200 and 1300 ft. above the sea.
To the W. of the range mnning N. and S., and to that
of the Serras Espinhafo, da Mantigueira, and de Cubatab
extends the upland of ^zil far into the interior of South
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America, but it ff rowa narrower as it runs W. Its N. boun-
dary is indicated by the falls in the rivs. which carry their
waters to the Rio Amazonas. These waterfalls occur in the
Toeantins, at about 3P 30' in the Xingii, at about 4'' 20' in
the Tapajos south of 6^, and in the Madeira south of 8° S.
lat : a line drawn through these points separates the low-
lands of the Rio Amazonas from the upland of Brazil.
It is more difficult to determine the S. boundary-Hne of the
upland ; but it seems that it extends from the Morro de S.
Marta in a W.N.W. direction to the Salto da Vittoria, the
ffreat waterfall of the riv. Iguassu, situated a few m. from
the place where that riv. falls into the ParanL It then
fallows the course of that riv. up to the cataract, called the
Sete Quedas (24^ aO' S. lat.), and hence it runs along the
high ground which separates the affluents of the Parana and
the upper branches of the Toeantins and Xingil from those
of the Rio Paraguay, till it meets at the sources of the last-
mentioned riv., the Serra dos Paricis, along which it runs
at first to the W., and afterwards to the N.W., terminating
at some distance from the continence of the Mamor6 with
the Beni. By this boundary-line the lowlands on the Para-
guay and 6uapor6 are divided from the high table-lands of
the Parana and Upper Tapajos.
The extensive space enclosed within these boundaries is
properly a table-land of considerable elevation, but an un-
even surface. It does not rise to such a height as the table-
land of Anahuac in Mexico, but it surpasses in elevation the
highest table-lands of Europe, those of Bavaria, and Swit-
zerland, and even that in the centre of the Spanish penin-
sula. The mountain-ranges which traverse it rise only to
a comparatively small elevation above the plain.
The highest portion of the table-land seems to lie con-
tiguous to the range of mountains which divides the upper
branches of the Rio S. Francesco and of the atlluents
of the Rio Amazonas from those which fall into the Parana
and Paraguay. This extensive range, which has lately been
named Serra dos A^crtentes (the watershed range), begins
about 60 m. S. of Villa Rica, at the Serra da Mantiguttira,
between tiie sources of the Paraopeba, an upper branch of
the Rio S. Francesco and the Rio Grande, an affluent of
tJic Parana (about 20° 30' S. lat.) It frequently changes its
direction and makes numerous bends, but runs in general
to the N.W. and terminates at some distance from the con-
fluence of the Mamord and Beni (about 1 1" S. lat.) In
different districts it has different names. Between the
sources of the Rio Francisco and the Rio Grande it is
called Serra C&ncstra and Serra Marcella, and at the sources
of the Toeantins. Seii-a dos Pyrineos. These, the highest
portion of the Serra dos Vertentes, rise to 3500 ft. and
upwards. The ranges farther to the W. are lower. The
Serra Seiada divides the upper branches of the Araguay, a
tributary of the Toeantins, from those of the Pardo, a con-
fluent of the Parana ; and the Serra dos Paricis, the Tapajos
from the Paraguay; and the N.W. branch of the latter the
Tapajos from tho Guapor6. The latter ranges probably
never attain 3000 ft. At the ^lace where the Serra Paricis
turns to the N. it sends off a branch to the S.S.W., which,
after a course of about 180 m., terminates in the plains of
Chiquitos in Bolivia. This range, which is called Serra
Agoapehy, divides the affluents of the Paraguay from the
Ubahy, a tributary of tho Guapor6, and, consequently, of
the Madeira, and seems not to rise to the height of the
Serra Paricis.
That portion of Brazil which, lying to the S. of the Serra
dos Vertentes, borders on the W. on the Serra Agoapehy, and
on the E. on the Serra Cubatao, is divided into two portions
by a range of heights extendins between 52° and 57° E.
long, from the Serra Seiada southwards between the afflu-
ents of the Paraguay and ParaniL It enters the Paraguay
and sends a branch eastwards, which terminates at the great
waterfalls of the Parani, called Sete (Juedas. The country
to the E. of this range is the high table-land of the Parang,
that to the W. the lowland of the Paraguay.
The lowland of the Paraguay, with the exception of the
lather rapid descent of the enclosing mountains and a few
hills or short ranges in the interior of the plain, presents nearly
a level countiy, which declines imperceptibly towards the
banks of the riv. Paraguay, where it terminates in swampy
flats many miles wide. Near the rivs. it is covered wirli
high trees, but the intervening spaces are grassy plains of
considerable extent, here and there interrupted by barren
tracts. This immense plain, which, though situated in tho
centre of America, hardly attains an elevation of 1000 ft^ is
extremely hot and sulQeot to kmg^ooatinned df6iiffliia» wbir h
cause great mortality among men and eattk. Thm mm
commonly begin at the end of October, and oontkius to
April or May. They are acoompanted by vioUni thttnd«r«
storms, and most abundant rains towaids the end of lb*
season, when they cause the rivt. to overflow the adjaocnf
low grounds.
The principal riv., and that which is the receptoels of all
the waters collected in this plain, the Paraguay, riaes on tM
top of the Serra Paricis in the Sete Lagoaa (seven lakes),
which are at a short distance from one another* and con*
municato by narrow channels. Isauing from the bst of
these lakes the riv. flows through a swampy eoootry in a
N. direction for a short space, when it winds round by the
W. and takes a S. course. It deaoends from the ran^e with
a rapid course, receiving from the E. and W. a greet nnosbec
of small streams, until it arrives in the plain, about ISO m.
from its source : but its course still farther down is bfokm
in some places by low falls, which however cease mt its een*
fluence with the Sipotuba* its first considerable tributaiy,
which joins it on the right bank. From this point its waters
are deep, and navigable for vessels of considefafaJe »iMe.
Farther down it receives, on the right, <he Jaorn* which
likewise rises in the Serra Panda, and at about the middle
of its course is joined by tlie Agoapehy, whidi origineftes
in the Serra Agoapehy. Opposite the conltuenca of the
Jauri^ is a range of elevated land, which ceases about 'IS
m. lower down, at a point called Escalvada (16' 4</ N. Ut.i.
where both margins of the riv. begin to be flat and luw
and interspersed with lakes. The bw countrv extends to a
great distance on both sides of the riv. ; and of the lakes
some are of considerable extent, especially thtee celled
Oberaba, Grahyba, and Mandiore, which lie on the tight
bank, and are from 10 to 15 m. in diameter. They are
separated from the riv. by rocky clilEi, but united to it bt
narrow channels which diWde the cUffs. In about 2 1° S(/ H.
lat. a chain of small mountains on both sides eoroe close on
the Paraguay, by which its waters are contracted, and floe
with great rapidity in two channels, separated by a rorkti
isl. of considerable length. This place, which is calWti
Fecho dos Morros (the barricade of rocks), terminates tbt
swampy and low margin of the riv. At the end of the
rainy season, when the rains are very ebondant, and the
Paraguay cannot carry them off by its narrow channels at
the Fecho dos Morros, the whole of the low grounii is Isil
under water, and forms a lake, nearly 700 m. in lencth and
from 70 to 150 m. in width, which covers a surface uont a>
large as Lake Superior in Canada. In September hovcxrr
the waters are entirely carried oflf, and the whole sur&ee i%
again laid dry. Tbis temporary lake is called Xarayes, and
indicated in some more antient maps as a true lekcL A
considerable portion of the inundated land is covered with a
kird of wild rice, on which innumerable flooka of waur-
fowl, especially of geese, feed ; and the boatmen whiie
passing shake off from the ears, which are always aboT«
the water, as much as they please.
During its course through this low plain the Parairvay is
joined on the left by two considerable tributaries, the Rio de
S. Loureufo and the Taooary. The 8. Loureneo, which
rises to the E. of the upper branches of the Para^usv.
is not inferior in length to tlie principal river, and runs in a
S. W direction upwards .of 400 m., receiving about 100 m.
from its mouth the Cujaba, which flows about 300 m. Both
rivers are navigated to a considerable extent Th9 Taro«r% .
whose whole course may not exceed 300 ra., rites wiib tu
numerous branches in the mountains £. of the plain ; and
though its navigation is rendered difficult by numcsra*
waterfalls, it facilitates the communication of the intrrntjl
provinces of Brazil. At the Fecho dos Morros the Pankgv.*?
leaves Brazil and enters the republic of Paraguay.
The table-land of the Parang wnich extends on the
E. of the lowland of the Paraguay, is everywhere >ar*
rounded by mountain ranges. To the W. is the diwni
which divides the affluents of the Plarani from thr^e
of the Paraguay, to the N. the Serra dos Vertentes V)
the £. the Serra da Mantigueira and the Serra fi.-
batab, and to the S. a range which (about 26^ S. bt »
detaches itself from the Serra Cubatao and extends \V.
along the Iguassi^ to the Salto da Vittoria. Onl} in ' . ?
comparatively short space between this Salto of tlie Igu:ft>*u
and the Sete Quedas of the Parani the region i» ofv:.
towards the repubUc of Paraguay, from which it is scjara'^*.
by the Parau4.
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The tftble-knd of the Pbi«ii& is very'vinewn alon? its
N.B. and N. border, where the offiets of the Serra da Man-
tigueira, Serra de Canastra, Serra do Mareella, and Serra
doe Pyrineoe extend many miles ; but the remainder is a
plain, presenting extensive levels, interrupted at great dis-
tances by hills of very gentle ascent and small elevation.
The eastern and higher portion of the table-land is 2000'ft.
and upwards above the level of the sea, but it is not known
how much it declines on the banks of the Parandi, which
runs through the least elevated portion of the table-land.
Trees occur only on the declivities of the mountain ranges
and in the lower tracts along the course of the rivers : the
forests cover probably less than ono-third of the surface.
The plains are omrgrown by a coarse but nourishing grass,
here and there interseoted by low bushes and a few small
isolated trees. They serve as pasture for the innumerable
herds of cattle, horses and mules, which constitute the
riches of this portion of Brazil. Agriculture, though in a
comparatively low state, is more attended to than in many
other districts of Brasil, but it is principally limited to the
culture of mandiooca, maize, and different kinds of beans ;
rice is grown in some places and the sugarnsane on the low-
lands along the rivers. Pine-apples, as well as the fruits
of Europe and the vine, thrive verjr well. Among the fruit
trees peculiar to this region is the jaouticaba {Myrtua cauii-
/lorti. Mart), vrhose fruit gives a palatable wine. Iii the S.
district wheat and flax are grown with success. The vari-
ation in the temperature is greater than in those parts which
lie near the equator ; but neither the heat nor the cold is
ever excessive. In the winter (from May to October) hoar
frost is onlv frequent near the mountains, and never occur^i
in the plams. The average heat is between 60'' and 70^,
and even in the summer it rarely rises above 8HP, During
the winter the winds blow from S.S.W. and S.E., but in
summer they are irregular. The rain begins in the E. dis-
tricts in October or November and lasts to April ; it is most
abundant in January, and then always accompanied by fog
during the morning. Farther to the W. on the plains it
begins later. First it rains only during night, afterwards
in the afternoon, and* then alternately in the night and in
the day ; sometimes for days and even weeks without ces-
sation.
These abundant rains feed a number of large rivers,
which traverse the table-land from E. to W., having most
of them their sources in the ranges, which divide it from
the shores: they all unite their waters with those of the
Paran4. The farthest branches of that large river rise in
the mountainous country, where the Serra da Mantigueira
unites with the Serra da Canastra. The most distant
branch is the Rio Gnude, which, rising where the Serra da
Mantigueira turns to the N., at first flows N. and then N.W.
for a considerable space ; afterwards it turns to the W. and
continues some hundred miles in that direction, declining
somewhat to the S. towards its junction with the Paranahyba.
In this coarse it receives on the left bank three considerable
tributaries, the Sapucahy, the Pardo, and the Mogi, each of
which descends through the plains from the S., and runs
upwards of 200 ra. At the confluence with the Paranahyba
the Rio Grande has already had a course of upwards of 500
m., and then its name is changed into that of Paranli. The
Paranahyba rises in the Serra dos Pyrineos, receives in its
course .the Gorumbli, and joins the Rio Grande after a
coarse of upwards of 350 m. Many miles below this con-
fluence the Parang forms a considerable cataract, called
Urubii Punga, and lower down it receives the Tietd, which
trarerses neariy Uie middle of the plains. The last-men-
tioned river rises at no great distance from the shores of the
Atlantic in the western declivity of the Serra de Cubatfi),
and runs upwards of 400 m. Though its navigation is ren-
dered very difficult by numerous rapids and waterfalls, this
river has till now been more navigated than any other in the
interior of Brazil. Between the Punga Urubd and the
Sete Quedas the Parani receives besides the Tiete two
other large tributaries, the Pardo on the right, and the
Parannapamena on the left, both running about 300 m.
The Pardo, which rises in the Serra Seiada, was formerly
much navigated in spite of its numerous rapids and falls.
In this tract the F^ranik forms many large islands, of which
the largest are the llha Comprida (Long Island), upwards
of 20 m. in length, and the llha Grande, which is not
much less than 70 m. in length and of considerable width.
The llha Grande terminates 4 m. above the Sete Quedas (or
Seven Falls). Below the S. extremity of the llha Grande
the Pamni is nearly 4 m. wide, but at the falls the bed of
the river is contracted to about 50 fathoms. The immense
volume of the river is then divided into seven channels,
formed by six small islands of rock, and precipitated down
the ledges with a current of indescribable fury and awful
noise. This cataract impedes all communication by water
between the table-land and the countries below it. To the
S. of the Sete Quedas, the Parani continuing to the S.
still receives a large tributary, the Iguassu or Igua9a, which
rises about 70 m. from the coast, and traversing a mouu-
tainous country forms at a short distance from its mouth the
great cataract called Salto da Viltoria, and joins the Parang
after a course of nearly 300 m. After tliis junction the
river still runs S., then turns to the W., and falls into the
Paraguay after a course of above 1000 m.
To the S. of the table-land of the Parang extends a
smaller one of a similar description on both sides of the
Upper Uraguay, which is called Campos da Vacaria (cattle-
field), being destitute of trees and covered with fine grass*
which rendera it favourable to the rearing of cattle. Its
elevation above the sea, from which it is divided by a
chain of mountains, is not known, but it appears to be
considerable. The riv. Uraguay, which rises in the moun-
tains near the coast, traverses it in all its extent, flowing
W.N.W. and W. till it enters the plain of the Missiones.
The S. extremity of Brazil, which extends S.W. of the
Campos da Vacaria, contains two plains, one lying on the
N.W. along the riv. Uraguay and the other on the S.E.
along the sea-shore. They are divided by a high ground of
great breadth but of inconsiderable elevation, which is called
Serra dos Tapnes. The surface of the high ground extends
in spacious ana nearly level plains, here and there interrupted
by small hills. This upper part is entirely without trees,
and covered only by coarse grass and bushes ; but on the
declivities and in the valleys formed by the offsets of the high
ground, many fine trees occur. The valleys are also the
only places in which there is any agriculture, and this is
nearly confined to the raising of wheat and maize.
To the N.W. of this high ground extends along the
banks of the Uraguay the plain of the Missiones/which
received its name from the seven missiones established hero
by the Jesuits. This plain is very little known, but seems
to be well adapted to the cultivation of different kinds of
grain, as well as of cotton and of fnaite or tea of Paraguay.
The riv. Uraguay, which forms its north-western boundary,
and divides it nom the Missiones Of La Plata, is here na*
vigable in all its extent, though it has some rapids.
The plain along the sea-shores extends from S.W. to
N.B. upwards of 200 m., with an average breadth of be-
tween 50 and 60 m. It is nearly a level, rising but little
and imperceptibly towards the high ground on the west.
Its soil towards the coast is sandy, with a substratum of
clay, and produces grass, but no trees. Farther inland the
soil is better, but the country still without trees. The most
remarkable of the numerous lakes on this coast is the Lagoa
dos Patos, one of the largest in South America, which took
its name fVom a tribe of Indians. It extends 150 m. in
length from S.W. to N.B., and 35 at its greatest width, so
that it there occupies about half of the pUiin. It has suf-
ficient depth for vessels of a middling size, but some very
dangerous shoals. The water is salt in the southern part.
It is the recipient of almost all the currents that travene
the plain, and receives, about 12 m. from its northern ex-
tremity, the lacuhy, a winding riv., which rises on the
southern extremity of the Campos da Vacaria, and drains a
country adapted to agriculture. About 1 5 m. from its em-
bouchure, tne lacuhy forms a spacious bay on its eastern
margin, on which the town of Portalegre is situated. At
the S. extremity the lake of Patos receives the Rio de
St Gon9a1o, which is properly only the outlet of the lake
Mirim. This riv. is about 50 m. long, wide, and navigable.
The S. part of the lakes Mirim and Mangueira belongs to
Uraguay. [Band a Orixiital.]
The lake Dos Patos discharges its waters into the sea by
the Rio Grande de St. Pedro, which flows about 10 m. almost
N. and S., and is nearlv 3 m. in width. The mouth of this
riv. is full of shoals, which are the more dangerous as they
are subject to be frequently changed b> the tides.
This part of Brazil, extending between 28° and 33°, enjoys
a temperate climate Uke that of Spain or Italy ; the air is
pure and healthy. In the valleys and on the plain, frost
very rarely occura : on the high ground it is annually felt
for one or two months : but as very Uttle snow falls, the^
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eattlA find puture all the year round. From May to Oet.
the rains are abundant.
The low country between the shores of the Atlantic and
the first mountain range, from the Morro de St. Marta on the
B. to Cape St. Antonio, near Bahia, on the N., extends in
some plaoes 100 and even 120 m. inland, as between the
Rio Doce and the Bahia de Todos oa Santos. In other
places the mountains approach the sea within 1 5 or 20 m.,
as between the bay of Santos and Cape Frio. North of the
Rio Dooe, a level county extends upwards of 80 m. inland,
but to the W. of Capo Frio the hills approach so near the
sea, that their lower extremity is washed by the high tides,
and the traveller can only pass at low water.
Except the comparatively small tracts which have been
cultivated by European settlers and their descendants, the
sides of the mountains and the hills and plains are covered
by interminable foresU, extending even in the valleys along
the banks of the rivers nearly to their sources on the high
laud. North of Cape Frio, the trees and plants peculiar to
a tropical climate are common, but south of it they occur
less frequently. The soil is in most places of great fertility,
and produces sugar, coffee, eotton, and cacao» mandiocca,
maise, and rice in abundance.
The riv. in this tract are very numerous, but have a short
course^ seldom exceeding 100 m. They are generally na-
vigable to 30, 50, or even 60 m. inland. The banks of
nearly all of them are skirted by low ground, which are in-
undated after the rains have begun. The riv. begin to rise
in Nov., and the inundation ceases in the middle or towards
the end of Jan. : in some it lasts two months, in others only
a fortnight. As the mouths of these riv. are commonly
formed by a soft soil, they are subject to many changes,
which are produced by the variable winds and by the current
prevailing on this coast. The largest of these riv. are the
Parahyba, the Doce and the Rio Belmonte.
The waters brought down by the Doce preserve their
freshness for a considerable distance into the ocean, and
hence it has received the name of Dooe, soft or fresh.
The Rio Belmonte, in traversing a mountainous range
called Serra doe Aimores, is contracted by two high steep
rocks, and descends on a sudden from a height of more
than 120 ft. with tremendous noise into a whirlpool. Fifteen
m. lower down, it has a little fall, ailer which it flows
through a flat and wooded country to the sea, describing
various windings, with a current rapid and wide but of little
depth. It contains many flat islands, and receives no con-
siderable stream after it descends the fall. About 20 m.
from the sea, the Rio Belmonte is united to the Rio Patvpe,
its nearest neighbour to the N. by a natural channel called
Salsa.
This country, though mostly within the tropics, enjoys a
moderate climate. In Porto Seguro the medium heat, ac-
cording to Freyreiss, is only 70 j° Fahrenheit, but at Rio
Janeiro 74^, which he attributes to the neighbourhood
of the rocky mountains. At the latter place, however, the
thermometer occasionally rises to 100^ and 110^, even to
12U^. In summer (Dec, Jan., and Feb.), the average heat
St noon is 86°, and in the morning 72^ ; and in the winter
(June, July, and August), it is 72° at noon, and in the
morning 59°. Another peculiarity is the great humidity,
which arises probably partly from the country being almost
entirely covered with high trees and exuberant vegetation,
and partly from the regular change of the land and sea
winds. The sea winds commonly begin at noon, rarely
sooner, more frequently at two o'clock, and blow till night-
fall. In the other parts of the day the winds from the W.
prevail. The effect of this great humidity of the atmosphere
is that the coast of Brazil has not such a regular suc-
cession of dry and rainy seasons as other tropical countries.
No part of the year is entirely exempt from rain, though
the winter is often dry and the sky cloudless ; and the rains
in the summer are generally very abundant, especially in
January. In summer, thunder is ^*ery frequent, and always
accomnanied with violent storms, which, however, never
cause damage to be compared with that of the hurricanes
in the West Indies. H ad-stones never fall.
The Serra Espinha^, which bounds on the W. the coun-
tries on the shoi^, divides them from the highest part of the
table-land of Brazil. This extensive country, which extends
W. to the N. branch of the Serra Paricis, is, as fsir as we
know, an uneven plain, on which numerous hills, sometimes
isolated, sometimes in groups, and sometimes in ranges,
rise to a moderate height, commonly with a gentle ascent.
Along the watereoafses are depressions or valleya, b^t
generally of smalt extent The plain is at an elevation -4
f^om 2000 to 2500 ft.« and the hills rise above it only a ft-w
hundred, and perhaps never more than 1000 ft. Tlif
valleys descend towatds the S., where they approach t?.«
Serra dos Vertentes, a few hundred feet below the let^l nf
the plain, but farther to the N. still more. The sur&c« iT
the plain, as well as of the hills, is in some places coTer«"{
with sand, and in others with bare sandstone rocks, but it n
generally clothed with a coarse grass, bushes, and sir.;:.'*
standing trees. In summer these trees and bushes >!:«.* i
their leaves, and as the gmss in most places is wither- 1
at the same time, the country has a dismal aspect B.t
the vallevs along the watercourse have a much more fert :>>
soil, and here the hi^h trees and thick fbliage wl.i u
cover the maritime districts occur again. These valleys zt>-
adapted to culture and for raising nearly all the products .i
the coast. The plains yield only pasture Ibr cattle.
This plain is drained by four riTers of considerv^ ' :
extent, the S. Francesco, the Tocantins, the Xingd, Kni
the Tapajos. The upper branches of the 8. FranrcH'i
rise on the N. deoUvity of the Serra dosVcrtenres abM**
3000 ft. above the sea, and between 21^ and 20' S. 1 it
They are principally two; the Paraooeba, end that tn : •
properly called the 8. Francesco, which unite af\cr *
course of above 150 m. in about 19** 20^ 8. tat, wlu-. •
their level is 1897 ft. above the sea. The riv. then tf •-
in a nearly due N. direction to its junction with •
Rio das Velhas (S. of 17° S. lat.) ; but before reachintr t «
point, it forms the cataracts of Rrapora. At the junr-.
with the Rio das Velhas it is 1708 ft. above the sea. The R
das Velhas rises in the neighbourhood of Villa Rica, on x
N. declivities of the Serra Mantigueira, and runs u;-
wards of 250 m. From this point the Francesco r
tinues to flow N. with a slight declination to the K.. an'i
current is much less rapid. At loazeiro, 7^ of lat from .1-
junction with the Rio das Velhas, it is still 1000 ft sic w
the sea, so that in a space measuring in a straight '
nearly 500 m., it has only a fall of about 700 ft .It ha« brr«
numerous windings, and is navigable down Ito Virz-r.
Redonda, where the navigation is interrupted by set«>*
falls. In all this course it is not joined by anv e.i * •
derable tributary, and on its banks there extend for a!*
250 m. salt steppes, in which the mineral appears m t
form of an efflorescence, and is collected by the
Vargem Redonda is about 300 m. below loaxeiro, foIl->« - .
the course of the riv. Not far from this place the r:-.
narrowed by high rocky cliffs on both sides, runs with -r *
rapidity, and forms several fklls, of which the Cachoeirj i
Affonso, the most considerable, is said to be 50 ft .
perpendicular height The cataracts and rapids octl: ^ .
space of nearly 70 m. and terminate at the Aldea do Cari . r
whence a road leads to Var^m Redonda fbr the tr.. -
port of merchandise into the interior of Brazil. Fr.m f
Aldea do Caninde to its mouth, the riv. runs still a^- *
200 m., and its navigation is not interrupted, but the cur:.
is rapid. Though a deep riv. in tlie mterior of the r -
tinent, the Rio de S. Francesco enters the sea by two •
paratively shallow mouths of unequal size, of which th* N
and the larger is nearly 2 m. wide, but with so Uttlc dcr*
that only vessels of 60 tons* burden can enter it at !. . .
water, and must wait for the fhll tides to go out The :. .
ascends it about 50 m., and it rises at villB de Pim^i .
where the riv. is about 1 m. wide, 3 ft. at fall and chan»:.
The inundations are considerable, especially above \he \ i -
The riv. begins to rise in Nov., and oontmues hsini; i ..
Feb. Being skirted in most places by low and level trac ^
its waters cover the country along its banks to tbe <h«tx*
of 15 or 20 m., and in some places it penetrates -^r
farther by means of some channels, by which the a^ifj i
hills are divided fh)m one another. The current dur. .*
this period is so rapid in the middle of the riv^ that i
barges make nearly 100 m. in 24 hours down die sin :-
These inundations fertilize the country, and are particui. ■
favourable to the cultivation of the sugar-cane. The p .
on its banks is increasing rapidly. The whole coarse
the Rio de S. Francesco may be above 1300 m^ ani
may be compared with the Volga.
The Rio Tocantins is divided (torn the Rio de S. Tt -
cesco, not by a chain of high mountains, but b; a t^:
land, which towards the upper branches of the riv,, an.l ^ .
towards its confluence with the Araguav, is overtoppKnl .
groups of hills of considerable heigfatT' lie upper braoc^^»
gitized by V^:jC
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of the ToGaatiiu lica in the Montes dot Pyrineoe «nd in the
SerrA Doirada, both jiortioos of the Serra dos Vertentes.
In the Sem Doirada rises the UnibOi, which is considered
as tlie true source of the rtr., and aAer a course of 70 m.,
joins the Rio Almas, which is not inferior to it» and de-
scends from the Montes doe Pyrineoe. The riv, preserves
the name of Rio Almas to its confluence with the Maran-
blo. which joins it 90 m. ftirther down. The Maranhao
hies in lake Formosa, which is 15 m. in lentrth, and two in
width, and flows to the W. and then to the Is. Hence the
united riv. is called Maranhao, to its junction with the Fa-
ranatin^a, about 140 m. lower down (12° 200 • The Para-
natinga is formed by the junction of two considerable riv.,
the Paranam and the ralma, the former of which flows
nearly 300 m. Hence the riv. is called Tocantins, and be-
comes navigable at the Porto Real de Pontal, where it is
374 fathoms wide. The number of its affluents lower down
is great, but none of them is very considerable, except the
Rio Araguay, which joins it at about 5° S. lat. Before
the Tocantins arrives at tSis point, its nav^tion is inter-
rupted by some cataracts, between 7° and 6 > among which
the most considerable are the Cachoeira de S. Bartolomeo
or das tres Barras, and the Cachoeira de S. Antonio. After
its junction with the Rio Araguay Uxe Tocantins flows
between rocks and cliffs, forming many rapids and small
cataracts, and this part of its course is oilled the channel of
Taniri. Issuing £rom this channel, it has near Itaboca
(3^ 30') more considerable cataracts, which rise above one
another like terraces, and then tne riv. enters the low
country skirting the Amasonas. Its whole course is in a N.
direction : at about T 30' S. lat it unites with the 8. branch
of the Rio das Amazonas, and takes the name of Rio da
Par4. At the point of junction is an island, about 15 m,
long, and low and flat, called Uarandiy, which divides the
mouth of the Tocantins into two arms ; of which the S. is
called Bahia de Marapat^, and the W. Bahia de Limoeiro :
the width of the riv. is here upwards of 15 m. The Rio da
Pari, which divides the isL of Marajo or loanes from the
rontinent, widens in its progress to the N. still more, and
tnay be above 60 m. where it falhi into the sea (about 0° 20^
S. lat). The whole eouroe of the Tocantins is at least 1500
Dsiiea.
The Araguay, the laigest tributary of the Tocantins,
rises on the N. declivity of the Serra Seiada, about 18** S.
lat, where it is called Bonito, which name is changed into
that of Rio Grande, after it has united with the Rio Bar*
reiros and Rio Cfljapo. Its* waters are lower down in-
(greased by those of the Rio Claro, Rio Vermelho, Rio Ti<
eoiras, and Rio Crixa. All these riv. flowing from the
S.E. join the Araguay on the right, and none of the three
last runs lesa than 200 m. By means of the Vermelho,
tnerchaAdise has been carried from Villa Boa, the capital
3f Goyas to ParL About 30 m. from the mouth of the
Cnxa, Uie river divides itself in 12^ 30^ into two branches
learly equaU which reunite in 9^ 36', enclosing the isl. of S,
^nna, perhaps the largest river island in the world. It is
nore than 200 m. in length, and of considerable width. The
1^. arm preserves the name of Araffuay, and the £. takes
:hat of Furo ; barges generally go through the latter ; bat
M>th contain small falls and rapids, ^n&e branch called
Iraguay receives, about 40 m. N. of the S. point of the
stand of S. Anna, the Rio dos Mortes, which runs nearly
too m. At about 5^ the Aiaguay joins the Tocantins after
i course of above 1000 miles.
The Rio Araguay may be considered as the boundary
if oar knowledge of the interior of Brazil, the countries
Irained by the Xingii, and Tap^os being almost unknown.
Though tne rivers have been ascended the greatest j[iart of
heir course, no European families have settled in this
»untry, and it has not been traversed by land.
The' Rio Xingft probably rises in the Serra dos Vertentes,
ibout 15^ S. lat, hut its sources as well as its upper course
lave not been visited. It does not appear that any of its
ribuUries are considerable. Between 5° and 4"* S. lat its
3ed is narrowed and traversed by a chain of rocks, and thus
the catarsMsta are produced which occur in this part of the
mrer. These cocks make the riv. form a large bend to the
3. and E., though in general the direction of its course is
o the N., with numerous windings. The remainder of its
ourse Ilea through the low plain on the banks of the Rio
imanmaa, which it joins at Porto de Moz* where it is
.boot 4 m. wide.
The Rio Tapajoa haa lately riaen to greater importanee.
since it has been ascertained that it may be navigated with
less danger and difficulty than the Rio Madeira. Since
1812, it has been the road of communication between
Pari and the European settlements on the banks of the
GuaiK>re, the Paraguay and the St Louren9o. The Rio
Tapigos is formed by the confluence of two considerable
riv., the luruena and the Rio dos Arinos. The luruena
rises near the point where the Serra dos Paricis divides
into two branches, one of which runs N., and the other, the
Serra Agoapehy, S., near 14^ S. Ut It runs for upwards of
200 m. due K., and then inclines to the K. to meet the Rio
dos Arinos. The number of its affluents i» very great and
at the confluence the luruena is the larger riv., but it has
not yet been navigated. The Rio dos Arinos rises farther
to the E., near the sources of the Paraguay, and runs first
N.E. and then N. to the junction with the Rio Preto, which
is the only branch of the riv. which is at present navigated.
After this junction the Rio dos Arinos tiows N.W., nearly
to its confluence with the luruena, about 90° 6. lat Hence
the united riv. is called Tapaj6s, and flows N.E. forming
two cataracts, the Cachoeiras de S. Joao da Barra and de
S. Carlos. At the latter the course of the riv. is changed,
and flows hence to the N.N.E. The largest of its cataracts,
called Salto Grande, occurs at about 7° SO', and is said to
be 30 ft perpendicular height Between 5^ and 6^ is another
fall, called Cachoeira de Maranhao, which likewise inter*
rupts the navigation. The remainder of its course is
through the low counnry along the Rio Amazonas. This
riv. is joined by numerous tributaries, especially from the
right It falk mto the Amazonas near Santarem, where
it is about 4 m. wide.
On the banks of the luruena, and W. to the N. branch
of the Serra Paricis, extends a sandy desert, called Campos
dos Paricis. The surface is formed by lon^-backed ridges
of sandy hills, parallel to one another, and divided by longi-
tttdinal vallevs. The soil consisU of sand, so loose that
beasts of burden can hardly proceed ; and it is nearly desti-
tute of vegetation, except where springs issue from the
Sound. Tne extent of this desert ^luch may be consi-
red as occupying the centre of South America, has not
yet been ascertained.
The climate of the Campos Paricis has not yet been
described. That of the table-land which extends to the E.
of it differs in many respects from the climate of the coast
The rain beeins in October, with heavy thunder-storms,
and lasts till Ajiril, but it is less in quantity where the
country extends in neariy level plains. The medium heat
is stated by IVeyreias to be only 65^^ Fahrenheit but it often
rises to 100^ at noon. The difference between the tempera-
ture of the day and night fireauently amounts to 30°. In
the winter the air is serene, ana there is no rain ; but some-
times in the month of June or July slight frost occurs, espe-^
cially towards the Serra dos Vertentes, in the S. districts,
whidh destroy the crops of the bananas, sugar, coffee, and
^ven cotton. # Thunder-storms prevail only in the rainy sea-
son, and are sometimes accompanied bv hailstones. The
winds are irregular at all seasons, and frequently bring
dense fogs.
The table-land of Brazil is separated from the Andes of
BoUvia by a large and extensive plain, traversed by those
streams which by their junction form the Rio Madeira.
This plain may perhaps rise to the height of 1200 or 1500
ft. ; the latter being the height which, according to the esti-
mate pf Martins, the conntn^ attains which forms the water-
shed between the Pilcomayo and Ubahy. A small portion
only of thisplain belongs to Brazil— the country extending
along the W. declivity of the N. branch of the Serra Paricis
on bolh banks of the Rio Guapor& A few scattered hills
rise on the plain to a moderate elevation, and are divided
from one another by extensive level tracts, mostly covered
with high forest-treeiy and here and there intersected by a
few barren districts without trees and with little vegetation.
The Rio Guapord, called also Itenez, rises (14° 30' S. lat)
in the Serra dos Paricis, about 100 m. N.E. of Vilk Bella,
the capital of Matto Grosso, and at first runs S. parallel to the
Rio Jaur4, a tributary of the Paraguay. It then turns W., and
receives the waters of the Rio Alegre, a small but navigable
tributary. In 1773 an unsuccessful attempt was made to
unite this river by a canal with the Rio Agoapehy, which falls
into the JaurL At the junction with this river the Guapord
turns to the N.N.W., and then to the W., where it is joined
on the right by the large Rio Paraguay, and the still larger
U bahy» At the oonfluenoe with ths latter it tunas N., au4.
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utiitinj? itftelf to tho Mamord, loses its name. The Giia-
pord runs more than 400 m., and having only a few rapids
and no cataracts, is a navigable river.
The Rio Madeira is formed by tho junction of the Rio
Beni with the Mamord (in 10° 22' S. lat.). which takes
place about 100 m. below the confluence of the latter with
the Guapord (in 1 1** 55' S. lat.). This river runs in a N.E.
direction, with numerous windings, and falls into the Ama-
zonas in 3*^ 2 %* S. lat, about 70 m. below Villa de Borba, after
a course of upwards of 600 miles. As the river, after the
junction of the Mamor6 and Beni, is 900 fathoms wide, and
in its course in general preserves this width, with a consi-
derable depth. It woula become a channel of internal
navigation weve its course not interrupted by numerous
cataracts. Below the union of the two principal rivers
thirteen cataracts occur ; and above it, in the Maroord, five.
They begin in 10° 37' with the Cachoeira da Bananeira,
and terminate at 8^48', with the Cachoeira de S. An-
tonio. The highest of these cataracU is in 8® 52' S. lat.,
where the river descends 30 feet. It is however supposed
that all the falls taken together amount only to 150 ft. of
heigVt. The Madeira was frequently navigated up to
1787, but at present other lines of communication are pre-
ferred.
The N. part of Brazil comprehends the greater portion of
the pli^in of the Rio das Amazonas, one of the most exten-
sive on the globe. It lies along both sides of that majestic
river, from its wide mouth, near 50** \V. long., to the em-
bouchure of the Ucayale, near 72® W. long., and conse-
quently extends in this direction about 1500 miles. The
width of this plain varies, being much narrower towards tlie
mouth of the riv. than farther W. Between the cataracts of
the XingCl (4^ 20' S. lat.) and the Serras de Tumneneuraque
and de Acaray, which chain divides the sources of the Esse-
quibo and Mazarony from the riv. falling into the Ama-
zonas, the plain hardly extends S. and N. more than 5° of
lat., or about 350 miles. Under tho meridian of 64° it be-
gins 8. at the cataracts of the Rio Madeira (8"* 48'), and
extends N. to the S. branches of the Serra Parime (about
3° N. lat.) about 800 miles. It is probable that its width
enlarges considerably still farther to the W.. but here the
boundary-line of the plain on the N. as well as on the S.
lies in countries not yet explored. This plain is divided by
the Rio Amazonas into two parts, declining insensibly
towards the bed of the riv., but not everywhere in the same
direction. On the £., as far as the mouth of the Madeira,
its surface declines N. and S., hut to the W. of the Madeira
the declivity is directed S.E. and N.E. Hence the rivs. join-
ing the Rio Amazonas towards it^ mouth, form nearly right
angles with its course, but the Madeira and the rivs.. which
unite .with it farther to the W. form acute angles, and some
of them, as the Rio Negro and the Yupur^k, flow a consider-
able part of their course nearly parallel to it. But this de-
clivity is so imperceptible that the eye cannot discover it,
and some of the rivs. seem to have no current at all in
the dry season, as is observed of the lower course of the
Rio Madeira. Elevations deserving the name of hills are
rare, but the snrface .does not present one unvarying level
like the plains on the Orinoco : it consists rather of a con-
tinual succession of extremely slight undulations, and to
this peculiarity of its surface, joined to its tropical climate,
it seems principally to owe the inconceivable luxuriance of
its vegetation.
The softness of the soil, which consists, as far as it is
known, nearly everywhere of earthy matter, possessing only
a small degree of cohesion, yields readily to the impetuous
rush of the waters in the rainy season, and thus are formed
the almost countless larger and smaller islands which con-
tinually divide the riv. into numerous channels. In other
countries travellers generally think it neeessary to obs^re
the islands formed by rivs., but in this plain, on the con-
trary, it appears an extraordinary occurrence if at any place
tho whole volume of the riv. runs in one channel. These
islands occupy a considerable portion of the plain : they are
inundated in the wet season, but when the riv. is low, they
rise 20 and 30 ft. above the surface. They have a sandy
low beach, but the inland parts are higher and wooded.
The tracts which skirt the banks of the riv. are gene-
rally low, and overflowed when the riv. rises. In many
places the inundations are extended much farther inland by
the channels which, in the dry season, bring down the water
from the numerous lakes. But during the inundation these
channels carry the wattr from tho rivs. to the lakes, and
the low country m their vicinity is eovwed with witer. AH
the tracto thus inundated are overgrown by an unintcmipAcd
forest of trees of different sise and species, with vmriout
bushes and underwood between them, and all these planU
are tied together by numerous creepers, so that tbey Ana a
vegetable wall, through which it is impossible to penetratie.
The water-courses are the only roads which lesa lliJo«i|(fa
this wilderness. That portion of the plain which is not sub-
ject to inundations is likewise covered witk intenmnablt
foresU, but the trees are of more equal sixe, and vitbmit
underwood, though here also the creepers, are numttuoM.
Occasionally some tracts of moderate extent ocenr. wWh
are without trees, and covered with rich grass* tntcmunulcd
with a few low bushes.
Nothing however characterizes this plain more striktfiffW
than the incredible abundance of water. Brooks and pond*
are of rare occurrence, for they enlarge immediately imo
rivs. and lakes; and these rivs.' and lakes form along tb^
banks of the larger rivs. (the only part of the eottntnr w hi^-U
has yet been visited) an interminable watery mase. Martiui
is at a loss how to explain this matter. He thinks that the
inundation cannot account for it, and supposes that the »i>''
of this plain contains an extraordinary number of soarees aim!
springs, and that Uie water issuing from then is continual l>
increased by the moisture of the air, which is move tt^x*^-
eially abundant in tropical countries whenever tbey are
covered with trees. This abundance of water, the fiohne«»
of the soil, and the comparatively small inequalities of Um-
surface, have made some phenomena common here wh)t-!i
are rare in other countries. ' Such are the natural eanal» ^ «
which two rivs. are united. Between the Madeira and the R^ •
Purus, its next W. neighbour, two such natural water com-
munications exist, at least 120 m. distant from one another
Others occur* between other rivs. These nataral cini!-
unite also different riv. systems, as the Cassiqniare betwcfi
the Orinoco and Rio Negro, and the canal of Cabuqut^.a.
farther W., which, according to the information of the ui-
tives, unites the Uaupd, or Uaupes, the principal branch •.:
the Rio Negro, to the Guaviare, a.tribntary of the Onncc
To the same peculiarities it is mainly to be atliibatad. tbit
many of the rivs., esnecially those running from the N. *
the Amazonas, sena detached branches to the priori u.
river, 100 m. and upwards before they entirely unite wuh si.
As to the rivs. which drain this plain, we have ehvrai'
noticed the Tocantins, Xingu, Tapajos, and Mndeica. T<
the W. of the last, and nearly parallel to it, flow some c\-s
sidereble rivs., — the Purus the Coary. the Telft« the lunu.
the lutahy, and the Hyjabary or Yavary. These nv»,
which run from QOO to 800 m., have not been explored, aiii
the country through which they -flow is needy unkoavT.
but according to the itifdrmation of the Indians it does r. i
seem that they are interrupted by cataracts. The r..%
which drain the plain on the N. of the Rio das Amaroon
belong 4>artly to the republic of Ecuador, as the Pastas^
the Tigre, the Napo, and Putumayo or lea, only the love:
course of the last-named riv. being included in Braz ' .
and partly to Brazil, as the Yupur^ or Yapara and the R«
Negro. The remotest branches of the Yiroari originau is
the 8. districts of the republic of New Uianada, m tise
mountain-knot of Popayan, whence they deseend into ta«
plain. The greatest part of its course is within the h^Ma
dary of the rep. of Ecuador, in which it forms, in 7 J' ^<
W. long., a cataract called Cachoeira de AraiaCoara, a^«ux
60 ft high. It is not yet delermined if the eonetr^ b^
tween this fall and that of Cupati, which oeesia near -^
3^ farther £., belongs to Brazil or to the rep. of SeuaiLir.
In this tract the xupur^ receives its largisst tnhtfarr.
the Anuparie. The fall of Cupati is at low warn oc «
a rapid. From this fall downwards the Yupnii. ftowicj
nearly parallel to the Rio Amazonas, is divided fr^=>
it by a low, wooded country, of which the malest par.
is annually inundated for some months. Ahoat too u
from the mouth of the YunuriL begins the canal of A«a2»
parani, which lies from N.E. to S.W., and joins tj^
Rio Amazonas nearly 200 m. above the moath of t>.-
Yupurl In this canal the water flows from December t.*
June N.E. from the Rio Amazonas to the Yttpnri* a^
from June to August S.W. from the Yupuri lo l^ R.
Amazonas. The large isL formed by this ceo. and tr-
rivs. is traversed by other cans., which axe sahfeci U «
simitar change of current. The Rio Negro oiiipnaars z: >
swampy country about 2^ 30^ N. lat and 70^ ^ W. ijrc
and runs first N»E, and afWnrards^SsV. about iM m« e ^ j
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Cm) Augustinho (Augustin), in 8° SOMl'' S. lat. and
94** 5Gr W. long., \% one of the most £. points of Brazil.
About 300 m. from this cape, the great equatorial current,
which traverses the Atlantic near the line, divides into two
brsmches, of which the N. and by far tlie larger. part runs
along the N. coast of Brazil to the mouth of the Rio das
Amazonas, and hence along Guiana to the West Indies*
This current, combined with the trade-winds, which alon^;
these shores constantly blow from the E., renders the voyage
from the N. parts of Brazil along this shore to the provinces
S. of Cape Augustinho so tedious, that it is more easy for
the inh« of this part to communicate witli Europe and North
America than with the S. provinces of the empire. The S.
branch of the equatorial current, called the Brazil current,
is at first of inconsiderable breadth, but it grows wide in
16° and 17'' S. lat., where it is 250 m. from tlic coast. At
Cope Frio it is only 200 m. distant, and runs 30 m. per day.
Where the coast tiends to the S.W., the current is farther
off, but it approaches again within the same distance near
the Morro de S. Marta, and so continues to Cape dc S. Maria.
Between the coast and this current occurs a regular
change in the winds and currents; and their direction de-
pends on the position of the sun. When it is S. of the
equator the winds blow from between N. and E. and the
current runs S. or S W. : when the sun is on the N. of the
line the winds blow from between E. and S.E. and the cur-
rent flows to the N. These rc<;ular and constant changes
are very favourable to the intercourse of the maritime
provinces of Brazil S. of Cape Augustinho.
We must here observe that the S.E. trade-wind of the
South Atlantic ceases at a great distance from the coast of
Brazil, and that other winds, especially from tbe N.E., are
sometimes found to extend to the middle of the ocean.
This is ascribed to the great extent of the South American
continent, which has the effect of changing the trade- wind
into a monsoon.
The cultivated lands in Brazil bear a very small propor-
tion to the whole surface. According to the most favour-
able statements the former are 30,000 sq. m., or less than
l-75th of the surface. But this is evidently a very exag-
gerated estimate, and it is more probable that they do not
amount to one-third of that area. With the exception of
the immediute vicinity of the huger towns of Rio, Bahia,
and Pcrnambuco, the farms occur at great distances from
one another, even in the neighbourhood of the sea, and still
more so farther inland. Tliey are nearer one another in
the £. district of the table land of the Paranik, about S.
Paolo in the mining district near Villa Rica, and along the
riv. Parnahyba in the prov. of Piauhy and Maranlmo.
Agriculture is carried on in a veiy rude manner. The
forest-trees are cut down and burnt on the ground ; the soil
then gives rich croos for several years without manure.
When it is exhaustea it is abandoned, and another piece of
graund is treated in the same way.
The aborigines of Brazil were not entirely unacquainted
with agriculture, but it was limited to a few articles. They
planted maize, bananas, aipis {Manihot aipi, Pohl.), roan-
ditxra, and capsicum. Since the arrival of the Europeans
and Africans the cultivated plants have been increased
more than tenfold in number, but still the cultivation of
those which were grown by the aboriorincs is the most ex-
tended. The mandioca, of which difi'erent species ar^
cultivated (latropha manihot, Linn.), is grown in every
prov. except that of Rio Grande do Sul. Maize {Zea Mais,
Linn.) is grown all over the country. In low and hot places
the milho cadete, a species with smaller grains, is com-
monly cultivated; it yields twenty fold. The Milho de
Sorra, with larger whitish grains, is grown in the valleys
of tlie table-land, especially in Minas Geraes, and yields
150 fold. Two crops are annually got, one in September
and the other in May: tbe first is the most abundant.
Rice iOryza sativa, linn.) is extensively cultivated on the
plains as well as on the mountains, but especially in the
provs. Maranhao and Para. Two species are used, a red
and a white one, bot the latter is preferred. In the low
country it ripens io 4 months and gives abundant crops
from 50 Io 60 fold, in some places even from 2U0 to 300
told. On tbe hills it ripens in 6 months, produces less
abundant crops, and is not so good. No artificial irrigation
i« uaed. In some districts subject to inundation rice is
found in n wild sUte, as in the Lagoa de Xarayes, and
Martius found it i^so *m the banks of the can. or Furo of
Irarii, which divides thd long bland of Topinnambaa, or
mora properlv Tapinambanna, ia the Amiffyma^ from ihm
S. bank. The cultivation of wheat has been aUcmfted
in different districts, but not with much sucoess, e\c«pl
on the table-land of the Parani and the plains of Rjo
Grande do Sul, whence considerable quantities axa brougLt
to Rio Janeiro.
The banana (mtisa) is cultivated in tbe low plains anJ
valleys along the coast and in the plain of the Amaio>n,n^,
Potatoes do not sucoeed, except in Rio Grando do SiU ; a
certain quantity u annually imported firom England . Imu
sweet potatoes succeed wherever there is a good saody *jcl.
The rara, a root similar to the sweet potato, and supexK«
in Havour, is less productive. The inluime {Phmnuc darJi^*
/i/i?ra, Linn.), is likewise cultivated for its root, vbieh, as
well as its leaves, is eaten by men and pigs. YaritMis kind*
of beans are also cultivated.
The vegetables of Europe do not succeed veil, b«i£g
generally destroyed by the ants and other yermtn ; lc«k»
however are an exception. None of the trees or plants
cultivated in Europe for oil are found in Braid. Tba inha-
bitants cultivate the sesamum {Sesamum orientate}^ wLtrh
was brought from the E. I., and dillerent kinds q( the c«>-
tor-oil plant. Lamp-oil is got from the fniit of a lbres»t-
trce called andiroba (Carapa gujanenis, AubL, Xylocar^
pui, Schreb.), which is common in some districts, especia\'y
in the plain of the Amazonas. A species of pskn iCLn'/-
carpu$ distichui. Mart.) which gives an excellent oil far the
kitchen, grows on the N. coast. The coca-Dlant {Erithory-
lum coca), which is used by many of tne abongiue* U
South America pretty much as the betel in India, is cu.u.
vated on the banks of the Yupur^ as in Peru. The mat*>
plant {Cassins gon,s^onha. Mart), which produces the le«v.f
Paraguay, is a shrub which is cultivated in the prov. (if K« 1
Grande do Sul and of St Paolo. It fi>rms a coosidera;'i£
article of export from some countries of South Amer.L*,
especially Peru.
Coffee, which was introduced into Brszil about 50 yca^
ago, is now grown in most of the maritime provsw« 'ia< re
especially in Rio Janeiro, the S. districts of Minas Gen.«r».
and in Bahia. That of Rio Janeiro is the best, and tirnr.
more attention has been paid to its culture, it is oonsid^xcd
equal to that of St Dommgo. The sugar-cane is most ^i-
tcnsively grown in Bahia and along the banks of the Rk-
S. Francesco. The smaller variety, called eanna da t<t:*
or canna creola, is the most common. The eultirauon if
this article does not increase so rapidly as night be ex-
pected, probably for want of sufficient capital la «:thrr
districts of Brazil the cultivation of the sugsr-eane u le^s
attended to, but from most of the maritime provs. a t^tVLn
quantity is exported. Cotton has increased more than sif
other article of export. It may be grown as far as Jl' S
lat., but is only cultivated to any great extent from I ^ >.
to the equator. Tlie cotton of Pemambuco^ in which tl^xt
of Parahybn, Rio Grande do Norte, and Searjk is ine!u.:<*«i.
is hardly inferior to that of Georgia aud Bourbon ; and th a
which is raised in Piauhy and Maranlmo is also in h-^ja
repute : that of Bahia and Par^ is of leas vmlua In Prr-
nambuco the cotton is gathered in July end August :ts
Maranhao in October, November, and I>ecember. On tre
banks of the Amazonas there are two trees, the nunr-)'. 4
and the samauma iEriodrendron Momauma^ Mart), whic^
produce a kintl of cotton that is used to make felts end zrai-
tresses, but hitherto, we believe, the attempts to ^pin it h.i%tf
failed. The cultivation of tobacco, which ivrBerlr wa« vrry
extensive, is now on the decline ; but considerable ou Anti-
ties aro still exported to Africa and to Europe. Tliebest ■•
grown in the Reconcavo of Bahia, especially at Curhonn
and St Amaro. In some other places aisoatooareo ts |m>^n
which is much esteemed, particularly at Guantinqocfa. i j
S. Paolo. Martius thinks that some species of this plint
are indigenous, antf that the use of tobacco was kcbt-; ■
South America before the arrival of Europeans. Iim: ::
was formerly much grown, but the cultiTatien has a!ir:* :
entirely ceased : little is exported, and that b of mft.-^-r
quality. Ginger and the curcuma iCuratma iom^A, L 1
were once cultivated and exported from the N. eoa«i. Ua
both articlea are now entirely neglected. In modem t jc%
the pepper-tree {Piper nigrum^ L.). the dnnamen-trr**
(Laurus cinnamomum. L.), tbe clove-trre (CerpfopAv* .1
aromaiicus, L.), and the muscat-tree {Myritiica mosnS^ • -
have been planted near Rio Janeiro and Para, and t. ;
throe first seem to succeed at Para. The tiial with tlw Ha.*
trpe has failed at Rio,
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Bomettmcs 20 ft. long, and weighs from 70 to 60 cwt. One
fish orten yields 480 or 500 gallons of oil, and its flesh,
which resembles fresh pork, is excellent. Sausages are
made of it. and' sent to Portugal as a delicacy. It is a
very peaceful animal, and rapidly decreasing in numbers.
Its greatest enemy is the alligator, of which there are two
species in the rivers of Brazil, the crocodilus niger, Spix, in
the Rio Amazonas, and the Croc, icierops, Schneid. in the
Kio Francesco. The former is generally from 15 to 24 ft.
long. The Indians eat its eggs and flesh, though the latter
has a strong smell of musk.
There are several species of turtles in the Rio Amazonas,
but that called Tartaruga grandc (Emys Amazoniea, Spix)
is most common. Its flesh generally weighs from 9 to 10 lbs.
The farms in the neighbourhood of the riv. have places well
fenced, in which they arc kept and killed as they are
wanted. On same sanrly islands of the Rio Amazonas. as
well as the Madeira, Rio Negro, and Yupurd, the turtles
lay their eggs when the water is lowest: the eggs are
gathered, broken, and by means of a slow fire reduced to a
fat substance, called manteiga de Tartaruga, which is ex-
tensively used all over Brazil. About 20,000 pots of this
int. each containing 60 lbs., are annually made, and several
thousand pei-sons are occupied in its preparation.
Snakes are common in Brazil, but the numberwhich are
poisonous, according to Freyreiss, is not very large. He
names only six poisonous species, among which the klapper-
snake and the urutii are the most dangerous. The larger
species, which are not poisonous, attain eighteen or twenty
ft. in lenjTth.
The insects of Brazil are remarkable for the beauty of their
colours and tbeir size, especially the butterflies. Some are
very destructive to fruits or furniture, as the ants, of which
one species is fried and eaten as a delicacy. Persons, more
especially Europeans, who have just arrived in Brazil, suffer
much ;from mosquitos, sand-lieas {Pulex penetrans) and
some kinds of conops. The scorpion, which sometimes
attains a length of six inches, the scolopander, and some
kinds of caterpillars, especially those of the family of ffom-
byces^ cause swellings and excessive pains.
The domesticated bee of Europe is not known in Brazil ;
but Martins has enumerated more than thirty species of wild
bees, nearly all of which are without stint^s, and it is sup-
posed that some of them could be domesticated. In the
prov. of- St. Paolo the nopal tree grows, and the inhabitants
nave begun to collect cochineal. Several attempts have
been made to introduce the silk-worm, but hitherto without
success. Martius is of opinion that perhaps the pod of the
Philaena Atlas, L., which abounds on the N. coast, could be
used as a substitute for silk.
The mineral wealth of Brazil is considerable, but limited
to a few articles, of which the chief are gold and iron,
diamonds and topazes, and salt. Gold is found on both
sides of the Serra dos Vertentes, from the Serra de Man-
tigueira to the N. branch of the Serra dos Paricis, for a dis-
tance of about 200 m., but farther on the N. than on the S.
side. It is found, more or less, in almost all the rivers
which form the upper branches of the Francesco, Tocantins,
Araguay, and Guapord, but by far the greatest quantity has
been collected in the affluents of the Francesco. On the
arrival of the first Europeans small pieces of gold were found
in some places in the sand, and considerable quantities
were collected in a short time. The greatest quantity, how-
ever, has been obtained by washing the sand from the bed of
certain rivers, or the alluvial deposit on their banks. It is
only in comparatively recent times that attempts have been
made to work the mines in the mountains.
Before the beginning of the last century the quantity of
f^ld obtained was inconsiderable, but it increased rapidly.
The greatest quantity was found between 1753 and 1763,
and since that time it has always been on the decrease.
According to the incomplete accounts which Eschwege was
able to obtain, he calculated that the whole quantity of gold
collected between 1700 and 1820 amounted to 63.417 arobas
' or 4,058,688 marcs, or about 33.822 marcs annually, includ-
ing one-fifth which he thinks was smuggle<l oiit of the
country. Between 1 753 and 1763 it amounted annually to
34,560 marcs, but between 1601 and 1820 only to 8,128
marcs. In the two last statements the gold smuggled out
of the country is not included ; and it may amount to moi-e
than one-fifth, at least for the latter period, when the means
of commnnication had been greatly increased. The decraase
•( the produce waa maiflly owing to the better portioii of the
auriferous sand having been exhausted, and to tlie want of
sufficient capital to woi'k the veins in the mountama on a
regular system. British capital has since been employe ^i
with success, and the productive mines at Congo Soco, nr^
the Villa de Sabar^, on the banks of the Rio das Velh..«, a
tributary of the Rio de St. Francesco, have been the tward
of British enterprise. Iron is very abundant : in some
places there are whole mountains of ore, but up to the f re-
sent time it has been worked on an exteoaive scale only -n
two or three places. No silver has been found, and cd:«
slight indications of copper, tin, and quicksilver. Platio&..:i
occurs on the banks of the Rio Abaet^, « tributary' of ti.**
Francesco, and in some otlier places. Lead and cobaU &re
more common.
No country probably is richer in diamonds than B.a/ \,
but hitheilo they have only been found in the rivers. 1 : •
most W. streams in which diamonds have been disoovcrt-d ire
some of the upper branches of the Paraguay. The df.>n> ik'*
district, or the district of Tejuco, where by far the presii -t
quantity of diamonds has been found, is situated under ) %-
S. lat., and comprehends both sides of the Serra de E»n.n-
ha^o. It is traversed by the Rio lequetinhonha, an oj>;<^t
branch of the Rio Belmonte ; the small rivers of the W. part
of the district fall into the Francesco. In this district ai«r»ut
2000 persons are employed in collecting the stones by t\ ••
government ; and according to Eschwege, the diamun U
collected between 1730 and 1822 were of the value of aV<' \
fifteen millions of crusados, or one and a half millions sterling.
He thinks that the value of what has been smugirW^ • •:<
of the country was probably less than this amount be. • •
the arrival of the royal family in Brazil, and that it a:*. '-
wards doubled, owing to the more easy communication l^
tween the interior and the coast In Uhs accounts of
Eschwege, the whole quantity of diamonds has been vti!t.*%
at the lowest price, that is, as stones weighing only one ca.— *
and it may therefore be presumed that the real value 5« .. > *.
least double what he has given.
To the S.W. of this district, on the Abaet6 and Itr'. r.
both of which join the Francesco on the left bonk, bttv..^:,-
18*^ and 19', there is another diamond district, which k •. •
years ago was worked but soon abandoned. In the K>
Abaeto was found, in 1791, the great diamond uT .
weighs 138^ carats, and is the largest yet known. In*..*
plain of the Rio Paransk diamonds are found in the Talc •'.
which falls into the Paranapanema, u tribmory of Uj«' Vi-
rau4, whence it is said they are smuggled out of the r .t
try. The yellow topazes found near Villa Rica are u. • :
esteemed.
Brazil could not maintain its immense stock of rattV (
the people were obliged to buy salt, without a sapr'v i--
which the animals will not thrive. The table-land d»i* • •
contain rock-salt, but a great number of small patches •- « •
on the surface covered with a salt efflorescence* whtr.i i •
cattle lick up. These patches, which generally do not «>t-
ceed a few square yards, double the value of an estate. ] .
other places salt springs occur, and serve the same purpw. .
There are also salt steppes, which reitemble thoee on the i z\^
land of Iran in Asia. Two of them are very extensive : r- •
mns, on both sides of the Francesco, between T* and 10" S. i :.
from the Villa de UrubCl to the Villa de loaxeiro^ «ith x-
average breadth of from 80 to 100 ra. ; the other is situate-*
near the W. boundary of the empire, between the Pkrajruay
and the Serra de Agoapehy, beginning on thebanls of vr.'is
Jurui, and extending in a S.W. direction for a gmat dis-
tance. In both districts the surface is slightly m^idatir j.
and the salt which appears on the surface after tbe rains \%
extracted by washing the earth, and leaving the water toe« i -
porate. In some places, along the Francesco and in \Ue
prov. of Seartk. large caverns occur, the soil of which i% im-
pregnated with saltpetre. In other places, more espcv^... t
on the Rio de Icquetinhonha, alum is found in abondanr^.
The inhabitants of Bi-azil consist of aborigines and :t
foreigners, who have settled here in the last three rcnturi -.
The aborigines are divided into a great number of inbeK. t-.r
they so far resemble one another in figure, complexion. xtA
habits, as to appear to belong to the same race, Thi-t ae
of a middling size and of slender make. Their complex «
is a shining light copper colour, which sometinnes pastes »»• .
a yellowish brown ; their hair is black, lank, and n-u.- .
their eyes small, dark brown, and placed a little oblit^Jc ;
their cheek bones are prominent. All these charactan \vx*J
eate a resemblance to the race which inhabits the K-partv ir
Asia, They have little hairon the chin, |t is z«marVeMr«
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po8 da Vacaria, is said to have a pop. of 12,000 . it tends
the produee of that country to the coast
At Porto Feliz on the Tiete, commences a verr extensire
water -communication, which unites the most W. districts
of Brasil with the coast ; but it is now much less used than
formerly.
4. Rio Janeiro, comprehending the coast between the W.
extremity of the bay. called Angrados Reys, and the mouth
of the Rio Cabapu&na, extends from 50 to 60 m. inland.
To it belongs the greatest portion of the Serra do Mar ; and
the Serra de Mantigueira stretches along its W. boundary.
It is mountainous, but contains also extensive valleys. The
grains of Europe do not thriye in this prov. ; but rice, man-
dioca, and maize, are extensively cultivated. Coffee is
raised to a greater amount than in any other prov., and
cotton is also largely raised. Savage tribes occur only to
the N. of the Rio Parahyba. Ithns some excellent har-
bours, especially those of Rio Janeiro, and of Angrados
Reys. The latter is formed by two isl., llha Grande and
Marumbaya, lying in a parallel line with the coast, and
contains same excellent roadsteads. Two of its throe en-
trances are from 5 to 8 ro. wide, with a depth of about 30
fathoms. This prov. docs not contain any considerable
10 wn except Rio Janeiro, the capital of Brazil. [Rio Ja-
KEIRO.j
5. Espfrito Santo extends from the Rio Cabapn&na to
the Rio Belmonte along the coast, and frony 60 to al)ove
100 ni. inland. Somo districts are hilly, but the greater
part of the prov. consists of extensive low plains. A suiqU
portion of it is under cultivation, and produceit su{r»r,
cotton, rice, mandioca, and maize in abundance. Fish
abound along the whole extent of the const. The W. dis-
tricts arc occupied by the independent aborigines, among
whom the Botucudos are distinguished by their bravery
. and cannibalism. Along the coast are the isl. called the
Abrolhos. There are some harbours, but only fit for trad-
ing vessels. Vi<?loria, or Nossa Senhora de Victoria, the
capital of the prov., is on the W. side of an isl. 15 m. in cir>
cumference, in the large bay of Espirito Santo, which is
. deep enough for frigates, and has safe anchorage. The
town contains 12,500 inh., who carry on an active commerce
in the produce of the country. Caravellas, the most com-
mercial town of Espirito Santo, is opposite the Abrolhos, on
the riv. Caravellos, which is only an arm of the sea extend-
ing 10 ra. inland, ofconsirlerable width and very deep; but
the eiUrancc is only accessible to small vessels. The town,
which contains above 4000 inh., exports nhielly mandioca,
liuur, and fish, the garoupa being taken in great numbers
near the Abrolhos and the reef extending E. of them.
Porto Seguro, near the mouth of the small riv. Buranhen is
a considerable place, with a jjood but not deep harbour.
Its inhabitants are principally occupied in the garoupa
fishery.
6. Bahia. [Bahia; St. Salvador.]
7. Seregipe del Rey comprehends the country to the N.
of the riv. Rio Real, as far as the embouchure of the
Francesco, and 140 m. inland. Its surface is a plain, with
the exception of a few hills ; but the W. portion is con-
siderably higher than the E., which is covered with forests,
intermingled with patches of cultivated ground. The W.
country is generally stony, with few woods or fertile,
tracts, and is very deficient in Tvatcr. It supplies only
very indifferent pasture for cattle. In the E. district the
plantations of sugar and cotton are numerous. There are
no independent tribes in this district. The harbours are
formed by the mouths of the rivers, which are neither
large nor deep.
Seregipe, the capital of the prov., is situated near the riv.
Paramopama, an arm of iho Rio Vazabarris, 18 m. from
the sea : coasting vessels come up to the town. It has a
sugar-house, a manufiictory of tobacco, and some tan-pits.
The pop. is stated by Schat'er at 3G,0U0, but this seems an
exag Iterated estimate. Estanci.!, the most populous and
commercial town in the pro%'., 1 8 m. from the sea on the
Rio Real, carries on an activo commerce in the produce of
the country.
8. Alagoas (Dos) extends along tlie shore from the
mouth of the Francesco, to that of the small riv. Una, and
about 140 m. inland. It resembles in aspect the prov. of
Beregipe, the W. districts being sterile, and producing in
the E. districts the same articles, with tobacco besides.
There are no independent tribes in this province. It has
(wo good barbouie, the united ports of Jaragua and Pijtti*
sara, and the bay of Cnmrippe. Alagoaa, th« ctptttL is ^i\
the 8. side of the lake of Mangnaba, which la 30 m. huu*,
3 m. wide in the widest part* and connected with l^r
sea by the riv. Alagoas. Forte Calvo, situated upon tj."
margin of the riv. bearing the same name, 20 ra. from i^ >>
sea, exports a great quantity of dye-woods. Penedodr S.
Francesco, a populous and commercial town, on the bai V «
of the Francesco, about 25 m. from its mouth, cont& * *
11.000 inh.
9. Pernambuco consists of two parts, one ontherk>a-i.
and the other on the table-land. The latter is dtstingui»:. \
by the name of Sertao de Pernambuco. The country a! j
the shores extending between the riv. Una and Ooyann i
in general Hat, but farther inland it presents a »ucre«>.
of hill and dale, intermixed with some level irrouncK - *
considerable extent. Where it approaches the SertH- t' f
surface is stony and sterile. The Sertao, which ext- '.
along the lelt banks of the Rio S. Francesco, between \ •
prov. of Bahia and Goyaz, as far as the Rio Carinl.'.j ..
an affluent of the Rio S. Francesco, (near 16'' 8. lat ) t. .
portion of the table-land of Brazil, and comprebenrl* t
greater part of the salt steppes already described. Ui ' • r
portions however afford excellent pasture fbr cattle, and «
the banks of the riv. the plantations of cotton are rap.^Kv
increasing. Besides the common productions of tr^^*'-.
climates, sugar and cotton are cultivated, and dye-wo*»d i ■
got in the forests, nearly 100 m. from the sex * The i) ' •
pendent tribes, which existed in some parts of the Si- r ~ >
have lately been subjected or expelled. The numerous r -
hours are only adapted for small craft, except those of t
tuaraa, Recife, and Tamandare. The port of Catuai* j «
at the N. entrance of the strait, which divides the i *..
Itamaraca -from the continent, and near the N. part c/ t- •
coast. Recife is the harbour of the town of Pemamb* ' -
and the port of Tamandare lies about 30 m. S. W. of ( - «
8. Augustinho^ The last named is the best, and capnK..
holding large vessels, being 4 and 5 fath. deep at the r-
trance, and 6 fath. within.
Beside the towns of Recife and Olinde, whkh cotop • ■
the t. of Pbrnambuco, there is Goyanna, at the jan<A> i
of two rivers, 15 m. from the sea, which exports eonstd«r.. -
quantities of cotton. It has abov« 5000 inhabitants.
] 0. Parahyba do Norto extends about 60 m. akmsr t •
cuast from the Rio 603 anna to the bay of Marcos, nn*. :
m. at its greatest width, from E. to W. More than t---
thirds of its surface have an arid soil and are not cuU'Va**
The cultivated land? are in the vicinity of eome rhrer« j* '
on the mountain-ridtros, which are generally co^enrd «
iroes and have a strong soil. The principal proiloct* t-
sugar, cotton, mandioca, maize and tobacco, with excel It :
fruiU. Its few ports can only receive smalt Teseels : \"
from Cape Branco a reef extends nearlv 18 m. N.. heVtf^
which and the beach there are 9 and lo'fath. water, in »: -
vessels can ride in safety.
Parahyba is on the right bank, 10 m. above the «nl. •
chure of the riv. of the same name, which, thoeirh aU t
3 m. wide at its mouth, allows ships to ascend onhr for 3 »-
nothing but smacks can come up to the t., which cor *
alxivo 12,000 inh., and its commerce in the prodor« oi li-.*
prov. is considerable.
11. Rio Grande do Norte extends along the cowt fr ')
the bay of Marcos to a range of hdls called the Seira oT \ -
pody, by which it is separated from Seari, and it niD« / 1 .*
m. inland. Its surface is generally uneven and hiliy : at r»
few places it rises into mountains; forests, however, are r. 1
and of no great extent. In general the soil is very dry and I - •
adapted to the cultivation of cotton, in addition to which r.'« -
dioca and maise are raised abundantly. Along the m ^ \ -
pody near the boundary of Sear4 and a few others, «f« «r \ f .
salt-lakes, from which great quantities of exeelletit «
are extracted. No independent Indians at pr««etii o\ i
here, but the descendants of the aboriginal tribes are r ui -
rous. The few harbours of this extensile coast ait* r .
deep. NatAl, the capital of the prov., is advaotafsv«H.*
situated on the right bank of the Rio Grande, near S r
above its mouth. It has ahto an easy commuoicaiini* « • -
the inland diatricts, the riv. being navigable for lar*c> be- . .
near 40 m. Its commerce in the produce of tb* roositr . «
increasing, and the pop. is about 18,000i. The U'an
Fernando de Norouha, 3"* 3u' S. lat., about S50 m. K. N >
of Cape S. Roque, belongs to this prov. Ii is 10 m. l<ir :
generaUy hilly and stony, with a few small poitiM^c •.•
land eapabltt of ottlti?ation« Cootactt we tnuMpoiscd ben.
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12. Setr^ or Cear^ extends from the Sena Aypody to
(lie Serra Hibiapaba, which terminates between the riv«
Camucim and Parnahyba, in bills not far distant iipni the
sea, and separates it from Piauhy. It is computed to mea*
sure» from N. to S., above 300 m. The sur&ce of this prov.
is generally uneven, but the valleys are wide and not deep ;
the elevations are not great, except towards the S. and W,
boundary-line. The soil is in general sandy, arid and sterile,
except on the broad summits of the mountains, where it is
rich and covered with forests. In the- latter districts grain
and mandioca are cultivated. Along the rivers cotton is
^roNvn. The district about the upper branches of tlie Rio
Jaguaribe, the principal riv. of the prov., is the most fertile
and populous. This prov. often suffers much from long
droughts. The descendants of the aborigines are numerous,
especially in the less fertile districts. The shores, which
in some parts are steep, in oUiers flat and sandy, have
no ports except for small coasting vessels.
Sear^ the capital, is situated near the beach, about 7 m.
N. W. of the mouth of the riv. Seara. It has no harbour ;
about 10,000 inh., and very little commerce. Aracaty,
on the E. bank of ^e Jaguaribe, 8 m. above its mouth, is
tlie most commercial and populous town in the prov. It has
26,000 inh., and exports cotton andhide^'in large quantities.
The tide, which runs 30 m. up the riv., facilitates tlie navi-
gation. Sobral, not far from the bank of the Camucim, the
second town in commerce and pop., is about 70 m. from
tlie sea. Its port is Granja, on tne left bank of the Camu-
cim, 20 ro. from the sea.
13. Piauhy has only a coast of about 60 m. between the
Sena Hibiapaba and the mouth of the Rio Parnahyba,
which riv, divides it from Maranhi&o ; but it extends 400 m.
inland to the source of that riv. This prov. is only hilly on
the boundary-line of Sear4 and Pernambuco ; it is particu-
larly adapted to the breeding of cattle, the pastures in the
souihern portion of the plain of the Parnahyba being exten-
sive and excellent Besides cattle, cotton is exported, and,
in addition to other grains, rice and mandioca are particu-
larly cultivated. Independent tribes still exist in the S.
district, between the rivers Parnahyba and Gorguea. It has
no port, except that formed by the S« mouth of the Rio Par*
uahyba, called Higuarassu. Oeyras, the capital, is situated
on a small riv., which, three m. lower down, &ll8 into the
Caninde. a tributary of the Parnahyba. It is a small town
with 1 700 inh. Parnahyba lies on the Higuarassu, the £.
and most considerable branch of the Parnahyba, 15 m. from
the sea, and carries on an active trade in hides and cotton,
lu pop. amounts to 2600.
14. Maranhao comprehends the western portion of the
plain of the Parnahyba, extending alone the coast 350 m.
from the western mouth of the Rio Parnahyba to that of the
Tur)-vassu, and nearly 400 m. inland. It is more billy
than Pianhy, especially in the 8. districts, but towards the sea
extremely productive in rice and cotton, which are exported
in large quantities. All the S. and central districts and
most of the W., forming all together perhaps more than half
the prov., are still occupied by independent tribes. It has
some good harbours, the best of which are the bays of 8.
J«ac and of St. Marcos, formed by the isl. of Maranhao,
which is 20 m. long from N. E. to S. W., and 15 m. its
greatest width. To the W. of the bay of S. Marcos, tlie
chores are skirted by a series of small and low islands up to
the bay of Tury vassu, the limits of the prov. on the side of
PariL. Besidefl the capital, 8. Luii de Maranhao [Ma-
itA!fHAo]« it contains two considerable places, Alcantara
and Caehias. Alcantara, on the W. of the bay of S. Mareos,
vhich hae a port capable of receiving large coasting vessels,
is a large well-built town, and carries on a oonsiderable
trade in the prodace of the country. Caehias is situated
on the ItapicurCu where that riv. begins to be navigable ton
large bargee, in a- district wtiich is productive in eetton :
it is a considerable thriving town. Its pop. may amotmt to
10,000.
15. Par4 is the largest of the prov. of Brazil, extending
from the Rio Turyvassu, W. nearly to the isl. of Tupinam-
hnrana, alon? the S. bank of the Amazon as: and farther to
the S. to the £. banks of the Rio Madeira. This portion of
Pari comprehends the greater part of the plain of the Rio
das Amazonas, and also considmble portions of the table-
'«nd ; nearly the whole of it is still in the possession of in-
dependent tribes, the Earopean settlements being very small
And at great distances from one another. They only ooeur
M the baakt of the Rio das Amazenas, and at die mouth of
its loiger affluente. On the banks ef the Tocantini and Mm :
deira, which two rivers have been navigated for some time,
there are also a few feeble settlen^nts, but none on those of
the Xingu and Tapiyos, nor on the rivers betveeen the Ma^
deira and Hyabary. As some attempts have been recently
made to navigato the Tapajos.it is probable that new settlo
roents may be made on that riv. In this portion of the prov.
of Pari, is the capital, Para [Para], and the following
places : — ^Bragansa or Cayt^, on the banks of the riv. Cay td^
about 30 m. from the sea, is an old town and a considerable
place ; the ]x>rt is often resorted to by the coasting vessels
which navigate between Maranhao and Pari. Caracta, the
most considerable t next to Pari, is situated on the left bank
of the Tocantins, above 30 m. from its mouth. It has cout
siderabic trade with Pari and the prov. oi Goyaz, and about
8000 inh. Santarem, near the mouth of the Tapajos, is the
dep6t of the numerous articles of commerce collected in the
forests around it and farther up the Amazonas ; it is also
visited by barges which navigate towards the country far-
ther W. It has above 2000 inh.
The prov. of Pari comprehends also a considerable tract
N. of the Amazonas, from the £. coast to the Rio Nha-
munda. This tract, which is considered as part of Gui'
ana, is almost entirely occupied by independent tribes. The
few European settlements only occur on the sea-coast and
on the banks of the Rio Amazonas. The most important
are : — Macapa, at the mouth of the can. of Braganza, the
principal brenoh of the Rio Amazonas, opposite the Archi-
pelago of isl. which that great riv. forms here. It is a
considcrabltt town xrith a fortress, and carries on an active
commerce in the produce of the country. Its pop. is above
2000. Montalegre, situated on a sm<Ul isl. in the riv. Gu-
rupatuba, 7 m. urom its junction with the Amazonas, is a
considerable place, and has some trade. Obydos, formerly
Panxis, is near the E. mouth of the Rio Oriximina, which
joins the Amazonas. In this place, at the distance of about
700 m. from the sea, the Amazonas runs in one channel,
about 900 fathoms wide, and up to this point the tide
ascends. It has some commerce and nearly 2000 inh.
Between the town of Macapa and Cape do Norte a narr
row channel extends along the coast, which is formed by
some islands that line the coast at a short distance from it $
in this channel the current called poror^ca, is roost strongly
felt. At full and change, the tide, instead of gradually rising
in six hours, attains ita greatest height in a few minutes, and
is accompanied with a terrific noise. [Boeb.]
The isL of Manyd or Ilha dos Joannes is the largest isl.
of Brazil, extending above 90 m. from N. to 8., and at least
120 from £. to W. It perhaps contains about 1 0,000 sq. m.
The N. shores are washed by the sea, the W. partly by the
principal branch of the Rio Amazonas and partly by the
can. of Tagipuru, which unites the great riv. to the Rio dae
Bocas, a fresh- water bay, at the £. extremity of which the
Tocantins has its embouchure. This bay and the Rio do
Pari enckne the isl. on the S. and £. Its surface is even,
and its own numerous rivers, some of which have a course of
70 or 80 m., inundate, in the rainy season, considerable
tracts on the W. and 8. side. About one-half of the isU
consisting of that part which borders on the ocean and the
Rio de Pari, is nearly without wood and pastured by great
herds of cattle and horses ; the other half is covered with
high trees and abundance of underwood. The pop. is pro-
bably not much above 10,000.
16. 3. Joz6 do Rio Negro, which is not much less than
Para, extends likewise on both sides of the Amazonas ; on
the N. side between the Rio Nhamunda and the limits or
the rep. of Ecuador ; on the S. between the Rio Madeira
and the Hyabary, the limit towards Peru. The isl. of Tupi-
nambarena is included in this pro., and also the country 8.
and E. of it The Eurpoean settlements here are still less
numerous and less important, and are only found on the Rio
Negro and its tributary, Rio Brenco, on the Yapuri, and
the Madeira, except a very few on the Rio Amazonas. The
country between the Madeira and Hyabary has never been
visited by Europeans. N. of the Amazonas are many
small tribes, and 8. of it the numerous tribes of the Mund-'
ruc^s, Mah^, Muras, and others. Barra do Rio Negro,
the capital, is situated on the banks of the Rio Ne^ro,
about 4 m. from its mouth, and contains above 3000 inh.
Tabatinj^a, on the Amazonas, situated near the boundary
line of Ecuador, is a very small place.
The isl. of Tupinambarana, which is above 150 m. long,
lies near the 8. bank of the Amazonas, from the mouth of
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the Madeira W. Between it and the main land on the S. is
a large, deep, and navigable channel, called can. de Irari4,
into whii:h many riv. empty themselves. When the Ma-
deira is swollen, the current runs through this cliannel £. ;
hut in the dry season it runs partly in the Madeira, and
partly to the Amazonas, hy dififerent mouths. The isl. is
low and covered with impenetrable woods. Nearly in t)ie
middle it is divided by a narrow strait called the Furo dos
Ramos, which unites the Irarisk with the Amazonas.
1 7. Matto GroBSO (Great Forest) occupies the centre of S.
America. It comprehends the greater portion of the table-
land between the Madeira and the Araguay, tbo tributary
of the Tocantins, the portion of the plain of the Upper Ma-
deira belonging to Brazil, the plain of the Paraguay, and the
\V. portion of the table-land of the Parang, up to the banks
of that riv. A great portion of the table-land N. of the Serra
dos Vertentes seems to be a desert of little value, of whjch
the Campos dos Paricis are the worst part ; and no Euro*
peans are settled here. The table-land of the Parana^ is
better, and has extensive pastures ; but it is still entirely
possessed by the independent Indians, more especially the
Cajapos. But on the riv. falUng into the Paraguay, there are
numerous European settlements, though they are generally
small. In many places gold is found, which circumstance
gave rise to the settlements, though the mmcs at present
are poor or neglected. The low country on both sides of
the Paraguay is mostly occupied by the Guaicuriis. On
the plain of the Upper Madeira, along the banks of the
Guapor£, there are also many European settlements : gold
abounds here ; but the greater part of the country is pos-
sessed by independent tribes.
Villa Bella, the capital, a considerable town, situated neai
the Guapor6, has 25,000 inh. and considerable mines in its
neighbourhood. Cuyaba, not far from the banks of the
Rio Cuyaba» an affluent of the Rio de S. Louren^o, which
is a tributary of the Paraguay, is noted for the quantity of
gold which was found here in the beginning of the last cen-
tury. It is still a considerable place, though the mines have
greatly fallen off. Villa Maria, on the E. bank of the
Paraguay, in a very fertile country, is a thriving town.
18. Goyaz occupies the centre of the Brazilian table-land,
including the basm of the Tocantins to its conlluence with
the Araguay and the countries on the £. bank of the Ara-
guay, together with the hilly country on the Paranahyba, an
affluent of the Paranil. European settlements are common
only on some of the upper branches of the Tocantins and
Araguay, where gold was found in abundance. There are
a few small settlements along the Tocantins up to its con-
fluence with the Arajjuay. By far the greater portion of
the country is in possession of independent tribes ; among
which the Cajapos on the Paranahyba, and the Chevantes.
between the Tocantins and Araguay, are the most numerous.
Villa Boa, the capital, situated on the Rio Vermelho, an
£3iuent of the Araguay, in a country rich in gold, contains
7000 inh. Nossa Senhora do Pilai*, a considerable place
near the ridge, which divides the affluents of the Tocantins
from those of the Arai^uay, is in the neighbourhood of some
rich gold mines. Natividade, a town 35 m. from the £.
bank of the Tocantins, is the most commercial place of the
prov. • it sends its produce to Bahia.
)9. Minas Geraes comprehends theE. and, as it appears,
most elevated portion of the Brazilian table-land along the
upper course of the Rio de S. Francesco, together with the
most N. part of the table-land of the Parana. It is rich in
gold, iron, and diamonds. Gold is found, particularly in the
nj)per branches of the Francisco and its two affluents, tlic
I'aroapeba and Rio das Vclhas ; and diamonds in the
Icujiieiinhonha and Abaelc. The countries about these riv.
are well settled by Europeans, except the Abaet^ ; but a
lar^re portion of the prov. is pobsesboil by Indian tribes,
am T.2 which are the Botocudos, the Purus, and the Co-
roiidos. Villa Rica, since 18'JJ railed Villa Imperiale del
Oiix) Preto, the capital of the prov., is situated near the
Si'rra Ilacolumi, in the midst of mountains rich in «oId : it
has 8200 inh. Marianna, at no great distance further to
the £., has also considerable mines in its neighbourhood,
and 7000 inh. S. Jouodel Rey, on a small riv. which unites
with the Rio Grande, the principal branch of the Parana,
ban all )ve 6000 inh. In its vicinity arc some mines, but it
urrives more importance from the road between S. Paolo
and Villa Rica passing through it. Sahara, on the Rio das
Vcliias. contains 6000 inh. In its neighbourhood are con-
siderable mines, among which are the rich mines of Congo
Soco. Tejuco, the capital of the diaiooDfl distiiet» and tie
seat of its administration, is situated between hi^^h nitn.:.-
tains, on the small riv. S. Antonio, which falls into u **
Icquetinhonha : it has 6000 inh. In its neighbourbocyl .i
Villa do Principe, which is nearly as larpe.
The communication between the prov. of Brazil is oi. %
easy so far as it can he effected by lea or the Rio AnuuAjr.a^.
The mountains dividing the table-land from the ooa^t a.e
in general steep and ditlicuU to pasii. There are onh xi r
roads over them. The most S., which leads from Sant .» : <
S. Paolo, is a carriage- road, and the best of all. Aiu/ .i r
road leads over the Serra da Mantigueira from llio
Janeiro to Villa Rica, but it can only L^ travelled on L^r^**
back. The third, which runs from the banks of the h . )
S. Francesco to Jacobina, and thence to Bahia, is >^\..
woi-se. Between Goyaz and the country further E. j.o
two roads. One passes from Villa Boa to Villa R. a,
and the other from Natividade to the Rio S. France-
The country further W. communicates with the K. ]>• \.
only by one road, which runs from Cuyaba to VilU H a :
another road connects Cuyaba with Villa Bella. U*-'
the last-mentioned road \^as made, the prov. of M«4:.>
Grosso communicated with Rio Janeiro by the w«y < ;'
S. Paolo, and by an inland navigation of great liJ: -
culty. Departing from Villa Bella, the barges aMxi« ^cl
the Rio Alegre, an affluent of tlie Guapor^ whose upf^T
course is separated from the Rio Agoapehy by a porta^ -
only 4800 yards. Hence they descended the Rio Ag^^^i- •,
and Jaurili to tho Paraguay. From the Paraguay thi \ i *.•
tered the Tacoary, afterwards the Cochim, and la^tl> - "
Camp'jiio. AVhcre the navigation on this riv. ceasc«, tl.- .
is aiiOiher portage of 7 m., by which the riv. Saagiil<wu^? .
reached. This riv. unites with the Rio Vermelho, and i •
fall into the Rio Pardo, a tributary of the Parana, 'i
PuranA was then ascended to its junction with tiie T..
and this latter riv. was then navigated as far as Porto K» .
The remainder of the road to S. Paolo and Rjo Jan«i;u t .
by land. This route has been almost abandoned »t i-.o i
road has been made between Cuyabik and Villa lli>a,
A road passing through Joao del Rey connectN S. V^
with Villa Rica; and another passing through Oejm^ ^ :
Cachias connects Bahia with Maranhao.
The navigation on the Rio das Amazonas and ^.i :
Parnahyba is easy, but that on the Madeira has been ^
entirely abandoned, on account of the great nun/ r
cataracts. The Tocantins and Araguay are na\igatiil
difficulty ; but the Tapajos seems to present fewer oo>t :
Commerce of Brazil.— The scarcity of the means oi ...
land communication prevents the prov. of ^latto Gru->< ?
Goyaz. which lie at a great distance from llie Ma.
bringing their agricultural produce to any maikft. - .
their export is consequently limited to gold and diuu-
Minas Geraes, which is connected by tolerable nw^;. • .
Rio Janeiro, Bahia, and S. Paolo, and also enjoys t. . ...
vantage of an easy navigation on the middle rour-c » f i .-
S. Francesco, exports its gold and precious stones ."i* .
coffee and cotton: S. Paolo exports its more bu.kv i .
heavy products by the port of Santos.
The foreign commerce of Brazil is more extensiw t. •
that of any other country of America, except the U: • .
States. The vessels of all nations are admitted on lh<f - : r
conditions, and their cargoes pay the same duties. Th«- :. -,
important articles of exportation are sugar, l.5C'0,i vk* t .t %.
annually; coffee, 720,000 cwts. ; and cotton, f'uni L'.;r » u
to 2.30,000 bags. The exportation of cocoa, hides. lul« .. ,.,
rice, horns and horn-tips, dye-wood, sarsapahlla. and mO .-:.•
rubber is also considerable. The smaller articles atv t*^*. -
glass, indigo, castor-beans, castor oil, and different drug*.
The following are the ports fr qucnted by European \.^
sels. From S.Pedro in Rio Grande do Sul arv exjv... .
three-fourths of all the hides brought from Brazil; furtnr r x
they were sent chiefly to Rio de Janeiro, and a tV% . .
Bahia, but now a considerable portion is exported Oj.-^. -: •
Europe, and chiefly to Antwerp. The greatest part o
jerked beef which is prepared in tho prov. is conaunit-i ,
the slaves in the S. prov. of Brazil; but a part is ex> . •
to the Havanna. as well direct from S. Pedro, a* inxtn l\ ^
and Rio Janeiro. Wh»at and tallow go to R»o J.ii .
Santos sends the numerous productions of S^ Paak> tv> t^ -
Janeiro ; and also a few cargoes oi rice and some sti^-. *
Europe, chiefly to Lisbon: a considerable part of the *i.. •
exported from Rio Janeiro is brougiit IVom Santos.
Hio Janeiro exports a great quauUijt^of coffee* jrh;.- .- ▼
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amoanU to 550,000 bags annually, Wng ten times tbe
quantity exported from all the other Brazilian ports. It is
sent to all parts of Europe, chieltv to Antwerp, Hamburg,
and Trieste, as well as to tne United States. Next to coffee,
sugar is an important article of exportation, being from
16,000 to IS.OQp cases annually: it goes almost entirely to
Europe, and chiefly to Hamburg; but when European
prices are low, part of it has occasionally been sent to Buenos
Ay res and round Cape Horn. The smaller articles are
hides, brought from Rio Grande do Sul and S. Paolo, rum,
dyo-woods, and drugs : the first two are considerable.
' Bahia, or S. Salvador, is the principal port for the ex-
portation of sugar, which annually amounts to from 50,000
to 60,000 cases. It also exports 40,000 bags of cotton,
some tobacco, rum, rice, cacao, rosewood, and drugs. Tlie
sugar goes principally to Hamburg and Trieste, and tlie
cotton to England, a small portion only being sent to
Franco. To Lisbon and Oporto are sent part of the sugar
tobacco, rum, and cacao, and all tho rice ; and to the coast
of Africa much rum and tlie inferior quality of tobacco.
Pemambuco supplies cotton, sugar, and Brazil-wood. The
cotton, amounting to above 100,000 bags annually, comes
mostly to England ; the sugar being less fit for refining, is
distributed in small portions to many markets : it amounts
to about 15,000 cases. The Brazil-wood of best quality is
foond in the neighbourhood of Pemambuco, and is exported
on account of the government, which has a monopoly in it.
Though this article is also found in the prov8.of Rio Janeiro
and of Bahia, it is of a quality so inferior to that grown near
Cape S. Roque as to oear no comparison in value. The
smaller articles are hides, cocoa-nuts, ipecacuanha, and
other drugs.
Maranhao exports chiefly cotton, rice, tapioca, hides, and
horns, with isinglass and some drugs. The cotton, amount-
ing to about 50,000 bags, goes chieflv to England (.16,000),
and the remainder to Portugal and Spain. The rice and
tapioca (mandiocca flour) is sent to Portugal. The hides
(J 00.000) are divided between England and the United
States: France and Belgium receive only a small number.
What is called Maranhao cacao is the produce of Par^, and
is not now exported at all from Maranhao.
Parsk, though a larger town than S. Pedro and Santos, is
a place of much less trade: its exports consist of a greater
\ariety of articles. Cacao is the chief article; next to it
ludia-rubber, then isinglass, hides, cotton, casta nha-nuts,
and many kinds of drugs. In some years a very little sugar
has been exported, but in general both Maranhao and Parii
remiire supplies of that article from the S. provinces.
Foreign vessels have begun to enter the ports of Seari,
Aracaty, and Parahyba, but the commerce of these towns
is comparatively insignificant: from the first are brought
some few cargoes of cotton, and from the two last sugar and
cotton.
On tbe whole, nearly all the sugar of Brazil finds a
market at Hamburg, Trieste, and Portugal; the rice is,
with a trifling exception, sent to Portugal; the coffee is
divided between the continent or Europe and the United
States, the latter having increased their imports to nearly
one- third of the whole quantity in late years. Almost all
the cotton, rosewood. India-rubber, and isinglass is brought
to England. The hides are distributed between England,
the continent of Europe, and the United States. The to-
bacco is sent to Portugal and to Gibraltar, previous to being
smuggled into Spain; and to the coast of Africa. The
rum, which is exported, finds a market chiefly on the Afiri-
can coast, and in some ports of Portugal.
The annual exports from Brazil may be estimated at about
5,000.000/., of which nearly one-half is exported to England
by British vessels ; of the remainder about three-fourths go
to the continent of Europe in Swedish, Danish, Portuguese,
and Hamburg vessels, and the rest is carried to America.
The imports into Brazil may likewise be estimated at
about 5.000,000/. More than four-fifths are brought from
England and its colonies in English vessels. The most im*
l>ortant article is cotton ikbrics, which amount to nearly
1,500.000/. ; next to these, woollen articles, linen, brass and
copper ware, butter and cheese, iron and steel, wrought and
unwrought, hardware and cutlery, hats, arms and ammuni-
tion, soap and candles, and tin. Many cargoes of cod are
sent from the British fisheries in North America ; and from
the British colonies potashes. India ootton piece-goods, silks
and spices. Nearly the whole of this commerce is carried
on bj vessels from London and Liverpool.
Mo, 318.
[THEPENNY CYCLOP-aSDL^l
France sends to Brazil, chiefly from the ports of Havre
and Brest, some articles of fashion, trinkets, furniture, wax
candles, hats, dry fruits, some glass goods, and wine. From
Holland and Belgium are sent beer, glass goods, linen,
geneva, and paper ; from Germany, Bohemian glass, linen,
and iron and brass utensils ; from Russia and Sweden, iron,
copper utensils, sail-cloth, cords, ropes and tar; from Por-
tugal, wine, brandy, fruits, hats, and European manufac-
tures; from the United States, considerable quantities of
wheat, flour, biscuits, soap, spermaceti candles, train-oil, tar,
leather, boards, pitch, potashes, and some rough articles of
furniture and coarse cotton cloth.
The maritime intercourse between Brazil and the neigh-
bouring republics is not considerable. Tho most active is
that carried on with Buenos Ayres, to which sugar, tapioca,
and some other agricultural products are sent, and whence
the Paraguay tea or mat6 is brought back.
Formerly an active trade was carried on with the coasts
of Africa, whence, in some years, 40,000 slaves were im-
ported, chiefly from Benguela, Cabinda, and Mozambique.
But the slave trade has l^n abolished, and since that time
the traffic has probably much decreased. From Mozam-
bique are imported gold-dust, ivory, pepper, Columbo root,
ebony, and some East India goods ; from the western coasts
of Africa, wax, palm-oil, ivory, ground-nuts, sulphur, and
some gum-arabic ; from the Cape Verde islands, sulphur,
gum-arabic, and salL The intercourse with Goa and Macao
is not great. From these places are brought cotton piece-
goods, fine muslins, and printed cottons, silk stuffs, porce-
lain, tea, India ink, cinnamon, pepper, and some camphor.
For some years after the opening of tbe Brazilian ports to
free trade, nearly all the commerce was with England and
Portugal ; but on the general peace in Europe in 1814, the
northern ports of the continent began to participate in it.
As almost all the most important products of Brazil are ex-
cluded from consumption in England by enormous duties,
other countries are gradually, though slowly, supplanting
the British in the Brazil trade.
Probably the British trade with Brazil is on the whole
greater now than ever it was, but it by no means comprises
vhe same proportion of the whole of the Brazilian commerce.
The whole trade of Brazil has certainly increased very con-
siderably, and though the English share in this trade has
also increased, yet its proportion to the whole is not what it
once was. For some years British shipping carried nearly
the whole produce of Brazil, but now it carries less than
two-thirds. North American, Hamburg, Swedish, and
other flags have entered into competition with the British,
and so successfully, that the Americans are annually ac-
auiring a larger share of the trade. The principal cause of
lis change is that the bulky articles, such as Brazilian
sugar, coffee, and cacao, being loaded with heavy duties in
England, are consumed wholly in other countries, and only
brought to England for re-exportation; but by carrying
these articles direct to the countries of their consumption,
much expense is saved, and in doing this foreigners em-
ploy their own vessels. The only chance the British have
for securing the important carrying trade in Brazilian produce
would be by a material reduction of the duties in England.
History,— BniZil was discovered in the last year of the
fifteenth century. The voyages of Columbus and Vasco
de Gama, who first sailed across extensive seas, had taught
navigators to adopt the practice of entering at once upon
the open ocean. Accordingly Pedro Alvares de Cabral,
who, after the return of Vasco de Gama, was sent by the
king of Portugal with a large navy to the East Indies,
directed his course from the Cape Verde islands to the S.W.,
and was carried by the equatorial current so far to the W.
that he found himself very unexpectedly in sight of land in
10° S. lat This country was Brazil, which he saw first on
the 3rd of May, 1500. He sailed along tbe coast as far as
Porto Seguro (16** S. lat.), where he landed and took pos-
session. He sent an account of his discovery to Lisbon,
and continued his voyage to India. The king afterwards
sent Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, to examine the coun-
try, who took a rapid survey of nearly the whole of iU
shores, and upon his return published an account of it, with
a map. To this publication this navigator is indebted for
the honour of having given his Christian name to the new
continent
Vespucci, and others who were sent somewhat later, re-
ported that the country was not cultivated, and did not offer
any great commercial advantages, but that they had found
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extensive forests of Braiil-wood, of which thejr brought sbme
cargoes to Portugal. This was not sufficient to induce
the Portuguese to form a settlement, espeolaily as they
were then actiyely engaged in their conquests in the ^ast
Indies ; but it was quite enough to induce mercantilo spe-
culators to send their vessels for the dye-wood. This thtde
continued for tome years* and the merchants of other na-
tions, especially the French, began to follow the example of
the Portuguese. This was considered by the Portuguese
government as a violation of their rights as discoverers of
the country, and they accordingly began to think of forming
a permaneut establishment. King John III. however, on
calculating the expenses necessary for such an undertaking,
thought it more advantageous to invest some of the richest
noble families of Portugal with the property of extensive
tracts of coast, for the purpose of colonizing them with
Portuguese subjects. Accordingly, about ten or twelve Por-
tuguese noblemen obtained the property each of about 100
leagues of coast, and 40 or 50 leagues inland. These pro-
prietors were called donotarioi. Most of them made great
sacrifices, and underwent much fatigue and danp^er in
forming settlements in Brazil. The towns of S. Vmoent,
Espirito Santo, Porto Seguro, and Pemambuco were
founded by them between 1531 and 1945. But it soon be-
came evident that the private fortune of these noblemen
was not adequate to the establishment of such settlements
in an uncultivated country, and in the neighbourhood of
warlike savage nations. The kins therefore sent, in 1549,
as governor to Brazil, Tbom^ de Soosa, who founded the
town of Bahia in the bay of Todos os Santos, and esta-
blished a regular colonial administration. The government
gradually found means to acquire the property of the colonies
then exi:iting from the donotarios, either by purchase or by
exchange.
Before the religious divisions in England began to people
the coasts of North America, the Protestants of France
made a similar attempt in Brazil. A colony of French
Protesjtants was established in 1555, on an island in the bay
of Rio Janeiro, by Nicolas Durand de Villegagnon, but it
soon fell into anarchy. The Portuguese attacked it in 1565,
and expelled the French, though not without encounterhig
considerable resistance. On this occasion the town of Rio
Janeiro was founded by the Portuguese.
On the death of King Sebastian, when t^ortugal was
united to Spain (1580), the numerous enemies of the latter
country began to annoy Brazil, among whom the English,
under Thomas Cavendish, were the most active They did
not however form any settlement. The French maae a
second attempt in 1612 to settl6 on the isl. of Maranhao,
where th^y founded the town of S. Luiz de MaranhSo, but
in 1615 (hey were compelled to abandon it to the Portuguese.
The Dutch were more formidable enemies to the Portu-
guese. Their East India Company had already taken from
them many settlements in the Indian seas, and (heir West
India Complmy was thus invited to similar attempts in
America. In 1623 they sent a fleet to Brazil, which took
Bahia, then the capital of the country ; but it was lost again
in 1625. In 1629 the Dutch made another attempt, and
possessed themselves of PernambuCo, from which the Por-
tuguese were unable to dislodge them. They also extended
their conquest S. to the mouth of the f^rancfsco, and added
on the N. the prov. of Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte
to their possessions. The disunion among the Dutch ofll
cera appearing to be the pfincijml obstacle to the completion
of the conquest of all Brazil, the Company sent, in 1637,
Prince John Maurice of Nassau to Pernamboco, with un-
limited powers as governor. He soon established a more
regular administration, and in the same year got possession
of the prov. ofSear^ He n6xt attacked twice (1638 and
1640) the to^n of Bahia, but as this was the residence of th6
Portuguese governor, it was better fortified than the other
towns, and the attempt failed. The revolution irr Portugal
(1640) Separated that kingdom from Spain, and the new
government of Portugal made peace with the Dutch republic.
But Nassau did not trouble himself about the orders received
from honfare, and in 1641 and 1642 he took the prov. of Se-
regige&nd Maranh3o, so that when he was recalled, in 1643.
all Brazil N. of the Rio Francisco, with the exception of
Pari, and in addition to this the prov. of Sere^ipe, was rn
the hands of the Dutch. The administration of the Dutch
colony being left to a coimcil at Recife, every thintr gtjon
Ml into disorder. The Portuguese ^vernor at Bahia was
i4«T0BIMl br tt« fiMM^ and the oKders received from bis
government at homfe, from taking advantage of thc«r r^r-
Cumstances ; but a private person, Fcmandes Vieiro, foni»t.»i
A conspiracy among the settlers of Portuguese origin, in
which he was secretly aided by the governor. The c)on>p •
mcy broke otit at MatunhHo and Seari, and extended irra-
dually to the other provinces. At last the Dutch were con-
fined to the town of Pern am hUco, from which al9o they i»»'re
expelled in 1654, when the Portuguese government sent a
naval fbrce to aid the people who had risen against the
Dutch. By the peace of 1660 the Dutch renounced tht\r
claims on these countries.
At that time the mineral riches jf Braciiwere not known.
The town of S. Paolo had been founded by some Portu -
fuese in 1620, who had ascended to the table-land of ibe
'aran& froin the town of 8. Vincent, and been iodnc«d to
settle there on account of its fine climate. The adventurer*
established a kind of democratic government, and m&de
fVequent incursions among the savage nations for the pur
pose of capturing them and using thetii as Aa\'ei. In tor*«
excursions, towards the end of the seventeenth century, thn
discovered the mines of S. Paolo ; and near Sabard« on th«
Rio dasVelhas, in 1700, the richer mines at Villa Rfea; aijJ
in 1713 those of Marianna. The mines at Cttyabi and
Goyaz Were discovered between 1715 and 17fO. The exist-
ence of diamonds in the Rio Icquitinhonha was not kni>«n
before 1728. These discoveries, and the riches which c >-
vemment derived from the mines, induced it to remove tl-t
administration Of the colony from Bahia to Rio 8. Jane;. •
in 1773.
Brazil has not attained that degree of Culttvatfon at.!
amount of pop. which might have been expected in a color.*
settled for upwards of 250 years. The principal imp« ^i
ment has been the grants of land being loo large, suuitv
times 100 or 200'8q. m. and more, and the proprietors n t
having taken pains to settle these extensive tracts with a
sufficient number of labourers. Another obstacle ha» ex-
isted in the regulations as to commerce, by which no toxm: ,
vessels were permitted to enter the ports of Brazil* nor tii^
Brazilians to send their commodities to any other count rr
than Portugal. This of course caused discontent amur.^
the merchants. Further, the natives of Portugal who h^i
emigrated to the colony constituted a privileged class, brt..^-
exclusively entitled to all posts of honour and all lucrat.X'-
emplo^ments under government, which naturally exci*t-:
dissatisfaction among the rich descendants of the Pgrtu-
guese. This dissatisfaction began to generate a wish U'-
change as soon as Uie U. S. of North America had obta3r.<>!
their independence ; and events in Europe look such a turii
that Brazil obtained its object almost without blood>L^i
and War. When Bonaparte had formed his scheme for
taking possession of the Peninsula, he be»n by declarir::
war against Portugal, upon which the royal Ikmily leA E .
rope for Brazil, where they arrived 22od January, tbi'*.
Considering Brazil as the principal part of his remafn.n^
dominions. Kins John VI. began to improve its condt: .r.
by placing the administration on a more regular footing sfi !
throwing open its ports to all nations. In the meani.u.r
the French army, after having occupied Portugal for ». m^-
time, was driven out of Spain, and though all appreb<-ri-
sion of seeing Portugal again eontjuered by the French m i%
now removed, the royal family did not return to Euru;*.
On the fall of Bonaparte, th^ king raised Brazfl to the n:nlw
of a kingdom, and assumed th6 title of Kmgof Portix-^>.
Algarve, and Brazil. The itih. of Portugal, flndinf^ iboiu-
selves deprived of the advantages of an excla«te common .*
with that country, were much discontented, and it va> ^* :
that an insurrection, which broke out at Pemaimbuc^ m
1817, was excited or promoted by them.
The king was however obliged to return to Europe b*
the revolution which took place in Portugal in IS.'O. '.>
which the constitution of Spain had l)een adopt<^ in tL '
kingdom also. The news of that event had hardly nracli'^
Brazil when the same constitution waS proclaimc<I b> t>-.
inh. in the town of PernamTnico, and soon aherward« i-^
Bahia and Pari It was feared that similar measure^ w^xu'J
be taken in Rio Janeiro, and accoMingly the king foorid rt
exf)edient to proclaim the constitution hhnsdfon the i^ih
February, 1821, soon after which he sailed for Lisbon, lea» -
ing at the head of the ad minis tratfon in Braxil lWfx> h'.%
eWest son and surcpssof, as lieutenant and regent. TT^
Cortes of Portugal did not conceal their design of rwxoni ^
the old relations with Brazil, by which fts oomnicrw vf.»
restricted to tho mother coniitry ; tndHBiuMiidt Ae|li«a tte
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deputies from Bnsil (joite lo well at they shoiild have
doue. This of course increased the discontent of the Bra-
zilians, and prepared the way for the independence of that
country.
The Cortes in Portugal continue^ their course of policy.
They formed a scheme for a new organization of the admi-
nistration in Brazil and recalled the Prince Regent But
tjie prince, induced by the represeptations of the Brazilians,
refused to obey their orders, and sent the Portuguese troops
stationed a( Pernapibuco and Hio Janeiro to Europe. The
Portuguese commandant of Qahia however did not yield ;
ho expelled the militia and remained xpaster of (lie town.
Tjiis step was decisive, and immediately' followea l^y others.
On the l3tli May the Prince Regent waa proclaimed pro-
tector i^nd_perpetual defender of Brazil, ^le general Fro-
curators (Procuradores geraes) of the proy. were assembled
by the Prince Regent to consuU on the new form of govern-
ment, but thev ^clared that they were i^ot competent to
such a task, and proposed the convocation of deputies chosen
by the people, to which the prince apce^ed after a short de-
lay. As the Cortes in Portugal still persisted in their design
i\ was thought necessary to declare the independence of
Brazil, and the Prince Regent did not venture to oppose
the torrent of public opipion. Accordingly on tl)e 12ta of
October, 1822, Brazi] was declared an independent state,
and the prince adopted the title of Epiperor of ((raxil : on
the 1st of December he was crowned.
^9 this step might be considered a declaration of war
apinsi Portugal, preparations for hostilities were imme-
diately made. The Portuguese troops still occupied the
towns of Bahia, Maranhao, and Par^ 3ahia waa oesieged
by the Brazilian forces, and after a few weeks the garrison
was obliged to abandon it, upon the appearance of the ad-
miral of Brazil, Lord Cochrane, before the harbour, ^he
admiral also compelled the garpso^s of Maranhao and Pari
t^ sail for {lurope. Thus the independence of Brazil was
established, with lio otner Iq^Q of blood than what \oo\i p)ace
in the town of Bahia* ' .
The deputies of the prov. met op thQ 3rd of May, 1923,
the anniversary of the aiscovery of Brazil, and adojpted the
title of Greneral Assembly of prazil (Assemblea Geval do
Brazil). They appointed a committee for drawing up a
constitution, whicn was doqe by the 3pth of August; but
the constitution contained seyeral provisions to whic)i the
emperor objected. The meetings of the assembly Decerning
more and more turbulent, the emperor finally dissolved it
on the 12th of November, and called another assembly.
In the ipean time he c.aused a new constitution to be drawn
up and published, which was afterwards accepted by the
new assembly (1824). According to this instrument, Srazil
is an hereditary monarchy, limited by a popular assepoblyl
The executive i3 in the hands of the emperor. The legisla-
tive body consists of two assemblies, tne senate, and the
chamber of deputies. The first ^^ chosen by the emperor,
and the second by the people. The Catholic faith is the
religion of the state : all other Christians are tolerated, but
are not allowed to build churches, and \o perform divine
ser>ice in public.
During these events the Cortes of Portugal ^ad b^n dis-
solved, and the constitution abolished. The king, after
some slight attempts, being well aware that it waa impos-
sible to re-establish the former relations between Portugal
and Brazil, acknowledged the independence of the latter
country in 1825.
In 1826 two events took place which gave rise to great
discontent, th^ death of King Jfolin VI., and the war with
Buenos Ay res. By the decease of tl^e kine* Portugal de-
volved on the emperor of Brazil, and the Brazilians again
apprehended that they niight be placed in a state of de-
pendence on that country. To remove such fears, Pedro
declared his daughter Maria queen of Portugal, intending
to marry her to his brother Miguel. The subject of the war
with Buenos Ayres was the possession of the Banda Orien-
tal, which country had expressed a wish to be united to
Brazil, and had been partly occupied by Brazilian troops.
But the republic of La Plata maintaining its claims to that
country, the war was carried on with some activity and va-
rious fortune between 1826 and 1828. By the peace of 1828
the emperor gave up the Banda Oriental and the Seven
Missions on the Parang, both of which were to form inde-
gmdent republics, the former under the name of Uraguay
riental, %nd the latter under that of Corrientes.
But thQ internal peace of tbe covmtry was not re-esta-
hliahAd. The chamber of deputiaa bad l^een formed on de-
mocratical principles, and they soon found other causes of
discontent. Frequent disputes broke out between the em-
peror and the chamber, and aovpetime^ ^r^t disturbances
occurred in Rio Janeiro. An affray, which took pUce oii
the 13th March, 1831, led to extraor(|inacy results. The
chamber of deputies had been prorogued, but twenty-fpur
of the members then residing at Rio remonstrated with the
emperor, anq demt^nded the dismissal of the ministers. The
emperor acceded to thi^ demand, but his pext choice fell o^
persons stUl more unpopular. Thi^ inpreased the dissatis-
factiop of tli9 people, and tb^ en^peror was required to dis-
miss the new ministry also, whicq he refused tQ do. On
the 6tn of 4pril a tumultuous pooulape having assembled
before the palace, the emperor Qreeire4 ^^^ muitary to dis-
perse them ; and on their refusal, (iq issued a proclamation,
by which he abdicated the Uirone in favour of his son, and
on the 7th left Brazil, after having appointed a guardian to
bis successor, who was under age.
The chamber of deputies now took a mere decided lead
in public affairs, and aippointed a regency of three persona,
ft was expected, und^r the circumstances, that Brazil would
soon be changed into a republic, but this event has iiot yet
taken place. It would appear that the residence of the royal
family in Brazil has attached a g^eat number of the inha-
bitants to its interests, who sirenuovisly oppose the attempts
of the democratic party* It is remarkable, that among the
numerous disturbances which have taken place since the
departure of Pedro I., some of them have eviaently been
directed to the destruction or complete overthrow of the de-
mocratical party. For the last few years Brazil has en-
joyed more tranquillity than the other states of South Ame-
rica. (Ayres de Cazal, Corogrqfia Bxa^ilica ; Trav^U of
Spix and Martina ; Eschwege's fluto HrasiliemU ; Es^h-
vfege's Geburg^kunde Brc^sUiens und Branltef^; Freyreiss,
Beitrii^e zurkenntnis^ J^rofilieas; Schaffer's Brasilieni
Weechs J^rasiiiena geeenitar tiger Zusiand; Trtjtvela of
Mawe« Caldcleugh, and Graham; $outhey*f fiistor^ qf
Brazil ; and Weiss's 4t(ap qf South 4»«^ca.)
BHAZIl^ NUTS, the seeda of QiiRTiioi.i.KtiA sxcblia.
BRAZIL WOQa [P^sALFm A.]
BREACH, an opening formed by the partial demolition
of a rampart in order to permit ai) assault to be made upon
the defenders in the interior of a fortified place or work. It
is effected either by directing upon the escarp, that is, the
exterior surface of the wall, a fire of artillery* or by explod-
ing a quantity of gunpowder which may be deposited in a
mine formed for the purpose wit^iin the mass of the rampart.
When the attack of a fortress is conducted according to
rule and the breach is to be made by artillery, % battery con*
sisting of ^uns of the greatest calibre is formed on the crest
of the glacis ; the mu^xles of these arci depressed so as to
permit the (ring to b^ directed against points in a horizontal
line on tne surface of tlie revetment, within a few feet of the
bottom of the wall ; and if the breach is to be made at a
salient angle, the battery should encompass the angle so that
the guns may be fired at the samip time against the two
faces of the work. When by successive Tollies the shots
have pierced quite through the wall, the guns are so di-
rected as to fire at different points in a vertical line passing
through each extremity pf the horizontal groove, and thua
a portion of the wall is detached from the rest ; afterwards,
a few shut being fired with diminished charges of powder,
the detacf^ed part will fall into the ditch, leaving an opening,
up which, after t^e surface of tlie breach has been rendered
passable by firing against it tiU the large masses of the de-
molished wall are «ufficiently ieduc^« me troops may mouDt
to make the assault.
48 it ia not always (sonyeniept \q deter t\ie formation of
the breach till after th® glacis has been crowned* the breach-
ing oatteries are sometimes constructed at an earlier period
of the siege, and at a greater distance {jrom the works. Ik
is evident, however, that the^ring cannot then be made with
so much precision, nor, upless the battery is on commanding
ground, or the ditches are very shallow, can the guns be di-
rected to the foot of the escarp wall ; consequently the
breach will be steeper and more difficult of -ascent, fn old
fortresses however the revetment walls often rise so high aa
to allow a practicable breach to be formed by a fire directed
at a much smaller angle, of depression ; in these circum-
stances breaches have sometimes been effected by firing
from batteries at the distance o( 1200 yards from the walls.
Rampaita hav^ als<^been*)>xs»Ghed ficogi grept distaaoea by
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giving tbe guns a smsll elevation, and regulating the charges
so that the shot may strike the wall obliquely in tlie descend*
ing branch of its trajectory, and thus scrape off, as it were,
portions of its thickness : the demolition of the wall is also
then facilitated by firing against it shells filled with powder ;
for these by exploding close to the parts of the wall already
shattered by the shot, easily detach from thence considerable
fragments and presently cause the ruin of the rampart.
When a breach is to be formed by mining, the fire of the
defenders on the ramparts must be kept down by that from
the artillery and musketry of the besiegers ; and thus pro-
tected, a small party of miners is sent across the ditch to
tbe foot of the revetment wall. These men set up several
stout planks on end with their upper extremities resting
against the wall, and under this cover, which is sufficient to
repel the grenades or other missiles sent by the defenders
from the parapet above, one of them excavates in tbe ram-
part a gallery, which, if near a salient angle, may extend as
far as the capital of the work : here he forms two or more
chambers, which being charged, and a train laid, the mine is
fired, when the breach is at once made by the explosion : it
may be afterwards rendered passable by firing upon it from
a distance as before.
While the breach is being formed by artillery, if the depth
of the ditch is considerable, a subterranean gallery is exe-
cuted, usually from the interior of the battery, or from some
of the trenches on the glacis, in an inclined plane descend-
ing under the covered way to the back of tbe counterscarp
wall, which is then pierced through to make an opening into
the ditch at a point opposite to one extremity of the breach,
the earth being kept up on the sides and roof of the gallery by
frames and planks according to the usual practice in mining.
But when the ditch is too shallow to allow the gallery to have
a thickness of earth above it equal to at least three feet,
the descent into the ditch is made by n trench, excavated by
sapping in an inclined plane descending across tbe covered
wav. This trench is covered by a blindage (as described
under that word), in order to protect tbe storming party
from the plunging fire of the garrison.
Sir John Jones observes that, in forming breaches by
artillery, the guns should fire as quickly as possible and as
is consistent with precision ; the number of rounds fired per
hour is estimated at twenty-five or thirty, but the colonel
remarks that such a rate of firing must be injurious to the
guns ; and as it is not likely to be kept up when opposed by
musketry, tbe average number of rounds per hour for breach-
ing may be considered as twenty during daylight. (Jour-
nais of Sieges in Spain, 1827, note 29.)
BREAD may be divided into two kinds : first, common
biscuit bread, made merely from flour and water, without
undergoing any fermentation, and which is consequently
compact, heavy, and hard ; secondly, loaf bread, formed of
flour which has been fermented, and which is therefore
porous, light, and soft. The seeds of barley, oats, rye, and
wheat are principally employed, and in the state of flour,
for the making of bread : these grains resemble each other
sufficiently in their nature and properties to render it need-
less to treat particularly of the bread made from more than
one of them ; and as wbeaten bread is most extensively used,
and as in it the properties indicating perfect bread are moat
distinctly exhibited, our remarks will applv chiefly to it.
Common or unfermented biscuit bread, which was un-
doubtedly that first used in the early ages of the world,
is made from a stiff paste of flour and water, which, after
being kneaded, is flattened out, reduced to pieces of the re-
auisite size, punctured with an instrument, sprinkled with
our, and baked. In this operation no chemical change
takes place, the operation is the merely mechanical one of
moistening the particles of the flour, so as to cause them to
adhere in the first instance, and to remain in one mass by
the subsequent process of baking.
In bread, properly speaking, the process of manufacture
is one of much longer duration, and the chemical action of
fermentation is produced in the mixture of flour and water.
In order to comprehend what takes place in this case, it
will be recjoisite to state the nature of tbe different sub-
stances which constitute wheat flour ; it is composed chiefly
of etarch and gluten, with some other substances in smaller
proportion : according to Vogel, it is composed of
Starch • . , .68
Gluten • • • • 24
Gummy Sugar • • 5
Vegetable ^bumen • 1*5
Sir H. Davy states that wheat sown in autann eontaiaa
77 per cent, of starch, and 19 of gluten ; while that mwo io
spring yielded 70 of starch, and 24 of gluten : the wheat of
the south of Europe contains a larger proportion of gluten
than that of the north, and hence its peculiar lltnese £or
making vermicelli. According to the chemist just quoted,
oats yielded 59 of starch, 6 of gluten, and 2 of sacchsoine
matter ; while the same quantity of rye gave only 6*1 paru
of starch, and half a part of gluten.
The separation of the gluten from the greater part of tbe
starch is very readily effected. Make flour into a thick
paste, and work it between the fingers while a sleodi^r
stream of water is running upon it, and continue the oper^*
tion till the water ceases to run off milky ; then there re-
mains a grey, adhesiTe, elastic mass, which is principally
gluten, but contains some albumen and a little alarcb : to
render it more pure, it is to be treated with boiling alcolv {*
until the filtered spirit ceases to become turbid on comIit j.
The alcohol dissolves tbe gluten, as well as some other »uU-
stanccs, the nature of which is imperfectly known* whx.r
the vegetable albumen is left. To the alcoholic aolutioD f
the gluten add water, and distil the mixture ; the tttcoh^ l
comes over, and there remains a fluid in which the f;iu;« n
floats in coherent bulky flocks : a small quantity bow ewx
remains dissolved combined with gum.
The gluten thus procured is of a pale vellow eoloar, ai» J
its smell is peculiar, but tasteless; it is elastio and a^l-
hesive ; water does not dissolve it, but it is taken up 'T
acetic acid. Exposed to dry air it becomes extecnalU \^»-
lished, of a deeper yellow colour, and eventually drie* tx.r >
a deep vellow mass, which is translucid, and has the appr .tr-
ance of dried animal matter. When moist gluten to tx*
posed to the air it putrifies, emitting a very disagnml.*'
smell; when decomposed by heat it yields ammonia, ai>:
charcoal is left. It is composed of carbon, oxygen, lu ilr -
gen, and azote, in proportions which have not been dfU -
mined: it is owing to the presence bf azote that it ^lel***
ammonia, and in this respect it resembles animal mailer.
These, which are the principal properties of glulen« ar<
sufficient for our present purpose ; a more deUiled aoc^.t. .;
of them may be seen in Berzelius. Traite de Chimie^ \ol. \
In order to procure the starch of the flour, the water « h>
has been used to wash it in obtaining the gluten is to U
suffered to remain at rest ; by this, tbe stardi which « i
merely suspended* may be separated on a filter and afk r
wards dried.
It is not requisite to give a minute account of the pr>
perties of starch ; it is sufllcient to state that it is oolouiie^.
inodorous, insipid ; when examined with the asaistance oi i
glass, its particles have a crystalline appearance. It i% i.
soluble in cold water, and coagulated by it when boiunj
but between about 160^ and 180° of Fahr., it is taken up »
water, and a clear, colourless solution is formed, which u \
not deposit starch on cooling. Dry starch suffers sratc %
any change even by long exposure to air; but when ii.« <
it becomes slowly sour. The peculiar and diaincti%e p .
perty of starch is its giving an intense blue colour, « ..i .
mixed with a solution of iodine in alcohol.
The difference between common biscuit and loaf br>- .
has already been noticed, and we shall now aUte tbe nor.- «
by which fermentation is induced, so as to give the br« . .
the porous texture and lightness which are the proofs v>f .t «
perfection.
When flour is made into a paste with water, the mixtu-
is called dough, and when this is suffered to remain *u .
moderately warm place it undergoes that partial and a^f
taneous decomposition which is called fermentatiun. 41. .
which, in order to distinguish it from other kinds, ba$ U-l *
called, but without sufficient reason for the distinction* i . -
panary fermentation. During this fermentation a pk»rtj *
of the carbon and oxygen of the partially -decoinp«<^* .
flour recombine so as to form what is sometimes ca*
fixed air, but correctly rarbwiic add gae. this, dunns *
natural tendency to escape into the air, is arrested in u> p- >
gross through the dough by the adhesiveness of the iriuir :
and forms, owing to its retention, numerous cavities -^ :
It is thus that wheat-flour makes lighter bread than ih.i
oats or rye, owing to the larger quantity of gluten wh «...
contains, by which the bread is rendered more porous £.
lighter, and consequently more digestible.
This plan of fermentation would however not otilr reqt< -
much time, but dough thus spontaneously fetrtncsiu^ i«
never q\ute free from putrescence and acidity, boiii oT mlm .
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m ii^urioas to the flavour of tbe bread : to remedjr these
inconveniences tbe process was formerly accelerated by
adding- to a mass of recent dough, a small Quantity of old
dough in a state of strong fermentation ; this was called
loaven, and the mass to which it was added was said to be
leavened.
Although the use of leaven was an unouestionable im-
provement a still further one was made by the employ-
ment of ^rcst instead of it ; by this the fermentation is much
more rapidly and perfectly effected. The exact nature of
this ferment has not been ascertained ; it is the flrothy scum
which rises on the surface of beer during its fermentation ;
it is a very compounded substance, and it is by no means de-
termined to what portions of it the fermenlive power is par-
ticularly owing. It appears to contoin gluten, but that
alone is not sufficient to account for the effects produced, as
it is incapable of fermentation per $e.
The following statement of the mode in which the baker's
operations are conducted is taken from Dr. Colquhoun's
essay On the Art of Baking Bread, in the 28th vol. of
the Annah of Philoiophy.
* When the baker proceeds to the preparation of dough
by means of the vest fermentation, he at first takes, gene-
rally a portion only, but sometimes the whole of the water
which it is his intention to employ in making the required
quantity of dough. In this water, which vanes in tempera-
ture, according to circumstances, from 90° to lOO"", there is
dissolved a certain portion of salt, the quantity of which
however is always less than that which will finally be
required, in order to communicate the necessary flavour to
the bread : yest is now mixed with the water, and then a
portion of flour is added, which is always less than the
Siiautity to be ultimately employed in forming the finished
ough. The mixture is next covered up and set apart in a
warm situation, within an hour after which signs of com-
mencing decomposition make their appearance. The sub-
stance tnus plaesd apart is termed, in the language of the
bakehouse, the sponge ; its formation and abandonment to
spontaneous decomposition is termed setting the sponge ;
and according to the relation which the amount of water in
the sponge bears to the whole quantity to be used in the
dough, it is called quarter, hoif or lohole sponge. The
sponge begins to swell out and heave up, evidently in con-
sequence of the generation of some internal elastic fluid,
which in this instance is always carbonic • acid gas. If
the sponge be of a semi-liquid consistence, large air-bubbles
soon force their way to its surface, where they break and
dissipate in rapid succession. But when the sponge pos-
sesses the consistence of thin dough, it confines this gaseous
substance within it until it dilates equably and progres-
sively to nearly double its original volume, when no longer
capable of containing the pent-up air, it bursts and subsides.
This process of rising and falling alternately might bo
actively carried on and frequently repeated during twenty -
four hours, but experience has taught the baker to guard
against allowing full scope to the energy of the fermentative
principle. He generallv interferes after the first, or at
farthest after the second or third dropping of the sponge ;
and were he to omit this the bread formed from his dough
Would invariably prove sour to the taste and to the smell.
He therefore at this period adds to the sponge the remaining
proportions of flour and water and salt, which may be neces-
sary to form the dough of the required consistence and size,
&nd next incorporates all these materials with the spon^
by a long and laborious course of kneading. When this
process has been continued until the fermenting and the
newly-added flour have been intimately blended together,
and until the glutinous particles of the flour are wrought to
such a union and consistence that the dough, now tough and
clastic, will receive the smart pressure of the hand without
adhering to it when withdrawn, the kneading is for awhile
suspended. The dou^h is abandoned to itself for a few
hours, during which time it continues in a state of active
fermentation now diffused through its whole extent. After
the lapse of this time it is subjected to a second but much
less laborious kneading, the object of which is to distribute
the gas engendered within it as equably as possible through-
out its entire constitution, so that no part of the dough may
ferm a sod or ill-raised bread, firom the deficiency of this
carbonic acid gas on the one hand ; or a too vesicular or
spongy bread, firom its excess on the other.
* AfUr the second kneading the dough is weighed out into
thepoitioQB requisite to form the kinds of bread desired:
these portions of dough are shaped into loaves, and once
more set aside for an hour or two in a warm situation. The
continuance of fermentation soon generates a sufficient
quantity of fresh carbonic acid gas within them to expand
eaeh mass to about double its former volume. They are now
considered fit for the fire, and are finally baked into loaves,
which, when they quit the oven have attained a size nearly
twice as bulky as that at which they entered it. It should
be remarked, that the generatiou of the due quantity of
elastic fluid within the dough has been found absolutely
necessary to be complete before placing it in the oven,
because as soon as the dough is there introduced, the pro-
cess of fermentation is checked, and it is only the pre-
viously contained air, which, expanded by heat throughout
all the parts of the entire system of each loaf, swells out its
whole volume, and gives it the piled and vesicular structure.
When it U recollected that the gas thus generally expanded
has been previously distributed by the baker throughout
the bread, and that the whole dough has been by kneading
formed of a tough consistence, the result becomes apparent,
that the well-baked loaf is composed of an infinite number
of cellules, each of which is filled with carbonic acid gas,
and seems lined with or composed of a glutinous mem-
brane, and it is this which communicates the light elastic
porous texture to the bread.*
It has been already observed that what is sometimes
called the panary fermentation is not of a peculiar kind :
it is the mere vinous fermentation ; and it has been shown
by Dr. Colquhoun, that during the fermentation of bread
alcohol is one of the products as well as carbonic acid : this
has also been most satisfactorily proved by Mr. Graham.
{Ann, Philosophy, vol. 28, p. 367.)
To avoid the use of yest, which might introduce alcohol,
Mr. Graham kneaded a small quantity of flour, and it was
allowed to ferment in the usual way, to serve as leaven.
By means of the leaven a considerable quantity of fluur was
fermented, and when the fermentation had arrived at its .
proper point, formed into a loaf. The loaf was carefully
enclosed in a distillatory apparatus, and subjected for a
considerable time to the baking temperature. Upon ex-
amining the condensed liquid, the taste and smell of alcohol
were quite perceptible, and by repeatedly rectifying it a small
quantity of alcohol was obtained of strength sufficient to
bum and ign^ite gunpowder by its combustion. Alcohol of
this strength was obtained in quantity varying in weight
from 0*3 to 1 percent, of the flour employed : when tbe
fermented flour was allowed to sour before baking, the
amount of alcohol rapidly diminished, and the disagreeable
empyreuma consequent upon this completely disguised the
peculiar smell of the alcohol when in its first dilated state
and in vapour.
We have now stated sufficient facts to prove that the
fermentation which occurs in the preparation of bread is
merely the vinous, and Dr. Colquhoun has shown that it
depends upon the saccharine ingredient of the flour, though
its quantity compared with the others is so small : this was
done by renewing the fermentation by the addition of sugar
when it had been exhausted. The fermentation is also
probably aided by the converaion of a portion of starch into
sugar, as happens in the well-known process of malting.
The nature of the yest employed in bread-making is
a subject of considerable importance : porter yest is too
bitter, but ale and table-beer yest answer perfectly well.
When these are deficient in quantity yest is manufactured
by a process similar to that of brewing ; a wort is made of
malt, to which hops and brewera' yest are added ; by this
yest is obtained free from the bitterness which accompanies
porter yest.
Carbonate of ammonia is advantageously and extensively
used as a substitute for yest in making the finer kinds of
bread: it is a substance which is totally volatilized at a
moderate temperature, and though extremely pungent to
the smell and possessed of a strong taste, it imparts neither
to the bread on account of ite great volatility.
Salt is used in bread-making, not only for the sake of
flavour and colour, but also to stiffen the clammy dough
made from new flour. Good flour will bear a greater quan-
tity of salt than bad, and new flour requires more than old,
for the reason already stated.
When flour is converted into bread, it is found on weigh-
ing it when taken from the oven that it has increased from
28 to 34 per cent, in weight; but when it fias been kept thirty-
six hours, that which bad gained twenty-eight will loM
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sbout four pounds. Tbero wo hovevor wrertl dieuiiMUUQe*
which inttueoce the quantity of broad obtained from a given
veight of flour, such as the season in which the wheat was
grown, and the age of the flour : the better the flour is* and
ii\e older, within cerUiu limits, the larger is the quantity of
the bread produced.
If it were requisite, a long list might b^ produced of arttclet
which have been proved or have been said to be mixed wi^h
bread so as to adulterate it. No a4vantagQ would, we think,
arise from such statement. Tb9 most innocent of them
is potatoes.
BRBAD-FRXnT. [Artocaepus.]
BREADALBANE. rPERTHSHjBK.] ^
BREAKWATER. [Plymouth]
BREAM, a flsh well known to anglers, and by them
often called the carp-bream, from iu resemblance to X^
earp, in being of a golden-yellow colour.
As there is another closely-allied species of bream, i|
would be well if the latter name were universally adopted.
The Spanish bream, sea-bream, S;c. belong {o quite a dif-
ferentclass of fishes rPAOKi.L£K», CANTHARua.and Br4Ma].
The carp-bream and the white bream are included in the
gcnuK Abramis, and belong to the Cyprinidie, a family of th^
abdominal Malacopterygii. The chief distinguishing chv
racters of the genus Abramis consist in the deep and: com-
pressed form of the body, the want of barbules to the mouth,
the short dorsal fins, which are placed behind the ventrals,
and the long anal fin. Abramis brama (the carp-bream) is
tolerably abundant in the lakes and slow-running rivers of
m >Ht parts of Europe, and is very prolific It may be dis-
tinguished from alUed fresh- water fi:ih by its yellow colour
and the deep compressed form of its body ; its pectoral and
ventral fins arc tinged with red. The weight ol this fibh is
commonly about two iMunds, but specimens have been
caught weighing from eight to twelve pounds. Brama
blicea (the white bream, or bream Jlal), the only other spe-
cies known, has lately been discovered iu the river Cam
in Cambridgeshire and other rivers of this countiy. )t is i^
smaller fish than the one just described (seldom if e^er ex-
ceeding one pound in i» eight), and is of a silvery or bluish-
white hue. Its scales are larger in pronortion, and likewise i\^
eves : tlie number of rays of some of tne fins also diners from
those of the carp-bream. For more detailed accounts of tbese
fishes we refer to Yarrell's * History of British Fishes.*
BREAST-PLATE. [ArmouhJ
BREAST- WORK is a mass of ear^h raised above the
natural ground for the purpose of protecting troops affains|
the fire of an enemy, its height bein^; only sucb as will per-
mit the protected partv to fire over it when mounted on a
banquette or step. When the work has its surfaces carefully
formed and reveted or covered with sods, particularly w\)ect
it is elevated on tlie rampart of a fortress, or constitutes a
considerable field fort, it is alwavs denominated a parapet—
the word breaet-work being chicdy applied to a rudely-formed
mass of earth thrown up to cover the troops stationed on any
exposed part of a field of battle, or doing duty as an outpost
of the army ; or to the gabionnadf', that is, the row o(
gabions placed on end and filled with earth, which the sap-
|)ers construct for the protection of the troops in the trenches,
or on the breach which is made in a rampart. A breast-
work however differs from an epaulement, which is also a
ma^s of earth or other material raised to cover truops or artil-
lery when in situations exposed to the fire of the enemyt
in bcin^ pro\ided with a banquette as mentioned above.
The intrenchmeots with which the Greeks and Romans
protected the ground oci'upted by their armies were breast-
works, which in woodea countries frequently consisted
merely of felled trees ; and in other circumstances were
formed of earth protected by palisades, or by the interwoven
branches of treen planted on the top of the bank of earth.
The same denomination might be applied to the continuous
lines which were formerly raided for the protection of armies ;
but as these are not now recommended by engineers, and as
instead of thero a nurol)er of separate redoubts are usually
formed at intervals from each other to contain artillery, the
wonl brea«t-work is little used, the protecting masses of
earth general! v receiving the name which is given to those
which crown the ramparts of a permanent fortification.
BREATHING. [Rkspiratiox]
BRE.iTHlNG-PORKS. microscopic apertnret in the cu-
ticle i«f plants through which the functions of respiration and
evaporaiioQ are supposed to be carri«<l on. They are formed
bjr w juxuposition of two cells which do not «dher« wheo
theytoiietubntwbicb Uvetpover of coaitiactwB io «• ia
leave an opening between them w hich acts as an escai*- %^ «
to tbe air-chambers immediately below them. [StuM4Tb i ^
BRE'CCIA, an Italian word, literally aisnifying * .a
opening or breaking in an^ gubstance,' is emplo|od m Rr.--
logy to designate a rock composed of angular frmgiaeftU *4
a pra-existing rock, or of several pre-e^istmg rodU. ii&wi«^
by a cemept of mineral m(ter \ii%\ may vary froa cooipw i
\o (riabl^ 7l)tt&» as in tpe annexed diagram, tbc fr»cs^t»: «
drhich are thi^dad) may be oomMie4 mtbec eC a«gv^ F^
tions of quart! rock, or any otStr single rock, uiutcd ^ a
cement (which is dotted) formed of tlw bard lUiceifwu t^^-
stance named cherU or aay other bard mioeni subatam ,
or the fragments may be angular poitiona of wsuy rM:s^
such as a mixture of pieces of slate, porphyries uajc»t»c«c%
granites, or others, united by a friable tamlstene or aoy ccur
soft mineral substance.
The name of Brecci% if derived (rom ^ weU-knovo
Breccia marble, which has the apoear^nce of bemg cs/s.-
posed of fragments joined together by carbonate of Ume, u«-
filtrated among such fragmepta i^er the latter vert pr.-
duced by some disrup^ng force.
Breccias ipform the geologist that the pcc-exi»itac ^'•
tions of rocks, includd in them* have not been expuM^ ..
considerable (fiction, which would have rouoded *^ '•'•
apguUr parts, as has happened in the case of prw-wii»L.i<
pieces of rocks ipcluded in conglomerates [Conolomuai t j.
^ence the geologist may expect to find the rocJuw whK:«t
the angular fragments of a breccia are denied* not far «!.»-
tant from the breccia itself while the rounded pebUu cusr
taiqed in a conglomerate may have been trapaplanted £tvm
considerable distances.
BRECHIN, a par. and royal burgh in Foiteahire. Seat
land, bounded on the £. by the par. of Pun* W. |^ C«:
siston, N. by Strickatbro^ and Vienmuir* 8^ taf Faroe '..
and S.W. by Aberlemno ; and situated on the N. hani «
the South Esk, 7} m. W. of its junction with the tea u
Montrose. H^ N.E. of r<>rfar, 26( N.N.E. of Dundrc. a. .
39i S.W. of Aberdeen. T^e par. it aboiit 7 at. fron E. u
W. and 6 broad fit>m N. to S* ; and contains 24| aq. m.
Qrechin was formerly a walled town and % bubc^'s sm
The bishopric was formed about 1160 by David L In 1^ •
its revenue was — money, 4 1 0/. Scots ; capona, 1 \\ doc- • ^« -
16 doz. and 10; geese, 18; corn ion hocsea* I chaldcr a :
2 bolls; salmon, 3 barrels; money by kinds, 241/1 U. ^.
(Scotch); teind wheat, 41 bolU; bear, 14 chalderv € bwl<
meal, 26 chaldera, 5 bolls. There are in the upper pan 4
the town ruins of the antient chapel of Mai»eaKeu* vL >
are now used as a stable. In the churchyard near thr rA::«-
dral there is one of those curions round tovera vhirh n*'<
nuzzled antiquarians to settle by whom they vw butU a. .
for what purpose they were oonstrucied. Sevcml ci;-( .
Ireland ; only one other ejiists in this island. Tlua u^n
is about 108 ft. hich, and is constructed of hewn tluoe . i t
workmanship is aamirable. It it surmounted ^itb a €«.«*.
roof of gray slate ; and there ia no appearanoe of thcrr nrr
having been any staircase withm it. There ia a (alt i^^rr. ^
tion of the tower in pon}on s ' |^r Sepienir»mle . i>c
measurements there are correctly given ; nut tU slata^rLt
as to the spiral courses of masono' is inoonect Tbt ca
thcdral. the W. end of which is now the par. owrY^ «m
built by Pavid I. in the eleventh oentury. B<«chia Ca»- -.-
stands on the top of a precipice, and U separated freai t.<
town on the E* and W. by a deep ravine ; its S- \mm »
washed by the South Esk, which here ibrme a ftM shnt «
water. In this castle Sir Thomas if aule dvled lbs f :t«
of Edward III. until he was killed by a stone thrown b; u
engine, when the garrison surrendered to the Kniclttk*
The town house, near the crose or market- ple^ m t>i
middle of the town, was almost entiiely lehuill ahoM th " >
years ago : it contains acourt-room ana prison, two ruuB« • i
the meetings of council, and a guild-haU. Thtve tchft.
rooms, built by subscription severel years %f^ edocm thr Vr.
end of the town. Towards the N. end there it a &u. •
Episcopalian chapel, built about twenty jeaia af^ and «z
larged and beautified in lb32, especially al |£s W. «o4.
which it neatly finiahed with two niin«nC| e» e%c:^ nie d
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
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Digitized by
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376
B R E
ehoicbi on the W. side of the Usk. This establishment is
now of little use : it formerly was a place of education for
the Welsh clergy, but has ceased to be so since the founda-
tion of Llampeter College. Part of the building has been
converted into a grammar school and dwelling house. The
sohool is attended by less than ten children, and the building
is very much out of repair. Service is performed to a small
congregation in the chapel on Sunday evenings. The en-
dowment is very small. The par., church of Llanfaes or St.
David's is an early English building, of noparticular beauty,
situated near the Trecastle road, on the W. side of the Usk.
The town is bnilt in a healthy and extremely picturesque
situation : it contains no.verv remarkable buildings. There
was formerly a wall fortified with ten turrets, and through
which there were five gates, called the Castle Gate, Street
Gate, Watton Gate, Water Gate, and Bridge Gate : these
do not now exist The principal streets are the Bulwark,
the Struct, High Street, Watton, and Wheat Street. There
are three bridges over the Honddu, and one over the Usk.
The town-hall stands near the centre of the town : the
building is old and inadequate for its purposes ; and a bill
* is now before parliament for the erection of a new one. The
barracks are situated in the Watton, the entrance from
Crickhowell. Detachments of infantry and artillery are
quartered here, to be at hand in case of any disturbances,
among the collieries and iron-works. Nearly adjoining the
barmdis an infirmary has been lately built, which is reliev-
ing fifty in and out-patients. There are three banks in
Brecknock, one belonging to a joint-stock company ; the
others to private individuals. The town has a tendency to
increase at the principal outlets ; houses are now building
in those which lead to Hay and to Crickhowell. Fairs are
held five times in the year, — in March, May. July, Septem-
ber, and November : the market-days are Wednesday and
Saturday ; these are well supplied with corn, cattle, eggs,
and poultry, of which ain abundance is reared by the neigh-
bouring farmers and cottagers. The town is lighted with
gas, and is well supplied with coal, brought along the can.
at a very moderate price. A small quantity of Hannel and
coarse woollen cloths are manufactured in the town ; hats
olso are made hei-e of a middling quality. Tiie exertions of
the Brecknockshire Agricultural Society to establish a
lir.en factory have been wholly unsuccessful.
The pop. of the bor. of Brecon was, according to the last
census, males, 2324 ; females, 2702; total, 5026.
The entire par. of Llanfaes then contained 1321, and the
par. of St John 8 3867 inh., including in each the portions
which are without the bor. The census states the bor. of
Brecon to have contained, in 1831, 1071 inhabited houses;
1149 families; 92 employed in agriculture; 609 in trade
and manufactures; 448 others. The eommissioners of
corporation inquiry who were in Brecon in 1 834t estimated
the number of 10/. houses within the bor. at about 340 ; only
156 were returned in the inhabited house assessments.
The number of voters registered, in 1834, was 242.
The Lancasterian schools, both for boys and girls, are
well attended. The school of the Boughrood charity con-
tains about fortv children : these, since the decline of the
College school, have been the principal places of education
in the town. There is no mechanics' institute or other
similar establishment. The poor's-rate docs not appear to
liave varied much in the last few years ; it has not in-
creased, if any judgment can be formed from the accounts,
which have not been made up in a very accurate way. The
amount of the assessed taxes collected in the bor. of Brecon
was, in 1834, 1195/.; in 1835« 989/. {Communication
from Brecknockshire.)
BRECKNOCKSHIRE, an inland co. of S. Wales,
bounded on the N. by Cardiganshire and Radnorshire, from
which latter ca it is for the most part separated by the riv.
Claerwcn, Elan, and Wye ; on the W. by Cardiganshire
and Caermarthenshire ; on the S. by Glamorganshire and
Monmouthshire; and on the E. by Monmouthshire and
Herefordshire. This co. extends from N. to S. 35 m., and
from E. to W. about SO ro. Its area is near 754 sq. m. The
pop., in 1831, amounted to 47.763: thus Biecknockshira
ranks the third among the S. Welsh co. in extent of surface,
and fifth in amount of pop. It was antiently called Garth-
madrin, or the Fox-hola, and derives its present name from
Brychan. a Welsh prince, who lived in the fifth century.
The surface of this co. is extremely irregular, the valleys
eep. and the mounUins the highest in S. Wales. It is
texMcted on the N. and 3f by two long ranges of moun*
tains : 4hat on the N. goes by the general name of Epynt,
an obsolete British word for a hill ; the other imnge, bt ir.r -
ning with the Caermarthen Beacons* runs nearly parmUi;! u
the Epynt hills, and inclining mote towards the 8.» termi-
nates in Monmouthshire. Between these two chaioa a Uvri
rises abruptly near Talgarth, which is called the B.'a« k
Mountain. Another line also branches across in a dtnsctr* i
from N. to S., about eight m. below Brecknock, di%idinir
the bund, of Devynnock irom those of Talgarth and P^' -
kelly. The highest mountains in Brecknockshire are. un
Brecknock Beacons, about three m. S.W. of Brecknock,
which are 2862 ft. above the level of the sea; CapcUantc .
which is 2394 ; Cradle Mountain, 2545 ; and Dwggan ncir
Builth, whioh is 2071 ft. high. The princioal n\ers tre
the Wye ; the Usk, which rises in the Caermarttien»hire Fsr..
about five m. from Trecastle; the Honddu, which rises .-.
Drum-dhu, and falls into the Usk at Brecknock; c-
Yrfon, which rises in BrjTi-garw, in the N.W. boundan- «..'
the CO., and falls into the Wye about a mile above Bui.::. .
the Elan, the Claerwen, and the Tawe. The TareU al»o. z
small riv., rising in Bryn-du, joins the Usk a little aU«i«
Brecknock, and the Taf Fechan (small), and Taf Vavir
(large), which rise in diflferent parts of Uie S. 6ecU\uy of
the Brecknock Beacons, unite into a considerable strran>«
the Taf, at tlie S. boundary of tlie co. near Cyfanhfa Paik.
None of these streams are navigable. To facilitate t..r
conveyance of goods from Brecknock to Newport, a mn
capable of conveying boats of twenty -four tons, was fini«i»-i
in 1811; a railroad was soon after made from Brecknock lo
Hay, and from thence to Kington and the lime rocks n«r. r
Old Radnor. The Swansea can. enters for a short diaUr.^ •
the S.W. part of the co. The mountains Mvnydd Llu«-
gynidr, Mvnydd Pen Cvm, near the Clydacb, at th^ "^
boundary of Brecknockshire and Monmouthshire are in**:-
sected with many railroads, which communicate with t »•
various collieries and iron-works. Two branches deecenti u . : ■>
the vale of Usk, so as to connect with the Crickhowell <'an
the one near Tal-y-bont, the other near Llangattock. Tht »
is also a long line of railroad, which begins near the niL*
milestone on the Brecknock and Trecastle road, and pas.«^r ^
up a valley of Forest Fawr to the E. of the riv. Tawe a:
nearly parallel to it, communicates with Drim Colliery, n
finally with the Swansea can. About five m. E.S.E. f
Brecknock is situated Llyn-Safaddu or Llangorse Pu^L .
sheet of water two m. long, and in Beme places or:e \z
breadth. It abounds in fish, and in winter is much fr
ouented by wild fowl. In 1235 permission was granted »
the monks of Brecknock to fish in this lake thne da\s i
the week, and everyday in Lent, provided they only' u«--^
one boat. The scenery in this co. is extremely beaut::
The extensive views from the mountains, the abrupt outl.: t
of the Brecknock Beacons, the undulating auhbce, frt-
qucntly clothed with woods and intersected bv torfentA, fr n
their expanse, their variety, and their wildnesa, are wtj
striking to the admirers of the picturesque.
The principal roads are from Trecastle, through Bir^V
nock to Crickhowell, which is travelled by the Caermant* ..
and London mail, that from Brecon to Hay, on wh»rh i
considerable improvement is contemplated within two «...>•
of the former place ; also the roads from Brecon to Merth>
and from Builth to Uay. These as well as the less import .! :
thoroughfares through the co. have in late years hr^r
greatly improved. A new line of communicstioo of irr^rkt
Eublic utility has been opened between Talgarth and Cm W-
owell : it is well engineered throughout Uie whole of xh *
mountainous district. A si milar undertaking between Brv^ .
and Builth has been suggested, and would be a great ac-
commodation to travellers as well as the neighbounng rr»t-
dents. The turnpike trusts in this co. maintain 169 m. ^
road; their income, in 1633, was 3559^
The climate varies considerably, aceordingto ibe elevalitfn
and exposure. In the neighbourhood of the Brecon Bcocock*
the Black Mountains, and the elevated districu betmv«:i
Trecastle and Builth, the wind, the snow, the cold, and cvo*
tinual rains, are often severely felt, by which the ciop» are
injured, and the harvests retarded ; the lower vallers an cm*
paratively warm. The country is subject to much vain, biit
the air is, on the whole, bracing, and the pop. he*lthv : Qfr«T
an average of ten years from 1821 to 1831, the annual deitl *
were 1 in 66*4, — a calculation which places Brc^tDocksii;*'
among the most healthy co. of England and Walea.
The geology of this dist. has lately occupied the attmu -:
of that able and industrious geologietrMr. Jduifbiaoo, Im
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377
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presideDt of the Geological Society. The oldest rocks
which occupy the W. of Brecknockshire consist of grey-
wacke slates ; a remarkahle line of trap and porphyry breaks
through the rocks of this age, extending from Uanwrtyd
for about four m. to the N.N.E. Between these old rocks
snd the escarpment of Mynydd Epynt and Mynydd Bwlch
y Groes, the transition rocks are displayed ; the uppermost
coDsistiog of that which Mr. Murchison has recently de-
scribed as the Ludlow rock, which there passes up into the old
red sandstone. These transition rocks, which in Shropshire
and Radnorshire contain thick masses of lime, are through-
out the whole of their range in Brecknockshire remarkably
VDid of limestone. The great mass of the oo., especially
the central and S.E. dist, consist of the old red sandstone,
which has been shown by Mr, Murchison to be divisible
into three sub-formations : — 1. A lower zone of tile-stones,
remarkably exhibited along the rectilineal escarpment of
Mynydd Bwlch y Groes, extending into Gaermarthenshire.
2. A central portion of marls, concretionary limestones
(locally called comstones), sandstones, &c. 3. The upper
portion of sandstone and conglomerate ; this upper portion,
occupying the summits of the Fans of Brecon, and other
loAy mountains, between Brecknock and Abergavenny, is
by its inclination carried under the whole of the great pro-
ductive S. Welsh ooal-field. We thus see that the whole of
the district to the N.W. of this tract of country lies beneath
the carboniferous series.
The mineral springs at Builth and at Llanwrtyd rise in
the silicified and hardened schists, at points where they are
penetrated by trap-rocks. Their origin is considered to be
due to the decomposition of the vast quantities of sulphuret
of iron which are collected at such points. With the excep-
tion of the strata eontaining iron and coal, which, though
for the most part in Monmouthshire [Monmouth], in some
places cross the boundary of Brecknockshire, there are no
mines or minerals in this eo. worthy of notice. Some small
traces of copper ore have been found in the old red sand-
»toDes, which upon trial have proved to be unprofitable.
One of the most remarkable features in the geology of
Brecknockshire is a penin. of transition rocks, which is
thrown up from N.E. to S.W., ranging from Erwood on the
Wye to the rocky promontory of Com y Fan, five m. N. of
Brecon.
The soil in the hund. of Talgarth and Crickhowell is
more favourable to cultivation than any other part of this
CO. Wheat is here grown in considerable quantities ; and
there are orchards, from which good cider is frequently
msnufactured. In the hund. of Devynnock, and perhaps
mora so in that of Builth, where there is much cold, wet
clay, barley and oats are the grain crops chiefly cultivated
by the farmera. Agriculture throughout the eo. has con-
siderably improved durixig the last fifty yeare: partly through
the exertions of an Agricultural Society, one of the earliest
ill the isl., which was established in 1 755, by Mr. Powell of
Castle Madoc. Better implements are used, more manure
put upon time land, cropping better understood, husbandry
more skilfial, turnips more generally cultivated, and the
farming stock is of better qiwlity. In the hi^h lands are
bred small black and brindled cattle, horses (which through-
out the CO. are of rather an inferior sort), ponies, and good
hill sheep, whose wool, though finer than that of the neigh-
bouring CO.* is not so suitable to the manufacture of flannel.
In the low lands the Herefordshire breed of cattle predomi*
nates, and is on the increase. The ewes are brought down
fn>m the hills in winter, and are not taken back until the
cold weather has ceased and the lambs are strong enough
to bear exposure. The farms vary much in value and in
size : they are seldom let upon lease, and are chiefly held
at a yearly tenure, at rents from 20/. to 100/. a year.
Brecknockshire is divided into six hund. exclusive of the
bor. of Brecknock. These are Builth, Crickhowell, Devyn-
nock, Merthyr, Penkelly, and Talgarth. It contains sixty-
six par. with seventy-three churohes and chapels. The
m. t. are Brecknock, the only oorporate town within the
CO., Crickhowell, which stands upon the rich banks of the
Uftk, and Builth, and Hay, which occupy two picturesque
situations on the Wye. Among the principal vil. may be
named Talgarth, Trecastle, Llangattock, Llyswen, and Llan-
gynidr; ami among the chief namlets Bronllys, Llywel,
Crickadam, Devynnock, and Llangorae. The benefices are
usually very small ; a large proportion are under the value
of 100/. per annum; and very few exceed 200/. Among
the few that are oonsiderable are the united vie. of Crick-
adam and Llan-de-fally, the income of wh{ch is about 686/.,
the rec. of Llangattock 1 123/., and Llanvigan 480/. a year.
The manufactures of this dist. are few and unimportant.
Flannel and other woollen goods, such as baiie and coarse
checks for trousers, are woven in several small ftietories.
Some hats of middling quality are also made in the bor. of
Brecknock. The knitting of stockings, which was formerly
practised to a great extent by the women of the country, is
now leas frequent. Woven stockings, though less durable,
are so much cheaper as to have greatly diminished this
branch of industry.
The CO. of Brecknock contained, in 1831, 9848 families,
of which 3959 were employed in agriculture, and 2954 in
handicraft, trade, and manufactures. The number of males
above twenty years of age was then 1 2,220 : about 80 of
these are employed in weaving woollen yarn, the produce of
domestic indus^ ; and in the S. part of the co. 470 men
are employed in the iron-works, of whom 126 are at Llan-
elly, no at Penderyn, and 234 at Faenor, places near Mer-
thyr Tidvil. The pop of the CO. is thus distributed ;—
Hnndreds.
Malet.
Females.
Inhabitmati.
Builth .
3,277
3,422
6,699
Crickhowell
5,924
5,252
11,176
Devynnock
4,330
4,279
8,609
Merthyr
1,658
1,637
3,295
Penkelly
2,609
2,648
5,257
Talgarth .
3,774
3,927
7.701
Borough of Brecknock
2,324
2,702
5,026
No. 319.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
Total • . 23,896 23,867 47,763
The number of occupiers of land is stated at 2405, of
whom 1249 are employers of labourers. It is remarkable
that in the pop. returns of this as well as in some of the
adjoining co. no one is enumerated as following the trade of
a pawnbroker.
This CO. is wholly in the diocese of St. David's and prov.
of Canterbury. In its 66 pare, there are 23 recs., 16 vies.,
and the remainder perpetual curacies. The assises are
held at Brecknock, by the judge attending the S. Welsh
cireuit Brecknockshire returns one member to pariiament.
The number of co. votere registered in 1834 was 1668.
Brecknock is the only polling place.
Brecknockshire remained in the power of the Welsh
princes until 1092. It was in this year that Barnard New-
mareh, a relation, and, according to some accounts, the
brother of William the Conqueror, made himself master of
Brecknock, where he established himself with a numbor of
his retainere. The lordship of Brecknock was granted to
him by the king, and that he might obtain possession of his
righU and the better defend himself against the natives;
whose hostility and resistance to his authority made it diffi-
cult for him to maintain his position in the country, he built
the castle of Brecknock, as a stronghold for himself and for
his troops. Notwithstanding the vigorous efforts of the
Welsh to drive him from the country, he succeeded in his
conquest, and at his death the lordship of Brecknock was
inherited by his son-in-law, Milo Fits Walter, Earl of Here-
ford. This earl was succeeded by four of his sons, in turn,
and afterwards by Philip de Breos, their brother-in-law,
who died about 1160 a.d. He was followed by his son
William de Breos, to whom the lordship was confirmed by
King John in 1194. This spendthrift defraiuled his son,
upon whom he had settled nis inheritance, mortgaged it
three times over, cheated his creditors, and at last sold it to
three different pereons at the same time, not one of whom
obtained possession, though all paid the purchase-money.
He was for some time at enmity with King John, was at-
tainted, and the lordships of Talgarth and Bl&nllyfni were
given to the king's favourite Peter Pitzherbert. William
was succeeded by .Roger, snd afterwards by Giles de Breos,
Bishop of Hereford ; and the lordship then passed into the
hands of Reginald de Breos, who upon the death of his
fint wife married Gwladis, daughter of Llewelyn Prince of
N. Wales. No sooner had he done homage and sworn
fealty to the king, than he engaged in a confederacy with
Llewelyn and the English barons in resisting the power of
his sovereign, who in 1216, the last year of his life, gratified
his revenge against his revolted subjects, by marching into
Wales, and burning the castles of Hay and Radnor. Upon
the accession of Henry III., Reginald was induced hj
the restoration of some escheated proper^r to forsake hu
father-in-law and his adherents. Lleweiyn^^oenaed at
Digit^^d^b^G^Ogle
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this breadh of fkitb, laid sieg« to Brook1)ook« wbieh ins
however spared at the earnest interceaaion of th« burgestea.
Reginald and Llewelyn were afterwards reconciled, upon
which the king re-transferred some of the property of the
former to Fitsberbert. Reginald died in 1228« and was
buried in the Priory church at Brecknock. Hia inheritance
passed to William, his eldest son by his first wife. War still
raged in the marches, and the king heading his troopsi
exerted himself Yigorously to conquer the Principality ;
while Llewelyn strained every neive to maintain his inde-
pendence. William de Breos was made prisoner by the
Welsh ; and though tho Krhole territory of Builth was oflbred
for hi«i ransom, it was refused. Henry, harassed by the
irregular warfare of the Welsh, relinquished his unsuccesaftil
enterprise, and made a disadvantageous peace with Lle-
welyn, He omitted to stipulate for the release of his fiaith'*
ful servant William de Breos, who was afterwards set free,
upon the payment of a large sum of money and the sur-
render of Builth Castle. Llewelyn afterwards asserted,
whether truly or upon false pretences it is Uncertain, that
De Breos while in confinement had intrigued with his wife :
' he invited him to a feast, seized him. reproached him with
his crime, had him dragged out and hung upon a neigh-
bouring tree. Henry, exasperated at this execution, sum-
moned Llewelyn to appear before him at Shrewsbury. The
Welsh prince disobeyed this command, entered the marches
with an army, and extending his vengeance to the fiimily,
and even to the tenants of De Breos, endeavoured to make
himself master of Brecknock ; an attempt which two years
after, in 1233, be repeated; but after having laid waste the
country, he was foiled in his attack upon Brecknock Castle,
raised the siege, and setting fire to the town, returned
homewards with his booty. At the death of Eve, Wil-
liam de Breos's widow, Humphrey de Bohuut Earl of Bsseic,
who had married their second daughter, succeeded in right
of his wife to the lordship of Brecknock. War was still
carried on between Edward I. and Llewelyn, till Hum-
phrey, son of the last-mentioned lord, with the authority of
the king, and by his own arms and arguments, convinced
his dependents of the folly of resisting Edward. This
change of adherence was fatal to the last of the Welsh
princes. Llewelyn, whose supplies had been intercepted, and
nis army harassed by the king's troops, quitted his strong-
hold in Snowdon, marched towards Brecknock, and, un-
aware of the desertion of his friends, was slain near Builth
by one Adam de Francton, who plunged a spear into his
body. This event took place in 1282. Llewelyn was buried
at a place now called Cefn-y-bedd (meaning the back of
the grave), near Builth. In 1286 DeBohun'a lands in
Brecknock&hire were invaded and pillaged by the retainers
of his late guardian. Gilbert Earl of Gloucester, who held
the lordship of Glamorgan. De Bohun quickly retaliated
upon the men of Glamorganshire ; and for this UkA the
king sentenced the two barons to forfeit for their respeetivv
lives the liberties of Brecknock and Glamorgan, and to be
kept in custody during his pleasure. They afterwards oom-
pounded with the crown, Hereford for 1000, and Glouoeater
for 10,000 marks. At a subsequent period Humphrey waa
suspended in his oflSoe of high constable of England for
resisting the lev)- of the king's taxes. He waa a benefaetor
to the monks, and an augmenter of the liberties and prin-
legea of the burgesses of Brecknock ; he died at Pleaay in
1298. He waa succeeded by his eldest son* who, aa ati
atonement for hia father's conduct, surrendered to th«
crown the earldoms of Hereford ftnd Essex, together with
the constableship of England; and shortly siVer married
Elizabeth, seventh daughter of Edward I., when the king,
with cerUin reservations, restored him his oflSce and estates.
Humphrey, with a considerable force levied in hia lordship,
supported Edward in his war against Robert Bruce. He
was taken prisoner in the battle of Bannock-bum, and was
afterwards freed in exchange for Bruoe*s wife. In 1315 De
Bohun assisted in the suppresHion of a formidable rising in
Glamorganshire, which co. however be himself afterwards
invaded, in prosecution of a quarrel between himself and
the king's favourite, D'Espencer. Edward, by the advice
of his counoil, resolved to reduce these turbulent barons to
obedience : some of their allies submitted ; but Bohun with
about 3000 men joined in the north the disaffected Earl of
Lancaster, and waa killed at Boroughbridge, in Yorki^re,
iu 1321.
The rebellion ended, the younger D*Espenoer was now
•onstituted governor of Brsekntok CasOo, obftUMd the
lordsbifmnd tho property of the lata Sari of HtralM. Ups«
the death of the D'Bspeneera, the oonflacaUons eooeequrut
on tho rebellion wore reveteod, and the property reau>r«<l ut
the fismily of the Herefords, in the person of John «!«
Bohun. This cari^ afUr hating been created knight of Lt>«
bath, diad in ia36« Humphrey, his brother, aucceaded hioA«
a noMensan who lived upon no very IHendly lerns with li «•
burgesses of Biecen ( he died unmarried, and his nep^u m
William inherited h>B titles and estatea. William rr*iu-i
in the eaatle of Brseknoek, and by hu wealth, megniftoerrw.
and hoipitaUtr oonsiderably raised the iroportaoee of u.r
town, and made it the great mart of S. Wakes. He nii* •
than onoe aooompanied Edward III. to Fraaee. wm «».
ployed by him in an embassy to the Duke of Breteffne. ai ^
finally died in 1377* The lordship of Brecon seeaa lo hi«' «
remained in settlement during the widowhood of Joaa i. •
Wifb. With William ended the male hne of the o- -
family of De Bohnna ; the laat of whom made an * *
amends for the effenoes of some of his predeeeaeov*, » •
seem to have conaidered their Welsh territories of no f.r-
ther use than as a source of revenue and e nursery f s
soldiers. The lordship of Brecknock now reverted «
Henry IV., who had married Mary, the daughter of the )^»t
De Bohun. During the first four yeara of thi» m^u»
Brecknockshire waa greatly harassed by 0«enQ\eiiu«r.
The castle of Brseknoek was intrusted to the care uf s r
Thomas Berkley; and in 1404 the lords of Audley ^i.i
Warwick were ordered to defend the castle and the \ r*
ship, having 100 men at arms and 300 mounted arc-.-*
assigned them for that purpose. Grifhtb, the eldeai »«<i. /
Owen Glendwr, engaged the king a troops upon e Un. n
the bund, of Crickhowell, and wm defeated with the \ «•
of 1600 men. Henry IV. granted to the inb- of BrecWr • i
an exemption from lolls and other paymenta, i«ne««d 'i •
benefactions to the nonka, and gave iliem their fir»t t. •
charter. Upon the death of Joan, oounteas dowatfr. - \
Hereford, the king granted the lordship of Breckn>ii ■ •
Anne, the widow of Edmund, Eari of Sufiurd, alatn in ^ •
battle of Shrewsbury, who claimed a division of her cm:
mother*8 property* No sooner was she possessed of Brv > -
nookshire than she disfranchised the bor., revoked aU ti *
gratits. charters, privileges! and immunitiea, end m» kr -
them during her life, which terminated in 1 439. Her >» .
Henry, Earl and afterwards Duke of Buckingham, -i. •
oeeded to her inheritance. He waa a aevere, ax)<itr.-r
man, who, though m warm friend and supporter of the L >...
was an oppreasivs goremor and landlord. He wee a t :.
Laneaatriani waa wounded at St. Albans, and alain in U '
at the battle of Northampton. His grandson, a juxt^ \
succeeded to his honours, and to Sir William Herbert d^- .• .-
his minority were intrusted the castle and 1ord»h r <
Brecknock, aa well as the stewardship of all the other A\ ^ < L
oastlea which had beWnged to the late Duke of Burk: «
ham. Upon coming of age Buckingham obtained poM>^ -
sion of his estates, and lived in retirement within the « • %
of Brecknock during the greater part of the lefgn of \ .
ward IV. At the death of this king however be left : -
seclusion, and became a conspieuous supporter of the IKk*
of Gloucester, until he was seated on the throne. In iw* . ;
for these services, Richard made him governor ef ell i •
castles in Walea, and lord high constable of EnglaDd. » %
other lucrative and honourable offices | he also praai]i^«i (^
restore to him all the lands forfeited by the Baiiuiu^ wh.
would have made him the richest and moat powvrAii ooblm. .. .^
in England. These promiaas never were lulAlWd. Ru h « M
knew Buckingham to be haughty and violent, aad at h« :-
a Laneastrian; he was now king; his ol^ect was raiM^: .
he evaded hia engagements, and treated his fcimier f. - -
with negligence and contempt The duke, incensed at t» «
ingratitude, turned his thoughts to venf^ance, and nov '
came as eager to dethrone the king as he had forii>-. «
been anxious to eftalt him. He retired to Brerknork. m •.
Morton, the able and artful Bishop of Ely, was a pn^^r
and in Ely tower in the castle was first prqie«Ced a ai%t-
riage between the Duke of Richmond and ElisaU >
daughter of Edward IV., and the union of the bouse. '
York and Lancaster. Morton crossed the aea to cvor
with Richmond, who was on the contmcnt, and to plan viu
him a descent upon England; while Buckingham en^t-
voursd to raise an insurrection at home. Richaid «&* •
vigilant to be long ignorant of^hese proceedion. He tn:
an order, commanchng the immediate «»**»»^^tT> ef t^e
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nons, and took trms wiA his fbllowets ; but being detainvi
by dood«, betrayed by hit friendt, and desert^ by his
troops, was taken, and ultimately e&eeutod al Salisbury
without a trial. Morton escaped into Flanders. The Duke
of Rtchmond, who afterwards landed at Milftird, in his road
to Shrewsbury, pawed through Breeknookshiie, where he
greatly increased the number of his followers. As soon as
ho was established upon the throne, ho restored to Sdwud,
the son of the last Duke of Buckingham, the estates and
titles of his father, and in 1504 made him high eonstable of
England, — the last person that ever held that office. He
was afterwards accused of treason, and executed in 1521.
The dukedom of Buckingham was now extinct» and the
lordship of Brecknock with its dependencies nierged in the
crown. (Jones's Hi9L qf BrecknockMn,)
Upon the union of England and Wales, which took place
in 1534, the twenty-sixth year of the reign of Henry VIIL,
Brecknockshire became subject to English laws and autho-
rities, and its history ftom this time must be eonsidered in
conjunction with the general history of the kingdom,
Brecknockshire abounds in antiquities. The principal
castles have been at Brecknock, Builth, Crickhowell, and
Hay ; at which last place, after the destruction of its first
castle, of which nothing but an archway remains, a second
was built ill the roign of Elizabeth or James I., which is at
this time inhabited. Besides these must be mentioned re-
mains or traces of castles at Tretower, near Oriekhowell, at
Bldiillyfhi and Dinas, in the par. of Talgarth, at Trecastle,
and Penkelly, at Bronllys, where a well-preserved round
tower is standing, and at Caerberis, in the par. of Llangan-
ten. There are traces of Roman encampments at (Her,
near Brecon, at Cwmdu, on the N. side of the Usk, near
Crickhowell, and of British stations mt Slwch and Pon-r-
craig near Brecon, at Alltamog, also near Pwllcwrw in
Llandevalle, upon the Black Mountains, at Olasbury, Crick-
howell, Miarth, Peu-ttr, Llavillo, and Llanspyddid. Crom-
lechs or mounds where the dead have been interred are
found in many parts of the co., which has also been inter-
sected by several Roman roads.
The Welsh laneuage, which was formerly spoken through-
out the whole of Brecknockshire, is now greatly disused in
the S. and W. portions of the co. The increase of schools,
as well as the inconvenience in dealing with the English
who frequent the markets on its borders, have contributed
to this effect. Since the year 1818 there have been opened
110 additional Sunday-schools, containine 7567 scholars,
and 47 daily schools with 1248 scholars. The accompanying
table shows the present state of education.
Brecknockihire^
Ddly8«]iM)«. SchoUri. Suaiajr ^booli. ScboUrg.
84 2601 I l%\ 8364
McinUnance o/ Dailm Boho^U.
Byfi«*peiifH«
B7 Paynifftit and Pajment
Bv Endofrnaeot. By SabMriutton. from SehoUr*. fhim ScnoUn.
SebooU. fclMlM. S^hoiib. B«kobn. ■•hooU. Miolan. Itohooli. Brfufaui.
II 318 I 4 S43 I 68 1888 | 6 948
Maintenance of Sunday Schooli,
I il4 I 116 8184 I .. ..Is 188
Sehoeit eeiabheked ^ Dieeeniere.
DaBySchoob. Mwlan. Bttatey SdMla.
7 206 I 87 6421
Lendiag libraries are attached to only three of thes6
schools. No infant schools have yet been esUblished.
The amount of money expended for the relief of the poor
was, for the years ending 25th March, 1828, 16,403/.; 1827,
17.0l'J/.; 1828. 16,172/.; 1829, 16,264. {Communieation
J'l ""n Brecknockshire.)
BREDA, once a lordship belonging to the House of
Orange, and a town in N. Brabant situated at the confluence
of the Merk and the Aa. in 51* 85' N. lat, and 4** 47' E.
lon|{.
Breda is a well-built and strongly fortified town, sur-
rounded by marshes, which, in case of attack, can be laid
under water. The castle, which is the principal building in
the town, is surrounded by the riv. Mertu It was originally
built by the family of Schoten, who held it with the title of
Baron, in 1 1 90. Breda afterwards came into the possession
of the dukes of Brabant ; and iq the beginninff of the 15th
centuiy passed by marriage to the house of I^assau. In
U$r it nras annexed by the Duke of Alba to the crown of
Bpun. la 1577 the Spanish gamaon opened the galea to
the oonfedeitttes. Four years after* the town was treason-
ably delivered to the Duke of Parma ; but it was retaken in
Maroh, 1590, by Prince Maurice of Nassau, by means of
the following stratagem : — ^A vessel was loaded, apparently
with turf, of whioh the besieged garrison was ffreatly in
want, but under the covering of turf a party of soldiers were
oonoealed. Admission into the town being thus secured,
the soldiers left their plaee of concealment during the night,
and having overpowered the guard, opened the gates to
Prince Maurice, who had advanced with his army. In
1625 Breda yielded by capitulation to Gmieral Spinola, who
eommanded the troops of the Infanta Isabella. In 1637
the town again came mto the possession of the States Ge-
neral of the United Provinces, and was confirmed to them
by the treaty of Westphalia. The Frencht under Dumourier,
took Breda in 1793.
The castle, already mentioned, was rebuilt in 1680 by
William, Prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of
England. It contains a fine gallery supported by marble
oolumns, and a very handsome staircase ot free-stone.
The streets are wide, clean, and well laid out : there are
four squares and a fine quay, which, as well as the ramparts,
are planted with trees. The arsenal and the great market-
place are among the chief ornaments of the town.
The principal Protestant church is an elegant building,
with a spire 362 ft. high. There are, besides, another Pro-
testant church, and four Roman Catholic churches, as well
as hospitals for orphans and for aged persons.
Breda was once a place of considerable trade, and con-
tained extensive manufactures of cloth: this branch of
industry is still carried on to a small extent. The town
likewise contains several tanneries and breweries, from
which the surrounding country is supplied.
The pop. on the 1st of January, 1830, consisted of 6747
males and 6367 females.
This town was the residence of Charles IL when. he was
invited to return to England.
BREDOW. GABRIEL GODFREY, bom at Beriin in
1773, was professor at Eutin in Holstein at the same time
as Voss, afterwards at Frankfort on the Oder, and lastly in
the University of Breslau. He was a learned and labonous
man, especially in matters concerning antient and modem
history. He wrote ' Handbuch der aiten Geschichte* (Ma-
nual of Antient History, translated into English, London.
1827), ' Untersuchungen tiber Geschichte Geographic und
Chronologie* (Researches on History, Geography, and Chro-
nology), and ' Historische Tabellen,* which are a series of
chronological tables, in which the principal events of the
history of the various countries of me world are placed in
synefaronical order by means of parallel columns. This
last work went through several editions during the lifetime
of the author, and consisted often tables, which carried the
series to 1799. Bredow died in 1814. An edition was made
after his death, which contains an additional table, including
the events of Napoleon's time to 1811. Bredow*s tables
were translated into English (1820) by Major James Bell,
who added a twelfth sheet, carrying the series of events to
1820, besides adding other columns concerning British and
Indian aibirs. This work of Major Bell has Ukewii>e gone
through several editions, in the latest of which, 1833, he
has added another table, which brings the series down to
1833. and also a table of Oriental chronology. The work
contains also four tables of literary and scientific chronology,
translated firom Bredow*s text, and arranged likewise in
synchronical order, exhibiting the progress of the human
mind in the various countries from the oldest records in ex-
istence ; and, lastly, a similar table of the principallpainters,
classed according to the various schools, taken from the
notes of M. Van Bree. It is altogether a useful work, and
executed with considerable industry, although not altogether
exempt fW)m Inaccuracies in some of the details. As a book
of reference it is clearer and more comprehensive than the
' Atlas Historique of Le Sage. (Las Cases.)
In the latter tables added by Major Bell, the writer has '
somewhat departed from the sober matter-of-fact style of the
German professor, and has occasionally indulged in quali-
ficationa, either laudatorv or condemnatory, applied to poli-
tical parti& and transactions, which appear out of place in a
work of pure and simple chronology. Some general statei-
ments are likewise too sweeping: for insUnce, it is said
under the date of 1 833, * The kingdom of Algiers (about 600
miles in length and 170 in breadth) continuea from 1830 to
be occupied by the French.* 80 fkt from this behig the
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fact, the French even now ^January. 1&36) are only pcM-
se^sed of the city or Algien and a aoiaU dutrict around, and
of the tuvna of Oran and Bona, and one or two more potnt«
on the coast. All the rest ii in possession of the bey of
Constant! na, and of the Araba and Kabyles, who are at
war with the French.
Bredow wrote also a 'Chronicle of the 19th Century/ in
which he spoke of Napoleon's power, then at its height,
with a boldness that acquired him a name among the pa-
triots of Germany.
BREEDING is the art of multiplying the domestic
animals rapidly, and at the same time improving their
qualities.
Any breed of animals will perpetuate itself proTided there
is a suiRciency of proper food for them ; and the varieties
found in a wild state must depend in some degree on the
climate and the products of the country in which they are
found. Care and domestication also produce varieties,
which are much more useful or profitable than the wild
breeds ; and in the selection of the best individuals to pro-
pagate a useful race, and in the rearing of the young, con-
sijits the art of the breeder.
Without entering into particulars, which vary with every
species of animal, and with the different varitrtie^ of the
same species, we shall lay down certain principles which
experience has proved to be correct, and which being
attended to will greatly promote the improvement of all
the different animals usually bred for the use of man,
whether for his sustenance or for his pleasure. The first
thiii)^ which is to be kept in view is the chief purpose for
whicii the animal is reared, whether for labour and to assist
human strength, or for speed, to convey us rapidly from one
place to another ; — ^whetner merely for a supply of animal
food, or to produce the raw materials of manufacture. In
eaeh of these cases distinct qualities are required ; and it is
seldom that two of these objects can be combined in the
greatest perfection.
Having then determined the purpose for which any species
of dome:itic animal is designed, every quality must be at-
tended to which furthers this view ; and except under very
peculiar circumstances the animals intended to keep up
the stock by their produce must be chosen with those quaU-
ties in the greatest perfection which are essential to the
end. In all animals a perfect conformation of the bodily
frame is essential to the due performance of the viul func-
tions. The skeleton of the animal should therefore be as
perfect as possible. The capacity of the chest, and the
healthy nature of the lungs are pomts which must never be
overlooked, whatever may be the purpose for which the
animal is bred ; for although a defect may in some measure
be counteracted by a judicious choice of the individual
coupled with the defective animal, it is only where there is no
alternative or choice that any defect in the bodily frame of
an animal kept for breeding should be overlooked.' In spite
of every care the defect will appear in the offspring ; some-
times not till after several generations. If it were possible
to find individuals without fault or defect, no price would be
too great for them ; and for those that have been carefully
selected for several generations it is real economy to give
a very liberal price. In horses bred for racing or fi)r the
chase experience has fully proved the truth of this rule ;
and no one who pretends to breed race-horses would breed
from a mare which had a natural defect, or a hoi*se whose
whole pedigree was not free from fault For mere swiftness
the shape of the animal, whether horse or greyhound, must
combine strength with great activity. The chest must be
deep, th^ lungs free, and the digestive organs sound but
ftmall, to add as little weight to the body as is consistent
with the healthy functions of nature. The legs should be
long and slender, and the bones compact and strong ; but
the principal thing to be attended to is the courage, and no
quality is so hereditary. A horse or hound of a pood breed,
if in health, will die of exertion sooner than give up the
chace. Any defect in courage in an animul intended for
great occasional exertion renders him unfit to be selected to
continue an improved breed; and whatever may be his
pedigree he has degenerated.
With respect to animals whose strength and endurance
are their most desirable qualities, a greater compactness of
form is reouired, a greater capacity or the digestive organs,
and, according to the climate to which they may be exposed,
a more suiuble covering. Whether it be to ward off cold or
groat beat, a tUek eoyeiiog of hair ia equally serriceable in
both cases. Haidineaa of conttitutton ia beradilary, lii«
other qnalities ; and the manner in which the youoi? vm
reared tends greatly to confirm or diminish thia. An animal
, of which the breed originally came from a warm clisDat«,
; Uke a tender exotic plant, wants artificial warmth for iLm
I healthy growth of iU limba ; while the indigenoua and more
. hardy breeds may be left exposed to the element*. An
, abundance of wh^some food and pure water ia eaacnt. aJ
to the healthy state of every animal, as well as exercise
proportioned to iU strength. These are circumatati<*rft
which it is obvious must be carefully attended to. TlKrv
are others, the result of long experience, which are eau^..v
necessary to be known, but which are not so obvious. Tti<-<r
vary according to the species and variety of the anima.«
bred ; and it is seldom that the same breeder is equa..}
successful in rearing different species of animals.
In the animals selected to breed from there are pot/i/#. ««
they are called, which are peculiar con format ioDs, some «•:
which are cotmected with the natural formation of the sL«- o-
ton, and others appear to be the result of an aMociati i
derived from the known qualities of certain individual >, a...
of which no very good physiological account can be eivco.
That high withers and a freely moving shoulder-blade in a
, horse are connected with his speed is readily perori^i- i.
and that the length of the muscles of the quarter, and ibv
manner of their insertion, should affect his power is cqu;* ; v
evident ; but it is not so apparent that the manner in wh<c ii
the ears are placed on the head, the shape of the no%e «ir
jaw, and the insertion of the tail 'higher or lower* has sn
important effect on the value of the animal, independer.*.*
of any arbitrary idea of beauty. A breeder who soouU t. ;
attend to these circumstances in the animals chosen to p«r
petuate the breed would find, to his cost, that it is m .ro
than mere taste which has determined these pointA^ It .%
the result of observation and experience that certain bnfo •
are invariably distinguished by certa'm peculiarities, a* .
that these are almost as invariably coimected with ?••
q ualities, apparently quite independent of the parts on u h . i
these points ap})ear.
There is an indication of the disposition of an anim ^\ 1:1
the eye, in the shape of the head, and in the manner .n
which it is carried, which seldom deceives an experienrr..
judge. He will not risk introducing a vicious or sulky <: •
position into his breed, which might counterbalance ail ;*
good qualities the animal might possess, and introduce.- .
greater hereditary fault than any imperfection of form.
But nothing is so deceitful as the prejudices which ex.-'.
with respect to peculiarities and colours. In somec^uru. «
no ox or cow would be thought good of its kind that wa«« i» •
red or brown without spots ; in others a certain poru 'ti :
white is essential. In Suffolk no cart-horse is prised ^1..
is not chestnut; in Northamptonshire he must be black ; 1
Yorkshire brown or bay. This is owing to the comiL i
colour of the breeds most esteemed in each oount>. 1..
Belgium, whence the Suffolk breed originally came, Lu'
which has degenerated in its native country, a chestnut hv*«^',
with a white mane and tail, as well as a red oow, srv <u-
spised. Here the reason of the prejudice is the as9ori«t..>.
of the colour with some defect, and those who breed for p: *':
by sale must be ruled by the taste of their customers. T: c
rational mode of proceeding is to be well acquaiiii««l ^k^
the anatomy of the kind of animal which we make the >.. -
ject of our attention ; to learn by experience what 9i\* a.f
peculiar qualities of the different breeds, distingui^boi h\
any particular feature, and whether these quaUties ha\e ut.y
apparent connexion with the peculiarity in make or c>»\- i.r
We may then be guided by the knowledge thus aoquiroi u;
our choice of individuals, to perpetuate the breed, and iu4
only preserve the useful qualities which they already pr—
sess, but gradually improve them. No greater mistake o. r.
be committed than that of making what are called \)«»W:.i
crosses, such as coupling a very spirited male with a >1..^-
gish female, an animal with large bones with 0110 uf\<rr.-
slender make, a long-limbed animal with a compart oi;r
By such crosses the first produce has often appeared niU(*:.
improved ; but nature is not to be forced, and if the bnn- 1 .•»
continued, innumerable deformities and defects are certs 7.
to follow. The safe way is to choose the animals as n«-a:l>
alike in their general qualities as possible, taking carv ilr :
where there is a defect in one it exist not in the oihcr«iih)-t
would infallibly perpetuate it, A defect can nex-er l« tr
medied by means of another of an opposite kind, but. h\
great attention, it may be diminished gradoallyy and at krt
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disappear entirely. This refers however to def/icts, not to
peculiar qualities. Cows, for example, may pniHluco either
milk or fat in abundance from stmUar food ; and a species
of cow, which secretes too much fat, so as to be deficient in
tho milk necessary to rear the calf, may be improved by
■electing individuals which give more milk, and by crossing
tbe breed with these ; but we must be careful not to choose
individuals which differ much in shape from the breed to be
improved. A cross between a Herefordshire cow and an
Alderney bull might possibly produce a good cow, but the
breed of this cow would probably be of inferior quality, whether
for fattening or for the dairy, and nothing but ill-formed
eowrf, deficient in milk, and slow-feeding oxen, are likely to
result from it. Every attempt to unite opposite qualities is
generally attended with a bad result. If a breed has too
{Treat an aptitude to fatten, so as to endanger tbe fecundity
of the mother or the health of the offspring, the only remedy
is (o diminish the food ; and if, on the other hand, a difti-
cuUy is found in fattening cows which are of a peculiarly
«;oo<i breed for the dairy, such as the Alderney cows and
other small breeds, the loss on the old cow sold half fat will
have hoen amply repaid by the milk she has given ; and
the bull-calves which are not wanted to rear for bulls, if they
are not profitable to fatten as oxen, must be fatted off young
and sold for veal. But it is not a necessary consequence
of an abundant produce of milk, that the cow, when dry,
will not fatten readily ; although a great propensity to
fatten renders the breed less fit for the dairy. The Ayr-
shire, which are good milkers, fatten well when dry, and the
oxen of that breed are as kind feeders as any.
Alany breeders have an idea that coupling animals which
arc nearly allied in blood produces a weak race ; others con-
sider it as a prejudice, and among those who held the latter
opinion was the famous breeder Bake well. Without de-
('i.liii<r this point, we should recommend avoiding too near a
relatiuusship, provided individuals equally perfect can be
found of the same breed more distantly related. Every
individual has some peculiar defect, and his descendants
linvc a tendency to this defect. If two immediate descend-
ant :$ are coupled, this defect will probably be confirmed,
uiiereas by uniting tbe descendants of different indinduals
the defect of cither of the parents may never break out ; but
s )oripr than retrograde by coupling an inferior animal with
one in an improved state, we should not hesitate to risk the
consequences supposed to arise from what is called breeding
ill and in, that is coupling animals nearly related in blood,
fspecially if only on one side, such as the produce of the
same male by different females, or of a female by different
.^iix*3. The qualities which distinguish animals in which the
muscles and bones are required to be much exercised, as
dogs, horses, and working oxen, are very different from
tl)o^e of animals destined to accumulate mere tender flesh
and fat for human food. In the former there must be spirit,
activity, and quick digestion ; in the latter, indolence and
pronenesa to sleep are advantageous. In the first, the lungs
must play with ease, and the muscles be strong, and not
encumbered with fat. In the second, the lungs must be
fiound, as they are essential to all the secretions, and the
digestive power must be good, but slow. The food must
not be accelerated through the bowels by exercise, but the
absorbent vessels of the intestines must draw all the nourish-
ment from the digested food. The more the muscles are
impeded with fat, the better the animal will repay the food
given him. To choose an animal to breed from, whose
produce shall get fat readily, we must attend to this part of
the constitution, and care little about spirit and activity.
The tendency to secrete bone, and those parts which are
called offal by the butchers, as being of inferior value, is
a defect. Good flesh and fat are the great objects.
The manner in which the more solid parts of the body
are formed, and the greater consumption of food, in propor-
tion to the increase of weight which takes place in young
animals, while boTies and horns are growing, prove tiiat it
is much mnre expensive to produce bone than flesh, and
muscular fibre than fat. Hence it is evident that the
greater profit is in fattening animals that have finished
their growth ; and also that there is a superiority in those
breeds which have small bones and no horns. This is an
important point to be attended to by a breeder ; as is also
the time when the bony secretion is completed. A breed
of animals that will cease to grow, or have attained their
full size of bone at an early age, will be much more profit-
able to the grtsier than one of slower growth. It is in
this respect ' chiefly that certain breeds of sheep and cattle
are so far superior to others. The principles which apply
to cattle are equally applicable, mutatis mutandis^ to sheep.
In no case are strong bones or horns of much importance to
the sheep in its domestic state. The principal objects are
wool and flesh, which appear to be dependant on distinct
and perhaps incoihpatible qualities. Ttie attempt to unite
the two is perhaps the reason why the Spanish breed, which
has been improved when transported into Saxony, has de-
generated in England ; so that even its crosses are not in
repute. It is a matter of mere calculation, whether sheep
kept for their wool chiefly are more profitable than
those which give an increase of meat at the expense
of the quality of the wool. A breeder of sheep who
attends only to the quaUty of the wool, will not have
his attention taken off from the main object by any defi-
ciency in the carcase, or the disposition of the animal to
increase in flesh and fat. It is possible that mixed breeds
may be more profitable than the pure. Fine wool may not
repay the breeder and rearer of sheep so well as moderate
wool and good meat. But the principle we contend for is,
that of producing the most perfect animal of any one va-
riety existing, by correcting individual defects gradually,
and avoiding fanciful crosses, which may desti'oy in one
generation all the advantages obtained in a great many.
Hence it is a matter of great importance to consider well
the qualities of the individuals wiih which you begin your
improvement, and to know that these qualities have existed
in their progenitors, and are not merely accidental. It
crossing appear necessary, let it be done very gradually and
cautiously. No experienced breeder would ever expect to
improve the fleece of a sheep of the Leicester breed or the
carcase of the Merino by a direct cross between these two
breeds. The offspring would most probably lose all the
good qualitiesfor which each breed is noted, and produce a
mongrel breed worth little in comparison. But a cross of
Merinos with South Downs, or Leicester with Cotswold.
might produce new and useful breeds, and these, carefully
selected, as has been done, have produced mixed breeds,
which by great attention may become very valuable.
When it is determined what breed of animals you wish to
perpetuate and improve, the individuals which are to be
the parents of tbe stock cannot be too carefully selected.
The more nearly they are alike in form, colour and extenot
appearance, the more likely they are to produce a distinct
race. They should neither be above nor under the usual
size. They should be of such an age as to have entirely
ceased growing, and be arrived at perfect maturity ; ana,
whatever may be their good qualities, they should not be
selected, if they are the produce of very aged parents, at
least on the female side.
In horses and horned cattle many breeders prefer a male
rather less in size than the female, and pretend that the
fostus has more room to develope its members in what they
term a roomy female.* Tliere may be some truth in this, but
equality of size, or rather the due proportion established in
nature, seems most likely to produce a well- formed offspring.
Anv considerable deviation from this is generally attended
with defect. Nothing is more common than for a country
gentleman who has a useful favourite mare, not particularly
well bred, when any accident has rendered her unfit for
M'ork, to have her covered by some very high-bred stallion^
expecting to have a very su|)erior foal. Sometimes this suc-
ceeds, but in general it ends in disappointment, especially if
the mare be small. A much more certain way is to choose
a half-bred stallion, nearly of the size of the mare, and
having those good points which tbe mare already possesses.
In this case there is every probability of rearing a well-pro-
portioned and useful animal, instead of a cross made one^
as the breeders call them, probably from the very circum-
stance of these crosses not succeeding in general. We
advert to this as a fact which many of our readers may
know from experience.
To give in a few words the rules which result from what
we have very briefly stated : —
Choose the kind of animal which you wish to breed fronit
having distinguishing qualities ; keep these constantly in
view and reject all individuals in which they are not as per-
fect at least as in the parents. Select the most perfect
forms and let the defects be corrected gradually. Have pa-
tience and perseverance and avoid all attempts at any sud-
den alteration by bold crosses. If possible, breed two ok
• See commiinicaUoot to the Boazd of Agricullttve, by Hr,Cliae, voVlf.
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
ft RB
382
S R B
tooM famillM of tho same kind, keeping then ditdnet, and
only ooeasionally eroering the one with the other. In this
manner a very improved breed mav be prodneed. The
nearer yon approaon to perfeotion the more diffleultwill
be the selection, and the greater the danger of retrograding.
Hence in very highly bred stocks it is often almost Impos-
sible to keep up the perfection of the breed, and a fluctuation
in the quality of the produce will take place. The more
improved the breed is, therefore, the greater attention must
be paid in the selection of those which are to continue it
And for want of this, almost every breed, however reputed
it may have been at one time, gradually degenerates, and
loses its great superiority.
As every farmer and occupier of land is more or loss a
breeder, if he be only a breeaer of pigs, these observations
may be use(\il. In the articles on each particular species of
animal, these general principles are applied and more parti-
cular directions are iHven.
BRB6BNZ, CIRCLE OF (also called the cirele of
Vorarlberg), forms part of the Austrian earldom of the
Tyrol, and is bounded on the N. and N.E. by Bavaria, on
the 8. and W. by Bwitserland, and on the N.W. by the
lake of Constans. Its area, according to Von Lichtenstem,
is about 1560 sq. m., within which there are S towns, 7 m. t.,
and 412 vil. Being traversed by the lofty range of the
Adler (or Eagle mountains)* an offset of the Rhntian Alps,
which separates it from the Tyrol, it is a mountainous
country, and fhll of forests : it possesses also fine tracts of
pasture land, the grasing of which fbrms the principal oecu-
nation of the inn., and it produces abundance of wine,
iVuir, and potatoes, but not grain enough for domestic con-
sumption. Independently of the Rbme, which skirts it
Ibr a distance of about 20 m. fh)m Bange to the spot where
the Rhine falls into the lake of (Donstanz, Bregens is
watered by the Aach or Ache, which runs into that lake,
the lesser Tussach, which has the same outlet, and the 111,
a stream tributary to the Rhine. Cotton stuffs are woven
in most parts ; and mining, ship building, the manufacture
of articles of wood, felling and preparing timber, &o. con-
stitute ether branches of industry. The three towns of this
oircle are Bregens, Peldkiroh (1590 inh.), and Pludenz or
Bludens (about 1900 inh.). both on the 111. The pop. is
about 89,600. Bregens, the capital, is an open, busy town,
beautifhlly situated on an eminence at the entrance of the
Aach into the lake of Coostanz : it is one of the oldest towns
in (Germany, is well built, and is divided into the old town,
which occupies the sides of tlie eminenoe, and the lower
town, which spreads along the shores of the lake. Bregenz
contains the head school of the circle (Hanpt-srhufe), three
churches, two monastic establishments, an orphan asylum,
a military school of natation, about 360 houses, and 2300
inh. The productions of the immediate vicinity are com,
Ihiit, wine, butter, and cattle i the townsmen spin Itax and
cotton yams, weave cottons, bleach wax, sell considerable
numben of articles of wood, frameworks, and complete
ilttlngs of wood ibr houses, and export Alpine huta ready
for erection to the adjoining Swiss cantons. The yearly
amount of the commercial transactions of the town has
been estimated at nearly 200,000/. sterling. The old castle
exhibiu vestiges of Roman construction, and appears to
have formeriy been a place of considerable strength. The
Oerhanlsberg, a high mountain, on which stand the ruins
of the once spaeions stronghold of the counts of Montfort, is
in the neighbourhood. 47* 30' N. lat , 9** 49^ B. long.
BRBHON LAWS. The untient laws of the Irish, so
ealled fnm being expounded by judges, named in the Irish
language BrmtAJBmmkuin^ or Brehons. Feineaekoi however
and Breitha^eimeadh, words signifying ♦ respectively an-
cient laws and sacred ordinations, are the terms commonly
applied to the oollection of these writings by the native
wnlers.
Prior to the Angk>-Norman invasion, Ireland was wholly
governed by the Brehon law ; and, notwithstanding the
statements of Spenser, Davies, Cox, and others, that this
was an unwritten and barbarous code, there is abundant
evklenee to prove that some of the collections of the BreitKa-
neimeadk are of eoual anti({uifcy with the oldest manuscripts
of Irish history, whether civil or ecclesiastical, an antiquity
^ehcarries us safely back to the earlier ages of the Chris-
^t The extant collections are numerous and au-
* TbcM tofiBf urn ttih Um »alijcct of ctjnolofloil dispute : tU truuUtioni
Irni are ChoM OMMt generally recvWed.
thenttc, but the labour of translating, raethoditing, end
illustrating them must be that of years ; so thai nothtnc
more can be here effected than to give soeh an outline "t
the social system of the old Irish under these lava a» th* r
available fhigments, compared with the general history of th«
country, would point out to the reader of the various arc**-
sible authorities on the subject.
The present division of Ireland into provinces, eeuntira,
baronies, and townlands would appear to correspond trHU
nearly with the old territorial distinctions of minor king-
ships, lordships of countries, chtefries of dans, and pmi-
deneies (if we may use the term) of villages ; all sabjert to
the dominion of the Ard Righ, or supreme king, and crib>i-
tary, one to another, among themselves.
The law governing this community is distinguiahaUe ir. to
the common and, so to speak, the statute law. And, fir^;,
as to the oommon law, or immemorial custom of the eoanti^ .
our information is necessarily scanty, as being dcnvol
chiefly from the reference made to such usages m the rr-
maining fragments of the written law; for at thie <iir
there remains scarce any oral tradition available on ttiK
subject in Ireland. Tlie constitution of the bulk of «•>•
ciety in antient Ireland was patriarchal and pasfeonl. B%
the common law of the tribes, the ground beloofrtntr
to each seems to have been divided into common pastu^t-
lands, oommon tillage lands, private demesne lands, an l
demesne land of the tribe. Each man of the tribe hnl
then the right to pasture as many cattle as he poaaeased <m
these common grazing lands; and in proportion to t?.r
number of cattle thus pastured by each was the share * i
the common tillage lands assigned to him on the annual
partition or hotch-notch of the lands. The private <:-•
mesne lands were the distinct property of individual* wt a
were entitled to acquire and transmit such poasessiun* ' \
certain qualifications not very clearly explained. The •! •
of thU work ; but the reader wlio wlihes to inT««ti{al« th« tob)fct » it - -
to the elaborate eteays of Vellanoey and CReilly (a). vhiW «e Wte c • •
few only of the more intereetiag teettmooiea which nay be aJiha»-d a
bishop Ueher, in his ' Diecoune, ■howiog whea and bow ihf* latsr.* ••
came to be ivoelved bv the old Iriah.' apeaka of the Brehoa law* a« .
contained in hia day • b lam volamea atilt eatant in ihelr oww \% * 9 .
Xrt«h) language.' Sir John Daviea, their great opyooent and Snal viu.e •
while he a«terts, in his fomout hiatorical eHay, that the*e 1«wk «r .
bareua, becatiM oral, adnltt, in hit letter to the Karl of 8aU«bur». At-t
hia proeaedinga in Breonv O'Reilly (the pimenft county of CvaD ) *m I -
managh, in the vear 160e,that a brehun who was brought heSs^ .%
force to give evidence ag to the eiUiei of Maguirr.the lord ef n<>
eountry. had in hia Boaaeaalon the antient written tiUe-4eMl«. ■■pmii • .
and rental of that principality. Sir Riehard Cos declax«i» in kto * Xvy^r^ •
prefixed to the well knottn hiitory of Ireland, that ' there waa no wnU". . •
tM digested or well-compiled rale of right i no. It was ealy the «Ui •» • •
brehon or k>id.* ' The manner of deeidlBg oontrowrsle^' m*« he, * we «^ • •
ridiculous with the law they judged by— without clerka, re|dttc«ra,« rrr
* We may be sure.' h<< adds, • that some of these hereditary Judge* a»d «> • * •
were Tory aad teul^ and perhapa all fiT then «1U Justly fkU nate mm*% . «.
unleta their adTucates can show some antient leaned tracU «• law er p < j .
which might remain as monuments on reoord/ First, as tecar^ r>- «
tracta in the Irish language, they are wry neaify as nnaeroui, aiwl «
as antique, as thuM on law (fc) ; and. eeeomny; wfth ra»Md to the pins .:
Issue, the following extract from the letters of Thaddeu* Roddy. * cei*^^- ^
of the county of Leitrim. who lived in the beginning of the Ust n>a* • •
peculiarly UlustratiTe of the qneetioQ and Its meritn. • I haw thin* t«'. . »
of our law.' savs Roddy. ' although my honouied friend. Sir Rttaai^ ^ . »
was once of opinion that our law nas arbitrary, and not Sxed or wmt^a.
I satisSed hhn to the contrary in the summer of 1601. by showing h-« «
of these old Uw books (c) } yet Cox has taken bo step lo toetifi thtf w«. ^.
error in his writings.' This ill-founded incredulity. Joined to the &&cal . •
removing it by adequate translations, and sustained, perhaps by « » -
though prevalent apprehension of danger to the eeUleaeM of OAOri * *
f[iving publicity to documenta which tmu in any way aaioltc lbs n—"-ail » •
ngs of the native Irish, has hitherto prevented that hooonratde aw t> » t
In anv other eoontiy these valuable materials wonld toof sIdc* h««« l«.
turned ; ao that the words of Buhop Niehoboo. after Mm kpv eT mm* • . <
a century, are still as applicable as when flr«t penned. ' I Suv |nn.«-
t?i*??V*."* •"* historians of this kingdom, that if they i the Bcr*>m ' . •
M8&) fiUl into the handa of as akilfU a publisher as th* m^ law s «* «
(he aUttdes to Wotton. whoae • Lem Waliica * or law* ef Hiiwet l>u. > .
shall have occasion to refer to above), we shall have a wry drlightfu •• ..
stractive view of many antient rites and eeremonlte of this comrti^. « «
yet, have eontinued in the almoetdarknem and obseurity ' {dy X^ vti.* i *
subject has thus lain in abevanoe. the materials for a better ilnnrtai «•
have been increasing. A oollection whfch now Slls two larce quano v. . « •
la danosited In the Hbrary of th« Royal Iriah Aaadsay. iiShee »au^
considerable value solidU the osertioos of the k«al anUqnaiy ai S^m* . ^ ^
while the most important of several private collectioofl can attll h» t-» > .
their several owners, the tranaaetioos of the leaned body atlmkrf «d ^ . t .
Utely been onrkhed by transeripto of upwards of thtrty da««a U^ mm
instruments tn the Irish language of the thiiieenth. lbutt«eoth. ana U «- »
centuries, rude, it Is true, and evindng a very primitive state of owwr*
slail. for the greater paxt.thowockof hrohods. coatemable t» bs»4^
and tndispuUble evidence that the native Irlah not ouly i niiiJiJ * l^m
written code by which to regulate the Judfmenuof their brvhoM^ b.. ^ -
that Iheee fVinetiooariBS daly eommitted theee Judgments^ ane^ m tWi * .^
to wrtUng, in the vorv days of meu whooe eotemptnuua d*«lai ef ta* w'm*—
or either record has been almost nniversally received as tnww
(a) Collect de Reb. Ilib. vols. i. and iii.: and Tiuna. R. Ixwlk
See also Lynch. Cumbivnsis ^versus, p. 157.
'h) See Catolnguoa of M96. In Bdl ll«s.i !■ Bod. UkO
ubw ; and i7r. Iriah Acad. I ■ ««. i^ «
CoVdu „
Ce) ColleetVdo Reb. Rib. vol. L
(OliiatUktelnlaad^
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Bit E
B R E
mesne kndi of Um tribe mne m| epert (br ttie neinteiieiiee
of the chief, the chief elect, the bard, doctor, and brehon.
With regard to the nature of the property enjoyed in
these several estates, the tribe at large possessed what is
called the allodial or original indefeasible property in all the
lands, and could not be ^ected out of them in consequence
of any arrears of tribute, inasmuch as the superior lord
lifted only a proportion ef the increase of stock upon the
pastures, and was bound to take the same away at certain
seasons : tbis rent was preoisely a lay tithe, being one -tenth
of the increase. As to the ooromon tillage lands, every
member of the tribe possessed a life interest in themi pro-
portioned to his stock in cattle. In the private demesne
lauds individuals had a^ permanent inheritable interest
In his separate portion of the demesne lands of the tribe,
the chief nad a life interest, of which the reversion lay with
the tanist, i^^ the $econd motif or chief elect, and in like
manner the tanist, bard, &o. ppsaessed life interests in
their several portions,
The personal distinctions of the tribe, corresponding to
the above territorial divisions, were, so far at can be gathered
from the very confused authorities on this head, the Jn-Jifmi,
holders in common ; and the Dathatg-JInni, those indivi-
duals alluded to above who were entitled to separate inherit-
able possessions. The In-Jinni, or commonalty of this
pastoral corporation, appear to have been ef one rank | but
the Datkaig'Jinnc were divided into sevend classes, of which
the three naost intelligible were the Deirhhflnno or class, as
the commentators explain it, nearest the tuocession, who
had the right to inherit the whole patrimony of their kin
\tithout deduction; the GaU-fintU^ who inherited three-
fourths of their patrimonial estates; and the larJlnnS,
whose right of inheritanoe extended to only one-fourth ef
the property left by their relations. These privileged classes
were, in every tribe, limited in number ; but it does not exactly
appear what was the qualification for admission, or the rule
of exclusion, or whether the Deirbh-flnni, for instance, be-
came disqualified on the election of a tanist less nearly
related to them than to others, althouah it is evident that a
man might rise from the condition of a tenant of comroen
tillage to that of a freeholder, or t;tM i7«r<d, descend from the
lii^^her class to the lower. As to the chief himself, he was
usually elected before the death of his predecessor, and the
rule seeras to have been invariably, that tho oldest of the
randidates, if not incapacitated by age or infirmity, should
have the preference, the brother being commonly chosen in-*
stead of the son, and the son rather than the nephew. His
re\enue arose, as has been said, from tho tenths of the in-
crease of cattle, and from the revenues of his demesne lands.
In addition he had certain claims of entertainment for him-
self and household at stated times in the houses of his tenants,
in the same manner aa his superiors, at certain seasons«
quartered themselves or their soldiers upon him. These
claims were sometimes compromised by both for an equiva-
lent in tribute { but, as a portion, more or less, by way ef
homage, was generally reserved, and as the reservation, ae^
cording to its extent, would seem to have had a special
denomination, we have an explanation of tl^e perplexing
multiplicity ef exactions whicn has so frequently called
down the censure of our early writers, who seem to consider
coi/ne, living, bonaght, Mohoran^ cuddy, &o. &e., as so many
separate taxes, leviable on one and the same holding — an
extortion apparently monstrous, and really impraeticable*
since there are as many denominations of tribute, according
to its reserved extent, as. if added together, would amount
to perhape three tiroes the value of the whole land.
So far of the Finni, or original members ef the kindred,
who constituted the great majority of the tribe. But in
every tribe there was another class, less numerous and gene-
rally lesa honourable, but in manv reapeets peculiarly inte-
resting and important, particularly as regards the origin of
\\ie feudal law. The subject of feudal tenures has occupied
the attention of the most distinguished English lawyers
and historians. The origin of tlM system has been iii all
cases referred mora or less to the necessities of military con-
3uest. and its genius has been invariably considered as quite
ihtinet from tnat of any pastoral oonstitution. The remains
of the brehon law however would go far to show that the
feudal and pastoral systems, if not to some extent identical,
have been in their origin closely and necessarily connected.
The system laid down above is so far calculated for the
govern mient of a societF composed of tribes, each tribe pos-
aesaing %he allodium of its own district^ mod the mass of its
members holding in common. Bnt eo-enatent with the tal
practical development of such a system, if not actually con-
templated in its very rudiments, arises the necessity of pro-
viding for those members of the community who, either by
chance, or choice, or compulsion, have been separated from
their particular kindreds, and have thus no proper FirmS
with wnom to claim a share. Such individuals could not
expect te participate in the riffhts of blood enjoyed by those
tribes among whom they might be dispersed, neither cenld
they be received by the commonalty of those tribes m
tenants on their fluctuating possessions. To provide fir
them, it was necessary that a certain portion of the land
should be set apart for the reception of strangers. To
prevent the eonfUsion of many landlords, the profits of these
tonementa were allotted to the chief who could thus afford
to exact a lighter tribute from the Finni of hia tribe. To
induce the better sort of strangers to settle among them, the
chief was empowered to grant some ef these tenements in
perpetuity, but the greater portion was usually let at will.
As for those who had only their labour to ofibr in lieu of Uie
ohiefa protection, they were received on his private demesne
lands and beoame his serfii. Admission to the upper class de-
pended on the stranger s ability to pay the entrance fine on
one or mcHW of the disposable tenements. These tenements
consisted of a homestead with a certain soope of ground
annexed. The homestead was denominated a Mathf to
constitute a legitimate rath five things were rsquiaite, vis., a
dwelling-house, an ox-stall, a hog-sty, a sheep-pen, and a
calf-house i these buildings were generally surrounded by
a ditch and rampart, and formed if necessary a place of de-
fence as well as of residence. There is one very prevalent
error with regard to raths in Ireland ; vis., that they were
Danish erections, and designed solely for military ooeu-
patien. The term ' Danish rath* is altogether a misnomer.
The original titles of raths, according to the classification of
the hrehen Uw, were drawn solely firom the cireumstanoe of
their erection and oocupation by the natives themselves ; as
ibr example, among many others, the Finni^rath, a home-
stead eeeupied hy the original kindred; a M0r-ratht one
rented by stranger tenants for the firet time ; an lar^rath,
one occupied by stranger serfs on the chiefs demesne lands ;
a iSosr-rsM, one of which the stranger tenant enjoyed the
perpetuity; a Forguraih, m secon£iry tenement appur-
tenant to the Saer^rath, fcc. &c. The entrance fine of sueh
a tenement waa denominatedyii/, and for the legitimate rath
amounted to fifty head of cattle. But the most important
term in this vocabulary is that applied to the stranger tenant
himself. As distinguished from the /^fine, or original clans-
man, the stranger tenant was called Futdkir, and his tenure
Fmdk, Now these terms are pronounced rsspeotiveW Fbust
and FtUt the identical words still emploved in Scettisli law to
indicate the fim»holder and his freehold. Henee that they
are the radioal form of the other feudal derivatives, such as
fief, fee, &c., seems more than probable | and when we
come to consider more closely the relative situatwn of the
Irish ree-fener, it will appear that there is something in it
very analo|(oua indeed to the older forms of pure feudal
tenure* First, the allodium of the soil vested ih the repra^
sentative of the tribe, so that the tenure of the ree-fbuetf
holding of the chief might be considered as in egpii9, with a
power m many cases of granting mesne tenures to others.
Secondly, at the death of the ohiefa stated fine was paid te his
sueoeaser. Thirdly, females eould not inherit Fourthlyi raths
were liable te eacbeat ; and, Fifthly, the tenant was bound
to serve the chief in war, and to diet certain numbers of his
soldiery at all seasons. Of the more minute chanieteriatics
of the perfect feud as introduced by the Normans into £ng-
land, su<di as eseuage, wardship, ransom, &e. &e., there are
so far fiiw disoovereble traces, but enough has been shown to
give good ground for considering the Irish law of fouen, oon^
nested as it necessarily was with the pastoral constitution of
their society, as the original form of feudal tenure among all
the Celtic nations. Feuers were classified according to the oir*
oumstances of their migration ; as those who had voluntarily
left their former tribe to seek their fortunes ; those whose
tribe had been dispersed in war, and those who had fled er
been expelled their tribe for debt, for robbery, for piracy,
or murder. The first three classes only had the privilege ef
becoming ree-feuera ; criminal fugitives were admitted only
to a temporary protection, which they paid for by cattle or
hand-service, on the private demesne lands of the chiefs until
he should compound with his prosecuton^ after which they
usually became his sertk or bondsmen, Ben4»fejMn were
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;attaobed to the soil ; the lands to which they were assifpjied
•being denominated Betagh lands, and they themselves being
frequently granted with the soil, as appears in many
antient deeds, where they are specified under the name of
Betaghs.
Thus then it would appear that the country was occupied
by kindreds called Finni, holding for the most part in
common, and by Feuert, who were either tenants by rent
and service, or vassals of the chief. The tributes of chief
to superior chief, up to the supreme king of the whole
island, were regulated by established precedents. The collec-
tion of these rules for the kingdom of Munster is entitled
' The Book of Rights,* and is still extant.
So far of the common law ; next as to the statute law of
the Irish. Whether these particular enactments were
decreed by a general assembly, as asserted by some,
or by local chiefs, as affirmed by others, is a question not at
present capable of satisfactory consideration. The books
containing them, of whatever age, profess to be but tran-
scripts and collections, with frequent references to similar
compilations of still older date; but the text appears
to be original, as its dialect is so antiquated as to require
Uie assistance of frequent glosses, themselves very diffi-
cult to be deciphered, and even when translated not by any
means easily understood. The collections are interspersed
.with numerous moral sentences, occasionally also with su-
perstitious dogmas : as an instance of the first, * Heaven
IS like a chariot on wheels, the more you push against it
the farther it flies from you ; ' and as an example of the
second, ' There are seven witnesses against a wicked king ;
viz.» division in his councils, strained interpretation of the
laws in his court, dearth, barrenness of cattle or lack of milk,
a blight of fruit, and a blight of seed sown in the ground
these are as lighted candles to expose the misgovernment
of every king *,'
The number seven would seem to have been held in
much the same esteem as the mystic number three. There
are, for instance, * seven classes of persons whose anger is
not to be resented; viz. bards, commanders, women, pri-
soners, drunken persons, druids, and kings in their own
dominions.* There are a^in ' three deaths not to be be-
moaned ; the death of a fat hog, the death of a thief, and
the deaUi of a proud prince . three things again which ad-
vance the subject ; to be tender to a good wife, to serve a
good prince, and to be obedient to a good governorK' In
this last example the same idea is repeated in order to
complete the triad. What virtue can have been supposed
to reside in these peculiar forms pf expression it is hard to
conceive. The only assignable reason for their use seems
to be that they were thus more easily committed to memory.
The system however does not appear to have been used to
any such extent in Ireland as in Wales ; triads, in fact,
form the bulk of Howell Dhu's laws, and those of the
most arbitrary and absurd description.
But to proceed with the more practical and intelligible
portion of these collections, the laws defining specific crimes
and their punishments. It is said that previous to the reign
of Felimy Reachtair, or the Lawgiver, the lex ialioni$ pre-
vailed in Ireland, and that he altered that code for a system
of retribution by mulct about a.d. 164. Parricide, rape,
and murder, under certain circumstances, still remained
punishable by death; but whether in consequence of this
reform in the old law, or by immemorial custom, all other
offences were thenceforth provided against in thebrehon
law by definite fines. The retribution thus exacted was
denominated Eneclan or Eric, terms applicable also to
rents, prices, and value in general. This system of erics
has been justly censured by all English writers on the
history of Ireland. But in this, as in most other insUnoes,
the censurers of the Irish have exaggerated the evil by con-
sidering it as peculiar to that people. So far however from
being confined to the Irish, this mode of retribution by eric
has been practised at one time or other by almost all the
nations of Europe. The Greeks}, the Romans}, the old
GermansH, the Franks^, the Saxons**, the Welsh, t^ all
punished our present capital offences by a fine. The only
difference lies in the word to express it, poine {poena),
mulcta, weregild, manbote, Sarhaad, and Eric being syno*
* Amnng (he antient Britons, kmgt were lilvewisa liable to be depoMd on
account of failare In the crop* during: tlicir reigns — Ammian. Mamell, lib. xviiL
t Ilook of Rallvmote, quoiwl by IlRrdiman.— Irish Mlnstrt'lsv. vol. ii.
t Homer, lUait u. 632; xviii. 49H, Ac. § Scxt. Pomp, vetbo Ovibn.,
Nott. Attic. l.al. c. 1. I Tacit de Mor. Germ. 1. xli. and xxi. « Uses
• J»^ "^^' ^■•* Athelrt. apud.BUdutoaie, b. ir. ft Wotton, Lages
nymous terms in their respeetire languages. In BosrlsM.
at the time of the Conquest, every man had bis t'aliti. ; ...
Wales, even to the time of its incorporation with England. n«>!
only had every man his own value in gross, but the parti-
cular value of all his members severally laid down by U» .
as six oxen and ten shillings for the two bands, a bki^ «u m
for the two eyes, half that sum for one of either pair* »^r
much for the ears, lips, nostrils, &c., and these aira .
varied with the rank of the maimed individual *. It is r <.t
then to be considered either unexampled or monstrrjat t
find an Irish chieftain requesting of the lord depute Vi tx
his sheriffs eric, that he might know what he sbouid hat v
to pay, in case of that officer coming by his d«ath at «l. .
hands of any of his people. The amount of thets er.i *
the different persons liable for their payment and e&tit.* .
to their receipt, the proportions of these claims and h^tn-
lities, the adjustment of value and the living mooey I't
which the various proportions of the mulct ware paid, Uie***
and the further punishment of the offender in eadi r^«>
required a very minute and complicated system of eoart.
ments. That the old Irish were acquainted with coirii*.
money is asserted by numerous authorities; that they u**>i
large quantities of the precious metals as a nedian <»*'
value is unquestionable; but as none save chteft aod huni'^
of territories were required to pay tribute in meitaV t...
dealings of the mass of the people were calculated for tIk*
standard of living money as closely as the nature of thr
medium would permit. Cattle were aooordingly ela&sific^i
and no doubt it would raise a smile on the countmmncr of
a modern merchant to be told of calves, yearlings. betfcr«.
strippers, in-calf cows, &c. representing the fraetiooml part>
of the standard of currency, but such has been the one.:..
pecuniary t substitute in every country ; and when we ha\t
the learned Selden declaring that ' pounds and ahiDir /«
were not abundant in England in 1004, but paid in tn.' «
and cattle},' we can consider the practice in a less intoler:. .:
spirit than those who, writing but a few centuries after t -
use of coined money, had become common among their <.v •
countrymen, have represented the barbarism of the Ir>l
in this respect as a thing almost unheard of before. It i.a«
been seen that in proportion to the number of cattle |v- «
sessed by each member of the tnbe was his sharp oT v. •
common tillage lands. Thus cattle were not only t.*^
standard of value, but the qualification for, and a nec«^arr
concomitant of, property. The land was thus bv a sort f
legal fiction an appurtenance of the stock; so that to«^.
of a person under this srstem that he possessed a hun-
dred cows, implied not only that his herds amounted to «-<
many head of cattle, but that in addition, and as a : r
cessary appurtenance of his estate in them, he al«> p •^•
sessed the grazing of a hundred cows, and the share yi -
portioned to a hundred cows in the common tillage land« i*
his tribe. Every addition to the number of a man*s car*!-
was therefore a virtual accession of land and producf . at. ;
viceversd; and thus a mulct of cattle fell as beatiK ^^
the granary as on the larder or dairy of the fined individual .
for these proportionate partitions of the land took placr at
stated periods, and each man*s har^TSt fluctuated with h %
herds as they bore a greater or a less ratio to the aggrr^a^
of all the cattle of the rest. The division of the grour'l
into portions so uncertain precluded the use of permanr.n
fences on those arable commons which were probably srpj-
rated from the pasture by only one exterior drmmranjt.c/r:.
while each man knew the portion that was to fill Id his par-
ticular reaping-hook within. The adjustment of these por-
tions must have been a matter of some difficulty ; from an
account of a partition of this kind given by Sir Henrv l^eI>.
who wrote a history of the county of Westmeatb in tJie \r*r
1662,4 it would appear that the plan usually pureued'mtis
this. The land was divided into equal shsres, in Kh« pro-
portion, each to the whole, of the herd of the least propnef-r
to the whole creaght or common stock of all their cattli?
These shares were drawn for by lot, in order to give to « I
an equal chance of getting the worse or better land. H?
then, it ia supposed, whose herds were thrioe as nuoifr'.^-.^
as thosQ of the least proprietor, drew three such aliqu t
parts ; he possessing ten times as many, ten such, and »c
on, the shares being taken here and there as tliey lurer^
up, and every man cropping his own portion as be thoucht
fit The system is still remembered m some parta of ti:^
country, and a mode 6f expressing the extent of land
among the Munster peasantry is still to say * 80 lat&ch ai
• Wotton LfgesWallicsp. f PfcvsM.i
1 Plscourte on th« origin of feads« i XoUmI. de R«K Bftb Wl L
;.BOD«y
.deR«Kl
B R E
385
B R E
fothwi to m$JXf eomn* Henoe, in all likelihood, the term
J^ally-boe, i. e. cow-land, a term which haa perplexed
many writers, in conaequenoe of the varying extent repre-
sented by it at different times and in different diitriots. It
appears therefore that hj le\if ing all mulcts for infringe-
ments of the law in living money, the Irish biehons took the
most effectual mode of making their punishments telKon the
whole condition and standing of the oifender in his tribe, for
punishments so inflicted showed themselves, more or less,
m every circumstance of his life and fortunes, and affected
his landed property in all cases for a whole year at least.
In calculating hy the measure, it was necessary again to
fix a standaid of available aliquot parts. The number three
was found most oonveqient, and accordingly the cumhalj a
general expression of fixed value, was made to consist of
tiiree in-calf cows, and by multiples and fractions of this
quantity all other proportions of value were usually regu-
lated. Seven ewnhaU, or twenty-one cows, was the usual
eric for murder on the highway. This wiU appear, at first
sight, a very inadequate retribution, but as it is not quite
clear whether the relatives of the deceased could not seve-
rally recover an erio firom the murderer, and as it is an
accompaniment of the punishment in this offence, that the
criminal loses all right in the common tillage lands of his
tribe, no matter how numeroua hia herds may be, after
satisfying the judgment of the brehon, his punishment may
not perhaps have been so much disproportioned as it would
otherwise appear. Still the possession of numerous herds
might thus purchase the wealUiy man a privilege of violence.
To guard against this, the liability increased with the rank
of the culprit. Taking the liability of tiie ordinary clans-
man at one, that of the wealthy boor (bo-aireagh, pro-
nounced iooare, i.e, a person rich in cattle,) would be
represented by two, that of the flaith or petty chief by
three and a half, and so on to the righ or lord of his
country, whose liability is raised in the proportion of seven
to one. Robbery was punished, in like manner, with thia
salutary provision, that if the robber could not be disco-
vereiT,-^!^ holder of the stolen goods should pay his eric.
The sanctity of marriage was strictly guarded : the injured
hushand had his first redress at the hands of his father-in-
law ; failing hon, he might levy retribution on his wife's
brothers ; failing them again, on her foster-children ; and
finally, if she hiul no relations, or if none of them were sol-
vent, her tribe at large had to pay the penalty of her crime.
Next to these, the fines for trespass appear to have been
attended to with peculiar strictness and care. Hitherto we
have spoken of lands held in common, whether for pasturage
or tillage, where there could be no fences, and consequently
little trespass ; but, before we enter on the code of trespass-
eric, it will be necessary to recur to those lands which we
hare denominated the private demesne lands of the tribe in
which the Deirbh-Jlfmi possessed their distinct inheri-
tance. In the present state of the inquiry, it cannot be
precisely ascertained how this inheritance was acquired;
out such lands are frequently alluded to in the original
laws, and distincUy recognised by Sir James Ware, who
admits them to have been fireeholds. These lands not being
subject to yearly repartition, were permanently defined and
fenced, and the exclusive possession enjoyed by their holders
is evinced by the extreme jealousy of the law decreeing
their inviolability. First, we have the legal fence defined ;
vis. a trench, two feet in width at bottom, three feet in
depth, and three feet in width at top, with a ditch raised on
one side, of these dimensions and materials, vix. twelve
hands of stone work three feet thick, twelve hands of sod
over that, then wooden stakes two feet asunder driven
firmly into the sod, laced with wattles, and rising three hands
over all. For breaking through a fence so constructed, the
legal &ie was thus proportioned : for every breach up to the
breadth of three stakes, a heifer or young bull ; for every
breach above three and under five stakes, a bull ftiU grown ;
ht every breach over five and under eight ditto, an in-calf
cow ; up to twelve ditto, five cows ; and so on in progressive
increase. That these lands were considerable enough to
be extensively wooded, appears also from the penalties
against trespsiss on timber. The classification and com-
parative valuation of trees in a country which has usually
been considered a wilderness of forests cannot fail to be in-
teresting. Timber was divided into four classes^airigh,
athair, foghla, and losa timber ; and the fines for trespass
on each were thus proportioned : airigh timber, viz. oak,
ash, haxle, hoUy, yew, and fir — for cutting the trunk, five
cows; for cutting or maiming the limbs, a heifer; for the
branches, a two-year old. Athair timber, vix. alder, willow,
hawthorn, quick-beam, birch, and elm — for cutting the
trunk, a cow ; for the branches, a heifer. Foghla timber,
yiz, black thorn, elder, spindle-tree, white hazle, aspen,
arbutus — ^for each, a heifer. Losa timber or f^wood, vix.
fern, furze, briar, heath, ivy, broom, dwarf thorn— the
penalty for destroying these to be at the discietion of the
brehon. Full as the classification here is, it scarcely equals
in minuteness that law of Ina, a king of the West Saxons
in the tenth century, which estimates the value of a tree
by the number of swine its branches could give shelter to*.
But perhaps a more remarkable law is that of the Irish
brehon regulating the property in bees. Honey and wax
must have formed a large portion of the wealth of those
days, else the various contingent interests in a species of
property so hard to fix as that in a swarm of wandering
bees had never been calculated and laid down with such
scrupulous nicety. In the first place, the bees themselves
are protected by severe enactments against injury of what-
ever kind. Next, they are to be left free, under heavy
penalties, to choose their own place of swarming : ' to blind
the bees' by casting up dust, or taking any other means to
force them to descend and swarm on one's own land, while
thety are flying out of the lands of another, was an offence for
which the punishment was no less than expulsion from Uie
tribe and territory. The bees having voluntarily selected and
settled on a tree, it then depended on the rank and privileges
of the owner as well of the bees as of the tree they had
chosen, what was to be the portion of wax and honey re-
served for each, and how long the original owner should
continue to receive that share, as the bees in aU oases ulti-
mately became the property of him upon whose tree they
had alighted. The commentators on the old text here com^
plain very bitterly of the clergy, who, it would appear, were
particularly fortunate in attracting such wandering swarma
to their abbey orchards, where they did not scruple to cover
them with sheets, and take other unfair means of securing
their stav among them. If the bees, however, were found
beyond the sound of a church bell, or the crowing of a cock,
in the woods or meadows, the finder was entitled to the
whole proceeds, excepting a ninth part, which he had to pay
by way of tribute to the chief. If these laws have been
rightly translated, the old Irish must have possessed the
secret of abstracting the wax* and honey without destroying
the swarm. In no other collection of laws are the regula-
tions regarding this species of property so copious ; in fact
it would require all the space here devoted to this subject to
explain the minute and complicated decrees of the brehon
law regarding bees alone.
It is equally impracticable to enter fully into the law of
watercourses, the enactments on which are very remarkable,
inasmuch as tho property of the whole water of a stream
vests in him out of whose land it first springs, so that the
owner of the fountain could levy tribute even on those
bridges which crossed the river between banks belonging to
other men, as well as on all houses (save those of the chief,
the head villager, and the miller,) whose occupants drew
water either from the fountain or the stream. Millers were
a class peculiarly favoured in these Uws : their mill-races
were tax free ; their mill-wrights, while pursuing their trade,
could not be prosecuted for trespass ; and, as above stated,
their households wore exempt from tribute on all water drawn
for their consumption. It is worthy of remark that by the
Jewish law the mill-stone could not be confiscated.
The law of rivers and sea coasts is also laid down at some
length ; but of the law of roads only one section hitherto
has been found. This section, however, is well worth
notice, as it contains proof of a much more general design
in these laws than we might otherwise be disposed to give
them credit for. It provides that the space of the cast of a
dart shall be left from high-water mark lUong the sea-shore
for the construction of a public coast-road round the whole
kingdom. It is said that some traces of such a road are still
to be seen upon the Irish coast Valiancy states that in his
day the country people c^ed it Brian Boru$ road; and
other writers mention the remains of a great inland causeway
somewhat similar to the British Watling Street, crossing the
country from Dublin to Limerick, which was probably the
effect of a similar provision for inland communication.
The law of fosterage is more fully stated. Every member
of the Dathaig-JInne, or gentry of the clan, was bound to
• L«|M lam, Uabwd, No. 43.
No. 320.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
Digitizi
ttO^pOg'^
B R B
ase
B BB
send his aala ohildieo ta foster vith soiha family qf tho
Jn-finne or commonalty ; fer it was provided that qodo hut
fiosterers could claim full eric. The j£gairer or fpster-foe
was a stated sum payable hy instalmepts during the child's
minority. While the child was thus under age, the foster-
father was hound to pay one-half of his fines, in return
for which the young nolHe or idil-man was ever after bound
to protect his new kindred, and in particular to pay all fines
incurred by his foster-mother, except in case of adultery,
when the liability first fell upon her father and brothers, if
alive and solvent.
The law of tuition provides for three chief branches of
education, viz. : knowledge of cattle, as being the first and
most important in a pastoral community ; next, knowledge
of agriculture, and finally of navigation, instruction in let-
ter being an indispensable branch of each. These attain-
ments were acouired under tutors hired for the purpose, and
paid by the father or foster-father, according to the arrange
ment of the jEgcUrer^ the foster-father himself being always
the youth's instructor in all mihtary and athletic exercises.
The tutors alluded to were the oUamhs or bards, who also
acted as clerks and notaries under the brehon. The offices
of these functionaries, as well as of the physician, were here-
ditary, but not, as is generally supposed, subject to the law
of primogeniture ; the judge, poet, or doctor, bein)^ at liberty
to- select from all of his own name those apprentices whom
he might think most promising in his peculiar profession.
The law of physio proportioned doetors' fees to the rank
of the patient and the nature of the complaint. If a cure
was not effected the doctor had no pay, but where the treat-
ment proved successful the recompense was very liberal, as
fourteen cumhals or forty-two cows for the cure of a bishop
or provincial king, seven and a half cumhals for that of a
lord of a country, three for that of a bovare, and two for a
member of the commonalty.
It is disputed whether the new series of enactments were
sumptuary or merely valuatory. Doctor Lcdwich adopts
the latter opinion, but the tenor of the translated fragments
would seem rather to imply the former. They are said to have
been enacted by Mugdories, the daughter of Moeha Muad-
hadt a king who lived in the second century. By them a
certain value is established for various article^ of dress and
luxury, as, for example, a mantle wrought with the needle |s
valued at a steer or heifer. The dress of a petty-chieftain's
ludy is estimated at three cows ; that of a head villager's
wife at two ; that of a bard and his wife together at three ;
and that of a bishop at six. The bodkin or brooch of any
one under the rank of a bovare was in like manner priced
at three heifers ; that of bovare at five ; that of a Flaith or
petty-chief at ten ; and that of a king or lord of a country at
thirty. Of the same value in each degree was the bridle.
The belt was estimated proportionately at about a third ;
and in like manner with regard to arms and armour, drink-
ing-cups, &c. &o.
As to forms of trial, there is nothing preserved which so
far throws any light upon this portion of the inquiry, except
one very interesting fragment, viz., cases of disputed inhe-
ritance of lands were to be judged by twelve voices, one dis-
sentient voice invalidating the verdict. This was the ancient
law, and the commentator observes that the hardship of its
extreme strictness occasioned its practical repeal.
Such, so far as can be collected from the present ill-ar-
'nnged and defective materials, would appear to have been
the old systemof rude jurisprudence under which the Irish
people lived prior to the invasion of the Anglo-Normans in
the twellth century. The conquerors brought their own laws
with them ; but the progress of the more complicated and
formal feudal eystemof the continent in displacing its primi-
tive originator and rival was necessarily very slow. The brehon
law offered many attractions to ambitious individuals desi-
rous of establishing a self-contained despotism in each of
their several territories ; and while the particular duties and
services done by the new feudal law were rigorously exacted,
the general privileges of the English constitution were
denied. The subjects of the Anglo-Norman conquerors
thus participated in the evils of both systems ; for the pro-
tection of judicial trial by the law of England could not be
claimed by the serfs of remote districts ; and the power of
the conciuerors was too arbitrary to permit any operation of
the bruhon law within their bounds which was not for the
sole intereiit of the lord : thus the poor native of the pale was
-ulcted under both laws andnrotected by neither. It is not
prising therefore tbftt the lapse of ik Norman noble into
mere Irisbism. by vhteh he aeksowledged tbe teeliQii code
alone, was anxiously encouraged by his dependents ; end surK
were the inducements of the system itself for turbulent ai.d
ambitious spirits, that few pf the adventurous nobles «h^
first established themselves in Ireland resisted the tempta-
tion. To guard against defection so ruinous to tbewh.Ic
policy of the conquest, many statutes were enacted in t' t*
parliaments of both countries. These at first were for xlv
encouragement of the English law only, but afterwards at
became necessary to take measures of prevention ea ««;il a*
of discouragement. The first positive act against Ibe prac-
tice of the brehon law within the pale was passed hf v c
parliament held at Kilkenny by Lionel Puke of Claivnc ,
anno 1362 ; by which the offence is declared high treavai
This was followed by the 18th Hen. VI. c. i. ii. iii.. and Uia
28th do., c. i., with similar prohibitions and penalties. Tl.*r
prohibition, however, had little effect The open defection > f
the great families of De Biurgho, Bermingham, and vanous
branches of the Fitxgeralds, in Ulster, Connaught and Muu-
ster, kept the dangerous example constantly before the ey t-%
of the nobility on the borders of the pale, and each surct-^
sive rebellion tended to increase the evil: for if the got em*
ment were successful, the border barons, on whom tbe mair..
tenance of that advantage aftenvards depended, were nru*
portionably more indulged ; and, if the Irish prevailed, ineir
yielding under such compulsion was the more excusable. A
good example of the anomalous state of society produced \jv
the intermixture of the two systems on the borders of tic
pale may be adduced from the reports made by various cur-
porate towns of Leiuster to the commissioners appointed . y
Henry the Eighth to inquire into the abuses of tbe In^.i
nobility anno 1537. The following is an abstract of seme ^f
the most remarkable complaints. * All the freeholders, Uy
and spiritual, charged their tenants with coyne and />r^*'v.
with /oy s^ndpay, with summer-oati, with cudUf ttiA
cashies, with black-men^ with black-money, with tbe mii:i-
tenance oimustrons, and with carnage and service in gti^t-
ral. Lord Kildare and Lady Catherina Peer not only r«^ •
quired coyne and live 17 for their own horses and Imts, Vui
also for those of all their guests, English or Irish, particw*
larly when they kept Easter or Christmas. When eiibcr b.»
^ (Kildare) or Poer, or Ossory, hunted, theu: dogs were >Lf-
' plied with bread, milk or butter. When the deputy orai.v
' great man came to Lady Poer she levied a subcudy at u:t
pleasure for meat, drink, and candle, under the name *A
* mertyagh' When Ossory or Poer married a daugbu.-.
the former demanded a sheep from every husbandmau. at. ]
a cow from every village ; and when their sons vete sent w
England, a tribute was levied on everv Tillage or pluuc^.-
land. Lady Poer took of a tenant who had his bor^e ••:
cattle stolen, 5 marks for his want of vigilance. Sir Th; -mi^
Butler exacted 1 0 marks at Easter, if his subjerts h:id
passed the year without galenglass or speanmen. Wilium
Bermyngham required 16 quarts to the gallon, in pa}nic;its
by liquid measure. Some lords took the tenants' nro.Iac»
at prices fixed by themselves, and thereby were enabled t>
forestall the markets. The brehon, who was k^pt )>%
Lady Catherine Poer, took for his judgment, c^lW^i
' sylogag/ \6d. of every mark sterhng, both of Ibe pUmi H
and defendant, &c. &c.' By these tyrannical praclkes, re-
suiting from the union of the worbt parts of both syater:.>,
the brehon law fell into extreme odium, but they are cbicflv
the exorbitancies and malpractices of this dasa wliuu
have been <^uoted by English writers who censure 11 . >u
that if the views here taken be correct, that odium baa \x^mi
in great measure undeserved. Indeed the noblca of tt«:
pale seem to have establislied a separate code of U»« tu
their own government, known as the Statutes qf Kil^yi^'' ;
and we find them, in the reign of Henry the Eighth, iii*!.it-
ing a penalty of five marks on the individual nhowoul>i s*.-:
by any other law. If these statutes be the index tu *u« u
practices as those quoted above, it is Itttl; to be «oadcst:u «t
that the brehon law, which bore the blame of all, should >u< «
been denounced as it was. Great efforU were acconLu.*. »
made, both in this reign and in £lixaboth'e« to supp»*i.t
the brehon law; the 3rd and 4th Philip and Mary, r. \ .
is also directed against some of its effects; but it was l. .1
till the 3rfl of James that the final extirpation of the i-> 1
law was effected. The whole kingdom bemg then di\w.- ^
into counties, with their several sheriffs and cirrttiu .(
assize, the brehon law became a mere subject of inquT^
to the antiquary, and as suoli, at the present day. p>*-
sesses perhaps greater interest than^-any other branch at
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B R £
388
B R E
oommunieation between the Elbe and Weser. There are
several pieces of water, but none deserving the name of
lakes; nor has the duchy any mineral springs. The climate
is temperate but variable, and the districts along the coast
subject to storms. The quantity of land under the plough
and spade is estimated at about 460,000 Hanoverian or
294,680 English acres, and the extent of pasture and mea-
dow land at about 323,000 Hanoverian or 206,920 English
acres. The growth of grain and other agricultural produce
is more than sufficient iot the consumption. Flax and hemp
and fruit in abundance, as well as vegetables, are raised ; peat
supplies the want of wood for Aiel. Considerable numbers of
horses (about 47,600), and particularly homed cattle (about
1U,000), which latter are one of the main resources of
Bremen, are reared; the breed of sheep, which yield a
coarse sort of wool, is less attended to, and the stock does
not exceed 240,000 ; the number of swine is between 70,000
and 73,000 ; geese are reared in all parts ; and honey and
wax are objects of attention. The stock of game is incon-
siderable ; there are no fisheries of importance on the rivs.,
but productive ones alone the sea coast.
The only mineral productions of tlie duchy are clay and
fine fuller s earth : peat also is dug. There are no large
manufactories, though the spinning of linen yarn and the
weaving of hempen linens and sailcloth, the making of
potter's ware and tiles, as well as the manufacture of brandy
and the extracting of oil from rapeseed, afford employment
to numbers of families. Trade is chiefly confined to the im-
mediate produce and wants of the country ; the exports con-
sist of grain, beans, rapeseed, peat, and fotted cattle for the
Hamburg and Bremen markets, wool, rags, fruit, oil, tiles,
and coarse linen. The want of a harb. on the coast hud long
been a great drawback upon the prosperity of the duchy ;
but the establishment of the * Breraer-haven,* on the right
bank .of the Lower Weser and left bank of the Gerste, bids
fair to remove it. Many vessels are built and navigated by
the inh. of those parts adjacent to the sea ; some few are
engaged in the whale fishery.
The inh. are all of Low-Gtorman (Piatt- Deutsch) extrac-
tion, and speak the Low-Gierman dialect. They are exclu-
sively Protestants, and the majority profess the Lutheran
ibrm of faith. There are 128 Lutheran and 7 Reformed cures
of souls. There are 4 grammar-schools and gymnasia in the
duchy, and a sufficient number of national schools.
This duchy was originally a bishopric, instituted in the
year 788, and was raised to an archbishopric in 849 ; it
was secularised under the treaty of Westphalia, made over
to Sweden in 1648, conquered by Denmark in 1712, and
sold, with the consent of both parties, to Hanover, or rather
the Electorate of Brunswick in those davs; namely, by
Denmark in 1715 for 600,000 dollars, and by Sweden in
1719 for 1,090,000. One portion of it formed the earldom
of Stado, which, for default of male heirs, was merged in
the archbishopric in the middle of the 1 2th century ; an
inccHTporation which subsequently gave occasion to violent
disputes between the prelates in possession and the d\ikes
of firunswick.
BREMEN, the free Hanseatic state of. in the N.W. of
Germany, is situated on each side of the Weser, between 50
and 55 m. from its entrance into the N. Sea, and as an
independent power, it is one of the thirty-eight constituent
members of the Grerman Confederation. Its territory, which
extends from 53® l' to 53** ll'N. lat, and from 8° 32' to
8® 58' £. long., is intersected by the Weser, and is divided
into the ' domain on the right bank,* and the 'domain on
the left bank,* of the Weser, toother with the bailiwicks of
Vegesack and Bremer-haven : it contains an area of about
67 sq. m. On the N. and E. it is bounded by the duchy of
Bremen, and on the S. and W. by the Hanoverian earldom
of Hoya and the duchy of Oldenburg. The surfiice lies
low, is almost level, and consists chiefly of marsh-land.
It is watered not only by the Weser, but by the Wumme
and Worpe, which, after their junction with the Hamme,
bear the common name of the Lesum or Lossum, and How
into the Weser on its right bank, and the Ochum, Ochmu,
or Ochte, which flows into it on its left bank. In addition
to those rivers, it is full of watercourses and canals. It is
better adapted for rearing cattle than raising grain, and
little corn is grown, except on some of the more elevated
spots. Fruit and vegetables are cultivated in the more im-
— -'«-.te vicinity of the town; but the country is destitute
. The pastures are remarkably rich, and the breed
I cattle is very fine. The territory contains one
town, two m. t, Vegesack and Bremer-haven, and 5S \j\u
and hamlets, and is divided into 14 pars. The number of
houses is estimated at 8500, and the present pop. at about
57,000 souls; in 1823 it was officially stated to be 55.4^3 ;
and of this pop. about 41,500 inhabit the town, kx^ 15^00
the ac^acent dependencies. The inh. are of the Protestant
faith, with the exception of about 1500 Roman Coibohc
and a few Jewish families. The legislative power is tetirJ
in the ' senate,* which consists of four burgomasters, tvo
syndics, and 24 senators, and in the * convention of bur-
gesses* (Btirger-convent), which is composed of all re^idvDt
citizens who pav any considerable amount of taxes ; tt is
called together by the senate, and no person is excludeil
from it on account of his religious opinions. The senato.-s
are chosen out of a certain number of candidates propoMkl
by the burgesses, and elected by ballot by the senate : IIm
senatorship is an appointment for life. The senators al«o
discharge the executive functions, and are respon»ibI«
ministers in this capacity : they are responsible to the cpa«
vention for the due administration of the finances, and con-
stitute the highest court of appeal in judicial matters. &jme
one member of the senate is placed at the head of each pubhe
dep., and civic denuties take part in ever^ branch of the exe-
cutive. The rights and control exercised by the former
bishops now rest in the hands of the senate. Tbeminister«
of religion are elected by the flocks, but they cannot rater
upon their functions without license from the senate, which
enjoys sovereign prerogatives with respect to the privilege of
granting pardons, administering justice, regulating the police
and civil afi^airs, controlling public instruction, exercising
seignorial rights over the territorial possessions of the com-
monwealth, and conducting foreign afi^airs. But the ooo-
vention participates with the senate in respect of all leKiilo-
tivvs measures, of imposing taxes, determining the aoaoont
and application of the revenues, directing military aiEk:r>,
and especially determining all important matters whirh
concern trade and navigation. Nothing was officull)
known on the subject of the public income and expendUajv
until a vote of the senate and convention, passed in Janusri
1831, decreed that the accounts should be annually brou^ii
before them. It appears from those which since ha\e bccu
presented that the ordinary receipts for 1833 amounted t^
515,398 dollars, and the extraordmary to 169,131« makir.j;
a total of 684,529 dollars, or about l\9,790L : and that lU*
ordinary expenditure amounted to 519,512, and the extra-
ordinary to 187,478; making a total of 706,990 dolUrs ir
about 123,720/. : from which data, the excess of expenditure
over income was computed at about 3933/. At the close U
the next year, however, the deficit disappeared, and s
surplus revenue of 35,000 dollars (about 6120/.) was pa»^
to the credit of the ensuing year. The capital of the pubLc
debt was in 1833 stated to be 3,500,000 dollars (about
612,500/.), and the yearly interest upon it, 141,000 4about
24,675/.). After deducting this interest, and the amount
of the vote proposed for the annual reduction of the capiul.
the remainmg expenses of the state were calculated at a
future average of about 375,000 dollars, or about €5,62 .
a year. The regular soldiery compose the contingent </
485 men, which the state is bound to furnish to the army «•!'
the German confederation ; besides these, there is a muit.i
composed of all males, excepting government servants,
ecclesiastics, surgeons, physicians* Kc., between the ages if
20 and 35 ; it consists of four battalions, and musters elvut
2800 officers and privates, of whom those between the aires
of 20 and 25 form the light infantry batt^ion. It is obli-
gatory upon them to assemble onc'e at least in the yt^r,
namely, on the 1 8th of October, Uie anniversary of the
battle of Leipzig.
Bremen carries on a very extensive trade, both wuh
foreign parts and the interior of Germa^iy. In Ifi3i it%
imports by sea amounted to 31,284,828 pounds of tobarco.
39.500 tons of South Sea whale oil, 14,000,000 pounds of
cofice, about 29,000,000 pounds of sueor, and 33,0i'>
hogsheads and pipes of wine, besides other articles : tl»e
whole value of these imoorts was estimated at 13.313,l<::
dollars, about 2,329,790/. Tlie exports, valued at aboc:
13,000,000 dollars annuallv, both bv land and sea, can-
sist principally of the productions of other countries, per-
ticularly the states of the interior of Germany, such as
lead, copper, iron and iron ware, gloss, erain, oak and 1:
timber,' bark, potashes, drugs, hemp and flax, wool, ra^cv.
paper, tobacco -pipes, and otner manufactured goods, &c.
The number of vessels which arrived in 1838 was U16, of
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whieb 120 were from Great Britain, and 123 from the United
States; and in 1835, 1085, of which 120 were also from
Great Britain. The immediate superintendence over such
matters as affect trade and navigation is vested in the
' college of elders,* vho are the gerentd for the commercial
body only, but are no way connected with the government
or legislature otherwise than as its members may be indi-
vidual members of the 'one or the other. Bremen, as one
of the three remaining Hanse-towns, holds a share in
common with Hamburg and Lubeck in two considerable
properties in foreign countries — the ' Steel* yard* in London,
and the 'Hanseatic House' in Antwerp.
The town of Bremen first rose Into note in the year 787
or 788, at which time Charlemagne made it the seat of a
bishopric. Its incorporation with the archbishopric of
Hamburg in 858 occasioned such violent contests between
the chapters of the two towns, that it was finally deter-
mined, in 1223, that Bremen should be the scat of the arch-
bishopric. It prospered greatly under its ecclesiastical
rulers, who promoted its union with the league of the
If anse Towns; but notwithstanding the archbihhop's repug-
nance, it was recognized as a free town of the holy Roman
empire so early as the reign of the Emperor Otho I.
The chapter was abolished when the archbishopric was
converted into a secular duchy by the .Swedes, but the
freedom of the town was never fully established, owing to
the opposition of the dukes of Brunswick, until the year
1 731, when an adjustment of their claims was effected. In
18 10 Napoleon incorporated it with the French empire, as
one of his ' good towns' in the dep. of the Mouths of the
Weser. In 1813 the battle of Leipzig restored its inde-
pendence ; and it was afterwards admitted a member of tlie
German Confederation, as one of the three Hunse Towns,
by the Congress of Vienna.
The city of Bremen is situated on the Weser, which
divides it into two unequal portions, the larger of which,
the Altstadt or old town, is on the right, and the other, the
Neustadt or new town, on the left Iftank of the river. The
old town has large suburbs, but the new town none ; the
latter was beeun in the year 1625, is built with much regu-
larity, and the streets are straight and broad. The old
town, though not without some handsome streets and dwell-
ings, is full of narrow, crooked streets, which are rendered
still more gloomy by the height of the houses* These two
quarters are also separated by an isl. of the Weser, called
the Werder, the lower part of which has been built upon
and included within the limits of the town. The Weser-
bridge crosses the isl. and unites the two towns. The ram-
parts and bastions round the old town have been levelled
and converted into delightful promenades, with six roads of
entrance intersecting them. The quays which line both
sides of the riv. afford a fine view of the town in all its
length ; and the suburb beyond the old town is diversified
with handsome mansions, villas, and gardens. The num-
ber of houses is about 5900, independently of granaries,
warehouses, mills, manufactories, &c. which, if included,
would make the number of buildings upwards of 7000 ; and
the pop. amounts to about 41,500, of whom about 14,000
are of the reformed religion, 1500 Roman Catholics, and
1000 Jews : the remainder are Lutherans. There are
no open spaces of anv magnitude in the town excepting the
cathedral-yard {domno/h which as well as the market-place
and doms-haide (or cathedral-place), are in the old town.
Several deserted churchyards have been left unoccupied in
both towns for the purpose of affording freer circulation to
the air, and insteaa of them three cemeteries have been
made outside of the city. Among the more remarkable
buildings in Bremen are its 9 churches, of which 5 Pro-
testant and 1 Roman Catholic are in the old town: the
cathedral, a venerable structure in the Gothic style, was
built in 1 160 : its length is 296 ft., breadth 124, and height
1*05. Underneath it is the celebrated bleikeller (or lead
cellar), which derives its name from having been the spot
where the lead for the roof was melted and prepared ; in this
cellar are a number of bodies in a state of mummy-like pre-
servation, which have lain here for upwards of 200 years. The
church of St. Augarius has a steeple of handsome appear-
ance, 324 ft. in height. The old Gothic town-hall, formerly
the archiepiscopal palace, has undergone complete renova-
tion, and the piazzas round it have been thrown open for
public accommodation. Here is the former toMm-hall»
built in 1405, and below it the far-fomed ' Rathsweinkeller
(eoancil*8 wine vault), one section of which, ' tho Rose,'
is said to contain old hock of as remote a vintage as
the year 1624; while another, tlie ' Apostles* Cellar, con-
tains, we are told, Hochheimer and Riidesheimer, made in
the early part of the 18th century, and preserved in a dozen
vats, called the Twelve Apostles. Along one side of this
vault are a number of small apartments, for the convenience
of visiters who wish to regale themselves ; at the extremity
of these apartments is the acoustic-room, a sort of whispering
fdlery. Besides the buildings enumerated there are, the
xchange, with its noble concert and ball-rooms; the
Schiittin^, in which the elders of tho mercantile body hold
their sittmgs ; the Waterworks next the bridge, the great
wheel of which performs 51 revolutions in an hour, and
throws up 1 20 hogsheads of water into a large reservoir at
every revolution ; the Arsenal, Weighing-house, and Gra-
naries; the Museum, erected in 1801, which contains a large
library, collections in natural history, mechanics, the arts, &c.
and lecture and reading-rooms; the two Gymnasia, and
High-school ; the schools for trade and navigation ; the city
Library ; Dr. Olber's Observatory, from which he disco-
vereil the two planets Pallas and Vesta ; the Theatre, and
a variety of private cabinets. There are a number of public
wells in the town. It has nine gates, of which three are in
the new town and six in the old. There are altogether 30
pardchial and elementary schools in Bremen and its depen-
dencies. The principal manufactures carried on as well
without as within the city are those of woollens, leather,
hats, tobacco, (of which there are 90), refined sugar (nine of
the largest class), beer, brandy, and spirits, rape oil, whale-
bone, flour, soap, starch, cables and ropes, cotton-yam, cot-
tons and silks, white lead, &c. No large vessels can pass
up the Weser beyond Braake, an Oldenburg port ; smaller
vessels ascend as high as Vegesack, a port belonging to
Bremen, and forward their cargoes by lighters and boats.
Bremen is a place of great resort for the warehousing and
transit of foreign and German commodities : it possesses a
bank, a discount office, and five Insurance 0)mpanics;
besides an hospital, two Orphan Asylums, where between
300 and 400 orphans are maintained and educated ; three
almshouses for widows ; and many other charitable esta-
blishmento. 53° 4' N. lat, SP 47' £. long.
(T. W. Streits Free Towns; Hassel's Free Hante Town
of Bremen; Oromes Germ. Confed.; Stein and Hurschel-
mannsJfantio/; ^le\ii^ Travels; OJidal Documents, &.e,)
BRENNUS, the latinised form of tlie Celtic brenin, * king.'
Two individuals are known in history by tliis name.
1. The first was the hero of an early Roman legend,
which relates to the migration of the Gauls into Italy and
their march to Clusium and Rome. In the account given
byDiodorus (xiv. 113, &c.) of this singular invasion, tho
name of Brcnnus is not mentioned; in the narrative of
Livy (v. 33, &c.), ho figures as the 'regulus Gallorum,' or
chieftain of the Gaiils. When he arrived at Clusium, the
inhabitants called on tlie Romans for aid. He engaged
with and defeated the Romans on the banks of tho Ania,
the name of which river they ever after held in detestation,
(Virg. Mn. vii. 717). The whole city was afterwards plun-
dered and burnt ; and the capitol would have been taken
but for the bravery of Manlius. At last, induced by famine
and pestilence, the Romans agreed that the Gauls should
receive 1000 lbs. of gold, on the conditu>n that they would
quit Rome and its territory altogether: the barbarian
brought false weights, but his fraud was detected. Tho
tribune Sulpicius exclaimed against the injustice of Bren-
nus, who immediately laid his sword and belt in the scale,
and said * Woe to the vanquished.' The dictator Camillus
arrived with his forces at this critical time* annulled the capi-
tulation, and ordered him to prepare for battle. The Gauls
were defeated ; tlicre was a total slaughter, and not a man
survived to carry home the news of the defeat. The date of
the taking of Rome, assigned by Niebuhr, is the 3rd year
of the 39th Olympiad, B.C. 382 : (see Hist. Rom., vol. ii.
p. 509—567, English Translation.)
2. A king of the Gauls, who (B.C. 879; Clinton, vol. i.
p. 237) made an irruption into Macedonia with a force of
150,000 and 10,000 horse. Proceeding into Greece, he at*
tempted to plunder the temple at Delphi. He engaeed in
many battles, lost many thousand men, and himself re*
ceived many wounds. In despair and mortification, he
called a council of war, and advised the Gauls to kill him
and all the wounded, to bum the waggons, and, returning
home with all speed, to choose Cichorius (or Acichorius —
see FAUSAiiiAs) king. Soon, however, in a fit of intoxica-
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tion, ne killed himself. (Diodoras Sietiltts, xxiL ; F^agm,
p. 300, Bipont. edit.; Pausanias, x. 19-23.)
BRENT GOOSE (zoology). [Goosk.]
BRK'NTA, called hj the Romans Medoacus Major, a riv.
of North Italy, derives its source from two small lakes near
Pergine, in the mountains of the Tyrol, a few miles to the
E. of Trento, Hows E. throuj»h a long and narrow valley
between high mountains, then turns towards the S. at
Primolano, where it enters the Venetian territory. At
Bassano the flrenta issues from the mountains into the
prent Paduan plain. At Limena there proceeds from it a
c-inal called La Brentella, Which joins the Bacbhiglione.
The BreiTta continues its course in a S.E. direction, passing
near Pndna to the N. of it ; it then assumes k course nearly
due E. towards the lagoons of Venice. Near StrA, it re-
ceives a canal from the Bacchiglione, which passes through
Padua. At Dolo, below Stril, a cut was made by the princes
of Carrara, lords of Padua, which carries part of the waters
of the Brenta in a 8. direction for nearly 20 tn. to Brondolo.
at the S. extremity of the Venetian lagoons. This cut is
called Brenta Nuova, The main stream of the Brenta,
however, continuing its course to Fusina, where it entered
the lagoons opposite to Venice, occasioned considerable
mischief by the violence of its current and its frequent
overflowing, to prevent which the Venetians made a second
cut at La Mira, a little below Dolo, which cut runs nearly
parallel to the other, and E. of it, until both streams join
near Brondolo. where they enter the sea. This second
cut is called Brenta Nuovissima. The original bed of the
Brenta, from La Mira to Fusina, was at the same time
embanked and made into a canal with locks, and it took
the name of Brenta Morta, 'the Dead Brenta.* Some call
it also Brenta Magra, 'the Shrunk Brenta.' The com-
munication between Padua and Venice is carried on by
means of this canal, by which the boats from the interior
supply Venice with provisions. (Coronelli Atlante Veneto,)
The banks of the Brenta below Padua hare been long cele-
brated for the number of fine mansions and villas of the
Venetian patricians, which follow each other for several
miles. In the time of Venetian wealth and greatness, the
banks of the Brenta were like a splendid suburb of Venice.
The most remarkable palaces are those of Gio^'aflnelli at
Noventa ; Imperiali, formerly Pisani, at Stri ; and near it,
the palace Tiepolo ; the palace Tron, at Dolo ; the palace
Bembo, at La Mira ; that of Foscari, near Moranzano ; the
palace Foscatini, adorned with paintings by Titian and Paul
Veronese, &c. The country, however, being flat and low, is
unfavourable to landscape eflect A recent traveller (Valfiry,
Voyages en Italie) thinks the banks of the Brenta have
been overpraised ; he considers the arrangement of the plea-
sure grounds too symmetrical, being in the old style of orna-
mental gardening, the trees cut into artificial shapes, &c.
Several of the handsomest palaces have been pulled down
since the fall of the Venetian republic, and there is an air of
decay about most of those that remain. The whole course of
the Brenta. with its numerous windings, is nearly 100 miles.
BRENTFORD, a m. t. of Middlesex, on the N. bank
of the Thames, about 8 m. from the general post-oflice. It
is divided into Old and New Brentford by the riv. Brent,
which rises near Chipping Barnet, on the borders of Mid-
dlesex and Hertfordshire, and, after traversing a large
portion of Middlesex, falls into the Thames in Isleworth
parish. Old Brentford is in the par. of Ealing, Ossnlston
hund. ; New Brentford in the par. of Hanwell, Elthome
himd. In 1831, the pop. of New Brentford was 2,085; of
Old Brentford, including Ealing, 7,783.
Brentford is situated on the great western road leading
from the metropolis. It is a long, straggling, ill-built town.
In the par. of Ealing, the market gardens aiford employ-
ment to many labourers as well as women and children.
The trade of the town is derived from the traffic of the
thorouehfare, and from flour-mills, malting, and brick-
making. There are two annual fairs, held in May and
September, which last three days each, for horses, cattle,
hogs, &c. The market-day is Tuesday.
Brentford has derived some notoriety as having been the
place of county election for members to serve in parliament.
It is considered as the county town, though it possesses no
town-hall nor separate iurisdiction ; it is still the place of
nomination, and one of the polling places for the county.
There was a bridge at Brentford over the riv. Brent from
a very early date. In 1 280 Edward L granted a toll in aid
of this bridge, by vhich all Jews itnd Jewesses passing over'
on horseback were to pay a penny ; thoie on fbot m half-
penny. Other passengers were exempt. Th6 state of t^.t«
bridge was long a cause of complaint, and various alter i
tions were made to adapt it to the increosing number ••!
passengers. In 1824 the* present bridge was built, vih. h
is of stone, of one arch, 34 ft. between the parapets, 50 f»
wide in the water-way under the bridge, and 15 ft fai^*u 1 1
the summit within the arch.
New Brentford church was rebuilt in 1T64. The h\.»\:
is a curacy subordinate to Hanwell, and was at on« tc. •>
held by John Horne Tooke. There are seven daily scho N,
of which two are national, and three Sunday schooN. :
New Brentford ; in Ealing, which includes Old Brent f.
there are 1 7 daily schools, one of which is endowed, ar :
two others are partly endowed ; eight boarding schooK a*. I
four Sunday schools. At Ealing there is a labour-srL... .
for the poorer classes. Some organic remains were dui; . :
in a field near Brentford, of which an MCcoont is given
the 'Phil. Trans.' for 1813. The Grand Junction Ca: .
comes into the Brent a little below Hanwell, and is tin.*
carried to the Thames at Brentford.
In 1616, Edmund Ironside, having obliged the Dar.e^i ?
raise the siege of London, pursued them to Brentford, n* '
defeated them with great slaughter. On the 14th iT N -
vember, 1642, an action occurred between the royalist a: "
parliamentary forces at Brentford, in which the latter w. •»
defeated. Patrick Ruthen, earl of Forth, in Scotland. %^ •
for his services in this action, created, by Charles I., ear'
Brentford, a title which became extinct with him in » ■
In 1689 the title was revived by King William, who gruA.-
to Duke Schomberg ; Schomberg's son, who died in > r ; *
was the last earl of Brentford. Six Protestants suiTere*] . -
the stake in the town of Brentford on 14th July, 15^^.
(L]^-sons' Envirom of London ; Report of Midlh - r
Magistrates on the Bridges of the County^ 1826; Poj. »
lation and Education Pet urns,)
BRENTWOOD. [Essex.]
BRENTI'DES, a family of coleopterous Insert*, \
longing to the section Rhynchophora and sub-8ect:on* 1*
ticomes. Distinguishing characters: — body much v\ -
gated; tarsi with the penultimate joints bilobed ; ante:.:..t
filiform, or in some with the tertninal joint formed mt
club; proboscis projefctinff horizontally, generally Ion?.- :
the male longer than in the female ; palpi minute.
The insects constituting this family are among the n
remarkable of the beetle tribe, and are almost encirelv o -
fined to tropical climates : only one species has ret U • •
discovered in Europe. But little is known of tfie h ^' •
of these insects, except that they are generally f.i.
crawling on trees, or under the bark, and sennet inif^
flowers. The most common colouring of tire species
black, or brown, with red spots and markmgs.
The four principal genera of the bren tides ar« «s ! !
loy9s:—Brentus, Arrhenades, Uioccrus, and Cycfas, T c
genus Brentus is chieHy distinguished by having the sn-
tenme eleven -jointed, either filiform or sometimes sli^l ''r
enlarged towards the apex, jind the body linear.
Brentus Ttmminckii (Kliig), one of the most rcmarka*!
species of the tribe, will give an idea of their general f »r^
it is found in Java, and is of a blackish colour raned ».:'.
red markings, and has deeply-striated elytra.
BreBtai TMnainekM (Kf3f>
In the genus Arrhenodes the rostrum is shoH and t-
minated by two distinct mandibles, which are struisfat s * •
^Toject considerably in the males. The species Uibi>
forth America, and one is (bund in Ei^rope, A^ lio/rVo.
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BRE'SCIA, (the Roman Brixia) the capital of the prov.
of Brescia, is situated in a plain hetween the river Mella
and the naviglio or canal which come« out of the river
Chiese. and joins the Oglio in 45° 32' N. lat. and 10® 13'
£. long. The hills from the N. come close to the town.
•Brescia is nearly square, surrounded hy walls, about four
m. in circuit, and has a castle on a hill which is inclosed
within the walls in the N.E. quarter of the town. The
pop., in 1633, was 34,000 (Serristori Saggio Siathtico),
it is a bustling, lively, well-built t., a bishop's see, and the
residence of the delegate or governor of the province.
Brescia has many fine churches with numerous paintings by
the great masters, principally of the Venetian school. The
rotunda of the old duomo or cathedral is a structure of the
Longobards of the 7th century. The new cathedral is a
splendid building, as well as the churches of Sta. Maria dei
Miracoli, Sta. Maria delle Grazie, del Carmine, La Pace, Sta.
Afra, S. Pietro, &c. They abound in paintings by native
artists, among others by Moretto, a delightful painter, whose
works alone, Lanzi says, are worth a journey to Brescia to
see them. Among the palaces, the town-house called la
Loggia, the episcopal palace» and the palaces Martinengo,
Avogadri, Lecchi, uamjbara, Fenaroli, &c., deserve visiting.
Of tbo galleries of paintings those of Count Lecchi and
Count Tosi are the principal. The public library, founded
by the learned Cardinal Querini, Bishop of Brescia, in the
18th century, has 28,000 volumes. Querini's voluminous
correspondence with D*Aguesseau, Fleurr, Montfaucon,
Dom Calraet, Voltaire, &c. is preser^'ed in the library. The
rich cabinet of medals of the learned Count Mazzuchelli has
been described in the Museum Mazzuchellianum, 2 vols. fol.
Brescia, next to Rome, has most fountains of any town
in Italy. There are 72 public fountains in the streets and
squires, besides some hundreds of private ones. The water
com&«( from the hills in the neighbourhood. Many antient
inscriptions have been found at Brescia, and of late years
the remains of a huiidsome temple have been excavated.
The temple appears to have been raised by Vespasian to
commemorate his victory over the troops of Vitellius near
Cremona. (Tacit. Hist. iii. 27.) Fine marble pillars, sta-
tues, and among the rest a very beautiful bronze statue of
Victory have been found. (Anitchi monumenti nuovamente
scoperti in Brescia iUustrati e delineaii con tavole in rame,
Brescia, 1829.)
The climate of Brescia is healthy, but subject to sudden
storms. Provisions of every kind are abundant, and fish is
brought from the lakes of Garda and Iseo. Science and
literature have been cultivated at Brescia for ages past.
Among the men of learning it has produced, we may mep-
tion Arnaldo da Brescia, the mathematician Tartaglia, two
learned ladies, Veronica Gambara and Laura Fereta, in the
16th century; the naturalist Father Terzi Lana, Mazzu-
chelli, Gagliardi, Corniani, in the 18th, and in the present
century the poet Arici, the archeoologist Dr. Labus, and the
nhilologist and historian Ugoni. The painters Gambara,
Moretto, Vinccnzo called il Bresciano, and others were na-
tives of Brescia. The priest Giuseppe Beccarelli, who had
been for more than twenty years at the head of a large esta-
blishment of education at Brescia, being accused of immo-
rality and heresy, was condemned, in 1710, by the Inquisi-
tion to the galleys, which penalty the Senate of Venice com-
muted into perpetual imprisonment, in which he died. This
was the last act of the Inquisition of Brescia. A copy of
Beccarclli*s interrogatory and other inedited documents con-
cerning the same, are in the possession of Dr. Labus. A
large painting in the town palace represents Beccarelli*s
condemnation. For a full account of the learned men of
Brescia, see Cozzando Idbreria Bresciana,
The Ateneo, or Academy of Sciences and Belles Lettres of
Brescia, publishes yearly its • Commentarii,* or Memoirs.
A weekly journal is published at Brescia, * Giomale della
provincia Bresciana.* There is a handsome theatre, a casino
or assembly-rooms, a large building outside of the town for
the annual fair, and a new camposanto or cemetery, begun in
1815, in which the tombs are placed in rows one above the
other against the walls, after the manner of the antient
columbaria.
Brixia was the chief town of the Cenomani, a GalKc tribe
•aid to have emigrated into Italy with Bellovesus, and to have
settled between the Oglio, the Adige, and the Po. They
were conquered by the Romans under Cornelius Cethegus,
about 200 years b. c, and Brixia became a Roman colory
And afterwards a municipium. After the fall of the empire
it was ravaged by the Gothi, the Hunt, and lastly waa ta .^ ..
by the Longobards, and became one of the principal tau r .
of their kingdom. Desiderius, their last king, was a nat.^ i
of Brescia, where he fouifded the moua»tery of Sl Sui; ^
tore, called afterwards Sta. Giulia« of which hia daughfr*
Ansperga was the first Abbess. A cross, richly oniamtiit« \
with cameos, representing mythological subjects, which « ...«
given by Desiderius to his daughter, is preserved lo u f
library. After the fall of the Longobards, Brescia pa»M.-^
under the Carlovingians : it aflerwa^s submitted to Oib^ s-i
Saxony, who gave it municipal privileges and francbue^ \»\
which it governed itself for nearly three bundled years qd«I< r
its own consuls. It joined the Lombard Lea^ie «gBiuft
Frederic Barbarossa, and afterwards resisted the attacks o(
Frederic II. Being distracted by the factions of the GueIpL«
and Guibelins, it was taken successively by Eocehno t ^c
tyrant of Padua, by the Pallavicini of Piacenxa, the T^^r.
riani of Milan, the Scaligeri of Veroiiat and other fcu«i ).
lords, until it submitted to the Visconti, of whoae }okc ti;c
citizens growing tired gave themselves up to the Venetun*
in 1426. The league of Cambrai took it from V^enkce u.
1509, when it passed under the French, from whom ba\.r.i;
revolted in 1512, it was retaken by storm by Gaston de Faix,
who gave it up to all the horrors of pillage and maisacre. It
was on this occasion that Bayard was Beverely wouudvJ.
Soon after, by the retreat of the Frendk, Venice reoove r.-i
all its possessions, and Brescia among the rest. From th&i
time Brescia remained under the republic till 1797, when a
party of nobles and citizens, dissatisfied with the ScD4ir.
and encouraged and assisted by the French and the M -
lanese, revolted against Venice. Bonaparte annexed Brt. : .i
with Bergamo to the Cisalpine republic. By the pe;^'^
1814 Brescia, with the rest of Lombardy, passed umWr u.
dominion of Austria. (In addition to the authorities cu.^i.
see Nuova Guidaper la Cittd di Brescia, by P. Brogn....
Brescia, 1826.)
BRESLAU, one of the 25 government circles <r..
gierungs-bezirke) of the kingdom of Prussia, incluu^*^ i- -
central districts of the prov. of Silesia, among which voa t
former principality of Breslau, has an area oi about :,.--
sq. m., with a pop. of about 970,000, of which oeArl) v. -
third resides in the 55 towns in the circle: about ti --
eighths are Protestants; and the remainder, with thev'.>
ception of about 8000 Jews, are Roman Catholica. Id i <'• ..
the inh. of the districts composing this circle amounte*: *.
478,560. It is the principal seat of the Silesian manu: - •
tures. Owing to the lofty ranges which separate it f; : «
Bohemia and Moravia, it is very mountainous in the S.,
the rest of the circle is an almost uninterrupted level. Tl ••
parts which lie on the left bank of the Oder are n&tur. .
productive ; but the country on the right bank, being c. -
sandy or wooded, is much less adapted to cultivation. 1
spinning both of liax and cotton yam, and wea\iD£ ..
bleaching of linen, are carried on to a considerable c-vu .
Breslau also manufactures glass, paper, wax, porceUi'.. .
potashes, saltpetre, copper, iron, &c., and produce» J. * ]
iron, tin, copper, and coals. The agricultural part oi t he-
are engaged in breeding horses and cattle, and ffrowins; * .
tobacco, hops, grain, fruit, and vegetables. Mining, i\.
timber, and working stone and wo^, give emplo}iDer.t i •
wise to thousands. Besides the 55 towns, of which the Ir r ^- :
are Breslau, the capital, and next to this, Bricg (about I v \
inh.), Schwiednitz (9000). Glatz (6700), Oela iS40i)h ^'
Frankenstein (5600) ; the circle contains 8 m. t and .:: ■
vils., including isolated farms. In 1818, it oonuined s2 •.
hearths ; but in 1831, 1 18,946. The circle of Breslau hi . .
minor circles, ono of which, also called Breslau, has an ^'. .
of about 302 sq. m., and contains about 130,000 inh.
BRESLAU, a large city and university at the conilu: . .
of the Ohlau and Oder, in a spacious plain, at an ele\ «'
of 452 ft. above the level of the sea, ii not only the ca^ ..
of the circle of this name, but of the prov. of Silesia, ■.
ranks as the third of the royal residence towna. The i*
in which it is situated is skirted at a distance of about .«
to the N. by the Trebnitz mountains, and about 23 m :
the S. by the Zobten mountains, behind which ibe Gl^ :
Schweidnitz, and Giant mountain^ may be seen fr •
Breslau in clear weather. Ttspresent form, an oblpn^ q ^ . ■
dranglc, was given to it by the Emperor Charlea IV^ af u .-
great fire in 1 342. In the centre of the town stands the cr .
market, from which the four main streets branch off t*- i
four principal gates: the suburbs, separated by the Oii
but connected with the city by six large and several siba. . r
Digitized by
B R£
393
B R E
bndgii. an ft oontiaufttion of the iame plan, oompleting the
whole, though denominated the ' Outer Town,* in contra-
distinction to the ilrtt-mentioned, which is called the ' New
Town/ The regularity of their oonstniction, comhined with
the width of the atreeu and the hroad fronts and handjiome
elevation of the houses, gives the town a cheerftil appear-
ance; which is in contrast with the massive and more
sombre aspect of the churches and public buildings. The
suburbs have gained in an architectural point of view by
havinff been recently rebuilt : they were burnt in order to
clear Uie defences of the town when it was besieged in 1 806.
There are three of the suburbs on the same side of the
Oder as the New Town, namely, the * Nicolai* to the W.,
the ' Schweidnitz* to the 8., and the * Ohlau* to the E. ; but
the fortifications which divided them from the New Town
were razed in 1813, and a broad ditch is now interposed
between them. On the N. side of Breslau lie four other
suburbs, separated from it* by the Oiler, namely, the * Sau-
di nsel* and *Dom,* or cathedral suburb, out^e of the
Sand Gate, and the * Oder* and * Barfferwerder ;* the whole
of them are built on two islands formed, by arms of the Oder,
and connected with the New Town by one large bridge
across that riv., and eiffht smaller ones across its arms.
The ditch or canal which divides the New Town from the
Nicolai suburb, is traversed by the ' King*s Bridge,* which
is made of cast iron, in weight about 143 tons, and was
opened on the 18th of October, 1 822 : at each end of it is a
square, that on the Nicolai side opening upon a handsome
street, called * Frederic-William*s Street. The bridges
leading to the Sand and Schweidnitz suburbs have also
handsome squares attached to them. The greater part of
the town is encircled by an agreeable promenade, orna-
mented with trees and shrubs, and bounded by the banks
of the Oder and the canal, as well as relieved by artificial
slopes raised upon three of the old bastions. Among the
numerous improvements made in Breslau of late years, Is
the erection of the Exchange buildings on the * Salzring,*
which is now become one of the most agreeable resorts in
the town, and has changed its name into that of * Bliicher
Square.' A noble monument of bronze was erected here on
the 26th of August, 1 827, in commemoration of Blucher*s
victory on the Katzbach and of the Prussian army which sup-
ported him. The statue of Bliicher is raised upon a pedestal
of granite, bearing on its front accent the words * With
God s aid, for our King and Country.* On one of the sides
of the substructure on which the pedestal rests is also in-
scribed * The peonle of Silesia to Field-Marshal Bliicher
and the Army.' The statue and its substructure are 26^ ft.
in height, and the statue without the plinth 10 ft. 3 inches.
Breslau contains 32 churches and 1 synagogue. The cathe-
dral church, said to have been built between the years 1148
and 1170, is highly decorated in the interior, and contains 1 7
Bitle chapels. The ' Church of the Holy Cross,' erected by
Henry iV., duke of Silesia, in 1288, is in the shape of a
cross, and stands upon a subterranean church of precisely the
same shape and dimensions, which the same prince, whose
remains were deposited in the upper church, constructed in
honour of St. Bartholomew. Among the finest churches
are also the church of St Mary, on the Sand Island, begun
in 1330; St Dorothea's, the loiViest church in Breslau,
founded by the Emperor Charles IV. in 1350; and the
chief Protestant church, called St Elizabeth's, in which the
first sermon nreached by a Protestant minister in this town
was deliverea on the 23rd of April, 1525. The present
steeple of this last church was erected in 1534, and is about
350 a. in height
The royal or public buildings of the town are about 240 in
number. The * guildhall' was probably erected in the eariy
part of the fourteenth century, and is noted for its apart-
ment called the 'princes' hall,' where the princes or national
diets formerly held their sittings. It is situated on the Pa-
rade, the finest square in Breslau, nearly in the centre of
which is the city weighing-house, a building in shape like a
tower, erected in 1571. Amons the other public build-
ings are the ' royal government house,' or palace, built by
Frederic the Great, at the close of the Seven-years* war ;
the courts ofiustice ; the public library in the Sand suburb;
the Roman Catholic gymnasium ; the episcopal palace near
the cathedral; the arsenal; the burg, once an imperial
palace, afterwards a college of the Jesuits, and now the
property of the university ; and the handsome range of
buildings called * the university building/ The university
vaa founded by Leopold I., in 1702, for the two faculties of
divinity and philosophy.* Two more, for law and medicine,
were added in 1811, when the university of Frank fort on
the Oder was incorporated with it. Thb library contains
upwards of 100,000 volumes. Besides a picture-gallery of
700 paintings, the university has a botanical garden, an ob-
servatory, museums of anatoniy, natural history, and antiqui-
ties, a clinical hospital, &c. Between the year 1 826 and the
present time, the number of students has increased from
993 to upwards of 1200. The Protestants have three gym-
nasia here, besides a superior kind of civic school and a
seminary for teachers ; the Catholics, a royal gymnasium, a
school for teachers, the ' Alumnat,' which is an establish-
ment for maintaining and educating candidates for the
church, and ten other schools, &c. The Jews have a f^ood
school, founded here in 1 790, and another of an inferior
kind. Breslau likewise possesses a provincial school of arts,
where mechanics are taught drawing and modelling; a
school of architecture ; an obstetric institution ; an asylum
for the support and education of oflScers' daughters ; a school
for the working class (Gewerbschule) ; a refuge and school
for the deaf and dumb, and another for the blind ; a Sunday
school ; 30 elementary schools ; a Bible society, with three
auxiliary establishments in the circle ; a Silesian society for
promoting objects of public usefulness (vaterldndischer
Cultur), founded in 1803, and divided into sections for an-
tiquities and art, history, medicine, natural history and phi-
losophv, rural and public economy, and pedago^c ; a society
for Silesian history and antiquities; 14 public libraries;
five museums of coins, &c. ; five public collections of works
of art ; several hospitals and infirmaries ; an hospital for
faithful servants, opened in 1820; and* a number of other
charitable institutions. The value of the property held for
benevolent purposes is little less than 300,000/., and the
income derived from this source as well as voluntary dona-
tions is upwards of 16,000/. a year. The house for the
reception of the indigent infirm, and the general manage-
inent of the poor throughout the circle, are under the direc-
tion of a board consisting of members chosen out of the
magistracy, clergy, and citizens at large. Each of the 49
minor circles is under the control of five or six elders,
besides a director and adjunct, in respect of all matters con-
nected with the poor. The town is the seat of a royal mint
and bank, and has a royal office for mining productions, a
head department of mines, and other establishments inci-
dental to its character as the centre of provincial govern-
ment There is a theatre and opera-house, and there are
several musical societies, public and private.
The increase in the pop. of Breslau may be seen fiom the
subsequent data: in 1816, the pop. was 68,738; in 1822,
74,922; in 1828, 84,904; and in 1834, 91,615, being an
increase of 401 2 as compared with the year 1832. Of these
91,615, the number of Protestants was 61,330; CaUiolics,
25,192; Jews, 5088; and Greeks, 5. In the same year
(1834) the births amounted to 2944 ; the deaths, which were
more numerous than usual, to 3238 ; and the marriages to
901. At that date also Breslau had 37 places for public
worship; 278 public buildings; 3902 private houses; 270
mills, warehouses, and manufactories; and 1771 stables,
barns, and distinct shops.
There are manufactures of all kinds at Breslau, particu-
larly of gloves, plate and jewellery, silks, woollens, cottons,
linens, and stockings ; and a very extensive trade is carried
on in Silesian pr^ucts and fiibrics, as well as foreign
articles, with the interior no less than with other parts of
PrusL»a, and with Russia, Sec, to which linens and woollens
are exported. The annual value of this trade is estimated
at between 4,000,000/L and 5,000,000/. sterling. The fairs,
of which there are six in the course of the year, are the
largest, with respect to the sale of wools, in the Prussian
dominions ; the fairs for wool however are distinct from the
others, and kept in the early part of June and October. In
the first- mentioned moifth of the year 1 827, the quantity
weighed was 63,371 cwt. There is a regular communica-
tion by water between Breslau and Hambiu-g, conducted by
an association of 100 owners and captains of vessels: the
passage is never more than 32 days.
By the treaty of Breslau, concluded on the 1 Ith of June
1 742, the town, together with the whole of Silesia, was ceded
by Austria to Prussia. Its fortifications, which drew down
upon it the sieges of 1741, 1757» 1760, and 1806, were de
molished in 1813 and 1814. It was tbe birth-place of
C. von Wolf, the mathematician, who died in 1754, and
Garve, who died in 1 798. 51^ 7' N, lat, 1 7^ 4! £. long.
No. 321.
[THB FENNY CYCLOPEDIA.]
Digiti
¥d£vC^Ogl^
B R B
894
B R E
BRESSE, a considerable district included in the former
government of Bourgogne in France, from the main part of
which it was separated by the river Sadne. It was bounded
on the N. by the duchy of Bourgogne and by the Franche
Comt6, on the E. by the district of Bugey, on the 8. b^ the
government of Dauphin^, and on the W. by the Beaujolois
and Lyonnois, and by the principality of Dombes, which
was inclosed on three sides by Bresse. Bresse presents vast
naked plains, very productive in grain of aU kinds : there
are also pools abounding in fish, and much poultry is reared.
Bourg, the chief town, was sometimes distinguished from
other places of the same name by the designation of Bourg
en Bresse. Pop. in 1832, 7826 for the town, 8996 for the
commune. [Bouro en Brkssk.] Bresse is now compre-
hended in the dep. of Ain. The chief riyers are the Ain,
Sadne, and Khdne.
Under the Romans Bresse was inhabited by the Am-
barri, who were kinsmen of the Aedui, the predominant
people of this part of Gaul. In the division of the province
of Gaul under the later Roman emperors, Bresse was in-
cluded in Viennensis. It formed part of the kingdom of the
Burgundians, and was included in that subsequent kingdom
of Bourgogne, the sovereigns of which ascended the impe^
rial throne. The feeble authority which these princes exer-
cised in this extreme point of their dominion enabled the
nobles of the district to acquire considerable power : the chief
of these nobles were the lords of Baug6, Coligny, Thoire,
Villars, &c« Bresse had subsequently its states or local
legislature subordinate to those of Bourgogne. Bresse had
come partly into the hands of the dukes of Savoy, who
ceded it to France by the treaty of 1601, together with
Bugey, in exchange for the marquisate of Saluzzo, &e.
The chief towns of Bresse, with their pop., in 1832,
were as follows : — ^Bourg en Bresse, Montluel, 2588 for the
town, 2927 for the whole comm. ; Pont de Vaux, 2539 for
the town, 3189 for the whole comm. ; Chfttillon (according
to the Diet, Univ. de la France, Paris, 1804), 2179 ; Pont
de Vesle, or Pont de Vevle (according to the same authority),
1364; and Baug^, or &ag6 (according to the same autho-
rity), 810.
The designation Bresse was given also to a ' lieutenance-
g^n6rale' of the government of Bourgogne* which seems to
have included not only Bresse proper, but also Bugey, Val-
romey, and, according to the Map published by the ' Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,* the principality of
Dombes, which other maps assign to the Lyonnois. The
country was in the arch-diocese <^ Lyon.
The name Bresse comes from the name of a forest (Saltus
Brexius, or Brexia), which, about a.d. 1 000, ove^pread the
greater part of this country. {Encyc, Mithod,)
BRESSUIRE, a small town in the dep. of Deux Sevres
in France, deservins: notice only from its rank of chief place
of an arrond. or sub-prefecture. It is on a small stream
which runs into the Argenton, a feeder of the Tbou^, which
falls into the Loire ; and is in 46° 50^ N. lat., and 0° 29^ W.
long. In the war of La Vendue, which ensued upon the
French revolution, Bressnire was almost entirely destroyed.
Before that war it had contained eighty manufacturers of
woven fabrics, besides dyers and fullers ; after the war only
one house and the church remained standing. Since that
period it has revived : serges and cotton goods were made,
and the population rose to 1947. (Diet. Univ. de la France,
Paris, 1 804.) Woollens and linens are made there at present
The arrond. of Bressnire contained, in 1832, 60,826 inhab.
BREST, a town in the dep. of Finist^re, in France, the
capital of an arrond., and well known as one of the great
naval stotions of that kingdom. It lies on the N. side of a
deep bay, called the Road of Brest* land-locked, and entered
by a narrow channel called le Goalet It it about 310 m.
in a straight line W. by S. of Paris, aeoording to Brue's
map of France, and 362 m. by the road through Di«ux,
Alen9on, Mayenne, Laval, and Rennes. By passing how-
ever from Mayenne lo Rennes through Foug^res instead
of through Lava], 14 or 15 m. may be saved. Brest is in
Aif" 24' N. lat and 4** 28^ W. long.
D'Anville would identify Brest with the Brivates Portus
(fipiovdrfis Xiu^) of the geographer Ptolemy, who has
however, if D'Anville*8 hypothesis be correct very much
misplaced it ; for he states that it was between the mouth
of the Liger, Atynp (Loire), and the Herins, *Hp(oc (Vilaine).
D'Anville also considers that this place is mentioned in the
Tlieutldsian Table under the name of Oeioeribaic, or, as be
would correct it, Qeeobricate or brivate; a name which in
iu Celtic signiflMtioni < great harbour or roidtted,' ia lufB-
oiently appropriate to Brest However this may be, there
is no reason to believe it was a place of anv great impnrt-
ance in the Roman time ; and subsequently it appeaurs tu
have sunk into oomplete obscurity.
In the war for the possession of the Duchy of Bretagtip.
between Charles de Blois and Jeftn de Montfort, in ihr
14th century, the castle of Brest is mentioned, and the
contests for its possession indicate that it was a plac« of
strength and importance in a military point of view. Be-
tween 1341 and 1346 it was taken by the partisans of de
Montfort from those of de Blois : and in 1373 it waa defendH
by an Englishman, Robert Knolles, against the attacks iA
the French under Dugoesclin ; the English and Frvnrh
having engaged in the war as the auxiliaries of de Montfo.n
and de Blois respectively. In 1386, de Montfort ha^inir
defeated his competitor and become Duke of Breta^m^.
besieged Brest held bv his former allies the English f vnfa
whom he had now broken), as security for a debt ; but ih<
attack failed, and the town was not restored till 1395. when
it was given up on payment of the money for which tt «a«
held in pledee. Early in the 15th century the Enirh^h
were repulsed in an attempt to force an entrance into Brest
harbour in order to bum some vessels that were lying there
In the war of the League, in the latter part of the 1 6th
century^ Brest was again the object of contest : it wa« sue-
eessfully defended by De Sourdeac, in the interest of Henry
lY., against an attack of the troops of the League; and ir
1597 it was preserved by an opportune tempest from an at-
tack by an overwhelming armament of Spanish ahipaof war.
It was not however till 1 63 i that the real greatness l<
Brest commenced : hitherto it had been a mere fortre^
Cardinal Richelieu, perceiving its capability for an importact
naval station, caused magazines to be built, and fbitifics-
tions to be erected. The favour of Louis XIV. furthe*^
augmented the growth of the place : that monarch esta-
blished the magnificent arsenal. In 1694 Brest was attackc'd
by a combined fleet of English and Dutch vesseK frucs
which a body of troops was landed in the hope of rarr^ir *
the place by a coup-de-main. But the fleet was driven u!*
the coast by a storm, and the troops, deprived of the protec-
tion of the fleet were for the most part cut in pieces. Ge-
neral Tollemache, who commanded the Engli&h land forvciL
^as mortally wounded in the thigh.
The town of Brest is of triangular form ; the aides of tV^
triangle facing the W., N.E. and S.E., respectively. Th«
S.E. side of the triangle lies along the roadsted or bay. TLf
port is formed by the river Penfeld, which, entering th*
town near the northern angle of the walb, passes thnmeh v,
into the roadsted with a winding course, dividing it into t« "^
parts, that on the left bank of the stream being Brr^t
strictly so called, while that on the right bank is known x*
the suburb or quarter of Recouvrance. In Brest jost st
the point where the river falls into the roadsted, placed «i>
as to command the entrance to the port ia the castle, i\ k
importance of which in the middle ages is evident from tlr
particulars contained in the above brief historicai skHrtu
and the strength of which is very much c^iiuf to iu situa-
tion. The whole town is strongly fortified, if e site of u.^
place ia very uneven ; and hence has arisen the division -f
It into the upper and lower towns. So steep is the declxrttv.
that the communication is made in some parts by aean^ ct'
steps, which in wet or firosty weather are rather d«Bgvn*u« .
ana the gardens of some of the houses are oa a level « it::
the fifth story of others. The streets in the upper town arr
winding as well as steep, and improvements there prrtcerd
bnt slowly ; in the lower town they are carried on with doiv
rapidity. In Recouvrance modem houses are rapid>y super
seding the Gothic edifices of a former day. Brest bad, be-
fore the revolution, two par. churches, St Louis io Brv-^t.
and St. Sauveur in Recouvrance. In the most anti«-nt time
Brest seems to have been ineluded in the neighbouring pa*,
of Lambesellec, which is just to the N. of the town, but
its ecclesiastical state and division have undergone man?
changes. The Jesuits had at one time a house here mth a
fine garden. They conducted a seminary for training rha;-
lains for the kings ships ; but before the revolution tl>rT
had been expelled; and in a map now before as (P^r^.
1 779) their house is said to be used ss an hospitaK Tlier.-
were also a eonsiderable establishment of the reformed -r
barefooted Carmelite monks, aCapuehln monastery, ar
several other religious establishments.
Besides the arsenal, established
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Louis XIV.» there «re handsome quays, slips for bttilding,
and ex tensive storehouses, rope-walks, and barracks ; also
a building for the reception of the convicts who are sen-
tenced to the galleys, called Le Bagns, This last-mentioned
building is on the summit of a hill, and large enough for
4000 convicts. The various establishments for the navy
occupy nearly the whole of the port; and the commerce of
Brest is trifling compared with what it might become. It
has been projected to form a harbour for merchant vessels,
by cutting a canal ftom the naval port to the road so as to
make the site of the castle an island. It is considered that
this project, if executed, would supply a great desideratum ;
vis., a considerable mercantile harbour between Nantes and
he Hdvre. Brest has several establishments for the pro-
motion of knowledge, a botanic garden, a marine library,
an observatory, and a museum of natural histoiy. The
pop. in 1832 was 29^60,
The bay or road of Brest is perhaps one of the finest
natural harbours in the world. The passage, Le Chulet^ by
which it is entered is less than a mile in width, but within
there is room for 500 vessels of the line. The road mav be
considered as the SMtuarv of several small streams which
lluw into it, none of which however are of any importance
except the riv. of ChAteaulin, which forms part of the sys-
tem of inland navigation connecting Brest with Nantes.
There are two main arms or branches of the bay, each of
which penetrates several miles inland ; and several smaller
indentations.
Brest is the chief town of an arrond., containing in 1832
156,810 inh.
BRBTAGNB. or according to the English manner of
writing it, BRITTANY, one of the most important of the
prov. into which Fiance was divided before the revolution,
is at present divided into the five dep. of lUe et Vilaine,
Loire Inf^rieure, Cdtes du Nord, Morbihan, and Fintst^re.
Bretagne is situated at the extremity of that part of
France which, jutting out into the sea, forms with the
Spanish coast the Bav of Biscay. On the N. and W. and
S. W. sides it is washed by the sea, and on the B. side, which
is towards the land, it is bounded by Normandie, Maine,
Anjou, and Poitou. The length of the prov. B. and W.,
from opposite the Isle of Ouessant or Ushant to the neigh-
bourhood of Fougeres is about 170 m. ; the greatest breadth
N. and S. from St. Male to the neighbourhood of Mache-
coul 8. of the Loire is about 125 to 130 m. The greatest
dimension that can be taken is from N.W. near Brest to
S.E. 195 m. Bretagne is usually divided into the Haute
or Upper Bretagne, and the Basse or Lower Bretagne.
It ia traversed from E. to W. by the ehain of the Menez
mountains, which entering the prov. from Maine run to-
wards the sea, before reaching which they part into two
branches and enclose the vcoA of Brest The northern
branch, called the Arr6e mountains, terminates in the
headland opposite Ouessant; the southern branch, the
Black mountains, terminates at the Bay of Douarnenez.
The highest point of this langeof the M^nes mountains
is not more than 1300 ft. The coast of Bietagne is of great
length, first extending westward from the mouth of the little
riv. Coutenon (which separates this province from Nor-
mandie) to the headlands opposite the Isle of Ouessant ;
and then running S.E. to the neighbourhood of the Isles of
Boui and Noirmoutier, which belong to Poitou. The N.
coast runs parallel to and not very far from the northern
sUnpe of the M^nez mountains. This coast is very irregu-
lar in its form, being indented by a succession of bays,
those of Cancalle, St. Male, St. Brieuc, &c., between
which the land juts out into headlands. This coast is
skirted by a number of small islands and rocks, as the
Chausey Isle and Les Minquiers, which are some distance
ftom the coast towards the Isle of Jersey ; the Isles of Brehat,
lea Sept lies (the Seven Isles), les Meloines, and the Isle
of Bas. At the western extremity of Bretagne we have the
two deep bays, the Brest Road and the Bay of Douarnenez ;
and off the coast are the Isle of Ouessant (Ushant) and
several smaller ones, as Balance, Beniguet, and the Isle of
Saint or Sein. The S.W. coast has an outline as irregular
as the N. coast The bays of Audieme, Benodet, and
Forest, with the points or headlands of Raz, Penmarcb,
and Trevignon, succeed one another ; these are followed
after an interval of many miles marked only by the outfall of
the riv. Blavet, forming the harbours of TOrient and Port
Louis, by the pen. of Quiberon, by the bay of Morbihan, and
by the embouchures of the Vilaine and the Loire. The isles
along this coast exceed in importance those of the N. coast ;
among them are included Groix and Belle-Ile, with the
several smaller isles of Glenan, Houat, Hoedik, and Dumet.
The rivers of Bretagne rise for the most part in the M^nez
mountains. From the proximity of the mountains to the
northern shore the streams which flow from them on that side
have too short a course to become of magnitude. The princi-
pal streams, enumerating them from E. to W., are the Cou^s-
non, which rises near Fougdres, and after separating Bre-
tagne ftom Normandie, flows into the sea below Pontorson ;
the Ranee, which flows past Dinan, where it becomes navi-
gable, and enters the sea at St Male ; the Trieux, and the
Guer. The space included between the Arr6e mountains
and the Black mountains forms the basin of the Aulne,
which passing Cbdteaulin (where it becomes navigable), and
assuming ftom it the name of the Chdteaulin, falls into the
road of Brest. The rivers which flow from the southern
declivity of the M^nez are for the most part larger than
those above named. The Odet indeed is small, but it is
navigable up to Quimper ; the Blavet, a longer river, is
navigable up to Pontivy, which is 35 m. above its outfall.
The Oust after receiving several tributary streams, falls
into the Vilaine, which, though rising just within the
boundary of Maine, has the greater part of its course in
Bretagne. It flows W. to Rennes, where it beeomes navi-
gable, and then turning to the S.W. passes Redon and
Roche Bernard) and falls into the sea a little below the
latter. Its whole length may be estimated at 1 10 m., and
i the length of its navigation at 70 m. The southern part of
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Bretagne is watered by the Loire and by some of its tribu-
taries, of which the Sevre Nantaise and the Erdre, small
streams but navigable for a short distance, are all that de-
serve mention. Besides the facilities for naTigation which
these rivs. afford, Bretagne has one can. (that of the
Ille and the Ranee), which runs from Rennes to Dinan ;
and a second which runs nearly parallel to the coast, but
several m. inland, from Nantes to Ch&teaulin, whence the
communication is continued by the riv. Aulne or Ch^teaulin
to the road of Brest. There is one lake, that of Grandlieu,
S.W. of Nantes. {Map of France, by the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.)
The soil varies much. In some parts, especially on the
coast, it is very fertile, but there are some vast landes or
heaths in the interior. The produce of com, hemp, and
flax is considerable. According to Expilly ( a.d. 1 762) more
com is raised than can be consumed in the province, and a
considerable quantity is exported. A little wine is grown,
chiefly about Nantes ; the common drink of the people is
cider. When the quantity of wine is greater than usual, it
is converted into brandy. There is much pasture land, and
a considerable number of cattle are raised. The butter,
especially that made in the neighbourhood of Rennes, is
in good repute. The mineral riches of this province consist
of an abundance of lead, also of iron, tin, antimony, and
some silver; marble and coal. For further particulars of
the produce of this province, the reader is referred to the
several departments into which it is now divided.
The pop. of the five depts. into which Bretagne is di-
vided was, in 1832, 2,673,935. Expilly, in his Diction,
( Paris, 1762), gives the pop. at 1 ,660,45 1 . Their origin will
be more particularly noticed in treating of their history.
The language of Lower Bretagne has for its basis that of
the antient Celt», but of more modern form and more
mixed character than the Welsh, which is another branch
from the same stock. In Upper Bretagne French is spoken.
The following extracts from Mrs. C. Stothard's ' Letters
written during a Tour in Normandy, Britanny, and other
parts of France, in 1818,* 4to., 1820, describe the present
condition of the peasantry of this province.
' The Bretons dwell in huts, generally built of mud ;
men, pigs, and children live altc^ther without distinction,
in these cabins of accumulated filth and misery. The
rple are indeed dirty to a loathed excess, and to this may
attributed their unhealthy and even cadaverous aspect.
Their manners arc as wild and savage as their appearance ;
the onlv indication they exhibit of mingling at all with
civilizea creatures is, that whenever they meet you they
bow their heads or take off their hats in token of respect
I could not have supposed it possible that human nature
endured an existence so buried in dirt, till I came into
this province. The common people are apparently in the
very lowest state of poverty. In some parts of Britanny
the men wear a goat-skin dress, and look not unlike
Defoe's description of Robinson Crusoe. The furry part of
this dress is worn outside : it is made with long sleeves, and
falls nearly below the knees. Their long shaggy hair hangs
dishevelled about their shoulders, the nead being covered
by a broad flapped straw or beaver hat. Some (qw of the
Bretons go witnout shoes or stockings ; but the generality
wear sabots (wooden shoes), and thrust straw into them to
prevent the foot being rubbed by the pressure of the wood.
You frequently see the women, both old and young, saun-
tering along the fields with the distaff, employed in spin-
ning off the flax. The girls carry milk upon their heads,
in a vessel of rather an elegant form, somewhat resembling
the common Roman household vessels.' — pp. 195, 196.
* The Breton language appears to me, from the number
of French words I continuallv hear spoken with it, far
more corrupted than the Welsh. I imagine it probably
arises from the people of Britanny holding a freer inter-
course, and having mixed more with the French than the
Welsh formerly did with the English: this may be ac-
counted for, as Britanny is certamly a country easy of
access, nor is it defended or insulated by those banier
mountains that characterize Wales.
' The Bretons do not resemble in countenance either the
Normans or French, nor have they much of the Welsh
character. They are a rude, uncivilized, simple people,
dirty and idle in their habits The women are in-
variably dressed in the particular costume I have already
described.* It differs here and there, but not importantly,
* This description U Dot quoted here.
in some of the districts. Many of the women of Hhe vtrr
poorest kind wear this dress till it becomes so dirty, petcbe^
tattered, and ragged, that you can scarcely trace what it
had originally l^en ; and 1 have seen several ehildreti so
wretch^ly off tor clothing, that they run about almost in a
state of nature. The women who appear tolerably respect-
able, and are dressed decently in their singular coatumew
look florid and healthv; while those attired in the ragged
garments* bear a squalid and meagre aspect — this arises. I
am induced to believe, from the greater dirt and poverty
of the latter class.
*The chestnut abounds in Britanny; there are many
large forests composed entirely of that tree : their produce.
boiled in milk, supplying a means of subsistenoe for the
poor during the greater part of the year. The people eoUect
the chestnuts in sacks, and pile them up within thor cabins *
several famihes are even so needy, that they seldom taste
the luxury of bread ; but these are amongst tne children of
wretchedness in the extreme degree. I am informed that in
the neighbourhood of Brest the Tower orders resort to acorns
as well as chesnuts for food, which have some nutritioas qua-
lities when boiled in milk. The Breton houses (ezeeptiD<
in the towns) are generally built of mud, without order or
convenience. It is absolutely a common thing in Britanny
for men, women, children, and animals, all to sleep to-
gether in the same apartment, upon no other resting-place
than that of the substantial earth, covered with some strav.
We once saw, near Josselin, a man drive into his cabtn s
cow and a horse, followed by a pig, and aiterwatda entering
himself he shut the door.*-— p. 253-255.
* The Bretons inhabit a fine country, capable of render-
ing them prosperous and wealthy, but little eultiTated by
their own exertions ; and they owe their chief aupport to
the abundant forests of chestnut, and the indigenous pro-
ductions of their soil. Vast tracts of country appear over-
grown with wood, in some parts impenetrably thick and
wild; others, where a richly-laden harvest would ampiy
repay the labours of the plough, remain totally neglected.
The Breton grovels on from day to day, and fiom year ia
year> in the same supine idleness and dirt If you chance
to meet a Breton, and ask him why, when there are »
many groves of apple-trees, he does not make cider <lbr the
greater quantity is imported from Normandy), bo will tell
you, his father npv Vi{ go. If you say, why oot giow
more corn? he an^'«w»w, i have garnered chestnata firom a
boy.' — p. 266.
Bretagne possessed before the revolution a loeal legisla-
ture (Les Etat$ Generaux^ States Qeneral), ooee held
every year, but after 1 630 only every two years. Tbe ofder
of the nobles and o^ the clergy formed eonstitneot parts
of these states: the third part, Le THers Etat, ooosisCed of
the deputies of the following places, which may be con-
sidered as antiently of the greatest importance in the pro%.
The pop. is from the returns of 1832.
POPULATION,
Tbw«,
Cum Ml 111
Rennes (on the Vilaine) •
87,340
S9.6S0
Vannes (on the bay of Morbihan)
8,682
I0.3?5
Nantes (on the Loire) .
77,992
87.191
St. Malo (on the sea) • . .
9,701
9,981
Dol (near the sea) . . • •
3,098
3.939
St. Brieux (near tbe sea) « ,
10,420
Quimper (on the Odet)
9,860
St. Pol de I^on (on the sea) . • ,
3.106
6.692
Tr^guier (on the sea)
3.178
La Guerche (near the Seiche, a branch of
the Vilaine) ....
2,100
4.21 J
Fou^res (on the Conesnon)
7,446
r.6rr
H6d6 (between Rennes and Dinan)
Vitr6 (on the Vilaine) .
7,603
8.856
Gu6rande (on the sea)
2.041
8.1S0
Le Croisic (on the sea) . . • ,
2,200
2.2S3
Anceuis (on the Loire)
3,263
3,741
La Roche Bernard (on the Vilaine)
Chateaubriand (on the Cher, a branch of
the Vilaine) ....
3,027
3,709
R^don (on the Vilaine)
3,020
4.504
Mal6troit (on the Oust, a branch of the
Vilaine)
1,687
1.791
St. Gildas de Rhuys (on the sea)
Auray (on the Auray, near the sea) .
3,734
Hennebon (on the Blavet) .
3,360
4A7:
Pontivy (on the Blavet)
4,IU
6,9d6
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POPULATION.
Tmtn.
3.866
4,390
5.275
2.271
2,485
8.044
1.796
2,050
3.905
7.797
5,196
6,100
4,293
1,670
29,860
14,396
4.851
2.654
1,939
2.404
4,933
9.596
5,371
18,322
Quimperl6 (on the Avon, near the tea)
Lainballe (between St. Brieux and Dinan)
PKSermel (near the Due, a branch of the
Oust)
JosscHn (on the Oust)
Montfort (on the Meu, a hranch of the
Vilaine)
Dinan (on the Ranee)
Concarneau (between Quimper and
(juimperl^
Carhaix (on the Hidrc, a branch of the
Aulne)
Lesneven (between Brest and St. Pol de
L6on) ....
Landerneau (near Brest)
Morlaix (near the sea) , • .
Lannion (near the sea) . • •
Guingamp (on the Trieux) .
Quintin (near St. Brieux) . •
Moncontour (between Laniballe and
Pontivy)
Brest (on the road of Brest) .
Lorient (on the Blavet, near the sea)
For an account of the more important of these towns the
reader is referred to their respective articles ; for the others
to the dep. in which they are situated.
The staple manufacture of Bretagne is linen and hempen
cloth of all degrees of fineness : there is a great deal made
of a half-bleached linen called blanchard, of medium fine*
ness, exported to hot countries. The articles of superior
fineness and excellence are exported to Spain, South Ame-
rica* and the French colonies. The people of the coast are
much employed in fishing: the sardine or pilchard, the
mackerel and the cod, are the fish most taken. That part
of the coast which is near the mouth of the Loire has some
salt marshes, in which a considerable quantity of salt is
made. (Malte Brun, Expilly, Encye. Method,)
History of Bretagne, Celtic and Roman pmod«.—> Bre-
tagne was an early seat of the druidical superstition, and
contains some vast monuments at Carnac and elsewhere,
which tradition represents as consecrated to the purposes of
this antient reUgion. Invasions of Bretagne from the British
iils. or of the isls. from Bretagne, figure in the accounts of
the early historians, or the tnuiitions of antient times : hut
little or nothing certain seems to have been known before
the time of Ceesar's invasion of Gaul.
At that time the states along the coast from the Seine to
the Loire had the general epithet of Armorica^ a name
which the most probable etymology explains to mean
' maritime,* from the Celtic words Ar Mor, * on the sea.'*
Of these Axmorican states the Rhedones. the Curiosolites
(Cesar), or Cariosuelites (Pliny), the Osismii, Corisopiti
(not mentioned, so far as we know, by Cassar), and the
Yeneti, were included in Bretagne. Among the Armori-
can states mentioned by Ceesar are the Lemovices (de B. (}.,
vii. c. 75.) ; but as a people of the same name, whose
situation (the Limousin) was not maritime had been pre-
viously enumerated, some persons (M. de Valois and
others) have suggested that the original reading was Leo-
nenses, and that the people dwelt in the country near St
Pol de L^on. D'Anville amends the conjecture by sub-
stituting Leonnices for Leonenses ; and if this be adopted
we must add this people to those included in Bretagne.
The remainder of the Armorican states were beyond the
frontier of Bretagne, chiefly in Lower Normandie. The
Namnetes, who are not enumerated among the Armorican
states, were included in Bretagne, which also comprehended
part of the territory of the Pictones (the people of Poitou),
acquired by the dukes of Bretagne at a subseouent period.
The names of these antient people, embodied in the names
of tUeir chief towns or other places, have been transmitted
to the present day : thus we trace the Rhedones in Rennes,
and perhaps in R^on ; the Curios<^ite8 in Corseult, between
Dinan and Lamballe ; the Veneti in Vannes ; the Nam-
netes in Nantes ; and the Leonnices or Leonenses, if we
adopt the conjecture of M. D*Anville or M. de Valois in
St. Pol de L^on.
In the second year of Csesar's command in Gaul he sent
* Tba SUTome words IV Mor have a liallar maanlDg; wltonoe tha Oensan
fart uf I he Baltic ooaat baa Uie name of Pommera, «alled by ths English
omrnuiln. In like manner Uia coast of the Black Sea had anoax the an-
tjflou llM aaiM of PonCtti^ abhr^riatvd from Cappadocin ad Footum.
one of his lieutenants, P. Crassus, with one legion to subdue
the Armorican states ; and so great was the terror of the
Roman arms that they submitted without striking a blow.
But they revolted the next year, having seized the envoys
whom P. Crassus had sent to procure com ; the Veneti
taking the lead in the revolt and instigating the others. The
influence of this state, according to Ceesar, far exceeded that
of any other on this part of the coast, not only because they
had more ships (in which they traded with Britain), and
greater knowledge and experience in naval affairs, but also
because their possession of the few harbours which lined
the coast of the wide and tempestuous ocean enabled them
to exact tribute from those who fVequented that sea. CsBsar
acted with his usual vigour. He ordered a fleet to be built
on the Loire, and manned with seamen from the coasts of
the Mediterranean ; he despatched his lieutenants into
different parts to check those who might be inclined to aid
his enemies, and to detain them at home for the defence of
their own country. He himself marched into the country
of the Veneti, who trusting to the difiiculties which would
impede his march, to the scarcity of provision, and to the
ignorance of the Romansof their coast, fortified their towns,
collected into them the com that was out in the country,
allied themselves with other states as far off as the Morini
and Menapii (people of Picardie and the Netherlands), sent
for aid over into Britain, and prepared for a stout resistance.
Csesar describes their vessels as having flatter bottoms than
the Roman, and as being thus better adapted for a coast
abounding with rocks and shallows, while the height of tho
prow and stern enabled them to withstand the violence of
the tempests, and the general strength with which they
were built secured them from being much injured by the
beaks of the Roman ships. Their sails were of hides, which
they used either for their strength or because they knew not
the art of manufacturing linen cloth. Their fleet consisted
of 22.0 vessels. Caesar stormed their towns, defeated their
navy in a great battle, and forced them to submit. To
punish them for violating the law of nations by detaining
the Roman envoys, he put all their senate to death, and sold
the rest of the people into slaveiy.
In the general rising of the Gauls, towards the close of
CiBsar's command, when the different states sent their
respective contingents to the force destined to'raise the siege
of Alesia, the whole of the Armorican states contributed
but 6000 men ; and this appears to have been the last effort
they made for independence while CsDsar was in Gaul.
During the continuance of the Roman government we hear
little of them. One or two revolts served to show either
Uieir unsubdued love of freedom, or the intolerable yoke to
which they had been forced to succumb : but these revolts
were unsuccessful, and only riveted faster the chains they
were intended to burst. In the subdivision of Gaul, Bre-
tagne formed part of the prov. Lugdunensie Tertia,
It was towards the close of the Roman dominion that those
immigrations from the isl. of Britain are said to have com-
menced to which this prov. owes many of its pecuUarities.
In 284 some Britons, harassed by the piracies of the Sax-
ons and other Grermans, forsook their native land and settled
in Armorica, where the Emperor Constantius Chlorus gave
them lands. A similar emigration is said to have taken
place in the year 364. These emigrations were however
unimportant m their character and influence, unless we
suppose that from them the prov. or some portions of it *
received the name of Britannia, which is given to it by
Sulpitius Severus before any subsequent invasion had taken
place. (Carte, Hist, England, vol. i. p. 6.) The next settle-
ment, that which took place under the usurper Maximus,
has been the subject of much dispute. Those writers who
have engaged in the controversy have had political interests
to serve ; tne native Bretons contending for their provincial
privileges, other writers contending against them on behalf
of the crown, and each conceiving that the success of their
cause depended on their proving or disproving the indepen-
dence of the early Breton princes of the crown of France.
The account which has been received by Dara (Histoire
de Bretagne, 3 tom. 8vo., Paris, 1826), though contested by
many, and among others by Gibbon (Decline and Fall, ch.
xxxviii. note 136). Turner (Hist, Anglo-Sax,, c. viii.) and
Vertot (Histoire Critique de rEtabfissement dee Bretons
dans les Gaules), is as follows : — When Maximus, in the
year 363, was chosen emperor by the revolted legions of
Britain, and passed over into Graul to dethrone Gratian, who
then shared the Western empire with his younger Inother
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Valentmian !!•» b« t«))^ witl^ him i^ O0D8id«tab1« ibroe of
native IBri^ans. Thus much is admitted on all hands ; i|
is the following pact which if disputed. The oommander
of these auxiliaries was Conan, a British prince. Maximus
landed with his troops near the mouth of the Ranee, de-
feated with great slaughter the army of Gratian at Aleth,
now Quidallet, near St. Senran, took Reqnes and Nantes,
distributed lands to his companions in arm9» and bestowed
the government of iVnnorica upon Conan» whom he sent
back from Paris, to which city he h^d advanced, to take pos-
session of his government. Upon the defeat of Maximus
by Theodosius the Great (a.d. 388), many of bis soldiers
took refuge with Conan, who managed tp retain the govern-
ment which he had received from the usurper, and even
assumed the title of king. When the further decay of the
empire left the remoter provs. in the possession of indepen-
dence, the Armoricans were released from the subjection in
which thev had been held ; and in the year 419 the Romans
recognized as their allies those who had lately been their
subjects. Conan appears to have ruled his spates in peace
and with considerable ability till the year 421, when he died.
Ho is usually designated Conan Meriadec, the latter name
signifying, according to some, * great king.* His successors
are said to have borne the title of king till the time of Alain
IIm in the 7th century, and were engaged in various wars
with the Romans, or with the barbarous nations, Franks,
Alans, and others, who had obtained settlements in Graul.
Their dominions, though the extent of them fluctuated with
circumstances, were for the most part coincident or nearly
so with the modern Bretagne.
In opposition to this history there are writers who deny
that any immigration of the insular Britons into Armonca
took place until the commencement of the 6(h century, when
the pressure of the Saxons forced the unhappy islanders to
abandon their native seats and retire, some to the western
side of the isl., Cornwall, Wales, &c., and others beyond sea
into Armorica. These writers also assert the conquest of
Armorica by Clevis ; and they cite triumphantly a passage
of Gregory of Tours, the earliest of the French historians,
who says, — * Semper Britanni sub Francorum potestate post
obitum regis Clodovei fuerunt, et comites non reges appel-
lati sunt' *The Britons have been always under the power
of the Franks since the death of the king Clovis, and have
been called counts, not kings.* (Greg. Tur., 1. iv. c. 4, quoted
by Vertot and Daru.) But this passage of Gregory when
carefully examined will rather countenance the supposition
of the earlier settlement of the Britons, and of their previous
independence under kings of their own ; for the limiting
expression, * since the death of the king Clovis,* intimates
that antecedently thev were independent of the Franks,
which is hardly probable if they landed as fugitives only a
few years before the death of Clovis, which occurred in
511;* and the notice, that since the same epoch their chiefs
had been ' counts, not kings,* is an intimation that before
that date they had possessed the regal dignity. The whole
passage, although it does not fully bear out the statements
of the Breton writers, is bv no means consistent with the
representations of Vertot and other historians in what may be
called the French interest.
If amidst these conflicting statements we may venture
to give our own conjecture, we should say that the account
given by Daru, though perhaps a distorted representation
of facts, is not without foundation. It is likely that the
British troops, who had followed Maximus into Gaul in 383,
were settled by that usurper in Armorica, and were allowed,
by i\\e ffenerosity or policy of Theodosius, to retain Uieir
lands aller the defeat of Maximus. A colony of this kind
was much more likely to influence the language and
customs of the district in which they settled, than a number
of miserable exiles escaping from the pressure of barbarian
invaders, and finding their way as they could to a place of
refuge in a foreign land. This inftision of a military popu-
lation serves also to account for the rise of a free state in
Armorica, upon the decay of the Roman power, while the
rest of Gaul tamely bowed to the yoke either of their
Roman masters or their barbarian in^^ders. The reality of
Conan's existence we see no just reason to doubt; and
without plaoiiig implicit credence in the lists which the
Breton writers furnish, we are led by the language of
• SonvB anlient chronicle* pUee the flight of tboM Britons into Armorica.
who^-ere expelWi by Uie Saxons, after the death of Clovis (see Vertot. voL I
p. 8S). which ia liliely enough, for the pressure of the Saxons could hardly have
been rery grvat before that time. If so. the BriUani of Gregory of Tonre
most hare been eome who had settled at aa earlier period.
Gvegory of Tonn, and by other testimony brouKhl forward
by Daru, to admit that several succeeding chieftains, ar.d
perhaps Conan himself, took the title of king. The exprK»«
testimony of Gregory must be admitted as sufficient to
establish the subjection of Bretagne to Clovia, thoui^fa it n
likely that it was not incorporated with the kingdom of tL«;
Franks, and that it retained its laws and e\'eQ its natne
princes, though with a subordinate title.
There seems reason to think that in the confusion whii b
marked the continuance of the Merovingian dynasty. th«
Bretons recovered a precarious independence, and tb^tr
princes re-assumed the title of kings, though their domin:. r.«
and authority were contracted by the usurpation of i..«>
nobles.* This has probably led to the supposition that iw
regal dignity was never in abeyance, with Alain 11^
A.D. 690, as noticed above, the title ceased ; and BreUtrr^f.
divided into a number of principalities, became again »l:>-
ject to the Franks, about a.d. 800, during the retfrn ui
Charlemagne, whose predecessors had nrobably made m^n)
encroachments. In the troubles of the follow in i^ per: m[
the kingdom of Bretagne was once more re\nrd \\
Nomeno6 (a.d. 824-851), who bad been nominated go\cm V
of Vannes, by Louis le Debonnaire, son and 8ucce«»or (j
Charlemagne, and had revolted from Charles le Cboure.
Brispoe, the son of Nomeno^, a.d. 851-857, acknovled^rt -i
the supremacy of Charles, but maintained his kinaU t.:.>-.
Civil dissensions among the Bretons themselves Ifd'to tt <
extinction of this kingdom, a.d. 874. The country ^^.
divided into the counties of Rennes, Vannes, Comousfc. e
(Cornwall), and other portions; and civil diseonl U-tv^rr
the rulers of the petty states thus formed conspired viui tl •
invasion of the Northmen or Normans to afflict the ouuotn
The kings of France claimed too a kind of sovereign t> ot-r
the kings or other rulers of Bretagne, similar pcrfaap* :•
those which the kings of Bngland claimed over the pr.nrrt
of Scotland and Wales ; but it is uncertain if this right at-
tended over the whole of Bretagne or over a part aU
This right of sovereignty was conveyed to the Nortl.c* .
by Charles the Simple, when he ceded to them the conr :r.
afterwards known as Normandie, a.d. 912. The duko •
Normandie thus became the feudal superiors of the nil«-r>
of Bretagne, and themselves did homage for this pnn ■ ^
as well Qs for Normandie to the kings of France. Tt .*
cession was the cause of long and bloody wars between i. <
people of the two provinces, for the Bretons stnig]gled fierr. «
against the barbarians, to whose supremacy they were ti .•
arbitrarily consigned. They seem however at last to L:.\'
acknowledged the dukes of Normandie as suserains.
The ibllowing periods present little else than a confute J
series of wars, assassinations, and other violences prf«
trated by the turbulent nobles among whom Bretagne «" .«
divided, aided by the neighbouring chiefs, the euunt« (
Anjou and the dukes of Normandie. In 993, Oe\41: .
count of Rennes, assumed the title of duke of Bretair^'
Alain, his son, second duke of Bretagne, was, from tl.c y > j
1035 to his death in 1040, the faithful guardian of die ch :
hood of William the Bastard (afterwai-ds ike Ctmqurr .
duke of Normandie. Several Breton lords accoropi.^
William into England, a.d. 1066: one of f be«e. A
count of PentbiSvre, built the castle and town of Richm* r. .
on the Swale, in Yorkshire, on the lands granted htm .
the Conqueror : this grant gave to a junior branch or t/
reigning house of Bretagne, at a period long sufafteqt:<- t.
the title of Count of Richemont. Yet the Saxon nnbi*«.
who fled from England on the conquest of that island : .
the Normans, found an asylum with the then reigning •>. •£
of Bretagne. Alarmed by the progress of the Nrrrr.-
power, the kings of France and the dukes of Bretagne nmt: •
rally formed an alliance ibr their mutual supfwrt. W n
Fergent, duke of Bretagne, obtained some advantao- i
• Possibly their lodeModeoee was newt feeoKontd bytteFtuakk.
woids of Eginlianl, soD-iQ-law and chanoellw of CbsriraafBv. w. -'Ui
l>ulus. a regibus FraDcorum suUactiis ac tributarioa fiictus. inp*. *%--s
vectii(Kl lic«l ioTitus sohere aolebat'— Add Efinhard, a<l aan. 7W. q j>— « •
Vertot. vol. L p. 46. * ThU people/ he refers to the BvttaM «bo h«S. ftco <- «
to his aecouDt, settled in Gaul ou the invatioo of Briuia hy Ok<> :^.i.
* harioff been subdued by Uic kini^s of the Franks, aod reiMtece^ !> I- • .
paid, though unwiUtngly. the tribnto impoeed upoa thvoL* 1% ^> ^
served here, that the terms ' subactos' aod 'thbutartus factiu is -1%
previous indeiicndf nee of these Bretons, a fnet baniU coosisletit «.t
settlrmenl for the first Ume in the reign or afWr the denlh of I'lovK. •.>!
subjugation by thut prince or his immediate snceeMora k.tUtA^j «
pres!«ion 'licet invitus' also implies a disposition, and indi^^d as a.'t> -a i «
withdraw themselves flW)m the yoke. All the eeidence lea«ls «s B» Wie-
the Bretons, whether under re«il (overomeut or not paid tnbia«> «^- -
strong Ftankish gorernment obliged them to it, bat itteaed h wW« t.v
Fkanks were wmkened by diviaioii, elvU diMradtr^othtr mmm.
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- -^^^ '" ■ ^^ _; ..)w
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: '■ -— J- ■;^- ' "■ 1514,
"*"--■ *^ **"^ ' ~ ;^ a few
- - -3" ■ ■ — T- r.Tz -■ _ - -iptive
= -' ^ alh of
1' -^■"^" T .- T - I; and
'\ z- ^ - ' _ . _ »' rights
- --* - - — ~ iiowever
' ^ "• - — - - ~- _ '_ . -14. that
- _r*-~" ' .011 took
^■' — - — * - — — - _- _ j)rospec-
• ■ "^ ^ ' -" -^ ^ '-' ' '--"- son the
■ " ^ - — - —" - ^^ -- country;
-^ '■- ' ^^ ^ " _ " - - ~ uvocably
_ -^ - ~- — 1-^-_ - . -. . - — UUtory of
"' — ' ~ -~ ^" - _ . — — ^ the re-
- ^^" "— =^" lie notice.
- -■"_ * - -^^^^ - ■ -^ — aimantsto
-_ -■ ^^ — " "~ — the grand-
-_ - - - — . - — — 11 the duke
""^ *^^ -~ .lious house
^^-' - '- "- ' - - ent though
'"-=—" • - IS and Pen-
■ "~~" " ' " — - .ominated by
^=^ ' — )k advantage
— - - — I 'the league/
" ■ - o assassination
— - '^ - -. 7 into open revolt
- ■ ' - ~ . r ; Rennes was
*'"--" " - - - — ihe inhabitants;
- -- ■ - - > power; and the
- -' ^ - ■ - -r- : ^ede him in the
^ " ' = - on his road« He
' ' ^ — s carried on with
Dombes. who com-
" ~ iiuds landed to sup-
- " - - . - ~ lie to Uie aid of the
'' -■- " iistated by partisan
cd by the approach of
'"-• - ough the intercession
_ - - : - - _ stress, made an advan-
-- ■* - i»le sums of money and
' " "' > - his government and his
- - — ^ ^ is expedition to Bretagne
- --^--i vd edict of Nantes, 13th
• — - -ii^ (Bretagne ceases to possess
> ▼ .• - wpletely a province of France,
• ": - . existence (except always the
r,L^ -' t language), which diminished
■ ^ r- jt ■ ,> been quite obliterated in the
_'•-■•'•• .y the French Revolution. (Dam,
A- Capb Brbton.]
'•''' — - - - _ ' .R, the son of a peasant, was bom
- ""^^ *- - - u the neighbourhood of Bred a. He
'••>'<•'*:•-«. ^ icr Koek of Aalst (A lost), whose
' = • -^ - . itly married. Having learned paint-
• • ' - ^-- -i . r, he travelled into France and Italy.
':*=., .s by the way, particularly among the
Italy, he fixed his residence at Antwerp,
'^ ' 1 into the academy of that city in 1551.
^ ' tor a long time with a miktress, whom he
^ Lirried, but for a habit she had of lying;
«^ ■ , used him, that he transferred bis affections
er of his old master, now dead, and obtained
>n condition of residing at Brussels, where she
e painting a view on tne canal which commu-
V the Scheldt, by order of the magistrates of
' was seized with his last illness. As he lay on
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A second attack upon Hennebon marked the year 1342.
Before the end of ihe year the countess of Montfort crossed
the sea into England to beg further succours, and was re-
turning with a fleet of 46 vessels, when near Guernsey she
fell in with a French fleet of 22 great ships manned with
Genoese seamen, and having on board 1000 men at arms
uuder the orders of Charles de Blois himself. The battle
was terminated by a tempest which separated the fleets, but
four English ships were taken. The countess landed with
her reinforcements, and the kings of England and France
arrived in Bretagne with hostile forces ; but early in the
year 1343 a suspension of arms between the two potentates
was agreed on, and the Bretons alone, with some merce-
naries, were left to carry on the war. In 1344 the Montfort
party was strengthened by the severity of the king of France,
who, without form of trial, put to death a Breton lord, Olivier
de Clisson, on a charge of traitorously forming an alliance
with England. The widow of Clisson, on hearing of this,
gathered some troops, surprised a castle held by the friends
of C&arles de Blois, and distinguished herself by her ex-
ploits in a war in which, more than in any other, women
emulated the warlike fame and courage of men.
In 1345 Jean de Montfort managed to escape from the
Louvre, after a confinement of three years. He landed in
England, did homage to Edward as his suzerain, obtained
aid and returned to Bretagne. He died however shortly
after, and the rights of his son, a mere child, were bravely
sustained by the Countess Jeanne.
In 1347 Charles de Blois, who had besieged Roche
Dcrrien near Treguier, was surprised and taken prisoner by
an inferior body of English troops. His wife, Jeanne de
Penthievre, sustained his cause with a valour coual to that
of the countess of Montfort, and the hatred of tne Bretons
for the English induced many of them to embrace her
party. In 1356 Charles recovered his liberty by ransom,
and renewed the war* which was carried on for seven years
longer, during which no decisive action took place. In
1363 the young count de Montfort attained his majority,
and did homage for the duchy of Bretagne to his powerful
protector the king of England. In 1363 Charles de Blois
and Jean de Montfort signed a treaty by which Bretagne
was to be divided into two parts, having Rennes and Nantes
for their respective capitals ; but the reproaches of his wife,
Jeanne of Penthievre, who told him that she had married
him to defend her inheritance, not to yield up half of it, de-
termined Charles to break it. The following year witnessed
the decisive battle of Aurai, in which Montfort, Chandos,
and Olivier de Clisson overthrew the army of Charles de
Blois, though he was aided by the bravery and skill of the
celebrated Bertrand Duguesclin. Charles de Blois himself
fell in the action, and the treaty of Guerande in 1365 se-
cured the duchy of Bretagne to the house of Montfort.
Although Jean de Montfort (Jean IV.) had no compe-
titor for the duchy, his possession of it was neither quiet
nor uninterrupted. His own violent disposition precluded
repose. The course pointed out to him by the gratitude
due to England for past services and his present duty of
fidelity to > ranee was neutrality ; but the duke went beyond
this : he formed an alliance with the English, which neces>
sarily drew down upon him the hostility of France, while
his liberality to the English individually disgusted the
barons, and the admission of English garrisons alienated the
towns of his duchy. He quarrelled with Clisson, who soon
after left his service for that of the French king. A French
army under Duguesclin, now constable of France, himself a
Breton, entered Bretagne (a.i^. 1370), and the duke, aban-
doned bv his subjects, was obliged to take refuge in Eng-
land. In 1373 ho returned, but not finding any support,
again retired to England. The ambition of Charles V. of
France brought about his restoration : that prince procured
the confiscation of the duchy (a.d. 1378) by a sentence of'
the court of peers, and vioiated all the forms of such pro-
ceedings in his manner of conducting the process. He
further seized upon the duchy himself instead of transfer-
ring it to the next heirs, and attempted to establish the
Giibelle or salt tax. This violation of their independence
aroused the Bretons: the duke, lately the object of general
dislike, was recalled and received with the warmest affection
(A.r. 1380). . He might however soon have incurred another
expulsion through his unwise partiality for the English,
but Charles V., who might have taken advantage of the
^ discontent of the Bretons, was dead ; and Jean made
loe mth the governmeat of bia succ^ssor^ yet a minor, I
in a treaty in which he stipulated to give aid to the French
in the war against the English. Agamst the conditions «f
this treaty he made however a private yet fotma] prrjt««t
(A.D. 1381). The next trouble in which Jean involv^ him>
self was a dispute with the priesthood. He then renewed
his quarrel with Clisson, now constable of FVance, whom lie
trepanned basely under the pretence of friendihtp, aiid
would have put to death (a. d. 1387). He is also strongly
suspected of having instigated Pierre de Craon to attempt
the assassination of the constable in the streets of Par «
(a.d. 1392). The influence of Clisson, who was wounded,
though not mortally in the attempt, would probably hive
led the young King Charles VI. to make war on the duke,
had not the insanity of the king interrupted the design.
Clisson himself waged war against the duke: the content
was furious, and lasted till a.d. 1395, when peaee was coa>
eluded. Jean de Montfort died a.d. 1399.
Jean V., son of the late duke, came to the dacby a minor.
He had been married while yet a child to a daughter ••!
the French K2hg Charles VI., and upon attaining his ma-
jority was involved in that perplexed scene of di8tttrtnnrt>
which marked the reign of the unhappy maniac It wouM
be needless to follow him through tne various chani^ev "f
party, from Armagnac to Bourguignon, from French to
English, to which unsteadiness or perfidy led him« hv whtrb
however he preserved Bretagne ih)m war until the vctr
1425-26, when it was partly ravaged by the duke of (Bed-
ford, regent of France for the English ^ty, wbo w»«
enraged at Jean for having deserted the jSnglish inter^t
for that of the Dauphin. Bretagne derived some advin-
tage from this war, by the settlement of many fkmiliei wbu
left other parts of France to take refuge in this mofe secure
country, and the acquisition of the cloth manufactare whirL
was brought by some Norman emigrants. Two other lo
cidents mark the reign of this duke. In 1420 be was
ensnared and taken prisoner by the count of Penthi^rrw*
and his brothers, princes of the house of Blois, grandsnt «
of that Clisson who had himself been entrapped in a aim;. a;
manner by the late duke. Jean obtained howerer his re-
lease, and the event led in its consequences to the ruin o-
the house of Blois. In 1440 Gilles de Laval, Mar^chal ii
Retz, a principal Breton lord, was condemned for sorc^n-
and selling himself to the devil. Reduced by prodit:a:.i>
to ruin he had sought to recover wealth by alchemy a"
sorcery. He was reproached with the murder of min>
wives whom he had successively married, and of more tl. .1.
a hundred children. He was bunied alive in the pres^^n x
of the duke near Nantes. In the year 1442 Jean V. die*:.
Jean V. was succeeded by his son, Ftanfois I. CiMr«^.
younger brother of this prince, having quarrelled with bn
on the ground of the insufficiency of his inheritance, ^t•
tempted to call in the English. The duke procured the i^i
of some French troops, by whom his brother was aeurc
He wished to bring him to trial before the sutes of Br«
tagne, but not succeeding, he at last had him smothered ir.
prison after a captivity of nearly four yean, a.o. l4-<
When the death of Gilles became known, a cordelier, « t •
had been his confessor, presented himself before the duk«.
and in an awful voice summoned him, on behalf of the dck \
prince, to appear forty days afterwards before the tnbunaJ
of God. The impression made by this prophecy led tD a>
fulfilment; the duke died on the verv day foretold, Ja!^.
1450. The history of his successors, l^ierre II. and Artu:
III., presents no points of interest, save thai Pierrv, wh >
was brother of Francois I. and of Gilles, cauwd the mur-
derers of the latter to be put to death, except Artur d<
Montauban, contriver of the murder, who became a monk.
and died archbishop of Bordeaux ; and that Artorlll.. m{^\
as count of Richemont (Richmond), had served with diamr-
tion in the French army, and had beoome constable of France.
distinguished himself by his seal against soreerem, * Net^r
man,* says his historian, ' hated more bitterly all bcreM«x
and sorcerers and sorceresses than he did ; and clearly tl.^
appeared, for he caused more of them to be bamcd in
France, in Poitou, and in Bretagne than any one else • f
his day.* Pierre II. held the duchy fiom 14601O 1457;
Arthur III. from 1457 to 1458.
The first part of the long ducal reign of Fmn^ts II.
(1458 — 1488) coincided with the reign of the astute Louis
XL, whose desire of repressing the enormous power of Um
great feudal nobles led him into frequent disputes and oor-
tests. In 1465 Fran9ois entered into the eonfederaer t£
the nobles against the king, known by the tUto of * Yke
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league of tbo publie good' (Ligue du him puNic), The I and the new king weie designed to seperate the croem of
Bretons ware too slow in their movements to take part in I France from the ducal coronet of Bretagno» by providing
the battle of Montlh^ryt but they assisted in the blockade that the latter should descend to the second son, or in de*
of Paris, and took Pontoise and Evreux. The duke ror
ceived several concessions from the king in the treaty of St.
Maur which Louis was obliged to sign. The troubles of
France did not cease with this treaty ; hostilities and in-
trigues continued, and Francois distinguished himself by
the faciliw with which he changed sides. This duke was
of a very feeble character, being ruled by his mistress An-
toinette do Magnelais, lady of Villequier ; by his favourite
t)ie lonl of Lescun ; and by his minister Landois, the son of a
tailor at Vitr6. This last, a man of considerable talent and
boldness, provoked, as might be expected, the hatred of
tlie nobility of Bretagne, who at last rose in revolt ; and the
duke was obliged, by the defection of his forces, to give up
the object of tneir hatred to his enemies, a.o. 1484 or 85.
Landois was forthwith tried on many charges, condemned*
and hun^. In 1486 Fran9ois allied himself with Maxi-
milian, king of the Romans, who had married the heiress
(since dead) of the hite duke of Bourgogne ; with the king
and queen of Navacre; the dukes of Lorraine, Orleans
(heir presumptive to the throne of France, and afterwards
Louis XIL), Foix, and others, for mutual protection and
supper^ against the court of France, which was now directed
by Anne, Lady of Beaujeu, daughter of Louis XL, and
i;uardian of her youn^ brother the King €harles Vlil.
This led in 1487 to the mvasion of Breta^e by the French.
Henry VII. of England, who had in his adversity resided
for some time in Bretagne^ did not interfere in time : the
occa:iion seemed favourable for annexing Bretagne to
Fiance, the kin^ of which country laid claim to the duchy,
by virtue of the nghte of the ho^se of Blois^ which Louis XI.
had long since purchased. Nantes was attacked ; but the
invaders were repulsed. In 1488 a battle was fought at
Si. Aubin de Cormier between the French army under La
Tremouillc and the Bretons and their allies, English, Ger-
mans, Gascons, and Spaniards : the latter were defeated
with loss, and the duke of Orl^ns was taken prisoner on
tho field. A treaty was however agreed upon, and Fran9ois
died just after its conclusion, the 7th or 9th Sept, 1488.
Anne, daughter of the late duke, succeeded to the duchy.
Her situation was embarrassing and painful. The mardchal
de Rieux, her guardian, and other powerful persons at the
court, wished her to marry the Sire d'Albret» a Gascon
noble, to whom she was exceedingly averse. Some Eng-
lish and Spanish auxiliaries arrived to defend her against
the hostile designs of France, but she feared that the Eng-
hsh would make themselves masters of her person, and
compel her to marry the Sire d*Albret. To put an end to
these intrigues and annoyances, she gave her hand to the
Archduke Maximilian, to whom she was married by proxy
in 1489. The French wished to dissohre the marriage,
which indeed was never consummated; and in the year
1490 hostilities recommenced between France and Bretagne.
The Sire d'Albret, piqued at his rejection by the young
duchess, put into their hands the important town of
Nantes, wluch he bad surprised ; and the duchess herself
was besieged In Rennea, and reduced to the necessity of
negotiacing. During the negotiations a proposal was made
on the part of the French, listened to by tne Breton leaders,
and fioially carried into effect, that the duchess and the
young king of France, Charles VIII., should reconcile
their discordant claims by marrying. The difficulties of
the prt^ect seemed, great : Anne was already nmrried by
proxy to Maximilian, and Charles was engaged to marry
the same prince's daughter, who had been sent to France,
being yet under the marriageable age. These difficulties
were broken through; the young archduchess was sent
home, Charles and Anne were married, and a dispensation
from the pope then solicited and obtained. This marriage
took place a.d. 1491 ; and by the terms of it the rights of
whichever part)r died first wera to go to the survivor, in de*
fault of lawful issue. The duchess was bound also, if she
survived, to marry only the future king of Franoe or the
heir presumpti\'e, so that the final union of the duchy with
the crown was apparently secured.
In 1498. Charles Vin, died without children; and in
1499, nine months after his decease, Anne married his sue*
eessor, Louis XII., who had cleared the way for this marriage
by unjustly and perfidiously divorcing his former wife Jeanne,
daughter of LouisXIn though she had never abandoned him
in ma troubles. The articles of marriage between Anne
fault of a second son, to a daughter, so as to give to the pro-
vince a sovereign of its own. They had only two children,
daughters ; the elder was promised in marriage to a young
prince of the house of Austria, afterwards celebrated as
the emperor Charles Y., and was to have, as her dower,
Bretagne, Bourgogne, the county of Blois, and several pos-
sessions in Italy. Considerations of a public nature how
ever set aside the marriage; and Louis, to prevent the dis*
memberment of the kingdom, broke the treaties in which
it had been arranf^. The duchess Anne died a.d. 1514,
aged 37 years. Her daughter Claude was married a few
months after to the duke d*AngoulSme, heir presumptive
to the French throne, which he ascended upon the death of
Louis XIL in 1515, under the title of Francois I.; and
shortly afterwards Claude ceded to her husband her rights
over Bretagne during her lifetime. It was not however
till several years after her death, which was in 1524, that
Bretagne was formally united to France : this union took
place, in 1532. It was however little more than prospec-
tive ; for Claude had bequeathed the duchy to her son the
dauphin, who was recognized as sovereign of the country ;
but the act of union provided that it should be inevocaUy
united to the French crown.
We might here terminate our sketch of the history of
Bretagne; but the events which occurred during the re»
iigious wars of the sixteenth century claim some notice.
Notwithstanding the act of union, subsequent claimants to
the duchy appeared in the husbands of two of the grand-
daughters of Francois I., king of France ; and in the duke
of Mercoeur, a brauch of the powerful and ambitious house
of Lorraine, who claimed to represent the antient though
pow almost obsolete claims of the houses of Blois and Pen-
thidvre. The duke had been imprudently nominated by
Henry III. governor of the province, and he took advantage
of his position to raise forces at once to support * the league/
and to sustain his own pretensions. Upon the assassination
of the duke of Guise, Mercosur broke out into open revolt
(about 1588); Nantes declared in his favour; Renneswas
seized by his partisans, but recovered bjr the inhabitants;
the greater part of the province was in his power ; and the
count of Soissons, who was sent to supersede him in tho
government, was taken prisoner by him on his road. He
openly asserted his claims, and war was carried on with
activity between him and the prince of Dombes, who com-
manded the royalists. A body of Spaniards landed to sup-
port the duke ; a body of English came to the aid of the
royalists. Lower Bretagne was devastated by partisan
corps ; and the war was only concluded by the approach of
Henry IV., with whom MercoBur, through the intercession
of Gabrielle d'Estr^es, the kin|^*s mistress, made an advan-
tageous treaty, receiving considerable sums of money and
other benefits, and resigning both his government and his
claims to the duchy. It was in this expedition to Bretagne
that Henry issued the celebrated edict of Nantes, 13th
April, 1598.
Trom this time the history of Bretagne ceases to possesa
any importance. It became completely a province of France,
and the traces of its separate existence (except always the
prevalence of tho Breton language), which diminished
during the monarohv, have been quite obliterated in the
new arrangements induced by the French Revolution. (Darui
Hutoire de Bretagne,}
BRETON, CAPE. [Capb Breton.]
BREUGHEL, PETER, the son of a peasant, was bom
at Breughel, a villaee in the neighbourhood of Breda. He
was placed under Peter Koek of Aalst (Alost), whose
daughter he subsequently married. Having learned paint-
ing under that master* he travelled into France and Italy.
He took many views by the way, particularly among the
Alps.
Returning from Italy, he fixed his residence at Antwerp,
and was admitted into the academy of that city in 1551.
Here he lived for a long time with a mistress, whom he
would have married, but for a habit she had of lying ;
which so displeased him, that he transferred his afiections
to the daughter of his old master, now dead, and obtained
her hand upon condition of residing at Brussels, where she
lived. While painting a view on tne canal which commu-
nicates with the Scheldt, by order of the magistrates of
Brussels, he was seized with his last illness. Aa he lay on
No. 322.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPEDIA.]
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liig d^^tb-bed( b» ordered nuiy of liit paintingft, which
were either satirical or licentious, to be brought before him,
«nd made bis wife bum them in his presence. The dates of
his birth and death are unknown.
• He painted chiefly comic subjects, after the manner of
Jerome Bosche, whom he excelled ; and he has been eon-
*8idezed by many inferior to Teniers alone in that branch
of art His composition has been objected to; but his
drawing is correct and spirited, though not very highly
finished. It was his frequent custom to disguise him-
self and mix with the peasantry, at their festivals and
eames ; and the happiness with which he transferred the
hving actions he thus witnessed to the canvass has been
aptly compared to Moliere's, though in a different kind of
satire. Besides comic subjects, he painted landscapes, and
a few historical pictures* Two sons survived him, John
and Peter.
BREUGHEL, JOHN, was bom at Brussels, about 1589.
According to some accounts he lost his father very young,
and was brought up by his grandmother, the widow of
Peter Koek, from whom he Teamed to paint in distem-
per, and afterwards studied oil-painting under an artist
named Goekindt. The most probable account is, that he
received the first principles of his art from his father, and
the internal evidence of his works tends to confirm the latter
opinion. For some time he confined himself to flower
painting ; but travelling into Italy, he enlarged his style,
and painted landscapes, which he adorned with small
figures, executed with exquisite correctness and beauty.
Many painters availed themselves of his liberality, and
induced him to enrich their pictures with his beautiful little
figures or landscapes ; among them are Steenwick, Van
Baelen, Rotenhamer, Momper, &c. Even Rubens made
use of his skill in more than one picture, in which Rubens
painted the figures, and Breughel the landscapes, flowers,
animals, and even insects.
John Breughel was extremely industrious, as the great
number of his pictures, and the care with which they are
finished, sufficiently attests. Growing rich by his industry,
he cultivated a magnificence in his apparel, and was nick-
named Velvet Breughel, from the material of his dress,
which was a costly stuff. His touch is light and spirited,
his drawing correct, and his finish elaborate. His pictures
ar^ much admired ; although his landscapes are injured by
an exaggerated blueness in the distances. The time of his
death is unknown to the Flemish authors ; M. Felibienbon-
jectures it to have been about 1642. -
Peter, the other son of Peter Breughel, the elder, was the
pupil of Giles Coningsloo. From the diabolical nature of
his favourite subjects he has been sumamed Hellish. HO
did not attain the eminence either of his father or brother.
BREVE, in music, a note double the length of a semi-
breve, and thus formed, HOH, or llssll- The breve (from
brevu, short), which in duration takes twice the time of the
longest note now in ordinary use, was a short, brief note,
three centuries ago, as the term clearly proves. Musicians
have proceeded- bjr degrees till the quarter-demisemiquaver
is become our minimum, being ^ of the breve. Indeed
some have gone so far as so introduce the half-quarter-
demisemiquaver ; and among those who have been guilty
of so monstrous an absurdity, we regret to tnention the
name of Beethoven.
BREVET, in France, denotes any warrant granted by
the sovereign to an individual in order to entitle him to
perform the duty to which it refers. In the British service,
the term is applied to a commission conferring on an officer
a degree of rank immediately above that which he holds in
his particular regiment; without, however, conveyine a
power to receive the corresponding pay. Brevet rank does
not exist in the royal navy, and in the army it neither
descends lower than that of captain, nor ascends above that
of lieutenant-colonel. It is given as the reward of some
particular service which may not be of so important a nature
as tt> deserve an immediate appointment to the ftiU rank : it
however qualifies the officer to succeed to tiiat rank on a
vacancy occurring, in preference to one not holding such
brevet, and whose regimental rank is the same as his own.
In the fifteenth section of the Articles of War it is stated
that an officer having a brevet commission, while serving iij
courts-martial formed of officers drawn from different regi-
ments, or when in garrison, or when joined to a detachment
composed of different corps, takes precedence according to
the rank given him in his brevet, or aceording to the date of
any former oommimion ; but while serving on covrt^-Qi&rtiaU
or with a detachment composed only of his own rewfiment. Ii»
does duty and takes rank according to the date m bis o.^tu-
mission in that regiment. Brevet rank, therefbre; is to i».
oonsidered effectual fbr every military purpose in the army
generally, but of no avail In the regiment to whkh tLe
officer holding it belongs, unless it be wholly or in part
united for a temporary purpose with some other corps. ( S>* ^
SamueFs Hittorieal Account of the BritUh Army, p. 6 1 S. ) ^
Something similar to the brevet rank above oncnl^. I
must have existed in the French service under the o! i
monarchy, for, according to P^re Daniel (torn. ii. p. 21 * an*
927), the colonel-general of the Swiss troops had the p^t^- r
of nominating subaltern officers to the rank of captain % t)v
a certificate, which enabled them to hold that rank witli^^.:
the regular commission. The same author states aUo th.t
if any captain transferred himself from one regiment (>
another, whate^^er might be the date of his commxssion. \ •*
was placed at the bottom of the list in the regiment wh.. \
he entered, without, however, losing his right of aeni<vr.ty
when employed in a detachment composed of troops dra« :i
from several different regiments.
The introduction of brevet rank into the British army, s .
well as that of the half-pay allowance to officers on retir.r.^
from regimental duty, probably took place soon after iL^*
revolution in 1688. But the practice of grantiog. nUu
officers from different regiments are united for partiruhr
purposes, a nominal rank higher than that which is actu:: v
held, appears to have been of older date ; for in the Soldif t
Orammar, which was written in the time of James the Fu^t,
it is stated that the lieutenants of colonels are captains bv
courtesy, and may sit in a court of war (court-martial) z<
•junior captains of the regiments in which they commaL-i
(Grose, Military Antiquitiei, vol. ii.) It was onginally »l: -
posed that both officers holding commissions by brevet a;.:
those on half-pay were subject to military law ; but, in 1 : 4 ?.
when the inclusion of half-pay officers within the sphere *
its control was objected to as an unnecessary extension (
that law, the clause ref^Hng to them in the Mutiny Art
was omitted, and it has never since been inserted }?.
1786 it was decided in Parliament that brevet oflirers vf -.'
subject to the Mutiny Act or Articles of War, but that ha. '•
pay officers were not. (Lord Woodhouselee, Esdoy on ^fl.t'
tary Law, p. 112.) • Brevet command was freauently c>r.-
f^rred on officers during the late war ; but tne cause !:g
longer existing, the practice has declined, and at pre^4f:.i
there are very few officers in the service who hold tLjt
species of rank.
BREVIA'RIUM was used among the Roman writer; r ;
denote a book introduced by Augustus, containing t:u-
accounts of the empire, the enumeration of the military, &.<.
(Sueton. Aug. b. 28.) The design of this breviarium wi<
to explain to the Roman people the manner in wbi<^h iL'^
monies leviM upon them were applied ; not to the eraper r*
private use, but for public purposes. Tiberius laid a^J^
the breviarium, but it was resumed by Caligula. (Suvtcw.
Calig. c. 16.)
BRE'VIARY, or canonieal hours, the name of the dii'.y
service-book of the church of Rome, eonsisting of the offrt^,
of matins, prime, third, sixth, nones, vespers, and the Csis*
plines ; that is, of seven hours, according with the sayinz • f
David, Ps. cxix. 164, 'Seven times a day do I'sraii^*
thee.' *^
The origin of the name is variously accounted fbr: ftmac
deriving it fh)m the little books of psalms and lessons tvn 1
in the choir, collected out of lar^ volumes, which the i*: i
monks carried with them in their jotirneys ; oUiers from tho
shortened service which was used in the papal palace of t' c
Lateran, afterwards brought into general use. Gran(»!a-,
in his * Gommentarius Historicus in RomanumBreTiariun^/
4to. Yen. 1 734, says, ' Breviarium dictum est ouasi Bnri e
Orarium, sive Precum Epitome ;' an explanation cout.ie-
nanced by the circumstance that the name of brevian •^
not older than the year 1080, adopted after the ofBoss whu !:
it contains had been revised and contracted.
In earlier times the designations of this service-book hai
been 'Horso Canonicss,* *Opua Dei,' 'Divinum Officiuni.'
• Collecta,' • Agenda,* • Curaus,* Sec. (Grancolas, nt fxpr,
pp. 4. 5.)
The Breviary originally contained only the Lord*s Pta\rt
and Psalms, to which were subsequently added lessons fr m
the Scriptures. Various additions were afterwards made t ^
the popes Damasus, Leo, Geiasius, Gregory the Great,
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Adrian L, Ongoiy TIU u^ C^'W'T VIL;- and in the
Srogress of time^ in oomplianoe vitn the superstition of the
ay, the legendary lives of the sainU were inserted, full of
ill-attested and ixnprohable Acts. This gave occasion to
many revisions and reformations of the Roman Breviary,
particularly in the eouncils of Trent and Coloflrne, by popes
Gregorv IX., Nicholas III^ Clement VU., Paul III., and
Paul I Y. ; as likewise by some cardinals, and especially by
Cardinal Quignon« who eaiiied the reformation of it the
iarlhest
An additional reason for reforming the Breviary was
found in the cireumstaooe that different churches and
orderA of religious had their several offices, varying from
each other, but stiH under the same name. Grancolas has
separate chapters, de Bcelesiarum Orientalium Breviario —
Distributio Officii apud Gmcoe — de vetenim Occidentis
Ecclesiarum, prscipue vero Mediolanensis Breviario — de
Breviario Bcclesiaiiim Hispantn— Vetus Ecclesie Angli-
can» et Gennanicss Breviarium — de veteri Gallin Eccle-
siarum Breviario, pradpue vero Parisiensts— de Breviario
Monastico, &c.
In England we have Breviaries more particularly appro-
priated to the cathedrals of York and Salisbury : an edition
of the former, printed at York in 1526, is mentioned in
Gough s ' British Topography ;* editions of the latter, printed
at Paris, occur in 1510 and 1536. The Breviary ' in usum
Sarum,' was the service-book principally followed formeriy
in the English churches. But the varietv of fonn, as al-
ready shown, was not confined to Bngland; there was
scarcely a church in the communion of Rome, in France,
Flanders, Spain, Grermany, &e., which had not something
particular, however inconsiderable, in the form and manner
of its Breviary.
Pope Pius v., who adopted the Breviary as decreed by
the council of Trent, ordered all former Breviaries to be laid
aside, by his rescript dated at Rome 7 id. July, 1568,
whether made by bishops, orders of monks, or monasteries.
Clement VIII., in another rescript dated 10th May, 160S,
recognised Pius Vth's aboUtion of the Breviaries as used in
different churehes according to their particular forms of
service, and confirmed the Breviary as fixed in 1 568. Urban
VIII. agun confirmed it under a new revision 25th January,
1631. This last revision, by which the work was brought
nearer to the simplicity of the primitive offices, is at present
the Breviary of the Romish church in general use. It was
published in 1697, under the direction of Ferdinand de
Bergem, bishop of Antwerp, intitled ' Breviarium Roma-
num, ex decreto Sacro-sancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum,
Pii V. Pont Max. jussu editum et Clementis VIIL pri-
roi^, nunc denuo Urbani PP. VIII. autoritata reoognitum,'
fol. Antw. 1697.
The obligation of reading the Breviary eYery day, which
at first was universal, was by degrees limited to the bene-
ficed clergy alone, who are bound to do it on pain of being
guilty of mortal sin, and of refunding their revenues in pro-
portion to their delinquencies in discharging tlus duty.
In addition to Grancolas's work alrndy quoted, and the
rescripts prefixed to the Breviarium of 1697, the reader may
consult Koecherid's ' Bibliotheca Theologis Symbolicas et
Catecheitic», itemane liturgica,* 8vo. Guelpherb., 1751,
p. 747-768, where ne will find a critical account of the edi-
tions of the Breviarium aince 1 549.
BREWING consists in the process of extracting a sac-
charine solution firom grain, and in oonverting that solution
into a fermented and sound spirituous beverage called beer
or ale. This ait, although a perfeetly chemical one in
nearly all its stages, has not until very lately been in-
debted to chemistry for any of the improvements which
have been made in its details. This we may attribute to the
rare occurrence of a practical chemist being engaged in the
operation of brewing. However, we find that within the last
few yean, and even the last few months, very great aeees-
sions have been made, more particularly by the eontinental
chemists, to our knowledge of that primary and important
operation in the prooesa of brewing, the oonversion of starch
into sugar in the maah ton by the action of the newly-dis-
covered principle ealled diastase.
This art is of great antiquity, for we find that the
Germans, in the time of Tacitus, manufactured an intoxi-
cating beverage firom wheat and barley; and Herodotus
Gi. 77), five centuries earlier, says that the Egyptians
made a drink of barley. The Saxons also had varwus
drinks of the same €la»; aome made firon grain, as mum;
others ftom honey, as methe^in ; but in Germany, in partn
cular, they were earlv &mea fbr Iheir beer and ale. The
towns of Lubeck and Rostock stand foremost in the list
for their double beer or Brunswick mum, as it was called, ^t
which places it was manufactured to an enormous extent,
the latter town exporting, about the end of the sixteenth
century, as much as 800,000 barrels. Heavy duties were,
however, levied in this country on these imports, amounting
at last, in the beginning of the reign of Queen Anne, to
the enormous sum of 15«. per barrer. This heavy im-
post, together with the improvement in the breweries of
this country, soon put a stop to the introduction of this
article. Within late yean the manufacture of beer has in-
creased to an amazing extent, and the following sthtement
of the quantity of materials employed in London only, for
one year, will enable the reader to judge of the scale on
which these operations are now carried on. The excise
returns of malt consumed by the metropolitan brewers, for
the year ending October, 1835, was 5,620,264 bushels, or
702,533 quarters, which we may fairly calculate would
require on the average at least 62,728 cwt. of hops, and
yield about 2,800,000 barrels of beer.
The process usually followed by the brewer of the present
day may be divided into eight distinct parts, independent of
the malting : namely, first, the grinding of the malt ; secondly,
the operation of mashing ; thirdly, the boiling ; fourthly, the
cooling; fifthly, the fermentation; sixthly, the cleansing;
seventhly, the racking or vatting ; and eighthly, the fining
or clearing. In considering these various subjects, it will be
better firet to go over the processes in their order, and then
return to the oarticulars of the nrincipal processes, as respects
the heat and precautionary details. &c. In brewing the
various beeri, as ale, porter, and table-beer, three distinct
kinds of malt are employed ; the pale and amber malts, the
brown or blown malt, and the roasted or black malt. The
first of these alone is used for ales ; and for the finer qualities
or higher priced, the malt is dried very pale indeed. This
first nuality of grain gives the saccharine extract; the
second, or blown malt, gives the flavour to porters and
stouts ; and the last variety is used only as a colouring iu
place of the essentia bina or burnt sugar, which used to be
employed for the same purpose, but which is not permitted
by the excise laws. The roasted malt is also sometimes
called patent malt. As the manufacture of these varieties
of malted grain is more properly considered under the article
Malt, it will sufilce for our present purpose to state that
their peculiarities depend entirely upon the different heats
to which they are exposed in drying.
The grain bdng selected, we arrive at the firet stage ot
the operation, the grinding, which is conduoted either by
the cMNumon arrangement dT millstones, or by allowing the
malt to pass between two cylindrical iron rollen, placed
horizontally at a certain distance firom eadi other, with the
space between them regulated by adjusting screws accord-
ing to the size of the grist (crushed or cut malt) required.
Many brewers prefer a fine grist, while others, on the con-
trary, consider tnat a greater extract can be obtained fiiom a
coarse one. Some parties use the millstones in preference
to the rollen; othere like the rollen best; othera again
employ both, using a cireular sieve called a separator,
through which the grist passes from the milli^nes, and
only the grains that may have escaped this operation are
carried to the rollen to be crushed.
The grist being thus prepared is now ready for the pro-
cess of mashing. The mash tun or vessel in which this
operation is carried on is usually of wood, varying in siae
according to the quantitv of malt to be wetted, and having
two or more holes caUed taps in the bottom. From one to
two inches above this bottom is a false bottom or diaphragm
pieroed full of small holes, on which the ground malt is
|daoed ; the hot water is then admitted either above or be-
tween the tme and folse bottom of the mash tun, and the
griat is now to be intimately mixed with the water. For
this pnrpose it is either worked by madiinery consisting of
an horixontal axle aupplied with vertical arms around its
eirenmferenee, and these again having comb-like projeo-
tiona, the whole of wfaidi is made to traverse round the tun ;
or tkkegootU (as the mak is now teehnically called) is worked
up by means of iaatmmenta termed mashing oan, so as to
cause the whole to assume a perfect homogeneous consist-
ence. This bein^ eompleted, the whole is allowed to stand
at rest for a certam time, and the taps are then opened or
•et, as it is termed, at the bottom of tt&emash^un, and the
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infusion or swe^f; wort is allowed to run off into a Tesael
called the undd back, -from whence it is pnmped orother-
wii>e conveyed to the copper for boiling. When the taps
are spent, or when the goods have drained sufficiently so
that very little wort runs from them, the taps are cl(»ed,
and a fresh (juantity of hot water is run on for a second
mash, Brewmjf^ coppers for smaU breweries are generally
open ; bnt in the large establishments dome coppers are
employed, and on the dome of the copper a Tessel is con-
structed called a pan, by which both time and fuel are ma-
terially economised. Cold wort or water is placed in this
vessel at the same time that the boiling is going on in the
closed copper below, the steam from which is also driven
into the pan, so that in the course of the time required for
the wort to boil, the Auid in the pan is raised to the boiling
temperature also. When the whole of the worts are
pumped into the copper the hops are thrown in, and the
boiling then commences. Large coppers are supplied with
an apparatus called a rouser, consisting of a vertical rod of
iron extending to the bottom of the copper, with chains
pending from the horizontal arms which branch off from- it,
and which^ are dragged round the bottom by machinery so
as to prevent the hops from settling down and burning.
When the boiling is complete, the whole contents of the
copper are turned into the hop back or jack back, which is
a large square or oblong vessel of wood or iron, ha\ing
a false bottom for large brewings, and a sieve partition at
the corners for small ones.
As the boiled worts drain from the hops, they are allowed
to run into or are pumped into the coolers. These hops,
when sufficiently dniined, may be again boiled with a second
copper of wort, or with the return wort or table-beer. The
coolers aire large shallow vessels, placed in as open a part of
the brewery as possible, so as to command a free current of
air over the whole of their surface : they may be constructed
of either wood or iron. The latter possesses many advan-
tages from its cleanliness, and the exposure of a large
radiating surface to assist the cooling. There are however
many foolish prejudices against the use of iron coolers. Fans
and blowers are sometimes used to assist the rapidity of this
part of the process. The fans are placed in the middle of
the cooler and whirl round, producing a considerable move-
ment and current ; but where the cooler is large, this whirl-
ing current only affects the surrounding steam, without
causing any fresh admission of atmospheric air: whereas the
blower, which is situated on the outside of the cooler, and
has a wooden pipe with lateral ojienings extending directly
across the wort, is continually forcing f^sh and cold air over
the surface. The blower consists of a light iron paddle-
wheel working with'm a box closed at all parts, except round
the axle of the wheel, at which the cold air enters, and at
the openinsof the wooden pipe through which it is ex-
pelled. When sufficiently cool, the worts are allowed to run
into the fermenting tun. As great injury may arise from
the worts remaining too long in the coolers, more particu-
larly in summer, it becomes necessary to employ artiflcial
means of cooling by refrigerators, the principle of which is
this : a current of cold water flows through a main in one
direction, while the hot wort is made to traverse in the oppo-
site, either in an inclosed pipe within the liquor main, or
around the exterior of the cooling surface. Various appa-
ratus of this kind have been constructed, but those of
Wheeler and Gregory, particularly the latter, are to be pre-
ferred from the facilities of cleaning them.
The next operation, that of fermentation, is carried on in
a vessel oalled a gyle, or fermenting tun, which is either of
a square Or round shape - the latter is preferable on account
of the superior cleanliness, the whole support being on the
outside of the vessel in the hoops, while the square is braced
together in the interior by means of knees and stays at the
corners and bottom, and if of a larger sise by two or three
tiers of iron rods, or tiers which pass through the sides of
the vessel, all of which are liable to become rusted, and accu-
mulate bad yest and dirt. , As soon as the worts begin to
run from the coolers, and when a sufficient quantity is in the
tan, the yeast should he added, being first rendered thin by
some of the wort, so as to be easily miscible when thrown
into the remainder. When the fermentation has arrived at
a certain point of attenuation, that is, when a certain quan-
iU» ^r tiie saccharine matter of the wort has been converted
"^hol or spirit^ it is to be cleansed from the yest ; and
purpose it is either run into smaller vessels, such
or rounds, or the yesty bead is skimmed off from
the tomandihu is repeated at iBtervals ontfl ta« heet is
clean. This operation of skimming is genetmlly oonftned to
the cleanstng of ales. The rounds or easks^iw simplv
filled with the fermentin|g beer, and so anwiged as to be
always kept quite fiiU, with a trough or stillieii to eateh fbe
yest as it works out at the orifice of these TMieliL Great
care must be iakon that these casks ave caraAiliy cleaned
each time of using, partienlariy in the sunmer, when the
yest is so liable to become stale and putrid, and to tstot
the next brewing that may go into them. The beer, bemc
thus cleansed from sll tlie vest, is now to be ehher racked
directly into casks as for ale, or run into vats prepeied fur
it On the large scale a large vessel termed a tanlK is first
used, into whick the beer intended to be vatted is allowed
to run so as to be perfectly well nuxed, and also to depotit a
further portion of yest by standing. The beer is by th«
means also rendered Hat, which is neoesmy Ibt stock or
store beer that is to be kept some timebelbreooaiing mto u^e
The last operation the beer will have to nndeigo is the
fining or clearing, which is sometimes done hv die farever,
sometimes by the publican. The^ning matenal ^^^i^yftt of
isinglass of various qualities, digested end diseoHed in snd
beer or sours, and their opemtion is supposed te be this:—
the gelatine or the soluble matter of isinglass is moie aolublr
in cold acid beer than in sound beer, water, er any floi^
containing spirit, and therefore when the finings are addeJ
to a well-fermented beer, the gelatine is separated fran the
medium which held it in solution, and by its eepentkai it
agglutinates or collects together all the lighler fleet nr
matters which render the beer thick, and ultimetelj falls u>
the bottom of the vessel with them, leaving tlie beer dear
and transparent.
The main thing to be observed in all the operatKuu
described is cleanliness, without which it is impoasible tbat
sound beer can be brewed, let the skill of the btewrr br
ever so great. Whenever a vessel of any kind is ccapii*^
it should be washed directly with sweet liquor, either cM
or hot If the latter should be found necessary, this v.h
insure the operator against failure from this score, and vii
also save a great deal of extra labour, it the dirt or yax t*
not allowed to harden or oecome dry. The grist sheeld U
coarse cut, or, if crushed by rollers, should have the cutti>
broken without destroying or breaking in pieces the gra'u
when this is done the taps will spend more freely» and a fiti.>
bright wort will be obtained ; and if sparging or sprinkhnr
the water over the goods should be adapted in Um af:«r
operations instead of mashing, great advantage will artK-
from the facility with which the worts come down. The-^
obsen'ations Q.pf\y only to pale grists ; for blown mall vcn
fine grinding is desirable; and the roasted malt may u
ground as fine as possible, so that it will pan the st^r.o
or rollers without caking. Tlie temperatures of the ma»b'
ing liquors for ale or pale grists may range from ire U
Fahrenheit to 185" according to the quantity of mah wetted.
the heat increasing as the bulk of material is dusi-
nished, so that the tap heat, after the first tok minute*
running, may average about 146°. For porter, where mat i
grists ore employed, the mashing heat should noC rmn^i
igher than 165^ nor lower than 156^, so that the tap mi^
average 140®; if a second mash is made, the heat may '«
increased from 15 to 20 degrees: the proportion of liquor Uf
the first mash may be from one and a half baneb to t» v
barrels per quarter. The goods after mashing shouU u-
allowed to ^tand from one to two hours belbre setti:T|r
the taps; but the after mashes not more than half a*i
hour. The length of time for the worU to boil should i«
about an hour and a half, or until the worU break bn;'b:
from the hops, when a sample is taken from the cupf^r.
The proportion of hops to be used must depend ao cntirx »
on the beer in process of brewing, and the number of .us
boiled worts, that no certain rate can be laid down ; la:
4 lbs. of new hops per quarter of malt should be am: :.
for present-use been; for keeping-beers for exportai.> •:
as much as 28lbsj)er quarter have been used, but thk is tl r
extreme limit. The next point on which it is necemarv to
enlarge is the fbrmenUtion, which is the most variable of «^
ration in the whole process of brewing; Hardly any t«o
counties follow exactly the same routine, some usi^g wi^
low heate, others very high, some deaasiog eaiiy» othe^
late, some skimming off the head, others eonunaalty hfauit c
it in : these, with a variety of other operations adopl«U a
various stages of the process, give rise to the great vona •
of different-fiavoured been which wej^ave in ti^s ceunt%«
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B IS ES
405
tiJit
Hie tettperaturas for fermentation should ran^e between
56° and 62^; nol higher than 60^ for ale worte» or abovo 62'
for porter. The attenuation at cleanaing will depend in a
great measure upon the original gravity of the wort, and
whether the. beer is for present use or keeping; a very good
criterion is* about 2-5ths of the original sacenarometie gra»
Tity for present^ttse ale, and l-3rd for keeping-ale, for porter
one^half for present-use beer, and 2«5ths for keeping, if the
ale or porter be ibr exportation, these attenuations shonld be
carried lower and the beer well flattened before bunging down
in the easks or vatting. The stages of a healthy fermentation
are, ftiat, aoreamy scum rising on the swikoe : this, after a
time, begins to ourl and beeomes frosted in appearance ; it
then becomes roeky, and the air vesicles which appeared
frosted enlarge ; it &en passes to the sise of small bladders,
and after a short time the head begins to fiill: it however
rises again, becomes yesty, the bladders enlarge in size, the
yestineas inersases, and, when ready for cleansinsf. it has a
vigorous, riefa, yesty brown and bladdery head. With respect
to the yest employed, groat care should be taken to have K
fresh, sound, and nealthy, otherwise you will never insure a
healthy fermentation ; and if you have not such yest bv yon,
send by all means to some other brewers who are at work, and
procure some. The yest, after a time, will wear out and cease
to ferment the worts healthily : under these circumstances
a change must be procured, and at times one or two before
you can get a chan^ that will suit. The yest used in
Mtting the fermentation shonld be about 2 lbs. per barrel,
but this will vary with the strength of the beer, the extent
of attenuation required, and the quantitv of worts that are
to be fermented together. Good malt and hops are of course
indispensable in all these operations, and good materials are
at all times more economical than inferior articles bought a
few shillings cheaper ; a greater extract is obtained and a far
superior article manufkctured, to the credit of the brewer and
the interest of the employer. With respect to the water,
this is not a matter of so much consequence as has been
often supposed, provided it is sweet in itself, that is, inde-
pendenUv of floating matter. Many persons imagine that
the peculiarity of the water in different districts produces
the ailFerenee in the flavour of the beer brewed, but this is
entirely erroneous : good beer may be brewed fh>m hard or
from soft water, whether obtained from a well or a rirer.
BREWING STATISTICS. Beer was first made an
exriseable article by the parliament in th% 19th of Charles I.,
A.D. 1643. In December, 1660, persons by whom it was
brewed for sale were required to pav an excise of 2t, 6d,
per barrel on strong beer, and Bci, per barrel on small
cffer. In the following year the same duties were respec-
tiioly imposed opon strong and small beer in Ireland;
but beer brewed in Scotland was not chargeable with any
doty until 1695, when the brewers paid 3«. 3d. per barrel
on strong beer, 9d. per barrel on small beer (to which
rates the duties in England had been advanced in 1692),
and 2#. per barrel upon ' twopenny ale.* In 1697 the rates
were increased in England and Scotland to 4«. 9d. on
strong beer, and 1#. 3a. on small beer. A further ad-
vance in 1710 carried the rates to 59,, and Is. 4d. In
1761 the duties were fixed at 8f. per barrel on strong,
S#. on table beer, Is, Ad, on small beer, and 3r. 4£f. on two-
penny ale. In 1802 the distinctions of small beer in Eng-
land and Scotland, and of twopenny ale in the latter coun-
try, were no longer made, and the rates of duty were fixed
at 109. per barrel on strong, and 2«.jDer barrel on table-beer,
at which thev were continued until October, 1830, when the
daty on all Vinds of beer was wholly repealed. In July,
1823, the legislature had sanctioned the sale of a quality of
beer between the two kinds last mentioned, to which the
appropriate name of intermediate' beer was given, and upon
this kind a dutv of 5«. per barrel was payable, until 1830.
The rates of duty in Ireland underwent the following
alterations:—
Stmny B«er.
2#. 6d
As, Od.
As. 6<f.
As. Id.
2s. 6d.
2t. IH
December, 1661
November, 1715
November, 1717
December, 1769
Match, 1791
March» 1794
Maroht 1 795, the duty in Ireland ceased.
The foregoing rates wero in addition to the duties charged
m each division of the kingdom upon the materials Of wmch
beer is il^ade. [HoFS ana Malt.]
Small Beer.
ed, per barreL
9d.
lOd.
9d.
lOd, ,,
9d,
. An attempt was made in 1B06 to impose duty upon beef
made in private houses, but this measure met with so much
opposition, that it was abandoned by the chancellor of the
exchequer, and the impost was confined, as it always had
been, to beer brewed for sale by public brewers.
The ouantities charged, and the gross amount of duty
colleeteu, in each of the three divisions of the kin<;dom at
different periods since 1 786, until the year preceding the
repeal of the tax, were as follows : —
Eiro-
Strong B«er.
Table Beer.
SmaUBeer.
Anonnt of
Duty.
Rate
'
Rate
Rate
rtmn.
Bttreb.
or
Btfieb.
of
Bemlik
of
Dotj.
Duty.
Duty.
1.939,099
1786
4,4S6.489
8ff.
483.6S0
3f.
1.349.301
U. 4dL
1790
4,fiSS,9S0
, ,
546.960
,,
1,889.157
,,
1.977.796
9.1%.460
1795
5.087.804
«•
576.464
«i
1.453.036
idoo
4.8>4.306
S74.993; ..
l.d60,50S
9. 106.671
1809
5.419.131
ibf.
1.778,8071 «».
, ,
^
9.883.746
ISIO
5.753.^19
1.633.5(«, ,,
, ^
3.040.918
1815
6.150.544
•*
1.518.302. ..
,
8.897.109
18S0
5.S96.701
1.444.890 ..
laUTmn late.
9.799,779
18SS
6.600,664
.f
1.485.790 .,
9,SftS
St.
3:401.996
I8S9
5.949,996
t«
l,3».467j .,
55.48B
• •
3.196,568
Soofw
LAKD.
SiroagBeec.
TwopeDBy Ale.
Table Beer.
SuiaUBeer.
Xm«t.
of
Duty.
Yean.
Binele.
Rate
of
Duty.
Baxidi.
Rate
of
Duly.
Bairela.
Rte.
of
Dty.
Banela.
Rate
of
Duly.
36.991
46.665
49.699
65.993
74.490
86.152
93.183
78.850
86.906
79.414
!^
1795
18U0
1805
1810
1815
1880
1895
1899
94.074
49.628
89.696
74.967
104.534
196.806
135.909
116.999
193.706
110.99S
8t.
ii
• •
113.944
191.989
I3S.653
149,803
3c 4A
• »
• •
931^439
997.497
»l.697
907.010
943.588
939.3S6
it.
107.617
135,938
1M.747
160.513
If. 4A
• •
laxi^Ajro.
Teara.
1796
1790
1795
Ale.
Barrela.
895.087
434.397
591.1
Rate
of
Duty.
4i. 6<f.
Small]
Barrel*.
174.032
:^)3,I89
161.906
of
Duty.
lOA
Amouiit of
Duty.
d
96.145
106.905
61.5i8
Beer or ale of all sorts, made in foreigd countries; is liahle
to a dutj on imnortation of d3r. per barrel, which amounts
to a total prohibition.
The exportation of beer from this kingdom is very incon*
siderable when compared with the quantity consumed. The
shipments during the five years from 1830 to 1834 were :—
TuDt. Value.
1830 10,212 £213,564
1831 8,844 161,768
1832 11,330 204,001
1833 11,629 206,935
1834 110,406 186,321
Nearly three-fourths of the shipments are made to British
colonies and possessions. Of this proportion India takes
one-fourth ; an e(|ual quantity is sent to the British North
American colonies and the West Indies; the remaining
one-fourth is divided between our Australasian and African
settlements. Of foreign countries, the United States of
America, Russia, and France are the best customers for this
article ; the remaining shipments are small in amoanL
BREWOOD. [STAFrORDSHlRB.I
BRIAN, sumamed BOROIMHE (BORU'). a cele*
brated king of Ireland, son of Kennedy, king of Monster,
son of Lorciuu He ascended the throne of both Munsters,
t. e., of Oimond and Thomond, or the present counties of
Ttppezary and Glare, a.o. 978. His earlier exploits were
agamst the Danes of Limerick and Waterford ; but being
elated by freouent successes against these invaders, be de«
posed O'Maelachaghlin, the supreme king of tlie island,
and eventually became himself monarch of Ireland* He
derived his surname from the tribute which he now im-
posed upon the provinces. The Boraimhe^ or tax alluded
to» was levied in the following proportions: — ^from Coo-
naught, 800 hogs; from Tiroonnell (the present county
of Ponegal), 500 mantles and 500 cows; from Tirone, 60
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B R I
406
B R I
loads of iron ; from the Clan Roiy of Ulster (the present |
counties of Down and Antrim), 150 cows and UO hogs;
from Oriel (the present counties of Armagh and Monaghan)* |
160 cows ; from the prov. of Leinster, 300 cows, 300 hogs,
and 300 loads of iron ; from Ossory (the present Queen's
County), 60 cows, 60 hogs, and 60 loads ot iron ; ft^m the
Danes of Dublin, 1 50 hogsheads of wine ; from the Danes
of Limerick and Waterford, 365 hogsheads of red wine.
On these and other revenues king Brian supported a rude
but royal magnificence at his chief residence of Kincora,
near the present town of Killaloe, in the county of Clare. He
had also castles at Tara and Cashel. Brian continued for
many years to rule his dominions widi vigpur and pros-
prity, reducing the Danes and subduing their native allies,
Duilding numerous duns or castles, causing roads and
hridges to be constructed, and enforcing the law by taking
hostages from all the pethr kings of the country. Having
however disputed with Maelmora, the king of Leinster,
Maelroora revolted, and. inviting a new invasion of Danes
to his assistance, brought on the battle of Clantarf, in which
king Brian fell, after gaining a glorious victory over the
united forces of the invaders and revolted natives, on Good
Friday, anno 1014. Brian, and his son Murrogh, who fell
in the same battle, were buried together in the cathedral of
Armagh. The funeral obsequies lasted twelve days and
nights, and. the possession of the heroic remains was after-
wards contested by rival potentates. Brian is said to have
defeated the Danes in twenty- five pitched battles : prior to
the battle of Clantarf he had confined them to the cities of
Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, and Limerick; and the final
blow which he gave their power in that ^igagement they
never recovered. He was the founder of the numerous
sept of O'Brien, O or t/a being a distinctive adnomen not
assumed by Irish families till after his time. This national
prefix means * descendant oF or * pf the kindred o(' and
was originally supplied by the more antient Mac, which
means * son.' (O'Connor, Eev. Hib. Scrip, Vet,; MSS»
History of Ireland, lib. R. I. Academy.)
BRIANgON, a fortified town of France, and capital of
an arrond, in the dep. of Hautes Alpes, is situated quite
among the Alps, 7 or 8 m. from the pass of Mont Grendvre,
and at the junction of the small stream the Guisane with
the Durance. It is on the road from Paris by Lvon and
Grenoble to Turin. 422 m. from Paris, 44® 54' N. lat., 6** 47'
E. long. It is 4285 ft. above the level of the sea.
This little town, which is mentioned by Strabo, and in
the Itineraries, appears in them under the name Brigan-
tium. In the middle ages it was the chief place of a
district, Brianfonnois, comprehended in Dauphind. It does
not appear to have been of any note till the early part of
the last century, when, by the cession of some parts of the
Brian<;onnois to Savoy, it was determined to strengthen it
as a frontier town with new fortifications.
It is one of the smallest towns in France, with narrow
streets, but neither badly laid out nor hadlf built There is
a pretty good place or square, and a tolarably well built
church. The inh. (about 2000 for the town, or 3000 for the
whole comm.) are engaged busily in trade in hosiery, cotton
goods, and hardware, and especially in the book tnide. Its
defences, which are very strong, consist mainly of seven forts,
wliich occupy in the most ad\antageou8 manner all the sur-
rounding heights. The works are partly formed from the
rocks on which they stand. The Durance flows in a very
deep channel or ravine between the town and the principal
forts : over this ravine a bridge of one arch, of about 128
Enpr. ft. span, and nearly 180 ft high, was thrown in 1734.
The surrounding district sends out every winter into the
neighbouring dep. a number of emigrants, who exercise the
profession of schoolmasters ; they speak and write French
tolerably well, understand the four rule* of arithmetic, and
sometimes Latin. The kitchens of the Catiiolic priests
commonly serve them for school-rooms. Some coal is dug
here.— (Faywtf de Villien; Malte Brun.)
The arrond. of Briancon had, in 1832, a pop. of 29,636.
BRIANSK, a t of Great Russia, in the government of
Orel, and the chief place of a circle of the same name. It
is an antient and well-built t. situated at the entrance of*
the Obolova into the Desna, is surrounded by a wall of
earth, and contains 16 churches (9 of stone and 7 of wood),
a monastery with a^ seminary attached to it, 2 poor-houses,
about 600 houses, and about 5100 inh. On account of the
exce^ent ship-timber which the neighbouring conntry pro-
duee%, then is tn admiralty-offioa her». It likewise pot-
losses a foundry for cannon, several tanneriea, and a oon*
siderable trade with the Black Sea, Baliio, and other quartert
in grain, hemp, rape-oil, honey, wax, lineniy timber, ca»*-
iron and iron ware, mats, ropes, hark, tar. lime, alaba^u-r.
&o. Some small vessels are built, and there is a maM.-
factory of arms in the neighbourhood. 63^ 21' N. Uu ^«^
19' £. long.
BRIABLE, a small town in France in the dep. of Loirt *.,
on the right bank of the Loire, 92 m. nearly due 8. of P«t>.
The town has little in itself worthy of notice. It ooum^u o\
one straight and tolerably handsome strset The inh. I \
thenensusof 1832 were taken at 2243 for the town, ^: i
2730 for the whole com. ; they are mostly engaged as b «:-
men on the riv. or canal.
The can. of Briaxe deserves notiee from its poeitioo ar-i
imoortance in the system of inland navigation in FrBr/>>
ana from its having preceded in its formation noal oii t
works of a similar nature in that countrv. It was c * -
menoed in the reign of Henry IV., under the enb;:.:
ened administration of Sully ; but upon the retirement 'i
that great minister the work was interrupted. It was n
sum^ in 1639 in the xeign of Louis XIiL by two pri\. r
individuals, MM. Guyon and Bouteroue, to whom the k :
granted the can., with its works, so fiv aa they v.r^
executed, and all the materials they might find on the »*•
The can. unites the Loire at Briare with the Loing at M -.-
targis ; and as the Loing was reiKlered navigable from ;: •
point to its junction with the Seine, the can. opened a fK>
munication between the various towns and districu vai< -
by the Loire, and the capitaL For a long time the t «
arising from the can. were very eonsiderabl<^ but they %■ --
much diminished by the formation of the can. of GrU k
which opened a readier communication between the U ;
and the middle and lower part of the Loire.
BRIBERY, in English law, has a ihraefold sig;mfici:. -
denoting, first, the offence of a judoe, magistrate, or
person concerned judicially in the aoministration of p:.
justice, receiving a reward or consideration from f ^-' •
interested, for the purpose of procuring a paxtial and U\ -
able decision ; secondly, the receipt or payment of taou' } '
a public ministerial officer as an indnoement to him u .
contrary to his official duty ; and thirdly, the giving ot
ceiving of money to procure votes at parliamentary el«» : .
or elections to public offices of trust.
By the Athenian laws the first of these offeneee rMt V
the receiver liable to a penalty of ten timet the vnlur • * '
bribe received, and the punishment of in£tmy; an'i -
person offering the bribe wae also subject to ptoeecut:ot ;
punishment Bv the Roman law there were various .
visions against bribery, and mainly with reference t< t
election to the higher offices in the state, as consul, pr^i *
&c. This offence was expressed by the term AiziK:
against which there were very numerous enactments. :
the Lex Acilia Calpurnia (s. c. 68) a man ooovirtr-*
bribery (ambitus) was disabled from filling a public .;.
and from entering the senate, besides hemg fined : v,^
penalties were extended by the Lex Tullia (b.c. 64 i. r. - .
m the consulship of Cicero. (See the Oration pro Mu • .
which is a defence of Murena against the charge of .
bitus.) By the Lex Auftdia (b.c. 62) it was enacted r . -
if a man promised money to any tribe for its vou-i .
should escape all legal penalties, in case he did n^r ;
the money ; hut if he paid it, he was bound Co pay to t*. .
tribe as long as he Uved a fixed sum of money. 'On t •
occasion Cicero made a remark, which be no doobl Uiou.
had some point in it: *Clodius,* he said (with wboiu :
great orator was then at open war), * had observed the .
before it was made: he was in the habit of yroxn-* .-
and not paying.' (Cic ad Attic, I 16.) The offen« '
bribery in a judge was included in the comprehen*i%o w .
RepetundflD, upon which there were several enactmenu * '
chief were the Lex Cornelia and the Lex Julia; the U:;
passed (b.c. 60) in the first consulship of Julius CsnAT.
I. |n England judicial bribery has from early time* K
considered as a Tery heinous offence. By an antient ^t-.*
2 Hen. IV. * All judges, officers, and mmistere of the k
convicted of bribery shall forfeit treble the bribe, be pun.^
at the kings will, and be discharged ftom the kinir < ^r-
forever.' The person offering the bribe too n itujIm
misdemeanour. Sir Edward Coke says that * if the r -
offereth a bribe to the judge, meaning to corrupt him *.:•
eanse depending before him, and the judge taketh it r
yet this IS an ofienoe punishable by^aw in thft p«ity :
Digitized by VJiOOQlf
B R I
40?
B R I
doth offer it* (3d Init 147.) In thfl 24 lEdw. IIL (1S51)
Sir William Thorpe, then chief justice of England, was
found guilty, upon bi« own confession, of having received
bribes from several great men to stay a writ which
ought in due course of law to have issued against them.
For this offence he was condemned to he hanged, and all
his lands and goods forfeited to the erown. Blackstone
says (Comment, vol. iv. p. 140) that he was actuaUy
executed ; but this is a mistake, as the record of the pro-
ceeding shows that he was almost immediately pardoned and
restored to all his lands (3 Imt. 146). It appears also fh)m
the Year Book (28 Ji9, pi. 2) that he was a few years after-
wards reinstated in his office of chief justice. The case,
therefore, does not speak so strongly in favour of the
purity of the administration of justice in early times at
many writers, following' Blackstone, have supposed. In
truth, the corruption of the judges for centunes after Sir
\Vm. Thorn's case occurred was notorious and unques-
tionable. It is noticed by Edward VI. in a discourse of hi§
published bv Burnet, as a complaint then commonly made
ogainst the lawyers of his time. (Burnet's ffist. of the Re-^
formation^ vol. ii. App. p. 72.) Its prevalence at a still later
period, in the reign of James I., may be inferred from the
caution contained in Lord Chancellor Bacon's address td
Serjeant Hutton upon his becoming a judge, ' that his
bands and the hands of those about him should be eleati
and unoorrupt from gifts and from serving of turns, be they
Kreat or small ones.' (Baoon*s Works, vol. ii. p. 632, edit.
J 765.) In Lord Bacon's own confession of the charges of
bribery made against him in the House of Lords, be alludes,
by way of palliation, to the offence of judicial corruption as
being tntium temporii, (Howell's State Triaie, vol. ii. p.
1104.) Since the Revolution, in 1688, judicial bribervhas
been altogether unknown in England, and no case is re-
ported in any law book since that date in which this offbnce
has been imputed to a judge in courts of superior or inferior
jurisdiction.
II. Bribery in a public ministerial officer is a misde-
meanour at common law in the person who takes and also
in him who ofibrs the bribe. Thus a clerk to the agent for
French prisoners of wai* at Porchester Castle, who had
taken money for procuring the exchange of certain pri-
soners out of their turn, was indicted fer bribery and se*
verely punished by the Court of King's Bench. (1 East's
Ufpttrts, 1 83.) Bo where a person offered the first lofd of
Che treasury a sum of money for a public appointment in
the colonies, the Court of King s Benen, in Lord Mansfield's
time, granted a criminal information against him. (4 Bur-
rows's Rep, 2500.)
Bribery with reference to particular classes of public
oflicers has become punishable by several acts of parlia*
ment. Thus by the stat 6 Geo. IV. o. 106, sect^ 29, if
^wy person shall give, or offer, or promise any bribe to
any officer or other person employed in the customs* to
truluce him in any way to neglect his duty (whether the
offer be accepted or not), he incurs a penalty of 500/. So
also by 6 Greo. IV. c. 108, sect 35, if any officer of the cue-
fons, or any officer of the army, navy, marines, or other
pers»on employed by or under the direction of the oommis-
Kioners of the customs, shall make any collusive seisure, or
deliver up, or agree to deliver up, or not to teite any vessel,
or goods liable to forfeiture, or shall take any bribe for
the neglect or nonperformance of his duty, every sueh
offender incurs a penalty of 500/., and is rendered hi-
capable of serving his Majesty in any office whatever,
cither civil or military; and the person also giving or
oOerinn^ the l»ibe, or making sueh collusive agreement with
the oflicer, incurs the like penalty. By the 6 (3eo. IV. e.
80, sect. 145, similar penalties are inflicted upon officers of
the excise who take bribes, as well as upon those who give
or offer the bribe.
III. As to bribery fer votes at elections to |>ubUo offioes.
1 . Bribery at parliamentary elections is said to have been
tlways an offence at common law. There are however no
traces of any prosecutions for bribery of this kind until par-
ticular penalties were imposed upon the offence by acts of
parliament. The operative statute upon this subject at the
{)re«»ent time is the 49 Geo. III. c. 1 18, which provides that
f any person shall give or cause to be given, directly or
ndtrectly, or shall promise or agree to give any sum of
nunev, gift, or reward, to any person upon any engagement
bat such person to whom such gift or promise shall be made,
hall by btftftself or by any other person at his solicitation pr»-
eure, or endeavour to procure, the return of any person to'
serve in parliament for any place, every such person so giving
or promising (if not returned) shall for every such gift or pro-
mise forfeit the sum of 1000/. ; and every such person re-
turned and so having given or promised to give, or knowing'
of and consenting to such gifts or promises upon any sue?
engagement, shall be disabled and incapacitated to serve in
that parliament for such place ; and any person or persons
who shall receive or accept of any such sum of money, gift,'
or reward, or any such promise upon any such engagement,
shall forfeit the amount of sucn sum of money, gift, or
reward, over and above the sum of 500/. [Elections.]
2. Bribery at municipal elections was also an offence at
common law, and a criminal information was granted by
the Court of King's Bench against a man for promising
ttonev to a member of the corporation of Tiverton to induce
him to vote for a particnlar person at the election of a
mayor. (Plympton^s case, 2 Lord Raymond's Reports,
1367.)
The 54th clause of the recent act for the regulation of
Municipal Corporations in England and Wales (5 and 6
Will. IV. e. 76) provides * that if any person who shall have,
or claim to have, any right to vote in any election of mayor,
or of a councillor, auditor, or assessor of any borough, shall
ask or take any money or other reward, or agree or con-
tract for any money or other reward whatsoever, to give or
fbrbear to give his vote in any such election, or if any person
shall by any gift or reward, or by any promise, agreement,
or security m any gift or reward, corrupt or procure, or
offer to corrupt or procure any person to give or forbear to
give his vote in any -such election, such person so offending
in any of the cases a&resaid shall for everv such offence
forfbit the sum of 50/., and for ever be disabled to vote ia
any municipal or parliamentary election whatever in any pai-t
of the United Kingdom, and also shall for ever be disabled
to hold any office or franchise to which he then shall or at
any time afterwards may be entitled as a burgess of such
borough, as if such person was naturally dead.*
BRICK, day mixed with sand or fine coal ashes, and
particles of small coal sifted, and afterwards burnt in a
clamp : or day mixed with sand, or clay alone, baked in a
kiln. The antients both baked their bricks and dried them
in the sun. Amongf the oldest spedmens of bricks are those
in the ruins of Babylon, which were of three sorts [Baby-
LOJf]. The Egyptians used sun-dried bricks in the large
walls which inclosed their temples, and in the constructions
about their tombs. At Thebes there are true arches made
of sun-dried bricks : pyramids also were sometimes built of
these bricks, which, as well as those made by the people
who settied in the plain of Shinar, consisted of claj and
eho]^ped straw. The Egyptian manner of making bncks i^
delineated in Rosellini's work on the paintings of Egypt.
The Romans, according to Pliny, be^n to use bricks about
the deoline of the republic ; but a brick building, called the
temple of the god Redicolus, still remains, which is said to
have been built on the occasion of the retreat of Hannibal.
(Rosini's Views in Rome,) It has been supposed that the
Oreeks did not employ bricks until after their subjugation
by the Romans, as none of the works erected prior to that
period, the ruins of which still exist, show any signs of
brickwork; yet there are Greek buildings mentioned by
Vitruvius aa built of brick, which mAy have been prior to
that date. Vitruvius (lib. ii. cap. 7) mentions the wall of
Athens towards Mount Hymettus and Pentehcus, and the
oelliB of the temples of Jupiter and Hercules ; and indeed
it would be easy to show from various passages that bricks
were in use among the Ghreeks before the Roman con-
quest (Etemosthenes, repi <n'ifclvov, c. 10.1.) The Greek
names for bricks were didoron, pentadoron, tetradoron,
fh>m the Greek doron, 'a hand-breadth.* Pentadora are
bricks five dora, and tetradora bricks four dora on each
side. All these bricks were also made half the size, to break
the joint of the work ; and the long bricks were laid in one
course, and the short in the course above them.
Yitruvitis says the pentadora were used in public works,
and the tetradora in private. It is most probable that
thBy were dried bricks, as Vitruvius speaks of bricks requir-
ing two years to dry. We learn also trotn him, that the
laws of Attica required that five years should be allowed for
the drying of bricks. It is true they might when well dried
be burnt ; but when he says (vol. i, cap. 8) that ' if they
are used when newly made, and moist, the plaster work
whieh is laid on them nmaining firm and stiff, and the/
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shrinking, and consequentlv not preaemng the tame height
with the incrustation, it is by such contraction loosened and
separated/ we must infer that they were not burnt,
tliese bricks seem to have been made in the manner
still used at Pisa, and in many parts of Germany* Vi-
truvius says they should not be made of ' sandy, stony, or
gravelly loam, for such kinds of earth in the first place
render them heavy ; and secondly, upon being wetted with
the rain after they are laid in the wall, they swell and dis-
solve, and the straw which is put in them does net adhere
on account of its roughness.* The earth which Vitruvius
recommends is white and chalky, or red, with a coarse grit ;
and the spring or autumn, according to him, is the best
time for madung them.
The Roman brick used in the buildings on the Palatine
hill, in the baths of Caracalla, and in various remains of
Roman buildings in England, is more like a tile than a
brick, being very thin compared with its length and breadth.
The dimensions of Roman bricks vary, being 7^ inches
square and \i inches thick, 164 inches square and 2^ to
2J inches thick, and 1 foot 10 inches souare by 2( inches
thick : the colour is red. The bricks ot the small temple
without tho walls of Rome, on the road leading to the grotto
of the nymph Egeria, are smaller than any of these dimen-
sions, being in size and colour more like a Dutch clinker.
In the villa Doria Pamfili at Rome, among the tombs, are
several kinds of bricks not usually found elsewhere. There
are beautiful small red bricks in some of the best preserved
of these small edifices : some are triangular, and others are
thicker than the ordinary brick, though not so long or so
wide ; and a fourth sort approach to the siie of the tetra-
doron.
In Persia bricks are both dried in the sun and baked.
The sun-burnt bricks are made in wooden moulds. Wh^
formed they are 8 inches long, 6 inches wide, and 2^ inches
deep. The earth is tempered with the feet, and, like the
Egyptian brick, is mixed with straw cut fine. While
in the mould they are dipped in a vessel of water mixed
with chopped straw, and then smoothed by hand : the
moulds are then removed, and in about three hours they
get sufficient consistency to be handled, when they are
? laced in rows one over the other to get tfaorouc^ly dry.
*he baked bricks are made of earth and ashes, much like
the English clamp-burned bricks (Chardin).
The brick used in England is made of clay mixed with
sand or with ashes, and after being dried in the sun and
air, is burned in a clamp or baked in a kiln. These bricks,
which are moulded of one size throughont the kingdom, are
10 inches long, 5 inches wide, 3 incnes thick, as prescribed
by an act'of Parliament. Bricks may be made or any size,
but all above 'the standard sixe pay a higher duty« They
are mado in the following manner : The encailow, as it is
technically called, or the top-soil, is first taken off and laid
on one side. The clay is then dug and turned over in the
winter, and bein^ prepared for the spring by this exposure
to wet and frost, it separates and mixes letter with tiie fine
ashes which are afterwards added in the proportion of one*
fifth of ashes to four of clay, or 50 chaldron to 240 cubic
yards, which will make 100,000 bricks. When much sand
IS mixed with the clay, and the earth is what is technically
called mild, 40 chaldron of ashes to 220 cubic yards of clay
will make the same Quantity. To bum the former, or stiff
clay bricks, 15 chaldrons of breeze <a coarse kind of
coal-ash left ftt>m tho sifting) are required: for the
latter, or for the mild earth, 12 will be sufficient In the
spring and summer, the earth, which has been turned in the
winter, has a coat of ashes laid over it to the depth of three
inches, and this coat of ashes with a foot of day is dug over
together, the digger toking oare to mix his ashes equally
with the day. The clay and ashes thus mixed together are
* watered down/ by water being thrown over thorn with a
wooden scoop. The clay and ashes are then mixed together
more effectually by means of a pronged hoe, with which the
stuff is raked backwards and forward The earth now pre-
sents the appearance of a black streaky mass. After this
operation it is removed in barrows to the ' pugmill,' near a
shed called the * slool,* where the moulder is at work. The
pugmill is an iron-hooped barrel, 3 it. 2 inches in diameter,
a Uulo narrower tpwards the bottom. At the top, a third of
the circumference is cut down about six inches to facilitate
the harrowing in the evth. The bottom of the mill is fixed
to two crossed beams, strapped together in the centre with
iron braces. In the centre of the mill is an upright bar of
iron. 2i inches square, the end of which at the bottom U
placed in the centre of Uie crossed beams, where it vurki e.4
on a pivot The bar is kept in iU upright position by ;«i
iron shoulders fastened to the sides ofthe barrel. From il-
top of the iron bar is a horizontal beam, to which the coHx*
of the horse is attached by means of two perpendicular pKr<»
falling from the beam, xhe bar has in the barrel &ix m :«
knives 1 foot 2 inches long and 4^ inches broad ; all exci \a
the upper one have six teeth also of iron, three above aii l
three below. At the bottom of the barrel is a small I !-..
through which the masticated clay is forced by the griuh:>^*
of the teeth produced by the motion uf the horse.
The clay having oozed out is cut off in niecei witb i
concave shavel, called a ' cuckhold,* and laia on one ^At
and covered with sacks to prevent the sun drying it bri -c
it is carried to the moulder. Frdkn tliis stock tlie cU\ :*
supplied to the feeder, who stands next to the mouli.r
The foederis business is to prepare and sand pieces of clit
about Uie size of the brick, which the moulder throve i. -.'>
the mould first sanded, striking it sometimes with hi&wn^:
he then cuts off any superliuous niece with a stick kcp: .:.
a bowl of water by his side. The back and side parts of t •
mould are removed from the bottom piece, and the brie «
gently deposited on a flat piece of wood, called a pcl^t*
board, which is removed by a boy to a lattice*work inch: :
plane fixed to a barrow. When this is full, the upper sur-
face of the bricks is sanded, and they are wheeled off t^ ii .
hacks, which are long level lines raised about four .crl •
from the face of the fieUl, and formed about two feci ^ .
inches wide. Here they are carefully deposited, the br. »
being lield, by the workman performmg this duty, «!»• .•
called the off-bearer, by means of two pallet-boards. T
setting the bricks is one of the niceties of the art as will. '■
a dulful hand they become twisted in the setting d « - .
The bricks are placed in two rows on the backs, acu ^ .
set a little apart to admit the air to .dry them. At e^h c* .
of the hack every other layer of bricks is turned vith *
ends at right angles to the row. They are carried l\ -
rows, one on the other, to the height of from seven ti i* s
bricks, but the average height in most fields is eight A»
thev are put down the workman counts them by tlM>tt»si>.>.
making a dot at every thousandth in the soft brick« so *^.
they are easily reckoned. To protect them from the «ca:t . r.
they are covered with straw, which is removed wheu a
not showery : they aro always covered up at night m t: .
way. Some brickmakers have their hacks covered « ^■*.
long sheds, but this has been found very expensive, z. . .
very, slow method. After the bricks aro partially dried, x* •
ther operation takes place, called ' skintlin^* that is lem^ \ :
the bottom bricks to the top, and widenmg the aprr* . «
between each brick, placing them diagonally • Tb». « ~
hastens the drying, cannot be done until the brirk% i. .*
acquired some hardness. The bricks being now drr , .-
nmoved to the kiln. The kiln (as the clamp is called \ z. •■
he managed with considerable skill to bum off the l-r . *
successfully, ibr if too much firing or too little is u»ed. « ■
become either one mass of clinkers or are all soft. V
should also be carefully and closely packed, so as tz.« :
as little air as possible, for the admission of air produco ' -
soft red kind, called place-bricks. The base of the V: t
made of brick rubbish, and laid a little inclined, in .i ».«
ment of a circle firom north to south S.- — N., -
as to give the brick a slight batterinff, which is thetr pr«.
cipal support The bricks are placed m lots or * necks,* •
deep in each neck, and as long as may be. Tlw erects • •
the clamp commences in the centro: the central n^ri. -
perpendicular, and is called the upright, toward* «h)ct
the ether necks incline.
Clamp-bricks an burned in the foUowing manner :— C
the indmed or segmental bottom a course of brkkW^^
placed loosely, with spaces between them. These brw s
form the foundation : upon them the bikks are laid *j. •
courses open, and filled with breeie, and upon tbe^: t.
overspanning or flat arching is laid, the bricks being \ \^- -
on their broad sides. Over the overspanning the brirk- .
laid in and crossed every course, but alwa>^ Pttckc<1 -
dose as possible together. Occasionally a smaU <)UAi :
of breeae is strowed over them to make theoi bum n
lively, and ignite more easily the coal and ash in tb«* < ••
The flues or live holes, iihich are placed from ux u •
feet apart are about the width of a brick, and are coin.-:
two courses high through the clamp : they ar« then r .
filled with dry bavins or wood, on which is put a covers -
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breexe ; Um fine is then oTenpanned. The cUmp when AiU
is surrounded with old bricks, or the driest of tnose newl v
made, and on the top of all a thick layer of breeze is laid.
The external bricks are coated with a thin plastering of clay
to exclude the air, and if the weather prove wet, the kiln is
protected by * loos* or hurdles, ynth. rushes woven inta them.
The fire is lighted at the mouths of the flues, which are
called the live-holes. If the fire bums well, the mouths of
the flues are stopped. In fkvourable weather the bricks
will be burnt in abont twenty-five or thirty days, but it
is not advisable to open the clamp too soon, as the bricks
become speckled when the ash on. the surface is not
quite consumed. Bncks only partially burnt are called
burnovers, and are put into the next clamp. The bricks are
now separated for sale ; the hard sound stocks are the best«
and are worth (torn IL \0s. to 2/. a thousand : the place or
inferior soft red brick from 1/. to 1/. 10«. ; and the clinkers or
burrs, black- looking masses of vitrified brick, are worth abdut
] Off. a load. When bnmt they are on an average 9 inches long,
4) wide, and 2} thick. Kiln-burnt bricks and marl stocks, as
well as Dutch clinkers, diflbr from the bricks just described.
The kiln-burnt are baked. The marl stocks may be either
baked or burnt: they take their name from the marl
originally used in them, which has now given place to chalk.
Tlie Dutch clinkers are small hard yellow bricks, not much
used at present in this country ; except occasionally for soap-
boilers, cisterns, vaults, stables, and yards. Besides these
kinds there is capping or coping brick, fbr surmounting
fence walls, which is made both angular and semicircular to
throw off the weL A larger sort of brick, 18 inches long,
6 broad, and 3 thick, is used in fences ; cogging bricks form
the indented works under the coping of walls built with
large bricks; a circular brick, called eompass-bricks, is
used for wells ; hollow or draining bricks are flat on one side
and hollow on the other; fire bricks, called also Windsor
bricks, are 1^ inches thick, of a very firm texture, and resist
for a long time a fierce fire ; common paving bricks are of the
same size as Windsor bricks : feather-edged bricks are the
same sixe as the common brick, except that they are thinner ;
they are used on edge in the external part of wooden build-
ings. The French brick is 8 French inches k>ng, 4 broad,
and 2 thick. Stock-bricks are known by the names of
picked stocks, red, and grey stocks. Burrs or clinker-brieks
are those which are much vitrified in the fire: sometimes
100,000 of them have run together in one mass. Bricks
having a smoothed or glazed surface are sometimes made :
this is done in the burning.
Mr. Lees discovered that certain proportions of chalk and
loam, treated in the usual manner, made a good substitute
for the noari or malm stocks. He took out a patent some
time since, which, having expired, his practice is now very
generally adopted round London. These bricks, however,
arc not considered to have either the fine colour of the
London malm stock, or the beautiful stone-coloorcd hue of
tlie Ipswich brick. The following is the method of making
them, as described by Mr. Nicholson : —
* A circular recess is built, about four feet high* andfirom
ten to twelve feet in diameter, paved at the bottom, with a
horse wheel placed in its centre, from which a beam extends
to the outside for the horse to turn it by. The earth is then
raised to a level with the top of the recess, on whidli a plat-
form is laid for the horse ^o walk upon. This mill is always
placed as near a well or spring as possible, and a pump is
set up to supply it with water. A narrow made, to fit the
interior of the recess, thick set with long iron teeth, and
Well loaded, is chained to the beam of the wheel to which
the horse is harnessed. Previously to putting the machine
in motion, the soil, as prepared in the heap in the ordinary
manner, is brought in barrows, and distributed regularly
round the recess, with the addition of a sufficient quantity
of water ; the horse then moves on. and drags the harrow,
which forces its way into the soil, admits the water into it,
and by tearing and separating its particles, not only mixes
the ingrc<lients, but also affords an opportunity for stones
and other heavy substances to fall to the bottom. Fresh
soil and water coutinue to be added till the recess is full.
On one side of the recess, and as near to it as possible, a
hollow square is prepared, about eighteen inches or two feet
deep. The soil Doing sufiiciently harrowed and purified,
and reduced to a kind of liquid paste, is ladled out of the
recess, and, by means of wooden troughs, conveyed into
this square pit ; care being taken to leave the sediment be*
hind, which is afterwards to be cleared out and thrown on
the sides of the recess. The fluid soil diffuses itself ovev
the hoUaw sqnare or pitt where it settles of an equal thick-
ness, and remains till wanted for use, the superfluous water
being either evaporated or drained away by exposure to the
atmosphere. When one of these square pits is full, another
is made.by its side, and so on progressively, till as much
soil is prepared as is likely to be wanted for the season.'
It should be observed, that bricks burnt in the clamp
have the ash«» mixed with them, and the firing is actually
in the brick ; but those burnt in a kiln have no ashes
mixed with them* and the fire is applied externally only.
KUns for burning bricks are constructed of various sizes.
They are sometimes conical or domed ; . some are square-
built with brick piers, and covered with tiles. A kiln
thirteen feet long, ten feet six inches wide, and twelve feet
high, will bum 18,000 bricks at a time. The walls of a
kihi are about fourteen inches thick, and incline inwards
towards the top
About the year 179o a patent was obtained for making
bricks on a new plan. This brick was like the common
brick, exoept that it had a groove or rebate on each side
down the middle, rather more than half the width of the
side of the brick : a shoulder would thus be left on each
side of the groove, each of which would be nearly equal to
one-quarter of the width of the side of the brick, or to one-
half .of the groove or rebate.
A course of these bricks laid shoulder to shoulder, will
form an indented line of nearly equal divisions, the grooves
or rebates being somewhat wider than the adjoining shoul-
dera» to allow for the mortar or cement. When the course
is laid on, the shoulders of the bricks, which com'pose it,
will fall into grooves of the first course, and the shoulders
of the first course will fit into the grooves of the second ;
and 80 on with evenr succeeding course. Buildings con-
structed with this kind of brick will require no bond timbers,
as a universal bond runs tlirough the whole building, and
holds all the parts together.
A patent clay-tempering and brick-maVing machine has
lately been invented by Mr. Bakewell of Manchester. By
the day-tempering machine the clay is better mixed than
by an^ method hitherto employed ; and by tl^e use of the
mouldmg machine the porosity of the bricks is in a great
measure destroyed, the pressure employed in the moulding
being equal to three tons weight. The machine for con-
solidating the bricks consists of a skilful combination of
levers producing a great pressure* the result of which is
the compression of* the clay into the greatest compactness
and utmost accuracy of form. The mould employed opens
on a hinge al one of its angles, and closes by a spring latch.
(For further particulars, see The Mechanics' Magazine,
May 14, 1831.)
A patent has been taken out by Messrs. Rhodes for a
brick in which coke ashes are introiduccd, finelv pulverized
by means I of a mill with French stones (similar to those
used in a tlour-mill), and worked by a steam-engine.
Peculiar pains are also taken with the manufacture of the
bricks, and an unusually fine surface and arris are pro-
duced. But the bricks are liable to the same casualties as
other damp-burned bricks ; although if they ge*( just firo
enough, they are certainly of supenor quality.
The duty on bricks was first laid in 1784, at Ze. 6d. a
thousand. In March, 1 794, an additional U. 6d, per thou-
sand was laid on bricks. On the 4th July, 1 803, the duty
was increased to 6e^ and in March, 1835, a further duty of
IQd, a thousand was added. On the 4th of July, 1803, a
duty of lOi. per thousand was laid on all bricks of Urger
dimensions tnan the oommon bricks. Polished bricks aro
charged a duty of 12#. lOd a thousand : large polished, 24«.
2d, do. The words of the Act referring to glazed bricks
are * smoothed and polished ;* and so strict are the revenue
officers, that bricks struck with a bat or on a table to
straighten them, if warped, have been called smoothed -and
poUshed, and charged the extra duty. The following is
the account of the quantities of bricks (not including tiles)
charged with excise duties in Great Britain fur the three
years ending 1834. {Govemmenl Statistical Tables, 1834.)
QaMtitiMcharxfd. ^ Amoom of Dnly.
1832
998,346.362 . .* £294,332 18 10
1833
. 1. 035,9 ld,662 . . 304,942 1 11
1834
. 1,160,161,228 . . 347,305 5 2)
From
the year 1820 to 1831 inclusive, the smallest
number of bricks charged with duty in Great Britain, in
'any one year (1821), was 978,655,642; and the greatest
No, 323.
[THB PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
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mtmber (18Sft) wm l,9dU«05,978. laAmi bebig
from tb« duty on bricks, is not inclnded in tkoM Uinragm
The whole daty is drawn back on exportation,
BRICKLAYER. A charter was granted in 166« to the
tilers and brieklayers in London, by which they were formed
into a corporate body, consisting of a master, tivo wmrdenst
twenty assistants, and serenty-eight livery.
Bricklayers form a very numerous body of artisans in
this country. A good workman can lay 1690 bricks daiiy
in walls. His wages in London are 5«., ft«. 6<l., and evett
6r. a day. Country workmen have generally 49. m day.
Wages however vary according to the locality.
BRICKWORK. Brick walls are of various thiekneises.
Four and a half inches or half brick ; nine inches or one
brick ; fourteen inches or one and half brick ; and eighteen
inches or two bricks ; and two bricks and a half and so on,
to about three feet two inches. Except in large public
works, walls are seldom built more than four bricks tliiek.
In good work three bricks are well bonded together.
There are four kinds of bond in use in laying bricks,
called English bond, Flemish bond, herring bond^ and
garden- wall bond. £ngli«»h bond consists of bricks laid
lengthwise on the length of the wall, and crossed by bricks
laid with their breadth on the wall. The ibrraer are called
stretching courses, and the bricks stretchers; the latter
heading courses, and the bricks are called headers* This
bond is much used in water-works.
Flemish bond consists in laying a header and stretcher
alternately in the same course. This bond, which is consi-
dered by bricklayers the most beautiful, is not so effectual
as the English bond. To unite more firmly Hie Flemish bond
brickwork, especially in thick walls, and to remedy the weak-
ness of the stretching courses, the bricks are often placed at
an angle of forty-five degrees parallel to each other, and re-
versed in the alternate courses ; this is done in the centre
or core of thick walla, and is called herring-bone. It is ad-
visable only to use this diagotKil brickwork occasionally,
becan^, though the bncks in the core have suilicient bond,
the sides, on account of the triangular interstices, are very
improperly tied to the core. Flemish bond is however varied
according to the width of the openings in the wall or front
of a house. The reveals of windows are bonded e%'ery alter-
nate course, with a closure or quarter brick and a half brick.
The reveals of doors are terminated with a half brick and
closure. Garden-wall bond consists ef three stretchers and
one header in nine inch walls, but when fourteen inehes
thick, the Flemish bond is used. In English bond, it is
to be observed, that as the length of a brick va nine inches,
and its breadth four and a half, it is the practice to prevent
two perpendicular joints from fallirvg over each other, at the
end of the first stretcher from the corner header, by the
introduction of a closure, or by a three-quarler brick er bat
as it is technically called, instead of a stretcher at the
comer.
The most difficult work for the bricklayer to execute is
the groining or intersection of arches in vaults, where every
brick has to be cut to a different bed. This and the arches
called gauged arches, either circular or straight, cut with the
axe and rubbed on the banker or table, and afterwards set in
lime only, called putty, require the neatest workmanship.
Some straight arches are made roughly ; that is, the bricks
are inclined each way. parallel to each other on the re-
spective skewbacks or shoulders of the arch, until the soffit-
ends of the bricks touch, when the vacant space at top is
filled with two bricks forming a wedge : this arch, like otner
straight arches, is constructed on a camber slip, or piece of
wood slightly curved on the upper side, and serving as a
centering.
The bricks for rubbed or gauged arches are cut with ra-
diating lines. Those fbr cambered or straight arches are
cut by the manual skill of the workman, and the lines
do not radiate exactly to one centre, like the bricks in
semicircular gauged arches. The following is the method
adopted by bricklayers in cutting the straight arch. ITie.
straight arch, so common in houses in London, is first
drawn out the full size on a board; the top part is a
straight line; the lower, the curved line of the camber-slip, a
segment of a circle, and the sides, the inclination of the
skewbackof the arch, which is usually inclined about seven
inches and a half from the upright of the reveal. The top
and the bottom lines are then divided into an equal number
}f equal parts, and lines radiating are drawn as shown in
(he cot The joints follow the curve of the camber-slip.
Tb« entfod Unt at <he bottom fifmi fajr dM
out by moana of tho bev^; «very M^:W of moIi brick
boing diffsront, they act co|Med by the beml, nnd tot off
in sueoessbn on the noold and nnmbeiod, to ibai Isr tbo
real of tho oponUion« the workninn has only neo«no lo th#
mould.
MouU.
[Cut of Um mould with the bevels Mi off upon it.]
• re]»i*MnU tha point at the top line of th« mo«14, btftalg m goiiW Ije wia
Unffth of tlitf brick ; b b, the angles set off by the bereL
A larger, or what is called an irregular tegmont is eiit la
the same manner. A semieiroular arch being ttmek {rr^*n
one centre requires but one mould, without the aid of tc^
bevel, as all the bricks are alike and have their end» at
the same angle. All arches, it should be obeorrad, are rv«t'-
stmcted on centerings of wood. In straight arebes tiv
camber-slip answers the purpose of a centre.
Elliptical arches are cut like straight and semiciii'u^ r
arshes, the ends like semieiroular arehes» and tbeeez2::r
like camber arches.
Corb^ing, or a projecting of brickwork, is often p
tised to gain spaoe for flues and over comers of narr '^
streets.
In steyning wells it is usual to employ briekwosrk vl.'-^
the soil is loose. For this purpose a centre La requ.:- .
made with circular rings of wood boarded round the out^i<:r ;
upon these rings the bricks are laid. As the digger r\'
cavates the ground, the centre with the brickwork sinks z.. !
another is laid upon it till the whole work is completed.
Mortsr is the common medium employed to cement bri<*;.
work. This cement is composed of lime, grey or whitr. I- '
grey or stone lime is the better ; it is mix^ with nver »^ . .
sea sand, or road sand, in the proportion of one of gre> I.r.^
to two and a half of sand, and one tfi white or d^k lz. •
to two of sand.
In dry weather and for firm work the best mortar »}i«>-. i
be used, and the bricks should be wetted or dipped in «%~ • r
as they are laid, which makes them adhere firmly to i .•
nrortar. Brick-work in drains and foundations* where a *
liable to be constantly wetted, becomes so firmly nnitt'd v :*.
the mortar as not to be separated without the grra'' >i
difficulty. The work in this state is said to be water-but.. :
In building walls, they should be carried op le^W . .
round simultaneously, and not one part higher than anot
lest in the shrinking there should bo a settlement, vi L .
would cause the parts to separate.
In laying the foundation of walls the first courses -^-c
always laid broader than the wall intended to be carried i..
these courses are called the footings', and the projection*^ /'.-
called set-offii : there are generally two inches in pn>^-ri .
Gzrrden-walls are usually built with piers, projectini; f r
and a half inches from the face of the work at e%'ery uri .^r
twelve feet. These piers are turned in at the top hke tat-
tress-heads, and the top of the wall is finished wiUi a ciu-^e
of brickwork on edge.
When new walls are to be built to old it is usual to m: 4
chase or draw a brick at every other course in the old « . . k
and tooth in the new work. When it is intended to ^ '
walls to other buildings these toothings are left Thv fi-.:-,
for chimneys are twisted to pre\-ent their smokinfr [..^
House, in which a drawing represents a stack of cbim\ ■ 1
I Hues as built in London] : they are always chalked on v^
wall of a house to which another is intended to be ad ^
The following are the substances of brick walls, as requnc ;
to be built in London according to the Building Act iji u
Geo. III. c. 78.
In first-rate buildings the external walls are dixecfed ti
be built of two bricks' length in thickness to the cir\ j
line of first floor, and the party walls in the ba*rn*. :
story two and a half brioks, and from thence to t - ,•
gutter two bricks. In second rate buildings the pattv w &..i
are two bricks and a half thick in Ui^bawmeatL utd te^
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
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»u 11 y
i I tit
J'JF, ;i imtw*rtHtt+f>^*f M*»fV'.
' ^14 1 f**KiwM
iii J Af,ii II* ui Un''tl,. lUip
B R I
412
B Rl
iliorizont Ally with huge hloeksof stone on 253 fttone piers,
and on these other stones are laid across. The city of
jChao-king, like some of the Dutch towns, has numerous
canals, and in consequence numerous bridges, for the most
part of one arch, and rising very high. At Tansi there is a
freestone bridge of seven arches, the centre arch of which is
about 46 feet wide. Chinese bridges have pointed, semicir-
cular, polvgonal and semi-elliptical arches. Their construc-
tion, which is curious, is described by Mr. Barrow. (See also
DuHALDE, vols. ii. and iv. pp. 91, 357 ; and the Index.)
I The bridges in Sooth America called bujaco are very
narrow, and from the lightness of their materials, and being
suspended, they oscillate in a terriflc manner. The width
of tnese bridges often docs not exceed 4 ft. 6 in. The Tan-
hita bridge consists of a single rush rope, on which a kind
of carriage is swung, and drawn from one side to the other
by another rope atta(;-.hed to it and held by a person on the
bank. (See also Boot an. p. 169.)
The oldest stone bridges with which we are acquainted,
several of which are still perfect and in use, are those built
by the Romans. Their solidity and proportions prove that
they must have been constructed on sound principles. The
chief of these structures which still remain at Rome, are the
bridges of Fabricius and Cestius, connecting the island of
the Tiber with the city of Rome and the opposite bank ; the
Milvius, over which passed the Fiaminian way ; and the
bridge of Hadrian. The Sublicius, an antient bridge at
Rome, was built of wood ; but the most remarkable wooden
bridge constructed by the Romans was that thrown by Coesar
over the Rhine. It was built with a double row of piles, in-
clining to the course of the stream, and joined together at
two ft from each other : forty ft. apart from these was an-
other similar row inclined against the stream. Long beams,
two ft thick, were fixed between the piles, and held fast at
each end by two braces. The beams were joined by trans-
verse pieces. The first double row of piles was protected by
other piles beyond them, which served as buttresses, and
wore designed to protect the piles from timber floating down
the stream. (See Csesar s Commentaries, translatdi into
Italian by Baldelli, with designs by Palladio, Venice, 1575 ;
and also Commentarii, &c., V enetiis, 8vo. 1513, 1519, witli
a picture of the bridge over the Rhine.)
The bridge built by Trajan over the Danube was the
most stupendous work of the kind ever constructed by the
Romans. (Dioii. Cass., lib. Ixviii. c. 13.) It consisted of 20
pien of stone, '60 Roman ft. broad and 150 ft, vHhont tfaf
foundations, above the bed of the river; the width between
each pier was 1 70 ft, and the piers were united by archea.
The bridge of Nami, which is a fine specimen of Roman
work, is constructed over the Nera, where it llowa becw^-rn
two precipitous hills. This bridge originally eonsisited « f
four arches, three of which are broken. The batgbt ol ir.v
arches was about 112 ft., and the width reapoetiTely 7).
135; 114, and 142 ft 6 in.
The Roman bridge and aaueduct, now called the Pbnt dn
Gard, over the 6ara or Garaon near Nismea, eonmto of «>.i
arches at its base, the whole length being 465 ft.; a fc^^i/tfi
series of arches, above these, extends 780 ft. to the alope vt
the mountains on each side; above this is a third wcnv^ ^-l
35 arches, smaller in size, extending 850 It, which earr.' i
the water from the mountains. The entire height of t':..i
structure is 190 ft. Another ancient Roman bndfpe, ttxt
of the Tagus at Alcantara, in Spain, consisted of aix archi t
raised 200 ft above the river: the whole length was i:j
ft, and the breadth 28 ft. [Alcantara.]
An old bridge, near Brioude, over the Allier, in the d^^.
of Haute Loire, consists of one arch, 181 ft widie, and <>^ tt
8 in. high from the water to the intrados of the mrcfa : ili
breadth of the bridge is only 13 ft.
Two remarkable bridge-aqueducts have been ci^tPii .n
modem times: one at Alcantara, near the city of LuU> .
the other, called the Ponte Maddelena, near the royal pa\.v
of Caserta, in the kingdom of Naples, to supply the r.cr-
tains in the gardens of that edifice. The atmctuiv l*.
Alcantara consists of 35 arches of unequal dimen^: • v
The principal arch is 1 08 ft. 5 in. wide, and 227 ft hi(ch , t •
other arches vary from 21 ft. 10 in. in width to 73 ft T •
total length of the whole is 2464 ft. The Ponte Madaclui :.
like tlie Pont du Gard, consists of a series of arrhes. 4.--
above another, built between the slope of two mountaiDH
The bridges erected by the Romans in the proM:.- *
served as models for the stone bridges which were ertxt :
after the dissolution of the empire, and it is to the conqu.-t*
of this nation that N. and W. Europe is indebted (^.-r t >
introduction of so convenient a means of internal ror. r :•
nicatton. But the finest examples of bridge atchitoctL
Tvhich equal any that the Romans have left, and surpai^< .
others in the world, are the five principal bridges of L«jim t-^-
Blackfriars' bridge, London bndge, Southwark iron t.*. . .
and Westminster and Waterloo bridges.
[Southwark Iron Bridge— for diineafioQf, tee eiidof the article.]
Many of the Russian bridges are constructed of wood ;
and in St. Petersburg the principal bridge is of boats. (See
the Plan of St. Petersburg, published by the U. K. S.)
When rivers have a rapid current, bridges of boats are com-
monly employed, as over the Po, in Italy. These bridges,
called by the French, ponts volants, are rudely constructed
with a few boats attaclied to a rope, and moored in the centre
of the stream : the bridge is moved by a rudder, and, assisted
by the stream, is carried over to the other side.
The oldest bridge now existing in England is the Trian-
gular bridge at Croyland, in Lincolnshire, which is said to
have been erected about a.d. 8 GO. but with what view it is diffi-
cult if not altogether impossible, to determine. It is obvious
that utihtv was not the motive of the builder, though it may
be allowed to claim the qualities of boldness of design and
singularity of construction a§ much as any bridge in Europe.
It is fbrmed by three semi-arches, whose bases stand in the
circtimferenco of a circle, equidistant from each other, and
uniting at the top. • This curious triune formation has led
many persons to imai^ine that the architect intended thereby
to suggest an idea of the Holy Trinity.' (Nicholson's Did,)
Old London bridge, which has recently been removed, was
the oldest structure of this kind in the city of Loudon j and
till about the middle of the last century, was the onlv mr i: <
of communication, except by ferries, between Serrcr a .
Middlesex. This bridge was begun in 1 1 76. m the Tr\<rr\
Henry II., and finished in that of Joljn, aj>. l?0<>. F ;
several centuries it was covered with houses, which w* .
at last removed.
Tlie bridge called Pont y Pridd, over the Tt-ff. r. »
Llantrissent, in Glamorganshire, which was com nlcu ! .
1755, is a fine work. It consists of a single arch 1 }<• *:
wide, forming the segment of a circle of 175 ft. diarot *• :
the height is 35 ft. A bridge over the IJil^y, near Du-
built in 1792, consists of an elliptical act*h I06 ft. u •
which rises only 22 ft.
Venice contains a great number of bridges, but with t'
exception of the Rialto, they are all insignificAnu 1
Rialto was be^run in 15S8, and finished in 1591, frtu
design of M. Angelo ; it consists of one arch nearlv 1»»
wide, and 23 ft. from the water line ; the width k 4 : :
This bridge is constructed of^ white marble, and the f .::
dation is on piles.
One of the lightest and most elegant bridges of Kur— •
the Ponte della Triniti at Florence {Map ^Florenct, i
iished by the U. K. S.), consists of three boaotifal eUrf': -.
B RI
413
B R 1
mrehet. Dretden hts % very lawe bridge i»f U arcbes over
tbe Elbe. (See tbe Plan 0/ Dresden, poMisbed by tbe U. K.
Society.) Pmris contains numerous bridges of stone, wood,
and iron ; of wbich tbe oldest is tbe Pont Neuf, and tbe
most modem a chain or suspension bridge. Tbe bridges
of Paris are not remarkable for their lengtli, nor generally
for architectural beauty : most of them are inferior to many
of the provincial bridges in England. Tbe longest bridge in
England, that of Burton- upon-Trent, is 1545 ft. in length,
and has 34 arches.
One great improvement in tbe practice of bridge-building,
in modem times, is the construction of equal arches, by
wbich a horizontal line of road is formed, and the incon-
venient rise and fall in tbe carriage-way of tbe older bridges
is avoided. Tbe Pont de Neuilly, built between 1 768 and
1780, by M. Perronnet, over tbe^leine, is, we believe, the
earliest modern example of this kind of bridge. It has five
equal arches, 128 fU wide, and 32 fk. in height ; tbe piers
are 14 ft. thick, and the width of the bridge is 48 ft: the
rise in 33 ft. is not more than 6} in. In 1771 another
flat bridge of 13 semi-elliptical arches was built over tbe
Allier, at Mottlins ; {hese arches are 64 ft span and 24
high. The bridge of St. Maixence over tbe Oise, and tb6
bridge of Orleans over the Loire, also approximate to a
horizonal line in their road-way. The bridge of Orleans is
1100 ft. long. One' of the 'finest flat or equal-arched
bridges ever constructed is Waterloo bridge over the Thames,
whirn was built by Mr. Rennie.
Wooden bridges are much more common than bridges of
stone, from the greater facility of constructing them of this
material, as well as on account of their cheapness. Bridges
built of wood, unsupported bv upright posts, and sustained
only by abutments at the enas, have been termed pendent
bridges and philosophical bridges : such was the bridge of
three arches formerly in existence at Walton-on-Thames.
Palladio has described three methods of constructing these
bridges. The small bridge of one arch over the Cam, at
the back of Queen' s-CoUege, Cambridge, is of this kind.
Among tbe wooden bridges of America, the Upper and
Lower Schuylkill bridges near Philadelphia, and the bridge
across the Delaware at Trenton, are perhaps the most re-
markable. The chord line of the Upper Schuylkill bridge,
[OiM-haUof the Schuylkill Bridge showing th^ eouiiructloa : Th« other half, the external eleratioD.]
[Pom Senatorittt. now Ponte Rotto, mtored.]
called the Colossus, is 340 feet. The Lower Schuylkill |
bridge consists of three arches on stone piers ; the centre
arch has a chord of 195 feet, and the two side arches 150
feet each. The bridge over the Delaware at Trenton is a
very singular construction of five arches, supported on light
stone piers. The chord of the centre arch is 200 feet ; the
two arches on each side the centre, 180 feet; and the two
abutment arches, 160 feet each. This bridge was erected
by C. A. Busby, in 1819. A very accurately-engraved draw-
ing of it has been published by Messrs. Taylor, of H<4born,
to which the working drawings are attached. Wiebeking*
a German engineer, has constructed some fine bridges o^
wood. One at Bamberg is 208 feet span.
A great change in modern bridge-building has been
effected by the introduction of iron and the use of chain or
suspension bridges, the principles of which, it should be oh-
ser\'ed, were understood as early as 1615. See Scamozzi's
Del Idea Archi. [Chain Bridge.] Tbe most remarkable
bridge of this kind is the Menai or Beaumaris bridge,
near Caernarvon, which connects the island of Anglesea
[The centre arch of the Menai or Bnumaris Clioin llridse— fur dimenstaut, see end of the arliicle.]
with the main-land opposite. A similar bridge has been
constructed over tbe Thames at Hammertimith, near
London. Verv similar to this bridge is the Chinese chain-
bridge on tbe high- way of Yunnan, in the province of Koei-
toheou, the work of General Pan-bo. (Duhalde, vol. i.
p. 60.) Suspension bridges have also been thrown over
the Seine at Paris : the first that was erected there fell
down almost immediately after its completion. Numerous
bridges of this description have been made in Gneat Britain
within the last 20 years, of which the late Mr. Telford con
structed by fu the larger part
The merit of having first employed iron in bridge-building
is attributed to the English, but it really belongs to the Chi-
nese. (Duhalde, vol. L p. 60.) Tlie first iron bridge built in
England was erected in 1779 at Coalbrook-dale over the
Severn: it consists of one arch upwards of 100 ft. wide,
'composed of five ribs, each rib formed of three concentric
arcs, connected togethar by radiating nieces. The interior
arc forms a complete semicircle, but the other arcs extend
only to the sills under the road-way. These arcs pass
through an upright firame of iron at each end, which serves
&s a guide, and tne smaH ^aoe in the baundies, between
the frame and the outer arc. is filled with a ring about 7 ft.
in diameter. On the top of the ribs cast-iron plates are laid
to sustain the road-way. The interior ring is cast in two-
pieces, each piece about 70 ft lon^ ; and the total weight
of metal used is 378^ tons.* (Nicholson's Diet.) Since
1 779 many iron bridges have been constructed in Great
Britain, and some few on the continent The largest iron
bridge yet made is that of three arches, from the Southwark
fiide of the Thames to Queen-street in the city of London.
Mr. Telford proposed to erect an iron bridge of one arch
only over the Thames at this place.
Bishop Wearmouth bridge, which is also of iron, was
erected between 1793 and 1796. It consists of a single
arch 240 ft span. The bridge over the Severn, at Buildwas,
built by Mr. Telford, is a single arch 130 ft. span, and 27
ft in height from the springing to the intrados. Vauxhall
bridge over tbe Thames at London, is one of the lightest
constructions in iron with which we are acquainted. Smaller
bridges of iron arc now common enough over narrow streams,
and over the entrances of docks : they are sometimes of one
leaf or part and sometimes consist of two leaves. Those
made of one leaf turn on a centre, or a y^e^ of balls or
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
9B1
414
«91
rollers : those whidi c<maist of two parts inni ' on a niinber
of concentric rollers, which move between two circular cast-
iron rings very nicely turned ; each leaf or part has a flap,
which lets down by a screw, and abuts upon the stone- work
on either side, forming the whole bridge, when shut, into an
arch capable of bearing any weight which can possibly pass
over it/ (Nicholsons Diet.) A bridge of this kind at the
London Docks, which weighs 85 tons, is opened and shut
again in three minutes. The most recent bridge, and the
largest yet constructed of this kind, is the bridge at
Lowestoft in Norfolk, over the new cut which connects lake
Lothing with the sea.
The following are tlie dimensions of several of the prin-
cipal bridges of Europe as near as we can ascertain them.
Length and number of arches of a fete of the principal
Bridges of Europe and America.
Feet. Arch«0.
London bridge 900 o
Southwark 850 3
Blackfriars* , 995 9
Waterloo 1326 9
Westminster 1220 15
Vauxhall 806 9
Atenai, the span of the centre arrh . . 560 3
Suspension bridge over the Severn a I Build was 1 30 1
Sunderland iron bridge . . . . 236 1
Coalbrook-dale iron bridge . . . 100, 6in. 1
Bjur^n-upon-Trent . . . .1545 34
Bridge over the Liffey, Dublin . • 106 1
1490
16
390
1
1020
12
724
5
340
6
1700
19
525
100
1
1593
17
1100
9
106
1
480
3
895
5
340
1
716
5
Elbe bridge, Dresden . • . •
Schaif haiisen, on the Rhine • •
Pont Neuf, Paris
Pont de Neuilly , . . •
Kamenoimost over the Moskwa at Moscow
Bridge at Lyons, over the Rlione .
New bridge at Turin ....
The Rial to, Venice . . nearly
Bridge over the Garonne, at Bordeaux
Bridge of Orl6ans, over the Loire .
Pont d*Austerlit2, at Paris
Ponte della Trinitil . . 160 pares
Pons Senatorius, now Pontc Rotto, at Rome
The Schuylkill, called Colossus
The Trenton, over the Delaware . •
Aliber^i is perhaps the earliest writer on bridges, end he
has been followed in a great measure by Palladio. Serlio,
and Scamozzi. For information on bridges the reader may
consult Mr. Gautier* s work, Belidor's Architecture Hydrau-
lique, and Perronet; also Bosset and Rion on bridge-
building. Mr. Telford's work on bridges, which it is un-
derstood will be shortly published, is ex))ected to contain
much valuable information. Miiller, Labelye, Atwood,
Semple, Emerson, and Dr. Button, have also written on
brid^res.
BRIDGE HEAD, or T^e de Pant, is a fortification
covering that extremity of a bridge which is nearest to the
position occupied by the enemy, in order, by securing the
line of communication, to facilitate the advance of an army
or protect its retreat.
When a bridge is built across a riv. which runs through
or along one side of a fortified town, the ramparts of the
to^yn in the one case, and those constructed for the defence
of any buildings beyond the riv. in the other, may be con-
sidered as constituting the bridge-head ; and then the works
enter into the class of permanent fortifications. In other
circumstances their form depends upon the nature of the
ground, and upon the importance of the pass to be secured.
If a retreating army is likely to be exposed to a serious
attack when about to cross a riv., the works must be strong
enough to keep the enemy in check, and sufficiently ex-
tensive to contain the whole army, till the passage can be
effected.
The simplest kind of bridge-head is one which has the
form of a redan ; that is, a breast-work, with two branches
disposed on the plan like the sides of the letter A, and
terminating on the bank of the riv. But when a more
perfect defence is required, the bridge-head may have the
tliiure of a horn- work, or of a fort with bastions ; the area
upied by the defenders being inclosed, except at
or riv, sido, by the rampart or breast-work. When
however the brUga-head it to b* psMmM^ esfMiMM l>
ser\'e as an intrenchment for the whole of an army, it nuiy
consist of a series of redoubts flanking each other recipro-
cally, and disposed on a curve line whose extramiue* re&t
on the riv. ; and whatever be the nature of the work, wheu
its capacity is considerable, it is reoommended to ha^e a
vedan.or small fort immediaiely covehne the brid^a, «.;U
its faces so disposed that the fire from thence may daleinl
the interval between the exterior redoulits. Thia viU
also serve as a retrenchment in which, after the main bo^y
of the army has passed over the riv., a ^mall diviaioD ma>
be stationed to protect the retreat of the troops en]plo>ed
in defending the principal works. The passages by viiiri»
an army or detachment, in retreating, enters a bridge-Ue*.*!
consisting of a continuous parapet, should be situatetl in
the re-entering angles of the work, if such there lje, whcrv
they may be well flanked by crossing fires from tbe r<i-
lateral faces : and the^ should be defended by a direct imt
from traverses in the interior.
To prevent the enemy from advancing towards a Wiuif<'
along the bank on which tlie works are situated, thai bm.^
both on the right and left of the bridge should be «• ..
defended by a fire of musketry or artillery ; conMqun.i.)
the parapets adjacent to the riv. should be as Dcar.\t 3»
possible perpendicular to its direction. And it ise^idn.:
that the most favourable situation for a military bruise \y
at a bend of the riv. where the concavity is towards' t!.«-
enemy*s position ; for the fortifications will thus co^e^ u c
bridge from his view ; and on either side of the work tL"
brisures intended to defend the ground immediately ..t
front may be directed towards the riv., by which they «i i
be secure from an enfilading fire of the enemy.
Should any commanding ground permit the enem} *j
direct a plunging fire of artillery upon the bridge or «u.. .
the works, and should it be found impossible to give to tr .•
parapets a height sufficiently great to intercept that l.-.
batteries or redoubts must be constructed in convei...-: :
situations on the rear side of the river, in order, by c. .r
fire, to prevent the enemy from occupying that ground. Tlr ^
works will also ser\'e to defend the faces of the bndge-hi . ;
when attacked; a traverse also should be rai«e<l on u.l^
same side of the river perpendicularly to the length of ti- -
bridge, in order to enfilade the latter in the event of tie
enemy attempting to force a pa&sage over it before it ean i^
destroyed.
When there are islands in the river it it advisable t >
establish the bridges so that they may connect tbe i».Ia; .,
with the opposite banks, for thus the bridges, being shwivi
than if they were to extend quite across the river, muy ■ -•
more numerous; consequently the passage of tbo ntervi .
be facilitated and more effectually defended. There s>h l. .
be a separate bead for each bridge besides the general hv. l
on the farther bank; and any collateral islands, if ^ i i
there be, should be fortified, both to prevent tfaMe er»er..\
from occupying them and thus obtaining a view of t^.-
bridge, and to afibrd the means of flanking the princ] .^
bead.
The most important bridge-heads in Europe are on t! .•
Rhine, at Mannheim, Kehl, and Huninguen ; all tl • ^>
have been celebrated in the wars of which the frontiera U-
tween France and Germany have so frequently been i..c
theatre.
BRIDGE, MILITARY. [Pontoon.]
BRIDGNORTH, a bor. and m. t. in the S.E. part of
Shropshire, on the Severn, 19 m. S.E. by E. from Shrcv*.
bury, and 1 39 N.W. from London. The town lies on U - a
sides of the Severn, which arc connected by a bridge ; lit
tlie larger portion is on the W. bank, built on a hiU wi... :
rises 60 yards from the bed of the river. The bor. ziA
town were co-equal, consisting of the parishes of Sl Leo-
nard and St. Mary Magdalen, but certain liberties were a ^>
under the jurisdiction of the bor. magistrates. Tbe pai^«-
mentary bor. was extended by the Reform Bill, and uv^
includes the parishes of Quatford, Oldbury, Taa^ley, m. 'l
Ast ley- Abbots. In 1831 the pop. comprehended within iL«
extended boundary was 6171, that of the old bar. d'<:98.
Bridgnortli, antiently Bruges, is stated to be of S:i\.>a
origin. The first known charter is one of the 1 6th JuUr«
confirmed by subsequent grants, by which special pri*.Ui <.:. s
were secured to the inhabitants, oy the Muuicipal Rieit rm
Act the town council consists of 4 aldermen and li c«uo<
cillors, but tbe town is not divided into wards. The Ui/.
returns two members. In tha par< ot St. Lcoaatd tho^-
Digitized by CnOOQ IC
B RI
Hb
BUT
are four daily lehools, one of ivfiieli in an endowed gramtnaT*
sohoo), and two boaniing- schools; hi St. Mary Magdulenli
there arc (bur daily schools and three Sunday schools ; and
there is a daily school in Quatford parish. The appoint-
ment of the master to the grammar-school was Tested in
the corporation. The town contains a considerable number
of charities. It possesses also two or three manufactories,
and a large portion of the labouring class find employment
in the navigation of the Severn ; hut the market and the
retail trade with the neighbourhood afford the principal
source of profit to the itmabitants. The marked day is
Saturday. There are four annual fairs, on the Thursday
before Shrove Tuesday, 20th June. August 2nd, October
29ih (which latter lasts three days), for cattle, sheep, batter,
cheese, bacon, &c.
The situation of Bridgnorth renders it airy and healthful.
Charles I. is said to have considered it the most pleasant
place in his dominions. The prospect from the top of the
hill is delightful. There is a curious walk made from the
liiffh part of the town to the bridge, being hewn to the
depth of 20 ft. through the rook ; the descent is great, bat it
is made easy by steps and rails. Until 1797 the corporation
maintained the bridge out of the proceeds of certain estates
and tolls. In that year, the bridge having fallen into decay,
an act was obtained by which commissioners were appointed
with authori^ to borrow money to rebuild it and to manage
the trust. A new gaol was built in 1823. In Leland's
time, the castle, on the S. side of the town, was of consider-
able extent ; but when Grose visited the place, there was
nothing left but what seemed part of a tower, which by un-
dermining was made to incline considerably from the
perpendicular. It i& uncertain when or by whom the castle
was built.
In 1102 Robert or Roger de Belesme, Earl of Shrews-
bury, strengthened Bridgnorth and defended it against
Henry I. In 1 156-7 Henry II. besieged it in person, when
his life is stated to have been saved by a knight, who stepped
forward and received in his own person an arrow aimea at
the king. The inh. sided with Charles I. during the civil
war ; and Bridgnorth endured a siege of nearly a month
from the parliamentary troops.
The inn. to the E. of Bridgnorth are very little connected
with it. They are separated Hrom the town by a tract of
hilly and thinly-peopled country, and their chief market is
Wulvcrhanapton. {Beauties of England and Wales; Boun-
dary Reports; Municipal Corporation Report ; Education
Returns.)
BRIDGETOWN. [Barbadobs.]
BRIDGE WATER, a port, bor., and m. t., situate on the
banks of the riv. Parret, m the hund. of N. Petherton, and
CO. of Somerset, 29 m. S.W. from Bristol, 17 W.S.W. from
Wells, and 125 W. by S. from London, and in 51** 7' N. lat.
and 2' 59' W. long. The limits of the bor. are co-extensive
with those of the par., the area of which is 3580 English
statute acres.
Bridge water, in antient charters called Brugia, or Brugfe,
Bru*;g- Walter and Burgh-Walter, derived its name from
Walscin or Walter de Douay, on whom it was conferred by
AVilliam I. Prior to this it belonged to a Saxon Thane,
named Merlesuain, as appears from Domesday Book, in which
it is thus surveyed : ' Walscin holds Brugie, Merlesuain in
the time of King Edward, and gelded for (ve hides. The
arable is ten carucates, in demesne are three carucates and
five servants, thirteen villanes, nine bordars and five cot-
tatrers, with eight ploughs. There is a mill of 5«. rent,
and ten acres of meadow and 100 acres of pasture. When
he received it, it was worth one hundred shillings, now
seven pounds.*
Williana de Briwere, to whom the manor had been granted
by Henry II., built a castle at Bridgewater of considerable
«trt:nL;th» and through his interest with King John ob-
tained for the town a market and a fair. This William
de Bnwere also founded the hospital of St John, for the
benefit of the souls of Kings Henry II., Richard I., and
King John, consisting of a master, brethren, and thirteen
poor persons of the ordea of St. Augustine. This hospital
uad very large possessions, and was confirmed by Josceline,
Bu»hop of Batli, in the year 1219. Leland, who \isited it
in 153S, describes it thus : ' In the Est part of the Town is
onely the House, late College of St. John, a thing notable,
and this house standith partlv without th' est gate. This
college had preates that had the apparell of secular prestes,
with a cross on their breste, and to this house adjoined an
Hospice fW poot folks.' If appears fbora iheHarfeian MtTflT.
in the British Museum, thai William Lord de la Zoueh and
Seymore, and Richard Duke of York and Earl of Ulster,
and Lord of Wigmore and Clare, were patrons in 1457. Its
revenues at the time of the dissolution of monasteries
amounted to 120/. I9«. Ifd. In the W. part of the town
was a priory of Minorites or errey friars, dedicated to St.
Franeis, founded by a son of William de Briwere, the site
of whieh was givexv to one Emmanuel Lukar hy Henry VIII.
There was also imLeland's time an hospital for lepers. The
founder of St John's hospital also commenced a stone
bridge with three arches across the riv. Parret, but it was
only completed in the reign of Edward I., by Sir Thomas
Trivet, • whose arms being a trivet,' says William of Wor*
cester, ' were affixed to the coping of the structure.*
Bridgewater was one of the towns that Were taken by the
barons during their revolt against King Henry III. In the
civil wars it stood out a long time for the king. The castle
was strongly fortified, having forty large guns mounted on
the walls, and a moat of great depth and 30 ft. wide, which
every tide filled with water. Colonel Wyndham, the go^
vemor, defended it a long time against the rebels ; but at
last, on the a2nd of July, 1645, he was compelled to sur*
render. Upwards of 1 000 prisoners, 44 barrels of powder,
1500 arms, 44 pieces of ordnance, and a great quantity of
jewels, plate, and other articles of immense vahie, that had
been sent to the castle for safety (it having been declared
impregnable), were taken by the besiegers, amongst whom
the booty was divided. The castle was completely disman*
tied, and the only remains of it are the sally-port and some
small detached portions of the walls.
The inhabitants of Bridgewater supported the claims to
the throne of the Duke of Monmouth, a natural son of
King Charies II., and he was proclaimed king by the mayor
and corporation.
The elective franchise was conferred on Bridgewater by
Edward I., in the 23rd year of his reign, since which time
it has returned two members to parliament. Its first charter
was granted by King John, on the 26th of June, 1200, and
twelve other charters were granted to it between that time
and 1 6S3. There is a civil court, or court of record, the
jurisdiction of which extends to all personal actions and to
any amount. The court sits from Monday to Monday;
but as the expenses are very heavy, very little business
is done. There are also petty sessions every Monday.
The July county sessions aro held here, and the summer
assizes alternately with Wells.
The town is pleasantly situated, about 9 m. from the
sea, in a level but well-wooded country ; to the N.E. are
the Polden and Mendip Hills, and on the W. the Quantock
Hills. The riv. Parret, over which there is a handsome
iron bridge, divides tlie town into tNvo parts. The W. part
is the more respectably inhabited; the streets are well
lighted with gas and paved, and the houses are generally
g«)d ; some are built of brick, and others of a good, durable
carboniferous limestone found in the quarries of the neigh-
bourhood. The other part of the town, called Eastover, is
little more than a suburb, and is meanly built. The town-
hall is a good building, and well adapted for business;
over it is a cistern with an engine by which the inhabitants
are supplied with water. The gaol is very convenient, and
has separate divisions for the male and female prisoners.
The interior of the parish church dedicated to St. Mary
is handsome, consisting of a nave, chancel, and two side
aisles. The outward part of the structure is mean and iil-
built ; there is a tower at the W. end, surmounted by an ill-
proportioned spire< The altar-piece, which is much admired,
was presented by the Honourable A. Poulett, many years
memoer for the bor. It represents the descent from the
cross, and was found on board a captured French privateer.
The painter of it is uncertain. The living is a vie.
united with the rec. of Chilton Trinity, in the areh-
deaconry of Taunton and diocese of Bath and Wells. The
crown is the patron of the living, the net income of which
is 342/.
The riv. Parret is navigable as far as Bridgewater for ves-
sels of 200 tons; but it is subject, like some other rivs. in the
Bristol channel, to a rise of nearly six fathoms at spring tides.
The flow of the tide is preceded by a head water commonly
termed the ' bore,' [Ek>RB] which often produces much in-
convenience among the shipping. The principal imports
to Bridgewater are ooals, twine, hemp, tallow, and timber.
Coals are imported fh>m Wales, and conveved^mtoiheJnr^
Digitized by'vnOOx 1-^
9 H I
416
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tenor of ihe country by means of tbe riv. Panret and a can.
The former is navigable as far as Langport ; tbe canal runs
to Taunton, and thence into Devonsbire. The foreign trade
is principally with the U.S., Canada, Newfoundland, and the
W. I. The number of vessels belonging to the port (as
stated in the Report of 1828) was forty, of an average
burden of sixty tons. Many of the inh. are occupied in
the f{Lbrication of a peculiar sort of white brick, wnich is
naade of all sizes, and the common brick. The great mar-
ketnday for provisions, and especially for cheeses, for which
the neighbourhood is celebrated, is on Thursday. There
are also smaller markets on Tuesday and Saturday. The
market- house is a fine buildiug, surmounted by a dome
and a lantern. Fairs are held here on the first Monday in
Lent, the 24th of July, the 2nd of October, and the 27th of
December. The fair on the 2nd of October, called St
Matthew's Fair, was heretofore the mart of Somersetshire
and the adjoining counties, and is still of considerable im-
portance.
The pop. of Bridgewater in 1831 was 7807, of wliich 4124
were females.
There are places of worship for Baptists, Quakers, Inde-
pendents, AVesley an Methodists, and Unitarians. The free
grammar-school was founded in 1661, and endowed by
Queen Elizabeth with 6/. I3s. Ad. per annum, charged on
the tithes of the par., to which a donation of 200/. was
afterwards added. It is under the control of the corporation,
who appoint the master, and under the immediate inspec-
tion or the bishop of the diocese : four boys are taught ^a-
tuitously in the classics and four in {English. In 1723 Mr.
John Morgan founded a school (now conducted on Dr.
fell's system), and endowed it with lands to a considerable
amount. The. management of the school is vested in the
hands of trustees, amongst whom are the archdeacon of
Taunton and the vicar of Bridgewater: in 1816 a spacious
school-room and a house for the master were erected. The
present number of scholars is about thirty, some of whom
are clothed. A school was also founded by Mri £dward
Tackerell, and endowed by him with the dividends of 3000/.
in the funds, and the rents of certain messuages, amount-
ing to 174/. per annum, for the clothing, educating, and
apprenticing the children and grandchildren of certain of
his relatives. The management of this school, which was
the subject of a Chancery suit, is now in the hands of trus- |
tecs, whose accounts are annually audited by a master in
chancery. Several sums appear from the ' Reports on
Charities* to have been left by will for the instiuction of
poor children: 52/. by Richard Hoi wort hy ; 41/. 10#. by
Dorothy Hoi worthy ; Richard Castluman left 2 (i/., and
James Stafford 40/., — all fur the like purpose. Some alms-
houses endowed by Major Ingram with 18/. are now ap])ro-
priated to the poor of the par., and the 18/. is distributed
among poor widows not receiving parochial relief. An in-
firmary was established by subscription in 1813. In Willis's
* History of Abbeys,* several chantries are mentioned— -St.
.George's chantry ; the Virgin Mary's chantry, to which
belonged ten messuages, eight acres of land, and 40/. \s. in
Biiilgewater and Trinity chantry. Leland also mentions a
chapel at the S side without the town, • which,' says he,
' was buildid in hominum memoria by a merchant of
Bridgewater, cawUid Poel or Pole.'
Bridgewater was the birth-place of Admiral Blake, and
he was educated at the free grammar-school there.
In the neighbourhood of Bridgewater is the Isle of
Atl)elney. [Athelnev,]
(CoUinson's Somersetshire; Correspondence from Bridge-
water ; Leland; Harleian MSS,; Corftoraiion, Ecctesi-
astical, and Charity Reports, &c. &c.)
BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON. DUKE
OF, horn in 1736. was the youngest son of Scroop, fourth
"Earl and first Duke of Bridgewater, by Lady Rachel Rus-
sel, daughter of Wriothesley, second Duke of Bedford. He
succeeded his brother, the second duke, in 1748. He was
the heir of the Lord Chancellor Ellesmere in the sixth de>
gree of descent. In his youth he was extremely thin and
delicate, and his apparent predisposition to pulmonary com-
plaints was so decided, that his education uas entirely
neglected. He not only got the better ot this early ten-
dency, which had proved very fatdl to his family, but be-
came a very strong man and extremely corpulent. As his
bad health took him entirely out of society, he contracted
habits of extreme shvness, which made him avoid com-
>any, especially that of ladies. But thowgh the defects of
his early education and the Bina:iflarily of hw eharaiM^
were not unfrequently exhibited, his mind was naturalli *A
a most powerful and determined character, borderins per-
haps occasionally on obstinacy ; indeed it was owing to :) «
Quality, and his extraordinary enterprise, sagacity, and pru.
(fence, that he earned a title of far higher distinction chnn
that which he derived from the accident of birth. One ^4
the estates which he inherited, situated atWonWy. ncir
Manchester, contained a rich bed of ooal, but it was coiarft-
ratively of little value, in consequence of the heavy expense
of land carriage and the inadequate means of communKA-
tion afforded, by the Irwell, which, though rendered u;:.-
vi gable, was a tedious and imperfect medium for earn t: ;
on an extensive traffic. In deliberating on the best iD«ru«s
of supplying Manchester with coal from his pita at \Vor>i«f .
the obstacles were so great as to lead him to consider &
great variety of expedients for overcoming them. At Irnr.l
he fixed on the expedient of constructing a navigable ra&.^
and in the 32nd Geo. II. (1 7.58-9) he obtained, thooi^h i c
without some difficulty, the act of parlian&eht which ena!* :
him to commence the first navigable canal construetad il
Great Britain in modem tiroes. From this cireumfta: •
he is frequently styled 'the Father of British Inland Ni-
Tigation.* It was the Duke of Bridgewater's decern uia-
tion to render his canal as perfect as possiblo» and to
adopt a line which should render it unnecessary to htT»
recourse to locks. The duke had the good fortune *.
select as engineer a man whose genius was nnlbttervfi . i
commonplace rules, and one who was exactly fitted :j
carrv into execution a project, not only perfectly bo>*.
at the time, but wliich, even at the present day, «c ^..^
demand the highest practical science. [Brinoucy.] 1 l-
duke nobly supported Brindley in his bold* and on.'*-
views, in the merit of which he undeniably desert c* u
share. When Brindley proposed carrying the canal vx^r
the Mersey and Irwell navigation at Barton, by an j<|l -
duct 39 ft. above the surface of the water, he desuvd. !.r
the satisfaction of his employer, to have another enu'.!*.-*
consulted. The duke was not deterred by thediiSru:.
and magnitude of Brindlejr^s plans, nor by the iiDfavaur... .*
report of the other engineer, from prosecuting the w^^.
under his direction. It is reported that tbe individual n^-.
in to give his opinion had said, on being taken lo the \\ t:
where the intended aqueduct was to be constructed, thai .«
'had often heard of castles in tbe air, but never vas \\^^' -
before where any of them were to be erected.' The C' *.
was rewarded for his enterprising spirit and oonfldcDrr
the successful completion of the work, which is :!oo }..r^
in length. From the aqueduct the spectator may often . '
serve seven or eight men slowly dragging a boel iip r -
Irwell, against the stream, while about 40 ft. ianDedfr*- .%
over the river a horse or a couple of men are enab..
draw with much greater rapidity five or six bai^^cs fsM*" t '
one to the other. A considerable portion of the catici : •
tween Worsley Mill and' Manchester was executed ur : -
the provisions of the first act of parliament, but a mt. :
act was obtained in the following year for the pofpo»c • '
making some changes in the line. The whole of the c... ..
from Worsley to Manchester, with the subtrnaDeous « r .«
at the coal-mines at Worsley, was executed under t*:.-<
two acts: the underground canals and tunnels at W.^.'x.-
are said to have cost 168,000/. and to be 18 m. in ki:^:..
In 1762 a third' application was made to parifluncnr, 4. 1
the necessary* powers were obtained for opening an artifii .^I
water communication with Liverpool by the Mersey. S*. •
sequent acts enabled the duke to complete his designs^ 1 ..
length of the main line is above 27 m. all on the seme U w '.
which has rendered great embankmenCa necessary* a« tl-*
canal crosses several depressions. One of these rm^>ic>-
ments is 900 yards long, 17 ft. high, and lt2 ft wi6f
the base. The main line from Manchester is in a diret * •
a little to the S.W. for about 24 m.: it then sends k& .
branch, in a N.W. direction, which cresses tbe Irvdl i
Barton, and runs to Worsley ; from Wor&Iey it is cont:r. •
6 m. W. to Leigh ; a canal also runs from Leigh and ;
the Leeds and Liverpool can. at Wigan. From tbe f-
where the main can. sends off the Worsley brmneh. its c^cr^
is nearly S., and it crosses the Mersev. On theChe^:
bank the general direction of the canal is moie to U« S V
than the Mersey, but after crossing tbo river Bolhn \\ i
preaches nearer the Mersey, unUl within about 3 m. » . '
of Preston-brook, when it leaves the river farther le tt
N. From Preston-brook, in the padih of RiuBconi. ^ .^
Digitized by VnOOQ I
B RI
417
B RI
I «C Um ttOftlit at fint N.W. and afterwards due W.
)mtU it entera the tideway of the Mersey at Runcorn by
ten lockftt whicU have a faU at low water of 82} feet. At
Preston-brook the. Grand Trunk Canal (tl\e name by which
ihii naviffation is familiarly known in the country) joins the
Puke Mtfridgewater'a Canal, which thus connects it a^ith
the Tnnt and with Binningham and London, and with Bris-
toL With the exception of that part between Worsley and
Leigh, every part of the canal was executed, under the direc-
tion of Brindley, in about five years. The aqueduct at Barton
was opened July 17 th, 1761, and soon afterwards the whole
line. It eannot bo computed what the total expense in-
curred by the Duke of Bridgewater in completing this great
undertaking amounted to. The duke's caual however has
done as much to piomote tl^ public ^^perity as to increase
the wealth of the noble projector's heirs. Before its construc-
tion ooals were retailed to the poor at Manchester at 7d per
Gwi» but after its completion tnev were sold at 3|(f.» and six
score were given to the cwt The carriage by water irom
Manchester to Liverpool was 12#. per ton ; by land it was as
high as 40t. ; on^the duke*s canal the charge was 6«. per ton.
Tlie wealth which he was the means of creatiog was thus
diffused among every class of his countrymen. VThen
the line of his canal had been tripled in, lencth, the duke
never demanded larger tolls, but contented nimself with
the profits which the increase of trafiic fairly brought him.
The Duke was also one of the most zealous promoters of the
Grand IVunk Navigation, and his brother-in-law, the first
Marquis of Stafford being at its head, they mutuall v aided
each other* In the construction of his great work he had
exhausted his credit to the utmost ; he could not raise 6001.
on his bill in thacity of LondoUt and his agent, Mr. Gilbert,
had frec^uently to ride over the counties of Cheshire and
Lancashire, from door to door, to raise sums, from 10/. and
upwards* to enable him to pay the Saturday night's demand.
At the same lime the Duke restricteu himself to the
simplest fare, and lived with scarcely a servant to attend
upon him. His great estates at Ellesmere, which he held
in fee simple, were quite unencumbered, but no persuasion
would' inuuce him to resort to the easy method of re-
lieving himself from difficulties by borrowing money upon
them. When in London he would not undertake the trouble
of keeping house ; he therefore mocle an allowance of
2000/. to a £riend of his, (Mr. Can ill,) with whom he dined,
when not otherwise engaged, and to whose table he had the
privilege of inviting hii intimate friends.
The Duke of Bndgewator never took an active part in
politics ; but he was a decided friend to the Pitt Aaminis-
tration, and a large contributor to tlie Loyalty Loan. He
died March 8th, 1803, and never having been married* his
great wealth was distributed among the collateral branches
of his family. The canal property, with the Lancashire,
Cheshire, and Brackley Estates, he left to his nephew, the
late Ehike of Sutherland. They are now in the possession
of Lord Francis Sgerton, who has just (Feb. 1836) inti-
mated to the authorities of Manchester his desire to erect
a public monument in that town to the memory ef the Duke
of Bridgewater.
(Phillips s HtMUmf of Jtdand Navigation; Priestley's
Historical Aeamni </ th€ Navigabls Hiveri and CanaU^
S^. of Oreat Britain.}
BRIDLINGTON, formerly written BRELLINGTON,
but now commonly pronounced Burlington, is a port and
u. t. in the E. Ridiiw of the co. of York, in the wap* of Dick*
^ng, in the par. of Bridlinston, and in the township of Brid*
lington-quay. The pop. of the par. of Bridlington in 1 83 1 was
5637 : the pop. of the township of Bridlington-quay, including
the m. t. or Bridlington and quay, was 4792. In the bathing
season there are alnut a thousand additional residents. The
par. of Bridlington comprises the following places :— the t
of Bridlington-quay, the t. of Buckton, the ham. of Easton,
the chap, of Grindall, ^p t of Hilderthorp, the t of Sewerby
and Marten, and the ham. of Speeton. The area of the par.
is 12,4 1 0 acres. The town is about a mile from the E. coast
* Tlie face of die'conntrv as far as Bridlington is diversified
with lofty swdls, and Uie wolds in some places extend to
the coast, which, near the villages of Speeton, Bempton and
Flamborough, rise in diifs of 100 w 150 yards in perpendi-
cular height. At Bridlington the country sinks into a flat*
wliich continnes Ibr 8 or 9 m. to the 8. without almost any
variation.* (Bigland*s YorkMre.) Bridlington is distant
fhmi London by Lincoln 203 m.; by York 238 m. ; it is 40
nu B. by N. ftom York, and 32 nu N. f|om HuU. Its dis-
tance from London in a straight line is 167 m. It is <Aie cf
the polling places undo- the Reform Act, for the electioB
of Members for the E. Riding of the co. 54® 13' N. laf
O*' 16' E. long. * '
^ Earlp /fi^toTy.— Bridlington is lymsidered by some autho*
rities to have been the site of a Roman station— Qabrantwi"
corum. The vicinity of Flamborough Head as a post for
observation, the sheltered bay, the Sinus PoriuosUs of
Ptolemy, and the direction of a Roman road from York and
Aldborough, are all circumstances which strengthen the
supposition. The remains which determine the exact sites
of inland towns inhabited bv the Romans, have here been
long affo swept away by tne encroachments of the sea.
After the invasions of the Danes, and after the Saxons had
esublished themselves in Britain, the N. portion of the
country was the last subdued; nor was this eflbcted untH
the landing at Flamborough of Ida, a. d. 547. Whether
the tumuli which abound throughout this district were
raised during the time of the Saxon invasions, at an earlier
or a hUer date, is still matter of speculation. The generally
received opinion is that they are remnants of a time prior
to the Roman invasion ; and late discoveries are in favour
of this opinion. On the lOth of July, 1834, a tumulus was
opened at Gristhcrpe, near Flamborough cliff, a description
of which has been published by Mr. mlliamson, who infers
from its contents that the person entombed therein was ' one of
the aborigines of the soil.* The coffin was of oak, and of the
rudest shape and structure ; the interior having been hol«
lowed out apparently with chisels and hatcheU of flint;
The body within the coffin was enveloped in a strong skin*
which is supposed to have been a part of the man*s dress
when living. No pottery was found, Flint heads of arrows,
and of a javelin, pins of horn, bone and wood, and the frag-
ment of a horn ring, were among the contents of the
coffin ; in addition to which was a spear-head of brass, or
some other composition of metaL Tne body is considered
to have been about 6 ft 3 in. in height, and its muscular
attachments are very strong. The coffin and its contcnt«
are placed in the Scarborough museum.
When William the Norman ravaged the ootmtry for
60 m. between the Humber and the Tees, the monastery of
St John of Beverley alone escaped the general ruin, owing
to, the veperation in which the patron saint was held by the
Conqueror ; the ravages far exceeded those of the Danes
three centuries before. The manor of Bridlington formed
part of the extensive possessions of Earl Morcar, and was
confiscated in 1072. This manor, as well as large grants
in Lincolnshire, was conferred on Gilbert de Gont, a nephew
of the Coni|uen>r, and son of Baldwin, Earl of Flanders.
The possessions of Gilbert de Gant descended to his son
Walter.
Hccietiastteat Hiitory,^To Walter de Gant Bridlinglon
owes the foundation of its priory, the most distinguishing
feature in its earlv history. The revenues with which this
monastic establishment was endowed were on a scale of
munificence correspondent to the rich possessions of its
founder. When completed, nrobablv in 1114, it was peopled
with canons regular of the oraer of SmL Augustine. The mo-
nastery was dedicated to St Mary and St. Nicholas. The
charter of Walter de Gajit, and the confirmatory charter of
Henry, are in Dugdale's Monasticon ; and the bull of Pope
Calixtus II.9 confirming all the grants, is preserved among
the MSS. of Roser Dodsworth, in the Bodleian library at
Oxford. These oocuments are given at length in Prickett's
Historical and Architectural Description qf the Priory
Church of Bridkngion, The estates of the priory were of
immense extent, and included not only lands m its vicinity,
but also in many other parts of Yorkshire, and in Lincoln-
shire, Gilbert de Grant, the son of the founder, was a great
benefactor to the priory; and many other nobles added
liberal donations to its wealth. Henry I. grauted to* the
prior a full and complete civil jurisdiction over the manor
and town. Stephen granted them a jurisdiction over the port
and harbour. John granted them an annual fair, and a weekly
market Richard II. granted them his license to encloee
the priory with walls and houses built of stone and lime, in
order to aefend themselves from the ships of enemies whibh
entered the bar. Other kings granted them additional
favours and protections. A summarv of the possessions of
the priory is given in Burton's Montuticon Eboracense,
The canons were careful to have their grants confirmed, in
many instances by the heirs of the donor, the archbishop of
^ province, the king, ^d thd xeigning pontiil Th^
Ko.324.
[THB PENNY CYCLOPEDIA.]
om^z^^ly^B.
^le
^n\
418
fi Rt
ttonki of Bridlington are often mentioQed in eatif hiiitoriM ;
and sereral of them were eminent for piety and learning.
Mr. Wlutaker, the historian of Craven, tpeaks of ' the reh-
gious* as attendants at the great annual fairs held in diflferent .
parts of the country. He says, * the canons of Bridlington
regularly attended the fair at Boston every year, between
1290 and 1325. In the computus of the priory at Bridling-
ton is a yearly account of wine, cloth, groceries, &c., bougnt
' apud sanctum Botolphum.* The last prior, William de
Wode, was installed in 1581 ; having token an active part
in a rebellion soon after the suppression of the lesser monas-
teries, he was attainted of high treason and executed at
Tyburn, a. d. 1637. William of Newburgh was a native
of Bridlington, though a canon of Newburgh. His His-
torical Chronicle commences with the Norman conquest,
and is carried down to the reign of John.
The monastery existed four centuries ; when it was dis-
solved its revenues amounted to 550/. per annum, an im-
inense income at that day. In 1539 it was demolished, and
the manor and rectory became the property of the king, by
whom they were granted on lease to various individuals ;
eight pounds a-year being assigned to be paid by the lessee
for the maintenance of a parish priest. In the time of
Charles I. the manor and rectory were separated and sold
to different persons; the latter passed through several
hands, and is now a perpetual curacy of 143/. per annum.
History, — ^In 1643, during the differences between Charles
and his parliament, Bridlington became the scene of tem*
porary hostilities. The queen, who was bringing a supply
of arms and ammunition from Hellevoelsluis, under the con-
voy of Admiral Van Tromp, arrived in the bay, having
narrowly escaped the squadron under the command of Ad-
miral Batten, who had be^n stationed to intercept her.
After her landing. Batten entered the bay with two of his
ships, and for some hours the town was subjected to his can-
nonading ; he was then obliged to nut to sea, as the ebb of
the tide would have left him in shoal water. A lively sketch
of this transaction, from the pen of the queen, is given in
Thompson's Historical Sketches of Bridlington^ which is
taken from the Qentleman's Magazine for August, 1744.
A hostile squadron, under the celebrated Paul Jones, visited
Bridlington on the 20th September, 1779, soon after his
descent upon Whitehaven. On the following night by
moonlight an action commenced, so near to Flamlwrough
Head, which was crowded with spectators, that some of &e
balls grazed the clifls. The conflict was between the four
ships of Jones and the convoy of the Baltic fleet, the
Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough. The action,
whicQ was very sanguinary, lasted several hours, when the
two convoy vessels struck. Jones reached the Texel safely
with his prizes.
The Priory Church. — This venerable and splendid spe-
cimen of ecclesiastical architecture has been well judged
worthy of a description and illustrations. A few general
obseryations and extracts from Mr. Prickett's work may be
made here, but can convey no adequate idea of these re-
mains or of their former beauty. The nave and an arched
gateway leading to it are the only parts now left of the once
spacious monastery. The W. front has had two towers, of
which the lower stories only remain. This front still retains
a great degree of architectural magnificence, and is in the
style of the beautiful collegiate church of Beveriey. * The
date, 1106, preserved on a stone placed very conspicuously
over the entrance, is supposed to mark the year of Its
foundation.* (Bigland's Yorkshire,) * The grand western
entrance is an exquisite specimen of the architecture of
Henry VII.'s time ; excepting however the north-western
tower, which belongs to a much earlier period.* • The style
of the north-western tower is early English, as is also the
whole of the north side of the church.* ' The west window
is 55 ft. in height from its base to the crown of the arch,
and 27 ft. in breadth. The head is filled with good perpen-
dicular tracery ; the lower compartment below the transom
is the only portion at present glazed, and is 15 ft. high.
Along this there is a gallery connecting the two western
towera ; and it is remarkable that the upper part of the
window is 2 ft. wider than the part below the transom.'
' The north porch is a truly splendid specimen of architec-
ture, and perhaps better worth preservation than any other
part of the fabric ; but it has been sadly neglected, as the
entrance is seldom used, and the earth has been suffered to
'^cumulate so much against the whole of the north side of
church thatihevt is now a descent of several steps into
the porch.* * The length of the present cfanreh in the in-
terior is 165 ft. ; and the distance of the fitfthest pUlar from
the east wall of the church, whose foundation has been taken
np, 1 12 ft ; so that the antient ehurch seems to have beeo
neariy of the same length as Beverley minster, about 333 ft. :
its breadth is 68 ft., and height about 60 ft* * An octa^nn
turret with its leaden cupola, which was ereeted* (for th4»
reoeption of the bells) 'on the top of the basemeot of thr
■outh-west tower is as anomalous and disfiguring a^ mn
well be conceived.* About one-third of this churnh is fitted
up for public worehip, and will contain neariy a thonsand
people. (An Historical and Architeeturdt Deserintirm '"f
ihe Friary Church </ Bridlington. By the Rev. Marms-
duke Prickett.)
The dissenting congregations in Bridlington are two < t
Wesleyan Meth^ists, one of Baptists, one of IndepAidnnt^.
one of Quakers, and two of Primitive Methodists. A ch ap^!
called * the Union* is used by persons of difiSsrent Aenamnii-
tions. The Wesleyan Methodists have two Sunday mchooU
whieh contain 300 children; the Independents' Sunday
sehool contaiiu 60 children ; and there are other Sand t«
lehools of minor importance.
Education, Chanties, Commerce, <^.— In the year )6.t<
William Hustler, an inhabitant of Bridlington, left a f uci
of 40/. to be paid annually out of his estates for the maio-
tenanoe of a schoolmaster and usher. The diildren of t' «
par. were to be taught grammar and other useful kindi .
learning. For some time the office of sdioolmaater * . «
held by the minister or curate of the par., and that of u*h<*r
by the parish-clerk. By a decree in chancery in 1819 ti.*
two offices were united, ihe inh. having represented that tb«
office of master had become a sinecure in consequence • f
the non-residence of the minister. The present masu-r n
also the parish-clerk : he instructs 20 boys, children of pmr
parishionere, in grammar, reading, writing, and arithmrtv.
on this foundation ; he also takes paying pupils. Another
school was founded by William Bower in 1781, with iv'
per annum for ever ' for maintaining and educaticg tU
poore children of Bridlington and Key in the art of canlmr
kniting, and spining of wooll.* Twelve children of p*.;
parents receive instruction in this school. Henry Cowtnn.
bv will dated April, 1696, left the rent of oertain lands f ;
charitable purposes: these lands at present let fiw I Tip-
per annum. (Thompson's Historical Sketches,) In ini
Timothy Woolfe bequeathed by will the sum of 500/. t.
purchase land, the rent of which is to be distributed am ^rf
the poor for ever; and in 1795 Isaac Wall beqnesithed t:.o
interest of 1 000/. 3 per cent consols to be distributed amon j :
the poor for ever. (Prickett's Description, Appendix.) 1 :. •
national school was commenced in 18)8. In tne year I *..'
a grant of 300/. having been made by the National Sodrtv
the inh. raised a sufficient sum for the erection of tv
schod-rooms, one for boys and one for girls, each capab'; !
oontaining 200 children. The schools were opened m I?:-,
and nearly 300 children are educated in them. An infar -
school was established in 1828, chiefly by the active b?*
volence of an occasional resident, whi<^ is well mac:..
and contains 100 young children. In addition to tbe^-
schools there are about 20 othere« including day and boii«i
ing schools. There are two puUio subscription libra;,
and a small museum. The town-hall is over tbe pntcr
gateway ; the lower rooms of the gateway are used ts «
prison; the eom-exohanse is in the market-place. TTit*
town was first lighted with gas in the year 1833.
The streets are narrow and irregularly built, and t o
whole appearance is that of an old town. The trade :•
ehietly in com, and was formerly very extensire: Ur:>-
quantities were brought hither from tiie great agriculnm
traet bordering the Wolds and ftom Holdemeas, and ti « i<
conveyed ftom this port coastways to London. The opectuj,
of the navigable can. ftom Driffiekl to Hull has cuacd i.-s
corn-trade of Bridlington to decline. It is one of the pla^ -«
which has an inspector of com-returaa, and weekly act»un!«
of the quantity and price of grain sold are tranamittrii t.
the general inspector m London. • Malt and ale wc«« i *•
merly articles of considerable traffic; in 1761 there w^r*-
60 malt-kilns in constant use: this trade has very {rra>arl«
declined. Soap-boiling and bone-grioding for tbe puiv^
of manure [Bonb] are now earrira on. and the man noc-
ture of hats employs a few persons. These ocvtipati.<rH
the retail business necessary for the supply ot an extrn*iM?
agricultural district, and the influx of summer viattrrs, urr
the chief means whieh oontohuto iajtiie «ttWMct af Ibt ink
Digitized by VjOOQIC
fi'R'l
419
fi'Rfl
The importe «e chMj coals ftom SnnderUmd and N«v-
oastle, timber from America and the Baltic, and general
merchandise from Itondon and Hull : the port is a member
of the port of HulL Two Mrs are held annually in a larse
open area between the pnory gate, called also the Bayle
Gate, and the church. This area ia called the OreeDt and
is supposed to have been the antient market-plaoe. On
the Sf. verge stands the par. poor-house, a large old building,
said to be ' unhappily crowded with inmates.* At a short
distance are two circular mounds of earth 104 yards asunder,
called butt-hills, thrown up for the practioe of archery before
the introduction of fire-arms. (Hiitorical Skatckss.)
BRIDLINGTON QUAY is a small modem town in the
recess of the bay on the sea- coast, the principal street of
which rons directly to the bar. and is very wide. The N.
pier commands a view of Flamborough Head at 5 m. dis
tance. There is good anchorage in this bay, particularly
when the wind is unfavourable for coasting-vessels proceed-
ing round Flambwough Head N. The amusements of
Quay during the bathing season are chiefly those of riding
and sailing. The beach has a fine hard sand, which affords
a good walk at low water. There are warm and cold sea-
water baths for invalids and rooms which possess all the
requisite aooommodations. At a short distanoe there is a
chalybeate spring of reputed efficacy, resembling the waters
of Scarborough and Cheltenham, but not so purgative. An
ebbing and flowing spring, which was discovered in 1811,
furnishes an abundant supply of water of remarkable purity.
This spring was discovered in 181 1 by the late Benjamm
Milne, BsQ*! eolleotor of \he customs at this port; a man
who, for this and other services, is justly entitled to rank
first among the benefactors of Bridlington. The fossils
of the chalk oUfis near Bridlington are numerous and well
known. A few years ago a head of the great extinct
elk with branching horns, measuring 11 it. from tip to
tip, was found in the lacustrine deposit in this vicinity. The
peat bogs and shell marl deposits in which the remains of
this noble extinct animal have been found in Ireland, Scot-
land, and the Isle of Man, are extremely similar to the
lacustrine accumulations of Holdemess. The entrance to
the port and bay is defended by two batteries, one on the
S. side of the town, mounting 6 guns (18-pounders), and
the other on the N. side, mounting six gnns (12-pounders).
These batteries enfilade the mouth of the har. and form a
cross-fire with each other at right angles. The environs of
Bridlington and Quay are exceedin^y beautiibl. On the
1 7th February* 1836, Bridlington was visited by one of the
heaviest storms ever known. Several houses were destroyed,
others much damaged, and the piers were muoh injuied. (HU^
toricai Sketches of Brtdlington^ by J. Thompson ; Prkkett's
Description of the Priory Church qf BriaUngton; Com^
munication from Bridlingtom, &e.)
BRIDPORT, a bor. and m. t. in Dorsetshire, on the
highway from London to Exeter, and distant from London
by the road, about 135 m. It appears firom a notice in
Domesday Book, to have been a considerable place before
the Norman Conquest, and has been noted from an early
period for its hempen manufactures : the soil in the sur-
rounding country being strong and deep, formerly produced
excellent hemp. That now used is imported principally
from Russia. There is an old saying in allusion to a man
who has been hanged, * He has been stabbed with a Brid-
port dagger,* which shows the antiquity of the manufacture
of hemp at Bridport
The earliest charter of which any certain memorial re-
mains is dated the 22nd June, 37 Hen. HI* This charter
received subsequent confirmations,— the governing charter
was dated the 15th Aug., 18 Charles II. By the Moni-
cipal Reform Act, Bridport ia divided into two wards, and
has 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. The town is lighted by
^. Queen Elisabeth, in her 36th year, granted to the
bailiffs and burgesses a market on Saturdays, on which
cattle might be sold, firom the Friday before Palm Sunday
to Midsummer-day ; and three fairs, vis., on March 26th,
on Holy-Thuiaday and two following days, and on Miehael-
nuis-day, with a court of pie-poudre. The profits and tolls
of the fairs and markets average about 203A annually. The
present market-house was built under an aet obtained in
ft85.
The prosperity of Bridport is materially dependent on
that of the harbour, which is at the mouth of the riv. Brit,
About a mile from the town, the oommuntcation being by
an excellent road. Many efforts have been made to improve
this hathour. In 1318, one John fiuder#8fleld obtained
firom Richard II. a gjrant, for improving the port, of a half«
penny toll for every. horse-load, of goods imported or ex*
ported here. Other, attempts were unsuccessfully made,
but the haven was Repeatedly rendered almost useless, by
the tides barring it i)p wit^i sand. In 1 722, an act was ob-
tained, of which the preamble states, that by reason of a
great sickness, which swept away the greatest part of the
mosC wealthy inhabitants,. and other accidents, the haven
became neglected and choked with sand, the piers fell to
ruin, and me town consequently to decay. . The works, for
which this act was obtained, were not begun till 1741, and
the pier was finished in 1742, towards the expense of which
the two representatives of the borough contributed 3500/.,
an individual 1000/., and the town 500/. Further improve-
ments were made in 1756, sluices were constructed, the
fitesh-water hayed back, and at the ebb of the tide dis-
charged with* rapidity, in*order to scour the sand. Until
1 822, the corpomtion were the* exclusive trustees of the
harbour ; but in that^year ti new act 'was obtained for its
improvement, by which, besides the bailiffs and burgesses,
many individuals were made commissioners for the execu-
tion pf the act. This act fixed s maximum of tonnar^c dues
on vessels, and of dues to be received on exports and im*
ports. A sum of l?,800/.«was borrowed, and together with
the surplus dues appbed to* the improvement of the harbour,
which has thereby been rendered safe and commodious for
shipping not exceeding 250 tons burthen. The trade of
the port is rapidly increasing. In 1804, the number of
vessels which entered was 128, their tonnage 9926, the
harboor dues 459/. In 1833, it stood thus :
INWARDS. OUTWARDS.
VwmIs. TooMge. Vesaeli. Toonafe.
Foreign trading vessels . 27 2,404 I 15 452
Coastmg trading vessels 233 21,722 | 114 6,575
Bridport was made a bonding port in 1832. The total
amount of harbour duties in 1833 was 5224/.
The staple productions of the town are twine, lines, and
fishing-nets. Of late years the manuikoture of sail-canvas
and shoe-thread has become extensive. The exports con-
sist tninoipally of these manufactures, and of butter, for
whion the countv of Dorset is celebrated ; and the imports
of hemp, fiax, aeals firom the Baltic, wines, spirits, skins,
coals, eulm, and slates. The town ia also celebrated for the
skill of its ship-builders.
The pop. of the bor. and par. of Bridport, which were for-
merly oo-extensive, has considerably increased since the be-
ginning t>f the present century. The pop. of the new bor.
created by the Reform Bill, which is mere extended than
the old one, cannot be ascertained with certainty, but is
probablj about 7000. The borough returns two members
to Parliament
The old mail road firom London to Exeter passes through
Bridport, and forms the main street The prmcipal streets
are spacious, and tolerably well built The church of St.
Mary*a, near the lower end of South-street, is an antient
building, in the form of a cross. There are four dissentina
ehapels. There were several religious foundations and
chantries, few relics of which now appear. In the bor. and
par. there are sixteen dailj schools, one of which contains
eighty-two children, and is supported by an endowment.
There are four Sunday schools, all supported by voluntary
contribution. Within the last two years a mechanics*
institute has been established, and handsome and com-
modious reading and lecture rooms have been erected.
(Hutohins's Dom/, corrected by Gough and Nichols;
Boundary ReporU ; Muindpal Corporatiom Report ; Bdu^
cation Retume,)
BRIB, a district in France comprehended partly in
Champagne, and partly in the lie de France. It extended
from the banks of the Seine toward the N.E. ; its dimen-
sions were, greatest length N.B. and S.W. nearly 70 m. ;
greatest breadth measured neariy at right angles to the
length about 65 m. (Atlas to Bncyclop, MithodL). It was
formeriy divided 'nio Brie Fran^iee, Brie Champenoiee
(subdivided into Upper and Lower Brie), and Brie Pouil-
leuee afterwards incorporated with Brie Champenoise.
The whole was bounded on the N. by the Ue de France
(proper), Valois, and Soissonnois, on the E. and part of
the 8. by Champagne proper, on the remaining part of its
8. ft-ontier by Senonois, and on the W. by Hurepoix, from
which it was divided by the Seine. The chief towns within
its limits (with their pop. in 1832) were as follow :— t
Digitized byiSOOgle
« III
420
B RI
2698
3708
1865
OuniuiiuA*
2762
1869
4153
8537
3335
1930
Brie Pranpoige. •
Brie Gompte Robert
Corbeil •
Rosoy
Montcreau . . . • 4048
Brie Chmmpenoiee.
Upper Bete
McauK . . • . • 8481
Coulommien « • • • 2645
Cr6cy ,....•
Jouy . • • • •
Lower Bti«
Proving • • • • 5665
Sezanne V • • • •
La Fectd Gaucher . • .1553
Bray or Brais sur Seine • • 1 992
Villenoxe La Grande . . 2430
Donnemarie • • • •
An^^lure • • • •
Brie Pouill^use.
Chateau Thierry « . ' . 3749 4697
Montmirail • • • «
La FSre en Tardenois • .. 2069 2313
La Fert6 sous Jouarre • •
Nogent r Artault • • •
Bi-ie bad antiently its own feudal lords, who bore the title
of counts of Meaux ; but Herbert of Verraandois, count of
Meaux or of Brie, having become count of Tioyes or Chani-
pagne in the 10th century, united the two countries. Brie
evor after followed the fate of Champagne. The territory is
now divided between the dep. of Aisne, Aube, Marne, Seine
et Marne. and Seine et Oise, to which the reader is referred.
BRIEF (PAPAL) is the name given to the letters which
the pope addresses to individuals or religious communities
upon matters of discipline. The Latin name is * brevis/ or
' breve,* which in the latinity of the lower ages meant an
epistle or written scroll. The French in the old times used
to say * brief for a letter, and the Germans have retained
the word * brief * with the same meaning to this day. The
difference between a Brief and a Bull in the language c^
the Papal Chancery is this : the briefs are less ample and
solemn instruments than bulls, and are like private letters
addressed to individualst giving the papal decision upon
particular matters, such as dispensations, release from vows,
appointments to benefices in the gift of the see of Rome,
indulgences, &c. ; or they are mere friendly and congratula-
tory letters to princes and other persons high in office. The
apostolical brief is usually written on paper, but sometimes
on parchmeut ; it is sealed in red wax with the seal of the
Fisherman (oib annuh Piscatorii), which is a symbol of
St Peter in a boat casting his net into the sea. (Ciampini,
J)is9eriat%o de Abbreinatorum Mumre, cap. iiL) A bull is a
solemn decree of the pope in his capacity of. head of the Ca*
tholic Church : it relates to matters of doctrine, and as such
is addrwsed U> all the members of that church for their
general information and guidance. The bulls of excom-
munication launched by several popes against a king, or
a whole state, are often recorded in history. The briefs
are not signed by the pope, but by an officer of the Papal
Chancery, called ' Segretario dei Brevi : they are indited with-
out any preamble, and, as just observed, are written generally
U|x>n paper. The bulls are always on parchmenjt,and sealed
with a pendent seal of lead or green wax, representing on one
side the heads of St. Peter and St PauL and on the reverse the
name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate : their
name comes from the Latin * bulla,* a carved ornament or
stamp. The bulla of indulgences are general, and addressed
to all the members of the church; the briels of indul-
gences are addressed to particular individuals, or monastic
orders, for their particular benefit
BRIEF, commonly called CHURCH BRIEF or
KING'S LETTER. This instrument consisted of a kind
of open letter in the king's name, and sealed with the
privy seal, directed to the archbishops, bishops, clergymen,
magistratest churchwardens, and overseers of the poor
throughout England. It recited that the crown thereby
licensed the petitioners for the brief to collect monev for the
charitable purpose therein specified, and required the seve-
ral persons to whom it was directed to assist in such collec-
tion. The origin of this custom is not altogether free from
doubt ; but as such documents do not appear to have been
^ssued by the crown, previoualy to the Reformation, they
lay possibly be derived from the papal briefs, which, from
rerf «ai1f penoAs of the history of the chtntli. wgre gl^ —
credentials to meodimnt friars, who eoUeeted ncoMy ftwm
ooontry to country, and firom town to town, for the buildiiig
of churches and other pious uses. It is probable that, as
soon as the authority of the pope ceased in England, Cbe«e
briefs began to be issued in the king*e name. They appear
to have been always subject to gieat abuse; and tba atas. 4
Anne, c. 14, after reciting that • many ineeoveniencea arwe
and fian^ were committed in the common metlioA ef <«4-
lecting charity money upon brief;!,* enacted a variety of pM>-
vtsions for their ftiture regulation, and, among odiera, pr>-
hilMted, by heavv penalties, the praetioe, wtrieb had pre-
viously prevailed, of farming briefr, or aettiiig, upon a
kind of speculation, the amount of charity UMtwy t^
be collected. Still these provisions were evaded, and
heavy abuses arose ; and the collection by hriefr m
modem times was found to be a most JnoopvepietK and
expensive mode of raising money for eharitaMe pwrpoMv.
AocoTding to the instance given in * Boms a Eedaaiastir^!
Law; tit Brief, the charges of collecting 6l4f. lU. 9'i«
for repairing a church in Westmoreland, anxxtnted to
330/. 16«. 6<1, leaving therefore only a dear coDeetiofi of
283/. 16«. 3d, This expensive and objectionable maehinrry
(in the exercise of which the interesUof the charity to W
promoted were almost overwhelmed in the payment ef ft^
to patent officers, undertekers of briefo and derfta of tbv
briefs, charges of the king's printers, and ether continger.t
expenses) was aboUshed by the stat 9 Geo. IV., r. 4?.
which wholly repealed the statute of Anne, except 9a t')
briefs then in course of collection. By the 10th aertioQ <jf
the late statute, it is enacted * That, as often aa hia Ma^tr
shall be pleased to issue his royal letters to the Ardihtsh^r*
of Canterbury and York respectively, authorising eollertor-
within their provinces for the purpose of aiding the enUrgir;:.
building, rebuilding, or repairing, of chinches and cbapils
in England and Wales, all contributions so edieeled ihx:\
be paid over to the treasurer of the * Incorporated Sorir:?
for promoting the enlargement, building, and repairing 'f
churches and chapels,* and be employed in carrying the J^
signs of the Society into effect* This statute does not inter-
fere with the authority of the crown as to granting bnef < :
its only effect is to abolish the machinery iiiCioduc^i
by the stetute of Anne. Under the provisions ef Che tsat.
9 Geo. IV., c. 42, a brief was issued and oollectod, in tlie
year 1834, in aid of the funds of the church building sorietT .
and, under the common law authority of the crown, a b*-.cf
was issued, in 1835, to increase the firads of the * 8on«t>
for the propagation of the Gospel in foreign parts,* with s
view to the building of schools and chapels for the efoana-
pated Negroes in the West Indies. The brief in the Itmr
case recites that similar letters had been at variotis timn
granted, in aid of the Society's funds, by previous kings.
BRIEF (in law) means an abridged rdation of the ft<-t«
of a litigated case, with a reference to the pointo of law sup-
posed to be applicable to them, drawn up for the instruct! -n
of an advocate in conducting proceeding in aeourt of justr^-
Briefs vary in their particular quaUties acoording te t^«
nature of the court in which the proceedings are pendm j.
and of the occasion in which the services of an advocate arv
required ; but in general they should contain ti»e nam* 4
and descriptions of the parties, the nature and precise ftta^
of the Bui^ the facto of the litigated transaction, the j»«ir<'<»
of law intended to be raised, the pleadings, thepieo^ and
a notice of the anticipated answers to the client's case.
BRIEG, a t. in the government chcto of Bvcsbui in
Prussian Silesia, and the diief place of a lesser citde of :N
same name, which forms part of the principality of Brieg. am!
contains abont 228 sq. m. and about 37,000 inb., of wh*im
about S-6ths are Protestants. The t. itself lies on the Odrr.
is surrounded by fortifications of no great stMngtb, soniv o(
which have been converted into promenades, is wdl bu..t«
with broad, straight streeto, has a castle now in rains, >
gates, 4 Lutheran and 3 Roman Catholic chorehes, 5 h»-
pitals, an infirmary, a house of correOtion (in which i.<
prisoners are employed in weaving cottons), a lunatic a»t.
lum and other chariteble institutions, a gymnariuoi and an
arsenal, and conteins about 570 houses, and a pop. ef al«r. .
5200 souls. The manufactures consist of linens. wooil«rr^
woollen gloves and stockings, cottons, lace, leather, &..-.
It is the seat of a head office for the royal Stieaian minf^ *^
a royal salt factory, and of district conrto of justice, and >»<
3 fairs in the year, besides bein|| a large m. t. for cattle. a'*l
having considerable trade in timber, whieb is foltod in tbs
neighbouring forests, ^■^}ff^^ wooden bridge of sdid caa
B R I
43t
BRl
•CrneCioiiemtHtfaeOderatihtftplaee, Briiteisftbmit465ft.
above the level of the sea, and aboa^ 86 m. 6.E. of Bietlatt.
BRIEU orBRIELLB ; eometiniet also called iheBriil;
a sea-port toiini on the N. aide of the t«l. of Voom in the
piov. of 8. Holland ; ie situated near the nenth of the
Haas in 51® 54' N. lot. and 4' 8' E. long.
The oonfedetatea* having been driven from the Nether-
Itnd^ by the duke of Alba, equipped a fleet in En^nd
and entemd the harbour of BrieU whioh enrrendered to
them, and thus became the earliest seat of the independ-
ence of the Dutch republic. This occurred in 157fl. In
1585 this town was given up to SlisabeUi, queen of Bng*
land, as security for advances made by her to the States
of Holland, and it continued garrisoned by English soldiers
until 1616, when it was restored.
The town is well built and stronp^lv fortified. The bar.
is commodious, and capable of oontaimng 300 vessels. The
inh. consisfeed. in Jan. 1830, of 2000 miJes and 2195 fomales ;
the men are principally occupied as fishermen and pilots.
Briel was the birth-plaoe of the Admirals Van Tromp and
De Witt. The town is 6 m. N. of Helvoetsluys, 12 m. W.
of Rotterdam, and 24 m. W.N.W. from Dordrecht.
BRIENNE. [Boir APASTB and Aure.]
BRI£NNE» JOHN OF, third son of Eraid IL, Count
of Brienne sur Aulie, a small town in Champagne near
Troyes, and of Agnes of Montbelliard, was married by the
recommendation of Philippe Auguste, to Mary, daughter
of Isabella, wife of Conrad* marquis of Montferrat. Isabella
was youngest daughter of Amaury king of Jerusalem* an
empty title which Mary thus inherited from her maternal
grandfather. Of the early life of John of Brienne nothing
is known, but he was named by the king of France as the
most worthy champion whom be could offer for the defence
of the Holy Land, ' as good in arms, faithful in war, and
provident in action.* He was crowned at Tyre, a.d. 1209,
and he maintained himself against the Saracens as well as
his scanty force would allow. In the fifth crusade he
he(»ded a loige band of sdventurers in the invasion of
Egypt, whom he led to the capture of Dsmietta, after six-
teen months* siege; and when the pride* obstinacy, and
avorice of the Cardinal Pelagius, the papal legate, had com-
promised the safety of the Christian army, which was en-
closed on one side by an overpowering host of Moslems, on
the other by the waters of the Nilci the king of Jerusalem
bersme one of the hoatagea for the evacuation of Egypt.
When the emperor Frederic IL, stimulated by ambition,
undertook to fulfil his often evaded vows of joining the
enisade, upon receiving the nominal sovereignty of the Holy
Land, John of Brienne, wearied with Ihe ineffectual struggle
which he had long supported against the infidels, agreed to
abdicate in his favour, and brought his eldest daughter and
heiress, Yolande or lolante, to Italv, where Frederic re-
ceived her in marriage ; yet in the subsequent wars between
the pope and the emperor, John commanded the pontifical
ormy against his son-in-Uw. In the yesr 1225, the em-
peror, during his successful expedition to Palestine, entered
the Holy City ; and, upon a demur of the patriarch, crowned
himMlf with his own hands. From this union of Frederio
with lolanis, the present royal house of Naples derives a
claim to the title of king of Jerusalem, which it still pre*
serves. (Giannone, Xii. 2 ; Hallam, Middle Agei, L 264, 4to.)
John of Brienne, in 1222, hai married as a second wife
Berongaria, sister of Ferdinand king of Castile ; but hia ser-
vices in more advanced life were again needed in the east.
On the death of Robert of Courtenaye, and the succession
of his youngest brother Baldwin IL to the imperial throne
of Constantinople, the barons of Romania, seeing that the
Latin dynasty required a protector of greater vigour and
maturer years than their boy-sovereign, invited John of
Brienne to share the throne during his life-time, a proposal
which ho accepted upon condition that Baldwin should
espouse his youngest daughter. In 1229 he aocordin^ly
assumed the imperial dignity, and for the ensuing nine
years he nobly maintained himself against the increasing
power of Vataces, emperor of Nicssa. A contemporary poet
affirma thai the achievements of John of Brienne (who at
that time had passed his 80th year, according to the repre-
sentation of the Byaantine historian^AcropoTita) exceeded
those of Ajax, Hector* Roland, Uggier, and Judas Mae-
caiMOus; and we should roadily acquiesce in this assertion,
if we weTe to believe the exploits related of him when Con-
stantino|»le was besieged by the confederate forces of Vataces
and of Asan king of Bulgaria. Their allied army amounted
to lOOfOOO. m«n ; their fleet consisted of 300 ships of war,
against which the Latins could oppose only 160 knights and
a few seijeaats and archers. 'I tremble to relale,* says
Gibbon, with wvllgustified approhension, 'that instead of
defending the city, the hero made a sally at the head of his
cavalry, and that of forty -eight squadrons of the enemy no
more than three escaped from the edge of his invincible
sword/ The ensuing year was distinguiafaed by a second
victory ; soon after which John of Brienne closed a life of
military glory by an act of devotion which raised him
equally high in spiritual reputation also. During htslsst
illness, in 1237, he clothed himself in the habit of a Fran«
ciscan monk, and thus expired in that which superstition
considered to be the richest odour of sanctity.
The reign of John of Brienne is given at length by Du
Cange, in the third book of his HiiL ConsianHnop,, and a
life of him was published at Paris, in 1727 C12mo), by
Lafltau, a Jesuit.
BRIENZ, Lake. [Bern.]
BRIES {Brezno-Bdnya, Iiungar.,and Brezno, Sclsvon.),
a royal free t in the "N.B. part of the co. of Sohl or
Zolyom. in Hungary, lies between the Viopar and Csertova
ranges, in a valley of considerable elevation; and upon the
banks of the Gran. This t. was founded as a cenUre for
mining operations, in the year 1380, when it received its
privileges : it was raised to the rank of a royal fVee town in
1655« There are 18 adjacent vills. within its jurisdiction,
which, with the t, contain about 820 houses and 6300 inh.,
of whom Briea itself contains about 8500. There are ex-
oelfent gnixing grounds in the neighbourhood ; and the
breeding of sheep and sale of wool are carried on t»a great
extent This is also the case with the articles of honey and
wax, the produce of which is occasionally much diminished
by the havoc which the bears fhmt the adjoinmg woods
oommit on the hives. Bries is also celebrated fer ita cheese,
made from sheep*s milk. In the neighbonrhood are sevonl
iron-^orks andauarries ; precious stones, partieulariy rabies,
are found in the beds of the mountain-stnams, as well
as in the rivulets in the Vale of Michalot The t has
a piarist college, a Roman Catholic gymnasium, a head-
school for elementary instruction, and two churches. 48P
49' N. lat 19^ 40^ E. long.
BRIEUC rSAINT), or BRIEUX (SAINT), a city in
France, capital of the dep. of COtes du Nord. It is situated
vory near the coast of the Manohe or channel on the smsll
bay of St. Brieuc, and on the high road from Paris by
Rennes to Brest; 278 m. W. ftom Ftois: 48° 30' or 32'
N. lat, and 2f 45' W. kmg.
This city owes its origin to a monastery built in the fifth
or sixth century by St Brieuc, an Irishman, and raised in
tho ninth oentuiy to the rank of a bishopric. It is near
the little river Qouet, over whioh i» a handsome granite
bridge, and in a bottom surrounded by hills sufficiently
high to intercept the view of the sea, although so near.
The river Qouet is navigable, and at its mouth is the village
of Legu^-Saint^Brieue, which forms the pott of the town.
Saint Brieuc is a neat town, tolerably well laid out and built,
with streets sufficiently wide, and well-looking plaees or
squares. It has a cathedral, a Gothic- building of the
thirteenth century ; and befere the Revolution tMre were
a collegiate chureh of St Guillaume and several parish
ohnrches ; two monasteries (Cordelien and Capuchins) and
several nunneries. The garden of the Cordehers is now a
publte promenade. Of iSm present commerce of the town
we have little trust-worthy information. Among its manu-
feotures may be enumerated linens, serges and o&er similar
woollen stuffs, unbleached thread or yam, leather, paper,
earthenware, and beer. It is engaged also by menus of
the port of Legn£ in the French colonial trade, and in the
Newfoundland cod fishery, and in ship-building. The pop,
in 1832 amounted to 10.420. The town does not appear to
have been walled. St Brieuc is remarkable for its literary
establishments. Its publie library contains 24,000 volumes.
It has a college or hiffh school, a school of hvdrography,
and an agricultural society. A theatre and a fine hospital
are among its establishments ; and there are horse-races at
the beginning of July every year.— (Malta Brun; Balbi;
Dieticnnain de Breiagne, by Og^.)
The bishoprio of St Brieuc includes the dep. of the
Cdtes du Nord, which has a pop. of 598,872. Tne biibop
is a suffragan of the arehhishep of Tours.
The arrond. of St Brieuc is the most populous in the dep.
It had» in 1832, 17 1,730 inhabitents. ^ t
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» R I
-BRia BRiaANTINS* [Ship.]
BRIGADK, This torm is generally applied, in ntilitary
affairs, to the union of two or more battalions or regiments
in one corps ; but sometimes to the union of a certain num-
ber of men or guns in one subdivision. Thus from two to
six battalions of infantry constitute a brigade, and one of
cayalry may consist of two or three regiments. The British
Rifle brigade is composed of two battalions. A brigade of
Sappers consists of 8 meui and is divided into two demi-
brigades of 4 men each, one demi-brigade only being em-
ployed in the execution of a trench by single sap. Six pieces
of ordnance form a brigade of artillery ; and the horse
artillery consists of 12 troops, to each of which one such bri*
gade of guns is attached. According to Pdre Daniel, com-
manders having the charge of several regiments, and the
ttUe of brigadiers, were instituted, in France, by Louis XIV.
In the British service the commander of each brigade is
entitled brigadier-general : his rank is immediately above
that of colonel ; and, to assist him in the performance of his
duties, there is appointed a brigade-maior, who is usually a
captain, or if a sui>altem, he holds in the brigade the rank
of junior captein. An effective field-officer of a regiment
is not eligible to this post.
To a heavy brigade of artillery there are attached about
140 men and as many horses, and to a light brigade, 100
men and 90 horses. Six-pounder and nine-pounder guns
are employed in the fieldi but the latter kind seems now to
be preferred.
During peace the British army is dispersed over the coun-
try, several brigades occupying each district. The com-
manders of regiments make their reports to the brigadier-
general ; the latter transmits them to the general of the dis-
trict, and through him they are communicated to the adju-
tant-general or to the commander-in-chief.
Not only the number of battalions which are united to
form a brigade, but also the number of brigades which con-
stitute a division, is various ; both brigade and division de-
pending upon the strength of the several regiments and
upon the nature of the service. It may be sufficient to men-
tion, that at the battle of.Corunna, where the British army
consisted of about 25,Q0Q men imder arms, the first line was
formed of three divisions, the division constituting each wing
consisted of three brigades, and the centre division of two ;
some of the brigades were composed of four batulions, some
of two, and one of them of three. The infantry in the second
line was, in like manner, unequally divided ; the centre con-
sisted of two brigades of cavalry, one formed of three regi-
ments, and the other of two ; and there were eleven brigades
of artillery.
As the separation of an army into two or more principal
divisions permits the greater changes of disposition in the
line to be effected with a unity of design which is essential
to their utility, so the secondary evolutions are accomplished
with a corresponding advantage by the subdivision into bri-
gades. The head of the army, having communicated the
i;eneral plan of the action to the officers who are imme-
diately under him, reposes on them with confidence for the
diligent execution of the orders he may transmit, and is thus
relieved from the necessity of following with his own eyes
the movemenU of each particular battalion ; while those
officers, having the power of distinguishing themselves,
either by a faithful adherence to the orders they mav receive,
or by the exercise of their judgment in modifymg such
orders according to the varying circumstances of warfare,
are thereby prompted to display all their energies in making
the necessary dispositions, and subsequently in animating
the troops who are to execute them.
BRIGANTES, a tribe of antient Britons who occupied
that part of England which includes the counties of York,
Lancaster, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham, with
the exception of the 8.K. corner of Yorkshire between the
Humber and the sea as far as Flamborough Head, which
Has inhabited by the Parisii (Camden's Britannia). The
Brigantes first occur in Roman history under l^e reign of
Claudius, when, having partially risen against the Romans
during the war between the latter and the Iceni, they were
defeated by the Pr»tor M. Ostorius. when some of their
leaders were killed and the rest submitted and obteined
peace (Tacitus, Annal, xii. 32.) During the civil wars of
the empire, after Galbas death, the Brigantes revolted
af^ainst their (juecn Cartismandua, who was an ally of the
Romans, and who had forsaken her husband Venutius for
a lover. Cartismandua escaped with great dfflculty acd
hf the aiiiBtiitH*» «f Mma Remtn cohorti» and YeBOtiu^
remained master of the country of the Brigantes, and at
war with Rome (Tacit. HisL m, 45). Under Vespasian.^
the Brigantes were totally defeated by the Prsetor Pelil;..t
C^rialis after a severe struggle, and the Romans touk |> %
session of the greater part of their country. Tacituk de-
scribes them as the most numerous tribe in the whole pr>i
of Britain (Agricola, xvii.) We find the Brigantes men-
tioned agam under the reign of Antoninus Pius, when t>.c>
made incursions into the neighbouring territory of Genu i a
CFausan. viii. 48), which was subject to the Romans, for « h. . h
thev were attecked and defeated by Lollius Urbicus. and (u - 1
of their territory was taken from them. In the divi»i>ici .i
Britain made by Severus, the Brigantes were in the pr^.
called Britonnia Superior, of which Eboracum (Y'ork) wa^ t .
capHal, and'aflerwards in the new division under Cun>t.i..-
tine they were in the prov. called Maxima Cfisarienhiw
We find in Ptolemy a tribe of Brigantes in S uiIm -i^
Hibernia between the rivers Birgtu (Barrow) and Vain' '.i
(Blackwater) occupying the space included in the unt^lf. -
counties of Waterford and Tipperary. They are supp«.v -:
by some to have emigrated from Britain.
The Brigantes must not be confounded with the Brigan: ..
a tribe in Vindelicia near the borders of the lake ot L .
stance, whom Strabo (iv. p. 206. Casaub.) mentions ^
terrible robbers, whose name vgas the dread of ilie ne:.- •
bouring countries, and who in their incursions iiito It-,
used to commit the greatest cruelties, kilhng all t!)e u .
and male children and even the pregnant women. \\ b. U :
it was from the traditional character of these Brigantu. :
that the word itself meant in its original la^gua:re u .
rauders, or ' free hands,* as some have interpretA.'U m t .•
name appears to have been held ever aft4:r m di»rciJ. : .
and we find the French in the middle ages u^xn^ * ^
word Brigans as synonymous with armed odvcnlurci^k. Y .
English also used to say of a bold lawless fallow, " he yl: .
the Brigans.* (Camden). In the wars of the French :* -
lution and of Napoleon the appellation Brigands U^- -
common in the French invading armies to signify aVi :
who resisted them without being regular soldiers, \
accordingly they did not consider as entitled to on> w: - .
courtesies of modern warfare.
BRIGGS (HENRY). Most of the accounts of hiin .
token from Ward's Lives of the Greshani Pro/istfjr*, w : .
we shall also follow as to dates and personal farts. Mr. \\ : .
cites Dr. Smith, Vita Henrici Brigffii^Hnd Wood's A v • •• •
Oxonienses, Briggs was bom at Warley wood, near Hul.:. \,
probably about 1556. He was sent to St, John's Cvl.* ...
Cambridge, about 1577, where he became scholar in i:' .
B.A. in 1581, M.A.in 1585, fellow in 1588. and rea Iir .
natural philosophy, on Dr. Linacer's foundation* in 1.
In 1596, on the establishment of Grcsham House, Laju ' . ,
(not then called College.) he was chosen the fir^t reader > . ;
professor) in geometry. In 1619 he was chosen fii*i b • -
lian professor of geometry at Oxford, Sir Henry Savile L .,-
self having preceded him in the delivery of thirteen 1t^ tur^x.
Briggs began where Savile left ofi; namely at the ninth f
nosition of the first book of Euclid. He entered hin>M.:. :
Merton college, but he continued to hold the Gresham rv.- .
ship till 1620, when he resigned it, and continued to hv\^l t .
Savilian professorship till his death, which took place Janba .
26, 1630. He was buried in the chapel of Merton €< j.^v. ■
It is customary to record of him that he onoe called a.<rr...
logy a ' mere system of groundless conceits,* whu.h u t^.>
only saying of his we can find preserved.
The history of Briggs is that of his connexion with t^
improvement and construction of logarithn\s. When Na|' r.
in 16 14, first published his invention of naturalor hyprrt*.'. :
logarithms, Briggs was so. struck with the invention thai « •
resolved to pay the author a visit in Scotland, lie sat s, .. ^
letter to Archbishop Usher, dated March 10, 1615. • N..^. •,
Lord of Markinston, hath setmy head and bands a « ^
with his new and admirable logarithms. I hope to sec l..^
this summer, if it please God, for I never saw book v t . .:
pleased me better, and made me more wonder.' He \w t :
into Scotland accordingly, both in 1616 and 1617, and Mft»i :
some time with Napier. It must be observed that the t.»t
logarithms of Napier are a table of the values of jt to c% v : •
value of $ for all the minutes of the quadrant, in the equs-
tion (as it would now be expressed)
+ 2+j:3+&o.
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How this appmntly oomi»Heated syitttn It noife fudmrai^bttik
any other is cKplained in Looaiiitrhs. In 1615, Briggt»
in his lectufes at Gresham college, publicly explained the su-
perior convenience of calcuhiting the fidlowing table^on which
he wrote to Napier» before bis first jouniey to Scotland s —
. * 1
sin a
These are both on the supposition that the wkolB mm^ aa it
was then called, or the sine of a right angle, is 1. Both
BriggB and Napier made it such a power of 1 0 as left no deci-
mals in the table, and therefore of course depending on the
number of places in the logarithms contemplated. But
Napier himself (according to his own account) had been
struck with the convenience of adopting a decimal system*
and (according to Briggs' account) mentioned to him that he
(Napier) had long thought that the system would be
amended by what we should now call the tabulation of x
from the equation
10
p+«
[ sin, 9 to radius lo' J
at 10 «tin.a
if the whole tine be unity. The difference between the
two last systems has nothing to do with the principle of the
improvement in question. In the first two systems the
lof^arithms of increasing sines diminish ; in the third, the
lo^rithms of increasing sines increase. Briggs, as he in-
forms us, immediately admitted the merit of Napier'k im-
provement. And be it observed, the difficulty then lay in
making the calculations : probably both Briggs and Napier
thought little of the step as an advance in the theory*
compared with the merit of actually carrying it into effect.
This latter part was done by Briggs, (Napier died in 1618,)
who published, in 1618, (having printed them the year be-
fore,) his ChiH<u Prima Logarithmorum, containing the first
thousand numbers, with logarithms to nine places : and in
1624, his Arithmetica Logarilhmica, which contains the
logarithms of numbers (not of sines) from 1 to 20,000 and
from 90,000 to 101,000, all to 15 places, with a method of
supplying the logarithms of intermediate numbers. This
was AiUy done by Vlacq, who, in an edition of the work
]ust cited, Goudae, 1628, gave (to eleven places) the loga-
rithms of all numbers from 1 to 100,000, together with a
corresponding table of sines, cosines. &c., for every minute
of the quadrant. During this time Briggs was labouring at
a logarithmic table of sines, &c., of which he did not live to
complete the preceding explanations, but which was com-
pleted and published by his friend, Henry Gellibrand, (whom
he had associated with himself in the task some years before
his death,) under the title of Trigonometria Britanntea,
Goudae, 1633. It is to fifteen places of figures, and to
every hundredth of a degree. Gellibrand states, in the pre-
face, that, about 30 years before his death, Briggs had cal-
culated a canon of sines (natural sines of course) by algebrai-
cal equations and differences.
It seems from the preceding that Napier thought himself
entitled to the discovery of the decimal method of loga-
rithms, and that, if Briggs's statement be correct, he did not
act quite fairlv in suppressing the latter name in the prefiice
to his Rabdoiogia. But as this little controversial episode
is fully treated of in Dr. Hutton's prefhce to his Loganthmif
we shall content ourselves here with citing the passages
which constitute the evidence : —
1. Napier, Rabdologia, 1616, published after Brig^ left
him, claims the improvement and entrusts the execution to
Briggs as follows : ' Logarithmorum speciem aliam multo
prsDstantiorem nunc etiam invenimtte, et creandi methodum
una cum eorum usu, si Deus longiorem Titss et valetudinis
usuram concesserit, evulgare statuimus. Ipsam autem novi
Canonis supputationem ob infirmam corporis nostri valetii-
dinem viris in hoc studii genere versatia relinquimus ; impri-
mis vero D. Henrico Briggs, Londini, publico geometrice
professori, et amico mihi lonae chaflssimo.*
2. Briffgs, in the preface of ' Chilias Prima,* &c., written
1618, after Napier s death* hints that in the forthcoming
posthumous work of Napier (then announced by his son),
justice should be done nim, as follows : ' Quod autem hi
logarithm! diversi sint ab its, quos clarissimus inventor,
memorioD semper colendie, in suo edidit Canone mirifico,
sperandum ejus librum posthumum abunde nobis pfope-
diem satisfacturum.'
3. Briggs, . finding the above hint not attended to. makes
the following statement in the piefooi of dia ' Aritlmetioa
Logaritiimfea,* 16^4 1 ' Quod logarithmi isti direrst sunt ab
its, ouoa cl. vir* bare Merohistonii, in suo edidit Canone
mirineo, non est quod minuris. Ego enim, cum meis audi-
toribus Londini publioo in oollegio Greshamensi, horum
doctrinam explicarem, animadverti multo futurum com*
modius, si logarithmus sinus totius servaretur 0, ut in
Omone mirifico ; logarithmus autem partis decimsB ejus-
dem sinus totius, nempe sinus 5 gr. 44 m. 21 s. esset
10,000,000,000. Atque ea de re scrips! statim ad eum
autorem* et quam primum per anni tempus, et vacationem
A publico docendi munere licuit, profectus sum Edinburgum,
ubi humaiiissime ab eo acceptus hsssi per integrum men-
sem. Cum autem inter nos de horum mutatione sermo
haberetur, ille se idem dudum sensisse et oupivisse dicebat;
veruntamen istoe, quos jam paraverat, edendos curasse,
donee alios, si per negotia et valetudinem liceret, magis
commodes perfeciseet. Istam autem. mutationem ita fa«
ciendum censebat, ut 0 esset logarithmus unitatis, et
10,000,000,000 sinus totius, quod ego longe commodlssi-
mum esse, non potui non agnoscere.*
The algebra of Vieta does not appear in the writings of
Briggs, not even in the prefhce to the ' Trig. Brit/ which
must have been written many^ears after Yieta^s death.
For his first view of the coefiScients of the Binohial
Thsorkm, see that article. Briggs made considerable use
of interpolation by differences, but his symbols and methods
in general ere like those of Sfcevinus. It must, however, be
observed th^the history of the introduction of Vieta's
algebra into England is so scanty, and the little there is of
it 80 eonfused, l£at it would be premature to attempt any
comparison of Briggs*s methods with his means. It is evident
fW>m the first page of the first book of the * Trig. Brit.,* that
Briggs was acquainted with one of Vieta^s writings (the
* Rel. Vera Cal. Gregor.'), and fh>m the rest that he had
some of his methods ; but it seems to us that there is
throughout the whole a general suppression of his notation,
and even of his name ; particularly in the fi>llowing sen-
tence, which will surprise those who know what Vieta did :
* Modus inveniendi subtepsas ab antiquis usitatus traditur
& PtolemsBo, Regiomontano, Copernico Rhetica, et aiiie;
et ante hos ab Hipparcho et Menelao ; sed ieia atae alium
modum invenit ma^s oompendiarium, et non minus
certum.* While speaking of the introduction of the epecious
algebra, we should like to draw attention to the following
question — ^What is the book described in the ' Cat Biblioth.
Reg. Neapolitani Musoi* as *VletiBUs Fr. Opera Math.
Londini, 1589?*
(See Hutton's Preface, above cited; Mdseres*s Scrip.
Log,, vol. vi. ; Montucla, &c.)
BRIGHTHELMSTONE, commonly written and pro-
nounced BRIGHTON, a parliamentary bor., m. t., sea-
port, and fashionable watering-place in the hund. of Whales-
bone, rape of Lewes, Sussex, 46 m. S. of London, direct
distance. It is chiefly in the par. of Brighton, of which it
occupies the whole breadth ttom E. to W., and extends also
W. into the adjoining par. of Hove. The barracks and a
few detached houses are in the parish of Preston, which
lies on the N. of both Brighthelmstone and Hove. It is
bounded on the E. by the parishes of Rottingdean, Oving-
dean, and Falmer, none of which contain any houses con-
nected with Brighton. The town occupies onlv a part of
the par. of Brighton, but it comprises nearljr the whole of
the population. The government is vested m a chief con-
stable and headboroughs, to whom are added commissioners
appointed underact of parliament for regulating, paring,
fanproving, and managing the town. It was constituted a
parliamentary bor. by the Reform Act, and returns two mem-
bers; the bor. consists of the parishes of Brighton and
Hove. The pop. within the boundary in 1831 was 41,994.
Brighton stands near the centre of the curved line of
coast of which the E. and W. points are respectively Beachy
Head and Selsea Bill. The town is built on a slope, and
is defended from the N. winds by the high land of the
South Downs, which from Beachy Head as far as the cen-
tral part of Brighton press close on the sea and form high
chalk cliffs. Ftom the central part of Brighton W. the hills
recede fhrther from the sea, leaving a level coast Tlius
the town of Brighton in the B. part presents a high cliff to
the sea, and in the W. part a sloping low beach. The soil
on the South Downs is a calcareous earth resting on chalk:
on the steep slopes and some of the flat tops tho soil
is very thin ; in the hollows and occasionally on other parts
II it R*pcttty goo4 )oax&» tapable of pxoduolng piofltible
Digitize.
BRI
424
BRI
4<fD|K* Fmm Uie tutan of th« gnund and the iufMvio^
ttdvanUge of a fea-fhmtage, the town has not increased
towards the N. so much as along the coast ; hut it has run
up the depressions in the chalk, along which the Lon-
don and Lewes roads respectively are fonned. The entire
■ea frontage of the par. of Brighton, a space of near 3 m.
in length, is occupied with houses, and the line is ex-
tendingW.intothepar. of Hove. The pop. of the town has
increased with astonishing rapidity during ihe present cen-
Uiry: in 1601 it was 7339; in 1811, 12,012; in 1821.
24,429 ; in 1831, 40,634. At present the number of resi-
dento during the summer occasionally amounts to 70,000.
The nnmber of houses within the town in 1831, taxed at
10/. and upwards, was 2763 ; the entire number within the
parliamentary boundary was 8885. The amount of assessed
toxes in 1830 in the par. of Brishton was 31,800/., and
within tho boundary 35,580/. The place is mpidly and
dailv increasing.
The origin of Brighton is uncertain. Its name is com-
monly derived from a Saxon bishop supposed to have re-
sided here, named Brighthelm ; but this is mere conjecture.
Roman coins have b^n dug up in the vicinity. At the
Conquest the lordship of the manor was included in the
possessions of Harold, and was given bv the Conqueror to
his son-iu-law, William de Warren. About this time a
colony of Flemings are supposed to have established them-
selves for the purpose of fishing. From the exposed nature
of the coast the town has occasionally suffered from hostile
invasion. It was plundered and burned by the French in
1513. During the reigns of Henry VII 1. and Elizabeth
fortifications were erect^ to protect it. The town has also
suflered from storms and the encroachments of the sea, by
which the cliiEi have been undermined, and at different
times many houses destroyed. Wooden groins have lately
been formed, running from the cliff to low water mark,
within which the loose shingle is deposited ; the shingle in
this part of the channel is always driven eastward. A sea
wail |s also partly built and still in progress along the £.
cliff. During part of the 1 7th century Brighton is stated
to have contained upwards of 600 families, chiefly en^^aged
in fishing. It was from Brighton that Charles II. effected
his escape to France after the battle of Worcester, being
conveyed across the channel by the captain of a coal brig,
who afterwards enjoyed a pension for his services.
About the middle of the 18th century attention was
directed to Brighton as a suitable watering-place, and
chiefly by Dr. Richard Russell, an intelligent medical man,
whose work on the use of sea water created considerable
interest. But the progress of the place was slow until it was
rendered a fiishionable resort by Geo. IV., then prince of
Wales, who selected it as his summer residence. In 1784
the foundation of the Marine Pavilion was laid. This royid
palace may be regarded as the nucleus of modern Brighton.
it is a singular structure. The original design has received
mvLXiy alterotions and additions. The appearance of the
exterior is rather fantastic tlian striking, presenting an
assemblage of domes, minarets, and pinnacles. The furni-
ture of the interior is of a very expensive character. The
pleasure grounds attached occupy upwards of seven acres.
Adjoining the palace is the fashionable promenade of
Brighton termed the Steine, which, prior to 1793, was a
Siece of common land used by the inn. for repairing and
rying their boato, nets, &c. It is now a spacious lawn,
surrounded by fine houses. On the N. side of it is a bronze
stotue by Chantrey of George IV.
The rapid increase of Brighton caused the want of a
suitable landing-place to be strongly felL A company
▼as accordingly formed for the erection of a suspension or
chain pier, which was begun in October, 1822, under the
direction of Captain Brown, and opened in November of the
following year. It is composed of four spans or chain
bridges, each 255 ft in length, and at the end, on a frame-
work of strong oaken piles, is a platform paved with blocks
of granite. The main chains, which are eight in number, are
carried over pyramidal cast-iron towers 25 ft high, which rest
on clustere of piles. The entire length of the pier is 1 136 fr.,
the breadth of the platform being 13 ft This structure,
which stood several severe storms uninjured, was seriously
damaged in a tremendous gale on the night of the 15th
October, 1833, by which the third bridge or span was
broken down, the suspension rods and chains being snapped
and dislocated. It has been since repaired.
On the B. Mde of the par. pf Brighton is Kemp Town,
ft fliAgniileeiit aitaiBbkgeof ptifftte h&am
estate of Mr. Kemp. When first built, a few yean airu.
it was qnite detached from the town, hot is bow nniied wna
it On the W. side, in the par. of Hove, is Branswirk
square, one of the best puts of Brighter : beyond tbi« a
crescent named Adelaide-crescent is in the oourse of bu tid-
ing. Indeed the best part of Brighton may be brieflv de-
scribed as composed of ranges of sptondid honses, fiwised into
squares and crescento. The parish chureh of St Nidiolas, in
antient edifice, stands on a bill N.W. of the town ; the h% mc
is a vie, in the arehdeaoomy of Lewes, and dtoene of Chi-
Chester ; the rec. of West Blatditngton, a par. NAV U
Brighton, is annexed to it The town-halL begun in I ?^<r.
on the site of the old market, nearly in the centre of il«-
town, is a large but iU-designed edifice. The places ti
worship beknging to the Estoblishment and to the Th^
senters are numerous. The royal chapel stands on the &:'..•
of the former assembly rooms, or ratner the bnsldmg hat
been converted to iu present use ; its internal deeorati^t.A
are very fine, particularly the seats appropriated to the n'^.i
family. St Peter's Chureh; erected in 1827, is a handwtce
Gothic structure, of Purbedc stone, situated near the cn-
tranoe of the town by the London road. There are se%vr:l
chapels of ease subordinato to the parish chureh. Some c/
the dissenting; chapels are handsome edifices.
The charities consist principally of the poor-house, a «rr..
regulated estoblishment on the top of Chuirh Hill; i*-*
Dispensary and County Infirmary, founded in 1809. uutVr
the patronage of George IV. ; the Sussex County Hospital,
near Kemp Town, founded by the earl of Egremont a> J
T. R. Kemp, Esq. ; the United Fishermen's Society, for t'.>
relief of the fishermen of Brighton ; with several other ti:-
stilutions of a benevolent character. Of charity %cli^- :«
there are two national schools which are partlv endwt* ;
the Union charity schools, founded by Edwanl Goff, K*-..
in 1805, who left 400/. to the boys* school, and 200/. to i..^
girls*, are supported by voluntary contributions ; and therr i»
a school founded by Swan Downer, Esq. in which tifltf cr i
are educated and clothed. The education returns o<J>i>
give 15 8 daily schools,. 43 boarding-schoob, 14 Sunday schu>U
and three infant schools. The; number of private schaiK »s
Brighton is very considerable, a circumstonce owing to (^«
salubritv of the place, and the desire of many paranu *r:. j
live in London to send their children out of the melropoU.^.
The inns, hotels, abd baths of Brighton are numeroi.i.
There is a chalybeate spring in the par. of Rove, whMrh L^
been inclosedp and has considerable celebrity. The vaur
has been analysed by Professor Daniel, and is held in h;:*..
estimation for its medicinal qualities. An establiihme'^.t.
termed the German Spa, was formed in 1825 for the max c-
facture of artificial mineral waters. Brighton oonu r.t
several places of amusement ; a theatre, an assembly rk -^
a club nouse, and about a mile E. of the town, on tL-
summit of a beautiftil part of the Downs, a fine raee-cvur^..
at which races take place annually either in July or Au;:i.«:.
The trade of Bnghton is confined exclusively to t^e
supply of the wanu of a rich population. Tkm i» ^
annual &ir on September 4th ; the prineipal ma k ".
days are Tuesdays, Thursdays, and SaturdaTS. At l.<?
market, which is excellent and convenient, all kind* • (
fruit, vegetables, meat, and fish are sold. The market ^ .m
originally a weekly one, held under charter ; in 1773 an i* t
was obUiined for a daily market A fish market i» aL-.»
held by the fishermen on the open beach.
There is no vestige of the fortifications erected in tV.
16th century. The present battery was originally ctecte-i
in 1793, and rebuilt in 1830.
The gas with which Brighton is lighted is supoliai \%
two gasometers ; one to the E. of K^mp Town, toe oiU t
to the W. of Brunswick Town, near Hove Church.
About 5 m. from Brighton, by a pleasant road across cLc
Downs, is the DeviVs Dyke, an extensive entrencbmcct.
about a mile in circumference, of an oval form, which i« c a>
ioctured, from the finding of an urn filled with coins of tt^
later Roman emperors, to have been a Roman encam|iiB«'/'t.
It is separated from one part of the Downs by a nalur:U
chasm, which appears to have been made deener in order t >
form a high rampart called Poor Han's Wall. From th.«
height there is a fine view of the Weald of Snascx. ax>::
some of the adjoining parts of Hampshire. Sumy, a:. .
Kent. The ground around Brighton aflfords a nnmber vi
fine drives and walks.
Since the establishment of ateiiibioatt and At f
Digitized by VjjOOQEc'
B RI
<i25
B R I
of the chaio-pier, Brighton hw become a paeket station,
which if much used by those who prefer going ond return-
ing from Paris by way of Dieppe aiid Rouen, instead of the
old route of Dover and Calais. Four different lines of rail-
road have been projected, and are now (March, 18^6) before
the public. (Lee's Lewe9 and Brighthelmttone ; Dr.
Rel ban's Nat, HitU qf Brighton ; Boundary Reports.}
. BRIGNOLLES or BRI6N0LBS, a town in France,
capital of an arrond. in the dep. of Var. It is on the riv.
Calami or Calanis, whose waters flow ultimately into the
Argens; and on the road from Paris to Draguignan,
513 m. S.S.E. of Paris, 43^ 24' N. Ut. and 6° 4' E. long.
. The town is delightfully situated in a hollow, surrounded
Ay wood-crowned heights. The salubrity of the air was in
such esteem formerly, that the countesses of Provence were
accustomed to resort hither for the purpose of lying-in, and
had . their young children brought up here. The trade of
the place, in the early part of the present century, was con-
siderable : it was especially famous for the manufacture of
leather. The J)ictionnaire Universel de la France (18U4)
gives the number of tan-yards at forty-two, and adds, that
there were seven soap manufactories, seven brandy dis-
tilleries, besides manufactories of silk goods, woollen cloths,
wa$, hats, glue, starch, candles, earthenware, and liqueurs.
But the trade of the town has probably been much reduced,
for there has been a remarkable diminution of the popula-
tion. In the work just cited it is given at 9060: in 1832
it was only 5432 for the town, or 5940 for the whole com-
mune.
The country around Brignolles is exceedingly fertile : the
vine and the olive are cultfvated on the surrounding hills ; and
the fruits, especially the dried plums, are in high estimation.
The arrond. of Brignolles bad in 1832 a pop. of 71,062.
. BRIMSTONE. [Sulphur.]
BRFNDISI, the Roman Brundisium, and Greek Bren-
tcsium (Bf)cvrf(Tu>v), a town in the prov. of Terra d'Otranto
iu the kingdom of Naples, in 40^38' N. lat., and 18° E.
long., well known in Roman history for its capacious and
safe bar., which was the chief port of embaikation from
Italy to (Greece. The origin of Brundisium is lost in the
obscurity of the ante-Roman times. Tradition spoke of a
Cretan colony having early settled here. It was one of the
chief towns of the Messapian pen., and of that part of it
called Calabria by several antient geographers. The name
of Brundisium or Brundusium is said by Strabo (p. 282)
and others lo be derived from a word, which in the old
Messapian language signified a stag's' head, a shape some-
what resembling that of its double bar., the inner part
of which forms, two horns which half encircle the town.
The Brundisians and the other Messapians were often at
variance with the Greek colony of Tacentum, before the
Romans extended theu* conquests into Apulia. After the
war of Pyrrhus and the subjugation of Tarentum, the Ro-
mans, under the consuls M. Attilius Regulus and Lucius
Junius Libo, turned their arms against the other towns of
Mcssapia and seized Brundisium among the rest, about
267 H.c. Brundisium was made a Roman colony. The
Vfa Appia terminated at Brundisium. [Antoninus, Iti-
nerary.] The poet Pacu^ius was a native of this town,
and Virgil died nere. Pompey, having left Rome at the
beginning of the civil war, repaired to Brundisium, where
ho was besieged by Caesar, who endeavoured to prevent his
escape by blocking up the inner bar. bv means of two piers
which he raised, one on each side of the entrance. Before
however he could accomplish his object Pompey embarked
his troops in secrecy and sailed away for Greece. To these
two piers raised by Ceasar the beginning of the deterioration
of the inner port has been attributed. The passage having
become very narrow, the sands carried by the sea accumu-
1 itcd and formed a bar across which gradually choked up
the entrance, and an isthmus was created senarating the
inner from the outer bar. or roadsted. This however was
the slow work of centuries. The calamities which befell
Brindisi after the fall of the Roman empire, when it was
taken and retaken by the northern barbarians, the Greeks
and the Saracens, contributed to the deterioration of the
liar, by preventing the inh. from attending to its repair.
FredericK 11. built a castle for the defence of the town.
Under the Angevins the inner bar. was already become a
stagnant pool separated from the sea. Other marshes
formed themselves in the neighbourhood, and the air of the
town became seriously affected. Attempts were made by
the Aragonese kings to re-open the communication between
the two harbours, but they fkiled. In the 18th century
the pop. of Brindisi was reduced to less than 3000, and was
threatened with total destruction by the pestilential state of
the atmosphere, when King Ferdinand IV. in 1775 ordered
the communication with the inner bar. to be restored. A cut
was made across the isthmus, and the sea water being thus
let in, and the other marshes at the same time partially dried
up, the air of Brindisi evidently improverl. (Pigonati, Me-
morta del riaprimenio del porto di Brindisi 1781.) The
depth of the channel however is not more than about 8 ft,
and the vessels are obUged to remain in the roads, in which
there is good anchorage partly protected by an isl. having a
castle upon it called Forte di Mare. New works have b^n
lately (1830) undertaken to keep the channel of communi-
cation clear and to cleanse the inner bar. of the mass of sea
weeds which accumulate very fast, and by their decay cor-
rupt tlie atmosphere. (A fan di Rivera, Consideraziom sulle
dua Sicilie.)
^o. 325.
CTHB PENNY CYCLOPEDIA.]
[Coin of BrandUium. Copper. Briu Mas.]
The present town of Brindisi occupies but a small part of
the site of the antient city. It is surrounded on the land
side by walls and ditches, and has a castle called Forte di
Terra, commanding the northern arm of the inner harbour.
Outside the town and not far from the castle is a fountain
said to be of Roman construction, with a niche on each side,
from which ttow two rills of very good water, probably the
fountain mentioned by Pliny from which the ships were
supplied. The water in the town is brackish. The town
is ill built and looks miserable, and the air is still unwbole-
some in summer. The pop., which is 6000, carries on some
trade by sea ; part of the oil of Puglia is shipped off at
Brindisi. The principal object of antiquity is a pillar
about 50 ft. high, which forms a conspicuous object.
Another, which stood near it, has been removed to.Lecce,
and the pedestal alone reiAains. The cathedral is a large
but not handsome building of the Norman times, with a
mosaic pavement. Brindisi is an archbishop's see. It lies
about 200 m. E. by S. of Naples, 40 m. N.E. of Taranto,
40 N. of Gallipoli, and io N.N.W. of Lecce.
BRINDLEY, JAMES, was born in 1716, at Thornsett,
a few miles from Chapel-en -le- Frith, in the county of
Defby. The great incident of his hfe was his introduction
to the duke of Bridgewater, and the application of his talents
to the promotion of artificial navigation. [Bri do ewater.]
But he had pre\iously acquired reputation by his improve-
ments in machinery ; and at an early age, although deprived
of the advantages of even a common education, he evinced
a mind fruitful in resources far above the common order.
Brindley followed the usual labours of agriculture until
about his seventeenth year, when he was apprenticed to a
millwright named Bennet, residing near Macclesfield. This
individual being generally occunied in distant parts of the
country, young Brindley was left at home with few or only
indefinite directions as to the proper manner of executing
the work which had been put into nis hands. This circum-
stance, however, was well calculated to call forth the peculiar
qualities of liis mind ; his inventive faculties were brought
into exercise, and he frequently astonished his employer by
the ingenious improvements which he effected. Mr. ^nnet,
on one occasion, was engaged in preparing machinery of a
new kind for a paper-mill, and although he had inspected a
mill in which similar machinery was in operation, it was
reported that he would be unable to execute his contract.
Brindley was informed of this rumour, and as soon as he
ha(l finished his week's work, he set out for the mill,
took a complete sur^'cy of the machinery, and, after a
walk of fifty miles, reached home in time to commence
work on Monday morning. He had marked the points in
which Mr. Bonnet's work was defective, and by enabling
him to correct them, Bennet*s engagement was satisfactorily
fulfilled.
When the period of his apprenticeship had expired,
Brindley engaged in business on his own account, but be
Digitized^^;^Of^gle
B R 1
m
BRI
did not confine himself to the making of mill machinery.
In 1752 he contrived an' improved engine for draining some
coal pits at Clifton. Lancashire, which was set in motion by
a wheel 30 feet helow the surface, and tlie water for turning
it was supplied from the Irwell by a subterraneous tunnel
600< yards long. His reputation as a man of skill and
ingenuity steadily increasied. In 1755 a gentlemaii of
London engaged him to execute a portion of the machinery
for a silk-mill at Congleton. The construction of the Biore
complex parts was intrusted to another individual, who,
though eventually found incapable of performing his por<
tion of the work, treated Brindley as a common mechanio^
and refused to show him his general designs, until it be-
came necessary to take Brindley's advice. Brindley offisred
to complete the whole of the machinery in his own way ;
and as his integrity and talents had already won the con-
fidence of the proprietors, he was allowed to do so. The
ability with which he accomplished his undertaking raised
his reputation still higher. In 1756 he erected a steam-
engine at Newcastle-under-Lyne, which was calculated to
efiect a saving of one half in fuel.
Shortly after this time, Brindley was consulted by the
duke of Bridgewater on the practicability of constructing
a canal from Worsley to Manchester. Brindley*s success
in this undertaking was the means of fully awakening
public attention to the advantages of canals. Had a man
of less ability undertaken the work, it is not improbable
that it might have turned out a failure, and the improve-
ment of our inland navigation might have been deferred
some years longer. The duke of Bridgewater's canal was
referred to at the time by the projectors of similar under-
takings, just as the Liverpool and Manchester railway is at
the present day in the prospectus of a new railroad. Within
forty-two years afler the duke's canal wa& opened, appUca-
tion had been made to Parliament for 165 Acts for cutting
canals in Great Britain, at an expense of above 13,000,000/.
All the ingenuity and resources which Brindley possessed
were required in accomplishing the duke of Bridgewater's
noble scheme ; and it may be fairly said that where there
were roost difficulties in the way. there Brindley 's genius
was displayed with the greatest effect. But it was not only
in his expedients for overcoming difficulties that his talents
were displayed ; he made use of many new and ingenious
contrivances for conducting the work with the utmost eco-
nomy.
In 1766 the Trent and Mersey Canal was commenced
under Brindley's superintendence. It is 93 m. long, and
unites the navigation of the Mersey with that of the Trent
and the Humber. It was called by Brindley the * Grand
Trunk Navigation,* owing to the probability, from its great
commercial importance, of many other canals being made
to join it. The Grand Trunk Navigation, by means of a
tunnel 2680 yards in length, passes through a hill at Hare-
castle, in Staffordshire, which had previously been conr
sidered an insurmountable obstacle to the completion of a
can. : this tunnel is 70 yards below the surface. The can.
was not completed at Brindley' s death ; but his brother-in-
law, Mr. Henshall, successfully finished it. Brindley next
designed a can. 46 m. in length, called the Stafibrdshire
and Worcestershire Canal, for the purpose of connecting
the Grand Trunk with the Severn. He also planned the
Coventry Canal, but owing to some dispute he did not
superintend its execution. He however superintended the
execution of the Oxford Canal, which connects the Thames
with the Grand Trunk through the Coventry Canal.
These undertakings opened an internal vrater communi-
cation between the Thames, the Humber, the Severn* and
the Mersey, and united the great ports of London, Liver-
pool, Bristol, and Hull, by cans, which passed through the
richest and most industrious districts of England.
The can, from the Trent at Stockwith to Chesterfield, 46
m. long, was Brindley's last public undertaking. He also
surveyed and gave his opinion on many other lines for navi-
gable cans, besides those mentioned ; among others, on a
can. from Liverpool to Runcorn, where the C^ke of Bridg-
water's Canal locks into the Mersey. He proposed carrying
this can. over that river at a point where the tidal water
rises to the height of 14 it. He formed also a scheme for
uniting Great Britain and Ireland by a floating road and
can. from Port Patrick to Donaghadee ; and like most other
impracticable schemes of ingenious men, it became a fa-
vourite speculation. Phillip?, in his • History of Inland
ayigatioD/ »ays that Brindley pointed oat the meihgd pf
bnilding walk against the lea without tnMte; Uul W in-
Tented a mode of cleaasiDg dock^yarda, and fcr (tawing
water out of mines by a losing and gaining bocket FbiU
lips states that hn bad been in the ^employ of tbn great
Brindlev.'
Briniuey*8 designa wese the resouroea of his ovn mind
alone. W hen he waa beset with any diffionlty lie aeelodnl
himael^ and worked ont unaided the BMana of aeeoaiplttfa-
ing his schemes. Sometimea he lay in bed two or three
days ; but when he aroae he pioeeeded at onoe to cany hia
plans into effect, without the help of drawings omodelsL
A man Uke Brindley, who was so entirely absorbed in his
own schemes, waa not likely to partake mnch of the plea-
sures of society. A hectic ibrer, which had hunjr ahuet
him for several years» at length terminated hie taborious
and useful hfe. He died at Tomhorst* in Btaffionlslktre,
September 27th» 177^, aged 56, and waa buried nl New
Chapel in the same oounly.
The principal events in Brindley's life were first eosBsu-
nicated to the public ftom materials (bmhlhed by Mr. Hen-
shall, his brother-in-law, and other ft'ienda, who sp^iKe
highly of ' the integrity of 'hie character, bis devotion tp the
pubho interests, and the vaat compass of hia nnderstendinc.
which seemed to have an affinity for aU great ol^eeia. au'l
likewise for many noble and beneficent designa which the
muUiplioity of his engagements and the shortness of h.«
life prevented him from bringmg to maturity.* No ma a
waa so entirely free from jealous feelings. A letter, wnti*a
while the Grand Trunk Navigation was proceeding, tin: «
describea Brindley *b personal appearance:— * Ho ia as pUr.
a looking man as one of the boors of Hbm Peak, or one < f
liis own carters; but when he speaks all eara lieton, an. I
e^ery mind is filled with wonder at the thinga he pr^^
nounces to be practicable.' The reply which Brindlet (»
said to have given to a committee of the House of C'x.*-
mons, when asked for what object rivers were erented, t xt .
' To feed navigable canals,* ia characterietio, and very fi • -
bably authentic ; but it waa made public by an anon^mft •
writer in the ' Morning Post,* whose communicntio'ns r—
specting Brindley were stated by some of hia friends t'»
contain many inaccuracies.
(Phillips's History of Inland NamgaHon; PriestVvf
Canahqf Great Britain; Ommumcationf to the Bf j,
Brit,)
BRINE SHRIMP, or BRINE WORM. [Braxch:?-
PODA.]
BRIONIC ISLES. These thr«e isla. he on the N E.
coast of the Adriatic, near the port of Tasaano, and N • f
Pola, in the Austrian circle of Trieste. They contain the
quarries from which the Venetians obUined the a»h-cr'.'f
coloured and highlv durable marble of which their naJao-k
are constructed, t'be largest of the isls. is called Bnom :
the names of the other two are Coseda and San Girolaxcj.
45«>3'N.lat. 13' as' E. long.
BRIOUDE, a town in Prance, canital of an arrood. i i
the dep. of Haute Loire (Upper Loire), on the road fn la
Paris to Le Puy, 271 m. S. by E. of Paris; in 45* IT N
lat. and 3° 24' £. long.
This town is situated near the left bank of the AIIkt,
and derives its name from an old Celtic word Mva, a bndrr.
or ford (compare Samaro-briva). This name however app<-jr«
to have belonged originally to Old Brioude, which u c!. >e
upon the Allier, while the modern town is a little rrnun^nl
from the bank. At Old Brioude is a magnificent bndg« cf
one arch, of about 180 ft. span, supposed to have been built
by the Romans. There is at Brioude a handsome ehurrh,
once much venerated as containing the relics of St. Jul::i.^
an early martyr, who was put to death here or at C':i
Brioude. There were also before the Revolntion 9c\tnl
religious houses. There are some woollen stuil^ oanuf^ac-
tured in this town ; and in the neighbourhood marble k
auarried and coal dug. The pop. in 1832 was AQ^i f^t
le town, and 5099 fi>r the whole commune,
Brioude suffered much in the middle ages from tS»
ravages of war. It was laid waste in the fifth centurv h%
the Burgundians, in the sixth by Thierri. kinff of tf eu,
and in the ninth by the Saracens, and afterwaraa succ«»-
sively by the nobles of Auvergne, by the English, and a
the civil wars of the shLteenth century by the Huguenots^
The arrond. of Brioude had, in 1832. a pop. of 80,692.
BRISGAU, THE. or BREISGAU, in &e S.W. part
of Swabia, is bounded on the K. by the Ortenau, on the K,
by the Blftck Fwesti on the S. Iqr SviUierlimd, nod on the
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3.R I
Che historians j economists, and political writers. On attain-
ing the age of manhood ho quitted the study of law and
went to Boulogne, where he was intrusted wiUi the editor-
ship of the ' Courier de T Europe/ This liberal journal was
soon arbitrarily suppressed by the French government, and
Brissot was thrown upon the world with no other resources
than his acquirements and abilities.
In 1780 he published his 'Theory of Criminal Laws;*
and the next year two eloquent discourses on the same sub-
ject gained him the prizes in the Academy of Ch&lonssur-
Alame. Between the years 1 782 and 1786 he put forth ten
volumes of * The Philosophical Library' on criminal laws.
At the same time he studied the natural sciences, and de-
voted part of his time to metaphysical pursuits, in which
latter department he published an essay, entitled * On
Truth, or Meditations on the Means of reaching Truth in
all branches of Human Knowledge.* During part of this
time he resided in England, and it was in London, some-
where about the year 1 783, that he undertook a periodical
work, called * Universal Correspondence on all that concerns
the Happiness of Men and Society.* The laudable object of
this work was to disseminate in France all such political
principles as were based on reason. The constitutional laws
and usages of England formed a leading topic. The French
government seized and suppressed the book. His next
works were * A Picture of the Sciences and Arts of Eng-
land,' and another on British India.
Returning to France, the ministry of the day arrested
him and threw him into the Bastille. His imprisonment
was not of long duration, but in obtaining his liberty he
was compelled to give up an Anglo-French work, which was
to have been written partly by Englishmen and partly by
Frenchmen, and circulated in both countries. These perse-
cutions inflamed his hatred of arbitrary power. In 1785,
during the insurrection of the Wallachians, he published
two letters, addressed to the Emperor Joseph II., ' On the
Right of Emigration,* and ' On tne Right of Insurrection.'
He continued to be indefatigable with his pen, but most of
his works possessing only a temporary interest, have long
&inc« fallen into oblivion. He warmly favoured the revolu-
tionary party in the English North American colonies, and
wrote a good deal in support of their cause. He was an
emancipationist, and one of the first members of the French
society called ' The Friends of the Blacks.*
The freedom of his pen brought him again into difficul-
ties, and on learning that a lettre- de-cachet was signed for
his arrest, he fled and took refuge in England. After a
short stay in London he crossed the Atlantic to the United
States, where his love of republican institutions was in-
creased by seeing their operation in that country.
In ] 789 the progress of events in France enabled him to
return home, and use his pen without any fear of the Bas-
tille. Ho floated forward on the revolutionary torrent. He
was elected member of the first municipal council of the
city of Paris, and in that capacitv received the keys of the
captured Bastille, on the 14th of July. Soon after he was
elected by the citizens of Paris to be their representative in
the Constituent Assembly. He joined the party called the
Gironde, and co-operated with Vergniaud, Guadet, Gen-
sonn6, the Provengal Isnard, and others, who were weak and
imprudent politicians, but among the most eloauent and best
men in France. ' The opinions of Brissot, who desired a com-
plete reform ; his great activity of mind, which enabled him
to re-produce himself in the journal called " The Patriot,"
at the tribune of the Assembly, in the club of the Jacobins ;
his precise and extensive information respecting the situa-
tion of foreign powers, gave him a f^reat ascendency at a
moment of struggle between the parties and a war against
all Europe.' (Mignet, Hut. of the French Revolution,) The
Girondists triumphed over the Feuillans or moderate o^m-
stitutional monarchy party; but they were in their ttim de-
feated in much the same manner by the Jacobins or party
called the Mountain, who went as much farther thon the
Girondists, as the Girondists had gone farther than the
Feuillans. The Gironde was nothing more in the revahi>
tion than a party of transition from the power of the middling;
classes of society to that of the mob. The members of it
put themselves and their country in a position from which
there was no escape except through seas of blood. During
the fearful struggle Brissot incurred the dt^adly lia^tred of
Robespierre, whicn was equivalent to a deo t h - w aVra n t . On
the 2nd of June, 1793, a sentence of arri!»t vas pas^eil
agaioBt him. Brissot waa calm and firm, and at firut not
indmed to do anything to eacaM deftth, but on the en-
treaties of his family and frienos be attempted to get to
Switzerland. Being arretted at Moulins, be was carried
back to Paris, and brought before the revolutionary tribunal,
where the Jacobins in vain endeavoured to deaUroy his
courage and self-possession. The only regreta be expressed
were at tiie political errors he had committed, and at leaviox;
his wife and children in absolute poverty. He was con-
demned, of course, and went to the guillotine with twont*
other Girondists, his associates and friends, on the 31 si o
October, 1 793, just nine months and ten days aAer t>t«
had voted the death of Louis XVI. (whose life however llai
attempted to spare), and fifteen days after the execution
the Queen Marie Antoinette. They inarched to the set.
fold with all the stoicism of the times, and singing, as itw
the fashion to do, the MareellaUe, or song of the repub
They all died with courage. Brissot was only thirty-fi
years old. His companions in death were Vergniaud, G
sonn^, FonfrMe, Ducos, Valazd, Lasource, Sill6ry, Card
Carra, Duprat, Beauvais, Duch&teU Mainvielle. Lac
Boileau, Lehardy, Antiboul, and Vig6e.
Brissot stood at the head of the party which he embr
At one time in his political career a larm section c*
house was called after his name, ' The Brissotina.'
was singularly honest and disinterested : he sincerely «
the good of his country, but he knew not how to aeooc^
it His biographers have recorded of him, that ^
mild and simple in his manners, small of stature, waa-
somewhat deformed in person, and that his oounti
was frank, open, and expressive. After his reCvn
America, he afiected the simplicity of dress of the Q
iBiog. Univ. ; Biog. des Cuntemporaine ; Mignet* /
la Revolution Franpaise ; and Lacretelle.)
BRISTOL, a sea-port town in the West of Eng
in 61° 27' 6*3" N. lat, 2° 35' 286" W. long., 106
London and 313 from Edinburgh, direct distance,
the counties of Gloucester and Somerset, and at the .'
of the rivers Avon and Froome, about 10 m., mea.'
the course of the water, or 7 m. in a straight Una '
spot where the Avon enters the Bristol ChanneL
Etymology of its name. — The most antient
Bristol on record is Caer Odor, the ciiy of the gap. '
through which the Avon finds a passage to the
to this was added the local description of Naal
in the valley of the baths. Much diversity of op:
existed with regard to the etymology of its pier
Bristol ; and much of this uncertainty probably c «
the looseness of its orthography in antient i
Seyer, in his history of Bristol, has enumeratac*
tions, mostly from difierent, some IVoin the same a
and even these are not alL But the only mod«
the name that are material, as servingto lead •
mology, are Bristuit, and Bricstow. The Re^
derives Bristol firom the Celtic words ' bras.* qui<
* braos,' a gap, chasm, or rent, and * tuile,' a stn
vation entitled to some credit. With regard
Chattel-ton derives it from Brictric, the last kin.
who commenced his reign a.d. 784, and died \
800, supposing it to have been originally callc-i
It appears also that Bricstow, or a simUar n.
fiom 1064 to 1204 ; and it is remarkable that
Lord of Bristol at the earlier of these two Uui
withstanding this, the following conjecture
of the name seems by far the most probal '
word ' brie' signifies a break, a breach ;
thus be a literal translation of Odor; di>
British prefix 'caer,* and substituting t
' stow,* we should at once arrive at Brics*
name which is most descriptive of the W
in^ pure Snxon in exchange for pure Bn+
Historicnl Sketch, — Of the footing wh^'
tained in this part of Enjjland ?ufl!cv
and to Vespaiiian^ ariBrwanl-> t m|>efgr
Roman stauon A bona, at Sea Milb, ^<
Weslbury-upon-Tryra, has wUh gr*
ascribed. It is certain Ihct the Rcw?t
session of Bristol ; and iu tl
a«?umed by Seyer for it* f"
uall anrl gates, which inrU^^id the -
most central porlions of the %mr^
the Roman troopiitbiiAifellAi^l
(a.d. 435)* wliof ""
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429
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of CornwalU #Iiom jurwdietion extended over all Somenet-
ihire and part of Gloucestershire. It is recorded ia Ellis's
' Specimens of Early English Romances/ that ' avast army
of Sarazens (pagans) from Denmark made an attack on
Bristol with 30,000 men, in which they were so completely
defeated that not five of them escaped^* Whatever may be
thought of this tale, or rather of ita authority, it is impossi-
ble that Bristol could have escaped from a strife which raged
for a lime so hotly around its walls ; but it i^ipears to have
maintained its independence until the invasion of Crida,
who in 584 totally subdued the country upon the Gloucester-
shire side of the Avon, and erected upon the ruins of ^e
anticnt govemmente the Saxon kingdom of Mercia, of
which, it is to be presumed, Bristol formed the frontier city
bordering upon the neighbouring Saxon state of Wessex,
and divided from it by tlie Avon. Caer Odor had now be-
come Bric-stow; and in 596 Jordan, the companion of
Augustine, in his mission for the conversion of the Anglo-
Saxons, nreached on the spot now called College Green,
which subsequent! v became the site of the monastery,
built in honour of the chief missionary, and now the cathe-
dral church of Bristol. In 930 Bristol was held under
Athelstan by Ailward, as Lord of the Honor. Ail>ward
was a Saxon nobleman of considerable power and wealth in
the adjoining counties: he was succeeded (980) in his lord-
ship by his son Algar. Upon the coins of Canute the name
of the town first appears as Brie and Bricstow ; so that at
this* date (1017) it must have possessed some importance.
Indeed from this time its rise as a port may with certainty
be dated ; for we find that upon the condemnation of Earl
Godwin (1051) his sons Harold and Leofwine escaping to
Bristol, thence embarked for Ireland ; and that after their
reconciliation with the king, and the employment of Harold
by Edward to chastise the Welsh, that chieftain embarked a
body of mon on board his fleet from Brikestow. We gather
also from the life of Wolston, who was consecrated Bishop
of Worcester' A.D. 1062, that Brichtou was, from its oon-
venienco as a port, especially for embarkation to Ireland,
usd commonly for the*purpose of exporting slaves : a prac-
tice which Wolstan aenounced to the Conqueror, who
forbade, but failed utterly to extingnish, the inhuman traffic
by a royal edict On the accession of William, Brictric then
held the honour in succession from his father Algar ; but
his estetes were seised by William and himself confined
in Winchester Castle, where he died. The profits of the
Honor the king gave to his queen, and resumed them at her
desth. To the early part of the Norman period the addi-
tion of the second wall around the town is ascribed ; pro-
bably it was built together with the castle by Grodfrey
bishop of Coutances, in Normandy, and of Exeter, in
England, who followed the Conqueror to this country.
The castle is not mentioned by name in the Domesday
Book, compiled 1086; and the first historical notice of it
occurs on the death of William I., when it was fortified and
held by Godfrey on behalf of Robert, the Conquerors
eldest son. It must at that time have been a place of
considerable strength, for the insurgents in the west made
it their head-quarters, bearing thither all the plunder accu-
mulated in foras^int; the adjoining counties, until, on the
final success of Rufus, Godfrey retired into Normandy, and
the king, in whom the honor then was, conferred it upon
his cousin Fitzhamon. By referring to Domesday Book, we
shall be enabled very readily to trace the actual position of
Bristol at the time of the Norman invasion. In that com-
pilation the burgenses of Bristol are repeatedly referred
to ; Bristol then was a burgh or walled town : it is also
recorded that the burgenses paid to the king in reserved
rents, fines, customs, and tolls, 57/. 6s. 8c/. It follows that
it was a royal burgh, the tenants in which held for the most
part immediately under the king. [Borough, p. 195.] The
local government of the city was vested in a prepositor or
chief magistrate, who acted under the eustos of the castle,
the captii honorif, the constable of which was either the loid
of the Honor when he made it his residence, or an individual
holding tinder him or the king. It does not appear that the
prepositor was a salaried officer, although, as he was de vir^
tute ojficii escheator to the king, his reasonable charges on
that head were defrayed : but the town was diarged with
the maintenance of the castle ; and in addition to the sum
recorded in Domesday Book as paid to the king, there is
this item,—* And to the Lord Bishop [Godfrey] £28,' which
^as the precise suin annually paid hy the town to the con-
ttahte of the castle for several subsequent reigns. The
prepositor, at the iweession of William L, was' Hardytog,
a wealthy merchant of the town, and the founder of the
Berkeley family. He was continued in his office by the
Conqueror, and was succeeded on his death, which did not
occur till the reign of Henry I. (1115), by Robert, com-
monly called Fitzharding, and first Lord of Berkeley. But
during this period that part of the present city whiich lies
upon the Somersetohire side of the Avon, and comprises
the parishes of Redcliff, St. Thomas, and Temple, pos-
sessed a separate jurisdiction and a prepositor of iu own.
It was called the Vil de Radcleeve, and was in every re-
spect the rival of the neighbouring town until the two were
incorporated. The estimated number of houses conteined
at this time within the walls of the town was 480 ; the pop.
could not have far exceeded 3000. To Robert Fitxhamon
the grant of Rufus appears to have been absolute. Robert
founded the abbey of Tewkesbury, conferring on it the
church of 6t Peter at Brigston, and a tithe of the rents of
the town ; and as warden of the Welsh Marches, (an office
attoched to the Honor, and bearing somewhat onerously
upon the townsmen, who were charged with checking the
turbulent Welsh,) he conquered the co. of Glamorgon,
making Cardiff his capital. He died 1107, leaving his
three daughters to the wardship of Henry L, to which king
he had, on the death of Rufus, transferred his allegiance.
Henry gave th'e eldest daughter, Mabile, in marriage to his
natural son Robert, on whom he conferred the Honor,
creating him first (Norman) Earl of Gloucester : the annual
value of the earldom has been estimated at 1000/. in the
money of the time. Robert Earl of Gloucester has been
justly esteemed the first man of his age ; and to his care,
after the capture of Duke Robert of Normandy (1J26),
Henry confided his unfortunate brother, whom the earl for
some time confined in the castle at Bristol, until, for greater
security, he was removed to Cardiff Castle, where he died.
On the death of Henrv, Earl Robert maintained Bristol
and its castle on behalf of his sister Matilda, against the
usurpation of Stephen. The rastle he is said to luLve built ;
but as a castle was certeinly in existence, the probability
is that he enlarged its site and added to its defences only ;
and this he appears to have done most effectually, for unaer
him it became one of the largest and strongest fortresses in
the kingdom. It occupied about 6 acres of ground, and
William Botoner, surnamed Wyrccstre, stotes that the walk
were 25 ft. thick at the base and 9^ at the top. Stephen
was brought to this castle after his capture at the battle of
Lincoln (1140), and kept prisoner until the f(dlowing year,
when he was exchanged against Earl Robert.
During this stormy period the prepositor of the town,
Robert Fitzharding, was employing a portion of his wealth
in erecting the abbey of St. Augustine, now the cathedral
church ; and William of Malmesbury writes that the port
was at this time ' the resort of ships ccming from Ireland,
Norway, and other countries beyond sea ; lest a region so
fortunate in native riches should he destitute of the com-
merce of foreign wealth.' Earl Robert died at Bristol of a
severe fever in November, 1 147, having previously founded
the priory of St. James (subsequently the parochial church
of that name) in Bristol, in the choir of which he was, at
his own request, interred. He was succeeded in his earl-
dom by his son William. Henry II. on his accession (1 154)
resumed the royal jurisdiction over the towns, castles, &e.,
which belonged to the crown, by toking them into his own
hands ; but 20 years elapsed before he obtained poeaesaion
of the castle of Bristol, when (1175) the earl surrendered it
into the king's hand, constituting the king's son hia hear,
the king at the same time contracting for the marriage of
his son John with Isabel the earVs daughter. The rise
of Bristol into a free municipal town may now be said
fairly to commence, and its progress was rapid in the ex-
treme. For the services rendered to the king's mother
during the wars with Stephen the burgesses had a right to
expect favours at his hand ; but the first gracious act on
record is a charter, granted I J 64, in which they are ex-
empted from toll, passage, and custom throughout all the
king*s lands wherever they shall come, they and their
goods. At his father's death. Prince John waa Earl of
Moreton (Mortagne, Normandy) and Lord of Ireland ; and
by his marriage with the Lady Isabel, solemnized at Marl-
borough. August 29, 1189, he became also Lord of Bristol,
to which city he in the following year granted a charter,
which is historically most valuable, for it recites all the'
existing privilegiaB of the placa. FfDm thi84pottment w«
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iftt
ted fbt! 'tin l>iilge9Befc wem exemyted ftofn pleadlfig er
BeHig iHnpleidM witboot the ^alls of the town, except in
rai^s ^f foreign tenure, in which the town had no jansdie-
tton ; from the fine levied by the lord on the hundred in which
nnrder had been coita^itted ; and from wager of duel, un-
liSB appealed to on the death of a stranger killed within
^e wuth : that no one could take un inn (hospitium) within
the walla without leave of the burgesses ; tnat they were
exempt ttcfm toll, tastage (tnivileeed porterage), pontage and
all other customs throughout their lord's land ; and that
they could not be Condemned in money above 409. ; that the
hondred court was held once in the week, and that the bur-
gesses had power of recovering all debts, &c., throughout
their lold's land ; that lands and tenures within the town
were to be held ac(k)rding to the customs of the place ;
that pleas with regard to all debts contracted in the town
mxtsi be there held ; and that in case of tolls taken against
tho charter, the prepositor could enforce restoration by
seiEure; that strangers within the town could not buy
leather, corn, or wool, but of a burgess, nor sell wine except
from a ship, nor cloth except at the fair, nor remain in the
town to seh goods longer than 40 days ; that no burgess
could be elsewhere detained for any debt except of his own
or for one in which he had become surety ; that he could
marry without the license of his lord, and that the lord had
wardship only so fhr as regarded the lands in his own fee ;
that no one could take tyno (a tax levied in kind in those
primitive Himes ad libitiirh,) except fjr the use of the lord
eart ; that the burgesses could grind their corn where they
chose ; that they were not obliged to bail any one, not even
their servants ; and that they were allowed to have all their
reasonable guilds. These existing privileges the charter
confirms : it grants in addition the privilege of holding pro-
perty rn free burgage on land-gable sen* ice (payment of
groimd-rent), and of making improvements by building
upon the banks of the river and upon the other void places
of the town. This may serve to show us what the feudal
system was, as well as to indicate very nearly what was the
social position of Bristol at the time the whole of these pri-
vileges were extended to the men of Redcliff.
On the accession of Henry III. he was crowned at Glou-
cester, ahd the barons being then in arras against the
tyranny of the late king, Henry came with his retinue to
Brilstol for greater Security. Here a reconciliation was
eff^^ed ; and an important alteration took place in the
mmiicipal government of the town. Hitherto the only local
magistrate appears to have be^n the prepositor, who also
seems to have acted as the king's manorial steward ; but
now the privilege of choosing a mayor and two prepositors
was granted to the burgesses. The functions of the latter
ifrom henceforth were similar to those of bailiffs or sheriflfe,
into which offices their own subsequently lapsed ; and upon
the maydr devolved the dirty of escheator to the king. In
the 8th of his reign C1225) Henry let the farm of the town
(hitherto granted to individuals) for the first time to the
burgesses themselves, fbr eight years, at the advanced
rent of 245/. per annum, savine to the king certain baili-
iiicks in the suburbs, and of nte prisage of beer so much
fits should be necessary for the use of the constable of the
castle hnd his people— the rest for the burgesses. But the
rents and profits so leased did not comprise the whole of the
revenues of the town ; fbr in the charter roll for tlie llth of
this king's reign, preserved among the records of Chancery,
it is written that the ^ing had granted to Jordan Laurence
and his heirs the tronage and pesage (customs paid for the
weighifig of wool and tnerchandize) in the town of Bristol,
for the • service of 1 0». per annum.'
In the 26lh of his reign the king again farmed the town
to the borgesses foi* a term of twenty years, at a rental of
250/. ; and at the termination often years the lease was re-
newed for a term of sixty years, at a rental of 266/. 13». Ad,
The course Of the river Froome within the town had pre-
viously been to the E. of fts present channel, so that it
passed through a part of the town now called Baldwin Street,
joining the Avon a little below the bridge, and flooding the
ground, until those parts now occupied by (Jhieen Square
and the quay were converted into a marsh ; and the anchor-
age was confined to a fimaall stretch of quay above the bridge,
where the vessels lay on a nmgh lind stony bottom, with a
very hi^ Mid inconvenient place of hnding. The trade of
the port had now however outgrown the extent of this quay,
and fhe burgesses resbh'ing to cut a new course for the
IvMyllM gvoMid neoectoarf to tih« purpose was ceded to the
naybt tnd oOmmontKy by ^^ ^^^^ ^ ^* AvgMhveH ft«
the -sttm of ten mvka. The work was oommeiicad fin I < 19,
and completed about the year K47. The extent ef quay
obtained by this spirited proceeding wn S4M Ibet ; and t\im
channel of the river was dug 18 ft deep and 4« yvda wid*.
at a coat of 5000/. For the eomplcftion ti this nndertftkrng.
which for its day weH deserves the tide of gwa*, the bor-
gesees of Bristol obtained a writ of mandadiut from tht
king to the bnrgesset of Radcleeve; requiring tbctt to fv n-
der their assistance ; and in the year of its completion brnh
vils. were by royal charter incorporated into one. A wtn^t
bridge Was immediately commenced fir the better means c<
communication between the united towns, the wril of trs
town was extended so as to embrace the new dietrict, tM
Reddifif shortly became the seat of those matittfarton*^
which, from the thh'teenth to the sixteenth eentiny. alm--*t
supplied England with doth, glass, and loap. In die y^-.r
1243 it is recorded that the latter article of Bristol tnar.<*
facture was first sold m London.
During the unsettled state of the kingdom in tbe r^- m
of Edward II., consequent upon the qticrrel of tiie ktof: w i
his barons, the town was for some titae held by the ciuzp*
against the sovereign, and the royal authority compfeft %
set aside. This reMHon originated in an eUe^ed attem- :
of fourteen of the principal citicens (de majoribtn^ ?->
usurp the management and disposal of the eorporate fDr.<1«,
to the exclusion of the burgesses at laiige, in wbom the r r .:
was; a usurpation Which was resented by the bui^>-^ *.
who complained also that a custom called coefcett wxs le< > ■!
upon their goods contrary to their antient privilegesi t*; r.
appeal to the king, a special commission of Oyer ar -1
Terminer was issued to inquire into the case ; bnt the cr -^
mission was objected to by the popular party, on the su^x \
that foreigners (that is, persons not burgesses of BrD>* i
were put upon the inquisition or jnrr; and e ttn* _•
arising during its sitting in the Guildhall, tbe eomn^ »-
sioners narrowly escaped wi^ their hves. The pan- ■
indicted for this offence, refusing to appear before the ire*
justices at Gloucester, were outlawed; and tbe bnrgrv^ <
retaliated by banishing the obnoxious foorieen from t'<
town, seizing upon their property, and collecting tbe ksnc %
rents and customs to their own use. The rebelbon be^j i
in 1311 ; and the ioxfn 'held its own' fertile spaoe of .^- *
years, during which time it continued to exist, a little nt-
public in the heart of a great monarchy, if a sovertngutT « •
torn with dissensions can properly be termed greet. T>f
local government was earned on acoordinff to da mntit.i
form, with this exception : the burgesses bdd tbe mathc.".'-
of the castle at defiance, and, for their better seemity, bu .:
against it a strong wall with forts, traces of whicb, of . i
immense thickness, have been lecenilv discovered in mak* : z
excavations on its site in Dolphin Street, antienflf, f^ v^
this fact, termed Defence Lane. In the spring ef 1314 tl- •
city was invested on the part of Edward by tbe eeri of G\l ^•
center, at the head of an army of 20,000 men, raised b> t:>
sheriffs of the adjoining counties of Somerset, Gloncr«tt.*.
and Wilts, under writs issued in the n^idsummer of the p-c*
ceding year ; but tho townsmen, encouraged by their ma^ .
John le Tavemer, stoutly resisted their besieisefs, and t; i
king requiring men for his Scottish wars, tne saeee • \s
raised. About the latter end of 1316, the bnrgesae^ ns
fusing to submit without a full admission of tbar aat^nt
privileges and exemption from the obnoxious taac, the to« n
was again besieged, and, after a few days* resistance, sur-
rendered to the army of the ki^g. The 14 majom v."<^
reinstated, and a general pardon was procuied Cmn t^f
king on the payment of a considerable fine and the am^n
of the cockett. The only charter of this king to tbe tnv n
was one granted in the 15th of his reign, in conftmatko c
28th of Edward L
In 1 327, the year succeedhig the accession of Edward III.
the castle and borough of Liverpool were together taker,
be worth 30/. 109. per annum ; while three years after" a: :•
the town of Bristol was fanned at a rental of 3404 In t •
5th of his reign the king granted to the town die pnt t> ^<^r
of receiving, for the term of foot Tears, a custom oik fvv i%
coming to the town fbr sale, in aid of repairing its « ». ' v
The articles taxed will show the nature of the traiBc at tl -<
time : they consist of live stock, agricultural prodace i . {
fish, wine, wool, skins, linen cloth, and cloth of «.!»«
•Irish Gal way cloths,' salt, ashes, honev, iron, lead. al^s.
brass, tallow, millstones, copper, leather, oil, and w<h ..
The copy of this grant is MI piesen^pd among^e rec.r:^
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^ ih« Oowi of ehMMrf. In the Mh yew of hii reiga
Bdward grasM a chaiter to the hnrMtus, dOBfiming S^ltt
of Henrf IIL aad Uthof MwMd 11., nd providing, that
to prevent waste mod fraud the mayor ihould have wanl
eter the goodiaiidchattelsof orphaai, and that the hop-
gtiiea ihooki have view of fiank-pMge in the snharha of
the town ; a privilege of some importanoe, as the right of
tlM town to hold ooart in Redcliff Street was contested hy
the lorde of Berkelev. For the enoeuragement of the home
maaufaoture of cloth, the use of the foreign artiele waa» in
}3d7, expressly forbidden ; and of the promise of golden
proflt which the prohibition held out Bvistd appears to have
availed itself with groat spirit* Some of the princinal towns*
men ereoled looms in their dwelUng-houaes^ and on a tax
being levied on the new trade by the local powers, it was
relieved from so impolitic an impMt on petition to the king.
In the 15lh of Edward III. the partiament having granted
a ftubsidv of 30,000 sacks of wool, London was lated at 503
baffs, Bristol at 63, and York at 49 ; and in the 27th of the
suiuQ reign a wool staple was fixed at Bristol, and the trade
was prosecuted with such activity, that the suburbs of the
town became peopled with the makera of cloth. The
trade continued to prosper until the reign of Henry VIIL.
when * cloth of Bristol' was held in high esteem; and it
lingered about the city till 1 739. when the electoral body of
fieemeo, in number 3899, then residing within the town,
contained 300 weavers : the trade has since altogether re-
tired into the adtjoining eountiea.
Recurring to the history of the town during the reign of
Edward ll£» we find that in 1338, the king requiring vea-
at'U of the several porta for the, defence of the kingdom,
Bristol was oommanaed to fhmish 24 vessels, and Liverpool
one small bark. In the war with France, which commenced
in the spring of 1345, 642 men were raised in Bristol
and Gloucester ; Bristol also contributed 22 sbina with 608
mariners^ and London the same number of vessels with 662
niarinea,
A moat important step in the municipal history of the
town was taken at thia time, A charter was granted in the
4Hhof the khig'a reign (and oonflrmed by Parliament, a oir-
cumataaoe whwh he* since cauxed much difficulty with re-
ference tp the subsequent royal charters) to the burgesses, in
soAsiiiormtioii of the flpood service dooe by them to the king
by their ahippingi and for 600 marks. Previously, the town
being partly nn the co> of Gloucester and partly in that of
Somerset lh» hmgeieea had been put to considerable ex-
- pense sndi ineoi^venienqe in their attendance st the assize
buwna of Gioucester and Ilohester. % thia charter boil^
were in future obviated by the eseotion of Bristol into a ca
of iieelC By the same eharter it wm ordained that every
ftUure mayor should, hf virtue of his ollce, be escheator ;
that the bnrSPMeee should anneelly choose three persons,
out of whom the king shouhl seleot one to be shenJf ; and
that these might aooount at the king's exchequer for the
issues of the town by attorney ; privilege was also given to
mayor and aheriii each to hold his monthly court, and to
collect the profita thereof to the use of the commonalty ;
it was also provided that the new mayor might be sworn in
before hie predecessor Instead of by the constable of the
castle aa heretolbre, ond t^e sheriff before the mayor ; that
the burgesaea might hold the gaol, and the mayor and
sheriff have oogniiance of all pleas, and hear and deter-
mme all felonies, saving all fees, and the jurisdiction of the
Tolxev Court to the crown ; that the mayor for the time being
should have power to recognise deeds, receive probates S
wills and put them in execution ; that the town should not
be burthened to send more than two burgesses to parlia-
ment ; and that in eaaes to which existing privHegea and
customa did not apply, a remedy should be provided, and a
power of local taxation be possessed by a council of 40, to be
elected ftom time to time by the mayor* sheriff, and com^
uoaalty of the town, the money so to be raised to be ex-
pended tx the neceseities and profits of the town, by two
honeet men chosen hy common consent, and accountable
ibr the aame befi»re the mayor and others deputed for the
purpose by the commonalty of the town. By this impor-
tant charter the jurisdiction of the castle was confined to
its own precinct; and the independence of the town was at
once established.
Three eharters were granted to the burgesses by Richard
n.; the first two are merely confirmatory of preceding pri-
rilegee» and were given m the 1st of his reign (1377), in
vhieh yeet niae nioyal grant for muragnt for the space of
ten yearn, waa made. The new aiticlea of tcaiBD en wha^
imposts are granted in this document, a copy of which ia
atill preserved in the records of the Court of Chancery, are
timber, coal, bark, flax, hemp^ pitch, tar, wax, pepper,' fruit,
almonda, and chalk. The thud charter adverted to, granted
in the 19th year of the king's reign, provides that, on royal
visits, the hings steward and marshal shall not exercise
their oflfioes in Bristol. The value of Uiis privilege will be
understood when the reader is informed that the juriadiictiain
of these officers within tlie verge of the king's residence
superseded all others. In the previous year (1394) the
town was granted to the mayor and commonalty, for the
space of twelve years, at a rental of 100/., chargeable in
addition with certain expenses for the support of the castle
and the keeper of the royal forest at Kings wood.
A charter granted in the 24th year of his reign by Henry
VI. exempted Bristol from the jurisdiction of the Admi-
ralty in consideration of 200/. freely granted to the king
in his necessities. The value of this privilege will be un^
derstood when it is explained that the Court of Admiralty
claimed to determine all cases occurring auper aUuui
mare^ and that at this period the trouble and expense of
prosecuting a suit in the metropolis were infinitely greater
than at present: by the charter an admiralty juriKdictiou
was granted to the local municipality. In 1437, in the
reign of Henry VI., Clement Bagot, the then mayor and
escheator, rendered in an account to the Bxchequer, still
preserved among its records, which enumerates the various
sources of revenue which constituted what waa called the
ferm of the town, and which will to some extent show
what was the state of commerce. The most important part of
this revenue arises from a custom on merchandise. It ap-
pears that Bristol had at this early date extended its com-
merce along the whole W. coast of England, to South Walea
and Irelana, and to France and Russia. Tlie only elassifi-
cation of vessels attempted is into ships and boats ; of the
former there are reckoned 66, of the latter 64 ; but many of
them, from the amount of their cargoes, must have been of
large tonnage : 13 ships and 10 boats are distinctly stated to
be freighted for going out, and some few others appear to
have had parts of cargoes on board having the same destina-
tion. The exports by this account appear to have boon 500
dozen of clotns, 7 tons. 6 cwt, 4 pipes, and 1 cask of iron,
400 pieces of glass, and 10 gross of cutlery, with various
quantities of honey, meath, alum, pitch, wine, salt, fish, and
eardys (corduroys). The imports are infinitely more nume-
rous; and among the most material are 12 tons of iron; 1 0,600
bales of linen cloths (Irish) ; 829 pieces of tin, averaging 2
cwt. to the piece ; 10,575 lamb-skins ; 5239 goat -skins ; 800
calfskins; 16,507 sheep-skins, and 4522 others, principally
hare and deer ; 900 barrels of hides ; 39,000 fish in bulk,
and 1197 packages, principally barrels and pipes of salmon
and herrings ; 110 barrela of salt ; 12 tun of wine ; 43
dickers of leather, and some others, including oil axul about
26 packages of fruit. The total amount of customs ac-
counted for on these exports and imports is 21/. 16r. lOd, ;
for merchandise entering in and going out through Uie
gatea of the town, 8/. 17r. lOd. ; for the fines and amerce-
ments in the court of Tolzev, 15^ 6r. M, ; and for the mills»
9/. 14«., which, with the landgables and rentals of tenements,
give a royal revenue from that source amounting to 80/.
Ua, 4i(L But this income appears to have been very un->
equal; for in the three successive years these rants and
profits severally amounted to 62^ 3«. ^,, 116/L 8«. &(L, and
104/. 14m.
Custom was the aotient toll or customary payment at
the port and gates of a town ; and as there can be no doubt
that here it was identical with the present town dues, from
which the burgesses have ever been exempt, it would fol-
low that these imports and exports were that part of tbo
tmde only which Lay in the hands of individuals not free of
the town. This may account for the absence of many arti-
cles in the list known to have been then imported, ind foa
the smallnesa of the traffic in others. And indeed it seewa
certain that a more productive tax was collected under a
similar name, and probably payable alike by citizen and
stranger ; for when at this same date parliament granted a
sum for defraying the expenses of U$» king'a kousehohly
266/. \3s, 44* was dii*ected to be taken out of the cuatoma
at Bristol. In the 20 th of the same king the Commons
ordered 8 ships, having each 1 50 men, to keep the sea con*
ttnually, of which number Bristol waa ^ireeted to furnish
2; end U yeaM aQ«rt wben a tlee( W9» 9ftee4 for Una
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pYotdotkp of trade» London lent towards its fitting out 300/.
andBdUolloO/.
At the time of Edward IV.'s succession to the crown,
1461, he came, in his progress through the western coun-
ties, to Bristol. William Canynges, the most celehrated
merchant of his day, the (reputed) founder of the church of
St. Mary, Redclitf, was then mayor ; and of him it is re-
ported by William of Worcester, a contemporary authority,
that he paid to the king 3000 marks for his peace, ' pro
pace sua habenda.' This must be understood to refer to
the whole fine levied on the Lancastrian party in the town,
and which Canynges would have had, in his official cha-
racter of escheator to the king, to pay into the exchequer.
The king appears to have been well satisfied with the
transfer of allegiance on the part of the burgesses, and
\vith the ready service rendered on their part ; for he imme-
diately, on surrender of the lease previously held under
Henry, re-granted the town to the burgesses for ever on
payment of the same annual rental : this charter bears date
12th February, 1461, and it was accompanied, or nearly so,
by a grant in fee of the customs for murage, keyage, and
pavage, and bv two charters confirmatory of privileges pre-
>aously enjoyed. The fame of Canynges roquiros some fur-
ther notice. It is recorded by William of Worcester that
he employed for the space of 8 years 800 seamen, and every
day 100 artificers. The same writer furnishes a list of his
vessels, 10 in number, and including one of 900 tons bur-
then, one of 500, one of 400. and two of 220 ; and though
some doubts have been entertained as to the then existence
of a vessel so laree as the largest here specified, yet when
it is considered that it would not necessarily follow that it
should have equalled the size of a modern vessel of the
same registered burthen, there does not seem any legitimate
reason for disturbing the text. The wealth of Canynges
was certainly considerable: in his old age he became a
priest in the college of Westbury, which he had founded.
Reference has been made above to Canynges as the re-
puted founder of Redclilf Chureh ; but the honour has been
claimed for Simon de Bourton, previously adverted to, for
the grandfather of William Canynges, and for William
himself. It is certain that a church previously existed on
the clitf, and that it continued to exist as the chapel of the
Holy Spirit contemporaneously with the present edifice for
a considerable period: it is also certain that Simon de
Bourton did found a chureh of St. Mary, Redclifi"; and it
is no less certain that to the wealth of the Canynges we are
indebted for much of the beauty of the present structure.
The difficulty may be got over by concluding, not with Mr.
Dallaway, that three distinct churches of St. Mary, Redeliff;
have from time to time existed on the same spot, but with
Mr. Britlon, that Canynges completed what De Bourton
begun. Mr. Britton has traced in the architecture of the
church three distinct seras, which, with considerable in-
genuity, he refers to the ages of the three individuals whose
claims have been here alluded to. Of the general character
of the edifice (one of the finest specimens of parochial
church architecture in England), the view given in No. 1 69
of the • Penny Magazine* will serve to convey a tolerable
idea; and the sketch opposite of the North Porch, the
grand though disused entrance, may furnish some concep-
tion of the labour bestowed in the architectmral decorations.
It is a splendid specimen of its kind, but unfortunately
hidden from general observation by the near approach of
the surrounding buildings.
In 1486 Henry VII. came to Bristol, and the burgesses,
through the medium of a pageant of king Brennus, com-
Slained to him of a decay in the prosperity of the place.
Irennus was made to gay that he had left the town in
possession of * riches and wealth manifold,' but that since
that time * Bristow had fallen into a decay,* from which
there was no hope of recovery without some remedy at the
hands of the king, which was accordingly prayed. Leland
reports that ' after evensong the king sent for the mayre
and sheriff, and part of the oest burgesses of the town, and
demanded of them the cause of their poverty ; and they
showed his grace that it was by reason of the great loss of
ships and goods which they had suffered within five years.
The king comforted them, that they should set on and
make new ships, and exercise their merchandise, as they
were wont to do : and his grace would so help them by
"•-^Ts means, like as he showed unto them ; so Uiat the
^ of the town told me they had not heard these hun-
reares from any king so good a comfort* The follow- ^
ing year hit ' moe #o helped them* Vy eitiortinc firam ilt^
town a beneTo&noe of 500/. in levjring a tax of 5 per ctt.i.
upon each of tlie commons worth more than 20/. in foud* .
his plea was that their wives went too sumptuoiuly ap^i-
relled. The burgesses however obtained from him in ti.*
same year a charter confirmatory of their (brmer priviW«r*.
In 11499 an important charter was granted by Ucf.r*
From this charter we learn that the town then potsessed «.
recorder, which officer and five others, to be chosen by t «
mayor and common oouncil, were appointed aldermen ^nn
powera equal to.those exercised by the aldermen of Looficm
In future it was provided that the mayor and aldermen. .
whom the recorder must always be one, shoold ezeffcb«> * \ <•
power of deposing any member of the body and of fill i.:
all vacancies. To the mayor and commonalty of tho tuvi
was given power to elect two bailiffs annually, wbo »«-'
also to act as sheriffs, and to appoint the eomoMMi oou) < .
of 40 as before, in whom the local government sboulu
vested. By the same charter the office of wmt«r>b;.ii -
previously in the crown, was ceded with all powcn .^ .
perquisites to the town on payment of four marks per k-i-
num into the exchequer ; and the mayor and aldcrr •
were empowered to deliver the gaol, saving all fines « .
fees to the crown.
[North PorcU of ReddKrChiuch.]
From the temporary stagnation of trade BristDl trx» n.
recovering, and entered with spirit upon vo>age« ci i.
covery under Sebastian Cabot, a native of the tomn. £.
the most experienced navigator of his age. The oas. c
the vessel which first touched the shores of the ^h^yx '
tinent of America was -the Mattliew of Bristol. Aod *
earliest letters patent on record for the discovery and ' .
nization of new lands were granted to three meirliant^
Bristol in conjunction with three PartU(*Qese. The b:%i
of Bristol during the reign of Henry Vlll. is prmr- .
a history of the Reformation within its walk. Am
the suppressed religious houses of the greatest mite « •
the monastery of St. Au^stine, now the catlMdnil chur
and the hospital of the Gaunts, now the mayor's rbi;
originally founded by the Berkeleys after their intennarr- .
with the Gaunts, barons of Folkinghamo. Henrr \ ; .
founded upon the ruins of the abbey lands a bisbopric, t '
first erecting the town into the dignity of a city aru
bishop's see: it originally formed part of the diocra^ .
Salisbpry. Hie abbey he convertedrinto a cvtbcdral cbun
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eeeoting a clean and ehtf^r tkerein. The Gaants chapel
and lands he sold to the corporation. Speed, in the Ust of
suppressed religious houses, contained in his chronicle of
Eogland smonarcbs, gives as the Trine of this hospital, which
was a charity for orphans^ 140/. ; the value of the monastery
he states at 767L\59.3(iL; and of Westbury College, to which
Canynge was so larfpe a benefactor, and wherein, as has
been suted, he ended his days, 232/. 14#. In the year fol-
lowing, 1546, a mint and a printing-press were set up m
the castle. On the accession of Elizabeth she granted
(1558) a charter conflrmalory of antient privileges ; and in
1561 the city was finally exempted from the charge of keep-
ing the marches of Wales.
In 1578 it is recorded that the Aid, a vessel of 200 tons,
came into Bristol, bringing with her an Esqjaimanx, his wife
and child. The Aid had returned from an unsuccessful
attempt to discover a North-West Passage : the name of
her captain was Martin Frobisfaer. In 1581 the queen
grantea a new charter, confirming that of Henrys VII.
granted in the 15th of his reign* and increasing the number
of aldermen to 1 2. When preparation was made to oppose the
Spanish Armada, Bristol contributed 3 ships and I pinnace ;
London, 16 ships and I pinnaee. A return of ships belonging
to the United Kingdom in this year gives, of ships above 100
tons, to London, 62 ; Bristol, 9 '; above 80, London, 23 ; Bris-
tol, 1 ; and under 80, London, 44 ; Bristol, 27 : in which
there appears either to be some mistake, or that the com-
merce of the kingdom had materially declined. The
annual receipt of customs during the reign of Elizabeth was
at all the ports, London excepted, 77,000/., of which sum
Bristol paid 5000/.
Si\ years after the accession of James I. (in 1609),
Newfoundland was colonized 'from Bristol. In 1630, in
consideration of the sum of 959/., Charles I. J^nted the
whole of the lands, buildings, and hereditaments connected
with the castle to the burgesses and commonalty of the
town, to be holden hy them and their successors for ever in
free soccage at a rental of 40/. per annum. In 1631 the
merchant adventurers of Bristol fitted out the Henrietta
Maria, of 80 tons, under the command of Capt James, who
sailed fh>m Kingsroad on the 3rd of May in that year, pur-
posing the discovery of a North-West 'Passage to China,
to which enterprise the merchants of this country were then
excited by the report of the immense wealth acquired by
the Spanish, the Portuguese, and the Dutch, in their traffic
with the East. Capt. James's crew consisted of 20 men
and 2 boys ; he proceeded as far as fat 52^, where, finding
his course further impeded, and the winter setting in with
danger of injury to his vessel, he adopted the bold expe-
dient of sinking her in the bay named after himself, and
wintered on shore. In July 2, 1632, the vessel was raised
a;^in, and the adventurous crew proceede<l as far as lat,
65^ 30', when, finding further perseverance useless, they
shaped their coarse for England, and arrived in Bristol in
October.
In 1634 the cnstoms at Bristol produced annually about
10,000/.: for several years following the receipts exceeded
] 5,000<. From this time may be dated the commencement
of that struj^gle between Charles and the people. It began
in the demand for ship-money ; and on Bristol was at once
assessed the sum of 2163/. 13m, Ad.-, in 1636 the assess-
ments between Bristol and Liverpool were, according to
Rushworth, thus distributed:— Bristol, 1 ship of 100 tons,
40 men, and 1000/. charges; Liverpool, no ship, 25/.
charges. The sufferings of Bristol during the struggle for
its possession between the royalists and the parliament were
severe, flennes reports that the ' riches of Bristol since
the stop of trade, and many roalignants withdrawing their
estates, is much otherwise than is conceived.* To this
state of things Col. Fiennes, who held Bristol for the par-
liament, contributed his share. It was hia custom to levy
contributions on individuals by a written demand for the
supply of the garrison ; and during his ascendency some
citizens were executed on a charge of conspiracy, and their
estates confiscated by him, from which source he admitted
the receipt of 3000/. During the royal occupation of the
place, the weekly cost of its garrison, and of Bath, Berke-
ley, and some others, amounted to about 2000/.* which was
assessed upon the neighbouring country. Bristol paid 150/.,
the customs of the port, 200/. : tho proportion borne by the
bund, of RedcUff cum Bedminstcv was 200/. per month.
Under the parliament the sum of 3000/. per month was
ordered to be raised for the defences of the city and its
castle; of which sum Bristol paid 200/L, and Uie somnodinj^
counties of Gloucester, Somerset, and Wilts the remainder.
In the year 1656 the castle was demolished by order of
parliament, their last and best act with regard to Bristol
under the commonwealth.
Three years after the Restoration, Charles II. visited
Bristol ; and in the following year (1664) the burgesses
obtained from him a charter of confirmation, with a
proviso that the members of the corporation should take
the oaths of supremacy and allegiance. In 1662-3 the attor-
ney-general. Sir Robert Sawyer, in pursuance of the
king's general attack upon the corporations of the king-
dom, moved for a writ of * Quo warranto* against that of Bris-
tol ; and in November, 1683, the corporation, acting under
the advice of its law officers, made an unconditional sur-
render of the privileges of the city into the king's hands.
Upon this surrender, which was never enrolled, the king
granted a charter confirmatory of all old privileges, but
vesting the exerdae of them all in the existing executivo
branch of the corporation, and conferring upon that branch
the power of electing its successors. The king however re-
tained in his own hands the power of removing any member
by an order in council; and the corporation paid him 500/.
In 1687 King James chose to exercise the power reserved
by charter of Charles II., and removed by writ twenty-eight
of the corporate body, supplying their places with others ;
but on the issuing of the proclamation for the resumption of
charters, October, 1688, the corporation returned to their
antient privileges and modes of election.
By an act obtained 11 and 12 William IIL, the corpora-
tion, for tho better preservation of the river, extended their
jurisdiction four miles along the course of the Avon inward
above Bristol bridge, to the village of Hannam in Glouces-
tershire ; and in the 9th of the succeeding reign the same
body obtained a charter from Queen Anne, which, con-
firming all previous privileges, removed, with every other
right of the crown in fines, fees, &c., the power of deposing
any member of the corporation by writ of privy council.
The reason of seeking this charter appears to have been
some question as to the legality of that of Charles, founded
in some degree upon doubts respecting the legality of the
surrender upon which it was granted.
The following facts will serve to illustrate the condition
of the city during the eighteenth century, tn 1 735 the
number of houses in the city was 6701 ; in 1788 they had
increased to 8701, of which, as appears from the returns of
land tax then laid before parliament, 3947 paid severally a
rental exceeding 5/. per annum : the population at this last
period was between 70.000 and 80,000. In 1762, Biis-
ching, a German writer on the political and commercial geo-
graphy of Europe, estimated the number of houses in the
city and suburbs at 13,000, and the population of the whole
district at 95,000. This estimate is in a note, added, appa-
rently, by the English translator of Busching: the proba-
bility however is that this exceeded the fact. The manu'-
factorv of brass was commenced in 1 704 ; that of zinc
in 1743. In 1745 the receipt for one year of wharfage,
a local toll on foreign imports and exports, was 918/. :
thirty years afterwards it was 2000/. From the year
1750 to 1757 the average net receipts of the customs at
Bristol was 155,189/.; at Liverpool 51,136/.; the net re«
ceipt at Bristol in 1764 was 195,000/.; the number of
vessels reported inwards 2353. In 1784 the customs at
Bristol yielded 334,909/. ; those of Liverpool 649,684/. In
1786 the tonnage belonging to the port of Liverpool
amounted to 49,541 tons, comprised in 465 vessels; the
number of vessels belonging to tho port of Bristol in 1787
was 360, with a burthen of 56,909 tons. In the same year
the entire trade of Bristol stood thus :— Foreign trade— Bri-
tish vessels in, 255, tonnage 38,502 ; out vessels 243, ton-
nage 37,542: foreign bottoms in 69, tonnage 11.112; out
66, tonnage 37,542. Coasting trade— in vessels 1862. ton-
nage 66,200 ; out vessels 1632, tonnage 62,139: Irish ves-
sels, in 161. tonnage 9623 ; out 139, tonnage 9187. From
this time Bristol may date her loss of claim to be considered
the second commercial place in the kingdom, and the supe-
rior importance of Liverpool began to be felt
The only remaining fticts necessary to be mentioned in
the historical division of this article are the bridge riott of
1793, and the still more memorable riots of 1831. As to
the former, it is unnecessary here ft) do more than to allude
to them ; of the latter sopap account will be given from
personal observation.
No. 326.
[THB PBNNY CYCLOP-SDIA.] DigitizLVoi..V.r-8)©glC
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The Bristol riots of 1831 originated in some distturbanees
which attended the visit of the recorder. Sir Charles Wethe-
rell, to that city in the exercise of his judicial functions in
April, 1 831. These disturbances were at first nothing more
than the expression of the popular dislike to the recorder,
whose opinions on the question of reform, as stated by
him in the House of Ck>mmons, were at variance with those
of a large part of the population oTBrifitol. Owing to inja-
dicious measures taken to prevent a reeorrenee of the same
scenes at the recorder's visit, Saturday, Octobter29, 1831,
the popular feeling was still more excited, and broke out into
opn violence. l%e military were called in, a skirmish took
place, and a man was shot by a soldier. This exasperated the
populace still more, and it was judged prudent that the
obnoxious regiment (the 14th) should be marched out of the
town on the following morning. At this crisis, when the
mob had forced its way to the cellars of the Mansion-
house, and the disturbances, instead of being tnarked by
any expression of political feeling, were assuming the
character of mere rioting and plunder, the indecision of
the corporate authorities completed the scene of confusion.
Several citizens who had attended at the Guildhall on the
invitation of the magistrates to assist them in repressing
the disturbances were told to go home to dinner, to give
the magistrates time to consult over several private letters
of advice. A second meeting took place in tne afternoon,
but in the mean time both gaols had been forced and fired.
Opinions were very divided : some refused to assist in dis-
persiug the rioters, because the magistrates would not
sanction the use of arms. At this time the rioters were still
in possession of the larger gaol, and employed in feeding
the flames in the governor's house and debtors' rooms with
the furniture; and the few who consented to accompany
the magistrates to the scene of disturbance beine un-
armed, fled at the first charge. Speaking from Know-
ledge acquired on the spot* it is not too much to say that
at any time during this day, subsequent to the retreat
of the military, a very small force, with good management,
might have effectually put down the disturbance; the
half-dozen dragoons within the town were quite equal
to the defence of the large prison, had measures been
liikcn to garrison it in time ; and upon revision of the whole
transaction, nothing appears more strange than the charac-
ler and number of the mob actively engaged in the work of
destruction, which seems almost contemptible. From the
ciiy prison the mob proceeded to the Gloucester county
prison, where, as in the cily, the pri5oners were all liberated
and the gaol fired. In the evening of the same dav (Sun-
day) the Mansion-house was plundered and burned down ;
from the Mansion-house the destruction was extended to
the private dwellings adjoining, and to the Bishop's Palace
in another part of the town ; and during the night fifty
buildint^s, including the three prisons, the Mansion-house,
the Bishop's Palace, and forty-five private houses were con-
sumed, and the property either destroyed or carried away.
The total loss was estimated, and perhaps not over-esti-
mated, at 200,000/. In the morning of Monday the first
check was given to the rioters about six o'clock, by the
spirited defence of a private house, then attacked, by its
owner and a few friends ; and a charge simultaneously made
by the few dragoons, upon the enfeebled remnants of the
mob, overpowered with their previous excesses, effectually
quelled further violence. The public engines were brought
to assist in extinguishing the flames ; the citizens, who as a
body had hitherto withheld support from the unpopular local
government, finding that support to be no longer an im-
plied expression of confidence in the magistracy, came forth
generally to restore the public peace ; and by nine o'clock
on the Monday the streets were entirely free from rioters,
and the passengers within them were confined to some few
persons anxious to ascertain the fate of their friends re-
siding within the neighbourhood of the fires, and a few
working men proceeding to their usual employment. Un-
happily the definite order was now given, for the first time,
by the magistrates, of course in ignorance of the then state
of the city, to charge through the streets, and given to
troops just recalled to the place, or who had not till then
been on the spot: the effect of this measure was as fatal as
tho charge itself was uncalled for and unexpected. Active
search also was made after the stolen property, much of
which was recovered, and many captures were made of per-
sons who were plainly implicated m the riots. The list of
* "*^ and wounded, as subsequently made out, was, killed
12, wmmded 96 ; Ht tUf Kne indiidid «ily !
taken to the pvbtie hosffitBis: nany riolert peisbed is thm
flames, being suddenly ofVrtakM while engH^ m plun-
dering or drinking.
At the special commissMm* opened on the 9nd of Jannarf .
1832, in the Guildhall at Bristol, befora th« Lsfd Cbwr Jo*-
tice Tyndal, and Mr. Jnstieea Tsnnton and BoMDqoM.
114 persons were hidieted for offences comnitted dnnov
these disturbances, the bilto anlnH 12 of when wen us-
nored; 21 were acquitted, and 81 convicted: of tlie pri-
soners convicted, 6 were condemned to death, 4 of wfaom
were executed, 1 having been reprieved on the grooDd of
defective intellect: against 26 the sentenee of dmllk was
recorded ; 1 was transported for 14 years, 6 ibr 7 ymn ; and
23 were sentenced to various terms of iinprisoBmeot Courts-
martial were at the same time held <m Cokynel Brer«lon, tb«
military commander of the distriet, and npon the peoond in
command, Captam Warrington : the pR)oeedinga of tbe ftnt
court-martial were brought suddenly to a dose bv the iiM4aa-
cholr suicide of Oohmel Brereton ; the secono lenDiiwtcvl
in the object of it being cashiered, with libetty Co Mil h.5
commission. Bx officio informations were also subaaaiMiitiy
filed against sevend of Che magistrales for neglect w dutr.
and that against the mayor, Mr. Pinney, came to trisl U-
fore the Court of King's Bench. The defence was, tint tftw
citizens refused to confide in or assist the magtstntea^ and
that consequently, deserted as they were by the poblie, fh€>
could not have acted more efliciently. Upon these grDiiad'«
the verdict of acquittal appears to have been given ; and tIw
other informations were withdrawn. Sabsequent to the
riots the corporation introduced a bill into parltainent fvr
providing compensation for the suflbrers ; but tbia measurv
was taken out of their hands by a committee appointed t. r
the purpose by the rate-payers, under wlM>se care the bi.l
was materially amended and ultimately carried. This mea-
sure provided for the awarding of damages by commiaaiocer*
to be elected by the rate-payers. Of 102 claims taken be-
fore the commissioners, 101 have been amicably settled, rtA
only one carried into court ; thus furnishing an admiral*>
illustration of the sufiiciency of the principle of arlntrat»i»n
and mutual agreement, which in this case has reducerl ihr
amount chargeable on the city in respect of the flfw% t.
68,208/., a sum which, if the law had been suffered to tsi^e
the common expensive couise, would have been doublci.
The amount annually levied is 10.000/.
Present State of Bristol, Local Ocvemment^The t ^
poration of Bristol, prior to 5 and 0 of William IV., was %u \*<
the • mayor, burgesses, and commonalty of the city of Bn%-
tol/ and consisted of a common council of forty-three jv-
sons; this body wus compwvd of a mayw, two sben.*!.
twelve aldermen, the recorder (necessarily a harri^ercf f*
years' standing) being one, and twenty-eight common riTi .
oilmen. The patronage of this body consisted of the d :«. , :
or indirect apoointment to nearly 100 ofiices, with salax:*-^
and fees attached, making average incomes of ifom 50/. : *
1500/. per annum, and of the presentation to fourteen a.i
yowsons, and to two lectureships. The public propert> n
its entire control netted from 16.000/. to 18.000/!. ye^rh
but this, under the system of leasing on lives, is rDnstdrr-
ably less than the improrable value: its debt, wbirh i!
1825 amounted to 5140/. only, had in 1833, when the nns-
missioners of corporate inquiry visited the city, inoca«cd xc
nearly 55,000/. But this amount does not cvmtaxn mnore^
accepted on condition of paving certain endowments, aK^^t
31,000/., making its total liabilities at that time 86.0«>u;
This total, up to the extinction of the old body. Dec^mKr.
1835, had increased by excess of expenditure lo a rmjrt.!
sum of 100,000/. The value of the corporate nropenr ^
estimated at 898,000/. *
The jurisdiction of the corporation extended by water trirr
the whole of the old and new course of the Avon, inlan i
into Gloucestershire about four m. beyond the limits of ir.v
city, and outwards along the Enelisn coast to high-w«ter
mark on the Severn, from Aust Passage to Clevedoc^ it .
eluding the islands of the Denny, and of the Flat and Strrp
Holmes in the channel : by land it included eighteen parishes.
each governed by a self-elected vestry, and the pcectnefs oi
the castle ; also, for judicial purposes, paru of the out ra-
rishes of Clifton, Bedminster, and St Philip and Jaeobw con-
tiguous to the dock company's works, the whole coatniniu -
a population of about 65,000 souls. The xemamdv of tliT
out-parishes were under the jurisdiction of their aevvm:
counties of Somerset and CHDacester|<-tQd cotA^Jn tbs
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Immeduti nlmriM of tho city* % populatum nf about 40*000,
compriMd within Ave pttziahei, and prindpaUy consi&ting of
tho poorer dosflet.
The governing body of the eorporation, commencing with
the Iftt of January, in the preeent year (18361, consists of 48
councilbra, annually elected hy the rated inhabitants, and
of )6 aldermen, and a mayor: the city is divided into 10
wards. The joriidietion is extended over the whole of the
suburbs ineluded within the parliamenmy borough, which
embraces the whole of the ouft-panahes, except some incon-
siderable parts of Bedminster and WestbuiT, more closely
connected with the county than the city. The government
of the poor of the in-panshes is vested in a corporation,
under 3rd of Geo. IV. eap. t4, but first oreated by 7 and 8
of William III. oap. 32, consisting of IS members of the
municipal body (late the mayor and aldermen), the 18 senior
churchwardens of the 18 parishes, the overseer of the pre-
cinct of the castle, and 48 persons eleoled by the rate payers
of the old 12 city wards, 4 to eaoh. The oorpcration possesses
two workhouses, one within the city, antiently the mint, but
purchased for the use of the poor in 16M, and principally
used for the meetings of the ecrporation, and as an inOr-
manr ; the other, properly the wdkhouse, a large building
on the Gloucester road, poiohaaed in 1881 of the govern-
ment, by whom it had previeua^ been used as a military
dep6t, and subaequently made part ef the city of Bristol by
act of parliament. The money relief given by the ecrpora-
tion exceeds 17,000^. per annum ; the inoreaae of pauperism
in Bristol is sluMm bdow upon an average of two pariodi of
five yearn, eadi anding with the yean speeifled.
180i 11,638/. 305 3069 40,814
1835 3i4N^. M7 4662 6M74
The ineienae of paimeriam at ^dstol is'^aproportionately
large, compared, with mat of Knghmd and Wales, and also
OS compaiwl with the lebtive inowaaa of the population :—
OottflTFoOT. 1818. tfM.
EngUmdaadWaloB MOO.OOItf. SJOOOfiOQL 27 par cent.
Bristol . I640(tf. «7|080/. 74 ^
INjIwdMrtM. OiOMMlill. MSI.
England and Wilai 11,977,893 13,894.572 10*00^
Bristol . ^ 62,880 09.074 11*89„
To the aiverage of ftl,OO0/. given above must be added an
aivemge of 4000/. Of moolleoted poor rates annually re-
assessed in addltien under the laat aet of incorporation (and
separately aUowed by the juatioea, although subsequently
added to and collected with the rate) upon the entire 19
parishes and preeiBet
In the oot^parishes of Clifton, fit Philip and Jacob, and
the dtstiiet of St Jamas and Paul, the poor are governed
by local aets ; in those of Bedminstar and Weatbury they
are regulated under the general law. At present the entire
parliamentary borough cannot eontain leas than 110,000
■ouls ; ner ean the sack rental be miieh under 425.800/., of
which 200,008/. may be takan to be ahand by the out-
parishes. The panperiam of Brialol is deubtiass in part
owing to the decline of iCs trade and manufartuies ; but the
whole distitet within the boundary has snlbrad materially
irom a viaioua ayatem of maaagemeBt, and fram laxity in
coUeeting'the ratea geneially. By the practice of eaLcuaing
the oecupants of small houses fmm all payment en the
ground of poverty, enosufs^easent ia alac given to gpeaulative
builders and small capitaiiata, in a neighbourhood where
buildmg matensda are cheap and there is much poor waste
ground, to multiply tiie ereeiion of sbmII houses. The
district «f8t Janaaa and St Paul has eacaped this evil by
means of a local act, under wbkih the landlord is rated, and
which faaa been found to be a auAeient eheak. The local
Uxation annually assessed within the 19 city parishes and
precinct, including ehurch ratea estimated at 2000/., poors*
rate at 31,000^. oompeoaation rate 10,000/^ harbour rate at
2400/., watch rate at 4S88i^, pitohing and paving rates at
10,008^ and le-asseaanente of the whole at 8000/., is
65,900/. : this total baa not avermged kss than 65,800/. for
many years.
The constituency of Bristol return two members to par-
liament, and have continued to do so from ^.d. 1283. Prior
to the passing of the Keform Act the electoral right was in
the freeholders and freemen resident and non-resident, in
all 8000. the propoftion of fteehoMem to freaman beii^ 1 in
7, and of non-resident to resident voters, 1 m 4. The free-
men acquired the right either by birth within the walls, the
father having been previously enrolled, by marriage with
the dau|^hter or widow of a freeman, by servitude to a free-
man within the walls, or by purchase ; the price of enrol-
ment in the three first cases was about 8/. ; in the last the
presumed value of the exemption fh>m town dues, conferred
by admission, regulated the demand ; and 300/. has been
asked. The average admissions of ordinary years were 50 ;
in the years of contested elections they averaged from 800
to 2000, and have sometimes of themselves decided an
election, giving a clear majority to the candidate by whom
or by whose friends the fees were paid. Contested elections
under the old system sometimes involved an expenditure of
from 28,000/. to 30,000/. The Reform Act extended the
freeholders' privilege to the out-parishes, removed the abuse
of non-residence and of admission to the freedom for
election purposes after teste of the writ and introduced the
10/. constituency. The following is the relative proportions
of each subsequent registration and polling : —
BegifterecL
T«OT.
rnnsMi.
Ibtel.
1832
4138
868
6309
10,315
1833
3817
933
5383
10,133
1834
3750
953
5388
10,100
1835
4713
1302
Polled.
4332
10.347
Tw.
Fr«ehold«n.
Freemen.
ToUl.
1832
2267
537
4010
6814
1833 „ „ „ „
1834 1192 370 3439 5001
^^* t» .. ,9 I,
For municipal purposes Bristol, as already observed, is
ttow divided into 10 wards. The number of rated properties
within the boundary is 19,927, of which 10,428 are within
the old city bounds ; but the municipal constituency does
not at present exceed 4000.
Trade,^The foreign trade of Bristol principally consists,
in imports, of sugar, rum, wine, brandy, colonial and Baltic
timber, talbw, hemp, turpentine, barilla, dye woods, fruits,
and. when the ports are open, wheat, and. within the year
1-835. tea. In 1831 the import of foreign com was 147,076
quarters; in 1832, the last, 6304 quarters. In 1834 the
customs revenue for the three quarters ending Michaelmas
was 762,221/. ; for the three corresponding quarters of 1835
it was 889,778/.; the increase of 127,557/. is attributable to
the new tmffic opened with China. The average import of
sugar is about 30,000 hogsheads; of tallow, 6799 casks;
of wine, 1615 pipes; of rum, 2553 puncheons; of brandy,
115,192 gallons; and in the timber trade about 15,000 tons
of shipping are engaged. The principal articles of export
are iron, tin, bricks, refined sugar, glass bottles, Irish linen,
and manufactured goods. The annexed teble will show the
comparative stete of the direct foreign trade of Bristol for
the last 8 years ending January 5, 1835, on the average of
the 5 first and the 3 last years endbsg with the 5th of
January of the given dates - —
Tonaecein. ToBnagsmrt. Bsportvtlne. Custoraa.
1832 80.856 52,750 £403,881 £1,208,184
1835 57,388 43,788 203,900 1,078^31
Bristol derives a considerable portion of lier supply of
foreign produce coaatwise under bond principally from Lon-
don and Liverpool, but also from the minor porta of Glou-
cester, Newport, Bridga#ater, Exeter, Barnstaple and Bide-
find. In the quarter ending January 5, 1 835, a fair average
period, Bridgewater fiuniahed to Bristol 225 casks of ibreign
tallow, about 13 per cent of the average import; and
during the aama pstiad 2000 tons of foreign goods were sent
round from Lomlon and liverpooL no decline ef the
foreign trade of Bristol both in importa and exporta, with
the incieaaed aupplv ooaatwise, is attributed to the excesa
of local taxation ui the ahape of municipal and other
impaato levied upon afaippiag and goods, and levied
almost wholly upon the foreign trade ; ao that, independent
of the direc.t effect of the tax in contracting the market
by the prohibitory scale of duties which prevails, there
is a premium held out for supplying the existing demand
coastwise, the diffisrence on Uie tax being more than
It to oover the oxtra ooat of transhipoBento. The
3K2
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amounts collected average 42,000/. per annum, but the
pressure is to be estimated rather by what is not received
than by that which is. Public attention has been very
forcibly directed to this subject within the last 10 years,
and considerable though inadequate reductions have been
made with a corresponding good effect. The coasting trade
of Biistol is very considerable, particularly with Ireland.
The imports principally consist of iron, tin, coal, salt, and
Irish linens and agricultural produce ; the exports, of arti-
cles of foreign and colonial produce, particularly groceries,
tea, wines, and spirits, and of the manufactures of the place.
The total coasting tonnage engaged, on the three years
Average ending January 5, 1835, is —
ToQf. Tons.
Outwards 293,200; including steam-vessels, 134,807.
Inwards 475,684 ; do. do. 134,615.
Bristol, upon the same average, takes from Ireland among
othor articles, 1193 tons of butter, 97,966 quarters of grain,
1996 tonsof flour, 1114 tons of potatoes, 3507 sheep, 3115
head of cattle, 109,263 pigs ; and Ireland takes in exchange
from Bristol, 2406 tons of wrought iron, 1325 cwts. of lea-
ther, 5790 cwt. of raw sugar, 36.840 cwt. of refined sugars,
59,058 lbs. of tea, and 5509 boxes of tin plates. The
coasting trade of Bristol has considerably increased within
the last 10 years, the steamers put on in 1826 being very
nearly in addition to the previous traffic. The advocates of
reduction of local taxation ground their strongest argument
on the fact that this increase has been subsequent to and
consequent on the entire removal of town dues in 1824 from
the coasting and Irish trades, without which the trade by
steam could scarcely have had existence : the effect of this
on the Irish trade may be estimated from the following
figures : —
Tonnage ' Tonnage Export value
out. in. British goods.
Year ending Jan. 5, 1824, 10,000 38,709 £126,999
Average 3 years to 1835, 74,573 90,764 280,000
The existing manufactures of Bristol are glass bottles,
crown and fl.int glass, brass wire, pins, sheet lead, zinc,
speltre, chain -cables, anchors, machinery, drugs, colours,
dyes, painted (loor-cloth, earthenware, refined sugar, stareh,
soap, British spirits, tin, copper, and brass wares, bricks,
beer, porter, pipes, tobacco, and hats. Most of these are
either carried on within the city or in its immediate neigh-
bourhood ; but the manufacturing circuit may be considered
to extend six miles around, and the principal factories are
those for glass, sugar, iron, brass, floor-cloth, and earthen-
ware. The ability of the workers in flint glass and sugar
refining has been long known ; but manufacturing industry
in Bristol is far from being in a flourishing state, and seve-
ral branches have withdrawn from the place. This, in a
neighbourhood which, in addition to a ready port, furnishes
a cheap and inexhaustible supply of building materials,
water, coals, iron, and provisions, with great facilities of
internal conveyance, is mainly to be attributed to that long,
prejudicial, and impolitic excess of local taxation which even
now compels the manufacturer often to send his goods round
to Liverpool for exportation, in some cases to save the dif-
ference on the tax, in others because the port does not sup-
ply the necessary tonnage for direct shipment.
Public Buildings, Institutions, and Companies, ^There
are in Bristol 23 churches connected with the establishment
and 36 dUsenting places of worship. The churches of
Bristol present some beautiful specimens of antient English
eccl^iastical architecture, the finest being the tower of St
Stephen s, celebrated for the decorated elegance of its sum-
mit ; the church of St Mary, Redcliff. of which a charac-
teristic specimen has been already given ; and the cathedral
^urch, antiently part of the abbey of St. Augustine the
Norman gateway of which presenu one of the finest cx-
istmg specimens of its style in England. The proportions
of the arch are in the original somewhat destroyed by the
rising of the ground, and the effect is otherwise weakened
by the introduction of modem sashes: in the annexed
sketch tho antient window is restored.
Forty religious societies connected with the establishment
and the various dissenting bodies of Bristol collect annually
ill vSJiJ/ •'^u?® ?^ ^^? peculiar views of their members about
10,00W. : this 18 exclusive of schools, maintenance of places
y:^a "^^^ ooUecUoni after the Sunday senices
3r specific objects.
The council house is in the centre of the town, partly in
Com Street, partly in Broad Street It was erected in
1827 at an expense of 14,000/., and is a very plain but c.m-
venient bmlding executed by Sir R. Smirke, and sur-
mounted with a statue of Justice by Baily, a native «<r
the city: it communicates with the justice-room, a smaller
[Abbey Gateway, Bristol; antient window ivatored.]
building annexed. The courts are held in the Guildh*:
in Broad Street, an antient building. The Mansion House
burnt down in 1831, has not been rebuilt The gaol m,^
erected of stone, W. of the city, upon the new courv« j
the river Avon, in 1816, at a cost of 60.000/.. under i^-
powers of an act of parliament then obtained. It is a s;:.-
gular fact that the mortality is greater in the new gaol iha:
It was in the old prison : this is probably attribuuble to u.
greater degree of cold which must prevail in the prc^ei;
than in the former locality. The bridewell, entirvl^ .»-
stroyed during the riots, has been rebuilt upon iu ojd >.:c
m an enlarged and more convenient form. The princiio
S^^- " ^^*^* connecting the centre of the town with lU-
Redcliff side of the Avon ; it is built of stone, aod h^y
3 arches, the centre one being elliptical with a span of 6 j
ft., the side arches semicircular, each 40 ft. in span, A
^Tn^ ^"^F ^^ ^^^' opened in 1827, in the plac« of tie
old drawbridge, crosses the harbour, connecting the narisU-^
of Clifton and St. Augustine with the city ; and two iron
bridges, each with one arch spanning 100 ft., crxiss the nr*
course of the Avon, severally connecting the city with thi
Bath and Wells and Exeter roads.
The docks at Bristol were commenced in 1804, under tSc
powers of an act of parhament obtained 43 of Geo. IIU b*
a proprietary body, and were first opened in 1809. fbcv
were formed by digging a new course for the Avon Kouth J
the city, and by converting the whole of the cad channel
froin an overfall dam erected above Uie BriRtol brtdv« m
bt.1 hihp s Marsh to the entrance lock at Rownham, in
eluding the branch of the Frome within tho quays of 8t
Augustine and St. Stephen, into one floating harbour, alwut
three m. m length. The quavs thus inclose one end uf the
city, extending fix)m Bristol bridge to the smaU atone bruij:-
across the Frome, where that riv.cea^sla be navigaWr. acd
Digitized by V:j1
B R I
431
fi R I
thus form tliree sides of a paralldogram, tbe eastern and
southern being washed by the Avon* the western by the
Frome. Tiie total extent of quay is 2000 yards ; but these
Hmits admit of any extension along the banks of the har-
bour below the town which the increase o( trade could re-
auire. There are two basins for the temporary aocommo-
nation of vessels entering or quitting the harbiour* one at
Rownham, prinoipally used by large vessels, and containing
in length between the locks 276 yards, in extreme width
1 47 yards : it rounds smaller towards the mouth, and emp-
ties itself through two locks into the Avon. The second
batiin lies south of the quay, communicating with the Avon
branch of the harbour, above its junction with the Frome,
and emptying itself into tiie riv. Avon through a single
lock, about 300 yards below the iron bridge at Bedminstei :
it is used by the eoastiug-vessels, and is about 1 70 yards
long, and averages 80 yards of width. Previous to the
construction of this barliour, vessels were suffered to take
the ground, and considerable injury and delay were occa-
sion^ ; important faciUtiee were consequently afforded to
the trade of the port by these works.
Tbe estimatea expense of the docks was 300,000/. ; their
actual cost exceeded 600,000/.. which siim was made up,
under the powers of four acts of parliament obtained subse-
quent to the institutory act, by forced calls upon the sub-
scribers, which raised the shares from their original sum of
100/. to 147/. each, and by loans. The present capital of
the company is 594,059/., of which 268,342/. is debt, bearing
interest at live per cent. ; the remainder of the capital is
comprised In 2209 shares, on which the maximum divideoi
allowed is 8 per cent. In point of fact however they were
fur a long time wholly unproductive, and the dividend when
made seldom exceeds 2 per cent. The income of the com-
pany averages about 31,000/., of which 20,000/. arises from
a tonnage on vessels, 7000/. from tho rates on foreign goods,
2355/. (net) from an assessment of 2400/. on the property of
the city parishes, and the remainder from lockages, canal
rates, boat licences, and other inconsiderable sources of in-
come. The cost of maintenance averages about 7000/. The
dock mtes on vessels and goods far exceed the corresponding
rates at the ports of London, Liverpool, Hull, and Glou-
cester. The rates on goods have been recently reduced.
The affairs of the dock company are managed by a directo-
rate of 27 gentlemen, 9 of whom are chosen by the pro-
prietors, 9 by the corporation, in whom the docks vest after
payment of the debt and capital, and 9 by the Society of
Merchant Venturers, an antient guild which has outlived
ilA original purpose. {Corporation Report ^ p. 1202.) The
custom-house and excise offices, destroyed during the
riots, are re-building on their old sites in Queen Square.
The Exchange in Corn Street is a fine stone building,
erecte<l in 1740, and opened in 1743 : the cost was 50,000/.
It is partly let out in offices, one of the wings forming tbe
post-office, and its rental, including that of the market be-
hind, is about 4000/. The interior, however, a fine quad-
rangle with a piazza, is open freely to, but little employed
by, tho merchants, who prefer the commercial rooms ; and
it has recently been proposed to roof the whole in, with a
lantern in the centre, so as to convert the interior into a
town-hall The market behind the Exchange is open daily
for the sale of dairy produce, vegetables, and butcher's
meat : the principal days are Wednesday and Saturday,
and the supply is excellent. A similar market is held in
Union Street, in the parish of St. James. The other mar-
kets ate the fish-market, a small stone building erected on
the Back near Bristol bridge, in 1 83 1, at an expense of 376/. ;
the rental in 1832 amounted to but 2/. 7«. 6(/. ; it is princi-
pally confined to the sale of oysters ; the supply of fish,
whi(;h for the locality is exceedingly small, being limited
almost entirely to the shops. The Welsh market is held on
the Back every Wednesday, from the 29th September to the
25th March, in a building erected for the sale of poultry,
eggs, fruit, &c. from the principality. The corn-market is
held in the Exchange every Tuesday and Thursday. The
cheese-market is held in Wine Street, in a building de-
voted to the purpose: its rental is about 8/. per annum.
The hay-market is held every Tuesday and Fridav in the
open street called Broadmead. The leather-market and
fellmongers* market are held, the first every Tuesday and
Thursday, the second every Wednesday and Saturday, in a
building called the Back Hall, in Baldwin Street. The
cattle-market, previously to February, 1830, was held in the
open street in the parish of St. Thomas, under charter
granted lath of Slixabeth, for the profit of the almshouse and
the aqueduct there, recited then to have been in peril of ex*
treme ruin, firom the poverty of the inhabitants of St. Thomas
Street, ' in consequence of the decline of the woi^Ien cloth
manufacture,' by which they were principally sustained.
The site of the new market is upon the new course of the
riv. Avon, between the overfall dam in St. Philip's Marsh
and the iron bridge which connects the city side of the nv.
with the Bath and Wells road: it was erected under 9th of
Geo. IV. at an expense of 16,600/., and first opened in
February, 1830. The market, which is walled in, covora
four acres of ground, and may be extended over two more
acres adjoining, which were subsequently purchased at
an additional cost of 800/. The present limits will accom-
modate 7000 sheep— 2000 under cover, 5000 pigs, 300
h<»8e8 — ^with a trotting course 30 ft. wide and 140 yards
long, and upwards of 1000 head of cattle. The market is
opened every Thursday; and the supply fluctuates con*
siderably, but the average is about— for cattle 509, sheep
3000, pigs 400, horses 80. The tolls produce about 500/.
per annum. The great market is held on the Thursday
preceding Christmas Day, when the shows are generally
very fine. Extra markets are also held at the two fairs,
the first of which is kept in March in Avon Street, in the
parish of Temple ; the second in September, in an open
space of ground anticntly part of the churchyard of St.
James's parish, and traditionally the burialplace of those
who had died of the plague. Of these fairs the most con-
siderable is the last; both commence on the 1st of the
several months, and continue about eight days * they are
largely frequented bv tho graziers and horse-dealers of tbe
West of England and South Wales, by the clothiers of the
counties of Gloucester, Somerset, and Wilts, and by tho
leather-factors of the kingdom. The sales of leather aro
mostly very extensive. The commercial rooms in Clare
Street were opened in 1811, having been erected under the
powers of an act of parliament by a proprietary body of -
shareholders. The chamber of commerce, instituted in 1 823,
for the purpose of protecting and promoting the commercial,
trading, and manufacturing interests of Bristol, is supported
by subscriptions of one guinea per annum. The reductions
effected in 1825 in the town dues were consequent upon the
exertions of this body ; of late however its hibours have been
of very limited utility, and are likely to be shortly altogether
superseded by the legitimate guardians of the commerce of
the port — the new town council. There are two gas' com-
panies at Bristol, the first the Coal Gas Company, erected
under 59th of Geo. III., with a capital of 100,000/.; the
second the Oil Gas Company, erected under 4th of Geo. IV.,
with a capital of 30,000/. Bv the former company the pub-
lic lamps of the city are lighted : by the latter the public
lamps of the adjoining parish of Clifton. The Great West-
em Railway Company have already commenced their line,
which is to unite Bristol with the metropolis. The capital
is 2,500,000/. Two companies have since beep formed, the
first with a capital of 1,500,000/., for a railway from Bristol
to Exeter; the second with a capital of 1,000,000/., for con-
tinuing the line from Exeter to Plymouth and Devonport.
A Bristol and Gloucestershire Railway Company already
exists, with a line of 9 m. in extent, from the city of Bristol to
Coal-pit Heath. It was opened 6th August, 1835, previous
to which a shorter Une of 3^ m., connecting the collieries
with the Kennet and Avon canal, had been in operation
from the March of 1832, during which intervening period
the tonnage of coals carried down to Bristol has increased
on the line from less than an average of 1000 tons per month,,
to an average exceeding 3000 tons. It is intended to ex-
tend the Une from Coal-pit Heath on to Gloucester, the capi-
tal for which has been subscribed.
There are eight banking establishments in Bristol, in*
eluding the branch of the &nk of England andtlie Sa>'ing»
Bank: two are on the principle of an extended proprietaiy,
one being a branch of the northern and central bank, tbe
head-quarters of which are at Manchester, and the other
having its head-quarters at BristoL The latter, under the
title of the West of EnglaAd and South Wales Distriet
Bank, has a capiUl of 1,000,000/., in shares of 20/., aad
commenced business December 1 835.
The Savings Bank, instituted in 1813, has a capital of
245.811/., due to 6160 depositors; the classification, as per
their last published account made up to the 20th Novembert
1 835, is as follows — ^^ ,
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
B R I
438
B R i
«o.orPep(MHoi«.
Abov*. Not excecdiag.
Total Ai
IW«I
It.
2961
£20
£21,989
6
1663
£20 50
57,604
3
962
50 100
66,822
3
374
ICO 150
45,253
0
826
150 200
38,661
6
89
200
pomton
19,758
3
6475 Dei
£250,087
9
39CharitiM .
2,555
ft
61 Fli
endly SocietiM
7,965
3
I
ToUl,oneyear*iinter«tlo Depo6i.l j^gg^gjjy ^ g
ton included I
The Bristol Imtitution, a handsome building erected in
Park Street, by shares of 25/. each, is supported by annual
subscriptions of two guineas. It was first opened in 1823.
It has a reading-room, a small library, antf a museum.
The museum contains a very fine collection of antient and
modem works of art ; among them, Baily's statue of Eve at
the founUin, and a complete set of casts from the ifigina
marbles. It possesses a very fine cabinet of British and
foreign insects, Miiller's collection of crinital remains, the
originals upon which his great work on the natural hislory
of Hhe crinoida was founded ; of minerals about 2000 fine
characteristic specimens, arranged according to W. Phillips ;
in conchology above 2500 species; mammalia and birds
above 1600. The collections of reptiles, in spirits, of mi-
neral conchology, and of zoophytes, are exceedingly nume-
Tous. Several courses of lectures are annually given in the
theatre of the institution, where also papers on literary and
philosophical subjects are occasionally read by the members
of a society associated for the purpose and annexed to the
institution. In the large room of the Museum, exhibitions
of pictures annually take place, under the superintendence
of a local society of artists, associated for the purposes of
mutual improvement in sculpture and painting. The Bristol
Mechanics' Institution was founded in 1 823 ; it now meets in
a building erected for the purpose in Broadmead, and opened
1832. It has a lecture and reading-room, the latter open
daily. The Bristol library, in King Street, founded in 1772 by
^4 private gentlemen, has now 300 subscribers, each of whom
:)ays an annual subscription of one guinea and a half, and
iolds a prrjprietary share of 10/. The number of books is
about 18,000 volumes, of which 2000 belone to the eity,
having lieen left with a building, in which they were con-
tained, for the use of the aldermen and shopkeepers of the
Uiwn. But the corporation have granted both the books and
the building to the subscribers to the library, who, in return,
agree to consider the mayor, sherifi^, and chamberlain as part
•of its members. The Bristol Law Librstry, in Cla» Street,
;possesses 495 sets of books, including complete copies of all
the Reports, and the best theoreticiu and practiciBLl profes-
sional treatises. There is also a Medical Dbrary, the
jneinbers of which meet in a building, formerly the French
Protestant Chapel, in Orchard Street, where papers on me-
idical subjects are occasionally read.
The Bristol college was founded in 1 830 by a proprietsiry
l)ody for the purpose of affording the youth of Bristol a
scientific and classical education at a moderate charge,
without quitting their homes. It is situated in Park R^,
and is opn 'to students of all religious denommations.
Shortly after the opening of the college, in January, 1831,
a junior department was annexed to it, in which, by the
due admixture of scientific with classical studies, the
latter of which arc not entered upon before the age of ten,
and by the methods employed to cultivate the mml and so-
<^ial qualities of the students as well as their intellectual
p»wer8, the most gratifying results hove been experienced.
Uiseipline is maintained without recourse being had in any
instance to corporal punishment. The Bristol Medical
School,' established on its present efficient scale in 1 834, is
held in the Old Park near the Bristol college, and furnishes
a complete course of lectures to the pupils : its ehataeter, as
a school of anatomy, medicine, and chemistry, ranks very
high, and the certificates of its professors are reoognixed at
Apothecaries' Hall. There are about 30 diarity schools
open daily in Bristol ; and the number of Sunday schools is
considerably larger. Twelve of the 30 day schools are en-
dowed ; in the whole are educated about 2000 children, and
in the Sunday schools not less than 10.000. The income of
the endowed schools is nearly 7000/., fbr which ara wholly
maintained, edooatodiand approntioed 168 boyi and 40
gitto ; •dneatod and dothed,90 boys and 88 girU; and c* a-
cated wholly, 148 boya. The ineoma of all other aehor..*.
inelttdtng that of two societiea ibr edueating young mm t >
the ministry in the diureh astabliahment and in tbe Bapt.<
connection, may be estimated at 6000/. Among the en-
dowed Bchools the principal is the Free Grammar ScL -^ I
instituted for the purpose of edocatinfr freely all who &ay
resort thither in ** good literature." The acfaool faa* i» .
fellowshius at St. John's College, Oxford* and five exh u-
tKMM at the aame nnivenity, and is othOTwise veiy libcrAi:>
endowed, but under the tnisteeabip of the lata cetpofatj.Ki
it has eeaied to hava n scholar.
Among tbe charitable institutions of BriAA die Inftrmar* .
founded in 1735, stands pre-eminent : it is a large buildiu;
with aoeommodation for 200 in-pntienta, tha avenge numUr
of whom admitted in the year is 1600 : the avcrafte mimU r
of out-patienta is 5000 ; all eanialtiea are admitted on pcv-
•entation at the door. The income of t^institutioii is rui/« .
per anniim, of whteh 2200/. ansae firom annoal aubaenptt^. «
of two guineas, the remainder from ftinded ptoparty, Ut=.
cies and donations. The BriilDl Genatal HoayifsX in*;
toted in 1832 at the opposite end of tha town, ia a mu'^
smaller establishment, and princapalW wnarkahle Ibr i;*
stipendiary ward and self-snpportiag diapeiiaaiy. to wh ' i.
the patients eontribute a amall sum; the object bong t*
reatore that deeirabto feeling of independence aaoBg ^^'•'
poor which has certainly sufll&ed in Bristol under the inft.-
enee of its many local charities. The Diapenaary* aaur • :
establishment, which has two stations at sepmla and* of it •
town, visits patients at their houses to Che anntad rnnebcr • ^
2700, including about 500 midwifeiy easea. Its incor^-
arising from subscriptions, averages 1000/. per annu .
Among other minor institutions of a similar ai««cf<T - -'
two for the cure of diseases of the eyes. The one in Mat :-
lin Lane is incorporated by Act of Pailiament, mnd has &.-.
asylum and basket manufkctory annexed : that in Fro^rn^^
Street exists entirely on voluntary eontributkioa, and ur^'*
1300 patients annually, boarding some of them, «t an ct
pense of 70/. only. There are l^des abont 40 Tolunta-«
charitable societies, which collect and distribute annua •
among the poor, in Ibod, clothing, medicine, and ia otr . •
forms, about 15,000/. The endowed charities are estimate i
at 23,000/., of which 6000/. consists of moneya left Ibr v-
purposes of being lent out in various suma and te varn i
terms fVee of interest, and 9000/. is distributed annu . ■
among the poor ; the remainder is appropriated to the ma.T .
tenance of schools and other endowments. This aaaten^ t :
does not include casual charitable oolleetiODa» whi^ soa-
times extend from 5000/. to 8000/.
Bristol supports four newspapers, three of which are pnnt'^ .
on the Saturday and one on the Thursday in eedi wevk a
quarterly journal, devoted to science and literatui^ i» Sc*
printed at Bristol, of which four numbers have nnearrti
The rocks in the immediate neighbourhood of Bristol j^.-
oomposed of carboniferous limestone, eoal meaaores* aou t
newer red sand-stone formation wiUi the dolomitic enec >
merate* in the last formation there have reoently beeo <. -
covered some saurian remains, which form tfaf«« t^ .
genera. The ranges of mountain Umestone at St Vmcvr ; ^
Rocks are remarkably fine; the coal-fielda extend N. at
S. of the city about 28 m., but the beds are conipamt.^ « «
thin, as compared with those of the other eoal distriets ■
England. The rocks at Clifton aupi^y a saline spring ; t :
temperature of which fh>m the pump is 74? Fahienbaiu aiyi '
then evolves free carbonic acid gas. It is prineipaUy oelabr a?
in consumptive cases. lu composition is thus given :
Dr. Carrick :—' Specific gravity 1*00077. In eaeh p.:.:-
carbonic acid, 3*5 cub. in.; carbonate of lime, 1-5 gr. ; sul-
phate of soda, 1*5 ; of lime, 1*5 ; muriate of aoda, o :» . i
magnesia, 1*0 ; total, 6*0.* The Hotwell House la bear*
fully situated beneath the rocks, looking on the river, al .
the banks of which a fine new carriage iomI leads fr -
the well round the rocks to Clifton Down ; but a rc»a -
means of access to the village of Clifton, whidi i» :
fashionable retreat— the west end of theeitr—is fanxaij
by an easy serpentine path, leading up the roek« fr
behind the Hotwell House. The scenery armmd Bn-:
particularly the Clifton Hotwells, is exquisitely beaut,
and the botanical features of the country highly :r: -
esting. In a catalogue recently compiled by a rvsni
(Mr. Q. H. Stephens) and printed in the West of Entz ■
Journal, 375 specimens are enumerausd as part of iL -
fbund in the immediate neighbourhood. Miiny «r these a..
B R I
499
BRI
of extreme Taritf, and of some the babifats deseribed are
the only ones known in the country. The richest fields for
the botanists are the downs, the rocks, and the woods of
Leigh, on the opposite shore. The phenomena of the tides
having recently attracted considerable attention, a self-regis-
tering tide gauge, contrived by Mr. Shirreff, the sub^curator
of the Bristol institution, was, upon the suggestion of Pro-
fessor Whewell, erected at Kingroad, about halfWay be-
tween the port and the mouth of the river, and a register of
the several heights of water has been since regularly kept
A series of observations has also been simultaneously made
at the entrance to the Bristol docks ; and the result has
been already so far satisfactory as to induce the publication
of nn improved set of tide tables for the port, calculated by
Mr. Bunt of Bristol, in which the errors of preceding cal-
culations, to the amount of more than 30 minutes, have
been roduoed to 1 in 25. The greatest difference between
the heiffht of the tide at springs and neaps, observed on the
gauge during the year 1835, was between the 17th Septem-
ber and the 14 th of May. On the former date the water rose
to 48 ft. 10 in. ; on the latter to 23 ft. 4 in. The difference
between the height of the neap and spring tides, at the dock
gates, is from 4 to 5 ft. less than at the gauge, although the
intenrening distance is but fotv miles— a fbet which very
clearly shows that the supposition of the wave maintaining
the same level is cleariy erroneous. The temperature, pre-
vailing winds, &c., are shown in the annexed tables for the
last six years : —
1 ExiKmM
MwdmiUB and Hiaimom Tampentor*.
l'
HiKbest
Lowwt,
Ilaximaia.
Mlnimain.
lrt30 80-56
1831 , 30-66
1K3S 1 30-58
ISSSi 80-68
1834 1 aO'tiO
1836 S0*59
88-84
98-84
99- 15
98*88
fi8«98
«-7*
83° July 89.
89 JulyaO.
84 AiiK«it9.
84 MaySa.
84 AusuftU.
18«'De«nnbcr8&
98 January 7.
88 January 1.
88 Jan. 91 ana 88.
86 Marehia.
3 D«eMnb«r94.
Winda.
WaatlMT.
Rain.
>
>»
2
2
M
i
o5
^
IT
2*
1
2
i
i
ladiet
1<3H
39
89
30
ao
31
7S
88
89
10
165
177
93
iKii
1
86
49
43
91
49
76
67
99
13
178
157^
I
33* 14
!<■•-'
97
53
98
30
97
80
63
47
11
906
98-94
I.H.t»
1
90
53
99
u
ai
96
93
97
4
169
ISi
19
34-10
jjia
97
68
94
18
39
96
64
18
19
.909
163
0
80-80
l^ij
4f
49
39
19
99
96.
75
84
99
188
171
6
38-63
No register of the rain was kept prior to 1831 ; and the
month of March in that year is omitted in consequence of
the pluviometer being out of order. The meteorological
tables and figures are all taken from the observatbns of
Mr. Jones.
(The materials for this article have been compiled from
Parliamentarv and other public authorities : from local his-
tories and other publications connected with the affairs of
the city ; from unprinted MSB. and the records of the
country ; and principally from original inquiries and ob-
servations. In the Reports of the Commissioners for in-
quiring into Municipal Corporations, the reader will find a
very valuable report on Bristol.)
BRISTOL, a county in the state of Rhode Island in tha
U. S. of America. oonUining the three townships of Bristol,
Warren, and Barrington. Bristol co. occupies the £. por-
tion of the state and joins theco. of the same name in
Massachusetta. The pop. in 1810 amounted to 5072; in
I B20 to 5637 ; and in 1830 to 6466.
BRISTOL, a seaport and principal town of the above
eo.. is situated on a pen. called Bristol Neck, at the bottom
of Narraganset Bay, and occupies the W. side of the pen.
iu J I ° 40' N. lat. and 7 1*^ 12^ W. long. It is a pleasant, well-
built town ; the bar. is safe and commodious, and the place
tias considerable trade ; the shipping belonging to this port
amounted on the 3 1 st December, 1831, to 9368 tons; the ex-
ports consist of agricultural produce drawn from the neigh-
'boiiring country, the soil of which is very fertile. The town
contained in 1830 a pop. of 3052 ; it has 5 incorporated banks,
«.he aggregate capitals of which amount to 465,000 dollan.
The general assembly of the stats of Rhode Island holds
aU sittings in the month of January every year» eitiier at
Sristol, East Gteenwioh, or Providenee.
Bristol is 15 m. 8.8.S. ftom Providenee, the capital of
the state, and 50 m. S.S.W. of Boston.
BRISTOL CHANNEL [Skykrw.]
BRI SURE, a term borrowed from the French and ap-
plied, in permanent fortification, to any part of a rampart or
parapet which deviates from the general direction. Tnus, in
a fW>nt of fortification with retired flanks, the part of the
curtain immediately contiguous to each flank, which is traced
obliquely to the central part and in the direction of the pro-
duced face of the collateral bastion, is called the brisure of
the curtain. An example of this kind of brisure is shown
at e» {fig, I.) in the article Bastion. In field fortiBcation
the faces of a star fort and of any indented line of parapet
are called brisures.
BRITAIN, GREAT. [Great Britain.]
BRITAIN, NEW. [Nkv Britain.]
BRITANNIA, the name by which the Island of Great
Britain is mentioned by the Latin writers. We propose in
the present article to give a brief notice of its antient in-
habitants and history, previous to and during the period of
the Roman domination.
The eariiest inhabitants of Britain, so Ux as we know, were
probably of that great fkmily the main branches of which,
distinguished by the designation of Celts, spread themselves
so widely over middle and western Europe. The Welsh
and Danish traditions indicate a migration from Jutland ;
and the name of C^^mry, given to the immigrant people, has
been supposed to indicate their probable identity with the
Cimmerians (the Ki/A/iipiot of Herodotus, and the Cimbri of
the Roman historians), who being expelled by the Scythians
from their more antient seats N. of the Euxine, traversed
Europe in a N.W. direction, and found new settlements
near the Baltic and the mouth of the Elbe. These barba-
rians then reached Britain by the same route which was
afterwards traversed by the Saxons and Angles. The Celts
crossed over from the neighbouring country of Gaul ; and
Welsh traditions speak of two colonies, one from the country
since known as Gascony, and another from Armorica. At
a later period the BelgsD, actuated by martial restlessness or
the love of plunder, assailed the S. and E. coasts of the isl.,
and settled there, driving the Celts into the inland country.
These Belgss were a branch of the great Teutonic family.
Before the arrival of Julius Ccesar in Britain the isl. was
but imperfectly known to the more civilized nations of the
antient world. The people of Carthage and Massilia (called
Massalia by the Greeks) or Marseilles, traded for tin with
certain ials. called by Herodotus Ka99irepi^ec (Cassiteridcs),
*the Tin Islands;' which are supposed by some to huto
been the British Isles, or, at least, Cornwall and the Scilly
Isles.
The etymology of the word Britain has been much dis-
puted. One of the most plausible is that which derives it
from a Celtic word britht or 6nV, ' painted* (Camden) ; in
which name it is supposed there is a referonce to the custom
of the inhabitants of staining their bodies with a blue colour
extracted from woad. Carte says, that the name in the most
antient British poeta is /ntt (island) jarydhain. Whether
this form or that of the Roman writers furnishes the best clu^
to the original form of the native designation is perhaps
queationable. The meaning of prydhain, if it be anything
more than a corrupt form derived from the root Mi, does
not seem to be known. It would be to little purpose to give
other etymologies, or to enter further into a matter in which
oertainty is so little attainable.
Casar is the first writer by whom any authentic particu-
lars respecting the isL are given. Stimulated probably by
Uie desire of military renown, and of the glory of iirst carrying
the Roman arms into Britain, provoked also, as he tells us,
by the aid which had been furnished to bis enemies in Gaul,
especially to theVeneli (the people of Vannes in Breta^ne),
and other maritime people of western Gaul, he determined
upon the invasion of the island. As a preliminary step, he
summoned to his camp a number of the merchants who
traded to the isL (who alone of the Gauls had any ac-
quaintance with it), and to them he addressed his inquiries.
Their caution, however, or Ibeir ignorance, prevented his
learning much from them. Failing in this quarter, one of
his offioen. C. Voluaenus, was sent to reconnoitre, but he '
did not venture to leave his ship and trust himself on shore
among the natives. Cassar, no way deterred by this want of
inibrmation, collected a fleet» and disposed bis forces with a
view to the descent.
I Before entering upon the history of the Roman invasion,
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WA shall quote the description which CsDsar gives ^ Britain
in a subsequent part of his ComtDeBtaries.
* The inland part of Britain is inhabited by those who
according to the existing tradition were the aborigines of
the island; the sea-coast by those trho, for the sake of
plunder or in order to make war, had crossed over from
anionic the Belgso, and in almost every case retain the
names of their native states from which they emigrated to this
island, in which they made war and settled, and began to till
the land. The population is very great, and the buildings
very numerous, closely resembling those of the Gauls : the
quantity of cattle is considerable. For money they use
copper, or rings of iron of a certain weight.* Tin (plumbum
alhum) is produced there in the midland districts ; and iron
near the sea-coast, but the quantityof this is small; the
copper which they use is imported. There is timber of every
kind which is found in Gaul except beech and fir. They
deem it unlawful to eat the hare, and the hen, and the
goose ; these animals however they breed for amusement.
The country has a more temperate climate than Gaul, the
cold being less intense.
' The island is of a triangular form, one side of the triangle
being opposite Gaul. One of the angles of this side, which
is in Cantium (Kent), to which nearly all vessels from
Gaul come, looks towards the rising sun ; the lowert angle
looks towards the S. This side extends about 500 m. The
next side looks towards Spain and the setting sun. On
this side is Hibemia (Ireland), considered to be about half
the size of Britain ; but the passage across is of the same
length as from Graul into Britain. Midway in this passage
is an island which is called Mona (Man) ; many smaller
islands also are thought to lie in the passage, concerning
which islands some have written that about the winter
solstice they have night for thirty days together. We could
not ascertain anything upon this point by inquiry ; but we
found, by using certain measures of water, that the nights
were shorter than on the continent. The length of this side,
according to the opinion of the natives, is about 700 m. The
third side fronts the N. ; there is no land opposite to this,
but one angle of it extends very much in tne direction of
Germany: this side is thought to be 800 m. in length. So
that the whole island is 2000 m. in circuit J
' Of all the natives, those who inhabit CantiUm (Kent), a
district the whole of which is near the coast, are by far the
most civilized; and do not diflTer much in their customs
from the Grauls. The inland people, for the most part, do
not sow com, but live on milk and flesh, and have their
cbthing of skins. All the Britons however stain them-
selves with woad (se vitro inficiunt), which makes them of
a blue tinge, and gives them a more fearful appearance
in battle: they also wear their hair long, and sha^
every part of the body except the head and the upper lip.
Kvery ten or twelve of them have their wives in common,
especially brothers with brothers, and parents with children ;
but if any children are born, they are accounted the children
of those by whom first each virgin was espoused.* (Lib. v.
c. 12, 14.)
As to the religion of the Britons, Druidism flourished
amonj; them in all its vigour. Indeed this singular super-
stition was considered by the Gauls to have originated in
Britain. A late writer observes that it is not without
Oriental features. * So much subserviency,* he says, * of
one part of a nation to another, in an ago so destitute of the
means of influence and of the habits of obedience, is not
without resemblance to that system of antient Asia which
confined men to hereditary occupations, and consequently
vested in the sacerdotal caste a power founded in the ex-
clusive possession of knowledge.' (Sir J. Mackintosh, Hist
of Eng„ vol. i. p. 9.) It is however to be observed, that the
great feature of the Oriental system of caste— the hereditary
descent of its occupations and privileges, is wanting in
Druidism, as we learn from Crosar in the passage which
we are about to quote. Nor do we think that either the
influence which the superior knowledge and the priestly
office of the Druids gave them, or the jealousy with whicL
they guarded that knowledge from popular diffusion, can
• The copies here vary tctv much. A^> have followed the tfxt of Ondeo-
dorp, as edited by Oberlin. Lipsiif. 1805.
t This is a literal r4>ndering of Osar's expresalon 'inferior; (he meaning
of which it is rather difficult to Qx. He elaewiiere states that the • lower" part
orth* laland vas the more westerly (Lib. iv. c. S8)— inferiorcm partem insahs
quas ei«t propiiu solis occastim.
t The Roman mile was about twelvethlrteeBthi of the Enslish. It is
a^I^L^'^^**^^''^^^^ ***•' Cojsw's deicriptioo of the itlaod ii wrone-
otts m se*^ral respects.
be r^arded as the mark of orientalism ; the first beinir the
natural result of man's reverence for superior inlellip:'.'-
and for every thing connected with his religion^ an'l ihr
second the manifestation of that selfishness the sccU -(
which are sown in every human heart. We subjoin h,*.':
Cesar's account of the Druids : —
' They aie the ministers of sacred things; they have t-.»*
charge of sacrifices, both public and private; they l*)**
directions for the ordinances of religious worship {relict" r
interpretantur), A great number of joung men re:k>rt \ >
them for the purpose of instruction m tlieir system, a:.l
they are held in the highest reverence. For it is tl < **
who determine most disputes, whether of the afiatrs of tl.
state or of individuals: and if any crime has been com net-
ted, if a man has been slain, if there is a contest eoncem - 'j
an inheritance or the boundaries of their lands, it i% t\'
Druids who settle the matter: they fix rewards and pun:^' -
ments : if any one, whether in an individual or p'j^ ' -
capacity, refuses to abide by their sentence, they forbi^l li -:
to come to the sacrifices. This punishment is among \\.* ..
very severe; those on whom this interdict is laid ane :r.
counted among the unholy and accursed ; all fly Irom !h< 'z,
and shun their approach and their conversation* lest t'
should be injured by their very touch ; they are placed n\A
the pale of the law, and excluded from all offices of hor. - '
• Over all these Druids one presides, to whom tbcy pa?? *
highest regard of anyamong them. Upon bis death, if i\
is any of the other Druids of superior worth, be sucrei ! • .
if there are more than one who have equal claims, a «^'-
cessor is appointed by the votes of the Druids; and '
contest is sometimes decided by force of arms. T: f v
Druids hold a meeting at a certain time of the ye^r :* «
consecrated spot in the country of the Carnutes (peuy U- i
the neighbourhood of Chartres), which country is cons.l^ : :
to be in the centre of all Gaul. Hither assemble all f r _
every part, who have a litigation, and submit thcmsclv-. » ,
their determination and sentence. The system of Dni 1 .
is thought to have been formed in Britain, and from tber -
carried over into Graul ; and now those who wish to &c n
accurately versed in it, for the most part, go thither (t c i
Britain) in order to become acquainted with it.
* The Druids do not commonly engage in war, neitlicr
they pay taxes like the rest of the community ; they er;
an exemption from military service, and freedom frotn .
other public burdens. Induced by these advantages, tc
come of their own accord to be trained up among them.
others are sent by tlieir parents and connexions. Ti*
are said in this course of instruction to learn by le .
a number of verses; and some accordingly remain tti«.r.'
years under tuition. Nor do the Druids think it n;:.::
commit their instructions to writing, although in most ft' -
things, in the accounts of the state and of individuals. •
Greek characters are used. They appear to toe to
adopted this course for two reasons ; because they •!"
wish either that the knowledge of their system s£o\a !
diffused amon^ the people at large, or that their pu; •
trusting to written characters, should become le<s rx
about cultivating the memory; because in most m^ ^
happens that men, from the security which written rh: - -
ters afford, become careless in acquiring and retaiuin<x t. '■
ledge. It is especially the object of the Druids to inctj!.- •
this — ^that souls do not perish, but after death pa<s •
other bodies ; and they consider that by this belief n- •
than any thing else men may be led to cast awaj thi r r
of death, and to become courageous. They discuss* mon.* •
many points concerning the heavenly bodies antl \h
motion, the extent of the universe and the world, the r- •-
of things, the influence and ability of the immortal ir •' - .
and they instruct the youth in these things.
•The whole nation of the Gauls is mueh addicted t? r-
ligious observances, and, on that account, those nho
attacked by any of the more serious diseases, and thi^*^ r.
are involved in the dangers of warfare, either otTer hiin» ■
sacrifices or make a vow that they will offer tbero, and ".
employ the Druids to officiate at these sacrifices : fi>r
consider that the favour of the immortal gods canr ;
conciliated, unless the life of one man be offered up f r :
of another; they have also sacrifices of tlic same ktrd
pointed on behalf of the state. Some have imac**^
enormous size, the limbs of which they make of vk'
work, and fill with living men. and setting them on :
the men are destroyed by the flames. They r-T--
that the torture of those who have been taken in the c r^-
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miirimi of th«ft or open nMeryt or in tny erimo, it more
agreeable to the imtnortal goda; bat when there is not a
aufficient number of crinrin3s» they scrapie not to inflict
this tortare on the innocent.
' The chief dei^ whom ther worship is Meicuij ; of him
they have many images, ana they consider him to be the
inventor of all arts, their goide in all their joumeyst and
that he has the greatest influence in the pursuit of wealth
and the afiairs of commerce. Next to hmi they worship
Apollo and Msrs, and Jupiter and Minerva; and nearly
resemble other nations in thjir views respecting these, as
that Apollo wards off diseases, that Minerva communicates
the rudimentB of manufactures and manual arts» that Jupiter
iH the ruler of the celestials, that Mais is the god of war.
To Mars, when they have determined to engage in a
pitched battle, they commonly devote whatever sj^ they
may take in the war. After the contest, they slaj all living
creatures that are found among the spoil ; the other things
they gather into one spot In many states, heaps raiaed of
these things in consecrated places may be seen : nor does it
often happen that any one is so unscrupulous as to conceal
at home any part of the spoil, or to take it away when de-
posited ; a very heavy punishment with torture is denounced
against that crime.
*All the Gauls declare that they are descended from
Father Dis (or Pluto)* and this they say has been handed
down by the Druids : for this reason, they distinguish all
apece»of time not by the number of days, but of nights:
they io regulate their birth-days, and the beginning of the
months and years, that the day shall come after the night.*
(CoDsar de BelL Gall., lib. vi. 13, 14, 16, 17, 18.)
Although in what relates to or is closely connected with
the system of the Druids, we have Quoted that part of
Cmsars Commentaries which has relation to Gaul, we
have thought ourselves authorized in applying his descrip-
tion to Britain, by his declaration that the system existed in
ilA greatest vigour in that island. Of the account which
he gives of the civil institutions of the Gauls we do not feel
ourselves completely justified in making a similar applica-
tion, although it is likely that, in their political and social
arrangements, a considerable similarity existed between the
two countries, the Gauls being however more advanced in
civilization.
In the autumn of the year 55 n.c, C»sar, embarking with
tlie infantry of two legions (about 8000 to 10.000 men) at
tlie Portus Itius, (Witsand, between Calais and Boulogne,)
arrived with part of his fleet, after a passage of about 10
hours, on the coast of Britain, and beheld the steep cliffs
which skirted the shore covered with armed natives ready
to dispute his landing. Judging this to be an unsuitable
spot for his purnose, after a delay of several hours to en-
able the rest of nis fleet to come up, he proceeded about
seven miles farther, and prepared to disembark on the open
and level beach which presented itself to him. The place at
which Cttsar first touched was probably near the south Fore-
land, and he landed somewhere on the flat shore which ex-
tends from Walmer castle towards Sandwich.** He did not
make good his landing without a severe struggle. The
success of the invaders, however hardly earned, and though
somewhat incomplete, disposed the natives to submission ;
but the dispersion in a storm of some vessels, which were
bringing over the Roman cavalry, and the damage sustained
tiy the fleet which had conveyed Csesar, induced them to
renew the contest, and to attempt, first, the surprise of one
of the legions which had been sent out to forage, and next
the attack of the Roman army. They were again beaten,
and compelled to sue for peace ; and Cesar, anxious to
return, contented himself wiUi requiring an increased
number of hostages, whom he commanded to be brought
to him on the Continent, for which he immediately em-
Varked. Two of the British Suites sent their hostages : the
re«t did not.
Early nest year (54 B.C.), Cssar, embarking again at
the Portus Itius, invaded the island with a much larger
force. His fleet consisted of 800 vessels of all classes,
including some which belonged to private individuals ; and
the natives, who had assembled to oppose his landing, terri-
fied at the magnitude of his armament, retired in alarm
from the coast. He landed in the same place as on the
* SotM eontrad tat Romney marsh or tht neichboarhood of HyUM. Tha
quMtion to wbeUier Ganr'i at to loc9 pTogrmtm* tt to be imdantood of an kd-
taoM towards Uie oorUi or towanb Uio waUi-wcgi. Mr. H«iilay {BriUmmia
Bamtm) tboir» it amckbarv bem towards Uto Mrth
former oeeation ; and sotting out about midnight in pnrrait
of the natives, found them drawn up on the bank of a river*
(probably the Stour, near Canterbury,) to oppose his fur-
tner progress. His cavalry drove them into the woods in
the rear of their position, and one of his legions (the 7th)
stormed a strong hold, formed of timber, which had been
ibrmerlv constructed probably in some domestic war. This
strong nold is supposed by Honley to have been subs»-
quendy the Rcmian station of Durovemum, now Can-
terbury. Intelligence that his fleet had been damaged by
a storm obliged Cmsar to recal his troops from the pursuit
of the enemy, and his own return to tlw coast to ascertain
the extent of the damage and take measures for repairing
it, delayed his operations for some days. Upon his return
to his former post he found that the natives had augmented
their forces from all parts, and had entrusted the command
in chief to Cassivellaunus, (we use Caesar's mode of writing
the name, perhaps the native form of it wasCass-wallaun or
CaswaUon,) a pnnce whose territories were divided from the
maritime states by the River Tamesis or Thames, at a part
which was 80 Roman, or about 74 English, miles firom the
Kentish coast. This prince had been engaged previouslv in
incessant wan with his neighbours ; but the common dan
Sr compelled them to forego their disputes, and it is likely
at his talents for war pointed him out as the' most suitable
person for general. But neither his caution and skill^ nor
the undaunted valour, nor the increased number of the Bri-
tons, enabled them to withstand the superior discipline and
equipment of the Romans. After some severe but unsuc-
cessful struggles, Cassivellaunus dismissed the greater part
of his forces, detaining about 4000 charioteers, whose skill
in the management of their chariots rendered them very for-
midablo, and retired, as it appears, into his own dominions
across the Thames. That river was fordable only in one place
in the line of Cssar's advance ; and the natives had planted
stakes, sharpened at the point, on the bank and in the bed of
the river. All obstacles were however overcome ; Ca»ar, cross-
ing the river, put the enemy to flight, received the submis-
sion of several tribes, and took by storm the town of Cassi-
vellaunus. These disasters, combined with the entire de-
feat of the princes of Cantium (Kent) in an attack upon the
maritime camp which the Romans had formed to protect
their fleet, induced Cassivellaunus to submit The conqueror
demanded hostages, fixed a tributCLto be paid by the subject
Britons, and returned to Gaul with all his forces and a
number of captives.
It will be well here to notice the geography and ethno-
grephy of Britain, so far as the expedition of Ciesar brings it
into view. As to the place where he crossed the Thames,
there has been some dispute. Camden fixes it at 0)way or
Cowey stakes, near Chertsey in Surrev, and Mr. Gale, in
the ' Archfloologia* (vol. i. p. 183), adduces several strong
arguments in support of Camden's opinion. In fact the
stakes are described as they remained fixed in the time of
the writer. To evidence so strong Mr. Horsley's opinion
that Ctesar crossed just above Kingston must give place.
The town of Cassivellaunus is supped to have been Yeru-
lamium (Verulam) near St. Alban s.
The tribes with whom the Romans in this expedition be-
came acquainted were as follows : we give also their names
as written by Ptolemy, where they have been identified or
where identity is conjectured by antiquarians. The posi-
tions are those laid down or suggested in the map published
by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, * An-
tient Britain, part 1, with the exception of the Cassi, as to
which tribe we give Camden's conjecture : —
lababilnts of
• Kent.
Tpcvoavrcc Essex.
S(/i(yoi? Iceni of Tacitus? Norfolk, Suf-
folk, Cam-
bridge,
notmentwned • . • parts ofHants
and Berks.
XTpi0arioi7 • • . • parts of Berks
and WilU.
not mentioned. • • parts of Berks
^nd adjacent
counties.
, • • . • Cassio Hun-
dred, HerU?
Of what tribe Caanvellaunns was originally the head it is
difficult to say. The Trinobantes, Cenimwij, Segontiari*
People of Cantium, Xavrun,
Trinobantes. ~
Cenimagni. •
SegontiacL •
Ancalites. •
Bibroei • •
Cassi
No. 327.
[THK PBNNY CYCJX>PJiDIA.}
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Aneditec, BiliMei and Cmm Mibouttod to Cattr befon tba
final defeat of l^e British pnne«, th« aituatiaa of whose
capital they poittted out to the RomaM. This pre^nts iba
supposition <^ his being by birtb tiie ruler of aajr of them ;
yet if ^e Ropcian Verulamium was on ^ site of his town,
this tnnst hare been in the territory of the Cassi, acoording
to Camden*s .opinion of their situadon. If we might ofier a
conjecture it would be thfs : that CassmUaunus was prince
of the people called Oatyeuchlani fKopvc^xXjutoi) bv Ptolemy,
and CauteUani, KarovfkXovoc by Diott, who ere given in the
Society's and other maps, as oeoupying the whole or part
of Herts, Bucks, Bedfordshire, and Nor&toushiise ; that
t^e original dtstriet of this people was much less than has
just been stated, but that they had sufajeoted to their away
^e Trinobantes» the Cenimagni, and the other tribes, (ex-
cept perhaps the neople of Cantium,) mentioned byOsBsar;
that the defeat orCassiTellaunus induced these tribes lo re-
volt ; but that, upon the departure of the Romans, they wees
again reduced to subjection, and, with the exception of the
TrinobaQtes and Cenimagni, so completely subdued es to
have lost their distinctive appellations, and to have been
therefore included by Ptolemy under the name and in the
description of the conquering tribe. The fact that CsMar does
not mention the Catveuchlaui* nor Ptolemy tlie subjeeted
tribes, unless imder aiiferent names, is ftiTourabie to this
conjecture. The Trinobantes, whose independence Cflssar
took pains to secure, appear in Ptolemy under their own
name : they seem not only to have retained their inde-
pendence, but rose, probably in consequence of their alii-
ance with Rome, and their greater advance in civiliiation,
to the position of a leading state.
The success of Cesar was certainly not such as to induce
him to attempt the permanent reduction of the island ; and
fipoxn some passages in antient authors it has been conjec-
tured that nis success was not 90 great as he has repre-
sented it. I^owever that may be, the Romans did not
return to the island until the reign of Claudius, leaving the
Britons alone for about a century, or going np ikrther than
to threaten an attack* In the interval those of the Britons
who dwelt in the parts nearest to Gaul appear to have
ipade soqie ipvo^ess in civilizatioQ. They coined money,
and many British coins have been discovered, of which
about forty (Note to Gough's Campien) belong to a prince,
pufiobelin (90 on his coins, Cynobellinus in Suetonius,
Kvyo/3eXX(voc in Dion Cassius), whose residence was at
Cama^odunun (either Colchester or Maldon), and whom we
ihould therefor^ take to be king of the Trinobantes, the
people of that part of the country. It i? likely that a con-
nexion Yas maintained after Csesar's departure between
the Romaus and the Trinobantes, who would desire to enjoy
the p|:otection of the Roman name a^id influence (as did the
iCdui and Remi in Gaul), while the Romans would be
willing to keep up an alliance in the island, which might be
of use to them whenever they were dispose4 and able to
resuxne tiieir schemes of conquest. The money of Cuno-
belin is supposed to have been the work of a Rpman artist,
or of some Gaul familiar with I^Qpian customs. The sub-
joined engraving i^ from a co\o, one of several of Cunobe^n,
in tbe British Museum.
manded the farcet whieh were ^ewgiied fcf iHi Mmk «i the
island (a.d. 43). The EomaBs were iDttigaled by a Briii*h
fugitive whom Dion calls B#fHcec (Berleus •. The RMBan
soldiers were at first unwilling lo leave their quftnen to
Gaul to engage iti an expedition beyond the bo«JMUrv^s •'
the world, out were prevailed on to embark. The Bntous
did not ffisist their landing, and were snhaequeiktly defissif d
in two battles, in the fint of vhioh they weie cemnendni
hyCatar&tacus iKitva^mooc Dioo), in IheseeoDd bv X^*£^
dumnas (f oyp^v^twci INon), the aona ef the oovr ^ecesM^i
Cunobclin, The success of the Romaas dinheartencd *tice
of the natives, and part of the Boduoi (B<S#ovvd«) pmbaUy
th^ Dobuni (jkofiowi) of Ptolemy, who dwelt in end ^}t>^ a
Gloucestershire, submitted. Fiom the country oi th^-;
new subjects Plautius advanced to a river (sopposed *..
some to be the Severn), thought by the Btilens io '•
impassable without a bridge; and sending ever e t««:%
of Gallic auxiliaries, and afteo'them his heutenants. 1.-
brothers Flaviug Vespasian (afterwards emperor) %u .
Sabinus made ooasiderable slaughter. The aitAck «^
not however decisive, Ux the battle was renewed the i^ \i
day ; and it was not until afler a hard stmggla that f . <
BxitOBS yielded. From this part of the country the va: •
quisbed natives retreated eastward to the maishee near r.v
mouth of the Thames (Ta/iicra, Dion) (the manhes of E»ic \ •.
where another stand was made with great slaughter \. >i
various auooess. In this struggle Togoduronus appears :
have fallen; and the Britons, roused by the desire of «»^..
geance to greater efforU, exerted themselves so vigorx>.-\
that Plautius (as we gather from Dion) withdrew to the &* >. :
of the Thames to await the arrival of the Smperor ClauH ..«.
whose presence he solicited. Claudius embarked with tr -
forcements, including some elephanta ; and kndinw at M 1-
silia, proceeded through Gaul to Britain. Upon Ims arr ^ i
he crossed the Thames with his army, de<bated the natn»«
who had assembled to oppose him, took Cameled eciur.? < r
Camulodunum (KaftovXaSovyov, Dion), the capital of Cu - -
belin, and forced numbers of the Britons to submit t-w c
at discretion or upon terms. After this sucoeea Clathi «
disarmed the vanquished tribes and returned to R.***'-.
leaving Plautius to secure and enlarge the Roman o
quests. (Dion Cass. HUt. Rom.) The senate derived t'
umphal honours to the emperor*, and the memory of • -»
victory has been perpetuated in hb ooinage. An an? »^ •
inscription ascribes to him the addition of the Orra<:r^ !}
the Roman empire. The coin of which we give an er^n t<*
inj; is one of those commemorating his British oenqneMs.
[M«d«lqfCunobelia. Actual «Im, Odd. Weight 88* giaiiM.]
But bowever the Trinobantes may have been pleased
with the support of thejr Roman friends while they could
retain their own independence, at the same time they were
by no means willing to surrender this whenever the am-
bitiou of those friends chose to demand it. We conse-
quently find them taking the lead in opposition to the in-
vading force sent by the Emperor Claudius, whilo the
CatueWani (whom we have conjectured to be the people of
Cas«ivellaunua) took either no part or at least not a promi-
nent one, and this not from want of power, for we find from
Dion that the Boduni (Bo^owoi) or Dobuni of Gloucester-
shir^ were subject to them. Perhaps the Catelluani were p/
Celtic race, and the Trinobantes of Belgic origin ; and this
rircumsUnoe, together with their rivalry in other respect^, , ,-.«w -.
prevented their combining for the ireneral jsood in a cordial *'^Ku»«ie) In Kis ure of VcspaJon howerer be m><s Ui*t be
'—-nn. Aulu.PIautiuCa«>nator%f prwtlrianrank.com. I fliZ"cu'SlX^^
CC«4noraMidius. AotoalMie. Gold. Wei^Ui 129 fraiiw. In E.-u \;.
The success of Plautius obtained for him that Yw \ '
triumph called an ovation j but whether this was for ^-^
great exploits performed by him after the depmrtvr«* f
Claudius we are not informed. (Dion, as above ; Sort^-n i * i
Some time during liis command, his lieutenant Vofxa^ :
conquered the Isle of Wight, and had considerable »ur *
probably against the tribes of the south coast. Up^ro : .c-
departure of Plautius, those Britons who were ttrutrj' - ^'
for independence overran the lands of such as had a *1
themselves with or submitted to the Romans; an.i \\
Ostorius Scapula, who succeeded Plautius (a.d. 5c»» z*
propraetor, on his arrival found aflFairs in the crritr*:
confusion. He immediately collected fort*es, routed s- .
pursued the invaders, and prepared to restrain their in. '.•-
sions by stations or camps at the rivers Sabrina (Sett^. .
and Antona or Aufona (Nene).
The line which Ostorius thus proposed to defend r - -
prehended within it all the southern and south-eastern m'«
of the island, including nations who for the most part '^t •
of Belgic origin, and who bad either submined wuh i • .
struggle to the Roman sway, or had been etibdue^ •
Plautius and Vespasian, or had wOlinghr embraced :
Roman alliance. This part of the island was inhabitetJ " •
•. SQetpmns (Claudlin, c. 17) »*v« CUuJIn* rtcnrti the sQlMa...- « . ,
part of Hritain without a b«tUe and withoat bioodsbrd (bIo* an^i
•.Vr>j
in^Dtf \md«r Ctavidlqi ^.
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B R I
MS
B R I
«h» tribM WMnHiamA b)r G*Mr arti fiVMi in a toefoiag
table 9 liy the Ident And Airebaiii, vho ara Bii|npo6ed by
nunj to ba meutionad by Csaar undef tba names of Ceni-
magni and Anealites ; by the CatueUani or Catyeuchlani,
wham W9 baTe ooi^eetCired to be the native tribe of Casai-
vellannuB ; by tbe D^buni ; and by the Mlowing people not
yertnotioed: —
Dammmii or Dumnonii (Itin, Anton.) Aovfivovtot (Ptol.>,
people of Davonahire and Cornwall. *
Dnrotnfea, Aavporpiyig (PtoL)» people in and about Dor-
setshire.
Belfftt, BtXyoi (Ptol.)i paople of Somersetshire, Wilts, and
Hants. The name of their oapital, V6nta {Ornvra, FtoL)
is preserved in Win-cheiter.
Raipii {Pfiyvot^ Ptol.), people of Surrey and Sussex.
Of these tribes the leeni had never been subdued; they
had allied themselves with the Romans willingly, but they
saw that, if Ostorios severed the island into two parta by a
lino of military posts, the independence of all within that
line would be sacrificed. They consequently opposed Iw
plan, rsused their neighbours (probably the Trinobantes
and CatueUani) to the contest, and fortified theteselvea in a
strong position. The active Ostorius immediately marched
against them, stormed their camp in spite of an obstinate
resistance, and decided by this success the conduct of those
tribes who were hesitating between peace and war. He
then marched against the Cangi, a people whoae position
has been ao variously placed that it seems vain to offer any
i\irther eoi^jeetures. What seems to have created much
diliiculty is a supposition that they were connect^ with the
Iccni as neighbours, perhaps as subjects. It does not
appear to us that this supposition is eountenanced by
TacitiA. That historian talis us that ' the deieat Of the
I<reni having quieted those who were hesitating between
war and peaces (by which we understand the tribes south
and east of the line proposed by Ostorius.) the army was led
against the Cangi,* whom we presume to have been to the
north-west of that line or without it, and somewhere near
the Irish sea, to which Ostorius had nearly reached, when
he was recalled to the east coast by a rising among the
Brigantes (Bpcyavric. Ptol.), the people of Yorkshire and
Lancashire. Having quelled these, he prepared to march
against the Silures or Silyres (ZcXvpcc, Ptol.), a people of
South Wales, whom Tacitus (Agric. xi.) supposes (appa-
rently without any good reason), from their dark com-
plexions, ourled kicks, and western locality, to have been
of Iberian origin, and whose resistance to the Romacns was
more obstinate than that of any other people of South Bri-
tain. That no apprehension of a rising in his rear might
Impede his progress he settUd a colony of veterans at
Camalodunum to repress the Iceni and other neighbouring
tribes, and to inure the conquered to the yoke of the
Romans.
Although the name of Catarataem, or, according to the
orthography of Tadtus, Caractacus, has not been mentioned
since the notice of Plant ius*s first campaign, that valiant
prince appears to have kept the field. The extent of country
over which that campaign extended indicates that the
authority which he held was not confined to the Trinobantes,
of which nation we have supposed him to be the hereditary
prince : he was probably, with his brother, at the head of a
league similar to that formed under Cassivellaunus to insist
Julius Cssar. Upon the subjugation of his own tribe he had
probably found willing soldiers among other tribes ; many
actions with the Romans, some successftil, some donbtfnl-*-
and in so unequal a contest to avoid defeat was aa glorious
as victory — ^had reisad kia name high amotiw the Britons,
and given it celebrity even in Rome itself; and his presence
among them as their commander added to the native con-
fldence of the Silures. (Taeit. Ann, xii. 33, 36.) The seat
of war was tmnsferrsd into the country d the Ordovices
(OpaoviMc, Ptol.), people of N. Wales and Shropshire, by
Caractacus, whose army was reinforced by snc^ as feared
the Roman yoke, and who now determined to make a de-
cisive stand against the Romans. He posted his ibrces
npon a steep asoent, and ibrtifled the approached by a ram-
part of loose stones ; a river which afforaed no sure (boting
to those who would pass it ran in front of bis strong positkm,
and his beat troops took their station in ftont of the
ramparta. He animated hie men by his exhortatiolB, de-
claring tbat *on that day and that contest it depended
whether they should reoover their freedom or hacve to bow
under an ttoraia yoke;* and raniiidied them of tfaair
aoeeatorfl who had repelled the dictator CflBsar» secured
themselves from the punishments and burdens of the
Romsm, and preserved undefiled the persons of their wives
and children. The Britons res|>ended to the exhortations
of their commander. But their native valour was un-
availing against the arms and discipline of their enemies.
1*heir position was stormed ; the victory was complete ; the
wife and daughter of Caractacus vrere taken ; his brothers
surrendered themselves ; and the gallant prince himself was
put in chaina by Cartismandua, queen of the Brigantes*
with whom he had taken refuge, and delivered up to the
Romans. His unbroken spirit and noble demeanour when
at Rome before Claudius commanded the admiration of
that princef: he was spared the death which the cruel policy
of Rome too eommonly inflicted on ci^tured princea, and
the emperor pardoned him for opposing an attack as unjust
as it was irresistible. (Tacit Annales.) His subsequent
history is unknown. Has defeat and capture probably took
place A.o. 51 s
The insignia of a triumph were decreed to Ostorius ; but
his successes ended with the defeat of Caractacus. An
oiBrer left with some cohorts to fortify a permanent station
among the Silures was slain, and hia men nearly cut off;
and shortly after the Roman foragen were attacked, and
with the troops sent to their aid rented ; and it was only by
bringing Up his legions that Ostorius could check the Uxght,
and restore the fortune of hia arms. The Romans were
harassed after this with repeated skirmishes, and the obsti-
nate resistance of the Silures was stimulated by a declara-
tion of Claudius ' that their very name must be blotte^l out.*
A viotory over a body of auxiliaries, and the liberal distribu-
tkm of the spoil and captives, enabled them to drew the
other natiree into the atruggle, and Ostorius died worn out
with care (perhaps a.d. 53.) ; the Silures exulting at hia
death, and declaring that * though he fell not in battle, yet
it waa die war which breught him to the greve.'
Didius, the successor of Oaturicis, found the Roman afiaire
in a very depressed condition. An entire legion bad been
defeated by the Silures, who spread their incursions on
every side until restrained by the appioaeh of tlie new com-
mander. Venutins, a Brigantian, had married the queen
Cartismandua, the betrayer of Caractacus. Katrimonial
disputes, in which the Romans interfered, brought on a war
with thisdiieftkin, who, after the capture of Caractacus, was
the most eminent commander of the Britons. Didius does
not appear to have gained any signal advantage. His com-
mand lasted into the reign of Nero, the successor of Clau-
dius, probably till a.d. 57.
Veranius, the successor of Didhis, lived onlv a year after
undertaking the command, and did little in that interval ;
but his successor, Paulinus Suetonius, obtained more dis-
tinction. The Roman arms had triumphed under Corbulo
in Armenia, and Suetonius was anxi(ms to gain in the W.
a name equal to that which Corbulo was acquiring in (he
£• He attacked the island of Mona (now Anglesey), trans-
porting his infantrv over the straits whkh divide that rslaml
from the main land (the Menai) in flat-bottomed boats, the
caVabv fording the passage, or in the deeper parts swimming.
The description of this attock, as highly characteristic of
the people of the island, we give in &e words of Taoitna.
(AnnaleM, L xtv. c 30.).
' On the shore stood a line of very dfVenificd af^arance ;
there were armed men in dense array, end women running
amid them like Airiesy who, in gloomy attire, and with loose
hair hanging down, carried torehes before them. Arennd
w«« Druids, who, ponring forth eurses and lifting np their
hmda to heaven, streek terror by the novelty of the appear-
anoe into the heartoof the soldiers, who, a)B if they had
lost the use of their Innbs, exposed themselves motion -
less to the stroke of the enemy. At last, moved bv the
exhortations of their leader, and stimulating one another to
despise a band of women and frantic prieatsy they make their
onset, overthrow their opponento and involve them in the
fiames which they had themselyea kindM. A gmrrisen
was afterwards placed among the TanquiAed ; and the
groves eonMorated to their crael snperatiitfona were euC
down. Porthey held it right to smenr their altom with the
blood of their captives, and to oonsvlt the will of the gods
by the quivering of human flesh.*
From the shores of the extreme W. Suetonfioa wu re-
cidled by the news of a great rising of tiie nattves vnder
Boadfoea, in that part of tiie ial. whieh bid been alreidy
i«bdue4byt1i«Rov«M» [Bm9x«sju]
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444
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• The revolt of Boadicea had nearly extinguished the Ro-
man dominion in Britain, but at last the natives were com-
pletely defeated in a battle, the scene of which is supposed
to have been just to the N. of London. Battle-bridge,
St. Pancras. is thought to have preserved in its name a
memorial of this dreadful day. (Nelson « Hist, of Ming"
ton,) The Roman general ravaged with fire and sword the
territories of all those native tribes which had wavered in
their attachment to the Romans, as well as those who had
joined in the revolt : but even hunger did not induce them
to submit. The chief civil or rather fiscal officer of the Ro-
mans quarrelled with Suetonius, and though the latter re-
tained the command for a time longer, ho was at last re-
called without finishing the war (a.d. 62), and Petronius
Turpilianus appointed nis successor. Under the milder
treatment of the new general, the revolt seems to have
subsided.
Several generakwere successively sent to the island ; but
the Romans made little progress until the time of Vespa-
sian, A.D. 70*78, in whose reign Petilius Cerealis subdued
the Brigantes. who, under Venutius, had renewed hostilities;
and Julius Frontinus subdued the Silures. But the glory
of completing the com,ucst of South Britain was reserved
for CneDus Julius Agrieola, whose actions are recorded by
his son-in-law the historian Tacitus. [Aoricola.]
From the time of Agricda, the later years of whose go-
vernment were during the reign of Domitian, we read little
about Britain in the Roman historians until the' reign of
Hadrian (a.d. 85 to 120), who visited the island, which had
been much disturbed. The conquests which Agricola made
in Caledonia seem to have been speedily lost, and the em-
peror fenced in the Roman territory by a rampart of turf,
60 Roman, or about 74 English, m. long. This rampart
extended from the ifistuary Ituna, {Irovva iitrxvircc* Ptol.)
Solway Frith to the Grerman Ocean, a little south of the
more solid wall afterwards built by the Emperor Severus.
(iElius Spartian. Life of Hadrian.) In the subsequent reign
of Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138 to 161), Roman enterprise
seemii to have revived a little. Ldllius Urbicus, his lieute-
nant in Britain, di*ove back the barbarians, and recovered the
country as far as Agricola*s line of stations between the
Forth and Clyde. [Antoninus, Wall of.]
f Modal of Antoniuas Pius. AcIimI sim. Brass. Weight 451| graint. In
Brit. Mu».i
In the following reign of NL Aurelius Antoninus (a.d. 161
to 180) we have some notice of wars in Britain, which Cal-
purnius Agricola was sent to quell. (CapitoUnus, Life qf
Aurelius Anionin.) The Caledonians probably broke
through the wall of Antoninus in the reign of Commodus,
son of Aurelius, if not during the reign of Aurelius himself.
Commodus sent against them liis lieutenant, Ulpius Mar-
cell us, an able leader, who defeated the Caledonians with
heavy loss. A great mutiny among the legions in Britain
occurred during the reign of Commodus, which was with
difficulty quelled by Pertinax (afterwards emperor), one of
the successors of MarceUus in the government of the island.
Pertinax was probably succeeded as governor by Clodius
Albinus. (Honley.)
The contest of this Clodius Albinus with Severus for the
empire belongs rather to the histoij of Rome generally than
to that of Britain in particular. The contest was ended by
the fall of Albinus at the battle of Lugdunum (Lyon) in
France, very near the dose of the second century. It is
not unlikely that Clodius had in a great measure drained
the province of its troops in order to strengthen his own
army against Severus, and that the northern natives took
the opportunity of renewing hostilities, breaking into the
Roman province, and spreading desolation far and near.
Induced by the unfavourable tenor of the intelligence from
«he itloDd, Severus, though now growing aged and infinn,
resolved to undertake the ooodaetof dw wtr in i
accordingly crossed over into the island a^. 296 or S(»7.
The natives, terrified at his approaeh* would hafv auboiltied.
but Severus dismissed their ambassadors, and oontinoeii Iim
military preparations. Advancing bevond the liaiita of tbr
province (now probably bounded by Hadrian's rampaxt). be
advanced through a difficult country, where he haa endk^
fatigues to sustain. There were morasses to drain, or eaave-
ways to form across them, forests to cut througii, moun-
tains to level, and bridges to bttiid: and ao nmcli v«ne
the Roman soldiers worn out by these works, that the
emperor lost, says Xiphilin, 50,000 men. Tbm n«tiv«-s
do not appear to have come to a pitched battle, ao thai the
campaign was not marked by any hriUiani #xpU>tt«.
Two people, the Mssate (Maiorau), who dwelt neareac to
the Roman wall, and the Caledonians, who were more
remote, were the great objects of the empsfor'a bo^tilitT.
These tribes appear to have been at the lowest atai^e ••:
civiluEation, as much so as their southeni brethren at u»:
time of Caesar's first invasion. They wore little eloihuij:.
and painted or otherwise marked upon their bodies xU
figures of divers animals : a small target or shield, « spemr.
a poniard, and, as we learn from Tacitus, a oumberioiB*
unpointed sword, composed their offensive and defen»'\»»
arms. They had neither walls nor towns, but lived in teuu.
a pastoral race, feeding upon milk and wild fmita* and tr*
fiesh of such animals as tney took by hunting. Tbe cciy-
munity in women, noticed bv Cassar, appears to have ex-
isted among them. (Herodian and Xiphilin, quoted Lt
Horsley, Brit, Rom,)
It was during this war that Severus ordered the erect^.i
of the famous wall which stretches across the island, fn<o
the Solway to near the mouth of the Tyne. The lens^h •/
this wall, owing to the corruption of the text of anner.i
authors, is given with great diversity. It is pcobabW t.ai
the true reading in each of them was LXXXII. or LXX\ \
which is rather more than the lengUi assigned to Had/ur. »
rampart of turf, which was near this walC and extended it
the same direction. Remains of both these great wt^kt
exist, and though we have not room for a i^ery Ml desc::;:-
tion, yet some account of them cannot be oonsldeied as mi^r-
placed.
It appears that three great Roman works hare en>««'«
the island at this part. The first is supposed by Hor&it v.
and after him by Warburton ( Vallum Romatmm^AVo, I>tr.«i.
1753), to have been simply a line efforts or stations^ vita
perhaps a miUtary way between them. This line of •!*.
tions is by the above writers ascribed to Agricola ; con rr-
ture guiding them, we believe, rather than tesliaMnj. 1 .»
extent of the works of Agricola is however dispvied. H 1 1-
ton ascribes to him an agger or mound, with a doable ditm.
and a second agger or rampart eutoide the nortbera diu-u
Without attempting to settle tliis dispute, it may beobacnra
that the works thus ascribed partly to Agricola and fxin <
to Hadrian have throughout a parallel direction, ftom wh.n
some have contended that they were formed by the ssic*
person. The rampart of Severus, which is of stone, i» U
the most part, but not invariably, parallel to that oTHadrB.. .
it lies to the N. of it, and extends rather farther at c-^t.
end. It is accompanied throughout, as the following at-
tract will show, by a military road, or indeed by eewrs.
military roads. We take the following desertpcioa of tin Ta
from Hutton, as conveving the best inibnnation es tait*-
works themselves, without affirming the corvsetees* of hi»
sUtement as to their authors : —
* There were four different works in this grand bamrr.
performed by three personages, and at different periods^ 1
will measure them from S. to N., describe them di»tinr* %.
and appropriate each part to iU proprietor; for alUuiura
every part is dreadfully mutilated, yet by seleoCing the W«:
of each we easily form a whole; and from what is^ we r^:
nearly tell what was. We must take our dimensions ir^*j
the original surface of the ground.
' Let us suppose a ditch, like thul at the foot of a qnirk^f^
hedge, 3 or 4 ft. deep, and as wide ; a bank rtsini^ frocn c
10 ft. high', and 30 wide in the base ; this, with the diirr
wiU give us a rise of 13 ft. at least. The other side of i - ^
bank sinks into a ditch 10 ft. deep and 16 wide, whi^i gi .^
the N. side of this bank a declivity of 20 feet. A sm»:
part of the soil thrown out on the N. side of this 15 ft. lii!. •
forms a bank 3 ft. high and 6 wid^ whieh gives an elr«at. :
from the bottom of the ditoh of 13 feet Thus our t^
ditches and two moundi» sufficient y^w^ eui wery lofw
Digitized by ^
1*1 leei. xnus ou
XrrOOgle
iBHiI
^446
mm
Imt lie wlko wfl»det«rmhied not to U kopt outw wort the
work of Affrioola.
* The works of Httdrion invariably join thoie of Aj^riooU.
Thoy always eorrospond together as beautiful parallel lines.
Close to the N. side of the liitle bank I last deseiibed, Ha-
drian sunk a diteb, 24 ft wide, and 12 below the surface of
the ground, which, added to Agricola's 3 (L bank, fbtms a
declivity of 15 ft. on the S., and on the N. 12. Then fol-
lows a plnki of level ground 24 yards over, and a bank
ezaetly the same as Agricola's, I Oft. high, and 30 in the
base ; and then he finishes, as his pradecesaor began, with
a small ditoh of 3 or 4 feet
' 8evems*s works run nearly parallel with the other two ;
lie on the N.,and never far distant; but maybe said always
to keep them in view, running a course that best suited the
judgment of the maker. The nearest distance is about 20
yards, and greatest near a mile, the medium 40 or 50
yards.
' They consist of a stone wall 8 ft. thick, 12 high, and 4
the battlements ; with a ditdi to the N. as near as conve-
nient, 36 ft. wide and 15 deep. To the wall were added, at
unequal distances, a number of stations or cities, said to be
18, which is not perfectlv true; 81 castles, and 330 cas-
telets or turrets, which I believe is true, all joining the
wall*.
* Sxcluaive of this wall and ditch, these stations, castles,
and turrets, Severus constructed a variety of nnuls, yet
called Boman Roadi, 24 ft. wide, and 18 in. high in the
centre, which led from turret to turret, fifom one castle to
another, and still larger and more distant roads from the
wall, which led from one station to another, besides the
grand military way before mentioned (now the main road
IVom Newcastle to Carlisle), which covered all tlie works,
and no doubt was first formed by Agricola, improved by -
Hadrian, and, after lying dormant fifteen hundred years, I
was made complete in 1752. I saw many of these smaller
roads, all overgrown with turf; and when on the side of a
hill, they are supported on thi? lower side with edging
atones.* {History qflhe Roman Wail, pp. 136-140.)
The vigorous proceedings of Severus had induced the
Datives to sue for peace ; but upon the return of the em-
peror to Soutli Britain they resumed hostilities. He pre-
pared forthwith to enter their country, and resolved upon
their extermination, but died probably at Eboracum (York),
Aj). 210 or 211. He appears lo have oarried his arms far
uto Scotland, and probably fixed the boundary of the em-
pire at the rampart of Antoninus, though his erection of a
wall so near to the- rampart of Hadrian indicates that he
thought the intermediate territory either of little value or of
uncertain tenure. His son Caraealla, soon after his death,
surrendered a ffraat part of this territory when he made
peace with the Ualedonians. and probably retained only a
lew stations beyond the wall which his father had built
From this period many years elapsed, and many emperors
reigned, without the occunenoe of any event of importance
in Britain. In the reign of Diocletian and Maximian, Ca*
rauaius, a Menapian (the Menapians were a people of the
Netherlands), who commanded the Roman fleet in the
North Sea against the Prankish and Saxon pirates, seized
Britain and assamed the purple (about a^. 288) ; and such
was his activity and power, that the emperors consented to
recognise him aa their partner m the empire. He was how-
ever after some years killed by Allectus, one of his friends
(a.d. 297), and three years afterwards (a.d. 300) Britain
was recovered for the emperors by Asclepiodotus, captain of
the guards. Upon the resignation of Diocletian and Maxi-
mian <A.D. 304). Britain was included in the dommions of
Constantiua Chlorus, one of their successors. This prince
died in Britain at Eboracum, a.d. 307, after having under-
taken vri th some success an expedition against the Caledo-
nians. His son Constantino the Great also carried on some
hoHtilities with the same people and the Mnatm. The
northern tribes now began to be known by the names of
Picts and Scots.
The Roman power was now fast decaying, and the pro-
vinces were no longer secure against the irruptions of the
savage tribes that pressed upon the long line of their frontier.
Britain, situated at one extremity of the empire, suflersd
dreadfully. The northern tribes Picts, Scots, and Atta-
cotli burst in from the north, and the Saxons infested the
coast. In the reign of Valentintan, probably in the year
• u«ncn1 Bof, JITi rf. Aif€, oftk0 Ram. w Briiatm, rires tht kngth of tlw
wattors«f«Ma«HBsi^<ir76KMaa«UMb '
M/.-Hieodoaun (Iklher of Ae emperor of Ihat nana), being
sent over as governor, foond the northern people plundering
Anguata (London), so that the whole provinee must have
been overrun by them. He drove them out, raooveied the
provincial towns and forts, re-established the Roman power,
and gave the name of Valentin either to the district between
the walls of Antoninnaand Sevems (Richard of Cirencester,
Roy), or, as Horsley thinks, ' to a part of the province
aouth of the wall of Severus.
When Gratian and Valentinian II. associated Theodoaini
(son of the above) with them in the empire, liuumus, a
Spaniard, who had served with great distinction in Britain,
took umbrage at the preference shown to another, and raised
in the island the standard of revolt, a.d. 381. Levying a
considerahle force, he proceeded over to the continent, de-
feated Gmtian, whom he ordered to be put to death, and main*
tained himself for some time in the possession of his usurped
authority. He was however at last overcome by Theodo-
sius, and the province returned |o its subjection to the em-
pire. The mtons who had followed Maximus into the
continent received from him possessions in Armorica, where
they laid the foundation of a state which still retains their
language and their namok [Brxtaonx.]
Stilicho, whose name is one of the most eminent in the
degenerate age in which he lived, served in Britain with
success, if we may trust the panegyrical verses of Claudian ;
but the time and particulars of his service are not known.
Perhaps it was about A.n. 403. The unhappy province after
his departure was again attacked by barbarians, and aai>
tated by the lioentionsness of the Roman soldiery, who
successively set up three claimants to the imperial throne, —
Marcus, Gmtian, and Constantino. The first and second
were soon dethroned and destroyed by the very power which
had raised them. 0)nstantine waa fi>r a time inore fortu-
nate. Raising a force among the yonth of the isUtnd ho
passed over into Gaul (A.n. 409), acquired possession of
that province and of Spain, and fixed the seat of his govern-
ment at Arlea, where he was soon after besieged, taken, and
killed. His expedition served to exhaust Britain of its
natural defenders: the distresses of the empire rendered
the withdrawal of the Roman troops necessary, and near
the middle of the &th century, or, aooording to some, about
A.D. 420, nearly 500 years after the first invasion by Julius
Cmsar. the island was finally abandoned by them.
Having thus traced the progress and decline of the Ro-
man power, it now only remains for us to give an account
of the subdivision, government, and general state of Britain
while a prov. of the Roman Empire.
The first Roman governors were the proprietors, officers
chiefly or entirely military ; nor are there, so for as we
know, any records or traces of a Subdivision of Britain till
a comparatively later period of the Roman dominion. The
extensive and important changes introduced into the Ro-^
man government by Diocletian (who seems to have thrown
off* much of that disguise with which names and institutions
of republican origin had invested the imperial despotism of
his predecessors) affected Britain. The whole empire was
divided into four great prefectures, and Britain was in-
cluded in the prefecture of Gaul.
Our authority for the administration of Britain is the
Notitia Imperii^ a reoord of late date, probably as late as
the time of the Romans quitting the island. From the
' Notitia* we learn that the government of the island was
intrusted to an officer called Vicariu», which Horsley, not
inaptly, translates viee-gerent Under him there were five
governors (for civil purposes we presume), two ConMuiarei
(men of consular rank) for the two provinces of Maxima C9-
sariensis and Valentia, and three Prandes (presidents) for
the provinces of Britannia i*rima, Britannia Secunda (First
and Second Britain), and Flavia CiBsariensis. - Three other
principal otficers are mentioned, — the Comes iitioru Soas
ontct per Briianniam (Count of the Saxon shore in Britain),
the Comee BriUmniarum (Count of Briuin), and the Dux
BriUmniaruin (Duke of Britain) *. The first and third of
these officers were evidently military ; and the title of the
first, together with the posto occupied by the troops under
his command t, indioatea that his duty was to oppose those
piratical descents which, after the departure of the Romans,
• We hftve trantlaUd Ui« words Cmm« andZku* by CarntU ud Ihka, aftvr
Horsley: tlie modm tUlra ftre obviously deriTed frum the more sDiient; b«t
then U this dil4»Mii«e, thM whHe Um BoderB naow* aow IndieaU only rank
•ad UtW. Uie aiSiaat nmoMS wara atUushad to •ttec&
f These art aa OB tba 8 J. coMt, wtradtng ftws PoitiwwUh to Braaqirtat
laMsiftUu
Digitized by
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BRI
4m
BRI
) PeopW, as it leeniff of Devonshire Mid Coim-
ii f wall, mentioiied by Richard, not by Ptolemy.
fi«fV*dMfttalt«!h»Mlnid. Tb^Dmm
the ehaif^ of the Wall of Savem and the oonmand of the
N. district of the island with iti garriaons and military
posts. We are inclined to think the Camei Britamnarmm
was also a military officer, and tba; he bad ehtrge of the
W. and 8. distriets, which, as being lass aiposed to hostili-
ties, waia bare of troofis.
The sitaation of the ftte prove, of Britam, aeoofdinff ft>
Richard of Cirencester (a monk of the 14th oentary, whoee
work was discovered and pubHsbed at Copenhagen about
the middle of tho last century, and whose authori^. though
disputed by some, is apparently trustworthy), w«s as fol-
lows. We give them in a tabular Ibmb with the nations
which oeoupied each.
BftiTAivxtA Prima, the ronntry 9. of tlie Thimes, and the
Bristol Channel, inclnding the territories of the
f Those nations are mentioned by Richard of
Cirencester ; their situation has hsen already
Cantii given, except that of the Hedui, who are sup-
Belga posed to have been inhabitants of Somerset-
Damnonii shire and perhaps a part of Olouoestersbire.
Bibroci \ Aquae Solis or Bath seems to have been in
Segoniiaci \ their territory. Richard placvs the Bibroci,
Hedtsi whom he seems to confound with the Regf^
Airebaiii (or, as lie terms them, the Rbemi). in Surrey
Duroingeg and £a»t Sui^sex. He says the Duratriges
were sometimes called Morini. He also calls
^the Atrehatii, Attrebates.
jj « f Not mentioned by Richard, unlcsa the first
jZ!mLtmm \ ^^^ ^^® "^"™® ^^ thoRhemi or Bibroci, and the
-**^*"'" ( second as the AtUcbatcs.
Cmhn
Comuhii
BRiTA!*mTA Secunda, the country separated ftom the rest
of Britain by the Sabrina or Severn and Devn. or Dee ;
f e., Wales, Herefordshire Monmouthshire, and parts of
Sslop, of the counties of Gloucester and Worcester ; in-
cludini^ the territories of the
A'/frr€v, people of that part of South Wales bordering on
England and of those parts of England between South
Wales and the Severn.
Ordovices, people of that part of North Wales borderiii|^ on
England.
Dimecict or 1 I^orfe of the W. part of South Wales, coun*
An/iifrai I ties of Pembroke, Caermarthen, Cardigan.
Cangiani \ Peoplo of Caernarvonshire, supposed by
or Vsome to be the Cangi, attacked by Ostorius
t^ayKavot, | (SCO above).
Flavia C.vsARiKNsis, the terrilorv N. of the Thames, B.
of the Severn, and pnjl)abl y S. or the Mersey, the Don
which joins the Yorluhire Ouse, and the Humbcr ; com-
prehending the territory of the
Canmhii \ People of Cheshire, part of Shropshire^ and
ac^cent districts.
Richard of Cirencester considers the Cassii
and the Catyeuehlani to be the same people :
we do not agree with him. The same writer
considers that the Cassii and Dbbuni made
up ihe kingdom or rather the republic of the
Cassii. The situation of these tribes has
been given ahwady.
People of the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham,
Leicester, and the adjacent parts. These people
seem to be regarded by Richard as a subdivision
of the Iceni. The Iccni, properly so called, he
gives as the other subdivision, calling them
Ccnomanni,
M AXiVA C.«SAaiK!V^H. the country fhm the Mersey and
the Humber to the Wall of Sevefus, eonprehending the
territory of the
Bngmmi0M, mentioned already.
n^'i!} PwpleoftheEartRidingefYerkshii..
P'alaniu | Two nations confederate tofretlier, arronling
and Vto Rifhafd, not mentioned by Ptolemy; they
SUiuMtii J inhabited Lancashire or part of iL
Yalkxtia. or VALEini ANA. the country between the Wall
of Sfvtnu and thenunpart of Antoninus, includiof the B.
Ccusii
Gttyeuehiani
DoMmi
leeni
7i iiioMWilsf
Coitani
pwl ef 8oollaad« the mmly of :
part of Cumberknd, comprehending the terrfttanta o# the
OltMtti 1 The tnhabitaau of the R. eoest ef Nerthu m-
OreJivfM I herlind and the adjeosnt coast of SemiMid-
^ . . f These people dwelt to ^•J'^^ ^•S^'*^'^-.
_ ,_ ^ c in Noffthumberiaod, hi RuviiiifgBt 8rikin« ^w
resets |y^ ^^ Lanark-sliires.
Selgovw \ The inhabitanta ef Dimlriaa nd put tf
SiXyMNtt J Kirkettdbrigfat>ahliee.
^^^^ ] ^'® inhabitants of Wiglonsliire.
DoMnH
Vecturonet or
VenriconeM <
OvtVVCOVTt^
T\nTali
TcCoXsi'
The hihabif ants of that part of SMOtBd S .
thft Wan of Antoninus not ocrupied by tte ahr •«-
mentioned nations* They seem to hare »w u; •*
a considerable tract N. of the waH, wfairii, W • t
cut oY from the rest of their tefritories, w#»
wasted by the Caledonians.
The Kmafning part Of the island was never lon<; m t
power of the Romans. Agricola overran part of tt i
established some stations ; and probably other comcis- *
after hira brou;;ht it into temporary ^ubjerfion. Tlie |..:
which Agricola thus subdued is termed by Richard
Vkspasiana, including the country between the raatr**'
of Antoninus and a line drawn from the Muraj K. .
(Varar mstuary*, Ptolemy) lo the mouth of il» C.*~.
and comprehending the territories of the
Hor9$tn, mentioned by Tacitus but not by PioWar . a .*
likely they occupied the portion of the territory ' <4 u •
Damnii which lay beyond the wall: they wera'&.W -
the Tay.
The diffnenee befweea Rithmd and Pa»
lemy with leipsct te thie ponpU mak^ s
uncertain whether we aie to aaaigs thaes t.
Fifbahire or Angus.
Inhabitants of the coast of Abetd^ens* --
Their chief town, Devtna (^evara\ was ;
bably Old Aberdeen.
t^^^^^»^ i I'Im range of the Grampiane t«wiai4a i-.-
'^ ^ [ part of Inverncsa-ehirss;
Damnii Aibtmi, not menticiMd by Plsleay t parts of IVm
Argyle, Stirling, and Dumbwtoii-sbtrea. Qmmmmi R «
eonsideri Albani to mean iwMmtaineeis. [Atwi^.«
Perhaps they are eomprahended by Ptahay aMomt i'^
Damnii (Aa^cyioi) of VaJentia.
Aitanotti, not mentioned by Ptolemy hut hf
Mareelh'nus. They have been noiiecd m the «w«w» k
the preceding hislorieal sketeh. They inhehiteC mmtm*-
ing to Richard, the eountry en the bank ef the !'«•««
and of the great lake Lyncalldar» suppeaad te to Lm
Lomond.
Riehard soppoaes that wim pfoeiBce ef VAUBSfTi a wi^a ^
the time of the later emperors, catted Tnoaa : le ike mm
of Scotland he gives the name of
Caledonia, comprehending the ttfrritories of the Mle>e - z
people :—
f N.W. of the Murray Prfth tt^d l/^'h .^- •
The immense Caleduntan Foimt mvwetf '*
territory or rather skirted It to tV ?r 1"
Ptolemy seems Co make them exvf^ r z
S.W. direction As f^r as Loeh Pyn^: ^m i
signing to them parts of Intemen, ^nb. -
, Argyle-shires.
Inhabitants of parU of Roaa and CneaHtyehtfvi.
I These two nations se«m to hatw nihik^i-
tho E. coast of 5$uthrrlsnd and Casi"-*-
shires. The name of the Loai « minu-^ -
that of the modem nansh or Lacd. R «* -
indmates that the Camabil irere no?-*
the people so called m South Antain.
Crnhdmii^
pteperly
ae called.
Canta\
Xturrai]
Logi
Aoyoi
CamaMi
Xopvavwt
abandoned their country. In cei^tinrt*-^ v «
the Can til, upon the Roman co(M|tir%t —
settled here. If there be any tnith :a v
aceount we may perhaps kWntify the Ca. t#
with these wandering Caatfa ^.
• TaM*, M il it fl
PircKbr^rnvr. The M
•ftwitwy PHUi»
t A «Mif«riMa if I
»sf.iiaCto^Mi.al i
dby VnO
Digitized by ^
,oog
BRI
4f»
1 RI
Epidii
IP&rt of GaHlmeM tnd Satlkerlaiid-tliifes W. ^
the CarnftbiL If we i^Uow Richard's orthomphjr,
perhaps a raUc of the name Cat-ini ma^ be pre-
M^/^ } W. of teLogi te 8tt«horknd»yffe.
ComawMA ) Tho W. oomI of Suiherland and Cromarty-
K^pywwnn ] ahirea.
{These two people Of two there were, for we are
iiwhned to think tome eonfusion of tranacrihers
has led one name to be variously written, and
henoe it has been supposed there were two
peopLs whose realW was only one) dwelt along
theW. eoast of ScoUand, between Ixwh Broom
and the Linnhe Look.
The peninsula of Cantire and the adjacent part
of Argykshire between the Linnhe Loch and Loch
Fyne. Biqhaid. in his map, gives the names of
Epiclia Superior and Inferior to Jura and Islay
respeotipely,
Horsley gives ui arrangement of the proviooss ^irely
dtffereqt from the aljove, except so far as regards Britannia
Seounda. He makes Britannia Prima to extend from the
coast of Sussex to the banks of the Nene, and assigns the
weAtern counties to Flavia Csssariensis. He places Valentia
within the wall of Severus, and Maxima Cmsariensis be*
vend it.
Our chief authorities in the above table have been
Richard of Cirencester and Ptolemy : in the I^tin names
we have commonly fbl lowed the spelling of the former j the
Greek names we have subjoined from Ptolemy, as ikr as he
furiufthes them, except where they have been given before
in the course of the history. The locaHtjrof the several
nations may be seen in the maps of Antient Britain (N.
ami 8.), published by the Sooiety Ibr the Diffusion of Usefbl
Knowledge.
Although the Roman conquest does not appear to have
led to such high cultivation of th^ intellect as in some other
provinces, and Roman Britain can produce no literary name,
while Gaul, and especially Spain, oan boast of several ; yet
grtiat improvements resulted f«ra their dominion. They
carried roads across the island in various directions, as ap-
])esrs from the Itinerary of Antoninus, and from existing
remains ; dug canals, raised embankments against the sea
and the high tides in the great mstuaries ; and there arose
under their dominion many towns, some of considerable
importance, and endowed with the various gradations of |>ri-
vilege indicated by the titles of Munidpia, Coionia^ Civi-
tai^$ LaHojure donata, and 8HpencHarie».
There were, according to Richsrd of Cirencester, two
raunicipia or towns whose inhabitants enjoyed most of the
privileges of Roman citizens.
yerohnnium (OvpoXaviov), near St. Alban*s.
Rboracum (E^pocov), now York, quarters of the sixth
legion, and apparently the residence of the Roman em-
perors when in Britain.
The Colonin were settlements of Roman citizens, and
served to diffuse the language, religion, and arts, and to
secure the supremacy of Rome. According to Richard,
there were io Britain nine colonies, vtx.
Ltrndiynum iAoviiviov) or Auguita, now London, men-
tioned by Tacitus u a place of great trado, though not
spoken of in his time as a colony.
Camalodunum iKafwv\oiQYov), QemineB Martice, now Col-
chester or Maldon ?
Bhutupii (or Ru^upe^, Itin. Anton. 'Povrovrcai), now Qich-
boro , near Sandwich.
nerm^e or Aqu€f SoHs (yiara Btpfta), i^ow B^th.
I9ca or Secunda, now Caerleon.
Deva or Qetica (Aiyowa), pow Ch/sster, quarts of the
20th legion.
Gievum or Claudia, now Gloucester.
Lindum (Acv^ov), now Lincoln.
Camboricum, now Cambridge (or Icklingham^ in Suflblk.
Horsley).
Ulunl In Corevml] and Caithwu trill perh«m incline n« to vecoant for the
nmiUrity of their devif^oatioo 1>y a reference to its etymology ratlMr Uian to
•uelt ft cooaflKioa of the 9»o|4^ m ilici)»nl snf poeep. Tho C«ltip r«H fvrs
or Scrii (lee Camden) ippeere in ip«ny other lMiru«ce» vHh ih< tigmficalion
of en extremity or ft horn; compare Ihe Hebrew j^pt ^^>® Letin corn-n.our
own woidf rorn-er, Corn-wall, Sec. By a xeferyrnce to the f tPfamed etymolory
of the nuwo Cdmi m and Ouit-il. we Oan acooont ft>r their eiaiilarity abto; tlie
root caml (compv* CantJi and Cant-pv ^bore with ihff s«tlep| CaDftH»hrisad
iho modftni Cbai-lie, tee Caadon) ia tvppoeed to mean la CeUie, a ooniar.
of these possessed privileges, but not equal to the foragoings,
Dumomagui (Durobriv^f Itin. Ant.?)* now Caalor on
Nene or Water Newton.
Catarraeion {Catarracto or Catatrraoifmvm, Itin. Ant
lLaTovfi^atTovuw\ now Catterick, in Yorkshire.
Camhodunum (JLanatwXodwvov ?), new filaek, ia Yorkshifo,
near the border of Lancashire.
Cooeium (supposed by some to be the 'Pc7c3eviroif of PtoL)*
now Ribchester, Lancashire.
Lugubalia {LuguvaUium, Itin. Ant.), now Cartisle.
Ptercion (UrifMiirov arparowtdovt the Hying eamp), now
Burgh-head, Morayshire, Scotland.
Vietaria (Ovwcropm), now Deal^in Ross, Perthshire.
TheodoMO, now Dumbarton.
Corinum iDuroeomoviut»y Itip. Anton. Kopwtov), now Oi«
rencester.
Sorbiodunum, now Old Sarum.
There were twelve towns called Stipendiarim, with whose
municipal constitution and privileges we are not acquainted.
Venta Silurum, now Caer-went or Caer-gwent, Monmouth-
shire.
Venta Belgarum (Ovivra), now Winchester, Hants*
Vsnta Icenorum (Ovivra), now Caistor, near Norwich.
Segontium, now Caer-Seiont near Caernarvon.
Muridunum, now Seaton, near Colyton, Devon.
Ragta iRai€B, Itin. Anton. 'Paye\ now Leicester.
Cantiopolis or Durovemum {Aapov(vop)^ now Canterbury.
Durinum (Dumovaria'^ Itin. Anton. Aot;vu>v?), Dorchester.
Isc^ (I<rjca), Qow Exeter.
Bremenium (Bpfftrvtov), now Rieohester, Northnmberland.
Vindcnum ( Vindomi», Itin. Anton.), near Andover, Hant^,
a very dQubtful position,
DuroMvee, now Rochester.
In the above list we have given the orthography of
Richard, notipg any variation between him and the Itine-
rary of Antoninus. The Qreck names as usual are from
Ptolemy. The list of Municipia and Colonic, it should bo
addM, is by no means complete.
Though we do not possess such materials (is enable us to
form a connected history of the Roman settlement and ad«
ministration of Britain, yet from the scanty fragments of its
history during this period, and our more exact knowledge
of the state of Spam, France, and other countries under
Roman dominion, we are enabled to make some general
conclusions which cannot involve any serious error.
As to the population of the island we must conceive that it
received a ^ery considerable mixture of Roman and foreign
blood. Comparatively few women would be brought by the
Roman soldiers ; ^nd such pf them as settled permanently , or
even remained for ^ few years, would doubtless have children
by native women. It was the policy of the Romans to em-
ploy ^he native troops of one prov. in the conquest or mili-
tary administration of other provs. ; a contrivance obviously
devised with the view of preventing revpU. [Army, p. 377.]
Accordingly we find among the Roman monuments of
Britain abundant evidence of the presence in this island of
soldiers from France, Belgium, and other parts of the con-
tinent ; from which circumstance there necessarily resulted
a great intermixture of foreign and native blood. Many
Romans would reeeive grants of land in the island, which
in fact is implied by the very nature of a Colonia ; and the
numerous remains of Roman villas that have been disco-
vered, prove that many of the settlers possessed considerable
wealth and taste for the ornamental arts. The Roman lan-
guage would be that of administration, and most probably
that of judicial proceedings also ; and all natives or per-
sons of mixed blood who were allowed to aspire to any
civil employment (which in the course of time could hardly
have b€«n denied to the natives) must have learned the
Roman language and laws. To this period belongs also
the first introduction of Christianity [Archbishop, vol. ii.
{>. 269], which necessarily was accompanied with a know-
edge of the Greek language. Whether the Greek learning
was totally lost during the timea that followed the Ro-
qian dominion (a fact which we do npt believe), or only
pres^preci fimong a few learned ecclesiastics, it is now
WfU known that its supposed first introduction after the
so-called revival of letters is disproved by abundant evi-
dence. The strong walled cities, either founded by the
Romans or built on the sites of British towns, such as
Cirencester, Silchester, Burgh Castle, Rlchborough Castle,
and others, of which great remains still exis^ sufficiently
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
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44S
B R I
Indicate that tne possession of the island was considered
insecure without these strong holds, while they show that
the formation of large towns, the centres of civilization, was
a part of the Roman system. These towns were the stations
of the military force required to keep a given district in
order, to enforce the payment of taxes, and generally to
provide for the defence of the island. Many of these walled
towns were evidently built with a view to trade, both foreign
and internal ; they would form the great markets, and would
of course contain the courts of justice. These towns, under
the names of Ck>loni8e, Municipia, &c., received municipal
institutions similar to the towns of Italy, Gaul, and Spain ;
and thus the Romanized inh. of Britein were probably
introduced under their foreign masters to the rudiments of
this important branch of political science, the construction
and administration of municipalities. It is a point of curious
inquiry, not yet, so far as we know, fully discussed, to
ascertain how far the Saxons, on their invasion of the island,
moulded or adapted their political institutions to those which
they must have found existing in Roman Britain. The
Saxons, we know, ultimately possessed themselves of all
the Roman walled cities, of which they formed their bo-
roughs [see Borouoh] ; and it is hardly conceivable that
a comparatively small body of invaders would completely
overturn alt those municipal institutions, which, though less
Aree than their own, would present them, so far as adminis-
tration was concerned, with usefhl means for securing and
consolidating their acquisitions.
BRITA'NNICUS, son of the Emperor Claudius, and of
his third wife the infamous Messalma, was born on the
llthof February, a.d. 42, on the twentieth day after his
father's accession, and was at first named Tiberius Claudius
Grermanicus, a name which was changed in honour of the
subsequent conquests in Britain. [Britannia.] When only
six years old, while exhibiting before his father in the mimic
fights called TVo/a, during the Circensian games, the wishes
of the populace seemed to incline in favour of L. Domitius,
the son of Agrippina, who headed the ouposite band, and who
afterwards succeeded to the imperial oignity under the title
of Nero. On the death of Messalina, and the marriage of
Claudius with his niece Agrippina, Octavia, sister of Bri-
tannicus, who had been betrothed to Silanus, was given in
marriage to Lucius Domitius, and pains were taken by the
courtiers, who had procured the death of Messalina, to ele-
vate the adopted prince to equal honours with the son
whom Claudius had hitherto acknowledged as his heir.
tC«pt Smyth's eollectioii. Medal, with the inaeription * CUodioi
BriUnnieiM Cmar.' Copper.]
[C«pt Smyth's eoOeetloB. Coipper.]
At the Circensian games Britannicua appeared in the
pr»texta or youthful dress; Nero in a tnumphal robe;
and the populace formed their opinion as to the future
fortune of each accordingly. When the boys met each
other afterwards, Nero saluted his playfellow as Britan-
nictt$ ; Britaiinicus replied to him only by the family name
of Domitiui. Agrippina expressed great indignation at
this afiroQt; and complaiiied to her hndbcnd Claiifiiur that
his adoption was treated with contempt— that the Aten& of
the senate and the command of the people were ahrogated
within the palace walls— and that if a stop were noS pnt to
the perversencss of those preceptors by whom Brituuiicui
had been instructed, public disasters mutt eniue. Claudius,
moved by her remonstrances, banished or put to death Che
excellent tutors who had hitherto brought up his son, and
placed him under the care of others recommended by his
crafty step-mother.
When the intrigues and the crimes of Agrippina had
obtained the imperial dignity for her own sod, oritannicuf
necessarily became an object of suspicion to Naro, whoee
fears were by no means diminished by the threata in whifh
his mother indulged upon the banishment of bar lo\cr
Pallas. She took care indeed not to conceal her menaces
from her son ; and she pronounced Britannictts to be the
true stock of the Ccesars, and alone worthy to succeed to hit
father's empire, while Nero was only adopted into the family
of the CsBsars. Little solicitous as to the revelaiioD of her
foul deeds, she rejoiced that lier own pnmdenoe and tht
gods had permitted the survival of her step-son, and sht
declared that she would accompany him to the camp« asd
demand from the soldiers his elevation to the throna, wtthout
fearing the futile arguments which might be urged a^am$:
her by the unwarlike soldier Burrhus, or the wordy Aeuh
rician Seneca, the two guardians of Nero's youth.
Britannicus was near the completion of hia foorteenth
year, and Nero, who was well acquainted with the vkAethee
of Agrippina, had recently discovered how much popolanti
the young prince retained. Among other sporta of the
Saturnalia was one named Regnum^ in which the pla^vrs
threw dice for the kingship of the evening. Nero, who oe
one occasion happened to be the successful caster, teaoed bi»
orders to each of the company to do some inoflen.MTe tndf ;
but when it came to the turn of Britannicus, Nero com-
manded him to stand up and sing a song. Britannjcut
calmly obeyed, and began a song which implied that he k&'i
fallen from his patrimony and from sovereig;nty ; hctf
which the keen-sightedness of the commentaton of Ennius
have determined to belong to the Andromache of that piet.
The licence of the season and the time of night made t) ^
courtiers less on their guard than usuaU and a sentiment • i
pity was evidently excited among them. This incidrot.
combined with the threats of Agrippina, determined Nero
to remove Britannicus bv poison, and he employed Locu«ti
(whose name is rendered familiar to us by Juvenal^ to as»i>i
his purpose.
The poison first administered was inefTectual ; but Nero«
impatient of delay, threatened Locusta with puni^mi':.:,
(and, as Suetonius adds, beat her with his own hand,) 1. 1
she furnished him with a potion which she affirmed shoui J
be ' as rapid in deadly effect as the sword itself;* it v«t
prepared by the bedside of the emperor under hia ovm in-
spection.
According to an old custom, the youths of the imperiai
family, with other noble children, ate their meals in the prr*
sence of their elder relations. Britannicus, when aasistiof*
at one of these banquets, was attended as usual by a ta»ter.
and some artifice became requisite to prevent any riolaUvn
of the court fashion, and at the same time to avoid the
suspicion which must have been created by the death c/
both the prince and this ofljcer. An unpoisoned dnok,
already tasted, was therefore handed to BntaiiDieus, anil
when he complained that it was too hot, tht? poison va^
poured into it with cold water. The moment after he h*d
swaltowed the draught, he lost the use of his limU^ h»
breath, and utterance. All present were in con&temat)OD.
and some (juitted the room ; but those who were better ae-
ouainted with the habits of the palace sat still and waich(«i
the emperor's countenance. With a careless air, he pro-
nounced the prince's disease to he an attack of epilep^j .
with which, he said, Britannicus had been afflicted fKiu
infancy, and that he would speedily recover. The in-
voluntary terror displayed by Acrippina and Octavia pnn c i
their ignorance of the crime : the former was a \eteran in
dissimulation ; the latter, though still of tender \ear^ hzd
been taught to repress all outward signs of grief or of afifw
tion. After a short pause, the festi\ity was renewed.
Britannicus was buried on the very evening of hb dcatb ;
the funeral arrangements, which were but slender, ha%u.j
been provided beforehand. The pile was constructed iii the
Campus Martins, under a terrific storm of rain.
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Suetonius &dd« to fhe' other causes of hutrefl which N&ro
cberislwd agaiDst Britannicua* that be was jealous of the
superior exoellence of his Toioe ; and that Titus, who was
educated bj the same tutors, ha|ipening to sit next him at
tbe fatal banquet, tasted the poisoned cup, and for a long
time felt the consequences. A roetoposcopist (a diViner by
marks on the forehead), introduced oy Narcissus in order
to inspect the forehc«d of the prince, predicted that Britan-
nicus would never mount the throne, which, however, would
certainly be ascended by Titus, Titus, after his accession,
called to mind this circumstance, and as a testimony
to his early friendship for Britannicus, erected a golden
statue to his memory on the Palatine hill, and had a second
(equestrian) statue carved in iisory, which was exhibited in
the Circensian procenions. The potion, says Suetonius,
medicated by Locusts, was first tried upon a kid, which
survived five hours. This process being far too slow to
satisfy Nero, a mixture of greater strength was prepared,
which killed a pig immediately. The funoral of Britannicus
is placed on the day after his death by Suetonius, and Dion
(Ixi.) records that his face, being discoloured by the poison,
was covered with plaster by the order of Nero, but that the
torrent of rain which fell during the ceremony washed off
the plaster and revealed the crime.
The disastrous history of Britannicus has fiimished the
ground plan to a tragedy bv Racine, which the French
consider among the chpJs-itcBuvrB of their drama, but
which to our tasto abounds in the chief faults of their
theatre. lu close adherence to history is greatly vaunted,
and it is hut justice to adroit that it has embodied the prin-
cipal events related by Tacitus. The ctmfidante Albine
may be tolerated on prescription, although she is entirely
detached from the plot, and is introduced solely to listen to
the complaints of her mistress ; but what is to be said in
defence of the creation of Junie—the boy and girl love be-
tween lier and Britannicus— and its interruption by the
unworthy passion of Nero? The poet himself informs us
that Britannicus was the most elaborate of his tragedies,
and that its success by no means answered his expectations.
Junie too, he tells us, is .hinia Calvina, described by
Seneca as *fe$tiv%mma omnium puellarum,' who was
above the age prescribed for admission to the College of
Vestals, and of whom little more is known than that she
was alive in the reign of Vespasian.
La Harpe has criticised Britannicus at great length, and
in our mind too favourably. Brotier also, in his notes on
the 1 3th book of Tacitus, states that Junie, whom Racine
introduced on compulsion through the * necessity of the
theatre,* is the sole drawback to the perfciction of his
trarfedy ; her manners, he adds with truth, are far more
Parisian than Roman.
(Tacit. Anna!, xii. xiii ; Suetonius, Nero; Dion Cass., Ixi.)
BRITANY. [Bretaonk.]
BRITISH AMERICA. The territorv comprehended
under this name extends from 41® to 7B^ N. lat., and from
52° to 141**W. long.
The S. boundary of British America is formed by the
territory of the XJ. ^. The frontier line is not satisfactorily
defined at some points, and has long been a subject of dis-
agreement between the two nations. The E. boundary line
as claimefl by England under the treaty of 1783 is objected to
by the government of the U. S. on the ground that the pro-
visions of that treaty were founded upon the assumption of
physic?al facts which subsequent examination has shown to
be 'erroneous. If the English government is right in its
interpretation of the treaty, the S. boundary of its conti-
nental provinces is as follows : —
Entering the riv. St. Croix in Passamaquoddy Bay, in
45* 1 0' N. lat. and 67* 15' W. long., it follows the course of
the St- Croix to its source in 45° 48' N. lat. : proceeding
thence in a line due N. for 41 m. to Mars Hill, it reaches
the hi^h land which separate the rivs. that empty them-
selves into the St. Lawrence from those which fall into the
Atlantic. Takin^^ thence a W. direction, the line proeeeds
with a somewhat irregular course along those high lands to
tbe N.W. head of the riv. Connecticut, descends that riv.
to 45*^ N. lat, and thence continues W. in a right line until
it strikes the St. Lawrence at the vil. of St. Regis, which
fitands at the W. extremity of Lake St. Francis. The line
then proceeds in a S.W. direction through the middle of
the St. Lawrence into Lake Ontario, which it divides into
two nearly equal portions, leaves Ontario bv the riv. Niagara
and bmmeU Lake Erie ; passes N. through the riv. Detroit
into and through the lake and riv. St Clair ; enters Laka
Huron at its S. point and quits it at its N.W. extremity ;
runs throuj^U * the Narrows* and to the W. of the isl. ot
St. Joseph mto Lake Superior, which it crosses with a wind-
ing course, leaving Isle Royale within the U. S. Umite.
Quitting Lake Sunerior by Pigeon River the boundary-line
runs N.W. to the N.W. angle of the Lake of tbe Woods in
49*^0' N. lat., and 94' 25' W. long. ; proceeds thence due
W. to the highest ridge of the Rocky Mountains, continues
S. along that range to 42^ 50' N. lat, and then tokes a
course due W. to the Pacific Ocean.
A very large proportion of the territory to the N. of the
line just described has been little explored and is of value
only as huntinw-ground ; the E. portion of the territory in
question is in possession of the Hudson's Bay Company,
and the W. is known as the N.W. or Indian territory.
The right to the territory lying to the W. of the Rocky
Mounteins is auothcE point remaining unsettled between
the English and American governments. By the third
article of the convention between them, signed in October,
1818, it was provided that the country in question should
remain ' free and open to the vessels, citizens, and subjecte
of the two powers for the term of ton years from that time,
without affecting thereby the claims which either party
might have to any portion of such country.* The term thus
limited has long expired, but no approach has hitherto been
made to the settlement of the question.
A portion of the N.W. coast of America bordering on
the North Pacific Ocean is claimed by Russia. This portion
extends from 51^ N. lat to the shores of the Arctic Sea»
and from 140° W. long to the North Pacific Ocean.
The settled provinces of North America belonging to
Great Britain are Lower Canada, lying between 44'' and 50"
N. lat and between 64^ and 76° W, long.; Upper Canada,
4r and 49'' do. and 74'' and 85** do.; New Brunswick, 45*
and 48'' do. and 64*" and 68° do.; N«va Scotia and Cape
Breton, 43^* and 47Mo. and eo^'and 67^* do.; Prince Ed-
ward's Island, 46'' and 47** do. and es*' and 65"* Jo. ; New-
foundland, 46° and 52° do. and SS'' and 6U° do. [Canada,
Uppbr and LowKa; Nxw Brunswick; Not a. Scotia;
Caps Brbton ; Princk Edward's Island ; Nbwvouno-
land; North-Wsst TaRRtTORv; Hudson's Bay.]
BRITISH CHANNEL. [English Cuannxl.1
BRITISH MUSEUM. Till the middle of tbe ibtb cen-
tury the project of establishing a national Museum had
never been entertained in England. It was suggested hj
the will of Sir Hans Sloane. who, during a long period of
eminent practice in physic, had accumulated, in addition to
a numerous library of books and MSS., a large collection of
objects of natural history and works of art ; these he directed
should be offered, after his death, which took place in 1753,
to the British Parliament for the sum of 20,000/., the col-
lection having cost him 50,000/. The offer was accepted,
and before the end of the year an Act passed which ordered
the payment of the required sum, and vested the property
of the museum in trustees for the use of the public. Com-
gBtent judges had Ions been solicitous that Sir Hans
loane's museum shoula be preserved entire, and he was
himself consulted, before his death, as to several of the
persons who were afterwards named trustees.
But the attention of the Legislature was not confined to
the museum of Sir Hans Sloane. The Act of Parliament
of the 26th Geo. II., which directed the purchase of his mu*
seum, also directed the purchase of the Harleian collection
of MSS., and enacted that the CotU)nian library of MSS.,
which had been given to tbe government for public uses by
an Act of the 12th and 13th of William IlL, should, with
the library of Major Arthur Edwards attached to it, form a
part of the general collection.
These several collections were ordered to be kept in their
then respective places of deposit, till a more convenient re-
pository, more durable and more safe from flre, and nearer
to the chief places of public resort, could be provided fur the
reception of the whole.
To defray the expenses of these purchases, to procure
a fit repository for their preservation, and to provtde a fund
for the permanent support of the establishment when
formed, the Act directed that 100,000/. should be raised,
by way of lottery, the net produce of which, together with
the several collections, was to be vested in an incorporated
body of persons, selected from the first characters in the
kingdom for rank, station, and literary attainments, upon
whom it conferred ample powers tor the disposal, preserva*
No. 328
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
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ttoa, and manoi^enient of the institution, idiich it w«b de-
termined should hear the name of the British Museum.
The sum really raised under this Act, partly in eonse-
quence of benefit acising^ iVora unspid tickets, amounted to
20 1,9^2/. 7«. ^. ; but the expenses of the lottery amounted
to 6200f , and the cashier of the Bank was paid more than
650/. for the management of it, so that the net produce was
no more than 95,1 94/. i«. 2d, Out of this sum flO^OOO/. were
paid to the exeeutors of Sir Hans Sloane; lO.OM/. te the
Earl and Countess of Oxford, for the Harleian M88. ;
10,250/. to Lord Halifax, for Montague House, and 19,873/.
for its repairs, which had been estimated in 1764, by three
surveyors, at no more than 3800/. ; 30,000/. were set apart
as a fund for the payment of future salaries, taxes, and other
expenses; some less was sustained by the difference of price
between the times of buying and selling stock ; and 4660/.
ivere expended for furniture peculiar to the museum. The
surplus went to the gradual liquidation of numerous and
general expenses, including the removal of the difierent
Collections.
The only buildings oRbred as general repositories at this
time were Buckingham House, with the gardens and field,
ibr 30,0u0/. ; and Montague House for 10,000/. The consi-
deration of the former was waved, partly from the greatness
of the sum demanded for it, and partly from the inconre-
nience of the situation. The latter was finally fixed upon
and the agreement for it made in the spring of \ 754. No
oflfer of ground for building a repository was made, except in
Old Palace Yard, where It was at one tiipe proposed that
the museum should find a place in the general plan which
had been then recently designed by Kent for new Heuyes
6f Parliament.
Montague Hou9e was first built about 1674. by Ralph
Monta(>:ue, Esq., afterwards Baron Montague of Boughton,
and Duke of Montague ; in the manner of a French palace.
It was erected frotn the design of Robert Hooke, -the cele-
brated mathematician, so much employed in the rebuilding
of London after the great fire. Foreign artists were chiefiiy
enrraged In its completion by the Duke of Montague's desire,
and amongst them Signer Verrio, for the decorations ;
when finished, it was considered the most magnificent and
complete building, for a private residence, then knovm in
London. But, on the 19th Januaryt 168Q, owing tp the
negligence of a servant, this house was burnt to the ground.
The large income of Lord Montague was again placed in
requisition fbr the reconstruction of his palace, ana, though
executed by ft-esh artists, the plan was the same, the new
structure being raised upon the foundations and burnt walls
of the old one.
The second architect employed was Peter Puget, a native
of Marseillest who was assisted in the decorations by Charles
de la Fosse, Jaques Rousseau* and John Baptiste lifonoyer,
three artists of great eminence. La Fosse painted the ceilings,
Rousseau the landscapes and architecture, and Monoyer
the ttowers. Rousseau also assisted as clerk of th^ works
to the building'*'.
This second building ^as purchased fbr the genera] Re«
po^tory. The Harleian collection of MSS. was ren^ved to
it in 1755 ; followed, in 1756, by the other collections ; and
the whole having been prooerly distributed and arranged,
^he Museum was opened tor study and public inspectioo,
January 15th, 1759.
At this time the contents of the Museun;i were divided
into three departments, viz. : printed Boohs, ifuiUU4Cript4,
and Natural History.
The Department o/ Printed Books consisted, at first, of
the libraries of Sir Hans Sloane and M(^or !£dwajrds
only. In 1757, King George IL, hy instrument under
the Great SeaU add^d the library which had been colleoted
by the Kings of England, as far as printed books were coi^-
cerned, from the time of King Henry VH. : rich in the
prevailing literature of difierent periods, ^nd indudin;^,
among othei-s, the libraries of Archi^ishop Granmer. of
Henry Prince of Wales, and of Isaac Casaubon. His Ma-
jesty annexed to his gift the privilege which the royal
library had acquired in the reigu of Anne, of being suj^
plied with a copy of ever)' publioalioa entered at Stauoners*
This department was (hjrther enriched, in 1 7$3, Inr a do-
tion fh>m King Qeorge lU. of a collectioa of pam-
Th* •Mhiiivc «aB]pvn«Dt of Fr«a«h aititU io the «•» houw ffwr» liM to
popular but inmrobaUlo talo, that MonUKV« Houm wm nbuitt at the ex-
•r of Loali Xlf ., 10 frftwMoottii Lotd MoMaisM hU INic^ Iraen ma» m
te
phlett and periodical paiwvt pnUiilMd i«SR§Inid» 1
1«40 and 1660, chiefly iUiistntim of tbceivil mm of the
time of Charles I. and oolloeted by ouler of that Monarch.
It (a impossible to onttvorate in dotail all the additmis
which have been since n«de by gift or ipotehooe. ilr.
Thomas Bireh'a library ; two coUeotiom of hooka cm musicA!
seionee from Sir John Hawktns, and one fnmi Dr. ChcrWa
fiumey ; Oaniek^a eQlleetioa of old Snglish p^ayt ; vone-
irous classies fh>m the library of Thomas Tynrhiftt, E^..
with hia MS. notes ; Sir William Muagrave's uamvli,^
eolleetton of biography ) a collootion of etaasieo, enriched t a
Dr. Bentley*8 MS. notes ; a library of ceremoni^a, prores-
sions, and heraldry, from Mrs. Sophia Sarah Bat^s ; ani
a eolleetton of Italian history and topography, from f%xt
Riehard Colt Hoare; are among the smaller aequiaiUt.n«*
tiie valoablo library of the Rev. Clayton Mordaunt Crarhe-
rode; the law librarf of Francis Hargrave, Esq. ; tbe libia^
of seienee which belonged to the Baron de Moll <^ Man^ h :
the libraries of Mens. Ginguen^. author of the * Ht^t- r.-
Litfraire d'Ita)ie ;' and of the Rev. Dr. Charles Bumri :
and Sir Joseph Banks*s library of natural history, are ami^ r
the larger. Four separate collections of traets« flhistr&t • j
the Revolutionary History of France, have been purrhsv. •.
at different times by the trustees : one was the colifct :
frnned by the last president of the pariiament of Briiam -:
the commencement of the revolution ; two others extcro^«i
generally through the revolutionary period ; the fourth wa* »
collection of tracts and papers published during the hun'l t i
days of 1815 : the whole mrming a library of iwroluti i. -?
history as coqiplete fbr France as the tracts alrvsdy d t *
tioned of the time of Charles I. are for the civil wars !
England. Another, and an unrivalled feature of the nv.
seuro library is its progressive collection of newspajv rv
from the first in 1388. Sir Hans Sloane had forme t. i
great polleolion for his day. To these, in 1818. wei« a i- i
the Bumey collection, purchased at the estimated \aliic f
1000/. Since this time the commissioners of stamps L.>c
continued periodical! v to forward to the Museum cupici '
aH newspapers deposited by the publishers in their om^^
In 1823 the library of King George III. was (.«
Rented by his successor to the British nation, and bv P-r
l lament ordered to be added to the library of the bt.^-l
Museum ; but fbr ever to be kept separate from the • . -r
books. Tliis library contains selections of the rarest ti :.
more espcciallv of works of the first ages of the art of pr •
iiig : it is rich in early editions of the classics, iii book> fr .
the press of Caxtpn. in the hiHtory of the States of Euai)« u
th0 languages of the respective countries, in the Tri!i-
lions of Academies, and in a grand geograpbicsi rotlcri
Its formation was commenced at tbe time when the l.^.-;-^.-
of the Jesuits were uiidergoing suppression, and thetr uu
ries sold through Europe; it was still further eern
from the secularized CQuvoAts of Germany, li was l<d { *
more than half a century by an expenditure of Utile h-
than 200,000/., and is in itself, perhaps, the BM«t ciksi r t
library of its extent that was ever formed.
Tbe aggregate of the collections hena enumeieted. a :
montpd yearly by gifts, by claims under the Cop^-mriii A ^^
and by grj^nts of money from Parliament* ha\e now pl^. .
thedepsnmeAt of printed books in the Britij»h Mu»e .
upon a range with the greatest libraries of Cont^n .
Buropo : near 20UO/. ia now expended annually io the p.:-
chase of old and foreign public^Ltions.
Dfjpartmetti qf ManutcripU* The Harleian, Skanr^.i
and Ck)ttonian MSS. f<irmed the nuoleus of this d«f x. .*
ment at the establishment of the Jiiu»eum : &iUo«tU.
1757, by the MSS. of the ancient r»yal Uhmry of En^U^.
In this last coUeetion, which esntains whatever had ^»n .
brought together by our kings, from King Richajd U t.
King Geor[^ U., are numeroua valuable MSS, : amiMiK t*.. .
the * Codex Ale^andrinus,' in four quarto v^aaee., «n.;.
upon fine veUum, |»robahIy themost ancient MS. of the On . ..
Bible t^'V extant, m uncial characters, supposed lo ha\c b*:.
written between thelbiuth and sixth centuries. It va» a
present from Cjril, the patriarch of CeoataAtinispItt^ to K
Charles I. Many of these MSS. came into tlae rv% ''.
collection at the time when our moBSftic isstiiutions « '.
destroved, and some stiU retain the anathemas nfkA u.'
apars leaves which the donors denoaoeed agamat t£oM u » .
should slienate the respective volemes from Uie pl«c^ .
their original deposit. Old seholaOMi diviuit^ >v^,,,^^ ,«
this Qolleoticm, and it posaesaes innumerable votoaie^ c -
riched by the finest illuminators of <Ufi^x«nt oottUtoeiSt u. •
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■nuKMrion of paiiodt to Um letb Mnlorf. Hom tlio ave
prMarved » nmn^rous ««waibUge of ike domestic music-
kooka of Henry VIU. ; And the BMiUcon Doroo of King
Jdivet !.• in bis own hand-vntingt The CottoQian coUec*
tion i% espeeinlly nob in historical dopuwents, (roqi the
time of the Saxons to King Jamos I. ; it Ulcewise contains
numerous fine and important registers of English monas*
teries ; thachaiiera of King Bdgar and King JQeury I. to
Hyde Abhey» near Winobeater, written in gold letters ;
and the MS. called the ' Durham Book,^ a oopy of the
Latin Gospels, with an interlineary Saxon gloss^ written
abont the year 600, illuminated in tbe nio«t splepdid and
elaborate vtyle of tke AogVo- Saxony »nd believed once
to hare belonged to the Venerable Bedo. This collection is
also singularly ri<^ in royal and other original letters, and
nomprtsea the eorreapondeoce of most of the greatest person-
ages not only of this country but throughout Suropo. froni tbe
earlieet period in which letters were written to tbe sevon-
teenth century. Tbe Harleian collection is still more mis-
oelUineous, though historical literature in all its branches
forms one of its chief features. It possesses two wy
early copies of the Latin Gospels, written in gold letters.
It is particularly rich in heraldic and genealogical MSS,, in
the Visitations of eonnties, and in topographical collections
for almost everr part of Bngland ; in parUameoiary and law
proceedings ; in originals, copies, and calendars of ancient
records ; and abbey registers ; in MS8. of tbe classics,
among which is one of the earliest known of the OdyMoy of
Homer; in missals, Antiphonan, and ether aervice-boaks
of the Romish ehurob ; and in old Bnglish poetry. It Uke*
wise contains a large numbev of splendidly iUuminated
MS8., and an extensive mass of correepondenoe.
Tbe Sloanean collection principally eonsiate of MSS. on
natniKl history, voyages and travels, upon the arte, and eape-
cially anon medicine. It comprises tbe chief of the celebrated
Kmmprer's M88., with the voluminous medical coUsctkma
of Sir Theodore Mayeme, and amongst them the annals of
hii» practice in the court of Bngland from 16 U to 1649. It
also oontnins acolleetion of mwlteal and other seientiftc cor-
respondence, with numerous MSS. on bistory, poetry, and
miscellaneous subjeott. Some of tbe drawings of animals
belonging to this collection ara among tbe richest and mort
accurate of any period. Two volumes npen vellum are fW»m
the pencil of Madame Merian : one rsbrtee entirely to the
insects of Surinam.
Tbe collection of MSS., formed by the first marqneas ef
Lansdowne, was added to these libraries in 1807, having
been pumbased by Parliament ibr 4025i. It eoaalsts in
part of tbe Burghley and C»aar papers, snppleraenlary to
the Oottonian collection; in a very large assemblage of
bishop Kennett's MSS., and in namerous celleetlbna ef an
hi'^toHcal kind. Among tbe single volames wbioh may be
enumerated, is a MS. of Hsrdyng's Ohronicle, as it Was
presented by its author to King Henry VI.* a Framcb ver-
siOii of the Ssored Scriptures, upon telhim, translated by
Haottl de Presic at the command ef Charles V. ef
France (a MS. of great rarity oven in that country) ; five
volumes of Saxon homilies, transcribed by Mr. Blstob and
hfs siAter ; and a ibo-simile of the Vatican Virgil, made by
Bartoli in 1042. lb these may be added, besides a native
map, near 200 drawings, in the first style of Eastern art,
of the interior, natural history, dresses, and customs ef
China.
Another large oollection of MSS., almost exelusively in
the fbculty of law, was pinrchased 1ft 1013, of tbe repre-
sentatives of Francis Hargrave, Bsq. Among these, be-
sides nuRt^rous copies of early reports. Is an abridgment
of Bqutty, by Sir Thomas Sewell, Master of tho Rolls,' in
43 volumes.
The collection of MSS., cbtefiy of the Greek ind Latin
classics, which had been formed at a vast expense by the
Rev. Dr. Charles Bumey, was pmthased fn 1818. Among
these ik the Townley Homer, a MS. of tbe Iliad, similar to
that of the Odyssey in the Harleian ooUeetion, purchased
at the price of 600 guineas; two early MSS. of the Grreek
rhetoricians ; a volume of Pappus's mathematical tracts ;
and a magnificent Greek MS. of Ptolemy's geography,
adorned with maps, of tbe 15th century.
Tvo Oriental coUecttons also have been added: one made
by Claudius .James Rich, Esq., while consul at Bagdad,
and purchased by parliament in 1825, contains, among other
MSS. of a rarer kind, several of the Syriae version of the
Scriptmts, of great antiquity: the other, acolleetion made
in viriout countries of tho East by Joseph Fowler Hull, Esq.«
consisting chiofly of Arabic and Persian MSS., was by him
bequeathed to the Museum in 1827.
In 1839 a small but valuable collection of MSS^ in part
relating to French history, and partly of a literary cha-
racter, was bequeathed by the reverend Francis Ilenry
Sari of Bridgewater, accompanied by a small real estate,
and the sum of 7U0U/. to ba invested, and tl)e interest ap*
plied in the future purchase of MSS.
The last distinct collection is that o^ tho Howard Arundel
MSS., acquired partly by exchange and partly by pMrchasa
from the Royal Society in 1831, at an estimated value of
3559/. 3#.: it consists si more tbiin 500 rolum^s, and con**
tains many MSS, of unusqal iuterest in almost ev^ry
branch of learning ; it ip singularly risk in materials for th«
history of our own oountrv and Unguago.
The antient Rolls and Charters of the Museum, many
tboutands in number, partly belonging to tbe Oottonian,
Harleian, and Sloane oollectiens, and partly accumulated
additions, cbietiy illustrative of English History, monastio
and other property, form another division oi the Department
of MSS., with a distinct Catalogue,
These are the larger and separate oolleotions. Among
what are called the * Doaation MSS,' there are smaller col*
lections, tbe gifts or bequests of individuals^ <nr acquired by
purchase. Among these may be enumerated Maoox's coU
leetioni for tbe bistory of the Esiehequer ; Rymer's used
and unused materials for his Faidera ; Dr» Birch's historical
and biographical MSS, ; the Deciuons of tbe Judges upon
claims in the city of London afler the fire of 1666 ; Sir
William Mnsgrave's Obituary ; Cole's colleoiions for a his*
tary of Cambridge and Cambridgeshire, with his materials
for an Athenm Cantabrigienaes ; various Coptic and other
antient MSS. taken from the French m Kftypt in 1799}
Ducarars Abetiwcts of the Arahiepiaoopal Registers at Lam-
beth ; a long series of calendars of tbe Originalia Rolls
from 1 Hen. VIII. to tt Ji^mes L ; Sir Andrew Mitchells
diplomatic eerrespondenoe with every part of Europe during
bis residence at tbe court of Frederic the Great of Prussia ;
Sir William BurrelVs and the Ray. William Hayiey's jomt
collections for the history of Sussex ; Mrs. S. S. Bauks*s
MSS. on heraldry, processions, and archery ; Abbot's draw-
inga and minute descriplions ef American insects in 17 vo*
Inmes. quarto) Wellay*s collections for Deib^shire; Sir
Joeopb Bankers foreign correspondence ; Bssex s and Ker«
rich's collections on Gothic arohiteoture and costumes ; the
Stepney papers ; the papers of the Ce«nt Joseph de Pui-
aaye, chieHy relating to the Chouan war and the French
Royalists from 1793 to 1824, in 117 volumes; tboJermyn
collections for a hiatory of Suffolk in 41 volumes in folio,
presented by Hudson Ourney, Bsq. ; tbe materials assent^
bled by Arshdeacon Coie wbiltt employed in the compila-
tion of his various historical and other woirks in 006 volumes ;
nnmerons MSS. illnstratlve of Italian history, selected from
the f4>UeetH}n of Frederick flfib Bari of Guilford {310 Rolls,
eommonlv known as the Cuancellor's Rolht, being dupli-
rates of tne Great Rolls of tbe Pipe between 9 Hen. II. and
17 James I.i presented. In 1839 and 1834) by order of the
Commissioners upon the public Records : the topographical
eollectienfe of Samuel Lysoti^ Ssq. and the Rev. Daniel
Lysons, being chiefly materials for the 'Magna Britannia'
and •Bnvhons of London ;' • Bgyptian Papyri,' partly pur-
ehaaed at Salt*s and other sales, and partly presentwl hf
J. G. Wilkinson, Enq. ; a very extensive collection of antient
Irish MSS., including one or two copies of tlie ' Brehoti
Laws ;' and a selection made, at an expense of more than
2000/., from the MSS. lately possessed by Richard Heber,
Bse.
Drpartmeni of Natural History , — Sir Hans Sloane's
collection was very considerable for the time : it consisted
of quadrupeds and their parts; bird:» and ihenr parts, egsfs,
and nests; amphibia, Crustacea, shells, echini, entroehi,
insects, corals, sponges, zoophytes, stones, ores, bitumens,
salts, and an extensive herbarium.
To this department also, in the infoncy of the museum,
all miscellaneoas artificial curiosities were consigned, with a
fow antiquities and a collection of anatomical preparations.
The science of natural history however soon niade a rapid
progress ; and the collection of Sir Hans Sloane, which when
purchased was deemed of the first magnitude, insensibly
diminished in its comparative value, particuhrfy in the
classes of ornithology and mineralogy.
In order to supply the first of these defldendes, the tnts«
3M2
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le©%, in 176^, pi!lrt:liased a collection of well-prescn'cd [
!ik\u'ffed bird* which had been brouj^ht over from Holland,
for 460/. ; many additions were afterward* made by pur-
chase tnid donation. The voyages of discovery early in the
reigh t>T George III. brought numerous acquisitions ; and in
18I'6 a rich collection of British zoology, which had belonged
lb Col. Montague, of Knowle in Devonshire (including a
very large number of birds), was purchased for 1 1 00/. Since
that time still larger acquisitions have been made, and the
«|fgreg&te forms a collection, not indeed complete, but ns
extensive as most of the collections in Europe. A valuable
Collection of stuffed birds has recently been bequeathed to
the Museum by the late Major General Hardwicke.
In regard to the second deficiency, it is to be observed
that the specimens of minerals of Sir Hans Sloane*s Mu-
seum were collected at a period when the science of mine-
ralogy may l>e said to have scarcely existed. Mo^t of
them had been chosen for him by persons of little skill, or
had been intended to elucidate some system which had he-
come obsolete. Mr. Gustavus Brander's collection of Hamp-
shire fossils was added in 1 765 ; and a third small collection,
made on the N.W. coast of America by Mr. Menzies, who
accompanied Capt. Vancouver as a naturalist, was presented
to the Museum in 1797 by King (George III. This latter
collection contained little thai was particularly curious, ex-
cept that it supplied a kind of mineralogical history of an
extensive but little explored coast. A systematic collection
of minerals for the benefit of persons 'pursuing the study
of mineralogy was not attempted by the trustees till 1 799,
when they supplied the deficiency m that branch of their
institution bv acquiring, at the price of 700/., a well-chosen
collection o^- minerals of every class, con listing of 7000
specimens, which had been made by Charles Hatchett, Esq.
during his travels in various parts of Europe. All that was
valuable of the Sloanean collection was incorporated with
this ample accession, and with the addition of what the
Rev. C. M. Cracherode's bequest afterwards supplied,
formed, even before the addition of the Greville minerals,
a copious and useful mineralogical collection. In 1810 an
opportunity presented itself of acquiring the extensive col-
lection of minerals formed by Col. Greville, which were
purchased by vote of parliament for 13.727/.: in 1816 the
Bcroldingen fossils were purchased: and to these collec-
tions King George IV. added a large and splendid collection
of minerals from the Harz Mountains, formerly preserved
in the Observatory at Richmond.
Round the side of a portion of the Long Gallery which
now contains the minerals, the secondary fossils are in a
course of arrangement in upright cases. In Saurian fossils
the Museum is eminently rich, as well as in gigantic
osseous remains, and in impressions of vegetables, fruits,
and fish. Some of these acquiditions have been obtained
at very considerfible expense.
Two of the greatest rarities of the mineralogical collec-
tion are the sculptured tortoise in the centre of the gallery,
wrought in Nephritic stone, and found on the banks of
the Jumna, near Allahabad, in Hindostan; and a large
specimen of meteoric cellular native iron from the province
of Atacama. in Peru.
The collection of minerals is daily increasing, and is at
this time superior to any in Europe.
The system adopted for its arrangement, with occasional
slight deviation, is that of Professor Berzelius, founded upon
the electro-chemical theory and the doctrine of definite pro-
portions as developed by him in a memoir read before the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm in 1 824. The
detail of the arrangement is supplied by the running titles
on the outsides of the glass cases, and by the labels within
them. The ornithological portion of the' natural history is
arranged according to Temminck. and his generic names
are in general adopted, with the specific names of Linnaaus
and the English synonymes of Latham. The names of
donors in this, as well as in other parts of the general mu-
seum collection, are attached to specimens which have been
presented.
The amphibia, Crustacea, reptiles in spirits, sea-etrgs. and
•tar-fish, with the general collection of fish and corals, form
a separate division of the natural history : the principal
collections of Crustacea and spiders are preserved in pro-
per cabinets in a separate room.
The shells of the Museum, the collection of which has
gradually accumulated upon the foundation laid bv Sir
Hans SlaaBe, form another division of the natural history
of no small extent ; thev are in numerous instancea %etom*
nanied by clay models of the different moUusroui anitnaU.
They are arranged in classes, order*, and genera ; and lo
each group the natne is attached. Lamarck's system has
been adopted as the basis for general arrangement, ocra-
sionally interpolated with the genera of other authors wb»-re
Lamarck has left lacunso.
The entomological branch of the department cf natunl
history is, strictly speaking, but of late creation, the greAivi
portion of Sir Hans Sloane's insects having verishcd from
length of time, or the insufllctent methods then taken tu
preser\'e them. Purchases and donations however are r«m.
tinuallyHwelling, their number, and a large accession ha*
been recently received as a part of the bequest from GenerU
Hardwicke. A small but interesting collection of the inser* »
of Sierra Leone has also been recently presented by t».e
Rev. Mr. Morgan. The collection, exclusive of <3«neraJ
Hardwicke's ^uest, fills 23 cabinets of large siie. aiid .s
as extensive a collection of insects as that at Paris.
Department of Antiquities. — ^In the infancy of the Mo
seum. the antiquities being few in number and of lin -
value, were considered, with other artificial curiosities, as -ir.
appendage to the natural history : the coins, medals, a: !
drawings of the museum collection were at that time v^
pended to the department of MSS.; and the prints at. l
engravinirs to the library of printed books. In 1772 a icr.
considerable assemblage of articles of Greek and Ron.j i
antiquity, comprirting the largest collection then kn^mn uf
antient 'fictile va>es, had been purchased of Sir William
Hamilton for 8400/., schedules of which vera drawn up *-i
D'Hancarville. The original building of the MnaeQCD vi&*
still spacious enough to contain all that was accamitlated m
every department ; and the articles purchased, m this ir*
stance, were not so numerous a« to require an increa>» i>(
the establishment. The arrival of the Egyptian niO!:u-
ments acquired by the capitulation of Alexandria in i6t i.
which were ordered in the following year by King Geti".**
III. to be placed in the British Museum, first suggested t >•
erection of an additional edifice, rendered still more indis-
pensable by the purchase of the Townley Martvlea in l>c
Accordingly, upon the completion of the building intcndrt
for the two collections, a new department was created, m
1807, by the name of the Department of Antiquities, mw\
a magnificent collection of antient sculpture was at length
opened for the inspection of strangers and the iroprovemiut
of artists, an advantage which thf students in the fine arts
had never before enjoyed in this country. To thia depart-
ment the Hamilton Vases and antiquities were transHrrrwl,
together with the coins, medals, drawings, and engra^mss.
In 1814, a communication having been made by the
Townley family that there still remained in their posaesMou a
very large collection of antient bronze figures and uten*4U.
of Greek and Roman coins, gems, drawings, &c., allDf whw-h
served essentially to illustrate the sculptures purchased m
1805, the House of Commons granted in the seestvo ot
parUament in that year the sum of 8200/. for the Diirrha>e.
In 1815 the Prince Regent, at an expense or little leM
than 20,000/., purchased and ordered to be deposited m th»
Museum an extensive series of marble aculpturea. the fnttm
of a temple, which had been dug up at Phigaleia in Ar-
cadia, and are known, from Pausanias, to be the genuine
productions of the earlier time of the school of Phidias^ To
these, in 1816, was added the Elgin collection, which, as
contributing to the progress of the arts in thia ooyntr^. is
the most important accession received by the Muaeom »iiK«
its institution. It chiefly consists of the exquisite seulpUim
which once adorned the pediments and friexe of the TempSe
of Minerva on the Acropolis of Athens. For the purchase
of these pariiament voted the sum of 35,000/.
In 1810 the Duke of Portland offered to deposit the
Portland Vase in the British Museum (the property to i^
main with him), where it is still exhibited.
No integral collection of Greek or Roman sculptures af
any extent has been added to the galleries of seulpiure stn<»
the arrival of the Elgin collection ; but numerous mmrhles of
the higher class have been purchased from time to time,
among which may be mentioned the bas-relief of Jupiier
and I^a, bought of Col. de Bosset : a Cupid froca Mr.
Burkes collection ; the group of Mithra, bought of Mr.
Standish ; the Rondinint Fawn ; the Torso of Venus, vhicfa
was injured by the fire at Richmond House: a slaiur </
Hadrian ; a bas-relief of the Apotheosis of Httmer« pur
cliased for lOOO/. ; a Venus of the Capitol, pn:sented b} his
Digitized by
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Dreaent Miyesty ; and a collection of PenepoliUn marbles,
presented in 1825 by Sir Gore OuKeley, forming a valuable
addition to 5ome which had been previously presented by
the earl or Aberdeen.
Nearly till thift time the bronzes, chiefly belonging to the
Hamilton and Townley collections, though numerous and
in Kome instances large and fine, formed but a subordinate
feature in the museum department of antiquities. In 1824
Mr. R Payne Knight, a trustee, whose attainments in an-
ttent literature and knowledge of the fine arts were known
not only in this country but throughout Europe, besides
marbles and other objects, bequeathed to the Museum a
valuable and extensive series of antient bronzes, 798 in
number; less numerous and of smaller dimensions than
most uf those found in Pompeii and Herculaneum, but in
beauty of workmanship and admirable state of preservation
superior even to those in the museum of the king of Naples.
To this part of tho collection, in 1833, the bronzes of Siris,
purchased, by subscription, from the Chev. Brdndsted, were
addcrl, at the expense of lOOti/. In 1825 the trustees ob-
tained a large collection of Babylonian antiquities.
Coins and Medals. — The foundation of this part of the
collection was laid in the cabinets of Sir Robert Cotton and
Sir Hans Sloane. More than 6000 antient medals were
purchased with the Hamilton collection in 1772. In 1799
a collection of coins and medaU, estimated at the value of
6000/.. was bequeathed to the Museum by the Rev. Clayton
Mordaunt Craoherode. In 1802 tlie trustees purchased the
most complete series of Anglo-Saxon coins then known,
which hail belonged to Samuel Tyssen, Esq., for 620^ In
1810a series of tne coins of England from the Conquest to
the reign of George III., which had been made by Edward
Roberts* Esq. of tne Exchequer, for his son, was purchased
for the sum of 4000 guineas, and about tlie same time a
aeries of papal medals for 13&/. and a collection of Greek
coins from Col. de Bosset for BOU/. In 1814 the Townley
collection of Greek and Roman coins (particulatly rich in
Roman large and second brass) was added by vote of par-
liament. uiSi a collection of Greek coins oflerad for sale bv
Capt Cust, purchaiied by the Treasury fur the sum of ii30i.
Another considerable as well as choico collection of Greek
coins was obtained at the time of the purchase of the Elgin
Marbles. In 1818 Lady Banks presented all such coins
and medals belonging to the extensive cabinet of Mrs. S S.
Banks as were not previously in the Museum, including a
collection of foreign coins of vast extent. In I8'i4 Mr. R.
Payne Knight beaueathed his Greek coins to the Museum,
which, joined to the Greek coins already in the cabinets,
made the Museum series of kings and cities superior even
to the celebrated collection of the king of France. Early
in 1825 parliament purchased for the Museum, together
with Mr. Rich's collection of MSS., a large assemblage of
early Arabian, Parthian, and Sassanian coins, of the esti-
mated value of 1000/. ; and in the same year King George
IV. presented to the Museum the cabinet of coins and me*
dais which had been attached to the library of George III.,
rich in English, but more especially rich in the foreign
series, particularly in German coins, in papal, Flemish, and
Dutch medals, and in an almost unrivalled collection of
medals of the illustrious men of Italy.
The last cabinet of great extent acquired is that of
William Marsden, Esq., consisting entirely of Oriental coins,
divided into two portions : the first includes not only the
coins bekMiging to the great empire of the Khaliib, but
those of the various dynasties which sprang from its ruius,
forming the cmrency of the W. regions of Asia, and of
the Mohamme4au kingdoms and states formerly or at
present existing in Africa and Europe ; the second portion
belongs to the more E. division of the Asiatic continent,
including the coins of Persia, India, and China, together
with those of the Indo-Chinese peninsulas and of the
islands geographically connected with them as far as Japan.
This splendid rolleotion was presented to the Museum, in
addition to many former gifts, by Mr. Marsden in 1834.
The generosity of individuals, and the exertions of the
trustees as opportunities present themselves, are continually
bringing acquisitions of a minor kind to this branch of the
department of antiqiiities. Instances of the former may
be mentioned in 174 coins of the Anglo-Saxon series
found at Dorking in Surrey in 1818, given by Robert
Barclay, Es^. of Bury Hill, and George Dewdney, Esq. of
Dorking. cBiefly by the former gentleman ; and in a large
eoUection of the coins of the two first Edwards, found at
Tutbury in Staffordshire in June, 1831, presented by Lorrt
Holland, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Among
the acquisitions of the trustees by casual' purchase may be
enumerated a selection from 5700 pennies of Henry II.,
found in 1814 at Tealby in Lincolnshire, the best specimens
of all the varieties of towns and mint- masters of which were
purchased for the M\i8eum ; and in a large accession to the
already numerous coins of Canute found at Halton Moor
near Lancaster, purchased in 1815. Eight hundred pounds
were expended in purchases to supply deficiencies of every
kind at the sale of the coins of Manpaduke Trettle, E^q.
and in 1833, 1000/. were expended in the pUrchaHO of coins
in ^old, silver, and brass, cbietty Greek, selected from the
cabmet of Mr. Borrel. Two hundred and ninety-six stycas
of Ethelred, Eanred, and Redulf, kings of Northumberland,
and of Vigmund and Eanbald, archbishops of York, found
at Hexham in 1832, were purehAsed in the same year; with
no fewer than 659 varieties of pennies of King William the
Conqueror found at Beaworth in Hampshire. A consider-
able collection of Bactrian coins has also been recently pur-
chased of Lieutenant Bumes.
In engraved gems, principally from the collections of Sir
William Hamilton, Ciiarles Townlev, Esq., the Rev. C. M.
Cracherode, and R. P. Knight, Esq., the department of
antiquities is especially rich, as well as in antique pastes,
and in specimens of antique glass- In necklaces, ear-rings,
armillsa, and other trinkets of gold, this department is also
rich. The latest acouisition of this kind is the gold breast-
plate, supposed to nave belonged to a BritisE chieftain,
lately found in Flintshire.
In the division which contains drawings and engravings
there are one or two superb drawings by Rubens : a large
collixtion of drawings of the Italian school : three volumes,
a part of Mr. R. P. Knight's bequest, containing 272 ori-
ginal drawings of Claude Lorraine : a numerous assem-
blage of drawings! of the Dutch school :- several hundred
drawings by Albert Durer and other old German masters
a large collection of Van Hiiysen s drawings of plants,
which formerly belonged to the Sloane collection: a col-
lection of drawings of plants and costumes by native artists
of China : Parr's and Revett's ^iews in Greece and Asia
Minor, chiefly architectural, in two volumes, accompanied
by a third volume containing Towne's views in Rome and
its vicinity: three volumes of highly finished drawings iu
black chalk, copied from the most celebrated pictures in
Rome, and accompanied by an extra volume after the
frescos of Guido in the private chapel of the Vatican, by
Mosman ; these were presented to tlie Museum by the Earl
of Exeter, and cost near 3000^ There is also a large col-
lection of drawings from antique marbles, gems, &c. lor-
merly belonging to Mr. Charles Townley ; and two folios of
drawings made under the direction of the Earl of Elgin at
Athens.
In the collection of prints, among numerous impressions
of works of Niello^ is a sulphur of the celebrated Pax by
Maso Finiguerra, of the Assumption of the Virgin, anno
1452, purchased in 1 835 for 270 guineas. The nrints of the
different masters are for the most part arrangea in schools,
as the Florentine school, the school of Siena, the Koman
school, the Bulognese, I^mbard, and Venetian school?, the
schools of Genoa and Naples, the French school, &c. There
are large and almost complete collections of the works of
Marc Antonio, Bonasoni, Rembrandt, and Hollar: every
fine and extensive assemblage of Hogarth's prints, the
foundation of which was laid in 1823 by the purchase of
Mr. Pack«r*s collection, of Dunmow, for 315/.: a Granger
collection of English portmits of great extent : a very large
collection of early German prints in wood : an almost per-
feet collection of prints engraved after the nictures of Sir
Joshua Reynolds : a large collection of Bartolozzi s engrav-
ings : Dr. Burney's collection of theatrical portraits : an
immense colleciion of foreign portraits, purchased with the
library of the Baron de Moll of Munich : and a Pennant s
History of London, illustrated with prinU and drawings, iu
fourteen volumes in folio of the largest size, made by the
hue Mr. Crole at an expense of 7000/., by whom it was
bequeathed to the Museum.
In the print room also is preser^'ed one, of the most won-
derful specimens of art, in a carding in hone by Albert
Durer in alto-nlievo, representing the birth of St. John
Baptist, dated 1510, for which Mr. Knight, who bequeathed
it to the Museum, gave 500/.
From 1802, when the monuments taken ^^^f^^f^J^^
Digitized by VnOOQlC
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at AlBX«n4na urnve4. ti)l IBl^ no iB«t«rUl a4diUo]» v«i«
made to the Egyptian part of the antiquity department ; but
in that year the' upper part of a ftn« coloaaal ^tatua, Qom*
monty though incorrectly called the Memnon, takea from
Thebet by BeUopi« was given to the Museum ii^ the joint
names of Henry Salt, Esq., the British consul at Alexandria,
and Louis Burckhardt, Esq. In 1823 the trustees, by th^
aid of parliament, obtained Mr. Salt's ftrst collection of
Egyptian antiquities (exclusive of an alabaster sarcophagus,
afterwards purchased by Sir John Soane)for200ai. Another
collection, particularly illastrative of the domestic manners
of the antient inhabitants of Egypt, helongiidg to Mr. Joseph
Sams, was purchased by parliament at the recommendation
of the trusteesi, in 1 834, for 2500/. : a considerable number
of antiquities of the same description were presented to die
Museum in the same year by J. G. Wilkinson, Esq., and ia
1 835 a still larger accession was obtained by an expei>dilura
of 508 W, \^ at the sale of Mr. Salt's third collootio^ of
Egyptian antiquities, including numerous oapyri ^rhieb
have been since unrolled. In w% year also uurd PrudUoe
added to the Museum collection the two fine lions of red
granite which his lordship had prooured at Jebel Barkal in
Nubia. [Barkal.]
Under these accumulated accessions the (4d Egyptian
room became no longer sufficient ibr its purpose. 'The
larger articles of Egyptian sculpture, the eolossal heads,
tablets, and fresco paintings have been in oonsequeneo ie«
moved to a more spacious apartment, now termed the Egyp-
tian saloon, io the lower story of the west wmg of the new
buildings. The smaller articles, illustrative of the domestie
life of the Esyptians, at present under arrangement, are
des«igned to fill two apartments of %]m story above as soon at
they are completed.
Connected with the department of antiquities, and of
great importance to the young artist, is a large eolleotion
of architectural and other casts in plaster, the property of
the late Sir Thomas Lawrence, purchased and presented to
the Museum in 1831 bf the Royal Academy : a small col-
lection of works of modem art is also attached to this de*
partment, the pictures belonging to which, chiefly portraits,
are hung in the long gallery which contains the minerals in
the new cast wing. In the print-room is Sir Joshua Rey*
nold's portrait of Sir William Hamilton ; in the committee*
room that of Sir Joseph Banks by Sir Thomas Lawrence ;
and in the halt of tlio old building the statues of Shake-
peare by Rouhiliac, and of Sir Jo;ieph Banks by Chautrey :
a few modern busts, some of which belonged to Mr. K. P.
Knight, are preser\*ed in the medal-room, together with a
gold snuff-box set with diamonds and ornamented with a
miniature portrait of the Emperor Napoleon, 1^ whcmi it
was presented in 1815 to the Hon. Mrs. Darner.
Fifth or Hanksian DepartmeMt,— Sir Joseph Banks, who
died in 1820, in one of the codicils to his will bequeathed
the use a»d enioyment ot his library and botanical collec-
tions Ibr life to his librarian Robert Brown Esq., afterwards
to come to the British Museum. But the trustees con-
ceiving these collections to be in a state of possible danger
from flrei l)eing in a pri\^ate house, surrounded by other
private houses, in order to secure the library and oolleotions
fbr publio benetll with as little delay as possible, cane ta an
arrangement with Mr. Brown, who in eonseqnenoe was
appointed to the oiRee of an under-hbrarian in the Museum.
Sir Joseph Banks^s library being transferred, but kept
distinct, wais added to the general collection of books- but
the botanical collections were ordered to be united wit a Sir
Hans Sloane'fl herbaria, and Mr. Brown was placed at the
head of a botanical or Bnnksian department. All the bo«
tanical collections of the Museum were thus bfotight
together and rendered equally accessible.
The l^loanean herbaria are contained in 336 volunes,
bound in 262i and consist of Sir Hans Sloane's eelleotions
made by himself in Jamaica and elsewhere, and of various
others presented to or purchased by him. Of the latter
the most considerable are those of Plukenel and Petiver.
Among them thero are also large collections made by the
duchess of Beaufort, Kiggalaer, Buddie, Uvedale, and Haw-
kins; together with numerous smaller ones obtained from
many of the principal botanists and travellers of the day.
The most interesting are fh>m the collectiofts of Merret,
Cunningham, Hermann, Bobart, Bernard de Jnssieu, Tour-
nefbrt, Scheuehzer, Kamel, Vaillant, Ktempfer, Gatesby,
Houston, and Boerhaave. with the planto presented to the
Royal Society by the Company of Apothecaries in purmiance
of tbe dif«ottoDa of Sir Hana 81oa«eh (or tW jnn firam
1722 to 1796, These foormed tha rent which the Ap»t .l-
caries* Company jpaid for the botanic pardea at Ciiei**\.
The seeds and fruitoof Sir Hans Sloana a eoUection arc - •«>
extensive and well prasenfad. The Harbarium of the B^n^a
de Moll of Munich, in 4S portfolios, waa added iatho Uj-
tauy in the Museum in 1815.
The herbarium of Sir Joseph Banks, of vhieh Iha Uxg«-r
and arranged portion is contaioed in oabineU» oomprtM-*
upwards of 24,000 spacies, the materials in panKrcfr^ •
arrangement being estimated to contain 50oa »«««. Tl^-
herbarium is form^, in addition to Sir Joseph's ovn ci*i»i
tions upon his voyage with Captain Cook, of tba berUana «:
CliSfordf Hermann, Ctajton, Xublet* Millar, and Jacii-^ *.
with many of the plan^ eolleoted by Tournefort and d*Hw^i . .
i|\ his * Corollarium** Aublat*s plants wem froin Fi«.» .i
Guiana ; tl^e oolleotions of Clifford aod Hermaim «ai« l.- —
from which i.inn9us formed his Hortus Cliflbmaaus ». .
flora Zeylanica ; Clavtou's Herbarium was that fram • .^ .
Gronoviu^ fermed his tlore V irginioa. It oomprtaea ai «^ : . •
plants collected in th<» various voyages of diseovan *^ -«.
quant to Sir Joseph Ba;>ks's own, with tba coBini>titi -
of uumeroua travellers, aiHl aoollastioa of pUMs aef.i t«
I^ureiro ifom Coohin-Ohina. The Banksiaa eourr-.
alone formed at one time tha moat vahiahie aaa^iabU?- »•
dried plants in Europe^ and ia still ona oC the i»^»i •.-
portant, not only on aeoount of its ax taut, but as auf»t«.m •
the original and autl^entic specimens of maity piih404. -
speoies. There are but faw public aolkotioDa in Kisro^*' ..
present of greater or even of equal extoat. TM nioa 1 1 -
tensive of these^ namely, that of the Jardin du Roi at P;a..»,
contains perhaps a coasiderably frealar nmntier of spcr •» .
while the publio collieetion at Berlio, the ivexl to ih^i js
Paris, is judffod to bo hardly tuparior in Qumbct u^ * •
BankaiaH. A ooUectioa of flowara aud Ciwis, ohaallj ui • .
more rare or suceulent plants, preserved in spirtts, a.--
form a part of the Banksian dapartmant, to Ike amuur i i
upwards of 300 bottles ; with a eollaetioii of saada and u. i
in a dried state. Since tba airival of 8tr Josayh Bai 4% •
eolleotion. an axtansiva seriet of plaats has faaan peesct • i
by the Ea^it India Company, forvsad SAd diatnbused b> W*
Walhch. and another eoDeotion, of EgyplsiA plants^ n^
been presented by J. G. Wilkinson, Esq. Qdwr lese eaip •
sive additions have bean made partf y by danalMW mod pmti *
by purehaso.
The government, of the Museum iavaatad ander tbt ^•
of parliament Si Gea IIm and t^o m thi«a otlmr aola. in <«
trustees, including d3 offioial tmstasa, nina Hmi^ lrw«^p^
one loyal trastaa. and 15 trustaea who aia atccted b> ««
other 33. The ofl&eial tfualaea ava tba arehbiahap of C«ctr r-
bury, the loid ehancellar, tba speaker of tha Hovaa aii.* -
mons» the kurd preaideiit of the coiiaeil the trat kcd of i Jt
treasurv, the lord privy teal, tba irst lonl of tb^ atetr a u.
tba.lota steward, tha lord ahanharlain, tba tbraa pmroti
saerelaries of stata, tba biahep of London, tha nbaafitWr f
the Exchaquea, the tord oftiief juatioa of tba Kings Be:.- ..
the master of tho rolls, tha lard obiaf jaatica of ibe Comir . .
Pleas, the attorney- general, tha solieitor^geBaraLi lbs prr»>
dent of tha Royal Society, tba prasident of tba Smcwiy k<
Antiquaries, and the prsMient of the Rayal AaadaBs. i»:
the famnly trnsteas, two represent tha StaM^ tva tba < *
toiiaB, two tha Harleian, one tba Townley, oaa tba £2r«b.
and one the Kotgbt fhmiliaa, by wbooi tbay are reapi^c.
tively appointed. Tha royal tmftea is tba di^tf KarLh-
uaahsrland, apponiaBd by bis Mi^asty. Tba affttntmrift
of tba trustees of the Bloaneam OottoiMui. sad liaHeiam
fkmilies was provided fbr by the Aat of ta Oamgi IL
Those of tha Tewnlay, Elgin, and Kaigbt fanisaa xn
nominated tMdea tba respactiva acta hf vbtsb dia eolhw-
tions tb^raprasant ware aequircd. TliaMlfarCbeapvsfi*
mant of tne presidents of the Society of Aaliqaanea mni : ft <
Royal Academy, as oiRcial tnistae» |»md ft Oa^ae 1 '. .
That ftir the norainatioa uf a rayal tiwtas (wha. aa tfar f ^:
instance^ was tba doke af Gtoucasterl passed 1 Wittsas 1 \ .
Tba proasnt establisbmani of oAaars csMssla of a pr.^
cipal librarian, who is alaacirpeaditor i •« aadar hbswisn.^ .
six assisUnt Kbrarians, aad tbraa aKtm astirtaot bbracisr «
the nana of Hbrariaa being gtvaa to tba oflSasra af all t. <•
dapartroants ; a saoiatsiy, and a« acaaontaat. Savarml y^r-
sons of literary eminenee are also en^lofad aa aaasuau:«
Thata are also atlsiidmits in tba aaaaral dapartmests, t
alarb of tha works, bonaabald sarvanla, te.
Tbopatvonago af tba MaiaMi, tbiM ii^ thai
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lo vmnaA oOm^ b fMttd in ^e time pri&of^
only, the arehbiflhop of Canterbury, tbe lord chinoellor, ani
the speaker of tJto Houw of Commona, exeept in tba ap-
pointmeBl of Um prinoipal iibrahan, when two persona an
preaeDted by the three Ttrineipal tnutees to the kiii^ as Ht to
fill the office, and his llueaiy nakes ehofice of one of them.
Tbe foUowmg are the regulatiooa under whieh the
Muaeuai ia naintained at the present tnoment fi>r public
use. It ia opee for geneeal inapection every Monday, Wed-
nesday* and Friday in every week, from the hour of ten till
four, except in the Christinas, Easter, and Whitaun weeks,
durini; the month of Beptember, and on four single holidays.
Tuesdays and Thnrsdaya in evetj week are devoted to
artists and other students in the dtifi^rent departmenta, and
a fi^w companies ai« admitted on those days, who are not
hkely to disturb them. Foreigners and aKista are also ad-
milted during the month of September.
The reading room of the Museum is open from ten till
four every day exoept on Sundays, and except for one week
at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide respectively, and on
the four single holidays already mentioned. Persons de-
sirous of admission send their applications to the principal
librarian, or, in hia absence, to the senior under librarian,
who either admits them immediately, or lays their applica-
tions before the next general meeting or committee of
truiitees. All persons who apply fx this privilege are to
produce a recommendation sattsfhotorr to a trustee or an
DiHcer of the house. Permission is then granted for six
months, always renewable from time to time at the expira-
tion of each term. No tracings from books or MSS. are
allowed to be made without particular permission ; and no
entire M8. can be transcribed without leave from the
triMtees.
The following are the catalogues and descriptions of the
different departments of the British Museum already pub-
lished : —
Department of Afa«ii«Tfo<*.— Catalogue of the MSS.
of the king's or old Royal Library, by David Casley, 4to.
1734. MSS. heretofore undeteribed, by Rev. S. Ayscough,
S voU. 4to. 1762. Cottonian MSS. bv Joseph Planta. Esq.,
ibi. 1802. Harleian MSS. bv H. Wanley and Rev. R.
Nares, 4 vols. fol. 1608. Har^ave MSS. bv H. ElKi, 4to.
1818. Lansdowne MSS. by F. Douce and H.Ellis, fol.
1819, Arundel MSS. br Rev. J. Forshall, fol. 1834.
Department of Private ^oo^«.— Alphabetical catalogue
of the librarv of printed books, by H. Ellis and Rev. H. H.
Baber, 7 vols. 8to. 1813—18)9. Catalogue of the geogra-
phical and topographical collection attached to the library
of King George III., in 1 vol. folio (to match tbe catalogue
privately printed of the royal library), and 2 vols. 8vo. 1829.
Department of Antiqutties, — Description of the antient
Terracottas, by T. Combe, Esq. 4to., 1810. Of the Marbles,
ypitx I. to IV. bv the same. 4to. 1812->1820. Part V. by E.
Hawkins, 5^.'l826. Part VI. by C. R. Cockerell, Esq.,
1830. Catalogue 'of Greek coins by Taylor Combe, 4to.
1814. Of Anglo-Gallic coins, by Edw. Hawkins, 4to. 1826.
Mr. R. P. Knight's catalogue of his Greek coins, 4to. 1830.
A catalogue of the greater part of Mr. Marsden's Oriental
coins was published by himself, entitled * Numisroata Ori-
entalia illustrata. Part I. 4to. 1 823. Part H. 4to. T.ond. 1 825.
Manuscript catalogues of the additions in tltc printed
book and MS. deoartments to the latest time are kept in
the Museum reaaing-room. There is also a separate MS.
cataloi^ne of the great collection of tracts relating to the
civil wars of Charles I. ; a separate catalogue of the Cole
MSS.; and copies of the catalogue, privately printed by
order of King George IV.» of the Royal Library. Dic-
tionaries and lexicons ia all languages* with more than 8000
books of reference, are constantly open for the use of stu-
dents of the reading-room in the cases and presses which
surround them.
In 1823 Sir George Beaumont oommuoicated Lis desire
to present to the trustees of the British Museum, for the
benefit of the public, his ooHeclinn of pictures; but the
then buildings of the Museum afforded no proper rooms
for their exhibition, and the trustees were unable to receive
them at the moment In consequence of this, the late Lord
Dover, then Mr. Agar Ellis, announced in parliament his
intention of moving for a |prant in the succeeding session*
to be applied under commisiMnera, to tbe purchase of Mr.
Angen^tetn's and other collections of fictures fiir the for-
mation of a National Gallbmy; to whieh il was con-
ceived Sir George Beaumont's pictures might be added.
In Iha apiingof 1804 Lord laiterpoel annonneed that the
Angerateia Gallery had been purchased by the government
for 67,000/. ; and it appearing to be the o|)inion of the
House of Commons, expressed in their debates, that the
gallery should be placed in a central situation, where the
pieCures would be most accessible, the trustees of the Mu-
seum made no hesitation in allowing the transfer of Sir
George Beaumont's pictures te the same desUnation, biU
without relinquishing their trust; a certain number of trus-
tees of the British Museum are, in consequence, trustees of
the National Gallery, thus retaining their property in the
pictures as well as a joint exercise of superintendence. In
1831 the Rev. Holwell Cart bequeathed another collection
of pictures to the trustees, with a distinct direction thatthe^
should be placed in the same building with Mr. Angerstein s
and Sir George Beaumont's pictures. Other individual
pictures of merit have been occasionally fon^ardcd by the
trustees to the same repository ; as, in 1 826, Sir Joshua
Reynolds's picture of the Captive Lord, presented to them
bv the Rev. William Long ; and, in 18-2^ a landscape by
(rainsborough, presented by Lord Farnborough. and the
Banishment of Cleorobrotus bv Leonidas by Mr. West, pre-
sented by William Wilkins, Esq.
BRITTON. We have, under • Bracton,* enumerated all
the principal writings of those early English lawyers and
masters of jurisprudence, who are meant when we hear of
' the antient text-writers of our law.' In respect of the time
in which they lived, it may be said to extend from towards
the close of the twelfth to the .middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury. It is remarkable that so much obscurity should rest
on the personal history of those writers, who were men of
eminent abilities, treating of their subject with great pre-
cision and learning, and writing, it may be said, even with
elegance.
We have seen that there is doubt who Bracton was.
There is still more doubt respecting Britton, whose exist-
ence aa an individual person has even been doubted.
Selden. who on such points is a hi^h authority, in his notes
upon Fleta, contends that ' Britton is notliing more than a
sophistication of * Bracton/ and that to tbe same band to
which we owe the treatise in Latin before mentioned, wo
owe also the French treatise known by the name of * Britton.'
This .was Selden's. later 4>pinion; for. in an earlier work he
has spoken of them as two di.<:tinct writers. John le Bre-
ton, bishop of fiereford, who died in the third year of
Edward I., has been supposed to be the author (Tanner,
Bibliotheca^ p. 1]9>. Others attribute it to a John Bretou,
who was a judge in the first year of Edward II. There
seems no reason to doubt that the work was compose^ in
the reign of King Edward I.
Britton treats of almost every point in the practice of the
common law, iu 12C chapters.
The high esteem in which the work was held. Is evldcnoed
by the numerous manuscripts of it which still exist in our
great libraries. In tho British Museum are several of great
value.
It was first printed in 1540 by Redman, who had medi-
tated doing so before ; for he tells tis in the preface tliat
' he had c? long time a fervent seal ai^d inward affection to
imprint the fountain (as who saith) or well of the same
learnings, from whence those old judges in the time of King
Edward the First and since, have sucked their reasons and
grounded their learnings.' A century later, namely in 1640,
Uiere was another edition published by Wingate, a lawyer.
These are the only editions which have appeared in England.
Britton is contained in the edition of the early writers on
English law, br M. Houard, a French lawyer, m six quarto
volumes, a noble undertaking, intended to promote in France
the study of comparative jurisprudence.
There still remains however the very necessary work to
be perfiu-med of a collation of the existtog manuscripts.
This is a work which ought to be done for every writing of
valne in anv department of Uteratuie, which wa» published
by the early printers, who seldom did more thui follow
some one manuscript which happened to have ^lea into
their hands, and which might not always happen to be the
purest and the best. It has lately been in contemplatioft to
prepare such an edition, and a speoimea of the intended
worK may be seen in Cooper on the Public Recorder Hyo,^
1833, vol. ii. p. 40d-4l2 ; the text being taken from what is
pajrhaps the best manuscript (Harleian* 324), and the margin
presenting the various readings f9Uttd ia many other fnauu"
scripts ^ I
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la 1762, a translation of Britton, as far ai the 25tb
chapter, wa« pubhshed by Mr. Robert Kelham ; but the
work did not receive much encouragement. He translated
the remaining portions, but the manuscript remained in
his hands till 1 807, when being then the senior member of
Lincoln's Inn, and eighty-nine years of age, he presented
it to the library of that society, where it now remains.
BRIVK. or BRIVES LA GAILLARDE, a town in
France, capital of an arrond. in the dep. of Correze, on the
road from Paris to Montauban and Toulouse; 299 m. S. or
S. by W. of Poiis; in 46'' 8' N. lat. and 1° 32' E. long.
It appears to have been a place of some importance in
the ages succeeding the downfal of the Roman empire, for
here, in the latter part of the sixth century, Gondebaud, an
illegitimate branch of the Merovingian kings of the Franks,
caused himself to be proclaimed king. The town is plea-
santly situated opposite to an island in the riv. Correze,
over which are two bridges ; and is superior in situation to
most of the towns of the den. The valley in which it stands
is bounded by hills cruwned vrith vines and chestnut trees :
the pleasantness of the site has given to the town the sur-
name of La Gaillarde^ *the gay.' B rives is environed by
a pleasant walk planted with elm trees and skirted with
good stone houses ; but in the interior we do not meet either
with handsome streets or good squares. It had before the
Revolution one collegiate and several parochial churches,
six religious communities, and a good college. The manu-
factures are chielly of large copper utensils and silk and
cotton goods; and these, with chestnuts, nut-oil, wine,
brandy, wax, and wood, con&titute the chief articles of
trade. A great quantity of cattle are reared in the neigh-
bourhood fur the Paris market, and many pigs for Bordeaux
and the south of France. Slate and antimony are obtained
at no great distance. The pop. in 1632 amounted to 5776
for the town, or 8031 for the whole commune. There are
a high school, a public library, an ogricultural society, and
au horspital.
The arrond. of Brives hnd, in 183'A 111.024 inh. In a
valley two or three miles S. of Brives are several apartments
excavated in a rock and pien^d with doors and windows ;
these apartments were probably formed as a place of refuge
from the ravages of war, but the peasantry ascribe to them
a marvellous origin.
BRIXEN, in the Austrian circle of the Pusterthal and
Kisak, in the Tyrol, though a small town, was, before the
French revolution, the capital of an independent bishopric,
the possessions of which extende<l over a surface of nearly
360 sq. m., having a pop. of upwards of 26,000 souls. The
town lies at the foot of the Brenner, and at the confluence
of the Rienz and Eisak. in the bosom of a cheerful, fertile
valley, encircled by lofty mountains. It has a poverty-
Btricken appearance ; the houses are in the Italjan style,
but ill-built, the streets are badly paved, and the number
of inh. does not at present exceed 4000. ft iar still the
residence of a bishop, whose palace, together with the hand-
some cathedral of St. Julian, four other churches, and the
town-ball, are the principal edifices in the place. It has a
gymnasium, an episcopal seminary with a theological school
attached to it, a Capuchin monastery, a female school con-
ducted by the nuns of the English sisterhood, and a convent
of the Tertian sisters. The adjacent mountains are studded
with vineyards which produce a very palatable red wine, in
which the chief trade of Brixen consists. 46° 40' N. lat.
11° 47' E. long.
BRIXHAM (DEVON), a sea-port. m. t., and par., in
the bund, of Haytor and co. of Devon, 22 m. S. from Exeter,
165 W.S.W. from. London, and in .'il*' 26' N. lat. and 3° 32'
W. long. The area of the par. is 521 0 English statute acres.
The manor of Brixham formerly belonged to the Wovants.
and from thence it passed into the hands of the Valetort
family, by whom it was sold, and it is now divided into
quarters, some of which Quarters are again subdivided, and
the shareholders (many oi them common fishermen) all call
themselves quay lords. The bar. consists of two basins;
the outer one has been recently formed, at an -expense of
nearly 5300/., raised solely amongst the inh. There are
about 120 vessels employed in the port from 60 to 150 tons
burden* and 105 from 20 to 45 tons burden, and about 64
smaller boats, nearly all engaged in th«* fishing trade. The
principal fish caught here are the turbot. mackerel, mullet,
and soles ; they aro sent in great quantities to the London,
Bath, and Exeter markets. Brixham has a fair on Whit-
Tuesday and the ibUowingday, and a market was esta-
blisfaed in 1799» by authority of an act of parliament pai&e«l
in that year.
The town is prettily situated on the S. side of Torbav.
about a mile and a half S.W. from Berryhead, and direnlv
facing the delightful watering-place Torquay, from whicfa .!
is distant across the bay alx)ut seven m« The mrt near
the water is called Brixham Quay, or Lower Brixiianu anl
is a miserable looking place ; the houses irregularly buih.
the streets narrow and filthy, and the smell of tsr an i
fish is intolerable. The upper town, called Church Tovu.
about a mile from the quay, is much better, and cmlta>^t
some good houses. The church is dedicated to the Virrtr.
Mary ; it has lately been enlarged by 800 ftitting*»,or whi- a
700 are free, the incorporated Society for the Enlargement
of Churches ha%'ing granted 700/. At Lower Brixham u l
chapel of ease, ert«ted by subscription, with l2Uil/. avldfd
by the parliamentary commissioners. There are also plorv-^
of worship for Baptists and We^leyan Methodists. Tr.u
pop. of Brixham is 5015, of which 21 10 are males and 29«t;
females: a great proportion of the males are emp1o)e<l t.
registered vessels.
A national school has been united with an old estabU^li
ment endowed in 1634. The master has a house and x:^t-
den snd a salary of 60/. per annum ; two school-moms ha* t
latelv been erected near the master's house, where 4M'
children of both sexes are instructed. Richard Kellt jri^e
to this e&tablishmeot 15/. per annum. Mr. Juhn Kelli.kl
left by his will (dated 1 709) a sum of 2000/. for the euA^w-
ing of charity schools and augmentation of small iixmr^.
at the discretion of his trustees; in consequenee of wim u
John Towns, Esq., one of them, appropriated the sum > f
490/. to the nar. of Brixham, and purchased with it -•
estate at Ashburton, now let at 42/. per annum, in ai * •>
this school. Besides the land there is now about 700/. %ivt k
belonging to this charity.
Brixham was the landing-place of the Prince of OTa:)?.\
afterwards William III., on the 5th of November, IS^H.
In the church is a cenotaph of Sir Franris Buller. ih"
judge. In the neigbbourho'jil of Brixham is I^pttHi. '^-
merly in the possession of the antiont family of the Pen.it ^:
it now belongs to Sir J. B. Y. BuUer, Bart., grandson of 1 1 «
judge : and also a curious well, called Lay Well« the aikij
of which ebbs and tiows about nine times in an hmir.
( Sir William de la Pole's Deseriptiom of Devon ; Lfsom «
Ma^na Britannia ; Pop. Reports; Correepondene^^ S^.y
BROACH. [Baroach.I
BROADSTAIRS. [Kkptt.]
BRO'CCHI, GIOVA'NNI BATTISTA, was bom tx
Bassano, in the Venetian territory, in February, 1772. li*-
studied in the college of his native town, and afterwaH* :t
the university of fadua, his father intending him f>r t.^
profession of the law ; but young Brocchi's chief attent . -^
was directed to botany and mineralogy, and when Ibe v.i:.:
came for his examination previous to his takine his doctrr ,
degree, he left Padua abruptly and went to Rome, «Wto
he became acquainted with the learned Lanxi, wiihwho^
assistance he became well versed 'in Roman and Gre-w
archroology. He paid particular attention to the Kf^p.ij.i
antiquities at Rome, and he wrote some dissertations ctj
Egyptian sculpture. Havtug returned to Basaano, he r.<.<
tinned his studies of the natural sciences, and in 1802 «.«
appointed professor of botany in the newly establi>loi
Lyceum of Brescia. He was made secretary to the Ai»*u-
n»um or scientifto academy of that city, and he was t\w
first editor of the Memoirs of that institution. He hUi
made excursions in the valleys and mountains of the pr
of Brescia, and having examined their geology aiHl th^ -
mineral productions, he published • Trattato mineralo. «
sulle Miniere di Ferro del Dipartimento del Mella« ^ .\
TEsposizione della Costituzione flsica delle Monugne met^L >
lifere della Val Trompia,' 2 vols. 8vo., Brescia, ISOr. Ir.
1808 he was made ins^iector of the mines of the kingdcn o:
Italy, and soon after he was chosen a member of the Italii..
Institute. Tiio results of his geological and mineralor- .^
observations, made during his frequent excursion^ in
various parts of Italy, were published in various wurki:
1. * Memoria mineralogica sulla Valle di Fassa net Tin««<
Milatio. 1811. The valley of Fassa, 4n the Italian T}^ i.
near Brixen, which is very rich in magniUcent crvrfdU
stalactites, &e., had not been examined befora br anv v(
the explorers of the Alpine regions. ». • Concbiologia foi?.:*
subapennina, con Osservazioni geologiehe sugU Ape«nmi ♦
sul Suolo a^jaeente,* 2 v. 4^ MUano. 1814. Thii. ^e pnn-
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oipal work of Broochi, it the resalt of his repeated visits
to the central and S. parts of Italy. It begins by ah inte-
resting historical sketch of the progress of geological studies
in Italy, and of the persons who had cultivated the science
previous to the author's time. This is followed by a general
view of the structure of the Apennines, and a sketch of the
physical constitution of the lower hills lying between these
mountains and the sea, their various formations, and
relative ages. It was to these subapennine hills and the
adjacent valleys and plains, which abound in organic re-
mains, that Broochi*s investigations were chiefly directed.
He examined the numerous varieties of shells found among
them, and identified those species which still exist in the
seas of Italy, and which form nearly one-half of the whole.
It should however be noticed that the rocks to which Brocchi
assigned the name subanennine are not all precisely of the
same geological age, and that the amount of reoent shells
detected in them has been since found to vanr according to
the relative anti(^uity of the rock in which they occur, the
newer rocks contaming the larger proportion of Uiese shells.
The second volume consists of a descriptive catalogue of
the fossil shells, with the living analogues whelre they
are known to exist The work is accompanied with plates.
3. 'Catalogo ragionato di una racolta di rocce dtsposto
con ordine geogiuflco per servire alia geognosia dell' Italia,'
8vo. Milano, 1817. This work contains a catalogue of more
than 1 500 specimens of rocks collected by Brocchi in various
parts of Ital^, and especially in the Campagna of Rome,
the Terra di Lavoro and Puglia, the Marches, Tuscany,
and Modena. It is preceded by a well- written introduction
on the geology and mineralogy of the different regions of
Italy. Several other minor works of Brocchi are printed in
various Nos. of the * Bibliotcca ItaMano,' between the years
181 6-23. In 1820 Brocchi, after residing some time at
Rome, published * Dello State flsico del suolo di Roma,
Mcmoria per servire d* illustrozione alia carta gcognostica
di questa Citt4.' The work is divided into two parts : he
treats first of the antient condition and npp«;arance of the
surface of the ground on which Rome, both antient and
mo<lem, now stands ; and, secondly, of the character of the
soil, of the various rocks and strata of the hills and of the
valleys between them and the Tiber. The map which ac-
companies the work gives a very correct idea of the physical
topography of Rome. Broeeht's observations are accurate
and valaable ; but some of his inferences and hypotheses
linve met with much opposition, especially those in the
latter part of the work, which consists of a ' Discourse on
the Condition of the Air of Rome in Antient Times." He
argues that the air in antient times must have been more
unwholesome than it is at present, although he admits that
the country was mueh more populous and the people more
healthy ; he accounts for this apparent discrepancy by their
dress aod their manner of living. Brocchi made some cu-
rious experiments during four nights which he oassed at
S. Lorenxo taor delle muro, one of the most unwholesome
spots near Rome, in order to discover the deleterious prin-
ciple which causes the malaria. He condensed the night
mist or damp vapours floating in the air, and submitted
them to a chemical analysis, but all his trouble and risk led
to no satisfactorv result He gives a nlain and straightfor-
ward account of his attempt at the ena of the book.
In 1823 Brocchi sailed from Trieste for Egypt, a country
which he had long wished to examine, especially with
regard to its mineralogy. He found favour with Mehemet
All, who s^nt him on several missions, supplying him with
firmauns, money, and an escort He went first to direct
the working of a coal mine, and afterwards to look for the
emerald mines of Mount Zabarah, which Cailltaud and Bel-
zont had visited lome years before. Brocchi however found
only some loose pieces without their matrix, but seems to
have considered any attempt at working the mines as use-
less labour. In 1825 Mehemet AH sent Brocchi into the
newly-oonqoered kingdom of Sennaar, as one of a com-
mission appointed to organise that country and make its
resources available. In this expedition. Brocchi fell a vietim
to the unhealthinesB of the elimate. He wrote to his friends
in Italy in April, 1826, that be was busy in prosecuting his
scientific researches and in promoting the improvement of
the natives; that he enjoyed good health, notwithstanding
the heat was at 105^. He was taken ill however in the
sommer, and died at Cortum in September of that year.
His friend Acerbi, Austrian consul-general at Alexandria,
reoovend his papers and coUectiottfl, and forwarded them,
ocoording to his will, to his native town, Baasono. His rich
collection of Italian minerals and fossils he had given to his
friend Parolini, of Bassano, before he set out for Egypt
(Saochi, Varietd ietterarie, Necrokgiadi Q, B. Brocchi.)
Brocchi has done more for the geology of Italy than any of
his predecessors.
BROCKEN. [Harz.]
BROCKLESBY, RICHARD, the only son of Richard
Brocklesby, Esq., of Cork, was born at Minehead, in Somer-
setshire, on the 1 1th of August, 1 722. After receiving the
rudiments of education in his father's house at Cork, he
was sent to Ballytore school, in the N. of Ireland, where he
formed an acquaintance with Edmund Burke, which ripened
into the most cordial friendship when they again met in
London. He afterwards studied at Edinburgh, and then
at Leyden, where he took the degree of doctor of physic
under the celebrated Gaubius, in June, 1745, his inaugural
thesis being a dissertation ' De salivi san& et morbosd,* 4to.
Lucd. Bat., 1745. The following year he came to London,
and settled in Broad -street ; and as the income allowed him
by his father was not large, and his professional gains were
at first small, he determined to regulate his expenses with
the strictest economy, * never sufflenng himself,* he used to
say, * to have a want that was not accommodable to his
fortune/ The same year he published an ' Essay concern-
ing the Mortality of the Homed Cattle,* 8vo., 1746, which
contributed to found his reputation. In 1 751 he was admit-
ted a licentiate of the college of physicians ; in 1754 he
obtained the honorary degree of M.l>. from the univei*sity
of Dublin, and being admitted ad eundem at Cambridge,
he was enabled to become a candidate, and in 1 756, a fellow,
of the London college of physicians. In 1758 he was ap-
pointed physician to the army, and served in Germany during
jrreat part of the Seven years* war, where he was distinguished
by his zeal, knowledge, and humanity ; and particularly re-
commended himself to the notice of the Duke of Richmond,
Lord Pembroke, and others. In 1760 he was appointed
physician to the hospitals for the British forces, and returned
to England before the peace of 1763. He now settled in
Norfolk- street. Strand, and soon reaped the reward which
skill, attention, and good humour seldom fiiil to attain, in
a large and increasing practice. To this source of income
were likewise added his half-pay, and his paternal estate
of 600/. per annum. Being unmarried he was enabled
to live in a very handsome style, and often entertained at
his table some of the persons most distinguished for rank,
abilities, or learning, in the kingdom.
In 1763 Dr. Brocklesby was called in to attend Wilkes,
who was suffering from a wound in the abdomen received
in his duel with Mr. Martin ; and it is thought that Wilkes's
rapid recovery gave a great impulse to his ]pysician*s rising
reputation.
Dr. Brocklesbv preserved in politics the same judicious
moderation which was his general characteristic ; for though
he was a member of the Constitutional club, and a warm
advocate of Wilkes on the points of general tcarrants, and
the Middlesex election, he never forgot the respect due to
the laws, and quitted the club as soon as it deviated into
other doctrines, under other leaders.
In s])ite of the placidity of his temperament, he was once
a principal in a auel, his antagonist being Dr., afterwards
Sir John Elliott ; but it must be confessed that this duel
is one of the most peaceful and sensible upon record — ^tbe
seconds having taken care to place the combatants at such
a distance from each other that their balls, even if they
should hit, could not possibly do any mischief.
As Dr. Brocklesby s prudent frugality had preserved him
fh)m embarrassment when poor, so it enabled him to in-
dulge in the most munificent charity when rich. He had
always upon his list two or three widows to whom he granted
small annuities, and who on the auarter-days on which their
stipends became due partook of the hospitality of his table.
To such of his relations as required his assistance he was
not only liberal, but so judicious in his liberalities as to
supersede the necessitv of their repetition. When the de-
clining years of Dr. Johnson seemed to render travelling
advisid>le. Dr. Brocklesby offered him a life-annuity of 10o£
per annum ; and on this being declined he made him an-
other offer of apartments in his own house. He hod left
Edmund Burke a legacy of 1000/.; but recollecting that
the Iegatee*s death might take place (as it really did) before
his own, he gave it to him in advance, ut pignue amicHiae,
and it was accepted as such by his illustrious friend.
No. 329.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiEDIA.]
Digitizi
^o^iQ-Wgi^
B RO
458
B RO
In 1794 Dr. BroeUestiT fbund tbo inflrmitieB of age in-
erease bo fkst upon him that he declined visiting natients,
except among his most intimate acouaintance, and at the
same time gave up his half-pay. A little before this time
his patron and fHend the Duke of Richmond had made
him physician-general to the royal regiment of artillery
and corps of engineers.
Dr. Brocklesby di^ on the 11th of December, 1797, in
his 76th year, having returned that dav from a visit to the
widow of Edmund Burke, at Beaconsfield. With the ex-
ception of a few legacies, he left his fortune, which is said
to have exceeded 30,000/., between his two nephews, Mr.
Beeby and Dr. Thomas Young.
Dr. Brocklesby was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and
wrote two papers in their Transactions :— * An Account of
the Poisonous Root lately ibund mixed with Gentian* (No.
486) ; and ' Experiments on Cutting the Tendons in various
Animals' (vol. xliiL). Besides these, and the Dissertations
before mentioned, he wss the author of the following : —
' Eulogium Medicum, sive Oratio Anniversaria Harveiana,*
&c., 4to., 1760. 'GBconomical and Medical Observations
iVom 1738 to 1763, tending to the Improvement of Medical
Hospitals,* 8vo., 1764. [The date ' 1738* is given both by
Hutchinson and Rees — if correct, he must have begun his
observations at sixteen years of agej 'Case of a Lady
labouring under a Diabetes* (Med. Observations, vol. iii.).
' Experiments relative to the Analysis and Virtues of Seltzer
Water* (ibid. vol. iv.). ' Case of an Encysted Tumour in
the Orbit of the Eye, cured by Messrs. Bromfield and In-
gram' (ibid.). ' A Dissertation on the Music of the An-
tients.*
BR(X])OLI, in horticulture, is a plant of the cabbage
tribe, producing its young flowers in very compact masses
called heads, which, in consequence of their being closely
enveloped by leaves, are partially blanched at the period
when they are cut for table. This plant is what botanists
call Branica oleracea Botrytts, and differs from the other
races of the same species not only in its flowers having this
tendency to crowd together into fleshy heads, but also in
the seeds being rather smaller. On this account it has
been thought by some, as by Miller, to be a peculiar spe-
cies ; there does not however appear to be anv proof of tliis
opinion being correct The brocoli, although always con-
sidered by ^utieners in this country as something quite
distinct ftom the cauliflower, is in fact nothing but a very
slight variety of that form of the cabbage, and cannot be
distinguished by any very precise characters : it may oon-
sequently have been brougnt originally from Cyprus along
with the cauliflower, or have been subsequently found in
the gardens of England or France. Brocoli seed is sown in
open beds like other kinds of cabbage : when the seedlings
have leaves an inch or two broad they are pricked out in a
new bed at the distance of three or four incnes from plant
to plant. In a month or six weeks they become fit for
taking their final station, which is to be in some rich quai^
ter of the garden, in lines 2^ feet asunder, the plants them-
selves being two feet apart in the lines. Here they remain
without further care. The season of the brocoli is the au-
tumn, winter, and spring, and the plants are made to pro-
duce their flower- heads at those seasons by regulating the
period at which the seed is sown. Brocolis which are in-
tended for autumn use are sown in March or the early part
of April: if for winter use, in April or the beginning of
May ; and if for spring use, in the end of May. There are
three principal varieties of the brocoli,— the purple, the
Jpeen, and the cauliflower, the last of which hardly differs
rom the cauliflower itself.
Like other species of brasstoa with woody stems the
brocoli may be propagated not only by seed but by cuttings
of its stem, and thus Uie necessity of saving the seed may be
avoided. For this purpose the old stem is to be out into trun-
cheons, to each of which there is an eye or bud, and such
truncheons are to be dried for a few days in the sun. They
ate then to be dibbled into the places where they are to
stand, and not to be watered until some symptoms are ex-
hibited of the truncheons beginning to grow. To ensure
success in this operation it is only necessary that a dry day
^ "^-^sen for planting, and ths^ the soil should be light
I drained.
'3Y, a town in the N.E. part of Oalicia, lying in a
plain bounded by foresto to the E. and N.W.. and
vulet ' Sucha-mielka,* which flows N. into the Styr :
he high rood from Lemberg to Dubna, in Russian
Fbland. Iii the year 1779 Biody wu nS«ad to the itnk ef
a free town, and consequently it hat ita own magistratet
and courts of justice. It is large, but ill built and dirty : it
contains 2000 houses (mostly of wood) and about 84,000
inh., of whom above 8000 are Jews, on which account it
has been nicknamed ' The German Jenisalem.* There are
several squares and open spaces, the principal of which are
the 'King' or Old-market, the Palaoe-M|uare, and the
New-market Besides three Greek churches and a Roman
CathoUc church, it possesses three synagogues, a convent of
the Pious Sisterhood, a large palace belonging to the
Potocki fkmily, and other handsome buildings. It baa two
Jewish schools, a high school, and a vchool for afford icji[
instruction in such subjects aa are connected with trade and
manufactures, to which there are attached a benevolent
ftmd for the support of indigent pupils, and an excellent
cabinet in natunu and experimental philosophr ; a Rom&x«
Catholic grammar-school, a seminarv for female education
annexed to the convent, a Jewish hospital, a Polish and
a German theatre, and public baths. In a commercial potot
of view, Brody is the most important town in Galicia. The
trade is almost exclusively in the hands of the Jews, and
consists principally in the export of cattle, horsea, hant-y,
wax, tallow, isinglass, hides and skins, leather, aniseed,
dried fruit, &c. ; the import of jewels, pearls, colonial pro-
duce, and manufactured goods; and the transit of mer-
chandise to Russia, Turkey, &c. There are tannenes and
linen manufactures ; and the fairs are well attended. About
50** 7' N. lat. ; 25° 18' E. long.
BROEK, or BROECK, a vil. in that part of the pnTt.
of N. Holland called Waterland, about 3 m. W. of i]»
port of Monnikendam, and 23 m. N. of Amsterdam. Btixt
has obtained considerable celebiity from the neatneaa and
cleanliness which it uniformly exhibits. The viL ia cuca-
posed of lanes so narrow that no carriage can enter, and
they are paved with small bricks, or clinketa of vani^ui
colours, disposed in the form of mosaic The bouses. maL>
of which are of fkntastio shapes, stand each in thtt middle ^f
a small garden, laid out with formality, and stocked «iil
flowering shrubs and the choicest flowers. The houw* ar-
all painted in different colours ; the order and deanliaess •<.'
the interior are answerable to their outward appearwicc.
At the door of each house slippers are placed wbidi ettn
person who enters must substitute for his shoes : it is ta.-:
that when the Emperors Napoleon and Alexander vuitnl
Broek they complied with tnis custom. Many worknur
are constantly employed in cleaning and repairing tl^
Saths and buildings, to provide for which is eooaideced a
uty on the part of the proprietors, so that any one vLv
neglects his share of the work is liable to have his name
exposed on a board in the most public place in the viUace.
The inh. are all reputed rich, and live upon the imcrr^
of money inherited from their fathers. Some of thm add
to their wealth by dealing in butter and cheese prodarr-i
from the fine pastures in the neighbourhood. The meu
seldom marry until they are near forty years ol a|ee, an 1
still more rarely unite tlusmselves to women under thirty ^
thirty-five. They live very retired lives ; the priiicip|al d»r
of the house is never opened except on the oocaaioQs ul
baptisms, marriages, and funerals, the inh. ordinarily pass-
ing in and out of their dwellings by the back eDtfancs.
The inh., who are about 1200, are of the reformed r^lh-
gion, and their churoh is a fine building, with a vwy hand-
some nul()it and painted windows. The place safftred con-
siderably in the ^reat flood of 1625.
BRpKEN WIND is a peculiar afiection of the aotatf or
breathing of the horse, in which the exp&tatioa of the aor
from the lungs, occupying double the time that the mip«-
ration of it does, requires mso two efforts rapidly inrrwdiTH
to each other, and attended by a slight spasmodic aclaon. iz.
order fully to accomplish it Examination o^ the anuDil
after death has satisfactorily explained the reason of tt^
Some of the air-cells, particulariy round the edgea of tb<-
lungs, are ruptured : they have run into one another. ar«.
irregularly-formed cavities have thus been made into whirk
the air may easily enter, but cannot without ooaaideffmbie
difficulty he expelled. This disease may also be reeofmuxc
by a characteristic low grunting cough, likewise easily ex-
plained by this morbid structure of the lunga.
If the usual breathing has been rendered thus lahorioits^
it is evident that the hwae, without skilAil maaagwoMnt.
will be utterly incapable of rapid aad *^imtin^itd aanrUDa.
In fact, if he is but a little homed he evinees effi^iit di>-
Digitized by
B R O
459
B R O
treM, and, if ttiU urgod OB, he dmpB and diei : this thtre-
fore is one of the wont species of unsoundnegs.
The cause of the ruptura of the air-cells may be prerioiu
inflammation of the lungs, by which a portion of them has
been rendered impervious* and thus greater labour thrown
on the remaining parts. The delicate structure of the cells,
probably weakened by the inflammation in which it had
shared, yields to the unnatural distension to which they are
thus exposed. Many a horse has become broken-winded
when urged to extra exertion immediately after he has been
fed ; for the air rushing violently into the lungs in the act of
sudden and forcible inspiimtioD« and thtf full stomach lying
against the diaphragm, with which the body of the lungs
is in contact, their ptffect expansion is prevented, and those
parta of them, the edaes« which are free from this pressure,
are unnaturally dilated and ruptured. The kind of food also
to which the horse is accustomed has much to do with this
disease. If it is comparatively innutritive, a greater bulk of it
must be eaten, and the distended stomach will oltener and
longer press upon the diaphragm and impede the dilatation
of l^e lungs, or render it unequal in different parts. Thus
broken-wind is a disease of the farmer s horse fed too much
on hay or chaff; it is often produced in the straw-yard, where
little more than the coarsest food is sllowed : but it is com-
paratively seldom seen in the stable of the coach-proprietor,
in which the food is of a better quali^, and lies in a smaller
compass, and is more regularly administered ; and it never
disgraoes the hunting or racing stable. It must however
be confessed that there is sometimes an hereditary predis-
position to this disease, consisting in a narrowness of chest
or a weakness of structure in the lungs.
There is no cure for broken-wind ; no art ean restore the
dilated cells to their former dimensions, or build up again a
wall between them. But palliative measures may be adopted
to a very considerable extent. The food should be of a
more nutritive kind, and Iving in a smaller compass. Straw
and chaff should be forbidden, the quantity of hav perhaps
a little diminished, and that of com correspondingly in-
creased. A mash should constitute a part of the evening's
fare ; water should be sparingly given during the da^, and
exercise should not be required when the stomach is full.
Occasional or periodical fits of greater difliculty of breathing
should be met by small bleedings and gentle laxatives. By
this management not only will the bn&en-winded horse be
rendered useful for many ordinary purposes, but will be
capable of service and labour, which it would otherwise be
cruel to require of him.
BROKkR, a person employed in the negociation and
arrangement of meroanttle transactions between other par-
ties, generally engaged in the interest of one of the prmci-
pabi, either Uie buyer or the seller, but sometimes actin^r
as the agent of both. As it usually happens that indivi-
dual broken apply themselves to negociations for the pur-
chase and sale of some particular article or class of articles,
they by that means acquire an intimate knowledge of the
qudities and market value of the goods in which they deal,
and obtain an acquaintance with the sellera and buyen as
well as with the state of supply and demand, and are thus
enabled to bring the dealen together and to negodate
between them on terms equitable for both. A merchant who
trades in a great variety of goods and products drawn from
different countries, and destined for the use of different
classes, cannot have the same intimate knowledge for his
guidance, and will consequently find it advanta^us to em-
plov several broken to assist him in making his purohases
ana
Ship-broken form an important class in all great mercan-
tile ports. It is their business to procure goods on freig:ht
or a charter for ships outward bound; to go through tne
formalities of entering and clearing vessels at the Custom
House ; to collect the freight on the goods which vessels
bring into the put, and guienlly to t^ an active part in
the management of all business matttn occurring between
the ownen of the vessels and the merchants, whether shii^-
pen or consignees of the goods which they carry. In the
principal ports of this kingdom almost all ship-broken are
insurence-broken also, in which capacity they procure the
names of underwritem to policies of insurance, settling with
the latter the rato of premium and the various conditions
under which they engage to take the risk, and receiving
from them the amount of their respective subscriutions in
the event of loss. Should this loss be partial, it becomes
the dtt^ of the broker to arrange the piroi^oxtions to be reco-
vered from the underwriters. The business of an insurance-
broker diffen from that of other broken in one particular.
The latter, when they give up the name of the party for
whom they act, incur no responsibili^ as to the fulfilment
of the conditions of the contract, while an insurance-broker
is in all cases personally liable to the underwriten for the
amount of the premiums. He does not, on the other hand,
incur anv liabilitjr to make good the amount insured to the
owner of the ship or |;oods, who must look to the under-
writer alone for indemnification in case of loss. Under these
ciroumstences, it is the duty of the insurenoe-broker to
make a prudent selection of underwriten. Merohanto fine-
quentlv act as insurance-broken.
Exchange-broken negoeiato the purehase and sale of
bills of exchange drawn upon foreign countries, for which
business they should have a knowledge of the actual rates of
exchange current between their own and every other country,
and should keep themselves acquainted with circumstances
by which those ntes are liable to be raised or depressed ; and
they should besides acquire such a general knowledge of
the transactions and credit of the merchants whose bills
they buy, as may serve to keep their employcn ftnm incur-
ring undue risks. Persons of this class are sometimes called
bill-broken, a title which is likewise given to another class
whose business it is to employ the spare money of banken
and capitalists in discounting bills or exchange having some
time to run before they will oecome due.
The business of a stock-broker is that of buying and
selling, for the account of othen, stock in the public rands,
and shares in the capitals of joint-stock companies. The
acts of ^liament, by which the proceedings of stock-brokere
should in certain cases be regulated (7 Geo. If. cap. 8, and
10 Geo. n. cap. 8), have long been dead letten. Under
these enactments every bargain or contract for the purchase
and sale of stock which is not made bonHjIde for that pur-
pose, but is entered into as a speculation upon the lluo*
tuationa of the market, is declared void, and all parties en-
gagmg in the same are liable to a penalty of 500i. for each
transaction.
Every person desirous of acting as a broker for the pur-
chase and sale of goods within the city of London must be
licensed for that puipQse by the lord mayor and court of
aldermen. When aamitteo, the broker must ^ve bond,
conditioned with a penalty of 500/1, for the foithfbl dis-
charge of his duties, without fraud or collusion, and to
the utmost of his skiU and knowledge. He is sworn to
this effect, and further binds himself not to deal in goods
upon his ovm account— a stipulation which is very com-
monly broken. It is the indispensable duty of a broker to
keep a book in which all the contracte which he makes must
be entered, and this book may be called for and received as
evidence of transactions when questioned in courts of law.
Each broker pays on admission a foe of 5/., and an equal
sum annually so long as he continues to act under his
license : any person acting as a broker without having pro-
cured a license or paid the fees, is liable to a fine of 100/.
for every bargain which he may negotiate.
It is usual to apply the name of broker to persons who
buy and sell second-hand household furniture, although
such an occupation does not bear anv analogy to brokerage
as here described, furniture dealen buying and selling ge-
nerally on their own account and not as agente for omen.
These persons do indeed sometimes superadd to their busi-
ness the appraising of goods and the sale of them by public
auction under warrants of distress for rent, fbr the perform-
ance of which fimctions they must provide themselves with
an excise license, and they come under the regidations of
an act of parliament (57 Geo. III. c. 93).
The business of a pawn-broker is altogether different from
that of the commercial broken here described. [Paww ^
BROKXR.1
BROllBERO, a government circle forming the northern
half of the Prussian prov. of Posen, bounded on the S.E.
by the kingdom of Poland, and on the N.B., N., and N.W.
by western Prussia, and containing an area of about 4490
sq. m., witii a pop. of about 397,000, of whom about 200,000
are Roman Catholics, and 21,000 Jews. It conteins nine
minor circles, 54 towns, and 2328 vills., hamlets and coloniest.
It is a level country, fertile in parts, and full of forests, par-
ticularly in its eastern district between the Vistula and
Netse. It produces most kinds of grain, potatoes, fruits and
ve^etebles ; much timber is foiled, and considerable quan-
tities of boxses (in 1831 about 44,000), homed cattle (about
Digitized by
GWgle
B RO
460
B R O
halle, near Krenxnfteh, it is found in tnilctent qnantity ia
be extracted with advantage, 100 avoirdupota poondi of tb.tf
water yielding 2 ounoea and 80 grains of bromine. L>r.
Daubeny has detected bromine in several mineral spring* la
England, and he states that it occurs in most of those thai
yield much common salt, except that of Droitwich in Wor-
cestershire. Balard has also found that it exists in marii.r
plants growing on the shores of the Mediterranean, hi t W
ashes of sea-weeds that Aimish iodine, and in thoae of some
animals, especially of the lanthina violacea^ one of the tes-
taceous mollnsca.
Balard obtained bromine by the following proeeaa : Into a
bottle two-thirds filled with bittern he passed a current of
chlorine gas; this decomposed the salt of branine con-
tained in It, and sot the bromine at liberty. He ihtn filkd
the bottle with sulphuric esther, which dissolved the brotnioe.
and became of a fine hraeinthine-red colour: this was de-
canted and shaken with a solution of potash, which cvmi-
bined with the bromine ; the solution of bromide of potassium
thus obtained yielded by evaporation cubic crysUla of the
salt; these were nowderod and mixed with peroxide of
manganese and sulphuric acid diluted with half iti weight
of water ; the bromine evolved by this process was reeei^cd
in a vessel of cold water which condensed it. More econo-
mical processes have since been adopted, but this is suffi-
cient to explain the principle.
Bromine has the following properties : it is liquid at X\if
usual temperature of the air. Its specific gravity is 2"^%,
It is poisonous. In considerable bulk, its colour ia a dt« p
brownish red ; in small quantities it is of a hyarintLii.e
red. Its odour is extremely strong, greatly resembtini* tbat
of chlorine ; its taste is disagreeable. When exposed to t
temperature between zero and 4° of Fahrenheit, it beroors
solid, crystalline, brittle, and hard enough to be powder^.
It boils at about 116° Fahrenheit, and its volatility is frreat,
for at common temperatures it emits a red vapour resembltc^
that of nitrous acid. The density of this vapour is aU>v:
5.400, and 100 cubic inches weigh about 167*4 grains.
Bromine suffers no change by the agency of light, he:*,
or electricity, and having never been decomposed, it t$ rv-
garded as an elementary or simple substance. In the Ce-
composition of its compounds by electricity, it is evolved st
the positive wire, and consequently resembles in tJu»
respect oxygen, chlorine, and iodine, and is like them eK>
in being, when vaporized, a powerful supporter of com-
bustion, some substances bumm^ in it as in chlorine ga» :
its vapour extinguishes a taper ; it is soluble in water and
alcohol, and especially in eether ; it resembles chlorine m
destroying vegetable colour. It is very corrosive, actio;
upon and destroying organic matter with great energj'
It renders a solution of stareh yellow.
Oxygen and bromine form only one compound, which i»
Bromic acid. These elements do not combine direrXjj.
but only when exposed to each other in their nascent j-tatc.
When, for example, bromine is combined with potash, th«rc
are formed bromato of potash and bromide of potas&iutn :
and when in the same way there are formed Dromate f :
barytcs and bromide of barium, the bromate treated w.:U
sulphuric acid yields bromic acid and sulphate of barjtes ; anil
the aqueous solution of the acid being slowly evaporated i»
converted into a fluid of the consistence of a syrup : if tic
evaporation is carried farther, one part of tho acid is roia-
tilized, and another decomposed into bromine and oxj pen.
Bromic acid bas a scarcely sensible smell. Its taste is
sharp, bot not caustic. It first reddens, and then dcstrti^s
ui A- * ■ J • •• '.• '--,.„ , . , I ^® colour of litmus paper. Sulphurous and phosphorruf
uable fruit, and of certain species of Tillandsia, whose acids and the hydracids decompose bromic acid, and «t il^e
} !t**\*M._ *«!*__"?"^' ^®™ ^' ^^\ stuffing mattresses bromine free. Sulphuric acid also partly decomposes it into
oxygen and bromine, because it absorbs the water. BranK
acid is composed of
136,000), sheen (about 600,000), and other domestic animals
are reared. Tne manufactures consist of woollens, linens,
leather, spirits, lace, paper, saltpetre, tobacco, &c.
Bromberg, also the name of one of the nine minor circles,
lies adjacent to Western Prussia in the N. and £., and con-
tains about 567 sq. m., with about 41,000 inh. The capital
of both of these cireles bears the same name in German, but
in Polish it is called 'Bydgoszcz.* It is situated about
5 m. W. of tlie Vistula on an eminence, the base of which
is watered by the Brahe. Tho town is built on the banks
of the last-mentioned riv., which is a navigable stream, and
falls into the Vistula about 5 m. below the town. The
Bromberg canal, about 18 m. in length, which unites the
Bralie and Vistula with the Netze, passes through Brom-
berg. The number of houses is about 610, and the pop.
amounts to about 6800. Bromberg is well built, has two
suburbs, and contains three churohes, a monastery, and a
convent, a gymnasium, a seminary for educating teachers,
and two other schools, one of them for poor children ; an
infirmary, a house of correction, two hospitals, and a royal
granary and depdt for iron. Among other manufactories
romberg has a large sugar refinery, two tobacco manu-
factories, several flour and oil-crushing mills, some ))Otteries,
and lime-kilns, &c. The export of its manufactures, to-
gether with a brisk trade in gmin, cattle, &c., and the tran-
sit of merehandise, afibrd constant employment to the inh,
63° r N. lat. 18° 2' E. long., and about 220 m. N.E. of Berlin.
BROME-GRA.SS, the name of various species of true
grasses belonging to the genus Bromus. They are known
by having their spikelets many-flowered, two awnless
glumes, to each floret two palesa or valves, the lowermost of
which has a rough, straight, rigid awn proceeding from
below the tip of the valve. Tho species are common an-
nuals in fields, hedgerows, and dry, sterile places. None
are of any value to the farmer. The distinctions of the
species will be found in any British Flora.
BROMELIA'CEifi, a natural order of endogenous
plants, taking its name from the senus to which the pine-
apple was once incorrectly referred [Ananassa], and con-
sisting of herbaceous plants, remarkable for the hardness
and dryness of their gray foliage. They occur in great
abundance in the tropical parts of the new world, or in such
extra-tropical countries as, owing to local cireumstances,
have a climate of a tropical nature. Sometimes they are
found growing on the earth in forests, but more commonly
they spring up from the branches of trees, round which
they coil their simple, succulent roots, vegetating upon the
decayed matter they there may find, and absorbing their
food in a great measure from the atmosphere. Their leaves
are always packed together so very closely at the base as to
form a kind of cup in which water collects ; so that the
traveller who ascends the trees on which they grow, if he
upsets one of these plants, as he easily may, is unexpectedly
deluged by a shower, the souree of which he would not have
suspected. The flowers of most are pretty, and of some of
them remarkably handsome and sweet-scented ; but the fruit
is in no case of any value except in the genus Ananassa.
BromeliacesB may be shortly described as scurfv-leaved,
hexandrous endogens, with distinct calyx and corolla, an in-
ferior ovary, and seeds whose embryo lies in mealy albumen.
They are known from AmaryllidaceflB by the latter circum-
stance, by their hard scurfy leaves, and epiphytal habit ;
from Burmanniacese, bv their leaves not being equitant nor
their fruit winged ; and fh>m TaocacesD by all their habit
and their fruit being three-celled, with control placentse.
With the exception of the pine-apple, so well known as a
valuable ' " • - - - —
dry, ^ _.
and the like, Bromeliacetn are of no known value. Many
species are cultivated in the hot-houses of this country, the
most beautiful of which belong to the genera Bromelia and
Billbergia : they all grow readily in decayed tan. No spe-
cies has been yet seen wild in any part of the old world.
BROMINE, an elementary fluid body, discovered, in
1826, by M. Balard, a distinguished French chemist. The
name of this substance is given to it from ppufioQ (bromos),
a stink or strong smell, on account of its powerful and dis-
agreeable odour : it was first procured by its discoverer
from the mother water or bittern remaining after the crystal-
lization of common salt at the salt-works of MontpeUier. It
'oon afterwards found in sea-water in the state of bro-
>f magnesium, and has since been met with in various
rings, and especially thoae of Germany. At Theodors-
Eight ec^uivalents of oxygen 8 X 5 « 411
One eqmvalent of bromine 79
Equivalent . .IIS
Asoie and Bromine,— l^o compound of these ia known.
Hydrogen and Bromine combine to form
Hydrobromic acid: this compound is obtained with diffi-
culty by direct action, but at a high temperature these ele-
ments slowly unite. Hydrobromic acid may be procured by
distilling bromide of potassium with ooncentreted sulphunr
acid; the product is mixed however with bromine and
sulphurous acid, because the hydrogen of the hydi^naie
B HO
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Acid decomposes t portion of the sul{fliiirie aeid. The hett
method is to mix bromine and phosphorus and a little water ;
there is produced by their action bromide, or perbromide
of phosphorus, which decomposes water, and evolves hydro-
^omic acid gas, which may be procured in the gaseous state
over mercury, or dissolved in water.
Hydrobromie add g&s is colourless, and forms a thick
vapour on coming into the air. Its smell resembles that of
muriatic acid ; its specific gravity, according to Berxelius, is
2*731 ; 100 cubic inches consequently weigh 84.72 grains.
It acts upon the metals and their oxides precisely in the
tame way as muriatic acid gas. It is not altered by being
passed through a red hot tube, either alone or mixed with
oxygen gas. Chlorine separates the bromine fit)m it, and
muriatic acid is formed. HydrobrOmic acid gas is very
soluble in water, and the solution has a greater specific
gravity than liquid muriatic acid ; it is colourless, strongly
acid, and suffers no change by exposure to the air. Nitric
acid decomposes it, and an aqua regta is fonned« which dis-
solves gold and platina.
Hydrobromie acid is composed of
One equiv. of hydrogen = 1
One „ bromine =79
Equivalent • • 80
When it is decomposed by potassium, hydrogen gas,
equal to half the volume of the acid submitted to experi-
ment, remains, and bromide of potassium is formed.
Chlorine and Bromine form chloride of bromine. It is
prepared by passing a current of chlorine gas over bromine,
and condensing the vapour arising by a freezing mixture.
It is liquid, has a reddish-yellow colour, lighter than that
of bromine. It has a strong, unpleasant smell, and its
tLstc is extremely disagreeable. It is volatile, and soluble
in water : the solution possesses bleaching power. It does
not possess acid properties, but when mixed with the alkalis
forms chlorides and bromidea. It has not yet been analysed.
Carbon and Bromine form a liquid bromide of carbon.
It is prepared by the action of iodide of carbon upon bro-
mine. It is a colourless liquid which has an ethereal and
penetrating smell, and it communicates to water an excccd-
inglv sweet taste. It is heavier than water, and becomes
solid by exposure to about 46^ of Fahrenheit It is decom-
posed by heat, vapour of bromine being evolv^. It has
not been analysed.
Sulphur and Bromine. — These substances combine
readily b^ mere mixture; the resulting bromide is fluid,
has an oily appearance and reddish tint It emits white
vapours when exposed to the air. When moist it reddens
litmus paper stronely, but slightly when dry. Boiling
water is decomposed bv bromide of sulphur, and there are
Produced hydrobromie, hydrosulphuric, and sulphuric acids,
ts composition is unknown.
Phoephonu and bromine combine readily to form two
compounds ; the protobromide is liquid, and the perbromide
is solid. The protobromide is composed of one equivalent of*
bromine 79, and one of phosphorus 16 = 85. Botn bromides
are prepared by mixing these elements in a flask contain-
ing carbonic acid gas : action takes place, with evolution of
light and heat, and there are formed the solid protobromide
which sublimes in the upper part of the flask, while the
fluid perbromide remains m the lower part. Its compo-
sition is not certainly known.
The perbromide is of a yellow colour; by heat it becomes
red. It decomposes water, and there are formed hydro-
bromie and sulphuric acids.
Bromine and iodine form probably two bromides of
iodine ; the protobromide, or that so considered, is a solid
compound, which is by heat convertible into a reddish-
brown vapour, condensing into small crystals of the same
colour, resembling fern leaves in appearance.
When bromine is added to the above described crystals a
liquid is formed, which unites with water and gives a solu-
tion possessing bleaching power. It is probably the per-
bromide of iodme.
We have now mentioned the principal binary compounds
of bromine, except those which contain a metal : for these
as well as for an account of the bromates which their oxides
form with bromic acid, we refer to each particular metal.
But little use has been hitherto made of bromine; the
bn>mide of potassium has bowevei; been employed in
medicine.
BROMLEY. [KnrrJ
BROMLEY ST. LEONARDS, a par. in the bond, of
Ossulstone, Tower division, Middlesex, adjoining Stratford-
le-bow, 2 m. from Whitechapel Church. In 1831 it con-
tained 2350 males and 2496 females. A considerable
number of its labouring pop. are employed in the East and
West India Wet Docks and other adjacent dock-yards.
The area of the par. is 620 English statute acres.
At this place was a nunnery of the Benedictine otder
dedicated to St Leonard, founded in the reign of Willium
the Conqueror by William bishop of London for a priuress
and nine nuns. The only remains of this build iog is the
chapel of St Mary, now the par. ehureh. The living is a
donative: its gross annual income is 190/. There are four
daily schools in the par., one of which is endowed by Sir
John JoUes with a pwtion of the rents of ^ve houses in
London ; and a Sunday school, which is endowed with 1400/.
3 per cents., devised to the minister and two trustees, from
the interest of which the minister Ls paid 20/. per anuum
to catechize tiie children once a month and for an annual
examination: this school is not limited in number; any
child in the par. has the privilege of attending.
In the reign of Edward I. Idonea Cricket held certain
lands here valued at 60«. per annum by the ser\'ice of hold-
ing the king's napkin at the coronation. After her death
they were divided between the nuns of St. Leonard's, the
brethren of the Holy Trinity, and others.
(Lyson's Environs of London ; Ecc, Pop,, and Edue.
Reiums,)
BROMS6ROYE or BR00MS6R0VE, antiently
Bremesgrave, a m. t in Worcestershire, situated near the
small riv. Salwarp, and on the direct road firom Birmineham
to Bristol, 13 m. from Birmingham, 13 N.N.E. from Wor-
cester, and 118 N.W. from London. The town consists
principally of one good street a mile in length, paved, and
lighted by gas. It contains one ehureh, and three dissent-
ing places of worship, a market-house, a grammar-scliouU
and a court for the recovery of small debts. The market is
on Tuesday, and, together with two annual fairs, held on
the 24 th of June and on the 1st of October, was granted to
the inb. by King John.
The pop. of the par. of Bromsgrove amounted, according
to the last census, to 8612 ; that of the town is about 5000.
It was formerly governed by a corporation, but there are
now neither recorder nor aldermen, and tbe only office of
the bailiff is that of collecting the dues belonging to the
lord of the manor. This place was also formerly a bor.,
and in the reign of Edward I. returned two members to
parliament ; but when the trade of the town declined, the
inh. were, on their own petition, freed from that * burden :*
it is now comprised in the E. division of the oounty.
The church, dedicated to St John the Baptist, is situated
on a gentle eminence ; its tower and spire, together 1 89 ft.
in height, are perhaps the most beautiful in the co. There
was a church at Bromsgrove at the time of the Conquest.
The patronage of the rec. was vested in the crown till the
reign of Henry III., by whom it was conferred on the prior
of Worcester; the bishop of the diocese confirmed the
king's gift, and instituted a vie : the dean and chapter are
the present patrons. The grammar-school was founded by
Edward VI., who endowed it with 71. per annum ; the in-
come was augmented by Sir T. Cookes, who died in 1 701,
by 50/. a year. Twelve boys on the foundation are educated,
clothed, and apprenticed ; and in Worcester College, Oxford,
are six scholarships and six fellowships, the vacancies in
which are filled up by bovs selected from this schodL
At Shipley appears the Ikineld Street, which leaving
Warwickshire at Beoley, re-entere that co. at Edgbaston,
near Birmingham.
The linen manu&cture was formerly carried on to a con-
siderable extent, but has been entirely abandoned. Nail-
making is now the principal trade, but there is also an
extensive manufactory for patent buttons. At this place
the successful cultivation of the apple for cider may be
considered as terminating: farther N. the spring frosts
rendering the produce uncertain.
A singular circumstance occurred at Bromsgrove, a few
years since, in four children being bom at one birth, all of
whom, together with the mother, survived.
It is genially but incorrectly asserted in topographical
accounts of Bromsgrove, that ccaI and limestono occur in
the par.* and that a singular petrifying spring exists in the
naig*"
Digitized by
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I and richly- 1
On the Lickey d^ilK vrhich forms one of its I
Bromsgrove is situated in a hi|
wooded valley. On the Lickey I
acoUvities, are the sources of the riv. Rea, which flows
through Birmingham ; of the Salwarp, which passes through
Droitwich ; of the Arrow, and of several small streams,
some of which fall into the hasin of the Severn and ulti-
mately into the Irish channel, while others descend in the
opposite direction to the basin of the Trent and the German
Ocean. The strata belong to the new red sandstone forma-
tion. The Lickey is composed of quartz, and must at some
Seriod have been an immense mountain; for it is consi*
ered by geologists as the source from whence have been
derived the vast beds of gravel which extend through Ox-
fordshire, in the valley of the Evenlode, and even along the
Thames.
At Hanbury, just without the oonanes of the par.. Saurian
remains are found imbedded in the lias, and at Stoke Prior
commences red and green marl, traversed by veins of gyp-
sum.
In the par. of Stoke Prior, and closely adjoining that of
Bromsgrove, are situated the extensive salt and alkali works
carried on by the British Alkali Company. As this esta-
blishment furnishes an instance of the rapid introduction of
a manufacture into a district which had been previously
confined to agriculture, a short notice of its progress may
be interesting. The manufacture of salt has been carried
on for centuries in- the adjoining bor. of Droitwich, where it
is prepared from rich springs of native brine. The onlv
situations where rock-salt had been met with in this isL
were in Cheshire, previously to its being discovered at Stoke
Prior, where it was obtained in 1829, in the course of sink-
ing a pit in search of brine. The beds of salt were of great
thickness, and were excavated to a considerable extent ; but
at present the supplies for making refined salt are derived
from a natural brine spring, which has communicated with
the exca^'ations. Immediately after making this discovery,
the proprietors erected extensive works for the manufacture
of salt, and for the preparation of British alkali, by the de-
composition of this substance, which very speedily changed
the green fields and retired lanes into an active manufactory
and a lively village. The beneficial effects of this introduc-
tion of an extensive manufacture commence with an im-
mediate demand for the surplus labourers, an increased con-
sumption of the necessaries of life, and a contribution
towards meeting the parochial expenditure; the neighbour-
ing agriculturist finds his burdens relieved, at the same
time that a market for his productions is brought into his
immediate neighbourhood. A dispassionate view of in-
stances such as the present would tend greatly to subdue
the feeling of jealousy which exists between the agricul
tural and manufacturing interests in this kingdom. The
t)enefits derived from the successful establishment of a
manufacture is not confined to the labouring pop., and to
occupiers of land in its vicinity alone, but extends more
widely : thus, in the present instance, these works being
situated on the banks of the Birmingham and Worcester
Canal occasioned, on their being fully established, an in
crease in the value of that property to the extent of 70 per
cent. ; and the influence they are likely to produce in the
rising port of Gloucester, by furnishing to it a large supply
of salt for exportation, is calculated to be very considerable.
( Communication from Bromsgrove. )
BROMWICH, WEST. [Wbst Bromwich.]
BRONCHl'TIS, inflammation of the bronchi, that is,
the tubes which convey air to the lungs. The respiratory
organs consist of the windpipe, or the air-tube ; of clusters
of minute bags called air-cells, which constitute the proper
substance of the lungs, and of a delicate but firm mem-
brane which encloses the lungs, as in a sheath, termed the
pleura. Each of these component parts of the respiratory
apparatus is subject to its own peculiar diseases. Hence
the diseases of the respiratory organs are arranged into
three classes: first, into those which affect the air-tube;
secondly, into those which affect the proper substance of the
lung; and, thirdly, into those which affect its investing
membrane, the pleura.
The air-tube or windpipe is divided into several portions.
Each of these portions possesses a peculiar structure, and
performs a specific function. Of these divisions the first is
termed the larvnx, which constitutes the principal organ of
the voice, and is situated at the upper part of the neck.
Immediately continuous with the larynx is a large tube
called the trachea, situated at the fere part of the neck, i
Oppotitp th0 tfaiid v«rtftbra •f tbe back tbe tiMbM dirtdes
into two great branches, named the bronchi, one branch fur
each lung \ the right bronchus going to the right lung, and
the left bronchus to the left lung.
Each of the bronchi at the place where it enters the
lung, subdivides into several branohes which penetrate th«
■ubstance of the lung, where they again divide, cubdiviile.
and spread out after the manner of the branching of a ijv*.
Successively diminishing in sixe as they subdivide, tiu?
bronchi at length form an infinite number of minute tulir4
which at their ultimate terminations dilate into the hu>
bags termed the air-eells of the lungs. The lar%ax« tL'
trachea, the bronchi and their ramifications, together wil^
the cavities of the nose, the mouth, and the pharynx, ar«
all classed together under the common name of the a;r-
passages. All these parts are lined by a membrane, «hir:.
from the nature of its seeretion is termed mucous nrm-
brane. In every part of the body the mucous tnembrar.r
possesses the same essential structure, and ia subject t.
analogous diseases. Accordingly, although the structit;*
of the mucous membrane of the air>passages la somevhjt
modified in the nose, in the fauces, m the larynx, in th^
trachea, in the bronchi, and in the air-cells, aoeordins t «
the different functions which it hA to perform in U e^-
different organs, yet as it possesses in its whole extent tht
same essential org&nic characters, so the diseases u>«lu<
it is subject are perfectly similar. All these diteaaet it it
be included under congestion, inflammation, hsMDorrhA^rt
(effusion of blood from its surface), emphysema (the (Ji.i-
tion of the tubes), and polypi (concretions growing from .*«
surface, which obstruct and sometimes nearly oUiterite t^ c
tubes).
Of these diseases inflammation is by ikr the meat ivs-
mon and the most important. Inflammation of the ibo<^ -•
membrane of the air-passages is divided into apeor s a"
cording to the nature of the secretion in which the tnlh.-«--
matory action terminates. Thus the inflammation miv
terminate in a secretion which does not concrete after .*•
formation ; this is termed catarrhal inflammatkMU It it%\
terminate in a secretion which instantly ooncretae ai it .•
formed ; this is called plastic inflammation or etoup : t i
may terminate in the destruction of the mueoaa noembiar*
and the formation of ulcers; this is termed wloflroitf •'
flammation.
Catarrhal inflammation, or that in which the inflanmat n
action produces a secretion which does not eoncrele, is ac> .'
subdivided principally according to the colour and Qon<i<«t-
ence of the matter secreted. If the secretion he of a yell ^
colour, and not tenacious, the disease n nailed mm-<^t
catarrh ; if the secretion be transparent and vieraet, tiv
disease is termed pttultous catarrh. When the mflamoi
tion is confined, as it often is, to that portion of the m«r9-
brane which lines the nose, it constitutes the disease r^ta-
monly known under the name of cold or ralorrA, ir-
technical name of which is coryza. When the infiami's
tion extends to the mucous membrane which line« **
fauces, tonsils, and pharynx, the disease is called cvma^ -
tonsillaris and pharyngea. When the inflammano* *•
seated in that portion of the mucous membrane w.
lines the larynx, the disease is called laryngitis: • .
when it affects the mucous membrane of the bronchial X\\^
and their ramifications, it constitutes the dtacese terr
bronchitis.
While a common function is perfbrmed by the sur-ittasar*
from its commencement at the mouth an^ nodriU t*^ •
termination in the atrcells, namelv, the transmi^&ioB of x -
to and from the lungs, additional and very difl^rent fvr «*
tions are perfbrmed by the several portions of tbb exi»»i -
tube. Accordingly inflammation of Uie membfue ths-
Itnes it produces widely different effects, according to f
portion of the membrane in whioh the disease is seato'
giving rise to the distinct forms of disease jnst enumcratr-
The description of these several diseases H gireo un-^-
their respective names; the disease named brofiehit:^ ^
that at present to be treated of.
Medical writers distinguish between what they lers * -
state of congestion and that of inflammation. In c -
gestion the blood-vessels are merely losded with a ptvir-
natural quantity of blood; in inflammation the blood-\rv
sels, besides being loaded with a prstemataral quant iti
blood, are in a state of diseased actioB, whieK, wiihoai »: ■
precise knowledge having been aoqeired of the natoir
that action, is termed inflammatoiT,.^ Simple epn^esUcs
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the mucous memb^ne of the bronehi it a ftequent ftibeliotu
which may be induced by any cause that impedes the return
of the blood to the left side of the heart. If suddenly and
intensely produced, which sometimes though rarely hap-
pens, it may prove fieital with all the symptoms of asphyxia
L Asphyxia]. Several cases are on record in which persons
were seised suddenly, without any apparent cause* with ex-
treme difficulty of breathing* which progressively increased
until it terminated in death ; and on the examination of the
body, no morbid appearance could be detected, excepting a
general congestion of blood in the capillary vessels of the
mucous membrane, of the bronchi and its ramifications.
In a slighter ibrm, congestion of the mucous membrane of
the bronchi is a constant attendant on various diseases*
more especially fever of every type, whether common con-
tinued fever, or typhus, or scarlet fever, or measles, or
small- pox. In the state of congestion tiie mucous mem-
brane is pretematurally red, the tinge of colour varying
according to the intensity of the a&otion from a pale to a
brownish or purplish red.
When the mucous membrane of the bronchi is in a state
of active inflammation, it is of a bright red or orisoson
colour. This inflammatory redness may be partial or
general ; but it more commonly afiects particular parts of
the membrane than its entire surface. Sometimes ihe red-
ness is confined to the larger bronchial tubes, or it may be
limited to the smaller. Sometimes it exists in the bionchos
of one side only; at Other times it equally alfoets both
bronehi.
Two consequences result fh>m the conation and inflam-
mation of the membrane : first, the swelhng and thickening
of the membrane, in proportion to which must of course be
an obstruction to the passage of the air ; and, secondly, an
increase in the quantity of its mucous secretion. This in*
crease and change in the secretion are chiefly the result of
inflammatioD, in some cases of which affection the secretion
becomes so excessive as eompletely to fill up the bniachUd
tubes, and thereby to occasion suffocation.
The trachea and the bronchial tubes being men conduits
of air, the disturbance of function produced by the inflam-
mation of this portion of the air-passage must of course
relate chiefly to impeded transmission of the air. Aoeord-
infrly difficulty of breathing is the most prominent symptom
of inflammation seated in this portion of the air-tube. This
difficulty of breathing is proportionate to the obstnietion to
the passage of the air, which is proportionate to the degree
of the swelling of the membrane, and to the extent of mem-
brane involved in the inflammatory aflfection. If the in-
flammation be limited to a portion only of a single tube,
the difficulty of breathing will not be great ; if it affect the
whole tubes of one side, the difficulty of breathing will be
considerable ; if k affect all the tubes of both lungs, the
difficulty of breathing may be so great as to prove fatal.
Together with impeded respiration, there is a feeling of
tightness and oppression across the chest, accompanied with
a sense of heat, sometimes amounting to a burning sensa>
tion. often referred by the patient to the sternum. Cough
is always present The oough at first is dry, because the
membrane is dry; but the secretion soon beoomes more
abundant than natural. The matter first secreted is acrid ;
end this aoridness diminishes as the quantity of the secretion
increases ; and when the matter secreted assumea a yellow
colour, it is always quite bland ; and then the cough is
loose and the expectoration f^.
When the inflammation is seated in the mueous mem-
brnne that lines the cavities of the nose and pharynx, the
morbid changes which the membrane undergoes during
this process are in some degree manifbst to the eye. It is
obvious that the part aflfected becomes redder than natural ;
that its blood-vessels appear larger, more numerous, and
more turgid with blood ; at the same time the membrane
swells and becomes thieker and firmer than natural. At
first it is perfectly dry ; for the first effect of the state of
inflammation is the suppression of secretion : hut soon a
transparent, thin and acrid fluid is poured out by tiie in-
flamed vessels, which irritates and even excoriates all the
parts with which it comes in contact After flowing for a
certain time, varying from a few hours to two or three days,
according to the intensity of the disease, this morbid secre-
tion changes its character, loses its acrid nature and beoomes
inore bland, but still remains transparent. In an indefinite
time, in general in two or three ^ys, still further changes
take ^aee ; its bland character remains, bitt its edour is
altered; it mduflUv sMumes a greenish tint; it then
passes to yellow, and finally becomes of a bright brimstone
hue. As the disease proceeds the condition of the mem-
brane is changed ; for as the bland fluid is formed the
morbid thickness and firmness of the membrane diminishes,
and it gradually returns to its healthy condition.
The redness, swelling, and firmness of the membrane,
together with its altered secretions, are then local si^ns
visible to the eye which denote the inflammatory condition
of the membrane in coryxa and in cynanche tonsillaris, and
pharyngea. The membrane being in part manifest to our
senses in the situations in which these diseases have their
seal, we ean observe the morbid process that goes on, and
mark its different stages. It is probable that a perfectly
analogous process goes on when portions of this membrane
which are placed beyond our view are inflamed. When the
inflammation is seated in the larynx the membrane cannot
be seen. That the particular portion oi the membrane
which lines tlw larynx is in a state of inflammation is a
matter of inference derived from the disturbance of the
iuiictiott of the ol'gaA, namely, the function which relates
to the formation of the voice. But when inflammation
descends further into the trachea, the bronchial tubes and
their ramifications, not only are we altogether unable to see
the condition of the membrano, but as the functions of those
tubes are so simplified as to be mere conduits of air,
the only indication we can obtoin that they are in a state of
disease must arise fi^m the disturbance of that single func*
lion, namely, difficulty of breathing. Certainly there will
be combined two other symptoms, namely, cough and ex-
pectoration ; but these are common to various other diseases
of the lungs, and consequently cannot be diagnostic, that is,
distinctive : while difficulty of breathing is common to every
disease of the lungs and heart which has arrived at a certain
degree of intensity. When inflammation is seated in Uiese
distant portions of the mucous membrane of the air-passages,
it is imnossible to arrive at any certain knowledge of the
specific oisease from the symptoms or the signs of disordered
function only.
One of the most brilliant achievemento of modem scienoe,
the honour of which is due to Laenneo, is the discovery of a
series of local signs by which inflammation of the bronchial
tubes, placed as they are deep in the cavity of the chest, is
rendered almost as evident as any external disease of the
body; this remarkable man having brought completely
within the cognisance of the ear what the eye could never
have seen, nor the sense of touch have reached.
It has been shown that inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane of the air-passages has two consequences, fint, a
swelling of the membrane, and secondly, a change of its
secretions; the local si^s by which the inflammation of
the bronchi and of their ramifications is ascertained and
discriminated fipom all other diseases, have reference to these
two conditions.
When the inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
bronchial tubes is eonsiderable, the swelling of the mem-
brane may be so great as a>mpletely to close that portion
of the tube in which the inflammation is seated. The
consequence must be that the respiratory murmur [Aus-
cultation] cannot be heard in that portion of the lung
which the tube supplies, since no air can pass the obstructed
point; accordingly, on applying the ear, or the stetho-
scope [Stbthoscopx] to the chest it is found, especially in
severe affections of this kind, that the respiratory murmur
is absent in various portions of the lungs. This absence of
the respiratory murmur is however common to several
other affections of the lungs. Hence percussion must be
called to the aid of auscultation. By striking the chest
[Pbkcussion] it is found that the sound elicited is natural
in bronchitis, while in almost every other affection of
the lungs it is dull where there is no respiratory murmur.
The reason of this difference is, that in bronchitis the cells
are filled with air, so that a natural sound is elicited by per-
cussion ; but the obstruction occasioned by the swelling of
the inflamed membrane confines and prevents the renewal
of the air, and consequently the respiratory murmur is lost ;
whiljO in other affections attended by absence of the respira-
tory murmur the air-cells are impermeable, either from their
ooiuK)lidation or compression, and then the sound, on per-
cussion, is invariably dull and fleshy. If on the other band
the inflamed membrane be not so much swollen as com-
pletely to close the tube, then another and a totallv dis-
tinct soimd is produced— « whistling sound, asqund always
Digitized by VnOOQ IC
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464
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•baerved to aocompany an indiskiiict respiratoiy murmur, on
account of the diminished calibre of the bronchial tube.
Moreover, when the swelling of the membrane diminishes,
the nature of the sound is again entirely changed. It now
becomes a loud, deep, and sonorous wheezing, the intensity
of which is sufficient to cause a vibration upon the parietes
of the chest, distinguishable by the hand ; at the same time
the respiratory murmur becomes more distinct, denoting
lliat the bronchial tubes are more open ; finally, the deep
sonorous wheeze assumes a still deeper bass, merges into the
respiratory murmur, mixes with it, and gives it a roughness
which is termed rough respiration.
On the other hand, where the secretion re-appears and is
in excess, a wheezing sound is produced, which is loud and
noisy in proportion to the quantity of fluid poured into the
tubes. This sound, when it is formed in the trachea, can
be heard through the medium of the air alone ; but the
application of the stethoscope, or the ear, to the surface of
the chest is necessary when it is formed in the bronchial
tubes.
By these local signs it is possible to decide at once whether
the disease in question be bronchitis or not ; it is possible
to determine the exact extent of the affection; for the
wheezing may be heard only in a single line, as if in the
direction of a sin$;le bronchial tube, or it may be heard all
over one lung, and occasionally over both ; and by judging
of the distance of the sound from the ear, it is possible to
tell whether the bronchial tube affected be in the centre of
the organ or at its* surface. In this manner we are taught
the nature and intensity of the disease by the kind of sound
induced in the morbid condition of the organ.
Besides these local signs or symptoms derived from the
alterefl condition of the immediate seat of the disease, there
are others derived from the disturbance of the system in
general, termed general signs. These symptoms of a dis-
ordered state of the system in general are all those which
belong to the disease termed Fbysr. Whenever any
organ of the body is affected with any disease of a cer-
tain degree of intensity, in addition to the disordered func*
tion of that particular organ, the natural functions of the
great and general systems, such as the nervous, the circu*
lating, the digestive, and so on, become disturbed. Tbe
disturbance of these general systems is always of a certain
kind, and takes place in a certain order, giving rise, as has
been just stated, to tbe train of symptoms which constitute
fever. The fever thus induced is not a primary disease, it is
occasioned by the sympathy of the system with the disease
of some particular organ : this secondary form of fever is
called sympathetic or symptomatic, in contradistinction to
fever when it is the original and essential disease, which is
termed idiopathic [Fbver]. The general or feverish symp-
toms are lassitude, indisposition to motion, chilliness, often
amounting to shivering, pains in the limbs, and more
especially in the back and loins ; dullness and heaviness of
the mind, or inability to carry on the intellectual operations
with the usual vigour. The pulse is rapid and weak, and
the urine scanty and limpid. These symptoms are soon
followed by irregular flushes of heat, sometimes occurring
at one part of the body, sometimes at another, alternating
with the cold and intermingling with it, so that the patient
feels frequently, in consequence of the rapidity of these
changes, the two different sensations in the same place and
almost at the same instant The skin at length becomes
universally hot, and commonly dry ; head-ache comes on ;
there is more or less thirst ; the pulse continues rapid, but
becomes full ; and the urine, which is still small in quan-
tity, is now high-coloured. Then perspiration succeeding to
the dry condition of the skin, the functions are again restored
in a greater or less degree to their natural condition, and
there is a corresponding remission of the s^'mptoms. After
this remission there is commonly an accession of the febrile
attack, usually in the evening.
The causes which predispose to this disease are whatever
causes diminish the general vigour of the system, such as
great fatigue, excess of everv kind, long exposure to a humid
atmosphere, and so on. The great exciting cause is cold,
especially when combined with moisture.
With regard to the treatment — ^when the disease is in its
mild form nothing is required but confinement to the house
*** 1 uniform temperature in a warm room ; demulcent and
orotic medicines to determine to the surface ; mild
?nt8, and the abstinence from all stimulating food and
. When the feverish aymptom^ have subsided, when
all uneasiness of the chest is gone, and the eongb is alieV.t.
some light tonic, as any of the ordinary bitters, will as»i«t m
restoring the strength of the patient, and in pre^nentin? a
relapse.
When the disease is in its severer form, and more especialW
when it is very acute, that is, when there is much difficu't)
of breathing, much oppression at the chest, very trhut'Wir
cough, and a high degree of fever, blood-lettiiig is in'iif-
pensabla The quantity of blood taken must of course l« m
proportion to the intensity of the disease and the aireui:t:i
of the patient, but it must be in sufficient quantity to p •»-
duce a decided impression upon the heart's action, and c-m-
sequently upon the power and rapidity of the euculatiH .
Antimonials exhibited in decided doses immediately a.'iT
the blood-letting, commonly prevent the neeesaity of an>
further depletion. The best preparation of antimoay is t .
tartar emetic, given in solution, to the extent of from on*- x >
two grains every second or third hour. The ¥omttsng i::*
duced by the first doses commonly subsides or bec«nuf>
slight after the third or fourth dose. Occasionally* Iwwc^ «-.
this remedy produces so much irritation in the atomarh a-. .
the system in general that it cannot be given in the qua. •
tity necessary to render it efficient ; then ipecacuanha h^r.. %
an excellent substitute, the powder of which may be i;i^ .-
in doses of from one to two grains every three or four lK>n:>.
When the fever subsides, but the difficulty of breatl. .^
and oppression at the chest continue, blistera are hip:. %
advantageous. The cough, in itself teasing andeshaii>ti J.
and often aggravating every other symptom, moat be alL&>«':
by oily emulsions, barley water, linseed tea, Sbc ; and f
these fail, and the cough continue so violent as to pm^- ;
rest, opium must be given to the extent necessary to sub^. :-
it. The opium should always be combined with diapb' .-•
tics, so as to determine to the skin, at the same time iL .
irritation is allayed. The bowels should be kepi OMidnai- »
open during the whole course of the disease ; and thf.r .
no remedial measure of greater importance than the m-
tenance of the temperature of the apartment steadil> j
invariably, day and night, at the same point, a point o'
will insure a moderate degree of warmth, ftom 65^ to 7
A great degree of heat is a most pernicious stimulus ; r .
is the great exciting cause of the disease, and any con^:- '-
able alternation from heat to cold, or from csold to hcu' «
of itself sufficient to counteract the beneficial operati..--
the most efficient remedies the most skilfully combtr .
The due modification of this general plan of treat m-. * *
according to individuality of constitution, more especial. »
tlie feeble, and in those predisposed to oi^anir dt>«av
the lungs, according to age, more especially in thoso of .*:
yanced age, in the child and in the infant, is of the I. '
importance in practice : but it is impossible in this placr *
enter into minute detail ; all that can be done is to %\ '
and illustrate the general principles that should guide *.•
Ueatraent. (See Liiennec on Diseases of the Cke^t, I '
tares on the Diseases of the Lungs, &c., by Dr. T. Da^-v
Art. Bronchitis, Dr. Copeland*s Diet, of PraeHcal M^i i
BRONCHITIS, or inflammation of the bnmeks or s :
tubes of the lungs, is a very serious disease amooc q:-
drupeds. It is occasionally confined to the lining nu . • <
membranes of these passages, but it more freqoei •
spreads to the Uning membrane of the windpipe and lar« .-
and to a greater or less degree involves the substance wf . -
lungs.
Horses.—li is not a common disease in the horse, Xyit «
easily recognized by an interrupted wheesing sound in *
breathing that can be heard at some disUnoe ; a trtni^-'- -
to coldness in the extremities, distinct from the saB«-».
increased heat of catarrh and the deathy iciness o." i;.-
flamed lungs; a pulse (quicker than either in catarrh or iy»c
early sUge of pneumonia, not so hard as in pl«nnsy. I* '
more so than in catarrh or inflamed lungs; the w»Xf -
dilated, and the respiration strangely quickened, hti z
often more rapid than the pulse ; a haggard couutena v
an almost perfect inability to move^ from fear of suffbrat;
a cough exceedingly painful ; a purulent dischar^ ti r
the nostrils of a greyish green colour, which soon henMsp*
fetid or mingled with blood; the breath hot; and natv
pression of pain in any particular part indicated bv kx>k.:«
at the side or flank. Pieces of hardened mucus, or t^-
ganixed membrane, are also frequently coughed up.
Bronchitis is sometimes a primary disease, but it •«
oflener the consequence of neglected catarrh or lon^-ccs
tinued but slight inflammation of ^tbe Umgs^ilx is ccca-
Digitized by '
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•iontUy cpidemie. Svory affoetion of Ae lotpiratory organs
will then rapidly degenerate into this diteaae. Aa it pur-
sues it3 eourse, the membrane becomes thickened by in-
flammation, and the calibre of the bronchial tubes is pro-
portionally diminished, while the mnooua secretion is abun-
dantly increased, and consequently the animal dies of suffo-
cation, the air-passagea beeoniing oompletely clogged.
Bleeding should be early resortca to, but very cau-
tiously; for what is true of e^ery mucous membrane is
more especially so here— the patient will not bear consi-
derable or rapid dep^letion. While the blood is flowing, the
finger of the veterinary surgeon should be on the sub-
maxillary artery, and the vein should be pinned up as soon
as the pulse begins to falter : four pounds will scarcely be
withdrawn before Ais will be the ease. Phytic should also
be administered, but very cautiously; for the sympathy
between the mucous membranes is sooner developed in this
than in any other disease, and a degree of purging is readily
excited which bids defiance to all controL Two drachms ot
aloes should be administered morning and night, until the
foces beo<Nne softened. The dung having Men rendered
pultaceous, powdered digitalis, nitre, and sulphur should
be administered morning and night, in doses varying ae-
oording to the circumstances of the case. From half a
drachm to two drachms of the first may be given, and firom
two to four drachms of each of the other drugs.
A blister is indispensable, and it should cover the brisket
and sides, and extend up the windpipe even to the throat.
The horse should not be coaxed to eat, and nothing more
nutritive Uian mashes should be allowed.
Ca/ZZtf.— Bronchitis is a still more formidable disease
among cattle, and many thousand animals are yearly de-
stroy^ by it. The winter cough, which shameful neglect
at first produces, and which inexcusable inattention and
idleness suffer to continue, almost inevitably terminates in
bronchitis or inflammation of the lungs, or both united.
The food of cattle is much concerned in the production of
it. Mouldy hay and bad stnw, the very refuse of the farm,
and the common aliment of the yearling cattle, too gene-
rally and fatally produce inflammation of the air-passages ;
and many a beast comes from the straw-yard bearing the
seecU of death within him.
The most frequent victims of this disease however are
young cattle, yearlings, and especially in low marshy or
woody coxintries. On an upland farm, and particularly on
a chalky and loamy soil, it is comparatively seldom known.
It oftonest prevails in dry seasons, when the water of the
brook fails, and that of the ponds is putrid and filled with
animalcu Isd.
The attack of bronchitis is somewhat sudden ; the animal
has a dr)-, huskv, and peculiarly distressing cough, and very
soon begins to droop and to lose condition. It is painful to
see the poor beast standing with his extended head, dilated
nostrils, and anxious countenance; violently coughing,
almost without intermission, until he is completely ex-
hausted, and (alls or dies of suffocation. This state of
misery continues from a fortnight to a month. On exami-
nation ailer death the broncl^ tubes exhibit some in-
flammation, yet far leas than could be expected ; while,
characterising the disease, and fully accounting for all its
distresaiug symptoms, these passages and the wind-pipe,
and dten the larynx and the fauces, are filled with small
worms, forming a kind of coat mixed with the mucus, or
connected together in knots of various sizes. The disease
is either produced or much aggravated by the presence of
these worms and the irritation which they produce.
These worms belong to the genus strongylus, and the
species filaria. They are of a uiread-like form, from half
an inch to two inches in length; the body round, the head
obtuse, the mouth circular, and surrounded with minute
barbs, or elongated papilln ; the tail of the fomale pointed,
and that of the male somewhat rounded and oblique. The
female usually contains a great number of eggs ; and a few
of the ova, but so few aa to appear to have been deposited
there accidentally, are occasionally found enveloped in the
mucus of the windpipe and the air-passages ofthe lungs. Of
the natunl history of this Irorm nothing is known, but the
fact of Ae impregnation of the fomale shows that this is
the last if not tne only state of its existence.
The ova or the minute worms are received firom the
pastures, or, move probably, itom the water, when stag-
nant or loaded with animaleulse. Being alive, they escape
the digestive powers of the stomach, and tningle with the
blood, and thread the various circulatory passages until
they arrive at a oongonial abode ; or the ova may be hatched
by the warmth and moisture of the mouth, and then wind
their way to their destined residence.
Na390.
The modes of cure are evident: we should either destroy
or remove these intruders, or strengthen the animsd so that
he shall bear up against the irritation which they excite •
for it is well known to the farmer that if the patients, by
the natural power of their constitution, or by the applica-
tion of certain means, can struggle with the disease until
the cold weather sets in, and the worm dies, or must find
another [residence, they will eventually recover. The
pasture should be changed as soon as the disease is disco-
vered. The supply of fresh recruits will be prevented, or
possibly that deleterious matter, whether connected with the
water or the pasture, which is necessary to their thriving and
multiplyin|^, will be no longer obtained. The simple change
of pasture m an early stage of the disease has saved thou-
sands of young cattle.
If however these parasites have so far established them-
selves as to resist this mode of attack, it must be considered
whether some agent cannot be brought into actual contact
with them, which will either destroy them, or so far annoy
and weaken them, that they will loosen their hold and be
expelled by the convulsive coughing of the calf. The
most obvious method of accomplishing tliis is to cause the
patient to breathe some pungent and deleterious gas, such
aa that produced by the burning of sulphur or the evolu-
tion of chlorine. By both of these fumigations the worms
have been quickly and perfectly destroyed, but there is
considerable care required in the management of these
experiments ; inflammation in the air-passages, very difll-
cult afterwards to allay, has been produced, and occasionally
the beast as well as the worm has been destroyed. This
mode of treatment should therefore be considered as a last
resource, and should never be intrusted to inexperienced
hands.
There is a less dangerous and nearly as effectual a course
to pursue. There are certain substances which undergo
little or no change in the stomach or the intestines, but are
taken up by the absorbents and enter into the circulation
and are conveyed to every part of the frame, producing,
when needed, their peculiar and beneficial effects: thus
digitalis lowers the action of the hetgrt, and turpentine in-
creases that of the kidney. Are there any of these sub-
stances that are destructive to worms and that can be thus
conveyed to the bronchial tubes ? Turpentine certainly may,
for if a very small portion of it is swallowed it is soon re-
cognisable in the breath. It may be given to cattle in con-
siderable quantities without the slightest danger, and thus
may be brought into contact with and produce the destruc-
tion of these parasites. Common salt readily destroys
many species of worms, and is conveyed through the circu-
latoiy vessels in a sufficiently pure state to expel these
vermin from the air-passages : at the same time it is an
admirable tonic, and supports the decaying strength of the
animal. The most powerful vermifuge however in these
cases is lime-water, and if half a pint of it, with a couple of
ounces of common salt, is given to each patient every morn-
ing, attention being paid to a change, and perhaps a re-
peated change of pasture, and to the comfort of the animals
in other respects, the majority of them will be saved.
This disease occasionadly appears in lambs, deer, and
swine. The mode of treatment should be the same as for
calves. ^^^ T
Digitized by VriOOQlC
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.] Vet. Vr-8 O ^
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BRCVNCHOCE^E (fipoyxoichk^), from BpAyj(pe (bran-
rbos), throat, and k^Xji (die), a iweUing, called also Gottre
and Derbyshire Neck, — a swelling in the upper and fore
part of the neck, occasioned by a preternatural enlargement
of the thyroid gland. The tumoiu: is free from pain, gene-
rally of the natural colour of the skin, does not readily in-
flame, and is not of a malignant character. Often the
swelling is rather a deibnnity than an inoonvenienee ; bat
occasionally, and especially when the tumour is large, it
causes serious evil, by obstructing the voice and the re-
spiration.
When the swelling first appears, it is soft, sponey, and
elastic ; after some time it assumes a more firm and fleshy
consistence, being however firmer in some places than in
others, and it gradually spreads towards each side of the
neck until it attains in some cases a prodigious magnitude.
In general the swelling aflects the whole gland, but occa-
sionally only one lobe is enlarged. When the swelling
attains a great size, and the lower part of the gland is more
especially involved in the disease, the tumour hangs pen-
dulous from the neck. On examining the interior o\ the
gland, it is found to consist of innumerable cells of different
sizes, which are all filled with a transparent viscid fluid.
Nothing is known of the real nature of this disease. Little
is ascertained of the causes which either predispose to it or
which produce it Many causes are assigned, which is com-
monly the case when no cause is known. Moreover, in the
S resent instance, several of the causes assigned are contra-
ictory. What is certain is that there are countries, or ra-
ther particular places in certain countries, for example
Switzerland, Savoy, the Tyrol, certain districts of South
America, and some places in Great Britain, as Derbyshire,
in which the disease is endemic (common to the inhabitants
of the same country, from some cause specially connected
with that countrv). It is much more common in females
than in males. In Great Britain it is very seldom seen in
males, but in Switzerland, and in other places in which it is
very prevalent, males are more often attacked than in Bri-
tain. It commonly occurs about the age of puberty, and in
girls seems to be strictly connected with an irregularity in
the female health. Dr. Copland says, ' In a considerable
number of cases which have come before me in females, I
have never met with any before the period of commencing
puberty, — not even at the Infirmary for Children ; although
the menses have often been delayed for a year or two, or
even longer, when the tumour has appeared at this epoch ;
and I have seldom observed an instance in this sex uncon-
nected with some irregularity of the menstrual discharge,
ur disorder of the uterine functions. In two cases occurring
in married females, who were under my care, unhealthy or
irregular menstruation had existed during the continuation
of tlie goitre ; in one case for eight years, in the other for
five ; upon its disappearance pregnancy took place in both.
Suppression of tlie menses has sometimes caused its sudden
appearance and rapid development ; and it more rarely has
ori«;inatcd during pregnancy and the puerperal states. Au-
thors have adduced conclusive proofs of its occurrence here-
ditarily, independently of endemic influence.*
It has been said to have an intimate connexion with
poverty and bad food, the rich being comparatively exempt
from it, but on this point the statements are conflicting. It
has been very ^nerally attributed to water used as drink,
and more especially to snow-water ; but the disease occurs
where there is no snow, as in Sumatra and several parts of
South America ; the Swiss who drink snow-water are free
from the disease, while those who use hard spring-water are
prone to it. In his journey to the Polar Sea, Captain
Franklin observed that at a part where bronchocele prevails,
the disease is confined to those who drink river-water, while
those who use melted snow escape. Mr. Bally ascribes its
frequency, in a district in Switzerland, to the use of spring-
water impregnated with calcareous or mineral substances ;
and he states that those who use not this water are free
from both gottre and cretinism. Dr. Coinder observed that
the inhabitants of Geneva, who drink the hard pump-watera,
ara those most liable to bronchocele. Its prevalence in Not-
tingham is ascribed by Dr. Manson to the same cause ;
which also seems to occasion it in Sussex and Hampshire,
in the valleys of which counties it is frequently met with.
It is unquestionably most frequent in low, moist, marshy,
and warm valleys even in the very districts in which it is
Andemic, the inhabitants of dry and elevated situations are
^pt fVom it ; but it is probable that the malaria of those
placet opentes only as a pradisposiog eauM* fsffwuiag tba
action upon the system of some unknown agent.
But in whatever obscurity the nature and cause of th*
disease may be involved, there has been recently discos er» i
for it a very effectusl remedy in the substance calM iodine.
This remedy has been employed with great advantage st
Geneva, and in England wilh so much success, thai I>r
Manson of Nottingham states, that out of 120 cases treat* .
with it by him, 79 were cured, 11 greatly relieved, aivi j
onlv were not benefited by it. Other physicians, who haw
had considerable experience of bronchocele, bear the iiWr
testimony to the efficacy of iodine as a remedy. As aiin;
nistered by some practitionen however it hss wholly f.ii.«*<i.
apparently owing to their having administered it in t-
larffe doses. In persons of a lax fibre and irritable bat tt
and in children more especially, it is apt to produoe a K i.\
degree of irritation, so that only the mildest preparati' i >.
largely diluted, should be employed. In obstinate eajie« u <?
external use of it may be combined with its inieraal jdn..-
mistration,but great care should be taken thai the ointmrct
which is rubbed into the tumour should not be of sni&eM v\
strength to produce irritation. Occasionally no mn«dw^«
will avail, and it is necessary either to take up the arterx*
which supply the gland, or to remove the tuoocir from ttf
body. Of these operations a full account will be found ir
surgical books.
BRO'NTE, a town in the intendenza or prov. of Cat an »
in Sicily, situated at the western base of mount ifitna, u. -
near the outer skirts of the woody region which oDem i- •
that mountain, and which near Bronte abounds in pinc« n
very large size. The territory of Bronte is heaUhy &
fertile, and produces com, almonds, pistachio nuta, and «i ».
The wine which is exported to England from this pajt -
the country is called Bronte wine. Bronte lies near ..u
banks of a stream, called by the antients CyaDite&rjs
which is one of the aflSuents of the Simssthus or Giam u .
(Cluverius). It has manufactures of paper and r(4.r«
woollens. Pop. 9400. (Smyth's Sicily.) Bronte is a mcni. r
town (notwithstanding the fabulous tradition which dtm«^
its name from one of the Cyclops), and has grown out
several scattered habitations since the time of Charles \
(Ferrara Sioriadeir Etna.) It was formerly a fief. «ith
the title of Duchy. Admiral Lord Nelson was made DuV-.
of Bronte in 1799, by King Ferdinand, as a reward of { «
services in the cause of that prince, with an income of 6> ■
onze, about 3000/. sterling. (Colletta ^f orta dii\'aprJr,) 1 :
is 22 m. N.W. of Catania, and 55 m. S.W. of Messina.
BRONZE, Ital. bronzo; Fr. bronze; Gr. xaX«^ irh..
cos), Liat ees, is essentially a compound of copper an«i tu.
whith metals appear to have been among the ear •:
known. Copper is not unfrequently found in its tn^x. .
state, and fit for immediate use ; and tin, though n**; -
met with, often occurs near the surface, and its orv >
easily reduced. These metals, though neither of u,.-.
possesses the hardness requisite for making instrun.i.- *«
either for domestic or warhke purposes, appear to ha'\e l*«-f
early found capable of hardening each other by combine
tion; the bronze, which is the result of this combine t. •..
consisting of different proportions of them, according to t •.
purposes to which it is to be applied.
Bronze is always harder and more fusible than copp. '
it is highly malleable when it contains 85 to 90 per rem .
copper ; tempering increases its mallei^bility ; it oxidi2c» rcr>
slowly even in moist air, and hence its application to >
many nurposes. The density of bronze is always girati r
than that of the mean of the metals which compose .t
for example, an alloy of 100 parts of copper and IS par&i « ;
tin is of specific gmvity 8.80, whereas 1^ *^HilsTi-f?D it
would be only 8.63.
The precise etymology of the word • bronze* has wA be**".
ascertained, but it is first met with in Itahan writers to ex-
press this mixture of metals, and it is not very unprol«i* >
that it is a corruption from the Italian 6rum>, which >.j-
nifies brown ; the bronze of the Italian, and parlicuUr v
the cinque cento schools, being of that colour, which -
nearly the original tint of the material when left in its r r
tural state. The green hue that distinguishes ant:^<:t
bronzes is acquired by oxidation and the combinalii n
carbonic acid: and the moderns, to imitate the effc>ct
the finer antique works, sometimes advance that pn^r^-^-
by artificial means ; usually by washing the surface t -
an acid. Vasari alludes to this practice among the »•! •-
of his time, and to the means thec^optod U>|pr^urv* i
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brown, a blaclu or a mtn oolonr in their brbnie. (Vit.
dci Pittor. Inirod.) The Greekt and RomanSt in speak-
ing of works in bronze, used words which at onoe re-
ferred to the metal ; the Greek cAaloat being a mixture
of copper and tin, and the Roman ce« the same. These
words aro often understood by moderns to denote brass,
which is however a di&rant eompoaition, being a niztore
of copper and xmo.
Though there is no doubt that the uses of some of the
metals were known yery early, there is unfortunately little
or no information either on the mode of working them, or of
the time of their discovery. It is clear however that, for a
long period, copper, if not the only metal known, was at least
the most abundant, for we find it was employed universally
for arms, ornaments, and utensils, domestic and agricultural.
Iron was apparently of much later discovery. The simpler
proce&scs of metallurgy seem to have been practised at a very
remote date both in Asia and Bgypt. On this subject the
Old Testament is our best authority, and the aocounts we
there find lead us to believe that considerable skill had
been attained by the very earliest nations. Tubal Cain was,
we are told, a great worker in metal. Among the earliest
allusions to works in metal in the Books of Moses is the
mention made of the presents offered to Rebecca : Abre-
h&m*s servant gave her ' a golden ear-ring of half a shekel
weit^ht, and two bracelets for her hands of ten shekels
wei^bt of gold/ and spoke to her of his master s riches, par-
tioularly mentioning silver. {Qm. xxiv. 22.) The accounts
of the ornaments and utensils in the history of Jacob, and
of Joseph, and in various other passages of the Old Testa-
ment, prove in like manner the extensive employment of
metals at that time ; and their being applied to purposes
of luxury indicates that considerable progress had been
made in the art ; long use naturally preceding any attempt
at re6nement. The earliest recoraed names of sculptors
(and they are metal-workers) are in the Old Testament
One was * Besaleel, of the tribe of Judah, who was Ailed
with the spirit of God, in wisdom, and in understanding,
and in knowledge, and in all manner of workmanship,
to devise cunning works, to work in gold, and in silver, and
in brass,' &c &c. : widi him is associated AhoUab, of the
tribe of Dan. They were the artists appointed to execute
the works of the Tabernacle. (EsrocL xxxi.) Among the
£|?yptians also the employment of metal was known in times
prior to any historical record ; and it is probable that the
metallurgical knowledge possessed by other countries was
derived directly or indirectly from this source. Among other
pn)ofs o f this, the casting of the golden calf by the Israelites
may be cited. It is remarkable however that, among the
remains of bronse works of art that have been msco-
vored in various parts of Bgypt, none have been found of
1ar{;e dimensions. Some of the most remarkable early
wurks im metal mentioned in history are those recorded by
Diodonas Sieulus, who in this part of his history followed
Ctesias* a Greek historian and physician contemporary with
Xenoplson. He describes works in gold and bronze which
decoratsed the gardens of Semiramis, of such a magnitude,
and representing so great a varie^ of subjects, that, if
we are to place any confidence at all in the testimonv of this
writer, we must conclude that the Assyrians and Baby-
lonians had attained very great proficiency in the arts con-
nected with metallurgy. That the statements of Diodorus,
which in fact are those of Ctesias, are to be received with
some qualification, must be granted ; but we must not re-
fuse some credit to the traditions respecting nations which
were certainly possessed of many usefiil arts, and at one
time commanded the resources of western Asia.
It is much to be regretted that we have no remains
of Phcenician art The skill and enterprise of this people
gave them a commanding station among the antient
nations, and they must have materially influenced the
civilization not merely of neighbouring but of remote coun-
tries ; but unfortunately the few monuments that can be
referred to a Phoenician origin (namelyt some found at Car-
thage, a Phosnictan colony) are of too distant a date from
the brilliant epoch of the Phosnician nations to be ftdrly
quoted as specimens of original taste or practice. Their
supposed traffic with Britain furnished them tin, or pro-
bably they |irocured it from Spain or Eastern Asia.
Homer has immortalized the Sidonians with the distin-
guished title of ' li9&v§c woKviaaaXoi^' the Sidomaru the
tkil/ul wcrkerM. The artificer employed by Solomon in the
deooratk>n of the Temple (about 1000 years before our mra)
w^ Hiram, a native of Tyre, 'who waa canning to work all*
works in brass.* (1 Kingt vii) These works, we are told,
were oa»t and wrought
We know so httle of the earlier history of the arts in India,
that we must be satisfied with observing that many speci-
mens of their bronze works, of which we possess some
curious examples in this country, as idols, utensils, &c., may
be referred, without doubt, to an extremely remote date ;
hut the sli^t changes that have taken place in the style
of their art and workmanshii) prevent any dassification of
them, or even an approximation to the times at which any
of the more antient were executed.
The works that remain of the Greeks, whether oonsi«
dered with reference to the illustration of their history, or
for the exquisite specimens which they offer of their taste
and feeling in imitative art, claim our especial regard, and
the names of few sculptors, or rather statuaries, of celebrity
have reached us who were not chiefly distinguished ibr the
excellence of their productions in bronze. In the time
of Homer the scareity of iron occasioned the general use
of other metals ; and we find the arms, offensive and de-
fensive, are always described as being made of bronze, or
perhaps copper alone, which it is possible they had some
means of tempering and hardening. (Caylus and others.)
The art of casting statues seems to have been first practised
in Asia Minor, Greece, properly so called, being probaUy
too uncivilized to undertake such works. The Lydians
and the Phrygians were early distinguished for their skill
in these arts, and they were probably the teachers of the
Greeks.
The records to be depended upon as to Greek art go as
far back as between 600 and 700 years b.c., and the mode
of working metal at that time seems to have been the same,
or nearly so, as far as there are means of judging, as that
adopted by other and earlier nations. The first and most
simple process appears to have been hammer- work ; that \b^
lumps of the material were beaten into the proposed form ;
and if the work were too large to be made of one piece,
several were shaped, and the different parts fitted and
fastened together by means of pins or keys. Pausanias
(iii. 1 7) particularly describes this process in speaking of a
very antient brass statue of Jupiter at Sparta; and this
mode of working (mentioned by Herodotus, vii. 69) is called
by him and others vfv^Xarov {sphuHloUon\ * hammer-
worked,' in opposition to Uie term l^ya x^tv^vrA (ehtmeuta)
applied to ' works that were cast' This statue of Jupiter
was the work of Learehus of Rhegium, and Pauses ias
says it was the most antient statue of the kind ; by which
he probably only means that it was of the most arehftio
or antient style, as Herodotus, Diodorus Sieulus, and
others, as well as Pausanias himself, refer to other works
of a more remote date. Pliny (xxxiii. 4.), in speakine of a
solid gold statue of Diana Anai'tis, refers to a mode of exe-
cution termed Holosphyraton (derived from three Greek
words signifying 'entire, solid,* and ' hammer*). It was so
called probably to distinguish it from another kind of ham-
mer-work, in which plates of metal were beaten out into
the form desired on a nucleus of another material, of which,
as some believe, a curious specimen of antient Egyptian
workmanship may be seen in the British Museum. This
process is alluded to in Homer ((M^m. iii. 425) ; and as
early as Moses the brazen censers of the disobedient were,
by the lawgiver's command, beaten out into ptatee for
covering the Tabernacle. The most antient civilised in-
habitants of India seem to have adopted the same manner
of working in laminae, or plates: there is an example of it
in the British Museum in a figure of Buddha. A great
saving of metal was effeeted by this process.
Soldering (c^XXfr<ncj. or the art of uniting the parts of
metals, is attributed (Herod, i. 25) to Glaucus of Ghiot, a
contemporary of Alyattes king of Lydia. The art of sol-
dering iron is attributed solely to Glaueus. (Compare
Pausan. x. 16. with Herod, i 85.)
It is extremely diflleult to determine when the art of
metal-casting en regular moulds was first practised. It was
undoubtedly known very early, though its adoption in Eu-
ropean Greece is probably of a comparatively late date. Its
progress was eriaently marked by three distinct Stages,
liie first was simply melting the metal into a mass, and
then beating it out either as solid hammer-work, or in plates.
The next was casting it into a mould or fbrm ; the statue
being of course made solid. The last, which argues con-
siderable knowledge and sfciD, was easthig it into a mould.
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\»hh & eentre or core to limit the thickness of the metal.
The first artists who are celebrated by the historians of
Greek art for their success in metal-casting are Rhoecus (who
is said to have invented the casting of metal), Theodonis,
and Telecles, natives of Samos (Herod, i. 50 ; Pans. viii. 14 ;
PUn. N, H. xxxT. 1 2) ; and the manner in which they are
spoken of proves that their works were held in high estima-
tion long after their own time. There is some difficulty in
fixing their date with precision, as there were two or three of
the same names, but it seems probable that the first
artists so called lived between 700 and 600 B.C. Theodorus
is made by Herodotus the contemporarv of Crcesus, who
was defeated by Cyrus B.C. 557. Gitiadas of Sparta and
Glaucias of iSgina hold also a distinguished rank among the
earlier artists in bronze ; to whonwe might add a long list.
Herodotus (v. 77.) says that four bronze horses were made
by the Athenians from the tenth part of the value of the
ransom of the Bosotians and Chalcidians : the horses were
placed at the entrance of the propylcDa on the Acropolis,
with an appropriate inscription. The antient artists do
not appear to have considered it important to cast their
statues entire, for Pliny acquaints us with the composition
used for soldering the parts together. The finest collection
of antient bronzes, taking it as a whole, is at Naples:
among the specimens there are some very curious for the
manner in which the ringlets of hair, worked separately, are
fastened on : many of these are the size of lite. Bronze-
casting seems to have reached its perfection in Greece about
the time of Alexander the Great, 330 B.C. The accounts
given of the works executed about that time almost exceed
credibility. After Lvsippus, the favourite sculptor of Alex-
ander, Who executea, according to Pliny (xxxiv. 8), above
600 works, the art declined.
The antient statuaries seem to have been extremely
choice in their selection and composition of bronze. Two
of the most celebrated, contemporary with Phidias, earned
their rivalship so far as to employ bronze of different ooun
tries ; Polycletus preferring that of il^gina, while Myron
always used that made at Delos. The antients seem to
have had a method of running or welding various metals
together, by which they were enabled to produce more or
less the effect of natural colour. Some works are described
that were remarkable for the success which attended this
curious, and to us unattainable, process. They also tinted
or painted their bronze with the same view of more closely
imitating nature. (Callistrat, Stat. ; Plin. xxxiii. 9 ; Plut.,
Sjrmp. lib. v., and others ; see also Quatrem^re de Quincy,
Jup. Olymp.) The story of the accidental mixture of the
most precious bronze used by the antients, namely the Co-
rinthian« has been too often repeated to require further
notice here. Pliny himself refutes the story which he records.
He informs us also that there were three sorts of the Corin-
thian broQie. The first, called candidum, received its name
fhHn the effect of silver which was mixed with the copper ;
the second had a greater proportion of gold ; the third, Pliny
says, was composed of equal quantities of the different metals.
The antient writers mention several of the bronzes that
were used : amongst them we find ^s Hepatizon, or Uver-
coloured ; M» Deliacum, and iSs iEgineticum— Plutarch
says the composition of the Delian brass was a secret lost in
his time— ^s Demonnesium, JEs Nigrum* and, lastly,
Tartessian bronze (Topr^mnoc x^f^^)* of which, it must be
confessed, we know httle or nothing beyond their titles. The
analysis of a few specimens of bronze of undoubted anti-
quity, namely a helmet with an inscription (found at Del-
phi, and now m the British Museum), some nails from the
treasury of Atreus at Mycenss, an ttntient Corinthian coin,
and a portion of a breastplate or cuirass, of exquisite work-
manship, also in the British Museum, affords about 87 or
88 parts copper to about 12 or 13 of tin per cent. The ex-
periments of Klaproth and others give nearly the same
results as to ingredients; the quantities sometimes differ
slightly: lead is contained in some specimens. Zinc has
not been found in any quantity sufficient to warrant a belief
that it was intentionally introduced ; indeed it is thought
that its nature was not understood by the antients. In an
antique sword found many years ago in France, the pro-
portion in 100 parts was 87 '47 of copper to 12*53 of tin,
with a portion of zinc so small as not to be worth noticing
(Mongez, Mem. de I'IneHL), The same may be observed
of minute portions of silver that have sometimes appeared
^se. (AfiS^iL di Ercolano.)
Uomans never attained any great eminence in the
arts of design. Their earliest statues were ezeeuied for
them by Etruscan artists. Rome however, as the conquests
of that warhke people were extended, was soon filled wnh a
prodigious numher of works of the best schools of Gfecc4^ ;
and artists of that country, unable to meet with emplo) -
ment at home, settled in the eapitiU of the West. 2eno-
dorus executed some magnificent works in tho time of Nero,
particularly a colossal statue of the emperor* 110 ft. hi^b.
But Pliny, who Uved in the reign of Vespasian, laments
the decline of the art and the want of skill of the artists m
his time. It is even said that the art of casting bronze
statues was lost. This assertion is however totally un-
founded, for it appears that a Greek sculptor, CeWa. was
highly distingwshed under Domitian, and one of his works,
a colossal equestrian statue cast in bronze» is much ceh>
brated ; and there is no doubt that the art was well known
under Trajan, Hadrian, the Antonines, and even much later.
The practice of gilding bronze statues does not seem to
have prevailed till taste had much deteriorated, and when
the richness of material was more highly thooght of than
the excellence of workmanship. Pliny tells us that Nero
commanded a statue of Alexander, by Lysippus, to be gilt,
but when done it was found to have so much ii^jund the
effect or beauty of the work, that the gold was bv the em-
peror s orders removed. The ixgury was doubtless occa-
sioned by tlie glitter and sparkling of the light upon the
projecting and shining surfaces, destroying the breadth, ami
consequent grandeur and unity of effect secured by the
more sober colour of the bronze. The practice of art amoo^
the Romans declining rapidlv, and with but few interrup-
tions, ceases to interest us about 200 aj>. In the bcfpn-
ning of the thirteenth oentury, at the taking of Constanti-
nople, we read that some of the finest wwlu of the antient
masters were purposely destroyed, either with the object uf
converting the material into money, or for sale to the brass-
founders, for the mere value of the metsL AT"""g the
few works saved from this devastation are the eelebrated
bronze horses, which now decorate the exterior of the cbinth
of St. Mark at Venice.
Passing over the intermediate age of darkness and bar-
barism, we arrive at the epoch of the revival of art in Its]}.
under the Pisani and others, about the fourteenth a&d
fifteenth centuries. The celebrated bronze gates of tiw
Baptistery at Florence, by Ghiberti, which M. Angelo sail
were fit to be the gates of Paradise, are among the more
remarkable works of the time. In the succeeding centurr
we find Guglielmo della Porta practising the art with so
great success, that he obtained the fiatterine notice of
Michel Angelo; and he is distinguished by Vasari (Vas.
yit. di Leone Leoni) for adopting a mode of casting that
was considered quite original, in executing his colofeal
statue of Paul III. The metal, when run from the fur-
nace, was carried downwards by a duct, and then admittect
into the underside or bottom of the mould (nel ba^o tU
basso) ; and thus, acted upon by superior presstue, as iu a
common fountain, was forced upwards till the mould «as
entirely filled. It is necessary in this process that the
mould should be kept in a state of great heat, in order that
the metal may not cool before the whole is run. Butamon^
the artists who are celebrated for their skill in bronse-
casting, Benvenuto Cellini holds a most distinguished rank -
there are few collections that cannot boast some specimen
of his smaller productions, while the larger works that rr-
main, particularly at Florence, prove that his high r^uu-
tion was not undeserved. In his interesting and iiMnAutic
autobiography he gives some curious particulars on mcul-
casting ; and an anecdote which he tells respecting one *A
his works illustrates an important fact in the process, whLc,
at the same time, it is nighly characteristic of the inpe-
tuositv of the man. Copper alone is thick and pasty, and
therefore incapable, without some aUoy. of running inlo aU
the cavities and sinuosities of the mould ; a small mixtaiv
of tin is therefore usually added to give it the qualm
necessary for producing what is called a troe cast. He
was engaged on his fine group of Perseus and Medo<i.
during which, by the jealousy of rivals and the ill-emluei
of his workmen, he had been subjected to every kind ul
annoyance and disappointment. At length bis labour*
seemed to be nearly at an end : his mould was lowered ini *
the pit, the furnace heated, and the metal thrown in. At
this time, while a violent storm raged witliout, the nx>f <i
his study, as if to increase the confusion, caught fire • bu:
though ill and harassed, he still directed the works and <!2-
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roura^ed his assiflUnts, till orercome by anxiety and fatigae
he retired in a raging fever to lie down, leaving instructions
respecting the opening of the mouth of the fumaee.and the
running of the bronze. He had not, he says, been reposing
vcrv long before one came running to him to announce evQ
tidings : the metal was malted but would not run. He
jumped from his bed, rushed into his studio like a madman,
and threatened the lives of his assistants, who being fright-
ened got out of his wi^, till one of them, to appease him,
desired him to give his orders and they would obey him at
all risks. He commanded fVesh f^el to be thrown into the
furnace, and presently, to his satisfaction, the metal began
to boil. Again however it appeared thick and sluggish,
and refused to run. He then oidered all the plates, dishes,
and other articles of domestic use in his house to be brought
to him, which he threw pell-mell on the metal, when it
imme<l lately became fluid and the mould was soon filled.
He adds that he fell down on his knees, and poured forth a
fer\-cnt thanksgiving to Almighty God for the success that
had crowned his exertions. In the processes above described
the metal was allowed to flow at once from the furnace into
the channels or ducts of the moulds. The statue of Louis
XIV., by Girardon, one of the most celebrated sculptors of
France, was cast somewhat differently, tnough with equal
success. The wax which regulated the thickness of the
metal being entirely melted out, and the mould fixed in the
pit, with the necessary vents for the escape of the air, the
metal was allowed to run from a furnace, placed consider-
ably above, into a sort of trough or basin. In this were
three apertures, closed by plugs, immediately over the ehief
channel or conduit by which the metal was to be conveyed
into the mould. These, by a mechanical contrivance, were
opened simultaneously, when the metal descended at once
into the mould. This group was cast entire.
The more modem practice of the English, French, Italian,
and German artists does not differ materially in its prin-
ciple from that of the earlier Italians. Some however use
what is called a cupola-furnace, and others a blast-furnace.
A few oliscrvations on the mode practised in Mr. Westma-
cott's foundry, where the chief colossal as well as other
works that have been produced in thi^ countrv have been
cast, may not be misplaced here. The moulds, composed
of a mixture of plaster of Paris and brick-dust, are made in
the usual way on the plaster-cast models. A lining of wax
or clay is then made within the mould, of the proposed
thickness of the metal. The mould thus lined being then
put carefully together, the space or interior is filled up solid
with a mixture of plaster ana brick-dust. &c. : this is called
the core. The whole now consists of three parts — the
mould, the lining of wax or clay (which represents the
metal), and the core. When the mass forming the core is
set, and fixed with irons and keys to preserve it in its just
po<(ition, the mould is again taken to pieces, and the wax or
chy removed ; the channels for distributing the metal and
\ents for the escape of the air are then made, and the whole
b(Mng put together is placed in a stove or oven to be dried.
When perfectly free from any humidity (a most important
point, as the slightest damp might occasion fatal conse-
quences by the bursting of the mould when the boiling
metal descends into it), the whole is carefhllv lowered into
the pit, and closely rammed down with sand, &c. to prevent
its moving ; the channels for the metal to enter and the
vents for the escape of the air being of course kept perfectly
clear. When the metal is ready for running, the mouth of
the furnace, which is placed rather above the level of the
top of the pit, is opened, and the bronze descends imme-
diately into tlie mould. The mixture of metal preferred by
the above-mentioned sculptor is that used for casting guns
[Cannon], to which he adds about 30 per cent, of pure
eopper, extracting from 3 to 4 per cent, of tin. In modern
practice it is not considered important to cast the whole
work at once: on the contrary, in case of accidents, which
however are of very rare occurrence, there is an advantage
in being able to renair parts; and the process of burning,
successfully adopted by Westmaoott and others in the largest
works (and which is found a great improvement on the an-
tient method of soldering), renders the joined portions even
firmer or strongerat their point of junction than the general
body of the cast
It has already been stated that bronze for different uses
varies in composition. In France bronze for cannons is'
composed of 100 copper and 11 tin. Bronze for cymbifls
and tamtans ia composed of 78 copper and 22 tin ; its spd»
cifie gravity hi 9.8 1(. Some cymbals yielded however 80
per cent of copper. Dr. Thomson found English bell
metal to consist of
Copper . . .80
Tin . . . 10- 1
Zinc . . . 5'C
Lead , . . 4'S *
lOO-
Reflectors for telescopes consist of 66 parts of copper and
S3 parts of tin : they resemble steel in colour, are very hard
ana brittle, and siAceptible of a fine polish.
Bronze for medals is formed of 100 oopper and 7 to 11 of
tin and zinc.
This short histor}' of bronze-casting is purposely limited
to its reference to the fine arts ; and though, in speaking of
celebrated productions or artists, it has been considered right
to introduce, incidentally, such particulars of practice as
might tend to illustrate the subject, the details of the various
processes of moulding, coring, melting, chasing, Slc. &c.
are omitted, as belonging more properly to founding and
casting.
BROOKE, HENRY, is one of the occasionally recur-
ring instances of men of letters who having, firom acci-
dental circumstances, enjoyed during life a reputation
beyond their merits, afterwards sink into an oblivion so
complete, that it might bo said to be almost equally un-
deserved, were not mediocrity in belles lettres, especially in
poetry, almost the same as worthlessness. Henry Brooke
published his first poem, ' Universal Beauty,' with the appro-
bation and sanction, and even with the direct encouragement
and under the patronage of Pope ; he was received by him
and Swift, if not as a literary compeer, yet as decidedlv one
of their class ; and his tragedy of ' The Earl of Essex long
ranked, we believe, among what are called stock plays. Yet
now tlie< author is all but forgotten ; he was not allowed a
place in the list of Johnson*s poets ; and his ' Universal
Beauty,* which, though deformed by awkwardness and even
incorrectness of language, admitted for the sake of metre
and rhyme, displays considerable imagination and descrip-
tive power, is now, and for years has been, so absolutely
unknown, that later poets have borrowed ideas from it with-
out fear of detection.
Henry Brooke, born a.d. 1706, was the son of an Irish
clergyman. At Trinity College, Dublin, he was a pupil of
Dr. Sheridan, through whom, upon going to London to study
the law, he was first introduced to Pope and Swift, when
his own promising talents seem to have gained him their
favour. After the publication of his great poem he was
presented to Frederic Prince of Wales, and received by him
as one of the band of men of letters whom that prince
considered as powerful agents in his hostility to his father's
administration. In this character Brooke is accused of
having written his tragedy of ' Gustavus Vasa,* not merely
with a view of exciting and fostering a spirit of hberty, hut
in order to vituperate the premier, Sir Robert Walpole,
under the name of the tyrannical minister Trollio. This
suspicion has since been indignantly repelled by Brooke's
admiren ; but it was so universally entertained at the time,
that the stage licenser prohibited the representation of the
piece, and the author, in consequence, made far more tiy its
publication and sale than he could have hoped from its ut-
most success upon the stage, to wit, 1000/.
Ill health and the perauasions of his wife, who dreaded
and sought to withdraw him iVom his political connexions,
induced Brooke to return to Ireland, where he spent the
remainder of his life, and obtained from Lord Chesterfield
(when viceroy) the post of barrack-master, which he held
(ill his death. He had a large flimily, and though possess-
ing, it is believed, no means beyond his official salary and
his literary earnings, he generously supported a brother with
an equally large family. He thus involved himself in pe-
cuniary difficulties, which, together with the loss of his wife,
after a happy marriage of 50 years, and of several of his
children, so preyed upon his mind, already weakened per-
haps by age, as to impair his intellect ; and, unfortunately
fbr his fiime, he continued to write and to publish after
the decay of his faculties had become too apparent. He
wrote in all 13 tragedies, of which only * Gustavus Vasa
and ' The Earl of Essex' could boast any success, many
small poems, and part of a translation of Tasso's * Gerusa-
lemme Liberata.' His novel of * The Fool of Quality* was
mudi admired in its day ; and his ' Fanner's Letten,' ad-
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dressed to his Irish countrymen, are said to have had
considerable influence in producing and maintaining the
tranquillity of Ireland during the rebellion of 1 745. Nor
must the fact, honourable alike to Brooke's enlightened
judgment and to his candour, be omitted, that he was one
of the earliest advocates for the repeal of the penal laws,
at that time in full force against the Roman CathoUcs.
Henr>* Brooke died in the year 1 783. (Campbeirs Speci-
mens of English Poets.)
BROOKLYN, a post-town in King's County, on the W.
end of Long Island in the state of New York, situated in
40° 42' N. Tat. and 74® 1' W. long., on the shore of East
River, the channel which divides Long Island from the city
of New York, and which at this part is little more than half
a mile broad.
Brooklyn is an incorporated town and contains the private
residences of many merchants of the city of New York.
The communication between the two places is kept up by
steam-vessels which are constantly passing and re-passing
throughout the day. The growth of Brooklyn within the
present century has been very rapid. The pop., which in
1800 amounted to 3278, was 4402 in 1810, 7175 in 1820,
and 12,043 in 1830. It contains two banking corporations
with capitals of 300,000 and 200,000 dollars respectively,
and three insurance companies, whose aggregate capitals
amount to half a million of dollars : it has also some manu-
factures and trade. Many of the houses are spacious and
of handsome elevation, and the view of New York and its
har. from the terrace on East River is very fine. To the E.
of Brooklyn, at Wallaboght, is a navy-yard and storehouse,
which belong to the general government of the U. 8. Near
Flatbush, to the S. of Brooklyn, a battle was fought be-
tween the British and Americans in the revolutionary war.
BROOM. [SPARTIUM.l
BRO'SCUS, a genus of coleopterous insects, according
to Latreille belonging to the section of the Carabidee called
Simplicimani. In Latreille's work, however, this genus re-
tains the name of Cephalotes (given to it by Bonelli, from
the circumstance of the species possessing an unusually
large head), which has been expunged by many naturalists
owing to its having been previously used to designate a
genus in some other branch of natural history.
The insects of this genus are remarkable for the almost
total absence of the indented strise on the elytra, generally
observed in the insects of the tribe to which they belong,
and for the large and strong mandibles, the elongate form
of the body, and the somewhat heart-shaped thorax, which
is much attenuated posteriorly.
Technical characters: — palpi with all their joints of nearly
equal thickness, the terminal joint of the maxillary palpi
rather short and truncated : the antenna) if extended back-
wards reaching to the base of the thorax : mandibles uni-
dentate internally: labrum entire: anterior tarsi of the
males with the three basal joints dilated.
The species are generally found under stones, and often
accompanied by fras^ments of numerous other insects de-
voured by them. When taken in the hand they will often
pretend to be dead, extending their Umbs stitfly, and it is
then with difficulty they can be made to move.
But one species of this curious ^enus is a native of this
country — Broscus cephalotes. It is of a dull black colour,
and varies from three-quarters to an inch in length: its
form is elongate ; the head is nearly equal to the thorax in
bulk *, the elytra are nearly smooth, the longitudinal stri»
being scarcely discernible. It seems to be confined to the sea-
coabt, whcr<3 it is frequently found under stones or rubbish.
In Stephens 8 arrangement of British insects this genus
is classed among the UarpalidsB.
About six or seven exotic species have been discovered.
BROSELEY, a m. t. and par. on the Severn, in the ex-
tensive district called Wenlock Franchise, Shropshire, 13 m.
S.E. from Shrewsbury, 9 m. N. from Bridgenorth, and 130
m. N.W. from London. Its area contains 1550 English
statute acres, and a pop., in 1831, of 2158 males, and 2141
females. The market-day is Wednesday ; an annuaj fair is
held on Easter Monday. The Uving is a rectory, united
with the rectory of Linley, the gross annual income of which
is 539/.
The pop. of Broseley are chiefly employed in the coal and
iron mines of the district. In the Population Returns of
18'H it is stated that * the par. of Broseley has experienced
a decrease of pop. (515 persons), ascribed to the cessation
of five iron blast furnaces; 126 persons are employed in I
minei.* Tbe par. is divided from Coal-Brooke Dila by the
Severn.
Broseley contains thiee daily schooU, fbur day and board-
ing schools, and six Sunday schools. (EduaUum Reiunu,
1835.)
A spdng of petroleum or fossil tar was discovered here. . n
1711, by an inhabitant of the place. This individual hcu-l
a noise in the night, about two nights after a remarkal -
day of thunder. At a boggy place, under a little bill, aU «i
200 yards from the Severn, on digging up a part c^ i.
earth, water rose to a great height, and a candle set it .
fire. The ' burning well,* as it was termed, was sbown !
several years as a curiosity, until the supply of peirolfL ^
failed. The spring broke out again, in 1747, in a simii^r
way, about 10 yards from the old well. About 175'2, t.
spring was cut into by driving a level in search of coal. Tir
quantity of petroleum which then issued was about tbret r
n)ur barrels a day ; but in 1797 there seldom flowed m -.
than half a barrel in the same time. In 1802 the prvifiu
was about 15 gallons per week. At Pitchford, a few mil-^
from Broseley, is a coarse-grained sandstone, highly lu.-
pregnated with petroleum.
In the par. of Broseley salt is said to have been tu j' •
from water taken out of pits, still called the Sait>bouw
Pits.
iPkU, Trans., vol. xxvii., 1712; Gent, Mag.^ \x>l. xx\ .
1755, and vol. Ixxvii., 1807 ; Archdeacon's Plymley's (C.r-
bet) Survey of Shropshire ; Aikin's Tour, 1797: A-^-"-
Edue.f and Pop, Returns ; Boundary Report on IVml*-}. »
BRO'SIMUM, a genus of Urticacese, one species -
which is believed to he the cow tree, or Palode V^acrs •ji
South America. As this however is not certainly awv
tained, we refer for an account of that remarkable vegHAj^
production to the article Cow-Trsb.
BRO'SMIUS, a genus of fishes belonging to the seen
Subbrachial Malacopterygii, and family Gadids. Gecer-
characters : — body elongate, and furnished with a sir.-> .
dorsal fin which extends from near the head to the ti .
the anal fin is also of considerable length, and extendi f:< ^-
the vent to the tail: ventral fins small and fleshy : fl
fu rnished with but one barbule. This genus was estabh^^^ t«:
by Cuvier; it is the genus Gadus of Pennant (Bnu»i
Zoology), and Brosmius of Flamming (Brit. AnJy.
[Broamiiw vulgazis. Tba Tank.]
But one species of brosmius has been found od our ooasL
and that appears to be confined to the northern parts : n
is the £?. vulgaris of Cuvier, commonlv called the Tot&l
and in the Shetlands the Tusk and the Brismak ; in tt.»
latter locality it is abundant, and forms, when barrelled .?
dried, a considerable article of commerce. In Yam. *
History of British Fishes we are informed that this sperjo
also recurs plentifully in ' Norway, as fkr as Finmark of ti ^
Faroe Islands, and the W. and S. coast of Iceland' a&j
other parts.
Not having an opportunity of examining a spscimm, «e
subjoin the description of one given by Pennant: — • hezsrh
twenty inches, and depth four and a half: head small : up^ r
jaw a little longer than the lower : bofli jaws fVimtshed *ith
a multitude of small teeth : on the chin was a small »mci^
beard : from the head to the dorsal fin was a deep fmrww -
the dorsal fin began within six inches of the tip of tb^ t>.^9r.
and extended almost to the tail: pectoral fins small xni
rounded: ventral short, thick and fleshy, ending in ftar
cirrhi : the belly, fi-om the throat, grows very promtnent
anal fin long, and reached almost close to the tail« wbirb :•
small and circular: colour of the head duskv: sides %r^
back yellow, belly white , edges of the dorsaJ. anal, ir-i
caudal fins white, the other parts dusky : pectoral t r «
brown.' We have only to add, that this dei^criplion serf ^
to agree well with the characters of the fish a^ gi^^'o ^♦
other authors. For fUrther information we refer our n"a«?r.-'
to Mr. YarreU's work before cited.
BROTHERS, RICHARD. The^^irth aadjMirij yean
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of Brothers are not well known; nor indeed would the
events of his after life deserve to he rememhered, if his
ravings had not exercised a oonsiderahle influence on his
contemporaries, and thus connected his histoiy with that of
the superstition of his day.
Richard Brothers held for several years the rank of
lieutenant in the British navy, which he quitted in 1789.
A controversy with the lords of the Admiralty ahout hit
half-pay first developed that character of his mind, which
ultimately ripened into a complete delusion. With renpeot
to takinf^ a certain oath in order to qualify himself to
receive his pay, he sent a well-written letter to Philip
Stephens, Esq., of the Admiralty, dated Septemher 9th,
1790, which appeared in the Public Advertiser at the time.
In this letter he exposes the dishonesty of compelling a man
to swear that he takes a certain oath voluntarily, to which
he may have an unconquerable objection. The absurdity
of this practice he mane ao apparent, that the earl of
Chatham had the word ' voluntarily erased from the form
of oath. This, however, did not satisfy Brothers, who
wished to be relieved from taking the oath altogether, an
indulgence which he failed in obtaining.
In consequence of declining to take the oath, he was
very near dying of hunger, and was ultimately taken to a
workhouse. These privations, as well as many others which
he afterwards endured, prove that the man was no impostor,
but that he deceived others no more than he did himself,
being firmly persuaded that his mission was from heaven.
He affirms, in a book which he published in two parts, en-
titled * A Ilevealed Knowledge of the Pronhecies and Times,
&c. London, printed in the year of Cnrist 1 794,* (which
was eagerly bought by all classes, both in town and country,)
*-* It is from visions and revelations, and through the Holy
Ghost, that I write this book for the benefit of all men ;
therefore to say it is false, that I am mad, am an impos-
tor, have a devil, or am out of my senses, constitutes the
dangerous sin of blasphemy.*
From the year 1790 Brothers dates his first call, and soon
after entered on what he considered his mission. On the
12th of May, 1792, he sent letters to the king, ministers of
state, and speaker of the House of Commons, stating that
he was commanded by God to go to the parliament house
on the 17th, and inform the members, for their safety, that
the time was come for the fulfilment of the 7th chapter of
DanieL Accordingly, on the 17th, he presented himself at
the door of the House of Commons, and, aooording to his
own account, met with a very scurvy reception.
Having some time after prophesied the death of the king,
the destruction of the monarchy, and that the crown should
be delivered up to him, he was committed to Newgate,
where, if his statement be true, he was treated with great
(cruelty. But imprisonment did not damp his ardour. On
his liberation, he continued what he denominated his
ministry with renewed energy, and obtained many fol-
lowers. While the more rational part of the community
were laushing at the prophet, there were some persons of
liberal education, and of good ability, who maintained the
divinity of his mission. Among these, Nathaniel Brassey
Halhed, Esq., M.P. for Lymington, and Mr. Sharp, an
eminent engraver, were the most zealous : they published
numerous pamphlets and testimonials in his favour ; and
others to the same effect appeared by Bryan, Wright, Mr.
Weatherall, an apothecary, and a Mrs. Green. Among
other things, Halhed bore testimony to his prophesying
correctly the death of the three emperors of Germany. As
a reward for this testimony, and to remunerate him for
being shunned and reviled by his friends and acquaintance,
the prophet promised him, within three months from that
time, the choice of being either president of the board of
oontrol or governor-general of India.
Such an effect had these and other similar writings on
people of weak understanding, that many persons, as in the
more recent ease of Joanna Southoote, sold their goods, and
prepared themselves to accompany the prophet to Jerusalem,
^here he was to arrive in the year 1795. Jerusalem was
then to become the eapital of the world ; and in the year
1798, when the complete restoration of the Jews was to take
Slsce, he was to be revealed as tiie prince and ruler of the
«ws, and the governor of all nations, for which ofBoe he
appears to have had a greater predilection than for that of
president of the council, or chancellor of the exchequeri
which he said Gtod offered for his acceptance.
Taken altogetiiar the writings of Brothers are a eafknu
jumble of reason and insanity, with no small number of
contradictions, as we might readily suppose. For instance,
Halhed is promised, as a reward for his services, a principal
place in the government by the 20th of May, 1795 ; it was
nowever to be of short duration, for in another place we are
told that by May 26th, in the same year, the government is
to be annihilated for ever.
The following are some of the prophecies of Brothers,
stated in the o^er in which they were published. Many
of them have been either totally or partially fulfilled, a cir-
eumstance not at all surprising when we consider that they
chiefly refer to the eventfUl period immediately subsequent
to the French Revolution. As Brothers also gave himself
considerable latitude in his prophecies, and prophesied very
largely, the real wonder would be if none of them had been
realised.
About July, 1 792, in letters to the King, Queen, and Mi-
nisters of State, he prophesied the violent death of Louis
XVI., and at different times that the then Empress of
Russia should die by the hands of man ; the French Repub-
lic would be established for ever; the King of England's
power was to cease, and his crown to be dehvered up to the
prophet Rome and Venice to fall under the power of the
Emperor of Germany, the former to be retaken by the
French, the latter to be plundered and almost destroyed.
The emperor to be driven to make peace with the victorious
French, and then quarrel with the English. This predic-
tion was literally fulfilled : he made peace with France,
December 26, 1805. and in 1808 declared against England.
After which, according to Brothers, he was to seize on Ha-
nover and subdue Germany entirely. An army was to be
overthrown in Italy, which happened in 1809. Prussia was
to acknowledge the French Republic and make peace with
it, which took place April, 1795, then to extend its domi-
nions, and afterwards the king's life to be taken and the mo-
narchy for ever destroyed b]^ Russia and Austria. The
Russian army (or bear), as if impatient for its food, was
* to rise and devour much flesh ;* to enter Turkey and com-
paratively overrun the land, treading down and devouring
with great fury all opposition. ' At the capital it stops .
here are its decreed limits, no farther it must go. Here the
Russian general divides the spoil of many cities with his
army and the rich provinces of Turkey between his officers.
Here he despises the oath of fidelity, and throws away the
submission of a subject, proclaiming himself Emperor of
Greece" Russia to be destroyed by Sweden— the Spanish
monarchy to be destroyed ana the Stadtholdership of Hol-
land to be cut ofiT close to the ground, which office in less
than a year was actually abolished. The Popedom to be
destroyed — an earthquake to swallow the parliament when
Bitting, and great part of London. America to go to war
with England — France to lose her West Indian islands. The
cardinals to quarrel, and Rome to be overthrown by an
earthquake^ &c. &c.
Brothers, when in London, resided for some time at 5,
Beaufort-buildings, Strand, and afterwards at 57, Paddings
ton-street, where he wrote his prophecies. He was unas-
suming in his manners, careful not to give personal oiTence,
and courted retirement rather than publicity, resting happy
in the complete conviction that in due time all his pro-
phecies would be accomplished.
BROTIER. GABRIEL, was bom at Tannay m the
Nivemois, Sept 5, 1723, and received the appointment of
librarian of the college of Louis le Grand from the Jesuits
amonff whom he was Guested. On the suppression of that
order he lived in privacy, and devoted himself to literature.
In 1781 he was elected member of the academy, and died
in Paris, Feb. 12, 1 789. His original works hanlly deserve
uotiee, and it is upon his editions of Tacitus tiiat his repu-
tation is chieflv founded. The Paris editions, 4 vols. 4to.
1771, and 7 vols. 12mo. 1776, difier considerably from each
other, but in the English editions the two are incorporated.
Brotier published idso an edition of Pliny *s ' Natural His-
tonr; in 6 vols. 12mo. 1779, the * Fables of Phfledrus,* 1 783,
and Amyot*s translation of * Plutarch*8 Lives,* in 28 vols.
1783, revised and republished in 25 vols. 1801.
BROTULA, a genus of fishes, of the order Subbrachial
Iffalaoopterygii and fSumily Ghididtt, chiefly distinguished by
the dorsal and anal fins being united with the caudal and
forming one fin, which terminates in a point
The only apeeies known (B» barbatui of Cuvier) ia from
the Antlllefl.
Thto gemu is ekielf iUied to Brotaim.
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BROUGH. [Wbstmoiirland.]
BROUGHTON ARCHIPELAGO » a cluster of rocky
islands in the Pacific Ocean to the E. of New Zealand, be-
tween 44° and 45° S. lat., and 180** and 185® E. long.; it
consists of a great number of smaller islands and rocks, and
a few of moderate size. The largest is Chatham Island,
and next to it Pitt's Island and Cornwallis Island.
BROUNCKER. or BROUxNKER. WILLIAM, Vis-
count Brouncker, of Castle-Lyons in Ireland (which title waa
conferred on his father, who had been president of Munster
in 1645), was bom about 1620. In 1646 he was made Doctor
of Physic at Oxford. In' 1660, having then succeeded his
father, who died in 1645, he subscribed the declaration
issued in April by the friends of the restoration. In 1662
and 1663 he was named President of the Royal Society in
the charters of incorporation then granted ; which office he
held for 15 years. He was also chancellor of the Queen, a
lord of the admiralty, and master of St Catherine's Hos-
pital. He died April 5th, 1684.
Lord Brouncker was a mathematician, and is the author
of two remarkable discoveries. He was the first who intro-
duced continued fractions, as follows. When WalHs was
engaged upon the interpolation which led him to his well-
known theorem on the quadrature of the circle, he applied
to Brouncker to consider the question ; and the latter arrived
at the following conclusion *— if ir represent the ratio of the
eircumference to the diameter, then
JL= 1 ^J
2+9
2 + 25
2 + &C.
This theorem was first given by Wallis C Aritli. Inf.,*
Works, vol. i. p. 469) with a demonstration, the heading of
which is so ambiguously worded, that we are left in doubt
whether it was his own demonstration, or his own account
of Lord Brouncker*s. Montvicla states the first in one
place CHist. Rech. Quad. Cere.,* 1831, p. 123), and the
second in another (' Hist. Math.,* vol. ii. p. 355).
Brouncker was also the first who gave a series for the
quadrature of a portion of the equilateral hyperbola (* Phil.
Trans.,* 1668, No. 34). There is also a paper of his (1673,
No. 98) on the contest relative to the discovery of the Neilian
parabola ; and another (to which we cannot find the refer-
ence) on the recoil of guns. Some letters of his to Arch-
bishop Usher are at the end of R. Parr's life of the latter ;
and some to Wallis, in his 'Commercium Epistolicum*
{Works, vol. iii. p. 757).
BROUSSONE'TIA, a dicBcious tree, from whose inner
bark the Japanese and the Chinese have manufactured a
kind of paper and the South Sea Islanders the principal
part of their clothing. The only known species forms a
small tree with soft, brittle, woolly branches, and large,
hairy, rough leaves, either heart-shaped and undivided, or
cut into deep irregular lobes. Some of the individuals are
sterile, others fruiSiil. The flowers of the aterile trees grow
in catkins, which fall soon after their anthers have all shed
their pollen ; these catkins are composed of little greenish-
purple membranous calyxes, each seated in the axil of a
hairy bract and containing four elastic stamens. The
flowers of the fruitful trees are collected into round green
heads, and consist of a calyx like that of the sterile tree,
with a small simple pistil oceupyiog its centre, and having
a long downy stigma. The neads gradually push forth
little oblong greenish bodies, which are the ripening fruits,
which at maturity have a bright scarlet colour, and are of
a pulpy consistence, with a sweetish insipid taste,
i Broussonetia papyri/ere^ or the paper mulberry, as it is
usually called, is not uncommon in the shrubberies of this
countrv, where it proves perfectly hardy ; but it is hable to
be broken by winds, and soon becomes an unsightly object
Its wood, hke that of many other arborescent Urticaceae, is
soft, spongy, and of no value. In the tenacity of the woody
tissue of its liber or inner bark it also corresponds with the
general character of that order. It is from that part that
the preparations above alluded to have been obtained. Sir
James Smith gives the following abridgment of Kaempfer's
account of the preparation of paper from its bark by the
Japunesc. * For this purpose the branches of the present
f. after the leaves are fallen, in December, are chosen,
«ing cut into pieces about a yard long, are boiled till
lark shrinks and is easily separable from the wood,
which 18 then thrown away. The bark being dried i» pre
served till it is wanted. In order to make paper it ia •OiaLed
for three or four hours in water, after which the extemai
skin and the green internal coat are scraped off; al the
same time the stronger and firmer pieces are aelecteil, the
produce of the youngest shoots being of an inferior qualitr.
If any very old portions present themselves they are, od ti e
other hand, rejected as too coarse. All knotty parts, aiid
every thing which might impair the beauty of the paper. >
also removed. The chosen bark is boiled in a lixivium t.ii
its downy fibres can be separated by a touca of tiie fiotre*.
The pulp so produced is then agitated in water till it rM'.u.«
bles tufts of tow. If not sufficiently boiled, the paper ail.
be coarse though strong ; if too much, it will be white, ir-
deed, but deficient in strength and solidity. Upon th.
various degrees and modes of washing the pulp, much a!*<
depends as to the quality and beauty of the paper. )U
cilage obtained from boiling rice, or from a root called Or**^
(Ka)mpf., 474), one of the mallow tribe, i& afterwards add«^
to the pulp. The paper is finished much after the £un>-
pean mode, except that stalks of rushes are used instead oi
brass wires.*
BROUWER. [Bbauwbr.]
BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN, the firat emintr.t
American novelist, in point of time, was bom at Philadelph:i
in 1771. From childhood he manifested an eikgTua&ir.j
love of study. He chose the law for his profession, but tcu^
a distaste to it, and was never called to the bar. Theiiic-
forward he devoted himself to metaphysics, general \\w
rature, and politics. His first work was * Alcuin/ a wild sen. i
of speculations on the fancied evils of marriage; fur vh.> .
however, he found himself unable to devise a remedy. * W / -
land,* his first novel, appeared in 1798. It was fuUoweJ {\
* Ormond,' * Arthur Mervyn,' * Edgar Huntley,' and • t .ir :
Howard,' before 1801; and by 'Jane Talbot,* in I- s.
* Carwin,* and some other unfinished pieces, were puU .->.. .
after his death, in 1822. He established two Uterar> j <:r
nals : ' The Monthly Magazine and American RL>:t«
commenced in April, 1799, and continued to the enC
1800; and * The Literary Magazine and Amencan K.*
gister,' commenced in October, 1803, and c^Mittuucd t «
years. In 1806 he commenced a half-yearly work, 'V.
American Register,' of which he lived to complete 5 < :«
He published also some political pamphlets. An o^«r-«tu
dious and sedentary life, acting on a delicate constituii
brought on consumption, of which he died, Februari .*.
1810. He is described as having been a man of ranun: -
temper, benevolent heart, great invention, ex.Censi«e i:-
tainments, and prodigious industry ; and of most delica:.*
and stainless morality.
Brown's novels, after being long unknown or forguicr .
acquu'ed a sudden popularity in England about U«c .-
years ago. In style they bear some resemblance to th*^
of Godwin, whom Brown greatly admired. For Ihcir mv r i ,
we concur in the criticism of the Encyclopedia Ainenc^h .
I Their leading traits are rich and correct dictioo, var^^
incident, vivid scenes of joy and sorrow ; a minute dr« :
lopment and strong display of emotion ; and a powerful i.<
of wonderful phenomena in the physical faculties and hal :•
of man. Almost all is new and strange in his marh.a.^
and situations, but he deals too much m the horrible u .
criminal. Ex travagant and consummate depravity acSiu.' . -^
too many of his characters. His scenes may rivet attri-
tion, and his plots excite the keenest cariosity : yet Utty
pain the heart beyond the privilege of fiction, and Icaic .:
the imagination only a crowd of terrific phantoms.*
We may remark, in illustration of this passage, thai i :
' Wieland,' the story turns on the predisposition to i2uamt> .
produced by the spontaneous combustion of a puent iipiA
an excitable mind, which is at last driven to crime, despair.
and suicide, by the persecution of an extraovdinary bemg-
Carwin, the Biloquist, of the later fragment— poseeased .:
extraordinary powers analogous to Tentriloquiam. I-.
' Edgar Huntley,' the whole intricacy of the story depei>«
on somnambulism. * Arthur Mervyn * deserves notice -
an historical light, as presenting a fearftiUy true pictun .:
the ravages formerly made by the yellow-fever in the Aiw-
ncan cities. The scene is laid at Philadelphia, in the pr*
tilence of 1793. Brown's novels were reprinted at Ba»tw.
in 6 vols. 8vo., 1828. (Dunlaps Li/eqfC. B. Bnmm. i^Z .
Encyd, Americana,)
BROWN, JOHN, founder of the system of medktu
termed Brunoniau. It is nnneccAnL to txaoe minntef
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the erenU of his life, as they are now of litde interest He
was bora in 1735 at Dunse, in Berwickshire, of parents in
very limitod cireumstances, who designed him for the occu-
pation of a weaver ; but a love of learning, which he acquired
when a child at school, determined him to study for the
church. Accordingly he wont to Edinburgh, and while
pursuing his own studies, he taught Latin to obtain a live-
lihood. Having been employe to translate a medical
thesis into Latin, he was induced to pay some attention to
medical studies, and began to attend the lectures of several
of the medical professors of the University, among others,
tliose of Dr. Cullen, who having discovered his knowledge
of Latin, made him tutor to his sons. Having completed
the requisite course of medical studies, he obtained the
degree of doctor ^m the University of St Andrew's. His
improvident habits soon involved him in pecuniary diffi-
culties, and his hasty temper in quarrels with his medical
brethren. He imagined that Dr. Cullen did not assist him
to the extent he might have done, and he conceived a
dislike to his former preceptor and benefactor, which he
displayed in away that he thought would be most annoying
and humiliating to Cullen. It is most probable that Dr.
Cullen had withdrawn his countenance from Brown on
account of his immoral language and conduct Cullen's
system of medicine was then in the highest repute, and
Brown conceived the idea of bringing forward a rival sys-
tem, which would supersede that of his master. Actuated
by these motives, he proceeded to frame a system, of which,
unlike the complex doctrines of the Cullenian system, sim-
plicity should be the basis and recommendation. This was
tho origin of his Blementa Medicirue.
The fundamental doctrine of this system was that life
was a forced state, and only sustained by the action of ex-
ternal agents operating upon the body, every part of which
was endowed, at the commencement of existence, with a
certain amount of excitability. If the power or force of the
external exciting agents was within a certain limit, the
body was maintained in equilibrium, or in health : if the
force fell short of a certain amount, the excitability accumu-
lated in the body, and produced diseases which he termed
sthenic; while the external agents, if in excess, exhausted the
excitability too rapidly, and produced asthenic diseases.
The means of remedying these diseases were in accordanc^e
with the views of their origin, and were equally simple and
few. He discarded the numerous drugs which his prede-
cessors and contemporaries employed, and confined himself
to tivo— alcohol in any of its forms, as wine, brandy, &c.,
as a remedy for the one set of diseases, and opium for the
opposite set He made some converts to his opmions among
the students, but the fatal results which followed the appli-
cation of these doctrines to practice brought discredit upon
them in Edinburgh ; and their author, hoping for greater
success, removed to London, where he died of apoplexy in
1788, without having obtained the distinction and fortune
which he expected. His system never found much favour
in this country, except among a few whose minds inclined
them to the adoption ot hasty generalizations, such as Dr.
Beddoes, who edited an edition of the Elements of Medicine,
2 vols. 8vo. Loudon, 1795, with a life of Brown prefixed.
His whole works, with a mere ample life, were published
by his son William Cullen Brown, 3 vols. 8vo. Lend. 1804.
Brown*s doctrines met with a more general reception in
Germany and Itidy ; in the former country they were pro-
pagated with great zeal by Girtanner and Weikard. Rasori
made them known in Italy, and at first believed them to be
well-founded, but experience convinced him of their inaccu-
racy, and he subseouently renounced his belief in them.
BROWN, THOMAS, son of the Rev. Samuel Brown,
was born on the 9th of January, 1778, at the manse of the
parish of Kirkmabreck, in the Stewarty of Kirkcudbright.
About a year after her husband's death Mrs. Brown re-
moved with her family to Edinburgh. Before he was three
years old Thomas prevailed on her to teach him to read;
the alphabet he learned at his first lesson, and before com-
pleting his fourth year he could read in the most distinct
manner any book he met with. The Bible was his lesson
book. TVhen between four and five years of age, a lady
observing him alone sitting on the floor with a large family
Bible on his knee, which he was dividing into different parts
with one of his hands, asked him S he was going to
preach, as she saw he was looking for a text ? * No ;*
said he, * I am only wishing to see what the EvangeUsts
diiler in, for they don't all give the same account of Christ.*
Once when ill, about this time, he eonld not be made to ro-
main at r jst m bed until thev brought him an immense
volume of old ballads, which kept him quiet with delight
until he got most of them by heart. The boy though
amiable was firm, and no beating could make him i^
pardon.
About his eifl^tn year he was removed to a school at
Chiswick, in which the present Lord Lyndhurst was one
of his classfellows. His last school, which he left in his
sixteenth year, was Dr. Thomson s at Kensington. At
school, the quickness of his memory made him disregard the
task of committing a passage of an auO&or to heart ; and in
order to gratify his insatiable thirst for reading, he got the
books of the village circulating library put under the aoor of
the play-ground until he read them all. On his vacation
visits to his uncle at Kew, he regularly read Shakspeare
through.
Soon after the death of his uncle, in 1792, he returned to
Edinburgh ; and in the session of 1 792-3 studied logic in
the Universitv of Edinburgh under Dr. Finlayson. Spend-
ing a part of the ensuing summer in Liverpool, he became
acquainted with Dr. Currie, who put into his hands a copy
of Stewart's ' Elements of the Philosophy of the Human
Mind.' Brown was struck with an inconsistency in the doc-
trines of Stewart : he pointed it out to Dr. Currie, and next
winter, when attending Stewart's class, he was bold enough
to state it to him at the close of one of his lectures. Stewart
heard him patiently, and read a letter to him from M. Pro-
vost of Geneva, containing the same objection. Stewart
held that in sleep the operations of the mind which depend
on the will are suspended, along with the doctrine that
memory depends on attention, the creature of the will ; the
objection is obvious, why then do we remember our dreams?
The acuteness which exposed the error consists more in
seeing it through the ^lozes and colouring under which it
was hid, than in the objection itself. The professor invited
his pupil to his house, but never disputed with him.
For several years Brown attended the lectures of Stewart,
Robinson, Playfair,. and Black : his evenings were gene-
rally spent in conversational discussions on idl sorts of sub-
jects with his friends Horner, Leyden, Reddie, and
Erskine.
When little more than eighteen years of age, the remarks
he had made in reading Darwin's 'Zoonomia* had swelled
from a few notes, for an article in a periodical, to the size of
a book« Before printing it, by the advice of Professor
Stewart, he sent his MS. to Darwin, who received it very
dryly, and answered it with no little asperity. In the be-
ginning of 1798 appeared, in 1 vol. 6va ' Observations
on the Zoonomia * of Erasmus Darwin, M.D., by Thomas
Brown, Esa. The book was highly esteemed bv his friends,
and an able review of it appeared in the ' Monthly Re-
view,' * by Dr. Duncan, who never suspected that it was a
juvenile performance. The preface, which contains the germ
of his doctrine of causation, was especially admired. Brown
often attacks a false theory with weapons equally fallacious,
and the errors and excellencies of his book have the same
source, — the delight of a young and acute mind in the de-
tection of inconsistencies. One example will be sufficient :
Darwin holds that irritation, sensation, volition, and associ-
ation are essential qualities of every particle of sensorial
power ; a dogma which Brown considered that he refuted
by the inference, that every individual must in this case be
made up of a multitude of distinct beings.
In 1 796 he studied law for a year, a profession in which
his friends augured success fh>m his acuteness. Becoming
convinced however that astuteness and not subtlety of intel-
lect was the successful quality at the bar, aud finding the
joint pursuit of legal and literary knowledge incompatible
with his health, he began, in 1798, to study for the profession
of medicine. In 1803, when he took his diploma as M.D.,
his thesis ' De Somno' excited the adiniration of his
examiners.
About 1796 Brown joined a debating society in the Uni-
versity, in which he argued against theism ; a circumstance
which was used against him in after life. A few of the
members of the Literary Society formed themselves in 1797
into the Academy of Physics, a society for the ' investigation
of nature, the laws by which her phenomena are regulated*
and the history of opinions concerning those laws.' The
names of Erskine, Brougham, Reddie, Brown, Rogerson»
Birkbeck, Logan, and Leyden were immediately enrolled*
• Montlily Reriew EDUrged, tuL xxU., pp. 151, S64.
No. 33L
[THB PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
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and Ihey were toon after Joined by Lord Webbe Seymmr,
Horner, Jetfrejt Smyth, Gillespie, &c. This sodety gave
rise to the 'Edinburgh Refiew/ to which Brown contri-
buted two or three articles in the beginning, but owing to
aome liberties taken with a paper of his in the third iramber
his connexion with it ceased. The first article in the second
number is by Brown* on the * Philosophy of Kant;* a sub-
ject of whieh he knew f ery little. All he knew of Kant*s doe-
trioes was denved from a fantastic French account of them ;
and though acute and just remarks occur in his critique,
it is as bad as his preparation of writing it was imperfect.
A few months after taking his degree Brown published
two Tolumes of poems written while he was at college.
They pleased* it is said, the ladies and great people whom
they praised ; but poems on the ' Sun, the ' Moon,* the
' Frown of Love,' and the ' War Fiend,' attracted little
notice from any one else.
In pursuance of a system they hild long adopted, the
high church party, on the promotion of Professor Playfair
to the chair of Natural Philosophy in the university of
Edinburgh, determined to elect a clergyman to the chair of
Mathematics, although the superiority of Mr. Leslie, the
lay candidate, was incontestable. The approbation which
this gentleman, in a note to his 'Essay on Heat,' had ex>
pressed of Hume's doctrine of causation was made the
ground of a charge of infidelity. Brown published a
pamphlet on the occasion, in which he proved that no such
consequences flowed from the doctrine. The 'Edinburgh
Review* allnded to the pamphlet in the most flattering
manner, and Dugald Stewart in a note to the author assured
him that he had received from it much pleasure and much
instruction. A second and considerably enlarged edition
was published iti 1806, and in 1818 a third, in which the
work was improved and matured; the fourth and last
edition was published in 1835. The substance of the doc>
trine of causation which it contains is this : — * A cause is
that whidh immediately precedes any change, and which
existing at any time m similar circumstances has been
always and will be always immediately followed by a simi-
lar change. Priority in the sequence observed, and in-
variableness of antecedence in the past and future sequences
supposed, are the elements and the only elements com-
bined in the notion of a cause. By a conversion of terms
we obtain a definition of the correlative effect ; and power is
only another word for expressing abstractly and briefly the
antecedence itself, and the invariableness of the relation.
The words property and quality admit of exactly the same
definition, expressing only a certain relation or invariable
antecedence and consequence in changes that take place
on the presence of the substance to which they are ascribed ;
with this difference, that property and quality as com-
monly used comprehend both the powers and susceptibility
of substances — the powers of nnnlucing changes and the
susceptibilities of being changett ; — and with this difference
only, power, property, and quality are in the physical use
of these tertas exactly synonymous. Water has the power
Of melting salt ; it is a property of water to melt salt ; it is
a quality of water to melt salt : all these varieties of ex-
pression signify precisely the same thing — ^tliat when water
is poured upon salt the solid will t9k€ the form of a liquid,
and its narticles be difiused in continued combination
through tne mass. When we speak of all the powers of a
body we consider it as existihg in a variety of circumstances,
and consider at the same time all the changes, that are or
may be in these circumstances, its immediate effects.
When Wfe speak of all the qualities of a body we mean
nothing more and we mean nothing less/ For an estimate
of this doctrine see Causation.
In one respect this essay h«d a very unusual success ; it
convinced on one point the person at whom it aimed. On
the question whether even after experience we are able to
infer the relation of cause and effect as to the phenomena
of the inertia of matter, the composition of forces, and such
like. Professor Playfair declared himself completely con-
vinced by his arguments.
In 1806 Dr. Brown became the partner of the eminent
Dr. Gregory in his large practice. But his bias Was to
a literary life. In 1799 he was a candidate for the Rhetoric
chair, and on the death of Dr. Finlayson for the Logic, but
in both cases unsuccessfully. Owing to the decline of his
health Mr. Stewart required a substitute in the Moral Phi-
isophy class who could read lectures of his own. This
rown undertook^ and lectured for a short time in session
1808-9. A ahAflar Teqnest In the «iiiiHki|r •M'^tt M Mm
to deliver a series of lectuiea, whieh were hacioitf«d by the
attendance of many distingaished members of Cbe bench,
bar, and polpit When Mr. Stewart rsaumed hia lectures,
the students appointed Lori John Russell and Mbcra ot
their nnmber to congratulate him on his reeovery, an*!
express their admiration of his snbstttiite. WtmntU anxious
to have Brown with him m the chair as aasiatam and soc^
cesser, personally solicited every member of the town-
council in his behalf, and aeeordtngly oa the recommcnda-
tions of Dr. Gregory, Professor Playfair, and Loid Meaduw-
bank he was elected in May, 1810.
Devoting himself to the cultivatiott of his hefthli by %it
and exercise during the vacation. Dr. Brown made so pre-
paration for the labours of the winter. He aeldom began
to write his lectures until after tea on the eveninf befoe tbi*
day on which he was io deliver them ; be then «i«tc nnu\
two or three o'clock, slept a few hours, and resnimnr
his work, wrote until twelve, when he hurried off to hi*
class. Light reading or a walk oocunied the ttme fiiitil the
recommencement of this routine. His lecture and thei^rr
of avarice were begun after one o/'clock in the tnonriit|r, sr.d
finished before twelve next day. Under ooloar of dicsjrree-
ing with Dr. Reid he covered his differences with Stewart,
his colleague. Nearly all the lectures contained m th<>
first three volumes irere written during his flnl session,
and all the rest in the next. They have been publu^faed
almost verbatim. The following ore the more tmporunt
of the peculiar and new opinions whieh they eoota.-j^.
All physical inquiry has one of two ends in Tie# — eitbi r
to discover the parts of which bodies are made up. or *j
ascertain the changes they Undergo— the elements whKh
compose them, and their causes and effects in relation \o
each other. Bodies which, in relation to onr sight, are ct.a
are in reality many ; they appear simple only b^eanae « ^
cannot see the sOaceS WJbich intervene between the c^t-
puscles of which tney are made up. What we ean now per-
ceive only by means of chemical and mechanical den :..»
position, finer powers of perception would pereeire without
them. But no perfection of the senses could enable os t *
foresee the second object of physical inquiry — ^the ehanc »
of bodies — ^in the relations of tne parts to each other. %n 1
of the whole to other bodies ; and on this point reasjii -^
equally incapable d priori of assisting us. More we r i
never know of any substance than the parts of whjeh it •■
compounded, and the changes which it undergoea.
£very one will admit that the changes of the mind 4r-
as capable of investigation as the changes of a mar<*r.^^
object ; but some will not see so readily how the xn.iA,
which is simple and indivisible, can be considered in .t«
elementary parts. But the inquiry is not into the parts a !
changes of the mind itself, viewed as a substance, fot\\ %
is quite inscrutable; the object of investigation is thouci-'
ivhich being both changeful and complex, may be examit ri
either as to the causes of its changes or the parts of r«
combinations.
The phenomena of mind, which may be considered e'l) c
as successive or complex, as causes and effects, or 2*
subjects of analysis, are the qualities, states, or afiiictjon^ <.f
the mind of which we are conscious, such as percent. .
memory, reason, and emotion. Since the states uf 1! •
mind are made known by consciousness, and relate to \\*k -.
a consideration of them involves an examination of n zi-
sciousness and personal identity. Consciousness is a gene. .
name for all the states of which the phenomena of il r '
consist. The supposition of the existence of the mind •
two separate stntes, sensation and consciousness, at the k.' c
moment, is absurd. Tlie proposition, '1 am consctow w.* 4
sensation" involves, besides tbe feeling of the seosat:. c. a
reference to self. When it means more than tbe frr*- •!-'
feeling, it adds to it a retrospect of some pa9t tMxn^ and !' *
relation of both to the mind. Belief in our persoo2 mIcuI.u
he resolves into intuition.
Brown di rides the states of mind, according to ihtr
causes, into external and internal states or affections ; ti.-
external are the perceptions or sensations of bodies affect. .:
the senses ; the internal affections he subdiridea into t^ .
great classes, the intellectual states and the emotitmt.
Dr. Reid defines perception to be the feeling of the ore; ■:
of sense and the reference of it to its external object. I.
opposition to this. Brown maintains that the sensatit^ .«
refeired to its object by the power of association, and not \ >
a peculiar mental power,
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to a second edition of Christian Morals/ l2mo., which first
appeared in 1716 printed from the orif^nal correct MS. of
the author by John Jeflfery, D.D., archdeacon of Norwich.
The Anglo-latinity of Sir Thomas Browne is believed to
have had a great influence on the style of Dr. Johnson.
It is a style too peculiar and idiomatic ever to be gene-
rally liked, but Browne wrote at a time when our lan-
guage was in a state of transition, and had scarcely assumed
any fixed character. If' it be blamod as too latinised, it
may he answered that it would he difficult to substitute
adequate English words for those which he has employed,
and that he by no means seeks to give false elevation to a
mean idea by sounding phrases, but that he is compelled, by
the remoteness of that idea from ordinary apprehensions, to
adopt extraordinary modes of speech. Passages occur in
the * Religio Medici* which show Browne to be a firm and
sincere Christian, although perhaps not free from certain
fanciful prejudices ; and his • Inquiry into Vulgar Errors*
may t>e almost received as an encyclopsadia of contemporary
knowledge.
BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE, was bom on Great
Tower-Hill, London, on the 25th of July, 1768. Hisfather,
a respectable wine-merchant in London, sent him to Oriel
College. Oxford, where, as the traveller frequently lamented
in after-life, he met with no encouragement and little assist-
ance, in his academical studies. After leaving the University
he kept a few terms in the Temple, and attended the courts
of law ; but he had never any love for his profession, and
when, by the death of his father, he came into possession
of a competence, he devoted himself altogether to general
literature, to the acquiring of modem languages, and the
general principles of chemistry, botany, and mineralogy,
which were afterwards very useful to him in his travels.
He was an ardent lover of liberty, and, stimulated by the
deceptive dawning of the French Ilevolution, he republished
several political tracts, with prefaces by himself, at his own
expense.
His ruling passion, however, from early life had been a
love of travelling, and an ardent desire of distinguishing
himself as an explorer of remote and unknown countries.
The publication of ' Brace's Travels in Abyssinia,' and of
the first volume of the ' Proceedings of the African Associa-
tion* had the effect of determining him to attempt a passage
into the interior of Africa. Accordingly he left England
towards the close of 1791, and arrived at Alexandria, in
Egypt, in January, 1792. After visiting the Oasis of Siwah
(the antient Ammonium), he returned to Alexandria in the
month of April. In May he went to Cairo, where he dili-
gently studied the AraUc lans^uage and customs, with
which he made himself so familiar as to pass for an Arab
even among Arabs.
In September, 1 792, he started for Abyssinia, but a Mam-
Ifik war, which had broken out in Upper Egypt, prevented
him from getting farther than AssoC^an (Syene) and the first
rapids of the Nile. On his return down the Nile he turned
off at Kenn6, and visited the immense quarries near Cos-
seir, on the Red Sea.
In the month of May, 1 793, Mr. Browne set out from Egypt
with the great Soud&n Caravan (Caravan of the count^ of
the Negroes), whose destination was Dar-Fdr, a Mohamme-
dan country west of Abyssinia and north of the great
western branch of the Nile— the Bahr-el-abiad, sometimes
called the White River. He hoped to penetrate in this di-
rection into Abyssinia ; and the novelty of this route into
the interior of Africa, and the circumstance that Dar-FAr
had never yet been visited by a European traveller, were in
themselves very strong inducements. After many hard-
ships he reached Dar-Rir at the end of July ; but soon after
his arrival he fell ill, and after being plundered of almost
everything, found himself a complete prisoner in the hands
of the bigoted, fierce black Sultan of the country, who de-
tained him nearly three years. During this time he lived
in a clay-built hovel at Cobb^, the capital of Dar-FAr, his
principal amusement being the taming of two young lions.
(For &is and many other highly interesting incidents see
his own account of his travels.) Mr. Browne did not reach
Cairo till the autumn of 1 796. During four months of this
journey he could not procure a mouthful of animal food
of any kind.
''n January, 1797, Mr. Browne embarked at Damietta for
1. and in the course of that vear he visited Acre, Tri-
Aleppo, Damascus, Balbec, &c., and theni proceeding
igU the mterior of Asia Minor, arrived at Constanti-
nople on the 9th of December. He returned to London
in September, 1799, having been absent nearly seven
years. In the spring of the year 1800 he published bis
* Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria, from the year
1792 to 1798.' As a writer Browne has no great me-
rits;—he was frequently quaint and odd without beinj?
amusing ; on not a few occasions he trespassed on dehcaci ,
and he indulged in extravagant paradoxes. One of thcvr
paradoxes was— that the manners and customs of the P«ojile
of the East were far preferable to those of civilized Eu-
ropeans, and that they excelled us as much in virtue a< ihev
did in happiness. But notwithstanding these hieroisbes his
book contains a great deal of information which was th« n
hoth new and valuable, and it is impossible to read it with-
out acquiring a strong conviction of the autlior's veracity
In the summer of 1800 Mr. Browne went by way of Berl.n
and Vienna to Trieste, where he embarked for the Levar.r.
After seeing a great portion of Greece and Turkey he pny-
ceeded by a land joumey from Constantinople to Anticrb,
whence he went to Cypms and Egypt. In 1802 he visitfd
Salonika, Mount Athos, Albania, the Ionian Islands, And
then went to Venice. In 1 803 he carefully examined Sirih
and the Lipari islands, and then returned reluctaotJj t.>
England. Of this extensive and interesting tour be him-
self never published any account, but seven yean alter hi*
death some curious extracts from his journal were tccludri
in Mr. Walpole's ' Memoirs relating to European and Asit-
tic Turkey.^
After a long interval of repose Mr. Browne resolved to
penetrate to the Tartar city of Samarcand and the centnl
regions of Asia. He left London for Constantinople in Xiw
summer of 1812 : at the end of that year he went from tr.e
Turkish capital to Smyrna, which city he left in the aprifi/
of 1813 to proceed through Asia Minor and Armenia. On
the first of June he arrived at Tabriz, just withm thr
frontiers of Persia, where he stayed till the end of summer.
In pursuance of his plan of penetrating into Tartary h«
took his departure for TehrSn, the present capital of Ftrsa^
accompanied by only two servants.
Some days after their departure from Tabriz his t«i
attendants returned to that city, where they reported tbxi
at a place about 120 miles from Tabriz Mr. Browne hii
been attacked and murdered by robbers, who had permittr 1
them (the two servants) to escape. They brought h»rL
with them a double-barrelled gun, and a few other effe'.-?«
of Mr. Browne's, but no papers. At the instance of Sir
Gore Ouseley, who was then on a diplomatic mission .a
the country, the Persian government despatched soldiers r i
the spot described by the two servants, with orders to bni *
back Mr. Browne*s remains, and hunt out the assasKCv
According to their own report the soldiers failed in h':h
these measures, but fully ascertained the fact of Mr.
Browne's death, by finding torn fragments of his clothi«,
which being in the Turkish fashion and made at Consu*.-
tinople were very distinguishable from Persian. They si.1
they believed the body must have been torn to pieces i-.i
devoured by beasts of prey, and, as they are very numer'>'i9
in most parts of Persia, this was probably the hcu Sc>*i «
time after, certain bones, supposed to be those of M-.
Browne, were brought to Tabriz, and interred there vr^
due respect. ' The spot,* says Mr. Walpole, 'was happ f
chosen near the grave of Thevenot, the celebrated Pr«>t - :
traveller, who died in this part of Persia ahout a oentuiT
and a half before.' Some doubt however must be allovcd
as to whether these said relics were really the boDe« ki
Mr. Browne.
As the murderers were never discovered, some awkv^rt!
suspicions fell upon the Persian govemment, who. I*- ; r
then at war with the Turcomans, were supposed to l«^
jealous of European intercourse with those hordes, or ^it'.
any of the people east of the Caspian Sea. It was said j*
the time that men high in authority in the Shah's c- ti t
had shown great anxiety about the traveller's objeet« fi
destination, and had particulariy wished to know wbct.tr
he was a military man or an engineer. It should br iD«n>
tioned, however, on the other hand, that Mr. Browne's !*z -
pmdence in wearing the Turkish dress exposed him in x
special manner to the fanaticism of the Persians* who hxu
the Turks (the schismatic Mohammedans, ss theT i*?
them) even more than they hate Christians, anU' ba.c
seldom any objection to send a bullet through the hr. :
that wears a turban of the Constantinopolitan fashion. A
Persian in the Shah*8 service eaidao the writer of this
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nrticle. 'Had Mr. Browne only worn an English hat he
nii^ht have gone safely through Persia/ The only public
fruits of this last journey are a few short extracts of letters
from Mr. Browne to his friend Mr. Smithson Tennant,
which also are included in Mr. Walpole*8 work. (See Mr.
Browne's own Book of TraveU; and Memoirs relatinor to
European and Asiatic Turkey, edited by the Rev. Robert
Walnole, 1820.)
BROWN ISTS, a name given to a religious party which
arose during the 16th century. The reformation recognized
the principle of independent judgment In spiritual matters ;
and it was a natural consequence of the removal of the
restraints imposed by the church of Rome, that the period
in which the liberty of private judgment was first enjoyed
was distinguished by great diversity and contrariety of
opinions. In the 16lh century contests were perpetually
recurring between parties who desired a more complete
reformation than had yet taken place, and' those whose
sympathies were connected in some degree with the past,
and whose views having been satisfied by the reforms which
had already been effected, wished to arrest the religious
movement of the age. It was at this period that the
Brownists arose ; at least we have the authority of Neal and
Mosheim for the fact. In Adams's Dictionary of all
iietigiom it is stated that the sentiments of the Brownists
had been professed in England, and churches established in
accordance with their rules, before the date usually assigned,
and that therefore Robert Brown was not their founder.
Tlie writers whom we have named, however, look upon him
as the originator of those particular views which bound the
sect together. Neal, in his History of the Puritans,
enumerates the leading principles of the Brownists. Pie
says, ' The Brownists dia not differ from the Church of
England in any articles of faith ; but were very rigid and
narrow in points of discipline. They denied the Church of
England to be a true church, and her ministers to be rightly
ordained. They maintained the discipline of the Church
of England to be Popish and anti-Christian, and all her
ordinances and sacraments invaUd. They apprehended,
according to scripture, that every church ought to be con-
fined witliin the limits of a single congregation , ' and that
the gover nment should be democratical. The whole power
of admitt.ing and excluding members, with the deciding of
all controversies, was in the brotherhood. Their church
officers, faor preaching the word and taking care of the poor,
were chosen from among themselves, and separated to their
several offices by fasting and prayer, and imposition of the
hands of some of the brethren. They did not allow the
Sriesthood to be a distinct order, or to give a man an in-
elible character ; but as the vote of the brotherhood made
him an officer, and gave him authority to preach and ad-
minister the sacraments among them, so the same power
could discharge him from his office, and reduce him to the
state of a private brother. Every church or society of
Christians meeting in one place was, 'according to the
Brownists, a body corporate, having full power within itself
to admit and exclude members, to choose and ordain officers,
and when the good of the society required it, to depose them,
without being accountable to classes, convocations, synods,
councils, or any jurisdiction whatsoever.' (Vol. i., p. 376.
Edition 1732.)
Robert Brown, the founder of the sect, was nearly con-
nected with the Lord Treasurer Cecil. He was educated
at Corpus Christ! college, Cambridge, and preached some-
times in Bennet church, where, says Neal, * the vehemence
of his delivery gained him reputation with the people.' He
was subsequently a schoolmaster, and afterwards a lecturer
at Islington. Neal terms him ' a fiery, hot-headed young
man;' and Mosheim, * an insinuating man, but very un-
settled and inconsistent in his views and notions of things.'
He went about the country inveighing against the disci-
pline and ceremonies of the church, and exhorting the
people by no means to comply with them. In the year
1580 the Bishop of Norwich caused him to be taken into
custody ; but Brown, acknowledging that he had offended,
wo« released. In 1582 he published a book entitled ' The
Life and Manners of True Christians ;' to which was pre-
fixed ' A Treatise of Reformation without tarrying for any ;
and of the wickedness of those preachers who will not reform
themselves and their charge, because they tarry till the ma-
gistrate command and compel them.* He was again taken
into custody, but released on the intercession of his rela-
tive the lord treasurer. Four years afterwards he again
travelled through various parts of the country preaohing
against bishops, ceremonies, ecclesiastical courts, ordaining
of ministers, &c., for which, as he afterwards boasted, he
had been committed to thirty-two prisons, in some of which
he could not see his hand at noon-day. At length ha
formed a separate congregation on his own principles ; but
being forced to leave the kingdom in consequence of the
persecutions which they met with, they accompanied Brown
to Middleburg in Holland. Neal observes, that 'when
this handful of people were delivered from the bishops they
crumbled into parties among themselves, insomuch that
Brown, being weary of his office, returned into England in
the year 1589, and having renounced his principles of
separation, became rector of a church in Northamptonshire.
Here he Uved an idle and dissolute life (according to Fuller)
far from that Sabbatarian strictness that his followers aspired
after. He had a wife, with whom he did not live for many
years, and a church in which he never preached. At
length, being poor and proud, he struck the constable of
his parish for demanding a rate of him ; and beingbeloved
by nobody, the officer summoned him before Sir Rowland
St. John, who committed him to Northampton gaol. The
decrepit old man, not being able to walk, was carried thither
upon a feather-bed in a cart, where he fell sick and died in
the year 1630, and 81st year of his age.'
After Brown's death his principles continued to gather
strength in England. The Brownists were subsequently
known both in England and Holland by the name of Inde-
pendents.
BRUCE, EDWARD, second son of Edward Bruce of
Blairhall, in the county of Elgin, was bom about the year
1549; and having passed advocate at the Scottish bar, was
early appointed one of the judges of the Commissary Court
of Edinburgh — a court instituted soon after the Reforma-
tion in the place of the al)olished court of the Official of Lo-
thian. In this chair he succeeded Robert, Dean of Aber-
deen, who had been also a lord of session, and was super-
seded, in January, 1 576, on account of his ' inhabihtie.* The
date of Bruce's appointment, however, is, from the loss of
records, uncertain ; but from the Pitmedden MS. (Adv.
libr.) we learn that on the 14th July, J 584, Bruce appeared
before the Judges of the court of session, and declared, that
though nominated Commissary of Edinburgh in the room of
the Dean of Aberdeen, yet be would take no benefit there-
from during the life of Mr. Alexander Sym, also one of the
commissaries, but all fees and profits of the place should ac-
crue to the lords of session. On the 27th July, 1583, he
was made Commendator of Kinloss, under a reservation of
the life-rent of Walter the Abbot of Kinloss ; and about the
same time he was appointed one of the deputes of the Lord
Justice General of Scotland.
In 1587 the general assembly of the Scottish church
having sent commissioners to Parliament to demand the re-
moval of the prelates from that house, as having no autho-
rity from the church, and the most of them no function or
charge whatever in it, Bruce rose, and directing himself to
the king who was present, made a long discourse of the right
they had to sit and give voice for the church in these meet-
ings, complaining at the same time that the Presbyterian
clergy had most improperly shut them forth of their places
in the church, and now thought to exclude them also fh>m
their places in the state, which the prelates hoped his majesty
would not suffer, but would punish as a presumptuous arro^
gancy. Mr. Robert Pont, a Presbyterian minister, and one
of the commissioners for the church on this occasion, was
stopped in his reply by the king, who willed them to be i}uiet,
and present their petition orderly to the lords of the articles,
through whom they should be answered. When the petition
came before the lords of articles, it was rejected without
observation.
In 1 594 Bruce was dispatched on an embassy to England
— an employment which at that time not unliequently de-
volved upon the judges of the court of session or other supe-
rior courts of justice— to complain of the secret assurance
given by the Queen of England to'the Earl of Bothwell, and
of the harbour afforded him in her dominions ; and though
Elizabeth refused to deliver up Bothwell as desired, yet, in
consequence of the remonstrances of the ambassadors, she
commanded him to depart the realm. In 1597 Bruce was
named one of the overseers of a subsidy then granted by
parliament to the king for furnishing ambassadors, and other
important purposes ; and on the 2nd December same year
he was maae a loid of session, la 1598 he Jsru again seat
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478
B R U
amUsaador to England. He failed in seearing tke main
object of his mission, which was to obtain the queen's recog-
nition of James as her successor in the throne ; but by lus
skill and address he gained over many of the English to his
master's service. He was once more sent to England in
1601. in company with the Earl of Mar* to intercede for the
Earl of Essex ; but arriving too late for their purpose, the
ambassadors readilv converted their message into one of
congratulation to Elizabeth on her escape from the conspi-
racy. On thi» occasion Bruce had the good fortune to
settle a correspondence between the kingdoms, which contri-
buted not a little to James's peaceable accession to the Eng^
lish throne. In reward for these services Bruce was knighted,
and created a peer by the style of Baron Bruce of Kinloss ;
and having accompanied James to England, he was, on drd
March, 1G03, called to the king's council board, and then
made master of the rolls, when he resigned his seat on the
Scottish bench ^ He was succeeded in the rolls, in 1608,
by Sir Edward Phillips, and died on the 14th January, 1611,
iu the 62nd year of his age. By his wife, who was daughter
o£ Sir Alexander Clerk of Balbirnie, some time Lord Provost
ot' Edinburgh, he bad two sons and a daughter. Tbrough the
former be was ancestor of the nuble houses of Aylesbury and
Elmn; and, with the daughter. King James gave 10,000/.
wiUi his own hands, as a marriage portion to William second
Earl of Devonshire.
BRUCE, J AMES, was born at Kinnaird, in Stirlingshire,
the 1 4th December, 1 730. He was the eldest son of David
Bruce, Esq., of Kinnaird, and of Marion Graham, of Airth.
When eight years of age he was sent to X^ondon to school,
and after three years he was removed to Harrow, where he
remained till 1T46. At Harrow he became acquainted with
Daines Barrington, and their friendship lasted for life. On
his return to Scotland he was entered, by his father, at the
University of Edinburgh, to study the law, in which he
made but little progress, and he shortly after removed into
the country on account of his health. In the country he
followed the sporto of the field, and became a bold rider and
a good marksman. In 1753 he set off for London with a
view to obtain leave to settle in India as a free trader. In
Xiondon he made the acquaintance of Mrs. Allan, the widow
of a wine merchant, whose daughter he soon after married,
and became a partner in the business. A few months after
his marriage his wife died ; Bruce however continued for
some years in the partnership, and, in 1757, he made a
journey through Portugal, Spain, France, and the Nether-
lands, partly on business and partly for his own information.
Some of his remarks on those countries are quoted in his
life, by Dr. Murray, from Bruce's MS. journals. His
father died in 1758, and Bruce returned to England to suc-
ceed to the family estate, with a moderate income, which,
however, was considerably increased in consequence of the
establishment of the Carron ironworks in its neighbourhood.
In 1761 Bruce dissolved his partnership in the wine trade.
He had for some time past applied nimself to the study
of Arabic, and had likewise turned his attention to the
Ethiopic in Ludolf s works. He also improved himself in
drawing, under able teachers. By means of his friend, Mr.
Wood, the under Secretary of State, he became known to
Mr. Pitt, who consulted him about an expedition intended
against Ferrol, which however did not take place. At the
beginning of 1762 Lord Halifax, at the suggestion of Mr.
Wood, appointed Bruce Consul-general at Algiers, with the
understanding that he was to visit the interior of Barbary,
and make sketehes of the antiquities which, according to
Shaw, existed there. In a conversation which Bruce had
with Lord Halifax, something also was said about the mys>
• We are here remitided of a xnii^tAkc certainly committed by Uie learned
piigdaU*. in his chronoloniail series of the Lord Chaiirellors and Lord
Keepers of Enf^land. with rcfeieiictf to Walter de Bidun. Titis learned person
was Lord Chancellor of Scotland about the year 1144. { ' Leland Coll.,' vol. is.
p. 3^ ; Dttgdale's ' Monasticon,* vol. i. m. S'*&). In 1 177 he was elected bishop
of Hunkeld ; and the followinsr year ne wns sncceodfd in the office of chan-
oeilor by Roger, wound sou of Hubert, third earl of Leicester in KngUnd, after
iixe conquest.
Dugd.ilc. ritini; for his authority ' Lei. Col..*roI. i. p. 38, above referred to,
places ' GiialteruB de Bidun ' amons tho rbancellots of Ent;land. ander the
««ar USi.or 86 Han. II., and noduubt ' Gualterus de Uidun, regis cancel-
far/ is there a witness to the deed of (lunation by Earl Henry, son of David I..
King of Scots, to the monks of Holmculter, in Cnraberlaml. But when we
IooIl to tho partiee to that deed, the occasion on which it was granted, and the
i^wilou^aes to the chancellor, («ee the i^rant quoted at length in Dug'lule's
* Monaatlcoa/ vol.!. p. 836, above cited, > wo stuU not hesitate to conclude
that tiie latter was minister, not to the English but to the Scottish king : and
— -i-siiiaiitly that Duffdale and bis followers have erroneously inserted the
Uor of Scotland among the lord chancellors of En^l tad ; and this, ton,
years later than their cited authority would direct. Prince Henry, the
of the deed is questioi^ having dM iu tlie J9U 1168, and Kiae of Um
w tbcvtto •UU auliei
tenons mmtocu of the NQe, and of the gbry thai wou.i
acerue to any bold traveller who should explore them.
Bruce set out for his consulate by way of Italy, in wl:: \
country he spent Beveral months improving himself in t'
study of drawing and of antiquities. At Rome he m^ .
the acquaintance of Mr, LumisdeOs the author of ' Rom^a
Antiquities.' While at Naples he went to Paettum ai.!
made sketches of the temples, which he caused to 1« cr»-
graved and intended to publish with illustratiooa* but » *
find him afterwards comjJaining to his friend Mr. Stran;.-
that some one had obtained access to the engravinpb ^
Paris, had copied them» and published them in London \ \
subscription. In Man^h* 1763, he finally left Italy f r
Algiers, where he remained about two years, during wh:
he seems to have supported with spirit and firmness t.
interests and the dignity of his country, though in so dt. i: .-
he was not always countenanced as he expected br t; •
ministry at home. During his stay at Algiers he lean.i !
the rudiments' of surgery from the consulate aurpi-
Bruce's consulship was intended from the beginmng &» *.
temporary appointment to facilitate his views of disco \< r .
and be had oeen promised several months' lea^'e of at^-: .
to travel in the interior, which however he never obtains. ,
but in May, 1765, a successor was ^ipointed. oo «i.</.
arrival Bruce left Algiers for Tunis. Having obtamt*:
leave of the bey to travel through his dominiona with zin
escort, he visited the country along the banks of the Bi-
gradas, and the ruins of Thugga, Keif, and Hydrah, ti. i
thence went to Tipasa, in the province of Constantina, *±c
capital of which, the antient Cirta, he also visited, though be
did not discover its remains, as is stated in his li^ far Shi«
and Sanson had visited them before him. He next went t^
Sitife, Medrashemi where, he says, is the sepulchre of S) plui,
and thence to the Jebel Auress and the ruins of Tezzoott,
supposed to be the antient LambsDsa, fh>m wbenee he r«-«' -
tered the Tunis territory by way of Kaxareen and Sbeitlah . h.
then visited the S.£. part of that state, the island of Jer>.
and proceeded to Tripoli across the desert His descnpr . .-.
of these places in the introduction to his travels is very hur,
and meagre, and at the same time he speaks nOher si .. «-
ingly of his able predecessor 8haw. Bruce made dre^r j*
of the architectui*al remains, part of which are in the Li: j •
private collection. Those who feel an interest about t * -
matter may compare Brucc's and Shaw's acconnti with i. i
lately given by Sir Grcnville Temple (Excursions tn .
Mediterranean), who visited the interior of Tunis. Ti -*
is a letter from Bruce to Mr. Wood {Appendix to Bmr- •
Life^ No. x&iii.), which being written at this early tx»^r t ;
his journeys of discovery is characteristic of the wrxu- %
style when descanting upon his own achievements. 11*
says * I have drawn eight triumphal arches, seven C'.r:
thian temples, whose plans, parts, and deoomtions I h:^
by ver}' laborious searches and excavations made m^*-
entirely master of; one large temple of the oompocite « r: :
in its best age, two large aqueducts, the ruins of the th--
principal cities of Africa, Jol, Cirta, and Carthage;' ar
then he adds, * I may safely say I have not left in the pi ' *
I have visited one stone undesigned whence any bene : .
could result to the arts. I have corrected and clears! i
many passages of the Antonine Itinerary, Pe«unrtr»
tables, and Ptolemy, as well as of Sanson, NoUin/cr.
Dibbler's French maps, all by actual observations/ A.-
He then enters into a detail of his dangers and Isnrt*^
At the bottom of tbe letter there is a note by the e<i.: •
Dr. Murray, who says that * it is obvious that Br«c« • ^
aggcrated the difficulties of travelling in Barbair* ^:. .
view to attract the notice of some people then in ximrr, : -.t
with little success.' Travelling in the interior of BaHrr*
is certainly not without danger, hut Bruce apparetitlT rr _•
nified the extent of his own discoveries. These jiiuro^ - «
in Barbary were performed between September, 176^. «. .
February. 1766. From TripoU he sailed to Bengasi, « her. ^r
he was driven away bv famine and war, and, havmi; ^r:-
barked in a crazy Greek vessel for Candia. was shipwrvri. .
and swam on shore at Tolometa, fh>m whenee he leiurr-
to Bengasi in October, 1766. He there remained t«
months in great distress, and at last escaped fh« trjt
miserable country in a French vessel lor Candta, where t,-.
was seized by an intermittent fever, which retamed o<v;
sionally during his subsequent travels. From Candn { -.
went to Syria, visited Baalbec and Palmvra, and !«>..• e
for some time at Aleppo with Dr. Patridt Ttuasel, phvMt : «a
to the factory, from whom he roqetvedrlUrther inatonction ;a
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the Galla was becomingly dressed, as most Gallas are when
they come to court With regard to the story of the Worari
or plundering parties on a march cutting a piece of flesh
from the living animal, Dofter Esther had beard of the
practice, and believed it true. This has been fully con-
firmed since by Pearce {Life and Adventures of Nathaniel
Pearce, edited by Hall). On being told of Bruce's dis-
gusting description of Abyssinian banquets, Dofter Esther
said he had never witnessed such practices, and expressed
great abhorrence at the thought. He admitted that the
hcentiousness of Uie higher orders was carried to much
greater lengths in Amhara than in Tigre (see also Pearce's
LifBt and Coffin's account of his excursion to Gondar an-
nexed to it), but said that the scene described by Bruce was
certainly greatly exaggerated, and, as a proof of its inaccu-
racy, he pointed at the drinking of healths, a custom un-
known in Abyssinia (Salt's AbyeHnia^ ch. 8). Such was
Dofter Esther's sober statement, the accuracy of which
was confirmed to Salt from other quarters, among others
by Sydee Paulus, already mentioned, who had lived fifty
years in Abyssinia, and remembered Bruce perfectly well ;
and bv ApostoU, another Greek, who had often conversed
with Janni, Ras Michael's deputy, ' who had always spoken
of Bruce with great respect ' (Salt, ch. 9). Gobat (a recent
missionary to Abyssinia) observes of the description of the
feast as given by Bruce, ' I admit that such a feast may
have taken place among the most shameless libertines, but
excesses of that kind are not customary, either as to their
cruelty or their indecency.' It is worth observing, that in
speaking of the festivals on the occasion of Powussen's mar-
riage, at which Bruce was present, he merely states tbat
' all the married women ate, drank, and smoked like the
.men* (vol. iv. ch. 9), but afterwards, in ch. 11, where he
assumes to give a general sketch of Abyssinian manners,
he introduces the highly-coloured description of the feast,
but does not say that he ever saw it.
It appears evident from all this that when Bruce com-
posed his narrative, he did not consult or did not scrupu-
lously adhere to his journals, but borrowed largely from his
own imagination, especially with regard to details ; he con-
founded dates, and jumbled together distinct incidents and
circumstances, either through carelessness or for the sake of
effect. ' He was become old and indolent,* says his friend
Dr. Murray, * and I have reason to believe that after nearly
twenty years had elapsed since his return from Abyssinia,
his taie to his amanuensis resembled more that of an old
veteran by his parlour Q re-side in a winter evening, than
the result of fresh and accurate obser\'ation. He wished
to have it understood that he had omitted nothing when he
travelled, but performed all— a species of ambition seldom
reconcilable wjth fact.' (Hall's Life of Salt,) There are
however some points in Bruce*s narrative which cannot be
accounted for so easily. The Axum inscription, with the
pretended words ' King Ptolemy Evergetes,' seems to be
one of these [Axum]. He also totally omits throughout
the narrative of his journey to mention Balugani, a young
Italian artist whom Mr. Lumisden had engaged for him at
Rome, and who had joined Bruce at Algiers, and had been
the constant companion 9f all his journeys as far as Gondar
and the sources of the Nile, had kept his journals, assisted
him in drawing, and had been evidently of material use to
him. Bruce mentions in his introduction the fact of his
having engaged Balugani, and afterwards says no more
about him until towards the end of vol. iv. p. 248, where he
speaks of his death in a vague manner, as if it had hap-
pened soon after his arrival at Gondar, somewhere about
March, 1770, and several months before his journey to the
sources of the Abawi ; while a letter of Balugani, found
among Bruce's papers, states the fact of his accompanying
Bruce in that journey. (.Appendix to Bruce's Life, xxix.)
Further, as Salt remarks, he says that Abba Salama, the
high priest, objected to Balugani being buried in a church-
yard, and excited a tumult on the occasion. Now it is proved
from Balugani's journals, found among Bruce's papers, that
Balugani was living on the 14th of February, 1771, and
Abba Salama had been executed for high treason on the 24th
of December, 1770, according to Bruce*s own statement
(Salt's Abyssinia, ch. 8). Bruce^s great ambition was to be
considered the first and only European who had ever visited
the sources of the Nile, and he accordingly throws discredit
on the accounts of the Jesuits Paez and Lobo, who had de-
§eri\Mid them before him. He also omits in his narrative to
mention the fact of three Franciscan friars firom the Propa-
ganda having reached Gondar only twenty yean before hira.
where they rose for awhile into great fevour, and malr
several proselytes to Catholicism, among others Bruc*'*
friend Ayto Aylo and the itegh^ or queen dowager. AthI
yet in Bruce's original memoranda (Appendix, vol. viL) we
find it stated * that Ayto Aylo had been converted by Father
Antonio, a Franciscan, in 1750.' (Salt, ch. 10. and Ap-
pendix III., where the journal of the Franciscans is tn.ri^
lated fi-om the Italian MS.) We might mention alao the ac-
count of the late Emperor Joas' body being disinterred, ab it
which there is a palpable inconsistency between Brno •
orit^nal memoranda and his printed narrative (Salt. ch. • ».
With regard to Bruce's translation of the AnnaU of Abys-
sinia, Dr. Murray says, in a letter to Salt, 25lh of February .
1812. 'The bulk of the facts are true, but they are oft* a
misplaced in time and local circumstance. The Portuffi** -:
and Abyssinian accounts are blended together, and i.-
whole does not merit the title of an accurate namiue.
Bruce often committed blunders in an anoonsciotti waj.
particularly as to classic quotations and minute farts . '
ancient history, which he was not qualified by liter irr
habits to balance and collate/ (HaU's Life of Salt.) Th^
latter part of this remark leads us to observe that Braoe,
though he has had a character for learning amoog tho^
who have none themselves, was very far from being an exa'-i
scholar or a really learned man. His dttterUtions nn
various subjects show sometimes ereat ignorance, sn-i
nearly always equal presumption and deficient judgmenL
Such are the dissertations in the second volume on ih?
'Indian Trade in its earliest Ages,' on the •Origin '
Characters or Letters,* • the Voyage to Ophir and Tar»b:>:i;
&c.
With these numerous defects, Bruce will always nrk
high among African travellers, and his journey to Aby?-:r ■
forms an epoch in the annals of discoverr, for he mai .
said to have re-discovered a country of which nc are/^: <■
had reached Europe for nearly a century, and to have :^
newed our intercourse with it, which has been followe-i -.
since by Salt and his companions Pearce and Coffin, a-
lately by Gobat and Riippel. The Ethiopic MSS. whi' h .
brought to Europe formed likewise a valuable addit; ^ t •
our literary treasures. A list of them is given in the A- -
pendix to Bruce s Life, by Dr. Mtirray, 4to, 1808- Bri' •
courage, activity, and presence of mind are deserving o( ..-
highest praise.
The campaign of 1 7 71 having turned against Ras Mirh .
and that chief being deserted by his foUowera. and t^^ -
prisoner, the opposite faction got possession of the k.- . •
person. Bruce was now tired of this distracted country i:
anxious to return home. Having obtained the kipsr's >y -.
after much difficulty, he set off" from Koscam in Dereu^ .
1771, attended bv three Greeks and a few common serr...*^
He arrived at Tcherkin in January, 1 772, where ho ^u .
Ozoro Esther, Ayto Confu, and several of bis Gnr
friends. Taking leave of them, he proceeded by Rk« •.
Feel, Teawa, and Beylah, to Sennaar, where he arrivo! i
May. Here he was detained till the month of Sepirts.
and it was with much difficulty he found means lo V«;r
that barbarous country. He proceeded northwards b> H- :•
bagi, Halfuy, Shendi, and across the Atbara or Taracrt *
Gooz, in the Barabra country, and then plunged int • *
desert, which he was a fortnight in crossing to Assou
and in which he was near losing his life through thirst s : .
fatigue. He left Assouan in Dumber, and alter re<^t. - j
some time at Cairo, proceeded to Alexandria, where he en-
barked, in March, 1773, for Marseilles. In France he wx^
received with marked attention h? the Count de Bu-T .
and other distinguished men. He thenoe went to Ul >
and at last returned to England in June, 1 774, after L.
absence of twelve years.
Bruce was presented at court, and the king, Georpe III ,
received him in a flattering manner; but he obtaine*! -
more substantial rewards, except a gratuity for the drsv.::.-
which he had made for the king's coUection. The stnr.^
stories he told in company about the Abyssinians acu :*
Gallas interested his hearers, but at the same time exr.;
envy and ill-natured strictures. Some even went sso ^ . •
to pretend that he had never been in Abyssinia. Bn>.^ %
haughty and disdainful manner was not calculated *
soothe criticism. After some months spent 'in Loodor^ \ -
went to Scotland, where his family affairs weie in great d ^-
order owing to his long absence. Upon these be be«t.-i.f .
much of his time, giving up meanwhile allthoogbts aK>..
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his Abyisinian journals. He married, in May, 1 776, Miss
Dundu, with whom he lived in quiet retirement till 1 785,
when she died. After this loss, and upon the advice of his
friends, and especially Daines Barrington, he set ahout pre-
paring his Travels for puhlication. This work was puh-
lisbed in 1790, in five 4to. volumes. Travels to Discover the
Sources of the Nile, in the Yeare ] 768-73. The attractions
of his narrative are generally acknowledged. His sketch of
the character of Ras Michael has been particularly admired,
and its truth is authenticated by the MSS. of the ' Annals
of Abyssinia,* vol. v., which includes the history of that
chief down to the murder of the Emperor Joas in 1769
(Appendix to Murray's Life o/Bruce, in 4to.), as well as by
the current report in the country.
Bruce's work was sharply assailed in the critical journals
of the day, especially in the ' Monthlv Review.' The Rev.
Hugh Blair, Daines Barrington, ana others, spoke highly
in favour of it* It was translated into French by Castera,
and into German by J. Volkman, with notes by J. F.
Blumenbach.
Bruce died on the 27th of April, 1794, at Kinnaird, of a
fall down stairs as he was going to hand a lady to her
carriage. He was buried in ue church-yard of Larbert, in
the same tomb with his wife.
In 1805 his firiend Dr. Alexander Murray published a
second edition of 6ruee*s Travels, to which be added a
biography of the traveller, and copious extracts from his
original journals, which are of oonsiderable importance. By
consulting these journals, and the editor's notes and re-
marks in the life, the reader is enabled to separate the
reality from the fiction or exaggeration which prevails ih
many parts of the author's narrative. Mr. Salt*s two
missions to Abyssinia, 1805 and 1810, having revived the
discussion, Dr. Murray entered into a correspondence with
Salt, which serves greatly to elucidate the question. He
acknowledged that Bruce's map of Abyssinia was worth
little. A third edition of Bruce's Travels, published in
1813, in seven volumes 8vo., is little more than a reprint of
the previous edition. The preface by Dr. Murray, in which
he adverts to Salt's correction of several of Bruce's state-
ments, is deserving of attention.
BRUCE, MICHAEL, was bom at Kinnesswood, in the
par. of Portmoak and co. of Kinross, on the 27th March,
] 746. His father was an operative weaver ; and, in his reli-
gious sentiments, of that class of seceders called Burghers.
He had eight children who, having little or nothing to in-
herit from their parents, were all brought up to rely on their
own character and industry for their support. One of them
we accordingly find an operative weaver like his father ; but
Michael, who was the fifth child, was destined for the office
:>f a minister of the Gospel. To the great body of the people of
Scotland that office has long been one of much reverence ;
md to furnish a member of the family for that holy calling is
here to this day an object of nearly universal ambition. The
^rict and religious parents of Bruce partook in the common
'eeling ; and in his devotion to reading from his earliest
ears, and his pious and domestic habits, they imagined they
aw the elements of a character which would gratify their
nost ardent wishes. Accordingly, after bestowing on him
uch instruction as their humble roof and the village school
ould afibrd, his parents sent him to the schools in the
leighbouring town of Kinross, and from thence, in the year
762, to Edinburgh, where he applied himself, with equal
assiduity and success, for some years to literature and phi-
Dsophy, and to the learning more peculiarly necessary for
he profession which he had in view.
Of those to whom Bruce was indebted for the cultivation
if his mental powers, Mr. David Amot, a farmer on the
>anks of Lochleven, deserves to be first mentioned. He
ttrected Bruce to the studjr of Spenser, Shakspeare, Milton,
Lnd Pope, supplied him with books, and became at once a
•onstant and judicious director of his mental efforts. Mr.
!>avid Pearson, of Easter Balgedie, a village in the neigh-
K>urhood of Kinnesswood, a man of strong parts and of a
«rious and contemplative turn, also contributed not a little
o lead htm to the love of reading and tho study of poetry,
[n the company of these two individuals Bruce spent much
>f his leisure hours while in the country ; and soon after his
coining to Edinburgh he contracted an acquaintance with
!^gan, whose congenial spirit made him the intimate com-
>anion of Bruce in his lifetime, and his warm eulogist and
^ditor of his works after his death. So long as Bruce re-
nained about his ikther'a house, his wants, which were
Now 332.
(THE PENNY
then indeed but few, were readily supplied ; but afte hii
removal to Edinburgh his resources oiminished, while his
wants, both physical and mental, multiplied, and his de-
sires increased in intensity. But poverty was not the only
difficulty with which the youthful Bruce had to contend.
He had also the narrow prejudices of worthy but illiterate
parents, who seem to have regarded general learning aa
unnecessary if not positively mischievous. Bruce could not
but feel how unnatural these prejudices were, what injus-
tice they did to those powers and aspirations with which
he was endowed and which glowed within him. He was too
dutifiil a son, however, to give his parents any cause of
ofifenoe, and accordingly, when about to return home from
college, he took the precaution of sending to Mr. Amot such
volumes in his possession as he thought his father would dis-
approve of. ' I ask your pardon, ' says he, in a letter to
Arnot of the 27th March, 1 765, ' for the trouble I have put
you to by these books I have sent. The fear of a discovery
made me choose this method. I have sent Shakspeare's
Works, 8 vols.. Pope's Works, 4 vols., and Fontenelle's ,
Plurality of Worlds.'
It was about the date of this last letter we find, in his
correspondence, the first mention of that morbid melancholy
which is frequently the attendant on a poetical temperament,
and was in him also the forerunner of a fatal disease. In
December, 1 764, he writes to Amot, * I am in health, except
a kind of settled melancholy, for which I cannot account,
that has seized on my spirits.' In a letter to Mr. Pearson,
whom we have already described, of date December, 1 766,
he writes, * I lead a melancholy kind of life in this place. I
am not fond of company, but it is not good that a man be
still alone, and here 1 can have no company but what is
worse than solitude. If I had not a lively imagination, I
believe I should fall into a state of stupidity and delirium.
I have some evening scholars, the attending on whom,
though few, fatigues me, that the rest of the night I am
quite dull and low-spirited. Yet I have some lucid inter-
vals, in the time of which I can study pretty well.' In these
letters he refers to his occupation of a schoolmaster, for though
only a youth himself he was already a teacher of youth. He
spent the winters at school or college, and in the summer he
endeavoured to earn a small pittance by teaching a school,
first at Gairaey Bridge and afterwards at Forrest Mill, near
Alloa.
' In the autumn of 1766,* says Dr. Anoerson (' British
Poets,' vol, ii. p. 277), * his constitution, which was ill calcu-
lated to encounter the austerities of his native climate, tho
exertions of dailv labour, and the rigid fragalitv of humble
life, began visibly to decline. Towards the end of the year
his ill health, aggravated by the indigence of his situation.and
the want of those comforts and conveniences which might
have fostered a delicate frame to maturity and length of
days, terminated in a deep consumption. During the win-
ter he quitted his employment at Forrest Mill, and with it
all hopes of life, and returned to his native village to receive
those attentions and consolations which his situation reouired
from the anxiety of parental affection and the sympatny of
friendship.* He lingered through the winter, and in the
spring he wrote tho well-known ' Elegy * in which he so
pathetically describes his feelings at that time, and calmly
anticipates his dissolution.
' The ipring retnrot; bnt not tome Tctunit
The venial joy my better yean hare knomi ;
Dim in ray breaat life** dying taper bomt.
And all the joyt of life with health are flown.
' Farewell, ye blooming flekU, ye cheerftil plains I
Enoogh for me the ehorehyard't lonely mound.
Where melancholy with etill eileBoe reigna,
And the rank graae wavea o'er the cheerlea* gnmnd.
* There let me deep forgotten in the day.
When death shaU ■hut theee weary aching evei^
Rest in the hopes of an eternal day
Till the long night is gone, and the laat mom ariae.*
Of the latter part of the Elegy, part of which is just
quoted, Logan says, * It is wrought up into the most pas-
sionate strams of the true pathetic, and is not, perhaps, in-
ferior to any poetry in any language.* This elegy, from the
circumstances in which it was written, the nature of the
subject, and (he merit of its execution, had an unusual share
of popularity. It was the last composition which Bruce lived
to finish ; by degrees his weakness increased, till he waa
worn gradually away. His poems are not numerous — ^for
which his early death may well account— but the^ evince
talents of a very high order. They are distinguished for
their elegance and harmony ; and what ia nnffO&nwt te4
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in them, not the occasional displays of opening genius, but
the sustained dignitv and polisn of mature life.
Boon after Bruce s death his vorks were subjected to the
levisal of bis friend Logan, who gave a collection of them
to the world in a small duodecimo volume ; but unfortu-
nately they were not only unaccompanied with any account
of the state in which they came into his possession, or of
the process observed in preparing them for publication,
but mingled with the poems of other authors, without
any explanation by which they might be distinguished.
This error was in some degree corrected by the la-
bours of Dr. Anderson, who gave the poems of Bruce a
Jilace, for the first time, in a collection of the classic poets of
his country, and prefixed a memoir of the author. And,
finally, a new edition, including several of Bruce's unpub-
lished pieces, was brought out by subscription, in 1 807, under
the care of the venerable Dr. 6aird, for the benefit of the
poet's mother, then alive and in her ninetieth year.
• The character of Bruce,* says Dr. Anderson, • was truly
amiable and respectable. In his manors he was modest,
gentle and mild ; and in his disposition friendly, affection-
ate and ingenuous. Tenderness, in every sense of the word,
and piety, equally remote from enthusiasm and superstition,
were his peculiar characteristics ; and, of all the youthful
sons of genius, there is none whose fate excites so tender a
regret. And, as Logan observes, " If images of nature, that
are beautiful and new ; if sentiments, warm from the heart,
interesting and pathetic ; if a style chaste with ornament,
and elegant with simplicity ; if these and many other beau-
ties of nature and art are allowed to constitute true poetic
merit, the poems of Bruce will stand high in the judgment
of men of taste.** *
BRUCB, ROBERT, king of ScoU. was born on the 21st
March, 1274. He was descended from Robert de Brus,
who being brought up at the court of England with Earl
David, afterwards King David I. of Scotland, became an
intimate of that monarch, and received from his bounty a
grant of the lordship of Annandale. His grandfather,
Robert de Brus, the seventh lord of Annandale, had, on the
death of his mother Isabel, second daughter of David, earl
of Huntingdon, livery of her lands in England, and shortly
afterwards was constituted sheriff of Cumberland and
constable of the castle of Carlisle. He was then also ap-
pointed one of the fifteen regents of Scotland ; and in 1264,
with Comyn and Baliol, led the Scottish auxiliaries to the
assistance of King Henry III. at the battle of Lewes.
Robert de Bruce, the son of this baron, accompanied King
Edward I. to Palestine in 1269, and was ever after greally
regarded by that monarch. In 1271 he married Margaret,
countess of Carrick, in whose right he became earl of
Carrick, and by whom he had 12 children.
Of these Bruce was the eldest son. He was in the tenth
year of his age when bis father and grandfather concurred
with the other magfULtei of the realm in a solemn acknow-
ledgment to Kin^ Alexander III. that his granddaughter
Margaret, the mca<ien qf Norway, was heir presumptive to
the Scottish throne. Two years afterwards the king died,
and Margaret succeeded to the crown ; but in September,
1286, parties having now begun to be formed among the
nobles with a view to a competition for the crown, Robert
de Brus, the grandfather, met several important per-
sonages of the kingdom at Tumberry Castle, the seat of
his son the earl ef Carrick, and there entered into a league
or bond to support the person who should be ibund the true
heir to the throne. The chief competitors Were Robert de
Brus, the grandfather, and John Baliol [Balliol]. King
Edward I. of England having obtained the office of umpire
in this eontest, on the 16th Nov. 1292, pronounced for
Baliol, ' as, in all indivisible heritages, the more remote in
degree of the first line of descent is preferable to the nearer
in degree of the second.* It was accordingly ordered ' th&t
John^aliol should have seisin of the kingdom of Scotland ;
and seisin being given, Baliol did homage and fealty to
Edward for his kingdom. To avoid, no doubt, the humi-
liating task of doing homage to a successful rival, the aged
De Brus immediately resigned the lordship of Annandale
to his son Robert de Bruce, who, probably from a like
motive, had about a fortniffht before resigned tlie earldom
of Carrick, which he had held in right of his wife, just de-
ceased, to Bruce, their eldest son and heir, and shortly
afterwards, retiring into England, left the administration
of the famUy estates in the same hands.
Bdvard could not but see that his dettnouBAtioa bad
disappointed the powerful lords of the house of Ems : but
he had already experienced their friendship, as he bad no
doubt heard also of the attachment of the &mily lo the
English crown, and he was now anxious to foster the sub-
mission to his award which their retirement held out.
Accordingly in 1295, the same year in which the aged De
Brus died, Edward appointed the ikther of Bruce consUble
of the castle of Carlisle. During BalioVs revolt the Bnia^t
remained subject to Edward; and in 1296 they attended
the parliament of Berwick, where they renewed their oaih
of fealty and submission to him. Even the nobWr stand of
Wallace did not for some time rouse their patriotism ; and
when tliose to whom the peace of the western districU had
been committed summoned them to Carhsle, Bruee iit^
only obeyed the citation and swore fidelity to Edward, but
to evince the sincerity of his declaration immediately aft«rr
laid waste the possessions of the knight of Uddesdale, and
carried off his wife and family prisonecs to Annandale.
Soai'cely however was this act of violence committed, when
he abandoned the English party and ioincd the national
standard, expressing at the same time his hope of absclu-
tion from the oath which he said had been extorlBd Irvim
him. A few montlis afterwards the Soots were obliged to
capitulate at Irvine ; and Bruce, with others, made \i*«
peace with Edward. Wallace retired into the noctlient
parts of the kingdom with a few adherents.
The signal victory gained by Wallaoe at Stirling en i\^
12th September, 1297, indum Bruee once more to j ui
the national standard. He took no active pari in t . •
struggle however^ but while Wallace and his fiillowr*
fought at Falkirk shut himself up in Ayr Castle, wh^-e
indeed, by preserving the communication open betw- 1
Galloway and the western highlands, he did •sacnlial te:
vice to the cause. Edwa^, following up his ^iru**^
marched into the west with a determination lo chu* :
Bruce, who, after burning the fortress, retreated intu ■
fastnesses of Carrick, and Edward at length directe<i t
willing army to return into England. In his pro^rreu •
took possession of Lochmaben Castle, and wasted the e»t) ■ i
of its lord : hut among the confiscations of property « .. .
followed, the lands of Annandale and Carrick remainoil w.- •
alienated ; a favour probably aooorded to the house of Br *
for its former services to England. The defeat of the S •
at the battle of Falkirk destroyed much of the confi.cni^
reposed in Wallace ; and in 1 299 the bishop of St. Andrei^ •
Bruce, and Comyn were appointed guardians of Scut..
in the name and place of Baiiol. It was perhapa to de^ti
the authority of Wallace that Bruce was willing to he a^*- -
ciated for a time with his great rival Comyn ; and hat . . :
attained this end, he no less willingly resumed his forii
inactive course of poUcy, and relinquished to Com}( n i v
direction of the new-created power. The follow in'c %.ar
Edward again invaded Scotland, and laid waste the ui^ •
tricts of Annandale and Carrick. Brueo suffered miirh « -.
this oooasion; but he cautiously avoided every Aet of rrri
liatioQ, and we find that prior to the advantage gained i «
the Scots at Roslin he had surrendered himself to Si. Jtihr
the English warden of the western Marches. The c.jj*
pai^ of Edward in 1304, which ended in &mor« eomp ' -
8ub|Ugation of Scotland than he bad before been ab'c *
effect, justified the prudence of Bruce; for on the dc^tn
his fiither he was not only allowed to inherit the extent
possessions of his ancestors, but in the settlement of S. -
land as a province under the English king, his otpioioo %i%
much regarded.
It appears however that Bruce now maintained odIt t ..•
semblance of loyalty to Edward, and seeing no hnim • -
Baliol's restoration, had formed the resolution of mstcnr .r
his country to independence. Accordingly while octa^ilA
engaged in assisting Edward in the settlement of tiir S«<«-
tish government, he entered into a secret bond of ascorii-
tion with the bishop of St Andrew's, as head of the Seocti- .
church, whereby the parties bound themselves mntOAU^ :
assist each other against all persons whatsoever, and oieitS -
to under Ukc any business of importance without the otU-
He had also a conference with Comyn, at which, efter r. •
presenting to him the miserable effects of civil diaeevd, .
proposed that they should thenceforward enlertaun Icra sr
each other feelings of amity and friendship • Supf^ .-t
(says he) my title to the crown, and I will ghe yen aai ist
lands ; or bestow on me your lands, and I will support %K.r
claim.' Comyn accepted the former altemetiTe; mnd u
agreement being drawn uj^ in Ibtm «f ioAmtau^ m
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•ettled by both ptrtief and confirmed hf their oathi of idolity
and secrecy. Comyn howerer revealed the matter to Bd-
>rard, who determined on revenue ; and having one evening
drank freely, was imprudent enough to discover his purpose
to sorae of the nobles of his court. The earl of Gloucester,
a kinsman of Bruce, "had notice of his friend's danger, and
anxious to save him, vet afraid in so serious a matter too
rashly to compromise nis own safety, sent him a piece of
money and a pair of gilded spurs. Bruce understood the
counsel thus symbolically communicated, and instantly set
out for Scotland, accompanied by his secretary and a single
attendant. He is said to have reached Lochmaben Castle
on the fifth day after his departure from London, and thence
repairing to Dumfries, whero Comyn was, he sought a pri-
vate interview with him. From some inward misgiving no
doubt on the part of Comyn, the meeting took place in the
convent of the Minorite fHars. Here Bruce passionately
reproached Comvn for his treachery, and after some alter-
cation drew his dagger and stabbed him to the heart. Im-
mediately hastening from the spot he called for his attend-
ants, who seeing him pale and agitated inquired the cause.
' I doubt I have slain Comyn,* was the reply. ' You doubt,*
cried Kirkpatrick fiercely ; ' Tse mak stoker,* and rushing
towards Comyn despatched him on the spot. Almost at
the same moment Sir Robert Comyn, the unele, who came
into the convent on the noiso of the scuffle, shared a similar
fate. The alarm soon became general ; and the English
iudges, then holding a court in a hall of the castle, not
knowing the extent of the danger, hastily barricaded the
doors. Bruce, assembling bis followers, surrounded the
castle, and threatening to force their entrance by fire, com-
pelled those within to surrender. He soon afterwards pro-
ceeded to Scone, the antient seat of Scottish inauguration,
and was there crowned kinff of Scots on the 27th March*
1306. Edward had carriea the regalia to Westminster,
but their place was soon supplied. The bishop of Glasgow
furnished from his own stores the robes in which Bruce was
arrayed ; and a slight coronet of gold being got fh>m the
nearest artist, the bishop of St. Andrew's set it on his
head. The bishop of Glasgow also presented to the new
king a banner wrought with the arms of Baliol, which he
had concealed in his treasury, and under it Robert received
the homage of those who devoted themselves to his service.
The earls of Fife had from a remote antiquity ei\joved the
privilege of crowning the kings of Scotland ; but iJuncau,
the ropresentatire of the family, favouring at this time
the Engli^h interest, his sister, the Counttfss of Buchan,
with a Doldness and enthusiasm which must have added
to the popular interest felt for the young king, repaired
to Scoue, and asserting the privilege of her ancestors,
placed the crown a second time on the head of Bruce. The
eyes of all Scotland were now directed towards Bruce.
Comyn was no more; and the brave Sir William Wallace
had been executed by the English. Bruce was therefore
without a rival : he was the heir of the throne, and his past
conduct had given ample earnest at once of his intrepidity
and prudence : he was regarded as the last remaining hope
of his country.
Edward heanl of the murder of Comyn and of the usur-
pation of Bruce when residing with his court at Winchester.
Ho immediately despatched a messenger to the pope, to
pray the assistance of the holy see ; he directed the gar*
rison towns on the Marchtis to be strengthened ; and nomi*
Dating the earl of Pembroke guardian of Scotland, he
ordered an instant levy of troopn for that kingdom. Pro-
ceeding to London he' calle<l together the prince his son
and about 300 youths selected from the best families of
England, and conferred on them the honour of knighthood
amidst a pomp and magnificence well calculated to rouse
the ardour of the nation. Ho made also a splendid ban-
quet in honour of the new-created knights, at which he
uttered a solemn vow to execute vonsoance upon Bruce and
his adherents. Bruce, on the other hand, had prepared no
system of offensive warfare nor even of defence; his fol-
lowers were few, and when he first resolved to assert his
claim to the crown, he had no fortress at his command save
his two patrimonial ones of Loehroalin and Kddmmmie.
He had t»een however the success of Wallace in less happy
circumstances, and he witnessed an enthusiasm for his pemon
which he knew the prospect of sueeess would kindle into a
wide and irresistible Uame. Prompted therefore perhaps
by the hope of striking an early and effectual blow, he sent a
challenge to Pembroke, who had established his head-quar-
tan at Perth, defying him to battle. Pembroke Ktnrtied flhr
answer he wonld meet him on the morrow. Satisfied with
this aoceptanee Bnioe drew off his little band to the neigh-
bonring wood of Methven, with a view to encamp there for
the night ; but either from neglect or a misplaced relianee
on the word of Pembroke, the customary watches were
omitted Or insufficiently attended to. Pembroke having
intelligence of this, called out his forces towards the eloee
of the day, and gaining the unguarded encampment with-
out observation, suoeeeded in throwing the wnole body of
the Scots into complete disorder.
From the defeat of Methven Bruce retired with the re*
mains of his army to the mountains of Athol, whence how-
ever they were at length compelled by want and the rigour
of the season to descend into the low country of Aberdeen-
shire ; but on the advance of a superior body of English,
they took refuge in the mountainous district of Breadalbane.
Nor was the party safe fVom attack even here. The Lord
of Lorn, who was an adherent of Edward, and closely con-
nected by marriage with the family of the murdered Comyn,
hearing of the approach of Bruce, collected his dependants
to the number of about 1000, and having beset the passes,
obliged the Scots to come to battle in a narrow defile where
the horse of the party were an incumbrance rather than a
service. The consequence was inevitable ; and had not the
king ordered a retreat, and himself boldly taking post in
the rear, bv desperate courage, strength, and activity, siM-
ceeded in checking the furv or the pursuers, and extricating
his men, they would have been utterly exterminated.
Tbe king having at last rallied his men used every means
in his power to re-animate their hope and to inspire them
with fortitude and perseverance. After sending away his
queen, the ladies wno accompanied her, and some others of
the party under an escort tc his strong castle of Kildrummie,
he determined with his remaining followers, amounting to
about 200 only, to force a passage mto Kintyre, and Uience
cross over into the north of Ireland, with the hope, as
has been supposed, of receiving assistance from the earl
of Ulster, or at least of eluding for a time the hot pursuit
of his enemies. On arriving at the banks of I^och Lomond
there appeared no mode of conveyance across the loch ; but
after much search, Sir James Douglas discovered a small
crazy boat, by means of which they effected a passage.
The party were a uight and a day in getting over, the boat
being able to carry only three persons at a time ; but Ro-
bert beguiled the tedious hours by reciting the story of tbe
siege of Egrymor from the romance of Ferembras. llie
king soon afterwards fell in with the earl of Lennox, igno-
rant till then of the fate of his sovereign, of whom he oad
received no intelligence since the defeat of Methven ; and
by his exertions the roval party were amply supplied with
pro\isions, and enabled to reach in safety the castle of
Dunaverty in Kintyre, whence* after recruitiiig the strength
and spirits of his companions, the king and a few of ma
most faithful adherenu passed over to the small island dT
Rathlio, on the north eoast of Irelandi where tbov re-
mained during the winter. In this remote situation Bruoe
was long happily ignorant of the unrelenting cruelty showed
by Edward to his queen, family, and friends ; the oonfiscn-
tion of all his estates ; and the solemn exooramunication of
himself and his adherents by the pope's legate at Carlisle.
Fordun indeed relates that in derision of his ibrloni and
unknown condition, a sort of ribald proclamation was made
after him in all the towns of Scotland as hwt, ntaHmk, or
strayed.
On the approach of spring. Sir James Douglas and Sir
Robert Boyd left the king and passed over to Afraa*
where they were Joined in a few days by Bruee, ftom
Rathlin, with a fleet of 33 small galleys. The puty
made a deeeent upon the opposite coast of Carriok, which
was in the poaseesion of tbe EngUsh, and finding the troops
under Peroy carelessly cantoned, they rushed in among
them and put nearly the whole body, consisting of about
200 men. to the sword. When the news of this enterprue
beeame known, a detachment of above 1000 men, under
the command of Roger St. John, was despatobed from Ayr
to the rehef of Tumberry, when Brace, unable to opMse
such a force, retired into the mountainous district of Car-
rick. Tbe eifeot of his success was still further eounteraeled
by the fatal miscarriago of his brothers Thomas and Alex-
ander, in their attempt to secure a landing at Loeli Ryan
in Galloway, where the whole party were routed, sevvial
persons of note slain, and the two brothers of Bruce taken
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proonen and ordered to instant eieeution.' When Bruce
wuidezed among the fiistneues of Carrick, after the defeat
of -his auxiharies at Loch Ryan, his army did not amount
to 60 men. His own personal prowess however in an en-
counter which, were it not that the authority from whence
it is derived has been found to be generally correct in its
other particulars, would be looked upon as fabulous or ex-
aggerated, restored the confidence of his countrymen in the
ultimate success of his cause. The people of Galloway,
hoping to effect the entire destruction of Bruce and his
party, collected about 200 men, with bloodhounds to track
the fugitives through the forests and morasses. Notwith-
standing Uie secrecy of their preparations, Bruce had notice
of his cumger, and towards night withdrew his men to a
position where there was on the one side a morass and on
the other a rivulet which had only one narrow ford, over
which the enemy must necessarily pass. Leaving his
followers to their rest, Bruce proceeded to the ford, where
the approaching yell of a blood-hound soon fell upon his ears,
followed by the voices of men urging him forward. The
bloodhounds, true to their nature, led the Galloway men
directly to the ford where the king stood, who, fearing the
destruction of his whole party should the enemy gain the
ford, boldly resolved to defend it alone. The Gallovideans,
finding on their arrival but one solitary individual posted
ou the opposite side to dispute their way, the foremost of
their number rode boldly forward ; but in attempting to reach
the other side of the stream, Bruce, with a thrust of his spear,
laid him dead on the spot. The same fate was shared by
four of his companions, whose bodies became a sort of ram-
part against the others. Dismayed at so unexpected and
fatal a reception, they fell back for a moment in some confu-
sion ; but instantly ashamed that so many should be baffled
by the prowess of one man, returned furiously to the attack.
They were however so valiantly repulsed by the king, that
the post was still maintained ; and at length the loud shout
of Robert's followers, advancing to his rescue, warned the
enemy to retire, after sustaining in this unexampled conflict
the loss of 14 men. The danger to which Bruce had been
exposed, and the bravery which he had manifested on this
occasion, roused the spirits of his party, and called many to
his standard.
Bruce indeed required all the aid he could receive ; for
Pembroke, the English guardian, was already advancing
lipon him with a great l)ody of men, having also obtained
the assistance of John of Lorn, whose followers were well
acquainted with that species of irregular warfare to which
Bruce was obliged to have recourse. Lorn had with him
a bloodhound which it is said once belonged to the king,
and was so familiar with his scent, that if once it got upon
his track nothing could divert it from its purpose. This
Bruce found to his experience, and well nigh fatally ; for
having arrived at the place where Bruce and his army lay,
the bloodhound was let loose, and notwithstanding every
stratagem that could be devised to elude it, the animal
singled him out and led on the enemy in his pursuit, till at
length Bruce and his companion (for to these two only
had he successively subdivided his men) reached a rivulet,
into which they plunged, and, after destroying in this way
the strong scent upon which the hound had proceeded,
turned into the adjoining thicket, whence he regained in
safety the rendezvous of his followers. Here, having
learnt the state of security into which the English had
fallen, under the impression that the Scottish army was
totally dispersed, Bruce collected a few men, and dashing
upon a detachment of about 200 of the enemy, put the
greater part of them to the sword. Pembroke shortly after-
wards retired with his whole forces towards England, and
after another disaster, similar to that just mentioned, re-
treated to Carlisle.
Bruce, encouraged by success, ventured down upon the
low oountry, and reduced to his obedience the districts of
Kyle, Carrick, and Cuninghame. Pembroke thereupon
determined again to take the field ; and putting himself at
the head of a strong body of cavalry, he advanced into
Ayrshire, and came up with the army of Bruce when en-
camped on Loudon Hill. Here, though his army was
greatly inferior to the English, and consisted wholly of in-
fantry, Bruce gave Pembroke battle ; and so well conducted
wa« the conflict by Bruce, that while the loss of the Scots
Vftf exlvemely small, Pembroke's whole forces were put to
Stt a considerable number being slain and many made
nBfS. Three days after this Bruce encountered Mon-
thermur at the head of a oonaidflnLbe body of EogUali,
whom he also defeated with great slaughter. These suc-
cesses proved of the greatest consequence to Bnice'a cause,
which was still further strengthened by the death of Ed-
ward, who died at Burgh on the Sands, in Cumberland, on
the 7th July, 1307, in his progress towards Scotland. With
his last breath he commanded that his body should aocun-
pany the army in its march, and remain tmburied till the
country was wholly subdued; but his son, disregarding the
injunction, had his father's remains deposited at Westmin-
ster. The son indeed was incapable of conducting the en-
terprise which had devolved upon him ; and after a tueW^i
and inglorious campaign he retired from the contest. F\>r
three years after tnis Bruce had to contend with the go-
vernors despatched by Edward, and with his other enemir^
in different parts of Scotland. He triumphed over all : and
early in the year 1310 the clergy of Scotland assembled in a
provincial council, and issued a declaration to all the faith-
ful,—that the Scottish nation, seeing the kingdom betra^oi
and enslaved, had assumed Robert Bruce for their kin;r.
and that the clergy willingly did homage to him in that
character.
Finding at length his authority established at home, and
that Edward was sufficiently employed by the difseosioos
which had sprung up in his own country, Bruce reached
by an invasion of England to retaUate in some measure
the miseries which it had inflicted on his kingdom. He
advanced accordingly as far as the bishopric of Dorliaixi,
laying waste the country with fire and sword, and gi^i:*.::
up the whole district to the unbounded license al* the bo.-
diery. Edward at first complained to the pope, but tw r.
afterwards made advances towards negotiating a truce v i ii
Scotland. Robert however, knowing the importance <.f
following up the successful career which had opened ct.
him, refused to accede to his proposals, and again invadei
England. In the same year also he took various ibrtrea£c^
in his kingdom which hitherto remained in the paese«fr. -u
of the enemy. The last of these fortresses was the ca&tic . f
Stirling, upon which the hope of the English now dependt-*..
and Edward .accordingly collected all his forces for its of-
fence. It was on this occasion the famous battle of Ban-
nockbum was fought, 24th June,* 1314 [BAXNOCKBr&N*.
when a complete victory was obtained by Bruce. By t^^
event the sovereignty of Bruce was established, and x^e
remainder of his public life was occupied in in^-adix.;
and defending himself from England, in negotiating trra-
ties with that kingdom, and framing laws for the oidem j
and consolidating the power which he had acquix«d. Ij
April, 1328, a parliament was held at Northampton, to cl' -
elude between the two kingdoms of England and Scvtlj:-]
a treaty of permanent peace, the principal articles of vhi -.
were the recognition of Bruce*s titles to the crown, tr?
sovereignty of the kingdom, and the marriage of Johanr^
the sister of the king of England, to Dav^, the son ai>i
heir of the king of Scots.
Bruce did not long survive this event. The bard^ jvt
and sufferings he had encountered brought upon him a dis-
ease, in those days called a leprosy, which the ardour u
enterprise and a naturally strong constitution had hither:
enabled him to triumph over. The two last years of I •
life were spent in comparative seclusion in a eastk :
Cardross, on the northern shore of the Firth of Clyde» l.:
in occupations every way befitting his high station. He
contemplated the approach of deaui with calmneas and re-
signation, and not without deep expressions of repenur. «
for the sins he had committed, as well as sorrow for v
blood which he had spilt. He died on the 7th June* J.U. .
in the 55th year of his age and 23rd of his reign. K «
heart was extracted and embalmed with a view to its Ww^
carried, according to his request, to the Holy Land : ani
his remains were interred in the abbey church of Dun-
fermline.
BRUCHSAL, a bailiwick (Oberamt) on the right tark
of the Rhine, in the N. part of the Grand Duchy of Baikr^
It is in the circle of the Middle Rhine, is traveised h\ t:«
Psinz, and contains the two towns of Bnichsal and Hetd^U-
heim, 9 vills., 3 hamlets, about 5900 families^ and JO,0tO
inh., of whom four-fifths are Roman Catholin.
Bruchsal, the seat of judicial administration, is an old Ikitts
on the Salzach. It is mentioned in ancient records between
the years 937 and 996, when it was called Bnixole : it v &»
the residence of the bishops of Spires fix»m the year \i*2i^
• iDoometljr ftat«d to bo July Si io Ihe i
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and came into the possession of the grand dnkesof Baden in
1 803. It is sunoonded by a wall, is well built, and consists of
the Old Town, the New Town, founded in the last century,
and the suburbs of St. Peter and St Paul, which the Sals-
ach separates. The buildings most deserving of notice are
the palace, a handsome structure in the Italian style, and its
grounds, which command a magnificent prospect of the
valley of the Rhine ; the splendid chapel attached to the
palace ; spacious barracks and stables ; three parochial and
three auxiliary churches, the finest of which is that of St
Peter, where the last four bishops of Spires lie interred ; an
ecclesiastical seminary ; a gymnasium ; a military hospital,
another well-arranged hospital for 70 patients, conducted by
the confraternity of pious brothers, and provided with an
anatomical theatre and a lecture-room, and a general house
of correction for the circle of the Middle-Rhine. There are
some salt-works outside of the town which have existed since
the year 1748, and derive their supplies from the spring at
Ubstadt, which lies at a distance of about 3 m. from the
spot ; but they are in a state of dechne, and do not now pro-
duce more than 350 tons of salt per ann. In 1833 Bruchsal
contained 810 houses, 1274 families, and 7129 inh., whose
principal occupation is making and selling wine, and me-
chanical labour. In 1824 the pop. was 6686, and in 1817
544 7. It is on the high road from Carlsruhe to Heidelberg,
about 1 1 m. to the N.E.of the former and 23 m. to the S.W.
of ihe latter : 49^ 6' N. lat 8** 32' E. long.
BRU'CHUS, a genus of insects of the section Tetramera
and family Rhynchophora. Technical characters: — ^head
slightly produced, ana forming a short and broad rostrum :
labrum distinct : antennae eleven-jointed, either filiform, ser-
rated, or pectinated: eyes emarginated: thorax narrower
before than behind, anteriorly rounded, posteriorly furnished
with a lobe near the scutellum : elvtra somewhat oblong,
not reaching to the apex of the abdomen : femora of the
hinder legs thick and generally dentated.
The female bruchi deposit Uieir eggs in the yet tender
germ of various leguminous plants ; the seed becoming
matured is devoured by the larva, which lives entirely
within fthe seed, where it undergoes its metamorphosis.
The hol(3S so often observed in peas and other seeds of a
similar nature, are those formed by the perfect insect to
effect its escape; after which it is generally found in
flowers.
From the habits of these insects as above related, it may
easily be conceived that when numerous they become ex-
ceedingly destructive. In Kirby and Spencer's Introduce
Hon to British Entomology we are told that in North
America a species {Bruchus pisi) ' is most alarmingly
destructive* to peas, ' its ravages being at one time so
universal as to put an end in some places to the cultivation
of that favourite pulse/* This insect is less than a quarter
of an inch in length, of a blackish colour, and has a groy
spot at the base of the thorax in the middle, and several
spots of the same colour on the elytra, which are striated.
The four basal joints of the antennn, and the anterior tibin
and tarsi are red. The thorax has a Uttle tooth on each
side, and the femora are also dentate.
Bruchus pisi is a native of our own country (having most
probably been introduced in the seeds of the pea), but for-
tunately it is not sufficiently abundant to do much mischief.
Two other species of Bruchus also infest the pea, Bruchus
ffranaritis ana Bruchus pectinicomis: the latter is common
in China and Barbary; the former is a native of this
country, and is found among beans, vetches, and other
seeds, the lobes of which it devours. It very much re-
sembles Bruchus pisi, but is rather less.
The true Bruchi ara generally of small size.
BRU'CIA, a vegetaUe alkali, discovered by Pelletier and
• We rpeollocl readinff a tinOar aeeoantofttM great dMtnicikm of the crops
of peas in partieolar paru of North Amoriea. and at fkr aa oar memory uerrn
tb« circumalanees were aa foUows ?— a certaiD epceies of bird, which was ex-
ceedingly eommoa. wat always teen among the peas, and as the tkrmerB w*r0
mot 9at%sjiM with their crop* (which howeTer were not bad), these anfoitunate
animals were much persecated, indeed eo much so that by Tarions means the
birds wete nearly eaterminated. The farmers then had no crops at alU and
foxind out when it was too Ute.that the food of these birds consisted more parti-
cnlarly of those peas which were infested by the grubs of insects (most probably
Utose of Bruchus pisi) : the natural chtek upoo thoce grubs then having been
removed, they became so numerous as to destroy all the peas. We have men-
twDcd iliia circumstance, knowing it to be a common idea amonv the farmois
of this ooontry Uiat it would be a most desirable thing tu exterminate Tarfoas
animals which thuy fancy useless. It is quite a common practice for farmers
to Kit e the young urchins in their neighbourhood threepence a doaen for the
h0tu\» of sparrows, roolu. Htc, which, thau|{h they may eat their grain, aim
consume multitudes of caterpillars and gruU. which, when these cheoks are
remoTs«l* do inAwtcly more mischief.
Caventou, in the bark of the false angnstura, which is the
bark of the strychnos nux vomica, and not, as was supposed
when its name was given to it, of the hn^a anticUfsen-
terica. This alkali is found combined with gallic acid, in
the bark and with igasuric acid in the fruits of some of the
different species of strychnos.
Thenard recommends this alkali to be prepared by dis-
solving the soluble portion of the bark in water, mixing the
solution with a little oxalic acid, and evaporating it to the
consistence of a syrup. This is to be treated at 3^ Fahren-
heit, with anhydrous alcohol, which dissolves every thing
but the oxalate of brucia. This salt is then to be boiled in
water with magnesia ; the precipitated brucia is to be dis-
solved in boiling alcohol, from which it crystallizes on
cooling.
When a little water is added to the alcoholic solution of
brucia, and the mixture is put to evaporate spontaneously*
the brucia crystallizes in colourless transparent oblique
four-sided prisms. By rapid evaporation, pearly scales or
crystals, in the form of cauliflowers, are obtained. These
crystals contain water; they have a strong bitter taste,
which remains for a long time. When the hydrate is heated
rather below 212^ Fahrenheit, it melts and loses about 16
per cent of its weight of water ; the fused mass is a non-
crystallized body resembling wax in appearance. It is de-
composed by a strong heat
Brucia requires 850 parts of cold water and 500 of boiling
water for solution. It is readily soluble in alcohol, and even
in spirit of wine of specific gravity 0*88 ; the volatile oils
dissolve a small portion of it, but neither the fixed oils nor
other take it up. One of the distinffuishing characters of
brucia is that the red or yellow colour wbuch nitrio acid
imparts to it is changed to a fine violet by protochloride
of tin. The constituents of brucia are, according to Liebig
32 equiv. Carbon 192 equiv. 70*58
18 „ Hydrogen 18 „ 6'61
1 „ Azote 14 „ 5*14
6 » Oxygen 48 „ 17*67
equivalent ... 272 „ 10000
The crystals contain 16*4 per cent of water.
The salts of brucia have a bitter taste, and most of them
are crystalline ; they are decomposed not only by the alkalis
and alkaUne earths, but by morphia and strydinia, which
precipitate brucia.
Nitrate of brucia, the neutral salt, does not crystallize,
but gives a gummy mass by evaporation ; the su]Mmitrate
is obtained by adding a little nitrio acid to the neutral one.
It crystallizes in quadrilateral prisms, terminated by dihedral
summits. When heated, it becomes first red, then black,
and afterwards detonates with the disengagement of light
Muriate of brucia crvstallizes in quadrilateral prisma
obliquely truncated, which are sometimes as fine as hair.
It docs not alter by exposure to the air.
Sulphate of brucia* The neutral sulphate is very soluble
in water, and crystallizes in long quadrilateral needles.
Alcohol dissolves it in small quantity. According to Liebig,
it loses 2 equivalents of water by efflorescence, and retains
2 ; the efSoresced salt contains 1204 of acid, 82*64 of base,
and 5*32 of water. The supersulphate crystallizes readily
when a little acid is added to the neutral sulphate.
Oxalate qf brucia crystallizes in long needles, especially
when it contains excess of acid.
Phosphate qf brucia is uncrystallizable, but the super-
salt crystallizes in large square tables, which dissolve readily
in water, and effloresce by exposure to the air.
Acetate of brucia is very soluble, but uncrystallizable.
Medical Uses q/. — The alcaloid above described exists in
several species of strychnos, as well as in the bark of the
false angustura; and as it is admitted on all hands* that
this bark is not obtained from any species of brucia, it has
been proposed to change the name to Caniramia (derived
from (Janiram, and the name under which the strychnos
nux vomica is described in Rheede, Hort, Malabaric,
vol. L p. 67). This name is quite unobjectionable, as it
exists in the strychnos nux vomica along with strychnia ;
but it is far from certain that the faUe angustura is the
bark either of tlie strychnos nux vomica or of the strychnos
colubrina, as conjectured by Virey. [Galipba.] It is most
probably obtained from some undescribed South American
species of strychnos.
Caniramin acts on the human system as a violent poisons
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md in precisely the same manner at stiyohma, but more
I^Qtly, being much less powerful. Henco it has been pro-
posed to be substituted for it. The same preoautions must
be observed in its use, and the same contra-indications
attended to. The cases in which it is most likely to prove
useful are paralysis from lead, diarrhcsa from atony of the
intestines, and perhaps cholera asphyxia or Indian cholera.
It is important to bear in mind that the anhydrous state of
the salt is one-fifth more powerful than the crystallized. In
case of poisoning, emetics may be given, and also tincture
of brome or iodine. fSTRYCBNOS.]
BRUCKER, JAMES, a laborious scholar of the last
century, was bom at Augsburg, January 22, 1696. He
was educated for the church at the university of Jena, where
he took the degree of M. A. in 1718. In 1723 he was ap.
pointed parish minister of Kaufbevem, where he gradually
acquired a reputation for learning, which led to his being
elected, in 1731, a member of the Academy of Sciences at
Berlin, and, soon after, to his being appointed senior minister
of the church of St. Ulric, at Augsburg, where he spent the
rest of his Ufe, and died in 1770.
At an early age he applied himself to the study of phi-
losophy, and his first work, 'Tentamcn Introductionis in
Historiam Doctrinn do Ideis,' was published in 1719; it
was afterwards enlarged and republished in 1 723, under the
title 'Hist. Philos. Doctr. de Id.' In 1731-6 he published
a history of philosophy in seven volumes 12mo., from the
creation to the birth of Christ, in the form of question and
answer, which contains some details of literary history not to
be found in his larger work. This, which was entitled
' A critical History of Philosophy from the infancy of the
world down to our own age,* was printed in 1741-4, in five
volumes 4 to., and met with considerable success, for an
edition of 4000 copies was disposed of in 23 years; and in
A 76 7 a second edition appeared, with a sixth volume, con-
sisting of supplement ana corrections. Of his other works
the chief are * Pinacotheca Scriptorum nostra ostate literis
illustrium,' 2 vols. fol. 1741-55; * Lives of German Scholars
in the 15th, 1 6th, and 17th centuries,' in German, 4 to.,
1 747-9 ; ' Miscellanea Historise Philosoph. Literar. Crit., olim
■sparsim edita nunc uno fasce coUecta,' 8vo., 1 748. He un-
dertook to superintend a new edition of Luther's translation
of the Bible, but death overtook him in the course of the
work, which was finished by Teller.
Brucker is now remembered by his Critical History of
Philosophy. The title is ill chosen, for a discriminating and
correct judgment is the very point in which he is most de-
fective. He was very laborious, and has amassed a vast
Quantity of materials ; but he wanted the power of arranging
them and sifting the important from the trivial: conse-
quently his work is wearisome in the extreme, from minute-
ness of unnecessary detail, as well as dryness of style. He
'seems to have the same sort of notion of his subject as a
fly might have of the dome of St. PauVs, after crawling
over it bit by bit ; h.e appears not to possess clear views of it
as a whole, or of the connexion of the several parts. His
book, however, is remarkable and useful, if it were only as
an attempt (we believe the only one) to grapple with so
enormous a subject ; for he gives an account of every school
from the Hebrew, Chaldaic, if^jryptian. PhoBnician, &c.,
descending through those of Greece and Rome to the sects
of Christian and Judaic philosophers, the schoolmen and
their successors after the revi^'al of learning, the Saracens,
and the -nations of modern Asia, Indians, Chinese, and
Japanese ; and he finishes in North America with the
Huron*. Being written in Latin, this book is accessible to
many who cannot avail themselves of the labours of later
German scholars. As a book of reference, therefore, it is
very valuable ; though the author is charged with frequent
error, arising partly from inaccurate scholarship, partly from
too much readiness to take his opinions at second-hand. It
will be prudent, therefore, tor those who are careful in-
quircra, to corroborate Brucker's statements by at least occa-
sional references to the original authorities.
BRUE'IS. ADMIRAL, was a lieutenant in the French
navy before the revolution, and afterwards became a rear-
admiral in the sen-ice of the republic. He had the com-
mand of the Toulon fleet which sailed in June, 1798, for
Ejjypt, with General Bonaparte and his army on board.
After landinsy the troops, Admiral Brueis anchored his fleet
in Aboukir Roads close to the shore, thinking himself safe
attack, The English Admiral Nelson came in sight
V*rench fleet on the 1st of Angust, and immediately
prepared for battle. Some of the Bnglish sktpe iteered be-
tween the French and the shore, and thus the French iband
themselves between two Area. [NBLsoif.] After a drv^d-
ful fight, most of the French ships, being disabled, mtrrrn-
dered. Admiral Brueis, whc was on board the Orient, of ! So
guns, defending himself against two English ships, was
killed by a cannon shot, just bofote the Orient was dt*-
covered to bo on fire. The Orient blew np with mo«t vt
the people on board, on the evening of that day. BrtKu
must not be confounded with Admiral Braix, who was
minister of marina under the Directory, commanded t!.i>
flotilla of Boulogne in Bonaparte's time, and died at Paru
in 1805.
BRUGES, the oapiUl otty of W. Flanders, in tfie king-
dom of Belgium, is situated in a level coimtry, in 5t^ U*'
N. lat. and 3"" 13' E. long.; about 6 m. iVom the sea at
Blankenberg. and 59 m. N.W. from Brussels. Its Plem:-::
name Brugi^e is derived from the number of bridges which
cross the canals. Bruges is the French name of the lown.
Bruges is a very antient place. In the 7th centurr it
held the rank of a city. In 837 it was fortified by Baldwi*\
count of Flanders (called Iron-arm), in order to farm a
barrier to the progress of the Normans, who then n\9ffM
Flanders. The city was surrounded by walls in 1055, and
enlarged in 1270. It was almost entirely destroyed by fire
on three several occasions— in 1184, 1215, and ISSO. It
was further enlarged in 1331 by Count Lewis de Crecj.
In order to commemorate the high degree of per^<^: n
to whioh the woollen manufacture had then been earned lu
Bruges, Philip the Good, in 1430, instituted the order • f
the Golden Fleece. While under the dominion of the dc^ri
of Burgundy, Bruges became a principal emporium of iIjs
commerce of Europe. The merchants of Venire and A
Genoa conveyed thither the produce of Italy and the Le-
vant, which they exchanged for the manufiictures of :^*
N. of Europe. The tapestry of Bruges was at that time tLe
most esteemed of any in Europe, and this teputation it Ici.z
enjoyed. When, 150 years after the date last fnention'"*!.
Henry IV. of France was desirous of establishing the mzcj*
factory afterwards known under the name of UobeNn$, be
appointed a manufacturer of Bruges for its managenK-r:
In addition to the woollen manufacture Philip the G^ *1
gave encouragement to many other branches of todu«*.'i.
and particularly to the production of silk and linen fabrics
In 1488 the citizens rose against the Archduke M;>\-
milian, and placed him in confinement. Having va!i r
solicited the king of France to support them in this at: .:
violence, they were reduced to submission by the emperor
of Germany, who marched to the deliverance of his **r.
On this occasion fifty- six citizens were condemned to di :i:h.
and a great number were banished ; the city was depn^ c :
of its privilej^cs, and was subjected to a heavy fine. Fr o
•this time the city lost its commercial importance, which v^
in gwat part transferred to Antwerp.
Bruges was bombarded by the Dutch in 1 704. Two yean
thereafter it surrendered to the allies; and it was tv.-^
taken by the French— in 1 708 and 1745, but reverted to Uf
house of Austria. In 1 794 the troops of the French rep a. v.
lie took possession of the city, which was soon after irr-T-
porated with France, and so continued until the doae ot t •
war in 1814, when it became part of the kingdom of o?
United Netherlands.
The streets are narrow but neat and clean, and the boo.-t
are mostly large and well-built ; many of them ha^Y «*i
appearance of grandeur which attests the opulence of t> *- r
former inhabitonts. The town-hall is a good apecioae'? f
Grothic architecture. The original building was dcstnw* i
by fire in 1230, and the present hall was built on the »jiine
site in 1364. The tower contains a fine set of beJh^ A
cathedral, built by Baldwin in the 9th century, and dedic^u i
to saint Donatus the patron saint of Bruges, was destR'>e'i
(as some authorities state) by the French danng li t
occupation of the city, and a public promenade has Uv -.
formed on the spot which it occupied. The city is di% wlrl
into seven parishes, in each of which is a Roman Catii \x
church, besides which there is a church for prote»tai.ts.
The Ciitholio churches contain several fine paintm^^ an
magnificent tombs ; those of Charles the Bold and I: >
daughter Mary of Burgundy, in the chureh of NoCio l>air.^.
are particularly handsome. In the same church is a mar* '.•
statue by Michael Angdo of the Virgin and the iul*. ;
Jesus.
Bruges contains a museum, a botapi(;al garden, a cabizd
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old masters. He assiduotisly cultivated a knowledge of
history and costume. On his return to Paris in 1648 he
was received into the Academy. From this time employ-
ment and honours poured in upon him. Having attained
the highest rank in the Academy at Paris, he was appointed
principal painter to the kin^, was invested with the order
of St. Michel, and was ultimately named Prince of the
Academy of St Luke at Rome, although absent, and a
foreigner. A change in the ministry, which had so long
favoured Le Brun, carried political animosities into the
painter's HiuHio, and, although still honoured by the coun-
tenance of the king, he died of chagrin and vexation at the
continued annoyances which he met with at court, in 1690,
leaving a widow, but no children.
Le JBrun was an industrious and a learned artist; his
drawing is bold and correct, and his design often replete
with life and magnificence. But the passion expressed in
his countenances is neither refined nor elevated, and the
grandeur of his pictures belongs rather to the physical than
the moral development of the subject His groups are well
arranged, and natural ; the action of individual figures is
also natural ; and yet both are frequently iniured by an
affectation of grace in some part or other. His works are
principally at Paris. The Battles of Alexander, which are
so well known by engravings, are very characteristic speci-
mens of his style, and would alone entitle him to bo reck-
oned among the most eminent painters. The Passage of the
Granicus, and the Battle of Arbela, are works of great
power and feeling. His defects of colouring have been
partly attributed to his neglecting to visit Venice ; but his
excusers have forgotten that Giorgione and Titian had no
Venice to seek fine colour in.
His facility in drawing was such, that having procured
the delay for one moment of the car which conveyed the
Marquise de Brinvilliers to execution, in ' four strokes of the
pencil,' says his French biographer, he sketched a likeness.
With the brush he was equally ready. Louis XIV., who
daily spent two hours in watching his progress, while
painting the * Family of Darius' at Versailles, desired him
to paint at once the head of Parysatis, which he executed
with so much success as to extort an expression of delight
from Bernini, who was not among the number of his friends.
BRUNCK, RICHARD FRANgOIS PHILIPPE, was
born at Strasburg, December 30th, 1 729. He was educated
by tlie Jesuits in the college of Louis le Grand at Paris, and
is reported to have made considerable progress in the several
branches there taught An early eng^agement in the affairs
of active life suspended his taste for literature while he was
employed as militarv commissary. He had attained his
thirtietl) year, when, during a residence in winter-quarters at
Giessei}, in one of the campaigns in Hanover, he happened
to lodge in the house of a professor, who revived in him a
love for letters. On his return to Strasburg he devoted
himself to study, to which the possession of an easy fortune
allowed his entire application ; and the professor of Greek,
whose lectures he attended, being a profound grammarian,
Brunck quickly became well versed in that language. No
sooner did' he feel his own strength than he distin^ished
himself by his criticisms : but his emendations, which are
sometimes happy, are always hazardous ; and acting under
a confirmed belief that the errors of the text in all cases pro-
ceeded from the fault of copyists, he corrected with a more
' slashing hook* than even Bentley himself ventured to em-
ploy. His first work was an edition of the Greek Anthology,
published under the title of Analecta veterum poetarum
Grevcorum, Strasburg, 3 vols. 8vo., 1776 ; which contains,
besides the epigrams usually given in an Anthology, several
of the minor Greek poets, Anacreon, Callimachus, &c.
entire. Anacreon appeared in a separate edition, in 1778.
In 1779 he edited some Greek plays, which excited a great
desire for the appearance of a complete edition of Sophocles
which he had announced. His favourite author, Apollo-
nius Rhodius, empbyed him in 1 780, and was followed in
1783 by an Aristophanes, which superseded all its prede-
cessors, and has since in turn been entirely superseded by
other editions. In the year following he prepared the frag-
ments of Theognis, Solon, Simonides, and other didactic and
moral Greek poets, under the title of 'H^ut^ no(i}<ric. sive
Onomici Poetee Greed, I vol. 8yo. In 1 785 he issued an
edition of Virgil, in which he was by no means sparing of
the establish^ text. His Sophocles at length attracted the
^Uention of scholars in 1786, and may be considered as the
work upon which his reputation is chiefly founded. Sub
sequent critics however have found plenty to do with
Sophocles notwithstanding the labours of Bmnck, and ore
part of their business has been to restore the MS. readings
which this daring editor had replaced by his conjer-
tures. It appeared at first magnificently printed in 2 volt.
4to.; a limited impression in 3 vols. 8vo. followed in 17^4.
and there is a thiru edition, under his own eye, in 4 roN.
8vo., 1786-89. He prepared a copy of Plautus for the Bi-
pont edition of the classics in 1 788. On the breaktac i^ul
of the revolution he embraced the popular side with anloui ;
and notwithstanding Louis XVI., in return for a present &•
tion copy of the quarto Sophocles superbly printed on vellum.
had conferred on him a pension of 2000 francs, Brunei
enrolled himself among the earliest members of a re\i/.u-
tionary society established at Strasburg. During the Reim
of Terror he was imprisoned at Besanfon, and did not ob-
tain his release till the fall of Robespierre. Reverses ^d
fortune, produced by the public troubles, obliged him m
1791 to dispose of part of his library, and in 1801 of the
remainder. His taste for Greek literature became extn;rt
with the loss of the first portion of his books, of which be
never spoke without tears. He still however retained some
fondness for the Latin poets. In 1 797 he printed an edition
of Terence in quarto ; and at the time of his de«Ui« which
occurred on the 12th of June, 1803, he was enfcaged lo
superintending an edition of Plautus, EUs diligence va*
most remarkable. Instead of referring the printer to any
former edition, he always transcribed the entire text of t>
author upon whom he was engaged. Thus be twice oopit^
Aristophanes, and Apollonius at least five times. M^i^y
of these copies, together with several other MS. papen^, arV
still preserved in the Biblioth^ue Royale at Paris. Ti,-^
margins of his books were crowded with conjectures, wh ra
in numberless instances showed the boldness imtber thia
the judgment of their author. He was a member of ii »
Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres» and ako of tLe
French Institute.
BRU'NE, MARSHAL, was bom at Brivea. dep. de i
Corrdze, in 1736. His father was an advocate, and BniL*
studied the law at Paris. When the revolution bioke c tt
he entered the army, and served under Dumou tier. Hr
was quickly promoted, and was general of brigade m tt '
army of the interior under Bonaparte in 1795. The \ •
lowing year he joined the army of Italy, and semd in tt. •
division ofMassena. After the peace of Campolbrmio m
was sent by the Directory as commander-in-chief of t>
army which invaded Switzerland. [Bern.] After the fill
of Bern he took the command of the army in Italy, ard
obliged the king of Sardinia, who was the forced al)« cT
France, to deliver into his hands the citadel of his otrn
capital, Turin. After having thus prepared the fall of ti.i:
monarchy, he was replaced by Joubert, who finaUv efic<tf«i
it in December, 1798. Brune was next sent into 'Holland,
where, in 1799, he defeated the Russians on the Hcldtr,
and obliged the duke of York and the English army to e^>-
cuate the country. In the following year he retamed ti
Italy, when, in conjunction with Macdonald, be forced the
passage of the ^incio in December, 1800, and aftervrarrlt
concluded an aripistice with the Austrian General BrU<^
garde, preparatory to. the peace of Lunoville. Brune, on 1 .»
return to Paris, was appointed councillor of state, and «u
afterwards sent by Bonaparte as ambassador to ConstaA'
tinople, where he succeeded in estoblishing newrelatiom
between France and the shah of Persia. He returned to
France in 1805, being appointed one of the matahals of tke
French empire. He commanded for a while the camp ci
Boulogne. Being sent to Hamburg in 1807. as gorerenr
of the Hanseatic towns and commander of the icserv>c of
the grand army, he had a long interview with Gttstams
king of Sweden, near Anklam. in Pomerania, which Bc<in«
to have given rise to suspicions on the part of Na|«>leon.
In tlie surrender of the island of Rugen by the Swed j^
General Toll, agreeably to a convention withManhal Bntr.v.
the latter happened to omit in the text of the convvnt^oo
the titles of the Emperor Napoleon, and mentioned simple
the French army and the Swedish army as parties to the
agreement. Napoleon, who was highly offended, sent Brune
his recall, styling his conduct • a scandal never seen ^ir.cr
the time of Pharamond.' From that time Brune lived rv-
tired and in disgrace, till Napoleon's first abdication, irhr r.
he made his submission to Louis XVDI., who gave him it ^
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eroM of St Louis. During the ' hundred days* he joined
Napoleon, who sent him to oommand a oorps of observation
on the Var. After the battle of Waterloo be proclaimed the
kin*;, and, leading his oorpi, was travelling from Toulon to
Avignon on his wa^ to Paris, when he found himself in the
mid^t of the reaction that took place in the southern pro-
vinces at that time. A furious mob forced its way into the
inn at Avignon, where Brune was, and after insulting him,
and upbraiding him with having been a terrorist, and having
taken part in the massacres of August and September,
1792, to which Bnine calmly replied that 'he was at that
time fighting on the fW)ntiers against the enemies of his
country,' they shot him in the room of the inn as he was
standing with his back turned to the fire-place. His body
was then dragged through the streets, and thrown into the
Rhone. (Nouvellet Causes Politiques et Criminelles ci-
lebres.)
BRUNEHAUT, the younger daughter of Athanagilde,
king of the Visigoths of Spain, married, in 565, Siegbert, the
Prankish king of Metz or Austrasia. Her eldest sister
Galsuinda, married Chilperic, Siegbert' s brother and king
Soissons. Galsuinda was soon after murdered by Frede-
gonda, the mistress of Chilperic, who then married her.
Brunehaut, determined to avenge her sisters death, induced
Siegbert to make war upon his brother, and Chilperio only
obtained peace by giving up part of his states. Other wars
took place between the brothers, at the instigation of their
wives, and in the end Chilperic having lost Iiis territories,
was besieged by Siegbert, in the town of Toumai, when two
assassins, bireu by Predegonda, murdered Siegbert in his
camp, 575. Upon this Chilperic came out of Toumai, and
made Brunehaut and her son Childebcrt prisoners. Mero-
veus, son of Chilperic. faUtni; in love with Brunehaut, enabled
her to escape into Austrasia, and Meroveus was in conse-
quence murdered by Fredegonda. Chilperio himself was
soon after murdered, 584. and by the order, it was believed,
of Fredegonda, who remained regent and guardian of her
infant son Clotarius II. The history of the Merovingian
kings is a continual succession of sudh atrocities. Brunehaut
and her son Cbildebert now made war upon Fredegonda,
who at last was obliged to resign her authority, 585. In 596
Cbildebert died, leaving his sons Thierry and Theodebert II.
under the guardianship of his mother Brunehaut. From this
time a Ions struggle began between the nobles of Austrasia
and Brunehaut, wno wished to reign without control, which
lasted nearly 20 years. Thierry and Theodebert made war
against each other, and Brunehaut sided with the former,
who took his brother prisoner. Theodebert was murdered
at Cologne, as some historians report, by order of Brunehaut.
Clotarius, the son of Fredegonda, took advantage of these
dissensions, and, on the death of Thierry, in 615, seized
upon Austrasia and Burgundy, and thus reunited under
his sceptre the whole kingdom of the Franks. Brunehaut,
being taken prisoner by Clotarius, was condemned to a
most horrible aeath. After suffering for three days all kinds
of insults, she was tied to a horse's tail and thus driven
about till she was dead, when her body was burnt and the
ashes scattered to the winds. Her old enemy, Fredegonda,
bad died many years before, in 597. The true character of
Brunehaut has been the subject of much controversy. Se-
veral of her contemporaries, such as St. Gregory of Tours,
and Pope Gregory the Great, speak highly of her, while
those who asperse her memory, such as Fredegarius,
Aimoin the monk, &c., lived at least a century after her.
Bossuet maintains that she was sacrificed to the ambition of
CloUrius, and probably also to the rancour of the nobles of
hei own dominions, rasquier, Velly, Du Tillet, and other
writers, have also taken the defence of Brunehaut. The
part of her reign against which charges have been raised is
that commencing with the time of her regency in the name
of her two grand-children, when she had to struggle against
the nobles. A monument was raised to her in the church
of St. Martin of Autun. She is said to have promoted the
preaching of Christianity in England.
BRUNELLESCHI, FIUPPO. Had this artist no other
claims to notice Uian those arising from a single work, the
dome of Santa Maria del fiore. or the cathedral at Florence,
is one of those memorable achievements which suffice to
perpetuate a name. Brunelleschi was bom at Florence, in
1375 or 1377, and was descended from a family which had
produced several eminent individuals. His father, who fol-
lowed the profession of noUry in that city, designed to edu-
cate him either for the lame, or for the medical science.
Filippo was accordingly initiated in those studies which
would prepare him for whichever of the two pursuits he
should adopt ; yet although not deficient in application, the
natural bias of his mind diverted his faculties into another
direction; and he at length prevailed upon his father to
place him with a goldsmith. At that period the goldsmith's
art was altogether different from what it now is : it com-
prised every branch of working in metals for ornamental
purposes, and was intimately allied with design generally,
and wi&i sculpture in particular, of which latter it might
in fact be considered a direct branch. In fact, it frequently
served as a kind of apprenticeship to the last mentioned
art, as happened in Brunelleschi s case. Led on both by
his own talent and the intimacy he had formed with the
celebrated Donatello, he applied himself to sculptuie, and
with such success that he was admitted as one of the compe-
titors in the designs for the bronze gates of the Baptistery
at Florence.
After this he began to think of signalizing himself in
architecture, and as Donatello was about to proceed to
Rome, resolved on accompanying him thither for the pur-
pose of acquainting himself with the ancient buildings in
that city. Here he perceived what a career was opened to
him who should endeavour to revive a style of architecture
altogether so different from that which had prevailed for so
many centuries. In 1407 he returned to Florence, where it
was proposed to complete the structure of Santa Maria,
which had been commenced by Arnolfo di Lapo shortly be-
fore his death, in 1300, that Ts about the year 1295, ur, as
some say, 1298, and which was afterwards carried on hy
Giotto. With this view the most eminent architects w ere
invited from all parts to devise in what way it would be
practicable to cover the spacious octangular area betx^een
the four branches of the cross. How it was oiiginulh in-
tended to effect this, in accordance with the other parts of
the edifice, does not now appear. Owing to the maunitude
of the space to be covered by a single vault, very formidable
diflSculties presented themselves, and the possibility of doing
it was questioned ; for with the exception of the dome of
Santa Sophia, the diameter of which is something less,
there was no precedent or example by which to be guided,
unless it was by St. Mark's at Venice, and the cathedral
at Pisa, which however are so different that they could not
have afforded much information for the purpose. While
the rest were engaged in fruitless debates, Brunellef^chi
was assiduously employed in maturing his plans, models,
and scheme of operations, and contented himself wittt
pointing out the hazardousness of a project which he had
assured himself he should be able to accomplish. Twice
during these protracted consultations he quitted Florence,
for the purpose of leaving all his rivals in perplexity, and
each time he was solicitea to return. At lengh after a mul-
tiplicity of proceedings, into which our limits render it im-
possible to enter, Brunelleschi*s model, explaining the
whole mechanism and construction of his intended cupola,
was publicly exhibited, and convinced every one of his suc-
cess. He was commissioned to commence the work, but it
was soon determined to associate with him a colleague, no
other than Lorenzo Ghiberti. Upon this his indignation
knew no bounds ; he resolved upon abandoning both the
work and the city itself for ever ; nor was it without extreme
difficulty that his friends prevailed upon him to change i is
determination. Resolved upon manifesting Ghiberti m inca-
pacity, which he knew would betray itself, should he be b ft
without assistance, he feigned illness. This device suc-
ceeded, for Ghiberti being unable to proceed alone was re-
removed, and Brunelleschi was constituted sole archite<:t
He now gave all his energies to the work, and had the satis-
faction of seeing this chef d'ceuvre terminated before his
death.
While in size this noble cupola yields very little to that of
St. Peter's (and being on an octangular plan its diameter aa
measured firom angle to angle is somewhat more), it is in-
finitely more commanding, being so very much larger in
comparison with the altitude and other dimensions of the
mass on which it is placed. It further suggests the idea of
greater amplitude of space within, and has also less the ap-
pearance of being a separate and independent structure
standing upon the lower one ; besides which, its simplicity
and expanse, if they do not perfectly accord with, are ren-
dered not the less striking by, the fanciful and somewhat
minute style of the older part of the fabric. Although this
single structure was to himself personally his most memoimbto
No. 333.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
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vork, it wat by no metnt tbe sole imo of tny m«giuta4e
which he executed. Among his other |»roducttoiu mny he
meiihtmed the ehureh of Sati Lorente at Floreiioe» tad the
ci'lehrated Pitti Pulaee in that dtv. The latter of theae»
tvhich was afterwards continued ana completed by Ainnia<-
neti. is more remarkable for its severo simplicity and ma*-
siveness than for any of the graces of trohitectiire, or (br
wnat (lelouirs to design. Its idea, in &ct, aptiearsto have
been derived IVom an ancient aqueduct; yet if it has there-
tore a certain munotony, owing to the unvaried repetition of
the s tmeihatures. namely tiers of arches, it also possesses
the ehtrscter of a Yast and solid ooi^tniction, wnich pro-
duces an impression not so much by form as by balk and
positive quantity.
Brunelleschi wtA also employed on several vrorks at
Mantua and in its vicinitr. In his private charaoCer bo is
said to have been a man of a noble and generous sjpirit; and
that as an architect he was enthusiastic in devotum to his
art. there can be little doubt. He died in the year 1444
(that of Bramante*s birth), and was buried with much cere-
mony in Santa Maria del Fiore, his remains resting within
that edifice which he had consttmmated by lus skill* and
which will oerpetuate bis name.
BRU^NI, LEONARDO, was bom at Areazo, of humble
parents, in 1S69. He studied Latin and Greek, at Flo-
rence, under the learned Coluocio Salulsti, and afterwards
Went to Rome, where he obtained the post of secretary in the
papal chancery, (Bracciolini,) tmder Innocent YII. In
a tumult, which took place at Rome against the papal go-
vernment, he was assailed by the mob, and escaped with
diQculty to Viterbo. where the pope took shelter. Bnmi
continued in his office, under Innocent*s suoeesson, and he
attended John XXII., in 1414. to the Council of Constaneo.
After the deposition of that pope, Bmni returned to Flo>
t?nce, where he chiefly resided lor the reaaindor of his lilk
In 1427 he was appointed chancellor to the repttbUe, an
office which he retained till his death. He was also sent by
the state on several missions. When the Empeior John
Palnologus and the Greek patriarch came to attend the
council of Florence, Bruni harangued them in Greek, io the
name of the republic He died in 1444, and was buried,
with great honours, in the church of Bta. Crooe, where he
is seen on his monument reclining on a bier with the
Volume of his * Historv of Florence * on his breast, and a
erown of laurel round his head, for in this manner he was
buried by order of the community. Giannoiio Itaiinotti
recited a long and learned oration at his iimeral, but Ims
fH.nd Filelfo, not being satisfied with it, oomposed another
• •u more eloquent panegyric. Fogyio also wrote an oulo-
gium of Bruni. The temper of Brum was milder than that
of his friend Poggio, and he did not indul^ so mush as the
latter in violent disputes and virulent mveetives. Onee,
however, he quarrelled with his fHend Nicodo Nicoli, and
wrote a bitter libel against bim, which has nevor been
printed : the MS. is preserved in the Laurontiaa libranr at
Floreikoe. Bruni was eommonly styled L* Aretino^ nom
the place of his birth, which cucumstoaoe boa led
travellers, and Mme. do Stael among the rest, to mistake
his monument at Sta. Croee for that of the 6bseene
writer Pietro Aretino^ who died and was buried at Venice^
(Valdry, Vi>ifageM tn Italie,) Bruni wrote a great number
of works, manjr of whieh are now foigotten, and haws
never been ^nted. U^hus gives the titles of $3 of
them in his biography of Brunlt prefbLod to tlm edition of
his « Bpistolm,* S vols, 8vn^ Ploroiioe, 174K Among his
Latin works are a ' History of the Goths.' oompiled in
great measuro from 'Procopios;* a nomoentaiy on the
Poloponneaian war, a book on tne first Punic war, to fill up
tbe void of the lost books of livy, a history of his own times
from tbe schism of Urban VL and Clement, in 1387, till the
victory of Angfaiari by the Fkranttneo. in 1440$ and the
• Uistoria Florentina.' This last. Brum's principal work»
begins from the foundation of Floranoe, and is oorried down
to the year 1404. It was printed at Strasbuig, M. ifiio,
and was also translated into Italian by Dooato Aeei^'uoli.
Venice, 1478, and Floronee, 1492. MaohiaveUi, in the pro.
fkoe to his own * Btorie Fiorentioeb* says of his twopredeeeo
tors. Bruni and Poggio. that they related diligently the wan
and other extemaT tronsaotions of the ropublio, but wws
lather silent or very brief in their aeoounts of the eivil fiw-
tions and other internal transaotiena, oith« through ptu-
dMtial raasrve or beeauao they looked upon those domestie
— —..: .. ^ j^ dig^ of hiotory * — "
tatedinio Latin *Flalo% BplstliO,' tbd
Cosmo dt' Medici; his dsdiealory addnws ia
Roeooe*s * Loieaio^* vol. i. Appendix 8. He also tran» •*«-*
the Politic, Kthie, and OBeonomie oT Aristetla, ar^^r..
speeches of Demoatbones and Aschioes; and mode wmr^*
rous other translations frsm theOreek. Ho wrote, in 1 til. an
1. ' Vito di Dante odol Pstrarea,' Florenoo,16r2, whteh a-
not among the beat biographies of theoe two illystmms m* -
8. ' Vito di Cieereno,' whieh he filit composed m Latm
and afterwords turned it into ItolioA, printed, for tbs Ax»t
time, by Bodoni^ PUma, 1884. 3. *NoT«ila di Mc»«^
Lionardo d' AreBS<H* tneeitod aosong the 'NovwOodi >a,t
Autori,* and pnblidind again sepmlslly at Yetwosk is.'
It is founded on the story of Stiatonico, wifeof aeleocwK *
her step-son Antioohuo. (Matiwoheili, Scfittart d itmi* • *
BBuNl^ACBiB, a ilMll natnral order of oxogriM. y^
longing to the albuminous group, and, notwithstandirig t r«
diflhrent habit, nearly allied to the eomnt tiiba isn^**^
taeea). The species an small heath-liko ahrabo with mi-
nute, closely imbricated leaves* and small flowon enlWrc^
in little oompaet heads. They have a anpeiisrl OUi ca.«i«
5 petals, 8 peri^mons stamens, and a dinoeeoua or imdot-*-
oont t or 1-oelled fruit, erownod by the persistant only x. Tli«
seeds aro solitary or in pairs, and hsriv a abort onL AH
the species, except one from Madsgasoor, aiw wtiwfs of t: •
Cue of Good Hope. They an of no know* noa.
Bruniaoem differ fimn Groseulaof in tboir 4ry 1
central placenta ; from EsealkmiacSB, in the wtry i
her of tneir seeds ; from Rhamnacem» in their i
bryo, and from both UmbeUileni and
flowers not being in umbels.
BRUNINGS, CHRISTIAN, was bora te IfX at
Keokerau in the paktinato^ Ho early appliod hiwasiif t>
the studv of hydraulics* and ultimotoly beeaaw oaw d r«
flist hvdraulio onginoers of his time. Tbo i
of Holland having appointed him in 1788 i
of the rivon and oanala, he olleetod many ttonflW w^n^
drained several troeU of Iknd, repaired tho dykas of *2«
Haarlem Meer, deepennd the bod of tho ObervMoor. ar^
altered the eoorae or tho Pannerden canal, whieh cemma-
aicates between the Waal and the Rhino. Im Hm rmmrm
oftheeo oporationa he tnv«ntod on inatiuinom tn wienm: ■
the rapidity of atreama, and to dotormino tbo anwsi an ear
depth. He oonlained the prinoiplsa and tho u» oT t* •
invontioli, which goee by the name of the *Braiwnc<^a«
Stremtaceser,' in a treatiM whieh has boon tmnilaoed f~im
the Dutoh into Gelrman under tho title of * Ah^mtlw^
iiber die Gesehwindigkeit des Aieesonte waaatii. wmd tt«
don mittoln dieeelbe auf oUen tiefen tm botrisHmsn.' 4t%.
Flrankfort, 1788, trith pktna. and an introdMstnto ^ V»
boking, oonncHlor of Hesas Dmmstndt, in whith the pivst
sorvioes nndered by Brunings to Holland M* walarrv4
upon. Biilnings died in 1888. The grjvotnmsnf wf t-»
then Batavinn republic propooed to enet a maMmornt t»
his memory in the oathedral of fianriem, hot tfaw s^toe
quent political changes prevented iu being
ellbct. Several setentiflc eesaya of Briining s or
[ofSrlem Society of llm 1
in the 'Momoira of the Hoorlem Society c
Thero is another Christian Briiningo, a natttw aie»««
palatinate and a pvsleB8or» who trroto a hook oa ilm * As*
quities of Graooe.* F^ranUbrt, 1734, whiek woo pab .«.-«
again sono yearn after with m appendia oa tbe * lUo.:
Triumpha.*
BRimN, aefrtlo of the Anolrian tfafgtaviato of M««-
tia, boanded on tho N.W.by Bohemia and on the S «
Hungary and tho Anhduehy of Anstria ; within mi am
about 1788 ^, m. ft eontains 18 towns (omonc whv^ •-*
Brilnn, M ihnioir or Niohobburg, Beakowim, Wteehem. i-
AuMwttU), 88 m. t. and 648 vUla,and n popw of s« •
8 sottla, which shows an incnsos of ohont S3 v
tbo ynor 1817. The N. disiriom oiw •mir^ -%
nine, with seme fertile valleys aaonc Uwm '. #
8v pons, which on more lovol and bavo a itehor ee^ r- -
duce large quantities of w<no. Tho oiiole is wntetwd ^ t-v
Iwitiova, Schwartoava* and Ifflo. which foU into th» Tfi*«u
a tribtttory of the Maroh, which rseetvna tlw Thav« rr ^^
LandihiR «t the & oKtiwmity of Brilnn. Tho inhaWta*!*
snWst prinoinally by egriculture and wtni m^ am «r -
ning,woavin£linensand weotlon«,and mnhmt trathrr. ^4
solms,lto. The eonntiy prodneea groin, heps toA. fti ,
timber, iron, and alum, and other nunetnia. The brw»- • ,-
of oattle is of Kmitod «xiont
Anttirii (hi the notlm tongue BrM^ n
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B II O
mpMdil»owl»glMi«M«<M,'> l^li^Mliaai^
of Moravia, since 1641, when tiie seat of gpvenmifiit ifM
trannferred ftom OlmiltB. It lies ia the centre o# the oirole
noar the oeBilaeaee of the Zwittova and Sehvarts^vf^ which
run OB eaeh side of it ; is situated in the middle of a fl^^
open oouniry, and is paitly huilt on an emmence which
commands sense heautiAil and extensive prosoeele. Th^
town is sonouBded hjr a deep ditch and hi^b wuls, ^nd wcis
formerly protested by a eitadel whieb takes its sane froin
the Spielbefg, a hill 816 It in height, on th« siioirail of
which it is constructed ; but since the partial demolition of
iu defences by the Freneh, in 1809, It has been convert
inle a stase-prisen and a house of osneetioB. East of the.
Spielberg is anothet eminenee. the FranMnsberg, abont
600 ft in height elong one side of whieh the residences
of the ehaptor, and iM new paste of Biaus have been
eieeted. Independently of the Sptslberff. the lowi| ||
about li m. ia einnut, and has four gates fmeing N, B. 8.
and W.; the streets are inrecular, nanow* and ersohed,
hut well paved, provided witii flagsloies fw Ihot pas-
sengers, and well Ughted at night There are seven sauares
ornamented with fountains, we largest of which u the
vegetable market ; the houses, whieh are in pneral of re-
gular oonstruotion. amount to about 8800, inehiding the
ten suburbs. MHthin the last twenty years the pep. has
increased from 2S,764 to ahoat 34,000, besidee abont 3000
military and 9700 individuals not natives of the town or
environs. The finest square is tha I^arge Square^ which
is of spacious dimensions, and embellished with a hand-^
some column dedicated to the Virgin Mary, a eorps-de-eavde,
and handsome dwelling-houses^ Briinn is divided into
six parishes, and has as many parochial chnisheB besides
those in the suburbs. The cathedral stands ea the Peters-
berg, a rocky height in the W. nari of the town, and has no
particular claim to aMhitocturai bsauty. St. Jaoeb*s is a
fine specdmen of the Gothic style of the beginning of the
fourteenth centurv : the soof, whieh is vary lofty, is supported
by two rows of columns, and ia severed entimly with copper :
the steeple, said to be the highest in Moravia, m 970 ft in
elevation ; and the interior eentains a handsome marble mo-
nument to Field-marshal Gaunt de Saehes, who defended
Bninn against the Swedes in 1(44. The ehurch of tha
Minorites, with the adjoining sacred stairsase, and house of
Loretto, is of peculiarly handsome oaastraobon ; and the
churdh of tha Capuehins, celebrated ft» Sandrart's fine
alt&r-pieoe, the raising of the Cross, as well as the Gothie
ohuroh of the Augustine monastery, in the Altbrfinn subuA,
with Kranaeh's Madonna, and a faurge library, are well de-
serving of notioa. Among other puhUe buildiags are tha
Dieaaterial House, whieh contains the goveiaor's resideaca
and the government oAees ; the palace for the military de-
partment ; the town-hall with embellishmaats in the Gothic
style ; the theatre, and its assembly-room ; tha eoUege of
the Jesuits, at present used Ibr soldiers* quarters, the
northern front of whieb eeenpiee oae side of a whole strset;
the epiieopal palace buUt on the Fstersberg, one of the meet
commanding sites in the town ; tha haadsome mansioas of
the Dielriohsteins* Kannities,
end others of tha nobility; tha military hospitsl, foi^
merly a chureh belonging to the ^J^mBonstateasiaB ar-
dor ; and the Maria-schoot an endowment ftir femalee af
noble birth. Thevs ars several doKghtibl awwseaados in
and near Brfinn, the BM>st attraetif a af whiea are the gar-
dens on the Fransensberg, whftsh are eeaamented with an
obelisk, 00 ft high, ereoted ia 1818 ia honour af tha lata
emperor Francis L ; and the Aaaailea, a park laid out
partly in the Snglisk sn4 pwtlv in Um Wvmtk style. Bi<ina
IS the seat of government for tlie Margiaviate ; and alee of
the high couxts of judicature. It is the eeatie of epieeopal
i'urisdiction, and the Protestant oensistory is established
lere. The National Boeietv for Hbm eaeeuregemeat of
agriculture, natural history, 8ic, has the Fraaiens Museuan
with its valuable coUeetion under its care. The aoademi-
cal institutions consist of aa Bpiseopal semiBarv,a gymna-
sium, an academy for educating teaehers, a selieel for the
initruction of tradesmen and meohanice, a Protestant school,
an academy for young femalee attnehed to the Ursuline eon-
vent, and several seheols ftw the lower classes. The priaei-
pal benevolent institatk>ns of tha town ara a genersl inflr-
nsry, founded by Joseph II. in 1785; a lying-in hospital
and lunatio asylum ; aa orphan asylum; a society fer the
Klief of the poor al their owa houses ; a reftige for the
widows aad - . . — . . -.« .
ssyhiiM fcg ^99KffA Ihwf- 8SI f »at8. fey ihaVIMf «iid Ihf
4eaf ai\d dumb ; and a p^tional loan-bank. Ind^wndently
of t^e hoi)se of correction on |he Spielbei^, t)iere u another
here for the movince tp generid.
Briinn is ^e seat of some eonsiderah)e manufeetures, par-
ticuhtriy qf fine wooHen cloths and kersevmeres for the
Pungarian and Vienna ipa^kets : of these tnere ara se^'cn-
teen establishments at work. The other febrics chiefly con-
sist of silks, ribbons^ yarns^ (aachinery for the woollen ma*
nufeotnres^ leather, ootton prints woollen caps, and vinegar.
No town in Moravia has so OKtepsive a don)e»tic trade, in
which it is mnch favoured by it« central position wi^h renpect
to Prague, Breslau, Festh, and Viennat It has four whole-
sale iQarketB in the year, which are ci^eh pf 14 davs* dura-
tion, and to whiph the manufecturan of Bohemia, Moravia,
Silesia, Galicia, and other parts of Austria, resort in const-
deral^Ie i^umhen. The trade of Brfinn in colonial an4
otlier foreign productions is also extensive.
The Spielberg is in 49<* 1 li' N. lat., and 10* SO* B. long.;
aad the town is about 70 m. due N. of Vienna.
BRU^O. GIORDA'NO, was born at Nola in the king
dom of Naples, about the middle of (he sixteenth century.
He entered the order of the Dominicans, but being of an
inquisitive turn of mfi^d^e began to express doubt* on some
of the dogmss of the Roman church, the consecjuencv of
which was that ha was obliged to run away iVoip his convent.
Upon this he went to Geneva, where he tfpent two yeara, but
soon incurrin|^ the dislike of the Calvinists, on account of his
general scepticism on religious matten, he removed to Pari8»
where he published, in 1 389, a satirical comedy, * II Csnde
Isje,* in riaKTule of several classes and prefes^iions in society
this oemedy was afterwards imitated in the FVench anony-
mous play, * Bonifera et le PMant,* Paris. 1633. Brunu
gave l^tures on philosophy, in which he openly sttackerl
the doctrinas of the Aristotelians, which haa already been
eonibated iip France by Ratnus and Postel. Having made
himself many enemies among the profe«sora of the Paris
aaivenity, ae well as among th^ clergy, he went to England
in 1589, where l|e ei^oyed the protertk>n of Castelnau the
French ambsu^fdor, and gained the friendship of Sir Philip
didaev, to whom he dedicated his * Spaocio delta bestia trion-
fente, ai| fUegorieal work against the court of Rome, with
the 'Cena delle (^neri,* or evening cenverastions on Ash-
We^pesdaVi a dialogue between four intcrlucutora. ^ He al^o
wrote * Delia eausa, principio et uno,* and * Dell* infliiiio
uniToriQ e tQ9Q4if i^ which he developed his ideas both on
natural philosophy and metaphysics. His system ib a kit id
of paatiieisra ; be asserted that the universe is inflnite. snd
that each of the worlds ^ontaiaed in it is animated by the
universal soul, 3te. Spinosa borrowed some of his theories
from Bruno, ^^^t ni the history of modem pbiloM>phy,
gives an fxpe^ion of Prune's system. See also «|aoobi s
preftoe to the lettera on the doctrine of Spinosa. In his
next work, * Cabala del eaval Pega^eo eon Vagginnia dell*
asino Cilleni^,* he contends that ignorance is the mother
of happiness, and that ' he who promotes science increases
the sources of grier Bruno's language is symbolic and
obsaure ; he talks much about tha constellations, snd his
stylo is harsh and inelegant
Altar remainipg about two yeara in Bngland. during
which ha vi^te4 Oxford, and held disputations with soma
of the doeton of that univereity, prune returned to Paris in
IflM. In the foUowing vear he went to the university of
If arbuig in Qarmany, where he was matriculated, without
however obtaining leave to give lectures. HavingQuarrelled
with the factor on this aeoount, he proceeded to Wittenberg,
where be was received profossor, and published in 1^07 a
treatise, ' Da lampade cerabinatoria LulKana.* At Witten-
berg BruBO was invited to become a member of the Lutheran
commnaien, which he seems to have declined ; upon wliich
he proceeded to Brunswick, where he wss well receivH by
the Duke Julius, who placed him at Helmstadt as tencher.
On the duke*8 death in 1589, Bruno repaired to Frankfurt,
where he wrote several Latin treatises exptanatiiry of \ua
metophysios. At Franklbrt on a sudden he resolved, fmm
what motiva is uaknown, to return to Italy, a step whtcli
was greatly censured by his friends. He went first tu
Fadua in 1599, whare he remained two vears, and then t'l
Veniea, where he was arrested by the ecclesiastical inoui-i
tioB, and translbrred to Rome in 1598. He remaine<l tuc
ia Moram nndKlMia; It
yean ia tha prisons of the holy ofica^ all the while amusint:
the taquisilon with hop«a of his rseantatton. At last, un
tha 9tiif8biinf7»l«#».NiilaieawaapaiMd upon himiaa
3Ra
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B RU
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oonflrmed heretic and he was giTen up to the secular itower.
After beinfi; detained eight days in the city prisons, he was
taken to the Caropo di Fiore, and humt alive on the 17th
Februaiy. Seioppius the Latinist, who seems to have heen
present at the execution, relates, in a letter to Rittershusius,
that as the monks held up the crucifix to him, Bruno turned
his face away, upon which Seioppius exclaims, * Such is the
manner in which we at Rome deal with impious men, and
monsters of such a nature !*
Bruno's works, some of which had become vety rare,
while others remained inedited, have been collected and
published together by Dr. Wagner, with a life of the author :
' Opere di Giordano Bruno Nolano ora per la prima volta
raocolte d pubblicate,* 2 vols. 8yo. Leipzig, 1830.
BRUNO, SAINT, bom at Cologne in 1051, studied at
Paris, and afterwards became a canon of Rheims, and di-
rector of the sehool or seminary of that diocese ; but being
disgusted with the vexations and misconduct of the Arch-
bishop Manasses, he took the resolution of leaving the
world and retiring to a solitude. He repaired first to Saisse
Fontaine, in the diocese of Langres, and afterwards to
a mountain near Grenoble, in 1084, where heing joined hy
several other ascetics, he built an oratory and seven cells,
separate from each other, in imitation of the early hermits
of jPalestine and Egypt Bruno and his monks cultivated
the ground in the neighbourhood of their cells, and lived
upon the produce, and upon what the chanty of pious per-
sons supplied them with. This was the origin of the order
of the Carthusians, and of the splendid convent afterwards
huilt on the spot, which is called La Grande Chartreuse.
Bruno adopted the rules of St. Benedict, but afterwards
Gui, ^e 5th general of the order, wrote distinct regulations
for it. Pope Urban II., who had studied under Sruno at
Rheims, insisted upon his going to Rome, where he stood
in need of his advice. Bruno after a time becoming weary
of the papal court, retired to a solitude in Calabria, where
he founded another convent of his order, in which he died
in 1101. He was canonired in 1514. Several commentaries
and treatises have been attributed to him, which were writ-
ten however by another St. Bruno Signy of Asti, a contem-
norary of the former, and abbot of the Benedictines of
Monte Casino. Of St. Bruno the Carthusian there are
two letters written from Calabria, one of which is ad-
dressed to his brethren of the Grande Chartreuse, near
Grenoble. (Bollandi, Acta Sanctorum; and Diet, Univ.
Historique,^
BRUNSWICK (in Germany, BRAUNSCHWEIG).
Two distinct sovereignties have sprung from the house of
Brunswick. The possessions of the elder or ducal line are
confined to the grand duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel ;
the younger or electoral line, by whom the kingly title was
assumed in 1814, possesses the kingdom of Hanover* and
is also designated the Brunswick-Liineburg, or Hanoverian
line. The latter line has given kings to Great Britain from
the commencement of the 18th century.
The following article relates wholly to the duchy of Bruns-
wick. The lands of which this duchy is composed prin-
cipally consist of three larKO unconnected districts, lying on
the banks of the AUer, Ocker, Leine* and Weser, in the
N, W. part of Germany. The most southern of these dis-
tricts lies wholly upon or next tlie Lower Harz ; the eastern
district extends fVom the northern foot of the Harz to the
plains of Liinoburtf, and is traversed by several ranges of
nilU, among which are the Elm, 1 1 00 ft. high, but declines
in the north to an uninterrupted plain ; and the third or
western district is all highland, and embraces portions of
the Soiling, Iht, and Hills ranges. These territories are
bounded on tlie N. and S. by the kingdom of Hanover, on
the E. and S.B. by Prussian Saxony and Anhalt, and on
the W. are separated by the Weser from the Prussian do-
minions. Brunswick possesses also three isolated demesnes,
the bailiwick of Ottenstein, on the right bank of the Weser,
which in auite detached from the rest, and has the princi-
pality of Waldeck for its neighbour; the bailiwick of The-
dinghauiieni which is surrounded by the Hanoverian earl-
dom of Hoya; and the bailiwick of Calvorde, which is
situated within the borders of Prussian Saxony. These
several possessions are situated between O"" 10' and 11° 22'
E. long., and 51*> 35' and 52° 32' N. lat, and occupy
about 1525 sq. m. They were formerly constituent parts
of the German enopire, consisting of the principalities of
W^nhuttel and Blankenburg, the ecolesiastioal bailiwick
"^nried, the ba^iwick of Thedinghausen, and other
Sq.M.
Bailiw.
P*p.
Brunswick 231
3
58.400
Wolfenbuttel 246
5
49,900
Helmstedt 322
5
49,000
Gandersheim 245
4
38,100
Holzminden 287
6
36,400
Blankenburg 194
3
18,200
isolated |>arceli of land, tDg«tli«r with tNtf-afthrof &•
sovereignty of the Lower Hars.
The duohy is at present divided into siK oirotos:^
Bruoswiek 35.60f
Wolfenbottel 6.360
Helmatedt 6.300
Gandersbam *2,30«
HoUmindea 3*900
Blankenburg 3,190
1,525 25 250,000
The whole duchy contains 12 towns, 15 vill. with naar-
kets, 417 vill. and haml., and about 28,000 bouaea.
The northern districts of Brunswick, particularly the prin-
cipality of Wolfenbuttel, have an undulating auHoee, inter-
sected by several ranges of hills, such as the Elm, Oder,
Fallstein, and Asse ; and there are also some IbnsU z ai
their N. extremity heaths and moors occur, which an pan
of the great sandy levels which characterixe the N. of Gcr-
many. The southern districts, including the Blaakeohwg
territory, which lie within the limits of the Han, mrw a
succession of highlands and mountains, in part well wooded,
and studded with wide and highly cultivated vaUefib Th«
Harz is the principal mountain range in the BniDsvick do-
minions, whose share of it amounts to 164,000 sciea* inde-
pendenUy of its offsets. The loftiest summits within the
duchy are the Wormberg, which is 2880, the Radauerberg
2317, the Forstertranke 2298, and the Rammelaberg 1914 ft
high. Tliroughout the duchy the surface gradually declines
from this range towards the N., the larger portion sloping
to the banks of the Weser, and the remainder eaatwmids
in the direction of the Elbe.
The soil in the N. is highly nroduetive, with the ex*
ception of the extreme borders, which belong to the great
Liineburg plain, though even here it does not degonerate
into mere drifl-sand or barren heaths. In the 8. tho country
is mountainous and of a stony character, which is partica-
larly observable of the Blankenburg districts ; but in Wol-
fenbuttel and Scheppenstadt, and next the Weaer and Letne*
it admits of profitable cultivation. Thedinghauann eonsists
partly of marsh and partly of high land. The moot unpro-
ductive tract in Brunswick occurs in the bailiwiek of Ottan-
stein. in the Holsminden circle.
The whole of that part of the Hars which is eomprised
within the Brunswick territory belongs to the region of the
Lower Harz ; the hi^rhest point is on the N.K edge of thr
most southerly districts, whence it spreads not only over
the entire principality of Blankenburg, but aenda out its
branches, though not always in an unbroken line, over moel
parts of the duchy. Of these remoter branches there are
the sandstone range of the ' Soiling* near the Weser, whicii
occupies 18,000 acres; the *Hufe* next the banks of the
Leine ; the * Elm,* consisting of wooded slopes, 3-1,000 acres
in extent, lying between Wolfenbuttel and Schoningen ; and
a portion of the forest-covered heights of the ' Di6mlmif.'
occupying 16,776 acres in the district of Schoningen. These
mountains contain the bulk of the woods and foreets ef
Brunswick; the higher regions of the Han are oxriusiv^ly
the regions of the fir and pine ; the less elevated have these
species of wood intermixed with underwood ; and the lowest
acclivities abound in oaks, beeches, birches, alders, &c.
The most considerable riv. in the duchy, the Weeer, llew>
for about 20 m. through ite western territory, between Mem-
brechsen and Dospe, and again through Thedini^usen.
Although e^even streams run into it on the Brunswick side,
the town of Holsminden is the only place that derives anv
advantoge from it in the way of navigation. Amonit iij
tributaries, the AUer traverses a small portion of the northern
district of Vorsfelde only, but in its course reeetvcs tbe
Ocker, the principal riv. of the northern half of Brunswick.
The Ocker rises between Altenau and Andreaaberfse, on
the Han, and flows across the principalihr of Wolfenbuttel
in ite course northwards, until it leaves tho dndnr at Nen-
briick : during ite course ite waters are increased by those
of the Grose, Radau, Use, Ecker, Altenau, &c. The Ocker
is very useful to the duchy aa a means of transporting tim-
ber. Other tributeries of the Aller are the Leine, whwh
enters the N. of Brunswick from the vale of Biabeck m
Hanover, divides the Han from the Weser distnets* and
directe ite muddy, yellowish stream through the first of
those districte back into Hanover ; the Fuse tioviuiti the
western extxeoiity of Wotfeabuttd ; and tho InoofsK vkoch
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riiM in the Htw^'piMot into the HiUesbeim territoiy. The
chief streams which discharge their waters into the Elbe or
iu tribuUries are the Ohre and Bode. The Bode it the
principal riv. of Blankenburg.
Brunswick contains a great number (according to Ventu-
rini 600) of natural pieces of water. The Wipperleich, near
Vorsfelde, is stitt the largest of them, although a consider-
able portion of it has been reclaimed. There are mineral
springs of some note at Helmatedt and near Seesen on the
Harz, and sulphuretted waters near Bisperode and Bessin-
gen. The great morass which formerly extended from the
Ocker to the Bode has been drained hj the navigable can.
which now unites those rivs., and has proved the means of
recovering several hundred acres of land* which are at
present converted into luxuriant meadows and pastures.
The valleys between the mountain-ranges or the 8. and
W. parts of Brunswick are by no means so favourable to
the growth of grain as the rich lands in the vicinity of the
Weser and Leine, The eastern highlands also, being too
cold and stony for agricultural purposes, are used for grazing
and supplying timber; but the N. part of Brunswick, where
the sand usually acquires consistency from the presence of
loam or mould, yields good crops of most kinds of grain.
The country is seldom parched by excessive heat, and winter
is usually bmited to three months* duration in the northern
districts ; and even in the southern, the atmosphere is cold
and exposed to storms only among the mountain-regions of
the Harz. In the northern, harvest begins in the third week
of July and ends in the middle of November ; and in the
southern it is not above fourteen days later.
It baa been estimated that thirty-three out of thirty-five
parts of the entire surface of Brunswick have been made
productive; and that of this surface about 336,930 acres
are arable, 19,800 cultivated in fruits and vegetables, and
48»590 used as meadows ; that the woods and forests occupy
332,660, the meadows and commons 235,460, and the ponds
and pools 2560. The yearly produce of com, viz., wheat,
rye, barley and oats, is calculated at from 3,000,000 to
3.500,000 soheffel ; and of this produce the winter wheaU
aflfbrd a surplus for exportation. The quantity of beans and
peas grovm is about 1 70,000 scheiTel ; of potatoes the quantity
IS considerable ; of tobacco, between 6000 and 7000 cwts. ;
of hops, equal to the best in Germany, fh>m 8000 to 10,000
cwts. ; of rape-seed, sufficient to yield 600 tuns of oil ; and
of flax, about 4200 tons. Much chicory is raised as a sub-
stitute for coffee in the neighbourhood of the capital, and
the whole produce amounts to between 16,000 and 20,000
cwts. per annum.
Horses are but partially reared, and most of them are of
an indifferent stock ; and though some good has arisen (torn
the ducal stud kept at Harzbarg, the best continue to be
imported frt>m Mecklenburg, Liinebnrg, and Holstein. In
1812 the stook was about 50,300, and it is now estimated at
about 53,6C0. With respect to homed cattle, the breed on
the richer soils is, from want of care, far inferior to that in
the upland districts. The farmer of Wolfenbiittel, for in-
stance, will obtain but four pounds of butter from his cow
where the farmer of the Harz will obtain seven. In many
parts the breed has been improved by intermixture with
Friesland and Swiss cattle; and the stocks have increased
during the last twelve years from 86*400 to atwut 92,100.
Oreat attention has been paid of late years to sheep ; the
number, which was 258,965 in 1812, is said at present to be
little short of 300,000, while the yearly produce of wool now
exceeds 5000 owts. In 1812 the stock of swine was not
more than 46,408> and they are not now estimated at more
than 48,000. Of goats there is but a scanty supply, about
BOOO ; and even of poultry the quantity fod is insidequate
to the wants of the ooontry. The number of bee-hives is
shout 1 0»000, and they are kept almost exclusively in the
sandy distiicts where heaths ooeur. Game is becoming
scarcer every day. Fresh-water fish, such as carp, pikes,
and trout, are plentifhl.
Wood, which is one of the staple products of Branswick,
has been so seriously injured by negleet and waste, that all
Lhe woods and forests have been placed, since the year 1827,
under the oontrol of a public bosurd. Their most extensive
lites are the districts of the Harx« Blankenburg, and the
IVeser, where the felling and pieparing of timber, and tiie
Rwrking it into utensils and ibr other domestic purposes,
nnploy a vast number of hands. The most common kinds
>f wood sure beeeh, fir, pine, and oak. Of oaks there are
7 16,900 in the district of the Weser akme.
< The mines of Brunswick are of twoolasaes; one cki*
comprising snch as are worked in conjunction with the
Hanoverian government, and the other independently of it.
The annual produce of the first class, which indudss the
mines on the Rammelsberge, in the Upper Harx, has ever
since the year 1788 been divided into seven shares, of which
Hanover takes four and Brunswick three ; and the shares
accruing to the latter yield, one year with another, according
to Villefosse, 2 marks of gold and 1530 of silver, 50 tons of
copper, 52 of lead, and 70 of litharge, 1 15 of zinc, 985 cwts. of
vitnol. 954 cwts. of sulphur, and 80 cwts. of potashes ; to which
must be added 88 lasts (about 164 tons) of salt from the works
at Julius-hall. These mines are under the direction of a joint
board at Goslar, and consist of one of gold, three of sUven
copper, and lead, and three copper and sulphur works. The
net yearly revenue, which Brunswick derives from this part*
nership, is not estimated at more than 2000/. sterling. The
' Communion-Harz * also includes a high furnace and two
iron-works on the Iberge, together with 45,000 acres of
forest The Independent mines lie on the Lower Harz, in
the principality or Blankenburg, near Seesen, and the dis-
trict of the Weser ; their principal produce is iron. They
give employment to 1 1 large works, which annually yield on
an average about 14,000 tons of ore, produces 3120 tons of
raw iron, 865 of cast iron, 1600 of rod iron, 490 of flattened
iron, &c. ; 500 of raw and 1250 of cast steel, 45 and up-
wards of tin plates, and 420 cwts. of iron wire.
Brunswick produces marble (near Blankenburg), ala-
baster, limestone and gypsum, potter's clay, asbestos, ser-
pentine-stone, agate, jasper, chalcedony, garnets, porphyry,
sandstone, freestone, coal (near Helmstedi, and in other
places, where there are beds more than adequate to supply
the whole duchy with fuel), and alum. There are four salt-
works; namely, at Salzdahlum (produce 1500 tons yearly),
Schoningen (1300), Salzliebenhall (800), and Juliushall
(250); the last- mentioned forms part of the Communion-
Harz. Cobalt and ochre are obtained from the Rammels-
The first census of the pop. of Brunswick, which wss
made in the year 1760, stated it to amount to 158,980 souls;
in 1788, it had increased to 184,708; in 1793, to 191,713;
and in 1799, to 209,527. But we are not enabled to speak
of the present pop. of Brunswick from official returns, as
none have been made public since 1812 and 1830, when the
number of inh. was 209,527 (101,598 males and 107,929
females) in the first-mentioned, and 245,783 ui the last-
mentioned year. Of families there were 41,609 in 1830.
From these data, the present pop. may be safely estimated
at 250,000 souls, of whom about 150,000 belong to the 748
sq. m. forming the northern, and 100,000 to the 777 so. m.
forming the southern possessions of Brunswick. Out or the
28,000 houses, about 7300 are in towns. Independently of
about 1400 Jews, the Brunswickers are all of (merman ex-
traction. The peasantry use the Low German, and the
townspeople and persons of education the High German
dialect. In 1830, a classification according to religious per-
suasions iAllgemeineDuldung) was compiled, from which
it appeared that the number of Lutherans was 241,749, who
were subject to the consistory at Wolfenbiittel, 6 general
and 29 local superintendentships, and divided among 238
pars, and 262 auxiliarv flocks, in which were 398 churches
and chapels. The Reformed Lutheran Church had at that
time 1056 followers and one place of worship; the Roman
Catholic faith, 2386 followers and three churches (at Bruns-
wick, Wolfenbiittel, and Helmstedt) ; and the Jews, five
svnagognes. There were some families of Hermhutbers
tnen resident in the duchy. The value of all ecclesiastical
property was estimated, in the year 1812, at about 47,060/.
(332,220 dollars), and the incomes of benefices at 17,870/.
(130,000 doDars). Of these benefices, the duke of Bruns-
wick then hek* the patronage of 116, landowners of 44,
magistrates of 10, prelates of 40, parishes of 10, and forcrign
confraternities of 19. The nunneries and ecclesiastical
endowments for the reception of unmarried females at Ste-
terburg, Wolfenbiittel, Brunswick, Helmstedt, and OosUr,
which had been suppressed by the Westphalian government
in 1812, were reinstated in their properties in 1814, and re-
opened in 1816,
The government has at afl times paid great attention to
the intellectual improvement of the people, nor has Bruns-
wick hsd resson to regret the closing of her national uni-
versity at Helmstedt and her seminary for candidates m
divinity at Riddagshaosen, both of which were suppressed
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hf tlie Wtet|»MkB gofaivmeBt in 1911. In tetam Ibr tlie
advttnta«ree which the now derivea ftfom the neighboiiring
university of GbttingeB, end the exemption of 40 of her
youth from payment of fees at that achool, she eontribntea a
small portion of the profsssoFa* stipends. At the head of
her own establishments for the purposes of education are
the Lyceum, formerly the Collegium CareUnum. in Bruns-
wick, conducted by 19 professors, and frequented by pupils
from the higher classes of society. There are also the
anatomical and surgical institute, at the head of which are
five professors and a demonstrator ; the agrioultural insti-
tute; an upper gymnasium, pro-eymnesium, and a real-
gymnasium (for youths designed ror commercial and other
ordinary pursuits), the whole three constituting what is
called the ' Real-Institut,' and conducted by a director and
35 teachers. All these establishments, as well as the cadet
academy for the gratuitous education of 12 pupils for
military service, are in Brunswick. There are gymnasia
also in Wolfenbiittel, Helmstedt, Blankenburg, and Holz-
minden. For the poorer classes there are d schools of
industry, 32 civic schools^ and 435 country or parochial
schools in the duchy. The Jews have likewise 2 schools
for youth of their persuasion. There is a museum, with
collections in natural history and numismatics, &c. ; a
picturergallery in Brunswick ; and a public library at Wol-
fenbiittel, containing upwards of 2UO,000 volumes and
10,000 MSS., pamphlets, &c. ; besides libraries and cabinets
in the capital and in other towns.
The constitution of Brunswick is a limited monarchy, the
fdjrm of which is determined by the national compact,
called the * Landschafts-Ordnung of the 12th of October,
1832. The sovereignty passes to the female, upon the failure
of the male line, and the heir apparent comes of legal age
on attaining his eighteenth year. The legislature is com-
posed of the duke, an upper chamber consisting of 6 prelates
and the 78 holders of equestrian estates, and a lower
chamber composed of 6 prelates, 19 deputies ttom towns
(6 from Brunswick and 1 from every other town), and as
many representatives of the land-holders, who do not possess
equestrian rights. No minister of state can be a representa-
tive. During the prorogation of the chambers, a permanent
committee of representatives acts as a legislative organ, ^o
law can be enacted without the consent of the chambers ;
they have the right of proposing new laws to the duke, of
exposing defects or abuses in the existing institutions of the
countr>', and of impeaching the ministers, and even the per-
manent committee itself, lor violations of duty. In certain
cases, particularly of imminent danger to the state, they may
meet without being regularly called together. The legis-
lature must be assembled once at least every three years in
the month of November ; on extraordinary emergencies, a
special session may be held upon the requisition of the
permanent committee. The taxes are vot^ for periods of
three years ; and every point connected with the finances,
and indeed with the administration of national affairs, is
mono or less under the cognizance and control of the legis-
lature. All Christian persuasions, if tolerated by the law,
er\j()y equal protection and an equality of civil rights ; and
they are all placed under the general superintendence of the
government The property of the church, schools, and
charitable endowments cannot he diverted from its original
destination, nor can it be incorporated with the property of
the state.
There ave three mmistera of state appointed by the duke;
and there are four hereditanr grand dignitaries— an earl
marshal, a master of the kitchen, a cupbearer, and a grand
chamberlain. There are provincial boards in each circle for
its local government and police.
The revenue is derived, in the first place, from the ducal
demesnes, monopolies, &c., which yield a net income of
aliout 54,726/. (398,000 dollars), out of which, by the settle-
nitnit made between the duke and the chambera in October,
1H32, 32,590/. (237,000 dollars) are applicable to the civil
liht. The next souroe of revenue is the direct taxes, wbiuh
pnxluce about 173,940/. (1,965,000 dollars); apd the last
am the indirect taxea, which yield about 152,350A (1,108,000
(lollufM). The net income of Brunswick from these three
Miurium averages, therefore, about 348,425/. (2.534.000
4'4iiir») in eaJii triennial period, alter deducting the civil
lui eh|»«f)(liture; but to this there is yet to be added the
hMi pMKluoe of highway rates, the post-office, lottery, ito^
Mir/wi 71,750/. (522,000 dollars); and with this addition, the
ftM lM^4im for three yean will be about 420,175/. (3»056.000
do11an)» or rather mere Itai U0»99QlL per manmm. I» IWct
the estimate, as sanetioned by the ehambert, for the expen-
diture of the duchy in the triennial periorl, 1834 lo 18-6.
amounted to 3,056,082 dollars; ef which sura shout 118i,^N« /
(860,278 dk>llars) are applicable to defraying the expt* nt»
of the military, and about 69,870/. (464.535 dollars) to the
redemption of the national debt, which amounts to ah^ur
495,000/. (3,600,000 dollars). The ditbursenents on mc-
count of the 'church and education' are paid out ai tht
income of properties belonging to religious eonasaDiii#Y
and scholastic endowments, wnich produces a net y-ari>
sum of about 46,830/. (340,600 dollars). Estimatti.g t>»e
pop. at 250,000, it would appear from these data, that ca^b
mdividual contributes on the average a sum of al>ct
1/. 179, 4df. towards the eitpenses of the state erery three
years, or about 12#. Bd, per annum.
The military establishment consists of the quota of nea
which the duchy is bound to furnish to the tenth corps u/
the army of the Gterman confederation ; namely. 1625 m-
fantry, 299 cavalry, and 172 aitillery and piooeen; makmf
a total of 2096.
The mineral resources of Brunswick aflbrd extensire em-
ployment for the labouring classes ; but are also emplnyei,
m the spinning of yam and weaving of lioeo. Y^m
is spun all over the duchy, and forms an hnportaat
branch of industry both in the country and in the toviu ,
the greater part is made into linen, and some is tx-
ported. The linen manufacture once emnloyed above 2(.i o
weavers, but it has greatly declined of late years, lu
the districts nearest the Weser^ the people knit oonsidera^a
quantities of stockings ; and in the northern parts the («a-
santry make Ibr their own tise a species of cloth, lulf .*
woollen and half of linen yam, which is theoee termi-^
' beiderwand,' or union cloth. Oil is almost whallj a D7«^
duct of the lowlands, and keeps 170 mills at work, tr.^
which about 900 tuns are obtained. Faper is niauulhf-tur«^
in 16 mills, to the extent of about 5000 bales; and Witi Ujc
view of maintaining a regular supplyf the exportation of rs^
is prohibited. The number of gypsum works is 18. Iicv-
kilns 47, and tile and pottery manufactories 23. Eantm-
ware and tobacco jupes are chiefly made ^ HelmsteCi
there is a large china manufactory at Furstenberg, ate
glass and mirrors are made in the parts adiaoent to ut
Weser. The manufacture of woollens is smal^ and oris., r
pally carried on at Brunswick ; ribbons ate made in Brua*>
wick and Wolfenhilttel ; soap is mostly manulactuied u
Holzminden. The breweries, including the celebruri
* Mumme* brewery at Brunswick, bave very much declicW ;
and the same remark applies to the onoe extensive lobaccc
manufactories in Brunswick, Wolfenbuttel. and HoUmindec
The number of water-mills is 284. wind-miUs 63. nud m^i^
worked by horses 6 : besides theses Brunswick pOiiriiM t i :
saw and other mills.
The duchy having no coast or navigable itmaoii. its trh^
with foreign parts is nsrturalljr eramped ; the chief pen. -a
of it pusses through Brunswick, partioularly that whicj
arises from the transit of merchandue between the Ha^ias
towns and the interior of Germany. The chief ariaek» sd
home manufacture which are exported oonsist of jsjs.
linen, grain, oil, chicory, madder, leather, timber, bof^ aud
ironware, the estimated value of which does mm ai pniw r
exceed 150,000/. per annum. The importations aiw pnnc.-
pally composed of colonial produce, law mat«riaiak £j^
butter, cheese, cattle, &c. (Venturint*s Diidby V* H^^m^
wick ; Crome, Hassel. Stein. Malchus, ftc,>
BRUNSWICK.— Hi«/ory.--The nratent »»k*>Vm*- u
this country are by some supposed to he desoMMiaaia of XMm
Saxones or Cherusci. the former of whom weiw sA •■ e«r *
date settled oq the lands which lie N. of the nnQihs ^ iW
Kibe and Weser, and ftie latter, in the tine of ihear ri«aw»4
power, spread themselves on all aides round iha Utrx
mountains. Other writers, admitting this devoent in p^-i.
claim it also in favour of the Bructeri M^jesvs^ %t:.*u-
easterly settlements lay olose upon the banks ol the >l^c««*
as well as of the Angrivarii or Angfi. who dv«li an b»t£.
sides of the same river- At all events it seenn lo be •«..
ascertained that these tribes inhabited diflereni paru <^ «..«
present territory of Brunswiek. and that the great oortbccr^
antagonist of the Homans, Arminius, waa a Saxam «h»i«
native home was the banks of the Weser. la this tctr-
tory too lay the field of Idistevisus iCam^m^ Ml Ta-.i.
Annal. IL 16), on whieh Anninatts with iun ■-^'•-r-.
who had thrown off the yoke of Booh^ bmc mk n
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•ff^al overthrow from Drasus in the beginning of the
first century. Monuments of the independent spirit of
thet»e warlike people are found at this aa^ at the foot of
the Sollinjp, a range of thickly-wooded hilla which skirt
the Weser both on the Bmnswick and Hanoverian soiL
At ii later date the Wends settled in these Barts> and
traces of their name still exist in WendesellyWendeburg,
and Wendenhausen, estates within the borders of the duchy.
The house of Brunswick^ one of the oldest families in
Germany, a branch of which is now seated on the British
throne, derive their descent from Albert Aso I., margrave
of Ente in Italy, who died in 964. His great ipandson,
Albert Aso II. of Este, who held the sovereignty of Milan,
Genoa, and other demesnes in Lombai^, had for his first
wife Kunigunda, daughter of Gruelph IL, who died in 1030,
and was of the blood of the Altoris^ counts of Swabia.
His son by this marriage, Guelpb the First (more properly
the Fourth), beeame peesesaed of the dukedom of Bavaria
and founded the junior house of Guelph, to which the
house of Brunswick traces its origin. This prince, who
inherited the whole of the possessions of the Guelph family
from his maternal uncle, died in 1 101. Guelph Ii. (or V.),
his eldest son, married in 1069 the celebrated Ooantess
Matilda^ but was divorced from her some years afterwards,
and died ohildtess in 1119. His inheritance devolved to
his brother. Henry the Black, whose union with the
daughter and heiress of the last duke of Saxony bravght
him a oonsiderable aooessioa of territory in Lower Saxony.
This prinoe was suoceeded in 1125 by Henry the Proud
(or Magnanimous), his ton, who, by intermarriage with
tlie only daughter of Lotharius II., heiress of the vast
possessions of the Billings, added to the dukedoms of
bavaria and Austria, Brunswick* and the duehy of Saxony,
by which aequisitiens he became the most powerful sove-
rei^ in Germany, and extended his dominion from Italy
to the shores of the Baltic. He died in 1139, after the
ban of the empire had been fulminated against him for
laying violoHt bends on the imperial insignia, and endea-
vouring to usurp the imiperial dignity. He was followed
by his son. Henry the lien, who having seised upon
Holstein and Mecklenburg was stripped by the ban of 1 1 79
of Bavaria, Saxony. Austria, and other possessions in the
S., and allowed to retain only his domains in Lower Saxony,
consisting^ of Luneburg, Kalenberg. Groltingen, Gru^n-
hairen. amd the duehy of Bi^nswiok-WolfenbiitteL This
was the d.eath blow to the supremacy of the Guelphs. As
Henry's eldest son was become, by marria({e, count pala-
tinate, an^ his seoend son, OtJhOb had died on the imperial
throne in 1)218, Willieai, a younger eon« sueceeded on
Henry *s death to the Bniaswiek inheritance; and Othe, a
son of this prinee^ beeame the founder of the present
dynaety, by wtue of his solenin investiture with the terri-
tory of Brunswiek as a fief of the empire in 1834. on which
occasion he was recognised as the first duke of Brunswick.
Hia eon Albert succeeded him; and John, another son,
who died m 1877, founded the elder bratich of the Liine-
bttfK houae, which became oxtinet in theperaon of William
of Luneburg in 1369. In this way Magnus * of the Chain,*
a prremt grandson of Albert, who died in 1373, united the
poeaessiona of eaeh dynasty, and beeame the joint aneeelor
of whet sNe termed the 'intermediate lines' of Brunswiek
and Liineburg. Of these two Unes that of Brunswick,
which in 1503 had spUt nito the Kalenbetg and Wolfon-
biittel t»ranches, beeame extinet with Duke Frederic Ulrich
in 1634* Emeet the Pious, or the Confoaser, who died in
1546* inheriting the principalities of Brunswick and Liine-
burg as eurriving representative of the intermediate line,
was the feimder of bolh hranehes of the existing dynas^ ;
but the inheritance was again divided at his decease, l^
which pnrtition Homy, his eldest son, esteblished the line
of Branswiek-Wolfenbfittri in 1M9, and William, his
younger eon, established the line of Brunswiok-Liinebnrg.
it was a desdendant of the last-mentioned prinoe, Duke
Bmeat Augustus, who was raised to the dignity of ninth
eleoSor of the empve in ie98 ; and Geoige Lewis, a son of
the eanae Braest Augustus, aueeeeded to the erown of
Great Britain in 1714, by Tirtue of his deseent on the
fenaale aide ftom James I. Augustus, who aequhed some
celebrity as a writer under the designation of Gustavus
Selenua. temoved his leaidenee from Hitzaker to Wolfen-
biictel. wliere he founded the great Ubrery m that town.
At bin ilsPSaiB, in I66e, he left hehiBd him thrse sons, the
~ sd the teesfeignty of Bovem
aasiflned to him, founded the line of that name ; his elder
brotners became joint rulers of the remaining territories of
Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, and having in 1671 put an end
to the extensive privileges enjoyed by the town of Bruns-
wick, compelled the citizens to recognise them as their
masters. Upon the death of the elder of the two brothers,
Anthony Ulrich. who built the town of Salzdahlen. became
sole ruler. On his death in 1 7 14. he left two sons behind him,
Augustus William, who fixed his seat of government at
WoTfenbuttel, and Lewis Rudolphus. who made Blanken-
burg his capital, but ailerwards removed to Wolfenbiittel,
the decease of Augustus having re -united the disjointed
Srincipalities in 1731. As Lewis had no male heirs, Fer-
inand Albert, of the line of Bevern, suoceeded to the
dukedom in 1735. Lewis Ernest, the third son of this
wince, held the rank of field-marshal in the service of the
Dutch states from 1759 to 1766, during which period he
was captain -general of the United Provinces, and acting
guardian of the hereditary Stadtholder ; the jealousy how-
ever of the patriotic faction exiled him to Bois-le-Duc,
much to the prejudice of the welfafe of Holland, and he
died there in 1788. His next brother, Ferdinand, who
entered the Prussian service, distinguished himself greatly
in the Seven years* war, decided the battle of Prague, and
in 1757, at the head of the Prussian army in Westphalia,,
gained the victories of Corfeld and Minden, and drove the
French out of Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse-C'a&sel.
The father of these two princes, Ferdinand Albert, after a
reign of a few months, was succeeded in 1 735 by his son
Charles, who transferred the seat of government to Bruns
wick in 1754, and there founded the celebrated ' Collegium
CaroUnum.* He was the steady and active ally of England
during the Seven years' war, but at the expense of the
peaoe and prosperity of his states as well as of his exche-
quer, which was encumbered with a debt of nearly one
million sterling in consequence of this alliance. He ex-
tinguished, however, one fourth of it before his decease, in
1 780, when his son, Charles William Ferdinand, succeeded
him. This prince, who had been educated as a soldier, at
the head of the Brunswiek auxiliaries in the Seven years*
war, was mainly instrumental in gaining the victory of
Krefeld in 1758, and was acknowledged by Frederick Che
Great to be one of the first captains of his day. He
married Augusta, princess of Wales, in 1764. At the
close of the Seven yeare* war the domestic interests of his
exhausted possessions alTorded him a new sphere of action,
in which, by the extinction of its debts and the wisdom of
his general government, he showed himself as well fitted
to govern a country as to oommsnd an army. Previously
to his aooession to the ducal crown he had accepted a com-
mission in the Prussian service as general of infantry ; in
this eepaoity,in 1787, he took the command of the Prussian
forces, mtaobod into Holland, and reinstated the Stadtholder
in his dignity. In 1792 he was called upon to lead the-
Austrian and Prussian armies in the campaign against
revolutionaiy Fmnoe, and after isauing the violent mani-
festo of the ISth iuly in that year, entered Lorraine and
Champajgne, where, destitute of resources and baffled by
the caution of Dumouries, his fhAitless attempt to force the-
position of Valmy eompellad him to conclude an armistice-
and abandon the French territory. In the campaign of*
the following year, which he carried on in coi|ju notion with
Wurmsor, we Austrian general, on both banbsof the
Rhine, from Strasbwg to beyond Landau and Mayence,
be was so aUy opposed by Moreau, Hoche, and Pichegru,
and so indifferently supportsd by his Austrian allies, that
he detennined to resign his eommand. He accordingly
withdrew to Brunswicl^ and continued to employ himself
with the cares of domestic government until Prussia called
upon him to lead her troops against Napoleon in the year
1806. The duke weighed down by years, unacauainted
with the improved science of modem wariare, ana at the
head of an inexperienced army; physically inferior to the
enemy, closed his distinguished career by the loss Of
the battles of Jena and Auerstedt in October, and retired,
broken-hearted and mortally wounded, to Ottensen near
Hamburg, where he died on the 10th of November
following. His ducby fell a prey to Napoleon, and was
ineoiporeted with the new kingdom of Westphalia. His
son, Willism Frederick, who had distinguished himself in
the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, as well as in 1806, and
had suoceeded to the cdUateral inheritance of Brunswick-
OelsinPnissian6i]Mia,xemainfld«n eoule fron hit nitiv»
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^oninioDS ontil tlie RnsnAii eampftign sbook N»polMn*s
power. The retreat of the French armies from the N. of
Germany in 1813 enabled the duke to reoover pouenion
of his Brunswick sovereiffnt^ in December of that year.
But little time was afforded htm to set it in order, for the re-
newal of hostilities with France in 181 5 calling him into the
Held, he put himself at the head of his gallant fellow-
countrymen, joined the Pruasian and other allied forces in
Belgium, and brarely fell in the conflict at Ligny on the
1 6th of June. From that day until his son Charles came of
nge, George IV. of England, (who had married Caroline of
Brunswick, the sister of William Frederick), then prince-
regent, administered the affairs of Brunswick as his ap-
pointed guardian. Charles, afler a transient misrule of
about five years, was forced in September, 1830, by an in-
surrection in the city of Brunswick, to seek safety by a pre-
cipitate flight from his capital ; and under a resolution of
the Diet of the German Confederation on the 2nd Deoem-
her following, he was succeeded by his brother, William
prmce of OeU, who asaumed the government on the 20th
April, 1831.
BRUNSWICK, the capital of the Duchy, which lies
upon both banks of the Ocker, was known long before the
times of Henry the Lion as a mere farm called Brunswick,
belonging to the incumbency of St. Magnus. That prince,
who was Its real founder, divided the town into three quar^
ten. It became one of the Hanse towns in the 13th cen-
tury, and until the middle of the 15th, was accounted the
chief town in Lower Saxony; but its prosperity declined
with that of the Hanse towns. It is at present the residence
of the Brunswick sovereigns and their seat of government.
The fortifications were levelled in 1 794, and converted into
pleasure grounds and walks. Its area, which includes Rich-
mond, the duke's country seat, Eisenbiittel, and the Miinz-
'berg, occupies about eignt sq. m. ; the town itself is divided
into 6 districts, contains about 101 streets, 3400 houses,
-and 36,000 inh. Among its 10 churehes are the cathe-
dral, in which are monuments to Henry the Lion and Ma-
tilda his consort, and the vault of the ducal family ; and St.
Andrew's, the steeple of which is 316 ft high. The chief
-public buildings are the duke's palace (a new structure in
-course of completion), the old palace, now used for barracks,
near which is a bronse statue of Henrir the Lion, the chap-
ter-house, chancery, house of legislative assembly, mint,
arsenal, ducal exchequer, open-house, town-hall, trades-
hall, old Altdorf town-hall, ^ack-house, Collegium-Caroli-
num, and general and lying-m hospital. Between two of
ihe gates (the Augustus and Steintnore) a handsome obe-
lisk 60 ft high, was erected in 1822 to the memory of the
two dukes who fell in the campaigns of 1806 and 1815. The
•establishments for education consist of the college, founded
in 1745 ; a gymnasium, and seminary for teachers; a college
of anatomy and surgery ; a school for practical acquirements
iReal-^ehuU) ; several elementary schools, two orphan asy-
lums with schools attached, and a deaf and dumb asylum.
There is a good museum of works of art. Sec. in the second
atory of the arsenal, besides a number of private eoHeotions.
Brunswick has 7 gates and 12 squares or open apaeet ; the
park and gardens of the palaoe are thrown open to the public,
and a fine avenue of linden trees leads firom the town to the
duke*s seat Richmond, the gronnds of which an laid ont in
'imitation of Richmond Park near London. The mannfac-
tures are of importance and in repute ; the principal are
'Woollens, tinen, lackered and hard ware, tobacco, chi-
cory, glauber-salts, mineral coloun, china, papier maehi,
leather, colouiM papers, brandy, and liqueurs. But the
chief lonree of wealth is its trade, two great fkira, a wool-
market, and six cattle-markets in the year. Brunswick
is fhll of charitable institutions, among which are a general
establishment for the relief of the poor, 14 almshouses, 3
hospitals, a house of industi^', and St. Leonard's, a spacious
infirmary outside the gates.— 52*^ 15' N. lat, 10^ 32^ E. long.
BRUNSVnCK, a town in Cumberiand Conntv. slate of
Maine, in N. America, situated on the riv. Androscoggin
«t the fUls, 26 m. N.N.B. of Portland, in A3^ 57' N. lat,
and 69® 62^ W. long.
Bowdoin college, eatablished at this town, was inoorpo-
Taled in 1 794 ; it derives its name ihim the Hon. James
Bowdoin, who endowed it with 6000 acres of land in Lincoln
County, in the same state, and with some other property.
By the legislatnre of Massachusetu this college was further
«ulowed with six townships of land, and an annual grant
of 3900 deltan was made te iu further support This
mmiey payment vat eontinned for a few yean by the legis-
lature of Maine after the separation of the alau f!w«
Massachusetts. The ooUese is built on a plain near t*'*
Androaeoggin. It is under the legislative governm'-.:
of a board of 24 trustees, and the executive govrmment .:
58 OYorseers. The number of professon in 1S34 «as r.
besides a president; of undergraduates, 155; of A'i-.ia- .
717. The Maine medical school in oonnexioo wiib .«
college was esUblished in 1820, and in 1833 eont«i»<<: .« ;
students. The college possesses a good philoM^hiet; it i a
chemical apparatus, a cabinet of minerals, and a Uxrx'y :
about 80U0 volumes, in addition to libraries belon^ioc r
the students containing 6000 volumes. A weekly pb r
called the Escritoire was estsblished by the studrn:« •:
1826, and has since been regularly published. The u •
has the advantage of a considerable water-power, ow :|: t
its position near the falk of the Androscoggin, which u « .
ployed in some mills and manufaeturing estahliabnsenti
The pop. of the town in 1820 was 2954, and at tS
census of 1830 was 3747.
BRUNSWICK, NEW. [N«w Bbuiiswictl.]
BRUNTISLAND. [Fira.]
BRUSSELS, called by the Flemings « BrvaaeL' m I^ti^
'BruxellgD,* and by the French 'Bruxelles,* the capitai .
the kingdom of Belgium, in the prov. of 8L Bcahast, it tr.
50® 50' N. lat., and 4® 22' E. long.
This city is built upon die JMnne, a riv. whath rises '-.
the coram, of Naast, in Hainault, and, flowing to the N W .
passes through Soignies and Steenkerque. dmsgin; t*
course to the N.E., it enten 8. Brabant, and flows f^¥
Hal to Brussels and Vilvorde, enten the piwr. of Aatwvr*
near Malines, and falls into the Dyle at B«n—tli»w ■ i
The Senne enten the city of Broasels by two bniM-SM
one of which passes by the old market-plaee. aad ihr ct ^
crosses the garden of the Chartraox. It fanaa imr ula*» •
in the interior of the city, the two principal of vhirb m
called Saint G^ry and Bon Secoun. The width of th* r-
where its different branches unite, at the ftak-'aBarkft a
about 30 ft., and its ordinary depth is 6 ft« which diiir^^i
in summer, and increases conaaderahly in winlar. TkM m
is not navigable in any part of its coarse. T» !«•«..
this disadvantage, the authoriUea of Bmaaela piuftumi
a canal in 1460, to fbllow theeourae of the tnr.; hut u.*
project was aucceisfhlly opposed alter 79 yaata of lit«si«r
by the city of Malinea. A new plan was thaa
and a canal was begun in 1050, which pi
to the Senne fh>m Brussels to Vilvoide,
was directed towards the Rupel, leaving Malioee
riffht, and continuing in a straight line to Wi
wbere it joined the Rup^ opposiu to Boom. Th»s a
whieh was opened in 1561, coat nearly %»O0jm^ of e^ .
(166,000/). The city of Bmsaela is 50 ft abotw tbe ^•
of Willebroeck, which difficulty has baaa
means of five locks.
Another canal has lately bean coaHnM _ ___
Brussek and Charleroy ; the fhll fhm the Utter Uw^
Brussels is 860 ft, and there are 55 locks. Thaa can. c^
menoes at the Sambra, aboat 1100 yaida abovw Clar>r «
near Hal it crosses the Senne by means ef aa aq^r^i* t ■
three arehea, and eontinuea in a direct line towaida B^** ..
where, having repassed the Senne by aoolbrr m^am.^
the same number of arches, it terminates ta tlse *-^ --
/O0ii of the city : this can. was finished in 1 6M.
The greatest extent of Brussels bvm N J«i.K. to &« tt
is about one mile and a quarter, and its breadth ahucs t ••
sixths of a mile. In fhrm it is pear-shaped, tbe so,!, r..
part being to the W. The town itputly binit «b tic . .-
of a hill, and when seen from the W., has the apfettra^'^
of a fine amphitheatre. Owing to the tneq«aii£»» «.^
surface, Brussels has been compared vritfe Cm am a>.
Naplea It is inclosed bra hntk waU, whask faM r^.
ffatos» bearing respectively the names of the Amw-
Schaerbeck, Lou\*ain, Namur, Hal, AnderleckC FVmi*'- ^
and the Canal-gates. Theee gates commoiuceaw w.t& «-
roads, leading to diffsrent parts of the ka^gdoa. w^
centre in Brussels as the eapitat The Antwtrp vmar f* -
ducts to Malines and Antwerp; Schaseheek |pMe %• xt»
village of the same name and the oaalle of l.«Bkm : Nap
gate, through the forest of Soignies to Watotlein^ N -»v . •
and Charleroj. Anderiecht gate rondiicto to ih» b^h r?^
to France ; and Flandere gate to the ctty of ffhaisL
The origin of Brussels reaehai back to tW ■w^sih <v
tttxy. The.ftnt buildings ware araeied ha tfat latead e< >w
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B R U
497
B R U
G^, m Dtned after St 6^, bislnm of Cftmbniy, who
built a chapel on the spot. It is sftid that the name of the
eity is derived from the bridge (ealled in the Flemish
language bragh) which was thrown over the river. In the
tenth century the Emperor Otho the Secood inhabited a
castle in the island of St. 6^. The city was inclosed
with walls in 1044 by Lambert Baldric, count of Louvain ;
but the walls were removed and the city enlar^ in 1369.
Two dreadful fires occurred in 1326 and 1405. It is said
that, on the first occasion, 2400, and on the second 1400
houses were destroyed. If these nnmbers are at all correct,
the city must then have been of considerable size The
prosperity of Brussels was greatly increased in the twelfth
century by the establishment of the manufactures of cloth
and fire-arms : the former was introduced fW>m Bruges and
Ghent, and the latter from Namur.
The first siege to which the city was exposed occurred in
1213, when it was taken by the Knglish. In 1314, in con-
sequence of incessant and long-continued rains, a contagious
disorder carried off so. many of the citizens that 60 were
buried in the same grave. In 1370 the Jews were banished
from the city and prov., and their property, amounting to
more than 12,000,000 of florins, was confiscated.
Brussels was taken by surprise in 1488 by Philip of
Cloves. On regaining possession, the emperor Maximilian,
sttspectinff the inh. of having been in league with Philip,
deprived the city of various privileges, which were bestowed
anon Malines. In 1 489 Brussels was visited by the plague,
wnich provailed to such a decree that the people died in the
streets. By a similar visitaUon in 1578, more than 27,000
inh« were carried ofL llie tyranny of the Spanish governor,
fhiB duke of Alba, occasioned about 10,000 artisans to leave
Bruaaels in 1567, many of whom settled in England.
• In 1695 this city was bombarded by Marshal Villeroi,
who demolished upwards of 4000 buildings, including the
stadt house and 14 churehes. In 1708 it was again be-
sieged by the elector of Bavaria* but was relieved by tiie
army under the duke of Marlborough. In 1 746 Brussels
was taken by Marshal Saxe, who laid the inh. under heavy
eonlributions : it was restored to Austria at the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle. The Austrian Netherlands having been
conquered by the French in the early part of the war of the
French revolution, Brussels was declared by the directory
to be the chief place in the dep. of the Dyle.- On the Ist
of Fcbruaryi 1814, the Prussian army took possession of this
dty* wbieh, under the provisions of the treaty of the same
year, became one of the capitals of the newly-formed king-
dom of the Netherlands. On the separation of Belgium
from Holland at the revolution of 1830, the movements
leadine to which began in Brussels, this city became the
oamtalof the new kingdom and the seat of government.
Brussels contains about 300 streets and squares, besides
Bumeroos lanes and courts. Several of the streets are wide
mA airy ; the houses are lofty and well built, and great care
is taken to preserve their external cleanliness and neatness.
The square of the great market-place, called La Grande
IHace^ situated in the centre of the city, is a regular naral-
lelogram, surrounded on all sides by handsome builaings.
Tho Hotel de ViUe and the halls of many trading com-
panies oecapy two of the sides. Some other squares, the
ylaee Royaie, Place du Grand Sabl<m^ and the Place Saint
Michel, are remarkable for the regularity and beauty of
their building Among the ornaments of the town are the
public fountams, 29 in number, erected in diflbrent parts,
which supply the inh. with water. One of these fountains,
that in the Place du Grand Sablon^ consisting of a beautiful
group in statuary marble, was erected in 1751, under the
will of the earl of Aylesbury, ' as an acknowledement of
the enjoyments he had experienced at Brussels during a
residence of fbrtv years.*
Churches. — ^The city contains twelve churehes, eleven of
which are appropriated to Catholic worship and one to the
refornied religion: there is also a syna^gue. Among the
Catholic churehes is the cathedral chureh of St. Gudule, a
Gothic building in the form of a cross, with two large square
towers at one end : the building of this chureh was begun
in I U 1 0 ; it contains a very remarkable pulpit, made of oak,
and representing in baa relief the expulsion of Adam and
Bve from Paradise. The tombs of several of the dukes of
Brabant and numerous paintings are also in this church.
The church of Notre Dane de fa Chapelle was founded in
1134 ; it contains some fine statues by Du Quesnoy. and a
marble altar designed by Rubens, besides several paintings
No. 334.
[THE PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
by eminent masters. The chureh of Notre Jkme dei
VieUnree, bnilt in 1268 by the first duke of Brabant to
commemorate a victory obtained over the bishop of Cologne,
is an ornamented Gothic building with painted windows,
and contains many valuable paintings and statnes. The
Protestant chureh formerly belonged to the convent of the
Augustins.
Public Buildingg.-^Tbe Hotel de Vitte, one of the finest
Gothic buildings in the Netherlands, was begun in 1401,
but was not finished till 1442. The tower, which is stated
by several authorities to be 364 ft. high, is surmounted by a
gilded colossal statue of St. Michael, 17ft. high, which
serves as a weathercock. The palace of the Fine Arts,
situated in the Place Royaie^ was formerly the residence of
the governors of Brabant; at present it contains a museum
of paintings, the city library, and a cabinet of natural his-
tory. The library, which contains nearly^ 100,000 volumes,
besides numerous manuscripts, is open to the public ^s^
days in every week.
The king*s palace in the Place Royaie^ near the park,
was built in 1784, for the residence of the eovcmor of the
Austrian Netherlands. Opposite to this palaoe is the hall
of the Chamber of Deputies, which was formerly the palace
of Justice. The palace of the prince of Orange is a modem
building, which was finished for the residence of the prince
in 1 828 ; it is near the king's palaoe.
The most admired quarter of Brussels is called *the
Park.* About a century ago this was reallv what its nome
denotes, being then stocked with deer and other animals.
The area, about 17 acres, now consists of three wide parallel
avenues of trees, the tops of which are kept constantly cut,
in order that the walks may be alwavs dry. In one of these
avenues, which* is opposite the kin^s palace and the hall of
the I>eputies, are several busts of Roman emperon, sculp-
tured in blue stone; man v of these were mutilated during
the conflict which occurred in the park at the revolution in
1830. The city is lighted with gas.
In the year 1 784 an order was ffiven by the Emperor
Joseph the Second, forbidding the Durial of any persons
within the city, and directing the formation of burial-
grounds outside the walls. Three of these were accord*
ingly established, one near the * Hal * gate, another by the
Flanders gate, and the thihl, which is the largest, by the
Lou^-ain gate. In addition to these, the English inh. of Brus*
sels have established two cemeteries, one on the road leading
to the vil. of Vecle, and the other on tbe Louvain road.
The manufacture of lace is carried on to a considerable
extent ; the quality is verv superior, and large quantitiea
were formerly used in England. Many other manufactures
are also prosecuted, among which are hats, stockings, cali-
coes, gold and silver lace, paper hangings, porcelain, hard-
ware, and various chemical preparations used in the arts.
The pop. of the city was 84,004 in 18*25, and 98,279 in
1830. The revolution which occurred in the latter year
caused many mereantile men and persons attached to the
former government to remove their establisbroents from
Brussels to the Dutch provs., so that the pop. of the city
was temporarily diminished. Other causes have since
brought a considerable influx of inh., so that in 1 635, when a
census was taken, the numben were found to be augmented
to 102.702. It appean flx>m the following figures that this
augmentation has not nroeeeded from the natural increase
of the people, but is ratner to be ascribed to the attractions
which in every country invariably draw considerable num-
ben from the country to the capitaL
BIrthe. DeaUu. M«rriasn
1824 3,812 3,029 691
1825 3,763 3,146 735
1826 3,923 3,078 862
1827 3,801 3,022 878
1828 4,117 3,069 957
1829 3,948 4,078 912
1830 3,988 4.028 800
1831 4,022 3,548 944
1832 3,705 4,676 668
1833 ...... 3,989 4,277 866
1834 4,230 3,863 1,092
The ages of the persons who died in 1834 were as follows:
1116 under 1 year; 706 ftom 1 to 5 yean; 183 from 5 to
14 ; 95 from 14 to 20 ; 283 from 20 to 30 ; 282 firom 30 to
40 ; 245 from 40 to 50 ; 210 from 50 to 60 ; 292 from 60 to
70; 278 from 70 to 80; 156 from 80 to 90; 16 aboTC 90
yean ; 1 age unknown ; total, 8863. ftench^is now ths
Digitiz^^by^gOgle
84«tf
m
omi
Q poftr^r olas^e^ ^till ^pc^k Flemish alaoi »]id som^ of
era speak pnly t1)e latter language.
' The imposition of municipal tuxes upea provisions and
lather necessary firticlea broug[ht into the city makes i)s
fcquainied with the quantities consumed* During the
year 1834 the consumption of the principal articles was M
under :-.-
Wine , , . . , « 237,880 gallons.
Spirits and liqueurs • 8&U025 m
Beer €,397.836 „
Oxen 9,89nnaumb«^
Calves 16,092 ^
Sheep and lambs • . , 22,567 #,
P'tfs , 3.136
Meat rkilled) 1,7 03,281 lbs., making
Fresh flsh , . « 20,059/. value.
Codfish 966 tons.
Stockfish 645 cwt,
Wood for fuel .... 585.1 65 cubic feet.
Charcoal 134,912 bushels.
Coal . , . , 59,633 tons.
Brussels contained, in 1832, eight communal, and 72
piivate sohools: in the former there were 1522 male, and
)-il5 femaia scholars ; and in the latter, 929 male and 1405
female scholars. There are besides several establishments
fur tlie instruciion of poor children, whiuh are supported by
pri\ate uontribuiions. Among these are a Lancasterian
scliool, an infant si-hool, and a Sunday school, conducted
like those in England.
' Tbe city supports several hospitals and charitable institu-
tions. One of these, the Hai^pital of Saint Peter, was ori-
ginally founded for the recepiion of crusaders returning
^vounded from the Holy I^nd: it is now appropriated to
the rar^ of persons suifenng under dangerous complaints.
Ophthuimic patients are also receivedi and young children.
It is likewise used as a lyinu-in hospital, and one division is
allutted to the reception of sick perxons who pay for their
s'lipp-irt and atteniance, and towards whom every possible
rttre is extended. Attached to this hospital are very
Npacious and well-kept burdens and cotnmo'lious baths.
yUvvo IS an establishment for relievina distressed En^ilish-
nien wlio may be at Brussels, and for providing the means,
Nvlien necessary, for conveyintf tliem to England. This in-
iititution was e^^tablished in 1315, and is under the especial
palroiuige of King I^opold.
•Tiie mean temperature of Brussels throughout the year
1^33. as asrertained by observation at the Royal Observa-
tory, was 52^ Fahr. The ureatest heat occurred in June,
vvheii the centi^^rude thermometer stiH)d at 24.73, equal to
76.^° Fahr.: the greatest cold occurred in January, when
the rentiizrade thermometer stood at 3.21. or 26° Fahr.
Observations on the atmospheric pressure during the same
year at the same establishment give as the maximum
(on the 8lh January) 775.29 miUimdtres, or 30-523 inches.
The minimum pressure was observed in September, when
the mercury in tlie barometer stood at 726,10 millimetres, or
28 556 inches: the mean pressure for the year was 750.67
millimcti-es, or 'J9.554 inches. The number of days on
which It rained was 180; there occurred 39 days of frost
and 25 of fotf: it hailed on 5 days and snowed 11, and
there were 7 thunder-storms during the year * three of these
occurre<l in June and the same number in July. The pre-
vailing winds were from the W. and S.W., and occupied
182 davs. or one-hulf the year. From the E., N.E., and
S.K., it blew 104 days; from the N. 30; from the S. 25 ;
and from the N W. 24 days.
Brussels is the' seat of the supreme court of justice and
of I he ourt of appeal. The assizes for the prov. of S.
Brabant are held in the city four times in earh year.
At the vil. of Lacken, 9 m. N.E. from Brussels, is the
summer palace of the kingi built in 1782, by the Archduke
Albert. This palace stands in a fine situation, commanding
fine views of Brussels and its environs. [Belgium, South
Bhahant.]
(Gautier, Voyageur dans let Pays Bos; Tander Mae-
len., Recueil des Dorumens Statistiques; Staten Uitge-
feven <loor de Commtssie voor de Statistick^ 1829 ; Ojirial
^apers laid before the Legislative Chambers of Belgium,
}8.14.)
BRUTON. rSoMKRSKT.]
BRUTUS. LUCIUS JUNIUS, son of Marcus Junius
M|QfTan|uiiua, sister of Tarquinitif Superhua (ai B^yle
Im wfiMantly fmtd in «pf«Miflo« ii Ibt awitlipw tf
Moreri)* having early losi his father and Mm faMltier hf
the cruelty of Tarqnin. feigned imbaoility of inttllaei. m
ordep to secure pt r^nal safety. A prodiiry which had ao-
ourred at Rome, the appearanee of a snake w « woode«
piUar of the palace, occasioned great anxiety wmmig xhm
Tarquinii, fmd Titus and Aruns, sons of the tymnt* wcrv
deputed to obtain some explanation from tha oncla aC Del-
Eht. The journey at that time was eonsidtrad MstBestly
aiardout, through unknown lands, and seas yet matt un*
known, and Brutus, a namewhicb Lucius Junius \md rtnkrtA
cut of contempt, accompanied the young prineea, vocw as a
buffi)on to assist in their amusement, than as a oavpanioa
to share the perils of their journey. On his eottanea ukia
the temple the olfering which he made to the god was a bat
of gold enclosed in a staff of cornel-wood lwd)o«ad i>r ilft
reception, and intended to he emblemalio of th« toiary s
own situation. When the princes had finished ikatr eoa-
mission they inquired in the gaiety of youth wbieh of theat
should reiffn at Rome hereafter. A voice from Uie ad>ium
replied, * That one of you shaU obtain sovereignly al iUae
who shall first kiss his mothor.*
Titus and Aruns, in order to deprive their hroihcr Sextoa
of participation in the chance* agreed to mutual seerery and
to the decision by lot of thoir own precedence. Brutu* wuh
more sagacity affixing a different interpreutioa to the i«-
sponse of the oracle, pretended to stumble, and kisoed the
earth, when he bad fallen, as the common mother of sU
mankind.
After the atrocious violence offered by Sextas Tarqn.-
nius to Lucretia, Brutus was one of her kioafolk whuia
the injured matron summoned to hear her complaint, sbi
to witness her suicide. He plucked tlie reeking dajK^rfr
from her bosom, and to the astonishment of all pre:<tu
throwing aside the semblance of fatuity which he UU
hitherto assumed, he solemnly devoted himself to the pur-
suit and punishment of the whole race of Tarquin, and
the aboUtion of the regal name and power at Rome. The
populace was easily excited to insiurrection. Brutus €&.->»•
fully avoided any personal interview with Tarquinius Su-
perbus, \% ho was dethroned and exiled, and on the char.£s
of government which followed, bim:»flf and Tarquinius LiAsk
tinus, widower of Lucretia, were made the chief mau«-
trates under the title of consuls. This revolutioii oecurjtd
245 years after the foundation of Romo, and 507 n c.
Col latin us was speedily removed from hia new vf^s
on tlio ground that he bore the name of Tan|ttiv>^it^
and was connected with the expelled family. The luier
of these objections applied also to Bnitu^ who was d»-
scended from the Tarquinii by the maternal side : but a
does not appear that any difficulty was raised agaii^t hA.
and indeed it was chiefiy throqgh his agency, pwrfaaptt
altogether at his suggestion, that the ahdioaiion of he
colleague was procured. The place of Collatinua %m
supplied by P. Valerius. On the discovery of a ploC lot its
restoration of the Tarquinii, their property waa confiscated ;
their moveables were given up to plunder; their landed
esute lying between the city and the Tiber waa eoQ«ecraJc4
to the god of war, and became the celebrated Cmwtf^
Martius, The conspiracy involved many of tho notknt
Roman youths, and among them Titus and Til^ua. tuai
of Brutus by a sister of the Vitellii» who were ita prtnopd
leaders. The culprits were tried and oondeoaned b; the r
own father, who also witnessed their pqnishme^i. Tbc>
were scourged and beheaded in his presence qu wi\h«> t
his betraying some marks of paternal emotion during i:e
execution of public duty. Livy seems unequivocalU t%^ ii*>
pluud this unnatural act, but Plutarch more justly dr^rr- i(%
it by saving that * he shut up his heart to his chilUivo >».Ui
obdurate severity.*
Several £truscan cities took arms under Pk>r»enna .?
liehalf of the Tarquinii, and Brutus headed the cat an ' %
which they were oppose<l. He was recognised bv Arv::*
who denouncing him with the bitterest animoaiiy as i •.
chief instrument which had occasioned the expulaaoQ of ^ *
family, and as now bmviqg it under borrowed eiuicri* • *
dignity which he had transferred to the consulate, cUppL^:
spurs to his horse and selected him as an oppon«ut in mi.^-.c-
combau Brutus eagerly met the defiance, and so inC^
was the fury of the encounter, that each reganiloas uf t.:*
own safety sought only the destruction of liis adv«f>&n.
Their shields were mutually pierced^ and each ^U dead
from hi§ horse transfixed by |he l^nof of hia \
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Sucti ts fh* story 6f Lti6ius Junius Bnrtu« given t»y tlry
fi. 56, &c. ii. 1—6). A public fbneral was decreed to him ;
the matrons of Rome, in honour of the champion and
avenger of f.ucretia, wore mourning for him during a year;
and, accordinfi; to Plutarch* a brazen statua with a drawn
Hword in his hand was erected to his memory, and placed
rojjether with those of the kings. (Scft Niebuhr's Foman
History, vol. L, * Commentary on the Story of the last
Tarquins.*)
Voltaire has written a tragedy on the history Of Brutus,
di*fli<ured hy the puhng love of Tullia, a daughter of Tar-
quinius. for Titus, the son of the consul ; and an earlier dra-
matist on the same subject, Madlle. Bernard, in a play under
the same title, acted with great success in 1647, makes both
the sons of Brutus in love with a daughter of one of the
Aquilii, a leader of the conspiracy, and Also Introduces
Vuleric, a daughter of the Consul Valerius, as enamoured
with Titus, who does not acknowledge any mutual flame.
BRUTUS. DE'CIMUS JU'NIUS. is believed to be the
snn uf a father of the same name, who was consul A.tr.c.
676. On his adoption by Aulus Postumius Albinus he took
the name of the family into which be was received, so that
he sometimes appears on medals as Albinus Bruti JlUus.
Shakspeare has called him Decius, and both that poet and
Voitaire in many particulars have confounded him with
Miirous Junius. Of his early history nothing is known,
but it is plain from the share which he took in the murder
of the Dictaior how deeply he eujoVed his confidence, and
how extensive was the mtiuence which he exercised. On
the ides of March, when all things were prepared for the
assassination, the plot was nearly frustrated by an announce-
ment from Cosar that he should not attend the meetine of
the senate, being deterred by some evil dreams which bad
visited both himself and his wife Calpurnia, and by indis-
position. D. Brutus was employed to dissuade him from
this inopportune resolution, and he succeeded by ridiculing
the soothsayers, by showing Cmsar that the senators assem-
bled bv his orders would think themselves insulted if they
were alsmissed on pretexts so frivolous, and above all by
assuring him that it was intended on that day to nominate
him king of all the provinces * out of Italy,* and to decree
that he might wear a crown except within the limits of
Italy. (Plutarch, Caesar, Ixiv.)
The affection which the murdered Dictator bore to Deci-
mus Brutus was exhibited in his will, in which he named
that false friend among other persons to inherit his fortune
in case of the failure of direct heirs. Cassar also had ap-
pointed him commander of his cavalry, consul for the suc-
ceeding year a.u.c. 71 1, and governor of Cisalpine Gaul, in
which province Brutus attempted to maintain himself on the
banishment of the conspirators. The newly-raised legions
by which he hoped to support his authority were chiefly
framed of gladiators, who gradually deserted ; till Brutus»
fearful of being left alone, after having been defeated at
Mutina, endeavoured to make his way to the army in Greece.
For ihia purpose he disguised himself in the habit of a Gaul,
and attempted to pass through Aauileia to Illvricum. Al-
though well acquainted with the language of the country
which lie traversed, he unfortunately fell into the hands of
some bandittL Having inquired of his captors to which of
the Gaulish petty princes the district in which he had been
taken belonged, and having heard that it was ruled by
Caroillua, a chieftain whom he had formerly obliged, he
entreated to be led to his presence. Camillas received him
with apparent goodwill, and sternly rebuked the robbers
for havmg i inured so great a man ; but to Antonius,
whom he secretly informed of his capture, ho employed
far different language. Antonius, affecting compassion, re-
fused to see the prisoner, and ordered Camillus to put him
to death, and to send him his head. (Appian, de Beltik
Civili'bu^ iii. ad /In.)
BRUTUS. MARCUS JU'NIUS, son of Marcus Junius
Brutus, by ServUia, sister of Cato of Utica, was bom at
Rome A.U.C. 668, B.C. 86. Be was traditionally descended
from Lucius Junius, the expeller of the Tarquins, a descent
asserted by himself in a medal commemorating the assas-
aination of Julius Casar, but which is denied by Dionyaius
of Halicarnassus. A passa^ in the 1st PhiUppie of Ctoera
(c. 6) corroborates this origm by stating that the expeller
of kin^ L. Brutus, has prooagated his stock through 500
years, m order that a deeoenaant mieht emulate hii virtue
by again fVeeing Kome tMca t^gal lomlnatton. But this
•Uuaion, which luited the purpose of Cicero, is onlv a rhd-
toHcal flouHsh: ^tutar«h, fn th« t)egiiittin^ «»f Ml Ufb ef
M. J. Brutui, assumes his descent from the first Brutui^
conformably to his practice in sucrh cases, without troubling
himself as to the credibility of the fact. He is some.iines
called Q. C»pio Brutus both by Cicero and Dion Lassius,
and also on several of his medals, where Q. Cuepio Bnttm
Proeoi. or Imp. occurs. He owed this name apparent! \ to
his adoption by his maternal uncle, Q. Bervtlius Crapio.
On an unjust divorce from his first wife, Appia Claudia, he
married Portia, the widow of Bibulus, and daughter of his
maternal uncle Cato, under whose inspection he had been
most careftilly educated in philosophy and letters, after the
loss of his fiither, who was put to death by Pompey in tlie
war between Marius and Sylla. Plutarch says that he wus
acquainted with all the Grecian systems of philosophy, but
particularly attached to those of Plato's school. Afterward*,
at least, he cerUinly adopted the Stoical tenets and disci-
pline. When Cato, B.C. 59, was appointed under a fuW
passed by the influence of Clodius to annex Cyprus to the
Roman empire, Brutus accompanied his uncle,' and during
his residence in that island he appears to have been guilty
of certain pecuniary extortions by no means ocnsistent with
integrity, but perhaps too much countenanced by the habits
of the times.
When the civil war broke oot between JulluaCsnar and-
Pompey, Brutus sacrificed his private resentments to that
which he believed to be the better cause of the two, and
appeared under the banners of the latter. After the defeat
of Ponnpey at the battle of Pharsalia, Brutus was particu-
larly distinguished by the clemency of the conqueror, who
not only bestowed upon him personally his especial favour,
but granted pardon through his interference both to Cassius,
who bad married his sister, and to Deiotarus, king of Ga-
latia, for the latter of whom Brutus pleaded in a set oration.
Scandal attributed these acU of grace to a remembrance
which Juhus CsBsar entertained of a youthful intrigue with
ServiUa ; and a false report was circulated that Brutus was
a sou of the dictator. But the words which Suetonius haa
put into the mouth of Cessar when he perceived Brutus
among his assassins* ' And are you among them, my son T
may be received as indicating affection and familiarity
rather than as any acknowledgment of oensanguiiiity,.
Brutus was only 15 years younger than Csssar himself.
When Cesar undertook his expedition into Africa against
Cato, he committed to Brutus the government c^ Cisalpine
Gaul, which was administered with wisdom and humanity,,
and he afterwards preferred him te Cassius in a rivalship-
for the post of Prsstor Urbanus. Notwithstending these
distinguished favours, Brutus waa one of the principal assas-
sins on the Ides of March. He retired to Athens, when Mar-
cna Antonius had produced a re-action in the people of Rome,
where he devoted himself partly to literature and partly to-
preparation for war. In the end Antonius and Octevianus
on one aide, and Brutua and Cassius on the other, met at
Philippi, in Macedonia. The battle waa fiercely contested,
but ended in the total rout of the exiles ( and Cassius, un«
willing to survive his defeat* fell upon his own sword, ie«
oeiving aa a eulogy from Brutus, when he heard of the deed«.
that he was ' the last of the Romans.*
Brutua, in a second battle fought not kmg afterward*
near the same spot, obtained a partial victory; but per^
oeiving himself surrounded by a detachment of his enemy '«•
soldiers, and in danger of being made prisoner, he despaired
of ultimate auccesis and after more than one ef the fiends
about him bad declined the painful duty, be delivered the
hilt of his sword to Strato, and throwing himself on ite
point, expired in the 44 th year of his age.
Of his works, which were much praised by oontemporariesi .
it ia not oertain that any have desoended to us. His euiogy
OR Cato is certainly lost ; some few letters in Greek, which .
are probably not genuine, have been printed in the collec-
tions of Aldus, Cujaciua, and H. Ste|^ens. He is also said
to have made a kind of abstract or epitome of the history of r
Polybius, of the annals of C Fannius, and of the history off
Lw Coliua Antipater. His Latin letters to Cicero have been:
characterised by Markland as * silly barbarous atuff,* whirU
be * cannot read without astonishment and indignation.'
Their authenticitv on the other hand ia atrongly aupporled
by Conyers Middleton in answer to an attack by TunstulL
But Ruhnken expressed his opinion against them, and al»o
F. A. Wolff.
WlMNi Brutua aud Caaafus were about te leave Asia far
their Macedonian tampaign. ft Is MM ttiit HA appaHMt-
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admotiishad Bruius of bis approaching fate. Brutus was
of a spare habit, abstemious in diet and in sleep. One
nit^ht, when he was overcome by watching, and was reading
alone in his tent by a dim light at a late hour, while the
whole army around him lay wrapped in sleep and silence,
he tliought he perceived something enter his tent and saw
* a horrible and monstrous spectre standing silently by his
side. " What art thou?" said he boldly ; *' art thou God or
man, and what is thy business with me^'* The spectre
answered, " I am thy evil genius, Brutus. Thou wilt see
me at Philippi I" to which he calmly replied, " FU meet thee
there.'* When the apparition was gone he called his ser-
vants, who told him tnat they had neilhor heard any noise
nor seen any vision.* He communicated his adventure on
the next morning to Cassius, who professed the philosophy
of Epicurus, and argued on the principles of his sect
against the existence of such beings as demons and spirits ;
or, admitting their existence, denied that it was probable
they should assume a human shape or voice, or have any
power to affect us ; in fine, he attributed the whole incident
to sleeplessness and fatigue, which, as he justly remarked,
suspend and pervert the regular functions of the mind.
On the night before the second battle, ' they say,' continues
Plutarch, * that the spectre again appeared and assumed
its former figure* but vanished without speaking.*
[Gold. Brit.MaMOiD. Weight I U grmini.!
Plutarch also remarks that there is a diversity in the state*
ments respecting the death of Portia ; that Nicblaus the phi-
osopher and Valerius Maximus affirm, that being prevented
from suicide by the constant vigilance of friends who sur-
rounded her couch, she snatched some burning embers
from the fire and held them in her mouth till she was suffo-
cated. If however we admit the authenticity of a letter
attributed to Brutus, this account must be a fabrication ; for
he laments in it the death of Portia dunng his own lifetime,
describes her distemper, and praises her conjugal affection.
(Plutarch, Brutus, cap. 53.)
Voltaire wrote a tragedy, * La Mort de C^sar,* from which,
contrary to the usage of the stage, he excluded all female
characters. His plot is founded on an hypothesis which we
have shown to be false, that Brutus was the son of Ceesar ;
and although the play abounds in fine lines, it does not
appear to have been by any means successful. (Plutarch's
hrufus ; Appian, lib. 15, 16 ; Cicero's Letters and Orations;
Dion Cassius.)
BRUYERE. JEAN LA. Notwithstanding the well-
merited popularity of La Bruyere's works, scarcely any-
thing is known of his private life. No greater eulogium,
perhaps, can be passed upon philosophy than that he who
had so acutely obser^'ed the inconsistencies, foibles, and
passions of mankind, should have left .few or no traces of
them in himself. La Bruydre was born in 1644, near Dour-
don in Normandy. After filling the office of treasurer of
France at Caen he removed to Paris. He was appointecl
teacher of history to the Duke de Bourgo^ne, under the
direction of Bossuet, and passed the remainder of bis life
in the service of his pupil, in the quality o^homme de lettres.
In 1687 he published his work entitled • Characters*,' was
admitted into the French Academy on the 15th June, 1693,
and died of apoplexy at Versailles on the 10th of May. 1606.
He is represented by the Abb^ d'Olivet as a philosopher
whose happiness consisted in passing a life of tranquillity,
surrounded by his friends and his books, in the choice of
both of which he showed considerable judgment. He was
polished in his manners, but reserved in his conversation,
and free from pretension of every kind.
Of all La Brnydre's fHends, Bossuet, to whom he had
attached himself from a sense of gratitude, sympathized
with him the least in character. Several anecdotes con-
nected with those times give a faithful picture of their walks
— 1?*J"*"*^ •dMkmi of Uie • Charwtan * of U Brityirc have appeared einee
1«87 ; bttl the beat is Uiat of 18J7. « voU. Svo., wiUi a life of La Bruyere. by
Monnear Slcanl. a preiatorr notice and origiaal notes by Monsieur Aujrer,
towkiehaieMDeaad Um * ChanielMfa ' of TliMpiiraitttf, vHh adiiikma and
aolM b7 M. Miweif hMneet. anil an antlytiool table.
in the de^gbtftll gardens of VeraaUlfliL and rjPWfMa wiib
striking e&ot the imperturbabla ana acute La Brui^re
archly smiling at the impatience, pa&sion« and intcUectusi
despotism of his companion. It was, no dioubt, gratitude to
his friend that betrayed him into the weakness ot using hi«
pt*n in favour of the Bishop of M^aux against F6n41ou lo
the absurd affair of Quietism. Upon this theological con-
troversy, the ridiculousness of which could not fail to be
apparent to a man like La Bruydre, he left some dialogues :
and if we cannot wholly excuse him for having vnti^a
them, we must admit that he showed his good sense bv uul
publishing them.* Among the somewhat large sacniiccft
which he thought it expedient to make to tmt prcvaiUng
opinions of the day, his work frequently gives indications of
a bolder manner of thinking — the precursor of the philosophy
of the succeeding century. It even appears to have be&n
his wish to let posterity into the secret of his pnident d '.si-
mulation. ' Satire,' says he, ' is shackled in him who u
lH)rn a Christian and a Frenchman. Great topics are inter-
dicted him. He enters upon them now and then, but soctn
turns aside to minor subjects, to which he imparts an in-
terest and an importance by his genius and his style.'
Since it was tliis twofold relation of subject of Louis XJV.
and of Christian (he ought rather to have said Papist) that
imposed upon La Bruydre the trammels of which he com-
plains, it may be inferred, that notwithstanding his cold
eulogies of the ahsolute monarch and his gloon^ dieology,
he by no means participated in that respect for despotism
and for the abuses of Popery which so stronglv chmncterized
the age of Louis XIV. The persecutions which rewarded
the generous and liberal principles advocated, in bis * Tele-
machus,' by the amiable Archbishop of Cambray, whose
domains were respected even by invading enemies, as vtdl
as those suffered by MoliSre, the inimitable delineator of the
' Tartuffe/ turned La Bruydre aside to less dangerous sub-
jects, to the details of social, and the follies of private life.
Malignity, however, assailed him, even withm the narrov
limits to which he hud confined himself, of criticism on the
morals and the habits of his times. Upon completiQg hji
' Characters,* he showed the book to M. de Malexieux, who
said ' this will procure you many readers and many ene-
mies,'a prediction which was fully accomplished* lor while
the book was read with avidity the moment it appeared, xa-
tentions were attributed to the author of which he was certainii
innocent The originals of La Bruydre's portraits werv di»-
covered, as it was impudently pretended, and their name*
were published in a key to the Characters, which thus formed
a kind of scandalous commentary, in which the persons de-
signated could not complain that they were calumiuxird.
though they were held up to public ridicule.
Ia Bruydre is, perhaps, the only French moralist faai-
liarlv read in his own country. His observatioo, thouct
rarely profound, is always judicious, natural, and nicvlf
discriminative ; and if his views of human nature are not
very extensive, he amply compensates for the dcficieoci bj
the closeness of his inspection. He places the moet uitr
and common characters in a new and unexpected lij^tt
which strikes the imagination, and keeps attention nh^e.
Perhaps he too often affects strong contrasts and violrn:
antitheses, and in wishing to avoid sameness be falls into
the error of attempting too much varietv. in which he la»rt
his individuahty. His style is characterised by strong pover^
of delineation, and the talent of a great painter mu^t un-
doubtedly be conceded to him, though he is not altogether
freo from the charge of occasional affectation.
If it bo true, as has been remarked, that Theopbrmstns ♦
whose work was studied aud translated by our author, msr
be said to have formed La Bruydre, it must be admitiei
that this is the highest praise that we can give to the Grrek
author. But to compare, as some have done, the chanc-
ters of the Greek with those of the French philosopher, is
the height of absurdity : nothing is more false than tlas
manner of drawing parallels.
It is impossible to judge righfly or e\en to understand ths
Characters of Thcophi-astus, without posse^isinic accurate
notions of the political, moral, and social^ condicioD of the
and pubhilied by fxjoU Uniae Duptn. P*ria. 1099. iW ^^ cwir^i»t
f llieronymita of BenerMito MlOiiiiMl Is Praaee thm tral tc^MUttea m£ i^
• Character* * of Tliopbraitas ( lSI3) in a imall tolume in ISmo. Thu xr^Mm
™" \il* ^^^ forgotten tinee the appearance of Uiat by La ferv^^rr m
1688. Then an thiee otber French uSSmiimM of ThrnnJUMmLmT^ Z
^m L«»«l«^ 1788 ; "oUirr Iqr B«lin De Balbn. ITSoTSSCTtt cl«^
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p0O[ile wlme fMtnm tfiey-npresent. Vdlteite showed hit
want of this kind of knowledge when he said that Aristophanes
Tvas neither a poet nor a humourist. Bhakspeare and Mo-
lidre necessarilf reonire commentators (at )east» to be tho-
roughly undenlood); and if two thousand years hence
foret^ers shall undertake to criticise them, they must first
study the reigns of Elizabeth and of Louis, in oider to avoid
rash decisions and QLfounded judgments. If we compare
for a moment only the political and social position of the
Athenians with the reign of Louis XIV., before whose des-
potism and ostentation men of al) ranks in France obse-
quiously bowed ; if we identify and familiarise ourselves
with the respective circumstances under whose influence
the two authors wrote, — we shall no longer entertain the
idea of comparing Theophratua with La Bru^dre : the sole
resemblance between them consists in the minuteness and
accuracy of their observation, and in the justness and spirit
of the strokes by which each has delineated his characters.
La Bnivdre*s work, stamped as it is with the impress of a
sound judgment and a good-natured satire, is one of those
friends whom we always consult with pleasure and advan-
tage. It anticipates our knowledge of the world and per-
fects it ; and although the manners and characters therein
delineated may undergo changes and modifications, its in-
terest will be always the same, because, like all great works
which take nature as their basis, it will always he true.
BRUYN. BRUIN. BRUN, or LE BRUN, CORNE-
LIUS, for his name is printed in different books in aU
these way Si was a painter and traveller of some eminence.
He was born at the Hngue in 1652. In 1674 he quitted
his native country to explore by rather a novel route Russia,
Persia, the Levant, aud the East Indies, and he did not
return home for many vears. His first work, ' Voyage to
the Levant,* was published in folio at Paris in 1714. It
relates chiefly to Egypt, Syria, the Holy Land, Rhodes,
Cyprus, Scio, and Asia Minor, and is embellished with
more than two hundred engravings, representing eastern
cities, ruius, natural productions, costumes, &o. All these
plates were executed from drawings made by himself on
the spot, and, though somewhat hard, there is a great deal
of truth and nature in them. His second work, ' Travels
through Muscovy, in Persia, and the East Indies,* was
published at Amsterdam by the brothers Wetstein in 1 718 ;
K contains upwards of 300 engravings, and is also in folio.
Many of these plates, representing eastern ceremonies,
antient edifices, animids, birds, fis£ plants, and firuit, are
admirably executed. Se\'eral of the engravings are deveted
to the ruins of Persepolis. On the whole these are two
splendid books. Another edition of the second work was
brought out at Ronen in 4ta in 1725, and is said to be
valuable on account of corrections and notes made to the
text by the Abb6 Banier, but with this French edition we
are unacquainted. In this second work the reader may
find much information concerning the coasts of Arabia, the
island of Ceylon, Batavia, Bantam, and parts of Russia.
At Batavia, where there were many Chinese colonistf, he
carefully investigated some of the manners and customs of
that extraordinary people. He was residing on that island
when the Englisn buccaneer William Dampier, or, as he
calls him, ' the famous Captain Damper,* arrived there from
Tornate, after a most extraordinary voyage and series of
adventures. [Pampixr.] The value of B'ruyn*s second work
is further increased by an account of the route taken by M.
Isbranta, the ambassador of Muscovy, through Russia and
Tartary to China.
In 1714, the year in which he published his first great
work, Bniyn put forth in Holland a very small disputative
treatise, entitled ' Remarks on the engravings of old Per>
sepolis, formerly given by Messieurs Cbardin and Keemp-
fer, and th<* mistakes and errors in them clearly pointed
out.* In this pamphlet he defends himself for the diifcr-
ences between the plates of his own work and those of
Chard in, and shows in what portions of the engravings his
own are the more correct. His ' Remarks* are in Dutch,
his travels in French ; but the ' Remarks* were afterwards
translated into French, and published in an appendix to
his second great work in 1 718.
The compilers of cyclopsedias and biographical dictionaries
have gone on repeating one after the other, and evidently
without looking into the old traveller's books, that, though
curious and instructive. Bniyn is inelegant in his stjrle, and
not always exact in his facts. Now in realitv his style,
ihacigh exceedingly simple, and somewhat deficient iu
•warmth and picturesque beauty, is very far firom being in*
elegant, and his exactness, a quality he had in oommou
with so many old travellers of his nation, is ever}where
admirable. For the fidelity of his descriptions of most of
the places ho visited in the Levant, we can vouch from our
own personal observation. He was not credulous himself,
and lie several times censures the credulity of explorers
who had preceded him.
BRYA'C£i£, a name sometimes given to the natural
order Musci.
BRYANT, JACOB, was bom at Plymouth in 17 IS;
his father, who held a post in the custom-house of that town,
was transferred in the seventh year of his son*8 age to Kent,
in which county Jacob Bryant received the first part of his
education at Luddesdown, near Rochester, whence he was
aAerwards removed to Eton. Having been elected to King's
College, Cambridge, uf which society lie became fellow* he
graduated A.6. in 1740, and A.M. in 1744. Being early
distinguished for his attainments and love of letters, he was
appointed tutor to Sir Thomas Stapylton, and afterwards
to the Marquis of Blandford and his' brother Lord Charles
Spencer, at that time at Eton, A complaint in the eyes
obliged him for a short time to relinquish this occupation,
but having returned to it, he was rewarded in 1756 by the
appointment of secretary to the Duke of Marlborough, who,
continuing his patronage when nominated Master Greneral
of the Oidnance, took him as a secretar)' and travelling
companion during his command in Germany, and gave him
a lucrative situation in his own public ofiice. His circum-
stances thus being rendered easy, he devoted his Whole life
to hteraturo, and twice refused an office which bos frequently
been much coveted by others— tlie Mastership of the Char-
terhouse.
The history of his life is embraced in that of his publica-
tions, all of which are distinguished by learning, research,
and acuteness, but are more or less disfigured by fanciful
coBiectures and wild speculations. His first work was
'Observations and Inquiries relating to various Parts of
Antient History,* Cambridge, 4to., 1767. In contradiction
to Bochart, Grotius, and Bentley, he here, among other
things, contends that the wind Euroclydon, mentioned in
Acts xxviL 14, ought properly to be termed Euroaquilo ;
and in opposition to the same writers, togeflier with Clu-
verius and Beza, he afllrms that the island Mehte, men-
tioned in the last chapter of the same book, is not Malta,
The remaining subjecu treated of in this volume are very
obscure and very remote from common inquiry. He pro*
fessed to throw light upon the earliest state of Egypt;
upon the Shephei^ Kings; and upon the history of the
Assyrians, Chaldisans, Babylonians, and Edomites. Pur-
suing a similar course, he publi:»hed in 1 774 the first two
volumes of the work upon which his fame chiefiv depends
— *A New System or Analysis of Antient Mythology^
wherein an attempt is made to divest Tradition of Fable,
and to restore Truth to its original purity.* It appeared
in 4to.. and was followed by a third volume in 1776. Be-
sides the nations wlioso history ho had formerly investigated,
he now turned to the Canaanites, Helladiaus, lonions,
Leleges, Dorians, Pelasgi, Scytbie, Indoscythm, Bthiopians,
and Phcsnicians : pressing into his service ever\' scattered
fragment which his extensive reading enabled him to col*
lect, and supporting his arguments by numerous forced an4
oftentimes false etymologies. One of his hypotheses was,
that as all mankind sprang from the same stock, all existing
languages might be traced to one original. The pursuit of
radical terms was therefore, as he contended, the only sure
means of discovering trutL He believed also that th^
heathen mythology was framed entirely upon perversions
of the patriarchal liislory as recorded in the Qld Testament:
and, as has been well said, he saw the Ark in every thing.
This publication involved him in much controversy, which
he undertook in part anonymously, and in part, particularly
in defence of the Apamean medals, in the Gentleman s
Magazine. The Apamean medals were struck in honour
of Septimius Severus, at Apameia, a town in Phrygia. The
devices on them are a rainbow, a dove, a raven, and an
olive-branch, and the legend KOE. This treatise was
published separately in 1775, in 4to. ; and Eckhd, the
most learned numismatologist of his time, declared in its
favour. In 1780 Bryant published with his name a tract
which he had before printed and recalled, entitled ' Vindicio
Flavian»k* advocating tlio disputed testimony of Josephus
to our Saviour. Priestley expressed himself as convinced bf
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B R Y
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t\ie arg:umetits in favonr of th^ pftSsageB ; 1>ut be Iftei^ariA
eiieaged in controversy with Bryant on the difficult subject
ot Necessity. Bryant was a Arm believer in thi^ autbentibity
or the poems attributed to Rowley, atid in 1781 he published
two voU. duodecimo, containing * Obsdi-vations* upon theiii.
In 1 783 the Duke of Marlborough printed for private dis-
tribution an account of the gems in his own collection, the
Ut vol. of which work was written in Latin by Bryant, tu
1792 appeared a treatise 'On the Authenticity of the
Scriptures and the Truth of the Christian Religion,* 8vo.,
executed at the request of the dowager Lady Pembroke ;
and two years afterwards, in 8vo., some ' Observations on
the Plagues inflicted on the Egyptians.* But the work
which engaged him in most dispute, and was more distin-
Suished by his love of paradox than any other which he pro-
uced, was suggested by M. Le Chevalier*8 description of
the plain of Troy. It appeared in 1 796, 4to.. and Was entitled
• A Dissertation concerning the War of TVoy atid the ex-
pedition described by Homer, with the view of showing that
no such expedition was ever undertaken, and th&t Hb such
city in Phrygia ever existed.* It was scurrilously atiswered
by Wakefield, and it provoked &r more honourable replies
from Mr. Morritt and Dr. Vincent. In the following year
appeared a tract in 8vo., entitled * The Sentiments of Philo-
JudsBUs concerning the Greek AOroS.* Besides these, Bryant
also wrote ' Observations on famous controverted F^sages
in Justin Martyr and Josephus,* and a paittphlet addressed
to Mr. Melmoth. He closed his literatV lire hy preparing
for the press some remarks on very curioUs Scriptural sub-
jects, written more than thirty years before. This 4to. vot.
contained dissertations on the Prophecies of Balaam, the
Standing still of the Sun in the time of Joshua, the Jaw-
bone of the Ass with which Samson slew the Phllistities,
and the History of Jonah and the Whale. In the 7th vol.
of the ' Archseologia* he fhrnished some ' Collections on the
Zingara or Gipsy language ;* and numerous juvenile or
fugitive pieces were found among his papers in MS. The
titles of some of them will sufficiently snow that his pen
was not always devoted to subjects of a grave nature. We
need only mention a ' Dissertation on Pork,* and an ' Apo-
theosis of a Cat*
His exemplary and protracted life was closed at his otm
residence at Cj^penham, near Windsor, on the 14th of No-
vember, 1804, in consecjuence of a hurt which he ireoeived
in the leg by a chair slipping from under him while taking
down a book frx)m an upper shelf. Such a death, aa has
been well remarked by a French biographer, Was fbr a
literary man to expire on the field of honour. His merits
are very Justly eulogized in a note on the second ' Dialogue
or the Pursuits of Literature.* He left his very valuable
library to King*s College. Cambridge, 2000/. to the Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel, and half that sum to the
kuporannuated collegers of Eton, at the discretion of the
provost and fellows.
BRYA'XIS, a genus of eoleopterous insects belonging to
tbe ftitnily Pselaphidss, which by some authors is Arhtnged
With the Brachelytra, but according to Latreille forms the
third family of the section Trimera. Technical Charac-
ters : — antennae long, from the third to the terminal joint
gradually increasing in size ; the three terminal joints form-
ing a large knob ; the last joint much larger than the rest,
and somewhat conical in shape ; the two basal joints large t
maxillary palpi distinct, the apical joinu robust: head
rather large: thorax rounded at the sides: elytra very
broad, and covering only the basal half of the abdomen.
The species of this and allied genera, though minute, are
perhans among the most remarkable of the Coleoptera ; in
the snort wing-cases they appear to evince an affinity to
the Brachelytra, but in the number of joints in the tarsi, a
character generally considered of importance, they dilTer;
they hkewise differ from that tribe in having the terminal
joints of the antennss immensely large, and in many other
characters. They are generally found during the winter
and early part of the spring in moss. Nine or ten species
have been recorded as British. (PselaphtcUe,)
BRYO'NIA, the wild br>ony of our hedges, Bryonia
diotra, is a plant formerly much employed in rural phar-
macy, but now disused. It is a perennial with large Aisi*
^>rm succulent roots, which have a repulsive nauseous odour.
From these there annually springs a slender pale- green
hairy branching stem, which climbs among bushes by means
of its tendrils, m the manner of a cucumber, to which it is
W>UmcaUy allied, both belonging to the Oatund Older Cn-
e'urhita<ien. Th^ Uaves &re palnlafe, ttki ino^ on bo»h
sides with callous points. The (lowefft wre small and m hit>^ .
with pale green veins, and are succeeded by Ihtle rvil u-:
ries, containing a very few seeds. Its principal u«e wa< •"
account of the powcrral drastic properties of its nJb», w'nr-h
the French call, from that circumstance, Novet dm £>»«'/•
or Devil's Turnip. It is excessively bitter, and wljr*-
dried purges in doses of 30 or 40 grains. Over do«»p« arc
extremely dangerous, and* even sometimes fatal. It» pro-
perties are apparently owing to tile presence of a priftvple
called bryonine, analogous to cathartine, which exists in
about the proportion of 2 per cent of the root
Bryony-root should be gathered in the autumn, after !h«
stem has turned yellow : it is cut into slices, wliieh ate strur z
upon a threarl, and hung in the air to dry.
BRYOPHY'LLUM, a succulent exogenous g«nns. be-
longing to the natural order Crassulaoeie, and nraiark:' •
for the singular property possessed by its leaves of bud'!:rr
from their margin. These leaves arc of a succulent te\tu^ \
and sometimes pinnated; they ortheirleadetsareof an l-
long figure,with a deeply-crenelled border ; when placed i ■: i
damp and shady warm place they sprout ftvm tne crer.ps
and form young plants, a property unknown in the >t:n%
degree in any other vegetaole prodnctfon. Phy»oI.>ci»t.«,
however, consider that traces of a simitar power, cxerci*?-*
in anbther Way, exist in all plants in their carpellary Wa\«4
from whose edges, forming placentse, ovules, whWh w tht^<fr-
ttcally young buds, are constantly produced.
The onlv species is Bryophyllum ealyctnam, a ihrob i^mrJL
in the Moluccas, with panicles of large pendulous green ;«t-
vellow flowers. In this country it u a green-house pUtt
but is apt to be eaten by mice.
BRZESE LITEWSKY. [Grodko.]
BU'BALUS. TAntslopk, species 61. Oit.]
BUBO (zoology), a subgenus of owls (S/r/^^d^p). »^*r
rated by Cuvier, and characterized by a small concha rr ei*
aperture, and a facial disk, less perfect than in the sub^rt^^.*
Syrnium (chatshuans of the French). Two tafis c-r • .
thered horns of considerable size adorn the liMui, and :*.*
legs are fbathered down to the toes.
SUROPSAN Sptcixs.
Bttbd titodrtmtM*. Sttix Bubo of Ltuoveia: Z^ pr^n^
Due of the French ; Gif/b, G^fh grande. and Oufh m^ '
the Italian*; SchuffUt Vhu, Ofos9€ ohreuU Hukm of*.-*
Germans; Uff^^ the Fauna Buecica; Bnhm of the L « *
Austrians; Gteai Owl, or Eagle Owl, ofWOlvi^bby. Rt
and Pennant.
This, the largest of the Nootumal Birds, is, there csr. V
little doubt, the jSvoc (Byas) of Aristotle iOfrnt. Amtm ' •
0. 3), and the Bubo fnnebrit mentioned hf Plifiy m i a
chapter de Inauspicatis Atribui (lib. x. c lli snd ISt '^
account of whose advent Rome twice undervtnl |ii>tr»r:i*-
Upon one of these occasions the bird ef ill onmi peoetrj«r-i
into the verv oella of the Capitol.
Geographicai di9tribuiion,^TtnLm\w^ pteees Hs hak*^
tion in great forests, and Bays that it is r^try eemnrvn <■
Hungary, Russia, Germany, and SwitterUnd* l«n cc^a- 1
in France and England, and never seen in H6l)*f»d. H«
adds, that it is found at the Cape of Good Hopsu Wiliucti-
observesthat about Bologna, and elsewhere in lUlt. K <•
frequent. Bonaparte f notes it as rare in Che aei^h^. -
hood of Rome, and save that it is only aeeii in notntm}-« •
situations. It is said to extend eastvafd m fhr es K&n
chatka.
Pennant sUtes that it has been shot in SaydanH. ars -
Yorkshire, from which county it was lent to WiUajT' '*
Latham adds Kent and Sussex as localities vherp <r : \»
been found. It is said to ha\<e been seen in Orkae* : ao i
four are stated to have occurred on the northern cuK»t .f
Donegal in Ireland. The eagle owl then ean be onh c«ii>
sidered as a rare visitant to our islands.
The following is Temminck's description :— Upper pirt •/
the body variegated and undulated with black and orh^r j^ .
lower parts ochreous, with longitudinal black dashes. Tb *.
white. Feet covered to the nails with plunMa ofn rv^i.« -^
jrellow. Iris bright orange, I^ength two Teet. Thefrtn;-*
18 larger than the male: hot the tinta of her pl«ciisg« ^.-t
less bright, and she is without the white on the thnwi/
It sometimes varies, in having the oulottrs less hv«lf . ^
in being of inferior dimensions.
' VwftficU, Pnaoi of MasiipiaMH pUott ii QBd« am
f *B{McdhiO
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. /^Ai Ymmg roM ^ fawnt, hprM, »q1«i» fai#, imo«»
wiiifi;#d game, Drot^luanU. and beetles.
Nest. In the hollo wt of rocks, in old eastlet and other
ruins; where the female lays two or three, but rvely four,
round white eggs, T^tham says two» * the sise of those of
a hen.*
M. Cronstedt, who resided on » farm in Sudermania, near
a mountain, had an opportunity of witnessing the devotion
of these birds to their young, and their care in supplying
them with fi>od, even under extraordinary circumstances.
Two eagle owls had built their nest on the mountain ; and
a young one, whiob had wandered away, was taken by the
servants and oonfined in a hen-coop. The next morning
there was a dead partridge lying close to the door of the
coop. Food was brought to the same place for fourteen
successive nights : this generally consisted of young part-
ridges newly killed, but sometimes a little tainted* Once a
mourfowl was brought still warm under the wings, and at
another time a piece of lamb in a putrid state. M. Cron-
stedt sat up with his servant many nights in order to observe
the deposit of the supply, if possible, but in vain. It was
evident however to M. Cronstedt that the parents were the
caterers, and on the look-out ; for, on the very niffht when
M. Cronstedt and his servant ceased to watch, tne usual
food was left near the coop. The supply continued from
the time when the young owl was taken— in July — to the
usual time in the month of August when these birds leave
their young to their own exertions.
. Belon gives an account of the use which falconers made
of this bird to entrap the kite. They tied the tail of a fox to
the eagle owl, and let him liy. This spectacle soon excited
the attention of the kite, if he were near, and he continued
to 11 y near the owl, not endeavouring to hurt him^ but appor
rently intent on observing his odd figure. While so em^
ployed the falconer surprised and took the kite.
There ai» fpedaans in tlia fardeas oltho Zoological 8o-
eiety in the Regents Park* In the museupi of the Royal
College of Surgeons there is a preparation (No. 1749) of
the viireous and crystalline humours of the eye of this spe-
cify. Ahomrjng that the vitreous hnipour h«i a distinct cap-
sule, pari of which is reHected froqi its outer surfsoe ; and
another (No. 1 765) showing the remarkable prolongation
of the anterior segment of the eye, which assumes in con-
•eqaesic* a tubular foftt. The homy plates of the selerotioa
art oo-^tansivo with this segment to maintain its ptcuUaf
sbape^ and to afford a firm basis for the support of a very
large and projnineqt cornea. No. 1 708 shows the eye-ball
nictitating membrane and their muscles, with the externid
eye-lids sja4 Harderian gland.
Amirican Spsciis.
Byho FirgmiattU9. The Virginian Homed Owl. StrtJf
Vtrginiana of Vieillot ; Due de Virginie of Buffon ; Ne^
tou^y-omsesew of the Cree Indians, according to Mr. Hut*
chins; Qtowuck'Oho of the Crees of the plains of ^e Sas-
katchewan, according to Dr. Richardson.
Pennant (Arctic Zoology) says that this seems to be a
variety of the eagle owl, although he notices the inferiority
in sixe : but it is a very distinct species.
It is not improbable, as Dr. Richardson observes, tbot
this night-bird, peculiar to America, inhsbits that continent
from end to end. Cuvier gives his opinion that the Strix
Affuelkmica of the Planches Enluminfes differs merely in
hairinff browner tints of colour ; and Dr. Richardson men-*
tiqns toe result of Mr. Swainson*s comparison of the north-
ern spooiinens with those of the Table Land of Mexico, sa
confirmatory of the identity of the species ; the only differ-
ence being a more ^neral rufous ana vivid tint of plumage
in the Mexican specimens. Almost every nart of the United
States possesses this bird, and it is found, according to Pr.
Richardson, in all the fur countries where the timber is of
large sise,
We havo seep how the civilized Romims regarded the
Buropean bird ; and it is curious to observe how, in a com-
paratively savage state, the same superstitious feelings were
oonnected with ^e Atnerican species. ' The savages,' says
Pennant, quoting "Colden*s Six Indian Nations," 'have
their birds of ill omen as well as the Romans. They have
a most superstitious terror of the owl, which they carry so
far as to be highly displeased at any one who mimics its
hootings.' Lawson, evidentl|r speaking of these birds, says
* They make s fearfol hallooing in the night-time, Uke a
man, whereby tliey oflen make strangers lose their way in
the woods.' Wilson thus describes the haunts and habits
of the Virginian homed owl : — * His favourite residence is
in the dark solitudes of deep swamps, covered with a growth
of gigantic timber ; and here, as soon as the eveping draws
on, and mankind retire to rest, he sends forth such lounds
as sfem scarcely to belong to this world..,.. .Along the
mountain shores of the Ohio, and amidst the deep forests of
Indiana, alon^, snd reposiug in (h% woods, this ghostly
watohmao \i^ frttjuentiy warned me of the approach of
morning, an4 ofPH^oil pie with h}s singular exchimations.
Sometimes sweeping down snd around my fire, uttering a
loud snd sudden Waugh 0 1 Waug^ O ! sufficient to have
alsrmed a whole gj^fison. Ho has other nocturnal solos,
one of w^ijph very strikingly resembles the bolf-suppressed
screams or % person iufi«'Cating of throttle4/ Wilson treata
this visi^tion Ul^o ^ nlu|otop))ur. hut, a<^er )«ading his de-
■criptioft '{m4 ths^ 9* NnltaJI (QmfholQgif qf ih4 United
SiQtu\^ wo «h«tl P««»« \^ wgBder %\ m wel!-to)4 tale in
* Fauqa Qofeali-An^Qi'^csnV of the wiptev pjgbt of l^ony
endured ky % Mf*^ 9X Spo^Msh Highlanders wno, asoording
to pr. fiio|isrd«on, hsd ip^id^ the^f hivouao ii| the recesses
of a ^<^(b Amorican Mll> ^^i inadvertently fod their fire
with I wi% of »Alnai«Q tomb whiob nao been placed in the
secluded spot, TN Qtsrtling npU»« 9f (be Virginian horned
owl broU npofi llieif ear, and tbey s| opep eoncluded thai
so nno^Wy % V^ic* wn»t be ^ moftning of the spirit of
the dep9fiii4, wbuso rfpo^ they supposed they bad dis-
turbed.
Tbo (bUpwing fs V^- ftiobardson's dtfieriptioii of the
plufnagil of 0 spec(m*n, twsnty-six inches in length from
the tip of the bill ^ tho end of ibi tail, kilM at Fort Che-
pewvan :-r-
' Bill and plaws pule bluisn D.aek. Irides bright yenow.
Facial circle of a deep bUck immodiatelv round the orbit,
oomposed of wiiite mixed with black bristly feathers at the
base of the bill, and posteriorly of yellowish brown wiry
feathers, tipped with black, and naving black shafts. The
black tips form a conspicuous border to the facial circle
posteriorly ; but the small feathers behind the auditory open-
ing diifjir little in colour and appearance from the a^piniog
Slumage of the neck. Egrets composed of ten or twelve,
ark brown feathers, spotted at the base of their outer
webs, and along their whole inner ones, with yellowish
brown* Pqndie£l iMid croij^n 4^!*^ blackish-brown, Onely
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BUB
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mottled with greyish white, and partially exhihitinp^ the
yellowish-brown base of the plumage. The whole dorsal
plumage is yellowish-brown for more than half the length
oT each feather from its base, and dark liver-brown upwards,
finely barred and indented With iindulated white lines.
More of the yellowish -brown is visible on the neck and be-
tween the shoulders than elsewhere. The primaries present
six or seven bars of dark umber or liver- brown, alternating
with six bars, which on the outer webs are brownish-white,
finely speckled with dark-brown, and, on the inner webs,
are of a bright buff-colour, sparingly speckled with the
dark-brown near the shafts. The tips of the feathers have
the same mottled appearance with the paler bars of the
outer webs. The secondaries and tail feathers are similarly
marked to the primaries, but show more white on their
outer webs. There are six liver-brown bars on the iait,
the last of which is nearly an inch from its end.
Under surface. Chin white, succeeded by a belt, ex-
tending from ear to ear, of liver-brown feathers, having pale
yellowish-brown mai*gins. Behind the belt there is a gorget-
shaped mark of pure white. The rest of the lower surface
of the body is crossed by very regular transverse bars of
white, alternating with bars of equal breadth (three lines)
of liver-brown, shaded with chocolate-brown. The yellow-
ish-brown base of the plumage is likewise partially visible:
there is a whit/; mesial line on the breast, and when the
long feathers covering the abdomen are turned aside, a
good deal of white appears about the vent. The outside
tnigh feathers are yellow ish-brown, with distant cross bars
of liver-brown ; and the legs and feet are brownish-white
with brown spots. The linings of the wings are white, with
bars of liver-brown, margined by yellowish-brown. The
insides of the primaries are bright buff, crossed by broad
bars of clove-brown. On the under surface of the second-
aries the clove-brown bars are much narrower. The under
tail coverts are whitish, with distant bars of liver-brown.
The under surface of the tail has a slight tinge of buff-
colour, and is crossed by mottled bars of clove-brown.
[Bubo TirginiAnan.]
Br. Richardson adds, that another specimen killed by
Mr. Drummond on the Rocky Mountains measured two
inches less in length, and differed generally from the pre-
ceding, in bein^ of a darker hue above, with finer and less
conspicuous white motthng. The yell6wish- brown colour
of the base of the plmnege was tifo lest Vriglif* tnd tb»
^ial circle was of a more tombre hue. Its bill, elee» wa
more compressed.
The biid preys, according to Dr. Ricfaardfon, on the
American hare, Hudson's Bay tquirrel, mioe, wood-grottee,
&C and builds its nest of sticks on the tm> of a Votty trei^
hatching in March. The young, two or three in number,
are generally fully fledged in June. The eggs are whii^ .
Wilson observes that it has been known to prowl about
the farm-house and carry off chickens from roost. • A very
large one,* says that author, * wing-broken, while on a
foraging excursion of this kind, was kept about the bonsc
for several days, and at length disappeared no one knrv
how. Almost every day after this, hens and cfakkent a^
disappeared, one by one, in an unaccountable csnaner, til]
in eight or ten days very few were left remaininfr. The
fox, the minx, and weasel, were idtemateiy the reputed
authors of this mischief, nntil one morning tlM old hdj
herself rising before day to bake, in passing towanisthc
oven surprised her late prisoner regaling hivMclf on tW
body of a newly-killed hen t The thief instantly made fcr
his hole under the house, from whieh the enraged matraa
soon dislodged him with the brush handle, and witboot
mercy dispatched him. In this snug retreat woe Iband
the greater part of the feathers, and many large fragments
of her whole fiaimily of chickens.'
There are specimens in the gardens of the Zoological
Society in the Regent's Park.
Wo cannot close this article without referring to die beaa-
tiful figure and interesting description of Bwbo Arcticms a
* Fauna Boreali- Americana.' It is not at all impfobable that
this may be the Strix Scandiaca of LinnAua. Of tbii
Pennant, in his ' Arctic Zoology,' says that Linnaeus seecs
to take his description from a painting of Rudbeek's. sdi-
ing, ' its existence is confirmed by Mr. Tonning of Droo-
theim :* but Temminck considered this Scandinarian csivi
owl to be merely a snowy owl, on which two ftctitnvf
egrets had been placed.
The specimen of Bubo Arcticus described by Dr. Rkharl-
son was observed flying at mid-day in the immedinte vinrtf
of Carlton House, and was brought down with an nrroa tt
an Indian boy.
BUBON. JGalbanum.]
BUCCANEERS, a most numerous and w<en-k»9«^
association of sea-robbers or pirates, who were abo caluH
'The Bretluren of the Coast,' and still more commorlr
' Fiibustiers.* The term Buccaneer is of eurioas d«nvit:.'«
The Caribbee Indians taught the colonists in the Wi*-.
Indies a singular mode of curing and preserving the flc^i
of rattle : when cured, this flesh was called Bomran hy ibt
Caribbees ! from boucan the French made the verb ^ 3-
caner^ v/hich the ' Dictionnaire de Trevoux* ezphuns to ?
' to dry red, without salt.' Hence comes the noun BomooKi'^.
and our Buccaneer.
The term Flibustier is supposed to be nothing Vut \.t
French sailors* corruption of oiur word ' f^bocrter ;' and « m
a curious fact, that as we always used a word conuptgd frcn
them, so the French designated the robbers by a vtri
derived from us, invariably calling them flibustien, x
freebooters.
The Buccaneers were natives of different jmrts of Eair^i^
but chiefly of Great Britain and France. They were nw-<
of them seafaring people, and the origin of the associaijcc^s
about the year 1524 was entirely owing to the jealou^^x .'
the Spaniards, who would not allow any other natto:: ' >
trade or settle in the West Indies, and who parsne^i Ar
English or French like wild beasts, mnrdeting tt«3
wherever they found them. At that time and lonp aftrr-
wards, Spain, in right of her priority of discorery, smd uf thr
well-known bull of Pope Alexander VI., considered i.'<
whole of the New World as tresure-trore of which abe ^r»
lawfully and exclusively the mistress. Bveiy ftrcigT^
found among the islands or on the coasts of the Ta^t Ak^;^
rican continent was treated as a smuggler and robber, ar^
this being the case it is no wonder that seafhnng adrvniuzim
soon became so, and returned cruelty by cruelty. Aa ear^
as 1517, when an English ship appeared at Su^Ddmingo l.*
request liberty to trade, the Spaniards fired tbeir cmiusoD 21
her and drove her away. When this nnexpeeied Tiaic ws
reported to the Spanish government at heme, the mntsfrr
sent out a sharp reprimand to the governor of SC Deamcw
because he had not artfhlly seised the ship instaad of drix^ixz
her away, and so disposed of the Sngliah that no osie d
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them should haTe returned to tetch othen of their nation
the route to the Spanish Indies. But the enterprising
nations of Europe were not to be checked by the tyranny of
Spain, nor could a papal bull shut the eyes of navigators
and make them blind to the improving science of naviga-
tion* or to th^r way across the ocean. The mariners of
Europe, moreover, still considered the New World as an
Eldorado where gold and treasures were to be had for the
fetching, and this made them brave the monstrous cruelties
of the Spaniards. In 1526 one Thomas Tyson was sent to
the West Indies as factor to some English merchants, and
many adventurers soon followed him. The French began
to make voyages to Brazil, and the Portuguese and the
Dutch successively began to show themselves in numbers
jn the West Indies. Knowing what they had to expect
thoy were always prepared to fight desperately. From an
ingenious phrase, ' 9e didommager davance,* used by one
of the French flibustiers, it appears they did not always
wait to be attacked, but in case of a favourable oppor-
Uinitv became themselves the assailants. To repress these
interlopers the Spaniards employed guarda-costas, the
commanders of which were instructed to massacre all their
prisoners. This tended to produce a close alliance, ofien-
sive and defensive, among the mariners of all other nations,
who in their turn made descents on the coasts» and ravaged
the weaker Spanish towns and settlements. A permanent
state of hostilities was thus established in the West
Indies entirely independent of peace or war at home.
' The Brethren of the coast* cared not if their respective
native countries in the Old World were at peace with Spain;
in the New they must of necessity fight the Spaniards or
die, or relinquish the benefits which that iipmense regbn
offered. When not engaged in traffic with the Indians
or in predatory excursions against the Spaniards, the prin-
cipal occupation of these men was hunting wild cattle, of
which thoy made their toucan, but they did not begin the
latter occupation until several years after their first appear-
ance in the Caribbean seas. At a still later date many
pf them became logwood cutters in the bay of Campeachy,
and as both these occupations soon became very profitable,
aud trading ships from Europe began to resort to them in
numbers for their hides, suet, dried meat, wood, &c., there is
l^ood reason for supposing that if the Spaniards had left
them in peace they would gradually have settled down into
Quiet industrious communities. But instead of this, the
Spaniards continued to murder them wh'enever they could
lurprise them, to burn their log-huts, to hunt them from place
to place, and even to kill the shipwrecked mariners who
were thrown by misfortune upon their coasts. The effect
)f all this was, that the buccaneers became as sanguinary
IS their enemies, increased their numbers, condensed their
>perationB, and soon considered everything Spanish as fair
prise, and every Spaniard's life a forfeit to them. Some
lome-retuming flibustiers brought accounts of the bar-
>aritiea of tlie Spaniards into Europe, where they soon got
into print, were circulated as popular stories, and produced
m immense sensation. A Frenchman of the name of
Montbara on reading one of these stories conceived such a
leadly hatred of the Spaniards that he became a buccaneer,
md killed so many of that nation in the West Indies that
le obtained the title of * The Exterminator.* Other men
oined the brethren of*the coast from less ferocious motives,
[laveneau do Lussan took up tho trade of buccaneering and
'obbing because he was in debt, and wished, as every honeit
nan should do, to have wherewithal to pay his creditors.
3y degrees many men of respectable birth joined the cf so-
tiations, on wmch it was customary for them to drop
heir family name and assume a new one. Some of tb#
)uccaneers were of a religious temperament. A French
:aptain, named Daniel, shot one of his crew in church for
jcliaving irreverently during the celebration of mass.
Captain Richard Sawkins, an Englishman, threw the dice
tverboard on finding them in use on the Sunday ; and the
Irst thing Captain John Watling did was to order his
obbers to keep holy the Sabbath.
In 1625 the English and French conjointly took pos-
«ssion of the island of St. Christopher, and five years later
»f Tortuga, which islands became the head-quai-ters of the
)uccaneers, who, whenever the countries of which Uiey were
lativcs were at war with Spain, obtained commissions or
etters of mark from Europe, and acted as regular privateers
n tlio West Indies and on the Spanish Main. This latter
ustom ^ave a colour of legitimacy and honour to their
N^ 335.
oallingi and confounded the notions of right and wrong in
their ignorant minds. Tlie governors of the first English
colonies in the West Indies, or at least the majority of them,
were great rogues, and on condition of sharing spoils with
the buccaneers they let them do pretty much as they chose,
even when there was no war with Spain.
In 1638 the Spaniards in force surprised Tortuga, while
most of the adventurers were absent in Hispaniola hunting
cattle, and they massacred all the English and French
buccaneers that fell into their hands. The buccaneers
however soon retook the island, and made it the centre of
their hunting and cruizing as before. These singular asso*
ciations were held together by a very simple code of laws.
It is said that every member of it had his chosen and de-
clared chum or comrade, between whom and himself pro-
perty was held in common while they lived together, and
when either of tlie two died the survivor succeeded to what-
ever he possessed ; but as buccaneers were known at times
to bequeath property by will to their friends in Europe, this
cannot have been a compulsatory regulation. What, how-
ever, was insisted upon by their corporate laws was, that
there should be a general participation in certain cssentialsi
among which were enumerated meat for present consump-
tion and other necessaries of life. It has been said that
bolts, locks, and all kinds of fastenings were prohibited
among them, as implying a doubt of * the honour of their
vocation.'
In addition to the names already mentioned, Peter of
Dieppe, called 'Peter the Great,' Bartolomeo Portu^ez*
Fraufois UOIonnais, and Mansvelt were distinguished
captains of buccaneers, who made themselves terrible in
those seas. But the fame of all these men was eclipsed by
Henry Morgan, a Welshman, who succeeded Mansvelt in
a sort of general command. He took and plundered tho
town of Puerto del Principe in Cuba, attacked Puerto Bello»
one of the best fortified places in that part of the world, and
took and sacked Maracaibo and Gibraltar. Morgan dis-
played not only infinite bravery, but the highest qualities
of a great commander ; unhappily however, like most of
his predecessors, he was treacherous> cruel, and blood-
thirsty. He was in the habit of torturing his prisoners in
order to make them confess where they hi^ concealed their
treasures. The boldest and most astonishing of all Henry
Morgan's exploits was his forcing his way across the isthmus
of Darien from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. His
object was merely to plunder the rich city of Panama, but
his expedition opened the way to the great southern seas,
where the buccaneers soon achie^ved strango exploits, and
laid the foundation of much of our geographical knowledge
of that ocean. In December, 1670, thirty-seven vessels,
having on board about 2000 men, rendezvoused at Cape
Tiburon under the enterprising Welshman, whom French
and English obeyed with equal alacrity. On the 1 6th of
Dec. he took the island of Santa Catalina, where he left a
strong garrison. He next took the strong castle of San
Lorenzo, at the mouth of the river Chagre, on the east side
of the isthmus of Dnrien, where out of 314 Spaniards he
put 200 to death. He left 500 men in the castle, 150 to
take care of his ships, and with the rest, who, after deduct-
ing the killed and wounded, amounted to about 1 200 men,
he began his land march through one of the wildest and
most difficult countries, which was then only known to the
wild Indians. The fatigues and difficulties they suffered
on this march were dreadful. On the tenth day aftier his
departure from San Lorenzo, Morgan, after a desperate
combat with the Spaniards, who had 2000 foot and 400
horse, took and plundered the rich city of Panama, which
then counted about 7000 houses. Here again his cruelties
were aoominable. He returned in safety, and loaded with
wealth, to San 'Lorenzo, where he found all his ships un-
disturbed. Having tricked most of the flbet out of their
share of the spoils, he sailed for Jamaica, which was already
an English colony. This dexterous ruffian was afterwards
knighted by Charles U., and became successivelv commis*
sioner of the admiralty court in Jamaica, and deputy go-
v«mor of that island.
In 1673 the Spaniards murdered 300 French flibustierB^
who had been shipwrecked at Puerto Rico—a barbarous act
which provoked atrocious reprisals.
The short way to the South Seas had been shown by
Morgan, and, in 1680, about 330 English buccaneers started
from the shores of the Atlantic to cross the Isthmus. The
route they pursued varied slightly from thai
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BUG
506
B ac
Morgan ; but they had men with them more capable of de-
•cribing what they saw. These were Basil Riogrove, Barty
Sharp, William Dampier, and Lionel Wafer, each of whom,
in after years, wrote and published an account of his ad-
ventures, with a description of the country. Although they
formed an alliance with the Darien Inoians, who hated the
Spaniards, this expedition was not in sufhcient force to attack
Panama. Two htmdred of them, however, having procured
a number of small Indian canoes, launched into the bay of
Panama, attacked three large armed ships, took two of them,
and began cruizing in them. These fellows had e^en some
diplomatic skill. Ringrove tells us that the governor of
Panama sent to demand of Sawkins their captain, 'Why,
during a time of peace between England and Spain, English-
men should come into those seas to commit injury ? and
from whom they received their commission ?' Sawkins re-
plied, ' That he and his companions came to assist their
friend the king of Darien, who was the rightful lord of Pa-
nama, and all the country thereabouts.*
The adventurers then proceeded to capture ships and
plunder the towns along the coast, and some of them re-
mained a long time in the South Seas, and made many dis-
coveries.
In 1684 another expedition, in which also the skilful sea-
man Dampier and the surgeon Wafer were engaged, sailed
from Virginia, and, stretching along the whole of South
America, doubled Cape Horn and entered the South Seas
to plunder the Spaniards. Many of these hardy adventurers
explored the Pacific, from the coasts of Chili, Peru, Mexico,
and California, to the shores of China, Malacca, and India ;
and we scarcely know any thing of the sort so interesting
as Dampier's narrative of this expedition. [Dampibr.]
In 1670 a solemn treaty of peace, known in diplomacy by
the name of the ' Treaty of Americ4k,* which provided for the
entire suppression of the buccaneer warfare, was concluded
between Great Britain and Spain ; but, as far as the bucca-
neers were concerned, this was a bit of waste papen for by
far the most daring of their achievements took place after
the date of the' treaty.
The war between Great Britain and France, which fol-
lowed the accession of William III., in 1688, did much mora
to relieve the Spaniards from the scourge. The French,
without waiting for a declaration of war, attacked the Eng-
lish in the West Indies, where, for some time, the chief bel-
ligerents were those antient allies and comrades, the llibus-
tiers of one nation and the buccaneers of the other, who were
now called privateers, and duly commissioned. The bonds
of amity were broken ; they exercised upon each other some
of the cruelties they had exercised in common upon the
Spaniards, and they never again confederated in any buc-
caneer cause. At one time, had they been properly headed,
and had conquest, not plunder, been their object, they might,
by degrees, have obtained possession of a fkir portion of the
West Indies— they might at once have estabUshed an inde-
pendent state among the islands of the Pacific. Henry Mor-
gan, in fact, at one time entertained this magnificent idea.
The treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, and four years later the
accession of a French Bourbon prince to the throne of Spain,
brought about the final suppression of the buccaneers.
Many of them turned planters or negro drivers, or followed
their calling as sailors on board of quiet merchant vessels ;
but others, who had clippers, or good sailing ships, quitted
the West Indies, and went cruizing to different parts of the
world. For nearly two centuries tueir distinctive character
or function had been the constant waging of war against
the Spaniards, and against them alone, and now this was
lost for ever.
' After the suppression of the buccaneers,* says Captain
Burnet, ' and partly from their relics, arose a race of pirates
of a more desperate cast, so rendered by the increased dan-
ger of their occupation, who for a number of years preyed
upon the commerce of all nations, till they were hunted
down, and, it may be said, exterminated.' Within the few
last years, however, many dreadful piracies have been com-
mitted in the Mexican Gulf.
{History of the Buccaneers of America, by James Bur-
ney, F.R.S. ; Lives of Banditti and Robbers, by C.
Mac Farlane ; The Buccaneers qf Ameryca, by an old anony-
mous author ; Dampier's Voyages ; Ldonel Wafer*s, Basil
Ringrove's and Barty Sharp's Narratives ; and, in French,
the works of Pere Charlevoix.)
BUC'CINA, a military instrument of the shrill horn,
or oomety kind, in use among the antients, and bv some
snppoied to hwe been fivmed of the horn of tlio ball w
goat Aeoording to others it was the shell of the buocin uni ,
a fish* Vegetius (De ReMihUmi) tayi that it wm niAd« of
brass, and hmX in a circle. BImchinus {De Intirum. Vtt t
also states that it was a metallie instrument ; but from thf
engraving he gives ef it» after antient baa-reliefs, &c, ihn
buccina would aiq)ear to have been perfectly straight. Sir
John Hawkins coincides in opinion with Blanch inui. atid
copies the form of the instrument from a plate given lo the
work of the learned Italian. The proba^lity ia, that Uie
buccina in its primitive state was a simple bom» and tb^t
subsequently it was formed of a more duraUa motcnaL
BUCCINUM. [Entomostomata.)
BUCCO. [Barbbts.]
BUCENTAUR (IL BUCSNTO'RO), the etate-gallef
of the republic of Venice, for the name of which many \cri
unsatisfactory derivations have been proposed. We do n. .
recollect ever to have seen mentioned the legitinuUe Buei-n
taur, t. e,, the compound of the bull and the horse, wilb vhira
Hercules, on many antient monuments, is reprosented t**
be fighting ; but one authority traces it to the attgBODtAtjNf
particle Bov {Bou or Bu), and centaurus, a name appmphaJc^i
to any thing of large size, and especially to a ahip. Anotht r
supposes it to be BU Taurus, and asserts that the gaUey •»!
^neas was so called; but we know not how this fact i«
ascertained. Lastly, it has been said to be a oormplion vf
Ducentorum, but to what this word is to be appbea as sn
epithet is much doubted ; whether Namlium^ ooeording t.*
the law which ordered its original coDstruction by Uv
shipwrights ; or remorum, the number of oars by which it 4«
not rowed; or, as the Cronaca Veneta saye» without a:..
explanation (which therefore it might be haMidoua to Mip-
ply), because it is Biscentum hominum oacretnm.
The most elaborate description of this gorneoaa ve^^
with which we are acquainted is that given in the scr. i.
volume of the work to which we have last lefimod. Bu<
we doubt not that the reader will gladly be epeved a minu>
account of the carving and gilding with whieb it w«e odornr : .
and a detail of the marine deities, the sirena, the masqu -
the fruit, the flowers, the shell-work, the medallion*, i -
cornucopias, the allegorical groups, the winged lions, x.
birds, the zodiacs, the canopies, the virtues, and the hw .-.
arts, which were profuselv scattered over it on one o
latest repairs by the skill and taste of *GioTmnni AiU. ..
Doratore Veneto.*
It may be sufficient to state that it as much ezoee%l<fi
Lord Mayor's barge in costliness as it did in dimeii« •
It was 100 ft. by 21 in extreme length and breadin: .
rowers, 4 to each oar, were allotted to it from the ar^> >
and were disposed in a lower deck; besides these it
manned by a crew of 40 mariners. The upper deck -
covered with an awning {iiemo) of crimson veiveu berr
which were seated the doge and his goodly company. 1
doge himself was enthroned near the stem, surroundoii v
foreign ambassadors, and the senators and great offictr*
state were disposed on seats running in four rowa almii; '
length of the vessel.
The date of the original Bucentaur is not Tery dr:
ascertained ; but, like the famous ship at Athena, altlt . .
in perpetual flux, the galley of the moment, aeoonl-t .
Howell, was ever reputed * to be the self-same vessel •
however often put upon the careen and trimmed.' * \ •
believe there is not a foot of that timber remaintn^ « -
it had upon the first dock, having been, aa they tell mt. -
often planked, ribbed, caulked, and pieced.' Its u«e on '
feast of Asoeiision is traced to a victory obtained in ih« •
1 1 77 by the Doge Sebastiano Ziani over the Bmperur r
deric fiarbarossa. The Venetians had espouaed yhe • ^u*
of Pope Alexander III., who had taken refuge in tU- /
gune. The doge, with a fleet not mustering half the d^ -
ber of vessels which Pisa, Genoa, and Anoona hvl y
under the command of the emperor*s son Otho, encount*
them off the coast of Istria. After a battle which ; .^
more than six hours, Otho, with 48 out of hia 65 e^l^ • ^
was taken prisoner, two of his ships having been de>tr\ ^ -
The pope received the conquerors on the Lido, and prx^M .
ing Ziani with a golden ring addressed him in these worI«
* Take this ring, and with it take, on my authority , th^ -
as your subiect. Every year, on the return of ihi^ haj
day, you and your successors shall make known to j' •
terity that the right of conquest bus subjugatc*l the A«' .
to Venice as a spouse to her husband.* The W •»» .
themselves have sometimes claimedTin earlier autL«»(i..\ .
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607
B U C
tbifl loHship of tha Adriatic; and Foiearim (Delia Letter
ratura Venexiana, lib. iL p. 216) finds lome trace of it in
Dandolo'f Chronicle towards the close of the 10th century.
It was not likely that the Vatican should demur as to the
claim established by the ffrant of Alexander III. when it
recollected the answer which the Venetian ambassador
Donati returned to Julius 11. when that pope inquired where
the grant of Alexander was to be found. He was requested
to look for it on the back of the donation of Constantino.
The Buoentaur having been conducted, on the eve of the
feast of Ascension, from the arsenal to the piazxa, received
its splendid passengers. Accompanied by innumerable
feluccas and gondolas it passed on to the mouth of the Lido
amid the thunder of artillery. On coming in front of the
shapel of the arsenal, the rowers, in maritime fashion, sa-
luted an image of the Virgin, and in the meantime the
patriarch of &nta Helena, on which island is a convent,
iwaiting the pomp, was entertained by the monks with a
*epast of chestnuts and water {una veramente rdigioio^
wvera coiazione). As soon as the doge appeared in sight, the
mtriaroh embarked with his clerical suite in a small ffilded
>arge (peaiane) in order to meet the procession, and during
lis passage he blessed the remainder of the water, whi<£
ras afterwards thrown into the sea. On issuing irom the
K)rt of Lido, near the mouth of the harbour, the doge dropped
t ring into the bosom of the Adriatic, betrothing her by
hese words, ' We wed thee with this ring in token of our
rue and perpetual sovereignty.* He then returned to the
hurch of San Nicolo dt Lido, and having heard a solemn
pontifical mass, re-embarked in the Bucentaur and enter-
ained his oort^e with a magnificent banquet in the palace.
Since the occupation of Venice by the French, the Bucen-
lur has been allowed to rot in the arsenal. Casaubon (tn
Uhentmsm, xi. 2), who has been followed by Ihxik, notices
le Venetian custom as reminding him of an offering made
) the sea by the Syracusans of an earthen vessel filled with
oncv, flowers, and frankincense.
BUCER, MARTIN, was bom in 1491, at Schelestadt,
ear Strasburg, a town of Alsace, in the modem French dep.
r the Lower Rhine. His real name was Kuhhom (Cow-
orn), which, according to the pedantic fashion of his times,
e changed into a Greek synonym, calling himself Bucer.
laving entered the order of Saint Dominick, he received
is education at Heidelberg. Some tracts by Erasmus and
ihers, and, yet more»some by Luther which fell in his way,
iduccd him to adopt the opinions of the latter in 1^21.
bout eleven years afterwards, he appears to have preferred
le profession of Zuinglius, but he was ever a strenuous
'onioter of union between the different sects of the Re-
rmed, according to whose doctrine he taught divinity for
renty years at Strasburg. At the diet of Augsburg, in
>48. he vehemently opposed the system of doctrine called
te Interim^ which the Emperor Charles V. had drawn up
r the temporary regulation of religious faith in Germany
itil a free general council could be held. On the insidious
iture of that proposition we need not here dwell ; and it
ay be sufficient to state, that although it was expressed for
e most part in scriptural phrases, it favoured almost every
sputed article of the Romish diurch. It was opposed
[ually by the Romanists and by the Reformed; but the
nperor urged its acceptance so fiercely, that Bucer, after
Lving been subjected to much difficulty and danger, ac-
rpted an invitation from Cranmer to fix his residence in
n gland. Bucer had denounced the Interim as ' nothing
It downright Popery, only a little disguised,' and about
e same ume he wrote a book against Gardiner, chietly
latino to the celibacy of the clergy.
On his arrival in England, he was appointed to leach
colony at Cambridge, and appears to have been much
Imired and respected. When Hooper accepted the
shopnc of Gloucester, but refused to be consecrated in the
liscopal vestments, Buoer wrote a most convincing hot
loderate tieatise against this fastidious reluctance ; and on
le review of the Common Prayer Book, he expressed
is opinions at large, 4hat he found all things in the
»rvice and daily prayers clearly accordant to the Scrip-
ires. He wished for a stricter discipline to exclude scan-
lIous livers from the Lords Supper. He ob,|eoted to that
Kjuisition which urged the people to leceive it at least oncB
year <a practice still retained by the Presbyterians), and
ould have them pressed to it much more frequently. He
wned the bread to be placed in the hands, not put into
10 mouths, €i the communicants; and he thoHght the
Erayer that these elements might become the body and
lood of Christ favoured transubstantiation too much, and
might, by a slight change, be brought nearer the words of
Scripture. He condemned the administration of baptism
in private houses, and he recommended frequent cate-
chizing. It will be remarked that all these amendments
have since either been adopted, or are such as the real
friends of the Church of England approve.
The king having heard that Bucer's health had suffered
during the winter from the want of a German stove, sent
him 20/. to procure one. In return, he wrote a book for
Edward's own use, ' Concerning the Kingdom of Christ,*
which he presented as a new year's gift. It referred the
miseries of Germanv to the want of ecclesiastical discipline,
the adoption of which he strongly recommended in England,
beginning by a more careful refiisal of the eucharist to ill
livers, by the sanctificatiou of the Lord's day, of holidays,
and of days of fasting, which last he proposed should be
more numerous and less confined to Lent, a season which
had been popularly disregarded ; and by the reduction of
non-residence and pluralities, the true temnants of Popery.
Bucer died at Cambridge in the close of February, 1650f
and he was buried in St. Mary s with great honour, his
remains being attended by full 3000 persons jointly from
the university and the town. A Latin speech was made
over his grave by Dr. Haddon, the public orator, and an
English sermon was then preached by Parker, afterwards
archbishop of Canterbury, to whom, not bng before his
death, he had applied in a very pathetic and urgent letter
for the loan of ten crowns for a month ; and on the following
day. Dr. Redman, master of Trinity College, preached at
St. Mary's a sermon in his commendation. Redman had
differed from him much, especially on justification and
divine grace, so that Str)'pe ranks him amone 'his ene-
mies;* but in his sermon he particularly praised the sweet-
ness of his temper, and added, that as Bucer * had satisfied
him in some things, so he believed, if he had lived, he would
have satisfied him in more; and that he being dead, he
knew none alive from whom he could learn so much.'
An amusing story, recorded in the Life of Bishop Jewell,
shows both the gentleness of Bucer's disposition and the
malice of his opponents. Catherine duchess of Suffolk
having two sons at Cambridge, and herself occasionally
residing within its precincts, had sent Bucer a cow and a
calf towards the maintenance of his family. The good-
natured man was fond of these beasts, and often visited
them in their pasture, an innocent recreation, which gave
occasion to a report among his adversaries that the cow and
calf were magic spirits which instructed him in what he
was to read in the schools. On hearing this rumour, he by
no means gave up his customary attention to his favourites,
but once pointing them out to a friend, he observed with a
iesting tone, ' Behold, these are my masters, from whom I
nave Teamed what I teach others ; and yet they can speak
neither Latin nor Greek, Hebrew nor German, nor talk to
me in any other language.*
During the reign of Mary, five years afterwards when
inquisitors were sent to Cambridge, the corpses of Bucer
and of Fagius were dug up from their resting-places, fas
tened erect by a chain to stakes in the market-place, and
disgustingly burned to ashes; their names, at the same
time, were erased from all public acts and registers as
heretics and deniers of the tme faith ; and this violence to
their memories continued till Elizabeth became queen. A
very interesting collection of tracts relative to the life,
death, burial, condemnation, exhumation, burning, and
restoration of Martin Bucer, was published at Strasburg, in
Latin, by his friend Conrad Hubert. It contains, among
other matters, the Greek and Latin Epicedta which the
members of the university, according to custom, placed on
his coffin; and also the ^usomia, written when he and
Fagius were posthumously reinstated in their academical
honours. Each of these testimonies of honour fills more
than fifty pages.
Bucer wrote both in Latin and in German, and so largely
that it is thought his works, if collected, would amount to
eight or nine folio volumes. He was thrice married, and
his first wife, by whom he had thirteen children, was a nun,
perhaps selected by him, not very judiciously, in imitation
of Martin Luther. It is by no means easy to decide re-
specting the terms on which he lived with that great
reformer, but it seems, from an anecdote which Scultet has
pittserved iJnnaLadann, 1529>> that Luther^eated hiOL >
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&od
ft tfd
with either unmannerly rudeness or with a hluff familiarity
which no intimacy could he close enough to justify. On
one occasion, when Bucer and (Ecolampadiiis paid him a
visit, he conversed in a civil and friendly manner with the
latter, and when the former addressed him, he replied with
a sort of smile (subridenM aliquantulum), * You are a rogue
and a knave* iTu es nequam et nebulo). Jortin, from
whom we derive the story {Life of Erasmus, i. 390), un-
derstands the expressions in an evil sense, and says that
Luther could not * endure' Bucer. But the words are equi-
vocal : subridens means chuckling as well as sneering, and
is the term chosen hy Virgil when he represents Jupiter
^odhumouredly attempting to soothe and fondle Venus.
The speech itself must he interpreted according to the
playful or serious tone in which it was pronounced, and to
this we have no guide. The Romanists hated Bucer as a
powerful opponent ; they ahused him for extreme suhtlety,
and thev seldom spoke of him otherwise than as a ' sly fox.*
BUCSEROS. [Hornbill.]
BUCH, a district of tho Bordelois, in France, extending
along the coast of the Bay of Biscay. Its capital was La
Teste or T8te deBueh (now generally known by^the simpler
designation of La Teste), at the head of the Basin of Ar-
cachon. Pop. in 1832, 2595 for the towri; 2840 for the
whole commune. This district is now included in the dep.
of Gironde. Its first lords bore the title of Captal, and
their lordship gave to them several rights and privileges in
the city of Bordeaux. From these first lords the eaptalate
passed successively to the houses of 'Grailly, Nogaret-
£pernon, Foix-Randan, and Gontaut A Captal de Buch,
of the house of Grailly, distinguished himself in the wars in
France in the fourteenth century ; he served in the armies
of Edward the Black Prince, duke of Guienne, and of Charles
le Mauvais, king of Navarre.
BUCHAN, a district of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, which
extends along the coast about 50 m. from the mouth of the
Ythan to the boundaries of Banffshire. The shore is bold
and rocky ; the interior generally level ; and although
agriculture is rapidly improving it, the extent of the waste
lands and the comparative absence of trees give a bleak and
barren appearance to the district The hill of Mormond
near Strichen is its principal elevation, which by a figure
of a white horse formed by paving white stones on its side
has become conspicuous at a distance and a good sea-mark.
The Ythan (the riv. which divides Buchan from Formariin)
after a course of about 22 m. falls into the sea at Newburgh ;
it was noted in former times for its pearl-fishery, and the
most valuable pearl of the royal crown of Scotland is said to
have been got out of it The Ugie falls into the sea a mile
N. of Peterhead. On the sea coast a few miles S. of Peter-
head are the BuUers of Buchan, a nearly round basin about
30 yards wide, formed in a hollow rock which projects into
the sea, towards which there is an arch bv which the waves
enter. It is open also at the top, round which there is a
narrow path about 30 yards from the water: when the sea
is hi^h m a storm this scene is exceedingly grand.
The climate of Buchan, like that of the rest of Aberdeen-
shire, is proverbially keen; but Professor Playfair of St
Andrew's, in his description of Scotland, describes it as mild,
and affirms from experience that when snow is one foot deep
at Aberdeen it is two at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The win-
ters, he says, are less severe and the summer less warm
than in the southern counties, but easterly winds, fugs, and
rain make the spring late and the autumn stormy.
On a peninsular rock of the coast stands Slains Castle,
a ruin, once the residence of the earl of Errol, about 1 6 m.
N. of Aberdeen. It was demolished by James VI. in 1594.
Near it is the dropping cave or white cave of Slains, which
is remarkable for its stalactites. On the first Monday of
every month small debt courts are held alternately at Old
Deer and Rathen in this district ; the average of the cases
decided for five years before 1821 was 53 a month.
BUCHANAN, GEORGE, was bom of poor parents, in
the parish of Killearn, and county of Stirling, about the
bejjinning of February, 1506. He was the third of eight
children, who, by the death of their father, and the in-
solvency of their grandfather, were early thrown upon the
care of their widowed mother, and the friendship of more
distant relations. By one of these, James Heriot, his ma-
' * uncle, Buchanan was sent at the age of fourteen to
-rersity of Paris ; where, however, he had not been two
rhen his uncle dying, he was left in a state of such
stitution that in order (o get to bis native oountry
he was forced to join the corps then being raited ai «uxt1:a«
ries to the Duke of Albany m Scotland. After a twelve-
month spent at home in the recovery of his impaired healtiu
he again joined the troop of French auxiliaries, and pro-
ceeded with them to the siege of Weiic ; but the bard«h:p4
which he suffered on this occasion reduced his youthful
frame to its former state of debility, and be was confined io
his bed the remainder of the winter.
In the ensuing spring, he and Patrick, hts eldest brother,
were entered students in the pedagogium, afienrar'Ji
St Mary's College, of the university of St Andrem'«.
It is said to have been by the bounty of John Mnjor, vh)
then taught the logic class in St. Sal vatofs college, ihx*
the two brothers were maintained at this time, lliia is n t
unlikely. Buchanan was an exhibitioner when he pa»^- 1
bachelor of arts, on 3rd Oct, 1525 ; and we learn firom him
self, that when Major went the following summer to Fnn^,
he went thither also, and became a student in the S«^>:v'
college at Paris, where, as he bad obtained the degree f
B.A. at St. Andrew's, he was immediately inoorporau^rl <>r
the same degree. This was on the 1 0th of Oct, 1 527. T^ c
next year he proceeded M.A. ; and the jear followir^ h**
was chosen procurator of the German nation — a diri»ran of
the students which comprehended those Irom Scutiand.
After a struggle of two years with • the iniquity of fortune.'
as he expresses it, he obtained the situation of a regent, r
professor, in the college of St. Barbe, where be ta^:;' *
gramipar nearlv three years. He then resigned the eh.. -.
which had yielded him but a miserable pittance, and bera:. r
tutor to Gilbert, Earl of Cassilis, a young Scots noblemav.
who resided at that time in the neighbourhood of the r .
lege, his previous tutor, William, abbot of Crossracwt/.
having left him to do his pilgrimage to Rome und^-r ^
royal licence granted to that effect of date 9th April, I >
(Pitcairn's Cfim. Trials, vol. i. p. 245). With that nol ' -
man Buchanan remained abroad about five years, a: !
in this period committed to the press his first publtcat: r
which was a Latin translation of Linacre*8 Rudiments ,
Latin Grammar. In May, 1537, he came to SrtTtU ■
in company with Lord Cassilis, who had just attairt^i
his maiority ; and, probably by his influence, waa then 3f-
pointed tutor to James Stewart, one of the natural child.*?-,
of James v., with a liberal allowance.*
At Lord Cassilis's seat, where be seems to bare eonttnu<* :
a visiter, he compost his poem entitled ' Somnium.' .:
derision of the regular clergy. The king, who had a tur
that way, having seen the poem, solicited aim to write scar
more satires of a like kind. He did so accordingly, ui i
?ublished among others his ' Palinodia,' and ' FVanciscani v'
'hese pieces brought upon his devoted head the vengea::
of tlie church. He was seized as a heretic, and thrown :: •
prison ; and Cardinal Beaton actudly tendered to the k r.r
a sum of money to consent to his immediate deathu T «
avaricious James might have rejected this bribe ; but Et-
ch auan happily escaped from his confinement and c:ut t *
England, where, after a severe struggle with want and thn
dread of re-imprisonment, he resolved on returning to Pa' *
Finding on his arrival that Cardinal Beaton was h\:' :
there at that time, he gladly accepted an inviution fr ,
Andrew Grovea, to become a regent or professor of Lai j» .:,
the college of Guienne at Bordeaux. It appears that he vi%
at Bordeaux before the close of the year 1539, for on t-
1st of Dec. of that year he presented a poem in the n.i..>
of the college to Charles V., when he made his solemn tinr
that day into Bordeaux. He remained here three vcar^.
during which he published his Latin tragedy * Baptiste*.* : i
several other minor pieces; but being continually harass'
by the clergy under letters from Cardinal Beaton, wha hj.'
traced his retreat, he removed to Paris, and fixim the tcst
1544 till about 1547 taught Latin in the college of th^
Cardinal de la Moine, alopg with the learned philoloc»2«
Tumebus and Muretus. In 1547 Govea was inrital u
become princij^l of the university of Coimbra in IVnIustx*.
and to bring with him learned men to fill the Tacant cfa.iirs.
Buchanan accompanied him on' that occasion, mud becaa^
a regent in the university; but having the misfortune u
lose bis friend Govea by death the following year, the m
quisition assailed him as a heretic, and after harassing hir
for near a year and a half, shut him up in the eeli u!
monastery. But nothing could confine or subdue the mt. .
• On the ilat of Aag., 1537. be rccfltveil ftom the Uas 9Q< . aii4 th« '
>ara in July, i&« ; al which Utter dale he alio nctitM a neh U«r4 r
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of Buchanan. It was in this solitanr abode he began his
well-known ' Venion of the PMdms.' jBeing at last restored
to liberty, he embarked for England in a vessel then leaving
the port of Lisbon ; but the political state of that country
bearing an unfavourable aspect, he soon quitted it again for
France, which he reached about the beginning of the year
1 5 53. The siege of Metz was raised aU)ut the same time ;
and at the earnest request of some of his friends he com-
memorated that event in a Latin poem. He was soon
afterwards appointed a regent in the college of Boncourt;
but in the year 1555 he gave up that charge for the place
of domestic tutor to Timoleon de Uoss6, son of the celebrated
Marcchal de Brissac. During his connexion with this family,
which lasted till the year 1560, he published several
poetical works, among which was his translation of the
Alccstis of Euripides, and the earliest specimen of his
paraphrase of the Psalms. In 1560 he returned to Scot-
land, where we find him in the bemnning of the year 1562
classical tutor to the young queen Mary. For his services
in that capacity she gave nim a pension of 500/. Scots
a -year for life out of the temporalities of the abbey of Cross-
ra^vell ; and in the year 1 566 the Earl of Imirray, her
brother, to whom he had dedicated a new edition of his
' Franciscanus,* presented him with the place of principal of
St. Leonard's College at St. Andrew's. The following year
he was chosen Moderator of the Greneral Assembly of the
church of Scotland, which was a still more extraordinary
homage to his character and various abilities.
In 1570 he resigned the office of principal of St Salva-
tor*s college, on being appointed one of the preceptors to the
young King James, then in the fourth year of his age. The
same year the place of Director of the Chancery was for his
services conferred upon him, and soon afterwards that of
Lord Privy Seal. This latter was a highly honourable and
lucrative office, and entitled its holder to a seat in parlia-
ment. He retained it till at least 1578, when he nominally
resigned it in favour of his nephew, Thomas Buchanan, of
Ibbert. In the same year, 1578, he was joined in several
parliamentary commissions, legal and ecclesiastical ; and
particularly in a commission issued to visit and reform the
universities and colleges of the kingdom. The scheme of
reformation suggested, and aflerwanls approved of by par-
liament, was drawn up by him. The same year also he
brought forth his celebrated treatise ' De Jure Regni apud
Scntos,'
Continued indisposition and the advance of age now
warned him of his approaching dissolution. In his 74th
year he wrote a brief memoir of his own life ; when visited
a few days before his death by some friends, he was found
sitting in his chair teaching the boy that served him in his
chamber the elements of the English language and gram-
mar ; and not long afterwards he expired, while his great
work his ' History of Scotland* was passing through the
press. He died at Edinburgh on the 28th of Sept., 1582,
and was buried at the cost of the town, having by his many
charities and benefactions left himself without means to
defray the necessary charges of his burial.
As a man of great and various learning, and of nearly
universal talent, he was without a rival m his own day ;
and be is one of the most elegant Latin writers that modern
times have produced. If we may judge from his Latin
terse translations of the Medea and Alcestis of Euripides,
he must also have been a good Greek scholar. He deserves
to be cited as a remarkable instance of the love and pur-
suit of knowledge in the most unfiivourable circumstances,
amidst poverty and disease, religious persecution and civil
discord.
There are two collective editions of the works of Bu-
chanan. One is by Ruddiman, published at Edinburgh in
1715 in two vols, folio. The other is by Peter Burman,
Lug. Bat 1725, in two vols. 4to. In this the editor has,
besides his own critical annotations, incorporated the notes,
dissertations, &c. of his predecessor.
BUCHANAN. REV. CLAUDIUS, D.D., vicc-nrovost
of the college of Fort William, in Bengal, and well known
for his exertions in promoting an ecclesiastical establish-
ment in India, and for his active support of missionary and
philanthropic labours, was bom on the 12th of March, 1766,
at Cumbuslnag, a village near Glasgow. When a young
man of the age of twenty-one, he made his way to London
almost friendless and unprotected, where he succeeded in
attracting the attention of the Rev. Mr. Newton, the well-
known rector of St, Mary*s WooUioth, By Mr, Newton's
inflaenee, he was sent to Cambridge, where he was edu-
cated at the expense of Henry Thornton. Esq., whom he
afterwards repaid.
He went out to India in 1796 as one of the East India
Corapany*8 chaplains ; and on the institution of the college
of Fort William in Bengal, in 1800, was made professor of
the Greek, Latin, and English classics, and vice-provost.
His residence in India was distinguished by the publication
of his 'Christian Researches in Asia,' a txM>k which at-
tracted considerable attention at the time, and which has
gone through a number of editions. In the years 1804 and
1 805 he gave various sums of money to the universities of
England and Scotland, to be awarded as prizes for essays
on the diffusion of Christianity in India. One of the pro-
ductions which the occasion called out was a poem on ' The
Restoration of Learning in the East,' by Mr. Charles Grant,
now Lord Glenelg. at present (1836) Secretary of State for
the Colonies.
He returned to England in 1808, and during the re-
mainder of his life continued, through the medium of the
pulpit and the press, to enforce his views. His reply to the
statements of Charles Buller, Esq., M.P., on the worship of
the idol Juggernaut, which was addressed to the East India
Company, was laid on the table of the House of Commons
in 1813, and printed. He died at Broxbourne, Herts, Feb-
ruary 9, 1815, being, at the neriod of his death, engaged in
superintending an edition of the Scriptures for the use of
the Syrian Christians who inhabit the coast of Bf alabar.
(Life and Writings, by Rev. Hugh Pearson.)
BtJCHA'RIA. [Bokhara.]
BUCHA'RIA, LITTLE, or Enstem Toorkistan, was
a name till lately in use and employed to indicate the most
western portion of the countries dependent on the Chinese
empire. It now begins to be known under Uie Chinese
name of Turfan, or rather Thian-Shan-Nanlu.
latter article a description of it is given.
BUCHOREST, but more correctly BUKARESHT,
• the city of enjoyment,' in the eastern part of Wallachia, ia
agreeably situated in a rich and spacious plain, divcrsiOed
by hills, and on the E. bank of the Dumbovitza. In extent
it is about 4 m. fVom N. to S., and ncarlv 3 m. from E. to
W. It is the residence of the prince ana divan or council
of Wallachia, the seat of government, as well as of a Greek
archbishop, and the head-quarters of the foreign envoys or
consuls. Independently of its agreeable situation, Bucho-
rest has no claim to its designation ; for it is, with few ex-
ceptions, nothing better than a heap of wretched brick or
mud cabins, ranged along lines of streets either unpaved
or faced with trunks of oaks. It is composed of the prince's
palace, a vast old pile, now used in consequence of the de-
struction of the modern palace by fire in 1812, and of 67
Quarters ; these quarters being the separate property of the
Eoyars, on whose land colonies of their followers have gra-
dually accumulated. From this circumstance, it has the
appearance rather of an immense village than of a regular
town. The boyars* residences are spacious, and bunt of
stone. The handsomest building, next to the prince's palace,
is the adjacent metropolitan church ; both of them situated
on the largest square, and in the centre of the town. There
are sixty churches, built in an uncouth style, none of which
have fewer than three steeples or towers, and many no less
than six ; some have even nine. Seven of them, as well as
the twenty monasteries and convents, are protected by widls.
The other edifices of note are a large bazaar, a Roman
Catholic and a Lutheran church, a synagogue, several hos-
pitals and infirmaries, and the consular residences, particu-
larly that of the Austrian consul, which is a handsome
structure, and built in good taste. In the middle of Bucho-
rest there is a tower, called the ' Fire Tower,' 60 ft. high,
which commands a lull view of every part of it. The lyceum
for Greek youth is conducted by twelve professors, and the
example set by the German residents has occasioned the
establishment of several other schools. Most of these resi-
dents are of Saxon extraction, and consist almost wholly of
operatives, particularly goldsmiths and watchmakers. The
pop., though once composed of 60,000 souls, which the cala-
mities of war and political commotions have now reduced to
less than 50,000, is on the increase ; and the whole number
of dwellings is about 1 0,000. The town is full of coflfee-
houses, almost every one of them having a gambling or
billiard-table, and of shops where sherl^t and wine are
drunk. Buchorest is the great commercial mart for the
principality, and as this is an extremely fertile country, tho
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inhabitants earry on an eztensiye trade in grain* wool, honey,
wax, tallow, and cattle. It possesses nine or ten distinct
havens, of which that of Sberban- Wode is the largest and
most frequented* Tl)ere are no large manufactures ; but
small quantities of woollen cloths, carpets, brandy, &c. are
made. The people are fond of outward display, and of public
festivals, dnnking, music, and dancing; and their dress
and habits present a singular mixture of European and
Eastern customs. There is a Corso, or public mall, to
which the fashionables resort in great numbers, in the main
street and along the bridge which crosses the Dumbovitza,
Buchorest has a public library, a society for belles lettres,
and another for agriculture ; it has indeed made considerable
advances in civilization during the last ten or twenty years.
44^ 26' N. lat., 26' 8' E. long.
BUCKINGHAM, a par., bor., and the co. t of Bucking-
hamshire, to which it gives name, is situated on the Ouse,
in the hund. of Buckingham, 50 m. direct distance N.W.
from London. The municipal, which was formerly co-ex-
tensive with the parliamentary bor., is co-extensive with
the par., which contains about 6000 acres, and is divided
into six districts, having separate churchwardens and over-
Keei^s of the poor, but only one church and church-rate for
the whole parish. The parliamentary bor., which was en-
larged under the Reform Act, returns two members to
))arliament. Three of the districts into which the par. is
divided form the town; the other three are agricultural,
in 1831 the pop. of the par. was 1672 males, and 1938 fe-
males : of these there were — ^males 20 years of age, 883 ;
occupiers and labourers employed in agriculture, 225 ; em-
ployed in manufacture, or in making machinery, 125;
employed in retail trade or in handicraft, 200 ; capitalists,
bankers, &c., 47; labourers not agricultural, 138; male
servants, &c., 117; female servants, 139.
Buckingham is an antient bor., and is described as such
at the time of the Domesday survey, in which it is said to
have had 26 burgesses under the protection of foreign lords.
But it does not appear that the town sent members to par-
liament before 1544. From the circumstance of Edward III.
having fixed one of the staples for wool at Buckingham, it
is supposed to have been in his reign a nourishing town.
The governing charteV was granted in the first year of the
reign of Mary (1554), in consequence of services rendered
by the inhabitants in the suppression of the duke of North-
umberland's rebellion on the queen's accession to the throne.
It was surrendered, and a new charter granted in the thirty-
sixth of Charles II. (1684). Tiie corporation acted upon
this latter charter for several years, but in consequence of a
dispute with James II. in 1688, during which the king
successively removed three mayors elected by them in three
months, quo warrantos were issued, and, after some litiga-
tion, the charter of Charles II. was also surrendered. The
corporation afterwards availed themselves of the proclama-
tion for restoring surrendered charters, to resume the charter
of Mary. Under the Municipal Reform Act, Buckingham
has four aldermen and twelve councillors, but is not divided
into wards. Prior to the Reform Act, the two members for
the bor. were returned by the corporation, and the greatest
number of electors which had been polled for thirty years
before 1833, was eleven.
In the month of June, 1644, Buckingham was for a few
days the head-quarters of Charles I. ; the neighbouring
towns of Aylesbury and Newport Pagnell being garrisoned
fur the parliament. A fire broke out on the 15th of March,
1725, which consumed 138 dwelling-houses, being more
than one-third of the whole town.
No trade or manufacture is carried on in the town, except
lacc-raaking with bobbins. The only public buildings are
the church, the town-hall, and the gaol. The present
church is erected on the sile of the castle, under an act of
parliament, by which the inhabitants were to raise 4000/. in
throe years, and Earl Temple the rest : the entire expense
was about 7000/, It was completed in 1780. The living is
a vicarage in the diocese of Lincoln, the gross annual income
of which is 230/. The old church had a lofty spire, which
f'll down in 1699; the tower which supported it remained
lill 1776, when it fell down also, just after Mr. Pennant, the
wolUknown antiquarian tourist, had quitted the church.
The entire structure was taken down, and the new church
was built on a new site.
It is probable that the assizes had been generally held at
Ruckintrham before their removal to Aylesbury. In 1758
l^rd Cobham procured an act of parhament to fix the sum-
mer aMizas at Buckingham, and built a gaol then mt hk
own expense for the use of the town and county : it U a
capacious building, but is little used. Tbo town-hAll was
built about the year 1685» at the expense of Sir Ralph Vcr-
ney. There are three stone bridges over the Onse at Buck-
ingham, The market-day is Saturday; there are tea an-
niMl fairs held.
Buckingham contains four daily schodU, two ofw^eh are
endowed with small sums : one of the endowed achoala i*
a Latin s^ool, the other is called the Greeu Coei School.
There are also one boarding-school, a day and 8«nday na-
tional school, and three Sunday sehoob, besidee two hoftt>&-
tals and several other charities.
(Browne WiUis's History o/ Buckingham^Bromnt Will *
was chosen, in 1705, one of the representativea of Bucking-
ham ; — Lysons's Magna BritanmOf voL i ; Boundary and
Municipal Corporations Reports; Ecc Educ ana P* ju
Returns,)
BUCKINGHAM, a co. and also atown of Eng knd, wh\eh
have given a title to many individuals distingmabed in oir
history. The first Earl of Buckingham appears to hare bet r.
Walter Gifiard, created by the Conqueror, who died in J 1 ui.
The title having become extinct was revived in 1377 in (Le
person of Thomas Plantagenet Duke of Gloucester, yovn^^^t
son of Edward III., whose son Humphrey 6\»i without
issue in 1400. His heir Humphrey Earl of StaSoTd « u
created Duke of Budungham m 1401, and his grands.n.
Henry Stafford, ' the deep-revolving, witty Buckingham vi
Sbakspeare, after assisting Richard III. to mount the thnm-\
was put to death by him in 1483. His son, Edward St. ^
ford, offended Wolsey, fell under the suspicions of Hed'*
VIII., and was attainted and beheaded in 1521. He « Jn
the last nobleman who enjoyed the office of Lord II.. h
Constable. The title of EaA of Buckingham was nut re-
vived till 1617.
BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIER8. DUKE OF,
third son of Sir George Villiers, knight, by his seccMul v . ^
Mary, a lady of the antient family of Beaumont, m^s \>u^
August 20, 1592, at Brookesley in Leicestershire, a k •.
which had been in tlie possession of his ancestors for neari^
four centuries. His education appears to have betn \. .
distinguished by any proficiency in literature ; but on :*.4
return from a three years' visit to France, which be r«»-t-
menced in his eighteenth year (his father having died ti •
years before), he was well skilled in all bodily exerti.-'.^.
As yet he was a stranger to the court, but his line per^ n
and graceful demeanor made a strong impression on Jamo L
The common story is, that the king first saw bim when t ;
visited Cambridge in March 16, 1615: the biographers,^: >
have followed one another, usually speak as if Villiers \.ji
acted in the representation of Ignoramus on that occafr. : .
but it is plain from Mr. John Sidney Hawkins's labor n
researches in his edition of that comedy, that no ;*_-:
therein was allotted to Villiers. Sir Henry "Wotton h »-
ever, in his hfe of Buckingham, states that the king fi:«i
saw him at Apthorpe, during one of his progresses tf tr
Villiers had been sent by his mother to London to bei ;^o
a suitor to the daughter of Sir Roger Ashton, a gentlem n
of the bedchamber and master of the robes. Frum t' -
marriage he was discouraged by Sir Robert Grebam, a c..r>-
tleman of the privy-ohamber^ who advised him rather : <
try his fortune at court.
Be this as it may, James no sooner knew him than ^i-
attached him to his own person as cup-bearer, and fir..-
liarly gave him the name of Steenie. Promotion ftUo/.M
most rapidly, and he successively became a knight and v^ • -
tleman of the bedchamber, with a pension of 1000/. a-xrar
out of the Court of Wards. On the following New Yt »- 5
Day he was made Master of the Horse, and installed kci.? :
of the Order of the Garter. In the next August bo *« as
created Baron of Whaddon and Viscount Villiers ; and n
the ensuing January he was advanced to the earldoa . '
Buckingham, and sworn of his majesty's pri\7 cuui.-.
Scarcely another year elapsed before his patent was m^ ^'
out as Marquess; he was appointed Lord Admiral :
England, Chief Justice in Eyre of all the parks and foii»
on the south of Trent, Master of the King's Bench OtC^v
High Steward of Westminster, and Constable of Wind-
Castle; *none of them,* as Sir Hugh Wotton adds, * vi.-
profitable pieces.*
A rise so unprecedented could not fail to create abandr.T.t
jealousy ; and it is by no means easy at present to ascert >. n
the truth of many of the contemporary imputatioQa uuicr
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admitted tbat he was the perpetrator. Having been rescued
in the first instance from the fury of the bystanders, who
would have put him to instant death, he was recognised as
John Felton, a younger brother, of mean fortune, and of
Suffolk extraction. He is represented to have been by na-
ture silent, gloomy, and melancholy, to have withdrawn
fVom the army in consequence of disappointment in promo-
tion, and to have afterwards fed his irritation against Buck-
ingham on this account, by listening to the many invectives
which passion and prejudice suggested. He might not be
without a touch of insanity ; and it appears he was awakened
to the full enormity of his crime before his execution. The
news of the duke's murder was announced by Sir John
Hippesley to the king shortly after its occurrence, while he
was attending public worship. Charles continued his devo-
tions, unmoved, as it would appear, by the sad intelligence
which had been whispered to him, • and without the least
change of countenance till prayers were ended, when he
suddenly departed to his chamber and threw himself on his
bed, lamenting, with much passion, and with abundance of
tears, the loss of an excellent servant, and the horrid man-
ner in which he was deprived of him, and he continued in
this melancholic discomposure of mind many days.*
George Villiers was murdered in his 36th year, having
had three sons and one daughter by his wife Lady Catherine
Manners. The Lady Mary was his first bom ; his eldest
son died at nurse ; his second succeeded him in his title
and estates, and his third was Lord Francis.
An instance of Buckingham*s public-spirited munificence
while employed in concluding a treaty at the Hague ought
not to be omitted, especially as his faults have been care-
fully chronicled. Hearing that a rare collection of Arabic
manuscripts, which had been made by Erpenius, a scholar
of great erudition, was at that moment on sale by his widow
to the Jesuits at Antwerp, • liquorish chapmen,' as Sir
Henry Wotton adds, * of such ware,* the duke anticipated
them by giving the widow five hundred pounds, • a sum
above their weight in silver, and a mixed act both of bounty
and charity, the more laudable from being out of his natural
elenaent ;' for Buckingham, as we have aheady stated, had
received but an imperfect education. It was his intention,
if the design had not been prevented by his unexpected
death, to present these MSS., together with mauv other
similar treasures, to the University of Cambridge, of which
learned body he was chancellor : after his assassination they
were deposited by his widowed duchess in the public library
of that university, where they still remain.
BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, DUKE OF,
second son of George Villiers, also duke of Buckingham,
was born in London, January 30th, 1627, He was educated
at Cambridge, under the especial patronage of the king,
and after travelling with his brother. Lord Francis Villiers,
he returned to England on the outbreak of the civil war,
and espoused the royal cause. The earl of Holland, under
whom he served, was defeated by Fairfax, near Nonsuch,
in which battle Lord Francis, after fighting bravely, was
killed, and the duke himself escaped with difficulty beyond
the seas. The parliament required him to return within
forty days, under the penalty of confiscation of his estates ;
but he preferred remaining abroad, where he supported
himself by the sale at Antwerp of a valuable gallery of
paintings which his father had collected. He afterwards
served under Charles II. at Worcester, and was again com-
pelled to take refuge on the Continent
Part of his estates had been assigned by the parliament
to Fairfax, who generously allowed the duchess of Buck-
ingham, the duke's mother, a considerable annuity. The
duke, not without hope that the republican general might
exercise similar liberality towards himself, ventured, although
outlawed, to return to England, was well received by Fair-
fax, and married one of his daughters in 1657. Cromwell,
taking this alliance ill, arrested Buckingham, and com-
mitted him to the Tower, On the abdication of Richai-d
Cromwell he was released from Windsor Castle, the place
which had been allotted for his less rigid confinement ; and
on the Restoration he recovered his paternal estates. He
had already received the order of the garter while in Hol-
land, and he was now sworn of the privy council, and nomi-
nated lord lieutenant of the county of York. His political
^uct however was most versatile, and the influence which
tintained over Charles by his talent for agreeable ridi-
as most unworthily employed in procuring the fall of
idon. In his habits Buckingham was utterly profligate;
and he appears to have regarded buffoonery as an hofMnr
able and legitimate weapon against a court rival. Not en-
frequently, when the grave chancellor had retired from the
council-table, Buckingham threw the king into conTu!s;.-::if
of laughter by mimicking the gait of the venerable &t&trv
man, carrying a cushion dangling by his side as the bag and
seals, and ordering an attendant to precede him with the
bellows as a mace.
On the formation of the Cabal ministry Backin^am's
name contributed an initial to that anagram. In 1670 hi9
proceeded on an embassv to the court of France, oominftUv
to condole with Louis JCIV. upon the death of Charic^'i
sister, the duchess of Orleans, but in truth to urge lv«
accession to the triple alliance. On that occasion, lie conde-
scended to pander to his master's pleasures by pco\idin?
him with a Trench mistress ; but so light of purpose and
frivolous vras he that the ascendancy wmch he mtf^ht thu*
have secured was lost by his total neglect of the afterwartii
duchess of Portsmouth, immediately upon her embaikatt> n.
Objects yet more unworthy than that lady had beeu alresd/
introduced by him to the royal notice, and the aetresa***.
Mistress Davies and Nell Gwyn, were first known at court
through him. ' He was a man indeed,* to use the sttTMii*
language of a contemporary by whom ho was weU known,
* who had studied the whole boidy of vice ;* and assuredly no
one had ever less barrier of principle to stand in the way (^
his instruction. So entirely did he set at nought all moral
feeling, that when Charles II. on one occasion expres<«d
apprehensions that his injured queen might probably inter-
fere with some intrigue by her jealousy, Buckingham offernl
to remove her to a West Indian plantation, where * %zt
should be well taken care of» without creating more trouble.
The king, though selfish and cold-hearted, had a kind if
careless quality, sometimes standing in the place of cu^^-
nature, which made him revolt from so atrocioua a projWt.
Already, in 1666, Buckingham had manifested symptciss
of his fickleness, and had forfeited all his high offices, ti
which however he was subsequently restored through his ova
submission and the king s extreme facility. TIvb duke . i'
Ormond had taken a considerable part against him on ti :-
occasion, and so deeply did Buckingham cherish icsentmrct
that there is strong reason to believe he was oonoemed m t
plot which nearly ended in the murder of thai nobleman bi
Col. Blood. The transaction was not inquired into» but (t?
earl of Ossory, eldest son of the duke of Ormond, oould b.t
forbear from taxing Buckingham with his guilt, even in the
palace itself. Being at court, and seeing the lavour.ie
standing by the king, he addressed him to this purpose :—
' My lord, I know well that you are at the bottom of tl- >
late attempt upon my father, but I give you warning, u b\
any means he comes to a violent end, I shall not be at «
loss to know the author. I shall consider you aa lU
assassin, I shall treat you as such, and whenever 1 mc^t
you I shall pistol you, though you stood behind the iui£ •
chair ; and I tell it you in his Majesty's presence that ^ ^^
may be sure I shall not fail of performance.* (Carte, Li:<
of the Duke of Ormonde ii. p.* 225.)
Notwithstanding his public and private crimes. BucV^nj-
ham still retained the king's favour, was still employed s .
important embassies, and like his father was elected ciiic-
cellor of the University of Cambridge. On the dis£oluti.«i
of the Cabal ministry and his dismissal from offioe, lie k: i
dually weaned himself from the court In 1674 he rcsi^^u^l
the chancellorship of Cambridge^ and vehementlr »ir
ported the Nonconformists by his opposition to the Test A . .
He was deeply engaged in the popish plot, and the i«ma:'. -
der of his days was spent in factious opposition, and in c. ".
nexion with the intrigues of Shaftesbury.
One incident in Buckingham's life but too plainly ex-
hibits the demoralization of the times on which be u..^
thrown. Buckingham, having been detected by the car\ i
Shrewsbury in an intrigue with his wife, killed him m «
duel. The guilty woman who concerted the meetini?. d.^-
guised like a page, held the duke's horse during theconiV^i.
and at its close rendered herself more infamous by ur.J j-
sembled joy and shameless avowal of her pas&ion*ilir tS.
paramour, yet reeking with her husband's blood. For th-s
murder, which occiured in February, 1667-8, the duke rs:^
ceived a royal pardon, but it was afterwards brought bef^ «
the House of Lords in a petition presented by the earl
Westmoreland in the name of the young earl of Shrk-v -
bury, who desired justice against Buckingham for tu
father's blood and hu mother a infamy^ Tht duke iepW«
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no part in tbe rsvolution. Once ic was deagiied to nqnest
him to joia in the inTitation to the prince of Orange, but
the earl of Shrewsbury declared that he well knew that
Mul grave's concurrence was not to be expected. His reply
to King William, who mentioned this fact to him, was sin-
gularly bold and upright. ' Sire/ said he, * if the proposal
had been made, I would have discovered it to the king
whom I then served/ To the honour of William, it should
be added, that he was far from being displeased with this
answer. Mulgrave however by no means courted the favour
of the reigning king. He opposed him on some im-
portant questions, and it is pleasant to relate that this
opposition neither interfered with his advancement, nor did
his advancement silence his opposition. In 1694 he was
created marquess of Normanby, and afterwards was ad-
mitted into the cabinet council with a pension of 3000/. per
annum.
On the accession of Queen Anne he was named Lord
Privy Seal. It is said that an early tender attachment to
that princess once nearly cost him his life ; for that Charles
II., in order to punish his ambition, despatched him in a
leaky vessel to the relief of Tangier. In 1703 he was
created duke of Normanby and of Buckinghamshire,
' there being suspected to be, somewhere, a latent claim to
the title of Buckingham.* The claim to which Johnson
alludes in this passage we have not been able to trace.
In consequence of the ascendancy of tlie duke of Marl-
borough he resigned the Privy Seal, and greatly offended
the queen by supporting the Tory motion for inviting the
Princess Sophia to England. He refused the strong temp-
tation of the chancellorship, which was offered to lure
him back, and employed his leisure ftom polities in erecting
Buckingham House at Pimlico, upon land granted by the
crown. Some vignettes of that house, which since it has
ceased to exist may have become valuable, are found at the
heads of some chapters and in illuminated capitals in the
2nd volume of his collected works. Of his mansion, and of''
his mode of life in it, he has left a pleasant and well-written
description in a letter to the Duke of Shrewsbury. In 1710
he was made Lord Chamberlain of the household, but after
Queon Anne's death he reverted to opposition. He died
February 24, 1 720-1. By his first two wives he was without
children ; by his third, a daughter of James II. by the
countess of Dorchester, and widow of the earl of Anglesea,
besides other children he had a son Edmond, by whose
death in 1735 the line of Sheffield became extinct. To
that lady he appears to have been tenderly attached, and in
the construction of Buckingham Palace he paid especial
attention to her convenience. * The highest story of the
private apartments (as he tells us in the letter above alluded
to) is fitted for the women and children, with the floors so
contrived as to prevent all noise over my wife's head during
the mysteries of Lucina.*
As a poet the duke of Buckinghamshire is below criticism,
and it is to his rank rather than to his talent that we must
ascribe the praises which he received from Roscommon,
ftom Dryden (to whom he erected a monument in West-
minster Abbey), and from Pope. Dryden perhaps received
his ten guineas for the eulogy in the dedication to * Aureng-
sebe,* in which it is remarkable that he extols rather the
political than the literary merits of his patron ; but the
character given in ' Absalom and Achitophel,' which is more
to our purpose, was probably altogether gratuitous.
* Sharp-Judging Adriel, the Muse's friend,*
Himself a Mas«.'
Addison and Burnet have respectively commended the
• Essay on Poetry,' and Pope has preserved the memory of
the best verse in it, — • Nature's chief masterpiece is writing
well,' by incorporating it in his own * Essay on Criticism.'
The few prose pieces which the duke of Buckingham has
left to us are light and graceful, and although now perhaps
forgotten, they deserve a much higher rank than his poetry.
His remains He under a sumptuous monument erected by
his widow in Westminster Abbey. Moreri, in his article
^Boukingham,* confounds John Sheffield with the second
George Villiers, and makes a strange medley of the two,
ascribing the ' Rehearsal' to the former.
Greorge Grenville Nugent Temple, second earl of Temple,
was created marauess of the town of Buckingham in 1784,
and his son, Richard Grenville Brydges Chandos, was ad-
vanced to the dukedom of Buckingham and Chandos in
1822.
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, an inland oo. of Vngiand»afJ
veiy imgiilar fbnn. Camden derives iti name* dMnigfa bii
etymology has been disputed, from the abundanee of bc4 . :.
trees (in Saxon boccen or buooen), whence first the town ":
Buckingham, and then the co. received their desigQatir>n . 1 1
Ues between 51''26' and 62° 12' N.lat., and 0'' 28' and 1 ' l#' W.
long. . It is bounded on the N. and N.W. by Korthamp! j
shire ; on the W. by Oxfordshire ; on the 8. by Berkshire ;
and on the E. by Bedfordshire, Herts, and Middlesex. I * ^
greatest length measured nearly N. and S. from the o«:l ■:
hour hood of Olney to the river Thames above Staanes :« '» :
miles. Its breadth varies much, the greatest being &:^ .:t
27 miles. i
Aylesbury (which, though it does not give nanae to !:.*'
CO., has, on the whole, the best title to be ooosider'.iri :
county town) is about 37 m. in a direct line N.W. t\ \» .
of London ; or by the road through Berkhampstead :k:.-
Tring 38^ m. ; or 40im. by Uxbridge, Amershani, n.
Wendover.
' The area of the co. is 738 sq. m. (472,320 acre>|: •
taking the sum of the returns for the different pari^..«<.
463,820 acres: it is one of the smaller English cjum.-^.
being the thirty-third in the scale of relative magnitU'ie.
The pop. by the census of 1831 was 146,529.
Surface, Hydrography, and Commumcaiions. — 1 . •
principal hills in Bucks are theChiltems, a chalk r\:.L' •.
which entering the co. from Oxfordshire run aerofs it u.
N.E. direction and enter Bedfordshire near Dun^? i : .
separating the basin of the lower Thames from tlie * .- -.
of its tributary the Thame, and from the basin of the 1>..<
Near Ivinghoe the elevation of these hdls is 904 ft. n!> •
the level of the sea ; and another eminence S.W. «>r U • :
dover .'s 905 feet. Muizle Hill near Brill is 744 it., •'
Bow B:Jckhill, between Fenny Stratford and Woburn t -
Under the northern slope of these hilU is the nch \ ) .
Aylesbury, watered by the Thame. In that part .^t *
00. S.E, of the Chiltems there is a good deal of woii>i.«.
though it has much diminished within the last loi» )*..--
The prevaiUng timber in the S. part of the county is •- .-
There is some wood on Whaddon chase, a tract nt ...
land in the northern part of the county. The whole •>( -.
Chiltern district i- said to have been a forest ; and ;• r i
ing to antient hi^^ioriaiis the Chilterns and the 8.K. yt\ i
the CO. was once so covered with woods, chied) of Ixh?- . *
to be almost impassable, till an abbot of St. Albaii h .
several of them cut down because they afforde^l bar*-
thieves. The name Chiltern is derivwl by Carndt^n :• -
an old English word (British, t. e., Celtic, T»e prestmei C ' :
or Chilt, signifying clialk. The chief riv. of HucLs i% \
Thames, which skirts the oo. on the 8.W.« sepai i^ .\: .
from Berkshire, and, for a short distiincc, from Sun* \ .
Coin, which separates Berks from Middlesex uu t
junction with the Thames at Staines; the Thame, ;;.^« .
feeder of the Thames : the Ouse, and its tributaiy t
Ousel.
The Thames becomes the boundary of the co. a *
below Henley, and has a winding coiuse first to t. r
and then to the S.E. past Great Marlow, Taplov < i .
Maidenhead), and Eton, to its junction with ti e i
being navigable throughout this part of its cour%-^. i
waters do not receive any nuiterial accession from I>. .
the Wick, which passes High Wycombe, joins u • • -v
Marlow ; one or two small streams' flow into it near \ '
and another a little lower down opposite Old Windsor.
The Coin becomes the boundary of the co. a ffv r
below Rick mans worth, and continues, by one or otl.cr .
arms, to be the boundary until it meets the Thames^ I •
general course is S. ; it passes Uxbridge in Middlr>c\ :
Colnhrook, and receives a considerable stream, the \^
bourn, from Amersham. It is not navigable. It pn>:> .•>
trout and other fish.
The Thame is formed by the junction of serenil !ct
streams; the principal, to whidi the name of Tham .«
assigned, rises near the vil. of Stewkley, between Ff* -
Stratfoi^ and Aylesbury; and flowing in a windini: «<>>•'
nel, but on the whole in a S.W. direction, unites tie-ir t
vil. of Quarrendon (W. of Aylesbury) with another sir.- •
which rises nOar Tring (Herts), and flows partly thr • « -
Hertfordshire and partly through Bucks, and for a pa.rt .
its course forms the boundary of the two counties. Tt:*"^-
streams before their junction are swelled by ^ few ir.^ .--
nificant brooks. Their united stream flows to the S ';>
until it reaches the border of Oxford^ire, near the towr.
Thame. From the junotion of thr>twp ^^tiMoit to thj
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weds in a foul state, by which great loss has been sustained
both by tenant and landlord.
A f^reat many commons and common fields have been
inclosed of late years, and considerable improvements have
consequently been made ; but the progress has not been so
rapid of late, owing to the low prices of agricultural produce.
The present gross amount of produce in corn, cattle, and
from the dairy, which this county sends to the metropolis
and surrounding markets, is however much greater than it
was 20 years ago, and will no doubt increase with the in-
crease of capital and skill applied to the cultivation of the soil.
A great advantage to Buckinghamshire, in an agricul-
tural point of view, is the convenience of water carriage by
the Thames and by the canals which traverse it in several
directions. The railroads projected and in progress will
enable the farmers to send their produce to Tendon at a still
cheaper rate ; but this accommodation will be still further
extended by the proposed Birmingham and Loudon canals
which will intersect this county, and by which the canal
distance between Manchester and London will be lessened
23 m., with 77 fewer locks : the estimate is three millions.
There was formerly a very inconvenient division of the
land in many places, called yard land; in the law books
styled virgata terra. This somewhat resembled the run
rig and run dale in Scotlaud. [Bjerwickshire.] It con-
sisted of various narrow and unconnected strips about a pole
wide, which, taken together, amounted to 30 or 40 acres,
and to which certain rights of common were attached. The
occupiers were restricted to a certain mode of cultivation
highly inconvenient, which was a great obstacle to improve-
;ment. Most, perhaps all, of these divisions have been done
away with by acts of inclosure.
Much of the land in Buckinghamshire being of a good
quality, the farms are not in general very large ; few are
above 5U0 acres, and many do not exceed 20 or 30 : the
average mav be taken at about 200 acres. The rent of
arable laud has fallen greatly of late years, and it might be
diflicuU to state a general avor.ige. The poor-rates, till the
introduction of the late new kr»vs, were extremely various;
and as -in taking a farm the poor-rates and tithes are al-
ways taken into consideration, and the rent is proportionally
less when XhenQ charges are high, it is best to include them
in the annual value of the land wh6n let. In tliis manner
of reckoning, the farmer pays from 255. to 40*. per acss for
good arable land, of which the landlord receives from 15*.
to 30«. Meadows let proportionally higher, especially those
which are situated along the rivers and can occasionally be
Hooded at the option of the occupier. Leases for 7 and 14
years prevail, but most farms are let from year to year ; and
the tenants are seldom removed, provided they pay their
rent and cultivate the land in a proper manner.
The ploughs and instruments of husbandry have been
improved since the publication of the Agricultural Report.
Although old-fashioned ploughs, drawn by four or even five
horses in a line, are still occasionally seen on some of the
stifier soils, they have been considerably superseded by a
better implement drawn by fewer horses. In very wet stiff
soils the treading of the horses on the land already ploughed
is very hurtful ; and in these lands it is best to let the
horses follow one another in the furrow.
Like the rest of England, Buckinghamshire once con-
tained many common fields, laid out in narrow pieces, or
lands^ which did not admit of cross ploughing, and which
were seldom or never straight. By being constantly ploughed
towards the middle, these lands became at last so high and
rounded, that if a man sat down in the furrow which divided
them he could not be seen by another man in the next
furrow, owing to the gi-eat height of the ridge between them.
When these lands w^e inclosed and laid in regular fields,
it took no little trouble to bring them to a regular form.
This could only be done gradually; for the best soil being
accumulated on the crown of the ridge, would, in levelling,
have been buried in the furrows, leaving a barren subsoil
exposed where the crown had been. The mode in which
the most prudent improvers proceeded was to divide these
large lands into smaller, throwing the crown of a narrow
stitch into the furrow, or where the baulk had been, that is
the narrow strip of ground which was generally left unbroken
between the different lands as a boundary to each. Thus
the ridj?e was gradually lowered, and the deep furrow filled
'ip, until the land could be ploughed across the old furrows
thout much difliculty ; after which new and straight ridges
lid be formed. The occasional application of the spade
greaitly accelerated the impiovemelit A few of the old
crooked ridges may still be seen on farms where th« pro-
prietors or the occupiers dread innovation. The object of
high ridges where the soil is wet and impervious, is evident J v
to let tSe water run off; but a much better method is to
underdrain the land up each furrow, which will take off* the
super (luous water more effectually. Narrow ridges, propcly
laid up, will keep any soil sufficiently dry when tbe un<ier
drains prevent accumulations of water in the fumywa. Wat^ r -
furrows, judiciouslv deepened with the spade acrae» the
ridges, will often take all the water when there are no undor-
drains. When the lands are laid in a ^ood form they ouv
be kept so by alternately changing the crown and furrow,
by which the soil is deepened and the surface kept leveL
Buckinghamshire contained, according' to the Report,
about 150,000 acres of meadows and pastures, the iiiana«e-
ment of which was then, as it is now, superior to that of tt*e
arable land. In the dairy districts are extensive pesiure^,
which would be much improved by greater auudiviuoa.
Besides the advantage of ditches in draining a soil n&tiir^i>
retentive of moisture, and the sliclter given to cattle ar.i
sheep by high banks and hedge-rows, it is aacertained th- :
cattle frequently shifted thrive better than when they aie
kept a long time on the same pasture. In very larj^ panares
there are always spots where the grass is sweeter, and etU:u
more closely, while in others it is left by the cattle to t:tu«f
long and rank, and is consequently wasted and trodden dovi..
In smaller divisions or inclosures the whole is more regularly
eaten off; and the grass, not being bitten so close to tlJv
root, when left untouched for a time by the cattle beins n -
moved, grows better and of a finer quality. It ta supftot^*!
that Buckinghamshire feeds about 20,000 milch oow&, cx'h
giving on an average 200 lbs. of butter annually. T^f
cows are chiefly short-horns, Glamorgan, and bome-brei.
On some lands none succeed so well as those which Ijuie
been reared at home ; on others it is said that cowa bruuc^ t
from a distance thrive better. May not this be aocoui.tt.-vl
for by the difference in the care with which they are br^-d
and reared ? Those who select a good stock to breed iri'tn.
which experience has shown to suit the Quality of tXie p»^
ture, and keep the calves and heifers wcU till they cooie i^
the pail, will generally find it most advantageooa to re^x
their own stock at home, so that they may be aocustoxDf i
to the pasture; and, although cows thus reared may t«
more expensive than cows that are purchased, they v.: I
well repay the difference by their greater produce. Lik^
general condition when sold or fatted off. But unless grt^t
attention be paid to the selection both of the bulls and r««s
to breed from, the cheapest plan is to purchase cows ui \
good breed, with their first calf, bred upon land imther xz-
ferior in quality to that on which they are to be kept, »>
that they may not fall off from the change to a worse pa»tu:r.
The large Hereford oxen are preferrod for grmxing wbt^
the land is very good, from the notion that a large ox r»
more profitable than a smaller. A large ox when fal hss
no doubt, more flesh, in proportion to the bone aitd cff^l,
than a smaller, supposing both equally fat and well-shaped .
but it is by no means proved that this flesh is fnoduced ' t
the same proportion of food. A small ox will fatten oo u-
ferior pasture and in a much shorter time than a ]Ars*:r.
The return is therefore quicker and more certain, and thtro
are experienced men who maintain that a small Nut;u
Devon or a Scotch highland ox will give a beuer avera^
profit on his cost and food, in a given time, than the larger
breeds. The small Scotch oxen, which fatten ao readil\ la
English pastures, always bring the best price in the maiLu
and there is never any difliculty in disposing of them.
Oxen are now much less frequently used in the plorj^h
than they were formerly in this countyt The gceatar »p<^
and general usefulness of the horse causes him to be ] :<>
ferred in spite of the pretended economy in the use of osjtz.
Hay is the chief food of the cattle in winter, but turb -s
and straw begin to be substituted, notwithstandiog \u
bad taste which turnips impart to the butler. This t&j. «
may be corrected, in some measure, by adding ooc^ihi.-i
part of warm water to the new milk, and putung a sii»a^
piece of saltpetre in the cream.
No great quantity of cheese is made in this county, ex-
cept a few cream cheeses in the neighbourhood of the pf ui*
cipal towns.
The butter is chiefly sent to London made up in lb*
form of oblong rolls weighing two pounds each, ft u seu
in baskets called from their shape il7a/#, which bold fi.a
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517
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20 to 40 rolld. Their depth is unifonnly 11 inches. Each
Hat is marked with the initials of the dairyman who sends
the butter, and the carrier who conveys it, to whom also
the flat belongs ; and the quantity contained in each flat it
also marked upon it The factor in London pays the car-
riafre, and remits the amount of the sale once in the month.
In the dairy ftirms the calves are usually sold, when three
or four davs old, to dealers, who sell them again to those
farmers who being within a moderate distance from London
or any considerable town, find it more profitable to fatten
calves by suckling them than to make butter. The calves
fatten readily; but to make this business profitable veal
should sell by weight at about half the price of butter. It
often sells for much more.
Many ewes are kept in this county for the sake of early
lambs for the London market The Dorsetshire ewes, which
have lambs very early in the season, are consequently pre-
ferred for this purpose. Where mutton is the object, the
South Down breed is in greater request. The Gloucester-
shire and Leicester and a breed crossed between them have
lately come into favour, especially since long wool has borne
a better price in proportion to the quantity than the shorter
and finer. On the Chiltern hills they buy two-thirds of
wethers and one-third of ewes in autumn ; the wethers are
fatted on turnips, and the ewes, after their lambs are fat and
sold off, are themselves fatted on grass the next summer.
The horses used for the plough and team are generally
large and black ; some of them are bred in the county, but
most of them are brought when young by dealers from
Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire. The largest and finest
are frequently resold at six years old to London dealers for
droy horses at a considerable profit. The mode of feeding
horses is good and economical. They are soiled in the
stable on green clover or tares in the summer; and in
winter they have "hay with cut straw and oats.
Ho^ are an important appendage to a dairy farm. The
favourite breed is the Berkshiipp, sometimes crossed with
foreign breeds, as the Chinese or Neapolitan, or with the
Essex and Suffolk breeds. The Neapolitan cross increases
the aptitude to fatfen. but renders the hog more delicate
and susceptible of cold. The Chinese cross gives very deli-
cate small porkers and sucking nigs. The ouantity of pigs
now introduced from Ireland has much diminished the
profit on breeding this species of stock in this county.
There is a peculiar trade in this county, which is the
rearing and fattening of ducks early in the season for the
London epicures. The eggs are hatched under lien?, and
the ducklings are reared in the house with great care.
Ducks six weeks old will in January fetch \2s. a couple.
It is said that ducks to the value of 4000/. are sent annually
from Aylesbury alone, and 20,000/. worth from the whole
county.
The value of labour varies in different parts of Bucking-
hamshire, being generally in the inverse ratio of the poor
rates ; from 8f. to 12«. per week may be considercu as
the average wages. No beer or food is allowed except in
harvest.
There are numerous fairs in Buckinghamshire, the prin-
rival of which are as follows : —
Araersham, Whit Monday, Sept. 25 ; Aylesbnry. Friday
after Jan. 18 ; Saturday before Palm Sunday, May 8, June
14, Sept 25, Oct. 12; Beacons field, Feb. 13. HolvThurs-
dav ; Buckingham, Jan 12, March 6, Whit Thursday, July
lo', Sept. 4, Oct. 4, Nov. 8 ; Burham. Feb. 25. May 1, Oct.
2 ; Chesham, April 21, July 22, Sept 28 ; Colnbrook, April
5. May 3; Fenny Stratford, April 10, July 18. Oct 11,
Nov. 28; Ivinhoe, May 6, Oct. 17; Marlow, May 1, 2,3,
Oct. 29 ; Newport Pagnell, Feb. 22, April 22, June 22,
Au<r. 29, Oct 22, Dec. 22 ; Olney, Easter Monday, June
29, Oct 2 ; Risborongh, May 6 ; Stony Stratford. Aug. 2,
Oct. 11, Nov. 12; Wendover, May 12, Oct 2; Winslow,
March 20, Holy Tlmnday, Aug. 21, Sept. 22; Wobum,
May 4, Nov. 12 ; Wycombe, Monday before Sept. 29.
Divinons, Tawitit ^. — When the Domesday Survey was
made, this county was divided into eighteen hundreds.
They are now reduced to eight ; one of them however still
retaining the title of * The Three Hundreds of Aylesbury.*
AVe give the ancient and modem hundreds in a tabular
form, noticing also their situatba in the county.
Anticnl Uuadrcda. Hodno Ilaodnda.
Rouclai 1
Stodfkid > . nearly coincident with Buckingham (N.W.)
Lamua J
Aalieot H andreda. Modm Himdndt.
Bonestou (Dunstow)) „^„j^ ««:„„; i
Sigelai (Segloe) ] "^'^^^ '^^^'' } Newport <N.)
Moleslou (Mulso) J ^<^nt ^»« ^
Elesberie (Aylesbury) 1 (The three hundreds
Stanes (Stone) > ditto < of Aylesbury (Cen-
Riseberge (Risborongh) J I tral.)
KSffXt ditto {CoUloworCottclo.
Erlai J ^ *'
Essedene (Ashendon) |
Votesdone (Waddesdon)/ ditto Ashendon (W.)
Tichessele J
Dustenburgli ditto Desborough (S.W.j
Stoches ditto Stoke (S.E.)
Bumham ditto Burnham (S.E.)
Desborough, Stoke, and Burnham are the three ' Chil-
tern Hundreds* the stewardship of which is a well-ktaown
nominal ofiSce, bestowed upon a member of parliament who
wishes to vacate his seat.
The number of parishes given by Camden is 185 ; Messrs.
Lysons {Magna Britannia) compute them at 201, *as
nearly as can be ascertained,* including 8 which have pa-
rochial chapels dependent on other churches, and 2 whose
churches were pulled down by Cornelius Holland, one of
King Charleses judges, and have never been rebuilt The
number in the population return agrees with the total of
Messrs. Lysons, viz. 201 ; but the chapelries are not distin-
guished. Several chapelries are indeed noticed in that
return, but all as combined with or dependent upon one or
other of the 201 pars. Some of the pars, have a very thin
pop.; 16 have less than 100 inh., and of these 16» 5 have
less than 40. Creslow'has only 1 house and 5 inh.; and
Tattenhoe only 2 houses and 13 inh. Portions of 5 pars,
belonging to Oxon are included in this co.
Bucks has no city. The m. t. are 14. Aylesbury, as
being one of the assize towns, tAe place where the quarter-
sessions are always held, and the principal place of county
election, has the best title to be considered as the county
town. It is on a little stream which flows into the Thame.
Pop., in 1 83 1 , 502 1. Buckingham on the Ouse, in the N.W.
part of the co., is the other assize town; pop., in 1831,
3610. The other m. t. are Great Marlow (pop. 4237) on the
Thames ; High Wycombe or Chipping Wycombe (pop. of
the bor. 3198. of the whole parish 6299) on a small stream
flowing into the Thames ; Newport Pagnell (pop. 3385) at
the junction of the Ousel with the Ouse ; Agmondesham
or Amersham (pop. 2816) on the road from London to
Aylesbury ; Olney (pop. 2344, exclusive of the inh. of a de-
pendent hamlet) on the Ouse; Chesham (pop. of the par.,
including several dependencies, 5388) to the right of the
Aylesbury road, not far from Amersham ; Prince's Risbo-
rongh (pop. 2122) to the left of the Aylesbury road, not far
from Wendover ; Wendover (pop. 2008) on the road from
London to Aylesbury, beyond Agmondesham ; Beaconsfield
(pop. 1 763) between Uxbridge and Wycombe ; Stony Strat-
ford (pop. 1619) on the Ouse; Winslow (pop. 1290) between
Aylesbury and Buckingham; and Ivinghoe (pop. 578) be-
tween Dunstable and Wendover. [Avsrsham, Ayles-
bury, Bbaconsfibld, BucKiNORAM, Marlow (Grbat),
Newport Pagnell, Wycombk (High).] Of the less
important of these places we shall subjoin a few particulars,
as well as of Fenny Stratford and Colnbrook, which for-
merly had markets (now disused), and are consequently
sometimes reckoned amon^ the m. t ; and of a few other
places, which have some claims to notice.
Chesham is a m.t, in the bund, of Bumham, to the rlgHit
of the road from London to Aylesbury, 29 m. from Lundon
through Amersham, or about 26 through Watford and Rick-
mausworth. It has a market on Wednesday, and three
fairs, April 21st, July 22nd, and September 28th. The
living is a vicarage, in the gift of the duke of Bedford. The
parish church, dedicated to St. Mary, is a large (xothic
structure. There are four Dissenting meeting-houses, most
of the inh. being Dissenters. There is an almshouse for
four poor persons, endowed by Thomas Wedon, who died
1624 ; and a free school, or national school, for the educa-
tion of the children of the poor.
The town is in a pleasant and fertile vallev, watered by
the Chess, a branch of the Coin * it consists o. three streets.
The pop. of the par. in 1831 was 5388; but from the vast
extent of the par. (11,880 acres, 18 to 19 sq. m.), this J^r-
nishea little clue to the pop. of the towiPnU^lfL ""
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chief trade of the place consists in makings ahoee ibr the
London market : the females are employed in the manu-
facture of lace and straw plat There are some paper-mills
in the neighbourhood. Formerly considerable business was
^ done in the manufacture of turnery and coarse wooden ware,
but this branch of trade seems to have decUned. Of tlie pop.,
504 were employed in manufoeture, trade, or handicraft.
Olney or Oubiey is a m t. on the N. bank of the Ouse,
in the hund. and deanery of Newport ; it is to the right of
the great road firom London to Chester and Holyhead, and
is 55 m. from town. It has a market on Monday according
to some of our authorities, or Thursday according to
others; and thwe fairs, one on Easter Monday, ~ one on
June 29th, and one on October 21st The Uving is a vie.,
in the patronage of the earl of Dartmouth. The town con-
sists of one long street ; the houses are built of stone, and
the older of them are for the most part covered with thatch ;
but in conseauence of a fire in 1 786, in which 43 dwelling-
houses, besioes other buildings, were consumed, those of
later erection are chiefly covered with tiles. The church,
dedicated to St Peter and St Paul, is a spacious building,
ornamented with a tower and a lofty stone spire, 1 S5 ft. in
height from the ground. There are meeting-houses for
Quakers, Baptists, Independents, and Methodists. There
are some almshouses. There is a bridge over the Ouse of
four arches, besides several small arches extending over the
meadows, which in winter are frequently flooded. To this
bridge it is likely Cowper refSers in the well-known lines, —
Hark I *tii the twanging horn o*n yonder bridge.
That with Ita wearisome, bat needAU length.
Bestrides the wintry f
The pop. of the par., in 1831, was 2344, and 74 in the
hamlet of Warrington : of the 2344, 201 were employed in
retail trade or handicrafts. Lace-making was for a long
time the chief employment of the inh. ; of late silk weaving
and the manufacture of hosiery have been introduced.
Olney was the residence of the poet Cowper. Moses
Browne, author of • Piscatory Eclogues,* was vicar of Olney ;
and the Rev. John Newton, an esteemed religious writer
and popular preacher, wai curate here during the residence
of Cowper.
Prince's Risborough is a small town in the hund. of
Avlosbury, about 37 m. W.N.W. of London, on a bye-road
from Hign Wvcombe to Thame. It has a market, formerly
held on Saturday, but now on Thursday, but very little busi-
ncsM is done : also a fkir on the 6th of May. The town is
si)^))HisiHl U) have received its name from Eclward the Black
Pritu*i\ who had, according to the tradition of the inh., a
rp"»iilptUM> hrpi». A spacious moat, now dry, in a field ad-
joining tho churchynrrl, is thought to surround the site of
thix ho\iMo. Tho living is ti perpetual curacy. The church,
ttndtiMittnl to St. Mary, contains some curious monuments;
U hiu boon lately oiilar^fcd. There are places of worship
hir HaplNts and Molhodista.
\Votvlo\cr. in tho hund. of Aylesbury, a parliamentary
liut*., (liMlVanohiitod bv the Reform Bill, is 35 or 36 m. from
l.tm»lou, on the roaa to Aylesbury. It has a small weekly
uittrk<«t, and two fairs. May 13 and October 2. The living
is a vie, in the gift of the crown.
Tho pop., in 1831, was 2008 for the whole par., which is
large, viz. 5250 acres. Lace-making and straw-platting
fUrnish the chief occupation of the inh. The church, dedi-
cated to St. Mary, is a little out of the town. There are in
the town the remains of a chapel dedicated to St. John,
long disused. There are two Dissenting meeting-houses,
an endowed school, and a national school.
The celebrated John Hampden represented Wendover in
five parliaments.
Stony Stratford is on the Ouse, in the hund. of Newport,
'52 m. from London, on the parliamentary and mail- road to
Holyhead ; it is built also on the antient Watling Street,
along which it extends about a mile. The houses are built
of freo-^tonc, which was, in Camden's time, quarried at
Caversham. in the neighbourhood. There is a church, that
of St. Giles, on the S.W. side of the town, rebuilt in
1776: it exhibits a bad imitation of Oothio architecture.
(Lysons's Mag, Brit) On the N.E. side of the town is the
tower of the former church of St. Mary Magdalen : the
^■^\y of the church was destroyed in 1742, in a fire which
a considerable part of the town in ashe9. The streets
>art tally paved, and not lighted. There is a stone bridge
tho Ouse at the farther (f. e. N.W) end of the town.
of the croism erected by Edward I. at the places whore
the eorpw Of hid queen Ekandr of CatCile restdl on iu wst
to interment in Westminster Abbey, stood in this town.
but it was demolished in the great civil wjv. There w&»
in remote times an hospital of St John. Thefo are Ia<ic-
pendent. Baptist, and Wesleyan meeting-hotiscs in tiie
town, or very near it. There are a nationid school aad t« /
large Sunday schools, in which the children of the poor are
taught the rudiments of education.
It has been supposed by Camden and otbcn thai cb«
Lactodorum or Lactorodum of the Itinerary of Antonmua
was at or near Stony Stratford ; and Camden sapport» bi«
opinion by urging the similarity of the meaning of Lact4in>>
dum (from the Celtic lleek, a stone, and ri and rydL « furJi
to that of Stratford. In the map of Antient Britain, pub-
lished by the Society for the Diffusion of Usefiil Know led i;r,
Lactorodum is fixed at Towcester. It was in this town tLji
Richard III. possessed himself of the penoo of the un-
happy Edward V. and arrested Sir Thomas Vaughan auU
the Lord Richard Orey.
The market is on Friday, and there are three Ikirs, vx.
on August 2nd, October llth, and November 12th. Tunt
was till of late years a fourth fair, held tn April, but tu •
has been discontinued. The only manufacture is that of
lace. Carlisle ( Top, Diet of Eng,} fixes the October lair t.n
the Friday before the lOtb ; the others on the Friday aft^-r.
Winslow is in Cotslow hund., on the road firom Ayle-.. .'^
to Buckingham, 49 m. by the road through Tring. an I .
through Amersham. It is a neat town on the brow «»; %
hill, commanding several fine prospects. It conaiats ch:- •
of three streets, composed of brick-built house*. 'i..i
church, dedicated to St Lawrence, is alarge pUe of bui :•
ing, with a square embattled tower at the W. enJ. T: .
living is a vie, in the gift of the crown. The murket i^ \k'%
small, and is lield on Thursday ; and there are five fair* \
the year, March 20th, Holy Thursday, August 21 at, Sf:>
tember 22nd, and the Thursday before October 1 1th. Tr^ .
are Baptist, Independent, and Wesleyan meeting^hou^-- .
and a small endowed school for 20 boys. {Rep. ofComm^-*
of Charities.) The white poppy has been cultivated in t:
neighbourhood for making opium. Some lace is nu&ij ^i
Winslow.
Ivinghoe is in Cotslow hund., 33 m. N.W. of Lond >:;.
just under the N.W. slope of the chalk range. It has «
verv small market on Saturday; and two fairs* May »■.:.
and October 17th. The church, dedicated to St. Mar>. i«
a handsome Gothic building. There Is an antient Aut-
tomb on the N. side of the chancel; it hai been dt»pu:* ■
whether this was the tomb of Henry, bishop of Wincbe^u
brother of King Stephen. The li\ing is a vie^ and va& , •
the gift of the late earl of Bridgewater. The par. of Ivio:: .. •
is extensive, and has several dependent hamleta : the f^ f .
of the whole was, in 1831, 1648. Berry sted house, in 1:1-
par., now a farm-house, is said to have been the seat < i
Henry, bishop of Winchester.
Some straw plat is made in Ivinghoe. The manor .f
Ivinghoe, according to tradition, once belonged to the fjjL
of Hampden ; but one of this family, having had « di»p..; ■
with the Black Prince, was dispossessed of the manor cif '
by way of fine or composition. The lines which emh.«..
the tradition are thus given by Gough in hia Addition* *.
Camden.
Hamden of Hamden did longo )
The manors of Trion. Wtng. and IvtaglMM. V
For tiriklDf the Black Prmce a blow. J
Messrs. Lysons have set aside this traditbn« by ftnd -.-
that neither of these three manors was ever in the Hamj^ic a
family.
The following two places once had maribeta, hut the; tr^
now discontinued.
Fenny Stratford is in Newport hund., on the great H V« .
head roadt 45 m. firom London, and about 7 from Si. <>
Stratford. It is a chapelry dependent upon the pen^'a .
Bletchley. The chapel was rebuilt in 1724 — 1730. chx:..
through the exertions of the antiquary Browne Wilfas, ai
dedicated to St Martin. Willis liimself ta boned wiUs
the rails of the communion-table. The market was v
Monday while it continued : there are four fairs, Apni 1*^1:
July 18th, October 10th or llth, November 28th. Frc: ^
Stratford, like Stonv Stratford, is on the Wmthnit Strr -.
There is a stone bridge over the Ousel, which flova by tr .
town. Pop. of the chapelry, in 1831, 635.
In 1665 Fenny Stratford was muel^ depopulated by ilc
plague. There are Baptist and We^eyan fliothediM pieoca
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of worship, and a national school. Fanny Stratford gets its
name fnm the nature of the surrounding country : it is
itself on a hill.
Some fix the Magiovintum of Antoninus at Fenny
Stratford.
Coluhrook is en the high western road, 17 m. from Lon-
don, in the hund. of Stoke, and in the three pars, of
Langley,' Horton, and Ivor, (Bueks,) except a soaall part
which IS in the par. of Stanwell, Spelthorne hund., oo. of
Middlesex. The town consists of one long street of neat
respectable-looking houses. The Ck)ln here flows in four
channels, crossed by as many bridges ; and from this cir-
cumstance, combined with the agreement of its distance
from London, Camden and others are inclined to regard it
as the Pontes of the Itinerarr of Antoninus ; but in the map
of Antient Britain, publishea by the Society for the Diffusion
of Useful Knowledge, Pontes is fixed at Staines. An
antient chantryohapel at Colnbrook, which continued to be
used after the Reformation, was endowed by private bene-
faction in 1682. This old chapel, which was in Langley
parish, has since been pulled down and rebuilt on a difierent
Rite in the parish of Horton. The market was on Tuesday.
There are still two fairs, on the 5th of April and 3rd of May.
The town was incorporated in 1643, by the style of the
bailiff and burgesses of Colnbrook.
The following places had charters for markets, which
have been long ago disused : — Bidlesden or Biddlesdon, on
the border of Northamptonshire; Little Brickliill, near
Fenny Stratford ; Burnham, between Colnbrook and Maiden-
head ; Crendon and Haddenbam, on the border of Oxford-
shire, near Tbame ; Hambleden, near Marlow ; Hanslupo.
near Stony Stratford ; Great Harwood and Hoggeston, near
Winslow ; Iver, between Colnbrook and Uxbridge ; Laver.
den or Lavendon, near Olney ; Linchlade, on the border of
Bedfordshire, near Leighton Buszard; Muresley, near
Winslow; Snelshall, in Whaddon parish, bctweei Stony
Stratford and Winslow; Tingewick, near Buckingham;
Whitchurch, between Aylesbury and Winslow ; and Worm-
enhall, on the border of Oxfordshire, near Thame.
Brill, on the border of Oxfordshire, nesi* Thame, is now
a vil. ; pop. in 1831, 1283; but it is said with much pro-
bability that the Saxon kings had a palace here, which was
a favourite residence of King Edward the Confessor. It is
certain that King Henry II. kept his court here in 1160,
attended by Thomas k Becket as his chancellor ; he was
there again with his court in 1162.. . . .Henry III. kept his
court at Brill in 1224 (Lysons's Magna Brit.). In the
war between Charles I. and his parliament. Brill and
Borstall, a neighbouring vil. (pop. in 1831, 266), were made
garrisons by the royal party.
Burnham, between Colnbrook and Maidenhead, a little
to the right of the high western road, has been already
noticed as having been once a m. t. It had a monastery of
Augustine nuns. The manor of Chippenham in this par.
was one of the demesnes of the crown, and the Mercian
kings are said to have had a palace there. There was a
palace certainly in the 13th century, for Henry III. occa-
sionally resided at it Pop. in 1 831, 2137.
Cbalfont Saint Giles, on the road to Amersham, is
the place where Milton finished his ' Paradise Lost :'
here, too, he is said to have had the idea of his ' Paradise
Regained* suggested to him by his friend Elwood the
quaker. The house in which he resided was, when Messrs.
Lysons wrote, occupied by a farmer. Here is a school en-
dowed by Sir Hugh Palliser, who is buried in the parish
church ; and at Cbalfont St. Peter, close by, is a scho<^
supported by the Portland family. Pop. of Cbalfont St.
Giles, 1297; Cbalfont St Peter, 1416.
Hambleden (pop. in 1831, 13.57), near Marlow. Green-
land house, near this vil., the seat of the Doyleys, was a
severely contested post in the war between Charles I. and
theparliament.
Hampden (pop. in 1831, 286), near Prince's Risborough.
The manor was for centuries in the Hampden family, the
raale line of which became extinct in 1754. The celebrated
John Hampden lies buried in the churchyard ; and there
is a representation of the battle of Chalgrave field, in which
ne received his death -wound in 1643, on the monument of
John Hampden, Esq., the last heir male of the fieimily.
Hampden house, the former seat of the Hampdens, contains
several family pictures, but the individuals whom they re-
present are unknown. There is a whole-length portrut of
Oliver Cromwell.
Great BiiHMiden, between Amenham and Wendbver,
was the seat of a rieh abbey of the canons of St Austin.
Some part of the oonventual buildings remain. The par.
church is a handsome Gothic building. Pop. in 183) . I8'i7.
PiUton, antiently Pightelsthorn (pop. in 1831. 578), near
Irin^hoe. In this par. was the rich abbey of Asheridpe.
The abbey, for some time after the dissolution of the com-
munity, was a royal palace ; and Queen Elisabeth, before
her accession, frequently resided here. Part of the con-
ventual buildings remained till the present century ; they
were nearly all pulled down by the then possessor^ the late
Duke of Bridgewater.
Edward I. spent his Christmas at Asheridge, either at the
monastery or at the neighbouring castle of his cousin, Ed-
mund earl of Cornwall, son of Richard king of the Romans,
A. D. 1290. He held a parliament there at the same time.
Stoke Poges lies to the right of the road between Coln-
brook and Maidenhead. Pop. in 1831, 1252. The manor
was in the reign of Queen Elizabeth seized by the crown for
a debt It was the residence for a time of ' the grave Loid
Keeper,' Sir Christopher Hatton ; and subsequently of Sir
Edward Coke, who in 1601 entertained Queen Elizabeth
here, and presented her with jewels to a considerable
amount Upon the death of Sir Edward Coke, to whom
the manor had been granted in fee, it came to bis son-in-
law Lord Purbeck. The manor-house afterwards came into
the possession of the Penn family, by one of whom the old
house was pulled down and re-built The nark is adorned
by a colossal statue of Sir Edward Coke, ana a sarcophagus
on a pedestal has been erected in its vicinity to the memory
of the poet Gray.
The old manor-house of Stoke Poges is the scene of Gray's
* Long Story ;* and the churchyard of his well-known
* Elegy.* The poet spent much of his youth in this vil. ;
and his remains lie (without any monumental inscription
over them) in the churchyard, under a tomb which he had
erected over the remains of his mother and aunt.
At Stowe, near Buckingham, is the seat of the Duke of
Buckingham. The grounds were originally laid out in
straight paths and avenues, and adorned with canals and
fountains. Subsequent improvements have been made
under the direction of Bridgman, Kent, and other artists
and amateurs; and the beauties of Stowe have been oom-
memorated by Pope and West, who spent many festive
hours with the then owner Lord 0>bham. The grounds,
when beheld from a distance, appear like a vast grove,
intenpersed with columns, obelisks, and towers. They are
adorned with arches, pavihons, temples, a rotunda, a her-
mitage, a grotto, a lake, and a bridge. The temples are
adorned with busts, under which are suitable inscriptions.
The house was originally built by Peter Temple, Esq., in
the reign of Elizabeth; it was re-built by Sir Richard
Temple, who died in 1697, and has been enlarged and
improved since. The whole fh>nt extends 916 ft., the cen-
tral part 454. This mansion contains a valuable collection
of paintings; among them are the portraits of Martin
Luther, by Holbein ; Oliver Cromwell (said to be original),
by Richardson; Pope, by Hudson: Charles I. and his
3ueen Henrietta, by Vandyke ; Addison, by Kneller ; Lady
ane Gray, Camden the antiquary, and others. Pop. in
1831.490.
Water Stratfwd, near Buckingham, was the scene of a
singular delusion in the latter part of the 1 7th century.
Mr. John Mason, the rector, a man of sincere and fervent
piety and irreproachable character, fell, towards the close
of his life, into a delusive notion that he was appointed to
proclaim the second advent of the Saviour. Many believed
on him, left their homes, and resorted to Water Stratford,
in consequence of his declaration that ' the Lord Jesus would
appear at Water Stratford, and come and judge the world
on the Whit-Sunday following.* In the midst of the ex
citement thus caused Mr. Mason died, having before his
death foretold that he should rise from the deed after three
days, and ascend with his body to heaven. Before the three
days were expired the body was buried ; but strange to say,
several of his foUowera declared that he had risen, and that
they had seen him and spoken with him ; nor was the de*
lusion dissipated, when, after some time, the grave waa
opened and the body exposed to public view. These strange
events occurred about 1693 or 94, and the sect did not be«
come wholly extinct until 1740. Pop. in 1831, 186.
Taplow, on the banks of the Thames, nearly opposite to
Maidenhead, nay Jost he mentioMd for the eake of aoMdaif ^
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Taplow Ctnrt, the teat of the narqueis of Thoinond ; aiv^ the
former muubn of ClieMen House, destroyed by ftre in 1 795.
This magnificent house was begun by the witty and profli*
gate duke of Buckingham » and was for some time the
residence of Frederick PHnce of Wales, grandfather of the
present king.
Slough, near Windsor, was for many years the residence
of Sir William Herschel, and the place where he constructed
his large reflecting telescope. He died here in 1822.
Weston Underwood, near Olney, was for some years the
residence of the poet Cowper ; and some of his descriptions
of rural scenery were drawn from nature in his walks round
this place.
Divisions for Ecclesiastical and Legal purposes. — Of the
201 pars. 79 are vies., and 29 curacies or donatives. The
CO. is for the most part in the diocese of Lincoln, and in the
archdeaconry of Buckingham. Two pars., according to
Browne Willis (History and Antiquities of the Town,
Hundred, and Deanery of Buckingham), four according to
Messrs. Lysons {Masna Britannia), aro in the peculiar
jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Canterbury; and four
others are included in the diocese of London and arch-
deaconry of St. Alban's. The several pars, of the co. are
divided among the seven rural deaneries of Buckingham,
Bumham, Muresley, Newport, Waddesdon, Wendover, and
Wycombe.
Buckinghamshire is in the Norfolk cirouit: the Lent
assizes are held at Aylesbury, the summer assizes at Buck-
ingham, and the quarter- sessions for the co. at Aylesbury,
where also is the co. gaol.
The CO. returns three members to parliament, one having
been added by the Reform Bill. Aylesbury is the chief
place of the co. election, the members being nominated
there, and the return announced : the polling places are
Aylesbury, Beaconsfiold, Buckingham, and Newport Pag-
nell. Two members are returned for the hund. of Ayles-
bury (the right of voting for the bor. of Aylesbury having,
in consequence of the corruption of the scot and lot voters,
been thrown open to the freeholders of the hund.), and two
each for the bors. of Buckingham, High Wycombe, and
Marlow. The whole pumber of members returned for the
CO. itself and places within it is eleven. It lost four members
by the Reform Bill, Amersham and Wendover, each return-
ing two members, having been disfranchised.
Civil History and Antiquities. — Camden and most other
antiquaries have included' Buckinghamshire, and probably
with good reason, in the territory of the Catyeuchlani or
Catuellani. This people they consider to be identinal with
the Cassii, and to have been the subjects of Cassivellaunus,
who headed the confederate forces of the BriCons against
Julius Csosar. It may be justly doubted, we think, whether
the Cassii and the Catyeuchlani were the same people.
[Britannia.]
When the Romans, under the command of Aulus Plau-
tius. in the time of the Emperor Claudius, seriously under-
took the conquest of Britain, it has been considered by some
that Buckinghamshire was the seat of conflict, and that in
a battle within its borders, Togodumnus, one of the British
chieftains, was slain. It is not unlikely that this co. was
crossed by the Britons in their retreat towards the Severn,
and by the pursuing Romans; but we have no data for
fixing any contiict of importance within its borders. The
death of Togodumnus occurred, it is more likely, in the
miirshes of Essex, near the mouth of the Thames. When
South Britain was subdued by the Romans and divided into
pro vs., Buckinghamshire was included in Fla\'ia CoKariensis.
Several of the antient British and Roman roads crossed
this county. The * Watling Street' coincides with the parlia-
mentary and mail road to Holyhead in that part of it which
runs from Brickhill to Stony Stratford through this county.
No traces however of the * Watling Street' itself remain,
although the line of its direction is undisputed. The * Iken-
ing* or * Ikeneld Street* runs along the edge of the Chiltem
jiills, and a road runs nearly parallel to it under the hills,
called by the country people ' the lower Acknell way.* The
* Akeman Street crossed this county also, but its direction
is uncertain. A Roman road, coinciding with part of the
turnpike-road from Bicester (Oxon) to Aylesbury, may have
part of a road leading from Alcester to Londinium
on), or Verolamium: and another Roman road is
bt to have passed by Water Stratford and Stow in the
ion of Towcester. Of Roman stations some notice
Mn already taken. The ' Magiovintum' of Antoninus
may be at Fenny Stratford ; Lactodorum, wbkii Camden
fixes at Stony Stratford, and Pontes,- which he fixes at
Coin brook, are placed by more modem antiqnaries at
stations beyond the limits of Buckinghamshire ; viz., Lac-
todorum, at Towcester in Northamptonshire ; aiid I^oote*.
at Staines in Middlesex. There are several antient camp*
or earth-works in the county, chiefly near the edge of tl«<
Chiltems, or the course of the Thames : there is an earth-
work at Ellesborough, on the ridge of the Chiltema, in one
comer of which is a high circular mound or keep, 80 pare»
in cireumferenoe, called * Castle HilV or ' Kimble Gaelic.
The name of the adjacent vills. of Kimble (Gieat and
Little) was written ii^ antient records Kynebel or CunobtrU
In the civil wars under Stephen and under John, Buck-
inghamshire was the scene of contest, but not of any markc 1
event Hanslape castle, near Stony Stratford, bel^ for the
barons against John by its owner, was taken by the kinj; »
favourite, Fulk de Brent, a. d. 1216 or 1217.
In the great civil war between Charles I. and hia p^r*
liament, the vil. of Brill was garrisoned by the king. V \- n
this garrison the parliamentary forces under Hampden *.i*a ,£
some unsuccessful attempts. Aylesbury seems at this ticu
to have been held by the parliament. In 1643 the par-
liamentarians under the Earl of Essex were quartA.Tvil .t
difiierent places in the county. Prince Rupert attacked iv
surprise their quarters at Wycombe and another ptarr. j ' 1
took several prisoners, with which he retired to 0<^!'
The opposite party pursued him in his retreat ; and ii m .\
in a skirmish which took place on this occasion that Han:-
den received his death-wound. He lingered in great \
for three weeks and then died. In 1644 the king had
head-quarters at Buckingham. In the same year B^*. ^ . .
house in this county, ^ reputed a strong place,* say:* L« .
Clarendon, was abandoned by the royalist party, who t « u.
it right to withdraw those garrisons that were loo far ui«:- *
from Oxford.
This county is not by any means rich in antiquities i^
the few British or Roman remains, some notice has I- . .
already taken. Of the baronial castles of the feudal . j
there are no remains ; some earth-works alone sene to u.. •.
the sites of those at Lavendon, near Olney, and \\ :.
churcli, between Aylesbury and Buckingham ; ar.il f
Hanslape Castle, Castlethorpe, near Stony SlratforiL
The rembina of the buildings belonging to the var .-
religious establishments are but scanty. There are ^
very small remains of Burnham abbey and Medmcn.^.
abbey. Of Missenden abbey, part of the cloi&ters rci^
having groined arches resting on pillars, with ci«r.>
capitals in the latest Saxon (or Norman) style. Sc-me ( .:.
of the cloisters of Ashridge monastery escaped desiruc
by accident, when the other conventual buildings h: .
pulled down by the duke of Bridgewater. There are m . .
considerable remains of Nutley abbey, which is now c. •
verted into a farm. The buildings occupy three sidt--* . : -
quadrangle. On the S. side is the hall. 68 ft. long b> : ,
(nearly) wide, now used as a bam : the style of this bii;. . :
appears to be the eariy English. On the AV. side are
buildings of the farm-house, in the later Engli&h >t. •
some part was probablv built after the dissolutickn. V ;
of the monastery of Muresley (or St. Margaret), m t
par. of Ivinghoe, is yet standing, and is used aa a dvclli. .•
house. Cl^ysons* Magna Britannia.)
Of the churches of early date, Stewkley, between W^:>^.- -«
and Leighton Buzzard (Bedfordsh.), is the most remark-.
It has usually been cited as a Saxon chureh, although li:
does not appear to be any real evidence of its erection b*-.
the Conquest, and it has nothing to distinguish it I. -.
other churches erected after that time. It is a good N- r
structure; no part of it has been altered intemalh ^-v
ternally, nor materially defaced. The poreh on the V, - . .
and the pinnacles of the short square tower, which ts
tween the nave and chancel, have been added ftinr« <
erection. (Lysons ; Rickman's Oothic ArchitectMrr^
At Hitohenden, near High Wycombe; Stanton Bi-
near Stony Stratford; Upton, near Colnbiook : \\. -
Stratford, near Buckingham ; and Dinton, near Aylc-^ ■
the churches have some portions of Norman architect ui^
Chetwode chureh, near Buckingham, former!) the dt.
of the priory of Austin Canons, may, from the'st\lo ii .
architecture, be considered as coeval with the fbuntlji> *
the priory, a.d. I'i44. This church conta.ins s<.nic vi
most antient and elegant specimens of stained gla^s t^
found in the kingdom. "-"— ^— -^ - » *- • -
Digiti:
BUG
921
BUG
affords a rich eiaai|l0 of the i^olahtor age; it has
K>me good perpendicular ptttii (LTwmt; Riokman.)
Education.— The number of sdiools and seholan in the
sounty, according to the retuma made to the House of Com-
noosin 1835»waaaalbUDwa>^ _^
[ntot Schools '• • • 34
>}mnber of ehildcen flom 8 to 7 yean : ^
Males 161
Females . • • • 158
Sex not spedfled • 450
386
4889
3187
1989
Oaily Schools
dumber of Children firom 4 to 14 years :
Males
Females • • • ■
Sex not specilM .
Schools . . • • 420
Total of ChOdren under daUy instruction • • • •
»unday Schools 294
Slumber of Children from 4 to 15 years :
Males 7198
Females .... 8566
Sex not speeifted . 4964
769
10,065
10,834
MdnUnanee qf SehooU.
20,728
I)r»cTt|iti«i «r
QyMkKrtptei.
&ra=i
SS^-^SIK.
bcfaVU*.
■dilt.
Un.
Sckl*.
laa.
Mik.
Sck*.
Bchb.
Stb^
InfuntSehooU
Uuilv Schools
SumUy Scboob
48
9
1717
840
a
as
«7l
991
i;m6
19,96S
9S
909
9
306
619S
99
5
83
19
949
1797
681 •
ToUl...
67
»67
810
90349
997
SS63
60
9610
Schodla estahlielied by disieftters sndoded abonv.
Infant and other daily sdiools 3» coataining 42 soholan*
Sundajr schools • . . 107» ^ 8660 »,
Forty-eight boarding schools are included in the 386 daily
sehools. ^
The increaae of schools since 1 81 8 has been-—.
In&nt and other daily schools 124, containing 3,635 seholan.
Sunday schools • . . 138, ,•• 12,436 h
There are twenty-four lending libraries of hooka atteched
to schools in Buckingnamshire. ,r^
8kUuiic$.-^PoptUaiiim, As an agtieultursl county,
Buckinghamshire ranka the seventh among the English
counties. Of 36,504 males, 20 years of age and upfmrds*
residing within the oounty in 1831, the large proportion of
19,348 were engaged in oultifatingthe soil. Only 369 were
employed in manulkcturea or in making machiiuBry, out of
which number 76 were occupied in paper-making, 131 in
tanning at the town of Buckingham ; the remainder were
engaged in makiuR agricultural implementi, in silk-weav-
ing, and other woras upon a small scale. The centesimal
proportions as to occupations into which the inhabitants of
the county were divided at the enun^erations of 181 1, 1821,
and 1831, were as follows :— *
IM.
1811, 1811. 193L
Employed in Agriculture • 55*3 57*6 53*0
„ Trade, manufactures, &0. 33*4 28*8 26*4
Other Classes . . . 11*3 13*6 20*6
The following summary, containing an abstract of the
answen obtained under the Act for Uking[ an account of
the Population in 1831, will exhibit the situation, in that
respect, of each hundred, &c, in the oounty, in the month
of May in that year :—
HUNDRKDS,iM.
Ashendon Hundred
Aylesbury .
Buckingham
Burnbam
Cottesloe
Desborough
Newport .
Stoke
Aylesbury Borough
Buckingham •
Totals
HOUSB&
2,556
3,516
2,062
3,592
3,283
3,953
5,155
2,342
990
710
28,159
2.819
3,978
2,284
4,138
3,774
4,459
5,716
2,902
999
780
31,849
17
19
16
15
10
23
18
8
7
6
134
60
92
39
129
67
140
116
99
41
24
807
OC0UPATION&
2,001
2,685
1,685
1,693
2,633
1,583
3,144
1,203
138
128
16,893
527
822
340
1,380
734
1,583
1,404
896
447
262
il
3U
8,395
291
471
259
1,065
407
1,293
1,168
803
414
390
6,561
PER80NB.
I
6,506
9.030
5.156
9.284
8,595
10.032
11.769
7,219
2,471
1,672
71,734 74,795
6.427
9.383
5.344
9,782
8,840
10.762
13,119
6,650
2.550
1,938
I
12.933
19.413
10.500
19,066
17,435
20.794
24.888
13369
5,021
3,610
146,529
jean of
3,210
4.503
2.6)4
4,504
4,221
4.857
6,070
3,371
1,321
833
35.504
iiuNPRBxm.ais.
Ashendon Hundred
Aylesbury ,
Buckingham
Burnbam
Cottesloe
Desborough
Newport •
Stoke .
Aylesbury Borough
Buckingham . .
Totals ,
AGRICULTURB.
349
340
251
185
373
165
362
97
7
23
2,152
37
120
23
37
66
58
69
38
453
2,025
2,299
1.695
1,892
2,578
1,717
2,831
1,300
209
197
16,743
24
8
1
70
5
64
29
34
9
125
369
493
874
378
1,300
679
1,667
1,579
924
510
200
8.604
33
95
51
187
78
201
186
197
101
47
1,176
58
376
44
520
160
561
4^0
517
371
138
3.2 j 3
137
280
111
156
£10
305
378
93
75
75
1,820
MALE
SERVANTS.
r
54
111
60
157
72
119
168
171
39
23
974
n
94
94
57
123
85
59
132
48
61
19
702
300
334
266
586
349
588
665
699
248
139
4,174r
No. 337.
prH* PENNY CYCLOPiBDIA.]
Digiy^bY-6?)Ogle
BUO
m
6de
Tbe MMdillnJof thii Mnty tS ewboftito d^eeimiiry
eanineritkniiiuide is Urn preMntoeBHtff Wii U fellows :—
MalML Wwmlta, TotiL. Itfe. |>to OMl.
ISOI . • 5S,6M IMtfO 107,444
1811 . . 66,208 6M42 117,660 9-7(|
1821 . . 84,887 88,881 184.068 18*98
183i . . fl.784 74,788 146,628 8*2|
The incr«ttM i& 30 jwn 18 thus shown to hsfe been 39.0S6
tenons, or 38| per ooiM tb« itieiease in the whdle of Bog-
knd during the seme period having bOen 8f per cent
. At tile esnsiis of 1821 mn citeivpt wss made to escertsi^
the ogSB of the people, and tills oKperimont proted more
snesessful in BaoKidgheauhiFe thsn ih isany other ^rts,
ihe sMof more tium 9A in 190 of the fahaMtsnts miTing
iMon returned : they were as fbttoWl :—
tf aIm. l^iM]«i. foUl.
Under 8 years Of age \Bn M38 1 if, ill
Rom 8 te 18 . • MS' MM 17,2^5
iO„ 18 « • 7,828 filfS 14.975
16,, 20 . • 8,469 6,7l0 13.17^
98 „ 80 • i 8,861 11,208 90,067
30 „ 48 i . M98 7,88^ 14,57$
40 „ 60 • . 8,826 6,679 i 2,404
80 H 88 • • 4,468 4,717 9,186
80 H 70 • . 3.198 3,247 6,446
70 „ 80 . • 1,713 1,888 8,838
80 „ 80 • • 448 478 924
90 « 100 » • 30 82 8ii
100 and upwsids •, •• ••
Total of ages ascertained 63,617 68,137 i3i,764
The pop. of ^ o(w» eaelusiva of tlie fimr pariismentyy
boroughs — Buckinghamt Wvcombep Afleshuryj Gtaat
Marlow — was, according to the oensns of 1831, 126,437,
leaving 21,092 as the pop. of the four boroughs. The pro-
pofftions of electors ror tl^ op. to tiie gross pop. of the
00. were, in 1832, 1 tO 23.65, and in 1833^ 1 U> 26.26. In
the boroughs taken together the pioportio|is vere in 1832,
1 in 7.78, and in 1833, 1 in 8.08.
i7oa^.— It appears front a return madf to a oommitiee
of the House of Lords in 1833 tljat the extent of turnpike
roods within Uie eounty of Buc1|ingham, in the year 1889,
was 166 miles. The management of these roadtf was thep
conducted by 13 diflforent sets of trustees tinder the provi-
sions of 23 Acts of Parliament. Tbe sum annually ex-
pended in repairs averaged 16,29lA
Poor italer.— The sums expended far the leli^f of th^
poor at eaeh of the four decennary years of enumeration,
and in each of the three years folkwing 183 i, wer0 :t-
1801 • 86,1661. or at Uie rate of 16«. DdL for eaeh inh.
1811 • 133.944^ „ 22#. 9<i
117,4771. • ,• 17t. 6d
1821
1831
1832
1833
1834
137.366/.
144,687£. ,t I9«* 44
132.937/. ,; 1>#. li
124,2001. ,, 16*. «i
Red Propertff.^-TbB estimated annual f alue of real pro-
perty within the eoonty umtmA ftr thO property-tax in
1816, was 644,130^
Local i?a<e.— The total snip raised 8rithin .the couQty
for loeal purposes in the year ejiding 85tl) liaie|i, 1834, was
1 63,040/. 8t. Hie e»peDditur8 wao—
Fortherelielofthepoor • ^124,980 4 0
In suits of law, removal ol paupers, ite. 8,)4o 8 0
Forotiiorpuipeses • 28,646 )9 0
B two
n 50,986 II 0
The 8ui|4 nds^ and expended in the fwo pxevious years
ending 26Ui Karch, were—
il3s. isaa.
Sumslerisd • £173,303 1 0 £169,788 U 0
Bxpended—
For relief of the poor 144,687 U 0 132,937 19 0
For labour in repaaring
roads, &o. . • 16,683 4 0
In8Uiuoflaw,8to, * 9,618 8 0
For other purposes • 12,0f4 0 0 24,708 0 0
£172,286 1 0 £161,168 12 0
• HotttfMiltljiMMlhlsyMi^
The assessment of Ift3i»€b8 only year Ibr whith such
particulars are giveh, was collected mmi ttie ownim oC t«-
rioos descripdoQi of poperiy, as IbUows :—
On land • • . • iri86,t88 18 8
tj dwsiiing hoMes 20.4)9 * •
„ mills, ikctories, &e. » 2,308 i 0
,» manorial proAts, navigationif 98. 828 18 0
£169,788 II 8
The oonnty expenditure for various mirposes in the jt-%;
1833, the latest of which any return baa yei bean made,
was:—
For bridges and ibads lelding to tW £8.889 9 I
„ gaoS . . , ^ . 899 12 8
„ expenses of criminals tried at quartei^
sessions • 9^ 7 4
I. H I. alaasi^ 9#8 8 ii
„ expbnM of coroners '• • . 148 4 6
„ militia • • 98 2 8
CftfiM.— The number of persons tried at the aasases aw
sessions ibr criminal offences eommitted within the conatr
in the thseO septennial periods ending with 1828. Ift27. ai4
1834, Were 548, 906, and 1368 respectively, being aa anniisi
average of 78 for the first, oflSOJbrtiie second, and l»4fv
the last septennial period. We have no infocmaUoo c.«-
ceming the nature of the criines eommitted except &« tht
year 1884, when the number of persons ^lar^ed with offeone
was 232. Of these, 29 were aocused of cnmee acaioht tba
person, 27 of ofl^nces against projperty eommiited with vw-
lence, 133 of oflences against property without violence, 7
of malicious oneqces gainst property, 3 of uttermg baas
coin, 1 of perjiirv, and 32 of simple breaohee of the pcwa.
Of the persons brought to trial 67 wore aoqnUlad. and u
were cpnvicted, Orihese 1 was executed, 24 were tfmx.^
pprted for lif$» sud 2Q m tarmaof years. 118 were imfc*
soned for various periods, all except 9 for late than »i
months, I was pi^blicly whipped| and 3 were fined and c^
Of&e p^rsont tried, 218 wefO m^les and 14 itm^U^
their ages were-*
MalM. Fm Ii
li years and under • • fi •
Ftpm 18 Ip 16 year* « « U •
lb to 31 ,1 • 88 8
i .74 t
28 t
|t IP W '4ft %t
t. si«>ao Ii
|, 80 Ip 40 ,»
r» 40tp80 „
60 to 80 it
Afove 98 ^
Age not ascertaMmd
Ion of oflbpdM f d tho pomdatmn
te^imal propprtions m whicn crim
Thejjn
882. fne cen<
varieiis etasses were committed
property with violenoe
^ i; „ without tlolonea
IbUtSoiis oflences a8:ainst ptonerty
Forgery ahd offeneel agaiB4 tne ouraney
Ddmroffepoei * »
188
The B«|abe» of pstieaa eommitted to the eoon^ ged ^
pie course of 1834 was 782, indnding debtoaa and p9%r9
1
8
4
•
8
1
4
18
•
14
atmn
was I
•
crinee ef thi
•
It* SB
•
• l:
*4
•
67
j:
. 2
t:
•
. )
.•
«
14
."
ohaiged wfth minor offences, who were summaiily dealt v z
j)y Uie local magistiatea. 4°^Bg the number af e# jfc.i
there wers 38 whoweaa known to have boon eoBm-»«4
Ufore— 15 of tham onca^ 7 ^ice, 8 three times, aoi s^^
and more times; the cases qf sldmem intheyaav waf« ft
and of deaths amongUm prisonaia 8.
&imiM^e- Am4l.-^rhBn are ter satings-haaha m Bbst
bghamshire— at AylesbuiTt Buckingham, Bg|i Wvtoobt
and Newport Pagnell. The number of d4
amount or their dspqsils in each of tiw thiwe
20th Novembar, 1838, 1838, and 1884
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106
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BUCK'g-HQRN. CaHWfJ
BUCKTHORN. [BaAicinTs.]
BUGK-WflSAT CPelr'goBum frfiwYum) it ml to
be found wild io Penia. The cuiUvaliffii of it. aoeoidmg
to flODM «utboriliM» wm introdueed into Sutope by tba
crutedon ; Meotding to otber|» tbe Uoon iatroduo^d it into
Spun from Africa ; add benae it baa in France ihe ilamB
of bUd Mmutn. Tb« n^ma of buck-Wbeat i« t conruptioli
t€ tbe Gennan bii«b-veizeii» wbieb lisoifi^ bcecb-wbaat*
from the reaemblanee uf the seed te that of the ^eeb-tree.
It ii csidM Wheat, bee&tiae, when gfdutid, it iNrodoeea a ^ae
farina, #hich teatmblea that of irwat in appearance^ Tbe
botanical name of the senut^ Polygonum, ia taken from tbe
anfpilar form of the sara, and thki speisiAe name« lac^opjrumb
from its rettrablanie to beaeh-masl. BucU-wheat growa
with a strong berhaceons* cylindrical, and branching '9tem
of n reddlih eokmr, abcfut 8 ^et biglv Tb0 leavea. wblch
ate iyy-ab^Md, aM plaeed fdternatel|r qH tbe ttema. Tb^
flowera grow lA bnncbea at thb end of tbe branches, and axe
sQcceeded fay Uaek tagblar eeedot fonnfld of foar trianglea.
being tbna neirl|p reipilar totrahadrona. The plittl ia an
annual, and tiie flowen appMa very aoon after it ia out of
tbe ground. They contimie to blow and beat seed in siie^
cession till tbe ftoat dealieya the ^anfe Being a naliTa of
a warm elimile, tiie smalleat apotoaranoa of Irest in ^^a
while tbe plant is tendaiv eiitaeiy deatieya ili Hoaoe it is
ne^e^ sown ip northern idimates till m daanr of frost ii
oTer, which in maiiy parts of Baglaad ta not w the idddto
of May; but its grawtb is ao rapid, that it may be reaped
in Sspteinber, at wbi^ time tbn psind^al t>*rt df the bloa*
aoms will haye ripened their seeos. No advantage Would
be gained by leaving it longer on the fronttd. m eteb if
the frost did not kill the whole plant, tie teHwst rqiened
aeoda would be shed and leat| and the hat Uoaaotau venld
not pieduee perfect saMa.
The onlti^atien of bn^-wbeat has nerer baen very «i-
tenHive in the variable ^imato of Britain, it is not ao well
adaptrid to eold wet soils as to warm lands ; nor ia it ae
certain a enm aa oata or bstiley on lands wbieb m antted
to tbe growm of theie grmns. For eenntrihs where there
are very poor light landa with a hot dn^ alimatob unfiLvour-
able to the m#tb df oet% and not xiob ehoagb for barley,
buck-wheat la a great reshuiee I ahd withant S, maAy tracts
of floor land Would leaioely be capable of snpportinK a popu«>
lation. Aaapnnoipalbiei^tbeBeibte, itiseonOnedtosome
■ : m
[ erop, il
often oaoaia in Bwilidilaait Gaiinaiqr, and espirially ia
Flanders^ wbaia it eniera aa a regular part of
ind eonpliaated imaltoii8L Under partiehkr di
it might be intiodueed with advantage idto many parte of
Bngland wb4ra it is new unknown; The duly oeuntiei ia
which it is cultivated to a toodsrale dxisnt at prsfeant are
Norfolk and Suifolk, wliere it is called Imnft. If a amall
patch of boek* wheat is becaaiciially hset with elsewbeie, ft is»
in general, mainly te &e sake of eneeuraging^ g»BB% parti'-
parta of tbe seulb ef nmsoe
soil and aitnatiDtt* Aa a saeondary and
cularly phdaMttts, wbieb ate eztieme^ Ibnd ^ It
When buck-wheat ia eultivaiad aa a tegular part of a
routiOD, it is generally aftsr tba land baa been oanaiderably
exhausted by ibtmer slain biopa, and manure cannot be
htd in sttfflemnt abun&noe to reemit it. It wfll pioduee d
betlsr latnttt than oata and leave tbe land in a better states
especially in warm ana d^ seaaona. On richer dnd bdtter
soils it may be odcaawnally a g«tod Mibstitute te barter,
when the land cannot be pr^peily cleaned and tillsd snin«
eiendy batly in $ptit$; for it aBowt a ftill month more to
prepafe the ground; abd ia tkb one month. If it be hot and
dry, a good ttUage may pioluee neaify all thd advaatm of
a summsr feHowv Biidli-wbeati on good land^ will pioduee
nearly fis valuable a prop as badey, though it is certainly
more precarious; the seeds sown with* It MW probably pto^
duce more grass or clover than they would if soW With
barley ; for buck-wheat, sown thin, as it always should bo
in this case* does not choke the ^nsA, 1}ut shellei^ it from
the scorching rays of Ihe sun ; aha as it driWs the hnd less
tjian any other grain, it leaves it fh better fciart for the
clover. It has been strongly recbminended to bd sown on
good, clean, light land, after winter tares ba^d been either
led off by sheep or cut green for horses. ' By this means,
tbe root weeds, which had been smothered by the tar^s and
. Jlykeep
prevent the annual weeds from going to seed. Thus a crop
IS obtained between Uie lares an4 £e wheat, and the land
IS kept perfectly dean. This is Aenliohed bv Artliur
Young, m the Survey of Suffolk, as a successfril practiceL
and strongly recommended. Buck-wheat may be ploughed
into the ground iu a gteen state. I^ot this purpose, it is
sown tolerably thick, and when tne plant is in its greatest
vigour and in full blossom, a roller is passed over the crop
to {ay it level with the ground. The plough, with the ad-
dition of a skim coulter, turns it neatly ihto the furrows and
comj^etefy buries it. It soon decays from its own moist ure»
and the decomposed jparts being incorporated with the soil
greatly add to Us fertuitjr.
Oo poor sandy reclaimed soils, especially if they are
trenched to a considerable depth, buck-wbcat may be sown
with great advantage for the purpose of being ploughed in
as a prenaraticm ^r the first crop of tuinip& The turnips
fed OQT by sheen penned on them will enrich and consoti-
4ate the gnmna sufficiently for a .crop or corn or clover and
praaa seea#. A bushel and a half, or at most two bushels,
w an ample a(lowanoe of seed for an acre ; (he cost of it ia
itt moat 8#. or 10«. When buck-wheat is ploughed in for
manure, oare must be taken to consolidate the surface of
the' land» if it be light, by rolling or otLek means, for the de-
caying stems leave it veiry loose and hollow j hut if the soil
ia tenacious the air which ia let in mellows it and makes it
crumble^ adiich ia a great advantsge. Provioed tne soil be
stirred to a oonsiderabie depth, ao tnat the rqota of the buck*
wheat may strike deep ia aearch of nourishment liowever
poor or li^t it may be, or however dry tbe westher, it will
produce a mod erop of wed. It only wanto a few showem
at firat, and at the time when tbe seeds begin to be formed.
Xi continues to put forth blossoms for a long time, and if tho
fttst-temed seeds sbo|ild not he sp AiU aa toig^ be wiabad,
the later may probably make up (oi it. The carefUl bus*
bandman must examine ibe plants at diffuent periods^ and
raw when be finds the greatest quantity of ripe and full
aeeds. It if not posaibl^ by any management to have all
the flowers come to seed in perflation; but under frvour-
able circumstanoes from fbur to five quartera of good seed
may be (Stained, from an acre of well*tillea land.
Manure is seldom or never laid i^on land ill which buck-
wheat is sown, because even where manure is abundant it ia
reserved ft>r other crops supposed to require it moie. It is aa-
sorted by many that manure makea the buek-adiaat run to
haum and diminishes the cjnop of seed. That this may be tbe
caae, with ii^udicious additiona of dung, we are not inclined
to dispute ; but if the land was tilled to a aufBcient depth,
if the manure was well pvapared and intimately mixed wifk
tbe ami, and if the buck-wheat was sown thin in piepoition
to tbe licbness of tbe lsnd> we bare no doubt that it would
not only grow high and strong and blossom well, but would
also give aa abundant crop of seeds. The reaaon why
eropa tan to atraw and are deficient in com, when tbe land
ia moiia and baa been bighlv manured, is, that tb^ manure
idongbed in and eoverad only with a few inchas of soil ea-
dtsa aa mtaudinaiy vegetotion in tbe young green plant
which makea it shoot oul a stroagvigeroua stem; but by the
time of Ibweriilg the dry weather Ma eafaaualed the rich
meUtura of the manure, and tbe |danc; pushing its tpote
dowilwaids in seaieh ef Ib^l. finds a leaa fertile soil beloiPk
out bf wbi^h it cannot «teaw the materials to ibrm a ibll and
ptompaaed, Bni when a aoilia naturally rich, es artifieiallj
made so to • conaidetabra depth, a strong and high stem ia
generally the finenmner ef a great bnlk of seed, aa ia often
leea in those oate which are OBatteM thinly among vintar
tarea, the atmwa of whicli are like laedab and the fcain, if
allowed to ripen, ia alwaya both heavy and abundant;
Busk-wbeat ia ■omatiBiea eot ia ite tender state te
X2
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goihng eattle. It is said to increase the milk of cows
greatfy : it is also occasionally pastured by sheep. There
u a diversity of opinion on its qualities, some speaking
highly of it, and others asserting, and with some appearance
of truth, that it is not eaten by sheep or cattle in preference
to any other plant, and that it has a stupifying and intoxi-
cating effiwst when eaten in any great quantity. Upon the
whole, we are inclined to think that its value is chiefly as
an addition to the variety of plants cultivated for their seeds,
and as a cheap vegetable manure.
Buck-wheat may be reaped with the sickle or mown with
the scythe, or it may be pulled up by the roots. The latter
method is recommended by some, as less likely to shed the
seed when fully ripe. In dry weather it is recommended
to cut or puU it very early in the morning or late at night,
when the dew is on it, and not to move it much in the da^.
It may be tied up in sheaves or put into small heaps, as is
4one with peas. In either case birds must be carefully
scared away, or they will take a lar^e share of the prodace.
Buck-wheat as a grain may be ^iven to horses instead of
oats, or mixed with them. No grain seems so easerly eaten
by poultry, or makes them lay eggs so soon and so abun-
dantly. The meal, when it is ground, is excellent for fat-
tening cattle or pigs. The flour is fine and white, but from
a deficiency in gluten does not make good fermented bread.
It serves well however for pastry and cakes: crumpets
made of buok-wheat flour eaten with butter are a favourite
dainty for children in Holland. A hasty pudding is also
made of the flour with water or .milk» and eaten with butter
or sugar.
On a careftil consideration of the reasons for and against
a more general cultivation of buck-wheat in our northern
climates, it appears to have certain qualities which make it
well worth attention. As it belongs to a different natural
family in the vegetable kingdom it is probable that it may
be a useful change when the land has been too long cropped
with gramineous plants. It may impart to the aoiu or
abstract from it, some principles by which its power of pro-
ducing other crops may be increasedL This can only be
leamra with certainty by repeated experiments ; but some
considerable effect may be expected from the powerful salts
which we know are found in the ashes. Its use M a
manure is indisputable ; the only thing required is an accu-
rate calculation of the comparative expense of its applicar
tion, with that of bones or any other purchased manure*
taking quality and quantity into consideration. A few ex-
periments on an extensive scale, and made with that atten-
tion to minute circumstances which is so often neglected in
agricultural experiments, and repeated with perseverance,
might place the cultivation of buck-wheat in a new point
of view.
The result of the analysis of the ashes produced by burn-
ing buck-wheat straw as given by Vauquelin is
Carbonate of potash
Sulphate of potash
Carbonate or lime
„ magnesia
Silica . • . •
Alumina • • •
Moisture and loss
29-
3'
17'
is-
le-
10-
9-
100
These results will no doubt varv aooordine to the soil in
which the plants have grown. But the carbonate of potash
is so abundant that it has been suggested as a profitable
use of the haum to bom it for the purpose of obtaining this
useful salt This abstraction from the soil, or its addition
to it in the shape of manure, must produce a consideraUe
effect on the lertiUty. There is another species of buck-
wheat raentkmed by some authors as superior to the com-
mon, and more deserving of culture in northern clnnates;
it is called the Pohfgonum Tartarieum. Yuart, in his ex-
oellent article ' SucceSMo^ de Culture,' in the * Cours Com-
plot d' Agriculture,' Paris, i^^o, speaks highly of the Tar-
tarian buck- wheat. It is yellower in the cok>ur, and bean
a smaller seed, but is much hardier. Its stubble will re-
main alive during the winter, grow out in spring, and pro-
duce a second crop the next year if let alone ; but this does
not seem any great advantage^ as the second crop is very
»pi to be overrun with weeds. Yuart mentions a crop
grown in the Department de Via/he which appears extra-
ordtnaiT ; 18 measures sown produoed 1296 measures, or
jom9 waa a hundredfold, in a irery dry iwaaon, Another j
gentleman obtained 80 for one. NoCwhhstndins these
accounts* Thaer, who has repeatedly tried it, saya &at ' its
produce in a field is so insignificant that be eannot join in la
praise.* (voL iv. a. 162). Feriiaps the experiments natle m
a rich spot in a garden have given results whkh mnlltplied
produced the above extraordinary retnma. AgncaikbanX
experiments are unfortunately often made in thia w»y, sad
consequently give very fallacious results.
BUCKOWINE, llie. now fonns the Qalidan eiicle of
Czemovicz. [Galicia.]
BUCO'LICS, from the Greek BinfsoKm& (Biie61iea), sie-
niiying litemlly, 'j^ms on the tending of oxen or betdi
genendly.* Bucoucs are a species of poetry, or rather sa
exercise in verse, in which the interloeolon are sliepbcfdi,
husbandmen, and their mistresses. Gnat aatiqaity u
claimed for its invention. Some have babbled abooi the
Gk>lden Age and Arcadia; and some have attriboted it to
the Sicilians, perhaps for no better reason than bewanee tbcu
island exhibits abundance of pastoral scenery. Othcfs ba<ve
said, that on the invasion of Greece by the FeKaiaas, wbn
the festivals of Diana were suspended, the country peoplr
thronged the temples and sang hvmna to that goddee
concerning their rural occupations, which thenoe were callcA
Bucolics. There has been equal diflbrence aboat the naaae
of the inventor, and Diomus and Daphnis, whoever they
may be, Stesichorus and Theocritus, has eadi had his tup-
porters ; for the critics have forgotten that it is one thii^
to sing as shepherds do while tending their flocks, and quite
another thing to sing as poets do when rekting the Isir of
shepherds.
Theocritus, M oschus, and Bion, have writtm Baeolies a
Greek, and Virgil has copied them in his Edognea. Cal-
pumius, a later Latin poet, has shown na how tame aa4
msipid Bucolic poetry may be. Sueh beautjee as thr&c
compositions contain are chiefly comprised in deliceey i4
expression and refinement of language. Bucolic poetry has
been little cultivated b^ the modems: the French ham
converted it into mawkish gallantry ; and the rank whira
it maintains in Bngland may be estimated, wben a m
stated that Cunningham and Shenstone have been ila pria-
cipal ornaments. Those who deem this aul^eet worthy of
fhrther investigation may look to the * Poetiea of S^liiier.
i. 4 ; * Salmasius on Sohnus,' pp. 851, 867 ; and the disser-
tation prefixed by Heyne to hit edition of the SckjgBes of
VirgjL
BUCU. rDiosKA.]
BUD, or LBAF-BUD, in vesetahle phyambgy, is tht
organized rudiment of a braneb. Whatever berioincs s
branch is, when first organized, a bud ; bat it does nut
therefore follow that all buds become hnnelwa: en the
contrary, owing to many disturbing canses, to wbich rdar>
ence will presentiy be made, bnda are 8ali»ieet te tnuufccma-
tions and deformities which mask their real natnre.
A leaf-bud is constructed thus :— In ita eantre k eonsistt
of a minute conical portion of soft sucoulent eeUolar tnse«L
and over the surface of thia are anranged ladimenluy leate^
in the form of scales. These scales are ckieely eMlied tu
each other ; those on the outside are the laiseataadthklM^
and the most interior are the smaUeet and OMat dehesteL
In cold countries. the external scales are often ceiesed wus
hair, or a resinous varnish, or some other eantrivanee, wluch
enables them to prevent the accesa of frost to the jreuag aod
tender centre which they protect; but in weim aounnm
where such a provision is not required, they are gieen ■»!
smooth, and much less numerous. The oeUnler eeatie ef a
bud is the seat of its vitality; the acalea theteover it an
the parts towaxda the deveh^ment of whiek ita Titel cnsr-
gies are first directed.
A leaf-bud usually oriffinates in the axil of a lenf ; indeed
there are no leaves in tno axil of which one or man hv^
are not found either in a rudimentary or a perleet ctala. Is*
cellular centre communicatea with that of the woody eenire
of the stem, and its scales are in connexion with the bark d
the latter. When stems have the straoture of Kxegem. tht
bud terminates one of the medullary ptocesaes ; in £d4>-
gens it is simply in communication with the celluler aaonr
that lies between the bundles of wnody tissue in sneh mnii
It is moreover important to observe that thia ia true not aoly
of what are called normal buds, that ia to aay of hods
which originate in the axil of the leafy organs, hot abi> %ji
adventitious buds, or such aa axe oocaaionally dsveloped ta
unusual situations. It would seem aa if; under lavonrakis
dxoumatanoesi hndi may be fomod wtmivK tteeattiiUt
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liipraNnt; Ibr tiieyooenr not only »t the end of the
medullary proeeiies of tiie root and stem of Exogens, bat
oo the mirgins of leaves, as in Brtophtllum, Malaxis
paludoea, and many others ; and occasionally on the snrfeoe
of leaves, as in the case of an Omithogalum published by
Turpin, and not very uncommonly in ferns.
A leaf-bud has three special properties, those of growth,
mttraetion, and propagation. In warm damp weather,
under the influence of light, it has the power of increasing
in sise, of developing new parts, and so of growing into
whatever body it may be eventually destined for. In
efl'ecting this it lengthens by the addition of new matter to
its cellular extremity, and it increases in diameter partly
by a lateral addition to the same kind of tissue, and partly
by the deposit of woody matter emanating finom the bases
of the scales or leaves which dothe it. As soon as growth
commenoes, the sap whioh a bud contains is either expended
in forming new tissue, or lost by evaporation ; in order to
provide for auoh loss, the bud attracts the sap ftom that
part of the stem with which it is in communication ; that
part so acted upon attracts sap in its turn from the tissue
next it, and so a general movement towards the buds is
established as fiir as the roots, by whieh fresh sap is ab-
sorbed ftom the soil. Thus is caused the phenomenon of
the flow of the sap. Every leaf-bud is in itself a complete
body, consisting of a vital centre, covered by nutritive organs
or hairs. Although it is usually called into life while at-
tached .to its parent plant, yet it is capable of growing as a
separate portion, and of ptoduoing- a new individual in all
respects the same as that from wmch it was divided ; hence
it is a propagating organ as much as a seed, although not
of the same kind ; and advantage has been taken of this for
horticultural purposes. FBimDiifo.]
In general a bud is developed into a branch ; but that
power is interfered with or destroyed by several causes.
This must be evident fh)m the foHowi&g consideration inde-
pendently of all others. Every one knows that leaves are
arranged with great symmetry upon young branches; as
buds are axillary to leaves, the branches they produce ought
therefore to be as symmetricallv arranged as leaves ; and
this we see does not happen. We may account for this in
two or three ways : accidental injuries will doubtless destroy
some; from want of light others will never be called into
action ; and of those whioh are originally excited to growth
a part is always destroyed by the superior vigour of neigh-
bouring buds, which attract away their food and starve
them. There is moreover in many plants a special ten-
dency to produce their leaf-buds in a stunted or altered
jitate. In fir trees the side buds push forth only two, or a
small mmiber of leaves, and never lengdien at all ; in the
eedar of Lebanon they lengthen a little, bear a cluster of
leaves at their points, and resemble short spun; in the
sloe, the whitethorn, and many other plants, tney lengthen
more, prodooe no leaves except at their very base, and grow
into hard sharp-pointed spines. Bulbs are nothing but
lesf-bnds, with unusually neshy scales, and with the power
of separating spontaneously mm the mother plant ; and
flower-buds are theoretically little more than leaf-buds with-
out the poww of lengthentBg, hut with the organs that cover
them in a •JMcial state. Hence flowers are modified
branehes. [PLoWXn.]
BUDA, or OPEN (the fint name» as well as the Sda-
vonian ' Bndin,* being that b^ which it is known in the
country itself), a eity on the rij^ht bank of the Danube, in
the circle of Pesth, and nearW in the centre of the kingdom
of Hunsary, is united with Pesth, whioh lies opposite to it
on the left bank of ttiat riv., and is joined to it tr)r a bridge
about 3800 ft. in length : the two towns oonstitute the me-
troM^ of Hungary and seat of government Buda is said
to derive its name from Buda, a luother of Attila, who made
the town his residence, and much enlarged it. On the
other hand, Alt-Ofen, which extends frurther up the Danube,
and is looked upon as a separate quarter of Buda, and is a
privileged m. t^ is ascertained to have existed in the time
of the Romans, atkd was by them called Sicambria. The
name of Ofon (oven or kiln) has been given to it by the
Germans, who form the balk of its inhabitants. It was the
spot also where the modem Huns or liagyirs first established
tbetr head-onartera : it was raised to the rank of a royal free-
town by Bela IV. ; and became the seat of government in
the year 1784 Buda, from iu greater antiquity, has not
inaptly been styled the mother of PesCh. It is built round
tha Schtoiibeiig in JboiudM of i^lBOiuitiaROue and pictu-
resque Uount^, bordering £. on the banks of the Danube,
and encircled by vineyards and fineste on the other three
sides; it is about 9 m. in circuit, and according to Blumen-
bach contained three years ago 3089 houses and 29,457 inK,
independently of the garrison and strangers. These num-
hers exhibit an increase of 2509 since the year 1^04, when
there were 6278 frimilies, and 26,948 inh. The central
part of Buda is comprehended in what is called the Portress,
and rising on all sides round the acclivities of the Schloss-
berg is inclosed at its foot by walls and bastions ; thence
it spreads out into five suburbs, the most considerable as
well as handsomest of which is the • Water-town/ which
extends northwards ; W. of this lies the ' Via Regia,* a long
narrow street with remarkably high houses ; and further to
the E. of both stands the New-town (or Neu-stift), a more
cheerftil quarter than either, but on a less lofty scale of
construction, with a line of warehouses on the Danube ;
this suburb is immediately S. of Alt-Ofen. Tho fourth
is ' Taban' or ' the Raisen-town,* which skirts the Schloss-
berg on the 8., and is the largest and most populous of any
quarter outside of the walls. North of the Raizen-town, and
between this and the Via Re^a, lies * Christina-town,' which
is full of gardens, and built m the valley that separates tbe
Schlossberg from the vine-clad heights which extend W. of
it. To the S. of the whole there is a lofty eminence called;
the Blocksberg or (rerhardsberg, on the summit df which
the Royal Observatory has been built, and its sides arc.
studded with a multitude of small isolated villas and houses.
The Fortress, which occupies about a twelfth part of the
entire area of Buda, is laid out on a regular plan, and is full
of handsome buildings and spacious squares. It contains,
several palaces ; among them are the roval palace, a quad-
rangular structure, the front of which looks upon the
Danube, is 564 ft. in length, and contains 203 apartments ;.
in the left wing is the chapel royal, where the regalia are.
kept, and the right is appropriated for the Palatine's resi-
dence and for the royal libraiy. An extensive garden sur-
rounds the palace on three of its sides. The other edifices or
note in this quarter are the Church of the Ascension of the-
Virgin, a spacious Gbthic structure ; the garrison church,,
in which the late emperor was crowned; the house of
assembly for the states, the arsenal, the town-hall, and the'
several buildings for the military, post-olBce, commissariat,.
judicial, and other public de^rtments, and tbe university
press and tvpe-foundery. This, the finest part of the town,
IS inhabited almost wholly by the ofiloers and servants of
the crown, but it is dull and lifeless in comparison with tho
quarters without the waUs, where the mechanic, manu-
lecturer, and trader live. The most remarkable objects^
in the Water-town are St. Anne*s, a handsome parish
church ; the church of the Capuchins, a statue of the Virgin
Mary, and two sets of water-works, driven by horses, from
which the Portress is supjdied. In the Via Regie are the
church of the P^dscans, a monastery, and the primate'a:
residence and offices. The New-town contains a column
dedicated to the Holy Trinity, in commemoration of the'
plague of 1 710, which is 52 ft. in height ; and the Raizen-
town, the Roman Catholic oburdh of St. Catherine, a Greek,
church, and the residence of a Greek bishop. Buda con-
tains altogether twelve Roman Catholic churches, one Greek
church, and a svnagogue. It possesses a royal archi-gym-
nasium (with about 600 punils), a Roman Catholic high
school, sevenl schools fi>r tne middle and inferior classes,,
three monasteries, and a nunnery. The height on which
the observatory stands is abont 516 ft. above the level of the*
Mediterranean, and close upon the banks of the Danube,,
which 18 216 ft. above the same level. Tbe observatory
itself, in 47** 29^ 12" N. lat, and 19° 2' 45" E. long., be-
bnp to the university of Pesth, and is oomposed of a main^
buihiing and two towers, both of which are ascended by
staircases earefiilly disconnected from the walls. No ex-
pense has been spared to supply this establishment with
the finest instruments and appar«<os. The sulphurous*
warm-baths in various parts of tne suburbs are partioulariy
deserving of attention. Bo^e contains two public hospitals,
and one ibr females, aa asylum for indigent townsmen, a.
lazaretto and infirmary, a refuge for navigators, and other
benevolent institutions.
Buda is by no means a mannfiutnring town ; there is one;
«lk and velvet factory, the annual returns of which do not.
exceed 12,000^; a manufiutory of leather, to the extent
of about 25,000A a year ; a cannon-ibundery, several copper-
BBkilh'B workfi m% gunpowder suarafiutory; besides one»
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spinning^mill for silk tkread» end «a eactbenwato and a
tobacco manufactory. A few woollens and linens are also
made. The trade of the town principally consists in the wines
produced by the vineyards in the environs, to the average
amount of 140.000 or 150,000 aulms (2,100.000 to 2.250,000
gallons). In vterf favourable seasons, as mapvas 300,000
aulms, or about 4,500.000 gallons, are made. The bulk of
this wine, which is not much inferior to Burgundy, and is
well known under the name of * Ofener-lYein/ comes from
the extensive vineyards belonging to the town itself, which
are said to cover an area of 70 so. ni.
Independently of a theatre, Buda possesses within its
walls a variety of places for public amusement, and without
them, an inexhaustible fund of atiractiona in the beauty and
diversity of the surrounding countrj^. Buda was capturecl
by the Ottomans in I5'4i, and remained in their possession
until the year 1686
BUDDHA, BUDDHISM. Among the religions of
Asia, that of Buddha is one of the most remarkable, partly
for the peculiar character of its doctrine, anid partlv on
account of the vast number of its followers. From India
froper, the country which gave it birth, nearly every bace
of Buddhism has now disappeared ; but it has become the
religion Of the great majority of the inhabitants of the h^h
table-landt to the north of the Himalaya, as far as the
boundary of Siberia, and it is the prevailing creed of China,
of the Peniusula of India beyond the Ganges, of Ceylon^
and several islands of the Indian archipelago, and of the
empire of Japan. According to an estimate given by
Hassel, there are now upon me globe — Christians of aU
denominations, 120 millions.: Jews, nearly 4 millions; Mo-
hammedans, ^52 millions ; foUowers of the Brahmaic relL-
giou. 111 millions ; Buddhists, 315 millions.
Though much has been written upon Buddhism, a critical
investigation of its origin, its system of doctrines, and the
history of its diffusion among so large a portion of mankind,
is still a desideratum. Hardly any of the original authentie
documents of the sect, which are written in Sanskrit, have
yet been fhlly examined, and the information which we now
possess respecting its dogmas is almost exclusively derived
from sources of a secondary rank. We think it rights
therefore, to warn our readers not to receive with too im-
plicit faith the statements respecting Buddhism, which we
shall endeavour to condense within the hmits of the present
article. Several distinguished scholars, amonff whom we
may mention Mr. l^aac Jacob Schmidt, of St. Petersbiirg,
Mr. Alexander C8oma4e Kbros, now at Calcutta, Mr. Bfian
Houghton Hodgson, now at Cat'hmandu in Nepal, and
Mr. George Tumour, in Ceylon, are severally engaged in
inquiries, the results of whic>h may maleriaUy affect the
opinions here advanced.
The origin of Buddhism is involved in much obscurity.
DuubU have been raised whether Buddhism is of Indian
growth, or whether it was introduced firom abnad ; the re-
latlvo antiquity of Buddhism and the religion of the Brah-
manical Umdus, who follow the religion of the Yedas, has
boon mattor of dispute; and the neatest discrepancy prevails
with rospeot to the epoch whiob, aocordkig to varions an-
thoritioH, fthoul<l be assigned to, the founder ef the sect
Ainuug those who, contrary to the opinion gmerally
reotiived uv thu Buddhists themselves, have suspected that
thu Mpot did not originate iu Indta^ Sir William Jones must
hu uioutiunod. The curled or woolly appearance of the hair
on thtt head of the statues of Buddha, many of which axe
Moulpturod in a black kind of limestone, combined with other
iiirimuutAnoeSi led him to form an opinion, that the inhabit-
utUN uf India, who occupied the country previous to its inva-
sion by the Brahmanie tribes from the north, were of African
descent, and that in the seulptnred representations of their
legislator some of the characteristio appearances of the negro
raoe had been preserved. iAntUie Ret. vol. i. p. 427.; But
the foundation on which this opinion rests is in some degree
shaken by the foct, th£tvnages of Buddha Me as ffecyiientiy
seen in white or erey as in^Ulack stone ; while oh the con-
trary, statues of Krishna, Sfirya^ Gandsa, and other deities
of the various Brahmanical sects, wi^ whom the presumed
reason of the Bnddfassts for giving the preforenee to black
could have no weight, are nevertheless frequently seen of that
Milour, Another argument against te supposed African
ortgiu of Bttddha may be dedneed from the eniimeratien of
)«)« lukMhanoM and v^jmat^ or points of heanCy and peco-
|»ar iMrrsonal appearances, which am so famfliar to Bud&ists
yvery vbere» that this eaouflutanQs atone ssenas ta wwnni
fsfcrfrisif n
iheif antiqaitr. and to eiititif tiisnilo atlwl
in our inqoiry into the extant seulptnred inats
The original Sanskrit text of the thirty-two
' characteristics,* and os the eighty v|fai||4iKts or * pecohar
signs* of Buddha, has just been publisned in ibs appendg
..•-.. ... ^^
tbe
whiea
to an interesting paper by Hr. Qodfl^on tn ikm .
tiJM Roy«k0 AHatic aocUtfft yoL iL p. 314, fc&
ibrmer we observe one (No. 14, wvaruf^vornatd}
describes Buddha as being of a gokl-colo^nd eoBBDkxlae :
and among the latter there is one (Na $9. itmgt^-^JuAaiiu
according to which he had a prominent (aquilinsSi noee. Both
these epithets are utterly inapplicable to ma iodMdanl of tb«
negro race. (See Abel R6mn<ai^ ^/yyet AnM9m$f. Pansi
1 825, 8vo., vol. i. p. 1 op, &e.) With fefarance ta the atr.n
hair of the statues of Buddh%, wa may WfOtioo tknU acccri-
ing tQ a remark ofvColonel HaokeDzie lAi. Bm^ vu^%i'j\
the MahdvrcUas, a class ef JffUia aseetioa who see ika
allowed to shave the head with ra^ora* emptof iheU diecip^
to pull out the hair by the roots ; and to tho olioets of Mm
operation they attribute the appearance oo the hoods ef tec
images of their Ourua er aaints, which fmepooao soypetc
to represent curly or woolly hair. It has hoeo suMfotwi o;
some, that the curia on the head of tho imaijos or Boddba
might be accounted for in a similar mannar. Ib the he oi
personal characteristics of Buddlia, howeiror» no loss thjs
six terms descriptive of his hair are emunersleA iwffom/mst.
No. 72—78), which, though some ara noi rtrj ckar s
themselves, seem to attach a notioo cf*boaatj to its poruitsr
appearance : this oould hardly be tho 4aao if Hho am haid
been considered as morbidt and prodaced hj a ▼ioleot oiur-
pation of the hair. * The answer which Mr. Hod^eon ob-
tained from a priest in Nep^ to an in<iuiry gsopocting ite
reason of Buddha bein| represented vitti ewied loeiKs wm
to this effect, that it wa$ considered a point of beaat> ;
still the notion is, as Mr. Hodgson observes* on odd one Um
a sect which insists on tonsnrei
The Buddhists themselves, howerw aai»ch thoj moy d»-
^igree as to the period at which the founder of tMir lohipio
lived, make no pretensions to a rery hi^h aatiqiMtjr of thcx
sect, but admit on every occasioo the ^OBtf of tko Brat-
manic creed. The princimil consideiOtioBS Wna vhieh ^
superior antiquity of the Buddhists over the flnhoiaas hM
by some been assorted, am, Ut, the ezislonoe of Ivst
architectural remains evidentij totfraUo te tisa Bsoddai
sect, which are widely spread over nearly the wbole eosBrr
now occupied by ^e varions sects c^ tns Bhihniotfiioal pp>
fission ; 2nd[, the entire absence of every liti9|p leimnafls ci
the Bauddba sect thronghottt India, whkh pilonfiiusin ihaft
it must have ceased to exist at a very eady dote ; 3nL th*
opinion generally admitied that the BrShniawb tabes n-
vaded India frm the north or noitl^wos^ #Ueft mt^
seem to favour a conjectore that tiie esiisBr inlmhitaiits d
the eonntry,whom they snbdoed and snbsaq[Oositty oKOeUcc,
were Buddhists ; snd 4tli, the peeoliar ekmler ^ Boi-
'dhism, which is in nnny respects sinpier tboa Bi^
manism, e. g., in the ahasnco of castsi^ and tluiS onbs
to agree better with qor notions of ^e slato ofoQeaoCy in tb»
esriy stages of its development It w3l hammtg bt
readily admitted that these fu««Beiils ore opsn ao dtft^
tions. The eztstenos of ardiiteetarsl iOMm% ter frsa
establishing any claim on the part of tlm Boddbiots to ah*
solute priority, only proves lost tbe sect 16 trbicb tboe
monuments belong must for o time, and proboUy at s
remote period, have been in the nndistuzbod poaoassHOitf
the country; snd idso that it hsd attained oonoidirafeAs we-
ficienoy in the arts of azchileclDre and seiai|iCao% wkx^
would naturally lead ns to presoms an odvoneod slaSt df
general civilixatioB. That thwe are no Birfdbists ot pitotei
in the country where their flbrttor domhnoD is otasotad ks
those monuments, may he considered as eosoobssosiog tbe
well-established report of the videnoe and iotelvasMt ««b
.which the Baud^ms were fbr many cantBries psneealsd bv
the Brafamans, and atkst, in tbe sevsoA esntnryoroorara,
almost entirely expelled from India. Tbe j uppsairiua that
Bauddhas were in the possession of tbe cilQirtrv ot the tiiso
when the Brahmanie tribes invaded iti is IBceiMoar|ieet H
serions doubts. The caste named Sdtkus in tki BioiMonr
codes of law consials, si onr opinion, of Mcb cf Ibo oiin»at
inhabitants of India asheeamo snl^eet to tbe BtohnuM* ant
were snilsfed to coulee in the oeontiY whciw tbs org^
mierofs settled, hot we«e entirsly dependent on tho wili M
the latter, and did not portibipate in any ef tboao eMl rigebte
wbiohtfaer • ....
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of Ho-nan. He died there in a.o. 495. The fact that no more
than 28 patriarchs are enumerated in a period of 1445 years
(between 950 B.C. and 495 a.d.) would alone be sufficient to
convince us that the list is imperfect, and that many names
are wanting in it. The list indeed does not profess to be in
every respect complete ; the precise date of the accession or
death of several of the patriarchs is stated not to be found on
record, or to be known only approximatively ; and these un-
disguised imperfections, which an intention to deceive on
the part of the compiler might so easily have concealed, are
calculated rather to confirm than to weaken our faith in
the authenticity of the document
Mr. Wilson, in his account of the ' R^d Taran^i,* a
Sanskrit chronicle in verse, o' the country of Cashmir {As,
lies., vol. XV. p. Ill), ha« drawn attention to a passage which
he translates as follows *—' When 150 years had elapsed
from the emancipation of the Lord Sakyasinha in this
essence of the world, a Bodhisattwa in this country (Cash-
mir), named Nigdrjuna, was Bhilmtswara (lord of the
earth).* As previous passages of the same chronicle allude
to Buddhism as extant in Cashmir, Mr. Wilson is of opinion
that Sdkyasinha, the founder of the sect, has been here con-
founded with one of his successors, a Bodhisattwa of the
sixth century b.c. In the list of early Bodhisattwas pub-
lished by R6musat» (compare Klaproth, in the Nouveau
Journal AHatique, 1833, vol. xii. p. 421,) we find one * foe-
thonanthi, (Buddhdnandi ?) of Kanara, of the family of Gau-
tama,* who is suted to have died in the year 535 B.C. We
think it not unlikely that this may be the person intended
in the passage quoted by Mr. Wilson. Deducting 150 years
said to have elapsed alter his death, we have the year
383 B.C. as the epoch at which the chronicle states that a
Bauddha hierarch resided in Cashmir as spiritual chief,
(according to Mr. Wilson*s illustration of the text,) contem-
porary with Gionerda, the temporal sovereign.
The earliest allusion to the sect of Buddha in any western
writer has been supposed to occur in Herodotus (iii., c. 100 ;
Korai, Prodr,HeU.BibL p. 271,) who says of certain Indians,
that they kill no animals, and live on the vegetable products
spontaneously produced by the soil Nioolaus Damascenus
may, however, po^. >[y allude to the very words of Hero-
dotus, in a detached passage where he speaks of an ab-
stemious sect called Aritoni CApirovoi), which name
seems to be the Sanscrit Arhat, or Arhata, a very common
designation of the Jaina sect, who are even more distin-
guished than the B«.uddha8 by their extreme tenderness for
animal life. Arrian {JncUc, c. 8) mentions the name of an
antient fabulous king of India (Bovi^ac), which resembles
that of Buddha in sound ; but the context in which it occurs
does not appear to us to warrant the conjecture of Bohlen
ilndien, i. p. 319), that the founder of Buddhism be in-
tended. Strabo (xv. c. i, p. 712, ed Casaub.), on the au-
thority of Megasthenes, states that there are two classes of
philosophers among the Hindus, the Brachmanes and Gar-
manes ; and from the account which he gives of the latter,
who are by Clemens of Alexandria (Strom,, i. p. 305) more
correctly called Sarmanes, it is clear that by them the Bud-
dhists are to be understood. The name Sarmanes appears
to be the Sanscrit word Sramana, ' a religious mendicant, an
ascetic.* A Bauddha beggar is thus designated by a Brah-
man in the ' Mrichhakati, a Sanskrit drama, supposed by
Mr. Wilson to have been written either one century before,
or two centuries after our eera (act viii., p. 212, ed. Calcutt.)
We recognise the same word under a slightly modified
shape in the first component part of the name of the In-
dian philosopher Zarmaaos Chanes (Zop^oyof Xdvti^, written
in some MSS. Zop^avox^y^^C* Zapftavog X^yac, iapfiavo'
xay^c ; and in Dion Cass. liv. c. 9, Zapittipo^, 1^/tapog, or
TMfiapKoO, who came to Europe with an embassy from king
Porus to Augustus, and voluntarily burnt himself at Athens.
(Strabo, xv. c i. >n^ 719, rao.)
Two very remarks^g passages on the various sects pre-
vailing in India occur Vm Clemens of Alexandria, In the
first passage iStrom, lib. i. |^ 359, ed. Potter) he says that
there are two classes of philosopWs in India, the Sarmanoe
and the Brachmann. ' Among the B«nnanes those called
Hylobii (vX^^cot, Mountagu thinks, should be read instead
of dXX6/3ioi) do not dwell in towns or houses; they are
clad with the bark of trees, eat acorns, and drink water
with their hands ; they know not marriage, nor procreation
of children.* He then proceeds to say that ' thete are like-
wise among the Indians persons obeying the precepts of
Butta (Bovrr<^« whom they venerate like a god on aocount
of his extfeme tanetity.* Here tbe ftOowm of Botu
(Buddha) are clearly distinguished from both the Bncb-
mansD and Sarmana. In the second passage (p. 539. ^.
Potter) Clemens speaks of a sect whom he cells SemDu
(another corruption of the Sanskrit name Sramana >t.
' they go naked all their lives ; they make it a point alw»%i
to speak the truth, and they inquire into the fwnre. Tbst
worship a certain pyramid, beneath which they believe th«
bones of some god to be deposited. Neither the Gymoo-
Bophistn nor the Semnoi have any intereoune with wenec.
for they deem this contraiy to natore and to law, and for
that reason they adhere to chaatity. There are alao feaaks
of this class (Se/«vai) who live in perpetual Tiiginity.* The
pyramids here spoken of are eviaently the dagdbas of tie
modem Buddhists.
The statements respecting the leligioii of India aoi
China given by the two Arabian travellers who Tinted the^
countries in the ninth century (Renaudot, Andennss Eei.-
lioru de$ Indes etde la Chme^ See,, Paris, 1718. Bvo.) i^
too vague to enable us in eveiy instance to distin^u*!
whether the ' pagans,' of whom they speak, were Bauddha*
or not In the report bf the first traveller (L c p. 3) we met
with an allusion to the impression of a fixH on Adiu 1
Peak in the Island of Ceylon, a spot known to Ebn B*
tuta (Lee's translation, p. 1 89) as a place of pngrinar*
which it has continued to be till the present day witk u
Ceylonese Buddhists : the second traveller. In speakinc
the natives of India, calls their priests Brahmans <l «- ;
U)7), and in the account which he gives of their asccij •
and of their religious institutions generally, nothing oer^*
that would, in our opinion, admit of an applicatbn to u
Bauddhas. These statements, though not very explicit, m
yet interesting, as they seem to attest the exoulaion of u
Buddhists from India some time previous to the ninth ctzr
tunr, and the existence of the sect in Ceylon.
In tha Antfi-Iflliunio portion of the Armbio ehronick :
Abulfi^a, published some years ago by Fleiseher {Wi. •
feda, HisU Anteislamca, &c., ed. H. O. Fleia^ier, Leipt :
1831, 4to.), there is a curious chapter on the Taxioua tn>i
of India (p. 170, &c.) given on the authority of ShehresUr.i.
a writer who flourished in the first half of the twelfth ce:
tury. Most of the Indian tribes, or rather aeeta, there -*
ticed, are easily recognised even nnder the somewhat «!.:
terated names given to them by the Arab, as van^.
branches of Brahmanic Hindus : and the only sect, l
name of which bears any similarity to that of the Bci-
dhists, the Behuditle (al Bahikdiyyah, in the Aiabie text), in
described in a manner which removes eveiy poasibtlit} .
their being taken for followers of Sfikyaainha.
We have already alluded to the indirect testimony wb -
Ebn Batuta gives of the existence of Buddhism in Cej :
in describing the pilgrimage to the impteseion of BoddU *
fbot on Adam*s Peak. In his aooount of Hiodnstan. U
describes the burning of widows and other pcmetices rerr-
bated by the Buddhists, the prevalence of which is snfficif^
to convince us that Bnihmanism was at that time the cs?>
blished religion of the country.
Marco Polo, who visited Tangent during the aeeood li .
of the thirteenth century, describes the xeligiotts infititut»-i%
of Kampion, the principal city of that provinoe* in & ma&r^*
to convince us that Buddhism was then the preTailin^ rrc>-
there, though the name is not mentioned, * The idoUtr*
of Kampion,* says he, 'have many reUgiom houses -
monasteries and abbeys, built after the ma^n-f^r ^f t .
country, and in these a multitude of idols, aome of which &
of wood, some of clay, and some of stone, and covered « *
gilding. These images are held in extreme veneiataoo. .
Those persons amongst the idolaters who are devoted u> :.*<
services of religion 1^ more correct lives, aeooidins to t^
ideas of morality, than the other duses, abetainii^r fr.a
the indulgence of carnal and sensual appetites.* iMAradee •
Travels of Marco Polo, p. 181.)
An early account, communicated prdbehly Vy tniT^:: - :
merchants, of a Lama, or spiritual chie£ among ibe B* -
dhist Tartars, seems to have occasioned, in Eox^^w. '.
report of a Prester John, or a Christian pontile reaadea. *
Upper Asia. It deserves however to be Doticcd '- :
Barhebrceus {Hist, DynasU p> 280) speaks of a ftfiiier -'
the ' Eastern Turks,* who was a Christian, aod vinj ««
named Ung-khan, or King John iMalic YukatmA^ : u •
prince reigned about the year 1202, and was dcthnmcd .'
Ciengizkhan. [Prsstbr Jorn.]
However small is the information to be gathsred f^om tbc^
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passages of foreign writers as to the history of Buddhism, it
IS at least in accordance with the traditions preserved among
the Buddhists themselves. For several centuries after the
appearance of SSkyasinha his sect seems to have flourished
in India, and to have been tolerated by the Brahmans in
nearly the same manner as the various divisions still exist-
ing among Hindus who follow the religion of the Vedaa.
Buddhism appears during this period to have penetrated
the peninsula in every direction ; and a succession of men
of different parts of India, pre-eminent for piety, and con-
sidered as the living types of Buddha, followed him as his
(figuratively) lineal descendants, and as the patriarchs or
spiritual heads of the sect
The numerous Buddhist temples, the 'remains of which
are scattered over a wide extent of country in India, must
be referred to this period. These remains it is not difficult
to distinguish from others often found in their immediate
neighbourhood, but erected for the purposes of Brahroanical
worship. The principal characteristics of temples built for
the Buddhists are the dagobas and the images of Buddha.
The dagoba is a hemispherical or sometimes pyramidal
structure containing some relic of Buddha, whicn usually
stands cither within or (as in Ceylon, Siam, &c.) close by a
Buddhist temple, and is supported by a pedestal, generally
of a cylindrical shape, which varies in height. AH images
of Buddha represent merely human figures in a contem>
plative posture, sometimes standing upright or reclining,
but more frequently sitting on a bench, or sauatted down
with the feet crossed and resting upon the thighs ; the fore-
finger of the right hand sometimes rests on one of the
fin<^rs of the left, but usually the left hand rests upon the
left knee, and the right hand is placed on the lap, being
held open, as if to receive an offering. The hair is always
curled almost in the fashion of a wig, and the ears are ex-
tended and drawn down as if by the weight of some orna-
ment suspended at them. A number of small cells is often
s<;cn near a Buddhist temple, apparently intended to aflbrd
shelter to pilgrims, or to ascetics and priests permanently
resident near the sanctuary.
Ruins distinguished by these peculiarities have been
found near Benares, at Buddha Gaya in Bengal, at Bag in
Mahva,near the Ajunta pass, atEllora, at Nasik, at Juner,
at Carli, on Salsette, and at Guntoor. Some have even
supposed that ruins of a similar structure, which have been
fmind at Bamian in the Soliman Mountains, and at Ma-
nikyala in Afghanistan, belong to the same class. Those
of Boro Boflo (or Bura booder), in Java, cannot be mistaken,
and prove undeniably that Buddhism once prevailed in the
very centre of that island. The simultaneous occurrence of
traces of Brahmanic and of Buddhic worship in several of
these places is most remarkable, and has not yet been satis-
f:trtoriIy accounted for : the most likely mode of solving
the problem is, in our opinion, one of the three explana-
tions suggested by Erskine, namoly, that this proximity of
their sanctuaries attests the friendly spirit that once pre-
failed between the two sects. Many notions peculiar to the
mythology and cosmography of the Brahmans seem at an
cat ly period to have been receive. I by the Buddhists, and to
have been by them admitted as part of their own belief.
Tliis remark is well illustrated by Dr. Francis Buchanan's
paper on 'the Religion and Literature of the Burmas*
(Asiat, Res. vol. vii. p. 136, &c.), and by many passages in
Sangermano*s * Description of the Burmese Empire,' edited
by Dr. Tandy (Rome, 1833), which would, we think, be
found on comparison to agree almost literally with pas-
sages in the Pauritnic works of the Brahmans ; and Captain
Low, in his account of Tcnnasserim {Journal of the Royal
Jsiaiic Society, vol. ii. p. 257), tells us that in that province
dramaiic representations founded on the history of R&ma
are a favourite entertainment of the inhabitants. We
merely hint the probability of some influence having been
exercised by this adoption of Brahmanic notions upon the
architecture and sculptured decorations of temples, &c
erected by the Buddhists ; and the possibility that, where
remains of buildings of a Brahmanic character are now
found near othen of Buddhist character, both may be the
work of the latter sect
The first foreign country into which Buddhism was in-
troduced fh>m India appears to have been the island of
Ceylon. According to the traditions preserved in the Ma-
huvansi and Rdjdvalt, chronicles of Ceylon, written in the
Pali language, the island received its first civilization throuffh
Vijaya, the son of Sinhabftha, King of Waggoo (in tne
No. 338.
northern Cirears) ; who, being espelled from his father's
kingdom, embarked with 700 followers, and landed on
Ceylon on the day of Buddha*s death ; i. «.• according to
the Cingalese computation, in April, 543 b.c. (See the
Epitome of the History qf Ceylon, from Pali and Cin-
galese records, by Mr. George Tumour, in the Ceylon
Almanaek for 1833, p. 224, &o.) But Vijaya himself was
not a Buddhist ; and although there is a notion of a primeval
Buddhism in (Ceylon previous to the age of the reputed
founder of the sect, yet its doctrines were not introduced into
the bland till the reign of his sixth successor Devenipeatissa,
who, according to the statements of the Cingalese chronicles*
must have reigned from 306 till 266 B.C. Devenipeatissa
prevailed upon DharmSsuka, an Indian sovereign, who
resided at Pattilipatta (Patalipntra ?), to send his son Mi-
hindu and his daughter Sangamitta, with several priests, to
Anurddhapura, the capital of Ceylon, for the purpose of
introducing the religion of Buddha. They arrived in the
first year of Devenipeatissa's reign, and propagated the doc-
trines of Buddha orally. Relics of Buddha were obtained
from various quarters, and dagobas were erected for their
preservation ; and a sacred tree was planted near Anurftdha-
pura, which is still preserved, and is one of the principal
places 6t pilgrimage in the island. Walagambahu, the
twenty-first sovereign of Ceylon, who reignM from 89 till
77 B.C., assembled 500 of the most distinguished priests,
and had the tenets of Buddhism reduced to writing. From
this time we may consider Buddhism as completely esta-
blished in Ceylon. Nearly five centuries subsequent to
Walagambahu, a learned priest named Buddha-ghdsana,
who came from Jambudwtpa, on the continent of India,
amplified and commented upon the tenets of Buddhism.
This is said to have been done in the reign of king MahS-
nima, a.d. 410-432. It deserves to be noticed, that accord*
ing to the Mahfirazaven, a chronicle in the Birman language,
Pali books (and the doctrines of Buddha ?) were brought from
Ceylon to Pegu by a priest named Boudogosa : the date
assigned to this occurrence is the year 940 of the Birman
asra, corresponding to a. d. 397. {Alphabetum Barmen
num seu Regni Avensis, Edit, alt Rom. 1787, p. 14, 15.)
That the Birmans still acknowledge the reception of their
religion and laws from Ceylon is attested by the curious
fact that, about the year 1790, the king of Ava sent at sepa-
rate times two messengera to Ceylon, to procure copies of
their sacred writings; and in one instance the Birman
minister made an official application to the Governor-general
of India to protect and assist the person charged with the
commission. (Symes, Embassy to Ava, p. 304.) An opinion
seems even to prevail among the Talapoins or priests of
Ava, that out of the Burmese empire and the island of
Ceylon there are no true and legitimate priests of the laws
of Buddha. (Sangerroano, p. 83.)
Of many of the sovereigns of Ceylon we find it men-
tioned that they formed tanks, or built and restored edifices
for various religious purposes. Mahfts^n, who reigned from
A.D. 275 till 301, entered into negotiations with Guhas8va,
King of Dansapura in Kalinga, to procure the surrender of
a relic called the Dangistra Dalada, or right canine tooth of
Buddha : it arrived in Ceylon, during the reign of Mahfi-
s@n's son (a.d. 308), and has since then on several occa-
sions played a conspicuous part in the historv of the island,
owing to the importance attached to it by the inhabitants.
As early as the year 209 of our sera we find a schism among
the Ceylonese Buddhists mentioned : it originated in the
doctrines put forth by one Wytooliya, which were adopted
by the priests resident at a temple called the Abaya^ri
vihdra. An inquiry was instituted, and the doctrine havmg
been found incorrect, the books in which it was set forth
were destroyed. These strong measures did not however
effectually check the progress of the schism ; and during
a considerable period we find indications of the alternate
triumph and oppression of the heretical party. Another
heresy, called the Wijrawtdtya, is stated to have been in-
traduced into Ceylon from the continent of India during
the fint half of the ninth century.
But whilst Buddhism had thus gained ground in Ceylon»
and was from thence propagated to the eastern peninsula, it
had to endure in India a long-continued persecution, whieh
ultimately had the effect of entirely abolishing it in the
country where it had originated. The motive of these per-
secutions we confess ourselves unable fully to discover.
That the caste of the Brahmans could not without jealousy
and alarm witness the progress of a sect w^ch tbreatenad
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BUD
to overthrew their authority, and to deprive them of all
those privile^fl, which a creed and a social constitution,
sanctioned by the Vedas, secured to them, is natural to
suppose. But it is less intelligible why Indian sovereigns,
after so long a period of toleration, should have consented
to lend the Brahmans their aid in oppressing a class of their
subjects, whose principles, it would appear to us, ought
rather to have recommended them as the natural protectors
of the royal and civil authority against the ambitious arro-
gance of an hereditary priesthood ; and the perplexity of
this question is still increased by the forbearance shown in
every part of India to the Jains, a sect so strikingly similar
to theBauddhas, in all those particulars at least which seem
to have drawn upon the latter the hatred of the Brahmans.
Mr. Wilson {Sanskrit Dictionary, 1st edit., preface, p.
XV. — XX,) has shown that the religious wars of the Brahmani-
eal Hindus with the Buddhists commenced in the fifth and
continued till the seventh century of our GDra. They have
evidently contributed to accelerate the diffusion of Buddhism
in other countries, though even in India the sect does not
seem to have been entirely extinguished for several centuries
after the persecutions terminated. Buddhism appears to
have been first introduced into China about the year 65 of
our sera, by tho authority of the emperor Ming Ti. (Du
Halde, Hist, of China, &c., vol. iii. p. 34, Eng. trans. 1741,
8vo.) A translation of some of the sacred writings of the
Buddhists into Chinese is however stated to have been made
in AD. 418, by a priest from the northern part of India,
whose name was Foo-too-pa-to-lo. (R6musat, Melanges
Asiat.f i. p. 116.) According to the Chinese and Ja-
panese list of Bodhisattwas, Pan-jo-to-lo or Banneyadara,
the 27th of the series, was the last representative of Buddha,
who died in India (a.d. 457) ; his successor, Bodhidharma,
went to China (a.d. 499), and was followed by five Buddhist
patriarchs there. From China Buddhism was subsequently
extended to Coroa, a.d. 528, and to Japan, a.d. 552.
About the middle of the fifth century Buddhism seems
to have been carried to Java, whither however Brahmanical
settlers had probably preceded it. It is as yet uncertain
whether the Buddhism of Java was of Ceylonese or of Indian
origin. According to a tradition current in Java, the
strangers, who civilized the island, came from Kling (t. e,
Kalinga, or the northern Circars), a name by which the
modern nation of Java seem to designate the whole conti-
nent of India.
The early introduction of Buddhism into Cashmir has
already been noticed. According to the local history it
continued to flourish there till the reign of Nara, b.c. 298,
when the Brahmans expelled the followers of Buddha, and
burned their temples. (Wilson, Asiat. Res., vol. xv. p. 26
and 81.)
Dr. F. Buchanan (Hamilton) is of opinion that the time of
the introduction of Buddhism into Nepal may be fixed about
the commencement of the Christian sera, when * S&kya, the
last great teacher of the Buddhists, passed through the
country, and settled at Lassa, where he is supposed to be
still alive in the person whom we call the Grand Lama.'
iAccotmt of NepaU p. 10. Compare pp. 32, 56, 190.)
From the Mogol chronicle, published by Schmidt, we
learn that Buddhism was for the first time introduced into
Tibet during the reign of Hlatotori, in a.d. 407. The great
Sandson of that king, Srongdsan Gambo, who ascended
e throne in a.d. 629, sent Tongmi Ssambhoda, attended
by sixteen companions, into India, for the purpose of being
instructed in the art of writing. Alon^ with an alphabet
which has till the present day preser\*ed its similarity to the
Indian Devapagari character (see the plates accompanying
Mr. Hodgson's paper in the 16lh vol. of the Asiatic Be-
searches), these missionaries seem to have carried the first
writings on the religion of Buddha into their native country.
But not all the succeeding kings of Tibet were favourable
to the new religion. Glang Dharma, who reijrned from
902— 925. as well as his son Gorel Shakikchi (925—977),
were hostile to Buddhism, and persecuted its followers.
After a period of persecution which lasted 86 years, the
floctrine was re-established in Tibet, in the year 988. Nearly
three centuries subsequent to this restoration Buddhism was
introduced among the Mongols, during the reign of Godan,
a grandson of Gengiskhan, who was converted to the new
religion a.d. 1247, by Sfikya Pandita, a teacher (Bodhi-
sattwa?) who came from the south. (Schmidt's Ssanang
SseUen, pp. 25, 29, 48, 113, &Cn and the notes of the trans-
)«tor, pp. 325, 329, &c.)
The collection of writings regarded as sacred by the Bu l-
dhists is probably as voluminous as that of any sect that e\ i^r
existed: up to the present time however we knuw liii.c
more about them than their names. The language in
which the Bauddha sages originally committed their doctrine
to writing we believe to have been the Sanskrit, f^om wl>'« h
they were subsequently translated into the Pali, and ir ' >
other languages current in the several countries wLere
Buddhism was introduced. A considerable numbrr • f
Sanskrit records of Buddhism have been recently procuri'l
in Nepal by Mr. B. H. Hodgson ; and it is but natur.^! U)
suppose, that among them some of the antient and ori^.:\A
treatises on the doctrines of Buddhism should ha\e lK>?ri
preserved. The most important of these sacred wrilin^*^ in
the estimation of the Nepalese Buddhists are nine * Puriina^
also named the nine ' Dharmas,' narrative works, in «...:.
elucidations of the Bauddha doctrines seem to be bUnd»i
with a legendary account of the life of Buddha and Hi
most eminent sages of the sect. Besides these they po'>«'?«^
works called ' Tantras,* which contain prayers and form^ f
invocations, and are illustrated by ample commentaiic»,
and also collections of prayers, apparently composed for >. t^
on certain occasions, which are called 'Dhilranis,* (S'*f>
Mr. Hodgson*s enumeration of the principal exift c
Bauddha writings of Nepal, in the 16th volume of i
Asiatic Besearches, p. 422, &c.) Quotations in Sanp*-/
from a collection of ' Sdtras* or short aphorisms, attribute \
to Buddha himself, occur in Sanskrit works on the Ved ' ti
philosophy : whether these are still extant we do not kn »*.
In the Essay on Buddhism by Kitelegama Dewanr.t'i
Unnanse, a native of Ceylon (printed in the Ce>i i
Almanac for 1835, pp. 211 — 229), 84.000 sermons prcaii.i :
by Buddha are mentioned (p. 226), which the writer of t
Essay says may be contemplated as his personificAt
(p. 229). The Mongol Buddhists possess a sacred ^- --.
called * Gandjour,' which is written in the Tibetan lansn-cji-.
Timkowski saw a copy of it in a temple at Purga, in t. -
country of the Kalkas Mongols, which consisted of lOS « -
lumes. Chests revolving on an axis, and covered wr.
prayers in large gold letters, are frecjuently placed in il •
Buddhist temples among the Mongols, m order that perv ::«
who cannot read may come and turn them round as lo:;;: .^<.
their zeal prompts them, which is considered as effirar.....(
as if they recited the prayers themselves.
It is a notion deeply rooted in the mind of all Hiri>!i -.
often repeated in the Vedas, and variously explained : 1
commented upon by the diflferent schools of Brahn.. .
philosophy, that tho visible world and every thinff '•-
lating to it is but the transient manifestation of the D * .
without real or permanent existence ; that the confinn *
of the human soul, itself an emanation of the Di%ine «. - -^
in a perishable body, subject to all the changeful arr:,: • .
of matter, is a state of misery ; and that every effort < f .
during life should be directed towards ensuring the i-
emancipation of his soul after death, i. e, not only its I .
tion from the necessity of undergoing another' birtli, l .
being again invested with a body, but altogether its rc%
from individual existence, and its direct return to a l:i>: :
union with the Divine Being. This notion, developed : .
peculiar manner, forms likewise the basis of the Bau * ' .
creed.
The Buddhists of Nepal, who seem to have preserrrtl :: •
antient doctrines of the sect with the greatest puntr, :. .
concerning whose religious notions our information is'a^ . .
more explicit than anv that we possess of the tenets beli - r
the Buddhists of other countries, are divided into f -
schools, who differ partly in the manner in which th€?y t-
that the Divine Spirit was active in the production ci t
world, and partly m the method which they prescril < '
effecting the liberation of the soul after death. >Vc ^
endeavour briefly to state the peculiar doctrines of et.-
these schools, following chiefly the 'Quotations in V^
published by Mr. Hodgson in the ' Journal of the R ••
Asiatic Society,' vol. ii. p. 295, &c. All concur in adir-t
the primeval existence of the Deity, who waa when Ov-tl. .
else wsis, and who is thence called Adi-Buddha or * t
First Buddha.'
1. According to the Swfibhftvika school, Swahhl^i.
sort of plastic faculty, springing from, or rather ii^»t •■
with, Iswara, or God, is the source from which the eler . •
and all things and beings proceed, and into which tl t \ ;
ultimately to be re-absorbed. The universe constan: \ ■
volves between Pravritti and Nirvrltti, or creation ar^ -
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532
BUD
eessire Lamas is strikincly illustrated by a passage in a
letter addressed in 1774 by the Lama of Teshoo Loomboo
to the governor-general in India, in which he applied for
the grant of a small piece of ground near CalciktU. stating
as a motive for his request, ' that although in the different
periocU of his reviviscenoe he had chosen many regions for
the places of his birth, yet Bengal was the only country in
which he had been bom twice, fbr which reason he had a
predilection for it beyond any other/ (Turner s EmboMsy to
Tibet, pref. p. xv.)
The Buddhists reject entirely the authority of the Vedas.
and the religious observances, sacrifices, and ceremonies
which are prescribed in them and kept by the Hindus.
They have no distinction of hereditary castes. Their priests
are chosen from all classes of men: the? are obliged to
live in celibacy, but may resign their sacerdotal character, if
they desire it, and are then permitted to marry. In Ceylon
three orders of priests are distinguished : those of the highest
order (who seem to be the only true Bauddha priests in the
island) are usually men of high birth and learning, and are
supported at the principal temples called vihfiras, most of
which have been richly endowed with farms, &c. for their
maintenance by the former monarchs of the country. A
translation of some highly interesting inscriptions, in which
grants of this kind and the conditions attached to them, are
recorded, has been given by Mr. G. Tumour in the Ceylo-
ncse Almanac for 1834. p. 178, &c. All Bauddha nriesU
go bareheaded, and with their heads shaved ; but to defend
themselves from the sun they carry an umbrella made of
the leaf of the palmyra-tree, and Knox mentions that they
are permitted in Ceylon to wear this screen • with the brood
end over their heaiU foremost, which none but the king
<locs.' In Ceylon they wear a yellow coat, gathered together
about the waist and coming over the shoulder, and girt about
w'th a belt of fine packthread. In the appendix to Symes's
Embassy to Ava there is an account of the ceremonies used
in the Birman empire at the consecration of a Buddhist priest:
the candidate is reminded of four principal commandments,
which require him to observe strict chastity, not to commit
murder, not to steal, and not to practise sorcery, or to dis-
grace the priestly character by covetousness ; and he must
promise that he will procure his maintenance by perambu-
lation and begging; that he will wear a particular kind of
dress ; Uiat he will dwell in houses of a certaiu description,
and that he will endeavour to turn to some use things thrown
aside as useless by others, or to discover the medicinal
powers of plants not previously employed. Buddhi&t priests
are not forbidden the use of animal food ; but they must
not slaughter animals themselves. Convents for priests
as well as nunneries exist in all countries where Buddhism
has been introduced. Their processions and their forms
of religious worship are described as being attended with
much pomp and splendour, and well calculated to impose
upon the multitude. The first Christian missionaries that
proceeded to Tibet were surprised to find there, in the heart
of Asia, monasteries, processions, festivals, a pontifical
court, and several other ecclesiastical institutions resem-
bling those of the Roman Catholic church ; and many were
inrluced by these similarities to consider Lamaism as a sort
of det^encrated Christianity. It should however be remem-
bered that at the time when Buddhism was introduced into
Tibet, Ne&torian Christians had ecclesiastical settlements
in Tartary; that Italian and French messengers who
visited the court of the Khans carried church ornaments
and altars with them, and celebrated their worship in the
presence of the Tartar princes ; and that an Italian arch-
bishop sent by Clement V. established his see at Kara-
korum, and erected a church in which divine service was
performed with all the ceremonies usual in Europe. It is
ny no means improbable that the Lamas, whose court then
be>;an to assume a splendid exterior, should have adopted
some of the forms of the Catholic service as they saw it
celebrated by these foreigners, and that imitation should
thus have co-operated m uroducing a similar mode in con-
ducting the divine worship in two religions essentially
foreign to each other.
Concerning the details of the ecclesiastical establishments
of the Buddliists, we must refer our readers to the articles
giving an account of the several countries into which Budd-
hism has been introduced, such as China, Japan, Ce)lon,
Tibet &c.
BUDDING, an operation in horticulture, by means of
which the bcmnchct of one kind are often made to grow
upon the aftem of another kind. Il if aCaltd ia (bt
article Bud, that this organ has the power of groeioK %i^
separated from the motner-plant. Not only will it frov.
but it will emit roots, form a atom, and beeoiai in bme i
new individual in all respects similar to its pateot, rrtu; r:
all the special peculiarities of the latter. In this n^pt^i ]
differs from a seed, which in general is not cspsblt uf d* . ;
more than propagating a species, without any poecr of f> r-
serving, unless accidentally, the peculiarities of tbt il...
Tidual from which it sprang.
Gardeners have availed themselves of this propertt s
leaf-buds for the purpose of artificial piopagatiM, eiir^er *v
planting the separated buds in earth, or by introdwriox t^'~.
mto the branches of other plants. The former u n..'«
propagation by eyes [Eyb]; the latter only is techntf.«r
named budding.
Budding is usually executed thus:— With sTsnril:!*:)
knife a fully formed bud, and the leaf to which it is ax i'.' art.
are pared off the branch, along with about half sd .d^: (
bark adhering to them at the upper end, and an meb anii
half at the lower end. By holding the leaf ftrml) hti^'--
the finger and thumb of the left hand, with tbev^rt.-:-:
side of the paring uppermost, the operator is able u u.^:-
gage from the bark the small &\ip of wood which s'li.frtM
it, and by a jerk to snap it off the psring. leaving a-.:h ;
but the cellular centre of the bud adhering to the trt
This done, he makes in the branch to be operated oo. '■
incision transversely through its bark, and another I ' . .*
din ally at right angles to the first and in a dirartion d^v--
wards, so that the two together resemble the tf^art .4 * -
letter T« He then, with a tlat ivory blade, hAt up ibe^ .
on each side of the longitudinal incision, so as to sefi'?^ •
from 'the wood, and inserts beneath it the prepsml i..
^hich is gently pushed downwards till the bud itM*/ j:
little below the transverse line. This done, s hzi'u^ '
bass is carried round the stem so as to bind the b.'4 :-'
to the new wood on which it is placed. If the open* •• >
well performed, the bud will thus be fixed on a nev - ".
in the same position as it occupied on the branch fr-m «
it was taken ; the mouths of the medullary rau of it* i* »
will unite with those of the wood of the stranger f'.if '
will bo kept in contact with a continual supp!« oi i
oozing out of the alburnum on which it is plarvl. it «
absorb that food, and soon accustom itself to lU orv r
tion. Then when the growing season am^^ it « *
stimulated by li^ht and warmth to attract sap fm ' *
wood to which it has adhered, it will push forth nr« «
of its own over that which it touches, and thus »r. • •*
intimate a union with its stock as it would have ftinaf: •
its parent plant. In order to enable the latter to ^i^ l.*
is customary to head down budded brandies to siiU-i s '
inches of the buds, so as to oompel the sap which (^v^ ' -
the roots to expend itself upon the former ; s fe« :>' "•*
buds near the artificial bud are allowed to pu«h vS- '
to attract the sap to their neighbourliood, and ar? :-
stroyed; when the strans^rbud has pushed t^ !.:«•' -
of a few inches, it is tie<l to the stem so at to he"- '
fVom being broken off by accident ; and flosllr. «>
quite secure, that small portion of the stem of thr * »
which had been led above the bud in the first in*t." *
cut away, and the branches produced by the l^id U- ^
the head of the new tree.
Such is tlie general nature of budding, hut U< *
other operations it can only be well perf<}r:n«d ai* '
experience. It may be varied within certain I a :*
there are in fact a few other modes, such as m^"-
din ft and scallnp-budding, which are occasx';*
tised (see Loudon's Encycl. of HoriinUivrr, e<« -
p. 656) ; but that here described is the mort c- -t
the best Roses, plums, peaches, nectarine*, rh-r^f^
many other plants are chiefly propairaied thus, it' ] *
no theoretical reason why it should not he exteoA-i •
species. In practice however it is occasionsro - - " .
practicable, as in heaths, in vines, &c^ o«mg t.* ';■-
causes which vary in different instances.
Budding is usually performed in the months of J-
August, Wause at that season the bark sef^nv*
from the wood, and the young buds aie fbllv ^ ' '■
whenever the two.latter conditions can be sataiec. * ^ *
tion may take place equally well.
It must however be observed, thst the Ki '*
plant can only be made to grow upon the « «■«! o^ ^^
when both bud and ctock anrj^arly rrlstfd hu- *
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Thoft roses wilt bud upon roses, but not upon currants, as
is vulgarly supposed ; apples will bud upon pears or thorns ;
pears upon medlars or quinces, and apnoots upon plums,
because all these species are closely related ; but an apple
will not bud upon a plum or a peach, because, although
they are allied to a certain degree, yet their consanguinity
is not sufficiently stronjr.
BUDE'. GUILLAUME, or, as he is better known by the
Latinised name, Budieus, was bom in Paris in 1467, of an
anticnt and honourable family. His early education appears
to have been neglected, and when he went to Orleans
to study the civil law he profited little, owing to his very im-
perfect knowledge of Latin. Indolence and a love of amuse-
ment consumed much of the remainder of his youth, till he
was suddenly inspired with so ardent a love of letters that
be even regretted the hours necessarily given to repose and
refreshment, and applied to leamins with an assiduity
which threatened ii^ury to his health. Yet although, to
use his own words, he was self-taught and late-taught, he
attained an eminence in learning which placed him above
roost of his contemporaries.
He was well known bjr name both to Charles VIII. and
to Louis XII. ; yet notwithstanding he was twice emploved
by the latter king in Italian embassies, and even inscribed on
his list of royal secretaries, he did not appear at court till the
reign of Francis I., during the interview with Henrjr VIII.
at Ardres. The king then appointed him his librarian and
maTtre des requites, and the citizens of Paris named him
provost of the merchants — offices, which he complained were
great interruptions to his pursuit of letters. In 1540, while
accompanying the court on a summer visit to the coast of
Norma ndv, in order to avoid the excessive heat, he con-
tracte<i a fever which rapidly carried him off. He left seven
sons and four daughters, with injunctions that his interment
should take place by night. This request, and an avowal
of Prutestantism made at Geneva by hit widow and some
part of his family, soon after his decease, have thrown doubt
on his orthodoxy, and he has been abused bv the Romanists
accordingly. The rumour derives strength frOm his inti-
mate correspondence with Erasmus, whom he rivalled in
onti-Cir«ronianism, and in his hatred of monks and illite-
rate ecclesiastics. In one of his letters he shows a supreme
contempt for the Divines of the Sorbonne, and calls the
members of it ptating sophists, and with the deviation of a
single letter (a license not to be denied to a pun), ' Divines
of the Sorbonian (Serbonian) bog.'
His friendship with Erasmus however was not alwajs
uninterrupted, for Budsous was fond of disputing on trilles.
One of his letters, while he was influenced by some pique,
begins, ' Budsus, up to this moment a friend of Erasmus,
z^nds him his last greeting ; ' to which Erasmus replies
with unbroken suavity, * Erasmus, the perpetual friend of
Budsus, whether he will or not, sends him not a last greet-
ing, but one which shall flow freshly for ever.*
One of his particularities was an unwillingness to sit for
hii portrait He was less skilled in Latin than in Greek,
and his epistolary style in the former language is tinged
with harshness, and strongly contrasts with the pure and
elegant tone of Erasmus. His works, of which an accurate
li».t in given by Baillet in his ' Jugemens des S9avans,* were
collected at Basil in 1557, in four folio volumes, an edition
which has become extremely scarce. All his writings
abound in learning ; but the tract best known to modern
readers is entitled, ' De Asse et Partibus ejus,* in the pre-
face to which he complains that on his wedding-day he was
not allowed more than six hours for study. A second stor>',
which has been attributed to other great scholars also, rests
on not quite so good authority. * An alarm of fire having
been one day given while be was at work in his study, he
asked the terrified servant with great calmness why she did
not inform her mistress? ** You know,*' he added, *' I never
concern myself about household matters.'* * His * Com-
mentaries on the Greek Tongue* are still deservedly held in
high repute. They elucidate many terms employed by the
orators, the explanation of which is not so easily attainable
elsewhere. His Greek letters also are written with much
elegance, and show a profound knowledge of the language.
BUDGELL. EUSTACE, son of the Rev. Gilbert Budgell,
was bom about 1685, at St. Thomas's, near Exeter. Through
his mother, Mary Gulston, daughter of a Bishop of Bristol,
he was connected with Addison, who used to name him,
* that man who calls himself my cousin,* and who wrote an
epilogue to Prior i Ph»dra, which was attributed to Budgell,
and acquired for him a reputation which he little merited
He was educated at Christchurch, Otford, and afterwards
entered at the Temple ; where, devoting himself to Utera-
ture, he wrote largely in the Spectator, to which he contri-
buted all the papers marked X, and on the discontinuance
of that work aU those in the Guardian marked with an
asterisk. Through Addison's influeooe he held many sub-
ordinate offices under government in Ireland; and in 1717,
when his patron became secretary of state in England, he
procured for Budgell the lucrative appointment of account-
ant and comptroller-general in Ireland. A misunderstand-
ing with the lord-lieutenant, lord Bolton, and some lampoons
which Budgell was indiscreet enough to write in conse-
quencCf occasioned his resignation.
From that time he appears to have trodden a downward
course ; he lost 20,000/. in the South Sea Bubble, and spent
5000/. more in unsuccessful attempts to get into parliament
In order to save himself from ruin, he joined the knot of
pamphleteers who scribbled against Sir Robert Walpole ;
aild ne was presented with 10U0/. by the Duchess of Marl-
borough. Much of the 'Craftsman* was written by
him, and a weekly pamphlet called the ' Bee,' which com-
menced in 1733 and extended to 100 numbers. But his
necessities reduced him to dishonest methods for procuring
support, and he obtained a place in the *Dunciad,* not
on account of want of wit but of want of principle, by
appearing as a legatee in Tindal's will for 2U00/., to the
exclusion of his next heir and nephew ; a bequest which
Budgell is thought to have obtained surreptitiously. In
1 73G, being, utterly broken in character and reduced to po«
verty, he took a boat at Somerset Stairs, and ordering the
waterman to row down the river, he threw himself into the
stream as they shot London bridge. Having taken the
precaution of filling his pockets with stones, he rose no
more. On the morning before that on which he drowned
himself, he had endeavoured to persuade a natural daugh-
ter, at that time not more than eleven years of age, to accom-
pany him. She however refused ; and afterwards entered
as an actress at Drury Lane Theatre. Concerning her suc-
cess or subsequent fortunes we possess no information.
Budgell left in his secretary a slip of paper, on which was
written a broken distich, intended perhaps as an apology fur
his act —
• What CaIo did. and Addboa tppiof ad.
Cannot b« wnmg.'
It is unnecessary to point out the fallacy of this defence
of his conduct, there being as little resemblance between
the cases of Budgell and Cato, as there is reason for consi-
dering Addison's Cato written with the view of defending
suicide.
BUDISSIN. [Bautxkn.]
BUDWEIS, the southernmost circle in Bohemia, bounded
on the E. and S. by the archduehv of Austria, and at one
point in the S.W. by Bavaria. It is the highest land in
Bohemia, and extremely mountainous in the S. It occupies
an area of aboht 1617 sq. m., is watered by the Moldau, and
its tributaries the Malscn and Luschnitx, and eontained, in
1817, 170.670 inh., but &t present about 204,500. The
forests are extensive, and produce much timber. Cattle,
and especially sheep, are fed in great numbers ; the soil is
fertile, and much grain is raised ; and the mountains yield
iron, coals, and other minerals. The manufactures consist
of glass, woollens, paper, iron ware, cottons, &c. Budweis
enjoys the advantage of a canal, called the Schwartzenberg
caniu, which unites the Moldau with the Danube. It con-
tains eight towns, among which are Budweis ; Knunau, a
mining and manufacturing town, with 4400 inh.; and
Wittingau, 2800 inh.; 25 market vill., and 897 other vill.
and hamlets.
BUDWEIS, the capital of the circle, is situated close
to the contluenoe of the Moldau andMalsch, and bears,
in Sclavonian, the name of ' Cesky-Budgieowicze.' It it
a well and regularly built town, includes three auburbi.
is the seat of a bishopric instituted in 1783, and has a
cathedral, seven churches, one monastery, a ^mnasium, a
philosophical academy, a diocesan and theological seminary,
between 740 and 750 houses, and a pop. of about 7500 souls*
The markets for horses and grain are important: the manu*
factures consist of woollens, saltpetre, «c. ; and by means
of the Moldau, which connects Budweis with Prague, it is
a place of considerable transit for merchandise passing from
the archduchy of Austria, Hungary, Styria, and Triest. to the
N. of Bohemia and Germany. 48 59' N. Ia^l4^ 58'E.long.
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B U P
BUENOS AYRES. [Lk Plata.]
BUENOS AYRBS, the capiul of the republic La
Plata (Provinciaa Unidas del Rio do la Plata), in South
America, is in 34' 36' 29" S. lat., 58° 10' 11" W. long., on
the S. bank of the upper part of the wide estuary of the
La Plata riTcr, about 150 m. from the place where it enters
the sea. The sottuary at Buenos Ay res is about 36 m.
wide, so that Colonia, a small place on the opposite bank, is
only visible from the^ore elevated places in the town, and
then only in very clear weather. Though the estuary has
a considerable aepth in the middle, it grows so shallow
towards its 8. bank that large vessels are obliged to remain
in the outer roads from 7 to 9 m. from the shore ; small
vessels enter the inner ruads, called belixca, where they
dre still 2 m. from the town. The beach itself is ex-
tremely shallow ; even boats cannot approach nearer than
50 yards or a quarter of a mile, acoerding to the state of
the tide, and perstons as well as goods are landed in rudely
constructed carts drawn by oxen. When it blows fresh the
surf on the beach is very heavy, and often causes loss of life.
A pier which was constructed in the time of the Spanish
government is nearly useless, except at very high tides.
The city stands on a high bank for about 2 m. along the
river. Between the city and the water's edge is a space of con-
siderable width, rarely covered by the tides, on which some
trees are planted. To the £. of the pier, at a distance of a
few hundred yards, stands the fort or castle, the walls of
which extend to the water's edge, and are mounted with
cannon. It is of little importance in a military point of
view ; at present it has no garrison, and the buildings are
appropriated to public offices, and the residence of the
president of the republic.
About a mile lower down the high bank suddenly turns
inland, leaving a vast level plain along the shore, traversed
by a little stream, which makes a good harbour for small
craft, its mouth forming a kind of circular basin.
Behind the castle is the piaiza or great square, which
occupies a considerable space : it is divided into two parts
by a long and low edifice, which serves as a kind of baxaar,
and has a corridor along the whole length of each side,
which is used as a shelter for the market people. The
space between this bazaar and the fort is appropriated
to the market, where all kinds of provisions, especially
excellent fruits, are sold ; but there are no stalls, and the
^;oods are spread on the ground. The opposite side, which
IS much larger, is a kind of place darmet, and contains
a very fine edifice, called the cabildo or town- house, in
which the courts of justice hold their sessions, and the
city ooaucil or cabildo meets. Near the centre of the
square is a neat pyramid erected in commemoration of the
Revolution, by which the country was f^eed from the domi-
nion of Spain. It has an emblematic figure at each comer,
npresentmg Justice, Science, Liberty, and America : the
whole is inclosed with a railing.
The streets are at regular intervals, and are open at
right angles to the river, with a rather steep ascent from
the shore. They are straight and regular ; a few of them
near the piazia are paved, but the greater part are unpaved.
In the rainy season they are a slough of mud, and in the
dry season the dust in them is still more insupportable.
Most of them have footpaths, but they are narrow and
inconvenient.
In the neighbourhood of the piazza there are many houses
of two stories, but towards the outskirts the houses have
only one story. They are built of brick, have flat roofs, and
are white-washed. Towards the street they have commonly
two windows, which have seldom glass sashes, and are
generally protected by a r^a or iron railing, which gives
Uie houses the appearance of a prison. In the middle of
this outer wall is a gateway, the rooms on each side of which
are generally occupied as places of business, or as mer-
chants' counting-rooms. By the gateway the tni/to or court-
Yard is entered, which is surrounded on tnree sides by
buildings, the wall of the adjoining house making up the
fourth. The building at the back of the court is usually
the dining-room ; that on the left or the right is the sitting-
room or parlour. The natio is usually paved with brick,
ind sometimes with black and white marble, tesselated. In
the better sort of houses a canvus awning is ipmd f* ^a
the flat roof over the patio, and serves as a protoctioo a;*^..
the excessive heat of the sun. Qrape vines are p.4"c«
round the walls. The houses have as little woud a pi
sible about them, both the first and second floors }.:.\.;;
brick pavements. There are no chimneys exoept iu O
kitchens, as the climate is not severe eoough to ivd^-
fire-places necessary in the rooms.
There are fifteen churches, of which the principal vt
the cathedral, which of itself covers sAmost a whole ha.»x
San Domingo, San Merced, San Francisco, snd ib vU- >
leta ; they are all large and handsome buildinj^s, but f a
somewhat gloomy aspect. In the time of the Spu..*:.
these churches were ornamented with a profuiion m{ c ..
and silver, but the revolutionary wars have drtined tu^is
of their wealth.
The majority of the inhabitants are the desceadu.s i
Spaniards, who have settled In that country durin;; lin \^%i
three centuries. The number of free negroes orbUvvtu
small ; that of native Indians is much greater : tbey ^.^
pose the ffreater part of the lower classes, and spea\ *
Spanish, naving entirely forgotten the langusgc oi \u t
ancestors. The whole pop. of the town is estimated b; fc^4
at only 40,000, but by others at 60,000 and upwtrds.
No other town of , South America has so msay m»t.u
tions for the promotion of science. The university, wL.l
has lately been modelled on more eompreheosive pniuip ««.
possesses a library of about 20,000 volumes. There n
also a collection of objects of natural history, an ob«cr-
vatory, a separate school of mathematics, a pabhc kL.^
and a school for painting and drawing. Since the Rv)-
lution there have also been Cfttablished a literary sockri} ; ;
the promotion of natural philosophy and the natbciLi;.:^
an academy of medicine, and another of jurispruJeiia. »
normal school for mutual instruction, a patriotic urn n : :
the promotion of agricuUiue, besides some chAritib> k-
cieties. A considerable number of newspaper* \% \ .-
lished in the town. [For the commerce of Buenos A) rv» »ci
La Plata.]
The town was founded by the Spaniards in l^^.U.' .
1539 being obliged by the neighbouring Indians to lUr.
it, they retired to Assumption, on the Parsgusr. ^\ -• '
the Spaniards were firmly settled in the countr}' the; rr. .
the town in 15S0, and since that time itslwayt hi*; «
increasing, though slowly. The climate is hcaltbT, •« ..i
name Buenos Ayres (good air) implies, an appeUdUu:.vu. .
was bestowed on it by its founder Mendoza.
(The Travel* Q^Brackenbridge, Miers, aniHsiju; ^ i
the Historical, Political, and Statistical Accowit c/ . i
United Provinces of La Plata,)
BUFFALO. [Ox.]
BUFFALO, the chief town of Erie county, Stsle of N'-
York, situated near the right bank of the Niajrars nwr. .<
which the waters of Erie are discharged into ODUr>
42' 54' N. lat. and 78** 55' W. long., and i% m. W -'
Albany.
Buffalo stands on ground somewhat elevated, and ti (.*•
rounded on three sides by a fine alluvial plain, lu £:*'•
has been verv rapid. The pop., in 1610, wu onli I ■ ' ••
had increased, in 1820, to 2U95; in 1625 it coottir.c«i ^ *-
and in 1830, the latest enumeration, S653 inh. '!-•* *
crease may be attributed to the circumstance ofibf <••-
from Albany, on the Hudson riv., to Lake Brit. hA^.r.: .*
termination at this spot. This canal, which vat <vo.oi' •
in 1817, and finished in 1825, is 363 m. kmff. vith § ^u-^^
width of 40 ft. : it has 84 locks. The cost of iU ci>n»tr.- -
was 9,027,456 dollars, and iu utility mav be etumn'i .
the fact, that, in 1831, the amount of tolls callcctcUtic'f..
a million of dollars.
The number of travellen passing through BM-^ * ^■
all times very great ; it forms the p<»t wheoee perv>ui v
to the northern part of the western states first emUr» »
the lakes. BufEalo was attacked by the Bntuh m :> •
and so entirely destroyed by fire, that only <>» •> ^"'
escaped. The town was soon restored, and but oiu^ ' •-
kinds is now (1836) rapidly increasing. Ptovwiom v« •'
cheap that the charge made to boardei«» at the M •- •
in the place, is only 2^ dollars per week.
Em) or VoLnm trx Fivra.
WiuuM Cmwss aa4 Seir*, Stmsiont-imfl,
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