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THE 


PEOPLE'S  DICTIONARY 


'  OF  THB 


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BIBLE 


BY  THE 

Rev.  J.  R.  BEARD,   D.D., 

MEMBER  OF  THB  UISTORI00-THEOZ.OOICAL  80CXBTT  OF  LBIPSIC,   &C. 


VOL  I. 

AARON— GUESTCH  AMBER. 


THIBD    EDITIOir. 


LONDON: 
SIMPKIN,    MARSHALL,    and   Co. 

Manchester:  AINSWORTH. 

Glasgow:  CHAMBERS.    Dublin:  M'GLASHAN. 

New  York  :  WILEY  &  PUTNAM.    Boston,  U.S. :  CROSBY  &  NICHOLLS. 

1850. 


\^f  /s^sy 


HAfiVARD 

UNlVEfiSlTY 

LIBRARY 


HAcxRir: 

PBINTID  BT  CBARLM  OBBKIT. 


PBEPACE. 


The  DicnoNABiES  of  the  Bible  dicnkting  in  thu  coontiy,  howeror  xaetal 
thejr  maj  have  proved  In  their  wrenl  ipherea,  are  either  too  mncli  derived,  m  to 
theit  matmals,  from  the  old  uid,  in  the  present  state  of  Biblical  knowledge,  in 
■ome  meaiure  antiquated  Didionair  of  tlie  celebrated  Colmet,  or,  without  excep- 
tion, aie  too  eiprenlf  designed  and  constructed  in  ordei  to  support  eatabliihed 
opinions,  to  appear  to  the  author  of  '  Tbe  People's  Dictionaby  of  the 
Bible'  allt^thec  suitable  to  sflbrd  to  the  public,  espedally  to  iti  more  intd- 
Ugent  membets,  either  such  information  «s  the;  need  and  may  receive  with  con- 
fidence, or  sach  views  of  theoatore  and  evidence  of  Divine  Revelation  as  ina;  in 
the  present  day  be  least  open  to  assault  Not  without  hesitation  and  a  deep 
consdousness  ot  iiunfficieno]',  did  he  in  consequence  take  on  himself  the  task  oif 
endeavouring,  so  &r  as  bis  humble  abilities  allowed,  to  supply  what  in  his  judg- 
ment seemed  required.  The  result  will  be  found  in  the  following  pages;  the 
great  object  of  which  is,  to  afibrd  a  digest  of  trustworthy  information  ueceasary 
fbr  the  profitable  study  and  the  right  understanding  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

Such  information  exists  in  greet  abundance  and  variety  in  the  works  of 
teamed  Oennan  divines,  on  whose  Measures  the  writer  has  drawn  so  far  sa  was 
needful,  and  so  far  as  was  compatiljle  with  the  exercise  of  an  independent  judg- 
ment In  a  list  of  Works  given  at  the  end  of  the  Second  Volume,  intended  to 
afibrd  to  the  P.ngli«h  student  ud  in  the  study  of  the  rich  treasures  of  Conti- 
nental theology,  ere  mentioned  many  authors  to  whom  the  writer  is  under  obli- 
gations ;  to  no  one,  however,  in  such  a  d^ree  as  to  require  the  mention  of  his 
name  in  this  place,  save  Winer,  from  whose  invaluable '  BibtiMcha  SeiAeorterbuch,' 
2ad  and  3rd  edition  (Leipzig,  1846),  materials  have  been  freely  drawn.  In  two 
or  three  articles,  the  work  is  indebted  to  tbe  kindness  and  learning  of  gentlemen 
whose  aid  is  acknowledged  in  connection  with  their  productions.  Should  any 
reader  discover  a  similarity  between  views  and  statements  here  made  and  others 
found  in  the  '  Biblical  Cyclopedia'  edited  by  Dr.  Kitto,  it  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  bet  that  the  author  of  this  Dictionary  contributed  largely  to  that  publication. 
In  the  use  of  authorities,  preference  has  for  the  most  port  been  given  over 
English  divines  whose  works  ate  in  this  country  generally  known,  to  foreigners, 
and  before  all  other*  to  Oermans,  because,  beyond  comparison,  they  at  present 
are  the  great  maslcrs  in  theological  Bcience,  aitd  in  tbe  ho]ic  not  only  of  aug- 
menting, however  little,  the  store  of  knowledge  on  the  subject  In  the  English 
tongue,  but,  still  more,  of  doing  something  to  recommend  and  promote  the 
Study  of  German  theology.  Surely  a  lilcroture  that  eonlains  the  writings  of  such 
men  as  Schleiennacher,  Neander,  Tholuck,  Winer.  Bretschnrider,  and  Credner, 
deserves,  and  will  repay,  the  most  attentive  p**'"** 

Whatever  the  amount  of  his  obligation  V  -  hait  for  the  most 

part  re-produced  the  materials  here  oliore  ich  a  way  and  to 

such  an  extent  that  he  and  no  one  elae  if.  nctual  shape  and 


IV  PBJEFACJE. 

character.  If  the  work  has  any  merit  in  his  own  eyes,  that  merit  arises  from  the 
fkct  thaty  whateyer  its  deficiencies  and  faults,  the  opmions  which  it  advances  hare 
not  been  adopted  or  modified  in  order  to  meet  or  support  popular  creeds.  The 
writer  has  striven  simply  to  say  what  he  thinks,  without  speculating  as  to  its 
aooeptableness  in  the  world,  desirous  only  of  being  approved  of  Him  who  loveth 
truth  in  the  inward  parts. 

In  regard  to  detaUs,  the  author  adopted  such  a  plan  as  seemed  to  him  likely 
to  secure  his  purpose  of  communicating  to  the  general  reader  such  information 
as  was  requisite  for  the  right  comprehension  of  the  Bible.  In  this  view,  he  has 
taken  as  the  occasion  of  the  remarks  and  essays  that  ensue,  those  Biblical  words 
which,  as  it  seemed  to  him,  a  person  of  small  information  might  not  understand, 
and  which  were  best  fitted  to  lead  naturaUy  to  the  disquisitions  required  in 
order  to  put  the  reader  in  possession  of  a  general  summary  of  Biblical  Know- 
ledge. In  the  execution  of  his  pleasant  though  laborious  task,  he  has  not  been  for- 
getful of  what  might  excite  the  reader's  interest  in  the  important  topics  handled ; 
and  he  has  not  hesitated  to  express  freely  his  convictions  on  many  points  having, 
in  the  present  day,  an  immediate  bearing  on  the  personal  and  social  advancement 
of  his  fellow-men.  Against  one  error  he  has  striven  carefuUy  to  guard,  namely,  that 
of  putting  forth  his  opinions  in  the  spirit  of  a  zealot,  and  so  offending  those  who 
differ  from  him.  WhUe,  also,  he  has  finely  uttered  his  own  deliberately-formed  con- 
victions, he  has,  he  trusts,  respected  the  convictions  of  others ;  and  in  composing 
a  work  designed  to  throw  light  on  the  common  treasury  of  Christian  truth  and 
hope,  he  has  carefully  abstained  from  advancing  opinions  characteristic  of  a  sect, 
or  hostile  to  standards  of  faith  generally  held  in  respect  One  set  aim  and  pur- 
pose he  avows  that  he  has  had — one  besides  that  of  aiding  the  unlearned  to  read 
the  Scriptures  profitably — ^namely,  to  explain  the  nature  and  maintain  the  credi- 
bility and  aoceptableness  of  the  revelation  graciously  made  of  God  through 
Moses  and  his  own  Son,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  This  object  is  a  result  of  some 
inquiry,  some  thought,  and  deeply-seated  convictions.  This  object  has  hitherto 
formed  the  chief  aim  and  purpose  of  his  publications.  It  will  probably  not  cease 
to  be  entertained  and  cherished  till  death  terminate  his  labours.  The  recogni- 
tion of  the  trustworthiness  of  the  Bible  as  the  great  repository  of  Divine  Truth, 
as  containing  a  history  of  what  God  has  done  for  man,  and  therefore  a  history  of 
Providence,  specially  a  history  of  God's  revelations  for  the  enlightenment  and 
salvation  of  his  creatures — ^the  recognition  of  the  Scriptures  as  comprising  all 
that  la  needful  for  duty,  godliness,  and  eternal  life — appears  to  the  writer  most 
important,  as  in  all  ages,  so  emphatically  in  the  present  day,  laying  as  it  does  a 
broad  and  sure  foundation  for  Christian  '  faith,  hope,  and  charity,'  and  being  an 
indispensable  prerequisite  to  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in  the 
world  at  large. 

In  the  progress  of  the  studies  requisite  for  the  execution  of  his  undertaking, 
the  writer's  estimate  of  the  Bible  has  been  greatly  enhanced.  Owing  to  conclu- 
sions which  had  been  come  to  by  learned  foreigners,  it  was  not  without  solici- 
tude that  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  some  topics — such,  for  instance,  as 
the  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  and  the  historical  validity  of  the  Gospels.  The 
result  is  before  the  reader.  It  is  not  meant  to  be  implied  that  he  has  seen  no 
reason  to  modify  previous  opinions ;  but  he  has  met  with  new  confirmations  of  the 
truth  of  *  Holy  Scripture;'  and  in  proportion  as  his  convictions  have  been  founded 
on  personal  inquiry  and  rested  on  a  wider  basis,  has  he  been  led  to  a  greater 
admiration  of  its  contents.  Deficient  indeed  must  be  prevalent  modes  of  educa- 
tion, when  many  who  professedly  are  expounders  of  the  Divine  Word^  having 


PREFACE,  T 

ftpent  their  best  preparatory  hours  in  the  study  of  literatures  which  contain 
thoughts  and  influences  that  the  Gospel  was  designed  to  supersede,  should  be  led 
to  give,  and,  owing  to  their  own  want  of  a  proper  regard  for  the  Bible,  should  be 
the  occasion  of  others  giving,  a  preference  over  that  book  to  Pagan  writings 
whose  almost  sole  merit  lies  in  their  qualities  as  works  of  art    It  is  not  by  this 
implied  that  the  bulk  of  educated  divines  do  not  show  and  daim  reverence  for 
'  the  Word  of  God.'    A  verbal  and  outward  reverence  does  prevail    '  A  reason- 
able service,'  founded  on  solid  and  weU-understood  grounds,  is  rendered  by  only 
comparatively  few.    Yet  even  in  a  mere  literary  point  of  view,  the  Bible  containt 
compositions  of  the  highest  character.    Why  should  not  Isaiah  be  studied  in  our 
Colleges  with  as  much  care,  diligence,  and  minuteness,  as  Aristophanes  P    Is  it 
not  most  extraordinary  that  the  book  which  is  professedly  the  source  of  all  our 
obligations  and  hopes  should,  even  in  academical  studies  for  the  Christian  minis- 
try, hold  nothing  higher  than  a  secondary  rank  P    Under  such  circumstances,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  laymen,  while  they  fiU  their  minds  and  gratify  their  taste 
in  perusing  the  productions  of  other  writers,  have  no  systematic  knowledge  of, 
no  keen  relish  for,  the  sublime  compositions  of  David,  Ezekiel,  John,  and  Paul, 
which  most  receive  and  read  with  the  unawakened  feelings  of  a  certain  passive 
traditional  respect,  and  which  others  quietiy  disesteem  or  openly  reject  9M 
*  childish  things.'    Before  a  remedy  can  be  applied  to  these  evils,  a  new  manner 
of  studying  the  Scriptures  must  become  prei^ent;  and  that  new  manner  cannot 
be  established  unless  men  shall  have  first  so  had  their  faith  increased  as  to  feel  a 
lowly  assurance  that  God's  spirit  will  be  given  to  those  who  calmly  and  faithfully 
follow  the  leadings  of  His  providence  in  quest  of  Divine  Truth.    We  subjoin  to 
these  remarks  on  the  worth  of  the  Sacred  Writings  a  few  words  translated  from 
The  Apostolical  Constitutions: — 'What  fails  you  in  the  law  of  God,  so  that  you 
give  yourself  to  the  reading  of  profane  authors  P    Are  you  fond  of  history  P    You 
have  the  Book  of  Kings.    You  love  philosophers  and  poets  P    You  will  find  in 
our  Prophets,  in  the  writings  of  Job,  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  topics  of  deeper 
interest  than  in  any  of  the  Gentile  writers.    Do  you  wish  for  lyric  compositions  P 
You  have  the  Psalms.   Do  you  desire  to  peruse  truly  original  antiquities  P  Here 
is  the  Book  of  Genesis.    Would  you  become  acquainted  with  legislation  and 
morals  P    God  puts  into  your  hand  the  code  of  his  holy  law.'    These  literary 
excellences,  however,  are  a  kind  of  surplus — something  gratuitously  added  to  the 
real  and  characteristic  excellence  of  the  Scriptures,  which  consists  in  their  efificacy, 
with  the  aid  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  to  make  men  'wise  unto  salvation  through  fidth 
which  is  in  Jesus  Christ'  (2  Tim.  uL  16) ;  or  perhaps  it  would  be  less  incorrect 
to  say  that  the  sacred  authors,  who,  before  all  others,  are  in  their  several  styles 
free,  natural,  impressive,  touching,  and  sublime,  were,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  raised  to  the  height  that  they  hold  by  the  great  thoughts  which 
filled  their  minds,  the  pure  and  spontaneous  charities  which  moved  their  hearts, 
and  the  solemn  purpose  which  directed  the  whole  course  of  their  lives. 

Besides  a  variety  of  general  information  and  statements  respecting  the  antiqui^ 
ties  of  ancient  nations,  especially  of  Egypt,  tending  to  promote  the  great  pur- 
poses of  the  work,  this  Dictionary  will  be  found  to  contain — 

L  A  brief  and  popular  introduction  to  a  knowledge  of  the  Books  of  the 
Bible,  in  relation  to  their  origin,  preservation,  contents,  aim,  and  credi- 
bility ;  embracing  remarks  on  the  formation  of  the  Canon,  the  Apocry- 
pha, and  Tradition,  as  well  as  the  diffusion  of  the  Scriptures  in  ancient 
and  modem  times : 


ri  PRBFACS. 

n.  A  Sonunary  of  the  Geography  and  Natural  History  of  the  Holy  Land, 
with  a  tpecial  reference  to  the  narratiTea,  opiniouB,  and  imagery  of  the 
iacred  writers,  giren  under  a  desire  to  aid  the  reader  in  forming  an  accu- 
rate and  TiTid  conception  of  the  scenes  and  localities  of  which  they  speak: 

nL  Biographical  notioes  of  Biblical  persons,  bearing  in  ftilness  some  pro- 
portion to  the  position  which  they  severally  hold  in  the  great  picture,  and 
drawn  up  with  an  approach  to  a  conseeutive  nairatiye,  so  as  to  present 
the  subject-matter  in  a  series  of  brief  memoirs : 

IV.  Sketches  from  Ancient  History,  with  an  outline  of  the  history  of  '  the 
chosen  people,'  exhibiting  the  rise,  progress,  decline,  and  ruin  of  the 
nation  and  its  institutions ;  with  obseryations  on  the  arts  and  sciences  in 
their  connection  with  early  stages  of  civilisation,  and  the  mind,  character, 
literature,  and  social  condition  of  the  Israelites : 

V.  An  outline  of  Biblical  Antiquities,  treating  of  the  Language,  Manners, 
Usages,  and  Institutions  of  the  Hebrew  race  in  the  several  periods  of  its 
history  down  to  the  faU  of  Jerusalem,  and  its  relations  to  neighbouring 
and  kindred  stocks : 

VL  An  exhibition  of  opinions  set  forth  or  implied  in  the  Bible,  accompanied 
by  observations  as  to  their  source  and  permanent  validity;  comprising 
principles  and  rules  to  assist  the  student  in  comprehending  and  expound- 
ing the  contents  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament : 

Vn.  Disquisitions  and  remarks  of  an  explanatory  and  apologetic  nature, 
showing  the  grounds  on  which  repose  the  religions  of  Moses  and  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  and  designed  to  illustrate  how  solid  is  the  historical  basis  of 
the  Gospel,  and  its  claim  to  be  accounted  a  Divine  Revelation : 

\JLLL  A  general  view  of  Christian  Truth,  chiefly  as  conveyed  in  the  life, 
teachings,  death,  and  ascension,  of  the  Saviour  of  the  world : 

IX.  General  remarks  promotive  of  edification  in  the  divine  life,  and  so  pa«- 
senting  views  and  sanctions  of  Christian  morality  in  its  application  to  indi- 
vidual wants  and  great  social  interests. 

Where  an  appeal  to  the  eye  seemed  desirable,  wood-engravings,  plans,  and 
maps  have  been  supplied ;  in  which,  as  well  as  in  relation  to  the  materials  in 
general,  care  has  been  taken  to  consult  the  highest  as  weU  as  the  most  recent 
authorities. 

After  all  his  endeavours,  the  writer  is  painfully  impressed  with  the  feeling 
that  the  work  is  far  inferior  to  what  it  should  and  might  have  been.  In  the 
final  revision  of  it  he  gratefully  acknowledges  his  obligations  to  one,  much  of 
whose  life  has  been  spent  in  tiiese  studies,  and  whose  scholarship  is  extensive 
and  exact 


EXPLANATIONS. 

A.  M.  denotes  the  year  of  the  world»  accordmg  to  the  Septuagint,  or  Greek  version 

of  the  Bible. 
A.  C.       „       the  year  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  according  to  the  same  authority. 
T.  „       the  year  before  the  birth  of  Christy  according  to  the  common  (Usher's) 

chronology. 
A.  D.      „       the  year  since  the  birth  of  Christ. 
A.  „       a  word  of  Arabic  origin. 

F.  „  ,,        French. 
C            „  „        Chaldaic. 
O.            f,  „        Greek. 

G.  after  T.  or  Ger.  ,,  German. 
£t.  „  ,,  Hebrew. 
I'*            yy              tt        liatin. 

T.  y,  „       Teutonic  or  Saxon. 

?  is  meant  to  intimate  a  doubt. 

Cir.  (Circiter,  L.), '  about,'  or  *  near.' 

Comp.,  compare. 

Marg.,  the  reading  in  the  margin  of  the  Common  Bibles. 

Intens.,  intensiye,  or  increasing  the  force  of  a  word. 


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AAR                       2  AAB 

i*  deplorable.  The  benevolent  mind  oumot  lost  hie  meeknew,  and  might  have  Ibifeited 
bat  wiah  that  the  aima  of  the  leaden  of  larael  his  piety.  Had  Aaron  been  ananpported  bj 
eoold  have  been  aeeured  at  leaa  ooat  Tean  the  strong  mind  of  his  brother,  his  skill  in 
after  the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abiha,  Eleasar  words  wonld  have  Tanished  into  air.  Had 
and  Ithamar»  Aaron's  yoonger  sons,  were  Hoses  been  mare,  or  Aaron  less,  than  th^ 
ealled  to  peipetnate  the  priesthood  in  their  sereraDj  were,  the  dae  proportion  of  their 
ewn  family.  Aaron  and  the  Lerites  were  to  inflnenee  would  hsTe  been  impaired;  the 
hare  no  part  of  the  inheritance  in  the  land,  martial  element  would  have  been  snperabnn- 
bnt  all  the  tenth  hi  Israel  for  their  serrioe  dant,  the  religions  element  would  have  been 
in  the  tabernacle.  Aaron,  as  well  as  Moses,  defsctiTe;  and  as  the  soldier  was  only  the 
was  not  permitted  to  enter  with  the  people  forenmner  of  the  priest,  so  was  it  essential 
into  the  land  of  promise,  beoaose  of  the  re-  that  Asron  shoold  h«Te  his  own  Tirtnes  and 
hellion  at  the  waters  of  Meribah ;  but,  being  his  own  sphere ;  nor  perhaps  can  we  easily 
eondnoted  to  the  top  of  Momit  Hor,  was  there  measnn  the  amount  of  good  which  the  apeak- 
stripped  of  his  priestly  garments,  which  wen  ing  and  administratiTe  ability  of  Aaron  con* 
pat  on  his  son  Eleasar;  after  which,  Aaron  feind  on  the  straoton  of  the  Mosaic  polity. 
died  (Numb,  xs.)  on  the  top  of  Moont  Hor  The  greatest  men  an  indlTidoally  unequal 
(oomp.  Deut  z.  0.  Numb,  zzsiii.  88),  and  tothe  execution  ofthe  grand  puiposes  of  God. 
was  mourned  for  by  the  people  during  the  It  is  only  in  Jesos  Christ  &at  history  pre- 
spaoe  of  thirty  days^  Meant  Hor  la  ft  hill  sents  us  with  a  peifl»ct  human  model  and  an 
of  considerable  height^  whidi  is  found  in  all-sufflcient  Saviour;  and,  for  the  canying 
Aiabift  Petiaa,  near  Wady  Mnsa.  It  is  still  forward  of  his  work,  most  various  and  diverse 
named  by  the  Arabs,  Harun's  Hill.  On  it  ministrations  wen  required  and  supplied, 
ft  building,  ealled  Aaron's  tomb,  is  shown,  Ordlnsiy  men  should  be  content  end  thank- 
which  is  in  reality  ft  oomparativelj  modem  fnl,  if;  unable  to  command  or  penuade,  they 
strncton.  an  permitted  *  to  stand  and  wait.'      It  is 

Aaron  was  no  slavish  instnunent  in  the  equally  trae,  that,  in  the  great  vineyard,  then 

hands  ot  Moees.    He  had  a  will  of  his  own,  ia  woik  for  every  hand,  as  also  then  is  (will 

and  did  not  tem  to  give  expression  to  it  when  men  but  be  faithful)  a  hand  for  every  work. 

he  saw  fit    In  this  independence  we  have  ft  How  deeply  idolatry  was  engrained  in  ihe 

guarantee  of  the  trustworthiness  of  the  Moeaio  souls  of  the  Israelites,  is  proved  by  the  shan 

enterprise,  as  it  affords  an  cvidenoe  that  then  which  Aaron  took  in  the  setting-up  of  the 

was  no  collusion  between  its  two  great  leaders,  golden  calf.    To  eradicate  idolatry  was  most 

An  exemplification  of  our  position  may  be  important^  as  well  as  most  difficult     This 

found  in  the  following  incident  :-^  Moses,  was  Uie  first  greftt  work.    The  wound,  if  it 

having  married  an  Arab  wife,  had  thereby  could  not  be  healed,  must  even  be  cut  out 

given  dissatisfaction  to  his  brother  Aaron  and  Hence  arose  the  necessity  of  seven  courses, 

his  sister  Miriam,  who  do  not  stop  at  general  which,  if  we  tfaorouglily  understood  their  aim 

TCproaehes,  but  even  call  in  question  his  an-  and  tendency,  we  should  be  less  prone  to 

thority.    From  the  liMt  that  the  chief  pnnidi-  reprobate.    For  the  same  great  purpose  was 

ment  was  made  to  fUl  on  Miriam,  we  think  designed  the  display  of  the  divine  symbols, 

it  probable  that  Jealousy  between  the  two  made  on  Mount  Honb,  when  Moses,  Aaron, 

females  was  at  the  bottom  of  this  outbreak  of  and  the  seventy  elders,  wen  admitted  into 

discontent    The  divine  wiU,  however,  inter-  Jehovsh's  presence  (EnkL  xxiv.  d,  teg.  Dent 

poses:   Moses  is  pronounced  guiltless  snd  iv.lO).  Two  things  wen  to  be  accomplished, 

fsithfhl;  Miriam  is  struck  with  leprosy.   Hen  I.  That  ttie  Israelites,  who  had  been  used  for 

sn  cinumstanoes  which  would  have  proved  centuries  to  oculsr  impressions  as  to  divini- 

fatal  to  an  impostor.   Against  the  destructive  ties,  and  so  needed  something  in  the  way  of 

influences  of  jealousy,  suspicion,  imputations,  evidence  which  i^pealed  to  the  senses,  might, 

and  penalties,  nothing  but  sa  honourahto  in  some  sense,  see  the  invisible  Ood;  and,  II. 

cause  could  have  stood  (Numb.  xiL).  That  they  who  wen  to  be  the  founden  of  a 

That  the  Scriptuns  do  not  pretsnd  to  give  system  of  religion,  whose  very  essence  lay  in 

a  complete  history  of  ito  events,  or  a  fall  pio-  God's  absolute  spirituality,  nU^t  not,  while 

ran  of  ite  characters,  is  evident  irom  the  fact^  they  wen  instructed,  receive  gross  and  mato- 

that  they  ftunish  no  detsils  of  Aaron's  history,  rial  notions,  but  be  raised  to  a  pun  and  lofty 

till,  in  his  eighty-third  yesr,  he  is  csUed  to  conception,  of  the  Cnator.     These  most  im- 

his  official  duties.  portent  nsulte  appear  to  have  been  signally 

The  wisdom  of  Providence  is  exemplified  attained  by  the  interview,  when,  though  the 

in  the  diifereut  gifte  v^oh  Moses  and  Aaron  company  came  nigh  to  God,  beheld  awful 

possessed.    A  union  of  the  qusUties  of  both  tokens  of  his  presence,  and  an  even  said  to 

was  necessary.  Moses  was  fitted  to  command;  have  seen  *  the  God  of  Israel,'  they  wen  yet 

Aaron,  to  obij.    Thefirst  had  the  high  power  duly  admonished  of  the  impiety  of  making 

which  legislation  requires:  the  seoond  pos-  sny  likeness  or  image  of  the  Almighty;  for, 

sessed  the  eloquence  whieh  can  give  effoct  to  as  Moses  expressly  observes,  they  heard  Jeho- 

great  ideas.    Had  Moses  combined  the  excel-  vsh  speaking  to  them  out  of  the  fin,  but  saw 

lenoes  of  Aanm  with  hif  own,  he  would  havu  no  similitude.   The  expnssion, '  the  God  oC 


ABB  3                       ABE 

IsneV  whom  ihej  buw.  It  worthy  ci  ftttentioii,  an  etomoBt  into  eompocmd  wonts,  forming 

as  marking  the  yet  limited  extent  d  tba  proper  names:  thns,  jl&iitfr  means  the  father 

ditine  omnipreeenee,  which  was  revealed  to  of  light;  Ahtgaii,  fsther  or  oaose  of  Joy. 

the  Hebrews,  who,  being  moable  to  eonoeire  ABDOM  (H.  $ervami  ^  judgwtetU),  the 

fiilly  and  properly  of  a  murersal  providenoe  twdflfa  judge  of  Israel,  *  son  of  HiUel,  a 

and  an  aU-snstaining  Creator,  were  instraoted  Pirathonite '  ( Jndg.  zii.  18),  who  *  had  forty 

to  fonn  a  somewhat  jast  eoneeption  of  *the  sons  and  thirty  nephews,  thai  rode  on  three- 

Ood  of  Israel ;'  the  Ood  whose  people  they  seore  and  ten  ass  eolts.*    *  He  Judged  Israel 

were;  mider  whose  goardianship  they  were  eight  years.'     This  record  shows  in  what 

ahoot  to  take  possession  of  the  land  pro-  wealth  and  state  consisted  in  the  days  of  the 


ndsed  to  their  fathers ;  and  who,  in  proeeas  jodges,  snd  enahles  ns  to  form  some  idea  of 

of  time,  would  pass  in  their  miods  flram  be-  the  low  degree  of  civilisation  to  which  the 

ing  their  national  Ood,  to  be  the  sole  Oover-  Hebrews  had  smk. 
nor  of  heaven  snd  of  earth.     At  first  the        There  was  another  Abdon,  the  son  of 


Creator  was  known  as  the  Ood  of  an  indl-  Hicah,  whom  Josiah  sent,  with  Hilkiah  and 

^Fidnal,  namely,  Adam ;  then,  of  a  finnily,  Ahikam,  to  Hnldah  the  prophetess,  on  the 

namely,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob ;  then,  dieeoveiy  of  a  copy  of  the  law,  to  inquire  what 

of  a  nation,  namely,  the  Israelites;  then,  of  the  renmant  of  Israel  and  Jndah  shoold  do 

the  world,  the  Ood  and  Father  of  our  Lord  to  avoid  the  ponishments  denounced  against 

Jesns  Christ    Divine  li|^t  shone  forth  gra-  them  (2  Chron.  zxsiv.  30).     In  d  Kings 

dually  upon  earth,  and  in  proportion  as  men's  xzil.  13,  he  is  csUed  Aehbor,  the  son  of 

eyes  grew  strong  enoof^  to  receive  and  bear  Mwii«i>ii. 

its  radiance.  Abdon  is  aleo  the  name  of  a  city  in  the 

ABADDON  (H. ;  in  Oreek,  ApoUyom,  sig-  tribe  of  Asher,  iriiicfa  was  given  to  the  Levite 

niiyingilesAnoyer). — By  this  word  is  indicated,  fiunily  Oenhon  (Josh.  zzL  80.   1  Chron.  vi 

I.  The  plague  l^  which  the  Israelitee  were  74),  probably  tfaie  same  as  Hebron  (the  r 

destroyed  in  the  wDdeiness,  and  at  which  they  being  taken  in  place  of  A,  wlueh  ie  not 

mnrmvred  (Nmnb.  xiv.  3*-87.  1  Cor.  x.  10).  onccmmon  in  Hebrew),  reckoned  in  Josh, 

n.  A  poniriunent  acting  like  a  oonsmning  six.  38  among  the  towns  of  Asher. 

flre(JobxzxL13.  Ps.hazviiLll).    HI.  The  ABEDN£00(C.i^iyo'f  ffaiw),oiieof'the 

place  of  the  dead;  Hadet  in  Oreek,  in  H»>  children  of  Jndah,' namdy,  Daniel,  Hananiah, 

brew  Scheol  (Job  xxvi.  6;  xxviii.  33.  Prov.  jfishad,  and  Asariah,  who,  when  Nebnchad- 

XV.  11;  xxvii.  30).     IV.  The  angel  (tf  the  nezsar,  king  of  Babylon,  had  conqnered  Je- 

bottomless  pit,  Antichrist,  the  Boman  empire  hoiakim,  kkig  of  Jndah,  and  eanied  him  and 

(B/fif.  ix.  11 ;  oomp.  3  Thess.  ii.  8).  his  subjects  sway  captive  into  his  own  em- 

A6ANA  (H.  fereKmal)t  emit  of  the  rivers  pire,  were,  by  express  oommsnd  of  the  king, 

of  Damascus  mentioned  3  Kings  v.  13,  to-  given  to  Aishpenas,  the  master  (tf  his  eunuchs, 

gether  with  Pharpar,  which  two  streams  were  chosen  of  *the  king's  seed  and  of  the  princes, 

probablytribntariesof  the  Barrada,  that  issues  children  in  whom  was  no  blemish,  but  well 

from  AntOibanus,  and  waten  the  wide  plain  favoured,  and  skilfdl  in  sll  wisdom  and  cun- 

in  which  Damascus  stands,  -—  producing  the  ning,'  in  order  that  they  might '  be  tangfat  the 

utmost  fertility  and  vegetable  beauty  on  the  learning  and  the  tongue  of  the  Chaldeans.' 

very  verge  of  a  desert;  so  that  Naaman  may  Chaldean  names  were  also  given  them,  ^ 

well  have  preferred  these  his  native  rivers  to  to  Daniel  that  of  Belteshasszar,  to  Hananiah 

those  of  Judea,  whieh,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  Shadrach,  to  Mishsel  &at  of  Heahach, 


the  Jordoi,  are  shallow,  and  often  dry,  effecting  and  to  Azariah  that  of  Abednego.  And  Ood 
litde  for  the  lands  throu|^  whieh  they  flow.  gave  these  four  children  of  the  Jews,  know- 
In  Solomon's  Song  (iv.  8),  Amcna  is  men-  ledge  snd  skill  in  sU  leaming  and  irisdom ; 
tionedss  part  of  Mount  Lebanon.  From  this  and  Daniel  had  understanding  in  all  visions 
Amana  the  river  may  have  had  its  sources  and  dreams'  (Dan.  i.).  In  consequence  of 
and  its  name.  Daniel's  skill  in  intsrpreting  a  dream,  he  was 
ABABIM  (H.  fransitf )  is  the  name  of  a  himself  made  supreme  judge  in  the  higheet 
mountainous  range  in  flic  country  of  the  court,  while  his  three  compankms  were  '  set 
Moabites  (Numb.  xxxiiL  47,  48),  which  (ao-  over  the  afbirs  of  the  province  of  Babylon.' 
cording  to  Dent  zxxiL  49,  send  Josephus,  But  one  of  those  great  and  sudden  chsnges 
Antiq.  ir.  7)  lay  opposite  to  Jericho,  end  wss  ensued,  to  which  Eastern  courts  sre  liable. 
very  high.  Mount  Nebo,  on  idii^  Moses  Not  improbably,  by  the  intrigues  of  the  native 
died,  was  a  part  of  the  range ;  and  bom  it  a  priests,  who  disliked  the  Hebrew  favourites, 
view  could  be  had  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  a  huge  image  of  gold  was  set  up  in  the  plain 
A  ford  ii  found  at  its  foot,  whence  its  nsme  d Dura;  and  when  Shadrach,  Ifeehaoh,  and 
may  have  been  derived.  Abednego  reftised  to  fall  down  snd  worship  it, 
ABBA. — This  is  a  Chaldaic  form  of  the  they  were  'cast  into  a  burning  fiery  ftamace.' 
Hebrew  word  «b,  which  signifiee  father,  and  Being  wondnrfUly  preserved,  however,  they 
hss  been  retained  in  the  common  English  vrere  set  at  liberty,  and  promoted;  while  a 
translation  in  Mark  xiv.  36.  Bom.  viil.  15.  royal  decree  was  issued,  threatening,  with  the 
Oal.  ir.  6.    The  word  ab  frequently  enters  as  penalty  of  deadi,  all  who  spaks  against  their 


ABE  4                        ABI 

Ood» '  beesoM  then  is  no  other  god  that  can  name :  the  place  lay  on  the  ea«tem  side  of 

delirer  after  this  sort*  (Dan.  ill.)-    The  con-  the  Jordan,  in  the  oonntJ^  of  the  Ammonites, 

duct  of  these  Hebrew  confessors  is  worthy  and  was  celebrated  for  its  wine  in  the  time 

of  the  highest  praise,  and  may  adrantageouBly  of  Ensebins.    TV.  Abel-^mzraim,  the  green 

be  studied  in  an  age  when  men  are  so  prone  sward  of  the  Egyptians,  called  originally  '  the 

to  bow  down  to  the  golden  idols  which  the  thrashing-floor  of  Atad'   (Gen.  L  11) :  the 

world  sets  op  to  receive  their  homage.  name  was  changed  because  there  Joseph  b»* 

ABEL  (H.  more  properly  Hebely  vamiy),  wailed  his  father  when  carrying  his  corpse 
the  second  son  of  Adam,  gave  himself  to  the  for  burial  into  the  land  of  Csnaan.  Jerome 
shepherd's  life ;  thus,  while  Cain,  his  brother,  places  it  on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan,  as 
pursued  hunting,  representing  the  second  the  direction  which  the  moamers  took  sug- 
state  in  aprogressiTe  cinlisation.  He  oflTered  gesu,  though  others  assign  the  east  side  as 
to  God  an  offering  which  was  accepted,  while  its  locality.  It  obrionaly  lay  not  far  from 
his  brother's  was  refiised;  on  whidi  Cain  be-  that  rirer,  and  must  haye  been  on  the  south- 
came  jealous,  and,  being  enraged,  slew  Abel  west  of  the  care  of  Maepelah,  near  Mamre 
(Gen.  iy.  8).  In  the  New  Testament,  Abel  is  or  Hebron,  in  the  country  of  the  Hittites. 
mentioned  in  the  number  of  those  who  were  V.  Abel-mehoiah,  the  dancing  plot  (1  Kings 
put  to  death  for  their  piety  (Matt  xziiL  d&.  iy.  12;  six.  16),  lay  in  the  north-west  ex- 
Luke  xi.  01).  It  is  usual  in  the  East  to  tremity  of  the  land  of  Issachar,  and  is  re- 
represent  the  blood  of  one  who  has  innocently  marki^le  as  probably  the  birthplace  of  the 
suffered  death,  as  calling  for  yengeance  on  prophet  Elisha. 

God ;  whence  the  blood  of  Abel  is,  in  Heb.  ABIA  (H.  Jehovah-faiher),  the  designs- 

xil.  24,  compared  with  the  Uood  of  Christ,  tion  of  one  of  the  twenty-four  courses  or  com- 

which  speaketh  better  things, — that  is,  mercy  panies  into  which  the  priests  were  divided, 

fbr  man.    In  Heb.  xi.  4,  the  preference  which  from  the  time  of  David,  for  conducting  the 

was  given  to  Abel's  offsring  is  ascribed,  not  service  of  the  temple  in  Jerusalem  (Luke  i. 

to  any  thing  in  the  offering  itself^  but  to  the  0 — 10).    Abia  was  the  name  of  a  descendant 

pious  disposition  with  which  it  was  made,  of  Eleazar,  Aaron's  son,  from  whom,  together 

Nor  is  there  any  ground  for  supposing,  that  with  his  broker  Ithamar,  the  Mosaic  priest- 

the  divine  ssnotion  is  here  given  to  sa<»ifices  hood  was  derived.    The  company  was  called 

of  blood,  since  the  sacred  text  Is  not  inoom-  Abia,  from  its  original  head;  for  every  course 

patible  iritfa  the  supposition  that  Abefs  obla-  had  a  chief,  whose  business  was  to  superin^ 

tion  was  milk.      Certainly  the  analogy  of  tend  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  the  course, 

other  histories  would  justi^  the  conclusion.  These  twenty-four  bands  took  the  office  in 

that  animal  sacrifices  came  into  ose  only  at  turn,  week  by  week.     Abia  was  the  eighth 

a  much  later  date.  company.     Among  the  duties  was  that  of 

A  great  truth  is  taught  here, ^namely,  burning  the  incense,  morning  snd  evening 

that,  as  the  disposition  forms  the  character  ('  at  the  time  of  incense,'  ver.  10),  on  the 

and  determines  the  lot,  so  is  it  the  quality  altar  of  incense,  before  the  mercy-seat,  which 

which  renders  our  services  acceptable  to  God,  was  the  place  appropriated  for  the  appearance 

or  the  reverse.    Man  is  justified  before  his  of  Jehovah,  and  the  manifestation  of  his  wiU. 

Maker  by  faith,  and  not  by  works.     The  Accordingly,  here  it  was  that  Zacharias  had 

motive  gives  its  character  to  our  deeds.  his  vision  relating  to  the  birth  of  John  the 

ABEL   (H.  a  gran-ploi),  the  name  of  Baptist     The  whole  scene,  as  depicted  by 

scTcral  places  in  Palestine,  distinguished  one  Luke,  is  intensely  Hebraic  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  3. 

from  another  by  some  additional  word,  which  2  Chron.  viiL  14 ;  xxilL  4 ;  xxxv.  4 ;  xxxvi. 

ajppear  to  have  been  spots  of  peculiar  fer-  14.   Neh.  xiL  7.   Exra  x.  6.  2  Kings  xi.  89. 

tility:  thus,  in  2  Chron.  xvi.  4,  we  read  of;  Joseph.  Antiq.  vil.  4,  7;  xx.  7,  8). 

I.  Abel-maim,  that  is,  the  green  spot  near  ABIGAIL  (H.>2i<A«r<//03f^,  wife  of  Nabal, 

the  waters.  From  2  Sam.  xx.  14,  and  follow-  a  woman  of  good  understanding,  and  of  a 

ing,  this  seems  to  have  been  an  ancient  place  beautifiil  countenance,  whose  husband  was 

of  religious  and  social  note,  and  was  also  churlish  and  evil  in  his  doings  (1  Sam.  xxv. 

termed  Abel-beth-maachah  (1  Kings  xv.  20).  8),  dwelling  in  Cazmel,  in  great  substance. 

It  lay  in  the  north  of  Palestine,  and  belonged  David,  when  flying  from  Saul,  sought  aid 

to  the  tribe  of  Naphthali.  Another  place  was  from  Nabal,  whose  property  he  had  protected ; 

denominated,  II.  Abel-iMUim  (Numb.  xxxiiL  and,  being  reftised,  proceeded  with  a  band  of 

49,  that  is,  the  green  spot  of  acacias ;  it  was  men  to  punish  him  for  his  ingratitude,  but 

in  the  plain  of  Moab,  the  ssme  as  Shittim  was  met  by  Abigail,  who,  without  her  hus- 

(Numb.  xxv.  I.  Micvi.  5).    Josephus  places  band's  knowledge,  had  gone  forth  to  meet 

it  a  short  distance  from  the  Jordan.    The  David,  with  a  large  present    Her  husband, 

Hebrews  delayed  here  some  time  before  they  through  her  entreaties  and  generosity,  was 

enteredPalestine:  hence  Joshua  sent  his  spies  spared.    On  this,  Nabal  made  a  great  feast, 

(Josh.  ii.  1),  and  hence  he  began  to  pass  the  and  was  not  informed  by  his  wife  of  what 

Jordan.    HI.  Abel-keramim,  which,  though  she  had  done  till  the  day  after  his  carousing; 

translated  in  out  version  (Judg.  xi.  83 )  *  the  on  hearing  which,  his  heart  died  within  him, 

plain  of  the  vineyards,'  was  really  a  proper  and  he  became  as  a  stone.   ShorUy  afterwards 


A  BI                        5  ABI 

be  was  a  corpse.    Dayid  then  married  Abigail,  ingly*  having  marshalled  his  troops,  to  the 

who  bore  him  his  second  child,  Ghileab  (2  number  of  400,000  *  valiant  men  of  war,'  he 

Sam.  iii.  3),  who,  in  1  Ghron.  ill.  1,  is  called  proceeds,  after  the  ancient  custom,  to  address 

Daniel.  his  enemy,   and  for  this  purpose  ascends 

The  address  which  AbigaU  utters  in  order  Mount  Zemaraim,  in  the  territories  of  Jero- 

to  deter  David  from  his  purposes  of  revenge,  boam ;  and  then  makes  a  speech,  which  shows 

offers  a  remarkable  combination  of  simplicity,  that  he  possessed  more  talent  than  honesty, 

shrewdness,  and  skill.    It  bears  in  itself  the  reproving  the  king  of  the  ten  tribes  with  the 

evidence  of  its  truth.    No  one  who  knows  any  idolatrous  practices  to  which  he  himself  was 

thing  of  oriental  manners  in  ancient  times,  not  a  stranger.    Then  came  the  battle,  which 

can  doubt  its  reality.    It  affords  also  a  per-  ended  in  favour  ofAbijah,  and  in  the  slaughter 

manent  testimony  to  not  merely  the  good  of  000,000  chosen  men  on  the  opposite  side, 

sense,  but  the  high  culture,  of  Abigail,  who.  The  chronicler  ascribes  the  victory  to  the  di- 

failing  to  make  any  good  impression  on  the  vine  assistance;  nor  is  it  difficult  to  believe, 

great  lines  of  her  husband's  character,  must  that  the  Judahites,  not  having  become  religi- 

have  felt  herself  most  unequally  yoked,  and,  ously  so  corrupt  as  the  Israelites,  were  su- 

having  a  princely  soul,  well  deserved  to  be-  perior,  as  in  strength  and  courage,  so  in  a 

come  David's  queen.    The  promptitude  with  consciousness  of  the  favour  of  Ood  (1  Kings 

which   she  undertakes  to  try  whether  she  zv.  2  Chron.  xiii.).    This  victory  increased 

could  appease  David's  wrath,  while  the  poor  Ab^ah's  power,  who,  in  the  true  spirit  of  an 

churl,  Nabal,  could  do  nothing  but  sit  stiU  oriental  monarch,  had  a  harem  of  fourteen 

and  await  the  storm,  shows  the  laudable  de-  vrives,  and  a  family  of  twenty-two  sons  and 

cision  of  virtuous  energy.    A  good  conscience  sixteen  daughters.    As  Ab|jah  iq>peared  as 

is  the  source  of  the  noblest  impulses.  the  champion  of  the  national  religion,  so  he 

ABIHU  CH.  he  is  my  father)^  a  son  of  took  care  to  borrow  from  it  more  than  the 

Aaron,  who,  with  his  brother  Nadab,  was  de-  aid  which  words  could  give.   A  body  of  priests 

voured  by  Uie  fire  which  came  out  from  the  was  placed  in  his  army,  whose  office  it  was, 

tabernacle,  in  consequence  of  the  unbidden  at  the  onset  of  the  forces,  'with  sounding 

and  strange  fire  which  they  offered  in  their  trumpets  to  eiy  alarm  againstthe  enemy;' and, 

censers  (Lev.  z.  1 ).    The  offence  appears  to  no  doubt,  the  worshippers  of  the  golden  calves 

have  consisted,  not  merely  in  the  oblation  retained  in  their  bosoms  enough  of  the  influ- 

being  unbidden,  and  therefore  likely  to  in-  enee  of  the  old  national  religion,  to  be  struck 

terfere  with  the  purity  of  divine  worship,  but  with  a  superstitious  panic  when  they  heard  a 

in  the  improper  state  in  which  resort  to  strong  blast,  which,  reminding  them  of  the  solenmi- 

drink  had  brought  the  young  men  (ver.  8 —  ties  of  the  temple  worship,  sounded  like  the 

II).    In  untold  instances,  alas!  has  *  strong  voice  of  Ood,  uttered  against  their  rebellion 

drink'  annihilated  in  men's  minds  the  es-  and  idolatiy. 

sential  *  difference  between  holy  and  unholy,  The  enemies  of  religion  have  endeavoured 

and  between  clean  and  unclean ;'  causing  its  to  turn  to  their  own  account  the  vast  numbers 

inextinguishable  and  most  deadly  'fire'  to  arrayed  and  slain  on  this  occasion  and  on 

<  devour,'  first  their  hearts,  and  then  their  others.    The  case  is  not  without  difficulty, 

bodies;  leaving  them,  in  regard  to  eternity,  We  subjoin  a  few  remarks,  which  may  lessen 

without  God  and  without  hope.  the  objection.     Mistakes  are  easily  made  by 

ABIJAH  (H.  my  father  Jah,  A.M.  4002;  transcribers  in  copying  numbers,  especially, 
A.G.  946 ;  V.  058),  the  name  given  in  the  from  the  nature  of  the  Hebrew  notation,  the 
Chronicles  to  the  second  king  of  Judah,  the  hi^^er  numbers.  It  may  even  be  questioned, 
follower  of  Behoboam.  In  the  Book  of  Kings,  whether  the  apparent  exaggeration  rests  with 
he  is  termed  Abijam.  He  began  his  reign  the  historian,  or  with  our  misconception  of 
in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  father,  and  his  mode  of  reckoning.  These  large  are  also 
reigned  three  years  in  Jerusalem.  In  ascend-  round  numbers,  and  do  not  therefore  pretend 
ing  the  throne,  Abijah  had  all  the  advantages  to  more  than  a  general  accuracy,  which  is 
which  birth  could  convey,  and  on  that  account  sufficient  for  the  object  that  the  writers  had 
seems  to  have  cherished  the  project  of  bring-  in  view.  We  must  not  look  at  these  armies 
ing  the  ten  tribes  back  under  &e  sceptre  of  with  modem  eyes.  They  were  not  regular 
Judah:  but,  if  they  were  given  to  idolatry,  standing  troops,  but  a  sort  of  levy  en  masse, 
he  was  not  tree  from  its  abominations;  and  brought  together  for  the  occasion,  and  com- 
the  great  ends  of  Providence  in  the  Airther-  prising  the  bulk  of  the  adult  population.  This 
ance  of  monotheism  would  have  been  little  fact  goes  far  to  account  for  their  magnitude, 
promoted  by  allowing  his  wishes  to  be  re-  as  well  as  for  the  extent  of  slaughter  which 
allzed,  and  so  strengdiening  the  kingdom  of  ensued  on  a  defeat;  for  the  flight  would  be 
Judah.  Even  the  power  which  Abijah  did  no  less  confused  axid  scattered  than  preoipi- 
possess,  was  greater  than  he  knew  how  to  use  tate,  and  the  ravages  of  a  pitiless  and  blood- 
religiously.  However,  he  made  an  attempt  thirsty  conqueror  would,  in  the  first  flush  of 
to  carry  his  plan  into  execution,  and  for  that  victory,  be  fearftd. 

purpose  engaged  in  war  with  Jeroboam.    But  It  is  an  old,  but  not  the  less  blame-worthy 

some  feasible  pretext  was  required.    Accord-  exnedient,  for  ambition  and  tyranny  to  cover 


ABI  6  ABI 

their  dnigni  with  religiotts  pretexts;  hot  Abi*  ably  with  Luke's  statemeot,  *  In  the  fifteenth 
Jsh*s  misoondnet  wu  not  mitigated  by  his  year  of  Tiberius  Caesar,  which  would  be  not 
disingenuoosness,  nor  oan  hypocrisy  in  any  many  years  short  of  the  time  when  the  te- 
ease  do  anght  but  make  a  lust  of  power  trarohy  was  assigned  by  Caligula  to  Agrippa. 
hateftil  in  the  sig^t  of  Ood  snd  man.  The  scattered  historical  intimations  seem  to 

ABILENE  (G.),  a  district  of  eountiy,  at  Ae  faTour  the  idea  of  there  having  been  at  least 
foot  of  Antilebanon,  named  ttom  AHkf  its  two  rulers  of  Abilene,  named  Lysanias;  one 
chief  eity  (Luke  ilL  1).  Bankes  oonsiders  put  to  death  byAntony,  the  other  who  goyemed 
Abila  to  have  lain  on  Uie  river  Batrada,  in  at  the  time  defined  by  Luke.  Nor  need  we 
which  he  agrees  with  Pococke.  Burial  mounds  feel  any  surprise,  that  Luke  makes  use  of  the 
are  found  on  the  spot,  and  Bankes  discorered  name  as  a  means  of  dating  by ;  since,  as  we 
a  Grecian  inscription  on  a  rock;  Pococke  had  have  seen,  the  tetrarchate  of  Lysanias  was  a 
prerionaly  discovered  one  in  a  church;  both  well-known  object  of  refierence.  Lysanias 
of  which  gave  countenance  to  the  idea,  that  bears  the  tide  ot  tetraroh  on  an  inscripticm 
the  city  stood  there.  We  have  only  an  imper-  found  by  Pooocke  in  ttie  neighbourhood  of 
feet  knowledge  of  this  small  state.    It  is  not    Abila. 

mentioned  in  history  before  the  time  when  ABIMELECH  (H.  kin^i  father.  A.M. 
Antony,  the  Boman  triumvir,  held  sway  over  8284;  A.  C.  2204;  V.  1897)  was  a  king  of 
Western  Asia,  when  it  is  denominated  by  the  Philistines,  who  ruled  over  Gerar  which 
Josephus  (Antiq.  xx.  7. 1)  as  a  tetrarehy  and  lay  on  the  soudi-westem  bwder  of  Palestine, 
a  kingdom  (Jewish  Wsr,  iL  11. 5).  The  first  This  petty  prince  took  Sarah,  Abraham's  wife, 
ruler  on  record  bore  the  name  of  Ptolemy  as  the  paMarch  journeyed  in  his  nomadic 
Mennvus,  who  died  about  A.C.  40.  Lysanias  wanderings  towards  the  west,  snd  put  her  into 
followed  him.  He  was  put  to  death  by  An-  his  harem,  believing  that  she  was  merely 
tony,  A.C.  84.  Then  came  a  tetrarch  named  Abraham's  sister;  for  Abraham,  in  virtue  of 
Zenodorus,  who,  A.C.  28,  was  compelled  by  her  being  his  fatheifs  but  not  his  mother's 
Augustus  to  give  up  a  large  part  of  his  teiri-  child,  had,  with  a  view  to  safety,  caused  Sarah 
tories,  and  Sie  entire  district  fell  into  the  to  be  called  his  sister.  Sarah,  however,  re- 
hands  of  the  Boman  emperors.  sisted  the  wishes  (^  Abimelech,  who,  at  length. 

According  to  this  view,  no  mention  is  made     discovers  that  Sarah  was  the  wife,  as  well  as 
by  Josephus  of  the  Lysanias  who,  in  the  fif-     sister,  of  Abraham,  and,  in  consequence  of  a 
teenth  year  of  Tiberius,  was  tetrarch  of  Abi-     divinely  sent  punishment,  restores  her  to  her 
lene ;  at  which  we  need  foel  no  surprise,  as    husband,  whom  the  king  seeks  to  conciliate 
Abilene  was  a  small  state,  and  lay  beyond  the     with  presents,  and  who,  being  thus  satisfied, 
borders  of  Palestine;  while  the  tenns  em«     interposes  with  God  to  relieve  Abimelech  and 
ployed  by  historians  show,  that  Lysanias  was     his  house  fh>m  the  penalty  under  whidi  they 
an  established  name,  in  connection  with  the     lay  (Gen.  xx).  Abimelech,  in  order  to  make 
supreme  magistrate,  so  that  the  Lysanias  of    an  acknowledgment  to  Sarah  for  her  severance 
Luke  may  have  been  a  descendant  of  the     ttom  her  husband,  kindly  informs  her  that  he 
Lysanias  who  was  put  to  death  by  Antony,     had  given  him  a  thousand  shekels  of  silver. 
It  must,  however,  be  added,  that  language    which  ought  to  act  as  *  a  covering  of  the 
employed  by  Josephus  admits  the  inteipreta-    eyes;'  that  is,  according  to  eastern  phrsseo- 
tion  that  he  rsfeis  also  to  the  Lysanias  of    logy,  a  veil  to  conceal  what  had  been  done 
Luke ;  and,  speaking  of  Caligula,  the  Jewish     amiss,  and  a  means  of  satisfaction  and  forgive- 
historian  says  (Antiq.  xviii.  6. 10)  that  em-    ness;  so  that  Sarah,  who  appears  to  have 
peror  gaTe  to  Agrippa,  I.  *ihe  tetrarchtf  of    complained  of  the  treatment  she  had  received, 
LymmoB*    The  bestowal  of  the  gift,  however,     was  thus  gently  reproved  (ver.  16).    On  the 
was  postponed;  for  Claudius  is  declared  to     termination   of   this    business,   Abimelech 
have  presented  Agrippa,  II.  with  *  Abila  of    sought  to  form  permanent  relations  of  friend- 
Xysantas,and  all  that  lay  near  MonntLebanon'     ship  with  Abndiam.  —  In  Gen.  xxvi.  1,  we 
(Antiq.  xix.  5. 1),  which  did  not  take  effect     find  an  Abimelech  in  the  days  of  Isaac, 
till  the  twelfth  year  of  Claudius  (A.D.  52).     reigning  over  the  same  country,  who  was  in 
In  reference  to  the  final  disposal  of  AbDa,     danger  of  standing,  in  regard  to  Isaac  and 
Josephus  remarks,  *  which  had  been  the  fe-    his  wife  Rebekah,  in  the  same  position  as 
ttwrchy  of  LyitaioM*  (Antiq.  xx.  7. 1).    One     that  which  has  just  been  narrated.      This 
thing  is  very  dear,  namely,  that  Abflene  was     Abimelech  can  scarcely  be  the  same  as  the 
eariy  in  the  first  century  currently  spoken  of    prince  before  spoken  of:  probably  Abimelech 
as  tile  tetrarehy  of  Lysanias.     And  it  is     was  a  name  common  to  all  the  princes  of 
scarcdy  to  be  supposed,  that  the  reputation     Gerar,  as  Phsrosh  was  in  Egypt 
of  a  prince  of  so  inconsiderable  a  state  should        The  conduct  of  both  Abimelech  and  Abra- 
have  been  such  as  to  transmit  the  name  of    ham  will  be  better  understood  when  it  is 
Lysanias,  during  various  changes  in  die  go-     known,  that  Eastern  princes  possess  an  un- 
vemment,  over  a  period  of  above  half  a    questioned  right  to  all  the  beauties  which  may 
century.    The  currency  of  tiie  name  is  much     be  found  in  their  dominions  (Gen.  xii  1&. 
more  likely  to  be  owing  to  its  being  borne  by     Esth.  ii.  8). 
a  tetrarch  Lysanias,  who  hdd  power,  agree-        Another  Abimelech   (A.  M.  4237 ;  A.  C. 


ABI                      7  ABI 

1811;  V.  liM),  a  Mm  of  Gideon  by  a  eon-  dow;  and  if  not,  l«t  fin  oome  oat  of  tfaa 

tubin*,  was  bom  at  Sbaehtm ;   and,  altar  bramble»  and  devoiir  the  eedan  of  Lebanon' 

tilie  death  of  hia  father,  he  became  mler  «—  the  (Jodg.  is.  8—16). 

aizth  Judge  —  of  lerael,  by  means  of  hia  One  or  two  droomatanoea  deaerre  to  be 

mothei's  relatives,  who,  however,  at  the  end  speeially  notiaed,  as  thoj  sapply  ineidental 

of  three  years  took  «|^  anna  against  Abi-  marfca  of  reality,  and  therefore  tend  to  estab- 

meleeh;  and  he,  after  mnoh  bloodahed  and  Hah  the  eredibili^  of  the  book  in  which  they 

isroeity,  eaoaed  himself  to  be  pot  to  death,  are  foond.    We  content  ourselves  with  a 

in  consequence  of  a  blow  received  ftom  a  mere  refeienee  to  the  panble  of  the  choice 

millatone  thrown  on  his  head  by  tfie  haoda  of  the  treea.    Abimeleeh,  when  he  had  de- 

<tf  awoman(Jndg.viiLix.).    ProbaUy  owing  atroyed  Bheohem   (iz.  45),  sowed  it  with 

to  his  own  smbition,  he  is  termed  king,  salt,  aecoiding  to  an  ancient  coatom,  sjrm* 

though  the  properly  so-called  kingdom  of  bolising  popcHtosl  nun.    The  death  of  this 

Isrsel  was  not  estaUished  tOl  kmg  after  his  prince  has  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  Pyrrhus 

time.    His  assomption,  however,  of  supreme  II.  king  of  Epirus  (Jostin.  zxv.  5),  who^ 

power  led  to  the  composition  of  a  parable,  after  having  enjoyed  moat  signal  saccess, 

which,  though  produced  in  a  time  of  national  being  repnlaed  by  the  Bpartans,  proceeded 

degradation,  does  not  aniTer  in  eomparisoD  to  besiege  Argos,  when,  valiantly  fighting  in 

with  the  famous  apologue,  spoken  by  If  ens-  the  thiokeat  of  ihe  battle,  he  was  slain  by  a 

nine  Agrippa  (liv.  IL  8d),  in  order  to  recon-  stone  hurled  from  the  wsUs.    But  the  blow 

cfle  the  revolted  people  to  the  aristocracy,  whidi  slew  Abimeleeh  came  from  a  woman'a 

It  runs  thus: — *  At  a  time  when  all  the  mem-  hand,  which  was  accounted  a  disgraeeftd 

hers  of  man  did  not,  as  now,  join  to  form  deadi  (eomp.  S  Bam.  zL21).    Thus,  perish* 

the  whole,  bnt  each  had  a  distinct  power  of  ing  ignobly,  was  thiaferociona  ruler  dMcrvedly 

speaking  and  thinking,  the  rest  of  them  were  punished  for  the  crodties  he  had  perpetrated, 

indignant  thai  by  their  care  and  labour  the  The  millatones  in  use  in  tiiose  days  were  of 

belly  waa   nourished,  and  ftat,  remaining  such  a  aiae^  as  that  one  of  them  could  be 

quiet  in  the  middle,  it  did  nothing  but  aiyoy  hurled  by  a  woman'a  hand;  and  the  putting 

pleasures  provided  for  it.    On  this  account,  of  anofa  an  instrument  of  destruction  into  a 

they  agreed  that  the  handa  should  convey  woman'a  hand  is  accordant  with  the  usages 

no  food  to  the  mouth,  that  the  mouth  ahould  of  a  period,  when  grinding  was  a  female 

not  receive  what  was  oflbred  to  it,  and  that  occupation,  being  originally  performed  by 

the  teeth  ahould  not  perform  their  office,  one  stone  being  turned  on  another. 

By  tills  foolish  anger,  each  one  of  the  mem«  ABINADAB   (H.  tioble  father),  a  son  of 

hers,  and  the  wlu4e  body,  were  reduced  to  Baul,  who,  together  with  hiJB  brother  Melohi- 

the  greatest  state  of  emaciation.    Then  it  ahna,  was  slain  by  the  Philistines,  in  Mount 

appeared  that  the  belly  also  was  not  idle;  Gilboa  (1  Bam.  xkxL  1,  2).     A  second  of 

that  it  was  no  less  nourishing  than  nourished,  the  name  was  a  Levita,  to  whose  house  *  in 

sending  out  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  equsUy  the  hill'  the  men  of  Siqatl\iearim  brought 

distributed  through  the  veins,  the  blood  by  the  ark,  committing  it  specially  to  the  care 

which  we  Uve,  and  which  it  obtained  iWnn  of  lus  son  Eleaaar,  who  was  '  sanctified'  for 

the  food  it  consumed.'    The  scriptural  fable  the  purpose  (1  Sam.  vii).    The  second  son 

is  introduced  by  the  statement  that  its  anthor,  of  Jesse,  David's  father,  slso  bore  the  name 

Jotfaam,  went  and  stood  on  the  top  of  Mount  of  Abinadab   (I  Ghroa.  ii.  18).     The  aik 

Oerizim,  and  lifted  up  hia  voice,  and  cried  remained  in  the  fiunily  of  Abinadab  for  about 

and  said,  'Heaiken  unto  me,  ye  men  of  aeventy  years,  when  it  was  transported  by 

Bhechem,  that  God  may  hearken  unto  yon :  David  to  the  house  of  Obed-edom;  he  fearing. 

The  trees  went  fortii  on  a  time  to  anoint  a  after  the  sudden  death  of  Ufsah,  to  take  it 

king  over  tiiem ;  and  they  said  unto  the  olive-  into  Jerusalem.    Having,  however,  been  the 

tree,  Beign  thou  over  us :  but  the  olive-tree  occasion  of  good  to  the  family  of  Obed-edom, 

said  unto  them,  Should  I  leave  my  fatness,  the  aik,  after  a  atay  there  of  three  months, 

wherewith  by  me  they  honour  Ood  and  man,  was  at  length  conv^ed  into '  the  city  of  David 

and  go  to  be  promoted  over  the  trees  P    And  with  gladness.' 

the  trees  ssid  to  the  fig-tree,  Come  thou.  It  is  strange  that  so  sacred  a  thing  as  the 
and  reign  over  us ;  but  the  fig-tree  said  unto  ark  should  have  been  so  long  severed  from 
them.  Should  I  forsake  my  sweetness  and  my  the  tabemade,  and  in  the  care  of  unofficial 
good  fruit,  and  go  to  be  promoted  over  the  iadividnals.  The  unsettled  state  of  the  go- 
trees  t  Then  said  tiie  trees  unto  the  vine,  vemment  may  have  been  the  cause  of  this 
Come  thou,  and  reign  am  us;  and  the  vine  separation.  But,  had  there  been  any  collusion 
said  unto  them.  Should  I  leave  my  wine,  or  iialseness  at  the  bottom,  this  entrusting  of 
which  cheereth  Ood  and  man,  and  go  to  be  tiie  ark  to  private  hands  would  hardly  have 
promoted  over  the  trees  ?  Then  said  all  the  been  allowed  by  the  priests,  and,  if  sUowed, 
trees  unto  the  bramble.  Come  thou,  and  could  not  have  failed  to  caose  detection  and 
reign  over  us;  and  the  bramble  said  unto  exposure. 

the  trees.  If  in  truth  ye  snoint  me  king  over  ABISHAI  (H.  faiher  </  a  ^  )»  son  of 

you,  then  come  and  put  your  trust  m  my  aha-  Zeruiah,  sister  of  David,  to  whom  he  proved 


ABL  8  ABL 

a  faithM  and  brave  serrant  ia  war  (1  Sam.  for  washing  Ihe  feet  was  zeokoned  among  the 

xxvLO — 12.  2  Bam.  xtLA — 12.  1  Chron.iJ.  daties  of  hospitalitj  due  to  traTellers  in  a 

10).    He  slew  the  giant  Ishbi-benob,  who  eoontiy  where  the  heat  was  intense,  the  legs 

was  on  the  point  of  killing  David  in  battle  bare,  and  the  feet  were  protected  only  by  san- 

(2  Sam.  xzi.  16).   In  2  Sam.  xziii.  18,  he  is  dais  (see  also  Gen.  xzir.  32;  zliii  24).    The 

reckoned  chief  among  three  mi^^ly  chieft  of  office,  however,  was,  at  least  in  later  periods, 

David's,  and    celebrated  for  slaying  three  commonly  performed  by  aUves,  and  came 

hundred  persons  with  his  spear  at  ones.  therefore  to  be  a  type  of  humility,  as  well  as 

ABLUTION.-- Bodily  deanlineas,  which  kind  attention  (Johnxiii.  6).    This  passage 

is  of  high  importance  in  every  part  of  the  shows  tibe  extent  to  which  the  moral  import 

world,  not  only  for  the  comfort  and  conve-  of  ablution  was  caiiied,  since  our  Saviour 

nience  of  social  interoonrse,  but  to  preserve  intimates  to  Peter  that  the  efficacy  lay  not  so 

and  promote  each  individual's  physical  wel*  much  in  the  application  of  water, — <  He  that 

fare,  by  purifying  the  body  from  the  natural  is  washed,  needeth  not  save  to  wash  his  feet, 

effects  of  that  insensible  perspiration  which  but  is  clean  every  whit'  (ver.  10),  —  as  in 

has  so  large  a  share  in  the  working  of  the  the  spiritual  tendency  and  effect  of  the  sym- 

animal  economy,  as  well  as  from  the  con*  bolio  act.    Washing  was  sometimes  purely  of 

taminations  which  ensue  from  contact  vrith  a  moral  and  symboUo  nature;  thus,  in  Fs. 

an  atmosphere  more  or  less  loaded  with  im*  zxvl.  6,  — 

purities,  is  of  special  consequence  in  the  «lwfflwMifamybs&diiniii]iocaiey, 

warm  regions  of  the  East,  and  with  the  on-  8o  wiU Icompasi  tbine altar,0  Lord :' 

entsl  temperament  (Neh.  iv.  23).    It  came  the  latter  member  of  the  sentence  shows  that 

therefore  very  naturally  to   be    aocounted  washing  of  hands,  as  a  token  of  personal 

among  men**  first  duties,  and  was  soon  in-  purity,  was  a  preliminaiy  to  worship.    Not 

vested  with  the  sanctity  of  religion,  in  order  disaimnar  in  import  was  the  act  of  Pilate, 

that  its  requirements  might  the  more  readUy,  when  he  declared  his  innocence  of  the  death 

sorely,  and  durahly  receive  attention.    The  of  Jesus,  not  by  word  only,  but,  more  strik- 

priests  of  Egypt  (Herod.  iL  87)  *balfaed  in  ingly,  by  washing  his  hands  (Matt  xzviL  24). 

cold  water  twice  each  day,  and  twice  each  The  spiritual  signiticance  of  washing  may  be 

night;*  nor  was  this  regtfd  to  cleanliness  found  instanced  in  Ps.  U.  2:  — 
confined  to  the  sacred  order   (Wilkinson's  •Wash  me  tborongbly  from  mine  iniquity, 

Egyp.  ilL  858).   It  was  a  natural  fedmg  that  And  deanee  me  Irom  my  irfn.' 

purity  of  body  was  essential,  in  order  to  a  (comp.  Ezek.  zxzvi.  25.  Zech.  xiiL  1.  1  Cor 

worshipper's  being  accepted  by  the  object  of  vi  11.  Heb.  ix.  18, 14;  x.  21,  22.  1  John  i. 

his  homsge :    accordingly,  ablutions   soon  7,  9.)    With  that  proneness  to  abuse  which 

came  to  be  accounted  important  among  the  is  natural  to  man,  the  use  of  the  veiy  ele- 

preparations  for  appearing  before  the  divini-  ment  which  caused  and  betokened  purity 

ties.    Water  thus  became  a  type  of  moral  came,  in  process  of  time,  to  give  force  and 

purity,  and  an  element  in  religions  observ-  sanction  to  corrupt  practices  snd  superstitious 

ances.    Eventually,  the  employment  of  water  notions.    Accordingly,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 

was  regarded  as  a  means  of  washing  away  found  but  too  mueh.  reason  to  reprove  the 

ains  (Acts  xxii.  16).     As  personal  eleanli-  Pharisees  for,  among  other  outward  obser- 

ness  had  a  religious  worth  ascribed  to  it,  so  vances,  their  scrupulous  attention  to  various 

was  the  health  which  ensued  accounted  a  aign  wadiings,— as  the  washing  not  only  of  hands, 

of  the  divine  favour;  while  bodily  diseases,  but  *  of  cups  and  pots,  brazen  vessels  and 

especially  such  as  vrere  held  to  ensue  from  tables ;'  which  practices  rested  on  nothing 

bodily  impurity,  were  considered  as  symbols  higher  than  the  tradition  of  the  elders,  or 

of  moral  pollution,  and  tokens  of  Ood's  die-  the  oral  law,  and  had  a  strozig  tendency  to 

jdeasure  (Lev.  xiv.  Numb.  v.  2,  3).    These  supersede  the  commandment  of  Qod  (Mark 

feelings  and  opinions,  as  they  found  their  vii.  2 — 9.  Matt  xv.  2 — 0). 
birth  in  circumstances,  in  the  main,  peculiar        As  washing  was  accounted  a  means,  so  also 

to  the  East,  so  were  they  common  to  oriental  was  it  naturally  regarded  as  a  token  (figora- 

countries  in  general.     The  Hindoos  bathe  tively)Qfinward  purity,  and,  by  easy  sequence, 

in  the  Oanges,  in  order  to  purify  themselves  of  those  spiritual  acts  and  states  which  Uiat 

from  the  stain  of  sin;  others,  when  dying,  purity  implies :  accordingly,  washing  stands 

have  themselves  sprinkled  vnth  the  branches  for  pardon  and  sanctification  (1  Cor.  vi.  11. 

of  a  certain  tree,  or  cause  their  corpses  to  Bev.  i.  5 ;  vii.  14).    In  Isa.  i.  16,  repentance 

be  thrown  into  holy  rivers,  after  death.    The  and  the  consequent  reformation  chiefly  are 

Mohammedans  are  strictiy  enjoined  to  cleanse  betokened  (Prov.  xxx.  12). 
themselves  from  sin  by  pure  water  ('Meinei's        Various  washings  snd  bathings  were  re- 

Oetchichte  der  BeUg.  ii.  119).    Water  was  quired  by  the  Mosaic  hiw,  doubtless  as  a 

held  by  the  Babbins  to  be  a  symbol  of  the  consequence  of  their  salutary  tendency,  as 

Holy  Spirit  (Othon.  Lex.  Babb.  51).  well  as  their  naturally  forcible  and  striking 

Washings  of  various  kinds  are  mentioned  symbolic  significance.  The  leprous  man,  who 

in  the  Saorod  Scriptures.    Abrsham  washed  was  to  be  cleansed  by  the  priest,  was  to  wash 

the  feet  of  his  angelic  visitors  (Gen.  xvlii.  4) ;  his  clothes  and  himself,  as  well  as  to  shave 


.  DeaL 


ABN  i 

oS  *U  Us  hair  CHerod.  ii.  8T).  He  IhM 
tonelied  ■  dead  bod;,  or  a  bone  of  a  man, 
or  a  gme,  bad  lo  puriff  himself  bj  water. 
Other  InBtancei  maj  be  tonnd  in  tba  follov- 
tng  tef^neei :  —  Ley.  xi*.  8,  irj.  j  it.  b, 
13,1B;  xriLlfl;  xzii.e.  Nmn.iix.^ 
zxiii.  11;  zxiT.  8,  0. 

TheM  ablndona  took  fdioe  i 
riTen(aKiiigiT.12.LBT.iT.18.  Eiod.ii.0), 
■ometimaB  Id  the  home.  Tb«  iniMr  taut 
of  the  homee  of  dietingniilMd  pBiaoiu  held  • 
bMh  (3  Sam.  xi.  3;  and,  in  latei  times,  than 
were  pabho  baths  (los^h.  Antiq.  zix.  7.  S), 
and  princes  had  Hrrann  whoee  speelal  dntj 
it  was  to  superintend  the  mjtl  batti  (JoseidL 
Autiq.  liT.  IB,  13).  Id  plaeaa  baring  a  miisd 
popolatioii,  Jew!  (Mquanled  the  bsuis  whidk 
Ihe  Heathen  oicd.  Bathing  was  considered 
so  neeesBarj,  ae,  in  laler  timeB,  to  be  per- 
mitted on  the  Sabbath;  onlf  it  waa  reqnjred, 
with  that  Dnme&nlngneaa  of  diitinctioil  for 
which  Babbiuicai  religion  is  maAed,  that  Ihe 
clolha  naed  in  the  baths  shonld  nottie  handed 
to  the  serranls,  lest  tbej  ihoold  eontraot  sin. 


AB  R 

at  Hebron,  and  was  well  reestred,  baring  al- 
ready negooiated  tor  making  David  Ihe  aolo 
monarch.  He  reported  his  sneeeaa,  and  leS 
Darid,  who  is  short];  after  ridtsd  by  Joab^ 
bj  irtiosi  h«  is  reproached  on  Ihe  ground 
AalAlmeTwassdeeeiTer.  Learingthe  king, 
Jaib  detpatcbed  mcseengera  aft«r  Abner, 
who,  as  if  in  obedienoe  to  the  wishes  of 
David,  ntmMd,  md  was  bewheroiuir  alain 
b;  Joab  In  nrcnge  fOr  the  dtatli  of  Asahel 
bl*  Imtlier  (3  Bam.  m.  80).  Aboer-a  &la 
waa  mnah  IwwaiM:  King  0*rid  binudt 
fbllowed  the  bi«r.    Abnei  wn  buried  in  He- 

ABOHINATION  (L.  umlMims  »»(<>», 
eatuing  a  ptmm  lo  (nm  aumg  iMocttd  as 
fiomahadomm).  In  Iia.  iliv.  19 ;  Ixri.  a. 
It  nfera  10  idols  and  idolatroas  praetices;  • 
aigniSealion  iriiich  it  nlaini  in  the  New  Tei- 
tamen^  when  '  Ihe  abomination  of  desolatioQ' 
—  that  is,  the  troops  and  standards  of  idol»- 
tnms  Borne  —  is  spoken  of  (Hatt.  niv.  10, 
Matkxiiill.   LnkenLaO); 

BOMAM    BTAMDABD8. 


then,  were  plae 


■Mtimea  tlMw< 


r  Tiees  were  practised  and  enoonngsd, 
against  which  preoaotiottarj  laws  m^  be 
tuond  in  the  Babbinioal  writings  (Olhon. 
Lei.  aabb.  78).  Bedde«  water,  woman 
sometimes  em^oyed  bran  in  waiting  iha 
bod;;  and  Arabs  of  the  present  da;,  if  Ihaj 
are  without  water,  perfbim  their  prescribed 
lostrationg  by  rubbing  IhenuelTei  over  with 
earth ;  which  praotica  maj  throw  li^t  on  the 
reqoeel  iriiich  Naamaa  pretera  (or  two  miil«(^ 
bordcD  of  earth  (2  Kings  t.  17). 

natural  baths  wen  found  at  Tiberias, 
Oadira,  and  Bcthwda  (Plin.  v.  15.  Josspli. 
Bell.  Jnd.  i.  33,  0),  and  appear  to  have  been 
much  frequented. 

ABNEH  {H.  faUier  t^  Ught  A.M.USO; 
A.C.  lUBS;  V.  1096),  captain  of  Baal's  host, 
sou  of  Ner,  Baal's  uncle  (1  Bam.  liv.  00; 
XTii.09;  iivi.5).  On  the  death  of  Saul,  he 
made  Ishbosheth  his  son  king  oier  Israel, 
whUe  Ihe  hoage  of  Jndoh  followed  David. 
Abner,  on  the  part  of  Sanl,  met  Joab,  on  the 
part  of  David,  when  an  encoonler  took  plane 
lielween  twelve  Jonng  men  on  eaoh  side,  who 
all  slew  each  other,  and,  the  battle  bec^ning 
general,  Abner  was  beaten.  Being  pursued 
in  his  flight  b;  Asahel,  who  was  as  light  of 
foot  as  a  wild  roe,  he  turned  roond  and  ale* 
him(:iSBn].iiB,13,K9.).  After  this, he  dis- 
agreed with  Isbbosheth,  who  beoiunE  jealous 
of  bim  as  a  pretender  lu  the  Ibione,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  great  power,  and  paiticularij 
bis  intimaej  with  Said'a  concubine  Bizpah. 
Hence  he  was  led  to  make  overturea  to  Darid, 
which  were  accepted  on  condition  that  he 
bruoght  back  David's  wife  Micbal,  dauf^ter 
of  SuiL  Abncr,  having  taken  meaauree  for 
comf  lying  with  this  stipolation,  visited  David 


the  refatenoe  being  to  Dan.  ix.  37,  when,  In 
connection  with  the  ceasing  of  the  temple 
offerings,  the  '  overspreading  of  abominn- 
tiona'  is  apoken  of.  In  Bev.  xvii  i,  0, 
heathen  Home  is  again  described  by  this 
term,  as  '  full  of  abominations,'  and  '  mother 
ot  abominations'  {see  alsoBev.xiL  27;  and 
comp.  Tit  i.  16.    Rom.  il  22). 

ABBAHAM  (H.  tht /alhtr  of  a  muUiludt. 
A.M.  3188;  A.C.23B3;  V.  1»B8).  — This 
renowned  ancotor  of  the  chosen  people  is 
the  eubjecl  of  the  first  distinct  and  adeqnale 
biogiaphical  picture  which  the  Bible  presenla, 
though  of  his  early  life  nothing  is  recorded, 
except  that  he  was  the  son  of  Terah ;  havittg 
for  brothers  Nabor  and  Haran,  the  father  of 
Lot,  who  was  consequently  nephew  ot  Abra- 
ham; all  at  them  being  d^ecenduili  of  Sbeni, 
who  is  called  [ha  father  ot  aU  the  children  of 
Eber  (Gen.  x.  31).  Abraham  having  mar- 
ried Saisil  his  8Jst«  by  his  father  (Gen.  xi. 
30;  II.  13),  who  proved  barrenjprooeeded. 


ABB  10  ABB 

imdar  the  dlvBotioii  of  hii  fadifiv,  to  lacvo  his  vondeiftil  nunmer,  with  the  idea  which  we 
nfttire  plaee,  ^ci  €m  Chaldeee,  and,  going  are  led  to  fonn  of  Egypt  in  the  earliest  period 
aoathtOainel^aran,  where  he  dwells  thoni^  d  anthantio  hiatoiyi  from  other  aourcea, 
the  ultimate  end  of  his  Joomej  was  Canaan,  eepeeially  the  i»aintings  found  on  still  anr- 
Tnm  the  first  Yerae  of  the  twel(&  ohi^tar  of  TMng  Egyptian  monnmenta. 
Oenesie,  this  migration  would  appear  to  have  Ahraham  retained  into  Canasn,  and  went 
been  eommanded  to  Abraham  by  the  Divine  nohhwaid  as  far  as  Bethel,  being  very  rich 
Being,  who,  at  the  aame  time*  gave  him  a  in  eattle,  in  ailver,  and  in  gold;  having  most 
promise  of  great  temporal  proaperily,  witfi  probaUy  obtained  the  precious  metals  in 
a  ahadowy  intimation  of  aometbing  betterx  Egypt.  Lot  waa  with  him,  having  flocks,  and 
— '  I  will  bless  thee  and  make  tiby  name  heinls,  and  trata.  The  number  of  their  oat- 
great,  and  thou  shalt  be  a  blessing :  in  thee  tie  was  too  great  for  the  fodder  which  the 
shall  all  the  funiliea  of  the  earth  be  Uaaaed;*  land,  rich  as  it  was,  supplied.  Accordingly, 
-^  a  promise  which  would  of  course  be  un-  a  quanel  aioae  between  their  herdsmen. 
derstood  by  Abraham  aceotding  to  hia  own  Abraham  has  hitherto  appeared  a  pious, 
notions,  but  which  may  equally  have  had*  in  obedient  man:  he  now  shows  himself  a  lover 
the  intentkm  of  the  speaker,  a  liar  iaigar  and  of  peaoe.  He  will  have  no  strife.  Let  Lot 
bilker  import  Thus,  at  the  aga  of  aevanty*  ehoooehis  portion — he  will  then  take  another. 
five,  Abraham,  aeeompanied  by  Lot  aad  Nor  doea  he  withdraw  hia  offer,  when  hia 
Sarah,  left  Haran  in  Ifeaopotaraia,  when  ha  adflahnaphaw,  unable  to  appreciate  the  high- 
had  reaidod  long  enough  to  aoqcdre  much  minded  diaintereatedneaa  of  Abraham,  takea 
aubatanee;  and,  coming  into  Canaan,  ad-  for  hia  ahare  the  well-watered  plain  of  Jor- 
vanced,  hi  a  southerly  course,  to  fihadiem,  dan.  Thia  transaction,  on  the  part  of  the 
hi  which  ha  built  an  altar  to  Jdiiovah,  by  patriareh,  aeems  to  have  been  pleasing  to 
whom  he  waa  visited,  and  promiaed  the  land  lehovah;  fat  the  Divine  Being  immediately 
then  occupied  by  the  Canaanite.  Thence,  renews  his  promise  in  very  emphatic  terms, 
going  towards  the  south-east,  he  pitched  his  tiiat  the  land,  in  tiie  length  of  it  and  in  the 
tent  on  a  mountain  between  Hai  on  the  east,  breadth  of  it,  should  come  into  poeseseion  of 
and  Bethel  on  the  west,  where  be  built  an  Abraham  and  his  seed  for  ever.  The  pecu- 
altar,  and  offered  worship.  Again  he  jour-  liar  value  of  this  promise  reoeives  illustration 
neyed,  going  on  still  toward  the  south.  Nor  from  the  fact  just  recited,— namely,  tiiat  the 
is  it  a  littie  remarkable  that  he  ahould  thus  land  waa  not  able  to  support  both  AteiJiam 
proceed  through  the  land  with  his  property,  and  Lot;  for  to  herdsmen,  befive  the  pro- 
which  mostly  consisted  of  cattle,  qrparentiy  duetiveness  of  the  soil  is  brought  out  by 
unmolested,  and  without  alarm.  agriculture,  land  ia  of  the  greatest  impor- 

A  famine  induces  Abraham  to  direct  his  tanoe,  especially  that  which  nature  irrigates; 

steps  towards  Egypt,  the  great  corn-bearing  sinee  it  is  ususl,  in  the  nomsd  condition  of 

country:  the  mention  of  tills  fact  fdmiahes,  life,  to  pasture  one  plot  of  ground,  snd  then, 

by  its  accordance  with  what  is  known  of  when  the  sustenance  is  oonsnmed,  to  remove 

Egypt,  an  incidental,  and  tiierefore  strong,  to  another. 

evidence  of  the  reality  of  the  things  of  which  Leaving  Lot  in  quiet  possession,  Abraham 
we  are  pursuing  the  record.  The  beauty  of  proceeded  toward  the  south,  snd  settied  at 
Sarah,  and  the  custom  of  eastern  despoto  to  Hamre,  which  was  in  Hebron.  Lot,  how- 
take  beautifhl  women  into  their  harems,  made  ever,  waa  made  captive,  in  wars  which  raged 
Abraham  fear  that  his  own  life  would  fell  a  among  certain  petty  princes  in  the  vicinilj. 
sacrifice  to  the  reigning  Pharaoh's  lust:  he  Abraham  pursued  tibe  victors,  having  armed 
therefore  requeste  Sarah  to  call  herself  his  his  trained  servanta  bom  in  the  house,  in 
sister.  Accordingly,  when  they  arrived  in  number  818,  and,  felling  on  the  enemy  by 
Egypt,  the  courtiers  of  Pharaoh,  following  night  at  Dan,  put  them  to  flight;  and,  again 
the  instinct  of  their  nature,  recommend  Sarah  pursuing,  finally  vanquished  them  near  Da- 
to  the  notice  of  their  master,  who,  hoping  to  mascus,  rescued  his  nephew,  brought  him 
conciliate  her  so-called  brother,  loads  him  back  to  his  settlement,  together  with  his 
with  presente  of  men  and  cattle.  Plagues  goods,  and  the  women,  and  the  people;  thus 
fall  upon  the  monarch's  house,  when  Sarah  returning  good  for  evil,  and  showing  that  he 
is  returned  to  him  who  is  found  to  be  her  poaseesed  energy  oi  character  as  well  as 
husband  as  well  as  her  brother.  They  are,  plaealrility.  Betoming  thus  from  overcoming 
however,  sent  out  of  the  land.  Chedoriaomer  and  the  kings  who  were  with 

This  is  the  first  view  whidi  is  afforded  of  him,  he  is  met  by  the  king  of  Sodom.  Mel- 
Egypt  in  the  Biblical  history,  and  deserves  a  ehisedek  also,  king  of  Salem  (Jerusalem), 
special  study  on  the  part  of  tiie  reader;  eflfers  the  conqueror  bread  and  wine  for  re- 
siffording,  as  the  country  does  in  ito  already  freshment,  aiter  his  toils  and  perils;  and, 
formed,  graduated,  and  to  some  extent  civi-  being  priest  of  the  Most  High  Ood,  implores 
Used,  state  of  society,  a  striking  contrast  to  a  Ueesing  on  Abraham.  The  booty  is  now 
the  wandering  herdsmen  of  whom  Abraham  to  be  divided.  A  tithe  is  given  to  the  priest; 
is  the  representative;  and  conforming,  in  a  the  king  of  Sodcmi  has  the  chief  part;  Abra* 


A  B  R                      11  ABB 

ham,  wiOi  eharaoterUrtic  nntelfisbiieflty  takes  lie  inoidd  train  hie  diildien  leUgioQaly,  aze 

nothing  for  himselH  asaigned  aa  the  groonda  of  hia  haring  been 

Again  is  the  dirhie  pleasure  aignifled  to  thna  dboaen  and  ftfonred  of  God.    In  how 

the  patriaroh,  who  now  Tentwes  to  Intimats  amiaMe  a  light  does  this  tnily  good  man 

that  he  is  childless,  and  has  no  other  heir  appear  in  his  eameat  hat  nogaloiy  pleadings 

than  his  steward,  Elieser  of  Bamasoos,  who,  wi&i  Ood  to  spare  the  wicked  eities  of  the 

it  appears,  derived  his  right  fSrom  being  bom  plain !  (Oen.  zviii  88,  teqq,;)  and  how  must 

in  his  masters  honse  (Oen.  xv.  3).    A  child  he  hare  been  grieved  and  terror-atroek  when, 

is  promised  to  Abraham,  whose  seed  is  to  be  on  rising  early  In  the  morning,  he  looked 

as  the  stars  of  heaven  for  number:  this  also  toward  the  devoted  ottiaa,  and  *  lo  the  amoke 

is  a  promise  which  had  peculiar  appropri-  of  the  eountiy  went  up  aa  the  amoke  <^  a 

ateness  and  value  In  the  tiben  thinly  populated  ftimaee !' 

world.    Abraham  *  believed  in  the  Lord,  and  This  dreadftd  viaitatkn  may  have  been 

he  counted  it  to  him  for  righteonsneaa.'   The  the  cause  why  Abraham,  in  order  to  be  more 

promise  was,   however,    stQl  Airtilier  eon-  distant  from  the   dismal   acene,  removed 

firmed  by  a  solemn  sacrifice,  a  dream,  and  a  aouthward  to  Oerar,  where  he  had  with  the 

covenant,  in  which  the  land  is  defined  as  ez-  king  (Abimblbob)  a  similar  aSUix  to  that 

tending  from  the  river  of  Egypt  (&e  8ihor,  which  took  plaee  with  Pharaoh  respecting 

Jofih.  xiii  8)  unto  the  great  river,  ibe  river  Barah,  tium^  now  ahe  waa  '  well  atrioken 

Euphrates  (Gen.  xv.  7 — ^18).    In  this  com-  In  age.' 

mnnication  is  made  known  to  Abraham  the  At  lenglh  Sarah  btougfat  forth  laaac,  who 

descent  of  his  posterity  into  Egyptian  bond*  waa  eiieumeiaed,  in  obedience  to  the  divine 

age,  and  their  rescue  thence  by  divine  aid,  command,  when  ei^^t  daya  old.    Trouble, 

after  a  senritude  of  400  years.  however,  follows  on  the  heels  of  joy;  for 

Sarah  being  still  barren,  Abaraham,  now  Tahmael,  probably  encouraged  by  his  motiber, 

eighty-six  years  old,  and  having  long  waited  and  in  no  way  pleased  to  behokl  a  compe- 

for  the  divine  promise,  has,  according  to  titor,  mocks  at  the  event,  and  is  in  conse* 

eastern  custom,  a  child  by  his  slave  Ha-  quenoe  expelled  from  home,  together  with 

gar.     Sarah,  however,  becomea  jealous  of  Hagar  (G«l  xxi.  14).    For  Ishmael's  age 

Hagar,  who,  in  consequence,  leaves  the  tent  when  thus  expelled,  oomp.  xvi  16 ;  xvii.  28 ; 

Thirteen  years  now  pass  away,  and  still  the  and  xxL  12,  20 :  *  the  lad,'  notwithstanding 

patriarch  and  his  wife  are  without  issue,  the  painters,  could  not  have  been  under 

when  God  again  appears  to  them,  changes  fifteen  years  old. 

the  name  of  Abram  to  Abraham,  and  Svai  Abraham,  having  acme  disagreement  with 

to  Sarah,  as  a  token  of  their  being  the  pro-  Abimelech  because  of  a  well  of  water,  makes 

genitors  of  many  nations.    On  this  occasion,  peace  with  him,  ratified  by  a  present  of  cat- 

the  rite  of  circumcision  is  appointed,  as  a  tie,  as  <  a  witness'  (Gen.  xxL  80),  and  by 

covenant  with  God.    Abraham's  faitib,  how-  an  oath  on  each  aide.    At  the  apot  where 

ever,  proves  weak.    He  himself  was  a  hun-  fiiis  took  plaee,  which,  from  the  oath,  was 

dred  years  old;  Sarah,  ninety.  Hie  patriarch  called  Beeraheba,  the  patriarch  planted  a 

could  not  restrain  an  incredolona  laugh,  and  grove,  and  '  called  there  on  the  name  of 

pleaded  fiiat  Ishmael  might,  by  the  divine  God,  the  everlasting  God;*  thus  reminding 

favour,  be  considered  aa  his  heir.     The  the  reader  of  his  piety,  and  ahowing  tliat 

request  is  refused;  but  a  promise  is  given,  groves  were  oounectsd  with  the  worship  of 

that,  within  a  year,  Sarah  ihould  bear  laaac,  the  Almighty. 

with  whom  God's  covenant  diould  be  estab-  Now  comea  the  sore  trial,— the  great 
lished.  Ishmael,  however,  fns  circumcised  event  of  Abraham'a  life,  *—  the  teat  of  his 
by  Abraham,  together  widi  his  entiie  house-  piety  and  i$ifh.  He  ia  commanded  of  God 
hold;  whence  it  appears  that  the  yeung  man  to  slay  Isaac  as  a  victim  in  sacrifice.  The 
was  residing  with  his  Ikther  on  finendly  narrative  itaelf  muat  be  read.  It  is  too  con- 
terms.  Abraham  also,  though  now  an  old  cise  to  be  condensed;  too  graphic— too 
man,  was  himself  ciromneised.  Then  ensues  reel  to  be  tooehed  (Gen.  xziL).  The  patri- 
another  visit  from  on  high,  which  gives  ua  areh  provea  equal  to  the  tenqptation;  a 
an  engaging  insight  into  the  better  parte  of  substitats  is  fSound;  Isaac  Uvea;  snd  con- 
pastoral  life,  and  brings  out  a  new  feature  in  flrmalion  of  the  former  promise  is  made  on 
the  estimable  character  of  Abraham;  namely,  the  express  ground, '  because  thou  hast  done 
a  simple,  hearty,  and  self-forgetting  ho8pi«>  this  thing,  and  hast  not  withheld  thy  son, 
tality.    ilie  promise  of  a  chikl  is  renewed^  thine  only  son.' 

though  Sarah  seemed  past  the  age  of  child*  The  shadows  of  ni^t  begin  to  fialL    Sarah 

bearing.  diee,  being  127  yeara  old,  in  Kigath-arba, 

The  Divine  Being  sees  fit  to  disclose  to  that  is  Hebron,  and  is  mourned  and  wept 

the  patriarch  the  destruction  whioh  he  is  for  by  her  husband.     The  necessity  of  a 

about  to  bring  on  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  burial-place  for  hia  wife  brings  to  light  that 

In  the  narrative  respecting  (his  determina^  Abraham,  though  <  a  mighty  prince,'  was  '  a 

tion,  the  piety  of  Abraham,  and  the  fact  that  stranger  and  sojourner,'  not  having  even 


A  B  R  12  A  B  R 

ground  for  a  tomb,  in  a  land,  the  possession  by  the  side  of  bis  wife  in  the  eare  of  Mach- 
of  the  whole  of  which  he  had  been  promised,  pelah  (xxv.  8,  9),  leaving  behind  a  reputa- 
By  arrangement  with  Ephron,  Abn^am  pnr^  tion  that  finds  no  equal  throughout  the  East, 
chases  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  in  Hebron,  in  which  is  ftdl  of  memorials  of  his  influence 
the  country  of  the  Hittites,  for  400  shekels  and  greatness.  Of  these  memorials  not  a 
of  silyer,  which  are  paid,  not  by  tale,  but  by  few  are  peirersions  and  corruptions  of  the 
weight;  the  bargain  being  concluded  *in  realities  wiienoe  they  are  taken:  yet  even 
the  audience  of  the  children  of  Heth,'  <  at  the  these  serve  by  ocmtrast  to  show  the  truth  and 
gate  of  the  city'  (Oen.  zziii).  *  Thus  was  eouflrm  the  reality  of  the  events  recorded  in 
made  sure  unto  Abraham '  *  the  field,  and  the  Bible.  Of  these  events  the  general  tenor 
tlie  cave  therein,  aud  all  the  trees  in  the  is  so  natural,  simple,  and  unsophisticated ; 
field,  in  all  the  borders  round  about,'  *  for  a  the  narrative  is  so  congruent  wi&  the  man- 
possession  of  a  bitzying-place.'  ners  and  spirit  of  a  primitive  age ;  the  cha- 

After  interring  Sarah,  Abrsham  became  racter  of  the  patriarch    is    so  consistent, 
anxious  about  a  wife  fur  his  son.    He,  on     harmonious,    and  entire,  —  a  gradual  de- 

this,  makes  a  solemn  engagement  with  the  velopment,  not  a  heap  of  diqointed  and  un- 
eldest  servant  of  his  house  to  take  a  vrife  for     connected  facts,  —  a  life — something  really 

Isaac,  not  among  the  Canaanltes,  but  from  lived — a  transcript  of  a  human  being's 
his  relations  in  Mesopotamia;  in  doing  whieh     ezperienees, -*  that  those   who  study   tihe 

he  gives  us  reason  to  conclude  that  the  eldest  Biblical  records  in  their  own   light,   and 

house  servant  performed,  in  these  patriarchal  not  in  the  light  of  theological  philosophies, 
days,  an  office  similar  to  that  of  executors  will  have  little  difficulty  in  rejecting  the 
with  us.  The  result  is,  that  EUezer  of  Da-  theory  of  De  Wette  and  others;  namely, 
mascus  (Oen.  xv.  2)  goes  to  Mesopotamia,     that   this  is  only  a  part  of  the  great  He- 

unto  the  city  of  Nahor  (Oen.  xzIt.  10),  and  brew  epic;  snd  may  with  the  writer  feel  a 

engages  for  Isaac  the  hand  of  Bebekah,  pleasure    in    the  oonvietion,  that,    amidst 

Abraham's  grand  niece  (xziv.  10),  who,  ao-  the  scattered  fragments  and  discordant  no- 

oordingly,  becomes  the  young  man's  wife.  tices  of  early  profane  history,  the  sacred 

Abraham  then  took  another  wife,  Keturab.  page  begins  to  shed  a  dear,  trustworthy. 

She  bare  six  sons  (Oen.  xxv.  1---4),  who  and  usefiil  light  on  the  path  trodden  by  hu- 

became  founders  of  so  many  Arab  tribes  man  kind,  some  fifteen  centuries  before  the 

(Joseph.  Antiq.  L  15),  and  who  were  dis*  Christian  era.    In  this  fact  is  found  a  very 

missed  from  the  paternal  home  towards  the  hi(^  eulogy  on  the  Bible,  which  its  firiends, 

east  country,  with  certain  presents,  as  being,  as  vrell  as  its  detractors,  would  do  well  to 

together  widi  Ishmael,  sons  of  the  concu-  pondo*. 

bines,  that  is,  Hagar  and  Keturah  (xxv.  6) ;         I^ety,  which  led  to  entire  trust  and  impli- 

a  remarkable  illustration  of  the  care  which  eit  obedience  towards  Ood,  and  prompted 

Abraham  took  to  preserve  the  line  of  trans-  gentleness  and  justice  in  his  dealings  with, 

mission  intact  and  unmingled  in  Isaac ;  thus  man,    was  Abraham's  chief  characteristic, 

obeying  the  will  of  Ood,  who  had  declared,  Converted  ftom  idolatry  (Josh.  xxiv.  2),  he 

'  In  Isaac  shall  thy  seed  be  called  ;*  —  *  My  beeame  a  constant  and  unswerving  witness 

covenant  will  I  establish  with  Isaac*  (Oen.  of  the  one  true  and  only  Ood ;  and  was,  in 

xvii.  21 ;  xxi.  12.   Bom.  ix.  7.    Heb.  xi.  18),  eonsequence,  honoured  as  the  great  father  of 

and  showing  an  accordance  of  one  part  of  the  faithful,  whether  found  in  the  Jewish 

the  sacred  narrative  with  another,  which  or  in  the  Christian  church.     Accordingly, 

must  tend  to  confirm  its  credibility,  as  being  Abraham   appears  in  the  New  Testament 

an  account  of  real  events.  as  the   type  of  unshaken    confidence   and 

The  disposal  of  his  property  now  engaged  holy  submission  towards  Ood  (Rom.  iv.  2. 

the  attention  of  the  venerable  patriarch.    By  Heb.  xi.  8)  ;  while  to  be  admitted  to  the 

some  formal  act  or  other,  having  the  effect  intimacy  of  so  great  a  personage  was  natu- 

of  a  deed  of  gift  or  testament,  he  had  be-  rally  accounted  the  highest  honour  and  the 

queathed  the  substance  of  his  wealth   to  largest  happiness.     So,  in  the  conceptions 

Isaac,  before  he  sent  his  servant  to  solicit  of  the  Jews  of  our  Lord's  day,  to  be  in 

the  hand  of  Bebekah  (Gen.  xxiv.  36;  comp.  Abraham's  bosom — that  is,  to  have  a  place 

xxi.  10).     Accordingly,  contenting  himself  next  to  him  at  the  celestial  banquet — was  a 

with  making  presents  to  the  sons  of  his  con-  figure  denoting  the  enjoyment  of  the  bliss 

cubines,  who,  on  receiving  them,  were  dis-  of  heaven.    The  same  estimation  of  Abra- 

missed  from  home  and  sent  eastward,  he  ham  led  the  Jews  to  be  proud   of  their 

seems,  ere  he  left  the  world,  to  have  put  descent  from  him,  and  to  boast  of  being 

Isaac  into  possession  of  his  goods.    Having  Abraham's  seed  (John  viii.  83). 
thus  accomplished  his  last  wishes,  Abraham,         The  fact  that  religiousness  was  the  essen- 

conformably  with  the  divine  promise  (Oen.  tial  feature  of  the  patriarch's  character  may 

XV.  15),  died  *in  a  good  old  age,'  — 170  serve  to  make  ajiparent  Ood's  own  way  of 

years  (A.M.  3360;  A.  G.  2188;  V.  1821), —  canying forward  human  civilisation.    Donbt- 

and  was  gathered  to  his  people,  being  laid  less,  Providence  works  for  that  purpose  by 


ABB                      13  ABB 

▼arions  instmmentalitiefl;  but,  when  Ood  yinely  iDominated  pages  of  the  Bible.  The 
elects  and  sets  np  a  special  agency,  it  is  most  nseftd  arte  of  life  had  long  been  in- 
not  Egyptian  art,  bat  patriaichal  piety —  vented^  and  were  in  general  use.  Those 
the  simple  manners  of  home  and  of  rural  laige  societies  of  men  which  are  called 
life  ^-nourished,  strengthened,  and  refined  na,tions  were  gradually  forming  themselves 
by  a  warm  and  operative  faith.  This  fact  on  spots  which  were  determined  by  a  regard 
seems  to  teach  us,  that  religion  must  be  at  to  the  natural  limits  and  advantages  afforded 
the  basis  of  all  true  social  advancement  It  by  seas,  rivers,  and  mountain-ranges.  And, 
is  not  to  Greece  nor  Italy,  but  to  Mesopotamia  as  men  fixed  themselves  in  different  places 
and  Judea,  that  we  owe  our  religion,  and  up  and  down  the  earth,  so  did  they  become 
what  is  best  and  most  durable  in  our  civill-  more  and  more  divided  from  each  other  by 
sation.  Man  may  spare  the  pleasures  of  taste;  the  continually  increasing  diversity  of  Ian- 
but  he  cannot  live  and  be  happy  without  the  guages,  which  led  to  other  alienating  diver- 
sentiments  of  piety,  and  the  principle  of  sities  in  social  usages,  and  in  religious 
obedience.  opinions  and  observances.    The  first  em- 

The  nature  of  true  and  acceptable  faith  pires    were    thus  founded,  and  the  great 

is  exemplified  in  Abraham,  —  *  the  friend  of  question  of  human  education  began  to  be 

Ood/    If  compared  with  the  views  which  seriously  worked  out    War  had  begun  its 

are  entertained  by  enlightened  Christians,  desolations;  slaveiy  was  quietly  but  effectu- 

Abraham's  idea  of  Ood  was  very  limited  and  ally  wasting  human  energies  away,  perverting 

rudimental;  for  though  he  may  have  had  the  natural  relations  of  life.    The  union  of 

some  shadowy  notion  of  God*s  spirituality  the  sexes,  which  is  the  great  hinge  of  man's 

and  omnipresence,  yet  it  vras  mostly  as  hi$  highest  good,  was  uncertain  and  iU-regulated. 

God,  —  the  God  of  his  family,  —  diat  the  Hospitality  had   assumed  a  distinguished 

patriarch  regarded  the  Creator.    Tet  his  im-  position,  and  sheds  a  mild  lustre  over  these 

perfect  and  defective  knowledge  fiUllng  as  early  days ;  but  if,  from  such  a  tent  as  that 

good  seed  into  good  ground,  brought  forth  of  Abraham,  we  turn  to  the  world  at  large, 

Slat  trust,  that  confidence,  that  love  towards  we  behold  scarcely  any  other  virtue  in  a  high 

God,  whldi  prompted  to  obedience,  and  made  condition,  and  such  vices  abounding  as  easy 

its  possessorwilling  to  sacrifice  even  his  fond-  abundance  and  extreme  leisure  may  produce, 

est  affections  and  his  dearest  hopes,  in  com-  under  the  aid  of  burning  skies,  vivid  imagi- 

pliance  with  what  appeared  to  him  the  divine  nations,  and  uncontrollable  passions, 

will.    Such  is  the  character  of  aU  genuine  The  sacrifice  of  his  son,  demanded  of  Abra- 

faith,  which  is  veiy  dissimilar  to  mere  opi-  ham,  has  given  occasion  to  many  objections, 

nion,  with  which  it  is  often  confounded ;  most  of  which  have  arisen  item  falsely  view- 

and  thus  we  see,  that  troe  religion  is  as  old  ing  the  subject  through  the  atmosphere  of 

as  at  least  the  patriaroh  Abraham.    As  he  modem  times.    As  a  means  of  putting  Abra- 

pleased  God,  so  may  we.  ham's  reliance  on  God  to  the  test,  it  was  pe- 

Moet  important  for  mankind  was  the  call  euliarly  efficacious  and  appropriate,  seeing 
of  Abraham.  It  was  one  of  those  events  on  that  the  ohUd  was  demanded,  which  God  had 
which  human  destiny  is  found  from  time  to  openly  and  extraordinarily  given.  The  Power 
time  to  hinge.  Idolatry  was  aU  but  univer-  that  had  bestowed  Isaac  on  parents  advanced 
sal.  The  knowledge  of  the  Creator  had  in  years  was,  Abraham  may  well  have  felt, 
nearly  vanished  from  the  earth.  Egypt,  the  both  willing  and  able  to  do  'aU  things  weU,' 
centre  of  the  arts  and  refinements  of  life,  and  make  *  all  things  work  together  for  good.' 
worshipped  even  the  lowest  animals.  There  To  have  iiidtered  would  have  betrayed  a  weak- 
it  was  Mlj  proved  how  little  man  can  do  for  ness  of  moral  character,  ill  befitting  one  who 
himself  in  regard  to  the  solemn  obligations  had  been  so  signally  favoured  of  God.  Un- 
of  duty,  and  the  high  hopes  and  destiny  of  questioning,  undoubting  reliance  on  God  was 
the  religious  life.  But  God  chose  Abraham,  Abraham's  duty,  and  it  proved  his  '  crown 
and  a  new  era  began  which  will  never  come  of  rcgoieing.'  He  was  tried,  and  was  found 
to  an  end ;  for  Jesus  finished  what  Abraham  foithftiL  In  his  fidelity,  he  remains  a  model 
commenced.  It  is  a  gratiiying  foot,  that  the  to  all  generations,  though  the  specific  sacri- 
series  of  biographical  pictures  begins  with  fioe  required  of  him  is  required  no  more, 
one  which  is  so  pleasing  and  so  ennobling  as  Yet  the  principle  remains  the  same.  Our 
that  of  Abraham.  Had  the  dispositions  Lord  gave  expression  to  it  when  he  said, 
which  actuated  him  been  shsred  by  all  who  — '  He  that  loveth  father  or  mother  more 
came  afterwards,  we  should  not  have  found  than  me  is  not  worthy  of  me'  (Matt  x. 
the  great  life-roll  of  humanity  blotted,  blur-  87).  Without  sacrifices  there  is  no  true 
red,  end  disgraced  by  such  names  as  Alexan-  religion.  Without  trial  there  is  no  conscious 
der,  Nero,  and  Napoleon.  strength.    We  have  no  proof  that  we  love 

Already,  at  the  times  of  Abraham,  had  the  Christ,  till  we  have  surrendered  some  cher- 

world  made  some  decided  progress  in  eivili-  ished  thing  on  his  behalf.    It  is  a  baneftil 

sation;  a  knowledge  of  which,  so  far  as  it  is  delusion  to  regard  religion  as  an  easy  thing, 

definite  and  satisfactory,  we  owe  to  the  di-  Hence  the  superficiality  that  prevails,  the 


ABB 


14 


ABS 


oonvsBftKMMUmi,  die 
foigelftiliMM  of  Ood. 
vmj  one  his  chitf 


of  ttSB, 

His  nUg 


(Ketuth) 

I 


(H^w) 


South  Jtmbiaiu.        I—MiBt. 


EtAV. 

-Frfowltff- 


(BOluh) 

„     I 
Dak. 

Nafhtau. 


^Leah) 
Bkubbv. 

SiMKOV. 

Lkti. 

JUDAB. 

Ibaachab. 

ZBBOLOir. 

(DiniOi) 


■nd  tile  to  be  hie  ehief  eeve.  We  ealyoin  a  view 
ii  to  of  the  family  of  Tenh,  embraeinf  the  twelTe 
ought    tribee:  — 


TERAH. 
ABIUHAM 

{sabah} 


ISAAO* 
(Babekeh) 

JACOB. 


and 


NAHO& 

(MUcah) 

Bbthdbl. 

Rebekah  and  Labao 


(Bnehel) 


(Zflpah) 

Oad. 
Abbbb. 


JoeiPH 
Bbvjamxv. 


{Bfanasseh. 
Ephraim. 


AhMhme9  ho9om  (Loke  z?L  SS)  denotes 
Ihe  plaee  where  heppy  aad  iauBortal  spiiita 
dwelL  The  idea  eeems  to  be  taken  from  the 
manner  hi  which,  in  tiie  time  of  our  Lord, 
iSb»  Jews,  imitating  the  eostoma  of  Aeir 
Western  Baasters,  used  to  iodine,  idiile  ai 
liMSts;  namely,  leaning  on  Ihe  idbow  and 
fte  haoncA,  eaeh  gneat  below  his  nei^^boor, 
so  that  the  head  of  one  liqr  towaida  and  near 
file  booom  of  anotfier.  The  plaee  of  hoooor 
was  next  to  tiMBUMter  of  the  feast — thatia, 
in  his  bosom.  The  term  howm  was  vsed  in 
a  larger  sense  Aan  is  oostomsiy  wilh  ns; 
embnoing  the  whole  of  the  body  cowed  by 
a  fold  of  die  long  towing  robe,  which,  being 
taken  up  by  the  extremity,  was  thrown  over 
the  left  aim,  eo  as  to  fom  a  large  fUd  or 
bosom,  in  whidi  articles  of  use  and  valna 
were  omxied.  Abnham,  as  Ihe  '  friend  of 
Ood,*  is  represented  in  the  parable  (Lake 
ztL  23)  as  presidmg  at  tiie  '  fmst  of  fat 
tilings,'  hafteg  near  him  the  special  Isroar* 
tie  of  Ood.  Thia  was  in  agreement  with 
eonent  idees,  whidi  set  fovtit  heaven  as  a 
place  of  sodal  eigoyiient,  in  which  were 
gathered  together  tiie  patriamhs,  prophets, 
and  an  innmnerable  company  of  jnst  min 
made  perfeet  (Matt  viiL  11.  John  ziiL  S8; 
xzi.  30).  Fran  the  phrase  now  explained, 
the  reader  may  toon,  some  oonoeption  of 
what  is  meant  when  tiie  Son  of  Ood  is  said 
to  be  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father  (John  L 
18);  for,  as  the  <  bosom-friend'  was  ad- 


mitted to  tiie  utmost  inthnacy  and  oonfldeoee, 
so  was  Jesus  put  into  possession  of  the  di- 
vine will  in  all  its  secrets,  as  well  as  in  aU 
ita  grandeur  and  eomprehension. 

ABSALOM  (H.  fMer  of  peace.  A.  M. 
4528;  A.C.  1020;  V.  1032),  David's  tiiixd 
son,  whose  mother  was  Maamih,  tiie  daughter 
of  Tahnai  king  of  Oeshur— a  district  lying 
on  the  east  of  Jordan,  snd  reckoned  as  a 
part  of  Syria,  which  fonned  still  in  the  days 
of  Solomon  a  petty  kingdom  (2  Sam.  iii  8 ; 
xiii  87;  xiv.  28).  Absalom  poeseesed  ex- 
traordinaiy  beanty,  and  was  diatinguished 
for  a  fine  and  oopiona  head  of  hair  (2  Sam. 
xiY.  29,  26).  Enraged  at  his  brotiier  Am- 
non,  in  eonseqnenoe  of  his  having  ravished 
Tamer  his  aaster,  Abeslom,  not  improbably 
remembenng  that  Amnon  was  by  birth  hie 
flMfaei^s  SQooesaor,  took  ooeasion,  sAer  hav- 
ing long  ooncesled  his  snimosity,  of  asheep- 
ahewing,  which  he  observed  with  festivity  in 
Baal-httor,  in  Ephtaim,  on  an  estate  of  his 
own,  to  day,  by  means  of  his  servants,  the 
guilty  man.  After  this,  he  fled  for  shelter 
to  the  comrt  of  his  father-in-law,  at  Oeshur, 
where  he  remamed  three  years.  Nesr  the 
end  of  tills  time,  David  desired  to  see  Ab- 
salom; a  leding  whidi  was  enhanced  by  the 
earnest  pleadings  of  the  '  wise  woman  of 
Tekoah,'  whom  Josb  employed  to  ftvther  his 
views  with  the  king ;  so  that  that  minister 
was  himself  commissioned  to  visit  Oedior, 
in  order  to  bring  back  Absalom,  who  was 


/IBS                        Iff  A  B  S 

not,  howeyer,  admitled  into  the  royal  pre-  going  fton  under  him,  he  was  l«ftgii«peiided 
•enoe  for  the  epeee  of  two  yean.  Abealonii  from  the  tree;  on  hearing  which,  Joab  took 
weary  of  this  disgrace,  endeafonied  to  pxe«  three  darta,  and  throat  diem  through  the 
Tail  with  Joab  to  nae  his  inflnenoe  again  heart  of  Absalom,  while  he  was  yet  aliye  in 
with  David;  and,  failing  in  his  requests,  he  the  midst  of  flie  oak;  thus  delivering  his 
iniqnitonsly  and  revengeftilly  eansed  his  ser^  royal  master  from  a  treasonable  son,  and 
Tants  to  set  on  fire  a  field  of  bailey  belonging  taking  Tsngeance  on  one  who  had  set  his 
to  Joab.  The  minister,  however,  yielded  to  property  on  fire.  After  this,  an  aet  of  wan- 
fear  what  he  had  reftised  to  entreaty ^-aaw  ton  eroelty  took  place,^-<ten  yomg  men 
flie  king,  and  intereedod  with  him  for  his  son,  that  bare  Joab's  armour,  oompassed  about 
who  was  aeeordingly  restored  to  fkvonr.  and  smote  Absalom,  and  slew  him.'  The 
The  hig^  and  ambitiooB  spirit  of  Absalom,  news  of  the  young  man's  deadi  was  home  to 
which  had  been  imperfectly  repressed  under  the  king  (tfie  narrative  found  in  2  8am. 
difficulty,  now,  when  he  was  in  the  fiill  sun*  sviiL  10—82,  is  besntifiilly  gn^hic),  who^ 
shine  of  his  fkthei^s  oourt^  broke  Ibrth  with  on  receiving  it,  was  much  moved,  and  went 
ardour.  He  proeured  a  splendid  equipage  up  to  die  ehamber  over  the  gate  and  wept: 
—  charioto  and  horses,  with  fifty  men  to  run  and  as  he  went,  tfiua  he  said,  '  O  my  son 
before  him;  who,  as  needs  might  be,  would  Absalom!  my  son,  my  son  Absalom!  would 
serve  for  use  or  show.  Thus  prepared,  he  God  I  had  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom !  my 
began  to  court  tibe  people,  hearing  their  le-  aon,  my  son !'  (S  Sam.  zviiL  88). 
gal  eomplainte,  listening  to  their  social  A  reckless  ambition  was  the  chief  feature 
grievances,  and  even  saluting  with  a  kiss  in  Absalom's  ehsraeter.  This  ambition 
each  person  who  came  to  do  him  homage;  prompted  him  to  erect  a  pillar  in  order  to 
intimating,  at  the  same  tame,  that  David  was  perpetuate  his  name  (Joseph.  Antiq.  viL  10, 
blameworthy  iu  having  appointed  no  one  to  8;  eomp.  d  Sam.  scviiL  18),  in  die  event  of 
hear  and  redress  wrongs,  and  diat^  if  he  his  ehildm  being  killed.  This  pillar  (of 
were  Judge  in  the  land,  jusdoe  should  be  marble),  which  hm  the  name  of  Absalom's 
ftdly  and  impardally  administered.  '  So  Hand  (a  fiiguie  of  a  hand,  surmounting  pil- 
Absalom  stole  die  hearto  of  the  children  of  lars  of  this  kind,  denoted  power  and  skill), 
Israel.'  When  he  had  advanced  his  prepara*  was  in  die  king's  dale,  a  short  distance  from 
dons  (<  after  forty  years,' probabW  four  years:  Jerusalem.  That  whieh  is  now  shown  in 
see  Kennicott),  he  asked  his  fadiei's  per^  the  vale  of  Jehosapkat  aa  Absalom's  Pillar 
mission  to  proceed  to  Hebron,  in  order  to  <^a  pyramidal  stone  stracture^-is  proved 
pay  a  vow  which  he  had  promised  while  at  to  be  of  oompamdvely  raeent  date,  by  ito 
Oeshur.  The  permisaion  was  granted.  Quit*  Ionic  edioimade,  thou^  it  may  stand  near 
ting  Jerusalem  with  200  confidential  friends,  the  same  place  where  Absalom  erected  the 
who  appear  to  have  been  ignorant  of  his  in-  original  atraetnre,  but  cannot  be  the  tomb  of 
tendon,  he  sent  secret  despatehes  diroughont  diat  prince;  ainoe,  in  2  Sam.  xviii  17,  we 
aU  the  tribes  of  Israel,  to  the  effect,  that,  on  «e  hifoimed  dM^  immediatety  after  die 
a  given  signal,  they  should  all  declare, '  Ab-  batde,  his  enemies  '  took  Absalom,  and  cast 
salom  reignedi  in  Hebron.'  He  also  sue*  him  into  a  great  pit  in  the  wood,  and  laid  a 
eeeded  in  gaining  to  his  side  Ahithophel  of  very  greai  h«ap  of  stones  upon  him.' 
Oiloh,  in  Judah,  whose  counsels  David  tried  Absalom  erected  his  own  monument,  and 
to  countervail,  by  inducing  Hushal  to  get  was  buried  ignominiously  in  a  hole  dug  in 
into  the  confidence  of  Absalom,  in  order  to  haste.  He  tried  to  perpetuate  his  ilniie  by  a 
betray  his  secrets.  David,  however,  aware  pillar*^ he  really  made  his  name  infamous 
that  the  conspiracy  was  most  formidable,  by  his  rebellim.  The  reeord  in  books  tells 
quitted  Jemsdem,  which  his  traitorous  son  ito  tale  i^en  stones  and  marbte  are  bo  more, 
occupied,  and  proceeded,  under  the  advice  Ptersonal  beauty  is  a  qaesdimahle  good,  may 
of  Ahithophel,  to  commence  his  royal  ftme-  prove  a  snare,  and,  wlien  disgraced  1^ 
tions,  by  taking  possession  of  David's  harem,  wicked  aeto,  excites  no  higher  feeling  than 
A  eoundl  being  caQed,  Ahithophel  offered  eommiseraticm.  Abaalom's  passiona  were 
to  take  a  force,  and  complete  the  war  by  his  master;  and  so  imperious  did  they  prove> 
desfroying  David,  to  which  Absalom  wickedly  that  diey  made  him  raise  his  impious  hand 
eonsentod.  Hudiai,  however,  was  called  in,  against  even  die  author  ofhis  own  existence, 
who  advised  a  general  muster  of  troops,  so  ABSOLUTION  (I*  freeing  frmn)  is,  as 
as  to  blot  out,  not  David  only,  but  all  his  ft  word,  not  found  in  die  BiUe;  but  ecdesi- 
partisans.  This  plan  was  finaJOy  adopted;  asdcs  have  used  it  to  describe  a  scriptural 
intelligence  of  which  determination  was  de-  hubt ;  namely,  die  abeolving  of  men  from  sin, 
spatched  to  David  by  Hushal.  A  great  batde  or  from  the  penalty  of  sin.  It  is  undoubted 
was  fon^t  in  the  wood  of  Ephraim,  near  that  the  Saviour  gave  to  his  aposdes  a  power 
the  Jordan,  in  which  20,000  men  fSdll.  While  to  remit  sms.  The  nature  and  extent  of 
yet  the  result  was  in  suspense,  Absalom,  that  power  can  be  learned  in  no  other  way 
hurrying  along  on  a  mule,  in  the  ardour  of  than  l^  dftigendy  stodying,  and  comparing 
batde,  was  caught  *  in  the  thick  boughs  of  a  together,  die  passages  of  Scripture  in  which 
great  oak'  <a  terebhidi  tree),  and,  his  beast  it  is  mentioned.    Without  here  entering  into 


A  B  S  16  A  B  S 

the  details  of  the  sobject,  we  may  adduce,  as  exoeee.  So  far,  too,  as  the  foregoing  of  or- 
enfflcient  for  our  present  porpoee,  the  great  dinarj  pleasures  may  act  beneficially  on  ttie 
scriptural  principle,  that  no  one  can  foigire  moral  feelings,  the  praetioe  of  occasional 
Bins  bat  God  (Mark  ii.  7);  whence  it  ap-  abstinence  may  haye  been  enforced  by  con- 
pears  that  the  act  of  the  apostles  in  remitting  aiderations  drawn  firom  practical  religion, 
sins  was  merely  minister^  and  declaratory.  Bat  abstinence  can  be  looked  on  in  no 
As  saeh  was  it  limited  to  those  to  whom  the  higher  light  than  as  anegative  good,  aneed- 
offiee  waa  delegated.  Of  this  kind  is  the  ftilremedy,  a  meaaa  of  reparation;  and  most 
act  of  Nathan  (2  8am.  xiL  18),  when  he  disappear  in  proportion  as  that  sanctity  of 
said  to  the  repentant  Darid,^-'  The  Lord  character  in  thought,  word,  and  deed,  is  pro- 
hath  pat  away  thy  sin:  thoa  shalt  not  die'  doced,  which  is  not  least  among  the  aims 
(MatL  ZTL  19;  xviiL  18.  John  zz.  23).    If  and  the  achicTements  of  the  gospcL 


absolation  oonsisted   in  aotoally  foigiving  Various  kinds  of  abstinence  may  be  found 
sins,  then  no  one  bat  He,  who  knowing  the  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures.    In  Gen.  ix.  4, 
heart  knows  also  whether  the  mind  has  come  blood  is  forbidden  to  be  eaten,  as  containing 
into  a  suitable  state,  can  forgiye  sins.    If  it  the  life ;  an  inhibition  which  is  repeated  in 
consisted  in  remitting  the  penalty  of  sin.  Ley.  iiL  17,  fat  being  also  forbidden — ('  All 
then  only  He  who  knows  the  beai&igs,  ten-  the  fat  is  the  Lord's'),  which  was  to  be  burnt 
dcncies,  and  eifects  of  his  own  panitiye  end  That  which  died  of  itself,  or  was  torn  by  wild 
remedial  measures,  can  forgire  aina.    If  it  beasts,  was  not  to  be  eaten  (Lev.  xxii.  8). 
lay  in  the  announcement  of  pardon,  then  The  hollow  of  the  thigh  was  forbidden  food, 
ean  that  announcement  be  made  by  man  only  because  it  was  the  part  by  touching  which, 
in  those  cases  in  which  he  may  have  receiyed  the  angel  prevailed  in  wrestling  with  Jacob 
special  delegation  for  the  puipose.      The  (Gen.  xxxiL  32).    Indeed  whole  classes  of 
remission  of  sins  is  obyiooslyan  individaal  animals  were  prohibited  (Clkait).  (Ley.  xi.) 
fayoor,  inaamoch  as  it  has  a  relation  to  the  The  Hebrews  were  to  abstain  from  food  par- 
state  of  an  indiyidual's  soul:   and  conse-  taken  on  occasion  of  idolatrous  sacrifices; 
quently,  i^Mrt  from  a  formal  dhrine  com-  since  to  partake  thereof  would  have  been  to 
mission,  it  can  haye  no  existence.    Tet  this,  give  an  indirect  sanction  to  the  pollutions 
ttie  most  extraordinaiy  of  all  earthly  functions,  of  Heathenism  (Numb.  xxy.  2,  teq,  Exod. 
haye  men,  placed  in  ordinary  circumstances,  xxxiy.  15.   Ps.  cyi  28).    Owing  to  the  mis- 
cdsimed  to  exercise.    The  daim  ahould  be  conduct  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  Aaron's  sons, 
proyed  before  it  is  conceded,  and  it  is  not  probably  in  indulging  to  excess,  wine  was 
easy  to  see  any  yery  close  connection  between  forbidden  to    the  priests  when  they  were 
the  two  propositions — *The  apostles  for-  about  to  go  into  the  tabemade  (Lev.  x.  0), 
gave  sins;'  '  therefore  A.  B.,  living  in  the  When  any  man  took  the  vow  of  a  Nazarite. 
nineteenth  oentoiy,  has  the  power  to  forgive  — '  He  shall  separate  himself  from  wine  and 
sins.'     There  is  here  a  great  logical  gulf  strong  drink,  and  shall  drink  no  vinegar  of 
which  cannot  be  filled  up  by  other  assump-  wine,  or  vinegar  of  strong  drink ;  neither 
tions  ^-  such  as  that  A.  B.,  whose  whole  shall  he  drink  any  liquor  of  grapes,  nor  eat 
manner  of  life  is  diHsimilar  to  that  which  aa  moist  grapes  or  dried :  all  the  days  of  Ills 
i^stle  led,  is  a  spiritual  successor  of  the  separation  shall  he  eat  nothing  that  is  made 
apostles.    But  if  tfie  inference  should  be  of  the  vine-tree  firom  the  kernels  even  to  the 
allowed,  what  does  the  term  '  successor'  husk.'     The  Nazarite  was  also  to  abstain 
mean,  and  what  does  it  prove  ?    If  a  line  of  from  shaving  (Numb,  vi  2 — 12).    The  Be- 
trsnsmitted  ^iritual  influence  is  intended,  chabites  abstained  from  wine  and  strong 
you  must  show  the  ccmmencement  of  that  drink  at  the  command  of  their  ancestor  Jona- 
line,  and  its  unbroken  continuance  down  to  dab,  a  man  of  fervent  piety  and  strong  seal 
yourself;  which  can  in  no  way  be  done,  and  (Jer.  xxxv.  6 — ^10.  2  Kings  x.  10). 
which  cannot  even  be  attempted,  without  The  abstinence  from  certain  kinds  of  food 
begging  the  very  point  which  has  to  be  which  they  had  practised  while  Jews,  the 
proved.    The  priesthood  proves  its  priestly  primitive  converts  from  the  Jewish  Church 
character  by  assuming  that  priestly  character  to  Christianity  thought  that  they  themselves, 
itself.    The  modern  doctrine  touching  the  as  weU  as  converts  firom  Heathenism,  were 
power  to  remit  sins  is  one  vast  assumption,  still  bound  rigidly  to  observe.    This  qnes- 
ABSTINENCE   (L.    keeping  from),  the  tion  troubled  the  early  church,  and  occa- 
pracUce  of  self-denial,  either  occasional  or  sioned   the    first    Christian    synod   which 
continued.    Abstinence  took  its  rise  partly  assembled  at  Jerusalem,  and  relaxed  the  co- 
in those  notions  of  religion  which  represent  remonial  bond  —  laying  '  no  greater  burden 
the  Deity  as  being  conciliated  by  the  pain  than  these  necessary  things ;  that  ye  abstain 
and  privation  whidi  his  creatures  undergo ;  from  meats  offered  to  idols,  and  firom  blood, 
partly  also  in  considerations  connected  with  and  firom  things  strangled,  and  firom  fomica- 
healdi;  for  abstaining  from  gratifications  in  tion'  (Acta  xv.  29).      The  decree  did  not 
certain  conditions  of  the  body  serves  to  re-  suffice  to  bring  the  dispute  to  a  termination, 
store  it  to  its  ordinary  soundness  and  vigour,  and  much  bad  feeling  and  illiberality  arose 
especially  when  it  has  been  impaired  by  in  consequence ;  which,  however,  under  the 


ACC  17  ACH 

good  providence  of  God,  was  made  to  eon-     sinoe  been  more  than  once  proved,  was  the 
tribute  to  the  welfare  of  the  ehnreh  at  large;     cause  why  that  tribe  did  not  expel  the  origi- 
as  may  appear,  if  we  consider,  as  one  of  its     nal  inhabitants.    It  was  snciently  a  large 
eflfects,  the  noble  and  comprehensiTe  defence     city,  with  a  fine  harbour,  protected  on  three 
of  religious  liberty  which  it  drew  from  the     sides  by  lofty  hills,  of  which  Mount  Carmel 
aposte  Paul  (Rom.  xir.:  see  also  1  Cor.  viii.).     lies  to  the  south,  running  far  out  into  the 
^nom  another  quarter,  probably  from  ascetics     sea.    The  place  was  not  far  from  the  mouth 
connected  with  Heathenism,  came  a  require-     of  the  little  river  Belus.    It  still  forms  the 
ment  of  sbstinence    even  from  matriage,     best  haven  on  the  Syrian  coast;  is  the  key  of 
which  Paul  reprobates  in  1  Tim.  iv.  8 — 5 ;     Galilee,  and  the  termination  d  the  caravan 
where  he  lays  down  the  general  principle,     line  which  extended  from  Damascus  to  the 
that  *  every  creature  of  God  is  good,  and     Mediteznmean.    The  Emperor  Claudius  pie- 
nothing  to  be  refhsed,  if  it  be  received  vrith    sented  ite  inhabitante  with  the   rigbte   of 
thanksgiving.'    Asceticism,  however,  seems     Boman  citizenship,  whence  the  place  acquired 
to  be  a  disease  which  is  incidental  to  man     the  name  of  ColoniaClaudii  CflBsaris  (Joseph, 
in  all  stages  of  civilisation,  and  under  all     Antiq.  xiii.  13,  2.    1  Maocab.  z.  06;  xi.  22). 
systems  of  religion ;   and  so  abstinence  of    By  the  natives  it  is  still  called  by  ite  originC 
various  kinds  has  been,  from  the  earliest    name.    In  1832  the  town  was  severely  in- 
time  till  now,  practised  and  enjoined  even  in    jured  during  a  siege  of  six  months,  carried 
the  visible  church  of  Christ,  as  of  peculiar     on  by  Ibrahim  Pasha.    In  1840  Admiral 
efficacy  and  value  in  the  sight  of  God ;  not-     Stopford  bombarded  the  place  for  some  hours, 
withstanding  the  dear,  toll,  and  unmistake-     when  it  was  laid  in  ruins  by  the  explosion  of 
able  opposition  of  the  great  i^stle  of  the     the  powder  magasine. 
OentUes.  ACELDAMA  (jC.Jield  ofhlood)'^M,  piece 

ACACIA  (the  Egyptian  lAom),  the  proper  of  groxmd  which  had  before  been,  and  was 
name  of  the  wood,  termed  in  Scripture  ShU-  called,  *  a  potter's  field,'  from  supplying  ma- 
Ifni,— a  word  which  is  a  mere  transference  terials  for  potteiy — received  this  name  from 
of  the  sounds  of  the  original  Hebrew.  The  the  fact,  that  the  money  which  Judas  had 
tree.  Mimosa  NUoUea,  was  called  Shittah  in  received  for  betraying  Christ,  and  which  he 
Hebrew.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  returned  into  the  hands  of  die  priesto,  was 
Bible  as  supplying  the  materials  out  of  which  expended  by  them  in  the  purchase  of  the 
articles  required  in  the  Mosaic  worship  were  ground,  as  a  burial-place  for  Jews  from  dis- 
made  (Exod.  xzv.  d ;  xxvi.  15 ;  -mm.  1 ;  tant  lands, — on  the  allegation  tliat  the  thirty 
zxx.  1;  XXXV.  7,  24;  xxxvU.  1.  Deut  x.  8).  pieces  of  silver,  being  the  price  of  blood, 
Natnraliste  distinguish  two  kinds  of  acacia,  ou{^t  not  to  be  put  into  the  temple  treasury. 
I.  the^feoctaoera;  and,  11.  iht  Acada'Ata-  Thus  do  baseness  and  a  certain  religious 
fnca.  The  Septuagint  has  translated  the  scrupulosity  sometimes  go  together  in  the 
Hebrew  word  very  appropriately,  as '  incor-  same  breast  They  who  polluted  their  souls 
luptible  wood ;'  the  fact  being  that  it  is  very  with  the  blood  of  Jesus,  would  not  soil  tlieir 
durable,  and  therefore  eminently  suited  to  hands  with  the  returned  bribe  with  which 
the  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied  in  the  they  had  bought  their  victim's  life.  The 
Bible.  It  is  indigenous  in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  piece  of  land  was  of  small  value,  having 
Thevenot  found  it  growing  idld  near  Mount  been  exhausted  in  making  pottery  ware.  It 
Sinai.  The  Acacia  vera,  which  yields  the  lay  southward  of  Jerusalem.  There  still 
vrell-known  gum  Arabic,  has  spines  growing  remains  on  the  spot  a  charnel-house.  Su- 
in  pairs.  It  forms  a  tree  thirteen  or  fourteen  perstition  gave  the  notion,  that  the  soil  de- 
feet  high,  of  inelegant  appearance.  The  stroyed  corpses  in  a  day  or  two ;  for  which 
Acacia  Arabica  is  not  unlike  the  former,  purpose,  ship-loads  of  it  were,  in  the  thir- 
The  wood  of  the  acacia  is  exceedingly  hard,  teenth  century,  transported  to  Pisa  in  Italy, 
yet  light  When  it  is  old,  it  is  nearly  as  in  order  to  be  spread  over  the  famous  ceme- 
black  as  ebony.    It  was  therefore  much  es-    tery  there. 

teemed  in  antiquity,  and  used  in  ship-build-  ACHAN  {H.troubler)  —  called  in  IChron. 
ing.  Botaniste  are  acquainted  with  nearly  ii.  7,  *Achar,thetroublerof  Israel* — was  the 
three  hundred  species  of  the  acacia,  which  son  of  Carmi,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  He 
inhabit  the  warmer  parte  of  the  world.  ventured,  in  spite  of  the  divine  prohibition 

ACCHO  (H.  an  enclosure),  the  modem  (Josh.  vi.  17),  to  appropriate  to  himself  some 
St  Jean  d'Acre,  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  of  the  booty  ('the  aocnrsed  thing')  acquired 
only  in  Judg.  i.  81,  under  this  the  early  name  at  the  fall  of  Jericho ;  and  hence  brought  on 
of  tile  town ;  but  in  and  after  the  time  of  the  the  Israelites,  who  expected  any  thing  but  a 
Maccabees  (i.  5, 15)  it  was  called  Ptolemais  reverse,  a  severe  defeat  before  the  town  of 
(Aete  xxi.  7).  From  the  passage  in  Judges,  Ai  (Josh.  vii.).  On  tliis,  a  kind  of  ordeal 
It  vppeen  that  it  originslly  formed  a  part  of  was  appointed,  in  order  to  ascertain  who  the 
the  territory  of  Asher,  which  stretched  north  person  was  that  had  brought  the  divine  anger 
and  eastward  fit>m  Mount  Carmel,  at  the  on  the  Israelites.  The  result  was  that  Ach an 
foot  of  which  Aocho  lies ;  and,  doubtless,  '  was  taken,'  who,  thus  found  guilty  of  God, 
tha  natoial  strength  of  the  place,  which  has    confessed  his  sin,  declared  what  articles  he 

B 


ACT  18  ACT 

h«d  sMMtod,  tad  hImto  UMy  lay.  The  plim*  mttpOMmagM  which  appett  in  the  woifc— 
der  was  foimd ;  and  fhna,  ftiU  proof  A  hia  Peter,  from  ohap.  ii.  to  zii;  Panl,  from  ehap. 
guilt bdng had, tha  vnhappyman  waa atoned,  ziii.tozzfiii:  other  actora are onlyoooaaional 
and  then  haned,  together  with  the  booty,  and  anbordinate.  The  book,  in  reality,  oon- 
and  hia  aona,  hia  daoi^tere,  hia  oxen,  hia  taina  a  briei;  and  by  no  meana  eomplete, 
aaMa,  hia  aheep,  tent,  and  all  that  he  had,  in  aeooont  of  the  liae,  growth,  and  apread  of 
the  Valley  of  Achor  {trouble),  in  the  TaUey,  the  primitive  ehnreh  of  Christ  Its  con- 
that  is,  which  waa  after  this  event  so  named;  tenta,  however,  render  ita  worth  inestimable, 
thua  denoting  the  sad  event,  with  ita  eanse,  Thoii|[^  it  doea  not  Itaiish  all  we  might 
which  there  took  |daoe  (see  Joah.  vii.  89;  deaiie,  we  do  not  mend  onr  position,  by 
comp.  Hoa.  iL  19.  laa^  farv.  10).  gratoitooa  aaaomptiona  and  fidae  pretensions. 

ACHAIA  (O.) — originally  termed  JBgia-  It  is  the  daty  of  the  Ohiiatian,  as  well  as  the 
Ira,  or 'the  coast'  —  denoted,  in  its  narrower  man,  to  take  QoA'b  bonnties  as  they  are 
i^iplication,  the  atrip  of  land  which  atretchea  oiTered  to  him,  and  improve  them  to  the  nt- 
along  the  north-weat  of  the  Petoponnesos ;  most  God's  wiadcmi  and  goodness  are  fire- 
but,  in  a  wider  aenae,  indicated  the  entire  tpunHy  displayed  even  more  in  withholding 
eoontiy  of  Qreeee  (except  Theaaaly) :  in  the     Uian  in  giving. 

time  to  which  the  narratives  of  the  New  The  paaaages  are  nnmerona  irtiioh  aerve  to 
Teatament  refer,  it  waa  a  province  onder  the  ahow  that  the  object  of  the  work  is  what  we 
government  of  Borne;  having  given  name  to  have  indicated;  but  the  worda  of  the  risen 
all  Greece  from  the  time  when  the  Adueana  Bavioor  (Acta  L  8),—'  Ye  shall  receive 
took  the  lead,  and  the  Aohaan  league  waa  power  after  that  the  Holy  Ghoatia  come  upon 
formed,  in  the  year  146  before  Christ  Greece,  yon,  and  ye  ahall  be  witaeaaea  onto  me  both 
onder  the  Bomana,  waa  atrietly  divided  into  in  Jemaalem,  and  in  all  Jodea,  and  in  8a- 
two  provineea,  rMaoedoniw  and  Aehaia:  the  maria,  and  unto  the  nttemost  part  of  the 
first  comprised  the  conntiy  to  the  north ;  the  earth,' — set  forth,  at  the  aame  time,  the  great 
aeeond,  the  country  to  the  aonth  of  a  line  object  of  the  apostlea'  lives,  and  the  great 
drawn  from  the  Sinus  Ambradus  to  the  Sinua  pnipose  which  the  author  of  the  book  had 
MaUaous;  that  is,  from  the  Gulf  of  Arta  to  befbre  him.  A  brief  outline  of  the  contenta 
that  of  Yolo.  of  <  The  Acta'  will  show  both  its  value,  and 

There  were  two  kinds  of  provinces  under  the  truth  of  the  remark  we  have  just  made, 
the  Boman  empire — the  senatorial  and  the  Having  referred  to  the  former  treatise,  that 
imperial.  A  senatorial  province  was  governed  is,  the  Gospel  according  to  8t  Luke,  and 
by  a  proconsul,  appointed  by  the  senate;  an  given  a  very  brief  summary  of  its  contents, 
imperial  province  waa  governed  by  a  pro-  ^e  author  proceeds  to  take  up  the  thread  of 
eurator,  appointed  by  the  emperor.  At  first,  the  narrative  at  the  point  where  it  had  been 
Aehaia  was  a  senatorial  province;  Tiberiua  dropped.  And  here  the  importance  of  the 
changed  it  into  an  imperial  one;  but  it  waa  work  appears  incalculable.  The  acattered 
given  back  by  Clandius  to  the  senate.  To  disciples  are  found  united.  What  has  brought 
this  latter  periodGallio  belongs  ( ActszvilL  12.  them  together  ?  Here  is  the  hinge  on  which 
Bom.  zv.  26.  2  Cor.  is.  2.  1  Thess.  i.  7, 8),  the  history  and  the  fate  of  Christianity  turned, 
who  ia  denominated  in  the  Acts  proconsul.  How  Jiappy  a  thing  la  it  that  we  have  the 
with  a  strict  propriety,  which  proves  that  the  statement  and  testimony  of  a  trustworthy  his- 
author  wrote  firom  actual  knowledge,  in  a  torian!  Whence  grew  the  church  of  Christf 
case  where  changes,  at  no  distant  intervals,  From  visions  and  dreams? — from  fiwati- 
might  have>  convicted  an  impostor  of  fraud.  cism  f  •— from  selfishness?  —  firom  a  love  of 
AOHMBTHA  (C.  wmmer place),  aforti-  power?  It  grew  fkom  a  fact:  this  was  the 
fled  place  in  Media,  that  some  identify  with  grain  of  mustard-seed, — the  fact  that  Christ 
Ecbatana,  the  chief  city  of  Media,  whidi  was  had  risen  from  the  tomb,  and  eat  down  on 
a  summer's  residence  of  the  Median  kings  the  right  hand  (^  the  Mi^esty  on  high.  The 
(Ezra  vL  2).  writer  states  moat  explicitly  the  resurrection 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  THE. —  end  ascension  of  Jesus.  He  adds  visible 
A  work  which  is  commonly  accounted  the  proofs  of  his  existence  and  benign  activity; 
fifth  historical  book  of  the  New  Testament,  for  Jesus,  he  says,  '  showed  himself  alive 
and  details  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  after  his  passion  by  many  infallible  proofs, 
church  after  the  resurrection  of  Christ  The  being  seen  of  the  discifdes  forty  days,  and 
titles,  which  the  scriptural  compositions  bear,  speaking  of  the  things  pertaimng  to  the 
rest  not  on  the  authority  of  the  authors  of  kingdom  of  God'  (L  8).  The  ascension  of 
those  books,  but  were  added  at  a  later  period.  Christ  is  then  distuictly  narrated  as  an  object 
So  the  title,  *  the  Acts,  or  doings,  of  the  of  sight  There  follows  another  proof  of  tiie 
Apostles,'  has  in  itself  no  authority ;  nor  is  it  existence  of  the  risen  Messiah,  and  of  the  con- 
a  correct  description  of  the  book  to  which  cem  he  took  in  the  foundation  of  his  king- 
it  is  prefixed,  since  that  writing  relates  only  dom ;  for,  agreeably  to  his  promise,  the  Spirit 
a  part  of  the  acts  of  the  apostles;  after  a  is  poured  out  on  the  assembled  infant  church, 
certain  period,  almost  exclusively  those  of  so  that  its  members  could  not  doubt  that 
PauL    Indeed,  Peter  and  Paul  are  the  two     their  Master  was  alive,  and  that  it  was  hia 


ACT  19  ACT 

vidGoA  win  fluHlluyahoiild  live  and  di«  ziiLS)  in  HMilittiooantiiet;-^Salaml8  la 

tat  the  jbrthenace  of  Uie  goepeL    The  im-  Cypras  being  the  fizst  reoorded  plioe  when 

poateaee  which  the  apoetlea  attaehed,  fhnn  Ihey  preaehed  the  word  of  Ood.    The  quee- 

the  Snt,  to  their  position  and  work,  ia  seen  tion  of  oomplianee  with  the  Moeaic  rite  of 

in  the  faei^  that,  before  ever  they  addiesa  eiroinneiaion, and,  gen€jallj,of  whatobedienee 

themselves  to   their   datiet,    they  proceed  Christians  owed  to  the  law,  is  forced  on  for 

eafanly  to  fill  np  their  body,  by  electing  (by  consideration,  and  determined  at  Jemsalem, 

lot)  one  in  place  of  the  traitor  Jodas ;  so  where  the  first  and  only  properly  oonstitoted 

that  the  original  nmnber  fixed  by  Jesus  might  and  authoritative  eoonoil  was  held;  who, 

not  be  broken  in  upon,  but  there  might  be  onlike  all  succeeding  councils,  were  caieftil 

twelve  men  who  lukl  'eompanied  with  the  not  to  lay  any  unnecessary  burden  (xv.  28) 

Messiah  and  his  followers  all  the  time  that  on  the  church.     Paul  now  proceeds  still 

the  Lord  Jesus  went  in  and  out  amongst  us,  ftirther  into  Heathen  countries,  going  as  fiur 

beginning  from  tiie  bivpttsm  of  John  unto  as  Macedonia  and  Oreeoe,  and  founding  many 

his  ascenaion.'    Matthias  was  'ordained  to  ehnrches.    Intending  to  pay  a  visit  to  Bome^ 

be  a  witness  with  us  of  his  resurrection.'  Paul  feels  bound  first  to  visit  Jerusalem  (zlz. 

The  eflhsionofthe  Spirit  is  made  an  oocasion,  21;  zz.  22),  where  he  is  i^yprehended,  put 

by  Peter,  for  oommenoing  his  proclamatioii  on  his  trial,  and  at  last  sent  to  the  capital  of 

of  the  goqpeL    He  delivers  his  first  sermon,  the  worid.    Here  he  is  abroptiy  left  by  the 

which  led  to  the  oonveraion  of  three  thousand  history  (zi:viiL  81),  preaching  the  kingdom 

persons,  and  so  to  the  formation  of  a  Chria*  of  Qod.    Thus  the  dedaratian  of  the  Lord 

tianchuroh,  the  usages  of  which  are  described  was  accomplished  (L  8). 
in  aainteresting manner  (LiL).  The  apoeOes        The  book  natorally  divides  itself  into  two 

become  more  bold  and  active  in  preaching  the  parts  atthe  twenty-fourth  verse  of  tfaetwelAfa 

gospel!  in  Jerusalem,  and  in  consolidating  chapter;  which  verse  mav  be  considered  as  a 

the  infant  community,  not  without  resistance  point  of  transition  from  the  first  to  the  second 

and  persecution  (liL  vi).     Then  the  con-  part    The  first  part  ia  also  more  misoeUane- 

dnet  of  Stephen  is  narrated — his  activity,  his  oos  than  the  seoQnd,having  manysubdivisions 

noUe  spirit^  his  cruel  dsatii — all  which  con*  and  transitional  passages;  whereas  the  second 

tributed  greatiy  to  strengthen  and  advance  possesses  more  unity,  in  having  for  its  cen- 

the  eaose  of  Christ  (vL  6 ;  viiL  2).     The  tral  figure  <me  leading  personage,  Paul ;  and 

murder  of  Stephen,  and  the  general  perseeu-  for  ii  subject,  the  apo8tie*s  proceedings, 

tion  which  enmied,  alanned  and  scattered  the  The  nsirative  follows  pretty  much  the  order 

disciples ;  and  thus,  departing  from  Jerus»>  of  events,  and,  in  points  of  chronology,  is 

lem,  they  began  to  preach  the  gospel  in  other  generally  exact;  as  might  be  expected,  con- 

fwrts  of  Paleatine,  particularty  at  Samaria,  sidering  that  the  writer  stood  near  to  the 

tiiroog^  the  agency  of  Philip  (viiL  8—40).  events  narrated.    Notices  and  marks  of  time 

Panl  had  made  his  first  appearance  at  the  are  found  inxviil.  11;  xix.  10;  xx.  6;  xxir. 

stoning  of  Stephen.     At  the  beginning  of  27;   xxviL  9;   xxvlii.  11,  80.     The  entire 

the  ninth  chapter,  he  enters  once  for  all  on  the  piece  is  conceived  in  the  tone  of  friendship ; 

scene,  breathing  out  threatenings  and  slsogh-  being  clearly  designed,  not  only  to  narrate, 

ter  against  the  disciples.     His  miraculous  but  to  explain  and  defend,  the  progress  of 

conversion  is  detailed  vrith  much  particularity  the  gospeL    This,  however,  is  done  in  a  fair, 

(ix.  1—81),  which  prepares  the  way  for  the  impartial,  and  trutiiftil  manner.    The  writer 

greatest  dumge  in  the  gospel  affairs  they  ever  was  obviously  a  believer,  and  as  such  has 

underwent;  namely,  the  admission  of  the  written.    Nor  is  there  visible  an  undue  lean- 

Oentiles  to  Christisn  privileges.    This  revo-  ing  to  any  one  of  the  primitive  heralds  of 

lotion  was  not  effected  without  special  instru-  Christianity.     If  Paul  occupies  the  latter 

mentaltties.    Peter,  after  undeigoing  suitable  part  of  the  book,  Peter  is  the  leading  character 

influences,  oonours,  and  takes  psrt^  in  the  in  the  former  part    But  nothing  can  show 

work  of  converting  the  Heathen,  beginning  more  strikingly  that  the  book  is  unfinished, 

with  Conr^dius,  a  centurion  of  Ctesarea,  and  than  that  the  life  of  neither  Peter  nor  Paul 

maintaining  the  propriety  of  his  conduct  is  brou^t  to  a  termination.    Of  Peter,  except 

before  the  brethren  in  Jerusalem  (x. — ^xL  18).  in  chi^.  xv.  7, 14,  we  hear  no  more  after  the 

The  circle  ofthe  gospel  extends.    Theftigitive  record,  xii.  19;   namely,  that  the  apostie, 

disciples  proclaim  it  in  Phenice,  Cyprus,  and  having  escaped  l^rom  Herod,  *  went  down 

Antioch:  a  great  number  believe.    Onhear^  from  Judea  to  Cesarea,  and  there  abode;' 

ing  this,  the  mother  church  at  Jemsalem  while  Panl  is  left  a  prisoner  at  Borne.    We 

iMnds  Barnabas  as  far  as  Antioch ;  who,  cannot,  under  these  circumstances,  resist  the 

liaving  fulfilled  his  mission,  proceeds  to  Tar-  feeling,  that  it  is  only  a  ihigm«it  with  which 

aos  to  seek  Saul,  whom  he  brings  to  Antioch.  we  have  to  do  in  the  Acts  of  the  Aposties. 

The  twelfth  chapter  opens  with  the  imprison-  It  is  hardly  to  be  believed,  that  a  writer,  who 

ment  of  Peter  by  king  Herod,  and  relates  the  had  detailed  at  length  Paul's  conduct  and  its 

miraculous  deliverance  of  that  apostie.    He-  eflbcts  in  Athens,  should  have  voluntarily  left 

rod  is  punished;  and  Panl,  together  with  all  but  untold  the  yet  more  important  influ- 

Bamabas,  b^ins  active  operations  (xii.  25;  ence  which  he  eierted  in  Bome — an  im- 


ACT                       20  ACT 

probability  whieh  is  miiflh  inereaied  bj  the  Lute,  ik&  writer  of  th«  tidfd  Qotpel,  If 
tmet,  thmt  the  writer  wm  united  with  Ptnl  in  genertUy  admitted  to  be  tiie  aatfaor  of  the 
the  bonds  of  human  friendship,  ae  well  ae  of  Aeta  of  the  Apostles.    Thia  was  the  opinion 
the  gospel.     Host  natural  was  it  that  he  of  die  sncient  ehnroh.    Ensetaiiis  plsees  it 
should  have  eontinned  his  nsiratiTe  till  the  among  the  books  iriiieh  wers  nniTosslly  re- 
deeease  of  Paol,  whieh  would  have  formed  a  eeived  as  snthentie  end  eredible.    Writers  in 
suitaUe  teimimuion  of  his  work.  the  seeond  esntory  mske  obrions  referenoes 
It  would  seem  that  the  author  must  hare  to  the  work.     The  liahers  of  the  ehureh^ 
been  inteimpted  in  the  proseeution  of  his  from  the  time  of  Irensns  (bom  at  Smyrna, 
task.    What  interruption  so  natural  as  his  in  the  first  qusrter  of  the  seeond  eentnry), 
own  death  f    Soaroely  any  thing  less  would  expressly  quote  the  Acts,  snd  speak  of  it  as 
have  been  allowed  to  bring  the  narrative  to  a  written  by  Luke.    The  writer  of  Luke^s  Oos- 
sudden  termination.    And  a  sodden  termi-  pel  wrote  the  Aots  slso.    There  is  between 
nation  points  to  sn  unforeseen  and  ineritable  the  two  works  a  general  agreement  of  man- 
cause.    The  life,  then,  of  a  man  is  the  limit  ner  and  diction  which  bespeaks  the  same 
of  the  work.    But  there  are  eridenoes  in  the  hand.    The  Qospel  snd  the  Acts  are  dedi- 
work  of  the  pen  of  an  eye-witness.    It  must,  eated  to  the  same  Theophilus.    The  Book 
then,  be  within  the  threescore  yesrs  snd  ten  of  Acts  retos  to  the  Gospel  (i.  1)  in  such  a 
of  some  one  who  was  contemporary  with  the  manner  as  to  enforce  the  inference  that  they 
events  narrated.    Theae  events  range  from  both  came  from  one  pen.    Indeed  the  two 
81  to  64,  A.D. :  consequently  the  book  was  are  only  parts  ^  one  wrak,  which  originally 
written  within  the  third  quarter  of  the  first  was  not  divided,  nor  distinguished  by  sepa- 
century.  rate  tides,  but  formed  a  generul  historicsl 
We  may  probably  approach  somewhat  narrative,  whidi,  following  the  substance  of 
nearer.    Paul  came  to  Borne  hi  the  springof  the  faitroducfeorj  verses  of  the  Ooepel,  might 
03,  A.D.  and  remained  two  whole  years  have  been  termed* An  accurate  account  of 
teaching — that  is,  till  the  spring  of  64.  Now,  things  that  have  come  to  pass  among  the 
in  June,  64,  Borne  was  burnt  l^  Nero;  who,  Chrisdsns.'    In  this  view,  the  terminating 
to  cover  his  crime  snd  folly,  began  to  perse-  lines  of  the  Gospel,  snd  the  commencing 
cute  the  Christians.    8o  important  an  event  lines  of  the  Acts,  are  only  transitional  words 
would  not  have  been  omitted,  especially  as  employed  in  passing  on  from  the  first  to  the 
the  thread  of  the  narrative  ia  brought  very  second  part  of  the  general  treatise.    U^  then, 
near  it,  had  the  writer  then  been  alive.  Luke  wrote  the  Goc^l  called  after  his  name, 
Cottsequendy  the  last  hand  must  have  been  the  probability  is  that  he  wrote  the  Acts  alaa 
put  to  the  writing  before  mid-summer,  and  The  writer  certainly  doea  not  give  his  name; 
after  spring,  64.     Indeed,  the  concluding  but,  in  the  second  part  of  the  second  book 
verseslook  very  like  a  hasty  summary,  drawn  (the  Acts),  he  speaks,  in  connection  with 
up  under  the  pressure  of  some  unexpected  Paul,  in  the  first  person  plural— thus  (xvi 
event;  —  a  fact  which  will  appear  obvious  to  10), '  After  Paul  had  seen  the  vision,  we  en- 
the  reader  if  he  compares  the  long  detail  deavoured  to  go  into  Macedonia'  (see  also 
given  of  the  voyage  to  Bome,  with  the  far  zx.  0 — 15 ;  xxviL  1 — 87).     Unquestionably 
more  important  matter, — the  preaching  and  some  passages  were  written  by  sn  eye-witness, 
influence  of  Paul  in  the  imperial  city.  Besides  those  just  referred  to,  see  xxi.  1 — 18; 
There  is  a  fact  mentioned  in  the  book  xxviii.  15.    Who  was  this  eye-witness  r    The 
which  speaks  for  a  similar  period  to  that  person  who  wrote '  the  former  treatise.*  This 
which  we  have  already  fixed.    In  Acts  viii.  26,  is  reputed  to  be  Luke.    The  colouring  under 
the  Philistine  city  Oasa  is  said  to  be  '  desert,'  which  Christianity  appears  in  the  Acts  is  said 
in  rains.    From  Josephus  (Jewish  War,  ii.  to  be  such  as  shows  that  its  writer  was  an 
18,  1),  we  know  that  the  place  was  destroyed  associate  of  snd  fellow-worker  with   Paul, 
in  the  reign  of  Nero,  a  short  time  before  the  Now,  in  Col.  iv.  14,  we  read,  *  Luke,  the  be- 
aiege  of  Jerusalem.    Now,  Vespaaisn  came  loved  physician,   greets  you.'     In  Pbilem. 
into  Judea  A.D.  67.    Before  this  date,  then,  ver.  24,  Lucas  is  reckoned  smong  Paul's  fel- 
Gaxa  was  destroyed.   Butif  the  writer  noticed,  low-labourers;  and  in  2  Tim.  iv.  11,  are  the 
in  passing,  the  fact  that  Oaza  was  in  ruins  words  '  only  Luke  is  with  me ;'  that  is,  at 
when  he  wrote,  much  more  would  he  have  Borne,  during  his  imprisonment  (see  2  Tim. 
made  similar  statements  in  relstion  to  the  i.  8).    Whence  we  leam  that  Luke  was  a  co- 
far  more  important  and  interesting  places  of  operator  with,  and  intimate  tnend  of,  the 
Jemsslem,  of  which  he  speaks.    The  infer-  apoade.    We  cannot,  however,  hence  infer, 
ence  is,  that  the  city  was  standing  when  the  that  therefore  Luke  wrote  the  Acta  of  the 
work  was  composed.     Jerusalem  was  de-  Apostles.      The  utmost  that  the  evidence 
stroyed  by  Titos,  Sept  7di,  A.D.  70.   Whence  before  us  andiorises  is,  that  Luke  may  have 
we  are  brought  to  the  conclusion,  that,  to  been  its  anthor.    Indeed  too  much  stress 
the  period  between  60  and  70,  the  Book  of  and  importance  have  been  laid  on  the  point 
Acts  may  be  safely  referred — a  conclusion  of  fixing  a  name  to  each  individual  book, 
which  is  favoured  conouiTentlyby  the  several  Sometimes,  when  a  name  has  been  gamed, 
lines  of  evidsnce  which  have  been  adduced.  it  is  litde  more  than  a  mere  name.    A  name, 


ACT  21  ACT 

however,  is,  in  such  a  case,  only  of  value  their  own  paternity.  The  speeches  of  Peter 
when  it  represents  certain  facts  and  ideas,  (ii.  14,  teq.i  lit  12,  uq.f  ir,  8,  Meq,;  t,  29, 
which  enahle  ns  to  judge  of  the  credibility  of  9eq,)  are  qnite  charaoteristio.  This  Peter  is 
sn  author ;  but  of  Luke,  and  of  other  alleged  obviously  the  Peter  of  the  Oospels.  Not  less 
authors,  we,  in  our  actual  state  of  knowledge,  characteristic  of  Paul  is  his  noble  speech  at 
know  too  little  to  make  any  certain  inference  Athena  (xviL  22,  seq,).  With  equal  confi- 
froin  his  personal  position,  qualities,  and  his-  denoe  we  refer  any  reader  of  his  Epistles  to 
tory.  Nor  need  the  Christian  be  uneasy  at  the  beantifol  address  with  which  he  took 
Aese  remaiks,  if  only  he  is  oonoemed  more  leave  of  the  church  at  Ephesus  (xx.  17 — 30). 
for  realities  than  names.  The  credibility  of  What  can  be  more  Pauline  than  the  emphatic 
the  book  in  question  is  beyond  a  doubt  If  words,  — '  I  have  coveted  no  man's  silver,  or 
so,  we  have,  independently  of  any  personal  gold,  or  apparel*  f  The  entire  twelfth  chap- 
name,  that  lor  giving  us  which,  such  name  ter  may  have  been  taken  from  some  written 
could  only  be  of  value  to  us.  We  must  dis-  aocoont  of  Peter:  its  particularity  shows  an 
tinguish  between  the  credibility  of  a  book,  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  circumstances, 
and  the  credibility  of  men.  Of  the  second  and  is  beyond  the  reach  of  imposture, 
we  may  have  few  or  no  means  of  judging.  This  book  has  been  subjected  to  a  very 
A  book  canies  with  it  its  own  justLQcation,  close  and  minute  examination,  in  connection 
or  its  own  condemnation.  The  evidence  in  with  Paul's  Epistles.  The  duty,  begun  by 
the  case  is  written  in  every  page,  and  often  Paley  {Horm  Paulina),  has  been  completed 
found  in  words  and  things  which  are  far  be-  by  Tait  The  result  is  eminently  favourable 
youd  the  reach  of  artifice  or  fraud.  If,  for  to  the  credibility  of  both  the  Acts  and  the 
instance,  the  reader,  by  Studying  our  refer-  Epistles ;  for  numerous  instances  of  minute, 
cnces,  should  be  satisfied  that  the  passages  accidental,  and  unobvioua  agreement  have 
in  question  emanated  from  an  eye-witness,  been  discovered  by  these  critics,  which  put 
he  will  have  little  need  to  be  concerned  whe-  the  idea  of  falsehood  and  fabrication  out  of 
tiler  he  can  name  the  author,  or  fix  the  exact  ihe  question.  But,  if  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
age,  of  the  book.  It  is  very  certain,  that,  as  ties  is  worthy  of  belief,  the  Christian  reli- 
no  name  could  make  a  bodk  credible  which  gion  is  a  fact,  as  well  as  a  system  of  divine 
was  in  its  contents  incredible,  so  a  credible  truth. 

book  needs  no  authentication.    And  it  is        Within  the  space  of  thirty  years  after  the 

equally  obvious,  that  this  evidence  of  credi-  death  of  Christ,  the  gospel  had  been  carried 

bility,  found  in  the  general  tone  and  character  to  all  parts  of  the  civilised,  and  to  no  small 

of  a  book,  is  one  which  addresses  the  head  portion  of  the  uncivilised  world.    Its  pro- 

and  the  heart  of  every  intelligent  reader,  and  gress  and  its  triumphs  were  not  conceided. 

so  secures  for  the  gospel  a  ready  recognition  Its   great  transactions  were  not   '  done  in 

among  mankind;  whereas  arguments  derived  a  comer.'      It  had  been  preached  in   the 

from  questions  of  authorship  and  criticism  most  splendid,  powerAil,  and  corrupt  cities. 

are  exclusively  for  scholars,  being  in  them-  Churches  were  already  founded  in  Jerusa- 

selves,  whatever  they  may  borrow  firom  au-  lem,  Antioch,  Corinth,  Ephesus,  Pbilippi, 

tiiority,  destitute  of  logical  force  with  the  and  at  Rome.    The  gospel  had  spreacl  in 

great  bulk  of  men,  since  the  great  bulk  of  Arabia,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Macedon,  Italy, 

men  are  quite  incapable  of  making  those  in-  and  Africa.    It  had  assailed  the  most  mighty 

dividual  investigatioiis  which  give  to  echo-  existing  institutions;   it  had  made  its  way 

lastic  evidence  all  its  value.  over  the  most  formidable  barriers ;   it  had 

The  credibility  of  the  things  narrated  in  encountered  the  most  deadly  and  malignant 

the  Acts  will  appear  the  stronger,  if  we  give  opposition ;  it  had  travelled  to  the  capital^ 

some  attention  to  the  sources  whence  the  and  secured  such  a  hold,  even  in  the  impe- 

writer  eomposed  his  narrative.    The  author  rial  city,  as  to  make  it  certain  that  it  would 

appears  to  have  made  use  of  written  docu-  finally  overturn  the  established  religion,  and 

ments,  emanating  either  from  his  own  pen  seat  itself  on  the  ruins  of  Paganism.  Within 

or  from  the  pen  ot  others.    Thas,  in  chap,  thirty  years  it  had  settled  the  point  that  it 

XV.  23 — ^29,  we  have  a  very  valuable  and  very  would  overturn  every  bloody  altar ;  close  every 

interesting,  perhaps  the  oldest,  written  docu-  Pagan  temple ;    bring  under  its  influence 

ment, — inserted,  to  aU  appearance,  as  it  was  men  of  office,  rank,  and  power;  and  that  *  the 

issued,  —  namely,  the  letter  written  by  the  banners  of  the  faith  would  soon  stream  from 

apostles  assembled  in  council  at  Jerusalem,  the  palaces  of  the  Ciesars.'    All  this  would 

In  chap,  xxiii.  26 — 30,  is  another  original  be  accomplished  by  the  instrumentality  of 

letter  —  that  of  Claudius  Lysias  to  Felix,  Jews  — of  fishermen  —  ofNazarenes.    They 

touching  Paul.    Many  things  the  writer  may  had  neither  wealth,  armies,  nor  allies.   With 

have  had  before  him  in  the  form  of  notes,  or  the  exception  of  Paul,  they  were  men  without 

have  received  by  word  of  mouth  from  others;  learning.    They  were  taught  only  by  Provi- 

bnt  it  is  obvious  that  he  dealt  fairly  with  his  isnee ;  armed  only  with  &e  power  of  God. 

materials,  and,  by  the  force  of  his  own  vigor-  The  success  of  the  gospel  never  has  been, 

ous  mind,  infused  into  them  one  general  and  never  can  be,  accounted  for  by  any  other 

character.    Passages  are  found  which  bespeak  supposition,  than  that  it  had  God  for  its  au- 


ADA 


22 


ADA 


Ibor,  (nfii  for  its  ■abstaiioe,  hunun  ntttan 
for  its  adToeate,  and  eteinal  Ufa  for  its  booiL 
If  the  Chriatian  rdigion  be  Dot  true,  the 
ehange  wioaght  by  the  twelve  q^oatlea  is 
the  moBt  inexplicable,  myateiiona,  and  woa- 
derfbl  erent  that  haa  ever  been  witneaaed  in 
the  hiatorj  of  the  woild.  Admit  the  aoeoonta 
ftimiahed  in  thia  wilting,  and  the  eatabliah- 
ment  of  the  gospel  in  the  worid,  aa  well  as 
the  changea  which  aociety  underwent,  are  all 
dear  and  easy  to  be  nnderatood :  deny  them, 
and  yon  haye  the  greateat  rsTolation  thai 
society  ever  imdenrant,  and  the  sablimeat 
leligioaa  tmtha  that  erer  dawned  on  men's 
minda,  nnaceounted  for  and  unexplained. 

The  period  oTcr  which  the  book  of  Acta 
extends,  from  81  to  04,  A.  D.  embracea  the 
following  Boman  emperora:  —  1.  Tiberias, 
who  reigned  from  19th  Angos^  xiv.  to  16th 
March,  xxxrii.;  2.  Caligula,  to  the  24th  Jan. 
zli.;  8.  Claodina,  to  the  18th  October,  liv.; 
4.  Nero,  to  the  0th  Jane,  IxriiL 

It  is  impoasible  to  write  the  laat  date  widi- 
oat  expreaaing  a  regret  that  the  history  of 
the  church  should  have  been  broken  olF  at  so 
early  a  period.  We  may,  howerer,  take  com- 
fort  in  the  thought,  that,  had  it  been  eon- 
sistent  with  the  wise  and  benign  puiposes  of 
Providence,  a  ftill  and  complete  history  would 
have  been  written,  and  handed  down;  nor 
ahonld  we  have  been  left  to  find  our  way, 
almost  unaided,  from  the  last  qusrter  of  the 
first,  to  the  middle  of  the  second  centory — a 
period  of  the  greatest  importance  fbr  the 
church,  when  first  it  was  left  to  fight  aingle- 
handed  with  the  powers  of  darkness.  Yet 
such  is  the  intrinsic  and  resistless  power  of 
troth,  it  emerged  from  the  dark  and  fearful 
atraggle  victorious. 

ADAM  (H.  red  earth)  waa  originally  the 
individual  name  of  the  first  man,  but  after- 
wards was  naturally  applied  to  denote  the 
race.  The  account  which  is  given  in  Gen. 
i.  ii.  of  the  creation  of  Adam,  is  not  to  be 
regarded  as  a  legend,  nor  a  symbol,  nor 
the  translation  of  an  hieroglyph,  but  as  the 
eariiest  tradition  respectii^;  the  origin  of 
the  world  and  its  inhabitants;  and,  conse- 
quently, the  best  aeooont  which,  after  due 
diligence  and  care,  the  writer  could  give  of 
these  stupendously  important  events.  The 
view,  accordingly,  takes  iu  shape  and  colour- 
ing from  the  ideas  and  associations  prevalent 
in  the  minds  of  the  best  informed  persons  at 
the  time  when  it  was  written^ a  state  of 

*'*?*}1^^?,."*^'*®^'*»''^*<^  does  not  involve 
mfallibility,  but  will  be  regarded  with  respect, 
and  studied  with  care,  by  every  lover  of  trutti, 
as  mvolvmg,  not  only  die  earlieat  informa- 
toon  of  an  historical  nature  that  we  possess, 
nut  also  such  information  as  those  who  were 
least  remote  fhnn  the  events  in  question 
were  able  to  gather  and  hand  down.  It  ia 
ea^  to  conceive  that  Adam  himself  would, 
cither  directly  or  indiiecUy,  possess  much 
knowledge  on  the  great  change  which  the 


prodoetioii  of  the  prsaent  aarflily  amnge- 
ment  of  things  eaoaed;  and,  in  the  tim 
fkeah  and  unalaked  cariosity  of  man,  his 
knowledge  would  be  eagerly  sought,  and  dili- 
gently tranamittad  by  Ua  deseendants.  Nor 
most  the  faet  be  oinitted,  that  fhigmenta  of 
tradition,  in  other  primeval  nations,  eonoar 
■abatandally  with  the  Bihlieal  account  I^ 
indeed,  we  look  into  tiiis  aoeoont  in  the 
expectation  of  finding  nolfamg  but  absoluta 
trath,  we  may  aullbr  some  disappointment: 
equaUy,  if  we  do  not  penetrate  thioa|h  tba 
covering  to  the  aubetanoe,  distinguishing 
the  fact  and  the  thought  flmn  ita  mere  invest- 
ment^ we  may  fSonn  fidae  coneeptiona.  But 
regard  the  narrative  as  an  account  of  creation 
fkom  an  earthly  point  of  view,  —  as  contem- 
plated by  a  human  mind  and  told  by  a  human 
tongue,  placed  near  the  events  spoken  ol^  snd 
having  peculiar  advantagea  of  a  higher  gui- 
dance,—you  wiU  find  information  no  less 
true  than  usefU,  while  it  is  of  the  deepest 
interest  snd  greatest  spiritual  value. 

It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the 
Bible  does  not  profess  to  be  a  manual  of 
knowledge  in  the  physical  sciences,  but  to  be 
die  great  repositoxy  of  religious  lif^t  It  is, 
Aerefore,  spiritual  truth  which  it  always 
aima  to  convey;  and  it  speaks  of  other  tilings 
only  so  fir  as  they  may  be  nseftil  in  convey- 
ing or  iUnstrating  this  spiritual  truth.  The 
messsge  fh>m  on  high  to  its  writers  waa 
purely  of  a  religioua  kind:  the  earthly  shell 
in  which  they  of  necessity  enclosed  it,  is,  as 
of  the  earth,  perishable.  The  mind  of  the 
Spirit  it  ia  that  we  are  concerned  to  know; 
and  therefore  our  great  busineaa  is  to  sever 
the  human  fkom  the  divine;  to  learn  to  re- 
cognise and  revere  religious  truth  in  the 
midst  of  its  earthly  concomitants;  to  evolve 
the  element  of  inspiration  ftom  the  baser 
elements  with  which  it  is  necessarily  blended. 
*  The  peari  of  great  price'  lies  hid  in  a  field, 
where  those  who  would  be  divinely  rich  must 
dig  unceasingly. 

We  will,  however,  attempt  to  ascertain, 
somewhat  definitely,  &e  point  of  view  from 
which  tibe  account  of  the  origin  of  our  species 
ought  to  be  contemplated.  That  point  of 
view  must  obviously  not  be  our  own ;  fbr  we 
are  separated  by  thousands  of  yesn,  and 
equally  by  an  entire  irorld  of  new  ciieum- 
stanceSp  firom  the  record  snd  fit>m  the  events. 
Our  difilsrence  of  position  must  chsnge  the 
sppearance  of  the  olgects.  Every  historical 
record  has  its  parallax ;  ^riiioh,  revereing  the 
astronomical  law,  increases  in  the  direct  ratio 
of  its  distance  from  the  observer.  The  ftirther 
we  recede  from  historical  events,  the  less 
does  our  vision  of  them  conespond  with  that 
of  contemporaries.  Hence  it  is  clear  that 
thein  is  not  merely  the  best,  but  the  only 
right  position.  Accordingly,  we  must  study 
their  ciroumstsnces  snd  their  states  of  mind ; 
and  so,  takhig  our  stand  in  their  place,  look 
at  objects  which  the  pas^  in  each  case,  ofibrs 


ADA  33  ADA 

to  oor  notice.    It  is,  in  oouMqaenoe,  witfa  — one  of  Teiy  great  oonee^pienee.    Berel^ 

the  eyes,  not  of  Emopeaos  of  the  nineteenth  tion,  •■  being  the  disdocnie  of  divine  truth 

eentoiry  alter  Christ,  but  with  those  of  East-  to  human  beings,  must  hare  two  sides ;  the 

ems,  of  centuries  on  centuries  before,  that  we  diTine,  as  proceeding  from  God ;  the  human, 

ahonld  study  the  Mosaic  record  of  ^e  orea-  as  addressed  to  man.  In  its  divine  relations, 

tion.    We  may  go  ftirther,  and  add,  that  as  it  is  truth,  and  nothing  but  truth.     In  iti 

the  writer  himself  appears  to  hare  written  human  relations,  it   must  neeessaiily  be 

in  the  spirit  of  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world,  adapted  to,  and  partake  ot,  Uie  character  of 

so  in  them,  in  the  hoaiy  mists  of  a  primeval  those  to  whom  it  comes.     Bevelation  is, 

antiquity,  must  we  take  our  stand,  if  we  therefore,  essentiaUyhistorieal:  it  varies  step 

would  rightly  comprehend  this  first  Biblioal  by  step'with  the  advances  made  by  mankind 

nairative.  in  ability  and  knowledge.    Henoe,  also,  it  is 

If  we  look  into  the  soozoea  ndienoe  the  gradual.    The  human  disi^pears — the  di- 

writer  drew  his  account,  we  may  find  aid  vine  shines  forth  more  and  more.    As  our 

towards  a  right  conception  of  its  import  minds  improve,  so  do  we  more  ftdly  and 

That  they  were  partly  documentary  appears  more  dearly  see  the  will  of  Ood.    The  husk 

certain;  equally,  that  the  documents  were  of  perishes  —  the  grain  comes  forth  into  day. 

a  twofold  kind.   As  they  are  twofold  in  their  In  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  then,  revela- 

natnre,  so,  most  probably,  had  they  a  twofold  tion  has  two  elements :  the  divine,  which 

origin.     Certainly,  Ihey  have  produced  a  is  like  its  author,  immutable ;  the  human, 

twofold  description  of  creation ;  a  fact  of  whidi  is  like  its  source,  varying  and  perish- 

which  the  reader  may  easily  satisfy  himsftlf.  able.    The  business  of  the  rdigious  truth- 

These  two  leading  documents  are  distin-  seeker  is  to  separate  the  one  from  the  other, 

gmshedchieflyby  the  names  used  to  designate  by  the  aids  afforded  by  his  own  mind,  his 

the  Divine  Being;  who,  in  one,  is  denomi-  own  experience,  history   and   providence, 

nated  ^ioAim,' in  die  other,  t/JpAotxa^    Other  But,  if  revelation  pre-supposes  these  two 

documents  may  have  fiinushed  contributions,  elements,  then  does  it  involve  the  one  no 

The  documento,  whatever  they  were,  cannot  less    than    the    other.      Consequently,  the 

have  existed  in  writing  much  before  the  time  existence  of  both  is  essential  to  constitute 

of  Moses  (Books);  whence  we  are  led  to  revelation.    If  so,  difficulties,  and  even  daik- 

see  that  their  substance  must  have  come  ness,  are  no  disproof  of  revelation,  but  the 

down  to  the  compiler  by  tradition — fiom  reverse.    The  human  element  is  as  essen- 

mouth  to  month,  and  so  be  liable  to  some  tial  to  revelation  as  is  the  divine :  the  dark 

degree  of  colouring.  The  transmission,  how-  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  any  more  than  the 

ever,  was  facilitoted  by  the  primitive  dui-  light    There  must  be  a  mortal  vesture  for 

raoter  of  the  times,  and  by  the  sacredness  of  God's  eternal  truth.    Like  the  universe,  all 

the  topics.    Still  more  was  it  focilitoted  pro-  true  revelation  has  ite  darkness,  as  well  as 

bably  by  picture-writing,  which,  beyond  a  ite  light;  while  the  former  is  allowed,  merely 

doubt,  existed  in  the  earliest  ages ;  and  not  for  the  sake  of  the  latter,  into  which  it  tend« 

improbablybyrude  inscriptions,  cut  in  stones,  incessantiy  to  pass,  and  does,  finom  age  to 

or  on  the  living  rock  —  a  practice  to  which  age,  gradually  and  inevitably  pass.    If  God 

the  East,  and,  not  least,  the  Arabs,  were  ae-  was  ever  to  speak  to  man,  he  could  do  no 

customed,  in  primeval  times.    It  is  easy  to  other  than  employ  a  language  in  which  he 

see  how  sources  of  information  such  as  these  would  be  understood.    That  tongue  is  hu* 

wouldgive,not  only  a  hue,  but  a  certain  form  man — ite  laws,  working,  history,  tenden- 

•nd  shape,  to  the  naisative,  which  might  in-  cies  —  all  humsn ;   suited    to   the   narrow 

deed  leave  entire  and  untouched  great  facte  capacities  and  narrow  range  of  observation 

and  truths,  but  still  put  them  into  a  dress  of  a  primeval  and  untotond  age.    It  is  for 

token  firom  the  condition  of  mind,  degree  of  us  to  learn  that  language,  and,  having  learned 

enltnre,  and  apprehensions  of  those  whose  it,  to   gather  there  £e  everlasting  truths 

heads,  hearts,  tongues,  and  fingers  were  the  which  it  enshrines. 

medium  of  transmission.    We  may  illustrate        These  are  general  principles,  the  applica- 

this  by  an  instance.    That  the  guilty  Adam  tion  of  which  may  communicate  light  to  the 

ahrank  from  his  Judge,  who,  however,  ar-  student  of  the  Bible.     They  lead  to  the 

raigned  and  condemned  him,  is  a  great  and  esteblishment  of  another  important  principle; 

important  truth  which  remains  equally  cer-  — there  is,  even  in  regard  to  human  concep- 

tain,  after  the  human  attire  in  which  it  is  tions,  a  relative,  and  there  is  an  absolute 

clothed  is  csst  away,  —  such  as  God's  walk-  truth.    The  first  is  truth  as  conceived  and 

ing  in  the  garden  in  the  cool  of  the  day,  recognised  by  each  successive  generation; 

and  holding  a  conversation  face  to  face  with  the  second  is  that  truth  towards  which  the 

Adam.    That  Adam  oonmiitted  siu  by  break-  race  of  man  is  ever  making  advances,  and 

Ing  God's  law,  is  also  an  important  truth ;  in  the  attainment  of  which,  the  high  culture 

while  the  imagery  of  the  serpent  and  the  of  the  present  day  assures  us  we  have  made, 

q^le  may,  in  part,  be  taken  from  mere  or  may  make,  successful  efforts.   But,  dearly, 

Mrthly  influences.  these  two  species  of  truth  must  not  be  con- 

Henee  we  are  brought  to  another  remark  founded.    It  is  enough  for  the  verification 


ADA 


24 


ADA 


of  biatory  that  it  elearlj  posMMes  nlttiTe 
truth.  What  burden  that  lelatiTe  truth  baa 
for  na,  ia  another  and  a  diflbreDt  qnestion. 
But  there  ia  a  great  advantage  aflTorded  to 
the  earnest  and  candid  inquirer,  in  the  dia- 
tinetlon  now  auggeated;  namely,  that  he  who 
admita  the  diatinction  oan  aee  how  aneient 
writera  may,  in  perfect  good  faith,  aet  forth 
aa  faeta  what  the  knowledge  and  experience 
of  later  timea  show  to  have  been  nothing 
higher  than  the  modea  of  conception,  and 
pointa  of  Tiew,  'then  preTalent  Thua  the 
biatorian  ia  an  boneat  and  truatworthy  chroni- 
cler, prorided  ho  believes  niiat  he  narratea ; 
and  he  suppliea  na  with  very  valaable  mar 
tariala  for  the  formation  of  our  opiniona. 

The  absolute  truth  contained  in  the  nar- 
rative of  the  creation  ia  ample  in  amount, 
and  moat  important  in  character.  We  can 
here  mention,  bj  way  of  suggesting  how  the 
aulyeot  of  inspiration  should,  as  it  appears 
to  na,  be  viewed  and  treated,  only  one  or  two 
of  the  leading  particulara.  The  world  is  not 
eternal :  it  came  into  its  present  state  within 
a  definable,  though  it  may  not  be  a  strictly 
historical  period;  and  it  proceeded  immedi- 
ately from  the  volition  of  an  intelligent 
Creator.  A  comparison  of  this  grand  view 
with  die  absurd  and  fSuitastic  cosmogonies  of 
other  nations  will  readily  show  the  immea- 
surable superiority  and  inappreciable  value 
of  the  aaored  books  of  the  Hebrew  people. 
The  human  race,  in  all  its  vsrieties,  is  the 
oflbpring  of  one  pair,  the  work  of  one  creating 
Hind,  &e  object  of  one  preserving  Provi- 
dence. Our  great  progenitor,  as  *the  son 
of  Ood'  (Luke  iii.  88),  was  made  in  the 
divine  image.  Hence  man  has  a  spiritual 
no  less  than  an  animal  nature  (Job  zzxiiL  4), 
and  ia,  in  his  very  essence,  a  religious  being. 
Here  is  laid  the  basis,  not  only  of  filial  piety 
and  childlike  obedience,  bnt  of  that  great 
and  humanifling  truth  which  Ilea  at  the  cen- 
tre of  the  gospel,  namely,  that  all  men  are 
equally  dear  in  the  sight  of  the  common 
Father,  and  should  regard  and  treat  each 
other  with  brotherty  khidness.  Here,  too, 
lies  the  ground  why  man  was  entrusted  with 
lordship  over  the  entire  earth,  and  all  its  in- 
habitants and  productions.  Nor  did  the 
Creator  abandon  the  work  of  his  hands,  bnt 
took  msn,  as  soon  as  he  was  made,  under 
his  own  immediate  guidance,  and  began  the 
education  of  his  moral  and  spiritual  nature. 
Even  when  man  broke  the  divine  law,  liia 
great  Father  did  not  desert  him,  nor  leave 
him  hopeless  and  without  aid.  Most  im- 
portant is  the  idea  of  duty  which  we  find 
written  in  the  first  page  of  the  records  of 
time.  As  soon  as  man  is  placed  on  earth, 
he  is  made  subject  to  law  —  to  that  influ- 
ence which,  in  ^e  process  of  ages,  was  to 
be  the  great  bond  of  social  life,  the  source 
and  the  guardian  of  its  highest  advantages, 
individuaUy  and  collectively.  Objections 
have  been  taken  to  the  falL     Yet  a  first  sin 


there  must  haife  been ;  and  the  first  sin  waa 
the  falL  That  ain  also  mnat  have  been  one 
which  Adam,  in  hia  actaal  condition,  was 
likely  to  commit  It  ia  very  eaay  to  indulge 
in  exceptions  to  the  form  and  detaila  of  the 
actual  narrative ;  but  it  ia  not  ao  eaay  to  pomt 
out  how  a  more  natural  and  probable  account 
could,  in  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  have 
been  given.  Even  the  creation  of  Eve  out  of 
one  of  Adam's  ribs  may,  throng  the  gross 
verbal  covering,  indicate  the  highly  import 
tant  truOi  of  &e  strict  unity  of  nature  that 
there  is  between  msn  and  woman,  and  teach 
the  duty  of  mutual  love  and  mutual  service ; 
since  woman  is  not  so  much  another  being, 
aa  a  second  sell  So  marriage  did  not  spring 
from  those  low  passions  which  assimilate  man 
to  the  brute,  but  from  the  wise  and  benign 
ordinations  of  the  Maker  of  the  universe.  It 
has  not  only  a  apiritnal  import  and  aim,  but 
a  divine  origin.  We  are  not  here  required 
to  show  precisely  how  these  truths  came  to 
be  embodied  in  ike  form  in  which  they  stand 
in  Genesis;  but  it  may  well  be  doubted, 
whether  there  could  have  been  chosen  a  msn* 
ner  of  representation  more  fitted  to  impress 
the  mind  and  move  the  heart  of  those  pri- 
mitive beings  for  whose  use  the  narrative 
waa  intended.  EquaUy  may  it  be  main- 
tained, that  in  no  way  could  Uie  direful  con- 
sequences  of  sin  have  been  so  well  set  forth, 
as  in  that  which  is  actnaUy  taken,  in  which 
man  is  made  to  lose  his  idl,  so  soon  as  he 
has  lost  his  innocence.  The  light  without, 
and  the  lig^t  within,  are  quenched  at  &e 
same  time.  Ood,  who  was  a  Friend,  beeomea 
a  Judge.  Paradise  is  forfeited  by  one  sin. 
8o  is  it  still ;  so  it  always  must  be.  Peace 
departs  the  moment  sin  enters  the  soul.  Sin 
committed  is  death  begun  (James  L  10). 

Revelation  must  be  taken  as  a  whole. 
In  the  New  Testament,  Christ  is  snalogically 
deacribed  as  the  second  Adam  (1  Cor.  xv. 
45).  The  first  Adam  waa  tempted,  and  felL 
The  second  Adam  was  tempted,  and  tri- 
umphed. With  Jesus  Christ  there  began  a 
new  order  of  events,  and  a  hi^er  range  of 
apiritnal  life  —  a  new  creation,  all  who  par- 
take in  which  are  to  put  off  die  old  Adam 
with  his  deeds  (Eph^iv.  22.  CoLiiL9).  Thus 
grace  snperabounds ;  the  evils  of  the  fall  are 
more  than  repaired  by  the  redemption  which 
is  in  our  second  head  and  representative, 
by  whom  we  are  raised  into  moral  union 
and  spiritual  sonship  with  Ood.  The  world, 
then,  is  not  without  a  ruler,  nor  its  history 
without  a  plan.  Man  is  under  the  empire  of 
law;  that  law  is  the  divine  will;  that  will  is 
infinite  wisdom,  guided  by  unlimited  bene- 
volence ;  and  as  wisdom  and  love  constitute 
power,  ao  man,  in  becoming  a  consciously 
moral  being  under  divine  discipline,  works 
forwsrd  in  faith  and  hope,  frOfiUing  the  gra* 
cious  ends  and  purposes  of  the  government 
of  a  Father,  till  Ood  shallbe  all  in  all. 

In  the  teachings  of  which  we  have  made 


ADD                      25  ADO 

nientioii,  wn  tormd  the  eentitd  tnitfas  of  le-  ABJUBE  (L.  topttt  to  on  caih)  tignifies 

ligicm,  as  well  as  high  and  noble  coneeptiona,  to  request  with  that   solemn    earnestness 

which  must  work  most  benignly  on  Uie  ha-  nhUch.  ensues  from  an  immediate  reference 

man  race,  and  wiAout  fribdch  man  would  to  the  all-seeing  and  retributoiy  proTidence 

indeed  be  lost     They  are  found  in  llie  of  God  (Oath).    When  Jeans  held  his  peace 

Bible.    Were  they  not  &ere,  man  could  not  before  the  tribunal  of  the  high  priest,  the 

in  the  early  ages,  if  erer,  have  discovered  latter  said,  *  I  a4|nre  thee,  by  the  living  Ood, 

them,  how  desirable  soever  the  possession  of  that  thou  tell  us  whelfaer  thou  be  the  Christ' 

them  may  be.  (Matt  zzvi.  68.   Mark  v.  7.   Acts  six.  18. 

Of  Adam's  immediate  offspring,  only  three  1  Thess.  v.  27). 

sons  are  mentioned,  Cain,  Abel,  and  Seth.  ADMONITION  (L.  ^t^  advia  to)  is 

Tet  it  is  clear  that  he  had  other  chfldren  rendered  from  a  Greek  word  which  signifies 

(Oen.  iv.  15 ;  v.  4) ;  whence  we  may  learn,  patting  in  mind,  and  indicates  the  aet  of  a 

that  Ae  writers  of  the  Bible  had  not  the  in-  friendly  adviser  (1  Cor.  x.  11.  Eph.  vi.  4. 

tention  to  record  every  event,  even  in  relation  Tit  iii.  10). 

to  the  chief  characters  of  its  history.  ADONI-ZEDEK  (H.  Lard  ofZedek  or  q/ 

From  a  passage  in  Joshua  (iii  16),  the  rightefmmm)^  a  Canaanite  King  of  Jerusa- 

name  Adam  appears  to  have  been  given  to  a  lem,  whose  name  recalls  Melchi-zedek,  king 

city  on  Ae  shore  of  the  Jordan, '  beside  Zare-  of  Zedek  or  righteousness,  giving  the  idea 

tsn,'  near  the  part  where  the  Israelites  passed  that  Zedek  may  have  been  an  ancient  name 

the  river,  on  proceeding  to  take  possession  of  Jemsslem. 

of  the  land  of  promise.  Alarmed  at  the  progress  which  the  Israel- 

ADDER  was  applied  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  ites  were  making  in  their  invasion  of  Csnaan, 
as  a  general  name  for  the  serpentine  class  and  indignant  at  the  defection  of  the  Gibeon  ■ 
of  reptiles :  in  German,  at  Ihe  present  day,  ites,  Adoni-zedek  made  an  allianoe  with  four 
the  word  is  found,  with  a  slight  variation,  other  petty  princea,  and  boldly  laid  siege  to 
in  natter  t  denoting  generally  the  class  termed  Gibeon ;  but  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Joshua, 
viper.  From  the  en  suing  lines,  adder,  in.  the  who  was  aided  by  a  very  destructive  hail- 
time  of  Dryden,  seems  to  have  denoted  those  stoim  (Josh.  x.). 

serpents  {Nc^  ffaje,  or  N<^  TripuSans)  ADONUAH  (H,  my  Lord  Jehovah)  towdh 

that  have  the  power  of  inflating  ite  neck  son  of  David,  by  Haggith.    On  the  death  of 

when  they  throw  the  fore  part  of  their  body  AbsalcNn,  and  when  his  father  was  old  and 

erect  in  a  proud  attitude  of  assault—  weak,  he  proceeded  to  lay  claim  to  the  crown, 

on  the  ground  of  being  older  than  Solomon, 

'IS^iSjSe'SlgrO..'  r.J*"»  it  lud  b«n  promi^d.  HU  Mtempt 
^  ^^  failed,  and  he  was  pardoned.  He  soon  re- 
There  are  four  words  in  the  Hebrew  ren-  newed  his  efforts,  which  being  discovered, 
dered  by  the  English  term  adder.  Of  these,  Solomon,  now  king,  pat  him  to  death  (2  Sam. 
one  is  more  often  translated  atp,  and  will  be  ui.  1  Clmm.  iii.  1  Kings  i.  ii.). 
noticed  under  that  word.  Of  the  other  Absalom  snd  Adoniiiah  were  two  rebellious 
three,  we  begin  with — ^I.  Oachskoov,  which  sons,  whose  oonduct  must  have  made  David 
comes  from  a  root  denotiug  to  tweU  under  doubt  if  he  had  taken  the  way  to  happiness 
ihe  effect  of  heat :  it  occurs  only  in  Ps.  cxL  8,  in  ascending  a  throne.  All  three  afford,  in 
<  adder's  poison  is  under  their  lips ;'  from  their  history,  a  painful  proof  of  the  folly  of 
which  words  it  was  evidently  venomous;—  ambition,  and  serve  to  teach  that  real  happi- 

II.  Tzehphag,  the  roo^meaning  of  which  is  ness  depends  not  on  station,  but  character. 
to  hUs :  this  word,  and  a  slightly  altered  form  ADONI-BEZEK  (H.  Lord  qf  Bezek),  a 
of  it,  are  used  five  times  in  the  Bible,  out  of  Csnaanite  chiet,  whose  domain  appears  to 
which  it  is  translated  four  times  cockatrieef  have  lain  in  Judah,  and  whom  the  tribe  of 
and  once  adder.  The  reptfle  had  the  power  Judah,  aided  by  Simeon,  subdued  in  the 
of  stLDging,  but,  apparent^,  not  of  killing;—  period  between  the  death  of  Joshua  and  the 

III.  Shepheephon,  rendered  the  only  time  it  government  of  Othniel.  Being  captured  after 
occurs  (Gen.  xlix.  17)  adder  $  and  in  the  the  battle,  he  had  his  thumbs  snd  great  toes 
margin,  arrowsnake :  the  root  signifies  to  cut  off;  when  he  was  reminded  of  a  similar 
punctftre,  to  wound  as  vrith  the  fang  of  a  piece  of  cruelty,  only  on  a  larger  scale,  of 
serpent  The  bite  must  have  been  severe,  which  he  had  himself  been  guilty,  saying, 
if  not  venomous,  to  warrant  the  comparison  *  Threescore  and   ten   kings,  having  their 

( Dan  shall  be  an  adder  m  the  path,  that  thumbs  and  their  great  toes  out  off,  gathered 

biteth  the  horse  heels,  so  that  his  rider  shall  their  meat  under  my  table:  as  I  have  done, 

frdl  backward.'  so  God  hath  requited  me.'    The  wicked  often 

Palestine,    and    its    immediate    vicinity,  see  their  wickedness,  only  when  it  falls  on 

Abounded  in  reptiles  of  &e  serpent  kind,  themselves.    These  seventy  kings,  thus  dis- 

Some  fifty  species  are  known  to  exist,  of  graceftiUy  enslaved  to  a  pet^  chieftain,  show 

which  the  bite  of  eight  is  accompanied  by  how  numerous  and  inconsiderable  the  emirs 

an  effusion  of  a  venomous    and  virulent  or  chiefii  of  Canaan  were  at  the  time  of  its 

kind.  invasion  by  the  Israelites  (Judg.  i.  6,  eeq.). 


ADO                      26  ADO 

ADOPTION  (L.  ekoo$img  to  yomne^  is,  Among  the  Helvrews,  adoption  was  leM 
•oeordlng  to  Uie  Boman  eoneeptioii,  Uie  se-  likely  to  be  pnotised,  beeanse  a  man's  desire 
leetion  of  anothei's  child  with  a  ^iew  to  treat  for  heirs  eould  seldom  fail  to  be  gratified 
it  as  one's  own:  aeoording  to  the  Oreoiaa  nnder  a  aiystem  of  polygamy.  It  was  rather 
notion,  it  is  the  placing  of  another's  ehild  in  the  mother  who,  being  herself  barren,  might 
yoor  family,  intending  it  to  hate  the  same  Isel  a  desire  to  have  children  by  another 
rights  and  prirQeges  as  your  own.  A  cor-  female,  who  would  be  aoeoonted  as  her  own. 
responding  term  is  not  foond  in  Hebrew;  Sarah  had  lahmael  by  the  intervention  of 
bot  the  Greek  word  occurs  in  the  New  Tea-  her  slave  Hagar;  bat  the  inseenrity  of  the 
tament,  and  the  practice  which  it  sets  forth  adoptira  tenure — law  then  being  mainly  cos- 
is  the  sonroe  of  interesthig  and  important  torn — is  made  evident  by  lahmael's  being, 
allnsions.  As,  however,  the  ideas  appear  together  with  his  mother,  driven  tram  the 
to  be  borrowed  from  classic  usages,  we  shall  funily  on  die  birth  of  Isaac.  Bachel  also 
say  a  few  words  on  the  sabgeot  of  adoption  as  had,  by  her  handmaid  Bilhah,  Dan  and 
practised  among  the  Bomans;  the  raiAer  Naf^tali;  when,  with  that  love  of  oflbpring 
becaose  the  learned  Jews,  soch  as  Panl,  vrere,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  East,  Jacob's 
in  the  primitive  times  of  the  gospel,  well  odier  wife,  Leah,  as  she  had  left  off  bearing 
acquainted  with  Roman  manners  and  ens-  herself^  gave  ZOpah  to  her  husband,  and  so 
toms ;  and  the  practice  nnder  consideration  Increased  her  family  by  Oad  and  Asher. 
was  pretty  much  the  same.  In  essentiil  fei^  These  ere  instanoea  in  which  there  was  a  near 
tores,  in  most  sndent  nations.  i^iprosch  to  the  ordinsry  ties  of  nature.    The 

Adoption  with  the  Bomans  sprang  oat  of  handmaid  in  the  case  seems  to  have  been 
their  peculiar  reUgioaa  eonstitadon;  aeeoid*  regarded  as  little  more  than  an  inatrnment 
Ing  to  which,  every  family  was  bound  to  In  the  hands  of  her  mistress,  who,  ss  if  to 
observe  its  own  religious  services  end  festivals  betoken  her  eagerness  and  care  for  the  child, 
(private  duties),  with  a  view  to  their  preser-  received  it  from  the  parturient  mother  on 
Tation;  which,  frdling  an  heir,  vrould  be  her  own  knees  (Oen.  zzx.  8).  Before  he 
secured  by  the  adoption  of  another's  son.  had  children,  Abraham  seems  to  have  prac- 
To  this  was  added  the  natural  desire  on  the  tieally  adopted  a  slave  bom  in  his  house. 
part  of  a  man  to  transmit  his  name  to  pos-  When,  however,  it  is  said  that  this  person 
terity;  as  also  the  continued  eigoyment  in  was  Abrsham's  heir,  it  can  mean  only  on  the 
the  family  of  certain  rights,  whose  existence  supposition,  that  he  had  no  children  by  Barah; 
depended  on  the  possession  of  children.  Adop>  for,  when  Isaac  was  bom,  the  inheritsnce 
tions  were,  therefore,  frequent  among  the  became  his.  In  the  Esst,  home-bom  slaves 
Bomans :  they  gave  to  the  fiuher  the  ftiU  are  frequently  adopted,  partly  through  con- 
paternal  power  oTer  the  adopted  child,  and  venienee,  but  more  through  that  favour  and 
to  the  adopted  the  ftill  privileges  of  a  natural  affection  which  are  in  such  circumstances 
child.  If  a  person  took  into  his  family,  as  a  natural.  And  here  ire  may  speak  of  a  refer- 
son,  one  who  had  the  ftill  rights  of  a  Boman  enoe  to  this  usage  made  by  Paul,  whose 
citizen,  this  act  was  called  arrogaHo ;  but,  if  language  gains  in  clearness  to  those  who  are 
the  person  adopted  was  in  a  state  of  depen-  fioniliar  with  these  ancient  usages.  In  Bom. 
dance,  the  act  was  properly  an  act  of  adoption,  viiL  15,  teq,  (see  slso  Gal.  iv.  0, 6.  1  Cor. 
by  which  name  it  was  designated.  The  oldest  iL  13),  the  apostle  alludes  to  the  adoption 
form  of  adoption,  strictly  so  cslled,  wss  a  of  alaves,  which  vras  very  customary  among 
kind  of  judicial  purchase,  taking  place  before  the  Bomans.  Out  of  Christ,  men  were  en- 
the  proper  tribunal,  where  there  appeared  the  slaved  either  to  the  Jewish  yoke,  or  to  the 
adopter,  the  child  to  be  adopted  and  his  woild.  Adopted  by  the  spirit  of  God,  they 
father,  together  with  a  witness;  when  the  exchanged  the  name  Master  for  the  endearing 
father  openly  renomioed  his  right  to  his  son,  appellation  Father,  and  entered  on  all  the 
and  he  was  formally  adopted  by  his  new  rights  and  privileges  of  sons.  But  there 
father,  who  handed  to  the  natural  parent  a  was  an  initial  and  a  perfect  adoption:  the 
piece  of  money  in  payment  of  the  purchase,  first  took  place  when  men  received  the  in- 
The  formalities  of  purchase  in  time  went  out  vilation  of  the  son  (John  viiL  86),  and  were 
of  use.  Adoption  could  take  place  only  on  made  free  of  his  house ;  the  second  took 
the  part  of  those  who  were  in  a  condition  to  place  when  the  introduction  to  the  family  had 
exercise  a  fathez's  power.  It  was,  therefore,  issued  in  all  its  practical  results,  that  is,  in 
prohibited  to  eunuchs ;  to  women  also,  ex-  redemption  and  final  salvation.  Conversioii 
cept  under  a  special  dispensation,  granted  in  begins,  sanctification  and  death  consummate, 
the  case  of  their  having  been  bereaved  of  the  great  act  of  Chnstian  adoption, 
their  own  children.  The  adopted  child  took  There  is,  for  the  purposes  of  property,  a 
his  new  father's  name.  Under  certain  legal  decided  case  of  adoption  in  Gen.  xlviii,  6, 
condiUons,  there  arose  two  degrees  of  adop-  where  Jacob,  when  near  his  end,  adopts 
tion,  — the  imperfect  and  the  perfect;  the  Joseph's  sons,  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  — 
first  giving  the  rights,  the  second  the  pos-  placmg  them  in  the  same  position  as  Reuben 
session  of  the  advantages  which  accrued  from  and  Simeon,  his  own  eldest  sons :  thus  Jacob 
adopUon.  showed  favour  to  his  beloved  Joseph,  securing 


ADR                     37  ADR 

to  his  posterity  a  double  shsn  ift  llie  pvo-  broQfl^twtth  them,  end  praotised  in  the  letter 
mieed  land.  In  the  1  Chionioles  Cii,  84,  eonntry.  To  this  diVinitj  ohildren  were 
uq.)  we  find  a  ease  of  adoption  whieh  more  homt  in  fire.  The  kind  of  honour  paid  to 
nearly  approaches  to  the  Boman  model,  this  god,  as  weU  as  to  Anammeleeh,  was  the 
Bheshan  has  no  sons,  but  danghters.  Wish*  same  as  that  rendered  to  Moloch.  The  root 
iDg  that  hie  fsmily  dionld  not  beeome  ex*  of  the  word,  in  ell  three  cases,  signifies  king, 
tinct,  he  manias  one  of  his  dan^^ters  to  a  referring  to  *  the  king  of  day.'  The  idolatry 
hoose-slanre,  Jarha,  an  Egyptian,  whose  off*  is  therrfore  a  speeies  of  Sabaism,  or  star- 
spzing  are  not  reckoned  to  him,  bnt  to  their  worship,  and  may  be  compared  idth  tha 
maternal  grandftither,  Sheahan.  A  eompari-  worship  paid  by  western  nations  to  Chrono« 
son  of  texts  brings  out  a  onrions  genealogieal  or  Saturn  (d  Kngs  zirii  81). 
fact  (1  Kings  iv.  18.  1  Ohron.  ii.  21,  Meq,  ADBABCTTTIUM  (G.)  a  city  having  a 
Josh.  ziiL  80).  Haohir,  Joseph's  grandson,  harbour  I6rmed  by  the  triangular  shape  of 
marries  to  Hesron  of  Judah,  his  daughter  |  the  land,  towards  whieh  the  island  Mltylene, 
from  which  marriage  is  Jair,  i^to  acquires  turning  in  the  apex  of  its  triangle,  aids  to 
large  property  by  means  of  his  wife;  on  make  a  good  and  safB  port  It  lies  on  the 
which  account  he  and  his  children  sre  reck-  sea-coast  of  Mysia,  not  far  from  ancient 
oned  to  Manasseh,  their  iwatenial,  and  not  Troy,  on  the  extreme  north-western  part  of 
to  Judah,  their  paternal  ancestor.  In  Numb.  AsiaKinor.  Its  modem  name  is  Adramit 
XTxii.  41.  1  KingB  ir.  18,  this  Jsir,  who  was  It  was  inhabited  by  a  colony  of  Athenians ; 
the  son  of  8egnb,  is  termed  'the  son  of  a  circumstance  which,  combined  wlA  the 
Manasseh,'  after  his  maternal  great-grand-  peculiar  facilities  of  the  place  as  s  seaport, 
father,  Machir,  son  of  Manasseh;  for  ttie  may  account  f6r  its  celebrity  in  marine  corn- 
property  *  belonged  to  the  sons  of  Machir*  meroe.  It  was  in  a  ship  of  Adramyttium 
(1  Chron.  ii  28):  whence  it  appears  that^  that  Paul  embarked,  when,  having  appealed 
In  the  case  of  an  heiress,  the  genealogy  fol-  to  Cfesar,  he  proceeded  from  Cnsarea,  on 
lowed  the  mother's,  and  not  the  father's  side,  the  coast  of  Palestine,  to  Bome.  The  agree- 
This  fret  has  been  used  to  eacplain  Luke  ment  with  facts,  wherever  they  can  be  as- 
jiL  23,  where  Joseph,  the  husbsnd  of  Mary,  certalned,  which  the  scriptural  narratives 
is  called  the  son  of  Heli,  because  he  had  present^  concurs  strongly  to  evince  the  his- 
msrzied  Mary,  an  heiress,  daughter  of  Hell;  toric  credibility  of  holy  init^  and  thus  to 
thus  making  Luke's  register  to  be  that  confirm  the  foundations  of  our  faith.  In 
of  Mary's  line,  and  leaving  that  of  Matthew  the  present  case  there  was  a  reason  why  it 
to  be  Uie  register  of  the  natural  line  of  ahould  be  a  ship  of  Adramyttiomi  since  this 
Joseph.  being  a  seaport  not  Tery  distant  from  Cfesarea, 

ADORATION  (L.  (appUfing  (the  hand)  to  may  well  have  had  some  of  its  vessels  at  the 

the  mouth),  a  token  of  civil  respect,  and  of  latter  place.     The  vessel  appears  to  have 

religious  worship;  which  consisted  ia  hum-  gone  to  Casarea,  in  order  to  take  in  a  cargo 

Uy  applying  the  hand  to  the  month,  or  in  of  Syrian  merchandise ;  having  done  which, 

deTontiy  k^sing  the  hand,  while  standing  she  was  about  to  return  home,  when  the 

before  an  image,  an  olgect,  or  a  person,  centurion  Julius,  who  had  Paul  in  charge. 

This  form  of  vrorship  is  spoken  of  in  Job  engaged  her  commander  to  cany  him  and 

(xzxL  26,  27),  as  constituting  a  species  of  his  prisoner  along  the  coast  of  Asia,  hoping 

homage  paid  to  the  heavenly  bodies.    The  that,  in  some  of  the  harbours  they  should 

act  and  the  name  are  both  of  Heathen  origin,  have  to  pass,  they  might  find  a  vessel  to 

It  will  readily  be  seen  on  reflection,  that  transport  them  to  Bome ;  in  which  hope  he 

such  an  observance  could  not  have  its  origin  was  not  disappointed   (Acts  xxvii  S^— 5). 

in  a  spiritual  religion,  such  as  that  of  the  All  this  has  an  air  of  probability,  and  cor- 

Bible ;  in  which  God  being  invisible,  and  responds  with  fact 

not  represented  by  any  likeness,  could  not  ADBIA  (O.),  the  Adriatic  Sea,  up  and 

be  an  olgect  of  adoration  in  the  etymological  down  which  Panl  was  driven  just  previous 

sense  of  the  term ;  for,  in  order  to  loss  the  to  his  being  shipwrecked  on  his  voyage  to 

hand  to  an  object,  the  object  must  be  present  Bome  (Acte  xxvlL  27).    That  part  of  the 

before  your  eyes.  Mediterranean  Sea  which  lay  between  Italy, 

It  is  not  a  li^e  curious,  as  showing  the  niyricum,  Epirus,  and  Greece,  was  by  the 

changes  that  language  often  undergoes,  that  anciente  etSled  the  Adriatic  Sea,  from  tiie  town 

this  word,  which  had  ite  origin  in  idolatry,  Adria,  which  lay  on  the  Venetian   coast 

should  in  process  of  time  have  come  to  de*  It  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  north  and 

note  the  highest  reyerenoe  which  Christians  the  south;  the  latter  being  often  termed  the 

offer  to  the  unseen  and  omnipresent  Maker  Ionian  Sea.    It  was  in  the  southern  Adria- 

of  heaven  and  earth.  tic  that  Paul  was   tossed  about  so  long, 

ADBAMMELECH  (Ftre-king),  a  divinity  at  the  north-western  extremity  of  which  lies 

of  the  inhabitanto  of  Sepharvaim  (Sipphara,  Malta,  the  island  on  which  the  ship  was 

on  the  Euphrates),  whose  worship  the  Assy-  driven,  and  towards  which  she  woidd  be 

rian  colonists,  whom  the  king  of  Assyria  necessarily  bome  by  the  stormy  Euroclydon, 

transplanted   from   Babylon   to    Samaria,  or  north-east  wind.    The  more  narrowly  the 


ADU 


28 


A  D  V 


foyag*  of  Piol  la  ■cratiiiiMd,  die  more  wiU 
it  be  found  aeeonleiit  with  feet 

ADULLAM  {U,  their  teMtmott^),1^enam» 
of  a  city  which  lay  in  the  plain  between  the 
high  landaofJodah and  the aea.  Itiathename 
alio  of  a  caTeni,  when  David  took  leftige  with 
lirar  hundred  men  (1  8am.  zziL).  nie  ea- 
▼ezn  wae  probably  fomd  at  the  foot  of  the 
hille  of  Judah,  on  their  weeiem  aide.  Some 
have  placed  die  eavem  in  the  moimtainoua 
region  towarde  the  Dead  Sea.  Here,  eer- 
tainly,  tradition  fixea  it,  in  the  remarkable 
care  Khureittm;  bat  the  oldeat  Chrietian 
aathoritiee  place  it  on  the  weet  of  theee 
moimtaine,  and  Bobineon  agreee  with  them. 

▲DULTEBT  (L.  twmng  to  another)  in 
nnCuthfiilneaa  to  the  marriage  bed,  either  on 
the  part  of  the  hoaband  or  the  wife.  Seznal 
coDikecitioa  with  an  nnmarried  woman  ie  for- 
nicadon.  In  the  Eaet,  the  prevalenoe  of 
polygamy  rendered  the  wife  moady  liable  to  a 
brMch  of  the  matrimonial  tow  ;  but  if  a  man 
defiled  the  bed  of  another  man,  he  became 
an  adulterer.  The  peculiar  enormity  of  the 
crime  lay  in  impoaing  a  fpnriona  offepring  on 
another  Cunlly,  and  eo  inteiliering  with  the 
eetablished  ri^ta  of  property ;  for  every  hooae 
had  its  own  poseesaiona,  which,  independendy 
of  the  will  of  the  Ikther,  descended  in  the 
line  of  hereditary  soccesaion.  Death  waa 
the  penalty  (Deut  zzii.  22).  The  head  of 
the  family  had  originally  die  power  of  de- 
teimining  the  kind  of  death,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  harlotry  of  Tamer  (Gen.  zxxyiii  24), 
who  wae  ordered  to  be  bamt  The  defile- 
ment of  a  betrothed  virgin  was  to  be  punished 
by  stoning  (Deut  zzii  24),  whence  it  may  be 
inferred  that  stoning  was  the  appropiiale 
punishment  for  adoltery;  which  was  nn- 
donbtedly  the  case  at  a  later  period  (John 
TuL  0).  The  punishment  was  not  inflictfftd 
till  after  a  judicial  inquiry  and  regular  sen- 
tence. If  the  crime  was  committed  with  a 
betrothed  bondmaid,  she  was  to  be  scourged, 
and  the  man  to  make  a  trespass-offering 
(Lev.  liz.  20).  If  obvious  violence  was  done 
to  a  betrothed  virgin,  the  man  only  was  pun- 
ished, snd  that  with  deadi  (Dent  zziL  25). 
In  later  periods,  when  changes  had  been 
introduced  into  the  domain  of  property,  the 
option  was  ei^oyed  of  putting  the  wife  away 
privily  (Matt  i  XO).  In  the  case  of  grave 
suspicion  sgainst  a  wife,  her  husband  was 
to  bring  her  before  the  priest,  who,  taking 
her  into  the  temple,  put  *the  jealonsy-offering 
into  her  hand,'  and,  having  charged  her  to 
utter  the  truth  with  *  an  oath  of  cursing,' 
made  her  drink  *  die  bitter  water  diat  oausedi 
the  curse ;'  which  manifested  itself,  in  case 
of  guilt,  in  bodily  distempers;  but,  if  die  wo- 
men were  innocent,  would  prove  hazmless 
(  Numb.  V. ) .  A  similar  ordeal  existed  among 
the  Headien  nadons.  The  effect  seems  to 
have  been  wrought  dirough  influence  of  the 
aolemnides  on  the  imaginadon,  sgitated  by 
a  guilty  conscience.     Instances  of  this  guilt 


are  not  wanUng  in  the  Hebrew  annals.  Tliat 
of  David  with  Bathsheb*  had  ciroumatances 
of  peculiar  heinousness  (2  Sam.  zi).  The 
language  of  prophecy  spared  not  adulterers 
(Jer.vii.9.  MaLiiiO);  and  die  fiddiful  voice 
of  the  goepel  held  out  the  severest  judg- 
ments against '  whoremongers  and  adnlteren' 
(Heb.  xiii4.  £ph.  t.  5).  The  gieateat  crime 
in  domeede  liCs  is  made  to  serve  ooeaaionally 
as  desmpdve  of  the  greatest  breach  of  the 
allegiance  whieh  man  owea  to  Ood,  namely, 
idolatry  (Eiek.  zvL  28.  Bev.  zviL  1). 

The  system  of  law  to  which  reference  has 
now  been  made,  having  for  its  object  to  pre- 
serve the  sanctity  of  domestic  intereouree, 
the  peace  of  homes,  and  the  legitimate  de- 
Toludon  of  property,  if  marked  with  an  ori- 
ginal severity,  which  was  pardy  derived  from 
custom,  and  pardy  ezcosed,  as  well  as  occ*- 
sioned,  by  the  spirit  of  an  eariy  age,  is  not 
without  indications  of  prudence,  care,  and 
moderation ;  and  i^pears,  tKxm  the  compara- 
tive fewness  of  breachea  of  chastity  snd 
faithfnlnesswhich  the  scriptural  record  offers, 
to  have  proved  effectual  in  restraining  fiiom 
guilt,  and  in  preserving  the  maniage  *bed 
nndefiled.' 

ADVISEBfENT  (L.  lookuu/  to)  is  die  same 
in  meaning  as  the  more  common  word,  ad- 
vice. The  Hebrew  term  is,  in  sll  other 
instancea  but  thia  (1  Chron.  zii.  19),  trana- 
lated  bf  eomueL 

ADVOCATE  (L.aAei!per).  — The  Greek 
word  literally  signifies  one  who  has  been 
called  to  the  side  of  another,  for  the  purpoee 
of  aiding  him  by  an  appeaL  If  the  appeal  is 
made  to  the  party  by  whom  the  advocate 
stands,  then  our  word  am^crter  is  a  good 
rendering.  If  the  appeal  ia  made  to  another, 
advocate  is  the  more  suitable.  Accordingly, 
the  corresponding  abstract  noun  is  translated 
in  the  New  Testament  by  *  exhortation,' '  con- 
solation.' And  the  word  itself,  in  four  out 
of  the  five  instances  in  which  it  occurs,  is 
rendered  con{forter  (John  xiv.  16,  26 ;  xv. 
26 ;  xvi  7) :  in  which  cases  it  refers  to  the 
HoJy  Spirit  which  our  Lord  promised  to 
send  to  his  first  disciples  after  his  removal 
from  the  earth,  and  which  was  poured  out  on 
them  at  die  day  of  Pentecost  (Actsii.).  In 
the  fifdi  instance,  it  is  sppUed  to  the  Sa- 
viour :  —  'If  any  man  sin,  we  have  an  ad- 
vocate widi  the  Father,  Jesus  Christ  the 
righteous'  (IJohniLl;  comp. Rom. viii. 34). 

Advocacy,  or  intercession,  with  Ood  con- 
stitutes an  essential  element  in  Revelation. 
At  Abraham's  prayer  the  disease  inflicted  on 
Abimelech,  king  of  Oerar,  was  turned  away 
(Oen.  XX.  17;  see  Gen.  xviiL  23,  seq,). 
Revelation  is,  from  first  to  last,  an  adaptation 
to  human  weakness.  As  such,  its  measures 
and  requirements  have  a  relation  no  lees  to 
die  wants  of  man,  dian  to  the  perfections  of 
God.  Consequendy,  influences  are  estab- 
Ushed,  and  representations  made,  which  are 
fitted  specially  to  move  die  human  heart,  and 


APF                      29  AFP 

so  to  letd  m«ii  onwards,  tihfoiigh  a  raUgions  riage  waa  allowed.     There  were  also  eon* 

discipline,  to  eonceiTo  of  God  in  all  the  aiderations  more  or  leia  special  to  the  Hebrews 

strictness  of  monotheism,  and  all  the  purity  themsehes,  deriTed  either  from  the  usages  of 

and  folness  of  his  paternal  love*    Of  suoh  a  aatiqiiity,  from  the  practice  of  polygamy,  of 

nfttore  is  the  Tiew  giTen  of  Intermediate  the  idolatroas  obserranoes  and  crimes  of  the 

agency  between  man  and  his  Maker.    Ad-  Caaaanitea  and  other  Heathen  nations  (Lst. 

To<iaey  and  intereession  are  gradons  aocom-  zviii  22).     The  prohibitions  contained  in 

inodation8,onthepartofonrhea?enlyFather,  the  Mosaic  law  are  enforced  by  temporal 

to   that  infirmity  in   his   children  which,  penalties,  soch  as  childlessness  or  death, 

preventing  fhem  firom  seeing  God  face  to  face  In  the  pnrsoit  of  a  theoretical  comprehen- 

with  the  eye  of  their  mind,  renders  the  in-  aiveness  and  accm«cy,  systematiaers  hare 

texrention  of  a  mediator  and  an  advocate  eipoonded  and  perverted  the  Mosaic  laws 

desirable ;  who,  standing  on  onr  aide,  pleads  tonehing  the  degrees  of  afBni^.    Questions 

for  our  good,  and  so,  winning  oar  hearts  by  of  tiiis  natore  are  now  to  be  determined  by 

active  and  glowing  sympathy,  conducts  them  reference,  not  to  Mosaic  usages,  but  to  such 

eflfectnaHy  to  God  (Heb.  iL  14,  tiq.)»  considerations  as  the  good  of  individuals 

JESOV  (H.  a  f<nmtttin)f  a  place  not  far  and  society  suggests,  on  s  wide  and  impartial 

from  Salim,  where  John  baptized  (John  iii  survey  of  human  capabilities,  rights,  and 

29).    It  lay  eight  Boman  miles  southward  duties,  in  the  advanced  state  of  moral  and 

from  Scythopolis,  near  the  Jordan,  and  on  physical  knowledge,  which  mankind  actually 

its  western  side  (Jchn  i  28 ;  iiL  26).  possesses.    The  usages  recorded  in  the  Bible 

AFFECT  (L.  to  nutke  to  or  towards)  indi-  are  by  no  means  unifoim.  Abraham  mar- 
eates  an  earnest  desire  for  a  person  or  object  ried  Sarah, '  his  sister ;'  that  is,  the  daughter 
The  word  is  found  in  Gal.  iv.  17,  where,  of  of  his  father  (Gen.  zx.  12.  Lev.  xviiL  9 ;  zx. 
the  Jndaizing  teachers,  Paul  says,— *  They  17).  The  Mosaic  commands  were  some- 
xeaUnuty  affect  jim,  but  not  wdl,'  *  that  ye  times  guiltily  broken  (2  Sam.  zili.  14.  Ezek. 
might  affect  them.'  The  sutrjoined  words  zxii.  11).  In  order  to  preserve  the  land 
aJTord  some  light,— 'but  it  is  good  to  be  from  leaving  its  original  owners,  heiresses 
zealously  tweeted  in  good'  (ver.  18).  In  might  not  many  out  of  the  family  of  the 
James  iv.  2,  the  same  Greek  term  is  thus  tribe  of  tiieir  father  (Numb,  zzxvi.  6).  In- 
rendered,— <Te  kill,  and  desire  to  have*  termarriage  with  foreigners  was  avoided,  or 
(Acts  viL  9.  1  Cor.  xii.  81).  expressly  forbidden,  on  the  ground  of  the 

I  tf^  j^^^  ^^^  great  and  essential  diversity  of  religion,  as 

nat  mrafaig  meditation  most  t^ecis  between  monotheists  and  idolaters.    There- 

Ttae  pensive  seereey  of  desett-een,  fore  an  Israelite  was  to  avoid  a  Oanaanitish 

'16).    That  this  avoidance  and  prohibition, 

AFFINITT  (L.  rekttionship),  according  to  however,  rested  on  no  narrowness  of  spirit^ 
the  idea  of  the  Hebrew  weird,  denotes  the  but  on  certain  specific  religious  oonsidera- 
relations  contracted  by  marriage.  The  tenn  tions,  appears  firam  the  fact,  that  there  are 
itself  oceun  in  tmly  three  places,  — -  namely,  cases  in  which  marriage  with  foreign  women 
1  Kings  iii  1,  where  it  is  used  of  Solomon's  was  allowed  (Numb.  xii.  1.  Dent  xxL  11. 
marriage  with  a  dauf^ter  of  the  then  reigning  Buth.  L  4 ;  iv.  13) .  David  himself  was  de- 
Egyptian  Pharaoh;  also  2  Chron«  xviii  1,  scended  from  Bntii,  a  woman  of  Moab.  It 
and  Exra  ix.  14;  thouf^  the  fact  stands  as  was  after  the  captivity  that  the  Mosaic  law 
a  very  important  element  in  the  institutions  was  rigorously  observed,  when  the  evils  of 
of  Moses.  On  the  part  of  Israelites,  the  alliances  with  idolaters  had,  with  other  les- 
eontracting  of  affinity  was  forbidden  in  oer-  sons  pertaining  to  religious  truth  and  purity, 
tain  given  instanees  (Lev.  zviii  7 — 18;  been  practically  and  efiectually  taught  to  the 
XX.  11,  seq.  Deut  xxvii  20,  seg,).  The  lea-  Jewish  people  (Ezra  ix.  2,  seq,}  x.  23.  Neh. 
sons  of  these  prohibitions  are  various,  partly  ziii  23).  The  moral  considerations  which 
derived  from  moral,  partiy  from  pbjmcil  predominate  in  the  Mosaic  prohibitions  are 
eonsiderations ;  but  such  as  have  generally  a  high  praise  to  |he  general  system.  The 
been  respected  in  civilised  nations,  and  mani-  mere  continuance  of  tiie  race  might  be  ef- 
fest  the  wisdom  and  foresight  of  the  great  fected  by  unrestricted  intercourse.  Ite  moral 
Jewish  legislator.  The  moral  considerations  improvement  requires  such  limitations  in 
had  regard  chiefly  to  the  preservation  of  the  regard  to  intermaiTiage,  as  may  abate  evil, 
sanctity  of  the  domestic  relations :  marriage  and  frirther  good.  An  idolatrous  wife  would 
with  near  relations,  who  are  in  constant  and  almost  inevitably  make  an  idolatrous  family, 
funiliar  intercourse  with  each  other,  could  And  so  in  Christianity,  in  which  the  moral 
not  fail  to  corrupt  family  morals.  The  phy-  significance  of  matrimony  is  brought  to  ite 
sioal  considerations  regarded  the  propagation  highest  piteh,  so  that  man  and  wife  are  one, 
and  continued  vigour  of  the  species,  which  — -  one  in  soul  and  one  for  life,  —  religion 
has  always  been  found  to  degenerate  in  cases  combines  with  morality  in  the  injunction, — 
where  the  limito  were  narrow,  —  as  in  the  *  Be  ye  not  unequally  yoked  together  with  un- 
case of  royal  families,  —  within  which  mar-  believers'  (2  Cor.  vi  14).     Nor  can  any 


AGA  SO  AQB 

ihing  Vut  a  Uighting  ittdiftfentifm  make  mliedUiiglyoaM.  WithatiiiiflirbittonieM 
woman  or  man  oneoneemed  about  the  re-  of  apirit,  Samuel  commanded  Agag  to  be 
ligiona  piineiplaa  of  their  partner.  brought,  who  eame  i^areatly  in  a  li^ 

AGABUS  (H.  belovid)t  a  prophet  in  tiie     mood,  and  was  hewn  in  piecea  by  the  pio- 
primitive  Chriatian  dhvreh ;  one  of  aevexal    phet  (1  San.  zy.)«    This  tranaaotion  may 
lAo  went  from  Jeraaalem  to  Antioeh,  idiere,    aerra  to  ahow  how  improper  it  ia  to  look  in 
from  external  cirenmatanoea,  he  aignjfled  by    ike  Old  Teatament  nairatlTea  nniveraally  for 
the  Bpirit  that  there  ahonld  be  a  great  dearth    nlea  of  doty— •for  a  oode  of  morale  each  as 
throughont  all  the  land  (not  woild),  whieh    Ohziatiana  can  improve,  or  ought  to  attempt 
eame  to  paaa  in  the  daya  of  Olaodina  Gsaar;     to  jnatiiy.    Snoh  thhiga  aa  thm  now  before 
In  reality,  in  the  fourth  year  of  hia  reign,     na  mayaarve  forwaminga,  bntmnatany  way 
and  in  the  forty-fonrth  year  A.  D.  (Acta  zL     be  aeverely  <wn<iAmn^^  jf  regarded  under  the 
d7 ;  eomp.  Joaeph.  Antiq.  zz.  2.  5).    Aga-    lightwfaich  the  Saviour  haaahed  on  the  path  of 
bua  ia  again  brought  forward  in  the  Book  of    duty.    Hia  maxim  ia,  -—  *  BeTenge  not  your- 
Aeta,  aa  performing  a  aymbolical  act,  In  eon-    aelyea.'   Nor  can  the  employment  here  made 
neotlon  with  PauL    Thia  apoatle  had  anlTed     of  the  divine  authority  be  underatood  in  any 
at  Cesarea,  on  hia  return  from  hia  aeoond    other  aenae  than  repreaenting  the  view  which 
miaaionary  tour,  intending  to  proceed  to  Je-    waa  taken  by  peraona  who  were  intent  on 
ruaalem ;  where  Agabua,  having  come  from     eatabliahing  the  theocratical  government  in 
that  city  to  Ceaarea,  and  aware  of  the  advene    Judea,  at  a  time  idien  it  waa  neual  to  refer 
atate  of  feeling  there,  endeavoured  to  torn    evezy  event  that  departed  from  the  oidinaiy 
Paul  from  hia  purpoae.    Accordingly,  after    routine  of  oommon  life,  immediately  to  the 
the  manner  of  the  ancient  propheta,  he  took    divhae  will  and  act 
Paul'a  girdle,  and  bound  therewith  hia  own        AGATE  ia  derived  from  a  Greek  word, 
handa  and  feet,  declaring,—'  So  ahall  the    aald  to  take  ita  name  from  that  of  a  Sicilian 
Jewa  at  Jeraaalem  bind  the  man  that  owneth    river,  in  whieh  agatea  were  anciently  found, 
thia  girdle,  and  ahaU  deliver  him  Into  the    It  ia  the  repreaentative  of  tiro  worda  in  He- 
handa  of  the  Gentflca.'    Howerer,  neither    brew :  — •  one,  thavoo,  ia  uaed  only  in  relatiton 
by  thia  aignifioant  act,  nor  by  the  entreadea     to  the  aecond  atone  hi  the  third  row  on  the 
and  teara  of  the  brethren,  waa  Paul  detened    pectoral  of  the  h]|^  pzieat  (Blxod.  xxviiL  19), 
from  hia  undertaking.    The  prophecy  waa    and  ia  explained  flram  an  Arabic  root,  de- 
ahorUy  after  ftilfllled.  noting  to  tMne,  aa  an  ornamental  atone  re- 

Agabua  ia  aald  to  have  auifered  martyrdom  epiendent  with  green  and  gold  coloura.  The 
at  Antioch.  He  ia  enrolled  in  the  catalogue  other  word  ia  kadkoKd,  which  ia  found  in 
of  aainta.  In  the  Latin  Chureh,  the  ninth  of  laa.  Ut.  12, — <I  will  make  thy  windowa  of 
February, — ha  the  Greek  Church,  die  ei^tfa  agatea ;'  and  Esek.  xzvii  10,  in  vrtiich  place 
of  March  ia  conaecrated  to  him.  agate  ia  enumerated  among  the  merohandiaa 

AGAG  (H.  moimtotfiMr),  the  nima  of  n  of  Syria.  Thia  laat  woid  cornea  from  aroot 
Amalekite  king,  or  it  may  be  a  collective  which  aignifiea  to  jporil^,  and  waa  conaideied 
name  of  the  Amalekite  princee,  aa  Pharaoh  by  Jerome  to  be  jaaper ;  and  hence,  from  the 
ia  that  of  flic  Egyptian  monarcha.  Theremuat  value  of  that  atone,  coaflygooda  of  any  kind, 
have  been,  at  a  yeiy  early  period,  in  Palea-  The  Seotoh  pebble  ia  a  apeoiea  of  agate, 
tine,  a  monarch  or  monarchy  bearing  thia  Thoae  of  India  are  the  moat  valued.  In 
name ;  auice,  in  the  bleaabig  which  Balaam  agate,  eiliea  ia  ahnoat  the  aole  conatitnent 
pronounced  on  larael,  the  name  ia  uaed  aa  The  eoloor  aeema  to  be  ehiaily  owing  to  a 
provert>ial  of  political  greatneaa,— •<  Hia  king  amall  Influioa  of  iron,  which  givea  riae  to 
ahall  be  higher  than  Agag'  (Numb.  zxiT.  7).  great  Tarietiea  aa  to  hue»  tranaluoeney,  and 
When  the  laraelitca  were  on  their  journey  internal  foima.  Agatea  were  held  to  poaaeaa 
ttom  Egypt,  the  Amalekitea  fought  with  them  a  preaerving  power,  eapedally  againat  aeor- 
in  Bephidim,  in  auch  a  manner  aa  to  put    ploDa. 

them  in  great  peril,  but  were  at  length  re-  AGE,  Old,  Bldbb  (T.).—- Theee  woida 
pulsed;  on  which  occaaion God iarepreaented  are  here  put  togedier  aa  HiflBuring  only  in 
aa  requiring  the  memoiy  of  thia  iigniy  to  be  fonn,  while  they  refer  to  the  aame  general 
retained  by  the  Hebrewa,  declaring  that  the     aubjeet 

remembrance  of  Amalek  ahould  be  blotted  Age  ia  eonaidered,  in  one  aenae,  aa  the 
out  An  altar  waa  erected  in  commemora-  oidinaty  duration  of  human  life;  in  another, 
tion  of  the  event,  and  of  the  intended  revenge  aa  the  adyanced  and  declining  period  of 
(Exod.  xvii.).    All  thia  repreaentation  la    man'a  eziatence. 

evidently  taken  from  a  human  view  of  tha  In  the  tune  of  tike  writer  of  Paalm  xc  the 
tranaaetiona  in  question.  However,  when  the  duration  of  human  life  waa  not  different 
Israelitea  had  entered  the  promised  land,  among  the  Hebrewa  from  what  it  ia  now:  — 
Saul  waa  directed  by  the  prophet  Samuel  to  *The  daya  of  our  yeara  are  threeacore  yeara 
execute  the  divine  Tengeance.  Saol,  accor-  and  ten ;  and  if  by  reaaon  of  strength  diey 
dingly,  amote  the  Amalekitea ;  but  he  apared  be  fourscore  years,  yet  ia  their  atrength  la- 
Agag  the  king,  and  the  best  of  the  cattle,  hour  and  aoirow:  for  it  ia  aoon  cut  of^  and 
For  thia  offence,  Saul  ia  deprived  of  the  pro-    we  fly  away'  (tot.  10).    But  the  duration  of 


AGE                     31  AGE 

life  in  the  time  of  the  petrieidie  is  leeorded  nHy  been  longer  dun  it  is  now.  The  deje 
to  heive  been  nraoh  longer:  ao  that,  when  of  the  years  recorded  of  these  primitiTe 
Jacob  was  asked  bj  the  reigning  Fharoah  worthies  are  searocly  more  than  haTe  been 
how  old  he  was,  he  answered, — < The  days  attained  by  indlTidnals  in  other  times;  and 
of  the  years  of  my  pilgrimage  are  an  hnn^  the  peonliarly  IkYoarable  position  in  which, 
dred  and  thirty  years:  tew  and  evil  haTe  the  for  the  most  part,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
days  of  my  life  been,  and  have  not  attained  and  others  were  placed,  must  have  oondaeed 
onto  the  days  of  n^  fktfiers'  (Gen.  zlidi.8, 9).  to  lengthen  their  days.  Air,  exercise,  suffl- 
He  died  when  147  years  old  (ver.  28).  His  dent  and  good  nutriment,  exert  a  wonderful 
oomplaint,  that  his  lifin  was  shorter  than  that  inflnenoe  lon  the  hmnan  frame,  particalarly 
of  Ids  fiUhers,  is  confirmed  by  the  record;  when  there  are  no  Tioes  to  weaken  it,  and 
for  Isaac  lired  to  180  (Oen.  xxxr.  28),  and  no  great  mental  agitations  to  undermine  its 
Abraham  to  175  (Ckn.  xsv.  7).  The  period  strength.  The  following  facts  bear  on  these 
of  life,  however,  of  the  antedilniians  is  stated  observations:  —  Haller  collected  the  cases 
to  have  been  much  longer.  Adam's  years  of  62  persons  who  had  reached  from  100  to 
mn  given  aa  080  (Oen.  t.  2) ;  those  of  Me-  120  years;  29  from  120  to  180,  and  15  frank 
thnselah,a0  969(Oen.y.27).  In  the  absence  180  to  140.  Few  instances  are  aathenti- 
of  any  detailed  and  aeonrats  knowledge  of  eated  which  reach  beyond  this  period.  Tet 
the  antedHnvian  period,  especially  in  oar  we  find  one  Ecdeston,  who  lived  148  years; 
ignorance  of  the  lengtib  of  the  year,  and  in  John  ElBngham,  who  attained  his  144tb 
the  uncertain  state  of  chronology,  we  esnnot  year ;  a  Norwegian,  who  counted  150  years ; 
pretend  to  speak  of  the  censes  or  ihe  eflfeots  and  our  Thomas  Parr  would  most  pro- 
of this  lengdi  of  days,  with  much  advantage,  bably  have  passed  his  152d  year  but  for 
There  have,  however,  been  persons  irho  as-  an  excess.  Henry  Jenkins  lived  to  169. 
eribed  the  longevity  of  the  antediluvians  to  There  is  on  record  the  case  of  a  negroes,  who 
the  first  energy  of  recently  created  life ;  died  when  175.  The  Hungarian  family  of 
others  have  sought  its  oanse  in  the  simple  John  Bovin  were  renuoftable  for  their  Ion- 
modes  of  existence^  the  abundance  of  foodf  gevity:  the  father  lived  to  172;  the  wife,  to 
and  the  living  in  the  air  of  day,  which  are  164;  they  had  been  married  142  years,  and 
supposed  to  have  prevailed  at  the  first,  their  youngest  chfld  waa  115.  In  the  cen- 
O&ers  have  been  content  to  refer  I6r  the  sus  of  Italy,  taken  by  Vespasian,  there  were 
eanse  to  the  will  and  power  of  Qod.  Advan-  found  54  persons  of  100  years  <dd;  57  of 
tages  are  considered  to  have  ensued  from  110;  two  of  125;  four  of  180;  and  three  of 
this  longevity.  Human  improvements  would  140.  The  contraiy  effects  of  tranquil  and 
be  more  easily  and  certainly  carried  forward ;  of  distorbing  pursuits  on  the  duration  of  li& 
knowledge  safely  transmitted ;  generally,  the  may  be  jud^  of  by  the  fact^  that,  while  the 
good  acquired  by  men  would  be  thus  best  sum  of  the  ages  of  the  twenty  chief  natural 
handed  down,  since  it  would  have  to  pass  philosqphers  of  Great  Britain  amounted  to 
from  the  lips  of  only  a  few  persons,  ^us  1514,  living  an  average  of  neariy  71  years, 
Adsm  lived  till  930  of  the  year  of  the  world :  -—  the  sum  of  the  ages  of  twenty  chief  poets 
Methuselah  was  bom  687,  that  is,  248  years  reached  only  to  1144,  which  afibrds  about 
before  Adam's  death ;  the  former  lived  till  62  years  as  the  average  duration  of  their 
the  year  1656,  and  Noah  was  bom  600  yean  lives. 

befoze  Methuselah's  death, — namely,  in  the  Bespect  f6r  old  age  is  as  a  natoral,  so  a 
year  1056.  Thus  there  intervened  between  tmivusal  feeling— a  feeling  which  is  ap- 
Adam  and  Noah  only  one  person,  MethuselalL  proved  by  the  judgment,  no  less  than  dictated 
The  correctness  of  this  view,  however,  de-  by  the  heart.  Diversities,  however,  have 
pends  on  the  correctness  of  the  ordinary  been  foond  in  the  manifestation  of  the  fed- 
reckoning  of  time  pursued  in  our  English  ing.  Cicero, inhisCTorfolfi^'or,—*' Treatise 
Bibles;  for  if  the  dates  of  the  Septuagint  <m  Old  Age,'— describes  the  tokens  of  re- 
are  to  be  prefened,  as  many  of  die  best  speot  which  were  paid  in  Borne  to  those  who 
scholars  and  soundest  divines  have  thought)  were  admeed  in  years.  They  received  salu- 
the  remark  would  hold  good  only  in  a  quali-  tations;  flieir  society  was  sought  for ;  they  had 
fied  manner.  Thus,  while  |the  period  £rom  place  given  to  them  in  the  puUio  thorough- 
the  creation  to  the  deluge  is  given  by  the  fryres ;  when  they  entered  an  assembly,  the 
Samaritan  text  at  1807  years,  and  by  the  He-  company  arose;  they  were  conducted  to  their 
brew  at  1656,  it  is  given  by  the  Greek  at  homes,  and  attended  back  to  public  places; 
2262.  Our  knowledge  of  this  primeval  age  their  counsel  was  solioited*  He  also  mentions 
is  too  limited  and  fragmentary  to  allow  'of  a  remark  of  Lysander,  to  the  efiiBct  that  La- 
any  very  definite  or  positive  conclusions,  cedamon  was  tfie  most  honourable  residence 
Gratitude  for  the  information  preserved,  is  for  age ;  ton  nowhere  was  so  much  attention 
more  seemly  than  rash  speonlation  or  load  paid  to  the  aged,  nowhere  were  ihej  held  in 
dogmatism.  greater  honour.  He  adds  this  illustrative 
It  is  not  dlAcuIt  to  eonceive,  ih$X,  in  the  anecdote:  —'When  at  Athens,  an  aged  per- 
patriarohal  age,  human  liliB  may  have  gene-  son  entered  the  theatre  daring  the  perform- 


AGE  32  AGO 


tnoe  of  the  pablie  guMt,  no  cue,  oat  of  a  xU.  6 ;  zz.  7.   2  Kings  xxiii  1.    1  Maceab. 

iargB  oonoonno  of  people,  rooe  to  give  him  zii.  80). 

a  eeet;  bat  when,  at  Sparta,  he  had  gone  into  8aeh,  in  its  origin,  was  the  eonstitotioaal 
a  place  where  a  non&er  of  eommissioners  inflaenee  of  age  hi  Uio  Hebrew  polity.  In 
were  seated  in  Ihoir  plaee  of  dignlQr,  they  time,  however,  regard  was  had  to  other  qua- 
all  arose,  snd  reeeived  him  sitting.'  lities  than  age  :  penons  of  wisdom  snd 
The  general  eonrtesy  of  Oriental  manners  pindenoe  wers  elected  to  sitoations  of  trust, 
diiplayed  itself  widi  peoaliar  foroe  in  marks  ixrespeetiTely  of  mere  yesrs ;  snd  the  tenn 
of  respect  towsids  age.  Wisdom  was  so-  elder  became  desoriptiTe,  not  of  sge,  but  of 
ooonted  its  speeial  attribute  (Job  %iL  12;  office.  A  similsr  change  took  place  in  Greece 
szxiL  7).    TIm  fine  description  of  the  bene-  and  in  Bome. 

flcent  chie(  or  Arab  Sheik,  given  in  Job  In  the  New  Testsment  the  elders  sppesr 

mix,  may  here  be  adTantageoualy  oonsultadi  as  forming,  in  coiqunction  with  the  scribes 

Mosss  expressly  eommanded,*- '  Thou  shalt  and  high  priests,  the  great  national  council 

rise  op  before  the  hoaiy  head,  and  honour  or  Sanhedrim  (Matt  zxyl  3,  47 ;  zzviL  1. 

the  face  of  the  old  man,  and  fear  thy  God:  Mark  ziv.  48 ;  xv.  1.    Lake  xx.  1, 19 ;  xxii. 


I  am  Jehovah*  (Lot.  xix.  82).    Jeremiah,  66.   Aets  iv.  0 ;  ▼.  21). 

among  &e  signs  of  national  degradation.  The  Christisn  church  was  modelled  on  the 

mentions  this,— <  The  fMss  of  elders  were  Jewidi,  so  as  to  be  placed  originally  under 

not  honoured*  (Lam.  ▼.  12;  eomp.  iv.  16,  Ae  govenment  of  elders  or  presbyters;  the 

and  Isa.  xlviL  6.    Deut  xxviiL  60).    Old  first  tenn  being  of  Saxon,  the  second  of 

age  is  guarded  by  espnss  prc^iibitlon  from  Greek  origin;  both,  however,  meaning  the 

oontempt  (Prov.  xxiiL  22).    As  among  other  same  tbing.    These  Christian  elders  foimed 

nations,  so  among  the  Hebrews,-— eoun-  a  sort  of  college,  a  board,  or  committee,  for 

■ellors.  Judges,  and  statssmen  wers  chosen  ordering  and  governing  the  affairs  of  the 

ftom  the  elders  of  the  nation  from  the  ehureh,  which,  of  course,  included  its  spin- 

•artiest  times  (Exod.iiil6;  iv.29;  xiL21;  tnal  as  well  as  its  material  interests  (Acts 

zvil  6;  xviiL  12.    Josh.  xxiiL  2.    Esrav.  xL80;  xiv.28;  xv.2;  xvi4.   lTim.iv.l4). 

9 ;  vL  7).     Moses  appointed  a  senate  of  At  what  time  young  Israelites  *  came  of 

seventy  elders  to  assist  him  in  oigsnising  sge,'  it  is  not  easy  to  determine.    In  the 

and  governing  his  people  (Exod.  xxiv.  1,  9.  East,  the  seasons  of  human  life  arrive  at  an 

Numb.  xL  16).    Indeed  the  entire  guidanoe  earlier  period  than  with  us,  so  that  manhood 

of  the  Hebrew  nation  was  conducted  by  the  is  sooner  attained.    The  age  of  twenty  is 

instrumentality  of  elders ;  for,  ss  there  wers  limited  as  the  period  of  youth,  in  regard  to 

elders  foiming  a  sort  of  national  parliament  the  punishment  inflicted  on  die  rebellious 

(Josh.  viL  6.    1  Ssm.  iv.  8 ;  vilL  4.    2  Ssm.  Israelites  in  the  desert  (Numb,  xxzii.  11), 

liL  17 ;  V.  8;  xviL  4.    1  Kings  viiL  1),  so  iriienee,  probsbly,  the  twentieth  may  be  &e 

were  there  elders  of  individnsl  tribes  (Dent  year  tihien  a  young  man  entered  into  the  pos- 

xxxi  28.    2  Ssm.  xix.  11.    2  Chron.  xxxiv.  session  of  his  legsl  rights.    Still  stronger 

20.    Deut  xxix.  10.    Judg.  xL  6),  who  had  evidence  to  the  same  effect  is  the  fact,  that 

the  government  each  of  his  own  ti^>e,  Ibimed  the  atonement-tax  was  imposed  on  all  from 

an  official  body  for  communicating  with  the  twenty  years  of  age  upwards  (Exod.  xxx.  14; 

chief  of  the  nation,  and  may  have  been  eomp.  Lev.  xxviL  8). 

the  constituency  out  of  which  the  general  sen-  AGONY  (G.  contest) . — This,  which  is  a 

ste  was  cbosen.    The  orgsnization  extended  Greek  word  in  Englieh  letters,  is  a  tenn  bor- 

to  cities,  in  which  the  elders  eonstitated  a  rowed  firom  the  Grecian  games,  and  was 

kind  of  municipslity  (Dent  xix.  12 ;  xxL  8 ;  applied  originally  to  the  wrestling  matches 

xxiL  10.   1 8am.  xL  8 ;  xvi  4.  1  Kings  xxiS.  which  formed  a  part  of  them.    The  meaning 

Ezra  X.  14.    2  Maocab.  xiv.  87).    That  the  which  i^ony  hss  with  us,  as  denoting  severe 

principle  of  representation  existed  in  this  bodily  suffering,  is  an  impeifect  representa- 

syatem  is  clesr,  fkom  the  fut  that  the  elders  tion  of  the  originiO,  which,  being  applied  by 

sometimes  acted  as  the  representatives  of  the  Luke   (xxii  44)   to  the  mentsl  sufferings 

people  (Lev.  iv.  16;  ix.  1).    A|pweably  to  which  our  Lord  underwent  in  the  garden  of 

the  custom  of  the  East,  the  elders  of  a  city  Gethsemsne,  denotes  that  contest  snd  strug- 

"^  >P  ^eir  officisl  cspacity  *in  the  gate;'  gling  of  the  whole  inner  man,  which,  like 

that  is,  at  the  chief  entrsnce  to  the  place,  the  action  of  a  pair  of  wrestlers,  one  with 

which  was  the  spot  of  grestest  publicity,  snother,  contorted,  snd  hurled  hither  and 

wbence  we  lesm  how  popular  was  the  eha^  thither,  the  excited  affections;  occasioning 

rscter  of  ^e  Mosaic  institutions  (Deut  xxii  by  its  violence  the  most  excruciating  pains 

?J  "I*            ^  *^'  ^'    ^^'"^^  *•  ®)-   Th«  (eomp.  Heb.  v.  7).    Such  a  straining  of  the 

ewers  do  not  H»P««r,  hi  all  oases,  to  have  mmd,  snd  such  intolersble  pain,  mav  weU 

fi      «r*  JSS^^.V^}^^  J"*^««*  (^«»  ^  A4.  have  led  *  to  sweat  as  it  were  great  drops  of 

^ri^»  2'l^^rSr^?^"''*?^*"'***^  blood  fallmg  down  to  the  ground.'  Aatowhat 

tn^^u^f^Ju^'  standing  m  its  presence  the  perspiration  consisted  ot,  commenutors 

in  behalf  of  the  people  (1  Kmgs  viiL  1;  mnotiwod.    Some  have  slid  it  was  bJ^ 


AGO  3 

.;  bnt  Ihera  an  no  mll- 
■  in  whkh  blood  hw 
n  die  frame  In  the  wtj  that  i> 
ndf  iweet,'  u  a  reealt  of  menul 
tartme.  Olhus  hne  Ukan  the  woidi  meta- 
plunioallr.  We  aaf — 'Weep  teue  of  blood :' 
In  lbs  uma  wa;, '  U  aweat  blood'  m^  hsra 
eome  into  nee.  Tbe  deaedption  ^>pean  lo 
ba,  not  of  a  edentlflo,  bnt  a  popnUr  obaiae* 
tar ;  Ibr,  dioo^  hake  wal  a  pfajikiui.  be 
did  not  flieielbre  eeaee  to  be  UtUe  lo  the 
siTOTB  of  hia  day.  Hie  inapinuian  did  not 
•stand  to  phyeiologieal  anlqeala.  Sir  Tbo- 
MM  Brown,  a  phjilaUn,  nmarke  that  '  a 
•obar  and  ragnlated  aitralogj'  in  medioina 
la  not  to  b«  rejmted  di  condenuud.  Amimg 
popnlu  miiconctipdoQe,  it  ie  etill  eommon 
to  tbiak,  that  blood  is  paited  wllli,  —  tiiT  in- 
BtanoB  in  what  ie  called  'epitting  blood,'  — 
when,  in  etrictueea  of  apeeob,  nodiing  takea 
place  vorthf  of  llie  nunc.  Bat  ae,  betise 
the  ehannel*  and  functioiu  of  the  Nood 
wsro  rigbtlT  known,  it  vat  tboioghtaiat  blood 
might  be  wept,  so  alao  waa  It  beliaiod  that 
Uoodmif^tlMBxnded;  and.inoonaeqaance, 
■n  muunal^  ecpiona  and  piofaae  poepin- 


•  to  ear  of  thoea  who  ware  en- 
gaged in  great  labonre,  that  Owj  aweat  blood; 
and  Lake  appeera  to  hare  attempted  to  gnard 
himeelf  againet  being  taken  Ulaiallf  in  the 
Hooliar  wording  whuihhe  emploja,  —  'and 
hIa  Bweat  waa  oi  it  imm  drope  of  blood,'  — 
the  drope  were  large  and  thi&  like  gloImleB 
(rf  blood.  The  eame  wiitar  (Acts  ix.  18), 
Intending  to  deenibe,  in  a  etiiking  man- 
ner, Panfa  raeloration  to  eigbt,  popnlari; 
afflnie,^' There  fell  (Mm  hie  efca  aa  it 
had  been  aoalee ;' Ae  aane  word  in  the  origi- 
nal being  naed  tnr  '  m  it  wen,'  and  'u  it 


the  atate  of  our  Lord'i  mind  JnU  prior 
death,  ttte  amonnta  foiniahed  b;  all  the  eran- 
geliate  mnM  be  pat  togetfier  and  «t»n<tH 
In  John'a  Ooapel  (irii.  zriiL),  Ifaa  ntmoet 
■elf-poaaeailan,  aelt-fbigetflilneBa,  and  mea- 
tal  calm,  are  indiraedy  poara^ed;  ao  thai 
the  agonj  eoold  not  have  been  of  long  Bon- 
~'T  have  had  ptimafwnt  aSisati. 


a  hi^T  aeneidTa  and  aererel; 
tried  (Tame,  inetinctJTeIr  jhrinhitig  back  fMm 
the  tomb,  and  from  moekery,  iniidt,  tortnra ; 
and  from  the  etiU  jnote  appalling  fbar,  lest 
the  great  woiik  abonld  bil  atthelMttbroogh 
an;  iiMfittUe  infimd^  on  the  pan  of  tbe  lof- 
tmi.  In  ihla  lib-«td-de«b  amigglB,  how- 
erar,  Jeattt  wti^t  atnngth  in  vrtjer,  and 
weaheard  on  aaoonnt  of  hia  ^0^  (Heb.  r  T) ; 
■o  that  he  henoefomrd  want  ttironi^  hla 
triala  to  the  Ian  in  entita  and  wmified  com- 
poennof  mind. 


Thia  grotto  lie!  in  tha  Garden  of  Gelheae- 
mane.  II  ii  deep  and  hl^i  and  dlrided 
into  two  oavitiea  b;  a  sort  of  anblerranean 
portaL  There  are  alao  leTora]  altera  acoip- 
tared  in  Ihe  roak.  Thii  aaBctaair,  (he  won 
of  natore,  haa  not  been  diiflgorad  bj  ao 
man;  atlifliual  onumenta  as  aome  other 
Mnotoariea.  The  laolt,  Ihe  floor,  and  Oie 
walla,  are  of  Ihe  rook  itself;  dillilling,  like 
teara,  the  cavemons  humidil;  of  Ifae  eulh 
•luch  anrelopea  It.  There  is  alwTe  each 
altar,  in  pierea  of  leather,  painted  flesh 
eoloor,  and  of  the  natural  siie,  a  bad  rcpre- 
■eolation  of  Ae  acene  of  Ihe  agon;  of  Christ, 
with  angela,  that  preaent  him  with  Ihe  chalice 
<d  dea^  Were  Ihese  had  figurea,  which 
diatiub  those  that  the  pioiu  imagination  lovea 
to  create  in  the  shadow  of  this  emplj  eaTsm, 
deslrojed;  and  were  Ihe  tearM  ejes  of  Ihe 
Tisitor  allowed  to  moanttreelj,  without  the  ob- 
BlniotioD  of  sensible  imagaa,  towards  Che 
tbonght  of  Him  of  whom  Ihe  spot  is  so  psin- 
laOj  coimieiDoraliTe,  this  grotto  would  be 
the  meet  impressive  relio  of  the  hills  of 
Zion;  hot  man  cannot  help  mors  or  leas 
spoiling  whateVBT  ignoianoe  bida  him  pal 
hie  hand  to. 

AOaiCULTUBE  (L.  Ilu  tiiiags  iff  At 
groiatd)  in  the  East  alii]  remain*  what  it  wa* 
in  ancient  timea:  we  eball  therefore  begin 
fliis  attiela  wlih  a  brkf  aeeoont  of  agrieallare 
ae  it  1*  now  eartied  on. 

The  ploo^,  in  Wtatem  Asia,  even  at  the 
preaent  da;,  i«  ordinarilT  of  Ihe  most  simple 
aonstraotion,  ntlerlj  unfit  lor  the  aticDg  cU; 
landa  of  oar  own  conntry,  and  applicable 
onlj  to  light  or  sandj  aoils.  Even  theee  it 
penelratee  bat  lo  ■  email  depth,  and  rather 
teara  np  and  throwe  aside,  than  oata  end 
deeboTs,  Iha  weeds  and  root*  whioh  it  meeta 
with  in  ita  eonrae.  The  anlaiala  emplojed 
are,  fbr  ibe  moetput,  oxen;  rarely horae*  or 
midee.  They  bare  »  roD^  kind  of  yoke  on 
their  neda,  to  whieh  Ihe  plough  is  faatened, 
Am  iwoanns  of  which  are  held  by  Ihe  work- 
■naa,  who  also  carries  in  his  hand  a  long 
pointed  atiek,  with  which  he  gouts  and 
direeit  die  catde.    fiebiod  die  ploughman 


AOR                     34  AOB 

eomes  •  boj,  with  •  hoe  or  mattock*  to  mnb-  Moms,  aoeotdhigly,  ipith  chametartotio  wit* 

plete  the  prepantioii  of  the  soil,  bj  breaking  dom,  bceenae  he  knew  that  a  nomad  oonld 

the  elods  and  removing  weeds.     On  thia  not  be  a  highly  civilised  people,  and  beeanse 

rough  tillage  there  generally  foUows  an  abon-  his  people  were  now  prepared  for  the  eivil* 

dant  har? eat    Dong  ia  for  the  moat  part  need  ised  and  eiviliaing  parsaita  of  agrienltnio, 

only  for  producing  what  we  should  teim  also  beeanse  he  waa  aware  that  fliese  pur- 

hot-bed  plants,  sndi  aa  artiohokea,  mekms,  snita  alone  eoold  ftuniah  a  eonstuit  sopply 

&e.     The  ordinary  graina  are  wheat  and  of  food,  resolved  to  make  agricoltore  tfaie 

barley,  which,  in  fovouraUe  apota,  are  of  a  fomklation  of  hia  eivil  and  rdigiooa  institn« 

very  large  and  fine  kind.    The  atdka  grow,  tioiis.    Tet  the  shepheid's  life  always  held 

in  such  placea,  to  ao  great  a  height,  aa  to  a  hig^  rank  in  the  eatimation  and  the  prae* 

hide  a  man  on  horseback.     Harvest  is  a  tieeof  the  Hebrews;  and,  in  truth,  Palestine 

season,  as  of  abundanoe  so  of  hilarity.  Song  aiforded  great  fuilitiea,  aa  mueh  for  the  one 

lightens  the  Isbour — song,  led  by  a  sin^  aa  for  the  other  mode  of  eriatenee  (Prov. 

voice,  the  burden  of  vdiich  ia  repeated  in  zxvii.  88 — ^87). 

chorus.    The  work  ot  mowing  Im  q[>eedily  While  the  reflex  inflnenee  of  later  timea  ia 

despatched.    The  com  being  conveyed  to  probably  to  be  seen  in  Oen.  ii.  10,  and  while, 

the  granary,  the  grain  is  obtained  by  treading  aa  we  have  intimated,  the  patriaicha  were 

on  die  atiJks,  when  the  chaif  is  separated  nomad  ehielii,  yet  tfiey  were  by  no  meana 

from  the  wheat  by  being  shaken  with  a  fork,  unaeqnainted  with  agriculture  (Oen.  xzvi. 

and  tossed  about  till  it  is  quite  pure.    If  Id;   nxviL  7);   a  fbet  friii<^  migjht  have 

requisite,  a  aieve  ia  abo  employed.     The  been  ealely  infonsd  from  the  eomparatively 

meal  ii  got  by  grinding,  wfai^  ia  done  in  high  degree  of  culture  idileh  their  history 

hsndmUls  by  women  and  alaves,  when  they  displays.    But  agricnltQie  did  not  reoeive 

have  first  removed  any  amsll  stones,  or  bits  foil  attention  till  Mooea  came,  and  provided 

of  earth,  that  may  remain.     The  straw  ia  eadi  Hebrew  with  hia  own  eatate,  which  waa 

need  as  fodder  for  oxen  and  horses.  to  be  for  ever  inalienaWe  (Lev.  zxv.  10,  $eq. 

In  the  earliest  mode  of  lifo  presented  in  28.  Numb.  zzvi.  68;  zxziii.  54).    This  di* 

the  Bible,  we  find  agriculture  and  die  care  vieion  of  the  land,  aa  it  is  the  only  just  and 

of  catde  the  sole  business.    Adam's  children,  aafo  one,  so  is  it  the  only  one  that  rests  on 

Abel  and  Cain,  are  the  originatore  and  re-  divine  authority.    A  state  having  such  sn 

presentativee  of  theee  two  pursuits  (Oen.  airangement  for  ita  baais,  could  not  permit 

iv.  9).    The  care  of  cattle  is  in  the  handa  of  its  members  to  foil  into  a  condition  of  per- 

the  favourite  son,  Abel;  sgricultnrs  iM  pro-  manent  alavery;  and  the  extreme  of  poverty, 

aecuted  by  Cain,  who  fell  under  Ood's  dis-  aa  wdl  aa  the  destraetive  evils  of  paiqpaism, 

pleasure.    This  repreeentation  is  in  entire  were  to  a  great  extent  unknown, 

keeping  with  the  habita  of  nomad  life  whi<^  The  ehoiee  of  an  agricultural  eonatitntion, 

the  primeval  race  pursued,  and  with  what  on  the  part  of  Moses,  had  also  this  advan- 

reason  and  analogy  would  lead  us  to  expect,  tage,  that  it  eflbctnally  served  one  gnat  in- 

It  may  safely  be  aasumed,  that  food  was  stnmientsl  purpose  which  he  had  in  view; 

procured  in  the  eaaiest  way.    Primarily,  thia  namely,  the  aevering  of  his  people  from  the 

waywaatousethespontaneouaproductkoaof  idolatrous  nationa  into  the  midst  of  whom 

nature,  whether  offered  in  the  vegetable  or  diey  were  going,  and  by  whom  they  would 

the  animal  worid;  but,  as  soon  aa  aome  unavoidably,  and  for  many  ages,  be  snr- 

specifio  care  became  necesssiy,  die  keeping  rounded.    The  eountiy,  too,  waa  eminendy 


of  flocks  snd  herds  was  desriy  the  most  ob-  fitted  to  give  scope  end  (^rportnnity  to  die 

vioos  and  the  least  costly  mode  of  procuring  resouroes  of  agriculture.     Ita  poaition  on 

suDsistenoe.    Agrioulture,  even  in  die  East,  die  globe  is  such  aa  to  secure  a  ftiU  supply  of 

w  a  eompaiatively  laborious  process,  snd  one  beat,  while  die  proximity  of  die  Mediter- 

SS  S??!^"**  •'u'^  ?•  "'?^""  wpply  of  lanean  Sea  tends  to  mitigate  its  forvouis. 

food  till  allermuoh  delay  and  various  mani-  Lebanon  covered  die  land  from  die  cold 

pulations.    The  agnoultoral  is  sn  advanced  winds  of  die  north.    Odier  hilla  gave  shelter, 

state  of  ciyihsation,  and  could  have  been  nd  formed  warm  vales;  while  diey  diem' 

reached  only  by  alow  degrees,  which  would  selves  aflbrded  pasturage  for  catde,  and.  bv 

be  retarded  the  radier  beeanse  the  bushiess  meana  of  tenaces,  soQ  for  culture  und^ 


under 

runs 

fod 


^♦w?*^  S*,^"*''*^ '■  *^***«  *^  'la^^  different  degrees  of  heat    Alargeriverr 

witn  the  Arab  a  love  of  eaae,  liberty,  and  in.  dirough  die  lengdi  of  die  land,  and  is  lea 

f^J^f!:  t*^'^!^  ^  ^^  patriarchal  by  mLy  tributt^stn^uns;  other  ri^^ 

2dS!*r''",f^*^**^**?P~^«^««»»  o«»Mitine  from  east  to  wit,  flowing  from 

i^J^i^^S^Z^JS^^?^'^^  fliehillsintodieMeditei«mei3i.^,S2S 

^iSS^SLP^i***?  •  ^*  ••  ^•»««'  (M»n«ton«)i»tow«fdie  land  gave  ttSS 

S^B,'X'Cn  to^SS^'i^^  d««s  of  ft^tains  snd  brooks?  oS^:::; 

dieoJy":,^^  ^^'J^'^.Y^^^^^^'^- 

Egypt,  die  leracUtesrecSK^SiitSfLS^  ^SJ^J^^^^^^^^  y^'  ^ 

sons  in  die  successfol  tillage  o7r  is:  ^TalSS^^^^f  ^S^JeT;; 


A  OR                      35  AGR 

of  hettfen,  and  the  fttneBS  of  the  earth,  and  the  moontaine*  (comp.  Eaek.  zzxri.  8,  0). 

plenty  of  com  and  wine'  (Gen.  xxrii.  28;  In  order  to  render  these  eapable  of  anooesaful 

eomp.  Dent.  viii.  7,  aeq.).    No  real  objeetion  ooltiyation,  lerraoea  were  formed  along  and 

to  this  account  can  be  drawn  fhmk  the  aotaal  up  their  aides,  having  hedges  and  walls  to 

condition  of  Palestine.    Its  civil  history  ae-  aostain  the  soQ,  and  airest  the  rain  (Isa.  ▼• 

oonnts  fbr  its  aetnal  onpioduetiTeness.    The  2—6). 

sword  is  a  bad  snbstituts  fbr  the  plon^.  Land  was  divided  by  seres.    An  aere  was 

Tyranny  and  oppression  inevitably  produce  roughly  measnred  by  what  a  yoke  or  pair  of 

a  desert    It  was  a  nation  of  freemen  that,  oxen  oonld  plough  in  a  day  (1  Sam.  xiv.  14). 

under  Mosaism,  made  the  entire  land  a  gar-  The  Hebrews  employed  manure,  oonaisting 

den.     A  nation  of  bondmen  eould  do  no  of  the  ashes  of  burnt  stubble  (Isa.T.  24; 

other  than  make  it  and  keep  it  barren  and  zlvii.  14.  Joel  ii.  5)  and  of  dung  (2  Kings 

desolate.     Tet,  wherever  due  care  is  now  iz.  87.   Jer.  iz.  22.    Luke  xiv.  85).    The 

Applied,  ample  proofs  are  given  that  the  Land  ordinary  implementswere  the  plough, thohar- 

of  Promise  might  again  produce  the  riohest  row,  the  spade,  the  hoe,  the  aiekle,  and  the 

rewards  of  human  labour.  pitdifork.    An  Egyptian  painting  describes 

Supported  by  law,  and  esteemed  among  whaftwasprobablytheaneientHebrewplough: 

the  people,  agriculture  was  suoceesftilly  pro-  it  eonsists  of  a  share,  curving  upwards  to  the 

secuted.  From  being  a  secondary  (Job  i.  14 ),  left  hand  of  the  ploughman,  who  holds  it  by 

it  rose  to  be  the  chief  pursuit,  and  great  a  hole  in  its  upper  end^  the  lower  end  has 

support  of  life.    It  is  the  main  object  of  care  an  anow-headed  temunation  Ibr  cutting  die 

to  £e  *  virtuous  woman,*  the  graphic  account  soil :  in  his  ri^t  hand  the  man  has  a  long 

of  whose  engagements  shows  a  union  of  whip,  for  driving  the  two  oxen  idiioh  draw 

agrioultunl  with  manufacturing  operations,  the  plou|^.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  oxen 

not  dissimilar  to  that  which  used  to  prevail  walks  a  man,  holding  in  one  hand  a  bag,  and 

in  the  manufacturing  districts  of  England  with  the  other,  easting  straight  befbre  him 

(ProT.  xxxi.  10,  seq.).    As  population  grew,  the  seed,  which  is  thus  turned  in  and  covered 

so  inoreaaed  both  the  neoessity  for,  and  the  by  the  plough  in  probably  its  second  passage 

application  to,  agriculture.   The  hero  Gideon  over  the  land.    The  same  picture  exhibits  a 

18  found  threiAiing,  by  the  angel  of  the  Lord  man  cutting  off  the  heads  of  comwith  a  shaip- 

( Judg.  vi.  11).     Even  after  his  election  to  toothed  sickle,  the  handle  and  blade  of  whidi 

the  regal  office,  Saulis  represented  as '  coming  are  set  at  a  small  angle,  the  blade  curving  up 

after  &e  herd  out  of  the  field'  (lSam.xi.O).  and  going  out  beyond  the  handle,  and  so 

Elisha  is  ploughing  with  twelve  yoke  before  ending  in  a  point    Another  painting  repre* 

him,  and  he  vritfa  the  twelfth,  when  Elijah  sents  a  plough,  the  share  of  which  is  held  by 

cast  his  mantle  up<m  him  ( 1  Kings  xix.  19).  the  ploughman,  with  two  hands ;  and  from  the 

King  Usziah  '  had  mueh  cattle,  both  in  the  share  runs  a  pole  up  to  a  transverse  beam, 

low  oountry,  and  in  the  plains ;  husbandmen  which  comes  under  the  neck  of  the  animals, 

also,  and  vine-dressers  in  tilie  mountains,  and  and  acts,  with  the  aid  of  ropes,  as  a  yoke. 

in  Oarmel ;  for  he  loved  husbandry'  (2  Chron.  The  animals  employed  are  an  ox  and  an  ass, 

xxvi.  10).    The  Babylonish  eaptivi^  did  not  a  union  which  was  forbidden  by  the  law  of 

destroy  this  love  in  the  nation;  and  unusual  Mosea,  probably  because  of  the  differeuoe 

diligence  was  employed  by  the  people,  on  of  strength,  tread,  and  habits  of  the  two,  by 

their  return,  to  repair  the  e^s  occasioned  by  which  the  greater  labour  would  be  thrown  on 

a  neglect  of  seventy  years.    How  thoroughly  the  weaker  back,  to  say  nothing  of  the  unseem- 

the  Jewish  mind  was  imbued  with  thoughts  liness  of  using  together  animals  so  dissimilar 

and  images  borrowed  from  the  culture  of  the  in  appearance  as  well  as  in  qualities.    The 

soil,  may  be  learnt  fh>m  the  teachings  of  our  strildng  remark  of  Samson  —  <  If  ye  had  not 

Lord,  many  of  whose  most  striking,  perti-  ploughed  with  my  heifer,  ye  had  not  found 

nent,  and  beautiftil  figures  are  hence  taken  out  my  riddle' — diow8,by  its  obviously  pro- 

(Markiv.).  verbial  character,  that   oxen   were  chiefly 

As  in  all  the  practical  arts,  so  in  husbandry,  employed   at   the   plough   (Deut  xv.  19. 

theHebrewswereapraotiealpeople;  end  their  Amos  vi.  12) :  a  goad  was  used  for  driving 

knowledge  and  skill  were  purely  the  result  of  (Judg.  iii.  81).    Thou^  the  soil  of  Pales- 

a  lengthened  experience,  transmitted  ftom  tine  contains  a  great  deal  of  clay  and  marl, 

age  to  age  by  that  strong  bond  of  tradition  in  various  proportions,  yet  the  prevalence 

which  unites  successive  generations  in  orien-  of  heat   over   moisture    renders    it  easily 

tal  nations.  Accordingly,  the  knowledge  v^ich  penetrable  and  fit  for  tillage  by  simply  oon- 

ihe  Hebrews  had  obtained  in  the  lowlands  strocted  instruments.    They  were,  however, 

of  Egypt,  their  descendants  applied  on  the  mostly  of  iron,  and  required  for  use  to  be 

plains  of  Canaan,  such  as  Esdraelon,  Sharon,  sharpened  from  time  to  time  ( 1  Sam.  xiii. 20 ). 

Jericho ;  and  while  the  villages  were  richly  In  Isa.  xxviii.  24,  seq,  the  chief  operations  of 

cultivated,  the  hills  were  made  productive,  husbandry  are  set  forth.    Of  the  principal 

not  only  of  pasture,  and  of  the  olive  and  the  grains,  the  Hebrews  cultivated  wheat,  barley, 

vine,  but,  in  a  measure,  of  com  as  well :  so  and  spelt.    The  soil  was  fovouraUe  also  fof 

in  Ps.  Ixxii.  10,  com  is  found  *  on  the  top  of  pulse,  such  as  lentils  and  beans,    flax  and 


A  OR  36  AG  U 

cammia,  gailio  and  oaetunbera,  wen  growa.  feeling  that  this  confession  was  a  signal  tes- 
8e«d8  of  diTers  kinds  might  not  he  sown  to-  timony  to  the  gospel,  has  tried  to  make  the 
gether  (Dent  xzii.  9).  The  prodnee  was  so  words  appear  to  be  ironieal.  If  this  be  so, 
abundant  that  Palestine  became  an  exporting  the  fact  is  a  discredit  to  Agrippa,  and  to 
eountrj.  Solomon  bought  timber  of  his  friend     Heathenism.    The  occasion  did  not  excuse, 

Hiram,  with  twenty  ^ousand  measures  of  much  less  justify,  a  spirit  of  levity  or  scorn, 
wheat  for  food,  and  twenty  measures  of  pure  oil,  TheeTidence,howeTer,of  onewho  was  present 
year  by  year  (I  Kings  v.  11.  Ezek.xxTii.  17).     decides  adTersely  to  this  supposition;  for 

For  the  winter,  fruit  sowing  took  place,  a  short  Paul  himself,  as  appears  by  his  answer,  most 

time  after  the  autumnal  eijuinox,  in  October  clearly  took  the  words  of  the  monarch  as 
and  November,  when  the  eariy  rains  had     spoken  seriously.    Nor  can  any  one  who  has 

moistened  and  prepared  the  soil ;  sowing  for  studied  the  writings  and  character  of  Paul, 

the  summer  fruit  took  place  in  January,  but  feel  any  wonder,  that  powers  such  as  his 

mostly  in  Febnuury,  when  the  spring  began,  should  have  struck  and  shaken  Agrippa*s 

The  harvest  had  its  oommencement  in  April,  heart,  and  inclined  him,  at  least  momentarily, 

These  customs  stiU  remain  substantially  the  in  fkvour  even  of  the  cause  of  one  who  stooil 

same.    Our  Iiord  intimates  that  the  produce  accused  belbre  him.    Such  is  the  migesty  of 

was  sometimes  so  much  as  a  hundred  fold  religion,  when  pure  and  undefiled.    No  du- 

( Matt  xiii.  28),  which  is  confirmed  by  other  rable  effect,  however,  was  to  be  expected, 

passages.     Isaac  received  a  hundred  fold  Near  him  sat  Bemice,  his  sister,  with  whom 

(Oen.  xxvi.  12).     As  the  Babylonians,  the  he  is  suspected  of  having  had  sn  incestuous 

Israelites  seem  to  have  sown  their  seed  in  connection.    The  Heathenism  in  whose  lap, 

ftirrows  or  lines,  wide  apart,  which  would  at  the  court  of  Claudius,  Agrippa  had  been 

give  full  scope  to  the  productiveness  of  the  educated,  treated  the  whole  aifidr  as  a  piece 

separate  seeds.    Agriculture  was  patronised  of  fanaticism,  by  the  mouth  of  the  Romsn 

and  farthered  by  the  laws  which  related  to  Festns ;  and  taking  counsel  of  these  persons, 

possession,  the  year  of  jubilee,  landmarks,  and  yielding  to  these  influences,  Agrippa  sank 

&c.    Nor  could  there  be  any  great  dlsadvan-  back  into  congenial  indifference,  gave  his 

tags  to  the  cultivator  in  the  laws  which  gave  heart  to  its  old  flatteries,  and  left  the  eourt  a 

privileges  to  the  poor,  such  as  plucking  ears  friend  of  Festus,  a  panmonr  of  Bemice,  and 

on  passing  through  a  field  of  com,  and  the  a  slave  of  the  worid.    How  many  other  al- 

rights  of  gleaning,  in  a  country  which  was  most  Christians  have  fUlen  in  a  similar 

so  prolific,  and  in  which,  at  least  at  the  first,  manner ! 

there  were  so  tern  poor,  who  could  also  easily        There  is  no  reason  to  wonder,  that,  under 

obtain  employment  at  harvest  season.  such  a  prince,  and  in  the  oormpt  and  degen- 

AORIPPA  (O.  6orii  with  difficulty)  was  a  erate  state  of  the  public  character,  Judea  was 

son  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  'Herod  the  king'  finally  vanquished  by  &e  Romans.  AgiippaH. 

of  Acts  xii.  1  and  28,  on  which  account  he  found  the  greater  part  of  the  country  in  their 

was  called  Herod  the  Younger  or  H.    He  was  possession,  under  procurators.  Of  these  there 

the  last  king  of  Judea,  and  lived  till  after  the  were  the  foUowing  in  the  time  of  Agrippa; 

destruction  of  Jerusalem.    In  Acts  xxv.  18,  namely,  C.  Fadus,  T.  Alexander,  Cumanus, 

it  is  this  prince  who  comes  with  Bemice  to  Felix,  Festus,  Albinus,  and  lastly,  G.  Floras ; 

Cesarea,  to  salute  Festus ;  in  xxvi.  gives  Paul  nearly  all  of  whom  came  into  confiict  with 

a  hearing ;  in  ver.  28,  declares, '  Almost  thou  the  Jews,  whose  risings  became  more  and 

persuadest  me  to  be  a  Christian;'  and,  ver.  more  frequent,  which  Uie  Roman  power  and 

31,  82,  adds,  '  This  man  doeth  nothing  wor*  party  had  difficulty  to  suppress.     Armed 

thy  of  death  or  bonds :  he  might  have  been  bands  made  the  hills  into  strong  holds,  and, 

set  at  liberty,  if  he  had  not  appealed  unto  as  was  convenient,  infested  &e  lower  country. 

Cesar.'  At  last,  the  Romans  seem  to  have  provoked 

Agrippa  was  not  more  than  seventeen  an  insurrection.  Floras  purposely  outraged 
years  of  age  when  his  father  and  predecessor  the  national  feelings,  and  the  fatal  war  com- 
died ;  and  it  was  only  after  a  time,  and  by  menced.  Even  the  moderate  party,  with  the 
degrees,  that  he  was  permitted  by  the  Ro-  high  priest  Ananias  at  their  head,  declared 
mans  to  become  king.  He  laboured  to  adom  in  favour  of  opposition  to  the  common  ene- 
Jerasalem  and  other  cities.  In  consequence  my ;  and  a  regular  war  was  undertaken,  with 
of  his  conduct,  particularly  of  his  arbitrarily  a  view  to  obtain  national  independence.  But 
appomting  and  deposing  high  priests,  he  was  soon  the  zeslots  gained  the  upper  hand,  when 
not  esteemed  by  the  Jews.  When  the  last  extravagance,  disunion,  and  disorder,  pre- 
war agunst  the  Romans  broke  out,  he  took  vafled  on  the  part  of  the  Jews,  tiU,  at  lenirth 
part  with  the  enemies  of  his  country.  He  Jerusalem  was  taken,  and  the  conquest  com- 
«1^  fi«i^/   eeventieth  year  of  his  age,  the  pleted.  alter  a  million  of  Israelites  had  been 

w  f  ?f~   Tr^an.  sion  and  consequent  weakness,  as  to  the 


AHA                       S7  AHA 

— 'thebnnJngagne'  (Ley.  zxvL  16).  There  and  Jezebel  an  the  occasion  of  our  know- 
is  no  separate  word  in  the  Hebrewfor  homing;  ledge  of  the  snblime  Tirtnes  of  Elijah, 
the  noon  rendered  ague  denotes  tokwn;  and  And  if  the  perusal  of  the  misdeeds  of  the 
in  a  passage  ofsimilar  import  in  Dent  zzriii.  former  to  oifensiTe  and  painAil,  not  less 
22,  the  same  word  is  translated  simply  decidedly  instmctiTe  and  elevating  is  the 
*ferer.'  This  rendering  is  the  more  correct;  stndy  of  the  noble  fsatoies  of  character  dis- 
f6r  the  original  does  not  refer  to  the  cold  fits  played  by  the  latter  (1  Kings  xix. — ^zxi.). 
irtiich  are  connected  with  intermittent  fever,  The  episode  of  Naboih*s  vineyard  (xxi.)  is  one 
and  give  it  popularly  the  name  of  agne,  bnt  of  those  instances  of  striking  and  impressive 
to  the  fiery  and  wasting  heat  of  such  a  fever  reslity,  which  assure  ns,  while  reading  the 
as  the  typhus  (fimn  the  Greek,  fo  hum),  Bible,thatweliavebelbre  as  a  transcript  ikom 
with  the  root  meaning  of  which  oar  present  aetaal  lilis — passages  whose  trath  an  im- 
Hebrew  word  is  intimately  allied.  The  de-  partial  reader  can  no  more  donbt,  than  he 
aenption  given  of  this '  baming  agoe'  shows  can  donbt  the  sincerity  of  his  infimt's  smile, 
its  natare— <  that  shall  consome  the  eyes,  or  a  tried  firiend's  trastworthiness. 
and  caose  sorrow  of  heart'  Ahab*s  vices  are  those  of  weahness.  In 
AGUB  (H.  a  eotteetor),  son  of  Jakeh,  who  himself  ine^iable  of  good,  and  unable  to  do 
■poke  the  words  of  the  prophecy  found  in  well,  he  was  led  by  his  wicked  and  idolatrous 
^rov.  zzz.  wife,  and  presents  to  all  ages  a  painlhl  evi- 


Jerome  held  that  Agar  was  a  symbolical  dence,  that  weahness  of  character  is  nearly 

name  for  Solomon :  bat  that  monarch  to  allied  to  baseness. 

aeseribed  as  the  son  of  David ;  Agar,  as  the  AHASUEBUS,  the  title  of  several  Medo- 

eon  of  Jakeh.  Persian  princes  fbond  in  the  Bible,  which 

AHAB  (H.  faQuift  hro^ier.  A.M.  4641;  i^pears  to  be  a  general  deaignation  for  sneh 

A.C.  907;  ¥.  918),  seventh  king  of  Israel,  longs,  applied  to  individuato,  as  Pharaoh 

son  of  Qmri,  reigned  twenty-one  years  (918  and  Agag,  in  the  Old  Testament;  and  Shah, 

—897).    He  did  evO  above  all  diat  were  Pasha,  and  Khan,  among  modem  oriental 

before  him;  took  to  wife  Jesebel,  daughter  nations.    The  name  seems  atoo  to  be  an 

of  Ethbaal,  king  of  the  Sidonians,  and  went  imperfectimitationof  the  Persian  word,  which 

and  served  BaiJ,  and  worshipped  him ;  he  to  represented  by  the  term  Xerxe$.     The 

reared  an  altar  for  Baal  in  the  house  of  Baal,  Hebrew  form  of  ttie  name  corresponds  more 

which  he  had  built  in  Samaria,  and  made  a  neaily  with  the  original  Peraian,  whence  it  is 

grove  for  the  idolatrous  worship  (1  Kings  taken.    So  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  Ahasue- 

svi.  29—98).    He  oppressed  the  prophets  rus  denotes  a  wise  or  holy  king, 

of  Jehovah,  and  supported  four  hundred  and  In  Dan.  ix.  1,  the  person  so  named  was 

fifty  prophets  of  Baal,  and  four  hundred  the  father  of  the  Median  Darius;  in  other 

prophetsofthegAve,  allof  f^om  ate  atthe  words,  Astyages,  king  of  the  Medes,  and 

queen's  table  ( 1  Kings  zviiL  4, 19).    He  was  fuher  of  Cyasares  II.  (Dan.  v.  31 ). 

puntohed  for  hto  idolatry  with  a  sore  fiunine  The  Ahasneras  mentioned  in  Esra  iv.  6 

(1  Kings  zvii.  1;  zviil.  2);  and  was  wroth  to  probably  Oambyses,  who  reigned  f^om 

against  El^ah,  who  had  foretold  the  punish-  the  year  629  (A.C.),  in  all  seven   years 

ment  (1  Khigsxviii.  17).  He  made  war  with  and  five  months,  and  is  described  as  of  a 

Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  in  three  campaigns :  severe  and  passionate  temper, 

in  Ihe  first  and  second,  which  were  defensive,  The  prince  with  whom  Esther  was  eon- 

he  was  successftd ;  in  the  third,  which  was  of*  nected  (Esth.  i.  I )  is  considered  to  be  Xerxes 

lensive,  he  was  defeated  and  dain  (1  Kings  (486— 465,A.C.);  whoseknowncharaoterwell 

zz. — xzii.).    He  had  caased  Naboth  to  be  corresponds  with  the  implications  and  nar" 

put  to  death,  beeaose  he  refhsed  to  let  him  ratives  found  in  die  book  of  Esther,  in  regard 

have  his  vineyard;  for  vdiich  crime  Elijah  toAhasueras. 

propheaiedagainsthim—'In  the  place  where  In  the  Apocrypha  (Tob.  ziv.  15),  Nebu- 

dogs  licked  the  blood  of  Naboth,  shall  dogs  chadneaiar  and  ^asueras  are  mentioned  as 

lick  thy  blood.'   He  repented:  the  threatened  conquerors  of  Nineveh.    Nabopolassar  and 

evil  was  in  consequence  postponed  (xxi.) .  He  Cyaxares  are  intended, 

was  misled  by  four  hundred  false  prophets,  AHAZ  (H.  one  that  takes  and  phmden. 

in  opposition  to  the  counsel  of  Micaiah,  to  A.M.  4811 ;  A.C.  737 ;  Y.  742),  twelfth  king 

engage  in  the  war,  which  led  to  hto  death  at  of  Judah,  was  son  of  Jotham.     He  was 

Bamoth-gilead.    He  was  buried  at  Samaria,  twenty  years  old  when  he  began  to  reign. 

'  and  one  washed  the  diariot  in  the  pool  of  He  reigned  sixteen  years.   He  diverged  fh»m 

Samaria,  and  the  dogs  licked  up  his  blood ;  the  way  of  David  to  idolatry,  walking  in  the 

and  they  washed  hto  srmour '   (xxii.  88).  way  of  the  kings  of  Israel ;  he  even  made  hto 

Hto  seventy  sons,  with  Jesebel  hto  wife,  were  children  to  pass  through  the  fire,  according 

all  destroyed  (2  Kings  ix.  x.).  to  the  abominations  of  the  Heathen,  and 

Evil  in  thto  world  is  never  found  to  stand  sacrificed  and  bumt  incense  on  the  high 

alone : .  its  presence,  always  under  the  wise  places,  and  on  the  hills,  and  under  every 

and  benign  providence  ot  Ood,  calls  its  op-  green  tree.    Besin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pe- 

posite,  goody  into  active  energy*    So  Ahib  kah,  son  of  BemaUah,  king  of  Israel,  camo 


AHA  38                       A  H    I 

and  besieged  him  in  Jeramlem ;  on  idiieh  hie  father,  and  in  the  way  of  his  mother,  senr* 
Ahaa  applied  for  help  to  Ti^ath-pileaer,  king  ing  BaaL  Having  fallen  down  tbroni^  alattioe 
of  Asajria,  sending  to  him  at  the  same  time,  in  his  upper  chamber,  in  Samaria,  and  en- 
as  a  present,  the  silver  and  gold  that  was  dangered  his  life,  he  sent  to  inqoire  of  Baal- 
foond  in  the  hoose  of  JehoTiii,  and  in  the  lebnb,  the  god  of  Ekron,  whether  he  would 
treasures  of  the  Unifa  hoose.  The  king  of  leoover;  I6r  whidh  he  was  told  by  Elijah  thai 
AasyrimeompUed,  went  to  Damaaeos,  took  it»  he  should  die.  Two  troops  of  fifty  men  with 
oarried  the  people  eaptive  to  Kir,  and  slew  their  oommandersy  sent  by  the  king  to  seiie 
Besin.  After  this,  Ahas  paid  a  visit  to  Dft-  Elijah,  perished.  A  third  oompany  was 
maseus;  and,  finding  there  an  altar  that  spared,  and  to  themEmah  repeated  the  threat, 
pleased  him  by  its  magnifioenoe,  he  sent  •  80  the  king  died,  '  aooording  (0  the  word  of 
pattern  of  it  to  UiQah  the  priest,  who  built  Jdiovah,  whioh  Elijjah  had  spoken.'  He 
one  after  tikis  pattem,  in  Jerasalem.  On  re-  JofaiedwithJehoBhsphat,kingof  Judah,ina 
turning  home,  Ahas  oflbred  his  ofTerings  on  plan  fi>r  equipping  a  fleet  at  Eiion-gaber,  to 
the  new  altar;  and,  having  lemoved  die  old  carry  on  trade  on  the  Bed  Sea,  the  taUure  of 
bfaien  altar,  he  commanded  that  in  fbturs  which  is  ascribed  to  Ahaziah'a  taking  a  part 
the  uaual  sacrifices  should  be  mads  on  that  therein  (1  Kings  zxiL  49,  seg.  2  Chron.  zx. 
which  owed  its  eziatenee  to  himself  (d  Kings  80,  teq,).  In  this  king's  reign,  the  tributary 
zvi;  eomp.  zz.  11.  Isa.  vii.;  zzzviii.  8).  Moabites  set  themselves  tne  (2  Kings  L). 
His  innovations,  which  did  not  stop  with  this  There  was  another  person  of  this  name, 
affectation  of  splendour,  weie  of  a  nature  to  aiztii  king  of  Judah  {AM.  4679 ;  A.C.  876; 
prove  that  hia  heart  was  alienated  from  God,  Y.  88d).  He  was  the  son  and  auooessor  of 
and  given  to  the  idolatry  of  the  senses.  He  Jehoram.  Two>and-twenty  years  old  was 
had  one  reAige,  and  to  that  he  did  once  Ahaiiah  when  he  began  to  reign.  His 
i^ly.  Having  consulted  the  praphet  Isaiah,  mothei's  name  was  Atfaallah,  daughter  of 
he  was  aasured  that  God  did  not  intend  to  Ahab,  granddaughter  of  Omri,  king  of  Israel, 
allow  the  house  of  Bavid  to  become  extinct.  Being  *  son-in-law  of  the  house  of  Ahab,'  he 
and  that  the  enemies  of  Judah  would  shortly  pursued  the  idolatrous  practices  of  that  fa- 
find  in  the  king  of  Assyria  an  adversaiy  mily.  The  corresponding  passage  in  2  Chron. 
whom  they  oould  not  withstand.  As  an  as>  zzii.  8,  adds, '  his  mother  was  his  counsellor 
surance  of  tins  succour,  there  was  a  sign  to  do  wickedly.'  He  joined  his  relative 
given  him,  namely,  the  birth  of  a  son  of  the  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  in  war  against  Hasael, 
prophet  (Isa.  viii.  8);  and  it  was  foretold,  Ung  of  Syria.  The  battle  was  fought  at 
that,  before  the  child  ahould  have  knowledge  Bamoth-gilead,  and  Joram  was  defeated. 
to  cry  my  fkther,  snd  my  mother,  the  riches  Ahariah,  going  to  see  Joram  when  he  lay  in 
of  Damascus  and  the  spoil  of  Samaria  should  Jesreel  ill  of  the  wounds  vdiich  he  had 
be  taken  away  before  the  king  of  Assyria.  But  received,  was  involved  in  his  late,  being  put 
Ahas  had  not  the  moral  qualities  needful  to  to  death  by  Jehu's  commsnd  (2  Kings  viiL 
enable  him  to  profit  by  the  timely  succour.  25,  seg.  2  Chron.  xdi.). 
He  became  hopelessly  oom^t,  even  saeri-  AHIEZEB  (H.6r(»fA«ro/*Ae^),  captain  of 
ficing  to  the  gods  of  Damascus  that  smote  the  children  of  Dan,  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
him,  saying, — 'Because  the  goda  of  tho  who  is  distinguished  for  the  liberality  of  his 
kings  of  Syria  he^  them,  will  I  sacrifice  oontributions  on  occasion  of  the  consecration 
to  them,  that  they  may  help  me'  (2  Chron.  of  tiie  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness  (Numb.i. 
XzviU.  28).  Neidier  good  nor  iU  fortune  12;  u.  25;  viL  66). 
avafled  to  bring  him  to  repentance.  At  last  AHUAH  (H.  brother  of  the  Lord),  a  pro- 
he  went  to  such  a  pitoh  of  wickedness  as  to  phet  of  Shilo  (a  city  in  Ephraim),  henoe 
•et  up  idolatry  in  its  most  revolting  shapes,  called  the  ShUonite,  in  the  days  of  Solomon, 
in  every  city  and  town  of  his  dominions.  Meeting  with  Jeroboam  alone  in  a  field,  he 
Hia  name  became  odious ;  and,  dying  in  uni-  seized  a  new  robe,  with  which  he  had  clad 
verssl  contempt,  he  was  not  honouied  with  himself,  and,  tearing  it  in  twelve  pieces,  gave 
a  burial  in  the  royal  sepulchres.  The  night  Jerobosm  ten;  signifying  thereby,  that  God 
ushers  in  the  day :  the  wicked  Ahas  was  had,  after  a  similar  manner,  rent  the  king- 
sueceeded  by  hia  soOf  the  wise  and  pious  dom  out  of  the  hand  of  Solomon,  in  eouse- 
Hesekiah.  quenoe  of  idolatiy ,  and  given  ten  of  the  tribes 

To  Ahas  belongB  the  unenviable  distinetion  to  Jeroboam  (1  Kings,  zi  26,  eeq.).   He  also 

of  being  the  worst  king  that  ever  occupied  announced  condign  punishment  against  that 

the  thnme  of  Judah;  and  his  history  affoids  prince  himself,  when  he,  too,  gave  his  heart 

a  striking  proof  that  sin  aud  wretchedness  to  idolatzy.  (I  Kings  ziv.).    little  in  detail 

are  yoke-feUowa  in  human  life  (1  Chron.  iiL  is  known  of  Ahijah,  ezoept  that  he  was  blind 

18.  2  ChroiLzzviiL  zziz.  2 Kings  zvi.  Isa^  in  his  old  age;  but  his  aflictionhad  not  sub- 

viL  vilL  iz. ;  zzzviii.  8).  dned  his  spirit,  which  appears  to  have  been 

AHAZIAH  (H.  the  Lonf$  poetemtr.  AM.  Horthy  and  fit  for  the  high  office  which  he 

4660;  A.C.888;  V.  897),  tiie  ei^tii  king  of  had  to  fiilfil.    <  llie  prophecy  of  Ahijah' 

Israel,  son  and  follower  of  the  idolatrous  mentfoned  with  the  visions  of  *Iddo  the  seer/ 

Ahab,  and  Jes^beL   He  watted  in  the  way  of  in  2  Chron.  iz.  29,  is  not  extant — a  fact 


AHI  S9  AJA 

frtuchmay  serve  to  ehow  thAt  the  eare  lAdtih  (zrU. ;  eee  also  xr.  81 ;  twL  33).    Ahitopbel 

was  employed  by  the  Israelites  did  not  pre-  resembles  Judas,  both  in  his  treachery  and 

serve  all  their  sacred  books,  and,  conse-  his  fate.    His  hatred  against  David,  howerer, 

qnently,  that  oar  canon  is  incomplete.  may  hare  taken  its  rise  in  something  higher 

AHIHUD  (H.  broUter  of  praiu),  son  of  than  gross  selfishness.    As  the  grandfather 

Shelomi,  prince  of  the  tribe  ot  Asher,  «p-  of  Badi'Sheba,  he  may  have  felt  impelled  to 

pointed  with  other  eminent  persons  to  diyids  visit  on  David's  own  head  the  ii^nry  which 

Canaan  among  the  Israelites,  and  who  may,  had  been  done  to  his  family.    Indeed,  his 

in  conseqoence,  be  presomed  to  have  pos-  eager  animosity  against  his  sovereign  seems 

sessed  the  best  aeqnaintaace  with  geography  to  point  to  some  strong  personal  ollence  as 

and  mathematics,  which  the  sdenoe  of  Che  its  sooree.    Thus  did  David's  vices  raise  up 

times  aiforded  (Numb,  zzziv.  17,  27).  bitter  enemies  against  him,  and  put  his  throne 

AHIMELECH  (H.  kmgtt  brother).  About  and  his  life  in  danger.    Providence  leaves  no 

A.  M.  4466 ;   A.  C.  1062 ;  V.  1093),  son  of  sin  unpunished. 

Ahitnb,  residing  as  high  priest  at  Nob,  where        AI  ( H.  heap  of  mtni ),  a  Canaanitlsh  royal 

was  the  tabernacle,  together  with  the  body  of  eity,  wliich  lay  on  the  east  of  BetheL  Abrsham, 

the  priests.    He  received  David  when  flying  on  his  arrival  in  Palestine,  pitched  his  tent 

from  Sanl,  and  gave  him  refreshment  from  the  betireenthetirocities(Gen.zil.8;ziiid).  Ai 

flhew-bread  designed  for  use  in  the  ceremonial  was  captured  and  destroyed  by  Joshua  (Josh. 

of  worship ;  he  gave  him  also  the  sword  of  viiL  8,  fe^.).    It  was  rebuilt  at  a  later  period, 

Ooliah,  which  lay  in  the  sacred  place  wn^ped  and  is  mentioned  by  Isaiah,  and  also  after  the 

in  a  doth.  Incensed  at  this.  Seal  commanded  ezfle  (Isa.  x.  28.  Ezra  ii.  28).    In  the  days 

his  gusrds  to  slay  Ahimeleoh  and  his  attend-  of  Jerome,  its  site  and  ruins  were  still  pointed 

ant  priests.    They  refhsed,  when,  at  Saul's  out  not  far  from  Bethel,  on  the  east     Bo- 

eommand,  Doeg  the  Edomite,  i^o  had  in-  binson  ooujectarally  fixed  for  its  locality  a 

formed  the  king  of  Ahimelech's  succour  to  place  with  ruins  just  south  of  Deir  Diwan, 

David,  put  to  death  eighty-five  priests,  at  the  which  is  an  hour  distant  from  Bethel,  having 

same  time  slaughtering  the  inhabitants  of  Nob  near  by,  on  the  north,  the  deep  valley  Wady  el 

without  regard  to  age  or  sex  (1  Sam.  xxL  Mutyah. 

zxii).  In  Mark  iL  26,  where  this  event  is  AJALON  (H.  pa$turejleld),  a  name  borne 
alluded  to,  the  name  of  the  priest  is  given  by  two  places  in  Csnaan,  of  v^ich  one  was 
as  Abiathar.  From  1  Sam.  xxii  20,  we  find  in  the  lot  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix.  42),  the  other  in 
Abiathar  was  the  name  of  a  son  of  Ahimelech.  that  of  Zebulun.  We  have  no  means  of  fix- 
Probably,  therefore,  Abiathar  was  a  name  ing  more  exactly  the  locality  of  the  latter;  but 
common  to  both  father  and  son ;  or,  Abiathar  the  former  lay  in  the  southern  part  of  Dan,  not 
having  succeeded,  in  consequence  of  his  fk-  fsr  from  the  limits  of  Judah,  near  Ai  and 
thei's  having  been  slsin,  the  priesthood  was  Gibeon.  From  it  was  derived  the  name 
denominated  indifferently  by  &e  name  of  the  'Valley  of  Ajalon,'  which  is  famous  in  the 
son  and  by  the  name  of  the  father.  In  1  Sam.  history  of  the  conquest  of  the  land  of  promise 
xiv.  8,  mention  is  made  of  Ahijah,  where  we  by  Jo&oa,  and  for  the  much-misunderstood 
should  expect  to  find  Ahimelech.    We  admit  words  taken  from  the  poetic  book  Jasher : 

a  difficulty  here.    The  succession  of  Jewiah         ,„     • -*^  ^^v     .mi  /^n 

high  priesto  h«  It.  diacniae.,  riler  dl  at  SthSMtoSl'toS'SS^TAJia-m.-    " 

has  been  done  to  dear  it  up.    No  one  who 

knows  how  many  subjects  in  profsne  history  Attacked  by  five  confederate  kings,  but  now 

remain  hopelessly  obscure,  and  who  remem-  sure  of  victory,  and  naturally  wisliing  to 

bers  that,  in  treating  of  the  topics  before  us,  complete  his  conquest  in  the  entire  destmc- 

we  have  to  go  back  some  three  thousand  years  tion  of  his  enemies,  the  hero  is  represented 

to  a  state  of  society  most  dissimilar  to  our  as  breaking  forth,  in  a  truly  Hebrew  manner, 

own,  can  expect  to  find  the  Biblical  nar-  into  an  address  to  the  sun  and  moon,  that 

ratives  bee  ihim  dark,  doubtfU,  or  difficult  they  would  stay  their  course,  in  order  to 

Poiii^-  afford  him  the  needful  light     This,  at  least, 

AHITOPHEL  (H.  a  traUorous  brother),  a  is   the   form  in  which  the  poeticsl  work, 

Oilonite  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  who  was  a  whence  the  narrative  is  borrowed,  had  thrown 

counsellor  of  David,  but  revolted  to  Absalom,  the  fact  of  an  ordinary  wish  for  the  prolouga- 

He  was  father  of  EUam,  whose  daughter  tion  of  the  day.     With  an  inability  to  feel, 

Bath-sheba,  wife  of  Uriah,  David  took  for  his  or  an  indisposition  to  recognise,  the  poetry 


own  pleasures  (2  Sam.  xi.  8 ;  xxiii  84).     of  the  passage,  commentators  have  taken  the 


gave  counsel  that  David  should  be  pursued  thus  creating  miracles  and  difficulties  at  the 

and  overtakenunmediately  on  his  flight;  sud,  same  time.     The  record  found  in  Josh.  x. 

when  the  more  cautious  plan  of  Hushai  was  18,  14,  is  only  an  expansion  of  the  poetic 

prefeiied,  he  went  home,  and  hanged  himself  lines  given  in  the  twelfth  verse.   There  is  an 


A  K  A                       40  ALE 

example  of  a  poetic  rvpresentadon  of  a  simi-  Snei,  whieb  extends  aboat  a  hvndfed  and 

lar  fact  foand  in  Judg.  v.20 :  comp.  iv,12,ieq.  sixty  miles  in  length,  is  of  safer  navigation, 

_^     ,     ^^  - .  its  depth  Taiying  firom  nine   to  fourteen 

?K'Ji:;?iiuSiJSS;fo«gbt.gy».tii-^^  f^Uhom^  injh^a  .and,  botl«^^ 

ALABASTER  (O.  ac««rding  to  Yoesins, 
The  passage  which  affofds  most  li|^t  is  finmd  that  which  we  etrnmat  hold) ,  the  oonunon  name 
in  Habbokuk  iiL  Terse  10,  oompared  with  in  ancient  and  modem  times,  for  gypsnm. 
▼erse  1 1 ,  where  the  monntains  are  said  to  have  It  consists  of  Tory  fine  grains,  is  beautifoDy 
seen  Qod,  and  trembled ;  the  deep  to  have  white,  YariegatBd  with  other  less  pleasing 
uttered  his  voice,  and  lifted  up  his  hands  on  colours,  and  yields  in  hardness  only  to  roar- 
high,  with  the  same  boldness  of  poetic  license  ble,  whose  brilliant  polish  it  wiU  not  take, 
as  (ver.  11)  the  sun  and  moon  are  said  to  It  was  well  known,  in  ancient  times,  to  the 
have  stood  still  in  their  habitation,  and  to  have  Jews,  as  well  as  to  the  Egyptians,  Qreeks, 
gone  at  the  light  of  Ood's  arrows,  and  at  the  Bomans,  and  other  nations.  Some  kinds 
shining  of  his  glittering  spear.  are  entirely  white,  which  were  most  valued. 
Pococke  reports,  that,  when  on  his  way  The  alabastmm  onyx  was  used  for  making 
from  Jemsalem  to  Joppa,  he  beheld,  on  the  vases,  ums,  ointment  and  odour  boxes.  The 
height  where  Boma  once  lay,  towards  the  practice  of  employing  alabaster  for  besring 
north,  a  very  beantiftal  valley,  which  he  perAimes  caused  veraels,  designed  for  this 
judged  to  be,  from  east  to  west,  ten  miles  purpose,  to  be  called  alabastra,  of  whatever 
long  and  five  broad,  and  which  was  accounted  substance  they  were  made.  Such  an  alabas- 
to  be  the  Valley  of  Ajalon.  In  this  valley  tron  is  intended  in  Matt  xxvi  7  (see  also  Maik 
were  tiro  beautiftil  hills :  the  one  towards  the  xiv.  8.  Luke  viL  37),  where  we  read  of  a  wo- 
west  had  two  points ;  upon  the  other,  towards  man  who  came  with  an  alabaster-box  of  very 
the  north,  was  a  Tillage,  named  Oeb,  which  precious  ointment,  and  poured  it  on  the  bead 
is  probably  the  sndent  Qibeon.  The  Chris*  of  Jesus,  as  he  sat  at  meat 
tians,  at  a  late  period,  gave  this  district  the  The  reason  why  this  stone  was  employed 
name  of  the  Valley  of  the  Moon  {Vol  de  was,  that  the  ancients  held  that  perfumes 
Luna).  were  best  preserved  in  alabaster.  The  ala- 
The  children  of  Dan  found  the  original  bastron  was  rather  a  bottle  than  a  box,  hav- 
inhabitants,  the  Amorites,  too  powerfrd  for  ing  a  long  neck,  out  of  which  the  perftnne 
them;  and  were,  consequently,  obliged  to  was  poured.  When  the  odoriferous  liquid 
withdraw,  alter  die  conquest  of  the  countiy  had  been  put  in,  the  top  or  orifice  was  seiJed, 
by  Joshua,  into  the  monntains  ;  nor  could  in  order  to  preTent  evaporation.  This  explains 
they,  for  a  time,  succeed  in  forcing  their  way  what  is  meant  by  breaking  the  box,  on  the  part 
down  into  the  lower  country.  At  length,  of  the  woman  just  referred  to.  She  broke  the 
however,  they  overpovrered  their  enemies,  seal  or  the  top  of  the  long-necked  flask, 
and  made  them  tributary  (Judg.  L  34,  seg.).  The  record  was  not  made  widiout  a  reason, 
Aj  alon,  with  her  suburbs,  was  assigned  to  the  being  perhaps  unconsciously  intended  to  show 
Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  24.  1  Chron.  vL  69).  that  the  perfume  was  fresh ;  for  the  seal  re- 
Beriah  and  Shema,  who  had  distinguished  msined  as  it  was  when  first  the  '  ointment' 
themselves  in  martial  exploits  against  the  was  put  in. 

inhabitants  of  Gath,were  chief  men  in  Ajalon  ALBEIT  (T.  aU  fte  «),  an  obsolete  con- 
(I  Chron.  viii.  13).  Ajalon  was  among  the  junction,  signifying  although;  at  the  tame 
rities  which  Behoboam  built  for  defence,  after  time.  It  is  used  only  twice  in  the  English 
the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  (2  Chron.  xi.  10).  Bible,  namely,  Ezek.  xiii  7,  and  Philem.  19. 
Notwithstanding  its  strength,  it  was  cap-  ALEXANDEB  (O.  itrong  num).  Several 
tured  by  the  Philistines,  imderAhaz(cir.  741),  persons  of  this  name  are  connected  with 
(2  Chron.  xxviii.  18).  Biblical  history,  particularly  the  Apociypha. 
AKABAH  (A.),  and  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  is  Alexander,  fiOsely  called  '  the  Great'  (bom 
the  eastern  arm  of  the  Bed  Sea,  which,  toge-  at  Pella,8ft6,  A.C.),  was  the  son  and  successor 
ther  with  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  forms  the  triangle  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon.  He  reigned  a 
containing  Mount  SinaL  The  gulf  is  also  little  more  than  twelve  years.  Though  his 
called  Elath,  or  the  Elanitic  GuUl  On  it  lay  birth  made  him  only  ruler  of  the  small  king- 
Ezion-Gaber.  Bound  this  gulf  stretched  the  dom  of  Macedon,  Alexander  having,  in  the 
scriptural  '  Land  of  Midian ; '  and  on  its  year  331,  A.C.  vanquished  Darius  Codoman- 
eastem  shore,  the  ancient  city  of  Midian  nus,  near  Arbela,  put  an  end  to  the  Per- 
preserves,  to  this  day,  the  record  of  its  origin  sian  monarchy,  and  became  master  of  the 
iu  its  name.  The  ancient  Midianites,  or  the  eastern,  as  he  was  already  master  of  the  west- 
tribes  descending  from  the  children  of  Ketu-  em  world  (1  Maccab.  i.  1 — 8;  vi  2).  His 
rah,  lay  intermingled  with  the  kindred  tribes  ambitious  disposition  showed  itself  at  an 
of  the  Ishmaelites  and  Amalekites,  from  the  early  period  of  life.  Philip's  victories  trou- 
borders  of  the  land  of  Moab,  to  the  countiy  bled  his  mind,  and  he  exclaimed —  <  My  fa- 
round  the  eastern  head  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  ther  will  leave  me  nothing  to  do '  His  chief 
The  Gulf  of  Akabah  is  dangerous,  owing  to  instmcter  was  the  celebrated  phaosopher 
Its  shoals  and  its  coral  rocks;  while  that  of  AristoUe,  who,  having  removed  his  pupil 


ALE                       41  ALE 

from  the  court,  condacted  him  throngh  «  of  which,  bttbtrha  aa  he  was  hy  eztmetioii, 
general  coarse  of  instmction,  and  gare  him  he  had  eome  to  be  the  acknowledged  patron 
special  lessons  in  the  art  of  goTemment,  on  and  repreaentatiTe.  But,  while  he  did  what 
which  he  wrote  a  treatise  (which  is  lost)  tor  the  in  him  lay  to  sow  the  East  with  seeds  grown 
use  and  benefit  of  the  young  prince.  Unhap-  on  Western  lands,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  adopt 
pily,  Aristotle  thought  it  his  duty  to  enooorage  so  much  of  Eastern  manners  and  usages  as 
martial  feelings  in  Alexander,  and,  Ibr  this  ml|^t  neommend  him  and  his  goTenunent 
purpose,  directed  his  pupil's  attention  to  the  to  the  afliMtions  of  his  oriental  subjects. 
Iliad  of  Homer,  which  became  the  young  Indeed  he  oonoei?ed,  and  tried  to  carry  into 
nan's  fsTourite  book,  and  in  which  he  used  elbet,  the  Tast  idea  of  a  uniTersal  monanfayy 
to  read  some  pages  every  night,  before  retiring  of  which  Babyion  was  to  be  the  great  ciqpitd. 
to  rest  His  father  also  employed  his  inihienoe  The  oonoeption  was  not  reslised,  for  the  ele- 
for  the  same  purpose.  When,  at  the  battle  ments  were  too  heterogeneous  to  ooslesce; 
of  Chieronea  (838,  A.C.),  Alexander  had  per-  but,  while  he  foiled  in  this  intention,  he  was 
formed  prodigies  of  Yslour,  '  Seek,  my  son,'  indirectly,  at  least,  the  means  of  diifriBing 
said  Philip,  in  embracing  him, '  seek  another  abroad  the  germs  of  a  higher  and  wider  cul* 
kingdom ;  for  that  which  I  leave  you  is  too  tore  than  had  prevailed.  In  regard  to  geo- 
small  for  so  brave  a  prince.'  Having  saved  graphy,  the  rwult  of  his  victories  was  yerj 
his  father's  life  in  battle,  he  ascended  Ae  distinguished.  By  his  anna  he  laid  the 
throne  on  flie  assassination  of  FhiUp,  in  the  world  open;  new  countries,  new  mountains, 
year  336,  when  not  quite  twenty  yeara  of  age.  new  rivers,  new  continents  snd  seas,  were 
He  found  war  with  Persia  left  him  by  his  made  known ;  and  never  at  any  period,  ex- 
father  ;  but,  before  he  entered  on  it,  he  sub-  cept  on  the  discovery  of  America,  was  tiiere 
dued  the  enemies  of  his  house  in  Greece,  tiie  same  excitement,  and  the  aame  amount  of 
and,  in  particular,  punished,  with  the  greatest  discovery  regarding  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
severity,  the  Thebans,  who,  on  the  death  of  While  taldng  from  the  hand  of  Philippns 
Philip,  had  asserted  their  liberty;  he  rased  his  physieisn,  a  draught  of  medicine,  he  re- 
their  city  to  the  ground,  sparing  only  the  oeived  a  letter  ttom  his  friend  Parmenio, 
house  of  the  poet  Pindar,  slew  six  thousand  stating  that  Philippus  had  been  bribed  by 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  sold  thirty  thousand  Darius  to  poison  him.  He  handed  the  letter  to 
of  them  into  slavery.  Having  thus  diffused  his  physician,  and  at  the  same  moment  swal* 
terror  among  the  Greeks,  he  set  out,  with  an  lowed  the  potion.  At  Persepolis  his  renown 
army  of  th^-five  thoussnd  men,  for  the  came  to  a  tormination.  Master  of  the  entire 
conquest  of  tiie  world.  In  this  expedition,  world,  he  was  a  slave  to  his  paasions ;  snd* 
after  having  taken  Damascus,  he  made  him-  giving  himself  up  to  all  msnner  of  vicious  in- 
self  master  of  the  cities  which  lay  along  the  dulgencies,  he  became  moiose,  passionate, 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Tyre  ventured  to  wlth<*  and  depraved.  Persepolis,  that  wonder  of 
stand  him,  but  was,  after  extreme  difficidty,  the  world,  was  laid  in  ashes  by  him  in  a 
overcome  in  seven  months.  He  then  mareheid  drunken  fit  Vexed  with  himself,  he  set  out^ 
victoriously  throuc^  Palestine,  in  u^ch  all  gained  new  victories,  overran  many  lands, 
the  cities,  as  far  as  Gaza,  yielded  to  lus  passed  the  Indus,  and  was  pressing  on  to 
power.  Egypt,  weary  of  the  yoke  of  Persia,  the  Ganges,  vdien  a  general  dissatisfiftction 
received  him  as  a  liberator.  In  order  to  in  his  army,  which  had  already  displayed 
strengtiien  his  power,  he  restored  the  ancient  itself  in  two  conspiracies,  put  a  stop  to  his 
religion,  and  founded  Alexandria,  which  be-  mad  and  destructive  career.  He  was  com- 
csme  a  very  famous  and  influential  city,  pdled  to  return  to  Babylon,  on  his  way  to 
When  he  came  to  Oordium,  in  Phrygia,  he  which  he  lost  a  laige  portion  of  his  troops 
found,  and  cut  with  his  sword,  tiie  famous  in  the  deserts,  and  had  difficulty  to  maintain 
knot,  whosoever  undid  which  was  to  become  any  discipline.  In  this  city,  while  engaged 
master  of  the  world.  Bathing  in  the  river  with  thoughts  of  new  conquests,  he  suddenly 
Cydnus,  he  fell  ill,  ^en  he  acted  in  a  man-  died  after  a  carousid,  in  the  thirty-second  year 
ner  which  showed  that  he  had  good  qualities  of  his  age.  EQs  body  was  placed  in  a  golden 
of  character.  coffin,  and  conveyed  to  Alexandria.  Divine 
Being  firmly  oonvinoed  that  war  is  anti-  honours  were  paid  to  him  in  several  parts 
christian  in  spirit,  tendency,  and  aim,  we  of  the  world.  His  sarcophagus  has  been  in 
can  regard  the  character  of  Alexander  gene-  the  British  Museum  since  ISOH.  The  writer 
rally,  with  no  other  feelings  than  those  of  of  the  Maccabees  statea,  that  1»  divided  his 
stem  dislike  snd  unqualified  pity.  Tet  we  kingdom  among  his  generals  on  his  death- 
allow  that  there  are  features  in  his  character  bed— an  account  which  is  not  without  sup- 
which  take  him  out  of  the  herd  of  ordi-  port  tnm  Oriental  authors ;  but  the  Greek 
naiy  warriors.  A  scholar  as  well  as  a  soldier,  writers  say,  that,  when  asked  to  whom  he  left 
he,  with  no  smsll  success,  made  the  ftirther-  his  kingdom,  he  merely  answered,  '  To  the 
once  of  civilisation  one  great  aim  of  his  m9St  worthy.' 

life.    In  this  laudable  pursuit,  he  could  do  We  have  kept  for  a  distinct  notice  one  fact 

nothing  better  than  spread  the  influence  in  Alexander's  life,  because,  as  specially  ex- 

of  those  Hellenic  institutions  and  mamiers,  hibiting  ^e  spirit  of  Heathenism  on  a  most 


ALE                     42  ALB 

importaat  point,  and  aiding  to  iDnstnite  parts  ejea.'    Nor  is  it  a  little  lemailttble,  tliat  tha 

of  the  book  of  Da&iei,  h  aaami  to  mant  odental  name  Ibr  Alexander  lain  atrietkeep- 

apeeial  attention.  ing  with  theae  ejmhola  — '  the  homed  one.' 

While  in  Egypt,  Alexander  waa  indnead  to  On  the  Macedonian  ooina,  too,  we  see  homa 

pay  a  viait  to  the  onude  of  Jiqpiter  Aminoii,  —homa  of  Amnion  and  €i  goata— on  tha 

'  whcm/  says  hia  biographer  Q.  Cvftina, '  ha^  beada  of  the  kings, 

not  oontent  with  the  heic^t  of  mortal  pomp^  Joaephna  (An&q.  xL  8. 4)  has  ghent  with 

either  believed  himself,  or  wiihed  othns  to  olher  partieolars   relating   to  Alezandei's 

beUsTe,  to  be  in  a  speeial  aenae  the  founder  pasaage  throogh  Palestme  into  Egypt,  an 

of  hia  funOy.'    Beaehing  the  temple  after  aeeonnty  not  nnmized  with  the  marreUona, 

ineredible  laboura  and  perQa,  he  was  dex-  of  the  meeting  of  that  monarch  with  the 

terooaly  sainted  by  the  oldest  priest  with  the  Jewish  high  prieat  Jaddna,  who,  dressed  in 

title  of  '  son/    '  I  reeeire,'  he  replied, '  and  bis  robes  of  ceremony,  and  attended  by  the 

aeknowledge  the  title.'    *  Bot, '  he  aaked  —  prieali  and  a  mnltitnde  of  citisens,  went  ont 

*does  my  difine  father  intend  me  to  poaseas  to  receive  tiie  oonqneror.  Alexander  ^ipears 

the  empire  (rf  the  whole  W(^d  f    The  priest  to  have  been  doirpty  impiessed  with  the 

with  a  ready  akill  in  adulation,  replied,  'Yes ;  venerable  appearanoe  of  the  aacred  eompany; 

thoa  wilt  be  the  ruler  of  all  uinda,  invincible  and,  having  sainted  the  high  priest,  and 

till  tbon  takest  diy  place  among  the  gods.*  adored  tha  nsme  of  Ood,  whidi  the  latter 

The  priests  reoeived  a  reward  worthy  of  a  bore  engraven  in  gold  on  his  mitre,  he  went 

king's  mnnUleenee.  Hiseonrtiershsdeani^t  vp  to  &e  temple,  and  offered  aaorifioe  to 

the  tone.    Being  permitted  by  Alexander  to  Ood,  aeoording  to  the  Mosaic  ritoal.    And 

eonsolt  the  orade,  they  limited  themselves  to  when  the  Book  of  Daniel   was  showed, 

the  inquiry  whether  Jupiter  bade  them  wor-  wherein  (he  prophet  declared  that  a  Greek 

ahip  their  king  with  divine  honoors.    The  should  destroy  the  empire  of  the  Persians, 

priest  snswered   in   the   affllrmative.     On  he  interpreted  the  passage  of  himself:  Ju- 

whieh  Alexander  not  only  permitted,  bnt  d«a  and  Syria  were  committed  by  him  to 

commanded  himeelf  to  be  called  JovisJUhimf  the  government  of  Andromachns ;  and,  when 

'aonof  Jttpiter.'  The  hiatorian well  adds,  that  he  had  been  slain  by  the  Samaritans,  to 

he  thos  midermined  the  fSune  of  his  deeds,  Memnon. 

while  he  wished  by  this  name  to  augment  it  IT.  There  is  slso  mention  of  sn  Alexander 

(Q.  Curt  iv.  7).  in  1  Maccx.  1.    This  person  was  somamed 

It  will  now  easily  be  seen,  that  Alexander  Bales,  and  was  a  repnted  son  of  Antiochns 

must  have  made  a  strong,  deep,  and  wide-  IV.,  Epiphanes.   In  the  year  162  (A.C.),be> 

spread  impression  on  the  men  of  his  day;  ing  supported  by  Ptolenueus  Philometor, 

and  this  impression,  combined  with  the  tacts  king  of  Egypt,  Attains,  king  of  Pergamus, 

on  which  it  was  bnUt,  serves  as  a  key  to  the  and  Ariarathes,  king  of  Cappadocia,  he  ap- 

explanation  of  parts  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  peered  as  an  opponent  of  the  Syrian  king. 

In  this  work,  the  kingdom  of  Alexander  is  Demetrius  Soter ;  formed  an  alliance  with 

act  forth  in  the  colosssl  figure  wbkh  Nebu-  Jonathan,  the  Maccabsan ;  and  ntteriy  van- 

ehadneszar  saw  in  his  dream,  represented  by  quished  Demetrins. 

legs  of  iron ;  while  the  divided  empire  of  his  m.  A  third  Alexsnder  is  mentioned  in 

IbUowers  is  said  to  be  described  under  the  Mark  xv.  81,  as  a  person  well  known,  who» 

image  of  feet,  part  of  iron  and  part  of  clay;  together  widn  Bufhs,  was  a  son  of  Simon 

slso  aa  the  fourdi  kingdom,  atrong  as  iron  the  Cyrenian,  that  was  compelled  to  bear  the 

(Dan.iL  88,40).  The  comparison  of  Alexan*  Bedeemer'a  cross. 

der's  power  to  '  iron  which  breaketh  in  pieces,  IV.  Afourth  Alexsnder  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
and  subdueth  all  tUngs,'  is  very  appropriate,  ture  was  a  member  of  the  Jewish  Sanhedrim, 
In  the  seventh  verse  of  chapter  seventh,  Alex-  and  of  the  kindred  of  the  hi|[^  priest ;  being 
ander  is  figured  as  <  a  fourth  beast,  dreadftil  one  of  those  who  celled  John  and  Peter  to 
end  terrible,  snd  strong  exceedingly;  and  it  account  for  the  miracle  they  had  performed 
had  great  iron  teeth :  it  devoured  and  brake  on  the  lame  man  (Acts  iiL  snd  iv.). 
in  pieces,  and  stamped  the  residue  with  its  V.  A  filth  of  this  name  is  spoken  of  in 
feet ;  and  it  had  ten  horns.'  These  ten  Acts  xix.  88,  in  connection  with  the  uproar 
horns  are  an  oriental  symbol  of  power,  -—  in  raised  by  Demetrius  at  Ephesus. 
particular,  of  destructive  power;  the  horn  VI.  There  is  also  Alexander  the  copper- 
being  tlie  instrument  by  which  the  ram  smith,  who  did  Paul  much  evU  (2  Tim. 
makes  his  assaults  and  defmee.  Aa  an  em-  It.  14),  and  is  probably  the  same  aa  Alex- 
blem  of  power,  it  also  betokens  pride  and  ander,  whom,  together  with  Hymenaeus,  Paul 
haughtiness ;  and  the  number  tm  is  intended  dedarea  that  he  had  <  delivered  unto  Satan, 
to  Increase  the  impreasion.  Agafai,  in  viU.  that  they  may  learn  not  to  blaspheme' 
•lui  .*""**"'  "^^  •  simflar  manner,  is  (1  Tim.  i  20) ;  by  lAdch  is  to  be  under- 
evliimtea  as 'a  he-goat,' whieh  <  came  finom  stood,  that  Alexander,  having  put  away 
Uiii  went,  on  the  feoe  of  the  whole  earth,'  —  conscience  concerning  feith,  had  made  ship- 
the  n>uffh  gnat  in  the  king  of  Qrweia,'  wisck,  and  was  expeUed  ftom  the  Ghristiioi 
With  *  the  grsfti  horn  that  Is  botwoea  his  oonmwatj.    Oomp,  1  Cor.  v.  8,  teq. 


ALE  43  ALE 

ALEXANDBIA,  now  caUad  Setmdirkh  a  moitHlaafalo  of  KahoouMd  Alf •  inproffe- 
renowned  city  in  Lower  Egypt,  Imilt  by  and  menu,  hat  watered  lo  AW«»^rift  lin  loat 
named  alter  Alexander  the  Qreat,  in  the  year  intereonrae,  not  only  witti  Cairo  and  Upper 
881,  ttfter  1^  conqoeat  of  Egypt;  or  rather  Egypt,  hot  with  AraUa  and  India.  Alesan- 
Alexander  rebuilt  on  alarger  aoale  an  ancient  dria  ia  aormiuided  by  a  high  waO,  the  weak 
city  which  bore  the  name  of  Bhacotia.  The  of  the  BanMena,bidlt  about  aiz  hundred  yean 
place  had  many  aplendid  palaoea  and  other  ago.  The  preacnt  eity  oeenpiea  a  amidl  part 
works,  in  which  all  the  |^ory  of  Greek  and  only  of  the  anciant,the  mine  of  whioh  extend 
Egyptian  art  waa  displayed.  Its  aitoatian  to  a  great  distance  aonth  and  east  of  the 
was  admirably  adi^ted  for  the  enoonrage-  modem  town.  Of  all  the  splendid  moon- 
ment  of  navigation  and  eonmkeroe,  to  which  ments  whkh  adorned  the  plaiDe  of  dd,  onj^ 
ia  the  main  it  owed  its  greatness.  At  the  two  of  considerable  importance  remain.  Pan- 
same  time,  the  ealnbrity  of  its  dimate  was  pey's  PiUsr,  and  CleqMtra'a  Heedle.  The 
not  without  effect;  and  of  apeoial  influence  in  ehaft  of  the  first  consists  of  a  single  piece  of 
ftirtheiing  its  proeperity,  was  the  fisTour  of  led  granite,  sefenty-three  feet  in  length,  by 
its  poweiftd  founder  and  patron.  Ita  riae  twenty-aeven  feet  ei|^t  inches  in  oireom- 
was  as  rspid  as  it wss  distinguished.  Under  feienee;  the  entireheigfat»  inelndTe  of  pedea- 
the  immediate  foUowen  of  Alexander,  iu  free  tal  and  capital,  is  ninety-ei|^t  feet  nine 
population  amounted  to  three  hundred  thou*  inehea.  It  ought  lo  be  called  Diodetianfa 
sand  souls;  among  whom  were  many  Jews,  Pillsr,  hac?ing  been  reared  in  honour  of  that 
aome  families  who  dated  their  setUement  empefor.  Cleopstra'a  Needle  is  an  obelisk 
there  from  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  the  covered  with  hieroglyphica,  of  the  aame 
Jewish  Btale,  but  moat  planted  in  the  place  speciee  of  ted  granite  with  that  of  Pompey'a 
by  Ptolemy  Lagus,  about  the  year  820,  A.G.  Pillar;  and,  doubtleoa,  from  the  eame  quarry 
The  Jews  in  Alexandria  eigoyed  many  privi-  at  Syene  in  Upper  Egypt  This  monument  is 
leges  granted  to  them  by  Alexander,  the  ascribed  to  the  Egyptian  king  Thotbmea  ni. 
Ptolemies,  and  the  Bomans.  They  had  equal  who  reigned  B.  C.  1485.  Another  obelisk 
rights  with  the  Greek  and  Egyptian  inhabi-  of  the  same  dimenaiona  lies  upon  the  ground, 
tanta,  while  they  were  under  ^eir  own  code  not  fer  from  Pompey'a  Pillar,  of  which  the 
cf  laws,  were  goremed  by  their  own  governor,  length  is  sixty-two  feet  BoA  are  monolitha 
and  inhabited  a  part  of  (he  city  peculiar  to  (consisting  of  only  one  stone),  and  stood 
themselves  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xiv.  7. 2 ;  xiv.  10«  of  old  at  the  entrance  of  a  magnificent 
1 ;  xix.  &.  2.  Jew.  War,  ii  18. 7.  Apion.  ii.  4.  temple. 

Alexandria  remained  for  centniies  the  most  In  the  Holy  Scriptures,  Alexsndria  is  only 
distinguished  commercial  city  in  the  world,  incidentally  mentioned  as  the  birth-place  of 
where  was  heaped  together  the  collected  tiea-  Apollos,  eloquent  and  mighty  in  the  Scrip* 
sure  of  Arabia  and  India.  Under  the  Ptole-  tores  (Acts  xviii.  24),  and  as  being  a  seaport 
mica,  it  was  the  nurse  of  all  the  varied  and  The  centurion  who  had  the  euatody  of  Paul, 
mingled  culture  of  the  Greek  and  Jewish  art  when  on  hia  voyage  to  Bome,  having  brou^^t 
and  religion.  It  possessed  the  most  com*  his  prisoner  to  Myra,  a  city  of  Lyda  in  AsiA 
plete  and  eoatly  lfl»ary  of  the  ancient  world,  Minor,foimd  here  a  ship  of  Alexandria,  sailing 
which  was  placed  in  the  Sen^sDum,  and  into  Italy,  on  board  of  which  he  went  with 
amounted  to  200,000  volumea.  It  perished  his  prisoners  (Acts  xxvii  6);  and,  agam, 
at  a  later  period.  The  Arab  Calif  Omar,  when  this  vessel  had  suffered  shipwreck  on 
A.D.  641,  is  accused  of  having  intentLonally  the  island  of  Malta,  it  was  in  a  ship  of  Alex- 
destroyed  it  andria  that  they  pursued  their  way  (Acts 

The  present  dty  of  Alexandria,  containing  xxviii  11).     This  mention  of  a  ship  of 

forty  thousand  inhabitants,  exclusive  of  the  Alexandria  is  in  keeping  with  what  we  have 

army  and  navy,  ia  built  chiefly  on  a  rock  of  already  aaid  of  the  citj.    A  great  trade  in 

land  extending  into  the  aea  to  the  peninsula,  com  was  csrried  on  in  Alexsndrian  veaads, 

or  long  bank  of  aand,  that  liea  nearly  parallel  which  aailed  Ibr  commercial  purposes  to  dif- 

wlth  Ac  shore.    TIm  celebrated  Phiaroa  of  ferent  ports  around  the  Mediterranean  coaat, 

the  Ptolemlea  waa  aituated  near  the  eastern  and  would  naturally  be  need  also  aa  pas* 

termination  of  this  peninsula.     Alexandrin  aage  boata  generally,  and  by  the  centurion 

engrosses  neariy  the  whole  fbrexgn  commerce  and  his  prisoners  (Lucisn,  Navig.  14.  Acta 

of  Egypt    It  has  risen  rapidly  into  impor-  xxvii  87.  Philo,  ii  ft21).    With  fevourable 

tance  under  the  renovating  geniua  of  Mo-  winds,  they  sailed  in  •  atrai^^t  course  di- 

hammed  AIL    Forty  years  ago  it  was  in  ruins,  rectly  to  Itsly  in  a  few  daya;  but,  when  the 

without  wealth  or  trade.    From  being  next  to  wind  was  adverse,  they  sought  &e  shdter  of 

Bome,  the  most  magnificent  dty  in  the  worid,  the  Syrian  and  Asiatic  coaats.    Their  proper 

as  it  waa  under  the  emperors,  and  even  to  the  port  and  landing  place  was  Pnteoli  (Suet 

time  of  its  felling  under  the  dominion  of  Ang.  98.  Strabo,  xviL  Acta  xxviii  18). 
the  Saracena,  it  had,  by  the  beginning  of  the        Christisnity  msde  its  way  into  Alexandrin 

present  century,  declhied  into  a  wretched  at  an  early  period;  and,  according  to  Ense- 

Arab  village  of  aeven  or  eight  flionsand  in-  bins  (Hist  ii  17),  it  owed  its  establlahment 

The  canal  of  Mahmondieh,  the  there  to  Mark,  who  ia  said  to  have  d«p/l  in 


A  L I  44  ALL 

the  city  for  Oie  fUth  of  Christ    CerUinlj,         In  the  mysterious  ftirangements  of  PtotI- 

his  gnve  wae  ehown  there  In  a  chnrefa  dedi-  denoe,  it  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  Hebrews  to 

oated  to  him.  become    etrangera    in   every  nation   under 

ALIENS  (L.  helongmg  to  imolher  (coiw  heaven,  where  they  experienced  at  the  hands 

Iry).  The  conrespondingword  in  Greek  is  often  of  so-called  Christttn  legislatures  very  dif* 

lendeted  *  stranger^'  — '  in  a  strange  land*'  ferent  treatment  from  that  which  their  laws 

*  other  men's  (laboors)/    A  similar  tenn  is  required  towards  men  of  other  nations.  The 

translated  (Acts  z.  28),  '  one  of  another  na-  Mosaie  institutions  are  often  judged  no  less 

tion.'    There  are  two  words  in  Hebrew  iHiioh  mgustly  than  harshly.    A  careftil  study  of 

Lave  the  same  import.  thm  would  often  prevent  that  condemnation 

At  first  sight,  &e  Mosaie  polity  seems  to  frtiidi  it  should  always  precede, 
have  a  harsh  besring  on  forsign  nations,  ALLEOOBT  (O.  Mpeakmg  one  thin^  by 
inasmuch  ss  the  Israelites  were  a  peculiar  mutther)  is  a  Greek  word,  in  English  letters, 
people,  possessed  of  hi|^  snd  ezduaive  re-  and  denotes  a  figure  of  q^ech,  which  con- 
ligious  privileges,  and  were  baned  finm  social  veys,  under  the  literal  meaning,  another  and 
intercourse  with  men  of  other  nations.  Be-  a  difoent  import,  — sometimes  a  moral  or 
gard,  however,  must  be  had  to  the  universally  spiritual  truth,  in  a  material  dress.  It  differs 
prevailing  idolatiy,  against  the  seduetions  of  fhom  a  meti^hor  in  this,  Aat,  while  a  metar 
which  nothing  but  the  most  rigid  exclusion  phor  is  confined  to  one  object,  an  allegory 
could  guard  the  children  of  fisithftilAbrsliam;  comprises  a  aeries  of  olgects.  An  allegory 
and  to  the  great  aim  and  end  of  the  system,  is  a  continned  meti^hor.  To  describe  the 
in  the  eventual  spread  of  a  monotheism,  sun  as '  the  poweiftil  king  of  day,'  is  to  em- 
which,  under  the  sdministration  of  a  Father,  ploy  a  meti^hor.  If  we  cany  out  the  meta- 
tfaroogh  the  inatrumentality  of  his  Son,  should  phor,  and  represent  that  king  ss  ruling 
make  the  worid  one  iiudly,  every  wsll  of  supreme  in  heaven  and  earth,  dispensing  his 
partition  being  broken  down.  Nor,  since  the  favours  impartiaUy  to  all  his  subjects,  and 
purest,  the  widest,  and  the  most  self-denying  receiving  their  homsge  without  respect  of 
benevolence  that  ever  rose  upon  the  world,  persons,  we  form  an  allegory.  In  tibe  ele- 
was  developed  and  perfected  under  Judaism,  rated  language  of  Hebrew  poetry,  allegories 
can  it  be  denied  that  the  institutions  of  ars  not  uncommon.  There  is  a  brief  but 
Moses  must  have  held  germs  of  philan-  expressive  one  in  Jer.  IL  21 :  —  *  I  plsnted 
thropy  such  as  no  heathen  philosophy  ever  thee  (Israel),  a  noble  vine,  wholly  a  right 
owned ;  nor  do  there  faQ  indications  in  die  seed :  how,  then,  art  thou  turned  into  the  de- 
higher  producticms  of  the  muse  of  Zion,  generate  plant  of  a  strange  vine  unto  me?' 
which  brealfae  an  enlarged  and  liberal  spirit  (see  ver.  24).  A  parable  is  a  species  of  alle- 
towards  foreigners.  With  the  single  excep-  gory ;  Ibr  instance,  that  of  the  prod^  son. 
tion  of  the  safeguards  taken  against  the  Though  allegories  are  found  in  many  parte 
abominations  of  idolatry,  the  Mosaic  legida-  of  Scripture,  the  word  iteelf  occurs  only 
tion  manifeste  a  humane  disposition  in  re-  once,  in  Gal.  iv.  24,  and  dien  in  the  form  of 
lation  to  those  who  were  not  of  the  Hebrew  a  psrticiple  —  *  which  things  are  an  allegory' 
blood.  A  stranger  mi^t  be  naturalised,  and  — in  the  originsl,  'which  things  are  aUe- 
then  possessed  equal  righte  with  an  Israelite  gorical ;'  that  is,  have  an  allegorical  meaning, 
(Exod.  xlL  49).  The  stranger  waa  to  ei^oy  may  teach  a  higher  truth.  The  apostle  is 
the  immunities  of  the  Sabbath  CExod.  xx.  10;  speaking  of  two  sons  of  Abraham ;  one,  Ish- 
zxiii  12).  'Thoushalt  neither  vex  a  strsn-  mael,  by  Hagar,  a  bondwomen;  the  other, 
ger,  nor  oppress  him ;  for  ye  were  strangers  Isaac,  by  Sarsh  his  wife.  Hagar,  in  Arabic 
in  the  land  of  Egypt '  (Exod.  xxiL  21).  The  (probably  provincial  usage),  signifies  a  rock, 
struiger  had  a  share  in  the  gleaning  of  the  snd  is  the  popular  name,  to  the  present  day, 
land  (Lev.  xix.  9, 10;  xxiii.  22).  An  expnss  for  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  on  which  the  law 
command  djoined  good  feelings  towsrds  was  given,  and  which  may  therefore  be  con- 
strangers,  snd  for  a  very  suflicient  snd  in-  sideredasarapresentativeof  Judaism.  Isaao 
flnential  reason  :  —  <  Love  ye,  therefore,  the  was  the  chUd  of  promise,  and  the  son  of  a 
stranger ;  for  ye  were  strangers  in  the  lend  of  free  women,  and  may  accordingly  stand  for 
Egypt' (Deutx.  19).  Impartial  justice  was  Christianity.  '.These  are  the  two  covenanto 
demanded  on  their  behalf  (Dent  xxjv.  17).  —Jerusalem  in  bondage  with  her  children; 
A  share  m  Oie  tithes  of  increase  was  assured  and  Jerusalem  which  is  above  is  free,  which 
to  them  (Dent  xxvL  12).  It  was  an  ag-  is  the  mother  of  ns  aU.'  Christians  belong 
gravation  of  crime  to  slay  the  stranger,  the  to  the  latter;  are  deacendante  of  Isaac,  the 
widow,  the  fatherless  (Ps.  xciv.  6).  These  free  child  of  promise ;  —  Jews  belong  to  the 
mree  classes  are  set  forth  as  special  objeete  former;  are  descendante  of  Ishmael,  the  son 
?i^  .K  "^  "^^  ^^"^  "^J*^  ®>-  To  abstain  of  a  bondwoman.  The  bondwoman  and  her 
from  the  oppression  of  the  stranger,  is  repre-  son  were  cast  out  The  children  of  the  fitse 
Ma,  ^?f  *A  X  r  '  ^•^  religious  refonn  women  remain  in  perpetual  possession,  and 
aIiJJ^j^'       *    *^°"^8n  punishment  is  ought  therefore  to  stand  fast  in  the  liberty 

ger  of  his  nghte  (MaL  m.  5).  not  be  brought  again  under  the  yoke  of 


A  L  M  45  A  L  M 

iMmdase  to  carnal  ordinaneea,  to  which  the  flowera  Teiy  eaily  in  the  year;  flrst  of  all, 

Jews  who  sprang  from  Hagar  (Sinai^  are^  in  January;  a  statement  which  Shaw  con- 

and  as  snob  must  be,  liable  (oomp.  Oen.  xzi).  firms,  declaring  that  it  bears  frnit  in  Barbary 

ALLELUJAH  (H*  praiMe  ye  Jekooah),  a  before  any  other  tree.    Binoe  its  flowers  were 

Hebrew  word  in  English  letters,  derired  to  of  a  white  colour,  so  is  the  almond-tree  need 

OS  throngh  the  Greek.    It  is  found  in  this  (Ecdes.  zii.  9)  as  an  image  of  *  the  hoary 

form  only  in  Ber.  six.  1,  8, 4,  and  6 ;  bat  it  head '  of  declining  years.    As  the  flowers,  so 

occurs  in  its  original  elements  in  sereral  also  the  gracefta  fhdt  of  the  tree,  serred  for 

psalms  <*-  as  Ps.  ccdTiii.  cxlix.  and  cL ;  each  sacred  purposes ;  for  the  bowls  of  the  golden 

of  which  it  begins  and  terminates.     The  candlestick  were  made  to  resemUe  it  (Exod. 

term  consists  of  two  Hebrew  words,  *  praise  zzv.  88).    The  genns  Amygdahu  compre- 

ye,'  and  *  Jehovah,'  which  may  have  coalesced  hends  the  ahnond,  the  peach,  and  the  neo- 

together,  at  an  early  period,  in  the  sablime  tarine.    The  almond  is  anattre  of  Barbary. 

anthems  of  the  temple ;  so  that  a  sacred  In  this  oonntry  it  is  cnltiTated  for  its  beaati* 

song  was  commenced  by  the  entire  choir  of  fhl  Temal  flowers;  but  in  hot  climates,  it  is 

musicians  and  singers,  bursting  forth  in  the  the  fruit  which  is  sought,  and  that  is  produced 

fine  vowel-sound  *  alleligah,'  with  which  also  in  iomiense  qfusntities.    It  is  strongly  aro- 

they  ended  their  performance.  matio,  and  in  Scripture  stands  with  other 

The   word  AUelujah  has,   in   itself,   no  odoriferous  herbs    (Geo.  zliii.  11).      The 

meaning  to  the  English  reader,  and  is  very  tree  which  in  Oen.  xzz.  87  is  tranalated  hazels 

imperfectly  rendered  by, '  praise  ye  Jehovah.'  probably  means  the  almond. 
It  is  derived  from  a  root  which  represents        ALMS.  —  This  word  is  an  abridged  form 

the  action  of  the  sun,  when,  suddenly  rising  of  a  Greek  one,  which  signifies  thawing  pity, 

above  the  horizon,  he  at  once  pours  forth  his  The  word  which  once   signified   mercifal 

radiance  in  fbll  floods  over  ^e  earth  and  feelings  towards  the  indigent,  has  now  de- 

akies.    A  term  varying  but  little  in  form  de-  generated  into  very  little  more  than  giving 

noted  the  joyous  festivities  of  harvest-home,  money  to  beggars.    This  should  be  borne  ic 

Hence  we  gather  some  idea  of  the  glad  and  mind  in  considering  passages  of  Scripture 

exhilarating  nature  of  the  temple-worship,  where  the  word  occurs.     The  Mosaic  law 

especially  when  we  call  to  mind  tiie  high  and  sought  to  prevent  the  existence  of  penury,  as 

jubilant  tones  of  music,  and  the  ftill,  deep^  a  permanent  condition :  but  Moses  seems  to 

and  echoing  chorus  of  human  voices,  which  have  contemplated  it  as  a  probable  event; 

rushed  or  gently  swam  forth,  in  celebration  of  and  his  directions  to  the  Israelites,  as  to 

the  goodness,  mercy,  and  truth  of  Jehovah.  their  conduct  under  such  circumstances,  are 

ALMODAD  (H.  wmNeanini^Ze),  a  son  of  frill  of  benevolence.     For  Instance   (Lev. 

Joktan,  and  descendant  of  Sham,  in  whose  xxv.  85),  he  says,  'And  if  thy  brother  be 

family  register  he  stands  in  coi^unction  with  waxen  poor,  and  fUlen  into  decay  with  thee, 

his  brothers  (Gen.  x.  26—29).    From  the  then  shalt  thou  relieve  him.'     The  same 

days  of  Bochart,  the  name  has  been  recog«  spirit  is  seen  in  many  other  passages  of 

nised  in  the  Arabian  tribe,  AUovHmmoUUj  the  Mosaic  law:  see  Deut  xv.  7,  weq.    These 

mentioned  by  the  ancient  geographer,  Pto-  regulations,  though  so  favouraUe  to  the  poor, 

lemy.     This  tribe  belong^  to  the  larger  were  not  entirely  effectual  in  preventing  beg- 

tribe,  named  Joktanidie,  ttom  Joktan,  the  ging,  as  we  find  from  Ps.  oix.  10.    Begging 

father  of  Ahnodad.     Their  dwelling-place  naturally  led  to  alms-giving ;  and,  that  this 

waa  in  Arabia  Felix.    In  comparison  with  was  common  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  we 

some  among  his  brethren,  the  name  of  Al.  see  from  many  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 

modad  is  obscure :  few,  if  any,  direct  vestiges  ment  (Mark  x.  46.  Acts  iii.  2).    We  cannot 

of  this  first-bom  of  Joktan,  or  his  descen-  better  illustrate  the  general  spirit  of  the 

dants,  are  met  with  in  the  native  history  or  gospel,  in  this  particular,  than  by  referring 

tradition.  to  I  John  iii  1 7, — '  Whoso  hatii  the  world's 

ALMOND  (Amygdaku  comiHiMilf ).  — » The  good,  snd  seeth  hia  brother  have  need,  and 

Hebrew  signifies  to  be  early ^  to  he  mtentt  *o  shutteth  up  his  bowels  of  compassion  against 

watch^  to  hasten:  hence  the  figurative  uses  him,  how  dwelleth  the  love  of  €K>d  in  him  V 

of  the  word,  which  is  employed  to  denote  the  Tet  it  must  not  be  inferred  from  this,  and 

instant  punishment  of  Providence  on  evU-  eimilar  passages,  that  a  religion,  one  of 

doers.    In  Jer.  L  11,  the  prophet,  on  being  whose  principles  is,   *  that  if  any  would 

asked  'What  seest  thonf  answers,  *I  see  not  work,  neither  should  he  eat'  (2  Theas. 

a  rod  of  an  almond-tree:'  on  which  Jehovah  iii  10),  gives  any  encouragement  to  indis- 

replied,  *Thoa  haat  well  seen;  for  I  inll  criminate  alms-giving;   and   the  beantifiil 

hasten  (the  same  root  as  that  whence  oi-  reflections  of  our  Savknir  on  the  widow's 

mond)  my  word  to  perform  it'    The  rods  of  mite  inculcate  the  principle  that  men's  deeds 

the  chiefs  of  the  tribes  seem  to  have  been  are  to  be  measured  by  the  disposition  of 

made  of  this  tree,  thus  denoting  watchfbl  mind  that  prompte  them — which  mustto- 

care  and  speedy  retribution  (Numb.  xviL  tally  destroy  the  idea  that  our  merit  is  the 

6,  8).    The  tree  may  have  derived  ite  name  greater,  in  proportion  as  our  alms  are  na* 

firom  the  fsct  mentioned  by  Pliny,  that  it  merous  and  costly. 


ALP  46  ALT 

AIJfUO(H.)— Almxig-ti««iii»ii»ntJoiied  penoos.  But,  in  tbe  Axmuio,  the  reMm- 
amang  die  articlee  whieh  the  lunry  of  Hiram  UtoBun  toyet  neanr,  the nord being  *B7n>  the 
broii^t  from  O^iir  (1  Kings  z.  llf  m?.)-     aoiind  of  whieh  msy  be  represented  in  Eng- 


Of  these,  it  is  said,  *  the  king  made  piUtts  to  Ugh  byHelphsi,  Alphai,  or  Ohlopai. 
the  house  of  the  Lord»  and  to  the  king's        a  different  Alphens,  father  of  Matthew 

boose,  harps  also  and  psalteries  to  smgers:  (Leri),  is  mentioned  in  Mark  ii  14. 
tiiete  esme  no  soeh  ahmig-trees*  nor  wen        ALTAB  (L.  mmethmg  Iqftjf),  sa  derated 

seen  onto  (his  dKj'    In  3  Chnm.  iL  8,  the  otjeet,  on  wfaidi  ofRnings  were  made  to  idols 

same  wood  (onlyealled  aigum)  is  mentioned  |n  the  Heatfien  world,  and  to  Ood  among 

as  being  proenrabie  from  Lebanon.     The  ^e  Hebrews.    The  ideas  inwlTed  in  altars 

Sefiptnres  ftunish  no  tether  information  g|«  oonneeted  with  inferior  religions  con- 

mspeeting  fliis  wood ;  bat  it  is  easj  to  learn  oeptions.    V^ien  it  was  Jndged  necessary  for 

Its  qnalities  from  the  porposes  to  whieh  it  men  to  make  of  tiieir  substance  offerings 

wasspplisd.   It  must,  too^hsTe  been  of  high  to  Ood,  these  offerings  would  at  first  be 

▼sine,  as  eonstitating  an  article  of  trade  be-  presented  in  die  hands,  and  tfien  laid  on  the 

tween  the  East  and  the  West;  whieh  tot  may  groond.    Bat  there  seemed  an  impropriety 

also  be  saftly  inferred  from  Solomon's  wish  in  piaoing  them  there,  where  they  wonld  be 

to  obtain  it,  the  speciflo  record  of  his  sno*  jn  the  midst  of  ordinary  and  nnholy  things, 

eess,  and  ^  vmb  to  which  he  tonied  it  ma  be  exposed  to  detriment  and  desecration. 

A  precMNis  snd  fragrant  wood,  known  by  An  elevation  of  some  kind,  either  natural  or 

names  closely  akin  to  the  algnm,  is  speoifted  artificial,  would  remove  the  difBculty,  and 

both  by  Arrian  and  Sir  William  Jones,  as  a  was  aoooidingly  adopted.     In  the  case  of 

stsple  srticle  of  importation  from  India  into  bamt-offetings,  some  raised  flat  object  was 

the  ports  of  Persia  and  Arabia.    The  eon-  still  more  desirable.    Natnral  elevations  were 

jeetore  HmX  the  simng  is  sandal-wood,  has  fint  used  for  offerings.    On  Moont  Moriah, 

aa  much  in  its  favovr  as  any  other  tree  tiiat  Abraham  prepared  to  offar  np  Isaac  (Oen. 

haa  been  soggMted.  ndi.  2,  0);  and  as  idolatry  was  early  prao- 

ALPHA  (G.);  Ae  first  lettsr  of  the  Greek  tised,  and  its  rites  were  accompanied  by 

alphabet     It  is  nsed  in  connection  with  feasting,  so  respect  for  hi(|^  places,  and 

oaM^— the  last  letter  of  the  Greek  alpha-  eating  on  the  moontains,  were  indications  of 

bet;  alpha  and  omega  ^rpropriately  denoting  being  given  to  idolatry  (2  Kings  sziiL  6. 

the  first  and  the  last  (Bev.  L  8;    xzL  6;  Esek.  zviii  6). 

zxii  13;  compu  Isa.  zlL  4;  zliv.  6) ;  as  the        The  Targomists  cany  back  the  vse  of 

Hebrews  and  me  Greeks  made  nse  of  the  let-  altars  to  the  days  of  Adam,  speaking  of  a 

ten  of  tfie  alphabet  for  niunerals.    In  the  fga^  gitar,  which  Adam  erected  after  his 

Implication  of  this  mode  of  reckoning,  esre  azpolsion  ttom  Paradise;  but  the  earilest 

most  be  taken  to  ascertain  what  in  each  on  record  is  thai  of  Noah,  which  he  bnilt 

ease  the  series  is  to  whieh  reference  is  made,  after  the  flood,  and  which  most  have  been  an 

aa  obviously  there  are  aa  many  firsts  and  erection  probably  of  loose  unformed  stones, 

lasts,  as  there  are  series  of  ezistbig  dihigs.  Xhe  directions  given  to  Moses  in  the  wOder- 

ALPHEUS  (H.)  was  father  of  Jsmes  the  ness  (Exod.  zz.  24r-26)  are  very  ezpUcit 

Less  (Mstt  z.  8.  Mark  ilL  18.  Luke  vi  15.  Moses  was  to  erect  an  altar  of  earth,  or  if  of 

Acts  i.  18),  and  hnsband  of  Mary,  sister  tume,  not  of  hewn  stone,  such  as  idolators 

of  the  modier  of  Jesus  (Mark  zv.  40),  and  used:  unwiought  stone  seemed  most  suited, 

therefore  the  same  with  Cleophas;  in  the  too,  for  the  service  of  the  Creator.    *Ifthoa 

original,  KXMira,Klopa  (Jdhnziz.  25);  but  lift  up  thy  tool  npon  it,  thou  hast  polluted  it' 

probably  not  with  Cleopas,  mentioned  in  <  Neither  shalt  thou  go  up  by  steps  unto  mine 

Luke  zziv.  18.    As,  then,  Cleophas,  in  John  eltar,  that  thy  nakedness  be  not  discovered 

^  25.  is  s^d  to  be  the  hnsband  of  Mary,  theieon.*  Altars  were  erected,  and  names  given 

the  sister  of  Jesna^  mother;  and  in  Mark  to  them,  in  commemoration  of  important 

zv.  40,  Mary  is  said  to  be  mother  of  James  events  as  by  Abrahan  (Gen.  zxiL  8, 14);  by 

the  Less;  and  as  these  two  Marys  are  both  ja^ob  (Gen.  zzziii.  20);  by  Moses  (Exod, 

mentioned  as  being  at  the  cross,  on  the  cm-  ^L  15).    Altars  were  erected  to  God  or  to 

oifizionof  Jesus,— Cleophas  was  husband  of  idols.     Among  the  first  may  be  specified 

Mary,  the  anntof  our  Lord,  andfither  of  Jamea  those  elected  by  Abraham,  on  the  spot  whew 

the  Less.  But  Alpheus  wss  fiither  of  James  the  Qod  appeared  to  him  (Gen.  zii.  7),  on  Mount 

1^8 ;  therefore,  Cleophas  and  Alpheus  were  Bethel  (Gen.  zii.  8),  in  the  plain  of  Mamie 

Oie  same  persons.    In  truth,  Cleophas  and  (Ocn.  ziii.  18),  and  on  Moont  Month  (Gen. 

Alpheus  sre  the  same  word  written,  the  first  «iLO).    Others  may  be  found  m  Gen.  zixiii. 

according  to  the  Aramaic,  Ae  second  accord-  20.  Josh.  viil.  80.  1  Engs  iii.  4.    Of  the 

!?^*i,    *   •?'!!^'f^'?!l?****^    Alpheus,  accond  kind,  take  as  spechnens,  the  altar  of 

if  the  termmaticm  is  *^ /^T.  »»fon^es  Aaron,  dedicated  to  ttie  golden  calf  (Exod. 

Aiphe,  or  rather  Alph^(AX^;  and  Cleo^  ^x^^ij.  5^    ^f  Antiochus  (1  Maoc.  i.  59);  of 

^intheprigmalisKlopa.    Thus  stripped  Oie  Ath^;ians  to  the  mJmown  God  (Acte 

of  adventitious  letters,   they  must   sound  »-ii  qo\  ♦«  AmI  H^a^  -;  ok\    / 1 V^  ^      • 


ALT                      47  ALT 

SoDMdmes  a  simple  pflltt  stood  in  stosd  monotfielflt  Hewkiih,  wenl  so  Ikr  in  his 
of  sn  sltsr.  Thus  J«oob  (Oen.  szriiL  18)  time  (677»  A.C.)  m  to  build  sltsrs  for  sU  the 
took  the  stone  iiliich  he  hsd  need  st  Belliel,  hosts  of  heswn,  in  the  eonrts  of  the  hoose 
fiw  a  pilloWy  sad  set  it  up  I6r  a  pillsr,  snd  of  Jehovah  (3  Chion.  rcKiiL  0). 
pooled  ofl  upon  the  top  of  it  (zziL  18  The  altar  of  bumt-oifering  (often  tenaed 
and  40).  BntyVith  sn  obviously  i^mboliosl  merely  *iheaUar ')  deserves  speeisl  notioe.  It 
intent*  lloses»  in  frnnmemoTstion  of  having  was  alirame  of  8hittim-«ood,IUled  with  esrth, 
reeeived  instraetions  from  Jahotah  in  the  wil-  five  enbits  kmg,  snd  five  eabits  broad,  qiiad- 
deniess»  bcolded  sn  sltsr  mder  the  hill,  snd  langolsr;  ito  height  three  eabits.  At  each 
twelve  pillars,  aoeording  to  die  twelve  tribes  of  eomer  or  snglewasahommadeof  thessme 
Israel '  (Ezod.  sadv.  4),  on  iriiieh  bomt-olfer-  wood.  The  sltsr  was  overisid  with  brass.  This 
fngs  and  pesoe-oiferings  wore  straightway  stood  on  the  outside  of  the  ssnctoaiy,  in  the 
oftted.  The  shspe  in  whieh  these  pillsrs  were  fbreoomrt,  in  open  day.  On  it  were  offered 
siranged,wearemiabletodetumine;biitwe  all  bomt-oiSnings  of  dan^tered  snimals 
cannot  fidl  to  be  reminded  by  the  fiwt  of  the  (Exod.  zzvii  zxviiL).  When,  however,  the 
Dnddied  eiroles,  fomd  at  Stonehenge,  snd  national  worahip  had  resehed  its  higher  de« 
o&er  parts  of  England,  snd,  indeed,  in  other  velopment  in  itb  temple,  Solomon  built  a 
parts  of  the  wodd.  Inaviewof  aBniidiesl  mnoh  larger  altar,  one  of  brass  (a  brass 
temple  at  Aboiy,  in  Wiltahire^  as  restored  firsme  filled  with  esrth  or  stone),  twenty 
(Knighirs  <*  Old  Enc^and,**  eat  28),  the  inner  eabits  long,  twenty  brosd,  and  ten  high 
eirele  consists  of  twelve  stones,  with  one  (d  Chron.  iv.  1 ;  vL  18.  1  Kings  iz.  2&), 
standing  in  the  middle.  At  Silboiy  HOI,  in  whioh  wss  approved  of  God  by  fire  being 
the  same  oounty,  is  one  artifleial  momid,  sent  from  heaven,  sfter  a  prayer  of  Solomon, 
whieh  may  gite  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  to  eonsnme  the  sasrifioe  (2  Chron.  vii.  1). 
ereetions  of  esrth  that  served  ss  altars  in  It  stood  beibre  the  poreh  of  the  Lord,  in  the 
primitive  times.  The  hill  eovars  sbove  five  eoort,  thst  is,  in  ttoat  of  the  temple.  This 
aeies  of  giomid,  snd  is  entirely  srtifielsL  sltar  most  have  been  destroyed  or  desecrated 
la  view  of  these  hnge  monuments,  ordinary  by  idol-worship^  ss  it  was  renewed  or  re  con- 
altars  sink  into  insignifleanee ;  snd  we  must  seerated  by  Ung  Asa  (2  Ohron.  zv.  8).  Ahas, 
look  to  the  pyramids  and  temples  of  Egypt  having  seen  at  Damascus  a  splendid  sltar 
Itar  olgects  of  eompsrison.  whioh  pleased  him,  cansed  Urijsh  to  build 

The  altars  of  the  Heathen  were  sometimes  one  like  it^  on  which  the  monsrdi  sacrificed, 

imsdomed,  but  for  the  most  psrt  they  were  removing  the  old  braxen  altar  from  the  front 

highly  wrou(^t;  Oriental  altars,  with  the  to  the  north  side  of  the  temple.    The  new 

general  type  of  whieh  the  Hebrew  eocre*  was  deeiipiated  the  great  altar,  and  must 

spend,  were  square ;  while  those  of  Oreeee  snd  therefore  have  been  of  larger  dimenaions  than 

Bbme  were  often  round.    The  BabUns  say  the  one  whose  place  it  took.    On  the  great 

that  sn  altsr  which  is  not  square  is  not  sltar  the  customary  saerifiees  were  to  be 

legitimate.    Four  was  a  sacred  number.  made,  while  the  braien  altar  was  reserved 

Altars  were  erected  within  the  preeincta  fn  the  king  to  inquire  by. 

of  private  abodes,  liw  the  ofibring  of  domes-  This  altar  perished  in  die  ealsmitoas  events 

tic  worship,  partieulsrly  on  the  flat  roof  of  which  preceded  the  exile.    As  soon  as  the 

the  house  (2  Kings  zxiiL  12.   Jer.  xiz.  18.  Jews  bejgan  to  return  home,  they  proceeded 

Zeph.L5).    HiU  tope,  gardens,  groves,  snd  to  build  sn  altar  for  burnt-offerings  even 

the  shade  of  Isrge  treee,  were  favourite  before  the  temple  was  begun,  under  the 

places  for  idolatrous  altan  (I  Kings  siv.  28.  direction  of  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  iiL  2) ;  but  we 

a  Kings  zvL  4;  xviL  10;  zxiiL  0).     Feasto  are  ftimiahed with  no  description  of  ite  form 


were  held  nesr  them,  for  which  dishes  snd  or  sise.    It  was  desecrated  under  Antiochns 

meate  were  spresd,  and  of  iriiieh  there  were  Epiphanes-— l^  having  an  idol-altar,   and 

sometimes  offensive  remahis  (Iss.  zzviii.  8.  '  the  sbomination  of  desolation  *  set  upon  it, 

Jer.  zL  18).    They  genersQy  bore  the  sym-  when  similsr  erections  were  made  throngh- 

bol  and  the  name  of  the  God  to  whom  they  oatthedliesof  Judea  on  every  side  (1  Maoo. 

were  consecrated.  L  04):  when,  however,  the  city  was  shortly 

The  Mosaic  books  sllow  sn  altar  only  after  purified,  they  pulled  it  down  as  being 

hi  the  ssnetuary,  first  in  the  tabemade,  and  profiMied;  and  taUng  '  whole'  —  that  is,  on- 

sfterwsrds  in  the  temple  (Lev.  zvii.  9.  Dent  hewn— '  stonee  according  to  the  law,'  they 

xii.  18),  with  a  view,  doubtless,  to  discourage  built  a  new  altar  after  die  manner  of  the 

and  prevent  idolatrous  practices.     It  wss  former  (1  Msec  iv.  45,  seq.  2  Maoo.  z.  8). 

very  long,  however,  before  this  law  was  strictly  The  last  passsge  is  curious,  as  showing  ihe 

ob^ed;  indeed  not  untfi  monotheism  had  way  in  which  the  fire  was  kindled:  '  striking 

eompleted  ite  triumph.    Other  altars  were  stones,  they  todL  fire  out  of  them,  snd  offered 

erected  snd  honoured,  as  by  the  tribe  of  a  sacrifice  sfter  two  years.* 

Beuben  (Josh.  mdL  10);  by  Gideon  (Judg,  The  altar  of  burnt-offerings  which  stood 

vL  24):  by  larael  iteelf  (Judg.  zd.  4);  if  before  die  Herodian  temple  is  thus  described 

Samuel  (1  Sam.  vii.  17);  by  David  (2  Sam.  by  Josephus  (Jew.  Wsr,  v.  5.  0.  Antiq.  xv. 

xsiv.  25).    Msnasseh,  the  son  of  the  pious  11. 6.) :  — •  Before  this  temple  stood  the  altar, 


ALT  48  ALT 

Dfteeii  cubiu  high,  uid  tnjal  bolh  in  length  Tbli  fin  luted  till  tha  Aej»  of  Hinuuh, 
■nd  breadth;  each  dineniion  being  fiftj  who  alloned  it  lo  go  onL 
CDbiU.  ThefigureiCiiubtiiltinwu«qiur#;  Tha  dtai  of  inceiwe  na  of  Duller  di- 
ll had  coruera  like  honu,  and  the  ptasaga  mcnaioaB,  of  >hillim-»ood  oiarlaid  vilh 
np  to  it  wu  b;  a  gentle  acdiTl^.  It  wai  gold ;  it  stood  in  the  temple,  aod  aaned  Ibr 
formed  irjBiant  an  j  iron,  not  did  iron  at  anj  training  ineenae  on  in  divine  oorahip ;  wbmea 
time  toach  it.'  The  Hiaohna  girea  diflkireat  iU  name.  On  Iha  daj  of  atonement,  it  «aa 
dimeniiona  to  thia  alMr,  making  It  Ihirtj-two  aprinkled  with  blood.  In  Eiod.  zzx.  I — 3, 
enbiu  aqoare  at  the  base,  llie  alia  leiaenlng  a  fall  deaeriptiDn  of  Ihal  which  «a>  in  tha 
at  three  uneqnal  hel^to,  ontQ  al  the  top  it  Ubenaele  mar  '■*  ("un^  It*  position  was 
«aa  nrentj-toui  cnbtta  square.  There  wa>  before  the  mercj-seat,  and  the  incense  waa 
a  passage  for  the  priests  ranning  on  euA  to  be  perpetoall;  bomt.  It  slso  had  homi 
aide  a  cobio  each  way.  On  the  eoalh  aide  at  tha  oomen,  on  which  vaa  to  be  pnt  some 
«u  sa  Bsoent,  thirtj-tm  oubita  long  and  of  tha  blood  of  tha  ficlim  offered  u  apriesfe 
aiiteen  broad.  With  the  horn  or  ooruer  ou  ain-oSering.  The  '  allar  of  aweet  incense' 
the  south-west,  there  was  a  pipa  oonneeted,  iriiich  waa  foimd  in  (he  temple  of  Sdomon, 
through  whioh  rmn  the  Idood  of  the  vietinu  was  of  a  aimilar  make.  It  is  untj  cursorily 
into  Ihe  bnwk  Kedroa.  Then  waa  a  carit;  menlioiuid,  and  ixniaisled  of  cedar  overiaid 
imder  the  altar  which  reeeiTed  the  drink-  with  gold  (1  Kings  *L  30 ;  Tii.  16.  2  Cbnin. 
offerings,  oorcred  with   a  slab  of  marble,  xxii.  IB). 

Several  iron  ringa  wan  pat  on  the  north  That  iriueh  waa  in  die  temple,  boiit  on  iha 
aide  of  the  altar,  in  order  to  hold  die  oxen  ratam  from  Babylon,  waa  removed  bj  An- 
while  Ibej  were  alanghlerad.  Then  also  tioahn*  Epiphanea  (I  Hicc.  i.  31),  and  re- 
ran exactly  roond  the  middle  of  the  altar,  a  atoted,  with  odier  holy  utanaila,  when  the 
red  line,  to  disCingiiish  between  the  parti  tamfde  waa  oonaeeratsd  anew  (I  Hacc  if. 
where  the  blood  aboT*  or  below  die  altar  it).  No  altar  of  incense  ^pean  on  the 
waa  to  be  aprinkled.  arcji  of  Titna;  but  we  know  &«m  Jewish 
authoritisa  that  there  was  one  in  tha  last 

Altan  wen  held  in  so  great  respeet  among 
the  Jewe,  in  part  from  the  porpoees  to  which 
Iha;  wan  ifiplied,  in  part  from  the  place 
where  thay  stood,  and  the  asaociated  cii^ 
eomitanoea,  that,  at  a  lue  and  eotrupt  period 
tt  the  nation,  it  waa  niual  to  swear  by  them, 
or  by  the  oKringB  which  they  bora  (Matt. 
iziiL  IB).  Tha  altar  aervad  aa  a  place  of 
retkiga ;  aitd,  accordingly,  to  put  a  man  to 
death,  aa  in  the  caae  of  Zacharias,  who  per- 
ished between  die  altar  and  the  temple,  was 
great  impiety  aa  wall  aa  iqjnstioe. 

The  word  horn,  as  q^ilied  in  case  of 
allara,  is  not  to  be  strictly  aQderslood.  A 
prqjeetion  ronning  to  a  point  somewhat  after 

KO.W.  the  maniiar  of*  bom,  is  all  that  seams  to  be 

_ jf  burnt-olTeTTDgs     intended.    These  prcgeolioDa  wen  pardjfor 

waslobepeTpetaai(Eiad.ixTiL2n.  Lor.vi.  o^«*men^  and  partly  tor  (aslenittg  the  ani- 
13),  aymboli^g,  doabtleas,  tha  erer.dorliig  mala  intended  to  be  dain.  Aa  easily  laid  hold 
file  of  Ood,  which  was  Ihns  tmderatood  to  on,  they  also  served  aa  the  pointa  which 
coosDma  the  offering,  and  so  to  signiiy  that  Ihoae  who  soiight  asylum  near  Ihe  altar  were 
It  was  aeeepted  on  high.  Bimllar  Inetaneea  *o  aeiie.  For  an  account  of  these  rights  of 
may  be  toond  in  the  everlasting  fire  of  Ihe  aanctnary,  Donaall  the  follawing  passages 
Persians,  and  the  vestal  fire  o(  Roman  woi-  of  Scripture:  1  Kings  i  CM);  iL  28.  Exod. 
abip.  Thia  fin  was  oontinaed  from  that  xxi.  II.  I  Haec  x.  4S. 
which  is  related  to  hive  Ikllen  bom  hearcn  faol  tonnd  at  Alliens  an  altar  to  die  nn- 
(Lev.  Ii.  24),  and  of  wfaioh  many  atoriea  knownGod,of  which  he  made  admirable  use 
are  told.  In  2  Hacc.  L  19,  we  nad  how  in  hia  addtsss  (AcM  iviL).  Wedanotsea 
this  fin  which  hut  been  extinguiahed  by  that  the  worda  of  the  apoatla  need  any  con- 
the  captivity,  waa  disoovered  In  an  empty  firmation.  They  are  themselves  a  sufficient 
pit,  where  it  had  been  miraenlonalypreaened.  evidanaettf  the  fact.  Bnteztemalproof  ianot 
The  Babbins  assert  that  the  fin  kindied     wanting. 

originally  from  heaven  (Lev.  ii.),   burned  In  the  Haw  Testament,  and  in  tha  primi- 

tni  the  days  of  Sidomon,  when  a  new  &n  dva  ahurch,  there  an  no  altars  found,  aa 
affain  came  down  flom  heaven,  and  oon-  there  wan  no  sacrificea  to  offer;  and  the 
sumed  the  bnmt-offbring,  and  the  glory  of  eariy  Ohriatians,  suffering  under  conatant 
Jehovah  filled  the  honae  (3  Chron.  vii.  1).     pHraeculion,  put  up  their  worabip  in  oaves 


A  M  A                      49  A  M  A 

and  boles  of  the  rock.    When,  howerer,  the  fonnd,  when  the  Israelites  first  Attempted 

oiiginal  spiritaslity  of  worship  began  to  de-  to   enter  the   land   (Numb.  ziiL  29 ;   xir. 

eUne,  and  the  chnrch  was  first  at  ease  and  43).     They  are   also  found  fighting  with 

then  in  hiziuy,  altars  came  into  use  under  an  the  Israelites,  on  their  journey  at  Bephidim 

influence  deriTed  as  much  from  Heathenism  (Ezod.   xviL   8),    united    with    the    Am- 

as  firom  the  Jewish  ritual    The  real  altar,  as  monitea  (Jndg.  ilL  13);  with  the  Kenites 

it  was  the  real  temple  of  God,  was  the  human  ( I  SasL  zy.  6) ;  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of 

soul  — '  a  heart  sprinkled  from  an  eyil  con-  flie  FhilistineB  (1  Sam.  zxrii.  8),  where  they, 

science '  (Heb.  z.  22).     This  *  is  the  altar  with  the  Oeahurites  and  the  Oesrites,  are 

whereof  Uiey  haTe  no  right  to  eat,  which  thus  spoken  of:  —  'Those  were  of  old,  the 

serre  the  tabemaole '  (Heb.  ziiL  10;  comp.  inhabitants  of  the  land,  as  thou  goest  to  Shur 

1  Cor.  iz.  13;  z.  18).    Under  the  law,  it  was  (Pelnsium),  eren  unto  the  land  of  Egypt' 

only  specially  priyileged  persons  —  the  Is*  As  a  nomad  tribe,  ihey  had  no  fized  abode, 

nelite  priest  and  people — who  were  allowed  but  seem  to  have  wandered  in  the  district 

to  eat  of  the  offerings ;  so  under  grace,  none  which  had    Philistia  and  Egypt   on    the 

but  members  of  the  new  covenant  could  par-  west,   the  desert  of  Sinai  on  the  south, 

take  of  the  bounties  provided  in  and  by  and  Edom  on  the  east;    But  beyond  even 

Jesus  Christ  (comp.  John  vi  48 — 68).  Faith,  these  boundaries  they  went,  and  for  a  time 

says  Luther  on  this  place,  Ib  the  eater  (1  Cor.  dwelt  at  large,  as  it  may  have  pleased  them 

z.  16, 17).    Whence  it  is  easy  to  see,  that  (comp.Judg.v.  14;  zii.  15).   Inconsequence 

the  entire  circle  of  these  terms,  borrowed  of  iheir  hostility  to  the  Israelites,  they  were 

from  Moses,  regarding  sacrificial  observances  threatened  with  eztirpation  (Ezod.  zvii.  14. 

^  altar,  offering,  eating,  &o. — are  to  be  taken,  Deut.  xxv.  17),  which,  after  various  fortunes, 

in  regard  to  the  gospel,  not  in  their  shadowy  fbey  finally  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  sons 

form,  as  found  under  the  law,  but  in  their  ofSimeon,inthereignofHezekiah(lChron. 

high  spiritual  reality,  as  presented  in  the  iv.  42,  48).    Agag  seems  to  have  been  a 

gospel.     A  literal  interpretation  of  these  name  common  to  their  kings  (Numb.  zziv.  7. 

things  loses  the  substance  in  the  shadow,  1  Sam.  zv.  8,  9,  20,  82). 

inverts  the  relation  of  type  and  antitype.  The  Amalekites  have  been  regarded  as 

truth  and  its  symbol,  and  makes  the  law  not  including   the   whole  race  of  Esau,   and 

a  preparatory  schoolmaster,  but  '  the  way,  thus  as  being   the   representatives   of  all 

the  truth,  and  the  life.'  the   Edomite   tribes   throughout    Northern 

The  altar  of  incense  is  referred  to  in  Bev.  Arabia.     It  has  also  been  said,  that  the 

iz.  18,  and  the  incense  in  Luke  L  10.    In  eztirpation  of  them  was  merely  their  ezpul- 

Bev.  V.  8 ;  viiL  8 — 6,  prayer  is  symbolised  sion  or  ezteimination  from  Northern  Arabia, 

by  reference  to  the  incense-offerings.    The  whence  they  proceeded  southward,  and  by 

odoore  of  incense  are  spoken  of  in  2  Cor.  iL  eonquests  succeeded  in  planting,  under  the 

14 — 16.     As  these  odoura  readily  spread  name  of  Homerites,  a  kingdom  in  the  ez- 

themselves  abroad  on  all  sides,  so  do  they  tremity  of  Arabia  Feliz. 

senrn  as  an  impropriate  figure  to  show  the  ra-  AMARANTHINE  (O.  tinfiading). — There 

pid  and  wide  difftision  of  the  gospel  (ver.  14).  are  two  passages  in  the  first  Epistle  of  Peter 

Then  the  apostle  represents  himself  as  an  (i  4;  v.  4),  that  admit  of  illustration,  by 

offered  incense  pleasing  to  God.    His  influ-  reference  to  this  word,  which  is  in  substance 

ence,  too,  on  others,  according  to  their  use  the  same  as  that  employed  there :  — '  inheri- 

of  it,  proves  an  odour  of  life  or  of  death.  tance  that  fadeth  not  away,' —  amaranthine; 

AMALEKITES  (H.  deMcendaaU  of  Ama-  *  a  crown  of  gloiy  that  fadeth  not  away,' 

leA),  a  very  ancient  tribe  of  Arabs,  who  are  literally,  '  the  amaranthine  crown  of  glory.* 

distinguished  for  the  opposition  which  they  The  name  was  generally  applied  to  what  we 

gave  to  the  Israelites  when  on  their  passage  call  'everlasting flowers' — ^plants  and  flowers, 

towards  Canaan.    In  their  origin  they  have  that  is,  which  retained  their  colour  and  shape 

been  supposed  to  be  connected  with  Amalek,  for  a  very  long  time ;  and  particularly  to  one 

mentioned  in  Oen.  zzzvi.  12,  as  the  grands  named,  according  to  Biseorides,  amaratUus, 

son  of  .Esau.     The  tribe  is  found  at  an  whose  flowers  were  said  never  to  wither; 

earlier  period  in  Biblical  history ;  for  in  the  whence  it  was  usual  to  put  chaplets  made  of 

days  of  Abraham   (Qen«  ziv.),  they,  with  it  on  the  heads  of  conqueron,  and  to  use  it 

the  Amorites,  occur    among   those  whom  at  ftmerals,  as  an  emblem  of  life  in  death. 

Chedorlaomer  and  his  associated  princes  With  peculiar  propriety,  then,  does  Peter 

smote.    Their  antiquity  seems  to  be  meant  speak  of  'the  amaranthine  chaplet' — the 

in  Numb.  zziv.  20,  where  Balaam  says,  *Amar  true   amaranthine,  or  iiTif«/img   crown  of 

lek  was  the  fint  of  the  nations ;  but  in  his  glory  which  Jesus  would  gire ;  thus  calling 

latter  end  he  shall  perish  for  ever.'    The  to  mind  the  words  of  Milton :  — - 

Arabians  hold  tiie  Amalekites,  whom  tliey  .inunortal  amaranth !  a  flower  which  once 

name  Imlik,  to  be  the  most  ancient  tnbe  of  In  Famdlao,  tut  by  the  tree  of  life, 

Arabia,  as  well  as  to  be  related  in  blood     Bcmn  to  bloom 

jith  the  C»«.^  «d  Pba^nU^B.    In  li^  »  XEX.^S<S:  iSUi^  wIO. 

the  southern  part  of  Canaan  were   they  beams.' 

D 


AMA  <0  AME 

AMAZIAH  (H.  Mtren^  of  the  Lord.  A.H.  fliat  Hkej  had  onitten  him  (3  Chron.  zrWIL 

4717;  A.C.  881 ;  V.  839),  the  ninth  king  of  28) ;  bat  Amasiah  bowed  down  before  the 

Jndah,  son  of  Joaah  (2  KingaxiL  21 ;  xiv.  2),  gods  of  the  children  of  Seir,  whom  he  had 

whose  mother's  name  was  'Jehoaddan,  of  fmqoiahed. 

Jerusalem.'    He  was  twentj-flve  yearn  old        AMBA8BAD0B  (F.  a  meeumgtr)  is  the 

when  he  began  to  reign,  and  reigned  in  Jeni>  delegate  or  representatire  of  a  prince  or 

aalem  twenty  and  nine  jearst    At  the  begin-  potentate  to  another  party,  bearing  from 

ning  of  his  reign,  he  in  a  measure  did  ^j^t  the  first  to  the    second  an    '  embassage' 

In  the  sight  of  the  Lord;  bat  the  hi^^  places  (Lake  ziT.  82)  or  message,  to  which  die  am- 

were  not  taken  away,  nor  the  idolatrous  ser-  baasador  gives  all  the  recommendation  in  his 

Tices  rendered  there  by  the  people  diseon-  power.    The  essential  elements  of  the  con- 

tinned.    As  soon  as  he  felt  himself  firmly  oeption  are  well  given  by  Paul  in  2  Cor. 

seated  on  his  throne,  he  ilew  his  fathei^s  ▼.  20. 

morderers,  sparing  their  children,  mindftil        AMBEB,  a  sort  of  resinous  inflammable 

of  the  law  of  Moses  (Dent  xjdr.  16).    Alter  mineral,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  white 

this  he  conquered  the  Edomites,  who  had  and  yeUow,  differing  in  their   lustre   and 

rendered  ibemselTes  independent,  and  took  transparency.    The  Hebrew  word,  which  de- 

their  capital  Petra  (2  Kings  xiT.  1—7).  This  notes  a  shining  translucent  substance,  is  used 

success  elated  him,  and  he  formed  deaigns  in  Ezek.  L  4  and  L  27,  both  times  in  rela- 

against  the  kingdom  of  IsraeL    With  a  view  tion  to  its  colour,  and  may  probably  be 

to  forward  them,  he  sent  a  measage  to  its  intended  in  Apoc.  L  15,  where  the  feet  of  the 

monarch  Jehoash — <  Oome  let  us  look  one  Son  of  man  are  described  as  <  like  unto  fine 

another  in  the  fiue.'    Truly  Oriental  was  the  brass.'     The  colour  seems  to  havs  been 

reply — 'The  thist&e  thai  was  in  Lebanon  thou^t  appropriate  for  representing  the  ap- 

sent  to  the  cedar  that  was   in  Lebanon,  pearanoe  of  heavenly  essences,  as,  indeed, 

saying,  Givs  thy  daughter  to  my  son  to  wife;  there  is  something  pleasingly  soft,  rich,  and 

and  there  paistnd  by  a  wild  beast  that  was  in  lustrous  in  its  pale  yellow,  not  unlike  tints 

Lebanon,  and  trod  down  the  thistle.    Thon  sometimes  seen  in  die  sky  at  the  time  of 

bast  indeed  smitten  Edom,  and  thine  heart  aunset 

hath  lifted  thee  up:  gloiy  of  this,  and  tarry  AMBUSH  (F.  <n  a  hutk)  signifies  the 
at  home ;  for  why  shouldest  Ifaou  meddle  to  lying  in  a  bush  or  wood,  in  order  to  take  an 
thy  hurt,  that  thou  shouldest  foil,  even  thou,  enemy  by  suiprise.  The  Hebrew  word,  of 
end  Judah  with  thee?'  Enrsged  at  the  quiet  which  ambush  is  a  translation,  denotes  to 
sarcasm  thus  conveyed,  Amaarish  went  out  to  coneedt,  and  hence  totUm  wait  fir.  It  has 
war,  was  beaten,  and  made  prisoner.  The  frequently  a  metaphorical  import,  signifying 
conqueror  proceeded  to  Jerusalem,  dis-  ioenmare.  ThusinPB.x.8,9,thewickedm&n 
manUed  that  part  of  its  fortifications  which  is  represented  thus : — <  He  sitfeeth  in  the  luik- 
lay  towards  his  own  territories,  took  all  the  ing  places;  he  Ueth  m  ufoU  secretly  as  a  lion 
valuables  found  in  the  temple,  end  the  trea-  in  his  den;  he  lieth  in  wait  to  catch  the  poor.' 
sures  of  the  palace,  and  carried  away  these  «Bittfaithe  wood  an  ambiuh  I  prepare, 
things  to  Samaria,  as  well  as  hostages,  whom  AndtrytofoUbimlntbewlksofwar.' 
he  appears  to  have  accepted,  on  liberating  ^i**- 
his  royal  captive,  after  whose  death  he  AMETHYST  is  apreeioos  stone  mentioned 
reigned  fifteen  years.  He  came  by  his  death  only  three  times  in  Scripture,  namely,  Exod. 
at  Ladush,  on  the  borders  of  the  FhilistineSp  zzviii.  19 ;  xxziz.  12.  Rev.  xzL  20.  It  con- 
whither  he  had  fled,  and  where  he  was  slahi,  atituted  the  ninth  gem  in  the  breas^late  of 
as  a  result  of  a  conspiracy  which  had  broken  the  high  pries^snd  the  twelfth  in  the  fonnda- 
out  against  him  in  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  ziv.  tions  of  the  heavenly  Jerasalem.  The  English 
8, 9eq.).    In  2  Chron.  zzv.  14, 9eq.  Amaaiah's  word  is  a  mere  transcrq»t  of  the  Greek,  which 

u'*!*,^      Jehoash,   and  the  conspiracy  is  thought  to  be  made  up  of  two  words,  in 

which  led  to  his  death,  are  referred  as  their  allusion  to  the  supposed  power  of  the  ame- 

oause  to  the  idolatrous  practices  Into  which  titiyst  to  relieve  from  the  effects  of  intoxication, 

he  fell,  having  brought  from  Idumea  the  The  Hebrew  term  denotes  the  quality  of 

gods  of  the  land,  and  made  them  his  own.  hardness,  for  which  the  stone  is  remarkable, 

Amaaiah'a  reign  has  two  distinct  epochs,  being  next  to  the  dismond  the  hsrdest  sub- 
one  of  glory,  the  other  of  disgrace;  a  dis-  stance  known.  There  are  eastern  sad  western 
tmction  which  e^lains  the  faot,  that  blame  amethysts:  the  first  aro  by  for  most  valuable, 
as  weu  as  praise  is  given  him  in  the  Scrip-  Amethysts  wero  known  in  Egypt  at  a  very 
ture^  He  began  his  reign  in  justice,  piety,  early  period,  and  were  accounted  so  precious 
sad  dismterestedness:  he  ended  H  by  perse  as  to  give  rise  to  the  art  of  imiuting  their 
cutang  a  prophet,  and  worshipping  idols.  qusHties.  Their  existence  m  Egypt  shows 
wnat  cuised  the  psinftd  change  7  a  victory;  that  atleast  a  oommenial  connection  existed 
ne  could  not  withstand  the  intoxieation  of  between  India  and  tiie  Western  world  in  the 
aTSI**  ^?^.^^'?^  ol  idolatry  is  worse  days  of  the  patriarchs.  The  prevailing 
^^^^i^JP'^**-  K  Ahaa  sacrificed  colour  of  amethysts  is  purple.  whi^VwS 
to  the  gods  of  Damascus,  he  had  the  excuse  inhneftomade^iosetoiSghr^^J 


A  MO  51  A  MO 

amethyst  is  (Hxmposed  chiefly  of  slmnins,  with  Jadg.  xi.  21 ).    In  Josh.  z.  5,  we  find  a  eon* 

a  smaJl  portioii  of  iron  and  of  siliea.  federsey  of  these  monntaineers,  under  '  fire 

AMMONITES  (H.  deteendawU  </  Am-  longs,'  formed  against  Joahaa:  they  were 

wum),  a  tribe  of  nomads,  that  lived  on  the  defeated,  and,  on  their  retreat,  discomfited 

east  of  Jordan  towards  Arehia,  ftom  the  and  destroyed  by  a  hailstoim.    At  an  earlier 

rirer  Jabbok  to  the  rirer  Amon,  in  a  land  period,  their  forces    seem  to   hare   been 

strongly  fortified  by  nature,  irtiose  chief  city  marshalled   under  two    kings    (Dent    iiL 

was  called  Babbadi,  and  whose  origin  is  8;  ir.  47),  when  their  territory  extended 

referred  to  a  discreditable  conneetioik  record-  southward  to  Momit  Hermon.    The  Amo- 

ed  in  Gen.  xix.  88   (see  also  Bent  iii.  10.  rites,  thonc^  a  warlike  and  powerfoi  people. 

Josh.  xii.  2).    The  ill-feeling  of  which  this  were  oreroome  by  the  Israelites.    Their  ter- 

erent  is  the  indication,  remained  till  the  ritories  on  the  east  of  Jordan  were  given  to 

latest  period.     After  the  expnlsion  of  the  Oad,  Benben,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Msnasseh 

Zamznmmim,  the  Ammonites  took  posses-  (Nmnb.  Trrii.  83,  89.  IVent  iiL  8).    Those 

sion  of  the  oonntry,  which,  it  is  said,  they  which  lay  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  Joshua 

afterwards  gave  up  to  the  Amorites,  though,  Tsnquished,  but  could  not  uproot,  nor  even 

from  the  similarity  of  many  of  the  f aots  as  eflbotnally  restrain  ( Judg.  i  84,  85 ;  iii.  6. 

recorded  of  the  Ammonites  and  the  Amo-  1  8am.  vii  14).    In  process  of  time,  their 

rites,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  they  were  power  was  eurtailed,  till  at  length  Solomon 

not  substantially  one  people,  having  names  made  them  tributary  (1  Kings  iz.  21).    The 

of   dilTerent  import;    the  second  denoting  term  is  sometimes  employed  as  signiflcativs 

wwwOaxneen ;  the  first,  people,  that  is  jfenUlet,  of  the  superstitions  of  the  Ganaanites  (Exek. 

Heathen  idolaters    as    contradistinguished  zvi.8.  1  Kings  xxi.  26).    In  Amos  ii.  9,  their 

from  the  Israelites,  the  true  worshippers,  power  is  poetically  dessribed  thus,  •«-' whose 

They  are  found  so  late  as  the  time  of  the  heic^t  was  like  the  height  of  the  cedars,  and 

Maccabees  (1  Maoc.  v.  6).    Justin  Martyr,  he  was  strong  as  the  osks,  yet  I  destroyed 

in  the  second  eentniy,  mentions  them.  What  his  fruit  tram  above,  and  his  roots  from  be- 

fhe  Scriptures  give  of  their  inteimediate  his-  neath ; '  Isnguage  which  is  very  sppropriate  to 

tory  may  be  found  in  Bent  ii.  19, 20.   Josh,  the  subjugation  of  a  strong  mountain-race. 

xiii.  2d.    Judg.  iii.  18;   xi.  18,  82;  xii.  2.         AMOS  (H.  elevated.   A.M.  4740;  A.  a 

1  Sant.  xi.  11;  xiv.  47.  2  Sam.  viii.  12;  808  ;  V.  810),  the  well-known  prophet^ 
X.  14;  xi.  1;  xii.  26.  2  Chron.  xx.  1;  author  of  the  book  of  that  name,  was  a 
xxvi.  8;  xxviL  0.  Isa.  xi.  14.  Ze^.  ii.  8.  native  of  Tekoa,  a  place  which  lay  some  twelve 
Jer.  xxvii.  8;  xl.  11,  14;  xll.  15 ;  xlix.  I.  mOes  to  the  south-east  of  Jerusalem,  in  the 

2  Kings  xxiv.  2.  Esek.  xxv.  1^-7.  NdL  high  pasture-lands  of  Judah,  v^ere  he  was 
iv.  1.       one  '  among  the  herdsmen,'  whose  business 

AMORITES  (H.  numniaineere),  a  general  was  held  in  hi^  eetimation.    He  appears  to 

name,  descriptive,  in  its  wider  application,  o^  have  been  nothing  more  thsn  an  ordinary 

several  Oanaanitish  tribes  which  dwelt  on  HelH«w  shepherd,  living  on  tiie  food  of  the 

the  south  or  hill  country  of  Csuaan  (Ocn.  common  peasantry  (i  1 ;  vil.  14).   Of  his 

XV.  16.    Josh.  xxiv.  18.    Judg.  vi  10).    To  early  history  we  know  nothing  positive.    He 

them  belonged — ^I.TheHittites,orchildrett<rf  was  neither  a  prophet  nor  a  prqphetfsson 

Heth,  who  dwelt  on  the  heights  of  Judah  asftt  when  he  was  taken  by  Jehovsh,  as  he  followed 

as  Hebron  (Gen.  xxiii.  7.    Numb.  xiiL  29),  the  flock,  and  bade  to  go  snd  prophesy  unto  Is- 

together  with  the  Jebusites,  and  a  tribe  of  raeL    The  time  when  he  appeared  was  in  the 

Amorites  who  bore  that  sole  name.    II.  The  days  of  Uzzish  king  of  Judj^,  and  of  Jeroboam 

Jebusites,  who  also  lived  <in  tiie  mountains'  II.  king  of  Israel,  which  is  fhrther  defined 

(Josh.  xi.  8)  of  Judah  and  Ephraim,  em-  as  being  'two  years  l)efore  the  earthquake' 

bracing  the  place  which  at  a  later  day  bore  (L  1 ;  viL  15),  tiiat  is,  in  the  27th  year  of  the 

the   name  of  Jerusalem,  which  place  the  last  monarch.    Agreeably  to  the  divine  oom- 

Canaanites  termed  Jebus  (Numb,  xiii  29.  mand,  he  proceeded  into  Israel,  and  began  to 

Josh.  xi.  3;  xv.8;  xviii  28.  Judg.  xix.  11.  deliver  his  burden.    It  was  a  time  of  general 

2  Sam.  V.  6-— 8).   III.  The  Girgashites,  on  tiie  dissoluteness.  Political  prosperity  hadbrought 

west  of  the  Jordan  (Beut  vii.  1.  Josh.  xxiv.  forth  pride,  ease,  luxury.     The  great  gave 

11).  IV.  TheHivites:  they  lay  more  towards  themselves  to  eogoyment;  the  poor  were  op- 

the  north,  in  the  vicinity  of  Shechem  and  pressed.    Then  came  the  word  of  the  Lord 

Gibeon  (Gen.  xxxiv.  2.  Josh.  ix.  7 ;  xi.  19 ;  into  the  heart  of  Amos,  and  he  spoke  fortii 

oomp.2  Sam.  xxi.  2).  Lastiy,  while  the  term  his  feelings  truthihlly  (vi.  1,  ieq,);  threat- 

Amorites  denoted  generally  these  Canaan-  ening  Israel  with  destmetion,  but  giving 

itish  tribes,  it  was  atoo  applied  to  a  particular  hope  to  the  pious,  and  a  promise  of  better 

elan,  which  had  tiieir  abode  on  the  mountains  days.    His  freedom  of  speech  gave  offianoe 

that  nm  along  the  western  border  of  the  Bead  to  the  priesthood,  who  used  their  oifices  with 

Sea,  and  also  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  tkom  the  king  to  proeure  the  prophelfsbsnishment 

the  river  Jshbok  to  the  river  Amon,  by  (vii  10,  teg,),    Amos  was  a  contemporary 

which  they  were  separated  from  the  Moab-  of  Hosea  and  Joel,  and  in  part  of  Isaiah. 

Stes  —  (Numb.  xxL  18.   Josh.  ▼.  1 ;  ix.  10.  The  business  which  the  prophet  had  pursued 


ANA  52  ANA 

eondaeed  greatly  to  the  imageiy  which  he  ANANIAS  (H.  Jehovah  k(Uk  gwen),  *— 
employed  (i.  2;  ii.  18;  iu.4,  5,  8;  viii.  2).  I.  Ananiae,  son  of  Nebedniis,  wta  made 
When  regard  is  had  to  the  literary  excel-  high  priest  by  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis, 
lenoe  of  this  prophecy,  our  surprise  is  reiy  A.D.  47.  Having  got  mixed  up  in  the 
grsatythatsach  a  piece  should  have  proceeded  eontention  between  the  Jews  and  the  Sar 
from  one  who  had  led  a  <  shepherd's  slothftd  maritaos,  he  was,  at  the  instance  of  the  latter, 
liiSB.'  The  explanation  is  to  be  foimd,  partly  sent  to  Bome  to  answer  for  his  condnet  to 
in  the  general  enltore  which  the  Hebrew  Claadins  C»sar.  Ananias  seems  to  have  re- 
system  oommonieated  generally,  partly  in  the  tamed  with  etedit,  and  retained  his  office  till 
Ihie  natural  endowments  of  Amos,  but  ehielly  it  was  given  to  Ismael,  son  of  Phabi,  who 
in  the  inspiring  inilaenoe  which  the  idea  of  came  into  office  jost  before  the  departure  of 
God  generally,  and  his  direct  operation  on  Felix,  and  held  it  during  the  whole  govern- 
Amos  speoiflcslly,  so  strongly  exerted.  One  ment  of  his  sncoessor  Festus.  Ananias  was 
specimen  of  the  workings  of  this  influence  stabbed  in  the  Jewish  war,  by  one  of  that 
may  be  pointed  out  in  the  grand  conceptions  band  of  assassins  who  were  so  eonspicnooa 
of  die  Deity  displayed  in  chap.  ix.  1 — 6.  The  in  it  Panl  was  brought  before  this  Ananias 
mprejadiced  reader  who  can  compare  the  in  the  proooratorship  of  Felix.  He  was  so 
▼aried  excellences  of  Amos  with  other  con-  irritated  by  Paul's  declaring  (Acts  xxiiL  1, 2), 
temporary  literary  productions,  will  be  led  to  'I  have  lived  in  all  good  conscience  before 
the  conclusion,  that  the  Hebrew  prophet  does  Ood  to  this  day,'  that  he  ordered  the  apostle 
not,  all  things  considered,  suffisr  in  comparison  to  be  struck  in  the  mouth.  Paul,  with  a 
even  with  Homer  in  point  of  expression,  burst  of  pardonable  indignation,  exdaimed, 
while  in  moral  tone  and  spiritual  truth  he  *Ood  shall  smite  thee,  thou  whited  well:' 
far  surpaases  sll  Greek  and  Soman  lore.  which  prediction,  as  the  above  narration 

The  prophecies  of  Amos  were  directed  shows,  was  amply  fhlfilled.  After  this,  Ana- 
ehiefly  to  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  (tIL  15).  niaa  went  with  Paul  to  Cssarea,  to  lodge  a 
He  also  spoke  to  Judah  (ii.  4),  as  well  as  to  complaint  against  him  before  Felix ;  but  the 
other  neighbouring  kingdoms,  as  Ammon,  latter  postponed  the  ailSur,  placing  Panl  in  the 
Gasa,  Damascus,  Moab,  Edom  (i.  ii).  The  charge  of  a  Boman  centurion  (Acts  xxiv.). 
aim  of  the  prophet  was,  by  announcing  the  II.  Ananias,  aChristianof  the  early  church 
divine  punishments  against  the  enemies  of  at  Jerusalem,  who,  conspiring  with  his  wife 
Israel,  as  well  as  against  Israel  and  Judah  Sapphira  to  defraud  the  brethren,  was  with 
themselves,  to  awakien  them  to  a  sense  of  her  miraculously  struck  dead.  The  corn- 
duty,  and  lead  them  to  the  service  of  the  munity  of  Christians  at  Jerusalem  seem  to 
Almighty.  have  entered  into  a  solemn  agreement  to  sell 

AMPHIPOLIS  (G.  enccmpOMted  city),  a  their  property,  and  devote  the  proceeds  to  the 
city  in  the  eastern  part  of  Macedonia,  lying  service  of  the  church.  Ananias,  having  dis- 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Strymon,  which  posed  of  his  property,  kept  back  some  of  the 
flows  into  the  Strymonic  Gulf,  now  the  Gulf  money,  and  oflfering  the  rest,  as  if  it  were  the 
of  Orphano.  It  was  an  Athenian  colony,  and  whole,  to  the  aposde,  was  severely  reproved, 
in  the  time  of  the  Romans  the  metropolis  of  and  immediately  struck  dead.  His  wife  Sap- 
Macedonia  Prima.  It  now  bears  the  abbre-  phira,  coming  in  soon  after,  met  with  the 
viatednameof£mboiL  Paul  passed  through  same  fate.  Had  Ananias  chosen  to  keep 
this  city  on  his  way  to  Thessslonica  (Acta  his  property,  he  was  at  perfect  liberty  to  do 
xvii.  1).  so;   but  it  was  no  longer  his  own:  he  had 

ANAK,  ANAKIM  (H.  huge),  a  primitive  alienated  it  from  himself  to  pious  purposes; 

tribe  of  Canaan,  that  held  the  south  of  the  and,  under  these  circumstances,  he  sinned 

land  on  the  lull  country  of  Judah,  on  spots  towarda  God,  and  not  towards  men.  Besides, 

which  imagination  and  fear  may  have  peo-  as,  whatever  he  put  into  the  common  stock, 

pled  with  more  and  worse  inhabitants  than  he  would,  with  the  rest,  live  on  its  resources, 

those  that  really  existed,  the  nther  as  the  so  he  intended  to  lob  the  really  destitute ; 

Anakim  lay  in  the  way  of  die  Israelites  when  taking  his  full  share  of  the  public  property, 

ihey  wished  to  enter  Canaan.     The  'sons  in  retom  for  only  a  part  of  his  own.    He 

of  Anak'  seem  to  have  had  as  their  centre,  seems  to  have  thought  this  disposal  of  <  a 

Kiijath-arba,  which  waa   afterwarda  caUed  part  of  the  price'  a  good  and  profitable  in- 

Hebron  (Josh.  xi.  21).    They  were  divided  vestment    So  early  did  the  lust  of  gain 

into  three  dans,  Ahiman,  Sheahai,  and  Tal-  invade  the  church.    The  conduct  of  Ananias 

mai,  of  whom  the  twelve  men  sent  to  survey  combined  the  vioes  of  cupidity,  lying,  and 

Canaan  gaveaterrificreport(Nnmb.xiiL  28).  hypocrisy,  and,  especially  in  the  yet  weak 

Indeed   they  are  described  as  not  only  a  infant  church,  demanded  signal  punishment 

formidable   but  a  gigantic  race   (Deut  iL  The   conduct  of  Peter  has  been  ux^ustly 

10;   IX.  2.   Josh.  xiv.  15).    They  were  cut  blamed:  he  has  been  accused  of  inflicting  a 

off  by  Joshua,  and  driven  out  by  Caleb ;  so  punishment  exceeding  the  offence    But  Peter 

that  there  were  none  left,  aave  a  remnant  m  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  death  of  Ananias. 

^"*i?*^'  *^  Ashdod  (Josh.  xi.  21,  uq.f  By  the  hand  of  Heaven  alone  the  blow  was. 

'^*  ^^)*  dealt,  and  Peter  was  not  even  the  instrument 


AMU 


53 


ANA 


Seme  di8belie?en  in  minolet  have  endeft- 
vonred  to  ezpUun  this  away,  by  tapponng 
that  Ananias  and  his  wife  died  of  apoplexy, 
farongfat  on  by  shame  and  mortifieation.  Bat 
die  improbability  of  this  theory  is  its  best 
leftitation  (see  Aots  ▼.  1 — 11). 

m.  Anaoias,  a  Christian  of  Damascus 
(Acts  IX.  10 ;  xxiL  12),  to  whom  the  Loid 
appeared  in  a  vision,  directing  him  to  lay  his 
hands  on  Paul,  and  restoie  his  sight  Ananias 
was  not  taken  at  random  for  the  honourable 
office  of  consecrating  the  apostle  to  the 
OentOes :  for,  while  a  Jew,  he  was  held  in  hi(^ 
esteem ;  end  when  he  became  a  Christiui, 
he  was  distinguished  for  his  piety.  Paul,  as 
was  natural,  continued  to  regard  Ananias 
with  aflbction  and  respect  There  is  a  tradi- 
tion  that  Ananias  was  the  first  who  preached 
Christianity  in  Damascus,  and  that  he  held 
the  office  of  bishop  in  that  city.  It  is  said 
that  he  was  stoned  to  death  1^  the  Jews  in 
his  own  church. 

AMULETS  (A.  hangmgay—In  a  day  when 
animal   magnetism,   mesmerism,  magnetic 
rings,  and  other  similar  remedies,  are  eagerly 
resorted  to,  we  have  no  right  to  wonder,  that, 
in  the   earlier  periods  of  the  world,  men 
ascribed  a  great  curative  and  preservative 
power  to  articles  which  were  thought  to  pos* 
sesshidden  and  mysterious  attributes.  Hence 
arose  the  custom  of  wearing  amulets  as  a 
protection  against  witchcraft,  the   evil  eye, 
and  ordinary  diseases.    This   custom  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  East,  and  seems,  indeed, 
to  be  a  natural  attendant  on  a  state  of  igno- 
rance regarding  natural  laws.  The  *  Ephesian 
writings,'  alluded  to  in  Aots  xix.  19,  were 
supposed  to  act  as  talismans.    Besides  pieces 
of  parchment  bearing  certain  letters,  such 
as  phylacteries,  &c.  (Deut  vi.  8),  precious 
stones,  and  metals  in  various  shapes,  particu- 
lariy  of  an  ornamental  kind,  as  ear-rings 
and  bracelets,  were  employed  as  instruments 
of  this  superstition.     The  Hebrews  were  not 
free  from  the  delusion.    In  Oen.  xxxv.  4,  we 
find  Jacob,  in  putting  away  the  strange  gods 
of  his  household,  taking  *tfae  ear-rings  whieh 
were  in  their  ea»,'  and  burying  them  under 
an  oak  (comp.  Isa.  iii  18,  seq.   and  Esek. 
ziii.  18).    At  the  same  time,  the  Israelites  do 
not  seem  ever  to  have  sunk  so  low  in  super- 
stitions notions  and  practices  even  as  some 
(so  called)  Christians,  and  certainly  appear  to 
advantage  when  compared  with  other  ancient 
nations. 

^  A  modem  exemplification  of  this  supersti- 
tion may  be  drawn  from  practices  observed 
by  pilgrims,  on  occasion  of  the  annual  visit 
to  the  Jordan,  made  in  commemoration  of 
the  Saviour's  baptism  :  — '  Willow  branches 
and  canes,  cut  from  the  banks,  were  baptised 
in  the  sacred  stream ;  as  were  a  multitude  of 
beads,  crucifixes,  bracelets,  and  other  trin- 
kets, which  had  slready  been  consecrated 
by  being  laid  in  the  holy  sepulchre.  Many 
of  the  pilgrims  —  the  largre  portion  —  had 


provided  themselves  with  shrouds,  to  be  pre- 
served for  their  burial,  or  for  the  use  of  their 
friends,  which  they  dipped  in  the  river,  and 
thus  endowed  with  peculiar  virtues.    A  coarse 
cotton  stuff  is  used  for  this  purpose,  manu- 
Ikotnred  at  Jerusalem.     It  is  exhibited  for 
sale  in  tiie  court  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.    The  purehasers,  who  were  very 
numerous,  carried  it  from  the  stall  of  the 
vender  to  a  priest,  stationed  for  the  purpose 
within  the  diurch,  who  took  it  through  a 
window,  and  muttered  a  brief  prayer  over 
it,  for  which  he  received  a  piece  of  silver. 
From  the  priest,  and  with  his  benediction 
upon  it,  the  consecrated  web  was  borne  to 
the  holy  sepulchre,  to  imbibe  another  bless 
ing  from  being  placed  in  contact  with  its 
cold  marble ;  and  to-day  it  received  its  final 
endowment  of  supematoral  virtues,  by  being 
immersed  in  the  water  of  Jordan.    By  such 
devices  are  multitudes  of  thinking,  immortal 
beings,  who  bear  the  Christian  name,  seeking 
a  remedy  for  moral  pollution,  and  preriding 
for  the  urgent  demands  of  a  future  state  of 
existence'  (Olin's  Travels,  vol.  u.  220). 
A&ABAMULET. 


ANATHEMA  (O.  offered),^In  the  word 
devoted  (from  the  Latin  votum,  a  vow)   is 
found  the  root-idea  of  anathema,  which  is 
to  vow.    Both  in  Hebrew  and  in  English, 
to  devote  is  property  to  vow,  that  is,  to  vow 
or  give  a  thing  to  God  in  such  a  sense,  that 
it  is  cut  off  and  separated  from  the  ordinary 
purposes  of  life,  and  reserved  solely  for  reli- 
gious uses.     These  uses  have  varied  with 
time,  country,  and  dreumstances ;   and  so 
devoted  things  and  persons  have,  in  being 
applied  to  these  uses,  been  either  destroyed, 
made  to  produce  a  revenue,  or  reserved  for 
service.    When,  for  instance,  so  large  a  por- 
tion of  tile  land  of  England  was  in  mortmain 
(ffiorftf  manu,  m  the  hand  of  death), — ap- 
plied exclusively  to  religious  purposes, — it 
was  anathema — devoted,  severed  from  the 
ordinary  uses  of  life.    And  so,  when,  during 
Catholic  days,  the  richest  presents  of  gold, 
silver,  end  precious  stones,  highly  wrought 
by  art,  were  given  to  the  shrines  of  favourite 
saints,  in  this  country,  and  suspended  some- 
times on  their  images  within  the  shrines, 
tiiese  valuables  were  anathema — set  apart 
from  human  ornament,  to  adorn  religious 
houses,  and  so  to  serve  Ood.    The  Greek 
word,  indeed,  properly  signifies,  something 
offered;  end  so  set  up,  placed,  or  suspended 


ANA  54  ANA 

in  the  ehKptil  or  temple  of  a  diTinity.  The  tiie  ooneeqnflBt  nfinement  of  morale,  had  leil 
eeaential  meaning  of  the  tenn,  then,  ia,-—  to  the  prerention  of  the  ahedding  of  blood, 
aet  apart  for  religiona  poipoeee:  henee,  a  in  eonneerimi  with  a  tow  or  eoree;  and,  appa- 
devoted  or  accoreed  thing;  aTietim,  whoee  lently,  the  anadiema  had  become  a  eocial 
life  waa  to  be  taken;  a  aaeiifioe,  whether  and  moial  penalty.  Some — we  know  not 
Tolimtaiy  or  otherwiae;  an  oblatloo;  a  eii-  exaetlj  how  many  ^  years  after  his  death, 
mine]  reserved  for  pimiihment  cseonmanieatioB  waa  aa  followa,  which  we 

LcT.  xzvii.  28,29,  eigoina  that  ereiy Metoted    learn  from  the  woika  of  the  Jewiah  doctors, 
thing  shall  be  pat  to  death;'  —  *  vveiT  de-     In  the  Miaehna  flreqiient  mention  is  made  of 
▼oted  thing  is  most  holy  to  Jdiovah.'    80  hi     eseommanieation  and  the  ezoommmuoated. 
1  Sam.  zit.  44,  Jonathan  having,  by  eatmg    A  person  dying  in  a  atate  of  anathema  had 
some  honey,  fallen  under  hie  ftkidei'B  curse,     atones  east  on  hia  eoffln,  in  token  of  degra- 
is  told — 'Thoashalt  sorely  die,  Jonathan;'     dation.    An  ezoommmncated  person  could 
he  haying  thus  become  anathema,  an  aeonrsed    not  enter  the  temple  by  the  ordinazy  gate- 
or  dcToted  person.    Devoted  eatde  and  flelda     way;  nor  waa  he  allowed,  while  under  the 
eoold  not  be  redeemed :  ihey  belonged  to  the    enree,  to  ahave  himaelf .    Two  kinds  of  ez- 
aanctnaiy  (Lev.  zzviL  26).     '  Every  thing     eommvnication — the  greater  and  the  less — 
devoted  in  Israel  ahall  be  thine,'— Aaron's,     are  apoken  of.    According  to  Maimonldes, 
and,  after  him,  his  sccceseors,  the  priests     flie  latter  lasted  only  thirty  days,  and  waa 
and  Levitea  (Knmb.  zviii  14;  eomp.  Ezek.     nnaocompanied   by  any   imprecation ;   but 
xliv.  29).    Vowa  appear,  in  the  Biblieal  aa     the  aeveier  <»r  proper  anathema  always  in- 
well  as  in  profme  and  modem  history,  to     volved  a  corae :  and,  while  the  former  could 
have  been  prompted  by  critical  emeigenoiea.     be  prononneed  by  one  Babbi,  it  required  at 
80,  when  Israel  had  been  beivten  by  Arad  the     leaat  ten  members  of  the  Sanhedrim  to  pro- 
Canaanite,  they  vowed  a  vow  unto  Jehovch—     Boonoe  the  latter.      A  person  under  the 
*  If  thou  wilt  deliver  this  people  into  my     anathema  or  ban,  atrictly  so  called,  was  shut 
hand,  then  I  will  utterly  destroy  their  cities/     oot  from  all  intercourse  with  others;  while 
The  text  adds  —  <  the  Lord  hearkened  to  the     the  ezdoaion  was,  in  the  other  case,  only 
voice  of  Israel,  and  delivered  up  the  Canaan-     partial,  and  the  commerce  was  restricted, 
ites ;  and  they  utterly  destroyed  them  and     Persons  who  lay  under  it  were  distinguished 
their  cities;  and  he  called  the  name  of  the     bj  habiliments  of  mourning, 
place  Hormah,'  that  ia.  Anathema  —  devoted        While,  however,  we  cannot  aiBrm  that  these 
to  destruction  (1  Numb.  zxL  1,  teq.).     Mo-     exact  distinctions  and  rulea  existed  in  the 
notheism  waa  guarded  by  the  penalty  of    time  of  Christ,  there  seem  to  have  then  been 
anathema,  aa  every  Israelite  turning  idda-     gi-adea  of  anathema.      In  Ezra  x.  8,  an 
ter  was  to  be  devoted  to  destruction  (Exod.     oOinider  was  to  be  formally  separated,  with 
xxiL  20).    In  the  case  of  an  apoatate  city,    loea  of  his  substance,  from  the  congregation. 
the  Inhabitanta  were  to  be  put  to  the  aword,     80,  in  Luke  vi.  22  (<  when  they  shall  separate 
aa  well  as  all  the  cattle;   but  the  gooda     yon'),  our  Lord  refers  to  the  greater  excom- 
and  ohattela  of  all  kinds  were  to  be  ut-     munieation,  or  entire  deprival  of  religious 
terly  destroyed   by  firs    (Beut.  xiiL  16).     and  civil  rifl^ts.    But  in  John  ix.  22  (to  be 
The  anathema  wa»  oanied  into  eSezt  on  the    '  put  out  of  the  aynagogue '),  the  lesser  or 
Oanaanitea,  by  utterly  destroying  the  men,    partial  ban  ia  intended  (John  xii.  42 ;  xvi.  2,) 
and  the  women,  and  die  little  onea  of  every        In  1  Cor.  v.  5,  the  words  refer  to  excom- 
eaptured  city  (Dent.  ii.  84 ;  iiL  0.   Joah.  vi.     munieation,  expressed  in  Paul's  phraseology. 
17 ;  X.  28, 85, 87, 40;  xi.  11).    All  the  sQver    — <  to  deliver  such  an  one  unto  Satan  for 
and  gold,  and  vesaela  of  brass  and  iron,  were     the  destruction  of  the  flesh,  that  the  spirit 
to  come  into  the  treaauzy  of  Jehovah  (Joah.     may  be  saved  in  the  day  of  the  Lord  Jesus ; 
vL  19).    Any  one  retaining  any  portion  of    — to  these  evil  influences,  which  were  ex- 
the  accursed  thing  became  himself  accursed     pressed  by  the  aggregate  term  world,  and 
(Josh.  vL  17,  18;   vii.  11).     Under  special     personified  in  the  name  /S'oten,  — the  evil 
cxreumatances  were  the  cattle  saved  from     influences  of  a  wicked  man's  own  heart, 
death,  and  taken  aa  a  prey,  being  divided    which,  working  their  natural  efi^cts,  would 
among  the  warriors  (Beut  ii.  85 ;  iii.  7.  Joeh.     destroy  the  body,  and,  in  the  consequent  pain 
viii.  2,  27).     Sometimes  it  was  only  living     and  debility,  might  lead  to  repentance,  and 
^ngs  that  were  devoted  (Josh.  x.  28,  80,     ao  to  the  salvation  of  the  soul.    This  is  a 
?'  J   1*    ^^•w  laws  were  in  substance  re-     ease  of  fornication  (1  Cor.  v.  1 ;  compare 
vived  after  ^e  exile;  for  Esra  made  a  pro-     1  Tim.  i.  20). 

clamatton,  Out  the  Jews  who  would  not  put  The  noun  anaihema,  and  the  correspond- 
*^2L2?  ^"'•'«»  ^J'w  should  have  their  ing  verb,  occur  several  timea  in  the  New 
property  confiscated,  and  be  themselves  cut  oH;  Testament,  but  more,  perhaps,  in  the  old 
or  exo(»D.muiucated.  Hebraic  sense  of  a  curse  or  devotement.  than 

Our  knowledge  is  not  s»^  as  to  enable  ua     in  the  modem  Jewish  sense  of  excommuni- 
to  say  with  precision  what  the  law  of  devote-     eation.    In  Acts  xxiiL  12,  certain  Jews  are 

7ch^^  "^T^f  ^:::±  ^rN^  ^^^  ^'^^  mmii<m^  who  had  bomid  S^mJ^lverito 
of  Chnst    The  progress  of  civihsation,  and     a  cum  to  slay  Ponl.    In  Bom.  ix.  8,  Paul 


ANA 


55 


AND 


sajB, —  'I  ooold  wiah  thai  myielf  wers  ao- 
einaed  ftom  Chriit  for  my  brothnn,'  wbi&n 
probably  the  idea  is  radier  of  ezeomoiuiii- 
eatioo.  The  word  nndered  accuned  in 
1  Cor.  ziL  8,  is  anathema  in  the  original, — 
<  Mo  man  eidleth  Jesus  aooorsed.'  In  1  Cor. 
zvi.  22,  we  read,  —'If  any  man  lore  not  the 
Irfnd  Jesus  Christ,  let  Mm  be  anathema;' 
thai  is,  if  any  professed  ChiiBtian  be  not  so 
in  haart,  let  him  be  eat  off  from  the  ohmcli. 
The  words  maran  aiha  haw  nothing  to  do 
with  the  onrse,  bat  signiiy  *  the  Lord  is  at 
hand,'  indicating,  after  the  preralent  opinion 
of  the  day,  that  Christ  was  about  to  retorn 
'to  eseeote judgment'  (Jude  14, 15),  'being 
■WTealed  in  flaming  fire,  taking  Tengeanoe' 
(d  Thess.  L  8, 0).  *If  any  one  preaob  any 
other  gospel,  let  him  be  aconrsed,'  ^  anathe- 
ma (Gal.  L  8,  0 ;  see  also  Mark  sir.  71). 

This  is  the  substanee  of  what  is  found  in 
Beripture  on  the  snfagect  of  anathema.    In  re- 
gard to  the  treatment  of  I2ie  devoted  eities  of 
the  Oanaanites,  these  things  are  written,  not 
for  our  imitation,  bat  for  our  warning;  end 
in  order  that  they  may  have  their  proper  in- 
fluence on  us,  we,  being  enlightened  by  tiie 
•pirit  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  must  oondemn,  and 
not  attempt  to  excuse  or  palliate  them.    Yet 
let  the  Imelites  be  weighed  in  an  eren 
balance.    If  the  atrocities  which  thej  com- 
mitted in  war  were  great,  greater  have  been 
committed  both  by  Heathen  and  nominally 
Christisn  armies ;  and  if  Ihe  name  of  God  is 
employed  as  a  ssnotion,  no  war  is  even  now 
undertaken,  even  by  Christian  (so  called) 
nations  against  each  other,  but  the  same 
sacred  authority  is  invoked  as  much  on  the 
one  side  as  on  the  other.    These  lamentable 
facts   by  no  means  jostiiy  the  Israelites; 
but  they  teach  the  impropriety  of  harshly 
applying  to  them  a  test,  and  a  standard  of 
morality,  which,  though  Christ  gave  it,  his 
professed  followers  cannot  endure,  and  which 
those  who  are  not  Christians  in  name  may 
honour  with  verbal  honour,  but  have  .never 
shrank  fh>m  disregarding,  when  war,  cu- 
pidity, or  idiat  is  cidled  glny,  inihuned  their 
breasts. 

As  for  the  use  of  excommunication  in  the 
i^stolio  charch,  it  seems  enough  to  say, 
that  Jesus  Christ  himself  did  not  pronounce 
an  anathema  against  any  one,  but  suffered 
himself  as  an  anathema  for  the  worid ;  while 
the  example  of  Paul  may  then  only  be 
pleaded  as  a  guide  for  others,  when  those 
others  are  placed  in  the  same  position  as 
that  which  was  held  by  the  apostle. 

The  act  of  anathematising  is  a  very  un- 
seemly one  for  beings  to  perform  who  are  so 
frail,  erring,  and  sinful  as  men.  Nor  can 
any  one  plead  an  immunity  from  such  a 
liability  to  mistake,  as  disqualifies  man  for 
being  the  judge  of  his  feUow-man.  And 
those  who  by  dieir  true  holiness  of  character 
approach  most  Dearly  to  such  an  immunity, 
will,  like  the  great  Master  whom  they  resem- 


ble, prefer  blessing  instead  of  enrsfaig  their 
brethren  of  mankhid.  It  is  an  ea^,  though 
a  very  wrong,  thing  to  anathematise.  Per- 
sons who  are  in  the  lowest  grade  of  culture, 
easily  surpass  in  this  unseemly  act  men  that 
are  least  disqualified  to  Judge  others.  Igno- 
rant aeal  may  outdo  the  knowledge  of  an 
iqpostle,  and  tiie  sanotity  of  a  san^h. 

The  Iteonite  dergy  in  the  mountains  of 
Lebanon  have  at  thefr  command  a  fearfol 
word  of  execration -*a  word  that  excites  un- 
bounded horror ;  but  its  use  is  rare.  This 
word,  applied  to  sn  iudividual,  bars  eveiy 
door  against  him,  and  cuts  him  off  from  all 
social  intercourse.  This  word  ^- the  more 
4enible  since  its  import  is  left  to  the  ima- 
gination-—is  frtMHoaum,  a  corruption  of 
>hinc-flui£<m,  a  freemason.  A  Christian  of  Le- 
banon bdieves  that  a  freemason  is  a  horrible 
being,  whose  soul  is  devoted  to  perdition,  and 
who  has  constant  dealings  with  Satan ;  pos- 
sessing a  thousand  means  of  working  mischief 
even  on  the  faithfiil. 

The  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  has  left  an  ex- 
hortation which  the  Christian  charch  needs 
no  less  in  this  day  than  it  did  when  it  was 
first  uttered,  — '  Let  us  not  therefore  judge 
one  another  any  more ;  but  judge  tliis  rather, 
that  no  man  put  a  stiunbling-block,  or  an  oc- 
casion to  fall,  in  his  brother's  way'  (Rom. 
xiv.  18). 

ANDBEW  (G.  manljf\  one  of  the  first 
disciples  —  if  not  the  first — of  Christ  (Matt 
iv.  18.  Mark  i.  Id.  John  i.  40),  and  brother 
(whether  younger  or  older  is  not  known)  of 
ihe  apostle  Peter.  His  native  place  was 
Bethsaida,  on  tiie  Lake  Gennesareth,  where 
he  with  his  brother  carried  on  the  trade  of 
fishing  (Matt  iv.  18) .  Before  he  joined  Jesas, 
he  had  been  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist 
(John  L  85—40).  In  the  evangelical  narra- 
tives, we  find  him  in  constant  and  intimate 
connectioD  with  the  Saviour  (John  vi.  8 ;  xii. 
22.  Mark  xiiL  8).  The  Book  of  Acts  merely 
mentions  him  once  (i.  13)  — >  a  fact  which, 
widi  others  of  a  similar  natare,  may  serve  to 
diow,  that  the  accounts  of  the  early  church 
that  have  come  down  to  us  by  no  means 
contain  the  entire  history:  probably  more 
has  been  lost  than  we  actually  possess.  Tra- 
dition makes  him  travel  as  a  missionary 
into  many  countries,  —  Scythia,  Asia  Minor, 
Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Achaia;  and,  at 
the  order  of  the  Boman  proconsul,  whose 
wife  and  brother  he  had  converted,  to  suffer 
martyrdom,  in  the  cause  of  his  Master,  at 
Patne,  in  Achaia,  on  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  on 
a  kind  of  cross,  named,  from  him,  'Saint 
Andrew's  Cross,'  —  of  the  shape  shown  in 
the  cut  (crux  decussata). 

We  here  give  an  engraving  of  the  full  fi- 
gure of  the  apostle  Andrew;  intending  to 
add  one  of  each  of  the  apostles.  These  are 
all  taken  from  the  celebrated  bronze  statues 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles  by  Peter  Vischer,  which 
adorn  the  mausoleum  of  Saint  Sebsldus,  at 


A  NO 


ANG 


MaicDbav.  The  origliul*  ara  tmo^-ou  u  w«l.  Tha  guunl  oonoeptton  at  dw  B»- 
InchMbi^.  Thej  were  made benrsenAajetn  bnwa  ma,  that  Ood  wu  a  aorenign,  anted 
lAOH  and  1910,  bfVucher  and  hii  &n  aona.  In  heaTen,  auTTonnded  bjr  bii  angala,  or 
To  each  of  Iha  apoiLlH  aoma  diatincd^  nga  mimat«Ta»  bj  wboaa  inBtrnmeDtalitT  he  oar^ 
or  auribola  wia  giien  bj  Chiiatian  art,  <I  a  rled  on  ^e  goreninwiit  of  Ihe  wotld.  The 
dine  when  men  wan  more  wont  than  thaj  rMdar  ihould,  at  lha  fint,  make  a  earaful 
an  now  to  aprak  bj  ajmbola.  BomMiniea  diallnetion  betwean  lha  Habiew  Moloch 
more  attribolea  than  one  wera  giren.  fialut  (Qnak,  AgfAii)  and  tha  ordinaiy  teim 
Andfrw's  altribnie  la  hia eioas.  'angal;'  Itor,  Ihoogh  dia  Utter  ia  sonnaelad 

_  in  ■"""'"B  whh  iba  fonner,  it  iqweamla,  in 

tha  mind  irf  a  modem,  an  idea  dilfovnt  Brom 
what  Malach  etandi  foi ;  raaniidaing  notiDiu 
and  ofoniona  fo' whiah  Hebraiain,  In  ita  aarij 
puri^,  la  br  no  tnetiw  raqionaible.  Feifaa)a 
the  diMiBctian  naj  be  ptaeeirod  by  trana- 
btiug  JfiiiacA  IllanUj,  —  lumelj,  aa  'mea- 
aenger,'— and  bj  adhoing  to  that  deaiguMton 


The  gnat  idea  of  the  Bibla  la,  thai  all 
Ihinga  an  of  Ood ;  —  an  idea  which  llia 
highaat  philoaopbr  approrea,  and  whlah 
the  IntenaU  of  pielr,  no  >ne  than  the  in- 
atinoliTe  teelinga  of  man's  breast,  nqnin 
and  weloooM.  Henn,  a  partioalaf  prorl- 
dmoe  paaeae  into  a  general  prondenoe,  io 


Bj  patting  together  Ibe  evaugeliml  ae- 
eonnU  (Halt.  iT.  18.  Hark  i.  16.  John  t.  85), 
we  gain  the  following  view  of  the  sail  of 
Andrew:  —  Being  present  when  John  the 
B^tiat  deolared,  —  - Heboid  Ibe  Lamb  of 
Ood,'  and  nndentandiiig  this  to  meui  the 
Heaalah,  Andrew,  aa  an  obedient  hearer  of 
John,  Immediately  followed  J  eana.  Thia  waa 
Ihe  eommencement  of  hii  diuiplesbip.  He 
had  paased  from  Ihe  achool  of  John  Io  that 
of  Jeaoa.  HaTing  received  and  proclaimed 
lb*  Unaiab.  he  mumrd  the  duliea  of  hia 
ealliag,  in  ihe  ponuil  uf  nbloh,  on  the  Oal- 
lilieati  Lake,  he  recciTsd  from  Ihe  MaaleT 
his  call  to  the  apoatleBhip,  when  he  gave  np 
an,  in  order  to  co-operate  in  founding  Iba 
kingdom  of  Qod. 

Tfae  calls  whieh  Dnr  Lord  gars  to  the 
apoatleship  were  not  made  indiacriminalely. 
Andrew  had  received  lha  preparatorj  diaci- 
pline  of  John^B  itiBbnctiona,  uad  appean  to 
have  natoraljj  poeeeaaed  a  mind  open  to  Ihe 
lecepUon  of  diviae  tmth.  How  inteteeting 
to  aee  John  oihering  his  own  diHuples  into 
the  Christian  church !  Oennine  bencTolence 
keeps  Ibe  boaom  free  from  the  agitationa  of 
jealou)  rivaltj. 

ANOEL  (O.  nuufli^n'),  a  Greek  word  in 
Engliah  leUera,  which  aianda  u  Ihe  reprt- 
•enlttiire  of  a  Bebiew  term  denoting  out  thai 


HlypaitiDSlBr.beeaDaeilisnniTetaa].  'Tlien 
la  a  apecial  Prondence  in  Uie  lUl  of  a  tpme- 
row.'  BntaimivenalagencTondiepartafOod 
doea  not  exolode  inatmmenta,  otiierwiae  fan- 
man  acta  would  be  mere  abowi  and  illoaiona. 
Bat  if  man,  ao  otlier  beings,  may  be  em- 
ployed in  a  aeries  of  initnimental  canaea. 
Tbaa  the  employment  of  meaaengeia  ia  in 
keeping  with  tha  general  plan  of  creation 
and  proridenee.  Man,  and  all  below  him, 
are  ao  employed ;  why  not  saperior  bainga  T 
But  do  each  exist  f  The  analogy  of  Datore 
givea  an  answer  tn  Ihe  afflrmatiTe,  mjlaaa  it 
is  Ihoughl  probable  thai  the  scale  of  being, 
after  rising  from  Ihe  aoSphyte  thiongh  nnm- 
berless  gradadima,  alopa  saddenly  al  man, 
leaving  unfilled  with  life  the  inflnlle  vaeuom 
which  is  between  man  and  Ood.    Then  la. 


against  the  doctrine  of  ang 

The  great  object  of  the  Biblical  wrilen 
was  to  speak  of  Ood  and  man  in  the  rela- 
tions which  they  bear,  and  in  which  Ihsy 
ought  to  aland,  one  towards  another.  Henaa 
Ood  is  the  Creator,  man  Ihe  creilaie;  Qod 
llie  Sovereign,  man  the  subject;  God  lha 
Judge,  man  the  criminal ;  Ood  the  Father, 
man  Ibe  eon.  Whatever  is  nsednil  to  illna- 
Ijate  and  enforce  Ibeae  relalioiis,  is  recorded 
directly  and  repeatedly.  Eitraneons  things, 
or  things  bearing  bnt  aligbtly  on  these  rela- 
tiona,  are  either  omitted,  or  partially  and 
incidentally  inlrodueed.  Aoeordin^y.  while 
Ibe  Bible  narrates  with  eare  the  creation  of 


uicews  DO  inionDBuim  aS  to  the  origin,  or, 
atrloUy  speaking,  as  to  the  nature  of  God'a 
messengers:  their  eiistenoo,  their  attributea, 
their  rank  in  creation,  their  agency,  an  all 
left  to  be  learned  inlerenliBlly — aofiKaa  ibej 


A  NG 


57 


ANI 


maj  be  so  letmed — from  the  8e?enl  reeords. 
Hence  a  less  degree  of  certainty  regarding 
tfaem  than  that  which  attends  on  the  great 
troths  of  religion ;  and  hence  the  impropriety 
of  dogmatism  on  the  sulgect  At  a  later 
period,  when  oriental  philosophy  came  to 
play  a  part  in  forming  and  ooloming  opinions 
entertained  by  the  descendants  of  Abraham, 
the  4<x^t'^®  o'  angels  was  rendered  both 
more  ample  and  more  definite;  losing,  how- 
erer,  in  credibility  and  aoeeptibleness,  what 
it  gained  in  magnitude. 

Agreeably  with  the  view  just  taken,  we  find 
men  designated  by  the  term  mestenger  or 
angel}  as  prophets  (Hag.  i.  18.  Mai.  iiL  1) 
and  priests  (Mai.  ii.  7.  Ecoles.  v.  6),  in  con- 
sequence of  their  haring  a  dlTine  ofilee  to 
Inlfil ;  and  eren  the  entire  people  of  Israel, 
as  originally  set  apart  fbr  the  purpose  of 
preserving  and  diffiising  the  doctrine  of 
the  diTxne  unity,  is  described  under  the 
character  of  a  messenger  or  angel  in  Isa. 
xliLlO. 

In  a  description  of  the  Almighty,  to  which 
no  other  than  the  Hebrew  muse  was  equal 
(Ps.  cIt.  4),  the  fire  and  wind  are  set  forth 
as  angels  or  ministers  of  Ood :  — 

*  He  makeCb  tbe  winds  Us  meaNQgem; 
Flaming  flie  his  ministerB.' 

The  entire  148th  Psalm  offers  a  beautiftil 
illustration  of  the  way  in  which  the  Hebrews 
animated  and  personified  all  nature — setting 
forth  every  part  as  a  living  servant  of  the 
one  all-presiding  Mind. 

With  this  strong  tendency  to  make  all 
things  in  this  lower  sphere  live,  the  Israel* 
iles  were  little  likely  to  leave  unpeopled  the 
boundless  regions  of  die  unknown;  nor  would 
their  piety  aUow  them  to  be  content  with  the 
abstract,  unquickening,  and  banen  ooncep- 
tion  of  a  God  who  merely  dwelt  above,  widi- 
out  holding  commerce  wifli  man ;  nor  would 
the  reverence  which  enters  for  so  large  a 
part  into  all  true  piety,  permit  them  to  think 
that  the  Creator  himself  incessantly  inter- 
posed in  mundane  and  human  affairs.    A 
middle  point  was  necessary  —  an  idea  which 
would  bring  into  harmony  the  piety  which 
made  God  all  in  all,  and  the  reverence 
which    preserved    his    miyesty    unsullied. 
Hence  the  conception  of  messengers  of  a 
higher  order  of  existence ;  •—  beings  who 
were  less  remote  than  man  from  the  Crea- 
tor;  endowed  with  nobler  faculties,  more 
power,  more  wisdom — in  some  sense,  spi- 
rits; —^  beings  less  strongly  bound  to  ^e 
stem  conditions  of  material  life,  and  able, 
as  well  as,  by  the  goodness  of  their  nature, 
willing,  in  the  execution  of  the  divine  be- 
hests, to  render  suitable  aid  to  men,  and 
oonvey  to  them  a  knowledge  of  the  wiil  of 
Ood  (2  Sam.  xiv.  17, 20 ;  xix.  27).  Though, 
as  compared  with  the  great  source  of  per- 
fection, these  beings  were  not  frree  from 
liMilts  (Job  iv.  18),  yet,  in  consequence  of 
their  high  spiritual  endowments,  they  are 


termed ' holy,' '  saints'  (Job  v.  1.  Ps.  hLuix. 7. 
MatLxxv.  31.  MarkviU.8B.  Luke  ix.  20), 
and  <  sons  of  God'  (Job  U.  1.  Ps.  Ixxxix.  6), 
and,  probably,  even  *  gods  *  (Ps.  IxzziL  1). 
The  last  passage^ 

« God  stndeth  In  tbe  asMmUy  of  the  ndghty; 
He  jndgeth  among  tba  gods  '— 

iUostrates  the  general  idea  of  an  august 
oriental  court,  in  which  the  monarch  is  sur- 
rounded by  his  ooanseUors  and  servants 
(1  Kings  xxiL  10.  Job  L  tt);  who,  being 
hosts  in  number,  worship  around  his  throne, 
hearkening  unto  the  voice  of  his  word,  and 
execute  his  commandments,  —  since  they 
excel  in  strength  (Ps.  ciii.  19—91). 

Having  given  Uie  general  idea,  we  leavie 
particulars  for  the  reader's  own  study;  add- 
taig,  however,  one  or  two  remariLs:— We 
must  careftilly  distinguish  between  the  He- 
brew and  the  Jewidi  conception  on  this  sub- 
ject^ the  old  tiew  which  has  now  been  set 
forth,  and  the  new  doctrine  as  imported  into 
Judaism  alter  the  exile,  from  the  Zoroaster- 
Ckaldaic  philosophy.  From  the  latter  arose 
tiie  distinction  between  good  and  bad  angels 
—•their  qualities,  ftmctions,  rank,  names; 
forming  a  celestial  and  demoniacal  hierarchy; 
beooming  a  sort  of  Judaieal  polytheism ;  and, 
like  all  ^ytheiims,  interfering  with  the  due 
rteognition  of  tiie  sde  Creator  and  Preserver 
of  tiie  universe. 

The  referenoe  to  the  oelestial  hierarchy,  in 
the  New  Testament,  is  sparing  and  occa- 
sional. Paul  speaks  of  the  second  coming 
of  Jesus  (1  Thess.  iv.  16)  as  taking  place 
with  *  a  voice  of  an  archangel'  (so  the  words 
run  in  the  Greek);  which  may  mean  an 
angelic,  that  is,  a  celestial  voice,  —  teaching 
nothing  as  to  the  existence  of  archangels, 
except  the  general  spread  of  a  belief  therein. 
An  angel  of  Jehovah  i^peared  to  Joseph, 
Mary's  husband;  also  to  Mary  herself^  as 
well  as  to  Elizabeth  (Matt  i.  20;  comp. 
Luke  L 11, 10, 26).  In  Luke  i.  10,  the  angel 
thus  announces  hims^,  — '  I  am  Gabriel, 
that  stand  in  tiie  presence  of  God;' — words 
which  may  aid  us  toward  a  right  conception 
of  our  Lord's  language  in  Matt  xviii.  10, 
where,  of  littie  childroi,  he  says  —  *  Their 
angels  do  always  behold  the  face  of  my  Fa- 
ther which  is  in  heaven.'  As  with  (Hbriel 
it  was  a  token  of  very  high  rank  and  dignity 
to  stand  before  the  frMse  of  God,  so  the  high- 
est members  of  the  heavenly  host  —  those, 
that  is,  who  were  constantiy  before  the  throne 
of  God,  serving  him  day  and  night — had 
the  office  of  guarding,  protecting,  and  guid- 
ing the  young;  —  a  very  impressive  and 
beantifnl  way  of  describing,  especially  to 
the  Jewish  mind,  God's  pecuUsr  care  and 
kind  providence  over  the  young:  comp.  Ps. 
xxxiv.  7.   Gen.  xxx.  1,  2. 

ANISE  (a  Greek  word  in  English  letters), 
an  odorous  plant,  not  unlike  fennel.  Its 
fruit  is  employed  medicinally  as  a  carmina- 
tive.   It  was  formerly  used  for  condiments, 


ANN  58  ANO 

m  wmoiulng.     With  the  Greeks,  it  was  «  assembled  llie  Sanhedrim  of  Jadges,  and 

eoaise  common  article   of  food,    saeh  as  brought  before  them  the  brother  of  Jesus, 

gailie  now ;  whence,  in  Matt  zziiL  23,  it  who  was  called  Christ,  whose  (the  brother^s) 

is  spoken  of,  together  with  mint  end  earn-  name  was  James,  and  some  of  his  com- 

min,  as  a  neaily  worthless  tfiing,  on  whieh  panions ;  and  when  he  had  formed  an  aeon- 

the  Pharisees  were  oareftal  to  pay  tithes,  tation  against  them,  as  breakers  of  the  law, 

while  they  neglected  *  the  weii^tier  mat-  he  deUrered  them  to  be  stoned'  (Antiq.  xz. 

ters  of  the  law,  —  Jodgment,   menyi  and  9. 1).    This  is  a  remarkable  testimony  to 

Ikith.'  Oie  historical  truth  of  Christianity;  the  ra- 

ANNAS  <H.)i  aJewiahhif^  priest,inw]u»e  ther,  as  it  fSiUs  firam  the  pen  of  one  who  was 

period  of  dBee,the  fifteenth  year  of  die  xeign  aot  a  Christian,  inadTertently  and  en  paS' 

of  Tiberins,  AJO.  d8,  the  word  of  God,  aoooM-  mmL    Itjahonld  be  mentioned,  however,  that 

ing  to  Luke  iii  1  and  2,  came  to  John  the  Lardner,  and  other  '  learned  men,  of  good 

Baptist    Josephns  (Antiq.  zriiL  2.  1)  in-  judgmenV  have,  probably  witfaont  sufficient 

forms  OS,  that  Cyrenins,  the  imperial  reprs*  reason,  prononnoed  this  passage  an  interpo- 

■entative  in  Jndea,  in  the  thirty-scTenth  year  lation. 

after  Cssai's  lieUtry  o?er  Antony  at  Aotimm  The  reader  will  have  seen  that  the  office 
( A.D.  6  or  7),  baring  deprived  Joasar  of  the  of  high  priest  was  now  not  hereditary,  nor 
high  priesthood,   i^polnted  to  that  office  §u  life,  bnt  depended  entirely  on  the  will  of 
Amias,  who  was  the  son  of  a  certain  Setfa.  the  Boman  officers.    Indeed,  in  the  seventy 
The  office  was  held  by  Annas  till  the  deatii  years  which  preceded  the  destraction  of  Je- 
of  Angnstos  (AJ).  18),  whose  saocessor,  nisalem,  there  were  not  fewer  than  twenty- 
Tiberias,  sent  (A.D.  14)  Rnfiis  to  be  proea-  six  high  priests,  only  one  of  whom  retained 
rator  of  Judea.    Bofus  appointed,  in  place  of  the  office  till  his  death. 
Annas,  Ishmael,  son  of  Phsbi,  who  in  a  lit-  ANOINTING  (L.  oiUng),  a  eostom  whieh 
tie  while  was  forced  (A.D.  16)  to  give  place  was,  and  is  still,  spread  thronghont  the  East, 
to  Eleaiar,  son  of  Annas.    After  one  year  of  of  pouring  or  robbing  scented  oils  on  per- 
office,  Eleasar  was  replaced  by  Simon,  son  sons,  in  token  of  respect  or  gratitade.   There 
of  Camithos,  y/rho,  in  his  tnin,  was,  in  a  is  a  dose  resemblance  in  reg^ard  to  enstoms 
twelTemonth,  superseded  by  Joseph  Caiaphak,  of  anointing  between  tiie  Egyptians  and  the 
son-in-law  of  Annas.    The  latter  remained  Hebrews :  the  latter  appear  to  have  bor- 
in  office  till  A.D.  80,  and  is  mentioned  by  rowed  from  the  former ;  and  therefore  a 
Luke  in  congonction  with  Annas.    The  fol-  brief  statement  of  some  usages  among  the 
lowing,  then,  are    the  high  priests  ttom  Egyptians,  will  throw  light  on  the  practices 
Annas  to  Caiaphaa :  —  ol  the  Hebrews. 

Annas ...  A.D.   T  I   ffimon . AJ).  19  Anointing  was  an  essential  part  of  tiie 

Uhmaal M  I   Caiq^bas  .........  17)  ceremony  used  at  the  coronation  of  a  king. 

^**— ^ .........  16  I                            M)  The  sculptures  represent  the  deities  them- 

Now,  the  fifteenth  of  Tiberius  was  AJ>.  28 :  selTes  officiating  on  the  occasion,  and  thus 

thus,  then,  it  is  dear  that  one  of  the  high  convey  an  exalted  notion  of  the  esteem  in 

priests  mentioned  by  Luke  was  in  the  office;  whieh  monarchy  was  held  in  Egypt    But, 

for  he  held  that  office  from  A.D.  17  to  86.  irtietiier  anointed  by  gods,  or  their  vicars,  the 

But  Luke  affirms  that  Annas  was  hi^  priest  priests,  a  duly  i^pointed  king  was  honoured 

as  well.    Now,  that  Annas  was  sUre,  and  in  with  the  titie,  —  *  the  anointed  of  the  gods.' 

a  public  recognised  office,  after  A.D.  28,  is  "^ith  the  Egyptians  as  with  the  Jews  (Exod. 

dear  from  the  fact,  that  Jesus  was  first  led  xxviiL  41),  Uie  investiture  to  sny  sacred 

to  Annas,  who  sent  him  to  his  son-in-law  office,  as  that  of  king  or  priest,  was  oon- 

Caiaphas  (John  xviiL  18,  24) ;  whence  we  firmed  by  anointing ;  and,   as  the  Jewish 

learn  that  Annas  had  high,  if  not  supreme,  lawgiver  mentions  the  ceremony  of  pouring 

power.    Bnt  it  was  customary  for  those  vdio  oil  upon  the  head  of  the  high  priest  after 

had  held  the  office  of  high  priest  to  retain  he  had  put  on  his  entire  dress,  so  the  Egyp- 

the  titie.    Indeed,  they  acted  coigointiy  with  tians  represent  the  anointing  of  their  priests 

the  reigning  high  priest,  —  serving  as  his  snd  kings,  after  they  were  attired  in  their 

substitute  and  representative,  and  combining  robes,  with  the  cap  snd  crown  on  their 

with  himself  to  form  the  eonncil  of  state  or  head.    The  Egyptians  anointed  dso  the  sta- 

csbinet, — whence  it  is  that  Annas  and  Caia-  toes  of  the  gods.    Anointing  was,  moreover, 

phas  are  mentioned  coi^ointiy  by  Luke.  The  the  ordinary  token  of  wdoome  to  guests; 

three  intervening  high  priests  are  not  named  and,  in  Egypt  no  less  than  in  Judea,  the 

by  the  evangelist,  probi^ly  because  he  con*  expression  —  '  anointed   with   the    oil   of 

sidered  it  enough  to  mention  the  two  extreme  gladness,*  was  folly  understood.    A  servant 

ones,  since  the  others  were  of  less  considera-  attended    every  guest,  and,  when  he  had 

tion,  their  period  of  office  being  very  short ;  seated  himself,  anointed  his  head.    This 

or  because  they  were  dead.  was  one  of  tiie  diief  tokens  of  wdcome. 

Fivesonsof  Annas  came  to  the  dignity  of  The   ointment   was    sweet-scented.      The 

high  priest;  the  last  of  whom,  says  Jose-  Egyptians  were  very  partial  to  the  use  of 

phus,  'was  bold,  and  very  insolent    He  this  Inzniy.     The  odorous  oil  was  con- 


A  N  O  59  ANT 

Gained  sometimes  in  an  alabaster,  some-  enjoyed  bj  onlj  the  rich  and  lomiious 
times  in  a  porcelain  vase ;  and  so  strong  (Amos  yL  6).  Rrinees  had,  as  wardrobes* 
was  the  odour,  tiiat  it  has  been  known  to  so  repositories  of  prepared  nngaents  (Isa. 
retain  its  scent  for  several  handred  years,  zzziz.  2).  These  oils  were  a  regular  article 
One  of  the  alsbaster  vases  in  the  mnsenm  of  trade,  held  and  sold  in  vases,  —  alabaster 
at  Alnwick  Castle  holds  some  of  this  ancient  boxes,  —  which  wers  well  fitted  to  preserve 
ointment,  which  is  said  to  retain  its  odonr,  the  odour.  The  preparing  of  these  migoents 
tJhoagh  it  is  now  between  two  and  three  thon-  required  much  skill,  and  became  the  work 
Band  years  old.  Nor  was  anointing  confined  of  a  special  class  (Exod.  zxx.  25, 8d.  Ecdes. 
to  the  living :  the  dead  were  anointed,  in  aifee-  x.  1.  Neh.  iii  8).  A  very  precious  oil  — 
tionate  remembrance  and  regret,  by  bereaved  the  holy  oil  ^  was  used  in  the  service  of 
survivors.  The  head  even  of  the  bandaged  the  tabemaole,  and  might  not  be  put  to  any 
mummy,  and  the  case  which  contained  it,  ordinary  purposes  (Exod.  xxx.  22,  nq.f 
were  anointed  with  oils  and  precious  oint-  xxxv.  15;  xzxvii.  20.  Numb.  iv.  16). 
ments.  ANON  (T.  tn  one  moment)  is  equivalent 

The  custom  of  anointing  seems  to  owe  to  the  common  words  immediaiely,  vutantly, 

its  origin  to  considerations  connected  with  The  Oreek  originsl  conesponds  with  our 

l^ealtfa  and  comfort;  for,  in  hot  climates,  the  (2trec%,  and  is  translated  by  ttraigfUwajf, 

evaporation  from  the  body  is  so  great  as  to  forihwUk^  immediately;  but,  in  Mark  i.  SO, 

t>e  offensive,  requiring  to  be  counteracted  by  this  word  anon.    When*  ever 'is  prefixed, 

lay  sweet-smelling  odours,  and  sometimes  as  *  ever  and  anon,'  or  '  anon '  is  repeated,  the 

-proves  so  excessive  as  to  mske  the  skin  in-  meaning  is,  now  and  then,  or  now  —  now, 

juriously  dry,   and  to   intexfere   with   the  or  from  time  to  time, 
ixisensible  perspiration,  rendering  some  lu-  .  _  «.  i      ,_ 

1,ric«tiiW8ub.Uncebothn«,M«uiplM«nt  ^:jt^^;;^^J^; 

Pleasure  and  utiuty  were  m  this,  as  m  other  When,  anon,  some  porpie  ray 

cases,  reoonmiended    by  the  sanctions  of  Gives  a  sample  of  the  day; 

rdigion. J8  w,n  »  -hononwd  by  the  ota«w  SS^tS'2k}?'JS'iSi?S?d»,?' 

vances  of  private  life.     Hence,  agreeable  Phillips 

images  are  in  Scripture  borrowed  from  the 

practices  of  snointing.     It  was  no  small        ANTICHRIST  (G.  oppoeed  to  Chriet),  any 

pleasure  that  these  commimicated.  —  'Oint-  power  or  influence  which  subverts  the  aims 

ment  and  perfume  rejoice  the  heart'  (Frov.  of  Christ.    Such  is  the  meaning  of  the  term, 

xxviL  9).    Brides,  after  having  been  washed,  according  to   its  etymology.     Its  specific 

were  anointed  (Ezek.  xvi.  9).    It  was  con-  scriptural  application  may  be  learned  from 

sidered  an  indispensable  part  of  the  pre-  the  instances  in  which  it  is  applied.    Its  use 

paration  of  the  person  for  rare  and  great  is  confined  to  two  Epistles  of  John.    In  the 

occasions   (Buth  iii.  8.     2  Sam.  xiv.  2).  first  (ii.  18),  it  is  declared,  that,  even  then. 

Anointing  was  accounted  among  the  high-  there  were  many  antichrists  prevalent;  and 

est  luxuries  with  the  Jews,  if  it  was  not  also  their  existence  is  given  as  a  proof  of  the 

reckoned    among  the  necessaries  of  life :  near  approach  of  file  expected  second  i^- 

hence  it  is  set  in  comparison  even  with  '  a  pearance  of  Christ    The  train  of  thought 

good  name,'  (Ecdes.  viL  1).    As  being  a  which  the  writer  pursues,  leads  us  to  the 

source  of  enjoyment,  anointing  was  omitted  conclusion,  that  ^ese  antichrists  were  — 

during  a  season  ik  mourning,   but   gone  the  love  of  the  world,  and  the  things  that 

through  as  soon  as  ever  the  grief  had  come  were  in  the  world ;  ^diich,  as  comprising  low, 

to  an  end  (2  Sam.  xii.  20;  xiv.  2.    Dan.  sensual  affections,  as  well  as  idolatrous  prso- 

X.  8).    It  was  customaiy  to  anoint  the  beard,  tiees,  was,  in  agreement  with  the  general 

the  hair  of  the  head,  the  limbs,  especially  doctrine  of  Scripture,  incompatible  with  the 

the  face ;  also  the  clothes  and  the  bed ;  anc^  love  of  the  Father,  and  the  service  of  his 

when  the  intention  was  to  show  to  any  one  Son.   Accordingly,  the  iqpostle,  in  the  twen^- 

a  distinguished  mark  ofrespect,  the  fee  fr  were  escond  verse,  expressly  declares  antichrist 

anointed.  The  sick  were  anointed  in  the  hope  to  be  the  denial  of  the  Father  and  the  Son ; 

of  their  being  thus  restored  to  health  (James  in  other  words,  the  practical  renunciation  of 

V.  14).    Sought  for  as  a  medicine,  anoint-  Christianity.    This  is  confirmed  by  the  third 

iag  was  also  regarded  as  a  protection:  hence  verse  of  the  fourth  chspter,  where  antichrist 

shields  were  anointed  (2  Sam.  L  21).  Corpses  is  defined  to  be  every  spirit  that  oonfesseth 

were  slso  subjected  to  anointing.    Priests,  not  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh ;  in 

prophets,  and  kings,  were  consecrated   to  which,  reference  seems  to  be  made  specially 

their  office  by  anointing ;  and  even  the  ves-  to  that  theorising  spirit,  which,  arising  at  an 

sels  employed  in  the  service  of  the  taber-  early  period,  asserted  that  Jesus  was  a  man 

nade  were  anointed  before  they  were  used.  in  appearance  only,  and  gave  occasion  even- 

The  snointing  oil  was  sometimes  simple,  tually  to  some  forms  of  the  religious  philoso- 

sometimes  compound.    Olive-oil,  spikenard,  phy  which  bore  the  name  of  Qnosticism, — so 

myrrh,  cassia,  &o.  were  employed.     The  early  did 'the  rudiments  of  ^s  world' begin 

riehar   preparations  were  very  costly,  and  to  corrupt  the  pure  doctrine  of  heaven.    The 


ANT 


60 


ANT 


tame  faiila«noe  it  nproTMl  in  fhe  Mrenth 
Tene  of  John's  leoond  Letter ;  where  those 
who  deny  tiiat  Jesns  Christ  is  come  in  the 
flesh  sre  designated  *  deceiTers  and  anti- 
christs.' They  are  said  to  be  nnmerans ;  as 
were  the  originators  and  patrons  of  the 
Onostie  philosophy. 

The  Tery  term  OnoiUciam  exhibits  the 
origin  of  these  errors.  It  signifies  kMO¥fings 
and  its  followers  were  persons  whose  aim 
and  boast  it  was  to  know  every  thing  in  a 
deeper  sense  than  reTelation  had  disclosed, 
or  ordinary  Ghristians  oonld  attain  to.  The 
Gnostics  were  idolaters  of  the  intelleot  They 
atrore  to  fadiom  the  deep  things  of  Ood. 
They  were  not  oontent  to  rsoeiTC  Ood's  tradi 
as  made  known  by  his  Son,  unless  they 
eonld  bring  it  into  aooordance  with  their 
preoonceptionsy  and  make  it  answerable  to 
their  philosophical  processes  and  theorems. 
Facta  were  nnacoeptable  till  they  were  eon> 
formed  to  theory:  the  gospel  must  bend  to 
the  worid.  Even  Crdthe  has  disallowed  this 
spirit:— 

'How?  wheni  and  where}  The  Gods  give  no 
reply; 
Keep  to  bteame,  and  nerer  sdc  the  tely .' 

AKTIOGH  (G.  TtsiMttmce),  a  large  and  fii^ 
mons  Syrian  city,  lying  on  the  riTer  Orontes, 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  Mons  Casios, 
towards  the  north  end  of  the  line  of  coast 
which  forms  the  eastern  boondsry  of  the 
MediteiTsnean  Sea.  The  place  was  founded 
by  the  Neo- Syrian  king,  Seleuons  Nioator, 
800  A.O.  and  was  enlarged  by  some  of  his 
successors.  In  the  Christian  period,  it  bore 
the  name  also  of  Theopolis.  It  was  the  re* 
aidence  of  the  Syrian  kings,  and,  at  a  later 
period,  of  the  Roman  proconsuls  of  Syria. 
In  the  time  of  its  chief  prosperity,  it  was  so 
large  and  celebrated  as  to  bie  accounted  the 
third  city  in  the  world  —  Borne  and  Alex- 
andria having  the  preference.  Many  Jews 
were  settled  in  it,  who  were  under  a  kind  of 
president.  Its  inhabitants  had  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  given  to  self-indulgence.  In 
its  vicinity  was  a  celebrated  laurel  grove, 
denominated  Daphne,  sacred  to  Apollo ;  also 
seven  mineral  baths,  which  point  to  the  vol- 
canic nature  of  the  place :  indeed,  in  1822, 
an  earthquake  there  destroyed  5000  persons. 
The  place  (now  called  Antakia)  lies  in  a 
beautiful  and  fertile  valley,  about  ten  miles 
long  and  five  broad,  through  which  runs  the 
Orontes,  firom  the  mouth  of  which  the  city 
is  distant  twenty-diree  miles.  It  lies  about 
three  hundred  miles  from  Jerusalem.  The 
climate  is  pleasant  and  good.  The  present 
place  does  not  cover  more  than  a  third  part 
of  the  space  occupied  by  the  ancient  city. 
The  gate  which  leads  to  Aleppo  still  bears 
the  name  of  Paul.  Among  the  Moslem 
monumente,  the  highly  reverenced  grave  of 
Joseph,  Mary's  husband,  is  worthy  of  notice. 
The  place  is  of  importance  in  the  history  of 
Christianity.    Here  the  disciples  of  Christ 


were  first  oslled  Christians ;  and  a  numerous 
church  was  formed  here,  consisting  of  con- 
verte  from  Heathenism  and  Judaism  (Acts 
xi.  19 — 26).  Their  presbyter  was  Barnabas, 
who  was  sent  thither  by  the  mother  church 
in  Jerusalem.  Barnabas  and  Paul  —  who 
also  resided  in  Antioch  some  time  —  made 
from  this  place  several  missionary  journeys, 
in  order  to  spread  the  gospel  in  Asia  Minor, 
close  on  which  Antioch  lay,  returning  to  that 
place  from  time  to  time  (Acta  xi.  19 — 26 ; 
xiiL  1,  9eq,$  xiv.  19,  uq.i  xv.  30;  xviii. 
22,S09.). 

There  was  another  Antioch,  called  *  An- 
tioch in  Pisidia'  (Acts  xiii.  14).  Pisidia 
was  in  Asia  Minor,  lying  between  Pamphylia 
(which  ran  along  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
to  the  north-west  of  Cyprus)  and  Isauria, 
on  the  northern  side  of  Taurus  Mons.  This 
Antioch,  originaUy  a  free  city,  was  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Bomans,  and  was  raised, 
by  the  name  of  Cssarea,  to  be  the  metropolis 
of  the  province.  Paul  went  thither  on  his 
first  journey,  togetiier  with  Barnabas,  and, 
preaching  the  gospel  with  earnest  eloquence, 
founded  iu  Antio^  a  Christian  church.  The 
Jews,  however,  raised  the  city  against  the 
^N>stles,  who  were,  in  consequence,  com- 
pelled to  quit  the  place  (Acta  xiiL  14,  §eq. 
60.  2  Tim.  iii.  11). 

AMTIOCHUS  (G.  opponent),  the  name 
borne  by  thirteen  princes  who  ruled  over 
Syria  firom  B.C.  812  to  B.C.  64.  They  are 
generally  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  the 
SeleucidB.  Their  kingdom  eventnslly  sank 
into  the  empire  of  Bome.  There  are  allu- 
sions in  Scripture,  and  in  the  Old  Testament 
Apocrypha,  to  some  of  these  rulers;  on 
which  account  we  here  give  a  few  leading 
fSKta  concerning  them. 

On  the  death  of  Alexander,  misnamed  the 
Great,  his  leading  generals  proceeded  to  se- 
cure, each  for  himself,  such  a  portion  of  his 
master^s  empire,  and  of  the  world  at  large,  as 
he  could  seize  and  retain.  Ptolemy  took  pos- 
session of  Egypt,  and  became  the  founder  of 
a  dynasty.  Selencus,  another  general,  made 
himself  master  of  large  portions  of  Asia. 
Throwing  himself  into  his  ancient  satrapy 
of  Babylon,  he  defeated  the  Medo-Persian 
troops,  in  the  year  B.C.  812 ;  whence  is  dated 
what,  in  Grecian  history,  is  termed  the  era 
of  the  Seleucids.  Supported  by  the  conse- 
quences of  this  victory,  he  soon  became  mas- 
ter of  the  vast  countries  which  are  bounded 
by  the  rivers  Oxus,  Indus,  snd  Euphrates ; 
and,  reviving  Alexanders  idea  of  a  nniverssl 
empire,  he  invaded  India,  and  penetrated  as 
fiur  as  the  Ganges.  Eventually,  he  made 
Syria  the  seat  of  his  government,  and  An- 
tioch the  capital  of  his  widely  extended 
dominions.  In  the  madness  of  his  ambition, 
he  turned  his  desire  of  conquest  westward, 
and,  invading  Europe,  was  assassinated. 

Antiochus  I.  snmamed  Soier  (saviour), 
the    son   of  Seleucus,   was  his  successor 


ANT                      61  ANT 

(279 — 260,  A.G.)*    He  is  not  mentioned  in  under  the  power  of  Antioebnt;  Soopts  being 

Holy  Writ ;  nor  is  any  one  of  the  Selendds  ▼enqoidied.    In  order  to  keep  the  Bomans 

from  Antiochus  Yin.  to  Antiochns.  XIII.  the  from  interfering,  Antioehne  betrothed  his 

Utter  of  whom  was  a  contemporary  of  Pom-  dau^^ter  Cleopatra  to  the  king  of  Egypt, 

pey,  and  the  last  of  the  race.    The  other  six  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  agreeing  to  giro  as  her 

(from  Antioehos  II.  to  Antioehns  YII.)  are  portion  the  oontested  profinces.    The  age 

alladed  to  either  in  the  propheoies  of  Daniel  of  the  parties  pos^oned  the  marriage,  which, 

or  in  the  Maccabees,  and  must,  from  their  however,  took  pUioe ;   when  Antiochns*  by 

position,  as  well  as  their  power,  have  ex-  bis  eondnct,  broo^t  himself  into  open  ool- 

erted  a  great  influence  over  Jewiidi  affairs.  lision  with  the  Bomans,  and,  neglecting  the 


Antiochus  II.  (260—246,  A.G.)  son  and  advice  of  the  Carthaginian  Hannibal,  who 

snccesaor  of  Antiochus  I.  bore  the  somame  had  taken  reftige  at  his  court,  was  sorely 

of  God^  which,  to  the  ears  of  a  Christian,  beaten ;  till  at  last,  being  totally  overthrown, 

sounds  a  shockingly  oflTensive  title,  bnt  wiuch  he  lay  at  the  mercy  of  his  oonqnerore,  who 

msy  serve  to  show  the  reader,  that  the  word,  deprived  him  of  the  greater  part  of  his  do- 

among  heathen  people,  had  no  very  sacred  minions.    He  soon  sfter  periished  in  a  popn- 

or  lof^  import     He  carried  on  the  war  with  lar  tumult    He  aoted  in  a  friendly  manner 

Ptolemy  PhiladelphnsofEgyptyWhieh  he  had  towards   the    Jews.    He  was  followed  by 

received  from  his  fkther,  which  proved  dila-  Seleucus  IV.,  Philopater,  and  then  by  An- 

tory  and  prejudicial,  and  which  he  was  glad  tioohns  Epiphanes. 

to  terminate  by  marrying  Berenice,  daughter  Antioehus  IV.  took  the  sniname  ciEpipka- 
of  hia  opponent;  repudiating,  for  that  pur-  nn  (Ulustrious),  whieh  his  eondnct  caused 
pose,  his  wife  Laodice,  and  giving  prefer-  tibe  men  of  his  day  to  change  into  that  of 
ence  over  her  son  to  the  flrst-bom  of  the  JErpimonet  (madman).    Having  been,  during 
new  espousals.    Within  two  years,  however,  twelve  years,  a  hostage  at  &me,  he  had 
Ptolemy  dies,  when  Laodice  is  recalled,  her  acquired  the  notions  and  manners  which  pre- 
son  reinstated  in  his  rights,  and  Berenice  vailed  in  that  city.    His  brother,  Seleucus  IV. 
and  her  son  basely  murdered  at  Daphne,  anxious  to  have  the  aid  of  Antiochus,  gave 
not  far  from  Antioch.     Laodice,  however,  in  exchange  for  him  his  own  son  Demetrius, 
could  not  forget  the  faithlessness  of  her  bus-  While  Antioehus  was  on  his  journey  into 
band,  whom  she  put  to  death  by  poison.  Syria,  his  brother  was  murdered,  and  the 
These  are  some  of  the  frightful  instances  of  throne  seized  by  Hellodorus,  whom  he  ex- 
villainy  and  revenge  which  darken  the  page  peUed,  and  took  the  helm  of  itate,  170,  A.C. 
of  history,  and  make  the  study  of  it  at  least  of  (Dan.  xi.  21 ) . 

a  doubtM  tendency,  except  to  well-prepared  The  chief  instance  of  his  foUy  was  the 

minds  (Dan.  ii.  48 ;  xi.  6).  war  which  he  undertook  against  religious 

Antiochus  ni.  sumamed  the  Oreai  (22(>—  liberty.    He  fonned  the  insane  prcvjeet  of 

187,A.C.),wasbrother  and  successor  of  Seleo-  making  all  his  sulgeots  think  alike.    In 

cus  III.  grandson  of  the  preceding  monarch,  order  to  bring  the  Jews  into  agreement  with 

His  reign  affected  considerably  the  relations  his  heathen  notions,  he  attempted  to  destroy 

of  Palestine,  and  therefore  is  not  passed  in  si-  their  religion,  and,  by  his  illiberality,  raised 

lenoe  (Dan.  xi.  10 — 10).    The  soft  and  luxu'^  up  against  himself  tiie  most  determined  re- 

rious  character  of  the  sovereign  of  Egypt,  sistance,  not  only  in  Judea,  but  in  Persia 

Ptolemy  Philopater  (father-lover),  awakened  (Dan.  xL  20— -45 ;  vii.  8, 20--26) .    A  crowd 

in  Antiochus  the  thought  of  undertaking  a  war  of  patriots,  however,  united  themselves  under 

against  him.    Fortune  at  first  favoured  him.  the  Asmonean  Matthias,  snd,  after  his  death, 

Being,    however,    beaten  at  Baphia,  near  under  the  heroic  Judas  MaooabsBus;  and, 

Oaza,  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  Ccsle-  after  a  long  and  severe  struggle,  wrested 

Syria,  PhoBnicia,  and  Palestine.    These  he  their  liberty  from  the  hands  of  Antiochus, 

tried  in  vain  to  recover;  but^  as  the  result  who  soon  after  died  in  Persia,  leaving  to  the 

of  his  efforts,  he  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  Jews  the  remembrance  of  an  outrageous  ty- 

Arsaces  II.  as  king  of  Parthia  and  Hyrcania.  rant  (Dan.  xi.  27.  1  Mace  L— iv.  Dan.ix.  24. 

On  his  return  from  this  expedition,  which  1  Mace.  vi.  1.  2  Mace.  iz.). 

had  taken  him  to  the  borders  of  India,  and  *  Antiochus  V.,  Eupator,  snooeeded  (163, 

procured  him  the  false  titie  of  Cfreat,  he  A.C.)  his  father;  being  a  mere  boy,  under 

found  the  state  of  things  in  Egypt  so  altered  guardianship.     He  immediately  made  war 

as  to  think  it  safe  to  venture  on  another  war  on  Judea  (1  Mace,  vi    2  Maoc.  xiii),  but 

against  that  country,  in  which  he  recovered  was  compelled,  by  tiie  state  of  his  domi- 

his  lost  dominions  in  Syria.    The  Bomans  nions,  to  come  to  a  peace  irith  the  Jews, 

now  undertook  the  guardianship  of  the  boy-  In  the  following  year  he  was  dethroned,  and 

ruler   of   Egypt ;  but  Antiochus  held  his  put  to  death  by  Demetrius,  son  of  Seleucus 

ground.     The  latter  made  an  expedition  Philopater,  who  had  escaped  from  Borne, 

into  Asia  Minor,  during  which  his  own  do-  Antiochus  VI.  —  sumamed,  in  Josephus, 

minions  in  Syria  were  invaded  by  the  Egyp-  Godj  and,  on  coins,  ilhuiriauM  BacchuM — was 

tian  general  Scopes,  who  reconquered  the  son  of  Alexander  Balas,  who  had  slain  De- 

diBputed  lands,  which,  however,  again  fell  metrius  in  battie,  having  personated    the 


ANT                      62  ANT 

imfortiiiiala  Eupator,  in  wliiefa  frMid  he  met  antiqmty  of  the  Indian  and  Chinese  ehrano- 
with  support  from  the  Jewe  and  the  Boimana.  logy,  haye  for  some  time  been  exploded. 
Antiochns  maniCMted  a  friendly  disposition  The  snbjeet  of  antiquities,  limited  to  the 
towaids  the  Jews,  and  treated  favourably  the  Bible,  embraoee  whatover  relates  to  the  re- 
Maecabees,  Jonathan  and  Simon  (1  Maeo.  ligioas»  political,  aooial,  and  domestio  life 
xi.  07),  who,  in  return,  eonquered  for  him  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  nationa  con- 
all  the  country  up  to  Damascus,  snd  ren-  nected  with  or  influenced  by  them,  —  oTeiy 
dered  him  other  important  serrioes  (1  Mace,  thing  iHiioh  tends  to  give  form  and  pres- 
xlQO;  xiL  24).  The  young  piinoe,  how-  sure  to  the  Israelitish  nation,  from  its 
ever,  soon  sufTered  deaUi  at  the  hands  of  origin  to  ito  destruction,  and  to  the  early 
his  fathers  serrant,  Tryphon,  by  whom  he  Christian  church.  An  accurate  knowledge 
had  been  put  on  the  throne,  snd  by  whom  of  Biblical  antiquities  is  indispensable  to 
he  was  snoceededL  a  diTine,  ere  he  can  coiiectly  expound  the 
Antioehns  TIL  sumsmed  SidHn  (stany),  general  Scriptures  to  others.  Oodwjrn  well 
ascended  tiie  throne,  haring  oyerthrown  remsilu,  that  many  are  strangers  to  Christ 
Tiyphon.  At  the  first  he  made  a  treaty  of  and  the  apostles,  because  they  know  so  little 
friendship  with  the  Jewish  prince  Simon:  of  Moses  and  Aaron.  From  the  Scripturea 
soon,  however,  he  imposed  on  Simon  severe  themselTes,  if  perused  oareftdly,  the  intelli- 
conditions;  and,  when  tiie  latter  did  notsnf-  gent  student  may  gain  information  on  the 
ficiently  observe  them,  he  sent  a  general  into  suligect  But  much  remains  which  they  do 
Judea,  who  was  beaten  by  Simon's  son  not  and  cannot  teach;  for,  like  all  books 
(1  Mace.  XT.  xvL).  Not  long  alter,  Antio-  relathig  to  ancient  times,  they  contain  allu- 
ohus  himself  inysded  Palestine,  laid  siege  sions,  phraseology,  and  modes  of  thought  snd 
to  Jerusalem,  and  was  near  taking  it  by  speedi,  which  are  either  imperfectly  or  not 
storm,  when  he  desisted,  probsbly  through  at  all  understood,  without  light  drawn  from 
fear  of  the  Romans,  who  were  too  Jealous  to  otiier  sources ;  the  mora  so  as  the  Hebrews 
allow  any  rival  near  die  throne  of  their  were  not  a  literary  people,  and  the  sacred 
power.  He  aocordinf^y  concluded  a  peaee  penmen  sought  radier  to  coirect  errors  than 
withJohnHyreanns;  and,  in  conjunction  with  to  achieve  intellectual  renown.  Very  little 
him,  Antiochus  made  an  expediti<m  against  infoimation  can  be  extracted  from  heathen 
the  Parthians,  which  cost  him  his  lib  (180,  writers,  except  on  geographical  and  kindred 
A.  C  ).  sulyects.    Herodotus  ailbrds  a  little,  which 

This  brief  outline  may  be  accounted  an  may  be  of  service,  in  conjunction  with  dis- 

average  specimen  of  the  kind  of  details  eoveries  lately  made  in  Egyptian  antiquities 

which  constitute  what  passes  under  the  name  ^  discoveries  which  have  thrown  much  light 

of  histoiy.    It  presente  searcely  mora  than  on  Ihe   Biblical   record.  —  7%€  Egypt  </ 

one  ftature  ^  nam^,  the  patriotic  conduct  JBtrodahu,  hy  John  Kwmiek,  M^.  1841. 

of  the  Jews  under  the  Asmonaan  princes  or  Mmnen  «mI  duUmu  ^  ihe  AneietU  Egyp- 

Maccabees— which  the  lover  of  his  species  fions,  ky  Sir  J.  G,  WUkmaom,  1887,  1841. 

esn  regsid  with  satisfaction ;  and  even  here  The  stndy  of  Biblical  antiquities  probably 

he  is  compelled  to  regret  that  force  had  to  enmmeneed  on  the  return  from  the  captivity 

be  resisted  by  loree.  of  Babylon,  when  the  Isrselites  must  have 

AMTIPATBIS  (O.),  a  city  built  by  Herod  found  much  in  their  sacred  writings  which 

the  Great,  named  after  his  fiUher  Antipas,  was  difficult  to  undentand,  though  highly 

lymg  in  Samaria,  in  a  fruitftil  valley,  between  interesting  to  their  feelings.     The  ideas, 

Joppa  and  Cvsarea,  about  ten  miles  from  views,  and  observations,  which  resulted,  were 

the  ses,  on  the  road  which  led  from  Jerusa-  tm^t  by  the  Jewish  docton  for  many  cen- 

lem  to  Csssrea,  snd  which  also  led  to  Gsli-  tuiies  by  oral  communication,  which,  in  ite 

lee.     Through  this  plsoe  Paul  was  taken  course,  was  disfigured  by  ignorsnce,  super- 

when  he  vras  conveyed  a  prisoner  to  Felix  stition,   snd  pr^udioe.    At  length,  in  the 

at  C«sarea  (Acte  xxiiL  26,  aea.),  second  snd  subsequent  centuries,  the  oral 

ANTIQUITY  (L.  Jhe  eondiiiam  qf  hemy  traditions  vrere  committed  to  writing  in  the 

c^)  is  a  word  which  occun  but  once  in  the  Talmud.    Hue  soune  of  infoimation,  being 

Bible  (Isa.  xxiiL  7),  where  it  is  applied  te  traditionary,  must,  to  be  of  sn^  service,  be 

Tyre,  oi  which  the  prophet  reproachfully  used  with  great  caution. 

^■»  —  *  I»  <*>ie  your  joyous  city,  whose  sn-  Joeephus,  in  the  fint  centory  of  our  era, 

dquity  IS  ofsneient  days  f '  thus  indirectiy  wrote  two  works,  JU  Jewish  War,  and  the 

beanng  testimony  to  the  very  esrly  origin  of  jMti^uUiet  q/*  the  Jew  ;  which  contain  va- 

mmioisn  ciyflisation.  hudile  infoimation  in  relation  to  the  manners, 

rue  antiquities  of  Tyre,  snd  other  ancient  eustooss,  snd  opinions  of  his  own  and  pre- 

eities^  nations,  are  lost  hi  tiie  dartness  vious  ages.    The  writings  of  modem  Jews 

or  periods  which  passed  away  before  history  present  us  with  no  infoimation  of  value; 

Dejjn  to  dawn.    The  toidoic^  of  recent  scaredy  any  sound  inteUeetnal  activity  hav- 

^vestagabons  is  ^  throw  back  considerahly  ing.  till  a  late  period,  existed  among^tW 

SSt^.-i^T"'^***''^'***^^'^""'^  i2udel«H>hn,  however,  opened  VwffeU^. 

oulture;  while  the  extimvagant  pretensions  to  beUevew  a  new  era  of  thhSing  wd  wri^ 


ANT                      63  ANT 

vbich  hM  prepared  tbe  way  far  many  ti^  of  the  SaTionr.     The  Engliefa  cniialation, 

luabla  prodnotiioiis.    The  good  reaolts  are  by  the  Ber.  John  Kenricfc,  is  aooompanied  hy 

bnt  just  begiiming  to  appear.    The  leriyal  valuable  notes.     The  reader  may  consult 

of  letters  was  not  without  its  good  effMts  on  with  advantage — JSameaeamniqftheWriimft 

this  subject;  for  it  led  to  the  study  of  the  of  Clement  <tf  jUexandria,  by  John,  Bishop 

dead  languages,  till  the  Beliormation  called  of  Lincoln,  1835;  and  Some  account  qf  the 

forth  the  cultivation  of  the  long-neglected  JVrUingi  and  Opinumt  of  Juetm  Martyr,  by 

Hebrew  tongue.    Not,  however,  till  within  the  same ;  Cambridge,  1829. 

tbe    last    century,  have   oriental    aeholars  The  first  general  treatise  produced  in  Eng- 

brought  forth  works  displaying  a  knowledge  land  on  Christian  antiquity  was  by  Joseph 

of  Hebrew  and  Christian  antiquities,  which  Bingham,  entitled.  The  Antiquities  qf  the 

can  be  regarded  aa  satisfiMtory  in  the  pre-  Christiam  Church.     A  useful  compendium 

sent  advanced  state  of  general  scholarship.  haa  lately  been  published  in  this  country, 

The  study  of  Biblical  antiquities  has  le-  enUded,  A  JUanual  of  Christian  Antiquitiee, 

ceived  the  greateat  aid  firom  the  information  by  the  Bev.  J.  £.  Biddle;  London,  1880,  — 

of  well-informed  travellers  through  eastern  a  work  written  in  a  liberal  spirit    The  fol- 

countries,  particularly  Syria;  who  are  en*  lowing  will  be   found    good  manuals  far 

abled  to  give  a  tolerable  pictore  of  what  popular  instruction :  -—  Carpentef'e  Scriptm- 

these  lands  and  their  inhabitants  were  of  old;  ral  Qeography.    Outlinea  of  Sacred  Mietory, 

permanence  beinga  strong  feature  in  the  ori-  from  the  Creation  of  the  World  to  the  De- 

ental  character.    Many  such  works  have  been  wtraetion   of  Jeruaalemi    London,  Parker, 

pablished :  amongst  Uie  most  valuable  are,  Manntre  and  Cuatome  mentioned  in  Holy 

—  Shouft  Travele  in  Barbary  and  the  Levant,  Scripture,  with  numeroue  iUuttratione  ;  Lon- 

and  HarmefM  Ohtervatume  on  various  Pas^  don,  Parker.     T%e  Mannen  atid  Customs  qf 

sayes  of  Scripture-:  we  must  add  an  invalua*  the  Jews,  and  other  Nations  mentioned  m  the 

ble  work  published  by  Professor  Bobiuson,  Bible;  an  exoeilent  litde  work,  published 

Biblical  Besearches  in  Palestine,  1841.  by  the  Beligious  Traet  Socie^.    Bible  Bio- 

The  earliest  treatise  eipressly  on  this  sub-  yraphy,  or  Histories  qf  the  principal  Cha- 
ject  in  English  was  written  by  T.  Oodwyn,  racters  of  ^  Old  and  New  Testament  ; 
B.D.: — Moses  and  Aaron;  Civil  and  ^ccle-  London,  Parker.  Xmyhfs  Sunday  Book, 
siastic  Bites  used  by  the  Ancients,  observed,  by  Dr.  Kitto,  is  a  large  but  very  interesting 
&c.  4to,  1614;  a  popular  and  excellent  work,  and  well-written  woik,  copiously  illustrated 
which  may  be  stOl  studied  with  advantage,  with  wood  cuts,  maps,  &c  The  same  author 
In  1724—^,  Thomas  Lewis  wrote  The  Ants-  has  published  The  History  of  Palestme,from 
quities  of  the  Hebrew  BepubUc  —  an  elaborate  the  Patriarchal  Age ;  Black,  Edinburgh, 
and  careftiUy  compiled  treatise.  A  work  The  sources  of  infarmation  which  Palea- 
written  in  an  easy  style,  is  a  publication  by  tine  now  presents  respecting  its  antiquities 
Dr.  Jennings,  entitied,  A  Course  4^  Lectures  are  various,  and  of  dissimilar  value.  The 
on  the  three  first  Boohs  of  Oodwyn's  Moses  and  language  that  is  eurrently  spoken  by  tiie  na* 
Aaron,  i7W*  Fleury's  work  (Dr.  A.  Clarke's  tive  population  is  not  essentially  different 
edition)  on  the  manners  of  tiie  ancient  la-  firom  tibuat  which  was  employed  in  ancient 
raelites,  oontaming  an  account  of  the  pecu-  times,  and  has  helped  to  preserve  the  names 
Uar  cuatoms,  laws,  policy,  and  religion  of  the  of  plaoes,  rendered  the  identification  of  mo- 
Israelites,  is  a  pleasing  and  useful  introduo-  dein  witii  ancient  sites  less  dii&cult,  and 
tion  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures.  The  generally  has  been  favourable  to  the  con- 
English  student  may  find  a  complete  treatise  tinuance  ot  the  line  of  transmission  unbroken 
on  Bi^Ucal  Antiquities,  by  John  Jahn,  D.D.;  from  the  remote  past  to  the  present  Man- 
reprinted,  Oxford,  1836,  and  London,  1841.  ners,  too,  and  usages,  whether  social,  civil, 
Those  who  wish  to  enter  more  ftilly  on  the  or  religious,  —  the  entire  oaele  of  the  outer 
subject  should  study  the  original,  of  whidb  Ufb,  as  weU  as  the  inner  man,  made  up 
the  foregoing  is  an  abridgment  A  careftilly  of  thoughts,  feelings,  and  desires,  —  have, 
and  well-written  work  may  be  found  in  The  in  Palestine,  as  in  other  eastern  countries, 
Antiquities  ofthe  Jewt from  €tuthewtic  sources,  a  permanency,  which,  to  a  great  extent, 
cand  their  Customs  illustrated  by  modem  ZVti-  makes  each  following  age  a  transmitted 
veil,  by  W. Brown, D.D.  2  vols.  8vo;  London,  image  of  that  which  has  gone  before;  and 
1820.  A  more  recent  and  valuable  work  so  unites  the  most  distant  generations  toge- 
may  be  found  in  Academical  Lectures  on  the  ther  by  the  strong  ties  of  a  fimiily  likeness. 
Jewish  Scriptures  and  Antiquities,  by  J.  G.  The  natural  features  of  tiie  country,  too,  re- 
Palfrey,  D.D.  2  vols.  8vo;  Boston  (U.  S.),  main  unchanged,  and,  in  speaking  tiie  same 
1840 ;  Wiley  and  Putnam,  London.  Many  changeless  Iniguage,  bear  evidenee  on  too 
works  on  this  subject  have  been  written  grand  a  scale  not  to  be  impressive,  and  in 
by  German  theologians :  Helon^s  Pilyri-  too  minute  particulars  not  to  afford  satisfttc- 
mays  to  Jerusalem  may  serve  as  a  connect-  tion,  that  these  hills,  mountains,  deserts,  and 
ing  link  between  Jewish  and  Christian  plains,  are  those  that  were  trodden  two  tiiou- 
antiquities :  it  presents  a  picture  of  Judaism  sand  years  since  by  the  fiset  of  him  who  died 
in  the  century  which  preceded  the  advent  for  the  redemption  of  the  worid.     Every 


ANT 


84 


ANT 


thing  tttiids  in  the  position,  tnd  with  the 
nlft^Te  betfingB,  required  by  the  nurmtiTee 
of  the  Bible.  There,  on  the  east  of  Jera- 
idem,  in  its  right  ipot,  ii  the  Mount  of 
OliTes,  the  quiet  end  f  ATourite  haunt  of  the 
blessed  Jesus  tnd  his  apostles;  there  — 
down  on  the  western  side  of  this  mount 
—  is  the  moumftd  Garden  of  Oethsemane, 
still  marked  by  its  sneient  oUve-trees.  Jeru- 
salem now,  as  of  old,  is  seated  upon  hills, 
with  deep,  winding  iwrines  snd  distant 
mountains  round  about  it.  £aoh  important 
place  in  its  rieinity  may  be  yet  traced :  ^ 
The  6mA  Tale  of  Cedron,  at  the  base  of  Ottret; 
the  ancient  road  to  Bethany,  by  whieh  the 
Saviour  made  his  triumphal  entry,  '  seated 
on  a  colt,  the  fbal  of  an  ass;*  the  winding 
foot-path,  by  whieh  he  probably  walked  to 
Tisit  his  firiend  Lasams  and  the  sisters, 
Martha  and  Mary.  Solemn  objects  fill  and 
surround  the  holy  city;  sacred  associations 
cluster  upon  the  brow  of  its  Tcnerable  hills, 
and  teem  in  its  deep,  oTcrshadowed  TaUeys. 
Belies  are  even  found  of  the  old  temple 
walls — eydopean  workmanship,  which  may 
well  occasion  and  excuse  the  intense  inte- 
rest with  which  they  are  regarded  and 
watched  by  the  earnest  eyes  of  Israelites, 
who  spend  their  lives  in  pouring  out  prayers 
and  tears  amid  the  desolations  of  their  mother 
eountry. 

When,  however,  we  pass  from  those  na- 
tural features  on  which  the  tokens  of  same- 
ness and  antiquity  are  indelibly  impressed 
to  spots  consecrated  by  tradition,  we  find  it 
neoeamiy  to  become  cautious,  if  not  scep- 
tical. Thus, — not  content  with  fixing  the 
locality  of  great  snd  signal  events,  such  ss 
the  nativity  and  crucifixion,  — •  the  monks 
descend  to  minute  particulars,  which  were 
little  likely  to  be  borne  in  remembrance,  and 
so  throw  doubt  over  die  whole  of  their  aver- 
ments. They  thus  pretend  to  point  out  every 
spot  in  any  way  connected  with  the  death 
and  intennent  of  our  Lord.  They  abow  a 
flat  stone,  on  which  his  body  wss  snointed 
for  burial;  a  pillar  of  stone,  to  which  he 
was  tied  to  be  scourged ;  a  cel^  where  he  was 
confined  to  await  the  preparations  needfbl 
for  his  craoiflxion;  the  place  where  his  gar- 
ments were  divided  by  lot;  another  ^ere 
he  was  derided;  the  precise  spot  where  he 
was  nailed  to  the  cross ;  snd  that,  near  by, 
where  the  cross  was  reared.  All  these  places 
are  crowded  together  in  the  church  on  Cal- 
vaiy,  and  each  has  been  honoured  by  the 
erection  of  sn  altar,  as  have  also  the  places 
at  which  Christ  appeared,  after  his  resur- 
rection, to  Mszy  Magdalene,  and  Mary  his 
mother;  as  weU  as  the  deep,  dark  pit  whence 
the  true  cross  is  said  to  have  been  disin- 
terred. His  monkish  guides  conduct  the 
traveller  down  the  street  leading  from  Pilate's 
house  to  Calvszy  —  the  Fia  IMorota,  or 
« Way  of  Sorrows,'  by  which  Christ  went,  from 
the  presence  of  the  uiynst  judge,  to  the  place 


of  execution:  and,  along  this  route,  they 
ahow  the  house  of  Pilate ;  the  arch  of  the 
Sect  Homo,  where  the  intimidated  governor 
exclaimed  to  the  multitude,  'Behold  the 
man!*  and  the  wall  against  which  Christ 
reelined  when  weary  under  the  cross.  Here 
he  left  the  impress  of  the  shoulder  thst 
touched  the  house ;  there  is  the  spot  where 
Simon  the  Cyrenian  came  to  give  him  aid : 
then  occurs  tiie  house  of  Veronica,  a  noble 
lady,  vdio  came  out,  and  wiped  the  sweat 
from  his  brow :  — farther  on,  is  the  abode  of 
Lasaius ;  slter  this,  tiiat  of  Dives.  Positive 
and  unqualified  credulity  has,  beyond  a  ques- 
tion, hid  much  to  do  with  the  origination 
and  support  of  these  monkish  legencU.  The 
superior  of  the  convent  of  St  Saba,  a  few 
miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  the  richest  con- 
ventual establishment  in  tiie  Holy  Land,  not 
long  since,  gave  the  following  as  simple  his- 
tory:  —  The  cave  which  was  to  become  the 
foundation  of  the  establishment  was  origin- 
ally a  lion's  den,  snd  was  in  the  actual 
occupancy  of  the  monarch  of  the  wilderness 
whtai  the  holy  Saba  first  visited  this  seques- 
tered spot  with  the  pious  design  of  founding 
a  religious  house.  He  was,  in  a  moment, 
satisfied  with  its  admirable  adaptation  for 
his  purpose ;  when  he  walked  into  the  den 
of  the  Uon,  and  told  him  to  his  teeth  that 
it  would  be  necessary  for  one  of  them  to  quit 
the  premises.  The  magnanimous  snimsl 
quiedy  snd  courteously  retired,  leaving  his 
noble  lair  to  its  higher  destination. 

An  unsparing  incredulity,  however,  is  not 
less  to  be  deprecated.  If  the  monks  are 
wrong,  it  does  not  follow  that  we  become 
ri^t  by  proceeding  in  a  course  dlrectiy  op- 
posite to  that  whidi  they  have  pursued.  For 
centuries  they  were  the  sole  and  most  re- 
ligiously trusted  authorities  with  travellers 
in  Palestine.  A  new  era  has  commenced. 
Protestants  are  now  as  comprehensive  in 
their  renunciations,  as  were  Catholics  in 
their  beliefii.  A  scomfrd  snd  mocking  spirit 
displays  itself  even  in  the  midst  of  scenes, 
and  on  places,  which,  to  the  well-regulated 
and  pious  mind,  have  all  the  impressive- 
ness  of  substantial  trutii,  to  whatever  blame- 
able  minuteness  their  claims  may  have  been 
carried.  We  do  not  envy  the  feeling  which 
prcnnpts  a  visitor  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  to 
sneer  at  its  associated  ceremonies  and  le- 
gends, under  tiie  conviction  that  the  church 
said  to  cover  the  tomb  of  Jesus  is  some 
yards  more  or  less  distant  from  the  right 
spot  The  genhu  loci — the  general  cha- 
racter and  inspiration  of  the  place — would 
suggest,  and  can  ssnction  only,  a  very  dif- 
ferent—  a  reverential  state  of  mind.  Nor 
can  we  altogether  concur  in  the  unsparing 
condenmation  of  ecclesiastical  authority,  in 
which  even  learned  Protestants  have  of  late 
indulged.  Much  credit  is  due  to  Dr.  Robin- 
son for  the  fkeedom  and  spirit  of  research 
with  which  he  has  investigated  the  preten- 


ANT                       65  ANT 

tions  of  preralent  traditioiifl.    In  many  ctses  h«?e  paired ;  or  a  female,  so  cireiimstaneed, 

he  has  been  eminently  successftil.    Bnt  he  founds  a  new  society  heneUl    The  eggt  an 

hetraye  a  leaning  against  these  traditions,  not  glued  to  any  fixed  place,  bat  aie  found, 

and,  oonseqnently,  gires  adyene  judgments,  in  parcels  of  half-a-dozen  or  more,  loosely 

tb  a  greater  extent  than  die  cireomstanoefl  attaished ;  so  that  they  oan  be  removed  at 

seem  to  warrant.    No  general  conolnsioQ  pleasnre  daring  hatching ;  which  change  is 

can  be  formed.    Each  claim  most  be  inrei*  accordingly  effected,  as  a  regard  to  temjMra- 

tigated  on  its  own  grounds.    And  the  spirit  tare  may  render  desirable.    When  the  grub 

which  should   predominate  is  a  reverential  appears,  similar  care  is  paid  to  heat  and 

lore  of  truth  —  an  invariable  regard  to  fair-  cold.    The  grubs  are  fed  by  the  nurse  or 

ness — a  determination  not  to  disown  the  neuter  ants,  or  by  the  mother,  if  she  is  alone 

appeal  of  the  heart,  as  well  as  to  give  fiill  in  the  colony,  with  a  liquor  disgorged  from 

scope  to  the  workings  of  the  intellect — a  the  stomach.    The  grubs  are  very  voracious, 

respect  for  the  past,  as  well  as  a  desire  to  When  Aill-grown,  they  spin  for  themselves 

improve  the  present  cocoons,  not  unlike  barleycorns  in  appear- 

A  less  questionable  source  of  information  ance,  for  which  they  were  mistaken  by  early 

Is  found  in  the  traditions  of  die  peasantry,  observers;  whence  arose  the  error,  that  ants 

in  local  recollections,  and  In  long-established  lay  up  in  summer  food  for  their  support  in 

usages.     Here  human  nature  comes  into  winter.    During  that  season,  however,  they 

play,  in  a  less  perverted  ferm  than  when  it  are  torpid,  and  neither  need  nor  take  food, 

is  under  the  ixifluenoe  of  monkish  credulity,  Equal  attention  is  paid  to  keep  the  cocoons 

or  eccleslastioal  selfishness.    The  native  tra-  (commonly  called  onfs*  eggt)  in  a  suitable 

ditions  of  a  country  —  those  that  spring  up  degree  of  warmth.     When  the  ri^t  tfane 

spontaneously  on  ti^e  spot  to  idiich  eadi  re-  comes,  the  neuter  ants  cut  a  passage  for  the 

fers,  and  pass  firom  feiher  to  son,  through  animal   in   the   cocoon   with   their   teeth, 

successive  generations,  as  family  heirlooms  beginning  with  the  head,  —  thus  removing 

— may,  indeed,  gather  moss  and  rubbish,  as  the  outer  membrane.     An  inner  membrane 

they  proceed,  but  are  generally  found  to  have  is    stripped    off    in    the    same    manner, 

a  large  substratum  of  pure,  unquestionable  and  die  antennss  are  disengaged  also  with 

truth.    Tet  even  these  are,  in  no  case,  to  be  great  delicacy.     After  this  liberation,  the 

received  widiout  scrutiny,  or  in  opposition  pupa — as  the  ant  is  now  termed  —  is  fed 

to  good  counter  evidence.    We  give  an  ex-  by  the  indefatigable  nurses,  who  have  indeed 

ample :  —  The  traditions  at  the  country  have  all  the  work  of  the  colony  to  perform.    Ants 

fixed  the  burial-place  of  Moses  on  the  sum-  thus  pass  through  four  states :  —  first,  the 

mit  of  one  of  the  highest  mountains  which  egg;  second,  the  grub,  or  larva;  third,  the 

lie,  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  about  two  pupa,  or  chi7sali8 ;  lastly,  the  perfect  ant. 

hours  firom  the  Dead  Sea.    On  this  spot  there  Their  food  is  not  grain :  for  the  most  part^ 

is  certainly  a  tomb  built,  in  the  usual  Mo-  at  least,  they  are  carnivorous,    ^ey  an 

hammedan  style.    Jews  and  Mohammedans  very  fond  of  sweet  substances.    Their  fa-. 

evidence  their  belief  in  the  truth  of  this  vourite  food  is  a  juice  which  they  procure 

tradition  by  reverentially  offering  up  dieir  teom  the  body  of  the  aphides,  or  plant  lice, 

prayers  with  their  faces  bent  towurds  it.   Tet  which  are  the  milch-klne  of  the  snts.    They 

it  is  firom  the  precise  spot  where  the  tomb  is  are  very  pugnacious.    Separate  colonies  fight 

most  oonspicuouB  that  a  commanding  view  desperately  with  each  other,  apparendy  in 

is  obtained  of  the  migestio  mountains  of  order  to  capture  eggs  and  cocoons,  the  ants 

Moab,  east  of  Jordan,  and,  among  them,  from  which  are  kept  in  slavery,  to  perform 

of  Nebo,  '  over  against  Jericho,'  where  the  die  hard  service  needed  by  their  captors, 

great  lawgiver  died.    Besides,  it  was  not  on  From  this  sketch,  the  qualides  of  ants 

a  moimtain,  but  '  in  a  valley,  in  the  land  of  will  easily  be  gadiered,  —  namely,  diligence, 

Moab,  over  against  Bethpeor,' that  the  Jewish  prudence,  care  for  their  young,  and  regard 

legislator  was  interred ;  and  the  sacred  re-  for  the  general  good, 

oord  expressly  adds  — '  No  man  knoweth  of  The  ant  is  presented  in  Scripture  as  a 

his  sepulchre  unto  this  day*  (Deut  xxxiL  monitor  to  the  indolent:  — '  Oo  to  the  ant, 

00;  xxxiv.  6).  thou  sluggard;  consider  her  ways,  and  be 

ANTS  —  of  which  there  are  several  spe-  wise ;' —  an  example  of  peculiar  propriety  in 

cies — live  in  communities,  in  each  of  which,  a  country  where  the  elimate,  and  the  tem- 

there  are  three  kinds,  —  males,  females,  and  perament  of  the  people,  make  men  prone  to 

neuters.    The  latter  are  also  termed  workers,  a  dreamy  and  contemplative  manner  of  life, 

and  seem  to  exercise  the  functions  of  a  police  to  the  neglect  of  the  more  active  duties ;  and 

in  preventing  the  other  two  from  quitting  so  lead  to  that  disregard  of  the  ftiture,  and 

the  boundaries  of  the  community  on  which,  that  improvidence,  which  too  easily  ensue, 

of  course,  its  perpetuation  depends.    The  from  the  absorption  of  a  man's  faculties 

males,  after  pairing,  appear  to  perish.   New  in  himself.    The  force  of  die  admonition  is 

colonies  are  formed,  by  the  neuters  carrying  enhanced  by  the  writer,  in  Prov.  vi.  6,  where 

off,  in  the  manner  of  the  Bomans  with  the  he  adds,  that  this  industry  results  from  no 

Sabine  women,  individual  females,  after  they  outward  coercion,  inasmuch  as  the  ant  is 

K 


APE                      66  APO 

Mlf -fOTeniad ; — 'which,  hsring  no  guide,  APES  (T.loiautele)  are  mentioned  among 
oTeraaer,  or  ruler,  proTidelh  her  meat  in  the  the  articles  which  '  the  nary  of  Taiahiah' 
aammer,  and  gatbereth  her  fruit  in  the  har-  bron^t  to  Solomon,  with  other  merehandise 
▼est.'  In  the  same  book  (zzz.  24),  the  ant  (1  ^ngs  z.  22.  2  Chion.  iz.  21).  The  au- 
la mentioned  as  one  of  four  things  which  dents  were  acquainted  with  the  difibrent 
are  little  upon  earth,  but  exceeding  wise :  — -  kinds  of  long  and  short-tafled  apes ;  pro- 
'  The  ants  are  a  people,  not  strong,  yet  thej  curing  them  from  Ethiopia  and  India.  The 
prepare  their  meat  in  the  summer.'  partiaolar  kind  intended,  in  the  passages 

These  seriptwal  ezhortatioiis  ars  olnri-  above  referred  to,  might  be  eoijectarally  aa- 
onsly  founded  on  a  popular  Tiew  of  the  eertained,  were  the  locality  whence  they  were 
habits  of  ants ;  and  the  view  taken  is  sofll-  biou^t  beyond  a  question.  The  Hebrew 
ciently  correct  to  warrant  and  sustain  the  name  Kaph  coiresponds  with  the  Greek 
moral  teachings  which  are  founded  on  it.  ^(^wt, —  need  of  long-tailed  apes, — and  is 
The  diligence,  order,  care;  the  prudence  probably  the  Indian  Kt^  The  original 
employed  in  choosing  suitable  locidities  for  word  seems  to  denote  the  animal  wUh  hamU^ 
their  towns ;  the  snbaerriency  of  each  to  the  thus  pointing  out  the  peculiarity  by  whidi 
general  good,  —  all  tend  to  show  the  won-  the  monkey  tribe  (QiiadhviiMiM,  four-handed) 
derfrd  operations  of  iuatinot,  and  to  read  a  are  distinguished  from  lower  animals,  and 
lesson  to  man,  who  would  do  well  to  imitate  by  which  titcy  make  seme  approach  to  man; 
these  tiny  creatures  in  the  IndiTidnal  and  and  thus  the  Tague  and  general  impres- 
aoctal  Tirtnes  by  which  they  are  distinguished,  aions  of  a  primitive  race  may  anticipate  the 
Following,  howcTer,  false  views  of  the  inter-  classifieations  of  advanced  science, 
pretatioa  of  the  Bible,  and  presuming  that  In  Lev.  zvii.  7,  the  *  devils'  spoken  of  (in 
its  statements^  which  regard  scientiflc  sub-  Hebrew,  hairy  omat)  are  probably  the  satTrs 
JeetSy  mustbe  as  literally  true  as  are  those  that  of  the  desert  ^  a  large  ape  or  baboon,  found 
ooneem  the  Christian's  duties  and  ezpeeta-  in  Arabia  and  Mesopotamia.  Other  animals 
lions,  men,  even  of  learning  and  libmlitjr,  of  the  same  species  are  referred  to  In  Isa. 
have  endeavoured  to  make  the  passages  pre-  (xiiL  21 ;  nzziv.  14).  These  monstrous- 
vioosly  cited  harmonise  verbally  with  the  shaped  creatures  were  anciently  objects  of 
recent  discoveries  of  naturafists,  by  denying  wonhip.  To  what  use  apes  were  put  in  Solo- 
that  they  bear  that  import  which  tibey  ob-  moo's  court  dees  not  appear;  but  die  mention 
vionaly  do  bear.     These  paasages  dearly  made  of  them  shows  Uiat  they  were  hi^^dy 

Imply,  thal»  in  the  season  of  plenty,  the  ant    prised. 

lays  v^  food  for  a  season  of  want.  Such  is  APHABSATHCHTTES. — This,  which  la 
not  iSba  facL  The  supposed  grains  of  oom  most  probably  a  foreign  word  in  Hebrew  let- 
teen  in  the  hives  are  —  as  we  have  said^  ters,  represents  coloi^sft,  whom  <  the  great 
eoeoons,  or,  as  tfiey  are  termed,  anltj^;^  In  and  no6e  Asnaper'  brou^t  over,  and  set  in 
winter,  ants  become  torpid.  Am  cities  of  Samaria  (Ezra  Iv.  0;  v.  6)» 

We  deplore  and  deprecate  any  unfonnded  NoAuiKg  more  la  known  of  them, 
pretensions,  which  cannot,  sooner  or  later,  APOGBYPHA  {Q.kUimorwibMwn), — 
ful  to  inflict  an  li^ury  on  religion.  Truth  The  meaning  of  the  word  may  have  referenoe 
is  of  Ood,  and  truth  alone  can  perform  God's  to  the  fket  that  the  anthordiip  of  the  works 
work.  We  cite  a  few  words  on  the  doctrine  so  termed  was  In  obscurity.  Alter  the  last 
of  plenary  inspiration — on  which  the  pre-  of  the  Jewish  prophets  had  spoken,  and  thus 
sumption  to  which  we  refer  is  founded —  brought  the  writings  of  tiie  Old  Test»> 
from  a  letter  by  the  late  Dr.  Arnold,  writ-  ment  to  a  eondnsion,  there  sprung  up, 
ten  to  Mr.  Justice  Coleridge  (2^,  voL  L  duefly  In  the  latter  part  of  the  period  Inter- 
Ik  8M ): — <  Your  unde's  letters  on  inspira-  vening  between  the  doaing  of  me  Old  Tea- 
tion  are  well  fitted  to  break  ground  in  the  tament,  and  the  coimnencement  of  the  foots 
approaches  to  that  momentous  question  which  form  the  ground-work  of  the  Hew, 
which  involves  in  it  so  great  a  shock  to  various  writings  that  were  not  considered  by 
ezisting  notions  —  the  greatest,  probably,  the  Jiews  as  of  divine  authority,  but  were  hdd 
that  has  ever  been  given  since  the  discovery  in  esteem  as  siTording  usefol  and  edifying 
of  the  falsehood  of  the  doctrine  of  the  pope's  materids.  These  writings  received  the  name 
hifdlibilily.  Tet  it  must  come,  and  will  of  Apocrypha.  At  the  present  day,  they  are 
end,  in  spite  of  the  fears  and  clamours  of  generally  found  together,  and  sometimes  form 
the  weak  and  bigoted,  in  the  higher  ezdting  a  part  of  the  general  eoBeotion  termed  tho 
and  mors  sure  establishing  of  Christian  Bible.  They  may  be  regarded  aa  a  feint 
truth.'  echo  of  the  canonicd  writings  of  the  Old 

APELLES  (O.),  a  member  of  the  Chris-  Testamtet.    They  were  orlghiaUy  written  in 

tian  community  at  Borne,  of  whom  Paul  Oreek,  or  were  at  an  eariy  period  tranalated 

(Bom.  zvi.  10)  says  —  <  Sdnte  Apdles,  ap-  into  that  language.    This  feet  diows  of  itself 

proved  In  Christ.'    The  Greek  church  holds  that  it  was  not  nnder  purdy  Jewish,  much 

him  to  have  been  one  of  <  the  seventy' —  less  purely  Hebraio,  Influence  tiiat  these 

adding,  that  he  waa  bidiop  of  Heradtai  books  were  produced.    From  the  time  of 

where  he  tufl^red  martyrdom.  Alasa&dai^  flonqnest,  the  East  had  been  ino- 


A  P  O                      67  A  P  O 

oolfltad  by  die  West,  and  the  apoeiTpluil  Utentnre,  may  be  found  in  die  woifa  of 
books  sprang  from  a  union  of  the  Jewish  those  who  are  tenned  Apostolieal  Fathers, 
Mligion  with  Greek  philosophy,  manners  and  namdy  Barnabas,  Clemens,  Hermas,  Ign*- 
eutoms.  At  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  Judaism  tins,  and  Polycarp.  The  most  sncient  and 
ieeeiT«d  a  new  impulse,  and  underwent  a  renowned  portions  of  the  New  Testament 
new  and  peeuliar  deTalopment.  The  Alex-  Apocrypha  hare,  excepting  a  tew  fragments, 
andrine  Jews  lost  in  Hebrew  what  they  gained  perished.  Among  what  remains  may  be 
in  Greek  inifaiflinoe.  Parting  with  thek  inti-  mentioned  die  Proterangelinm  of  James,  the 
maey  wiA.  Aeb  native  language  and  litem-  Gospel  of  the  Infknoy  ^  Christ — ascribed 
tne,  they  were  initialsd  into  that  of  Plato  to  Thomas,  and  the  Gospel  of  Nieodemus. 
and  Aristotle ;  but  as  they  ceased  not  to  be  APOLLONIA  (G.  cUjf  ofAp<Mo),  a  i^aoe 
Jews,  and  ehmg  to  the  historical  reeolieotions  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  Macedonia, 
and  usages  of  Palestine,  so  they  needed  and  through  which  Paul  passed  when  on  his  way 
ereated  a  literature  conformable  with  their  from  AmphixK>lis  across  tiie  eountiy  to  Thes- 
peeuliar  position.  The  Booka  of  the  Old  salonica  (Acts  xrii  1).  It  lay  about  thirty- 
Testament  fliey  did  not  renounee ;  but  they  six  Boman  miles  from  Amphipolis,  and  was 
read  them  in  a  Greek  translation,  and  with  a  oolony  of  the  Corinthians  andCoreyrvans. 
HeUenised  affections.  Thus  the  canonical  The  name  was  common  to  many  other 
and  the  apocryphal  writings  lost  the  aharp  cities. 

and  definite  distinction  which  the  idea  of  APOLLOS  (G.  deteendtmi  </  ApoUo),  a 
tiie  inspiration  of  the  first  had  originated ;  Jew  of  Alexandria,  —  an  elo<juent  man,  and 
they  came  to  be  minc^ed  togedier,  and  were  mighty  in  the  Scriptures,  —  who,  baring 
diaeriminated  only  by  such  shades  of  differ^  been  instructed  in  the  way  of  the  Lord,  and 
enee  as  eardily  einramstances  suggested ;  the  being  fervent  in  the  spirit,  came  to  Ephesns, 
divine  element  being  attenuated,  die  human  and  taught  diligendy  the  things  of  the  Lord* 
one  enlarged, 'magnified,  and  made  honour-  yet  knowing  only  the  baptism  of  John, 
able.'    In  diis  almost  indiscriminate  regaid,  Proceeding  to  give  his  instructions  in  the 
the  Alexandrians  were  followed  by  those  Fa-  synagogue  there,  he  was  heard  and  con- 
there  who  were  ignorant  of  Hebrew,  the  rather  verted  to  Christianity  by  the  wedded  eoujde, 
beeansediesebookswerepreriouslyreadintlie  Aquila  and  Prisoilla.    Shortly  after,  having 
ekurch,  and  accounted  fit  ibr  edification ;  and  preached  Christ  with  much  effisct,  and  been 
the  Boman  ohuieh,  holding  to  its  own  tran»-  provided   with   recommendations    by    the 
Ifttion,  which  oame  from  the  Septnagint,sano-  Ephesian  Christians,  he  went  into  Achaia, 
tioned  this  error  by  decrees  of  eouneils,  in  niere,  at  Corinth,  he  remained  some  time 
which  these  apocryphal  writings  were  put  on  (Acts  xviii  {24,  seq, ;  xix.  1).    Such  were  his 
the  same  footing  with  the  old  Hebrew  books,  gifts  of  learning  and  of  eloquence,  and  such 
—  a  deeision  which  was  distinctly  approved  were  certain  tendencies  in  the  Corintiiian 
by  the  Councfl  of  Trent.  There  has,  however,  church,  that  he  gathered  around  him  a  num- 
arisen,  under  the  infiuence  of  reoent  theolo*  ber  ot  persons  who  looked  on  him  too  much 
gioal  seienee,  a  disposition  among  the  more  i&  die  light  of  a  guide,  if  not  of  a  master, 
enlightened  snd  liberal  Catholic  divines  to  He  does  not,  however,  appear  to  have  been 
reeogniae  a  difference  as  to  authority  between  blameable  in  this ;  for  nothing  gives  the  idea 
the  canonical  and  the  apocryphal  books.  that  Paul  was  displeased  widi  ApoUos  him- 
An  apocryphal  literature  has  also  attached  self:  on  die  contrary,  the  latter  was  certainly 
itself  to  the  Vew  Testament    Great  hitelleo-  united  hi  friendly  relations  with,  if  he  was 
tual  movemento  hove  a  period  of  degenerate  not  a  dependent  and  disciple  of  Paul  (1  Cor. 
as  wen  aa  a  period  of  genuine  production.  L  12;  iii.  6;   iv.  6;  xvL  12;  —  'brother 
The  one  follows  the  other,  as  the  shadow  fol-  Apollos').    Luther  and  others  have  ascribed 
lows  the  substance.    Accordingly,  in  the  New  to  ApoUos  the  Episde  to  the  Hebrews ;  as  it 
Testament  Apocrypha  we  find  GoqMls —  presents  a  view  of  Christianity  which  is,  if 
diat  of  the  Hebrews,  of  the  Egyptians,  of  not  Panl*8,  yet  Pauline.    The  ApoUos  men^ 
Thomas,  Andrew,  Jacob;  —  Acte  of  die  Apos-  tioned  in  Tit  iU.  18  is  probably  a  different 
dee— the  Acte  of  Paul,  Andrew,  John; —  person. 

Letters  —  those  of  Paul  to  the  Laodieeans,  APOSTLE  is  a  Greek  word  written  in  Eng- 

to  Seneca,  of  Peter  to  James ;  —  Bevelations  lish  letters ;  our  ^anslators,  in  this  instance, 

— those  of  Peter,  of  Paul,  of  Thomas.  These  as  in  others,  having  merely  represented  the 

books,  however,  are  somewhat  diiferent  from  sounds  of  the  original  word  by  corresponding 

those  of  the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha,  —  EngUsh  sounds.   The  term  denotes  properly 

the  latter  being  for  the  most  part  genuine,  erne  who  is  tent,  being  derived  £rom  two 

the  former  not  at  aU  so;  and  only  a  few  of  Greek  words  which  signiiy  to  delegate.    Our 

them,  as  the  Gospel  of  die  Hebrews,  the  word  gmwy,  or  esiftawarfor,  corresponds  most 

Acte  of  Paul,  die  Bevelation  of  Peter,  ac-  nearly  with  the  Greek  apodk,    Ambtueador 

quired  a  certain  estimation  in  the  church,  is  used  in  the  Scriptures  in  a  not  dissimilar 

which,  however,  they  have  not  maintained,  sense  (2  Cor.  v.  20.  Eph.  vi.  20). 

The  natural  and  genuine,  though  much  infi»-  In  ite  strict  and  original  meaning,  apottie 

rioii  continnatian  of  the  New  Testament  denoted  one  of  the  twelve  persons  whom 


A  P  O                     68  A  P  O 

Jesna  choie  to  aid  him  in  planting  his  leli-  Christ;'   who  appear,  fktmi  the  aceoimtB 

gion  in  the  world;  who  were,  accordingly,  handed  down,  to  hare  been  of  that  Jndaizing 

regarded  as  the  teachers  of  the  gospel  and  party  which  desired  to  restrain  &e  gospel 

the  foundation  of  the  chnrch  (Eph.  iL  20).  within  the  limits,  and  keep  its  followers 

Deriving  their  commission  from  Jesns,  and  under  the  yoke,  of  the  M osaio  institations 

being  deputed  by  him  to  preach  the  gospel,  (2  Cor.  zi.  13.  Acts  zr.  24). 

they  were  sppropriately  designated  apostUi —  Those  who  bear  the  name  of  the  apostles 

a  name  which  Uiey  receiTcd  from  their  great  —  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  word — were 

Master  himself  (Luke  Ti.  18).  twelve  in  number,  and  aie  called  emphati- 

From  the  writings  of  Paul,  we  learn  that  cally  <  the  twelve'  (Matt  zzvi.  14, 47.  Maik 
Ae  signs  of  sn  apostle'  were,  to  have  seen  iz.  86).  They  ere  as  follows  (Matt.  x.  2; 
the  Lord  Jesus  —  to  have  wrought  miracles  pomp,  with  Marie  iii.  16,  and  Luke  vL  14) ;  — 
—  and  to  have  had  seals  to  the  ministiy;  Simon  Peter  (1)  and  his  brother  Andrew 
and  these  signs  and  proofe  were  to  be  recog-  (2);  James  (8)  and  John  (4),  sons  of 
nised  by  the  church  (1  Cor.  iz.  1,  2.  Bom.  Zebedee ;  Philip  (5),  Bartholomew  (6), 
ZV.16 — 10.  ICor.zv.S— 7.  2Cor.zii.12).  Thomas  (7),  Matthew  (8),  James,  son  of 
If  these  evidences  were  necessary  to  the  Alpheus  (9),  Lebbeus  Thaddeus  (10),  Si- 
apostolic  oi&ce,  so  slso  were  they  of  course  in-  mon  the  Cananite  (Il)y  and  Judas  Iscariot 
dispensable  to  the  i^stolio  authority,  since  (12).  The  number  twelve  seems  to  have 
the  authority  depended  on  the  office.  In-  been  adopted  not  without  some  spedal 
deed,  there  was  nothing  arbitrary  either  in  reason;  for,  when  it  was  broken  in  upon  by 
that  office  or  that  authority:  both  ensued  the  treachery  and  death  of  Judas,  &e  re- 
from  corresponding  and  needftd  qualifica-  maining  eleven  proceeded  to  elect  another, 
tions.  These  unquestionable  facts  show  Joseph  Justus  snd  Matthias  having  been 
that  the  authority  was  limited  to  the  men  by  selected,  the  divine  choice  was  signified  by 
whom  it  was  first  held.  To  revive  or  to  con-  lot  in  favour  of  the  latter  (Acts  i.  15).  The 
tinne  Peter  or  Paul's  authority,  we  must  words  used  in  the  twenty-first  verse,  to  the 
perform  an  impossibility,  —  tiiat  is,  we  eflTect  that  the  choice  lay  among  those  persons 
must  either  perpetuate  or  restore  their  quali-  '  who  have  companied  with  us  aU  &e  time 
fications, —  all,  not  apart  o^  their  qualifici^  that  the  Lord  Jesus  went  in  and  out  among 
tions.  It  is  in  vain,  Uierefore,  for  any  body  us,'  seem  to  show,  that  this  election  was 
of  men  to  pretend  to  the  power  of  working  prompted,  not  by  any  mere  reverence  for  the 
miracles,  in  order  to  prove  that  they  have  number  twehe,  but  by  a  worthy  desire  to 
i^ostolical  power:  —  have  they  seen  the  preserve  unbroken  the  divinely  appointed 
Lord  Jesus?  instrumentslity  for  the  publication  of  the 

The  word  apottU  has,  in  the  New  Testa-  gospel;  so  that  no  fewer  eye-witnesses  of 
ment,  a  wider  signification  —  being  applied  the  deeds  and  migesty  of  Jesus  should  be 
to  others  besides  the  twelve,  because  of  the  sustained  in  the  church,  than  its  great  Head 
similarity  of  their  office.  Thus  it  is  applied  himself  had  appointed.  In' the  original 
to  Paul, '  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles'  (1  Cor.  choice  of  the  number  twehe,  however,  diere 
iz.  2.  Bom.  zi.  18),  whose  special  call,  and  may  have  been  some  intended  reference  to 
benign  influence  in  the  spread  of  Chris-  the  number  of  the  twelve  tribes  (Matt.  ziz. 
tianity  and  the  formation  of  the  apostoUo  28),  not  impossibly  with  the  view  to  oonoi- 
chorch,  gave  him  a  peculiar  title  to  the  hon-  liate  feelings,  and  the  more  easily  engraft 
ourable  appellation.  Barnabas  also,  the  com-  the  gospel  on  the  law ;  —  a  view  iriiich  mi^ 
panion  of  Paul,  bears  the  name  (Acts  xiv.  derive  confirmation  from  the  seventy  whom 
4,14).  Andronicus  and  Junia,who 'werein  the  Lord  appointed,  with  special  instrnc- 
Clirist before'  Paul,  were  also  'of  note  among  tions,  as  heralds  of  his  kingdom  (Luke  z. 
the  apostles'  (Bom.  zvL  7).  Epaphroditus  1,  17) ;  —  a  number  which  calls  to  mind  the 
may  be  added,  who,  in  Phil.  ii.  25,  is  men-  '  seventy  elders  of  Israel,'  as  well  as  the 
tioned  as  the  apostle  of  the  Philippians.  In  seventy  members  of  the  Jewish  Sanhedrim 
the  Eng^sh  version,  this  honourable  distinc-  (Ezod.  zxiv.  1.  Numb.  zi.  16). 
tiou  is  concealed  under  the  term  mestenger.  The  twelve  were  men  of  the  humbler  dass, 
The  passage  may  seem  to  intimate  that  each  destitute  of  the  learning  of  the  schools,  na- 
church  had  its  apostle  —  its  chief  teacher;  tives  mostly  of  Galilee,  in  part  related  to 
and,  if  so,  then  it  also  shows  how  widely  the  Jesus :  some  of  them  had  been  followers  of 
word  soon  deviated  from  its  original  appli-  John  the  Baptist.  The  rapid  progress  of  Chris- 
cation  ;  though  doubtless  Epap]m>ditns  was  tianity  in  the  world  suffices  to  show,  that,  in 
a  man  of  great  activity  and  eminent  gifts  the  choice  of  the  apostles,  as  well  as  in  every 
(consult  Eph.  iv.  11.    2  Cor.  viii.  28).  other  proceeding  connected  with  the  foun* 

The  influence  which  the  apostles  exerted,  dation  of  the  diurch,  the  highest  wisdom 

and  the  high  consideration  in  which  they  was  employed.    If  the  position  of  the  twelve 

were  held,  may  have  been  the  cause  why  in  sociid  life  made  them  of  small  account  in 

even  the  primitive  church  was  troubled  by  the  eyes  of  their  countrymen,  it  only  served 

'  false   prophets,  deceitM  workers,  trans-  to  display  the  hand  of  God  in  the  spread  of 

forming  themselves    into  the   apostles  of  the  gospel;  while  such  persons  would  be 


I 


\ 


A  P  O  69                      A  P  O 

fen  wedded  to  their  prejudices,  and  more  xiii.  1, 10;  zxiL  15.  Luke  tL  17;  Till.  9 ;  zii. 

raul J  to  receire  new  impressions,  than  phi-  41;  xviL5*  Acta  L  21).    Personal  peonliari- 

losoplier  or  priest ;  and  would  at  the  same  ties  seem  to  haTereoommended  to  his  special 

time  serve  as  the  least  unfit  channel  that  earth  leg^ard  three  out  of  the   tweWe,  —  Peter, 

oAfeved,  for  conveying  to  mankind  pure  and  John,  and  James  the  elder  (Matt  zrii.  1) ; 

onpoDuted  the  doctrines  and  the  spirit  of  their  while  all  tiie  apostolic  body  indiscriminately 

divine  Master.    Nor  were  they,  though  poor,  leceived  from  Jesus  the  lUlest  instruction, 

nnobaerraat  of  the  signs  of  tiie  times,  nor  the  readiest  attention  to  their  questions  and 

indisposed  to  follow  the  best  lights  which  the  .  spiritual  state,  and  the  kindest  sympathies 

age  afforded,  as  the  adherence  of  some  of  them  in  relation  to  the  bereayement  and  sorrow  in 

to  the  Baptist  proves.    They  were,  to  all  ap-  which  his  death  would  leave  them ;  nor  is  it 

pearanee,  men  who  were  looking  and  waiting  difficult  to  learn  in  the  Gospels  how  much 

irith  more  than  ordinary  earnestness  and  veneration  and  love  our  Lord  conciliated  from 

Mtelligence  fbr  <  the  consolation  of  Israel'  them  towards  himself  personally.    £ven  in 

(Luke  iL  26).  his  own  lifetime  they  were  employed  by  their 

The  apostles  were  abend  of  brothers,  hav-  Master  in  preaching  the  kingdom  of  Qod, 

in|p  no  head  and  no  superior  but  one,  Christ:  having  been  especially  equipped  by  him  for 

they  were  not,  indee<C  free  from  ambition,  this  important  work  (Luke  ix.  1). 

bat  its  elaims  were  discouraged;  and  though  The  chief  and  proper  groimd  of  their  at^ 

a  preference  was  given  to  Peter,  as  being  tide  tachment  to  Christ  lay  in  their  recognition 

rock  on  which  the  church  was  to  be  built,  of  him  as  the  Messiah,  though  the  full  im- 

this  had  for  its  reason  nothing  else  than  the  port  of  that  term  their  Jewish  preconceptions 

fLne  personal  qualities  which  made  his  infln-  prevented  them  from  comprehending,  even 

ence  so  decided  and  so  beneficial,  while  all  during  a  period  of  direct  instructions  from 

saperiorityofnameorrankwasdisallowedand  the  lips  of  Jesus,  whicih  lasted  for  a  long 

rebuked  by  the  Founder  and  Lawgiver  of  the  period ;    nor   did    the   clouds   pass    away 

church  (Matt  xvi.  18;  zviii.  16;  zz.  20,  seq.).  from  their  minds  till  the  death,  the  resur- 

At  an  early  period  the  apostles  were  made  rection,  and  the  ascension  of  Jesus,  as  well 

acquainted  by  their  Lord  with  the  momen-  as  the  fulfilment  of  his  promise  in  the  gift 

tons  importance  of  their  perilous  undertaking  of  the  Holy  Spirit — until  these  facts  shed 

<Matt  X.  16,  se^.  Luke  xiv.  26,se^.)  >  luid  light  around  them,  in  which  they  might  read 

thou|^  they  did  not  by  any  means  foUy  com-  and  underatand  the  histoiy  and  purposes  of 

prehend  Ids  instructions,  nor  seize  the  spirit  their  Teacher  and  Lord  (Matt  xvi  21,  22 ; 

of  his  mission,  yet  have  we,  in  the  fact  that  zvii.  17;  xz.  20,  teq,  Luke  iz.  M,  aeq.  j  xiL  41, 

they  were  not  favoured  with  any  special  and  9eq. ;  xvii.  5,  $eq, ;  xxiv.  21.  John  xvi.  12,  aeq, ; 

peculiar  communications,  an  assurance  that  Acts  L  (i,9eq,f  iL  17,  $eq.;  iii  18).   Unaware 

Jesus  divulged  not  to  the  favoured  few  an  eso-  of  the  real  nature  of  Christf  s  office  as  the  Sa- 

teric  ( inner  or  secret)  doctrine,  while  the  un-  viour  of  the  worid,  and  expecting  that  he  would 

initiated  many  were  left  with  mere  exoteric  in  his  lifetime,  sooner  or  later,rise  triumphant 

(outer, public)  superficialities;  andinconse-  over  lus  enemies,  and  assume  a  constantly 

quence  that  Jesus,  while  thus  favourably  dis-  widening  temporsl  dominion,  the  apostles 

tinguished  from  most  heathen  philosophers^  were  overwhelmed  with  sorrow  and  struck 

studied  simplicity,  madehis  religion  an  essen-  with  dismay  at  his  death,  which  seemed  to  put 

tially  popular  system,  gave  no  countenance  a  period  to  their  hopes :  they  accordingly  all 

to  the  secret  mysteries  afi)ected  in  corrupt  j»e-  forso<A  him  and  fled,  leaving  the  care  of  Uieir 

nods  of  his  church,  nor  laid  any  foundation  living  Lord  to  a  few  faithfiil  women,  and  the 

for  a  peculiar  order  of  exclusively  privileged  care  of  his  corpse  to  Joseph  of  Aiimathea. 

expoundere  of  gospel  truth.  At  the  same  time,  Well-guaranteed  assurances,  however,  of  his 

the  apostles  had  eveiy  needful  opportonity  having  risen  firom  the  dead,  brought  the  apos- 

for  hearing  the  doctrines  and  seeing  the  deeds  ties  gradually  together  again :  and  we  shortly 

of  Christ,  so  that  they  might  have  sufficient  after  find  them  taking  step»w^  fill  up  the  va- 

knowledge  to  make  them  trustworthy  preach-  oancy  in  their  body  which  the  death  of  Judaa 

era  of  the  word  of  life.    They  were,  indeed,  had  occasioned,  thus  pr^aring  for  that  great 

the  constant  companions  of  their  Master  work  on  which  they  soon  entered,  and  in  the 

in  his  missionary  tours,  in  his  visits  to  the  proseoution  of  which  they  sacrificed  their  all, 

festivals  at  Jerusalem,  when  he  addressed  not  regarding  even  life  dear  for  the  sake  of 

the  multitude,  when  he  discoureed  with  the  Christ    Sudh  a  series  of  events  as  that  of 

learned  of  the  land,  or  when  he  withdrew  which  we  have  now  given  the  barest  outline, 

into  privacy:  the  whole  course  of  his  teach-  is  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of  the  world, 

ing,  his  entire  manner  of  life,  were  open  and  and  is  from  fint  to  last  full  of  evidence  to 

known  to  them,  so  that  they  could  not  be  sustain  and  illustrate  the  truth  of  Christi- 

mistaken  as  to  the  fint,  nor  deceived  as  to  anity,  as  well  as  of  suggestion,  admonition, 

the  second.   They  had  the  most  ample  oppor-  example,  and  impulse,  for  the  edification  of 

tunities  for  knowing  of  his  doctrine  whether  the  believer. 

|t  were  of  God,  as  weU  as  what  manner  of  The  general  operation  of  the  axK>sdes  has 

person  Jesus  himself  was  (Matt  v.  1 ;  zii.  2 ;  been  noticed  in  the  account  given  of  the  Book 


.i\ 


APO 

of  AMi.HldlIiBlilndlTiiliuJlilitoi7  udcliar- 
ttrmltj  bMT :  ho*  It  will 

To  *  dM  twib*,'  in  aaqjnnotfon  with  Ota 
i^Mtla  Puil,  dia  worid  ■    '    ■  ■     ■  ' 
diriM  PioTtAton)  tat 


70 


APP 


'  IA«  qiodiMwy'  mmtioind  u  on*  of  a  wall- 
kuovn  chua  of  men,  hanug  putieolu  ftino- 
tkmi*.  Tbeii  biuinsM  wu  to  '  compoand 
•Hording  to  Ihe  MUbli«hed  rnlai 
ot  thw  ut  (Eiod.  m.  38,  Sa  i  zxxriL  3&. 
EmL  k.  1).  It  *u  toi  raligioiu  poipou*, 
lumelj,  (br  (iioiiitiiig  aad  inooiiH,  that '  iLa 
after  the  ait  of  Ilia  apolbMUy' 
Tha  'piipoipal  apioea,'  'pora 


»  QnlTwaalpraralaneaof  IhagoapdamMa     'aauia,' 


■cd  wa  are  IMK  at  libanj  lo  indalga  in  ao(v«e- 
ura.  Tba  opinion,  thai  tbajmadaamot^sl 
llienualTea  a  foiOMl  dMaioD  of  Ilia  diDaasd 
world,  rgata  on  IW  IbandatfoB.  Wa  eanool 
bnt  t«(pM  Oiat  a«r  knowladga  1*  n^  limliad : 
in  regiud  to  Oa  gnata'  nnnbar  of  tham,  wa 
know  Uttla  of  Ilia  pnniaa  elnla  in  wliidi  lliaj 
wan  Ud  to  work;  and  amid  (be  alalma  A 
Tinltj  and  tha  inTaoliona  of  waaknaaa  on 
thia  poinl,  it  bAoraa  dw  atadent  to  ba 


witiam 


•  •aay 


bare  lo  l>a  bordanad  wiOi  enor  than  lo  And 
■ha  tiulh.  Tba  wiping  and  die  indoanoa, 
bowavar,  of  aoma  of  tha  apfialiaa,  are  pre- 
aerred  tmdar  the  nuat  tnut-worthf  gnann- 
taaa ;  and  in  Iha  hiatorj  of  Paul,  Peter,  Jamea, 
and  Jolu,  wa  hare  Aill  and  minaie  partisn- 
lart  to  enable  oa  to  tnuie  the  &nt  plaoliug 
of  Chiiatiaiuir,  and  ao  to  leant  (hat  die  fixm- 
dation  ii  aolid  on  iriiich  our  fkith  and  lii^ie 
an  bnilL  In  a  Yerj  epecial  manner  mnat  it 
ba  allowed  Ihal  mankind  ii  under  obligalioiia 
to  die  goalie  Paul,  noi  onl  j  for  tha  aingmlir 
•aiargT  of  hia  ohancler,  hie  patiaDee  under 
wfcringa,  andhiannwaarjing  laal ;  not  only 
far  Iha  ampte  aoaeaaa  irtiiofa,  with  die  aid  of 
A«  Holy  Spirit,  be  lamd  in  hi*  nlaaiDnai; 
lahown;  Irnt  ^ao,  and  cihiallj,  ba<««ae  hla 
w*a  Iha  mind  wbicii  flntaaiiad  tha  real  ipirit 
af  the  gospel,  aa  a  boon,  not  to  tha  Jewi,  bnt 
to  tba  worid;  and,  woiUng  oat  Iba  oo>aa> 
qnenaaa  ot  diat  gnat  idea  in  bl«  own  aonl, 
ha  gna  dl  hia  noUe  powera  I 


nl  thlnga  of  Ihe  primi 
tire  ehordi,  none  paihapa  aupaaaaa  the  fMt 
Aat  dia  apteit  of  Jaana,  aa  die  B«i  of  Ood 
and  Aa  Barimu'  i^  mankind,  was  fint  and 
beat  oompraboided,  aa  well  aa  aSbatnallr  aat 
totb,  bja  eonToited  Fhadaae. 

AFOTHECABT  (Q.  ow  «»o  lupt  a  tkip 


iplojed  in  making  ■  Ihe  o3 
of  holj  oinlmant,'  wherewith  Iha  fnniitiin 
and  vuaala  of  Ihe  tabemaole  were  anointed, 
and  «4iich  no  one  might  imitate  (EuxL  xzx. 
S3,  Kq.).  The  making  of  tha  ointmeuta  and 
ineaoaa  ftn  Ihe  poUio  vorahip,  wa*  in  the 
handa  of  Ibe  prieata  (1  Chroo.  ii.  80)  j  and 
probablf  thejalao  made  Iba '  aveel  odoon  and 
diTata  kiuda  of  ^ieea,'  bomt  and  emidojed 
In  embalming  on  Ihe  death  ol  men  of  rank 
(aciuan.iii.14.  EMk-niT.lO).  Thebiui- 
naaa  eoold  not  hara  been  ooufined  to  Ihe 
aaand  order,  aa  In  1  8am.  TiiL  13  wa  ivad 

ttcmariaa.*  One  pan  of  the  ait  waa  to  make 
purfmnea  for  die  pentn  (laa.  Ini.  VJ,  and  to 
apiee  wine  for  drinking  (Cant  Tiii.  S). 

Apolhaeariaa,  aa  oonnHled  with  Ihe  ait  of 
healing,  hsTe  olwaja  been  held  in  high  eati- 
matlon.  Tbeir  bDaioeaa  too,  involTing,  aa  it 
doea  lo  the  nntntored,  no  email  degree  of 
mjater^,  aerrad  to  conoiliale  lowanla  (heni  a 
large  degree  of  teipeet.  ll  waa  not,  haw- 
erer,  eiclmiTel;  in  drnga  and  medicine  that 
the;  dealt.  Their  bnaineaa  united  that  of 
the  modem  gioeer  with  that  <rf  our  draggiaL 
The  ^othecai;  atiU  has  hia  alatton  in  Ihe 
Eaatem  baaaai.     In  Damaaon*  tba  abopa  of 


Habraw  teim.  aigni^ring  to  CDD^nnJ  or  pnt 
togadktr  dniga  and  apieae  (  an  art  iriiioh  Aa 


•atdln^,«a  aari;  a*  Kxod.  n 


APP 


71 


A  QU 


tribanal  to  another,  with  a  view  to  obtain  jas- 
tiee.  Thofl  Paul,  when  standing  before  the 
tiibimal  of  Festos,  in  danger  of  his  life,  aaid, 
'I  appeal  onto  Cmm*  (Aets  zzr.  11 ;  zzriii 
19).  And  though  the  appeal  waa  tram  mo- 
notheisto  to  an  idolater,  from  men  of  his 
own  nation  to  the  moneter  Nero,  Paul  and 
his  eanse  were  benefited  by  die  step.  The 
Boman  law  provided,  that,  U  any  magistrate 
wished  to  seoarge  or  pat  to  death  a  Boman 
eitiien,  tiie  aooosed  party  mig^t  reCsr  his 
evise  to  ^e  Boman  people;  which  eonrse 
shonld  protect  him  from  pmiiahment,  mitO 
the  people  had  eome  to  a  deteimination  in 
his  case.  On  the  establishment  of  the  im- 
perial throne,  the  appellant  power  of  the 
peoj^e  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  empe- 
rors. Henee  was  it  that  PUny  sent  to  Borne 
tiiose  OhiistianB  of  Asi*  llinor,  who,  in  his  le- 
gal proeeedings  against  the  disciples,  proved 
to  be  Boman  citizens.  Henee  also  Paul's 
appeaL 

APPEASE  (L.  lo  bring  to  peace),  —  The 
Greek  signifies  to  eet  down,  to  tranquiUite, 
Thos,  in  Acts  six.  85,  '  When  the  town-clerk 
had  appeased  the  people ;'  in  the  next  Terse 
flie  same  word  is  nsed^'Te  on^t  to  be 

APPn  FOBUM  (L.  the  Biatket-fkute  (if 
Jppku),  —  A  place  named  after  the  Boman 
Appins  Glaadios  Csens,  the  constmctor  of 
the  celebrated  Via  Appia,  or  Appianroad, 
that  led  firom  Bome  in  a  soath-easterly  direc- 
tion ;  on  whidi,  abont  three  miles  firom  the 
city,  lay  Appii  Forum,  having  Tree  Tabem«», 
*  the  Three  Taverns,'  somewhat  higher  np  to- 
wards the  city,  on  the  same  high  road.  To 
these  spots  came  members  of  the  church  at 
Bome,  to  meet  the  apostle  Panl,  as  he  pro- 
ceeded towards  that  city,  to  take  his  trial 
before  Cesar.  When  the  apostle  saw  the 
brethren,  finding  that  he  shonld  not  be  wi&- 
out  sympathy  and  sapport  in  the  great  centre 
of  heathen  darkness,  superstition,  cruelty, 
aiHl  lice,  *he  thanked  Ood,  and  took  cou- 
rage' (Acts  zxviiL  16).  It  is  worthy  of  notice, 
as  conflrmatoiy  of  the  truth  of  the  account,  that 
the  words  are  obviously  from  the  lips  of  one 
who  was  travelling  towards  Bome,  and  there- 
fore of  Panl  or  Luke,  an  eye-witness;  since 
the  writer  mentions  Appii  Forum  before '  the 
Three  Taverns,' just  as  he  met  with  them  on 
Us  way  to  the  city.  These  small  coincidences 
ate  among  the  most  satis&ctory  proofs 

APPLE-TBEE  (H.  21i|»pvaA).  — That  the 
apple-tree  and  its  fmit  were  known  in  Pales* 
tine  from  an  early  period,  appears  certain. 
A  sufficient  evidence  is  aiTorded  by  the  fact, 
fhat  plaees  took  their  names  firom  being 
spots  where  apple-trees  grew  (Josh.  xii.  17 ; 
XT.  84).  In  Joel  i.  12,  <the  apple-tree' 
is  mentioned  with  other  fruit-trees  as  being 
withered  in  the  general  drought  In  Sol. 
Song,  ii.  8,  we  read  —  'As  the  apple-tree 
among  the  trees  of  the  wood,  so  is  my  be- 
loved among  the  sons.'    Here  it  is  an  image 


of  beauty,  and  consequently  the  apple-treet 
of  Palestine  were  distinguished  for  diat  q[ua- 
lity.  The  aromatic  odour  of  the  apple  is 
alluded  to  in  Sol.  Song,  vii.  8 ;  see  also  viiL  0, 
vdiere  the  tree  aiTords  a  shade.  Pror.  zzr. 
11,  offers  a  striking  imsge  — '  apples  of  gold 
in  curiously  wrought  silver  baskets,' — the 
golden  colour  of  the  apple  being  well  set  off 
and  heightened  by  the  sheen  of  the  sihrer, 
especially  as  seen  throu^  the  open  woriE  of 
the  basket 

Some  commentators  have,  without  suffi- 
cient reason,  thought  the  citron  to  be  the 
fruit  meant  in  these  passages. 

The  apple-tree  still  grows  in  Palestine, 
llie  frnit  of  the  Syrisn  apple  is  described  as 
having  a  very  agreeable  odour.  In  the  Tal- 
mud, frequent  reference  is  made  to  the  cul- 
tivation ci  the  apple -tree. 

Josephns,  after  speaking  of  the  eonllagra- 
tionof  die  plain  of  Sodom,  remsiks  that  apples 
still  grow  there,  which  resemble  edible  frnits 
in  colour,  but,  in  being  plucked  with  the 
hands,  are  dissolved  into  smoke  and  ashes. 
Near  that  bituminous  lake  where  Sodom 
stood.  Dr.  BoWnson  found,  at  Ain  Jidy,  a 
tree,  called  by  the  Arabs  bither,  that  grows 
only  in  these  parts,  the  fruit  of  which  greatly 
resembles  a  large  smooth  apple  or  orange, 
hanging  in  dusters  three  or  four  together, 
of  a  yellow  colour  when  ripe;  delicious  to 
the  eye,  soft  to  the  touch.  On  being  pressed 
or  struck,  the  qpparent  apple  explodes  with 
a  pnfl^,  like  a  bladder,  leaving  in  the  hand 
oidy  ttie  shreds  of  the  thin  rind  and  a  few 
fibres.  The  fruit  is  filled  chiefly  with  air, 
which  gives  it  the  round  form.  In  the  cen* 
tre  a  small  slender  pod  runs  through  it  from 
the  stem,  and  is  connected  by  diin  filaments 
wi^  the  rind.  The  pod  contains  a  small 
quantity  of  fine  silk  with  seeds,  like  the  pod 
of  the  silk-weed,  thougfhinuch  smaller.  The 
Arabs  collect  the  sUk,  and  twist  it  into 
matches  for  their  guns,  preferring  it  to  the 
common  match  beiBause  it  is  combustible 
without  sulphur.  The  trunks  of  these  trees 
are  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter;  the 
whole  height  trcim  ten  to  fifteen  feet  The 
tree  has  a  grayish  cork-like  bark,  with  long 
oval  leaves;  and,  in  its  general  appearance,  it 
might  be  taken  for  a  gigantio  perennial  spe* 
oies  of  the  milk-weed  or  sOk-weed,  found  in 
the  nordiem  parts  of  the  American  states. 
If  a  branch  is  broken  olT,  it  discharges  a 
milky  fluid.  With  some  allowance  for  the 
marvirilous,  the  fruit  of  the  Ssher  strikingly 
corresponds  with  the  account  given  by  Jose- 
phns. 

AQUILA  (L.  an  eagle). — A  Jew,  bom  in 
Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  whence  he  removed  to 
Bome,  where  probably  he  embraced  Chris- 
tianity. From  this  place  he,  with  his  wife 
Priscilla,  and  their  feUow-belierers,  were  dri- 
ven about  the  year  A.  D.  49,  by  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  under  the  name  of  Jews,  and  under 
the  pretext  that,  Chrest  (a  dlflersnt  pronoun- 


A  Q  CJ  72  A  R  A 

eiadon  for  Christ)  Lmpelliiig  them,  they  wen  which  was  so  stiicUy  Mossio  as  that  of  tfao 

coostantfy  miking  distuihttaees ;  in  whieh  Nazsrite,  exoepi  under  peculiar  ciroomstaa- 

ehazge,  it  is  easy  to  see  an  enemy's  yersion  ces,  such  as  are  explained  in  Acts  xxi.  24. 

of  the  UiBt  that  the  Christisn  chnxdi  at  Borne  These  considerations  seem  rather  to  throw 

was  lealoos  and  perserering  in  the  exten-  the  prohahility  on  the  side  of  Aqnila,  who, 

sion  of  the  kingdom  of  God.    From  Borne,  as  a  banished  man,  may  haye  had  reasons  of 

Aqnila  went  to  Corinth,  where  he  foimed  an  his  own  for  tsking  a  oiyil  or  religions  yow 

intimate  acquaintance  with  the  apostle  Panl,  of  some  kind.    It  mskes  in  fayour  of  this 

who  took  up  his  residence  in  Aqidla's  abode,  yiew,  that  the  usual  order  of  the  words '  Aqui- 

aad  worked  there  at  their  common  trade  of  la  and  Priseilla'  is  here  inyerted,  apparently 

tent-making  (Acts  xyiii.  2, 8).  The  religious  widi  the  yiew  of  connecting  Aqnila  imme- 

friendship  thus  happily  formed  was  of  long  diately  with   the  ensuing  words — 'haying 

duration.    Aqnila  became  a  companion  c^  shorn,'  &e. 

the  apostle,  and  laboured  diligently  for  the  ABABIA,  a  Greek  word,  fonned  on  a  He- 
ftirtheianee  of  the  gospeL  His  wife  slso  fit-  brew  one ;  whose  meaning  may  haye  the  idea 
tingly  performed  her  part  as  a  follower  of  of  darkness  for  its  basis,  and  so  set  forth 
Christ.  From  Corinth,  Aqnila  and  Priseilla  Arabia  as  the  unknown  land,  a  character 
acoompanied  Paul  to  Syria;  thence  they  re-  which  it  still  to  a  great  extent  retains.  The 
paired  to  Ephesus,  where  Paul  left  them ;  when  entire  country  now  comprehended  under  this 
they  were  made  instrumental  in  conyerting  the  designation  lies  within  these  limits ;  namely 
learned  Alexandrian  Jew  ApoUos  (Acts  xyiii  — the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  south,  the  Per- 
18,  24,  teq.).  At  the  time  when  Paul  wrote  sisn  Gulf  on  the  east,  the  Bed  Sea  and  the 
his  first  letter  to  the  Corinthians,  they  were  borders  of  Egypt  on  the  west :  on  the  north 
with  him,  and  had  a  church  in  their  own  it  extended  on  one  side  to  the  boundaries  of 
house.  We  haye  not  the  means  of  tracing,  Palestine,  and  on  die  other  ran  up  towards 
step  by  step,  the  ftirther  changes  of  place  of  the  Euphrates  to  Babylon.  Since  the  time 
this  Christian  couple :  but  they  returned  to  of  the  geographer  Ptolemy,  this  large  penin- 
Borne ;  for,  in  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Bomsa  sula  has  been  ordinarily  divided  into  three 
ehurch,  they  are  mentioned  as  constituting  a  great  portions,  —  I.  Arabia  Felix,  Happy 
part  of  it,  and  in  terms  of  high  esteem :  —  Arabia ;  II.  Arabia  PetFosa,  Stony  Arabia  ; 
'  Greet  Aquila  and  Priseilla,  my  helpers  in  III.  Arabia  Deserts,  or  Desert  Arabia.  The 
Christ  Jesus;  who  haye  for  my  life  laid  first  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  country; 
down  their  own  necks.'  The  extent  of  their  namely,  the  huge  peninsula,  which  has  for 
benign  influence  is  implied  in  the  ensuing  its  norUiem  boundary  a  line  running  from 
words : — *  To  whom  not  only  I  giye  thsnks,  the  northern  extremi^  of  the  eastern  arm  of 
but  all  the  ehurohes  of  the  Gentiles'  (Bom.  the  Bed  Sea,  to  the  nordiem  extremity  of  the 
xyL  4).  Whether  or  not  they  took  vp  their  Persian  Gull  The  second  oonsists,  in  gene- 
final  abode  here,  they  appear  to  haye  formed  ral  terms,  of  the  small  peninsula  of  Sinai,  and 
a  part  of  the  church  oyer  whieh  Timothy  the  immediate  yicinity.  The  third  ooyers  the 
presided  (2  Tim.  iy.  10).  Tradition  repre-  wide  tract  which  extends  from  the  northern 
sents  Aquila  as  a  bishop  snd  martyn  limits  of  Arabia  Felix  towsrds  the  north  and 
In  Acts  xyiii.  18,  it  is  said  Paul  sailed  east,  to  the  Euphrates.  These  boundaries 
from  Corinth  to  Syria,  *  and  with  him  Pris-  are  to  some  extent  arbitrary,  nor  haye  they 
ciUa  and  Aquila;  haying  shorn  his  head  in  been  generally  roeeiyed;  they  are  unknown* 
Cenchrea  (a  sesport  lying  to  the  esst  of  equally  to  the  Arabian  geographers  and  the 
Corinth),  for  he  had  a  yow.'  Who  had  a  Hebrews;  snd  the  descriptions  whieh  they  im- 
yow,  Aquila  or  Paul  ?  Was  the  yow  of  a  ply  of  the  seyeral  districts  are,  if  taken  in  a 
civil  nature,  such  as  the  Jews  sometimes  general  ^[iplioation,  by  no  means  accurate, 
took,  namely — not  to  cut  their  hair,  and  to  Arabia  is  a  name  whieh,  in  the  wide  sense, 
abstain  from  certain  kinds  of  food  during  a  was  unknown  to  the  Hebrews.  This  country, 
journey  or  some  peril ;  during  a  voyage,  till  to  speak  of  it  in  a  loose  way,  they  termed  the 
safely  landed ;  or  an  iUness,  till  health  was  East,  the  land  towards  the  east;  and  its 
leooversd  f  Sueh  vows,  the  resouros  of  weak  inhabitanta,  the  sons  or  natives  of  the  East, 
eharaoters,  are  scaieely  worthy  of  Paul,  wboae  In  reality,  it  lay  to  the  south-east  of  Pales- 
ardour  and  perseveranoe  needed  no  support  tine.  Having  to  do  with  particular  portions 
of  the  kind ;  and  these  engagements,  formed  and  tribes  of  Arabia,  the  Israelites,  wanting 
as  it  were  with  the  fbtnre,  are  opposed  to  in  that  general  view  which  could  have  em- 
that  trust  and  confidence  which  are  inspired  braced  the  whole  country,  and  so  have  formed 
cy  a  pious  regard  to  Providenoe.  Was  it  a  a  general  name,  merely  spoke  of  particulsr 
temporuyNasarite'svowf  This  observance  parts,  and  of  separate  tribes :  sometimes  they 
"1?II  rvlf  ,  at  Jerusalem,  «atthedoor  used  the  word  as  denoting  only  a  part  of  the 
ortne  tabernscle  of  the  congregation'  (Numb,  country  which  it  now  designates  (Esek.  xxviL 
?«fii«m.«?K'i  S*T^'  '■^■^^  •^™*  ^•^^  2JL.  Jer.  xxv.  24.  1  Kings  x.  15.  Gal.  iv.  25). 
nSSi^^^wv'*^?*^^^''^  It  is  the  country  called  above  Arabia  Petnei, 
n^^ili^aTti^iT^^i^^'  ^^'  with  which  the  student  of  Scripture  is  moTl 
u  It  Ukely  that  Paul  would  observe  a  vow  interested,  a?  it  contains  the  limds  in  which 


A  R  A  73  A  R  A 

ihe  Hebrews  wandered  ere  they  gained  Ca-  xzyi.  7.  Job  i.  15) ;  or  rendered  the  eannran 

naan,  and  those  with  which  they  were  in  roads  unsafe  by  their  attacks  (Jer.  iii.  2). 
constant  oonunnnion  —  as  Moab,  Idnmna,         The  Peninsula  of  Binaiis  a  monntatnous 

the  country  of  the  Amalekites,  Canaanites,  oonntry,  whieh  has  cf  late  years  become  bet- 

and  Midianites.  On  the  other  hand,  the  places  ter  known  than  other  parts  of  Arabia.    Near 

and  heads  of  tribes  mentioned  in  Oen.  z.  7,  the  southern  end  rises  a  huge  mountain  mass, 

26,  belong  to  Arabia  Felix,  or  what  might  forming  Horeb  and  Sinai ;  whieh  sinks  sud- 

more  correctly  be  termed  Arabia  Proper.   In  denly  towards  the  sea,  and  on  ib.e  inland  side 

Arabia  Deserta  dwelt  the  descendants  of  Ish-  opens,  snd  throws  out  a  range  of  mountains 

mael ;  namely,  the  Nabathsans,  Kedarenes,  on  either  side  of  the  triangle,  which  gradually 

&c.(6en.zxT.  12,  te^.);  and  most  of  the  tribes  sink  in  height  as  they  run  northwards :  but 

who  were  the  offspring  of  Abraham  and  Ke-  the  range  which  extends  along  the  Persian 

torah  (Oen.  xxt.  1,  aeq.).    So  wide  a  district  Oulf,  rises  again  after  it  has  passed  the  top  of 

of  country,  of  coarse,  varied  very  much  in  that  gulfinto  the  mountains  of  whieh  Idum»a 

character.     In  the  northern  part,  towards  is  mostly  made  up.    The  mountains  consist  of 

Mesopotamia,  there  are  great  plains  of  sand,  granite,  porphyry,  or  limestone :  they  rise  ab- 

destitute  of  yegetation;  but,  as  yon  approach  ruptly  fh>m  the  sea,  and  are  Intersected  by 

the  river,  fertile  and  beautiful  tracts  present  many  defiles  snd  vaUeys,  sometimes  opening 

themselves.     Oenerally,  neither  water  nor  into  large  plains,  which  are  for  the  most  part 

plants  are  to  be  found,  except  here  and  there  deserts,  but  here  and  there  offer  some  fer- 

a  humble  root,  which,  however,  the  camel  tility.    Serpents  and  lizards  abound  there 

does  not  despise.     The  heaven  is  cloudless,  (Numb.  xxi.  4,  6).     Palms,  acsdas,  taroa- 

and  of  a  burning  heat,  mitigated  by  the  cool-  risks,  are  the  most  important  products.     Be- 

ness  of  night,  or  by  breezes  in  the  day;  the  donin  tribes  still  traverse  the  valleys  and  the 

air  pure  and  dry;  and  from  June  to  Septem-  table-lands,  and  exact  a  part  of  their  sus- 

ber  the  deadly  simoom  prevails,  blowing  from  tanance  fh)m  caravans  and  companies  of 

the  south-east ;  whose  power  was  known  to  pilgrims.    The  lofty  land  of  the  south  tends 

the  Hebrews  (Ps.  xi.  6.    Job  L  19).    The  downwards  in  a  northerly  direction,  so  as  to 

nature  of  the  country  here,  as  in  other  parts  form  the  extended  and  elevated  plain  denomi- 

of  Arabia,  compels  the  inhabitants  to  pursue  natedEl  Tyh  (here  the  Israelites  wandered  for 

the  life  of  wandering  herdsmen  (nomads),  many  years),  which  runs  north  and  west  to  th« 

going  with  their  flocks  and  herds  from  one  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  north  and  east  on 

spot  to  another,  in  order  to  obtain  a  constant  towards  the  mountains  of  Edom.    The  dis- 

snpply  of  food.    This,  their  ancient,  conti-  trict  is  almost  without  water,  consisting  of 

nues^eir  present  custom.    Their  life,  though  limestone  strewed  with  flint    In  the  norUi 

full  of  chimge,  is  limited  to  a  narrow  sphere  and  norUi-east  of  this  vast  plain  there  rises  a 

of  objects;  the  mind,  in  consequence,  remains  hilly  country,  capable  of  cultivation,  extend- 

inert ;  the  mental  culture  is  quite  rudimen-  ing  as  far  as  to  the  Dead  Sea,  where  it  unites 

tal.    There  is  no  political  constitution.    A  with  other  heights  that  run  along  both  sides 

kind  of  social  life  exists,  under  the  patriarchal  of  that  peculiar  lake.    Over  this  high  land 

control  of  sheikhs.    Independence  prevails,  were  spread,  in  the  days  of  Moses,  the  tribes 

for  conquest  is  impossible;    and  the  true  of  Edomites,  Amalekites,  snd  Anmionites. 

nomad  regards  the  dweller  in  towns  with  The  inhabitants  of  Arabia  Petroa  were  partly 

contempt    The  idea  of  property  is,  however,  nomads,  and  as  such  lived  independency  un* 

in  some  sense  predominant ;  for  each  horde  der  their  native  chiefe.    They  were,  however, 

has  its  land,  fixed  and  determined  by  imme-  conquered  by  the  Chaldean  armies  (Jer.  xliz. 

morial  usage,  and  every  intruder  is  considered  28).    Alter  the  Jewish  ezfle,  there  flourished 

a  fair  object  of  plunder,  unless  he  has  for  a  kingdom  here,  having  Petra  for  its  capital, 

attendants  members  or  relations  of  the  tribe,  whose  kings  mostly  bore  the  name  of  Aretas. 

Bobbeiy  supplies  no  mean  portion  of  the  They  for  a  time  possessed  several  Jewish 

means  of  subsistence.  In  their  wandering  ha-  cities. 

bits,  these  Bedouins  (children  of  the  desert)  The  large  southern  district,  or  Yemen,  is  of 
wander  frequently  irom  their  own  limits,  and  a  very  various  nature.  The  countries  on  the 
traverse  Arabia  Petraea.  These  general  re-  coast  are  for  the  most  part  hot,  sandy,  unihiit- 
marks  will  be  found  to  illustrate  Scripture,  ftil  plains.  The  interior  is  lofty,  and,  with 
The  threatening  prophecy  in  Isa.  xxi.  13^-  barren  districts,  contains  well-cultured  parts, 
17,  relates  to  the  inhabitants  of  Northern  whieh  produce  grain,  wine,  snd  various  fruits. 
Arabia.  '  The  children  of  Kedar '  traded  in  Here  are  found  the  sugar-cane,  rice,  citrons, 
lambs,  rams,  and  goats,  with  which  they  sup-  oranges,  lemons,  pomegranates,  figs,  and 
plied  Tyre  (Ezek.xxvii.  21).  Sometimes  they  coffee.  It  was  cidebrated  also  for  its  myrrh 
carried  on  a  caravan  trade  themselves  (Oen.  and  cassia  (Isa.  Ix.  6.  Jer.  vi.  20.  Esek. 
xxxvii.  28) ;  for  a  caravan  road  ran  through  zxvii.  22).  Oold  was  hence  brought  to  the 
their  country,  from  the  Persian  Oulf  to  the  Hebrews  (1  Kings  x.  10.  2  Chron.  ix.  14. 
Mediterranean.  More  firequently  they  fiell  on  Isa.  Ix.  6) ;  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  it  was 
dieir  neighbouraT  lands,  on  expeditions  of  originslly  found  ihen:  none  is  now  pro- 
plunder  (2  Chron.  xxi.  16.  1  Kings  xi.  14 ;  duoed.    Lead  and  iron  are  obtained. 


A  R  A  74  ABA 

At  BO  I«l0  a  period  •■  this,  and  after  the  leaUier  aening  for  a  taUe.    The  duties  of 

noble  adrentnrea  which  hare  laid  open  before  kiuTea,  forks,  and  spoons,  are  performed  by 

OS  so  many  other  hidden  oonntries,  it  is  ra-  the  fingers.    The  hands,  therefore,  are  oare- 

AersQipriaingfandTerymaohtoberegrettedy  ftdly  washed  before  food  is  taken;  for  the 

that  so  little  has  been  done  for  oommoni-  An^  aie  very  stadions  of  cleanliness.  This, 

eating  a  iidl  and  esact  knowledge  of  Arabia ;  and  their  moderation  in  eating,  eondnces 

a  ooontry  of  the  highest  interest  to  theflriends  very  mnch  to  the  good  health  widoh  they  en- 

of  cirilisation:  for  here  originated  the  Mo>  Joy.    With  the  exception  of  the  leprosy,  fow 

sale  and  the  Moslem  religion.     This  was  chronio  diseaaea  alBict  them.    Their  medi- 

the  centre  of  ancient  commerce;  this  was  the  cal  men  are  generally  veiy  ignMant    They 

ooontry  of  a  conquering  race,  which  extended  attach  mneh  importance  to  £e  anointing  of 

its  faiu,  its  opolence,  its  wisdom,  its  arts,  its  the  body.    With  those  who  are  wdl  ofl^  per- 

splendoor,  to  the  extreme  East  and  West;  fames  and  perfiuned  water  are  veiy  eommon, 

whieh,  improring  its  morals  by  Persian  col-  both  of  which  are  offered  to  friends  on  their 

tore,  and  its  intelleot  by  Grecian  wisdom,  arrivaL    The  Arabs  are  very  companionable, 

planted  froits  of  its  own  rearing  on  the  banks  on  which  aeoonnt  they  Iotc  to  assemble  in 

of  the  Tigris  end  of  the  Oiiad^niTer.  ooffee-hooses,  in   the   market-places;    and 

Arabia  received  its  earliest  inhabitants,  in  in  Temen,  there  is  scarcely  any  village  but 
an  probability,  from  the  Cancasas ;  which,  has  its  market-place.  The  female  sex,  as  in 
extending  itself  along  M oont  Iiebanon,  rana  all  the  East,  lire  retired,  inhabiting  the  back 
down  to  the  Arabian  mountains.  Of  the  an-  part  of  the  honse:  &e  women  of  afamily  are 
dent  Arabians,  the  most  celebratod  tribes,  never  seen  by  a  stranger.  The  education  of 
according  to  native  authorities,  are  —  die  children  is  in  their  eariy  years  confided  to 
AditSB,  Thamud,  Team,  Osehadis,  Dsehor-  the  femsle  sex  •  when  me  sons  are  grown 
ham,  and  Amal^tes.  The  later  Arabians,  up,  &ey  either  come  nnder  their  father's  in- 
fh>m  whom  spring  those  of  the  present  day,  stmotion,  or  are  placed  nnder  a  tutor.  The 
are  divided  into  two  claaaes — that  of  the  girisremain  in  the  harem  till  they  are  married, 
genuine  Arabs,  or  Jektamds,  from  Joktan,  In  regard  to  wedlock,  great  care  ia  taken  to 
eon  of  Eber  (Oen.  x.  26) ;  aecondly,  the  asoeTtain  that  the  intended  bride  is  a  virgin, 
mixed  race,  Mostaraben,  who  are  derived  ttom  If  fiie  contrary  appears,  eo^ulaion,  and  even 
Adnan,  son  of  lahmael.  All  these  tribes  be-  death,  is  the  resource.  Arabs  are  celebrated 
long  to  the  great  ShemiticfamUy.  The  Arabic  for  hospitality,  whatever  their  condition  in 
language,  which,  in  regard  to  its  riches,  its  life.  They  are  courteous  even  to  an  extreme, 
high  culture,  its  wide  spread,  and  its  impor-  and  in  cities  kind  to  strangers.  Professors 
tance  in  history  and  religion,  has  no  superior,  of  other  religions  are  not  rudely  exposed  to 
is  a  Shemitio  dialect,  and  forma,  in  union  insult.  The  Arabs  seek  not  to  mti»  prose- 
with  the  ^thiopie,  the  southern  branch  of  lytos,  though  they  show  favour  to  those  who 
the  great  Shemitic  tree.  Its  native  country  pass  over  to  Mohammed.  They  are  gener- 
is the  Arabian  peninsula.  The  religion  c^  ally,  and  not  without  reason,  described  as 
the  ancient  Arabians  was  the  worship  of  the  revengeftiL  The  old  custom  of  blood  for 
stare :  every  tribe  had  its  own  star,  to  which  blood  is  unhsppily  kept  up ;  but  they  are  not 
it  gave  special  honour.  Herodotus  mentions  quarrelsome,  and  slight  offences  are  easily 
aa-gods  of  the  Arabians —  Urotalt,  which  he  forgiven. 

aecounta  the  same  aa  Dionysos  (Latin,  Bao-  The  Bedouins,  now  known  by  the  name  of 
chua) ;  and  Alitta,  which  he  identiflea  with  Tawaraha,  who  wander  over  the  western  side 
Aphrodite  (Venus).  In  Southern  Arabia,  the  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  bear  in  general  a 
god  Sabis  was  woi^pped ;  that  is,  the  sun-  good  character.  Their  most  gainful  pur- 
god,  who  is  obviou^y  connected  with  the  suit  in  the  present  day,  and  that  upon  which 
star-worship  of  the  Sabeans.  they  seem,  in  a  great  measure,  dependent  for 
A  lew  general  remarks,  and  some  parti-  subsistence,  is  the  accompanying  of  travellers 
cular  notices,  regarding  Arab  manners  and  to  and  from  Sinai,  which  is  a  monopoly,  and 
eustoms  may  be  of  service.  The  Arabs  the  carriage  of  merchandise  between  Cairo 
are  of  a  middle  stature,  thin  and  active.  In  and  Sues.  They  are  of  good  dispositions, 
eating  and  drinking  they  practise  modera-  and  solicitous  to  please.  They  expect  fre- 
|ion.  They  use  wheaten  bread ;  but  the  quent  gratuities  of  food,  coffee,  &c.  It  is  a 
linmblw  elaas  are  content  with  bread  made  che^)  and  effectual  way  of  winning  their 
fji  an  inferior  gndn  termed  Doura,  in  the  kindness  and  good  offices.  Harsh  language 
shape  of  round  cakes.  Pillau,  made  ol  rice,  and  blows  do  not  answer  for  Bedouins  in  the 
laacoTOBonfood.  Coflbe  is  a  general  bever-  Desert  They  are  proud-spirited,  and  feel, 
*?*         u^t^^  ^^^  intoxicating  drinks  are  and  resent  indignities.    They  are  honest  as 

u?vS^  .    ■?^'»  ^  consequence  of  the  weU  as  trustworthy,  but  UtUe  inclined  to  reli- 

proWhition  in  the  Koran.    The  smoking  of  gious  practices.     They  are  poor;    having 

tpbaMio  U  customary  with  aU  daases.    LitUe  some  camels,  goats,  and  a  few  sheep;  but 

time  IB  oonsumed  m  eatmg  the  meal,  which,  no  horses  or  cows,  which  could  not  subsist  on 

evw  in  the  houses  of  persons  of  distinction,  the  coarse  and  meagre  pasturage  afforded  by 

u  taken  on  the  floor  s  a  piece  of  cloth  or  of  theae  aterile  regions.    They  have  also  some 


A  R  A                      15  A  R  A 

ftyvli,  md  deal  ooetikmallj  in  eggs  and  dieae  it  equally  iUnaftrallve  of  die  aaered 

diiekens.    Their  bread  eom»  as  well  as  the  Tdnme :   &eir  eandale,  irtiieh  are  merdy 

beans  gi^ren  to  the  camels  when  on  hard  bits  of  leather  or  nntf^«Tl^  skins,  commonly 

serriee,  are  brought  from  Cairo  on  the  backs  flsh skins,  covering  the  sole  of  the  foot,  end 

of  these  animals.    They  eany  a  little  char-  futened  by  a  thong  that  peases  between  the 

coal,  made  of  the  branches  of  the  acacia,  first  and  second  toes,  orer  the  instep,  and 

and  a  small  quantity  of  gum,  to  that  market;  around  the  heel ;  the  girdle,  which  all  wear 

which  seem  to  be  their  only  articles  of  ex-  about  the  loins,  serving  as  a  belt  Ibr  a  long 

port,  with  the  exception  of  now  and  then  a  knife,  or  pistols,  and  as  a  depository  for 

eameL    These  poor  Bedouins  love  their  arid  money,  Boo. ;  and  their  loose,  flowing  robes, 

plains  and  hideous  mountains  with  an  aflbe-  reaching  only  to  the  knee,  and  exposing  the 

tion  unknown  to  tiie  occupants  of  m<»e  genial  legs. ' 

legions.    They  show  signs  of  pleasure,  and  Irby  and  Mangtos  supply  as  with  the  fol- 

even  exultation,  on  passing  out  of  Cairo  into  lowing  lirely  sketch  of  a  camp  of  Arabs, 

flie  pure  air  of  die  Desert,  which  no  trayeller  showing  many  of  their  customs  at  the  pre- 

can  fall  to  observe  in  their  buoyant  step,  sent  day: — 'As  we  approached,  we  beheld 

animated  conversation,  and  oyeiflowing  joy-  a  very  animated  and  busy  scene.    The  girls 

ons  hilarity.  were  singing,  and  the  children  busied  in 

Of  these  Arabs  Dr.  Olin  thus  speaks:^  running  down  the  young  partridges  with 

'  It  was  gratiiying  to  me  to  observe  with  what  dogs ;  the  birds  being  as  yet  only  lile  to  fly 

pleasure  and  pride  the  Bedouins,  after  the  a  short  distance  at  a  time.    Presently  we 

fatigues  of  the  day's  journey  which  they  per-  heard  a  hue-and-cry  from  all  quarters,  and 

form  on  foot,  seldom  mounting  their  loaded  soon  perceiTed  a  large  wild  boar,  with  his 

camels,  hastened  away  to  obtahi  a  supply  of  bristles  erect,  beset  ^  oil  the  dogs ;  every- 

their  wholesome  beverage,  water.    The  one  body  running  eagerly  to  the  pursuit    He 

who  went  with  me,  laid  down  a  frill  skin  at  was  found  behind  one  of  the  tents.   They 

the  door  of  my  tent,  with  many  significant  chased  him  all  through  the  camp;  and  two 

smiles  and  gestures,  exdsiming  repeatedly,  Arabs  on  horseback,  with  spears,  joined  in 

*'Taib!  Taib!" — Oood!  Oood!  The  people  the  pursuit     The  animal,  however,  kept 

are  all  fond  of  ooffoe,  but  reftise  wine  and  both  men  and  dogs  at  bay,  and  finaUy  got 

spirits,  and  even  beer.    Our  aheikh,  Salah,  off  with  only  one  wound.  We  now  approached 

who  is  strictly  religious,  took  once,  inoau-  the  sheikh's  tent,  and  found  Mahannah  and 

tiously,  a  glass  of  this  favourite  English  his  two  sons,  Sheikhs  Narsah  and  Hamed, 

beverage.     Another  iras  offered  to  him  in  together  with  about  thirty  Arab  chiefs  of  va- 

my  presence,  on  the  subsequent  evening,  rious  camps,  seated  round  an  immense  fire. 

He  smelled  the  cup,  and  returned  it,  exclaim-  Sheikh  Narsah  was  leaning  on  a  camera 

ing, ''Mosttaib!"  Not  good.  The  dragoman  saddle,  their  usual  cushion.     He  did  not 

explained  to  him,  fliat  it  oontamed  neither  rise  to  receive  us,  although  we  siterwards 

brandy  nor  wine ;  but  he  would  not  be  satis-  observed,  that  he  and  the  whole  cirde  rose 

fled,  and  vriioUy  reftised  it  afterwards.    The  vdienever  a  strange  sheikh  szrived.     We 

manners  and  habits  of  these  children  of  flie  attributed  this  cool  reception  to  the  low  esti- 

Desert  are  truly  primitive.    Having  occasion  mation  he  held  us  in,  in  consequence  of  the 

to  wash  their  clothes  this  evening,   they  unusually  small  sum  we  were  to  pay  for 

scooped  out  a  basin  in  the  sand,  and  filled  it  visiting  Palmyra,  and  from  the  plainness  of 

with  water  for  the  purpose.    The  supply  of  our  dress  snd  appearance.    Mjhannah  was 

f^sh  water  seemed  to  have  tempted  diem  to  a  short,  crooked-backed,  mean-looking  old 

indulge  in  other  luxuries ;  and  I  saw  them,  man,  between  seventy  and  eighty  yean  of 

for  the  first  time,  eating  hot  bread.    Each  age,  dressed  in  a  coarse  robe.    His  son, 

man,  or  at  least,  each  party,  has  a  small  Narsah,  to  whom  he  had,  in  consequence  of 

kneading  trough,  hollowed  out  of  a  piece  of  his  age,  resigned  the  reins  of  government, 

wood,  which  he  carries  bound  up  in  his  bag-  was  good-looking,  about  thirty  years  of  age, 

gage.    In  this  they  mixed  a  smsll  quantity  with  very  dignified  and  engaging  manners, 

of  the  meal  of  doura ;  and,  having  formed  it  He  had  the  Koran  open  in  his  hand  when 

into  a  thin  cake,  they  laid  it  upon  the  sand,  we  arrived,  to  give  us,  we  supposed,  an  ide^ 

and  covered  it  with  a  fire  made  of  small  of  his  learning.    He  was  well  dressed,  witl^ 

sticks.    One  man,  at  least,  used  dried  camel's  a  red  pelisse  and  an  enormous  white  tiurban. 

dung  for  the  purpose.    T'hey  parched  com.  We  observed  much  whispering  going  for« 

or  doura,  and  ate  it  for  breakfast    I  am,  in-  ward  between  Narsah  and  every  stranger 

deed,  constantly  reminded  of  the  habits  of  that  arrived;  and  our  guides  were  separately 

the  patriarchs,  and  see  the  domestic  scenes  questioned  in  the  same  manner,  to  learn,  aa 

so  beautifrilly  pourtrayed  in  the  Old  Testa-  we  conjectured,  whether  we  had  much  money 

ment,  re-acted  by  the  Bedouins.    It  will  be  or  not    Narsah  alone  addressed  us.    He 

observed,  that  the  simple  facts  I  have  just  inquired  why  the  English  wished  so  much 

recorded  are  so  many  illustrations  of  the  to  see  Palmyra,  and  whether  we  were  not 

ancient  customs  with  which  the  Bible  has,  going  to  search  for  gold  f    We  told  him  he 

from  our  childhood,  made  us  fiuniliar.  Their  ahooid   have  half  of  any  we  might  fin4 


A  R  A  76  ABA 

Ihare.    As  llie  erening  advineed,  the  Artb  Ofl  in  gnat  nnmben.    We  were  quite  ai  • 

guests  ineressed  to  the   numW  of  fifty,  loss  to  know  the  meaning  of  this :  at  first 

Their  mode  of  saluting  their  chiefs  is  by  we  thought  it  was  intended  to  show  off  the 

kissing  either   cheek  dtemately,   not  the  numbers  of  his  people.    Presently,  however, 

hand,  as  in  Nubia.    Some  of  the  partridges  we  came  to  a  tent,  and  found  an  immense 

which  the  children  had  eaught,  were  now  CBast  of  rice  and  camel's  flesh  prepared  for 

brought  in.    They  roasted  them  on  the  fire,  the  whole  assembly.    We  were  conducted  to 

and  part  was  given  to  us ;  Sheikh  Hamed  a  smaller  tent  apart,  and  had  our  share  sent 

throwing  a  leg  and  a  wing  to  each  of  us.  to  us. 

They  afterwards  gave  us  some  honey  snd        *  We  were  in  doubt  what  olgect  tiie  sheikh 
butter,  together  with  bread  to  dip  into  it  had  in  thus  separating  us;  whether  it  was 
("butter  and  honey  shall  he  eat,"  Isa.  Tii.lO):  meant  as  an  accommodation  to  us,  that  we 
Narsah  desired  one  of  his  men  to  mix  die  might  eat  more  comfortably  and  freely  by 
two  ingredients  for  us,  as  we  were  awkward  ourselves,  than  in  the  midst  of  a  concourse 
at  it.    The  Arab,  having  stirred  the  mixture  of  people ;  or  whether  he  thought  we  were 
up  well  with  his  fingers,  showed  his  dexterity  not  fit  society  for  him.    Our  dress  was  eer- 
in  consuming,  as  well  as  in  mixing,  and  re-  tainly  of  a  much  meaner  description  than 
compensed  himself  for  his  trouble  by  eating  that  of  any  of  the  sheikhs ;  and  as  through- 
half  of  it.    At  sunset,  and  again  at  eight  out  the  East  a  stranger  is  generally  estimated 
o^dock,  the  whole  assembly  were  summoned  according  to  the  di«BS  he  wears,  it  is  pro- 
to  prayers;  a  man  standing  outside  the  tent,  bable  that  our  homely  appearance  had  some 
and  calling  ihem  to  their  devotions,  in  the  weight  with  Narsah  on  this  occasion.    We 
same  manner  as  is  done  from  the  minarets  found  the  meat  both  savoury  and  tender, 
of  the  mosques  of  Turkish  towns.     Each  being  a  portion  of  the  hump,  which  is  con- 
man  rubbed  his  face  over  with  sand,  a  heap  sidered  the  best  part.    There  was  little  fat, 
of  which  was  placed  in  ftt>nt  of  the  tent  for  and  the  grain  was  remarkably  coarse:   how- 
that  purpose,  to  serve  as  a  substimte  for  ever,  we  made   a  hearty  breakfast      The 
water  in  their  religious  ablations.  feast  was  conducted  with  much  order  and 
'We  could  not  but  admire  the  decorous  decorum.    The  sheikhs  fed  apart  in  a  double 
solemnity  with  which  they  all  joined  in  wor-  row,  with  several  immense  platters  placed  at 
ship,  standing  in  a  row,  and  bowing  down  equal  distances  between  them,  and  a  rope 
and  kissing  &t  ground  together.    An  im-  line  was  drawn  round  to  keep  the  people 
mense  platter  of   roast  mutton  was  then  from  pressing  in.    Narsah  was  at  the  head 
brought  in  for  supper,  with  a  pillan  of  rice,  of  the  row,  with  a  small  select  circle,  amongst 
The  Arabs  fed  apart,  while  a  separate  por-  whom  he  placed  us  after  we  had  breakfasted, 
tion  was  brought  for  Narsah  and  us.    We  having  perceived  us  among  the  spectators, 
observed  the  elderly  men  gave  their  half-  When  the  sheikhs  had  finished,  the  people 
gnawed  bones  to  those  aroand  them ;  and  we  were  regaled  with  the  remains ;  independent 
were  told,  tliat  they  have  an  adage  com-  of  whidi,  portions  were  distributed  to  the 
mending  the  custom.    A  black  slave  was  different  tents  of  the  camp.    This  latter  ar- 
perpetually  pounding  coffee  from  the  moment  rangement  was  for  the  women  and  children, 
we  entered  the  tent  till  we  went  to  sleep;  Several  camels   must  have  been  cooked, 
and  as  he  began  in  the  morning  at  daylight,  judging  from   the  immense   quantities  of 
and  was  constantly  employed,  it  would  seem  meat  we  saw.    This  feast  was  no  doubt  in- 
that  the  consumption  of  this  article  must  be  tended  to  give  weight  to  the  proceedings  of 
eonsiderable.    Late  at  night,  Narsah  began  the  former  evening.    We  were  asked  whether 
to  address  the  whole  circle  of  sheikhs,  who.  Christians  did  not  eat  pig's  flesh ;  and,  an- 
we  found,  had  been  convened  in  order  that  swering  in  the  affirmative,  were  questioned 
they  mi^t  hear  his  request,  that  some  por-  if  we  did  not  also  drink  sow's  milk,  as  they 
tions  of  grsxing  land,  called  "  The  Cottons,"  do  that  of  camel's :  this,  however,  we  stoutly 
might  be  delivered  up  to  him.    Being  tired  denied.    Mohannah  made  many  signs  for 
with  the  length  of  his  discourse,  we  removed  money,  both  for  himself  and  Sheikh  Alii,  a 
to  a  comer  of  the  tent,  and  fell  asleep.    We  very  handsome  little  boy  about  five  years  of 
heard  afterwards,  that  his  harangue  lasted  age,  the  son  of  Narsah.    The  Arab  sign  for 
till  three  in  the  morning.    On  the  following  money  is  rubbing  the  forefinger  and  thumb 
day  we  wished  to  proceed,  according  to  the  together.* 

promise  to  let  us  depart  before  sun-rise,        The  following  lively  description  of  an  Arab 

which  Narsah  had  given  us  the  previous  encampment  is  given  by  Dr.  Bobinson  (ii. 

evening,  swearing  by  his  head,  and  lifting  180):  the  loeslity  lies  on  the  south-east  of  Je- 

up  his  hand  at  the  some  time.     But  as  the  msolem : — *  All  was  in  motion  at  four  o'clock, 

chief  had  sat  up  so  late,  he  did  not  make  There  were  about  six  hundred  sheep  and  goats, 

his  appearance  till  about  ten  o'clock,  when,  the  latter  being  the  most  numerous,  and  the 

instead  of  letting  us  depart,  he  desired  we  process  of  milking  was  now  going  on.     They 

would  accompany  him  to  a  small  vale  oonti-  have  few  cows.    Six  tents  were  arranged  in 

guous  to  his  tent    We  found  the  Arabs  a  sort  of  square,  made  of  black  hair-doth,  not 

assembling  from  all  quarters,  ind  following  large.    They  were  mosUy  open  at  one  end 


A  R  A                      77  ABA 

and  on  the  sides.  The  tents  foimed  the  iDod  He  had  Jastretuned  from  Egjpt  with 
common  rendezvous  of  men,  women,  chil-  a  csmel  load  of  grain  for  his  famfly,  which 
dren,  ealves,  lambs,  and  kids.  The  women  he  had  pat  into  one  of  their  magazines,  as  a 
were  without  veils,  and  seemed  to  make  no-  place  of  safety ;  bat  it  had  aU  been  stolen* 
Ajng  of  oar  presence.  Here  we  had  an  Borckhardtrslatesthathe  was  shown  in Wsdy 
opportanity  of  seeing  various  processes  in  the  Hamr,  a  point  on  the  roeks  from  whieh  one 
hoosekeeping  of  a  nomadie  life.  The  women,  of  the  Tawarah,  a  flew  yean  before,  had  oast 
in  some  of  the  tents,  were  kneading  bread,  down  his  sou  headlong,  boond  hand  and  foot, 
snd  baking  it  in  thin  cakes,  on  the  embers^  for  an  offence  of  the  veiy  same  kind, 
cor  on  iron  plates  over  Uie  fire.  Another  The  notions  of  jostioe  among  the  Arab* 
frmale  was  ehnming  the  milk,  in  a  veiy  pri-  are,  however,  very  imperfect,  if  we  may  judge 
mitivewsyf  whieh  we  often  saw  afterwards,  firom  those  which  are  entertained  by  those  who 
The  chum  consists  of  a  common  water-skin,  belong  to  the  peninsola  of  SinaL  Among 
that  is,  the  tanned  akin  of  a  goat,  stripped  otf  the  Amran  and  Haweitat  tribes,  if  any  one 
whole,  and  the  extremities  sewed  up.  This  steals,  the  loser  takes  from  the  thief  an  arti- 
is  psrtly  filled  with  die  milk;  and,  being  then  ele  of  equal  or  greater  value,  and  deposits  it 
suspended  in  a  slight  frame,  or  between  two  with  a  third  p*rQr*  The  thief  is  then  sum- 
sticks  leaning  against  the  tent  or  house,  it  is  moned  to  triii;  and,  if  herefhsss,  he  foritsits 
regularly  moved  to  and  tto  with  a  jerk,  until  the  thing  thus  taken  from  him.  The  judges 
the  process  is  completed.  In  another  tent,  are  not  always  the  sheikhs:  other  persons  may 
a  woman  was  kneeling  and  grinding  at  the  ezeroise  this  ofllce.  If  a  person  slays  another, 
hand-mill :  these  mills  are  doubtless  those  of  the  nearest  relation  of  the  deceased  is  entitled 
scnpcoral  times,  and  are  similar  to  the  Scot-  to  a  certain  number  of  camels,  or  to  the  life 
tish  quern.  As  we  were  looking  round  upon  of  one  equal  to  the  deceased, 
this  scene  of  busy  life,  the  sun  rose  gloriously  If  sn  Arab  discovers  his  wife  or  his  dangfater 
over  the  wide  prospect,  and  shed  his  golden  in  illicit  interooturse,  he  turns  away  and  eon- 
light  upon  a  landscape — not  rich,  indeed,  in  eeals  the  fact  firom  every  one,  not  even  letthig 
iqypearanoe — for  all  is  rocky  and  sterile  to  the  the  guilty  parties  know  that  he  has  seen  them, 
view ;  but  fertile  in  pastursge,  as  was  testified  Months  afterwards,  he  will  marry  off  his 
by  this  multitude  of  flocks.  The  curling  daughter;  or,  after  a  longer  time,  pcihapt  di- 
smoke,  ascending  from  various  Arab  encamp-  voice  his  wife;  living  with  them  meantime 
ments  in  the  distance,  added  to  the  picturesque  as  if  nothing  had  happened,  and  assigning 
effect  of  the  landscape.'  some  other  reason  for  the  measure  he  adDpts. 

Olin  thus  describes  an  encampment  of  One  motive  for  this  concealment  is  to  avoid 

Arabs,  as  seen  in  the  Sinaitio  peninsula : —  personal  disgrace ;  and  another,  to  prevent 

'We  passed  a  Bedouin  encampment,  which  the  impossibility  of  the  offenders  ever  being 

consisted  of  about  a  dozen  tents,  arranged  in  married. 

no  particular  order.      They  are  black,  and  The  Arabs  are  destitute  of  book-learning, 

made  of  coarse  wool  or  camels  hair-cloth.  Bobinson  made  inquiries  in  the  peninsula  of 

They  are  open  in  front,  are  very  low,  and  Sinai,  and  other  tribes,  but  could  never  hear 

have  a  partition  running  from  the  front  to  the  of  one  individual  that  was  able  to  read.    Even 

rear,  for  the  purpose,  I  presume,  of  separating  Sheikh  Salih,  the  head  sheikh  of  all  the  Tawa- 

the  apartments  of  the  males  and  the  females  rah,  has  not  this  power.    Whenever  a  letter 

of  the  family.    Hardly  any  thing  in  the  shape  is  addressed  to  him,  or  an  order  from  the 

of  fumituie  was  discoverable.    An  old  mat,  government,  he  is  obliged  to  apply  to  the  con- 

and  an  earthen  vessel  or  two,  were  all  that  I  vent,  to  have  it  read.    Among  the  Tawarah, 

saw  in  two  or  three  tents.    The  camels  and  this  ignorance  seems  to  be  the  result  of  habit 

flocks  are  gathered  about  the  tents  at  night  and  want  of  opportunity;   but  among  the 

We  saluted  the  people  in  &e  customary  way,  tribes  of  the  nor&em  deserts  it  is  accounted 

who  did  not  seem  in  the  least  disconcerted  disreputable  for  an  Arab  to  learn  to  read, 

by  our  presence  snd  inquisitive  looks.'  The  Bedouins  rejoice  in  the  wild  liberty  of 

The  strict  honesty  of  the  Bedouins  among  their  deserts,  as  contrasted  with  towns  and 
themselves  is  proveri>ial,  however  little  regard  cities ;  and  in  like  manner  take  pride  in  their 
they  may  have  to  the  right  of  property  in  freedom  from  the  arts  and  restraints  of  civil- 
others.    If  an  Arab's  camel  dies  on  the  road,  ised  life. 

andhecannotremovetheburden^heonly draws  The  religion  of  these  sons  of  the  desert  is 

a  circle  in  the  sand  round  about,  and  leaves  Hohammedanism,  which,  however,  sits  very 

it    In  this  wsy  it  will  remain  safe  and  un-  lightly  on  them.    They  bear  Mohammed's 

touched  for  months.    When  on  his  way  from  name,  and  the  few  religious  ideas  which  they 

Sinai  to  Akabab,  Bobinson  saw  a  black  tent  possess  are  moulded  after  his  precepts.    But 

hanging  on  a  tree :  his  servant  said  it  was  theirs  is  a  merely  nominal  religion,  the  result 

there  when  he  passed  the  year  before,  and  of  tradition  and  habit    They  seem  to  mani- 

would  never  be  stolen.    Theft,  he  said,  was  feat  little  attachment  to  it  in  itself,  and  live 

held  in  abhorrence  among  the  Tawarah ;  bur,  in  the  habitual  neglect  of  most  of  its  external 

the  present  year,  the  famine  was  so  great  that  forms.    They  ne^ect  the  prayers  customary 

individuals  were  sometimes  driyen  to  steal  v^'h  other  Moslems ;  and  it  is  said  that  very 


ABA                      78  A  R  A 

few  aioiig  them  know  the  proper  woitle  and  had  brought  with  his  famflyy  two  or  three 

fonna.    The  men  generally  obaerre  the  greal  eamela.    To  them  the  oflUs  of  the  kid  were 

fast  of  Bamadan,  &oiigh  aome  do  not    The  abandoned.    I  looked  in  on  thia  feaat,  and 

femalea  do  not  keep  it    Nor  ia  the  duty  of  foond  &e  women  boiling  the  atomaeh  and 

pilgrimage  more  regarded ;  not  more  than  entndla,  whieh  they  had  merely  eleaned  with 

two  or  tl^ee  of  all  tibe  Tawarah  tribe  are  aaid  atripping  them  with  the  hand,  without  waah* 

to  hare  made  the  the  Jonmey  to  Meeca.    The  ing;  while  the  head,  imakinnedandanopened, 

profaneneaa  of  the  Bedonina  ia  ezeeaaiTe,  was  roaating  nnderaeadi,  on  die  embera  of 

and  almoat  incredible  ^— *  Their  month  ia  ftill  %  fire  made  ohielly  of  camera  dung.' 

of  enraing.'    The  traveller  can  hardly  obtain  We  aol]!(oi&  one  or  two  portraita.    Sheikh 

tram  them  an  anawer  whieh  doea  not  contain  Hnaaein,  irbo  ia  aapnaM  at  Ailah,  on  die 

an  oadu  eztrenity  of  the  aaalarn  am  of  the  Bed  Sea, 


A  good  anfliority  haa  declared  that  the     ia  a  maa  of  grcal  wealth;  having,  it  ia  aaid, 
woold  piofeaa  Ohriatianity,  if  they     BBora  than  three  hmidreid  camela,  beaidea 


could  get  fed  by  ao  doing.    Their  minda  an  herda  of  aheep,  goata,   and  cattle.      Hia 

not  prepared  for  die  apiritoal  tratha  of  die  bearing  ia  exceedingly  dignified.    He  rarely 

goa^     Were  a  mlaaionafy  to  go  among  eondeacendatoamile.    In  negociatkma,  how- 

them,  apeaklBg  dieir  language,  mid  acquainted  ever  perplexing,  he  ia  cool  and  collected, 

with  didr  habita,  he  would  be  reoeiTCd  with  Theae  qnalitiea  give  him  great  infinence 

Undneaa;  and  were  he  to  lire  aa  they  lite,  over  untutored  men.    To  Engliahmen  it  ia 

and  conform  to  dieir  mannera  and  cuatoma,  a  great  drawbaek  from  the  reapeot  he  in- 

be  would  aoon  aeq[nire  infiuence.    In  hia  in-  ap^a,  to  hear  him  begging  for  preaenti,  and 


tereoune  with  the  Tawarah,  Dr.  Bohinaon  complaining  when  none  haa  been  brought 
found  them  kind,  good  natmred,  and  accom*  for  him ;  but  thia  aeema  to  be  the  fediion, 
modating,  but  great  beggara.  No  vefy  per-  and  ia  attended  with  no  reproach.  The  go- 
maaent  or  decided  impreaaioo,  however,  can  vemor  ia  a  dignified  look&g  man,  wearing 
well  be  hoped  for,  ao  longaa  they  retain  their  the  ooatnme  of  the  Tuika.  '  The  aheikh,'  to 
wandering,  half-aavage  life ;  and  thia  mode  cite  Olin,  <  and  hia  party,  with  a  dragoman, 
of  life  muat  neceaaarily  continue  ao  long  aa  who  acted  aa  an  agent  in  the  buaineaa  (pay- 
die  deeert  la  their  home.  Butit  would  be  no  ing  for  eaoott  and  aafe  conduct),  were  aeated 
B^t  matter  to  wean  them  from  the  deaert,  on  a  carpet,  apread  in  a  tent;  and  each  indi- 
and  thua  to  ofertuni  habita  idiieh  have  come  vidual  depoaited  hia  money  in  the  centre  of 
down  to  them  through  needy  forty  centariea  the  cirde.  The  aheikh  counted  it  with  great 
nnchanged.  rapidity;  and,  alter  devouring  the  ahining 
The  tribe  d«nomiDated  Alouina,  who  hold  maaeea  with  hia  fine  black  eyea,  depodted 
wwaj  from  Acabah  towarda  the  north,  are  them  in  hia  boaom  widi  an  indMcribable  air 
litde  better  than  aavagea.  They  are  ettiagen  of  aadafectlon.'  'He  waOkafiramtenttotent 
to  die  deoeneiea  of  Itfe.  They  aak  for  eveiy  in  no  litde  atate,  clothed  in  a  long  robe  of 
dung  they  ace  in  the  poaaeaaion  of  thoae  aeariet  broad  doth,  and  a  fiery  red  turban 
whom  dieyeaoort^- bread,  firuit,  tobacco,  teb$  of  die  largeat  diraenaiona,  with  a  long  pipe 
eoming  into  their  tenta,  and  making  them-  fa  hia  month,  and  followed  by  a  aeeretaiy, 
aelvea  ofcnaively  familiar.  <  I  was  no  aooner  eanying  writing  materiala  in  Ida  handa.  He 
in  my  tent  to-night,*  —  we  wee  the  worda  of  ia  evidendy  an  oatentadona  man,  and  has 
Olin,-— 'than  one  of  my  goidea,  a  dlaguat-  the  air  of  one  aoeuatomed  to  anperiority. 
ing  and  filthy  creature,  came  and  took  hia  He  haa  the  reputation  of  being  fidthfiil  to 
aeat  en  the  aand,  juat  within  the  door.  I  hia  engagementa,  though  diapoaed  to  uae 
proB^y  ordered  him  away.  Afterward  I  every  poeaible  advantage,  fair  and  uniiatr,  in 
made   Hum  all  a  preaent  of  tobacco^  with  making  a  bargain.' 

iriiidi  they  aeemed  much  pleaaed.    They  en-         The  aheikh  of  Wady  Mouaa  ia  noted  for 

tered  the  tent  of  one  gendeman  of  our  party  hia  exactiona  on  travellera,  and  haa  rendered 

at  dinner  time,  and  unceremonioady  helped  it  difficult,  and  even  dangerous,  to   viait 

themaelvea  to  die  daindea  of  hia  table.'  Petra.     He  ia  a  aavage  in  aapect     Hia 

Othera  aeem  little,  if  any,  removed  from  eoarae,  long   beard,  half  white    and  half 

aavage  life,  farther  than  the  red  man  of  the  Uadk,  haa  a  neglected  and  tang^  ^ipear- 

American  wilds.    The  ensuing  picture  of  an  anee;  and  he  ia  meani^  dad  in  vile,  dirtj 

Arab  meal  is  given  by  Bobhiaon.    The  place  gannenta. 

of  whieh  he  apeaka  ia  Beeraheba,  on  die        'We  had,  on  the  iAuAb,*  eaya  Bobinaon, 

aoutfaem  boundary  of  Oanaan.    <  Our  Araba  '  been  much  pleaaed  with  Tnweileb,  although 

quickly  alanghtered  the  goat,  and  the  difRu^  he  had  aeen  hia  beat  daya,  and,  fior  much 

ent  portiona  were  apeedily  in  the  proeeaa  of  of  the  time  he  waa  widi  ua,  had  been  quite 

cooking,  at  difTerent  firea.    Their  repaat  was  unwdL     He  waa  unifonnly  kind,  patient, 

probably,  in  kind,  the  aame  with  die  aavoury  accommodating,  and  faitfafol;  and,  until  now, 

meat  whidbi  Isaac  loved;  and  with  which,  in  had  ahown  himaelf  leaa  a  beggar  than  hia 

thia  very  neighbonihood,  Jacob  enticed  from  companiona.    He  gave  us  hia  adieu,  by  re- 

him  the  bleaaing  intended  for  his  dder  bro-  peatedly  kissing  each  on  both  cheeks,  in 

dierC0en.BviL9,iagr.)- OnrHawei^guide  addition  to  die  usual  kiaa  of  the  hand.    We 


AR  A 


79 


AR  A 


p«rWd  «lth  onr  Tawirih  Anba  with  ngnt, 

and  witfi  the  kiudeBt  tealin^     For  thinj  which  sonld  not  bal  gin 

dan  tli«T  hid  now  been  our  oompudmu  anj  liCaMioD.     He  WH  ■!»  mora  Ihu 

and  gnidei  thioa^  the  dewrt,  and  not  (he  ordinaiT  ihcikh;  ha  could  raad  and  w 

■H^leat  dinonlt;  had  Mriaea  between  ui :  and  waa  likewise  the  kfaatib  or  orator  o( 

on  Iha  aontraiy,  die;  had  dma  all  in  tbair  Bibe.    In  Ihia  oqiaeil;  ba  wu  Terr  Wf 

poweiMliablanaisloIUofonTjonntej.and  in  die paifafmaaea of  iIm Hoden daniti 

noteet  na  ftom  dlMorafoTH  bj  the  wsr^    In  and  often  ebantad  kng  piqran  akmd.   1 

■D  onr  aabaeqneotjoninejingi  wa  tovad  no  lnde«d,  aaemad  to  ba  hia  Aiaf  dura 

gaUm  aa  UlhAil  and  devoted.'  and  ha  wm  addnaaed  onlr  aa  UaM 

'OoraheiUiwaaineTetTnapwtwmelhini:  IhM  m  hardlj  hMrd  him  eaUed  bjhia 

BMn  tfian  >  oommon  Arab.    In  atatom  he  nane  Mobaauned.     Tlia  learning  ot 

WM  Bora  Oun  ail  feet  lii^ — wellbnili,  ntd  tribe  1«  aattflnMl  U  die  ktaatib,  no  oOia 

Onet;  propoitioiMd;  and  Ibera  wai  ift  hia  ditidnal  being  abb  to  raad  or  write ;  bv 

moveBoiia  a  nattre  dignil;  and  noUeaaaa  ibia  i>  an  axoaptiaa  to  Arab  outoB, 

trhidi  we  did  not  find  in  other  Badonlna.  Tawinh  atand  degraded  bj  it  In  be  af 

Hia  Mnstaouioa  waa  intelligent,  aitd  bad  IheirbrMhnn'  — (BoblB*M,lL ITS). 


We  nttut  not  eondode  Ihia  attiele  widi- 


]f  Bome  merit,—'  The  HiS- 
lorfeal  Oeograph;  of  AnUa,'  bj  Oe  Bar.  0. 
Poelet:  Loiid(in,]8U; — Ihovgh  w«  eaonot 
admit  aome  ot  dte  an&oi'a  diief  poaitloiu. 
The  Tolnmea  [mrfese  to  have  aaeeriained  aa 
fidlowa  —  the  deeeenl  of  flia  Arab*  from  lah- 
mael;  all  the  ehief  lahmaalitiih  tribe*  an 


enpied  in  Ibe  daja  of  Uoeea,  and  wMeb  dlej 
ooDtiDoe  to  oeevpj.  The  ftmr  great  patriar- 
dial  Btodca  ai«  d^eorand,  '  who,  aooordlng 
to  Hoeee,  together  witfi  lahmael,  pei^led  die 
peninenla ; '  '  iha  fcmiUea  cf  Ciiah  imd  Jok- 
ten,  who  pTeeeded>  and  Iboaa  of  Ketnnh  and 
Kho,  who  followed  tile  eon  of  Bagar;'  Oicy 
ai«  recognised  '  in  the  rerj  localitiea,  and 
along  the  v«l7  Unea,  irilere  ttiBT  an  plaeed  bj 
Hoses  and  the  prophets.'  Farther,  Hr.  Foa- 
'      I,  in  his  own  opinion. 


been  broogbt  abont  b;  hia  diligent  qpIfeV' 
Hon  to  deojphn  inseriptiiRis,  whieh  weir 
eent  slmostinTaintoQeaenlaa  aadBSdiger, 
inOermanj;  Inicriptiona  dlseorered  bjEng' 
]hb  snrrejing  esp»dltiani,  on  ttw  Mtithsnr 
eoaat  of  Arabia,  oarred  on  die  elMkea  of 
aneient  buildings,  and  engrarcn  on  die  roeks. 
From  dte^lina<n^Makabe^Hl^ar,  andftona 
the  loek  c^  Hlan  Ottora^  loealittea  of  Hadra- 
mant  (which  ia  the  extreme  sondieni  part  of 
die  great  penlnanb),  oopiee  of  llieee  Inseitpi 
tiona  wera  taanscribed.  Onr  author  wasled, 
b;  what  ia  called  <Aianee,  to  ftaid  a  key  to 
Aem.  Toning,  in  the  eonne  itf  hia  atodlea, 
to  a  Teiy  rare  traet — 'Hisloria  Imperii  r. 
Joktanidoram,'  bj  SehtAtens,  hs  tinned  on  a 
title  and  monument  whidl  prored  to  be  an 
AraUo  Teiaion  of  tbe  tan-line  inscription  at 
Bisn  Ohorah.  nie  Hnea  ara  tntereatiiif ,  If 
onlj  Ibr  the  llrely  picture  iriiieh  Oiej  anird 
of  Arab  lib.    We  can  gin  onlj  diree  or  fimr : 


al^abet,  and  dw  reeoTei;  of  a  loBt  language ; 
that  alphabet  die  oelcbrated  Hoanad ;  this 
kagna^  the  (gogw  of  Hamjar.'    lUif  has 


ARA                      80  AR  A 

■ad  wiflkad  man*   Tbej  noted  down,  for  tu.  Under  Sral  and  David,  Zobah  was  the  moai 

aoooiding  to  the  doetrine  of  Heber,  good  important  of  the  Syrian  atatea,  whioh,  how- 

jodgmenta  written  in  a  book  to  be  kept ;  erer,  DaWd  Tanqniahed  (2  Sam.  viiL  8).  On 

And  we  believed  in  the  miraele-myaterf,  the  aame  oeeaaion  he  conquered  DamiMMni^ 

in  the  reaozreetion-myatery,  in  the  nottril-  which,  in  Solomon'a  reign,  appeara  in  eon- 

myateiy/  flict  with  larael,  but  waa  at  laat  conqnered 

To  theae  remaina  ICr.  Foster  aaaigna  'a  by  the  Aaayriana.    Then  Aram  fell  into  the 

date  of  3,000  year*  (nearly  three  eenturiea  hands  of  Uie  Chaldeans  and  the  Peraiana, 

prior  to  the  Booka  of  Moses),  the  age  of  till  the  death  of  Alexander,  when  it  came 

Jacob  and  Joseph,  or  within  000  yeara  of  the  nnder  the  Seleuoidn  as  an  independentking- 

flood.'    Their  tme  Taloe,  however,  he  finds  dom,  to  iHiidi  Jodea  waa  anbjeet 

in  'the  preciona  central  tmtha  of  levealed  According  to  Amoa  ix.  7,  the  Aramaans 

religion  which  tfiey  record,  and  which  they  came  from  Kir,  which  may  have  been  the 

have  handed  down  from  the  first  ages  of  the  oonntry  that  Ilea  at  the  foot  of  the  Cancaaas 

poat-dilnvian  worid.'    *In  the  Adite  monn-  moontaina,  on  tiie  river  Cyma,  one  of  the 

ment  at  Hian  Ohorab,  atanda  registered  the  branchea  that  form  tfie  Knror  Konra,  which 

incontrovertible  fact,  that  the  oldesl  mona-  empties  itself  into  the  Caapian  Sea,  sAer  hav- 

ment  in  the  world  contains  at  once  the  ftilleat  Ing  received  the  Arazea.    In  Oen.  z.  23, 

and  the  purest  declaration  of  the  great  een-  Aram  is  reckoned  among  the  children  of 

tral  troth  of  tibe  gospel :  — he  preached  nnto  Shem,  and  aaid  to  have  had  for  hia  descen- 

them  Jesos  and  the  Besorrection'C  the  oostril  dsnte,  Uz,   Hal,  Oether,   and  Maah,   who 

mysteiy') :  this  *  faith  was  the  primitive  reli-  may  be  considered  aa  the  founders  of  so 

gion  of  mankind.'    Nnmerona  other  inscrip-  msny  cities  and  dominions.    All  these  spoke 

tions  have  been  seen  or  heard  of;  and  'the  tiie  Shemitic  tongue,  of  which  the  Aramaic 

ftitore  reaulte  which  promise  to  arise  from  or  Syriac,  and  ^e  Chaldee,  were  dialects, 

tiie  clue  obtained  through  the  inscriptions  The  Aramaic  (Syrian)  language  was,  in  the 

already  deeyphered,  are  beyond  all  caloula-  time  of  the  Israelitish  kings,  spoken  by  As- 

tion.'    Wc  must,  however,  add,  that  the  eii-  ayrian  state  ofllcers  (2  Kings  xviiL  26.  Isa. 

tidsm  of  the  learned  world  has  looked  with  xzzvL  11)  ;  and  in  the  post-exilian  period, 

a  frowning  aspect  on  Mr.  Foatei'a  alleged  the  Persian  government  had  ito  edicte  to  the 

anccess.  Western  Asiatics  translated  into  the  Aramaic 

ABAM  (H.  highkmd),  or  Aramna,  the  (Eara  iv.  7).    The  religion  of  the  ancient 

Hebrew  name  for  Syria,  or  the  entire  country  Aramasans  was  a  symboUcal  worship  of  natu- 

lying  between  Phasnieia  and  Palestine  on  ral  objecto  (Judg.  x.  6.  2  Chron.  xxviiL  23). 

the  west,  Arabia  on  the  soutk,  the  Tigris  on  ABARAT  (H.  cursing),  —  The  country  so 

the  east,  and  Mount  Tauma  on  the  north,  called  formed  a  part  of  Armenia,  lying  in  the 

thus  including  Mesopotamia.    But  the  latter  middle  of  it,  for  which,  as  being  so  dia- 

had  a  specific  name,  that  is,  Aram  Naharaim,  tinguished  aportion  thereof,  it  was  sometimes 

or  Padan  Aram,  the  plains;  alluding  to  the  employed  (2  Kings  xix.  37.   Isa.  xxxvii  88. 

level  country  lying  between  the  Euphratea  Jer.  li.  27).    The  river  Araxes  ran  through 

and  the  Tigris,  which  the  Greeks  termed  it,  which,  having  joined  the  Kor,  fell  into 

Mesopotamia,  that  is,  the  country  between  the  Caspian  Sea.    In  the  time  of  Jeremiah, 

the  rivers.    On  this  side  of  the  Euphrates  it  was  a  kingdom.    From  the  earliest  period, 

there  belonged  to  Aram — I.  Aram  of  Da-  this  part  of  the  world  has  been  famous,  in 

mascus  (2  Sam.  viiL  6.   Isa.  viL  8.  Amos  consequence  of  the  mount  of  the  same  name 

i.  0),  that  is,  Syrian  Damascus,  which  waa  on  which,  according  to  Gen.  viii.  4,  the  ark 

nor^-eaat  of  Palestine.    II.  Syria>Maachah,  rested  after  the  flo<^  and  from  which,  as  * 

(lChron.xix.  6),  which  touched  on  the  terri  centre,  the  human  race  was  afresh  propa- 

tories  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  in  the  vicinity  gated  over  the  face  of  the  earth :  for  tfiia 

of  Bashan  (Josh.xiii.  12,  13.  Deut.  iii.  13).  reason  the  mouncain  is  held  sacred,  in  the 

In  the  time  of  David,  the  country  had  a  sove-  eyes  alike  of  Jews,  Christians,  and  Moham- 

reignofiteown(2Sam.x.6).  HI.  Geshurin  medans.      According  to  the  general  view, 

Aram  (2  Sam.  xv.  8),  near  Maaoha  (Deut  iiL  Mount  Ararat  is  that  part  of  the  chain  so 

*3.  Josh.  xii.  0),  with  ite  own  kings  in  the  called,  which  is  denominated  among  the 

Aaysof  Solomon  (2  Sam.  iii.  3).     IV.  Aram  Armenians,  Massis;   among  the  Persians, 

Beth-rehob,  mentioned  in  coi^unction  with  Kuhi  Nuch  (Noah's  Mountain) ;  and  among 

Aram  Zoba  and  Maaoha, — a  district  lying  the  Turks,  Aghri.    It  lies  in  the  vale  of 

at  the  foot  of  Antilibanus,  near  the  north  Arras,  about  thirty  miles  south-west  from 

Palestinisn  city  of  Dan  or  Laish  (Judg.  xviii.  Erivan,  which  was  long  the  capital  of  Ar- 

28).    v.  Hul  also  is  mentioned  as  part  of  menia.     As  seen  in  approaching  it  from 

Aram,  in  Gen.  x.  23,  as  well  as  Uz.     Zobah  Erivan,  Mount  Ararat  is  altogether  unique 

of  Syria  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47.  2  Sam.  viii.  3 ;  x.  in  ito   appearance,    rising   like  a   mighty 

6,  8)  seems  to  have  lain  on  the  other  side  pyramid  fkom  the  general  range,  and  gradually 

the  Euphrates  originally,  but  made  ito  way,  tepering  tfll  it  pierces  and  peers  above .  the 

in  the  course  of  time,  to  and  over  the  river  clouds.    It  rises  from  a  miyestic  curve  in 

towards  the  west  the  great  range,  a  sublime  comer  boundary 


ARC                      81  ARC 

of  the  three  empires  of  Persia,  Turkey,  and  appear  to  be  in  part  owing  to  a  want  of  a 
Bosaia,  ftaU  worthy  to  be  the  bridge  between  recognised  definition,  and  to  a  consequent 
the  anti-dilnTian  and  post-diluYlan  worlds,  dispute  about  words. 
It  has  two  peaks  —  the  higher  is    about  The  subject  is  of  importance  to  the  Bibli- 
17,000,    the  lower   is    about    13,000    feet  calBtndent,because,  if  the  East  in  the  present 
aboTe  the  lerel  of  the  sea.    Between    the  day  may  be  taken  as  a  picture  of  the  East 
two  is  a  huge  subsidence,  not  unlike  in  in  scriptural  times,  arched  buUdings  were  in 
a|ipearanoe   tbe  low  part  between  the  two  the  latter  period  by  no  means  uncommon, 
hnmps  of  the  dromedary.     Seen  firom  the  Eren  those,  however,  who  maintain  that  the 
north  and  the  south,  the  mountain  seems  to  arch  was  known  to  the  sncient  Israelites, 
stand  insulated  from  the  range  of  which  it  allow  that   no  word  meaning  an   arch  ia 
forms  a  part,  so  smsll  do  the  neighbouring  found  in  the  Bible.    The  only  passage  in 
>iiii«  appear  in  comparison.    The  resting-  which  the  word  occurs  in  the  English  trans- 
place  of  the  ark  cannot  be  deteimined ;  but  lation  is  Ezek.  zL  16,  where  the  margin 
it  may  have  been  on  the  ewrre  which,  as  we  reads  *  galleries  or  porches.' 
have  intimated,  lies  between  the  two  pikes.  ABCHELAUS  {Q,  governor  of  the  people)  y 
This  curve  is  an  extinguished  Tolcanic  crater,  son  of  Herod,  miscalled  the  Great,  and  of 
which  is  certified  by  the  signs  that  appear  a  Samaritan  woman,  named  Malthace.    He 
all  around  of  Tolcanic  action.    On  the  6th  was,  with  his  brother  Antipas,  brou^t  up 
July,  1840,  a  violent  eruption  took  place,  by  at  Borne.    After  Herod  had  put  to  death 
wbi<di  mudi  damage  was  done  to  the  whole  several  of  his  sons,  he  altered  his  will,  which 
surrounding  country.    The  iuhabitante  hold  bore  in  favour  of  Antipas,  and  gave  his  king- 
that  Ararat  cannot  be  ascended ;  and,  when  dom  as  an  inheritance  to  Archelaus,  on  con- 
Parrot  (*  Travels,'  Berlin,  1884)  proved  the  dition  that  the  gift  was  sanctioned  by  An- 
eontraiy,  they  still  fiimly  denied  the  fact  gustus.    The  prince,  therefore,  paid  a  visit 
Since  his  time,  a  young  Bussian  has  sue-  to  Bome,  and  was  well  received  by  the  em- 
ceeded  in  getting  to  the  summit  The  higher  peror,  though  complainte  were  made  against 
peak  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow:  hence  him  by  a  hostOe  party  of  his  countrymen, 
the  epithet  ^  hoary  AiinU*  The  entire  moun-  Accordingly,  he  received  possession  of  about 
tain   has    an  impressive  sublimity.      The  one  half  of  his  father's  kingdom,  namely, 
Arras  runs  along  ito  base.    The  great  plain  Judea,  Samaria,  and  Idumsa,  with  the  cities 
of  Erivan  and  the  valley  of  the  Arras,  being  Jerusalem,  Joppa,  and  Sebaste  (Samaria), 
hemmed  in  by  elevated  land,  have  in  summer  and  an  annual  income  of  six  hundred  talento. 
a  great  concentration  of  heat  and  a  mild  The  Bomans  gave  him  the  tiUe  of  Ethnarch : 
climate  for  that  region  during  the  whole  in  Matt  ii.22,  he  is  spoken  of  as  having  royal 
year.    The  country  extending  from  Erivan  power,  which  implies  an  increase  of  dignity, 
to  Nakeheran,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  that  would  naturally  ensue  from  the  pride 
miles,  is  beautiful,  and  the  soil  extremely  alike  of  Archelaus  and  his  subjecto.    Having 
fertile.  Itefrruito  are  very  excellent  and  plenti-  reigned  in  all  ten  years,  he  was  at  length, 
Ibl ;  but  the  «i<"ii^tA  is  unhealthy.  Armenian  in  the  consulship  of  M.  £milius  Lepidus 
tradition  says,  fliat  Noah  made  Nakeheran  (A.  D.  7),  dethroned,  and  banished  by  the 
(first  inn)  his  first  permanent  resting-place  Bomans  to  Vienne,  in  Gaul,  as  a  punishment 
alter  the  flood ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  under-  for  his  tyranny,  especially  against  the  Sama- 
•tand  why  he  should  have  wandered  so  far  ritans,  and  for  his  misconduct  towards  his 
down  the  valley,  and  over  so  fertile  and  own  relations.    Good  reason,  therefore,  the 
beautifril  a  country,  before  he  found  a  home,  character  of  Archelaus   beiag   considered. 
Near  the  base  of  Ararat,  at  Khorvirab,  is  had  Joseph  on  his  return  from  Egypt,  with 
the  renowned  Armenian  church,  as  well  as  the  child  Jesus,  to  avoid  Herod's  dominions, 
the  prison  of  St  Gregory,  the  apostle  of  and  proceed  to  Nazareth  in  Galilee  (Matt 
Armenia:  the  latter  is  a  nanow  cave,  about  iL  22). 

thirty  feet  deep;  it  is  held  in  great  respeot  On  the  banishment  of  Archelaus,  his  do- 
by  the  natives.  minions  came  under  the  immediate  sway  of 
ABCH  (L.  a  bow)  is  the  segment  of  a  the  Bomans,  and  were  annexed  to  the  pro- 
circle  applied  in  arehitectnre.  Nidiiolson,  vince  of  Syria,  but  as  a  separate  territory, 
in  his  '  Arohitectoral  Dictionary,'  defines  governed  by  ito  own  procurator.  The  pro- 
the  areh  to  be  '  a  part  of  a  building  sus-  curators  had  to  take  care  of  the  righto  of 
pended  over  a  given  plan,  supported  only  at  Bome  over  Judea ;  to  collect  the  tribute ;  to 
the  extremities,  and  concave  towards  the  preserve  tranquillity;  and, consequently, pos- 
plan.'  A  few  yeara  ago,  it  was  thought  that  sessed  very  great  influence.  They  dwelt  at 
the  arch  was  unknown  in  the  esrlier  periods  Cesarea,  a  splendid  city  on  the  shore  of  the 
of  civilisation,  and  that  ito  invention  was  Mediterranean,  built  by  Herod.  Here  were 
attributable  to  the  classic  nations.  The  in-  also  the  head-quarten  of  the  troops  which 
quiries,  however,  which  have  been  made  in  they  had  under  their  command ;  only  that  a 
Egypt,  show  that  the  areh  was  known  there,  small  Boman  garrison  was  stationed  in  the 
six  hundred  years  before  Christ,  if  not  at  a  citadel  Antonia,  which  lay  at  ihe  north-west 
much  eadierperiod:  the  diversitiesof  opinion  end  of  the  Temple. 

F 


ARE                        82  A  R  I 

ARGHIPPUS  (G.)  is  spoken  of  in  the  let-  Mldrefls  Ae  Athenians.  Before  him  lay  the 
ter  of  Paul  to  Philemon  (2)  as  '  our  fellow-  crowded  city,  studded  with  memoriais  of 
soldier ;'  and,  in  the  letter  to  the  Colossians  religion  and  patriotiBm,  and  exhibiting  the 
(It.  17),  Paul  directs  the  church  at  Colossas  highest  achievements  of  art  On  his  left, 
to  say  to  Archippus,  *  Take  heed  to  the  mi-  beyond  the  walls,  was  the  Academy,  with  its 
nistry  which  thou  hast  recelTcd  in  the  Lord,  groves  of  pine  and  oUve  trees,  its  temples, 
that  thou  ftdfil  it:'  whence  it  appears  that  its  statues,  and  its  fountains;  near  which 
Archippus  held  an  office  in  the  Oolossian  Plato  had  resided  and  tau^t  But  the 
church.  In  GoL  iv.  9,  Onesimns,  the  slave  most  interesting  olgect  lay  on  the  apostle's 
of  Philemon,  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  Colos-  right  hand :  on  Uie  hill  of  the  Acropolis, 
sian  church.  Now,  the  slave  dwelt  with  his  were  clustered  toge^er  monuments  of  art 
master.  Hence  we  learn,  that  PhUemon,  and  national  religion,  such  as  no  other  spot 
whose  place  of  abode  is  not  mentioned  in  on  earth  has  ever  borne,  consisting  of  raag- 
the  letter  which  Paul  sent  to  him,  was  of  niflcent  temples  of  Pentelican  marble ;  the 
the  Colossian  church.  The  conclusion  ao-  justly-famed  Parthenon,  adorned  with  the 
cords  with  what  we  know  from  Philemon  (2),  finest  sculpture,  from  the  hand  of  Phidias ; 
where  Archippus  is  obviously  found  in  the  and  the  statue  of  Pallas  Proma^es,  which 
same  place  as  Philemon ;  and  Archippus  was,  towered  so  hi^  above  the  other  buildings, 
we  have  already  seen,  of  Colosss.  These  are  that  her  plume  and  spear  were  seen  far  oiT 
minute  coincidences  between  these  two  epis-  upon  Ifae  sea.  The  court  of  Areopagus  was 
ties.  Scarcely  observable  without  care,  &ey  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  honoured,  not 
are  not  likely  to  have  been  invented :  they  are  only  in  Athens,  but  in  all  Greece,  and,  in- 
incidental  and  unintended.  As  such,  they  deed,  in  the  ancient  world;  for,  on  account 
give  a  satisfactory  proof  of  the  credibility  c^  of  its  equity  and  beneficial  influence,  foreign 
tfio  records  in  which  they  are  found.  states  sometimes  sought  its  verdict    When 

AREOPAGUS  (G.  Mart  Hill)  signifies,  Greece  became  sulgeet  to  Bome,  much  of 
in  reference  to  place.  Mars*  Hill;  in  reference  its  influence,  if  not  its  equity,  was  lost 
to  persons,  the  council  which  was  held  on  The  origin  of  the  court  may  be  traced  to  the 
the  hill,  sometimes  called,  from  its  elevated  earliest  period  of  Grecian  histoiy.    At  first, 
position*  the  upper  council,  and  sometimes  the  members  were  essentially  aristocratio ; 
simply,  but  emphatically,  the  connciL    The  but,  in  the  course  of  time,  persons  of  blame- 
place  and  eouncil  are  topics  of  interest  to  less  personal  oonduct  seem  to  have  been 
the  Biblical  scholar,  chiefly  on  account  of  eligible  to  the  appointment     The  precise 
their  being  the  scene  of  the  sublime  discourse  time  when  it  ]9eiished  cannot  well  be  deter- 
of  Paul  (Acts  xviL),  who,  being  moved  by  the  mined ;  but  it  is  certain  that  in  later  periods 
evidences  of  idolatry  which  abounded  in  its  members  ceased  to  be  uniformly  distin- 
Athens  to  preach  Jesus  and  the  resurrection,  guished  by  blameless  manners, 
was  set  on  by  certain  Epicurean  and  Stoic  The  ftmctions  of  the  court  were  divided 
philosophers,   and  led  to  Areopagus,  that  into  six  classes : — ^I.  Judicial.    II.  Politieal. 
they  might  learn  firom  him  the  design  and  HI.  Police.    IV.  Beligious.    V.  EdnoationaL 
meaning  of  his   new  doctrine.      Whether  VI.  (only  partial)  Financial. 
Paul  was  criminally  arraigned  before  this  Its  strictly  religious  ftmctions  extended 
court,  is  not  quite  determined,  thou^  it  is  over  the  public  crecKl,worship,  and  sacrifices; 
probable  that  he  was.    His  temperate,  dig-  having  to  keep  the  religion  of  the  state  fne 
nified,   and    high-minded   bearing,    in  so  from  foreign  elements, 
peculiar  a  situation,  cannot  be  sufficiently  ARETAS  (G.),  the  name  of  several  North 
admired.    Nor  does  it  appear  that  his  elo-  Arabian  petty  kings,  one  of  whom  (it  may  be 
quent  discourse  was  without  a  good  result ;  the  third)  lived  in  the  days  of  Paul,  sad 
for  though  some  mocked,  and  some  prooros-  possessed,  for  a  time,  a  part  of  Syria,  with 
tinated,  yet  others  believed ;  amongst  whom  the   city  of  Damascus,  whose  governor  or 
was  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  who  has  been  ethnaroh,  in  his  desire  to  gratify  the  Jews, 
represented  as  Bishop  of  Athens.    The  his-  kept  watch  day  and  night  in  that  city,  in 
toiy  of  the  Acts  of  the  AposUes  states  (Acts  order  to  apprehend  the  apostle,  who,  how- 
xviL  22),  that  the  speaker  stood  in  the  midst  ever,  by  the  aid  of  his  fellow-believers,  es- 
of  Mars'  Hill.    Having  come  up  fh>m  the  eaped  under  the  shadows  of  night 
level  parts  of  the  city,  and  looking  towards  Aretas  was  father-in-law  to  Herod  Antipas, 
the  south,  he  would  behold  on  one  side  the  who  repudiated  his  daughter;  on  which.  Are- 
harbour  of  Pirons,  on  the  other  the  bar-  tas,  declaring  war,  defeated  Antipas,  when 
hour    of   Phalemm,    with    tfieir    crowded  Tiberius  int^ered.    The  death  of  that  em- 
arsenals,  their  busy  workmen,  and  gallant  peror,  however,  seems  to  have  given  Aretas 
fleets.    Not  far  off,  in  the  ocean,  lay  the  an  opportunity  for  making  himself  master 
island  of  Salamis,  a  spot  sacred  to  the  free-  of  Damascus. 

dom  of  Greece.  The  apostle  had  only  to  ARIEL  (H. /i0iiQ/'(7o<O,  a  symbolical  re- 
turn to  the  right,  to  catch  a  view  of  the  small  presentation  of  Jerusalem,  as  i^pears  from 
but  celebrated  hOl  where  Demosflienes  and  Isa.  xxix.  7,  8,  in  which  Ariel  is  identified 
other  distinguished  orators  were  wont  to  with  Mount  Zion.    In  2  Sam.  »«».  20,  the 


A  R  I  83  ARK 

word  here  employed  to  denote  Jerusalem  must  hare  been  intimately  acquainted  wiHh 
is  applied  to  heroes,  'lion-like  men;'  whence  the  country  of  which  he  spoke,  more  inti- 
it  appears,  that  the  prophet,  in  the  use  of  mately  acquainted  than  one  resident  out  of 
this  nsme,  represents  Jerusalem  as  an  he-  Palestine  eould  have  been,  and  than  most  re- 
roic  city ;  and  the  bearing  of  the  passage  sidents  in  Palestine  probably  weie.  Minute 
seems  to  be,  that  though  for  her  iniquities  information  on  one  point  affords  a  guarantee 
Jerusalem  was  about  to  be  ptmished  of  God,  of  its  existence  in  other  points.  If  Luke 
she  would  yet  prove  herself  superior  to  her  was  minutely  accurate  in  his  geography,  he 
enemies,  whose  distress  is  pictured  forth  was  not  likely  to  be  negligent  or  loose  in 
T ery  strikingly  in  verses  7  and  8.  the  more  important  historical  details  of  his 

ABIMATHEA  (H.  %^).— As  in  other  narratiye. 
countries,  so  in  Judea,  the  word  height  ox  ASlSTARCBiVS  (Q,  best  governor),  ^M^ 
hill  entered  as  an  element  into  many  words;  cedonian  Christian  of  ThessiJonica,  probably 
and,  since  the  term  is  altogether  a  relatiye  a  convert  of  Paul's,  who,  trom  gratitude  and 
one,  very  different  elevations  of  the  earth's  respect,  accompanied  and  aided  his  teacher 
surface  have  been  thus  designated.  If  a  in  his  missionar^^joumeyings  in  Greece  and 
spot  stood  above  the  altitude  of  ihe  surround-  Asia.  Being  wiUi  Paul  at  £phesus,  at  the 
ing  country,  it  might  rise  as  well  from  a  plain  time  of  the  riot  raised  by  Demetrius  the 
as  from  a  range  of  mountains.  Accordingly,  silversmith,  he  was  seized  by  the  mob,  and 
there  were  in  Canaan  four  places  of  dissimi-  put  in  danger  of  his  life.  After  which  he 
lar  heights,  that  bore  the  name  of  Bamah,  of  went  with  Paul  into  Macedonia,  whence  he 
which  Arimathea  is  only  a  modification  seems  to  have  followed  the  apostle  to  Syria; 
caused  by  peculiarities  of  dialect  or  local  for  we  find  the  two  together  when  the  latter 
circumstances.  The  Bamah  of  the  Old  Testa-  was  sent  prisoner  to  Borne,  whither,  aceord- 
ment  (Josh.xix.  29)  is  the  Arimathea  of  the  ingly,  this  faithful  follower  accompanied  his 
New,  the  same  piace  which  in  modem  times  teacher  and  fHend  (Acts  xix.  29 ;  xx.  4 ; 
is  designated  Bamlah.  This,  which  may  be  zxvii.  2).  The  apostle  terms  Aristarbhus 
considered  as  the  current  opinion.  Dr.  Bo-  <my  fellow-prisoner'  (Col.  iv.  10),  and  also 
binson  has  impeached ;  but  his  reasons  have  reckons  him  among  his  '  fellow-labourers ' 
not  been  held  satisfactory  by  a  very  compe-     (Philemon  24). 

tent  judge,  we  mean  Biiumer.    Bamlah  lies        ABK  (L.)  is  a  word  which  denotes  a 
in  the  vale  of  Sharon,  eight  miles  south-     coffer  or  chest,  and  is  a  vessel  which  most, 
east  of  Joppa,  and  sixteen  miles  from  Jemsa-     from  its  naturei  have  found  a  place  in  the 
lem.    About  five  miles  from  Bamlah,  on  the     rites  of  such  religions  as  employed  sacred 
road  to  the  metropolis,  begin  the  rough  high     things  to  commemorate  or  symbolise  ideas, 
lands  of  Judah.     Bamlah,  or  Arimathea,     since  they  oould  not  dispense  with  a  re. 
was  the  birthplace  or  residence  of  the  rich     pository  in  which  these  vessels  or  objects 
Hebrew,   Joseph,  who   had  been  recently     might  be  preserved  and  transmitted.    The 
converted  to  Christ,  and  who  interred  our     word  cork  is  the  English  representative  of 
Lord's  body  in  his  own  new  tomb  (Matt     two  Hebrew  terms:  &e  first,  aAroAn,  is  ap- 
xxvii  67.   Mark  xv.  48.  Luke  xxiiL  61.  John     plied  to  what  is  more  fully  designated  '  the 
xix.  38).     It  is  a  little  singular  that  Luke     ark  of  the  covenant'  (Exod.  xxv.  10;  xxxix. 
mentions  Arimathea  as  a  city  of  the  Jews,     SO.  Numb.  xiv.  44.  Josh.  iii.  8);  the  second, 
that  is,  of  Judea.    Except  there  was  some     tehvah,  describes  the  ark  of  Noah,  a  de- 
special  reason,  why   the  mention  of  this     scription  of  which  may  be  found  in  Gen.  vi. 
circumstance,  which  is  in  no  way  called  for     14,  seq.    It  is  also  employed  to  denote  the 
by  the  narrative  ?    It  would  sound  strange     boat  of  bulrushes  in  which  the  infant  Moses 
to  hear  an  English  writer  speak  of  '  London     was  exposed  (Exod.  ii.  8). 
in  Middlesex ; '  but  it  would  not  strike  us  as        ABK  OF  THE  COVENANT,  called  some- 
any  thing  extrordinary  if  such  a  writer  were,     times  *  the  Ark  of  Testimony/  was  a  small 
in  speaking  of  Devonport,  to  add  '  formerly     chest  or  coffer,  of  acacia  wood,  about  three 
called  Plymouth  Dock.'     Luke  appears  to     feet  nine  inches  long,  two  feet  three  inches 
have  had  a  reason  similar  to  this  for  adding     high,  and  two  feet  three  inches  broad.    It 
the  words,  *  a  city  of  the  Jews.'   The  district     was  overlaid  with  fine  gold,  within  and  with- 
had  belonged  to  Samaiia,  but  was  given  to     out,  and  surrounded  with  a  crown  of  gold, 
Judah  by  Demetrius  (cir.  146,  A.O.),  as  we     for  ornament    There  was  a  ring  of  gold 
learn  from  1  Mace.  xi.  84,  in  these  words :     at  each  of  the  four  comers,   into  which 
*  We  have  ratified  unto  them  (the  Jews)  the     staves  were  put  for  bearing  the  ark.    On 
borders  of  Judea,  with  the  three  governments     the  top  was  the  merqy-seat  of  pure  gold, 
of  Apherema,  Lydda,  and  Bamathem,  that     whose  dimensions  were  such  as  to  cover  the 
are  added  unto  Judea  from  the  country  of    sacred  chest    Over  the  mercy-seat  bent  two 
Samaria.'    We  regard  this  confirmation  of    golden  figures,  called  cherubim,  whose  ex- 
Luke's  strict  and  minute  geographical  accu-     tremities  sprang  from  the  two  ends  of  the  ark, 
racy  as  one  of  those  minute  circumstances     while  they  met  each  other  with  their  faces, 
which  mark  the  narrative  of  a  well-informed     which  with  the  wings  were  directed  down- 
narrator,  if  not  an  eye-witness.    The  writer     ward   so  a   to  ovoishadow  the  mercy-seat. 


ARK 

e  deposited  tli 


la  (hia  ufc  were  depiwited  the  Iwo  Ublei  of 
vhioh  the 

deoilogne  or  lan  eonuduidmeuu  were  in- 
■oribed.  '  And  there  I  will  meet  with  thee' 
(JeboTib  ie  described  u  promiaing),  'uid 
I  will  commiuie  with  Ihee  from  above  the 
mercy-seat,  from  between  Ibe  two  cherubitna, 
of  all  thinga  which  I  will  giTS  thee  in  com- 
mandmeat  unto  the  children  of  I>raer(£iod. 
sn.  10,  M7.  Dent  i.  1.  Momb.  viL  89.  Fi. 
uii.I),  TbeBoljofhoIiealnlheUbemiclB 
■ud  in  (he  temple  was  the  ippointad  pltoe 
for  IhtB  cheat,  which,  howevei,  uta  MmetimeB 
canjed  with  the  trtopa,  u  a  prolecticm  in 
battle ;  and,  in  eonieqaenee,  once  fell  into 
the  hands  ef  the  Philiatinei,  who,  howerer, 
reitorcd  it  to  the  lanelitei  (1  Sun.  iv.  9, 
leg.  I  T.  7;  liT.  16).  The  ufc  wu  in  th* 
kMping  of  the  hi|pi  prieat,  and  ondei  Iha 
special  care  of  Leiitea  appointed  fbi  the  poi- 
pose.  No  one  might  behold  or  tooeh  it; 
u)d  it  wM  thersfDie,  during  the  jonnieji 
in  the  vildemeas,  eaiefollf  eofered  (Numb. 
iiL  31  ;  It.  4] ;  on  which  aoconnt  Ciiih, 
when  he  ruhl;  look  hold  of  the  aik,  as  it 
■book,  apparently  in  danger  of  falling,  on 
being  tranaported  from  Gibeah,  was  suddenly 
slnick  dead  (3  Sam.  ri.  fl).  The  ark 
peiielied  in  the  deatiuclion  of  Solomoa'e 
temple ;  and  the  temple,  bnilt  after  Uie  Baby- 
lonian oaptiTllj,  had  Its  Holy  of  holies  empty. 
The  Boraan  historian,  TAcilns  (Hiat  t.  9), 
■tales,  in  agreement  with  this,  that  within 
the  Hmple  than  was  no  image  of  gods, 
merely  a  vacant  diamber  and  empty  mjs- 
leries.  According  to  Heb.  iz.  4,  there  was 
in  this  csffer,  besides  (be  tables  of  ooiflnant, 
the  golden  pot  that  bad  manna,  as  well  as 
Aaron's  rod  that  budded.  But,  In  1  Kings 
(Tiii.  9),  it  is  said  there  was  nothing  in  the 
aik  saTS  the  two  tables  of  stone.  In  £iod. 
zri  84,  and  Nnmb.  irii.  10,  it  is  stated  that 
flie  pot  of  m«nna  and  Aaron's  staff  wers  laid 
before  the  art,  to  be  kept  for  tokens.  The 
oonlTBiiety  vhioh  some  have  foond  in  these 
passages  we  do  not  see.  Not  to  insist  that  the 
Hebrew  particle  rendered  '  before '  may  sig- 
niiy  inJMit,  we  remark  that  the  inlerior  of  the 
aik  was  the  sniuble  place  for  pieaerring 
these  memorials,  which  most  probably,  there- 
fare,  wen  aooner  or  later  deposited  therein; 
and,  thongh  the  manna  and  the  rod  were  not 
(bond  wi£in  the  ark  in  the  days  of  Solomon, 
it  does  not  tiillow  that  they  had  not  been 
there  at  an  earlier  period.  The  obanges  of 
loealitj  that  the  aik  underwent,  and  the 
hostile  bsndB  into  which  it  came,  are  snfB- 
eient  to  account  for  Tariatione  aa  to  its 
eonlenH.  The  wander  is  that  the  decalogue 
shoold  hiTe  remained  in  the  ark  till  the 
days  of  Salomon ;  which  could  hardly  bare 
been  the  case,  had  not  a  sacred  awe  eur- 
rounded  and  gnaided  its  reoeptade. 

A  cloud  rested  on  the  tabernacle  in  the 
1  sinkings 


I  ARK 

mined  (Eiod.  xl.  84,  k;.).  In  I«t.  ztI.  3, 
13,  Aaron  is  directed  to  bum  incense  on 
hia  approach  to  Qod,  who  would  appear  in 
the  cloud  which  hence  arose,  covering  the 
meicy-seat.  This  spot,  between  (be  cheru- 
bim, Jewish  traditiDn  named  Ibe  Shekinah, 
01  special  residence  of  Qod ;  adding,  that  bera 
he  dwelt  peipetually ;  whereas  the  Scripture 
aathorities  do  no  more  than  aothoiiae  the 
conclusion  that  it  vas  only  on  special  oera- 
■ione,  and  in  no  permanent  aloud,  that  God 
promised  to  reve^  his  will. 

The  Holy  of  holies  was  a  dark  chamber, 
into  which  no  light  coold  penetrate ;  iboa 
symboliaing  the  hidden  and  myaterious  na- 
ture of  the  Almighty,  *  unapproachable  and 
foil  of  glory  1'  dark  by  that  eieeaa  of  light 
which  is  his  esaence ;  dark  and  invisible  to 
man.  Tel  this  mysterious  Being  watches,  in 
hit  own  sempiternal  light,  over  his  law,  and 
therefore  over  the  moral  govenimenl  of  the 
woiid,  which  is  condncUd  on  strict  general 
principles,  whose  application  ia  snpeiin- 
lended  and  softened  by  mercy.  This  ws 
tmderstand  to  be  tha  import  of  die  ark  hold- 
ing Ibe  covenant  of  law,  covered  by  the 
mercy-seal,  and  ceaselessly  looked  upon  by 
the  chenibim,  which  betoken  the  ever-waka 
fnJ  eye  (rf  divine  Providence. 


The  ark  of  the  covenant,  the  most  im- 
portant ot  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  ancient 
Israelilea,  ia,  on  that  account,  placed  as 
tho  symbol  of  their  religion,  when  in  the 
■sccDdanl,  on  the  tide-page  of  thia  work; 
while  the  Babylonish  captivity  is  represented 
by  a  female  with  a  harp,  and  the  destrucbon 
of  Jerusalem  by  ths  Romans  (Jurfiea  eapia) 
appears  under  tha  figure  of  a  venerable  toot- 
worn  Hebrew  exile;  tbe  cross  in  the  centre 
■hows  the  deliverance  anticipated  by  Juda- 
ism ot  old,  and  the  hope  ot  the  entire  world. 

The  ark,  viewed  in  eonnsolion  with  the 


A.RK 


85 


Aft  K 


waimj-Kfi  (Oapanth,  in  Hetnw),  maj  b«  That,  unoOf  isTcrtl  andBiil  niUoiu,  aiklt 
Rguded  u  the  buis  of  tha  religion  of  the  or  Iiolj  ohesci,  are  foiuid,  *dmiu  of  no 
IstmUUs.  Honae  it  ia  of  importonoe  to  qnsatioo.  Special  weight  baa  bwn  laid  an 
awerum  vhelher  this  emblem  same  tMm  the  fact  that  the  Egjpdans  had  their  ark. 
heaOien  worahip  into  the  Hebrew  litaal;  Wilkioson,  apeakiiig  of  a  painted  aculptDre 
wheOieT  il  la  borrowed  and  adopted,  or  on  the  walli  of  the  palaoe-tempte  of  Rama- 
Hrietlj  HoMia  in  ita  aaMntial  chanotar.  tea  IH.  ttHedinet  Habn,  hb;b  (iii.  £80), 
The  origiutlitj  of  Ibe  ark,  ai  we  find  it  eat  '  In  dka  lower  eompaitmeni  on  this  side 
forth  bj  Mosea,  haa  In  reocmt  timea  been  of  the  temple,  la  a  proosaaion  of  the  arka  of 
""' "  Amoan,Mon^andCbDlla  (the Theban triad) 


THEB AK    TB 


whioh  the  king,  whoae  lA  ie  alio  carried 
before  bim,  eomea  to  meeL  Id  the  uppei 
part  of  the  weal  wall,  Bamraea  boma  iu- 
eenae  to  the  ark  of  Sohaii ;  Ibe  aik  ia  then 
bonu  bj  aiiteen  piieata  with  a  pontiff.' 
Again  (vol.  r.  271,  Kf.),  '  One  of  the  most 
importaDt  roremoniee  waa  the  procesaion 
at  ahriaea,  irtiiah  ia  freqaentlj  repreiented 
on  the  walla  of  the  lemplea.'  The  sbrinea 
were  of  two  kinda ;  the  one  a  aort  of  canopj, 
tha  other  an  aik  or  aaored  boat  Thia  wai 
carried  with  grand  pomp  bj  the  prieata,  who, 
anpporting  it  on  their  ahonider  bj  meana  of 
long  etaTea,  brought  it  into  the  temple, 
where  it  waa  plaoed  on  a  aland  or  table,  in 
order  thai  the  prescribed  ceiemoniea  might 
be  performed  Iwfore  it.'  But,  in  Che  firit 
place,  tha  eontenta  of  the  Egrptian  were 
altogether  ■ii««imil«T  to  thoae  of  tiie  Hebrew 
ark.  Of  the  conlenia  of  the  former,  modeat; 
forbids  as  to  apeak  in  particulars;  but  Ibej 
refer  to,  and  are  ajmbolical  of,  the  prociea' 
ti*e  power  of  nature ;  and,  accordinglj,  theie 
cheats  are  found  employed  in  the  aeryiFe  of 
those  diiinities  bj  which  the  power  is  ajFin- 
bolised,  snch  as  Baochoa,  Ceres,  Venus.  Moat 
eontrarf  waa  ths  use  and  piupoie  of  the  ark 
of  the  eoTcnant,  which  was  designed  to  ahow 
the  intimate  union  there  had  beon  (unned 


Mosaic  religion.  Then,  nothing  resembling 
the  mercj-aeat  ia  found  eonueoted  with  the 
arka  of  beatbeDiam,  though  tbia  part  of  the 
Moaaie  ark,  as  representing  the  grace  and 
goodness  ol  Ood,  is  an  eesential  in  the  aame. 
The  idea  afforded  bj  the  mercr-aeat  aa 
being  over  the  tables  of  the  law,  and  the 
■pot  whence  special  manifestations  of  the 
dirine  preeence  were  Touchaafcd,  ia  one  of 
the  moat  engaging  and  beaaliful  that  can  be 
conoeived;  aettiiig  forth,  aa  it  doea  vei; 
Btiikinglj,  especiall;  to  Ibe  old  Hebrew 
mind,  which  waa  very  familiar  with  STnibo- 
lica]  teachinga,  that  meroj  watches  orer  Ihe 
administration  of  justice,  if  not  to  qaali^ 
ita  behests,  jet  to  moderate  its  sentences, 
and  temper  their  execution.  Bo  ioflj  a 
moral  conception — soworthj  a  fbreshadow- 
iug  of  the  doctrine  of  the  gospel  -^  '  Qod  ia 
a  Father,'  'God  is  Lore,'  we  >o«kSir  in  Tain 
in  Ibe  heaOien  religions  ot  ibe  world.  Hera 
we  baie  a  difference,  «ot  of  fbim,  but  of 

The  similsiilj  of  ford,  ao  far  aa  It  eilats, 
appears  to  hsTe  been  a  mere  aecidcuL  The 
Egyptian  rites  required  a  cheat,  ao  did  tha 
Hebrew  rbence  anna  the  naemblance.   Tha 


ARM                      66  ARM 

flnl  reprewnted  the  land  of  Egypt.  Water  was,  in  ancient  times,  a  royal  city  of  Iha 
was  pooivd  into  this  chest  to  indicate  the  Canaanites  (Josh.  xii.  21.  Jndg.  L  27).  It 
fhictifying  principle  of  nature  —  a  forcible  lay  in  a  Talley  (called  hy  the  same  name) 
symbol  in  a  country  if  here  the  presence  of  forming  part  of  the  great  plain  of  Jexreel,  or 
water  always  makes  the  earth  bnd,  and  bear  Esdraelon,  which  spread  out  along  the 
large  increase.  The  ark  of  Moses  contained  eastern  side  of  the  base  of  Mount  Gaimel 
the  testimonies  of  the  Lord,  which  must  (2  Chron.  xxxr.  22).  In  Judg.  ▼,  19,  men- 
have  been  presenred  in  some  kind  of  box,  tion  is  made  of  *  the  waters  of  M^^do,* 
and  eoold  have  been  so  well  guarded  as  a  which .  is  probably  •  poetie  term  for  '  the 
token  to  posterity,  only  by  the  sacred  em-  river  Kiahon'  (21).  In  Megiddodied  king 
blems  and  religious  awe  with  which  they  Ahaziah  (2  Kings  ix.  27)  :  here  also  Josiah 
were  advisedly  environed.  If,  however,  we  was  slain  in  biUtle  against  Necho,  king  of 
enter  into  particulars  regarding  the  form  of  Egypt  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  24).  Solomon  had  it 
the  Egyptian  and  of  the  Mosaic  arin,  we  find  fortified  as  a  military  station,  and  the  key 
great  dissimilarities.  A  sort  of  ship  was  on  the  side  of  the  Mediterranean  to  Northern 
Uie  most  prominent  feature  in  the  former,  of  Palestine  (1  Kings  ix.  15).  He  also  made 
which  there  is  no  trace  in  the  latter.  On  it  a  sort  of  provincial  capital  (1  Kings 
this  ship  was  borne  what  had  the  shape  iv.  12).  The  few  words  in  which  it  is  men- 
rather  of  an  altar  than  a  chest,  being  small  tioned  in  the  Revelation  have  given  occasion 
and  high ;  while  the  ark  of  <^e  oovenant,  to  much  mysticism,  coigecture,  and  diver- 
whose  original  this  altar  is  said  to  have  been,  sity  of  opinion.  Bobinson  finds  Megiddo 
was  long  and  low.  To  the  Egyptian  altar  in  Lejjun,  the  Boman  Legio,  a  well-known 
were  attached  certain  figures,  emblematical  and  important  place  in  the  first  centuries  of 
of  divine  powers ;  but  they  sgreed  with  the  our  era. — Comp.  Zech.  xiL  11. 
Hebrew  ehembhn  only  in  having  wings,  ARMENIA  (H-At^AioiNJ),  a  celebrated  ooun- 
which  particular  they  shared  in  common  with  try,  neariy  triangular  and  elevated,  thrown  off 
similar  symbols  Ibund  in  Persia,  India,  and  to  the  north-west  by  Mount  Caucasus,  hav- 
Babylonia.  In  short,  this  Egyptian  vessel  ing  Taurus  on  the  west,  towards  Asia  Minor, 
is  so  diverse  in  form,  and  so  heterogeneous  with  other  but  less  elevated  hills  towaurds 
in  significance,  that  an  impartial  judge  may  Mesopotamia.  In  Armenia  is  Mount  Ararat, 
well  be  surprised  that  it  ^ould  have  been  on  which  the  ark  is  recorded  to  have  settled 
in  any  way  identified  with  die  Mosaic  ark.  after  the  flood.  Lying  as  a  c<mtre  to  the 
The  sole  point  of  resemblance  is,  that  both  Euxine,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Meditexra- 
were  carried  by  poles — a  circumstance  to  neau  Sea,  it  would  be  drained  sooner  tlian 
be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  both  had  to  be  other  parts,  and  afford  a  suitable  point  from 
carried.  But  these  poles  were  not  peculiar  which  the  new  race  of  men  might  difPVise 
to  the  ark.  Did  Moses  need  to  apply  to  themselves  over  the  earth.  These  monn- 
Egypt  for  so  natural  a  method  of  transport-  tains  are  rich  in  metals  and  precious  stones; 
ing  the  sacred  vessels  of  his  religious  sys-  flieir  regetation  is  thin  and  poor ;  but,  where 
tem  f  Nor  is  it  at  all  probable  tiiat  Moses  water  is  found,  luxuriance  covers  the  land, 
would  borrow  from  a  species  of  worship  especially  in  the  soathem  parts, 
which  was  an  abomination  in  the  sight  of  Armenia  itself  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
Jehovah,  the  circle  of  images  which  repre-  Bible;  but  different  parts  of  it  are  to  be  found 
aented  the  ftmdamental  ideas  of  a  religion  under  these  designations :  —  I.  Ararat  (Gen. 
by  which  he  intended  to  wean  them  from  viii.  4.  Isa.  xxxvii.  38.  Jer.  IL  27).  U. 
their  Egyptian  attachments,  and  raise  them  Togarmafa  (Gen.  x.  8.  1  Chron.  i.  6.  Ezek. 
into  an  independent,  as  well  as  a  monothe-  zxviL  14).  The  Armenians  find  their  origin 
isttc  people.  in  a  certain  Thorgomoss,   a  descendant  of 

ARM  (S.).  — This  part  of  the  human  body  Japhet     IH.  Minni  (Jer.  IL  27). 

is  used  in  Scripture  as  a  token  of  power.  As  being  a  hi^i  central  country,  Aimenia 

either  by  itself  or  with  some  additions.  Thus,  affords  a  bed  for  seversl  great  rivers.    Here 

in  Exod.  xv.  16,  we  read,  in  relation  to  the  rise  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris;  here 

miracle  at  the  Red  Sea,  *  By  the  greatness  of  also  are  the  sources  of  the  Araxes  (Gihon), 

thine  arm  shall  the  Canaanites  be  still  as  a  as  well  as  those  of  the  Kur  or  Kir,  and  of 

stone '  (Ps.  Ixxix.  11).     Sometimes  the  idea  the  Phasis  or  Pison.     Two  out  of  the  foor 

IS  conveyed  by  the  terms  'high  arm'  (Acts  rivers  mentioned  by  Moses  as  connected 

xiii.  17)  ;  so  we  find  a  *  stretched-out  arm'  with  the  Garden  of  Eden,  are  the  Euphrates 

(Deut  V.  15 ;  viL  19).    Whence,  to  l^reak  or  and  the  Tigris.    It  has  been  thought  by 

cut  off  the  arm  is  to  injure,  punish,  or  hn-  some,  that  the  other  rivers  are  found   in 

miliate  (lSam.ii.81.  Jobxxii.9;xxxviii.l5).  Armenia,  under  such  conditions  as  to  fix 

ARMAGEDDON    (H.  the    mouniaiH    of  Eden  in  this  country.    Accordingly,  it  has 

Megiddo), —  The  place  is  generally  termed  been  placed  here,  somewhat  to  the  south- 

Megiddo  in  Scripture,  but  in  Rev.  xvi.  16,  west  of  Ararat,  and  to  the  norA  of  the  lake 

Armageddon.  Megiddo  was  comprised  within  Arsissa  (Arjesh).      Great  objections,  how- 

the  territories  of  Issachar,  belonging,  how-  ever,  may  be  taken  to  this  view.    We  add  a 

ever,   to  Manass(>h   (Josh.   xvii.  11),  and  brief  description  of  the  country  around  the 


A  RM 


87 


ARM 


lake  jast  named,  not  to  confirm  the  idea  of 
its  being  Eden,  but  to  aid  in  giving  the 
reader  a  true  conception  of  the  country. 
The  bed  of  the  lake  is  formed  by  branches 
of  Mount  Taurus,  in  somewhat  the  shape  of 
a  huge  basin.  The  immense  extent  and  tran- 
quillity of  its  cerulean  waters  give  the  lake 
the  appearance  of  a  sea  which  is  never 
ruffled  by  storms.  Its  shores  are  clothed 
with  poplars,  tamarisks,  myrtles,  and  olean- 
ders ;  and  many  verdant  islands,  inhabited 
by  peaceftd  anchorets,  are  scattered  over  its 
bosom. 

ARMOT^I  (H.  my  cattle),  Saul's  first 
son,  by  Bizpah,  who,  together  with  his  bro- 
ther MephibocQieth,  and  five  children  of 
Hichal,  Saul's  daughter,  was,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Bavid,  mercilessly  hung  on  a  hill, 
in  ihe  beginning  of  barley  harvest,  by  the 
hands  of  die  Gibeonites,  who  had  demanded 
to  be  their  executioners,  in  revenge  for  Saul's 
detennination  and  efibrts  to  root  out  the 
nation,  in  spite  of  the  truce  which  Joshua 
(ix.  15)  had  made  with  the  Gibeonites  to  let 
^em  live.  Thus,  Saul's  misdeed  was  visited 
on  his  children.  It  is,  however,  not  possi- 
ble to  exculpate  David,  who  ought  to  have 
used  his  influence  to  mitigate  the  animosity 
of  the  Gibeonites ;  nor  is  it  easy  to  avoid 
thinking  that  he  would  not  so  readily  have 
given  up  these  young  men  to  the  revengeful 
wishes  of  their  enemies,  had  they  not  been 
too  near  the  tiirone.  Good,  however,  comes 
ont  of  evil ;  for  this  disgraceful  transaction 
gave  occasion  to  the  display  of  an  instance  of 
maternal  love,  in  the  case  of  Rizpeh,  which  is 
as  poetically  told  as  it  is  beautiful  in  itself. 
Whether  from  contrition  or  policy,  David 
buried  the  corpses  of  the  young  princes  in 
fheir  family  sepulchre.  We  are  not  recon- 
ciled to  this  deed  by  an  intimation  that  its 
perpetration  conciliated  the  divine  favour 
(14).  This  looks  as  if  priestcraft  was  throw- 
ing a  veil  over  the  atrocities  of  kingcraft 
(2  Sam.  xxi.). 

The  precise  nature  of  the  death  which 
these  persons  underwent,  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine.  Some  have  thought  that  they 
were  crucified.  Crucifixion,  however,  has 
not  been  proved  to  be  a  Hebrew  punish- 
ment The  language  employed  is  not  un- 
suited  to  what  is  implied  in  our  barbarous 
custom  of  hanging;  but  probably  the  passage 
intends  nothing  more  than  the  suspension 
and  exposure  of  the  bodies  after  deaUi.  See 
Numb.  XXV.  3  and  4. 

ARMS  (L.),  among  the  residents  of  Pales- 
tine, were  not  greatly  dissimilar  to  those 
which  were  borne  by  other  warlike  nations  of 
old.  It  is  highly  probable,  that  as  the 
Egyptians  had  obviously  long  enjoyed  a 
period  of  peace,  so  as  to  attain  to  the  high 
degree  of  civilisation  of  which  they  were  pos- 
sessed in  the  days  of  Moses,  so  had  they 
been  able  to  impress  on  surrounding  nations 
an  idea  of  their  power  by  achievements  in 


war,  for  which  they  must  have  been  iu  part 
indebted  to  the  superiority  of  their  arms.  In 
this  advantage  the  Israelites  could  hardly 
fail  to  partake,  as  well  as  in  the  correspond- 
ing skill  in  military  tactics,  which  naturally 
accompany  the  possession  of  superior  arms. 
To  these  favourable  circumstances  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  the  Hebrews  owed,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, the  facility  with  which  they  vanquislied 
the  Canaanites,  and  got  possession  of  the 
promised  land,  even  as  tibe  defeat  and  de- 
struction of  the  immense  forces  of  the  Persian 
invader  were  driven  back  or  destroyed  by  a 
handftil  of  well-anned  and  well-disciplined 
Greeks. 

Among  defensive  anns,  we  find  in  the 
Bible  mention  made  of  helmets  of  brass, 
but  scarcely  helmets  of  leather,  which  are 
used  by  tribes  in  a  lower  social  state  than 
was  that  of  Uie  Hebrews ;  also,  the  shield,  of 
two  kinds,  the  smaller  and  the  larger,  the  last 
covering  the  whole  body.  The  extent  to 
which  ti^e  Israelites  were  given  to  war,  may 
be  inferred  from  two  facts :  I.  There  are  in 
Hebrew  four  words,  each  of  which  signifies  a 
shield  of  some  kind.  II.  The  shield  formed 
a  part  of  even  their  feligious  poetry  and  their 
ordinary  figures  of  speech :  *  I  am  thy  shield,' 
God  is  represented  as  saying  to  Abraham 
(Gen.  XV.  1) ;  and  God's  faithfulness  is,  in 
Ps.  xci.  4,  declared  to  be  '  the  shield  and 
buckler'  of  the  righteous  man.  Eminent 
persons  wore  coats  of  maQ,  made  commonly 
of  brass,  which  covered  the  upper  and  lower 
part  of  the  body ;  leaving,  however,  occasion 
for  greaves,  as  a  defence  to  the  legs,  to 
which  was  sometimes  added  a  gorget,  or 
special  protection  to  the  chest  and  throat 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  4,  seg.  88).  Whether  the  ar- 
mour were  made  of  scales  or  plates,  it  did 
not  fail  to  leave  openings  at  the  joints, 
through  which  fatal  wounds  were  given 
(1  Kings  xxii.  34). 

Among  offensive  weapons  we  specify  the 
sword,  which  hung  on  the  left  side,  sus- 
pended from  a  belt  It  was  kept  in  a  scab- 
bard, and  was  often  double-edged.  The 
Boman  da^^er  was  introduced  at  a  lata 
period,  and  was  the  instrument  of  those 
Sicarii,  dagger-bearers,  who,  at  the  time  of 
the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  state,  plundered 
and  destroyed  so  atrociously.  The  spear, 
and  the  lance  also,  were  in  use  among  the 
ancient  children  of  Israel.  They  were  held 
in  the  hand,  and  only  thrown  on  favourable 
occasions.  They  had  a  wooden  handle  with 
a  short  pike  at  its  end.  Then  there  were 
bows  and  arrows  for  destroying  human 
beings  at  a  distance,  which  were  employed 
also  in  hunting.  The  bow  was  either  of 
hard  wood  or  of  brass.  Its  size  was  some- 
times such  as  to  require  great  strength  for 
bending  it  When  not  wanted  for  actual 
use,  it  was  borne  in  a  quiver  made  of  leather, 
which  the  modem  Orientals  support  by  a 
girdle.      Cane  or  reed  furnished    arrows^ 


A  R  P  88  ART 

which  were  Bometimes  dipt  in  poison  (Pa.     has  been  thought  to  be  the  founder  of  the 
xixriii.  2.  Job  vi.  4),  or  wrapped  round     province  of  Airapachitis,  in  Northern  Assyria; 


a  trace  of  the  custom  of  burying  their  arms     Elam  (Elymais),  Assur  (Assyria),  Lud  (Ly- 
with  deceased  warriors.    Captiwed  arms  of    dia),  Aram  (Syria). 

distinguished  warriors  might  be  suspended  AKBOGANCY  (L.  taking  to  ane't-teff)  it 
in  the  temple  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  27),  or  they  the  high  and  lofty  bearing  of  one  who  thinks 
were  burnt  in  a  heap  (Ezek.  xzxix.  0).  well  of  himself.  The  Hebrew  word  denotes 
*  Houses  of  armour'  were  set  apart  to  hold  pride,  excellenee,  pomp,  and  hence  haughti- 
arms  in  readiness  for  use  (Isa.  xxii.  8;  ness  and  arrogance,  or  assumption.  Arro 
-y,;y  2).  gancy  is  put  with  pride  in  Pror.  riii.  18.  Jer. 

Lamentable  is  the  &ot  to  those  who  love  xlviii.  29,  thus  illustrating  the  meaning, 
and  strive  to  make  peace,  that  to  no  part  of  ART  (L.).— In  the  practical  arts  of  life, 
the  page,  not  even  to  that  which  is  termed  the  Hebrews  made,  in  each  period  of  their 
sacKd,  of  ancient  history,  can  we  turn  with-  history,  such  attainments,  and  exhibited  such 
out  being  met  by  images  and  instruments  of  progress,  as  their  degree  of  culture  gave  rea- 
direfiU  war.  Such  things  are  written  for,  son  to  expect;  nor  are  there  any  grounds 
not  our  example,  but  warning,  since  we  for  thinking,  that,  if  they  did  not  excel,  they 
are  followers  of  'the  Prince  of  Peace;'  and  stood  much  inferior  to,  the  most  civilised 
in  proportion  as  the  government  is  on  his  eastern  nations.  But  for  excellence  in  the 
shoulders,  will  wars  become  less  frequent,  fine  arte  they  were  by  no  means  distin- 
till  men  shall  once  and  for  ever  *  beat  their  guished.  Palestine  is  a  land  of  recollections, 
swords  into  ploughshares,  and  theur  spears  not  of  monuments;  its  monuments  were 
into  pruning-hooks :  naUon  shall  not  lift  up  never  any  thing  else  than  solemn  truths  and 
a  sword  against  nation,  but  they  shall  sit  great  historical  events.  As  it  had  no  Olym- 
everv  man  under  his  own  vine  and  under  pus,  so  it  had  no  Jupiter  and  no  Venus, 
his  own  fig-tree,  and  none  shaU  make  them  Its  ideal  was  holiness;  its  God  was  spirit 
afraid ;  for  the  mouth  of  the  Lord  hath     and  truth. 

spoken  if  (Mic.  iv.  8,  4).  Yet  the  fine  arts  were  not  whoUy  strangers 

ARNON  (H.  eternal  Ught),  a  stream  on     to  the  land.    In  Egypt,  the  Hebrews  beheld 
the  north-eastern  part  of  the  lake  Asphaltites,     in  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture,  the 
or  Dead   Sea,  rising  in  the  highlands  of     achievements  of  a  high  civilisation,  which 
Western  Arabia,  anciently  the  boundary  be-     yet  remain  to  astonish,  gratify,  and  improve 
tween  the  countries  of  the  Amorites,  on  the     mankind.    But  the  employments  in  which 
south,  and  the  Moabites,on  the  north  (Numb,     the  Hebrews  were  engaged  were  little  fitted 
xxL  13).    At  alater  period,  it  was  the  south-     to  make  them  skilful  in  the  imitative  arts, 
eastern  limit  of  the  Hebrew  possessions,  and     Moses,  indeed,  brought  tip  as  he  was  in  the 
of  the  tribe  of  Beuben,  to  whom  this  country     Phaioahs'  court,  may  have  gained  both  taste 
was  assigned  on  the  division  of  the  land     and  judgment  in  the  highest  productions  of 
(Deut.  iiL  16).     On  the  heights  of  Amon,     its  culture;  and  his  mind  could  not,  even  in 
and    probably    on  its    banks,    there  were     amerely  artistic  direction,  have  been  without 
anciently  towns  and  cities:   here  lay  Aroer     influence  on  his  people;  but  his  powers  were 
(2  Kmgs  X.  83.    Numb.  xxi.  28.  Jer.  xlviii.     almost  exclusively  engaged  in  a  far  higher 
20).    When  the  snow  melts  on  the  moun-    work,  and  he  could  do  little  more  for  art 
tains,  the  Amon  overflows  its  banks,  and     than  infuse  somewhat  of  its  spirit  into  Ms 
bears  away  broken  rocks  and  trees  in  its     religious  ordinations.     Certainly,  the  long 
rapid  and  violent  current     On  its  banks     wanderings  in  the  desert,  ere  Canaan  was 
are  here  and  there  found  patches  of  herbage,     entered,  and  the  dying-out  of  the  generation 
and,  in  the  deep  vaUey  which  it  waters,  good     that  were  in  Egypt,  must  have  tended  to 
pasture  grounds.  weaken  sny  impressions  which  the  fine  arts 

ABPAD  (P.),  a  city  of  Syria,  of  whose  ex-  of  Egypt  may  have  produced  on  the  minds  of 
act  locality  nothing  is  known.     It  is  men-     the  rescued  tribes. 

tioned  in  the  Bible  in  coi^unction  with  There  were,  however,  two  other  sources, 
Hamath  and  Damascus,  and  in  such  a  man-  whence,  at  different  periods  of  their  history, 
ner  as  to  warrant  the  conclusion,  that  it  was  the  Hebrews  must  have  derived  elements  of 
a  place  of  strength  and  note  (2  Kings  xviiL  art,  and  means  of  the  higher  culture.  Lying, 
34).  as    Palestine  does,  between    Mesopotamia 

ABPHAXAD  {H.MoothMyer or  ChaideBon),  and  the  Mediterranean;  and  being,  in  con- 
the  third  son  of  Shem,  bom  two  years  after  sequence,  in  the  great  high  road  along  which 
the  flood :  he  is  said  to  have  lived  488  years,  commerce  traversed  in  its  passage  from  tha 
At  the  age  of  thirty-five,  he  is  recorded  to  East  to  tbe  West;  so,  doubtless,  it  partook 
have  had  a  son  named  Salah  (Gen.  x.  22 ;  of  the  cultivating  influences  which  passed 
xi.  12,13.  1  Chron.  i  17,18).  By  Josephus  through  its  territories.  Thus, both  Babylonian 
he  is  called  the  father  of  the  Chaldosans.    He     and  Phoenician  art  was  brouicht  within  its 


ART 


89 


ART 


teach :  nay,  the  oultiure  of  the  remote  East, 
in  its  passage  westward,  went  through  Pales- 
tine, and  shed  a  benign  influence  as  it 
passed;  while,  after  having  made  itself  a 
home  in  the  celebrated  cities  of  Fhosnicia, 
it  came  back  again,  in  a  somewhat  new  form, 
from  that  neighbouring  land,  to  improve  the 
arts  and  refine  the  manners  of  the  IsraeUles.  It 
may  not  be  easy  to  follow  these  things  out  in 
detail,  and  exhibit  them  in  actual  instances ; 
for  the  Jewish  writers  speak  not  of  art,  but 
of  religion;  yet  enough  is  found  scattered 
through  their  pages  to  verify  their  general 
import,  and  to  give  us  reason  to  hold,  that 
though,  with  the  exception  of  poetry,  the 
Hebrews  had  no  native  school  of  art,  and 
derived  the  sources  of  their  earthly  culture 
mostly  from  foreign  quarters,  they  stood 
on  a  higher  platform,  in  regard  to  mere 
civilisation,  than  is  ordinarily  allowed. 

Poetry  is  found  in  a  flourishing  condition 
immediately  after  the  passage  of  the  Bed 
Sea,  and  snatches  of  poetry  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  earliest  portions  of  the  Biblical  nar- 
ratives. But  poetry  is,  in  all  nations,  the 
earliest  form  which  the  excited  feelings  of  a 
people  assume. 

In  Hebrew  architecture  and  its  a(Qunet8, 
we  find  rudiments  of  art,  in  which,  doubt- 
less, Egypt  had  its  share  of  influence.  The 
formation  of  the  tabernacle  must  have  re* 
quired  skill,  as  well  as  liberality ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  notice,  that  the  skill  is,  after  the 
Hebrew  manner,  ascribed  to  Uie  direct 
inspiration  of  God: — 'And  Moses  said 
unto  the  children  of  Israel,  See,  the  Lord 
hath  called  by  name  Bezaleel,  and  hath  filled 
him  with  the  spirit  of  God,  in  wisdom,  in 
understanding,  and  in  knowledge,  and  in 
all  manner  of  workmanship ;  and  to  devise 
curious  works,  to  work  in  gold,  and  in  sUver, 
and  in  brass,  and  in  the  cutting  of  stones, 
to  set  them,  and  in  carving  of  wood,  to  make 
any  manner  of  cunning  work ;  and  he  hath 
put  in  his  heart  that  he  may  teach,  both  he 
and  Aholiab :  them  hath  he  filled  with  wis- 
dom of  heart,  to  work  all  manner  of  work 
of  the  engraver,  and  of  the  cunning  work- 
man, and  of  the  embroiderer,  in  blue,  and 
in  purple,  in  scarlet,  and  in  fine  linen'  (Exod. 
zxxv.  80).  Accordingly,  under  their  aid 
and  direction,  was  the  tabernacle,  with  all  its 
usefol  and  ornamental  appurtenances,  made. 
Nor  were  other  instruments  employed  in  the 
worship,  without  demands  on  ^e  resources 
of  art:  the  candlestick  was  of  pure  gold,  with 
shaft,  branch,  bowls,  knops,  and  flowers, 
'an beaten  work  of  pure  gold'  (Exod.xxxvii. 
17,  seq.).  The  disturbed  and  warlike  period 
which  dapsed  after  the  ox)nquest  of  Canaan, 
was  little  favourable  to  the  growth  of  the 
fine  arts;  nor  was  it  before  the  time  of 
David  that  any  considerable  architectural 
project  was  entertained.  Its  completion 
was  reserved  for  Solomon,  who,  finding  his 
native  resources  insufficient,  had  recourse 


to  Fhcsnician  art,  and,  applying  to  the  king 
of  Tyre,  on  the  express  ground  of  the  supe- 
riorly of  his  artists,  was  supplied  by  that 
monjtfch,  not  only  with  cedar  wood  for  his 
temple  and  his  palace,  but  also  with  work- 
men to  superintend  the  construction  of 
those  grand  buildings.  Special  mention  is 
made  of  one  Hiram,  '  out  of  Tyre,'  whose 
father  was  a  worker  in  brass,  and  was  him- 
self '  filled  with  wisdom  and  understanding, 
and  cunning  to  work  all  works  in  brass.' 
This  person  made  a  variety  of  splendid 
articles  for  the  temple  worship,  enumerated 
in  1  Kings  vii.  13,  ieq. 

It  is  an  error  to  suppose,  that  the  Hebrews 
were  forbidden  to  form  likenesses  or  repre- 
sentations of  living  beings.  Images  for  wor- 
ship it  was  that  they  were  prohibited  to 
make.  The  formation  of  the  cherubim 
(Exod.  XXV.  18,  aeq»  1  Kings  vi.  28,  teq.), 
under  the  directions  of  Moses  and  Solomon, 
suflices  to  show,  that  the  imitative  arts  were 
not  disallowed  or  unknown ;  and  the  skill 
required  in  this  work  was  by  no  means 
small.  At  the  same  time,  there  was  little  in 
this  to  communicate  a  general  impulse ;  for 
the  tabernacle  and  the  temple  once  made, 
were  made  for  ages,  nor  were  similar  con- 
structions allowed  in  other  parts  of  the 
country.  Indeed,  the  spirituality  of  Mosa- 
ism,  as  compared  with  the  religious  systems 
of  the  classic  nations,  was  hostOe  to  mere 
art;  for  though  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  was 
a  distinct  personality,  and  so  might  more 
easily  have  been  represented  to  the  eye  than 
the  abstractions  of  heathen  pantheism,  yet 
was  Jehovah  recognised  as  invisible,  un- 
known, and  infinite,  while  the  sensuous 
affections  of  the  religiously  untutored  Greek 
gave  form,  shape,  body,  motion,  and  a 
sort  of  life,  to  the  unreal  and  fanciful  crea- 
tions of  his  own  teeming  brain.  Moses 
wisely  kept  his  people  apart  from  the  fasci- 
nations of  this  pantheism  of  marble  and 
deifying  of  external  beauty:  had  he  not 
done  so,  the  retention  and  preservation  of 
the  great  doctrine  of  the  divine  unity  would, 
on  &e  part  of  the  Hebrews,  have  been  even 
more  dffieult  than  they  actually  found  it 
As  it  was,  they  could  not,  during  ages,  with- 
stand the  appeal  to  their  senses  made  by  the 
idolatrous  forms  and  images  of  the  Canaan- 
itish  nations;  nor  was  it  till  after  they  had 
been  disciplined  by  suffering,  and  had  re- 
ceived lessons  from  the  anti-image  worship 
of  Persia,  that  they  fully  grew  up  to  the 
height  of  their  own  monotheism,  and,  with  a 
deep  and  laudable  hatred  of  external  objects 
of  veneration,  would  not  endure  in  Jerusa- 
lem even  the  likeness  of  the  Boman  em- 
peror, that  was  borne  on  the  standards  of 
the  army.  A  palace,  which  Herod  the 
tetraroh  had  built  at  Tiberias,  was  destroyed 
by  the  authorities  of  Iho  place,  because  it 
had  in  it  figures  of  living  creatures. 

In  the  later  periods  of  Jewish  history. 


ART                        90  ART 

Oreeian  trt  gained  some  degree  of  aoeep-  Another  Artazeixee,  king  of  Pereia,  is 

ance,  especially  under  the  sway  of  the  half-  found  in  Ezra  Tii.  1,  who  is  held  hy  most 

heathenish  and  splendour-losing    Herods,  modem  authoritiee,  as  well  as  by  Josephns, 

who  adorned  several  eities  of  Palestine  with  to  be  Xerxes,  successor  of  Darius  Hystaspes, 

gymnasia,  public  baths,  porticoes,  and  thea-  rendered  famous  by  his  wars    in  Oreece 

tree.    But  FhcBnicianarohiteetare,  which  waa  (Ahasuuus).     Others,  however,  haye,  not 

related  to  the  Egyptian,  was  not  thereby  without  some  solid  grounds,  held  that  this 

altogether  suppressed ;  for,  in  the  Babbinieal  monarch  was  Artazerxes,  surnamed,  from  a 

works,  mention  is  made  of  the  Tyrian  win-  slight  deformity,Longimanu8  (long-handed), 

dow,  the  Tyrian  portico,  ko.  This  sovereign,  however,  issued,  in  the 

There  are  few  traces  of  painting,  as  an  sixth  year  of  his  reign,  a  decree  which  was 

imitative  art,  in  Jewish  history.    In  Ezekiel  very  favourable  to  the  Jews,  and  which,  on 

(x.  14)  is  found  a  passage  which  would  the  universal  principle  of  paganism,  that 

give  the  idea  that  the  painted  idols  of  Egypt  every  people  had  their  own  gods,  permitted 

had  found  artists  and  worshippers  in  Jem-  the  Israelites,  who  yet  remained  in  Asia,  to 

salem.    Comp.  Esek.  xxiii.  14,  ug,  return  into  tfieir  native  country ;  carrying 

ABTAXEBXES  (P.  mighiy  king,  AM,  with  them  *  the  sUver  and  gold  which  the 

6026;  A.C.  522;  V.  522),  a  title  of  honour  king  and  his  councillors  have  freely  offered 

of  a  king  of  Persia,  mentioned  in  Ezra  iv.  unto  the  God  of  Israel,  whose  habitation  is 

7,  8,  who  ai^ars  to  have  been  Pseudo  in  Jerusalem ;  and  all  the  silver  snd  gold 

Smerdis,  or  Smerdis  the  false.    This  name  which  thou   (Ezra)  canst  find  in  all  the 

has  been  assigned  to  him  in  consequence  of  province  of  Babylon,  with  the  free-will  offer- 

his  having  assumed  to  be  a  son  of  Cyrus,  ing  of  the  people,  for  the  house  of  their 

and  brother  of  Cambyses.    He  was  in  reality  God,'  buying  wi&  the  money  bullocks,  rams, 

a  magus  or  priest  who  gained  the  throne  &c.  for  sacrifice,  and  taking  *  the  vessels 

by  a  conspiracy  of  the  sacerdotal  order  in  also  that  are  given  ihee  for  the  service  of 

his  favour.    EUii  reign,  which  did  not  last  the  house  of  thy  God ;  and  whatsoever  mors 

for  eight  full  months,  fell  between  Camby-  shall  be  needful  for  the  house  of  thy  God, 

ses  and  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes.     To  this  bestow  it  out  of  the  king's  treasure-house.' 

monarch,  Behum  and  his  associated  Sama*  The  reason  assigned  intimates    that    this 

rian  colonists  addressed  a  letter,  with   a  liberal  treatment  resulted  from  fear:  probably 

view  of  inducing  the  king  to  stop  the  build-  some  great  national  disaster  had  been  averted, 

ing  of  what  they  term  *  the  rebellious  and  as  it  was  thought,  by  the  aid  of  Ezra's  God ; 

bad  city' — Jerusalem — on  the  allegation  '  for  why  should  ^ere  be  wrath  against  the 

that,  if  it  were  completed,  the  Jews  would  realm  of  the  king  and  his  sons?'    That  this 

refdse  to  pay  the  accustomed  tribute,  and  edict  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  any  rational 

that  the  authority  of  the  Persians,  on  the  west  attachment  to  religious  liberty  may  be  safely 

side  Jordan,  would  come  to  an  end.    An  concluded  from  the  fact,  that  the  monarch, 

edict  was  accordingly  issued  by  Artaxerxes,  like  a  true  eastern  despot,  empowered  Ezra 

jbrbiddiog  the   continuance  of  the  labours  to  punish  all  who  would  not  '  do  the  law  of 

of  the  restored  Israelites,   on  the  ground  thy  God  and  the   law  of  the   king,'  with 

that  researches  into  the  archives  of  Persia  confiscation  of  goods,  imprisonment,  banish- 

had  proved  Jerusalem  to  have  been  of  old  ment,  and  even  death, 

given  to  insurrection  and  rebellion:  '  Then  A  third  Artaxerxes  is  found  in  Neh.  iL  1, 

ceased  the  work  of  the  house  of  God,  which  who  is  allowed  to  be  Artaxerxes  Longimanus 

is  at  Jerusalem:  so  it  ceased  unto  the  second  (A.M.  5084;  A.G.  464;  V.  474),   son  and 

year  of  the  reign  of  Darius,  king  of  Persia.'  successor  of  Xerxes,  omitting  the  brief  usur- 

There  is  often  a  great  dissimilarity  between  pation  of  Artaban.    He  is  named  by  anticipa- 

the  names  of  oriental  sovereigns,  as  found  tion  in  Ezra  (vi.  14),  and  termed  by  an  error 

in  the  Bible,  and  as  they  are  presented  by  of  the  copyist,  king  of  Babylon,  in  Nehemiah 

profane  history.    This  fact  has  been  pleaded  (xiii.  6).     He  reigned  thirty-nine  years, 

against  the  Scriptures  without  reason.     In  Nehemiah,  being  cup-bearer  to  this  sove- 

non-biblical  authorities,  the  names  of  eastern  reign,  was,  while  in  the  execution  of  his 

kings,  princes,  and  satraps,  vary.    Even  at  duty,  observed  by  his   master   to   have   a 

the  present  day,  there  is  not  in  any  one  sorrowfid  countenance,  who,  thereupon,  asked 

European  country  an  established  mode  of  his  servant  the  cause.     Nehemiah  avowed 

writing  oriental  names.  The  Greeks  adapted  the  fact;  he  was  grieved  and  distressed  at 

Eastern  names  to  the  laws  and  usages  of  the  low  and  afflicted  condition  of  his  brethren 

their  euphonic  language,  and  so  produced  in  Judea:  *  Why  should  not  my  countenance 

obanges  almost  as  great  as  their  own  names  be  sad,  when  the  city,  the  place  of  my  fa  • 

have  undergone  in  the  clipping  process  of  there'  sepulchres,  lieth  waste,  and  tlie  gates 

French  pronunciation.    Then  what  in  mo-  thereof  are  consumed  witli  fire  ? "    Accord 

dam  times  has  been  taken  as  a  proper  name,  ingly  the  king  is  moved  with  pity,  and,  at 

piovss,  with  the  advance  of  knowledge,  to  be  Nehemiah's  request,  permits  him   to  visit 

an  honorary  distiuotion,  a  patronymic,  or  a  Jemsalem,  and  appoints  him  governor  of  the 

iiUt  of  ol&o«i  laud  (Neh.  ii.  v.  14). 


A  R  V 


91 


ASA 


ARTIFICER  (L.  a  sHfful  worker).  —The 
Hebrew  from  which  this  word  ia  zendered 
denotaa  originally,  to  cut  imlo,  as  does  the 
engraver,  and  so  to  engrave  ^  whenoe  it  is 
applied  to  t arions  kinds  of  skilled  fatboar, 
and  is  translated  in  the  oommon  fwniim 
by'eraftsman'  (0eat  zrrii  Id),  < smith' 
(I  Sam.  ziii  19).  Sometimes  the  name  of 
the  material  is  joined,  as  in  1  Chron.  sir.  1, 
*  masons'  in  the  original  is  '  workers  of  wall/ 
and  'earpenters'  is  'workers  of  wood.' 
Henoe,  it  is  dear  that  Uie  word  rendered 
turtifieerwMM  applied  generally  to  saoh  handi- 
crafts as  reqnired  tiie  exercise  of  mind. 
Such  exeroise  is  the  origin  of  all  the  oon- 
Teniences  of  soeial  life.  Hmnan  strength, 
directed  by  human  intelligenee,  gate  birth 
to  art  Bat  it  deserves  special  notice,  that 
with  the  Hebrews  the  root- idea  of  tiie  word 
which  signiites  htouUcni^  is  derived,  not  as 
with  us,  from  labour,  bnt  from  skill,  as  if  the 
fact  would  say  that  brute  force  is  by  itself 
powerless  for  good,  and  that  mind  is  the 
source  of  the  arts  which  support  and  adorn 
human  enstence.  Nor  oan  a  nation,  in  its 
origin,  have  held  a  low  scale  in  civilisation, 
whose  workmen  were,  at  so  eariy  a  period, 
engravers,  rude  though  their  workmanship 
may  have  been. 

ARTILLERY  (L.  small  annt).  — This 
word,  which  occurs  only  once  in  the  Bible, 
and  then  denotes  the  bow  and  arrows  of 
Jonathan,  Saul's  son  (1  Sam.  zx.  40),  shows 
how  widely  language  sometimes  deviates 
from  its  original  acceptation.  'Artilleiy' 
excites  now,  in  the  mind  of  an  Englishman, 
the  idea  of  cannon,  and  all  the  heavy  accou* 
trements  by  which  such  huge  instruments  of 
destruction  are  wielded.  The  primitive  re- 
ference of  the  term  is  to  the  lightest  of  an 
offensive  anns  —  die  bow  and  arrow.  In- 
deed, the  derivation  of  the  word  directs  the 
mind  to  those  instruments;  coming,  as  it 
probably  does,  from  orcuf,  a  bow,  and  te2wm, 
a  dart,  or  arrow.  The  original  Hebrew  ad- 
mits this  amid  its  many  significations,  such 
as  'vessels,'  Oen.  xliii.  11;  'instruments,' 
Exod.  XXV.  9 ; '  weapons,'  Deut  i.  41 ; '  stuff,' 
Gen.  xxxi.  37.  A  passage  in  the '  Tasso*  (xf 
Fairfax  well  illustrates  the  meaning:  — 

'  The  sods  forbid  (qaoth  be)  one  akq/t  of  thine 
Should  be  dlflcbMged  'gafaist  that  diaoomteous 

knlgbt; 
His  heut  unworthy  ia  (ahootreaae  divine) 
or  thine  artOleile  to  feel  the  might.' 

ARYAB,  a  populous  PhoBnlcian  city,  which 
lay  on  a  high,  rocky  position,  in  an  island 
just  off  the  coast,  to  the  north  of  Tripolis, 
and  opposite  to  a  city  on  the  continent, 
named  after  it,  Antiaradns.  Its  inhabitants 
were  called  Arvadites ;  and  Arvad  is,  in  Gen. 
X.  18;  1  Chron.  i.  16,  accounted  an  off- 
spring of  Canaan.  In  agreement  with  which, 
the  geographer  Strabo  says,  that  the  people 
of  this  place  were  descended  from  the  Sido- 
nians.    They  had  the  reputation  of  being 


good  seamen  and  good  soldiers  (Strabo; 
Esek.  xxvii.  8,  11).  They  carried  on  con- 
siderable trade,  especially  after  the  fall  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon.  At  an  eariy  period  they 
were  governed  by  their  <nm  kings,  bnt  after- 
wards formed  a  part  of  the  successive  em- 
pires of  the  Persians,  Maeedonians,  and 
Romans.  No  traee  is  now  found  of  the  place, 
except  in  the  name  of  the  small  idand, 
Buad,  and  in  several  extant  Arvadle  coins. 
Arvad  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  Arpad, 
mentioned  in  H)  Kings  zviii.  84 ;  xix.  18. 

ASA  (H.  Asoler.  A.M.  4604 ;  A.  0.  944; 
V.  955),  the  third  king  of  Judah,  son  of 
Ahgah,  reigned  fh>m  960  to  914,  A.G. 
Owing  to  tiie  strong  tendency  in  the  mind 
of  the  Israelites  towards  the  idolatiy  of  the 
Canaanitish  nations,  and  the  imfkithftilness 
of  his  ancestors,  Asa,  on  his  aseending  the 
throne,  found  the  religious  oondition  of  his 
kingdom  lamentable.  Idolatry  had  made  aa 
almost  inooneexvable  progress.  Altars  were 
erected  and  served  in  honour  of  strange 
gods ;  saoiflces  were  oflbred  on  those  high 
places  which  were  consecrated  to  idolatry; 
the  concealed  profanations  and  liocntiousness 
of  grove-worship  prevailed ;  and  graven  ima- 
ges reoeived  that  adoration  which  belonged  to 
Jehovah  alone.  Even  the  king's  grand- 
motfier,  Maaehah,  gave  her  heart  and  her 
support  to  these  iniquities.  The  young 
monarch  virtuously  determined  to  achlew  a 
religious  reformation;  and,  without  delay, 
began  the  removal  and  destruotion  of  idola- 
trous practices.  Its  complete  extirpation  he 
found  impossible;  yet  enough  was  done  to 
bring  back  the  favour  of  heaven,  and  there- 
with a  return  of  social  peace  and  prosperity. 

The  tranquillity  whidi  now  ensued,  Asa 
foolishly  employed  in  fortifying  his  frontier*, 
as  if  he  had  not  experienced  £at  piety  is  the 
best  bulwark  of  a  nation,  and  that  prepara- 
tions for  war  are  the  most  effectual  means, 
if  not  to  provoke,  certainly  to  occasion,  an 
appeal  to  arms.  Nor  did  Asa  himself  fail  to 
find  that  his  'waHs  and  towers,  gates  and 
bars,'  afforded  far  less  protection  than  he  had 
enjoyed  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign  with- 
out ihem. 

War,  however,  was  impendhig.  'There 
came  out  against  them  Zenh  Ihe  Ethiopian:' 
GTishite  is  the  word  in  the  original  *  Some 
have  thought  Zerafa  was  an  Ethiopian,  others 
that  he  was  an  Egyptian  king.  The  Gushites, 
however,  settled  originally  in  Arabia;  and  we 
have  here  to  do  with  an  incursion  of  a 
nomad  horde  from  Arabia,  descendants  of 
Ishmael.  The  opposing  forces  met  in  the 
south-western  part  of  Palestine,  when  Asa, 
having  put  up  a  simple  and  expressive  prayer, 
routed  die  invaders  with  great  loss.  Asa 
and  his  army  returned  to  Jerusalem  with 
abundant  booty.  On  his  return,  he  was  met 
by  the  prophet  Azariah,  who  made  to  him  a 
declaration,  which  asks  and  will  reward  the 
attention  of  every  one :  •  The  Lord  is  with 


ASA  02  ASA 

yon  while  ye  be  with  him ;  and  if  ye  eeek  Lord,  bat  to  tfaephysioiniiB.'  The  tre«tiiient 
him,  he  will  be  found  of  yon ;  bnt  if  ye  for-  of  dieease  was  in  the  hands  of  the  priesta, 
aake  him,  he  will  forsake  yon.'  The  admo-  as  the  representatiyeB  of  Him  who  wonndeth 
nition  had  some  effect;  and,  enoooraged  by  and  healeth,  killeth  and  maketh  aliye ;  but 
the  prophet,  the  yiotorions  monarch  resolTod  there  was  no  law  prohibiting  others  from  the 
to  complete  the  religious  reformation  which  practice  of  medicine.  Frequently,  howerer, 
he  had  so  well  begun.  A  solemn  gathering  that  practice  was  contaminated  by  supersti- 
of  his  people  took  place,  who,  entering  into  tioos  rites,  incantations,  and  eyen  idolatrous 
a  national  coyenant '  to  seek  the  Lord  Qod  of  obseryances,  for  resorting  to  which  it  was 
their  fathers  with  all  their  heart  and  with  all  that  Asa  came  under  condemnation, 
their  soul,'  made  a  law  that  death  should  be  ASAPH  (H.  a  coUeciar),  a  Leyite,  who 
inflicted  on  any  apostate ; — a  detennination  was  appointed  by  Dayid  chief  director  of  the 
wrong  in  principle,  and  proceeding  appa-  splendid  musical  company  which  he  insti- 
rently  from  the  extrayagant  impulse  of  mo-  tuted  for  the  worship  of  God.  In  1  Chron. 
mentaiyaeal.  Such,  howeyer,  was  the  height  xyi.  7,  express  mention  is  made  that  Dayid 
of  the  general  enthusiasm,  that  the  king  cut  deliyered  '  a  psalm,  to  thank  the  Lord,  into 
down  and  burnt  an  idol  which  his  grandmo-  the  hand  of  Asaph  and  his  brethren.'  As 
ther  had  made  for  the  licentious  worship  of  leader  of  the  band,  Asqph  '  made  a  sound 
tiie  groye,  and  *  remoyed  her  from  being  with  cymbals'  (1  Chron.  xyi.  5).  Seyeral 
queen.'  Neyertheless,  the  evil  was  not  of  his  associates  are  named,  of  whom  we 
rooted  out,  so  deeply  had  idolatry  struck  ite  may  specify  Heman  and  Jeduthun  (1  Chron. 
roote  into  tiie  heart  of  socie^.  xyL  41).  They  are  said  *  to  prophesy  with 
Another  war  came  on  alter  along  interyaL  harps,  with  psalteries,  and  with  cymbals;' 
In  Asa's  six  and  thirtieth  year,  Baasha,  king  which  shows  how  widely  the  term  prophecy 
of  Israel,  made  an  attack  on  Judah.  Now  was  applied,  since  here  it  eyidently  refers  to 
wasproofgiyenof  the  folly  of  Asa  in  looking  skill  in  music  or  in  poetry;  perhaps  lyric 
for  protecticm  to  material  resources.  Dis-  poetry  would  be  a  correct  description,  the 
trusting  the  yeiy  power  which  had  giyen  him  rather  because,  in  1  Chron.  xxy.  6,  the  choir 
safety  and  affluence,  he  purchased  the  assis-  is  said  to  be  appointed  <  for  song  in  the 
tance  of  Ben-hadad,  king  of  Syria,  with  house  of  the  Lord  with  cymbals,'  ace.  Their 
treasures  that  belonged  to  the  temple.  Ben-  office  was  not  merely  to  play,  but  to  sing 
hadad  made  an  attack  on  Israel,  and  so  slso;  hence  they  are  cidled 'singers' (2 Chron. 
gained  for  his  purchaser  a  temporary  relle£  y.  12).  When  engaged  in  their  duties,  they. 
But  war  was  to  end  only  with  his  life.  This  '  with  their  sons  and  their  brethren '  (pro- 
Is  announced  to  him  as  a  punishment  for  bably  their  pupils  and  fellow-professors), 
distrusting  the  divine  aid,  by  '  Hanani  the  were  '  arrayed  in  white  linen,  and  stood  at 
seer,'  whom  the  infiatnated  king  punished  the  east  end  of  the  altar,  and  with  them  an 
for  his  honesty  by  incareeration.  Asa  was  hundred  and  twenty  priesto,  sounding  with 
now  heayily  afflicted  with  the  gout  The  tmmpeto.'  This  grand  orchestra, 'when  the 
agitation  of  his  passions,  his  trouble  of  con-  trumpeters  and  singers  were  as  one,  to  make 
science,  and  the  pains  of  his  body,  brought  one  sound  to  be  heard  in  praising  and 
his  life  and  his  power  to  a  temunation.  He  thanking  the  Lord,'  must  haye  produced 
died  in  the  forty-irst  year  of  his  reign,  and  the  most  solemnising  and  rayishing  effect 
was,  alter  being  embalmed  in  a  most  sump-  The  musical  institution  of  Dayid  comprised 
tuous  manner,  buried  in  a  sepulchre  of  his  4000  singers,  under  288  leaders,  distri- 
own  construction  (1  Kings  xy.  9.  2  Chnm.  buted  into  twenty-four  classes,  which,  in 
xxy.  xy.  xyL  Matt  L  7).  their  turn,  week  by  week,  performed  the 
Asa  is  spoken  of  in  foyourable  terms,  and  ordinary  religious  serylces.  From  these  re- 
presented as  an  example;  nor  can  it  be  marks  some  ^ea  may  be  formed  of  the  mag- 
denied  that  he  had  many  excellencies  of  nificence  of  the  Hebrew  worship,  and  of  the 
character;  while  it  is  to  be  deplored  that  he  flourishing  condition  of  the  sister  arts  of 
so  much  degenerated  in  the  latter  part  of  his  music  and  poetry.  Worthy  alliance  of  the 
days.  *  A  good  old  age '  should  be  eveiy  resources  of  the  highest  art  for  the  snblimest 
one's  aim ;  age  —  so  far  as  may  be — green  of  all  earthly  purposes ! 
at  heart,  as  well  as  in  strength.  That  im-  Asaph,  as  the  most  distinguished  of  these 
proyement  of  mind  and  affections  which  gifted  men,  gave  his  name  to  a  class  who, 
termuiates  not  till  the  last  day,  is  as  pleas-  down  to  a  late  period,  continued  to  be  called 
ing  to  look  upon,  as  it  is  delightftil  to  ex-  after  him '  sons  ofAsaph' (2  Chron.  xxix.  13; 
perience.  And  the  more  to  be  deplored  and  xxxy.  10.  Ezra  ii.  41.  Neh.  xiL  SO),  and 
blamed,  is  degeneracy  in  the  autumn  of  show  how  careftally  and  long  this  unequalled 
life,  when,  as  in  the  case  of  Asa,  there  is  choir  was  sustained  in  Judah.  If  we  are 
reason  to  belieye,  that  it  is  a  peryerse  effiBct  guided  by  their  titles,  the  following  psalms 
of  that  prosperity  and  ease  to  which  early  haye  Asi^h  for  their  author;  namely,  l.  and 
goodness  had  conduced.  lxxixi.  to  lxxxiii.  Many  of  these,  how- 
Asa  is  reproyed  (2  Chron.  xri.  12)  for  eyer,  contain  obyious  allusions  to  later  pe- 
naying  recourse,  in  his  disease,  'not  to  the  riods;  and  the  titles,  which  are  by  a  later 


A  S  C  93  ASH 

httid,  cannot  be  admitted  against  internal  tiani.    The  account  given  hj  the  erangeliatf 

evidence.    Not  improbably,  many  composi-  aeema  to  be  in  anbstance  the  following:  ^ 

tions,  which  came  into  being  after  Asaph's  Alter  hating  by  appointment  met  the  apostles 

day,  were,  in  process  of  time,  ascribed  to  on  a  mountain  in  Qalilee  (Matt  xzviiL  16), 

him,  as  was  the  case  with  other  celebrated  Jesns  retnmed  to  Jenisalem;  and  haying 

poets  of  ancient  times.  led  his  disciples  out  to  Bethany  on  Mount 

ASCEND  (L.  to  eUmh  up  to)  describes  Olivet, — a  spot  whence,  as  being  well  known 

the  ftot  that  Jesns,  after  hiis  resurrection,  there,  it  was  most  suitable  he  should  ascend, 

left  this  state,  and  entered  into  the  invisible  — he  was  parted  from  them,  and  caiiied  up 

world,  which  lies  on  all  sides  of  the  globe,  into  heaven  (Luke  zziy.  00). 
and  pervades  space,  as  the  substance  and        ASHDOD  (H.  the  strong),  —  This  place, 

reality,  of  which  the  outer  world  is  only  the  which  the  Oreeks  and  Latins  termed  Azotut, 

shadowy  form,  or  the  dim  and  imperfect  was  one  of  the  chief  cities   of  Fhilistia, 

image.    Undue  pretensions  defeat  their  own  the  capital  of  one  of  its  five  princes,  and  the 

ends.     Divines  claimed  for  the  Bible  the  centre  of  the  worship  of  the  god  Dagon,who. 

attribute  of  nniyersal  infallibility.    Theene-  had  a  temple  there  (Josh.  ziii.  8.    1  Sam. 

mies  of  revelation,  ayailing  themselyes  of  yi  16, 17 ;  y.  1 — 5).    It  lay  about  midway 

the  discoveries  of  science,  attempted  to  show,  between  Jamnia  and  Gaza,  somewhat  inland, 

that,  being  wrong  in  its  astronomy,  it  was  as  appears  from  its  ruins,  which  still  bear 

wrong  altogether.    The  real  claims  and  the  the  name  (Esdud).   It  was  allotted  by  Joshua 

true  merits  of  the  Bible  are  now  better  un-  to  the  tribe  of  Jndah  (Josh.  zv.  46, 47),  but 

derstood.    They  stand  uninjured,  whatever  was  never  long  in  the  hands  of  the  Israelites, 

theories  may  prevail  in  physical  science,  though  it  must  have  been  comprised  in  So- 

because  they   are  entirely  independent  of  lomon's  empire  (1  Kings  iv.  21).    It  appears 

physical  tmdi —  adapting  themselyes  to  the  in  the  Bible  generally  as  a  heathen,  I^ilis- 

yiew  which  it  presents  in  the  nineteenth  tian  town,  hostile  to  die  Hebrews.    From  its 

eentnry,  as  well  as  to  diat  which  preyaHed  position  it  was  subject  to  constant  attacks, 

in  the  first.    In  fact,  the  reference  of  the  which  it  underwent  till  it  was  laid  in  ruins. 

New  Testament  to  physical  science  is  merely  Uzziah  destroyed  its  walls  (2  Chron.  zzvi.  6), 

by  implication  and  allusion.    Thus,  in  the  Tartan,  sent  bySargon  king  of  Assyria,  took 

word  atcendj  the  idea  implied  is,  that  heaven,  it  (Isa.  zz.  I ).    It  was  besieged  for  twenty- 

or  the  invisible  world,  is  aboye  the  earth,  nine  years  by  Fsammeticns,  king  of  Egypt, 

But  say  unbelievers,  '  If  aboye  by  day,  it  is,  and  at  length  captured :  accordingly,  in  Jer. 

relatiyely  to  the  revolving  earOi,  beneath  zzy.  20,  *  the  remnant  of  Ashdod'  is  spoken 

by  night;  therefore  the  Bible  is  in  error.'  oH    Judas  Maccabeus  defeated  near  Ashdod 

Would  it  be  right  to  deny  the  truth  of  mo-  the  Syrian  commander  Goigias    (1  Mace, 

dem  astronomy  because  it  still  uses  language  iy.  15):   his   brother   Jonadian,  however, 

borrowed  from  exploded  theoriea,  talking,  for  plundered  the  city,  and  destroyed  the  temple 

instance,  of  the  aun's  rising  and  setting  f  of  Dagon  (1  Mace.  z.  77 — 84).    Ashdod  was 

The  simple  truth  is,  that  the  speaken  and  restored  1^  the  Boman  general  Gabinius. 

writen  of  the  New  Testament  used  the  phra-  Philip   here   preached    the    gospel     (Acts 

ecology  which  was  current  in  their  day,  and  yiii  40).    According  to  Neh.  ziii.  23, 24,  a 

could  not  haye  acted  diffiBrently  if  Uiey  wished  species  of  dialect  or  patois  was  spoken  here ; 

to  be  underetood.    And,  in  a  period  when  for  children,  issue  of  Ashdod  women  by 

men  belieyed  the  earth  to  be  stationary,  what  Jewish  fathers, '  spake  half  in  the  speech  of 

other  conception  could  they  form  but  that  Ashdod,  and  could  not  speak  in  the  Jews' 

heayenwas  over  head?    Hence,  'to  go  to  language:'    being  used   to  their  mothers' 

heayen'  was  to  'ascend.'    And  still,  since  tongue,  tlie  Philistian,  they  were  ignorant  of 

we  speak  as  from  the  day,  and  not  from  the  the  Hebrew  or  Chaldee,  spoken  by  their 

night, — such  is  the  ordinary  usage  of  Ian-  faUiers,  thou^  they  were  f^  cognate  dia- 

guage, — we  cannot  do  better  than  to  eon-  lects. 

tinue  the  custom,  and  talk  and  write  of  the        ASHEB  (H.  happy),  the  second  son  of 

ascension  of  Christ    In  this  we  haye  the  Jacob,  by  Zilpah,  Leah's  maid,  whom  she 

ezample  of  our  Lord  himself,  who  says,  *  I  gave  to  the  patriarch  when  she  herself  had 

ascend  to  my  Father  and  to  your  Father,  and  left  off  beai^ :  her  happiness  on  the  birth 

to  my  God  and  your  God'  (John  zz.  17).  of  this  son  was  the  occasion  of  his  name 

In  the  ancient  church  the  ascension  was  (Gen.  zzz.  12 ;   zzzv.  26).    He  was  bom 

celebrated  on  a  set  day,  and  with  solemn  while  his  father  was  in  Padan-aram.    His 

rites.  elder  brother,  on  the  mothers  side,  was  Gad. 

The  spot  from  which  our  Lord  ascended.  He  had  four  sons  and  one  daughter  (Gen. 

tradition  identifies  with  the  Mount  of  Olives,  zlvi.  17.    1  Gbron.  vii.  80).    He  was  the 

the  top  of  which  is  occupied  by  what  is  sire  of  the  tribe  which  bears  his  name, 

termed  '  the  Church  of  the  Ascension,'  built  When  the  Israelites  quitted  Egypt,  the  tribe 

in  commemoration  of  the  groat  eyent  from  numbered,  of  those  diat  were  able  to  go  to 

which  the  building  takes  its  name.    This  war,  41,500,  whose  captain  was  Pagiel,  the 

dmrch  is  in  the  occupation  of  Latin  Chris-  son  of  Ocran  (Numb.  ii.  27).    The  country 


ASH                          94  AS  ir 

which  the}  oooapifd  in  Ihe  promlHid  luul  aorth  at  Annenia,  wioag  the  Emine  Set, 

aoniUled  of  whM  b»d  tonnerlr  coaslituted  which  mc«ir»d  th«  nuns  of  Aahkmu.    Oni 

PhiBoicia,   IrioR   ^  t'"  north-vmt  of  Ihs  mauii  of  infoimitian  do  not  WHnDt  uij 

eonntrr,  faRTJug  en  tha  north  the  Bidoniaiw  poallira  oonslaaioa,  —  coigHtom  an  na- 

ud  Maont  Lcbuon,  the  tiibei  of  Naphtall  nunnu. 

mnd  Dui  on  the  east,  uid  Zebolan  on  Ihe  ASHTORETH,  ■  jdiml  form  of  the  word 

taath,wltbtbcMeditemD««nBe*onthewcit  Aitvta,  eeemB  to  be  of  Phaniciao  origin, 

(Jo»h.  itIL  10;    lii.  24).     '  Oro»t  Zidon,"  and  to  eigniff  fAe  goddta  of  good  forltau. 

■nd  '  OiB  BWmf  citj  ot  Tjre,'  appamr  to  hm  Bf  the  Duue  Aahtorelh,  we  an  diteoled  lo 

been  originillf  poeuiHd  bj  Aiher  (Joeh.  that  coimpl  (onn  of  the  idoUln>aB  worship 

xix.  36.  3S.   Indg.  i-  SI  )■    Bat '  nailher  did  erf  tha  heaTcnlf  bodies  lAiah  [n«tailed  in 

Aihet  drive  oat  the  inhiiiituiti  of  Aoaho,  nor  very  «ailj  tiiDaa  in  Canaan,  iriiioh  did  to 

the  infaabitanli  of  Zidou,  nor  at  Ahlab,  nor  mash  lo   ootmlenot  Uie   aima  of   Uosea, 

irf  Achiib;  bnl  the  Athetltea  dwelt  among  and  lo  poUnte  and  degrade  tha  Iinalilea,  and 

the  Canaanitra'  (.Jndg.  L  81).    Aihar'i  poi~  whioh  waa  with  eEtreme  difflenllj,  and  onl; 

tim    oompriaed    twenlj-two    eiliea     (Joih.  after  a  long  tinie,  moted  np  and  deatnij«d. 

xix.  80),  innlndliig  die  renowned  promon-  And  when  the  reader  it,  aa  he  may  wall  be, 

lorr  of  Cannel,  aoolh  of  Awo.     It  wai,  at  lerolled  and  griered  at  the  ooat  of  life,  by 

leaal  in  die  aonlh,  a  (milfal  Donnti;;  hroca  which  the  prcnniaad  land  waa  gained  b;  tha 

the  proprieCT  of  Iha  pi«pbetla  description  in  monolhelabe  Bebiewa,  he  ahauld  in  jnaliea 

Gen  riitaO, —  'Hi«  bread  shall  be  ftl,  and  bear  In  mind,  that  Ibe  idoUtry  ot  the  coott- 

he  Bhall  yield  royal  daindea.'    Joasph's  dy-  liy  waa  hopeleaoly  coirapt  and  debaahig,  and 

ing  words,  loo,  are  not  In^tpropiiaB  (Dmit  Hut  pragreaa  in  oinllBation  waa  impouibla 

roiiL24),  'Lai  Aoharbe  btoswd  with  chil-  in  coqjimalionwidi  itapnraleaoe.    Idolatry, 

dren  -  lei  turn  ba  acceptable  lo  bia  toediran;  in  (heu  daya  and  in  thaee  lands,  ia  on^ 

and  lei  him  dip  hia  fool  hi  oiL     Thy  ahoM  known  as  a  daric,  distant  shadow.     In  Ca- 

shall  be  iron  and  biaea,  and   as  thy  daya  ao  naan  it  waa  a  dismal  realiiy,  entering  into 

thy  atiCBgth  shall  be.'     In  Luke  t  M,  men-  all  tha  ralationj  ot  life,  and  all  Ihe  mora- 

lioa  is  made  of  one  Anna,  a  propheleaa,  of  menls  ot  society,  and  leaTing  poison  and 

flu  tribe  of  Aser  i  from  lAioh  H  ^>ran  death  whsrerar  it  eaoa.    Ita  extirpation  waa 

fliat  die  diatlnetiol)  (rf  tribea  waa  not  lost  in  indispensableonany  spM  of  land  where  tme 

Ihe  days  of  Ohriat  rdigion  and  tnia  b^ineas  were  Mfloiiriah. 

ASHIMAfH.  erifj.  »»l*olof'Aemenc*  The  banerolent   may  wish    diat  ididalaia 

Hamalh  '  •Ao  formed  a  pan  of  those  whom  ««>U  bare  been  ap«t«d,  whDa  Aeir  idolaliy 

Ihe  king  of  Asayria  planled  In  Ihe  citiM  of  "aa  destroyed;   bat  erii   and   good   an  so 

Samaria,  instead  of  tha  children  of  Israel,  oloeely   intenwined,  that  in  Ihia  worid  the 

Thia  dirinilj,  ot  which  nothing  mora  U  said  one  can  rarely  be  had  witbonl  the  olher. 
in  Seriptnra,  ihe  Jews  asserted  lo  have  borne 
Ihe  shi^  of  an  ape,  an  asa,  or  a  goat:  Ifae 
last  would  remind  the  student  of  Heudes  or 
Fan  of  Ihs  Egyptians.  Others  hold  that  it 
WM  some  visible  image  ot  the  snn,  which 
waa  certainly  worshipped  In  Aiayria.  The 
oarns  appear*  to  danole  Iha  aril  principle,  or 
derilj  and  Ihere  i>  S  atrong  probabihty  that 
this  idol  formed  a  part  ot  thai  wonbtp  of  Iha 
heaTeoly  bodiaa  which  prerafled  in  flie  psHa 
whence  these  colonists  were  brooght  (2  Kings 
aril.  30.) 

The  more  we  know  of  the  nUgione  sys- 
tem* at  the  aniTonnding  nations,  (he  mors 

tmpottanl  do  wa  teal  Uiose  ngnlations  lo  AshlonOi  waa  Ihe  diiet  female  dirinlly 

hare  bean  which  wen  deiigned  lo  keep  As  of  the  Syrians  and  Fhmnidani,  wonhipped 

IsraaLlea  aloof  from  their  contaminstiona ;  in  Sldon    and   Oaithage,  which,   tram   the 

Iha  higher  muBt  be  Ihe  estimatian  in  whlph  time  ot  Solomon,  who  set  a  bad  example 

we  hold   the  HoBaio   religion  ;  the    grram  lo  his  nation,  in  going  after  diis  '  Qoddesa 

need  do  we  see  there  was  for  it;  and  Ihe  of  the  Sidonians.'  was  much  hononied  by 

more  reapleodeni  appears  the  grace  ot  Ood  the  Israelites  (L  Einga  il.  S,  88.    3  Sings 

In  his  plan  of  educating  and  redeeming  die  xxiiL  13).    As  the  principal  femaJc  deity  of 

worid   by  the    igancy  of   a  monoiheislio  these  idolatroos  nations,   she  is  often  as- 

natioii.  wciated  in  the  Bible  with  Baal,  Ihe  head 

ABHKENAZ,  in  Ihe  genealogical    table  male  dirinity  (Jndg.  li,  18  1 1.  6.  1  Sam.  Tif. 

(Sen.  X.  3),  a  son  of  Oomar  and  offspring  4 ;  xii.  10).   Ths  Islter  was,  aa  Ihe  son,  held 

of  Japhelh;  found,  In  Jar.  li.  37,  in  onion  to  be  the  actirely  qniekenliig ;  the  fbimer, 

with  Ararat,  In  Anienla.    From  the  latter  aa  the  moon,  was  oonsidered  die  paaalvely 

Hull  ihts  people  hays  been  placed  to  die  ptodneing,  power  of  nature.    Some  see  in 


A  S  I                         OS  A  S  I 

Bud  tli<  Jnpiter,  mud  in  Aitonlh  tha  Jnno,  bbmcd  mom],  mnd  mtj  tlto  iuT*  been  n- 

oT  the  OrwkB aid  Botuuia.    Undn  the  titlB  guded  u  ■jmbolical   »f  power:   heuoe,  a 

of  ■Qdeenof  bnmn'  (Jar.  vu.18  ;  iUt.17),  pUc«  on  tliii  *id<  tha  Jordui,  in  the  luid  of 

the  BUDC  Aihtoreth  la  thon^t  to  b«  intendsd.  Buhan,  one  of  Uje  raBideneeB  of  H"g  Og 

Olauie  inilen  ftnuid  in  hei  Iheii  aphrodita  (DbuL  L  i.  Joab.  ix.  10;  xiL  4;  xiiL  12), 

Unnia,  or  beavaul;  Venns  ;  cbieH;  bccaow  was    danomuialsd   Aahtarolh  Kuniim,  ot 

htt  worahip  among  the   Babjlomaoa,    bj  Homed  AjhleiMh  (Oen-iiT.  0),  in  honoar 

whom  aba  waa  named  Hjlitta,  reaembled  of  lliia  idoL    Her  ftall  figure  i>  clul  in  a 

that  whuli  wu  pud  to  tlie  Paf^an  Venns.  Ibmale  dreaa,  Manding  erect,  in  iha  allilada 

Aniimg  the  Anba  aha  is  eallad  Aljtta,  and  Of  nujeatr,  holding  a  ataff  ur  aceptre  iu.ha 

Anaitis  with  ths  ArmemaDB.      The  ntmcwt  right  hand;  ihoa  vai  slie  honuaied  at  Tfrs. 

lieentjouaneae  prevdled  in  her  rilei,  which  She  alio  appean  on  ooina  placed  on  a  Und 

were  oonneoled  with  giOTawiKshJp  (3  Kiugi  of  atata  oar.  with  a  oanopj;  ber  image,  thoa 

TTiii    4 — 1,  la).       She   ia  teprea«nled   on  drawn  forth  and  eihibitad  on  ipecial  occa- 

ooina  bj  a  womau'a  head  with  a  orescent ;  aions,  was  in  this  wajr  woraliippei]  in  Sidon, 

■omelimeB  by  the  head  al  a  cow  with  homa,  Tha  following  euti  ace  copied  bom  Phtani- 

whiah  ware  intended  probably  to  denote  the  dan  cdita,  onlj  aomnriiat  enlarged :  — 


ASIA  la  the  name  of  one  of  tbedtieegraa  which  hare  maatand,  and  dona  aomething  to 
diTisionaor  portiotia  Into  wliioh  geographera  refine  and  Ueia,  Iha  woild. 
diTided  the  old  woiid,  oi  tha  Eaatem  hemle-  In  anelent  timee,  the  Icim  Aata  denoted 
phere;  A&iea  and  Europe  being  the  other  verj  different  eitenli  of  oonntij,  aeeording 
two.  Considered  tn  a  general  way,  Aaia  to  die  pnraillng  knowledge  of  geogn^hj  lu 
oftti  points  of  interest  poaseaaad  bj  no  each  period.  In  the  Soman  era  it  waa  need 
other  part  of  the  worjd.  ^ea,  indeed,  hu  only  of  some  diatristi  of  what  ii  now  termed 
ita  E^pl^  where  airilfaation  mads  rery  early  WeBtam  Asia.  In  die  Bible  It  denolee  no- 
•nd  Tary  ditlinguiBhed  prognM;  bat  Aaia  is  diing  more  than  our  Asia  Minor.  Thiu,  ia 
the  gnat  mother  of  nations.  To  Aaia,  as  to  L  Maoesbeea  (nil.  6),  Anlioahas  the  Qreat 
tha  eradle  of  the  human  rase,  indioationa,  la  called  king  of  Asia, beeanae.baaidesSyila, 
almost  u  diTene  as  they  an  numerous,  he  wai  maater  of  oertain  portions  irf  Asia 
olaarty  point.  If  the  pneiie  spot  where  Minor.  Indeed,  (b*  tarn  waa  looasly  em- 
man  was  first  placed,  remains  imdeeided,  it  ployed,  now  denoting  a  greater,  now  a  ten. 
Is  still  true  that  we  san  look  for  paradise  in  portion  of  the  world.  Vhen  the  Bomao 
no  nty  distant  region  from  dial  in  which  power  had  gained  its  ascendancy  in  the  Eas^ 
tiadititni  places  IL  And  Ihouf^  again,  and-  Asia,  as  a  proiinee,  signified  Asia  on  this 
qnarlsos  mi^  be  found  to  claim  tbr  Egypt  aide  the  Taunts;  diat  is,  Mysia,  lydla,  Phrj- 
and  Ibr  India  ths  hoiunir  of  aftbrding  the  gia,  and  Caria,  or  ths  sea  ooaat  of  Aua 
firsi  hosne  to  man,  nererthelesa  we  hare  no  Uinor.  This  prorinoe  was  goremed  by  a 
guide  eqnally  tnutworthy  with  the  Sstiptnral  pmtor,  until  Aoguitna  oonTerled  it  into  a 
narrslnaa,  which  set  (he  taigin  of  human  oonsular  prorinoe.  In  thlscondidonil  bon 
sooie^  on  or  near  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  Iha  name  of  Aaia  Proper.  In  diis  eariy  Chris- 
and  lbs  Tigris.  Asia  eertainly  has  troax  the  dan  period,  the  comprehension  of  the  term 
TSry  first  beenrenowned  for  great  monarchiei  was  by  no  means  something  determinsts  siul 
and  higtt  eidlore.  This  was  tha  field  on  fixed.  In  ssrersl  idaosa,  Asia  ^paan  ss 
which  the  most  splendid  and  the  darkest  the  protinee  so  calhd  In  nnlon  with  other 
■eta  of  man  bare  been  transacted;  where  distrioti  of  AsisHinor.  Tho*, In  Aata  Ti.  &, 
hninan  assodadons  were  formed  on  ths  it  Is  joined  with  Cilicia,  anodier  proTinoe 
grandest  scale ;  where  the  pomp  and  pride  of  of  Ails  Hlnor,  lying  to  the  extreme  eontb- 
power  were  moet  daisling  and  most  intoxi-  east ;  and  in  AaU  ii.  9,  with  Cappadocia, 
Mtlug;  and  iriisn  dure  epmng  ap,  declined,  Pontoa,  Pbrygia,  and  Famphylia;  and  in 
became  eomvi,  or  flonriabed,  those  religions  1  Pet.  i.  1,  with  Pontas.  Oslada,  Cappadoeia, 


ASP 


06 


ASP 


and  Bithynim.  In  the  ApoetlypM  (L  4,  II), 
when  mention  is  made  of  the  Mven  ohnrches 
of  Asia,  the  leferenoe  is  to  Asia  Minor ;  so 
in  the  following  passages,  Aets  xix.  10;  zx. 
4;  xxi.  27 ;  xxvii.  2.  1  Cor.  xtL  19.  2  Cor. 
L  8.    2  Tim.  i.  15. 

It  was  only  with  a  part  of  Asia  that  the 
Hebrews  were  aeqaainted.  A  general  view, 
BO  far  as  nnderstood  at  the  time  to  whieh  it 
refers,  may  be  gained  from  the  register  of 
nations  found  in  Oen.  z.  thoo^  we  pos- 
sess no  certain  information  of  some  of  the 
names  then  given.  Towards  the  nortti,  the 
Csnoasna  was  the  extreme  point,  of  which 
little,  however,  was  known.  Phcsnieia,  Syria, 
Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  Asia  Minor,  Assyria, 
Babylonia,  Chaldaa,  Persia,  and  Media,  are, 
besides  Pslestine,  the  Asiatic  ooontries  to 
which  mora  or  less  direct  reference  i»  made 
in  the  Scriptoras.  India  ia  mentioned  in 
Esther  i.  1 ;  viiL  9. 

The  large  peninsnla  of  Asia  Mhior,  which 
now  bears  the  nsme  of  Anatolia,  was  dis- 
tinguished in  the  fifth  century  by  that  name, 
in  opposition  to  the  vast  continent  whieh  is 
now  termed  Asia.  The  greater  part  Is  monn- 
tainoQS.  Two  graat  ranges  of  monntsins, 
the  Taoros  and  the  anti-Tauros,  ran  through 
the  coontry  fkt>m  west  to  east,  which,  with 
other  moontains  of  less  height,  hare  ralleys 
of  graat  prodactiyeness  and  beauty.  The 
Halys  is  the  ebief  river;  which  runs  through 
Cappadocia,  Oalatia,  and  Pontus,  and  falls 
Into  the  Black  Sea,  or  Pontus  Euzinus.  Hav- 
ing  sea  on  three  sides,  and  being  pervaded 
by  mountains,  Asia  Minor,  considering  its 
position,  has  a  mild  and  agreeable  climate. 

Paphlagonia,  and  its  capitol  Sinope,  ara 
the  only  parts  of  Asia  Minor  which  do  not 
appear  in  the  New  Testament;  a  fust  to  be 
accounted  for  by  their  remote  position. 

ASIABCH  (G.  ffovemor  qf  Atia),  *  chief 
of  Asia'  in  Acts  xix.  81,  wss  an  ofUcer  who 
was  chosen  eveiy  year  in  the  chief  cities  of 
Asia  Minor,  whose  business  it  was  to  mske 
provision  for,  and  preside  over,  the  games 
and  religious  festivities  held  in  honour  of 
the  heathen  gods  and  of  the  Boman  empe- 
ror. The  asiaichs  of  the  seversl  cities  may 
have  formed  a  college,  and,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Boman  proconsul,  elected  one  of 
their  body  as  their  prosident  and  reprasen* 
tative.  They  may  also,  slier  the  manner  of 
the  Jewish  high  priests,  have  ratained  the 
name  as  a  title  of  honour,  when  they  had  re- 
tirad  from  the  duties  of  their  ofllce. 

ASP  denotes  in  English  a  venomous  rap- 
tile  of  the  serpent  kind,  and  so  is  not  a  bad 
raprasentative  of  the  Hebnw  Peththen  (in 
Greek,  puHum  signifies  a  serpent),  which  is 
firom  a  root,  denoting  to  tknui  out,  Ihon  the 
custom  of  the  animal  to  extrude  its  fang. 
It  is  sometimes  randered  in  the  common 
venion by  *adder '  (Ps.  iTiii.  4;  xcL  13).  In 
ottier  instances,  epithets  ara  connected  with 
the  Peththef^  which  show  that  it  was  of  a 


noxious  kina.  Thus,  Dent  xzxii.  88,  '  tfat 
cruel  venom  of  asps;'  Job  xx.  14, 16,  '  it  is 
the  gall  of  asps.'  The  stmotura  of  the  aiz- 
teenth  verse  mskes  decidedly  for  our  state- 
ment:— 

<  He  shsn  sack  the  poison  of  ams; 
The  viper's  tongue  sball  stay  bIiil' 

In  Egypt  the  ssp  wss  the  attribute  of  the 
goddess  Banno,  a  benevolent  power,  sup- 
posed to  praside  over  gardens,  and  to  act 
the  part  of  guardian  angel  to  royalty.  The 
asp  waa  sacved  also  to  the  god  Neph,  a  good 
divinity.  It  was  a  symbol  of  dominion  and 
royalty,  on  which  account  it  received  the 
name  of  basilisk.  Throughout  Egypt  the 
asp  was  held  In  honour,  while  in  some  parts 
it  was  worshipped  with  special  reverence. 
From  the  cara  which  the  Egyptians  took  of 
it,  the  asp  is  said  to  have  been  rendered  so 
tame  as  to  live  hannlessly  with  children. 
The  Egyptian  asp  is  called  Nashir,  a  word 
signiffing  tprtading,  firom  its  dilating  the 
braast  when  angry.  £lian  reprasents  its 
bite  as  being  very  venomous.  This  is  the 
animal  that  the  snake-tamen  use  in  their 
juggling  tricks,  having  fint  extracted  the 
fangs,  or  burnt  out  the  poison-bag.  Thej 
ara  easily  tamed.  Their  food  ia  mice,  fi^ogs, 
and  various  reptiles.  They  mostly  live  in 
gardens  during  the  wann  weather,  whera 
they  ara  of  graat  use ;  which  was  probably 
the  raason  why  they  wera  chosen  as  a  pro- 
tecting emblem.  In  the  winter  they  ratira 
to  their  holes,  and  remain  torpid.  Mum- 
mies of  the  asp  ara  discovered  in  the  Necro- 
polis of  Thebes. 

ASNAPPEB  (H.  mirfortime  qf  the  huU), 
called  in  Ena  iv.  10,  *  the  great  and  noble.' 
He  brought  various  tribes  firom  the  East,  snd 
set  them  in  the  cities  of  Samaria,  which  had 
been  dispeopled  by  Shalmaneser.  Some 
have  held  Asnapper  to  be  the  same  person 
as  *  Esar-haddon,  king  of  Assnr'  (Assyria), 
since  the  same  act  of  transferring  these  colo- 
nists ii  said  of  both  (Esra  iv.  2).  Othsrs, 
Ainfcing  it  not  likely  that  a  double  name  of 
the  same  monarch  should  without  any  inti- 
mation be  found  within  a  few  verses,  hold 
that  Asnapper  was  an  Assyrian  genersL 

ASPHALTUM  (G.  tmdecepAm),  called 
also  hiU-pitch  and  Jews-pitch,  is  a  species 
of  bitumen,  being  a  rasinons,  inflammable, 
brittle,  daik-coloured  substsnoe,  not  unlike 
common  pitch.  It  is  found  in  two  states, 
either  as  a  hsrd,  dry  mineral,  mixed  in  layen 
with  flint,  marl,  gypsum,  or  slate ;  or  in  a 
fluid  form,  a  kind  of  tar,  which  exudes  firom 
the  defks  of  rocks,  fix>m  the  earth,  and  ftt>m 
natural  springs.  Asphaltum  is  found  plan 
tifnUy  on  *  the  Dead  Sea's  shora :'  indeed, 
that  lake  hence  derives  its  classical  appella- 
tions, LacvM  AiphaUUes.  According  to  Gen. 
xiv.  10,  thera  wera,  befora  the  Dead  Sea  was 
formed,  asphaltum  pits  in  the  place  ('  the 
Vale  of  Siddim'),  termed  in  the  En^sh 
version,  sttsne-pife.      It  is  chiefly  on  the 


ASS  9 

wettem  aide  of  llie  Uka  that  aaphaltnm  'a 
foand;  wbare  lumpa  of  it  uo  collected  bj 
tba  AJaba  fbr  hIc.  The  prsaence  of  iha 
mineral  ia  an  index  of  paat  or  actual  rot- 
oaiiio  agmoy.  The  Fatastiniui  elMh-piCch, 
or  aaphalRun,  was,  according  to  Flinf,  held 
pnfanble  to  snj  other.  Aaphaltnm  waa 
nsed  in  ancient  timei  for  pilcbing  tbupIs  : 
thua  the  ark  waa  to  be  pitched  with  aajJial- 
tum  (Oen.  li.  U)  within  and  wiihoul.  It 
na  also  employed  as  ■  binding  snbslance; 
■Iraw  or  reeds  being  added  to  aid  its  efficHCy 
(Oen.  li-  3)-  In  the  walls  of  Babjlon  it 
■ened  for  mortar.  In  Babylonia  itwaa  also 
need,  when  dry,  aa  faek  Ila  medicinal  nsea 
were  not  nnknowa  to  the  Jewi,  aa  we  know 
from  Joaephna  (Jew.  War,  ir,  S.  i).  The 
Egyptians  applied  it  in  embaiuiing ;  and  the 
scucloths  of  mutmmea,  made  with  asphai- 
Itim,  remain  iiiialter«d  to  thia  day.  Fliuj 
states  that  it  waa  used  for  painting  or  colotiT- 
ing  atatoes.    At  present  it  enters  into  vai> 

ASS  (L.) — The  most  usoal  name  in  Hebrew 
fiir  the  ass  is  derired  th>m  a  root,  which  aig- 
□ifies  lo  be  hot ;  denoting  the  eager  and 
fervid  nalcre  of  the  anim^.  This  deacrip- 
tloa  difl^rs  tbtj  much  bom  what  we  see 
under  oar  own  eyes  ;  for  here  Iha  aas  is  ■ 
poor,  patient,  spiritless,  and  obstinate  erea- 
toie.  :fbe  tmth  Is,  the  ass  la  with  as,  not 
only  in  a  domesticated,  but  despised  con- 
dition 1  having  the  essentia]  and  inTariable 
qnaliciee  of  a  e\me.  We  must  look  to  ila 
native  home  in  the  desert,  and  to  the  wild 
ass  there,  if  we  would  form  a  jost  ides  of 
the  original  charaotei  of  the  ass,  and  see  the 
qnaliliea  which  led  primitiTe  men  to  give  it 
Uie  name  of  '  Hemer, '  hot.  TCh;  the  aaa 
should,  in  becoming  domeslio,  have  been  ao 
degraded,  it  is  not  saay  to  say.  Prob^ly, 
this  degenenUion  would  havo  been  impos- 
aibla,  had  there  not  been  in  the  animal  a 
natnral  proneness  thsreto.  To  a  great  ei- 
leDt,  howerer.  It  ma;  lie  aOributable  to  the 
decided  pre-eminenea  of  its  next  of  kin  and 
neighbour  (the  horse),  the  very  proximity 
of  which  to  the  ass  would  make  the  infs' 
riority  of  the  latter  noticeable,  and  canse  all 
onsioQS  and  degrading  offices  to  be  cast  on 
it  The  bush  cannot  flourish  under  the  tree. 
In  the  East,  the  ideas  of  indignity  and 
cantenipt,  prevalent  here,  are  not  associated 
with  the  ass.  Being  superior  in  form,  of  a 
high  spirit,  as  well  as  vary  serriccBble,  the 
ass  is  there  held  in  honour.  Hence  it  is  a 
metaphor  of  strength  (Oen.  ilix.  li);  dis- 
lincdy  enumerated  among  die  treasures  of 
a  nomad  (Gen.  xii.  16;  iut.  30);  formed  e, 
part  of  the  substance  of  Jews  in  a  late  period 
of  their  civilisation  (Luke  liii.  15)  ;  and 
waa  in  'kings'  houses'  the  object  of  care  to 
a  high  officer  of  stste  (1  Chrou.  iiviL  30). 
The  idea,  therefore,  is  not  so  absurd  as  it 
nuy  at  Aral  appear,  that  the  illustration 
toDnd  in  the  words — 'The  voles  of  one 


1  ASS 

crying  in  the  wildemeBS,'  &c.  is  derived 
trom  the  loud  braying  of  the  wild  ass.  And 
in  the  fact  that  Hirvan  II.  the  last  Ommiad 
caliph,  was  denominated  '  the  wild  ass  of 
Uesopotamia,'  we  have  another  proof  that 
the  animal  excites,  in  oriental  minds,  any 
thing  but  repulaii    '   ' 


I  of  its  having  a  sore  tread, 
especially  on  mountainous  dietriels,  the  saa 
was  in  constant  use  for  riding,  the  rather 
beoause  in  Palestine  the  horse  was  in 
earlier  times  little   known  (Exod.  i 


[.  38). 


<  to 
)  the  female 


have  been  given  for  riding  ti 
(Job  L  8.  Matt  Ili.  2).  'ine  louowuig 
will  ahow  how  useful  the  asa  is  atlll  found 
for  the  same  porpoae :  —  'A  few  public 
officers  and  men  of  wealth  are  seen  onhorsen 
in  Egypt ;  bnt  ninety-nine  in  a  hundred  of 
those  wboiideatallirideondonkeys.  These 
are  the  finest  uiimais  of  the  species  I  have 
ever  seen.  They  are  small ;  but  their 
strength  and  powers  of  endurance  are  Iraly 
wonderful.  They  gallop  for  two  hours  with 
little  apparent  fatigna,  and  will  csirv  a  raut 
or  a  heavy  burden,  tor  half  a  day,  wiUiont  in- 
termission. They  are  maoh  more  lively  tliau 
the  animals  of  the  same  species  which  1  hava 
seen  in  Europe'  (Olin'e Travels,  v<d.L p. S3). 
The  ass  was  ridden  by  peraonsgee  of  the 
highest  dignity  in  Pslflstiuo  (Joah.  xv.  18. 
Jndg.  i.  U.  1  Sam.av.  33.  3  Sam.  iviL  39. 
1  Kings  liii.  13.  3  Kings  iv.  33).  Hence, 
in  Zech.  ix.  9,  the  coming  of  the  Mesaish  is 
thus  forelold—'Bejoice  greatly,  O  daughter 
of  Zion;  behold,  thy  king  comethonto  thee: 
he  iejust,  and  having  salvation;  lowly,  and 
riding  npon  an  ass,  and  npon  a  colt,  ths 
foal  of  an  aas"  (comp.  Matt.  ixi.  3,  itg. 
Maikii.  1,  Lukeiii.30.  JohnxiLU).  In 
Mark  li.  2,  and  Luke  xii.  30,  it  is  said  of 
the  ass  on  wbicli  Jesna  rode  —  '  whereon 
man  never  eat ;'  for,  in  ancient  times,  only 
nnuBf  d  animalswere  considered  fittor  aaered 
jrarpoaes  (Deut  ai.  3.  1  Sara.  vi.  7.  Comp. 
3  Sara.  vl.  3).  In  Judg.  v.  10,  men  of  ele- 
vsted  rank  are  described  as  those  '  that  ride 
on  white  use*:'  this  was  the  silver-grey  of 


ASS                        98  ASS 

AJHc*,  iriikh,  if  not  naninDj  ilnakcd  or  rignillM  wfU  an.      In  Job  xizii.  H.  u^. 

inuked,[tiru  Dot  imiuiul  lo  ehcqtur  wilh  Aia  uuidrI  it  *uiiIl>V  dueribed  u  dia  ipcsial 

■poti  of  onagc  or  orimiDii.    Aooordinglj,  work  of  Ood : — 

eamB  nding  on  m  dimpled  grej  of  Ihii  do-  ttIiihii  hmwi  1  turn  imfli  tlin  illlmtiM. 

terlptioo,  U  bdni  ru«,  eotdj,  md  of  regal  AM  tka  Urnn  lud  bli  dnOtna  plHa. 

DM.    FroBiwli«lhaibe«ni«idofAe«ipB-  ^ZT^^^u^'l^^r^  a.im^ 

rior  qoalitie.  of  oriental  >«aa.  On  raadw  $KSSKIttSS2E^?ld^S£S■. 

wiUbaprepaiodtolnar  tluttluir<ra*u«d  Ha  iianh  afUrawrj  nawi  ua^/ 

lndi«wJiigehaTiolaaiidi>i<rufcr«(Ia«>xii.T).  Aiui«nt  wiilera  agraa  in  daaeribing  fha 

TIm  Caimmauiaiu  ars  reoorded  to  ban  OMid  wild  ui  ai  Ibll  of  liftt,  aBeogth,  and  enargj. 

aaaea  in  battle,  and  cien  Darina  Rjataspii  Oppian  sajs,  he  ia  '  awift,  rapid,  wilh  atiMig 

rodeonanaaain  aoanflietwilhtheBnjtliiana.  hoob,  and  most  fleet  in  hia  eotme.'    Xeno- 

Awaa  wen  alao  iu«d  aa  bsaala  of  bnrdeii,  pbcov'a  deaetiptiim  la  aplotnn: —  '  The  wild 

tor  pnipoasa   of  trade  and  traTelliDg,   and  aaa,  being  awifter  of  foot  than  onr  horaaa, 

in  war  tor  oanring  baggage  (Qen.  xlii.  M,  wonld,  In  gaining  ground  apon  them,  widh 

Joah.  ix.  4.  I  8am.  irt  20.  3  Kinga  tU.  7}.  to  a  atand,  and  look  ronnd;  and  irbat  Iheir 

The;  were,    moreorgr,    made    aorrieeabla  pnranera  got  nearly  op  to  them,  the;  would 

with  die  ploD^   and  at  die  mill  (DenL  aeampra  dT,  and  then,  in  a  little  wbaa,  re- 

xiiL  10.  Exod. ziiiL  12. ;  and.  In  iheGmck,  peat  tha  aama  trick;   ao  that  the  hontera 

HatLiriiLO.  LnkarriLS).  wan  nnaUe  to  take  them,  aioepl  bj  dividing 

The  Hoaaio  law  put  the  aia  aaumg  nn-  Ihemaatraa  Into  dlnaisad  partiM,iriiieli  ano- 

dean  animaU;  bllowing  in  this,  friut  haa  seeded  each  o&ar  In  the  tihaarr'     Thia  aoi- 

ptored  a  nniTenal  obcenanoe.  namely,  to  mal,iriiiehiatlia  pareDt8toek,iataDer,boltaT 

guard  by  law,  aa  well  aa  feeling,  animala  ahqwd,  and  more  dignified  than  the  oom- 

lhat,aabaaata  of  burden,  are  naeftal  to  man:  mon  aaa.   The  raoe  ii  migratory.   Thfywara 

to  aal  the    animal  thai  wn  haTe  plonj^ied  anciently  ftnmd  in  Pontine  and  the  anr- 

with  or  ridden  ia  repnlnTe ;  nor  can  ■aimala  rounding  oonntriea,  bat  raidy  oocor  there 

*  e  their  duty  in  lahonr  afiwd  now;  diey  aoem  to  be  at  preaenl  confined  to 
Tartary,  Afiiea,  and  to  aome  parta  of  Feraia 
and  India.    Tliair  manuera  reaamble  dtoaa 

a  famine  (3  Kinga  *!.  SS).  of  the  wild  hone.    They  aasemble  in  troc^ 

The  aaa  ml^tnot  be  offend  in  aaorifiaa;  imder  the  aandnot  of  a  leader  or  aentinel, 

for.  In  the  very  eaaanee  of  an  oBkiing,  (be  and  an  eitremely  ahy  and  vigilant.    From 

idea  of  lM>d  waa  originally  involTed  (Exod.  the  bet,  Out  one  male  ooodneta  a  whole  herd 

ziiL  13;  izziT.  30).  of  fnnalea,  a  very  ai^reaaiT*  figwe  la  drawn 

H«  wOd  aaa  beara  a  difhrmt  name  in  in  Hoa.  viii.  9.    They  an  etOl  olgeeia  of  the 

Helwew,  and  li  often  spoken  of  in  madam  idiaaa,  and  dieir  flaah  ia  eatiniMed  a  deUcan. 

linM  by  ita  Oresk  appellation,  on^er,  lAid)  (Covp.  Jar.  zir.  B.  Job  fL  S.  Im.  nxiL  U). 


WHITE    ASSES 


ASS  99  ASS 

A8SAT  (L.  advadoffo,  I  apply  to)  is  now  xian  stoto  is  one  of  Om  dukest  portions  of 

iouDd  in  the  fonn  Essay,  and  denotes  to  ancient  history.    The  Jewish  annals  offer 

enier  on,  undertake,  attempt.    It  is  found  in  only  late  and  imperfect  data.    Aitar  stating 

1  Sam.  xvii.  89^<DaTid  asssyed  to  go;'  the  early  foundation  of  the  kUigdom,  it  men- 

fiiat  is,  he  attempted  to  walk  in  the  armoor  tions  none  of  its  governors  till  about  770 

which  Saul  had  pat  upon  him.  The  Hebrew  years  beiiore  Christ,  when  Fhul  is  recorded 

word  denotes  toheviUmg,  to  wUkj  to  atrivef  to  hare  made  Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  tri- 

•nd  is  rendered  in  other  instsaces  Urns  —  butsry.     Then  csme  Tic^th-pileser  to  sid 

'Ihave  taken  upon  me'  (Oen.  xviii.  37.  Ahsj^  king  of  Judsh,  against  fiesin,  Hng 

'began  Hoses'  (Dent  i  6).    Comp.  Job  of  Syiia:  the  Assyrian  monarch  eonqueiod 

ir.  2.  Acts  iz.  26.  Dsmasoos,  and  transported  much  of  the 

<  She  fhrfeessnMdtoipeek;  her  accents  buiwt  population  to  Kir;  at  the  same  time  over- 

AAd,fU(eriog^dledaiflaiihedonbcrt<»um^  nuuung  a  good  pert  of  the  dominionsof 

DaYDnr.  Pakah,  king  of  larael  (740,  A.C.)  (2  Kings 

In  Dent  It.  84,  the  word  osk^  is  the  re-  Z7.  29;zyL0.  Isa.Tiil.  Hos.  t.  18;  z.6). 
preeentaliTe  of  a  diiiBrent  Hebrew  roo^  which  The  third  Assyrian  ruler  ftxmd  hi  the 
signifies  to  prove,  try,  tempt :  — '  Hath  God  Seriptnxes  is  Shslmaneser,  who,  in  the  reign 
assayed  to  go  and  take  him  a  nation  r'  of  Hoshea  of  Israsl  (722,  A.C.),  destroyed 
In  Deut  zxriiL  69,  is  a  psssage  which  Samaria,  and  oarried  the  people  away  cap- 
throws  light  on  ihis  use : — *  The  tender  sad  tive,  supplying  their  places  with  Babylonians 
delicate  women  which  would  not  jJuwjmih  (2  Kings  zrii.  8;  zriiL  9).  This  was  the 
to  set  her  foot  upon  the  ground.'  downfsll  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  —  that  of 

A8STRIA  (H.  the  land  qf  JMmr)^  a  lend  Judsh  was  not  distsnt     To  Shalmaneser 

in  Asia,  whiehhas  Axmenia  on  the  north,  the  Judsh  had  been  tribntaiy ;   but  HeseUah 


Tigris  on  the  west,  Media  on  the  easl^  and  procured  its  liberation  (2  Kings  zrilL  7). 
Persia  on  the  south,  corresponding  nesrly  Medes  and  Persians  were  under  his  domi- 
with  the  modem  Cnrdistan.  The  northern  nion ;  and  he  made  considerable  progress 
parts  aiemonntainons,  the  southemlerel.  By  in  Phcsnioia  (2  Kings  xviii  11.  Joseph, 
means  ofthenarigableTigris,  the  country  is,  Antiq.  ix.  1^  2).  The  Assyrian  empire 
In  a  measure,  well  situated  for  oommeroe.  extended  now  from  Pemia  to  the  ICediter- 
According  to  the  perhaps  somewhat  hi^y-  ranesn,  and  from  the  Osspisn  Sea  to  the 
coloured  language  of  Bab-shakdb,  it  was  a  Persian  Oulf.  Ambition  was  not  satiafled, 
land  not  unl&e  Pslestine  —  a  *  land  of  com  but  sought  to  add  Egypt  to  this  vast  king- 
andwine;  aland  of  bread  and  vineyards;  dom.  The  frontier  town,  Ashdod,  whidi 
a  land  of  oil  dive,  and  of  honey '  (2  Kings  would  aid  forwsrd  this  purpose,  was  taken 
xviiL  82) ;  nor  does  it  fril  in  these  Uessings  by  Tsrtan,  sent  by  Saigon,  <  the  king  of 
at  the  present  day:  Esek.  xxriL  28  aUudes  Assyria,' — whose  exact  poaition  in  the  line 
to  its  commercial  eelebrity.  By  Ptcdemy  it  of  Assyrian  monaroha  is  not  known  (Isa. 
was  divided  into  six  provinees;  of  which  xx.  1);  and  from  Nshum  in.  8 — 10,  ithaa 
these  only  are  refened  to  in  the  Bible —  been  thought  hkaly  that  Thebes  or  Dlospolis 
I.  Arrapachitis,  Aiphaxad,  the  moat  northern ;  (No  Amon)  in  that  country  fell  under  the 
andIL  Calachene,  Chalach, or  Hslah(2  Kings  Assyrian  yoke.  Sennacherib  in  vain  at- 
xviL  6).  Ite  chief  eity  was  Nineveh,  the  reel-  tempted  to  recover  the  lost  dominion  over 
dance  of  the  Assyrian  monaroha  (2  Kings  Judah ;  his  troopa  were  miraculously  de- 
xix.  88.  Isa.xxxviL87.  Jonsh  ilL  0.  Nshum  stroyed ;  sad  the  king  himseU;  hastening  to 
ii.  8),  which,  In  Gen.  x.  11 ,  is,  togetfier  with  Nineveh,  was  slain  in  the  house  of  Nisrooh, 
Behoboth  and  Calah,  aald  to  have  been  Ms  god  (2  Kings  xix.  80,  m^*).  The  son  of 
Ibunded  by  Asshur.  This  place  (Nineveh)  Sennacberib,  namely,  Sssrhaddon,  is  also 
was  a  distinguifthed  emporium  of  commerce,  mentiooed  2  Kings  xix.  87.  Isa.  xxxrii.  88. 
an  entrep6t  between  the  eastern  and  western  £sra  iv.  2.  This  last  has  been  held  to  be 
trade  (Nahum  liL  16) :  it  was  elated  with  a  Sardanapalus,  with  whom,  aecording  to  pro- 
sense  of  its  greatness  and  power,  which  was  fane  history,  the  Assyrian  mcsiarehy  termi- 
nsed  oppressively  (Isa.  x.  9 ;  xviiL  2,  7.  nated.  Bat  litde  fruit  has  been  resped  by 
Zeeh.  X.  11.  Nshom  Hi.  19).  The  city  and  efforte  to  bring  profsne  history  into  aocor- 
kingdom  were  overturned  and  destroyed  dance  with  the  aeatteied  notiees  given  in 
(597,  A.O.)  by  Cysxeres  the  Mede.  the  Bible.  There  Is  a  leferenea  to  Oial- 
Some  ancient  writers  have  extended  theland  maneser  in  Joseph.  Antiq.  ix.  14.  2.  With 
of  Assyria,  so  as  to  comprise  Armenia  to  the  this  exception,  no  one  of  tiie  rulers  just  men- 
very  shoves  of  the  Euxine  on  the  north,  and  tioned  is  found  in  other  histories  but  Sen- 
Babylonia  widi  Mesopotamia  on  the  south;  nacherib,  who  waa  contempcwaneous  with 
but  this  can  be  true  oo^y  of  the  greatAssyrisn  Sethon,  king  of  Egypt  From  ihe  time  of 
kingdom  of  later  periods.  The  Assyrian  Esarfaaddon,  however,  the  Assyrisn  kmg- 
rulers,  at  an  early  period,  oarried  fheir  con-  dom  began  to  sink  till  it  was  overoome  ^ 
queste  on  sll  sides;  a  Uci  to  which  the  Scrip-  <3yaxeres,  king  of  the  Medes,  in  union  with 
tures  make  frequentidlusion  (Numb.  xxiv.sSi.  Nabopolasssr,  king  of  Babylon,  on  which  it 
Ps,  IxixiiL  8,  9).    The  history  of  the  Assy-  becsms  a  provinee  of  the  Median  empire. 


ASS  ] 

If,  from  Ibe  Soriprares.  wo  turn  to  gcnenl 
bislory,  we  fiiiil  nothing  tliit  approichei  to 
a  ronuectsd,  continued,  and  conftisUat  u- 
saant  of  the  A>a]rTiui  empire.  It  li  uid  to 
mppetr  twice  in  htttory  u  the  old  uid  u  the 
new  AmtHwi  kingdom,  which  bad  nothing  in 
common.  Mve  the  name  ;  the  Tormer  resting 
on  proltoe,  thr  Utter  on  Hebrew  wrilen. 
or  the  old  Asajriui  empire,  Cteeiu,  ■  phj^sl- 
ei«D  of  the  Psrsiui  king,  Artuerxes  Hoemou 
(100,  A.C.),  epe&ks  in  ■  tnilj  eulem  ipirlt, 
nrr^ing  hii  ■tatemenia,  that  are  destitnla 
of  chronological  eiaclitudfl,  back  into  the 
legendary  mista  of  an  heroie  age,  Ninoa, 
Ihx  *on  and  imcceaaor  of  the  god  Betas,  waa 
the  (bunder  of  the  monarehT :  be  built  the 
city  called  after  him  Niaiu  or  Ninereh;  and 
be  carried  hie  TielorioD*  aims  as  tkr  to  the 
north  aa  Bactna.  Here  he  at  leogth  gained 
hia  object,  namely,  the  capture  of  the  citjr, 
onlj  by  a  beantifol  woman,  Semiramia,  whose 
biatory  belongs  to  oriental  mythology. 
Semiramii  (2000,  A.C.),  daughter  of  the 
widely-Tvrerenced  goddesa  Dcrcelo,  a  per- 
aoni6oatlon  of  natore,  aooriahed  in  her  youth 
by  doTss,  waa  the  spouse  and  follower  of 
Niuiu.  whom,  according  to  some  statements, 
ahc  pot  lo  death.  Naturally  endowed  with 
■  high  and  heroic  spirit,  she  concealed  her 
•ei  beneath  male  apparel,  and  reigned  under 
the  name  of  her  son  Ninyaa,  whom  she 
drore  horn  the  throne.  To  her  Babylon 
owed,  if  not  ita  fbundation,  yet  its  aggran- 
disemenl.  When  she  had  well  organised 
her  empire  and  eslabliabed  her  power,  she 
let  the  people  know  that  they  had  been 
goremed  by  a  woman;  and  though  sach  a 
disclosure  to  orientali  waa  Bited  to  jeopar- 
dise hei  power,  she  wai  fai  a  condition  to 
detect  STsry  secisl  plot,  and  to  pnl  down 
erery  open  tnanrreetion.  Bnl  when  she 
attempted  to  cTtend  ber  empire  tmm  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Indnt,  ahe  foond  skill 
which  she  could  not  match,  and  power  in 
elephsnts  that  bore  lowers  on  their  backs, 
which  she  eoold  not  withstand:  and  so  she 
perished.  Some,  doubting  her  Tery  siis- 
tence,  bate  regarded  her  aa  the  personified 
image  of  some  plaoeUry  inflnence  connected 
with  the  astral  worship  which  prBTsiled  from 
the  earliest  times  in  Assyria.  Her  eon  and 
suoceasor  is  painted  aa  a  weak  prince,  ndio, 
hiring  been  ednoated  in  a  seraglio,  ctmflneil 
himself  to  his  palace.  The  history,  with  an 
inlerral  of  a  thousand  years,  mentionB  the 
kst  monarch,  Tonoakonkoleros,  wlioae  aur- 
nune  was  Sardanapalns  (worthy  of  wonder), 
who,  like  Ninyas.  being  giien  up  to  effemi- 
nacy, waa  attacked  (888,  A.C.)  by  hia  own 
general  Arbaces,  aided  by  Belesys,  governor 
of  Babylon;  wban,  at  length,  ho  summoned 
oouiage  to  die  the  heroic  death  of  esslmg 
hunself  on  a  funeral  pile  consCrucled  by  hia 
'Owu  oommands.  With  him  the  old  Assyrian 
empire  came  to  an  end ;  and  the  ndgfabour- 
ing  stale  in  the  north,  namely,  Media,  ac 


00  ASS 

qnired  independence  dirongh  lbs  elTorts  of 

Arbaces.  Tbc  new  Aeeyrian  kingdom,  which 
appears  in  the  scattered  accounts  of  the 
Bible,  baa  a  better  dalm  to  history.  The 
outline  has  already  been  given. 

The  internal  relations  of  the  kingdom  of 
Asayria  are  rery  imperfectly  known.  Halt 
probably  were  uiey  snbatantially  the  same 
with  other  oriental  mouarcliies,  aa  the  Chal- 
dean and  the  Persian-  At  the  head  of  the 
state  waa  a  king  (2  Kings  xtiii.  19,  laa. 
mvi.  4),  who  ruled  despotically,  living  In 
a  Btrongbold,  inacceasible  to  hia  autjccti. 
Under  him  were  satraps,  denominated 
'  princes'  in  Isa.  x,  B,  who  governed  each 
hia  own  province.  Enuneha  were  employed 
in  high  Btate  offices.  The  military  was  often 
united  with  the  civil  character  in  those  who 
held  tbem  (Isa.  invi.  2).  The  religion  of 
the  Assyrians  was,  in  chief  points,  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Chaldsane.  Their  gods  were 
symboUcid  of  the  heavenly  bodies  :  of  these 
idols,  mention  ia  made  of  Nisroch  (las. 
invii.  3H)  ;  also  Nibhai,  Tartak,  Adnun- 
meleoh,  and  Annameleeh.  Their  speech  did 
not  belong  to  the  Shemidc  tongues,  but 
probably  to  tlie  Uedo-Votsian  or  Sanscrit 
family ;  but  aa,  in  a  great  part  of  the  coun- 
try, the  ArBmair  waa  employed,  the  offlcera 
of  state  contd  make  use  of  Hebrew  (9  Kings 
xriil.  3ti.   IsLinri.  II). 

Immense  ruins  have  lately  been  diaeo- 
vered  in  Aasyiia,  on  what,  in  all  prababill^, 
ia  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh,  which  already 
appear  to  be  of  great  interest,  and  afTard 
promise  of  still  mora  important  results. 
These  diseoveties  have  been  effected  by  the 
reildent  French  consul,  Botta,  in  conse- 
qneuce  of  gnggestions  made  by  Rich  ;  aod 
the  anliqnities  have  been  copied  and  drawn 
by  a  French  artist,  Flaodin.  Among  the 
objecta  brought  to  light,  are  a  great  noniber 
of  brioki,  with  inscriptions  in  the  anew- 
headed  character,  of  larger  dimensiaus  than 
those  that  are  commonly  known,  which  may 
affoni  aid  In  the  yet  unaccomplished  wort: 
of  decyphering  these  ancient  writings.! 


AST                       101  AST 

disinterred ;  the  mere  copying  of  the  flgiureB  birth-place  in  the  w'(^e,open  plains  of  Meeo- 
on  which  took  M.  Flandin  six  months.  The  potamia,  where  the  glowing  ether  of  heayen 
subjects  of  these  scolptores  offer  a  complete  stretches  oat  interminably  on  all  sides.  It  waa 
pictme  of  the  existence  of  an  Assyrian  mo-  natural  that  men  should  worship  the  hea- 
narch.  The  spectator  beholds  the  reception  venly  bodies,  to  which  they  ascribed  not  only 
of  guests,  a  banquet;  also  war  and  hunting;  personal  qualities,  but  a  resistless  power  and 
the  king  on  a  chariot,  with  a  parasol  over  constant  sway  oyer  the  human  condition.  And 
his  head;  assaulted  cities,  warlike  machines,  thus  idolatry  and  astrology  aided  in  produo- 
men  with  beards,  men  without  beards,  ing  and  supporting  each  other, 
eunuchs,  priests.  Already  the  Sacred  Scrip-  We  account  it  no  small  praise  of  the 
tores  have  reoeiyed  illustration  from  Ae  Abrahamic  race,  and.  Indeed,  of  the  Biblical 
result  of  M.  Botta's  labours,  and  much  more  antediluvians,  that,  at  a  time  when  the  super- 
may  be  expected  to  ensue.  We  subjoin  one  stitions  and  falsities,  of  which  we  have 
example.  In  Nahum's  burden  against  Nine-  spoken,  overspread  the  East,  they  should 
veh,  we  read, '  I  will  cut  off  the  graven  image  have  remained  uneontaminated,  and  ad- 
and  the  molten  image;'  teaching  us  that  hered  to  the  simple  creed  of  a  monotheistio 
bronze  as  well  as  marble  statues  were ;«  worship.  In  thus  carrying  our  mind  back 
among  the  objects  of  the  idolatry  of  the  Nine-  *  to  primitive  history,  we  find  a  belt  of  pure 
vites.  Now,  it  appears  that  the  art  of  casting  religious  light  striking  across  the  otherwise 
bronze  figures  was  much  practised  in  Assyria:  troubled  hemisphere  of  human  life.  In  this 
a  lion,  made  of  bronze,  of  beautiftd  work-  sense,  the  earliest  historical  ages  are  the 
manship,  has  been  brought  to  light  To  the  best.  It  is  not  till  a  very  late  period  that 
destructive  influence  of  the  worship  of  the  the  idea  of  astrology  is  found  in  the  Bible, 
lion,  reference  seems  to  be  made  by  Nahum  The  word  osCrolo^^r  occurs  first  in  the  book 
in  the  following  very  strong  terms  :  —  of  Daniel,  which  refers  to  a  period  of  n*- 
*  Where  is  the  dwelling-place  of  the  lions,  and  tional  degeneracy.  Even  then,  however, 
the  feeding-place  of  ^e  young  lions,  where  the  corrupt  thing  which  it  represents  is 
the  lion,  the  old  lion,  walked,  and  the  lion's  found,  not  on  a  Jewish,  but  a  Heathen  sail 
whelp,  and  none  made  them  afraid  ?  The  —  found  in  those  more  eastern  lands  when, 
lion  did  tear  in  pieces  enough  for  his  as  we  have  intimated  astrology  took  its  lise 
whelps,  and  strangled  for  lus  lionesses,  and  (Dan.  ii.  10,  27;  iv.  7;  v.  7,  11,  15).  In 
fiJled  his  holes  with  prey,  and  his  dens  with  these  passages,  astrologer  is  connected  with 
ravin,  (ii.  11, 12.  Comp.  Ezek.  xix).  In  mo^tcian,*  and  we  have  here, undoubtedly,  one 
the  last  passage  (ver.  0),  a  *  young  lion  is  or  two  classes  of  that  Chaldisan  caste  or 
symbolically  said  to  have  been  brought  in  order,  who  originally  were  the  learned  men, 
diains  to  the  king  of  Babylon ;'  and  it  is  and  afterwards  the  quadks  and  cheats,  of  the 
very  remarkable  that  the  same  emblem  has  great  empires  that  flourished  on  the  banks 
been  found  among  these  vast  ruins  —  a  lion  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  and,  we 
bound  by  a  chain  to  an  august  personage,  may  add,  generally  of  Western  Asia.  The 
whose  flowing  robes  show  him  to  be  a  mo-  Hebrew  word  for  astrologer  brands  the  pro- 
nareh.  Bich  also  discovered  at  Babylon  fession  as  a  falsity,  if  not  an  imposture, 
a  lion  of  colossal  dimensions,  standing  on  a  The  word  denotes  to  move  the  Ups;  to  mutter 
pedestal  of  coarse  grey  granite.  A  species  tf>  subdued  tones ;  and  hence,  to  whisper 
of  lion-worship  seems  to  have  been  widely  forth  mysteries,  and  deal  in  dark  and  abstruse 
spread  in  and  around  the  countries  watered  knowledge.  These  pretenders  to  science  are 
hj  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.  well  described  by  Diodorus  Siculus :  ^ 
ASTBOLOGEBS  (G.  expounders  of  the  *  They  assart  that  the  greatest  attention  is 
stars).  In  those  eastern  countries  where  the  given  to  the  five  stars,  called  planets,  which 
atmosphere  is  of  a  pure  and  lustrous  bril-  tiiey  name  interpreters ;  so  called,  because, 
liancy,  and  the  heavenly  bodies  shine  with  while  the  other  stars  have  a  fixed  path,  they 
an  intensity  of  splendour,  the  stars,  in  their  alone,  by  forming  their  own  course,  show 
ceaseless  movements,  woold,  in  process  of  what  things  will  come  to  pass,  thus  inter- 
tune,  so  fascinate  the  heart  as  to  blind  and  preting  the  will  of  the.  gods ;  for  to  those 
mislead  the  judgment,  and  hence  be  studied  who  study  them  carefully  they  foretell  events, 
rather  for  some  supposed  influence  of  theirs  partly  by  their  rising,  partly  by  their  set- 
over  the  destiny  of  man,  than  for  the  dis-  ting,  and  also  by  their  colour.  Sometimes 
oovery  of  the  laws  which  regulated  their  they  show  heavy  winds,  at  others  rains,  at 
separate  and  combined  operations.  And  others  excess  of  heat.  The  appearance  of 
when  once  the  mystical  study  of  the  stars  comets,  eclipses  of  the  sun,  earthquakes, 
had  ^us  gained  ihe  upperhand,  there  were  and,  in  general,  any  thing  extraordinary,  has, 
no  bounds  to  the  excesses  to  which  it  might  in  their  opinion,  an  iiyurious  or  a  beneficial 
lead  in  fancies  the  most  grotesque,  in  super-  effect,  not  only  on  nations  and  countries, 
stitions  the  most  enslaving,  and  in  errors  the  but  on  kings,  and  even  common  individuals; 
most  prolific.  Astrology  and  star* worship  and  they  consider  that  those  stars  contribute 
were  twin  sisters.     They  both  had  their  very  much  of  good  or  of  ill  in  relation  to  tha 


AST                      102  AST 

Mrte  of  hmo;  tnd  in  •oBsegoeiiM  of  dM  to  eikMI  ihMt  vorfh  in  ft  long  tnm 

iirtBi  t  of  Ihsie  tfiinfi*  nd  of  llie  ttody  of  BKiral  dioeipliae,  nd  to  aappljr  Ibe 

Ibe  start,  ihtj  Ihmk  tlicy  know  Menniolj  nind  by  aelafll  £Mto  vfdi  needftd  «**— "im^ 

IIm  ero&ti  that  befUl  moital&'  impalge,  md  gaidoioe. 

It  mftj  MTTo  to  bring  into  nikf  dM  Ciol,  Among  Iho  gnat  traihsnaedftdtobe known 

ffaftt  tfa«  Biblo  dooft  not  pMtend  to  teaah  te  to  man,  MfhefokfSvondation  for  religion,  ««• 

MitnoM,  U  wo  nnMfli  ttiit  tlio  word  iutro-  ddo,  that  tho  woild  iprang  tnm  the  wffl  of 

■Any  dooi  not  oeonr  in  Iko  DiUo,  iiUk  a  eroaiing  Inleiligenoe.     Aeeoidin^,  the 

thatofofCrofflyrriyaa  wo  h«voaa«i,ia  found  bocA  of  Ooneais  oponawith  a  deolantiaB 

inaomoofitapofM.    In  toath,  Iht  Bobiow  wliidi  ia  tho  baaia  at  onee  of  all  tme  reli- 

raoe  wore  not  a  apoealatifo,aCill  leaa  a  aeion-  gion  and  all  aonnd  philooophy,  namely,  *In 

lifle  poqpla.    Tbay  aCndiad  the  hosttna  for  the  beginning  God  enatod  the  beaten  and 

the  relii^oaaleaaonawliieh  they  give,  and  the  flie  oarlh.'     « The  beaten  and  the  eaiih' 

dototionalamotiona  that  they  Inipire.  Wbea  oonatttnled  tiie  vnitoiae  to  die  writer.    Be- 

diey  died  tfaoir  gana  on  tlio  atany  hoai^  it  aanring  the  latter  for  a  aeparato  treatment, 

waa  not  to  mad  hnman  doatiny,  nor  to  fora*  wo  ahall  hero  briefly  aot  forth  the  tiewe  en- 

leUoelJ^p8oa,bnt  to  indnlgedM  pionaalbo-  ftartahied  by  the  BiMieal  anlhoritiea  reapeet- 

tlona  of  their  heart,  or  to  loam  Icaaona  of  Ing  the  former.    The  heatena  wexo  hold  to 

tmth  logardlng  Ood  and  man  (Pa.  bootoriaating: — 


sis.  1,  0ey./hdx.84;iotLil;  onztiT— 9.  *  He  bath  ataMkbed  them  for  over  and 

laa.  zL  M,  ieq.).      What    ideaa  reapoet  He  bath  nade  a  deeroe  wUeh  iliaD  m 

ing  the  ii^yaioal  world  thoy  did  poiaom,  ("*■  ^^Iviii*  ^) 

they  aoom  to  ham  borrowod  moatly  from  It  waa  eoneoitod  to  bo  '  a  patod  work  of 

other  nationa;  and  eorlafaily,faft  regard  to  aqiphiroatono' (Ezod.zziT.10),aaabri|^t 


the  motementa  nod  infl^tfPitt  of  the  he*-  >olid   Armament   eapandfng   on  all  aidea 

▼only  bodiea,  thoy  had  no  eonoeptiona  of  «boto  the  earth  (Oon.  L  6.   Dan.  ziL  8), 

nattte  growdi  bat  andi  aa  were  oonneeted  ditiding  ttio  watan  into  two  portiona— one 

with  roli^  aod  piety.    On  the  aoUeot  of  tboto  and  one  beneath  itaelf ;  idiieh  flr- 


aatronomy  (O.  Me  teUitet  wKteh  ieaehm  IA#  mament,  at  leaat  at   a  later  period, 

laws  qf  tkt  tCsn),  theioforo,  wo  may  aqteet  dioogfat   to    eitend  inwards   into  aeteral 

to  find  no  detailed  oyatem,  bat  only  eaeh  Tanlted  eanopiee,  eo  aa  to  foim  heaTcn  on 

aeattend  notieea  or  midiffffignird  impUeationa  heatena  eton  to  the  nnmber,  at  leaat  of  throe 

aa  might  apontaneoualy  flow  Cram  a  writer'a  (Amoa  ii.  6.  2  Cor.  zu.  2).     The  Hebrew 

pen  under  the    nnioeogniaed   impulao  of  not,  rendered  firmament,  haa  ita  meenmg 

popular  and  pretalent  impreaaiona.  from  the  amelting  of  metala,  and  gitea  the 

Though  the  obaenration  and  aome  eonae-  Uea  that  the  oarlleat  eonception  of  the 

quent  knowledge  of  the  atany  hesrena  dm  hestan  waa  diat  of  a  apeeioa  of  ediereal  braaa, 

racteriae  die  earlieat  agea  and  die  flnt  atatoa  pomod  fordi  ao  aa  to  form  the  Tanlted  aky 

of  citilisation,  yet  a  aoientafto  aoquaintanee  (Job  oxtiL  18.)  Hence  in  Ptot.  iii.  19,  Jeho- 

with   aatronomy  haa    been    ittflT"nl    only  tah  is  aaid  to  hate 'eatabliahed  the  heatena  f 

within  the  laat  few  centnriea.    The  ideaa  a  tiew  whieh  waa  rendered  die  more  need* 

generally  which  were  entertained   by  the  ftil  and  aeoeptable,  becanse  die  eonyex  or 

anoienta  were  eearcely  more  than  ignoraneo  upper  part  of  <  thia  firm  set '  rault  waa  the 

in  the  ahape,  and  with  the  pretence,  of  know-  eeleatial  patement  whore  waa  the  throne  of 

ledge.     When  neariy  all  waa  error,  dif-  Ood,  near  and   around  which  dwelt  and 

fereneee  of  degree  were  of  email  aooount.  worahipped  the  eeleatial  hierarehy.    Thia 

Accordingly,  die  Hebiowa,  who  were  a  prac-  firmament,  bearing  the  aun  and  moon,  ia 

tical  not  a  acienttfio  people,  were  hardly  auatained  at  ita  oppoeito  extremitiea  by  two 

more  ignorant  of  the  true  oonatitndon  of  brasen  mountains  which  act  as  pillars  (Job 

the  heatena  than  the  most   distinguished  zxti.  11.  Zech.  ti.  1.  2  Sam.  zziL  8).  8o 

oi  ancient  philosophers.    Butthebroad  con-  die  early  Greek  poet  Heaiod  :  — 

treat  that  eziata  between  their  conceptiona  <  AtlM,  so  bard  ueoesiiHj  ordains, 

on  astronomical  subjecta,  and  dioae  tiewa  Greet  the  ponderous  twilt  of  stars  sostslns.' 

which  modem  science  haa  established,  may  The  firmament  ia  sometimes  represented 

be  of  no  small  serrioe  in  showing  that  the  rather  aa  a  tabernacle  and  a  tent,  in  which 

Biblical  writers  participated  on  purely  phy-  dwells  the  sun,  which,  coming  in  the  mom- 

sical  aubjecta  in  the  general  ideaa  of  dieir  ing  out  of  his  bed-chamber,  cirdea  round 

day, — had  no  apecial  illumination  granted  firom  one  end  of  the  beaten  to  the  other, 

them,  and,  consequently,  hate  no  scientific  nothing  being  hid  firom    the   heat  therof 

aecreta  to  disclose.    The  aim  of  retelation  (Ps.  six.  4,  »eq.  ,*  Hab.  iiL  11).    A  gale  and 

waa  not  to  anticipate  the  results  of  human  doora  in  the  firmament  gite  apaaaage  to  the 


discoteiy;  to  hate  done  which  would  hate  regions  abote  (Gen.  zztiiL  12, te^.  Pa.] 

been  a  dissertice  to  mankind  by  pretenting  28).    In  the  beaten  waa  the  aound  of  thnn- 

industiy  and  research ;  but  to  make  knotm  dor,  whidti  traa  the  Toioe  of  God,  and  it  va- 

oortain  great  fiindamental  religioua  trntha,  Terberated  down  to  earth  (Pa.  Izztii.  18. 


AST  103  AST 

Job  xnmi.l — 6);  and  die  lightning (^^pio-  eonsCellAllon,  and  marked  its  regular  rero- 

priately  oaUed  '  breaker-ttuough '),  breaking  latioue,  withoat   feeling  that  its  position 

through  this  solid  sky*  lightened  the  world  and  moYements  were  suoh  as  the  Almighty 

(Job  mriii.  20).      The  douds  oovering  Creator  only  ooiild  produce  f 
the  firmament  held  the  rain  as  in  a  reser-        Orion  was  a  oonstellatian  whieh  was  con- 

voir,  whieh  was  ahed  down  on  earth  as  if  oeired  of  as  a  mighty  and  impious  gisat 

firom  large  leathern  bottles,  and  by  oaaals  bound  upon  the  sky:  henee  the  eipression, 

or  water  eonrsea  (Job  xxzYiii,  S6»  37.    Ps.  *  Canst  thou  loose  the  bands  of  Orion  f 

IxzTiL  17) ;  sometimes  through   windows  (Job  xnviii.  81).  Aooording  to  eastern  tra- 

opened  expressly  for   the    purpose  (Gen.  ditUm,  this  giant  was  Mimrod,  the  founder 

▼iL  11).    That  a  portion  of  these  represen-  of  Babylon.     By  the  aid  of  a  telescope, 

(ations  must  be  tiSken  as  a  poetio  elofliing  about  two  thousand  stars  have  been  seen  in 

of  physical  truths  appears  from  the  U/eH,  this  oonstellation ;  and,  in  what  is  termed 

that  the  Psalmist  gives  to  the  rising  sun  '  the  sword  of  oirioa,'  theie  is  a  nebula, 

wings  to  denote  the  fleetness  with  whieh  its  almost  Tiaihle  to  the  naked  eye,  whieh  is  com- 

beams  oyerspread  the  earth  (Ps.  ezziiz  9),  puted  to  ezoeed  the  sun  in  siie  two  tril- 

and  speaks  <tf  the  sun's  opening  his  ejelida  Uons  two  hundred  thousand  billion  times, 

in  rising  from  bis  bed  (Job  iiL  9).  Surely,  if  Job  fbund  in  the  starry  heavens 

The  stars  wore  distinct  sdid  bodies,  called  cTidence  for  the  power,  providence,  and 
forth  every  night  by  the  Almighty,  who,  miyesty  of  God,  we  have  incomparably 
aitting  upon  the  eirale  of  the  heavens,  and  greater  reasons  for  so  doing  with  the  sub- 
stretching  them  out  as  a  curtain  and  as  a  lime  views  which  astronomy  has  in  our  time 
tentto  dwell  in,  broughtoutthenumeroushost  laid  open. 

of  heaven,  and  called  them  all  by  name,  innu-         The  Hebrew   word   rendered  Pleiades, 

merable  Uiough  they  were  (Isa.  zL  23, 20.  denotes  a  cluiter.    The  name  is  given  to  the 

Ps.  civ.  2.  OoEU  zv.  6).    Some  idea  seems  cluster  of  stars  in  the  neck  of  tilie  constel- 

to  have  prevailed  that  the  stars  were  living  lation  Taurus,  of  which  six  or  seven  may 

beings,  sons  of  God,  irtiich  may  have  been  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye;  but  as  many  as 

the  germ  of  the  heavenly  host  in  the  sense  two  hundred  have  been  counted  by  the  aid 

of  a  celestial  hierarchy  (Job  L  0 ;  zzv.  6 ;  of  a  telescope. 

zzzviii  7.  Isa.  zlv.  12).    Hence  a  divine        The  morning  star  was  known  (Isa.  ztv. 

court,  Jehovah  sitting  on  his  throne,  and  all  12.  Bev.  iL  28).    In  Job  zzvi  18,  is  men- 

the  host  of  heaven  standing  on  his  right  tioned  'the  erooked  serpent;'  the  Dragon 

hsnd  and  on  his  left  (2  Chion.  zriiL  18);  is  still  one  of  die  constellations;  it  lies  be- 

and  the  Almighty  is  therefore  termed  <  Je-  tween  the  Great  and  the  Little  Bear,  spread- 

hovah  of  hosts.'  ing  itself,  as  it  were,  in  windings  across 

The  Hebrews,  even  in  patriarehal  times,  the  heavens.   The  Zodiao  is  also  mentioned 

were  acquahited  with  certain  of  the  lea-  in  Job  zzxviii.  .32,  under  a  name  which  sig- 

ser  heavenly  bodies.    Job  speaks  (is.  9)  nifies  dwelling-places  or  lodgings,  because 

of  Arotnrus,  Orion,    and  Pleiades.      The  in  them  the  sun  appears  to  dweU  one  after 

heavens  wotdd  naturally  attract  the  attention  another.    Of  the  separate  signs,  only  one  ia 

of  these  early  tenants  of  the  earth,  especially  mentioned,  namely,  the  Twins  (Acts  zzviiL 

in  Arabia  and  Palestine,  the  rather  because,  11),  by  the  terms  <  Castor  and  Pollux.'  'The 


as  shepherds,  they  passed  much  of  their  chambers  of  the  south,'  in  Job  ix>  9,  may 
time  in  the  open  air,  watching  their  flocks  indicate  the  stars  hidden  in  the  southern 
by  night  as  well  as  by  day.  While  engaged  hemisphere,  or  rather  in  a  southerly  direc- 
in  the  musings  to  whieh  such  a  posi-  tion,  in  the  dark  recesses  of  the  south.  In 
lion  would  naturally  give  rise,  they  would.  Job  xxxviii.  83,  Jehovah  asks,  *Knowest 
under  the  influence  of  a  creative  imagina-  thou  the  ordinances  of  heaven?'  We  are 
tion,  easily  be  led  to  fonn  the  stars  first  into  apt,  in  the  knowledge  of  astronomy  which 
groups,  and  then  into  the  shapes  of  animals,  we  now  possess,  to  think  that  Job's  know- 
Hence  arose  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  The  ledge  was  most  insignificant,  even  when  it 
word  which,  in  the  common  version,  is  ren-  was  true.  And,  certainly,  our  acquaintance 
dered  Arcturus  means,  probably,  the  Great  with  these  *  ordinances'  is  sui&oiendy  great 
Bear.  The  sons  of  Arotums  (Job  xxxviii.  32)  and  accurate  to  foster  within  us  the  most 
are  the  stars  that  accompany  it,  now  called  deeply-felt  piety;  but,  after  all  that  Tycho 
'  die  tail  of  the  bear.'  Heider  renders  the  Bnixi,  Kepler,  Newton,  and  others  have 
words  in  the  passage  last  referred  tc  —  taught,  we  have  learnt  to  small  purpose,  if  we 
'  Lead  forth  the  bear  with  her  young.'  The  are  not  convinced  that  what  we  know  is,  rela- 
passage  speaks  of  the  constellation  as  con-  tively  to  what  remains  to  be  lesmt,  only  litde 
ducted  round  and  round  the  pole  as  by  more  than  was  known  to  the  patriaxvhs  of 
some  unseen  hand,  like  a  mother  with  her  old.  And  those  who  condemn  the  Bible, 
children.  God  is  made  to  appeal  to  this  because  it  does  not  teach  as  much  as  the 
phenomenon  as  a  manifestation  of  his  ma-  Mkcanique  CilesU  of  La  Place,  in  cflTect 
jesty  and  power,  and  as  far  above  the  skill  condenm  diat  work  itself,  which,  there  is- 
of  man.    Who  ever  looked  on  that  beautiftd  every  reason  to  bdleve,  will,  in  process  of 


AST  104  A  T  H 

tune,  haTO  to  give  place  to  moie  oomprehen-  aeot  day,  we  can  hardly  conceiTe  how  rea- 

aire  aa  well  aa  more  exact  Tiewa  of  tha  aonable  men   ahoold  have  imagined  that 

Tast  and  immeasnrable  aniyerse  of  Ood.    A  religiooa  reflectiona  on  the  etabUitj  of  the 

work  which  sets  forth  the  hif^eat  truth  of  earth,  and  the  beauty  of  the  Inminariea 

ita  age — eepecially  if,  like  the  Bible,  it  qppliea  which  levolve  round  it,  would  be  interfered 

that  truth  to  the  great  purpoaea  of  religion,  with  by  ita  being  acknowledged,  that  this 

wOl  be  regarded  by  all  wiaely  judging  men  —  reat  and  motion  are  apparent  only.' 
as  '  a  pearl  of  great  price,*  and  '  a  posaeaaion        ATHAUAH  (H.  time  of  the  Lord),  dangh- 

for  ever/  notwithstanding  any  changea  which  ter  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  and  of  Jezabel, 

may  be  brought  by  the  conatant  adraucea  of  grand-daughter  of  Omri,  king  of  Israel;  wife 

a  ceaseleasly  progressiTe  ciTilisation.  of  Joram,  king  of  Judah,  and  mother  of 

About  A.D.  1500,  Copemieua  had  aatiafled  Ahaaiah,  king  of  Judah  (864,  A.  C).  She 
himself  that  the  aun  is  the  oentre  of  the  used  all  her  influence  in  Ikvour  of  idolatry, 
Bolar  system.  In  1610,  Galileo,  haring  in-  towards  which  her  Tyiian  origin  may  hare 
▼ented  a  telescope,  diaooTcred  Jupiter's  satel-  inclined  her;  showing  herself  equally  de- 
lites,  and  the  moon-like  phaaes  of  Venus,  prayed  with  her  mother.  She  took  part  in 
Theae  discoyeries  supplied  additional  argn-  the  iniquities  of  her  huaband,  and  she  coun- 
menta  for  the  truth  of  the  Gopemican  ays-  sailed  her  son  to  do  wickedly.  On  her  son's 
tem.  This  system  (Galileo  defended  in  hia  death,  ahe  destroyed  the  seed  royal  of  the 
writings,  which  were,  on  that  account,  con*  house  of  Judah,  though  the  children  of  her 
demned  aa  heretical  by  the  Inquiaition,  who,  own  son,  and  so  usurped  the  throne.  Joash, 
on  the  generally  receiyed  opinion  that  the  howeyer,  was  aaved  from  her  ftiry,  and  con- 
Scripture  taught  that  the  earth,  a  stationary  sealed  in  the  temple.  The  day  of  her  pu- 
body,  was  the  centre  of  the  world,  accounted  niahment  was  coming.  Jehoiada  had  not 
the  new  opiniooa  to  be  contradicted  by,  and  forgotten  the  divine  promise  in  fkyour  of  tbe 
hostile  to,  the  Bible.  There  thus  appeared  posterity  of  David,  and  gradually  prepared 
to  exist  a  contrariety  between  Scripture  and  an  insurrectionary  movement  against  the 
science.  This  contrariety  has  been  met  by  queen.  This  at  length  broke  forth :  the 
drawing  a  distinction  between  religious  and  young  king  was  proclaimed;  when  Athaliah, 
physic^  teneta.  The  former  it  is  the  object  aroused  and  alarmed  by  the  shouting  of  the 
of  the  Bible  to  teach.  In  the  caae  of  the  people,  hurried  into  the  temple  for  protec- 
latter,  it  merely  reproduces  what  in  any  pe-  tion,  whence  she  was  dragged  and  slain, 
nod  it  finds  prevalent  *  On  this  point,'  after  a  usurpation  of  six  years.  She  is  the 
says  Professor  Whewell, — 'Indications  of  a  only  female  that  reigned  in  Jerusalem.  Her 
Creator,'  p.  5, — 'itisreaaonablyheld  that  the  wretched  end  affords  an  instance  of  the  fti- 
phrases  which  are  found  in  Scripture  re-  tility  of  crime.  She  waded  through  blood 
specting  astronomical  facta  are  not  to  be  to  a  throne,  from  which  she  was  precipitated 
made  use  of  to  guide  our  scientific  opinions:  by  the  indignant  enthusiasm  of  a  nation  in 
tbey  may  be  supposed  to  answer  their  end  if  favour  of  a  child.  The  character  of  this 
they  fall  in  with  common  notions,  and  are  *  wicked  woman '  has  been  well  drawn  by 
thus  effectually  aubservient  to  the  moral  and  one  who  had  a  deep  insight  into  the  human 
religious  import  of  revelation.  heart,  Racine.     Her  death  was  the  signal 

'  The  meaning  which  any  generation  puta  for  a  great  religious  reformation,  the  deteila 

upon  the  phrases  of  Scripture,  depends,  more  of  which  let  us  know  that  Baal  had  a  temple 

than  is  at  first  supposed,  upon  tibe  received  even  in  Jerusalem.    This  unholy  place  was 

fihilosophy  of  the  time.    Hence,  while  men  broken  down,  and  the  altars  and  images 

imagine  that  they  are  contending  for  revela-  were  deatroyed.      Mattan,  the  priest,  was 

tion,  they  are  in  fact  contending  for  their  also  slain  before  the  altars  (2  Kings  viiL  26; 

own  interpretation  of  revelation,  unconsci-  xL    2  Chron.  xxii.  xxiii.  xxiv). 
ously  adapted  to  what  they  believe   to   be         ATHEISM  (O.  beiny  without  €fod)  is  not 

rationally  probable.     And  the  new  interpre-  expressly  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures ;  but 

tation  which  the  new  philosophy  requires,  the  idea  and  the  fact  are  found  there  in  terms 

and  which  appears  to  the  older  school  to  be  of  condemnation,    llins  the  Epheaians,  be- 

a  fatal  violence   done  to   the  authority  of  fore  their  conversion  to  Christ, 'had  no  hope, 

religion,  is  accepted  by  their  successors  with-  and  were  without  Ood  in  theworid'  (Eph. 

out  the  dangerous  results  which  were  appre-  ii.  12) ;  words  in  which  the  foUy,  the  evil 

bended.     When  the  language  of  Scripture,  consequences  of  atheism,  and  atheism  itself 

invested  with  its  new  m9aning,  has  become-  are  well  described.    Accordingly,  atheism  — 

liamiliar  to  men,  it  is  found  Uiat  the  ideas  agreeably  with  the  etymologicsl  import  of 

which  It  calls  up  are  quite  aa  reconcileable  the  word,  as  given  above  —  is  being  widiout 

as  the  former  ones  were  with  the  soundest  God,  the  absurdity  of  which  is  manifested 

religious  views.    And  the  world  then  looks  by  the  addition,  '  in  die  world,'  that  is,  <  in 

back  with  surprise  at  tbe  error  of  those  who  this  system  of  created  order  and  beauty;' 

thought  that  the  essenoo  of  revelation  was  and  the  sad  consequences  are,  to  rob  man  of 

involved  in  their  own  arbitrary  version  of  hope  both  in  this  state  and  the  next;  to  take 

■oma  eoUatenU  oiioiinitftaiice.    At  the  pre-  from  him  the  idea  of  perfection;  to  make 


ATH 


105 


ATH 


man  himself  the  highest  heing,  and  so 
the  highest  moral,  as  well  as  iutellectnal, 
model  in  the  muverse.  Such  a  position  and 
such  consequences  bear  all  the  appearance 
of  folly;  and  with  propriety,  therefore,  does 
the  psalmist  affirm,  *  The  fool  hath  said  in 
his  heart  there  is  no  God'  (Ps.  ziy.).  So 
general,  if  we  may  not  even  say  universal, 
has  been  the  acknowledgment  of  a  divine 
power,  that  in  general  tenns  it  may  well  be 
felt  difficult  to  avoid  ascribing  atheism,  if  not 
to  a  natural  obliquity  of  the  intellect,  yet 
to  the  depravation  of  the  moral  feelings  (Ps. 
xiv.2). 

Atheism,  then,  is  the  denial  of  Ood,  in 
what  sense  ?  In  brief,  it  is  the  assertion 
that  the  universe  owes  its  origin  to  matter, 
and  not  to  mind.  Whether  any  inteUigent 
being  has  ever  proceeded  to  this  length,  — 
that  is,  has  been  a  real  atheist,  —  may  be 
doubted.  Men  often  deceive  themselves, 
being  dissatisfied  with  common  representa* 
tions  of  the  Deity:  they  deny  these,  and, 
with  a  certain  vain  love  of  talking,  think 
they  deny  the  existence  of  God.  This  is 
that  practical  atheism,  of  which  we  fear  there 
is  much  in  the  world;  and  which,  as  it 
springs  from  an  empty  head  and  a  flippant 
tongue,  tends  to  keep  the  mind  and  heart  as 
poor  and  destitute  as  it  finds  them.  Besides 
a  vulgar,  there  is  also  a  speculative  atheism, 
which,  if  more  respectable  in  its  origin,  is 
scarcely  less  prejudicial  in  its  results.  Un- 
able to  form  any  satisfactory  conception  of 
God,  thinking  that  all  prevalent  conceptions 
of  God  are  too  material,  and  so  untrue ;  and 
trying  to  rise  and  carry  abroad  their  dioughts 
so  as  to  conceive  of  God  in  a  manner  corre- 
sponding with  his  nature,  speculative  atheists 
go  on  refining  on  their  ideas  and  their  terms, 
till  at  last  they  find  their  Deity  in  some  ethe- 
real essence,  diffused  throughout,  and  iden- 
tified withy  the  universe,  of  which  it  is  the 
living  and  moving  power.  Diffusion  and 
concentration,  in  regard  to  the  same  object, 
are  at  the  same  time  impossible.  But  the 
idea  of  person  necessarily  implies  concen- 
tration. A  person  is  an  individual,  a  unit 
Hence  the  Scriptures  say,  God  '  is  one.'  A 
diffused  Deity,  therefore,  so  far  as  the  diffu- 
sion sets  aside  personality,  is  no  God  at  all. 
This  system  is  generally  called  pantheism ; 
that  is,  all  God — God  is  aU,  and  all  is  God. 
But,  if  all  is  God,  there  is  no  God ;  for  the 
very  idea  of  God  is  something  distinct,  indi- 
vidual —  something  existing  apart  and  se- 
parate from  the  creation,  as  its  origin  and 
cause.  Pantheism  i^proaches  also  to  na- 
ture-worship— the  worship  of  the  boundless, 
fathomless,  light-covered  all,  in  which  the 
Babylonians  and  other  eastern  nations  had 
the  earliest  form  of  their  subsequentiy  cor- 
rupted idolatry.  Men  must  uid  will  indivi- 
dualise their  conception  of  divine  power; 
and  if  in  their  speculations  they  rest  not  in 
one  great  all-creating,  all-pervuding,  and  all- 


sustaining  Mind,  they  will  pass  from  a 
dreamy  pantheism  to  a  teeming  and  de- 
basing }K>lytheism. 

ATHENS  (G.  the  city  qf  Minerva,  sho 
being  the  local  and  tutelary  divinity.)  was 
the  renowned  capital  of  ancient  Atlica,  lying 
in  the  midst  of  Greece,  between  the  rivers 
Oephissus  and  Ilissns,  somewhat  inland,  on 
the  Saronio  Gulf.    It  possessed  three  har- 
bours, which,  in  its  most  flourishing  times, 
were  connected  with  the  city  by  walls.    Its 
position  and  environments  made  it  very  fit 
for  the  purposes  either  of  war  oi  commerce, 
in  both  of  which,  accordingly,  Athens  was 
distinguished,  being  feared  and  honoured  - 
by  sea  and  by  land.    The  native  endow- 
ments of  her  people,  their  language,  their 
civil  freedom  under  a  democratical  constitu- 
tion, contributed  to  the  celebrity  of  Athens, 
and  caused  it  to  gain  the  high  honour  of 
being  regarded  as  tiie  mother  city  of  all  the 
Grecian,  and  especially  of  the  classical  and 
Attic  culture  of  the  western  world.    Origi- 
nally Athens  was  governed  by  kings.    About 
one  thousand  years  before  Christ,  it  came 
under  the  guidance  of  archons.    Then  it, 
together  witii  all  Greece,  fell  into  the  hands 
of    the    Macedonian    power.       Antiochus 
Epiphanes  is  thought  to  have  held  dominion 
over  it  for  a  short  time.    Finally  it  formed 
a  part  of  the  great  Boman  empire,  in  which 
condition  it  was  when  it  makes  its  appear- 
ance in  Scripture.    The  aposUe  Paul,  having 
been  driven  from  Thessalonica,   came    to 
Athens.    The  brief  notice  of  this  memorable 
and  most  influential  visit  supplied  in  the 
Acts  (xviL  16),  is  not  without  difficulties, 
but  on  the  whole  agrees  strikingly   with 
what    is    otherwise    known    of   the    place 
(Abbopaqus).    Thus  the  inhabitants  were 
notorious  for  their  love  of  novelty.    Demos- 
thenes, in  his  celebrated  oration,  De  Corona^ 
ftimishes  striking  exemplifications  of  this 
appetite.    The  historian  Thucydides  (iiL  38) 
describes  them  as  *most  easily  misled  by 
novelty.'    Equally  notorious  was  their  talka- 
tiveness.    Hence  the  sarcasm  of  Alexander, 
who  ordered,  as  two  of  the  most  difficult 
things,  that  the  Lacedemonians  should  be- 
come slaves,  and  the  Athenians  learn  to  hold 
their  tongues.    There  were  in  Athens  cer- 
tain spots,  the  Greek  name  for  which  may  in 
English  be  rendered  chattering  places,  where 
the  common  people  met  together  to  hear, 
report,  and  discuss  the   news,  and   where 
even  the  most  trivial  circumstances   were 
eagerly  welcomed.    It  is  not  peculiar  to  the 
Ati^enians  to  love  or  ta  discuss  new  things : 
the  peculiarity  consists  in  this,  —  that  the 
appetite  was  so  large  and  morbid  as  to  at- 
tract universal  notice,  and  find  a  record  from 
many  a  pen.    The  Athenians  were  also  ac- 
counted very  zealous  for  the  honour  of  the 
gods.    Athens  was  crowded  with  temples. 
Pausanias  says,  that  they  were  excessively 
given  to  veneration  for  divine  things,  more 


A  T  II  106  A  T  H 

thm  otlien.  TIm  ilur  to  Iha  unknown  had  tba  Inmiptlon,  ■  To  tha  nnkoowD  Ood.' 
Qod,  to  which  Puil  alludes,  hu  gimn  ooo^  Tha  nrigiii  of  ■adi  altara  ia  in  obacnrllj. 
aiou  to  much  diuuaaitni.  It  ^ipaan,  how-  Pnbabl;  Iha;  maj  hafa  ariaeu  froia  a  wish 
arar,  tlom  prolana  anlhorlUaa,  that  tbani  on  ibe  patt  c^  the  god-hononiiug  AthmiUw. 
van  altan  in  aaoiant  timta  tai  Athani,  bear-  to  laara  aa  poaaihla  diTinit)  withoul  analtat. 
iii(  dia  worda  'To  the  nnkiiown  Oo4a;'  Adroit];,  bowevar,  and  with  graat  aflaot,  doaa 
and,  aa  the  writan  wba  glTe  na  tbi*  Bdbi~  Paul  aeiaa  iha  oppoitiuiitr  of  pnelaimiiig  to 
mation  an  ipaaking  in  ^  ptiual  nnmber,  Ihaae  idolatan  iha  caily  tme,  but  to  Iham,  un- 
it ia  TUJ  likalj  that  Ihcaa  allan  ■ennUy  known  Ood,  tba  Bfikar  of  heaTan  and  earlh. 


VEST  END  OF  THX  ACBOPOUS,  AT&ENB. 

As  other  andanl  dtlcB,  ao  Athana  had,  on  Iha  faigheal  part  of  the  platfona  af  tha  Abm- 
an  elerated  apo^  —  where  had  been  planted  poll*,  about  three  hmulnid  feet  bora  tha 
flie  first  gram  of  ita  Boeial  life,  —  a  eiladd,  PropflBa,  stood  tha  Farthanon,  of  white 
or  atron^iald,  leimed  the  AcropoUM.  In  »■  Pentaliean  maitle;  erected  under  Iha  eaie 
latlon  to  Athena,  UiiaiB8ldllaTU7lntereednff  itf  CallieiMai,  Ictinna,  and  Carplon,  and  da- 
tpo\;  for  it  bean  the  remaiuB,  in  a  mutilated  oiualed  with  the  finest  aeQ3ptiires  of  Pbtdiaa. 
stale,  of  three  templei,  beaidea  other  mine.  Noilh  of  tha  Parthenon  WM  the  EreelbNOm ; 
In  dia  days  of  ila  glorj,  howerer,  the  Athe-  a  complex  building  whioh  eompriaed  the 
nian  Acn^wlia,  of  which  tlie  aot  gifea  a  Tiaw  temple  of  Hinerra  Folias,  a  building  whieh 
as  if  it  were  restored,  eompriaed  olfjeets  of  was  piopeily  called  the  EreclIiBDm,  and  the 
the  deepest  intetesi  and  aoncemment  to  the  Pandroneum.  This  sanctnarr  held  the  holy 
minds  of  tfia  eilisena.  We  csn  add  only  a  oliTe-tree  of  Athene  (whence  Athens)  or 
few  particolan.  The  west  side  of  the  Aero-  Uinerra,  the  holy  aalt-bnwk,  Ibe  rery  aneient 
polls,  irtiieh  atone  afliirdad  a  nMoral  assent,  wooden  image  of  Fsllaa  or  Hinerra,  and 
was,  under  Iha  dominion  of  Periolea,  fOr-  other  aaeied  things,  to  whiiih  the  greatest 
nisfaed  with  a  splendid  flight  of  stepe,  and  rererenee  was  paid :  it  was  the  scene  of  ihs 
•domed  with  the  Pnipjlna,  and  two  beauti-  oldest  and  moat  sacred  recolleetions,  myths, 
All  buildings,  one  on  each  of  its  sides.  The  and  earamooies  •>!  the  Alhenian  people.  W« 
FropylBa,  built  of  Pentelican  marble,  was  tnnst  not  omit  to  mention  the  brasen  ooloasal 
the  work  of  die  arebitect  Hnesioles,  who  em-  statue  of  Pallaa  PromaaiaB,  made  by  Phidiaa, 
ployed  Atc  jean  in  the  task.  Before  ible  wliieh  stood  between  the  Prop^aa  and  the 
edifice,  there  stood,  in  die  age  of  the  Caaan,  BrBCthaam;  and  roe«  ao  high  abore  all 
two  equestrian  alatosi ;  of  whioh  one  was  Ihs  edlBces,  All  the  phune  (tf  the  goddeaa, 
erected  in  honour  of  Augnatos,  the  other  of  and  the  poiul  of  her  spear,  could  be  seenfer 
Agrippa.  Before  its  soulhem  wing  was  a  out  on  the  sea.  The  Acropolia  was  man- 
temple  d^^dioated  to '  Victory  without  wiogs.'  orer  so  occupied  with  monuments  and 
On  Iha  left  was  a  small  pictare  gaUeiy.    On  ataluee,  that  it  ia  wondaiftil  how  locaa  wm 


A  T  O  107  A  T  O 

ftmnd  for  ibm,  sinee  the  jimtMontk  was  only  coa  wiOi  him,  iiii§^t  peifeet  hdinefls  ind 

1100  foet  from  flonth-east  to  soiith-wMty  wiih  o^oj  peaee. 

a  breadth  that  did  notmneh  ezeeed 600iMt.  BvtSi  in  tha  gumenl  theoiy  of  nnHtition, 

How  much  was  oentered  on  this  small  spo^  oommeneed  imder  the  patriairdial  dispensa- 

of  which  Athens  was  justlj  piood ;  hut  whicli,  tion,  eanded  forward  and  enlarged  by  Moses^ 


haying  no  true  religions  TitaLity,  perisiied  in  and  completed  snd  perfected  by  tiie  Lord 

a  few  centuries,  nndar  changes  consequent  Jesos  Christ      God's  dealings  willi  man 

on  the  preaching  there,  and  at  other  places,  have  all  been  mediatorial;  and  their  great 

of  the  '  babbler '  Paul,  whom  its  refined  aim  has  been  to  destroy  sin,  and  to  make  the 

citiaens  could,  with  all  their  Iotc  of  norelty,  world  hi^py  by  making  it  holy.    The  sin- 

bardy  haar  with  suitable  decorum.  off(»ing  has  Tailed  according  to  the  moral 

From  the  year  1814,  Aliens  has  been  the  and  ^iritnal  condition  of  each  separate 

capital  of  the  new  Qroek  kingdom,  of  which  age.    Now  it  was  of  die  fruit  of  the  ground, 

O&o  is  soreieign.    By  the  aid  of  steam,  now  ofthe  firstlings  of  the  flock.    At  another 

railways,  and  other  European  appliances,  time  it  conaisted  of  a  portion  of  most  of  the 

Athens   ia   now  undergoing  a  renoTation  olijects  used  in  flic  sustenance  of  human 

soarody  less  great  than  that  which  waa  com-  life.    Finally,  it  was  the  death  of  Ohrist 

menced  there  neariy  two  thousand  yeam  ago  But  whatever  the  oflbzing,  regard  was  slways 

by  the  Christian  apostle.  had  to  the  condition  of  the  oflterer,  to  oonsne- 

ATONEHBNT  (uH-orchmh^ ;  makmg  one,  tndinaiy  obserYanees,  to  spiritual  progress, 
or  reeancUmg),  —  The  ftmdsmental  idea  is  and  spiritual  impression  snd  improTcment : 
that  of  bringing  two  alienated  partica  into  and  equally,  the  entire  system,  in  all  its 
harmony.  This  is  eflSBcted  by  some  instru-  stagea,  was  an  expression  of  tfie  Sirine  good- 
mentality,  which  instrumentality  is  the  ato-  ness,  an  adaptation  to  human  weaknesses 
ning  sgenoy.  All  these  ideas  are  eaq^ressed  and  wants ;  designed  and  fitted  to  act  on  the 
in  thMc  vSwB  firom  Bhakspcre,  ^iHliieh  show  human  soid,  and  so  to  reconcile  it  to  the  win 
the  original  meaning  of  our  English  word :  of  God.    This  is  the  grand  leading  idea  of 

£od.  b  there  Msioutwlxtny  lord  and  Gaaalo?  •«»>«»<»«  in  Scripture ;  and,  if  any  facts  or 
Dm.  A  BMMrt  cnhaiipy  one :  I  would  do  mmh  words  occur  wnicn  seem  to  miply  a  change 
T'oiioiietheiii.fortheloTelbeBrtoCaaiio.  on  the  part  of  the  Deity,  they  are  only  par- 
Tyndal  has  iqypUed  the  teim  to  our  Lord,  tial  and  occasional;  hj  no  means  essen- 
*  Paul  sayth.  One  God,  one  Mediator  (that  tial  dementa  of  the  system,  but  merely 
is  to  say,  adTocate,  intercessor,  or  an  a<oii#-  human  views  and  representations  of  a  great 
staler)  between  God  and  men.'  sad  divine  instrumentality  for  the  sslvation 
The  soriptaral  idea  of  atonement  must  be  of  mankind.  The  eareftil  student  may  merit 
soui^t  osi^boally  in  the  records  of  the  Old  s  gradual  refinement  of  the  scriptural  doc- 
Testament  The  Hebrew  word,  in  its  radi-  trine  of  atonement,  suitable  to  the  progress 
cal  meaning,  aignifies  io  cover  by  nuam  ^  of  mankind  in  intellect  and  morals.  Under 
some  wuhtUme*  or  thmg :  for  instance,  the  the  Mosaic  institntions,  the  oflfering  was  of 


aik  was  ordered  to  be  eovoed  with  pitch,  sn  outward  and  matoial  khid,  which  was 
But,  if  you  cover,  you  obliterate,  destroy,  re-  accepted  of  God  psrUy  for  itsdf,  snd  psrtiy 
move.  Hence  the  turn,  v^en  used  of  man,  as  an  indication  of  the  disposition  of  each 
intended  doing  some  act  by  which  ain  was  individual  offerer,  in  the  gospel  the  offer- 
covered  or  done  away  with:  when  used  of  ing  ia  the  voluntary  self-sacrifiee  of  Jesus 
God,  it  signified  to  blot  out,  to  forgive.  Ac-  Christ,  as  of  <  a  lamb  without  spot  and  ble- 
cordingly,  atonement  is  the  means  by  which  mish,**  which  is  made  effectual  by  faith 
man  obtains  of  God  remission  of  sins.  It  working  by  love  (GaL  v.  6),  and  issuing  in 
is,  in  other  words,  God's  method  of  pardon-  holiness,  in  the  ease  of  etuch  individual ;  in- 
ing  his  guil^  ereatares,  and  so  receiving  asmuch  as  such  faith  in  Christ  argues  the 
them  into  favour.  As  such,  it  is,  in  ita  very  pmeence  of  a  bias  towards  divine  things, 
essence,  sn  espression  of  meroy,  not  wrath,  and  is  of  a  nature  to  operate  a  thorough 
It  is  a  divinely  originated  expedient,  by  change  in  the  soul;  so  that,  if  by  faith  any 
whidi  man  is  enabled  to  prove  his  repen-  msn  be  in  Christ,  he  is  a  new  creature, 
tance,  and  God  is  plessed  to  manifest  his  We  have  intimated  that  the  atonemento  of 
grace.  The  idea  of  atonement  is  not  to  pa-  Scripture  were  divine.^  This  requires  some 
city,  but  to  cover,  snd  so  to  pardon  sin.  explanation.  There  is  no  record  showing 
Further:  sin  it  is  which  sHenates  man  firom  that  offarings  of  any  kind  originated  with 
God.  *Tour  iniquities  have  separated  be-  God  in  primitive  times.  Primarily,  offerings 
tween  you  snd  your  God '  (Isa.  lix.  2).  This  had  their  origin  on  the  part  of  man.  They 
is  the  generd  doctrine  of  Scripture.  The  ire  the  utterance  of  a  human  thought. 
fact  of  man's  alienation,  necessitates  atone-  They  grew  up  in  an  orientd  soil.  In  the 
ment  Hence  God  appointed  means  by  East  a  sovereign  is  never  approached  with- 
wluch  sin  should  be  covered  and  blotted  out  an  offering.  Hence  usage,  as  wen  as 
out;  so  that,  the  intervening  obstacle  and  gratitude  and  piety,  introduced  offerings  into 
disturbing  cause  being  removed,  man  might  religion.  But  what  arose  thus  naturally, 
be  restored  to  God's  favour,  snd,  being  at  bore  the  character  of  sn  appropriate  cxpres. 


ATO 


108 


ATO 


tion  of  man's  dependanee  on,  and  homage 
towards,   the  'Almighty.     Accordingly,  that 
which  existed  «s  a  practice  was  adopted  into 
Mosaism,  and  expanded  and  applied  to  the 
pecoUar  ciroumstances  of  the  Hebrew  peo- 
ple.   This  divine  sanction,  howerer,  was  bat 
provisional  and  temporary,  designed  to  aid 
in  edacating  the  mind  for  better  things  to 
come.    And  the  institation  was  well  fitted 
to  keep  alive,  prominent  and  operative  in  the 
mind  of  the  Israelites,  the  great  ideas  of 
duty,  obedience,  and  holiness,  of  which  the 
entire  system  of  sacrifices  is  symbolical;  for 
every  thing  in  it  tended  to  make  the  worship- 
per feel  that  sin  was  hatefiil  in  the  sight  of 
Ood,  incompatible  with  his  own  welfare  and 
peace,  and  Uiat  holiness  was  as  the  badge, 
BO  the  aim  of  the  faithAil  servant  of  the  Most 
High.    It  is  trae  that  these  important  moral 
convictions  were,  nnder  the  first  dispensa- 
tion, somewhat  superficial,  and  wore  a  thick 
material  covering:    yet  were  they  also  as 
pure  and  spiritaid  as  the  day  woold  allow ; 
and  even  by  the  materiality  of  their  charac- 
ter, did   they   possess   a  suitableness  for 
carrying  on  the  edacatiou  of  a  race,  who, 
though  superior  in  morals  to  other  nations, 
bad  not  passed  out  of  the  period  of  spritual 
infancy.     Thus  did  the  law  prove  an  efil- 
cient  schoolmaster,  to  train  men  for  Christ 
Christianity,  as  developed  out  of  Judaism, 
naturally  partook  of  its  system  of  atonement 
Tet  does  it  deserve  especial  notice,  that  sacri- 
ficial ideas  are  rarely  found  in  the  teachings 
of  Christ    The  existence  of  sin  he  does  in- 
deed distinctly  recognise,  and  most  feeh'ngly 
deplore.    The  necessity  of  reconciliation  to 
God,  so  that  we  may  become  one  with  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  he  incessantly  urges. 
But  the  means  which  he  sets  forth  are  moral 
and  spiritual.     Love  is  the  great  power 
which  Jesus  recommends  as  the  instrument 
by  which  man  may  be  brought  to  Ood.   The 
central  idea  of  his  religion  is  the  idea  of  the 
universal  Father.    The  conception  of  a  So- 
vereign  which  Judaism  enshrined,   Jesus 
expanded  into  the  nobler,  and  more  attrac- 
tive, and  more  refining  conception  of  an 
infinitely  wise  and  immeasurably  good  Pa- 
rent    With  such  an  idea,  the  pains  and 
penalties  of  a  system    of   satasfsotion  are 
wholly  incompatible.    Thd  essence  of  the 
Saviour's  doctrine  is  concentrated  in  the 
parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  which  thus  be- 
comes a  picture  of  die  divine  dealings  with 
man.  ^  Here,  then,  we  have,  as  the  central 
doctrine  of  the  gospel,  so  that  beau  ideal  to 
which  we  should  raise  our  conceptions,  and 
by  whose  light  we  should  try  the  spirits,  dis- 
criminating the  divine  from  the  human  in 
the  scriptiLral  record,  in  order  that  so  we 
may  find  '  the  pearl  of  great  price,'  become 
acquainted  with  the  mind  of  God,  and  en- 
joy peace  and  rest  in  the  broad  and  sure 
foundations  of  everlasting  truth. 
We  utter,  then,  no  arbitrary  assumption. 


but  a  truth  whidi  comes  i!rom  flie  veiy  cen- 
tre of  Christ's  soul,  when  we  declare,  that, 
as  the  goodness  of  the  Father  is  at  the  bot- 
tom of  *the  glad  tidings  oi  great  joy,'  pro- 
claimed by  the  gospel;  so,  whatever  is  taught 
incompatible  with  this,  whether  by  man  or 
angel,  by  Paul  or  by  Apollos,  can  have  but  a 
temporary  import,  must  in  the  lapse  of  time 
be  dirown  off  as  an  outer  covering,  and  may,- 
nay,  will,  be  laid  aside  by  the  mind  as  soon 
as  it  is  pervaded  and  enlarged  by  the  grand 
and  ennobling  conception  of  the  divine  pa- 
ternity. Thus,  the  reader  wUl  see,  doetf 
Christianity,  as  tau|[^t  of  Christ,  throw  out 
from  its  own  essence  an  idea  which,  expand- 
ing into  a  system  of  spiritual  truth,  is  fitted 
to  purify  and  elevate  the  church  as  in  the 
nineteenth,  so  also  in  the  first  century. 
Here,  then,  does  Jesus  present  us  with  a 
standard  by  which  to  measure  Christian  doc- 
trines, and  a  touchstone  by  which  to  discri* 
minate  between  what  is  his  and  what  is 
man's — what  is  from  above  and  what  is 
from  below. 

While,  however,  it  is  declared  that  sacri- 
ficial language  is  found  la  the  writings  of 
the  aposUes,  it  does  not  follow  that  this 
language  is  necessarily  the  expression  of 
sacrificisl  ideas.  Terms  last  in  a  tongue 
long  after  the  realities  which  they  at  first 
represented  have  passed  away.  Even  to  the 
present  day  we  speak  of  the  sim's  rising  and 
setting.  Error  can  give  to  words  a  vitality 
which  it  cannot  impart  to  ideas.  And,  before 
we  conclude  that  sacrificial  doctrines  are 
taught  by  Paul,  we  must  be  satisfied  that  he 
does  more  than  use  a  current  phraseology 
derived  from  a  system  which  Christianitj 
fulfilled,  and  so  put  to  an  end. 

But  one  thing  is  very  dear,  namely,  that 
no  one  more  than  Paul  magnified  the  grace 
of  God  as  the  source  and  Sxe  eflicient  cause 
of  human  redemption.  Paul  taught,  as  did 
John, — only  in  somewhat  different  terms,— 
that,  as  *  God  is  love,'  so  <  in  this  was  mani- 
fested the  love  of  God  towards  us,  because 
that  God  sent  his  only-begotten  Son  into  the 
world  that  we  might  live  throng  him '  (1  John 
iv.  8,  9).  This  great  scriptural  truth,  which 
has  on  its  behalf  the  three-fold  testimony  of 
Jesus  (his  word  is  itself  sufficient),  of  Paul, 
and  of  John,  will  avail  to  throw  off  whatever 
uncongenial  elements  may  at  any  time  hap- 
pen to  gather  around  it,  and  eventually  bring 
all  disciples  of  Christ  to  acknowledge  that 
the  love  of  God  and  the  love  of  man  are  the 
grand  essentials  of  the  gospel. 

We  have  here  aimed  at  nothing  more  than 
briefly  to  lay  down  general  scriptural  prin- 
ciples in  the  assurance,  gathered  from  our 
own  experience,  that  he  who  thoroughly' 
enters  into  these  views  will  find  no  serious 
difficulties,  either  in  the  exposition  of  par- 
ticular passages  of  Holy  Writ,  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  God's  genend  providence,  or  in 
the  reading  and  devout  improvement  of  his 


A  T  O  109  AUG 

own  loft  in  life  and  his  own  opportnnities.  undertaken.  The  moral  import  of  these 
'Ood  so  loved  the  world  that  he  gaye  his  obserrances  in  general  cannol  be  mistaken, 
only  begotten  Son,  that  whosoever  bellereth  If  the  effect  corresponded  only  in  part  with 
in  him  should  not  perish,  but  have  everlast-  the  original  design  and  tendency,  the  same 
ing  life'  (John  iii.  16).  may  be  said  of  Christianity  itself.    But  the 

ATONEMENT,  DAY  OF  (H.  day  <tf  language  of  the  prophets  clearly  shows,  that 
aUmemenis),  an  annual  festival  of  universal  the  moral  significance  of  the  entire  ritual 
cleansing  among  the  Israelites,  which  began  was  its  divine  element;  towards  a  ftall  con- 
on  the  evening  before  the  tenth  day  of  the  oeption  of  which  the  chief  minds  of  the 
seventh  month  (Tisri),  and  lasted  to  the  nation  made  rapid  progress,  and,  at  the  same 
evening  of  the  same  tentti  day.  It  took  place,  time,  held  forth  their  light  to  the  whole  of 
therefore,  nine  days  after  the  Feast  of  Trum>  the  people  (Isa.  Iviii.  Ps.  1).  Nor  must  it 
pets,  and  five  days  before  the  Feast  of  Ta-  be  forgotten  thatJudaism  eventually  gave  rise 
bemades.      Its  occurrence  in  the  seventh     and  place  to  Christianity, —  the  most  cere> 

month,  and  its  name,  Sabbath  of  Sabbaths,  monial  to  the  most  purely  spiritual  religion 

that  is,  the  great  Sabbath,  show  that  this  in-  upon  earth.    Moses  and  Christ  are  at  the 

stitution  made  a  part  of  the  Judaical  Sab-  head  of  two  very  dissimilar  cycles  ot  divine 

bath  system;  on  which  account  the  two  great  revelation;  yet  the  first  was  the  harbinger 

festivals,  the  Sabbatical  year  and  the  year  of  the  second ;  such  is  the  connection  and 

of  Jubilee,  opened  with  the  Sabbath  of  Atone*  such  is  the  unity  that  prevail  in  the  dispen- 

ment    As  a  Sabbath,  the  day  was  to  be  kept  sations  of  Providence, 
f^e  from  all  manner  of  woik,  both  on  the         As  no  other  nation  had  for  its  fnnda- 

part  of  the  Hebrews,  and  of  strangers  real-  mental  idea  and  aim  *  Holiness  to  Jehovah' 

dent  among  them.    But  the  distinguishing  (Ezod.  xzviii.  86),  so,  amid  aU  flie  religious 

peculiarity  of  the  day  was,  that  it  was  a  observances  of  the  world,  there  is  none  that 

season  of  annual  purification,  releasing  the  corresponds   with  the  day   of   atonement 

Jewish  people  from  all  lapses,  omissions.  Some  resemblance  to  it  may  be  found  in  the 

and  sins,  into  which  they  might  have  fallen  Ramadan  of  the  Mohammedans,  which,  how- 

during  the  year.      The  particularity  with  ever,  most  probably   imitated    the  Jewish 

which  the  observances  of  the  day  are  laid  festival.    At  a  less  distance  lies  the  Hindoo 

down   (Lev.  xvi. ;    xdiL  26 — 82.^    Numb.  Sandngonon   (Priesdey's    '  Comparison')  : 

zxiz.  7 — 11),  proves  the  importance  that  most  remote  are  the  Suppllcationes  of  the 

was  attached  to  the  institution,  for  which  ancient  Romans. 

reason  it  is  termed*  the  day,"  the  great  day;'  AUGUSTUS  (L.  honourable  and  mvio- 
and,  as  fasting  was  required  among  its  hble),  the  title  of  honour  by  which  is  gene- 
usages,  it  is  denominated  'the  fast'  (Acts  rally  described  in  history,  Caius  Julius 
xxviL  0.  Isa.  Iviil.  8.  Ps.  xzxv.  18).  The  Cesar  Ootavius  or  Octavianus,  of  the  family 
word  rendered  *£ut' denotes,  in  the  original,  of  the  Octavii,  son  of  the  pnetor  Caius 
Auiiii/ta<iofio/'sottl,asthe  seat  of  the  affections,  Octavius,  adopted  son  and  sole  heir  of  his 
of  which,  humiliation  the  fast  was  the  out-  great  uncle,  the  well-known  warrior  and 
ward  means  and  token :  the  day  was  there-  writer,  Caius  Julius  Cesar,  whose  name 
fore  one  ot  general  moral  review,  of  oontri-  Augustus,  according  to  custom,  added  to  his 
tion,  and  self-abasement  before  Jehovah ;  a  own.  He  was  bom  in  the  consulship  of 
day  of  sorrow  and  mourning;  but  also,  in  Cicero  and  Antony,  691,  U.C;  62,  A.C. 
consequenceof  the  universal  atonement  then  After  the  assassination  of  Julius  Cesar  by 
made,  a  day  of  deliverance,  joy,  and  peace.  Brutus  and  his  associates  (44,  A.C.),  he 

The  purification  was  universal,  beginning  united  himself  with  Marc  Antony  and  Le- 

with  the  high  priest,  and  descending  to  the  pidus  to  make  war  on  the  slayers  of  his  rela- 

ftimiture  of  the  tabernacle.    Hence  the  idea  tive.    The  three  soon  disagreed.    Augustus 

of  sin  must  here  be  enlarged  beyond  its  ordi-  gained  (81,  A.C.)  a  final  victory  in  the  sea-  • 

nary  comprehension,     in.  Mosaism  ritual  fight  at  Actium  on  the  Ambracims  Sinus,  on 

unoleanness  bore  the  name,  as  well  as  moral  the  western  side  of  Northern  Greece ;  and 

defilement.    The  universality  of  the  deans-  thus  having  set  aside  competitors,  he  pro- 

ing  had  a  high  spiritual  import,  betokening  ceeded  to  take  possession  of  the  universal 

that  there  is  nothing  in  creation  holy  but  empire,  which  Bome  had  ready  to  give  to  the 

God ;  thus  raising  man's  idea  of  the  Creator,  final  victor.    Retaining  the  old  republican 

and  making  that  idea  bellowing  to  the  human  forms,  the  senate  (725,  U  A.)  handed  over 

sold.      The  purification  did  not  omit  the  the  state  to  the  hands  of  a  monarch,  under 

priests,  and  so  brought  them  into  the  same  the  military  title  of  imperator  (commander) : 

class  of  sinners  with  their  fellow-man,  and  whence  our  word  emperor,     Augustus  was 

aided  to  counteract  any  vain  notion  of  self  also  distinguished  by  the  title  of  Casar,  in 

importance    and    self-righteousness   which  honour  of  his  uncle.      Year  by  year  the 

their  position   might    otherwise    engender,  senate  and  himself  played  at  the  game  of 

The  rites  of  cleansing  began  with  the  priests,  preserving  the    substance  of  a  despotism 

thus  intimating  that  it  is  with  holy  hands  under  the  shadow  of  republican  forms ;  the 

and  a  purified  heart  that  God's  work  was  to  be  emperor  laying  down  his  authority,  and  the 


inili  ■ntmdiig  him  to  ittaa*  it.    Th*  pli  not  fu  from  Iha  foontBliu  ol  Iht  Jordan, 

titla  Aufuttut  wu  coDfund  no  tiiiB  bj  the  ttod  ihomd,  thron^Dt  bil  lift,  the  puMM 

mwta  u  an  bonoanbla  ilM%n»liiin.  and  dcfanooa  lo  tha  lai|M(iiJ wiU.  AfiarHood'* 

haa  ipMial  aHulon  to  tha  aaond  dunelar  death.    Anpuau    ditidad   liia  dominioiia, 

ot  tha  amparor  In  hii  sapaaitj  of  tha  national  agnaablj  to  the  laataoMut  of  Iba  daaaaaad 

ehiaf  priMt.    Liberally  tovarda   tha   atmy,       " "-    " '    ' 

mndaralian  toaaida   tha  aauala,  akm  and 
aildnaaa  in  tha  nian«yn»iiit  of  the  pai^ila, 

patronaga  of  the  am,  uid  raapaatabla  pomra  tanitorf  of  Jndaa  and  "—r^ria  to  ll 

of  mind,  aaamd  Aofiutaa  in  pouaaaioa  of  Tiaea  ofSjiia.    Thelilieial  aata  of  Aofoatna 

tha  foraniBant  lot  a  pailod  «f  tety-tboi  towanla  Haiod  and  ths  J«w>  aniaa  b^  no 

jaara,  md  Miabted  him  to  band  tha  giaataat  tsaling  of  napaat  lot  that  peopla,  Iml  from 

mDilarr  limafnli^  Att  waa  arar  known.    Ha  sonakLaialiiHia  of  poliej,  and  a  Mitain  kind 

diadlillbaaa*«ntf-aiith  jaar  othiaafa,  T6T  of  faToniabla  nfud  towaid*  Haiod  per- 

aftar  the  fcmdalion  of  Boma,  and  (aaaord-  aonallj. 

ing  to  Iha  Tiilgar  aia)  fauctBen  Jtvtt  aftar  tha  AVOUCH  (L.  to  tlaim),  mi  old  fonn  of 

binli  of  ChiiM,  at  N(^  in  Campania.  onr  mnul  wniduow.le  owa,arlaila  (aanc'a- 

Hamd,  friio  had  takM  aid«  with  Anion;,  mff,  in  •wbich  aanaa  the   taim  ia  need   in 

waa,  of  aooiaa,  implicalsd  in  Iha  dafcat  which  Dant  ixri.  IT,  18,  '  Then  hait  aionched  the 

tha  latter  imdarwau  at  Aedua :    ha  waa,  Lonl  tfaii  day  to  ba  Ifaj  God ; '  '  and  Iha 

howerar,  noeirad  bj  AoguatBi  into  UTOor,  Lord  hatb  aTonahBd  thaa  IhU  i^  to  be  hia 

who  gave  him  Iha  dlla  of  King  arUuJewa,'  paeoUar  paaple.'     The  Halnew  word  ia  Oie 

and  enlarged  bia  dominioaa.    He  aUo  laiaad  aamr  aa  llurt  which  ia  rasderad  '  a^.'  — 

Herod'a  brother  to  Iha  dignitr  of  letraich.  Hhakaiptrt  thna  aaea  the  word  :— 
Aa  an  aipreiaioa  of  hii   grMltBde,  Herod 

built,  iBbononr  of  Aognaaia,  a  marble  Um-  •KlbadBkaBTOBchthaJaiOaaaf  jranrdarilag.' 


BAA                     B.  ^  *  * 

BAAL  (H.  Lord)  waa  tha  moat  papalar,  Tonlj  bodlea  there  appear,  aad  A*  dtmlnii- 

if  not  Iha  aimnme,  mala-diiini^  of  the  Ca-  liTO  ^oportioni  into  whioh  man  la  theiet^ 

ifrHifh  nationa,  aa  wall  aa  of  the  Carlha-  Tadneed.    Baal  waa  the  protecting  dlTini^ 

■inlana  and  the  Babvlonian*.      The  name  of  the  Tjriana,  who  denominated  him  Hel- 

Baal,  intanded  to  denote  tki  lord  oi  maHer  earth,  eitj-Ung.    Imagea  of  Baal  are  bund 

^  tin  mrU,  waa  appUed  Id  tha  ami  aa  the  on  eoins,  on  whioh  he  b  oonuncoly  aeen 

gnat  eeloatia)    influence;    and,  oonaideied  beardleaa,  hia  head  encitelad  with  adi^rfet 

a«  die   mala  dettf,  Baal   repraaented  dia  of  ifj,  olad  wilh  a  Uoa'a  hide,  and  beanng 

b«etlt)ingpawerofDalni«,ineontradiatinA-  adnh;  or  he  gra^a  a  enpent,  ^lanoe  it 

tion  from  die  paaalre  and  bearing  power  nia^  be  Oiat  the  Oraeka  tamed  him  Ser- 

iriiieh  waa  reoogniaed  in  the  moon  nnder  oolea.      Of  die  two  onto  bare  gJToi,  the 

the  appellation  of  Aalatte.    The  aerriee  of  amnllat  deaerraa  apeoial  notioa.    It  la  taken 

Baal  waa   ttiarefoie  a   eompled   tonn  of  bom  ft  aoin  found  i 

natan-wordilp,  or  the  woraliip  of  naund  Ooa^r^    lla  ttrle  ■^' 

otgaetB,  (a  whleh  die  Eaat  ao  readBr,  eo     -•--■-- "*— 

widelf,  and  ao  ttoron^y  t>*1''''i  '"  *""' 
aeqotoea  of  ttle  aplandonr  Inwhldi  the  haa- 


BAA  111  BAA 

The  Fhcmlcians  extended  Ihe  wonhip  of  peor,— adivinhjirtdehwii  iMmoared  by  tfie 

B«d  Go-ezteiiBiTeiy  with  tfaeir  oolonieatioii,  ■ecriflee  to  him  at  Ihe  ehutity  of  young 

and  erected  in  numy  pleeee  laige  end  eplea-  neidene  (Nmnb.zxv.  1—^ ;  zzzL  16.  Josh, 

did  templee  in  his  honour.  xnL  17).  Beeidee  Beal-peor  of  the  Moebites, 

By  thoee  among  the  Israelites  who  weie  other  modifleatioDs  of  this  idolatry  are  found, 
given  to  idolatry,  offerings  were  made  to  ae  Baal-berith,  eorenant  Baal,  aa  the  Greeke 
Baal  on  the  roofs  of  honses  ( Jer.  zzziL  39),  had  a  Zens,  who  presided  oyer  oaihs,  and 
and  on  high  places  (Jer.  zix.  6),  probabty  the  Bomans  a  Dens^  who  pnniahed  infractions 
because  his  worship  w«3  illegid  so  as  to  of  fidelity  :  the  Shechemites  worshipped 
render  priTsey  desirable.  But  the  powerftil  Baal-berith  in  a  temple  set  tcptut  for  his 
eoidd  disregaj^  the  law:  accordingly,  Ahab,  honour  (Jndg.  vlii.  33;  iz.  4, 46).  From 
king  of  Israel,  inflnenced  by  his  Sidoniaa  Jer.  ziL  16,  it  appears  that  it  was  nsaal  to 
wife,  openly  served  Baal,  and,  haying  built  swear  by  Baal,  whence  may  haye  arisen  the 
in  his  honoara  temple  in  Samaria,  raised  epilhet  of  h^ritk,  eqmyaknt  to  covenant- 
in  it  an  altar,  and  made  a  grove ;  doing  preserving.  Another  form  was  Uiat  of  Baal- 
'  more  to  piovoke  tiie  Lord  Ood  of  Israel  to  zebnb  (2  Kings  i.  2,  3,  16),  a  Philistine  god 
anger  than  all  the  kings  of  Israel  that  were  at  Ekron,  of  whom  Ahaaiah  sent  to  inquire 
before  him'  (1  Kings  zvL  81,  ae;.).  The  whether  he  «3ioiild  recoter  from  his  illness, 
ten  tribes,  after  their  separation,  were  more  The  name  signifinn  fly-god.  The  insect 
inclined  to  idolatry  (1  Kings  ziL  28)  dian  world  atflbrds  in  Pa]eetiae,a8  in  all  ooontries, 
Jndah;  bat  the  latter  also  gave  public  homage  several  specicB,  which  are  exceedingly  an- 
to  the  idol,  for  Manaaseh  *reared  up  altars  lor  noying  and  iajvioas  to  man;  whence  Baal 
Baal,  and  made  a  grove,  and  worshipped  all  received  an  addition  to  his  name,  to  denote 
the  host  of  beaven,  and  served  them ;  mnA  bis  protecting  power  sgainat  gnats,  locusts, 
he  made  his  son  pass  through  fte  fire,  and  d^  Pausanias  relates  fiiat  the  Oreeks  at 
observed  times  (practised  astrology ;  comp.  Elis  offered  annual  saorifiees  to  Zeus,  the 
Lev.  six.  26),  and  uaed  enchantments,  and  fly-npeller. 

dealt  with  famiUar  spirits  and  wiaards ;  he        As  it  waa  euteamy  wifli  the  Hebrews  to 

wrought  much  wickedness  in  the  aif^t  of  ftum  names  ha  Mvt  out  of  some  elements  of 

the  Lord,  to  provoke  him  to  anger'  (2  Kings  the  name  fof  Ood, — thus,  Isaiah,  Elqah, 

zzi.  8,  6).    This  idoilatiy  was  found  in  the  Elishah;  and  with  the  Greeks  in  the  same 

times  of  the  Judges  (ii.  11, 18 ),  where  we  find  way,  —  thus,  Theqphilns,  Timothy ;  and  aa 

groves  connected  with  the  worship  of  Baal  this  enatom  etill  prsvailB  among  the  Ger- 

(Judg.  iiL  7;  vL  36).     His  priests  were  mans,— Ihua, Gottlieb, OoMfried (in £n(^ish 

very  numerous :  hi  the  days  of  Eliyah  they  Godfrey,  hence  JsAry),  «a  the  worshippers 

amounted  to  four  hundred  and  fifty  (1  Kings  of  Baal  made  that  woad  aa  «nter  into  oom- 

zviiL  22).   "Indeed,  they  appear  to  have  bhiation  with  ofheni  to  &«  proper  names: 


consisted  of  a  gradaated  hierarohy,  desig-  accordingly,  we  hsfe  Eftbaal,  a  king  of  the 

nated,  m  2  Kings  z.  19,  '  prophets,  aervanta,  SidooDliaBa   (1  Kings  TdL  81) ;  Baalath,  a 

and  priests.'     We  have  already  seen  that  olty  in  0an  (Joah.  idz.  4ft) ;  and  Hannibal 

children  were  oAred  in  sacrifice  to  Baal:  andBaadrnhd. 


the  testimony  of  taFsmiah  (ziz.  5)  puts  thia  BAUrGAD  <H.  Idfr4  ^f  ffood  forhme). 

otherwise  almost  incredible  atrodty  beyond  Tfane  an  aefend  {HaeaB  Jai8cripture  which 

a  doubt:  —*  They  have  MH  alao  the  high  bear  «  name   iiiaiifaiBuMid  with  the  word 

places  of  Baal  to  bum  their  sona  with  fire  Baal,  of  ocnnparatlvely  little  importance;  but 

for  bumi-offeringB  unto  Baal.'    Inoenae  waa  the  city  whidik  was  probably  Imown  by  the 

burnt  to  him  (Jer.  viL  9),    In  order  to  pro-  name  ihat  stands  at  the  head  of  diis  aitide, 

eure  his  favour  on  special  oceasions,  the  waa  too  distingoiahed  to  be  passed  in  silence, 

priests  danced  madly  round  the  altar;  and,  if  Its  more  fkecpient  appellatioir  is  Baalbec, 

the  deaired  sign  was   withheld,  they  cried  eily  of  the  ann;  in  Greek,  Heliopolis,  which 

aloud,  and  cut  themselves  till   the  blood  lay  in  Oole-Syria,  on  the  north-eastern  boon- 

gnahed  out.    The  whole  chapter  whence  we  dary  of  PrieetSne,  at  the   foot  of  Mount 

derive  theae  fiieto  (1  Kings  zviii.)  is  very  HenoMm,  and  formed  the  northern  limit  of 

impressive,  md  deeerves  attentive  perusal,  the  eonqueato  of  Joafaua  ^Joah.  zi  17^.    It 

Strange  that  the  Hebrews  should  have  been  stands  in  the  northern   eztrsmity  of  the 

BO  sottishly  corrupt,  aa  to  have  preferred  lovely  plain  of  Bekaa.    In  the  second  book  of 

Baal  and  his  pn^ftheto  to  Jehovah  and  Eli-  Chnmidea  (viiL6),  Solomon  ia  said  to  have 

jd^  and  thua  have  lendered  the  trial  there  built,  among  other  eities,  Baalath,  in  Lebanon, 

nanratod  neesesary.    Tet  even  Solomon,  in  The  similarity  of  the  name  suggesto  that 

his  dd  age,  burnt  ineense  and  offered  saeri-  this  is  Ihe  aame  with  Baalbec,  especially  as 

flees  to  Phosnioian  idols,  sedueed  by  his  Baalath  is  mentioned  by  Joaephus  as  one  of 

foreign  wivee  (1  Kings  zi.  0,  8).    Idolatry  the  places  of  pleasure  erected  by  tiiat  mo- 

waa  not  only  disloyalty  to  God,  it  was  also  naroh  in  Syria,  on  account  at  die  temperate 

eonneoted  with  vidona,  degrading,  and  vo-  nature  of  the  dimate,  the  delicaey  of  the 

luptooua  practicea.    Priapism  is  met  with  in  fruite,  and  the    excellence  of  the  air  and 

fonn  of  Baal-worddp,  namely,  Baal-  water.    A  more  appropriate  spot  could  not 


BAB 


112 


BAB 


w«Il  be  selected  thin 


n  the  ruins 


RUm  and  rich  vile  in  eirallence  of  hud  or  heir 

Jad^g  bf  the  are  found  chambers,  which 

gnudenr  of  the  ruinB,  Ihe  plaee  mnM  hare  be«D  designed  for  some  *iD;iteriotu,  perhaps 

been  Tery  large  ssdvei^  beautiful.    Splendid  some  gnill;  purpose,  and   call  to  mind  the 

lelica  of  the  famooa  temple  of  Baal  still  la-  Tolnplnotu  ■enaaaliiies'  that  vere  connected 

main    to    make    the    iiirroanding    sceneiy  with  the  worship  of  Baal.     Among  the  nn- 

monmful  in  the  Ihoof^C  of  the  tnuuient  merons  remains  of  art,  we  select  for  en^T- 

nalore  of  haman  greatness,  when  not  placed  ing  — 


BABEL  (H.  coiffation),  a  name  which 
carries  (he  mind  back  into  the  deep  shadow* 
o(  primitive  antiqoitj,  when  Ihe  earth  was 
hardlj  yel  dry  from  the  waters  of  the  deluge ; 
and  it  ii  a  tact  which  adds  no  small  confir- 
mation to  Ihe  Biblical  narratiies  regsrding 
the  infancy  of  the  world,  that  the  acoonnta 
supplied  by  these  nanatiTes  are  not  only 
probable  in  tbeic  general  subalaoce,  bnl  ae- 
cord  with  sueli  fragments  of  information  as 
tnay  be  gathered,  whether  fhim  mined  cides, 
or  the  more  destroyed  pages  of  history. 
'Those,'  aaya  Enpotemas,  in  a  pasiige  prt- 
serred  byEuaebiua.'who  escapedfrom  the  de- 
Inge,  eonstmoted  Ihe  oityof  Babylon,  and  that 
lower,  celebrated  by  all  historians,  which 
was  OTertnmed  by  ihc  power  of  the  Divinity.' 
The  BtndBut  of  Scripture  needs  not  to  be  in- 
formed, that  these  words  correspond  in  sense 
with  the  account  that  is  preserved  in  the 
is  (li.).    In  Ihe  rich  plains  of 


Shlnar  or  Babylon,  the  descendants  of  Nolh 
built  a  lower,  whoso  summit  they  intended 
should  rise  so  high  as  to  be  lost  Ihim  view 
in  Ihe  clouds.  The  Bible  informs  us,  that 
instead  of  stone,  which  is  not  found  there  m 
lita,  they  made  nae  of  bomt  briok,  cemented 
together  by  bitumen,  of  which  the  oountrr 
yields  large  supplies;  and  Herodotus,  in 
speaking  of  the  edifices  of  Babylon,  slatss 
that  the  same  materials  were  employed. 

The  reasons  may  have  been  various  whidi 
induced  the  builders  to  ondertako  such  a 
work.  Saored  and  profane  liislory  unite  in 
assigning  pride  as  chief  among  these  reasons. 
A  less  improper  reason  is  intimated  in  the 
Bible  (Qen.  li.  1),  in  a  nalaral  desire  on  the 
part  of  these  early  dwellers  on  earth  to  pos- 
sess a  building  so  large  snd  high,  as  might 
be  a  mark  and  railying-point  in  the  vast 
plains  where  Ihey  Uied,  in  order  to  prevent 
(heir  being  scattered  abioadi  tor  otherwise 


BAB                     113  BAB 

die  ties  of  kindred  wotdd  benidely  enndered,  that  the  latter  may  have  heen  a  samptnoas 

indiridnals  would  be  involYed  in  peril,  and  re-constniction  of  the  earlier  and  more  sim- 

their  numbers  be  prematurely  thinned,  at  a  pie  edifice,  the  tower  of  Babel,  we  shall  giye 

time  when  population  was  weak  and  insuf-  a  separate  description  of  the  temple  of  Belus 

fieient  The  idea  of  preventuig  this  dispersion  in  the  ensuing  article.    The  Birs  Nimrod  is 

by  building  a  lofty  tower,  is  applicable,  in  all  that  is  left  of  an  ancient  palace,  in  which 

the  most  remarkable  manner,  to  die  wide  and  the  Babylonian  monarohs  weje  accustomed 

level  plains  of  Babylonia,  where  scarcely  one  to  reside.    These  relics  present  at  the  pre- 

object  exists  different  from  another,  to  sruide  sent  day  a  monument,  of  an  irregular  oblong 

the  traveller  in  his  journeying ;  and  vmich,  in  form,  2082  feet  in  circumference,  unequal 

in  those  early  days,  as  at  present,  were  a  sea  in  height,  being  on  the  west  from  fifty  to  sixty 

of  land,  the  compass  being  then  unknown.  feet,  and  as  mudi  as  two  hundred  on  the  eastern 

It  was  not,  however,  a  part  of  God's  plan  side.   This  immense  tenraceis  surmounted  by 

that  society  should  yet  be  aggregated  toge-  remnantsof  a  waU  built  of  burnt  brick,  thirty- 

ther  in  large  masses,    still  less   fix  itself  five  feet  high,  and  divided  into  three  stages, 

and  spread  out  its  branches  on  one  sole  spot  Its  construction  and  its  materials  indicate  in- 

of  earth.    The  world  had  to  be  peopled ;  terior  apartments.   Entire  pieces  of  wall  and 

and,  therefore,  these  first  congregadons  of  heaps  of  brick,  broken  from  the  tower,  lie 

men  must  go  forth  to  the  east,  to  the  west,  scattered  over  die  ground.    Travellers  have 

to  the  nordi,  and  to  the  south,  in  order  that  remarked,  with  lively  astonishment  and  deep 

the  earth  mi^t  be  occupied  and  tilled.    Nor  emotion,  traces,  on  masses  of  brick,  of  vitri- 

oan  there  be  a  doubt  that  such  a  dispersion  faction,  as  if  made  by  the  violent  action  of 

was  fitted  to  make  the  most  for  man,  of  the  fire  or  lightning, — evidences  of  some  terrible 

yet>  virgin  soil,  and  the  golden  opportunities  overthrow,  and,  to  the  believer  in  the  Bible, 

which   offered    themselves    untouched   on  indelible  tokens  of  the  divine  displeasure, 

every  side.    As  yet,  however,  there  was  but  An  examination  of  these  remains  gives  the 

one  language,  —  a  fact  which  agrees  not  only  idea  that  the  tower  was  of  a  pyramidal  form, 

with  hlstoxy,  but  also  with  the  tendency  of  the  which  ran  upwards  to  a  great  height,  and  so 

most  recent  and  best  ascertained  results  of  by  its  form  indicates  that  it  was  intended 

philological  scholarship.    But  so  long  as  for  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  god  of  fire, 

men  were  united  by  language,  the  aggrega-  (pyramid  eomes  from  a  Greek  word  meaning 

tive  would  be  stronger  than  the  dispersive  Jbre),  and  strongly  suggests  that  its  destruc- 

power.    Nothing  so  unites  men  as  identity  tion,  on  the  part  of  the  Almighty,  was  a 

of  speech:  nothing  so  separates  them  as  its  declaration  of  his  displeasure  against  idola- 

diversity.      Divine    Pro'ridence,    therefore,  try,  and  a  terrible  lesson  in  favour -of  his  own 

brought  into  operation  causes,  which  ooca-  pure  and  ennobling  worship.     Thus  early 

sioned  such  a  difference  in  tongues,  that  after  die  deluge  did  men  begin  to  corrupt 

these  primitive  men  could  no  longer  under-  themselves  widi  idol  vanities,  and  thus  early 

•tand,  and,  in  consequence,  could  no  longer  did  the  Creator  strive  with  them  in  behalf  of 

eommimicate  with  each  other.     And  as  it  is  religious  truth  and  duty, 

easy  to  see  how  diverse  external  influences  BAB'XLON  is  a  Greek  foim  of  Babel,  and 

would,  in  a  few  generations,  give  rise  to  such  denotes  the  famous  city  known  by  the  name, 

different  dialectical  varieties  as   would  be  which  stood  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 

soflleient  to  produce  the  alleged  effect  in  the  sometimes,  in  consequence  of  its  greaUiess, 

then  uncultivated  state  of  the  hwmairmind,  denominated  a  sea  (Jer.  IL  86,  42).    The 

so  these  varieties,  when  they  had  onee  coma  Bible,  with  a  tradition  preserved  by  Euse- 

intt>  existence,  would  go  on  eonstandy  in-  -  bios,  relates  (Gen.  xi.)  diat  the  foundations 

creasing ;  and  as  they  increased,  so  would  of  the  place  may  be  traced  back  to  a  period 

they  tend  to  scatter  men  abroad,  dividing  a  anterior  to  the  dispersion  of  the  human  race, 

raoe  into  tribes,  and  tribes  into  dans,  and  after  the  flood.     Those   foundations  were 

elans  into  households ;  and  by  a  reverse  laid  by  Nimrod,  who  is  described  as  *  the 

operation,  under  the  aid  of  the  prolific  powers  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord '  (Gen.  x.  9), 

of  nature,  augmenting  households  into  dans,  whose  fame  in  pursuing  the  hunter^s  mode 

and  dans  into  tribes,  and  tribes  into  laees,  of  life,  whidi,  in  the  natural  order  of  things, 

and  races  into  nations, — nations  d&standy  precedes  the  agricultural,  as  that  prepares 

seated  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  soon  the  way  for  dties,  had,  in  very  early  times, 

marked  by  many  signs  to  the  superficial  ob-  passed  into  a  proverb ;  and  who,  having 

server  of  essential  and  origind  individuality,  probably  obtained  all   the   renown  which 

On  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Euphrates  his  origind  semi-barbarous  pursuits  could 

stand  the  ruins  of  an  edifice,  bearing  the  bring,  determined,  in  his  ambition,  to  gather 

name  of  Birs  Nimrod,  which  the  best  snti*  men  into  masses,  in  order  to  exercise  the 

quarian  authority  identifies  with  the  tower  of  power,  which  is  said  to  be  sweeter  than  any 

BabeL    Opinions,  however,  are  divided  as  other,  namely,  that  of  governing  one*s  fellow- 

to  the  question,  whether  this  Birs  Nimrod  is  creatures  on  a  large  scde.   The  spot  for  the 

the  same  as  the  temple  of  Bdus  described  by  dty  was  wdl  chosen.    It  lay  near  the  regions 

Herodotus;  and  though  we  incline  to  think  where  the  human  race  had  received  its  second 

H 


BAB                      lU  BAB 

birth.  Two  noble  iiT«n  oflbred  fSwilitiM  of  audi,  that  it  hid  in  die  midst  of  it,  not  only 
inteieonreey  and  the  only  fopply  irfaieh  a  fine  large  paiks  and  gardens,  bnt  also  arable  land 
rioh  aoil  needed,  in  order  to  iK>ar  forth  the  of  andi  extent  as  to  flumish  snppUes  of  food 
utmost  Tegetable  alBaence.  The  aky  was  in  ease  of  a  siege.  Soeh  was  die  magnitnde 
serene  and  cloudless,  Ihe  air  pnre,  the  post-  of  the  eity,  that  hoars  eliqpsed  before  its  cap- 
tion of  the  city  lay  mid-way  between  the  tore  by  Gyms  was  known  to  its  inhabitants 
east  and  the  west,  and  so  united  both.  Here  who  dwelt  at  the  extremity  opposite  to  that 
might  the  dreams  of  the  wildest  ambition  where  the  conqneror  entered, 
hope  to  be  fblfllled.  Even  Alexander  eon-  The  myriads  of  human  beings  who  were 
templated  making  Babylon  the  centre  of  his  gadiered  together  widiin  the  walls  of  this 
oniversal  monamhy.  And  the  duration  of  immense  place  were  supplied  with  die  neees- 
the  eity,  through  so  many  Ticissitodes,  series,  and  no  few  of  die  luxuries,  of  life, 
and  so  long  a  period  of  time,  is  of  itself  partly  by  vessels  and  rafts  that  navigated  the 
suiBcient  proof  that  Nimrod  made  a  wise  Evphrales,  bnt  still  more  by  the  canals, 
ehoioe  fbr  his  great  and  yet  nntried  experi-  whidi  were  led  flrom  die  river  like  a  net-woi^ 
ment,  and  serres  to  jusdiy  the  Biblical  all  over  the  soft  and  yielding  soil,  earrying, 
narrwtiTes,  in  placing  dM  commencement  of  by  a  wide-spread  system  of  irrigation,  fertility 
our  present  oiyilisadon  in  die  land  of  Shinar,  hx  and  wide,  and  bringing  ba^  the  rich  pro- 
and  on  the  banks  of  the  noble  and  well*  ducts  of  eastern  climes  to  the  great  liring 
sitnated  streams,  the  Euphrates  and  the  Ti-  centre. 

gris.  In  all  probability,  die  peculiar  facilities  In  order  to  aid  the  scriptural  student  in 
afforded  by  die  spot  had  alnady  attracted  to  fonning  a  conception  of '  Babylon  the  Great ' 
it  the  earliest  fathers  of  our  race,  who  thus  (lieT.  xvii.  0),  we  shall  say  a  few  words  ot 
offered  to  Nimrod  a  temptation  for  his  ambi*  its  hanging  gardens,  and  of  die  temple  of 
tion,  and  a  prepared  sphere  for  his  enterprise.  Belus,  which  some  make  the  same  as  the 
He  seized  the  opportunity,  and  became  the  tower  of  Babel  and  the  Birs  Nimrod. 
founder  of  a  city  and  a  kingdom,  whose  fame  There  were  in  Babylon  two  splendid  pa- 
will  nerer  pass  away.  laces,  one  on  the  right,  one  on  the  left  bank 
We  are  not,  howeyer,  to  imagine  that  Nim-  of  the  river.    From  die  latter,  ^^ch  was 
rod  left  the  city  in  that  grandeur  of  which  surrounded  by  a  triple  enclosure  of  walls, 
we  find  it  possessed  in  the  pages  of  the  standing  fu  apart  from  each  other,  and  sculp- 
historian.    For  the  attainment  of  this,  many  tared  with  various  kinds  of  animals,  among 
ages  and  many  minds  would  be  requisite,  which  there  was  seen  a  leopard,   against 
Nor  was  the  progress  of  the  city  towards  the  which  Semiramis  was  hurling  a  lance,  while 
splendour,  of  its  later  history,  unbroken  or  her  husband  pierced  a  lion,  there  sprang  the 
unchecked.    The  times  in  diese  early  days  celebrated  hanging  gardens,  die  wonder  of 
were  too  foil  of  violence  and  trouble,  to  allow  the  world,  whose  formation  is  ascribed  by 
in  any  human  work  a  continuous  and  steady  Berosns  to  the  gallantry  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
development.    Darkness,  storm,  and  even  who  had  them  constructed  in  order  to  gra- 
ruin,  came :  now  a  restorative,  now  an  em-  tify  his  spouse  Amytis ;  for  she  missed  and 
belliahing  hand  was  needed ;  and  as  the  course  regretted  in  the  unwooded,  flat,  endless  fertOe 
of  events  was  imperfecdy  Imown  even  by  pro-  Babylonia,  the  noble  mountains,  die  stately 
fessed  historians  in  ancient  times,  so  was  it  trees,  the  producdve  and  lovely  vales,  to 
easy  for  an  honest  and  well-informed  ehro-  which  she  had  been  used  in  her  native  Media, 
nider  to  set  down  aa  a  new  creation,  that  The    splendid   monarch,   in  consequence, 
which  waa  in  reality  only  a  renovation  or  an  eansed  a  quadrangle,  whose  sides  measured 
improvement    Accordingly,  the  seal  which  1600  feet,  to  be  enclosed,  in  which  amphi- 
Ninus,    Semiramis,    Nebudhadneszar,    and  theatrical  terraces  were  thrown  up,  bearing 
Netocris  employed,  one  after  the  other,  in  on  the  surface  a  rich  artiflcial  soO,  to  such 
enlarging  and  embellishing  this  eity,  has  a  height  that  in  some  parts  the   gardens 
caused  them  each  to  be  sometimes  set  forth  reached  to  the  top  of  the  eity  walls.    These 
as  its  founders.  terraces  were  connected  with  each  other  by 
Babylon  was  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  flij^ts  of  steps,  on  which  pumps  were  placed 
parts  by  the  Euphrates,  on  whose  banks  it  in  order  to   distribute  die  waters  of  the 
lay;  a  fact  which  will  enable  the  reader  to  Euphrates  over  the  verdant  and  flowery  plots 
understand  how  easy  it  was  for  Cyrus,  when  in  whose  deep  beds  large  and  lofty  trees 
he  had  drained  off  the  waters  into  a  reservoir  held  firm  root,  and  which  presented  to  an 
excavated  for  the  purpose,  to  enter  the  be-  eye  that  looked  on  the  gardens  flrom  a  dis- 
leaguered  city  of  a  sudden,  in  the  dead  of  tance  the  appearance  of  mountains  covered 
the  night,  down  the  empty  bed  of  the  stream,  with  foreats.    Of  this  vast  mass  of  galleries, 
Of  the  height,  the  breaddi,  and  the  atrength  terraces,  gardens,  flowers,  shrubs,  and  trees, 
of  its  walls,  and  of  other  points  of  detail  there  now  remains  scarcely  a  distinct  trace, 
connected  with  the  city  and  its  palaces,  we  amid  ruins  that,  in  their  conftised  and  gigan- 
have  not  room  to  speak.    It  must  soflioe  to  tic  masses,  indicate  the  greatness  and  splen- 
■ay,  that  they  were  all  of  the  grandest  dimen-  dour  of  the  constructions  whence  they  were 
•lom.     The  area  covered  by  the  city  was  derived.    The  place,  however,  where  diese 


BAB                       115  BAB 

Caidens  piobaUy  stood  Btfll  bean  imong  postoie,  stood  a  eeoond  golden  talile,  <m 
the  native  Arabs  the  name  of  Al-Eaaar,  that  whleh  were  plaoed  day  by  day  proTiaiima 
is,  the  palace;  and  a  solitary  tzee,  not  long  in  each  abimdanoe,  Uiat  the  priests  with 
since,  seemed  to  speak  of  the  purposes  to  their  wives  and  ehilcbren  ftmnd  it  convenient 
which  the  spot  was  of  old  appropriated.   <In  and  refteshing  to  pay  atolen  visits  regnlariy 
Uie  midst  of  the  desolation    of  Babylon,'  to  this  'feast  of  fiat  things,'  which  divine 
says  an  antiquarian,  '  in  the  entire  region  Bel  was  religionaly  believed  to  consume ;  — 
ot  which  no  wood  is  seen,  there  rises  on  an  imposture    that  was    adroitly  exposed 
the  spot,  once  adorned  and  enlivened  by  the  by  Oaadei    There  was  another  golden  sta- 
hanging  gardens,  a  single  tree  bearing  all  tue,  ahomt  eighteen  feet  in  hei^t,  in  the 
the  marks  of  high  antiquity,  half-torn  by  the  attitiide  of  a  man  walking     All  the  interior 
force  of  time,  and  showing  only  at  the  ez-  of  the  edifice  was  decorated  with  images  of 
tremity  of  its  branches  an  appearance  of  .every  fonn  and  ci  every  speeies  of  metal, 
vegetation.'    This  tree  is  an  exotic.  It  comes  also  rich  oblations,  which  the   eredulons 
from  India,  and  is  a  stranger  to  the  soil  Babylonians  plaeed  there  every  day,  nmeh 
where  it  has  so  long  found  nutriment    A  to  the  profit  of  the  ministering  priests.  The 
strange  thing,  scarcely  alive,  in  a  desolate  temple  was  crowned  by  three  statues,  repre- 
land,  thb  tree  may  typify  the  hmnan  soul,  senting  the  divinities  whidi  in  Greece  bore 
seeking  rest  and  satiaCaction  in  the  things  the  name  of  Zeus,  Hera,  and  Bhea.    The 
of  earth,    and  finding  only  a  prolonged  firs^  whose  height  was  forty  fbet,  was  stand- 
feeble  vegetation.  ing,  and  had  one  loot  extended  before  the 
Still  more  considerable  was  the  temple  of  other.     The  second  grasped  in  her  right 
Belus,  which  stood  at  some  distance  north-  hand  a  serpent,  and  held  in  her  left  a  seep- 
ward  from  these  artificial  gardens.    It  was  tre  enriched  with  precious  stones.      The 
placed  on  an  immense  quadrangle,  which  third  was  seated,  having  at  her  feet  two 
separated  it  from  the  rest  of  the  city,  and  in  lions  erect  and  two  seipents.    From  Daniel 
the  interior  sides  of  which  were  the  abodes  we  leam,  that  a  living  serpent  was  kept  and 
of  the  seventy  priests  who  served  the  idol  worshipped  in  the  extericnr  of  the  temple, 
Bel  or  Baal  (Uie  sun),  to  whom  the  edifice  whose  pretensions  to  divinity  the  prophet 
was  dedicated  (Dan.  xiv.  4,  i.e,  in  what  is  easily  exploded  by  a  jodicionaly  prepared 
termed  the  apocryphal  part).    Constructed  meaL    On  a  platform  whieh  rested  on  the 
by  difiiBrent  hands  and  at  cUfTerent  epochs,  top  of  the  tower,  was  an  observatory,  where 
this  superb  edifice  was  completed  by  Nebu-  the  priests,  in  obedience  to  the  require- 
chadnezzar.    Eight  stages  or  stories,  which  ments  of  their  Sabian  religion,  gave  Uiem- 
gradually  narrowed  as  they  rose,  gave  to  this  selves  <q»  to  the  stndy  of  dhe  movements  of 
massive  tower  the  appearance  of  a  pyramid  the  hewenly  bodies.    The  results  of  their 
wiih  a  square  base.    Each  side  of  that  base  observations,  insoribed  on  burnt  bricks,  are 
was  not  less  than  three  hundred  feet  long;  said  to  have  gone  back  at  the  time  of  the 
which  was  also,  at  the  least,  the  perpendicular  Grecian  conquests  in  the  East,  to  the  dis- 
height  of  the  building.    It  was  ascended  by  tance  of  ninete«L  centuries.    The  walls  of 
a  gaUery  which  ran  on  the  exterior  frmn  the  the  lower  parts  were  covered  with  images  of 
bottom  to  the  top,  and  which,  not  without  monstrous  animals  sacred  to  Belns;  which, 
need,wasfbmi8hed?rithrestLDg  places  where  if  we  may  follow  the  authority  of  Berosus, 
the  wearied  limbs  might  be  recruited.    In  and  not  rather  regard  them  as  types  of  va- 
the  very  centre  of  the  edifice,  a  vast  hall  nous  powers  as  found  in  diflTerent  animals, 
offered  repose  and  luxury  at  the  same  time,  were  intended  to  commemorate  those  capri- 
to  those  who  were  on  their  way  upward  to  cions  creations  which  were  the  first  eiforts 
pay  their  devotions  at  the  shrine.    This  was  of  half-skilled   nature.      Whatever    their 
placed  at  the  top,  as  being  thus  nearest  origin  and  import,  these  figures  represented 
to  the  god  whose  honour  it  was  designed  to  men  with  two  wings  each,  some  with  four 
subserve.    And  that  shrine,  what  splendour,  wings,  others  with  a  doable  face  (such  ani- 
what  wealth  did  it  contain  I     Herodotus,  mals  are  still  found  even  in  Christian  ooun- 
who  had  looked  on  it  with  dazzled  eyes,  tries).    Others  combined  the  two  sexes,  or 
has  left  us  a  computation  from  which  we  had  the  legs  and  horns  of  an  ox  with  the 
leam  that  the  value  of  the  offerings  then  feet  of  a  horse ;  or,  again,  they  had  the 
dedicated  could  not  have  been  less  than  lower  parts  of  a  man,  and  the  upper  parts 
JG2,700,000,  an  enormous  sum  for  that  early  of  a  horse.      There  were  also  to  be  seen 
age.     In  (he  midst  of  this  chapel  was  a  bullocks   with   human  heads,    dogs  with 
couch  of  gold  and  a  table  of  gold.     The  four  bodies  ending  in  fishes,  horses  with 
statue  of  Belus,  placed  in  an  inner  shrine,  dogs'  heads,  men  with  the  heads  of  horses, 
was  also  of  gold,  as  well  as  all  the  furniture  and  other  monstrosities  of  all  kinds.    Be- 
of  the  place.     Two  altars  stood  near  for  sides  these  singular  emblems  of  the  Baby- 
sacrifices:  one,  of  solid  gold,  was  destined  for  Ionian  superstitions,  there  were  on  the  walls 
the  immolation  of  young ;  the  larger  altar,  of  this  edifice  inscriptions  in  arrow-headed 
for  fhll-grown  animals.     In  front  of  the  characters  which  gave  an  account  of  great 
statue  which  represented  the  god  in  a  sitting  public  events.     The  temple  was  enriched 


BAB  IIG  c  A  B 

with  the  offerings  of  king  and  people,  and  Almost  forgottra  god,  he  permitted  his  priests 
hononradaslcmgastheswayoftheChaldiBans  to  rebuild  the  ruins  of  the  enclosure,  and 
lasted  at  Babylon.  Bat,  after  the  conquest  again  to  fix  their  dwellings  around  its  in- 
of  Cyras,  it  fell  rapidly.  Indignant  at  the  terior.  In  the  second  century,  Pausanias 
ihuids  which  Daniel  had  laid  bare,  that  visited  Babylon,  and  found  tiiis  gigantie 
prince  put  the  priests  of  the  idol  to  death,  monument,  the  temple  of  Bel,  whidi  he 
and  permitted  the  prophet  to  oyertum  his  terms  the  grandest  ruin  of  the  plaee.  He  is 
altars.  These  were  at  a  later  period  again  the  last  ancient  writer  that  speaks  on  the 
raised  up ;  but,  firom  the  time  of  Daniel,  the  sulgect  Modem  travellers  think  they  find 
sanctuary  oeaaed  to  be  sacred  in  the  eyes  Its  remains  in  the  ruins  of  an  immense 
of  the  conquerors  of  Babylon.  Darius  yen-  square  tower,  buUt  of  bricks,  bearing  arrow- 
tured  to  violate  it:  he  was  strongly  inclined  to  headed  inscriptions,  and  surmounted  by 
carry  off  the  standing  golden  image,  and  desist-  shattered  and  broken  remnants  of  ancient 
ed  only  inconseqnenoe'of  the  resistance  of  the  buildings.  This  confused  mass  the  natives 
attendant  priest  This  priest  was  slain  by  eall  BiijahUbah  (tamed  upside  down). 
Xen^es,  his  son  snd  sueoessor,  who  took  pos-  We  read  in  the  book  of  Daniel  (iv.  30), 
session  of  the  idol  and  the  other  treasures  of  that  Nebuchadnezzar,  while  walking  in  the 
the  temple,  destroying,  at  the  same  time,  the  tumptuous  palaces  with  which  he  had 
parts  of  it  which  were  appropriated  to  the  adorned  the  city,  suddenly  broke  forth  in 
residences  of  the  priests  and  their  famUies.  these  vain-glorious  words : — *  Is  not  this 
Alexander,  snmsmed  the  Oreat,  became  in  great  Babylon,  that  I  have  built  for  the  ci^i- 
turn  conqueror  of  Babylon.  His  entry  into  tal  of  my  empire,  by  the  might  of  my  power, 
the  city  is  thus  graphically  described  by  and  for  the  honour  of  my  migesty  ? '  Idle 
Q.Curtias:  —  'A  great  part  of  the  inhabitants  boast:  poor,  ignorant  man!  little  did  he 
stood  on  the  walls,  eager  to  catch  a  sight  of  think  that  the  moment  of  humiliation  and 
their  new  monarch :  many  went  forth  to  meet  overthrow  was  at  hand.  The  same  hour  he 
him.  Among  these,  Bagophanes,  keeper  of  was  driven  fh)m  men ;  for,  his  weak  intellect 
the  citadel  and  royal  treasures,  strewed  the  becoming  dazzled  and  disordered  by  glare, 
entire  way  before  the  king  with  flowers  and  vanity,  and  excess,  he  was,  like  other 
crowns:  sOver  altars  were  also  placed  on  wretched  maniacs  of  old,  expelled  fh)m 
both  sides  of  the  road,  which  were  loaded  human  society,  and,  living  on  the  spontsr 
not  merely  with  frankincense,  but  sll  kinds  neous  products  of  the  soil,  did  eat  grass  as 
of  odoriferous  herbs.  He  brought  with  him  oxen,  and  his  body  was  wet  with  the  dew  of 
for  Alexander  gifts  of  various  kinds,  —  heaven,  till  his  hairs  were  grown  like  eagles' 
flocks  of  sheep  and  horses :  lions  also  and  feathers,  and  his  nails  like  birdaT  daws, 
panthers  were  oarried  before  him  in  their  —This  great  vaunted  city  also  now  drew 
dens.  The  magi  came  next,  singing  in  their  near  to  the  pangs  of  that  destruction  with 
usual  manner  their  ancient  hymns.  After  i^ich  she  had  been  threatened  by  the  truth- 
them  came  the  Chaldeans,  with  their  musical  ftil  voice  of  Hebrew  prophecy  (Isa.  xlv. 
instruments,  who  are  not  only  the  prophets  9eq.),  which  foretold  the  overdirow  of  the 
of  the  Babylonians,  but  their  artists.  The  idolatrous  and  tyrannical  empire,  with  on- 
first  are  wont  to  sing  the  praises  of  the  equalled  precision  and  force,  even  naming 
kings:  the  Chaldsans  teaeh  the  motions  the  agent  whom  the  Almighty  would  employ, 
of  the  stars,  snd  the  periodic  vicissitudes  of  his  anointed  Cyrus,  '  whose  right  hand  I 
the  times  and  seasons.  Then  followed,  last  have  holden  to  subdue  nations  before  him, 
of  an,  the  Babylonian  knights,  whose  equip-  to  open  before  him  the  two-leaved  gates.  I 
ment,  as  well  as  that  of  their  horses,  seemed  will  break  in  pieces  the  gates  of  brass,  and 
designed  more  for  luxury  than  magnificence,  cut  in  sunder  the  bars  of  iron ;  and  I  wOl  give 
The  king,  Alexander,  attended  by  armed  thee  the  treasures  of  darkness,  and  hidden 
men,  having  ordered  the  crowd  of  ie  towns-  riches  of  secret  places.  Bel  boweth  down, 
people  to  proceed  in  the  rear  of  his  infantry,  Nebo  stoopeth;  they  stoop,  they  bow  down 
entered  the  city  in  a  chariot,  and  repaired  to  together,  themselves  are  gone  into  captivity, 
the  palace,  ^e  next  day  he  careftiUy  sur-  Come  down,  and  sit  in  the  dust,  O  virgin 
veyed  the  household  treasure  of  Darius,  and  daughter  of  Babylon;  sit  on  the  ground,  O 
all  his  money.  For  the  rest,  the  beauty  of  daughter  of  the  Chaldsans ;  for  thou  no 
the  city  and  its  age  turned  the  eyes,  not  only  more  shalt  be  called  tender  and  delicate.' 
of  the  king,  but  of  every  one,  to  its  own  The  '  gates  of  brass '  here  mentioned  pre- 
splendid  spectacles.  eent  one  of  those  minute  points  that  cannot 
After  the  death  ot  Alexander,  Seleucus  be  invented.  Three  brazen  gates  led  into 
Kicator,  his  successor  in  this  province,  trans-  the  grand  area  of  the  temple,  and  every  con- 
ported  to  Seleucia  the  inhabitants  of  Baby-  siderable  gate  throughout  the  city  was  of 
Ion,  intending  to  reduce  that  ancient  city  to  brass.  The  predicted  overthrow  came.  Bel- 
nothing,  in  order  to  make  place  for  the  new  shazzar,  given  up  to  his  pleasures,  threw 
city  which  he  had  just  fbunded,  oslling  it  the  cares  of  government  entirely  on  his 
alter  his  own  name.  Nevertheless,  preserv-  mother.  After  making  some  feeble  efforts 
isg  tn  appearance  of  respect  for  the  now  to  arrest  the  hastening  torrent,  he  soon  de- 


BAB  117  BAB 

•iflted,  tod  yielded  his  soul  to  the  delights  of  nature  and  by  man.  The  only  signs  of  lift 
an  idle  and  yolaptuoas  life.  This  was  his  are  presented  by  fonl  and  raging  beasts.  In 
oondition  when  the  Tictorions  anny  of  Cyras  csTenis  formed  by  the  confased  mass  of 
placed  themselyes  aronnd  the  walls  of  Ba-  rains,  there  lurk  tigers,  jackals,  and  ser- 
bylon.  Iiong  had  the  defences  of  the  place  pents ;  and  the  lion  occasionally  adds  to 
been  carried  on,  and  abundant  were  the  sup-  the  terror  of  deyastation  —  the  terrors  of 
plies  of  proTisions:  what  had  the  monardi  his  hungry  roar.  The  whole  region  is  an 
to  fear  ?  He  and  his  people  looked  at  their  object  ot  ayersion  and  alann.  Human  be- 
impregnable  fortifications,  with  their  n-  ings,  if  drawn  thither  by  curiosity  or  by  the 
sources  of  eyexykind,  and  securely  smiled  chase,  hasten  to  quit  the  spot  Caravans  keep 
at  the  enemy.  Two  years  passed  in  fruit-  at  a  distance  from  its  banen  and  unsightly 
less  attempts  had  neaily  reduced  Cyras  to  mounds.  The  words  of  Isaiah  are  fulfilled 
despair,  when  he  learned  that  the  time  was  at  to  the  letter :  —  *  It  shall  neyer  be  inhabited, 
hand  for  celebrating,  on  the  part  of  the  inha-  neither  shall  it  be  dwelt  in  tnm  generation 
tants,  solemn  fastiyities,  which  were  passed  to  generation  ;  neither  shall  the  Arabian 
in  the  midst  of  dances,  intoxication,  and  pitdi  his  tent  there ;  neither  shall  the  shep- 
debauchery.  Now,  then,  his  time  has  come,  herds  make  their  fold  there:  but  wild  beasts 
He  diverts  the  stream,  marches  into  its  bed,  of  the  forest  shall  lie  there,  and  their  houses 
and  takes  the  revellers  in  the  midst  of  their  shall  be  full  of  doleftil  creatures;  and  ostriches 
carousals.  The  monarch  is  slain,  and  the  shall  dwell  there,  and  satyrs  shall  dance 
empire  falls  (Herod,  i.  190;  Cyrop.  vii).  there' (ziii.  20).  Yet  of  this  country,  now 
Daniel  mcidentally  paints  the  entire  seen-  a  waste,  howling  wilderness,  Herodotus 
rity  of  Belshazzar  and  his  courtiers,  and  (i.  198)  thus  speaks :  —  *  Of  iJl  the  coun- 
adds  information  which  shows  that  pro-  triesthat  we  know.  Babylonia  is  the  best  and 
fanation  was  added  to  voluptuousness :  for  most  fruitful  in  com.  The  soil  is  so  snita- 
'  Oiey  brought  the  golden  vessels  that  were  ble  to  grain  of  all  kinds,  that  it  always 
taken  out  of  the  temple;  and  the  king  and  his  returns  tiro  hundred  fold,  and  in  years  of 
princes,  his  wives  and  his  concubines,  abundance  even  as  mudi  as  three  hundred 
drank  in  them ;  they  drank  wine  and  fold.  The  plain  is  covered  with  palm 
praised  the  gods  of  gold  and  sUver,  of  brass,  trees.' —  What  was  it  that  converted  this 
of  iron,  of  wood,  and  of  stone.'  Infatuated  garden  into  a  desert  ?  Human  wickedness, 
men!  a  mightier  power  was  at  work,  and  pride,  tyranny,  passion,  lasciviousness. 
ere  a  short  hour  passed,  'was  kingBelshas-  The  testimony  of  Scripture  on  this  point  is 
zar  greatly  troubled,  and  his  countenance  no  less  explicit  than  ftilL  We  add  one  or 
changed,  and  his  lords  were  astonied'  (y.9).  two  illustrations  firom  other  authorities :  — 
The  doom  of  the  monarch  and  of  his  empire  Q.  Curtius  states,  that  nothing  could  be 
was  sealed.  The  city  lingered  for  a  time,  more  corrupt  than  the  morals  of  Babylon, 
It  fiaded  away,  however,  so  thoroughly  that,  nothing  more  fitted  to  excite  and  allure  to 
in  the  fourth  century  of  our  era,  its  walls,  immoderate  pleasures.  The  rites  of  hos- 
as  we  learn  from  Jerome  (onIsa.xiii),  served  pitality  were  polluted  by  the  grossest  and 
for  no  other  purpose  than  to  form  an  en-  most  shameless  lusts.  Many  dissolved 
closure  in  which  the  Parthian  kings  enjoyed  every  tie,  whether  of  kindred,  respect,  or 
the  pleasures  of  hunting  wild  beasts.  In  esteem.  The  Babylonians  were  very  greatly 
the  twelfth  century  (AJ).),  Bexijamin  of  given  to  wine,  and  the  enjoyments  which  ac- 
Tudela  states  that  not  one  of  its  ancient  edi-  company  inebriety.  Women  were  prosent 
fioes  was  standing.  And,  at  the  present  day,  at  their  convivialities,  first  with  some  degroe 
the  plain  where  Babylon  was  of  old  is  co-  of  propriety;  but,  growing  worse  and  worse 
yered,  for  many  miles  in  every  direction,  by  degrees,  they  ended  by  throwing  off  at 
with  nothing  but  ruins.  How  true  haye  once  tilieir  clothing  and  dieir  modesty.'  — 
the  words  of  Jeremiah  (li.  26)  become, —  Here,  as  in  most  other  idolatrous  worships, 
'  Thou  Shalt  be  desolate  for  ever,  saith  Jeho-  prostitution  was  a  part  of  religion.  Mylitta, 
yah;'  in  the  Hebrew,  'everlasting  desola-  the  chief  female  divinity,  had  numerous 
tions.'  What  words  can  better  describe  the  bands  of  young  women  devoted  to  her  ser- 
eondition  which  this  yast  plain  has  pre-  yioe.  A  Babylonian  cylinder  repesents  a 
sented  now  for  yery  many  centuries  7  The  priestess  introducing  a  virgin  to  ner  temple 
whole  of  the  chapter  is  as  a  prophecy,  so  a  to  receive  the  attentions  of  d^e  priests.  These 
picture  copied  from  reality :  —  'In  their  dedicated  females  sat  once  in  their  lives  in 
heat  I  will  make  their  feasts,  and  I  will  the  shrine  of  the  divinity,  their  heads  bound 
make  them  drunken,  that  they  may  rejoice,  with  garlands,  and  their  bodies  with  cords, 
and  sleep  a  perpetual  sleep,  and  not  wake.  Thus  exposed,  if  any  stranger  threw  gold 
saith  Jehovah '  (ver.  39).  '  The  cities  of  Ba-  into  the  lap  of  one  of  them,  die  was  obliged 
bylon  are  a  desolation,  a  dry  land,  and  a  to  retire  with  him  (as  we  learn  from  Hero- 
wilderness,  a  land  wherein  no  man  dwelleth,  dotus)  into  the  temple,  where  her  channs 
neither  doth  any  son  of  man  pass  thereby'  were  sacrificed  to  its  impure  rites.  The 
(43).  Not  a  dwelling,  not  a  field,  not  a  money  was  then  laid  on  the  altar;  an  ob- 
green  tree ;  the  entire  place  is  abandoned  by  lation  nominally  for  the   goddess,  but  in 


BAB  118 


BAB 


mUtr  >  be  for  the  pilMta.  Tb«w  «di- 
ngei  on  nUnre,  decener,  uid  nligion,  iMin 
(0  be  nttmd  to  uid  foibiddnt  bj  Hoaet, 
whcD  be  Mji,  'ThoB  ahmlt  not  bring  Ihe 
hire  ot  «  badot  into  the  honui  ot  Jaho- 
tili  Ihj  Ood'  (Dent,  zziii.  IB;  somp.  Le*. 
\%i.  9,  Mf.)  How  incomp4nbl7  gnperin 
WM  Jndaiani  to  the  nligiona  irf  the  mr- 
fonnding  nUione!  WhM  in  insitiinstde  good 
to  mui  «u  Ihe  miwion  of  Hmea  I  Simly, 
if  there  ue  in  lite  (jgt«m  some  diingi  tfaa 
nuon  orvhieh  ve  cannot  well  onderalanil, 
■od  other*  vhieb  an  improved  intelligent 
eompel*  oe  to  condemn,  w»  eannot  fail  to 
leeogniM  in  it  nnmerona  and  uoqaeKionaljle 
batwes  ot  an  eieellence  Kliieli  ire  loot  tot 
In  TUD  in  anj  other  eocial  or  religioiu  polity 
in  the  ancient  world.  Even  the  moM  epien- 
cinliiation,  laoh  at  'great 
ed  on  hnman  kind  inooni- 
p«nd)lj  less  good  than  fht  onoa  deipiied,  and 
atiil  too  little  atodied,  inatitntloiu  of  Jodea. 
And  jet  all  that  a  merely  hnmu  onltora 
BOnld  in  thoie  eariy  agea  aceompliah  lor  nuo, 
wai  done  at  Babylon ;  for  the  city,  if  not  th» 
mother,  wae  cart^nl;  the  aeat  and  the  eentn 
of  moat  of  the  oirUiiatiini  of  the  anelent 
world.  Architeelnre,  painting,  aenlptnre; 
Ihe  ait  of  nnmerieel  calenlalion,  with  iu  ^ 
plieation  to  Ihe  purpoies  of  life  ;  the  etndf 
of  the  heaTeol;  bodiea,  liaaing  in  lome  ae- 
quaintiuoe  with  the  law*  which  regnlnle  ttieir 
moTemenM ;  and,  abore  all,  the  Mienca  of 
letlen,  from  it*  elementary  rudimanta  to  a 
hi|^  degree  of  azeellenee,  were  praetieed 
and  enoooraged  to  anah  an  ntent,  that,  undar 
Ihe  fkTonring  inflnenoea  of  climate,  aoll,  and 
opportunity,  the  Babylonians  seem  to  hare 
made  the  moet  of  meraly  external  and  male- 
rial  good,  and  gnna  as  far  as  poasible  in 
trying  what  man  conid  do  fbr  bJtnaelf,  and 
what  earth  can  conbi,  apart  tmm  the  aid  of 
pore  religion.    We  cannot  affbrd  space  to 


follow  theae  general  ImpHcatloiu  ont  Into 
actnal  iutaneeB.  On  two  mbjeen,  howerer 
we  ahall  add  a  few  words :  — 

BabylOTi  la  one  of  three  centre*,  FhtBuIoia 
and  Egypt  being  Ihe  other  two,  which  may 
diepole  the  hononr  of  dieoorering  Ihe  moit 
important  of  afl  aft*,  that  of  writtg.  Ai  a 
wry  early  period,  tbe  Babylonian*  appear  to 
hare  eonleoted  themselres  with  a  nail  for  a 
pen,  and  the  bare  rock  or  bnml  br<ok»  fbr 
writing  malerials.  Hence,  probably,  the 
peouliM  Bhq>e  of  letter  which  is  elill  seen 
ta  Ihe  rain*  of  Babylon  and  Persepolie  — 
denomlnatad  enneifbnn,  or  arrow-headed 
~*  apeaie*  of  writing  which  ha*  at  length 
rewarded  the  ioeredible  paini  o(  antiquarian* 
to  deeypher  Its  eharaelarB,  wilh  some  niggard 
raoeess.  In  these  chanctcn  wo  *ee  one  of 
the  eariieat  attempts  at  writing ;  tow  they  ir* 
partly  hieroglyphic,  partly  alphabetieal. 

After  year*  of  patient  atady,  the  learned 
Oarman,  Qrolefend,  haa  giren  to  tbe  world 
two  essays  (JTme  fleifraje  zur  Eriniue- 
rwtf  itr  PenepoHtimitcliai  Keiltchr\ft,  1887: 
Ifni  Britragcnr  BriOuUrmg  der Babvlonit- 
chn  XeilKhrfft,  1840),  In  which  he  report* 
the  prooeea  he  has  pnnued  in  his  InTestl. 
gstions,  and  the  reeolta  to  which  they  have 
hithenoled.  These  renilbi  srenotofabigh 
importance.  The  inecriptions  written  in 
the  arrow-headed  letter*,  of  which  numeroni 
specimens  have  been  ooUeoted,  ai«  in  either 
the  Per*«poUt«i  or  tbe  Babyloniin  eharac 
tar  —  the  latter  dilfcring  from  the  fornet 
chiefly  in  being  more  ancient;  md  are 
foimd,  I.  on  bnmt  brioks,  II.  on  seal*  run- 
ning round  the  faeadeofaKTTcreign,  or,  ni.on 
vaMi  or  cylindera  of  pottery  ware.  The 
ensnfaig  cats  efaow,  I.  ■  head  from  a  seal,  with 
an  inK^ription  in  the  cuaeiform  character; 
II.  a  cylinder  nnrolled.  The  BnbjecU  of 
the  inscription,  so  far  a*  yet  decyphered, 
add  »Bry  little  to  our  *tock  ot  knowledge ; 


m^SX^r  .S^'"^"^**'^'^''  ■*  '^'*  ""  "^pUon-   tomid  on  the  brick. 

^^^^t^^Vi^Ji^' ^  rthowerer,  the  ^phabet  which  Qrotetend 

by  .  seal  Jm^^^tul^i.^^T     ^  ^  "'**  ■""•  ""*  *'  transUUon.  Ihersby 

5*.  It  prinSiT-^^^^    '^r    1?^  'JT;  •*"'*'•  ""^^  ^  •PproTed  and  confirmed 

hwing  in»enirf  AM  ,Zr:J^?  S""  ."^  ""J   ^    •nticipaled;   ei^ecially  since   tbe 

™™.gmTentMUiatmo.tii«*U«t,aotar  altsntion  of  the  leMnedWuh*.  bwn  of 


BAB                      119  BAB 

late  •troB^  diraoted  to  the  subjeot     The  took  pUoe  under  Xlsuihrus,  which  miy  hare 

tongae  in  which  these  inscriptions  ue  written  h«d  its  origin  in  a  yeiy  unnsnal  overflow  of 

is,  it  appears,  the  Zend,  which  is  connected  the  Eaphrates, — a  river  that,  from  the  sud- 

with  the  Hindoo  Sanaerit — of  a  family  of  den  melting  of  the  snows  in  Armenia,  is  very 

languages  different  from  that  of  the  deacon*  liable  to  sudden  inundations.    After  the  fall 

dants  of  Shem,  of  which  we  may  take  Hebrew  of  Sardanapalus,  the  governor  of  Babylon, 

as  the  representative.  Thelanguage,  however,  Belesys,  founded  a  new  dynasty.   At  a  later 

of  the  £rBt  inhabitants  of  Babylon,  who  be-  period  we  read  of  Nabonassar  (747,  A.O.) 

longed  to  the  Shemitio  family,  was  akin  to  the  founder  of  a  new  era  for  the  East,  who 

the  class  of  tongues  spoken  by  that  race,  and  was  either  a  vaasal  of  the  Assyrian  empire, 

was  closely  related  to  the  eastern  Aramaic,  or  prince  of  the  GhaldsBana.    The  origin  of 

or  what  is  commonly  termed  Ghaldee.  these  Chaldfleans  lies  in  obscurity.    Some 

In  regard  to  the  governors  of  Babylon,  our  suppose  that  there  waa  an  earlier  Mid  a  later 
knowledge  is  very  imperfect  and  fragmentary,  incursion  of  a  tribe  so  called;  that  the  for- 
Tet  what  we  know  of  the  city,  contrasted  wiUi  mer,  of  Shemitic  origin,  brought  to  Babylon 
what  we  do  not  know,  may  serve  to  show  the  culture  of  Egypt;  that  the  latter,  origi- 
how  little  is  the  importance  of  the  names  and  nally  a  nomadic  tribe  in  Armenia,  came 
successions  of  kings  and  dynasties,  with  de>  down  firom  the  mountains,  and,  after  a  time 
tails  of  batdes  and  conquests,  compared  becoming  masters  of  Babylon,  founded  « 
with  information,  whether  obtained  from  a  Chaldaso-Babylonian  empire.  The  Chal- 
mouldering  ruin  or  a  picturesque  prophecy,  d»ans  appear  in  history  as  a  dominant  race, 
coneeming  the  culture,  condition,  usages,  who  held  the  priesthood,  and  made  them- 
morals,  and  happiness  of  a  nation.  From  selves  distinguished  for  their  astronomical 
the  account,  however,  which  is  found  in  Gen.  knowledge  and  astrological  akill.  Their 
z.  8,  Nimrod,  the  son  of  Gush,  appears  to  ruler  Nabopolassar,  and  his  yet  more  power- 
have  founded  the  kingdom  of  Babylon,  and  ftil  son  Nebuchadnezxar,  in  union  with 
to  have  been  its  first  sovereign.  In  the  Gyaxares,  overthrow  the  Assyrian  empire, 
same  book  (xiv.  9),  Amrt^hel  is  cursorily  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Nebu- 
mentioned  as  king  of  Shinar.  After  a  very  chadnezzar  transplanted  to  the  plains  of 
long  interval  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  ( A.G.  Shinar  the  inhabitants  of  Judah,  made  Sidon 
718),  Merodaoh-baladan,  the  son  of  Bals-  bend  before  him,  and  Tyre  feel  his  anger; 
dan,  king  of  Babylon,  sent  letters  and  a  he  pressed  forward  into  Egypt,  and  going 
present  unto  Hezekiah,  for  he  had  heard  westward  as  fkr  as  the  Pillars  of  Hercules 
that  Heiekiah  had  been  siek;  when  the  Jew-  (Gibraltar),  he  made  the  Nile  one  limit, 
ish  king  acknowledged  the  oomplimeut  by  while  the  Tigris  was  the  opposite  boundary 
showing  the  messengers  his  private  treasures,  of  his  vast  empire.  Among  his  followers, 
—  a  diqplay  which  led  Isaiah  to  predict  to  none  but  Nabonnedus,  whom  Herodotus  calls 
the  monarch,  that  his  offspring  riiould  be  Labynetus,  deserves  mention,  under  whose 
carried  away  into  oaptiviQr  to  Babylon,  rule  the  kll-oonquering  Gyrus  put  a  period 
About  a  century  later,  Jeremiah  and  Hbt  to  the  independence  of  the  kingdom  of 
bakkuk  speak  of  the  invasion  of  the  Babylo-  Babylon  (ftd8,  A.G.). 
niansunderthenameof  theChaldsans;  and  Babylon  was  a  distinguished  commercial 
now  Nthwckadnezzar  appears,  in  the  histori-  city.  Under  the  encouragemento  which 
eal  books  (2  Kings  zxiv.  I,  teq.  Jer.  xxviL  were  aflbrded  by  a  soil  so  prolific,  that  Q. 
8,  M^Of  M  ^®*^  ^  ^®  widely  extended  em-  Gnrtius  says  the  cattle  were  driven  from  their 
pire  of  Babylon.  Evil-merodach  (2  Kings  pastures,  lest  they  should  be  destroyed  by 
zzv.  27.  Jer.  liL  81),  son  of  the  preceding,  satiety  of  fatness;  favoured  by  a  position 
is  also  mentioned  as  King  of  Babylon ;  and  which  brought  into  union  the  rich  producte 
with  BthhtuzoT  (Dan.  v.  1,  80),  the  Nabon-  of  the  East,  and  the  great  marte  of  the  West; 
nedns  of  Berosus,  the  line  of  Ghaldsan  kings,  and  aided  by  that  impulse  and  intense  inte- 
was  closed :  he  perished  in  the  conquest  of  rest  which  accompany  all  arte  in  the  fresh 
Babylon  by  the  Medo-Persians  (Dan.  v.  81),  period  of  their  birth, — Babylon  takes  it  po- 
and  Darius  the  Median  took  the  kingdom.  sition  at  the  head  of  those  nations  which 

Profane  history  has  little  more  to  add.  have  given  full  scope  to  both  the  manufae- 

Some  have  maintained  that  Babylon,  as  well  tnring  and  the  commercial  principles.    Ita 

as  Media,  was  originally  dependent  on  ths  inhabitante  were  specially  renowned  for  the 

Assyrian  empire, —  a  fact  which,  it  is  said,  manufacture  of  cloth  and  caipete ;  they  ex- 

woidd  be  unknown  to  the  Hebrew  writers,  celled  in  making  perftunes ;  Ukey  carved  in 

who  were  acquainted  with  only  the  later  As-  wood;  they  worked  in  precious  stones ;  they 

Syrian  monarehy.    The  Greeks  make  Baby-  made  engravings  which  have  beauty  in  the 

Ion  the  seat  of  this  empire.    The  legendary  present  day,  independent  of  their  antiquity. 

Berosus,  who  was  a  priest  or  magian  in  By  caravans  on  land,  and  by  ships  on  the 

Babylon  about  800,  A.G.  speaks  of  the  reign  sea,  Uiey  conducted  an  immense  trade,  and 

of  Oannes,  half  man,  half  fish,  in  allusion  were  *  a  city  of  merohante'  (Ezek.  zvii.  4 ; 

probably  to  the  government  by  sea  and  by  comp.  la.  xliii.  14). 

land  which  Babylon  exeroised  at  a  very  early  These    great  and  widely-extended  eom- 

date^  and  gives  an  account  of  a  flood  that  mercial  dealings  poured  a  flood  of  riches  into 


BAG  120  B  A  K 

Cbe  eonntiy*  which,  eren  when  reduced  to  the  a  smtller,  article  le  intended,  hat  gmmtStf 
rank  of  a  proTinoe,  yielded  a  rcTenae  a  receptacle  for  objects  of  greater  or  lees 
to  the  Persian  kings  that  comprised  half  Talne.  It  mast  hare  been  a  bag  of  the  lar- 
their  income.  This  affluence  served  to  em-  ger  sise  in  which  the  Hebrews  used  to  keep 
hellish  the  city,  and  make  its  nsme  famous  their  weights;  as  inDeutzxr.lS, '  Thou  shalt 
oyer  the  earth.  Hence  it  is  thus  described  not  have  in  thy  bog  divers  weights,  a  great 
in  the  Scriptures :  *  Babylon,  the  glory  of  and  a  small'  (Proy.  zri.  11.  Micah  vL  11). 
kingdoms,  &e  beauty  of  Uie  Chaldee  excel-  Scarcely  of  less  dimensions  wen  the  bags 
lenoy.'  But  wealth  brought  pride,  luxury,  that  were  used  for  treasuring  up  gold  and 
self-forgetftilness,  and  guilty  ease ;  and  so  silver  (Is.  xln.  0).  Purses  were  the  small- 
'the  lady  of  kingdoms*  is  represented  as  est  begs  (Piot.  i.  14),  which  were  so  con- 
'  given  to  pleasure,  that  dwelleth  carelessly,  structed  as  to  be  easily  drawn  together,  and 
and  sayeth  in  her  heart,  I  sm,  there  is  none  so  dosed  and  sealed  (Oen.  xlii.  85 .  Job  xiv. 
else  beside  me/  Buin  ensued:  *  She  sits  as  IT).  When  thus  filled  and  secured,  a  bsg 
a  widow  on  the  ground.  There  is  no  more  formed  a  purse  (2  Kings  v.  28) ;  and,  the 
a  throne  for  thee,  O  daughter  of  the  container  being  put  for  the  thing  contained, 
Chaldeans.'  So  must  fdl  every  structure  a  purse  came  in  the  East  to  signify  a  present 
that  rests  not  on  the  broad  foundations  of  or  a  sum  of  money,  as  with  us;  but,  pro- 
public  morality  and  individual  religion,  oeeding  beyond  our  usages,  a  purse  thus 
Trade  and  commerce  are  indeed  substantial  bound  and  authenticated,  denoted  a  certain 
realities,  and  the  kingdom  that  has  them  Bxed  sum,  as  which  it  passed  current  in  the 
for  its  strength  is  far  more  secure  than  business  of  life.  Nor  has  this  usage  ceased 
Rome  with  its  mighty  armies  and  martial  em-  in  the  present  day.  The  original  terms  em- 
pire. Yet  Babylon  is  not  the  only  commer-  ployed  in  the  New  Testament,  ond  randered 
cial  state  that  rose  to  the  highest  splendour,  *  bag'  and  *  purse,'  have  an  equally  compre- 
and  sank  into  poverty  and  desolation.  Let  hensive  meaning  with  the  Hebrew  words  to 
England  learn  a  lesson,  and  beware.  which  we  have  just  refened  (Luke  x.  4 ;  xii. 

BACA  (H.)— This  is  a  Hebrew  word  in  88;    xxii.  85,  86.    John  xii.  6;  xiu.  29). 

English  letters,  retained  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  0,  as  a  From  the  two  last  passages,  it  appears  that 

proper  nsme.    The  original  term  is  tran-  our  Lord  and  his  small  band  of  disciples 

slated  in  the  other  places  where  it  occurs  were  wont  to  carry  with  them  some  pro- 

(2  Sam.  V.  28,  24.    1  Chron.  xiv.  14,  15)  vision  for  their  dafly  wants,  out  of  which 

•  mulbeny  trees.'     Some  have  thought  the  gratuities  were  given  to  the  poor.     The  bag 

balsam  tree  was  intended;  others  are  in  fa-  which  Judas  bore  for  these  purposes  may 

vour  of  the  pear.    Ewald  thus  renders  the  have  been  a  sort  of  case  or  box;  as  the 

passsge  in  the  Psalms: —  original  word  denotes  a  small  receptacle  for 

•Bapp7th6mmi.fhnof  •trensthtat]le^  »  musical  instrument,  a  flute  cover  or  pie 
"Who  gladly  think  of  trmvelllng  to  Zion  ; 


Who,  puflbig  through  the  Balmm  VaOtf^  BAKING  (T.  to  dry  hv  keai),  —  Among 
Mskeit  intoafoimtahi.'  ^^  proofc  that  the  patriarchal  age  stood  si 
The  original, literally  rendered,  is 'the  valley  an  advanced  stage  in  the  progress  of  civi- 
of  the  Baca,'  whatever  tree  may  be  intended ;  lisation,  is  the  fact,  that  we  find  domestic 
and  the  meaning  is,  that  men  of  Qod,  in  offices,  such  for  instance  as  baking,  in  the 
passing  over  dry  and  desert  spots,  such  for  hands  of  females  (Oen.xviii.  6).  The  ease 
instance  as  those  where  the  Baca  tree  grew,  and  rapidity  with  which  Sarah,  at  the  re- 
make them  spiritually  sources  of  religious  quest  of  Abrshsm,  prepares  her  obviously 
refreshment.  The  Psalm,  written  probably  unleavened  cakes  (comp.Gen.xix.  8)  of  fine 
during  the  captivity,  celebrates  the  happi-  meal,  baking  them  on  the  hearth  or  ashes, 
ness  of  the  period  when  the  tribes,  at  ttie  is  not  without  a  parallel  in  the  prosent  day. 
great  annual  festivals,  went  up  from  all  parts  The  servant  of  Irby  and  Mangles,  Mahomet, 
of  the  land  to  the  metropolis.  '  our  esmel  driver,  tiiis  evening  made  some 

BADGEBS'    SKINS   is  the    translation  bread.    He  kneaded  the  dough  in  a  leathern 

given  in  the  common  version  of  the  Hebrew  ni^kin,  and,  mixing  a  good  deal  of  salt  with 

word  TbA^AofAfWhichrepresents  some  object  it,  made  a  flat  round  cake  about  half  on 

used  in  the  service  of  the  sanctuary,  and  inch  thick,  and  baked  it  on  dried  camel's 

specifically  a  covering  with  which  the  taber-  dung.    It  was  very  good.'    The  instance  of 

nacle  was  to  be  covered.    See  Exod.  xxv.  5 ;  Sarah's  preparing  food  for  her  angelic  visi- 

zxvi.  14 ;  XXXV.  7.    Some  have  held  that  the  tors  refers  to  a  period  of  primitive  simpli- 

original  word  signified  a  colour, — purple;  city,  when,  as  in  the  poems  of  Homer,  ladies 

some,  that  it  meant  an  animal's  skin.     We  of  the  highest  rank  took  a  personal  part  in 

incline  to  the  opinion  that  seals'  skins  are  domestic    duties.       When,    however,    the 

intended.     Seals  abounded  in  the  Red  Sea,  Hebrows  were  settled  in  Canaan,  and  began 

and  their  skins  were  employed  for  coverings,  to  affect  outward  refinements,  the  office  of 

BAG  (T.)  is  the  English   representative  baking,  with  other  processes  of  cooking, 

of  three  Hebrew  and  two  Greek  words,  thai  was  devolved,  at  least  in  princely  establish- 

agree  in  the  general  idea  which  we  attach  to  ments,  on  female  servants  (1  Sam.  viii.  18) 

the  term.    Sometimes  a  larger,  sometimes  Still  females  in  the  highest  rank  did  not 


B  A  K  121  B  A  K 

dudain  to  prepare  delieaeies,  at  least  fat  porpoaes,  the  bread  was  in  the  foim  of  Af<^ 

lelatiTes  (2  Sam.  ziii.  6—8 ;    oomp.  Jer.  cakes,  not  of  large  siae,  which  for  eating 

yii.  18).    In  later  periods,  baking  became  a  were  not  out,  but  broken  (Matt  xztL  26) : 

trade ;  and  we  read  of  '  bakers '  (Hos.  Tii.  oil  or  honey  was  mixed  with  the  bread 

4,  6).     In  this  passage,  evidence  will  be  (Ezod.  ztL  31.    Esek.  zri.  18).     8ome- 

fonnd,  that  the  usages  obserred  in  baking  times  baking  was   pafoimed    on    heated 

in  large  cities  were  not  dissimilar  to  what  stones,  or  metal  plates,  or  suspended  over 

they  are  now.    LeaTsned  bread  is  obTionsly  heated  coals  (1  Kings  six.  6).    A  jar  waa 

spokm  of.    In  JenMalem  there  were  not  also  heated,  and  the  dough  spread  orer  it 

only  bakers,  but  a  <  bakers'  street'  (Jer.  on  the  outside  to  be  baked.    For  ftid,  straw, 

zzzYii  21),  which  is  spoken  of;  so  as  to  dried  grass,reeds,  and  cow  and  cameldung, 

giTe  the  idea  that  the  place  deriTCd  ita  name  were  used.    (Comp.  Eiek.  ir.  12). 
from  being  filled  with  bakers'  shops ;  as  at        Bobinson  thus  describes  one  method  of 


the  present  day,  in  the  East,  persons  who  making  bread,  now  practised  by  the  Arabs: 

carry  on  the  same  business  are  found  to  *  While  we  rested,  our  Arabs  took  the  qppor- 

herd  together.     Nothing  can  more  clearly  tnniljof  preparing  a  warm  breakfast    They 

eridence  the  early  progress  made  in  oiTi-  had  brought  with  them  some  flour,  or  rather 

liaation  by  the  Egyptians,  than  the  condition  meal  of  wheat  and  barley  filled  with  chaiT; 

of  the  practical  arts  of  life,  as  found  among  of  which  they  now  kneaded  a  round  flat 

them  in  the  days  of  the  patriarchs.    The  cake  of  some  thickness.    This  they  threw 

trade  of  baking,  which  is  mentioned  in  eon«  into  the  ashes  and  coals  of  a  fire  they  had 

nection  with  the  Israelites  only  in  their  later  kindled ;  and,  after  a  due  time,  brought  out 

books,  is  ascribed  eren  in  Genesis  to  the  a  loaf  of  bread,  as  black  on  the  outside  as 

Egyptians.     Joseph  there  found  cooking  the  coals  themselTcs,  and  not  much  whiter 

practised  as  an  art  in  the  hands  of  profes-  within.     After  breaking  it  up  small  in  a 

sional  cooks,  with  subdiTision  of  labour,  so  dish  while  still  warm,  they  mixed  with  it 

as  to  make  baking  a  separate  branch.    The  some  of  the  butter   they  had  stolen,  and 

bakers,  too,  were  a  sort  of  corporation,  with  thus  made  their  meal.    Such  ^s  the  manner 

chief  men  and  ordinary  men;  and  in  such  of  life  among  these  sons  of  the  deserts; 

honour  was  the  profession,  that  the  'chief  though  the  butter  was  a  luxury  by  no  means 

baker'  held  rank  among  the  great oflicen  of  oonunon.    On  their  journeys,  coarse  black 

Pharaoh's    hous^old  (Oen.  zl.  1,  2,  20).  unleaTcned  bread  is  the  Bedouin's  usual 

If  France  may  lay  daim  to  eminence  in  fare '  (ii.  497). 

civiliaation,  or  rank  and  riches,  in  our  own        The  same  writer  thus  speaks  of  a  carsTan 

country,   this  regard  to  the  duties  of  the  carrying  wheat  from  Nablous  to  Bethlehem  r 

kitchen,  and  the  enjoyments  of  the  table,  '  The  men  were  baking  a  large  round  flat 

must  be  held  as  an  indication  of  a  state  cake  of  bread  on  the  embers  of  a  'fire  of 

of  society  far  remoTcd  in  adTance  from  the  camel's  and  ooVs  dung.    Taking  it  out 

simple  life  led  by  the  nomads  of  Palestine,  when  done,  they  brushed  off  the  ashes,  and 

The  use  of  leaven  may  also  be  accounted  a  divided  it  among  the  party,  oifering  us  also 

sign  of  a  settled  and  civilised  mode  of  exis-  a  portion.    I  tasted  it,  and  found  it  quite  as 

tence.    Anciently,  as  now,  those  who  led  a  good  aa  the  common  bread  of  the  country, 

wandering  life  had  no  leisure  or  oppor-  They  had  no  other  provisions '  (iii.  76). 
tunity  for  leavening  their  bread,  which  they        The  mode  of  baking  bread  practised  on 

cooked  at  and  for  the  moment  of  want  the  mountains  of  Lebanon  is  simple  and 

Hence  the  Israelites,  in  their  haste  to  escape  expeditious.    They  dig  a  hole  in  the  ground, 

out  of  Pharaoh's  hands,  'baked  unleavened  which  they  line  with  a  thick  coat  of  plaater, 

cakes  of  the  dough  whi<^  they  brought  forth  leaving  the  cavity  in  shape  and  size  like  a 

out  of  Egypt;  for  it  vras  not  leavened,  be-  large  cooking  pot,  a  little  bulging  in  the 

cause  they  were  thrust  out  of  Egypt,  and  middle.    When  the  plaster  is  dry,  a  fire  is 

could  not  tarry,  neither  had  they  prepared  lighted  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  and  fed 

themselves  any   victual'    (Exod.  xii.   89;  with  small  sticks  till  the   sides  are  well 

oomp.  3d,  84).    Bntduring  their  tranquil  re-  heated;  the  flames  are  then  suflbred  to  go 

sidence  in  Egypt,  as  afterwards  in  Palestine,  down,  having  a  mass  of  live  coals  in  the 

leavened  bread  was   ordinarily  used.      In  bottom.    Meanwhile,  the  dough  has  been 

Exod.  viii.  8 ;  xii.  84,  the  original  word  ren-  prepared  and  divided  into  portions  of  a  con- 

dered  kneadtng'trought  (similar  in  sound  aa  venient  size,  which  are  pressed  out  on  a  board 

well  as  meaning  to  the  German  SoMerieig)  till  they  are  as  large  as  a  common  plate,  and 

denotes  properly  leaven  trought,  or  troughs  about  as  thick  as  the  back  of  a  stout  carving 

for  making  leavened  bread.    Both  the  form  knife.    These  soft  disks  are  taken  up  on  a 

of  the  bread,  and  the  manner  of  preparing  pad,  and  struck  against  the  middle  of  the 

it,  varied  among  the  Hebrews  at  different  simple  oven,  where  they  adhere,   and  are 

periods.      The  passage  in  Hosea,  already  baked  in  about  a  minute.    They  are  then 

referred  to,  shows  that  at  a  later  period  withdrawn,  and  others  put  in  their  places 

large  ovens  were  employed,  and  loaves  were  with  great  rapidity.    There  are  usually  se- 

made.     Earlier,  however,  and  for  sacred  veral  women  engaged  at  the  same  time  about 


B  A  L                        122  B  A  L 

4b«  iemmoor  or  oten ;  Mid»  being  wmtaMblj  gers  of  Metopotami«» — of  the  city  of  FetfMir» 

•zpert  in  the  boflineasy  theyfequire  but  rwj  which,  firoai  its  name,  mppeen  to  ha^e  been 

short  notice  to  prepsie  biesd  enough  for  *  noltd  for  its  orade.    Wlien  the  Israelites 

mesL  had  with  diflenltj,  bnt  much  renown,  won 

Theovsn,aswellaslheproeessofb«kingy  their  way  lo  the  borders  of  Palestine,  the 
In  the  Tillages  of  Persia,  at  tiie  present  Moshites  beeame  alanned  for  their  own 
time,  rssemUes  tboss  of  which  we  haYe  just  saHsty;  and  Balak,  their  Ung,  took  cTeiy 
spoken.  This  oren  eonsists  of  a  dvovlar  bmsbs  to  withstand  the  adraneing  enemy, 
hole  in  the  earth  about  three  feet  deep,  and  AnnSthowerer,  failed— enchantments  might 
peihaps  two  In  width  at  the  top  and  three  prsYaiL  The  belief  was  eonent  that  the 
at  the  bottom,  with  a  tee  entering  it  at  tiie  impreoatiQins  of  the  Chaldvan  magi  were 
bottom  to  eon^ey  air  to  the  iirs.  This  hdU  omnipotent  Now,  there  was  one  irtioee 
is  intaiaally  coated  with  clay,  which  soon  reputatiQa  was  yerj  great  It  ia  tnie  he 
hardens  into  tile.  The  bread  is  drawn  out  lirsd  at  a  great  distsnce,  but  the  neeessily 
into  cakee  flrom  two  to  three  Ibet  long,  eight  was  urgent  Balak,  therefore,  despatched 
or  ten  inehes  wide,  and  of  seareely  the  messengers,  with  a  suitable  present,  in  order 
thickness  of  a  oommon  dining  plats.  It  to  bring  the  potent  enchanter.  On  their 
assumes  this  nhvge  almost  in  a  moment  by  readiung  ttie  abode  of  Balaam,  they  make 
the  wonderiU  tact  of  the  matron,  who  eim-  the  wishes  of  their  master  known.  The 
ply  tosses  a  piece  of  doagh  nyidly  from  magian  well  knew  that  the  resources  of  his 
hand  to  hand.  Thus  drawn  out  like  a  own  diTinities  were  insufficient  to  bring  a 
membrane,  it  is  laid  upon  a  cushion ;  snd  curse  on  those  whom  the  Ood  of  Israel  had 
stock  upon  the  eide  of  the  oven,  where  it  blessed ;  but,  if  he  could  prevail  on  Jeho« 
attaches  and  crisps  in  a  liiw  ssconds,  snd  Tsh  himself  to  curse  the  Hebrews,  then  they 
another,  as  quickly  made  ready,  sueeeeds  would  be  cursed  indeed.  The  fdee  pro- 
to  the  eame  place.  Bread  in  the  cities  dif*  phe^  nusled  by  Tain  notions,  applies  to 
Un  from  this,  only  in  being  made  of  flow  Jehorah,  ^o  forbids  Balaam  to  do  the 
mors  finely  eifled,  and  in  cakee  perhiqps  bidding  of  the  Moabites.  Another  in-rita- 
twice  as  tfiick,  which  are  baked  on  the  hot*  tion  follows,  supportsd  by  more  splendid 
torn  uf  larger  ovens  paved  with  pebbles.  fMwsents  snd  the  amplest  promises;  irtien 
The  thin  bread  soon  dries,  and  may  long  Balaam  is  permitted  to  accompany  the  mes* 
be  preserved.  Except  in  caae  of  journeys,  sengers,  but  is  strictly  informed  that  he  is 
however,  it  is  nsuslly  baked  every  day,  and  to  do  and  say  only  that  which  is  well 
eaten  fresh.  And  the  thicker  species  very  fdeasing  to  Ood.  Having,  however,  thus 
soon  becomes  heavy  snd  unpalatable.  Ur,  as  he  thought,  prevailed,  this  worship- 
Bread  is  always  leavened  in  Persia  by  a  per  of  Baal  prooMded  on  his  journey,  hoping, 
small  piece  of  dough,  preserved  from  day  to  by  means  of  the  resources  of  his  own  skill 
day.  The  oven  of  the  peasants  serves  also  in  enchantment  (Numb.  zziv.  1),  as  well  as 
the  important  puipoee  of  wsmung  their  by  his  urgency  with  Jehovsh,  to  succeed  in 
houses  in  winter.  To  do  this  the  mors  accomplidiing  the  task  for  which  he  had 
effectually,  it  is  converted  into  a  tandoor,  been  so  well  paid.  And  now  comes  the 
by  laying  a  flat  stone,  or  a  large  earthen  trial.  Arriving  in  the  mountainous  regions 
cover  made  for  the  purpose,  upon  the  top,  where  the  Moab  nation  and  the  Israelites 
placing  over  it  a  frame,  resembling  a  ta-  ^^ere  found,  he  chooses  for  his  purpose  a 
ble  four  or  six  feet  squars,  and  perh^s  high  place,  which  had  long  been  venerated  as 
a  foot  high,  and  covering  the  whole  with  a  sacred  to  Baal.  There,  in  observance  of  the 
large  quilt  that  extends  to  the  esrth  on  the  superstitious  reverence  paid  to  the  number 
sides.  The  oven  is  heated  only  once  a  day  ievm,  he  causes  seven  altars  to  be  erected, 
for  baking  snd  cooking.  But  the  hole  in  and  seven  oxen  and  seven  rams  to  bo  pre- 
the  roof  being  closed  after  the  smoke  passes  pared ;  one  ram  and  one  ox  for  each  altar, 
out,  and  the  warmth  retained  in  the  oven  in  The  idolatrous  rites  being  thus  performed, 
the  msnner  described,  a  single  fire  is  made  he  hopes  to  be  permitted  to  gratify  his  pay- 
to  suffice  for  twenty-four  hours.  The  whole  master,  by  uttering  imprecations  on  the 
fkmily,  or  rather  the  household,  consisting  armies  of  Israel.  He  opens  his  lips  to 
of  three,  four,  or  five  generations,  as  the  curse,  but  utters  a  blessing.  The  spot  was 
case  may  be,  and  commonly  not  less  thsn  probi^ly  inauspicious,  or  the  prophet  may 
twelve,  fifteen,  or  more  individuals,  encom-  have  been  terrified  by  seeing  the  vast  num- 
pass  the  tsndoor  wlih  their  feet  under  the  hers  of  the  Hebrews.  Another  height  is 
quilt;  and,  at  night,  spread  their  conches  therefore  ascended,  where  only  the  skirts  of 
around  it,  and  form  a  circle,  by  placing  their  the  army  could  be  beheld  (Numb,  xxiii.  13). 
fact  near  the  fire,  while  their  heads  radiate  The  ssme  rites  sre  performed,  but —  to  the 
ftam  it,  snd  thus  they  socisllv  sleep.  discomfiture  of  the  idolaters — with  no  more 

BALAAM  (H.  one  who  witket  iU  to  otken,  favourable  result    Balaam  despairs  of  sue- 

A.M.  8941;  A.C.  1607;  Y.  1401),  ft  name  oess,  and  declares, — 

which  the  Hebrews  may  have  given  to  the  ,  g,,^  ^  cnchsntment  agahiat  JeooK 

•on  of  Beor, «—  one  of  the  msgi  or  astrolo-  NeMber  any  dirinatlon  i^ninst  Inaei.' 


B  A  L                      123  fi  A  L 

Bilak  is  alarmed.  At  any  rate,  if  the  wiie  him  only  in  tegnd  to  the  natoie  of  hie  de- 
man  ooald  not  oune,  he  would  withhold  his  olarations.  These  Terses  aie  oonstnieted 
blessing:  — 'Neither  enrse  them  at  all,  nor  on  the  sapposition  tiiat  no  sneh  leare  had 
bless  them  at  all '  (Nnmb.  zziii.  dd).  Ba-  been  giren :  they  thus  begin, — '  And  God's 
laam  is  at  length  folly  oonseions  of  being  anger  was  kindled  beeanse  he  went'  At 
under  the  hand  of  s  superior  power,  and  what  period  this  addition  was  made  we  pos- 
answers,  <  Told  I  not  thee-—  all  that  Jeho-  sees  no  mesns  of  deCcrmining;  but  the  snb- 
Tah  speaketh,  that  must  I  doT'  But  Balak  stanoe  of  it  is  referred  to  in  d  Peter  ii. 
still  persereres; — <  Come,  I  pray  thee,  I  will  10, 16 ;  but  the  epistle  itself  wants  ooniir- 
bring  thee  unto  another  place;  peiadyen-  mation. 

tnre  it  will  please  Ood  ^t  thou  mayest  Balaam  presents  an  extraordinaiy  and 

curse  me  them  from  thenoe'  (Ter.ST).  The  very  striking  instance  of  a  man  swayed  al- 

trial  is  made.    Again  are  the  seren  altars  temately  by  two  antagonist  powers;  aridiQr 

and  fourteen  animals  got  ready.    But  eer-  on  the  one  side  —  the  intense  lOTe  of  filthy 

tain  mysterious  enchantments  employed  in  lucre;  and  die  oreipowering  influence  of 

the  former  efforts  axe  now  superseded  by  the  diyine  Spirit  on  Uie  other.    The  law  in 

another  resource.    The  priest  of  Baal  turns  his  members  bids  him  curse  —  the  Spirit 

his  face  towards  the  east,  where  lus  sun-  of  Ood  will  let  his  lips  more  only  to  bless, 

god  is  wont  to  make  his  daily  rise,  and  Happy  had  it  been  for  him  had  he  yielded 

where  is  his  ethereal  palace.    With  a  hand  his  heart,  as  he  was  impelled  to  yield  his 

outstretched,  and  eyes  looking  intently  to-  tongue,  to  the  pressure  of  the  hand  of  God; 

wards  his  own  home  and  the  home  of  BaiJ,  and  so  ceasing  to  be  a  mere  passive  instm- 

the  seer  strains  his  faculties  to  find  the  ment,  he  had  become  die  regenerated  and 

wished-for  imprecation;  but  the  Spirit  of  r^oicing  recipient  of  the  dlTine  grace.    Bui 

God  comes  upon  him,  and  he  eaa  utier  no  his,  alas  I  is  not  the  only  case  in  which  one 

words  but  those  of  blessing  and  gr»tnlation.  who  deliTered  God's  messsges  of  mercy  to 

The  Moabite  monarch,  thus  thrioe  disap-  his  fellow-men  may  prote  a  castaway  himself 

pointed,  knows  no  bounds  to  his  vexation  (1  Oor.  ix.  37). 

and  wrath.    He  bids  Balaam  flee  home-  The  prophecies  which  are  aseiibed  to 

wards.    Before  the  enohanter  returns,  how-  Balaam  are  of  a  hi^  poetical  character,  and 

erer,  he  detsrmines  to  make  mother  and  a  possess  great  literary  excellence.    The  exact 

difll^nnt  appeaL    He  had  been  unable  to  condition  in  which  we  find  them  could  not 

prevail  with  God ;  he  was  fUl  of  hope  to  be  haye  been  their  earliest  form,  since  Balaam's 

able  to  joerail  with  man.     Aided  by  his  native  tong^  was  not  Hebrew.    They  dis- 

superstitions,  he  haa  reoourse  to  lasoiyious-  play,   however,  the  force,  viridness,  and 

ness,  by  the  fascinations  of  which  he  se-  picturesque  beauty  of  originals,   and  are 

duces  the  people  from  the  worship  of  Jeho*  doubtless  the  simple  though  artistie  utter- 

▼ah,  and  so,  but  too  eflbotually,  brings  the  moes  of  the  great  realities  to  which  they 

hesrviest  curses  upon  them.    Having  thus  refer. 

in  some  measure  aoooniplished  his  meree-  BALANCE.— This  Enii^Ush  word  is  a 

nary  and  diabolical  tadc,  he  proceeds  to  mis-spelt  form  of  the  Latin  bikmx,  which 

return  home ;  but,  meanwhile,  an  evenging  denotes  a  pair  ofteaki  ;  signifying,  literally, 

srm  was  raised  in  the  Hebrew  camp,  which  a  double  plate ;  suspended,  that  is,  from  a 

overtook  and  alew  him  (Numb.  xxiv.  26 ;  cross  beam.    Whence  we  may  learn,  that 

xxxi.  8).  the  ordinary  pair  of  scales  is  the  most 

This  view,  which,  thon^  it  varies  eon*  andent  form  of  the  balance,  as  indeed  rea- 

siderably  from  that   which    is  ordinarily  son  would  suggest;  for  e  rod  placed  hori- 

taken,  appears  to  us  to  oome  naturally  out  zontally  on  another  set  up  perpendicularly, 

of  the  scriptural  narratives,  leaves,  we  Chink,  offers  a  mode  of  taking  weights  as  simple 

no  part  unexplained  and  no  diflloulty  un-  as  it  is  obvious  and  easy.    The  same  idea 

solved,  save  one,  in  this  much-debated  trans-  is  preserved  in  the  ordinary  Hebrew  name 

action.    That  exception  is'  in  the  account  for  balance,  which,  being  in  the  dual  form, 

given  in  the  passage  found  in  Numb.  xxii.  denotes  a  pair  of  weights   (Lev.  xix.  86. 

22 — 85,  which  tells  of  the  ^ypearanee  of  an  Job  vi.  2).    As  the  scales  ought  thus  to  be 

angel  to  Balaam  while  on  his  way  to  Balak,  exactly '  a  pair,' — that  is,  of  equal  weight,— 

and  of  the  speaking  of  the  ass  on  which  he  fraud  might  easily  be  committed  by  addition 

rode.     These  verses,  however,  appear  to  us  or  subtraction :  hence  we  read  of '  balances 

to  be  an  interpolation.    They  are  from  a  of  deceit'   (Hosea  xii.  7.    Hieah  vi.  11). 

later  hand  than  ihtX  which  wrote  the  sub-  From  Amos  viii.  0,    it  appears  to  have 

stance  of  the  narrative.    They  breathe  a  been  customary  to  operate  on  the  weights 

spirit  of  less  simplicity.    They  have  a  more  as  well  as  on  the  scales, — 'making  the 

modem  air.    Nor  are  they  necessary  to  ihe  ephah  small  and  Hm  shekel  great,  and  frdsi- 

sequence  of  the  history:  on  the  contrary,  lying  the  balances  by  deceit.'     From  the 

fliey  interrupt  it    The  nanrative,  down  to  references  the  reader  will  see  that  it  was  in 

the  twenty-first  verse,  supposes  that  God  the  decline  of  the  Jewish  state  that  these 

had  given  Balaam  leave  to  go,  restricting  iniquities  prevailed.    For  the  more  delicate 


BAL 


124 


BAN 


operatioiis,  required  in  weighing  Bmall  por- 
tions oi  precioos  trticies,  the  Hebrews  had 
a  different  balance  from  that  to  whioh  alia- 
sion  his  been  made ;  the  nature  and  use  of 
which  are  indicated  in  the  root-meaning 
of  the  name,  which  is,  to  vihraU  $  thas  de- 
noting the  tremnlona  yibtmtions  of  a  finely 


poised  and  nieely  adjusted  balanee.  The 
cut  whieh  we  subjoin  from  Egyptian  art 
•hows  a  Tery  simple  kind  of  balanee :  the 
scales  are  literally  a  pair  of  weights ;  that 
is,  cridently  two  bags  of  money,  of  whieh 
one  is  of  course  the  standard.  A  toribe 
stands  by  to  make  a  record  of  the  Tilve. 


BALSAM,  contracted  into  balm,  is  a  word 
imitated  from  the  Hebrew  Bak-tahm,  the 
Aramaic  form  of  which  inserts  an  /  between 
the  two  syllables,  thus  making  our '  balsam/ 
The  term  denotes  a  tree  producing  a  Teiy 
sweet,  odoriferous,  transparent,  medicinal 
resin,  denominated  in  Hebrew  Tzoree,  This 
is  in  substance  all  that  we  venture  to  afllrm 
respecting  the  tree  and  its  product,  alter 
all  the  learned  labour  that  has  been  spent 
on  the  point  The  diffloulties  which  beset 
the  subject  may  hare  arisen  from  the  an- 
cients designating  by  the  name  here  men- 
tioned sereral  aromatic  shrubs  and  sweet 
spices,  in  consequence  of  the  high  value  at 
which  the  true  balsam  stood.  Many  words 
have  also  been  spent  to  little  purpose,  in 
attempting  to  ascertain  whether  the  genuine 
balsam  is  indigenous  in  Palestine.  If 
South-eastern  Arabia  was  its  native  eonntiy, 
it  appears  to  have  grown  in  Judea  at  a  very 
early  period.  Thus  Hie  production  of  balm 
in  Oilead  (on  the  east  of  the  Jordan)  was, 
when  Joseph  was  a  youth  (cir.  1780,  A.C. ),  so 
great,  that  merchants  traded  in  it  with  other 
spices,  carrying  them  down  into  Egypt, 
which  was  then  the  great  mart  for  them,  in 
oonsequence  of  the  large  demands  for  aro- 
matios  made  by  the  embalmers  (Oen. 
xzxvii.  29).  Gileadlong  continued  famous 
for  producing  balsam:  hence  the  inquiry 
of  the  prophet,  —  'Is  there  no  balm  in 
Oilead  f  no  physician  there  ?'-^  words  which 
show  in  what  high  repute  the  curative  qua- 
lities of  balsam  were  held,  and  give  reason 
to  conclude  that  medical  men  &ced  them- 
selves in  that  territory  in  consequence  of 
its  abounding  in  the  plant  ( Jer.  viii.  23 ; 
zlvi.  II).  Jericho  was  also  celebrated  for 
producing  balsam,  a  tax  on  which  was,  in 
the  time  of  the  Romans,  a  source  of  reve- 
nue orei  which  Zaccheus  presided  (Luke 
xix.  2).  Ancient  writers  agree  in  ascribing 
distinguished  qualities  and  a  very  high 
value  to  this  perAnne.  Justin,  who  makes 
the  vicinity  of  Jericho  the  sole  spot  where 


it  was  produced,  goes  to  the  length  of  re 
presenting  the  balsam  as  the  source  of 
national  wealth  to  the  Jews.  Josephus,  who 
doubUess  was  well  acquainted  with  the  tree, 
says  it  grew  at  Jeridio,  and  describes  its 
product  as  '  an  ointment  of  all  the  most 
precious;  which,  on  an  incision  made  in 
the  wood  with  a  sharp  stone,  distils  out 
thenoe '  (Antiq.  ziv.  4, 1).  He  also  reports 
it  as  the  current  belief,  tiiat  the  plant  was 
brou^^t  lh>m  the  East,  and  presented  to 
Solomon  by  the  queen  of  Sheba.  The 
<  balsam  of  Mecca '  is  in  great  repute  in  Pa- 
lestine at  the  present  day,  being  accounted 
an  antidote  for  all  distempers.  The  Arabs, 
in  the  Holy  Land,  prepare  an  oil  out  of  the 
kernel  of  the  Sakkum  fknit,  whieh  they 
term  haltam.  This  is  the  so-called  oil  ot 
Jericho,  or  Zaocheus-oil,  whieh  is  highly 
prised  as  a  medicine  by  pilgrims  and  the 
Arabs. 

BANNER. — Wherever  large  bodies  oi 
men  are  eongregated  together  for  a  common 
purpose,  some  signs  of  distinction  are  neces- 
sary, if  not  for  the  maintenance  of  disci- 
pline, yet  for  the  accomplishment  of  their 
object  Entigns,  bsnners,  or  standards, 
must,  in  consequence,  have  been  employed 
by  the  Hebrews  soon  alter  their  liberation 
fi^m  Egyptian  bondage.  Accordingly,  such 
means  of  distinction  were  in  common  use  in 
the  wanderings  over  the  desert  In  Numb, 
i.  62 ;  ii.  2,  &c.  we  find  that  each  of  the 
twelve  tribes  had  its  own  banner  or  stan- 
dard, round  which  all  who  belonged  to  the 
same  tribe  were  to  rally,  and  by  the  guidance 
of  which  they  were  (o  march.  (Gomp.  Isa.  zL 
10;  xlix.  22).  War,  especially,  necessitates 
the  use  of  ensigns ;  and  for  this  unworthy 
pnipose  standards  were  employed  among  the 
Israelites  (Jer.  iv.  6,  21),  as  also  in  token 
of  victory  (Jer.  1.  2.   Cant  vi.  4). 

What  the  Hebrew  standards  were,  or  what 
they  bore  upon  them,  cannot  be  determined 
with  certainty,  though,  if  we  set  much  value 
on  the  statements  of  the  Rabbins  in  regard 


BAP 


125 


BAP 


to  the  question,  we  eoald  easily  fiuiiish 
many  details.  There  are  two  Hehrew  words 
which  are  translated  yariously,  hanner,  sl^ 
ensigUf  sail  (Isa.  zxziii.  23  ),  standard.  Both 
these  terms  are  derived  from,  words  whose 
root-meaning  is  'to  shine/  'to  glitter.' 
Whence  it  would  appear  that  some  metal, 
probably  brass,  was  employed  at  first  for 
standards,  as  undoubtedly  it  was  among 
other  ancient  nations.  In  process  of  time, 
howeyer,  some  species  of  coloured  doth 
seems  to  have  come  into  use,  so  forming 
banners  (in  the  present  sense  of  the  word), 
'  flags,*  and '  colours ; '  an  iniierenee  which  we 
deduce  from  one  of  these  two  words  being 
employed  in  Isa.  zxxiii.  23  (comp.  Ezek. 
xxrii.  7),  to  denote  the  sail  of  a  ship. 

We  may  also  arrire  at  a  probable  coiqee- 
ture  respecting  the  distinctiye  character  of 
the  Hebrew  standards.  If  the  ensigns  of  the 
twelye  tribes  were  all  of  brass,  how  were 
they  known  from  each  other?  The  employ- 
ment of  different  colours  seems  the  most 
obTious  expedient  But  the  diyersities  thus 
gained  woiUd  not  be  sufficiently  marked  and 
decided  for  the  purpose.  Forms  would  be 
far  better,  as  admitting  of  the  greatest  oontra< 
riety.  But  what  fonns  ?  This  seems  to  hare 
been  decided  by  the  highest  authority  known 
among  a  nomad  people, — their  chief  or 
emir ;  for  Jacob,  in  his  dying  blessing,  as- 
signed the  characteristics  of  the  seyeral  tribes, 
thus  determining  as  tlieir  coat  of  arms,  so 
the  figure  of  their  standards, — '  Judah  is  a 
lion's  whelp;'  'Issachar  is  a  strong  ass, 
couching  down  between  two  burdens  ;*  '  Dan 
shall  be  a  serpent ;'  'Napthali  is  a  hind  let 
loose;'  'Joseph  is  a  fruitful  bough'  (Gen. 
xlix.).    Kor  are  these  tokens  taken  at  ran- 


dom :  they  are  in  each  case  emblematical  of 
some  historical  or  personal  peculiarity.  And 
it  is  scarcely  credible,  that,  wheo  so  obyious 
and  so  suitable  a  resource  as  this  was  at 
hand,  Moses  should  haye  adopted  the  en- 
signs of  his  people  as  chance  might  offer, 
or  caprice  dictate.  Certainly  these  distine- 
tiye  tokens  were  not  soon  lost  from  memory. 
To  them  the  Sayiour  himself  owes  two  of 
his  appellations,  the  Lion  and  the  Lamb. 

The  benediction,  whence  we  deriye  the 
escutcheons  of  the  Hebrews,  was  pronounced 
in  Egypt ;  and  here  Moses  would  find  him- 
self only  confirmed  in  adopting  the  symboli- 
cal ensigns  suggested  by  the  dying  patriarch. 
In  Egypt  each  battalion  and  each  company 
had  its  particular  standard,  which  represen- 
ted a  sacred  subject, — a  king's  name,  a  sacred 
boat,  a  sacred  animal,  or  some  emblematical 
deyiee;  theobjectschosenbeingsuch  aswere 
regarded  by  the  troops  wiUi  a  superstitions 
feeling  of  respect,  in  order  to  afford  aid  in 
rousing  and  sustaining  their  courage;  nor  are 
instances  wanting,  in  Boman  history,  of  the 
wonderfbl  effect  produced  in  rallying  a 
discomfited  host,  by  a  timely  display  of  the 
sacred  standards  of  the  army.  Plutarch 
even  goes  so  far  as  to  refer  the  origin  of 
animd  worship  among  the  Egyptians,  to  the 
emblem  chosen  by  Osiris  as  his  ensign. 
We  supply  a  few  specimens  of  Egyptian 
standards,  which,  with  the  preyious  remarks, 
go  to  confirm  the  opinion  we  haye  advanced, 
^at  the  standards  of  the  twelye  tribes  were, 
in  each  case,  a  brass  figure  of  the  animal, 
suspended  on  a  pole  (a  spear,  Diodoms  says, 
i.  86,  was  used  in  Egypt),  by  which  the 
particular  tribe  was  betokened :  -^ 


BAPTISM  (G.  dippmg),  —  The  use  of 
water  in  religious  obseryanees  has  been 
explained  under  the  article  Ablutioit.  This 
use  preyailed  generally  among  ancient  and 
especially  oriental  nations,  who  practised 
washings  and  lustrations  of  yarious  kinds. 
Tertullian  states  that,  in  Egypt,  disciples 
were  initiated  into  the  religion  of  Isis  and 
of  Mitfara  by  means  of  washing,  and  that 
the  gods  themselyes  were  subjected  to  ablu- 
tion.   <  They  ereiywhere  absolye  by  water. 


which  they  cany  round,  and  sprinkle  upon 
yillages,  houses,  temples,  and  entire  cities. 
Men  are  dipped  at  tSe  Apollinarian  and  Pe- 
lusian  games.  This,  they  think,  sets  them 
free  from  their  peijnries,  and  accomplishes 
their  regeneration.  If  any  one  imbrued  his 
hands  iu  the  blood  of  a  fellow-creature,  he 
expiated  his  crime  by  purifying  water'  {Dt 
Bapt.  0.  0).  Traces  of  the  use  of  water  in 
religious  obseryanees  among  the  Jews  may 
be  found  in  Gen.  xxxy.  2,  oomp.  with  Exod. 


BAP                     126  BAP 

six.  10.     Washing  wis  espieMly  required  (Aeto  ziiL  16,  fi0, 48),  and  were  held  bound 

(Exod.xzix.4)  amengtfaeritettobeiued  in  to  obsenre  only  Ike  seven  Noachian  prooepts 

hallowing  Aaron  and  his  sons  to  minister  (Osn.  is.  1 — ^7).    II.  Proselytes  of  ri^^ 

in  the  priest's  offioe :  — '  Thoa  shall  bring  eonsness  ;    that    is,  oompleto  proselytes ; 

them  onto  ibe  door  of  the  tabemaele,  and  those  idio  had  not  oxily  given  nphealhenismy 

ahalt  WMh  them  with  water'  (zL  12).    A  and  eonformed  to  the  moral  reqniremento 

laver  of  brass  was  ^so  appointed,  whereat  spoken  o^  bat  were  eiroumeised,  snd  thus 

Aaron  and  his  sons  were  to  wash  their  were  formally  inlxodnoed  into  the  Jewish 

hsads  snd  their  feet  when  they  went  into  ehnroh.    These,  it  is  siBrmed  by  some,  and 

the   tabemaole,  or  when  they  wend  near  denied  by  others,  were  sobjeeted  to  the  ini- 

to  the  altar  to  minister.    The  penalty  of  oe-  tiatovy  rite  of  bi^tiam.      This  is  net  the 

gleeting  these  washings  was  death  (Ezod.  plaee  to  discuss  a  purely  antiquarian  ques- 

^v»- 17,  atq.f  oon^  Lev.  viii.  6).    Washing  tion.    It  must  snfBee  to  state,  with  a  remark 

of  the  peiWMi  and  of  die  elotiies  wm  prao-  or  two,  that  our  impression  is  in  favour  of 

tised  abo  as  •  purifleatioti  from  litoal  un*  the  affirmative*    There  was  a  propria^  in 

elsaimess  or  leprous  eonteminatioa  (Lev.  sueh  an  aet;  it  was  analogous  to  obser- 

'si.9d;  sir.  7.   Kumb.  xix.  7,  sag.).    The  vanees  oo-evsl with  the Mosaie  institutions; 

use  of  water  on  the  eleansing  of  the  leper  is  Ibr  a  heathen  was  altogether  unelean,  and 

xemaikahle.     The  leper  being  bron^t  to  may  well  have  been  required  to  signify  his 

the  priest,  the  latter,  after   the  curs  was  purifleatian  from  the  leprosy  of  idolatry  by 

elbeted,  was  to  kill  a  bird  over  running  wa-  the  use  of  water.    And  though  we  are  aware 

ter,  and  to  sprinkle  the  leper  seven  times ;  of  the  disposition  of  the  Bsbbins  to  daim 

iJler  i^iieh,  he  that  was  to  be  eleaased  had  tn  undue  antiquity  for  their  religious  ofaser- 

to  wash  his  clothes,  and  wash  himself  in  vancea,  yet  their  evidence  for  the  existence 

water  (Lev.  ziv.  2).    Naaman  was  directed  of  this  baptism  of  proselytes  of  rlj^teous- 

by  Elishu  to  wash  in  the  Jordan  seven  ness  is  admitted  to  be  valid  in  regard  to 

timee.    When  hie  hesitation  had  been  over-  a  somewhat  later  time  than  the  destruction 

eome  by  his  servsnte,  idio  uiged  him  to  of  Jerusalem,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  see  what 

*waah  and  be  dean,'  *he  dipped  himself  peculiar   cireumstsnces  there  were  which 

seven  times  in  the  Jordan*  and  his  flesh  should  lead  to  ite  introduction  between  the 

came  again  like  unto  the  flesh  of  a  litde  admitted  epoch  and  the  death  of  our  Lord, 

child,  and  he  was  clean '  (2  Kings  v.  10,  Nor  can  it  be  accounted  an  inoonaiderable 

9eq.),    Cleansing  is  thus  used  metephori-  fact  in  the  ease,  that  the  practice  of  John 

cslly  for  moral  purifleation— audi  a  change  in  biq>tising  proselytes  was  regarded  oer- 

of  head  and  heart  as  led  to  the  renuncia-  tsinly  as  nothing  eztraordinaiy  or  unusual, 

tion  of  idolatry,  and  the  pure  wordi^  of  if  not  as,  in  the  ease  of  a  great  outward  and 

Jehovah  (Eiek.  Bocvii  23.    Zedi.  ziii.  1).  inward  change,  a  matter  of  course,  a  thing 

So  Judith,  before  die  sou^^t '  the  Lord  God  congruous  with  prevdent  ideas  snd  usages, 

of  Israd  to  direct  her  way  to  the  raising  up  Moreover,  it  is  not  easy  to  understand  how 

of  the  children  of  her  people,'  went  out  and  Josephus  could  mention  John's  baptising 

washed  hersdf  in  a  fountain  of  water  (Judith  in  the  way  he  does,  as  uusnipriaing  and 

th.  7,  8).  naturd  on  the  part  of  a  great  mord  refor- 

Henoe  it  is  dear  that  the  Jews  were  mer,  bad  the  rite  then,  for  the  first  time, 

accustomed  to  the  idea  of   bathing  and  been  introduced  as  a  symbol  of  repentance 

sprinkling,  generally  of  the  use  of  water,  in  and  mord  reformation  (Antiq.  xviii.  5,  2). 

connection  with  religious  observances.   Nor  John  the  Baptist  stood  at  no  great  dis- 

does  the  practice  appear  to  have  decreased  tance  from  the  sect  of  Essenes,  and  may 

with  the  liqpse  of  time.     When,  in  the  later  have  been  influenced  by  them  in  making 

periods  of  their  histoiy,  the  Essenes  came  baptism  introductoiy  to  his  school;  a  view 

into  existence,  they  employed  water   as  a  which  Is  not  incompatible  with  the  divine 

symbol  of  that  mord  piuity  whidi  was  the  origin  of  his  baptism,  which  Tertollian 

speoid  aim  of  their  ooUegiate  life;  and  even  hdd  to  have  been  commanded  of  Ood.    And 

made  the  use  of  it  a  requirement  on  the  if  we  look  into  the  pages  of  the  Old  Teste- 

part  of  new  converts,  when  they  were  ini-  ment,  we  may  readily  find  passages  which 

tiated  into  the  body.     (Joseph.  Jewidi  WaTi  agree  in  spirit  with  the  nature  of  John's 

ii.  8,  7.   Antiq.  xviiL  6,  2.)  baptism.    Thus,  Ps.  IL  2  :— 

I    It  cannot,  therefore,  be  considered  unpro-  ■  Wash  me  tboroacbly  from  my  idqidtj , 

bable  that  baptism  was,  at  the  tiipe  when  And  oieanae  me  flram  my  sin.' 

the  Qospd  narratives   begin,   required  of  Isa.  L  16,  'Wash  you,  make  you  clean, 

prosdytes  from  heathenism  by  the  Jewish  put  away  die  evil  of  your  doings '  (see  dso 

church.    Prosdytinn  then,  and  aome  time  Isa.  xxxii.  15  ;  xUv.  8.    Ezek.  xxxvi.  2d), 

before,  was  proceeding  on   a  large   scde.  This  rite,  however,  which  we  see  grew  natn- 

There  were  two  kinds  of   proselytes :  —  rally  out  of  pre-existent  ideas  snd  usages, 

I.  ThoM  of  the  gate ;   who,  admiring  the  was  the  token  of  a  merely  preliminaiy  sys- 

spirituality  and  mord  elevation  of  the  law  tern,  the  great  aim  of  which  was  to  prepare 

of  Moses,  became  worshippers  of  Jehovah  the  way  of  the  Lord  by  turning  the  men  oi 


BAP                        127  BAP 

ftMi  fenenHon  tma  monl  evil  to  uuml  with  its  obterraiioe.    These  eppeer  lo  ham 

good  (Matt  iii.  1,  $eq.  Aett  xix.  4).  hegon  oTen  in  the  epoetolio  age.    Wilh  Uie 

Into  this  preparatory  sohool«  howvTer,  aid  of  sneh  an  assnniption,  at  least,  tibs 

Jesus  himself  sought  and  reoeWed  admis-  difficult  paasage  in  1  Cor.  zr.  20  maj  pro- 

aion  by  baptism,  while  its  head  hesitated,  bably  be  best  explained:^- 'Else  what  shall 

and  Heayen  clearly  signified  its  approval  they  do  which  are  baptieed  for  the  dead^  if 

(Matt  iii.  18—17.    Mask  L  m*Il.    Luke  the  dead  rise  not  at  all?     Why,  thea,  an 

iii.  21.  John  i.  29,  teq.).    At  the  very  com-  they  baptised  for  the  dead  f '    The  pnotioe 

mencement  of  his  ministry,  the  Sanour  at  seems  to  have  been  this:-— diaoiples   ot 

least  permitted  baptism  to  be  practised  by  Christ  nnderwent  a  second  baptism  in  the 

his  disciples,  of  ^ose  baptism,  however,  place  or  on  behalf  of  their  departed  ftionds, 

we  have  no  certain  information ;  and  it  is  in  order  thai  they  might  thna  ptooiire  for 

eoqpressly  recorded  that  Jesus  himself  did  the  dead  the  advantages  which  they  Aem- 

not  baptise  (John  iii  22,  26;  iv.  1,  2).    An  selves  enjoyed  in  being  baptised  members 

eipress  sanction,  however,  was  given  to  this  of  the  chnrah.    This  ftiot  the  apostle  mskes 

rite  by  our  Lord  shortly  bef<M«  his  depar-  use  of  as  a  sort  of  ar^wMnfiMi  mC  hamkum, 

tore  iirom  the  world,  when  he  directed  his  without  intending  to  give  the  idse  ideas  on 

apostles  to  *  go  and  teach  all  nations,  bap-  which  the  practice  rested,  any  sanction  or 

tising  them  in  die  name  of  the  Father,  and  support     The  moml  oondition,  hswever, 

of  the  Son»  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit'  (Matt  which  baptism  requires,  and  the  moral  obli- 

zzviiL  19) ;  agreeably  whh  his  own  earlier  gations  which  it  involves,  are  dearly  set 

declaration,  *  Except  a  man  be  bom  of  water  forth  in  Holy  Scripture.    Besides  the  places 

and  of  the  Spirit,  he  cannot  enter  into  the  already  referred  to,  the  reader  should  study 

kingdom  of  Ood' (John iii.  5).  In  obedience  Bom.  vi  1 — ^18.    The  rite  was  so  under- 

to  these  directions,  his  messengers  went  forth  stood  and  so  expounded  by  the  iqpostles,  aa 

and  baptised  both  individuals  and  great  to  encourage  the  unity  of  the  spirit  in  the 

numbers.     In  Acts  ii.  41,  three  thousand  bond  of  peace,  being  in  itself  a  token  and 

persons  were  at  once  added  to  the  church  a  pledge  of  fellowship  in  that  one  church, 

by  this  rite.    In  chap.  xvi.  15,  Lydia  of  whose  head  is  Christ,  whose  ^irit  is  love, 

lliyatira,  and  her  houiBChold,  are  baptised,  and  whose  woA  and  duty  is  the  salvation  of 

In  the  same  way  the  jailor,  at  Philippi, '  he  the  world  (1  Cor.  xii.  4,  §eq,    OaL  iii.  27. 

and  all  his,'  axe  of  a  sudden  converted  and  Eph.  iv.). 

biqptised  (Acts  zvL  88.  Ephes.  v.  25—27).  We  have  already  intimated  that  tibere  is 

Hie  formula  employed  in  these  lustrations,  no  record  of  the  baptism  of  the  twelve  apos- 

BO  fur  as  it  is  recorded  in  the  Acts,  is  dif-  ties.     The  same  may  be  said  of  Apollos, 

fBient  in  words,  but  similar  in  substance,  to  who  yet  deserves  to  be  plsced  near  them 

that  set  forth  by  Jesus:  —  In  Acts  viii.  87,  He  was  *  fervent  in  spirit,  and  taught  dili- 

'  I  bdieve   in   the  Lord    Jesus  Christ ; '  gently  the  things  of  the  Lord,  knowing  only 

z.  48,  '  in  tibe  name  of  the  Lord ; '  xix.  5,  &e  baptism  of  John'  (Acts  xviii.  25). 

•  in  tiie  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus.'    What  *  To  baptise,'  or  *  to  be  baptised,'  from  its 

we  find  said  in  Scripture  respecting  the  for-  root-meaning  of  to  immerUi  came  to  signify 

giveness  in  baptism  of  past  sins   (Acts  figuratively,  to  be  altogether  in  either  good 

ii.  88,  'for  the  remission  of  sins ; '  Maik  or  evil ;  and  hence  to  denote  deep  sufferings 

ZTi.  10.  Gal.  iiL  27.  1  Pet  iii  21) ;  end  of  (Matt  xx.  22, 28),  or  the  ftill  ei^oyment  of 

the  regeneration  and  renewal  of  tiie  soul  spiritual  blessings  (Acts  i.  5) :  hence  also 

(Eph.  V.  26, 27.   1  Cor.  vL  11.  Tit  iii.  5)  ;  another  derivative  import,  to  have  a  part  in, 

tiiese  things  are  not  to  be  taken  of  baptism  to  he  a  ehtarer  uriih,  to  he  henefUed  by;  as  in 

considered  hi  itself,  but  as  united  with  faith  Bom.  vL  8.  1  Cor.  x.  2 ;  xii.  18.  Gal.  iiL  27. 

and  newness  of  lift  (Acts  iL  88).    '  JZepenl,  The  rite  of  baptism  has  been  grievously 

and  be  baptised'  (John  iii  6).    And  even  abused  by  superstition,  as  may  be  exempli- 

Panl  understood  Mb  eonmilssion  Ihnn  his  fled  in  the  practices  and  Motions  oonnected 

Mastsr,  so  as  to  make  bi^tising  subordinate  with  the  still  prevalent  annual  observance 

to  pieaohing  the  gospel ;  nor  did  he  baptise  in  Palestine,  where  thouaands  of  pilgrims 

any  of  the  membws   of  the  church  at  make  a  journey  from  Jerusalem  through  the 

Corinth,  but  Crispus  and  Gaius   (1  Cor.  plain  of  Jericho  to  the  banks  of  the  Jordan; 

i.  14— -16).    The  state  of  mind  (and  the  where,  on  the  supposed  anniversary  of  our 

influences  leading  to  that  state)  which  im-  Saviouz^s  baptism,  they  bathe  in  the  waters 

mediately  preceded  conversion  and  the  con-  of  that  sacred  stream, — young  and  old,  sick, 

sequent  b^tism,  was  various,  though  gene-  inflrm,  paralytic,  — in  the  frill  belief  that 

rally  it  involved  contrition,  repentance,  and  they  thus  atone  for  their  sins,  and  gain  eter- 

faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (Acts  ii.  88 ;  nal  life.    A  return  £rom  this  holy  ceremony 

viiL  Id.sey.  ,*  x.  44,  eeq.;  si.  15,  $eq. ;  xv.  8 ;  has  been  thus  described :  — '  We  halted  to 

six.  6).    The  forgetting  of  the  essentially  observe  the  passing  train   which    moved 

moral  character  of  baptism  has  been  the  slowly  by  us,  while  Sie  rear  still  rested  upon 

great  source  of  the  corruptiokis  lAich  in-  the  bank  of  Jordan.    All  were  engaged  in 

vaded  the  Christian  churSh  in  connection  singing  hymns,  and  I  thought  I  had  never 


BAR                      128  BAR 

seen  to  msny  happy  faces.    They  had  at*  on  others,  and  therefore  gaye  the  people  th» 
tained  the  summit  of  earthly  bliss ;  and  an  option  of  the  life  of  Barabbas,  or  that  of 
indeseribable  air  of  satisfsotion — the  beam-  Christ     Instigated  by  the  priests  and  ttieir 
ing-forth  of   heartfelt  joy  —  rested  upon  own  Tile  passions,  they  sayed  the  mnrderaTf 
erery  eonntenaaee.    There  was  in  no  few,  and  demanded  the  execution  of  our  Lord* 
an  expression  of  eestasy,  and  many  eyes  Beyerrnoe   to   Christ   appears   to   haTS 
overflowed  under  tibe  inllnenee  of  strong  eaused  the  word  J€$tii  to  be  dropped  from 
emotions.    All  saluted  us  as  they  passed,  the  tett,  which    there  is  good  reason  to 
with  a  warmth  and  cordiality  that  went  di«  believe  stood,  in  Matthew,  originally  before 
rectly  to  my  heart    Neariy  every  one  of  the  Barabbas,  msking  a  part  of  his  name ;  the 
▼ast  multitude  exhibited  some  memorial  of  words  of  Pilate  would,  with  'Jesus '  inserted, 
his  visit  to  the  holy  waters.    Some  had  long  nm  thus:  *  Whom  will  ye  that  I  release  unto 
breaches  of  the  Jordan  willow.    Almost  all  you  t  Jesus  son  of  Abba,  or  Jesus  called 
had  walking-sticks  of  the  same  material;  Christ?'   Jesus  was  a  common  nsme  among 
and  several,  less  aflbcted  by  the  prevailing  the  Jews  (Matt  xxvii.  1ft.  Markxv.6.  Luka 
enthusiasm  than  by  the  desire  of  gain,  had  zxiii.  17.  John  xviii.  89.  Acts  iii.  14).  « 
their  beaate  loaded  with  the  trunks  of  eon-  BABBABIAN  is  a  word  which  with  us 
aiderable  trees,  which  were  to  be  wrought  has  a  reference  to  the  want  of  culture  and 
into  crucifixes,  caskets,  and  toys.    The  ce-  the  scale  in  human  society,  on  the  part  of 
remonies  at  tibe  river  consisted  in  chanting  those  of  whom  it  is  used;  bat  originally  it 
a  short  preliminary  prayer,  after  which  the  regsrded,  in  its  primary  application,  the 
pilgrims  let  themselves  down  into  ^e  water  mode  of  speech  of  nations  that  were  not  of 
as  well  as  they  could,  holding  to  the  boug^  pnre  Hellenic  blood.    That  speech,  whether 
flut  overhsag  the  bsaks,  aad  the  stronger  hi  consequence  of  a  less  fevourable  struo- 
or  bolder  wading  or  swimming  out  from  the  ton  of  the  oigans,  or  a  less  advanced  per- 
shore.     Two  unfortunate  persons — forta*  sonal  culture,  was,  even  in  Aose  who  used 
nate  they  were  probably  regarded  by  their  the  Greek  tongue,  msrked  by  rough,  thick, 
associates  —  were  carried  down  the  stream,  hurried,  or  imperfect  intonations,  and  became, 
and  drowned.    I  did  not  learn  that  sny  at-  >n  consequence,  an  obvious  ground  of  dis- 
tempt  was  made  to  recover  their  bodies.    It  tinction.    The  ears  of  the  Athenians,  espe- 
would  probably  have  becm  thought  unkind  cially,  were  very  susceptible  of  the  diversities 
to  deny  them  so  holy  a  burial.    What  A  of  tone,  accent,  and  dialect;   and,  readily 
strange  exhibition  of  Christisaity  was  here  1  detecting  any  provlneial  or  foreign  peeu- 
In  this  great  assembly  of  representatives  liarities  in  a  man's  speech,  that  people  were 
from  the  Christian  nations  of  the  worlds  led,  by  their  national  aad  individual  pride, 
how  little  was  there  to  encourage  the  pious  to  give  these  discoveries  utterance,  and  -to 
heart  1    An  ignorant  horde  from  a  score  of  Mt  aa  invidious  mark  on  the  disqualified 
nations,  their  bosoms  beating  high  with  the  person.    The  word  barbarian  expressed  this 
prospect  of  washing  away  all  their  sins,  aad  disqualiflcatioa.     Its  natural  antithesis  was 
securiag  eternal  hi^iness,  by  bathing,  at  a  OreeL    Hence  the  family  of  man  was  divided 
given  hour,  in  the  Jordan !    For  this  grand  hito  two  great  classes,  <  Greek  and  Bar- 
consummation  of  their  desires  they  had  barian,'  as  by  their  social  condition  they 
made  the  greatest  sacrifices,  and  compassed  were  also  dirided  into  two  great  classes, 
sea  and  land '  (Olia's  Travels,  vol.  iL  p.  217,  '  bond  and  free.'    The  Bomans,  on  becom- 
s^.).  hig  masters  of  the  world,  adopted,  with 
BABABBAS  (C.  Ahbtf$  9<m),  one  of  a  other  prejudices,  this  «M#*n«Lrtitg  distinction; 


class  of  men  who,  at  a  later  period  espe*  taking  care,  however,  to  include  themselves 
cially,  availing  themselves  of  the  dependent  in  the  favoured  class.  With  them,  accord- 
and  disturbed  state  of  Judea,  lived  under  ingly,  all  were  barbarians  but  the  Greeks 
the  name  of  Biearii  (dagger-men),  in  aa  and  Bomans.  It  is  in  this  classical  sense 
slmost  constant  state  of  guerilla  warfue,  of  the  term  that  it  is  used  hj  Paul,  ^o 
which  ttiey  carried  on  under  various  prs-  was  acquainted  with  the  Greek,  and  pro- 
texts  both  against  the  Bomans  aad  their  bably  the  Latin,  literature,  in  relation  to  the 
own  countrymen,  solely  with  a  view  to  their  inhabitants  of  Malta  (Acts  xzviii.  3,  4), 
own  selfish  and  wicked  ends ;  and  so  united  who  were,  for  the  most  part,  of  Carthsgiaiaa 
in  themselves  the  attributes  of  rebel,  rob-  blood.  In  Bom.  L  14,  he  appears  to  have 
ber,  end  murderer.  Barabbas,  with  certain  employed  the  veiy  common  phrase,  *  Greeks 
accomplices,  lay  in  prison  under  sentenoe  and  Barbarians,'  as  supplied  by  memoiy 
of  deaUi,  when  the  last  hour  of  our  blessed  from  his  flassical  studies  (comp.  Col.  iiL 
Lord  spproaehed.  Without  any  sanction  11).  These  explanations  throw  light  on 
on  the  part  of  the  law,  it  had  grown  cus-  Paul's  language  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  11,  whei«  ttiose 
tomary,  perhaps  as  a  fevour  ikom  the  Bo-  who  speak  in  unknown  tongues  are  said  to 
msns  (John  xviii.  89),  for  the  governor  to  be  bsrbsrians  to  Paul,  and  he  a  barbarian 
release  a  prisoner  at  the  feast  of  the  Pass-  to  them ;  where  the  term  is  nearly  equivalent 
over.  Pilate,  in  his  conriction  of  the  inno-  to  'foreigner.' 
cence  of  Jesus,  wished  to  throw  his  death        No  nation  has  probably  been  free  from 


B  A  R  12<>.  BAR 

the  Tuiity  which  fonnfl  the  groundwork  of  days  of  Paul,  wora  spread  abroad  over  the 
this  distinction.  DiTersities  of  language  are  world,  practising  arts  of  deception  for  selfish 
most  noticeable ;  they  are  also  most  nmne-  purposes.  Having  not  unfittingly  character- 
rous ;  every  family  has  at  least  an  intonation  ised  Elymas  as  an  impostor,  Paul  says, 
peculiar  to  itsmembers.  Hence  speech,  which  with  as  much  simplicity  as  force, — 'Behold 
was  given  to  unite,  is,  under  the  workings  of  the  hand  of  the  Lord  is  upon  ihee ;  and  thou 
little  passions,  made  to  sunder  the  children  shall  be  blind,  not  seeing  the  sun,  for  a 
of  men.  Those  who  dweU  in  the  metropolis  season.'  Then,  in  language  which  of  itself 
are  sundered  from  those  who  dwell  in  the  makes  a  picture,  and  so  assures  us  that  it  fell 
provinces;  townspeople  are  sunderedfromvil-  from  the  pen  of  an  eye-witness,  the  record 
lagers;  tradesmen  from  tillers  of  the  ground:  adds, — *  Immediately  there  fell  on  him  a 
in  an  especial  manner  the  rich  snd  educated  mist  and  a  darkness ;  and  he  went  about 
are  sundered  and  alienated  from  the  poor  seeking  some  to  lead  him  by  the  hand.' 
and  the  (so  called)  uneducated.  Yet  ought  The  *  deputy,'  thus  seeing  his  adviser  smitten, 
they  to  be  all  one  in  Christ  Jesus.  They  and  his  art  condenmed  in  the  stroke,  may 
have  all  one  human  heart;  the  alleged  di-  well  have  passed  over  into  the  Christian 
versities  of  culture  are  to  no  small  extent  camp.  And  thus  miracle  without,  operating 
imaginary ;  and  the  man  who  can  look  be-  on  faith  within,  —  good  seed  faUing  on  good 
neadi  the  mere  exterior  will  often  find  the  ground,  —  convertai  to  Christ  a  man  of  no 
greatest  worth,  as  well  as  the  truest  polite-  mean  standing  and  no  small  influence  in  life, 
ness,  in  connection  with  an  unpolished  But  the  dews  of  heaven  themselves  fall  in 
accent  and  grammatical  inaccuracies.  True  vain  on  stony  ground ;  and  probably  the  de- 
culture  lies  essentially  in  the  heart.  ceiver  Elymas  remained  a  deceiver  to  tlie 
A  diversity  in  pronunciation  is  recorded  end  of  his  days.  The  only  way  to  gain  the 
(Jndg.  xii.  fi)  to  have  been  made  use  of  truth  is  to  seek  that  divine  good  in  the  love 
by  the  Gileadites,  after  they  had  routed  the  of  it.  A  sound  scholar  and  a  true  Christian 
Ephraimites,  in  order  to  detect  the  latter,  has  well  remaiked  on  this  miracle, — *  There 
while  they  attempted  in  their  flight  to  pass  is  not  the  faintest  plausibility  in  arguing 
the  Jordan,  where  the  Qfleadites  had  stationed  from  this  case  for  the  civil  punishment  of 
themselves  to  out  off  the  retreat  The  word  any,  even  the  rudest  assailimts  of  Chris- 
given  as  a  test  was  ShibboleUi  (an  ear  of  tianily.' 

com,  also  a  stream),  which  the  Ephraimites        BARLEY  was  anciently  cultivated  by  the 

in  their  dialect  pronounced  i9i6^fe/A,  leaving  Egyptians  (Exod.  ix.  31)  and  the  Hebrews 

out  the  sound  represented  by  the  k,  and  so  (Lev.  xxvii.  16.  Joel  i.  11),  partly  as  fodder 

lost  their  lives,  to  the  number  of  forty-two  for  cattle  (I  Kings  iv.  28),  partly  to  make 

thousand.    At  the  present  day,  those  who  bread  for  Uie  poorer  class  of  people  (Judg. 

love  to  apply  tests  of  this  kind  only  degrade  viL  13.   2  Kings  iv.  42.  John  vi.  9).    Bar- 

the  character  and  impair  the  happiness  of  ley  in  Palestine  was  sown  at  the  time  of  the 

their  Ephraimite  brethren.  autumnal  rains,  that  is,  October —  Novem- 

BAB-J£SUS(H.) — This  name,  compound-  her,  and  reaped  in  our  spring,  March  — 

ed  of  two  words,  signifies  the  Mtm  of  JetuSf  April ;  the  latter  being  the  month  in  which 

being  formed  after  tibe  same  manner  as  Bar-  the  chief  part  is  gathered  in. 
abbas,  Bar-jonas,  and  Bar-tholomew.   It  was        BABNABAS  (C.  ton  of  eotuokUion,   Acts 

bomeby  a  certain  sorcerer,  a  ftdse  prophet,  a  iv.  36;  A.D.  33),  a  name  which  Joses,  a 

Jew,  called  also  Elymas  (in  Arabic,  magiekm*f  Levite  of  the  iale  of  Cyprus,  received  on  be- 

who  is  recorded  (Acts  xuL  6 — 18)  to  have  coming  a  Christian.    He  is  found  in  intimate 

resisted  the  attempt  of  the  Apostie  to  the  connection  with  the   apostles  in  the  veiy 

Gentiles  when  at  Paphos,  nn  the  western  cradle  of  the  apostolic  church,  and,  if  the 

coast  of  the  island  of  Cyprus:  tke  latter,  hav-  evidence  of  ecclesiastical  historians  may  be 

ing  been  sent  for  by  the  pro-eonsul  Sergins  credited,  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples. 

Panlus,  smote,  at  the  termination,  as  it  would  He  first  appears  in  the  pages  of  the  New 

appear,  of  a  severe  eonfliot  of  words,  tibe  Testament  as  a  benefactor  of  the  church, 

diviner  with  temporary  blindness,  and  so  The  Mosaic  law,  which  forbade  the  land  of  the 

oompleted  the  conversion  of   the    Boman  Levites  to  be  sold  (Lev.  xxv.  34),  having  ap- 

govemor.    Nor  can  a  more  forcible  and  im-  parently  imdergone  some  relaxation,  Bama- 

pressive  appeal  be  well  imagined.    Sergius  has  sold  a  piece  of  land  which  he  possessed, 

Paulus  seems  to  have  been  one  of  those  and  put  the  money  at  the  disposal  of  the 

pagans  who  were  darkly  feeling  after  abetter  apostles.     Having  performed  this  generous 

form  of  faith.    In  the  pure  earnestness  of  act,  Barnabas  disappears  from  the  scene,  till 

his  wishes,  he  had  associated  with  himself  he  is  found  in  company  with  the  recently 

this  Bar-jesns,  one  of  a  class  of  men  of  converted  Saul  at  Damascus  (Acts  ix.  27; 

whom    Simon    (Acts    viii   9,    aeq.)    was  A.D.  36),  where,  being  introduced  in  the 

another,  who  bore  the  name,  and  by  their  course  of  the  narrative  without  explanation 

fiitlse  pretensions  disgraced  the  character  of  as  a  person  well  known  in  the  church,  he 

the  ancient  Persian  magi;  and  who,  in  the  is  represented  as  introduchig  Paul  to  the 


BAR  130  BAR 

Apostles  at  Jenisslem,  as  oue  who  cre«lited     the  church  on  a  missionary  joomey  through 
the  reality  of  the  great  change  which  this     the'  soathem  provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  Bar- 
persecaior  had  just  undergone;    assuring     nabas,  however,  had  not  forgotten  his  home, 
them  at  the  aame  time  that  the  new  convert    CTpms  was  near;  and  very  naturally  he,  as  a 
had  even  preached  boldly  at  Damascus  in     sincere  man»  wished  to  offer  the  gospel  to 
the  nsme  of  Jesus.    But  a  f^sh  change  was    endeared   relatives  and  respected  friends, 
preparing  in  the  Christian  church.  The  gos-     Having  passed  tfaxoogh  the  island  to  its 
pel  was  about  to  throw  off  the  restraints  of    south-western   extrsmity,  Paul  and  himself 
a  rigid  Judaism.    SUfphen's  martyrdom  had    had  the  honour  at  Faphos  of  bringing  over 
scattered  disciples,  who,  having  some  feeling     to  the  gospel  the  pro-consul,  Sergius  Paulus; 
of  the  width  and  comprehensiveness  of  Chris-     when  Elymas  the  sorcerer,  trying  to  counter- 
tian  principles,  had  begun  to  offer  the  good     act  their  influence,  was  struck  blind.    At 
news  to  Gentiles.  Newsof  this  came  to  the  ears    Lystra,  on  this  tour,  a  proof  was  given  of  the 
of  the  chnreh  in  Jerusalem,  which,  true  to     extreme  ignorance  which  prevailed  on  the 
the  atmosphere  of  that  bigoted  city,  were     subject  of  religion ;  for  Paul,  having  per- 
astonished,  if  not  alarmed ;  on  which  th^    formed  a  miraculous  cure  on  a  lame  man, 
sent  Bsmabas  to  Antioch.     But  Barnabas    was  with  Barnabas  regarded  as  of  divine 
was  not  a  man  to  put  a  stop  to  any  good     origin:  '  They  called  Barnabas  Jupiter,  and 
work.     Being  a  native  of  Cyprus,  he  had     Paul  Mercury,  because  he  was  the  chief 
learned  to  look  on  heathen  men  with  some-     qieaker;'  and  even  the  priests  of  Jupiter 
v^atof  abrotheriyeye.  He  had,  too,  received     iLade  preparations  for  offering  sacrifices  to 
largely  of  the  npirit  of  Christ    When  theie-     them.  With  a  mad  re-action  to  which  super- 
fore,  on  arriving  at  Antioch,  be  saw  ine     stition  is  always  liable,  these  same  people, 
grace  of  Ood  shed  forth  on  others  besides    ^ho  oould  hardly  be  restrained  from  paying 
his  countrymen,  he  was  glad,  and  exhorted     ttie  missionaries  divine  honours,  were  dniwn 
them  all  that  with  purpose  of  heart  they    by  certain  Jews  to  so  ill  treat  them  that  Paul 
would  cleave   unto  ^e  Lord.     The  conse-     was  left  for  dead.  Their  safety  required  them 
quence  of   this  loosening   of   the  narrow     to  leave  the  city.    Very  shortly  alter,  how- 
bauds  of  Judaism  was  a  large  increase  in  the     ever,  they  returned  thither  sgain,  under  the 
number  of  converts.     Barnabas,  however,     impulse  of  a  sense  of  duty,  and  then,  passing 
apparently  thinking  himself  insufficient  to     through  Iconium  and  other  cities,  came  back 
sustain  so  important  a  movement,  and  know-     to  Antioch,  whence  they  had  set  out  on  their 
ing  where  to  find  a  helper  after  his  own  heart,     tour  of  duty. 

repaired  to  Tarsus  to  seek  Paul,  whom  he         The  question  respecting  the  enlargement 
forthwith  brought  to  Antioch.    But  time  was     of  the  bounds  of  the  church  had  meanwhile 
necessary  to  examine  and  definitely  form  the     become  more  prominent  and  pressing.   Two 
new  principle,  and  to  win  for  it  acceptance     distinct  parties  were  formed,  each  zealous 
in  the  minds  of  the  leaders  of  the  church.    A     for  their  own  views.    Some  o^  the  Judaizers 
whole  year  was  aocordingly  spent  by  Baraa-     had  come  to  Antioch,  and  taught  that  cireum- 
bas  and  Paul  in  the  bosom  of  the  Christian     cision  was  indispensable.      This  was  the 
society  at  Antioch,  which,  in  oonseqnenoe  of    characteristic  rite  of  Mosaism;  and  if  this 
their  faith  and  love,  and  the  good  works  thai     were  onoe  engrafted  on  the  Christian  church, 
hence  ensued,  made  constant  pn^iress,  and     the  religion  of  Christ  oould  hardly  become 
so  grew  into  publio  notice  as  to  draw  from     universal .    Against  it,  therefore,  Paul  and 
the  Roman  officers  of  stale  the  name  of    Barnabas  exerted  sll  their  influence.    They 
Christian  (Acts  xL  10 — ^26).     Still  the  mo-     were  also  deputed  to  go  to  Jerusalem  to  con- 
tfaer    church    in   Jerusalem  stood    behind     suit  with  the  apostles  and  elders  about  this 
die  distant  communities  in  liberality.    An     question.   Having  arrived  there,  and  a  coun- 
opportunity  was  therefore  taken  of  endea-     cil  being   convened,  they  proved  what  the 
vonring  to  enlarge  its  views.  A  famine  arose,     divine  will  was  by  the  evident  tokens  of 
which   pressed  with   peculiar    severity  on     God's  presence  and  favour  which  had  accom- 
Judea.  With  a  truly  Christian  sympathy,  the     panied  their  preaching  of  the  gospel  among 
disciples  at  Antioch  raised  a  ftmd  for  the  re-     the  Gentiles.     The  i^[>ostles  and  the  elders 
lief  of  their  brethren,  which   they  sent  to     sent  Barnabas  and  Panl  back  to  Antioch, 
Jerusalem  by  the  hands  of  Barnabas  and     with  a  letter,  in  which  the  great  question  at 
Panl.    What  influence  they  exerted  in  the     issue,  namely  circumcision,  is  conceded.  In 
metropolis  we  are  not  informed.    Having     this  letter  these  two  worthies  are  weU  de- 
fulfilled  their  office,  they  returned  to  Antioch,     scribed  as 'men  that  have  hazarded  their 
and  were,  by  the  special  appointment  of  God,     lives  for  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ* 
chosen  firom  the  band  of  teachers  and  pro-         Having  remained  for  some  time  preach- 
phets  who  were  in  the  church  there,  and  set     ing  the  gospel  in  Antioch,  Paul  proposed  to 
apart  for  the  work  of  preaching  unto  the     Barnabas  that  they  should  undertake  another 
Gentiles  the  onsearohable  riches  of  Christ,     missionary  tour.  To  this  Barnabas  consented, 
to  which  they  had  reoeived  a  divine  calL     but  wished  to  take  with  them  John  Ma^  his 
Being  thns  ordaiaedi  they  were  sent  forth  by     nephew  (Col.  iv.  10),  to  whichPaal  ol^ected. 


BAR  131  BAR 

On  this  they  separated.    Panl  went  forth  in  damned  to  death  by  poison,  which,  however, 

eompany  with  Silas.    Barnabas,  taking  his  he  drank  without  reeeiying  iiyary  (Acts  i. 

sister^s  son  with  him,  proceeded  to  his  natire  23,  teq.), 

island  of  Cyprus,  A.D.  62.  (Acts  xiv.  zv.).         Another  Barsahas,  bearing  the  surname  of 

Here  the  apostoliehistory  breaks  off  suddenly,  J  udas,  was  with  Silas,  a  *  chief  man  among  the 

and  we  have  no  more  certain  knowledge  re-  brethren/  sent  by  the  apostles,  in  company 

specting  Bamabaa ;  fbr  the  mention  made  of  with  Panl  and  Barnabas,  to  the  Gentiles  in 

him  in  Paul's  Epistles  (Oal.  iL  1 .  1  Cor.  ix.  6  )  Antiocb,  Syria,  and  Silioia,  to  convey  to  them 

relates  to  an  eailier  period.    Bespecting  his  the  determinations  of  the  council  held  in 

subsequent  fate  tradition  Yaiies.    The  least  Jerusalem  regarding  circumcision,  and  other 

improbable  aceount  makes  him  suffer  mar-  Jewish  observances  (Acts  xv.  22,  »eq.). 
tyidom  at  the  hands  of  the  Jews  in  Cyprus.         BARTHOLOMEW  (H.  son  of  ToUnai), 

There  is  a  letter  extant,  written  in  Greek,  one  of  the  twelve    apostles.     As    this    is 

which  bears  his  name,  but  of  which  he  was  a  funily  rather  than  a  personal  name,  his 

not  the  author.  proper  name  has  been  thought  to  be  Na- 

Our  narrative  shows  that  Barnabas  was  no  thauael  (John  i.  45 ;  xxi.  2).     Besides,  the 

ordinaiy  man.  In  fttith,  in  hope  and  charity,  three  evangelists  who  speak  of  Bartholomew 

in  enlarged  views  and  disinterested  labours,  (Matt  x.  8.   Mark  ilL  18.   Luke  vi.  14)  do 

he  is  eminently  distinguished.    Yet,  had  we  not  speak  of  Nathauael;  while  the  fourth,  who 

a  knowledge  of  what  others  in  the  early  speaks  of  Nathauael,  says  nothing  of  Bar- 

vhurch  did  for  its  establishment  and  edifi-  tholomew.    In  the  three  first  Gospels  more- 

eation,  we  should  regard  the    labours  of  over,  Philip  and  Bartholomew  are  found 

Barnabas  certainly  not  as  less  worthy,  but  together  in  the  lists  of  the  apostles ;  in  the 

probably  as  less  singular.    As  it  is,  he  may  fourth  we  find  Philip  connected  with  Na- 

well  be  accounted  the  second  aposUe  to  the  thanael.    If,  as  these  facts  seem  to  show, 

Gentiles,*  •^inferior  only  to  Paul ;  to  his  Bartholomew  and  Nathauael  are  the  same 

connection  with  whom  he  ^ypears  to  owe  person,  the  subject  of  this  notice   was  of 

the  notice  which  is  taken  of  him  in  the  book  Cana  in  Galilee ;  whence  it  would  appear, 

of  Acts,  in  which  other  men's  labours  are  that  our  Saviour^s  miracle,  performed  at  the 

cursorily  noticed,  or  passed  in  sflenee.  With  nuptial  banquet  in  that  place,  was  not  with- 

all  his  seal  and  goodness  of  heart,  however,  out  fruit 

Barnabas  could  never  have  taken  and  kept        Bartholomew  is  said  to  have  preached  the 

the  first  part ;  for  he  was  of  a  yielding  nature,  gospel  in  India.     The  manner  of  his  death 

and  inclined  to  pxffohase  peace  even  by  the  is  variously   related.      Among  the   books 

compromise  of  principle.     Hence  was  he  falsely  ascribed  to  apostles,  there  is  a  Gospel 

earned  away  for  a  moment  by  the  Judaizing  which  bears  the  name  of  Bartholomew. 
party,  against  whom  Paul  so  vigorously  and        To  this  apostle  belongs  the  famous  saying, 

80  meritoriously  set  a  stem  and  undaunted  <Can  any  good  come  out  of  Nazareth?' — 

front  from  first  to  last  (Gal.  ii.  13).  uttered  in  reply  to  Philip,  when  the  latter 

In  flte  dispute  whioh  arose  between  Bama-  declared  to  the  former,  '  We  have  found  the 
bas  and  Paul,  and  their  consequent  sepa-  Messiah'  (John  i.  45,  46).  This  reply 
ration,  there  is  little  to  reflect  on  with  shows  him  to  have  had  his  foil  share  of  the 
satisfaction,  save  the  openness  and  honesty  prejudices  of  the  day.  His  prejudices,  how- 
of  the  narrator  Luke,  who  reports  the  fact  ever,  did  not  go  so  far  as  those  of  some  who 
as  a  matter  of  course,  without  at  all  think-  are  called  Christians.  He  was  quite  sure, 
ing  whether  the  impression  it  would  make  indeed,  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  not  the 
would  be  fl&vonrable  or  unfavourable  to  Messiah ;  and  all  the  more  sure  was  he,  be- 
Christianity.  Such  a  chronicler  is  eminently  cause  his  confidence  reposed  in  unreason- 
worthy  of  credence.  ing  impressions.   Still,  when  Philip  rejoined, 

BABSABAS  (C.  $on  of  Saba) ^  the  ordi-  *Come  and  see,'  he  at  once  repaired  to  the 

nary  appellation  of  Joseph  Barsahas,  sur-  Messiah,  and  was  converted.    How  strong 

named  Justus,  who,  having  been  one  of  those  soever  his  prejudices  were,  evidence  with 

who  associated  with  the  apostles  during  the  him  had  stOl  greater  foree.    Jesus  gave  him 

whole  public  ministry  of  the  Redeemer,  was,  a  proof  that  he  knew  men's  hearts ;  Natha- 

together  with  Matthias,  i^pointed  by  them  nael  yielded,  and  became  his  fl>llow8r. 
as  a  candidate  for  the  vacant  apostleship,        Whenoe  it  is  dear,  that  his  was  a  warm, 

caused  by  the  death  of  Judas.    Lots  being  open,  and  generous  nature.    He  loved  his 

cast,  Matthias  was  chosen.    According  to  educational  prepossesrions ;  but  he  loved 

Eusebius,  Barsabas  Justus  was  one  of  the  truth  more,    and  Palaver  he  adopted  he 

seventy.    Tradition  states,  that  he  was  con-  pursued  with  ardour  and  constancy.      Ac- 

•  The  UUe  of  apotfU  Is  Indeed  appUed  to  Bar.  cordingly,  our  Lord  described  him  in  these 

nabas,  In  common  with  Panl  (Acta  xir.  4).    But  words :  '  Behold  an  Israelite  indeed,  in  whom 

the  word  Is  here  employed  In  a  laxer  meatdng,  and  jg  no  ffuile.'    We  here  see  also  the  value  of  a 

la  somewhat  evdvalent  to  tbetenn  'maasemieni  ,,„^^  f^„...«ii»*      n^a^M  Pl^iHn  invitMlNs^ 

of  the  dmrdMS,'  foimd  hi  8  Cor.  vfii.  M^ooS.  ^  counsellor.     Before  Philip  "™J«  « f^ 

Acts  xia.  8.  thanael  to  go  to  Christ,  the  latter  had  satis* 


B  A  R  i: 

fted  fail  cTuioiitr  by  catrhing,  nndrr  the 
llg-trM,  k  new  of  Chiitt.  u  he  puwd 
along  ;  bnlwhen  led  jadicioailf  b}  >&ieDd'i 
hud.  he  enten  into  the  preience  of  the 
Sinoui  of  meukind,  and  rareiTei  as  his  re- 
wud  the  largMt  bleaaiag  wbinb  can  fall  to 
die  lot  of  ■  human  beiiiR.  How  hqipjbU 
_  ....  1 laile Philip! 


2  BAR 

Tbia  sUte  of  thinp  ia  mj  natural  bi 
the  aetnil  circrmiitaneee  of  moat  of  flis 
apoatlci;  and  aa  anah  it  caniea  eitdenee 
with  it  of  Iti  om  truth  and  Tealltf.  It  i> 
alao  K  Terj  high  eulogiimi  oa  Baifholomaw 
and  othen.  Huet  bithtol,  deTOted,  and 
nnaelflah,  was  (heir  iwTTioe  in  the  canae  of 
ChriaL  The;  ahow  to  aa,  and  to  men  of  all 
coining  thnea,  toe  waj  to  beoome  trnlj  great. 

BABtlM£DB  (C.  (0R  qf  3T««w)  waa 
a  blind  beggai,  who,  aeated  on  the  load  near 
Jericho,  implored  Ac  reatoration  of  hia  eight 
from  the  BaTionr,  when  the  latter  waa  at  % 
abort  distance  tram  the  town,  and  had  hia 
eyea  graeioualj  nnclosed  In  conieqnene»  of 
hia  bith ;  while  the  crowd,  who  follawed  the 
Hl«pH  of  JesDB,  rvprofed  the  orgenoj  with 
which  the  blind  man  preferred  hia  petitiOD. 

8o  far,  the  narntJieB  of  the  erangeliata 
agree  (Matt.  ix.  20,  leq.   Hail  X.  46,  tt^. 


i,«?.). 


In  other  words  their 
anbatanliaOj  Ac  aame. 
Lona  in  them.  Mattfiew 
men ;  Mack  and  Luke, 


There  ia  %  great  dfapiopoitiou  between  the 
amount  af  good  which  the  apoatlea  wrought, 
and  the  apaee  that  Ihaii  namsa  ooenpj  ou 
(ha  page  of  blatoir.  A  TerrfewUnaa  relate 
all  that  ia  known  reapecting  Bartholomew. 
Eren  hia  oama  ia  ■  aobjeel  of  donbt  At 
firat  view,  it  ia  impoaaible  not  to  regret  thit 
want  of  full  and  detailed  *  "        ■'-      "' 


were  ao  ardenllj  and  eicluiiiTe^  engaged  in 
it,  that  thcj  had  neither  time  nor  thought  to 
write  down  theirdeeds.  They  wer*  too  bnay, 
too  diahitereated,  too  anconaaiona,  la  beoome 
histoiiani  of  their  own  doinga.  Thar  wen 
men  of  deeda,  not  wocda,  intent  on  aaniig 
the  world,  rather  than  erecting  a  memorial 
to  their  own  hononr.  And  ao,  in  aotiTe  and 
eeaadeaa  laboon,  their  liraa  paaaad  awaj  tiU 


Vet  are  there  ' 

him  '  a  certain  blind  man:  Matthew  aajB, 
Jeans  wag  proceeding  from  Jericho;  Hark, 
thai  he  waa  going  towards  Jericho;  Luke, 
that  be  waa  drawing  nigh  to  Jericho.  Tet 
we  de^  cTan  an  enemy  of  the  gospel  to  read 
these  three  nairadTee.  at  least  in  tbe  origi- 
nal, and  to  deny  that  they  refer  to  one  erent, 
and  are  in  lulntance  the  same.  Nor  are  we 
aolicitona  to  explain  tbe  origin  of  the  direr- 
aities.  The  Qoipela  are  to  as  mora  ciedibia 
with,  than  they  would  be  without,  theae  direr- 
ailicB ;  lor  they  ahow  that  we  have  here  die 
narratiTea  of  three  independent  witoeaeca,— 
men  who  in  their  lore  of  truth  would  radisi 
vaiy  thin  copy  Ikom  each  other,  or  aerrilely 


had  itnngth,  and  ofbera  Donld  readily  in 
(hat  age  And  nateiials  tor  biography.  They 
died,  and  left  to  earth  only  the  bleaaed 
deeda  which  they  had  wron^t  —  their  own 
holy  example,  and  the  good  and  hi^py  Uvea 
of  their  nomeioDi  soDTerl*.  Tbey  died,  and 
found  their  lewaid  on  high. 


Bat  while  these  three  acRounls  are  aub- 
ntantially  the  aame,  they  are  the  aame  with 
kdiffenmoc  —  a  differenoeof  manner,  which 
does  not  lie  in  minute  Tariations,  but  in  the 
general  ehsraeter  of  the  narrutiTes.  Thus 
while  Matthew  is  Hebraistic,  and  Luke 
approaches  to  a  correct  Oreek  atyle,  Harit 
(ae  ia  ooatomai?  with  him)  is  striking  and 
graphie,  aeiiing  and  setting  forth  indindual 
pointa.  And  hne  probably — In  the  peculia- 
rity of  Mark's  own  mind  —  liea  the  rea- 
son why  he  apeaks  of  only  one  beggar,  and 
why  he  aaslgns  to  that  one  hu  none. 
Nor  do  we  need  any  other  proof  to  ahow, 
that  we  hare  hare  to  do  with  a  real  ereni, 
than  is  fumiBhed  by  the  way  in  which 
Mark  speaks  of  this  blind  beggar,  —  'Blind 
BartimBus  sat  by  the  way-aide,  begging.' 
Thia  ia  a  master's  eiroke.  No  one  eonld  be 
iguonnl  who  blind  Bartimeos  waa,  and 
Aerefbre  no  explanationa  are  added.  The 
peraon  of  the  beggar  waa  well  known  in 
Judea  at  the  time,  and  Mark  w      ' 


kof 


poa- 


B  A  S 


133 


BAT 


terity.  The  idea  of  one  man  —  of  blind 
Bardmens — was  in  his  mind,  and  with  a 
stroke  or  two  of  his  pen  he  sets  him  down 
before  the  ejen  of  his  readers  in  his  wonted 
place,  by  fhe  road-side ;  a  picture  i^ich  will 
remain  to  all  ages. 

BARVCH  (H.  bletsed,  A.M.  4943;  A.C. 
005 ;  Y.  605),  son  of  Neiiah,  a  faitbfo]  friend 
of  the  prophet  Jeremiah, —  who,  in  the 
fonrth  year  of  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  king 
of  Jodah,  wrote  down  from  the  lips  of  the 
prophet  his  predictions  tonching  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Babylonians,  and  the  depor- 
ution  of  the  Israelites.  The  'roll  of  the 
book'  in  which  this  < harden'  was  written, 
having  been  destroyed  at  the  instanee  of 
Jehoiakim,  Barach  made  a  second  record, 
similar  to  the  first;  but  the  goiltj^Qfttian  did 
not  heed  the  divine  warnrngsT^ven  thoagh 
they  were  solemnly  read  .^  the  king  and  his 
princes,  at  &e  conmiand  of  the  Most  High, 
under  the  direction  of  the  preset,  and  by 
the  lips  of  Baroch,  who  gave  the  oonrt  an 
exact  acconnt  of  the  manner  in  which  these 
charges  and  admonitions  had  been  committed 
to  writing.  The  reward  of  this  faithful  ser- 
vice was,  that  both  Jeremiah  and  Bamch 
were  obliged  to  oonsolt  their  safety  by  con- 
cealment (Jer.  xxzvi.  4,  ieq.).  Baruch  was 
regarded  with  special  didike  by  the  Jews, 
nnder  the  suspicion  of  inducing  Jeremiah 
to  ntter  hard  sayings  against  them  (Jer. 
xliii.  8) ;  but,  when  dismayed  at  the  tenors 
he  saw  gathering  around  him,  he  was  com- 
forted by  a  special  communication  which 
Jeremiah  pronounced  on  his  behalf  (xlv.). 
It  is  said,  that  after  Jeremiah  had  died  in 
BgTPt*  Bamch  went  to  Babylon,  where  he 
ended  his  days.  If  faithful  men  could  have 
saved  the  Jews  from  captivity,  the  assaults 
of  their  enemies  would  have  been  in  vain ; 
for,  in  high  as  well  as  in  humble  life,  did 
prophets  make  their  appearance,  and  ut- 
ter their  awfrd  voices.  Baruch  was  of  an 
illustrious  iSunily  in  the  court  of  Judah, 
where  his  brother  held  a  distinguished  post 
(zxzii.  12;  IL  59).  The  apocryphal  book, 
entitled  Baruch,  was  not  written  by  the  per- 
son of  whom  we  have  now  spoken. 

During  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  Bamch 
was  concerned  in  a  transaction  designed  to 
show  that  the  Jews  would  be  restored  to  their 
native  countiy,  which  is  full  of  instroction 
regarding  ancient  Hebrew  usages.  (Jer. 
sxni.  12). 

BASHAN  (H.  aJirvUfid  land)  was  a  dis- 
triot  that  lay  beyond  Jordan,  on  the  east  of 
the  Lake  of  Galilee,  having  the  river  Jabbok, 
which  flows  i^m  the  east  into  the  Jor- 
dan, for  its  southern  extremity;  and  on  the 
north,  an  undetermined  line,  bordering  on 
Mount  Hemion.  In  the  division  of  Pales- 
tme,  it  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh,  comprehending  *  all  the  kingdom 
of  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  and  all  the  towns  of 


Jair,  which  are  in  Bashan,  threescore  cities' 
(Josh.  xiii.  80),  of  which  Ashtaroth  and 
Edrei  seem  to  have  been  the  chief  (Josh, 
xii.  4).  The  land  was  hilly,  and  celebrated 
for  its  oaks,  as  Lebanon  was  for  its  cedars 
(Isa.  ii.  18),  and  also  for  its  rich  pastures 
(Jer.  1. 19.  Mioah  vii.  14),  on  which  were 
fed  and  fattened  large  flocks  and  herds, 
whence  we  read  in  Ezek.  xxxix.  18, — 'Ye 
shall  eat  the  fleah  of  rams,  of  lambs,  and  of 
goats,  of  bullocks,  all  of  them  fathngs  of 
Bashan.'  It  was  one  of  those  places  dis- 
tinguished in  Scripture  for  producing  fine 
oxen:  whence  we  read  of  *  strong  bulls  df 
Bashan,'  in  Ps.  xxii.  12;  oomp.  Amos  iv.  1. 
Sharon,  which  Bochart  places  between  Joppa 
and  Lydda  (Acts  ix.  85),  was  another  cele- 
brated pasture  district  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  29). 
The  valley  of  Achor  (Isa.  bcv.  10)  was  a 
third  spot,  which  Jerome  fixes  on  the  north 
of  Jeiicho,  not  far  from  Gilgal. 

After  the  exile,  the  Ghaldee  pronunciation, 
substituting  a  I  for  an  «  or  an  sA,  changed  the 
name  Bashan  into  Batanasa,  though  proper- 
ly the  province  of  Batansa  was  only  the 
southern  part  of  the  ancient  Bashsu.  Ac- 
cording to  Robinson,  the  ancient  name  is 
still  substantially  retained  in  Bethenyeh. 

BAT  is  the  English  rendering  of  a  Hebrew 
word,  €hialeph,  which,  according  to  Aben 
Ezra,  whose  opinion  is  generally  followed, 
conveys  the  idea  of  flying  in  the  dark,  — a 
meaning  that  does  not  ill  accord  with  the 
slight  indications  supplied  by  the  three  pas- 
sages in  which  the  term  is  found  (Lev. 
xL  19.  Dent  ziv.  18.  Isa.  ii.  20).  Bats 
are  found  on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  as 
these  copies  show :  — 


The  catalogue  of  unclean  birds,  as  given 
in  the  law,  begins  with  the  eagle,  the  highest 
and  noblest  of  the  fea&ered  race,  and  ends 
with  the  bat,  which  is  the  lowest,  and  forms 
the  connecting  link  between  the  quadraped 
and  the  winged  species.  The  prohibition  im- 
plies that  there  were,  at  the  time  it  was  given, 
those  who  eat  bats;  nor  is  there  a  doubt  that 
the  larger  species  of  bats  have  supplied  nu- 
triment to  more  than  one  portion  of  the 
human  race.  It  is  not  easy  now  to  assign  a 
satisfactory  reason  why  the  bat  was  accounted 
unclean  by  Moses.  Not  improbably  its  pe- 
culiar formation  and  habits  may  have  created 
against  it  a  prejudice,  on  which  a  certain 


BAT 


134 


BAY 


disgust  may  haye  been  founded ;  whieh  dis- 
gust may  have  been  the  occasion  of  the 
legislator's  prohibition.  That  prohibition, 
howerer,  has  confirmed  and  perpetuated  the 
aversion  to  the  bat,  which  is,  in  many  coun- 
tries, so  deep  as  to  wear  the  appearance  of 
being  natnraL  Though,  however,  bala  in 
Syria  inhabit  dark,  hidden,  and  ruinous 
places,  they  also  make  their  appearance  in 
towns,  as  well  as  in  freqnentedand  decorated 
rooms.  Nor  is  there  any  thing  in  their 
make  to  justify  strong  feelings  of  dislike. 
*  The  bat,'  says  Dr.  Kitto,  *is  a  delieate  and 
beautifbl  creature,  covered  with  a  fine  fur  of 
very  pale  yellow;  while  the  fine  integuments, 
forming  what  are  called  the  wings,  are, 
when  expanded,  ribbed  with  the  bright  red 
lines  of  the  bony  prolongations,  by  which 
they  are  managed  and  supported.' 

BATHSHEBA  (H.  4^kter  of  am  oaih), 
chUd  of  Eliam,  and  wife  of  Uriah  the  Hit- 
tite,  whom  David  coveted  in  consequence  of 
her  beauty,  and  of  whose  person  his  royal 
power  and  will  unjusdy  made  him  master. 
Having  done  this  ii^ury  to  Uriah,  the  king 
took  Ids  measures  to  make  the  fruit  of  his 
criminality  appear  the  natural  offspring  of 
tliat  warrior;  but  failing,  through  the  per- 
sistence of  the  latter  in  not  visiting  his 
home,  he  sent  him  back  to  the  army  then 
besieging  Babbah  under  the  command  of 
Joab,  directing  that  general  to  set  Uriah  in 
die  forefiront  of  the  hottest  battle,  and  to 
retire,  so  that  he  might  be  slain.  David's 
orders  were  but  too  well  executed.  Joab 
suffered  a  repulse;  but  he  knew  his  master's 
guilty  wishes,  and  ordered  the  messenger 
that  bore  the  unwelcome  tidings  to  mention, 
as  a  cover,  the  death  of  the  Hittite.  This 
adroitness  had  its  designed  effect  on  David. 
The  husband  being  thus  disposed  of,  and 
the  days  of  his  wife's  mourning  decently 
terminated,  David  took  to  his  house  Bath- 
sheba,  who  became  his  wife,  and  bare  him 
a  son.  There  is,  however,  a  power  higher 
and  stronger  than  princes.  This  wicked- 
ness displeased  the  Almighty,  who  sent 
Nathan  to  David  with  a  terrible  reproof, 
which  was  the  more  overpowering  in  its  de- 
livery, because  conveyed  in  one  of  those 
parables  for  which  the  Hebrew  Uteratnre  is 
celebrated,  and  which  in  all  their  excellence 
have  no  equals  in  any  language.  <  And  the 
Lord  struck  the  chUd  that  Uriah's  wife  bare 
unto  David,  and  it  was  very  sick.'  The 
guilty  man  prayed,  fasted,  and  mourned :  — 
m  vam ;  the  cUUd  died. 

w-^L^'^J  Bathshcba  bore  Solomon,  who 
was  regarded  with  dirine  favour.     She  her- 

old.  and  Adoil^i;  m!.' lo^n*  h^f  ^jJ^^S:;:! 
sures  to  usurp  the  royal  auSorityTSe  wis 

iir.S^  u'^'^ "?  «»^«  thel!Stg^qtL~ 
with  the  attempt,  for  which  she  was  the  «^ 


ther  fitted  as  being  the  mother  of  Solooxm, 
the  promised  successor;  in  oonseqnenee  of 
which  the  latter  was  immediately  proclaimed. 
Indeed,  she  appears  to  have  enjoyed  in  the 
oourt  much  of  the  influence  of  a  queen- 
mother;  for,  not  long  after  the  oommence- 
ment  of  the  new  reign,  this  same  Adonijah 
socoessfhlly  entreats  her  good  ofiees  to  pro- 
eure  for  hhn  a  wife  of  his  ehoiccj  namely, 
Abishag,  the  Shimaaiita. 

This  short  histocy  is  quite  oriental : —  the 
resistless  passions  of  the  monarch;  the  pas- 
aiveneaa  of  Bathsheba;  the  king's  entire  com- 
mand oTer  the  life  of  Uriah;  the  ready 
obedience  of  Joab ;  the  boldneaa  and  reli- 
gious ^evation  of  Nathan;  and  the  power  at 
oourt  of  the  mother  of  the  heir  apparent, 
may  have  resemhlanees,  but  not  parallels, 
in  weetem  countries.  These  qualities  au- 
thenticate the  histoiy  in  which  they  ave 
found,  and  may  suggest  that  we  ahall  mis- 
judge events,  if  we  apply  to  the  eonduet  of 
the  king  aad  his  paramour  roles  and  teats 
which  flie  goepel  enlbrees  in  modem  times, 
and  in  these  lands.  The  guilt  of  David  with 
Bathsheba  was  very  great  It  was  also  severely 
punished  and  bitteriy  deplored.  Sin,  in  aU 
climes  and  all  oountriea,  is,  before  Ood, 
equally  atn.  But  let  iu  not  be  harsh,  still 
less  ui^ust,  in  our  condemnation;  remem- 
bering that  the  lieeftse  to  do  anch  wicked- 
ness is  one  of  the  heavy  disadvantages  under 
which  monarehs,  and  especially  oriental 
monarchs,  are  placed  by  their  position;  —  a 
position  which  is  owing  as  much  to  the 
weakness  of  their  fellow-men  as  to  their  own 
ambition. 

BATTLEMENT  is  the  rendering  al  a 
Hebrew  word,  Mah^akeh  (Deut.  xxii  8), 
the  root  of  which  in  Uie  Arabic  still  signifiea 
to  turraund.  Battlement  denotes  tsa  elevation 
or  parapet  watt,  which,  with  a  becoming 
regard  to  human  life,  the  law  expressly  re- 
quired to  be  put  round  a  house  when  built; 
the  necessity  of  which  resulted  fh>m  the 
roofs  of  houses  being,  for  the  most  part, 
flat,  and  firom  their  being  used  for  recrea- 
tion and  pleasure.  *  When  thou  buildest  a 
new  house,  then  thou  shalt  make  a  battle- 
ment for  thy  roof,  that  thou  bring  not 
blood  upon  thine  house,  if  any  man  fisU  from 
thence.* 

BAY-TREE  {a  green  bay-tree)  is  a  phrase 
which  is  found  <mly  once  in  the  Scriptures : 
*I  have  seen  the  wicked  in  great  power,  and 
spreading  himself  like  a  green  bay>tree*  (Ps. 
xxxvii.  8d).  Authorities,  however,  aienot 
agreed  as  to  whether  the  Psalmist  speaks  of 
some  species  of  tree,  or  of  the  flourishing 
condition  of  a  tree  in  general.  Our  trans- 
laton  had  the  laurel  in  their  minds ;  yet  the 
marginal  rendering  is  •  a  green  tree,  that 
growethinbis  own  soil;'  that  is,  indigenous, 
or  not  transplanted,  continuing  to  grow 
where  it  sprang  up.     The  Greek  Septuagint 


B  D  E  135  B  E  A 

tiintlation  ham  'the  cedar  of  Lebanon.'  The  ptssages  before  spoken  of  seem, 
Tholnekienders,' a  tree  well  rooted  and  fall  howerer,  to  ns  to  denote  some  precious 
of  foliage;'  Noyes,  following  the  Serentj,  stone.  Boehart  and  others  hsTe  mentioned 
translates  the  words,  thepeari;  and  we  think  it  very  probable 

«I  have  seen  a  wlciked  man  in  great  power.  that  the  same  word  should  denote  such  a 

Andspraadiaghiniself  UheaprMMMdor/  gum  as  is  above  described,  and  a  pxecious 

Oeddes  Is  almost  TorbaUy  the  same.    In  stone  bearing  a  resemblance  to  it    Gum 

the  north-western  part  of  Syria,  Hasselquist  and  gem  are  not  dissimilar  either  in  form 

rested  under  *  a  green  bay-tree,'  of  which  or  in  signifleatton. 

kind  of  tree  he  had  not  met  with  any  spe-         BEAM  (T.  to  radiaU),  —  The  etymologi- 

eimens  in  Judea  or  Galilee;  but,  whether  eal  import  of  this  word,  as  denoting  the 

it  was  a  species  of  cedar  or  not,  the  trareller  radiating  of  the  son,  may  serve  to  suggest 

does  not  say.      We  incline  to  the  render-  that  it  did  not,  when  Wickliffe  first  intro- 

ing  of  the  Septnagint,  whose  aathority  in  dneed  it  as  a  translation  of  the  Greek  DoAo«, 

questions  of  natural  history  carries  with  it  in  Matt  vii.  8,  — '  And  why  beholdest  thou 

much  weight    Besides,  some  specific  tree,  the  mote  that  is  in  thy  brother's  eye,  but 

distinguifihed  for  its  native  luzurisnee,  and  considerest  not  the  beam  that  is  in  ^ine 

actually  flourishing  in  strength  end  beauty,  own  eye  T —  signify  any  thing  so  large  and 

is  a  more  striking  image  than  is  presented  so  long  as  the  piece  of  timber  which  is  now 

by  a  tree — any  tree  whatsoever — which  is  entitled  a  beam.    The  use   of  this  term, 

in  a  thriving  condition,  because  in  its  native  beam,  when  unexplained,  takes  away  from, 

soil.    And  certainly  the  cedar,  of  all  the  i'  it  does  not  destroy,  the  propriety  of  the 

trees  of  Syria,  would  afford  the  noblest  idea  meti^hor.    A  reference  to  the  etymology 

of  external  grandeur.    Yet  even  the  cedar  will  show,  that,  if  length  is  implied  in  the 

perishes  before  the  hurricane,  as  the  wicked  idea  conveyed  by  the  word,  slendemess  also 

man,  great  as  he  may  be,  is  cut  down  by  the  ia  essential  to  it     The  antithetical  word 

resistless  hand  of  an  avenging  Providence,  rendered  mote  would  be  better  represented 

What  is  here  said  of  the  wicked  may  with  by  our  word  tpUnterf  by  which  chsnge,  in 

almost  equal  truth  be  said  of  our  mortal  union  with  a  right  understanding  of  the 

condition  in  general:—  term  beam,  the  correspondence  of  the  words 

*  TUB  Is  the  etste  of  men :  To-day  he  imte  ftyrtfa  ^  found  in  the  original  is  preserved  in  its 

The  tender  kaveecf  hope,  to-morrow  bloaoBM,  English  representative.     Even  the  figura- 

i^^^^}^  biuahinghonountiiick  upon  Urn:  tfye  diction  of  our  Lord  observes  the  rules 

The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  kJUlng  froet ;  ^  _^^  .^^^ 

And,  —  when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  ftill  sorely  ^  propnety. 

His  grestnesB  is  a  TipfDlng,^n^  his  root,  The  meaning  of  his  words  in  the  passage 
\nd  then  he  ftUs.'  is  sufficiently  obvious.  The  tplinter  denotes 
BDELLIUM  is  a  Greek  word,  not  much  the  slight  faults  of  others,  which  we  see 
dissimilar  in  form  to  the  original  Hebrew  most  clearly ;  the  beam,  our  own  serious 
for  which  it  stands,  and  whi<^  occurs  only  misdeeds,  to  which  our  eyes  are  closed, 
twice  in  the  Bible  (Gen.  ii.  13.  Numb.  The  proverb  that  our  Lord  thus  employed 
zi.  7).  In  the  first  passage  it  is  mentioned,  was  widely  spread.  Seneca  says,  —  *  You 
togeUier  with  the  onyx  and  gold,  as  pro-  mark  the  pimples  of  your  neighbour,  while 
ducts  of  the  land  of  Havilah.  The  mere  covered  with  sores  yourself.'  But  the  pre- 
mention  of  the  word  here  in  this  very  brief  cise  phraseology  was  prevalent  among  the 
notice  of  most  momentous  events,  proves-^  Jews,  -^  *  When,  of  that  generation  which 
apart  from  the  fact  of  its  standing  with  judges  its  Judges,  some  one  said,  Cast  the 
gold  and  onyx-stone  —  that  it  represented  rod  out  of  thine  eye ;  he  received  for  an* 
an  object  of  great  value,  yet  not  alto-  swer.  From  thine  own  eye  cast  the  beam.' 
'gether  uncommon.  We  conclude  also,  BEANS  supplied,  at  least  in  their  ker- 
from  the  second  passage,  that  it  could  not  nels,  nutriment  for  the  poorer  Hebiews, 
have  been  very  rare,  because  it  is  used  as  which  waa  sometimes  cooked,  sometimes 
an  object  of  comparison:  — 'The  colour  of  uncooked  (d  Ssm.  xvii.  28).  In  the  bread 
the  manna  was  as  the  colour  of  bdellium.'  which  Ezekiel  was  directed  to  make  of  va- 
The  bdellium  of  the  ancients  (Pliny,  xii.  rious  sorts  of  grain,  contrary  to  the  analogy 
9.  19)  was  a  resinous,  transparent  gum,  of  the  law  of  Moses  (Lev.  xix.  19.  Deut 
sweet  to  the  smell,  but  of  bitter  taste,  which  xxii.  0 — 11 ),  as  a  sign  and  forewarning  of 
exuded  in  the  form  of  drops  from  a  tree  the  defiled  bread  which  the  children  of  Is- 
growing  in  Arabia,  Babylonia,  Media,  end  rael  would  have  to  eat  when  driven  into 
India:  those  of  Bactriana  were  aoeounted  exile  among  the  Gentiles,  beans  are  ex- 
most  valuable.  The  tree  was  about  the  pressly  mentioned  (Ezek.  iv.  9).  Accord- 
size  of  an  olive-tree,  with  leaves  like  those  ing  to  Rabbinical  authority,  the  bean  cnlti- 
of  the  oak,  and  fruit  like  capers.  Natu-  vated  in  Palestine  was  the  much-esteemed 
ralists  have  thought  the  description  of  the  Egyptian  bean.  The  same  source  of  infor- 
ancients  answered  to  the  dom-palm,  which  mation  declares,  that  the  eating  of  beans 
is  common  in  South  ArabU  and  in  Egypt  was  interdictful  to  tha  high  priest  on  the 


B  E  A  13G  B  E  A 

day  of  atonement,  from  its  decided  tendency  it  was  not  thonght  becoming  to  enter  the 

to  bring  on  sleep.  presence  of  a  great  man   (Gen.  xli.   14. 

BEAB(T.  6a«r.  meaning  Aa«ry).^Of  the  2  Sam.  xiz.  24).    The  beard  was  shorn, 

existence  of  this  animal  in  Palestine  there  plucked,  or  neglected  in  time  of  tronble,  as 

is  no  longer  any  doubt    Bears  are  still  a  token  of  disregard  to  personal  appearance, 

found,  though  they  are  rare,  in  the  monn-  or  as  a  part  of  self-modification  (Isa.  zr.  2. 

tains  of  Lebanon.    In  the  time  of  the  Cm-  Jer.  xli.  5.     Ezra  ix.  3).    As  kissing  was  a 

sades,  they  were  numerous.    The  Syrian  customary  mode  of  salutation  among  the 

bear  is  of  the  brown  species,  which  is  Tery  Jews  (Matt  xxvi.  49),   so  it  was  nsual  to 

ferocious.    There  is  therefore  nothing  but  take  hold  of  the  beard  lespeotfblly  with  the 

what  is  probable  in  David  haying  to  defend  right  hand  when  the  salutation  was  given 

his  flock  from  a  bear,  as  well  as   a  lion  (2  Sam.  zz.  9).    From  the  respect  in  which 

(1  Sam.  zrii.  34,  3{(),  though  it  is  clear  the  beard  was  held,  and  the  fact  that  slaves 

that  the  bravery  he  displayed  was  some-  were  not  allowed  to  wear  a  beard,  which  was 

thing  uncommon.    Nor  was  it  extraordinary  the  sign  of  civil  fivedom,  the  degree  of  in- 

that  two  she-bears  should  come  out  of  the  suit  may  be  estimated  that  Hanun  king  of 

wood,  and  tear  forty-two  of  the  children  who  Ammon  showed  to  David  when  he  sent  back 

mocked  Elisha;  while  the  Christian  must  the  messengers  of  the  Hebrew  monarch  with 

confess  that  the  curses  which  the  prophet  ouehalf  of  their  beards  shaved  ofll    Feeling 

employed  on  the  occasion  were  not  likely  themselves  disgraced,  these  men  did   not 

to  be  specially  carried  into  effect  by  the  venture  into  David's  presence ;  but  the  king 

power  of  Him  whose  Son  eame  expressly  sent  to  them  this  message, *  Tarry  at  J^ 

into  the  world  to  teach  men  to  bless,  and  richo  until  your  beards  be 'grown  ^d  then 
not  curse  (2  Kings  ii.  23,  24).  A  bear  return*  (2  Sam.  x.  1,  m.).  This  insult  led 
robbed  of  her  whelps  became,  in  conse-  to  a  war.  In  a  similar  manner,  it  is  related 
qnence  of  the  ferocity  natural  to  the  beast,  that  the  Tartars,  whose  beards  form  a  part 
a  proverbial  description  of  ungoTemable  of  their  religion,  carried  on  against  the  Per- 
ftiiy,  not  merely  in  Judea  (2  Sam.  xvii.  8.  sians,  whom  they  declared  infidels,  for  dif- 
Prov.  xvii.  12),  but,  according  to  Jerome,  fering  from  them  in  regard  to  this  ambiruoufl 
generally:  *Those'~we  translate  his  words  omsment  of  man,  a  long,  bloody,  and  de- 
—  *  who  have  written  on  the  nature  of  ani-  stmotive  war.  As  the  beard  was  held  in 
mala  say,  that  among  aU  wild  beasts  there  so  much  respect  among  the  Hebrews  the 
is  none  so  fierce  as  a  bear  when  she  has  priests,  who  were  to  have  every  human  'qua- 
lost  her  young.  Without  any  unusual  pro-  11^  in  perfection,  wore  their  beards,  and 
vocation,  the  temper  of  the  annual  is  surly  were  especially  interdicted  from  msrrine  the 
and  quarrelsome;  wheiice  a  bear  became  comers  of  their  beards  by  shaving  them  oiT 
the  figure  of  a  capricious  tyrant  (Prov.  (Lev.  xix.  27 ;  xxi.  5).  This  p5>hibition, 
xxviu.  JO).  ttom  the  eonneotion  in  which  it  stands, 
<  A  rotfii«  lion  and  a  prowling  bear;  seems  to  have  been  occasioned  also  bv  a 
Awlckel^ruIeroTorapoorpeoiae.'  wish  on  the  part  of  the  legislator  to^- 

BEAHD.  —  The  beard,  which  may  be  re-  countenance  idolatrous  usages.     The  Per- 

garded  as  a  token  of  manhood,  though  some  sians  at  present  usually  clip  the  beard  with 

uibes  are,  from  local  causes,  destitute  of  shears,  for  a  few  years,  until  it  acquires  a 

it,  was  worn  either  dressed  or  in  its  na-  heavy  body.    When  they  allow  it  to  grow 

tural   state  by  most    ancient  nations,  yet  long,  they  are  very  particular  in  relation  to 

appears    to    have    either   dissppeared,   or  the  colour,  and,  if  need  be,  paint  it  black 

to  hare  become  less,  among  every  people,  every  week  or  oltener,  as  Persian  ladies 

with  their  ap^s«h  to  a  higher  degree  of  paint  their  eyebrows.     They  follow  this  prac- 

ciYilisaUon.    With  the   Hebrews,  as  with  tice  until  age  so  wrinkles  their  faces,  that 

Onentals  gener^ly  the  beard  was  held  in  even  a  black  beard  can  no  longer  conceal  ite 

hMfh  respect    Perkms  mentions  Ac  case  inroads;  when   suddenly  they  are  ^uaUy 

nffit     '^wk'^^^'''.''^v^,9^^"»*^  P«ti*J  *o  white  beards,  these  beingr^ed 

W^'  "l^^^  "?""^  ""  ^^l  ?'  H".  ^^'f  •*  T**  invariable  emblems  of  dig^^ 

Th^A  ^l      ^  ?  d^r  of  being  clipped,  wisdom,  that,  in  Persian  and  Turkish,  the 

The  Arabs  swear  by  their  beard,  and  invoke  term  white  beard  is  a  tiUe  which  is  aoDlied 

blessmgs  on  it: - « God  send  his  blessing  to  Tenerated  personals:  oftLn  to  l^^. 

on  your  beard '  is  an  oriental  wish  of  kindU  trates,  and  cai^^S^U  ,SS^  w^iiTtTd 

''^ln!o:tl^r.f^l^r^'^r  -thority,  so^^hreq^v^e^^^^ 

loss  of  the  beard  wTa  .i^of  weXet^  SL*X  i^'S'    corresponds  with  elder  or 

disgrace,  or  mourning  (Isrva.20>     wS  ^Z^'^  *t*  ^""^  Testament 
the  Israelites,  it  waTas  cusJ^Jiarr  to^«     .1.1      c«ts.  which  are  here  given,  serve  to 
the  beard  aming  the  duti«Tt^  toil^     traTr^^l  '"^'^^  "^  head-dr^ss,  as 
asitwastowashandd«.s;without":?rh     ^w  rre^enThTr^  jrTn  ^^  ^^^^ 


frovp,  the  middle  figure  Is  &  Syrian  J«w  ;  sents  a  Turkish  officer;  ihe  aecond,  a  Tark- 

Ihe^re  to  the  left  is  ui  Arabiui:  thM  to  isli  sheikh  or  chief;  Ihe  third,  aMuoelnke 

Ihe  right,  ■  Peniui.     In  Ihe  lower  group,  the  oilh  bis  cbiu  shsTed;  uid  the  two  laat  are 

first  held,  going  from  left  lo  right,  lepre-  Turks  of  Ihe  higbei  olua. 


BEDS  oSbr  a  subject  ou  which  the  inhsbi- 
tonU  of  these  colder  elimes  bave  great  need 
of  core,  in  order  lo  avoid  aacribing  Iheir 
oiagea  to  orientals.  The  dryneaa  and  salu- 
brity of  the  air,  Ihe  diTness  also  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  the  general  heat  of 
the  climate,  rendered  it  geuersUy  safe  and 
pleasuit  for  the  people  of  Syria  to  sleep  even 
in  the  open  ail,  and  on  the  bare  ground,  al  least 
with  no  other  coiering  thsn  the  large  oaler 
garment,  which  somewhat  resembled  a  Scotch 
plaid,  and  was  denominated  Hyi.  Aceord- 
inglj,  traTfllerB,  when  wearied  with  their 
day's  journey,  throw  themselies  with  little 
prfparatioti  on  the  earth,  and  enjoy  safe, 
comfortable,  and  ret^sbing  repose.  It  ■ 
pillow  is  needed,  ■  slone  serves  for  Ihe  pur- 
pose ;  and  what  was  a  rloak  b  j  day,  becomes 
a  blanket  atnight     The  poor  generally  lake 


tio  hrther  eare.  The  floor  of  lbs  apartment 
in  whieh  they  ordinarily  dwell,  or  the  flat 
roof  of  their  hnmble  abode,  answers  all  re- 
qnirements  in  conjonction  with  Ihe  apparel 
worn  by  day,  which  is  rw^ly  put  off,  except 
with  a  view  to  bathe.  In  houses  of  persons 
of  more  lubstanee,  the  large  room  in  which 
the  family  assemblet  by  day  becomes  a 
dormitory  by  night,  the  male  memhen  of 
which,  eicept  the  master  who  retires  to  an 
inner  apartment,  lay  themselTes  down  on  the 
raised  and  cushioned  platform,  a  divsn  or 
dsis,  which  runs  along  the  sides,  and  thsie, 
with  or  without  more  coTcring  than  Sieir 
clothes,  as  the  season  of  Ihe  year  requires, 
eiperieoce  Che  reilorative  effeela  of  alumber. 
Bat  though  the  reader  must  dismiasftom  bis 
mind  Ibc  idea  of  feather-beds,  and  lajrers  of 
blankets,  yet  these  general  obserrsnoea  »o- 


mlLWd  of  modiflMtloii  aecording;  to  pirenin- 
HaoM*,  and  «o  were  brought  lo  ■  gnaler  or 
Imi  approuib  (o  oar  own  tui^ea.  Wumtli 
wu,  when  neadad,  proennd  by  eilhar  noiBa- 


A  mannH  aorred  for  a  badatead,  which, 
howanr,  waa  aometiine*  made  of  wood,  in 
•  more  or  laaa  ardfleial  fbrm.  Nor  were 
moreable  eoDchea,  like  Iba  modam  soft,  un- 
known, with  the  ordinar)'  ippendagea  of 
cnshiona  and  pillowa,  to  minuler  lo  eaaa  or 


a  gai 

aradent  aid  in  peimjng  (he  Sacred  Serlptures. 
For  iniUnH,  Ihrj  thnw  light  an  the  threat 
of  Uoaea,  thai  the  fitigg  ^onld  go  np  into 
the  bedchamber  and  the  bed  of  the  Egrp- 
tian*  (Eiod.  Tjii.  S).  Thej  alao  ei^n 
the  wordi  of  Sanl,  who  ordered  the  pretend- 
edlr  aick  Dand  to  b«  bnogbt  to  him  '  in  Iha 
bed'  that  he  might  alij  him;  and  bow  It 
waa  that  the  palsied  man  waa  broo^t  to 
Jeans  ■  in  a  bed,'  and  was  led  down  belbre 
the  BaTionr  '  with  his  conch,'  and  when 
healed  wu  bidden  to  take  np  hii  bed  and 
walk  (Luke  j.  18,  §tq.).  The  phrase  used 
in  AmoB  ill.  12,  '  the  comer  of  a  bed,'  has 
aearcelj'  anj  meaning  according  lo  our  ordi- 
narj  notiona  of  beds )  but  the  comer  of 
a  couch,  or  of  a  room  baring  a  dais,  is 
the  place  of  luiurr  ;  and  this  alight  chaoge 
renders  the  sense  elear,  and  makea  the 
worda  accordant  with  the  unor  of  Ibe  pas- 
sage. In  eonseqoenee  of  the  large  upper 
garment  being  aged  as  a  Doieiing  bj  nighl, 
Hosea  kindlj  forbado  that  it  should  ba  taken 
In  pledge  (Eiod.  rdi.  aV).  The  cohering* 
of  Uveatry  ia  which  the  rich  and  Iniuriona 
indnlgad  (Pro*,  m.  16)  ware  not  what  we 
lenn  bed-elolbea,  but  baastifaUr  wron^ 
needle-wark  ooraringa  for  slateljr  coDcbea, 
which  were  either  moreable  or  immoveaUe 
(Eaek.niiLAl).  A  ssspnided  bed,  re- 
sembling the  ■ailoT's  hammock,  waa  need  bj 
watebmeu  in  gardens;  which  is  inleuded 
in  Iss.  nir.  SO  bj  the  word  rendered  bj 
Sing  James'a  tranilalora,  '  cottage.'  The 
import  of  the  pasaagt  thua  becomea  el^ar 
and  eonsiatenl.  The  beda  mentioned  in  the 
Mew  Teaiamenl  aa  used  bj  the  sick  (Hatt. 


»  BED 

U.  e.  Harka4;  tI.  06.  Luke*.  16.  Aola 
T.  ID)  were  raoTeeble  conches,  more  or  Isas 
simple  in  their  form,  aud  easy  to  carry. 

Beda  an  often  nothing  more  than  one  or 
two  stoat  ooTerings,  in  which  the  person  ia 
enTeloped,  tibo,  thus  clad,  Ibrowa  himaell 
eilher  on  the  Boor  of  a  room,  the  sortaee  of 
the  groond,  or  the  flat  roof  of  a  bonae. 

■We  woold  i^adl}' —  Bobinson  is  speaking 
of  his  residence  at  Bamleh  — '  liaTC  alept 
upon  Iha  rootbenealh  ihe  open  skj,  in  prefer^ 
enoe  to  the  elose  aii  of  inj  room  ;  bnl  &i* 
.^Tileged  spot  was  already  in  poMeesion  of 
odiere.  Beds  were  spread  tor  ua  in  our  up- 
per room,  eonslEling  of  thick  qnilti  under- 
neath, and  another  quilt  of  aitk,  in  which  to 
wrap  ouraelns.  Bat  Ihe  night  beneath  a 
roof  was  hot,  and  the  house,  like  sll  other* 
in  Palestine,  nol  btt  from  fleas  ;  so  that  I 
did  nothing  bat  toss  aboci  in  (bTerish  halt- 
alnmber  all  night.  1  seTeral  timea  rose  and 
looked  oat  through  the  lattices,  as  the  bright 
moonlight  Ml  opon  Ihe  group  of  aleepen 
on  Ihe  root,  and  ennad  their  lot,' 

In  Egypt,  at  present,  the  bed  is  prepared 
aa  it  ia  wanted,  and  remored  when  its  pur- 
pose has  been  answered.  In  Ihe  hooaes  of 
persoos  of  moderate  wealth,  the  bed  is 
made  of  a  manress,  stuffed  with  cotton, 
about  sii  feet  long,  and  three  or  four  feet 
in  width,  placed  on  a  low  frame ;  a  pillDW 
being  pat  for  the  head,  and  a  aheet  spread 
over  tlila  and  die  matlrese.  In  summer,  the 
only  covering  is  a  thin  blanket;  in  winter  ft 
thick  quilt  stuffed  wilh  cotton  is  employed. 
Sometimea  the  maHKiB  ia  plsced  on  Ihe  floor 
without  any  thune,  or  two  matlresses  sre  laid 
one  upon  the  other.  A  moaqoilo-curlain 
is  anspended  orer  the  bed  ^  means  of 
four  strings,  which  sre  aUacbed  lo  nails  in 
the  wall.  The  diaaa  ia  seldom  changed 
on  going  lo  bed.  In  winter  many  aleep 
with  all  their  ordinary  clothes  on,  except  the 
gUbth,  or  cloth  coat ;  in  summer  ihey  sleep 
almost  or  entirely  anelad.  In  winter  the 
bed  is  prepsied  in  a  small  closet;  in  sum- 
mer, ia  a  large  room.  All  the  bed  clothes 
are  rolled  tip  in  the  day  time,  and  placed  on 
one  side,  or  in  ibe  closet  before  alluded  In. 
During  the  hottasl  weather,  msnj  people 
tileep  upon  the  house-top,  or  in  an  unco- 
vered apartment.  The  most  common  kind 
of  frame  for  Ihe  bed  ia  made  of  palm -slicks, 
a  frame  similar  lo  which  is  still  uaed  in  Pa- 
lestine, and  other  neighbouring  countries. 


BEE  i; 

of  the  itons  flooT,  ind  ■  Htm,  m  t.  range  of 
flmhioiu  ni""i"g  along  Ui«  tlirsfl  sidaii  an 
iheaaacutidpaTtioflbefununiie.  Thiaraiaed 
part  of  tha  floor  ia  emploj^  '°'  *''*  pnrpato 
ot  prmyai,  and  baa  hauae  aoqnlied  a  wruin 
aanctitj.  Aocordingl;  eyiTj  paraou  atipa  off 
liii  ahoea  bcdbia  h«  pnu  lua  toot  on  it,  ■■ 
ahown  m  tbe  out 


■aaraB*  ditih. 

BEE.  — Tba  habiU  of  this  litll*  animal 

an  loo  veil  knavn  to  rtquire  to  be  detailed 

Wild  beea  were,  and  itUl  are,  eommon  in 
Palealine.  The;  built  in  boiloif  trees,  and 
defu  of  the  Tocka.  Tbej  flew  In  great 
Bwanna.  Aa  (he  hone;  which  t}iej  made, 
Mid  deposited  in  laiiona  parts,  waa  ample 
•nd  rirh,  so  it  becams  a  flgore  to  describe 
abundance.  Palestine  was  dencniiaated  a 
'land  flowing  with  mQk  and  honey'  (Eiod. 
iii.  6) ;  and  lansl  ia  laid  (DeaMiiii.  13)  to 
baTe  been  made,  tliTon^h  the  boundfol  good- 
ness of  Jehoiafa, 'to  aackbanejonl  of  the  rock.' 
The  copionanesB  of  the  snpply  of  thia  natiTe 
bone;  maybe  learned  from  1 3ani.  liT.  2.1,  Sfl . 
BometimeB  (be  skeleton  of  decomposed  ani- 
mals aflbrded  a  home  for  a  swarm,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  lion  which  Samson  killed.  The 
passage,  Jadg,  li*.  8.  bas  derived  the  AiA- 
enlty  which  has  occupied  and  puzzled  man; 
commenlatois,  solely  from  the  asiumption, 
that  the  lion's  catrass  had  prodaced  the  bees, 
that  simply  hired  in  die  hollow  made  by  the 
bones  of  his  bead,  or  those  of  bis  trunk. 
Theology  has  too  man;  inatanceB  in  which 
fkncy  or  snperslition  has  mads  difficulties, 
which  neilber  learning  nor  common  sense 
coiild  solve.  In  such  eases,  ■  simple  appeal 
to  facts  is  the  proper  couiss. 

The  domestication  of  bees  Is  too  obrious 
a  reaonrce  tor  obtaining  a  pleasant  anil  salu- 
briotis  aliment,  not  to  be  resorted  to  where- 
irer  the  animal  abounds.  Accordingly  it  is 
praotiBed,  at  the  present  day,  in  Syria  and 
Bjypi    In  the  Talmnd,  menlioti  is  often 


Id  BEE 

made  of  Ihe  keeping  of  bees ;  and  the  Esse- 
nes  gaTe  particular  attention  lo  this  Dsefal 
creature.  Under  these  eiroamstancea,  it  is 
probable  that  beea  were  kept  for  domeatla 
porposes  hi  the  eariier  periods  of  Jewish 
history.  High  aalhorlties  hays  tonnd  a  re- 
ference lo  a  practice  connected  with  keeping 
beea  In  laa.  *ii.  18,  where  it  is  naid,  that 
Jehovah  shall  'bias  fbr  the  bee  that  is  in 
the  land  of  Assyria.'  The  practice  to  which 
we  have  referred,  and  which  is  well  known 
In  rural  diatricis,  ia  ttie  guiding  a  young 
■warm  to  Ihe  dselred  spot  by  mean*  of 
noisea  mads  often  by  domestic  ulenails. 
A  usage  of  a  similar  natnre.  notwithstand- 
ing the  Ignorance  of  a  writer  in  Xitto'a 
'BibUcil  Cyclopedia*  (toI.  i.  314),  existed 
beyond  a  doubt  in  ancient  timea,  according 
to  the  statement  of  £lian  (Anim.  t.  13),  and 
file  Kstimnny  of  Cyril,  inhiaeommenlon  ths 
worda  in  question.  These  and  other  autho- 
rities show  that  it  was,  aa  it  atill  is,  custo- 
mary to  guide  Ihe  moliona  of  bees  by  certain 
noiaes;  and  the  'hiss'  mentioned  in  Isaiah 
is,  in  the  origina],  a  word  which  imitates 
the  sound  msde  by  the  month  tor  that  por- 

The  comparison  of  ^e  Asayriana,  aa  ene- 
mies of  the  laraslitea,  to  beea,  will,  with 
other  Scriptural  language,  be  understood  in 
its  fall  force,  when  the  reader  ia  aware  that 
bees  in  the  East  are  much  more  malignant, 
and  tbeir  ating  much  more  punfai  and 
injunona,  than  in  these  regions.  Park 
apeika  of  the  diamay  caosed  among  his 
peiple,  by  the  attack  of  a  swarm  of  bees, 
which  they  chanced  to  disturb,  when  flight 
alone  probably  saved  the  human  beings  bom 
that  destraotion  wliich  fell  on  two  asaes. 
Whence  appeara  tbe  propriety  of  ths  words 
of  Mosea, — '  The  Amoritas  came  out  a^caiust 
you,  and  chased  yon  as  bees  do,  and  desooyed 
you  In  Seir,  nnlo  Hotmah;  comp.  Ps.  cxvilL 
12.  Near  Acbala,  in  the  north-western  part 
of  Fatestine,  Oliu  fonnd  '  Ihe  atmosphere 
TOdsl  and  almoat  darkened  by  an  incre- 
dible number  ot  bees.  Their  hives  an 
cylinden,  made  ot  earth,  about  two  or  three 
feet  in  length,  by  eight  or  ten  inches  in 
diameter,  having  (be  entrances  at  one  end. 
These  were  piled  one  upon  another  like 
loga  of  wood,  in  some  iustaneea  forty  or 
fifty  together.  Ths  culture  of  beea  wonld 
seem  to  be  the  cbiet  business  of  the  people, 
and  I  waa  nminded  (hat  honey  wasfonoerly 
one  of  (he  staple  products.' 

BEELZEBUB  (C.  fiy-god—KK  Baal). 
The  correct  reading  in  Matt  x.  2S.  Mark 
iii.  32,  is  '  Beelzebul,'  which  signifies  dvn;- 
god ;  ths  cliange  of  h  into  I  having  been 
made  by  a  sort  of  play  upon  words,  of  which 
numerous  instances  occur  in  Hie  later  periods 
of  Jewish  history,  in  ordsr  lo  throw  dis- 
honour and  contempt  on  (be  worship  of 
Baal,  and  generally  on  all  idol-worahip.  In 
rroceas  of  time,  and  under  the  Influencs  of 


BEE  UO  BEE 

a  oorrupt  oriental  philosophy,  a  tyatom  of  Ahraham  and  Abimeleoh    there  swore  in 
'doctrines  of  devils' — demons  (1  Tiin.  iv.  1)  ratification  of  a  ooyenant  of  peaee   (Qen. 
was  introduced  and  spread  throaghont  Ja-  zri.  81).     At  first  it  was  eonseeraled  to 
dea,   and  other  western    countries.      This  the  worship  of  the  Almighty ;  for  Abraham 
system  made  a  complete  infernal  hierarchy,  planted  a  gioye  in  Beersheba,  and  called 
setting  forth  the  rank,  order,  and  attributes  there  on  the  name  of  the  Lord,  the  ever- 
of  each  class,  and  giTing  names  to  their  re-  lasting  Ood  (yer.  32) ;  but  in  a  degenerate 
spectiye  chiefs.    "Fbongh  not  perfected  till  period  it  was  polluted  by  idolatry  (Amos 
the  Rabbins,  after  the  days  of  our  Lord,  t.  5 ;  yili.  14).    It  was  in  existence  after 
had  applied  to   the  subject  their  fancies  the  exile   (Neh.  xi  27,  80),   and  in  the 
teeming  with  dark  ereations, — yet  some-  time  of  Jerome.    Bobinson  found  on  the 
thing  more  than  the  outlines  of  this  doe-  skirts  of  the  desert,  in  an  open  pasture 
trine  of  demons  was  found  in  existence  by  country  on  the  northern  side  of  Wady  es- 
onr  Lord,  who,  adopting  the  popular  phraseo-  Seba,  two  deep  wells,  still  called  Bir  es-Seba, 
logy,  spesks,  in  the  passages  aboye  referred  the  ancient  Beersheba.    The  water  in  both 
to,  of  Beelsebul,  '  the  prince  of  demons.*  wells  is  pure,  sweet,  and  abundant    Ascend- 
To  the  influence  of  these  demons,  yarious  ing  the  low  hills  north  of  the  wells,  he  found 
diseases,  especially  insanity,  were  ascribed,  them  coyered  with  the  ruins  of  former  habi- 
But  a  power  which  could  wound,  could  also  tations,  spreading  oyer  a  space  half  a  mile 
heaL     Hence  the  Jews  argued    that   our  in  length,  on  which  are  scattered  fragments 
Sayiour  perfonned  his  miracles  by  the  co-  of  pottery.   'Here,  then,' — ^we  cite  the  words 
operation  of  Beelsebul,  as  at  a  later  period  of  Robinson,  —  *  is  the  place  where  the  pa- 
the  Fathers  of  the  church  maintained  that  triarohs,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  often 
the  heathen  oracles  were  inspired  by  the  dwelt     Here  Abraham  dug,  perhaps,  this 
demons.    The  logic  of  this  imputation  was  very  well ;   and  journeyed  tcom  hence  with 
as  bad  as  its  philosophy.  This  Jesus  showed  Isaao  to  Mount  Moriah,  to  offer  him  up 
by  bringing  into  relief  the  absurdity  of  the  there  in  sacrifice.     From  this  place  Jaeob 
supposition,  that  Satan  would  cast  out  Satan  fled  to  Padan-aram,  after  acquiring  the  birth- 
(Mark  iiL  23).    A  kingdom  dirided  against  right  and  blessing  belonging  to  his  brother ; 
itself  cannot  stand  (24).  Beelsebul,  as  an  eyil  and  here,  too,  he  sacrificed  to  the  Lord  on 
power,  must  do  eyil,  and  could  not  be  the  setting  out  to  meet  his  son  Joseph  in  Egypt 
prime  agent  in  a  work  whose  essential  attri-  Here  Samuel  made  his  sons  judges;   and 
bute  was  to  heal  and  saye.  frx>m  here  El^ah  wandered  out  into  the 
BEER  (H.  a  well),  a  town  in  Palestine  southern  desert,  and  sat  down  under  a  shrub, 
(Judg.  ix.  21.  2  Sam.  xx.  14), about  a  day's  just  as  our  Arabs  sat  down  every  day  and 
Journey  north-west  of  Jerusalem,  U>  which  every  night    Over  these  swelling  hills  the 
Jothsm  fled  for  fear  of  Abimelec^,  after  he  flocks  of  the  patriarchs  once  roved  by  thou- 
had  delivered  on  Mount  Oerisim  the  speech  sands,  where  now  we  found  only  a  few  cam- 
which  contained  his  famous  apologue  of  the  els,  asses,  and  goats.' 
trees  ehoosing  a  king.    The  meaning  of  the        Proceeding  northward  to  Jerusalem,  the 
name  shows  its  origin.    That  name  is  still  path  gradually  ascends  over  an  open  tract, 
borne  by  a  small  village,  lying  as  above  which,  in  ordinary  seasons,  is  a  fine  graxing 
mentioned;  a  little  to  the  west  of  which  is  a  country:  not  a  precipice,  not  a  tree,  is  to  be 
beautiful  and  copious  fountain.   The  modem  seen ;  nothing  but  grassy  hills.     Robinson 
Beer  does  not  contain  more  than  a  hun-  thus  describes  this  part: — ^^ Fifteen  minutes 
dred  end  fifty  low  mean  stone  houses.    It  more  brought  us  out  upon  a  wide,  open, 
has,  however,  many  marks  of  sntiquity :  —  gn^sy  plain,  suffering  greatly  indeed  from 
massive  stones  built  into  peasants*  houses,  drought  (April  15),  but  in  which  many  fields 
or  lying  upon  the  earth,  half-buried  walls,  of  wheat  were  scattered,  looking  beautifully 
and  substructions,  with  mounds  of  rubbish,  in  their  vesture  of  bright  green.   The  ground. 
The  walls  snd  beautifVd  solid  arches  of  a  too,  was  in  many  places  decked  with  flowers : 
dDapidated  church  form  the  most  conspi-  among    them  was  an   abundance  of   low 
cuous  object    It  is  commonly  ascribed  to  scarlet  poppies.     The  morning  was  lovely, 
the  empress  Helena,  and,  firom  its  size  and  the  sky  perfectly  serene,  with  a  iefi«shing 
sumptuousness,  may  have  had  its  origin  in  breese  firom  the  S.W. ;  the  air  full  of  the 
her  princely  munificence.      The   tradition  sweet  carols  of  birds.'    He  next  travelled 
prevails  that  it  was  at  Beer,  Mary,  on  her  over  a  plain  in  a  course  NJB.  by  £.  having 
return  home   to  Naxoreth,  discovered  that  on  undulating  surface,  no  shrubs  nor  trees 
the  chUd  Jesus  had  been  left  behind ;  and  visible ;    nothing  but  grass,   flowers,   and 
the  church  marks  the  spot  where,  in  the  green  fields.      On  the  east  and  north  axe 
ftilness  of  a  mothei's  feelings,  she  turned  hills  and  ridges,  the  beginning  of  the  moun- 
back  in  quest  of  her  beloved  son.  tains  of  Judah.     The  plain  soon  terminates, 
BEERSHEBA  (H.  well  of  the  oath),  a     and  you  get  among  the  hills,  entering  a  Wady 
place  forming  the  extreme  southern  bound-     which  leads  to  Hebron.     In  this  vsUey  Ro- 
ory  of  Palestine  (2  Sam.  xvii.  11),  which     binaon  (April  18)  found  fields  of  grain,  and 
received   its  name  from  the  oath  which     a  man  ploughing  with  two  heifers,  in  order 


t 


BEE                       1 11  BEE 

to  Ban  millet     His  plough  was  yery  aim-  the  Utter  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills,  which  are 

pie,  yet  did  its  work  well.  in  many  parts  hnilt  up  in  terraces.    This  val- 

The  road  now  ascends  more  rapidly.  The  ley  is  generally  assumed  to  he  the  Eshcol  of 
limestone  hills  on  each  side  heoome  rocky  the  Old  Testament,  whence  the  spies  hroaght 
and  higher,  heing  green  with  grass,  while  hack  the  clusters  of  grapes  to  Kadesh. 
low  trees  are  scattered  among  them.  Among  This  assumption  is  not  without  reason, 
these,  the  Butm,PistaciaTerehinthu8  of  Lin-  The  character  of  its  fruit  at  present  corre- 
naons,  the  terehinth  of  the  Old  Testament,  spends  with  its  ancient  celehrity.  Pome- 
is  the  most  Ikequent.  Bed  cloTer  is  found  granates  and  figs,  as  well  as  apricots  and 
growing  wild  along  the  path.  Beaching  the  quinces,  still  grow  there  in  abundanee. — 
head  of  thisTalley,  yon  come  out  on  a  ridge,  (Comp.  Gen.  zir.  24.  Numb.  ziii.  23.) 
from  which  a  Teiy  steep  descent  brings  yon  This  road  bears  every  mark  of  haying  al- 
to the  bottom  of  another  deep  and  narrow  ways  been  a  great  highway  between  Hebron 
Wady  coming  down  from  the  N.£.  up  which  and  Jerusalem.  It  is  direct,  and  in  many 
the  path  goes  in  a  general  course  N.E.  parts  artificially  made,  evidently  in  times 
by  E.  This  water-course  is  narrow,  and  of  old.  But  wheels  never  passed  here :  the 
winds  among  the  hills ;  the  sides  are  rocky,  hills  are  too  sharp  and  steep,  and  the  sur- 
but  clothed  with  grass  and  the  shrub  BeUan,  face  of  the  ground  too  thickly  strewn  with 
a  kind  of  Itirse.  The  bottom  of  the  valley,  rocks,  to  admit  of  the  possibility  of  vehicles 
in  its  steeper  parts,  was  formerly  laid  out  in  being  used  in  this  mountainous  region, 
terraces,  of  which  the  massive  walls  still  re-  without  the  toilsome  construction  of  artifi- 
main.  The  hill  terminating  the  Wady,  and  cial  roads,  such  as  never  yet  existed  here, 
the  hills  around,  are  in  spring  covered  with  At  one  hour  from  Hebron,  a  blind  path 
flocks  and  cattle  in  the  ancient  patriarchal  goes  off  to  the  right,  leading  to  Tekoa ;  and 
style,  with  horses,  asses,  and  camels,  aU  in  on  it,  about  five  minutee^  walk  from  the 
fine  order,  and  affording  a  most  pleasing  road,  axe  the  foundations  of  an  immense 
prospect  building,  which  the  Jews  of  Hebron  call  the 

The  eountry  around  the  village  of  Dhohe-  House  of  Abraham,  and  regard  this  a» 
riyeh,  which  lies  high,  is  visible  from  a  the  place  of  Abraham's  tent  and  terebinth 
great  distance,  and  seems  to  have  been  one  at  Mamre  (Gen.  xiii.  18).  The  country  is 
of  the  line  of  fortresses  which  apparently  still  rocky  and  uneven,  but  somewhat  culti- 
once  existed  all  along  &e  southern  border  vated.  It  soon  becomes  more  open;  the 
of  Palestine,  has  but  a  barren  aspect:  the  valleys  are  wider  and  fertQe;  and  the  hills 
limestone  rocks  come  out  in  large  blocks  are  covered  with  bushes,  arbutus,  and  dwarf 
and  masses  on  the  sides  and  tops  of  the  oaks,  exhibiting  also  in  their  terraced  sides 
hills,  and  give  a  whitish  cast  to  the  whole  the  traces  of  ancient  cultivation.  The  tract 
landscape.  No  trees  axe  visible,  nor  any  is  fbll  of  partridges,  whose  celling  and 
fields  of  grain,  except  in  the  bottoms  of  the  clucking  in  spring  may  be  heard  on  every 
narrow  vidleys.  Indeed  the  whole  aspect  of  side.  Grossing  a  valley  obliquely,  you  see 
the  country  is  stem  and  dreary.  Yet  it  must  the  road  at  some  distance  a-head,  ascending 
be  a  fine  grasing  country,  as  is  proved  by  the  side  of  a  long  ridge,  the  path  up  which 
the  fat  and  sleek  condition  of  the  flocks  end  is  artificial ;  midway  is  a  eistem  of  rain- 
herds,  and  from  its  having  been,  from  the  water,  also  an  open  place  of  prayer  for 
days  of  Abraham  onward,  a  place  of  resort  the  Mohammedan  traveller.  From  the  top 
for  herdsmen.  From  the  top  of  a  neigh-  the  path  descends  into  a  long  straight  val- 
bouring  hill  nothing  is  to  be  seen,  save  rocky  ley,  which  it  follows  for  an  hour,  called 
hills  and  swells.  Wady  et-Tuheishimeh.     The  hills  become 

The  course  from  Dhoheriyeh  to  Hebron  is  higher  and  more  rocky,  the  valley  narrower 
north-east  The  road  winds  among  valleys  and  winding;  while  tiie  road  ascends  ob- 
and  over  hills  which  begin  to  be  covered  liquely  on  the  left,  and  bends  around  the 
with  riirubs,  increasing  as  yon  advance,  be-  eastern  iK>int  of  a  high  hill,  leaving  the  val- 
ing  intermingled  with  evergreens  or  prickly  ley  very  deep  below  on  the  right  The 
oaks,  arbutus,  and  other  dwarf  trees  and  vdley  passes  on  towards  the  right,  and  re- 
bushes.  In  summer  a  large  iK>rtion  of  the  oeives  that  which  descends  from  Solomon's 
peasantry  are  said  to  leave  their  villages,  and  Pools,  and  so  runs  to  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
dwell  in  caves  and  ruins,  in  order  to  be  road  leads  across  a  ridge  into  the  more  open 
near  their  flocks.  valley,  in  which  are  those  famous  pools. 

The  region  around  Hebron,  which  lies  in  There  are  three  of  these  immense  reservoirs 

a  deep  narrow  valley,  abounds  with  vine-  l]ring  one  above  another  in  the  sloping  val- 

yards,  and  the  grapes  are  the  finest  in  Pales-  ley,  and  bearing  every  mark  of  high  antiquity, 

tine.  A  small  aqueduct  is  carried  from  them,  along 

Thepathtowards  Jerusalem,  which  leadsup  the  sides  of  the  hills,  to  Bethlehem  and  Je- 

the  valley,  and  then  up  a  branch  coming  from  rusalem.    A  road  passes  hence  to  Bethlehem 

the  north-east,  is  at  first  paved,  and  passes  along  the  aqueduct    Another,  which  is  more 

between  the  walls  of  vineyards  and  olive-  direct,  leads  obliquely  up  the  gentle  ascent 

yards ;  the  former  ehiefly  in  the  valley,  and  north  of  the  pools.    The  path  in  this  latter 


BE  £ 


142 


BEE 


pMsei  OYCT  a  level,  but  eiceedingly  roeky, 
tract,  difficult  for  camels.  You  aoon  come  to 
a  modem  building,  bearing  the  name  of 
Bachel's  Tomb,  which  is  merely  an  ordinary 
Moslem  Wely ,  or  tomb  of  a  holy  person.  The 
general  correctness,  however,  of  the  tradition 
which  has  fixed  upon  this  spot  for  the  burial- 
place  of  Bachei,  cannot  well  be  drawn  in 
question,  since  it  is  ftilly  supported  by  the 
Scriptural  nanratiTe  (Gen.  zzxr.  16 — ^20). 
Still  ascending,  the  road  passes  to  the  left, 
around  the  head  of  a  deep  valley,  running  off 
east-ward  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  affords  a  wide 
view  out  over  the  mountainous  regions  to- 
wards  and  beyond  that  sea,  inoluding  Beth- 
lehem and  the  Frank  Mountain.  The  deep 
basin  of  the  sea  can  in  pari  be  mads  out;  but 
its  waters  are  not  visible.  Ton  now  come 
opposite  the  convent  of  Mar  Elyas,  which 
lies  on  the  brow  of  the  hi^  ridge  overlook- 
ing Bethlehem.  Here  you  get  3rour  first  view 
of  the  holy  eitf,  the  mosque,  and  other  high 
buildings  which  stand  on  Mount  Zion. — 
As  you  advance,  you  have  on  the  right  low 
hills,  and  on  tiie  left  the  cultivated  valley 
or  plain  of  Bephaim,  or  the  Giants,  with 
gentle  hills  beyond.  This  plain  is  broad, 
and  descends  gradually  towards  the  south- 
west, untU  it  contracts,  in  fliat  direction,  into 
a  deeper  and  narrower  valley,  called  Wady  el- 
Werd,  which  unites  f^irAer  on  with  Wady 
Ahmed,  and  finds  its  way  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  plain  of  Bephaim  extends 
nearly  to  Jerusalem,  which,  as  seen  firom 
it,  sppesrs  to  be  almost  on  the  ssme  level. 
As  you  advance,  the  plain  is  teiminated  by 
a  sUght  rocky  ridge,  forming  the  brow  of  the 
valley  of  Hinnom.  This  deep  and  nanow 
deli,  with  steep  rocky  sides,  often  precipi- 
tous, here  comes  down  from  the  nordi  from 
as  far  as  the  YafaGate,  and,  sweeping  around 
Mount  Zion  at  almost  a  right  ang^e,  descends 
with  great  rapidity  into  the  very  deep  valley 
of  Jehoshqshat  The  southern  side  of  Zion 
is  very  steep,  thou^^  not  precipitous.  You 
cross  die  valley  of  Hinnom  opposite  the  south- 
west comer  of  Zion,  and  pass  up  along  the 
eastern  side  of  the  valley  to  the  H^ron 
or  Yafa  Gate,  and  thus  enter  the  holy  city. 
The  distance  between  Hebron  end  Jerusa- 
lem is  given  by  Eusebius  snd  Jerome  at 
twenty-two  Boman  miles,  equal  to  about 
seventeen  and  a-half  geographieal  miles. 
The  journey  took  fiobinson  ei^t  hours 
and  a  quarter  with  camels. 

The  feelings  of  the  Christian  traveller,  on 
approaching  Jerusalem,  are  very  strong,  and 
of  a  sacred  nature.  Before  him,  as  he  draws 
nesr,  lie  Zion,  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the 
Vales  of  Hinnom  snd  Jehoshsphat,  with  other 
objecte  of  the  deepest  interest;  wldle,  crown- 
ing the  summit  of  the  same  ancimt  hills,  is 
spread  out  the  city  where  God  of  old  had 
manifested  his  special  presence,  and  the  Sa- 
viour of  the  world  lived,  taught,  and  died. 
Here  an  localities  of  which,  from  his  esr- 


liest  ohildhood,  he  has  read  and  thought, 
now  beheld  with  his  own  eyes ;  and  they  all 
seem  familiar,  ae  if  the  realisatiott  of  a  fanner 
dream ;  so  that  he  could  fancy  himself  again 
among  cherished  scenes  of  childhood. 

BEETLE.  —  This  word  occurs  in  our  Bi- 
ble only  once,  Lev.  xi.  23,  where  it  stands 
as  the  representative  of  the  Hebrew^AmryoA^ 
which  probably  denoted  a  species  of  locust 
The  beetle,  however,  abounded  in  the  valley  of 
the  Nile,  aadfk<equently  occurs  in  the  scnlp- 
tnres.  '  A  great  portion  of  Egypt,'  says  Pli- 
ny, *  worshipped  ttie  ScarabsBus,  or  beetle,  as 
one  of  the  gods  of  the  country ;  a  carious 
reason  for  which  ia  given  byApion, — that 
in  this  insect  there  is  some  reseroblanee 
to  the  operations  of  the  sun.'  The  Scara- 
b»us  was  an  emblem  of  the  sun,  to  irtiich 
deity  it  was  partioularly  sacred.  It  often 
occurs  in  a  boat,  with  extended  wings,  hold- 
ing the  globe  of  the  sun  in  ite  claws,  or 
elervated  in  the  firmament,  as  a  type  of  that 
luminary  when  in  the  meridian.  Figures  of 
other  deities  are  often  seen  praying  to  it  in 
this  character.  It  was  also  a  sjrmbol  of 
Pthah,  the  creative  power,  and  of  the  worid. 
It  was  connected,  too,  with  astronomical 
subjecte,  and  wUh  ftmeral  rites.  The  Sea- 
rabeus  was  not  only  venerated  when  alive, 
but  embalmed  after  death.  Some  have  been 
found  in  that  state  at  Thebes.  The  one  so 
frequently  represented  on  the  sculptures,  and 
which  may  therefore  have  been  the  sacred 
beetle,  appears  to  be  the  same  animal  as  is 
still  common  in  every  part  of  Egypt 


BOTFTIAll  BBXTLaS,  FHOM  THB  UOWXtHMKn. 

The  bectte,  it  is  said,  causes  fertility  in 
pursuing  thosehabita  which  instinct  prompto. 
We  quote  a  passage  from  Kelly's  *  Syria  and 
the  Holy  Land:  '•— ^  In  passing  throned  the 
desert  ftom  Egypt,  the  auAor  was  surprised 
to  see  the  fresh  verdure,  in  many  mstanees, 
of  tsU  grassy  bushes,  to  idiich  the  bending  of 
the  camefe  head  not  unfrequently  directed 
his  attention ;  and  when  there  was  no  water 
near,  it  was  some  time  before  he  could  sa- 
tisfy himself  as  to  the  cause  of  the  verdure. 
Litde  holes  were  seen  around  the  bushes ; 
but  the  cause  or  purpose  was  alike  un- 
known. At  Khan  Younes  Ae  seeming  mys- 
tery was  solved.    Multitndes  of  beeties  (the 


BEH  U3  BEH 

DumliWM  nf  tt>f  rgjT'iwin)  t-i "  need  oniy  ot   to   iqnuic  ■nun*!,  —  unu 

iu  tbe  toand  picoaa  of  cunel's  dimg:,  tad  wbioh,  Uken  together,  (bow  tbM  the  behe- 

othar  i)eiiauts,8pMdUT  iortotd  by  fcem  into  modi  »u  «mphJbioti«  (eomp.  ver.  30,  28). 

a  umilu  ih^  aaii  ■»«.  to  auiMbte  rfotu,  Tba  ramundsr  of  the  dweriptim  m  in  Btriat 

whare  th»  loil  wu  hie,  or  uoond  flis  roott  •gwamenl  irith  th«  known  qulitiss  of  dw 

of  bnih««;   then  thej  tonnad  Ihair  hnlei  hippopotKnqa ;  whieh,  vllhont  Airthar  dis- 

wilii  the  malheoutiul  oertunlr  of  iiutii.ot,  eawion,  wa  ihiU  thcratora  proaaed  to  do- 

iDio  which  the  btUt,  bj  >  sli^t  moliim,  (crib*  in  briet 
war*  rolled  down,  thai  fttftning  bsdi  of  in- 
oubatian  foi  the  "  shun-bred  beetle."  Thaw 
litlls  ininuli,  whiah  kboond  in  mjiiada,  M 
onee  preaerra  the  porilj  ol  the  ftir,  tod  in- 
creue  the  Igitilitf  of  Iha  eoil,  being  oftaa 
tba  onlj  bn>T  eoItiTatora  <diera  man  ia  idle  ) 
and  thai  the  naoder  ii  diminiehed  that  the 
Soafabeni  vaa,  in  anciani  limes,  wonhlpped 
bj  the  EgTPliaui'  (p.  Hi). 

BEEVK3.  — Thia  word,  whjoh  ii  foand 
in  Lev.  ixij.  19,  31,  and  a  few  other  plaeea, 
ae  the  tnnelalion  of  a  word  gananUj  reo- 
dared  '  oien,'  '  boliooka,'  '  harde,'  is  an  old 
bol  regulail}  formed  plonl  of  the  term 
ittf,  deriTed  from  the  Fremth  bmnf,  whieh 
has  ita  root  in  the  Lalin  toi,  and  the  Oraak  The  Nile  liarH,  or  tlrer  hone,  was  In  an- 
imu.  Tlu  form  '  beeree,'  now  obeolele,  ii  oient  daji,  and  ia  elill,  bond  in  the  Nile 
foond  in  onr  older  writers.  Thus  Browne  bdow  the  cataiaeta;  bat  the  animal  haa  now 
('Bhepherd'a  Pipe,'  EoL  iii.)  : —  for  a  long  time  prettj  mneh  withdrawn  into 
•  Ban,bTtha^ah^aeeniaedthI*na,  Nnbia,  and  la  mora  trtqaent  at  present  in 
Biabia  hli  Iambi  or  aolna  hli  beenai'  the  Niger,  and  the  riren  wliieh  lie  between 
This  word  oalla  to  Iha  roicd  the  fact,  that  that  mi  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  ii  also 
there  are  in  Tnflii«b  pain  of  wtnda  hanng  fband  in  Uie  lakes  and  ttaa  of  Ethiopia.  It 
originally,  the  same  meaning ;  of  eaoh  irf  belonp  to  the  claas  nammalia,  and  is  of  the 
whieh  pain,  one  word  comes  bom  a  olaaaio,  order  fochydenitata,  or  thick-skinned  anl- 
Ihe  other  from  a  Saxon  origin.  Tha  tenna  mals.  It  ia  alio  herbiTOrons.  Its  head  il 
of  claesio  deriTStton  were  mostly  introdnoad  long  and  broad  ;  its  lipa  nr;  thick,  and  ttw 
bj  tha  Norman  Frencli,  who.  in  the  case  of  ninxzle  mnch  inHated;  it  lua  four  rarj large 
aoinuls,  gave  to  tha  slaughtered  beaala  projacting  teeth  in  the  imder  jaw,  and  ftmr 
vhioh  they  Donsamad  their  own  names  also  in  the  npper ;  the  skin  is  exceeding 
(beef,  matton),  and  left  the  old  TenUnio  thick;  the  legs  short i  four  toes  on  eadi 
i^pellatioiis  (ox,  sheep)  to  the  natire  Sax-  fool  inTeated  with  small  boob ;  and  the  tail 
□na,  who  reand  the  eatile  for  their  maatsra.  ia  ghort  and  moreable.  The  qipaarance  of 
BEHEMOTH  is  the  original  word  (Job  the  animal  on  land  ieTerrnneonth,  die  body 
iLie,wf,)in£DglishlattBrB,  our  translators  being  huge,  Bat,  and  round;  the  head  out 
diiu  ahowiog  tbat  thej  eould  not  deletmine  of  all  proportion  for  magnitude,  file  feet  as 
what  modern  name  to  assign  to  (he  animaL  disproportioaably  short,  and  the  umamant 
Indeed  nnmerone  sod  diiiaimilar  apinions  of  teeth  tnily  ftirmid^e.  The  length  of 
luTe  prerailed,  among  whioh,  that  aeemed  tha  mala  hu  bean  known  to  be  sarentaen 
to  have  the  praterenea  whidi  lepreaantod  feet,  the  height  sereD,  and  the  eirenmlbrenee 
behemoth  to  be  iIm  alepbant;  until  Boabait,  fitMn.  Braoe  mantioiu  some  as  being 
attar  a  earaftil  inTostigaticD  of  the  nlgaat,  eaoh  twen^  fi>et  in  longdi.  The  lAoIa  ani- 
dMi<tedmfhToiuoflliehipp<^Mamus,(»ri-  mal  is  ooTcrad  with  ahoit  hair,  lAieh  ia 
mhorae.  TheopinkmoflltatdiatiBgniihed  thicker  on  the  midar  than  tha  upper  parts, 
aoliolar  haa  been  adopted  and  npbeld  by  The  general  colour  ia  brownish.  Tha  akia 
Qeasnini,  Winer,  and  olheis.  Aoeordlng  to  is  exnaedingly  tough  and  strong,  and  was 
these  eminent  lingoills,  the  name  is  detiVed  nsed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  (Or  the  ma- 
bom  an  Egyptian  word,  Ftitwumt,  whieh  tmfacluie  of  ahields.  KiippeU,  Ae  Oennao 
aignifles  imUr-ex  —  ait  obrious  attempt  to  natoralist,  in  speaking  of  the  i^per  regions 
describe  a  large  and  powerful  marina  *ni-  of  the  Nile,  aays,  fliat  tba  hunters  of  tha 
nuL  The  liew  whioh  the  name  thus  ang-  Nile-oi  have  to  endnre  and  pairy  terDoioDi 
geals,  tha  text  itself  strongly  lopporta ;  sod  aasanlts  troai  the  enraged  animaL  The  har- 
U  is  strange  ttiat  those  who  held  the  el»-  pooning  on  those  apola  where  it  oomes  to 
phant  to  be  intended,  could  hare  oierkiokad  graie,  ^  attended  with  great  danger,  whan 
two  tteU,  —  usouly,  that  the  dislingaiBhing  tha  hunter,  who  mnst  approach  wi^in  abont 
characUiietic  of  tha  elephant,  the  proboecie,  seien  paces,  is  seen  by  the  behemoth,  betora 
ia  not  ascribed  to  the  behemoth;  and  that  he  has  buried  hie  weapon.  In  aneh  eaaea 
ha  is  spoken  of  in  f- '-'-'-   — " '  ' " ■■  ■■ 


hit  uuQint.  and  cnuhea  bic 

tmen  ita  wide  uid  formidable 

times  Ihe  moat  haimleu  obje 

nf(e  of  tbii  laniAo  uiimiL     Kiippsll  rapoitt, 

that,  in  the  ngion  of  Atncra,  (   ' ' 

oraiuuihad  irMnl  cattle  that 

to  a  wMBi^iriiMl.     H«  apaaka  of  one  that 

was  not  oqiturad  till  after  a  batlla  of  fanr 

hoon  long ;  —  *  Indaed  ha  oama  rarj  naar, 

deitrojing  oar  larga  batk,  and  with  It  ftt- 

hqi)  all  our  IJTaa.'    A  amall  canoe,  oumnd 

In  taUng  him,  he  dragged  with  him 


the 


,   and  ahatlmd  to  piaoai.     The 


[mtsn  eaoqied  with  extreme  diflenlty • 
Ont  at  twentj-flTe  maaket  ball*  fired  iDto 
the  moDiler'a  heul,  at  Ihe  dUtauoe  of  Ats 
feet,  only  one  penetrated  Ihe  hide  and  the 
bones  near  the  nose  ;  al]  the  other  balla  re- 
mained stinking  in  the  thickneaa  of  his  hide. 
'  We  hid  il  last  to  emploj  a  small  Bumon ; 
bnt  it  was  onl  j  after  five  of  its  balls,  fired  at 
a  dislance  of  a  feir  teet,  hid  manned  mod 
ihoekingi;  the  head  and  bodf  of  the  mon' 
Bier,  thai  he  wii  fairlj  Tanqiushed.  The 
daiknes*  of  Ihe  night  augmented  the  hor- 
lort  and  dangen  of  the  contest.  This  gi- 
gantic ireatnre  dragged  oni  larga  bark  at 
■ill  in  cTery  direotioD  of  the  stream,  and  it 
was  in  a  fortunate  moment  tor  na  that  he 
jiclded,  juit  aa  he  had  drawn  us  smDng  a  la- 
bjrinlh  of  roska.'  Hippopotami  are  a  plague 
to  the  laud,  in  conaeqnense  of  their  Tora- 
oioDsneia.  In  some  parts  thej  are  ao  bold, 
Ihat  (her  an  undeterred  hj  the  noiics  made 
to  keep  Ihem  ad,  or  driTs  them  away ;  and 
will  yield  up  their  pasturea,  only  when  a  targe 
number  of  peraoui  come  rushing  upon  Ifacnu 
The  Egyptians  of  old  took  them  much  in 
the  same  manner  as  whales  are  captured; 
and  il  ^peaiB  ttum  the  accoonta  of  tiaTel- 
lers  (Wilkinson,  iil.  70 ;  see  particolarly, 
'  Voyage  d'  Eiploration  an  Cap  de  Bonne- 
Eeperance,  psi  Arbonssel  et  Daumas;'  Pa- 
ris, Delay,  lAiS  ;  p.  132,  teq.;  where  mon 
details  of  sn  interesting  kind  may  be  fonnd), 
that  the  plan,  as  desctibcd  in  the  cut,  re- 
naiDJ  aaaentially  the  aime  at  ihe  present  day. 


BEL 

BELIAL,  a  componnd  Hebrew  word,  sig- 
sifyiiig  originally  lowmeu  aa  to  plaoe,  lad 
Lhence  auraJ  degmdatvm.  Accordingly, 
'  ehildren '  or  ■  sons  of  Belial '  signifies  bait, 
(Daul.iiii.ia.  Judg.xii.  32). 
In  Dent.  x*.  B,  il  is  rendered  '  wieked.'  In 
Pa.  ilL  e,  the  words  trsnslated  '  an  eril  dia- 
esae'  literally  mesnaicur.! or tU-y  a/ Bcliid. 
With  that  tendency  to  personifieatiou  which 
marked  die  Jewiah  religian  when,  in  its  de- 
eline,  it  tell  under  rabtnnioal  influence,  the 
wotd  came  fei  be  an  epithet  at  Satin  (3  Cor. 

Ti.  la). 

BELLS  of  gold  were  required  to  bo  sewed 
on  Ihe  hem  of  the  ephod  of  Ihe  high  priest, 
ronitd  the  entire  robe,  interchanging  with 
pomegranates.  Ths  Jewi  make  the  number 
to  hare  been  sersnty-two.  These  wen  to 
be  worn  daring  the  time  Ihal  Aaron  and  hia 
SDOoesson  were  engaged  in  actually  minis- 
tering at  the  allar;  — '  And  his  sound  shall 
be  heard  when  he  goelh  in  unto  the  holy 
plaoe  before  Ihe  Lord,  and  when  he  oomelh 
out'  (Eiod.  zxTiii.  33,  irg.).  The  last 
words  seem  to  intimate  dial  Ihe  chief  object 
of  these  bells  was  similar  to  Ihe  nse  which 
is  made  of  a  beU  in  the  Csthalie  msss, 
thoogh  bells  are  not  unumsl  in  Ihe  East  as 
decoratiails  to  stalely  robes.  WhereTer  a 
oeremonial  coualitules  the  principal  part  of 
public  worship,  and  the  worshippers  are  nn- 
meroos.  some  sound  is  neoeaaary  to  indicate 
lo  Ihe  assembled  congregation  &e  exact 
part  which  is  being  performed,  in  order  that 
they  may  by  tfieir  sympathies  concur  in  the 
oErering.  Aooordin^y,  a  bell  in  CatboUe 
worship  is  heard  at  the  preeiae  moment 
when  ihe  boat  is  aleraled,  which  would 
otherwise  be  unknown  to  the  worshippen, 
aa  their  faces  are  bent  towards  the  earth, 
and  their  numbers  and  distance  pradnda 
the  view  ot  the  saored  otiject. 

In  Zeeh.  iIt.  20,  bells  (Ihe  marginal  ren- 
'  bridles,'  is  not  to  be  preferred)  are 


eqoipmentof  hoiset;  being  designed  alonee 
to  snoooiBg*  the  ■"■"■«'«|  and  lo  aid  in  his 
tecoreiy  should  any  ons  stray.  Ths  prao- 
tise  of  aSxing  belli  on  harness  is  still  prv- 
Talent  in  the  East 

BEL8HAZZAB  (C),  the  laM  king  of  Ba- 
t^lon,  of  Ihe  race  of  Ibe  Cbaldee*  (Dan.  t.  I, 
SO;  Tii.l)iTatiously  csUedbynon-BiUical 
writers  Nsbonuedua,  Nabonadius,  Nabods- 
una,  Nabutmiitochus,  Abydenua,  Labynetos, 
and  Naboandel;  so  little  are  the  pronun- 

flied  in  the  practice  of  ancient  authors.  It 
would  be  easy  to  show,  in  the  inataoce  before 
ua,  lhat  great  nrie^  prevails  also  in  regard 
lo  alleged  erents  in  Ihe  history  of  orien- 
tal penonagea.  Aooording  to  Harodolns 
(L  IBS,  tq.),  Belshassar  was  the  son  of  Ihe 
Quean  Nitocris,  and  was  put  to  death  in  the 
night,  during  a  earouaal,  irtien  Cyras  look 

Babylon  (A.H.  eoioi  A.c.e38;  v.ose). 


BEN 


-46 


BEN 


Tie  Qtfrttive  of  the  Bible  it  of  deep  inte- 
rest, and  may  be  read  in  Dan.  t. 

In  the  splendour  of  the  mirade  which  is 
there  recorded,  the  part  which  Daniel  bore 
in  the  erents,  and  the  distinction  to  which 
he  was  raised,  were  there  influences  which, 
while  they  wear  a  thoroughly  oriental  cha- 
racter, and  speak  for  the  aathenticity  of  the 
narratiTe,  could  not  fail  to  fix  men's  eyes  on 
the  Jewidi  people ;  to  turn  men's  thoughts 
to  JehoYah;  to  afford  support,  encourage- 
ment, and  hope  to  the  exiled  Hebrews ;  and 
to  incline  the  conqueror  strongly  in  their 
farour.  If  the  threatened  o^tlTity  had  been 
carried  into  effect,  the  promised  deliverance 
(Isa.  xilL  xxL)  appeared  to  be  at  hand.  And, 
as  none  but  a  Hebrew  captiTe  had  been  able 
to  read  and  interpret  the  mysterious  charac- 
ters which  darkly  betokened  the  downfall 
of  a  most  ancient  monarchy,  so  Cyrus  may 
well  hsTc  felt  it  wise  and  politic  to  liberate 
the  Jews,  in  the  hope  of  thus  being  able  to 
conciliate  the  Great  and  Mighty  Being  whom 
they  served. 

BENEFACTOB  (L.  weU-doer),  a  word 
which  in  the  original  Greek,  and  in  this  tibe 
Latin  representative  of  the  original,  signi- 
fies one  who  confers  benefits,  and  was  a 
title  of  honour  not  imlike  the  Latin  paier 
pairuB,  father  of  his  country,  with  which 
Cicero  was  honoured;  given  originally  to 
those  who  had  rendered  great  services  to  a 
nation,  but  afterwards  applied  in  the  way  of 
flattery  to  kings.  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt, 
received  the  surname  of  Eurgetes,  or  hene- 
faetor.  The  distinction  was  also  borne  by 
several  of  the  Syrian  kings.  In  2  Mace, 
iv.  2,  the  high  priest  Onias  is  termed  the 
benefactor  of  the  city.  The  word  is  found 
in  Luke  xxii.  25.  In  the  parallel  passages. 
Matt  XX.  25.  Mark  x.  42,  there  is  no 
equivalent  term.  If  the  existence  of  the 
word  in  Luke  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
learned  education  of  the  composer  of  that 
Gospel,  it  may  suggest  speculations  as  to 
whence  our  Lord  derived  the  historical  facts 
on  which  the  allusion  is  founded. 

BENHADAD  (sono/Adad  or  Jd<tr)~that 
is,  of  the  sun,  which  was  worshipped  by  the 
Syrians  under  the  title  of  Adar — was  the 
name  borne  by  three  kings  of  Damascus, 
of  whom  the  second  only  (A3f .  4656 ;  A.C. 
892;  V.  901)  needs  to  be  spidien  of  at  any 
length  in  these  pages. 

Betaining  the  hostile  feeliaigs  which  had 
long  been  felt  by  the  Syrian  kings  against 
the  Hebrew  nation,  Bex^adad  II.  collected 
(i  Kings  XX.)  all  the  forces  he  could  com- 
mand,, including  no  fewer  than  thirty-two 
petty  princes,  and  invaded  the  dominions 
of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel.  Sitting  down 
before  Samaria,  he  sent  a  haughty  and  inso- 
lent demand  of  submission  to  its  prince,  — 
'Thy  silver  and  thy  gold,  mine;  thy  wives 
also  and  their  chfldren,  the  goodliest,  mine.' 
Ahab,  struck  with  fear,  humbly  answered, 


<I,  thine,  and  all  that  I  have.'  But  the 
Syrian  further  insisted  on  making  a  minute 
search,  in  order  to  get  possession  of  the 
most  precious  articles  belonging  to  Ahab. 
This  scrutiny  the  Samaritans  would  not 
endure.  The  refiisal  roused  the  anger  of  the 
invader,  who  answered,  *  This  petty  king  is 
ignorant  of  my  strength :  the  dust  of  Sama- 
ria will  not  suflice  for  handftils  for  all  the 
people  that  follow  me.'  To  this  Ahab  r^oined 
in  die  well-known  apothegm,  *  Let  not  him 
that  girdeth  on  his  armour  boast  himself 
as  he  that  putteth  ft  off.'  On  receiving  this 
message  in  the  midst  of  a  carousal,  Ben- 
hadad  forthwith  arose,  and  prepai«d  for 
battle.  But  a  higher  power  intervened,  and 
ere  the  revellers  had  equipped  themselves, 
they  were  set  upon  by  the  troops  of  Samaria, 
and  put  to  the  swonl :  their  prince  himself 
owed  lus  safety  only  to  the  fleetuess  of  his 
horse. 

The  remnant  that  escaped  to  Damascus 
began  to  speculate  as  to  the  cause  of  their 
defeat,  when  it  was  agreed  upon,  that  it  was 
owing  if)  their  having  fought  on  high  ground, 
since  *tibeir  gods  are  gods  of  the  hills; 
therefore  they  were  stronger  than  we ;  but 
let  us  fight  against  them  in  the  plain,  and 
surely  we  shall  be  stronger  than  they '  (23). 
In  the  spring  of  the  ensuing  year,  accordingly, 
Benhadad  marched  to  the  valley  of  Aphek 
(Jezreel),  where  he  suffered  a  second  defeat, 
being  obliged  to  secrete  himself  in  an  inner 
chamber  of  a  house  in  the  city  of  Aphek. 
And  now  a  deep  humiliation  was  at  hand  for 
this  elated  and  boastftil  man.  He  who  a 
few  months  before  had  come  against  Sama- 
ria in  the  extreme  of  insolence,  is  obliged 
to  sue  for  pity  by  means  of  servants  dad 
in  sackcloth,  and  with  ropes  round  flieir 
necks ;  so  speedily  overturned  are  the  pomp 
and  circumstances  of  what  has  (surely  in 
derision)  been  called  <  glorious  war.'  Ben- 
hadad's  life  was  spared  on  condition  that 
he  restored  to  Israel  the  cities  captured  by 
his  father,  and  gave  its  people  free  passage 
through  his  Syrian  dominions  (84). 

A  peace  of  three  years'  duration  ensued ; 
at  the  end  of  ^f^ch,  Ahab,  being  dissatisfied 
that  Benhadad  was  tardy  in  executing  the 
conditions,  proceeded,  in  union  with  Jeho- 
shaphat,  king  of  Judea,  to  lay  siege  to  the 
frontier  town,  Bamoth-Gilead,  which  ought 
to  have  been  surrendered  in  virtue  of  the 
treaty.  The  king  of  Syria  was  as  yet  too 
weak  to  do  more  than  stand  on  the  defen- 
sive. He  directed  his  troops,  however,  to 
seek,  before  all  things,  the  life  of  Ahab,  who 
was  accordingly  slain  in  the  action  that  took 
place  for  the  recovery  of  Bamoth. 

The  reign  of  Ahaziah,  the  successor  of 
Ahab,  passed,  it  would  appear,  without  any 
attack  from  Benhadad,  who,  however,  had 
not  fot gotten  the  defeats  he  had  suffered,  and 
was  preparing  to  take  revenge.  At  length, 
in  Uie  reign  of  Joram  (898),  the  Syrian  re- 

K 


BEN  146  BEN 

•vmed  hofdlUiM  (2  Kingf  vi.  8 ).  He  oould  a  gorgeoat  present  — *  tortj  eamele*  baiden,* 
howerer,  echieTe  no  suooess.  All  bis  plane  to  the  propheCi  deeiring  to  know  if  he  shonld 
were  known,  and  ftnstrated  by  the  enemy,  recover.  '  Thon  mayest,'  was  the  answer. 
But  how  were  his  secrets  divnlged  ?  He  Bat  what  was  possible  in  regard  to  the  dis 
imagined,  that  some  one  of  his  servants  had  order,  treachery  rendered  impossible.  The 
sold  himself  to  Joram.  At  length,  he  learnt  treachery  Elisha  foresaw,  and,  like  the  weird 
that  these  disolosnres  were  made  by  Elisha,  sisters,  gare  intimations  to  this  Hebrew 
the  prophet  of  the  living  Ood.  Eager,  in  Macbeth,  whieh,  falling  in  with  his  smbi- 
oonseqnence,  to  make  himself  master  of  the  tioos  projects  end  wicked  desires,  impelied 
prophet's  person,  he  sent  to  Dothan,  where  him  to  destroy  his  royal  master's  life.  *0p, 
the  seer  dwelt,  large  bends  of  soldiers,  in  or-  the  morrow  he  iock  a  titiick  cloth,  and  dipped 
der  to  seise  him.  But  Elisha  was  safe  in  the  it  in  water,  and  spread  it  on  Benhadad's 
high  and  mysterions  powers  which  he  pos-  Ihoe,  so  that  he  died ;  and  Haiadi  reigned  in 
sessed.  The  troops  retomed  to  their  prlnoe  his  stead '  (3  Kings  viii.  7 — 15). 
without  Elisha,  and,  alter  narrating  how  they  The  events  narrated  in  this  article  show 
had  been  deluded,  had  also  to  oonfess,  that  as  the  greatness  of  the  Syrisn  kingdom  of 
they  owed  their  lives  to  the  magnanimity  of  Damascus,  and  may  excite  and  jostiff  a  feeling 
the  man  whom  they  had  gone  to  capture,  of  surprise,  that  Uie  two  divided  kingdoms 
The  effect  in  Damascus  was  great,  and  a  of  Judah  and  Israel  oould  sustain  their  ex- 
long  interval  of  tranquillity  followed.  At  istence  in  the  nei^^iboaihood  of  ao  powerful 
length,  a  favourable  opportunity  proved  irre-  an  enemy,  especially  as  there  were  near 
•istible  to  Benhadad.  Samaria  was  afflicted  oUier  nationa  with  whom  the  Hebrews  were 
by  a  terrible  famine.  Even  the  instinct  of  on  no  friendly  terms, 
maternal  love  yielded  before  the  importn-  The  narrative  of  which  we  have  given 
nate  and  implacable  demands  of  hunger,  the  substsnoe  bears  the  unmistakeaUe  im- 
As  the  king  of  Israel  passed  by,  then  cried  press  of  reality,  nor  oould  the  substance  of 
a  woman  unto  him, '  Help,  my  lord,  0  king.'  it  well  fiul  to  have  been  penned  at  no  dis- 
*What  aileth  thee?'  asked  the  monarch,  tant  day  lh>m  the  time  of  the  recorded 
'  This  woman  said  unto  me'  —  was  the  ter^  events.  But  that  narrative  has  preserved 
riUe  answer — 'Give  thy  son,  that  we  may  a  letter  written  by  Benhadad  to  the  king  of 
•at  him  to-day,  and  we  will  eat  my  son  to-  Israelonbehalf  of  his  chief  eaptain,Naaman; 
morrow.  So  we  boiled  my  son,  and  did  which  letter  is  so  given  and  so  spoken  ol^ 
•at  him,  and  I  said  unto  her  on  the  next  if  it  were  nothing  but  was  then  customary  as 
day,  — Oive  thy  son,  that  we  may  eat  him;  a  means  of  intercourse  (2  Kings  v.  6).  I^ 
and  she  hath  hid  her  son*  (2  Kings  vi  26).  then,  epistolary  correspondence  was  not  un- 
Mesawhile  the  Syrisns  had  cast  up  trenches  common  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  some  nine 
around  the  city,  and  no  alternative  but  hundred  yean  before  Christ,  the  first  use  of 
death  within  or  death  without  the  walls  lettere  in  thoee  countries  must  be  dated  at  a 
presented  itself  to  the  fsmished  and  despair-  much  earlier  epoch ;  and  we  may  hence  learn 
ing  citizens.  In  this  extremity,  four  out-cast  that  there  is  a  solid  foundation  for  the 
Samaritan  lepen  proceeded,  in  the  assu-  alleged  antiquity  of  the  books  of  the  Bible 
ranee  that  they  ooidd  not  make  their  eondi  •  to  rest  upon. 

tion  worse,  to  visit  the  camp  of  the  Damas-        BENHAIL  (jok  i/lTaii,  AJkf.  4646 ;  A.C. 

cenes,  when  lo  I  they  found  it  abandoned ;  and  902 ;  V.  912),  a  prince  whom  Jehoshaphat, 

t^ere  with  what  mad  joy  did  these  wretches  king  of  JudiJ^  made  one  of  a  commission 

revel !  —  They  went  into  one  tent,  end  did  eat  which  was  designed  to  aid  forward  his  reli- 

and  drink,  and  carried  thence  silver  snd  gious  reforms,  by  instructing  die  neglected 

gold,  and  raiment,  and  went  and  hid  it,  and  and  ignorant  people  in  the  principles  of  the 

came  again  and  entered  into  another  tent,  and  Mosaic  religion.    The  commission  consisted 

carried  thence  also,  and  went  and  hid  it,  —  of  five  princea,  nine  Levites,  and  two  priests^ 

tiU,  having  filled  themselves  and  their  secret  thus  representing  the  great  interests  of  the 

plaoes  to  repletion,  they  bore  the  glad  tidings  nation — the  civil  as  well  as  tilie  religions, 

to  their  king.    The  truth  was,  that  in  the  and  had  in  itself  the  requisite  knowledge  and 

midst,  and  no  little  in  consequence  of  their  power  to  make  due  inquiry  into  all  abuses, 

full  security,  the  Syrian  army,  fancying  they  and  give  the  instructions   requisite  for  a 

heard  the  npid  approach  of  a  great  host,  gnat  social  and  spiritual  reform;  the  necea- 

had  been  seized  with  a  panic,   and  fled,  sity  for  which  had  been  created  by  the  ido- 

(2  Kings  vii.  8,  tea.).  latrons  inclinations  and   practices  of  Asa, 

Overwhelmed  wiUi  sorrow,  Benhadad  re-  and  other  preceding  monarehs.   Of  theefibcts 

turned  to  Damascus,  and  fell  sick.    Means  produced  by  this  commission,  the  too  scanty 

of  recovery  were  tried  in  vain,  when  the  king  Jewish  annals  ftimish  no  detailed  account; 

heard  that  EUaha,  'the  man  of  Ood,'  had  but  the  record  of  its  appointment  supplies 

come  to  his  capital.    With  that  ready  credn-  a  very  hnportant  fact :    *  And  they  taught  m 

li^  which  those  who  have  no  well-formed  Judah,  and  had  the  book  of  the  law  of  die 

poaiUve  convictions  not  unfrequenfly  show.  Lord  with  them,  and  went  about  throughout 

Benhadad  sent  his  chief  vizier,  Hazael,  with  all  the  cities  of  Judsh,  and  taught  the  peo- 


BEN  147  BEN 

pto'  (aOhiOD.  zva  7«-9).     Thus,  then,  Benjamin (A.M.  8447  ;A.0. 2101;  V.  1738) 
about  nine  oentories  before  ChriBt,  we  find  wae  saved  by  his  unripe  yean  from  taking 
( the  book  of  the  law  of  Jehovah'  not  only  in  part  in  the  crime  which  the  rest  of  Jacob's 
existence,  bat  reoognised  as  the  legitimale  sons  conunitted  against  their  brother  Joseph; 
means  for  instnuting  the  people  in  their  and  when  this  faTourite  child  had  been  cm- 
dutiea»  and  fbr  doing  away  with  the  depra-  elly  sundered  from  the  aged  patriarch,  Ben- 
▼ating  effscts  of  an  inTeterate  idolatiy.    By  jamin  took  his  place,  and  proved  a  source  of 
the  phrase,  <  the  book  of  the  law  of  Jehovah,'  comfort  and  support  to  his  father,  the  more 
is  obviooaly  meant  some  work  eoataining  the  easily  because  he,  as  well  as  Joseph,  was  the 
lequirsments  and  institutions  of  Moses.    It  son  of  Jacob's  old  age  by  the  same  mother, 
is  a  matter  of  less  eonseqaenee,  whether  this  Baohel  (Gen.  zllL  4,  sea,).  What,  then,  must 
book  was  identical  with  what  we  at  present  have  been  the  grief  of  the  venerable  roan, 
term  ihe  Pentateuch,  or  any  portion  of  it.  when  his  sons,  on  their  return  ftom  Egypt, 
The  important  foet  hers  implied  is,  that  abont  reported  that  the  lord  of  the  country  insisted, 
912,  A.C.  Uie  Jewish  polity  rested  on,  and  as  a  proof  of  their  being  true  men,  on  seeing 
was  reformed  under  the  direction  of  a  writ-  their  youngest  brother  Bexyamin !   '  Me,'  ex- 
ten  oonstitotion,  which  was  well  known,  and  claimed  Jacob,  'ye  have  bereaved ;  Joseph  is 
universally  respected  under  the  title  of  '  the  not,  and  Simeon  is  not;  and  ye  will  take 
book  of  the  law  of  Jehovah.'    We  are  thus  Bei^amin.'    The  pressure  of  funlne,  how- 
taken  back  to  abont  five  hundred  years  sfter  ever,  and  the  urgent  entreaties  of  his  son 
Moses;  snd  as  these  five  hundred  years  are  Judah,  at  last  prevailed  on  the  patriarch  to 
well  filled  with  historicalevents,  we  can  in  our  allow  Benjamin  to  accompsny  his  brothess 
retrocession  rest  nowfaeie,  till  we  get  to  the  into  Egypt    The  sight  of  the  youth  deeply 
fifteenth  centuy  before  Christ,  as  &e  period  affBcted  Joseph,  *  who  sought  where  to  weep; 
for  the  origination  of  this  book ;  when  eer-  and  he  entered  into  his  chamber,  and  wept 
tain  great  orgsnie  changes  took  place,  which  there '  (Gen.  xliii  SO).    When  his  emotion 
demanded  and  ^  as  we  read  *--  found  a  pen,  was  over,  he  entertained  his  visitors  at  a  ban- 
and  eommeneed  a  histoiy.  qoet,  and  took  care  that '  five  times  as  much 
BENJAMIN  (H.  §tm  of  the  rifhi  hand)  as  any  of  flieirs '  was  set  before  Bexgamin. 
was  Jacob's  last  son  by  Bachel,  who,  dying  And  when  at  last  the  veil  was  removed,  and 
in  giving  birth  to  her  child,  appropriately  Joseph  allowed  himself  to  be  recognised  by 
named  him  Ben-oni,  soi»  of  my  pain,  in  aUU'  his    brethren,  '  he  fell  upon  his    brother 
sion  to  her  suilierings.    His  filler,  however,  Benjamin's  neck  and  wept,  and  Benjamin 
not  in^robably  to  avoid  the  bad  omen  im-  wept  upon  his  neck'  (Gen.  xlv.  14). 
pUed  in  the  name,  and  to  indicate  the  sue-  8o  little  does  Bei^amin  take  a  leading 
COOT  irtkieh  he  expected  firom  the  child  in  part  in  the  transactions  to  which  we  have 
his  declining  years,  gave  him,  by  some-  here  rellBrred,  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  him 
thing  like  a  play  ontiie  word,  the  appellation  the  chief  figure  in  however  brief  a  sketch, 
ol  Beigamin,  idiioh  dilBered  in  sound  but  Others  are  the  actors :  Beigamin  does  but 
little    firom  tfie  name  chosen  by  Bachel.  await  their  will.    Yet  how  essential  was  he 
This  may  be  taken  as  a  specimen  of  a  ens-  to  the  happiness  of  Jacob ! — how  warm  and 
torn  which  prevailed  among  the  Hebrews,  of  deep  was  Joseph's  love  towards  him !    In 
assigning  to  their  children  names  that  were  many  anotiber  family  there  has  been  a  Ben- 
descriptive  of  eirenmstanees  connected  with  jamin  —  one  whom  all  its  members  tenderly 
their  birth.    The  term  Ben,  son,  as  well  as  the  regarded,  and  whose  welflure  and  happiness 
corresponding  Aramaic  word  Bar,  is  in  these  they  woidd  promote  at  any  cost,  not  on  ae- 
oases  to  be  tsken  with  some  latitude.    The  count  of  emmence  of  talent,  nor  greatness  of 
simplest  way  to  designate  a  person  is  to  de-  act,  but  rimply  of  his  good  heart,  his  gentle 
scribe  him  as  the  son  of  Ids  father— thus,  beanng,  and  his  quiet  engaging  deportment, 
Ben-hadad,  son  of  Hadad.  This  custom  ob-  which,  winning  all  hearts,  had  far  more  in- 
tains  among  all  primitive  nations,  and  is  the  fluenoe,  snd  did  more  to  decide  events,  than 
sooroe  dT  many  of  our  English  proper  nsmes;  the  character  of  any  similar  member  of  the 
as  John-son,  Jack-son,  Haiti  (y)-son,  Bich-  household. 

ard-son*    The  Arabians  prefix  the  name  of  Benjamin  was  &e  ancestral  stem  of  the 

the  person's  ehild:  thus  they  would  de-  tribe  which  bore  that  name.  This  tribe,  which 

signate    Isaae   as  Abn-Jagnb,  Ishhag-ben  wasnotlarge  (Numb.  1. 87 ;xxvL  41),  received 

Ibrahim,    Diflier  of  Jaeob^  Isaac,  son  of  a  correspondin^y  smsU  portion  of  Isnd  in 

Abrshsm.     The  young  one  of  an  animal  Palestine,  lying  in  the  midst  of  the  tribes  of 

may,  instsad  of  being  denominated  by  a  se-  Ephraim  on  the  north,  Judah  on  the  south, 

paimte  name,  be  ealM  the  son  of  that  ani-  Beuben  on  the  east,  and  Dan  on  the  west 

mal:  accordingly '  the  son  of  a  bull'  signified  But  what  the  district  may  have  wanted  in 

a  calf.    And  as  the  oifepiing  partakes  of  the  size  was  most  amply  made  up  in  the  quality 

qualities  of  the  sire,  the  phrase  '  son  of  of  the  land,  which  comprised  some  of  the 

mercy'  aignifies a merri/kl  man.    So  'sons  finest  in  Palestine:  —  the  paradise,  for  in- 

of  God'  (Gen.  vl.  8)  are  men  having  divine  stance,  of  the  plain  of  Jericho ;  well-watered 

or  superior  qnslities.  and  therefore  most  fruitful  valleys;  eleva- 


B  E  R  148  BE  B 

tions  tad  bills  mhiAx  skUl  lad  indnstiy  ooold  faitfafal  to  hit  Mm  Ithbothadi  (2  Sam.  iL  9), 
cover  with  luxuriaoce*  and  invett  with  more  till  at  length  David,  aided  by  Uie  Jiidaliitea» 
dian  their  natural  beaaty.    It  had  alao  the  aaeoeeded  in  acqniiisg  the  ezdoaiYe  aove- 
honour  of  oontaining  Jerusalem.  reignty  of  the  land.    In  the  Bundering  of  As 
In  the  period  of  the  Judges,  an  intestine  state  under  Behoboam  into  two  kiii^oms, 
war    devastated   Bei^jamin.     An   atrocious  the  tribe  of  Bet^amin,  joining  that  of  Judah, 
breach  of  hospitality  committed  by  Uie  men  remained  true  to  the  old  eonatitution,  and 
of  Oibeah  —  a  Bei^amite  city  —  against  a  to  the  national  worship  (1  Kings  zii.  21). 
Levite  and  his  concubine   (Jndg.  zx.  4),  After  the  exile,  these  two  tribes  Ibrmed  the 
seems  U>  have  been  regarded  as  sn  outrage  root  of  the  new  Jewish  colony,  which  was 
on  the  priesthood  of  the  land,  which  was  founded  in  Palestine  (Esra  iv.  1 ;  z.  9). 
accordingly  aroused   in  all  its  borders  for        BEBEA  (O.  meaning  peihaps  Jhutfid),  a 
the  punishment  of  the  offending  tribe.    Hav-  city  in  Macedonia,  lying  aouth  of  Thessalo- 
Ing  sworn  an  oath  that  no  one  would  give  nica,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Bermius,  where 
a  daughter  in  marriage  to  a  man  of  the  tribe  a  body  of  Jews  had  aettled,  who  are  eulo- 
of  Benjamin,  the  army  of  Israel  proceeded,  gised  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  *  ta  that 
under  the  direction  of  the  sacerdotal  autho-  3iey  raoeived  the  word  with  all  readiness  of 
rity,  to  fall  on  the  BeiQamitea.    They  received  mind,  and  searched  the  ( Jewiah)  Soriptnrss 
two  repulses  of  so  severe  a  nature,  that  they  daily,  whether  those  things  (Panfa  doetiine) 
were  inclined  to  desist  from  their  under-  were  so  (Acts  zviL  10,  11, 18 ;  zx.  4). 
taking.    Encouraged,  however,  by  the  influ-        BEBEAVE  (T.  <o  rob,  ^U^prim). — The 
ence  which  had  set  them  on,  they  made  a  Hebrew  heart  was  not  more  rieh  in  piety, 
ihitd   attack,   in   which  stratagem  gained  than  it  was  in  domestie  allbetion.    Henoe, 
them  a  too  complete  success.  Not  long  after  the  loss  of  lelativea,  especially  of  children, 
their  devastating  slaughter,  the  victorious  was  keenly  Idt  and  bitterly  deplored.     No 
parties  seem  to  have  thouf^t  that  they  had  literature  presents  sneh  touching  utteraneea 
carried  matters  too  liur.     One  of  the  twelve  as  the  Hebrew,  of  benaved  family  tender- 
tribes  was  nearly  exterminated.    The   n*-  ness.     We  cite  as  an  instance  the  words 
tional  unity  was  broken ;  the  national  safety,  which  David  uttered  on  the  loss  of  his  re- 
jeopardized.    They  remembered,  too,  that  bellioua  aon:  —  <0  my  son  Absslom!  my 
Beijamin  was  their  brother.     Now,  then,  son,  my  son  Absalom !  would  Ood  I  had 
they  began  to  think  about  building  up  again  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son !' 
his  fallen  estate.    But  how  were  women  to  (2  Sam.  xviii.  88 ;  see  also  Oen.  xlii.  80  ; 
be  obtained?     An  expedient  was  resorted  xliii.  14).      It    has    been  well  remarked 
to,  which  calls  to  mind  tibe  rape  of  the  ('Notes  and  Comments   on   Passages   of 
Sabines,   in  Soman  history.     The  city  of  Scripture,'  by  John  Kentish,  p.  116),  that 
Jabesh-Oilead  had  given  offenee,  in  being  in  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  we  meet 
the  only  place  whose  inhabitants  assembled  with  formulariea  of  expresaions  that  were 
not  with  the  other  Hebrews  in  Mixpeh,  to  employed  by  the  Jews  at  seasons  of  bereave- 
take  the  oath  not  to  give  their  dauji^ters  in  ment  and  grief  (1  Kings  xiii.  80.  Jer.  zzii. 
marriage  to  the  Bei^amites.      In    conse-  18).    There  is   a  remarkable  instance  in 
quence,  all  its  population  was  slain,  except  Amos  t.  16,  which  shows  also  that  the  be- 
four  hundred  young  virgins,  who  were  given  vrailing  of  calamities  had,  in  the  later  period 
to  the  survivors  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  of  the  Hebrew  polity,  degenerated  into  a 
This  number  'sufficed  them  not.'    Another  sort  of  profession:— 'Wailing  shsll  be  in 
opportunity   was  therefore  seized.    There  all  atreeta;  and  they  shall  aay  in  all  the 
was  a  religious  feast  in  ShUoh ;  and,  when  highways,  Alaa,   alas !  and  they  shall  call 
its  daughters  came  out  to  dance,  there  rushed  the  hnsbsndman  to  nuraming,  and  aneh  as 
on  them,  from  an  ambush  placed  in  the  are  skilftil  of  lamentation  to  wailing.'-— 
neighbouring  vineyards,  young  Bei^amites,  (Comp.  Jer.  ix.  18 — 22.) 
who  caught  every  man  his  wife.    *  And  the        BEBNICE  (Q.),  tfie  eldest  dan|^tss  of 
chfldren  of  Bei^amin  returned  unto  their  Herod  Agrippa  I.  and,  at  first,  wife  of  her 
inheritance,  and  repaued  the  cities,   snd  uncle  Herod,  prinoe  of  Chaleis.     After  the 
dwelt  in  them'  (Judg.  xx.  xxL).  death  of  her  uncle,  she  lived  in  a  very  ana- 
The  hatred  which  these  civil  wars  engen-  pioions  connection  with  her  own  brother, 
dered  must,  in  process  of  time,  have  sub-  Agrippa  11.  the  last  king  of  the  Jews. 
sided;  for  the  first  king  of  IsracO,  Saul,  was         She  formed  a  second  marriage  tie  wi& 
chosen  out  of  the  tribe  of  Bei^amin,  though  Polemon,  king  of  Cilieia,  but  was  soon  di- 
not  improbably  its  inconsiderable  size  hsd  voroed.    She  then  returned  to  bar  brother. 
an  influence  m  the  selection,  under  feel-  After  this,  she  beoame  mistress  to  Titus, 
inga  similar  to  those  which  are   said  to  the  aon  of  the  emperor  Yespaaian.     The  first 
actuate  the  College  of  Cardinals,  when  they  aet  of  Titua,  on  assuming  the  purple,  waa 
take  for  Pope  that  one  of  their  body  whose  the  dismissal  of  the  beautiftd  Bezniee,  to 
power  IS  least,  and  whose  prospect  of  life  whom  he  was  fondly  attached,  booanse  be 
IS  worst    After  the  death  of  Saul,  the  Ben-  saw  that  hia  connection  with  a  ftnvigner 
jamites,   with  ten  other  tnbes,    remained  was  displeasing  to  the  Boman  aenate  and 


BET  149  BET 

people.    Sneh  was  <he  woman  who  WAS  with  Bbthavt),  as  denoting  the  neceaeity  of  a 

Agrippa,  when  the  latter  sat  on  the  judg-  feriy-hoat  for  the  passage  of  the  riyer,  which 

ment-seat,  and  exclaimed  to  the  prisoner,  has  here  some  depth  of  water.    Names  of 

who  pleaded  for  his  life  hefore  him, —  places    may    easily    change  in  the  lapse 

'  Almost  thoQ  persaadest  me  to  he  a  Chris-  of  many  oentories,  according  to  the  varying 

tian '  (Acts  zxv.  13,  28 ;  zzvL  80).  prominenoe  which  local  infinenoes  or  histo- 

BEBTL  is  the  translation  of  a  Hehrew  rioal   associations  may  happen  to  ohtain. 

word,  tanheeah  (Ezod.  xxyiii.  20),  which  If,  for  instance,  a  feny  was  estahllshed  near 

appears  to  mean  the  chrysolyte,  or  gold  Bethabara,  on  the  brink  of  the  river,  it  is 

stone  (Ber.  xzL  20).     Some  think  that  the  easy  to  see  how,  in  process  of  time,  its 

lenn  jA4>AAam,rendered'onyz'(Oen.iL12),  rising  importance  might  throw  the  parent 

was  the  beryl.     The  only  passage  in  whidi  town  into  the  shade,  and  come  to  give  name 

we  can  be  sore  that  the  beryl  was  meant^  is  to  the  district;  and  eqnally  how  its  decline, 

Bev.  zKi.  20,  where  the  Greek  word  beryl  at  a  later  period,  should  oanse  the  old  place 

pats  the  matter  beyond  a  donbt    The  co-  and  name  to  resimie  their  ancient  position, 
lonrs  of  the  beiyl  are  pale  greyish  green.        There  is,  however,  something  connected 

and  blue  and  yellow,  of  various  shades ;   it  with  this  spot  more  important  than  a  name, 

has  also  been  found  rose  red,  and  it  some-  Here,  or  in  the  vicinity,  Joshua  passed  over 

times  occurs  perfectly  limpid  and  colourless,  into  Canaan ;  and  here  the  Saviour  of  man- 

« The  topas  wtfU  stfek  here  and  thera^  ^™*  received  baptism  at  the  hands  of  John. 

And aoa-greeneolonred  beryl;  These  are   two  events  which   must  throw 

And  turkene,  which  who  baps  to  bear  around  the  place  asaoeiations   of  peculiar 

U  often  kept  from  peilL'  interest,  making  some  details  as  to  the  fea- 

Beryls,  also,  aiter  they  had  undergone  certain  tures  of  the  spot  very  desirable. 

ceremonies,  were  accounted  effectual  as  talis-         Tradition  has  alTorded  aid  in  detennining 

mans  and  diarms.  the  exact  locality.    Every  year  do  thousands 

BESOM  is  the  rendering  of  a  Hebrew  word  visit  what  is  held  to  be  ^e  ancient  Betha- 
which  denotes  to  ifruw,t^ratr,  and  specificaDy  bara,  for  the  purpose  of  bathing  in  the 
to  brush  away  with  violence  rubbish  or  dirt,  Jordan,  on  the  anniversaiy  of  the  Saviour's 
Hence,  with  a  force  in  the  original  which  baptism.  It  is  true  that  there  is  some  di- 
can  be  very  imperfectly  rendered  in  the Eng-  versity  in  the  tradition:  the  Greeks  and 
lish,  Jehovah  says  (Isa.  xiv.  23),  'I  will  Armenians  have  one  spot, the  Latin  Chris- 
sweep  it  (Babylon)  with  the  besom  of  de-  tians  another,  some  two  miles  higher  up 
struction:'  destruction  shall  so  accomplish  the  river.  But  a  difference  of  this  kind  is 
its  terrible  office,  as  to  leave  Babylon  like  here  of  no  great  importance;  for  the  general 
an  empty  house,  which  has  been  thoroughly  features  of  the  country  are  die  same ;  not  to 
cleansed.  say  that  the  evidence  preponderates  in  fa- 

BETHABABA  is  a  word  found  in  the  vour  of  the  former.    The  place,  then,  where 

common  version  of  John's  Gospel,  L  28,  as  the  Armenians  and  Greeks  hold  that  Jesus 

the  name  of  the  place  where  John  baptized,  was  baptised  by  John,  lies  over  against  the 

Instead  of  Bethabara,  Griesbach,  supported  great  and  formerly  fertile  plain  of  Jericho, 

by  the  most  ancient  manuscripts ;  and  the  three  miles  from  the  mountains  of  Moab, 

highest  authority  among  the  modems,  has  and  three  miles  and  a  half,  by  a  direct  course, 

BethaniOf  Bethany.     The  former  seems  to  from  the  Dead  Sea.     On  approaching  the 

have  been  preferred  to  the  latter  word  by  spot  from  the  western  side,  the   traveller 

Origen,  in  whose  time  Bethany  had  ceased  (^adually  descends  from  one  stage  of  the 

to  be  in  existence  as  the  name  of  the  place,  plain  to  another,  tiU  he  comes  to  a  level 

As  Bethany  was  known  to  lie  near  Jerusa-  covered  with  sand,  clay  predominating  to- 

lem,  some  critics  seem  to  have  been  too  wards  the  river,  where  he  soon  finds  himself 

easily  led  to  acquiesce  in  Bethabara ;  but  involved  in  a  thicket  of  luxuriant  shrubs 

there  may  have  been  two  places  bearing  the  and  low  tangled  bushes,  which  render  the 

same  appellation,  Bethany ;  which  John  ap-  advance    somewhat  difficult      The  banks 

pears  to  intimate,  by  speaking  of  the  place  of  the  river  are  covered  with  a  luxuriant, 

where  the  Baptist  initiated  his  disciples,  as  crowded  forest  of  willows,  tamarisks,  olean- 

being  beyond,  that  is,  on  the  eastern  side  ders,  and  cane.     The  highest  of  these  do 

of  Jordan ;  while  the  more  celebrated  place  not  attain  an  elevation  of  more  than  thirty 

lay  on  the  west  of  that  stream.    Not  im-  or  forty  feet,  and  few  of  them  are  above  five 

probably  the  original  name  of  the  spot  was  or  six  inches  in  diameter.    The  willow  {Jg- 

Bethabara  (Judg.  vii.  24),  —  the  place  qf  wus  castus)  is  held  in  great  estimation  by 

passage,  in  allusion  to  the  transit  which  the  the  pilgrims,  who  prefer  it  for  staves,  which 

Israelites  here  effected  into  the  land  of  pro-  they  dip  in  the  river,  and  preserve  as  sacred 

mise.    In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  however,  memorials.    The  reeds,  which  form  in  many 

the  ancient  name  had  given  place  to  another,  places   an  impenetrable  miry  thicket,  are 

yet  one  of  kindred  meaning, — the  house  carried  away  to  be  used  in  thatching  cot- 

or  place  of  a  ship  or  boat  (so  the  word  tages.      This   verdant    canopy  of  foliage, 

may  mean ;   see  another  signification  under  and  the  luxuriant  undergrowth  of  cane  and 


bcnthirouJ,  tutirelj  ooncral  the  rim  from 
Iha  «ie«,  outil  jon  nub  lb«  vaur'a  «<g8. 
In  lb*  ipring  of  Ihe  rear,  di«  banks  tit  quite 
fall,  and  an  oooaaionallj  OT«rtl<nnd.     The 


broad.  IB  aweepa  aloof  witti  a  tapid  tarbld 
uDinat;  the  water  being  dUooloand,  tnd  of 
a  elajaj  hue,  nol  oulike  (hat  of  the  Nile ; 
and,  ihongh  mnddf,  yet  afreeable  u>  the 
IMla.  It  ii  far  troni  being  ihaUo*.  Per- 
aoDi  bathing  find  thecBaelien  bejond  Ihrlr 
depth,  Boon  aflar  leaiing  the  ahoie,  and 
an  carried  lapidly  down  tke  >B*ub  b;  the 
tBength  of  the  curmt.  Thon^  fordable 
■t  otbsr  poiBia  and  at  other  Matona  of  the 
nar.  a  miraele  would  be  do  leae  neeeaisij 
n  of  JoahnB,  to  enable 


the  tomb  of  Laiama.'  Dr.  Olin,  with  man 
euitlnn,  it  not  with  mors  judgment,  ii 
■tnngjj  inplioed  to  give  oredil  to  Ihe  tradi- 
lioD  which  flxei  the  tomb  of  Laiaraa  in  thli 
■I>ot.  The  entranm  to  Iha  ea*a  ii  about 
three  feet  and  thaUhigh.  and  two  fbet  wide 
In  limeatooe  rock ;  train  iriiieh  a  dcaecnl 
b  made,  by  twenly-Hren  etone  etep*,  into  a 
daik  room  about  nine  feel  eqnare.  tn  ila 
eidea  are  foar  nichei  tor  the  reeepticai  of 
bodiei,  and  there  ii  one  fraetured  aarroi^a. 
gua.  lliree  more  slepa  lead  throng  an 
exeaTitad  pasaage  into  an  arehtd  shamber, 
si^t  fStel  aqnare  by  nine  in  beighL  Thii 
reeemblsa  tn  ancient  Jewlab  tomb  in  fbra 


now  than  in  the  dnad 


ahildm.  logMher  with  docka  and  herda,  to 
not  DUprorided  with  boata.  Some  apoB 
oorered  with  aand  afford  bnUities  aj  for 
baihing,  ao  fiir  baptiiing ;  in  olheta,  the  pn- 
Talence  of  aofi  deep  eUy  yidda  tinder  Iha 
Bead. 

BETHANY  la  a  Hebrew  rampannd,  de- 
noting, ateordinf  Id  Winer, '  boage  at  dale*,' 
that  ia,  a  spot  where  palm-trva*  grew.  The 
place,  lAioh  ia  of  peeoliar  Inlereet  u  the 
Beripnral  nndcnl  (nm  hiring  been  the  reti- 
dence  of  Lasanu  and  Ua  atatei*,  and  tha 
Ian  earthly  apot  lotiahed  by  Aa  Ibet  of  iha 
riaan  Jaaiu,  lay  a  little  leaa  than  two  mllN 
•nd  fldaen  (Mragt  (John  kL  18),  caat- 
■OBlh'OaBt  froiti  Jereaalem.  in  a  ahallow 
Wady,  or  rale,  on  the  eaaten  dope  of  ±e 
Mount  of  Oliraa,  and  on  the  road  tram  Jen- 
aalem  to  Jcridio.  In  Ihia  Tillage,  oar  Lord 
tonud  the  aolaoa  and  endaanenta  of  triend- 
ahip  in  the  boaom  of  Ihe  hmlly  of  Laaania, 
whioh  was  obriooriy  poaaeaoed  of  sonnde- 
rable  anbalanee  (Halt  zzL  IT;  nri.  0. 
Uatk  iL  1, 12.  lake  lU.  29).  No  fttai 
WM  mora  q^eoprUte  than  Bethany  to  be  the 
Bpol  whence  the  Bedaemer  ehonld  ascend  to 
hie  Father  (Lnke  MiT.  M)  i  (or  here  hie  per- 
aon  waa  well  known,  and  hen  wore  ftlenda 
who  would  nalorally  wiab  to  lea  widi  their 
own  eyea  the  Uai  traoea  of  their  Lord. 

Bethany  baa  bean  aoiitlan  with  that  gCDe- 
ral  appearaaoe  of  deaolaHon  iriiirb  now  aha- 
racteriaea  mnoh  of  Palectine.  It  ia  a  poor 
»iMage,  of  aome  twenty  or  thirty  familiea, 
hBTlng  ita  preeinete  adonied  by  &g  and 
nine  ireee.  In  the  walla  of  a  fkw  of  die 
hoUM.  there  are  maika  of  antiquity.  The 
moil  (mispicnooa  olijaei  ii  a  mined  tower, 
bnilt  of  imrg,  g^^tn  etonea,  which  die 
Mohammedan  Tillage™  declare  to  haTe  been 
the  abode  of  Laianu.  Hi.  tomb  i,  .1» 
•hown  at  aome  diKance  north  of  A*  Iowa, 
on  theedgeofthevillag..  Of  ihi.  which  1. 
most  probably  a  natural  oaTo,  remodelled 
by  human  labour,  Dr.  Hobin«m  imlher 
dinpUy  declare^  Ihu  '  there  ie  not  the 
alighteet  probability  of  ita  eTer  having  been 


There  ii  no  donbt  ihat  tbia  ii  the  aaeient 
Betluuiy,  Ihongh  die  name  la  no  longer 
need;  diet  which  it  now  beara,  el-Adriyeb, 
being  tha  Arable  tbrm  of  Laiania.  Tha 
erjpt  of  I.Biania  is  Bethany  waa  atlll  ahown 
in  A.D.  3A3.  A  ohuivh  waa  bnilt  OTer  it 
tn  the  fourth  eentnry.  In  Ihe  twelfth  cen- 
tury it  became  the  aile  of  a  very  impartast 
monaiHc  cstabliabmeDL  In  1184,  A.D.  the 
church  OTcr  the  eepulehre  wu  still  in  ex- 
istence. Since  then,  Belhany  hu  eontinu- 
ally  and  luTariablj  gone  to  decay.  In  John 
i.  SH,  Bethany,  areurding  to  tha  beat  andio- 
ritiea,  should  be  tead,  Inttead  of  Bethabara. 
Thia  Beihany  wu  a  second  place  of  dM 
name,  and  lay  on  Ihe  aut  of  Jordan. 

BETB-AVEN  <H.  cily  e/  Uoli),  a  town 
which  was  anciently  well  known,  aa  it  eerred 
aa  ■  point  for  diatingnishing  other  plaeee 
(1  Sam.  liil.  fi)  lying  between  Ai  and  Hich- 
naah,  in  the  leritoty  of  Benjamin  (Joah.  tU. 
a  j  iTiii.  IS.  1  Sam.  xiii.  6).  Jerome  and  the 
Tihnudbeldittobe  theaune  aa  Bethel,  (mn 
wbivh,  howerer,  it  is  dlstingniihed  in  JoA. 
TiL2.  The  high  waste  land  which  lay  between 
Beth-aTcn  and  Jericho  *bb  termed  '  Ihe 
wildetneBs  of  Belh-aTen'  (Joth.  xriU.  18). 
To  this  i^ace  the  batde  extended  lAtn  Ihe 
Lord  reeetied  Israel  by  Ihe  hand  of  Ihe 
heroic  Jonathan  (1   Bam.  sit.    23).     The 


IJ  E  T 


151 


BET 


place  became,  at  a  later  period,  notorioos  for 
shamefiil  idolatij  (Hos.  iv.  15;  x.  5);  on 
whicli    account  it  may  have  reoeired  tiie 
name  by  which  we  have  spoken  of  it 
'  BETHEL   (H.  houte  of  God)   received 
its   name    from    the   solemn   impressions 
made  on  the  mind  of  the  patriarch  Jacob, 
who,  on  his  jouzney  from  Beer-sheba  to 
Haran,  had  by  night  a  dream,  in  whieh  he 
is  related  to  hare  been  faroured  with  snoh 
special  marks  of  the  diyine  faronr,  that, 
when  he  awoke,  he  exclaimed,  'Surely  the 
Lord  is  in  this  place,  and  I  knew  it  not:  — 
how  dreadful   is  this  place!  this  is  none 
other  bat  the  Iwute  qf  Ood,  and  this  is  the 
gate  of  heayen/    The  place  was  originally 
called  LoK  (Oen.  xxriii.  10,  teq*)*    Before 
Jacob  had  his  vision  here,  Abraham  first 
pitched  his  tent  in  Palestine,  on  the  high 
ground  eastward  of  this  spot  (Oen.  xiL  8), 
which  is  still  one  of  the  finest  tracts  for 
pasturage  in  the  whole  land.    The  narrative 
regarding  Abraham  terms  the  plaoe  Bethel, 
long  before  that  name  was  given;   which 
shows  that  that  narrative  was  composed  at 
a  period  which,  in  relation  to  the  date  of  its 
events,  must  be  denominated  late,  and  that 
a  strict  regard  to  chronology  is  not  univer- 
sally observed  by  the  sacred  writers. 

Bethel  was  distinguished  as  the  centre 
of  one  of  those  petty  Canaanite  kingdoms, 
which  occupied  the  country  prior  to  the 
Hebrew  conquest  (Josh.  xiL  16).  On  the 
invasion  of  the  Israelites,  it  was  oaptnred, 
through  a  fraud,  by  '  the  house  of  Joseph' 
(Judg.  i.  22),  after  it  had  been  given  by 
Joshua  U>  the  Bei^amites  (Josh.  xviiL  22 ; 
xiL  9).  As  Bethel  had  around  it  the  vene- 
rable associations  of  a  religious  antiquity, 
so  the  ark  remained  there  for  a  long  period 
(Judg.  XX.  18,  26, ae^.  1  Bam.  x.  3);  and  for 
the  same  reasons  Samuel  repaired  thither 
once  a  year  to  administer  justice  (1  Sam. 
vii.  16).  At  a  later  period,  Bethel  formed 
a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  when  Jero- 
boam, wisely  for  his  own  evil  purposes, 
chose  this  sacred  place  wherein  to  set  up 
one  of  his  golden  calves  (1  Kings  xii. 
28,  29).  Thus  a  spot  which  even  Abraham 
had  consecrated  to  monotheism,  beeame 
degraded  to  die  vile  and  ruinous  purposes 
of  idolatry.  On  this  account  the  prophets 
speak  in  terms  of  great  reproach  against 
the  city  (Amos  iii.  14,  15;  viL  10);  and 
Hosea,  with  a  play  of  words,  designates 
Beth-el,  Beth-aven;  that  is,  in  allusion  to  its 
idol-worship,  <  house  of  vanity/  or  nothmg- 
ness  (Hos.  x.  5 ;  comp.  iv.  15).  Its  idola- 
trous altar  and  grove  were  destroyed  by 
Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii.  15,seg.).  The  place 
was  inhabited  by  the  Jews  on  their  return 
firom  captivity,  and  belonged  to  the  descen- 
dants   of   Benjamin    (Ezra   u.   28.    Neh. 

vu.  82). 

Bobinson    finds  Bethel   in  the  modem 
Beitin,   stating  tfiat  Hxe  Arabic  ui  for  the 


Hebrew  el  is  not  an  unusual  change.  The 
ruins,  which  he  was  the  first  to  identify,  are 
extensive,  covering  a  space  of  three  or  four 
aeres.  They  oonsist  of  very  many  founda- 
tions, and  half-standing  walls  of  houses, 
and  other  buildings.  He  found  here  two 
living  springs  of  good  water  in  a  grass-plat 
Beitin,  or  Bethel,  lies  three  hours  forty-five 
minutes  almost  due  north  from  Jerusalem. 
The  name  has  been  preserved  solely  among 
the  common  people.  The  monks  appear 
for  centuries  not  to  have  been  aware  of  its 
existence,  and  have  assigned  to  Bethel  a 
location  muoh  fivther  to  &e  north.  In  the 
New  Testament,  Bethel  is  not  mentioned ; 
but  it  still  existed,  as  we  learn  from  Jo- 
sephns.  It  was  captured  by  Vespasian 
(Antiq.  ziiL  1,  8.  Jewish  War,  iv.  9.  9). 
Euaebiua  and  Jerome  describe  it  as  a  small 
village  in  their  day.  This  is  the  last  notice 
of  Bethel,  as  an  inhabited  place,  till  its 
name  and  site  were,  some  five  or  six  years 
since,  discovered  among  the  natives  by 
Protestant  missionaries  resident  in  Jerusa- 
lem; after  which  it  was  visited  by  Dr. 
Bobinson  and  some  fellow-travellers. 

BETHESDA  (H.  k&u9$  qf  mtrey),  the 
name  being  given  in  allunofn  to  the  dleged 
healioif  power  of  the  place;  a  pool  which  is 
described,  in  the  Ooepel  of  John,  as  being 
near  the  sheep  (gate),  and  as  halving  five 
porches.  In  these  porches  lay  a  great  num- 
ber of  diseased  persons,  waiting  for  the 
moving  of  the  water,  onder  the  impression 
that  whoever  was  so  happy  as  to  be  the  first 
to  step  in  after  its  troubling  was  made 
whole,  whatsoever  disease  he  had.  Here  it 
was  that  Jesus  bade  the  paralytie  take  up  his 
couch  and  walk  (John  v.  2,  ttq,).  The 
water,  which  is  described  by  Eusebins  as 
being  exceedingly  red,  may  have  been  some- 
what of  a  mineral  kind,  and,  if  it  possessed 
any  thing  of  a  curative  power,  may,  in  eon- 
junction  with  the  workings  of  the  imagina- 
tion, excited  by  the  pc^pular  notion,  have 
sufficed  to  cause  the  wonders  which  it  was 
believed  to  produce.  These  eflTects  were,  after 
the  Jewish  manner  of  thinking,  ascribed  to 
some  special  agency  by  the  popular  mind. 
As,  however,  there  does  not  now  appear  to  be 
any  medicinal  virtue  in  the  water  itself,  and 
as  its  efficacy  appears  to  have  been  restricted 
to  the  first  person  who  stepped  in,  the  chief 
influence  is  probably  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
imagination. 

A  difference  of  opinion  exists  in  legaid  to 
the  place  which  is  now  to  be  considered  as 
being  the  ancient  Bethesda.  Some  have 
identified  it  with  a  deep  pool  north  of  the 
Temple,  which  Bobinson  disi^pproves,  and  is 
inclined  to  prefer  what  is  called  '  the  Foun« 
tain  of  the  Virgin,'  that  lies  on  the  west 
side  of  the  valley  of  Jehoehaphat  The 
cavity  of  this  fountain  is  deep»  and  is  wholly 
excavated  in  the  solid  rock.  To  enter  it, 
one    descends  4rst,    sixteen  steps;    then 


BET 


152 


BET 


oomes  a  level  pliioe  of  twelve  feet,  and  then 
ten  iteps  more  lead  to   the  vater.     The 
basin  itself  is  perhaps  fifteen  feet  long  by 
five  or  six  wide;  the  height  is  not  more 
than  six  or  eight  feet   The  bottom  is  strewed 
with  small  stones.    The  water  flows  off  by 
a  low  passage,  leading  under  the  monntain 
to  Siloam.    Down  this  channel,  which  is 
1750  fbet  long,  Bobinson  had  the  enterprise 
and  patience  to  make  his  way.    A  popular 
impression  preyails,  that  the  water  is  iire- 
gnlar  in  its  flow;  which  Bobinson  ascer- 
tained to  be  the  fact    *As  we  were  prepar- 
ing' .^  he  says  (voL  L  506 )  — *  to  measore  the 
basin,  and  explore  the  passage,  my  oompa- 
nion  was  standing  on  die  lower  step,  near 
the  water,  with  one  Ibot  on  the  step,  and  the 
other  on  a  loose  stone  lying  in  the  basin. 
All  at  once  he  pereeiTcd  the  water  coming 
into  his  shoe,  and,  snpposing  the  sttme  had 
lolled,  he  withdrew  his  foot  to  the  step; 
which,  howcYer,  was  now  covered  with  water. 
This  excited  oar  ouioaity,  and  we  now  per- 
eeived  the  water  n^idly  bubbling  up  from 
nnder  the  lower  step.    In  less  than  five 
minutes,  it  had  risen  in  the  basin  nearly  or 
quite  a  foot;  and  one  could  hear  it  gurgling 
off  through  the  interior  passage.     In  ten 
minutes  more  it  had  ceased  to  flim,  and  the 
water  in  the  bashi  was  again  reduced  to  its 
former  level.    Thrusting  my  staff  in  nnder 
the  lower  step  whence  the  water  appeared  to 
oome,  I  found  that  there  was  a  large  hollow 
•pace.'    From  a  woman  who  came  to  wash 
at  the  fountain,  he  learned  that  the  flow- 
ing of  the  water  oecnrs  at  inegular  inter- 
Tsla ;  sometimes  two  or  thrpe  times  a  day, 
and  sometimes,  in  summer,  once  in  two  or 
three  days.    She  said,  she  had  seen  the 
fountain  dry,  and  men  and  flocks  dependent 
upon  it,  gathered   around    suffering  from 
thirst;  idien  all  at  once  tlie  water  would 
begin  to  boil  up  from  under  the  steps,  and 
(as  she  asserted)  from  the  bottom  in  the  in- 
terior part,  and  flow  off  in  a  copious  stream. 
Olin  (ii.  148,  teq.)  confirms  these  state- 
ments.    He  fturther  says,  that  the  rise  is 
not  periodical;  that  it  is  sudden,  snd  some- 
times amounts  to  the  hei{^t  of  several  feet, 
flowing  in  with  a  strong  current:  he  also 
heard  that  the  rise  is  more  frequent  in  spring 
than  at  other  seasons.    With  a  natural  pro- 
pensity to  assign  some  cause  of  this  extra- 
ordinary flow  of  water,  the  Hebrew  result  of 
which  we  have  already  seen  in  (he  alleged 
agency  of  an  angel,  the  people  of  the  country 
now  say,  that  a  great  dragon  lies  within  the 
fountain:  when  he  is  awake,  he  btops  the 
water;  when  he  sleeps,  it  flows.    We  have 
already  spoken  of  a  woman's  visiting  this 
pool,  for  the  purpose   of  washing.      The 
name  '  Foimtain  of  the  Virgin,'  by  which  it 
is  known  among  the  Latins,  it  is  said  to  owe 
to  the  fact,  that  Mary  was  wont  to  wash 
here  the  linen  of  her  son  when  yet  an  in- 
fsnt    The  place  is  designated  by  the  Arabs, 


'The Fountain  of  the   Stairs,'  in  alloaioa 
to  the  long  flight  of  steps  by  which  yon 
descend  to  the  water.    This  pool  has  been 
thought  to  be  the  same  with  *the  dragon 
weU'  (Neh.  U.  13),  snd  'thekmg's  pool' 
(Neh.  ii.  14).    It  has  sometimes  been  called 
ttie  upper  pool  of  Siloam,  to  distinguish  it 
from  another  source,  which  generally  bears 
the  name  of  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  and  which 
lies  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  lower  down 
the  valley.     The  lower  and  the  upper  pool 
seem  to  be  connected  with  a  third  (artifi- 
cial) fountain,  under  the  haram  or  mosque 
(anciently  the  temple),  which  exists  in  the 
heart  of  Uie  rock  at  the  depth  of  some  eighty 
feet ;  agreeably  with  what  Tacitus  reports  ot 
*  a  perennial  fountain,  in  the  mountains 
vduoh   are  excavated  below  the  earth' — 
(Hist  V.  12).    Aristeas  also  informs  us, 
that  the  supply  of  water  was  unfailing,  in- 
asmneh  as  there  was  an  abundant  nam- 
xai  fountain  flowing  in   the  interior,  and 
reservoirs  of  admirable  construction  under 
ground,  with  pipes  snd  conduits,  by  which 
&ie  water  was  brought  to  various  parts  of  the 
temple,  and  again  conducted  offi     Pocooke 
asserts,  that  the  water  which  supplies  in 
succession  diese  three  fountains  is  brought 
by  a  subterranean  and  submontane  channel, 
cut  by  Hesekiah  from  a  source  that  exists, 
tfaou^  concealed  since  the  days  of  that 
monarch,  on  the  north-west  side  of  Jerusa- 
lem.   This  statement    finds   support  from 
2  Chron.  xxxiL  8,  4,  80 ;  and  Bobinson  wss 
informed,  that  there  is  at  the  bottom  of  the 
well,  under  the  mosque,  '  a  door  closed  on 
the  other  side,  leading  no  one  knew  whither' 
(p.  509).    Olin  is  of  opinion,  that  it  was 
from  the  fountain  of  Gihon  on  the  western 
side  of  the  city,  that  these  three  pools  were 
supplied ;  thus  making  Oihon,  whose  exact 
situation  is  not  known,  the  only  source  of  liv- 
ing water  in  or  near  Jerusalem ;  for  the  brook 
Cedron  was  only  a  water-torrent,  that  was 
dry  throu^out  tiie  greater  part  of  the  year. 
If  this  view  is  correct,   it  must  tend   to 
enhance  our  estimate  of  the  skill  snd  perse- 
verance of  tiiie  ancient  Israelites,  in  partly 
eo-operating  with  nature,  and  partly  con- 
tending successftdly  against  its  parsimony, 
to  supply,  by  sn  immense  and  very  operose 
water-system,  the  prime  necessary  of  life 
both  to  man  and  beast,  and  which  had  with 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  owmg 
to  the  requirements  of  their  religion  and  their 
rocky  soil,  a  peculiar  and  immeasurable  value. 
The  agreement  of  the  facts  now  mentioned, 
which  concern  the  pool  of  Bethesda  itself, 
with  statements  snd  implications  found  in 
the  Oospel,   must  be  too  obvious  to  the 
attentive  reader  to  require  comment;   and 
surely  he  cannot  resist  the  conclusion,  that 
narratives  which,  not  in  one  but  in  many 
cases,  can  endure  such  a  test  as  this,  must 
have  had  reality  —  actual  frusta  and  actual 
life  —  for  their  basis. 


BET  153  BET 

BETH-HORON  (H.  hautt  of  wnih)  ii  (Matt  ii  6) ;  or.  Again,  *  B.  of  Jadet  *  (Matt 
the  name  of  two  places,  or  of  a  double  citj,  ii.  5).  Its  ancient  name  was  Ephrath  (Oen. 
Upper  and  Nether  Beth<horon,  lying  between  zxzy.  19).  At  a  later  period  the  aneient  and 
NieopoUs  and  Jenisalem,  near  the  borders  the  modem  names  were  nnited,  fonning 
of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin,  wfaieh  belonged  *  Beth-lehem  Ephratah '  (Micah  t.  3).  It  lay 
to  Uie  tribe  of  Ephraim.  In  Josh.  zzi.  23,  two  hours' journey  sonth  from  Jenisalem,  in  a 
it  appears  as  a  Levite  city.  It  was  an  im-  Teiy  fertile  district,  on  the  decliTlty  of  a  con- 
portent  militaiy  poet,  commanding  the  en-  siderable  ridge  of  hills.  To  its  fertility  it  was 
trance  into  Southern  Palestine.  Both  the  indebted  for  its  name,*  bread-city.'  The  name 
Upper  and  Lower  Beth-honxn,  therefore,  were  Ephrath,  which  may  at  first  have  belonged 
fortified  by  Solomon  (2  Chnm.  ynL  6).  In  to  the  district  in  which  the  place  stood,  has 
1  Kings  iz.  17,  Beth-horon  the  Nether  only  something  of  the  same  import,  meaning 
ia  mentioned  as  hsYing  been  so  fortified;  either  a  firnitftil  land,  or  sweet  water.  That 
but  it  does  not  hence  follow,  that  the  upper  the  water  of  Bedilehem  had  superior  qnali- 
town  was  not  also  fortified  at  the  same  time,  ties,  i^pears  from  the  longing  of  Oayid  for 
and  by  the  same  person.  Yet  even  less  adranc^tfiromoneof  itswells  (2Sam.zziii. 
pointed  thm  this  are  generally  what  are  15),  and  from  the  Uei  that  an  aqueduct 
called  by  those  iHio  are  unfriezidly  to  reve-  began  at  Bedilehem  and  ran  to  Jerusalem, 
tion,  the  deserepancies  and  contradictions  which  exists  at  the  present  day,— -one  among 
in  the  Gospel  uarratiyes.  Bobinson  went  several  proofs  that  the  Hebrews  were  ciqpa- 
fiom  Lydda,  over  the  Lower  Betfa-horon.  We  Ue  of  constructing  great  works,  and  spared 
cite  his  words :  — *  We  came  to  arillage  on  the  no  labour  to  distribute  over  the  land  water, 
top  of  a  low  ridge,  called  Beit  Ur  et-Tahta  the  sole  natural  requisite  to  cover  it  with 
(the  lower).  It  is  small;  but  the  fotrnda-  abundance  and  beauty.  Among  the  earlier 
tions  of  large  stones  indicate  an  ancient  stories  of  the  town,  ita  chief  is,  that  it  was 
site,  doubtless  the  Nether  Beth-horon  of  the  the  birthplace  of  the  national  hero,  David 
Old  Testament  This  place  is  separated  (1  Sam.  xvii.  12).  Hence  it  was  honoured 
from  the  foot  of  the  high  mountain  by  a  with  thetitloof*  city  of  David'  (Lukeii.  4). 
Wady.'  This  he  crossed,  and  then  began  As  being  the  native  town  of  that  monarch, 
a  long  and  steep  ascent,  which  is  also  very  it  became,  at  a  later  period,  the  object  and 
rocky  and  rouj^  The  rock  has  been  cut  centre  of  the  political  and  Messianic  feelings 
away  in  many  places,  snd  the  path  formed  entertained  1^  the  Jews,  who  expected  that 
into  steps,  showing  that  this  is  an  ancient  from  it  a  second  David  would  come  forth  to 
road.  On  the  summit  of  a  promontory  stands  retrieve  the  sinking  fortunes  of  the  nation 
the  village  Beit  Ur  d-Foka  (the  upper),  on  (Micah  y.  2).  The  place  was  in  itself  incon- 
the  very  brow  of  the  mountain,  with  a  deep  siderable,  but  was  fortified  by  Behoboam  as 
yalley  on  each  side.  The  village  is  small,  but  one  of  his  '  cities  for  defence  in  Jndah,'  in 
exhibite  traces  of  ancient  walls  and  fortifica-  consequence  of  ite  being  a  sort  of  outpost  to 
tions.  Between  the  two  places  was  a  pass  thecapital(2  Chron.xi.d).  Ite  highest  dis- 
down  which  Joshua  drore  the  five  kings  of  the  tinction  is  owing  to  the  foct  that  it  was  the 
Amorites,  who  made  war  upon  Gideon  (Josh,  birthplace  of  Jesus  Christ;  for  Joseph  and 
X.  1 — II).  By  the  same  road  was  the  apostle  Mary,  while  dwelling  in  Jerusalem,  were  led, 
Paul  conducted  from  Jerusalem  to  Cnsarea  in  consequence  of  a  census  commanded  by 
( Acte  xxiii.  31 ,  82) .  In  ancient  times,  as  well  Augustus  Cnsar,  to  repair  to  Bethlehem,  *  be- 
as  at  the  present  day,  the  great  road  of  com-  cause  they  were  of  the  house  and  lineage  of 
munication  between  Jerusalem  and  the  sea-  David'  (Luke  ii.  1 — ^7;  comp.  Matt  ii.  6). 
coast  was  by  the  pass  of  Beth-horon.  From  The  present  name  of  Bcdilehem  is  Beit 
the  roof  of  a  house,  Bobinson  saw  a  beantilld  Lahm.  The  first  appearance  of  the  now 
plain,  extending  from  Beit  Ur  and  Bamleh ;  small  place  is  TCiy  striking.  The  environs' 
which  runs  out,  west  by  north,  through  a  are  beantiftil;  but  they  cannot  be  said  to  be 
tract  of  hills,  and  then  bends  off  south-west  well  cultivated.  There  is,  indeed,  no  good 
through  the  great  western  plain.  He  also  tillage  in  this  part  of  the  country,  though 
saw,  on  the  side  of  a  long  hill  which  skirts  the  best  is  perhaps  about  this  aneient  town, 
the  valley  on  the  south,  a  small  village,  on  The  soil  is  fertile,  but  it  is  encumbered  with 
the  west-south-west,  called  Yalo,  which  he  rocks ;  and  the  hills  and  valleys  are  covered 
considered  the  ancient  Ajalon.  A  broad  to  a  considerable  distance  widi  figs,  olives, 
Wady,  on  the  south  of  it,  he  holds  to  be  the  pomegranates,  and  vineyards,  A  deep  valley 
▼alley  of  i^alon,  renowned  in  the  history  of  on  the  northern  side  of  the  town,  which  is 
Joshua.  overlooked  by  the  road  leading  to  Jemsa- 

BETHLEHEM  (H.  haute  o/hread)  is  the  lem,  presente  a  scene  of  beauty  and  luxuri-r 

name  of  a  town  in  the  territory  of  Judah,  ance  unrivalled  in  Palestine.  The  steep  hill 

celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  the  Redeemer  sides  by  which  it  is  bounded  are  terraced 

of  mankind;  v^ich,  in  order  to  distinguish  vrith  great  labour  and  care,  and  covered  with 

it  from  another  Bethlehem  in  Zebnlun  (Josh  fine  fruit  trees.    This  delicious  spot  may 

XIX.  15),  was  denominated  Bethlehem-Judah  perhaps  be  taken  as  a  specimen  of  the  ge- 

(Ruth  i.  2),  or  'B.  in  the  land  of  Judah.  neral  appearance  of  the  hill  country  in  Uie 


BET  loJ  BET 

proapcTiHu  dajn  of  th*  Jvwlili  lUla,  and  of  ipicniKU  ol^eot  wliiab  it  oontauii.    It  ts  ft 

what  it  night  onn  won  bmome  imiler  th*  TB17  aileniiTe  stone  ediSce,  imgnlw  in  !(• 

foalirinf  Dan  of  >  gmxl  govunmuiiit,  and  of  plvi,  from  Iminfc  bMD  coTutmcIed  a  pisoe 

•u  indnitriou*  eifiliied  popolation.     II  li  at  ■  tints,  ud  M  diffenmt  ens.     The  whol* 

onlf  imdai  Iha  walli  of  iwiuidanbU  ton!  ha*  Ihs  ■ppeannM  at  m  itrong  (orlren.     It 

that  agiioiiltDTe  ii  DOW  praotitable.     Within  aontainslwDnnil]  ohnpeli;  one nsad  b; Iha 

two  mlUf  of  Bolhlahem,  ftalda  an  pannittad  Orach,  tha  other  b;  the  AnDenian,  Ohria- 

to  lia  waala,  whioh  onea  lenraidad  the  la-  ttana.    Tha  gnKto  in  whioh  Janit  b  aaid 

bom  of  a  niunaratia  puaaaulij  ;   bat  U  ia  to  hare  bean  bom  ia  nndar  tha  Gnek  aba- 

at  pnwDt  naalaaa  to  till  thiB,  tbr  Iha   Ba-  pal,  tha  deaoanl  into  vfatoh  ia  b^  ■  flight  of 

doouu,  who  ara  alwaja  in  tha  Tieinl^,  aaiaa  maibla  alapa.    This,  tha  anoient  aubla,  ia  a 

the  fimit  and  eors  aTen  betoie  ths;  ooma  loBg,   nanow,   and   rather  low   room ;    tha 

to  matorlt;.    The  innmion  of  a  lingle  night  coiginal   banuva  of  which  an  quite  eon- 

ia  oflan  eufieiant  10  eanr  awa;  or  deetroj  oealed  by  marblee,  embroidered  hanginga, 

the   entin  piodnota  o(  a  jaar'a   iudauiy.  gold  lamps,  and  other  deeoraUmu.      Tha 

EraD  in  broad  d^  theaa  barbaiiana  do  not  gtotlo,  twelre  paeea  long  bj  fonr  broad,  oon- 

haaitat*  to  drifatheii'beaata  throng  flalda  of  tains  three  ptjnelpal  allan.    tJndntha  fliat, 

lAeat  ander  Iha  owMt'a  aja,  and  thay  graaa  upon  Iha  marble  floor,  the  ptaalaa  apot  of 

their  animala  upon  than  wilhotM  acnpla.  the  natiTit;  is  inartad  bj  a  Inge  atai,  nude 

Under  aoata  airanmalmeaa,  Am  Inhakitanla,  of  ailnr  and  precioiu  atonaa.    Tha  fi^aw- 

tnming  their  aWanttai  fWm  aff tattlttin,  mate  ing  inaoription  tDtnu  a  einla  araand  tha 

OTMaaa,  oarra  omanumt*,  and  Mannftotnn  atar:   '  Hie  i*  Vtryim  Mari»  Jmn  Ohritbu 

baada  and  otbar  Oinketa  ^  motbar-of-pearl,  iwlwf  art'  —  'H*n  Jeau  Chrlatwaa  bean  of 

and  of  tha  wood  and  kernel  af  the  oliraa  that  the  Vir|^  Kar;.'    Golden  lampaeontfaniallr 

grOTrinandabatttthegardanofOethaanana,  bmn  otw  thla  aaered  apot    Abora  It  ia  a 

whioh  thaj  aall  to  pilgrima,  or  ai^plf  to  tha  marble  table,  with  Iha  aaaal  daaoratlaDa  of 

basaan  in  Janualam.  an  altai  hi  a  oathoIlD  dinnh.    Her*  Ihe  pil- 

The  anTirona  of  Ihla  town  bring  M  mind  grtana  proatoata  tbamtelTaa,  oflkrisg  of  their 

the  aoalu  of  iha  baantifBl  nairatlTe  of  Rnth  prajan,  and  klaaing  tha  alar  and  tha  para- 

^eaningin  tha  Aalda  of  Boaa,  after  his  reap-  swnt  aroimd  h.    At  tha  diatanee  of  aboat 

an ;  and  it  reqoirea  no  gnat  atnteh  of  tba  twant;  feet  from  Ote  star  la  a  bloek  of  white 

Imagination  to  sail  op,  a*an  now,  tha  tnna-  marble,  hollowed  o«t  in  proper  tbim,  rapre- 

Htions  naitalad  in  dw  Bible.     Bat  in  Ihe  aantlng  Ihe  maugei  where  the  infant  Jaaoa 

tboo^t  that  this  is  the  spot  where  Jaasa  waa  Snt  eradlad.    Oppoaite  to  it  ia  an  altar 

the  Badaamei  waa  ban,  it  ia  impoaaiUa  la  dadieatad  to  the  magi,  or  wiae  man,  boa  tha 

approaeh  tha  plaae  wililaat  deep  emotion.  Gaat.    Thirtf-two  ^landUlampa  illnmlDato 

What  a  mi^it;  inflnatMa  far  good  haa  gaoa  thla  gotvsoaa  oh^eL 
forth  ttom  ihia  little  apot  upon  tha  human 
raoa,b«lhliirlfaBaandfaratemitTl  Chaoga 
ha«  indeed  been  bna;  at  wort  hera:  tor 
eighteen  handled  fBua  the  earth  haa  n- 
nswad  bar  earpet  of  ntdaia,  and  mm  it 
again  daeaT.  Tst  the  aUea,  Ihe  freUa,  0m 
rocks,  the  liilla,  and  tha  Tallera  aronnd,  la- 
main  unchanged,  and  are  ilill  the  aama  m 
whan  the  glorj  of  Ihe  Loid  shone  abont  dM 
ahcpherda,  and  Ihe  aong  of  a  moltitvde  of 
tha  heaTenl;  host  nsonnded  among  the  hilla, 
proclaiming  ■  OI017  to  Ood  in  the  hlghnal. 
and  OD  earth  peaea,  good  wiU  toward  BMa' 
(Luke  ii  »— U). 


ti  ■rhoed  on  fOr  trm :  These  memorial)  eieite  deep  n  _ .  _ 

a2lT^  '°i^^1^  "•»».«■  «rth  be  mn,  Ihe  pari  of  visitors,  bal  appear  to  hsT 

*"^       iiliJI^ ""      ""^ mhaOtai, mA  good  and  deep  inflnence  on  the  attendants. 

Tha  connni  al  ih.  n.ri.u.  _j.i.i.  ___  '^"onhippers  ascended  Ihe  stairatoGnish 

Lord  ™  n™.  U  ■1«»«J  u  «r.  iSS  »""m-"«;»»;P™'t"tow"»>»l 

•4        »  .J i«  iH  oMi  eoa.  wi.inonjwtipMfaniiedwltli«ci 


BET  1- 

and  iireTCranc*  quits  shof  king  m  piont  reel- 
ing. Tba  prieit,  whila  in  Oie  sol  of  giving 
th«  SKcnd  ajmbol,  conTsrsed  with  the  com- 
moniouu  in  •  jovial  aljle,  laughing  im- 
modeiatalf ,  and  oeaaaion^f  alapping  ihsm 
on  tbc  back.  Tbsaa  peopla  would  think  it 
an  nopardonablt  offanae  lo  wear  tbtlr  iboaa 
In  Ibe  gTotlo  when  Ibajtuid  joat  now  klawd 
the  tr*ditiona>7  and  doabtM  nliat  of  the 
natiiitr ;  but  thef  putook  (rf  Ihe  nnqne*. 
lionable  mamoriais  of  the  daath  of  Oia  B«- 
deemei  with  an  ur  of  pnifiiw  Indiffenmea.  — 
lOUu'i  TiaTali,  ii.it;.) 


mpditation,  and  atDdy,  tatj  be  taken  aa  an 
eiprention  of  hi»  opinion.  He  died  hera, 
earl;  in  (he  fllUi  oentnrj.  The  ehoreh  itaelf 
WM  bnai  abonl  a  renturj  earlier,  by  the 
Empraaa  Helena,  who  Tiiited  Faleetine  in 
penon,  and  cannot  be  anppoteil  to  h»Te 
been  oueleiB  in  Marching  ont  the  halj 
plaoH  on  which  ahe  made  each  eoatlj  erec- 
tioui:  nor  i*  it  pcrbape  credible  thai  tb« 
■aana  of  an  orent  ao  deeply  intereating, 
ahoold  harg  been  loat  eight  of  b;  die  n>- 
tiTea.  To  Ihe  diaoiples,  the  place  where 
their  Mailer  waa  bom  mnsl  have  been  an 
ol!Jeet  of  peenliv  intereil.  Wa  m»j  aup- 
poH  alio,  Aat  Ihe  mother  and  bretlimi  of 
our  Loni  wonld  ftvqaently  Tiait,  and  point 
out  to  oOtera  ■  ipot  ao  hallowed  in  their 
domaiEie  niilary.  Each  nieceeding  gniers- 
UoD  of  Chrialiani  wonld  feet  a  deep  inlereet 
in  Ihe  inlqeet,  and  wonld  be  ted,  1^  the 
•trong  impnlaea  of  human  nalore,  to  view, 
and  preaeira  wilh  peaaliar  Tenantion,  Ihe 


oalcnlable  i 


Two  other  ipotanearBethMiem  are  point- 
ed oat  aa  thoM  where  ooi  Lord  waa  bom. 
Their  reipecliTa  daims  mnat  erer  remain  in 
doobu  &>bin(on,  with  aamewhat  too  aweep- 
teg  *  method  of  dealing  with  local  traditiona, 
deeidee  poeitiTel;  igainBl  the  olaims  of  the 
place,  which  hu  reeeired  the  sanetion  of 
ecclcBiaatical  tradition.  The  preoiw  (pot 
of  gromid  ie  a  matlEr  of  Tciy  mull  moment 
Enough  that  we  know  Uiat  Itii*  ia  the  Beth- 
lehem where  the  Lord  Jeana  eame  into  a 
world  which  be 
For  Ihii,  if  not 
tieijwehBTeeafHciemtguarauteei.  Iraditiou 
has  ncTcr  loil  sight  of  Bethlehem;  and  in 
almost  CTcrj  Bsntuir,  aiuce  the  times  of 
Ihe  New  Teslamenl,  it  has  been  Tisited  and 
mendoued  bf  writers  and  traveDers.  Bnt 
we  conteas  that  the  balance  of  endenee  ap- 
pears to  ua  to  incline  alrongly  in  ttmnir  of 
Oie  aoloal '  Chuich  of  the  Natinly.'  A  eon- 
netion  in  its  faTonr  certainly  obtained  cur- 
leney  at  a  Tcry  early  period,  leading  lo  the 
erectiim  of  the  boilding,  and  to  the  aalab- 
lUhnent  of  a  monastery  hsrc.  Xlie  selection 
of  die  spot  by  JeroBS,  m  a  pUcs  of  retreat, 


BETHPHAOE  (H.  jig  pimlatiim),  a  tQ- 
laffe  or  hamlet  lying  on  Uoont  Ollrsi,  aonw- 
wlMt  more  flian  two  miles  from  Jerusalem, 
manliomd  cnrsorily  aa  the  spot  near  irtueh, 
and  probaUy  to  wliich,  our  Lord,  in  hia  laat 
Joumsy  to  Jerusslem,  sent  two  of  his  disci- 
ples lo  proenre  the  coll  on  which  he  rode 
Into  the  city  (Matt  ixLl.  Merit  zi.l.  Lake 
lix.  S0).  The  place  Is  often  mentkned  in 
the  Tahnnd.  Poooeke  bdieved  he  had  ftinnd 
remains  of  it  about  two  miles  Itom  Jetnaa- 
lam.  Bnt  fioUnaon  saya, '  Of  the  Tillage  no 
trace  eztstSi'  adding, '  In  coining  bom  Jerl- 
idio,  our  Lord  appears  to  baTO  entered  It 
before  leaehing  Bethany ;  and  it  probably, 
Iberefare,  lay  near  lo  the  latler,  and  a  litde 
below  it  lowaids  tbs  east'  (li.  103).  Olio, 
howerer,  —  a  still  more  reeent  traTcUer, — 
fbund,  tittle  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
nearly  north  from  Bethany,  nnqncstionabla 
veatigea  of  an  ancient  Tillage,  in  a  large 
laaervair,  the  foondatimia  irf  hoosea  and 
Bcenmalationa  turn  former  cdifiees,  which 
he  look  lo  be  the  roina  of  Bethptiage.  — 
Hug,  in  his '  Introdnetiini  to  the  Wiiiingi 
of  the  New  Testament '  (traulated  by  Wait), 
has  investigated  the  passagss  in  whieh  tbs 
plaoe  is  mentioned  in  lbs  Tabnodieal  books ; 
stating  that,  ascoiding  to  the  SmpMral 
writers,  Bethphagc  was  without  the  ei^, 
and  not  bi  from  Jerusalem :  he  shows  that 
Ihe  Habbinleal  anthodtiea  are  in  agreement 
with  the  ScTiptnral :  — 'All  of  which  paaaagas 
aeparate  Belhphags  from  Jemaalem,  but  ahow 
It  to  baTc  been  altualed  in  the  vicinity  o( 
the  city,  yet  without  Ihe  walls,  and  in  Ihe 
view  of  them'  (i.  21).  The  gnalneBB  of 
the  plaosj  and  the  number  of  its  inhabitants, 
made  it  of  impoittnee.  This  point  of  agree- 
ment fomishea  a  vsloable  evidence  to  Ihs 
ciedibility  of  the  nairatitBa  of  the  Ooapela. 
BETHSAIDA  (H.^rqiMitary),  a  place 


BET  156  BET 

lanand  hj  John  <i.  44)  ■  titf,  bf  Hirk  (rilL  I7  bn  own  hAu,  who  went  lo  br  H  to 
S9)K(D«n,ln  OdilM  (Johu  ili.  31);  tjluff.  wiali  itw  bad  bnag  buMlf,  radwr  Au  par- 
it  I*  Mid,  ibont  the  middls  of  iha  VMtem  pcbaM  hei  orime*.  Tibnini,  whoM  wit* 
bocdtr  of  th*  Like  of  Oiltlee,  not  fir  frmn  the  bad  been  been,  eoOMgned  Iba  nufono- 
C^amanm.  It  vaa  Ihe  biithpliM  of  Pelsr,  nate  prinoan,  allar  tba  daMb  of  Angnatua,  to 
Andraw,  Philip,  and  an  ordiaafj  aboda  of  the  the  moat  atgeat  porertr.  nDdar  wbieb  aha 
SaTiooiotmaukind  (Hark  t1,  44;  Tiii.  29).  aank  withont  aaijalanee.  Coarflj  adulation 
Foooeke  ftmnd  in  Uuae  puts,  about  two  miln  would  lead  to  the  diaeonbnnaDoe  of  a  name 
ftom  Ibe  aaa,  (he  miua  of  a  plaea  bearing  the  whiob  mt{^t  nerar  bava  beao  biAj  aata- 
nama  Bailbaida;  but  Boblnaon  laya  thai  bliilied  In  popolar  naa. 
^  mj  nama baa  periibed.  Anotbn  Beth-  BETHBHEAN  (H.  i^pn  *«*w)>' *°>*'l 
■aida  to  plaoad  bj  Pllnj  on  the  aaatof  Ibe  BMtrapoUa  ('Batbihaan  and  her  lovna'), 
lake  and  of  Iba  Jordan ;  and  Joaaphoa  do-  belonging  to  Manaaaeb,  on  Ibia  aide  of  the 
aaribot  it  aa  aitnaled  in  Lower  aanlouitia,  Jord^  iridiln  Ibe  leniloiT  at  luaehai,  and 
Joat  abora  Ibe  enlraiM*  of  Ibe  Jordan  into  on  Ibe  aoutb-eaM  of  the  plain  of  Jeueal 
Iba  laka.  It  waa  miginallj  a  Tillage,  called  (Joab.  zrlL  11),  oat  of  which  the  Iineliiaa 
Betfaaaida,  bnt  waa  enlarged  b^  Pbil^  the  oonid  not  expd  the  ntH-n  iuhabltanta 
tatnich.  not  bog  after  ibe  binh  of  CbrtoL  (rer.lS.  Jodg.LST).  ItwaaadiiiiiigoiBlied 
Philip  wonld  aaem  to  bare  made  it,inpart,hto  place,  being  mentioned  aa  one  of  the  oitiea 
lealdenoe:  hen  lie  died,  and  waa  bnriad  in  a  wbiab  Solomon  appointed  to  aoppt;  pro- 
ooatljloinb.  'Thia,'aa7aIlobinion<ili.8O0),  Tiiiotu  for  the  rojal  honaebold  (1  Kings 
'  b  doabUaaa  tba  Balhaaida  near  to  whidi  iv.  12).  At  a  later  period  it  bora  the  name 
Jaani  fed  tbe  Sie  thoound,  on  the  sait  ni  01  Bgjihapolia,  the  largest  city  of  the  Deca- 
the  lake ;  and  probably,  also,  the  same  when  polls,  and  the  onlj  one  on  the  west  of  Iha 
the  Uind  man  was  healed '  (Lnke  ii.  10.  Jordan.  It  waa  a  sontheni  limit  of  Galilee. 
itwA  Tiii.  33).  It  laj   a  hnndnd  and  twen^    stsdia  trom 

The    ttmaina    of  ibto  Beduaida  Jnliaa,  Tiberias.      In    Iha  Jewiab    war,   Oabinioa 

Poeoekc  and  fiobinaon  fiinnd  on  the  moon-  fortifled  flie  place,  and  among  its  iuhabitanta 

tain  at-Tell;    a  large  portion  of  which  ia  there  were  many  beathen.     In   the  founh 

eorered  ^  tba  niina.  century  of  onr  era,  it  was  the   seat  of  a 

Wa  msst  add,  tfaat  wa  are  not  eontinoad  Christian  biahoprick.      It  no*  bean    the 

that  then  «ne  on  Ibe  aanM  Lake  of  Galilee  name  of  El-Beysan.    II  was  to  the  walls 

two  towns  bearing  Oe  name  of  Belbaaida,  of  Belbshsan   that  Ibe  body  of  Sanl  waa 

ca  that  all  Iba  paaaagea  were  not  Intended  to  fastened,   after  he  had  been  pnt  lo  dealb 

refer  to  Ibe  latter,  of  whiefa  we  bars  qM>ken ;  (1  Sam.  ml  10). 

and  if  wa  snppoaa  thai  Ibe  term  Galilee        The  mini  of  this  place  wan  Tiaited  by 

(John   lii.  SI)   extended   loosely  to   aome  Irby    and  Mangles,  from  whom  we   leant, 

portion  of  Ganlonitla,  on  the  eastern  coast,  thai  the  most    interesting  among  Ibem  U 

there  is  no  great  diflenllj  in  ondentanding  the  theatre,  the  walls  of  which  can  be  dia- 

Ihe  Scriploral  writata  lo  speak,  in  all  Ibe  tincllj  traced.     It  measures  aerosa  the  front 

instances,  of  this  Mine  Bethsaida  Jnliaa;  in  a  bundled  and  eighty  feet,  and  ia  rematk- 

anpport  of  which  snppoaiti'ui  we  may  men-  able  (or  baring  thoee  o'al  recesses,  men- 

li<m,  that  tbe  tame  Jndaa  who,  in  Ibe  Acta  tioned  by  the  ancient  arohitect  Vitmnna,  aa 

nt  the  Apostles  (t.  37),  Is  aaid  to  be  of  Qali-  being  conslnieted  lo  bold  the  brass  Boond- 

lee,  Josephoi  calls  a  Oanlooila  (Antiq.  XTiiL  ing   tabea  fbr  the  purpose    of  aiding    the 

1.  I).    Hag (IntiDdnclion,  i.  30),  who  lefera  Toire.     There  are  aeren  of  these  canities. 

all  Ibe  pasaagea  to  Belbaaida  Jnliaa,  aaya,  Yitmiiua  manlioiu  that  *eij  few  theatrea 

that    the    place  waa  aitnsle   in   Oanlooitia.  had  Ihem. 
wfaieh  district  waa  dlTidfd  from  Qslilee;  bnt  The  foie-mentio 

the  ordinary  language  of  the  time  asserted  thej  found  in  the   .^ 

ill  own  opinion,  and  reakoned  tbe  Ganloni-  and  nnmanini  Nmea. 


fe^ 


II  Galilee.     When,  therefore,  a  Tiper  waa  basking  with  hia  body  twisted 

-*"''"    ('':      -'  i  does  the  aame,  he   prores  Ifarongh  the  aockels  of  the  ejet,  presenting 

llisi  iliF  iiii,V|*r»d  peeoliari^  of  these  day*  a  good  antgect  for  a  moraliat.     In  some  of 

waa  not  unk  1 1  <  <i>a  h>  bim ;  Sir  he  eiptesaes  ihe  lomba,  the  sareo[diagi,  or  atone  ooffina, 

hunsclf   afur  tlie  ndinary  manner  of  tba  lelremaiii.     Doora  ilill  hang  on  the  ancient 

panod.     1  L„  rp  is  anoflier  tact  of  aome  Im-  hinges  Mt  atone,  in  remarkable  pKsemlion. 

|W*i«e.         .iliMida  had    taken   the   new  Onr  one  <rf  two  st»aM».  which  mn  throng 

vlf'iirj^^     '""""*  '*™  ■"'•^^  •ot  (ha  ruiD*  of  the  eity,  is  a  fine  Soman  MdgaL 

rl^«,^     'ii'i  i  K        "™  ''™  "  '^'•^  On  a  biU  tae  Ihe  remains  of  one  of  the  ei^ 

rsB,  ana  OMii, .     loUae  in  honoorof  Julia,  the  galea,  and  proetrau  oolnmna  of  Corinthian 

1.1.1,  .."'','.  .fP*™  ^oRo'tns.     Wbj  atehitoetare.      On  a  hirii  eirenlar  hill  ie  Ibe 

^J^^T,T    ,     J"^"  *"  **"  OospeU?   The  Acri^nlis.  or  castle.     Mear  the  town  are  tba 

S™.  -h„  ?     ,  '''"°°<T'  »»!•*•'  "itb  ber  ndna  </  many  snbtemuMan  granariea. 
SwTu  ™,^  ,1           '^?-.,  ""'  '""8  *^        BETHBHEMESH  (H.  AoMe  or  d<«  <i/^ 

»ilip  «•"  111.  natne.  Julia  wa.  baniabed  (*.-n.)waa  a  awieof  man,BiblieJ^i«r; 


BIB  157  BIB 

for  the  wonhip  of  the  sun  prerailed  as  a  book ;  that  is  the  book  of  books,  or  the  best 
part  of  the  worahip  of  nature  iii  the  East  of  books.    In  the  same  manner  the  Moham- 
generally,  and  in  Canaan.  OftheseplaceSyWe  medans  designate   the  volume  containing 
mention  only  that  to  which  there  belongs  any  their  sacred  writings,  Al-Koran,  the  Koran, 
interest  or  impoitanoe.    This  Bethshemesh  or  the  book.    The  epithet,  *  holy '  (of  ha- 
was  a  frontier  town,  in  the  territory  of  Jndah,  man  origin),  prefixed  to  Bible,  points  to  the 
on  the  sonth-eastem  border  of  Dan,  lying  saered  natore  of  the  sabjects  with  which  the 
probably  in  a  plain,  according  to  Eosebins  book  is  conoemed,  and  may  be  accounted 
ten  Boman  miles  from  Eleutheropolis,  in  an  epitome,  in  one  word,  of  the  great  aun 
the  direction  towards   Nicopolis  (Josh.  xr.  end  tendency  of  the  Bible,  whldh  are  to 
10.   2  Kings  xiT.  11).    It  was  one  of  the  make  men  holy  as  creatures  and  children  of 
cities  given  by  Judah  to  the  priests  (Josh,  a  holy  God.    The  name  of  this  volume 
zxL  16).   Solomon  made  it  a  sort  of  provin-  directs  the  mind  to  the  nature  of  the  infor- 
eial  capital  (1  Kings  iv.  9) ;  but  the  place  mation  which  it  has  to  convey.    The  defini- 
was  taken  by  the  Philistines,  under  Ahas  tion  of  the  book  has  a  similar  eifisct    Beli- 
(2  Chron.  zxviiL  18).    To  this  town  the  gion  is  obviously  its  subject    For  religious 
Philistine  lords  accompanied  the  ark,  after  it  not  for  scientific  information,  the  Bible  is 
had  been  in  their  possession  seven  months;  acknowledged  as  of  authority,  and  must  be 
their  object  being  to  apply  the  test  agreed  consulted.    And  its  religion  is  practical,  not 
on  between  them  and  the  priests  and  divi-  speculative,  or  notionsL    '  The  Holy  Bible ' 
ners,  in  order   to    ascertain  whether  the  has  been  given  to  make  the  worid  holy ;  and 
deadly  destruction  which  had  befallen  the  whatever    additional    information    it    may 
Philistines   at  Ekron  was  of   Ood  or  of  offer,  whatever  collateral  advantages  it  may 
chance.      The  test  proposed  was  this  —  confer,  these  are  only  casual  or  instrumen- 
whether  a  new  cart  drawn  by  two  unwoAed  tal,  while  the  great  end  which  is   found 
milch  kine,  deprived  of  their  calves,  went  steadily  pursued  with  few  exceptions  through- 
straight  forward  by  the  way  of  Jehovah's  out  the  volume,  is  such  a  statement  of  his- 
own  coast  to  Bethshemesh.    This  supersti-  torical,  biographical,  physical,  and  religious 
tious  ordeal  answered  the  purpose  of  those  truth,  as  may  show  forth  and  illustrate  the 
who  proposed  its  application.    The  ark  was  government  of  the  Almighty,  as  exercised 
received  at  Bethshemesh  by  its  reapers  widi  over  the  children  of  men,  and  prove  end 
aoclsmatioiL    But  it  was  soon  to  prove  sn  enforce  the  duty  under  which  they  lie  to 
occasion  of  dreadful  calamity  to  the  city,  obey  his  will,  keep  his  laws,  conform  to  his 
Stimulated  by  a  vain  curiosity,  some  of  its  guidance,    acquiesce  in  his  dispensations, 
inhabitants  looked  into  the  arit,  when  there  and  make  his  purposes  their  own. 
were  smitten  of  the  people,  60,070— a  punish-        The  name  Bible  has  been  borne  by  this 
ment  which  seems  greatly  disproportionate  volume  since  the  fifth  century  of  the  Chris- 
to  the  offence,  if  the  number  is  not  in  some  tian  era,  when  it  is   found  need  by  the 
way  much  exaggerated,  or  some  natural  event  Christian  Father  Chrysostom,  as  equivalent 
has  not  received  a  supernatural  clothing,  with  '  Sacred  Scriptures.'    It  is  a  coUecticn 
When  there  is  a  clear  and  inevitable  option  of  books  (the  article  Boos  should  be  read 
between  ityustice  on  the  part  of  God,  and  before  this  article  on  Bible),  which  the  word 
misrepresentations  or  misreports  on  the  part  Bible  represents,  not  one  book.    The  writ- 
of  men,  true  piety  does  not  allow  hesitation  ings  which  the  Bible  contsins  are  nume- 
in  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  do  more  rous,  and  diverse  in  character ;  written  in 
than  suspend  the  judgment,  or  refer  difflcul-  an  eastern  clime,  by  Easterns,  and  origi- 
ties  to  the  thick  mists  which  cover  no  few  dis-  nally  for  eastern  purposes ;  in  a  very  differ- 
tricts  of  the  ancient  world  (1  Sam.  v.  10,  ent  state  of  society  from  ours ;  many  of 
f«9.;  vi.).    Robinson  and  Smith  found  ruins  them  at  a  very  early  period  of  civilisation ; 
lying  between  Jerusalem  and  Ashdod,  deno-  for  objects  dissimilar  to  each  other ;  under 
minated  Ain  Sems.    These  are  most  proba-  a  great  variety  of  circumstances ;   and  in 
bly  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Bethshemesh,  languages  which  have  long  since  ceased  to 
and  betoken  a  place  of  considerable  size.  be  spoken.    Tet,   amidst  these  causes  of 
BIBLE,  THE  HOLT,  is  the  name  of  the  diversity,  there  was  also  a  source  of  unity ; 
volume  which  is  received    among   Chris-  for  the  authors  of  the  Biblical  writings  had 
tians  as  the  source  of  their  religious  know-  one  great  olgect,  namely,  to  convey  religions 
ledge.     The  word  Bible  is  an  English  tran-  instruction  to  ttieir  fbUow-men ;  and  as,  in 
script  of  a  Greek   term,  which  primarily  general,  they  all  possessed  the  same,  and 
denotes  the  reed  papyrus  (whence  paper),  for  their  day  the  highest,  opportunities  for 
that  grew  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Nile,  in  gaining    religious  knowledge,   and  of  be- 
^STPty^  Bi^^  ^*A  made  into  a  variety  of  use-  coming  acquainted  with  the  will  and  por- 
ftil  articles.    Among  these  were  leaves,  or  poses  of  God,  so,  with    some  unessential 
sheets,  prepared  for  being  used  in  writing,  diversities,  they  preserve  in  regard  to  their 
Whence  Byblos  (Bible)  came  to  be  nearly  subject,  namely,  the  great  truths  of  religion, 
equivalent  with  our  Saxon  term  *  book.'    The  a  harmony  which  of  itself  suffices  to  prove 
Bible,  then,  is  <  the  book,' emphatically  the  that  they  were  under    a  higher  guidance 


BIB 


158 


BIB 


than  that  of  their  own  indiTidual  minds. 
The   collection  of  books  called  the  Bible 
eonsists  of  two  great  portions  —  the  New 
Testament,  and  the  Old  Testament    The 
name  *  Testament '  is  taken  from  the  pas- 
sage in  d  Cor.  ilL  14,  where  it  designates 
the  religion  of  the  Israelites,  the  old  eore- 
nant ;  and  denotes,  in  relation  to  onr  subject 
the  books   of  the  ancient  Jewish   church. 
The  word  '  Testament '  is  derived  from  the 
Latin,  or  Boman  Catholic  Version,  idiieh 
has,  in  the  passage  just  referred  to,  tetta- 
mentitm ;  a  term  which,  though  it  may  in  the 
language  of  the  church  have  had  the  same 
import  as  the  Greek  originsl,  couTejs  an 
incorrect  idea  to  an  En^ish  reader,  who 
regards  a  testament  as  a  will.    In  reality, 
the  original  word  signifies  a  eovemnU  or  an 
agrteiMmi:  it  signUles  slso  the  books  In 
which  that  ooTcnant  is  recorded.    The  UM 
of  the  term  covenant  rests  on  the  highest 
anthoritj:   Jesus  himself  thus  designates 
his  religion :  — '  This  is  my  blood  of  the 
new  covenant*  (Matt.  xztL  28). 

JJU  hook  uf  the  old  covenant  our  Lord 
found  in  existence  when  he  came  into  the 
world,  received  as  of  authority  in  religion, 
sanctioned  in  Its  great  leading  truths, 
and  explained  and  applied  so  far  as  his  own 
purposes  required.  Hence  in  general  the 
book  of  the  old  oovensnt  may  be  said  to  rest 
on  the  authority  of  Christ  It  is  under  rari- 
ous  designations  that  this  book  is  referred 
to  in  the  New  Testament :  —  I.  A  name  which 
properly  aiguifted  the  Pentateuch,  or  five 
books  of  Mosei,  namely,  *  the  law,'  is,  as  de- 
signating the  most  important  part,  applied 
to  the  whole  (John  xiL  34;  xr.  20.  1  Cor. 
xiv.  21).  n.  The  c<dlection  was  denoml- 
aated  by  ita  chief  portions,  as '  the  law  and  the 
propheu*  (Matt  ▼.  17;  xi.  13;  xxii.  40). 
III.  *  The  law,  the  propJiets,  and  the  psafans  * 
(Luke  xxiT.  44).  IV.  In  the  apocryphal 
book  of  Eodesiasticus  (Prologue),  'the  law, 
tibe  prophets,  snd  other  books.'  V.  Also  the 
Holy  Scriptures' (2  Tim.  iii.  15.  Rom.i.2), 
J?"*.^?*^*'  (Matt  xxiL  29), « the  Scrip- 
Sf  ^'^^^iJl*™*  ^®)  J  •ttd  in  Josepbus  (An- 
1^'aI: lu^^^  ^  ^W  Testament  is  spoken  of 
^f^f^S*?""*^  *««•»•*»>«  Script™.'  In 

nSLf  i,  2?**^i^**^  ^'  ^^  Old  Testament 
^^l^  ^*  * ^^«*  »Pok«>»  of  in  re- 

3°2ilS^."*'^**^^-  To  this  the  book 
two^wntotj^**  •fterwards  attached.    Nearly 

thoritj  2i  wH^^'^'^v**^*^"^^  •«  of  au. 
-1  «]SL^Ir****«^  ™«ch  in  the  same  wa»  T. 
we  now  refer  tu « tv^  rr  i   o    .    ••me  way  as 

then  it  no  li»ht  i!r.i       ■    „' "  »l>«>mu»e 
'  ""ereiy  by  the  words,  •  the  book/ 


to  the  Pentateuch,  as  eontaining  the  authori- 
tative exposition  of  the  Mosaic  law  (Isa. 
zxix.  18.  Ps.  zl.  7 ;  eomp.  Ps.  oxiz.  16). 

The  Old  Testament  was  divided  by  the 
Jews  into  three  chief  divisions : — I.  The  Law, 
that  is,  the  five  books  of  Moses.  II.  *  The 
Prophets ;'  a  class  which  is  subdivided  into 

1.  *  The  former  prophets,  namely,  the  histo- 
rical books,  Joshua,  Judges,  the  two  books 
of  Samuel,  and  the  two  books  of  Kings; 

2.  <  The  later  prophets,  that  is,  the  prophetic 
books  of  Isaii^,  Jeremiah,  Eaekiel,  and  the 
lesser  prophets,  in  one  book.    III.  '  The  Ha- 
giographa,'  or  sacred  writings ;  a  class  which 
was  sgain  divided  into  three  iiiferior  classes : 
— 1.  Three  poetio  books,  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
and  Job:    2.  The  five  Megillodi,  or  roila, 
volumes;    that  is.  Canticles,  Eodesiastes, 
Ruth,  Lamentations,  Esther :  8.  The  remain- 
ing books  of  Exra,  Nehemiah,  the  Chroniflles, 
and  Daniel.     The  Hagiographa  were  gene- 
rally regarded  as  not  written  by  prophets, 
and   there  was   eonsequently  aseribed    to 
them  only  an  inferior  degree  of  inqtiration 
and  sanetity.     The  division  which  we  have 
given  is  enough  to  show,  fliat  our  modem 
ooneeption  of  the  term  fnrophet  does  not 
exaetly  coitespond  with  that  of  the  ancient 
Jews.      We  here  find  Joehua  and  Isaiah 
standing  in  the  same  general  elass.     His- 
torical  are   put  with  poetio  books.      The 
prophetic  office,  then,  did  not  consist  excln- 
sively  in  predicting  future  events.      What 
had  Joshua  and  Isaiah  in  common  ?  This, 
that  they  both  laboured  under  the  imme- 
diate guidance  of  Qod,  for  the  establishment 
of  his  kingdom  in  the  worid ;  the  ilrst  by 
setting  it  up  in  a  time  of  primitive  and 
simple  energy ;  die  second,  in  labouring  to 
sustain  it,  and  prevent  its  downfall  in  a 
time  of  moral,  religious,  and  national  de- 
cline.   Hence  it  is  clear  we  must  enlarge 
our  notion  of  the  prophetic  eharacter.     It 
consisted  essentially  in  teaching  divine  truHi 
on  the  solid  and  sure  basis  of  divine  inspi- 
ration.   The  idea  involves  two  great  ele- 
ments, -^  instructions  from  on  high — faith- 
ftd  labour  to  ftilfll  dliose  instructions.     The 
msnner  in  which  that  labour  was  performed 
is  of  secondary  importance :  it  might  be  by 
settUng  the  foundations  of  a  nation,  or  in 
fortelling  the  doom  that  awaited  guilt 

The  Pentateuch  stood  hi^est  in  die  esti- 
mation of  the  Israelites,  as  of  religious 
authority,  eontaining,  as  it  did,  the  writ- 
ings  of  the  founder  of  the  nation,  the  origi- 
nal sources  of  its  institutions,  laws,  usages, 
and  expectations ;  whence  die  Samaritans 
acknowledged  it  alone,  and  Fhflo  mentions 
Moses  only  as  the  teacher  of  religious 
mysteries.  The  arrangement  in  our  Bibles, 
by  which  books  of  very  dissimilar  ages  ar« 
made  to  foDow  each  other,  is  derived  from 
a  division  made  by  the  Hellenistio  Jews, 
who,  classifying  the  books  according  to 
what   they  considered  their  sulgects   and 


BIB  1^9  BIB 

oontants  to  snggest,  plaeed  fint  the  histori-  and  impartUl  jadge,  who  has  aindied  an- 
oal;  aeeondly,  tiie  prophetio;  and*  thirdly,  cient  hiatoiy,  oonJd  for  a  moment  hesitate 
die  poetio  books.  The  number  of  the  aaered  to  declare,  that  in  aubatanoe  these  nazratiTea 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  was  originally  are  eredible  and  trustworthy.  Our  own 
held  by  the  Jews  to  be  twenty-two,  which  opinion  is,  that,  nntil  philosophical  histoiy 
by  a  diflbrent  diTision  was  at  a  later  period  had  been  prodnoed  by  Thucydides  (cir. 
augmented  to  twenty-four;  whence  aroae  400,  A.G.)  and  Taeitns(oir.  00,  AJ).),  the 
the  phrase  '  the  four  and  twenty,'  by  which  ancient  world  had  nothing  to  put  in  oom- 
the  entire  oollection  was  denominated.  parison  with  the  historioal  writings  of  the 

The  histoiical  books  oontain,  after  a  gene*  Jews ;  and,  to  the  present  hour,  where  for 
ral  and  rapid  review  of  the  earliest  condi-  ancient  timea  can  their  equals  be  found,  if 
tion  of  the  earth  and  of  man,  a  by  no  meana  regard  be  had  to  the  combined  qualities  of 
complete,  yet  very  yaluable  history  of  the  truth,  simple  beauty,  and  impressiyeness  f 
Jewish  people,  down  to  the  middle  of  the  Much  of  &eir  charm  and  of  their  interest 
fifth  century  before  Christ,  which  they  pre-  eonsists  in  the  large  ahare  which  biogra- 
sent  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  con-  phioal  details  form  of  their  contents.  Indeed 
nected  whole,  in  which  each  book  preparea  they  are  a  transcript  ihun  actual  life,  and 
the  way  for  that  which  follows,  snd  has  re-  are  oonaeqoently  filled  with  features  that  are 
forenoe  to  that  which  precedea.  The  only  not  only  genuine,  but  touching  and  attrac- 
ezoeption  is  in  the  Chronicles,  which  repeat    tive. 

from  a  somewhat  different  point  of  view        The  prophetic  hooka  contain  the  warnings, 
the  contents  of  the  books  A  Samuel  and    teachings,  and  prophecies  of  the  prophets^ 
of  Kings.    After  the  Babylonish  captirityi     who  poured  forth  the  burden  of  their  lighte- 
the  history  is  but  fragmentary,  and  in  the    ous  souls  in  addresses,  risions,  and  symbols, 
earlier  periods  gaps   occur:  for  instance^    forming  a  class  of  men  such  as  we  find  in 
we  have  only  a  few  scanty  notiees  of  the    no  other  nation,  and  who  are  of  themselTes 
long  period  spent  by  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt,    sufficient    to  vindicate   the  unapproached 
These  historical   nsrratives  thus  embrace     superiority  of  the  Hebrew  literature,  as  an 
a  period  of  at  least  8600  years  — a  fact    instrument  of  national  education.    Isaiah 
which  is  unparalleled.     With  the  Oreeks,     and  Homer  may  have  been  contemporaries, 
authentic  history  begins  only  when  that  of    The  Grecian  bard  has  done  much  for  the 
the  Jews  teiminates.     Before  the  fifth  or     world;  butfar  more  has  been  effected  by  the 
aizth  century,  A.C.  the  knowledge  f^oh  pro-    Hebrew  prophet      Homer  is  now  studied 
fane  historians  supply  us  with  is,  so  ftf  as     only  for  his  poetiy  —  Isaiah  is  still  read  for 
it  is  of  value,  nothing  more  than  scattered    his  truth.    The  good  which   the  first  corn- 
notices  gathered  by  the  ceaseless  research     municates  is  purahased  very  dearly,  when 
of  learned  men,  from  the   fhigments  that    our  youths  sre  obliged  to  receive,  in  union 
have  survived  the  wreck  of  ancient  learning,     widi  the  refinement  of  their  tastes,  the  lower- 
And  Ae  moment  that  the  historian  attempts    ing  of  their  moral  nature,  effected  by  cease- 
to  enter  on  the  history  of  those  centuries    less  images  of  gods  worse  than  men,  and 
during  which  Israel  was  founded  in  Pales-     men  engaged  in  low  strife  and  brutal  con- 
tine,  and  became  a  flourishing  people,  he  is    iUot.    li^e  blessings  which  the  second  sheds 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  its  books  for    on  the  mind  and  the  soul,  in  high  spiritual 
materials,  in  order  to  give  some  acceptable     realities  and  in  pictures  of  ravislidng  beauty, 
view  even  of  the  great  monarchies  of  Wes-     which  pourtray  die  happiness  of  obedience, 
tem  Asia,  to  say  nothing  of  Jewish  affairs     of  peace,  of  righteousness,  generally  of  the 
themselves.    What  a  blank  would  there  be     prevalence  of  the  will  of  a  holy  God,  are 
in  the  history  of  the  world,  had  the  Hebrew    adorned  and  recommended  by  all  the  quail- 
annals  perished !    As  it  is,  they  bring  down    ties  of  the  noblest  poetry,  and  all  the  sann- 
Ihe  history  of  man  in  a  eredible  form  till     tions  of  the  loftiest  truth.  Even  in  a  literary 
piofone  history  is  prepared  to  take  up  and    point  of  view,  however  imperfectly  the  merits 
continue  the  thread  of  the  narrative.     And     of  the  Hebrew  muse  have  been  appreciated, 
though  we  should  grant  the  truth  of  the     the  Psalms  snd  the  Prophets  will  endure  a 
allegations  of  those  who  say  that  the  earliest    eomparison  with  the  best  productions  of  an- 
peifods  of  this  longrsnge  of  history  are  not     eient  or  modem  poetry ;  while  in  that  which 
nee  from  the  traditional  and  the  fabulous,     constitutes  the  great  characteristic  and  the 
yet  the  account  given  of  the  Ante-Mosaic     great  merit  of  the  poetic,  as  well  as   the 
times  vindicates  general  credibility  for  itself,     other  books  of  the  Bible,  namely,  their  re- 
1»y  its  trufii  to  nature,  and  aocordance  with    ligious  tone,  their  constsnt  subservience  to 
the  simple  manners  and  fi«sh  esmest  feel-     the  promotion  of  better  and  higher  views  of 
ittgs  of  a  primeval  age ;  while  the  narratives     God  and  duty,  the  Bible  is  literally  without 
which  are  ascribed  to  Moses,  and  to  writers     a  rival ;  and  this  we  say,  well  knowing  that 
that  came  after  him,  wear  to  our  mind  all     deductions  horn  the  high  good  which  it 
the  appearance  of  taking  their  origin  in  or     achieves  have  to  be  made,  parfiy  in  conse- 
near  the  times  to  which  they  sevendly  refer ;     quence  of  features  to  be  found  in  its  pages, 
nor  should  we  expect  that  any  competent     but  mostly  because  of  the  perversion  and 


BIB                       160  BIB 

miflUM  which  ignonnoe  tad  fanatidam  have  th«  oareftil  decision  and  deliherate  appioval 

made  of  thoae  featnres.    IrenaBua  of  old  re-  of  indiTidnala  and  eommanitieB  heloiiging 

marked,  that  the  Bible  was  a  book  in  which  to  the  early  ehurcb,  to  whom  the  docomenis 

ereiy  one  foond,  as  well  as  eood^t,  his  own  were  fint  addressed  or  entrusted,  and  who 

pecoliar  views,  *-  a  remaA,  exempUfioationa  possessed  the  best  means  of  judging  of  their 

of  the  tmtfi  of  whidi  erery  year  snpplies  aathorship,  and  asoertaitiing  the  truth  and 

anew ;  for  what  evil,  what  folly,  what  false-  Tslne  of  their  contents,  and  who,  entertaining 

hood,  what  delusion,  has  there  been,  for  diTersity  of  opinions,  and  being  placed  in 

which    either  weak   or  wicked  men  hav«  dissimilar  circumstances,  could   not   have 

not  pleaded  some  fancied  or  llMced  support  agreed,  as  they  unanimously  did,  to  receiye 

drawn  from  the  Bible  ?  War,  slaTcry,  perse-  the  books,  had  they  not  possessed  veiy  good 

ctttion,  witchcraft,  demonology,  fanaticism,  and  strong  grounds  for  their  convictions; 

most  Taried  in  shapes  and  most  bsnef^  the  by  the  accordance  of  their  tenor  with  the 

Bible  has  been  wrested  to  support ;   and  great  tendencies  and  obvious  aims  of  Prori- 

so  long  as  the  Scriptures  are  so  little  and  so  dence ;  by  the  adi^tedness  of  their  doctrines 

imperfectly  studied,  and  so  long  as  ignorance  to  ihe  wants  of  man ;  by  the  singular  har- 

and  narrow-mindedness  are  ^eir  expound-  mony  of  their  generid  teachings  with,  yet 

era,  will  they  continue  to  supply  weapons  surpassing  excellence  over,  the  hi^iest  moral 

to  the  enemiea  of  mankind.     The  Bible,  discoveries  of  civilisation ;  and,  finally,  by 

which  has  been  the  parent  of  civilisation,  the  fact  that  these  writings  are  indispen- 

asks  of  its  own  offspring  services  to  prevent  saUe,  and  sufficient  to  aoooont  for  the  rise, 

its  desecration;  and  true,  bealthfal,  hi|^-  tpread,  and  rapid  diffusion  of  the  gospel, 

minded  religion,  which  owes  every  thing  to  nd  Ibr  the  extensive  sad,  in  msny  respects, 

the  gradual  operation  in  the  worid  of  the  benign  effects  which  it  has  wrou^t  on  s&- 

Holy  Scriptures,  should  make  it  first  among  ciety  in  private,  and  on  the  world  at  large, 

ito  earthly  duties  to  cleanse  away  the  de-  llie  several  pieces  of  which  the  New  Tea- 

fllements  of  that  idolatry  into  which  igno-  tament  consists,  were   written    within  the 

ranoe  and  passion  are  now,  as  they  were  of  space  of  a  century ;  whereas  more  than  a 

old,  so  prone  to  fall;  and  to  vindicate  for  the  thousand  years  passed  during  the  time  that 

Scriptures  their  just  authority,  by  a  dill-  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  were  coming 

gent  and  reverential  exposition  of  their  true  into  existence.    Of  the  books  of  the  New 

merita,  Testament  no  one  proceeded  from,  the  pen 

The  period  of  those  prophets  of  whom  of  the  Lord  Jesus  himself,  who  left  nothing 

we  possess  oracles  in  writing,  begins  about  to  posterity  in  writing.    Those,  however,  1^0 

tile  ninth  century  before  Christ,  and  ends  heard  his  words  recorded  them ;   and  there 

with  the  middle  of  the  fifth,  that  is,  with  the  can  be  no  doubt  that  we  possess,  in  the  New 

time  of  Nehemish.     The   actual  arrange-  Testament,  a  trustworthy  and  credible,  thou^ 

ment  of  them  is  not  strictly  chronological,  not  a  complete,  account  of  the  doctrines  and 

ttiough  the  collectors  appear  to  have  had  acta  of  Christ,  as  well  as  of  the  teachings  of 

such  an  arrangement  in  view.    The  diction  the  first  Christisn  missionaries,  snd  of  the 

is  throughout  poetic;  but  that  of  the  older  immediate  resulto  of  their  labours.    The  nn- 

prophete  is  more    original,  burning,  and  merous,  and  sometimes  very  unfriendly,  ob- 

lofty:  that  of  the  younger  prophete  sinks  jections  which  have  been  made  and  urged 

by  degrees  into  plain  prose;  thus  betoken-  against  these  writings — their  historical  worth, 

ing  the  tendency  to  decline  which  the  na*  their  genuineness  and  authenticity,  the  eredi- 

tional  character  underwent,  and  of  which  bility  of  their  contents,  and  their  authority 

declme  this  poetic  declension  waa  at  once  a  in  doctrine, — have,  undesignedly,  had  the 

consequence  and  a  cause.    The  poetry  of  the  advantage  of  showing,  beyond  the  possibility 

Mebrews  divides  itecU  into  two  great  classes,  of  reply,  that  as  Christianity  resto  on  historical 

2«;«?  Jlf    f*2"**®  •  ^^^  ■"»  however,  fbundations,  so  are  those  foundations  more 

S^  iTh^^^'^^?^  ■"*•*  ^  *^«^  "*•'»•  ^~^  d^^  «>d  secure,  than  those  which 

Sri^  JI?^  from  ite  eariiest  eras,  than  is  sustain  any  other  ancient  instLmtion,  or  any 

S  H2Sir^^^.*^^7  ""^^^    If  we  spoke  other  great  social  movement  in  remote  ages ; 

decliS^^rK^^f'r*^*'^**"^'^"**^*  •»*  *****  ~<**«  our  confidence   in  history 

g^ars^M^?^^'*?*'*^^™^*-    '••  »«»t^*lto«e*h«abandoned,orthesedoea. 

cSurt«rirS«^iJ?**I?"  ^  P^tnotinn.  mento,  spesking  generally,  must  be  received 

toTyt^^^''^^T^"'''^^'^'^  « 'worthy  of  all  aecepteiion.'     The  preci«i 

T^  J^ew  aTS!i!L  !•*.•«   ^         V    .  yf"  ^^^  *•  oolleetion  of  books  termed  the 

totive  •ccountTSrCS!S!L    •i"*'*^"  ^•'^  Testament  was  completed  cannot  \m 

lisbmentof  itQ^J^^^Z.^."^  ascertained;  but  there  is  reason  to  diink, 

fountain  •^d^t^^^J^A  J*  ?  "^  ?•*  ^*  ^^  ^«*  **«»  «»^d  beyondS 

of  Jesus,  his  a^.St'^re^L^^^  fi«th.lf^.f  the  second  century,  and  Wtau^ 

general  credibSity  of  thete^S^I;  «^  TS*" •^  ^  ^*^' ^"  ^«  ^o»^  P«^«* 

ranteed  to  us  by  the  actuL  VJSLfVl''  2'  u^J^^'-     ^^^  collection  waa  gra- 

qiirit  of  Christ  in  the^SiiSn^sjoh^.  t:  f::;s^I^!J5•  J'"^  ••  *  '*^*«  «'  •  ««^ 

i»»«»iT«  cnurcn,  by  oune  mto  the  hands  of  a  chui«h,  wh^  ita 


BIB  161  BIB 

members  had  reason  to  neeWe  as  of  reli-  mentis  tuns  borne  out,  that  all  the  books  whioh 

gioas  anthoxity.    Some  of  these  pieoes  reach  oonstitate  the  New  Testament  were  composed 

back  to  within  a  Hbw  years  sfter  tiie  omoi-  before theendoftfaefirstoentaryyandthexefovs 

flzion.    For  instsnoe,  the  first  Epistle  of  Panl  within  a  period  which  gave  to  the  writers  every 

to  the  Thessalonians  is,  on  Tidid  grounds,  opportunity  for  knowing  and  reporting  the 

considered  to  have  been  written  as  early  as  tmth.    We  also  premise,  that  the  order  in 

the  year,  AJ).  62.    For  one  or  two  other  which  the  bo<to  stand  in  the  New  Testament 

books  a  still  esrlier  date  has  been  claimed,  offers  no  sure  criterion  by  which  to  determine 

But  it  is  not  easy  to  settle,  in  erery  case,  the  the  order  in  which  they  were  published.    In 

precise  year  iHien  each  of  the  documents  was  the  Bible  the  Gospels  come  first,  which  some 

produced ;  nor,  in  consequence,  csn  we  with  critics  have  ocmsidered  among  the  latest  of  the 

certainty  lay  down  the  order  in  which  they  documents.     Of  the  Epistles,  preference  in 

were  published.     On  these  pointo  diTerse  place  seems  to  hav«  been  given  to  those  which 

opinions  have  been  held.    We  here  present  were  written  to  the  most  distinguished  cities : 

the  opinions  of  one  or  two  of  the  most  distin-  thus  the  letter  to  the  Romans  takes  the  lead, 

guished  theologians;  referring  the  reader,  since  Bome  was  the  capital  of  the  world; 

for  more  exact  opinions,  to  the  separate  ar^  and  then  follow  the  two  letters  addressed  to 

tides  on  each  book,  while  we  beg  him  to  the  church  in  the  renowned  Grecian  city  of 

observe,  that  in  the  midst  of  diversity  there  Corinth, 
is  substantial  agreement ;  and  that  our  state* 

UtOO.       X.AKDHER. 

1.  The  FInt  Epistle  to  the  TbeflMlonlaas 52  a.d.      6S  a.d. 

S.  The  Second  Epistle  to  the  TheBsalonisns 5S  52 

3.  The  Eplsde  to  the  Galatlans 56  52—3 

4.  The  FInt  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians   57  56 

5.  TThe  Seoond  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 57 57 

6.  The  Epistle  to  the  BomsDS 57  58 

7.  The  Epistle  of  James,  before  the  rear 60  ........  61— S 

8.  TThenrst  Epistle  of  Peter,  about  the  year 60 64 

9.  The  Epistle  to  the  Coiosslans 62 62 

10.  The  Epistle  to  the  Epheaians 62 61 

11.  The  Epistle  to  Philemon 62 62 

12.  The  Epistle  to  the  PhlUpplans 62 62 

IS.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke 64  63-4 

14.  The  Acta  of  the  AposUes,  by  the  same 64 63>-4 

15.  The  First  Epistle  to  Timothy 65  56 

16.  The  Epistle  to  Titus 65  56 

17.  The  Second  EpisUe  to  Timothy 66  61 

18.  The  Seeond  Epistle  of  Peter 66  64 

19.  The  EpisUe  of  Jude  66  64-^ 

20.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 67  63 

21.  The  Rerelation  of  St.  John 68  95—41 

22.  The  Gospel  of  St.  BCatthew,  before  the  year 70 «4 

23.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Mark,  before  the  ysar 70 64 

94.  The  Gospel  of  St.  John,  after  the  year 80 68 

25—27.  The  three  Epistles  of  St.  John,  after  the  year 80 80—90 

The  New  Testament  is  thus  made  up  of  to  whom  they  are  attributed.  Adding  Mat- 
twentj -seven  different  compositions,  of  vary-  thew,  Mark,  and  Luke,  to  the  five  above 
ing  character,  of  unequal  lengUi,  and  of  dates  enumerated,  flie  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
varying  between  52  and0(>--6  of  the  Chris-  ment  are  eight;  five  of  whom  belonged  to 
tian  era.  Five  of  theee  partake  of  the  cha^  the  twelve  aposfles  originaUy  chosen  by  our 
raoter  of  record  or  memoirs ;  a  sixth  has  Lord.  Panl  claimed  for  his  iq>ostleship  an 
been  termed  '  a  prophetic  history ; '  the  re*  equally  direct  appointment  by  Christ  Luke 
maining  twenty-one  are  apostolic  letters,  and  Mark  were  companions  and  associates  of 
addressed  to  the  primitive  churches.  Some  the  apostles,  and  partook,  in  some  degree, 
of  these  are  encyclical,  or  general ;  others  of  their  authority. 

are  primarily  addressed,  in  each  case,  to  a  The  New'  Testament  was  originally,  and 
certain  church :  yet  the  latter  were  intended  at  a  very  early  period,  divided  into  two 
to  be  serviceable  in  a  wider  sphere;  and  as  great  portions  —  the  Gospels  and  the  Epis- 
they  contained  great  and  everlasting  truth,  ties:  the  first  comprising  £he  historical  books; 
as  well  as  what  was  locsl  snd  transient,  so  the  second,  the  letters.  A  later  division, 
they  soon  came  to  form  a  part  of  the  spiri-  formed  according  to  their  subject-matter, 
tual  treasure  of  the  church,  and  have  for  makes  three  classes :  I.  the  hisloriosl,  II.  the 
many  centuries  served  for  general  edificv  doctrinal,  m.  the  prophetio  books;  but 
tion.  Of  the  twenty-one  Epistles,  thirteen  the  inartifioisl  character  of  the  writinge  of 
bear  the  name  of  Paul ;  and  a  fourteenth,  the  New  Testament  is  ill  adapted  to  any 
which  is  anonymous,  is  generally  accounted  rigid  scientific  arrangement  Ofwhatmay,  in 
his :  two  are  ascribed  to  Peter,  tlu«e  to  John,  vague  terms,  be  denominated  historical  boc^a, 
one  to  James  the  Less,  and  one  to  Jude.  there  are  five,  namely,  the  four  Gospels  and 
There  is  solid  evidence  for  holding  that  the  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  which  ftimish  ma- 
historical  books  were  written  by  the  persons  tarials  for  a  general  outline  of  the  history  of 

L 


BIB                 162  BIB 

the  ohnreh,  till  towardi  the  last  third  of  Oie  how  would  this  be  understood  by  tfiose  t»  v 
first  eentnry.  The  thirteen  Epistles  of  Pan],  for  whom  he  wrote  ?  what  was  his  oljeot, 
written,  in  each  ease,  with  a  view  to  some  and  how  has  he  achieved  it? 
speoisl  eircumstanoes  in  the  oondition  of  It  is  another  and  a  different  question,  what 
those  to  whom  they  were  addressed,  ftdfllled  import  these  things  haye  for  as.  Doubtless 
their  primary  object  at  the  time  when  they  we  may  find  in  the  record  living  and  erer- 
were  composed ;  hot,  being  happily  preserred  lasting  tnith ;  but,  in  order  to  get  the  waters 
by  the  churches,  snp^  to  all  ages  nseftil  of  lift  pnrs,  we  most  go  to  the  fountain-head, 
sources  of  information,  whence  the  judicious  and  dnw,  without  carrying  thither  the  im* 
learner  may  find  instruction  in  doctoine,  his-  purities  of  self-will,  or  modem  opinions,  or 
toiy,  usages,  and  customs,  as  well  as  conflr-  an  already-formed  creed.  Having  ascertained, 
mation  in  Christian  truth,  and  edification  in  then,  what  was  the  mind  of  the  writer,  our 
the  divine  life.  Other  letters  are  found  in  next  business  is  to  ask,  what  burden  his 
the  New  Testament,  which,  while  they  show  words  bear  to  us.  It  may  be  a  warning,  as 
some  diversity  of  conception  and  treatment  well  as  an  admonition.  David's  conduct 
in  regard  to  the  development  and  exposition  towards  Bathsheba  bids  us  'cease  from  man,' 
of  Christian  doctrine,  idTord  valuable  help  to  while  it  assures  us  of  the  honesty  of  purpose 
the  student,  in  his  efforts  to  form  a  fiill,  har-  by  which  the  writer  was  actuated ;  and  thus 
monions,  and  satisfactory  conception  of  the  we  are  bid  to  love  truth,  and  hate  wickedness, 
earliest  manifestation  of  the  religion  of  Jesus  The  record,  then,  fbmishes  us  with  materials 
Christ  There  are,  in  some  of  Paul's  Epis-  for  thought  We  must  exert  the  powers  of 
ties,  as  well  as  in  parts  of  the  Gospels,  pas-  our  minds,  in  order  to  learn  what  it  is  the 
sages  which  bear,  more  or  less,  the  prophetic  will  of  God  that  the  sacred  record  should 
character;  one  book  is  avowedly  of  this  teach  us.  And,  in  this  exertion  of  our  men- 
nature,  namely,  the  Bevelation;  but  there  tal  powers,  we  sre  to  employ  all  the  aids 
is  good  reason  to  believe,  that  as  the  pro-  which  a  weU -disciplined  and  frill  mind,  and 
phecies  of  the  Old  Testament  were  frilfiUed  a  well-cultured  heart,  may  unite  to  supply ; 
partly  before,  partly  in,  the  events  recorded  so  as  to  separate  the  tares  fix>m  the  wheat, 
in  the  New,  so  those  of  the  New  Testament  to  try  the  spirits,  to  prove  all  things,  holding 
were  frUfiUed  within  the  range  of  the  earliest  fisst  that  which  is  good ;  leaving  on  one  side 
periods  of  the  Christisn  era.  the  temporaiy,  the  occasional,  the  dark,  and 
These  statements  lead  the  mind  to  form  a  the  unworthy,  in  order  to  gather  up  every 
correct  idea  of  what  the  Bible  really  is.  It  fragment  of  heavenly  light,  every  portion  of 
is  a  record  of  past  transactions,  of  transac-  divine  truth,  every  crumb  which  liell  fh>m 
tions  of  unspeakable  importance,  comprising  the  ftiU  table  of  God's  spiritual  bounty.  For 
the  divine  dispensations,  and  the  dealings  of  as  this  with  which  we  have  to  do  is  a  record 
God  with  man,  during  the  lengthened  period  of  one  continued  scheme  and  manifestation 
of  four  thousand  years ;  or,  more  specifically,  of  divine  love,  which  is  intended  to  have  its 
it  is  a  record  of  what  was  done  under  the  completion  in  the  final  restitudcn  of  sll 
divine  direction  for  establishing  the  kingdom  things,  so  is  it  certain  that  each  part  has  a 
of  Christ  on  the  earth,  at  the  time  of  his  ap-  bearing  on  every  other,  and  an  import  to 
pearanoe,  and  in  the  ages  whieh  preceded  each  successive  member  of  the  kingdom  of 
that  momentous  epoch.  Viewed  in  this  light,  God.  The  faith  of  Abraham,  and  the  loving 
the  entire  record  is  found  to  have  unity  of  nature  of  John,  are  an  eternal  possession  for 
aim,  and  unity  of  tendency.  The  first  ehsp-  the  church.  Hence  have  we  all  to  inquire, 
ter  in  Genesis  has  a  connection  with  eveiy  what  great  truth,  what  everlasting  principle, 
sncoeeding  portion,  till  the  volume  doses  is  involved  in  each  particular  event;  and, 
with  the  Apocalypse.  Now,  as  a  record  of  when  we  view  and  study  the  record  in  this 
past  transactions,  it  necessarily  vsries  with  light,  we  shall  sometimes  find  that  the  highest 
each  sucoeaaive  period  to  which  it  relates,  lessons  come  forth  horn  even  those  passages 
since  the  narrative  in  each  age  and  in  each  which  have  been  most  rudely  condemned, 
case  records  something  which  was  then  done,  Alter  we  have  ascertained  the  opinions  of 
thoQi^t,  or  felt  Accordingly  the  events  the  seversl  writers,  there  comes  the  question, 
and  the  doctrines  take  the  colouring  of  each  Are  these  opinions  true  in  all  their  original 
successive  age.  This  could  not  be  otfaerw  latitude?  or  have  they  now  a  wider  or  a  more 
wise,  since  they  must  needs  be  adi^ted  to  restricted  ^plication  ?  When  seen  in  the 
™  y»  ^  "kin  with  the  feelings  of  the  age,  Ught  of  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  how  do  they 
and  hence  would  they  be  a  mirror  of  the  age:  appear?  They  were  true  to  those  who  eiiter- 
otnerwise  they  could  have  exerted  no  influ-  tained  them,— they  were  useful  in  their  first 
Z7^^y!S!:  ?*l^''^^.  ^^^^^  'lien,  utterance.  Have  they  stood  the  test  of  time  ? 
^A  TJ^.V  it  Accordmgly  these  events  Will  they  endure  the  touchstone  of  the  gos- 
Siivt^T^*2*?**l''*^?''^*™*'^"-  ^^  For  itmust  never  be  forgotten,  that  the 
VifH^     ^'^''itT^^^^'^'^^^'''  i«velationofthemindofGodinandbythe 

mean?  what  «m2  did  he  int«.dto!Sn^^?  ST JSL^l'^s' S?^^ 


BIB  163  BIB 

ness  of  '  the  latter  deye.'    His  mind,  then,  is  Buffered  to  derive  aid  from  her  twin  sister 

is  iSbjB  standard  of  Christian  tmth ;  for  it  is  science,  is  seen  and  adored  as  the  Ood  of 

•8  m  transcript,  so  a  diselosnre,  of  the  mind  the  houndless  nniverse. 
of  Ood.    Those  who  profess  to  learn  of  him         7%e  language  in  which  the  hooks  of  the 

are,  in  consequence,  under  a  aaerad  obliga-  Old  Testament  were  written,  and  in  i^ch 

tion  to  refer  ereiy  erent  and  ereiy  teaching  we  possess  them,  is  the  Hebrew :  some  of 

to  bis  mind,  when  tfaej  wish  to  gather  the  them,  Daniel  and  Ezra,  are  partly  written  in 

import  of  those  teachings  and  those  eTents  Ghaldee,  which  is  akin  to  the  Hebrew.    The 

to  themselTes.     That  is  the  sun — the  sun  books  of  the  New  Testament  are  preserved 

of  righteousness  —  in  whose  light  we  are  to  co  us  in  the  language  in  which  they  were 

see  light  in  all  that  Moses  and  the  prophets  originally  penned,  namely,  the  Oreek.    The 

taught,  and  in  all  that  aposUes  proclaimed  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are  the  only 

to  the  world.    So  far  as  what  others  convey  remains  of  the  genuine  Hebrew  literature. 

or  ei^oin  is  in  accordance  with  '  the  truth  Those  of  the  New  exist  in  a  peculiar  dialect 

as  it  is  in  Jesus,'  we  are  at  liberty  to  receive  of  the  Oreek,  termed  Hellenistic,  in  which 

it  with  a  welcome ;  but  if  in  any  thing  oi  Hebrew  influences  largely  prevail.   The  He- 

any  degree  their  words  or  deeds  run  counter  brew  of  the  Bible  has  a  classical  character; 

to  '  the  law  of  the  spirit  of  life,'  which  was  the  Oreek  must  be  reg^arded  as  a  provincial 

made  known  to  the  world  in  the  Son  of  God,  and  heterogeneous  formation,  possessing  ex- 

we  have  no  alternative  but  to  reject  it,  even  elusive  peculiarities,  and  so  aiding  the  scholar 

though  it  be  declared  by  an   angel  from  to  fix  with  precision  the  age  of  books  which 

heaven.   We  are  not  under  Moses,  but  under  are  written  in  it 

Christ.  It  is,  however,  probable  that  in  so  The  Biblical  books  were  all  of  them  lite- 
well-adjusted  and  harmonious  a  system  as  rally  irrifteti,*  written  on  paper,  parchment,  or 
we  have  intimated  that  of  the  Bible  to  be  some  other  suitable  material  Printing  is  a 
one  part  will  throw  light  upon  another;  and  modem  invention.  Whence  it  is  easy  to  see, 
All  the  previous  messengers  of  Ood  appear  that  the  only  way  in  which  copies  could  be 
not  only  to  bear  witness  to  Christ,  but  aid  multiplied  was  by  transcription.  But  tran- 
his  disciples  in  their  efforts  to  enter  frilly  scription  is  a  process  that  gives  some  scope 
into  the  mind  of  their  divine  Master.  At  for  voluntary  and  involimtaiy  errors.  Paper 
the  same  time  we  must  not  expect  impossi-  and  parchment  are  perishable  materials, 
bilities ;  for  since  revelation  necessarily,  in  Hence  the  preservation  of  written  books  or 
order  to  be  revelation,  —  that  is,  in  order  to  manuscripts  was  dii&cult  Moreover,  the 
disclose  truth  to  men's  minds, — must  wait  on  autographs,  or  the  writings  themselves  which 
the  progress  of  earthly  and  human  culture ;  the  historians  and  evangelists  put  forth,  are 
going  side  by  side,  and  step  by  step,  with  no  longer  in  existenee.  It  is  also  true,  that 
men  in  their  advances  toward  perfect  truth  modem  industry  has  discovered  thousands 
and  perfect  holiness,  snd  in  general  can  of  variations  as  existing  between  different 
never  stand  very  far  before  the  first  minds  manuscripts  of  the  sacred  books.  Tet  such 
of  the  race  in  any  particular  day,  lest  it  was  the  veneration  in  which  these  books 
should  be  lost  from  sight,  and  spend  use-  were  held,  such  the  care  that  was  taken  in  co- 
less  labour;  so  divine  tmth  itself  will  con-  pyiug  them,  and  such  the  assiduity  with  which 
descend  to  dwell  among  men  in  an  earthly  they  were  kept  and  preserved  during  the  lapse 
form,  dad  in  customary  vestments,  and  em-  of  a  long  line  of  centuries,  that,  after  inves- 
ploying  the  current  language ;  all  of  which  tigations  and  discussions  of  the  freest  and 
externals  partake  of  the  nature  of  those  the  fhllest  kind,  criticism  has  frimished  us 
things  which  later  ages  find,  and,  in  the  Ian-  with  the  most  valid  reasons  for  believing 
gnage  of  Paul,  may  declare  to  be  '  beggarly  that,  in  all  essential  points,  we  possess  the 
elements'  (Oal.  iv.  9).  Yet  these  elements  sacred  text,  speaking  generally,  the  same  as 
are  but  the  perishing  vehicles  of  those  great  it  was  when  it  first  issued  from  the  hsnds 
truths  or  precious  promises  which  Ood,  from  of  its  several  authors.  The  ascertainment  oi 
the  foundation  of  &b  worid,  designed  to  com-  this  fisot  is  a  very  satisfactory  result,  achieved 
municate  to  man.  Accordingly  we  may  ex-  by  a  degree  of  industry  and  an  amount  of 
pect  to  find,  and  we  actually  do  on  inquiry  learning  employed  on  the  subject  since  the 
find,  certun  great  doctrines  taught  from  the  invention  of  printing,  such  as  perhaps  were 
first  to  the  last ;  only,  as  time  went  on,  with  never  brought  to  bear  on  any  other  province 
fuller  evidence,  deeper  meaning,  and  wider  of  human  inquiry. 

application.     Thus  the  same   great  Being        This  is  not  a  work  in  which  to  set  forth 

that  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  was  the  history  of  the  original  text  of  the  Bible ; 

the  Ood  of  Abraham,  then  of  Moses,  then  of  but  there  are  yet  a  few  things  which  we  con- 

the  prophets,  then  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  so,  sider  necessary  for  the  English  reader.   The 

in  the  fullest  and  the  highest  sense,  was  the  Hebrew  penmen,  writing  from  right  to  left. 

Father  of  all  the  families  of  the  earth.    The  ran  their  words  and  their  letters  all  together, 

Ood  of  an  individual  is,  by  his  own  process  using  divisions  neither  of  verses,  words, 

of  revelation,  brought  to  be  regarded  as  the  syllables,  nor  letters.    The  New  Testament 

God  of  all  mankind ;  snd,  when  revelation  authors  also  wrote  without  sny  of  these  divi- 


BIB  164  BIB 

■ioDS,  md  eqnallj  withont  points  or  Meents.  Oreek,  denominated  *  the  Septnagint,'  whieli 

The  tUvitumi  into  ckapten  which  we  now  wm  made  eome  two  hnndied  yean  befove 

hare  are  ascribed  to  Cardinal  Hago  de  St.  Chriat,  chiefly  for  the  use  of  the  Alexandrian 

Caro,  who  liTcd  in  the  twelfth  centoiy,  at  Jews.    Immediatelj  alter  the  firm  settlement 

Batnelona,  in  Spain :  the  Jews  also  adopted  of  Christianity  in  the  world,  translations  of 

his  divisions  for  the  Old  Testament    It  is  the  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testament  began 

unknown  when  the  Old  Testament  was  first  to  be  made  in  different  languages.    Of  tl^se 

divided  into  Terses :  it  is,  however^  found  in  translations  the  oldest  is  in  Syriac,  a  dialect 

a  concordance   by  Babbi  Nathan  (1486 —  kindred  with  the  Hebrew.    The  Syriac  tran- 

1440).     7%€  dwiion  of  the  New  Testament  elation,  termed  the  PtBchUo,  was  in  use 

tnle  veru9  is  the  work  of  the  lesmed  prin-  among  the  Syrian  Christians  in  the  third 

ter,  Bobert  Stephens,  who  made  it  on  horse-  century.    The  LalUn,  veretow,  which  is  eaUed 

back  during  a  journey  from  Paris  to  Lyons,  *  the  Vulgate,'  is  of  considerable  Talne.    The 

in  1001.    The  execution  corresponds  in  no  Council  of  Trent  (A.D.  1040—1063)  ordered 

small  degree  with  the  occasion.  a  rerision  of  the  text  of  the  Vulgate,  which 

In  the  margin  of  the  Bible,  two  other  aids  ia  used  and  regarded  in  the  Boman  CatholiA 

to  its  ri^t  understanding  are  found,^  I.  di-  church  as  of  equal  authority  with  the  originals, 

▼eraities  of  translation ;  II.  marginal  refer-  The  invention  of  printing,  and  the  ceasdesa 

ences.    These  diversities  of  translation — for  activity  of  the  English  Bible  Society,  have 

instance,  *  thanked'  is  ^ipended  to  *  blessed'  been  the  chief  human  causes  that  the  Sacred 

in  1  Kings  ix.  66  —  sre  to  be  referred  to  King  Scriptures  have  been  translated  into  all  the 

James's  translators,  who  took  this  method  c^  chief  languages  that  are  now  spoken  on  the 

indicating  a  doubt  whether  they  had  sue*  earth.    The  present  Englith  venian  had  ita 

eeeded  in  giving,  in  the  text,  the  best  ren-  origin  in  the  time  and  under  the  direction  of 

daring.    In  no  few  instanees,  the  reading  of  James  the  First ;  for  the  execution  of  which 

the  margin  is  preferable  to  the  reading  in  the  the  king  issued,  in  1604,  a  commission  to 

text  The  tmaryinal  rrfertneeg  are  different  in  flity-four  divines.    It  was  not,  however,  tiU 

different  editions  of  the  English  Bible,  end  1606  that  the  work  was  begun,  when  it  was 

owe  their  authority  exduaively  to  the  value  found  that  death  had  reduced  the  translators 

which,  in  any  case,  they  possess  fkom  aiding  to  the  number  of  forty-seven,  who  applied 

the  reader  in  the  important  task  of  comparing  diligently  to  their  task ;   and,  borrowing  aid 

Scripture  with  Scripture,  in  order  to  enter  from  previous  English  translations,  as  well 

more  folly  into  its  import,  and  learn  its  pro-  as  from  other  sources,   accomplished  their 

perspplication.  These  references  do  no  more  undertakixig,  and  sent  it  forth  finxm  the  press 

than  give  the  opinion  of  the  editor  of  any  par-  of  Bobert  Barker  in  1 61 1 .    Since  that  period, 

ticular  Bible  that  may  have  them,  as  to  what  Biblical  theology  has  made  such  progressas  to 

passages  bear  on  a  certain  subject,  and  may,  have  become  an  slmost  new  science.  The  com- 

with  a  view  to  its  elucidation,  be  advantage-  mon version, therefore,  has  longbeen  regarded 

cmaly  consulted.  by  scholars  as  insulBcient ;  and  they  have,  in 

l%e  iftvisioM,  diitinctionM,  andpatnU,  which  a  variety  of  ways,  ftimished  themselves  with 
are  found  in  modem  Hebrew  and  Greek  co-  better  aids  than  it  can  afford.  As  yet,  how- 
pies,  are  the  inventions  of  later  times,  and  ever,  nothing  has  been  done  to  revise  the 
have  no  force  to  bind  the  competent  theolo-  English  Bible  for  general  use.  Consequently^ 
gian.  In  the  aame  way,  the  division  into  numerous  errors  are  allowed  to  circulate, 
chapters  and  verses,  which  is  found  in  our  which  are  accounted  as  of  equal  sanctity  with 
English  Bibles,  the  headings  of  the  chap-  *  the  pure  milk  of  the  word^'  Still  the  com- 
ters,  or  snnmiaries  of  their  contents,  as  well  man  version,  having  been  carefolly  made, 
as  the  punetaation,  rest  on  no  higher  sanction  may  in  general  be  said  to  represent  the  mesn- 
!E!^iTu  ^1  'miajpiwd  men ;  and  though,  ing  of  the  original.  At  the  same  time,  it  ia 
«,r-  itf^v  .^  minister  to  conveni-  obvious  that  in  a  work  which  is  sbove  two  cen- 
fc«*  ^«- 1  T  J*'  *?  Scriptures,  yet  they  tunes  old,  and  was  written  in  the  very  in- 

mb^dh^^^T^*^'^.^^''^'^y^^''  *««I  "^  "od*™  theology,  there  must  ba 

TaMik^lT*  unprejudiced  inquiry,  and  deviations  from  the  ori^nal,  or  imperfect 

m^S^  l^J*^^'^'*  to  be  read  piece-  renderings  of  its  import  snd  force,  m  wett 

miwmd^^       A   *?*P«».*nd  so  to  be  as  archaisms  of  language  and  obsolete  words, 

S^ito^^wJ^PP"^^    ThetiUe.  which  ought  to  be^  ccSected  without  delay, 

planatorv  w^.    .^S:        «P>«Mphs,  or  ex-  in  order  that  the  Sacred  Becord  may  appear 

wgarded  M  h2S„!f  «^LS^i  we  not  to  be  to  the  English  reader  in  a  condition  as  near 

of^  sWlSi"S!S!if  *«»  ^  P««  M  Powible  to  that  in  which  it  ia  peniaed  by 

The  SSiri^o^TSrSscred  Serin.  ^^^-^^  "^"^^  of  the  Irvine  oS 

JSr^"^*tLt'hMu!;iflS^  7^^gwhatarenotinapp«>priatelytermed 

them  to  S  made  fiSmSr^bSS^^*?  U^e  dark  ages,  the  Bible  waa  a  serfed  or  » 

Triuablever.ionoftheOMi?.lSLttC£  i^^^^^jM^"^?^  i^  *^T  ^^ 

wkiBwasui  ita  pages,  even  had  they  been  admitted  to 


BIB  1( 

Miold  them.  The  tmulition  of  it  ioLo  the 
Tameeolu  Ungiugei  wu  eipreeslT  forbid, 
dan,  in  &a  belief  dut  Ihe  general  perusal  of 
it  would  oecuion  debate  and  emu,  and  nn- 
denniiie  Ihe  preralenl  ecclesitstioal  anpre- 
mm.  At  the  CauncQ  of  ToolouBe  (A.D. 
LS29),  among  fonj-flve  canoQB  passed  for 
the  eitinotiOn  of  hsresr,  and  the  re-eatab- 
liehmenl  of  peaoe,  one  mTolied  the  Hrst 
oonrt  of  inqnisitian,  and  anolhei  ran  tfana  :— 
'We  alto  forbid  ihe  laitj  to  poaaen  anj  of 
die  booka  of  the  Old  or  New  Teatament,  ex- 
cept pethapi  Ihe  Paaller,  or  Bravitrj  tor  the 
DiTine  Offlees,  or  the  Hoore  of  the  Bleaaed 
Virgin,  which  aome,  out  of  derotion,  wiah 
to  have  ;  but  hanng  my  of  then  booka  trana- 
tmted  into  ihe  Tulgar  tongne  we  miotlj  for- 
bid.' In  fane  of  tbie  prohibition,  and  of 
the  greateal  perils,  WieUiffe  undertook  to 
tranalate  the  Sioied  Vohmie,  which  he  oooi- 
pleled  in  (he  jeai  1860.  At  this  period, 
Wicklilfe'B  tranalMion  oonld  be  dilhiaed  onlf 
bj  the  laboriooa  proooH  of  tnnioription ; 
bnt  ttanacribed  it  was,  diligently,  both  entire 
■nd  in  parte,  and  a*  eagerij  read.  His  mo- 
tire  tbr  making  the  mnslation  nar  >>• 
gmlhered  fivm  these  his  words ;  — '  The  an- 
thorilj  of  the  Holy  Scripturea  inflnilelj  mir- 
passes  anj  writing,  how  anthentio  soeTer  it 
m^  appear,  because  the  aathoritj  of  Jesna 
Christ  ia  inflnitelT  above  ituU  of  all  man- 
kind-' The  manuscripts  of  this  version  are 
■till  namerons.  It  is  somewbat  surprising, 
diat  onlj  Ihe  portion  of  it  containing  the 
Hew  Tcetament  has  been  prinled,  after  having 
b«en  in  eiiateniie  nearly  five  hundred  jttia. 
The  great  letonner  had,  however,  perfoimed 
a  task  for  which  he  eould  not  be  forgiven. 
Harassed  daring  life,  he  wae,  after  death, 
formallT  condemned.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  a  conneil,  held  u  (^ou- 
atance,  not  content  with  paaaing  aenleaee  ou 
hia  writinga,  ordered  Wickliffe'e  bones  to  be 
disinterred  and  bnmt ;  which  waa  actually 
earned  into  effect  some  thirteen  joara  after- 
warda.  by  the  peremptory  directione  of  Pope 
Martin  V.  the  ashes  of  Ihe  venerable  man 
being  thrown  into  the  Swift,  a  trifantary  of 
the  Severn.  This  disgraceM  bigotry,  and 
die  bnming,  by  die  same  authority,  of  John 
HDSs(I4ia)  and  ofJerome  of  Prague  (1116), 
together  with  a  oourse  of  sioiilar  violence, 
prepared  men's  mind*  for  the  more  successful, 
bat  not  more  laudable,  efforts  made  in  Ihe 
dawn  of  the  Reformation,  in  order  to  pat 
die  Scriptures  into  the  hands  of  the  people. 
Printing  was  discovered.  Oulenberg  (bom 
in  Menti,  in  1400)  invented  moveshle  types ; 
■nd,  being  aided  with  money  by  John  Fast, 
B  goldamidi  of  dial  city,  he  published,  be- 
tween  the  years  llftO  and  140,"i,  the  Latin 
Bible,  —  an  event  which  is  among  the  moit 
important  In  human  hieloiy.  This  book 
formed  the  first  important  specimen  of  print- 
ing with  metal  gpes.  The  earliest  homage 
of  the  preM  waa  paid  to  the  Sacred  Tolnme, 


and  fully  has  the  honour  been  retained  by 
the  activity  of  mind  and  diflbsion  of  book*  (o 
which  the  stody  of  the  Bible  luu  ehieflj  gifoB 
occasion.  This  work  of  12tlS  pagea,  flnelj 
eiecuted,  —  a  most  laborious  process,  invol^ 
ing  no  small  amoont  of  mental,  manoal,  and 
meehanioallabonr, — had  been  aecompUahed 
no  one,  aavs  the  artiata  Ihemaalvcs,  knew 
how.  Printing,  however,  onca  diseovered. 
waa  (othiuiastieally  hailed,  and  it  made  r^iid 
progreas.  In  147tl,  twelve  other  works  had 
laaued  trom  the  presa ;  among  which  waa  the 
first  printed  commentary  on  the  Scriplnrsa, 
namely,  -Postila'  or  Nolaa  of  Nicholas  de 

At  the  oommenoomenl  of  the  great  eSbrl 
which  reeoaed  the  Bible  firom  Ihe  hands  of 
ignorance  and  prritidiae  in  which  it  had  long 
been  held,  it  waa  usaal  to  chain  a  copy  of  it  to 
the  pillan  and  other  parts  of  chniehea.  This 
enatom,  iriiiob  shows  bow  ran  the  Bible  then 
waa,  and  how  moeh  it  was  Bought  alter,  may 
be  considered  also  aa  an  emblem  of  tha 
boDdage  in  which  It  had  fat  oenturiea  lain. 


Great  events,  however,  were  to  mark  Ihe 
first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  eentory,  in- 
anspieloQB  though  the  period  seemed  to  be 
for  the  dawning,  in  England  at  least,  of 
new  light.  The  honoured  iastrnment  in  tha 
hands  of  Providence  far  making  the  Scrip- 
tares  acCBBsible  to  Englishmen  was  William 
Tyndale,  bom  in  ti.e  year  1134,  H,  or  0. 
within  tha  hundred  of  Berkeley,  in  Olouoea 
tershire.  Tyadale  was  brought  ap  at  Oxford. 
wherehegainedgreatdistiuction.  Whilestill 
at  the  Unitersitj,  he  gave  lectures  privately 
an  the  Soripturea.  Retiring  home,  he  began 
to  make  preparations  for  his  great  work 
The  corruptions  of  Ihe  times  had  much 
weight  with  him,  in  undertaking  bis  impor- 
tant task.    'Athoaaandbooka'  — a^she  — 


BIB                      ICC  BIB 

*hiid   they  lever   (rather)  to  be  put  forth  milliont  of  English  Scriptores  which  are  now 

•gainat  their  abominable  doinga  and  doctrine,  being  read  in  ao  many  different  and  distant 

than  that  the  Scripture  should  come  to  light  parts  of  the  globe.    The  quarto  edition  with 

For  as  long  as  they  may  keep  that  down,  *  glosses  and  prefaces 'having  aniyed  in  Eng- 

they  will  so  darken  the  right  way  with  the  land,  was  forthwith  met  with  proscription, 

mist  of  their  sophistry,  and  so  tangle  them,  and  that  by  no  less  an  authority  than  that  of 

that  either  rebuke  or  despise  their  abomina-  Henry  VIU.  himself,  with  Wolsey's  full  con- 

tions,  with  arguments  of  philosophy  and  with  cnrrence,  if  not  his  advice.   Another  trial  was, 

wordly  similitudes,   and   apparent  reasons  however,  to  be  made — ^would  England  receive 

of  natural  wisdom;  and  with  wresting  the  the  Sacred  Volume  without  note  or  comment? 

Scriptnr«s  unto  their  own  purpose,  dean  eon-  This  was  put  to  issue  by  the  appearance  of 

trary  unto  the  process,  order,  and  meaning  of  Tyndale's  octavo  edition,  which,  notwith- 

the  text ;  and  so  delude  them  in  descanting  standing  warnings  given  to  persons  in  this 

upon  it  with  allegories,  and  amase  them,  ex-  country,    arrived  here  in    January,   1526. 

pounding  it  in  many  senses,  before  the  un-  The  ecclesiastical  authorities  immediately 

learned  lay  people  (when  it  hath  but  one  took  alarm.    Cuthbert  Tunstal,  *  by  the  per- 

simple  literal  sense,  whose  light  the  owls  mission  of  God,  Bishop  of  London,'  issued 

cannot  abide),  that  though  thou  feel  in  thine  his  injunction ;  which  is  too  curious  not  to 

heart  and  art  sure  that  dl  is  false  that  they  be  given  entire : — 

aay,  yet  couldst  thou  not  solve  their  sub-  '  By  the  duty  of  our  pastoral  office,  we  are 
tile  riddles.     Which  thing  moved  me  to  boimd  diligenUy,  with  all  our  power,  to  fore- 
tranalate  the  New  Testament     Because  I  see,  provide  for,  root  out,  and  put  away,  all 
had  perceived  by  experience,  how  that  it  was  those  things  which  seem  to  tend  to  the  peril 
impossible  to  establish  the  lay  people  in  any  and  danger  of  our  subjects,  and  specially  the 
truth,  except  the  Scripture  were  plainly  laid  deatmction  of  their  souls !    Wherefore,  we 
before  their  eyes  in  their  mother-tongue,  that  having  understanding,  by  the  report  of  divers 
they  might  see  the  process,  order,  and  mean-  credible  persons,  and  also  by  the  evident  ap- 
ing of  the  text'    Tyndale's  zeal  brought  him  pearanee  of  the  matter,  that  many  children  of 
trouble.     He  was  taken  before  the  chancel>  iniquity,  maintainersofLuthex's  sect,  blinded 
lor  of  the  diocese,  *  who  threatened  me  grie-  through  extreme  wickedness,  wandering  from 
▼onsly  and  reviled  me,  and  rated  me  as  thou^  the  way  of  truth  and  the  catholic  faith,  craft- 
I  had  been  a  dog.'  His  efforts,  however,  were  ily  have  translated  the  New  Testament  into 
not  to  be  repressed.    '  I  defy  die  Pope,'  our  English  tongue,  intermingling  therewith 
said  he  to  a  reputedly  learned  divine;  *  and  if  many  heretical  artieles  and  erroneous  opi- 
God  spsre  my  life,  ere  many  years  I  will  nions,  pernicious  end  offensive,  seducing  Uie 
caose  a  boy  that  driveth  the  plough  to  know  simple  people ;   attempting,  by  their  wicked 
more  of  the  Scripture  disn  you  do.'    Find-  and  perverse  interpretations,  to  profanate 
ing  it  unsafe  to  remain  any  longer  in  Glou-  the  migesty  of  the  Scripture,  which  hitherto 
eestershire,  Tyndale    repaired  to  London,  hathremainedundeflled;  and  craftily  to  abuse 
hoping  to  find  in  Tnnstal,  its  recently  con-  the  most  Holy  Word  of  God,  and  the  true 
aeerated  bishop,  a  patron  and  helper  in  sense  of  the  same ;  of  which  translation  there 
bis  self-imposed  task  of  translating  die  Scrip-  are  many  books  imprinted,  some  with  glosses 
tnres.  He  soon,  however,  made  the  discovery,  and  some  without;  containing  in  the  Eng- 
'not  only  that  there  was  no  room  in  my  lish  tongue  that  pestiferous  and  most  per- 
Lord  of  London's  palace  to  translate  the  nicious  poison,  dispersed  throughout  all  our 
New  Testament,  but  also  that  there  was  no  diocese,  in  great  number ;  whi<^  truly,  witb- 
'place  to  do  it  in  all  England.'     He,  in  con-  out  it  be  speedily  foreseen,  without  doubt 
sequence,  repaired  to  the  Continent    Be-  will  contaminate  and  infect  the  flock  com- 
maining  some  time  in  Hamburg,  he  arrived  mitted  unto  us,  with  most  deadly  poison  and 
at  Cologne,  on  the  Bhine,  in  April  or  May,  heresy,  to  the  grievous  peril  and  danger  of 
1526,  accompanied  by  his  amanuensis,  Wil-  the  souls  committed  to  our  charge,  and  the 
liam  Boye.     He  commenced  his  labours  by  offence  of  God's  Divine  Majesty :  Wherefore 
committing  to  the  press  his  New  Testament,  we,  Cuthbert,  the  bishop  aforesaid,  grievously 
in  the  farm  of  a  quarto  volume.    The  print-  sorrowing  for  the  premises,  willing  to  with- 
ers, however,  had  only  prooeded  as  far  as  stand  the  craft  and  subtlety  of  the  ancient 
the  tenth  sheet,  or  letter  K,  when,  an  alarm  enemy  and  his  ministers,  which  seek  the  de- 
being  raised,  the  work  was  interdicted.    Tyn-  struction  of  my  flock,  and  with  a  diligent  care 
dale  and  Boye  secured  the  sheets  printed  off;  to  take  heed  unto  the  flock  committed  to  my 
and,  sailing  up  the  Bhine  to  Worms,  they  pro-  charge,  desiring  to  find  speedy  remedies  for 
ceeded  witib  their  undertaking,  where  he  put  the  premises,  do  charge  you  jointly  and  ae- 
forth  two  editiona  of  the  New  Testament,  verally  (the  archdeans),  and  by  virtue   of 
printed    probably  by  Peter  Sohdffer,    and  your  obedience,  straitly  exyoin  and  command 
beforetheendof  the  year  1626,  one  lu  octavo,  you,  that,  by  our  authority,  you  warn,  or 
the  other  in  quarto.     See  <  The  Annals  of  the  cause  to  be  warned,  all  and  singular,  as  weU 
English  Bible;  by  C.  Anderson,  2  vols.  8vo.  exempt  as  not  exempt,  dwelling  within  your 
London,  1846.    Hew  is  the  ongin  of  all  those  archdeaneries,  that  within  thirty  days'  space. 


BIB                   167  BIB 

whereof  ten  cbtys  shall  be  for  ibe  first,  ten  into  this  island.  Tyndale  also  was  prosecu- 
for  the  second,  and  ten  for  the  third  peremp-  ting  his  task  amid  difficnlties,  discoorage- 
torj  term,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  ments,  and  dangers.  The  peril,  indeed,  now 
and  incurring  the  suspicion  of  heresy,  they  became  more  alarming.  Life  was  at  stake. 
do  brmg  in,  and  really  deliver  unto  our  Fryth,  a  fellow-worker  with  Tyndale,  had 
Yicar-Genend  (Geoffrey  Wharton),  all  and  been  committed  to  the  Tower.  Being  required 
singular  such  books  as  contain  the  transla-  to  recant  and  desist,  he  nobly  replied, — 
tion  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  English  '  Grant  that  the  word  of  God,  I  mean  the  text 
tongue ;  and  that  yon  do  certify  us,  or  our  of  Scripture,  may  go  abroad  in  our  English 
said  oommissary,  within  two  months  after  tongue,  and  my  brother  William  Tyndale  and 
the  day  of  the  date  of  these  presents,  duly,  I  have  done,  and  wiU  promise  you  to  write 
personally,  or  by  your  letters,  together  wiUi  no  more.  If  you  will  not  grant  this,  then 
these  presents  under  your  seals,  what  you  have  will  we  be  doing  while  we  have  breath.' 
done  in  the  premises,  under  pain  of  con-  Fryth  shortly  after  was  put  to  death.  Sen- 
tempt  Given  under  our  seal,  the  four  and  tence  being  passed,  he  was  handed  over  to 
twentieth  day  of  October,  A.D.  1526,  in  the  the  civil  authorities,  who  loaded  him  with 
fifth  year  of  our  consecration.'  chains,  and  had  his  neck  made  fast  to  a  post 
Eleven  days  afterwards,  *  a  mandate '  in  with  a  collar  of  iron,  so  that  he  could  neither 
nearly  the  same  terms  was  given  out  by  War-  stand  upright  nor  stoop  down.  After  having 
liam,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  A  third  been  kept  in  this  condition  for  several  days, 
edition,  however,  was  printed  at  Antwerp ,  he  was  at  length,  on  the  4th  June,  1583, 
and,  in  spite  of  persevering  and  harsh  efforts  brought  together  with  a  fellow-martyr,  An- 
xnade  at  home  and  abroad,  the  New  Testa-  drew  Hewett,  into  Smithfield  and  burned, 
ment,  thus  rendered  into  our  mother-tongue.  One  Dr.  Cooke,  being  present,  admonished 
spread  rapidly  and  extensively  in  the  nation,  the  people  that  they  should  in  no  wise  pray 
Meanwhile  Tyndale  was  proceeding  in  a  fo-  for  them  any  more  than  they  would  for  a 
reign  land  with  the  task  of  translating  the  dog.  At  these  words,  Fryth  sincerely  en- 
Old  Testament  This  work  came  into  Eng-  treated  the  Lord  to  forgive  him.  This  was  a 
land  piecemeal.  Genesis  was  first  imported,  heavy  blow  for  Tyndale.  Tet  did  he  still 
then  Deuteronomy.  The  Pentateuch  was  continue  his  pious  labours ;  and  the  politi- 
soon  in  circulation  in  this  country.  The  cal  horizon  began  to  wear  a  less  gloomy 
clergy  were  more  than  ever  roused.  The  appearance.  King  Henry,  in  the  pursuit  of 
Bishop  of  Norwich,  speaking  of  the  readers  his  unlawftil  desires,  broke  with  Bome.  Anne 
and  disseminators  of  the  Scriptures,  after  Boleyn  was  friendly  to  the  cause  of  the  re- 
complaining  of  his  want  of  ability  to  put  formers.  A  letter  written  by  her  is  extant, 
them  down,  added — *  If  they  continue  any  in  which  she  affords  direct  patronage  to 
time,  I  think  they  shall  undo  us  aU.'  In-  *  Bichard  Herman,  merchant  and  citizen  of 
deed  the  chief  authorities  of  the  realm  in-  Antwerp,'  who  *  had  been  expelled  from  his 
eluded  the  New  Testament  in  English,  in  a  freedom  for  nothing  else  but  only  for  that  he, 
list  of  twelve  books,  which  were  thus  de-  still  like  a  good  Christian  man,  did  both 
nounced  —  'Detest  them,  abhor  them,  keep  with  his  goods  and  policy,  to  his  great  hurt 
them  not  in  your  hands,  deliver  them  to  your  and  hinderance  in  this  world,  help  to  the 
superiors;  and  if,  by  reading  of  them  hereto*  setting-forth  of  the  New  Testament  in  Eng> 
fore,  any  thing  remains  in  your  breast  of  lish.'  It  was  fit  that  the  very  book  which 
that  teaching,  either  forget  it,  or,  by  informa-  had  been  vilified,  trampled  on,  and  burned 
tion  of  the  truth,  expel  it.  This  you  ought  by  the  king,  Wolsey,  Warham,  and  Tunstal; 
to  do;  and  being  obstinate,  the  prelates  of  the  which  had  been  fastened  in  derision  by  Sir 
church  ought  to  compel  you,  and  your  prince.  Thomas  More  to  the  garments  of  Tyndale's 
to  punish  and  correct  you.'  One  burning  of  brother,  or  the  men  who  were  then  marched 
books  had  already  taken  place.  A  second  to  the  spot  where  they  must  cast  it  into  the 
now  occurred.  Tunstal  had  purposely  bought  flames,  should  at  last  meet  with  some  such 
up  all  the  New  Testaments  he  could  procure,  notice  as  this  in  the  very  court  of  the  ruling 
which  he  caused  to  be  brought  into  St.  monarch.  The  translator  himself  was  never 
Paul's  church  yard,  and  there  consumed  with  to  set  his  foot  again  on  English  ground;  but 
fire,  in  May,  1530.  This  destruction,  how-  under  Providence  the  divine  cause  for  which 
ever,  'had'  —  says  Burnet  —  'such  an  hate-  he  laboured  was  on  the  eve  of  a  triumph, 
fbl  appearance  in  it,  being  generally  celled  among  the  most  signal  in  the  history  of 
a  burning  of  the  word  of  God,  that  people  human  kind. 

from  thence  concluded  there  must  be  a  visi-  This  token  of  regard  on  the  part  of  Queen 
ble  contrariety  between  that  book,  and  the  Anne  was  not  unfelt  by  Tyndale.  Hereceiv- 
doctrines  of  those  who  handled  it ;  by  which  ed  the  glad  tidings  in  sufficient  time  for  him 
both  their  prejudice  against  the  clergy,  and  to  lay  down  at  £e  press,  one  copy  of  his 
their  desire  of  reading  the  New  Testament,  corrected  New  Testament,  in  vellum.  Beau- 
was  increased.'  All  this  time  the  work  of  tifully  printed,  with  illuminations,  it  was 
printing  went  forward  on  the  continent,  bound  in  blue  morocco;  and  the  queen's 
which  was  followed  by  ample  importations  name  in  large  red  letters,  equally  <Uvided, 


BIB  168  BIB 

wu  placed  on  die  fora-edgM  of  the  top,  tide  tlio  be  pentiftdly  relieved,  aad  thiie  he  spent 

•nd  bottom   margins :    thns  on  tbe    top,  bis  two  days  of  pastime,  as  be  called  them ; 

Aima;  on  tbe  right  margin,  Regma;  anion  and  tmly  bis  alms  were  very  large,  and  so 

tbe  bottom,  AngUm  —  Anne  Queen  of  £ng-  they  might  well  be ;   for  bis  exhibition  that 

land.      Tbe   clergy  were  not  left  without  be  bad  yearly  of  the  English  merchants  at 

resource.    On  the  19th  December,  1584,  the  Antwerp,  when  liTing  there,  waa  oonsiderable, 

Convocation  resolved  that  Cranmer  should  snd  that  for  tbe  most  part  be  bestowed  upon 

in  their  name  entreat  his  miyesty  the  king  the  poor.     The  rest  of  tbe  days  of  the  week 

to  *  command  that  all  his  subjects  in  whose  he  gave  wholly  to  bis  book,  wherein  he 

possession  any  books  of  suspected  doctrine  most  diligently  travailed.   When  the  Sunday 

were,  especially  in  tbe  vulgar  tongue,  im-  came,  then  went  he  to  some  one  merehanf  s 

printed  beyond  or  on  this  side  tbe  sea,  should  chamber  or  other,  whither  came  many  other 

be  warned  within  three  months  to  bring  merchants,  and  unto  them  would  be  read 

Ihem  in,  under  certain  pain,  to  be  limited  some  one  parcel  of  Scripture ;   tbe  which 

by  him ;   and  that  moreover    his  M^esty  proceeded  so  fruitftilly,  sweetly,  and  gently 

would  vouchsafe  to  decree  that  tbe  Scriptures  from  him,  much  like  to  the  writing  of  John 

should  be  translated  into  the  vulgar  tongue  the  Evangelist,  that  it  was  a  heavenly  com- 

by  some  honest  snd  learned  men,  to  be  fort  and  joy  to  the  audience  to  bear  him  read 

nominated  by  the  king.'    How  far  the  latter  the  Scriptures ;  likewise  after  dinner  be  spent 

request  was  sincere,  or  meant  merely  to  gain  an  hour  in  the  same  manner.    He  waa  a 

time,  we  are  unable  to  determine.     But  if  nian  without  any  spot  or  blemish  of  rancour 

there  were  craft  in  it,  the  day  for  craft,  as  or  malice,  foil  of  mercy  and  compassion,  so 

well  as  for  violence,  was  now  neariy  past  that  no  man  living  was  able  to  reprove  him 

Tet  was  Satan  again  for  a  brief  period  un-  of  any  sin  or  crime ;  although  his  ri^teoua- 

loosed.     Imprisonment  and  death  awaited  ness  snd  justiAcation  depended  not  there- 

Tyndale  himself,  who  thus  was  admitted  to  upon  before  Ood,  but  only  upon  the  blood  of 

have  a  fellowship  in  bis  great  Master's  suffer-  Christ,  and  bis  faith  in  tbe  same.     In  this 

ings.     On  Friday  the  6th  of  October,  1536,  faith  he  died,  with  constsncy,  at  Yilvorde 

and  while  copies  of  his  translations  were  (between  Mechlin  and  Brussels),  and  now 

pouring  into  his  native  laud,  Tyndale  waa  resteth  with  tbe  glorious  company  of  ChristTs 

led  forth  to  be  put  to  death.    Having  reached  martyrs,  blessedly  in  tbe  Lord.    And  thus 

the  fatal  spot,  the   noble  martyr  was  Um-  much  of  the  life  and  story  of  tbe  true  ser< 

tened  to  the  stake;  upon  which,  crying  with  vant  and  martyr  of  God,  William  Tyndale, 

a  fervent  seal  and  a  loud  voice  —  <  Lord !  who,  for  bis  notable  pams  and  travail,  may 

open  the  eyes  of  the  King  of  England '  —  he  well  be  called  the  apostle  of  England,  in  this 

was  first  strangled,  and  then  his  body  was  our  latter  age.* 

consumed  to  aahes.  The  details  into  which  we  have  gone,  le- 

*  Hto  blood  waiAed  specting  the  earliest  eflTorts  for  putting  the 

In  eontnaatlon  of  the  noUest  Qisii^  -.  Sacred  Volume  into  the  bands  of  Englishmen 

2^  •'S^J^T*"l?5IS?'?  5??^  ^  **»•"  "^»*i^«  tongue,  compel  us  to  be  brief 

TSS^ifto'lSiSiitt^^  iniegard  to  subiquent  tS«dations.     In 

1685,  Coverdale  bad  oompletely  finished  % 

The  cost  at  which  the  Bible  was  obtained  for  tranalation  of  the  entire  Bible.      Tbe  title  of 


England  cannot  be  estimated,  unless  the  bis  work  shows  its  nature, — *Siilta,theBi- 
reader  knows  somewhat  of  the  private  cha-  ble,  that  is,  the  Holy  Scripture  of  the  Olde  and 
raoter  of  Tyndale ;  and  we  therefore  subjoin  New  Testament,  faithftOly  and  fdUy  trans- 
the  simply  beautiful  character  which  the  old  lated  out  of  Douche  and  Latyn  into  En^ishe, 
martyrologistJobn  Foxe  has  drawn  of  him:  MDXXXV.'  This  Bible  was  reprinted  in 
'  He  was  a  man  very  frugal  and  spare  of  body,  1687,  by  James  Nycolson,  in  St  Thomas's 
a  great  student  and  earnest  labourer  in  the  Hospital,  Southwark.  The  'title  bears  that 
setting-forth  of  the  Scriptures  of  God.  He  ibis  was  « set"  forth  with  the  Kynge's  most 
reserved  or  hallowed  to  himself  two  days  in  gracious  license.'  In  1589  appeared  another 
the  week,  which  be  named  bis  pastime,  Bible,  which  had  been  commenced  in  Paris, 
Monday  and  Saturday.  On  Monday  he  visited  snatched  from  the  flames  of  tbe  Inquisition, 
sll  such  poor  men  and  women  as  were  fled  and  was  finished  in  London  by  April  of  that 
out  of  England,  by  reason  of  persecution,  year ;  this  is  its  title :  *  The  Byble  in  English, 
into  Antwerp ;  and  these,  once  well  under-  that  is  to  saye,  tbe  content  of  all  the  Holy 
standing  their  good  exercises  and  qualities,  Scripture,  bothe  of  the  Olde  and  Newe  Testa- 
be  did  very  liberaUy  comfort  and  relieve ;  ment,  truly  translated  after  tbe  veryte  of  the 
and,  in  like  manner,  provided  for  sick  and  Hebrue  and  Greeks  textes  by  the  dylygent 
diseased  persons.  On  tbe  Saturday,  be  walked  atudye  of  diverse  excellent  lesmed  men,  ex- 
round  about  the  town,  seeking  every  cor-  pert  in  the  forsayde  tongues.  Printed  by 
ner  and  bole  where  he  suspected  any  poor  Rychard  Grafton  and  Edward  Whitchurch; 
person  to  dweU;  and  when  he  found  any  to  cmm^^rimUgioadknprima^dllm§o^mfa:  This 
be  well  occupied,  and  yet  overburdened  with  volume  Henry  VIII.  ssnctioned — his  reasons 
children,  or  else  were  aged  and  weak,  these  are  thus  assigned :  —  *  Being  desirous  to  have 


BIB  160  BIB 

our  people  at  times  convenient  give  them-  tamed — the  Soriptnres  had  flowed  from  jhf 
■elves  to  the  attaining  the  knowledige  of  Ood'B  Continent  into  England,  now  thej  were  to 
word,  whereby  they  wiU  the  better  honour  flow  from  England  to  ihe  Continent.  Tet 
him,  and  also  do  their  duty  better  to  us,  be-  the  evil  was  not  unaccompanied  with  good; 
ing  their  Prince  and  Sovereign  Lord,  and  for  it  led  not  only  to  the  careftd  study,  but 
oonsidering  that  as  this  our  seal  and  desire  to  the  diligent  revision  and  great  improve- 
esnnot  by  any  mean  take  so  good  effect,  as  ment,  of  the  English  versions.  Sogers, 
by  the  parting  to  them  the  free  and  liberal  however,  was  brought  to  the  stake.  Milea 
use  of  the  Bible  in  our  own  maternal  Eng*  Coverdale,  his  coacyutor,  was  saved  from  de- 
glish  tongue.'  At  the  same  time  the  monareh  truotion,  mainly  by  the  good  offices  of  the 
declared  it  to  be  necessary  that  one  transla-  king  of  Denmsrk,  in  whose  dominions  he 
tion  only  should  be  in  use ;  to  secure  which,  found  a  refrige.  Hooper  was  committed  to 
he  appointed  *  the  Lord  Cromwell'  commis-  the  flames  at  Oloucester.  Latimer,  Ridley, 
sioner,  to  prevent,  during  the  space  of  five  and  Cranmer,  perished.  Persecution  raged 
years,  any  person  not  deputed  by  him  to  on  all  sides.  The  clergy  of  the  province  of 
print  the  Bible  in  the  English  tongue.  The  Canterbury  addressed  these  words  to  the 
progress  of  the  cause  of  the  Bible  was  now  Upper  House  of  Convocation :  *  We  do  hum- 
n^id.  In  1540,  Cranmer  issued  a  splen-  bly  pray  that  all  suspect  translations  of  the 
did  folio  edition.  Two  others  qopeared  the  Old  and  New  Testament  may  be  destroyed 
same  year;  another  in  1541,  making  the  and  burned  throughout  this  realm.'  Three 
fifth  of  that  siae  completed  in  less  than  actual  burnings  of  the  Scriptures  form  a  part 
two  years.  On  the  0th  of  May,  1541,  <  a  of  the  history  of  Mary's  reign.  Every  means, 
proclamation  by  the  King's  Mqesty'  was  is-  however,  was  taken  by  the  people  to  preserve 
sued,  which,  after  referring  to  the  foimer  the  SacredVolume  in  ttieir  hands;  it  was  read 
h^unetions,  goes  on :  *  Notwithstsnding  many  in  the  dead  of  night ;  it  was  concealed  under 
towns  and  parishes  have  neglected  their  du-  the  bed,  in  hay-lofts,  or  in  out-houses.  A  gen- 
ties  —  whereof  his  Highness  marvelleth  not  tleman,named  Underbill,  had  a  wall  construe- 
a  little — and  minding  the  former  gracious  ted  in  his  chamber,  so  as  to  conceal  his  books; 
ixgunctions,  doth  straitly  charge  and  com-  thus  preserving  them  against  better  times, 
mand  that  the  curates  and  parishioners  of  .j^^,,,,,,^  whkker'd  gaaids  tbat  volmoe  scugbt  in 
every  town  and  paiuh  not  having  already  Tsfai, 
provided,  shall,  on  this  side  of  the  Feast  of  Ei^oy'd  by  stealth  and  hid  with  aazioas  pain : 

AU  Saints  (Nov.  1)  next  coming,  buy  and  llS^J!?iX*S'^JY*^JS^,^i^       *     v 

•  J     -o-i^i         ^A      1  ^  .      H        '        ,  This  ■how'd  the  boandleasbUas  beyond  the  tomb: 

provide  Bibles  ox  the  largest  volume,  and  Freed  from  the  venal  prlest^the  feudal  rod, 

eause  the  same  to  be  set  up  and  fixed  in  It  led  the  sufferer's  weary  steps  to  Ood; 

every  of  the  said  parish  ehurehes,  there  to  be  ^Sl  b£?S^''!2S  dSIS^  toM."^*"  "^ 

used  accordmg  to  the  former  iigunctions —  ^^  his  Chirf  wealth,  descended  to  Us  son. 

on  pain  that  the  curate  and  inhabitants  of  The  New  Testament  was  even  imported 
die  parish  or  town  shall  forfeit  to  the  king  into  England,  and  in  a  revised  form.  The 
forty  shillings  (equal  to  thirty  pounds),  for  book  is  a  very  beautiful  one,  and  now  of  rare 
eveiy  month  after  the  said  ftast,  that  they  occurrence,  printed  with  a  silTer  type,  and 
laek  or  want  the  said  Bible.'  Six  Bibles  on  the  best  paper ;  by  fu  the  best  rendering 
were  also  set  up  in  St  Paul's  for  public  read-  of  the  second  text  that  had  been  made, 
ing.  The  people  came  instantly  and  gene-  '  diligently  revised  by  the  most  improved 
rally  to  hear  the  Scriptures  read.  Sudi  as  Greek  examples  and  conference  of  transla- 
eonld  read  with  a  dear  voice  often  had  great  tions  in  other  tongues.*  It  is  the  first  En- 
numbers  round  them.  Many  carried  their  glish  New  Testament  divided  into  verses,  and 
children  to  St.  Paul's  to  hear.  The  brief  fonned  an  important  step  to  the  rerision  of  the 
reign  of  Edward  was  auspicious  for  the  dif-  whole  Bible.  It  is  termed  by  one  who  siiflbred 
ftision  of  the  English  Bible.  Of  forty-three  for  having  it  in  his  possession,  <  a  New  Tes- 
printers  that  were  then  at  work,  thirty-one,  tament  of  Geneva ;'  and  was  probably  trans- 
and  these  the  most  respectable,  were  engaged  lated  after  Tyndale's,  by  William  Whitting- 
in  either  printing  or  publishing  the  Sacred  ham,  an  ezUe  on  account  of  bis  religions 
Scriptures.  With  Mary  came  a  season  of  opinions,  who  married  aaister  of  the  famous 
darkness.  Only  a  few  days  after  passing  John  Calvin.  It  appeared  at  Geneva  in  the 
from  the  Tower  to  her  palace,  she  issued  her  year  1557.  About  the  same  time,  and  during 
'inhibition'  against  preaching,  reading,  or  the  last  year  of  Mary's  sway,  Whittingham 
teaching  Scriptures  in  the  churches,  end  and  other  banished  confessors  were  engaged 
printing  any  books.  Among  the  friends  of  on  a  revision  of  the  entire  Bible,  which  was 
Uc^t  whom  she  restrained  was  John  Bogers  published  in  1560,  and  is  known  by  the  name 
Mu  Matthew,  the  editor  of  the  Bible  re-  of  the  Geneva  Bible.  Thus  even  persecution, 
eeived  by  Henry,  in  1537 ;  who  was  ordered  expatriation,  and  death,  were  over-ruled  by 
to  keep  himself  within  his  own  house,  and  Divine  Providence  for  the  furtherance  of 
to  have  no  communication  with  any  persons.  Scriptural  truth. 

except  those  of  his  own  family.     Flight  to         With  Elizabeth  a  new  era  commenced, 

the  Continent  became  a  general  resource  with  Beleasing  persons  who  were  in  prison  on 

church  reformers.     The  stream  was  now  account  of  religion,  she  issued  a  command 


BIB  170  BIB 

in  l(y88,  ordering  the  pttishee,  at  their  own  the  woric.    The  first  revision  seems  to  have 
cost,  to  provide,  within  three  months,  *  one  oeoupied  them  about  four  yean;  the  second 
book  of  die  whole  Bible  of  the  largest  volnme  examination,  bj  twelve,  took  nine  mouths 
in  English ;  and  within  one  twelve  months,  more ;  the  sheets  were  two  years  in  passing 
the  paraphnses  of  Erasmus  also  in  English ;  throngh  the  press,  at  the  end  of  which  the 
and  the  same  to  be  set  up  in  some  convenient  Bible  of  1611  was  finished  and  first  issued, 
place  within  the  church  where  the  parishion-  Party  and  dogmatical  considerations  had 
ers  may  resort  and  read  the  same ;  all  par-  not  been  without  their  influence  on  the  trans- 
sons  under  the  degree  of  A.  M.  shall  buy  for  lations  hitherto  made  of  the  Bible.    The 
their  own  use  the  New  Testament  in  Latin  Catholics,  however,  nowfoond  that  the  Bible 
and  English,  with  paraphrases,  within  three  in  English  eould  no  longer  be  kept  from 
months.    Inquiry  was  to  be  made,  whether  the  people,  and  they  did  not  consider  it 
any  parsons,  vicars,  or  curates,  did  discou-  prudent  to  be  without  a  translation  of  their 
rage  any  person  from  reading  any  part  of  the  own.    Accordingly  there  was  put  forth  by 
Bible,  either  hi  Latin  or  En^Ush.'     The  them  the  Douay  Bible,  of  which  the  New 
Geneva  Bible,  at  which  its  translators,  to  Testament  was  printed  at  Bheims,  in  1562, 
use  their  own  words,  'had  wrought,  God  and  the  Old  Testament  at  Douay,  in  1609 — 
knoweth  with  what  fear  and  trembling,  for  10.  The  motive  which  induced  ^e  Catholics 
the  space  of  two  years  and  more,  tdfjkkt  to  put  out  a  translation  of  the  Scriptures  ia 
and  day,'  and  which  fonned  the  basis  of  avowed  in  the  following  words,  transcribed 
many  editions  for  above  eighty  years,  was  re-  from  the  *  Address  to  the  English  Reader,' 
eeived  in  this  country,  and  welcomed  by  an  prefixed  to  the  first  volume  of  the  Douay  Old 
express  patent  from  the  queen,  grantiDLg  to  Testament,  1609 :    '  Now  since  Luther  and 
John  Bodeleigh  the  exclusive  right  to  print  his  folowers  have  pretended  that  the  Catho- 
die  same,  for  the  term  of  seven  years.  Other  Hqne  Bomane  frdth  and  doctrine  should  be 
efforts  were  made ;  and  thus,  before  the  year  eontrarie  to  Ood'a  written  word,  and  that  the 
IMl  had  expired,  the  people  had  Tyndsle  and  Scriptures  were  not  suffered  in  vulgar  Ian- 
Coverdale,  Cranmer,  and  the  Geneva  Version,  guages,  lest  the  people  should  see  the  truth, 
all  before  them.  Insevenyesrs  more  (1068),  and  withal  these  new  maisters  corruptly 
there  qipeaied  another,  namely,  Parker's,  or  taming  the  Seriptores  into  divers  tongues, 
the  Bishops'  Bible.    The  two  great  religious  as  might  best  serve  their  owne  opinions : 
parties,  however,  which  divided  the  nation,  against  this  lUse  suggestion  and  practise* 
the  Episcopalians  and  the  Puritans,  could  Catholique  Pastores  have,  for  one  special 
not  agree  to  receive  as  authoritative,  either  rsmedie,  set  forth  true  and  sincere  transla- 
the  Genevan  or  the  Bishop's  Bible.    Hence  tions  in  most  Isaguages  of  the  Latin  Church, 
arose  an  attempt  to  satisfy  all  parties  in  the  But  so  tfiat  people  must  read  them  with 
version  that  is  now  current    It  was  at  the  license  of   their  spiritual  superior,  as  in 
famous  conference,  at  Hampton  Court,  con-  former  times  they  were  in  like  sort  limited.' 
vened  by  James  (Jan.  1604), '  for  the  hear-  We  have  already  said  something  of  the 
ing  and  for  the  determining  things  pretended  claims  which  the  ordinary  English  transla* 
to  be   amiss  in  the  church,'  that  Dr.  John  tion  has  to  respect    A  great  necessity  exists 
Rainolds,  a  man  of  high  character,  and  very  for  a  translation  revised  and  published  by 
eminent  for  learning,  *  moved  his  Migesty  that  some  recognised  authority.    In  confirmation 
there  might  be  a  new  translation   of  the  of  our  opinion,  we   quote  the  words  of  a 
Bible,  because  those  which  were  allowed  in  former  learned  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  Dr. 
the  reign  of  King  Henry  and  Edward  were  Marsh  :-^*  Now  as  this  translation  was  made 
corrupt,  and  not  answerable  to  the  truth  of  by  some  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars 
the   original ;  — whereupon  his    Highness  in  the  age  of  Jamea  the  First,  it  is  probable 
wished  that  some  special  pains  should  be  that  our  authorised  version  is  as  faithful  a 
taken  in  that  behalf,  for  one  uniform  trans-  representation  of  the  original  Scriptures  as 
lation  (professing  that  he  could  never  yet  could  have  been  formed  at  that  period.    But 
see  a  Bible  well  translated  into  English,  but  when  we  consider  the  immense  accession 
the  worst  of  all,  his  majesty  thought  the  which  has  been  since  made,  both  to  our  criti- 
Genevan  to  be),  and  this  to  be  done  by  the  cal  and  to  our  philosophical  apparatus ;  when 
best  learned  in  both  Universities.'  Fifty-four  we  consider  that  the  whole  mass  of  literature, 
persons  were  accordingly  appointed  to  the  commencing  with  the  London  Polyglott  (a 
tofk,  to  whom  the  king  is  reported  to  have  Bible  in  several  languages),  and  continued 
given  various  instructions, — in  number  14,  to  Griesbach's  Greek  Testament,  was  collect- 
directing  among  other  things,  that  the  ordi-  ed  subsequently  to  that  period ;   when  we 
nary  Bible  read  in  the  church,  commonly  consider  Uiat  the  most  importsnt  sources  of 
called  the  Bishops'  Bible,  should  be  chiefly  intelligence  for  the    interpretation  of    the 
followed ;  but  these  translations  to  be  used  original    Scriptures  were  likewise    opened 
when  they  agree  better  with  the  text  than  after  diat  period,  we  cannot  possibly  pretend 
the  Bishops'  Bible,  namely,  —  1.  Tyndale's ;  that  our  authorised  version  does  not  requirs 
2.    Matthew's;    8.    Coverdale's;    4.  Whit-  amendment'    On  this  subject  we  need  only 
<*hiirche's  (i.  e.  Crsnmer's) ;    5.  the  Geneva,  refer  to  the  work  of  Archbishop  Newcome, 
Forty-seven  learned  men  actually  engaged  in  entitled,  <  An  Historical  View  of  the  Engliah 


BID  I 

Biblio*]  TruulationB ;  tlia  eipediennj  of  re- 
TJaiDg  bj  ■nthoril;  our  pmeni  Eugliih 
TruulBdoiii  tauA  Ihe  meuiB  of  erecutmg 
anob  ■  raiislon.'  Indeed,  Dr.  Muknight,  in 
■ba  HODiid  lectioii  of  hii  Oenanl  Pntmea, 
goes  BO  be  u  to  a>j  of  oui  lulhorUad  Tsr- 
(ion,  '  II  ia  b;  no  metal  inch  k  juat  repn- 
noUtion  of  ibe  inspired  origiuili  u  meriu 
to  be  imptioillj  isLad  on,  for  delermining 
Ihs  ooatcoTcrted  anlelBS  of  Ihe  ChriitiMa 
fkith,  uid  for  quieting  tha  dlaieoBioui  whiah 
luva  rant  the  ohnmh.' 

Wbrnerei  Ihia  moat  importut  and  tcit 
deeinblB  luk  ihill  ba  undenakan,  it  ii  to  be 
hopad  IbaC,  bendM  t,  genenl  Tariaion  of  tha 
8«riplnre»  bo  u  to  bring  tba  Gn^iih  into 
a  nmnr  aDConlaiice  with  Ihe  origiaali,  and  a 
gnitai  oonJormilj  with  out  Imgiuge  aa  now 
tOnnd  in  tha  beat  lilerarr  prodoodona,  one 
or  two  other  points  will  reeeire  due  attention. 
For  inetuee,  aonifl  meana  ahonld  be  adopted 
fbr  ifTuMing  the  ordinarj  reader  to  diatin- 
gniah  between  Ihe  Baered  Beeord  itielf 
and  himan  appendages.  The  aommaiiea 
lAidh  stand  at  the  head  of  the  ehtqitart 
tboold  be  altogether  lemoied.  The  oae 
<)t  lopplied  wotdi  now  printed  in  itailoa, 
whleh  wen  deiigned  to  ska  oat  Ihe  meaning 
of  dw  writer*,  waa  carried  to  a  great  extreme, 
injoring  the  ninpliei?,  and  aometimea  mar- 
ring tha  aense.  Thaae,  if  not  diaoontilined, 
ahoald  be  eonaideraUj  ra&uiad  In  luimber. 
The  namae  wbich  are  pieflzed  to  the  H*ei>L 
booka  ihoDld  ba  eipraialf  pronomioed  ai 
of  human  origin  and  lata  dale.  The  inicrip 
tiona  alao  appended  to  ihs  Epblle*  oo^t  to 
be  deeeribad  aa  apoerjphai  and  arrooeoo* 
Whether  there  ahonld  lieo  ba  an  attempt  to 
Introdaee  abetter  arrangamantt 


n  BIB 

ranks  an  engaged  with  one  he>rt  In  spread' 
ing  the  reeorda  of  diTine  tnlh.  '  In  ISM,' 
— we  eite  the  words  of  the  present  Bishop  of 
Cheater, —  'the  word  of  Qod  was  icoeaaible 
to  one-flftb  of  the  great  familj  of  mankind, 
throagb  the  medium  of  about  fonj  Iransla- 
tiona.  It  ii  now  aeceasible  to  three-fifths, 
throng  the  medium  of  one  baudmd  and 
aixtj  traoalslions.'  Up  to  Ha;,  1B44,  Aere 
had  been  iceaind  bj  the  Britiah  and  Foreign 
Bible  Soeiat;,  ■  mm  of  abOTe  three  millltHu 
of  paonds  sterling.  Three  hmidred  yean 
ago,inmanfpartsof  Europe,  bnlpartictularij 
in  this  eonnlrr,  the  hi^  and  keen  dispute 
was,  mtelher  what  was  callad  the  ohnreh,  or 
the  Saoied  Sariptnies,  should  be  regarded  aa 
of  snpreme  uithoril;.  Al  present,  all  partiea 
how  dilbnnl  Boarer  their  aims,  coDoar  with 
mora  oi  lass  leil  in  diffusing  abroad  theea 
preeiou*  wriltnga.  A  Toluma  which  a  few 
e  oould  not  be    proanred  bj 


now  be  pniohased  by  a  child  tor  a  tew  panoa. 
At  (he  dawn  of  the  Befoimatian,  tha  Bible 
bad  to  ataal  into  this  oonnt!?  by  single 
oppies )  now  it  ia  sent  forth  henca  in  great 
nnmben  to  all  parts  of  Ihe  woiid.  To  aay 
nothing  of  other  aourees,  the  Bible  Boeielj 
etalB  in  their  nporl  fbr  1814,  that  Ihay  had 
isned  lS,9flD,03tt  n>lamas  of  Biblea  and 
Teilameuta,  of  which  10,000,OOU  wan  in 
Ihs  English  tongue. 


vwiUn. 


1  daleimina   but  we  an 


weD  assured  that  some  method  ahonld  be 
taken  to  exhibit  the  books  ihamselTes  as  well 
aa  theii  contents  in  their  chronologicil  order 
If  then  an  any  pasiagea,  anch  as  I  John  t  7 
which  an  demonstrably  sporioaa  not  hsTing 
proceeded  from  the  pen  of  iheBibbosl  wn  ten 
these  should  be  thrown  into  the  margm,  or 
altogether  act  aside ;  and  probably  some  mo- 
diUoation  of  the  plan  pursued  by  Gnsabaoh 
might  ba  adopted,  in  order  to  plaoe  baS>n 
the  English  reader  the  more  important  of  dM 
varistionih  with  their  relatiTe  worth  foimd 
toeiiatin  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  manusonpta. 
In  recent  times  the  Bible  baa  been  gradu 
ally  ipread  in  Iha  venuoular  tongue  orer  the 
eiiilised  world,  mamly  Ihrongh  Ihe  influenoe 
of  the  English  nation,  which,  borrowing  light 
anA  impolae  bom  Luther  and  iua  Oennan 
asaociatsi,  has  enjoyed  the  high  privilege 
and  difltlnetion  of  eommnnicstmg  to  man 
kind  Ihe  word  of  lite.  It  ia,  however  wlthm 
the  last  oentary,  and  since  the  foundation  of 
the  BriUah  and  Forugn  Biib  Soeitty  (m 
1T80),  that  Ihe  great  diffusion  of  Uus  saered 
book  faaa  baan  effected.  At  the  present  day 
Christians  ri  all  denominations  and  of  ill 


-.1  /' 


^^ 


BIB  172  BIB 

1%$  Umi/jf  fiff  th*  Bible  has  been  wonder-  consideration  being  printed  in  italic  letters, 

ftilly  fiMilitated  in  modem  times.    For  this  The  careful  employment  of  this  book  woold 

important  end,  concordances  hsTe  been  con-  enable  a  person,  with  sTeiy  small  knowledge 

stmcted.    Concordances  are  of  two  kinds,  of  Greek,  to  stady  the  New  Testament  with 

I.  Alphabetical ;  the  contents  of  the  sacred  something  like  a  critical  eye.  Similar  aid 
Tolnme  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  let-  fbr  the  Old  Testament  may  be  derived  fW>m 
ters  of  tfie  alphabet,  the  leading  or  chief  'The  Englishman's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
word  being  taken  in  each  case  as  the  goide.  Concordance ;    London,  1848.'     '  A  Greek 

II.  Those  that  are  drawn  op  according  to  the  Grammar  of  die  New  Testament,  by  the  Ber. 
subject-matter,  in  which  all  that  the  Bible  W.Trollope;  London,  1842,*  may  be  advan- 
eontains  on  each  successive  topic  is  brought  tageonaly  consulted,  though  it  is  not  suA- 
under  oos  head  of  reference.  Of  the  former  eiently  aimple  for  the  young,  nor  sufflciently 
the  Coneoidanoe  of  Cmden  has  never  been  learned  for  the  advanced  student,  if  acquaint- 
superseded.   Some  of  the  numerooe  reprints  ed  with  the  much  superior  work  of  Winer,  of 


of  the  original  edition  (1787,  4to)  are  inac*  an  old  edition*  of  which  there  is  an. 

eurate.    We  hare  ourselves  had,  for  many  translation.    We  can  also  with  satisfaction 

years,  in  use,  a  reprint  by  Tegg  ( 1881 ) ,  with  refer  the  reader  to  Dr.  Robinson's '  Dictlonaiy 

whioh  we  are  very  well  eatisiled.    For  con-  d  the  Greek  Testament,'  as  well  as  to  his 

eordanees  of  the  second  kind,  the  Biblical  '  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  Old 

student  is  indebted  to  the  apirited  publisher  Testament'    (Wiley  and  Putnam,  London.) 

of  saerad  literature,  Samuel  Bagster,  whose  In  Dr.  Kitto's  very  valuable  '  Biblical  Cyclo- 

*  Alphabetical  Index  *  in  various  siies  will  be  pvdia,'  the  unlearned  as  well  as  the  learned 


found  serviceable.  The  same  publishers  have  may  find  rieh  abundanoe  of  most  uieftd 

also  put  forth  *  Geographical  and  Chronologi-  matter,  as  well  as  trustworthy  references  for 

eal    lUnstrations   of   the  Holy  Scriptures,  the  prosecution  of  theological  studies.    *A 

consisting  of  eighteen  Mi^s  and  Flans,  en-  course  of  Lectures,  containing  a  descriptive 

graved  by  Charles  Cobley,'  in  a  smaU  volume,  and  systematie  airangement  of  the  several 

which  comprises  much  useAil  information,  branches  of  Divinitj,'  by  the  late  Bishop 

In  *  The  Illuminated  Atlaa,'  by  W.  Hug^ea,  Marsh,  may  be  read  with  great  advantage ; 

the  reader  may  find  avery  eareftaUy  prepared  but,  learned  and  liberal  though  the  author 

summary  of  Seriptural  Geography,  aceom-  was,  the  work  must  now  be  considered  as 

panied  1^  maps,  diough,  as  it  was  published  behind  the  most  adranced  poaition  of  Bibli- 

before  Dr.  Robinson's  work  on  Palestine,  and  cal  knowledge,  as  it  exists  at  the  present  hour 

other  works   from  German  acholars,  it  is  in  Germany,  the  only  country  which  has  an 

somewhat  in  the  rear  of  our  preaent  know-  independent  modem  theological  literature, 

ledge.    For  the  general  reader  there  is  no  A  useftil  aid  in  the  study  of  the  New  Tes- 

eonmientBiy  on  the  Sacred  Scriptures  that  tament  may  be  procured  in  a  recent  work, 

can  be  recommended,  except  that  by  Dr.  pubUshed  under  the  sanction  of  Dr.  J.  Pye 

Kitto,— ^  The  Pictorial  Bible,'  publiahed  by  Smith,  namely,  *  The  Literary  History  of  the 

Charles  Knight ;  for  this  woA  eonilnes  itself  New  Testament ;'  a  volume  which,  to  the 

to  expounding  and  illustrating  the  objects  display  of  ability,  adds  a  tinge  of  a  certain 

of  the  Bible,  and  keeps  free  from  questions  dogmatic  school,  which  in  some  measure 

of  diq^ted  and  sectarian  theology ;  whereas  lessens  its  value;  nor  does  its  generally  well- 

otiiereoinmentsries  are  almost  exdusively  or-  informed  writer  manifest  a  familiarity  with 

gans  and  instruments  of  particular  ohurehes  ttie  best  productions  of  Germsn  divines.   A 

and  denominations.     This   article  is  not  truly  liberal,  comprebenaive  popular  work, 

designed  for  the  student  of  tfie  originsls  in  embracing  the  entire  range  of  theology,  and 

which  the  Bible  is  written.  It  may,  however,  emanating  from  a  scholar  intimately  acquaint- 

be  consulted  for  assistance,  by  pers<ms  de-  ed  with  foreign  as  well  as  English  theology, 

sirous  of  scquiring  some  Imowledge  of  the  is  still  a  desideratum  in  our  literature.   Such 

Hebrew  and  die  Greek,  as  well  as  of  entering  awoik  we  do  not  find  in  the  generally  useftil 

a  little  minutely  into  questions  of  sacred  summary,    entitled  *  Lectures   on  Biblical 

criticism.    With  a  view  to  the  guidance  of  Criticism,'  by  Samuel  Davidson,  LLJ).    The 

such  persons,  we  subjoin  the  remarka  which  greatest  fiuilt  of  the  work  is  a  certain  Ulibera- 

immediately  follow.   One  of  the  most  valua-  lily  which,  in  apportioning  praise  and  blame, 

Ue  aids  which  modem  times  have  produced  and  in  forming  and  dMlaring  judgments, 

is  *  The  Engliahman'B  Greek  Concordance  aUows  metaphysical  dogmas  to  have  a  weight 

of  the  New  Testament,'  being  an  attempt  at  which  belongs  not  to  them.    In  *  Biblicsl 

a  verbal  connection  between  the  Greek  and  Hermeneutics,'  from  the  German  of  Seiler,  by 

the  English  texts;  London,  1889.'  The  plan  Dr.  Wright,  a  compendium  is  found,  which, 

is  to  present  in  alphabetiealsacoesaion,  every  though  designed  only  to  expound  the  art 

word  mbleh.  occurs  in  the  Greek  New  Testa-  of  Scripture  interpretation,  furnishes  much 

ment,  with  the  series  ot  p»«»fges  (quoted  nsefrd  knowledge,  embracing  results  that  are 

flxnn  the  English  trwislatton)  >^J^eh  each  next  to  the  most  recent,  in  a  lucid  manner, 

anch  word  occurs;  the  word  or  words  repre-  and  a  systematic  form,  accompanied  bv  re- 

senting  the  Greek  word   ii»««  unmediate  ferenoes  to  standard  works. 


BIB 


173 


BIR 


Popular  oommenUriet  on  the  sorenl  books 
of  the  Bible,  if  well  ezeoated,  would  tiford 
periiepe  the  best  litenij  Msietanoe  for  its 
saecessftil  study.  In  the  United  States,  snch 
aids  have  in  recent  times  been  proTided,  and 
have  met  with  ready  and  extensive  reception. 
We  allude  to  <  Notes  Critical,  Explanatory,  and 
Poetical,'  by  Albert  Barnes ;  of  which  diera 
are  publisfied, — Isaiah ;  Job ;  the  Gospels ; 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  Romans ;  1st  and 
2d  Corinthians;  Oalatians ;  Hebrews :  also, 
to  <  Notes  Critical  and  Practical,'  by  George 
Bosh,  on  Genesis;  Exodns;  I^Titicus; 
Joshoa;  and  Judges.  These  works  may  be 
obtained  at  Wiley  and  Putnam's  American 
agency,  London;  where  may  also  be  had» 
tiie  original  edition  of  '  The  Four  Gospels, 
with  a  Commentary,  by  A.  A.  LiTermore,' 
a  Taluable  work,  which  has  been  reprinted 
by  Simms  and  M*Intyre,  Belliut  and  Lon- 
don. 

BID  is  a  word  of  Teutonic  origin,  which 
primarily  signified  to  invite :  so  bieteH  in  Ger- 
man, at  .the  present  day,  denotes  to  ask,  to 
heg.  Thus  <  Bidding  of  the  Beadle '  was  an 
inritation  to  prayers  on  special  occasions, 
given  by  the  parish  priest  In  the  oldest 
English  translations  of  the  Bible,  we  read 
hedi  and  hyd,  signifying  tmnto,  which,  with 
an  altered  spelling.  King  James's  translators 
retained.  But  ^e  word  hid  has  now  lost 
this  its  original  signification,  and  denotes  to 
order,  to  command.  It  would  indeed  Kjppeu 
that,  when  the  English  version  was  made,  the 
present  exclusive  import  of  to  hid  was  in 
use,  since  in  Matt  xiv.  28  6mI  is  used  as  the 
translation  of  a  verb  which  is  rendered  in 
every  other  case  by '  command.'  There  are 
five  Greek  words  which  are  translated  hid$ 
of  which  one  means  to  call,  a  second  to  m- 
vite,  two  to  tay,  and  the  fiftti  to  enjoin.  The 
reader  will  easily  see  by  the  context  where 
*  bid '  and  <  call'  signify  invite.  As  the  gos- 
pel is  essentially  and  emphatically  an  invita- 
tion, it  deserves  notice  that  the  word  does 
not  occur  in  the  New  Testament;  while  the 
verb  to  invite  is  found  only  three  times  in 
the  whole  Bible,  namely,  1  Sam.  ii.  24. 
2  Sam.  xiiL  28.  Esther  v.  12. 

BIEB  (T.  a  hearer)  is  a  word  idueh  occurs 
twice  in  the  Bible:  once,  2  Sam.  iiL  SI, 
where  it  is  the  translation  of  a  Hebrew  term 
generally  rendered  hed§  a  second  time,  Luke 
viL  14,  where  it  represents  a  Greek  word 
whose  ordinary  meaning  is  coffin.  There 
is,  however,  no  essential  difference  between 
bed,  bier,  and  coffin,  since  they  all  agree  in 
this,  that  they  are  used  for  carrying  or  bear- 
ing a  dead  body  to  the  tomb.  Englishmen 
are  accustomed  to  employ  a  coflln  as  well  as 
a  bier,  the  fonner  being  borne  by  the  latter, 
which  bears  the  corpse.  Yet  in  our  older  au- 
thors, bier  is  found  in  apparently  tiie  same 
signification  as  coffin.    Thus  Cotton :  — 

'  Honorio  dead,  the  ftmeral  bell 
Caird  every  friend  to  bid  flovwelL 


I  Join'd  the  melancholy  Mar, 
And  dropp'd  the  unavaiUiv  tear.* 

In  the  passage  from  Luke,  however,  the  term 
coffin  is  perhaps  the  more  appropriate  ren- 
dering of  the  original.  Our  Lord  touched 
the  coifin  of  the  widow  of  Nain'a  son,  and 
bade  him  arise,  who  thereupon  sat  up,  and 
began  to  speak.  The  Jewish  coflln,  not  being 
covered  and  fastened  as  are  ours,  would  offer 
no  impediment  The  passage  in  Samuel 
seems  to  suggest  the  term  6ier ;  but,  in  order 
to  understand  what  a  bier  was,  we  must  go 
to  the  Egyptian  tombs,  on  which  biers  are 
found  painted  on  the  walls.  Among  the 
sculptures  found  in  the  sanctuaries  of  the 
temple  at  El  Khargeh,  in  the  Great  Oasis 
(<  Visit  to  the  Great  Oasis,'  by  G.  A.  Hoskins, 
1837,  p.  110,  eeq.),  are  found  many  biers, 
represented  as  actually  sustaining  dead  bo- 
dies ;  in  some  instances  placed  in  a  coflin  or 
sacred  chest,  in  others  without  coffin.  Some- 
times, too,  the  body  is  bandaged,  and  at  others 
the  limbs  are  visible.  These  cuts  give  spe- 
cimens of  these  curious  sculptures,  which 


seem  to  us  to  intimate  the  supervision  of 
divine  power  over  tiie  dead,  if  not  their 
revival  to  an  endless  life.  The  winged  figure 
hovering  over  the  dead  body,  with  uplifted 
arm,  ia  the  goddess  Isis,  who  is  sometimes 
accompanied  on  ttie  tombe  by  hieioglyphios, 
signifying  <J^  <(/«.' 

BIBD8,  like  other  animals,  were  divided 
by  the  Jewish  law  into  clean,  iriiieh  mi^^ 
be  eaten ;  and  unclean,  which  might  not  be 
eaten.  The  directions  given  on  the  sulyect 
are  not  frill,  and  our  imperfect  knowledge  of 
the  ancient  ornithology  of  Palestine  leaves 
difllculties  in  the  language  employed ;  but, 
in  general,  the  distinction  laid  down  is  that 


B I R                       174  BIB 

which  obtains  between  camlvonms  and  her-  etil  tidings,  as  it  had  once  been  the  messen- 

biTorous  birds.    Thos,  among  those  birds  ger  of  good  tidings  to  him,  and  therefore 

idiioh  '  shall  not  be  eaten,'  we  find  the  ea^e,  fell  into  the  deepest  sorrow '  (Joseph.  Antiq. 

the  mltnre,  the  kite  (Lev.  xi.  18).     In  the  six.  8.  2). 

general   economy  of  nature,  birds  hare  sn  Pslestine  is  not  distinguished  for  birds, 
important  part  to  play.    It  is  enough  to  refer  In  numbers  and  in  song,  birds  there  bear  a 
to  their  destraotion  of  insects.    Tet  ii^  in  a  poor  comparison  with  the  position  they  hold 
eirilised  country,  birds  were  to  be  allowed  to  in  other  Eastern  countries.    The  Seriptores 
multiply  without  check,  they  would  do  inoal-  are  indeed  not  without  allusion  to  that  charm- 
eulable  damage  to  fruits  of  the  earth  designed  ing  music  —  the  singing  of  birds.    A  de- 
for  the  sustenance  of  man.    It  is  therefore  scription  of  spring  owes  much  of  its  beauty 
important   that  their  numbers  should  be  to  a  reference  to  their  melody: — 'The  flowers 
thinned ;   yet,  at  the  same  time,  not  less  appear  on  the  earth ;  the  time  of  the  singing 
important  that  all  unnecessary  pain  in   so  of  birds  is  come ;  and  the  cooing  of  the  tur- 
thinning  them  should  be  careftilly  avoided,  tie-dove  is  heard  in  our  land'  (Cant.  ii.  12). 
These  results  seem  to  have  been  contem-  And  so  the  Psalmist  calls  on  the '  birds  of 
plated,  and  were  probably  in  the  main  secured,  wing '  to  join  their  voices  in  the  grand  cho- 
by  a  law  of  Moses,  which  breathes  a  spirit  ral  anthem  of  nature  (Ps.  czlviii.  10).    At 
of  wise  benignitj :  — '  If  a  bird's  nest  chance  the  same  time,  the  reference  to  the  subject 
to  be  before  thee  in  any  tree,  or  on  the  ground,  is  not  so  great  as  might  have  been  expected 
young  ones  or  eggs,  and  the  dam  sitting  upon  on  the  part  of  poets  who  laid  all  the  universe 
the  young  or  upon  the  eggs,  thou  shalt  not  under  contribution  for  the  high  purposes  of 
take  the  dam  with  the  young ;  tiiou  shalt  in  their  sacred  song.    Nor  can  a  land  be  said 
any  wise  let  the  dam  go,  and  take  the  young  to  be  destitute  of  song-birds  which,  to  men- 
to  thee ;  that  it  may  be  well  with  thee,  and  tion  no  more,  possesses,  in  addition  to  the 
that  thou  mayest  prolong  thy  dajrs '  (Beut.  nightingale,  four  species  of  the  lark,  all  birds 
xxii.  6,  7).    In  the  same  spirit,  birds  were  of  fine  note.    If,  however,  we  may  judge  of 
taken  under  the  shield  of  religion.    Nests  ancient  by  present  times,  though  parts  of 
in  temples  and  holy  places  were  generally,  Palestine  were  enlivened  and  gladdened  by 
in  the  East,  regarded  as  inviolable,  being  the  melodies  of  birds,  the  country  held  only 
considered  objects  of  the  special  care  of  the  an  inferior  rank  in  regard  to  this  natural 
Divinity.    Accordingly,  in  Ps.  Ixxxiv.  8,  the  music.    On  this  point,  Paxton  says,  '  The 
sparrow  and  the  swallow  are  said  to  have  singing  of  birds  is  not  often  heard  in  Pales- 
found  a  nest  for  their  young,  safe  from  harm,  tine.    There  are  a  few  species  of  birds  with 
in  the  altars  of  the  temple  of  Solomon,  a  fi^udy  plumage,  but  their  notes  are  not 
Among  the  habits  of  birds,  mention  is  made  mdodious.    The  sweet  plaintive  note  of  the 
ofthe  migratory  impulses  of  some  species: —  nightingale  is  often  heard,  but  oftener  the 
'  The  stork  in  the  heaven  knoweth  her  ap-  harsh  cawing  of  the  crow.'  —  *  The  nightin- 
pointed  times ;  but  my  people  know  not  the  gale,'  aays  Kitto,  in  his  excellent  work  on 
judgment  of  the  Lord '  ( Jer.  viii  7).    Doves  Palestine,  <  is  heard  during  the  greater  part 
and  hens  were  kept  for  domestic  purposes ;  of  the  garden  season,  ainging  delightAilly  in 
but  neither  ducks  nor  geese  are  mentioned  in  the  day-time  £rom  amid  the  pomegranate 
the  Bible.    Yet  Elliot  describes  the  Lake  of  groves,  and  from  trees  of  loftier  growth  in 
Tiberias  as  covered  with  wild  ducks,  and  the  night  season.    In  the  larger  towns  there 
generally  birds  of  the  duck  kind  {anaUdtB)  are  persons  who  keep  nightixigales  in  cages, 
frequent  the  waters  of  Syria  in  abundance :  and  let  them  out,  at  a  small  rate,  to  noctar- 
we  may  specify  the  swan  and  the  goose,  wild  nal  assemblies ;  so  that  most  entertainments 
and  tame,  thouf^  tame  geese  are  rare.    The  of  ceremony,  during  the  spring,  have  a  con- 
Egyptian  goose  was  of  a  peculiar  and  very  cert  of  nightingales.    This  might  seem  an 
fine  species,  and  is  figured  on  the  monu-  incongruous  employment  of  a  bird  so  pro- 
ments  in   abundance.      That  the   ancient  verbially  moumftil;    but  those  who  know 
Hebrews  kept  for  pleasure,  in  their  abodes,  him  will  say  he  is 
birds  which  were  remarkable  for  their  pin-  «  The  merry  nig btlogale* 
mage  or  their  song,  maybe  infened  firom  That  crowds  and  hurries  and  predpitatei^ 

1  Kings  X.  28.  Jer.  v.  27.    In  the  latter  paa-  Y^  *^  ^!^J!Y^^.  "*  ?!!5J***^£P**' 

■smTma  «]«a  fu^  -rwiii  o .  .*,«—.  Trtrtis  T\  As  he  were  tmrttH  that  an  April  night 

8age^seealsoBev.xvu].2;  comp.  Job.  xli.  6)  WoaM  he  too  short  f6rfaim  to  utter  forth 

mentton  is  made  of  a  bird-cage,  a  thmg  by  Hie  love-cfaHit,  and  disborden  hb  ftill  soul 

no  means  uncommon  m  the  East    l^en  Of  aUtts  music.'" 

the  genuine  Hebrew  modes  of  thought  had  BIBTH  (T.  *rifi^iii^/orf A). —Bearing  of 

been  corrupted  by   heathen   auperstitions,  children  was  regarded  by  Hebrew  women  as 

birds  were  regarded  as  good  or  bad  omena :  an  object  of  special  desire,  not  only  as  being 

thus,  Herod  Agrippa,  in  the  display  which  the  fulfilment  of  their  natural  function,  but 

he   made   in   Cnaarea,  immediately  after  because  a  numerous  progeny  was  considered 

hating  been  saluted  as  a  gwi,  <  saw  an  oiH  a    special  blessing  (Gen.   xii.  2;    xv.   6; 

sitting  over  his  head,  and  forthwith  under-  xvii.  ft,  6).    There  was  no  superabondance 

stood  Aat  this  bird  was  the  measenger  of  of  population,  as  is  now  aUeged  to  exist;  there 


BIR  175  BIR 

WW  BO  aevere  oonfliot  for  the  means  of  sab-  tore,  and  tbe  value  they  ascribed  to  children 

sisfesnce,  as  now  unhappily  felt ;  but  human  (Ps.  cxxTii  8).  In  the  decline  of  their  polity, 

nature  had  scope  to  dcTelope  its  natnral  and  we  find  the  obserrance  in  existence,  whidi 

its  higher  emotions,  when  language  like  the  may,  howerer,  hsTe  been  borrowed  from  Pa- 

fbUowing  was  emplc^red  to  denote  Oodf  s  fsYonr  gans.    Thus  it  waa,  when  *  Herod's  birthday 

towards  those  that  Ibared  him  (Ps.  oxxriiL  8;  was  kept'  (Matt  xIt.  6),  that  prince  made 

eomp.  Ps.  ezzvii.)  :—  a  supper  to  his  lords,  high  cq>tain8,  and 


< Like  a fhdtAil  vine  diaD  be  thy  wlft^  *^^  estates  of  GaUlee'  (Mark  ft  21).    If, 

In  the  inner  ehamben  cf  ihy  house;  howerer,  the  anniTcrsary  of  the  day  of  birth 

Like  oUtc  ptanto  ihaU  be  thy  sons  ^„  not  kept  by  the  ancient  Israelites,   the 

Around  thy  table.  ^^  .^^^  ^^  y^  ^^  ^^^^  regarded  with 

Thus,  that  which  the  poor  at  present  are  indiflerenoe,  but  rather  as  a  reason  for  joy 
sometimesf  slas  1  half  tempted  to  wish  for,  or  sorrow,  gratulation  or  pity,  gratitude  or 
namely,  unfruitftilness,  was  held  to  be  an  regret,  according  to  the  feelings  of  the  mo- 
evil  and  a  discredit;  so  that  wives,  rather  ment,  or  the  complexion  of  the  life,  for  good 
than  be  childless,  resorted  to  the  expedient  or  for  ill.  A  gloomy  spirit  said,  <  The  day  of 
of  having  children  by  their  maids  (Gen.  xvi  death  is  better  than  die  day  of  birth'  (Ecd. 
2 ;  xxix.  82 ;  xxx.  8.   1  Sam.  i.  5,  seq.  Luke  vii.  1) ;  but  <  many  rejoiced  at  the  birth'  ot 


i.  25).  Hence  arose  the  custom  of  wishing  great  benefactors,  and  parents  'had'  their 
that  a  newly-married  pair  might  have  a  large  <  joy  and  gladness,'  which  they  would  doubt- 
family  (Ruth  iv.  11, 12).  Though  the  pains  less  retain  throughout  their  lives  (Luke  L 
attendant  on  delivery  are  represented  in  the  14,  08).  Complicated  and  intense  suiTering 
Old  Testament  as  severe  (Tea.  xlii.  14),  yet  made  existence  a  burden ;  hence  Job's  strong 
the  Hebrew  women,  since  they  lived  more  language  (iii8;  comp.  Jer.  xx.  14),  'Perish 
conformably  with  the  laws  of  their  physical  the  day  in  which  I  was  bom.' 
nature  than  is  customary  in  these  days.  If  Job  was  an  Arabian,  this  evil  wish  de- 
brought  forth  their  children  with  comparative  rives  illustration  from  the  fact  that  the  birth 
ease,  and  were  in  this  respect  sdvantageously  of  a  son  was  one  of  three  great  occasions  of 
distinguished  from  the  more  artificial  Egyp-  festivity  among  that  nation :  the  other  two 
tian  mothers  (Exod.  i.  19).  The  aid  of  were  the  birth  of  a  foal  of  a  valued  race,  and 
midwives,  however,  was  found  necessary,  even  tiie  rising  up  of  a  poetical  genius  in  any  of 
in  the  days  of  the  patriarchs,  when  we  find  their  tribes.  A  modem  Arab,  who  had  ex- 
them  mentioned  as  an  already  established  perienced  heavy  trisls,  thus,  in  unison  with 
profes8ion(Gen.  xxxv.  17 ;  xxxviii.  28;  comp.  the  Isngnage  of  Job,  bewails  his  birth, — *  Oh 
Exod.  L  19).  In  cases  where  the  mistress  that  my  mother  had  remained  single  all  the 
of  the  house  had  children  by  her  slave,  the  dsys  of  her  life ! — that  God  had  determined 
former  seems  to  have  performed  the  duties  no  consort  for  her! — ^that  she  had  never  known 
of  a  midwifB ;  or  at  least  she  received  the  the  happy  intelligence  that  ahe  had  borne  a 
child  in  her  lap,  to  denote  that  she  took  part  man  or  woman! — ^that,  when  she  had  carried 
in  its  birth,  and  adopted  it  as  her  own  (Gen.  me  under  her  heart,  I  had  lost  my  lifb  atmy 
xxx.  8.  Job  iii.  12).  Whatever  aid  was  ren-  birth!  and,  if  I  had  been  bom  and  had  seen 
dered,  the  mothe/s  life  was  sometimes  for-  the  light,  that  when  the  congratulating  people 
feited:  thus  Raohael  died  in  giving  birth  hastened  on  their  camels,  I  had  been  gathered 
to  Beiyamin  (Gen.  xxxv.  17, 18)  ;  and  abor-  to  my  fathers !' 

tions  and  premature  births,  though  infre-        BIBTHRIGHT. — As  the  Israelites  expe- 

quent,  were  not  unknown  (Job.  ilL  16.  Ps.  rienced  the  liveliest  joy  on  becoming  parents, 

IviiL  8.  1  Cor.  zv.  8).    As  soon  as  the  child  so  was  it  natural  that  they  should  hail  their 

was  bom,   its  navel  was  cut;  then  it  waa  flrst-bom  with  feelings  of  peculiar  satisliMS- 

washed,  sprinkled  with  salt,  and  wrapped  tion,  Ireat  him  with  tendemess  snd  llsvour, 

in  swaddling  clothes  (Ezek.  xvi  4).     The  and  destine  for  him  special  privileges ;  the 

oirenmstanoes  which  accompany  birth  are  rather  because  the  first-bom  male  child  would 

employed  to  ftimish  expressive  figures  of  render  aid  earlier  than  any  of  the  other  chil- 

speeoh  (2  Kings  xix.  8.  Isa.  xxxvii  8.  Luke  dren,in  supporting  and  protecting  the  family, 

xxiii.  29).  Henoe  arose  the  consuetudinary  and  the  le- 

BIBTHDAT.— -The  commemoration  of  the  gal  rights  of  primogeniture,  which,  nseftil  as 

day  of  onei's  birth,  by  festivities  on  its  anni-  &ey  may  have  been  in  the  commencement  of 

versary,  is,  as  being  a  dictate  of  natnral  fed-  human  society,  are  at  present  the  source 

ings,  of  almost  universal  prevalence.  It  was  of  many  great  evils,  without  a  compensatory 

observed  among  the  ancient  Egyptians  in  the  good.  The  same  parental  emotions  operating 

time  of  Joseph;  for,  on  his  birtibt-day,  the  then  in  a  different  way,  have,  in   some  cases, 

reigning  Phnoah  made  a  feast  to  dl  his  ser-  caused  the  youngest  child,  as  being  '  a  son  in 

▼ants  (Gen.  xl.  20).  We  possess,  however,  no  his  old  age '  (Gen.  xxi.  2),  when  the  feelings 

recorded  evidence,  that  die  Hebrews,  in  the  are  not  seldom  stronger  than  the  judgment, 

early  periods  of  their  history,  commemorated  and  idiatever    gives    pleasure    is    fondly 

the  anniversaryoftheir  birthday,  though  this  cherished,  to  be  regarded  and  treated  with 

is  rendered  probable  by  their  affeetionalen»-  special  favour,  as  well    as  fostering  care. 


BIS                         176  BIS 

These  lallaences  led  to  a  preferenoe  being  <»f  their  offleeyiiainelj,towfttoh  over  die  ehanh 

shown  in  the  distribution  of  proper^  to  the  for  its  spiritnsl  good.    These  officers,  in  le- 

last-bom  child,  which  maybe  justified  on  spect  of  their  age,  were  termed  eUens  in 

the  ground  that  the  elder  children  are  already  respect  of  their  office,  hithops.     The  office 

proTided  for,  and  have  leti  the  parental  roo^  and  function  wen  the  aame,  whether  the 

while  the  youngest  one  is  still  in  need  of  care  designation  were  elder  or  bishop.     8ome- 

and  aid.    It  is  accordingly  said,  that  it  was  times  the  term  epiicopoi,  instead  of  being 

a  custom  long  preTslent  in  Tartaiy,  for  the  retained  in  the  English  tvrsion,  is  rendered, 

younger  son  to  succeed  his  father,  in  prefer-  according  to  its  proper  meaning,  *  OTcrseer' 

ence  to  his  elder  brothers, —  a  custom  which  (Acts  zx.  28  ).    Originally  the  term  elder  was 

would  prevail  the  more  easily  among  a  peo-  employed  aa  being  already  in  existence  in  the 

pie,  where,  owing  to  the  absence  of  a  regular  Jewish  church,  on  which  the  Christian  was 

and  established  system  of  law,  possession  modelled ;  the  word  episcopog  being  used  as 

would  be  almost  every  thing,  inasmuch  as  an  accurate  description  of  the  duties  of  the 

the  elder  sons,  as  they  grew  to  man's  estate,  office  —  namely,  to  'watch'  (Acts  zx.  81), 

would  migrate  from  fkeir  fkther^s  abode,  till  and  to  'take  heed  to  the  flock*  (28;  oomp. 

the  youngest  son  alone  remained,  and  Uins  Ter.  17)  ;  but  in  process  of  time  the  new  ap- 

became  his  heir  (comp.  Gen.  xlriiL  15,  eeq.),  pellation  obtained  the  greater  preralence,  the 

The  law  of  Moses  is  very  express,  —  the  rather  since,  having  novelty  and  indefinite- 
first-born  son,  whether  bom  of  &.e  favourite  ness  on  its  side,  it  could  easily  be  made  to 
wife  or  not,  was  to  have  a  double  portion  of  comprise  the  ever-growing  daima  of  church- 
all  the  fathe/s  property; '  for  he  is  the  be-  men,  till  at  laat  it  displaced  the  'elders' 
ginning  of  his  strength,  tfie  right  of  the  first-  altogether,  and,  taking  the  highest  seat, 
bom  is  his '  (Deut.  xxi  15—17).  Tet  the  quietly,  but  most  effectually,  put  them  into  an 
rights  of  primogeniture  were  forfeited  by  infBrior  position.  The  qualities  which  were 
flagrant  crime,  as  in  the  case  of  Reuben,  who  originally  required  in  an  elder  or  bishop  an 
defiled  his  father's  bed  (1  Chrou.  v.  1);  and  detailed  with  much  minuteness  in  Tit  i. 
the  younger  was  sometimes  preferred  to  the  5 — 9 ;  comp.  1  Tim.  iii.  1 — 7;  and  they  an 
elder,  at  the  will  of  the  sin,  whose  final  all  of  a  high  moral  and  intellectual  descrip- 
blessing  seems  to  have  had  the  force  of  tion;  making  it  dear  that  bishops  wen  at 
a  testamentsry  bequest  (Gton.  zlviiL  19 ;  fint  chosen  exclusively  for  those  excellencies 
xzvii.  83).  The  fint-boni  waa,  under  the  of  heart  and  life,  whidimake  men  nsemble 
father,  master  of  the  abode,  and  lord  of  his  'the  gnat  Shepherd  and  Bishop  of  souls' 
bnthnn  (Oen.  iv.  7;  xxv.  28;  xxviL  29;  (1  Pet  ii.  25).  Whence  it  is  easy  to  see 
zlix.  8.  1  Ghron.  v. 2).  The  Rabbins  ssy  that  that  any  legitimate  power  over  individuals  or 
the  birthrights  of  the  eldest  son  involved  the  over  ihe  chunh  which  bishops  mi(^t  possess 
privilege  of  oftering  sacrifices  in  the  family,  and  exert,  was  solely  that  which  naturally 
referring  to  Exod.  xxiv.  i ;  when,  by '  the  accrued  from  pre-eminence  in  piety,  love, 
young  men  of  the  ehfidren  of  Israel,'  they  and  good  works  (1  Thess.  ▼.  12,  18).  And 
nndentand  the  first-bom  of  several  funiliea.  as  the  eariy  bishops  ftilfiUed  the  duties  to 

The  connection  into  which  the  Jews  came  which  they  gave  themselves,  and  the  expecta- 

witfa  the  Romans  oanaed,  in  the  times  of  tions  that  wen  formed  of  them,  so  did  they 

the  New  Testament,  an  intermixtun  of  He-  receive  the  honourable  epithet  ot  paston  or 

brew  with  Roman  customs;   whenoe  it  is  shepherds — (Ephes.  iv.  11) — a  term  which 

fer  from  easy  to  determine  in  some  cases  also  was  alnady  in  use  in  the  synagogues, 

to  which  a  writer  intended  to  nfer.    In  n-  the  rather  as  it  was  the  chief  business  of  the 

gaid  to  the  rights  of  birth,  the  Roman  law  overseen  to  supply  that  true  bnad  which 

diffend  flrom  Sxe  Hebnw  in  this,  that,  while  the  Father  gave  from  heaven  (John  vi.  82), 

with  the  Israelites  the  eldest  son  inherited  a  and  so  to  '  feed  the  chunh  of  the  Lord' 

double  shan,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  sisten,  (Acts  xx.  28). 

and  daughten  had  no  part  in  the  fuher^s  Rut  as,  in  the  primitive  church,  teaching 

property,  except  he  left  neither  son,  nor  son's  was  a  special  gift,  dependent  on  the  oommn- 

son,  —  among  the  Romans  the  eldest  son  nications  of  ie  Spirit  (Eph.  iv.  11.   1  Cor. 

menly  stood  on  terms  of  equality  with  all  xiL  8,  9),  so  the  imparting  of  instruction 

who  wen  under  the  power  of   the  father,  did  not  necessarily  attach  to  the  office  of 

whether  male  or  femide.    The  diflinrenee,  it  an  elder.    An  elder,  however,  who  was  not 

win  be  seen,  is  considerable;  and  the  ques-  distinguished  as  a  teacher,  might  still  be 

tion  assumes  a  practical  character,  in  nlation  highly  useful  aa  an  overseer ;  and  Paul  ap- 

particulariy  to  some  partB  of  the  Epiatle  to  pean  to  recognise   a  distinction  between 

the  Gelations,  of  whim  we  ahaU  speak  when  elders,  that  excelled  in  supervision;   and 

we  arrive  at  that  part  of  our  work.  those  who    wen    distinguished  for    their 

BISHOP  is  an  abbnviated  form  of  the  instractions  (1  Tim.  v.  17).    The  original 

Greek  word  <|>iffcopot,  which  signifies  snoiwr-  antithesis  to  hiahop  was  not  pri€$t  (an  ab- 

Meer  or  overlooker*     Bishop  was  the  appella-  bnviation  of  prewyter),  but  deMom ;  that 

tion  given  tothepnsbyten  or  eldcn  of  the  is,  minister,  servant  (see  PhiL  i.  1.   ITim. 

early  Christian  church,  as  denoting  tha  dutj  iii.  10).    But  it  must  not  6e  supposed  that 


BLA  m  BLA 

the  two  offices  of  bishop  and  deacon  were    mslioions  speaking  against  God,  or  some 

separated  and  disttngoished  by  rigid    and    manifestationof  his  power  and  presence.    A 

unyielding  tokens  of  diTersitj.     There  was     few  instances  will  set  this  fact  in  a  dear  light. 

no  sach  thing  as  an  order  in  the  primitive    In  2  Kings  six.  6,  the  seiranta  of  the  king  of 

chorch.    Some  distribntion  of  function  was     Assyria  are  accused  of  having  '  blasphemed 

requisite  for  the  .good  of  the  flock,  and  the     me/  that  is,  Jehovah.  By  referring  to  the  pre- 

difibsion  of  the  gospel ;  but  the  constitution     ceding  chapter  (ver.  19---22),  it  wiU  be  seen 

of  the  primitive  church  was  too  spontaneous     that  their  misdeed  lay  in  deriding  Hezekiah 

and   simple  to  admit  of  any  strict  and  un-     for  putting  his  confidence  in  the  Lord  God  of 

passable  boundaries.  An  apostle  would  not    Israel,  whom  their  master  defied ;  as  Isaiah 

think  himself   dishonoured  by  performing    distinctly]ntimates(2Kingszix.22), 'Whom 

the  duties  of  a  deacon ;  and  a  deacon,  if    hast  thou  reproached  and  blasphemed  ?  and 

possessed  of  the  requisite  aptness  to  teach     against  whom  hast  thou  exalted  thy  voice, 

and  to  rule,  would  not  fail  on  occasions  to     and  lifted  up  thine  eyes  onhig^?  against  the 

discharge  the  duties  of  a  bishop.    Office,     Holy  One  of  Israel'  (comp.  2  Chron.  zzxii. 

function,  and   employment,    depended   on     17).   So  in  Ezek.xxzv.  12,  MountSeir(Idu- 

God's  gifts,  not  on  man's  distinctions  and     mea)  ia  charged  with  'blasphemies,'  which 

arrangements.    Whatever  his  hand  found  to     are  thus  spoken  of  in  die  following  verse,— 

do,  each  disciple  did  with  his  might,  being     '  With  your  moudi  ye  have  boasted  against 

answerable  solely  to  the  great  Head  of  the    me,  and  have  multiplied  your  words  against 

church.  me:  I  have  heard  them.'  The  Hebrew  word 

BITHYNIA,  a  province  in  Lesser  Asia,  hererendered 'blasphemies' denotes eonton^f 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Euxine,  or  (Ps.  cviL  11),  provocaHon  (Isa.  xzzvii.  8, 
Black  Sea ;  on  the  east  by  Paphlagonia ;  on  margin) ;  as  the  Hebrew  word,  in  the  former 
the  south  by  Phrygia ;  and  on  the  west  by  case,  signified  reproach  and  defiance.  So 
Mysia,  with  the  Propontis.  It  was  hilly,  and  the  fact  which  led  to  the  appointment  of  the 
covered  withforests;  the  valleys  afforded  good  penalty  of  death  against  blasphemy  (  Lev.  xziv. 
pasturage;  its  towns  are  not  mentioned  in  10.M9.)wa8,thatamanbomofanl8raelitish 
the  Bible.  Its  inhabitants  have  the  repute  of  woman,  but  having  an  Egyptian  father,  in 
having  been  rude  and  uncultivated ;  yet  must  disputing  with  a  man  of  Israel,  blasphemed 
they,  in  the  times  of  the  New  Testament,  have  the  name  of  the  Lord,  and  cursed.  The  word 
made  some  progress  in  civilisation,  as  it  is  bere  rendered  '  blasphemed '  means  to  use 
evident  from  1  Pet  i  1,  that  the  gospel  had  eutting  and  reviling  words ;  and  that  ren- 
made  converts  in  the  country  (see  Acts  xvi.7).     dered'cursed'  signifies  to  treatasmean,  vile, 

BITTERN  is  the  rendering  of  a  woid  and  worthless.  Hence  it  is  clear,  that,  in  the 
(^Xippohd)  that  occurs  only  four  times  in  the  Old  Testament,  to  bla^heme  is  the  act  of 
Bible.  As  a  verb  (Isa.  zzzviii.  12)  it  is  trans*  idolaters,  in  speaking  contemptuously  or  re- 
lated '  cut  off.'  As  a  noun  (Isa.  xiv.  28 ;  proachAilly  of  the  living  God,  as  if  he  were 
xxxiv.  11.  Zeph.  ii.  14)  it  is  rendered  '  bit-  vanity,  like  their  own  idols ;  it  is  the  denial 
tern.'  From  the  use  of  the  verbal  form,  of  the  divine  existence,  in  injurious  or  in- 
it  is  clear  that  the  quality  of  sharpness  is  suiting  terms,  on  the  part  of  idolaters.  This, 
the  root-meaning  of  the  word.  The  noun  too,  was  the  idea  which  Paul  attached  to  the 
has  been  thought  to  denote  the  hedgehog,  word,  when  in  Bom.  ii.  he  charges  his  fellow 
and  specifically  the  echinus  aquatica,  or  water  Jews  with  dishonouring  God,  through  break- 
urchin  ;  of  which  a  sort  is  found  of  great  size  ing  the  law,  at  the  very  time  that  they  made 
on  the  islands  in  the  Euphrates.  Nor  do  we  their  boast  of  the  law — '  For  the  name  of  God 
see  any  thing  in  the  language  of  the  pas-  is  blasphemed  among  the  Gentiles  through 
sages  in  which  the  term  occurs,  to  render  this  yon'  (yer.  28  and  24).  It  is,  however,  used 
meaning  inappropriate.  On  the  contrary,  in  a  wider  and  looser  manner  in  the  books 
there  is  great  force,  for  instance,  in  the  im-  of  the  New  Testament,  being  rendered  in  the 
plication,  that  foul  and  unsighdy  animals,  CommonVersion 'railed  on' (Luke  xxiii.  39); 
such  as  tile  hedgehog  or  sea-urchin,  should  '  slanderously  reported'  (Bom.  iii.  8) ;  '  evil 
swarm  firom  the  land,  or  from  the  water,  and  spoken  of  (Bom.  xiv.  16);  'defamed' 
take  possession  of  Babylon,  once  the  pride  (1  Cor.  Iv.  18).  The  Jewish  priests,  in  a 
of  its  rulers,  and  the  terror  of  the  eartti.  characteristic  misuse  of  their  power,  trans- 

BLASPHEME  is  a  Greek  word,  denoting  ferred  thatwhich  was  properly  a  crime  against 
to  revUe.  It  is  essentially  connected  with  God,  to  almost  any  thing  which  they  judged 
religion,  and  stands  in  contrast  with  snother  a  wrong  against  themselves.  Hence  they 
Greek  word,  which  we  may  represent  by  imputed  blasphemy  even  to  the  Saviour  of 
e«/i^^«fm«;  this  denoting  to  use  fair  words,  that  the  world,  because  he  said  he  was  the  Son 
to  employ  improper,  unworthy,  iD-omened  of  God  (John  x.  86),  and  because  he  claimed 
or  calumnious  words  in  the  service  of  the  to  be  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  when  adjured 
heathen  deities.  Not  dissimilar  is  the  im-  by  Caiaphas  (Matt  xxvi.  65).  Jesus,  how- 
port  of  the  term  when  applied  to  the  religion  ever,  who  thus  suffered  by  a  moat  guilty 
of  Moses  and  of  Christ.  In  them  also,  to  straining  of  the  Mosaic  law,  would  speak  of 
blatpheme   intended    injurious,    false,    and    blasphemy  only  in  its  strict  and  proper  sense. 

M 


BLA  178  BLE 

In  Matt.  ziL  81,  Sd,  he  hai  deolsnd — *  All     powers  were  extended,  that  1b,  the  last  days  of 
manner  of  ain  and  blasphemy* — that  is,  ao-     Judaiam,  and  the  first  days  of  Christianity; 
cording  to  Hebrsw  usage, '  Uie  sin  ol  bias-     the  age  of  the  Messiah  on  earth,  and  the  age 
phemy  (in  general) —  shall  be  forgiven  imto     of  his  apostles.    The  general  import  of  tibe 
men;  but  the  blasphemy  (not  as  given  in     threatened  penalty  has  been  thus  well  ez- 
Itallca,   wiUkoat  any  eorresponding  Greek     pressed: — 'There    are    calumnies  which, 
words, '  against  the  Holy/  bat)  of  the  Spirit     though  pardoned  with    dii&culty,  will   be 
shall  not  be  fbrgiven  imto  man.    And  whoso-     sooner  pardoned  than  the  particular  kind  of 
ever  shall  (not  '  speak  a  word,'  but)  speak     evil-speaking  now  denounced.' 
against  the  son  of  man,  it  shall  be  forgiven         Let  it,  however,  be  careftiUy  observed,  that 
him ;   but  whosoever  speaketh  against  the     the  punishment  for  blasphemy  is  one  which 
Holy  Spirit,  it  shall  not  be  forgiven  him,     the  Scriptures  give  no  authority  to  man  to 
nei^er  in  this  woild,  neither  in  the  world     take  into  his  own  hands.    The  penalty  of 
to  come.*    This  statement  is  made  in  con-     death  pronounced  by  the  Mosaic  law  passed 
sequence  of  the  imputation  diat  our  Lord     away,  when  the  Mosaic  system  was  abolished 
performed  his  miracles  by  Beelzebol,  that     by  Uie  power  of  Borne,  and  by  the  hand  of 
is,  by  recoarae  to  idolatrous  aid.    The  rea-     ftovidence.  The  Lord  Jesus  left  no  authority 
soning  of  Jesus  coDvicts  the  aooosers  of    to  man  to  act  in  the  case.    It  was  his  to 
being  self-eondemned,  as  well  as  of  the  most     suffer  on  a  groundless  charge  of  blasphemy, 
patent  folly.   Nay,  the  Pharisaic  scribes  seem     not  to  establish  a  tribunal  on  earth  for  pu- 
to  have  gone  so  far  in  their  infatuation  as  to     nishing  constructive,  or  even  actual  bias- 
charge  Jesus  with  being  aetually  possessed    phemies  sgainst  Qod.    We  do  not  extenuate 
by,  and  so  under  the  immediate  influence     the  crime.    To  speak  evil  of  the  Almighty 
of,  demoniacal  power;  for  Mark  (iii  30)     is  the  height  of  folly,  and  a  token  of  a  most 
gives  as  the  reason  of  our  Lord's  language,     depraved  heart    But  vengeance  belongeth 
'Because  they  said.  He  hath  an  unclean     to  Qod;  and  the  wretched  consequences  of 
Spirit'    The  *  blasphemy  of  the  Spirit,'  then,     calumniating  the  divine  name  are  even  now 
consisted   in  charging   Christ  with  being     sufficiently  manifest  to    put    it  beyond   a 
leagued  with  infernal  powers,  in  order  to     doubt,  that  he  does  and  will  reward  those 
practise  deception  on  the  world,  under  the     who  are  guiltyof  it,  according  to  their  works, 
cloak  of  a  divine  eommission.    But  Jesus     Therefore,  if  for  no  other  reason,  let  men 
makes  an  important  distinction.   There  were     abstain.    Qod's  honour  needs  not  ^eir  help, 
here  two  elements — one  regarding  God,  the     Nor  is  there  any  one  voice  of  history  whidi 
other  regarding  Christ      The  latter  is  ex-     is  more  fall  or  more  clear  than  that  the  most 
pressly  and  wisely  exempted  £rom  the  dire    pious  men,  those  who  haUowed  the  name  of 
penalty  pronounced  against  the  former.   The     God  in  their  lives  and  in  their  hearts,  who 
unforgiven  blasphemy  was  not  that  which     held  not  even  life  dear,  so  that  they  might 
was  uttered  against  the  Son  of  man,  but  that    do  and  bear  his  will,  have,  after  the  manner 
which  was  uttered  against  God.    'Thus  true    of  their  revered  Lord  and  Master,  suflHsred 
to  the  original  Mosaic  idea  of  bUaphemy     the  loss  of  aU  things,  under  vague  and  un- 
did our  Lord  remain.    Thus  did  he  exempt    meaning  charges  of  blasphemy,  at  the  hands 
himself  from  any  charge  of  a  selfish  nature ;     of  some  misjudging  priest,  or  some  pliant 
while,  as  jealoua  of  his  Father's  honour,  he     and  unscrupulous  politician, 
declared  the  extreme  guilt  of  ascribing  to         BLASTUS,  an  officer  of  Herod  Agrippa, 
demona  the  obvious  works  of  God.    This,     who  had  the  charge  of  his  bedchsmber,  and 
then,  is  that  blasphemy  which  was  never  to    whom  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre  and  Sidon 
be  forgiven.    And  its   real    and  essential     gained,  inducing  him  to  plead  their  cause 
character  was  the  wilflU  and  insensate  re-     with  the  king,  who  '  was  highly  displeased 
viling  of  the  power  and  worka  of  the  Al-     with  them  of  Tyre  and  Sidon '  (Acts  xlL  20). 
mighty,  by  those  who  saw  that  power  die-         BLESSING  AND   CURSING.  —  A  very 
played,  and  these  works  performed.  Whence     remarkable  instance  of  these  acts  may  be 
it  is  clear  that  this  was  a  sin,  of  necessity     found  in  the  express  directions  given  by 
limited  to  the  primitive  age,  and  which  it  is    Moses  to  the  effect,  that,  when  the  Israelites 
impossible  for  persons  to  commit  now,  after    had  gained  possession  of  the  lend  of  Ca- 
Christ  has  left  the  world,  and  tlie  hand  of    naan,  one  haJfof  the  tribes,  namely,  Simeon, 
God  is  no  longer  visibly  outstretched  to  per-     Levi,  Judah,  Issachar,  Joseph,  and  Benja- 
form   wonderftd  works.      Indeed  the  veiy     min,  should  take  their  stand  on  Mount  Ge- 
words  which  am  commonly  thought  to  show    rizim  to  bless  the  people ;  while  the  other 
that  the  penalty  piononnced  against  Hum    hal^  namely,  Benben,  Gad,  Asher,  Zebuhm, 
blasphemy  ia  never^nding  in  duration,  ap-     Dan,  and  Naphtali,  should  occupy  Mount 
pear  to  us  to  restrict  that  penalty  to  the  pe-     £bal  to  curse.    The  Levites  were  to  be  the 
riod  during  which  the  misdeed  was  possible,     spokesmen  (Deut  xxvii  11).    This  diree- 
—  'neither  in  this  age  {not  world),  neither    tion  was  the  cairying-out  of  the  following 
h!i  the  age  to  come.'—*  This  age  and  the  age    words :  —  *  Behold,  I  set  before  you  tiiis  day 
to  come'  was  an  expression  which  included        blessing  and  a  curse:   a  blessing,  if  ye 
the  entire    space   over  which  miraculous     obey  the  commandments  of  the  Lord  your 


B  L  E                      179  B  L  I 

Ood ;  and  ft  enrse,  if  ye  will  not  obey,  but  was  his  bleBsing  by  birthiight  bad  been 
turn  aside  to  go  after  other  gods'  (Deut  taken  away  by subtiltjr;  and, thoofl^  he  sue- 
zi.26,se9.)*  With  these  instmctionsJoshna  oeeded  in  obtaining  *  blessing  from  his 
seems  to  have  fully  complied, — 'There  was  father,  it  is  clear,  £rom  the  tenor  of  the  nar- 
not  a  word  of  all  that  Moses  eonmianded,  ratiTe,  that  this  second  blessing  was  not 
which  Joshua  read  not  before  all  the  con-  equal  to  the  first,  whioh  had  been  unknow- 
gregation  of  Israel,  with  the  women,  and  the  ingly  pronounced  on  Jaeob.  It  is  also  oh- 
little  ones,  and  the  strangers  that  were  con-  vions  that  the  good  was  tiion|^t  to  reside  in 
▼ersant  among  them'  (Josh.  viiL  33 — 35).  the  act  itself.  A  blessing,  even  if  obtamed 
This  most  impressiTe  obserranee  ^>pears,  by  craft,  was  still  a  blessing :  it  was  pio- 
fh>m  the  words  just  cited,  to  have  been  nouneed,  and  must  take  elfect  (Qen.  zzriL). 
meant  to  act  as  a  public  proclamation  of  The  import  of  the  term  blemAng  is  of  the 
the  requirements  of  the  law  before  the  largest  kind.  Perhaps  no  Hebrew  word  corn- 
assembled  nation,  in  order  that  none  might  prises  more.  All  good,  from  com  snd  wine, 
plead  the  excuse  of  ignorance  for  disobedi-  and  servants  (Gen.  zzviL  37),  to  the  height 
ence ;  and  in  this  light,  the  command,  and  of  national  prosperity,  and  the  bliss  of  eter- 
the  falfilment  of  it,  manifest  a  wisdom  and  a  nity  (£ph.  i.  3),  is  embraced  in  die  word; 
benignity  which  modem  lawgivers  would  do  and  it  is  specifically  used  as  a  general  term 
well  to  imitate :  but  a  fiuiher  purpose  seems  to  express  the  benign  action  of  those  domes- 
to  have  been  contemplated  and  secured.  In  tic  affBctions  whieh,  next  to  their  piety,  were 
the  East,  both  blessing  and  cursing  are  un-  the  strongest  sentiments  of  the  Hebrew  heart 
derstood  to  be  more  than  the  mere  ezpres-  (2  Sam.  vi.  20). 

sion  of  wishes.  They  have  a  power  to  realise  BLINDNE  S8. — There  are  eircnmstanees 
the  desire  which  they  express^  This  power  peculiar,  in  a  measure,  to  the  East,  whieh 
varies  as  toitssource,being derived  sometimes  cause  blindness  to  be  more  frequent  there 
from  Ood,  the  great  source  of  sU  power;  at  than  with  us.  The  heat  of  the  sun  is  very 
other  times  from  the  sanctity  of  him  whose  great ;  and  it  is  rendered  more  iigurious  to 
lips  give  utterance  to  the  wish ;  at  othen^  the  eyes  from  the  dry  burning  rock  from 
tnm  the  sacredness  of  the  spot,  or  the  so-  which  it  is  in  many  parts  reflected,  and  the 
lemnity  of  the  occasion,  on  which  the  desire  great  contrast  of  temperature  caused  by  the 
is  declared.  These  opinions  find  their  origin  cold  and  the  dew  of  night,  which  is  felt  with 
and  their  support  in  the  earliest  events  re-  especial  force,  owing  to  the  prevalent  habit 
corded  in  the  Bible.  No  sooner  had  the  of  sleeping  unsheltered  in  the  open  air. 
Almighty  created  sentient  beings,  than  he  Then  the  abundanoe  of  dust  and  the  fine 
blessed  them,  and  bade  them  multiply  (Gen.  grains  of  sand  which  prevail,  sometimes 
i.  22).  Man  also  he  blessed ;  and  said, '  Be  loading  the  atmosphere,  and  in  heavy  winds 
fruitful,  replenish  the  earth,  and  subdue  it'  acting  on  opposing  bodjes  with  great  force, 
(ver.  28).  A  curse  slso  was  pronounced  on  tend  veiy  much  to  increase  tibe  sources 
the  serpent  that  tempted  Eve  (Gen.  iii  14),  as  whence  haras  may  come  to  the  sight  In 
well  as  on  Cain  for  having  shed  his  brother^s  Cairo,  Volney  reekons  that  one  in  every  him- 
blood  (Gen.  It.  11).  The  language  em-  died  of  the  inhabitants  is  blind;  andTott 
ployed  by  Jehovah,  on  calling  Abraham  to  makes  the  total  number  of  blind  persons 
leave  his  native  land,  is  full  of  signification  living  in  that  city,  four  thousand.  In  Syria 
on  the  point  before  us :  — '  I  will  make  of  the  proportion  is  less,  except  on  the  sea- 
thee  a  great  nation,  and  make  thy  name  coast;  die  cold  from  the  ocean  being  thought 
great ;  and  thou  shalt  be  a  blessing.  And  detrimental  to  the  eyes.  If  the  number  of 
I  will  bless  them  that  bless  thee,  and  curse  blind  persons  that  appear  in  the  evangelists 
him  that  curseth  thee ;  and  in  thee  shall  all  is  great  (Matt  ix.  27 ;  xii.  22 ;  xx.  30 ;  xxL 
families  of  the  earth  be  blessed'  (Gen.  xii.  14.  John  t.  3),  we  must  remember  that  the 
2,  3).  Especial  value  was  attached  to  the  afflicted  would  naturally  resort  to  Jesus, 
blessing  formally  pronounced  by  a  dying  whose  fame  for  healing  was  great,  and  who 
patriarch,  which  seems  to  have  gone  beyond  would  at  first  at  least  be  reguded  as  some 
the  expression  of  a  good  wish,  and  come  to  great  physician.  In  the  East,  at  the  present 
be  accounted  a  necessary  act  in  the  trans-  day,  the  presence  of  a  physician  of  small 
mission  of  property  and  privileges:  and  as  old  notoriety  would  bring  around  him  a  crowd 
age  was,  by  its  freedom  from  the  grosser  of  sick  people  in  every  quarter.  Doubtless 
pleasuies,  and  its  proximity  to  the  eternal  the  want  of  skill  in  the  tiestment  of  diseases 
worid,  held  to  possess  a  kind  of  divining,  if  of  the  eyes  made  blindness  more  common, 
not  an  actually  prophetic,  faculty ;  so  among  by  allowing,  or  even  causing,  curable  disor- 
the  last  acts  of  Isaac  and  Jacob  we  find  bless-  ders  to  issue  in  total  privation  of  sight  At 
ings  formally  pronounced,  which  were  at-  the  present  day,  the  notions  respecting  the 
tended  by  great  solemnity,  and  carried  with  uncontrollable  power  and  inevitable  tenden- 
them  the  highest  sanctions.  Hence  the  eies  of  fiite,  whioh  prevail  wherever  Islam- 
anxiety  of  Bebekah  and  Jacob  to  anticipate  ism  has  sway,  have  groat  power  to  augment 
Esau  in  procuring  Jacob's  blessing;  and  the  number  of  diseases,  to  enhance  their 
hence  Esau*s  anguish  in  learning,  that  what  virulence,  and  to  provent  their  euro.    The 


B  L  O  180  B  L  O 

MotAio  law,  boweTer,  whieh  was  flnee  from  bcnoe  we  infer  thai  Moses  adopted  ii  as  part 

this  blighting  error,  took  the  blind,  with  oha-  of  that  eonsnetadinary  code  of  laws  whidh* 

raeteristic  eonsideration,  under  its  care  (Ler.  like  erery  other  legislator,  he  was  bound  to 

ziz.  14.    Dent  zxrii.  18).    On  the  general  respect    Such  adoption,  howerer,  implies 

principle,  howerer,  that  nothing  but  perfee-  some  degree  of  approval,  especially  as,  In 

tion  should  be  oflbred  to  or  engaged  in  the  IhiM  ease,  the  additional  sanction  derived 

serrioe  of  Ood,  neither  blind  nor  lame  per-  from  its  atoning  efficacy  made  the  obser- 

sonswere  allowed  to  bepriests  (Ler.  zzi.  18).  Tance  more  imperatire  and  stringent   What, 

In  the  time  of  Jesos,  blindness,  as  well  as  then,  we  are  led  to  ask,  coold  be  the  eiiemn- 

other  diseases,  was  ascribed  to  demoniaeal  stsnees  out  of  whieh  this  prohibition  grew? 

inflnenee  (Matt  zii.  24) ;  a  fact  which  shows  We  find  them  in  the  low  tendencies  and 

to  what  an  extent  the  working  of  that  evil  semi-barbarons  habits  of  primeyal  ages,  when 

power  was  carried  in  the  mind  of  oar  Lord's  eren  cannibalism  wss  not  an  impossibility, 

contemporaries.  In  the  healing  of  the  blind,  and  ttie  devouring  of  the  yet  reeking  blood 

Christ  touched  them  witti  his  finger  (Matt  of  the  animal  killed  in  the  chase  would  be 

is.  29 ;  XX.  84)  :  once  he  made  clay  of  spit-  a  delicacy  too  tempting  to  be  resisted,  and 

tie,  and  anointed  the  eyes  of  the  blind  (John  too  brutallsfaig,  if  suffered  to  become  habi- 

ix.  6).    Some  have  made  use  of  these  fiiets  tusl,  not  to  destroy  the  first  tender  germina- 

to  show  that  it  was  by  natural  means, — by  tions  of  humsn  culture.  To  srrest  tendencies 

some,  we  know  not  what,  medical  appliances  so  degrading,  an  entire  prohibition  of  blood 

—  that  our  Lord  opened  the  eyes  of  die  for  food  was  indispenssble.     Such  a  course 

blind.    But  there  is  no  ground  for  the  alle-  was  the  more  necessary,  beeanse  delight  in 

gation.    These  acts  were  purely  designed  to  eating  ttie  blood  of  animals  would  easily  lead 

draw  attention  alike  to  the  sulliBrer  and  to  his  to  disregard  of  human  blood ;  and  thus  the 

physician,  thus  connecting  Jesus  himself  Uib  of  man  would  have  been  stripped  of  its 

immediately  with  the  cure,  snd  precluding  best  security,  at  a  time  when  its  preservation 

the  possibility  of  any  other  agency  being  was  of  die  utmost  importance.    This  view 

imagined  or  asserted.  is  strongly  coiroborated  by  the  Cie^  that  the 

BLOOD. — Along  with  the  renewal,  alter  same  occasion  which  led  to  this  prohibition 

die  deluge,  of  the  gift  to  man  of  all  the  ani-  prompted  those  veiy  emphatic  woida  in  which 

mala  of  the  earth,  there  was  this  prohibi-  human  life  is  guarded  by  all  the  authority  of 

tion :  —  *  But  flesh  with  the  life  thereof^  the  heaven,  and  all  the  sanction  of  a  fearful  re- 

blood  thereof;  shall  ye  not  eat '  (Gen.  ix.  4).  tribution  (Oen.  ix.  5,  6) .    In  Eastern  conn- 

This  is  the  first  record  of  a  requirement  that  tries,  men  partake  only  to  a  small  extent  in 

afterwards  became  an  important  law  in  the  the  respect  for  human  life  which  prevails 

Mosaic  i>olity,  in  which  blood  was  forbidden  here  in  the  present  day ;  and  the  prof^on 

to  be  eaten  under  the  penalty  of  death  (Lev.  with  which  blood  was  shed  by  the  Israelites, 

iiL  17;   viL  26,  27).    The  following  Ian-  on  their  invading  Canaan,  shows  that  no 

guage  is  fhll  of  import :  — '  Whatsoever  man  precaution  was   superfluous   which   would 

of  die  house  of  Israel,  or  of  the  strangers  tend  to  make  them  less  disregardfol  of  the 

that  sojourn  among  you,  eateth  any  msnner  lives  of  their  fellow-men.    llie  exjierience 

of  blood,  I  will  even  set  my  face  against  that  of  the  last  century  goes  also  to  prove,  that 

soul  that  eateth  blood,  and  will  cut  him  off  respect  for  human  life  is  spread  abroad  only 

from  among  his  people.    For  the  life  of  the  by  slow  degrees,  under  the  growing  and  pre- 

flesh  is  in  the  blood ;  and  I  have  given  it  to  dominating  influence  of  a  truly  Christian 

you  upon  the  sltar,  to  make  an  atonement  civilisation.    Even  yet,  capital  punishments, 

for  your  souls:  for  it  is  the  blood  that  mak-  though  diminished  in  number,  have  not 

eth  an  atonement  for  the  soul*  (Lev.  xvii.  come  to  an  end.    An  influence,  then,  was 

10,  aeq.y    An  idea,  then^  of  the  saeredness  not  to  be  disregarded,  which  invested  the 

oi  the  blood  lay  at  the  foundation  of  the  life-blood  of  man  and  beast  with  a  reh'gions 

Mosaic  prohibition.    First,  this  idea  of  sa-  sanetily;  and  we  may  even  yet  take  a  lesson 

credness  was  derived  tnm  a  b^ef  that  the  from  the  great  Noaehian  precept :  — 'Whoso 

blood  essentislly  and  emphaticaUy  held  the  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  him  Shall  his  blood 

principle  of  life, — abelief  which  yet  lingers,  be  shed '  (Gen.  ix.  6).     But  while  these  re- 

though  in  a  somewhat  indefinite  shape,  mtakM  tend  to  assign  the  origin,  and  justify 

among  vulgar  errors.    In  the  second  place,  the  existence,  of  the  prohibition  in  question ; 

when  this  belief  had  led  to  the  introduction  tibey  also  lead  to  the  conclusion,  that  the 

of  the  sprinkling  of  blood,  &o.  into  religious  whole  cluster  of  ideas  connected  therewith, 

rites,  a  new  sanction  was  given  to  the  ori-  being  fitted  only  for  a  rudlmental  state  of 

ginal  prohibition ;  for  as  the  blood  was  held  society,  has  been  antiquated  and  set  aside 

to  be  the  atoning  principle  in  the  sacrifices,  by  the  spirit  and  workings  of  the  nobler  law 

so  the  eating  of  it  could  not  fail  to  be  re-  ot  Christian  truth ;  nor  is  it  a  little  strange 

garded  with  a  sort  of  holy  aversion.    By  that  any  well-informed  followers  of  Jesus 

referring  to  the  command  given  to  Noah,  we  should  have  been  found,  at  least  in  modem 

find  the  prohibition  to  eat  blood  was  in  exist-  times,  who  considered  themselves  obliged  to 

enoe  long  prior  to  the  days  of  Moses ;  and  abstain  from  eating  blood.     Scarcely  less 


B  L  O                       181  BOA 

•traoge  ie  it  that  tome  ahonld  regard  as  an  the  inteipoaition  of  the  proper  anthorities. 

essential  in  Christianity,  an  idea  whieh  snited  Those  who  oonunitted  manalanghter  had  a 

only  the  ehildhood  of  ^e  human  mind  in  reftage  proyided  for  them,  into  which  they 

which  it  arose,  and  to  which  it  was  peculiar  mi^t  floe  and  find  protection.    But  theie 

-—  we  allude  to  those  words  which  merely  would  not  fail  to  be  oases  in  which  doubts 

express  what  was  a  fact  in  the  Mosaic  cere-  existed,  whether  the  death  was  msuslanghter 

monies,  butidiioh  some  have  misinteipreted  or  murder.  He,  therefore,  who  had  killed  a 

into  a  principle  of  the  divine  goyemment  in  fellow-creature,  had  the  privilege  of  an  appeal 

the  gospel :  — '  Without  shedding  of  blood  to  a  legal  tribunal ;  in  the  cities  of  refuge, 

is  no  remission '  (Heb.  ix.  22).  he  foimd  at  once  an  asylum,  and  a  properly 

On  most  occasions  under  the  law,  the  offer-  constituted  court  of  inquiry.    If  the  death 

ing  of  animals  was  accompanied  by  the  proved  to  have  been  accidental,  saliety  was 

sprinkling  of  their  blood  at  the  altar  and  guaranteed  to  the  man-slayer  in  his  city  of 

the   mercy-seat     Especially  did  this  take  reftige,  till  the  death  of  the  high  priest — 

place  on  the  great  day  of  atonement,  as  a  a  limitation  which  seems  to  have  been  im- 

symbolofreconciliation  and  forgiveness  (Lev.  posed  because  the  entrance  of  a  new  high 

xvi.  14 — 19).   Accordingly,  in  that  system  of  priest  on  his  office  may  have  brought  with  it 

aUusion  to  tiie  observances  of  the  law,  which  a  general  amnesty.      The  legal  directions 

was  not  only  natural  but  inevitable  in  Jewish  regarding  this  matter  may  be  found  in  the 

writers,  the  penmen  of  the  New  Testament,  following  passages  of  Scripture:-— Numb, 

while  Uiey  find  a  constsnt  correspondence  xxxv.  0,  ieq,  Deut  xix.  1,  ieq. 

between  the  death  of  Christ  and  the  Jewish  BOANEBOES. — A  descriptive  title,  given 

sacrifices,  especiaUy  speak  of  his  blood  shed  by  our  Saviour  to  the  apostles,  James  the  son 

for  the  redemption  of  the  worlds  as  '  the  of  Zebedee,  and  John  the  brother  of  James, 

blood  of  sprinkling,  that  speaketh  better  The  fact  is  mentioned  by  Hark  only  (iii.  17), 

things  than  that  of  Abel '  (Heb.  xil.  24 ;  who  has  supplied  an  interpretation  of  the 

X.  19.   1  Pet  i.  2).  term,  namely,  *  sons  of  thunder.'    The  word 

BLOOD,  AVENGER  OF. — It  is  as  adio-  appears  to  be  of  Aramaic  origin,  affected  in 

tateofthe  heart,  so  a  universal  custom  among  its  form  by  the  thick  pronunciation  of  the 

mankind,for  relatives  to  stand  by  each  other ;  dialect  of  Galilee.    The  reason  why  the  name 

aud,  in  the  case  of  the  murder  of  a  member  (thunderers,  or  lovers  of  thunder)  was  given 

of  ihe  family,  for  the  next  of  kin  to  avenge  to  James  and  John,  does  not  appear  from 

his  death.    This  avenging  has,  of  course,  any  express  statement;  and  the  learned  have 

varied  with  times  snd  msnners.    At  present,  been  divided  in  opinion  on   the   subject 

appeal,  in  civilised  countries,  is  made  to  the  Some  have  thought  the  epithet  was  intended 

law ;  in  only  half-oivilised  states  of  society,  to  denote  fervour  of  soul ;  others,  eloquence 

as  in  some  districts  of  America,  to  such  re-  of  tongue :  but  neither  of  these  qualities  cor- 

sources  as  the  avenger  may  possess  in  him-  responds,  in  any  special  degree,  with  what  is 

sel^  or  may  be  able  to  call  into  action  on  the  known  of  the  characters  of  these  apostles ; 

part  of  other  individuals.    Among  the  In-  and  the  term,  if  it  denote  either  of  these 

dians  of  that  continent,  vengeance  for  the  qualities,  would  have  been  more  suitable  to 

death,  at  least,  of  a  chief,  was  accounted  the  Peter  and  PauL    A  more  probable  opinion 

first  and  most  urgent  dutgr  of  the  whole  tribe,  is,  that  the  epithet  had  reference  to  the  re- 

And  still,  iu  eastern  parts  of  the  European  quest  preferred  by  James  and  John,  that  our 

continent,  the  obligation  of  enforcing  the  ter-  Lord  would  call  down  fire  (lightning)  from 

rible  law  of '  an  eye  for  an  eye,'  lies  with,  and  heaven  on  the  inhospitable  Samaritan  village 

is  honoured  by,  &»  relatives  of  a  sufferer,  in  (Luke  ix.  04),  a  part  of  Christ's  rebuke,  on 

a  degree  varying  directly  with  the  nearness  which  occasion  Uds  term  may  have  been, 

of  blood.    This  custom,  which  has,  even  in  Nor  is  it  any  objection  that  the  event  here 

modem  times,  led  to  frightAil  devastations  of  spoken  of,  happened  at  a  later  period  than 

human  life,  existed  in  the  eariiest  periods  that  to  which  the  passage  in  Mark  refers, 

of  Hebrew  history ;  and  was  found  by  Moses  since  it  is  rather  with  the  record  than  the 

as  a  part  of  the  materials  with  which  he  had  fSacts  that  we  have  to  do.    It  is  confirmatory 

to  deal,  in  forming  a  herd  of  slaves  into  a  of  the  view  now  suggested,  that  James  and 

civilised  nation  (Gen.  xxvii.  45.  2  Sam.  xiv.  John  do  not  appear  to  have  taken  this  epithet 

4,  8eg.),  What  could  he  do  ?   An  entire  pro-  as  a  name,  after  the  manner  of  Peter.    The 

hibition  of  the  custom,  had  such  an  idea  word  was  intended,  not  as  a  eulogy,  but  a 

occurred  to  him,  would  have  been  nugatory,  rebuke,  in  the  same  way  as  Peter  was  desig- 

The  great  features  in  the  character  of  a  peo-  nated  by  Jesus,   '  Satan '  and  '  an  offence ' 

pie  are  not  to  be  changed  by  a  few  words  of  (Matt  xvi  23). 

command.  It  was  more  wise  to  adopt  the  BOAB.  —  The  wild  boar,  of  a  species  pro- 
custom  in  such  a  way  as  to  set  bounds  to  its  bably  the  same  as  the  Indian  hog,  is  a  native 
observance,  and  put  an  end  to  its  worst  of  Palestine,  where  it  is  still  found.  The 
abuses,  lliis  was  the  course  that  Moses  original  Hebrew  word  occurs  in  the  following 
took.  A  clear  case  of  murder  he  left  to  be  Scriptures: — Lev.  xi.  7.  Deut  xiv.  8.  Ps: 
dfislt  with  by  the  blood-avenger,  through  lxxx.ia.  Prov.ziiL22.  laa.lxv.4;  lzvL8,17; 


BOA 


182 


BO  A 


in  aH  of  which  it  is  rendered  into  English 
by  *  swine/  except  in  Ps.  Izxx.  13,  where  ob- 
Tionsly  the  wild  boar  is  intended.  In  this 
ptssage  it  makes  part  of  a  forcible,  if  not 
qaite  correct,  allegoiy  —  Israel  being  com- 
pared to  a  Tine  brought  oat  of  Egypt :  — *  The 
boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it'  It  ap- 
pears to  be  not  unnmal  in  the  East  lor  boars 
to  msh  into  vmeyards  and  other  planta- 
tions, where,  by  eating,  trampling,  and  par- 
ticularly by  taming  up  and  tearing  with  dieir 
anoots  and  tasks,  they  commit  yery  great 
devastation.  On  this  account  it  was  cas- 
tomary  in  Oreece  to  sacrifice  a  hog  to  Ceres 
when  harrest  began,  and  another  to  Bacchus 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Tintage. 

The  swine  was  forbidden  for  food  to  tlie 
Hebrews  — '  Thou^  he  divide  the  hoof  end 
be  doten-footed,  yet  he  eheweth  the  cud :  be 
is  unclean  to  you '  (Lev.  xi.  7).  The  reason 
assigned  by  Michaelis  for  this  prohibition 
is,  £at  swine's  flesh  has  a  tendency  to  fos- 
ter cutaneous  diseases,  to  which  the  Israel- 
ites were  specially  liable ;  the  leprosy  being 
endemic  in  Palestine  and  the  neighbouring 
eountries,  while  it  actually  afflicted  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  when  they  left  Egypt  Hence 
we  may  see  why  the  aToidance  of  swine's 
flesh  preTsJled  with  their  neighbours,  namely, 
the  Phoenicians,  the  Arabs,  and  the  Egyptians. 
Buch  avoidance  was  a  practical  regnlatioo, 
designed  for  the  preservation  of  the  health, 
against  a  widely-spread  liability  to  disease. 
The  contempt  in  which  swine  were  held  in 
Egypt  is  illustrated  by  a  monumental  pic- 
ture representing  a  wicked  sou],  after  having 
been  weighed  in  the  balance  of  judgment 
and  found  wanting,  as  returning  to  the 
troubles  and  trials  of  earth,  in  the  body  and 
shape  of  a  hog. 

BOATS  of  different  sorts  were  used  on  the 
river  Nile.    One  kind  was  made  of  rushes, 
pitched  on  the  inside  and  on  the  outside, 
as  described  in  the  article  Bulbush.    An- 
other description  were  boats  of  burden,  built 
by  what  we   should   term   ship-carpenters, 
lliey  are  said  to  have  been  built  of  a  thorn 
wood,  very  aimilar  to  the  lotus  of  Gyrene. 
Of  this  tree  the  builders  cut  planks,  which 
were  bound  within  by  bands  of  papyrus,  and 
without  by  a  series  of  girths.     A  rudder  was 
put  through  the  keel ;  a  mast  of  thorn-wood 
was  set  up,  which  had  sails  of  the  rind  of 
the  papyrus.     These  boats  were  carried  up 
the  stream  ei&er  by  a  tow-line  or  by  the 
wind.    In  descending  the  river,  the  course 
of  the  boat  was  directed  and  made  steady  by 
a  hurdle  floating  at  the  head,  and  a  stone 
drawing  at  the  stem.     Some  of  these  boats 
were  capable  of  carrying  a  very  great  amount 
of  goods.    Such,  in  substance,  is  the  account 
given  by  the  Greek  historian,  Herodotus  (ii. 
06),  which  may  be  considered  as  in  the  main 
correctly  representing  the  large   boats  or 
lighters,  which  were  employed  in  the  trans- 
port of  goods,  and,  with  the  needful  modifi- 


eations,  the  pleasure  boats,  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians. 

In  the  Old  Testament  there  is  but  one 
mention  of  a  boat,  namely  in  2  Sam.  six.  18, 
where  it  is  said, '  There  went  over  (Jordan) 
a  ferry-boat  to  cany  over  the  king's  house- 
hold : '  the  meaning  of  the  term  is  not  an- 
■uitably  rendered  by  <  fezry-boat'  This  boat 
was  a  sort  of  skifll  The  term  boat  is  also 
made  use  of  in  the  New  Testament,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  means  of  passing  over  the  Lake 
of  GalUee  (John  vL  22).  Two  kinds  of 
vessels — a  smaller,  boat,  and  a  larger,  ship 
—  appear  to  have  been  in  use  on  this  lovely 
sheet  of  water.  The  ships,  however,  were 
only  a  larger  Und  of  boats. 


AVCIENT  EOTPTIAK  BOAT. 


MODKBV  BOAT  OH  THE  HILB.    »''<««'•••• 

BOAZ  (H.  9tr€ngth),*%  mighty  man  of 
wealth,'  a  Bethlehemite,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
son  of  Salmo  and  Bahab.  He  married  Buth, 
and  so  became  a  progenitor  of  David.  He 
was  also  brother  of  Elimelech,  whose  son 
Mahlon  was  Bath's  first  husband.  Elime- 
lech and  Mshlon  dying,  left  the  family  with 
a  smaU  property.  This  being  insafiicient, 
Buth,  claiming  the  right  which  Moses  had 
benignantly  reserved  to  the  poor  (Lev.  xix.  9), 
went  to  glean  in  the  field  of  her  relative  Boas, 
by  whom  she  was  kindly  treated.  Encou- 
raged  by  this,  Naomi,  her  mother-in-law, 
requested  Buth  to  avail  herself  of  that  pro- 
vision in  the  Mosaic  law  by  which  the  bro- 
ther (Gen.  xxrviii.  8.  Dent  xrv.  6),  or,  as 
interpreted  in  the  book  of  Buth  (iiL  12),  the 
nearest  kinsman,  of  the  deceased  husband 
was  to  msrzy  the  widow,  in  case  there  was 
no  offspring.  Bath  accordingly  made  the 
claim,  which   Boas  was  weU   disposed  to 


B  O I                     183  BON 

allow;   but  the  nuuniage  would  not  have  Where,  then,  would  have  been  the  sign  and 

been  legal,  for  there  waa  a  nearer  kinsman  the  message  to  Pharaoh,  if  his  subjects  had 

than  himself.    The  latter,  howerer,  on  an  been  smitten  by  an  ordinary  and  well-known 

appeal  being  made  to  him,  renounced  his  disorder?    The  Tery  purpose  for  which  diese 

rights;  on  which,  Boaz  bought  Naomi's  pro-  boils  and   blains  were   inflicted,  required 

perty,  and  took  Buth  in  marriage ;  thus  re-  tikem  to  be  something  altogether  eitraor- 

deeming  the  decayed  family  of  his  deceased  dinary.     The  Hebrew  word  rendered  h&U 

brother,  and  rewarding  the  filial  piety  of  one  oomes  firam  a  root  that  signifies  to  harden, 

of  the  most  interesting  female  characters  thenoe  to  in^lamt ;  as  a  noun,  wt/Sommafton. 

recorded  hi  history.  This  inflanimation  broke  out  in  pustules 

These  CTents  refer  to  an  unknown  period  and  ulcers ;  for  this  is  the  signification  of 

in  the  age  of  the  Judges-— an  age  of  great  the  Hebrew  term  translated  hUmu,  from  a 

simplicity  of  manners ;  a  feature  which  must  root  that  means  to  bubble  or  boUfoHh, 

be  borne  in  mind  by  those  who  intend  to  BOLLBD  is  a  word  need  in  Ezod.  iz.  81 ; 

pass  judgment  on  tiie  conduct  of  Boas,  or  ^  For  the  bailey  was  in  the  ear,  and  the  flax 

tfiat  of  Huth.    If,  to  modem  apprehensions,  was  boiled.'    The  word  *  boiled '  is  the  rej»e- 

there  should  appear  in  the  book  any  thing  of  sentative  of  a  Hebrew  term  which  denotes 

questionable  propriety,  the  absence  of  apo-  that  the  flax  was  forming  its  seed  pods.    In 

logy,  and  tibie  unsophisticated  tone  of  the  nar-  agreement  with  which,  '  to  boll '  means  to 

rative,  may  justify  the  conyiction  that  nothing  rue  otU  in  a  round f omit  ^  noell  out.     Hence 

of  flie  kind  existed  in  the  minds  of  either  the  Holland,  in  his  LiTy,  uses  the  word  as  equi- 

actors  of  the  events,  or  those  who  nairated  Talent  to  cup : — *  A  little  boll  or  cup,  to  sa- 

them.  orifice  unto  the  gods  withaL'    In  Egypt,  to 

Amid  the  conflicts  and  confdsion  exhibited  which  the  passage  in  Exodus  refers,  flax  is 

in  the  book  of  Judges,  the  character  of  Boaz,  sown  in  the  autumn, and  gathered  in  March; 

in  connection  with  the  fiunily  of  his  brother,  a  fact  that  shows  the  accordance  of  the  words 

affords  a  very  interesting  view  of  tranquil  with  the  time  of  the  year,  as  known  from 

life ;  and  may  serve  to  assure  us,  that,  even  other  parts  of  the  histoiy  of  the  redemption 

in  disturbed   social  periods,  there  is  true  of  tlie  Israelites  from  the  hands  of  Pharaoh, 

peace,  as  well  as  true  happiness,  to  be  found  BONDAGE  (T.  state  of  being  m  bond*)  is 

in  the  bosom  of  society.    The  picture  before  a  term  representing  a  condition  of  human 

us  is  the  more  valuable,  because  it  supplies  beings  deprived  of  personal  freedom.    The 

an  example  of  the  upper  as  well  as  of  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  original  comprises  the 

humbler  class  of  the  Hebrew  conunonwealtb.  import  of  three  Hebrew  words: — ^I.  Kahvash, 

The  conduct  and  bearing  of  Boaz  is  that  of  which    signifies   to    euhdue  or  enelave :  — 

a  true  geoUeman — honourable,  considerate,  II.  Aksar,  which  means  to  bind : —  III.  Oah' 

benign,  and  dignified.    We  also  see  that  the  vad,  which  has  the  import  of  to  $erve.    The 

character  did  not  then  require  for  its  sup-  first  denotes  the  way  in  which  slaves  were 

port  any  aflbctation  of  superiority.    Though  made ;  the  second,  the  means  taken  to  secure 

elevated  by  his  riches,  as  well  as  his  position  captives,  and  the  relation  in  which  they  were 

and  personal  qualities,  Boaz  does  not  hesi-  held;  the  third,  the  condition  of  labour  and 

tate  to  marry  his  poor  widowed  relative,  who  service  to  which  they  were  reduced.     We 

had  gleaned  in  his  ample  fields.    There  was  have  here  a  brief  history  of  slavery.    Its 

no  invidious  distinction  of  ranks  in  his  days;  origin  is  force;  its  immediate  results,  the 

or,  if  so  gfreat  an  evil  existed,  Boaz  had  ele-  deprivation  of  human  rights ;  its  permanent 

vation  of  mind  sufficient  to    disregard  its  consequences,  toil  and  woe.    Slavery  owes 

demands.  its  existence  to  war,  —  to  the  right  of  the 

BOILS,  breaking  forth  with  blains  upon  strongest.    Its  farther  history  can  be  only  a 

man  and  beast  throughout  all  the  land,  record  of  injustice  and  suffering.    We  also 

formed  the  sixth  plague  of  Egypt  (Exod.  learn  that  slavery  existed  in  the  eariiest  pe- 

ix.  8,  teq,).    Attempts  to  ascertain  the  pre-  riods  of  human  society.      The  reason   is, 

else  nature  of  this  disorder,  can,  at  this  that  in  these,  might  was  too  generally  and 

distance  of  time,  be  attended  with  only  in-  too  long  the  sole  right.    The  history  of  the 

considerable  results,  the  more  so  because  words  by  which  slavery  is  denoted,  is  its  con- 

the  infliction  was  miraculously  superinduced,  demnation.  The  force  of  this  history  escapes 

If  the  boils  and  blains  are  to  be  found  in  trom  notice  in  our  Latin  terms,  slave  and 

some  disease  natural  to  Egypt,  some  natural  slavery  f  and  we  could  therefore  wish  that  the 

representative  ought  surely  to  be  found  of  Saxon   equivalents,  *  bondage/  '  bondmen,' 

their  immediate  cause,  namely,  ashes  of  the  'bondwomen' — which  have  in  themselves 

furnace  sprinkled  towards  heaven.    Refer-  meaning  to  every  one  who  knows  as  well  as 

ence  has,  indeed,  been  made  to  *  tbe  botch  speaks  English,  should  come  into  general 

of  Egypt,'  the  elephantiasis  (Beat  xxviii.  use,  to  describe  the  unhappy  state  in  which, 

27),  as  essentially  the  same  with  these  boils  contrary  to  the  law  of  nature,  as  well  as  the 

and  blains.     But  the  botch  was  most  clearly  spirit  and  aims  of  the  gospel,  myriads  of  our 

in  ordinary  disease,  so  well  known  as  to  be  fellow-creatures  are  still  forcibly  held, 

popularly  spoken  of  as  <  the  botch  of  Egypt*  The  Hebrew  terms  denoting  *  slave '  and 


BON  184  BON 

*  dftTery'  tre  generally  Englished  by  'seirftnt'  or  omel  punishment  (Ezod.  xxi.  20,  26) :  if 
and  *  serrice/  which  at  the  present  day  dis-  a  servant  lost  an  eye  or  a  tooth  from  a  blow 
goise  the  proper  import  of  the  Scriptural  giyen  by  his  master,  he  was  at  once  set  free. 
history.  '  Servsnt'  is  indeed  derived  from  III.  Slaves  were  to  join  the  family  in  their 
the  Latin  »ervu$,  which  signifies  a  slave,  rqoicings  on  leligions  fiestive  occasions 
Bnt  <  servant'  has  long  been  need  to  denote  (Dent  ziL  12, 18 ;  rvL  11, 14).  IV.  Freedom 
a  free  labonier.  Serviee,  however,  among  the  at  the  year  of  Jnbilee,  and  the  bondman  was 
Hebrews  was  in  part  bondage  or  slavery.  not  to  go  away  empty : —  *  Thon  shalt  ftunish 

Hebrew  servants  were  bondmen  and  bond-    him  liberally  ont  of  thy  flock,  and  oat  of  thy 
maids,  generally  of  foreign  extraotioD,  vAo    floor,  and  out  of  thy  winepress;'  the  reason 
so  far  constitated  a  part  of  the  funily  as  to     aastgned  is  forcible:  — *  ThovL  shalt  lemem- 
besnlgected  to  tfie  distinctive  right  of  Israel-     ber  that  thou  wast  a  bondman  in  the  land  of 
ites,  namely,  circomcisiou  ( Oen.  zvii  28, 27  ).     Egypt,  and  the  Lord  thy  God  redeemed  thee' 
They  were  obtained  either  by  war,  the  prison-     (Beat  xv.  13,  teq. :  comp.  Exod.  xxi.  2—4 ). 
ers  whose  lives  were  spared  being  reduced    V.  A  servant  might  not  wish  to  leave  his 
into  slavery  (Nomb.  xxxi.  26,  $eq.) ;  by  pur-     master's  house:  having  been  treated  well,  he 
chase,  then  termed  'bought  vriUi  money'    had  become  one  of  the  family.    If  therefore 
(Gen.  xvii.  28);  or  they  were  children  of    he  'shall  plainly  say,  I  love  my  master,  my 
slaves,  *bom  in  his  house'  (Cren.  xviL  23).     wife,  my  children,  I  will  not  go  out  fi«e,^-> 
It  was  not  permitted  to  take  into  bondage,     then  shall  his  master  bring  him  unto  the 
nor  to  deliver  up  to  their  masters,  slaves    judges,  and  (on  their  ascertaining  the  alleged 
that   had   made   their  esc^ie,   and  taken     facts)  shall  bring  him  to  the  door-post,  snd 
refuge  with  the  Israelites  (Deut  xxiii.  16,     bore  his  ear  through  with  an  awl,  and  he 
teq.).     We  find  the  legal  value  of  a  num-     shall  serve  him  for  ever'  (Exod.  xxi.  6,  6). 
servant  or  maid-servant  set  at  thirty  shekels     Perforalad  ears  was  a  general  token  of  slavery 
of  silver  (Exod.  xxi.  32),  which  was,  in  the     among  ancient  nations.  VI.  A  Hebrew  bond- 
ease  of  the  male,  twenty  shekels  lower  than     man  was  allowed  to  gain  and  hold  property, 
the  estimation  of  a  freeman  (Lev.  xxviL  3,     with  which  he  might  purchase  his  freedom 
teq.),     A  Hebrew  mi(^t  sell  himself  to  a     (Lev.  xxv.  40) :  all  which  facts  go  to  prove 
fellow  Hebrew  (Dent  xv.  12),  not,  however,     Uiat  the  lot  of  Hebrew  slaves  was  less  in- 
as  a  bond,  but  as  a  hired  servant  (Lev.  xxv.     tolerable  than  the  lot  of  slaves  has  generally 
39) ;  and  he,  with  his  children,  obtained  his     been.    If  a  master  had  no  sons,  a  Hebrew 
liberty  unconditionally  at  the  end  of  six  years     slave  might  aspire  to  the  hand  of  his  daughter 
at  the  ftirthest,  or  at  the  jubilee  next  ensuing     (1  Chron.  iL  85).    More  common  was  it  for 
after  his  service  began  (Lev.  xxv.  40.  Dent    masters  or  their  sous  to   take  their  slaves 
xzLIS,  S07>);  and  he  might  be  redeemed  at     for    concubines,    who    therefore    acquired 
an  esrly  day,  by  either  Mmself  or  a  relative     hi^^er  domestic  rights  (Gen.  xxx.  3.   Exod. 
(Lev.  xxv.  48,  49).     Thieves,  unable,  when     xxi  9).   It  was  not  unusual,  at  least  in  pa- 
detected,  to  make  compensation,  were  sold,     triarehal  times,  for  a  home^bom  slave  to  rise 
but  only  to  Israelites,  and  subject  to  the     to  the  rank  of  master  over  the  others,  snd  to 
laws  regarding  emancipation.    The  permis-     have,  as  Joseph  had  in  Pharaoh's  palace, 
sion  given  by  the  law,  that  an  impoverished     great  power,  privileges,  and  influence,  as  in 
Israelite  mi^t  sell  himself,  seems  to  have     the  present  day,  the  prime  minister  at  the 
been  abused  by  hard-hearted  creditors,  who     Porte  is  only  the  chief  slave   (Gen.  xv.  2 ; 
thus  reduced  their  debtors,  and  even  their    xxiv.  2).    Slaves  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
debtors'  children,  into  bondage  (2  Kings iv. I.     equal  to  perform  all  the  services  required,  as 
Isa.  1. 1.  Neh.  v.  0 .  Matt  xviii.  25).  The  law     we  find  traces  of  hired  and  day-servants  who 
allowed  a  father  to  sell  his  daughter  to  be  a     were  f^  (Lev.  xix.  13.  Dent  xxiv.  14).  — 
maid-servant,  who  did  not  quit  her  bondage     The  serrioes  which  slaves  rendered  were  very 
at  the  jnbilee  year ;  but  if  she  were  not  pleas-     various.    They  ploughed  the  field,  fed  the 
ing  to  her  master,  she  might  be  redeemed ;     cattle,  waited  at  table  (Luke  xviL  7),  woi^ed 
but,  if  betrothed  to  a  son,  was  to  be  treated     in  grinding  at  the  mill,  waited  on  their  mas- 
as  a  dan^ter.    She  could  not  be  sold  to  a     ter  with  his  sandals,  stood  as  porters  at  the 
foreigner ;  snd  if  her  master  took  another     doors,  or  executed  commissions  abroad.  — 
wife,  she  was  to  retain  her  food,  her  raiment,    Jews  were  sold  into  slavery  by  foreign  con- 
and  her  duty  of  marriage,  undiminished,     querors :  Josephus  states  that,  after  the  de- 
Failure  in  these  three  things  set  her  free     struction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Bomans,  not 
without  money  (Exod.  xxi.  7 — 11 ).  The  law    fewer  than  97,000  Israelites  fell  into  bondage, 
endeavoured  to  establish  fixed  and  benign     The  Jewish  community  in  Some  consisted 
relations  between  bond   people   and   their     for  the  most  part  of  emancipated  slaves, 
masters ;  ensuring  to  the  former  msny  f!s-         This  entire  system  of  law  and  custom  re- 
Tours,  and  forbidding,  in  the  case  of  Hebrews,     lating  to  slaves  has   passed  for  ever  away, 
perpetual  slavery.  Among  the  mitigations  of     with  the  polity  and  the  instimtions  of  which 
their  lot  which  Moses  guaranteed  to  slaves,     it  formed  a  part,  and  is  to  be  regarded  in  no 
was — I.  Entire  rest  from  labour  every  seventh     other  light  Uian  as  one  of  those  prepsratory 
day  (  E xod.  xx.  1 0 ) .  IL  Immunity  from  deadly     arrangements  which  are  permitted  in  the  ear 


BON  le 

lier  (Ufes  of  hnmu)  eilucmlion,  in  ord«  (o 
■Toidwone  etils,  mnd  lid  tanrird  IheperfMt 
dajofCbriBtiuitnilh.  Norcui  uij  argument 
ID  fHonr  ol  ilaverj'  be  ilednted  from  iti 
baing  pnRlised  unong  tba  Hebmn,  iuiImi, 
u  Ieut,m  cannectioE  with  taUtt  otaoeielf, 
■nd  a  ijalem  of  civil  uid  nligloiu  luatltQ- 
tioDs,  limOar  to  Ifaein;  —  ■  inppoBed  cue 
wfaich  ecu  now  no  longer  b«  rekliwd. 
I  The  ChiiaUm  religion,  with  %  becoming 
disregud  of  mere  Mtoftl  exiitencri.  and  a 
sablima  raliancs  on  the  intiinale power  of  ita 
own  great  trnlhii,  did  not  attempt  lo  dietoib 
or  deatioj  the  inititntloual  niiagei  of  soelelf , 
when  it  began  Its  benign  eueer.  The  rela- 
tioiu,  thatefore,  of  maatei  and  alave  it  left 
aa  It  found  them,  ao  far  la  thay  conaistad  ia 
mere  external  bonda.  Bnl  it  pat  Ibrlh,  and 
carried  into  the  baart  ol  aocietj,  prineiplea 
which  gradQaUy,  but  moat  elftetiiall7,  imdid 
OTeiT  abaaUa ;  which  an  atUl  at  work,  to 
emanoipMe  ihabodjaawell  aatheaoolofhn- 
nuDbainga  ^OTortba  worid,aDdwhid]wiI], 
in  tbeii  oomplata  and  find  oparatiaa,  deatroy 
the  two  great  daasea  into  wliich  mankind  waa 
•ncienllf  diiided — 'bond  and  free'  (Col.  iil. 
3),  and  make  all 'one  in  Chriit  Jemu' (Qal. 
iii.aS).  Happj  period!  —  whsn  all  the  anil- 
aocial,  anti-hnmui,  anii-chriBtian,  and  hate- 
ful diatinctiona  that  bow  prerall  will  hare 
ineTenlhhr  come  to  an  end. 

BONNETS  were  a  faead-draaa  worn  bytha 
Hebrew  ptieata.  Theie  are  deaignatsd  by 
two  wardg :— I.  Migbagoth  (Eiod,  xxrlii.  40), 
which  ii  BOnnected,in  origin  and  aignlfication, 
with  ont  word  jiblH/ui,  It  denoica  a  curved 
clemtio* :  henpc  a  hilL  Thla  bonnet  or 
tiara  waa  then  a  raiaed  ornamental  cap. 
n.  Pthr,  which  cornea  frnm  a  root  denoting 
to  ihine,  to  te  ipUndid .-  and  hence  denotes 
any  thing  beaatifiil :  accordingly,  in  laa.  liL 
10,  the  noun  ia  tranalated  ■  omamenta.'  It  waa 
a  apeciea  of  coronet;  thongh  it  may  only 


have  been  anoifaer  ntine  for  dia  faaa  hud 
attire  aa  prarioiuty  apoken  of;  Ota  fint  4a- 
aeribing  tha  eu  by  ita  abape,  the  ■•goiid  bv 
ita  beauty,  llie  head  attire  of  die  high 
pricat,  dialingiiiahed  by  it*  iplendonr,  waa  da- 
•cribed  by  anotber  term,  StitBUhpliM,  whioh 
otlr  translatora  haye  rendered  ■  mltie'  (Eiod. 
Kxriii.  i),  and  In  Eiek.  ni  30, '  diadem.' 


The  orientala  have  ahraya  been  diitingoiahed 
(or  the  beauty,  tplendonr,  or  grace  of  their 
head-dreaeea.  But  it  ia  probably  to  Egypt 
that  we  mtiat  look  for  the  anperior  sharacter 
of  Ihoae  which  were  appointed  to  be  worn 
by  Aaron  and  hii  aon*.  In  Egypt  tha  head- 
dreaa  of  the  king,  on  atate  oocasions,  waa 
the  orown  of  the  'upper  or  of  the  lower 
eotmliy  ;  or  the  Pihent,  the  milou  of  the  two. 
Tha  monarch  wore  hie  crown  dnring  the  heat 
of  the  battle.  Jn  religiooi  ceremoniea  he 
pnt  on  a  atriped  head-dreaa,  probably  of 
linen,  which  deaoended  in  fkimt  orer  tha 
breast,  and  terminated  behind,  in  a  aott  of 
qneae,  bonnd  with  riband.    On  fome  oooa- 


BOO 

siont  be  wore  a  ihort  wig,  on  which  a  band 
was  fastened,  omamentoid  with  an  asp,  the 
emblem  of  loyaltj.  Wigs  were  bj  no  means 
nncommon,  the  upper  portion  of  whieh  was 


186 


BOO 


often  made  with  onrled  and  not  with  plaited 
hair ;  this  last  being  confined  to  the  sides  and 
lower  part,  as  is  the  case  in  the  wigs  pie- 
serred  in  the  British  and  Berlin  Haseams« 


^l^4^^0 


8  • 

I.  An  EgTptisn  dose  Cap.      S— S.  Egyptlaa  Wigs.       6.  The  Piheiili  or  Crawn  of  Vppsr  and 
Lower  Rgyiit,  or  8  and  9  ontted.    7.  Head-dzMi  of  a  Frlnoe.    8.  Crown  of  Lower  EgyP^. 
9.  Cruwn  of  Upper  Egypt. 


BOOKS.  —  The  subject  of  books  among 
the  Hebrews  cannot  be  satisfactorily  treatei^ 
until  we  have  8]K>]cen  on  that  of  writing; 
and,  as  the  age  when  writing  was  known 
must  materially  influence  the  opinions  we 
entertain  respecting  the  age  of  the  earliest 
Biblical  compositions,  we  think  it  better  to 
introduce  the  whole  matter  here,  than  either 
to  postpone  it  to  the  article  Wbitiho,  or  to 
speak  of  books  before  we  haye  spoken  of  the 
art  which  led  to  their  formation. 

The  origin  of  writing  is  to  be  looked  for 
in  Egypt ;  the  early  culture  of  which  ooun- 
tiy,  and  its  possession,  in  the  papyrus,  of 
suitable  materials  for  writing,  gave  its  in- 
hsbitants  means  and  facilities  for  inventing 
the  art;  which  the  priestly  caste  needing  for 
their  own  religions  purposes,  carried  hr  on- 
ward to  perfection.  Writing  was  at  first  a 
series  of  pictures  roughly  drawn.  He  who 
wanted  to  speak  of  a  man  ploug^iing  a  piece 
of  land  with  an  ox,  sketched  the  outline  of 
a  man  holding  a  plough,  drawn  over  the 
earth  by  an  ox.  This  was  a  long  and  te- 
dious process ;  yet  does  it  appear,  by  the 
paintings  that  are  still  seen  in  the  temples 
snd  tombs,  in  which  there  is  depicted  the 
whole  routine  of  Egyptian  life,  to  have  long 
remained  in  use,  and  been  much  practised. 
What  indeed  at  the  present  day  is  a  picture 
— a  landscape,  for  instance,  or  a  sea-fight — 
but  a  species  of  picture-writing?  Signs,  in 
writing,  were  originally  not  arbitrary :  they 
depended  on  resemblance.  Soon,  however, 
all  the  parts  which  were  not  essential  were 
left  out  of  the  rough  picture,  for  the  sake  of 
«ase  and  rapidity.  Abbreviation  and  cur- 
tailment^ which  have  ever  wrought  power- 


fully in  effecting  changes  in  language,  began 
their  operation  at  tlie  very  first.  But  the 
question,  what  parts  are  essential  snd  what 
are  not,  is  one,  the  settlement  of  which  de- 
pends no  little  on  the  imagination,  and  on 
the  actual  point  of  view.  Hence  it  would 
be  regarded  differently  by  different  indivi- 
duals. In  process  of  time,  so  many  parts 
would  be  omitted,  that  the  original  resem- 
blance was  nesrly  or  quite  lost;  and  could 
with  difficulty  be  aeen,  unless  by  those  whose 
experience  enabled  their  fancy  to  supply  the 
missing  elements.  A  house  might  Uius  be 
reduced  to  the  merest  skeleton.  Two  up- 
right strokes,  united  by  a  horizontal  line,  H 
would  come  to  represent  a  house.  Here 
we  have  the  origin  of  arbitrary  characters. 
The  resemblance  has  vsnished  in  the  course 
of  a  few  generations,  and  left  a  sign  whose 
import  depends  solely  on  conventional 
usage. 

Before  this  change  was  completed,  another 
influence  was  at  work.  In  the  picture  of 
the  sea-fight,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  em- 
blems are  employed.  The  British  flsg  is 
seen  at  the  stem  of  one  ship,  that  of  the 
French  floats  above  another.  The  vessels 
themselves  bear  at  their  heads  images  which 
are  emblematical  of  their  names.  How  does 
a  spectator  know  that  the  one  is  a  British, 
the  other  a  French,  flag  7  By  certain  signs 
which  have  been  worked  into  their  texture. 
Here,  then,  we  have  another  species  of  pic- 
ture-writing. The  likeness  of  a  thing  denotes 
sn  abstract  idea:  the  British  lion,  painted 
on  a  piece  of  cloth,  signifies  the  ooUected 
people  of  Britain.  Henee  symbolical  writ- 
ii^g*  or  writing  by  signs,  reoognised  as  the 


BOO 


187 


BOO 


symbols  of  idefts.  Traces  of  this  also  remain 
among  ns.  Chains  denote  slayeiy ;  a  sword, 
iiraifare ;  a  pair  of  exactly-balaneed  scales, 
justice.  Symbols  entered  rery  largely  into 
the  writing  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

Let  it,  however,  be  supposed  that  these 
two  kinds  of  writing  are  in  ezistenoe,  and 
we  shall  see  that  they  would  easfly  lead  to  a 
third  species.  In  the  picture  of  the  battle, 
we  hare  in  miion  the  fignratiTe  and  the 
symbolical  method.  The  ships  qpeak  for 
themaelTcs  —  the  fignre  or  image  describes 
the  thing.  Bat  to  whaA  couitry  do  they 
belong?  That  is  told  by  the  flags.  And 
what  are  they  engaged  in  f  That  is  signified 
by  the  fire,  smoke,  and  min,  whieh  preTsiL 
Supposing,  however,  that  mankind  had  not 
proceeded  to  that  wonderM  diseoTeiy — the 
use  of  arbitrary  signs  to  represent  sounds, 
is  there  any  way  in  which  we  eould  write 
down  an  account  of  this  engagement  ?  We 
will  indicate  a  way,  giving  an  example  in  the 
word  ship.  Here  we  have  four  letters  and 
three  sounds,  sk,  i,  p :  how  can  they  be  repre- 
sented by  image  or  picture  writing  ?  Find 
four  objects,  the  first  sound  in  the  vocal 
name  of  which  begins  with  these  letters  re- 
spectively —  ship  will  do  for  the  first,  an  eye 
Sot  the  second,  and  a  post  for  the  third. 
Accordingly  we  draw  these,  and  so  we  write 
shxp.  And  if  we  wished  to  add  the  term 
British^  we  set  the  Union  Jack  to  float  over 
them.  This  method  of  writing  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  allowing  much  implication  and 
feeling  to  be  Intermingled  with  a  narrative. 
It  is  clear  that,  as  the  names  of  many  objects 
begin  with  the  same  sound,  the  writer  has  a 
choice  among  several  objects,  and  may  give 
a  preference  to  such  as  excite  pleasing  or 
displeasing  associations  in  connection  with 
his  subject.  Thus  the  eye,  before  used,  may 
denote  the  constant  watchfulness  of  the  Bri- 
tish navy  in  all  seas ;  and  the  post  may  sig- 
nify that,  wherever  he  may  be,  the  English 
seaman  will  prove  upright  and  firm. 

Here,  however,  we  have  images  recognised 
as  the  representatives  of  sounds.  An  alpha- 
bet would  now  be  easily  gained.  Instead  of 
a  number  of  objects,  the  first  sound  in  whose 
name  may  represent  a,  let  one  be  chosen ; 
let  the  rest  be  disused ;  pursue  this  course 
as  far  as  experience  may  show  to  be  neces- 
sary, and  you  form  an  alphabet. 

Such  is  a  rude  sketch  of  what  appears  to 
have  been  the  process  through  which  lan- 
guage came  into  its  present  state ;  in  which 
arbitrary  signs  —  signs  which  have  no  mean- 
ing in  themselves  —  represent  sounds,  and 
sounds  are  reduced  or  classified  so  as  to  be 
imperfectly  or  otherwise  represented  by  from 
sixteen  to  four  and  twenty  arbitrary  signs, 
denominated  letters. 

This  explanation  has  been  gone  into,  the 
rather  because  it  enables  us  to  show  a  con- 
nection between  the  Egyptian  and  the  He- 


brew writing;  and  thus,  by  referring  tilie 
second  to  the  first,  gives  ns  the  means  of 
approximately  ascertaining  the  great  anti- 
quity of  the  art  of  writing  among  the  He- 
brews. For  the  Hebrew  letters  bear,  in 
their  shapes,  clear  indications  of  having 
sprung  from  such  a  process  as  that  whieh 
we  have  described.  In  order  to  make  &e 
comparison,  the  student  must  not  have  re- 
eourse  to  the  square  letters  of  the  present 
Hebrew  Bibles,  but  go  baek  to  the  ancient 
Samaritan  and  Fhcmieian  alphabet,  whence 
all  the  alphabets  in  use  among  Western 
nations  have  been  derived.  The  ancient 
letter  L  was,  among  the  Hebrews,  the  initial 
letter  of  one  of  their  names  for  lion,  Lohi  ; 
and  in  shape  it  is  a  sort  of  abbreviation  cf 
the  figure  of  a  recumbent  lion.  B,  which 
is  the  initial  letter  of  the  name  for  house, 
is  of  a  shape  which  does  not  ill  represent 
an  oriental  bouse,  especially  a  tent  G,  in 
the  same  way  and  for  the  same  reason,  is 
not  unlike  the  neck  of  a  camel.  A,  which 
is  die  first  letter  in  the  word  aleph  (the  name 
for  the  first  letter  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet), 
signifying  ox,  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to 
the  head  of  that  animal. 

But  we  have  seen  above,  that  the  condi- 
tion of  language  out  of  which  the  alphabet 
was  evolved,  was  a  comparatively  late  one : 
many  changes,  and  therefore  many  years, 
if  not  centuries,  had  passed,  ere  the  Egyp- 
tians had  come  to  this  step  in  their  progress. 
When  they  were  at  this  step,  however,  the 
Hebrews  appear  to  have  come  into  connec- 
tion with  them.  We  thus  gain  the  point  of 
junction.  And  it  is  obvio^y  to  be  found 
at  a  time  when  the  Egyptians  had  made  great 
progress  in  civilisation.  Now,  if  we  torn 
to  history,  we  find  that  the  Hebrews  came 
into  connection  with  the  Egyptians  in  the 
days  of  Abraham,  who  found  them  already 
far  advanced  in  the  arts  and  refinements  of 
life.  We  accordingly  seem  justified  in  con- 
cluding, that  it  was  during  the  patriarchal 
age  that  the  Hebrews  first  gained  the  know- 
ledge and  skill  requisite  for  writing.  Indeed, 
when  we  call  to  mind  that  Egypt  appears,  in 
the  Bible,  to  have  been  weU  known  to  the 
immediate  descendants  of  Abraham,  as  well 
as  to  Abraham  himself,  and  to  have  been 
regarded  as  the  place  of  refuge  in  want  and 
difficulty ;  and  when  we  remember  generally 
the  connection  that  there  was  between  the 
cultivated  herdsmen  of  Palestine  and  that 
highly  civilised  land,  it  seems  impossible 
to  understand  how  the  Hebrews  in  thess 
times  could  have  remained  ignorant  of  writ- 
ing, if,  as  is  beyond  a  doubt,  writing  then 
existed  and  was  practised  in  Egypt.  The 
argument  which  is  hence  derived,  to  show 
that  Moses  was  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
writing,  is  one  of  augmented  strength ;  be- 
cause he  was  brought  up  in  the  court  of  the 
reigning  Pharaoh,  under  the  immediate  super- 


BOO 


188 


BOO 


vtekm  of  the  monarah's  dangfater,  and  could 
waxnely  have  fiailed  to  be  <  learned  in  all  the 
wisdom  of  the  Egjptiana '  (Acts  tu.  22) ;  nor, 
according  to  the  same  aathoritj»  did  he  begin 
to  take  steps  for  setting  up  an  independent 
nation,  till  his  people  had  dwelt  in  Egypt 
lor  a  period  of  four  hundred  years  (Acts 
▼iL  6).  Most  extraordinary  and  nnaeoonnt^ 
able,  then*  would  it  be,  if  Moses,  and  the 
chief  men  assoeiatod  with  him,  had  been 
ignorant  of  the  art  of  writing. 

This  statement,  howerer,  rests  on  the 
sappositton,  that,  at  and  prior  to  the  days  of 
Moses,  the  Egyptians  were  familiar  with 
that  art.  The  importance  of  the  fact  may 
jostiiy  some  additional  evidence.  Now  the 
wuknimons  Toice  of  antiquity  asserts  the  exists 
enoe  of  books  and  of  writing  among  the  Egyp- 
tians at  a  Tcry  early  period.  In  tlie  still 
uncertain  state  of  their  chronology,  it  may 
not  be  possible  to  even  i^roximate  to 
accuracy  in  dates ;  bat  so  eaily  did  Egypt 
attain  to  hi^  coltnre,  and  so  fur  back  do 
the  arts  of  painting,  drawing,  and  writing 
(they  were  th.  connected  together—  the  last 
only  a  dcTelopment  of  the  former),  mn  into 
primeral  antiquity,  that  there  can  be  no  diffi- 
culty in  assigning  the  nse  of  writing  to  a 
period  prior  to  the  days  of  Moses.  '  Of  the 
eariy  existence  of  royal  and  national  Ubrarin 
contemporary  with,  if  not  prior  to,  the  epoch 
of  Moses,  we  ere  made  certain  by  the  follow- 
ing fact.  That  magnificent  ruin  at  Thebes, 
miscalled  the  Metmumium,  is  the  palace  of 
Osymandias  described  by  Diodorus,  as  seen 
by  HecatBUS,  in  the  69tfa  Olympiad  (A.C. 
684).  It  then  contained  a  library  of  sacred 
books,  OTcr  the  gateway  of  which  was  in- 
scribed these  words :  —  "  The  Remedy  of  the 
BooL"  This  palace  is  the  Bamessinm — a 
temple-palace  of  Barneses  III.  —  8esootris 
(A.C.  1665) ;  and  orer  the  mouldering  door- 
way, which  once  led  from  the  hall  to  the  now- 
destroyed  bibliothecal  repository,  Champol- 
lion  read  in  hieroglyphics  over  tiie  heads  of 
Thoth  and  Salk — the  male  and  female  deities 
of  srte,  sciences,  and  letters — the  appropriate 
titles, "  President  of  the  Library"  and  "  Lady 
ot  Leitert"'  (Oliddon's  'Ancient  Egypt'). 
The  door  of  this  library,  at  the  Ramessium, 
was  erected  about  the  time  of  Moses.  If  we 
go  back  two  hundred  years,  to  the  sanctuary  of 
tiie  temple  of  Luxor,  we  find  an  inscription 
orer  llioth,  which  begins  thus:  —  'Dis- 
course of  the  Lord  of  the  Dirine  WrUmgt ; ' 
and  another  over  Safk,  *  Safk,  Lady  of  Let- 
UnJ  We  here  find  Thoth  recognised  as  the 
inrentor  of  letters — a  reoognition  which  car^ 
ries  the  use  of  letters  far  back  into  remote, 
if  not  fabulous,  ages.  Oliddon  does  not 
hesitate  to  affirm,  that  *hieroglyphical  writing 
was  in  constant,  general,  and  popular  use 
among  all  dasses  and  persons  in  the  Tslley 
of  the  Nile.  We  haTC  indisputable  CTidences 
that  reading  and  writing  were,  in  ancient 


Egypti  In  days  eoeral  with  the  pyramids,  •• 
puhlidy  known,  and  in  as  popular  use,  with- 
out respect  to  caste,  to  wealth,  or  poverty, 
as  in  many  Christian,  and  not  uncivilised, 
countries  at  the  present  day.'  This  is  a 
somewiiat  glowing  psssage;  but  CoL  Vyse 
has  satisfactorily  ahown,  dial  the  art  of  writ- 
ing was  not  unknown  to  ordinary  Egyptian 
workmen,  so  early  as  the  time  when  the 
great  pyramid  was  erected  (ctr.  2000,  A.C.). 
The  subjoined  figure  will  aid  in  ehowing  the 
eaily  origin  of  letters  and  books  smong  the 
Egyptisns.  It  represente  the  god  ImouSi,  or 
Esculapiua,  studying  a  pqiyrus  manuscript, 
which  he  accordingly  unfolds  aa  he  peruses 
it.  The  figure  carries  us  back  to  a  very  early 
period,  though  the  bronze  whence  it  is  taken 
is  of  the  Ptolemaic  period.  Imoath  is  desig- 
nated '  the  elde$t  ton  of  Phtah.' 


ZTTTVl 


IXOUTH. 

So  eariy  as  Barneses  III.  —  that  is,  about 
the  time  of  Moses,  —  there  waa,  as  we  learn 
from  the  sculptural  remains  of  Egypt,  a 
highly  honourable  class  of  men  who  were 
denominated  scribes  or  writers,  firom  the 
Amotions  which  they  had  to  perform ;  a  fact 
which  indicates,  that  writing  had  at  that 
time  been  for  a  long  period  in  existence,  and 
in  general  use.  We  here  apply  an  ocular 
evidence  in  tfie  figure  of  Phtahmai  (in  the 
British  Museum),  who  bears  smong  his  titles, 
inscribed  on  his  back,  these  words :  —  *  The 
Qood  Bard  of  the  King'  <  The  Boyal  Scribe 


oflhi»T«bl«iQfilIthBGod»:'  whenooilU  flunumd  jwn  befcpe  onx  era.  The  mono- 
ob»ion»  ft«  poetrj,  jmling,  and  rdigion,  polj  of  4,  p,p^g  i„  Egjp'  «•  inoreurf 
wen  »«»i.i.d  lc««fl.w;  the  two  (bnnti  the  priee  of  the  commodity,  U.,tpewon5  In 
being  engiged  m  tfaa  »mce  of  UiB  latter.  hninble  life  oould  not  eflbrd  to  puthMa  it 
fbrordinarrpii^iOMi:  Aw  domuenta,  Oei*- 
fi»e,  are  met  with  written  on  papjnu,  exeepi 
flmenl  litnaU,  the  ulei  ot  Mtatea,  end  <nn- 
eitl  pipers,  which  we™  »b»olnlBlj  required  i 
■nd  BO  idnable  wu  il,  that  thej  freqaenllj 
oblileraled  the  old  writing-,  end  inscribed 
■□Dtlier  doeomeDt  on  the  lame  iheet.  For 
aonunon  f  orgasm,  piece*  of  broken  pottery, 
etonr,  tioud,  md  leather,  were  nied ;  an 
order  to  Tiiit  eome  manument,  a  ■oldler'i 
leave  of  ahsenoe,  aoconnta,  and  Tarioai  me- 
m  the  fragments 
a  earthenware  Tan.  Sometimea  leather 
roni  were  anbatitated  for  papyri,  and  buried 
in  the  aama  manner  with  the  deoeaaad.' 
Scribe*  had  boiee  in  whioh  Oinj  kept  their 
Implements  foi  writing,  snob  aa  reedi  and 
ink,  and  a  tablet  Fignre  No.  I  repreaents  a 
■fliibs  writing  on  a  tablet,  with  two  cases 
before  him  for  carrying  writing  materiali. 
Figure  No.  3  glres  a  scribe  writing,  with  his 


inkstand  on  (he  table  .  __.  ^ 
hind  hia  ear.  Both  of  theae 
paindngs  at  Thsbes. 


pen 


■  pat  be- 
a  taken  from 


The  title  of  royal  iBribe  waa  indeed  one 
<rf  the  hi^eat  rank,  and  held  by  princes  of 
the  blood-royal.  The  scribes  were  inrestsd 
with  differeul  functioDB,  and  formed  the  se- 
cretariea  of  atale  foi  the  offloes  of  tbs  court, 
and  the  administration  of  the  empire.  Thara 
are  tbond,  among  the  remains  of  Egyptian 
art,  the  royal  scribe  of  (he  riauda,  that  ot  the 
elolhas,  that  of  Oie  oxen,  and  athen.     The 

Bgnre  giTcn  above  is  of  eapecial  inlereat,  as  _-. 

il  represents  the  writer  of  a  papynu,  or  book,  ""•*•  aoana  wim  wsirna  miaaiiLa. 
whiob  eontains  an  accomit  of  a  celebrated  The  sabject  of  Egyptian  antiquities  is  one, 
campaign,  now  preserred  In  the  British  researehea  on  whidi  are  yet  In  progress, 
Uoaeiim.  In  the  Allowing  passage  from  Wil-  great  Ibongh  the  mass  of  knowledge  is,  to 
kinson  ('Manners  and  Costoms  of  the  Annient  which  Ihe  learned  inquiries  of  the  laat  qaar- 
Egyptians,'  vol.  iiL  pp.  IOO>_1),  Ihs  reader  ter  ot  «  centary  have  given  birth.  Itisatket 
wUl  see  to  what  an  extent  writbig  wai  em-  which  baa  an  important  bearing  on  the  mat- 
ployed  ataveryeariydate:  —  'We  meet  with  ler  now  under  eonaidaralion,  that  Ihe  general 
pi]>yriof  the  most  remote  Pharoome  periods,  tendency  of  these  researehea  has  been  to 
and  the  same  mode  of  writing  on  them  ia  show  that  the  Egjptiaiks  posseeaed  a  iilara- 
■bown  to  have  been  common  more  Ibaa  two     tore,  and  were  acqiiaintad  with  the  ait  ot 


BOO                      190  BOO 

writing,  long  prior  to  the  ige  of  Mosei.    The  the  great  historieal  period  of  Sanrael,  Dsnd, 
most  recent  authority  on  die  sabject  b  that  and  Solomon,  who  iSanned  the  Jewish  state, 
of  the  learned  and  accomplished  ChcTalier  After  the  separation  into  two  kingdoms,  the 
Bnnsen,  at  present  Ambassador  for  Prossia  spirit  of  the  people  was  more  tamed  to  di- 
at  the  oonrt  of  Her  Britannio  Mijesty,  as  Tine  things ;  and  thus  history  smong  the 
fomid  in  his  work  {*  The  Plaee  of  Egypt  Jews  failed  to  reach  its  hi|^st  state  of  cnl- 
in  the  History  of  the  World,'  1840,  toL  i.  tore.    But,  in  die  same  period,  the  mnse  of 
p.  83,  &c.) •    Diriding  the  ancient  history  of  histoiy found  her  fiironrite  among  the  Greeks, 
Egypt  into  three  kingdoms, — the  modem,  and  awakened  hi  Herodotus,  Ac  master  of 
that  with  which  the  patriarchs  were  acquaint-  research,  and  the  beginner  of  the  striody 
ed ;  the  middle,  that  of  the  Hyksos ;   and  historical,  personal,  and  consecntiTe  repre- 
the  old,  of  which  Menes  was  die  founder,  sentation  of  the  immediate  past'  (L  00). 
and  the  oonmiencement  of  which  goes  back  It  cannot  be  necessary,  in  this  sketch,  to 
some  hundred  years  before  the  ordinaiy  add  ftirther  eridence.    There  can  be  no  doubt 
chronological   periods,  —  he  has,  widi  the  that  Egypt  possessed  the  art  of  writing  during 
aid  of  the  learned  Egyptian  antiquarian,  and  long  before  the  days  of  Moses ;  and  it  is 
Lepsius,  carried  the  art  of  writing  up  to  an  scarcely  within  the  limits  of  possibility  that 
antiquity  which  makes  it  nearly  co-eral  with  the  Hebrew  leader  should  not  ha^e  become 
the  yeiy  origin  of  ciriliaation.    Passing  orer,  intimately  acquainted  with  the  practice.    We 
as  unworthy  of  notice,  the  eztraTagant  claims  think  it  indeed  very  likely  that  the  Israelites 
which  all  nations,  except  the  Hebrews,  have  were  not  ignorant  of  writing  at  an  earlier 
made  to  an  extreme  antiquity,  Bunsen states,  period;  and  there  is  evidence  which  favours 
that  Lepsius  has  found  the  image  of  book-  the  idea,  that  Moses,  in  composing  the  sub- 
rolls  on  the  monuments  of  the  twelfth  dy-  stance  of  the  Pentateuch,  found  already  in 
nasty  —  the  last  but  one  of  the  ancient  king-  existence  ancient  documents  forming  part  of 
dom ;  and  pen  and  ink  on  the  monuments  a  now-lost  Shemitic  literature,  from  some 
of  the  fourth,  that  is,  in  the  filth  oentuiy  of  of  which  he  drew  information,  and  others 
the  age  of  Menes,  or  as  soon  as  we  have  he  incoiporated  in  his  own  works.    Genesis, 
hieroglyphic  remains.      The    monumental  for  instance,  bears  evidence,  as  in  general 
writing,  however,  can  be  followed  back  far  of  a  very  high  antiquity,  so  of  containing 
above  another  century  on  contemporaneous  writings  still  more  ancient  than  itself.    The 
monuments ;  and  this  monumental  writing  is  genealogical  tables  and  family  records  em- 
of  the  same  kind  as  that  of  later  periods,  bodied  in  the  Pentateuch  could  hardly  have 
Hence  it  may  be  safely  concluded,  that  this  been  preserved  without  some  kind  of  writing, 
genuine  Egyptian  writing,  consisting  of  a  Various  individual  passages,  however,  occur 
mixture  of  words  and  images,  is  as  old  at  in  the  early  books  of  the  Bible,  which  con- 
least  as  Menes,  whose  age  is  lost  in  the  cur,  in  their  genersl  tendency,  with  the  pre- 
dusky  uncertainties  of  a  yet  unchronological  vious  conclusions;  showing  that  those  who 
period.    Bunsen  also  mentions  and  reviews  composed   and    those  who  received  these 
several  very  ancient  Egyptian  books,  and  books  were  of  opinion,   that  writing  was 
gives,  as  the  practical  result  of  his  researches  co-eval  with  the  fathers  of  their  race ;  nor 
regaiding  this  literature,  the  following :  —  do  we  think,  that  the  implicating  and  inci- 
'  The  genuine  sacred  books  (of  the  Egyp-  dental  evidences  which  we  are  about  to  ad- 
tians)  were  quite  a  different  kind  to  the  f^-  duce  can  be  ascribed  to  the  well-known,  and 
siiying  hermetic  books  of  the  New  Platonists  in  ancient  tunes  widely-difused,  proneness 
among  the  Syrians  and  Egyptians.     They  to  ascribe  great  and  extraordinary  things  to 
contained  no  history,  but  much   that  was  the  founders  of  a  nation, 
historical ;  they  gave  no  chronology,  but  fur-  In  Gen.  xzrviii.  18  and  20,  mention  is 
nished  the  basis  and  touchstone  of  chrono-  made  of  a  signet  which  must  have  had  some 
logy.   They  are  old — they  reach  back  beyond  engraved  characters  on  it,  as  it  was  received 
the  period  of  the  Hyksos,  into  the  kingdom  and  used  as  a  safe  pledge ;  and  in  Qen. 
of  Menes '  (L  02).    Hlstoiy  itself,  Bunsen  xli.  42,  Pharaoh  gives  Joseph  his  ring  as  a 
holds,  did  not  come  into  existence  tiU  the  token  of  power,  impressions  from  wfaidb  were 
days  of  Moses.    His  words  are  important :  to  authenticate  and  veriiy  transactions.    Mo- 
'  The  holy  books  of  the  Egyptisns  did  not  dem  discoveries  in  Egypt  have  brought  many 
contain  the  histoiy  of  the  nation,  as  do  the  rings  and  signets  to  lig^t,  which  served  at 
books  of  the  Old  Testament    The  idea  of  once  toir  use  and  ornament    Wilkinson  men- 
a  nation  was  wanting  to  the  Egyptians,  and  tions  one  which   contains  twenty  povnds' 
still  more  the  idea  of  the  people  of  God,  the  worth  of  gold.     On  one  face  was  the  name 
Creator  of  heaven  and  earth.    History  was  of  a  king  who  lived  about  1400,  B.C. ;  on 
bora  in  that  ni^t  when  Moses,  with  the  the  other  a  lion,  with  the  legend,  *  Lord  of 
law  hi  his  heart,  led  the  people  of  Israel  out  strength,'  referring  to  die  monarch ;  on  one 
of  Egypt;  its  life  sank  when,  under  the  side  a  scorpion,  and  on  the  other  aeroeo- 
Judges,  the  national  mind  was  again  lost  in  dfle.     Intaghos  were  very  common.     The 
the  feelings  of  Arabian  Bedouins  and  shep-  exploiu  of  monaichs  and  conquerors  an  eat 
herd  tribes ;  it  flourished  once  more  widi  out  in  detdl  in  monumental  intaglios.    8ueb 


BOO                     191  BOO 

«  pioeaw  is  intinMtely  ^onneotocl  with  wri-  We  li«re  lean,  thtt,  while  they  weie  yet  la 

ting.    The  woids  whioh  eignifjr  to  wriU  in  the  wildemesa^  the  lenelites  knew  how  to 

Hebrew,  m  well  •■  in  other  Itnguages,  de-  write,  end  that  they  had  writing  of  two  kinds, 

note,  in  their  originel  import,  to  makt  an  the  oidinaiy  and  the  engraved;  probably 

mciaicm  oar  t8ipreietoi»  on  some  hard  material,  also  a  third»  the  annular  (signet) ;  nor  do 

to  euij  to  myravei  thns  showing  that  writing  we  think  it  unlikely  that  the  latter,  *  engray- 

was  at  the  first  a  species  of  intaglio  woik,  ings  on  a  signet,'  was  a  speoies  of  symboliesl 

a  kind  of  engraving.    £Ten  the  moontain-  writing,  resemUing  that  whieh  we  have  seen 

tide  itself  was  used  as  a  tablet  for  important  prevailed  among  the  Egptians,  interoonrss 

records.    The  same  practice  is  implied  in  with  whom  the  Hebrews  had  just  left  at  ths 

the  following,  from  Job  (xiz.  3d,  24),  which  time  to  which  this  citation  refers  (comp. 

tends  to  confirm  the  statements  just  made:—  Gxod.  zziv.  12;  zzzi.  18;  zzziL  16,16; 

<Oh  that  now  mv  words  were  written,  xixiv.  28.  Deut.  v.  22;  ix.  10,11).    Apas- 

OhtbattbeywwefaiMribedliiabook;  sage  found  in  Numbers  (v.  28)  proves  that 

That,  with  an  inm  atyle  and  with  lead,  writing  on  some  softer  substance  was  known 

Por  ever  on  a  rock  thay  were  engraven  I '  ^  ^^  jj^^  ^f  jjoses.     The  priest  is  then 

If  the  age  of  the  book  of  Job,  which  Hales  directed,  as  a  part  of  the  ceremony  used  in 
probably  fixed  2337,  A.O.  were  definitively  administering  to  a  woman  the  oath  of  Jea- 
ascertained,  this  single  passsge  would  suffice  lousy,  to  write  the  curses  in  a  book ;  whioh  he 
to  prove,  that  writing  existed  before  the  days  was  to  blot  out  with  water ;  whioh  water  thus 
of  Moses ;  ss,  beyond  a  doubt,  it  does  show  obtained  he  was  to  cause  the  women  to  drink, 
what  the  nature  of  writing  was  in  early  times*  Here,  deariy,  we  have  writing  on  some  sub- 
Two,  if  not  three,  kinds  of  writing  are  here  stance  whieh  would  receive  ink  or  colouring 
alluded  to — on  the  rock,  with  an  iron  stylua  matter,  and  yet  not  be  so  easily  destroyed  ss 
or  pen ;  on  tableta  of  metal,  here  termed  paper.    Such  a  substance  is  prepared  skin, 
lead^  perhaps  with  a  similar  instrument ;  In  some  casee,  the  skins  may  have  been  oov- 
and  on  some  softer  substance,  such  as  strips  ered  over  with  a  thin  eoating  of  wax — a  ous- 
of  bark,  roUs  of  linen,  or  the  hides  of  ani-  tom  to  whieh  reforence  seems  to  be  made  in 
mals ;  some  colouring  substance  being  used.  Isa.  xxviii.  18.    Numb^  xiii.  22  supplies  us 
Job  may  have  been  an  Arabian,  a  fact  which  with  a  record  whioh  could  scarcely  have  come 
would  confirm,  d  fortiori,  the  argument  in  into  existence,  had  there  not  already  been  writ- 
favour  of  the  Hebrews  being  acquainted  ten  documents  of  some  description :  —  *  Now 
with  writing,  as  the  latter  appear,  in  early  Hebron  was  built  seven  years  before  Zoan  in 
times,  to  have  been  more  cultivated  than  the  Sgypt.'      Had  the  words  been  of  vague  im- 
fonner.    However  this  may  be,  we  thus  bring  port,  they  might  have  been  reHaired  to  the 
writing  into  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  uncertain  voice  of  tradition;  but  an  exact 
descendants  of  Terah ;  as  indeed  it  was  not  number  is  given,  and  a  smkU  number :  tha 
for  firom  them,  when  we  showed  its  existence  remark,  too,  drops  casually  from  the  writer's 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.    And  whether  the  pen.    Now,  Zoan  (Tanis)  was  a  very  an- 
opinion  of  Hale8»  before  mentioned,  as  to  cient,  as  well  as  distiogoiabedt  city  of  Lower 
the  sge  of  Job,  is  or  is  not  correct,  it  will  Bgypt,  which  may  be  safoly  dated  back  in 
not  be  denied  that  the  poem  has  sll  the  the  days  of  Abraham.    Consequenily  we  seem 
marks  of  great  antiquity.   It  has  been  thought  bere  to  have  evidence  of  a  written  document 
to  be  the  oldest  book  in  the  Bible.    Its  evi-  which  must  have  existed  for  centuries  before 
deuce  in  the  case  is  the  more  important,  the  time  of  Moses.    We  also  leam  that  tha 
because,  with  a  rather  remarkable  omission  writer  of  the  book  of  Numbers  had  before 
of  reference  to  the  Mosaic  laws  and  institu-  him,  and  made  use  of,  written  materials ;  and 
tions,  it  stands  without  the  cycle  of  the  gene-  hence  are  justified  in  stating,  that  the  predse 
ral  literature  of  the  Hebrews,  and  so  may  time  when  that  book  came  into  its  present 
bear  an  independent  testimony  to  the  origin  shspe  is  of  less  consequence,  if  we  have 
of  the  Pentateuch  and  other  books,  of  whioh  reason  to  believe  that  it  consistB  of  docn- 
it  was  the  parent  Comp.  Jer.  xvii  1.  1  Kings  ments  which  go  back  to  the  periods  of  which 
vi.  35.  Fs.  xlv.  1.  its  records  speak.    The  sncient  name  borne 
There  are  several  allusions  to  engraving  by  a  city  which  lay  near  Hebron  (in  the  hiU 
and  writing  in  the  Pentateuch  itsell^  so  country  of  Judah),  namely,  Debir,  is  worthy 
wrou^t  into  the  texture  of  the  narrative,  as  of  special  notice.    Debir,  ssys  Joshua  (xv. 
to  bear  eridence  of  being  co-eval  with  its  15.  Judg.  i.  11),  was  formerly  called  Kir- 
substance  ;  which,  on  its  part,  must,  in  the  jath-sepher,  that  is,  city  of  writing,  or  wri- 
main,  have  been  written  at  no  distant  period  ting  city.    From  the  same  work  (xv.  40)  we 
after  the  events  which  it  records.    In  Exod.  leam  that  Debir  had  another  and  a  similsr 
xxxix.  80,  we  read,  that  on  the  plate  of  pure  name,  Kiijath-sannah — city  of  instruction, 
gold  which  was  put  on  the  firont  of  the  mitre  Debir,  then,  was  in  the  earliest  times  re- 
wom  by  the  high  priest,  *  they  wrote  a  wri-  nowned  as  a  kind  of  university — a  place 
ting,  like  the  engravings  of  a  signet,  IfoU-  where  the  arts  of  writing  and  teaching  were 
Hcn  to  the  Lord*  (Exod.  xxviii  36).    This  so  much  practised  as  U>  gain  for  the  town 
passage  is  fbll  of  meaning  for  our  purpose,  these  two  honoursble  appellations.     Now« 


BOO 


192 


BOO 


Debir  lay  in  the  Tery  parts  of  Canaan  which 
were  frequented  by  the  patriarchs ;  and  we 
may  thos  eee  the  oanae  of  its  early  distinc- 
tion in  learning,  and  a  proof  that  learning 
was  cultivated  by  the  patriarehs.    This  fsct 
earries  back  the  period  of  Hebrew  enltore  to 
a  very  remote  age,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
stands  in  entire  acoordance  with  the  view  of 
the   character,   for  insCanoe,  of  Abraham, 
which  the  general  narratiTe  of  his  life  affords. 
The  name  Sepharraim,  book-city,  a  place 
which  lay  in  the  south  part  of  Mesopotamia, 
gives  confirmation  to  the  substance  of  these 
remarks  (2  Kings  zriL  24.  Isa.  mvi  19). 
There  are  varions  other  considerations,  to 
which,  however,  we  can  do  no  more  than 
allude,  which  oombtne  to  show  that  the  art 
of  writing  esistsd  at  or  before  the  age  of 
Hoses  (ctr.  1500,  A.C.).    The  evidence  of 
tradition  is  in  fisvonr  of  the  very  eariy  dis- 
covery of  writing,  and  may  be  summed  np 
in  the  words  of  Humboldt,  who  declares 
'  several  kinds  of  alphabetical  writing  were 
in  existence  in  Asia  in  the  earliest  times.' 
Pliny's  words,  if  they  contahi  an  exaggera- 
tion, are  to  the  same  tSeet:-^*  Apparel 
mtttmiM  Uierantm  tciiif'-^'The  use  of  let- 
ters appears   to   be  etomsL'      The   most 
useftil  arts  must  have  come  into  existence 
in  primeval  times.    Use  is  a  relative  term, 
the  force  of  which  must,  for  our  purpose,  be 
determined  by  features  in  the  character  of 
ancient  nations.    Among  all  nations,  parti- 
culariy  the  oriental,  there  is  a  strong  &spo- 
sition  for  constructing  and  handing  down 
genealogical  tables  and  family  registers.   Yet 
this  practice  would  be  hardly  possible  in  the 
absence  of  an  alphabet      The  Chaldsans 
were,  at  an  early  period,  engaged  in  some 
kind   of  astronomical  calculations.     How 
could  these  be  carried  on  without  the  use 
of  writing  t    The  PhcBnicians,  in  primeval 
periods,  conducted   a  very  extensive   com- 
merce.    Hence  they  must  have  possessed 
both  the  ability  and  an  inducement  to  invent 
or  adopt  the  art  of  writing.     It  would  have 
been  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  caxry  on  a 
widely-spread  system  of  barter,  to  transport 
into  different  regions  a  great  variety  and 
amount  of  goods,  as  we  know  the  Phosnictans 
did,  to  commission  and  conduct  agencies, 
or  something  equivalent  to  agencies,  to  bring 
home  and  distribute  to  many  owners  the 
proceeds  of  the  exchanged  articles,  without 
some  written  record,  in  dependence  merely 
on  the  memory,  or  some  rude  inaitificxal 
signs.    Their  commerce  seems  slmost  ne- 
cesswily  to  imply  the  practice  of  writmg. 
The  implication  finds  support  in  traditionary 
history.    From  the  PhoBuicians  letters  passed 
into  Greece.     This  fact  depends  on  surer 
evidence  than  any  mere  verbal  record;  for 
the  Greek  letters  are  essentiaUy  the  same 
wilh  the  ancient  Phcenieian,  in  form  and  in 
name.     *That  the  Greeks,'  says  Professor 
B^kh,  *  received  their  alphabeticsl  writing 


from  the  Phomieians,  is  an  undeniable  fact' 
To  the  same  eflbct  is  the  following  important 
passage  firom  Gesenius  (found  in  an  appen- 
dix to  the  last  edition  of  his  Hebrew  Gram- 
mar, published  a  short  time  before  his  death), 
a  most  competent  authority,  the  tendency  of 
whose  theological  views  adds  force  to  his 
testimony:  —  'In  order  to  understand  the 
names  and  forms  of  the  Hebrew  letters,  re- 
course must  be  had  to  the  Phcsnician  alpha- 
bet, the  parent  of  all  the  alphabete  of  West- 
em  Asia  and  Europe.    In  this  the  forms 
of  the  twenty-two  letters  are  still  pictures, 
more  or  less  manifost,  <rf  sensible  objecte, 
the  names  of  which  begin  with  these  letters, 
while  the  names  of  the  letters  denote  those 
olgects.    Accordingly  the  PhoBnicisn  alpha- 
bet was  developed  from  a  hieroglyphic  wri- 
ting, and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  diaracters 
no  longer  denote,  as  was  die  case  in  die 
hierof^yphies,  the  represented  oligecte  them- 
selves, but  solely  the  initial  letters  of  the 
same.     This  transition  ttom  hiero^yphio 
to   alphabetie  writing  we  find  very  early 
among  the  Egyptians^  at  least  two  thousand 
years  before  Christ    The  oldest  writing  of 
the  Egyptisns  was  solely  hieroglyphic    But 
as  this  did  not  provide  for  the  necessities 
naturally  often  arising  to  express  the  sound 
of  words  also,  an  ingenious  expedient  was 
devised  of  causing  a  number  of  pictures  to 
denote  merely  the  initial  sound  of  the  word 
indicated  thereby :   e.  g.  the  hand,  tdt^  was 
assumed  for  t;   the  mouth,  ro,  for  r;  so 
the  alphabetic  writing  was  originated,  which 
the  ancient  Egyptians  used  in  constant  con- 
nection with  die  hieroglyphics.    Along  with 
the  latter,  which  was  used  on  the  monu- 
ments, snd  Triiioh  consiste  of  perfect  pic- 
tores,  the  Egyptians  had  still  another  mode, 
though  less    exact,  to  express  objecte  of 
common  life,  in  which  the  pictures  were 
often  so  abridged  as  to  be  indistinct,  consist- 
ing only  of  rough  elementary  strokes.     In 
accordance  with  these  historical  premises,  it 
ifl  in  the  highest  degree  probable,  that  some 
PhcBnician,  connected  in  very  ancient  times 
with  the  neighbouring  Egyptians,  invented 
his  own  alphabet,  new  and  altogether  more 
convenient  and   practicaL     Bejecting   the 
hieroglyphics  and  their  innumerable  charac- 
ters, he  selected  simply  twenty-two  signs  for 
the  twenty-two  consonant-sounds  of  his  lan- 
guage.   To  determine  the  time  and  place  of 
tills  discovery,  facte  are  wanting ;  yet  that  it 
was  made  by  the  Phoenicians  in  Egypt,  in 
accordance  with  ite  Egyptian  type  or  model, 
somewhere  near  the  time  of  tiie  shepherd- 
kings  in  Egypt  (before  the  era  of  Joseph), 
is  a  very  probable  supposition.    It  is  remark- 
able, that  the  names  of  msny  letters  refer  to 
objecte  of  pastoral  life :  some  seem  to  be  of 
Egyptian  origin.     The  high  antiquity  of  the 
Hebrew  pronouns  appears  from  their  most 
extraordinary  agreement  with  Uie  pronouns 
of  the  Egyptian  language,  by  far  the  oldest 


BOO 


of  «]i{eh  we  pouesB  my  vritten 
II  Biipcun  probdbU,  that  betirmn  tli«  Hsbnm 
ud  tneient  Egrpti*!!  tb«n  «u  not  mnrlj 
Iha  reeiproral  reccplicin  ot  vordi  alnKdj 
ibnnfld,  bnt  a  rtlalionflhip  of  tlem,  lying 
dMper,  mcl  u  old  ■!  leut  u  thai  with  ihs 
Indo-Osniuiuo  ilock.' 

Prol^uar  Eirald,  a  ditUii^ihad  otienbd 
tcholw,  gin*  a  limilar  IsMiiiionj  ('  Hutoiy 
of  the  People  Isnel,'  1813,  p.  68,  ttg.)  :  — 
'  From  ■  eoDiidendoD  of  the  Sfaemitie  Un- 
futg«a'  (ifaeltiigiugeaspokaiibjtbadeMni- 
dtnti  ot  Shem),  it  appetn  Ihu  Iha  Aiiatic 
diilwla  at  least,  axpreaHd  the  wmpleM  tdeu 
in  napeet  to  the  art  of  wrilmg  in  the  tame 
manner  throughout,  while  later  iaipiweinents 
in  the  art  conld  be  easily  expreaeed  by  eaoh 
in  a  different  way-  This  phenomsnoD  ii  not 
otheririae  explainable  than  ae  tollowa : — Thia 
eilBting  wri^g  vaa  firat  need  in  ita  ilmpleat 
applicaliou  bj  an  imkiio«npriiuili*e  Shemitie 
people:  from  them  it  waa  rtoeiTed,  together 
witli  the  moat  neeeaeary  dealgnationa  ot  the 
object,  by  all  the  Shemitio  tribes  known  to 
us  in  hiiloiy — jnat  aa  certainly  aa  tlie  fact, 
that  the  term  Eleah,  Ood,  eommon  to  ell 
the  Bhemitie  nations,  ahowg  that  already  the 
primitiTe  people  ^m  whom  they  aepanted, 
dealgnaled  God  by  tliia  name.  Following 
aoch  lrai»s  we  may  be  led  to  the  moat 
atirpiising  tmtha,  beyond  the  moat  distant 
periods  ot  the  history  of  nationa.  We  Ibai 
see  how  eTery  inTestigation  into  the  origin 
of  writing  among  the  primitlie  tribes  leads 
ni  baok  to  the  remoteet  misty  antiqn'ly 
to  a  more  exaet  inTestigation  of  »hioh  iu 
oar  presfint  helps  are  notadeqaate  Among 
these  tribes,  writing  is  slwayi  easier  than  we 
can  follow  it  historically;  jiut  aa  every  on 
ginal  art  certainly  springs  from  the  most 
direct  neeesaitiea  of  life,  and  may  soonest 
be  dsreloped  by  a  people  enena  Tsly  en 
gaged  In  eommeioe ;  ita  nse  tor  the  pur 
pose  ot  writing  history,  or  only  of  fixing  lavs 
lies  maniteatly  Tsiy  early  bMk.  WhateTer 
may  baie  been  the  primitive  Bhemitie  peo- 
ple, to  whom  half  of  the  elTilieed  woi  d  ace 
indebted  tor  this  inestimable  gift,  so  mach 
cannot  be  mistaken,  that  it  appears  in  his 
totj  as  a  possession  of  ■  Shem  lie  peop  e 
long  before  the  time  of  Hoaes  and  that 
Israel  had  already,  before  his  lime  known 
and  employed  it  in  Egypt,  can  be  assumed 
without  difacnlty.  The  position  is  firmly 
eatablisbed,  that,  from  the  time  of  Hoses 
Hebrew  historical  writing  eonld  hsre  been 
dereloped,  and  was  deraloped.'  In  a  yet 
later  work,  thia  profoundly  learned  man 
(■  Complete  Gnide  to  the  Hebrew  Langnage 
fifth  edition,  1844,  p.  SO,  21,  B8)  saye  We 
poaaesB  in  the  Old  Testament,  wiitmgs  otthe 
most  dissimilar  periods,  some  beyond  a  quel 
tien  by  Mosea  himself,  and  ot  his  age  It 
may  be  considered  as  prored,  that  the  wntmg 
at  the  Hebrews  is  extremely  old,  and  was  by 
no  means  flnt  totmed  by  Hoses  and  hi* 


»3  BOO 

gezuration.  The  diction,  in  tba  oldetl  m. 
mains  of  the  langnage,  appears  completely 
formed,  and  to  have  long  been  in  use  for 
porposesot  writing.  The  Shemitie  alphabet, 
of  which  that  which  is  now  called  Hebrew 
is  a  branch,  has,  according  to  sll  historical 
traces,  its  origin  neither  fHim  the  Hebrews, 
nor  from  the  time  of  Moses,  tmt  long  before 
Hoses,  if  not  from  (he  Pb<snicisiis,  who 
•amed  fbr  themselres  the  merit  of  hsnngat 
an  aariy  period  oommnnicaled  this  alphabet 
to  the  Oreeks  and  other  nations  of  Europe; 
from  the  Arameana;  certainly  bom  soma 
Bhemitie  people,  once  intimately  connected 
with  Egypt- 

These  and  other  evidences  which  our  re- 
stricted apace  prevents  us  from  selling  foitli, 
ooneui  in  showing,  that,  prior  to  the  age  of 
Moaea,  thereexistedanen  tire  I  i  teratore  in  poa  - 
seaalon  of  the  descendants  ot  Shem,  ot  which 
all bntaftawiesiigesbu perished.  There  can 
be  DO  donbt  that  the  Hebrewe,  in  the  time  of 
HoBea,po«sessedlheartotwritlng.  Ifso,then 
history  (mote  or  less  artifleial)  would  natu- 
rally arise  onder  the  infloence  of  the  stirring 
events  eomieeted  with  the  redemptiOD  ot  the 
people  l^om  Egypt,  and  their  establishment 
in  the  land  of  promise.  It  is,  then,  with  a 
feeling  in  favour  ot  the  reality  of  the  record, 
that  we  may  refer  to  those  pasaage*  in  the 
early  writings  of  the  Bible  which  apeak  ot 
books,  since  we  have  already  aicertained  not 
only  the  poasibilily,  bnt  the  reality  and  cer- 
tainty, of  their  existence,  in  and  befoie  the 
days  of  the  Jewish  legislstor 

Greece  as  well  as  Egypt,  sought  tbr  letters 
the  patronage  of  b  gher  powers  than  man. 
The  fignre  shows  CI  o  the  mua*  of  h  atoiy, 
with  a  ease  of  maunaciipts  by  bar  side,  and 


€^ 


BOO  194  BOO 

gndoiUy  formed,  which  wm  taken  Into  the     eonaists,  and  thaa  hat  a  dear  referenoe  to 
eoatody  of  the  priesta,  depoaited  in  a  anitable     the  aahatance  of  the  Moaaio  oode ;  a  eoncla- 
place  in  the  temple,  and  guarded  with  speoial     aion  which  finds  ooixoboration  in  the  Uci, 
oare  and  rererence.     The  oopiea  of  theae     that  tfaie  act  of  compiling  the  eereral  Uwa 
hooka,  thna  preaerred.were  employed  aa  oii-     into  one  hook  took  place  towards  the  termi- 
ginala,  firom  which  others  were  taken,  and  aa     nation  of  the  life  of  Moaea,  when  he  had 
gaides  for  the  direction  of  eiTil  and  aocial  lift     given  all  hie  lawa,  and  repeated  aeveral  of 
(Dent  zrii.  18 ;  xxxi  9 — 18).    A  passage     Uiem,  and  when  he  was  abont  to  address  the 
foand  in  Dent  xxzi.  24 — 80,  is  so  emphatic,     assembled  tribes,  in  strams  of  the  highest 
that  we  must  transcribe  a  few  words :  'And     eloquence,  with  the  express  purpose  of  giving 
it  came  to  pass,  when  Moses  had  made  an     a  final  sanction  to  his  code,  and  doing  all  in 
end  of  writing  the  worda  of  this  law  in  a    his  power  to  secure  for  it  the  hearty  obedi- 
book,  until  they  were  finished,  diat  Moses    enoe  of  those  for  whom  it  was  designed, 
commanded  the  Levites,  which  bare  the  ark     This  whole,  however,  thus  recommended  by 
of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord,  8a3ring,  Take  tki$    its  author's  dying  words,  we  ars  not  without 
book  qfthe  law,  and  put  it  in  the  aide  of  the     means  of  tracing  in  its  psrts,  during  the  long 
ark  of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord  your  God,     period  which  the  legidation  occupied.    In 
that  it  may  be  there  for  a  witness  sgainst  thee.'     Exod.  zviL  14,  we  read,  *  The  Lord  said  unto 
Here,  then,  it  appears — I.  That  writing  was    Moaes,  Write  this  for  a  memorial  in  a  book, 
practised  in  the  time  of  Moses ;  —  IL  That     and  reheane  it  in  the  ears  of  Joshua.'    In 
Moses  wrote  out  a  fhll  copy  of  his  laws  in  a     Exod.  xxiv.  4,  we  find  that  Moses  not  only 
book ; — IIL  That  this  book  was  consigned  to     *  wrote  all  the  words  of  the  Lord,'  but  made 
the  most  holy  place  known  in  the  Mosaic  reli-     special  dforts  in  order  to  raise  an  altar  and 
gion,  where  it  would  be  guarded  by  feelings     twelve  piUars,  in  commemoration  of  the  Ctcts 
of  reverence,  in  conjunction  with  other  sacred     which  these  words  recorded ;  after  which  he 
depoaits ;  —  IV.  That  there  was,  from  the    held,  for  the  same  purpose,  a  religious  as- 
first,  a  declared  object  why  this  oare  was     semhly,  when,  having  offered  sacrifice  with 
taken — namely,  the    preservation    of   the     a  view  to  augment  the  solemnity  of  the  oo- 
Mosaic    institutiuns  firom  the  corruptions     oasion,  '  he  took  the  book  of  the  covensnt, 
which  would  ensue  from  human  paasions     and  read  in  ti^e  andience  of  the  people ;  and 
and  aaeerdotal  influences  (ver.  27).    The     they  said.  All  that  the  Lord  hath  said,  will  we 
precautions  which  were  thus  taken  combine     do.'    That  the  laws  were  collected  into  one 
to  give  us  an  assurance,  that  the  book  of  the     book,  and  that  they  were  diligently  studied  as 
law  which  we  have  in  our  hands  is  in  sub-     a  guide  in  public  and  in  private  ailkirs,  may 
stance  the  volume  which  Moses  wrote  out ;     be  learned  also  from  the  strict  charge  which 
nor  is  the  assurance  diminished,  by  consid-     the  Lord  gave  to  Joshua  (i  8)  :  *  This  book 
ering  how  unlikely  it  was  that  the  priestly     of  the  law  ahall  not  depart  out  of  thy  mouth; 
order,  had  they  been,  not  the  conservators  ot    but   thou  shalt  meditate  therein  day  and 
a  divinely  sanctioned  and  therefore  invlolshle    night,  that  thou  mayest  observe  to  do  accord- 
original,    but    fabricators  of  a  pretended    ing  to  all  that  is  written  therein;  for  then 
revelation,  or  remodellers  of  the  scanty  or     thou  shalt  make  thy  way  prosperous.'    In 
to  themselves  unsatisCMstory  record  of  a  real     imitation  of  his  great  predecessor,  Joshua 
one,  would  have  been  so  unwise  as  to  insert,     also  eontinued  to  add  to  the  national  archives 
or  dlow  to  remain,  a  passage  which  expres-     —writing  'in  the  book  of  the  law  of  God' 
ses,  not  merely  a  suspicion  against  Uiem,     (xxiv.  1^;  eomp.  xxiii.  6);  words  which 
but  a  positive  imputation,  and  appoints  pre-     oleariy  imply,  that  in  hia  day    there  waa 
cautionary  measures,  by  which,  if  possible,     already  a  collection  of  legal  documents, — 
the  apprehended  evil  might  be  warded  ofl^  or     a  volume  of  aaered  writings ;  which,  if  we 
at  least  be  remedied.    Had  there  been  lUsi-     may  reason  firom  what  we  have  found  on 
fication  on  the  part  of  the  priesthood,  it  must    record,  waa  from  time  to  time  augmented  by 
have  been  for  &eir  own  special  advantage ;     additional  Soripturea,  aanctioned  asof  autho- 
which  advantage  would  be  precluded,  or  at    rity  by  being  received  into  the  sacred  reposi- 
ai^  rate  rendered  difilcult  of  attaiimient,  by     tory.    Certainly  we  find  the  same  usage  in 
the  existence  in  the  sacred  books,  of  a  pas-     the  days  of  Samuel,  who,  we  are  informed 
sage  which  directed  attention,  and  kept  atten-     (1  Sam.  x.  20), '  wrote  the  manner  (or  the 
tion  alive,  to  their  propensity  to  deviate  fnm     constitution)  of  the  kingdom  in  a  book,  and 
the  law,  on  the  ground,—'  I  know  thy  rebel-     laid  it  up  before  the  Lord.'  This  trsnslation 
lion,  and  thy  stiff  neck :  behold,  while  I  am     misses  the  real  force  of  the  original,  in  which 
alive  with  you  this  day,  ye  have  been  rebellious     it  is  not  *  a  book,'  but '  the  book,*  obviously 
against  the  Lord ;  and  how  much  more  after     alluding  to  '  the  book  of  the  law,'  which  had 
my  death  f '  (See  also  ver.  29.)  its  beginning  with  Moses,  and  waa  enlarged 

The  Hebrew  word,  rendered  book  in  the  1^  JiMhua;  and  which,  by  these  repeated 
passage  on  which  we  have  just  comment-  acceasians,  received  testimonials  from  incor- 
ed,  denotes  a  whole,  a  volume  made  up  of  rupt  and  independent  judges,  to  its  genuine- 
psrts,  in  contradistinction  to  another  word,  neas  and  credibility.  Nor  did  these  sacred 
which  signifies  those  parts  of  which  a  whole     deposits  perish,  thoufh  they   might  in  a 


BOO  195  BOO 

mearare  lie  in  neglect,  espeeially  in  seasons    this  fiust  in  qnestion  is  to  deny  altogether 
of  national  depravation ;  for,  in  the  reign  of    the  eredibility  of  the  Biblical  narratiTes. 
Josiah  (2  Kiogs  xxii.  8),  the  Pentateuch  at    The  Israelites  wrote  letters,  dispatches  (2 
least   is  brought  forwurd  bj  HiUdah,  the     Sam.  zL  14.   1  Kings  xxL  8.   2  Kings  t.  0 ; 
high  priest, '  who  found  the  book  of  the  law    x.  1.    2  Chron.  zxx.  1),  contracts,  agree- 
in  the  house  of  the  Lord ; '  which  was  made     ments,  impeachments  (Jer.  zzzii.  10.     Job 
a  means,  with  the  king  and  people,  of  a    zzzi.  30.    Tobit  vii.  14).     Not  improbably 
general  reformation  (zxiii.).  Isaiah  (zzxi?.     calligraphy  also  was  known  (Isa.  viii.l).  By 
16)  directs  the  nation  to  this  same  autho-     this  admitted  and  undeniable  fact,  we  learn 
xity,  as  one  that  was  well  known  and  uni-     that  writing  was  common  among  the  Jews, 
rersally  recognised,  — '  Seek  ye  out  of  the     above  a  thousand  years  before  the  advent  of 
book  of  the  Lord,  and  read ; '  — words  which     Christ ;  a  fsot  which  is  of  itself  sufficient  to 
dearly  imply  that  the  Sacred  Writings  were     create  a  strong  presumption  in  favour  of  the 
accessible  to  the  people,  and  were  regarded    Biblical  history ;   and  which  will,  indeed, 
by  them  with  great  respect  and  deference,     warrant  us  in  carrying  the  origin  of  the  art 
llie  words  em^oyed  by  Isaiah  naturally,  by    back  for  some  considerable  period,  if  not 
their  resemblance,  carry  the  mind  to  those    for  many  centuries ;  for,  in  the  passages  just 
which  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  himself  used  in     referred  to,  writing  is  spoken  ot  as  nothing 
relation  to  the  writings  of  the  old  covenant,     recent,  unusual,  and  extraordinary ;  but  as 
<  Search  the  Scriptures '  (John  v.  80) ;  -—  a    a  well-known,  common,  and  so  a  long  esta- 
parallel  which  seems  to  import,  that  these     blished  practice.    We  have  not  the  means 
writings,  whether  or  not  in  number  precisely     of  determining  whether  writing  was  prac- 
the  same,  were  open  to  appeal,  and  were     tised  by  the  common  people,  but  they  obvi- 
held  in  reverence,  as  much  in  the  time  of    onsly  had  many  of  the  advantages  which  it 
Isaiah,  as  firom  other  sources  we  know  they     confers ;  for,  some  six  centuries  before  our 
were  in  the  days  of  the  Saviour.    The  obvi-     era,  there  was  a  class  of  men,  whose  profes- 
ons  publicity  which  the  Sacred  Writings  thus     sion  it  was  to  appear  in  public  for  the  pur- 
possessed  was  in  all  probability  secured  by     pose  of  writing  contracts,  agreements,  letters, 
transcripts ;  since  the  ark,  in  whose  side  (not     and  who  even  performed  some  such  part  as 
in  the  ark  itself)  they  were  deposited,  was     that  of  our  modem  reporters  (Eaek.  ix.  2, 
purposely  chosen  for  its  safety,  on  account     11).    These  hired  writers  wore  a  characteris- 
of  its  being  ordinarily  inaccessible,  which     tic  dress — it  was  made  of  white  linen;  round 
would  therefore  preserve  the  book  firee  from     the  waist  was  a  girdle,  in  which  an  ink-horn 
diminution,  unwarranted  additions,  or  frau-     was  carried.    Of  writing  materials,  mention 
dulent  falsification ;    especially  seeing  that     is  made  of  ink  (Jer.  xxxvi.  18) ;  penknife, 
copies  were  in  the  hands  of  the  public,  which     literally  <  knife  for  writing '  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23) ; 
would  act  as  preventives  to  any  corruption     pens  (Isa.  viiL  1.  Jer.  xvii.  1 ;  comp.  viii. 
on  the  part  of  the  priests ;  whilst  the  priests,     8).    Etymology  shows  the  ink  to  have  been 
aided  by  religion,  would  secure  the  Scrip-     black  in  ancient  times,  as  it  certainly  was 
tures  from  ii^ury  on  the  part  of  the  civil     in  the  first  century  of  our  era  (2  Cor.  iii.  3. 
powers  or  of  the  people.  2  John,  12.  8  Jolm,  13).  But  we  learn  from 

Among  the  oalionities  which  attended  the  Josephus,  that  the  laws  were  sometimes 
Babylonish  captivity,  was  the  destruction  of  written  in  letters  of  gold  in  the  third  cen- 
the  temple,  and  therewith  of  the  sanctuary,     tury,  A.C. 

wherein  the  Holy  Books  had  been  kept  se-  The  form  of  the  Hebrew  letters  —  which, 
cure.  There  was  therefore  no  longer  any  as  are  all  letters,  were  easily  changeable  — 
safeguard  for  the  Sacred  Volume.  On  their  underwent  many  variations  ere  the  national 
return  from  the  captivity,  the  people  no  longer  existence  came  to  an  end.  Of  the  two  chief 
xmderstood  their  original  tongue,  having  kinds  of  writing  which  we  find  in  use  among 
exchanged  Hebrew  for  Chaldee  or  Aramaic,  the  Jews,  that  is  undoubtedly  to  be  acccount- 
The  Sacred  Books  had,  accordingly,  to  be  ed  the  oldest,  in  which  are  written  the  in- 
translated.  But  the  great  social  and  reli-  scriptions  on  the  coins  of  the  Bf  acoabean 
gious  reforms  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  was  a  princes.  These  characters  substantially 
work  that  was  avowedly  done  on  the  autho-  agree  with  the  Samaritan ;  only  the  latter,  as 
rity  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  which  therefore  they  appear  on  the  Samaritan  manuscripts, 
must  have  been  known  and  recognised  as  a  are  somewhat  more  artistically  formed, 
whole ;  a  oondnsion  to  which  we  are  led  by  Both  these  spedes,  however,  have  their  ori- 
the  terms  in  which  they  are  spoken  of  in  the  gin  in  the  old  Phoenidan  alphabet,  as  it 
iqpocryphsl  books  (I  Maccab.  xiL  9.  2  Mao-  i^pears  on  Fhcsnidan  coins,  and  inscrip- 
cab.  vi.  23),  as  well  as  by  Philo  and  Jose-  tions  on  stone,  so  that  we  seem  led  to  the 
phus.  podtion,  that  before  the  exile  the  Hebrews 

Those  who  have  doubted  whether  the  art  and  Phesnidans  had  letters  of  a  common 
of  writing  was  practised  among  the  Jews  in  form.  The  square  letters  which  are  found 
the  time  of  Moses  admit,  that  from  the  age  in  all  the  existing  msnuscripts,  snd  which 
of  David  it  was  in  constant  and  increasing  may  be  seen  in  the  cut  p.  197,  are  of  later 
use  (oomp.  1  Sam.  x.  2d).    Indeed,  to  call     date,  and  frx)m  a  foreign  source.    Tradition 


BOO  196  BOO 

makes  them  come  from  Babylon,  and  to  have  books  lor  the  use  of  the  aynagogae.  For 
been  adopted  bj Exr*.  Henee  they  have  been  notesor brief  memorial8,memorandnm-book9 
eiiDed  Asayrian  writing.  or  tablets  were  in  uae, —  in  Lnke  i  08  teimed 
Wiarejnstified  in  presuming,  that  the  ma-  *  writing  table.'  From  early  periods,  books 
terlals  employed  by  the  Hebrews  for  writing  assmned  the  form  of  rolls  or  scrolls.  As 
npon  were  not  dissimilar  to  those  used  by  onr  word  volumu  means  a  roll,  so  does  the 
oUier  nations  at  dllTerent  periods  of  oiTilisa-  Babbinioal  name  for  a  book ;  a  usage  which 
tion.  In  the  infancy  of  society,  Tarious  ma-  may  be  traced  back  into  Scriptural  times  — 
terials  were  employed  for  writing,  as  stones,  thus  in  Jer.  xzxri.  14,  20 :  '  Take  in  thine 
bricks,  tiles,  plates  of  bronse,  lead,  and  other  hand  the  roll  wherein  thoa  hast  read ; ' '  They 
metals,  wooden  tables,  the  leafes  and  bsrk  of  laid  np  the  roll  in  the  chamber  of  the  scribe ' 
trees,  and  the  ahoolder-bones  of  animals.  (Zach.  ?.  1.  Ps.  zl.  7).  Hence  the  ezist- 
Wooden  tablets  covered  with  wax  were  longin  ence  and  the  force  of  Uiat  fine  metaphor  in 
use  among  the  Bomans,  as  weU  as  the  papy-  Isa.  zzxIt.  4, '  The  heaTens  shall  be  rdled  to- 
rus ;  and  die  inner  bark  of  trees,  and  pieces  of  geiher  as  a  seiolL'  These  rolls  were  of  con- 
linen,  had  been  preTionsly  adopted  by  them,  aiderahle  length,  made  up  of  several  pieces 
ManyEastem  peoples  still  write  on  the  leaves  joined  eareftally  together.  At  each  end  was 
of  trees,  or  on  wooden  tablets ;  and  wtuuka  a  short  wooden  roller  on  which  the  piioh- 
eontinnes  to  signify,  in  Arabic,  both  a  '  leaf'  ment  was  futened.  When  the  writing  on  it 
and  '  paper.'  had  been  completed,  the  scroll  was  rolled  up 
The  early  Arabs  committed  their  poetry  from  both  ends  towards  the  middle  :  when 
and  compositions  to  the  shoulder-bones  of  it  was  wanted  for  use,  it  was  unrolled  so  fiar 
sheep.  They  afterwards  obtained  the  papy-  as  the  passage  to  be  read  extended  (2  Kings 
rus  paper  from  Egypt,  on  which  the  poems  xix.  14.  Lnke  iv.  17.  Apoc.  ri.  14).  The 
called  Moattaqdt  were  written  in  gold  let-  rolls  of  the  Sacred  Books  were  laid  np  in  the 
ters ;  and  after  their  conquests  in  Asia  and  repository  of  the  synagogue  and  the  temple, 
Africa,  these  people  so  speedily  profited  by,  and  were  under  the  general  care  of  the 
and  improved  the  inventions  o^  the  nations  priests,  and  the  supervision  of  a  special 
they  had  subdued,  that  parchment  was  ma-  oflioer. 

nnfactured  in  Syria,  Arabia,   snd   Egypt,         Till  the  time  of  Christ,  the  Jews  made  use 

which  in  colour  and  delioaey  might  vie  with  of  manuscripts  in  the  form  of  rolls.     Bat 

our  modem  pi^er.    It  speedily  superseded  from  that  date  they  began  to  write  manu- 

the  use  of  the  pq;iyru8,  and  continued  to  be  scripts  in  the  shape  of  our  folio,  quarto,  and 

employed  until  the  discovery  of  the  method  octavo  books;  but  rolls  only  were  used  in  the 

of  making  naper  from  cotton  and  ailk,  called  service  of  the  synagogue.    Books  in  other 

eharta  h<mSyd$ki,  which  is  proved  by  Mont-  forms  were  employed  for  private  use.    The 

fimoon  to  have  been  known  at  least  as  eariy  religious  feelings  of  the  Jews  laid  the  tran- 

as  A.D.  1100.  soribers  of  the  rolls  under  the  most  rigid 

Among  the  Egyptians,  p^^r  made  from  regulations  in  regard  to  the  choice  of  their 

thepiqpyms  was  had  recourse  to,  for  the  more  materials  for  the  rolls  and  other  particulars, 

important  and  solemn  transactions  of  life.  A  synagogue  roll  was  to  be  written  only  on 

We  subjoin  a  specimen  of  a  papyrus  mann-  the  hide  of  a  dean  animal,  and  not  on  a 

script,  accurately  copied,  and  containing  a  skin  so  thin  and  porous  as  to  silow  the 

perfect  sentence  or  paragraph  from  the  ori-  writing  to  appear  on  the  opposite  side.    The 

ginal  in  the  Britiah  Museum :  ^  rolls  were  to  be  written  in  the  square  character 

from  a  recognised  copy,  every  part  of  which 
was  to  be  transcribed  by  the  eye,  and  not 
even  an  iota  to  be  set  down  from  memory. 


£iu.»t^.^M««,.-^»«MM..  -^V.ttirilSf      ^^wi  >*  ''W  completed,  the  copy  was  revis- 
(>^i..^i%ri{^iv4fffeM««»'*«K*4«>wf>ji'-tAw       ed,  when  shght  and  mconsiderable  mistakes 


caused  it  to  be  disallowed.  The  utmost 
care  was  taken  not  only  in  the  trsnserip- 
tion,but  in  counting  the  words  and  even 
letters  of  the  original,  in  order  to  preserve 
it  ficom  depravation  and  ii^ury. 
Among  the  Hebrews,  for  substances  to  Dr.  Bobinson,  while  at  Hebron,  paid  a 
receive  the  writing,  stones  were  employed  visit  to  the  synagogue  in  that  place,  and  re- 
(Deut  xxvii.  8.  Josh.  viii.  82)  ;  probably  ports:  *  The  manuscripts  of  die  Old  Testa- 
Ublets  of  lead  (Job  xix.  24) ;  wood  also  ment  sze  kept  in  two  cupboards  or  presses 
(Ezek.  xxxviL  16) ;  rolls,  it  may  be  of  some  on  one  side.  Like  all  Hebrew  msnuscripts, 
skin  or  metal  (laa.  viii  1.  Hab.  ii  2).  For  they  are  written  on  long  rolls  of  parchment, 
books,  skins  were  employed,  Egyptian  linen,  at  each  end  of  which  a  rod  was  fastened, 
and  Egyptian  paper.  The  latter  is  expressly  so  that  they  may  be  rolled  backwards  or  for- 
mentioned  in  2  John,  12.  In  2  Tim.  iv.  13,  wards  as  a  person  reads ;  the  columns  being 
we  find  parchment,  which,  we  learn  from  perpendicular  to  the  length  of  the  roll.  In 
Babbinical  authority,  was  used  in  formhug     the  first  clipboard  were  six  or  eight  mann- 


BOO 


197 


BOO 


aeripti«nciI(wadln(iM«B{sMOtitiliowiiigClio  Mript  U  Ihoi  ironnd  off  from  one  tod  to 

and  cue  of  H3S.)  ituidiiig  upright     The  ths  other,  u  iIib  Rider  admuei ;  tlia  rods 

xoi3  are  Inierted  into  holes  in  the  lop  and  being  tar  enough  apart  to  leare  a  oolnmn  nn 

bottom  of  the  otie,  and  extend  ap  tbrougb  rolled  betveeu.    The  other   eitpboard   waa 

the  top,  where   Ihej  ire  ornamented  with  also  Ml  ol  rolls  —  aome  of  these  in  casta 

large  lilreT  knobs  not  mads  fasL    The  roUs  eorerad  otbt  irith  silk  or  embrDidei;,  said  to 

ars  read  as  they  atand  in  dke  oaaei,  without  bs  presents  from  wsalthj  Jews  hi  Europe' 

being  taken  from  the onpboard.   Tha  mann-  (1L416). 


Ths  cut  on  the  left  hand  exhibits  the 
Stpher  Tera,  or  *  book  of  the  law,'  olosed, 
hsTing  a  wide  embroidered  riband  enfolding 
it  1  the  cut  on  the  right  hand  dlaplaTi  ths 
same,  partial!]'  open ;  B  showing  the  He- 
brew ehiraeters,  and  ths  way  in  whiah 
they  eland  in  ■  eolnmn  or  page.  At  A  ia 
a  small  box,  in  which  are  found  the  names 
of  all  the  memben  of  the  synagogue,  from 
whom  seien  readers  of  ths  law  are  drawn  by 
loL  The  box  has  four  compartments :  —  t. 
ContuusthenametottheLeTites;— U.  Be- 
oeiTes  the  names  of  the  Lerites  as  they  hare 
read ; — III.  Holds  the  nam's  of  all  the  other 
members  of  the  synagogue,  —  IV.  Has  the 
ntmes  of  thoae  among  the  last  who  baTS 
already  read.    E  E  direct  attention  to  silrer 


omamsnta  with  beUs,  which  an  placed  on  the 
extremities  of  ths  scroll.  F  Is  a  small  poin- 
ter used  for  assiatance  in  reading  the  manu- 
Bsripts.  The  handles  obeerred  on  die  rolls 
are  designed  to  preient  the  law  from  being 
soiled  or  profanad  by  the  toneh.  When 
the  Btphrr  Tora  is  bronghl  out  lh>m  the 
ease  or  ark  where  it  is  kept  for  nae,  it  ia 
commonly  Jaid  on  a  silk  eoTcring,  and  mem- 
bera  of  iba  congregation  emulously  tiy  to 
kiae,  or  at  leaat  to  touch  it.  When  abont  to 
be  restored  to  ita  repository,  it  is  rolled  up; 
the  silrer  ornaments  are  put  on  the  etaTca, 
and  a  ricliiy  embroidered  corering  of  silk  is 
thrown  ovsr  it,  being  tuspended  from  the 
top,  and  having  the  ailTer  omamenta  in 
sight. 


BOO  198  BOO 

Kpeaking  of  the  Bpanisa  Jews  in  their  at  least  of  DtTid.    In  Joshua  zriii.  9,  we 

•ynagogoe  at  Jerusalem,  Dr.  Olin  remarks  read  that  the  sorreyors  whom  Joahna  sent 

(IL  806) :  — 'I  was  mach  impressed  with  out  to  surrey  the  land  of  Canaan, preriooaly 

ttie  profound  respect  shown  for  the  book  of  to  the  dinsion  which  he  made  fk  it  among 

the  law.    It  is  preserved  in  a  case  of  wood  the  tribes,  described  the  country  *  by  cities, 

-*an  ark  my  companion  called  it — behind  into  scTcn  parts,  in  a  book,'  by  the  aid  of 

a  splendid  curtain  of  velTet    Several  grave  which  Joshua  assigned  the  several  portions 

and  venerable  Rsbbis  went  in  a  compsny  to  the  conquerors.    This  book  can  hardly 

to  remove  it  to  the  reading  desk.  The  whole  have  been  unaccompanied  by  some  species 

assembly  rose;  and,  before  the  reading  of  the  of  mqp  or  maps,  which  would  be  necessary 

lessons,  tibe  saered  parchment,  oover«d  with  in  even  a  rode  description  of  the  vanquished 

a  white  cloth,  was  carried  round  to  be  reve-  territory ; — an  idea  which  finds  corrobora- 

rently  kissed  by  the  worshippers.    In  read-  tion  in  the  words  '  described  it  by  cities.' 

ing,  the  Babbi  who  oiBciated,  pointed  to  the  An  historiosl  work  of  the  period  of  die  kings 

lino  with  a  silver  stylus.    Every  look  and  is  slso  spoken  of  in  1  Kings  zi.  41,  — '  The 

motion  connected  with  this  part  of  their  rest  of  the  acts  of  Solomon,  and  sll  that  he 

worship  was  expressive  of  the  most  profound  did,  and  his  wisd<Mn,  are  tfiey  not  written  in 

reverence.    In  reading  the  Pentateuch,  the  the  book  of  the  acts  of  Solomon  ? '    A  series 

Rabbi  and  congregation  bowed  their  heads  of  historical  works  seem  to  have  been  com- 

very  low  at  the  occurrence  of  every  emphatic  posed;  for,  in  1  Chron.  zxiz.  29,  the  acts  of 

word,  —  indeed,  of  almost  every  word,  — -  the  David,  first  and  last,  are  said  to  be  'written 

better  to  mai^  and  impress  upon  their  minds  in  the  book  of  Samuel  the  seer,  and  in  the 

its  solemn  import'  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and  in  the  book 

Many  facts  concur  in  showing  that  books  of  Gad  the  seer.'  Poetical  as  well  as  his- 
must  have  been  by  no  means  uncommon  torical  works  are  referred  to  in  2  Chron.  ix. 
among  the  Jews,  at  least  in  the  days  of  our  29,  — '  The  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  the 
Lord.  The  nature  of  his  general  intercourse  prophecy  of  Ahi[)ah  the  Shilonite,  the  visions 
with  the  people  -—  the  appeal  which  he  con-  of  Iddo  the  seer  against  Jeroboam.'  We 
stantly  makes  to  the  writings  of  the  Old  find  mention  made  in  2  Chron.  xiL  15  at 
Testament  —  the  readiness  with  which  his  another  volume,  whose  loss  we  have  to  la- 
references  and  quotations  are  understood,  ment, — '  The  book  of  Shemaiah  the  prophet.' 
prove  that  the  Jews  of  his  day  were  familiar  Still,  another  work  is  mentioned  in  2  Chron. 
with  their  Scriptures.  Books  were  found  in  zz.  84, — *  The  book  of  Jehn,the  son  of  HananL' 
each  of  the  numerous  synagogues  which  Indeed,  in  the  earliest  chapters  of  the  Bible, 
existed  both  within  and  without  the  borders  we  find  traces  of  a  yet  eariiej  literature,  and 
of  Palestine ;  and  Moses  was  read  on  Sab-  proofs  that  its  actual  contents  are  only  the 
bath-days  in  the  public  oongregation  (2  Cor.  remains,  which  time  have  spared,  of  a  yet 
iiL  10).  From  Rsbbinicsl  authority,  we  wider  and  richer — it  could  hardly  have  been 
learn  tfiat  a  large  portion  of  the  Scriptures  a  more  precious — cycle  of  compositions,  than 
of  the  Old  Testament  were  read  in  ihe  course  those  which  we  now  possess ;  for  what  may 
of  the  year —  that  the  study  of  them  by  in-  be  called  *  Lsmech's  Song'  (Oen.  iv.  28,  24) 
dividu^s  was  considered  highly  meritorious,  is  clearly  the  fragment  of  a  poem,  of  which 
and  diligently  pursued,  for  which  purposes  perhaps  what  we  have  is  all  that  remained 
manuscript  copies  must  have  been  widely  even  when  that  very  ancient  work  was  first 
spread ;  a  fact  which  is  established  by  the  compiled. 

strict  requirement  that  parents  should  com-        Whether  the  facts  and  reasonings  that 

mundcate  to  their  children  an  intimate  ac-  have  now  been  laid  before  the  reader,  war- 

Suaintance  with  the  law  and  the  practices  of  rant  or  not  the  conclusion  that  the  Penta* 

ieirforefather8,aswell  as  the  events  in  which  tench  came  in  substance  as  it  is  from  the 

they  originated,  snd  which  they  were  designed  hands  of  Moses,  or  whether  they  prove  or 

to  commemorate.  not  that  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  Jews  ap- 

Among  lost  works,  mention  is  made  of  peared  in  general  shortly  after  the  times  of 

some,  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  the  abun-  which  these  books  severally  treat,  —  they  yet 

dance  as  well  as  the  great  antiquity  of  Hh-  tend  to  lay  a  firm  basis  for  the  historical 

brew  literature.    In  Numb.  xzi.  14,  we  read  character  and  general  authenticity  of  what 

of  the '  book  of  the  wars  of  Jehovsh,'  spoken  are  commonly  called  the  Mosaic  writings, 

of  as  a  well-known  document,  which,  from  and  of  those  works  which  stand  in  the  same 

the  connection  in  which  the  words  stand,  line  with  them.    The  views  which  have  been 

appears  to  have  been  a  poetical  celebration  given,  make  it  maniUBSt  that  the  Hebrews 

of  the  passage  of  the  Israelites  over  the  Bed  had  the  means  of  writing  history ;  fkirther. 

Sea,  and  of  events  of  which  that  passage  that  they  actually  did  write  history ;  farther 

was  the  central  point    A  similar  volume  still,  that  they  were  an  historical  people, 

we  find  in  the  book  of  Jasher  (Josh.  x.  18.  Their  annals,  in  consequence,  are  not  the  in- 

3  Sam.  L  18),  which  was  also  a  collection  of  ventions  of  acomparatively  late  period.  Bather;, 

poems,  commencing  apparently  with  the  con-  they  are  the  remains  of  a  very  copious  litera- 

qnest  of  Canaan,  but  eztendintr  to  the  times  tnre,  which  came  into  existence,  flourished, 


BOO                    199  BOO 

soffeied  loBses,  and  begui  to  deoline,  before  Hence,  in  PhiL  !▼.  8,  Paul  speaks  of '  fellow- 

histoiioal  uriting  had  asanmed  its  first  ont-  labourers  whose  names  are  in  the  book  of 

lines  from  the  pen  of  Herodotas  (ctr.  450,  life.'    In  the  Apocalypse  the  usage  iB  of  fire- 

A.C.),  the  earliest  profane  historian  whose  qaent  occurrence  (ilL  0).    In  xiii.  8,  the 

works  have  a  definite  Talae.  book  is  termed  '  the  book  of  life  of  the  Lamb 

BOOK  OF  LIFE  is  a  term  whose  origin  slain  from  the  fountain  of  the  world ; '  and 
dates  back  to  a  very  early  period  in  the  in  zrii.  8,  it  is  implied  that  this  book  itself 
Mosaic  history ;  for,  in  Exod.  xzzii.  82,  88,  existed  from  the  foundation  of  the  world, 
we  read  these  words :  — '  Yet  now,  if  thou  While  in  xx.  12,  the  image  is  changed :  in- 
wilt  forgive  their  sin ;  —  and  if  not,  Uot  me,  stead  of  there  being  one  book  of  names, 
I  iHray  Siee,  oat  of  thy  book  which  thon  hast  erasure  out  of  which  implied  the  destruction 
written.  And  the  Lord  said,  Whosoeyer  of  the  wicked ;  thtfe  are,  besides  the  book 
hath  sinned  against  me,  him  will  I  blot  out  of  life,  other  books  by  which  the  dead  were 
of  my  book ; '  —  a  threat,  the  import  of  which  judged  out  of  those  things  which  were  writ- 
is  explained  by  Levit  xxiii.  80,  and  Ezek.  ten  in  the  books,  according  to  their  works ; 
XYiii.  4, '  The  soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die.'  being  evidently  a  record  of  the  good  and 
We  find  a  similar  phrase  in  Ps.  Ixix.  28,  ctU  actions  of  the  small  and  great  that 
<  Let  them  be  blotted  out  of  the  book  of  the  stood  before  the  judgment-bar  of  God.  The 
Irnng.'  The  intended  representation,  then,  tenoroftheseremarksrenders  it  almost  need- 
is,  ttuit  there  is  a  book  in  which  Jehovah  less  to  add,  that  these  are  figurative  repre- 
has  written  the  names  of  living  men.  Such,  sentations.  In  truth,  they  show  with  much 
however,  as  transgressed  his  commands  had  effect,  that  the  inquisition  of  God's  Provi- 
their  names  erased ;  for  it  was  only  tbMe  of  denoe  is  no  less  minute  than  comprehensive, 
the  ri^taous  that  were  retained  (Ps.  box.  and  bid  us  all  take  care  of  small  things, 
28).  This  is  a  figurative  way  of  represent-  whether  they  are  in  act  or  in  thought ;  since 
ing  the  kind  and  watohftil  providence  of  God  a  record  is  made,  and  an  account  will  be 
over  the  obedient,  and  his  awftil  retribution  required,  of  the  most  inconsiderable  as  well 
to  the  wicked.  In  a  similar  manner  the  as  the  most  important  of  our  deeds  and  af- 
tears  of  the  good  are  said  to  be  noted  down  fections. 

in  God's  book  (Ps.  IvL  8 ;  comp.  Ps.  cxxxix.  BOOTY  (T.  apoil  taken  in  war).  —  The 
16) ;  and  in  Daniel  xii.  I,  it  is  said  that  earliest  division  of  booty  on  record  is  that 
every  one  shall  be  delivered  in  a  time  of  which  Abraham  made,  after  the  expedition 
trouble,  whose  name  shall  be  '  found  written  which  he  undertook  for  the  defence  of  Lot 
in  the  book.'  The  idea  appears  to  have  (Gen.  xiv.  18,  aeq,) ;  when,  on  the  proposal 
arisen  from  the  practice  of  keeping  registers  of  the  king  of  Sodom,  -<-  *  Give  me  the  per- 
of  the  families  and  of  the  tribes  that  were  sons,  and  take  the  goods  to  thjself,'  the  patri- 
necessary  in  a  nation  in  which  landed  aroh  generously  abandoned  his  claim,  only 
property  was  inherited  by  lot  and  by  lineage  taking  care  that  tithes  of  all  should  be  given 
(Ezek.  xiiL  9.  Ezra  ii.  59,  62.  N^.  vii  0.  to  Melchizedek,  priest  of  the  most  high  God. 
Comp.  Mai.  iii.  16).  The  necessity  fov  these  It  is  not  safe  to  draw  unqualified  general 
registers  must  have  existed  from  the  first  eondusions  from  this  transaction;  but  we 
formation  of  the  tribes,  otherwise  the  tribes  may  consider  it  m  probable,  that  the  pro- 
could  scarcely  have  preserved  their  distinot  posal  of  the  king  of  Sodom,  and  the  gift  of 
individuality.  Unquestionably,  such  registers  a  tithe  of  the  spoil  to  the  king  of  Salem, 
must  have  existed  with  the  fbrst  occupation  were  in  accordance  with  general  usage.  In 
of  the  land  of  Canaan.  In  fact,  family  re-  Numb.  xxxi.  26,  §eq,  we  find  an  express 
gisters  are  found  in  the  earliest  of  the  Bib-  direction  given,  that  the  sum  of  the  prey, 
Heal  documents.  These  remarks  have  a  both  of  man  and  beast,  was  to  be  divided 
strong  tendency  to  prove  the  early  existence  into  two  parts :  one  of  which,  after  the  five- 
of  written  documents.  But  in  Exod.  xxxiL  hundredth  part  both  of  man  and  beast  had 
82,  88,  as  cited  above,  we  find  that  books  been  taken  for  the  priests,  was  to  be  given  to 
had  already  given  existence  to  popular  meta-  the  soldiers  j  the  other  half,  less  one-fiftieth 
phors ;  whence  their  early  existence  among  part,  which  was  to  go  to  the  Levites,  fell  to 
the  Israelites  is  satisfactorily  established,  the  share  of  the  children  of  Israel  generally. 
These  concurring  testimonies  show  Aat  This  allotment,  though  it  took  place  in  a 
the  origin  of  writing  cannot  be  fixed  after  particular  instsnce,  -^  namely,  after  the  de- 
the  days  of  Moses,  and  ufford  a  strong  pro-  feat  of  the  Midianites,  —  may  have  become  a 
bability  that  it  must  be  dated  long  before  precedent,  and  eventually  acquired  the  force 
that  time,  in  agreement  with  the  general  im-  of  a  law.  No  command  is  given  as  to  Uie 
plication  of  Uie  Pentateuch,  and  the  con-  proportions  in  which  the  spoil  was  to  be  dis- 
dttsions  at  which  we  have  arrived  in  the  tributed  among  the  warriors  individually; 
previous  article.  and  we  are  left  to  the  ooxyecture,  that  seme 

This  expressive  figure  of  speech  passed  regard  would  be  paid,  in  the  division,  to 

into  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  ^veraityof  rank,if  notof  bravery  and  peril, 

being  there  modified  by  the  new  and  higher  The  plunder  obtained  in  the  conquest  of 

kind  of  life,  which  is  their  great  th.eme.  Canaan  was  very  great,  as  appears  from 


B  O  R  300  B  OR 

the  words  of  Joshaa,  addressed  to  the  half  some  in  order  to  get  them  to  depart  quiekly, 
tribe  of  Manasseh,— 'Betum  with  maoh  and  others  on  account  of  their  neighbour- 
riches,  and  with  very  much  cattle,  with  sil-  hood,  and  the  friendship  they  had  with 
Ter,  and  with  gold,  and  with  brass,  and  with  them'  (Antiq.  iL  14.  6).  From  Ezod. 
iron,  and  with  Teiy  much  raiment;  divide  xii.  86,  we  find  that  the  Egyptians  made 
the  spoil  of  your  enemies  with  your  brethren'  the  requested  gratuities,  namely,  jewels  of 
(Josh.  JcaL  8).  The  order  in  this  ease  silver,  and  jewels  of  gold,  and  raiment;  thus 
would  i^pear  to  be  for  an  equal  dirisiott.  oontributiag  to  the  ftilfilment  of  the  dirine 
At  a  later  period,  an  i^junotion  on  the  part  promise,  that  the  descendants  of  Abraham 
of  Darid  made  it  a  perpetual  ordinance,  that  should  quit  their  servitude  with  great  sub- 
those  who  guarded  the  baggage  should  have  stance  (Oen.  zv.  14).  In  Exod.  xii  86, 
an  equal  share  with  those  who  engaged  i»  the  Egyptians  are,  in  our  version,  said  to 
the  strife  of  Uood  (1  SaoL  xxx.  M,  20).  'lend*  to  the  Hebrews;  thus oonfirming  the 


From  David's  example  (3  8am.  viii.  10, 11)  enoneous  notion  of  borrowing  given  by  the 
we  may  infer  that  it  was  customary  to  dedi-  English  translation  in  Exod.  iii.  32.  The 
cate  to  the  Lord,  silver,  gold,  and  other  word  rendered  lend  is  the  same  as  that  ren- 
valnable  things.  A  devoted  city  was  given  dered  borrow,  aigniiying  to  «&.  The  fact 
up  to  destruction ;  no  booty  was  allowed  to  is,  that,  as  present*making  implied  mutual 
be  made, — ^*  only  the  silver,  and  the  gold,  and  asking,  so  Uie  verb  io  om  eame  to  denote 
the  vessels  of  brass  and  iron,  they  put  into  both  to  give  and  to  receive  a  present  The 
the  treasury  of  the  house  of  the  Lord '  (Josh.  Israelites  are,  however,  said  to  have  spoiled 
vL  24).  So  in  1  Chron.  xzvi  27, — <  Out  of  the  Egyptians.  On  the  ordinary  view  of 
the  spoils  won  in  battle  did  they  dedicate  to  the  transaction,  its  morality  is  indefensible ; 
maintain  the  house  of  the  Lord.'  and  we  ahall  not  therefore  waste  our  spaoe 
BOBBOW  denotes  to  obtam  on  pledge,  as  by  mentioning  the  attempts  that  h«ve,  both 
is  done  in  taking  up  money  on  mortgage  by  In  ancient  and  in  modem  times,  been  made 
depositing  something;  and  hence,  in  a  se-  for  the  purpose.  If  the  Hebrews  borrowed 
eondsjy  meaning,  to  obtain  on  the  security  and  did  not  repay,  then  this  spoiling  was 
of  a  promise  to  return  the  article  borrowed,  robbery,  which  may  have  been  caused,  or 
the  pledge  here  being  the  word  or  faith  of  slightly  excused,  but  csnnot  be  justified,  by 
the  borrower.  Our  English  term  has  more  the  bondage  in  which  they  had  been  held, 
than  one  representative  in  Hebrew.  In  But  the  spoiling  was  not  robbery.  The 
Exod.  liL  S^  it  is  the  translation  of  Shor  word  {Nahtzal)  signifies  to  take  away,  to  eei 
Hal,  which  property  signifies  to  «A;  by  free,  deliver.  In  the  sense  of  deliver,  the 
which  word  the  original  should  have  been  word  is  used  with  the  same  construction  as 
rendered.  The  Israslites  did  not  borrow  in  the  passage  under  consideration  in  Exod. 
in  the  customaiy  sense  of  the  term,  but  so-  xviii.  10:  —  *  And  Jethro  said,  Blessed  be 
licited  presents ;  to  oompliance  witii  which  the  Lord,  who  hath  delivered  you  out  of  the 
petition  the  Egyptians  were  inclined  by  seme  hand  of  the  Egyptians;'  and  in  Esek. 
express  act  of  Divine  Providenee :  —  *  I  will  xiv.  14,  Noah,  Daniel,  and  Job,  are  said  to 
give  this  people  favour  in  the  sight  of  the  *  deliver  their  otvm  eoult  by  their  righteous- 
Egyptisns ;  snd  it  shall  come  to  pass  that  ness ' —  the  form  of  the  verb  being  Uie  same 
when  ye  go,  ye  ahall  not  go  empty.'  The  as  in  Exod.  iii.  22.  Accordingly,  we  render 
asking  of  presents  is  still  common  in  the  the  words  thus :  —  *  And  ye  shall  deliver 
East  when  persons  separate  firom  each  other;  Egypt '  (it  ia  Egypt  in  the  original) ;  that 
and  compliance  with  such  requests  is,  in  is,  by  your  quitting  it,  you  shall  free  Egypt 
general,  accounted  a  point  of  good  manners,  f^om  tlie  plagues  and  troubles  which  your 
A  similar  practice  prevailed  among  the  an-  presence  now  brings  upon  it  (comp.  Exod. 
oient  Germans: — *On  the  departure  of  a  iiL  20).  No  instance  can  be  produced  in 
guest,  it  is  the  custom  to  present  him  with  which  the  word  Naktzal  signifies  in  itself  to 
whatever  he  may  ask  for;  and,  with  the  same  apoil,  or  plunder}  nor  in  any  other  of  the 
freedom,  a  boon  is  desired  in  return.  They  numerous  instances  in  which  the  word,  in 
are  pleased  with  presents,  but  think  no  obli-  some  form  or  other,  occurs  in  the  Bible, 
gatien  inouired  when  they  either  give  or  except  in  this  and  the  corresponding  (Exod. 
receive'  (Tadtns  de  Mor.  Oerm.  sec.  21).  xiL  86)  passage,  is  it  rendered  by  our  trans- 
There  was  in  the  case  of  the  Israelites  a  lators  by  *  epoil,'  but  generally  by  *  deliver.' 
special  reason  why  they  should  ask  and  re-  The  justificatory  view  which  has  now  been 
eexve  presents,  as,  in  the  haste  in  which  given  finds  confirmation  in  the  character  of 
they  were  about  to  leave  the  land,  they  would  the  Mosaic  law  relaUve  to  borrowing :  — « If 
of  necesaity  leave  much  unmoveable,  and  a  man  borrow  of  his  neighbour,  and  it  be 
probal^  some  moveable,  property  in  the  hurt  or  die,  the  owner  thereof  being  not  with 
possession  of  the  Egyptians.  The  transao-  it,  he  shall  surely  make  it  good '  (Exod. 
toon  appears  to  have  been,  for  the  most  part,  xxii  14;  comp.  Ps.  xxxrii.  21);  a  law 
an  s«t  of  good  will  at  pv^.  8o  was  it  which  is  unexceptionable  in  point  of  recti- 
ngaided  ^T  J<»«P™^-^-;*  They  (the  Egyp-  tude,  and  UtUe  likely  to  have  emanated  from 
toans)  also  honoured  the  Hebrews  with  gifts;  a  legislator  who  had  oommenced  his  career 


BOT 


b;  deoeptlon  ud  robbery  on  >  gnnd 
BoROwing  is  KimfldiaeH  an  mdicadoD,  maa 
man  tnqannllj  ■  cauH,  of  poxerty:  hence, 
•moDg  the  tilBBiiiigi  promJHd  to  the  Israel- 
itei  in  oaw  of  obedienm,  wulhis: — 'TboD 
■halt  lend  onto  muxj  DilionB,  uid  sluJt  not 
bumiw'  (Deak  x>.  6 ;  nviii.  12).  This  wu 
to  be  reversed  lo  the  dlaobedienl:  —  'He 
1  lend  to  thee,  end  Ihoo 
m ;  he  ihall  be  the  beedi 
uid  than  ihklt  1w  the  Uil : '  'the  horrower 
is  Mmnt  to  the  lender '  (Froi.  ziii.  7). 

BOSS  ii  ■  void  found  cml}  in  Job  it.  34, 
where  it  is  need  of  the  hwdihood  of  the 
vioked  man,  in  mshing  aa  m  b&ttle  againtt 
the  Almigh^,  ■  with  the  thick  bosHi  of  hie 
bnoUer'  or  shield.  The  boss  wu  the  jnu- 
tnberuit,  uid  sometimee  pointed,  part  which 
eune  oat  from  llie  middle  of  the  shield,  and 
wu  nied  in  assuilUng  a  foe.  Both  the 
Englieh  and  the  Hebrew  word,  ot  which 
ban  is  a  translatioDi  denotes  a  rvtnul  tmd 
tieeliiiig  bodg.  To  turn  the  boss  of  one's 
buckler  against  a  person  ie  a  proTerbial  ei. 
ptetslon  among  the  Arabs,  eignifying  to 
become  his  deadl;  enem;. 

■  Oft  as  with  lUnbig  share  he  plooglis  Uw  tiii, 
Tfae  swain,  utoniab'A,  DnOs  the  masBt  atiMd ; 
On  whose  hroad  too,  vd  soiirc*  DTTarloos  wDca, 
He  flews  engrared  ue  lon^-di^mted  rose.' 

BOTTLE,— Thus  word,  which  is  found 
in  the  two  great  bnmchee  of  tongnes,  namely, 

tire  form  of  butt^  a  eask ;  thaa  making  bottle 
to  have  originally  been  a  aort  of  elongated 
tab.  Id  the  Hebrew  it  has  scTeral  rtpre- 
eenlatiTes,  a  brief  nolico  of  whioh  will  aid 
die  reader  in  forming  a  rorreol  conception 
of  ancient  botdea.  We  find,  Orst,  OAc,  which 
ie  only  once  (Job  xnti.  19)  rendered  ^lUc; 
hi  all  other  itiatanceB  it  ia  translated 
or  ipiriii.  Its  root-meaning 
thence  lo  be  infiiitd,  and  so  we  arrife  at  the 
meaning  of  ipirtl,  an  inflaenee  causing  the 
person  to  swell,  as  did  the  Pythoneas  when 
inspired  of  Apollo.  The  same  word  denotes 
a  Gate,  as  well  as  a  bottle.  It  is  tised  ot 
familiar  spiriu  and  Tentriloqnists  (Ler.  lix. 
31.  Isa.  nil.  i).  Hence  it  is  clear  that 
botUea  bearing  Ihii  name  most  originallj 
hare  beta  ot  skin,  and  alao  that  ths  liqDor 
which  they  contained  was  in  a  stale  ot  active 


aoale.     wine  into  new  bottles,  and  bolb  tra  pn> 


slated  Riint 
'o  bt  Aotletv, 


This 


Armed  bj  the  words  of  Job  (miL  IS)  ;  - 


Skms  of  goats  or  other  animals  an  still  used 
in  the  East  as  bottles.  The  term  '  new  bot- 
tles '  means  botdes  ot  new  wine,  which  wium 
put  into  skins,  esjHoiallj  if  the  akina  were 
old,  was  liable  lo  burst  them:  thus  our  Lord 
says  (Mattii.l7), — 'Neitherdomenputnew 
wine  into  old  boldas ;  etae  the  botdes  break, 
•od  the  wine  nuineih  ool :  bnl  tliey  put  new 


Whence  a  part  of  the  condncl  ot  the  Gibeo- 
nites  receives  eiplanatiou ;  who,  wiahing 
lo  persuade  the  Hebrews  that  they  had 
eome  from  a  dlatauee,  aasnmed  ail  the 
appearance  that  they  could,  of  haTing 
been  a  long  time  on  their  journey.  Ae- 
eordingly,  with  other  tokens  ot  age,  Ihej 
look  '  wine  bottles,  old  and  rent,  and  bound 
up ; '  staling, '  These  bottles  ot  wine  wliiell 
we  filled  were  new.  and  behold  they  be  rent;' 
new,  that  is,  when  Ihey  eommenced  theii 
joamey  (Joah.  ii,  1, 13).  The  word  Nohd, 
here  employed  ttom  a  rool  signi^ing  fo 
be  empty,  denotes  a  skiD-batlle  employed 
toholdliqnids  — milk(I<idg.iT.  ie)aswell 
aa  wine  {1  Sara.  ni.  20).  Another  word, 
G^hmelh,  means  originally  lo  be  hoi,  and 
benoe  (o  shwU.  In  thiB  way  the  idea  of  a 
skin-bottle  may  have  been  derired.  Bnl,  as 
the  word  is  used  in  the  SetipRoes  of  a  les- 
sel  for  carrying  water  (Oen.  xzi.  11,  IS,  IB), 
we  incline  lo  die  opinion  Oiat  Ihe  term,  aa 
applied  to  a  bottle,  may  hare  been  derlred 
from  the  fact,  that  water-skinB,  and  the  wa^ 
ter  in  them,  soon  become  very  hot  nnder  the 
boming  rays  of  an  eastern  sun.  On  fills 
point  Oliu's  leaUmony  is  decisire:  —  'We 
brooght  a  plentifiil  supply  ot  water  (rom 
Aksbah  ;  bat  it  is  brackish  when  drank 
oool  from  the  toonCain ;  and  the  heat  of  the 
Bun,  and  the  reSsolion  from  the  sand  to- 
day, raised  its  temperaCore,  in  our  leathern 
bottles,  to  about  blood  heat'  Another  word, 
Nehvetf  from  a  rool  signifying  to  be  hoUoWt 
it  used  of  skins,  is  nsed  also  of  earthen  Tea- 
sels ;  diongh  it  may  bs  doubled  if  il  in  itself 
signifies  a  pita  ^  potUiy   (Taa.  lu-  11* 


'°.SS„™bB,*litl»«lo»4.hi»Wodil  been  unknown  »  the  Hebrtwi.     On«  of  ih. 


lui);Qige  which  Mcordi  with  Ibe  ideu  ing- 
gnUd   by  ikina   iii»d«    lo  oonUin  liqoidB. 
AcconliuKlj,  inJobuvi.  8,— 
'  Us  blnitaUi  oil  tin  'wttm  io  Mi  IWi*  aoBiUi 
And  Uio  (Jonl  1«  not  rant  Bn4«  lb«", 
the  lait  woid  renilBnd  in  the  Enf^iah  »er- 
lion,  IxMe,  i3  Baiioek,  iriikh  hu  th>  lig- 
oifleatiim  of  amptlnss*.    It  ipfttn  lo  hsvc 
b«mOMdofpotl«jwM«{lKing«i'T' 


ihc 
Ih* 

of  forming  >  boUlet     Indeed  the  male- 

likl*  wen  Tuioiu  of  which  bottl«  wen 
made  bj   the  Egjfliui*.      Not  onl; 
tod  porcelain  wen  employed,  bat 
gnnite,  beMlt,  porphjrj,  »eipenliiiB  or  breo- 

In  Pe.  ItL  8,  God  i»  niA  to  put  the  mvt 
of  mooman  iiito  hii  bottle,  uid  to  unmbei 

, ,  _  ibem.     Thi»,  when  ri^tlj  understood,  is  » 

,10).  JeranuJiiediTeotedtogot'apol-     tonehing  deMription  of  the  o»r«  of  »  kind 

tei'*  earthen  botde,'  whioh  be  wae  lo  break,  p,.oridBnoB  orat  thoaa  who  giiOTe.  It  waa 
BO  that  it  eould  not  be  made  whole  again.  „q^  ^ju,  ^f,  aneienta  U>  beaaore  up  the 
The  original  word  tot  break  denotei  (e  breai  j^^^  ^j  ^^j^  friends  in  imall  lasea,  tenned 
kg  coMlacI  —  01  daahing  lo  Ihe  ground ;  aa  i^daymatoriei,  whioh  ware  either  kept  al 
inch  breaking  would  deslioj  a  pieeaot  earth-  itoma,  or  depoaited  in  Iha  tomba.  Such  a 
ennare  by  breaking  it  in  piecea  ao  that  it  i»oi,mnfttorj  the  Divine  Being  i«  here  repre- 
ooold  not  be  mad*  whole  again  —  a  deiorip-  ^g^,^  „  keeping,  in  whioh  he  pUces  ererr 
lion  which  ii  not  applicable  to  skin-boltlaa.  ^^^  ^^  ^  j^  aonowing  ohildren ;  num- 
bering ihem  aa  the;  ace  shad,  [hat  Ihaj  may 
not  beeome  too  numerDut.  The  engiaTiug 
ahows  what  ^peara  to  hare  been  a  battle  of 
thia  kind,  made  of  f^aaa,  and  found  re- 
^\^        Vl      i=L     //  preaenled  in  the  aonlpturea  of  Theboa,  in 


The  langnage,  bowerar,  doea  not  enable  db 
lo  determine  whether  Ihe  pot  boCllea  of  Ihe 
Hebrews  were  of  glaaa. 


■•imiB  otiaa  iiiiTTi.ai. 


BOZEAH  {H.  a/orlljltd  place)  i»  a  name 
borne  bj  two  flitiee :  —  I.  The  Eoroane  apeak 
of  a  Bostra,  calling  it  achiet  city  of  Arabia, 
which,  being  adorned  by  Tr^an,  waa  called 
after  him  Tr^ana  Boatrm.  Thia  Boirah  lay 
in  a  wide  plain, being  thelaat  inhabited  place 
on  the  ioulh-weat  of  Auranida,  or  Ihe  eaalem 
aide  of  the  Jordan.  It  now  beare  the  name 
of  Buerab. 

But,  11.  Ihe  Boirab  of  the  Old  Teatament 
(laa.  n»i».  6;  liiii.  1.  Jor.  llii-  18,  22. 
Amoa  i.  IS)  waa  *  famoaa  cit;  of  Edom. 
The  plac«  waa  terj  ineimt;  for  it  ia  men- 
tioned in  Gen.  ihtL  83,  aa  the  native  ejty 
of  one  of  the  princes  of  Edom,  who  liTed 
'  before  there  reigned  any  king  oiei  the  chil- 
dren  of  lamel.'  It  ia  apoken  of  in  tKina 
wnich  »e«n  to  indicate  that  it  waa  the  cen- 
tal of  Edom  or  IdomEa.  The  worda,- 
■  and  all  die  citiee  thereof  (Jar.  ilii-  13), 
ecareely  admit  of  any  other  interpretation. 
We  are,  then,  inclined  to  identity  Bozrah 
with  Petra,  —  a  word  which  appears  lo  be 


B  O  Z  203  B  O  Z 

a  Boftened  foim  of  Uie  ancient  Hebrew  name,  men,  they  snrpriee  the  visitor  by  their  in- 
Certainly  the  language  which  Scripture  holds  credible  number  and  extent  They  are  seen 
respecting  Bosrah  accords  with  the  position  in  precipitous  rocks  along  all  the  approaches 
and  history  of  Petn.  For  instance,  —  *  Thy  to  the  place.  Instead  of  following  the  sinno* 
terrlbleness  hath  deceiTcd  thee,  and  the  sities  of  the  mountain  and  Its  numerous 
pride  of  thine  heart,  O  thou  that  dwellest  in  gorges,  were  they  ranged  in  regular  order, 
the  elefts  of  the  rock;  that  boldest  the  like  the  houses  of  a  well-built  city,  they 
hei^t  of  the  hill :  though  thou  make  thy  would  fonn  a  street  not  less  than  flye  or  six 
nest  as  hif^  as  the  eagle,  I  will  bring  thee  miles  in  length.  They  are  often  seen  rising 
down,  saidi  Jehovah'  (Jer.  zlix.  10).  These  one  above  another  in  the  face  of  the  cliff; 
words  (comp.  Obad.  8,  4)  are  strikingly  eonrenient  steps,  now  much  worn,  lead  in 
descriptive  of  the  situation  of  Petra,  in  all  directions  through  the  fissures,  and  along 
a  deep  fissure  of  tiie  mountain,  and  at  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  to  die  various 
the  same  time  placed  on  a  very  elevated  tombs  that  occupy  these  loflty  positions, 
mountainous  region.  The  deep  valleys,  Some  of  them  are  not  less  than  from  two  to 
bounded  by  steep  cliffs  which  pervade  three  or  four  hundred  feet  above  the  level 
every  part  of  the  country,  and  whidi  must  of  the  valley.  Besides  unadorned  habita- 
always  have  contained  the  chief  part  of  Ae  tions  of  the  humble  dead,  there  is  a  vast 
poptQation,  are  well  described  as  *  clefts  of  number  of  excavations  enriched  with  various 
the  rocks,' — 'heists  of  the  hill,'  —  'high  architectural  ornaments.  To  these  unique 
habitations.'  But  we  are  not  satisfied  that  and  sumptuous  monuments  of  the  taste  of 
these  words  were,  as  some  have  affirmed,  one  of  the  most  ancient  races  of  men,  Petra 
intended  to  allude  expressly  to  the  excava-  is  indebted  for  its  great  and  peculiar  attrac- 
tions in  the  side  of  the  Petran  rocks,  which  tions.  The  firont  of  the  mountain  is  wrou^^t 
we  shall  shortly  mention.  into  facades  of  splendid  temples,  rivalling  in 
Petra,  or  Bozrah,  lay  at  the  foot  of  Mount  their  aspect  and  symmetry  the  most  cele- 
Hor,  in  the  Wady  Mouse,  two  days'  journey  brated  monuments  of  Orecian  art.  Columns 
souUi  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  same  distance  of  various  orders,  graceftil  pediments,  broad 
north  of  the  Akabah.  The  principal  entrance  rich  entablatures,  and  sometimes  statuary, 
to  the  city  is  through  a  long  nanow  defile  in  all  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  still 
the  mountains,  in  which,  for  nearly  two  hours,  making  part  of  the  native  mass,  transform 
the  path  winds  among  wild  and  picturesque  the  base  of  the  mountain  into  a  vast  splen- 
masses  of  grey  and  red  granite,  greenstone,  did  pile  of  architecture ;  while  the  over- 
and  yellow  sandstone.  The  deep  ravines  hanging  cliffs,  towering  above  in  shapes  rug- 
are  adorned  with  a  rich  shrubbery  of  olean>  ged  and  wild,  produce  the  most  striking  and 
ders,  tamarisks,  and  other  shrubs,  which  curious  of  contrasts.  But  nothing  contri- 
become  large  and  more  plentiful  as  the  ele-  butes  so  much  to  the  almost  magical  effect 
vation  increases.  Orass  also  is  abundant  of  some  of  these  monuments,  as  the  rich  and 
The  general  direction  is  northward ;  but  the  various  colours  of  the  rock  in  which  they 
zigzag  path  looks  successively  to  every  point  are  formed.  The  mountains  that  encompass 
of  the  compass.  The  ancient  and  more  the  vale  of  Petra  are  of  sandstone,  of  which 
interesting  entrance  is  on  the  eastern  side,  red  is  the  predominating  hue.  But  many 
through  the  deep  narrow  gorge  of  Wady  Syk.  of  them  are  adorned  with  a  profusion  of  the 
The  ruined  city  lies  in  a  narrow  valley,  sur-  most  lovely  and  brilliant  colours.  Bed,  pur- 
rounded  by  lofty  and  precipitous  mountains,  pie,  yellow,  azure  or  sky  blue,  black,  and 
and  appears  to  have  covered  more  than  a  white,  are  seen  in  the  same  mass,  distinctly 
mile  in  length,  nearly  from  north  to  south,  in  successive  layers,  or  blended  so  as  to 
by  a  variable  breadth  of  about  half  a  mile,  form  every  shade  and  hue  —  as  brilliant  and 
A  small  stream,  or  rather  mountain  torrent,  as  soft  as  they  ever  appear  in  flowers,  in 
enters  the  valley  by  the  Wady  Syk,  which  is  the  plumage  of  birds,  or  in  the  sky  when 
joined  and  fed  by  two  smaller  streams  that  illuminated  by  the  most  glorious  sunset, 
come  from,  the  gorges  of  the  northern  moun-  The  red  perpetually  shades  into  pale  or  deep 
tain.  The  chief  public  edifices  occupied  rose  or  flesh  colour.  The  purple  is  some- 
the  banks  of  the  river,  on  the  south  side  of  times  very  dark,  and  again  approaches  the 
which  a  sumptuous  edifice  is  still  standing,  hue  of  the  lilac  or  violet  The  white,  which 
called  '  Pharaoh's  treasure,'  which  seems  to  is  often  pure  as  snow,  is  occasionally  just 
have  been  a  palace.  We  cannot  give  a  full  de-  dashed  with  blue  or  red.  The  blue  is  usu- 
scription  of  the  buildings  that  still  adorn  this  ally  the  pale  azure  of  the  clear  sky  or  of  the 
wonderfol  vale,  but  may  mention  a  triumphal  ocean;  but  sometimes  has  the  deep  and 
arch;  ruins  which  belonged  to  a  temple;  peculiar  shade  of  the  clouds  in  summer, 
columns  and  hewn  stones,  Uie  remains  of  when  agitated  by  a  tempest  The  yellow  is 
important  public  buildings,  found  in  four-  as  bright  as  that  of  saffron.  It  is  more 
teen  different  heaps.  The  excavations  in  the  easy  to  imagine  than  describe  the  effect 
solid  rock,  however,  are  by  far  the  most  of  tall  graceftd  columns  exhibiting  these 
deserving  of  notice^  Whether  formed  for  exquisite  colours.  They  are  displayed  to 
temples,  tombs,  or  the  dwellings  of  living  still  greater  advantage  in  the  walls  and  ceil- 


BOZ 


304 


BOZ 


taf  <^  KHDi  of  the  mwTttloiu  vhcra  tlmra  brigbt  tui  goigtooM  leeat  painted  on  &• 

la  k  ili^t  dip  in  ths  ilnt*.     The  solnan,  wasMm  elands  bj  *bril]iuit  nuuet  ia  ninL> 

luiTing  ftall  ptaj  and  cxpuHian,  ixhibil  ill  inei.     Oa  lbs  northem  or  bont  put  ot  Hi» 

the   traedom    of    omlino    mi   humonion*  ceiling,  IheH  hues  ue  deeply  ihaded  with 

binding  of  tints  obHirable  in  a  nunmei'i  black,  nminding  the  epectator  of  a  gUbtc- 

•nnwt    The  sailing  of  one  large  meaTalioD,  ing  tempest. 

in  vhieh  a  biilliantdeep  nd  i>  predominant,        The  enbioined  cut  eihibiti  'rtut  i*  tenned 

Inunnin^ed  with  de^  Uqb,  aaore,  white,  '  the  Corinthian  tomb,'  eat  into  die  IlTinf 

and  piurpla,  albrde  a  magnifloent  example,  nek.     The  boot  looka  diieatly  orer  the 

Mo  palntei  ever  tnaibiTed  to  hia  eanTan,  eantoe   of  the  eilj,   toward  tiM  palaoa  of 

with  half  BO  mnoli  tuunxe  and  eflbot,  the  Pharaoh. 


The  inhitectnnl  remtina  and  namnl 
bcaatiei  ot  the  gpot  lerTf  to  make  the  eoli- 
tnde  and  desolation  that  prerail,  deeply  aod 
almoil  OTerpoweiingiy  impnsiite,  and  show 
with  what  mjiiate  aecoracy  the  words  of  the 
prophet  haie  been  fulfilled  (lea.  ixziT.  11, 
■TfO-  Deserted  of  man,  the  place  now  af- 
fords a  realdenoe  only  tor  beasts  and  birds. 
Tet  for  eentories,  this,  which  may  well  be 
denominated    one    of  the   wonders   of  the 

it  was  not  esrliet  than  ISll,  when  Buick- 
hsrdt  discorered  its  forgotten  site,  and  drew 
the  ittcDtion  of  the  ciTiliscd  world  to  Its 
monnifa]  spedacls  ot  prostrate  gnndenr 
and  Dttct  deeolation. 

The  Sjk  is  thus  spoken  of  by  Bobinaon, 
who  approached  Pelra  by  this  chasm:  — 
'The  character  of  this  wonderful  spot,  and 
the  impression  which  it  makes,  are  niierly 
indcscribsble ;  and  I  know  of  nothing  which 
can  present  o*en  a  faint  idea  of  them.  I 
had  visited  the  strange  sandstone  lanes  and 
streets  ot  Adarsbach,  and  wandered  with  de- 
light throogh  the  romantic  dcUs  of  the  S  uon 
flwitierlsnd — both  of  which  BDcnes  might 
be  supposed  to  afTord  the  nesiest  parsllel ; 
ysl  they  exhibit  tew  poinla  ot  lompsrison! 


All  is  here  on  a  grander  eeale  ot  savage  yet 
magnificent  enblimily.  We  lingered  along 
this  superb  approach,  proceeding  slowly,  and 
stopping  often,  forgetfhl  ot  ersry  &iBg  elae, 
and  tskhig  for  the  moment  no  note  ot  time. 
As  we  drew  near  the  western  end,  the  son- 
li^l  began  to  break  in  iQion  the  mgged 
crags  befon  ns.  Here  the  8yk  lermlnatea, 
opening  nearly  at  right  snglee  into  ■  similir 
IhoDgh  broader  Wady  or  ohasm,  ooming 
down  from  the  sonth,  and  passing  off  ikorth- 
wesl'Cii.  B,  18). 

The  Shtuneh,  or  Biarai*'B  treanire, 
etitick  Bobinson  with  amasement  and  de- 
lighl :  — '  All  at  once  the  beantifiil  ta{ade  of 
the  Khnineh  in  the  western  precipice,  oppo- 
eite  the  month  of  Oie  Syk,  borst  upon  our 
Ticw  in  all  the  delicacy  ot  its  first  ohisclling, 
and  in  all  the  freshness  and  beanty  of  its 
■olt  coloojing.  I  had  seen  Tarions  engraY- 
ings  ot  it,  and  read  all  the  desertplione;  bat 
this  was  one  of  the  nre  inataneea  irtiere  the 
tmth  of  the  reality  enrpassed  the  ideal  an- 
ticipation. It  is,  indeed,  raoet  eiqoisitely 
besatifal ;  and  nothing  I  had  seen  of  aidii- 
tectnni]  efiiget  in  Rome  or  Thebes,  or  eren 
Athens,  comes  np  to  it  in  the  first  impns- 
sion.    lU  position  M  a  portion  ot  the  lofty 


BOZ  3( 

nus  of  mlODred  rock,  orer  (fpunit  tha  Im- 
pmlng  KTonM ; — iU  wimdeifal  itale  of  pruv 
Tadon  —  tha  glow  and  lint  of  the  ifauw,  and 
tha  mid  acenci;  around  —  all  axe  imique, 
and  sombma  to  tako  complete  poaanaioD  of 
the  mind.  There  it  atanda,  aa  itJiaa  flood 
for  ages,  in  baantj  and  lonelinefa ;  Ibe  gene- 
rationa  iriiich  ai^nired  and  rqrioed  ant  it 
of  old,  hare  paaaed  away ;  Iba  wild  Anb,  aa 
he  wudeia  bj,  regards  it  with  atapid  indiffe- 
rence or  Mom ;  and  none  are  left,  but  atrau- 
gera  from  diiCanl  lands  to  do  it  reierence. 
Ita  rich  roseate  tinta,  aa  1  bade  it  taiewell, 
were  gilded  bjr  the  mdlow  beams  of  the 
morning  son ;  and  I  tamed  awaj  from  it  at 
length  with  ta  impreaaion  which  will  be  ef- 
tteed  onlj  by  death.' 

The  name  ia  giren  beeanse  the  Arabs  think 
the  place  oonlaina  the  treamre  whioh  the; 
ascribe  to  Pbanuh,  and  which  they  sappoae 
to  be  held  in  the  nm  crowning  the  nunmit 
of  its  ornamented  ftont,  a  hnndred  feet  or 
more  abore  (hegioimd.  Theironlytnlenst 
in  all  these  monmnents  is  to  aearch  for 
hidden  lieasnres ;  and,  aa  Oiey  And  nothing 
deewhere,  Ihej  bun;  they  are  in  this  lira, 
which  to  them  ie  inaoceBsible.  It  bears  the 
matka  of  nuuij  mosket-balls,  which  they 
turn  filed  at  it,  in  the  hope  of  breaking  it 
to  pieoes,  and  thna  obtaining  the  imagined 

Bobinson  thna  deacribei  tha  general  im- 
pression wtiich  he  received :  — '  Aronnd  ns 
were  the  dasoUlioDB  of  ages  —  the  dwellinga 
and  edifices  of  Ibe  ancient  city  crmnbled 
and  strewed  in  dnst,  —  the  mansolea  of  the 
dead,  in  all  their  pristine  besnty  and  frssh- 
nesa,  bnt  long  sinoe  rifled,  and  the  aahes 
of  their  tenants  scattered  to  the  winda.  Well 
might  there  be  the  atillnesa  of  death ;  for  it 
was  the  grave  itself,  —  a  city  of  the  dead 
by  which  we  were  snnonnded.  Yet  this  im- 
presaiTe  silence  was  not  aninletrapted.  Onr 
Arabs  had  alau^tered  the  sheep  wbich  we 
had  bought,  and  made  theroaelTea  a  teaat. 
They  were  in  high  glae ;  and  the  voice  of 
singing,  story-teUlng,  and  mirth,   aonnded 


0  trade,  Aan  to  its 
. .  .  d  positioD ;  for  it  I19  on  a  chief 
I  road,  whicJi  united  the  merchants 
and  oostomers  of  the  East  and  of  the  West 
It  thus  became  the  seat  of  an  immense  com- 
merce —  the  great  empoHimi  of  Indian  mer- 
ehandiaa.  Affluent,  however,  aa  the  eitj  was, 
and  high  as  was  its  pomp,  Fetra  seems,  even 
bom  atill  remaining  evidences,  to  have 
lavished  ita  favours  on  the  few,  leaving  the 
people  at  large  in  ibe  poasession  of  at  best 
a  bare  euffleienoy.  This  inJTiatice  was  not 
least  among  those  heavy  ^us  which  brooght 
her  to  min  and  desolation. 

Josephas  mentions  Petn  SB  the  e^tal  of 
Arabia  Pelma.  In  the  teign  of  Ti^ao,  it 
sMua  imdw  flie  Ifwj  of  the  Bomans.    His 


5  BRA 

snaoesaor,  Adrian,  qipean  to  have  gnutad 
privileges  to  Pem,  whiah  led  the  inhi^dtanta 
to  give  his  name  to  the  city  upon  ooina. 
Eight  coins  of  Petra  have  been  described :  — 
Tliree  in  hononr  of  Adrian ;  one,  of  Harcn* 
Anrelins  and  Verus ;  two,  of  Septlmius 
Severas;  and  two,  ol  Qeta.  In  the  sixth  oen- 
tury,  Petra  wsa  the  metropolitan  see  of  what 
was  termed  the  third  Palestine.  From  that 
lime  Petia  suddenly  vanished  &om  die  pagsa 
of  history. 

BRACELET  Is  a  diminntive  from  lh« 
Latin  irocAium,  French  frnu,  derived  im- 
mediately ttom  the  French  hractitt,  denoting 
a  liltle  arm,  or  arruamt  for  llu  arm,  and 
constitnting  a  portion  of  female  attire.  A 
bracelet  was  (J  old  aometimes  used    aa  a 


Bracelets  among  the  Hebrews  were  confined 
to  women.  From  Oen.  mviii.  18,  it  appears 
that  they  were  vroin  by  Judah  (oomp.  S  8am. 
i.  10).  From  (he  fact  that  there  are  not 
less  dian  five  words  in  Hebrew  that  are  ren- 
dered hractitt  in  the  English  version,  we 
may  infer  tbat  this  species  of  ornament  was 
conunon  among  thBlsraeliles.  Thepasaagt 
relating  to  Jndah  shows  that  braoeleta  were 
commonly  worn  by  chief  men  in  the  patri- 
archal ages ;  whenoe  we  may  learn  tfast  the 
art  of  woAing  in  metals,  if  not  in  eiislenos 
in  Palestine,  must  have  been  already  prao- 
lised,  and  carried  to  a  oonsidsrabl*  degree  ot 
eicellenee,  in  some  neighbonting  eoimtry. 
Baeent  diseoveries  have  shown  tbat  metal- 
loid was  in  a  high  atata  of  perfeelion  In 
EgypL  Among  the  onaments  in  gold  foimd 
among  the  Egyptian  ruins,  are  bruelela  and 
mmwrona  trinkeU  belonging  to  the  toilet^ 


BRA  2 

muir  of  wWoh  '«"■'  "T*  Wittimon,  '«f 
Iho  enrij  tliii«B  of  0>iK»en  I.  ■nd  Thi«- 
mea  III  the  <ir>nl«inpor»iie«  of  Jouph  md 
of  Moses.'  Their  br«oalBt«,  u  weU  u  •iml- 
lu  dFContioD9  for  Ihe  mUeB  mcd  the  fingen, 
wen  freqaendj  inUid  with  preoions  atonei 
or  enamel:  iome  were  in  the  >h»ps  of 
■n«k8s;  othen  were  (impla  lingi:  ttaej 
were  worn  bj  men  u  well  u  by  women. 
Kinja  we  lepreBentsd  witli  hnuwleli.  In 
the  Mn»eom  U  Lejden  ii  a  gold  one,  be»r- 
ii^  the  nime  of  Thotine*  III.  whioh  wu 
donblJeM  onoe  worn  bj  that  monansh. 

BHANDIBH  [■  a  word  of  Tontonio  origin, 
oonneoted  with  ftnaiuf,  whioh,  M  coming 
ftom  bntmeit,  to  born,  denolee  a  loroh  or  a 
■tick  on  flro.  HenM  (o  bnmdiA  ia  to  waTB 
or  (hike  ae  a  torch  li  ahaken.  It  ia  gene- 
raDj  applied  to  a  awoid,  denoting  a  ra^ii^ 
vibrating  motioii>  wfaieh  makea  the  iword 
flaah  and  glitter  like  a  ahaken  torch.  Tho* 
Faiifci:  — 


The  ooireaponding  Bebraw  term  has  for 
in  root-meaning  U>  fy.  According^,  to 
hrandUh  «  HKord  U  to  make  it  fi; ;  that  ii, 
moTe  with  (he  rapidity  and  tbre*  of  a  bird'a 
wing.  The  word  is,  in  thia  tense,  fimnd 
only  in  Esek.  mii.  10. 

BBAT  ia  a  word  probably  oonneel«d  witb 
»r«i»,  whieb,  in  Hediai^  Latin,  ie  eqni- 
nlenl  to  oBrtlu,  rubbed  or  ponnded,  Cram 
the  old  Italian  incu,  a  ornmb.  Aocord- 
ingly,  ta  krug  is  to  mdaoe  to  onunha  by 
BttritiDn ;  that  ia,  by  mbbing  or  by  potmd- 
ing.  Frolasart  nsei  iray  in  thia  sense: — 
'  The  Eoglysshmen  were  fayna  to  gather  (he 
thysteQea  in  &e  feldas,  and  biaya  them  in  a 
morter.'  The  word  occnri,  in  thia  import 
at  least,  only  in  Pror.  mil.  23 :  — '  Thongh 
than  shonldeil  bray  a  ft>ol  in  a  mortal 
among  wheal  with  a  pestle,  yet  will  not  bis 
foolishness  depart  thnn  hiin.'  Wellbeloied, 
in  his  Bible,  render*  the  nrae  thns  :  — 


ABOne  oorn  Willi  ■  tlimldna 

THon  wni  twt  rtnu'i  hii  foflj 
We  do  not  tmdeitaks  to  deeide  whether 
threshing  or  pounding  was  intended  by  Ifaa 
sacred  penmani  thongh,  with  King  James's 
Danslatota,  we  incline  to  the  latter.  The 
Relnnw  word  is  fonnd  in  no  other  place 
than  the  one  given  abore ;  and  we  are  diere- 
fore  doprired  ni  the  aid  which  comparison 
might  lOird.  The  Beptnagint  takes  the 
puaage  fignratiTely,  aa  denoting  a  puUic 
wfiipfiHg.  In  the  midsl  of  these  nnoenain- 
tiee,  it  is  eleai  the  writer  impliee  that  then 
are  some  who  are  so  foolish,  that  the  ae- 
Tenet  punishment  will  not  eotrecl  them. 
The  gospel,  however,  haa  led  many  to  doubt 
whether  eoercion  haa  a  remedial  efflcacy. 


«  BRI 

and  taoght  diem  to  look  for  meana  of  mMal 
letloration  rather  to  die  genial  and  rerinng 
inHoenee  of  gentle  expramlation  and  warm 
Chrinian  Ion. 

BBEAaTPIATE  was  a  piece  of  embroi- 
dered doth  worn  on  h)i  breast  by  the  high 
frieat,  of  which  we  shall  speak  elsewhere 
Hian  Pbiibi). 
The  term  also  denotes  a  piece  of  defiin- 
tive  armonr  worn  on  the  chest,  and  oouati- 
tnting  a  part  of  that  panoply, '  whole  armoni 
of  God,'  which  Paul  ezhoru  the  Epheaian 
ChriMians  to  pot  on  (Ephee.  iri  11—17). 
Our  illuslntion  pnaenia  an  ancient  soldier 
dad  in  a  panoply,  o   ' 


BBICK  in  die  Bebnw  Is  Laknalm  (Latin 
alb,  from  alhu),  to  be  while,  tnnn  the  eolonr 
aasnmed  by  clay  on  being  subjected  In  heat 
Bdeka  Sieietore  were  day,  either  hardened 
m  the  nm,  or  bomt  in  kilos.  We  fint  lead 
of  brisk  in  ODonection  with  the  building  of 
the  lower  of  Babel :  —  'Let  us  make  brick, 
and  bum  them  Ihoronghly :  and  they  had 
brick  for  stone'  (Oen.  xi.  S).  In  the  last 
words,  we  have  a  proof  that  the  book  of 
Genesis  was  written  by  an  inhabilant  of  a 
rocky  oonnlry,  snoh  aa  waa  Palestine,  where 
stone  is  supplied  in  abundance  so  great  as  to 
render  the  ase  of  biioki  in  sonslniBting  edi- 
i  in  the  alluiial  regions 


B  R  I  2 

of  Huopotanun,  biieki  were  Ihe  chief  ma- 
tariil  for  building;  «ad  Ihe  >oil  of  Hgjpt  mf- 
foided  tftcilitiei  tor  ""^'"e  biieki.  In  Hriot 
agreiimBnt  with  lbs  Soriplnnd  DunUiTa, 
BTidsnoa  it  toand  that  thg  immsnw  ftbrioB 
of  uKrisut  Babylon  were  oomtmiilfid  moslly 
ofbiiok.  aoeb  appetr*  lo  hsTs  been  die 
oa«e  at  Ninereh  also,  whioh  (tood  on  the 
Tigria.  In  Ihe  Tolni  of  Ihia  last  plaov, 
bricJu  of  eztraotdinarf  lize  haie  reoentlj 
been  diiintstred.  Booa,  oonaal  for  Ftauoe 
at  Moaaonl,  baTiiig  had  hia  mind  CtiTDad  lo 
the  mine  of  Nineveh,  oBhred  a  higher  priw 
for  biieks  of  a  luge  aize ;  in  consequenee 
of  which,  bricki  of  suoh  a  magnitade  weie 
brought  lo  him,  that  he  waa  indaced  lo  dig 
into  Ihe  moimda  of  niina  himself,  which  led 
him  to  the  diacoTerr  of  a  monameni  of  aim- 
diied  bricka,  diat  ii  of  the  hi^st  antiqua- 
nan  Talne.  Theae  lirioks  are  oorered  with 
wedge-ahapad  letten  (oomp.  Eiek.  It.  1). 
In  order  lo  give  the  ola;  or  loam  the  neces- 
sar;  oonaiitanoe,  choppad  itraw  waa  mixed 
wtdi  these  bridia ;  and  in  Ihe  brioka  that 
bkTfl  been  found  at  Babjlon,  traoee  o[  the 
Btraw  maj  etill  be  aeeo ;  thus  flonfiiming 
the  implioalion  of  Seripture,  that  atnw  waa 
emtdojed  b;  the  Israelites  in  making  brick 
tor  their  Egyptian  grants  (Eiod.  t.  T). 
Indeed,  with  the  li^l  friable  loil  of  lower 
Egypt,  etraw  would  be  indispensable.  When, 
therefore,  the  alraw  waa  withheld  in  order  to 
make  the  labonr  hearter,  the  laraeliteshad  no 
nsonipe  but  to  gUher  ttraw  tor  IhenuelTeB, 
The  aie  of  omde  brick  baked  in  the  aim 
waa  onirenal  in  Lower  Egypt,  both  for  pub- 
lic and  private  boildinga ;  uid  Ihe  brick- 
Bald  gwe  abundant  oooapation  to  nmuerana 
labourera  throughout  the  countiy.  Build- 
ings of  all  kinds,  except  the  templea,  war*  of 
cmde  brick;  and  so  great  waa  the  demand, 
that  the  Egyptian  goTemment  made  a  mo- 
nupoly  of  brieka,  which  were  aooordin^y 
etamped  with  the  govenunent  stamp  after 
Ihemannerof  the  Britiah  broad  amw.  The 
employment  of  nmnerons  eaptires,  irtio 
worked  as  slaTea,  enabled  die  gorenmient 
to  aeoure  a  oonataot  supply,  and  probably  to 
aell  the  bricka  at  a  low  price.  A  great  many 
forsignera  were  employed  in  the  brick-flelda 
at  Thebes.  Like  the  captiTes  detained  in 
the  Thebaid,  the  Jews  were  oondemned  to 
(he  labour  of  brick-making  and  brick-laying 
in  lower  Egypt.  They  erected  granaries, 
tieaanre-cilies,  and  other  pnblic  buildings, 
for  Ihe  Egyptian  monarch.  To  maet  with 
Hebrews  in  the  scnlpnirea  cannot  reasonably 
be  expected,  thoo^  an  unwise  seal  to  preas 
eyery  thing  into  die  sarriee  of  religion  has 
led  some  writers  to  find  them  in  a  very  inte- 
r«eting  acnlplare  on  the  tomb  of  Bekahari, 
at  Thebea,  which  sets  foilh  the  whole  process 
of  making  brick,  exhibiting  at  the  same 
time  task-maatsn  with  their  iuatrumentl  of 
puniahment.  Yon  behold  one  man  fetch- 
jng  water,  —  another  tampering  Ihe  clay,  — 


?  BRI 

a  third  framing  the  brinks  in  a  wooden 
mould,  —  a  fourth  baariog  Ihem  to  lbs  spot 
where  ihey  are  piled  up  to  be  expoaed  to 
the  heat  of  the  aun.  It  la  fatal  to  the  hypo- 
thssia  whioh  makes  this  sonlpture  lepresant 
the  Hebrews,  that  it  licais  an  inscription 
stating  that  the  bricks  were  made  at  Thebea. 
The  Tiew,  howerer,  aflbrda  important  oorro- 
boratian  of  the  Biblical  narratiTe,  by  show- 
ing OB  that  it  waa  nana]  in  Egypt  to  emploj 
oaptiiaa  in  making  brieka,  and  by  explaining 
Iha  hard  and  laborious  nature  of  the  work 
in  which  the  Israelites  were  worn  away. 
It  is  also  worthy  of  remark,  tbat  more  bricks 
bearing  the  name  of  Tliotmes  III.  whom 
WiUdnaon  ('  Uauners  and  Customs  of  the 
Ancisnt  Egyptians,'  toL  ii.  0S)  supposes  10 
have  been  king  of  Egypt  at  the  time  of  (he 
Exodus,  hare  been  diacoraied,  than  of  any 
other  period, '  owing  (eays  Wilkinson)  to  the 
many  priaoners  of  Asiatic  nations  employed 
by  him,  independent  of  his  Hebrew  oaptiTee.' 
BHIQANDINE  is  found  in  two  passages 
(JcT.  ilri.4;  11.3),  and  denotee  a  eaal  qf 
nuii.  The  English  word  is  derived  from 
brigand,  which  originally  aigoifled  bands  of 
aoldiers  detached  trom  the  main  army.  As 
inch  parties  plondered  freely,  the  word,  in 
eourae  of  time,  came  to  mean  a  robber.  The 
Brigandine  was  the  light  armour,  made  of 
rings  and  small  plalas,  worn  by  brigands  i 
being  suitable,  froia  its  lighueas  and  flexi- 
bility, to  the  lagabond  mode  of  life  led  by 
these  trwbooKn.  This  species  of  armour, 
aa  we  learn  from  the  monuments,  was  in  use 
among  Ihe  ancient  Egyptians,  of  whom  Jere- 
miah speaks  (xlii  i). 


The  accompanying  eut  is 
presentatiDn  we  haTs  been  able  lo  find  of  • 
Brigandine.     It    is  taken  from  Bardon'a 


BR  O                       208  B  R  O 

*  Cottomes  deB  Peoplei  Aneiens,'  tad  Mtt  poMMsion  of  whieh  Hhe  Imelites  entered. 

forth  aeninsM  or  breset-plate  of  die  aneieiit  '  The  liTer  of  Egypi'  eome  hold  to  be  the 

pAiddma,  oofeied  widi  sealee  after  fhe  man-  Nile ;  and,  aa  Palestme  did  not  reach  to  that 

ner  of  the  Peraiana.    Theee  aoalea  were  liTer  itael^  it  has  been  thought  that  an  arm 

email  losenge-ehaped  platea,  placed  on  each  of  the   Nile  ran  eaat  from  the  Pelnsiae 

other  Bomewhat  ijmmetrioaUy,  and  fiutsned  branch,  nearer  to  the  Holj  Lend.    This 

on  a  linen  body.  aappoeition  la  enpported  by  no  eyidence. 

BBOOK  ie  the  repreeentative  of  a  Hebrew  It  eeema  probable  that  the  Bhinoeorara,  or 

word,  whoae  root  iignifiea  io  pei;faraU,  wtake  Bhinocolnra,  waa  intendec^  now  denominated 

a  ehanmelf   and  hence   denotea  what  the  'Knlat   el    Ariaeh/    Throng    thia  Wady, 

Araba  now  indicate  by  Wady,  that  ia,  a  water  whieh  extenda  flur  into  the  deeert  of  Arabia, 

oonrae,  or  Talley  worn  by  a  atream, — and  rana  a  atream  falling  into  die  Mediterranean, 

deriTatively  the  atream  itaelf.     Brook  ia  iHiich  ia  for  the  moat  part  dry  during  the 

tiierefore  a  email  river.    Brooica  in  Palea-  anmmer  montfaa.    The  Sihor  (lea.  zziii.  8. 

tine  are  for  the  moet  part  not  perennial.  Jer.  ii  18),  which  ia  eometimea  placed  here. 

They  apring  from  fountains.    Soch  an  moat  ia  the  Nile. 

conatant  in  their  ilow.    Many  are  canaed  by  BBOTHEB  (T.),  which  denotea  in  Eng- 

the  antomnal  or  the  Temal  raina.    Theee  liah  a  aon  of  the  eame  fother  and  mother, 

laat  for  only  portlona  of  the  year.    Others  and  metsphoricaUy  a  nude  pereon  related  to 

owe  their  cUef  auppUea  to  the  melting  of  another  by  social  or  moral  aiBnity,  haa  in 

die  snow  on  the  mountains,  and  are  both  most  the  Hebrew  Scriptoies  a  wider  application, 

atrong  and  leaat  dnrable  in  their  cmrent  In  Oen.  ziiL  8 ;  zIt.  14,  Lot  and  Abraham 

As  Palestine  is  a  land  of  hiUa,  its  Talleya  and  are  represented  as  brothers,  whereas  Lot  waa 

teooks  are  nomeroaf.  Abraham's  *  brother^s  son,'  or  nephew,  aa 

'Hflrmon  and  8«lr  and  Hebvon's  Wook^  Mm.'  ^  i*  expressly  deseiibed  in  Oen.  xir.  12. 

Many  brooks  nm  from  the   hi^  country  Jo«^'»  brethren  were  eo  teimed,  becanae 

down  into   the  Mediteiraneaa ;  and  these,  ^^  ^®'*  *<*"*  ■<>"■  ^  **"•  ""**"'  (^"^  *^**- 

having  but  a  short  course,  are  for  the  most  f,^)' *2"^^  by  different  modwra  (1  Kings 

part    dried  up  by  the    heat   of   aummer.  ^^)'  Conyereely,  thoee  were  a^od  brethren 

Whence  appears  the  propriety  of  the  Ian-  ^**o  ^'^  ^«  ■«»•  mother,  but  not  the  aame 

guage  employed  by  Job  (tiI.  15,  i^.).  to  fo«her  (Judg.  viiL  19).    More  remotely,  Uie 

set  forth  the  want  of  conatancy  on  the  part  ^®'*  denoted  persona  of  the  same  family, 

of  his  friends  * ^^'^y  ®'  ^^  (Oen.  xziy.  27),  or  of  the  same 

•My  bmthr«  .^  Mthta  Uke  a  brook ;  ?^?*,  ^^'  ^l^ll  ''^'^  8rfdeuan«r 

L&0  the  stTCUtf  of  the  Talley,  ther  peas  away;  is  led  to  say,  —  *A]1  tfiose  places  m  which 

Wtaleb  are  tvrUd  by  raseon  of  the  aifllted  tee,  mention  is  made  of  the  brothera  of  Chriat, 

l?lS!?S^.f!lIl!2?"**"*fK*''*^ .  V  M«  *o^  underatood  of  hia  kinsmen'  (Matt 

AS wxm «•  they beoouM warm, the? Tanlflh :  ^:    ^a.   _.**   mm      tv        "o      a^     •   ia 

The  hMt  comm,  ther  are  dried  up  from  thair  »»•  ^ ;   »ii-  M-    J<An  tu.  8.    Acta  i.  14. 

place.  OaL  L  19) ;  but  Winer,  a  greater  anthority, 

Slf5?!!fltv*^.i!S**^*'*?5?;*''*'^y-  oonaiders  that  in   the  following  paaaagea 

jnHi7goaptoadaa«rt.andp«riah.'  (Matt.  xii.  46 ;  xiii.  55.  Mark  iiL  sSrlSLe 

^e  fUness,  strength,  and   noise  of  these  nlL  19.  John  ii  12.  Aeto  L  14),  the  proper 

^porary  streama  anawer  to  the  large  pro-  brothers  of  our  Lord  are  intended,  aince  Mary 

^Bions  made  to  Job  by  his  friends,  during  his  mother  is  mentioned  in  the  connection. 

ma  prosperity.    The  diymg-up  of  the  watera.  He  adda  —  that,  according  to  Matt  xiiL  55. 

fw«i!^  ^^!S^~J*^  aummer,  resemblea  the  Mark  tL  8,  their  namea  were  Jamea,  Joses, 

mml^r.^     A  *I  ?^««^d«»*»P  in  l»i»  "wson  of  Simon,  and  Judaa ;   to  which  we  subjoin, 

SiTiST'cm   «  ^  conftiaion  of  thethirsty  that  in  die  latter  paaaage  hia  ' aiatera'  are 

^'^  mu^!^^.i^  ff'^'^.^^^'^'  elso  mentioned.    It  still  remains  a  question, 

ed    a«  L  wi  Ar!v      ''f**''*^  *****P*>^*-  Aether  these  were  sons  of  Mary,  aa  well  ss 

i»    «Mi  uv  wu  or  the  relief  Yim  «Tn*AftA^  j«     ^  t^^^v      t*  i .-wi^  *u-*  *vll 


were  sons 
in 


theae  men's  fril«ir*  »eUef  he  expected  in  ofJoaeph.    Itispoeaibletfaat  they 

compare  a  tr^h^r,r^l*:   I^^"^  "^  ^""^  ^^  *  **™"  <""•  ^""^  '^'^^• 

of   o^  of  the^^en^?«^  ^  ^*  ^""^  tured  by  a  later)  marriage.    Aa,  howerer,  in 

PM  no  trust  in  aTJ?^  "nd  hence  say,  « I  Matt  L  25,  Jeaus  is  called  Maxy^a  •  flrst-bom 

aiid  •  O  torrent)  th^  ii«-7™*  ?'  ^^  torrent,'  son,'  they  may  have  been  children  of  Joseph 

th0  1>rooka,  mintio«!J^."^^"***"*  ^^ong  and  Mary,  and  ao  frill  brothers  of  Jesus. 

turo,  — aa  ArnonTlin^     -^^^f^^^*^^'  Breteehneider  indinea  to  the  opinion,  that 

i&^ax.  xxriL  82^ '  r^^L^  }^>  *  ^^^^k  thoee  who  are  mentioned  aa  brothers  of 

Sox^k  (Judg.  XTi.*4^!!f!!l  ^^""^  r^'  1 ) ;  J««"  m  Matt  xiL  46 ;  xiii.  56 ;  xxriii  10. 

ia  «liia  place  oa  ^  one  whfiL *  ** V**'^  "^^^^  ^-  ^   ^«*»  ^  ^^   O*!-  *-  1» ;  ^^?^ 

oua-  ,«»^on,  '^SrloftjLti^  ^  ^^7  J<*"  "•  ^7,  were  uterine  brotfa^ 

jr.   ^_f  •  Numb  xx^.  5.  j^^S^i;  ^S^'  «•  "««•  «»'  evidence  to  Matt  L  20,  36; 

bro^WM  m^e  the  ^£^^^'J^  ^  W.  John  iL  12. 

^•^^^Sr^  J*'  0«d  toTt^^^A  £•  Inalaxsenae,  the  word  'brother'  isttken 

me  southern  limit  of  thclinH    •  *  ^  ^*  Scriptnrea  aa  neariy  equiTalent  with 

^%  mto  our  term  /«tt>«M:«i,«i  —  (Dent  xt.  2,  9. 


ActaiL29;  lii.  IT).   In  aome  in 


s,die 


o  be  (he  vide  oi 
whioh  tiisU  unoiig  msmbiin  of  (lie  great 
hnmui  bmilj  (HkU.  t.  23 — 24).  In  othar 
uutanns,  •  pesuliar  ngud  tni  aADtion  ■» 
inTDlTcd  In  ihe  urm,  whioh  is  hanee  tquil 
lo  Jtarfiiind,  one  who  ii  to  be  loved  like 
■  brolhei  (Matt.  t.  47 ;  lii.  AO.  2  ThsM.  iiL 
la.  Heb.  ii.  11).  EspeoiaUTareCliriatiuii 
dnifnued  Irolhtn,  nnoe  thej  u«  united  bj 
Ihe  nMreal  tiea  td  monl  relftUonshlp  (Aete 
vi.  3 ;  il.  SO.  1  Tim.  Ti.  3>.  Thece  ue 
oaneiiODa  when  the  word  denotes  an  eqakl, 
a  febow-dinoiple,  a  eompinion  or  eolleagne 
(UUL  xiiii.  8.    1  Cor.  i.  1.    2  Cor.  i,  I). 

A  ouetol  etadf  at  Ihe  referennes  here  given 
will  show  the  reader,  thai  revealed  religion 
grcatlj  enlarged  Ihe  circle  of  human  relation- 
ship. If  brotheiliood  was  bj  the  Mosaic  ia- 
■tita^aa  confined  to  one  people,  ihii  was  a 
wider  relation  than  wa>  reoogniied  bj  Greek 
and  Bomau,  who  limited  brotherhood  lo  the 
narrower  diTisioiu  ot  a  race,  a  tribe,  a  olau, 
TT'sfciTifl  it  enibraee  acaroelf  more  (btoi  (ho 
teim  fiUoiB-cUizti:  Chriatianily,  however, 
tftrew  Ihe  gates  of  human  love  wide  open, 
inTidng  all  to  enter  in,  and  bs  at  peace  in 
God's  own  house,  —  wbalever  their  name, 
emmlrj,  or  complexion.  Na;,  in  a  wider,  if 
a  I«M  endearing  aenae,  it  taught  all  men  on 
Oie  fkea  of  Ihe  earth  to  regard  eaoh  other  as 
brothers,  aiikcs  Ihej  are  all  made  of  one 
blood  (Acts  zvii.  26). 

BULRUSH  is  the  English  veraion  of 
two  diflbrent  forms  of  a  word,  Gnhnth,  that 
signiflea  originally  a  leed  or  ruah,  growing 
in  a  manh;  and  then  Ihe  papjraa,  a  reed  or 
rush,  which  grew  plentiful);  on  ths  banks  of 
the  Nils  (Eiod.  ii.  8.  laa.  ii.  Ii;  Iriii.  5). 
This  papTTOs  il  was  of  which  ths  ark  or 
■mall  boat  was  made  in  which  Hoses  was 
enlrasled  lo  Oic  enstodj  of  the  Nile.  It  ma; 
sarra  lo  show  that  Ihia  slory  ia  of  native 
growth,  if  we  add  that  boats  used  to  be  made 
bj  tfie  EgTptiana  of  tba  bolruah  or  papyrus. 
The  body  o(  these  boats  appears  lo  have  con- 
aisled  of  mshea,  which  vren  bound  together 
by  Ihe  papyms.  They  were  rendered  impcr- 
vlona  to  water,  as  in  the  case  of  Ihe  srk  of 
Hoses,  by  being  coaled  within  and  without 
with  pitch.  These  boats  were  a  sort  ot  canoe 
or  pant,  and  were  employed  in  Bahing.  They 
were  small.  Bome  of  (hem  oould  be  canjed 
fram  one  place  to  another.  They  were  not 
imlika  the  boats  ot  (he  ancient  Britons,  (hat 
were  made  of  wicker-work  corered  with  hides. 

The  stalk  of  Ae  papyrus  iaofa  vivid  green, 
of  a  triangular  form,  and  tapering  towards 
the  top.  Flhiy  says,  (hat  the  root  is  as  thick 
as  a  man's  arm,  and  that  the  plant  occasion. 
ally  exceeded  ftfteen  feet  in  height.  At 
present  it  ia  rarely  found  more  than  (en  feet 
lac;,  —  abont  two  feet  or  litde  more  of  the 
lower  part  ot  Ihe  stalk  being  covered  with 
hollow,  aharp-pointed  leaves,  which  overlap 
•sub  aibsr  like  acalea,  and  fortify  (he  mosi 


9  BUL 

exposed  part  t^  ilie  alem.  Tliey  art  nmsUy 
of  a  yellow  or  dnaky  brown  colour.  The 
head  ia  composed  of  anombarof  small  gras- 
sy fllamenlB,  each  about  a  foot  long.  Near 
the  middle,  each  of  these  filaments  parts  in 
foul ;  and  in  the  poinl  or  partition  are  four 
branches  of  fioweia.  the  lemunatiun  of  which 
is  not  unlike  an  ear  of  wheat  in  fonn  bat  is 
m  fact  a  soft  ailky  husk. 


Wilkmaon  (  Uodem  Egypt  and  Thebes,' 
41)  atatea  Ainn  h  a  awn  observation,  and 
from  what  he  cou  d  learn  from  Ihe  people, 
that  be  propel  papyma  a  now  unknown  in 
l^SJpt,  though  plants  of  (he  same  family 
tCyperua)  are  e(ill  foand  there.  'Three- 
cornered  reeds  are  abundant  in  Egypt;  Ihe 
Cyperus  is  a  very  nomeroua  family.  The 
Cyperas  Dives,  which  grows  to  a  gnat  height 
in  the  Fyoom  ( a  district  on  the  west  of  Ihs 
Nile,  some  way  above  Cairo)  might  be  mis- 
taken for  it,  «nd  ia  the  largest  kind  grovm  in 
the  conntty.' 

Of  the  papyma  the  Egyptians  made  their 
p^ier.  The  plant,  the  Byblua  hieialicaa  of 
Stiabo  and  the  Cyperua  papyrus  of  modem 
botaniats,  mostly  grew  in  Loner  Egypt,  in 
marshy  land,  or  in  shallow  brooks  and  ponds, 
formed  by  (he  inanda(icn  ot  Ihe  Nile,  where 
they  bestowed  much  pains  on  its  cultivatian. 
The  right  of  growing  and  aelling  il  belonged 
to  (he  government,  who  made  a  great  profit 
by  its  monopoly.  The  paper  made  than 
Ihia  Byblos  hieraUcDS  differed  in  quality, 
being  dependant  an  the  growth  of  the  plant, 
and  the  part  ot  the  atalk  whence  it  WM 
taken.  Haoy  of  the  papyri  that  have  been 
preserved  vary  gieatiy  in  their  texture  and 
appearance.  They  are  generally  fragile,  and 
difficult  to  uniol,  until  rendered  phant  by 
gradual  eipoanre  to  steam  or  the  damp  of 
onr  climates;  and  some  are  so  Initde  that 
they  appear  to  have  been  dried  by  artificial 
means;  tbr  their  confinement  for  so  long  a 
period  in  the  tomba  ia  not  soScicnt  lo  havs 
caosed  this.    Thoss  papyri  which  have  not 


B  U  L                     210  BUR 

been  ezposecl  to  the  same  lieat,  being  pre-  pepyras  are  pretlj  neaily  floeh  m  we  ■honld 

served  in  the  less   arid  climate  of  Lower  make  with  a  common  pen.    The  Egyptiaaa 

Egypt,  still  preserve  their  pliability.    Are-  probably  need  a  reed  or  goose  qnilL    In  some 

inarkable  proof  of  this  is  shown  in  a  papyrus  of  the  paintings  on  the  tombs,  the  pen  or 

brought  by  Wilkinson  from  Memphis,  which  reed  is  eleaily  distingoiahed  in  the  hand  of 

may,  he  states,  be  bent  and  even  twisted  the  writer. 

in  any  way  without  breaking,  or  without  Papyri  are  in  existence  of  tery  remote 

being  more  ii^uxed  flian  a  piece  of  eommon  periods  of  Egyptian  history.    The  prcTalent 

paper.    The  hieroglyphics  show  it,  however,  mode  of  writing  on  them  was  common  in  the 

to  be  of  an  ancient  Pharaonic  age;  and  they  age  of  Cheopa,  the  builder  of  the  great  pyra- 

give  the  name  of  the  city  where  the  pi^yrui  mU^  more  than  two  thousand  yean  before 

was  found,  Menofre  or  Memphis.  our  era. 

Herodotus  has  one  or  two  curious  notices  BULWARK  (from  <he  French  Ixmievard, 

of  this  plant: — '  The  byblns  annually  springs  which  comes  from  ttie  German  bokkcerch, 

up :  after  it  is  plucked  from  tfie  manhes,  the  denoting  a  fort  constructed  of  beams  of 

top  is  cut  off,  and  conyerted  to  a  dittuent  wood)  stands  for  several  Hebrew  words,  the 

use  from  the  other  parts.    The  bottom  part  general  idea  being  that  of  strength ;  —  that 

that  is  left,  to  the  length  of  about  one  foot  is,  strength  to  resist  an  attacking  enemy ; 

and  a  half,  they  sell  as  an  eatable  commodity'  hence  a  strong  hold,  fortification,  tower,  or 

(ii.  98).    The  use  to  which  the  first-men-  fenced  place. 

tioned  part  was  turned,  is  noticed  incident-  BUBLkL  (T.  from  a  root  signiiying  to 

aliyin  several  passages,  such  as  these: — ^'The  cover  or  C(mi«al:  the  Hebrew  word  means 

priests  wear  shoes  made  of  the  byblus ;  Ihe  to  dUf  down,  and  to  hide)  was  the  most 

sails  of  the  Egyptian  boats  are  made  of  the  ancient  form  of  disposing  of  the  bodies  of 

byblus;  the  priests  read  to  me  out  of  a  byblus  the  dead.    It  was  praetiMd  in  ttie  earliest 

roll  the  names  of  830  kings.*    Even  before  periods  of  history;  —  it  is  practised  at  the 

his  day,  it  formed  an  important  artide  of  present  day.    There  must  therefore   be  a 

export  trade.    WiUi  the  possession  of  Egypt  natural  propriety  in  such  an  obsenrance.   In 

by  the  Greeks,  the  use  of  the  papyrus  in-  tmth,  it  will  be  Ibund  to  have  prevailed  to 

creased,  and  was  for  many  centuries  a  most  the  exclusion  of  burning,  most  in  those  ages 

important  branch  of  commerce.    The  im-  and  countries  where  human  and  domestic 

mense  ^entity  of  papyrus  found  in  Her-  ties  had  the  greatest  influence  over  the  heart 

eulaneum  proves  the  extensive  use  of  this  Burial  does,  indeed,  remove  the  dead  out  of 

writing  material  in  Italy.    P^iyrus  conti-  die  sight  of  the  living,  and  so  conforms  to 

nued  to  be  used,  at  least  in  that  country,  till  an  inexorable  law ;  whidi,  especially  in  warm 

about  the  eleventh  century,  when  it  was  su-  climates,  requires  men  to  surrender    their 

perseded  by  parehment  and  by  cotton  paper  deceased  iriends ;  yet  at  the  same  time  it 

introduced  i^m  Asis.    The  mode  of  makhig  admits  those  carea  and  attentions  both  to 

papyri  was  this: — ^The  exterior  of  the  stalks  the  corpse,  and  to  the  spot  where  it  lies, 

of  the  plant,  after  the  rind  had  been  removed,  which  affection  dictatea,  and  feels  a  melan- 

was  out  into  thin  slices  in  the  direction  of  choly  pleasure  in  bestowing.    This  natural 

their  length;  and  these  being  laid  on  a  ilat  impulse  to  still  retain  some  hold  on  our  loved 

board,   in    succession   similar  slices  were  ones,  when  departed,  seems  to  have  been  the 

placed  over  them  at  right  angles ;  and  their  primary,  if  not  the  strongest,  feeling  with  the 

surfaces  being  cemented  together  by  a  sort  eariy  Egyptians,  in  the  pious  care  which 

of  glue,  and  subjected  to  a  proper  degree  of  they  took  to  embalm  the  dead,  and  place 

pressure,  and  well  dried,  the  papyrus  was  them  safely  in  depositories  adorned  by  art, 

completed.    The  length  of  the  slices  depend-  and  protected  by  religion.    The  same  feel- 

IhlTt  "^"^i  ^  ^®  »>ro«dth  of  the  intended  big  which  would  not  let  the  dead  be  wholly 

Sftf-JuJ^  •      *^®  ■**••*  o"^  **»«  »'™*>«  of  sundered  from  the    Kving,  prompted    the 

«o7w  ^  m  succession  beside  each  other;  desire,  on  the  pert  of  relatives,  of  being  in- 

i^«^.«??»  V     ^"'^**''~"™*ted,the  tcrred   in  the  one   common  family  tomb. 

f^Hh     n^          extended  to  an  indefinite  Class  feelings  would  also  have  their  weight, 

to  Si^t.  t^\  mentioned  by  Jomard  extends  as  in  life,  so  also  in  arrangements  necessi- 

it  a7f<™h             ^*  '^^  Herodotus  tated  by  deafii.      Each  individual    would 


that  the  Tx— .i:  *^m  ixvroaouiB  laiea    oy   oeam.      i!*acn   inaiviaiuu    wouia 

like  the  H^"**  wrote  from  right  to  left  naturally  wish  to  be  galfaeied  to  his  fathers: 

proved  bv  th« TiT^  ^      ,     '•***  "  readily  in  a  similar  manner,  each  dass  would  per- 

f.w V       mspection  of  a  panvma.  Tli«i*  n«*n«*«  ;»  *ii«  t<»»iK  .a  f.v  tta  th«>v  t*tm\A  *Ka 


mixing  it  with  burnt  nitoii  -  j  ^*y»>  hy  lie  down  side  by  side  with  the  beggar, 
inks  made  of  soot  are  Sclhied  tn"l  ^^  ^^^  "  **»  ^^  we  find  it  so  frequenUy 
a  yellowish  tint  in  course  of  tim      ?{^  V*     recorded  that  the  Hebrew  monarchs 


were 


not  unlike  the  colour  of  the  wridlf  *  ^^^^^  *■     buried  in  the  royal  sepulchres,  and  that  some 
^echnens  of  papyri    Th«  ^h^SL^^  ■®?*     ^^  «'  «>"»«  o'  them  were,  for  their  great 

strokes  on  Ae     wickedness,  denied  so  coveted  a  privflege. 


BUR                      211  BUR 

And  M  the  Tault^  the  ehamber,  the  many-  all  the  chief  ones   of  the  earth ;   it  hath 

storied  sepulchre,  became  flUed  with  corpses,  raised  up  from  their  thrones  all  the  kings  of 

lying  in  regal  state,  or  at  least  in  nndistnrbed  the  earth ; '  —  who  are  then  represented,  in 

repose  ;   so  did  there  seem  to  grow  more  the  finest  style  of  Hebrew  poetry,  as  ad- 

and  more  into  palpable  ezistenoe,  another  dressing  the  new-comer  —  the  king  of  Ba- 

world, — a  dark  and  shadowy  scene,— a  state  bylon  —  and  taunting  him  with  haying  at 

of  *  dumb  forgetfnlness,'  to  whioh  affection  length  become  like  themaelyes  (comp.  yer. 

attached  regard,  and  imagination  lent  the  less  18, 19,  20). 

sabstaniial  attributes  of  life.  But  this  notion  respecting  the  unseen 
This  sketch,  drawn  on  general  principles,  abode  of  the  manes  or  shades  of  the  de- 
finds  a  eoiresponding  reality  in  the  senti-  parted,  gradually  expanded  into  the  idea  of 
ments  and  practices  of  the  Hebrews.  The  another  state  of  actual  and  conscious  ezis- 
care  which  Abraham  took  to  purchase,  for  a  tence ;  which  gave  rise,  before  the  adyent  of 
family  sepulchre,  the  field  in  Machpelah  Christ,  to  a  belief  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
(Oen.  xziii.  17),  both  illustrates  and  deriyes  resurrection  of  the  body.  Haying  been  re- 
illustration  from  the  preyioos  remarks  (comp.  ceiyed  into  the  Christian  church,  the  idea 
Oen.  zxy.  9 ;  xzxy.  8.  Judg.  iL  9 ;  Tiii.  83.  that  the  same  body  would  rise  again,  tended 
1  Sam.  xxy.  1.  1  Kings  zl.  48 ;  xiy.  81).  As  strongly  to  confiim  the  practice  of  burial, 
so  many  natural  feelings  thus  environed  the  and  effectually  secured  the  early  Christians 
tomb,  so  to  remain  unburied  presented  to  from  adopting  the  Pagan  custom  of  crema- 
the  Hebrew  mind  a  reyolting  speetaole.  tion.  Thus  the  entire  series  of  influences 
Thus  the  house  of  Jeroboam  was  threatened  which  the  Hebrew  and  the  Christian  systems 
with  being  denied  the  rites  of  sepulture,  —  encouraged,  regarding  the  disposal  of  the 

*  Him  that  dieth  of  Jeroboam  in  the  city,  dead,  worked  together  with  strong  natural 
shall  the  dogs  eat ;  and  him  that  dieth  in  the  sentimento,  to  cause  interment  to  preyaU  as 
field,  shall  Uie  fowls  of  the  air  eat '  (1  Kings  the  almost  sole  practice ;  —  a  practice  which 
xiy.  1 1 ;  comp.  xyL  4 ;  xxL  24.  Jer.  yiL  88 ;  has  been  confirmed  by  the  usage  of  thousands 
xyi.  4).  The  last  authority  speaks  of  the  dis-  of  years,  and  is  now  surrounded  by  the  most 
grace  of  being  left  unintorred,  in  yery  strong  respectftil  and  sacred  associations.  Yet  sa 
terms :  —  *  They  shall  not  be  gathered,  nor  enlightened  regard  to  the  public  wesJ,  as 
be  buried ;  they  shall  be  for  dung  upon  the  well  as  to  feelings  as  delicate  as  they  are 
fkce  of  the  eartii'  (Jer.  yiii.  2).  Indeed,  the  strong  and  deep,  seems  to  require  that  our 
immediate  consequences  of  such  exposure,  burial-places  should  be  removed  from  thickly 
in  a  climate  where  decomposition  proceeds  crowded  towns,  to  the  privacy  and  repose  of 
most  rapidly,  must  have  been  at  once  offeu-  the  country ;  and  that  such  aid  should  be 
sive  and  painjhil  (Jer.  ix.  22;  xiv.  16 ;  xxv.  88).  afforded  as  would  enable  the  poor  to  bury 
Hence  it  was  regarded  as  an  act  of  kindness,  their  dead  out  of  their  sight  with  decency 
and  an  office  of  filial  duty,  to  inter  the  de-  and  eccmomy.  Burial  customs  have  much 
ceased  (Matt  viiL  22) ;  and  even  executed  to  do  with  that  indirect  education  of  a  peo- 
criminals  were  not  to  remain  unburied  after  pie,  which  has  more  power  than,  any  direct 
sunset  of  the  day  on  which  they  were  put  and  formal  instruction. 

to  death  (Deut  xxi.  28 ;  comp.  Matt  xxviL  The  earliest  mention  of  burning  the  dead 

57,  68).    According  to  the  Talmud,  there  found  in  the  Bible  is  in  the  case  of  Saul 

were  in  Jerusalem  two  places  set  apart  for  {dr.  1006,  A.C.),  whose  body,  mutilated  by 

the  burial  of  persons  whose  lives  had  been  ^e  Philistines,  the  inhabitante  of  Jabeah- 

forfeited  to  the  law.  gilead  burnt  with  those  of  his  three  sons,  in 

But  the  grave,  as  understood  in  these  times,  compassion  for  his  unhappy  end.   The  pecu- 

must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Hebrew  liarities  of  this  case,  however,  show  that 

Sheohl,  rendered  sometimes  'grave,'  some-  burning   was  not  customary.     'And  they 

times 'pit,' sometimes 'hell.'    It  was  with  the  took  their  bones,  and  buried  them  under 

Hebrews  the  place  of  the  departed  —  a  land  a  tree   at  Jabesh,  and  fasted  seven  days ' 

of  darkness,  and  of  the  shadow  of  death;  (1  Sam.  xxzi  11,  teq,),    Aocordin^y,  the 

yet  still  of  realities,  where  the  shades  of  the  terror  of  a  calamity  is  set  forth  in  Amos 

deceased  lay  quietly  deposited  in  the  sides  of  a  vi.  10,  by  a  declaration  that  relatives,  in  order 

cave,  hewn  out  of  the  Uving  rock,  rather  than  to  avoid  infection,  should,  contrary  to  the 

literally  interred.    Two  passages  in  Isaiah  eustom  of  the  country,  bum  the  remains 

(v.  14 ;  xiv.  9),  throw  light  on  this  view,  of  those  who  had  been  carried  off  by  the 

*  Hell  {sheohl)  hath  enlarged  herself,  and  plague. 

opened  her  mouth  without  measure;   and  The  ancient  Hebrews,  as  all  other  Eastern 

their  glory,  and  their  multitude,  and  their  people,  placed  their  burial-grounds  on  the 

pomp,  and  he  that  rejoioeth,  shall  descend  oateide  of  their  cities  (Deut  xxL  1,  8eq, 

into  it'    What  is  here  said  of  the  luxurious  Isa.  xiv.  18.  Luke  vii.  12) :  only  kings  (1 

Israelites  is,  in  the  other  passage  referred  to.  Kings  ii.  10.    2  Kings  x.  80)  and  propheto 

said  of  the  king  of  Babylon, — '  Hell  from  (1  Sam.  xxv.  1;   xxviii.  8)  were  honoured 

beneaA  is  moved  for  tliee  to  meet  thee  at  with  interment  within   the  walls  of  their 

thy  coming :  it  stirreth  up  the  dead  fbr  thee,  towns.    The  graves  were  commonly  caves  or 


BUR  212  BUR 

grottos,  and  shady  places,  enTironed  by  trees,  magical  arts :  to  this  practice  Isaiah  has 
sach  as  gardens,  were  with  a  truly  natural  been  thought  to  allude  (Ixr.  4) ;  H,  rather, 
taste  preferred  (Gen.  xxili.  17 ;  xxxv.  8.  1  he  does  not  refer  to  a  custom  prevalent  among 
Sam.  zzxi.  18.  2  Kings  xxi.  18,  26.  John  the  heathen,  of  offering  oblations  on  the 
xix.  41).  Frequently  were  the  artificial  tombs  of  the  dead,  in  order  to  appease  them, 
constructions  expressly  formed  for  the  pur-  and  procure  dieir  faToar ;  or  to  some  species 
pose,  ezcayated  or  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  of  necromancy,  which,  for  its  effect,  required 
and  provided  on  a  large  scale  with  several  the  silence  and  secrecy  of  night  Graves 
chambers  (Isa.  xzii.  16.  2  Sam.  xviii.  17.  have  always  been  the  chosen  resort  of  those 
2  Chron.  xvi.  14.  Matt  zzvii  60).  It  was  who  dealt  in  black  arts,  —  as  affording  them 
held  a  disgrace  for  persons  of  distinction  to  special  means  of  working  on  the  better 
be  buried  in  the  graves  of  common  peoplei    and  stronger  feelings  of  dieir  dupes,  and 

(Jer.  xxvi  28)  ;  and  not  only  princes  (2  bringing  the  imagination  vividly  kindled  to 
Kings  iz.  28.   2  Chron.  xzxii.  88),  but  every     aid   their  unhallowed  purposes.      In    the 

good  family  (Gen.  zxiii.  20.  Judg.  viii.  32.  periods  after  the  Babylonian  exUe,  special 

2  Sam.  ii.  82.    1  Kings  ziii.  22),  had  a  care  was  paid  to  the  tombs  of  the  prophets, 

burial  ground  of  their  own,  in  which  those  which  were  ro-edifled  and  adorned  (Matt 

who  died  in  foreign  lands  naturally  wished  xxiii.  29). 

to  be  interred  (Gen.  zlvii.  29 ;  1.  5.   2  Sam.         Of  all  men,  the  Egyptians,  Ae  next  neigh- 

xix.  87.    1  Kings  xiii.  22,  81),  or  at  least  hours  to  Palestine,  raised  the  most  majestic 

to  be  laid  in  the  holy  ground  of  their  mother  mausoleums.    Their  erections  for  the  dead 

eountry,  and,  if  it  might  be,  beside  their  re>  surpassed  in  splendour  those  which  they 

latives  and  friends  (2  Mace.  v.  10.    Joseph  built  for  the  living.    Man  after  death  seemed 

Antiq.  xx.  4.  8).    In  order  to  guard  tombs  more  honourable  or  more  venerable  in  their 

against  the  flesh-devouring  jackal,  they  were  eyes,  Uian  when  alive  with  all  the  energies 

closed  with  doors,  or  great  stones  were  placed  active  that  God   had  given  him.     Hence 

up  against  them  (Matt  xxvii.  60 ;  xxviii.  2).  those  stupendous  structures,  the  pyramids, 

Many  tombs  are  yet  found  with  remains  of  whose  very  magnitude  is  dwarfed  for  want 

doors,  or  evidences  of  having  had  doors,  of  objects  at  hand  large  enough  for  suita,ble 

In  the  month  of  March,  alter  the  latter  rain  comparison.    If  the  architectural  history  of 

and  winter  had  done  its  worst  to  deface  them,  Egypt  did  not  tend  to  show  that  the  pyramids 

tombs,  especially  such  as  were  likely  to  be  were  tombs,  the  discovery  in  the  largest  of 

mistaken    for    other  buildings,   were   cus  those   at  Gizeh   of   a    sarcophagus,  which 

tomarily  whitewashed,  in  order  to  prevent  mnst  have  been  placed  in  the  apartment  it 

any  of  the  crowds  who  would  then  shortly  now  occupies  before  the  completion  of  the 

be  passing  on  up  to  the  capital  to  the  pass-  edifice,  suffices  to  set  the  question  at  rest 

over,  from  contracting  defilement  by  touch-  From  the  top  of  the  third  pyramid,  the  speo- 

ing  them  (Numb.  xix.  16.     Joseph.  Antiq.  tator  looks  down  on  a  great  extent  of  coun  • 

xviiL  2,  8).    Graves,  as  may  be  learnt  from  try,  stretching  north  and  south  along  the 

their  remains,  were  of  two  kinds :  —  They  edge  of  the  desert,  which  is  covered  with 

were  sunk  vertically  in  the  earth,  or  they  ancient  sepulchral  monuments.    They  are 

were  hewn  out  horizontally  in  the  side  of  said  to  extend  southward  as  far  as  the  pyra- 

the  rook :  the  Utter  often  had  several  eham-  mids  of  Dashour,  a  distance  of  ten  miles, 

hers,  in  the  sides  of  which  were  niches  This  wastheburying-ground  of  old  Memphis, 

for  die  reception  of  the  dead.    The  same  whose  tombs  have  survived  the  ravages  of 

feelings  that  urged  men  to  take  means  for  thirty  centuries.    They  are  of  various  forms 

keeping  Uieir  deceased  friends  from  corrup-  and  constructions.    Some  are  simple  apart- 

tion,  would  make  them  desire  to  preserve  ments,  excavated  in  the  solid  rock.     Otibers 

their  individuality ;  and  so,  in  order  to  pre-  consist  of  deep  pits  or  wells  sunk  in  the 

vent  them  firom  being  mingled  with  common  mountain.   They  vary  in  size  fh>m  twenty  to 

dust,  they,  in  very  early  ages,  constructed  five  or  six  feet  square.   Still  more  surprising 

tombs,  originally  of  rough   unhewn  stone  is  the  Theban  cemetery,  some  of  whose  monu- 

(Job  xxi.  82),  but  afterwards  in  the  form  ments  are  probably  more  ancient  than  its 

of  splendid  mausoleums,  with  apartments  oldest  temfdes.    We  refer  to  the  excavations 

where  cash  person  might  lie  In  his  own  place,  along  the  base  of  Che  mountain  which  bounds 

undisputed  in  his  possession,  and  with  no  Thebes  on  the  west  and  north-west,  though 

danger  of  being  confounded  with  others  they  are  not  confined  to  the  mountain,  but 

(2  Sam.  xviii.  18.   1  Mace.  xiii.  27,  teq.   Jo-  are  found  in  vast  numbers  on  the  brow  of 

seph.  Antiq.  vii.  10.  8 ;  xx.  4.  8).    Violence  the  lower  rock,  which  rises   in  extensive 

done  to  the  sanctity  of  a  tomb,  in  order  to  masses,  presenting  the  appearance  of  long 

plunder  the  dead  of  their  ornaments  or  their  perpendionlar  walls.    These  cliffs  afforded 

arms,  or  to  insult  them  by  scattering  their  a  favourable  opportunity  for  excavations ; 

bones,  was  justly  held  a  shocking  outrage  and  they  were  aU  converted  into  vast  and 

(Ezek.xxxii.27.  Jer.  viii.  1).  It  was,  however,  deep  reoeptades  for  the  dead.    The  tombs 

not  unusual  among  the  ancients  for  bones  are  entered  by  small  doors,  which  form  long 

to  be  taken  from  graves  to  be  employed  in  rows  in  the  face  of  the  rock,  in  their  appear* 


BUR                    213  BUR 

anoe  not  mdike  a  tier  of  windows,  or  the  bean  the  name  of  Belxoni,  because  opened 
doors  tbat  open  on  the  long  corridors  of  a  by  him,  is  peculiarly  interesting.  This  ez- 
monastery.  The  resemblance  is  increased  cavation  nms  three  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
by  immense  piazzas  ezcayated  in  front  ot  into  the  bowels  of  the  mountain.  Its  chief 
these  lines  of  tombs,  and  supported  by  single  apartment  is  ninety  feet  below  the  leyel  of 
or  double  rows  of  pillars.  More  than  fifty  the  surlace ;  the  descent  being  made  by  three 
of  these  entrances  into  as  many  oaTems  easy  flights  of  stairs.  The  sides  and  ceiling 
running  tax  into  the  mass  of  rocli^  are  seen  of  diis  long  corridor  are  covered  with  sculp- 
in  a  regular  series.  They  fonn  an  imposing  tnre  and  painting.  Far  in  the  interior, 
spectacle,  and,  when  considered  in  reference  Belzoni's  sagacity  enabled  him  to  lay  open 
to  their  olgect,  a  solemn  and  affecting  one.  a  suite  of  magnificent  apartments,  adorned 
A  large  square  apartment  occupies  the  front,  with  painting  and  sculpture,  as  fresh  and 
fhnn  which  a  passage  runs  into  the  rock  to  perfect  as  at  the  moment  when  the  artist  had 
the  distance  of  hundreds  of  feet,  in  which  completed  his  labours.  The  figures  are  oi 
pits  and  niches  were  out  to  receiTc  the  dead  gods  and  goddesses,  serpents,  and  proces- 
bodies,  great  numbers  of  which  are  still  sions.  One  large  ohsmber  is  left  unfinished, 
found  there.  One  tomb  is  mentioned,  of  and  the  figures  with  which  its  walls  were 
Tast  dimensions,  and  running  out  into  a  adorned  are  in  rough  outline.  They  are 
number  of  long  (apparently)  irregular  apart-  drawn  in  red  lines,  while  alterations  and 
ments,  the  chambers  and  passages  of  which  corrections  appear  in  black.  The  spectator 
are  not  less  than  a  thousand  feet  in  length,  is  reminded  of  cartoons.  In  one  of  these 
It  contains  sculpture,  and  a  profusion  of  chambers  are  seyeral  yery  curious  proces- 
painting,  mostly  dim  and  partially  obliterated,  sions  of  meu,  bearing  on  iheir  shoulders 
but  occasionally  yery  entire  and  yirid.  It  is  immense  serpents.  They  are  followed  by 
cut  in  limestone  rock  of  exquisite  whiteness,  four  groups  of  men,  four  in  each,  being 
and  seems  to  haye  been  the  burying-place  of  costumed  in  a  yery  peculiar  manner,  and 
the  family  of  some  Egyptian  grandee.  Thebes  with  features  widely  different  from  each 
also  offers  among  its  wonders  '  the  tombs  other.  These  groups  have  been  variously 
of  the  kings/  These  are  excavated  in  the  conjectured  to  represent  the  nations  which 
northern  side  of  a  ragged  and  picturesque,  had  been  conquered  by  the  king  who  occu- 
but  gloomy  mocmtain,  perhaps  five  hundred  pied  this  tomb,  or  which  acknowledged  his 
ii^et  high.  The  declivity  next  the  town  is  dominion ;  or  to  be  representatlyes  of  the 
occupied  with  private  tombs.  The  kings,  different  races  of  mankind ;  or,  finally,  as 
obedient  to  the  instinct  of  royalty,  withdrew  persons  employed  in  a  religious  procession, 
from  the  haunts  of  the  plebeian  dead,  and  The  first  group  are  white,  the  second  red, 
hollowed  out  Uie  sanctuaries  to  which  they  the  third  black,  and  the  fourth  again  white, 
chose  to  entrust  their  ashes  and  posthumous  If  captives,  they  were  captive  kings,  as  may 
dignity,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  mountain,  be  inferred  from  their  bearing  and  habili- 
The  valley  in  which  they  lie  is  enclosed  on  ments.  The  chamber  or  hall  where  the 
all  sides.  Not  a  shrub,  or  blade  of  grass,  royal  sarcophagus  was  deposited,  is  thirty- 
enlivens  the  scene ;  and,  no  doubt,  the  three  feet  long,  by  twenty-seven  and  a  htdf 
same  cheerless  sterility  recommended  this  wide,  vaulted,  and  highly  ornamented  with 
gloomy  spot  to  the  monarehs,  who,  three  various  painted  figures.  The  sarcophagus, 
thousand  years  ago,  chose  it  for  their  resting  which  is  of  alabaster,  and  of  beautiful  form 
place.  The  tombs  are  entered  by  a  simple  and  workmanship,  was  borne  away  as  a 
door-way,  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  by  about  trophy  by  Belzoni.  The  paintings  in  this 
six  wide.  No  exterior  ornament  prepares  tomb  look  almost  like  a  work  of  yesterday, 
the  spectator  for  the  splendour  that  is  to  So  far  as  colouring  is  concerned,  the  most 
burst  upon  him  within.  A  long  passage  or  skilftil  modem  artist  would  despair  of  pro- 
corridor,  about  twelve  feet  high  and  ten  wide,  dueing  any  thing  more  perfect  and  effective, 
is  excavated  into  the  mountain ;  descending  The  paintings  on  the  Egyptian  tombs  in 
by  successive  staircases  or  gentle  slopes,  to  general  lay  open  the  whole  routine  of  Egyp- 
various  depths  below  Uie  level  of  the  en-  tian  life,  from  the  most  august  ceremonies 
trance.  In  some  of  the  tombs  there  are  small  of  the  temple,  down  to  the  vulgar  manipula- 
chambers  on  each  side  of  the  corridor,  be-  tions  of  the  kitchen. 

ginning  near  the  entrance;  and  in  all  of  In  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  on  the  east 
^em,  this  passage  leads  to  a  succession  of  Jerusalem,  are  some  interesting  sepul- 
of  apartments,  variously  ornamented  with  chnd  remains ;  which,  were  their  claims  to 
sculpture  and  painting.  Near  their  termina-  antiquity  established,  would  csrry  us  back 
tion  is  a  room  of  superior  size  and  elegance,  to  very  early  periods  in  Hebrew  history,  but 
its  lofty  roof  vaulted  and  richly  ornamented,  which  must  be  dated  at  periods  prior  to  the 
In  the  centre  of  this  apartment  was  the  times  of  the  New  Testament.  One  of  them, 
massive  sarcophagus,  which  received  pro-  the  tomb  of  Jehoshaphat,  has  probably  given 
bably  the  head  of  a  royal  race,  while  the  its  name  to  this  valley.  Other  names,  Ab- 
members  of  his  family  were  deposited  in  salom,  St  James,  Zechariah,  have  been  as- 
other  parts  ot  the  huge  tomb.    That  which  signed  to  monuments  and  tombs  wrought 


BUR 


214 


BUR 


into  tbe  motmtam-cliir.  Close  in  the  rear 
of  the  tomb  of  Zechuiah,  on  the  top  of  the 
elittf  ii  die  modem  Jewidi  cemetery,  whioh 
ie  Tezy  extensiTe.  The  monuments  eonsist 
merely  of  blocks  of  limestone,  of  sufficient 
length  «nd  breadth  to  oorer  the  graye; 
roughly  hewn,  and  coTcred  with  Hebrew 
faisoiptionB.  The  Jews  here  bury  their 
dead  in  the  night  A  strong  desire  to  be 
interred  in  this  spot  along  with  their  an- 
cient kings  and  prophets,  and  hard  by  the 
holy  place  of  their  fathers,  is  the  reason 
assigned  by  Jews  who  forsake  the  countries 
where  they  resided,  in  order  to  lay  their  bones 
in  this  sacred  ground.  These  persons  linger 
about  the  monuments  believed  to  contain 
the  ashes  of  their  iilustrious  ancestors,  and 
msy  be  seen  gaiing  on  the  ancient  stones  of 
the  temple,  or  readkig  the  law  in  their  syna- 
gogue on  Mount  Zion ;  or  lamenting,  in  the 
comer  named  their  '  place  of  wailing,'  orer 
*  the  fall  of  Jerusslem,  and  the  delay  of  the 
Messiah's  adTent.'  The  steep  difT  also  in 
the  rear  of  Aceldama  is  occupied  with  a 
multitude  of  ancient  tombs,  lliey  are  simple 
chambers,  excarated  in  the  face  of  the  rock, 
and  entered  by  low  doors,  seldom  more  than 
four  feet  in  height  In  some  of  them  are 
two  side  chambers  for  the  reception  of  sar- 
cophagi ;  and  a  few  contain  a  third  recep- 
tacle in  the  rear.  In  other  tombs  there  is 
only  a  single  chamber,  and  sometimes  there 
is  no  chamber  at  all,  but  only  a  deep  niche 
cut  in  the  face  of  the  rock,  with  receptacles 
excavated  in  two  or  diree  of  its  sides.  The 
great  extent  of  diif  developed  along  the 
side  of  the  mountain,  south  of  the  vslley 
of  Hinnom,  afforded  ample  facilities  for  the 
excavation  of  tombs ;  and  they  are  accord- 
ingly more  numerous,  as  weU  as  in  better 
preservation,  here  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
environs  of  Jerusalem.  A  great  many,  how- 
ever, exist  north  and  east  of  the  city.  A 
little  east  of  the  modem  Hebrew  cemetery,  on 
Mount  Zion,  there  is  a  cluster  of  excavations 
or  caves,  to  which  tradition  has  given  the 
name  of '  the  Tombs  of  the  Prophets.'  The 
site  has  the  appearance  of  having  once  been 
a  quarry.  More  than  half  a  mile  north  of  the 
ci^  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  monu- 
mente  near  Jerusslem.  It  is  usually  termed 
'the  Tombs  of  the  Kings,'  in  agreement 
with  the  opinion  of  Baumer.  Bobinson 
holds  it  to  be  the  sepulchre  of  Helena, 
queen  of  Adiabene.  This  royal  cemetery 
reminded  Robinson  of  some  of  the  tombs  of 
the  Egyptian  Thebes,  which  slso  it  resembles 
in  ite  workmanship,  but  not  in  the  extent  of 
ito  excavations.  In  ite  elegant  portal  and 
delicate  sculpture,  it  may  well  bear  compari- 
son with  the  sepulchres  of  Petra.  It  is  not 
the  only  monument  of  ite  kind  in  the  vicinity 
of  Jerusalem,  though  it  is  the  best  preserved. 
It  is  hewn  out  of  solid  limestone,  from  a 
large  sunk  area,  the  whole  work  being  below 
the  surface  of  the  earth.     It  therefore  cor- 


responds no  little  widi  the  ideas  above  da 
veloped  as  entertained  by  the  Hebrews,  and 
specially  expressed  by  Isaiah,  touching  the 
Sheohl  or  Hades,  to  which  feeling,  aided  by 
imagination,  gave  a  sort  of  lifs  in  death. 
Four  large  apartmente  have  been  disooverad, 
a  vestibule  to  which  is  formed  by  a  spacious 
and  splendid  portico.  Of  these  ibur,  three 
have  in  their  sides  recesses  or  niches  to  re- 
ceive the  dead :  one  of  them,  as  if  to  bring 
the  abode  of  the  dead  nearer  to  '  the  form  and 
pressure'  of  actual  life,  has  a  low  platform  or 
divan  ranning  slong  ite  sides.  The  frag- 
mente  of  sarcophagi  which  are  plentiftilly 
scattered  through  these  vaulte,  are  worthy  of 
special  admiration.  They  are  covered  with 
a  proftasion  of  rich  and  tastefol  omamente, 
exquisitely  carved.  Clusters  of  grapes  hang- 
ing amid  the  luxuriant  foliage  of  the  vine, 
and  frill  bending  garlands  of  flowers,  cover 
the  lids,  and  hang  in  festoons  down  the  sides, 
of  these  beautiful  specimens  of  ancient  art 
The  omamente  appear  quite  f^resh  and  per- 
fect, having  been  protected  by  seclusion  and 
darkness.  The  details  into  which  we  have 
entered,  will  have  prepared  the  reader's  mind 
ibr  the  probable  inference  that  the  Jews 
borrowed  the  custom  of  foiming  extensive 
repositories  for  the  dead  in  the  bosom  of 
rocks  ih>m  ancient  Egypt,  the  adoption 
of  which  was  rendered  tlie  more  easy  by 
the  geological  fomation  of  the  country, 
especially  in  and  around  the  capital,  as 
affording  either  natural  caverns  or  frwilities 
for  the  fomation  of  artificial  caves,  which 
should  resist  the  wear  of  centuries,  and  pre- 
serve the  departed  through  many  generations. 

Specisl  regard  was  manifested  by  the 
Egyptians  towards  their  dead.  The  greatest 
pains  were  taken  by  embalming  and  invest- 
ing with  rolls  of  cloth,  &c.  to  preserve  the 
dead  body  from  decay.  Religious  considera- 
tions prompted  this  pious  care ;  but  domestic 
love  was  not  without  ito  weight  The  exte- 
rior of  the  case,  in  which  the  body  lay 
shrouded,  presented,  under  the  aid  of  paint- 
ing, an  exact  likeness  of  the  deceased;  so  that, 
as  the  ssreophagus  was  frequently  retained 
within  the  home,  children  and  friends  were 
presented  with  a  perpetual  memento,  which 
was  likely  to  occasion  nsefbl  as  well  as  sober 
reflections,  combined  occasionally  with  pleas- 
ing reminiscences.  How  effectual  were  the 
means  taken  for  the  preservation  of  a  corpse 
may  be  learned  fh)m  the  following  account 
of  the  unrolling  of  a  female  mummy :  — 

'As  we  wished  to  know  how  it  had  been 
embalmed  and  swathed,  we  took  off  the 
outer  covering,  consisting  of  an  upper  and 
a  lower  part,  the  opening  of  which  had  been 
laced  in  firont  With  much  care  we  removed 
a  great  number  of  bandages,  which  passed 
round  the  legs  end  feet,  the  thighs,  the  body, 
arms  and  head ;  and  after  this,  we  began  to 
distinguish  more  clearly  &e  forms  of  the 
extremities,  the  head,  feet  and  hands,  while 


BUR 


215 


BUR 


the  shape  of  the  bo8<nu  and  body  were  etui 
bat  iiuntly  seen.  As  we  came  nearer  the 
skin,  the  bandages  were  broader,  and  the  ex- 
tremities became  more  distinct  At  last,  we 
oonld  dearly  distingnlsh  the  naUs  of  the 
fingers  and  toes,  the  nose,  month,  and  eyes. 
Finally,  we  came  to  a  kind  of  enTclope 
which  covered  every  part^  so  that  we  took 
off  in  a  single  piece  the  part  which  covered 
the  higher  division  of  the  face,  and  which 
preserved  perfectly  the  form  of  the  project- 
ing featores.  The  other  parts  were  more 
covered  in  proportion ;  bat  those  where  the 
embahner  had  been  skilfdl  enongh  to  fill  np 
the  form,  showed  us  nothing  bat  black  and 
dry  members.  The  shape  and  the  colour  of 
the  naOs,  which  were  expressed  on  the  enve- 
lope, disappeared.  Yet  all  the  parts  of  the 
body,  though  dried,  retained  their  natural 
form.  The  hair,  eyes,  nose,  and  month,  were 
80  well  preserved,  that  one  could  easily  recog- 
nise the  expression  of  countenance  whidi 
they  must  have  produced.  The  hsir  was 
quite  black,  without  any  mixture  of  white 
hair,  though  the  person  appeared  to  have 
been  old  at  the  time  of  death.  All  tbat  we 
could  observe  was,  that  it  was  a  little  red 
near  the  roots.  The  hair  was  well  fixed, 
long,  and  divided  into  plaits,  fastened  up  on 
the  head  rather  carelessly,  which  makes  me 
infer  that  at  that  time  the  women  let  their 
hair  UI31  down  slong  their  back  in  numerous 
tresses.  The  eyelids,  lashes,  and  eyebrows, 
were  ssill  in  their  natursl  state.  The  eyes 
only  appeared  to  be  slightly  injured,  because 
they  were  dried,  and  the  pupil  had  shrunk 
in  a  little.  The  nose  was  pretty  nearly  in 
its  natursl  state,  very  regularly  formed  and 
very  beautifiil.  The  tongue  was  dry,  and 
like  a  piece  of  parchment  The  lips  were 
thin,  and  the  mouth  small.  The  teeth  ap- 
peared to  be  worn  out  through  old  age,  and 
to  have  lost  their  sharpness ;  but  they  were 
all  diere,  and  seemed  not  to  have  been 
decayed.  Even  at  the  present  day,  it  is  re- 
markable that  the  natives  of  Egypt  have  very 
good  teeth,  which  they  keep  to  the  most 
advanced  age.  The  head  of  this  mummy 
presented,  in  general,  a  tolerably  regular  ovaL 
The  body  had  been  opened  on  the  left  side 
of  the  stomach,  in  order  to  get  at  the  en- 
trails, and  to  introduce  the  aromatic  sub- 
stances ;  and  we  drew  out  enough  to  satisfy 
ourselves  that  these  were  resinous  materials. 
This  female  mummy  had  the  arms  and  hands 
extended,  and  placed  along  the  body ;  while 
a  male  mummy,  which  we  examined,  had 
the  arms  crossed  on  the  breast, — facto  which 
we  observed  to  be  of  regpolar  occurrence  in 
the  male  and  female  mummies.'  ('  Lib.  of 
Entertain.  Knowledge,  Egypt  Antiq.'  vol.  n. 
97.) 

Li  very  remote  times,  embalming  was,  we 
know,  in  ase  among  die  Hebrews.  Jacob 
and  Joseph  were  both  embalmed.  Nor  waa 
the  practice  peculiar  to  Egypt.      It  was 


practised  among  many  nations  of  the  ancient 
world,  and  is  in  use  among  some  people 
even  at  the  present  day.    In  New  Zealand, 
the  heads  of  chief  men  are  embalmed  with 
great  skiU.     Natural  feeling  requires  that 
every  possible  care  should  be  taken  of  the 
body  of  a  departed  friend.    This  will  be  felt 
the  more  vividly,  the  less  prominent  in  the 
mind  is  the  hope  or  the  life  of  another,  a 
spiritual  and  deathless  state  of  existence. 
And  the  warm  domestic  affections  and  lasting 
attachmente  of  the  Hebrew  nation  would 
inevitably  lead  them  to  ascribe  special  im- 
portance to  the  rites  of  sepultare,  and  to  the 
preservation  of  the  remains  of  their  dead. 
We  are  not,  however,  acquainted  in  detafl 
with  the  manner  in  whidi  die  ancient  Israelites 
prepared  their  dead  for  burial;  though  it 
seems  incredible  that  in  such  a  matter  their 
residence  in  Egypt  should  have  furnished 
them  with  no  example  to  follow.    In  the 
earliest  age,  when  simple  manners  and  the 
dictatea  of  nature  prevailed,  the  dead  were 
consigned  to  their  rooky  bed  by  the  hands  of 
near  relatives,  such  as  fathers,  sons,  and  bro- 
thers (Gen. XXV. 9 ;  xxxv.  29.  Jodg.  xvi.  31). 
Professional  grave-diggers  were  unknown. 
Interment  was  a  duty  of  love,  performed  by 
the  pious  hands  of  chLdren  or  pupUs  ( 1  Kings 
Xiii.   dU.     Mark  vL  29).      In   degenerate 
periods,  the  needful  care  was  bestowed  by 
strangers ;  and  it  was  regarded  as  something 
shocking  that  a  corpse  should  be  conveyed 
to  ite  resting  place  by  the  next  of  kin  (Amos 
vi.  10).     Closing  the  eyes  of  the  departed, 
the  kiss  of  farewell,  were  deeds  prompted  by 
nature,  and  performed  with  a  gashing  heart 
by  sons  or  parente   (Gen.  idvL4;   1.1). 
Shortly  after  tiie  last  breath,  the  body  was 
washed  (Acts  ix.  87),  then  wrapped  in  a 
clean  linen  doth  (Matt  xxvii.  69.  Mark  xv. 
46.    Luke  xxiii  53) ;  or  all  the  limbs  were, 
somewhat  after  the  Egyptian  manner,  bound 
round  with  bandages,  and  the  head  and  face 
enveloped  in  a  covering  or  veil  (John  xi. 
44) ;  between  which,  at  least  in  the  case  of 
the  rich  or  the  beloved,  aromatic  herbs, 
fitted  to  preserve  the  body  and  take  away 
ite  offensiveness,  were  proftisely  bestowed 
(John  xix.  89,  aeq.;  comp.  xii.  1, 7).    In  the 
public  ftinerals  of  princes,  splendid  grave- 
clothes  were  worn,  and  an  almost  incredible 
amount  of  odoriferoua  herbs  were  employed 
(Joseph.  Antiq.  xviL   8,   8.    Jewish  War, 
L   83.  9).     The  speedy  interment  of  the 
body,  which  was  customary  at  least  among 
the    later  Jews,  was  necessitated    by  the 
heat  of  the  climate  (Acto  v.  6,  10),  and 
required,  in  consequence  of  the  danger  ot 
that  ritual  defilement  which  ensued  from 
touching  a  dead  body  (Numb.  xix.  11,  teq.). 
Generally,  the  interment  took  place  before 
sunset  of  the  day  of  the  decease.    The  body 
was  carried  to  burial  in  a  cofBn,  generally 
left  open  (Luke  vii.  14,  see  the  margin), 
which  was  placed  on  a  bier  (3  Sam.  iil.  81)  by 


BUR  216  BUR 

bearers  (Luke  vii.  14.  Acts  y.  6, 10),aud  at-  days  (Oen.  1.  10,  11),  on  occasion  of  tbe 

tended  by  relatiyes  and  friends  (Luke  vii  12)  interment  of  Jacob,  has  its  parallel  in  the 

with  lottd  weeping  and  lamentations  (2  Sam.  Celtic  coronach,  and  other  fimeral  wailings, 

ii.  32.  1  Sam.  zzv.  1).    But  before '  the  house  and  corresponded  with  those  for  Thammuz 

of  mourning'  (Jer.  xvi  5)  was  left,  wailing  or  Osiris.    The  hair,  too,  was  plucked  out 

was  mode  under  the  aid  of  the  sorrowful  notes  on  these  melancholy  occasions,  both  among 

of  the  plaintive  flute,  and  of  women  express-  the  Hebrews  and  oUier  people.    It  was  also 

ly  hired  for  the  purpose  (Matt  ix.  23.  Jer.  defiled  with  dust     Laertes,  in  the  Odyssey, 

ix.  17.    2  Chron.  xxxv.  25).     When   the  throws  dust  on  his  head  at  the  supposed 

interment  had  taken  place,  a  feast  ensued,  death  of  Ulysses.     Great  was  the  extent  of 

occasioned  in  part  by  the  need  of  refresh*  self-mutilation  which  prevailed  among  the 

ment,  especially  in  the  case  of  relatives  who  Canaanites,  as  it  still  is  among  the  Hin- 

had  come  from  a  distance,  and  by  a  not  un-  dooa  (Jer.  xvi.  6,  7 ;  xlviL  5).    The  feasts 

becoming  desire  to  obtain  some  relief  from  celebrated  on  these  melancholy  occasions 

the  pressure  of  grief  (2  Sam.  iii.  35.  Jer.  were  common  to  the  ancestors  of  the  Jews, 

xvi.  5,  7.    Hos.  ix.  4.  Ezek.  xxiv.  17,  23).  and  many  other  nations.    Hosea  (ix.  4^ 

llie  narrative  connected  with  the  raising  of  speaks  of  '  the  bread  of  mourners.'     In 

Lazarus  affords  interesting  notices  regard-  Homer  these  funeral  festivsls  occur,  accom- 

xng  burial  observances  in  the  age  of  our  panied  with  games  and  human  sacrifices. 

Lord.    Martha's  remark,  that  her  brother  At  the  funeral  of  Hector,  there  took  place  a 

having  been  dead  four  days  would  be  in-  regular  ceremony,  which  bears  in  many  parts 

tolerably  offensive,  is  no  less  characteristie  an  anslogy  to  the  Jewish.    The  circumam* 

of  the  country  than  it  is  of  herself  (John  xi.  bulation  of  the  tomb,  in  token  of  reverence, 

39).    Lazarus  coming  forth  *  bound  hand  was  very  early  practised.   The  pages  of  San- 

and  foot  with  grave-clothes,   and  his  face  scrit  literature  abound  with  descriptions  of 

bound  about  with  a  napkin '  (the  taled  or  it    Hyde  has  shown  that  it  was  practised 

veil  used  in  worship),  presents  an  object  en-  by  the  ancient  Persians.    The  Rabbinical 

tirely  conformable  wldi  what  the  usuid  band-  writings  have  many  traces  of  it ;  and  Bux- 

aging  of  a  corpse  would  produce.  torf  asserts  it  to  have  been  one  of  the  very 

We  here  slso  find  the  customary  visits  of  early  rites  ot  the  Hebrews, 
condolence  (xi.  19),  and  friends  go  to  the        AjnongmodemJews,a  sick  person  likely  to 

grave  to  weep  (31,  comp.  2  Sam.  xii.  16).  die,  humbly  oonfesMs  his  sins,  gives  alms. 

The  grief  at  Uie  tomb  of  Lazarus  was  gene-  and  puts  up  prayers  in  order  to  obtain  the 

ral : — Mary  wept,  the  attendant  friends  wept,  divine  mercy.    The  moment  he  has  breathed 

and  Jesus  himself  groaned  in  spirit  and  was  his  last,  a  friend  makes  a  slight  rent  in  his 

troubled  (33).    The  whole  scene  is  as  emi-  garment  as  an  indication  that  life  is  over, 

nently  oriental  as  it  is  graphically  true.  As  soon  as  his  eyes  have  been  closed,  they 

Qoiug  to  the  grave,  and  weeping  there,  is  put  him  into  a  shroud,  turn  his  thumb  into 

common  in  Persia  both  among  the  Moham-  his  hand,  and  bind  it  with  one  of  the  strings 

medans  and    the   Christians.      The  great  of  the  UUed  or  veil  for  the  head,  worn  in  the 

cemeteries  around  the  city  of  Oroomish  are  synagogue,  and  worn  slso  in  the  tomb.     The 

thronged  on  some  festival  days,  and  more  hand  with  the  thumb  introverted,  represents 

or  less  on  other  occasions,  and  present  affect-  one  of  the  peculiar  names  of  God.     The 

ing  scenes  not  less  in  the  thoughtless  levity  of  body  is  thoroughly  washed ;  sometimes  tlie 

the  mass,  than  the  dolorous  lamentations  of  head  is  anointed.    When  placed  in  the  oof- 

the  few.     *I  have'  (Perkins's  Besidence  in  fin,  ten  relations  of  the  deceased  walk  seven 

Persia,  406)  *  frequently  observed  a  circle  of  times  round  the  body,  offering  prayers  on 

women  sitting  on  the  ground  around  a  grave,  behalf  of  his  soul.    Mourning  for  the  dead 

ina  cold  wintei^e  day,  and  wailing  most  pite-  is  a  long  and  painftil,  sometimes   also    a 

ously  over  the  dust  of  a  departed  friend.'  distressing  ceremony.     The  food  of  moum- 

In  Jer.  xvi.  4  (comp.  xlviii.  85—38),  we  ers  may  well  be  termed  *  bread  of  affliction.' 

learn  many  particulars  respecting  burial :  —  They  eat  sitting  on  the  floor  without  shoes. 

It  was  accounted  a  calamity  to  die  a  grievous  Three  entire  days  are  devoted  to  constant 

death,  —  not  to  be  lamented,  —  not  to  be  wailing.      Seven    days    of    sorrow    ensue, 

waned,  but  to  lie  as  dung  upon  the  face  of  Morning  and  evening  friends  come  to  pray, 

me  earth ;  the  carcase,  meat  for  the  fowls  of  and  condole  with  the  bereaved.     At  the  end 

AMven,  and  for  the  beasts  of  the   earth,  of  these  days,  the  latter  repair  to  the  syna- 

Tom  the  same  place  it  also  appears  that  gogue,  light  lamps,  and  give  alms  in  the 

far  Aat^fh™*^  ***  *^*"''  the  mourning  so  name  of  the  deceased.  Thirty  days,  however, 
the  AmlA  naoumers  cut  themselves  for  pass  before  mourners  are  allowed  U>  shave, 
them  •  rfin*^  t«  ^"^  tl^emselves  bald  for  use  the  bath,  or  resume  their  ordinary  vest- 
to  ftomftt!;  .1.  -"^«"»«1^«»  in  mourning,  ments.  In  order  to  keep  alive  the  memory 
Sem  ^«  cn^*°V  **'  ^^  ^•^''  "^d  '8»^«     o'  »  departed  friend,  some  resort  to  his 

thefr  falk'erT  'tLe^ro'th^f  (^  ^f^Thl  *""'' '  "^  ""!,^^"'  "^JS  "^'f  S*'^ 
•tmk»t  mwtA  » .  1         *""*"er    10»  7).     The     serve  an  annual  commemoration  of  the  day 

great  and  sore  lameuuuon' made  for  seven     of  his  deceaae.   The  dead  an  buried  as  soon 


BUR 


217 


BUT 


•8  the  neoosflaiy  preparations  allow.  Every 
care  is  taken  to  inter  them  with  decency ; 
and  sepulchres  and  tombs  are  held  in  great 
respect. 

Dr.  Olin  gives  an  account  of  two  fimeral 
processions  which  he  saw  near  Alexandria. 
The  first  was  that  of  a  little  child.  The 
body,  in  this  instance,  was  deposited  in  a 
basket,  and  carried  upon  the  shoulder  by 
a  man  who  preceded  the  rest  of  the  com- 
pany. A  number  of  persons,  perhaps  a 
dozen  men  and  women,  followed  in  rather  a 
disorderly  manner,  looking  about  with  the 
utmost  unconcern,  but  chanting  in  moumAil 
strains.  The  other  funeral  was  much  more 
numerously  attended.  The  body,  which  was 
ihat  of  an  adult  person,  was  carried  by  four 
bearers  upon  a  bier.  There  was  no  coffin, 
none  being  now  used  in  burying  the  dead  in 
Egypt;  instead  of  which,  &e  corpse  was 
dNssed  in  grave-clothes,  and  covered  with  a 
large  shawl.  It  was  borne  with  the  head 
foremost  A  number  of  shabby-looking  men 
went  before  the  bier  in  a  sort  of  straggling 
procession,  chanting  as  they  advanced.  It 
was  followed  by  a  train  of  perhaps  twenty  or 
thirty  women,  who  were  veiled  and  cloUied 
in  white.  Their  dress  and  whole  appearance 
were  x>oor  and  mean,  leaving  one  to  conclude 
that  the  profession  of  mourner,  to  which  they 
belonged,  is  not  lucrative.  They  sang  a 
dirge  in  veiy  melancholy  and  piercing  tones, 
and  their  attitudes  and  gesticulations  were 
those  of  vehement  and  overpowering  grief. 
They  tore  their  loose  disordered  hair,  and 
smote  their  breasts,  with  frantic  violence; 
carefully  avoiding,  however,  the  infliction  of 
serious  injury*  by  staying  their  convulsive 
hands  before  they  quite  reached  the  head  or 
bosom.  The  rending  of  the  garments  was 
done  with  similar  violence,  but  with  the 
same  harmless  results.  A  number  of  them 
carried  in  their  bauds  blue  handkerchiefs  or 


stripes  of  cloth,  which  they  alternately 
stretched  across  the  shoulders  or  back  of 
the  neck,  and  then  raised  with  both  hands 
high  above  the  head,  jerking  them  with  much 
apparent  violence,  ^ough  die' worthless  rags 
resisted  their  efforts,  and  received  no  damage. 
These  funeral  trains  were  going  from  the 
mosque,  where  religious  ceremonies  had  been 
performed,  to  the  cemetery  outside  of  the 
city. 

BUBNISHED,  found  in  Ezek.  i.  7,  is  ex- 
plained by  the  rendering  of  the  same  Hebrew 
word  {from  the  root  Kal  or  Celf  Latin  celer, 
denoting  swift  motion),  namely 'polished,' 
met  with  in  Dan.  x.  6. 

BUSHEL  (F.  boigseau;  M.L.  htuellus),  a 
measure  of  dry  goods,  representing  the  Latin 
word  modhts,  which  again  may  have  repre- 
sented the  Aramean  Seah,  equsl,  according 
to  Josephus  (Antiq.  ix.  4.  5),  to  an  Italian 
modius  and  a  half,  that  is  nearly  two  pecks. 
The  ancients  were  accustomed  to  cover  their 
lamps  with  the  bushel,  when  they  wished  to 
do  any  thing  secretly.  In  the  original  it  is 
not  a  but  the  bushel,  of  which  our  Lord 
speaks ;  as  we  say  *  the  bed,'  denoting  the 
well-known  and  customary  article  of  furni- 
ture (Matt  V.  15). 

BUTTER  (G.),  strictly  so  called,  was  un- 
known to  the  ancient  Hebrews.  The  origi- 
nal word  denotes  either  milk  or  curdled 
milk.  The  inhabitants  of  Western  Asia 
have  now  no  idea  of  butter,  as  it  exists 
among  us,  in  a  solid  state.  What  they  call 
butter  is  a  fluid,  and  is  hence  compared  with 
flowing  streams.  We  thus  see  the  propriety 
of  Job's  words  — '  When  I  washed  my  steps 
with  butter'  —  denoting  that  he  lived  in 
the  midst  of  affluence.     So  in  Joel  iii.  18, 

*  And  it  shall  oome  to  pan  in  thai  day. 
The  monntalnii  ahall  drop  down  new  wine ; 
And  all  the  hills  shall  flow  with  milk; 
And  all  the  rivers  of  Judah  shall  flow  with  water.* 


CAB 


c. 


CMS 


CAB  (H.  hollow),  properly  a  bowl,  which 
became  a  Hebrew  measure  (2  Kings  vi.  2d) 
for  dry  goods.  It  was  the  180th  part  of  a 
Homer,  containing  in  size  110*32  Parisian 
cubic  inches,  and  of  weight  in  water  41,100 
Parisian  grains. 

CABUL  (H.  a  vettmerU) — occurs  only 
twice  as  a  proper  name :  Uie  first  time  it 
represents  a  town  in  the  territory  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  27) ;  the  second,  the  district  in 
Galilee,  comprising  twenty  cities,  which 
Solomon  gave  to  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  in 
acknowledgment  of  many  important  services 
(1  Kings  ix.  13).  The  gift,  for  some  reason, 
did  not  satisfy  Solomon,  on  which  account 
he  fixed  on  it  the  name  of  Cabul.    This 


word,  Josephus  (whose  authority,  however, 
in  etymology  is  not  great)  says,  *in  the 
language  of  the  Phcsnicians,  denotes  what 
does  not  please '  (Antiq.  viii.  5. 8).  If  now, 
as  there  is  reason  to  believe,  the  Cabal  of 
Joshua  lay  in  the  district  given  by  Solomon 
to  Hiram ;  and  if  we  may  trust  Josephus 
as  to  the  Phcenician  import  of  the  term,  the 
latter  monarch  took  the  name  of  one  town 
(Cabul), not  in  its  Hebrew,  but  its  Phoenician 
meaning,  and  gave  it  deridingly  to  the  whole 
country;  as  if  he  had  said  —  *  Cabul  you 
call  this  place,  and  Cabul  it  is ;  Cabul  (bad) 
be  the  designation  of  my  brother's  present.' 
C^SAR,  the  name  of  a  very  ancient 
patrician  family  in  the  Roman  state.    This 


CiLS 


218 


CiES 


fkinily  wm  of  tihe  Julia  Gens,  and  traced  its 
origin  to  the  mythic  lulus,  son  of  Trojan 
iEniBas,  the  legendary  founder  of  Borne.  The 
term  Ctfsoria  known  in  hi8toiy,chieAy  as  being 
the  denomination  of  Cains  Julius  C«sar,  die 
celebrated  Roman  general,  dictator,  and  his- 
torian. From  him  the  name  was  taken  by 
Augustus,  as  being  the  adopted  son  of  die 
dictator.  From  Augustus  it  passed  to  his 
adopted  son  Tiberius,  and  hence  to  the 
other  members  of  the  Julian  family.  These 
were  all,  either  by  birth  or  adoption,  Cssais. 
With  Nero  tbat  family  became  extinct  But 
the  name  had  now  become  a  title  of  distinc- 
tion, and  was  intimately  connected  with  the 
imperial  throne.  Hence  it  was  regarded  as 
a  part  of  the  title  borne  by  the  ruling  empe- 
ror ;  till  it  came  to  have  a  distinctlTe  mean- 
ing, as  representing  the  heir  presumptiye  to 
the  throne,  who  was  termed  Cssar,  whOe  its 
actual  occupant  bore  the  highest  of  all  titles, 
Augustus,  or  Sacred. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  as  confirmatory  of 
the  historical  character  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, that  the  use  of  the  term  *  Cesar,'  made 
by  ita  writers,  corresponds  with  that  which 
prevails  in  classic  authorities.  Thus  in 
Luke  iL  1,  —  *  There  went  out  a  decree  from 
(7«Mr  AuffUMtuMi*  so  in  iu.  1,  *  Tiberiut 
C^$ar;  and  Acts  xi.  28,  <  Claudius  daar: 
An  analogous  usage  is  found  in  the  New 
Testament ;  *  Cssar '  being  employed  as  in- 
dicating the  ruling  emperor,  or  the  imperial 
government  Thus  Paul  appesled  *  to  Cesar* 
(Acts  xzv.  11.  See  Luke  zxiii.  2.  John  zix. 
12.  PhiLiv.22). 

The  emperors  just  mentioned  are  the  only 
members  of  the  imperial  race  whoae  names 
are  found  in  the  New  Testament  The  his- 
tory, however,  if  we  begin  with  the  birth  of 
our  Lord,  and  end  with  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem, comprises  the  following  princes :  — 
Augustus  assumed  the  purple,  A.C.  27; 
Tiberius,  AJ).  U;  Caligula,  A.D.  37 ;  Clau- 
dius, A.D.  41 ;  Nero,  A.D.  54 ;  Galba,  A.D. 
68 ;  Otiio,  A J>.  69 ;  Vitellius,  AJ).  69 ;  Yes- 
pasisn,  A.D.  70 ;  Titus,  A.D.  79.  We  thus 
see,  that,  within  the  space  of  a  century,  there 
were  not  fewer  than  ten  emperors,  giving  an 
average  of  ten  years  for  the  duration  of 
their  authority.  Of  this  hundred  years, 
however,  the  first  emperor  held  the  sceptre 
Ibr  forty-one,  or  needy  a  half  the  time, 
leaving  an  average  of  about  six  years  for  his 
nine  immediate  successors.  These  facts 
are  of  themselves  sufiioient  to  show,  that  the 
imperial  government  at  Rome  was,  even  in 
its  youth,  as  insecure  at  home,  as  in  truth 
it  was  despotic  abroad;  and  with  other 
facts,  some  of  which  will  appear  in  the 
course  of  this  article,  combine  to  prove  that 
the  civilisation  of  which  it  was  the  represen- 
tative and  the  organ,  stood  on  only  a  very 
low  stage,  and  was  destitute  of  the  power 
to  confer  large  and  durable  benefits  on  the 
higher  interests  of  the  human  race. 


Another  and  a  very  dissimilar  kind  of 

influence  was  required,  and  was  graciously 
vouchsafed  to  man  in  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ,  which  took  plaee  towards  the  toimi- 
nation  of  the  third  quarter  of  the  reign  of 
Augustus  (27 — 81).  The  season  was  au- 
spicious for  the  publieation  of  a  new  order 
of  hi^  spiritual  truth,  which,  in  its  final 
results,  should  make  eaeh  individual  a  law 
to  himself  and  establish  the  divine  kingdom 
of  justioe  and  love  tfarougfaout  the  earth. 
The  aehievements  of  Augustus,  having  oon- 
eentrated  all  pomw  in  his  own  hands,  estab- 
lished a  universal  monarchy,  and  witii  it  a 
universal  peace;  by  whieh  the  several  parts 
of  the  world  were  united  together  under  the 
cementing  agency  of  a  common  centre,  and 
the  predominating  influence  of  one  resisUess 
win,  whose  behests  were  felt  no  less  in  the 
remoter  extremities  than  in  the  heart  itselfl 
Hence  were  removed  social  and  national 
barriers  which  might  have  hindered  or  pre- 
vented the  publication  of  the  goepeL  The 
titie  which  Paul  bore  of  a  Boman  citisen 
was  a  universal  passport,  and,  to  no  small 
extent,  a  protection  from  injury  and  vio- 
lence. Furnished  with  such  an  aid,  the 
apostie  could  travel  wheresoever  he  chose ; 
sJid  the  general  supervision  exercised  by  tiie 
Boman  law  for  the  preservation  of  order  end 
good  government,  gusranteed  other  mission- 
aries of  the  gospel  such  a  degree  of  safety 
as  enabled  them  to  ftilfil  the  duties  of  their 
great  imdertaking;  —  while  the  intercourse 
which,  in  such  a  government  as  that  of 
imperial  Bome,  went  on  constantiy  from 
the  centre  to  the  cireumfierence,  and  hence 
back  again  to  the  centre,  caused  a  con- 
tinual and  comparatively  speedy  radiation 
of  light  and  trsnsmission  of  thought,  which 
gave  currency  to  the  facto,  doctrines,  and 
sympathies  put  forth  by  the  gospel,  and 
soon  caused  it  to  be  the  great  leavening 
power  of  the  entire  world.  Before,  however, 
it  could  exert  ito  own  pure  influence  on  hu- 
man hearts,  it  was,  in  the  nature  of  the  case, 
compelled  to  take  up  its  abode  therein ;  on 
doing  which  it  became  mingled  with  ele- 
mento  of  a  baser  nature.  The  kingdom  of 
Christ  must  first  enter  into  alliance  with 
the  kingdom  of  the  world,  ere  it  could  pro- 
duce that  entire  change  on  the  latter,  which 
was  and  still  is  ito  great  work.  A  brief 
sketeh  may  aid  the  reader  in  forming  an 
idea  of  the  character  of  Cesafs  kingdom 
during  the  times  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
so  serve  to  show  him  what  grounds  there 
are  for  gratitude,  that  *  the  Prince  of  peace,' 
and  '  the  Lord  and  Giver  of  life/  was  sent  of 
the  heavenly  Father  to  enli^ten  the  dark, 
strengthen  tiie  feeble,  and  succour  the  dis- 
tressed. 

The  essential  vice  of  the  imperial  govern* 
ment  was,  that  force  was  ito  basis  and  its 
strength.  By  military  prowess  and  skill  did 
Augustus  acquire   and  retain  his  sceptre 


C  i£  S                     219  C  iE  8 

This  WAS  a  radical  defect,  the  eonseqaenees  of  masoles,  Uiat  a  AUip  of  hie  was  eaongfa  to 
wUAh  that  emperor  mitigated,  but  oonld  by  inflict  a  seyere  wound  on  a  boy's  scalp, 
no  means  correct.  Hence  despotism,  more  or  Tiberius  was  followed  by  ddigyia^  whose 
less  mild,  according  to  the  disposition  of  the  life  he  had  threatened  three  times,  and  whom 
reigning  soTcreign,  was  ineritable.    In  the  he    chose   for  his   snoccssor,  becanse  he 
hands  of  Aufuttua,  who,  firom  having  been  belieyed  that  *  Caius  would  prove  a  ser- 
sanguinary,  became  mild,  this  unrestrained  pent  to  swallow  Rome,  end  a  PhaSton  to  set 
wielding  of  force  was  deprived  of  its  worst  the  world  on  fire/    Beginning  his  caieer 
fitatnres.    But  a  moderation  that  depended  with  a  specioosness  which  was  dictated  by 
on  the  life,  die  character,  or  the  will  of  an  prudence,  and  sustained  by  duplicity,  Oali- 
indiTidual,hadno  guarantees  of  permanence,  gnla  ere  long  broke  out  into  such  wild  acts, 
The  mild  despotism  of  this  year  might  be  as  to  justify  (he  suspicion  of  insanity.    His 
changed  the  next  into  the  most  ruthless  tyranny  was  no  less  wanton  than  ruthless, 
tyranny.    In  such  a  state,  liberty  was  with-  When  it  suited  his  purpose,  the  senate  sup- 
out  safeguards,  and  human  progress  stood  plied  victims  to  his  madness,  who,  however, 
exposed  to  all  the  caprices  of  the  most  fickle  were  less  unfortunate  than  such  of  the  mem- 
destiny.     This  uncertainty  was  strikingly  bers  of  that  once  venerable  body  as  he  com- 
exhibited  in  the  second  emperor  of  *  royal  pelled  to  run  as  footmen  beside  his  chariot 
Cssai's  line.'     Augustus  having  departed  With  a  rare  refinement  of  cruelty,  his  ban- 
this  life,  not  without  suspicion  that  his  end  quets  were  made  thrillingly  exciting,  by  the 
was  hastened  by  his  Empress  Livia,  after  a  torture  and  decapitation  of  persons  who  had 
reign  in  which,  to  adopt  his  own  allusion,  *he  incurred  his  displeasure.    Children  at  play, 
had  played  his  part  well ; '  he  was  succeeded  a  delight  to  sll   the  world,  were  to  him 
by  Tiberim,  who  began  his  royal  career  by  an  intolerable  offence.    Woe  to  such  as  in 
the  murder  of  his  feared  rival,  Agrippa ;  their  eager  thoughtless  merriment  crossed 
and  soon  entered  on  the  dark,  crooked*  and  his  path !    The  monster  fell  on  ibem,  and 
sanguinary  policy  which  marks  the  jealousy,  tore  out  their  eyes.    Wives  he  found  in  his 
distrust,  and  terron  of  a  conscious  tyrant,  own  sisten;  and  in  honour  of  one  of  them. 
Men  of  superior  ability  were  watched,  cir-  Drusilla,  when  death  had  put  an  end  to  the 
cumvented,  imprisoned,  and  destroyed.    The  incestuous  bond,  he  erected  a  temple,  thus 
law  of  high  treason  was  made  efficacious  fbr  making  a  divinity  of  a  woman  who  had  de- 
the  purposes  of  tyranny.    An  organised  sys-  graded  herself  far  below  ordinary  mortal 
tern  of  spies  destroyed  the  comfort  and  peace,  vice.    He  shut  up  the  public  granaries,  in 
togetherwith the  security  of  domesticlife.  The  order  to  produce  famine,  affording  a  terrible 
best  blood  of  Borne  was  shed  to  satisfy  the  in-  comment  on  the  wish  he  expressed,  tl^at  his 
satiable  fears  of  the  emperor's  cowardly  soul,  reign  might  be  signalised  by  dearth,  pesti- 
The  liberties  of  the  state  were  stripped  of  lence,  and  earthquakes.     How  blood-tliirsty 
their  remaining  forms,  and  lay  at  the  merey  must  have  been  the  soul  of  the  mtm  who 
of  a  bad  and  capricious  man.    A  tyrant  in  could  utter  the  atrocious  words  — '  Would 
politics,  Tiberius  was  a  most  degraded  Syba-  that  the  people  had  but  one  neck,  that  I 
rite  in  morals.    Sejanus,  who  lowered  him-  might  behead  them  at  a  blow ! '    Vengeance 
self  firom  the  dignity  of  a  prime  minister,  to  soon  came  upon  him.    He  fell  piereed  with 
be  a  pander  to  the  emperor's  guilty  pleasures,  thirty  wounds,  given  by  the  hands  of  assas- 
in  the  hope  of  being  rewarded  by  the  succes-  sins.  A  chest  of  poisons,  found  in  his  closet, 
sion  to  Ihe  throne,  was  first  ci^oled,  and  betrayed  his  fears  and  his  resource;  and 
then  destroyed,  by  his  degraded  master,  who,  many  rejoiced  in  his  removal,  when  two  lists 
though  wallowing  in  wone  than  bestial  sen-  of  names,  bearing  the  expressive  titles, '  the 
sualities  in  Gaprea,  was  still  listened  to  with  sword '  and  *  the  dagger,'  came  to  light,  and 
implicit    and    ready  obedience    at   Bome.  made  known  who  were  intended  to  be  his 
Amidst  the  groTes  and  grottoes  of  that  lovely  next  victims.    He  despised  Homer,  Virgil, 
island,  this  monster  of  his  species  had  sought,  Livy,   and  was  accomplished  in  dancing, 
for  his  disgusting  and  enervating  pleasures,  fencing,  and  driving  chariots.    He  was  un- 
that  fipeedom  ttom  interruption  which  he  worthy  to  bear  the  name  of  man,  and  paraded 
vainly  desired  in  the  capital    Not  that  he  the  atreets  in  the  garb  of  tiie  divinities 
affected  secrecy.    He  seems  to  have  held  that  Jupiter  and  Venus.    He  scoffed  at  the  gods, 
some  degree  of  publicity  was  necessaiy  to  give  and  trembled  at  a  clap  of  thunder.     He 
to  vice  its  highest  zest ;  for  tbe  chosen  place  was  a  terror  to  his  subjects,  at  the  time  that 
of  his  retirement  was  desecrated  by  the  open  he  was  haunted  by  the  monstrous  creations 
revelllngs  of  the  wood  nymphs  and  satyn,  of  his  own  troubled  and  bewildered  brain, 
in  whose  forms  the  companions  and  partici-  Clavdnu,  the  next  occupant  of  the  impe- 
paton  of  his  foul  orgies  were  attired.    He  rial  throne,  owed  his  elevation  in  part  to 
died  miserably,  and  his  corpse  was  loaded  fear.    Being  near  when  his  nephew  Cali- 
with  insults.    Not  unfit  was  he  in  his  per-  gula  was  assassinated,  he  tried  to  conceal 
son  to  be  the  head  of  a  government  whose  himself,  bat  was  discovered  by  a  soldier, 
essence  was  force ;  for  he  was  tall,  robust,  who,  instead  of  dispatching  him,  fell  on  his 
broad-shouldered,   and   so    strong    in    his  knees,  and  saluted  him  emperor.    The  ex< 


C  iE  S                      220  C  iE  S 

Ample  prevailed ;  and,  after  some  delays  ou  that  oontetDptuoaa  feeling  towarda  Jews  and 
the  part  of  the  senate,  a  new  governor  was  Christians,  which  caused  heathen  contempo- 
given  to  the  world,  by  the  choice  of  a  soldiery  raries  to  pass  with  a  hare  allosion,  or  a  few 
and  the  clamours  of  a  populace.  What  in-  words,  the  early  days  of  the  religion  of 
fatuation,  that  could  bestow  a  sceptre  on  one  Jesus.  Contempt  restrained,  but  could  not 
whose  personBl  recommendations  were  sum-  altogether  silence,  their  tongues.  Mean- 
med  up  in  a  certain  easy  good  nature,  but  while  a  power  mightier  than  that  of  proud 
whose  intellect  was  so  dull  and  mean,  that  Borne  was  growing  up  in  the  very  heart  of 
he  was  the  butt  of  practical  jokes  in  Caligula's  society,  wMch,  in  the  course  of  time,  was 
eourt !  Tet  even  mere  passive  good  nature  to  be  the  source  of  new  and  undying  life, 
may  make  a  throne  usefol,  if  under  proper  The  poor  weak  Claudius  did  indeed,  in  the 
guidance;  and  the  commencement  of  the  exereise  of  his  idle  sovereignty,  cast  out 
reign  of  Claudius  gave  promise  of  the  com-  frora  his  eapital  the  depositaries  of  that 
ing  of  better  days.  Laws  were  amended,  young  but  immortal  birtti.  He  had,  how- 
Spies  were  discouraged.  Proscription  lists  ever,  no  power  over  its  existence,  and  could 
were  destroyed.  Public  works  were  wisely  prevail  against  it  only  so  far  as  seemed  good 
undertaken,  and  vigorously  accomplished,  to  a  hi|^er  will.  How  little  the  emperor 
The  supplies  of  com  needful  for  die  food  took  a  just  and  reasonable  step  in  banishing 
of  the  people  were  procured  with  care,  and  the  Christians,  and  how  fur  the  historian 
dispensed  with  prudence.  But  a  passive  acted  in  his  brief  record  a  worthy  part,  may 
character  bends  before  evO  as  well  as  good  be  learnt  from  the  circumstance,  diat  neither 
influences.  The  reins  of  govenmient  soon  of  them  gave  himself  the  trouble  to  ascertain 
fell  firom  the  feeble  hands  of  Claudius,  into  the  exact  facts,  else  Christians  would  not 
those  of  insolent  and  infamous  favourites —  iiave  been  confounded  with  Jews,  —  the 
men  who,  having  been  slaves,  were  raised,  name  of  our  Lord  would  not  have  been  mis- 
for  their  despicable  subserviency,  to  the  spelt,  nor  his  influence  so  grossly  misrepre- 
highest  offices  of  the  state,  only  to  become  aentcd. 

despots  alike  over  the  sovereign  and  his  Nero  disgraced  a  throne  to  which  he  was 

subjects.    Among   these  fr«edmen  were  —•  brought  by  cajoling  and  deception.    His  first 

Narcissus,  who  in  his  familiar  letters  boast-  act  was  die  poisoning  of  his  hslf-brother 

ed  that  he  was  '  lord  of  Ids  lord ; '  Pallas,  Germauious,  in  which  he  showed  himself  to 

who  filled  the  chair  of  jusdee ;  and  FeliXf  be  already  an  adept  at  guile,  duplicity,  and 

who  commanded  the  legions  in  Judea.    It  baseness.     Foreign  wars,  csrried  ou   with 

was  the  policy  of  these  men  to  call  in  the  varied  success,  demanded  the  energies  of 

aid  of  intriguing  and  ambidous  women;  and  those  who  had  the  offices  of  government  in 

the  doting  emperor,  encouraged  to  stupiiy  his  their  hands,  yet  left  time  end  spate  for  some 

mean  faculdes  with  gluttony  and  drunken-  administradve  improvements  in  the   early 

ness,  surrendered  his  duties  and  his  honour  part  of  Nero's  reign.    But  the  innate  wicked- 

to  the  keeping  of  his  ministers  and  his  wives,  ness  of  his  nature   could  not  be  long  re- 

To  a  marriage,  into  which  he  was  persuaded  strained.      Even  the  list    of  his    private 

widi  his  niece  Agrippina,  was  owing  the  atrocities  is  too  long  to  find  a  place  in  this 

influence  which  led  him  to  adopt  his  wife's  sketch.     One  or  two  instances  must  suffice, 

sou  Nero,  and  thus  to  become  the  means  of  His    tutor,    the    well-known    philosopher, 

giving  to  the  world  a  governor  whose  name  Seneca,  having  taught  him  the  art  of  adu- 

is  the   type   of  die  highest  regal  atrocity,  lation  when  needed  for  the  panegyric  of  his 

Agrippina  having  ciyoled  Claudius  into  the  predecessor,  and   degraded  himself  into  a 

adoption  of  Nero,  made  way  for  her  son's  minister  of  his  depravity,  fell  a  victim  to 

accession,  by  removing  the  drivelling  old  suspicions,   which,  whedier  groundless  or 

man  through  the  aid  of  a  poisoned  mush-  otherwise,  betray  the  emperor's  moral  degra- 

room.  dadon.      His  mother,  Agrippina,  first  be- 

In  his  reign  an  event  took  place,  which  came  his  wife,  and  then  his  victim.     In 

causes  him  to  be  mentioned  in  the  New  order  to  compass  her  death,  he  had  a  vessel 

Testament: — '  Claudius  had  commanded  all  constracted  which  would,  at  the  right  time, 

Jews  to  depart  from  Rome '  (Acts  xviii.  2).  fidl  asunder,  and  consign  to  the  waves  those 

This  record  having  reference  to  the  Jewish  whose  lives  were  devoted  to  destruction. 

Christians,  Aquila  and  his  wife,  shows  that  On  board  this  yacht,  his  mother  and  wife 

disciples  of  Jesus  were  at  the  first  confounded  was  induced  to  embark,  in  order  to  accept 

widi  adherents   to  the   Mosaic   law.    The  an  invitation  to  a  banquet  given  her   by 

same  mistake  was  obviously  made  by   the  Nero.    The  bark  performed  its  part;  but 

Bomau    biographer  Suetonius,  who,  in  his  Agrippina  oould  swim.     She  was  rescued 

life  of  Claudius,  mentions  casually,  among  from  drowning,  but  not  from  her  son  and 

other  deeds  of  that  emperor,  that  <  he  ex-  husband.     What  was  to  be  done  ?     The 

pelled  from  Rome  the  Jews  who  were  continu-  emperor  was  alarmed  at  her  escape.    *  Can 

ally  making  disturbances  under  the  impulse  the  soldiers  be  trusted  ? '  asked  the  philo 

of  Chrest.'    Brief  though  this  record  be,  it  sopher  Seneca.      *  Not  against  a  child  of 

is  higlily  important     Its  brevity  discovers  Oermanicus,'   was  the  reply.    But  a  vile 


CMS                      221  €  ^  S 

court  18  neTer  wanting  in  vile  men.    A  freed-  soul.    While  hnnying  ftill  of  dread,  he  was 

man  undertook  and  fiilfilled  the  Uoody  task,  overtaken  by  a  thunder-storm.    The  earth 

All  the  evil  of  this  madman's  soul  seems  also  quaked  beneath  his  feet.  This  com« 
to  have  been  put  forth  in  the  rage  with  which  pleted  his  terror.  He  strook  into  a  bye- 
he  fell  upon  &ie  Christians.  The  suspicion  path,  hid  himself  in  a  sand-pit,  and  thence 
having  fallen  on  Nero,  of  having  set  the  city  at  length  crept  underground  to  a  country 
on  fire,  to  ei^joy  the  pleasure  of  witnessing  house  of  his  freedman  Phaon.  Here,  after 
the  conflagration,  he  adopted  the  shameless  dallying  with  death,  he  was  at  length  brought 
device  of  throwing  the  crime  and  the  atten-  to  an  extremity  by  the  arrival  of  his  assas- 
dant  odium  on  the  followers  of  Christ,  who  sins ;  when,  taking  courage  from  despair, 
accordingly  were  treated  by  him  and  by  the  and  the  fear  of  public  exposure,  he  stabbed 
Roman  populace  in  the  most  brutal  and  himself  wi&  the  aid  of  an  attendant,  and 
ruUiless  manner.  Some,having  been  dressed  presented  to  his  pursuers  their  emperor  in 
in  skins  of  beasts,  were  worried  to  death  by  the  agonies  of  a  violent  death.  So  perished 
dogs.  Others  were  first  covered  with  pitch,  the  last  of  the  CaBsars ;  leaving  a  terrlfle 
and  then  set  on  fire ;  while  the  inhuman  exemplification  of  the  words  of  *  the  great 
cause  of  their  unmerited  sufferings  pur-  Teacher,'  —  'All  they  that  take  the  sword 
sued  hiB  pleasures  in  the  dignified  character  shall  perish  with  the  sword'  (Matt  xxvi.  52). 
of  a  charioteer,  in  the  usual  games  of  the  Oalba,  proconsul  of  Spain,  of  a  noble  fa- 
circus,  mily,  who  had  begun  a  revolt  shortly  before 

To  this  outrage  on  humanity  we  owe  a  Nero's  death,  was  called  to  govern  by  the 

very  important  testimony ;  for  Uie  historian  army,  who  had  now  gained  an  irresistible 

Tacitus,  in  recording  these  things,  gives  a  power  in  the  disposal  of  the  imperial  scep- 

brief  outline  of  the  origin  of  Christianity ;  tre.    His  reign  was  no  less  troubled  than 

ascribing  it  to  Christ,  who,  he  says,  was  exe-  brief.     Invested  with  the  purple  by  force, 

cnted  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  by  the  orders  force  he  employed  to  sustain  his  position ; 

of  Pontius  Pilate,  the  procurator  or  sub-  unscrupulously  putting  out  of  his  way,  even 

governor  of  Judea.     He  adds  that,  though  without  Uie  formalities  of  trial,  eminent  per- 

repressed  by  the  death  of  its  leader,  <  this  sons  who  were  hostile  to  his  pretensions, 

pestilent  superstition  burst  forth  and  spread  and  murdering  thousands  of  soldiers  whom 

not  only  over  Jadea  where  it  took  its  rise,  in  his  opinion  he  had  reason  to  fear, 

but  to  the  city  of  Bome  itself.'    And  evi-  Otlio,  a  companion  of  Nero's  revels,  ap- 

dent  it  is,  that  at  the  early  period  to  which  peared  to  contest  with  him  the  throne  of  the 

this  record  refers  (A.D.  64),  the  Christians  world,  when  Galba,  having  reigned  seven 

in  Rome  were  a  numerous,  well-known,  and  months,  w^s  slain  in  an  attempt  to  address 

influential  body ;  otherwise  Nero  would  not  the  rebellious  troops  whom  his  competitor 

have  sought  in  them  a  party  to  bear  the  had  miurohed  into  the  forum.     No  sooner 

consequences  of  his  own  guilt.    The  tenor  had  Otko  cleared  his  way  to  the  throne  by 

of  the  narrative  of  Tacitus  makes  it  clear,  the  death  of  Galba,  than  he  learned  that  the 

that  the  Christians  were  feared  as  well  as  German  legions  had  proclaimed  VitelUus. 

disliked,  and  thus  supplies  another  proof,  He  hastened  to  meet  his  rival ;  but,  finding 

that  their  numbers  were  considerable ;  for  his  prospects  dark,  he  terminated  his  days 

Rome  would  not  have  entertained  any  strong  with  a  poignard,  expressly  provided  for  such 

feelings  whatever  towards  a  handftil  of  in-  an  emergency, 

significant  men.  VUellius  betrayed  his  character  by  words 

The  Romans,  however,  were  not  degraded  dropped  on  the  field  where  Otho  had  suffered 

enough  to  endure  permanently  crimes   so  a  defeat    '  Sweet  is  the  odour  of  a  dead 

heinous  and  multiplied  as  those  of  Nero,  enemy,  but  sweeter  the  odour  of  a  dead  citi- 

The  standard  of  revolt  was  raised.     The  zen.'    Taking  Nero  for  his  model,  he  proved 

perils   of  rebellion  were  augmented  by  a  a  faithful  imitator.    He  poisoned  senators, 

dearth.    The  monster  was  alarmed,  but  not  murdered  children  of  his  own,  and  starved 

subdued.    His  brutish  nature  dreamt  only  his  mother  to  death.  His  companions  and  his 

of  such  schemes  as  poisoning  the  senate,  ministers  he  found  in  players  and  charioteers, 

setting  fire  to  the  city,  and  turning  wild  Gluttonywas  his  pleasure  and  pursuit    His 

beasts  loose  on  the  people.    At  length  the  career  was  short    Vespasian  came  forward 

senate,  taking  the  matter  into   their  own  to  rid  the  empire  of  so  bestial  a  master, 

hands,  declared  him  a  public  enemy ;  and  Having  been  driven  by  his  fears  to  conceal 

decreed,  that,  having  been  lashed  to  death,  himself  in  a  sort  of  kennel,  he  was  dragged 

he  should  be  hurled  from  the  Taipeian  rock,  out  by  a  halter,  and  exposed  to  the  public 

This  was  the  signal  for  a  universal  desertion,  gaze.    His  head  fell  on  his  bosom,  to  avoid 

Such  was  the  solitude  in  whidi  he  was  left,  the  derision  and  contempt  that  broke  forth 

that  he  complained  he  could  find  no  friendly  against  hirn  on  all  sides.    This  miserable 

hand  to  relieve  him  of  the  intolerable  burden  reftige  was  denied  him ;   for  a  sword  was 

of  existence.    Tet  his  fears  urged  him   to  placed  under  his  chin,  and  he  was  compelled 

flee.      His  flight  was  attended  by  alarms,  to  behold  as  well  as  hear  the  taunts  and  re- 

which  took  their  terror  from  his  own  guilty  vilings  of  his  foes.    Covered  with  mire  and 


C  iE  S 


222 


C  ^S 


abuse,  he  was  dragged  to  a  chosen  spot, 
and  beaten  to  death  by  the  moltilade. 

Hia  anccessor  was  Ve^pastan,  who  had 
gained  renown  and  infloenoe  by  hia  condoct 
in  the  war  waged  by  the  Bomana  against  the 
Jews,  which  Nero  had  began,  and  which 
Vespasian's  son,  Titas,  brought  to  a  termi- 
nation. A  new  era  dawned  on  Bome,  at  the 
accession  of  the  FlaTian  family,  in  the  per- 
son of  Vespasian.  He  graced  the  first  days 
of  his  reign  by  an  act  of  amnesty,  whieh 
comprised  all,  except  the  most  atroeions 
satellites  of  the  prerioos  tyranny.  The 
senate,  from  whom  he  neeired  his  power, 
he  wisely  reformed.  Even  conspirators 
found  clemency  at  his  hands;  beLig  ba- 
niahed,  instead  of  exeoatod.  His  general 
government  was  mild  and  tolerant  Yet  was 
he  under  the  sway  of  his  mistress  Csnis, 
whose  favour,  obtained  by  bribes  and  adula- 
tion, opened  the  way  to  the  highest  religious 
as  well  as  civil  offices. 

Vespasian  was  proseenting  the  war  in 
Judea,  when  he  judged  it  desirable  to  has- 
ten to  Bome,  with  a  view  to  gain  the  impe- 
rial crown.  Titus,  thus  left  by  hia  father  to 
finish  the  war,  puahed  the  siege  of  Jerusa- 
lem with  all  die  skill,  energy,  and  determi- 
nation, he  could  command.  The  resistance 
was  most  determined.  But  the  doomed  city 
fell.  Its  streets  ran  with  blood.  Those  of 
its  citizens  whom  faction  spared,  and  the 
siege  had  left  alive,  perished  beneath  the  Bo- 
man  sword,  or  pined  away  in  hopeless  cap- 
tivity. Never,  in  the  bloody  reooids  of  war, 
was  there  presented  to  the  wodd  a  mate 
biting  satire  on  what  is  denominated  glory, 
and  never  was  there  inflicted  a  more  terrible 
punishment  on  a  guilty  nation. 

*  Vengeance  I  thy  fiery  wing  their  race  punned; 
Thy  thlnty  pon&ffd  blnah'd  with  faifant  blood. 
Reused  at  thy  caU,  and  penting  still  for  game^ 
Th«  bird  of  war,  the  Lstlan  eagle,  came. 
Then  Jndah  raged,  by  mfflan  diaoord  led, 
I^unk  with  the  steamy  carnage  of  the  dead ; 
He  saw  hia  sons  by  dubtons  daughter  fall. 
And  war  wHhont,  and  death  wiOiin,  the  wall. 
Wide- wasting  Plague,  gannt  Famine,  mad  Despair, 
And  dire  Debate,  and  diunorous  Strife,  were  there; 
Love,  strong  as  Death,  retain'd  his  might  no  more^ 
And  the  pale  parent  drank  her  children's  gore. 
Yet  they,  who  wont  to  roam  the  ensangnined  plain. 
And  spurn  with  full  delight  their  kindred  slain, — 
E'en  they,  when,  high  aooTo  the  dostr  light, 
Their  bumlnff  Temple  rose  in  lurid  ligh^ 
To  their  loved  altars  paid  a  parting  Kroan, 
And  in  their  oouitry's  woes  forgot  their  own. 

As,  'mid  the  oMar  courts  and  gatea  of  g<^d, 
The  trampled  ranks  in  miry  oamage  roll'd. 
To  Bare  their  Temple  CTerr  hand  easay'd. 
And  with  cold  fingers  dasp  d  the  feeble  blade; 
Through  their  torn  veins  reriving  fUry  ran. 
And  lue's  long  anger  wann'd  the  dying  man. 

But  heavier  tax  the  fettered  captive's  doom  I  — 
To  glut  with  sighs  the  iron  ear  of  Rome; 
To  swell.  Blow  pacing  by  the  car's  tall  aide^ 
The  stole  tyrant's  pUloaophic  pride; 
To  fleah  the  lion's  ravenona  Jawi^  or  feel 
The  sportive  fury  of  the  fencer's  steel ; 
Or  pant,  deep  plunged  beneath  the  sultry  mlno^ 
For  the  light  gales  of  balmy  FalesUne. 


Ah  I  fruitful  now  no  more^  —  an  empty  coast, 
She  mourn'd  her  sons  enslaved,  her  dorlea  lost : 
In  her  wide  streets  the  lonely  raven  bred. 
There  bark'd  the  woU;  and  dire  hyaeiias  fed.* 

It  was  on  a  Sabbath-day  (A.D.  70)  that 
Jerusalem  surrendered.  Above  a  million  of 
souls  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the  aiege. 
The  captives  were  ninety-seven  thousand. 
Their  last  Jewish  king  —  Agrippa  II.  —  had 
strength  or  insensibUity  enough  to  survive 
the  ruin  of  his  country.  He,  and  his  sister 
Berenice,  went  to  Bome.  With  the  latter 
Titna  became  enamoured,  hut  sacrificed  hia 
afi^ction  to  the  popular  feeling,  which  was 
adverse  to  his  union  with  that  beautiftd 
but  abandoned  Jewess.  Vespasian,  having 
reigned  for  a  penod  of  nine  years  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  at  length  died  a  natural 
death  in  his  seventieth  year.  The  general 
excellence  of  his  character,  and  the  justiee 
and  mildness  of  his  administration,  procured 
for  him  what  for  a  Boman  emperor  was  the 
extraordinary  good  fortune  that  we  have  just 
recorded. 

TUu$  did  not  ascend  the  throne  tiU  some 
years  after  Jerusalem  lay  in  ruins.  We  have 
therefore  to  qwak  of  him  merely  as  the  con- 
queror of  Judea.  That  he  was,  for  his  day, 
a  wise  and  meroiftil  prince,  is  not  denied. 
It  is  not  less  true,  Hiat  he  sullied  his  victo- 
ries in  Syria  by  deeds  whieh  would  now  at 
least  meet  with  severe  ooudemnation.  The 
capture  of  the  Jewish  metropolis  was  likely 
to  be  followed  by  an  indiscriminate  massacre. 
Titus  so  far  interposed  his  authority  as  to 
forbid  any  to  be  slain,  but  such  as  were  found 
with  arms  in  their  hands.  Yet  were  his  sol- 
diers allowed  to  butcher,  not  only  these,  but 
the  aged  and  the  infirm.  Those  who  weie. 
in  the  vigour  of  life,  the  young,  the  tall,  the 
beautiftil,  were  reserved  to  grace  the  victor's 
triumph.  Others,  being  under  seyenteen 
years  of  age,  were  sent  to  labour  as  slaves 
in  the  Egyptian  mines.  A  great  number 
were  slso  sent  into  various  parts  of  the  em- 
pire, to  serve  for  the  amusement  of  the  citi- 
zens in  the  amphitheatres,  and  to  lose  their 
lives  in  gladiatorial  combate,  or  in  fighting 
with  wild  beasts.  A  general  inspection  and 
survey  of  the  captives  took  place  at  the  com- 
mand of  Titus,  which  occupied  so  long,  and 
was  BO  ill  conducted,  that  during  it  eleven 
thousand  persons  perished  for  want  of  food. 
From  Jerusalem  Titus  proceeded  with  hia 
plunder,  and  hordes  of  captive  Israelites,  to 
Cssarea  Pslestins.  Thence,  after  a  time, 
he  repaired  to  Cssarea  Philippi,  where,  says 
Josephus,  *  a  great  number  of  the  datives 
were  destroyed ;  some  being  thrown  to  wild 
beasto,  and  others  in  multitudes  fosced  to 
kill  one  another,  as  if  mutual  enemies.'  — 
*  While  Titus  was  at  Cesarea,  he  solemnized 
the  birthday  of  his  brother  Domitian  after 
a  splendid  manner,  and  inflicted  a  great 
deal  of  the  punishment  intended  for  the  Jews 
in  honour  of  him ;  for  the  number  of  those 


who  were  now  slain  in  flghling  with  tha 
bcaaU,  uid  were  bunt,  and  fought  with  one 
another,  aieeeded  2,500.  Yet  did  all  this 
4Eem  to  the  Bomaua,  when  they  (the  Jewa) 
wen  dutroj^  ten  thoiuand  eeTeral  waja, 
to  be  a  poniahmenl  beneath  their  deicri*. 
After  Hub,  Cesar  (Titos)  came  to  Bcrjlna, 
and  exhibited  a  atUl  more  pompons  solem- 
ailf  on  his  father's  birlhdajr ;  and  a  great 
nnmber  of  the  eaptiies  were  here  alio  de- 
■Irojed  in  the  same  manner  as  before ' 
Passing  from  Berytna  to  other  chief  eities 
of  Syria,  he  exhibited  magnifloeul  shows 
wheterar  he  eame,  and  made  OM  of  the  c^- 


ktion,  and  of  his 


imating  the  chancier  of  Titos,  these 
lamealable  facta  mnet  be  borne  in  mind  ;  a 
fair  judgment  of  them  reqnjns  ns,  indeed, 
to  place  onraelvefl  in  the  position  of  contem- 
poraries with  the  victor.  Bnt  it  is  not  sn 
abstract  opinion  that  we  ask  the  lettder  to 
form.  These  details,  and  the  tacts  generally 
which  we  have  set  forth  in  this  article,  are 
designed,  aa  to  furnish  Information,  so  to 
give  materials,  by  which  the  reader  m^  fonn 
an  idea  of  Bomsn  ciiilisation,  and  specialty 
eompaie  together  (he  monarohs  of  Jadea 


f3  C*S 

with  those  of  Rome.  For  want  of  soeh  • 
eompariaon,  injiutice  has  been  done  to  the 
former.  Dacid  committed  actsof  cruelty  that 
are  indefensible.  Whereinhe  did  wrong, 
let  him  be  blamed.  His  mtadeed*  were  the 
worse,  because  he  eiijoyed  ipecial  idTantagM 
Ibr  knowing  and  doing  Ood'i  will.  Tet  fair- 
ness requires  that  we  sboold  judge  him,  not 
by  an  sbsirocl  standard,  but  by  the  sTerage 

times ;  and,  in  eomparison  with  the  Boman 
emperors  (some  three  or  tool  being  ex- 
cepted), tiie  instances  we  hate  given  from 
the  youth  of  the  empire  abow,  that  the  He- 
brew soTeraigns  stand  in  no  dissdianlageoas 
light 

The  last  disgraee  which  the  Jews,  «•  • 
nation,  had  to  Midnie  at  the  hands  of  their 
selfish  conc[nBion,  was  to  be  made  a  spec- 
laole  to  the  world  in  the  gorgeons  displays 
of  a  Bomsn  triumph.  The  Boman  senate, 
ready  to  IiTiah  its  fovoora  when  it  expected 
a  suitable  reliini,  decreed  the  hononis  of  a 
triumph  to  each  of  the  two  subjugators  of 
Judea.  But  Yespasiin  and  Titns  reaolTcd 
to  celebrate  their  martial  deeds  in  one  grand 
solemniCy.  The  soldiery  having  manhed 
out  of  the  city  to  receive  the  emperor  snd 
Cnsar,  the  latter,  as  soon  as  day  broke, 
made  their  sppearanee,  clad  in  ihoae  pnrpla 
vestments  which  woe  theit  family  iMd^. 


Prooeeding  a  short  way  in  ths  direction  of 
tha  city,  tbey  were  received  by  the  senate, 
and  other  chief  persoas.  Then  the  prinsea, 
elad  in  silk  snd  crowned  with  laurel,  ascended, 
amid  bursts  of  acclamations  from  the  troops, 
a  splendid  platform,  and  look  their  seats  in 
ivory  chairs  provided  for  the  purpose.  Ves- 
pasian arose,  and  made  signal  for  silence. 
There  was  a  universal  trash ;  when,  covering 
his  head  with  tiis  cloak,  lie  put  up  prayen 
and  Aanksgivings  to  die  gods,  who  had 
orownad  the  enterprise  with  complete  suc- 
eesa.  Tilus  did  tits  same.  The  emperor, 
illM  fliis,  made  a  short  spee^  to  the  people, 


and  then  dismissed  the  congregated  myriad* 
to  a  sumptuous  repast  This  being  over, 
the  triumphal  procession  began,  after  the 
two  heroes  had  put  on  their  robes  of  tri- 
umph, snd  ofTered  ■olemn  sacrifices  to  (ha 
gods,  imsges  of  whom  wera  pi  seed  at  the  gal« 
thmngh  which  they  had  to  pass,  in  order  to 
receire  the  intended  honoDr.  The  pompons 
train  entered  the  city,  and,  parading  its  most 
distinguished  parts,  ascended  to  the  Capi- 
tol, the  national  sanctuary  and  palladiom. 
For  the  rest  we  transcribe  the  words  of  the 

desoribe  111*  mollltade 


CMS                     224  CMS 

of  die  ihowB  M  tbey  deserre,  and  the  mag-  and  magnitude  orertbrown,  and  rained  by 
nifieence  of  them  idl ;  such,  indeed,  as  a  machines ;  with  the  strongest  fortifications 
man  conld  not  easily  think  of,  as  performed  taken,  and  the  walls  of  most  popolous  cities 
either  by  the  laboor  of  workmen,  or  the  ra-  npon  the  tops  of  hills  seized  on,  and  an 
riety  of  riches,  or  the  rarities  of  natore ;  for  anny  pouring  itself  within  the  walls ;  as  also 
almost  all  such  cariosities  as  the  most  h^ipy  erery  place  ftill  of  slaughter,  and  snppli- 
men  ever  get  by  piecemeal  were  here  heaped  cations  of  the  enemies,  when  they  were  no 
one  npon  another,  and  those  both  admirable  longer  able  to  lift  np  their  hands  in  way  of 
and  costly  in  their  nature :  and  all  brought  opposition.    Fire  also  sent  npon  temples 
together,  on  that  day,  demonstarated  the  Tast-  was  here  represented,  and  houses  overthrown, 
ness  of  the  dominions  of  the  Romans ;  for  and  fUling  upon  their  owners ;  riyers  also, 
there  was  here  to  be  seen  a  mighty  quantity  after  they  came  out  of  a  large  and  melan- 
of  silver,  and  gold,  and  ivory,  contrived  into  choly  desert,  ran  down,  not  into  a  land  cal- 
all  sorts  of  thhigs ;  and  it  did  not  appear  as  tivated,  nor  as  drink  for  men  or  for  cattle, 
carried  along  in  pompous  show  only,  but,  as  but  through  a  land  still  on  fire  upon  every 
a  man  may  say,  running  along  like  a  river,  aide ;  for  the  Jews  related  that  such  a  thing 
Some  parts  were  composed  of  the  rarest  they  had  undergone  during  this  war.    Now, 
purple  hsngings,  and  so  carried  along ;  and  the  workmanship  of  these  representations 
others  accuratdy  represented  to  the  life  what  was  so  magnificent  and  lively  in  the  con- 
was  embroidered  by  the  arts  of  the  Babylo-  stmction  of  the  things,   that  it  exhibited 
nians.     There  were  also  precious  stones,  what  had  been  done  to  such  as  did  not  see 
that  were  transparent,  —  some  set  in  crowns  it,  as  if  they  had  been  there  really  present 
of  gold,  and  some  in  other  ouches,  as  the  On  the  top  of  every  one  of  these  pageants  was 
workmen  pleased ;  and,  of  these,  such  a  vast  placed  the  commander  of  the  city  that  was 
number  were  brought,  that  we  could  not  but  taken,  and  the  manner  wherein  he  was  taken, 
thence  learn  how  vainly  we  imagined  any  of  Moreover,   there   followed   those    pageants 
them  to  be  rarities.   The  images  of  the  gods  a  great  number  of  ships ;  and  for  Uie  other 
were  also  carried,  being  as  well  wonderful  spoils,  they  were  carried  in  great  plenty, 
for  their  largeness,  as  made  very  artificially,  But  for  those  that  were  taken  in  the  temple 
and  with  great  skill  of  the  workmen.    Nor  of  Jerusalem,  they  made  the  greatest  figure 
were  any  of  these  images  of  any  other  than  of  them  all ;  that  is,  the  golden  table,  of 
very  costly  materials ;  and  many  species  of  the  weight  of  many  talents ;  the  candlestick, 
animals  were  brought,  every  one  in  their  also,  that  was  made  of  gold,  though  its  con- 
own  natural  ornaments.    The  men  also  who  struction  was  now  changed  from  tiiat  which 
brought  everyone  of  these  shows  were  great  we  made  use  of:  for  its  middle  shaft  was 
multitudes,  and  adorned  with  purple  gar-  fixed  upon  a  basis,  and  the  small  branches 
ments,  all  over  interwoven  with  gold;  those  were  produced  out  of  it  to  a  great  length, 
thi^  were  chosen  for  carrying  these  pompous  having  the  likeness  of  a  trident  in  their 
shows  having  also  about  them  such  magni-  position,  and  had  every  one  a  socket  made 
ficent  ornaments  as  were  both  extraordinary  of  brass  for  a  lamp  at  the  tops  of  them, 
and  surprising.     Besides  these,  one  might  These  lamps  were  in  number  seven,  and  re- 
see  that  even  Uie  great  number  of  the  cap-  presented  die  dignity  of  the  number  seven 
tives  was  not  unadorned ;  while  the  variety  among  the  Jews ;  and  the  last  of  aU  the 
that  was  in  their  garments,  and  their  fine  spoils,  was  earned  the  law  of  the  Jews.  After 
texture,  concealed  from  the  sight  the  defor-  these  spoils,  passed  by  a  great  many  men, 
mity  of  their  bodies.    But  what  afforded  die  carrying  the  images  of  victory,  whose  struc- 
greaiest  surprise  of  all  was  the  structure  of  ture  was  entirely  either  of  ivory  or  of  gold, 
the  pageants  that  were  borne  along ;    for  After  which  Vespasian  msrched  in  the  first 
indeed  he  that  met  them  could  not  but  be  place,  and  Tims  foUowedhim:  Domitian  also 
afraid,  that  the  bearers  would  not  be  able  rode  along  with  them,  and  made  a  glorious 
firmly  enough  to  support  them,  such  was  appearance,  and  rode  on  a  horse  tibat  was 
their  magnitude ;  for  many  of  them  were  so  worthy  of  admiration.    Now,  the  last  part 
made,  that  they  were  on  ^ree  or  even  four  of  this  pompous  show  was  at  the  temple  of 
atories,  one  above  another.    The  magnifi-  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  whither  when  they  were 
cence  slso  of  their  structure  afforded  one  come,  they  stood  still;  for  it  was  the  Romans' 
both  pleasure  and  surprise ;  for  upon  many  ancient  custom  to  stay  till  somebody  brought 
of  them  were  laid  carpets  of  gold.    There  the  news,  that  the  general  of  the  enemy 
were  also  wrought  gold  and  ivory  fastened  was  slain.    This  general  was  Simon,  the  son 
about  them  all ;  and  many  resemblances  of  of  Gioras,  who  had  then  been  led  in  this 
the  war,  and  those   in   several  ways,  and  triumph  among  the  captives:  a  rope  had 
variety  of  contrivances,   afibrdlng   a  lively  also  been  put  upon  his  head,  and  he  had 
portraiture  of  itself.    For  there  was  to  be  been  drawn  into  a  proper  place  in  the  forum, 
seen  a  happy  country  laid  waste,  and  entire  and  had  withal  been  tormented  by  those  that 
squadrons   of  enemies   slain ;    while  some  drew  him  slong ;  and  the  law  of  die  Romans 
of  them  ran  away,  and  some  were  carried  required,  that  malefactors  condemned  to  die 
into  captivity ;  with  walls  of  great  altitude  should  be  slain  there.    Accordingly,  whan 


C  «  S  2 

it  wu  related  that  there  wu  an  enil  of  him, 
uiJ  all  tlie  people  had  set  np  ■  ahont  tot 
jof,  tbej  ilea  b^an  to  oSn  thou  ucrifiaei 
which  thej  had  coneecrated,  in  lbs  pnj«n 
naed  in  aneh  ■oletnnitie* ;  whidi,  when  ibej 
had  Snlahed,  thaj-  vent  awa;  Co  the  palace. 
And  aa  for  aome  of  die  Bpectators,  the  em- 
peiors  entertained  them  at  theii  own  feael ; 
and  far  all  the  rest,  lhn«  were  noble  prepa- 
ration* made  fbr  their  feasting  at  home ;  for 
this  was  a  feaUral  dij  (o  the  citf  of  Some, 
•■  eelebntad  (or  the  vielorj  obtained  b;  their 


^5  C£S 

was  DOW  pal  lo  their  dItjI  mlaeriea,  and 
fbr  the  eommeneement  of  their  hope*  of 
fntnre  proeperi^  and  happineaa'  (Jewieh 
War,  Tii.  0.  e  and  6). 

The  achlerementaof  Titnawera  eammema- 
rated  by  appropriate  medals,  with  the  Buper- 
seription  at  Jodtea  Capla,  eaptured  Judea. 
Ooe  eihibita  a  female  siding  tmder  a  palm- 
tree;  an  emblem  of  the  Holj  Land,  now 
sitting  and  weeping  in  the  das^  while  a  Bo- 
man  soldier  atanda  near  as  if  to  deride  her 
oaptnilj.  Onr  cats  present  two  Tarlationa 
of  this  general  autijeet. 


Vespasian  and  Titus  did  not,  aa  vaa 
luaal,  aasome  the  tide  of  the  oonqnered 
•onntry,  —  in  this  case,  Jndaioaa,  —  becanse 
the  name  was  odiona ;  bnt  thaj  had  trium- 
phal anhes  decreed  la  thetn.  The  inscrip- 
tion, which  is  still  BDnsploQoas  on  the  areb 
of  Titus,  speaks  for  itulf :  — 


He  Snalt  and  the  Roman  people  lo  Ihe 
'Divine  ZUtu  Fetpatian  jfu^udiu, 
son  qf  l\e  IHinne  Fetpatioii. 
The  anh  was  deoreed  and  eommenoed,  bnt 
not  eompleted  tm  after  the  death  of  Titos, 
whidk  wai  prematore.  Thta  sieh,  wbioh 
waa  restored  bj  Pope  Fins  TII.  still  remains, 
thongh  in  a  mutilated  state.  Bomfl  of  the 
aaered  objecta  can  yet  he  traced. 

Two  of  the  seren  lamps  are  pmaerred,  and 
the  rest  may  more  or  less  faintly  be  traced. 
Before  the  sandlestiok  is  homo  the  table 
whieb  Josephn*  mention*,  but  of  which  he 


giTss  no  deseiiptian  in  his  acaonnt  of  the 
triompbithougti  he  does  in  inotbei  part  of  hia 
writingatAntiq.iii.e.7).  Two  ntenails  on  the 
table  ais  called  by  Beland,  accrra, '  oenaars.' 
In  front  of  the  table  are  also  seen  two  tnun- 
peta  eroaied,  which  answer  (he  description  of 
Josephns  (^tiq.  iii.  12.6  ) ;  and,  as  he  informs 
us  the  originals  were  made  of  silTer,  some 
haTe  identified  them  with  the  form  of  fbose 
used  l)y  Hoses,  for  '  the  calling  of  the  as- 
sembly, and  the  joumaying  of  tho  camps' 
(Nnmh.  x.  3 — 11).  On  the  coireBponding 
bas-relief,  appears  the  emperor  in  histrimn- 
phal  oar,  drawn  by  four  horses,  aod  pie- 
ceded  by  Bomans  wearing  laoiel  wreaths, 
and  oanying  the  fasces ;  the  first  of  them 
holds  a  pslm  branch  in  his  hand  ;  behind 
the  car  is  a  Vicloiy,  in  the  act  of  placing  het 
crown  on  the  head  of  the  sonqneror.  The 
Tanlt  is  ornamented  with  sqnare  eoObra  and 
roaes,  and  the  ^ra&aoais  (or  deification) 
of  Titus  In  a  square  relief.  The  two  Tie- 
torlea  under  the  keyslooe  are  disfigured  by 
time ;  but  in  the  hands  of  one  of  Ihem  is 


c^s 


226 


CMS 


Inft  ■  vrealb  r-nd  ■  palm  bnneh.  On  Ihs  ng«  erf  offering  >diil>Uoii  to  lh«  Bonun 
fiicM  are  unae  pnnj^  fignm  o(  WMrion  cmpenm  —  pointi  la  lliftt  paiod  of  natioiial 
leading  oicd  lot  laciifiiw ;  and  tha  Apat  <rf  daoloiuum  amonf  tfa*  Jem,  when,  in  their 
■n  old  man,  oon-vSTed  In  a  tab  or  ilih,  amj  eaganieH  to  adopt  hBathsn  onMoma  and 
be  ui  allegorisal  rapmentation  at  tha  river  manoen,  aod  to  bend  wrTilel;  befon  tha 
Jordan.  On  the  oiuuol  or  omamant  ol  tha  martial  tnlen  of  tha  voild,  tliaj  aemltd 
kajalooe  u  leR  the  fignn  of  a  B""'"  wtr-  volnntaril;  to  abandon  their  hitherto  high 
rior  alnKwt  perfeel.  apiiitnal  eondition,  and  to  ran  into  the  aU- 

my  to  the  onnrani  ud  die  lennuHu,  vhkh 
wH  abaadj  ^aparad  fin  dum. 

Owaawa  mnat  fliM  ba  eonaidcrcd  aa  tha 
nam*  of  lAat  was  In  the  timaa  of  the  New 
Taatamant  di*  aaaport  U  Jeraidam,  com- 
monlj  Bailed  Cmaw  Palratina ;  properir, 
aoooiding  to  JoMphat,  Cnran*  Sebaete. 
Thia  wae  »  new  dealgnaUon,  aabatitated  in 
honour  of  Aognatoa  tor  Straton'i  Tower, 
iriilah  tha  plaoe  fcomerij  bore.  It  la;  on 
die  ahors  of  ttke  Mediterranean,  about  mid- 
way between  Jc^a  on  the  aoatb,  and  the 
promontory  of  Cannel  on  tha  north.  It 
waa,  ai  the  seat  of  the  Boman  procurMor, 
and  H,  in  his  latter  Tears,  the  dwelling-place 
of  Herod,  the  oivil  metropolia  of  Palestine. 
This  eminenee  it  owed  partly  to  its  poeilian, 
partly  to  the  preference  manifeiled  by  Herod 
oalled  die  Qreat,  who  ipand  no  pains  to 
improre  and  sdam  the  place.  The  neaboard 
of  FalestiDe  ii  by  nature  ill  fumiBbed  with 
harbours,  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  much 
exposed.  let  a  harbour  on  the  coast  was  of 
great  oonsequenoa  to  both  the  Bomans  and 
their  sabjeils  the  Jews,  in  the  new  rslationa 
imdar  which  ths  two  had  soma.  Buch  a 
oonvenience,  Herod,  vha  was  fond  of  bnild- 


An  edifice  with  tht  HI 


I  Temple  of  Feaoe 


f  Jodea.  It  was  magnifleeiu 
beyond  deaeription,  and  wu  (mrictaed  iriA 
a  profnalon  oT  piottuea  and  atatnea,  raah  at 
called  fimh  the  admirMton  of  Pltny  and 
other  anthora  (Nat.  Hiat.  mr.  10;  xxzri 
1).  Within  it  were  depoailBd  tha  golden 
olijeets  taken  from  the  temple  of  Jeraaalem  | 
whilst  the  law  and  the  purple  Teil  of  tha 
suetuary  ware  prsserred  in  the  imperial 
palace.  In  the  aaok  of  Bome,  400,  Oiese 
■sored  objects  fsU  into  the  hinds  of  the 
Vudai  king,  Oenseric,  «Ao  carried  them  to 
Canbage.  Beliasriui  reooiered  them  in  hit 
conquest  of  Africa,  and  look  Ouoi  to  Con- 
stantinople ;  sad  l^ 


the  Christian  ohoreta.  It  ii  aatpeelsd  thsy 
aflerwarda  passed  into  Puaiai,  tlaosgh  the 
hands  of  Cboaroes,  who  took  the  Holy  Ci^ 
In  614  i  and  many  are  nnwiUing  to  bdiaTe 
fliU  they  hare  yet  ceased  to  eiisL 

CjESAREA  (L.)  — u  ■!>«  name  of  two 
places  in  Fslesline,  given  to  them  with  the 


to  supply  in  a  ipiiil  and  manner  that  became 
a  prince ;  carrying,  at  an  incredible  coat  of 
money  and  l^xmr,  a  mole  out  into  the  ses, 
■o  as  to  form  in  the  shape  of  a  cnrre  an 
equally  safe  and  oommodioni  haven.  He 
also  laid  out  and  formed  a  eomplete  system 
ofsewersge.  He  built,  too,  a  theatre  of  stone, 
aud  an  amphitheatre  oi^aUe  of  holding  a 

pro^eM  of  the  aea.  These  works  totployed 
hms  tw  ten  or  twelN  yearai  at  the  end  of 
which,  in  the  twenty-eighth  ot  his  reign,  he 
dedicated  the  amphilbealn,  in  amoit  aomp- 
tuous  style,  with  gamee  and  contsits  after 
the  Oreeisn  manner.  As  it  may  aerre  to 
■how  the  extent  to  which  the  Jews  were  now 
paganised,  we  ehsll  transcribe  s  part  of  Jo- 
sephua's  dsacription :  — '  He  had  appointed 
a  oontentian  In  music,  and  gsmaa  to  be  per- 
formed naked.  He  hsd  also  gotten  ready  s 
greU  nnrabei  of  Ihoee  that  fight  sin^  com- 
bats, and  ef  beaats  for  the  like  purpose , 
horse  raoea  also,  and  the  saost  chargeable  of 
such  nporta  sod  shows  as  used  to  be  exhi- 
bited at  Home,  and  in  other  plaeea.  He 
eonsterated  Ihi*  combat  to  Cbbit,  and 
ordered  it  to  be  celebrated  every  fifth  year. 
He  also  sent  all  aorta  ot  onuments  for  it 
oat  of  his  own  fotniture,  that  it  might  want 
nothing  tomake  it  decent;  nay,  Julia,  Cwsar'* 


c^s  2: 

wUk)  wui  >  gnat  part  of  bar  moit  valumble 
faniitOM  (bom  fiome).  tusomuch  (bit  he 
had  no  want  of  anf  (hing.  The  sum  of 
diam  all  wti  Mlinialed  al  St<  hondnd 
UlenU.  Now,  when  a  greal  moltitade  wac 
come  10  that  city  to  me  the  ahowi,  ai  well 
aa  tb»  ambasiadon  whom  olhsr  people 
aent  on  aeconnt  of  the  beoefils  ihej  bad 
tecciTed  (fixim  Beiod),  he  enleitained  them 
all  in  Ihe  pablic  inni.  and  at  pnblic  Ublai, 
and  wilb  perpetual  teaataj  Jui  aoleinm^ 
haTing  in  die  daj-dme  the  diTeiiion*  of  Iha 
flghta,  and  in  the  ni^t-time  inch  man; 
roeetingi  u  coat  vait  aama  of  monej,  and 
publicly  demonitialsd  the  generoaitj  of  hia 
aoDl  1  for  in  all  bis  naderlakiaga  he  was  ambi- 
tioaa  to  exhibit  what  exceeded  whatsoeTer  had 
been  done  before  of  the  same  kind.  And  it  ia 
related,  that  Ctaaai  and  A^ippa  often  aaid, 
t^ '  Ihe  dommioni  of  Herod  wen  too  little 
tot  the  gteameaa  of  hii  loul  for  that  he 
deaerred  to  have  all  the  kingdom  of  Bjna, 
and  that  of  Egjpt  also'  (Antiq  xiL  6   1) 

Veapaaian,  punuing  the  policy  of  hia 
ptadaceatora,  and  deairoae  of  ihowmg  fa 
TOUT  to  a  city  on  whoae  disposition  towarda 
Bome  the  obedience  of  Faleatme  itaelf  in  a 
meaaon  depended,  raiaad  Csearea  to  the 
dignity  of  a  Boman  colony,  and  relieved  il 
&nt  bom  the  oapitatioii,  uid  then  &om  the 

The  cilj  area  inhabiltd  moUly  by  hea 
■hana,  Ihou^  it  had  alao  a  large  Jewish 
population.  National  jealooa  ei  led  to  dia- 
pulea,  eoDtantioas,  atrite,  and  even  maSBacre 
Awntaatbrmniucipalpower  arose  between 
(he  two  naciona,  which,  being  referred  for 
ai^odiealian  to  Rome,  was  decided  so  aa  to 
give  disaatisfaeliou  to  file  Jewa  and  prepared 
the  way  tor  the  icirible  puniabment  that  the 
Bomsna  inflictad  on  the  oonntiy  Al  the 
oosunencemenl  of  the  war,  the  heathen*  of 
C>aais*,  availing  Ihemaeliea  of  the  oppor 
tonity  which  it  afforded,  roae  and  atew  at 
once  the  Jewiah  residents  who  wet*  in 
nnmbar  no  lea*  than  twenty  thonsand. 

We  have  no  evidence  that  Caaaiea  Wa* 
over  viaitad  by  our  Lord ;  but  >t  flunlahed, 
al  an  early  period,  eonverta  to  hia  doelnnc. 
Here  dwelt  the  centurion  ComaliD*  who 
was  employed  in  enlaiging  Ihe  mmd  of 
Pcm  (Acta  X.)  ;  also  Philip  Ihe  evangeliat 
(ixL  8).  Faol  passed  through  Ihe  place 
Hvaral  timea  (Aets  Ix.  30 ;  zviiL  SS  :  xiL 
7,  B;  xxiii.  88).  Here  also  Herod  Agrippa, 
irtio  pot  to  deUh  Jsmea,  the  Lord's  brodier, 
oiaa  to  a  wretched  end,  having  repaired 
to  Ihe  fdaea  in  order  lo  oelelirale  gamea  in 
honour  of  Clandius  Cnaar. 

Caaarea  became  a  biahop's  see,  and  was 
Ihe  metropolitan  oburch  of  Paleatina  Prims, 
after  the  mother  chuich  of  Jemsslem  had 
perished  in  the  war  of  Ihe  Bomana.  This 
aea  ia  distinguiahed  by  having  had  tor 
one  ot  its  bishop*  the  famous  eecleeiaatical 
hklotiaB  Enaebina  (A.D.  81S— 338).    Uu- 


7  C  jES 

der  Ihe  modern  name  of  Kaiaarieb,  bila  com 
flonriahing  town  presents  only  a  mingled 
and  eonfosad  hetf  of  ruina,  of  whjoh  fiait- 
leltthusspeaka:  — 

*  The  day  waa  breaking,  and  Ihe  moon 
&Mllng  in  the  western  sky,  over  the  distant 
mountain*  of  Samaria,  when  we  ran  ahreasl 
of  the  ahapelais  rains  of  the  onoe-fauioas 
city  and  seaport  ot  Uerod,  the  gorgeons 
Cnsarea.  The  sailors  towered  a  boat,  and 
we  rowed  ashore.  A  long  pier  of  solid 
workmanship  pngaets  into  (he  sea,  appa- 
rently of  Binnan  eonstruotion ;   and  on  thia, 


nthen 


iS  of  a 


tore  of  (he  middle  ages,  apparently  a  chorch : 
a  great  number  of  scaMered  broken  colunma 
lie  among  Ihe  seaweed.  Gaining  an  ele- 
vated moimd,  we  east  onr  eyes  sronnd  lo 
see  if  there  were  further  veatigea,  but  ooold 
diaoovar  nttlhing,  eioepl  a  few  fragment* 
among  the  <rild  herbage  which  apteada  over 
the  desolala  piam  (  Walka  ahont  Jertiaa 
lem,  p  7   IntrodueBon,  1614} 


C£BA&EA  PHILIPPI  tba*  1*  Ctasarea  of 
Pblkp,  Ihe  tetoarA  of  Tr«bciBitis,bywhom 
the  plaoa  was  enlarged  and  embeUiahed,  aa 
well  as  deaignaled  Oaaaiea,  hi  honour  of 
(he  Emperor  Tibeiitia,  hatidg  ptevionaly 
bome  Ihe  naoH  of  Panaa*  or  Piaia*.  At  a 
later  period  it  was  called  NetoniaB,  in  honou 
of  Nora,  by  Haiod  Agrjppo.  IM  mtow  P»- 
nia*  waa  derived  fcom  a  gtouo  aallad  ftai— , 
Bsbeingdedlea«edliilhe  bealhni  dhini^FaD. 
The  plaoa  lie*  M  dw  aomham  aUiemi^  of 
Ifoul  HeiBtoo,  itrar  one  of  lb*  >DBres* 
of  (tia  rivet  Joadaa.  Haiod  here  bnilt  a 
temple  in  hotMOl  of  Aognatoa.  Here  alaa, 
Tim*,  after  (be  aapbue  of  Jooaalein,  edti- 
biMd  publk  gam**,  in  wbinh,  uUa  (Uapaat, 


C  A  I                        228  C  A  I 

many  of  his  Jewish  captives  lost  their  liyes  ezaminatioii ;  hoping,  by  questions  respect- 
in  the  contests  in  which  they  were  compelled  ing  his  doctrine,  which  he  wished  to  prove 
to  engage  with  wild  beasts.  From  the  way  hostile  to  that  of  Moses,  and  respecting  his 
in  which  it  is  spoken  of  in  Mark  (viii.  27),  disciples,  whom  he  was  desiroas  of  declaring 
it  appears  to  have  been,  in  the  days  of  the  rebels,  to  gain  some  information  that  might 
Saviour,  a  sort  of  capital.  Its  towns  (Matt,  serve  his  purpose  at  the  formal  meeting  of 
zvi.  13),  however,  our  Lord  and  his  imme-  the  Sanhedrim  already  convoked.  Failing 
diate  followers  visited,  preaching  the  gospel  in  his  unworthy  design,  he  lost  his  temper ; 
of  the  kingdom,  though,  as  would  appear  and  probably  in  the  hope  of  putting  the  holy 
(Mark  viii.  30),  with  some  caution  and  sufferer  off  his  guard,  he  allowed  Jesus  to 
reserve;  probably  owing  to  danger  arising  be  smitten  by  one  of  his  servants  (John 
Arom  a  predominant  heathen  population,  xviii.  19,  M9.).  At  the  break  of  day  (John 
Under  the  Arabic  pronunciation  of  its  xviii.  28.  Luke  xxii.  66),  Caiaphas  opened 
ancient  name,  Banias,  this  place  is  still  the.  sitting  of  the  Sanhedrim,  and  gave  to  its! 
known ;  but  it  has  fallen  from  its  greatness,  proceedings  the  formality  of  a  legal  investi-j 
being  only  a  small  unsightly  village,  which  gation.  False  witnesses,  however,  availed 
appears  the  more  mean,  from  the  contrast  nothing.  Caiaphas  then,  in  virtue  of  his 
afforded  by  the  rich  and  beautiftil  scenery  office,  commanded  Jesus  to  say  whether  or 
in  the  midst  of  which  it  stands.  not  he  claimed  to  be  the  Christ   Receiving  an 

CAIAPHAS    (H.   a  receiver),  —  a  high  answer  in  the  affirmative,  Caiaphas  affected 

priest  of  the  Jews  during  the  ministry  of  to  be  shocked  at  the  blasphemy.    He  rent  his' 

Jesus,  and  the  early  part  of  the  ministry  clothes  in  token  of  his  holy  indignation.   In 

of  the  apostles.   He  received  the  dignity  firom  this  state  of  excitement,  he  took  the  votes  of 

Valerius  Gratus,  governor  of  Judea,  prede*  theassembly,  which  pronounced  Jesus  guilty 

cessor  of  Pilate,  and  was  deprived  of  it  by  of  death.   Nothingremained  but  to  induce  the 

Vitellias,  governor  of  Syria  (A.D.  36).    His  Roman  authorities  to  execute  the  sentence, 

name  in  full  was  Joseph  Caiaphas ;  whence  This  did  not  prove  so  easy  as  might  have 

probably  it  was,  that  some  in  the  ancient  been  desired ;  but  with  bitter  perseverance, 

church  confounded  him  with  the  Jewish  his-  the  high  priest,  who,  though  not  named, 

torian  Josephus.    They  also  made  him  to  doubtless  took  the  lead  in  the  negoeiations 

have  been  converted  to  Christianity.    Of  his  with  Pilate,  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  that 

private  life  we  know  scarcely  more  than  that  too  yielding  officer  the  requisite  condemna- 

he  was  of  the  sect  of  the  Saddnoees  (Acts  tion.    Jesus  was  cruciiled.    The  hardness 

V.  17) ;  and  married  the  daughter  of  a  pre-  of  heart  and  brutal  bigotry  which  had  re- 

vious  high  priest,  Annas.    His  public  con-  sisted  the  pleas  made  spontaneously  by  the 

duct  bears  the  ineffaceable  shame  of  virulent  living  Jesus,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  msl- 

hostility  to  the  Saviour  of  the  world.    He  treat,  persecute,  and  murder  that  innocent 

was  the  chief  author  and  instrument  of  the  being,  may  well  have  stood  out  against  the 

plots  devised,  and  the  measures  taken,  against  evidence  in  his  frivour  afforded  by  the  re- 

our  Lord.  surrection.                                                        * 

The  raising  of  Lazarus  from  the  dead  The  opening  scenes,  therefore,  of  the  inftnt 
aroused  the  Jews  to  a  feeling  of  the  neoes-  church  present  Caiaphas  in  the  same  hate- 
sity  there  was,  if  they  would  not  quietly  ful  character  of  an  unrelenting  and  nnsem- 
suffer  an  overthrow,  of  taking  prompt  and  pulous  persecutor.  Finding  that  his  efforts 
decisive  measures  against  the  new  religious  against  the  originator  of  the  new  religion 
reformer,  who  threatened  the  state  with  de-  had  proved  unavailing,  he  cited  before  him 
struction.  The  Sanhedrim  was  forthwith  Peter  and  John,  as  soon  as  they  had  begun 
convened ;  and,  on  the  advice  of  Caiaphas,  to  make  an  impression  on  the  people ;  and 
the  resolution  was  formed,  that  Jesus  should  when  his  injunction  of  silence  had  been  dis- 
in  some  way  be  put  to  death  (John  xi.  47,  regarded  by  these  high-minded  men,  he 
ieq.).  The  immediate  danger  was  avoided  threw  them  into  prison.  Being  miraculously 
by  flight  The  time,  however,  soon  came  set  at  large,  and  proceeding  to  cany  for- 
when  Jesus  felt  it  to  be  his  duty  to  declare  ward  their  work,  they  were  again  appro- 
the  truth  in  Jerusalem,  under  the  very  eye  hended,  and  would  probably  have  been  put 
of  his  persecutors.  His  appearance  was  to  death,  had  not  tiie  Pharasaic  portion  of 
the  signal  for  convening  another  meeting  of  the  council,  by  the  guidance  of  Gamaliel, 
the  Sanhedrim,  who,  with  Caiaphas  as  their  gained,  probably  from  mere  party  eonsidera- 
president,  determined  that  secret  measures  tions,  the  upper  hand  against  their  oppo- 
should  be  taken  for  his  apprehension  and  nents  the  Saidducees,  who,  under  Caiaphas, 
death  (Matt  xxvi.  1 — 6).  In  consequence,  had  hitherto  led  the  proceedings  of  the  San- 
Judas  was  engaged,  who  basely  betrayed  his  hedrim  against  Jesus  and  his  cause  (Acts 
Master  (Matt  xxvi.  47,  teq.).  To  the  palace  iv.  6,  teq. ;  v.  21,  teq.).  The  apostles  were, 
of  Caiaphas  was  Jesus  conducted,  on  leaving  however,  set  at  liber^,  after  they  had  been 
that  of  Annas.  Caiaphas,  probably  while  wait-  beaten  and  commanied  not  to  speak  any 
ing  for  the  advent  of  day,  and  the  assembling  more  in  the  name  of  Jesus.  Had  they 
of  the  eoancil,  subjected  Jesus  to  a  private  obeyed  so  iniquitous  an  order,  the  stones  in 


C  A  I  229  C  A  I 

the  streets  would  haye  cried  ont  against  ihem.  doctrine  he  enforced.  This  is  not  the  last 
Therefore  '  Uiey  departed  from  the  presence  occasion  on  which  infidelity  used  the  weak, 
of  the  council,  rejoicing  that  they  were  the  narrow,  and  the  credulous,  for  had  pur- 
counted  worthy  to  suffer  shame  for  his  name,     poses  of  its  own. 

And  daily  in  the  temple,  and  in  eyery  house,  CAIN  (H.),  a  name  signifying  a  posses- 
they  ceased  not  to  teach  and  preach  Jesus  sum,  given  according  to  Qen.  iy.  1,  hy  Eye, 
Chiist' (Acts  y.  41,  42).  How  these  &cts  Gain's  mother ;  since  he,  heing  her  first-horn, 
make  one's  heart  heat!  Who,  in  reading  the  was  the  first  gift  from  the  great  Father  to 
sacred  record,  can  douht  that  sU  this  is  the  first  pair  of  human  heings.  The  facts 
true  ?  Imposture  neyer  yet  assumed  these  of  his  hrief  history  are  well  known.  We 
features  of  reality.  It  is  the  nohle  soul  of  shall  make,  in  consequence,  only  one  or  two 
true  men  that  spedks  and  acts  in  these  things,     remarks. 

Here  is  seen  the  power  to  which  earth  owes  Gain  is  represented  as  a  tiller  of  the 
its  highest  good.  With  all-suhduing  and  ground.  Analogy  is  not  in  fayour  of  so 
resistless  force  did  the  loye  of  Ghrist  work  early  an  introduction  of  agriculture  as  is 
in  the  hearts  of  the  apostles ;  rendering,  hy  here  implied.  The  earth,  teeab.  from  its  Ma- 
ths fresh  ardour  of  its  high  enthusiasm,  the  ker^s  hands,  would  of  necessity  teem  spon- 
perseyering  efforts  of  Gaiaphas  as  powerless  taneously  with  productions,  the  gathering  of 
in  their  effects,  as  they  were  in  themselyes  which  would  supply  abundant  nutriment  to 
nzgust ;  and  in  a  few  years  securing  for  the  the  family  of  Adam.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  see 
gospel  a  lasting  reception  in  aU  the  chief  why  the  ground  should  he  tilled,  if  the  mem- 
centres  of  Roman  ciyUisation.  hers   of   that  family  recorded  in  Genesis 

The  eyangelist  John  appears  to  intend  to  constituted  the  sole  population  of  the  earth, 
describe  Gaiaphas  as  a  man  from  whom  It  has  perhaps  heen  rsshly  assumed,  that  the 
justice  was  not  to  he  expected ;  when,  in  Bible  undertakes  to  giye  us  the  history  of 
zyiii.  14,  he  remarks  that  Gaiaphas,  before  the  whole  human  race.  In  later  periods, 
whom  Jesus  had  now  been  brought,  was     this,  beyond  a  question,  is  not  its  task.    Is 

'  he  who  gaye  counsel  to  the  Jews,  that  it  it  more  than  an  assumption,  which  makes 

was  expedient  that  one  man  should  die  for  this  its  purpose  in  its  earliest  narratiyes  7 

tile  people.'     The  high  priest  seems  to  hays  Probably  the  aim  of  the  Biblical  writers  was 

partaken  in  the  yery  widely  diffused  notion,  the  more  restricted  one  of  giying  the  history 

that  the  death  of  an  animal  or  a  human  be-  of  the  Israelites,  as  in  their  prosperity,  de- 

ing  would  pacify  the  Deity,  and  ayert  im-  cline,  and  downfall,   so  in  their  ancestral 

pending  ccdamity.    This  superstitious  idea  connections  and  dirine  origin.    In  conse- 

still  preyails.    Dr.  Bobinson  relates  as  fol-  quence,  they  are,  through  Moses,  Joseph, 

lows  of  a  band  of  Arabs  that  formed  his  and  Abraham,  presented  in  close   alliance 

escort  through   the  wilderness   et-Tyh: —  with  the  antediluyian  fathers  of  mankind, 

'  Our  Arabs  bought  of  their  visitors  a  kid,  whose  history  is  sketched  only  so  far  as 

which  they  killed  as  a  "  redemption  "  (Ara-  was  considered  necessary  for  the  illastration 

hie,  Feder)j  in  order,  as  they  said,  that  its  of  the  chief  theme;  namely,  the  derivatiou  ot 

death  might  redeem  their  camels  from  death,  the  Hebrews  from  the  patriarchal  race,  and, 

and  also  as  a  sacrifice  for  the  prosperity  of  through  that  race,  their  origin  from  the  crea- 

our  journey.     With  the  blood  tiiey  smeared  tiye  act  of  the  Almighty.    Having  this  less 

erosses  on  the  necks  of  their  cam^s,  and  on  comprehensive  purpose,  the  Biblical  writers 

other  parts  of  their  bodies.    Such  sacrifices  might  remain  unacquainted  with,  or  even 

are  fr^uent  among  them.'    Gaiaphas,  under  purposely   omit,  many  important  trains  ot 

an  impression  that  some  victim  was  neces-  events,  which  bore  only  on  general  history, 

sary   to    avert  from  the  nation  impending  And  unless  we  have  recourse  to  the  gratui- 

calamity,  may,  in  his  superstitious  excite-  tons  assumption,  that,  by  some  inexplicable 

ment,  have  considered  Jesus  as  provident!-  agency,  the  Hebrews  were  divinely  instructed 

ally  tiurown  into  his  hands,  and  been,  in  in   universal  history,  we  must  admit  that 

consequence,  little   scrupulous    as    to  the  their  writers  would  of  course   direct  their 

means  by  which  his  death  was  compassed,  pens  to  the  recording  of  such  events,  and 

Justice  might  plead  that  Jesus  had  done  such  only,  as  hore  more  or  less  immediately 

nothing  worthy  of  death.    But  justice  has  on  their  origin  and  fortunes  as   a  nation, 

little  power  when  in  conflict  with  supersti-  What  there  is  of  universal  in  their  annals, 

tion.    Human  nature  might  claim  pity  for  appears  to  have  been  set  down,  not  for  its 

one  whose  days  were  spent  in  a  ministry  of  universality,  but  for  the  light  it  was  held  to 

love ;    but  bigotry  was   strong  enough   to  throw  on  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Hebrew 

drown  its  gentle  voice.     *  A  little  injustice  people.     Under  the  guidance  of  this  view, 

for  so  great  a  deliverance.'     '  A  little  pain  the  reader's  expectations  will  be  modified, 

to  avoid  so  much   disaster.'    And   so  the  His  estimate,  also,  of  the  Scriptural  narra- 

hard-hearted   Gaiaphas  prevailed  with  the  tive  will  he  raised;  for  he   will  learn   its 

Buperstitioas  and  bigoted  majority   of  the  proper  character,  —  discover  its  real  aim,  — 

Sanhedrim,  at  the  very  time  tibat,  as  a  Sad-  discern  its  true  unity,  and  be  relieved  from 

duoee,  he  probably  disbelieved  the  merciless  difficulties  that  have  arisen  from  assnmp- 


CAl 


230 


CAL 


tions  which  perhaps  an  as  gronndless  as 
tiwj  are  unmeasured. 

In  confirmation  of  these  Tiews,  it  may  be 
added,  that  the  narratiye  of  Cain's  sad  his- 
tory contains  an  implioation  that  there 
existed  other  human  beings  than  those 
whose  birth  Scripture  records;  for  Cain, 
remonstrating  wiUi  his  judge,  observes,  *  I 
shall  be  a  Aigitive  and  a  Tagabond  in  the 
earth,  and  every  one  that  findeth  me  shall 
slay  me '  (iv.  14 ;  oomp.  15).  Betiring  into 
'the  land  of  Nod,  on  the  east  of  Eden/ 
Cain  there  finds  a  wife,  ot  whose  origin  we 
have  no  information.  Equally  sileiitis  Holy 
Writ  respecting  his  death. 

These  facts  combine  to  render  it  probable 
that  we  have  in  the  antedihivian  history 
such  firagmentary  notices  as  tradition  had 
preserved  of  the  early  days  and  the  primi- 
tive races  of  mankind.  Indeed,  nothing  but 
wilful  blindness  or  unwarrantable  assump- 
tion can  make  the  brief  sketches  which 
comprise  all  we  are  told  of  a  period  of  two 
thousand  years  into  a  complete  histOTy  of 
the  human  race,  firom  its  origin  to  its  over- 
throw at  the  deluge. 

Whatever  the  Biblical  narratives  may  be 
as  history,  they  are  at  the  first,  as  well  as  the 
last,  most  useftU  monitors  of  duty.  The 
notice  we  have  of  Cain  and  Abel  exhibits,  in 
a  very  striking  way,  the  terrible  consequences 
of  unrestrained  passion.  Envy  led  to  mur- 
der. The  first  firesh  green  of  our  mother 
earth  was  sullied  by  a  brothel's  blood.  As 
soon  as  society  began  to  exist,  sin  began  to 
disturb  it.  And  Cain's  distress  of  mind 
serves  to  show  that  suffering  entered  the 
world  together  with  sin.  From  that  time  to 
this,  they  have  been  inseparable  yoke-fel- 
lows; and  sooner  shall  heaven  and  earth 
pass  away,  than  the  divinely  established 
connection  between  sin  and  suffering  shall 
cease  to  exist.  This  fact  we  find  recorded 
in  words  that  are  traced  immediately  to  the 
Author  of  all  moral  relations,  and  the  Aven- 
ger of  all  wickedness :  — 'If  thou  doest  well, 
ahalt  thou  not  be  accepted  7  and  if  thou  doest 
not  well,  sin  lieth  at  the  door ;  *  and  its  ne- 
cessary consequences  must  be  undergone 
(Qen.  iv.  7).  But  divine  justice  shelters 
even  those  it  punishes :  Cain  received  some 
protection  against  the  avenging  hand  of  his 
fellow-men  (iv.  Id). 

CAINAN,  a  son  of  Enos,  and  fkdier  of 
Hahalaleel  (Gen.  v.  9, 12). 

Another  Cainan  is  mentioned  by  Luke 
(iii.  36),  as  son  of  Arphaxad,  and  father  of 
Sala.  In  Gen.  x.  24;  xi.  12,  Arphaxad  is 
represented  as  the  immediate  predecessor  of 
Salah,  Cainan  not  being  mentioned.  Such 
is  the  ease  in  the  Hebrew  and  Samaritan 
originals,  as  well  as  in  the  other  authorities, 
save  the  Septuagiut  translation,  from  which 
it  appears  to  have  been  taken  by  Luke. 
Whence  the  Seventy  obtained  the  name  is 
not  known.     The  conjectures  are  as  unsatis- 


factory as  they  are  manifold.  The  adoption 
of  this  name  shows  that  Luke  used,  not  the 
Hebrew  original,  but  the  Septuagint  version. 
The  faet  proves  also,  that  a  strict  verbal  ao- 
enraey  is  not  elaimed  by  the  biographer. 
The  Septuagint  appears  to  have  been  used, 
though  not  exclusively,  by  Jews  in  the  first 
•entniy ;  otherwise  we  mig^t  oonclnde  with 
ftill  certainty,  that  Luke  was  a  Pagan  by  birth, 
and  wrote  for  Pagan  readers. 

CALAH  (H.),  a  city  which,  with  Nineveh 
and  Behoboth,  was  built  by  the  Assyrian 
Asshur.    Resen  also  is  said  to  have  built — 
that  is,  rebuilt —Calah,  which  is  in  this 
case  described  as  a  great  city  (Gen,  x.  11, 
12).     This  place  may  be  identical  with 
Halah,  one  of  the  cities  to  which  the  king 
of  Samaria  transported  the  o^tured  Bam%r 
ritans   (2  Kmgs  xvii  6;  zviiL  11),  which 
would  lead  the  mind  to  the  Assyrian  pro- 
vince Calakine  (PtoL  vL  1),  between  the 
sources  of  the  Lyeus  and  the  Tigris;  or 
the  Arabian  Oholwan,  the  ancient  summer 
residence  of  the  ealifs  in  Babylonian  Irak, 
five  days'  journey  from  Bagdad.    According 
to  Bitter  (Erdknnde),  Calah  is  the  same  as 
Halah  or  Alaunis,   and  lay  on  the  river 
Chaboras,  Chahur,  or  Chebar.    At  the  same 
time,  this    great    geographer  admits   that 
Calah  may  be  Cholwan,  which  was  not  very 
fu  distant  from  Alaonis. 

CALEB  (H.  one  wAo  isrib),  an  Israelite, 
son  of  Jephunneh,  of  the  tribe  of  Judab, 
who  is  distinguished  as  being  one  of  tlie 
spies  whom  Moses  sent  to  survey  the  land 
of  Canaan.  The  report  which  they  brought 
back  was  in  effect  &at  the  land  was  good 
and  fertile,  but  its  actual  possessors  nume* 
rous,  strong,  and  well  protected.  On  hearing 
this,  the  people  were  dispirited.  They  had 
long  wandereid  in  difficulty  and  comparative 
want,  still  sustaining  their  heart  by  hope. 
But  now,  when  aniv^  at  the  boundaries  of 
the  promised  haven,  Ihey  learned  news  which 
made  them  fear  of  being  nnsnooessfnl  in  an 
attempt  to  take  possession  of  it  Hope  was 
snooeeded  by  dopair.  Despair  led  to  grief^ 
and  almoet  to  distraction.  Hereupon,  Caleb 
with  Joshua  interposed :  —  *  The  land  is  an 
exceeding  good  land.  If  the  Lord  delight 
in  us,  then  he  will  bring  us  into  this  land. 
Only  rebel  not  against  Jehovah,  neither 
fear  ye  the  people  of  the  land.'  In  vain  was 
this  appeal  maide  to  their  religioas  feelings. 
Carnal  unbelief  had  caused  ^ir  d^ectioo, 
and  now  finstniled  the  eiibrt  designed  to 
itmse  them  into  manly  energy.  '  Stone 
them,'  the  people  eried  out  ai^at  Caleb 
and  Joshua.  They  were  on  the  point  ot 
executing  their  own  commands,  wh^  tokens 
of  the  divine  presence  were  beheld;  whence 
proceeded  a  threat  to  smite  the  people  with 
pestilence,  and  disinbeiit  them.  Moses  be- 
came an  intercessor  on  their  behalf,  and 
obtained  their  pardon,  with  one  awful  re- 
serve, namely,  that  all  the  generation  that 


CAL  231  CAL 

hiul  ae«i  the  miracleB  dont  «t  uid  after  the  hand,  —  that  entire  trast  in  God ;  —  whence 

qnitting  of  £gypt  ahonld  perish  in  the  wil-  these  qnalitiee,  if  the  prerious  history  were 

demesfl,  save  Caleb  and  Joshua,  who  had  fiotions,  or  exaggerations,  or  legends?    A 

tried  to  suppreta    Htb    rebellion    (Numb.  mediiBval  Christianity  was  not  more  needAil 

ziT.  16).      When  at  length  the  Israelites  to  the  production  of  the  crusader,  than  were 

were  abont  to  enter  Canaan,  Caleb  aooord-  the  rescue  firom  Egypt,  the  wanderings  in  the 

inil^y  leeeived  the  hooonr  of  being  appointed  desert,  with  their  accompanying  displays  of 

one  of  a  wimmisaion,  consisting  diiefly  of  divine  power  and  goodness,  indispensable  to 

the  princes  of  the  tribes,  whose  doty  it  was  theprodnetionofthe  sturdy,  baron-like  prince 

to  divide  the  land  among  them  (Numb,  of  the  tribe  of  Jodah. 
loatif.  17).    Caleb's  aerriees  were  not  unre-        The  pleas  which  Moses  is  set  forth  as  em- 

warded.    Moses  bad  giren  him  a  promise  ploying  with  Ood,  in  order  to  procure  for- 

of  ample  posseaaions,  when,  being  a  young  giveness  for  the  disobedient  Israelites,  are 

man  forty  yeara  of  age,  he  had  brought  a  of  no  small  importance,  as  they  may  serve 

true  report  out  of  Canaan.    At  the  age  of  to  disoover  to  us  the  position  l^m  which 

eighty-five,  he  elaimed  of  Joshua  the  fidfll-  much  of  the  Old  Testament  theology  is  eon- 

ment  of  that  promise,  and  received  as  his  ceived.    These  pleas  are  the  following : — If 

portion  the  district  of  Hebron,  in  which  the  God  destroy  the  Israelites,   then,  I.   The 

spies  had  found,  and  whence  they  bore  away,  Egyptians  will  hear  it ;   II.  They  will  tell  it 

a  duster  of  very  fine  grapes.     There  was  to  the  Canaanites ;  III.  Who  will  ascribe  the 

•omethjng  noble    and   chivalrous  in  this  failure  to  bring  the  Israelites  into  Canaan, 

demand.    The  aged  Caleb  was  not  asking  to  a  want  of  power  on  the  part  of  God, 

for  land  already  subdued.    The  terrible  sons  though  he  has  sworn  so  to  do ;  wherefore, 

of  Anak,  Sheahai,  Ahiman,  and  Talmai,  still  IV.  *  Let  the  power  of  my  Lord  be  great ; ' 

dwelt  there.    It  was  a  hard  task,  and  a  peri-  Y.  Finally,  the  long-suffering  merey  of  God 

lous  undertaking,  for  which  he  put  in  his  is  put  forth  in  deprecation  of  the  threatened 

claim.    But  what  he  solieited  he  achieved,  punishment.    The  last  is  the  only  considers- 

The  giants  and  their  horde  were  rooted  out,  tion  whieh  takes  its  origin  in  lofty  and  true 

and  &e  Hebrews  entered  into  quiet  posses-  ooneeptions  of  the  Divine  character  and 

aion.    The  aid  of  love  was  invoked  for  the  dealmgs.    The  appeal  to  mercy,  made  to  a 

accomplishment  of  die  enterprise.     Kiijath-  merelfol  God,  has  eternal  truth  for  its  foun- 

sepher  had  to  be  captured.    '  My  daughter's  dation.    The  other  pleas  are  of  the  earth, 

hand  shall  reward  the  victor/  proclaimed  earthy.    They  spring  from  a  human  view 

Caleb.    The  city  fell  before  the  prowess  of  of  divine  things.    They  present  eonsidera- 

Odmiel,  the  son  of  Kenas,  Caleb's  younger  tions  whieh  could  prevail  only  with  earthly 

brother  (Jndg.  i.  9,  teq,).  potentates.    They  want  the  element  of  in- 

CaleVs  character  is  not  without  points  of  spiration,  and  therefore  they  want  the  ele- 

permanent  interest;  stout,  honest,  and  reli*  ment  of  reUgious  truth*    God  may,  indeed, 

gious  old  warrior  as  he  proved,  when  the  be  truthfully  end  religiously  addressed  by 

tug  of  battle  came,  after  forty  yean  of  toil-  considerations  which  have  a  foundation  in 

some  and  ezhansting  wanderings.    In  the  the  human  breast    But  these  considerations 

eariier  period  in  wbkHi  he  appean  promi-  must  be  the  highest  snd  the  purest  of  which 

nently  before  us,  he  acted  so  as  to  show  that  man  is  susceptible ;  otherwise  the  distino- 

a  deep  and  strong  sense  of  religion  was  the  tion  between  God  and  nan  is  lost,  and  we 

actuating  principle  of  his  eharaoter.    Hence  destroy  the  infinite  by  attempting  to  lift  the 

he  derived   his  courage,   his   confidence,  finite  to  God,  and  ascribing  to  him  passions 

bis  trust  in  God.      His  old  age,  and  the  which  are  felt  only  by  inferior  men.     Beve- 

atnngth  whieh  made  him  at  eighty-five  a  rence  forbids  us  to  suppose  that  God  could  be 

enceessfti]  soldier,  he  expressly  ascribed  to  influenced  by  the  misconstructions,  taunts, 

Divine  Providence  (Josh.  xiv.  10).    He  was  and  scoflb  of  the  defeated  Egyptians,  and 

right.    Beligion,  as  comprising  the  due  cul-  the  idolatrous  Canaanites.      These   things 

ttvation  of  all  our  fseulties,  and  entire  obe-  are  spoken  after  the  manner  of  men.    They 

dienee  to  the  will  of  God,  whieh  is  only  are  the  feelings  of  Moses.    They  originate 

another  name  for  the  laws  of  our  nature,  in  his  conception  of  God  and  divine  things. 

must  be  conducive  as  much  to  health,  vigour  They  are  therefore  temporary.    They  cease 

of  body,  and  longevity,  as  to  peace  of  mind,  to  be  applicable  or  proper  in  a  day  when,  un- 

and  a  hope  full  of  immortality.  der  the  influence  of  Moeaism  and  Christia- 

The  ehaneter  of  Caleb  is  in  entire  bar-  nlty,  the  world  has  come  to  entertain  higher, 

mony  with  the  historical  period  in  which  he  more  worthy,  and  less  incorrect  ideas  of  the 

is  found.    The  circumstances  through  which  Deity.    What  is  of  man,  and  what  of  God, 

the  Scripture  conducts  him  are  exactly  those  should  in  all  cases  be  careftilly  discriminated, 

which  would  make  Caleb  such  as  he  was.  lest  tares  be  mistaken  for  wheat,  and  the 

How  could  such  a  ohaiaeter  have  been  pro*  ereatnre  be  put  in  the  place  of  the  Creator, 
dueed  without  these  preliminary  influenees  7        CALF  (T.)  is  the  English  representative 

That  robust  mind,  —  that  stout,  energetic  of  several  Hebrew  words,  of  which  we  here 

frame, «-  that  dauntless  heart,  —  that  ready  notice  only  that  one,  Oehgel,  which  has  re- 


C  A  L  232  C  A  L 

faienoe  to  Ui«  idoUtroiu  rites  suietioned  by  In  oonieqaenee  of  tfaafle  fetdTities,  the  anger 

Aaron,  and  received  in  Bethel*    We  first  re-  of  Caml^ses  was  strongly  exeited  against 

mark  that  our  English  term  ea}f^  as  it  is  the  people  of  Memphis.     Supposing  that 

now  used  of  the  young  of  the  oow,  in  the  they  intended  to  signify  their  satisfaction  at 

early  period  of  its  life»  imperfectly  repro-  the  defeat  of  his  army  in  the  Ethiopian  war 

duces  the  originsl,  which  denotes  rather  a  (Herod,  iii.  27),  he  sent  for  the  priests,  and 

young  bullock,  a  steer  ( Jer.  zxxi  18 ;  xlri.  asked  them  the  reason  of  their  rgoioings. 

21) ;   though,  when  the  age  is  expressly  They  replied  that  it  was  the  celebration  of 

limited,  it  may  be  used  of  a  younger  aaimid  the  appearanoe  of  the  god  Apis,  who,  for  a 

(Mic.  Ti.  6).     The  general  meaning,  how-  long  time,  had  not  been  manifested  among 

ever,  is  that  of  steer.     This  remark  is  of  them.    Little  pleased  with  the  reply,H)am- 

importance  in  tracing  the  origin  of  the  boTine  byses  ordered  die  deity  to  be  brought  before 

idolatry  of  the  Hebrews,  as  just  aUuded  to;  him,  when,  drawing  his  sword,  he  plunged 

because  it  was  an  ox  or  a  oow, — the  former,  it  into  the  animal's  body ;  and  haring  kiUed 

ftt  least,  frequently  depleted  with  young  fea-  it,  he  ordered  the  priests  to  be  beaten,  and  all 

tures, — not  strictly  speaking  a  calf,  to  which  those  who  were  found  celebrating  the  festiTal 

the  Egyptians  rendered  dirine  honours.  to  be  put  to  death*    The  man  from  whose 

Apis  was  the  sacred  bull  of  Memphis,  herd  the  dirine  beast  has  sprung,  is  the 
under  whose  form  Osiris  was  worshipped,  happiest  of  mortals,  and  is  looked  upon 
At  Heliopolis  slso,  there  was  a  sacred  ox,  with  admiration  by  all  people/  The  Egyp- 
which  bore  the  name  of  Mneris,  and  was  tians  not  only  paid  divine  honours  to  the 
dedicated  to  Osiris.  The  historian  Dio-  bull  Apis,  but,  considering  him  *  the  liring 
dorus  says  that  Apis  and  Mneris  were  both  image  and  representatiye  of  Osiris,'  they 
sacred  to  Osiris,  and  worshipped  as  gods  consulted  him  as  an  oracle,  and  drew  from 
throughout  the  whole  of  Egypt.  Herodotus  his  actions  good  or  bad  omens.  His  accep- 
(iiL  ^)  states,  *  Apis,  also  called  Epaphus,  tance  of  food  offered  him  by  the  hand  was 
is  a  young  bull,  whose  mother  can  hare  no  accounted  a  good,  his  refrisal  a  bad,  omen, 
other  oiEipring.  She  is  represented  by  the  Those  who  wished  to  eonsult  Apis  first 
Egyptians  to  have  conceived  by  lightning  burnt  incense  on  an  altar,  filling  the  lamps 
sent  from  heaven,  and  so  to  have  produced  with  oO,  which  were  lighted,  and  depositing 
the  god  Apis.  But  this  bullock  which  is  a  piece  of  money  on  the  altar,  to  die  right 
called  Apis  has  these  signs:  being  black,  of  the  statue  of  the  god.  Then,  placing  their 
he  bears  on  his  forehead  a  white  quadrangle,  mouth  near  his  ear,  they  asked  him  what- 
on  his  back  the  image  of  an  eagle,  on  his  ever  question  they  wished.  This  done,  they 
tail  double  hairs,  and  on  his  tongue  a  beede.'  withdrew,  covering  their  two  ears  until  they 
Pliny  speaks  of  Apis  having  a  white  spot,  were  outside  the  sacred  precincts ;  when, 
in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  on  his  right  side,  listening  to  the  first  expression  any  one  ut- 
Ammianus  Marcellinns  says  the  white  cres-  tered,  they  drew  from  it  the  desired  omen, 
cent  on  his  right  side  was  the  principal  sign  '  Apis,'  says  iElian,  *  is  an  excellent  inter- 
by  which  he  was  known.  iEUian  mentions  preter  of  ftiturity.  He  does  not  employ  vir- 
twenty-nine  marks  by  which  he  was  recog-  gins  or  old  women  sitting  on  a  tripod,  like 
nised,  each  referable  to  some  mystic  signi-  some  other  gods,  nor  require  that  they  should 
fication.  be  intoxicated  with  the  sacred  potion ;  but 

Memphis  was  the  place  where  Apis  was  inspires  boys,  who  play  around  his  stable 

kept,  and  where  his  worship  was  particularly  with  a  divine  impulse,  enabling  them  to  pour 

observed.    He  was  regarded  not  merely  as  out  predictions  in  perfect  rhylhm.' 
an  emblem,  but  a  divinity.     Psammeticus        ^Hien  Apis  died,  certain  priests,  chosen  for 

there  erected  a  grand  court  in  which  the  bul-  this  duty,  went  in  quest  of  another,  who  was 

lock  was  kept,  when  exhibited  in  public,  known  by  the  signs  preserved  in  die  sacred 

The  festival  in  honour  of  Apis  lasted  seven  books.    As  soon  as  he  was  found,  they  took 

di^s,  and  occasioned  a  large  concourse  of  him,  preparatory  to  his  removal  to  Memphis, 

people.    The  priesto  then  led  the  sacred  to  a  city  on  the  Nile,  where  he  was  kept  forty 

bull  in  solenm  procession,  every  one  coming  days,  being  seen  only  by  women.   This  period 

forward  from  his  abode,   to  welcome  the  over,  he  was  placed  in  a  boat  with  a  golden' 

favoured  brute  as  he  passed;  and  it  is  af-  cabin,  and  conducted  in  stete  to  Memphis, 

finned  that  children  iriio  inhaled  his  breath  Pliny  and  Ammianus  assert,  that,  as  soon  as 

acquired  thereby  the  power  of  predicting  the  time  prescribed  in  die  sacred  books  was 

future  evente.    A  chorus  of  children,  singing  fulfilled,  they  led  the  bull  Apis  to  the  foun- 

his  honours,  headed  the  procession.    Julian  tain  of  the  prieste,  and  drowned  him  with 

remarks,  *  It  would  be  tedious  to  relate  what  much  ceremony.    Having  thus  put  him  to 

pompous  processions  and  sacred  ceremonies  death,  they,  with  great  lamentations,  sought 

the  Egyptians  perform  at  die  festival  of  the  another  to  take  his  place.    His  body  was 

Theophania  (appearance   of  the  god),  in  embalmed,  and  a  grand  Amend  procession 

honour  of  Apis ;  or  what  dances,  festivities,  took  place  at  Memphis;  when  his  coiBn, 

and  joyful  assemblies,  are  appointed  on  die  placed  on  a  bier,  was  followed  by  the  prieste 

occasion,  in  the  towns  and  in  the  couutry.  dressed  in  the  spotted  skins  of  Hums,  bear<i 


CA  L  3: 

ing  nma  ia  Ihsii  hud*,  tud  miking  gwti- 
ei^Uioiu  aimilur  to  those  irhkh  in  Q»es« 
wen  CQBlomuy  4t  the  orgiee  of  Bacchm. 
WhsB  Apii  died  >  nMonl  deslh,  hia  obw- 
qniei  wan  selebraled  on  the  moat  magnifi- 
Donl  soa]*.  To  aacli  eitraTagance  vaa  this 
euTied,  that  Ihoas  whose  oSce  it  was  lo  take 
efaaige  of  him  were  often  ruined  b^  ths 
e^^enaes.  Fiom  vhatercr  eaiue  Iha  death 
of  Apia  took  pliee,  the  people  performed  ■ 
pnblio  lamentation,  aa  if  Oalria  himaelf  had 
died.  Thia  monming  laated  until  the  other 
Apia,  hia  anoeeaaoi,  had  l>een  fonnd.  Thej 
Iben  comminead  theii  rqoicingt,  which  were 
oelebrued  with  an  enlhaaiaam  equal  to  their 
grieC  The  notion  entsrtuned  bj  the  Egyp- 
tians leapeoting  the  re-appearauoe  of  the 
deitj  under  the  aame  form,  and  hi*  entering 
the  bodj  of  another  boll  aa  aoon  a>  the 
eiieting  Apia  died,  arose  f^om  their  belief  in 
the  general  dootrins  of  the  trauimigratian  of 
souls ;  according  to  which,  the  sool  of  Osilis 
passed  inceisantlj  into  the  bodies  of  bocom- 
sin  bnllDcks. 

Osiris,  which  the  sacred  ateer  represented, 
was.  sa^B  Heredolua,  the  greatest  of  aU  the 
Egjptiui  deities ;  bat  ererj  care  was  taken 
to  throw  a  ihicli  clond  of  myaler;  around 
him.  Hia  principal  oSce,  it  ia  said,  was  to 
jodgs  the  dead,  and  10  rule  orer  that  kingdom 
where  the  aouls  of  good  men  were  admitted 
to  etamal  feliri^.  He  was  called  'themani- 
fcster  of  good,' '  the  opener  of  trath.'  He 
appeared  on  etu^  to  benefit  mankind  ;  and, 
after  haiiog  performed  the  duties  be  had 
coma  to  fulfil,  andfilleiiaeaorificetoTjpho, 
the  evil  principle  (which  was  at  length  OTer- 
come  bj  his  influence,  after  his  leaTing  the 
world),  hs  'rose  again  to  answlife,' and  be- 
eama  Uie  judge  of  mankind  in  a  fatnrn  stale. 
It  ougbt  to  be  obBened,  that  the  puticolar 
form  ot  Osiris,  which  the  Hebrews  imitated, 
waa,  according  to  Wilkinson  (t.  197),  not 
Apia,  but  MnsTifl : —  'The  offerings,  dancings, 
and  rqoicingi  pnctised  on  the  occssion,  were 
in  imitation  of  a  oeiemonj  Ihej  had  wit- 
nessed in  honour  ot  MncTia,  diuing  their 
aqoom  in  EgrP^-'  Other  bulla  and  cowi 
howcTw,  were,  if  not  worshipped,  jet  hon- 
oured la  aaered,  in  that  oountij ;  and  we 
eee  no  reason  far  fixing  on  anj  on«  eere- 
monj,  as  that  which  was  eopied  on  lbs  aet- 
ting-ap  ot  the  golden  calf.  It  Is  enough  to 
show,  that  the  EgjptiaUB,  from  a  long  ud 
close  inlercouraa  with  whom  the  Israelit^f 
had  juBt  come  when  they  made  the 
were  giTen  not  onlj  to  animal  worship,  bul 
the  adoration  ot  the  botine  speoieB.  Ii* 
bowarer,  line  tie  wai,aB  Champolliou  holdi . 
an  emblem  ot  the  diiini^  Ehem,  then  phal- 
lic ritas,  emblematic  ot  the  gensrative  prin- 
dpla,  (or  which  puipose  the  boil  was  qipro- 
pnatelf  ohosen,  ware  eoimected  wifii  the 
speoiAo  aot  of  idolatry  into  which  Hosea 
foimd  the  laraelitea  huirrlng ;  and  that 
fraat  man  has  the  merit  of  rMcoing  his 


3  C  AL 

people,  not  only  from  the  ahominatlona  of 
worshipping  a  bestial  god,  but  also  Avm  the 
defilementa  of  gross,  if  not  indiseriminata 
lost  This  cut  (from  Amndale)  eihibita 
Apis,  hsTing  on  his  head  a  disk  ol  the  son, 
a  winged  hawk  on  the  na^  of  his  neck,  net- 
work orar  bis  body,  and  ■  Tnltnre  anoss  hia 
bnttooks.  On  the  ^isth  he  Is  dealgnaled 
■  giver  ot  Ufa.' 


We  are  conSrnied  in  the  opinion  that  the 
idea  of  procreation  la  at  the  bottom  of 
the  emblems  and  ritea  of  which  we  hire 
spoken,  becanse  lais,  the  wife  of  Osirie, 
was  worshipped  onder  the  image  ot  a  cow, 
bearing  the  same  relation  to  the  Egyptian 
mythology  aa  Tenns  bore  to  the  Oiecian. 


Tn  this  saparity  Tsis  had  the  name  ot  Ba- 
ther, which  points  her  out  aa  the  mother  of 
Homa,  the  aon  ot  Oairia  and  Ilia.  She  was 
held  in  Tancration  at  aeveral  places,  and 
splendid  templet  ware  erected  in  her  honour. 


C  A  L  234  C  A  L 

One  eikj  t>ort  her  nane,— Aphroditopolii,  washbowl  into  it,  east  my  slipper  orer  IC, 

tkt  eiiy  qf  Vemu,    She  is  tsrmed  the  nurse  defy  it  to  the  uttermost,  end  stand  the  eon- 

of  Horns,  snd  the  sponse  of  Osiris.    Onr  seqnenees.**    She  wslked  aeoordingly,  this 

figure  (taken  from  Bnnsen)  represents  hsr  South-sea  heroine ;  her  people  following  in 

as  having,  on  the  body  of  m  female,  «  sow's  pals  honor  and  ezpeotaney.    She  did  her 

head,  surmounted  by  the  disk  ti  the  sun,  experiment ;  and  they  hare  truer  notions  of 

enclosed  in  loaig  eoiring  horns.  the  gods  in  that  island  ever  since.' 

The  leader,  having  perused  these  details^        Some  remnsnt  of  this  horine  worriiip 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  seems  to  hare  lingered  smong  the  Hebrews 
nature  of  the  transaction  recorded  in  Exod.  for  centuries,  receiving  development  or  sup- 
zxzii.  4.    The  Israelites,  thinking  that  Mo-  pression  sccording  to  the  degree  of  culture 
ses'  delay  on  the  Mount  was  a  proof  of  their  snd  peenliar  events  of  the  times.    Availing 
being  in  some  way  deprived  of  his  guidsnce,  himself  of  this  propensity  as  Ibtmd  smong 
turned  for  aid  to  idolatrous  practices,  with  the  northern  tribes,  which  had  always  been 
which  they  had  been  familiar  in  Egypt;  less  pure  in  flieir  religion  flisn  the  soudieni, 
and,  strange  to  say,  induced  Aaron  to  take  Jeroboam,  — >  on  founding  the  kingdom  of 
the  lead  in  preparing  the  molten  calf.    The  Israel  in  opposition  to  that  of  Judsh,  — 
ease  with  wliich  this  idol  is  msde  in  the  wil-  fesiing  that,  if  the  people  should  still  go  to 
demess,  snd  the  care  bestowed  in  cssting  Jerusalem  to  worship,  tfiey  would  continue 
and  carving  it,  show  that  the  Hebrews  had  to  regaid  tfiat  as  ^eir  religious  metropolis, 
brought,  with  their  attachment  to  idol  wor-  md  have  dieir  sifections  idienated  from  his 
ship,  much  srtistic  skill.    The  glad,  if  not  government  during  their  periodical  visits, 
licentious,  festivities  (ver.  6)  proclaimed  in  caused,  after  deliberate  eonsultation,  two 
celebration  of  the  setting-up  of  this  '  work  cslves  of  gold  to  be  made  in  obvious  imita- 
of  men's  hands,'  find  their  eounterpsrt  and  tion  of  the  one  of  which  we  have  spoken, 
explsnation  in  our  previous  remarks.  There  and,  in  neariy  the  same  terms  as  those  em- 
is,  however,  one  part  which  yet  needs  illus-  ployed  in  the  wfldemess,  deolsied,  -- '  Be- 
tration.    Moses  took  the  cslf,  burned  it  in  hold  thy  gods,  0  Israel !  which  have  bnraght 
the  fire,  ground  it  to  powder,  and  strawed  it  thee  up  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt'  (1  Kings 
upon  water,  and  made  the  children  of  Israel  xli.  20,  se^^.).    These  idols  he  placed  at  the 
drink.    How  was  this  eilected  7    The  requi-  two  extremitieB  of  his  dominions,  —  the  one 
site    knowledge   might   easily  have   been  at  Dan,  the  odier  at  Bethel,  —  in  order  that 
acquired  among  the  Egyptians,  irtu>  were  tfieir  influence  mif^t  extend  sH  over  the 
proficients  in  metsllurgy.    *  In  the  place  of  land.    With  the  view  of  die  more  resdily 
tartaric  acid,  which  we  employ'  (Ooguet,  eoncfliating  general  acquiescence,  he  built 
'  Origine  des  Lois  des  Arts  et  des  Sciences'),  a  temple,  chose  his  priests  Itom  the  lowest 
'  the  Hebrew  legislator  used  natron,  whidi  of  the  people,  and  blended  the  old  and  est*- 
is  common  in  the   East     What   follows  blishcd  usages  of  the  Mosaic  rites  with 
respecting  his  making  the  Israelites  drink  Mb  idolatzous  innovations.     For  this  mon- 
this  powder,  proves  that  he  was  perfectly     stions  apostacy  the  divine  anger  was  kindled 
acquainted  wiUi  the  whole  eibet  of  the  ope-     against  the  ten  tribes,  who  beosme  grievously 
ration.    He  wished  to  inotease  the  punish-     eormpted,  and  underwent  the  consequences 
ment  of  their  disobedience,  snd  nothing    of  Ood*s  sore  displeasure  (Hoe.  viii.  2,  teq. ; 
could  have  been  more  suitable ;  for  gold,     xiiL  2). 

reduced  and  msde  into  a  dranght  in  the  The  expression,  *  cslves  of  our  lips,*  Ibund 
manner  I  have  mentioned,  has  a  most  dis-  in  Hos.  xiv.  2,  would  have  been  better  ren- 
agreeable  taste.'  Another,  perhaps  the  chiei^  dered  '  fruit  of  our  lips,'  that  is,  otcr  /nutse, 
oigect  which  Moses  had  in  making  the  as  in  Heb.  xiii.  15 ;  where  the  writer,  feting 
leaders  in  this  rebellion  drink  the  potion,  wss  frt>m  the  Septnsgint  translation,  has  '  the 
to  inspire  them  with  a  feeling  of  contempt  fttdt  of  our  lips : '  —  'By  him  (Jesus)  let 
fiir  a  god  that  was  thus  ree^y  converted  jim  offer  the  sacriflos  of  praise  to  Ood  con- 
into  a  most  oiTensive  draught,  actually  drunk  tfnually,  that  is,  the  fruit  of  onr  lips,  giving 
by  themselves.  The  eifect^  if  not  the  aim,  thanks  to  his  nsme.'  Noyes  renders  the 
of  what  Moses  on  this  occasion  did,  may     words  in  Hosea  thus :  — 

I?*'^^'""*^^,'^.  *^™  *.  ^^  ^?^^  *^  '  Forrire  aU  our  Inlaiilty,  and  reodve  us  gradoudT, 
fi:om  Thomas  Csrlyle : — *  A  certam  queen  m       ynua  we  offer  to  thee  the  Mcrifleea  of  our  Hps.' 

a  South-sea  islsnd,  having  been  converted 

to  Christisnity,  did  not  any  longer  believe        CALNEH  (H.),  a  yery  ancient  rity  in  the 


in  the  old  gods.  She  assembled  her  people,  lend  of  SUOm  (Bshylonia),  built  by  Ni 
and  ssid  to  them, — '*  My  faithftd  people,  the  rod  (Oen.  x.  10.  Amos  tL  9.  Isa.  x.  0),  — 
gods  do  not  dw^  in  that  burning  mountain  held  by  some  antfioritles  to  be  the  well- 
in  the  centre  of  onr  isle.  That  is  not  Ood :  known  Ctesiphon,  which  lay  on  the  eastsm 
no,  that  is  a  common  burning  mountain,  —  bank  of  the  Tif^s,  and,  being  die  winter 
mere  culinary  fire,  burning  under  peculiar  residence  of  the  Parthian  kings,  was  in  their 
circumstances.  See,  I  will  walk  before  yon  time  very  laige  and  populous.  It  is  said  to 
to  that  burning  mountain,  will  empty  my  have  rseeived  the  name  Ctesiphon  from  the 


C  A  L  235  C  A  L 

Persian  monuroh  Paconu;  after  whieh,  the  spot;  and  that  the  rather,  because  there  was 
old  name,  Calneh,  fell  into  disnse.  Its  place  no  small  fear  of  a  popular  insnrreokion, 
is  now  oeeupied  by  ruins,  among  which  are  especially  as  he  was  attended  by  a  crowd  of 
those  of  a  splendid  palace  and  temple  of  the  people.  But  where  was  the  place  ?  Not  fur, 
sun.  Many  eoins  hars  been  dlsintened.  we  may  from  what  has  been  said  suppose, 
Calneh  is  also  named  Calno  (Isa.  z.  9).  from  *  the  judfment-hall,'  which  was  donbt- 

GALVART  ( Caivaria),  the  word  by  which,    less  near  the  spot  (Fort  Antonia)  where  th« 
in  the  Latin  Vulgate,  the  Greek  term  ertmiim    Boman  forces  in  Jerusalem  were  conoen- 
(whenee  ourermnum)  is  trandated.  It  occurs     trated.    From  our  plan  of  Jerusalem,  it  will 
in  Luke  zxiii.  88,  instead  of  the  Aramaic  or     be  seen  that  Fort  Antonia  lay  on  the  north- 
Hebiew  Qolgotha,  found  in  Matt  zzrii  88.     west  angle  of  the  Temple.    Was  it  likely, 
Mark  !▼.  39.  John  ziz.  17.   Both  Oalyary  and    then,  th«t,  in  the  hi{^y  excited  state  of  the 
Golgotha  denote  a  tkuU ;  and  they  are  tl^    public  mind,  the  soldiers  should  take  Jesus 
name  bome  by  the  place  where  the  Lord     southward;  that  is,  through  the  whole  breadth 
Jesus  was  crucified.   Different  opinions  hare     of  the  city  ?    Somewhere  in  the  north,  it  is 
preyailed  as  to  why  the  place  was  so  deno-     clear,  they  would  execute  him,  as  thus  they 
minated.    Old  fables  assign  as  the  reason,     would  most  easily  effect  their  object    But  if 
that  Adam  was  interred  at  Calrary,  in  order     they  chose  the  north,  then  the  road  to  Joppa 
that  where  lay  the  person  who  had  '  bronn^t     or  Damascus  would  be  most  convenient; 
death  into  the  world,  and  all  ita  woe,'  there     and  no  spot  in  the  Ticini^  would  probably 
also  might  the  Saviour  of  the  world  sofier,    be  more  suitable  than  the  slightly-rounded 
die,  and  be  buried.    Many  have  held,  that     elevation  which  bore  the  name  of  Calvary. 
Calvary  was  the  place  of  public  execution,  —     That  some  hillock  would  be  preferred,  it  ia 
the  Tyburn  of  Jerusalem ;  and  hence  it  was    easy  to  see,  as  thus  the  exposure  of  the  cri- 
termed  the  *  place  of  a  skulL*    Another  opi-    minal,  and  the  alleged  cause  of  his  cruci- 
ttion  is,  fliat  the  place  took  ite  name  from     fixion,  would  be  moet  effectually  secured, 
ito  shape,  being  a  hillock  of  a^  form  like  a    But  the  particulars  detailed  by  the  sacred 
human  skull.    The  last  is  the  opinion  to    historians  show,  that  our  Lord  was  not  cru- 
lAuth  we  incline.    That  the  place  was  of    oified  on  the  spot,  or  veiy  near  the  spot, 
some  such  shape  seems  to  be  generally    where  he  was  condemned,  but  was  conducted 
agreed ;    and  the  traditional  term  mowtt,     some  distance  through  the  city.    If  so,  this, 
applied  to  Calvary,  appears  to  confirm  this    as  appears  flrom  our  plan,  must  have  been 
idea.    And  such  a  shspe,  it  must  be  allowed,     towards  the  west    Two  pointo  seem  thus 
is  in  entire  agreement  with  the  name ;  that    determined :  the  crucifixion  was  at  the  iiorCfc- 
is,  thUi.    To  these  considerations  there  are    weti  of  the  ci^. 

added  certain  difficulties  which  arise  from  The  aeeount,  as  given  in  the  evangelists, 
the  second  explanation.  So  far  as  we  know,  touching  the  place  of  the  crucifixion  and 
no  historical  evidence  existe  to  show,  that  burial  ctf  our  Lord,  is  as  follows :  —  Having 
there  was  a  place  of  pubKo  execution  where  been  delivered  by  Pilate  to  be  crucified. 
Calvary  is  oommonly  fixed,  or  that  any  such  Jesus  was  led  sway,  followed  by  a  great  com- 
place  in  or  near  Jerusalem  bore  the  name  pany  of  people  and  women  who  bewailed 
Calvary.  Nor  is  the  term  Cshrary  descrip*  his  fate.  On  the  way,  the  soldiers  met  one 
tive  of  such  a  place:  to  make  it  so  to  sny  Simon, a  Cyrenian,coimii^ out <2/'tA« country, 
extent,  the  name  should  have  been  8kuik,  who  is  compeUed  to  bear  JesuaT  cross.  When 
or  The  pl«ce  ttftlmlk.  Equally  unapt  is  the  they  were  come  to  the  place  which  is  called 
manner  in  wlidch  the  writers  of  the  Gospels  Calvary,  there  they  crucified  him.  This 
speak  of  the  place.  Matthew  terms  it  *  a  place  was  nigh  to  the  eity;  snd,  sitting  down, 
place  called  Golgotha ;  that  is  to  say,  a  place  they  watohed  him  there.  They  that  passed 
of  a  skull: 'Mark,*  the  plam  Golgotha;  which  by  reviled  him,  wagging  their  heads  and 
is,  being  interpreted,  the  place  of  a  skull : '  soofilng.  Likewise,  also,  the  chief  priests 
Luke, '  the  place  whieh  is  called  Calvary : '  mocked  him,  with  the  scribes  and  elders ; 
J  ohn,  <  a  place  called  of  a  skiiU,  which  is  called  and  the  people  stood  beholding.  The  sol- 
in  the  Hebrew,  Golgotha.'  Now,  no  one  of  diers,  too,  mocked  him.  There  stood  by 
these  descriptions  is  what  would  have  been  the  cross  of  Jesus,  his  mother,  and  his  me- 
natural,  had  Calvary  been  a  place  or  the  theirs  sister,  and  Maiy  Magdalene.  And  all 
place  of  pubUe  execution.  An  English  wri-  his  acquaintance,  and  the  women  that  fol- 
ter  would  say,  •— <  They  took  him  to  Tyburn,  lowed  him  from  Galilee,  stood  alar  off,  be- 
and  executed  him.'  In  the  same  manner  holding  these  things.  In  tht  place  where 
would  the  biographers  of  Jesus  have  spoken :  he  woe  eruct/fed,  there  was  a  garden,  and  in 
*  They  took  him  to  Calvary.'  In  such  a  case,  the  garden  a  new  sepulchre,  hewn  out  in  the 
there  was  no  need  of  explanations :  what  and  roek ;  there  laid  they  Jesus,  and  rolled  a 
where  Calvary  was,  every  person  would  have  great  stone  to  the  door  of  the  sepulchre, 
known.  In  truth,  flic  context  seems  to  show.  The  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
that  the  Boman  guard  honied  Jesus  away,  adds,  that  Jesus  suffered  vMout  the  qase  ; 
and  put  him  to  death  at  the  first  convenient    sulgoining, '  Let  us,  therefore,  go  forth  to  him 


C  AL 


236 


CAL. 


withont  the  eamp  (<»  the  oitj),  bewing  his 
npioaeh'  (Heb.  xiii.  12,  13.  Matt,  xxvii. 
BCark  xr.  Lake  zziii.  John  xiz.). 

We  thus  leun  as  a  positive  fisot,  that  the 
craeiflzion  and  burial  took  place  oat  of  the 
city,  and  yet  nigh  to  the  city ;  and  the  state- 
ment of  the  writer  to  the  Hebrews  is  con- 
firmed by  the  incidental  remark  (Mark  zr. 
31),  that  the  soldiers  seized  Simon,  as  he 
was  coming  oat  of  the  eoantiy.  It  now  ap- 
pears, then,  that  Calvary  lay  at  the  north- 
west, and  at  the  ontside  of  the  city.  The 
reader,  on  perosing  the  abstract  just  given 
of  the  evangelical  narratives,  combined  with 
the  previous  remarks,  will  find  reason  to 
think,  that  Calvary  was  only  just  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  second  widl.  It  is  also 
elear,  that  the  place  was  one  aroond  which 
■lany  persons  could  assemble,  near  which 
wayfarers  were  passing,  and  the  sufferers 
on  which  could  be  seen  and  addressed  by 
persons  who  were  both  near  and  remote ; 
all  which  concurs  in  showing  that  the  spot 
was  one  of  some  elevation,  and  equally 
proves  that  '  this  thing  was  not  done  in  a 
comer,*  but  at  a  place,  and  under  circum- 
stances, likely  to  make  Calvary  well  known 
and  well  remembered  alike  by  the  foes  and 
the  firiends  of  our  Lord.  Other  events  whicii 
took  place  immediately  alter,  in  connection 
with  the  resurrection,  would  aid  (if  aid  were 
needed)  in  fizing  ^e  recollection  of  the 
spot  deep  and  ineffaceably  in  the  minds  of 
the  primitive  disciples. 

Was  it  likely  that  this  recollection  would 
perish  ?  Surely,  of  all  spots,  Calvary  woald 
become  the  most  sacred,  the  most  endearing, 
in  the  primitive  ohnrehi  The  spot  where 
Jesus  was  crucified,  died,  was  buried,  and 
lose  again,  must  have  been  bound  to  the 
heart  of  every  disciple  in  the  strongest  bonds. 
We  do  not  need  history  to  tell  us  this ;  or, 
nUher,  there  is  a  history,  —  the  history  of 
man  — of  what  human  nature  is,  and  feels, 
and  loves,  -^  which  declares  the  fact  to  every 
intelligent  mind.  Nor  did  the  Jew,  with  his 
warm  gashing  affections,  feel  on  such  a  point 
less  vividly  than  his  fellow-men.  '  The 
tombs  of  the  prophets,'  the  sepulchre  of 
David,  were,  we  read  (Matt  zziii  20.  Acts 
ii.  29),  reverently  regarded,  and  religiously 
preserved  fkom  age  to  age.  That  of  David's 
Lord  would  assuredly  not  be  ne^eeted.  It 
was  a  season  of  public  religious  festivity 
when  our  Lord  suffered.  Jerusalem  was 
then  crowded  with  visitors  from  foreign 
parts.  Such,  too,  was  the  fact  at  the  time 
of  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  These 
pilgrims,  however,  soon  returned  home ;  and, 
wherever  they  went,  many  carried  with  them 
the  news  of  the  crucifizion  of  Jesus,  and 
told  of  the  place  where  he  had  been  ezecuted. 
When  these  had  reached  their  homes,  ihey 
became,  under  providential  influences,  snd 
the  preaching  of  apostles,  in  each  case,  a 


nucleus  of  an  infant  church,  which  would 
naturally  preserve,  embedded  in  its  heart, 
the  knowledge  of  Calvary.  Perhaps  no  one 
spot  on  earth  had  ever  so  many  to  remem- 
ber it,  and  know  its  precise  locality,  as  the 
place  where  Jesus  died  and  rose  again. 
First  in  Jerusalem,  and  soon  in  all  parts  of 
the  earth,  were  there  hearts  that  held  the 
recollection  among  their  most  valued  trea- 
sures. We  do  not  think  these  remarks  need 
confirmation;  but  tiie  passage  in  the  He- 
brews shows  that  they  are  substantially  cor- 
rect We  there  learn,  that,  fsr  on  in  the  first 
century.  Calvary  was  well  known  in  the 
church ;  that  the  tradition  was  preserved, 
and  preserved  in  so  living  a  form,  as  to  be 
made  the  subject  of  a  figurative  illustratiou 
of  Christian  doctrine.  The  memory  of  dis- 
tinguished places  is  among  the  least  perish- 
able of  earthly  things.  ThermopylsB  and 
Ruimymede  are  yet  and  ever  will  be  known. 
With  how  much  more  reason.  Calvary  7  At 
the  first  there  were  not  only  in  Jerusalem 
and  Palestine,  but  in  all  parts  of  the  earth, 
bosoms  which  had  found  for  it  a  shrine. 
Fathers  would  convey  their  knowledge  and 
impressions  to  sons,  one  generation  and  one 
church  to  another.  The  passage  in  the  He- 
brews would  tend  to  keep  alive  the  recoUeo  • 
tion.  And  thus  from  age  to  age  there  would 
be  a  regular  transmission  of  the  essential 
facts  of  the  case ;  till  at  length  the  tradition 
became  fized  in  history,  and  a  splendid  edi- 
fice was  raised  in  perpetual  commemoration 
of  the  great  evoits  which  rendered  Calvary 
the  most  remarkable  spot  on  the  wide  earth. 
Before,  however,  we  speak  of  this  edifice 
and  this  record,  we  must  add  that  Heathenism 
lent  an  aid  to  the  Christian  tradition.  It  was 
the  fate  of  Jerusalem,  after  its  capture  by  the 
Bomans,  to  become  a  heathen  city :  even  its 
name  was  changed  into  Colonia  Jsiia  Capi- 
tolina.  In  the  ezoess  of  their  triumphant 
joy,  the  conquerors  made  Jupiter  its  patron 
god,  and  erected  statues  of  Jupiter  and  Venus 
on  the  place  where  Jesus  had  been  crucified. 
This  was  done,  not  so  much  to  insult  as  to 
conciliate.  New-comers  in  religion  have 
always  availed  themselves  of  established  feel- 
ings, and  therefore  erected  their  sacred  edi- 
fices on  places  already  consecrated  in  the 
minds  of  the  people.  So  was  it  when  Chris- 
tianity was  planted  in  Great  Britain.  Many 
of  our  old  churches  stand  on  spots  where 
before  stood  idolatrous  temples:  such  was  the 
policy  of  the  Bomans.  The  mere  fact  of  a 
temple  to  Venus  standing  on  Calvary,  suf- 
fices to  show  that  Calvary  was  the  place 
where  Jesus  suffered.  The  temple  thus 
takes  up  the  tradition,  and  transmits  it  in 
tnarbU  and  tione  to  coming  ages.  This  con- 
tinuation of  the  tradition  is  t^e  more  impor* 
tsnt,  because  it  begins  to  operate  at  a  time 
when  the  Christians  were  driven  from  Jeru- 
salem.   But  the  absence  of  the  Christians 


C  A  L                  237  C  A  L 

from  the  holy  city  was  not  of  long  donktion ;  ing  in  his  hostility  to  the  primiUve  traditions 
and  even  early  in  the  third  century,  we  find  of  the  church,  shows  sufficiently  that  Helena 
pDgrimages  from  distant  places  to  the  Holy  was  cautioas  in  her  proceedings, — that  there 
Land  had  already  begun,  for  the  express  did  exist  a  tradition  on  the  snbject,  —  that 
purpose  of  viewing  the  spots  which  the  pre-  by  that  tradition  the  empress  was  guided,  — 
sence  and  sufferings  of  the   Saviour  had  and  that  she  found  reason  to  fix  Uie  site  of 
rendered  sacred  and  memorable.    A  century  Galyazy  on  the  spot  where  the  Heathen  had 
later,  Eusebius  (AJD.  31ft)  informs  us  that  erected  their  temple,  and  set  up  their  pro- 
Christians  -visited  Jerusalem  firom  all  regions  fane  rites.    That  no  small  portion  of  the 
of  the  earth,  for  the  same  object.    So  early  marrellons,  not  to  say  legendary  and  in- 
and  so  decided  a  current  towards  the  holy  credible,  is  mixed  up  in  the  accounts  which 
city   presupposes    a    strong,    wide-spread,  the  ecdesiastioal  historians  have  given,  we 
and  long  pre-eminent  feeling,  —  an  estab-  by  no  means  deny ;  but  we  see  no  reason 
lished  tradition  in  the  church,  touching  the  whatever,  and  we  think  such  a  course  yctj 
most  remarkable  spots;  a  tradition  of  that  unphilosophical,  to  throw  doubt  unsparingly 
nature  which  readily  links  itself  with  the  over  the  whole,  as  does  Dr.  Bobinson*  How- 
aetual  record  in  Hebrews.  ever,  on  the  site  thus  ascertained,  was  erect- 
In  the  fourth  century,  Eusebius  and  Je-  ed,  whether  by  Constantine  or  Helena,  cer- 
rome  write  down  the  tradition,  and  fix  the  tainly  by  Boman  influence  and  treasure,  a 
locality  of  Calvary  in  their  writings.    Euse-  splendid  and  extensive  Christian  temple, 
bius  was  bom  at  Cesarea,  in  Palestine,  Socrates  the  historian  says,  '  The  emperor's 
about  A.D.  270.    In  810  he  became  a  bishop  mother  erected  over  the  place  where  the 
in  his  native  country,  and  died  in  840.    He  sepulchre  was,  a  most  magnificent  church, 
was  a  most  learned  man,  and  wrote  a  his-  and  called  it  New  Jerusalem,  building  it  op- 
tory  of  the  Christian  church.    About  830  ponU  to  that  old  deserted  Jerusalem.'    This 
he  composed  his  Onomasticon,  which  was  church  was  completed  and  dedicated,  A.D. 
expressly  devoted  to  the  business  of  deter-  33ft.    It  was  a  great  occasion  for  the  Chris- 
mining  and  recording  the  sites  of  holy  and  tian  world.    In  order  to  give  it  importanee, 
other  places  in  Palestine.    This  work  of  and  add  to  its  splendour,  a  council  of  bishops 
Eusebius,  written  in  Greek,  Jerome  after-  was  convened,  by  order  of  the  emperor,  fi!om 
wards  translated  into  Latin,  and  thus  added  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire,  which  as- 
his  authority  to  that  of  Eusebius.    Jerome  sembled  first  at  Tyre,  and  then  at  Jerusalem, 
took  up  his  residence  in  the  Holy  Land,  in  Among  them  was  Eusebius,  who  took  part 
the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century,  and  re-  in  the  solemnities,  and  held  several  public 
mained  there  till  his  death.    Pilgrims  now  discourses,  in  the  holy  city.    The  reader's 
streamed  to  Jerusalem  firom  sll  parts  of  the  attention  is  directed  to  the  words  above 
world ;  and  that  site  was  fixed  for  Calvary,  quoted  from  Socrates,  by  which  it  appears 
which  has  remained  to  the  present  hour.  &at  the  church  was  built,  not  in  the  old 
This  was  done,  not  merely  by  the  testimony  city,  but  opposite  to  it    In  this  description, 
of  these  two  learned  fathers,  but  by  the  acts  Socrates  is  borne  out  by  Eusebius.    A  refe- 
of  the  Emperor  Constantine,  and  his  mother  renee  to  the  plan  will  show,  that  such  an 
Helena.    This  empress,  when  very  far  ad-  account  of  its  site  corresponds  with  the  lo- 
vanced  in  life,  visited  Jerusalem  for  the  ex-  cality  on  which  the  crucifixion  and  inter- 
press  purpose  of  erecting  a  church  on  the  ment  took  place.   But  it  is  objected,  that  the 
spot  where  the  Lord  Jesus  had  been  cruci-  sepulchre  is  now  found  within  the  eity.    To 
fied.    The  preceding  details  show,  that  the  render  this  argument  decisive,  it  should  be 
preservation  of  the  memory  of  the  locality  proved  that  the  city  occupies  at  present  the 
was  any  thing  but  impossible.   Helena  would  same  ground  that  it  occupied  in  the  days  of 
naturally  be  solicitous  to  discover  the  true  Christ.    It  is,  at  least,  as  likely  that  it  should 
spot ;  whence  ensues  the  likelihood  that  she  have  undergone  change,  as  that  the  site  of 
was  not  mistaken.   She  had  previously  heard  the  crucifixion  should  have  been  mistaken, 
that  the  holy  place  had  been  heaped  up  and  The  identity  of  such  a  spot  is  more  likely  to 
concealed  by  the  Heathen,  and  resolved  to  at-  be  preserved,  Uian  the  size  and  relative  pro- 
tempt  to  bring  them  to  light    On  her  arri-  portions  of  a  city  which  has  passed  through 
val  at  Jerusalem,  she  inquired  diligently  of  more  violent  changes  dian  probably  any  other 
the  inhabitants  ;  yet  the  search  was  unoer-  place  on  earth.    The  present  walls  of  Jeru- 
tain  and  difficult,  in  consequence  of  the  salem  were  erected  so  late  as  A.D.  lft42,  and 
obstructions  by  which    the    Heathen  had  a  part  of  Zion  is  now  left  out    It,  then,  the 
sought  to  render  the  spot  unknown.    These  city  has  been  eontraoted  on  the  south,  and 
being  all  removed,  the  sacred  sepulchre  was  if  also  it  was  after  the  death  of  Christ  ex- 
discovered,  and  by  its  side  three  crosses,  panded  on  the  north,  what  should  we  expect 
with  the  tablet  bearing  the  inscription  of  but  to  find  Calvary  in  the  modem  city? 
FilatCk    This  account  of  her  proceedings,  Jerusalem,  in  the  days  of  Christ  had  two 
taken  from  one  who  labours  to  bring  into  waUs,  those  termed  in  our  plan  '  first'  and 
disoredit  the  whole  of  Helena's  proceedings,  'second.'    It  is  with  the  second  wall  that  we 
and  who  is  hi  too  indiseriminate  and  sweep-  are  here  chiefly  concerned.    It  began  at  a 


C  A  L 


C  AL 


The  third  mil,  Ihen, 


lnl««T,  nuMd  Oamulli,  of  Iha   first   nil  i  CUi 

*ad  nn  onTrliig  to  the  omUb  of  AntmilA,  exiit  in  tin  tima  of  our  Li»d ;  liul  Bobin- 

whera  it  gndcd.    The  Aird  will  nn  >s  cm  bob  illowt,  ihM,  if  the  pieient  lite  □[  the 

the  plan,  eaihtteiag  *  wide  rabarb  on  the  s^mlslm  tcU  irithout  Ih«  ueond  mil,  all 

Doitfa  lod  north-weM.    Thii  oomprehended  the  eooditioiw  of  the  gencnl  queitiou  would 

■  eort  of  new  oitf,  and  «■•  built  in  oonBO-  be  ttiiHed,    Ooj  plui  of  the  oilj  ahowB 

qnmoa  of  the  Iti^  popoluion ;  whidi,  b;  that  it  nuj  baie  fallen  witfaont  the  Beoond 

degree!,  fixed  their  aliDde  in  the  apace  whi<ik  walL    The  oi^  bulged  oot  on  the  north,  •• 

fills  benraen  the  BBOond  and  third  valla,  it  oontiaelsd  on  Ifae  aouth,  thna   biini^ng 

TUB  wall  waa  not  bagiu  till  thB  nlgn  of  Caliai;  into  it*  oeniral  paru. 


Two  or  diTM  •dditfonal  fkots  m  oonflnn*- 
liati  o(  the  identitr  of  the  preaoit  plaee  may 
flnaUj  be  addaeed.  Bnekinf^am  Bvr>,'The 
prmenl  roek  called  CajTsrj,  and  enoloeed 
wilfain  the  ^iin4i  of  the  holy  eepnlofare, 
bean  maikB,  in  ororj  part  (hat  i>  naked,  of 
ItihaTingbMnaTTDnd  oodnle of  rook  stud- 
ing  aboTe  the  oonunon  lerel  of  the  nntMe. 
SchoU  statee  that  he  traeed  the  nmaina  at 
a  wall,  which  nn  aa  the  eeeond  wall  on  At 
plan  nin>.  eiolading  Ci^tu7,  and  taking  in 
the  pool  of  Heiekiah.  It  niir  be  also  ro 
mailrad,  that,  afnee  the  pnblleatioa  of  Tlobin- 
Bon'a  woik,  BEnmer  haa  pnt  fhrth  a  pieae  in 
wfaieh  ha  revisea  faia  Palistina,  to  far  aa 
Bobfiuon'B  aaeBttained  retnlu  Koidei  neoM- 
aaij ;  but  he  mmalBt  of  the  ainiB  opinim 
in  Kgud  to  the  poeaibilit;  of  the  praacnt 
ehnrsh  of  Am  BepolohM  being  oat  of  ihe 
eitj.    At  moat,  a  ■ntj  few  hiuidTed  yard* 


Btnmc  opinion  eon- 
trar;  to  BobuBon'B,  and  m  fatoor  of  tb* 
genarallj  reoeived  locili^.  Dr.  Ohn  re- 
maiki,  —  'I  will  not  heaitala  todaelare,  that 
1  ravud  Iha  tradltkinatj  aiffnmenl  in  faraar 
of  iha  idtnti^  of  CalTarj  aad  the  holj  w- 
pslchn,  to  be  a*  ntiiAuitoTT  and  eoonliuii* 
aa  any  arfDmeot  ean  be,  which  ia  depaident 
on  IhiB  apaeiei  of  eridenee ;  nor  can  J  par- 
aeln  how  it  may  be  set  aeide,  withoat  doing 
fonduaental  prlnoiplei  wfaiahwe 


alCalTft 


re  Iain  b 


tba  preeent  lita ; 
of  Its  identity,  if  not  deelalTe,  la  far  atmnfer 
Otan  any  that  haa  b«n  addoced  against  It, 
At  the  beel,  then,  rery  nnall  1b  lb*  raaaoa 
A>i  diBtmbiBg  Ihe  eonfietiona,  and  dianeaa- 
iag  the  heart*,  of  the  alnMie  baliiTerB  <Aa 
'riait  the  h<^  aepulehre,  in  order  to  gire  TVst 
to  their  tewtnl  gratimde,  and  dieiiah  dwir 
pJooB  faith. 

In  legaid  to  astfaoiltiea  on  the  point,  Oa- 
IlKdio  wrltan  are  imiTeratlly  hi  faTonr,  Pro- 
tMtant  witMr*  oUan  agahwt,  the  identity  of 
die  present  spot  Among  the  latter,  Om 
reepaetabla  name  of  BSomer  ha*  great 
weight;  and  while  HobinBon  decided  ad- 
renely,  OliD,  who  came  after  him,  and  n- 
*iewBd  on  the  ajrat  hi*  obaarrationa  with  a 
prepo***t*ion  in  fkronr   of  hi*  *i*ir,  w«* 


BoningB  on  isaay  *«1<^I*,  deeply  inlerawing 
to  the  hops*  and  Tirtaa*  at  mankind '  (iL 
308).  SdiabertCBeiMlndaaUorgeulaDd'), 
in  tha  Baeood  editiM  of  kis  tmel*  (ISAl, 
Bee  Prefaoe,  p.  iz.),  dedara*  thatBobinaoa'a 
otjeetionB  have  not  altand  hi*  eonvietion  of 
the  identity  of  tha  draieb  of  the  aepnlohr* 
with  Oie  original  Oalraiy. 

The  gennal  lanor  of  Ihe  entning  renaAa 
by  Dr.  Olio,  haa  our  fall  •oncarrenee ;  — 

'  Many  penona,  I  am  aware,  donbt  tb* 
importaaoe  of  the  qoettioD  to  which  I  haie 
giTCn  BO  large  a  plaae.  I  sannot  conrar  in 
their  t1*wb.  I  haTc  had  loma  oppoctuutie* 
for  obaerring  the  balafol  Inf  nance  of  Ihia 
homir  of  nonaalic  tradltjon*.  Frotestat 
trarallen,  and  eapeoiilly  Amencan  aod  Eng- 
liah  FiDlealwit*,  often  loae  many  of  Ihe  lite- 
rary, ind  all  of  die  moral,  adrantagee  of  a 
viait  to  Ihe  theatre  of  Biblical  eiaota,  by  a 
norbid  nupicion  of  whauna*  ia  aflbmed  or 
bdicTed  by  monks  and  Caiholiea.  Tbsy 
oarry  into  the  midst  of  theee  isqiljiiig  acaiHa 
a  prodatannined  sceptiaism,  which  quits 
diwnna  them  of  all  power  oier  lbs  heart, 
and  congeal*  the  rery  sourees  of  enthnsiasm. 


a  about  Calfaolic 


C  A  L                       230  C  A  L 

nammfliy  and  erednlity,  while  I  knelt  down  elear,  fttrong  delineationa,  such  as  no  other 

with  a  taper  in  my  hand  to  examine  the  hole  spot  of  eailii,  not  even  the  plaoe  of  my  na- 

in  the  top  of  Oalvary,  where  the  Bedeemef  a  tivity,  or  Uie  fann  opon  which  the  days  of 

eroM  is  alleged  to  have  been  planted ;  and  my  boyhood  were  passed,  have  been  able  to 

my  ears  were  wounded  by  ineverent  eri-  piodnoe.    I  indulged  these  emotions  with- 

tieisms,  when  I  stood  in  Uie  ohapel  of  the  ont  atint  or  suspieion ;  and  I  eherish  the 

holy  sepnlehre,  and  gaaed  with  emotion  impiessioins  whioh  they  have  fixed  upon  my 

upon  the  spot  where,  or  near  which,  the  imagination  and  my  heart,  with  unreserved 

omaified  Saviour  was  probably  buried  and  affection  and  religious  ears.    I  trust  I  shall 

rose  again.    This  perverse  apixit  of  seepti-  be  a  better — I  am  sure  that  I  sm  a  hsppier 

eism  is  often  extended  indiscriminatftly  to  —-man,  for  having  been  eonversant  with 

every  obgeet  in  and  about  Jerusalem,  with  these  hallowed  soenes.     They  have  shed 

the  exeept&on  peihi^  of  the  hills  and  deep  new  lights  upon  the  Bible,  and  transfonaed 

valleys  wbkh.  oonstitnte  the  unchangeable,  many  oligeots  of  a  mere  speculative  belief 

natural  foatnres  of  the  region.    For  myself,  into  vivid  and  affecting  realities.     I  give 


I  fteely  confess,  though  it  may  detract  not  a  unfeigned  thanhs  to  God,  thathe  has  granted 

little  from  the  weight  of  my  opinions,  that  I  me  the  privilege  of  reading  the  law  upon 

found  believing  fer  more  agreeable  than  cold  Mount  Sinai,  and  of  living,  for  a  brief  sea- 

incredulity.     I  endeavoured  to  eairy  with  son,  among  scenes  hallowed  by  the  presence 

me  everywhere  a  paramount  reverence  for  and  ministry  and  sacrificial  death  of  our 

truth,  and  the  spirit  of  fair  and  watohftil  bleased  Lord.    I  have  stronc^  felt,  and  I 

eritidsm ;  but  I  could  not  and  would  not  freely  confess,  the  power  which  these  sacred 

deny  myself  the  luxury  of  communing  fnelf  localities,  die  Mcer  adnumUuM  locorum,  exert 

with  the  glorious  objeets  that  fill  snd  sur»  over  the  mind  and  heart ;  and  I  deprecate 

round  the  holy  city,  and  of  yielding  my  every  tendency  to  an  overcautious  and  seep- 

imagination  and  my  heart  to  the  ftill  power  tieel  critioiBm,  which  may  be  liable  to  impair 

of  tib%  sacred  associations  that  duster  upon  the  influence  of  these  inetlements  to  lively 

the  brow  of  its  venerable  hills,  and  teem  in  frith  and  heartfelt  piety,  without  enlarging 

its  deep,  overshadowed  valleys.    The  minute,  the  empire  of  either  religious  or  historiedl 

and  as  I  hope  the  usually  just  and  aeeu-  truth.' 

rate,  observations  which  sppear  on  these  **Twm  bis  to  bend  beaealli  the  sacred  gioomi 

pages,  were  often  made  under  the  influence  And  wear  with  mm  a  kiss  Hcariah's  tomb: 

oi  feeUngs  which  it  would  be  vain  aa  use-  'SJ?^  '**5°!!*^®'*"  5}'*  "S*^!?!?.*^ 

lessTSLipt  to  eonv^  to  the  reader.    I  V^^S-Xl^S^i^lJlSf:^!!^^ 

lingered  about   the  remains  of  the  aged  And  BoftflrBoixovBflbann'dtbeiiioiiniera  soul. 

Temple,  and  admired  its  goodly  stones  with  2**  *  "▼«  thM»  on«  who  modu  bU  vUeaa  seal  ?— 

^  inta«^  intor..^  j«o«d  c«l,  »  flut  of  2.~bffSSfJS;7^?S^"S^,;£r ' 
the  pilgrim  eons  of  Jaeob,  who  spend  their  Tbc  dnll,  l«thai«lo  goTeraia  of  the  breast 
whole  lives  in  pouring  out  prayers  and  tears  Be  bis  the  life  that  oreepa  In  dead  reposei 
amid  the  desolations  of  their  father-Und.  Ho  joy  that  aparktoa,  and  no  tear  that  flows  I  • 
Hy  walks  upon  Mount  Zion,  and,  yet  more.        The  church  of  the  holy  sepulchre,  which 
upon  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the  quiet  and  stands  over  Calvary,  is  an  extensive  and 
fevoorile  haunt  of  the  bleased  Jesus  and  his  sumptuous  edifice,  but  of  an  extremely  ine- 
apostles,  which  I  frequently  repeated,  were  gular  form.    This  inegularity  resulted  from 
psoduetive  of  emotions  often  quite  overwhehai-  a  desire  to  embrace,  as  fer  as  possible,  the 
ing.    They  have  left  impresaixms  upon  my  entire  theatre  of  the  soenes  of  the  crucifixion 
mind  deep  snd  lasting,  -—  as  vivid,  after  the  and  resurrection  of  Christ    From  the  same 
UifiM  of  more  than  two  years,  as  when  I  stood  motive,  the  natural  inequalities  of  the  spot 
among  the  ancient  olive-trees  in  the  Garden  were  preserved.     The  building,  which  is 
of  Oetfassmane,  or  sat  upon  the  mountain  about  three  hundred  feet  in  length  horn 
above,  snd  looked  down  upon  the  Temple  north  to  south,  with  an  iiregular  and  very 
site  from  the  very  spot,  or  near  it,  where  unequal  breadth,  is  ^proached  by  narrow 
Chriat  uttered  the  gvq>hie  and  terrible  pre*  lanes,  which  terminate  in  a  large  court, 
diction  of  its  utter  overthrow.    All  the  grand,  formed  upon  the  eastern  tcont  by  two  pro- 
as well  as  minuter,  features  of  the  Isndscspe  jecting  wings.    This  area  is  usuiOly  crowded 

—  Jerusalem  seated  upon  its  ancient  hills ;  with  traders,  who  sell  beads,  braoelets,  cru- 
the  deep,  winding  ravines,  and  more  distant  cifixes,  snd  various  trinkets  and  small  ves- 
monntains,  that  ** are  round  about  it;"  the  eels  of  Hebron  glass,  and  other  materiala 
dark  vale  of  Cedion  at  the  base  of  Olivet;  deemed  sacred  by  the  pilgrims,  because  the 
the  ancient  road  to  Bethany,  by  which  the  products  of  Palestine.  A  large  buainesa  is 
adorable  Saviour  made  his  triiiaaphsl  entry,  also  done  in  selling  shrouds  of  coarse  oot^ 
"  meek,  and  seated  on  a  colt,  the  foal  of  an  ton,  idiich  are  carried  from  the  vender's 
ass ; "  the  winding  foo^alh  by  wbiefa,  more  stall  to  a  priest,  seated  in  a  window  of  the 
probably,  he  wslked  to  visit  his  *'  friend  church,  who  takes  them  in  his  hand,  and, 
Lasarus,"  and  the  sisters  Maitha  and  Mary,  after  muttering  a  blessing,  restores  them  to 

—  all  are  impressed  upon  my  memory  in  the  deluded  pilgrims,  endued,  ss  they  sup- 


C  AL 


240 


C  AL 


pose,  with  many  preteniataral  yirtnes.  The 
priest  receiTes  a  small  silver  ooin  for  this 
exercise  of  his  fimction. 

The  first  olrjeet  within  the  ohnroh  is  well 
calculated  to  fill  the  yisitor  with  distmst,  — 
a  large  marble  slab,  fixed  in  the  pavement, 
and  snrromided  by  a  low  railing,  with  seve- 
ral lamps  suspended  above  it  On  this 
stone,  say  the  monks,  the  body  of  Jesus  was 
laid  after  the  onioiflxion,  to  be  washed  and 
anointed  for  bnriaL  Pilgrims  kneel  around 
it,  however,  and  impress  it  with  eager  kisses. 

The  holy  sepulohre,  from  which  Uie  ehuroh 
derives  its  name,  and  which  is  the  chief  ob- 
ject of  pious  attraction  within  its  enclosure, 
is  situated  directly  under  the  grand  dome, 
in  the  centre  of  a  circular  area,  separated 
from  the  surrounding  space  by  sixteen  fine 
columns,  that  rise  from  the  pavement  to  an 
upper  gaJleiy,  which  rests  upon  them.  Here 
stands  a  small  and  graceful  marble  edifice, 
a  kind  of  miniature  church,  perhaps  25  feet 
in  length,  and  of  proportionable  height  and 
breadtL  It  fronts  towards  the  east,  and  has 
a  small  platform,  ascended  by  a  few  steps, 
and  surmounted  by  a  low  parapet  of  marble 
before  it  Upon  this  raised  pavement  stands 
a  small  block  of  marble,  die  seat,  say  the 
monks,  of  the  angel  who  announeed  to  the 
women  visiting  the  sepulchre  early  in  the 
morning,  the  resurrection  of  the  Lord; 
another  fiction,  well  adapted  to  provoke  in- 
credulity, and  even  indignation.  The  sepul- 
chre is  within  the  small  edifice  thus  described, 
upon  the  right  hand,  and  has  to  be  ap- 
proached through  a  low  and  narrow  entrance, 
that  can  be  passed  only  by  stooping  very 
low  towards  the  floor.  It  is  a  sarcophagus 
excavated  in  white  marble,  sli^Uy  tinged 
with  blue,  and  only  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
receive  a  human  body.  Though  the  exact 
limits  of  the  marble  block  do  not  appear, 
this  is  unquestionably  no  part  of  the  native 
rock,  which  is  compaet  limestone,  of  a  coarser 
texture  and  darker  hue.  The  founders  of 
the  church  probably  found  the  original  se- 
pulchre mutilated  or  destroyed,  and  substi- 
tuted this  sarcophagus  in  its  place.  The 
area  of  the  tomb  is  nearly  half  taken  up  by 
the  saioophagns,  and  the  seven  or  eight  per- 
sons who  aocopipanied  Dr.  Olin  so  Ailly  occu- 
pied the  rest,  that  it  was  nearly  impossible 
to  move ;  and  respiration  in  the  confined  and 
heated  air  was  difficult  and  painfliL  Two 
or  three  of  the  pilgrims  were  quite  overcome 
by  the  violence  of  their  emotions.  Some 
stood  upon  their  knees,  wrapped  in  silent 
prayer  and  meditation.  Others  bowed  their 
heads  over  the  saroophagus,  sobbii^  aloud, 
and  weeping  profusely.  One  man,  an  ori- 
ental Christian,  poured  some  water  into  it 
from  a  vessel  which  he  had  brought  for  the 
purpose,  and  then  drank  it  out,  and  even 
licked  the  bottom,  convulsed  by  the  strength 
of  his  feelings.  It  is  usual  to  leave  the 
shoes  at  the  door  on  entering  this  most  holy 


of  places,  as  it  is  generally  esteemed  by  those 
who  visit  it  Olin  fea^d,  however,  to  stand 
upon  the  damp  pavement  with  unprotected 
feet,  and  was  admitted  without  conforming 
to  the  prevailing  usage. 

The  exterior  western  end  of  the  sepulchre 
is  circular;  and  it  contains  several  chapels, 
where  the  minor  Oriental  sects,  the  Copts, 
Abyssinians,  and  Syrians,  perform  their  seve- 
ral rites  on  festival  and  oUier  occasions. 

Schubert  has  thus  described  a  night  whidi 
he  spent  amidst  the  ever-enduring  glooms  of 
Calvary : — *  At  three  o'dook  in  the  afternoon, 
we  betook  ourselves  to  the  church  of  the 
holy  sepulchre ;  I,  H.  M.  Krohn,  and  Franx, 
with  the  two  lady  travellers.  The  chants  of 
&e  daily  procession,  which  on  that  day  also 
we  had  accompanied  with  deep  inward  sym- 
pathy, were  hushed ;  —  the  crowds  of  Greek 
and  Armenian  pilgrims  had  left  the  church ; 
—  the  doors  were  closed.  The  evening  red, 
which  faintly  shone  through  the  windows  of 
the  lofty  cupola,  had  already  faded  away;  and 
only  the  lamps,  which  glimmered  round  the 
colonnade  and  on  the  holy  place,  together 
with  the  smouldering  coals  of  an  extinguished 
sacrificial  fire  on  the  ground,  gave  a  feeble 
lustre.  The  good  fathers  of  the  Latin  con- 
vent, who  have  charge  of  the  temple,  had  pre- 
pared for  us  men  a  sleeping  place  in  their 
own  cells ;  but  for  the  two  women,  one  near 
the  organ,  which  forms  the  usual  couch  of 
female  pilgrims.  They  had  richly  provided 
for  us  all  diat  was  necessary  for  the  nourish- 
ment and  refreshment  of  tiie  body :  we  en- 
joyed the  evening  meal  in  the  refectory  with 
the  fathers  ;  for  the  ladies,  a  table  was  pre- 
pared near  their  organ.  When  afterwards 
they  showed  us  our  beds,  that  for  a  few  hours 
we  might  rest,  we  each  repaired  to  his 
place,  not  to  disturb  the  customary  order  of 
the  house ;  but  soon,  with  gentle  step,  I  had 
again  gone  down  into  the  church.  I  sat  down 
on  a  stone  bench,  on  the  rock  of  Golgotha. 
Thus  stiU,  thus  dark,  may  it  be  about  the 
soul,  when  the  eye,  weakened  by  approach- 
ing death,  sees  even  the  noonday  splendour 
glimmer  only  as  the  twilight ;  and  the  ear 
hears  the  voice  of  crying  and  weeping  only,  as 
if  afar  o£  The  gates  are  shut  against  return, 
and  an  abyss  has  opened  itself  beneath  the 
feet,  whose  limits  the  dimmed  eye  seethnot; 
and  terror  seizes  upon  the  soul  at  the  thought 
of  its  fall.  But  dien,  like  those  burning 
lamps  on  the  place  of  the  cross,  instead  of 
the  light  of  day,  another  light  appears  in 
the  night  of  death :  —  "  Fear  not  —  behold, 
it  is  a  firm  rock  which  supports  thee,  and 
on  which  thou  reliest  —  it  is  the  rock  of 
grace ! "  The  little  lamp  threw  but  a  slen- 
der light  round  the  vaulted  chambers,  and  on 
the  old  pictures  on  the  walls ;  but  there  was 
in  that  place  a  light,  which  sufficiently  illu- 
minated another,  but  not  an  outward  picture. 
Here,  in  the  lonely  silence  of  such  a  night, 
collected  around  my  soul  the  forms  of  all 


C  A  L                       241  CAM 

fhepMtdaysof  mylife;  bnt  few  among  them  the  great  gate,  and  we  retained  to  our  pil- 
aaloted  me  with  the  greeting  of  peace :  many  grim  habitations  *  (iii.  64 — 67). 
regarded  me  with  ihM  looks  of  accusers  and  CAMEL  is  a  Hebrew  word  in  English  let- 
enemies.  And  the  soul  stood  afar  off,  and  ters,  which  comes  from  a  root  denoting  to 
dared  not  to  raise  her  eyes  to  the  light  thil  carry,  thus  truly  describing  the  camel  as 
illumined  the  picture ;  but  there  watched  the  beast  of  burden ;  and  giying  one  out  of 
by  her,  like  a  lifebreath  of  the  morning,  very  many  instances,  which  show  that  the 
which  destroys  the  terrors  of  the  night,  a  Hebrew  language  painted  ideas  to  the  mind, 
word  which  stands  firmer  than  the  rock  of  The  camel  is,  in  ^e  East,  a  widely  spread 
Golgotha,  which  shines  clearer  than  the  and  exceedingly  useful  animal,  of  a  lank  and 
brightness  of  mid-day,  —  "  Through  grace  slender  body,  grey  or  brown  in  colour,  with 
are  ye  freely  justified ;  by  grace  are  ye  saved."  a  long  neck,  and  commonly  about  six  feet 
A  short  time  after  midnight,  a  voice  broke  six  inches  high.  One  species  has  two  humps, 
the  sUence  of  this  solemn  temple.  The  termed  in  Isa.  xxx.  6,  *  bunches : '  another 
beautiful  service  of  God,  which  the  devotion  species  has  only  one.  The  former  bear  the 
of  the  pious  fathers  established  here  in  the  name  of  Bactrian  or  Turkish  camels ;  they 
earliest  centuries  of  Chtistian  Jerusalem,  are  the  largest  and  strongest,  and  can  cany 
awoke, — first,  like  watchers  on  the  pinnacle,  from  eight  hundred  to  fifteen  hundred  pounds 
who  also,  *'  in  the  stillness  of  the  night,  each.  Being  much  affected  by  the  sun,  they 
praise  Him  here  in  Zion."  The  fathers  ot  are  imfit  for  use  in  the  hottest  months  of 
the  Latin  convent  lifted  up  their  voices,  summer.  Camels  with  one  hump,  which 
They  sang  hymns,  and  offered  up  prayers,  only  are  found  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  are 
before  the  shrine  of  the  holy  sepulchre,—  divided  into  three  kinds ;  Turkomanish,Ara- 
**  Yea,  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judahas  con-  bian,  and  Dromedary  (Isa.  IxvL  20,  where 
quered."  the  word  is  rendered  in  English,  *  swift 

*  Hereupon,  after  a  short  silence,  the  piety  beasts ').  These  carry  from  five  to  six 
of  the  Greek  Christians  took  up  the  word,  hundred  pounds  each.  The  great  prac- 
and  they  also  sang  hymns  and  prayed ;  then,  tical  distinction  which  seems  to  prevail  in 
in  strange  tones,  the  cymbals  and  tambou-  Syria,  is  between  the  camel  as  a  beast  of 
rines  of  the  Armenians,  accompanied  by  the  burden,  and  the  dromedary  (the  swift  beast), 
voices  of  the  singers,  bmrst  in ;  last  of  all,  like  used  for  riding.  The  dromedary  has  a 
a  solitary  and  foraaken  one,  concealed  in  the  smaller  and  a  more  sightly  frame,  as  well  as 
veil  of  their  national  costume,  the  prayer  of  a  quicker  gaiL  It  travels,  on  an  average,  at 
the  poor  Copts  came  forward  from  the  dark-  the  rate  of  two  miles  an  hour,  which  pace  it 
ness ;  not  less  acceptable,  if  offered  up  in  can  keep  up  continually  for  nearly  two  days.; 
faith  to  Him  who  hears  the  voice  of  prayer,  while  other  camels  go  at  a  slower  rate  than 
than  the  service  of  others,  more  agreeable  to  the  ass,  accomplishing  not  more  than  a  mile 
the  senses  of  men.  and  a  half  in  an  hour,  and  growing  weaiy 

*  After  perhaps  an  hour  and  a  half  or  two  in  about  eighteen  hours. 

hours,   all  was  still:   I  could  have  heard  The  patriarchs    Were    in   possession  of 

the  beating  of  my  own  heart.     Only  a  sin-  camels  (Gen.  xii.  16  ;    xxiv.  10,  seq.)  ;  and 

gle  Greek  or  Armenian  pilgrim,  who,  with  among  the  Israelites  they  were  accounted  a 

us,  were  watching   through  the  night  in  valuable  property  (I  Chron.  xxvii.  80.  Ezra 

the  church  of  the  sepulchre,  had,  during  the  li.  67)  ;  ^ough,  as  might  be  expected,  in 

chant  of  the  Armenians,  come  up  into  the  less  number  than  the  animals  were  found 

chapel  of  Golgotha,  and  prayed  there  a  short  among  their  Arab  neighbours   ( Judg.   vi. 

time:  once  a  Greek  priest  came  out  frt>m  the  5;  vii.  12).     Camels  were  used  chiefly  for 

sacristy,  and  trimmed  the  lamps ;  else  silence  transporting  heavy  loads,  such  as  merchan- 

reigued  here,  as  at  the  bier  of  one  dead  disc,  and  munitions  of  war  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25. 

yesterday.  1  Kings  x.  2.  2  Kings  viii.  9.    Isa.  xxx.  6). 

*  Yet  only  for  a  few  hours  had  the  voice  of  They  were  also  employed  for  riding  (Gen. 
prayer  and  the  song  of  praise  ceased.  The  xxiv.  64.  I  Sam.  xxx.  17) ;  and  females  were 
first  glimmer  of  the  morning  twilight  entered  accustomed  to  sit  on  the  hump,  which  was 
the  cupola  above  the  sepulchre,  like  the  well  covered  on  all  sides  (Gen.  xxxi.  84). 
smoke  which  ascends  from  the  censer  of  the  Sometimes  the  neck  was  richly  adorned 
priests;  when  the  fathers  of  the  Latin  con-  (Judg.  viii.  21).  Camel's  flesh,  which  is 
vent  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  much  relished  by  the  Arabs,  was  expressly 
Greeks  in  their  own  church,  began  their  forbidden  to  the  Hebrews  (Lev.  xi.  4),  on 
prayers,  and  then  celebrated  mass  at  the  the  ground  of  its  being  a  ruminant  animal, 
place  of  the  sepulchre  and  the  resurrection.  As  to  its  hoof,  there  might  be  a  doubt,  and 
I  had  joined  them,  and  found  there  also  our  Moses  accordingly  decides  that  it  does  not 
two  female  companions,  who,  like  myself,  divide  the  hoof.  In  point  of  fact,  the  foot 
had  watched  through  the  night,  and  passed  of  the  camel  is  divided  into  two  toes,  and 
the  greatest  part  of  it  in  the  chapel  of  the  the  division  below  is  complete ;  but  then  it 
holy  sepulchre.  The  other  friends  were  also  does  not  extend  the  whole  length  of  the  foot, 
there.    About  nine  o'clock  the  monks  opened  but  only  to  the  fore  part ;  for  behind  it  is 

Q 


CAM 


242 


CAM 


not  pirMd,  uid  boidn  disrc  Ib  fonml  nndtr  Thii  wiU  ba  mtde  tlttt  by  Ibe  mniii^  sntt 

it,  knd  rannected  with  il>  ■  kind  of  an*tiioa  irtiloh  aihibiu  the  cell*  ihM  an  fannd  in 

or  elutio  pad  on  which  the  cuual  watts,  one  o[  the  four  ■tomaeha  of  a  cimal.    Theaa 

Ths  acsompuijing  flgnie  will  gira  a  lokn-  mUi  an  nmiwioiu,  aaraial  iuehea  deep, 

blj  wiiTNt  Um  of  Ihii  MkimaTa  fboL  fanned  b;  band*  of  mnacalar  flbm,  orow- 
ingaaeh  other  at  ri^t  an^ei ;  and  thiu  are 

Jeanalraeled  ao  a«  to  retain  water,  which  ii 

J  placed  al  die  aninul'a  own  diipoMl.     In  a 

f  eamel  diueotad  b;  Bii  E.  Home,  Ihc  cella 

jM  of  fha  Btomaoh  were  foond  io  contain  two 

m  gaUoni  of  water.    Hooh  more  probably  ma; 

<M  it  exist  in  the  liring  animaj.    Camata  haTe 

^  been  kmed  bf  famlebing  traTellen,  for  the 

v«  water  which  they  held  in  their  m  " 


Tbelr  broad  •apreading  foot  ■nataiae  them 
npoD  plain*  eorend  with  deep  yielding  sand, 
and  it  holds  to  the  smooth  sleep  rocla  with 
the  greatest  trnaelly.  Their  anrefootedneas 
ii  <^  great  Taloa.  They  trsTel  with  ease 
sad  safely  np  and  dawn  the  most  ngged 
Bwantain-pMse*.  Thej  do  not  choose  their 
way  with  tia  sagaei^  of  the  mnle,  or  eien 
of  Ae  horse ;  but  they  tread  mach  more 
•orely  and  eaMy,  and  nerer  either  alip  or 


Caroel*  ai«  fbimed  tot  the  deaait,  to  which 
they  are  admirably  adapted,  and  lot  whidi 
God  eridently designed  them.  Theyeatlen 
than  any  other  animal,  and  do  well  on  sach 
Ibod  aa  could  not  sustain  life  in  any  other 
form.  They  are  indiBerent  to  water,  eren 
when  they  are  traTcUing  seTersI  days  nnder 
■  bmming  ann,  withont  a  enpply.  Dr.  Olln, 
while  in  the  desert  between  Cairo  and 
Snes,  foond  that  bia  dromedsiy,  after  foor 
day>r  abilinanee.  showed  little  inclinstioa 
to  drink,  and  barely  tasted  water,  thon^ 
kept  (or  acme  time  ilandiDg  near  the  reser- 
voir.  The  ability  poisessed  by  these  aikimals 
to  endore  thirst,  or  rather  the  want  otwster, 
for  they  seem  not  to  ■nffer  thirst,  la  proTer- 
biaL  ■  A  donkey,'  laya  oar  authority, '  that 
accompanied  ns  ftom  Cairo,  enfliBred  exceed- 
ingly for  want  of  water,  which  the  owner  had 
neglected  to  bring  tor  his  nse.  His  tongue 
swelled  to  an  enomoos  siie,  and  hi*  life 
was  eaved  only  by  soma  water  which  ws* 
onee  or  twice  supplied  by  the  charity  of  the 
party.'  The  dnimedary,  howcTer,  Mt  no 
inconrenience  whsteier,  in  s  stale  of  Oiings 
«dlidi   nearly    piored   fatal    to    hie    fellow 


The  camel  is  nngraeehil  In  fbnn,  and 
tugslnly  in  motion.  His  foot  is  broad,  sofli 
and  sprawliDg ;  his  legs,  small  and  orooksd, 
with  enormon*  Joints.  The  neck,  which  i* 
aetlow  and  anhes  downward.  Is  alender;  and 
the  head,  which  i*  carried  almoit  horixon- 
tally,  i*  dimiDUtJTS,  and  oat  of  all  propoilioa 
to  the  *iie  of  the  body.  The  hip-hones  are 
prominent ;  the  tail  flat,  ahoit,  and  tapering, 
and  neariy  without  fasir.  The  rough  skin  also 
is  only  partially  eloihed  with  a  thin  coat  of 
scattering  hair,  which,  howeTer,  appesn  in 
thick  sha^y  tufts,  like  coarse  wool,  on  the 
shoulders,  flsnk,  and  belly.  Thehi^bonoh 
adds  to  this  genera]  deformity  and  awkward- 
nesa  of  motion.  Etcu  the  yoimg  hate  no- 
thing ttlsky  or  playlhl,  but,  in  all  their 
morements,  are  a*  ataid  and  sober  a*  their 


CAM  243  CAM 

and,  under  these  ciroamttanees,  he  is  said  althoogh  not  at  first  very  unpleasant,  beoomes 

to  lose  many  of  his  peeoUar  habits  and  cha-  exceedingly  fatigaing ;  so  that  I  have  often 

raoteristios.    He  attains  to  doable  the  usual  been  more  exhausted  in  riding  five  and 

siae  and  strength,  is  more  fat  and  clumsy,  twenty  miles  upon  a  camel,  than  in  travel- 

eonsumes  large  quantities  of  hay  and  grain  ling  fifty  on  horseback.    Yet,  without  them, 

and  drink,with  nearly  the  same  fi«queney  and  how  could  such  journeys  be  performed  at 

oopiouaness  as  other  beasts  of  burden.  aU?'     The    following    is    Lord    NugentTs 

The  camel  lies  upon  his  breast,  with  his  account :  — 
legs  extended  under  his  body,  to  reoeiye  his  '  The  gait  of  the  beast  is  as  tiresome  to 
burden.     He  rests  in  the  same  posture  at  the  rider  as  any  thing  can  be,  which  is  not 
night;  and,  in  consequence,  this  is  his  n*-  physically  fatiguing.    It  is  a  very  proud  and 
tural  position,  by  which  he  is  well  adapted  important-looking  stride,  of  vastly  slow  pro- 
for  carrying  burdens.     He  utters  cries  of  gross,  to  every  step  of  which,  regular  as  the 
impatience  and  anger,  on  being  compelled  pendulum  of  a  clock,  the  rider,  perched  aloft 
to  kneel  dowo  to  receive  his  heavy  load,  and  on  a  pack-saddle,  which  is  perched  aloft  on 
often  starts  suddenly  to  his  feet  before  it  is  a  hump,  is  fain  to  bend,  as  it  were,  in  re- 
arranged, as  if  resolved  to  receive  no  more,  spectfcd  acknowledgment    The  effect  of  this 
or  to  throw  off  what  he  has.    One  can  but  is  at  first  very  ludicrous,  even  to  the  per- 
f^el  sympathy  for  the  reluctant,  complaining  former.    But,  after  thus  stalking  and  bowing 
brute ;  and,  as  he  rises  with  his  burden,  and  for  a  certain  time  across  the  dead  flat  of  a 
begins  to  reel  along  on  his  diminutive,  mis-  desert,  without  a  chance,  exert  himself  as  he 
ahapen  legs,  he  has  the  appearance  of  being  will,  of  mending  his  pace,  it  becomes  ex- 
a  cripple,  and  seems  likely  to  be  crushed  to  ceedingly  tiresome  to  him ;  particularly,  op- 
earth  in  his  attempt  to  traveL    He  goes  on,  pressed  as  he  is,  in  beginning  his  journey  at 
however,   rocking  and   swinging    all    day,  sunrise,  with  the  sense  that  that  pace  must 
showing  no  symptoms  of  fatigue,  and  never  continue,  unimproved  and  unvaried,  till  the 
making  a  mis-step.     He  needs    constant  setting  of  the  same.    To  call  the  camel  or 
guiding,  where  the  way  ia  not  very  broad  the  dromedary  the  "ahip  of  the  desert  **  is  a 
and  quite  unobstructed,  else  he  goes  down  a  great  ii^ustice  to  the  ship  of  the  ocean,  whose 
steep,  or  thrusts  his  rider  into  the  thick  every  movement  carries  with  it  a  feeling  of 
thorny  top  of  an  acacia*tree  without  cere-  life  and  sense,  tempered  by  obedience;  while 
QjQQY.  the  gait  and  manners  of  the  other  leave  a 
Travellers,  as  might  be  expected,  vary  notion  only  of  the  involuntary  and  mechani- 
in  their  accounts  as  to  the  cost  of  labour  in  cal.    I  spoke,  a  while  ago,  of  the  patient, 
riding  the  oameL    The  following  is  Olin's  long-suffering  expression  of  the  camel's  face; 
statement  (ii.  74) :  — '  The  usual  gait  of  the  but  your  opinion  of  the  camel  will,  I  think, 
camel  is  a  jolting  walk.    A  litUe  urging  puts  change,  as  mine  did,  upon  ftirther  and  more 
him  into  a  very  slow  trot,  which  is  decidedly  intimate  acquaintance.    The  truth  is,  he  is 
his  best  gait,  occasioning  hardly  any  fatigue,  but  an  ill-conditioned  beast  after  alL    What 
and  but  little  motion,  to  the  rider.    A  higher  you  took  for  an  expression  of  patience  be- 
degr«e  of  speed  is  obtained  at  the  expense  comes  one  of  obstinate,  stupid,  profound 
of  all  comfort     It  is  quite  intolerable  to  self-sufficiency.    There  is  a  vain  wreathing 
any  but  a  Bedouin ;  threatening  dislocation  of  the  neck,  a  self-willed  raising  of  the  chin 
of  the  joints,  and  peril  of  life.    My  drome-  on  high,  a  drooping  of  the  lack-lustre  eye, 
dary,  being  a  bad  walker,  soon  fell  into  the  and  sulky  hanging  of  the  lower  lip,  which  to 
rear  of  the  caravan,  when,  held  in  to  that  any  who  have  faith  in  the  indications  of 
speed,  I  had  a  good  excuse  for  returning  countenance  and  action  betoken  his  real  tem- 
to  the  slow,  ambling  pace  which  I  have  de-  per.    Then  that  very  peculiar  roar  of  his, 
scribed  as  so  agreeable.    I  became  fond  of  discordant  beyond  the  roar  of  any  other 
thta  mode  of  travelling,  and  would  gladly  beast,  which  continues  during  Uie  process 
have  retained  my  dromedary  for  my  journey  of  his  being  loaded,  firom  the  moment  that 
through   Palestme  and   Syria.     I   do  not  the  first  package  is  girded  on  his  back,  to 
think,  however,  that  this  was  a  common  feel-  when  he  clumsily  staggers  up  upon  his  feet 
ing  in  our  company,  who  generally  seemed  to  begin  his  lazy  journey,  is  a  sound  betray- 
much  pleased  at  the  prospect  of  mount-  ing  more  of  moral  degradation  than   any 
ing   horses,   and  proceeding  with  greater  I  ever  heard  from  any  other  four-legged  ani- 
rapidity.'  ^^ »  ^  *^^^  ^'  exaggerated  complaint  and 
With  the  Ibelings  of  Dr.  Olin's  companions  of  deep  hate,  which  flie  shape  of  his  open 
those  of  Dr.  Bobinson  coincided,  who  says  mouth  well  assorts  with.    The  dromedary  is 

(ii.  632) : '  We  had  now  done  with  ca-  said  to  be  to  the  camel  what  the  thorough- 

mels,  and  I  cannot  say  otherwise  than  that  bred  horse  is  to  the  hack.  But  he  who  has 
I  rejoiced  at  the  circumstance.  Admirably  ridden  a  dromedary  will  never  again  pro- 
adapted  to  ihe  desert  regions  which  are  their  fane  the  qualities  of  the  thorotigh-bred  horse 
home,  they  yet  constitute  one  of  the  evils  by  using  his  name  in  any  such  company, 
which  traveUing  in  the  desert  brings  with  it  The  dromedary,  it  is  true,  is  lighter  than  the 
Their  long,  slow,  rolling,  or  rocking  gait,  camel,  and  capable  of  going  much  faster ; 


CAM                       244  CAM 

but  in  temper  and  spirit  he  differs  horn  the  Koran  shows  the  meaning  of  the  words : 

him  in  nothing  bat  in  being  even  more  — '  They  who  change  our  signs  with  fUse- 

obstinste.*  hood  shall  not  enter  into  Paradise,  until  a 

The  camel's  rigging  and  Appliances  for  eamel  pass  through  the  eye  of  a  needle' (tIl). 

the   comfort  and  safety  of  the  rider,  ap-  The  Talmndists  use,  in  the  same  sense,  *  an 

pear  forbidding  and  even  appalling ;  a  huge  elephant  entering  the  eye  of  a  needle; '  thus: 

pack-saddle  made  chiefly  of  wood  and  straw  —  *  Perhaps  yon  are  of  the  city  Pombeditha, 

padding,  without  stirrups,  and  often  with-  where  they  send  an  elephant  through  the  eye 

out  a  girth,  being  fastened,  in  that  case,  by  of  a  needle.'    Similar  to  this,  is  another  Rab- 

a  rope  passed  round  the  breast     A  rope  binical  saying  —  *The  eye  of  a  needle  is 

halter  is  used  instead  of  a  bridle,  and  the  Be-  not  too  narrow  for  two  Mends,  nor  does 

douins  often  dispense  even  with  this,  guiding  the  amplitude  of  the  worid  sufBce  for  two 

the  animal  with  words,  and  with  blows  upon  enemies.' 

the  sides  of  the  neck.    These  equipments  Another  proyerb  our  Lord  took  from  the 

appear  a  little  dubious  at  first ;  but  a  travel-  camel  —  <  Ye  blind  guides,  who  strain  out 

ler  soon  learns  to  profide  sufllciently  for  com-  the  gnat,  and  swallow  the  camel,'  —  intend- 

fort,  or  even  for  luxury.     Some  doubles  in  ing  to  charge  the  Pharisees  with  being  scm- 

a  rope  make  very  good  stirrups,  where  there  pulons  in  trifling,  but  negleotftil  in  important 

are  so  few  reasons  for  consulting  show  as  matters.    After  the  details  that  have  been 

well  as  conTcnience ;  and  the  awkward  frame-  given  respecting  the  camel,  the  reader  will 

work  of  wood  and  the  straw  padding,  which  at  appreciate  the  force  of  this  metaphor,  which 

the  outset  ottot  so  little  of  the  appearance  or  so  vividly  describes  the  readiness  of  the 

accommodation  of  a  saddle,  are  soon  con-  Pharisees  for  great  and  unseemly  wioked- 

verted  into  an  eligible  and  even  luxurious  ness. 

seat,  by  superincumbent  mattresses,  bed-  The  Arabians  were  fond  of  making  the 

ding,  cloaks,  &o,    A  female  may  ride  in  per-  camel  supply  them  with  proverbs.     Thus 

feet  ease,  seated  on  a  broad  divan  of  quilts,  they  said,  —  *  Men  are  like  camels,  not  one 

Turkey  carpets,  and  soft  cushions.  in  a  hundred  is  a  dromedary;'  — 'The  camel 

Camels,  in  many  respects,  are  not  unlike  ruminates  from  its  birth,'  —  denoting  the 
sheep.  "They  are  a  silly,  timid  animal ;  strength  and  constancy  of  natural  aptitudes, 
gregarious,  and  when  alarmed,  like  sheep,  CAMP  (from  the  Oerman  Kampf,  com- 
tfiey  run  and  huddle  all  together.  They  are  bat)  represents  two  kindred  Hebrew  words : 
commonly  represented  as  patient;  but,  if  so,  it  —  I.  Mahghaneky  which,  coming  from  a  root 
is  the  patience  of  stupidity.  They  are  rather  that  signifies  to  hend,  incline,  seUie,  and  rett, 
exceedingly  impatient,  and  utter  loud  cries  of  has  the  further  meaning  of  setting  up  a  tent, 
indignation  when  receiving  their  loads,  and  or  constructing  a  dwellhig ;  and  is  hence,  as 
not  seldom  on  being  made  to  kneel  down,  a  noun,  applied  to  a  tent,  or  a  collection  of 
They  are  also  obstinate,  and  frequently  vici-  tents ;  that  is,  a  host  or  a  camp.  It  is  vari- 
ous; and  the  attempt  to  urge  them  forward  ously  translated  in  the  Scripture :  — for  in- 
is  very  much  like  trying  to  drive  sheep  the  stance, in Oen.  xxxii.  2, '  host ; '  7, ' bands;' 
way  they  do  not  choose  to  go.  The  cry  of  8, '  company.'  £xod.xiv.  19,  *camp.'  1  Sam. 
the  camel  resembles,  in  a  degree,  thehoUow  xxix.  1, '  armies.'  2  Kings  vii.  16,  '  tents.' 
bleating  of  the  sheep :  sometimes  it  is  like  Whence  we  see  that  the  term  caa^  de- 
the  lowing  of  neat  cattle,  or  the  hoarse  squeal  notes  either  the  collected  tents  of  an  army, 
of  swine.  But  the  Arabs  heed  not  their  or  the  army  itself.  By  an  easy  transition,  it 
cries ;  nor  does  the  poor  animal  find  much  came  to  indicate  the  place  where  an  army 
mercy  at  their  hands.  No  little  of  what  they  lay.  Hence  it  gave  name  to  localities,  as  in 
have  of  bad,  may  be  attributed  to  ill  treat-  Judg.  xiii.  2d ;  xviii.  12,  *  The  camp  of  Dan,' 
ment  Heavy  loads  and  meagre  fare  are  or  Mahghaneh  Dan ;  a  passage  wUch  shows 
habitually  their  portion.  God,  however,  who  that  each  tribe  had  a  camp  of  its  own ;  that 
tempers  the  storm  to  the  shorn  lamb,  has  is,  mustered  its  troops  apart  from  the  other 
hardened  the  camel  to  bear  his  hard  destiny,  tribes. 

He  is  by  nature  a  heavy,  sullen  animal,  hav-  H.  The  other  word  rendered '  camp,'  7bA- 
ing  little  feeling,  and  little  susceptibility  for  ghanoth,  is  only  a  variation  of  the  former, 
pain.  Thistles,  briers,  and  thorns,  he  crops  and  has  a  more  immediate  reference  either 
and  chews  with  more  avidity  than  ^e  softest  to  the  place  of  the  camp,  or  to  the  act  of  en- 
green  fodder;  nor  does  he  seem  to  care  for  camping  (2  Kings  vi.  8). 
blows  or  pricks,  unless  they  are  very  violent  The  camp  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness 

The  camel,  as  being  a  common  and  no-  is  described  in  Numb.  ii.    It  was  a  collec- 

tioeable  animal,  became,  with  the  Hebrews,  tion  of  tents,  having  the  tabemade  (or  tent) 

the  source  of  proverbs.    In  Matt  xix.  24,  of  the  congregation  (Exod.  xxvi.)  in  the 

our  Saviour  says :  — '  It  is  easier  for  a  camel  midst    This  tent  of  the  congregation  vras 

to  go  through  the  eye  of  a  needle,  than  for  the  sanctuary  of  the  wandering  Israelitea, 

a  rich  man  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  and  the  original  of  their  temple  when  at 

Ood ; '  —  intending  thereby  to  represent  the  length  settled  in  the  Land  of  Promise.    In 

great  difficulty  of  the  case.    A  passage  in  regard  to  its  primitive  appUoation,  the  tent 


CAM  24 

of  ttia  congngvlion  wis  simpl;  k  dwetlmg ; 
and,  M  mpplied  to  sacred  poi^oaeB,  the  dwell- 
ing or  JehoT&h  (Exod.  xn.  9).  In  rapn- 
WDlIng  ■  hamui  ibode,  it  eturied  the  mind 
b*ek  to  that  first  depirture  from  a  ilale  of 
QUoiTiluation,  wheo  men  began  to  quit  at- 
nral  and  aitificial  CBTeniB,  and  proenre  for 
tlieiiiwilTBi  ibelter  in  lent*.  It  Ihas  hod 
abont  il  a  praelioal  and  homely  character, 
which,  blending  with  associations  connected 
with  antlqnitf,  would  aid  the  force  of  reli- 
giim,  and  rvoommand  ita  appeal  to  the  bean. 
The  tenU  of  (he  modem  Arabs  are  either 
cirenlai  or  longitadinal,  in  the  shape  of  a 
paraUalogram.  Those  which  have  the  latter 
fonn  are  divided  bj  Dortains  into  three  apirt- 
menU.  The  onler  reeeiTes  caule  and  ser- 
Tanti,  —  the  middle  receires  the  males  of 
the  tamilT,  —  the  third,  or  farthest,  is  the 
letiTed  abode  of  the  women  and  children. 
Not  nnlik*  this,  the  labemaele,  which  was  a 
parallelagram  in  shape,  consisted  of  the  hoi; 
place,  separUed  ttom  (he  most  holj  place  bj 
a  Tail  of  bine,  purple,  and  loarlet,  inwrought 
with  flgiues  ot  eherubim.  The  holj  place 
contained  the  table  and  candlestick.  The 
holj  of  holies  held  the  ark  of  the  testimonj, 
the  mercj-seat,  snd,  before  the  merej-seat. 
the  altar  of  incense.  The  entire  tabernacle, 
which  had  a  Itame-work  otacsciawood,  was 
curered  with  three  cortains  made  of  'linen,' 


embroidered  with  cheri 


ipcnded  before  the 
which  Blood  the  altar  of  bomt-offeriags.  Be- 
tween the  tabernacle  and  the  altar,  was  the 
iBTSr,  containing  water,  with  which  Aaron  and 
his  sons  were  washed,  before  the;  ministered 
in  the  priests' office.  This  altar  and  this  later 
stood  in  thecoDrlof  the  tsbemacla;  an  ample 
space  enclosing  the  tabernacle,  made  off  bf 
a  thune  ot  wood-work  covered  with  curtains, 
and  hsTing  *  gate  or  entrance  with  a  hang- 
ing SDspended  before  it  mien  tfas  entire 
work  waa  finished,  the  diiine  approbation 
was  signified  in  a  specis]  manner ;  — '  Then 
a  cloud  coTered  the  tent  of  the  congregalton, 
and  (he  glory  of  JehoTsh  filled  tha  tabernacle. 
And  Hoses  waa  not  able  to  enter  into  the 
tent  of  the  congregation,  because  the  cloud 
abode  (hereon,  and  ths  gloi^  of  Jehovah 
filled  (he  tabernacle.  And  when  the  cload 
was  taken  up  from  orer  the  tabernacle,  the 
children  of  Israel  went  onward  in  all  their 
jotunejs ;  but  if  the  clond  were  not  taken 
np,  then  they  jonmejed  not  till  the  day  that 
jl  was  taken  np.  For  tbe  clond  of  Jehovib 
wss  npou  the  tahemaele  hy  day,  and  fli« 
was  on  il  by  night,  in  the  sight  of  all  the 
house  of  Israel,  throDgboat  all  dieir  journeys' 
(Eiod.  xi*i— il.). 


The  ubemacle,  thus  constructed,  displays  necesaaiyforils  erection  hare  bee 

an  amount  of  skill  and  of  wealth  which  are  to  be  sqaal  to  ^13,320,  which  m 

striking,  but,  considering  how  recently  the  mush  augmented  by  the  expend 

lataelites  had  led  Egypt  when  it  was  formed,  saiy  for  the  jewelled  dress  of  the  hi 

by  no  means  incredible  or  unlikely.      The  the  dresses  of  the  other  priests,  an 

■traotnis,  indeed,  was  small ;  but  (be  metals  materials  beaides.. 


CAM 


246 


CAM 


This  Ubemacle  occapied  the  centre  of  the 
TUt  Hebrew  camp,  the  centre  being  always 
the  place  of  the  chief  in  every  oriental  camp. 
A  most  beantiAil  system  of  orderly  encamp- 
ment and  of  movement  was  organised  on  all 
its  sides ;  presenting  to  a  spectator  reason 
to  exclaim  in  the  words  which  Balaam  em- 
ployed (Nnmb.  xziv.  2,  teq.),  when,  fh>m 
the  top  of  Monnt  Peor,he  saw  Israel  abiding 
in  his  tents,  according  to  his  tribes :  — 


'  How  beantifbl  are  tby  tents,  O  Jaeob  f 
And  thy  tabemadai,  O  IvrmA  I 
As  the  Tallers,  are  tbey  q>rMd  forth; 
As  mrdens  by  the  rirer's  side ; 
As  Ugn.aloes  which  JohoTah  hath  planted; 
As  cedars  beside  the  waters.' 

This  tabular  riew  will  serre  to  give  the 
reader  a  clear  idea  of  the  camp  in  the  wilder 
ness ;  while,  in  the  lines  and  intervals  which 
it  presents,  it  affords  a  commentary  on  the 
words  which  we  have  jnst  quoted. 


NORTH.  — FOUBTH  DIVISION  —  CAMP  OF  DAN,  157,600. 


8 

s 


H 

O 
Of 


o 


n 

I 

H 


ASHEB, 
41,000. 


DAN, 
62,700. 

AMD 


NAPHTALI, 
63,400. 


3 


CO    O 
CO    S 


MERABITEa, 
8,200. 


flO 


S3 


o  g 

GO     " 

H 
O 


COURT 

or  TRK 

TABERNACLE. 


O 
00 


B 

3 


'saXIHXYHOS 


8gS 


•OCQ'Ct 

'avo 


(unr 


•008'60 
'KOSOdS 


•ooc'w 


00 


wf'ici  'Kaanaa  ao  jkvo — KoieiAia  aKOoas  —  hiqos 


It  wiU  thus  he  seen,  that  the  centre  of  this 
aggregation  of  human  heings  was  the  taher- 
nade,  with  its  holy  of  holies,  the  place 
where  Jehovah  made  known  his  will,  shel- 
tered and  protected  on  all  sides  by  the  em- 
battled tribes  of  Israel.  Enclosing  the 
tabernacle  was  its  coort  The  court  was 
lined  with  priests  and  servants.  These, 
united,  formed  what  may  be  termed,  in  a 
large  sense,  the  sanctuary ;  on  all  sides  of 
which  stood  brave  armies,  prepared  to  die 
in  the  defence  of  their  holy  charge,  and 
inspired,  animated,  and  guided  by  having  in 
the  centre  of  their  host  the  dwelling-place 
of  Jehovah.  The  area,  between  the  court  of 
the  tabernacle  and  the  camps  of  the  tribes,  was 


considerable,  in  order,  according  to  Eastern 
custom,  to  indicate  deep  reverence  for  the 
high  presence  that  dwelt  in  the  holy  of  holies. 
This  area  was  occupied  on  the  east  side  by 
the  tents  of  Moses,  Aaron,  and  Aaron's  sons. 
On  the  other  side,  enclosing  the  tabernacle 
like  a  body-guard,  stood  the  Levites  in  three 
companies ;  on  the  west  the  Gershonites,  on 
the  south  the  Kohathites,  and  the  Merarites 
on  the  north.  Beyond  this  area  were  the 
tents  of  the  twelve  tribes,  who  encamped 
three  on  each  side  under  their  several  ban- 
ners. Three  together  formed  one  great 
camp,  named  kfter  the  leading  tribe.  Thus 
on  die  east  was  the  camp  of  Judah,  consist- 
ing of  the  tribes  of  Judah,  Issachar,  and 


CAM 


247 


CAM 


Zebolan.  The  western  side  was  occupied 
by  the  camp  of  Ephraim,  made  up  of  the 
tribes  of  Ephraim,  Benjamin,  and  Manas- 
seh.  On  the  southern  wing  lay  the  camp  of 
Benben,  which  was  composed  of  the  tribes 
of  Beuben,  Simeon,  and  Gad.  The  northern 
wing  was  held  by  the  camp  of  Dan,  which 
contained  the  tribes  of  Dan,  Asher,  and 
Napthali  The  entire  camp  formed  a  town 
of  tents,  with  lanes,  streets,  and  squares,  of 
very  great  extent,  resembling  the  ground- 
plan  of  ancient  Babylon,  and  comprising  no 
fewer  than  the  vast  multitude  of  603,&50 
men.  Jewish  authorities  state  the  circum- 
ference of  the  entire  camp  at  twelve  miles, 
an  estimate  which  is  scarcely  exaggerated; 
for  the  intervals  were  great  and  numerous, 
and  the  whole  number  of  souls  which  it 
enclosed  must  have  exceeded  two  millions. 
The  movement  of  so  vast  a  body,  much 
trouble  as  it  must  have  involved,  was  faci- 
litated by  the  precise  regulations  to  which 
it  was  subjected.  As  soon  as  the  pillar  of 
cloud  began  to  rise,  all  was  in  active  but 
regrulated  movement  The  people  struck 
their  tents ;  the  priests  enveloped  the  sacred 
utensils,  and  delivered  them  to  the  Levites. 
The  tabernacle  was  taken  down,  and  every 
part  carefully  prepared  for  removal.  The 
draperies  were  put  under  the  care  of  the 
Oershonites;  the  boards  and  pillars,  of 
the  Merarites.  The  more  sacred  objects, 
such  as  the  ark  and  altars,  were  borne  by 
poles  on  the  shoulders  of  the  Kohathites. 
The  boards,  poles,  and  coverings,  were  car- 
ried in  conveyances  drawn  each  by  two  oxen. 
When  all  was  ready,  the  signal  for  marching 
was  given  by  silver  trumpets  from  the  mouths 
of  the  Levites ;  and  the  bearers  of  the  ark 
moved  forward,  followed  by  the  camp  of 
Jndah.  Then  ^e  waggons  moved,  with  the 
doths  and  boards  of  Uie  tabernacle.  While 
these  were  going  on,  another  signal  was 
given;  on  hearing  which,  Benben's  camp 
advanced  under  the  leading  of  its  standard. 
Then  came  the  Kohathites,  bearing  the  sa- 
cred utensils.  These  were  followed  by  Eph- 
raim's  camp.    Dan  brought  up  the  rear. 

The  remarks  of  Josephus  are  worth  cit- 
ing.—'.When  they  set  up  the  tabernacle, 
they  received  it  into  the  midst  of  their  camp, 
three  of  the  tribes  pitching  their  tents  on 
each  side  of  it ;  and  roads  were  cut  through 
the  midst  of  these  tents.  It  was  like  a  well- 
appointed  market,  and  every  thing  was  there 
ready  for  sale  in  due  order ;  and  all  sorts  of 
artificers  were  in  the  shops ;  and  it  resem- 
bled nothing  so  much  as  a  city  that  some- 
times was  moveable,  and  sometimes  fixed. 
The  priests  had  the  first  places  about  the 
tabernacle ;  then  the  Levites,  who,  as  their 
whole  multitude  was  reckoned  from  thirty 
days  old,  were  23,880  males.  And,  during 
the  time  that  the  cloud  stood  over  the  taber- 
nacle, they  thought  proper  to  remain  in  the 
same  place,  as  supposing  that  God  there 


inhabited  among  them;  but  when  that 
removed,  they  also  journeyed'   (Antiq.  iii. 

12,  6). 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  weU- 

regulated  arrangement  had  a  lasting  influence 
on  the  formation  of  the  Hebrew  camp,  as  it 
existed  during  war  in  later  days.  The  ab- 
sence of  detaUed  information  on  the  subject 
is  the  less  to  be  regretted,  because  it  refers 
to  practices  and  involves  thoughts  that  are 
growingly  distasteful  to  the  mind  of  Chris- 
tians (1  Sam.  xvii.  20;  xxvi  6.  Judg.  vii* 
19.     1  Sam.  XXX.  24). 

Sanitary  and  other  considerations  required 
certain  things  to  be  done  'without  the  camp.' 
'  The  flesh  of  the  bullock,  and  his  skin  and 
his  dung,  shalt  thou  bum  with  fire  without 
the  camp :  it  is  a  sin-oflTering'  (Exod.  xxix. 
14).  The  leper,  all  the  days  wherein  the 
plague  shall  be  in  him,  was  unclean :  '  he 
shidl  dwell  alone;  without  the  camp  shall 
his  habitation  be'  (Lev.  xiii.  46).  Hence, 
'  without  the  camp '  came  to  be  aocoxmted  a 
degraded  place ;  for  which  reason  our  Lord 
is  represented  as  sufTering  like  a  leper  and  a 
sin-offering,  without  the  camp  or  city ;  and 
his  followers  are  exhorted  to  go  forth  unto 
him,  'without  the  camp,  bearing  his  re- 
proach' (Heb.  xiii,  11 — 13). 

GAMPHIBE  is  the  English  translation 
of  a  word,  hopher,  in  the  margin  rendered 
cyjtress,  apparently  related  to  gopher  (Gen.  vi. 
14).  By  the  Greeks  the  kopher  was  called 
kupros, '  cypress.'  Gopher,  kopher,  kupros, 
and  cypress,  may  possibly  be  variations 
of  the  same  word,  though  the  objects  they 
represent  are  different.  Kopher,  *  camphire,' 
in  the  margin  '  cypress,'  found  twice  in  the 
Bible  (Cent  L  14 ;  iv.  13)  denotes  tbe  plant 
called  by  the  Arabs  henna,  Egyptian  privet, 
Lawionia  inermie.  This  shrub  grows  in  Pales- 
tine and  Egypt,  reaching  to  the  height  of  ten 
or  twelve  feet,  and  producing  from  May  to 
August  clusters  of  very  fragrant  flowers  of  a 
lilac  colour.  Throughout  Egypt,  India,  Per- 
sia, Arabia,  and  Greece,  it  is  held  in  uni- 
versal estimation  for  its  beauty  and  the  sweet 
perftmie  it  exhales.  Mohammed  pronounced 
it  the  chief  of  the  6weet>scented  flowers  of 
this  world  and  of  the  next  The  henna 
grows  on  hills  of  the  Greek  isles,  pouring  its 
sweetness  on  the  vales  beneath.  Its  blos- 
soms form  the  favourite  bouquet  of  the  Gre- 
cian females.  From  its  leaves,  which  are 
oval  and  of  a  very  bright  green,  a  dye  is  pre- 
pared which  imparts  to  the  tips  of  the  fin- 
gers and  toes,  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  the 
soles  of  the  feet,  a  hue  which  is  yellowish 
red,  or  a  deep  orange.  To  this  practice 
Moore  alludes : — 

<Thuf  some  bring  leaves  of  henna  to  Imbue 
The  fingers'  ends  of  a  bright  roseate  hue, 
So  briffht  tbat  In  the  mirror's  depth  they  seem 
Like  tips  of  coral  branches  in  the  stream.' 

The  dried  leaves  are  preserved  as  a  scent, 
and  anextractpreparedfrom  them  is  employed 


CAM 


348 


CAN 


on  liiiti  ind  tHltTS  ocBuioui,  u  well  h  ia  Egrpliui  woman  (till  wmi  >  buMh  of 
NU([i«ai  MremoDieg.  The  prutiae  of  luing  beiuia  flo««n  in  their  botomi.  The  force 
tb«  dje  if  TBij  uicienl,  is  the  mnmmiea  of  the  lUuBJon  ean  faudlj  be  mppneiated  in 
otUat  hars  Ifaeir  naUs  M*M*d  wllh  the  red  Engluid,  linee  TegetMion  in  the  Eut,  die 
peat*  of  henna.  beaolj  and  ibe  fragnnce  of  flower*,  tar  ■or* 

paii  anr  thing  that  we  know  in  theu  damp 
olimei  and  nnder  theu  oloodj  ikiea. 


Thii  plant  Shaw  apeak*  of  ai  fomlng  the 
chief  branah  of  trade  at  Qlbs,  In  Abioa. 
He  utjt,  'it  ia  cnlLiraled  in  all  their  gar- 
dens, putting  ont  iu  little  flowera  in  clualen 
wfaioh  jield  a  most  gratafol  small,  like  oam- 
phor'  (114).  Hariti  tikeni  the  flower  to  a 
bnnch  of  grapei,  lemarking, '  The  budi  us 
Icii  Qua  the  top  of  a  needle.  Tfaejopan  all 
■t  a  time,  and  form  a  Terj  IotcIj  tuft,  roaem- 
bling  an  nplumed  clutter  of  grapes.  Tbe 
orientaU  set  great  laloa  on  the  flowers,  a 
TUMvgKj  ot  whieh  la  aooountad  a  itij  aooept- 
alilo  present' 

From  Baowolf  we  leun  that,  on  aooonnt 
of  tha  grateftil  odour  tbej  aflbrd,  these  shroba 
an  during  winter  kept  within  doon  in  pota. 
Tbe  aged  Hohammedui  perfane*  hie  beard 
bj  holding  bie  face  otbt  the  rapour  arising 
from  a  preparatioii  of  the  odoriferoaa  henna. 
In  Egjpt  the  flovere  are  carried  slioal  the 
■treels  for  aale,  the  aeUer  as  he  prooeeda 
calling  ilond,  'O  odoors  of  Paradise!  O 
Sowers  of  the  henna !' 

The  application  made  ot  these  facta  in 
Cantides  (L  H)  ia  striking; 


CANA  (H.),  a  town  in  Oalllee,  where  Ae 
Sarjonr  paiformed  hia  flral  miracle  b;  tnm- 
ing  water  into  wine,  aa  if  he  intended  spn- 
bolicallj  to  repreaent  the  tranaition  from  the 
beggarlf  element  of  John's  work  to  the  noble 
■nd  inapirfng  nusajon  on  which  he  was  then 
entering  (John  ii.  I).  This  Csna,  dlArent 
front  Kanah  in  Joah.  iIk.  2S,  does  not  ocoar 
ID  the  Old  Teetament,  bat  ia  mentioned  by 
JosepbuB  as  a  Tillage  in  Qililee.  It  haa 
commonly  been  identified  with  Eefr  Kcnna, 
a  amall  Tillage,  an  hour  and  a  half  north- 
east from  Nazareth,  on  one  of  the  roads  to 
Tiberiaa.  Bobiuaon  r^ccta  diis  nation, 
partly  on  philological  grounds,  and  fiiea. 
instead,  an  the  ruin  Kana  cl-Jein  (Cans  ot 
Oalaee),  the  name  of  which,  he  says,  fa 
idenlieal  with  Cana,  and  stands  the  suna  in 
the  Arabic  Tersion  ot  the  New  Testament 
It  liaa  aboDt  three  hoan:  distance,  almost 
dne  north,  Ihnn  Naisretfa,  beyond  the  plain 
el-Battant,  and  at  tbe  foot  of  tbe  northern 
hilla,  on  the  slope  of  an  eminence  not  far 
on  the  east  of  Eafr  Mends.  Cana  was  the 
natlTe  plan  otNathanael  (John  nd.  2). 

CANAAN  (H.  law  land)  ie  tbe  name  that 
waa  given  to  the  oonntiy  lAich  is  more  com- 
monly tenned  Palestine,  from  the  Gieek 
rBpresentatire  of  the  Hebrew  term  for  Phi- 
liatia,  ot  the  lend  of  the  Philistines,  which 
was  only  a  smalt  part  of  Canaan,  lying  on 
the  BOaib-wesL  The  older  name  was  Ca- 
naan (Qen.  lii  IC),  which,   aa   intimated 


CAN 


249 


CAN 


aboye,  denotes  a  low  country;  the  name 
being  assigned  by  those  who  dwelt  in  the 
high  lands  lying  eastward  of  Canaan,  which 
to  them  was  a  low-lying  country  {Payt  Bat, 
NiederUmd).  The  name  is  only  relatiTely 
descriptiye  of  the  entire  country,  which, 
regarded  in  itself,  is  in  many  parts  hHIy. 
Its  origin  may,  however,  be  aeooonted  for 
thus :  it  was  originally  giyen  with  propriety 
to  the  low  lancU  whieh  stretch  along  the 
Phttnieian  coast  on  the  north-west,  the  in- 
habitants of  which,  spreading  over  the  coon- 
tiy  at  Isrge,  carried  with  them,  and  gave  to 
the  country  generally,  the  name  Canaan. 
Bat  when  the  Canaanites  were  at  a  later 
period  thrust  by  the  Israelites  into  the  nar- 
row limits  of  the  Phcsnician  coast,  then 
PhcBnicia,  properly  so  called,  again,  for  the 
most  part  at  least,  reeeived  &e  name  of 
Canaan  (Hos.  xii.  7.  Zeph.  L  II.  Obad.  20, 
in  the  original.  Isa.  zziiL  II).  Hence  the 
women  who  in  Matthew  (xv.  22)  is  termed 
'a  woman  of  Canaan'  is  csUed  by  Mark 
(tIL  26)  'a  Syro-Phflsnician/  In  Oen. 
zl.  10,  the  country  is  termed  '  the  land  of 
the  Hebrews,'  the  term  being  employed  in  a 
somewhat  loose  and  general  manner.  When 
Israel  had  obtained  possession  of  the  coun- 
try, it  was  naturally  designated  the  land  of 
Israel  (Judg.  six.  29.  1  Sam.  xiii.  19).  At 
a  later  period,  as  the  southern  kingdom  was 
most  distinguished,  the  country  was  termed 
die  land  of  Judah,  —  a  name  which  is  em- 
ployed both  by  Josephns  and  Tacitus.  Ro- 
man writers  often  speak  of  all  Palestine  under 
the  name  of  Idumsa,  since  the  Idumnaa 
Herod  the  Qreat  was  khig  of  Judea,  as  weU 
as  of  Idumaa.  It  is  sometimes  termed 
*  the  land'  simply  (Jer.  ziL  4),  as  being  the 
country  aroimd  which  sll  the  religious  and 
personal  feelings  of  the  Hebrews  clustered. 
And  as  Jehovah  is  represented  as  promising 
it  as  a  heritage  to  the  descendants  of  Abra- 
ham (Exod.  yL  8),  so  is  it  termed  the  *  lend 
of  promise'  (Heb.  xi.  9).  The  epithets 
employed  in  Jer.  iii.  19,  '  a  pleasant  land, 
a  goodly  heritage,'  have  reference  to  the 
excellent  and  lovely  qualities  for  which 
large  portions  of  the  oountiy  were  celebrated. 
The  close  relations  in  whiidi  the  Israelites 
stood  with  Jehovah,  caused  Palestine  to  be 
denominated  'the  Lord's  land'  (Hos.  ix.  8. 
Lev.xxi.2d)  and 'mine  (God's)  house '(Hos. 
ix.  10).  As  the  country  was  tiie  heritage  of 
a  nation  whose  great  duty  was  to  become 
<  holiness  unto  J^ovah,'  Canaan  acquired 
the  name  of  *  the  holy  land '  (Zech.  ii.  12). 

Canaan  may,  in  general  terms,  be  de- 
scribed as  that  part  of  Western  Asia  which 
lies  between  81*  and  88*  8(/  of  north  lati- 
tude, and  84*  W  end  80*  W  east  longitude. 
In  length  it  may  have  been  about  a  hundred 
and  eighty  miles :  its  average  breadth  could 
not  have  exceeded  fifty  miles,  exclusive  of 
the  land  held  by  Israelites  on  the  east  side 
of  Joidan.    It  was  iheiefore  a  small  conn- 


try.  The  epithet '  large,'  which  was  applied 
to  the  land  (Exod.  iii.  8.  Neh.  ix.  80), 
must^  in  consequence,  be  understood  rela- 
tively to  the  original  destitution  of  the 
Egyptian  captives,  who  as  such  were  with- 
out landed  possessions. 

The  position  of  Canaan  on  the  surface  of 
the  globe  deserves  special  attention.  It  lay 
in  the  very  centre  of  the  ancient  world.  On 
its  south-western  border  it  had  Egypt,  the 
cradle  of  civilisation.  The  fertfle  lands  of 
Mesopotamia,  vrith  the  culture  of  Babylon 
and  Nineveh,  were  at  no  Tery  great  distance 
from  its  eastern  boundary.  On  the  line  of 
coast  which  forms  its  western  limit,  it  came 
into  aomal  contact  with  PhcBuician  com- 
merce and  refinements ;  while  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  gave  its  people  a  passage  to  the 
renowned  and  opulent  Tarshish  in  Spain,  to 
the  mainland  and  the  isles  of  the  Greeks, 
and  to  the  flourishing  cities  of  Asia  Minor. 
Arabia  stretched  out  from  its  southern  bor- 
der; and,  by  means  of  the  Bed  Sea,  even 
the  coast  of  India  was  accessible.  A  simple 
glance  at  the  map  will  show  the  reader,  that 
no  spot  would  have  been  better  chosen  then 
this  line  of  coast,  either  for  receiving  or 
communicating  the  li^t  of  knowledge,  and 
the  lofty  impulses  of  religion.  MonoUieism, 
planted  in  Palestine,  could  not  fail  to  extend 
its  light  to  surrounding  countries.  And 
whence,  so  well  as  ttom  Jerusalem,  could 
Christian  missionaries  have  gone  forth  to 
convert  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe?  The 
singular  wisdom  of  Divine  Providence,  in 
fixing  on  Canaan  as  the  spot  where  should 
be  planted  the  germa  of  a  great  and  even- 
tually universal  religious  renovation,  may 
be  illustrated  by  our  attempting  to  find 
another  part  of  the  Old  World  possessing 
greater  advantages.  Where  shall  we  direct 
our  choice  ?  England,  by  her  navy,  is  now 
the  great  sensorium  of  modem  rivilisation ; 
but  this  Isnd  was,  in  ancient  times,  sun- 
dered from  sll  civilised  portions  of  the  earth, 
and  lay  barely  accessible  in  a  distant  and 
almost  unnavigable  ocean.  Babylon  flou- 
rished for  ages,  sending  forth  rays  of  light 
into  all  quarters  of  the  world ;  but  Babylon, 
as  an  inland  city,  had  only  an  indirect  con- 
nection with  western  countries,  and  could 
reach  the  remoter  east  only  with  extreme 
difficulty.  Even  Egypt,  as  a  central  spot, 
snfRers  fai  comparison  with  Syria ;  whUe  its 
extreme  fertility,  fisvour  as  it  might  an  early 
culture,  prevented  that  high,  pure,  and  con- 
stant religious  and  sociid  development  In 
which  the  excellence  and  happiness  of  man 
consist. 

The  fortunate  position  of  Canaan  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  ancients,  who,  viewing  that  posi- 
tion under  now  obsolete  geographical  con- 
ceptions, spoke  of  it  as  being  the  centre 
of  the  earth.  Yet,  though  in  error  in  their 
exact  statement,  tiiey  conveyed  important 


CAN 


250 


CAN 


facts  in  langaage  which  is  easUy  read  into 

modem  and  less  incorrect  phraseology.    In 

the  prophet  Ezekiel  (▼.  0)  we  find  these 

words :  — '  Thns  saith  Jehovah  God :  This 

is  Jerosalem :  I  have  set  it  in  the  midst  of 

the  nations  and  countries  round  about  her/ 

Theodoret  thus  expounds  these  words:  — 

'  He  gave  them  the  middle  of  the  earth  for  a 

dwellJng-plaoe :  towards  the  east  and  north 

lay  Asia ;  towards  the  west,  Europe,  united 

with  them  by  tbe  sea ;  towards  the  south  was 

Africa.    This  position  was  assigned  in  order 

that  the  Heathen  might  learn  piety  and  jus- 

ttoe  from  the  Jews.'     Jerome  remarks  on 

the  same  passage:  —  *The  prophet  bears 

witness  that  Jerusalem  lies  in  the  centra  of 

the  world,  is  the  navel  of  the  earth.    In  the 

midst  of  tfie  Gentiles  is  the  city  placed,  that 

God,  who  was  known  in  Jndea,  and  whose 

name  was  great  in  Israel,  might  be  known 

to  all  nations  around/    With  this  agree  the 

words  of  the  Psalmist  (Izziv.  12),— '  God 

my  King  of  old,  working  salvation  in  the 

midst  of  the  earth.*    This  middle  point,  it 

has  been  remarked,  is  the  spot  on  which 

Christ  was  crucified,   and  therefore  these 

words  of  the  Psalmist  were  inscribed  in  the 

church  of  the  holy  sepulchre.    In  the  same 

view,  an  old  Christian  poet  says,  — 

'Golgotha  locos  est. 
Hie  madinm  terras  est,  fate  est  vtotoria  atgiuun/ 

'  Golgotha  is  a  place  which  is  the  oentre  of 
the  earth,  and  the  sign  of  victory.'  Indeed, 
Jemsslem  and  all  Canaan  belong  to  a  penin- 
sula formed  by  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Black  Sea  on  the  north,  the  Persian  Gulf  on 
the  east,  the  Bed  Sea  on  the  west,  and  the 
Sea  of  Arabia  on  the  south.  This  peninsula 
comprises  the  high  lands  of  Armenia,  and 
extends  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Arabia. 
As  such  it  is  the  theatre  of  the  greatest 
events  of  which  history  gives  a  record.  On 
the  high  lands  of  this  peninsula,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates, 
lies,  according  to  &e  book  of  Genesis,  the 
cradle  of  the  human  race.  Not  far  distant 
is  Ararat,  the  spot  on  which  Noah  settled 
after  the  flood,  about  a  middle  point  between 
the  moat  northern  end  of  Asia  (Behring's 
Straits)  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the 
extreme  point  of  Africa,  on  the  longest  land- 
line  on  the  surface  of  the  globe.  When, 
from  these  central  spots,  the  earth  had  been 
twice  peopled,  Jehovah  selected  for  the 
dweUing  of  his  chosen  people  the  western 
part  of  the  peninsula,  Canaan,  in  order  to 
separate  them  from  all  the  Heathen,  and 
eventually  to  make  them  a  channel  of  his 
grace  to  the  entire  globe.  On  the  east  and 
on  the  south,  this  narrow  strip  of  country 
was  severed  from  idolaters  by  deserts.  On 
the  north  the  land  was  shut  in  by  Lebsnon : 
on  the  west  it  was  protected  by  the  sea.  In 
so  well-environed  a  country,  the  seed  of  a 
new  social  existence  could  germinate  suc- 
cessfrilly,  as  in  a  happily  located  garden. 


Yet  the  instruments  of  God's  judgments 
found  their  way  through  deserts  and  over 
mountains,  to  punish  a  nation  which  chose 
a  curse  instead  of  a  blessing.  No  land  has 
been  so  wasted  by  war  as  that  which  was 
thus  sheltered  by  sea,  mountain,  and  desert 
To  pass  over  Jerusalem  in  silence,  few  spots 
on  &e  earth  have  had  to  endure  so  much 
bloodshed  as  Nasareth,  and  a  circuit  of  ten 
miles  around.  Joshua's  victory  at  Merom, 
Barak's  on  the  Eishon,  Gideon's  in  the  plain 
of  Jeireel,  Josiah's  at  Megiddo,  Vespasian's 
near  Tabor  and  Tariehete,  Saladin's  victory 
at  Hittin,  Bonaparte's  at  Tabor,  Ibrahim 
Pasha's  conquest  of  Acre,  —  sll  these  bloody 
scenes  took  place  in  the  environs  of  the  spot 
where  the  *  Prince  of  peace'  grew  up  to 
manhood. 

But,  as  the  messengers  of  God's  anger 
penetrated  into  this  closed  and  well-defend- 
ed land,  so  bis  divine  blessing  made  way 
throuj^  its  barriers  over  the  entire  earth. 
If,  for  instance,  the  sea  separated  the  Jews, 
who  were  not  a  seafaring  people,  tcom  die 
lands  that  lay  to  the  west,  yet,  from  the  time 
of  Alexander,  did  this  sea  bring  them  into 
close  connection  with  the  most  important 
nations  of  the  earth,  individuals  of  which, 
under  the  shelter  of  Boman  citizenship, 
dwelt  in  their  cities,  spread  over  and  settled 
down  in  their  land.  By  degrees,  the  aliena- 
tion which  had  been  requisite  in  order  to 
guard  against  idolatry  was  worn  away,  and 
preparation  was  made  for  the  publication  of 
the  gospel,  to  which  great  work  most  im- 
portant facilities  were  given  by  the  very  sea 
which  had  aforetime  been  a  wall  to  the 
monotheism  of  the  Hebrews.  If  these  things 
are  coigointly  taken  into  account,  it  will  be 
easy  for  the  reader  to  see  why  Abraham  was 
caUed  to  quit  his  native  country,  and  journey 
into  Canaan;  and  why  the  Israelites  were 
delivered  from  Egypt,  and  established  in  the 
land  of  promise;  —  why  and  how  it  was, 
that  from  Zion  Uie  word  of  Jehovali  went 
out  through  all  the  earth ;  —  why  and  how, 
among  the  peasants  of  Bethlehem,  that 
shepherd  was  bom  whose  flock  should  feed 
over  the  entire  world.  And  it  is  in  the 
midst  of  so  wide  a  view  as  that  which  we 
have  now  taken,  that  we  behold  a  frill  and 
complete  justification  of  the  divine  dealings 
concerning  Israel,  and  lose  from  sight  small 
difficulties  that  might  otherwise  occupy  a 
disproportionate  part  of  the  field  of  vision, 
and  occasion  corresponding  pain. 

The  boundaries  of  Canaan  varied  at  dif- 
ferent periods.  According  to  the  geographi- 
cal limits  laid  down  in  Gen.  x.  10,  ancient 
Canaan  formed  a  triangle,  whose  ^i«x  was 
Sidon,  and  whose  base  was  a  line  drawn 
from  Gaza  on  the  Mediterranean  to  Gerar, 
continued  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Dead  Sea ;  whence  ran  a  nearly  pcxpendicu- 
lar  line  northwards  through  Sodom,  up  the 
Jordan,  over  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  aq^l  the 


CAN 


25  L 


CAN 


waters  of  Merom,  till  it  came  to  Lasha 
(Laisb  or  Dan),  where  it  turned  abmptly  in 
a  westerly  direction  on  to  Sidon.  In  Numb, 
zzxiv.  2f  8eq.  are  given  the  bonndariea  of 
Canaan,  as  it  was  to  be  conqnered  by  the  Is- 
raelites. For  the  western  border,  <  the  great 
sea,'  the  Mediterranean,  is  given ;  as  a  nor- 
thern limit,  Lebanon;  Jordan  is  the  eastern; 
and  the  southern  boundary  runs  from  the 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  including  Kadesh 
Bamea,  to  *  the  river  of  Egypt,'  tfie  Bhino- 
kolura,  now  called  the  Wady-el-Arish. 

The  passages  found  in  Numb.  zzxiL 
83—42,  and  Josh.  ziii.  1&— 31,  lay  down  the 
extent  of  country  which  the  tribes  of  Reu- 
ben, Dan,  and  half  Manasseh  obtained  on 
the  east  of  Jordan.  Joshua  (xv. — xzi.), 
narrates  how  the  land  of  Canaan  itself  was 
allotted  by  Joshua,  and  the  priest  Eleazar 
(oomp.  Numb,  xxxiv.  16 — ^29.  Josh.  xiy.  1) ; 
and  defines  the  borders  of  the  land  which 
was  to  become  the  property  of  the  nine  and 
half  remaining  tribes.  It  is,  however,  by 
no  means  easy,  in  applying  the  facts  here 
given,  to  lay  down  with  exactness  the  precise 
boundaries  of  particular  tribes,  or  the  limits 
of  the  whole  country,  since  many  of  the  given 
data  are  totally  unknown  to  us.  At  the  same 
time,  the  particularity  of  the  narratives  is  a 
guarantee  of  their  historical  credibility. 

If  now  we  put  together  the  facts  on  which 
we  oan  rely,  we  may  assign  the  boundaries 
of  the  land  in  the  following  manner     We 
begin  with  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan. 
The  southern  limit  ran  from  the  south  end  of 
the  Salt  Sea,  westward  to  the  embouchure 
of  the  river  of  Egypt,  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.    On  the  west,  that  sea  itself  was  the 
limit  as  fkr  as  Sidon,  since  this  place  was 
given  to  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  28).    The  nor- 
thern border  ran  from  a  point  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, a  little  to  the  north   of  Sidon, 
through  HamaUi  to  Mount  Hor,  which  was 
probably  a  part  of  Lebanon  (Numb,  xxxiv. 
7 — 9),  and  Hazar-Enan,  which,  says  Jerome, 
was  ihe  (western)  limit  of  the  territory  of 
Damascus.    The  eastern  boundary  extended 
from  Enan  to  the  Sea  of  Chinnereth  (Oenne- 
sazeth),  along  the  Jordan  to  the  southern  limit 
of  the  Dead  Sea  (Numb,  xxxiv.  10—12).  On 
the  eastern  side  of  Jordan,  the  two  and  half 
tribes  obtained  the  land  which  Moses  took 
fi^m  the  Amorite  kings,  Sihon  of  Heshbon, 
and  Og  of  Bashan.    The  northern  boundary 
of  the  eastern  tribes  was  Hermon ;  the  wes- 
tern ran  from  the  fountains  of  the  Jordan  to 
the  point  where  the  river  Amon  flows  into 
the  Dead  Sea.    The  eastern  district  was  not 
so  well  defined.    The  limit  began  with  Her- 
mon, and,  proceeding  in  a  south-easterly  di- 
recUon,  came  to   Salchah   (Dent  iii.  10), 
which  Bnrekhardt  and  Buokhigham  seem  to 
have  identified.     Thence  it  passed  in  an 
ondnlating  line  to  Babbath-Ammon,  and  so 
round  westwards  to  the  river  Amon,  to  the 
nortk-eastem  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea.   A 


line  from  this  point  to  the  southern  point  of 
the  same  sea,  unites  the  eastern  with  the 
western  territories. 

The  passages  found  in  Josh.  xiii.  l--^ 
and  18,  mention  what  parts  the  Israelites 
did  not  take  possession  of,  or  what  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country  they  did  not  destroy. 
Yet  more  accurate  ix^ormation  on  the  subject 
is  given  in  Judg.  i ;  iii.  1 — 8. 

It  has  been  objected,  that  Jehovah  pro- 
mised to  the  descendants  of  Abraham  a  land 
of  larger  dimensions  than  that  into  posses- 
sion of  which  they  came  :  — '  Unto  thy 
seed  have  I  given  this  land,  from  the  river  of 
Egypt  unto  Sxe  great  river,  the  river  Euphra- 
tes.' But  if  by  the  river  of  Egypt  is  meant 
the  Nile,  then  in  the  Ishmaelites,  who  were 
descendants  of  Abraham,  and  who  to  this 
day  are  masters  of  the  land  from  the  Eu- 
phrates to  the  Nile,  was  the  promise  strictly 
fulfilled.  In  Exod.  xxiii.  81,  we  read  a 
promise  made  to  the  Israelites:  — '  I  will  set 
thy  bounds  firom  the  Red  Sea,  even  unto  the 
sea  of  the  Philistines,  and  from  the  desert 
unto  the  river '  (Euphrates) ;  which  promise 
took  etteei  in  the  reign  of  Solomon.  Da- 
mascus was  conquered  by  David,  who  sub- 
jected Syria  (2  Sam.  viiL  6).  Solomon 
held  possession  of  Ezion-geber  and  Elath 
on  the  Bed  Sea  (1  Kings  ix.  26),  and  built 
Tadmor  (Palmyra)  in  the  wilderness  (2 
Chron.  viii.  8— -6) ;  and  he  had  dominion 
over  all  on  this  side  the  river,  from  Tiphsab 
(on  the  Euphrates,  Thapsaous)  to  Gaza 
(1  Kings  iv.  24).  Thus,  in  agreement  vrith 
tiie  promise,  the  boundaries  of  the  kingdom 
under  Solomon  were  from  the  Bed  Sea  to  the 
Euphrates  northwards  into  the  desert,  and 
on  the  west  of  Jordan,  from  Dan  (Laiah)  in 
the  north,  to  Beersheba  in  the  south,  includ- 
ing the  entire  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
from  near  Sidon  down  southward  to  the 
river  of  Egypt  If,  however,  there  were  cities 
such  as  Sidon  itself  (Judg.  i),  out  of  which 
the  Israelites  did  not  expel  the  ancient  in- 
habitants, or  which  they  retained  possession 
of  only  for  a  short  time,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  all  the  promises  were  conditional 
on  the  obedience  of  the  Israelites ;  and  the 
nations  that  remained  are  expressly  said  to 
have  been  left  in  order  *  to  prove  Israel,'  — 
'  to  know  whedier  they  would  hearken  unto 
the  commandments  of  Jehovah '  (Judg.  ilL 
2,  4;  comp.  Dent  xi.  22,  seq.).  When  in 
process  of  time  it  was  at  last  shown  that 
the  Israelites  would  not  obey  Qod,  they  lost 
their  country.  After  the  death  of  Solomon, 
the  kingdom  was  divided,  and  the  people 
fell  away  from  Jehovah.  Then  the  two  and 
half  tribes,  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  the 
tribe  of  Naphtali,  were  carried  away  to  As- 
syria by  Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kings  xv.  29. 
1  Chron.  v.  26).  At  a  later  period  the  tribes 
on  the  west  of  Jordan,  excepting  Judah  and 
Benjamin,  were  led  captive  to  Assyria  by 
Shalmaneser,  and  at  last  Judah  and  Benjamin 


q  AN 


252 


CAN 


•Iso  were  ttken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Ba- 
bylon (2  Kings  xvii.  6 ;  zxiv.  10,  w^.)-  ^QB 
was  all  the  land  which  had  been  promised 
to  Israel,  and  which  they  had  conquered 
under  Moses,  Joshua,  and  David,  forfeited 
and  lost,  because  '  they  transgressed  against 
the  Qod  of  their  fathers '  (1  Chron.  y.  2d ; 
comp.  2  Kings  xvii.  1 — ^20). 

Canaan,  considered  in  relation  to  its  neigh- 
bouring countries,  is  that  part  of  Syria  which 
comprises  Phcsnioia  on  the  north,  and  Phi- 
listiA  on  the  south ;  having  Asia  Minor  on 
its  north-west,  Egypt  on  its  south-west,  and 
the  great  Syrian  desert  on  the  east  It  is 
pervaded  in  nearly  its  entire  length  by  a 
spur  from  the  Caucasian  mountains,  sent 
out  immediately  by  Mount  Taurus,  which, 
entering  Syria  under  the  name  of  Mount 
Amanus,  receives  somewhat  south  of  Antioch 
the  designation  of  Mount  Casius,  and  in  its 
Palestinian  relations  is  known  as  Lebanon, 
which,  proceeding  northward,  fonns  the  hill 
ooxmtJ^  of  Judah,  and  tapers  away  towards 
the  west  into  the  low  lands  of  the  Egyptian 
Delta;  but  on  the  east  runs  in  a  chain  of 
hills  as  far  as  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red 
Sea,  and  so  makes  its  way  to  rise  into  the 
lofty  and  precipitous  heights  of  Horeb  and 
SinaL  In  order,  therefore,  to  acquire  a  ftiU 
•8  well  as  accurate  idea  of  the  physical  pecu- 
liarities of  Canaan,  we  must  comprehend  in 
our  survey  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  and  pur- 
sue our  way  hence  to  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  land. 

The  extent  of  country  which  will  thus 
pass  under  a  rapid  review,  is  picturesquely 
described  in  the  following  lines :  — 

'  Hoar  LelMiKm.  majestic  to  the  wfaids, 
Chief  of  a  hmiared  hlllfl^  bis  sammft  rears 

By  Jordan  south, 
Whato'er  the  desert's  yellow  amis  embrace; 
Rich  OUead,  Idnmna'i  pafaay  plabi, 
And  Judah's  olive  hills ;  thenoe  onward  those 
ClifT-guarded  eyries,  desert  bound,  whose  height 
Mocr  d  the  prond  eagles  of  nqtadons  Borneo 
The  fluned  Petnean  citadels;  tUl last 
Else  the  lone  peaks,  by  Heaven's  own  glory  orown'd, 
Sinai  on  Horeb  piled? 

At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai,  there  rises  a  wild  mountain  mass  of 
granite  and  porphyry,  whieh  is  succeeded 
by  a  range  of  red-stone  heights.  The  former 
divides  itself  into  several  ranges  of  moun^ 
tains,  sharply  separated  by  deep  and  preci- 
pitous clefts,  forming  valleys  and  water- 
oourses.  These  ranges  run  north  and  south, 
with  an  indhiation  towards  the  east  They 
throw  up  bare  and  dark  cliffs  to  heaven,  des- 
titute of  vegetation.  In  the  valleys,  verdure 
is  found;  and  some  favoured  spots  are 
covered  with  vegeution.  Wherever  water 
settles,  agriculture  proves  successfuL  And 
this  lofty  region  has  more  moisture  than  the 
neighbouring  lowlands.  The  temperature  is 
moderate,  the  climate  healthy. 

The  shape  of  the  mountain  range  is,  like 
the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  triangu- 


lar. Commenchig  with  the  seaeoast,  a  line 
of  hills  stretches  along  north  and  south  on 
both  sides  of  the  peninsular  triangle,  whieh« 
being  intersected  with  water-courses,  run  up 
to  an  immense  back  or  ridge  called  Jebel  et 
Turfa,  that  oomes  down  firom  the  main  mass 
or  base  of  the  Sinaitic  triangle  to  the  point  of 
the  peninsula.  That  mass  itself  consists 
of  four  parallel  ranges,  of  which  Moont  Ca- 
therine, 8008  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
is  the  most  northern  as  well  as  the  loftiest ; 
and  Motmt  Horeb  is  nearest  but  one  towards 
the  east  Horeb  is  7080  feet  high.  On  the 
north,  Horeb  breaka  down  suddenly  into  a 
very  capacious  vale,  enclosed  by  hills.  The 
entire  mass  of  which  we  have  spoken,  the 
Sinaitic,  recedes  and  admits  this  vale,  which 
is  wedge-shaped,  into  itself;  and  the  vale,  on 
its  part,  is  backed  by  a  triangular  mass  of 
table-land,  that  runs  into  it  in  the  same 
wedge-shape  msnner.  In  this  valley,  thus 
running  into  the  Sinaitic  group,  and  at  the 
base  of  Mount  Horeb,  where  the  valley  is  at 
its  widest,  there  was  ample  space  for  the 
children  of  Israel  to  assemble ;  whom  Moses 
had  brou^t  into  this  singnlsr  bosom  of  the 
earth,  for  important  and  sacred  purposes. 
And  so  sudden  is  the  break  of  Horeb 
down  into  the  valley  beneath,  that  the  moun- 
tain itself  looks  as  if  it  could  be  touched. 
Nor  can  any  spot  be  well  conceived  more 
fitted,  by  its  deiUh-like  stillness,  its  unbroken 
solitude,  its  seclusion,  its  imposing  and  aw- 
fiil  grandeur,  to  work  on  the  imagination, 
and  aid  the  religious  impressions  which 
Moses  intended  to  produce. 

This  mountainous  mass  sinks  towards  the 
north  down  to  a  sandy  plain,  8000  feet  above 
the    sea,    denominated    Debbet  er-Ramleh, 
which  runs  across  the  peninsula  in  a  south 
south-east  direction.     Towards   the  north 
the  plane  is  backed  by  a  ridge  of  limestone 
rocks,  called  Jebel  et  Tih,  riamg  to  the 
height  of  4800  feet    This  range  runs  along 
both  sides  of  the  peninsula,  forming  a  wall 
like  two  sides  of  a  triangle,  and  extend- 
ing to  the  top  of  the  two  arms  of  the  Red 
Sea.     Indeed,  the  eastern  ridge  continues 
until  it  reaches  the  Dead  Sea.     At  Ailah,  at 
the  top  of  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea, 
the  range  divides  into  two,  of  which  the  east- 
em  ridge  forms  the  mountains  of  Seir,  Oebal, 
and  Moab ;  the  western,  those  of  Idumea, 
having  a  wide  vale  between  them,  designated 
Arabah.    As  these  mountains  go  northward, 
they  sink  into  the  desert  et  Tih,  in  which  the 
Israelites  wandered  eight  and  thirty  years. 
This  desert  has  a  height  of  1400  feet,  and 
forms  a  part  of  that   frightfol  wildemess 
which,  under  the  name  of  Sshara,  runs  from 
the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  across  Nor- 
thern Africa.    Egypt,  which  intersects  it,  is 
only  a  long  oasis ;  for  on  the  eastern  bank  of 
the  Lower  Nile  the  desert  begins,  and  con- 
tinues across  the  peninsula.    This  desert 
extends  eastwards  to  the  Euphrates,  north- 


CAN                      253  CAN 

wards  to  the  Ticinity  of  Damascus,  and  soath-  Still  longer  is  the  ascent,  if  he  begins  his 
wards  it  penetrates  deep  into  Arabia.  The  journey  from  the  Dead  Sea. 
Wady  el  Arabah,  formed  by  the  separation  From  Hebron,  the  hill  country  of  Jadah, 
of  etTih,  as  has  just  been  described,  running  with  that  of  Ephraim,  which  joins  it,  inns 
from  the  northern  end  of  the  Ailanitic  Gulf  to  northward  as  far  as  Shechem  at  nearly  the 
the  Dead  Sea,  divides  the  Arabian  desert  same  altitude :  from  Shechem  the  country 
into  a  western  and  an  eastern  part  The  fSalls  down  into  the  plain  of  Jezreel.  The 
western  is  et  Tih  (that  is,  the  wandering),  water  of  this  line  of  hills  flows  eastwards  to 
which  sinks  from  the  west  down  to  Arabsh.  the  Dead  Sea,  and  westwards  to  the  Mediter- 
On  the  opposite  side,  rises,  on  the  east  of  ranean ;  on  the  water-shed,  or  near  it,  lay 
Arabah,  the  steep  mountains  of  Edom.  Bare  and  lie  the  most  important  cities,  Hebron, 
hills  of  chalk,  and  moving  masses  of  sand,  Bethlehem,  Jerusalem,  Ramah,  Oibeon,  Qi> 
sprinkled  with  flints,  characterise  the  bar-  bea,  Sfichmas,  Bethel,  Shiloh,  Shechem. 
ren,  unwatered,  and  frightful  desert  et  Tih.  Along  the  same  water-shed  runs  the  northern 
Very  different  is  the  range  of  Edomite  hills,  continuation  of  that  road  which,  as  we  have 
As  a  continuation  of  the  Sinaitic  mass,  they  seen,  leads  from  Sinai  to  Hebron, 
are  of  granite  and  porphyry,  but  covered  A  look  at  the  map  shows,  that  the  ftll  of 
with  f^sh  vegetation.  Only  here  and  there  the  hilly  country  of  Judah  and  Ephraim  to 
marked  by  rocks  of  later  formation,  the  range  the  Dead  Sea  and  Jordan  is  much  shorter 
shows  its  granite  and  porphyry,  even  when  than  the  fall  to  the  Mediterranean.  As,  be- 
lt stands  on  the  shores  of  ttie  Dead  Sea.  sides,  the  level  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  of  the 

It  was  once  thought,  that  the  Jordan  ran  Jordui  lies  much  lower  than  the  Mediter- 

through  Wady  Arabah  into  the  eastern  arm  ranean,  so  this  fall  on  the  eastern  side  must, 

of  the  Red  Sea.    This  view  has  been  dis-  on  two  grounds,  be  much  more  steep  than 

proved  by  modem  observations.    Robinson  is  that  on  the  west 

has  shown  it  to  be  probable,  that,  where  the  If  you  go  tnm  the  heights  of  Judah  and 

thirtieth  line  of  latitude  cuts  the  Arabah,  Ephraim  to  the  Mediterranean,  your  way  at 

there  is  a  water- shed  between  the  said  arm  firat  conducts  you  over  rugged  limestone 

and  the  Dead  Sea,  which  proves  that  the  land,  mountains,  inteneoted  with  deep  valleys; 

being  at  the  highest  at  the  thirtieth  degree  then  into  a  hilly  region,  and  thence  down  to 

before  mentioned,  sinks  in  the  two  opposite  the  plains  on  the  seacoast    These  charac- 

directions  of  north  and  south.    Against  the  teristio  differences — mountains,  hill  region, 

theory,  too,  is  Schubertf  s  conclusion,  namely,  and  plains — are  found  in  the  book  of  Jo^ua, 

that  the  level  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  ihe  whole  in  the  numbering  of  the  towns  which  be- 

valley  of  the  Jordan,  is  below  the  level  of  the  longed  to  Judah  (Josh,  zv.) 

Mediteiranean.     Symonds  has  ascertained.  The  height  of  the  mountain  range,  it  has 

that  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  is  84,  and  the  Dead  been  observed,  remains  nearly  the  same  from 

Sea  1387  feet  below  the  Mediterranean.  Hebron  to  Shechem,  on  the  average  about 

From  the  mountains  et  Tih  runs  the  2000  feet;  at  Shechem  it  sinks  to  1751  feet; 

water-shed  between  the  Mediterranean  and  from  here  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim  falls 

the  Wady  Arabah  northwards  through  the  in  a  north  and  north-westerly  direction  to 

desert;  to  the  sea,  the  water  is  borne  by  the  plain  JezreeL    Gin»a  (Jenin),  on  the 

the  Wady  el  Arish  (river  of  Egypt) ;  to  Ara-  edge  of  that  plain,  lies  up  only  515  feet :  the 

bah,  it  is  conducted  by  the  Wady  el  Jerafeh,  plain  itself,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tabor,  is 

which,  united  with  the  Wady  el  Jeib,  flows  480  feet  high.    High  forest  lands  extend  in 

into  the  Dead  Sea.   This  water- shed,  for  the  a  north-western  course  from  Mount  Ephraim 

most  part,  follows  the  road  from  Sinai  through  to  Carmel ;  and  over  these  heights  ran,  flrom 

the  wilderness  by  Eboda,  Elusa,  Beereheba,  an  ancient  period,  the  road  to  Damascus, 

and  Hebron.    At  Beereheba  the  desert  ends,  They  are  low  enough  to  allow  the  lofty  Her- 

and  Palestine  begins.    Accordingly,  so  early  mon  to  be  seen  over  them  from  the  watera  of 

as  the  time  of  the  Judges,  it  was  said  that  the  Mediterranean. 

Palestine  extended  from  Dan  (in  the  norUi)  Mount  Gilboa,  though  sundered  firom  it 

to  Beereheba  (in  the  south),  Judg.  xx.  1.  by  a  valley,  stands  on  the  most  northern  part 

Beersheba  lies  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  of  the  Ephraim  hills,  and,  springing  firom  the 

desert  Et  Tih,  that  is,  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  vicinity  of  Jezreel,  runs  towards  the  Jordan, 

hundred  feet  high.    Hence  the  hill  country  south  of  Bethshan.    North  tram  Gilboa,  the 

of  Judea  rises  gradually  towards  the  north.  Western  or  the  Lesser  Hermon  rises,  extend- 

Semua,  near  Hebron,  on  the  south,  lies  2225,  ing  itself  in  a  seperate  mass  over  the  eastern 

Hebron  itself  2604  feet  high ;  on  ^e  average  hsXf  of  the  plain  Jezreel ;  between  Gilboa  and 

this  range  is  2400  feet  high,  1000  feet  higher  Hermon  flows  down  the  water  of  Jezreel  to- 

than  the  desert.    More  than  1000  (about  wards  Bethshan.     In  the  direction  of  this 

1525)  feet,  however,  has  the   traveller  to  valley,  you  may  firom  Jezreel  see  Bethshan, 

ascend,  who  commences  his  journey  into  the  and  the  hUls  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan, 

hill  country  of  Judea  firom  the  Arabah ;  for  As  the  high  lands  of  Ephraim  fall  from 

Kadesh,  near  the  top  of  the  Wady,  lies  91  the  south  down  to  the  plain  Jezreel,  so  does 

feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  plain  on  the  northern  rise  to  the  undu- 


CAN                        254  CAN 

lating  Uble-land  of  Galilee.    As  an  intnlated  don  belonging  to  few  cideB  of  die  eastern 

advanced  post,  there  stands  Tabor,  1748  feet  hemisphere,  eqaallj    near  the  sea.      The 

hi|^    Above  this  table-land,  there  rises  in  aaeent,  however,  is  most  striking  fh>m  die 

Northern  Galilee,  Safed,  which  is  2500  feet  east,  from  die  vicinity  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 

high,  placed  on  a  hiU  which  seems  to  be  the  the  Jordan.    Science  has  in  our  time  made 

last  southern  fall  of  the  high  lands  of  Naph-  such  progress,  that  the  quesdon  may  be 

tali.    These  high  lands  are  a  sonth-westem  fairly  raised:  —  Is  there  any  place  on  eardi 

spur  from  the  great  or  Eastern  Harmon,  where  eztraoidinary  elevadons  and  depres- 

which  has  a  height  of  10,000.    In  a  line  with  sions  co-ezist  so  near  each  other,  as  they  do 

Hermon,  there  runs  on  the  eastern  side  of  here ;  where,  in  the  distance  of  seven  hours' 

the  upper  Jordan,  a  line  of  mountains  bear-  slow  travel,  we  find  a  depression  of  at  least 

ing  the  name  of  Jebel  Heiseh,  which,  with  600  feet,  and  an  elevation  of  more  than  four 

Hermon,  endoses  the  vale    and   lake    of  times  that  amount  below  and  above  the  level 

Herom.  of  the  sea  ?    The  difierence  of  elevadon  be- 

We  reach  the  northern  extremity  of  Ca-  tween  Jerusalem  and  the  plain  of  Jericho  is 

naan  in  Lebanon  and  And-Lebanon.     To  upwards  of  8000  feet    Now  it  is  supposed, 

the  latter  belongs  the  greater  Hermon,  in  that  100  metres  of  this  difference  occasion 

whose  southern  side  the  Jordan  takes  its  rise,  a  difference  of  climate  equal  to  that  which 

Here  also  lies  Ban,  the  remotest  northern  would  be  produced  by  a  degree  of  latitude ; 

point  in  the  Holy  Land.  and  oonsequendy  the  temperature  of  points 

The  elevadon  of  the  country  over  which  so  near  to  each  other  must  be  equsl  to  the 
we  have  passed,  has  been  given  by  Baumer,  difference  between  places  so  remote  in  lad- 
the  most  important  of  whose  facts  we  shall  tnde  as  Bome  and  London.  While  the  cll- 
here  supply.  The  measurements  are  in  mate  on  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  and  Dead 
Parisian  feet,  above  and  below  the  level  of  Sea  is  sinular  to  that  of  Southern  Arabia 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  following  are  and  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  that  of  Jerusalem 
so  many  feet  above  that  sea :  —  Hermon,  exhibits  a  temperature  similar  to  that  of  the 
10,000;  Mount  Catherine  (Sinai),  8068;  isle  of  Lemnos  and  the  ancient  Troy,  or 
Jebel  Monsa  (Sinai),  7088 ;  Jebel-et-Tyh,  that  of  the  vale  of  Tempo,  and  the  middle 
4300;  Hebron,  2700 ;  Mount  of  Olives,  2536 ;  districts  of  Sardinia.' 
Safed,  2500;  Gerizim,  2400;  Damascus,  A  remarkable  confirmation  of  the  aocu- 
2186;  Kedron  (brook),  2140;  Tabor,  1748;  racy  and  of  die  credibUity  of  die  Gospels 
Desert  et-Tyh,  1400 ;  Nazareth,  821 ;  Esd-  may  be  deduced  from  £&cts  just  mentioned, 
raelon,  439 ;  while  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  is  84  In  those  narratives,  we  find  frequent  men- 
feet  below  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Dead  tion  of  going  up  to  Jerusalem  (Matt  zz.  18. 
Sea  1337.  From  this  it  i^ipears  that  Jeru-  Mark  z.  82.  Luke  iL  4.  John  ii  13 ;  v.  1 ; 
salem  has  a  very  hi^  situation,  being  more  zi.  55).  The  language  has  been  thought  to 
than  700  feet  higher  than  Mount  Tabor,  find  explanation  from  the  general  custom  by 
The  fall  from  Sinai  (Mount  Catherine)  to  which  men  speak  of  going  up  to  the  capital 
the  Dead  Sea  is  9400  feet,  while  the  rise  of  a  country.  But  we  now  learn  that  die 
from  the  same  sea  to  Hermon  is  11,887 ;  a  words  employed  rested,  for  their  propriety, 
variation,  within  a  comparatively  smell  length  on  the  physical  formation  of  C  anaan.  Jeru- 
of  countiy,  that  is  truly  surprising.  salem  lay  so  high,  that  it  was  an  ascent 

One  point  of  some  interest  may  be  eonsidered  which  had  to  be  performed  on  proceeding 

as  setded  by  Banmer's  measurements.    The  firom  most  parts  of  the  land  to  the  metro- 

opinioQ,  as  we  have  said,  long  pervaded  that  polls.    For  instance,  ttom  the  Sea  of  Tibe- 

the  Jordanonceheld  its  course  along  the  Wady  rias,  near  which  Jesus  spent  so  much  of  his 

Arabah,  and  fell  into  the  Ailanitic  Gulf  or  public  ministry,  there  was  an  ascent  to  Je- 

eastem  arm  of  the  Bed  Sea.    But  the  Arabah  rusalem  (Mount  of  Olives),  of  about  2500 

near  Kadesh  is  only  91  feet  below  the  Medi-  fiset ;  and  from  Nazareth,  where  he  spent  his 

terranean,  while  the  Dead  Sea  is  1837  below  youth  and  early  manhood,  an  ascent  of  1735 

that  level ;  so  that  the  water-shed  must  have  feet   (comp.  Ps.  czxii.  4;    and  what  are 

been  not  from,  but  towards,  the  latter.    It  is  termed  *  Songs  of  Degrees,'  Pa.  cxz. ;  czzi. 

equally  dear  that  the  country  inclines  from  &c.).  With  what  strict  verbal  propriety,  too, 

the  north  towards  the  same  sea.    The  fol-  in  the  parable,  is  '  a  certain  man '  represented 

lowing  remarks  on  this  subject  are  made  by  as  going  down  firom  Jerusalem  to  Jericho, 

Schub(Brt :  —  *  Natnre  has  stamped  on   the  in  Luke  z.  80 ;  the  priest  slso  *  came  down 

surface  of  Palestine  such  dintingniaiimg  and  '  that  way.'    An  agreement  of  this  minute 

peculiar  features,  as  hardly  any  other  portion  and  verbal  kind  affords  a  most  satisfactory 

of  the  world  exhibits.     This  observation  evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  sacred  record ; 

applies  in  particular  to  the  neighbourhood  showing,  as  it  does,  that  the  record  is  a 

of  Jerusalem.    Without  taking  into  account  transcript  from  actual  facts.    It  is  only  of 

the  girdle  of  heights  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  late  that  any  accurate  measurement  of  the 

the  ascent  on  all  sides  to  this  high-seated  elevations  of  the  Holy  Land  has  been  made, 

town   is   very  considerable.      It  is  nearly  We  are  persuaded,  that  a  study  of  the  origi- 

2500  feet  above  the  sea,  which  is  an  eleva-  nals  of  the  New  Testament,  under  the  light 


CAN  255  CAN 

which  A  minute  and  aoonrate  knowledge  of  yon  see  that  very  fertile,  beantiifol,  and  am- 
the  surface  of  the  coontry  can  afford,  will  pie  vale,  widening  as  it  proceeds  towards 
he  attended  hy  a  large  and  satisfactory  in-  the  north-east    It  is  Ccsle  (Hollow)  Syria, 
crease  to  the  stock  of  minnte  and  undesigned  So  the  Qreeks  named  it.   In  Joshua  (xi.  17) 
coincidences,  and  so  to  a  very  important  yon  find  it  called  *  the  Talley  of  Lehanon.* 
hranch  of  Christian  eridenees.    A  striking  The  Eastern  Lehanon,  you  obserre,  runs 
instanee  of  the  application  ot  this  argument  away  to  the  south-east,  till  it  sinks  down 
may  he  found  in  ^e  word  used  by  the  noble-  in  flpont  of  Damascus.    The  southern  arm 
man,  who,  coming  to  our  Lord  in  Caaa,  of  this  range  forms  Mount  Hermon,  one  of 
entreated  him  to  '  come  down,'  and  restore  whose  spurs,  —  Jebel-es-Sheik,  —  running 
his  sick  chUd  at  Capernaum,  on  the  Lake  southwtfds,  Bnrekhardt  considers  the  hig^- 
Tiherias.    Thrice,  in  relation  to  the  jour-  est  spot  in  Palestine ;  and  Buckingham  says 
ney  from  Cana  to  Capernaum,  is  the  wish,  it  is  oorered  with  perpetual  snow.     That 
'  to  go  down,'  employed.     This  word  was  long  projection  oi  Hermon,  on  tfie  east,  is 
stricSy  appropriate;  —  for  Capernaum  lay  now  termed  Jebel  Heisoh.     Lebanon  and 
nearly  a  thousand  feet  lower  than  Oana  Anti-Lebanon  send  I6rth  four  streams,  one 
Had  not  the  nairatiTe  been  penned  by  one  to  eaeh  point  of  the  compass.    Towards  the 
who  reported  the  exact  word  employed  by  north,  it  sends  the  Orontes,  which  lUls  into 
the  nobleman,  little  likely  was  it  that  the  the  Mediterranean,  near  Antioeh.    Towards 
exactly  appropriate  term  would  have  been  the  south-west,  flows  the  Leontes,  down  the 
used.    A  fabricator  might  have  employed  the  valley  of  Lebanon,  and  mingles  with  the  sea 
term  '  come  up ; '  and  a  mere  reporter  would  a  little  north  of  Tyre.     Eastwards,  Anti- 
be  very  likely  to  have  fiJlen  into  the  vague-  Lebanon  sends  the  waters  Amana  and  Phar- 
ness  of  a  general  term,  using  some  such  phar  to  Damascus.     Finally,  there  flows 
word  as  '  come '  or  '  hasten.'  towards  the  south  the  renowned  Jordan, 
We  now  ask  the  reader  to  join  us  in  taking  which,  deriving  its  first  supplies  from  the 
a  rapid  view  over  the  surface  of  Canaan,  sides  of  Hermon,  runs  into  that  small  lake. 
If  we  imagine  ourselves  placed  on  the  south-  the  waters  of  Merom ;  and  then  into  that 
em  extremity  of  Lebanon,  we  shall  be  near  larger  and  more  beaufcifiil  sheet  of  water,  the 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  land.    That  Sea  of  Crennesareth :   whence  it  pursues  a 
land  itself,  if  viewed  from  north  to  south,  seipentine  way  through  that  wide  lovely  vale, 
wears  the  appearance  of  an  immense  chan-  till  it  reaches  the  heavy  waters  of  the  Dead 
nel  or  water-course,  caused  by  two  mountain  Sea,  from  which  it  never  emerges.  Through- 
rangres  running  throughout  Syria,  —  one  on  out  its  course,  you  may  observe  the  Jordan 
the  east,  the  other  on  the  west;  and  having  receives  tributaries  from  high  lands  and 
a  vale  or  canal  between  them,  which  falls  mountains  on  both  of  its  sides.    These  emi- 
from  both  north  and  south  towards  the  Dead  nenoes  vary  in  altitude.    When  the  Jordan 
Sea.     The  two  ranges  of  hills  which  line  has  accomplished  about  half  its  journey 
this  huge  drain  vary  in  height,  the  eastern  from  the  Lake  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea,  it 
heing  the  loftier  and  steeper ;  and  the  whole  begins  to  be  hemmed  in  by  lofty  bai^ 
appearance  of  hill  and  vale  is  such  as  to  which  increase  in  height  till  you  come  to 
give  the  observer  the  idea,  that  the  valley  the  southern  limit  of  Palestine.     On  the 
was  formed  by  some  natural  violence,  which  eastern  side  of  the  Dead  Sea,  in  particular, 
rent  the  rocks  asunder,    fiegfaiding  the  land  these  mountains  are  high,  and  rise  with  a 
trom  a  lofty  position,  you  see  no  reason  to  steep  side  from  the  very  edge  of  the  water, 
think  Canaan  as  either  a  low  or  a  level  land.  If  you  direct  your  eye  along  the  eastern  side 
Even  its  plains,  its  high  plains  in  the  mid-  of  the  Jordan,  you  pass  OTer  the  elevated 
die,  as  well  as  its  lowlands  on  the  seacoast,  regions  that,  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  were 
have  a  swelling  and  rounded,  rather  than  a  termed  Oaidonitis,  Batanea,   and    QUead, 
horizontal,  appearance.   Turn,  for  a  moment,  included  under  the  general  name  of  Persa, 
to  the  north.    You  behold  a  high  range  of  or  the  region  '  beyond  Jordan.'    On  the  east 
mountains,  stretching  along,  in  a  north-  and  sou&  of  this  range  of  country,  lies  the 
easterly  direction,  into  Syria ;  presenting,  on  desert  of  Arabia ;  and,  heyond  the  extremity 
the  western  side,  an  immense  precipitous  of  the  Salt  Sea,  Idumesa  extends  in  a  diree- 
wall  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  These  moun-  tion  from  west  to  east    Looking  down  from 
tains  consist  of  two  ridges,  —  the  western,  Lebanon  towards  the  west,  your  eye  falls  on 
or  Lebanon   Proper;   and  the  eastern,  or  Phoenicia.    Looking  towards  the  south,  it 
Anti-Lebanon.     The  summits  of  Lebanon  falls  on  Upper  Oalilee,  and,  going  straight 
are  covered  with  snow,  which  they  retain  the  forward,  comes  to  Lower  Galilee.     In  the 
year  round;  whence  the  mountain  has  de-  first  you  may  notice,  directly  beneath  you, 
rived  its  name, — Lebanon,  or  White  Moun-  the  insulated  hill.  Mount  Tabor,  whose  top 
tain.    Arabian  poets  have  with  truth  said  of  affords  a  very  fine  prospect ;  and,  somewhat 
this  lofty  ridge,  —  *  He  bears  winter  on  his  to  the  west,  the  eminence  called  *  the  Mount 
head,  spring  on  his  shoulders,  in  his  bosom  of  Beatitudes,'  because  Jesus  is  said  to  have 
autumn,  while  summer  sleeps  at  his  feet  pronounced  on  its  sides  the  blessings  re- 
near  the  sea.'   Between  the  two  lofty  ranges,  corded  in  the  Gospel  (Matt  v.  I — 12).    If 


CAN  256  CAN 

joQ  direct  your  eye  a  little  to  the  west,  you     in   the  immediate    viciuity   of   Jerasidem, 
will  see  Safed,  said  to  be  the  '  city  set  on  a     chiefly  towards  the  north,  as  well  as  towards 
hill/    Following  on  in  a  southerly  direction,     Safed ;  and  in  other  parts,  which  Schubert 
yon  come  to  '  d^e  excellency  of  Carmel,'  at     considers  to  be  of  what  is  called  in  Germany 
whose  feet  stretches  out  the  famous  plain  of    the  Jura  foimation,'  Palestine  may  be  called 
Jezreel,  watered  by  the  brook  Kiahon,  and     emphatically  the  country  of  salt,  which  is 
flanked  by  Mount  Tabor  and  the  Lesser     produced  in  vast  abundance,  chiefly  in  the 
Hermon.    Going  still  south,  you  reach  Sa-     neighbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea,  which  de- 
maria,  and  behold  Mount  Ebal  and  Mount    serves  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  great 
Gerizim,  on  which  Joshua  caused  the  bless-    natural  salt-works  of  the  world.    The  ridge 
ings  and  cursings  of  the  law  to  be  pronounced    of  chalk  mountains,  chiefly  those  containing 
in  the  hearing  of  the  assembled  Israelites,     mari,  is  in  most  places  so  irrigated  by  water, 
Hence  extends  a  long  range  of  hills,  on     and  so  acted  upon  by  the  sun,  as  to  be  re- 
which  lies  the  capital  of  the  land,  Jerusalem,     markable  for  the  luxuriant  growth  of  the 
which  forms  the  well-known  '  hill  country  of     great  variety  of  plants  with  which  they  are 
Judah,'   and  extends  to  and    beyond    the     adorned.    The  basalt  mountains  give  birth 
southern  limits  of  Canaan.    Near  the  ridge     to  numerous  springs.    No  soil  could  be  na- 
of  this  high  range,  various  streams  take  their     turally  more  fruitful,  and  fit  for  culture,  than 
rise,  of  which  some  fall  to  the  east  into  Jor-     that  of  Palestine.   Whoever  saw  the  exhaust- 
dan  and  the  Dead  Sea ;  others  take  a  wes-     less  abundance  of  plants  on  Carmel  and  the 
terly  course  to  the  Mediterranean.     These     border  of  the  desert,  the  grassy  carpet  of  £s- 
are,  however,  for  the  most  part,  only  ucca-     draelon,  the  lawns  adjoining  the  Jordan,  and 
sional  streams,  forming  water-courses,  which     the  rich  foliage  of  the  forests  of  Mount  Ta- 
are  filled  only  in  the  rainy  seasons.    The     bor;  whoever  saw  the  borders  of  the  Lake  Me- 
distanee  yon  see  firom  the  top  of  this  ridge     rom  and  Gennesareth,  may  state  what  other 
to  the  Jordan   and  the   Salt  Sea  is  less,     country  on  earth,  devastated  by  two  thousand 
and  more  sudden  in  its  desoent,  than  that     years  of  warfare  and  spoliation,  could  be 
on  the  western  side ;  and  the  currents  are     more  fit  for  being  again  taken  into  cultiva- 
proportionally  more  rapid  and  less  durable,     tioo.   The  bountiful  hand  of  tlie  Most  High, 
On  the  western  side  of  these  high  lauds,     which  formerly  showered  abundance  on  tliis 
there  extends  along  firom  the  southern  foot     renowned  land,  continues  to  be  still  open  to 
of  Carmel  to  the  extremity  of  the  land,  a     those  who  are  desirous  of  his  blessings.    It 
comparatively  level  and  very  fertile  strip  of     has,  indeed,  been  said  that  some  parts  are 
coast-land,  increasing  in  breadth  as  it  runs     irreclaimable,  such  is  the  devastation  which 
towards  the  south  ;  Uie  more  northerly  por-     the  neglect  and  bad  government  of  cen- 
tion  of  which  forms  the  plains  of  Sharon,     turies  have  caused.    We  doubt  the  correct- 
and  the  southerly  the  ancient  territories  of     ness  of  tlie  assertion.   The  essential  featiures 
the  Philistines.    Pursue  the  last  onward  in     of  the  land  are  not  changed  to  any  extent 
a  westerly  direction,  and  you  are  brought  to     that  can  aflfect  its  capability  of  receiving  and 
what  is  periiaps  the  most  distinguished  for     rewarding  the  diligent  cares  of  wisely  di- 
oivilisation  of  all  the  ancient  world,  the  land     rected  culture.     Some  districts  of  the  land 
of  Egypt,  with  the  Nile,  Memphis,  the  Pyra-     are  now,  as  they  were  of  old,  little  susceptible 
mids,  Thebes,  and  the  stupendous  palace     of  man's  skill  and  labour.    Others  might,  by 
temples  which  still  distinguish  that  'hundred-     perseverance,  be  restored  to  their  ancient  con- 
gated  '  city ;  and  the  banks  of  the  river,  as     dition,  if  not  made  more  productive  than  at 
you  ascend  towards  the  south.    In  general,     any  former  period.    Even  the  rocky  soil  of 
the  hills  of  which  you  have  taken  a  survey     the  hill  coimtry,  which  extends  from  beyond 
are  composed  of  chalk  and  limestone.     On     Hebron  on  the  south  to  some  distance  north 
the  east  of  Jordan,  however,  between  the     of  Jerusalem,  and  formerly  included  in  the 
rivers  Jabbok  and  Jarmouk,  basalt  is  predo-     inheritance  of  Judah  and  of  Benjamin,  is 
minant,  which  shows  itself  also  at  certain     capable  of  being  restored  to  profitable  culti- 
points  on  the  western  side  of  the  Lake  of     vation.      The  innumerable  remains  of  ter- 
GalDee,  and  forms  the  lofty  tops  of  Carmel,     races  and  cisterns,  and  the  ruins  of  large 
Hermon,  and  the  two  Lebanons.    We  here     town  and  villages,  thickly  scattered  over  this 
put  together  various  statements  of  Schubert,     romantic  region,  would,  even  if  history  were 
as  regards  the  mineralogy  of  the  Jerusalem     silent,  clearly  demonstrate  that  it  has  been 
neighbourhood,  and  of  the  Holy  Land  in  gene-     densely  peopled,  and  highly  cultivated.    By 
ral :  —  The  mountains  on  the  west  of  the  Jor-     far  the  largest  portion  of  this  mountain  tract 
dan  consist  chiefly  of  chalk,  on  which  basalt     needs  only  the  wise  and  careful  hand  of  man 
begins  to  occur  beyond  Cans,  northward,  as     to  be  what  it  once  was.    Even  at  present, 
is  seen  in  the  heights  of  Hattin,  and  in  the     the  valleys  produce  wheat;  and  the  tops  of  the 
western  desoent  to  the  Lake   of  Tiberias,     mountains,    though   utterly  neglected,   are 
Layers  and  detached  masses  of  flint  are  very     covered  with  fine  pasturage.     Bu4  this  is  the 
commonly  seen  in  it.    The  mountains  around     proper  region  for  the    olive   and  the  vine. 
Jerusalem  resemble  Alpine  limestone.     Be-     Anciently  these  hills  were  covered  with  or- 
sides  this  indurated  chalk,  a  stone  is  found     chards  of  fruit-trees,  and  vineyards;  and  tlie 


CAN                     257  CAN 

world  probably  does  not  produce  finer  grapes,  proper  tillage  would  afford  a  supply  sufficient 
iigs,  and  olives,  than  are  annually  gathered  for  millions.  Palestine  exported  com  in  tne 
about  Hebron  and  Bethlehem.  How  rich  time  of  Solomon,  when  its  population  was 
and  ample  was  the  return  which  the  Mount  at  its  highest :  it  did  the  some  in  the  days 
of  Olives  mode  of  old,  when  thickly  planted  of  Herod,  when,  too,  it  was  ftilly  peopled, 
with  that  most  useftil  tree !  Auspicious  sociid  circumstances  would  again, 
Indeed*  evety  thing  that  we  know  of  Ca-  in  this  age,  soon  reward  the  cares  of  agricul* 
naan  shows  how  ignorant,  as  well  as  iU-dis«  ture  with  abundance,  if  not  superfluity.  The 
posed,  were  the  minds  of  those  unbelievers,  following  passages  of  Scripture  may  be  ad- 
who,  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  in-  •  vantageously  consulted  (Gen.  zxvii.  28,  29 ; 
dulged  in  unbecoming  pleasantry,  as  if  the  xlix.  25.  Deut  viii.  7,  $eg.  $  xxxii.  2 ;  xxxiiL 
actual  unproductiveness  of  the  country  were  13,  $eq.  Job  zxix.  19,  seq.  Mic.  v.  7).  Nor, 
an  ocular  disproof  of  the  averments  and  im-  to  pass  by  the  numerous  testimonies  of  mo- 
plications  found  in  the  Scriptures,  which  dem  authorities,  do  ancient  Pagan  writers 
show  that  it  was  once  highly  fertile,  and  fail  to  attest  the  superior  productiveness  of 
supported  a  very  large  population.  Wher-  Palestine.  These  are  the  words  of  Tacitus, 
ever  the  experiment  has  been  fairly  tried,  who  was  any  thing  but  a  friend  to  the  He- 
the  agricultural  capabilities  of  the  land  have  brew  race: — 'Storms  are  infrequent;  the 
been  satisfactorily  established.  The  moment  soil  is  fruitful;  fruits  similar  to  our  own 
that  the  cessation  of  marauding  and  tyran-  overflow ;  and  besides  these,  they  have  the 
ny  allows  the  inhabitants,  unsldlled  though  balsam-tree  and  palms ;  the  height  and 
they  are,  to  apply  themselves  to  the  improve-  beauty  of  the  palm  are  remarkable.'  Am- 
ment  of  the  soil,  —  smiling  fields,  bleating  mionus  MareeUinus  has  these  words :  — 
flocks,  and  lowing  herds,  come  to  afford  them  '  Palestine  abounds  in  cultivated  and  smil- 
a  pleasing  recompense.  Should  a  permanent  ing  lands,  having  also  some  distinguished 
peace  and  a  good  government  give  the  natives  cities.' 

scope  for  improving  their  condition,  a  final  The  European,  accustomed  to  a  denser 
answer  will  have  been  given  to  men  who  air,  can  scareely  form  a  just  idea  of  the 
seem  to  have  considered  no  objection  to  the  ethereal  subtUty  and  transparency  of  a  Sy- 
Scriptures  too  small  to  be  employed.  Even  rian  atmosphere.  This  gives  to  the  pro- 
in  the  actual  condition  of  the  country,  as  spect  from  the  mountains  an  amplitude  and 
soon  as  ever  the  traveller — as,  for  instance,  distinctness  unparalleled  in  other  lands, 
a  few  houre  south  of  Jerusalem  —  finds  Moses,  on  the  top  of  Mount  Pisgoh,  may 
himself  surrounded  by  a  naturally  better  have  easily  gazed  over  the  whole  ix^eritonce 
soil,  he  begins  to  feel  that  of  a  truth  he  is  of  his  people,  from  north  to  south,  and  to 
in  a  good  land,  —  a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  the  utmost  sea.  From  the  tops  of  Lebanon, 
of  fountauLS,  and  depths,  that  spring  out  of  Casius,  and  Tabor,  nearly  the  whole  of  Syria 
the  valleys  and  hills.  The  mountains  of  may  be  commanded.  Hence  apparent  dis- 
Ephraim  an,  at  this  day,  the  best  cultivated  tances  are  made  far  shorter  than  the  reality, 
part  of  Palestine ;  a  peculiarity  to  which  and  extraordinary  optical  illusions  are  oc- 
their  security  from  the  Bedouin  contributes  casioned ;  for  instance,  —  strange  appear- 
perhaps  more  than  the  natural  advantages  of  ances  are  often  observed  on  the  setUng  sun, 
the  soil.  However  this  may  be,  the  land  is  which  begin  about  the  time  his  lower  edge 
fertile.  Wherever  wheat  is  sown,  in  the  val-  touches  the  horizon ;  the  lower  port  appeore 
leys  OF  on  the  loftiest  terraces,  it  is  found  to  to  flatten  up,  the  upper  to  flatten  down,  and 
flourish.  The  vine,  fig,  olive,  pomegranate,  at  times  the  sides  to  flatten  in,  so  that  the 
and  other  fruit-trees,  have  a  good  and  often  a  disk  of  the  sun  forms  nearly  a  square.  This 
luxuriant  appearance.  They  even  seem  to  arises  immediately  from  the  differences  or 
thrive  best  in  the  most  mipromising  places,  the  rariiying  power  of  the  air,  through  which 
Wherever  a  break  in  the  rock  allows  of  the  his  beams  pass  in  coming  over  the  sea  into 
planting  of  an  olive  or  a  fig-tree,  it  appears  the  pellucid  atmosphere, 
to  attain  its  full  size  and  perfection ;  so  that  Syria  has  three  climates,  correspondioif 
the  traveller  is  often  reminded  of  the  Scrip-  with  three  different  lines  of  country :  —  I. 
tural  phrase,  —  *  Oil  out  of  the  flinty  rock.'  The  seacoast ;  II.  The  mountain  ridge ;  III. 
Numerous  passages  are  found  in  this  work.  The  eastern  plains.  The  proximity  of  the 
attesting  the  great  and  extraordinary  fertility  sea  makes  the  first  mild,  while  it  does  not 
of  portions,  some  of  them  large,  of  this  coun-  foil  to  be  hot ;  the  moist  influence  of  the 
try.  We  may  instance  the  great  plain  of  ocean  is  kept  from  the  eastern  district  by 
Esdraelon,  which,  under  various  names,  and  the  intervening  mountains,  which  themselves 
with  some  intervening  mountain  ridges,  have  the  ordinary  peculiarities  of  highlands 
stretches  from  the  Sea  of  GaUlee  to  the  similarly  situated ;  they  range  through  many 
neighbourhood  t>f  Acre  and  the  Mediterra-  gradations  ot  temperature,  from  the  extreme 
nean.  Almost  every  part  of  Palestine,  in-  heat  of  the  lower  parts,  to  the  cold  of  sum- 
deed,  seems  capable  of  producing  bread  for  mits  clad  in  perpetual  snow.  The  winter 
its  inhabitants ;  but  this  is  by  eminence  the  on  the  coast  is  so  mild,  that  the  orange,  date, 
corn  country  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  under  bansna,  and  other  delicate  trees,  flourish  in 


CAN                      268  CAN 

the  open  air ;  whUe  the  loftj  head  of  Lebanon  tempests,  aecompanied  by  Hgbtnitig,  thim.' 
is  Immediately  aboye,  oovered  with  ice.  If  der,  and  floods  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  18 — 16). 
m  July  you  find  the  heat  of  the  seashore  The  climate  of  Palestine  is  by  no  means 
oppressive,  a  journey  of  six  hours  up  the  nnheaJihy.  At  the  present  day,  indeed, 
mountains  will  bring  yon  to  the  temperature  parts,  sneh  as  undrained  marshy  spots  in 
of  Mareh ;  or  you  may  descend,  without  the  Ghor  (ralley  of  the  Jordan),  may  be  in- 
much  cost  of  time  or  eflfort,  from  December  sslubrious ;  nor  can  the  country  be  as  fs- 
to  May.  Hence  it  appears  that  it  is  only  Tourable  to  health,  as  when  of  old  it  was  well 
with  qualification  that  the  climate  can  be  and  thoroughly  cultiTated.  But  in  general 
called  hot.  Besides  the  ordinary  spring,  the  the  climate  is  moderate.  Its  inhabitants  ao- 
autumnal  rains  bring  a  season  like  a  second  ^  cordingly  enjoyed  length  of  days.  Tacitus 
spring.  From  the  beginning  of  Aprfl  to  the  describes  them  as  '  sound,  healthy,  and 
end  of  July  is  the  most  agreeable  period  of  capable  of  labour.' 

the  year.  August  and  September  are  op-  Among  the  disorders  incident  to  man,  the 
pressively  hot  The  fine  weather  reaches  to  leprosy,  from  which  the  Hebrews  often  suf- 
near  the  close  of  the  year,  and  is  interrupted  fered  so  much,  is  a  fearfrd,  infectious,  and 
but  for  a  brief  space.  The  more  southern  wasting,  if  not  deadly  disease  of  the  skin,  of 
parts  of  the  country  are  Tcry  hot  No  great  yarious  kinds,  and  yarious  degrees  of  yim- 
yarieties  of  temperature  are  experienced  in  lence  (Ley.  xiii.  2.  teq.).  The  worst  sort, 
the  same  parts  of  Palestine.  The  diyersities  the  elephantiasis  (Deut  xxyiii.  27,  85),  is 
of  weather  depend  mainly  on  the  wet  and  considered  to  haye  been  the  disease  under 
the  dry  seasons.  From  April  to  October,  which  Job  laboured, 
scarcely  any  rain  faUs :  from  Noyember  to  The  most  fearful  plague  of  Palestine,  as 
March,  rain  often  preyails;  more,  however,  well  as  of  other  eastern  countries,  are  the  ya- 
along  the  Mediterranean  than  in  Uie  south-  rious  species  of  locusts,  which  come  in  great 
em  highlands.  The  sun  acts  on  yegetation  clouds,  darkening  the  sun,  and  leaving  be- 
much  in  the  same  way  as  the  cold  in  our  hind  them  one  continued  scene  of  devasta- 
oountry :  the  flowers  lose  their  verdure,  and  tion  (Exod.  z.  Joel  ii)> 
would  die  but  for  the  copious  dews  of  night  We  borrow  the  following  account  of  the 
—  deirs  which  have  a  most  benign  influence  Flora  and  Fauna  of  Jerusalem  firom  Behn- 
on  the  land.  bert :  — 

In  Palestine  the  cold  season  begins  in  '  In  the  Koran  of  the  Mohsmmedans,  God 
October  with  '  the  former  rain :  *  at  first  it  is  swears  by  the  fig  and  the  oliye,  —  that  is, 
only  a  less  degree  of  heat;  then  comes  cold,  by  Damascus  and  Jerusalem.  The  olive- 
unsettled  weather ;  thunder,  moist,  west  tree  was,  and  is  now,  the  prince  of  all  the 
winds ;  and  at  the  end  of  November  the  fall  trees  of  this  land,  which  appears  to  be  ito 
ot  the  leaf;  in  December  there  is  snow,  jiAtural  home.  I  haye  never  seen  oliye-tiees 
sometimes  yery  deep,  ice  which  quickly  to  high  as  those  here.  The  improyements 
melts ;  the  cold  only  severe  for  a  short  time  in  them  might  snd  would  be  extensiye  and 
on  the  hills,  with  cold  north  winds.  At  the  profiuble,  if  such  careftil  hands  as  those  of 
end  of  February  the  cold  season  is  over,  die  Proyen98ls  tended  them.  The  oil  which 
Rain  {*  the  latter  ndn ')  then  comes,  which  they  extract  firom  the  fruit  is  excellent  But 
lasts  through  March  into  the  middle  of  April,  the  other  tree  also,  which  the  Koran  places 
accompanied  by  thundery  weather,  swollen  alongside  of  the  oliye,  grows  in  uncommon 
streams,  and  heat  in  the  plains.  The  warm  abundance  in  Palestine ;  and  plantations  of 
season  begins  with  the  end  of  April,  is  of  a  it  cover,  especially  in  the  yieinity  of  Jabiut, 
moderate  temperature  till  June,  then  increas-  almost  all  the  country  yisible  firom  the  hills 
ingly  hot  on  to  September,  when  the  nights  between  Bir  and  Sindsohil.  The  f^uit  is  of  a 
become  cool ;  in  all  which  period,  there  is  peculiarly  pleasant  taste  and  aromatic  sweet- 
seldom  rain  or  storms ;  on  the  other  hand,  ness,  but  mostly  small,  as  in  the  neighbour- 
the  dews  are  heavy.  By  day  the  heat  is  dry  hood  of  Smyrna.  As  a  compensation  for 
and  oppressive,  with  hot  east  winds;  nor  this,  the  yines  of  Palestine,  which, however, 
does  rain  come  till  the  end  of  September.  belong  to  particular  tracts  of  land  only,  are 

The  destructiye  scorching  wind,   in  the  surpassed  by  none,  not  only  in  the  fiery 

Arabic  termed  Samum  (simoon,  *  a  burning  strengOi  of  the  juice,  but  slso,  at  least  in  the 

tempest,'  Pa.  zi.  6,  marginal  rendering),  does  southern  mountains,  in  the  size  and  number 

not  blow  in  Palestine  itself,  but  in  the  neigh-  of  the  grapes.    I  have  drunk  wine  on  Leba- 

bouring  desert  of  Arabia;  yet  the  hot  east  non,  with  which  none  that  I  ever  elsewhere 

wind  (Gen.  xli.  6,  28.    Jonah  iy.  8)  ap-  tasted  could  be  compared  for  strength  and 

proaches  it  in  yirulence.    It  brings  vrith  it  flavour.     Since  the  Mohammedans  drink 
sulphurous  yapours,  the  choking  effects  of    wine  only  under  the  rose  (although,  as  I 

which  can  be  avoided  only  by  casting  one's-  haye  before  mentioned,  they  gradually  acquire 

self  prostrate  on  the  earth  (2  Kings  xix.  26).  a  taste  for  this  forbidden  luxury),  they  use 

Earthquakes  were  not  uncommon   (Amos  the  abundance  of  gn4>es  which  ihe  country 

i  1.    Zach.  xiy.  ft.   Comp.  Hab.  iiL    Nah.  yields,  except  as  food,  and  to  sell  to  the  Chris- 

i.  1).    The  country  is  sometimes  visited  by  tians  and  Jews,  who  make  diem  into  wine, 


CAN  259  CAN 

only  In  the  prapantion  of  ndains,  and,  above  raised  in  Egypt  One  sees  fields  of  Bummer 
all,  of  an  extraordinarily  good  grape  syrup,  millet  {Durah  gaydi),  of  the  oommon  millet 
eaUed  Dibs^,  which  for  the  most  part  is  sold  {Durah  tajifeh),  and  of  autumn  miUet  (Dm- 
to  Egypt  The  greatness  of  the  supply  of  rah  dimiri) ;  which  are  all  varieties  of  the 
this  syrup  from  the  respectiTe  places  shows  Hokm  wrghum.  Wheat  ( JEmnA),  and  es- 
the  greatness  of  the  crop ;  for,  according  to  pecially  spelt  and  barley  (Schay'ir)^  abound 
Shaw,  Hebron  alone  yearly  produces  about  almost  ererywhere ;  also  rice  {Aruz\  in  the 
two  tiiousand  quintals.  About  Bethlehem,  valley  of  the  upper  Jordan,  and  the  Sea  of 
as  weU  as  Jerusalem,  the  vintage  fklls  in  Merom :  and  we  saw,  on  the  Bridge  of  Jacob 
September :  in  Lebanon  alone  do  ihey  take  on  Joidan,  fine  and  high-growing  papyri, 
the  trouble  to  keep  and  preserve  the  wine  for  Among  leguminous  plants  they  cultivate  the 
a  longer  period.  Generally  the  produce  of  hommot  or  chick-pea  (Cicer  arietinum),  the 
the  year  is  drunk  fh>m  one  vintage  to  an*  /uhl  or  Egyptian  bean  (  Ficia  faba)^  the  gi- 
other.  tcknmgayga  (Phoieohu  mumgo),  and  gUban 

*  The  first  tree  whose  blossoms  awake  before     (ZoMynif  mtwu$\,  ae  well  aa  the  airff  or 
the  time  of  the  latter  rain,  and  open  them-    lentil,  and    the  oinUeh  or  pea.     Among 
selves  in  the  deep  valleys  even  before  the     vegetables,  the  flrnits  of  the  species  of  hibis- 
beginning  of  the  cold  days  of  February,     one  are  much  liked :  tiie  Bamia  towileh  is 
is  the  loz  or  almond-tree.     In  March  we     the  Stbiaeut  99euUniu8;  the  Bamia  beledi 
found  the  country  of  Bethlehem  and  Hebron     and  wayka  are  the  Sthiaau  pr^ecox ;  here 
covered  with  blossoming  fruit-trees,  among     and  thoe  also,  by  the  instrumentality  of  the 
which  the  apricot,  the  iqsple,  and  the  pear,    Franks,  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  {Koi- 
ahow  themselves ;  in  April  the  purple  of  the     katjiratucki)  is  pursued.    The  khancht^f  or 
pomegranate  mixes  itsdf  with  the  white  of    artichoke,  as  well  as  the  kha  or  salad,  is 
the  myrtle ;  and  immediately  the  season  of    very  oommon  in  the  convent  gardens ;  and 
the  roses  of  the  country,  and  of  the  vari-    in  wet  places,  as  near  Siohem,  the  b<Uikh  or 
coloured  cistus,  begins ;    the  zaccum-tree     water-melon,  and  the  khiar  or  cucumber,  &o. 
(Eleagnui  angust{fotitu)  emits  its  sweet  fira-     The  buti  <«  hemp  is  more  frequently  culti- 
grance   near  the  storax-tree,  the  fiower  of    vated  than  the  kettan  or  flax ;  uid  in  favour- 
which  islike  our  so-called  German  jessamine     able  situations  also,  the  cotton-tree  or  hiiit^ 
(Philadelphut  coronarku).    With  the  con-     as  well  as  the  madder  or  fuah, 
quering  strength  of  the  land,  the  palm,  the  em-        'If  I  purposed  to  describe,  though  only 
blem  of  conquest,  has  also  disappeared  from     with  few  and  charaoteristio  lines,  every  single 
its  place :  the  palm  groves  of  Jericho  have     species  of  the  plants  and  flowers  of  Pales- 
almost  entirely  vanished.    But  how  well  this     tine,  which  this  most  beautiful  season  of  the 
magnificent  tree  can  flourish  in  the  lower    year  (spring)  offered  to  our  observation* 
country,  the  view  of  Acre  and  the  neigh*     my  short  sketch  would  swell  into  a  volume ; 
bourhood  of  Caipha  testifies.    The  lofty  cy-     for  whoever  follows  the  course  of  the  Jordan 
press  stands  only  as  a  tree  planted  by  the    from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Lakes  of  Tiberias 
hands  of  man  in  gardens,  as  well  as  in  ceme-     and  Merom,  and  thenoe  as  fur  as  the  re- 
teries,  and  other  open  places.    As  substantial    motest  springs  in  Anti-Lebanon,  wanders  in 
products  of  the  soil,  appear  on  the  hills  and     a  few  days  through  sones  of  climate,  with 
table-lands  the  azerol-tree  (  Cratagus  azaro-    their  characteristic  differences  in  forms  of  the 
bu)  ;   the  walnut  and  arbute    trees ;   the     vegetable  kingdom,  which  iu  other  countries 
laurel  and  laurustinus ;  the  difllsrent  kinds     lie  hundreds  of  miles  from  one  another.    A 
of  pistachios  and  terebinths ;  the  evergreen    plant  which  pilgrims  commonly  collect  on 
oak,  as  weU  as  the  tree  and  shrub  rhamnus;     the  Mount  of  Olives  is  the  little  blood  im- 
the  cedar,  and  some  sorts  of  thymelss ;  but    mortelle  {OnapkaUum  tangumeum)  ;   fix>m 
on    the  formerly  wooded  heights,  several    Garmel  and  I^banon  they  cany  away  the 
kinds  of  pines  and  firs.    The  sycamore  and     great  oriental  immortelle  (  OnaphaUum  &rien» 
the  carob  tree,  the  mulberry  and  the  opun-    taie),  as  a  souvenir  of  their  pilgrimage, 
tian  fig,  grow  chiefly  in  plantations  near  the    After  the  fruit  also  of  the  mandragora  of  Pa- 
villages.  Gardens  flail  of  oranges  and  citrons     lestine  {Mandragora  auttmuuUi§),ihe  oriental 
we  found  near  Nablous  (Sichem).  Christians,  as  weU  as  the  Mohammedans, 

'  In  many  districts  of  the  country,  partlcu-  seek  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jerusalem,  be- 
larly  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  in  the  cause  to  it  they  ascribe  peculiar  powers.  It 
table-lands  of  Galilee,  different  sorts  of  grain  is  more  oommon  south  of  Hebron,  than  on 
spontaneously  spring  up,  as  the  wild  pro*  Tabor  and  Gaimel.  Whoever  wishes  to  see 
duce  of  the  sown  fields  which  formerly  in  perfeetion  the  beauty  of  lilies,  tulips, 
existed  here ;  and  hence  testify,  even  now,  hyacinths,  narcissus*,  and  anemones,  ought 
what  a  magnificent  corn-growing  country  to  visit  in  spring  some  one  of  these  coun- 
Palestine  once  was.  Besides  wheat  and  tries  through  which  we  passed:  even  tlie 
barley,  we  firequently  saw  rye  among  these  wild  leeks  attain  in  this  country  a  size  and 
wild  crops.  The  present  very  insufiicient  beau^  which  would  make  them  ornaments 
agriculture  occupies  itself  in  the  cultivation  of  our  gardens, 
of  very  nearly  the  same  kinds  of  grain  as  are        'I  shall  spoak  even  more  briefly  of  the 


CAN  260  CAN 

Fauna  of  Palestine.    Herds  of  neat  cattle    most  convenient  and  most  safe.    The  boar 
are  seldom  seen  here ;  the  ox  of  the  neigh-     {Khanzir)  is  common  on  Thabor  and  the 
bonrhood  of  Jemsalem  is  small  and  on-     lesser  Hermon,  as  well  as  on  the  woody  and 
comely ;   beef  and  veal  are  rare  Inxories.     bushy  precipices  of  CarmeL    From  this  re- 
On  the  contrary,  the  ox  thrives  better,  and     golar  place  of  abode  it  frequently  comes  down 
is  more  frequently  seen  in  the  valley  of  the     into  the  plain  of  Jezreel.    We  could  find  no 
upper  Jordan,  as  well  as  on  Tabor,  and  near     trace  in  Palestine  or  Syria — after  which, 
Nazareth,  but  especially  east  of  Jordan,  on     nevertheless,  the  animal  is  named  —  of  the 
the  way  from  the  Bridge  of  Jacob  to  Damas-     wabr  or  hyrax  Syriacus.  Although  the  guides 
ens.    We  see  the  gamui  or  buffalo  in  the  who  led  us  first  from  Jerusalem  to  the  Dead 
neighbourhood  of  the  seaeoast :  it  attains     Sea,  and  thence  to  Damascus,  in  the  neigh- 
here  to   a  size   and    strength   resembling  bourhood  of  which  they  were  bom,  mentioned 
the  Egyptian  cattle.    The  Turkish  system  the  atted  or  lion  as  among  the  animals  of  the 
of  tribute,  which  exacts  much  from  the  rich,  country  which  threatened  danger,  I   could 
and  also  the  rapacity  of  the  foreign  rulers  of  not  give  full  credit  to  these  good  people ;  for 
the  land,  frt>m  which  the  little  can  more  they  called  every  animal,  whose  Arabic  name 
easily  conceal  and  withdraw  themselves  than  I  asked,  either  by  the  common  name  hyunm 
the  great,  seems  to  have  been  the  cause  that  (••  e.  beast),  or  at  most  wahetch  (i.  e.  wild 
has  so  much  hindered  the  breeding  of  cat-  beast).    If  the  lion  is  really  sometimes  seen 
tie ;  for  it  may  safely  be  said,  that  if  a  hun-  in  Palestine,  it  is  hardly  native  here,  but  must 
dred  times  as  great  herds  as  do  n«w,  pastured  be  considered  only  as  a  rare  guest  and  wan- 
in  the  meadows  and  fields  which  still  remain  derer  from  more  eastern  countries.  Neverthe- 
frnitftal,  they  would  tread  down,  in  the  wild  less  of  the  feline  animsls,  the  common  panther, 
com  fields,  more  than  they  could  consume,  or  ntmr,  is  at  home  in  the  central  mountain 
This  appears  especially  in  the  spring  months,  districts  of  Palestine.    Of  the  dog  species, 
in  which  the  grass  and  different  kinds  of  grain  in  the  southern  tracts  the  little  Ahul  hhosseyn 
are  not  yet  diried  into  hay.    If  in  our  days  a  or  Cams/amelicus,  and  a  larger  kind  of  fox, 
Xing  Frederic  or  Solomon  were  to  ascend  which  we  did  not  succeed  in  seeing,  appears 
the  throne  of  Israel,  he  would  have  to  be  to  be  denoted  by  the  name  Taleb,    Besides 
content  with  sheep  and  goats,  instead  of  the  these,  the  jackal  {Dibb)  is  an  enemy  to  the 
*  ten  ikt  oxen,  and  twenty  oxen  out  of  the  flocks.    The  hyena  {Stabue)  is  chiefly  found 
pastures '  (1  Kings  iv.  23) ;  which,  besides  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  in  the  moun- 
other  animals,  Solomon  daily  used  for  his  tains  on  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  but  is  also 
court.    We  yet  see  sheep  and  goats  in  great  sometimes  seen  in  other  parts  of  Palestine, 
abundance,  and  numerous  herds,  in  all  quar-  Of  bears  we  saw  nothing  but  the  mangled 
ters  of  the  land :  their  milk  and  flesh  serve  skin  of  one  lying  as  a  covering  on  the  saddle 
for  daily  food,  their  wool  and  hair  to  clothe  of  some  mules  that  met  us.    They  said  that 
their  possessors.      The  common  kind  of  the  animal  had  been  killed  on  Anti-Lebanon; 
the  native  sheep  shows  the  beginning  of  but  the  fragments  of  the  skin  reminded  us 
the  fat  tail  of  the  Arabian  species ;  the  hair  more  of  the  species  described  by  Ehrenberg, 
of  the  Syrian  long-eared  goat  is  of  tolerable  that  of  our  common  brown  bears.    The  na- 
fineness,  but  appeared  to  us  to  be  inferior  to  tive  hedgehog,  which  we  procured  frx>m  Beth- 
that  of  the  variety  in  Asia  Ifinor.    Of  deer  lehem,is  not  the  long-eared  Egyptian  species, 
I  saw  only  one  doe,  and  that  in  the  same  but  quite  like  our  common  European  ones, 
part  of  the  countiy  in  which  Hasselquist  had  The  native  ameb  or  hare  is  the  Arabian  kind, 
seen  bucks,  namely,  on  Tabor.     On  the  way  The  porcupine,  hanfeds,  by  which  name  the 
frx>m  Sl  Philip  to  St.  John,  I  thought  that  I  people  sometimes  call  the  hedgehog,  is  fre- 
saw,  on  the  heights  of  the  mountain,  animals  quently  found  in  the  rock-clefts  of  Palestine : 
of  Uie  deer  kind ;  but  I  nevertheless  think  it  Uie  bluid  mouse  is  also  common  here,  for 
more  probable,  that  it  was  the  native  brown  which  we  could  find  no  other  name  than 
gazelle   {Antilope  hinnuleu$)  ;  for  of  ante-  that  common  to  all  kinds  of  rat,  "far.** 
lopes  we  observed  many  kinds  in  Palestine.         '  Among  the  larger  birds  of  prey,  we  saw 
The  country,  at  least  west  of  Jordan,  has  no  oftenest  the  common  caihartes  or  carrion  kite 
longer  a  breed  of  camels  worth  mentioning ;  {CatKartes percnoptenu),  as  well  as  the  hedy 
but  we  met  good-looking  herds  of  these  ani-  or  glede  kite.     The  native  wild  dove  ( Qimri) 
male  in  the  Valley  of  Valleys,  in  the  table  is  not  very  different  from  our  kinds;  and  just 
land  between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  as  little,  the  species  of  shrikes,  crows,  car- 
near  Baalbek.     Among  the  horses  in  the  rion  crows,  6cc.    Whether  the  great  animal, 
mountains,  we  saw  many  which  appeared  of  which  the  Arabs  call  temsah,  and  which  oc- 
beautiftil  form,  and  noble  Arabian  descent ;  curs  westwards  firom  Sichem,  in  a  marsh  or 
but  of  its  own  breed  of  horses,  the  Palestine  small  lake,  be  really  a  crocodile  or  not,  we 
of  the  present  day  can  hardly  boast.    The  had  no  opportunity  of  finding  out.      The 
ass,  in  its  kind,  stands  here  Idgher  than  the  turtle  of  the  mountains,  which  we  found 
horse ;  both  asses  and  mules  are  generally  near  Bethlehem  and  Nazareth,  is  the  well- 
used  for  riding ;  and  in  the  bad  mountain  known  Greek  kind  {Tettudo  Oraca)  which 
roads,  this  mode  of  locomotion  Is  both  the  occurs  in  Italy.     Serpents  are  very  rare,  and. 


CAN  261  CAN 

•oeording  to  the  accounts  of  other  tntvelkn,  the  posaession.    What  a  chnrch  ia  to  a  chj^ 

•re  not  poisonous.    We  saw  them  only  in  Palestine  is  to  the  world, 
the  neighhourhood  of  Nazareth,  and  on  the        Phasnician  fleets  once  covered  those  silent 

road  firomCana  to  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.    Near  waters;   wealthy  cities  once  fringed  those 

Beyrout  we  saw  the  JanthinafragUu,  which  lonely  shores;  during  three  thousand  years, 

yields  the  common  purple.    Among  the  na-  war  has  led  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  in  ter- 

tive  insects  is  the  bee ;  but  a  catalogue  of  rible  procession  along  these  historic  plains : 

the  names  of  the  numerous  beetles,   &c.  yet  it  is  not  mere  history  that  thrills  the  pil- 

which  were  captured  in  Palestine,  would  grim  to  the  Holy  Land,  with  such  feelings 

have  little  interest.    At  this  season  of  the  as  no  other  spot  on  the  wide  earth  inspires ; 

year,  we  were  not  much  troubled  by  the  but  the  belief  that  on  yonder  land  the  Sa- 

ttamitt  or  mosquitos' (ui.  112,  se^.).  viour  once  trod  with  human   feet,  bowed 

For  eighteen  hundred  years,  the  western  down  with  sufliering,  linked  to  our  race  by 

world,  in  all  its  prosperous  life  and  youthftil  the  sympathy  of  sorrow,  bedewing  our  tombs 

energy,  has  looked  with  reverence  and  hope  with  his  tears,  consecrating  our  world  with 

towards  the  stricken,  yet  honoured  land  of  his  blood. 

which  we  have  taken  a  surrey.    After  ages        CANAANITES,  early,  but  not  the  first, 
of  obscurity  as  a  mere  province  of  a  fallen  inhabitants  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  which 
empire,  that  country  suddenly  became  in-  appears  in  the  Bible  as  the  residence  of  sepa- 
vested  with  a  glory  till  then  unknown   to  rate  nations  or  tribes,  the  number  of  which 
earth.     A  few  poor  fishermen  went  forth  may  surprise  the  thinking  reader,  unless  he 
from  those  shores  among  the  nations,  and  take  into  account  the  natural  features  of  the 
announced  such  tidings  as  changed  the  des-  land,  as  making,  in  primitive  states  of  ciyi- 
tiny  of  the  world  for  ever.     Human   life  Usation,  limits  and  boundaries,  which  under 
became  an  altered  state :  new  motives,  sym-  ordinary  circumstances  would  keep  neigh- 
pathies,  and  principles,  arose ;  new  charities  bouring  and  even  kindred  people  apart  from 
were  developed ;  new  hopes,  enlarging  from  eaeh  other.     Carmel  divides  the  northern 
the  grave,  animated  our  race.  from  the  southern  seacoast,  which  between 
It  was  natural  that  this  bright  hope  and  Joppa  and  Gtam  is  a  plain.    From  Caimel 
faitli  should  degenerate   into   enthusiasm,  spreads  out  the  plain  of  Sharon,  which  runs 
The  land  of  Palestine  became  a  sort  of  idol ;  from  Tiberias  by  Tabor  down  southward  to 
and  pilgriraR  rushed  to  its  shores  iu  count-  Joppa«    Thus  were  the  Phoenicians,  north 
less  multitudes,  in  the  hope  of  laying  down  of  Carmel,  and  the  Philistines,  to  the  south, 
the  burden  of  their  sins  upon  its  sacred  soQ.  divided  and  kept  separate  from  each  other ; 
The  spirit  of  all  Europe  was  warlike;  and  being  left  to  pursue  each  his  own  course, 
the  voice  of  Peter  the  Hermit  turned  its  though  both  of  them  were  given  to  com- 
energies  into  a  new  channel,  when  the  cross  meroe,  seafaring,  and  fishing  (Neh.  xiii.  16). 
became  the  emblem  of  devotion  in  the  cause  Thus  also  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  high 
of  chivalry,  as  well  as  of  religion.     The  lands  separated  iKm  those  of  the  coast, 
summons  which  he  gave  rent  asunder  every  The  modes  of  life  pursued  by  the  two  were 
tie  of  love,  home,  and  self-interest     The  dissimilar.    The  plain  of  Sharon  afforded 
warriors  of  England,  France,  and  Austria,  too  luxuriant  a  pasturage  for  its  inhabitants 
knew  no  patriotism  but  for  Palestine,  —  no  not  to  employ  themselves,  at  least  iu  part, 
interestbutfor  the  holy  sepulchre, —  no  love  in  keeping  cattle.     Yet  die  people  of  the 
but  that  of  glory.    Tlien  for  centuries  the  plain  looked  chiefly  to  tbe  sea  for  their  sup- 
tide  of  war  rolled  fh>m  Europe  upon  Asia,  port;  while  those  who  dwelt  in  '  the  hill 
Baffled  and  beaten  back,  or  perishing  there  country'  gave  themselves  up,  both  in  the 
fruitlessly,  men  learned  at  length  that  not  north  and  the  south  of  the  land,  to  tillage  and 
by  human  means  was  glory  to  be  restored  to  pasturage.    These  diversities  were  promoted 
Palestine.    The  crescent  shone  triumphantly  by  the  differences  of  climate  and  tempera- 
over  Calvary,  as  if  to  teach  the  Christian,  tare,  which,  though  the  entire  land  is  smaU, 
tliat  his  faith  was  to  be  spiritual,  —  its  in-  were  by  no  means    inconsiderable.     The 
spiration  no  longer  to  be  sought  on  earth.  diversity  of  pursuito  that  is  implied  between 
This  Holy  Land,  although  no  longer  an  the  sailor  and  the  landsmen,  the  mountain- 
object  of  warlike  ambition,  has  lost  none  eer  and  the  dweller  in  the  plain,  has  always 
of  the  deep  interest  with  which  it  once  in-  proved  a  barrier  sufficient  to  keep  the  respec- 
spired  the  most  vehement  crusader.     The  tive  parties  asunder.   With  no  pursuite,  they 
first  impressions  of  childhood  are  connected  have  no  feelings,  in  common ;  and  not  un- 
with  that  scenery ;  and  infant  lips,  in  Eng-  frequently  the  hardy  sons  of  the  hills  look 
land's  prosperous  homes,  pronounce  wiUi  with    contempt   on    lowlanders,   regarding 
reverence  the  names  of  forlorn  Jerusalem  them  as  only  fit  objecte  for  plonder.    These 
and  despised  Galilee.    We  still  experience  causes  of  separation  would,  in  the  case  of 
a  sort  of  patriotism  for  Palestine,  and  feel  Canaan,  be  much  augmented  by  the  diverse 
that  the  scenes  enacted  there  were  performed  origin  of  many  of  ite  tribes ;  for  diversity  of 
for  the  whole  family  of  men.     Narrow  as  origin  has  always  proved  an  effectual  re- 
are  its  boundaries,  we  have  all  a  share  in  straint  on  the  intercourse  of  men,  especially 


CAN                      2G2  CAN 

In  the  eurlier  periods  of  civiliBaUon,  when  periods,  beholding   their    fbim    magnified 

the  matnal  hatred  of  different  hordes  is  in-  through  the  mists  of  antiquityi  designated 

tense.    Canaan,  as  the  lowland  of  the  Asia-  'giants'  (Oen.  Yi  4.   Numb.  xiii.  33.  Dent 

tie  peninsula,  and  as  its  extreme  boondary,  Hi.  11).    Thej  originally  dwelt  in  the  vale 

was  the  resort  of  many  different  tribes,  of  the  Jordan,  on  Sie  east  side  of  the  river, 

whose  aims,  as  well  as  origin,  kept  them  and  are  held  by  Ewald,  Lengerke,  and  other 

sundered  from  eaoh  other ,  and  whose  indos-  eminent  critics,  to  have  been  of  Shemitio 

try  and  skill,  called  into  ftill  exercise  by  origin. 

pressure  on  all  sides,  made  the   natural  The  Zamsummims  were  another  ancient 
opportunities  of  the  country  give  forth  a  race,  who  are  described  even  in  Deuteronomy 
large  amount  of  human  sustenance,  and  so  (ii-  20)  as  haying  in  old  time  dwelt  in  the 
enabled  it    to  support  a  disproportionate  country  inhabited  b^  the  children  of  Am- 
eztent  of  population.    The  coast,  being  at  mon,  from  whom  they  received  their  name, 
an  early  period  in  possession  of  the  com*  whidi  is  said  to  signify  men  qf  evil  ditposi- 
merce    which    united   Europe    with  Asia,  tione,  and  obvioudy  alludes  to  the  fierce 
brought  together  within  a  small  compass  a  manners  of  a  semi-barbarous  horde, 
multitude  of  men,  —  as  appears  from  the  The  Emims  are  also  described  in  terms 
descriptions  of  a  later  date  found  in  Isaiah  which  put  them  in  the  class  of  which  we 
(zxiii.)  and  Ezekiel  (xzvii.),  —  vriio  carried  apeak.    In  Dent  ii.  10, 11,  tbey  are  repre- 
on  commercial  pursuits  widi  their  colonies,  aeuted  as  having  dwelt  in  the  land  of  the 
which  had  migrated  to  the  western  shores  of  Moabites  *  in  times  past,  a  people  great,  and 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.    The  position  of  the  many,  and  tall,  as  the  Anakims ;  which  were 
land  also  occasioned,  that  nearly  all  migra-  ftlao  accounted  giants,  as  the  Anakims;  but 
tions  from  the  interior  came  into  contact  the  Moabites  call  them  Emims.* 
with  Palestine.     The  people  of  Northern  The  Anakims,  or  sons  of  Anak, — of  whom 
Asia,  when  they  had  made  themselves  mas-  three,  Ahiman,  Sheshai,  and  Talmai,  are 
ters  of  the  countries  about  the  Tigris  and  specially  mentioned,  —  inhabited  the  south- 
Euphrates,  by  whose  Ibrtility  they  had  been  em  part  of  Palestine,  certainly  before  the 
enticed,  found  themselves  still  drawn  west-  arrival  of  the  spies  sent  by  Moses  (Numb, 
wards  by  the  opulence  of  Egypt,  and  of  the  xiii*  22). 

commeioial  cities  which  lined  the  shora  of  The  Avims  must  also  be  reckoned  among 

the  Mediterranean ;  and,  availing  themselves  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Canaan.    Their 

of  the  long-travelled  caravan  road  that  led  name,  lowlanders,  carries  the  mind  to  the 

to  Damascus,  proceeded  hence  to  Palestine;  coast    They  dwelt  in  Haserim, — that  is, 

where,  by  means  of  the  sea,  the  East  came  in  nomad  villages,  —  southward  unto  Gaza; 

into  close  connection  with  the  fitrthest  limits  whom  the  Caphtorims  —  that  is,  Philistians 

of  the  then  habitable  globe  towards  the  West  —  destroyed  (Deut  iL  23) ;  leaving,  how- 

8o  it  happened  at  a  very  early  period  with  ever,  a  remnant  which  continued  to  bear  the 

the  Elamites  (Gen.ziv.),  and  at  a  later  time  name  of  the  dan  (Josh.  xiii.  2). 

with  the  Assyrians,  Scythians,  Chaldeans,  Among  the  original  possessors  of  Pales- 

and  Persians,  one  after  ansther.  tine  must  also  be  classed  the  wicked  tribes 

We  are  thus  led  to  see,  that  the  earlier  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah;  for  they  are  men- 
populations  of  Palestine  were  not  only  nu-  tioned  as  contemporaneous  with  the  Be- 
merous,  but  of  diverse  origin,  manners,  and  phaims  and  Emims  (Gen.  xiv.  5). 
pursuits.  With  our  defective  knowledge,  it  The  Horites  also  are  of  the  same  age, 
is  not  easy  to  give  dear  and  positive  state-  who  possessed  Mount  Seir,  and  whose  name 
ments  as  to  who  were  the  aborigines,  or  describes  them  as  dwellers  in  caves  and 
whether  the  aboriginal  tribe  ever  held  exdu-  defts  of  mountains  (Gen.  xiv.  6.  Deut 
aive  possession  of  the  land.    It  may,  how-  ii.  12). 

ever,  be  remarked,  that  the  facts  which  we  ( '  The  notices  that  we  haTc  of  these  tribes, 

have  just  mentioned  show  in  general  that  which  will  be  given  more  at  length  when 

the  wave  of  population  moved,  in  agreement  we  speak  of  them  separately,  lie  scattered, 

with  great  Scriptural  implications  and  state-  as  if  accidentally,  in  various  parts  of  Scrip- 

ments,  from  east  to  west,  and  lh>m  north  to  ture ;  but  the  great  summary  of  the  earth's 

south.     The  Scriptures,  however,  it  must  population,  contained    in  Gen.  x.,  passes 

be  added,  recognise  the  distinction  here  im-  them  in  total  sflence.    They  are  all  held  to 

plied  between  aboriginal  and  immigrating  haye  been  descendants  of  Shem. 

people ;  for,  in  1  Chron.  viL  21,  we  i«ad  of  When  these  were  yet  in  the  land,  there 

men  who  *  were  bom  in  the  land,'  whom,  by  arrived  other  tribes,  named  by  the  Greeks 

comparison  with  other  passages  (1  Chron.  PhoBnidans,  and  by  the  Hebrews  Canaanites. 

viii.  13.  Josh.  xi.  22),  we  find  to  haye  been  Historical  tradition  luakes  these  come  into 

Anakims,  resident  in  Philistine  cities.  Canaan  firom  the  south,  stating  their  original 

Among  the  earliest  inhabitants  were  the  seat  to  have  been  tae  £ed  Sea;  that  is,  ei- 

Bephaites  (from  a  root  signifying  tall), —  a  ther  the  Arabian  or  the  Persian  Gulf.    The 

rough,  hardy  race,  of  unusual  strengdi  and  genealogical  list  of  nations  represents  Ca- 

stature,  whom  later  and  more  cultivated  naan  to  have  been  a  descendant  of  Ham, 


CAN  263  CAN 

and  80  refers  ns  to  Africa  for  the  natWe  militarj  organisation   (Josb.  xril.  16)  and 

plaoe  of  the  Canaanites.    If  by  the  Red  Sea  a  regal  government  (Nomb.  zzi.  1.  Detit 

we  understand  the  Arabian  Onlf,  the  Ca-  Tii.  iL  Josh.  x.  8,  23),  living  in  fortified, 

naanites  may  have  come  from  the  shores  of  cities,  with  houses  frill  of  all  good,  with 

the  Red  Sea,  at  the  same  time  that  they  came  wells   already  dng,    Yineyards    and    olive- 

from  Africa;  or  possibly  the  word  *  Ham  'is  trees  already  planted,  as  well  as  wealth  of 

In  this  ease  to  be  understood  as,  in  agree-  various  kinds,  the  products  of  industry  and 

ment  with  the  etymology  of  the  woid,  refer-  the  rewards  of  commerce  (Deut  vi.  10,  seq, 

ring  to  the  hot  district  of  the  earth  generally;  Josh.  vii.  21,  ieq.).    The  condition  in  which 

which  would  leave  us  at  liberty  to  recognise,  the  Israelites,  on  their  invasion,  found  the 

with  some  critics,  the  countries  about  the  inhabitants,  shows  how  it  was  ihsX  Joshua 

Persian  Oulf  as  the  home  of  the  Canaanites  had  so  much  difficulty  in  his  conquests,  and 

(Oen.  X.  6) ;  —  a  course  which  is  reoom-  was  compelled  to  allow  a  large  portion  of  the 

mended,  if  the  allegation  is  true,  that  the  Canaanites  to  remain  (Judg.  iii.  1,  $eq.  Josh, 

language  of  the  Canaanites  was  Shemitic;  xvi.  10),  who  occasioned  much  trouble  in 

in  support  of  which,  reference  is  made  to  the  times  of  the  Judges,  and  maintained 

passages  of  Scripture  that  certainly  may  con-  their  existence  till  the  age  of  David ;  nay,  in 

tain  such  an  implication,  yet  by  no  means  some  places,  even  to  the  days  of  Solomon 

state  this  as  a  fact  (Gen.  xix.  18.  Josh.  (1  Kings  ix.  16).    Rather  than  submit  to 

IL  0). — See  Drvisiov.  Joshua,  a  considerable  number,  if  we  may 

Regarding  the  Canaanites  as  a  branch  of  believe  a  Pagan  writer,  emigrated  to  Tlngi- 

the  Shemitio  family,  Lengerke  makes  them  tana  in  Africa,  where  our  authority  found  a 

to  have  been  practised  in  seafaring  in  the  monument  bearing  these  words :  —  *  We  are 

Indian  Ocean,  and  to  have  migrated   to  those  who  fled  before  the  free  of  the  robber 

the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  conse-  Joshua.' 

quence  of  being  hence  led  to  see  how  fti-        No  sooner  had  Kosh  begmi  to  recover 

vourable  a  site  that  seaboard  afforded  for  from  tbe  effects  of  the  flood,  than  a  circum- 

commeree.    In  this  view,  they  were  a  por-  stance   occurred  (Gen.  ix.  22,  8eq.)  which 

tion  of  that  long  and  broad  wave  of  popula-  made  Canaan  an  object  of  aversion  in  his 

tion  that  came  down  from  the  south-east,  family,  causing  this  curse  to  be  pronounced 

towards  the  sea  just  mentioned,  which  ap-  on  hhn :  — 
pears  to  have  been  for  many  generations  '  Cursed  be  Canaan  I 

flowing  in   a  north-westerly  direction;   so  A  servant  of  serrants 

that  E  wald  says  Palestfaie  was  in  these  pri-  Shall  lie  be  to  Ms  brethren.* 

mitive  days  the  great  place  of  resort  for  the  These  tmfriendly  feelings  were  kept  up  and 

Shemitic  tribes,  as  it  was  during  the  cm-  made  worse  by  the  hatred  which  rival  clans, 

sades  for  the  nations  of  Europe.    If  we  may  If  not  by  the  deeper  aversion  which  differ- 

Ibllow  the  guidance  of  this  Shemitio  origin  ences  of  race,  have  always  been  found  to 

of  the  Canaanites,  we  see  a  reason  why  they  occasion,   as  well    as   by  incivilities    and 

shoald  press  forward  to  the  extreme  boun-  alfronts  given  by  the  inhabitants  of  Canaan 

daries  of  the  cotmtry,  and  first  take  posses-  to  the  wandering  Israelites ;  whence  there 

sion  of  the  line  of  coast  called  from  them  ensued  a  settled  alienation  and  an  inveterate 

Canaan  or  Fhcsnicia ;  migrating  from  which,  enmity  between    the    two    (Ezek.  xvi.  8). 

in  later  periods,  they  at  length  occupied  the  But  to  the  firmly-rooted  and  debasing  ido- 

entire  country  to  whidi  they  extended  their  latry  of  the  Canaanites  was  it  chiefly  owing, 

name.    We  are  also  led  to  see,  that,  when  that  aU  friendly  relations  with  them  was 

they  settled  in  the  land,  they  possessed  no  forbidden  by  Moses  to  his  nation ;  who,  as 

mean  culture.    To  the  appliances  afforded  being  but  little  lifted   above    the  grosser 

by  this  culture,  they  doubtless  owed  their  empire  of  the  senses,  could  not  fail  to  be  in 

eonquest  of  the  earlier  inhabitants ;  as  they  imminent  danger  of  being  turned  aside  to 

themselves,  when  in  their  torn  commerce  serve  their  gods;  and  so  the  great  aim  of 

had  brought  luxury,  and  luxury  had  demo-  Moses  would  fail  of  effect,  and  the  greatest 

ralised  and  enervated  the  character,  were  of  all   instruments  for  the  civilisation  of 

compelled  to  give  way  before  the  irresistible  the  world — namely,  the  establishment  in  the 

vigour  of  the  youthftd  arm  of  the  Israelites,  heart  of  society  of  a  strict  and  elevated  mo- 

wbo  bore  with  them  much  of  the  power  sup-  notheism  —  would  have  been  utterly  lost 

plied  by  the  high  civilisation  of  Egypt  Hence  were  the  Israelites  forbidden,  under 

Long,  however,  must  the  Canaanites  have  the  severest  penalties,  to  intermarry  with  the 

been  in  quiet  possession  of  the  country,  and  inhabitants  of  the  land,  or  to  spare  any  of 

considerible  must  have  been  the  use  which  fhero,  after  they  had  succeeded  in  becoming 

they  had  made  of  their  resources  and  repose,  their  masters  (Exod.  xxxiv.  16.  Deut  vii.  8. 

when  Moses  brought  them  a  master,  from  Judg.  iii.  6).    It  is  worthy  of  special  notice, 

whose  sword  or  yoke  they  were  not  to  escape,  that  the  evils  which  fell  on  the  Israelites,  in 

At  this  epoch,  they  appear  as  a  numerous  after  times,  ensued  from  their  frequent  lapses 

people,  consisting  of  several  tribea  or  nations  into  idolatry,  occasioned  by  the  remnant  of 

(Numb.  xiii.  29.    Deut  vii.  1),   having   a  spared  Canaanites,  and  specially  by  marriaga 


CAN  264  CAN 

witli  CanaanitlBh  women  (1  Kings  zi.  1 ;  abstraol,  but  under  the  relations  in  which 
zvi.  31).  And  if,  m  erery  student  of  the  it  stands  in  the  Biblical  narratlTes.  In 
Bible  knows,  the  establisliment  of  mono-  this  case,  we  have  clearly  not  to  do  with 
theism  was,  in  the  actual  circumstances,  a  abstract  principles,  but  the  peculiarities  of 
work  of  extreme  difficulty,  which  required  an  individual  case.  Wars  of  excision  may 
the  discipline  of  centuries,  —  scarcely  with-  in  the  abstract  be  wrong ;  yet  the  exter- 
in  the  bounds  of  possibility  could  that  esta-  minating  war  of  Joshua  against  the  Ca- 
blishment  have  been,  had  idolata7  been  left  naauites  may  still  be  right.  It  is  under 
by  Joshua  in  Aill  and  unimpaired  vigour,  special  circumstances  that  the  war  is  con- 
Indeed  we  see  not  how  it  was  possible  for  ducted  :  by  these  special  circumstances 
Mosaism  to  have  got  a  footing  in  the  land,  must  we  form  our  idea  of  its  character, 
had  the  Canaanites  been  spared  under  the  Now,  the  specialities  in  this  case  are  nnme- 
sway  of  mercy,  and  the  conditions  of  a  treaty  rous.  In  the  widest  sense,  they  comprise 
having  union  for  its  aim.  The  success  of  all  that  had  been  done,  and  all  that  was  to 
the  Mosaic  religion  involved  and  demanded  be  done,  by  revelation  for  the  improvement 
the  suppression  of  Canaanitish  idolatiy ;  and  salvation  of  mankind.  But  leaving  on 
and  the  latter  was  impossible,  if  the  lives  one  side  this  wider  issue,  let  us  very  briefly 
of  the  Canaanites  were  spared.  But  what  advert  to  the  point  already  touched  on; 
in  this  have  we  different  from  the  great  les-  namely,  the  idolatrous  practices  of  the  Ca- 
son  which  history  impresses  on  the  mind ;  naanites,  in  contrast  with  the  prevalence  of 
namely,  that,  however  much  human  intelli-  a  pure  monotheism,  which  was  to  issue  in 
gence  may,  in  an  advanced  stage  of  Chris-  the  universal  religion  of  Jesus  Christ  The 
tian  culture,  condemn  the  practice  of  war,  establishment  pf  that  monotlieism  in  con- 
yet  that  war  has  in  numberless  cases  been  junction  with  a  full  unpruned  idolatry  was 
the  forerunner  of  civilisation,  and,  under  the  impossible.  Was  tbe  good,  then,  to  be  fore- 
control  of  Providence,  proved  a  most  effec-  gone,  —  the  vast  and  endless  good  which 
tual  means  for  advancing  the  highest  inte-  the  Mosaic  polity  had  directly  and  indirectly 
rests  of  humankind?  Numerous  and  signal  to  confer?  In  other  terms,  was  idolatry  to 
were  the  advantages  which  Alezande/s  eon-  continue  unchecked,  unabated,  with  full 
quests  were  the  means  of  conferring  on  license  to  spread  its  moral  poison  on  all 
eastern  parts  of  the  world.  The  Bomaas  sides  ?  Let  the  reader  not  misconceive  the 
carried  with  Iheir  victorious  arms  the  seeds  nature  of  the  alternative.  Idolatry  among 
of  knowledge,  culture,  and  happiness,  among  the  Canaanites  was  not  a  mere  negation  of 
nations  who  could  not  otherwise  have  re-  good,  —  not  an  abstraction  of  the  mind, — 
oeived  them  till  after  tbe  lapse  of  centuries,  not  a  speculative  notion.  The  point  at 
Viewed,  then,  in  oonnection  with  a  general  issue  did  not  involve  the  triumph  of  one  of 
Providence,  the  extermination  of  the  Canaan-  two  rival  systems  of  speculation.  That  ido- 
ites  has  in  it  nothing  exceptional  or  extra-  latry  was  eminently  practical  in  its  character, 
ordinary ;  nor  does  the  Bible  lie  under  a  And  it  was  no  less  deadly.  It  was  a  pander 
weight  of  odium  which  is  not  shared  by  to  the  lowest  passions.  It  stifled  the  holiest 
every  other  ancient  history.  But  a  special  voices  of  the  human  heart  —  we  mean  the 
order  was  in  this  case  given  of  God  for  the  domestic.  It  was  essentially  vitiating  and 
destruction  of  the  inhabitants  of  Canaan,  debasing.  It  undid  all  moral  ties.  It 
At  such  a  thought,  the  heart,  we  know,  destroyed  both  body  and  soul.  Well  has 
revolts :  the  feel^gs  of  alienation  which  it  Milton  appreciated  the  character  of  this 
now  occasions,  no  force  of  argument  can,  we  idol-worship :  — 

^ot  wUh'SST;  JJ.™! n^^hLS  t  Z«d  •  ««*  Moloch,  horrid  Idng.  be«ne.r'd  witb  blood 

not  wish  that  any  aigument  should  be  found  ^f  hmnn  ncriflee  and  paints'  t««: 

strong  enough  to  drown  this  h(My  voice  of  Though,  for  tbe  noise  of  drums  sad  timbrels  loud. 

Christian  benignity.     We  love  God  as  made  Their  cfaUdren's  cries  unheard,  that  paas'd  through 

known  to  us  by  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  with  ^^  his^grimjdol.^       •••••'■*" 

fkr  deeper  reverence  than  the  solution  of  Next  Cbamos,  the  obeoene  dread  of  Moab's  sons : 

any  historical  difficulty.     If  there  must  be  Peor  his  other  name,  when  he  enticed 

a  conflict  between  our  idea  of  Deity,  and  J™**»^*^®°i^!?'^JS!'^2^S^^ 

♦v«  J  *       V       »v  «      -.        •  To  do  him  wanton  rites,  whldi  ooBt  them  woe. 

the  record  touching  this  war  of  extermma-  y^  thence  his  lustfW  orBles  he  enlai^ied 

tion,  at  least  let  not  the  former  be  in  the  Eyen  to  that  hill  of  aoandal  by  the  grovs 

slightest  degree  lowered  or  impaired.    We  Of  Moloch  homldde,  lust  hard  bjhate^       ^ 

would,  if  necessaiy,  far  rather  hold  that  a  Belial  ame*last,*than  whom  a  spirit  more  lewd 

pnestly  religion  had  exceeded  the  bounds  Fell  not  from  heaven,  or  more  ffross  to  Icvo 

of  its  just  authority,  than  for  a  moment  Vice  for  itself:  to  him  no  temple  stood, 

suffer  the  lustre  of  the  divine  character,  as  ?'  altar  smoked;  yet  who  more  oft  than  he 

conceived  by  our  minds,  to  be  sullied  e;en  JiTSlSdS?''*  '^'^  ^"*" '     ' 
by  the  shadow  of  a  shade.     But  are  we 

reduced   to  this  alternative?     In  general  This  'crew'  of  'bestial   gods,*  whom  our 

terms,  no.  great  poet  has  characterised  with  equal  force 

The  subject  most  not  be  viewed  in  the  and  accuracy,  must  with  all  tlieir  abomina- 


CAN  265  CAN 

tions  hsTe  been  endured,  and  suffered  to  acbievement  enters  into  the  general  eoorse  of 

extend  their  power,  nnless  the  conquering  Providence;   for  history  is  only  a  record 

arm  of  Joshua  was  to  decimate  the  inhabi*  of  God's  dealings  with  man.    If  the  aohieve- 

tante  of  the  land.    The  more  gentle  plead-  ment  formed  a  part  of  the  course,  how  could 

ings  of  our  nature  would  prompt  us  to  it  have  been  excluded  from  the  plan  and 

desire,  that  the  altematiTC  was  not  of  so  determinations  of  Providence?   and  if  yon 

dreadful  a  nature.    In  truth,  however,  we  can  'justify  the  ways  of  God  to  man'  in 

must  take  it  as  history  seto  it  before  us.  view  of  the  oamage  of  a  Bonaparte,  why 

Idolatry  could  not  be  uprooted,  while  idola-  such  difficulty  with  the  slaughter  committed 

ters  were  spared.    Nor  practically  could  any  by  a  Joshua?    Deny  a  Providence ;  still  yon 

regard  be  had  to  distinctions  of  age  and  sex.  do  not  deny  the  facte  adduced,  and  can  only 

The   acorn  becomes  an   oak.     Idolatrous  say  that  the  wars  of  the  Israelites  stand  in 

fascinations  are  not  lessened,  because  asso-  a  class  with  other  wars.    But,  in  denying  a 

ciated  with  female  seductiveness.  Providence,  you  cannot  plead  that  these  wars 

We  again  remark,  that  it  is  not  from  offend  your  religious  feelings ;  for  what  reli- 
our  own  position,  but  from  that  of  the  early  gious  feelings  are  those,  —  what  lofty  stau- 
age  with  which  these  evente  are  connected,  dard  of  right  and  wrong  is  that  which  he  has, 
that  we  ought  to  contemplate  this  war  of  who,  if  he  admite  that  it  has  a  Maker,  denies 
excision.  A  truly  enlightened  Christian  the  world  itt  Governor ;  regarding  it  as,  in 
conscience  would  unhesitatingly  condemn  ite  moral  relations,  *  a  mighty  maze  without 
such  a  transaction,  were  it  to  take  place  apian'?  In  truth,  we  do  not  see  what  unbe- 
now.  But  such  a  conscience  was  unknown  lievers  in  revelation  gain  by  pleading  against 
in  those  early  periods.  Ite  existence  was  a  it  the  sanguinary  proceedings  of  the  Israel- 
pure  impossibility.  And  to  require  that  the  ites.  The  great  facts  remain  the  same, 
men  of  those  times  should  conform  to  our  whether  or  not  the  latter  had  a  divine  sano- 
standard  is  to  act  most  foolishly,  most  un-  tion  for  what  they  did.  The  land  was  forcibly 
justly;  and,  in  truth,  to  say  that  they  should  taken  possession  of,  and  held  by  Joshua  and 
have  no  moral  sentimente  at  alL  How,  his  followers.  When  the  objector  has  ex- 
then,  did  this  exterminating  war  look  to  plained  on  his  principles  how  this  was  right 
them  ?  Most  clearly,  as  nodiing  unusual,  under  a  system  of  ordinary  Providence,  the 
—  nothing  atrociousy  —  nothing  even  con-  believer  in  revelation  will  find  no  diffloulty, 
demnable.  Sufficient  evidence  of  this  is  with  the  superadded  element  of  alleged 
found  in  the  fact,  that  the  record  of  all  the  special  direction.  What  God  permite  he 
circumstances  is  made  in  the  book  of  Joshua  does.  What  necessarily  ensues  from  follow- 
in  a  simple,  unconscious  manner,  and  with-  ing  his  guidance,  is  his  own  act  If  by 
out  the  slightest  i^logy.  special  or  by  ordinary  means  he  brought  the 

But  if  the  human  view  is  free  from  con-  Israelites  to  the  borders  of  the  land  he  had 
demnation,  we  must  not  expect  to  find  the  promised  to  them,  he  thereby  gave  them  a 
divine  view  full  of  severe  rebuke.  On  command  to  enter  in  and  ti^e  possession, 
the  contrary,  what  the  first  approved,  the  And  if  dire  evils  existed  in  that  land,  —  evils 
second  would  easily  be  represented  as  en-  utterly  incompatible  with  the  laws  enjoined 
joining.  Inspiration  is,  in  many  cases,  by  his  servant  Moses,  —  then,  by  all  the  dis- 
man's  idea,  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  in-  oipline  through  which  he  had  conducted 
tensity  under  the  influence  of  religious  them,  did  he  bid  the  Israelites  remove  those 
emotions.  The  divine  is  the  human  ideal-  evils,  by  a  voice  as  explicit  and  eflectual  as 
ised.  Let  the  human  clothe  itself  in  patriot-  if  he  had  spoken  from  Mount  Nebo,  as  he 
ism,  then  are  slaughter  and  self- sacrifice  spoke  from  Mount  Sinai, 
held  to  be  a  divine  undertaking.  Even  in  The  employment  of  the  Hebrews  them- 
the  present  day,  'the  God  of  armies'  ia  selves  in  die  extirpation  of  their  predeoes- 
made  the  prime  eause  of  human  victories,  sors,  in  which  some  have  found  special 
with  a  pious  zeal  that  endures  no  contn^  difficulty,  was  necessiteted  by  the  need  there 
diction.  When  the  civilisation  of  the  greater  was  of  inspiring  them  vrith  such  a  hatred  of 
part  of  Christendom  in  the  nineteendi  cen-  idolatry,  as  might  keep  them  pure  from  itt 
tury  sent  np  firom  ite  myriads  of  churches  contaminating  practices.  And  in  this  em- 
TV  Deums  for  the  successful  carnage  at  ployment  we  have  only  an  instance  of  that 
Waterloo,  we  need  feel  no  surprise,  that,  in  general  law  by  which  men  are  made  God's 
perfect  sincerity  and  wiUi  hearty  earnest-  instmmente  of  evil  and  of  good  to  each  other, 
ness,  the  invading  and  conquering  Israelites  ibr  the  furtherance  of  his  own  divine  plans 
pleaded  an  express  command  to  sanction  of  benignity.  It  is  even  into  the  hand  of  a 
their  sanguinary  deeds.  fiither,  that  the  rod  of  needfiil  correction  has 

Nor  can  those  who  admit  a  Providence  been  placed  of  God.  If  a  mother's  love  brings 

assert  that  they  were  utterly  without  a  basis  nntold  happiness  on  her  child,  it  is  through 

for  their  conviction.    It  is  a  fact  that  the  the  varied  discqdine  of  what  we  term  ill  and 

Israelites  got  possession  of  Canaan.     In  good.    Pain  is  often  the  channd  of  God's' 

making  the  conquest,  they  must  have  slaugh-  best  gifts  to  man.    Even  a  Heathen  moralist 

tered  tnoussnds.    1 1  is  equally  a  fact  that  tibia  could  see  and  paint  the  wisdom  of '  the  (Uuiififi 


CAN                  266  CAN 

of  Hercules,'  in  preferring  the  path  of  la-  almond  (flowere?)  and  knops.    The  iteni 

boor  and  self-denial  to  that  of  flowery  ease,  and  the  six  faranehes  eaeh  bore  a  lamp  fied 

To  withhold  evil  when  its  infliction  is  the  by  oliTe  oil.    This  candleatiok  wassetintfae 

only  remedy,  is  not  benigni^,  bnt  weakness,  tabemade,  without  ihe  Tail  that  diTided  it 

An  incurable  wound  must  be  cut  out  ftt>m  the  Holy  of  holies,  oyer  against  the 

We  are  of  opinion,  then,  that  if  the  exter*  table  on  the  south  or  left-hand  side  as  yon 
mination  of  the  Csnasnites  is  contemplated  entered  (Exod.  xxt.  81,  teq. ;  xxri.  85). 
from  the  Biblical  point  of  Tiew,  it  is  an  in-  The  number  of  lights,  seven,  seems  to  be  in- 
dispensable link  in  the  great  series  of  erents,  tended  to  symbolise  the  work  of  creation, 
and  as  such  must  be  regarded  as  wisely  and  irtdch  is  recorded  to  hare,  in  seven  days, 
kindly  intended  by  the  great  Buler  of  the  brought  the  entire  universe  into  the  light  of 
world,  for  the  ftirtherance  of  his  own  benign  life.  The  account  given  by  Josephns  is  as 
purposes;  a  view  which  ran  be  denied  with  fbllows  (Antiq.  ill.  6.  7)  :  —  'Over  against 
eflbct  by  unbelievers  in  the  Bible,  only  by  the  table,  near  the  soutiliem  wsll,  was  set  a 
their  utter  renunciation  of  religion.  The  csadlestiek  of  cast  gold,  hollow  within,  bemg 
question  of  natural  or  supematursl  religion  of  the  weight  of  one  hundred  pounds.  It 
does  not  here  oome  into  play;  fbr  the  difll-  was  made  with  knops,  lilies,  pomegranates, 
eulty,  if  there  is  one,  presses  with  equal  and  bowls ;  which  ornaments  amounted  to 
wei^t  on  the  Deist  and  on  the  Christian,  seven  in  all.  The  shaft  rose  fh>m  a  single 
It  is  only  a  very  shallow  philosophy,  or  a  base,  and  spread  itself  into  as  many  branches 
fUse  theory  of  Inspiration,  diatoanhere  give  as  there  are  planets,  including  tiie  sun.  It 
rise  to  notions  having  a  tendency  to  bring  terminated  in  seven  heads,  in  one  row,  all 
Judaism  into  suspicion  or  discredit  in  a  line.    These  branches  cszried  seven 

CANDACE,  Queen  of  Ethiopia,  that  is^  lamps,  each  one  in  imitation  of  tiie  number 

of  Meroe,  under  whom  was  the  '  enuuch  of  of  Uie  planets ;  these  lamps  looked  to  the 

great  authority,'  mentioned  in  Aets  viU.  27.  east  and  to  the  south,  the  candlestick  being 

Candace  was  not  the  proper  name  of  this  placed  obliquely.' 

queen,  but  the  royal  designation  of  flie  line  This  piece  of  ftimiture,  which  has  been 

of  prinees,  as  was  Pharaoh  among  the  Egyx»-  calculated  to  have  been  worth  some  six  thou- 

tians.    Acoording  to  tradition,  her  own  name  sand  pounds,  concurs  with  other  evidence  to 

was  Jndich ;  and  to  her  eunuch,  who  is  said  show  that,  even  while  yet  in  the  wilderness, 

to  have  preached  and  suffered  martyrdom  In  the  wealth  of  the  Israelitos  was  great    Its, 

Ceylon,  we  are  to  aseiibe  the  first  spread  of  oonstruction  makes  it  equally  dear  that  they 

Christianity  in  Ethiopia.  were  byno  means  without  skill  in  metallurgy, 

CANDLE  {from  the  root  candeo,  to  bum,  and  the  related  arts.    Egypt,  indeed,  from 

in  French  ehandettet  allied  with  our  English  which  they  had  recently  come,  was  the  great 

'kindle')  is  the  translation  of  a  Hebrew  focus  of  Uie  civilisation  of  the  day.    There 

word,  Nehr,  which   is  generally  rendered  the  arts  had  been  carried  to  a  high  degree  of 

hunp,  but  in  Job  (xviiL  0 ;  xxi.  17 ;  xxix.  8),  perfection,  in  which  the  Israelites  were  hi 

and  in  Psalms  (xviii.  28 ;  cxix.  105,  in  flie  too  highly  gifted  a  people  not  to  have  largely 

margin )  candle.    The  distinction  which  now  partaken.    What  is  said  of  the  pattern  being 

prevails  between  Ismp  and  candle  was  un*  showed  to  Moses  in  the  Mount,  intends,  we 

known  in  ancient  times.    Lamp  would,  in  all  think,  that  he  was  led,  under  the  guidance 

the  cases,  have  been  the  better  rendering;  as  of  the  inspiration  of  God,  which,  acting  in 

the  reference  is  to  the  Ismp  or  light  sus-  coi^unction  with  his  own  high  powers,  in- 

pended  ftrom  the  top  of  the  tent  which  illu-  fluenoed  aU  his  decisions  and  his  acte  to 

mined  the  interior,  rendered   dark  by  itt  choose  sueh  a  form  as,  in  ite  emblematical 

construction.    Hence  the  lamp  was  an  essen-  pertinency,  should  tend  to  forward  in  pious 

tial  article  of  ftimltnre.    Ite  extinction  left  minds  the  great  religious  purposes  of  his 

the  tent  or  dwelling  in  thick  darkness,  and  undertsking. 

was  regarded  as  the  image  of  utter  desola-  In  Solomon's  temple,  instead  of  one,  there 

tion :  accordingly,  in  Job  xviil.  6,  we  read  of  were  ten  golden  and  ornamented  lamps,  five 

the  wicked:  —  on  the  north,  five  on  the  south  side.    These 

were  carried  sway  with  the  captive  Jews  into 

'TSSWi.***^  J*n^*"***^*f**»  Chsldea  (1  Kings  vii.  49.  Jer.  lu.  19).    In 

Andiasumpri-nbepntout.'  ^^  ^^^  of  Zerubbabel,  tiie  old  mode  of 

The  Arabians  are  fond  of  this  image.    Thus  one  single  lamp  was  restored  (1  Maco.  i.  21). 

they  say:  —  *Bad  fortane  has  extinguished  The  Herodlan  temple  also  had  one  lamp, 

my  lamp.'  described  by  Josephns   as  one  of  *  three 

CANDLESTICK  (a),  was  made  by  Moses  things  that  were  very  wonderfril  and  Ikmous 

*  after  the  pattern  whicli  was  showed '  him  in  among  all  mankind,  —  the  csndlestick,  the 

the  Mount,  of  pure  beaten  gold,  a  talent  in  table,  and  the  altar  of  incense.    The  seven 

weight,  having  a  basis  or  pedestal,  on  which  lamps  signify  tbe  seven  planete,  for  so  many 

rose  a  shaft  that  sent  out  six  branches,  three  there  were  springing  oat  of  the  candlestick ' 

oil  eaeh  side,  all  adorned  with  omamoits,  (Jew.  War,  v.  6.  5)  ;  'ite  middle  shaft  was 

whose  shapes  are  described  as  bowls  like  fixed  on  a  basis,  and  the  small  branches 


WBNJpndiwed  owlofltto  ft  gttvt  length. 

luTing  thB  likwwM  of  »  tridBOt  in  their  po- 

•ition,  ind  iMd  maij  me  *  »©«*«  mids  of 

bnutoraUmp  H  ietopof  them' (Jew. 

nrar  br  Titni,  wiOi  olher  ipoUs.    On  the 

gBUBnll;  to  ooirtwpoDd  with  the 
at  JoMphu,  uid  throw  light  on  the 
fonn  in  whioh  tfaa  tibtmMU  Ump  - 


The  nren  Umpi  In  one  *>«  (jmliolieell]' 
^plied,  in  the  Apociljpn  (1.  20),  to  the 
■even  <^nnhBi  of  A*u. 

CANE,  probibly  from  >  root  eonunon  to 
the  Hebrew  Kakntk,  which  ia  Tirtotuly  ren- 
dered in  Ibe  Eogliah  Bible, 'lUlk'  (Oen. 
xU.  a)  ;  ■  brucb  '  (Eiod.  m.  33)  ;  '  reed ' 
(1  SingBnT.  10)  j  'ealunna'  (Eiod.xix.  33. 
Cut.  IT.  14.  Eiek.  mii.  19}.  The  He- 
brew word  Heina  to  be  from  •  root  whieh 
deDDtes  to  itand  erecl,  ttler  the  mumsr  of 
oneii  uid  reedi.  From  ita  qaalitj  of  grow- 
ing np  to  B  eoDBidertbl*  height,  in  a  atiff 
jointed  rod,  are  derired  Ihe  ipplieittone  or 
UHi  of  the  (Tens,  w  w«ll  u  the  meanings 
which  it  b«*ra. 

The  caiuoo*  (from  ■  Oreak  word  rignih- 
ing  OBK  or  rod)  ia  a  apeeiei  of  pafan,  whieh, 
from  ita  alender  atema,  hai  Iba  appearanee  t^ 
tall  giasB,  and  has  been  eonaidered  as  one 
of  the  linka  wbioh  ecmneol  the  graata*  with 
the  palms.  From  Ihe  paasagas  abora  oited, 
it  is  srident  tbit  when  the  tens  ealamna  la 
used,  the  Caiamia  oroniatifka,  or  fragrant 
esse,  is  intended.  In  Cindelei  (ir.  11),  the 
oalsDins  is  joined  with  cinnamon,  as  well  as 
othsi  odoiifeions  plants.  Ths  cimiamon 
and  **'"""■  ara  fbimd  so  joined  together  in 


7  CAN 

Joeaphoa  (Antlq.  IIL  B,  8),  who  adds  of  tba 
oatamna,  'Thialsat  is  a  Idnd  of  sweet  ([dea.' 
The  ealamns(^nauladMiix}  waa  mads  into 
Binnrs  bj  manj  uationa,  ao  that,  to  nee  Ae 
words  of  Flin;,  half  die  world  has  been  con- 
quered by  feeds.  Bat  Ifone  reed  hM  aided 
to  conquer,  anodser  (tha  papjnis)  hu  done 
far  more  In  enlighlan  and  rsftirm,  mankind. 
It  was  on  a  ealamna  (' reed ')  that  the  sponge 
filled  wilh  Tinegai  w«a  oflbTed  to  flie  Sifionr, 
iriien  on  the  point  of  expiring  (HatL  ixTiL 
4S).  The  hel^t  at  which  Jsaos  was  ans- 
Mnded  abon  the  bjatandara,  haa  peihapa 
Man  raaggeratrd.  A  oalinms  reed,  howerer 
dd*  mar~liaTe  bean,  ooald  doubtless  bave 
teadied  his  lips  i  hi  Ihe  stem  of  the  Cala- 
«m  vmu  la  deseribed  as  being  one  hondred 
fMt  king.    Some  tpeefaa  are  mneh  longar. 

Ibia  plaol,  lAiah  ia  diadnguiahed  for  ita 
pletsanl  odont  and  aromatle  taale,  grows  in 
Europe,  but  reasbea  perttation  only  in  an 
Asiatio  olimale.  The  ealamna  of  Arabia  snd 
India  ia  most  valQed,  and  aneh  ia  meant  in 
IsB.  xliii.  U.  Jar.  Ti.  80.  Eiek.  nrli.  10. 

OAMKEBWOBM.  — Canker  is  Ihe  same 
w«rd  aa  Mnoer,  whioh  is  described  b;  OTid 
eSO)    as  MoJum  tMMHfieoAtte, 


84.  Jer.  li. 


■  rottenneaa  of  bone, 

wonnd  In  flte  fleah ;  and  is 
deriratiT*!;  vpUed  to  sa  aril  and  malieioas 
diapoaition,  whose  poisoD  infeeta  and  eatt 
awar  the  sonnd  affaetiona  of  the  mind. 

CANON,  a  Greek  wonl  in  Engliih  letters, 
of  which  the  original  oeonn  fl'S  times  in  Ihe 
Oreek  TeelMiient,  being  rendered  bj  the  temja 
'  rale '  and  *  tine '  in  the  oommon  tersion 
(a  Cot.  I.  18,  16,  19.  OH.  n.  1«.  Phil. 
iiL  W).  In  these  instances  it  mgnifles 
gsnerallT  a  gnids,  a  means  of  dbaotion  in 
flia  great  Doneenu  of  the  Christian  life.  Bat 
where  is  fliat  guide  to  be  foond  7  Cbriati- 
anitrhas  a  history.  Where  is  thai  hiatoir 
lo  be  fonnd  t  Partly  ia  the  writings  of  ordi- 
■uoymen;  partly  in  the  writings  of  ■ 


any  thing  Ait  eaia,  and  ao  d( 

wlut  haa  the  malignant  and  d< 

litiaa  of  a  cancer.    The  name 

giran  to  &•  caterpillar,  in  eoDBeqnenoe  of 

lit  Toiaelowness.    And  with  die  eateipillar 

is  die  eankanrom  ftond  tmlted  in  Joel  i.  4, 

vbendifimntkindsof  loeoata  are  apokan  of; 

tbr  tba  aiaet  deaoiip^n  of  iriiieh,  we  hsTc  in 

En^iah  no  dlsBrhninating  terms. 

brew  word,  F<iiU(il,ia,  howerer, 

ly  rendered 'caterpillars'  (Ps. 

14,37.  Joel  U.  25).    ll  corot -. — 

iriiioh  aigniflesto  Hek,  or  uixt  with  (A*  toiijm; 
and  denotes  the  jonngloeoat  in  the  last  stage 
of  ita  metamorphosia,  or  between  its  third  and 
fooith  condition.  The  term '  canker '  la  dao 
(bond  in  3  Tim.  H.  IT :' And  their  WMd  will 
eat  as  dotb  a  canker.'  The  Oreek  term  ia 
Ihs  original  of  the  wotd  jangrtw,  snd  aig- 


CAN  :tf68  CAN 

Whraice  the  necessity  of  a  guide  or  canon,  in  tion  of  the  work,  and  its  reception  as  of 
other  words,  a  criterion  or  test.     Which  are  dirine  anthority.    Such  reception  was  neces- 
the  writings  of  the  persons  who  had  these  sarily  a  work  of  time.    Andiority  is,  in  all 
superior  opportunities  t  The  canon  answered  cases,  of  slow  growth ;  and  a  writing  which, 
the  question.    They  are  those  which  have  like  those  of  the  later  prophets,  chastised  the 
stood  the  test,  recei?ed  the  sanction,  and,  as  sins  of  priest  and  people,  would  he  long  he- 
haring  done  so,  have  been  taken  into  this  fore  it  conciliated  so  much  faTour  and  re- 
canon  or  collection  of  sacred  books.  Whence  spect  as  to  be  acknowledged  to  contain  the 
it  is  clear  that  some  quality  in  these  books  word  of  Ood.    We  are,  therefore,  disposed 
was  regarded  as  the  essential  which  caused  to  consider  the  later  more  probable  than  the 
them  each  to  be  received.    That  quality  was  earlier  closing  of  the  Old  Testament  canon, 
inspiration  (3  Tim.  iii.  16).    If  a  book  was  For  the  determination  of  the  exact  period 
inspired,  it  was  received  into  the  canon.    But  when  it  took  place,  we  are  not  fiimished 
how  was  its  inspiration  to  be  ascertained  7  with  materials,  —  an  historical  deficiency  the 
The  prophets  under  the  old  dispensation,  less  to  be  deplored  in  this  place,  because 
the  apostles  under  the  new,  were  held  to  be  ours  is  a  popular,  not  an  antiquarian,  view  of 
inspired.    A  book,  therefore,  written  by  a  theological  subjects ;  for  which  reason  we 
prophet  or  an  apostle,  was  received  into  the  shall  do  no  more  than  briefly  allude  to  some 
canon.     Still  the  question  arises.  How  was  important  facts,  reserving  our  space  for  a 
it  known  that  a  book  was  written  by  an  fuller  treatment  of  the  rise  and  reception  of 
iq>osUe  ?  In  the  primitive  age  of  Christianity,  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  or,  in  other 
this  knowledge  was  easily  gained,  and  both  words,  the  formation  of  the  canon  of  the  New 
readily   and  safely  propagated,  —  first    by  TestamentjWith  which  the  Christian  is  chiefly 
those  who  knew  the  apostles,  and  then  fh>m  concerned.    Not  till  after  the  Babylonish 
father  to  son,  and  from  church  to  church,  captivity   was  the  canon  completed.     But 
By  this  natural  transmission  of  knowledge  when  after  that  event  ?    According  to  the 
and  of  approved  books,  a  collection  or  canon  Babbins,  the  members  of  the  great  synagogue 
was  gradually  formed.    And  the  canon,  be-  formed  the  collection ;  that  is,  they  put  to« 
ing  thus  formed,  was  finally  accepted  and  gether  the  books  which  had  been  scattered 
sanctioned  by  the  canon  or  law  of  the  church,  or  written  during  the  exile,  having  revised, 
as  represented  in  councils,  and  denominated  corrected,  and  arranged  them ;  thus  bringing 
the  canon.    The  collection  became  itself  a  them  into  the  condition  in  which  they  now 
rule  or  canon  by  which  to  distinguish  spuri-  are,  and  so  closing  the  canon.    These  per- 
ous  i^m  genuine  books,  or  ordinary  from  sons,  according  to  Jewish  accounts,  were  a 
apostolical  writings ;   and  so  the  writings  hundred  and  twenty  learned  men,  who  were 
which  foimed,  say  the  Christian  canon,  were  called  together  at  Jerusalem  by  Ezra  {cir. 
called  the  canonical  in  contradistinction  to  450,  A.C.),  in  order  to  determine  what  writ- 
the  apocryphal  books.   The  canonical  books,  ings  were  of  divine  authority,  and  to  form 
then,  which  combined  to  form  the  canon,  in  them  into  one  comprehensive  whole.    But 
opposition  to  the  apocryphal  books  whose  this  story  is  on  several  grounds  unworthy  of 
claims  had  not  been  found  satisfactory,  are  credit    Whatever  books  may  have  existed 
those  which,  by  public  authority,  were  re-  in  the   sacerdotal  coUection  found  in  the 
ceived  and  read  in  the  Jewish  and  in  the  temple  library,  these  were  necessarily  dis- 
Christian  church,  as  sacred  and  divine.  persed  by  the  events  which   attended  the 
Vfe  s^BkUnt  of  ike  cantm  of  the  OidTeMta-  captivity.    Yet,  doubdess,  in  the  period  of 
metUy  referring  the  reader  to  what  has  been  its  duration,  the  authorities  of  the  nation 
said  under  the  head  of  Book  and  of  Bibls.  were  attentive  to  the  sacred  books,  many  of 
The  collection  of  books  constituting  the  canon  which,  though  they  might  receive  additions 
of  the  Old  Testament  was  formed  gradually  during  and  after  that  event,  yet  are  to  be 
during  the  procession  of  centuries.  There  can  ascribed  to  an  early  age.    We  must  distin- 
be  little  doubt  that  Moses  had  a  share  in  the  guish  between  the  first  composition   of  a 
productionofthe  earlier  books,  which  contain  writing,  and  the  state  in  which  it  is  found 
documents  and  fragments  that  probably  were  at  a  later  period.    The  existence,  in  writing, 
in  existence  even  before  his  age.    The  com-  of  a  book,  admitted  additions  by  persons  who 
mencement  of  the  Jewish  canon,  though  the  lived  more  or  less  sfter  the  original  author, 
date  is  undetermined,  must  tiberefore  be  Thus  it  does  not  follow,  that,  because  the 
dated  back  at  a  very  early  period  of  histoiy.  book  of  Deuteronomy  contains  an  account  of 
If  the  commencement  is  uncertain,  not  less  the  death  of  Moses,  the  substance  of  it  may 
uncertain  is  the  exact  period  of  its  comple-  not  have  proceeded  from  his  pen.    Without, 
tion.    It  is  clear  that  the  canon  could  not  then,  pretending  here  to  settle  at  what  period 
be  closed  until  the  last  sacred  book  had  been  the  several  books  of  the  Old  Testament  first 
added.    But  if  we  knew  the  very  year  when  came  into  existence,  we  speak  of  the  time 
the  last  book  was  published,  we  could  not  when  the  last  hand  was  set  to  their  contents; 
hence  safely  declare  that  this  was  the  time  for  in  this  way  only  can  we  approach  to  ac- 
when  the  canon  was  completed.     Some  in-  curacy  in  determining  the  period  about  which 
terval  may  have  elapsed  dormg  the  publica^  the  Jewish  canon  was  dosed.    A  part  oi 


CAN                     269  CAN 

this  canon  appears  to  have  been  collected,  fathers  since  the  days  of  Moses,  the  sa3ring8 
and  another  part  to  have  been  composed,  of  the  wise  king  Solomon,  the  predictions  of 
dnring  or  after  the  captivity.  Tlie  prophe-  the  prophets  which  had  been  so  strikingly 
cies  of  Jeremiah  and  the  book  of  Psalms  fulfilled ;  and  in  the  hands  of  the  superin- 
were  collected  and  brought  into  their  present  tendents  of  the  public  worship,  the  songs  of 
condition,  dnring  or  after  that  event;  the  David  and  his  *  tuneful  brethren'?  It  is  ez- 
prophecies  of  Ezekiel  and  of  Daniel  were  pressly  stated,  that  this  great  national  recon- 
completed  during  the  continuance  of  the  stmction  took  place  on  the  basis  of  '  the 
Jews  in  the  land  of  their  conquerors ;  Hag-  book  of  the  law  of  Moses,'  which  was  pub- 
gai,  Zachariah,  and  Malachi,  the  Chronicles,  Holy  laid  before  and  made  known  to  all  Is- 
EsUier,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah,  were  written  rael  (Neh.  vill.  I,  8).  The  existence  of 
some  time  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  into  such  a  book,  and  the  reality  of  its  republi- 
the  land  of  their  fathers.  The  period  which  cation,  make  the  changes  now  introduced 
immediately  followed  that  return  could  intelligible.  It  is  equally  necesary  to  hold 
hardly  have  set  the  seal  to  the  Jewish  canon,  that  Ezra  and  Nehemjah  found  in  existence 
The  first  weak  colony  that  came  back  home  an  abundant  literature,  and,  speaking  in 
were  too  much  occupied  with  measures  for  general  terms,  the  books  to  which  he  is  al- 
their  social  security,  —  too  much  engaged  in  leged  to  have  given  his  sanction ;  for  the 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  in  constructing  creation,  for  the  first  time,  of  such  a  work 
dwellings,  and  procuring  iixe  necessaries  of  as  the  Pentateuch  or  the  Psalms,  the  pro- 
life,  —  diey  had  too  severe  a  struggle  to  phecies  of  Isaiah  or  the  book  of  Job,  will 
maintain  with  internal  and  extemai  bin-  not  for  a  moment  be  bought  possible  by 
drances,  to  make  provision  for  any  other  of  those  who  know  in  what  a  humble  aud  dis- 
their  higher  wants  than  the  erection  of  their  organised  state  the  Jewish  people  then  were, 
temple ;  and  could  have  had  neither  thought  The  whole  analogy  of  history  contradicts  the 
nor  leisure  for  undertaking  an  office  of  a  8nppOBition,thatwhat  are  accoimted  the  more 
purely  literary  and  learned  character.  Nor  ancient  books  of  the  Jews  could  have  been 
do  we  find  either  in  the  book  of  Ezra,  which  produced  en  nuuse  by  deceivers  or  enthu- 
has  preserved  valuable  information  regard-  siasts,  at  a  time  when  the  glory  of  the  nation 
ing  the  eariy  period  after  the  return,  nor  in  had  passed  away,  and  when  the  national 
the  traditions  of  the  Jews,  any  intimations  mind  was  yet  suffering  under  the  but  re- 
from  which  we  may  conclude,  that  those  cently  removed  yoke  of  a  protracted  bondage, 
who  formed  a  part  of  the  first  colony  that  In  2  Maco.  ii.  13,  we  read  that  writings  and 
returned,  busied  themselves  about  the  re-  commentaries  of  Nehemiah  existed,  in  which^ 
mains  of  their  national  literature.  Not  be-  among  other  things,  it  was  reported  that  he 
fore  the  days  of  the  Persian  kings,  Xerxes  founded  a  library,  in  which  '  he  gathered  to- 
and  Artaxerxes, — when,  under  the  first,  the  gether  the  acts  of  the  lungs,  and  the  pro- 
learned  priest  Ezra  conducted  a  second  phets,  and  of  David,  and  &e  epistles  of  the 
colony  back  to  Judea,  and,  under  the  second,  kings  concerning  the  oblations.'  However 
Nehemiah  came  into  his  natiye  country ;  indefinite  this  statement  may  be,  it  contains 
and  both  awoke  new  life  in  their  distracted  the  substance  of  the  prevalent  tradition,  that 
and  dispirited  nation,  —  was  there  a  favoura-  attention  was  given  in  the  days  of  Nehemiah 
ble  time  for  the  prosecution  of  learning ;  the  to  the  sacred  canon.  There  is,  indeed,  a  line 
earliest  moment  of  which  would,  however,  be  of  tradition,  which  is  by  no  means  to  be  de- 
seized,  since  the  objects  to  which  the  leisure  spised,  for  this,  if  for  no  other  reason,  that  it 
was  applied  were  of  a  sacred  nature,  and,  as  is  uniform  and  unopposed,  which  refers  the 
such,  claiming  immediate  attention.  Accord-  settlement  of  the  canon  to  Ezra.  As  expres- 
ingly,  the  information  supplied  by  the  books  sive  of  this  traditionary  impression,  even  the 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  as  well  as  the  tradi-  story  about  the  great  synagogue  before  men- 
tions of  the  Jews,  tend  to  show  that  such  an  tioned,  however  small  the  value  may  be  that 
undertaking  was  at  this  time  entered  on.  belongs  to  its  details,  is  not  destitute  of  truth. 
Suitable  arrangements  appear  to  have  been  nor  without  importance.  To  Ezra,  the  oldest 
made,  in  order  to  direct  the  minds  of  the  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  also  assign 
people  to  the  high  concerns  of  religion,  the  office  of  collecting  and  publishing  the 
specially  to  make  them  acquainted  with  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  On  the  whole,  it  seems 
law  of  their  fathers,  and  to  set  in  order  ^e  probable  that  at  least  the  chief  office  in  set- 
ecclesiastical  and  the  civil  constitution.  In  tling  the  Old  Testament  canon  may  be 
the  awakening  of  an  interest  of  this  kind,  ascribed  to  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  It  is  a 
what  was  more  natural  than  that  men  such  different  question,  whether  or  not  the  canon 
as  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  after  the  publication  was  finally  closed  in  their  days.  The  opi- 
of  the  book  of  the  law  had  produced  a  deep  nions  of  modem  theologians  have  till  recently 
impression  (Neh.  viii.  0, 12,  17 ;  ix.  1 — 8  ;  answered  this  question  in  ^le  negative,  hold- 
X.  28 — 30),  should  take  every  means  in  order  ing  that,  while  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  began 
to  eoUect  as  Ailly  as  possible  the  remains  of  the  work,  its  completion  took  place  gradually 
the  national  literature,  and  place  in  the  and  in  process  of  time.  Dr.  Hengstenberg, 
hands  of  the  people,  the  history  of  their  however,  maintains  with  more  warmth  of  zeal 


CAN  270  CAN 

tii«n  foree  of  tigaiiieiit,  thai  Ifac  canon  was     oonatitate  what  is  tenned  the  Old  Testament, 
Ibnned  and  oompleted  once  for  all  hj  Em     were,  whenever  the  collection  was  brought 
and  Nehemiah.    Even  a  Catholic  aothor     to  a  termination,  objects  of  high  regard  and 
(Herbst,  Einleit  L)  has  argued  that  the     special  care,  on  the  part  of  persons  whose 
book  of  Nehemiah,  howefer,  could  soaieelj     Imowledge  and  positioa  guaranteed  them 
have  come  into  its  pieesttt  condition  befovs     against  deception ;   and  whose  honestj  of 
Darius  Codomannua  (A.O.  836—880) ;  for,     puipose  and  general  faithftilness  are  ascer- 
ziL  22,  it  is  recorded  that  the  heads  of  the     tained  to  us  by  the  simple  tact,  that  the  books 
priests  were  'recorded  to  tiie  reign  of  Darius     to  whieh  they  gave  ttieir  sanction  are  not 
the  Persian,'  whom  Josephns,  Orottus,  and  Le  without  passages  which  reflect  strongly  on 
Clero  regarded  as  Darius  Codomannua,  with  the  rulers  and  priests  of  IsraeL     Too  much 
whom  the  Pendaa  monarehy  ended.    The  re-  importanee  has  been  attached  to  the  question 
gister  found  in  I  Chron.  iiL  10    84  has  been  of  great  names  in  regard  to  the  settlement 
tfiought  to  show,  that  the  books  of  the  Chro-  of  the  caao%  as  well  as  to  the  question  of 
nicies  could  not  have  been  reeeiTed  the  last  the  time  when  it  received  its  final  modifioa- 
hand  before  the  reign  of  Darius  Oohus  tion.    No  name,  however  great,  could  justify 
(A.C.  809).    Also,  the  remark  in  Esther  ft  modem  in  believing  that  which  in  itself  is 
iz.  19,  goes  to  show  that  flie  festival  of  Pu-  ineredible,  or  doing  that  which  it  is  immoral 
rim  had  been  a  long  iriiile  in  use,  so  that  to  do ;  while  opinions  and  practices  which 
the  recorder  of  the  faet  must  have  lived  eon-  approve  themselves  to  the  enlightened  mind 
siderably  after  the  event  whidi  had  oeoasioned  uid  purified  conscience  of  the  Christian, 
the  institution,  and  iriiieh  is  plaeed  in  the  Aood  no  recommendation  fh>m  any  source 
time  of  Xeixes  (A.O.  486 — 460).    Besides,  external  to  themselves.  The  historical  points 
in  the  nature  of  things,  it  sppears  probable  in  the  consideration  of  which  we  are  now  en- 
that  such  a  work  as  the  eoUeetion  of  the  9Bg0d  are  chiefly  of  value,  by  leading  us  to 
sacred  books,  in  the  aetnal  cireunutancea  of  Me  that  presumptions  which  have  been  raised 
the  Jewish  nation,  would  require  a  longer  against  the    sacred  books  of  the  Jews  are 
time  than  the  duration  of  the  lifo  of  an  in-  without  solid  foundation,  and  to  admit  these 
dividual.    If  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  had  col-  books  generslly  as  genuine  compositions, 
leeted  the  greater  part  of  the  sacred  writings,  within  the  sphere  of  general  literature,  and 
they  could  not  be  sure  that  they  had  die-  speetally  within  the  sphere  of  the  sacred 
covered  and  pnt  together  all  the  residue  of  literature  of  the  Hebrew  nation.     We  are 
the  national  literature.     Failing  this,  they  thus  famished  with  reason  to  believe,  that 
must  have  left  to  time  and  eireumstsDces,  these  writings  are  true,  in  the  sense  of  con- 
that  which  facts  alone  could  properiy  deter-  taining  a  description  of  reslities,  a  transcript 
mine.  Contemporaries  eannot  dose  a  canon,  fipom  actual  life;  and  as  oflfering  much — 
It  is  the  woric  of  posterity  to  see  and  reoog-  veiy  much — that  is  good  and  useful  in  all 
nise  that  completion  to  which  events  give  ages,  among  all  classes,  and  in  vezy  diversi- 
occasion.    Widi  this  view  agrees  the  tradi-  fled  states  of  civilisation, 
tion  of  the  later  Jews,  —  namely,  iiuA  the        What  books  were  they  which  received  the 
canon  was  completed  by  the  h^  priest  sanction  of  the  Jewish  church,  by  being 
Onias,  who  died  in  the  year  993  befoie  adopted  as  psrts  of  the  canon  f    On  many 
Christ ;  —  a  tradition  which  may  be  trae  in  occasions,  our  Lord  makes  mention  of  a  coi- 
the  sense,  that  Onias  approved  and  sane-  lection  of  sacred  books,  as  being  in  his  day 
tioned  the  books  which  he  found  in  or  added  the  generally  recognised  authority  in  matters 
to  the  collection.    It  seems,  then,  that  under  pertaining  to  religion  (Matt  v.  17.  Luke  xxiv. 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  the  greater  part  of  the  44.  John  v.  89).    The  apostles  also  employ, 
sacred  writings  were  collected:   after  their  on  many  occasions,  citations  from  the  Jewidi 
death   the  collection  stilt  continued  under  Scriptures,  generally  wiAout  mentioning  the 
authoritative  supervision,  till,  towards  A.C.  names  of  the  writers,  in  the  knowledge  that 
800,  the  canon  ceased  to  receive  additions,  these  writers  were  well  known  to,  and  re- 
and  so  came  to  a  conclusion.    The  Hellen-  eeived  as  of  authority,  by  those  whom  they 
istic  Jews,  however,  following  other  princif^s  addressed.    A  catalogue  of  these  Scriptures 
than  those  which  actuated  Ezra  and  hissuo-  is  not  given  in  the  New  Testament    The 
cessors,  received  and  sanctioned  as  among  passage  in  Luke  (xxiv.  44)  supplies  the 
the  sacred  writings,  books  teraied  the  Apo-  means  of  ascertaining,  firom  the  lips  of  Jesus 
crypha  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  were  himsdi;  the  division  and  generally  the  books 
found  or  composed  after  the  date  just  men-  which  were  in  his  time  recognised.    In  this 
tioned,  until  the  first  century  before  the  ad-  paassge  our  Lord  mentions  the  entire  col- 
vent  of  the  Messiah,  when  the  prophetic  lection  of  the  sacred  books,  under  the  pre- 
Toice  sank  into  final  silence,  and  the  coUeo-  valent  divisions  of  the  Law,  the  Prophets, 
tion  and  the  national  litontnre  received  no  and  the  Psslms.    The  same  description  is 
Ihrther  additions.  made  use  of  by  Josephus,  in  spei^ng  of 
The  matter  which  is  of  chief  practical  im-  the  sacred  books  of  his  nation.    Josephus 
portance  to  the  modem  student  is  this,  that  supplies  a  catalogue,  which,  however,  is  not 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews,  which  now  entirely  tne  ftom  difficulty.    His  statement 


CAN  271  CAN 

is,  that  Uiosaored  books  of  the  Jews  irsie  in  In  the  seeond  eentuiy,  Melito  of  Ssrdxs, 
number  *  twenty-two,  of  which  five  belong  to  drew  np  for  the  use  of  his  brother,  and 
Moses,  that  contain  his  laws,  and  the  tra-  which  the  ecclesiastical  historian  Eusebius 
dJtions  of  the  origin  of  mankind  till  his  has  preserred.  Melito's  catalogue,  which 
death.  The  prophets  who  were  slier  Moses  was  the  result  of  careful  inquiry,  conducted 
wrote  down  what  was  done  in  their  times,  in  hi  Palestine,  oontains  as  follows :  —  'Of 
thirteen  books.  The  remaining  four  books  Moses  five  book%— Genesis,  Exodus,  Le- 
oontain  hymns  to  Ood,  and  precepts  ibir  Titicus»  Numbers,  Deuteronomy;  Joshua, 
the  conduct  of  human  life '  (Against  Apion,  lodges*  Buth,  of  Kings  four,  of  Chronicles 
L  8).  We  subjoin  what  Josephus  says  of  the  two;  Uie  Psslms  of  David;  of  Solomon, 
view  entertaioed  of  these  writings:  — '  How  Proverbs  or  Wisdom,  Ecdesiastes,  Song  of 
firmly  we  have  given  credit  to  these  books  Bongs,  Job ;  of  Prophets,  Isaiah,  Jenmiah, 
of  our  own  nation,  is  evident  by  what  we  the  twelve  in  one  book ;  Daniel,  Ezekiel, 
do;  for,  during  so  msny  sges ashave  already  Esra.'  Aooording  to  this  list,  it  is  Ecde- 
passed,  no  one  hath  been  so  bold  as  either  siastes  and  the  Canticles,  whiehf  together 
to  add  any  thing  to  them,  to  take  any  thing  with  the  Psalms  snd  ihe  Proverbs,  form  the 
from  them,  or  to  mske  suy  change  in  them;  third  division  of  Josephus. 
but  it  is  become  natural  to  all  Jews,  inmie-        A  TSiy  ezaet  eatslogue  of  the  books  of  the 

diately  from  their  birth,  to  esteem  those  Jewish  canon,  which  agrees  with  that  of 

books  to  contain  divine  doctrines,  and  to  per-  Melito,  wre  owe  to  the  unwearied  diligence 

sist  in  them,  snd,  if  occasion  be,  willingly  of  Origen;  fh>m  which  that  of  Jerome  does 

to  die  for  them.'    This  important  passage  not  differ,    excepting,  however,  Jeremiah, 

teaches  us,  that  the  first  division  of  the  which  Origen  received.    The  Talmud  also 

Hebrew  canon,  the  Law,  contained  the  five  supplies  us  with  a  list  of  the  books  of  the 

books  of  Moses,  or  the  Pentateuch.    If  we  Jews,  that   generally   accords  with    those 

put  together  the  books  which  the  Jewish  already  mentioned,  not  only  in  the  three 

historian  cites  in  other  parts  of  his  writings,  leading  divisions,  but  also  in  regard  to  the 

under  a  variety  of  honourable  designations,  individual  books  oompoaiug  them. 
—  as  'sacrod  writings,'  'the  writings  that        The  contact  into  which  Judaism  came 

sre  laid  up  in  the  temple,'  '  the  books  of  with  nations  speaking  the  Greek  tongue, 

prophecy,'  '  books  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,'  especislly  the  wsnts  of  the  Jews  who  were 

'  ancient  books,' '  books  of  the  Hebrews,*  —  settled  in  Egypt,  gave  birdi  to  the   first 

we  find  the  second  division  to  consist  of  trsnslation  that  was  msde  of  the  Hebrew 

Joshua,  Judges  and  Buth,  the  two  books  of  Scriptures,  —  Uiat   called  the  Septuagint, 

Samuel,  the  books  of  the  Kings,  those  of  the  from  the  seventy  or  seventy-two  persons 

Chronicles,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  Esther,  slleged  to  have  been  employed  in  making  it 

Isaiah,  Jeromiah,  Ezekiel,  Danie^  the  Mi«  This  version-* which  also  bears  the  name 

nor  Prophets — in  all  twelve.    The  Psalms  of  Alexsndrine,  from  Alexandria,  in  which 

made  the  third  division.    To  complete  the  place  it  is  said  to  have  been  written  —  is  in 

number  twenty-two,  we  want  one  in  the  se-  the  Greek  Isngusge ;  and,  being  made  at 

cond,  and  three  in  the  third,  division;  which  diiEsrent  times,  may  be  dated  as  having 

vre  must  not  attempt  to  supply  srbitrsrily,  come  into  existence  between  the  years  A.O. 

but  seek  for  in  other  vrriters.  800-^180.    The  five  books  of  Moses  appear 

Let  us  consult  the  Alexsndrine  Jew  Philo,  to  have  been  first  translated,  for  the  use  of 

who  was  contemporaneous  with  Jesus  Christ.  Jews  dwelling  in  Egypt,  who  had  allowed 

He  has  not  inserted  a  list  of  the  Hebrew  their  native  tongue  to  fall  into  disuse,  and 

books  in  his  writings,  —  sstisfying  himself  hsd  grown  aceustomed  to  the  Greek  lan- 

with  making  quotations  from  them,  acoord-  gnage,  in  which  they  naturally  wished  to 

ing  as  suits  the  purpose  he  has  in  each  case  possess  their  national  Scriptures,  in  order 

before  him,  partly  with,  partly  without,  men-  that  they  might  be  read  and  understood  in 

tioning  the  book  whence  they  are  taken,  the  temple  that  they  had  there  erected.    This 

With  mention  of  either  the  book  or  the  translatiou  may  have  been  made  under  the 

author,  he  cites  passages  out  of  the  five  sanction  of  the  Jerusslem  Sanhedrim,  which 

books  of  Moses,  Joshus,  the  books  of  Sa-  eonsisted  of  seventy  or  seventy-two  mem- 

muel,  the  Kings,  Ezra,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  hers ;  whence  the  story  that  it  was  the  work 

some  of  the  Minor  Prophets,  the  Psalms,  of  that  number  of  persons.    It  was  received 

snd  the  Proverbs.    Without  mentioning  the  into  the  Boyal  Library,  in  which  Demetrius 

books,  he  q[uotes  Judges  and  Job.    We  thus  Phslereus  collected  the  laws  of  all  nations ; 

glin  two  books,  with  which  to  fill  vacancies  snd  sppears  to  have  been  finished  at  the 

in  the  catalogpie  made  up  ftom  Josephus ;  time  when  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  reigned 

namely,  the  book  of  Job  for  the  second,  and  eoi\jointly  with  his  father,  Ptolemy  Lagus,^ 

the  Proverbs  for  the  third,  division.    Then  or  about  28d  before  the  birth  of  Christ    By' 

now  fail  us  only  two,  in  order  to  make  up  degrees  other  books  wero  trsnslated  by  dif- 

fbe  two  and  twenty.  ferent  hands,  as  appears  from  diversities 

The  missing  two  we  find  in  the  catalogue  of  style,  and  maimer  of  rendering  the  on 

idiiflh  an  apologist  of  the  Christian  doctrine  ginal 


CAN 


272 


CAN 


The  Septaagint  translation  contains  tlie 
books    already   enumerated,   and,   besides, 
some  writings  which  exist  only  in  Oreek, 
and  are  theiefore  termed  Deutf^ro-oanonical, 
or  belonging  to  the  second  canon ;  in  other 
words,  apocryphal.     Of  the  liistorioal  and 
prophetical  kind  may  be  mentioned  certain 
additions  to  the  book  of  Esther ;  certain  ad- 
ditions to  the  book  of  Daniel ;  fhe  book  of 
Tobit ;  Judith ;  two  books  of  the  Maccabees ; 
Baruch,  with  die  Epistle  of  Jeremiah.    To 
the  third  diyision  of  Josephns  belong  Eeele- 
fliasticos  and  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon.    The 
degree  of  respect  which  these  books  may 
el  aim  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute ;  the  Ca- 
fliolic  asserting,  and  the  Protestant  denying, 
that  they  should  be  consulted  as  of  autho- 
rity in  doctrine  and  practice :  by  the  ancient 
Egyptian  Jews,  they  appear  to  have  been 
placed  in  the  same  rank  with  the  Scriptures 
that  existed  in  the  Hebrew  tongue.    It  is  of 
more  importance  to  know,  that  the  Septna- 
gint  version  in  general  was  held  in  high 
estimation  in  the  days  of  our  Lord,  aa  may 
be  learned  fh>m  the  fsot,  that  many  of  the 
quotations  made  in  the  New  from  the  Old 
Testament  Scriptures  are  beyond  a  question 
taken,  not  from  the  original  Hebrew,  bat 
from  this  translation  into  Oreek. 

The  history  of  the  caium  of  the  New  Tee- 
tamerU  is  not  without  its  difficulties.  On 
the  early  period  of  it,  there  is  some  darkness, 
which  bold  assumptions  cannot  conceal,  nor 
unauthorised  conjecture  remove.  There  is, 
indeed,  for  those  who  will  look  at  facts  as  they 
are,  light  suffioientfor  rational  conviction ;  but 
there  are  no  materials  to  justify  dogmatism, 
or  sustain  positions  conceived  in  the  spirit 
of  a  purblind  theology.  The  pretension  to 
assign  the  year  and  ^e  place  in  which  each 
writing  was  produced,  may  in  some  cases 
be  unsatisfactory ;  while  it  is  a  certain  and 
safe  position,  that  the  New  Testament  pre- 
sents a  trustworthy  image  of  the  earliest 
Christian  church,  and  has  preserved  a  lite- 
rature, the  bulk  of  which  owes  its  existence 
to  the  first  century  of  our  era. 

Jesus  himself  taught  only  by  word  of 
mouth.  He  committed  no  system  to  writing. 
He  did  not  employ  the  pen  for  the  commu- 
nication of  his  instructions.  With  a  truly 
characteristic  reliance  on  the  vitality  and 
power  of  truth,  he  scattered  his  words  broad 
east  on  the  soil  of  the  human  soul,  and  left 
the  seed  to  the  Ood  of  the  spiritual  harvest 
In  order,  however,  to  employ  a  suitable 
instrumentality,  Christ  called  into  the  vine- 
yard, labourers,  who  were  not  indeed  tree 
from  the  prejudiices  of  the  times,  but  who, 
as  being  plain,  unlettered  peasants,  were 
more  fitted  than  any  other  class  of  persons 
could  well  have  been,  for  receiving  and 
transmitting  the  pure  light  of  heaven  which 
he  shed  upon  their  minds.  They,  too,  after 
the  general  manner  of  their  age,  and  imi- 
tating the  example  of  their  Master,  at  first 


taught  the  gospel  exclusively  by  word  and 
deed.    Instead  of  committing  their  teach- 
ings to  the  dull  and  unquickening  custody 
of  parchment,  they  went  forth  to  proclaim 
with  glowing  lips  the  truths,  charities,  and 
sympathies,  of  which  Jesus  and  Providence 
had  made  them  glad  heralds  and  living 
witnesses.     And  so,  by  the  foolishness  of 
preaching,  the  foundations  of  the  church 
were  laid.    In  the  nature  of  the  case,  the 
apostles  were  speakers;   and,  as  speakers, 
they  were  also  men  of  action,  not  of  litera- 
ture.    They  preached,  rather  than  wrote: 
they  acted,  instead  of  speculating.     Their 
hearts  were  too  frill  for  the  slow  process  of 
composition.     The  burden  they  bore  was 
too  argent  to  admit  of  being  delayed  by  the 
tedious  preliminaries  of  writing,  and  the  more 
lengthened  process  of  publication.    The  art 
of  printing  has  now  made  writing  the  rea- 
diest vehide  by  which  to  address  the  world. 
In  the  days  of  the  apostles,  spoken  thought 
travelled  most  speedily,  and  acted  on  the 
mind  with  the  greatest  momentum.     The 
apostles  were  therefore  heralds,  not  authors. 
Writing  is  a  calm  process,  an  afterthought, 
which  iU   accorded  with  the  intense   and 
glowing  impulses  of  the  first '  ambassadors 
tor  Christ,'  who  had  to  proclaim  mercy,  and 
beseech  men  to  be  reconcDed  to  God.     It 
was,  moreover,  spirit  and  life  which  they 
had  to  diffhse.    The  essence  of  Christianity 
consists  in  living  holiness,  and  ardent,  prac- 
tical, all-embracing  love.    These,  as  being 
spiritual  qualities,  cannot  be  taught:   they 
are  communicated ;  or  rather  they  are  awa* 
kened,  nurtured,  and  strengthened,  in  the 
hearts  of  others,  by  the  glowing  charities  of 
the  living  teacher's  soul.    Hence  preaching 
is  an  essential  in  Christianity.    Literature 
may  aid,  but  cannot  supersede,  preaching. 
Literature,  even  '  in   its  best  estate,'   can 
never  rise  to  more  than  a  secondary  rank  in 
the  ministry  of  the  gospeL    It  is  the  mel- 
lowed voice,  the  quivering  lip,  the  burning 
word,  the   speaking   eye,  the  whole  man, 
feeling,  thinking,  speaking,  and  acting, — 
the  entire  soul,  instinct  with  reverence  and 
love,  and  poured  forth  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  awakening  kindred  sentiments  in  the 
soul  of  others,  —  this  is  the  great,  specific, 
essential,  and  indispensable  instrument  of 
Christ  for  the  conversion  of  the  world. 

Tet  the  time  soon  arrived  within  the  life- 
time  of  the  first  Christian  missionaries,  for 
the  creation  of  a  literature,  whose  origin  was 
so  natural  as  to  recommend  its  genuineness, 
and  enforce  its  credibility.  The  earliest 
churches  were,  in  the  main,  made  up  of  two 
classes  of  persons ; —  converts  from  J  udaism, 
who,  though  they  had  become  Christians,  re- 
tained some  relics  of  national  prejudices  and 
feelings ;  —  converts  from  Heathenism,  who 
had  not  been  able  to  throw  off  entirely  their 
educational  prepossessions  and  enter  at  once 
into  the  wide  and  lofty  spirit  of  the  gospel 


CAN  273  CAN 

Labour  as  an  aposfle  might  in  the  foimding  arts  so  base — were  very  difflenlt,  if  not  abso  • 
of  a  partioular  churchy  he  could  not  on  one,  lately  impossible.  A  letter  purporting  to 
or  even  on  several  occasions,  root  up  all  come  from  the  pen  of  Paul  would  be  known  as 
the  tares  and  bring  forth  a  harvest  of  pure  his  before  it  was  acknowledged;  for  it  was  not 
Christian  grain.  Difficulties,  too,  would  a  loose  herd,  but  an  organised  body  of  men 
naturally  spring  up  in  the  case  of  recent  that  regularly  and  constantly  met  together 
converts  the  more  readily,  the  more  earnest  for  mutual  edification,  who  were  judges  in 
was  their  desire  to  know  and  possess  the  the  case.  On  satisfactory  grounds,  there- 
whole  mind  of  Christ  Necessity,  therefore,  fore,  was  such  a  letter,  in  a  given  case,  re- 
as  well  as  love,  would  tend  to  perpetuate  ceived,  —  but  for  what  ?  —  as  apostolic  in 
the  bond  once  formed  between  an  apostle  origin,  and  therefore  authoritative  in  doc- 
and  a  Christian  community.  When  the  trine  and  discipline.  An  authoritative  docu- 
herald  of  peace  had  left  its  members,  in  order  ment  would,  however,  be  preserved  for  the 
to  seek  other  spheres  of  usefulness  in  the  very  same  reasons  that  had  led  to  its  recep- 
wide  world,  which  was  lying  in  wickedness,  tion ;  would  be  carefiilly  preserved,  and  oc- 
he  would  still  bear  them  in  his  heart,  —  still  oasionally  if  not  frequently  consulted.  In 
care  for  their  spiritual  welfare,  —  still  wish  imitation  of  what  was  customary  in  the 
to  continue  his  instructions,  and  communi-  Jewish  synagogue,  a  sacred  place  would  be 
cate  the  spirit ;  while  they,  on  their  part,  na-  found  wherein  it  would  be  deposited.  Self- 
turally  turned  and  applied  to  him  for  light,  interest  and  affection,  as  well  as  usage,  led 
counsel,  and  guidance.  Hence  moved  by  the  memben  of  the  church  to  lay  up  the 
his  own  unsolicited  good  will,  or  by  their  document  among  its  archives,  and,  even  pro- 
written  request,  the  apostle,  when  absent  in  bably  at  an  early  period,  to  cause  copies  of 
the  body,  would  endeavour  to  be  present  it  to  be  made,  for  the  use  either  of  indivi- 
in  spirit,  by  means  of  a  living  representative,  duals,  or  of  other  Christian  societies.  And 
or  of  a  letter,  or  by  both.  The  apostolic  when  several  lettere  had  thus  come  into 
council,  held  in  Jerusalem  to  settle  questions  existence,  an  interehange  of  their  literary 
arising  out  of  the  proposed  extension  of  the  treasures  took  place  among  neighbouring 
gospel  to  the  Gentiles,  had  set  an  example  churches,  by  which  the  usefulness  of  tbese 
in  the  letter  which  they  addressed  to  the  writings  could  be  multiplied,  and  their 
Christians  at  Antioch,  and  which  they  sent  genuineness  be  more  thorougldy  and  cer* 
by  the  hands  of  Paul,  Barnabas,  and  others  tainly  ascertained.  The  letters  thus  origi- 
(Acts  XV.  22,  Mf.).  The  lettere  which  this  nated,  acknowledged,  and  preserved,  naturally 
posture  of  affaire  called  forth  from  Paul,  passed  from  father  to  son,  from  generation 
Peter,  and  John,  formed  the  earliest  Chris-  to  generation,  —  laid  up  in  the  safe  custody 
tian  literature.  The  societies  of  which  we  and  wardship  of  an  organised  but  popular 
have  made  mention  were  regularly  consti-  body.  In  process  of  time,  each  separate 
tnted,  having  at  their  head  an  overseer,  whose  community  came  to  hold  several  of  these 
business  it  was  to  act  in  the  name  of  the  lettere,  and  may  naturally  have  desired  to 
community  of  which  he  was  the  representa-  possess  all  that  proceeded  from  an  apostle, 
tive.  An  apostolic  epistle,  that  was  intended  or  fh)m  the  apostles.  Thus  arose  a  colleo- 
for  the  entire  chureh,  was  sent  and  commn-  tion  of  epistles,  which  at  fint  varied  in  num- 
nioated  to  the  chureh  through  its  regularly  ber,  according  to  the  position  and  opportu- 
appointed  head.  Thus  did  there  exist  an  nities  of  each  particular  chureh,  but  which 
officer,  by  which  the  letter  might  be  formally  would  obviously,  in  process  of  time,  com  - 
received,  diligently  scrutinized,  and  carefhlly  prise,  in  most  cases,  iH  the  documents  re- 
pieserved.  To  the  offioere,  and  to  many  of  ceived  as  genuine  in  the  general  church  of 
the  membere  of  the  chureh,  was  tlie  apostle  Ohnst 

known ;  his  general  sentiments,  the  specifle         The  process  whicn  we  have  sketched  will 

cast  of  his  opinions,  his  modes  of  illustra-  be  recognised  as  a  natural,  and  therefore  a 

tion,  and  forms  of  language ;  his  actual  po-  likely  one.    It  will  also  appear  to  a£ford  suf- 

sition  in  each  case,  and  his  acquaintance  fieient  guarantees  for  the  genuineness  of  the 

with  the  condition  of  the  church  whom  he  documents.      False  lettere  could    scareely 

addressed.    These  facts  were  so  many  gua-  have  been  acknowledged,  had  such  at  the 

rantees  against  deception.     A  church  to  first  come  into  existence.    Still  less  could 

whom  a  letter  was  addressed,  would  have  no  fUse  lettere  have   stood  the  test  of  time, 

difficulty  in  knowing  whether  it  proceeded  Willingly  and  knowingly,  men  do  not  pre- 

firom  its  alleged  author.    How  could  the  two  serve  Oie  spurious;  and  the  earliest  commu- 

Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  have  been  palmed  nities  had  every  opportunity  for  trying  these 

off  on  that  chureh,  had  they  not  been  pro-  lettere,  as  well  as  for  trying  the  spirits  that 

duoed  by  the  mind  of  Paul  ?    In  the  rapid  were  abroad  in  the  world.    Faith  is  the  great 

and  constant  intereourse,  both  of  ideas  and  conservative  influence  in  literature,  as  in 

of  penons,  to  which  the  missionary  efforts  of  social  life.    Paul's  epistles  were  believed  to 

the  fint  preachen  of  Christianity  gave  occa-  be  Paul's,  else  they  would  not  have  been  so 

sion,  fabrication  and  imposture  —  even  had  carefully  preserved,  as   their  perpetuation 

there  been,  as  there  was  not,  a  motive  for  and  transmission  to  the  present  day  imply; 

S 


CAN  274  CAN 

and,  AS  those  who  began  the  process  of  is,  whioh  looked  speeislly  to  the  Jewish  mind, 

tnuismlssioa  were  in  die  most  fsTonrable  as  Ihe  sphere  of  their  inteBd«dinflneQoeyhsd 

eireumstances  for  proving  and  knowing  the  as  a  main  olgeot  to  prove,  from  the  Old  Tea* 

grounds  of  their  belief,  their  oonvietion  may  tament  records,  the  Hessishship  of  Jesns  ol 

well  be  a  souroe  of  assuranee  to  ns,  thst  the  Naataieth.    In  another  view,  the  goqiel,  tmn- 

letters  which  have  come  down  to  na  as  Paal's  scending  the  narrow  limits  of  natioosU^,  was 

were  really  written  by  that  apoatle.  a  realisaikion  of  the  abstract  ideal  of  hnman 

If,  thorelbra,  we  regard  the  apostolic  letter  kind,  in  the  life,  deeds,  snd  person  of  tlie 

sddressed  to  the  church  at  Antioch  as  the  aame  prophet    The  argument  for  the  estab- 

commencement  of  the  qpistolaiy  literature,  liahment  of  this  lact,  while  of  a  more  g«ne- 

we  miqr  consider  that,  from  and  after  the  dato  ral  efaanbcter,  and  while  it  called  to  its  aid 

of  the  council  at  Jemsalem  (about  AJ).  00  more  widely  received  prineiplea,  did  not  cease 

or  62 ),  the  coUeetion  of  letten  which  we  now  to  be  largely  of  an  historical  kind.    And  thus, 

find  in  the  New  Testsment  began  to  cone  in-  whether  Jew  or  Gentile  was  contemplated  by 

to  existence.  Thus  was  the  commencement  of  the  eompoeers  of  the  memoirs  in  question, 

the  Christisn  canon  made,  —  and  made  under  the  compositions  naturally  became  historical, 

circumstances  which  commend  themselves  This  they  must  have  been  fitmi  the  first, 

to  the  judgment  of  the  writer,  far  more  than  This  oar  Gospels  are. 
any  formal  decision,  or  specific  individual        The  proof  would  assume  en  historical 

•ot,  on  the  part  of  such  sacerdotal  assemUies  sh^e,  the  rather  becanse  it  would  involve  a 

as  the  third  and  following  oentWMS  bring  detailed  account  of  the  life  and  teachings  of 

under  our  notice.  Jesos  Christ,  title  great  snlgect  of  the  memoir. 

But  the  publicetion  <tf  the  gospel  neoes-  and  the  rock  oil  which  the  church  was  being 
ssrUy  took  sn  argumentative  ftwm.  The  built  That  life  and  those  teachings  wcm 
evangelist  had  liaets  to  establish,  snd  a  proof  best  set  forth  in  the  reproduction  of  tibe  very 
to  sustain.  He  went  forth  to  lay  the  fbui^  words,  and  a  description  of  the  specific  acta, 
dation  of  the  church  of  Christ  in  certain  of  Jesus  himself.  But  had  these  living  cle- 
estabUahed  truths  of  fru^t  snd  doctrine^  ments  come  down  to  the  time  when  the  proof 
which  were,  and  still  sre,  comprised  in  the  began  to  be  put  in  writing  f  We  uaJiesi- 
brief  but  pregnant  proposition, '  Jesus  is  the  tatingly  answer  in  the  silnnslive.  It  is  im- 
Christ,  the  Saviour  of  the  world.'  The  proof  pocsiUe  that  such  a  life  and  sueh  teachings 
of  this  position,  first  made  good  by  word  of  should  not  have  engraven  themsehea,  as  with 
mouth,  oral  teaching  proved  insufficient  to  a  pen  of  adamani^  on  the  fleshly  tiiblets  of 
establish  in  the  world  at  large;  yet  die  epos-  the  hearte  of  those  who  were  eye-witnesses 
tolic  «<M»wi"'A"  extended  to  snd  comprised  of  the  miyesty  of  the  Lord.  The  existence 
all  nations  on  the  earth.  Experience  showed  of  the  primitive  churches,  and  the  successful 
the  Christisn  heralds,  that  the  sphere  <tf  proclamation  of  the  goepd,  which  are  un- 
individual  speaking  was,  of  necessity,  too  doubted  frbcts,  imply  the  existence  of  a  laige 
confined  and  limited  to  admit  of  that  fiill  number  of  persons  during  at  least  the  first 
dischsige  of  duty  which  their  souls  desired,  hslf  of  the  first  century,  who  were  living 
their  Master  had  eigoined,  and  the  world  historians  of  what  Jesus  had  said  and  done, 
deeply  needed.  Besides,  it  was  natural  that  It  is  the  function  and  the  privilege  of  great 
a  proof  which  had  been  repeatedly  spoken,  minds  to  impress  themselves  on  their  con- 
should  at  length  be  written.  If  the  speakers  temporariee.  Their  ideas,  their  words,  their 
failed  to  write  the  proof;  it  would  sooner  or  deedi^  Ifaeir  very  msnner,  the  peeulisrities 
later  be  written  by  some  of  their  hearers,  of  their  diction*  their  entin  selves,  are  en- 
And  when  the  ardour  of  manhood  began  to  shrined  in  the  gratefU  and  reverential  me- 
decline,  and  age  and  death  to  make  manifest  mories  of  dieir  schcrfars.  Thus  did  Socmtes 
spproacfaes,  and  when  ^  first  generation  of  leave  an  image  of  his  doodine  on  the  minds 
missionaries  wem  about  to  pass  tmm  their  of  Plato  and  Xenophon.  Writing  nothing  by 
labour  to  their  reward  —  then  naturally  the  the  pen,  he  inscribed  in  their  souls  a  por- 
pen  was  taken  c^  records  were  made,  me-  traiture  of  himself,  which  tfaeee  great  men, 
moirs  came  into  existence^  and  the  eontinn-  his  scholars,  reproduced,  each  in  his  own 
ance  of  the  sublime  work  end.  the  Aitnre  age  way,  §ar  the  enlightenmeDt  and  edification 
were  cared  and  provided  fer  by  oompoeitiotts  of  the  worid.  There  dins  arose  an  oral  goa- 
beering  more  or  less  of  the  charseter  of  our  pel  in  the  primitive  church.  What  Jesna 
Goapela,  of  which  there  were,  when  Luke  spoke  and  did  was  received  into  die  depdis 
composed  his  memoir,  dready  seveml  ex-  of  the  heart  by  diose  who  attended  on  his 
tant  in  the  church  (Luke  L  Ir— 4).  steps,  snd  by  them  was  religiously  preserved 

This  proof  necessarily  took  an  histoiseal  true  even  to  the  very  letter;  and  oommuni- 

chacactor.    It  had  to  speak  of  the  peat,  the  cated  byword  of  mouth  fr>QBn  parent  to  child» 

remote,  the  recent  past    Ite  basis  lay  in  the  firom  friend  to  friend,  from  teacher  to  pnpiL 

system   out  of  which  Christianity  sprang.  It  is  almost  equally  certain  diat  memoranda 

The  gospel,  in  one  view,  was  the  ideal  of  were,  from  the  first,  made  of  tibe  striking 

Judaism,   realised    in   Jesns    the    Christ  snd  impressive  lessons  which  feU  from  the 

Hence  some  of  these  memoirs,— fliose,  diat  great  Teacher's  lips.  Even  before  die  twelve 


CAN  275  CAN 

eft  the  setenty  had  rMeiv«d  aooneot  oonoep-  of  sfevenl  Gospels.    OriginaUy  each  Gospel 

i$e«  <fS  Mthat  Jesus  was,  he  must  hare  ap-  had  its  own  district  or  proTinoe.    If  Mattliew 

peared  to  theiti  as  one  of  no  ordiMury  stamp,  was  designed  for  the  Palestinian,  John  had 

aad  his  aims  and  purposes  most  have  bone  te  Tiew  the  benefit  of  the  Western  Asiatic, 

m  their  apprehensions  a  ehaaraoter  audi  as  ehniohes.    Thus  each  portion  of  the  great 

to  exehe  the  liveliest  atletttion,  and  to  sail  Christian  eommnnity  had  its  own  Gospel, 

forth  the  most  profound  regard.    How  na-  Time  and  intercourse  caused  one  part  of  the 

tnrai  eren  for  Jewish  peasants  to  note  down  ehnroh  to  oommnnicate  its  Gospel  to  another, 

at  least  oeoasioBally»  tfie  wondreas  things  Copies  were  made  and  interchanged,  till  at 

that  the  Master  nttered  t    The  veiy  strange-  lexigth  a  ehuroh,  which  was  faTonrably  cirenm- 

ness  and  mystery  wbieh  WM«  imparted  to  stanoed  tor  obtaining  these  precious  doco- 

his  teachings  by  the  n*eompreheiided  splri'^  ments,  fbnnd  itself  in  possession  of  sereral, 

tnaltty  of  Ids  doctrines  would  seem  to  sug-  and,  befDre  many  more  years  had  passed,  of 

gest,  if  not  require,  the  oAce  of  the  pen,  as  all  As  books  eonstitoting  die  New  Testament, 

affording  the  means  of  studying  these  words  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  that  these  writings 

in  prirate,  and  learning  Aeir  import,  if  pos-  wouM  not  be  di%ently  and  eagerly  sought 

sible,  by  meditation  snd  e<»ifBTence,  When  Hm  after ;  and  the  same  desire  which  caused  tiiem 

day's  journey  was  orev,  ag  wliefi  a  eirole  of  to  be  in  request,  wouM  suggest  erery  precau- 

friends  might  be  fjvmtd  in  the  retirement  tion  in  order  to  ascertain  the  genuineness 

of  home.  of  those  which  were  leeeired.    The  early 

Both  by  oral  transmissieQ   and  written  ohurohes,  in  the  earnest  simplicity  of  a  f^sh 

memoranda,  an  ample  supply  of  materials  rehgiows  lifb,  the  intsresto  of  which  were 

was  formed,  which  would  serve  as  trust*  dearer  to  them  than  all  earthly  weal,  could 

^rthy  sources  of  informa!tio&  to  those  who  ha^e  had  no  reason  for  aoqniescing  in  £abri- 

undeitooktodraw  up  either  memoirs  of  Jesus,  cations  or  impostnie,  but  must  haTc  been 

or  to  work  these  memoirs  into  historical  impelled  by  a  regard  to  their  own  edification 

proofb  of  tile  dirittity  of  his  lUission.    And  and  final  pease,  by  a  regard  to  the  realisation 

as  these  rnemoiM  succeeded  to  these  written  of  tiiose  hopee^  tiie  entertainment  of  which 

notices,  and  these  written  notices  w^et^ft  found  had  brought  them  into  a  position  of  the  se> 

to  supi^y  the  place  of  this  oral  Gospel,  would  merest  scAf-venunciacion  and  the    bitterest 

the  more  rudhnental  elemento  retire  into  the  worldly  hostility,  to  scrutinise  narrowly  the 

distance,  and  in  process  of  time  pass  away,  claims  of  any  writing  purporting  to  be  of 

until  at  length  scTeral  Gospels,  which  em-  authority  in  the  churafa,  and  to  recognise 

braced  in  a  systematic  form  all  that  was  only  sncii  as  bore  indubitable  marks  of  truth, 

true  and  needful,  came  to  be  generally  re-  Besides,  though  at  an  early  period  fabricated 

ceiTcd,  and  were  recognised  as  not  only  writings  were  in  eadotenee,  this  eaiiy,  could 

proofb  of  the  Messiahriiip  of  Jesus,  but  also  not  in  the  nature  of  the  ease,  have  been  the 

as  trustwortiiy  histories  of  the  rise  and  pro-  first  period.    Christiastity,  in  ite  origin,  was 

gress  of  the  new  rrtigion  in  tlie  days,  and  in  a  great  itoi  and  a  sublime  truth.    As  such 

the  person,  of  the  great  Head  of  ^  ehnreh.  was  it  ptoclaffiied,  —  as  such  was  it  received. 

We  shaD,  however,  misapprehend  ficte,  mis*  ^le  ofliipMng  of  trMh  is  truth.    Falsehood 

conceive  the  nature  of  these  Gospels,  and  so  miist  have  been  of  a  later  growth.    A  writing 

create  difficulties  to  ourselves,  if  we  are  led  is  the  utteranee  of  mind.    The  utterance  of 

toholdtiiat  the  historicid  is  their  essential^-  a  genviAe  state  of  mind  can  be  no  otiier 

ment  The  period  at  which  our  Gospels  were  tiian  genuine^  Sfanyyeavs  must  hare  elapsed 

probably  produced  was  fiur  too  near  the  days  of  before  the  elemento  atisted  iHienee  fabriea- 

our  Lord  for  tiie  existence  of  history,  strictly  tions  cotild  arise.  Reality  and  unreality  difibr 

so  called ;  and  there  were  at  work,  in  the  in  tiieir  very  essence^  — -  they  dliSer  also  in 

primitive  church,  influences  which  would  theik'  source  and  in  their  effecte ;  and  the 

necessarily  postpone  the  day  when  history,  first  firesh  wann  gush  of  trutiiitd  feeling 

as  such,  would  or  could  be  undertaken.  The  must  have  ebbed  and  grown  «tcAi  and  lower 

Gospels  are  not  histories,  but  argumente.  As  and  baser  elemento  must  haive  Itotened  tiiem- 

argumente,  they  would  be  required,  and  would  s^ves  on  the  outward  form  of  tiie  church, 

come    into   existence,  before  at  least  the  ere  imitation  and  falsehood  could  have  com- 

younger  men  of  the  generation  who  had  meneed.    The  parasitic  plant  does  not  fix 

seen  and  heard  Christ  had  quitted  the  world,  itself  on  Ae  tree,  tin  the  tree  has  arisen  shove 

The  Gospels  were  not  written  without  a  tie  soil,  and  put  forth  brandhes  and  leaves 

specific  aim.    They  were  not  intended  for  «f  ito  own. 

the  church  at  large.    Each  was  designed  to        The  historical  connection  of  the  primitive 

answer  a  certain  well-defined  purpose,  which  Christiatts  with  the  Jewish  church   would 

arose  before  the  mind  of  tiie  writer,  fSrom  the  give  the  additScnal  foroe  of  custom  and  usage 

circumstances  in  which  he  was  placed.    The  to  those  natural  influences  u^iich  prompted 

specific  character  of  each  of  these  fbnr  com-  them  to  consign  their  doctrines  to  writing, 

positions  sufllees  to  prove,  that  the  object  of  and  to  collect  into  one  body  the  several 

their  authors  was,  in  each  case,  more  or  less  Scriptures  whidi  were  thus  caUed  forth.    A 

peculiar.    We  thus  aooonnt  for  the  existence  canon  already  existed  hi  that  church,  with 


,#* 


CAN                     276  CAN 

which  the  first  disciples  of  Christ  were  fami-  of  Christian  Seriptmes.    The  eonstttit  trir 

liar,  and  to  the  contents  of  which  they  were  Telling  of  the  first  preachers  would  facilitate 

wont  to  make  a  constant  appeal  in  defence  end  the  transmission  snd  interohsnge  of  Letters 

propagation  of  the  gospel.    The  books  which  snd  Gospels,  as  well  as  afford  sore  meana 

formed  this  canon  were  read  alood  under  of  securing  die  churches  firom  fraud.    Even 

suitable  arrangements  in  the  synagogue,— a  if  the  transcription  and  interchange  of  copies, 

practice  which  would  pass,  as  a  matter  of  and  so  the  formation  of  a  canon,  had  not  n*- 

course,  into  the  new  church,  and  so  aiford  turally  arisen,  these  encyclical  Letters  must 

not  only  an  impulse  to  the  collecting  of  have  given  occasion  to  the  multiplication  and 

authoritative  writings,  but  a  pretty  sure  means  collection  of  Christian  Scriptures.    And  in 

of  preventing  the  intrusion  of  any  whose  whatever  church  a  single  genuine  Epistle  or 

claims  were  unfounded  or  dubious.    The  Gospel  was  found,  in  that  community,  how 

essentiaUy  popular  character  of  the  earliest  remote  soever  it  might  be  from  other  socie- 

Christian  ^urch-constitntion  was  a  guaran-  ties,  there  existed  a  test  by  which  to  dis- 

tee  against  literary  or  doctrinal  corruption,  criminate    between  the  genuine    and    the 

The  question  could  not  fail  to  arise, — What  spurious.    Every  freah  writing  received  into 

book  or  books  ahall  be  read  in  the  regular  the  diurch  collection  became  an  additional 

church  meetings  ?    The  records  of  the  N  ew  criterion ;  and  thus,  in  course  of  time,  a  sure 

Testament  show,  that  it  was  not  an  acquies-  means  existed  in  hundreds  of  separate  in- 

cent  or  implicitly  deferential  spirit  by  which  dependent  yet  connected  communities,  for 

the  members  of  these  communities  were  ac-  ascertaining  what  writings  were,  snd  what 

tuated.    Christianity  grew  in  freedom  by  the  were  not,  of  authority  in  things  pertaining  to 

force  of  inquiry,  and  by  the  native  vigour  of  Christ 

truth.  Hence  sn  active,  healthftil  tune  of  mind  The  process,  however,  by  which  a  coUec- 
predominated.  The  free  inquiry  and  eon-  tion  of  books  came  into  existence,  was  of 
stent  discussion  which  were  cherished  and  slow  operation.  There  is  no  satisfactory 
employed  against  Heathenism,  could  not  trace  that  any  apostle  or  other  authority  took 
vanish  when  the  special  interests  of  the  gos-  up  the  taak.  Such  a  proceeding  was  not  in 
pel  itself  were  under  consideration;  and  a  accordance  with  that  spontsneous  growth  of 
mind  which  had  grown  used  to  assail  and  Christian  writings,  of  which  we  have  spoken, 
explode  Heathen  corruptions  was  little  likely  and  which  affords  the  best  warrant  of  truth 
to  be  tender  or  patient  towards  error  or  false-  and  reality.  The  predominance,  too,  of  oral 
hood  in  its  own  native  church.  instruction  during  the  first  ages  of  the  church. 
In  the  nature  of  things,  the  reception  of  postponed  both  the  formation  and  the  col- 
these  new  Christian  Scriptures  must  have  lection  of  written  documents.  There  was 
been  tardy.  Persons  who  had  been  acous-  less  need  for  books  of  any  kind  while  the 
tomed  to  give  their  homage  to  books  whidi  apostles  or  their  successors  lived ;  and  the 
rsn  back  many  hundred  years  to  the  origin  example  of  Jesus  himself,  in  teaching  by 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  could  not  easily  re-  word  of  month,  long  remained  in  force.  And 
eeive  new  writings  which  went  to  modify,  if  when  writings  began  to  make  their  appear- 
not  to  annihilate,  the  authority  of  these  vene-  ance,  doctrinal  tradition  was  the  criterion  by 
rable  documents.  The  conservative  feelings  which  they  were  tried ;  whereas,  at  a  later 
of  our  nature  would  occasion  hesitation  and  period,  books  were  used  to  prove  the  doctrine, 
delay,  if  not  excite  doubts,  and  that  the  Under  these  circumstances,  the  existence 
mher  because  the  spirit  of  party  had  from  of  any  recognised  collection  of  Christian 
the  first  been  aroused  in  the  church :  some  writings  within  the  first  century  was  impos- 
aaying,  'I  am  of  Paul;'  and  others, '  I  am  of  sible;  and  did  we  find  such  a  collection  to 
Apollos.'  The  consequent  debate  and  con-  have  been  current,  we  should  have  difficulty 
tention  would  keep  inquiry  alive,  and  pre-  to  account  for  the  fact.  The  absence  of  a 
Tent  uaposition.  And  if  there  were  among  very  eariy  canon  corresponds  with  the  oon- 
the  Jewish  converts  any  who  had  broken  with  dltion  of  the  church,  and  is  what  we  should 
the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament,  or  if  antecedently  expect 

converts  from  Hekthenism  had  been  teught  By  degrees,  however,  circumstances  arose 

by  Its  corruptions  to  give  up  their  faith  in  which  called  for   a  recognised   collection, 

books,  the  state  of  mind  which  these  re-  False  Gnostic  opinions  assailed  the  church 

niuLciations  imply,  and  which  we  know  was  from  within  snd  without    Apocryphal  writ- 

vndeiy  prevalent,  would  render  its  possessor  ings  began  to  appear.      The  question  was 

^'"y  ™»Po»ed  to  come  again  under  the  forced  on  the  church — What  is  genuine, 

yoae  or  an  iU-authenticated  verbal  authority,  what  is  true  f    Hence  arose  the  necessity  of 

xncre  were,  however,  writings  whose  aim  a  test     Tradition  easily  underffoes  cormp- 


^«-Ha«%J-  ;  u"^'  ^^  ^t^aIu  ,  ***•"  "  ^*«  o*"!  »T  slow  degrees,  and  as  the  vivid- 
tmation  must  have  ocoaeioned  the  mulUpii.  ness  of  the  primitive  McSew  dim  in™e 
cation  of  copies,  a.  well  ••  the  dissemination    distance  of  LT^L^ne^neraSSn,  thai 


CAN  277  CAN 

Sorlptoies  were  tested,  aeknowledgedi  snd  eye  makes  it  certain,  that  as  yet  no  church 
pnt  together  as  an  authoritatiTe  guide.  The  authority  had  undertaken  to  make  and  settle 
spread  of  the  gospel  abroad  in  the  world  a  oanon.  But,  about  the  middle  of  the 
was  the  first  great  duty  which  occupied  all  second  century,  a  sort  of  tacitly  recognised 
minds,  and  interested  all  hearts.  The  in-  canon  had  grown  up,  which  seems  to  have 
temal  constitution  of  the  church,  though  not  erred  on  the  side  of  excess  rather  than  of  de- 
neglected  from  its  earliest  days,  received  full  feet,  and  which  needed  a  bold  and  firm  prun- 
attention,  only  when  the  flow  of  missionary  ing-hand ;  but  to  writings  connected  with 
effort  beginning  to  subside,  left  time  and  which,  reference  and  appeal  were  more  and 
energy  for  questions  regarding  the  literature  more  constantly  made,  as  the  internal  con- 
to  which  the  great  movement  had  given  birth,  flicts  of  flie  church  grew  more  numerous 
After  a  severe  and  long  conflict  with  the  and  more  severe.  An  invariable  and  unl- 
world  for  victory,  there  came  a  pause,  when  versally  received  collection  mas  not  yet 
the  church  cahnly  reviewed  what  had  been  found ;  but  certain  writings  were  generally 
achieved,  and  surveyed  and  tried  its  arms  prevalent  in  the  church,  —  were  read  in  the 
and  resources  for  new  conquests.  Then  in  public  assemblies, — were  used  in  private, 
fall  strength  arose  the  conviction,  that  the  — were  cited  in  discussion.  This  reference, 
silent  ministry  of  recognised  books  was  re-  however,  to  Christian  literature  is  found  to 
quired  as.  an  auxiliary  to  the  diligent  and  a  less  degree  than  at  first  sight  might  seem 
faithftil  preaching  of  the  word.  likely,  because  the  early  church-writers  were 

The  beginning  of  the  second  century,  wont  to  make  their  appeal  more  to  the  Old 
therefore,  we  should  expect  to  offer  traces  of  Testament,  in  which,  as  an  ancient,  recog- 
a  collection  of  Christian  writings.  Accord-  nised,  and  inspired  volume,  they  found  more 
ingly,  we  meet  with  one  whose  existence  bears  authority,  and  gained  for  their  sentiments 
date,  dr.  A.D.  140.  The  first  canon  is  that  more  weight,  than  could  accrue  from  recent 
of  one  who  has  been  termed  a  heretic.  Mar-  uncollected  and  partly  unacknowledged  writ- 
oion,  a  Gnostic  teacher  of  Sinope  and  Pontus,     ings. 

fbunder  of  the  sect  of  Marcionites,  was  in  Of  those  whose  testimony  to  the  early 
possession  of  a  collection  which  he  brought  existence  of  a  body  of  Christian  literature  is 
to  Borne,  and  which  consisted  of  one  Gospel  important,  Justin  Martyr  (bom  89,  died  cir, 
and  ten  Pauline  EpisUes.  The  Gospel  he  is  165,  A.D.)  stands  at  the  head.  In  his  yet 
said  to  have  ascribed  to  the  pen  of  Christ  extant  writings,  Justin,  who  came  from  ihe 
himself,  Paul  supplying  the  events  connected  schools  of  philosophy  into  the  church  of 
with  his  death.  It  appears,  in  reality,  to  Christ,  cites  largely  from  the  evangelical 
have  borne  a  resemblance  to  the  Gospel  of  history  no  less  the  words  than  the  deeds  of 
Mark.  His  ten  Epistles  were  to  the  Gala-  our  Lord.  If  we  compare  his  citations  with 
tians,  two  to  the  Corinthians,  to  the  Bomans,  what  we  find  in  the  Gospels  which  are  now 
two  to  the  Thessalonians,  to  the  Laodiceans,  current,  we  find,  I.  Many  correspond  even 
to  the  Colossiansy  to  Philemon,  to  the  Philip-  to  the  word ;  II.  Others  correspond  in  the 
pians.  facts,  but  vary  in  word,  in  additions,  or  in 

This  canon  is  not  of  so  much  consequence  omissions ;  III.  Others  give  the  thought 
in  itself,  as  in  showing  us  beyond  a  doubt,  generally ;  IV.  Others  put  together  the 
that  the  tendencies  of  which  we  have  spoken  substance  of  several  passages  and  different 
towards  the  collecting  of  Christian  Scrip-  speeches.  We  have  space  only  for  an  in- 
tures  were  in  active  operation  at  an  early  stance  or  two.  Of  identical  citations  take 
period.  We  are  not  at  liberty  to  suppose,  the  following :  — '  Every  tree  that  bringeth 
that  Marcion  held  his  for  a  complete  collec-  not  forth  good  fruit,  is  hewn  down,  and  cast 
tion.  And  even  if  he  was  of  ti^at  opinion,  into  the  fire'  (Matt.  vii.  10.  Justin,  Apol.  ii.)- 
it  does  not  ensue  that  there  were  not  other  Of  those  which  have  a  general  resemblance, 
books  bearing  the  stamp  of  apostolic  an-  this  may  be  a  specimen ;  — '  Take  no  thought 
thority,  which  was  considered  the  proper  what  ye  shall  eat,  or  what  ye  shall  put  on : 
sign  of  admissibility  to  the  canon,  —  a  sign  are  ye  not  better  than  Ae  fowls  of  the  air 
the  validity  of  which  is  indisputable.  At  and  the  wild  beasts  ?  —  and  yet  God  feedeth 
any  rate,  a  collection  of  sacred  Christian  them.  Do  not,  then,  take  thought  what  ye 
books  is  known  to  have  been  in  existence  shall  eat,  or  what  ye  shall  put  on ;  for  your 
before  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  heavenly  Father  knoweth  l&at  ye  have  need 
which  did  not  materially  differ  from  writings  of  these  things :  but  seek  the  kingdom  of 
found  in  our  present  canon.  The  existence  heaven,  and  idl  these  things  shall  be  added 
of  this  collection,  however,  and  the  fact  that  unto  you ;  for  where  your  treasure  is,  there 
other  so-called  heretics  of  the  second  cen-  also  is  the  mind  of  man'  (Just  Apol.  ii.). 
tury  employed  apostolic  writings  for  their  There  is  no  mistaking  this.  It  is  obviousiy 
own  special  purpose,  prove  that  already  a  a  part  of  our  present  New  Testament ;  and, 
considerable  body  of  Christian  literature  was  when  this  last  is  known  to  be  one  of  tiie 
extant,  to  which  the  appeal  in  matters  of  least  exact  of  the  correspondencies,  the 
doctrine  was  admitted  to  lie ;  while  the  state  reader  will  entertain  an  assured  conviction, 
of  things  which  is  thus  brought  under  our    chat  a  Christian  literature  was  in  existence 


CAN 


278 


CAN 


before  Jiutm'e  day,  since  authority  is  of 
slow  growth,   «nd  Justin,  in   the    middle 
of  the  second  century,  cites  these  passages 
as  affording  moral  guidance.    As  souroes  of 
the  speeches  and  faets  which  he  brings  for- 
ward, Justin  mentions  writings  which  the 
i^osUes  and  their  s»sociates  left   behind 
them,  —  designating    them    by    the    title, 
'The  Memoirs  whidli  are  termed  Ooqiels 
(Apol.  ii.).    These  memoirs,  he  says,  werq 
written  *  by  the  apostles,  and  those  who  fol- 
lowed tliem.*    Sometimes  he  speaks  of  one 
Gospel;    but  generally  he  uses  the  term, 
•  the  Gospel/  so  as  to  indicate  the  ooUeotion 
of  the  evangelists.  Were  these  our  Gospels  t 
Passages  may  be  found  in  his  writinga, 
which  differ  from  cozrespondiag  passages 
in  the  Four  Gospels  of  the  modem  Testis 
ment ;  but,  as  Justin  obriously  quoted  very 
often  by  memory,  such  deyiations  make  no- 
thing against  his  haying  the  same  Gospels 
as  we.     The  names  thla  he  gives  to  hit 
authorities  are  an  appropriate  descriptioa 
of  our  Gospels.    He  expressly  names  these 
authorities, '  Gospels:  *  he  names  Uiem  also 
'Memorabilia,'  or  *  Memoirs;'  in  alhisioa 
probably  to  the  title  that  Xenophon  gave  to 
his  interesting  account  of  Soerates,  which, 
like  the  Gospels,  is  rather  an  argument  than 
a  history;  and,  as  an  argument,  contains 
the  memorable  sayings  end  deeds  of  the 
Athenian  philosopher,  by  which  was  proyed 
the   injustice    of  the   acoosations  leyelled 
against  him.    Such  a  name,  with  such  an 
import,  is  probably  the  best  that  has  been 
giyen  to  the  Gospels,  and  so  confirms  the 
belief   that   we    still   hare    in    substance 
the  same  eysngelists  as  those  which  were 
in  Justin's  hands.    And  we  find,  by  compa- 
rison, that  he  quoted  all  four  of  our  Gos- 
pels, —  only  Mark  and  John  toss  frequently 
than  Matthew  and  Luke.    These  books,  too, 
it  appears  from  his  testimony,  were  read  in 
the  public  assemblies  of  the  church.    On  the 
whole,  then,  there  can  be  no  reasonable 
doubt,  that  Justin's  Gospels  and  our  own 
are  the  same.    And  when  all  these  facts  are 
put  together,  they  will  be  fell  to  be  of  great 
weight  in  regard  to  the  historical  trudi  of 
the  Christian  religion.    Books  which  in  the 
year   {cir.)   150  were  in  general  use  in 
the  Christian  church,  as  a  credible  and  au- 
thoritative account  of  things  done  and  to  be 
believed,  must  have  been  in  existence  for  a 
long  period  previously,  —  must  have  had 
good  guarantees  ef  their  credibility,  —  and 
could  scarcely  fail  to  be  what  they  were 
accounted,  namely,  apostolic  writings,  and, 
as  such,  the  testimony  of  eye-witnesses  or 
their  scholars  to  the  great  facts  and  doc- 
trines to  which  Jesus  Christ   had    given 
birth. 

Justin  Martyr  presents  us  with  an  instance 
of  a  feeling  which  was  general  in  the  early 
church,  namely,  a  preference  of  the  writings 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  new  Christian 


literature,  when  doctrines  had  to  be  esta- 
blished.   The  evangelists  might  give  histo  • 
rieal  testimony ;  but  Justin  does  not  find  in 
them  tkiat  inspiradoii  which  was  considered 
indispensahle    fbr   authority   in    doctrine. 
Such  inspiration  waa  recognised   in    the 
prophetisal  writings  of  the  Old  Testament 
In  time,  howewr,  the  Apostolic  Scriptures 
same  lo  stand  ob  the  same  Une  with  the 
Prophets,  a  rsealt  of  the  grownag  attach- 
ment to  Christian  literajtwe,  which  assumed 
a  decided  character  about  the  termination  of 
the  aecond  century,  and  moeh  conduced  to 
the  foimation  of  die  New  Testament  canon. 
So  soon  as  the  eonriotion  became  general, 
that  these  writings  were  of  divine  autfiority 
in  doctrine  and  teiy,  a  new  and  sacred  inte? 
rest  was  created  en  their  behalf^  which  would 
prompt  oeaselcas    industry    in   procuring, 
great  care  in  pstserving,  unwearied  diligence 
in  multiplying,  and  scrupulous  attention  in 
■cmtinising  and  testing  them.     Hence  a 
eanon  would  necessarily  come  into  being. 
The  operate  causes  were    general,  and 
general  also  would  the  alleged  effects  be; 
but  Asia  Minor,  Alexandria,  and  Western 
Africa,  first  offnr  themselves  in  history  as 
possessing  a  recognised  collection  of  Chris- 
tian bookis.     The  canon  which  prevailed 
over  this  wide  extent  of  eountiy  at  the  end 
of  the  seoond  century,  and  to  be  found  in 
the  writings  of  the  eminent  men,  Irenaus, 
Tertnllian,  and  Clemens  Alexsndrinus,  con- 
tained the  Four  Goepels,  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  thirteen  Epistles  of  Paul,    one 
Letter  of  Peter,  and  one  of  John.     Huw 
long  before  this  period  an   acknowledged 
eanon  prevailed,  we  have  not  means  to  deter- 
mine ;  but  the  reference  to  these  books  as 
of  authority  gives  reason  to  think,  that  the 
eanon  was  not  then  of  recent  origin.    Cer- 
tainly, whether  the   canon  as  a  collection 
had  existed  long  before  the  termination  of 
the  second  century,  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion whatever  that  tbe  books  of  which  it  was 
composed  had  been  for  many  years  known, 
studied,  revered,  and  cited,   in  numerous 
and  distant  parts  of  the  Christian  world. 
This  fact  becomes  more  interesting  and 
more  important,  when  it  is  known  that  the 
recognition  of  these  books  and  of  this  canon 
waa  owing  to  no  interposition  of  ecclesias 
tical  authority,  but  grew  up  spontaneously 
in  the  general  soil  of  the  Christian  church, 
—  was  not  the  result  of  an  ecclesiastical 
council,  but  the  l^e  act  of  the  Christian 
mind,  intent  only  on  knowing,  serving,  and 
obeying  the  truth. 

The  general  collection  —  divided  into  two 
parts,  the  Gospel  snd  the  Epistle  —  received 
the  name  of  New  Covenant  or  Testament, 
and  so  formed  a  more  definite  whole,  bein^ 
thus  in  a  measure  preserved  from  improper 
additions  or  diminutions.  At  the  same  time, 
a  coUection  of  manuscripts,  still  marked 
and  defined  by  no  universally  acknowledged 


CAN                      279  CAN 

authority,  was  liable  to  alteratioiis.  la  the  lied  the  goapel  from  Jenuakm  and  die  enr- 
Bamze  of  the  ease,  the  alterations  were  loimdixig  coontrlea,  as  ikr  as  lUyriemn, — did 
likely  to  be  ia  the  way  rather  of  addition  not  write  to  all  the  dmrehes  which  he  taught; 
than  dintinutaon,  because  it  was  by  no  but  to  those  to  which  he  wrote,  he  sent  a  few 
means  probable,  Uiat  a  first  canon,  wherever  lines :  but  Peter,  on  whom  is  built  the  dmreh 
begun  or  madei  would  contain  all  the  books  of  Christ,  against  which  the  gates  of  hell 
which  were,  or  daikned  to  be,  of  apoetolio  shall  not  prerail,  has  left  one  recognised 
origin.  The  earliest  addition  to  what  we  Epistle ;  it  may  be  a  second  also,  for  it  is  a 
may  term  the  original  collection,  just  men-  matter  in  dispute.  What  must  we  say  ra- 
tioned, appears  to  hare  taken  place  in  specdng  him  who  lay  on  the  bosom  of  Jesus, 
Syria.  At  least  the  ancient  Syriao  Tersion  namely  John ;  who  has  left  one  Gospel,  con- 
made  for  the  Syrian  church,  in  the  third  lassing  that  he  could  have  made  so  many  as 
century,  is  found  to  contain  the  Letter  to  not  even  the  world  was  able  to  receire  ?  and 
the  Hebrews,  and  the  Letter  which  bears  he  wrote  tlie  Apocalypse,  being  commanded 
the  name  of  James.  The  reqMct  in  which  to  pass  in  silence,  and  not  to  write,  the  voices 
tiiis  translation  was  hrid  gives  to  the  writ-  of  seven  thunders.  He  also  left  an  Epistle  of 
ings  of  which  it  oonaiato  a  high  degree  of  a  Ibw  lines ;  it  may  he  a  second  and  a  third 
authority.  Epistle ;  but  all  do  not  allow  these  (two)  to 
At  length  the  season  of  criticism  began  be  genuine,  but  both  do  not  contein  ahun- 
to  appear.    The  ground  paased  over  was  to  dred lines.    Moreover,  respecting  the  Epistle 


be  carefully  sujrveyed.    The  tacit  detetmina-  to  the  Hebrefws,  Sn  his  discourses  on  it,  he 

turns  of  the  church  at  large  were  to  be  (Origen)  thus  drivers  himself:  —  The  style 

scrutinised,  and,  if  found  good,  approved,  of  the  Epistle  inscribed  to  the  Hebrews  has 

Origen  (bom  at  Alexandria,  AJ>.  186),  in  no4  the  peculiarities  of  the  apostle,  who  con- 

the  oommeneement  of  the  third  century,  fesses  that  he  was  rude  in  speech ;  but  the 

is  the  first  who  q>pUed  himself  to  a  sys-  Epistle  in  ite  diction  is  more  Greek,  which 

tomatic  investigation  of   the  canon.     He  any  Judge  would  allow.    On  the  other  band, 

appears  to  have  distinguished  three  classes  the  thoughto  of  the  Epistle  are  admirable, 

of  books :   I.  The  gennine,  — <-  those  whose  and  not  inferior  to  the  acknowledged  apos- 

apostolical  origin  were  to  him  satialheto-  tolic  writings :  this  any  one  will  admit,  that 

lUyj^ved;  IL  Spurious, --^diat  is,  dearly  gives  attention  to  the  apostolic  readmg.  lam 

not  apostolieal,  yet  by  no  means  to  be  ae-  disposed  to  assert,  that  the  thoughto  are  those 

oonntod  worthless ;    IIL   A  middle  class,  of  the  apostle ;  but  the  phraseology  and  the 

eonsisting  of  writings  which  eithw  were  not  composition  are  those  of  a  person  narrating 

generally  received,  or  respeeting  which  his  the  apostolic  words,  and  expounding  what 

own  mind  came  to  no  final  dedsion.  had  been  said  by  his  teacher.    If  any  church 

As  Origan's  is  the  first  unquestioned  list  of  has  this  Epistie  as  being  of  Paul,  let  it  be 

the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  we  trans*  congratulated  on  the  fact ;  for  not  in  vain 

late  his  words  literally  as  they  are  given  by  the  have  the  aneiento  handed  it  down  as  Paul's, 

eeolesiastical  historian  Eus^ius  (vi  Uti)  :•—  But  who  wrote  the  Epistle,  is  in  truth  known 

*  In  the  first  book  of  his  Expositton  of  the  to  God  only :   the  history,  however,  which 

Gospel  aocoiding  to  Matthew,  he  (Origen)  has  eome  to  us,  stetes  mat  by  some  it  is 

bears  witness  that  he  knew  only  ibur  Gos-  ascribed  to  Clemens,  who  became  bishop  of 

pels,  thus  keeping  to  the  ecclesiastical  canon,  the  Romans;  by  others,  to  Luke,  who  wrote 

He  speaks  in  this  manner:-— As  I  have  the  Gospel  and  the  Acte.' 
learned  from  tradition  respecting  the  Four        This  passage  establishes  several  important 

Gospels,  which  alone  are  uncontested  in  the  facte,  and  that  with  the  more  force,  because 

entire  church  ofGod,  under  the  whole  heaven:  it  establishes  them  indirectly:  —  I.  At- 

— First,  that  which  waa  written  by  Matthew,  tention  had  for  a  long  period  been  given  to 

fbrmerly  a  publican,  but  afterward  an  apos-  tiie  question  of  what  were,  and  what  were 

tie  of  Jesus  Chrisi  was  put  forth  for  the  not,  apostolic  writings ;  II.  There  existed  on 

converto  fh>m  Judaism,  being  drawn  up  m  tiie  subject  a  traditional  history,  whose  aid 

Hebrew ;  second,  that  according  to  Mark,  was  called  in  to  decide  disputed  pointo ;  III. 

iriio  made  it  as  Peter  gave  diieetions;  whom.  Christians  did  not  receive  as  sacred,  books 

in  the  oatholie  Epistles,  he,  on  this  account,  that  were  destitute  of  authority;  IV.  A  dis- 

aeknowledged  as  his  son,  saying,  **  The  elect  tinetion  was  made  between  books  whose 

(ohurch  ?)  in  Babylon  salutes  you,  as  does  title  was  acknowledged  to  be  good,  and  those 

Mark  my  son ;  '*  Ae  third  Gospel  according  of  whose  genuineness  and  apostolicity,  doubte 

to  Luke,  which  is  recommended  by  Paul,  were  entertained ;  Y.  A  certain  collection  or 

made  ibr  converte  from  the  Gentiles ;  finally,  number  of  writings  was  commonly  received; 

that  coeordxng  to  John.    Also,  in  the  fifth  oi  and,  VI.  This  collection,  though  it  may  not 

his  Expositions  on  John,  the  same  person  have  been  a  complete  canon,  contained  the 

(Origen)  says  these  thhigs  respecting  the  Four  Gospels,  the  Acte,  Epistles  of  Paul,  one 

Letters  of  the  aposflee : — Paul,  who  was  ren-  of  Peter,  one  of  John,  and  the  Apocalypse, 
dered  a  meet  servant  of  the  New  Testament,        In  general,  however,  the  existing  collection 

not  of  the  word,  but  the  spirit, — who  car-  underwent,  during  the  third  century,  no  ma- 


CAN  280  CAN 

terial  change.  Metnwhile  the  Epistle  to  the  canonical,  yet,  in  that  caae,  without  having 
Hebrews  gradually  overcame  the  diiBcnltiea  authority  in  doctrine.  Such  books  formed 
which,  in  the  Eastern  church,  had  hindered  a  kind  of  second  canon.  It  is  easy  to  see, 
its  general  reception;  and  the  contested  Epis-  that  the  simple-minded  flock  took  a  long 
ties  of  James,  Peter,  Jude,  and  John,  appear  time  to  familiarise  themselves  with  these 
to  have  been  constantly  more  and  more  spread  distinctions  of  scholars  and  theologians.  A 
abroad,  although  the  most  distinguished  Fa-  thiid  class  of  bookb  was  the  apocryphal,  to 
diers  of  the  d^orch  made  only  little  use  of  which  was  denied  not  only  reverence  in  mat- 
tfaem.  Against  the  Apocalypse  diere  prevailed  tors  of  faith,  but  also  the  right  of  being  read 
a  very  imfavourable  opinion,  whidi  is  the  in  the  church.  As  the  respect  grew  which 
more  surprising,  since  this  book  had  at  an  was  paid  to  the  canonical  books,  so  the  mid- 
earlier  period  obtained  great  acceptance.  In  die  class  of  writings  sank,  and  at  last  dis* 
the  West,  however,  it  eiqoyed  the  favour  of  appeared,  leaving  ilie  apocryphal  in  broad 
the  m^ority,  whilst  the  Epistle  to  the  He-  contrast  with  the  canonical  books.  As  an 
brews  was  still  generally  disowned.  These  immediate  result  of  these  distinctions  and 
diversities  are  not  without  importance,  as  influenees,  there  are  found  in  the  theological 
they  go  far  to  prove  that  no  hUnd  and  im-  writers  of  the  Greek  church,  during  the 
plicit  faith  prevailed  in  the  formation  of  the  second  moiety  of  the  fourth  century,  cata- 
Kew  Testament  canon.  logues  of  Scriptures,  which  more  and  more 

Till  far  down  in  the  fourth  century,  things  agree  as  to  their  contents.    The  seven  Ca- 

lemained  in  this  condition.    To  no  formal  tholic  Epistles  (James,  Peter  i.  and  ii.,  John 

authority  could  the  church  historisn  Euse-  L  ii.  and  iii.,  Jude)  having,  through  being 

bins  of  Cesarea  (died  840)  appeal,  in  order  publicly  read,  become  indispensable,  found 

to  determine  what  books  bore  the  apostolie  at  last  universal  reception  into  the  eanon.; 

superscription,  though,  in  general,  he  ap-  and  the  individual  voices  which  were  raised 

.   pears  to  agree  with  Origen.     His  writings  against  the  so-termed  second  Epistle  of  Peter 

on  the  subject,  while  not  free  from  dii&culty,  were  passed  ^  neglect.    Firmer  and  more 

serve  satisfactorily  to  show  that  the  subject  general  was  the  opposition  against  the  Reve- 

received  careful  attention,  and  give  us  rea-  lation.    The  agreement  of  so  many  jastiy 

son  to  think  that  a  spurious  book  could  esteemed  teachers  of  the  church,  and  the 

scarcely  have  been  imposed  on  the  Christisn  force  of  custom,  at  last  permanently  decided 

world.    With  some  variation  of  phraseology  the  canonicity  of  the  sacred  books ;  and  the 

in  different  parte  of  his  works,  he  divides  Uie  formal  confirmation  of    this    decision    by 

Scriptures  into  these  classes :  — I.  Generally  the  voice  of  synods  is  of  no  other  historical 

received  books ;   II.  Contested  books ;  III.  importance,  than  that  the  closing  of  the  ca- 

Spurious  or  heretical  books.  non  in  the  Greek  church  affords  a  definite. 

Meanwhile,  the  church  and  ite  prominent  and  as  such,  usefdl  date.    About  the  year 
representatives  came  more  and  more  to  the  8tf0,  AJ).  the  synod  of  Laodicea  forbade  the 
conviction,  that  they  could  not  too  carefiilly  reading  of  all  non-canonical  books,  and  re- 
distinguish    from  all  others  the  books  to  cited  tiie  canonical,  passing  over  the  Old 
which  they  ascribed  so  much  dogmatical  Testament  Apocrypha  and  the  Apocalypse, 
value.     This  growing  conviction  occasioned  In  the  same  way,  and  only  a  few  years  later, 
a  new  denomination  for  the  different  kinds  of  the  Latin  church  arrived  at  the  final  corn- 
books,  and  so  caused  a  fresh  step  to  be  taken  pletion  of  ite  canon.    The  example  of  the 
in  the  history  of  the  canon,  which  was  com-  Greeks,  especially  of  Origen,  had  for  some 
pleted  before  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cen-  time  hindered  the  acceptance  of  the  five  con- 
tury ;  and  brought  to  pass  a  separation  of  a  tested  general  Epistles  (2d  Peter,  James,  2d 
class  of  writings  to  wMch  an  inferior  worth  and  dd  John,  Jude)  ;  but  soon  tiie  opposi- 
was  ascribed,  and  which  held  a  middle  posi-  tion  showed  itself,  in  a  decided  character, 
tion  between  those  which  were  held  ot  autho-  only  against  the  Letter  to  the  Hebrews,  which 
rity  in  doctrine,  and  those  which  were  express-  the  minority  of  the  Fathers  of  the  second  half 
]y  rejected.  Thus  the  practice  grew  general,  of  of  the  fourth  century  rejected.     Two  distin- 
denominating  those  books  which  were  esteem-  guished  ecclesiastics  of  this  period — the 
ed  the  purest  source  of  Christian  knowledge,  learned  Jerome,  and  the  warm-hearted  An- 
canonical,  that  is,  generally  received,  and  af-  gustine  —  exerted  in  the  West  great  influence 
fording  a  doctrinal  guide,  as  being  inspired  on  the  formation  of  the  canon,  though  not 
and  of  apostolic  origin.   But  as  the  custom  of  with  that  critical  skill  which  might  have 
reading  Scriptures  in  the  churches  was  older  been  desired.     This  influence  was  manifest 
than  tiiese  exact  distinctions  of  canonical  in  the  synod  of  Hippo  (A.D.  393),  and  of 

w^^TIfTJ'Ji  Srii,"?-^  ^\  ^^■J  Carthage  (AJ).  897),  which  were  held  under 

choice  of  book*  to  be  read  did  not  depend  Oie  guidance  of  Augustine.     These  oouncibi 

on  such  distinctione,  so  the  mteoduction  of  forbade  tiie  readinTof  all  oncimonic^^- 

them  threatened  to  rob  the  church  of  a  means  iuM,  wiOi  tiie  «^«L«  ^5^S^u"  ?    •        * 

ot  edifleation  which,  use  h^  rendered  satis-  ^^^^^n::i^Z^'  t^e  O W  ^st^ 

fastory.     The  tradiUonary  books  were  tiiere-  ment  ApocrrohL  !m!J^r^.^      ^    *  I 

tore  7fUu  «>uuned.  e,en  if  U^  ,„«  no.  it,  l^S^:-:^ :^^^'^:; 


CAN                      281  CAN 

This  canon  was  conflnned  by  Innocent  I.  period  compriBcd  all  tbe  striking  phenomena 
(A.D.  405).  At  last  appeared  a  decree  as-  which  took  place  from  the  end  of  the  second 
cribed  to  the  Roman  bishop,  Oelasins  I.  century  to  tiie  rcTival  of  letters,  and  which 
(A.D.  404),  which  snpplied  a  Aill  catalogae  present  the  four  distinct  steps  of  the  origin, 
of  all  apocryphal  Scriptures,  thus  putting  a  the  enlargement,  the  closing,  and  the  quiet 
termination  to  changes  in  the  canon.  Among  maintenance  of  ihe  canon.  With  the  Befor- 
the  canonical  Scriptures,  this  decree  reckoned  mation,  began  the  third  period;  and  with 
five  books  of  Solomon,  including  Tobit  and  it  was  manifested  a  new  spirit.  As  in  the 
Judith;  two  of  the  Maeoabees;  thirteen  second  period,  the  principle  of  tradition 
Epistles  of  Paul ;  one  of  the  same  writer  more  and  more  pre-vidled ;  so  in  the  third, 
to  the  Hebrews.  Thus,  in  the  East  and  in  the  love  of  truth  predominated.  In  this  last 
the  West,  was  the  canon  fixed  about  the  period,  the  time  which  has  elapsed  from  the 
same  time,  and  mainly  in  the  same  manner,  middle  of  the  ei|^teenth  century  till  the  pre- 
The  Greek  canon,  however,  zested  on  the  sent  day  is  of  special  importance,  and  pro- 
principle  of  receiving  nothing  which  had  not  mises  results  which  may  modify,  if  not  in 
a  well-founded  right  to  the  honour:  the  La-  some  cases  reverse,  opinions  that  prevailed 
tin  church  inclined  to  rqect  nothing  which  in  the  second,  but  which  are  likely  to  place 
tradition  had  haUowed,  and  use  approved,  the  acceptance  of  the  Christian  Scriptures,  as 
The  first  authority  looked  more  to  truth;  the  on  more  popularly  intelligible,  so  also  on 
second,  to  edification.  The  ages  which  en-  more  secure  and  stable  grounds, 
sued  were  too  much  mastered  by  authority,  We  condnde  this  article  with  one  or  two 
and  too  lltde  possessed  of  critical  learning,  testimonies :  —  and  first,  the  words  of  an 
to  either  add  to  or  take  from  the  estabUahed  eminent  (German  theologian,  Kirchhofer,  who 
collection.  Tovrards  the  dose  of  the  fifteenth  thns  terminates  a  valuable  work  on  the  ca- 
centnry,  however,  a  new  era  began  to  dawn,  non  of  the  New  Testament,  which  he  has 
Inquiry  once  more  arose ;  doubt  began  to  recently  published :  — • '  I  bring  this  long  and 
prevail.  The  Council  of  Trent,  indeed,  toilsome  work  to  an  end,  wi^  the  aclmow- 
sought  to  put  a  final  conclusion  to  all  debate  ledgment,  that  I  have  gained  from  the 
on  the  subject,  sending  forth  its  anathema  various  voices,  both  without  and  within 
against  all  who  should  question  the  canoni-  the  church,  a  deep  impression  of  the  au- 
city  of  any  of  the  writings  contained  in  the  thenticity  of  the  canon ;  and  I  have  anew 
Latin  version,  commonly  used  in  the  Roman  learned  to  honour  the  divinely  directed  judg- 
Catholic  church,  which  contained  what  are  ment  of  the  church,  which  received  some 
usually  termed  the  apocryphal  books.  But  writings,  snd  rqected  others.  The  four  Evan- 
the  spirit  and  tendency  of  the  Reformation  gelists,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  thirteen 
carried  men's  minds  back  to  the  earlier  Epistles  of  Paul,  the  first  Epistle  of  John, 
periods  of  the  church,  and  to  the  Scriptures  and  the  first  Epistle  of  Peter,  have  witnesses 
in  the  original  tongues.  Accordingly,  its  of  their  genuineness,  not  only  of  the  age  of 
great  leaders  denied  authority  in  questions  Eusebius  and  Origen,  but  through  tradition, 
of  fiuth  to  the  Apocrypha,  at  the  same  time  from  an  earlier  period.  The  heretics  did  not 
admitting  that  its  books  might  be  nsefiil  for  at  first  venture  to  dispute  their  authenticity : 
edification ;  and  at  first  all  Protestant  trans-  even  non-Christian  writers  afford  their  tes- 
tations contained  them,  though  separated  timony  to  increase  the  doud  of  witnesses, 
from  the  canonical  writings.  Since  the  pe-  The  historical  grounds  for  the  remaining 
riod  of  the  Reformation,  ti^eological  science,  books  appear  to  me  to  have  their  weight, 
which  has  in  the  last  three  hundred  years  and  are  in  aecordanee  with  the  evidence 
made  very  great  progress,  has  resumed  the  contained  in  the  books  themselves.  The 
discussion  of  questions  regarding  the  cano-  question  of  Augustine  may  be  applied  to  the 
nioity  of  the  Scriptures  found  in  the  ordinary  testimonies  for  the  canon  :  —  *'  Why  dost 
Bible ;  but,  whatever  may  have  been  the  actual  thou  not  yidd  to  evangelicd  authority,  —  so 
results,  no  general  authority  has  spoken  well  founded,  so  well  established,  spread 
either  against  or  in  favour  of  the  diqiuted  abroad  with  so  much  reputation,  and  recom- 
books.  mended  by  &e  most  certain  succession  of 
Thus  the  history  of  the  collection  of  the  witnesses — from  the  age  of  the  apostles 
Christian  Scriptures  divides  itself  into  three  down  to  our  own  times  ?  " '  Lardner,  after  a 
diilisrent  periods.  The  first  was  a  prepara-  very  full,  complete,  and  impartid  investiga- 
tory era,  in  which  we  are  met  by  a  want  of  tion,  states :  —  *  From  the  quotations  of  Ire- 
historicd  notices  and  historicd  documents ;  nans,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertnllian, 
but  find  in  existence  and  active  operation  and  other  writers  of  the  second  century,  of 
such  influences  as  were  under  the  circum-  Origen  in  the  third,  and  of  Eusebius  in  the 
stances  naturd  in  themselves,  snd  worked  fourth  century,  it  appears  that  the  greatest 
to  results  that  justify  our  reliance  generdly  part  of  the  books  which  are  now  received  by 
on  the  New  Testament  writings.  This  first  us,  and  are  called  canoniod,  were  univer- 
epoch  produced  no  canon,  yet  it  produced  sally  acknowledged  in  their  times,  and  had 
the  circumstances  that  necessarily  led  to  the  been  so  acknowledged  by  the  elders  and 
formation  of  the  actud  canon.    The  second  churdies  of  former  times.    And  the  rest  now 


CAN  282  CAN 

neelTed  hjvm,  tfaovf^  they  wen  dieii  doubted    fox  addieeeee  ihe  eiow,  and  the  froge  lemon- 
of  or  eontroTorted  by  WNBe,  were  well  known,     stnte  with  tfaeir  boyish  tonnentore,  m  be 
and  approved  by  many.    And  Athanaaioe,     of  opinion  that  adults  oan  have  any  real  dif- 
who  lived  not  toiig  after  £iuebias  (having    fienlty  in  knowing*  that  in  Scriptore   the 
flonziahed  in  the  year  896  and  afterwarda),    tree*  did  not  aetnally  ehooee  a  king,  nor 
leeeived  aU  the  books  whieh  aienowfeeeiveidi    the  riob  man  of  Nathan  take  away  the  poor 
by  OS,  and  no  other.    YHiieh  has  also  been    man's  *  little  ewe-lamb.'     In  all  figurative 
the  prevailing  sentiment  ever  sinee.    This    language,  it  is  essential  that  the  figve  should 
eanon  waa  not  determined  by  the  moAaiity    be  wimisrafcitaMe      If  you  doiUtt  whether 
of  eooneils ;  but  the  books  of  which  it  eon*    jo«  have  a  meti^hor  or  sn  allegory  before 
aists  were  known  to  be  the  genuine  writings    y«n»  the  doobt  itself  eonvicts  the  author  at 
of  the  apostles  and  evangelists,  in  the  same    least  of  a  wan*  of  akilL    In  cases  where  the 
way  and  manner  that  we  know  the  works  of    meaning  is  twofi>ld,  if  there  is  any  question 
Cssar,  Oioero,  Virgil,  Horaee,  Taeitna,  to  be     as  lo  whieh  sense  the  author  intended,  he 
theirs.    And  the  eanon  haa  been  ft>nned    benomns  guaUiy  <tf  ambiguity,  which  must 
upon  the  gtonnd  of  an  unanimons  or  gene*    arise  ftom  «ne  of  three  things, — want  of 
rally  oonoorring  teatimony  and  tndiikiim'    clear  ideas,  want  of  tfie  power*  or  want  of  the 
(v.  977).   'Itiethejndgmeni  of  Christian    will»  to  ntter  what  he  thinka.    In  the  Canti- 
peoi^  in  general ;  and  so  Cur  as  we  aieable    oles,  however,  the  sense  is  most  perspicuous, 
to  perceive,  after  a  hmg  and  eareftd  asami-     It  lies  on  the  soiiiMe,  -»  it  lies  uiere  in  dis- 
nation,  it  is  a  ri|^t  and  vssssbmUs  Jndg-     tinot  w^imi,  like  dew-diops   on   the  ilower. 
ment'  (981).  Beyond  a  doubt,  this  is  an  amaAozy  poem. 

CANTICLES  (L.  UUU  siMfi).  ^  A  BtUi-  AU  admit  that  ontwardly  it  is  an  amatory 
cal  book,  that,  aeeoiding  to  acme  eritiea,  poem.  What  mon  is  it  ?  What  indications 
is  a  compOalion  of  idyls  or  pastoral  songs,  aie  theie  of  a  recondite  or  aecond  significa- 
whieh,  taking  their  origin  probably  aa  early  tion  t  The  alleged  spiiitual  import  is  apuie 
aa  flie  days  of  Solomon,  were  sung  by  the  assomption.  It  is  a  Iheoiy,  and  nothing  bat 
people,  and  transmltlsd  from  montii  to  a  theory,*— a  theory  not  deduced  fkom,  but 
mouth,  till,  In  die  thne  of  the  revival  <tf  let-  taken  into,  the  poem,-— borrowed  fkom  a  sup- 
ters  under  Sam  and  Nehemiah,  they  were  poeed  theological  neceasily.  It  was  first 
brought  into  their  pressnt  slate.  Aoeord-  decided  that  an  amatory  poem  could  not  be 
in^,  the  poem  haa  been  ent  np  into  what  in  the  sacred  esnon*  This  assumed,  and  the 
are  conceived  to  be  its  osiginal  elements,  Csnticlea  being  there,  the  poem  nmst,  it  is 
eoneistfaig  of  several  amall  poems,  with  such  inferred,  be  something  else  than  what  it 
additloBe,  repetitions,  and  inteipolations,  aa  aeemed  to  be.  Hence  the  second  or  spiri- 
time  and  cireomstanees  oocaakmed.  Aa  the  tual  import ;  which  thus  obviously  rests  on 
snlijeet  of  the  Cantides  ia  too  evidently  ama-  no  solid  foundation,  and  can  be  admitted  by 
tory  to  admit  of  denial,  and  as  such  a  sub-  oo  person  who  is  determined  to  see  things 
Jeet  was  considered  unfit  to  stand  amongthe  aa  they  are,  and  to  take  the  realities  brought 
aaered  booka  of  the  Bible,  a  theory  waa  de-  under  his  notice  in  their  own  pr<^>er  charae- 
vised,  whieh,  with  the  less  informed,  still  ter.  To  a  reader  of  thia  description,  there 
maintains  its  hold ;  nsmely,  that  the  poem,  is  no  great  diifieultj  in  forming  a  generally 
beneath  its  outer  end  mere  verbal  covering,  trustworthy  opinion  as  to  the  composition 
had  an  inner,  whieh  was  indeed  its  true,  im-    before  us. 

port,  so  as  to  symbolise  the  union  of  Christ,  It  is  designated  '  the  Song  of  songs ; '  that 
die^  bridegroom,  with  the  chursh,  his  spouse,  is,  the  moat  excellent  or  beautifiil  song.  The 
This  conception  labours  nnder  sH  the  oliee-  charaotsr  of  the  poem  justifies  the  title.  It 
tions  which  may  in  general  be  taken  against  is,  <^  its  kind,  sn  exquisitely  beaukifol  com- 
the  doctrine  that  admits  a  twofold  sense  in  position;  ftill  of  life  and  movement, redolent 
Soriptural  language ;—  a  doctrine  which  may  of  all  the  sweet  spicery  of  the  £ast,  glitter- 
eanM  and  justify  the  wildest  vagaries  of  hi.     ing  with  its  pearls,  and  glowing  with  its  ar- 


-  ^     _.  .     —  — ^ ^    .^     -Tija-iiTrTM  vv  v«  »  religi*^ 

A^*I!  *  twofold  sense,  so  has  eveiy  other,  ous  poem,  it  is  a  gross  failure ;  if  a  homily 

^-1*^°'  ^y  "^*  *~  ^  *^  ■^■^  '  ^^  ^  ^^9h  mysteries  of  spiritual  love,  it  ia 

S-itJ™"**"***^^'    True  it  is,  that  &e  worst  that  ever  waa  wrUten. 

^i2^^^u^!f**"!?.'*''?^?'^  ^  The  name  of  Solomon  is  prefixed  to  the 

^n^J^"''**^''?*?*^,,**,'**^**^  Canticlee  as  their  author.    Ai  objection  has 

SS^  uSrSSi*'   ^t£jL'r«~«**  been  taken  from  the  f«,t,  that  sWmon  " 

the  mute  creatioVfTgifted  with  the^^  S%ii.l^ to^a^ S^J? l* '*>»^^^oWHi 

of  .pe-eh,  because,  i-  hi.  fobl^boek,  th^  tiW'l^^^'.'^l^rrer^it^JS^^ 


CAN  283  CAN 

whether  he  Bhoold  be  aeconnted  fhe  author,    parks  wen  in  all  probability  sang,  and  ae- 
It  is  in  the  title  that  the  poem  is  aaoribed  to     compaaied  with  instrumental  mueie. 


him,  and  the  titles  prefixed  to  the  saered        Pasajng  for  a  moment  from  the  form  to 
booJu  eairy  with  them  little  wei^^    It  is    the  substance,  we  eonsider  the  poem  to  be 


not  impoesiUe  that  Solomon's  name  waa  an  epithalamium,  or  marriage  poem,  oom- 
employed  in  order  lo  give  an  adrentitioaa  posed  and  reoited  in  oelebration  of  the  es- 
splendour  to  the  poem.  In  all  eoontries,  ponsals  of  some  great  piinee  with  a  fiur 
eertain  gieal  names  becaaMi,  in  proeeas  of  princess  (named  Shnlamite,  i.e.  perfection, 
time,  eentrss,  aionnd  whioh  the  wneratiou  tI.  18),  it  may  be  of  Solomon  with  Phazoah's 
of  aller-agss  throw  literaiy  gleiies,  more  or  daughter.  And  if  we  suppose  that  the  bride- 
lees  real,  to  whioh  the  aUsged  autfaots  have  groom  was  the  poet,  we  can  understand  the 
no  solid  eiaim.  Homer  tiias  became  the  glow  of  pure  young  passion  which  pervades 
oentie  ef  a  literaiy  eirde,  set  with  points  of  at  least  4ie  early  portions.  The  poem,  then, 
light  Peifaaps  the  same  may,  in  ameasnra,  having  been  thus  prepared,  was  '  said  and 
be  true  of  Solomon  and  David.  sung'  before  the  alBanoed  pair,  on  occasion 
The  Oantides,  however,  have  pietanaioris  of  their  happy  union ;  and  so  describes  the 
to  an  early  date.  The  poem  is  too  fresh  snd  fresh,  warm,  pure,  and  tender  loves  of  an 
original;  its  hnageiy  too  obviously  taksn  impassioned  and  enamoured  lover  towards 
immediately  from  nature,  to  allow  the  sup*  his  mistress,  end  of  that  mistress  towards 
position  that  it  was  produced  in  the  deeline  her  lover.  If  the  colouring  In  some  passages 
or  fidi  of  Hebrew  literature.  The  poem  is  a  is  deeper  than  what  we  are  used  to  in  these 
simple  genuine  transcript  of  nature,  made  by  dimes  and  ages,  we  must  remember  that  it 
an  artist  of  high  skill  and  overflowing  vigour ;  ie  with  oriental  lovers  that  the  anthor  had  to 
and,  as  such,  must,  in  the  main  have  been  do.  And  if  the  language  of  the  fair  one  may 
produced  in  a  time  of  national  adolescenoe,  seem  to  be  somewhat  forward  and  held,  hers 


social  prosperity,  and  high  culture.    These  again  we  most  divest  ourselves  of  oar  nor- 

oonsideimtions  are  supported  by  eertain  aroha-  them  aasociatjons,  and  transfer  our  thoughts 

isms  of  language.    And  if  there  are  forma  for  a  moment  into  the  sunny  dimes  of  the 

of  words  that  point  to  a  post-ezilisn  period,  glowing  East 

ttiese  may  be  accounted  for  without  sup  •        We  decline  in  this  plaee  an  analyais  of 

posing  that  any  thing  more  than  the  actual  the  poem.    Let  it  suffice  to  have  indicated 

form  m  which  the  Cantides  are  found  must  what  appears  to  us  its  red  charaoter ;  only 

be  ascribed  to  die  days  of  Eira  and  Nehe-  we  must  yet  say  a  few  more  explanatory 

miah.  words.    The  poem  is  certainly  mukiform. 

We  hare  dready  intimated  that  this  is  a  It  is  not  one  continuous   devdepmeut  of 

love-poem.    But  in  what  form  ?    It  has  ob-  thought  and  action,  but  a  series  of  small 


vioudy  two  essentid  features  <~  action  and  poems ;  in  other  words,  it  consists  of  sevcrd 

music.    It  is  ttierefore  dramatic  and  lyri-  acta,  with  a  repeated  change  of  time,  place, 

cal,  or,  in  other  words,  a  lyilc  drama,  or  and  performer.    Now  die  lover  speshs,  now 

opera.    Whether  it  wua  ever  performed  or  hia  mistress.    Both  are  silent  to  give  place 

not,  we  have  no  means  of   detstmining.  to  flie  ehoena,  who,  the  mddens  and  the 

History  does  not  aflbrd  any  podtiveevidenee^  youths    separately    or  unitedly,  sing  now 


that  ^e  drama,  as  such,  was  in  existanee  the  refrain  or  burthen  of  the  song  (it  7 ; 

among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  though  it  has  lit  6 ;  viii.  4) ;  now  a  diord  veree,  which 

been  thenght  that,  in  point  of  foim,  ac-  aids  in  carrying  forward  the  generd  action 

tion  is  the  essential  element  of  the  book  of  of  the  piece  (v.  0).    Possibly  the  chorus  did 

Job.    We  confces  that  we  think  some  kind  more,  bearing  a  shsre  as  one  of  the  inteilo- 

of  drama  not  imposdble  among  the  Isradites,  cutors  in  the  masque  (iii.  6—11 ;  viii.  11-^ 

since,  if  for  no  other  reason,  theirsacred  poet-  18).    The  last  verse  was,  we  think,  smig  by 

ry  often  assumed  somewhat  of  the  dramatic  all  the  performers  combined  in  a  body, 

diaracter,  being  performed  by  a  chorus  and  Let  no  one  be  surprised,  that  an  erotie 

a  counter  chorus,  if  not  with  the  dd  of  single  poem  should  be  found  among  the  saered 

Toices,  singing  in  solos,  yet  certainly  accom-  books  of  the  Isradites.    In  the  first  place, 

panied  by  a  large  and  effective  instmmentd  the  Osntides  hdd  only  a  secondary  rank  in 

band.    The  *  Samson  Agonistes '  of  MUton,  their  estimatUm.    In  the  next  place,  it  is 

however,  diows  how  a  compodtion  may  re-  domeatic  love  that  is  here  celebrated.    Ita 

ceive  the  fonn  of  a  drama,  without  being  of  character  may  be  misconedved,  if  it  is  dcno- 

necesdty  intended,  or  even  fitted,  to  be  per-  minated  an  amatory  poem.    Sudi,  indeed, 

formed.    Perhaps  our  old  English  masque,  it  is;  but  the  love  is  of  the  purest  end  lof- 

which  was  essentially  a  drama,  comes  more  tieot  kind.    Its  burning  inisndtj  evidences 

neariy  to  the  Gantidea  than  any  other  mo-  its  diaateness.    Fdse  love  could  never  glow 

dem  composition.    Pw  we  incline  to  think  with  those  rapturous  emotions.    It  is  dM 

that  the  poem  was  performed,  and  that  with  love  of  a  betrothed  and  wedded  pair  of  yoong) 

the  accompaniment  of  muaic.    The  charac-  unsullied,  unsuspecting  hearts,  which  is  here 

tsrs  are  a  lover  and  his  beloved,  with  a  chorua  set  forth ;  —  such  Iotc  as  Ood  sanctioned  in 

of  mddens,  and  another  of  youths,  whose  our  first  progenitors,  and  which  Christ 


CAN  284  CAN 

•elf  honoured  with  his  presenoe  at  Cine,  in  deep  and  tender  respeet   for  men'e  beet 

Gelilee; — the  love  to  which  life  owes  its  IHend,  hie  helpmeet;   and  for  home,  the 

ehenn,  the  world  its  popolstion,  society  its  norsery  of  all  virtue,  and  the  eeed-bed  of  all 

bonds,  and  home  its  sanctities.  happiness.    In  the  poem  which  we  are  eon- 

•  Hd,  wedded  loTe,  myfterioiia  law,  tnie  loiiree  «dermg,  the  bride  speaks  like  "n  equal,  and 

Of  hamaa  oflbpiinff,  aole  proprietj  is  addressed  m  the  most  respectful  as  well 

In  Paradtoe  of  all  tiilngi  eomiiMm  eke  I  ae  the  fondest  manner.    If^  in  the  opinion 

FoonSd  in  reason,  loTBl^JoatTu^lpue  •»»«  *«>™  «*^«  «■!»  modes^  which  makes 

Helattona  dear,  and  all  the  ebarltiflB  the  female  now  say  too  little,  repreesing  na- 

Of  father,  son,  and  brother,  flnt  were  known.  tore  under  the  iron  hand  of  custom.     The 

Fer  be  it  that  I  ihould  write  thee  sin  or  blames  ^^  ^«  ^u  «.  «  •        < 

Or  think  thee  nnbefitting  hoUeat  place,  commepoe  of  the  sezee  before  mamage  in 

Perpetaal  fountain  of  domestio  sweets.'  this  oonntiy,  calls  to  mind  the  relation  of 

An  ♦I.-*  «-  J s-  *i»--^      ui    *  master  and  slaTs,  superior  and  dependenL 

An  that  is  mipure  m  these  snbiects  arises  «#«„._  ---«*«*  4.  .  u^JT..  «.:j  ♦«  JL^^mm 

fh)m  men's  foul  and  discrediUWe  imagine.  '^^ »  »n»«ct isa homa^  paid  to  weakneea, 

♦«™ .  #uv«.  ^^A^  ^I*-»1ji  wT   ""^"*"  not  ardent  legaid  ermeed  towerds  lo?elmess 

f^^J  .^w»5SfS^.^^^  /^  •   T"""  ""d  Tirtuc^Tthe  Csntides,  the  lover  and 

/      i^?!  ^'  '  •*  ''''*''''"  J^»  ^^^  one  are  placed  on  the  same  hi^ 

01  morauiy,  —  j^^^    j^^  1^  ^^  manifest,  leciproeal 

'5!!5?^  ■■  ^""^^  V^  ^*od  dedares  „ag.rf  and  passion.    Indeed,  domestie  love 

l»,«,«a  commands  to  «>m^kaTe.f^  to  an.'  ^1^  ^  ^^^  ^  ^^^^^^  ^  ^^  Hebrew 

In  the  early  period  to  which  the  Canticles  character,  to  admit  the  existence  of  those 
are  to  be  referred,  theee  falsitiee  had  no  inequalities  to  which  much  of  the  infelicity 
existence.  Men  were  too  simple  and  unso-  of  English  homes  may  be  attributed.  That 
phisticated  to  blush,  when  there  was  no  Iotc  amounted  to  a  passion  whose  super- 
guilt  or  shsme.  Besidee,  with  Eaatema,  abounding  warmth  fhsed  down  all  the  less 
love,  as  well  as  every  other  emotion  and  in-  worthy  distinctions  which  man's  masterftil 
terest  of  man,  bore  a  religious  character,  disposition  might  originate.  Hence  is  it. 
Their  religion  was  uniTcrsal  in  ite  influence,  that  to  Christianity,  which  sprang  ttom  Juda- 
They  knew  not  the  absurd  distinction  made  ism,  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  doctrine 
by  modems  between  morality  and  religion,^*  which  makes  man  and  wife  one,  wedlock  a 
the  becoming  and  the  ri^t,  the  proper  nnionofequals,  andthegOTemmentof  home 
and  the  improper.  What  was  natural  was  the  goremment  of  one  will  ensuing  fh>m  two 
religious :  what  was  religions  was  natursL  minds  and  two  hearts,  disciplined  to  a  di- 
They  had  but  two  measures  of  right,  which  rine  hannony  of  mutual  love.  And  when  at 
in  truth  reaolTed  themselvee  into  one : — the  at  length  the  Bible  shall  be  studied  without 
two  were  nature  and  God's  will— the  first  an  prepossession  or  prqudice  -^  studied  as  any 
exposition  of  the  eeeond,  the  second  of  uni-  other  book,  in  order  to  know  and  admire  ite 
▼ersal  preTslenoe  and  application.  In  such  true  meriti^  then  will  it  be  acknowledged  by 
a  system,  wedlock  was  as  much  a  religious  men  of  literature,  as  it  is  now  felt  by  all  re< 
act  as  prayer.  The  religious  senee  permMled  ligious  men  of  high  culture,  that  it  contains 
the  whole  of  life,  shedding  ite  own  directing  passages,  which,  in  a  mere  literary  point  of 
light,  ite  own  pure  emotions,  ite  own  high  riew,  are  of  transcendent  excellence,  running 
sanctity,  over  the  entire  course  of  existence,  through  a  wide  range  of  man's  diversified 
The  man  of  Ood  was  righteous  in  aU  his  experience.  Sonthey's  lines  are  eminently 
ways.  beautiftal :  — 

The  high  esteem  in  which  the  female  eex  <They  rfn  irho  teU  ns  love  can  die : 

is  now  held  in  the  civilised  world,  and  the  Wltii  life  an  other  pesiionafly, 

large  and  ennobling  influence  which  it  exerto  All  others  are  but  tanitj,'  &c. 

on  society,  so  dissimilar  to  ite  humiliating  3^^  ^^y  j,^  ^ot  more  beautifo)  than  those 

condition  among  the  classic  nations  of  old,  from  t^e  Canticles :  — 
where  the  mother  was  ordinarily  little  more 
than  an  upper  servant,  and  domestic  honours  «Aa»aeal,sUmp  me  on  thine  heart: 

,  r*M  _7  J  *  -A" » ■•■Jf  on  thine  ann. 

and  man's  favours  were  reserved  for  accom-  VnchimgMkbie  as  death  is  love» 

plished  courtezans,  have  been  ascribed  to  ab  the  grave  is  deep  affeoHon; 

the  spirit  of  Christianity,  particularly  as  dis-  2*  «^««'  «■  fi™«  Mid  fire, 

played  during  the  middle  ages,  in  the  insti.  T^iSJS,'^o".JtoJ  love, 

tntions  snd  operation  of  chivalry.     But  the  Not  rfrera  can  deatroy  it. 

existence  in  ^e  Bible  of  the  Cantidee,  which  <}!▼«  aU  yon  have  to  extirpate  love, 

dates  back  perhaps  a  thousand  years  before  ^^  "*  ^^^  "*  ******  ^  dertalon.' 

the  advent  of  Christ,  proves  that  Judaism,         CAPERNAUM  {Nahum't  viUage),  a  flou- 

much  as  it  has  been  assailed,  has,  among  rishing  city  of  Gslilee,  qpoken  of  by  our 

other  claims  to  our  gratitude,  this,  that  even  Lord  as  *  exalted  unto  heaven '  (Matt  xL  38. 

in  an  Eastern   dime,  where  woman  com<  Luke  iv.  31) ;  on  '  the  borders  of  Zabolon 

monly  sinks  to  a  toy,  a  plaything,  and  a  and  Nephthalim '  (Matt  iv.  18),  and  the  Sea 

slave,  it  fostered  a  ve^  high  regard,  if  not  a  of  Oenesareth  (John  vL  17) ;  whenee  it  is 


CAP                       285  CAP 

described  at  being  *  on  the  eeacoast'  (Matt  feem  to  ha^e  confirmed  this  opinion.    The 

IT.  18).    It  lay  not  Hi  from  the  entrance  of  last  place  lies  on  the  western  banh  of  the 

the  Jordan  into  the  lake,  and  on  the  great  lake,  in  the   plain   El-Ghaweir,  the  most 

commercial  road  which  led  from  Damascus  frtdtftil  and  loyely  spot  in  the  neighbonr- 

to  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  was  in  eon-  hood ;  which,  according  to  Josephus,  owed 

seqoenoe  populous  and  wealthy.    It  had  a  its  prodnctiTeness  and  beantj  to  a  foontain 

synagogae  (John  yi.  69),  in  which  Jesos  by  which  it  was  watered.    This,  Robinson 

often  taught     Oapemaum  was  called  '  his  identifies  with  Ain  et-Tin.    In  the  New  Tes- 

own  city'  (Matt  iz.  1),  tnrn  his  dwelling  tament,  this  plain  appears  under  the  name 

much  there  in  the  later  period  of  his  life  of 'thelandof  Gennesaret'  (Matt.  zIt.  84). 

(Mark  ii.  I.    Matt.  xrii.  24).    Gapemanm  At  Capernaum  it  was  that  our  Lord  gave 

is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament     It  Matthew  a  call  to  the  apostleship   (Matt 

appears  to  hare  been  built  after  the  Baby^  ix.  9).    This  was  done  while  he  sat  at  the 

lonish  exile.    The  plaoe  occurs  in  Josephus  receipt  of  custom.    Hence  it  is  implied  that 

(Jew.  War,  iii.  10.  8).  there  was  here  in  Capernaum  a  custom-house. 

The  entire  district  in  which  Capernaum  Hug  says   (Introduction,   i.  22)   that  the 

was  situated,  belonged  to  the  most  busy  in  Phcsnicians,  and   in  particular  the  Arabs, 

the  land.    *  It  was,'  as  Herder  says,  *  a  high-  sent  their  loads  of  merchandise  by  means  of 

way  for  foreigners,  frill  of  food  and  business,  the  Jordan  into  the  southern  regions.    Their 

frill    of   inhabitants    from    many  nations,  entrance  station  was  therefore  necessarily  to 

Hence  the  province  bore  the  name  of  Galilee  the  north  of  <}ennesareth  and  at  Capernaum, 

of  the  Gentfles  (Matt  if.  18).    A  Galilean,  and  the  import-collector   for   transit  and 

and  a  man  of  determination,  meant  the  same  importation  could  not  be  wanting  in  ♦>>i«i 

in  Jewish  phraseology.'    This  district,  re-  plaoe. 

mote  firom  die  proud  snd  malevolent  Jerusa-  CAPHTOB  (H.),  the  land  of  the  Caphto- 
lem,  was  moat  suitable  for  the  peaeeftil  and  rim,  who,  in  Uie  great  register  of  nations 
gentleworkoftheLord:  here  among  a  people  (Gton.  x.  14),  are  deriTed  from  Mizraim  or 
ofsoundunderstandingandliyely  conception,  Egypt  In  Jer.  xItU.  4,  the  Philistines  sie 
he  found  frur  more  fitting  scholars  tium  the  termed  *  the  remnant  of  the  countiy  (pro- 
Babbinioal  schools  of  the  capital  could  haye  perly  of  the  isle  or  coast)  of  Caphtor '  (oomp. 
supplied.  And  the  intercourse  with  foreign  Ezek.  xxt.  15.  Amos  i.  8).  In  Amos, 
nations,  which  must  have  brought  and  left  ix.  7,  Jehoyah  asks,  *  Have  not  I  brou^^t  up 
some  culture  from  without,  softened  the  hard  the  Philistines  firom  Caphtor  ? '  From  these 
diell  of  Jewish  bigotry,  snd  in  a  measure  passages  it  is  infenred  that  Caphtor  was  the 
prepared  a  way  by  which  the  great  Beformer  original  seat  of  the  Philistines.  But  where 
could  reach  the  heart  Here,  too,  was  the  was  Caphtor  ?  Opinions  are  divided.  Some 
best  centre  that  could  be  chosen  in  the  en-  critics  have  decided  in  fvnmr  of  the  coast  of 
tire  country,  for  making  something  of  the  Egypt,  o&ers  for  Cyprus,  others  for  Cappa- 
gospel  known  to  other  lends ;  for  commer^  dooia.  The  island  of  Crete  seem  to  us  to 
cial  travellers,  as  they  journeyed  to  and  flro,  have  the  best  claim.  From  Jer.  xlvii.  4, 
would  not  fail  to  cany  news  of  the  wonder-  Caphtor  appears  to  have  been  an  island  or 
ful  teacher.  Had  Jesus,  indeed,  according  a  seaooast  The  Philistines  are  expressly 
to  the  fanoy  of  Strauss,  intended  merely  to  denominated  Cretans,  a  name  which  in  the 
set  up  as  a  Jewish  Babbi,  teaching  some  English  translation  is  disguised  under  *  Che- 
slight  modifications  of  ancient  doctrine,  Ca-  retkdtes'  (Zeph.  ii.  0.  Ezek.  xxv.  16) ;  but 
pemaum  and  its  vicinity  was  the  worst  spot  which  the  Septuagint  renders  '  Cretans;'  see 
he  could  have  ehosen.  Whence  we  are  war-  also  2  Sam.  viii.  18.  This  evidence  must 
ranted  in  saying,  that  his  original  plan  was  be  allowed  to  have  great  weight  It  seems 
of  a  far  more  general  nature.  Choosing,  as  probable  that  Crete  was  peopled  from  Egypt, 
he  did,  the  most  liberal  part  of  the  country  and  that  from  Crete  a  colony  settled  on  the 
for  the  publication  and  enforcement  of  his  southern  end  of  the  Syrisn  coast,  snd  be- 
doctrines,  he  shows  by  the  fact  that  his  doc-  came  known  by  the  name  Philistines,  a  word 
trines  and  aims  were  lofty  and  oomprehen-  which  denotes  foreigners  or  colonists, 
sive.  Tet  Capernaum,  though  mighty  works  If  Crete  was  the  original  home  of  the  Phi- 
were  done  within  it  (Matt  viii.  0.  Luke  listines,  this  fact  may  account  for  (he  fable 
iv.  88.  Matt  ix.  1,  $eq. ;  xi.  28),  and  thouf^  of  Tacitus,  who,  as  was  not  uncommon,  con- 
it  was  the  residence  of  the  Saviour  himself,  founding  the  Philistines  with  the  Jews,  as- 
remained  generally  deaf  to  the  invitation  of  serted  that  the  latter,  driven  from  the  island, 
the  gospel,  and  was  accordingly  threatened  oeeupied  the  coasts  of  Egypt,  and  thence 
with  overthrow.  The  threat  was  ftilfilled.  spread  into  Palestine  (Hist  v.  1). 
It  has  nearty  disappeared  from  the  face  of  CAPPADOCIA,  a  district  in  the  peninsula 
the  earth.  Men  dispute  respecting  its  exact  of  Asia  Minor,  which  is  separated  on  the 
locality.  It  is  commonly  placed  at  Tell-  south  from  Cilida  by  the  Taurus,  and  on 
Hum,  at  the  northern  comer  of  the  lake,  the  north  from  Pontus  by  a  line  of  hills  run- 
But  Quaresimus  fixed  the  spot  at  Khan-  ning  paiaUel  with  the  Taurus.  It  is  divided 
Minyeh,  and  the  researdies  of  Bobinson  from  Phrygia  on  the  west,  and  Galatia  and 


CAP  286  CAP 

LMMr  Armenia  on  the  ewt,  withoat  any  relom  from  Babylon,    they  were    still  de- 

nafeotal  boundaries.    Though  well  watered,  pendent  on  the  great  Persian  empire^    In- 

it  does  not    seem  to  have    been    distin-  deed«  the  etTilisation  of  the  times  seems  to 

gnished  for  fertility.   The  hills  a|»pear  to  be  have  been  mteik  as  to  neeessitote  ft  snoees- 

mostly  of  lime-stone ;  and  the  plains,  for  sion  of  great  momafehies;  for,  as  the  «ni- 

the  greater  pert,  ari  sendoeaUe   only  for  verse  needs  not  two  snns,  so  the  wetld,  as 


gracing.    The  Cappsdooians,  miited  with  it  then  was,  ooold  not  endvre  two  masters, 

eaeh  other  by  laugMge,  were  yet  separated  There  was  only  the  altematiye  of  riavw  or 

into    northern    and  southern  by  political  despot  in  politioal  relations;  and  those  ■•- 

relations.    Uke  the  CietsBS,  the  Gappado-  tions  whl^  were  too  small  aad  too  weak  t» 

eians  had  not  the  best  charaeter  in  ancient  rise  to  the  first,  had  no  option  bdt  a  less  on- 

timcs,  beiag  designated  cowardly  and  lUth-  worthy  position  as  the  second.      When, 


less.    From  the  era  of  Tiberins,  they  were  thevel6re,  the  Persiau  dominion  sank,  Pa- 

under  the  dominion  of  the  Bomans.   Under  lestine  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Maes- 

tbe  dispersing  influence  which  operated  so  donian  conquerors  of  die  world.    Alter  some 

strongly,  in  Ac  century  prenous  to  the  ad<-  ehaages  of  fortune,  as  dependente  on  £gypt 

Tsnt  of  Christy  to  scatter  Jews  dironghout  the  sad  the  SeleucidaB,  tliey  at  last  became  subjeots 

eiTilised  woild,  Isnelites  were,  in  iie  times  exdusiTely  of  the  fi^an  monarehs  fhmn 

of  the  New  Testsment,  fsund  in  Cappadocia ;  Selencus  Phifopator  to  Antioehus  Epiphanss. 

some  of  whom,  going  up  to  the  oommon  Then  ensued  a  stengi^e  lor  ibeedom  under 

religious  metropcJis  of  the  natkm,  wrae  pre*  their   native    Maeoabean    piinees.      After 

sent  on  the  iisf  of  Pentecost  (Acto  ii  9)^  which  oame  another  brief  era  of  nalienal 

and  on  their  return  probablysowed  1h«  eoun-  freedom  (14(>-4d,  A.O.),  which  was  fUUowud 

try  with  the  seeds  of  the  gospel  (IPet.  i.  1).  by  the  si  first  hidireot,  and  then  imme- 

CAPTIVITY  (Uttaie  of  bomdaffe).^If  diate   and    avowed    domination    of  Bonm 

the  Jews  are  singular  among  sU  nations,  over  Psicstine  and  Syria  at  kige;  which, 

by  the  preservation  of  ti&eir  individuality  and  commencing  abaut  68,  A.O.  brought  the 

ssparate    existence    throngh    unparaMad  nation  to  final  ruin  in  the  destruction  of 


they  have  also  had  an  ezperienoe  of  Jerusalem  end  the  SCosaic  p<dity,  AJ).  70. 

captivity  lAkh  has  no  analogy  in  general  Then  was  Judea  swept  by  the  besom  of  de- 

histoiy,  and  would  be  almost  incredible  but  stmction.    In  Jerusidem  the  carnage  was 

for  what  we  aotually  see  under  our  own  honibla.    Led  into  captivity,  and  scattered 

eyeSk      Tbeir  history  may  be  said  to  com-  abroad   as  by  the  four  winds   of  heaven, 

menee  with  the  sale  of  theit  ancestor  Joseph  the  Jews  have  ever  since,  during,  diat  is,  the 

^""^  ^Rfpt  i   to  which  eoimtey  his  family  lengthened  period  of  1800  years,  been  ex- 

were  led,  ewiag  to  die  pressnie  of  want  (  patriated  wanderers,  living  eteiyaheie,  but 

where,  ate  a  sbert  period  of  prosperity,  nowheie  at  home;  their  pelitieal  influence 

tltey  fiBll  into  a  state  of  hard  bondage,  which  lost,  yet,  wondeiful  to  tell,  their  national  in- 

lastsd  for  centuries.    Ouidsd,  at  length,  by  dividnality  preserved ;  being  still  a  people, 

the  wisdom  and  prowess  of  a  fligilive  He>  though  without  a  country,  retaining  their 

brew,  they  escaped  by  flight,  but  wandered  religion,  but  having  no  temple,  and  keeping 

without  home  or  coantiry  for  forty  ysais,  in  still  dw  sign  of  their  eovensnt,  while  the  face 

die  midst  of  the  most  rugged  end  bsmn  of  the  God  of  Ahnham  sndDarid  is  hidden 

seenee  of  naOure,  dependent  §ok  sustenanoe  from  them. 

on  casual  or  supcmatoral  supplies.    Then  This,  it  must  be  eonfeased,  is  a  most  ex- 

they  make  the  conquest  of  a  fritila  strip  of  traordinaiy  history;  this,  through  whicfa  the 

land ;  in  which  they  are  hardly  settled,  be-  Hebrew  raite  has  passed.    Bondage  is  ite 

liiie,  in  the  midst  of  social  conftisisn,  snd  great  and  prevalent  characteristic.     *  The 

fbr  want  of  a  settled  govemment,  they  ceme  pecuUar   people   of    Oad'    are    preserved 

repeatedly  under  the  yoke  of  the  people  of  through  a  far  longer  Una  of  individual  ex- 

the  conqnesed  or  seme  neighbonring  couup  istsnos  than  any  other  fribe  or  nation,  for  a 

try.     When  die  unsetded  poiod  of  the  series  of  eapdrittes,  which,  whedier  for  nnm- 

jndges  had  cone  to  an  end^  thareenaued  an  ber,  duiaisony  or  oppressiveness^  have  no 

era  ef  growing  prosperi^,  iriiieh    lasted  equal  in  the  histoiy  of  mankind.      Tins^ 

scarcely  more  dian  for  two  reigns ;  snd,  indeed,  is  it  that  those  wham  Jehovah  lov* 

coming  to  anend  in  the  latter  yaars  of  King  sth  he  chasteneth.    And  in  the  midst  of  the 

SolooMU,  led  to  that  great  eanse  of  national  darkness  that  envelopes  the  snlgect,  how 

weakness,  ths  rending  of  the  twelve  tribes  Mn  we  resist  die  hope,  the  slmost  convic- 

into  two  separate  kingdoms ;  which,  undsr  don,  that  bri^t  days  of  recompense  sve  in 

varied  fortune,  genendly,  howerver,  flmwing  reserve  for  this  hi^ly  endowed,  yet  much- 

more  daik  and  trooUed,  came  to  a  sadter-  aiBieted  race ?    Yes!  Providsnee  has  deep 

mination  in  what  is  termed  the  Bab^nish  and  far^neadung  designs  in  (hsB  long  lineof 


captivity.   Peihaps  the  only  period  in  which     cterk  evente ;  purposes  of  love^  not  oi^  for 
the  nation  si^oyed  true  independence  and     die  woild  at  large,  which  it  is  by  no  m< 


unoonditional  liberty,  was  during  the  reigns     difllcult  to  discern,  but  also  for  Ae  sal^ 
of  David  snd  Solomon;    for,  after  theil'    fereia  themselves ;  over  whoae  destiny  then 


CAP                      287  CAP 

•till  hang  donds  of  iin«ertauity,  if  there  also  about  te  give  of  tiie  ezik  end  return  of  ibe 

glitters  a  etar  of  hope:-^  Jews  under  tke  etiong  arm  of  ABtyrian  and 

•Theitar,13ieitarofBeaileh«nl'  Sl"?^  ^"^"t     "^^^  ^^  ^^vV*^.?* 

lihe  kingdom  of  Israel  mider  Pekah,  741, 

Of  the  several  ei^tivities  thxongh  wbkHk  ▲.€.;  whenTig^ih  Pileser,  king  of  Assyria, 

the  desoendants  of '  fnthftil  Ahraham '  have  earned  away  captive  to  Assyria  a  part  of  Uia 

been  led»  that  oifteD  termed  'the  Babylonish  inhabitants  of  Galilee  and  the  tran^ordanie 

exile'  demands  speoial  attention,  from  the  Gilead  (2  Kings  xv.  27 — 2»;    comp.  Isa^ 

qpaee  and  importance  which  it  oocnpies  in  ix.  1).      This  deportation  is  in  1  GhrcMu 

the  history  and  annals  of  die  nation.    To  ▼.  26, 26,  thus  deseribed  with  its  causes :  — 

this,  in  oottseqnenoe,  we  shsU,  alter  the  pre-  'And  they  tranagtessed  against  the  God  of 

eeding  sketeh,  eonfine  our  attention.  their  fathers,  and  went  a  whoring  after  tike 

It  was  one  of  the  means  whieh  the  great  gods  of  the  people  of  the  iand,  whom  God 

Eastern  monarchies  made  use  of,  in  order  destroyed  before   tbcm ;    and  the  God  of 

to  retain  their  power  over  vanquished  na-  Israel  stirred  up  the   spirit  of  Pol,  king 

tions,  to  transport  the  most  important  part  of  Assyria,  and  of  Tilgi^-pilneser,  king  of 

of  the  populatictt  ef  those  nations  into  Assyria;  and  he  earned  them  away,  even 

their  ancestral  dominions.    By  this  meana  the  Benbenites  and  the  Gadltes,  and  the 

the  despots  effeetoaUy  unstrung  arms  that  hatf-tribe  of  Manasseh;  and  brought  them 

might  have  atruek  for  liberty  in  their  natlva  unto  Halah,  and  Habor,  and  Hsra,  and  to 

land,  seemed  their  ooaquesta  permanency,  the  river  Goaan^  nnto  tins  di^.'       This 

and  breni^t  into  their  own  eountry  new  eapturs  of  the  Israelites  ought  to  have  been 

blood,  vigour,  and  akilL    A  oonesponding  a  warning  to  Judah,  and  generally  to  the 

plan  was  to  traaq^ast  from  the  spofei  on  Hebrew  raoe.    Small  as  was  their  territory, 

which  the  subjeotod  multitudes  were  settled,  and  situated  as  they  were  near  die  powetAil 

sul^eete  of  their  own,  who,  being  conveyed  govemmento  of  Syrian  Bamaacus,  Assyria, 

to  ths  newly-asquired  j^aees,  might  relieve  and  Egypt,  they  ought  to  have  fostered  every 

the  dominioBS  of  the  conqueror  of  useless  means  of  nnton,  in  osder  to  withstand  their 

and  troublesome  sulgeets,  while  they  gave  foreign  enemies.    Tet  were  die  two  king- 

him  aid  in  holdiDg  possession  of  his  new  dome  into  whieh  the  Hebrew  eommonweaUk 

acquirements.    A  sti^dbig  instance  of  this  was  divided,  bitterly  hostile  one  to  another, 

praetioe  ie  found  in  the  deportation  of  por-  Accordingly  they  weakened  eaeh  odier  by 

dons  of  Israel  and  Judah  into  captivity  at  mutual  attacks,  and  so  prepared  themselves 

Babylon.      Other  iostanoes  oocur  in  the  for  falling  a  prey  to  the  headien.    Imme- 

dme  of  the  Persian  monarohy,  whoa  the  diately  after  the  d^rtation  of  the  northern 

practice  became  oommon.    The  student  of  and  eastern  IsrasUtes,  Ahax,  being  assailed 

Oriental  history  frequendy  meeto  with  oolo-  by  lerael  and  Damaseus,  scragfat  dis  aid  of 

nies  thus  transplanted  from  their  homes  in  Aasyna^  to  whose  king,  Ti^ath  Pileser,  who 

Africa  or  Europe.    Heerea  (Ideen,  L  40&)  had  already  vanquished  the  ten  tribes,  he 

gives  it  as  his  opinion,  that  the  Egyptisn  sent  a  large  present;  induced  by  which,  that 

colony,   the  Casluohim,  which    Hsrodotns  monarch  subdued  Bamaacus,  and  carried  the 

places  at  Colchis,  owed   their    settlement  chiefefite  oitisens  captive  to  Kir.    Hedius 

there  to  a  transplantation,  perhaps  by  Nebn-  paved  the  way  for  universel  dominion  in 

chadneaaar,  or  some  Asiatic  despot  who  in-  Western  Asia^    His  smecessor  was  not  slow 

vaded  Egypt      After  the    subgugation  of  in  profiting  by  theae  preparadims.    Hoshsa, 

Egypt  by  Gambyses,  a  colony  of  six  thon-  king  of  Ssmaria,  penetrating  die  plans  of 

sand  Egyptians  were  transported  to  Stisa.  the  Assyrian  monavchs,  omitted  to  pay  the 

If  the  calamity  foU  on  islanders,  a  species  usual  tribute,  and,  thna  revolting,  applied  to 


of  man-hunt,  designated  on  die  part  of  the  Egypt  for  assistsnes.    On  this,  Shalmaneser 

Greeks  by  a  word  lAieh  signifies  to  fish  invuded  his  tertitories,  whieh  he  subdued, 

with  a  drag  net,  was  set  on  foot,  by  whieh  oairying  the  king  himself  into  captivity.    It 

a  line  of  teoops  swept  the  islsnd  fnm  one  requied  a  period  of  three  years  to  overeome 

side  to  another,  driviDg  before  them  every  the  capital^  and  bring  the  entire  land  under 

thing  in  huiMA  form,  and  leaving  behmd  the  Assyrian  yoke*     Thia,  however,  being 

diemawUdemess.  <Itis,'saysMontssqnien,  eireoted,  there  was  (722,  AUI.)  another  de- 

'  a  peculiarity  of  despotism  to  hew  down  the  portation  of  the  people;  whose  place  was 

trse  in  order  to  enjoy  the  fruit'    The  ordi-  supplied  by  ootoniate  firom  Bal^lon  and 

nary  abode  to  which  these  unhappy  eiqitives  other  places  (2  Kings  zvii.  6 ;  xviii.  9,  sr^.)- 

were  taken,  were  the  islands  in  the  Persian  Judah  now  oflbrod  a  less  formidable  lesis- 

Gulf  and  the  Indian  Ocean;  which  appear  tance.    Yet^  as  ite  rdigious  corruption  was 

to  havs  been  chosen  in  order  to  defeat  efforts  not  so  great  as  that  of  Samaria,  it  did  not 

that  had  often  proved  suocessfrd,  mads  on  foil  without  »  strugc^.      Hezekish,  being 

the  part  of  ezfles  to  return  to  their  lofsd  attacked  by  Sennacherib,  king  ef  Assyria, 

native  lend.  (718,  A.G.)i,  obtained  a  reprieve  by  becoming 

These  remarks  are  confirmatory  of  the  tributary,  and  paying  a  large  ransom.    This 

general  historic  troth  of  die  narrative  we  are  course  obtained  no  moie  than  a  suspension 


CAP  288  CAP 

of  hostilities  for  three  yesis;  at  the  end  of  ia  that  flourishing  empire,  and  might  be  glad 

which,  another  attack  was   made;  which  of  an  opportunity  to  exert  their  talents  nnder 

ended  in  the  complete  disoomfltore  of  the  the  eye  of  its  princes,  and  even  in  the  court 

Assyrians  under  Sennacherib,  but  only  in  of  its  monarch.     We  do  not,  therefore,  eon- 

oonsequence  of  a  diTine  inteiposition.    An  cur  with  Winer,  in  thinking  it  an  objection 

iigndicioos  act  of  Hezekiah,  in  displaying  to  the  book  of  Daniel,  that  it  makes  youths 

before  the  messengers,  sent  by  Berodach-  of  family  to  have  been  in  Babylon  before  ^e 

baladan  to  inquire  after  his  health,  the  great  third  year  of  Jehoiakim  (Dan.  L  1 ;  comp. 

riches  which  he  had  amassed,  served  to  keep  Jer.  zlvi.  2).    It  is  very  dear,  that  for  a  long 

alive  in  Assyria  the  desire  to  become  sole  time  the  influence  of  Assyria  on  Palestine 

masters  of  tbe  entire  western  coast  With  this  had  been  very  great,  which  would  naturally 

▼lew,  Nebuchadnezzar  (607,  A.C.)  subdued  attract  eastwaids  some  of  the  more  enter- 

Jehoiakim  ;    who,  after  three  years'   sub-  prising  of  the  Jews. 

jection,  revolted;    when  he  was  beset  by         The  Babylonish  c^tivity  began  in  the 

many  foes  at  onoe,  *  bands  of  the  Chaldees,  year  099,  A.C.    Cyrus,  in  the  first  year  of 

and  bands  of  the  Syrians,  snd  bands  of  the  his  reign  (536,  A.C.),  gave  the  Jews  peimis- 

Moabites,   and  bands  of  the  ehildren  of  sion  to  return,  which,  however,  it  took  the 

Ammon'  (d  Kings  xziv.  1,  2);   till,  being  datives    some    time  to  profit  by  in  foil 

weakened  by  his  enemies,  and  still  more  by  (Ezra  vii.).    But  the  captivity  may  well  be 

his  own  misdeeds,  he  fell  (599,  A.C.)  before  said  to  have  commenced  at  the  time  that 

Nebuchadnezzar,  who  earned  away  *  all  Jeru-  Nebuchadnezzar  made  J  ehoiakim  his  vassal, 

salem,   and  all  the  prinoes,  and  all  the  607  or  606,  A.G.    This  would  make  the  pe- 

migh^  men  of  valour,  ten  thousand  cap-  rtod   of  captivity  to  be  seventy  years,  in 

txves ;  snd  all  the  craftsmen  and  smiths :  accordance  with  the  Scriptural  predictions 

none  remained  save  the  poorest  people  of  the  (Jer.  zxv.  11 ;  zzix.  10.  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  21. 


Isod;  sndhe  oaniedawayJehoiachin  toBa-  Zech.  1.  12;   viL  5).    The  only  difficulty 
bylon,  snd  the  king's  mother,  snd  the  king's  that  can  arise  here,  comes  firom  confounding 
wives,  and  his  officers,  and  the  mighty  of  the  captivity  and  exile.    It  is  of  the  former  that 
land ;  and  all  the  men  of  might,  seven  thou-  the  passages  to  which  we  have   referred 
sand;  and  craftsmen  and  smiths,  a  thousand,  speak.     Exile   is  a  comparatively  modem 
all  strong  snd  apt  for  war'  (2  Kings  xxiv.  14,  term ;  and  the  forcible  deportation  began 
9eq.    Jer.  xxviL  20).    The  Assyrian,  how-  some  years  after  die  subjugation  of  the  go- 
ever,  does  not  appear  to  have  thou|^t  things  vemment  snd  nation, 
ripe  for  the  complete  extermination  of  the  Bitter  (Erdkunde,  x.  248,  9eq.)t  regard- 
Jewish  authority;  lor  he  setZedekiah  on  the  ing  the  term  Hara,  found  only  in  1  Chron. 
throne  of  JndiJi,  expecting  that  a  creature  v.  26,  as  a  gloss,  finds  in  Assyria  Prox>er,  or 
of  his  own  would  prove  obedient    The  Assyria  in  the  nsrrow  sense  of  the  term,  the 
Jewish  monarch  seized  die  first  opportunity  severalplacesmeutionedin  Scripture,  as  diose 
to  rebel ;  on  which  Nebuchadnezzar  came  to  which  the  captives  were  trsnsported.   The 
(090,  A.C.)   sgsinst  Jerusalem,  which  he  river  Habor  he  holds  to  be  the  Chabur  or 
Matured.    *  They  slew  the  sons  of  Zedekiah  Chaboras ;    Halah  is  the  same  as  Galah 
before  his  eyes,   and  put  out  the  eyes  of  (Oen.  x.  11),  or  Alaunis,  lying  on  the  Cha- 
Zedekiah,  and  bound  him  with  fetters  of  boras.    Oosan  appears  in  the  province  Gan- 
brass,  and  carried  him  to  Babylon.'    In  the  zanitis,  now  Kanschsn,  which  the  Chaboras 
nineteenth  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Nebu-  flows  through.    The  Isndofthe  Jewish  exile, 
zar-adan,  captain  of  the  Assyrians,  osme  to  then,  we  are  to  look  for  in  Assyria  Premier, 
reap  the  full  harvest ;  when  having  burnt  together  with  the  cities  of  the  Medes,  as  far 
down  the  palace  of  the  king,  with  the  man-  as  Ispahan  and  Susa.    Near  the  same  river 
sions  of  the  nobility,  as  well  as  levelled  the  Chaboras,  Chebar  (Esek.  x.  15,  22),  was  it 
walls,  snd  made  spoil  of  the  saered  uten-  that  the  prophet  Ezekiel  dwelt     Indeed, 
sils,  he  carried  away  the  chief  people,  leav-  Ezekiel  expressly  says  that  he  was  a  watch- 
ing only  the  po<nr  c^  die  land,  vine-dressers  man  oyer  Israel  by  the  river  Chebar  (i.  1, 8) : 
and   husbandmen    (2  Kings   xxv. ;     Isa.  —  *  Then  I  came  to  them  of  the  capdvity  at 
xzxix.).    From  Jer.  lii.  28,  seq,  it  appesrs  Tel-sbib,  that  dwelt  by  the  river  of  Chebar; 
that   Nebuchadnezzar    earned    into    effect  and  I  sat  where  they  sat,  and  remained  there 
three  deportations,  the  first  in  the  seventh  astonished  smong  them  seven  days '  (iii.  1&, 
year  of  hie  reign ;  the  second,  in  the  eig^-  17).    Every  thing  concurs  to  show,  that  the 
teenth;   and  the  third,  in  the  three  and  several   deporutions,   both   of  Israel   snd 
twentieth.    The  entire  number  of  capdves  Judah,  conveyed  the  captives  into  the  same 
wss  four  thonssnd  six  hundred.     Indeed,  regions  of  Mesopotamia  and  the  neighbour- 
there  can  be  litde  doubt,  that  the  predomi-  ing  lands.    Thence,  on  die  other  side,  were 
nance  which  Assyria  had  gained  over  Pales-  colonists  transported  into  Palestine,  where 
tine  had  long  caused  a  current  of  populadon  they  setded  (2  Kings  xvii.  24).    Among  the 
to  flow  from  the  latter  to  the  former,  psrticu-  places  (Babel,  Ara,  and  Hamadi),  whence- 
larly  of  young  men  of  enterprise  and  good  the  new  population  was  taken,  was    one 
family,  who  would  seek  to  make  their  way  named  Cutha,  from  which  the  mixed  popu- 


CAP 


289 


CAP 


lation  that  grew  up  in  Samaria  were  at  a 
later  period  reproachfiilly  termed  Cnthaites. 

It  was  not  the  entire  people  that  was  car- 
ried into  exile,  hut  the  princes,  the  nobles, 
the  men  of  war,  and  of  skill ;  all  who,  in  a 
distant  land,  could  render  good  service,  or 
might  be  dangerons  if  left  at  home.  In  the 
north,  and  especially  in  Samaria,  the  depor- 
tation seems  to  have  been  more  sweeping ; 
and  here  only  did  a  degenerate  race  arise  by 
intermixture  of  Israelites  with  Babylonians. 
A  remnant,  even  after  the  great  deportation, 
was  left  behind  on  the  land  of  Jadah,  over 
whom  Nebuchadnezzar  made  Gedaliah  ruler. 
Around  him  gathered  a  number  of  captains 
with  their  men,  who  proposed  to  dwell  in 
the  land  as  tributaries  to  Babylon.  They 
were,  however,  set  upon  by  Islunae]  of  the 
royal  seed,  and  dispined ;  their  ruler  being 
slain.  The  prospect  thus  created  of  intes- 
tine war,  fomented  probably  by  the  great 
enemy,  occasioned  mueh  alarm,  so  that  *  all 
the  people,  both  small  and  great,  and  the 
captains  of  the  armies,  arose  and  came  to 
Egypt ;  for  they  were  afraid  of  the  Chaldees ' 
(2  Kings  XXV.  22,  aeq.). 

The  common  misfortune  which  ilell  on  them 
from  without,  had  the  effect  of  causing  Judah 
and  Israel  to  abate  their  long-cherished  ani- 
mosities. Israel  turned  with  hope  to  Judah, 
and  repaired  to  Jerusalem  for  the  celebration 
of  her  periodical  festivities.  Much  more 
would  their  common  sufferings  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ohabur  conduce  to  the  formation,  be- 
tween the  two,  of  a  real  inward  unity.  This 
was  the  great  purpose  of  Jehovah ;  and  thus 
we  find  Uie  prophet  speaking  of  the  happy 
alliance  which  should  ensue :  —  'In  those 
days,  saith  Jehovah,  the  children  of  Israel 
shall  come,  they  and  the  children  of  Judah 
together,  g^ing  and  weeping ;  they  shall  go, 
and  seek  Jehovah  their  God ;  they  shall  ask 
their  way  to  Zion  with  their  faces  thither- 
ward,-^Come,  and  let  us  join  ourselves  to  Je- 
hovah, in  a  perpetual  eovenaut  that  shall  not 
be  forgotten'  (Jer.  1.  4,  5, 17—20).  Their 
tyrants  were  to  be  punished,  themselves  re- 
stored, and  the  two  nations  (represented  by 
two  sticks,  Ezek.  xxxvii.  16, 17)  were  to  be 
made  one.  '  I  will  make  Uiem  one  nation 
in  the  land  upon  the  mountains  of  Israel, 
and  one  king  shall  be  king  to  them  aU ;  and 
they  shall  be  no  more  two  nations,  neither 
shiUl  they  be  divided  into  two  kingdoms  any 
more  at  all '  (Ezek.  xzxviL  21,  22).  The 
united  return  thus  promised  actually  took 
place ;  when,  not  long  after  the  overthrow 
of  Babylon,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Chsl- 
dsan  kingdom,  the  proclamation  of  Cyrus 
(586,  A.C.)  set  them  at  liberty,  to  return 
into  the  land  of  their  fathers,  and  to  rebuild 
their  national  temple  (Ezra  i.  1).  The  per- 
mission was  given,  not  to  Israel  or  to  Judah, 
but  to  the  whole  people.  The  first  return 
under  Zembbabel  comprised,  according  to 
the  list,  fifty  thousand  Jndaites  and  Israel- 


ites ;  no  difference  was  made :  indeed  many 
had  already  lost  the  knowledge  of '  their  fa- 
ther's house'  (Ezra  ii.  59).  All  division 
was  now  removed.  Both  those  who  returned, 
and  those  who  remained,  were  one.  Tlie 
Hebrew  unity  was  restored. 

It  may,  indeed,  be  doubted  whether  the 
distinction  of  ten  tribes  had  not  been  lost 
before  this  return,  during  the  confusion  and 
national  calamities  consequent  on  the  estab- 
lishment and  maintenance  of  the  separated 
and  idolatrous  kingdom  of  Israel.  If  so, 
this  accounts  for  a  fact  which,  however,  is 
sufficiently  explained  on  other  grounds,  that 
the  fathers  of  the  two  tribes,  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin, are  represented  as  being  foremost  to 
advise  the  captives  to  avail  Aemselves  of  the 
act  of  royal  grace,  proclaimed  by  Gyrus  (Ezra 
1.  5).  Josephus,  indeed,  speaks  of  the  ten 
tribes  as  existing  in  his  day,  in  these  words: 
— '  The  whole  body  of  the  people  of  the  Is- 
raelites remained  in  the  country;  so  that 
there  are  but  two  tribes  in  Asia  (Minor)  and 
Europe  subject  to  the  Romans,  while  the 
ten  tribes  are  beyond  Euphrates,  till  now 
endless  myriads,  and  not  able  to  be  known 
by  number '  (Antiq.  xi.  5.  2).  But  the  aim 
of  the  passage,  to  say  nothing  of  its  obvi- 
ous exaggerations,  is  too  clearly  to  glorify 
his  own  nation  to  allow  us  to  regard  it  as 
possessed  of  historical  value.  The  aath  ority 
of  James  (L  1),  which  recognises  the  disper- 
sion as  consisting  of  individuals,  not  of  ten 
but  twelve  tribes,  that  is,  of  the  entire  He* 
brew  race,  is  sufficient  to  determine  the  fact. 

A  second  return  home  took  place  eighty 
years  later  (458,  A.G.),  under  Ezra,  when  we 
find  the  people  under  one  name :  —  'I  ( Ar- 
taxerxes)  make  a  decree,  that  all  they  of  the 
people  of  Israel,  and  his  priests  and  Levites, 
in  my  realm,  which  are  minded  of  their  own 
tree  will  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem,  go  with  thee ' 
(Ezra  vii.  13).  Some  twelve  years  after  this 
event,  Nehemiah  returned  to  Palestine  by 
permission  of  the  Persian  king,  and  found 
the  people  united  in  the  luid,  and  in  the 
temple-worship.  Many,  however,  had  pre- 
ferred to  remain  on  the  Euphrates.  The 
free  permission  which  &eir  nation  had  re- 
ceived to  return  home  had  produced  an 
essential  change  in  their  feelings,  as  well  as 
their  condition.  They  were  no  longer  cap- 
tives. Set  at  liberty,  they  were  free  to  follow 
their  inclinations  as  to  the  place  of  their 
abode.  A  residence  of  some  hundred  years 
in  Mesopotamia  had  gained  for  them  there  a 
new  home.  They  were  free  subjects  of  a  great 
monarchy,  and  united  in  brotherly  good  will, 
one  with  another  —  all  Hebrews,  all  children 
of  one  Israel,  as  in  the  best  times  of  old. 
Adversity  had  closed  the  breach  which  pro- 
sperity had  caused.  The  name  and  the  dis- 
tinction of  the  ten  tribes  was  lost  Whence 
we  may  see  how  futile  any  attempt  must  be 
to  discover  what  are  termed  'the  lost  ten 
tribes  of  Israel.'    Such  ten  tribes  had  no 

T 


CAP                      290  CAP 

existence.    The  only  way  in  which  they  wera  Whererer  they  went,  they  einrled 
lost,  was  in  becoming  mingled  with  their  a  feeling  whioh  natnnlly  made  them  jmMW* 
brethren  in  general.    Israelites,  it  is  tme,  lytimg.     They  poeaaaaed,  aa  they  baUeved, 
remained  behind  in  Assyria  and  Persia,  but  the  true  religion, — a  rdigion  divine  in  iia 
neither  ten  tribes  nor  any  other  number.  Ae^  origia,  and  destined  to  be  oniTenaL    The 
cordingly,  when  the  publication  of  the  goa-  Greek  and  the  Bemaa,  in  their  leligioiie 
pel,  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  brings  Ate  impartiality,  eonld    aeairaely   be   otheiwiae 
Jewish  people  (under  whieh  name  the  two  than  indiffuent  aa  to  the  claime  of  Tarioiia 
parties  of  Judah  and  Israel  were  known  after  religione ;  all  of  which  dkej  legaided  aa 
the  exile)  in  detail  and  prominence  before  eqoally  true  or  equally  false.    But  Am  Jew, 
our  sight,  we  find  no  distinction  of  ten  tribea  oonyineed  that  God  had  apofcen  to  hia  fiOhera 
as  contradistinguished  from  the  otiier  two.  by  the  propheta^  and  given  piomjae  of  the 
How  much  less  can  there  have  been  valid  nniveraal  prevalenee  of  hia  religion,  eonld 
reason  for  this  distinction,  aa   aa  existent  not  help  employing  hia  leeomeeeloptoniote 
reality,  in  the  fifth  century  (A.D.),  when  the  spread  of  hia  faith.    Aoecodinglj,  we  find 
Jerome  speaks  of  such  ten  tribes  aa  being  an  entire  kingdom  eonverted  to  Judaism, 
then  in  Persian  bondage !  under  the  influenoe  of  die  disperaed  Jewa  in 
While,  however,  we  thua  K>)eet  the  idea  of  Adiabene^  who  seem  to  have  g^eied  around 
there  being  ten  lost  tribes  of  Israel  in  some  tiie  aidea  of  Mount  Ararat  witii  peeoliar  vene- 
yet  unascertained  part  of  the  world  (Soutiiem  ration,  and  are  said  to  have  liired  there  in  the 
Arabia,  Malabar,  China,  Turkestan,  Caahmir,  first  centory  of  our  eta,  to  the  nomber  of  four 
North  America,  have  eaoh  had  theoriata  to  thousand,  under  three  Babbia  aa  their  preai-^ 
propound  their  claims),  yet  Jewa,  by  means  denta.    There  too,  aa  weU  aa  at  Edeaaa,  they 
of  tiie  Babylonish  captiTity,  were  dispersed  sowed  seeda  whieh  apiang  up  en  the  preadi' 
tiirough  a  large  portion  of   the   Eastern  ing  of  tiie  gospel,  and  foiined  the  Synaa 
world ;  and  tiiua  a  preparation  waa  divinely  church.     Indeed,  the  New  TeataoMal;  ea- 
made  for  the  advent  of  the  Mesaiah.     In  peeially  in  the  Aeta  of  the  Apoellea,  makea 
Agrippa*s  speech,  made  to  deter  the  Palea-  it  evident  that  sueoeasftil  proselytiaBi  had 
tinian  Jews  firom  resisting  the  Boman  arma  been  earned  forward  by  the  diepenionin  ibe 
(Joseph.  Jew.  War,  ii.  16. 4),  it  appears  that  a  great  centres  of  civilisation, 
great  body  of  the  exiles  then  dwelt  beyond  the  The  oondition  of  tiie  Jewa  in  the  Baby- 
Euphrates,  in  Adiabene.    And  so  in  the  days  loniah   captivity  waa  leas  oppreaaive   than 
of  the    apostles,  we  find  Jews    scattered  might  at  firat  be  imagined.    With  affeetiona, 
throughout  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  indeed,  so  strong  and  ardent  sa  were  theirs, 
as  well  as  the  more  eastern  paita  in  Selencia  they  must  have  avffired  grieroualy  under  the 
or  ancient  Babylon ;  also  in  Egypt,  in  Qrcece,  loea  of  their  hoasea  and  their  tem^.    Their 
Bome ;  in  Syria  too,  wheie  they  had  lived  feelings  are  beautifully  recorded  in  aoaie  of 
as  subjects  of  the  SdeucidsB,  enjoying  equal  tiie    compoeiticma  which   bear   the 


rights  with  the  Greeks.     Still  a  point  of  of  Paalma  (exx.  exxiii.  oxxvi.  exxzviL) ;  in 

union  was  preserved.    The  nation  was  not  others  we  find  pourtrayed  the  gladneea  whieh 

destroyed,  though  its  children  were  scattered  they  felt  at  being  restored  to  national  unity, 

abroad.    Jerusalem,  to  the  temple  at  i^iieh  and  the  land  of   their    aneeatoca    (exxii. 

Jews  on  sU  sides  sent  fheir  tribute,  was  re-  cxxxiiL).    But  there  does  not  appear  to 

garded  as  the  common  mother,  and  the  eom-  have  been  any  aevere  tyranny  exereiaed  over 

mon  hope.    Dispersed  aa  they  vrers,  they  the  M^vea.    They  were  not  anbiect  to  hard 

wrought  powerftiUy,  under  the  goidanee  of  bondage  and  exhaoating  labour,  aa  tiieir  an- 

divine  wisdom,  to  prepare  the  p<rfytheistio  eeatora  had  been  in  Egypt    They  aeem  to 

world  for  monotheism ;  while  aleo,  by  their  have  generally  ei^|oyed  tiie  chief  rif^kla  of 

never-fkiling  and  warmly  cheriahed  h<^  of  eitiiena,  being  able  to  acquire  landod  and 

a  great  Deliverer,  who  should  bring  them  all  other  property ;  while  the  directiona  of  tiieir 

together  in  the  land  of  tiieb  fitthera,  end  spiritual  guidea  exhorted  them  to  forvaid  the 

make  them  a  great,  conquering,  and  Irium-  good  of  the  land  whieh  had  given  them  a 

phant  people,  they  led  all  nations,  with  more  home.    A  striking  paaaage  to  titia  eflbet  may 

or  less  dim  perceptions,  to  see  and  desire  be  foimd  in  Jer.  xxiz.  4—7.    At  tim  same 

'  the  day  of  Christ'    As  time  went  on,  the  time,  howeyer,  that  the  Jewa  irera  adviaed  by 

dispersion  became  wider.    It  moat  be  aMed,  their  teaehaa,  and  peimitled  by  tiie  etats,  to 

that  the  admixture  of  impure  foreign  ele  make  aoquiaitioiia^  it  waa  not  witik  a  view 

ments  became  also  greater  and  more  iqjuri  to  a  pennanent  aettlement  in  tiieae  foreign 

ous.    From  the  Euphrates  and  the  T^ria,  regions,  but  only  on  the  ground  that  the  ea^ 

the  Jews  spread  eastward  among  the  Medea,  tivity  would  be  of  long  duration  (28).    The 

Parthians,  and  others,  being  found  in  great  extent  to  which  property  waa  obtained,  and 

nnmbers  in  the  parts  of  Mesopotamia  iHiere  the  nation  increaaed  in  the  enjoyment  of  com* 

commerce  preyiuled,  in  which  there,  and  in  paratiye  ease  and  prosperity,  may  be  leaned 

Western  regions  of  the  world,  they  were  by  referring  to  the  aoeonnta  left  ua  of  the 

specially  engaged,  and  by  the  attractions  of  resoureee  wliioh  the  eenmms  of  setmniBg 

which  tiieir  dispersion  was  much  ^fomoted.  exiles  brought  back  home  (Eara  L  iL  iii 


CAR                      291  CAR 

liL  viii.) ;  eome  portion  of  vlueh»  however,  is  the  reason  some  call  them  apyroti'  (free 

was  the  result  of  free-will  offerings  made  by  fi^m  fire).     In  the  estimation  of  the  an- 

tfae  people  of  the  lands,  which  they  left  in  cients,  the  earbonole  held  the  fifth  place, 

obedience  to  a  eostom  nniyersal  in  Uie  East  namely  after    diamonds,  emeralds,  opals, 

One  eireomstsaoe,  reeorded  in  a  few  words,  and  pearls ;  next  to  it  ranked  the  topaz, 

snffloes  to  show  that  the  Jews  oonld  not  have  Those  of  Ethiopia  were  accounted  the  best, 

had  so  bard  a  lot  to  endare  as  many  other  Among  *  mlgar  eirors/  onoe  held  by  men  of 

eaptives :  —  With  Zembbabel  there  eame  the  highest  cnltnre,  was  this,  that  the  car- 

into  PalestiBe  a  company  of  '  two  hundred  bmiole  gave  out  a  native  hfjkt  from  itself 

singing  men  and  singing  women'    (Exra  withont  reflexion. 

11.66;  comp.  41).    Whence  it  is  clear  that  Two  Hebrew  words  are  rendered  'car- 
the  temple-worship  had  been  r^rodnoed  in  bunde'  in  the  common  version,  I.  Bahrehihf 
Babylon,  in  some  degree  of  its  native  pomp;  which  comes  from  a  root  signifying  to  shine 
and  also  that  a  people  who  had  the  liberty  fruih  like  lightning.    Hence,  the  essential 
and  the  means  to  institute  and  sustain  such  quality  is  a  radiating  and  corruscating  bril- 
a  choir,  must  have  Uved  in  some  security  liancy.    Such  a  quality  is  found  in  tl^  car- 
and  weaL    Several  of  them,  indeed,  rose  buncle,  but  not  in  the  smaragdns  or  erne- 
under  the  Chaldean  dynasty  to  influence  and  raid,  which  is  of   a    clear,  bright  green 
distinction  at  court  (Dan.  i  3 ;  vL  2).    The  colour.    Yet  the  Seventy,  Josephus,  and  the 
nairative  which  bears  the  name  of  Esther,  Vulgate,  give  their  snffirage  in  favour  of  the 
shows  how  high   the  elevation  was  with  latter  (Ezod.  zxviiL  17;  zzzix.  10.    Ezek. 
which  the  nation  was  honoured,  but,  at  the  zzviiL  13).    This  stone  stood  the  last  of  the 
same  time,  how  liable  it  was  to  the  conse-  first  row  of  three  which  went  to  form  the 
qnenoes  of  the  caprice  of  oriental  tyranny,  breast  of  the  Jewish  high  priest 
A  change  Icar  the  better  neoms,  indeed,  to  The  second  word  translated  'carbuncle*  is 
have  tsken  piaoe  not  very  long  after  the  Bkdagh  (Isa.  liv.  12),  which  has  for  its  root- 
cloM  of  the  last  deportation;  for  the  cap-  meaning  the  idea  of  a  bumiug  flame,  and 
tive  king;  Jehoiaehin,  was  released  from  so  in  meaning  approaches  the  former  word, 
prison  by  Evil-Merodach,  treated  with  kind-  The  di&renoe  seems  to  be  this,  that  the 
ness   and  munificence,  and  even    eaalted  former  term  conveys  the  notion  of  flashing 
above  the  pimees  who  foimed  that  monarch's  and  darting  as  the   lightning;  while  the 
eoort    It  is»  indeed,  easylo  see,  that  a  peo-  latter  signifies  the  more  steady,  constant, 
pie  of  so  fine  a  natoral  temperament  as  tbe  and  deep^ooloured  flame  which  rises  from. 
Jews,  and  possessed  of  so  much  knowledge  artificial  fire.    With  this  diversity,  the  two 
and  eulture,  animated  by  very  poweflul  reli-  words  seem  to  have  denoted  two  species  of 
gious    sympatbips,   must  hwre  had  greai  the  oarbunele,  or  the  carbuncle  as  produced 
weight  in  those  sudden  and  estsnsive  social  in  two  different  parts  of  the  earth. 
and  political  changes  to  whieh  eastern  des-  CAECHEMISH,  a  fortified  city,  lying  on 
potisms  have  ever  been  subgeot.    The  poll-  the  river  Euphrates,  subject  to  the  Assyrian 
tieal  consideration  which,  even  without  speci-  power,  and  apparently  of  considerable  mag- 
fie  and  set  efforts,  they  could  not  be  loi^  in  nitude  and  importance  (Isa.  x.  9).    The 
gaining,  would  aet  very  beneficislly  in  miti-  Egyptian  Pharaoh,  Necho,   after   he    had 
gating  theif  social  and  personal  condition.  msde  his  way  through  Palestine  and  across 
We  have  already  said  a  word  or  two  on  the  Syrian  desert,  took   Carchemish   (ctr. 
the  morel  bearing  of  the  bondage  to  whieh  610,  A.C.),  which  he  retained  only  for  some 
Israel  has  been  subjected.     Future  times  two  or  t^e  years;   at  the  end  of  which 
may  sse  that  the  st^ferings  endured  sinoe  period,  Nebuchadnezzar  recovered  the  city, 
tiie  Christian  era  were  no  less  necessary  to  having    defeated    the    Egyptian    monarch 
refine  and  elevate  the  character,  and  prepare  (2  Chron.  zzzv.  20.    Jer.  xlvi.  2).    It  ap- 
his sons  fiar  a  purely  spiritoal  religion,  than  pears  to  be  the  same  place  as  was  at  a  later 
w«  BOW,  In  looking  back  on  the  elbets  pro-  period  named  Oireesium,  which  lay  at  the 
dneed  by  the  Assyrian  exile,  can  deariy  djs-  point  where   the  Chebar  joined  the  Eu- 
eem  how  hi^pi^  its  sofibrings  wrought  to  phrates,    nearly  midway  between  Antioch 
deanse  the  nation  ttom,  idoiiiious  defile-  and  Seleuda. 

monts,  and  bring  them  to  a  final  and  irre-  CABIA,  the  south-western   province  of 

versiMIe  deohdon  in  fovoor  of  Jehovah*  and  Asia  Minor,  lying  between  Lydia  and  Lyeia; 

against  Baal  and  all  aimilsr  vsnitiee.  hUly,  but  well  watered,  yet  not  very  firuitful. 

OAHBUKOI£  is  a  diminutive  form  of  the  Its  inhabitants,  smong  whom  were  Jews 

Latin  csrfre,  a  live  coal, and  denotes  Apreoioas  (1  Mace.  zv.  28),  were  of  a  mixed  race, 

stone,  whieh  Is  of  a  fieiy  ec^ur,  having  the  some  Dorisns,  some  Phoenicians,  some  Bho- 

likeaesa  of  a  burning  coaL  'Among  these  red  dians,  and  gained  their  livelihood  by  sea-, 

gems,  the  mbiesyotherwise  called  carbuncles,'  faring  and   piracy.    At  the    time  of  the 

says  an  old  writer,  '  chaUeage  the  priuaipaU  Jewiidi  prince  Simon,  the  Garians  were  a 

plaee,  and  an  esteemed  richest;  they  have  free  people  under  Boman  protection,  having, 

their  name  inOaeeke  of  the  likeness  mrto  fiie,  before  been  subject  to  Bhodes. 

and  yet  flire  hath  no  power  of  them,  which  CABMEL    (H«   vine   hill),  a  mountain 


CAR  '2 

■bicb  runs  out  ioto  a  promontarj  on  llw 
■oiiibgm  eide  of  the  Bkj  of  Plolemua  (Acre), 
wliich  it  cDOnected  vith  the  hills  of  Oalilee, 
uid  throagh  Ihem  wilh  Lebuum.  It  run* 
oat  into  ths  Ma  in  the  ronn  of  >  hklf-moon, 
baring  lh>  atrearo  Kuhim  flowing  alaog  ita 
north-casHra  side.  It  fbimed  at  flnl  the 
Bonth-weslem  boundarj  of  Aaher,  and  aab- 
asqnentl;  the  limit  belwHH  Oaliles  and  tha 
eoontrr  otTjre.  The  monutaia  oonnata  of 
lime-BtODe.  It  la  well  vatered,  and  vaa 
Terj  froitAil  and  pleaaanL  Ita  amnmit  was 
in  ancient  times  crownsd  with  tnes,  to  that 
poeti  MUig  of  the  eicdlBUiy  of  Carmel,  as 
well  aa  the  ^r;  of  Lebanon  (laa.  xnr.  2). 
Ilenee  the  lored  prineea*  it  told,  '  Thine 
bead  Ii  like  Caimel'  (Caot  Til.  6).  It 
afforded  fine  paatore  gioand*  (Jar.  L  19. 
Nahnm  L  4.  laa.  zniii.  9.  Amoa  L  2). 
Whence  Jerome  apeaka  of  it  aa  in  hia  time 
•  abonnding  In  jajfol  paslnrea,  uid  thinklj 
■el  with  ollTe-lieei,  ahrnba,  and  Tinea.'  II 
had,  upeoiall;  on  the  wealem  aide,  many 
caTM  and  grottoes,  of  which  as  manj  aa 
two  thooaand  hare  been  eonnted,  which,  for 
Ihe  moat  part,  haiing  nanow  enlraiiDBa, 
with  Tarioaa  windings,  affordad  a  dsainbla 
tefags  for  fogitiTet  (Amoa  ii.  S.  1  Kings 
iTiii.  ig,  Kt}.  2  Xing*  a  3ft;  ir.  30). 
Canne]  ia  famoas  for  Ihe  eitraordinarj  eon- 
leet  which  Elijah  bad  here  with  the  priaals 
of  Baal,  wheu  be  bnilt  an  allai  of  twelre 
■lonea  after  the  nnmber  of  the  twelTe  lrib«i 
<lKinga  iriiL).  The  phllaaopher  P^Ih*' 
goras  ia  also  aaid  to  hsTS  tarried  on  thia 
mountain  a  long  tima  after  hii  tetnm 
tfoni  £gTPt-  From  Caimel  is  deriTed  the 
name  of  a  religious  order,  Ihe  Cannalllea, 
founded  in  Ihe  twelfth  oantorj  by  MM  Beil- 


CanDel,  as  nan  from  Naiareih, 
fine  object,  eilending  tn  oat  into  Ihe  sea, 
and  dipping  hie  feet  in  the  walere.  The 
highest  part  of  the  ridge  is  lowaide  the 
south.    Thence  it  dtdlnes  gradually  north- 


J2  C  A  It 

wards,  nntj)  at  the  oonTant,  acoordtng  let 
Schubert,  it  has  an  elevation  of  only  S83 
Paiiaian  teet  above  the  adjacent  aea.  Ths 
aame  Iraieller  estimatea  the  highsal  poini  at 
1200  feet     Towards  the  aoalh-eaat,  Caimel 

by  the  broad  range  of  low  wooded  hilla 
aeparaiing  ths  great  plain  of  the  mora 
aonthem  ooast  from  that  of  Eadiaelon.  Hen 
large  walnut-trees  preraiL  The  monntsin 
itaelf.  bowerer,  no  longer  exhibita  the  fealmes 
of  natoral  beinty  which  it  preasnted  in  Scrip- 
tnial  times. 

'  The  lop  and  aidea  of  Cannel  are,' s^s  Lord 
Lindaay, '  ooTered  with  ahmbs  and  flowers, 
bnt  qnile  bare  of  treea  ;  a  few  oUves  flourish 
at  ita  foot  and  on  Ihe  lomat  alope.  "  Tba 
eicellenoy  of  Caimel'  ia  indeed  departed' 
(Leuen,  a  78). 

The  Carmelite  eonvent,  aitoated  about 
half-way  np  the  loftiest  iWge  of  Honnt  Car- 
mel, ia  Tery  haadaome.  Ii  baa  a  ohnicb, 
aaid  lo  be  built  over  the  caTe  in  whioh 
El^ah  dwelt  In  a  aide  ohspel,  Lord  Lind- 
say aaw  a  beautiful  wooden  atalne  of  Elgab 
killing  one  of  the  prophets  of  Baal. 

The  view  of  ths  Meditsiranean,  from  the 
roof  of  Ihe  oonTonl,  presents  a  grand  boand- 
less  expanse,  which  la,  kowerer,  fatiguing 
trom  its  lifeleas  onifoimity.  Ilie  bay  ot 
Acre  olTera  a  noble  object  Aon  lies  four 
bonn'  dielanee  tmn  Carmel.  Lindaay  went 
to  it  orei  Ihe  beach,  on  whioh  he  fOond  wncke 
ot  Teasels  of  oonsiderable  aiie  almoat  buried 
in  the  sand.  He  also  fordsd  Ihe  Kiabon,  in 
sboDt  half  a  doaan  steps,  which  hss  hare 
lost  all  its  beauty. 

Lord  Lindaay  reached  Carmel  (in  U^) 
by  a  louts  in  a  north-weat  direction  bam 
Samaria.  >  The  ooimtry,'  be  aaya,  '  ia  ftdl 
ot  Tillages,  weU  onltivalsd,  and  qnile  beau- 
tifbl.  W*  baited  at  noon  in  a  groTa  of 
noble  olivea,  swarming  with  little  green 
leaf-boppen,  if  I  may  call  them  so,  abaped 
like  froga,  tha  merriest  little  beings  ima,- 
ginable.  We  proceeded  along  a  beantitu) 
and  lery  eitensiTe  plain,  the  prolongation, 
I  lake  It  of  Uie  Talc  of  8haiou,  the  scenery 
reminding  us  of  Kent  Nothing  conld  ex- 
eeed  the  riobness  of  Ihe  soil  or  ihe  baaatf 
of  ita  prodnee,  eres  ot  the  thiatlea,  wi^ 
which  erery  fallow  and  nnonltiTated  field 
was  OTSTgrown,  of  the  dsepeat  blue  and  most 
Inxnriant  growth,  often  oTertopping  my  head 
on  horaebaek;  dear  old  Scotland  can  boast 
of  none  so  beantlftil.  Pieaenlly  leaving  the 
plain,  wa  lode  for  two  boan  thioa|^  a 
range  of  sloping  hills  ooTeied  with  beauti- 
fnl  Tslcoidia,  or  erei^reen  oaks  —  regnlar 
En^isb  park  aoenary ;  (hen  the  trees  ceas- 
ing thioojli  a  conlinned  expanse  of  sloping 
downs,  tOI  we  reached  the  aonlhein  pio- 
longadona  of  Carmel,  and  Iha  banks  of 
rlTai,  the  liTcr  Slshon;' 
e  hills  on  both  sides  wars 
afkin  MTsted  with  Tslonidis  and  prioklj  oaka. 


CAR 


293 


CAR 


The  road  ran  close  under  Mount  Carmel, 
along  the  banks  of  the  Kishon — a  rooky 
path  winding  through  oleanders  in  ftill 
bloom,  reeds  and  wild  flowers  of  evezy  hue ; 
the  birds  singing  sweetly,  and  wood-pigeona 
cooing,  and  the  temperature  as  fresh  and 
mild  as  May  in  England/ 

The  view  of  Carmel  and  its  at^aoent  coun- 
try, as  seen  from  the  sea,  is  thus  described 
by  Bartlett  in  the  Introduction  (p.  6)  to  his 
*  Walks  about  Jerusalem : '  — 

*  The  day  wore  away  as  we  reached  the 
shores  of  Galilee,  which  burst  upon  us  Just 
beyond    a   bold    promontory,  called  "  the 
White  Cape,"  from  the  colour  of  its  cliffs. 
Here  the  hills  of  Nazareth  and  Zafed,  Mount 
Carmel,  projecting  its  long  range  into  the 
■ea,  and  a  wide  extent  of  plain,  came  into 
sight ;  a  beautiful,  but  lifeless  expanse.   We 
dwelt  on  this  sacred  scenery,  as  it  unfolded, 
with  deep  interest    Among  these  hills  was 
spent  all  the  youth  of  Jesus:  these  valleys 
and  plains  must  have  witnessed  his  earliest 
wanderings.    Different  are  the  associations 
which  arise,  as  &e  white  walls  of  St.  John 
of  Acre  are  seen  rising  out  of  the  sea,  on 
their  rooky  reef.     Here  is  the  Mount  of 
Bichard,  the  plain  where  the  mailed  host  of 
crusaders  encamped,  and  which  resounded 
with  the  tramp  of  their  war-horses.     Scene 
upon  scene  arises  before  the  mind,  of  bloody 
siege  by  land  and  sea.    At  that  angle  stood 
Napoleon,  directing,  in  vain,  assault  upon 
assault,  foiled  by  the  chivalry  of  the  British 
hero.     In  their  turn,  the  British  have  left 
sad  traces  upon  the  crumbling  walls.     Not 
a  solitary  figure  was  seen  on  their  ramparts, 
as  we  passed.    Tears  ago  we  stood  on  Mount 
Carmel,  and  asked  ourselves,  as  we  looked 
upon  this  *'  Key  of  the  £asV'  whether  her 
fill  of  blood  was  yet  measured-.  —  the  last 
"pacification"   of  the  East  was  a  fearful 
answer.    We  may  repeat  the  question,  and 
time  will  probably  bring  fordi  a  similar 
reply ;  for,  when  the  East  becomes  the  prize 
of  contending  nations.  Acre  cannot  fail  of 
her  harvest  of  slaughter.    The  breeze  had 
suddenly  increased  almost  into  a  gale,  and 
the  sea  rolled  formidably  into  the  bay:  we 
began  to  think  of  anchoring  at  Caipha.    As 
we  came  on,  labouring  under  the  rocky 
point  of  Mount   Carmel,   a    change   took 
place,  with  the  suddenness  of  magic.    The 
sun  was  setting,  broad  and  red ;  and  when 
his  disk  touched  the  stormy  horizon,  in- 
stantly the  wind  dropped,  and  left  us  tossing 
about  in  an  agitated  sea,  crimsoned  with  the 
reflection  of  his  fiery  beams,  which  lit  up 
the  solitary  white  waJls  of  the  convent  on 
Mount  Carmel,  and  the  far-distant  hills  of 
Galilee,  with  a  dying  splendour.    It  was  a 
moment  of  wild  and  glorious  beauty.    The 
sea  soon  subsided,  and  we  ran  along  the 
shore    towards   Cssarea ;    the    night  was 
cloudy,  the  moon  pale  and  sickly ;  dl  along 
the  desolate  plains,  we  heard  ttie  wild  un- 


earthly shriek  of  the  jackal,  roaming  among 
its  ruins ;  and  the  low  dull  sound  of  the 
surge,  breaking  on  the  forsaken  shore,  in- 
creased the  poetic  melancholy  of  the  place 
and  hour.  No  other  sound  now  breaks  the 
mournful  silence  which  reigns  over  the  shore, 
which  once  echoed  with  the  world's  debate.' 

CABMEL,  now  Kurmul,  was  one  of  the 
cities  of  the  tribe  of  Jndah  (Josh.  xv.  55). 
According  to  the  statements  of  Eusebius  and 
Jerome,  in  whose  time  the  place  was  in  ex- 
istence, it  lay  twelve  Boman  miles  east  from 
Hebron.  Its  locality,  however,  must  be 
looked  for  to  the  soutil-east  of  that  famous 
town.  In  the  ancient  history  of  the  Israelites, 
Carmel  is  twice  mentioned;  once  (1  Sam. 
XV.  12),  where  we  find  an  account  of  Sanl's 
having  erected  a  triumphal  monument,  ap- 
parency for  a  memorial  of  his  victory  over 
the  Amalekites ;  the  second  time  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  2),  when  David  had  his  adventure  with 
Nabal,  who  dwelt  in  these  parts. 

At  Kurmul,  Bobinson  found  ancient  re- 
mains of  a  church,  a  castle,  and  a  reservoir, 
hewn  in  the  rock.  Near  the  ruins  of  the 
castle  is  an  open  passage,  leading  down  into 
a  narrow  cavern,  apparently  natural,  which 
may  have  been  used  as  a  tomb.  A  similar 
cave,  which,  however,  is  artificial,  about 
twenty  feet  square,  is  seen  just  east  of  the 
castle. 

This  district  is  regarded  as  among  the 
most  insecure  in  Palestine.  The  desert 
along  the  sea  is  inhabited,  if  at  aU,  only  by 
a  few  Bedouins,  who  are  in  the  worst  repute, 
as  thieves  and  robbers.  It  is  also  a  resort 
of  deserters  and  outlaws.  This  was  the  cha- 
racter of  the  region  of  old,  being  the  same 
into  which  David,  with  his  six  hundred  ad- 
venturers, withdrew  from  the  pursuit  of  Saul, 
and  dwelt  long  in  the  caves  and  lurking 
places  which  it  affords.  The  plain  of  Jor- 
dan, too,  around  Jericho,  is  very  unsafe, 
partly  because  of  the  thievish  character  of 
its  inhabitants,  and  partly  as  being  exposed 
to  excursions  from  the  lawless  Arabs  of  the 
eastern  mountains. 

Leaving  Jerusalem  by  the  Jaffa  Gate,  you 
cross  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  and  along  &e 
eastern  side  of  the  plain  Bephaim,  and  so 
ascend  to  the  Greek  convent  Mar  Elyas, 
which  lies  in  the  fields  at  some  distance 
from  the  road,  on  the  verge  of  a  ridge  of  hills, 
having  a  wide  prospect  across  the  deep  val- 
leys on  the  south.  From  this  point,  two 
roads  lead  to  Bethlehem:  one  direct,  de- 
scending and  crossing  a  deep  valley  on  the 
south ;  the  other  passing  more  to  ^e  right, 
aroimd  the  head  of  the  valley,  and  so  by 
Bachel's  Tomb.  We  will  pursue  the  latter. 
The  whole  tract  in  advance  is  full  of  olive 
groves,  and  towards  Bethlehem  are  likewise 
many  orchards  of  fig-trees.  Passing  by  the 
Pools  of  Solomon,  you  arrive  at  BeUilehem, 
which  lies  two  hours  south  of  .Terusalem. 
The   coimtry  aroimd    this    place  displays 


CAR  294  CAR 

nomeroiu  marks  of  iodtistiy.  Tf  you  go  Keep  oh  the  high  ground  towuds  Ifaa  easty 
down  the  tteep  descent  from  the  town,  yon  «id  yon  find  the  falleys  and  tfaehUIa  sprink- 
oome  to  two  openmg4  of  the  aqueduct  Uiat  led,  and  aomethnes  eovered,  with  azbntos, 
nuu  to  Jerusalem,  n^ieh  here  passes  through  dwarf  oaks,  small  firs,  and  other  bushes, 
ft  sort  of  deep  ranltor  reservoir,  from  which  Farther  on  is  a  hig^  roeky  traet,  ezUbiting 
the  water  is  drawn  up  about  twenty  feet,  on  the  left  no  appearance  of  eohivatfon.  In 
and  may  see  many  females  drawing  water,  order  to  reach  Beni  Nairn,  yoo  most  make  • 
and  bearing  it  «way  in  akins  on  their  shoul-  cirenit  towards  the  west,  widi  a  view  to  pass 
ders.  immd  the  heads  of  several  brvnches  of  die 
Proeeed  now  in  an  easterly  direetion,  in-  Wady  el-Ghar,  said  to  be  so  deep  and  mg- 
dfaiing  a  litfle  to  the  south,  and  you  will  eome  ged  as  to  be  nearly  impassable  Ibr  horses, 
to  the  Jebel  d-Fureidis  or  Frank  Mountain,  As  you  approadi  Beni  Nalm,  ihb  traees  of 
going  along  the  Wady  Urtas.  Iliis  place  is  ouldvation  increase,  and  the  lerel  spots  of  snj 
still  inhabited,  though  in  ruins,  the  inhabi-  siie  are  sown  with  bsrley  or  mUlet  To- 
tants  dwelling  in  eaves.  The  fountain  here  wards  the  west,  olive-trees  and  small  vine- 
sends  forth  a  copious  supply  of  fine  water,  yards  oeeasionally  appear.  Tou  thos 
and  forms  a  beautiAil  purling  rill  along  the  travel  along  the  dividing  line  between  the 
bottom  of  the  valley—  a  sight  rarely  to  be  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Hediterrm- 
saen  in  Palestine.  Ton  pass  down  diis  wady,  nean.  The  whole  dope  towards  the  Dead 
on  a  generd  course  south  south^aast  dong  Sea,  on  this  nde  of  Jerusdem,  resembles,  in 
the  streamlet,  and  through  the  midst  of  its  generd  features,  die  same  dope  on  the 
gardens  and  ftdds  fertilised  by  its  waters.  noi&  of  that  city.  But  it  has  even  less  of 
In  the  valley  and  on  the  hills,  you  may  be-  fertility ;  the  desert  region  extending  ftirther 
hold  flooks  of  sheep  and  goats  mingled  to-  up  firom  the  Dead  Sea  towards  the  water- 
getfaer,  whidi  would  seem  to  have  been  die  summit  Still,  even  in  those  parts  where  all 
patriarehd  mode  of  pasturage.  This  is  a  is  now  desolate,  there  are  everywhere  traces 
good  grazing  district,  however  rocky  and  of  the  hand  of  men  of  other  davs-— terraces, 
sterile  it  may  be  in  appearance.  The  litde  walls,  stones  gathered  dong  me  paths,  fire- 
stream  is  soon  absorbed  in  the  gravelly  soil,  qnent  dstems,  and  the  like, 
and  the  gardens  cease.  As  you  proceed,  the  Beni  Naim  is  probably  the  highest  point 
hills  around,  though  now  arid,  had  once  been  in  all  the  hill-country  of  Judah.  According 
built  up  in  terraces,  snd  cultivated.  The  to  the  Moslems,  diis  is  the  burid-place  ^ 
Frank  Mountdn  rises  steep  and  round  like  Lot  A  mosque  here  professedly  covers  his 
a  volcanic  cone  truncated.  The  height  above  tomb.  From  the  roof  of  this  mosque  is  an 
the  base  is  from  three  to  four  hundred  feet  extensive  view  on  every  mde,  especially  to- 
There  sre  traces  of  terraces  for  cultivation  wards  the  east  and  south.  The  prospect 
around  ite  base.  The  summit — a  cirde  of  towards  the  north  is  limited  by  a  high  tract 
about  700  feet  in  eireumfereuce  —  is  occu-  of  country,  and  towards  the  west  and  south- 
pied  by  a  fortress,  with  four  masnve  round  west  by  the  hills  around  Hebron.  The 
towers.  On  it  you  hare  a  very  extensive  mountains  beyond  the  Dead  Sea  are  very 
view,  especially  towards  the  north.  This  is,  distinct ;  the  sea  itself  is  visible  only  through 
not  without  probability,  held  to  be  the  site  gaps  in  the  mountains.  Towards  uie  south, 
of  the  fortress  and  city  of  Herodium,  erected  die  land  sinks  gradually  down  to  an  exten- 
by  Herod,  sumamed  the  Great.  The  whole  dve  basin  or  plain,  having  manj  valleys  and 
plain  around  was  dso  covered  with  bnUd-  ancient  dtes. 

ings,  forming  a  large  city,  of  which  the  hill        The  region  hence  to  die  ancient  fortress  of 

constituted  the  Acropolis.    To  this  place  the  Kurmul  is  very  fine,  especially  towards  die 

body  of  the  Idumean  tyrant  was  brought  for  sonth-vrest    llie  great  plain  spreads  itsdf 

burisL    Keeping  forwtafd  in  a  southerly  di-  out  in  that  direction,  shut  on  every  side  by 

reetion,  you  find  Wady  CJrtas  contract  into  higher  land,  except  on  die  east,  where   it 

a  narrow  picturesque  gorge,  with  high  pred-  dopes  oiF  towards  the  Dead  Sea.    Tlie  elcTs- 

pitons  walls  on  each  side.    Near  at  hand  don  of  this  plain  is  not  less  than  fifteen 

are  the  remdns  of  a  squsre  tower  and  vil-  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Hediter^ 

lage,  eaUed  Khureitun,  and  an  immense  na-  ranean.     Ito  waten  apparendy  flow  off  in 

turd  oaTcm.    If  you  go  forth  on  the  lofty  both  directions,  partly  towards  die  Dead  Sea, 

hill-side,  in  the  bright  light  of  a  May  moon,  and  parfly  towards  the  Wady  es-Jeba.    The 

you  find  the  scene  highly  romsntio.     Yon  surface  ofthe  plain  is  waving,  and  almost  i^ 

lo6k  on  die  dark  mass  of  the  Frank  Moun-  from  rocks.    *  At  present*  (May  10),  to  cite 

tain,  and  the  sacred  region  of  Bethlehem;  Robinson  (ii.  102),  <  the  whole  tract  was  dmost 

while  around   you  are  black  Arab    tents,  covered  widi  fine  fields  of  wheat :  watehmen 

horses  picketed,  and   numerous  flocks   of  were  stationed  in  Tarious  parte  to  prevent 

sheep  and   goate,   all  BtXll  like  the  silence  catUe  and   flocks  from   trespassing  on  the 

of  the  desert     Keep  dong  the  eastern  brow  grain.    The  wheat  was  now  ripening,  and 

of  the  high  groimd,  you  are  taken  to  Tekua,  we  had  here  a  beautifol  iUustration  of  Scrip 

the  Tekoa  of  old,  whence  Joab  called  '  the  tare.    Oiir  Arabs  "were anhungered;"  and. 

Wise  woman '  to  ^ead  on  behdf  of  Absdom.  going  into  die  fields,  diey  *<  plucked  the  ears 


CAR  295  OAR 

of  com  and  did  eat,  rubbing  them  in  their  but,  fiirther  down,  these  disappear  from  the 

hands."'  hills,  and  only  a  dry  stimted  grass  remains, 

From  the  top  of  Kurmvl  there  is  a  pro-  the  growth  of  winter.  Two  hours  more  bring 
■peot  whieh  is  Tery  beautifiU,  when  the  son  yon  to  ragged  and  precipitous  passes,  and  you 
arises  in  his  strength,  and  pours  a  flood  of  soon  arrive  in  the  wilderness  of  En-gedi,  where 
golden  light  upon  the  plain  and  the  hills  be-  Dayid  and  his  men  lived  among  *  the  rocks 
yond,  so  that  every  olgeot  is  distinotly  seen,  of  the  wild  goats,'  and  where  the  former  out 
Heie  you  are  surrounded  by  the  towns  of  the  off  the  skirts  of  Saul's  robe  in  a  cave  (1  Sam. 
mountains  of  Judah,  and  can  enumerate  be-  zsciv.  1—4).  The  whole  scene  is  drawn  in 
Ibre  yon  not  less  than  nine  places  still  bear-  Scripture  to  the  life.  On  all  sides,  the  conn- 
ing dieir  ancient  names;  namely  —  <Maon,  try  is  fiill  of  caverns,  which  might  have 
Carmel,  and  Ziph,  and  Juttah;'  Jattir,  Soeoh,  served  as  lurking-places  for  David  and  his 
▲nab,  and  Eshtemoa;  and  'Kijgath  Arba,  men,  as  they  do  for  outlaws  at  the  present 
which  is  Hebron.'  Most  of  those  were  nn-  day.  The  patiti  follows  down  the  bottom  of 
known  until  ascertained  by  Bobinson.  You  the  valley,  which  is  here  just  wide  enough 
are  here  in  the  midst  of  scenes  memorable'  to  be  the  bed  of  a  torrent,  sometimes  scarcely 
of  old  for  the  adventures  of  David,  during  fifty  feet,  between  perpendicular  precipices 
his  wanderings,  in  order  to  escape  from  the  rising  sometimes  hundred*  of  feet  on  each 
jealousy  of  Saul,  and  may  Ibel  a  deep  inte-  side.  In  the  diib  above,  multitudes  of 
rest  in  perusing  the  chapters  which  record  pigeons  are  enjoying  their  nests  undisturbed, 
the  history  of  these  adventures  (i  Sam.  zxiii.  Here  the  reiem,  and  other  shrubs  of  the  de- 
xziv.  XXV.  xxvLV  Ziph  (1  Sam.  xxiiL  14;  sert,  grow  very  large.  Farther  down,  the 
xxvi.  2),  Maon  (1  Sam.  xxiiL  20),  and  En-  valley  contracts,  and  becomes  impassable, 
gedi  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  1),  gave  their  names  You  now  turn  up  a  steep  and  rocky  pass 
to  different  parts  of  the  desert  on  the  east  north-east,  along  a  side  vidley,  which  brings 
Twice  did  the  inhabitants  of  Zqph  attempt  to  you  in  fifteen  minutes  on  a  rough  and  de- 
betray  the  youthftil  outlaw  to  &e  vengeance  sert  table-land.  Soon  you  get  the  first 
of  his  persecutor  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  19 ;  xxvi.  1).  view  of  the  Dead  Sea,  lying  low  and  still  in 
At  that  time,  David  and  his  men  appear  its  deep  bed,  and  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
to  have  been  very  much  in  the  condition  of  reach  &e  brow  of  the  pass  leading  down  to 
similar  outlaws  at  the  present  day  (1  Sam.  the  shore,  after  a  journey  of  seven  hours, 
xxiL  2 ;  xxiii.  18).  They  lurked  in  those  when  you  find  yourself  on  the  summit  of  a 
deserts,  associated  with  the  herdsmen  of  perpendicular  cliff,  overhanging  Ain  Jidy 
Nabal,  and  doing  them  good  offices,  pro-  and  the  sea,  at  least  fifteen  hundred  feet 
baUy  in  return  for  information  and  supplies,  above  its  waters.  The  Dead  Sea  lies  before 
Hence,  when  Nabal  held  his  annual  sheep-  you  in  its  vast  deep  chasm,  shut  in  on  both 
shearing  in  Carmel,  David  felt  himsdf  en-  sides  by  ranges  of  precipitous  mountains; 
titled  to  a  share  in  the  festival,  and  sent  a  their  bases  sometimes  jutting  out  into  the 
message,  recounting  his  own  services,  and  water,  and  again  retreating,  so  as  to  leave  a 
asking  a  present  (1  Sam.  xxv.  8,  9).  'In  all  narrow  strip  of  shore  below.  The  view  in- 
theae  particulars,'  says  Bobinson,  '  we  were  dudes  the  whole  southern  half  of  the  sea, 
deeply  struck  with  the  truth  and  strength  of  quite  to  its  extremity,  and  the  greater  portion 
the  Biblical  descriptions  of  the  manners  and  of  the  northern  half.  One  feature  of  the  sea 
customs,  slmost  identically  the  same  as  they  is  remarkable,  namely,  the  number  of  shoal- 
exist  at  the  present  day.  On  such  a  festive  like  points  and  penhisnlas  which  run  out 
occasion,  near  a  town  or  village,  even  in  our  into  its  southern  part,  appearing  at  first  sight 
own  time,  an  Arab  sheikh  of  the  neighbouring  like  flat  sand-banks  or  islands.  Below,  on 
desert  would  hardly  fiul  to  put  in  a  word ;  the  south,  are  two  such  projecting  banks, 
and  his  message,  both  in  form  and  substance,  on  the  western  shore,  composed  probably  of 
would  be  a  transor^t  of  that  of  David.'  pebbles  and  gravel,  extending  into  the  sea 

From  Carmel,  you,  after  some  time,  get  for  a  considerable  distance.    The  mountains 

into  the  Wady  Khubarah,  whieh  leads  down  on  both  sides  of  the   sea  are  everywhere 

to  the  Dead  Sea,  not  far  south  of  Ain  Jicly,  precipitous ;  those  on  the  east,  you  observe, 

£n-gedi.    The  way  lies  in  a  constant  de-  are  now  very  distinot,  and  obviously  much 

scent    As  you  descend,  the  heat  increases,  higher  at  some  distanee  from  the  shore,  than 

and  the  country  assumes  more  the  appear-  those  upon  the  west    Directly  opposite,  on 

ance  of  a  desert    In  two  hours  you  are  the  eastern  side,  you  see  Wady  el-Mojeb, 

completely  in  the  midst  of  a  desert    The  and  farther  north  Wady  ez-Zurka.    At  the 

country  is  everywhere  entirely  of  limestone  foot  of  &ese  mountains  there  is  a  passage 

formation ;  but  the  rocks  contain  a  large  mix-  along  the  eastern  shore.    The  whole  southern 

ture  of  chalk  and  flint,  alternating  with  the  part  of  the  sea  has  the  appearance,  not  of 

limestone  of  the  region  above.    All  around  a  broad  sheet  of  water,  but  rather  of  a  long 

are  naked  conical  hUls,  and  also  ridges  two  winding  bay,  or  the  estuary  of  a  large  river 

to  four  hundred  feet  high,  running  down  when  the  tide  is  out,  and  the  shoals  are  left 

mostly  towards  the  sea.    Atfirst,  the  hills,  as  dry.    Only  a  comparatively  narrow  channel 

well  as  the  valleys,  are  sprinkled  with  shrubs;  remains  covered  with  water.    This  chan- 


CAR                      296  CAR 

nel  is  iu  some  parts  quite  narrow,  and  winds  CAKNAL   (L.  from  earoy  flesh).  —  Tb« 

very  much.    Nearly  at  the  south-eastern  end,  Greek  words  corresponding  with   'carnal/ 

there  runs  into  the  sea  (so  oalled)  a  large  &o.  are  rendered  'flesh'  (Matt  xvi.  17); 

peninsula;  and  between  ihe  point  of  the  'fleshly'  (2  Cor.  i.  12);  'carnal'  (2  Cor. 

western  shoal  and  the  peninsula,  the  dis-  x.  4) ;   *  carnally'  (Rom.  Tiii.  6).    Whence 

tance  cannot  be  mora  than  one  fourth  or  one  it  appears  that  <  carnal '  and  '  fleshly'  are  of 

sixth  of  the  whole  breadth  of  the  sea,  if  so  similar  import    In  truth,  the  second  is  a 

much.    It  is  no  easy  thing  to  work  your  Saxon  word  of  the  same  meaning  with  the 

way  down  the  terrific  pass.    The  path  de-  Latin  *  carnal.' 

scends  by  sig-zags,  often  at  the  steepest  angle  '  Flesh,'  in  the  New  Testament,  has  seve- 
practicable  for  horses,  and  is  carried  partly  ral  allied   signiflcations,  derived  firom  the 
along  ledges  or  shelves  on  the  perpendicular  root-meaning  of  sorx,  which  denotes  flesh  as 
face  of  ti^e  cliffy  and  then  down  &e  almost  constituting  the  body  of  an  animated  and 
equally  steep  debris.    Much  of  the  rock  is  a  living  being  (1  Cor.  xv.  39).    It  is  repre- 
compact  reddish  or  rose-coloured  limestone,  sented,  in  contradistinction  to  spirit,  as  con- 
smooth  as  glass,  yet  with  an  irregular  sur-  stitnting  with  bones  a  human  body  (Luke 
face.    Looking  back  on  this  part  from  be-  xxiv.  30).    In  the  Old  Testament  it  stands 
low,  it  seems  utterly  impossible  that  any  for  a  word  designating  the  male  organ  of 
road  can  exist  there.    Not  long  since,  an  generation  (Oen.  xvii.  11, 14.    Lev.  xii.  3). 
Arab  woman  fell  oif,  and  was  killed :  when  Hence,  '  flesh,'  in  the  writings  of  Panl,  is 
picked  up,  she  was  found  to  have  brought  spoken  of  in  the  same  way,  and  applied  to 
forth  a  diild.    After  a  descent  of  forty-five  Judaism,  the  religion  of  the  circumcised,  and 
minutes,  you  reach  the  beautifhl  fouitain  of  to  the  divine  benefits  which  were  appended 
Ain  Jidy,  a  fine  stream  bunting  forth  at  once  to  oireumcision   (Bom.  ii.  28,  29;   iv.  1. 
on  a  sort  of  narrow  terrace  or  shelf  of  the  2  Cor.  xi.  18 ;  comp.  22.    Gal.  iii.  3.    Eph. 
mountain,  still  more  than  four  hundred  feet  il.  11.  Col.  ii.  13.  Phil.  iii.  3,  4). 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.   The  stream  rushes  From  thus  referring  to  the  lower  parts  of 
down  the  steep  descent  of  the  mountain,  and  man,  it  came  to  denote  the  body,  in  opposi- 
its  course  is  hidden  by  a  luxuriant  thicket  tion  to  the  mind :  whence  our  Saviour  said 
of  trees  and  shrubs  belonging  to  a  more  to  his  disciples,  — '  The  spirit  is  willing,  but 
southern  clime.    The  whole  of  the  descent  the  flesh  is  weak'  (Mark  xiv.  88.   See  also 
was  apparently  once  terraced  for  tillage  and  1  Cor.  t.  5.    2  Cor.  iv.  11 ;   vii.  1.    Col. 
gardens.    On  the  right,  near  the  foot,  are  ii.  1).    In  Heb.  ix.  10,  we  read  of  '  carnal 
^e  ruins  of  a  town.    From  the  base  of  the  ordinances,'  or  rather  ordinances  of  the  flesh ; 
declivity,  a  fine  rich  plain  slopes  off  very  thatis,leviticalpurityof  body  (13).    'Flesh' 
gradually  neariy  half  a  mOe  to  &e  shore.    A  is  also  used  of  the  body  of  Christ,  delivered 
brook  runs  across  it  directly  to  the  sea,  to  death  (John  vi.  51,  &6.    Bom.  viii.  3. 
though,  in  the  warm  season,  its  watera  are  Eph.  ii  15.   Col.  i.  22).    Human  nature, 
absorbed  by  the  thinty  earth,  long  before  generally  considered  as  visible  and  mortal, 
reaching  the  shore.    So  far  as  the  water  is  thus  designated  (John  i.  13 ;  iii.  6.  Heb. 
extends,  the  plain  is  covered  with  gardens,  xii.  9).    Hence  'flesh  and  blood'   denote 
chiefly  of  cucumben,  belonging  to  the  Arabs,  our  outward  mortal  nature  (Matt  xvi.  17. 
The  soil  of  the  whole  plain  is  very  fertile,  Fph.  vi.   12).     In  the  writings  of  Panl, 
and  might  produce  rare  fruits.    In  various  l^pistles  of  John  and  2d  Peter, '  flesh '  sig- 
parts  of  it  are  traces  of  unimportant  ruins,  iiifies  our  animal  nature,  as  the  seat  and 
The  length  of  the  plain  is  about  half  a  mile:  fountain  of  the  natural  appetites,  taken  in  a 
it  is  nearly  a  square.    The  approach  to  the  bad  sense ;  inasmuch  as  this  snimsl  nature, 
sea  is  here  over  a  bank  of  pebbles,  six  or  when  not  bound  to  the  divine  law,  works 
eight  feet  higher  than  the  level  of  the  water  against  the  will  of  God,  and  is  the  source 
as  you  see  it    These  are  covered  with  a  of  passions  and  sins.    In.  opposition  stands 
shining  crust  as  of  salt,  or  rather  of  an  oily  man's  rational  nature,  which  the  Holy  Spirit 
appearance.  illumines  and  sanctifies,  and  by  which  man 
In  travelling  down  the  dediTity,  you  find  knows  and  desires  good  (Bom.  yi.  19 ;  viL 
the  heat  increase  continually;  and  in  the  18,  25;  Tiii.  5,  6,  7.   Gal.  v.  16.  2  Peter  ii. 
chasm  of  the  sea,  you  encounter  an  Egyp-  18.  1  John  ii.  16).    Sometimes  the  import 
tian  climate,  and  find  Egyptian  productions,  seems  to  be  the  desire  of  evil,  or  evil  die- 
Shut  in  as  this  deep  caldron  is  between  walls  tates  and  lusts  (2  Cor.  i  17 ;  v.  16.    Gal. 
of  rock,  the  heat  of  the  burning  summer  t.  13).    Thus, '  to  be  in  the  flesh '  implies 
sun  cannot  be  other  than  very  great    Such  to  yield  to  the  lower  impulses  of  our  nature 
is  the  richness  of  the  soil,  both  along  the  (Bom.  Til.  5 ;  viii.  5,  8,  9).    The  part  being 
descent  below  the  fountain,  and  on  the  little  put  for  the  whole, '  flesh '  denotes  man  as 
plain,  and  such  the   abimdance  of  water,  mortal  and  weak  (John  L  14.   I  Tim.  iii.  1& 
that  nothing  but  tillage  is  wanting  to  ren-     1  John  iv.  2).    Hence  '  all  flesh'  is  equiva- 
der  this   a  most  prolific   spot    It   would     lent  to  all  men,  or  mortals  (Luke  iiL  6. 
be  admirably  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of    John  xvii.  2.  Acts  ii.  17.   1  Peter  i.  24). 
tropical  fruits.  One  or  two  phrases  deserve  notice.    '  To 


GAR  297  CAR 

be  of  a  person's  flesh  aod  bones,*  signifies  word.  In  ibis  case,  the  history  of  the  woids 
to  be  akin  to  him,  or  to  be  so  allied  as  if  you  *  work '  and  *  ait,'  writing  in  brief  the  progress 
were  of  his  kin  (Gen.  ii.  23 ;  xxix.  14.  £ph.  of  the  nation,  shows  that  the  English  began 
T.  30).  '  Any  one's  flesh'  denotes  his  kins-  their  national  existence  on  a  low  platform, 
men  (Rom.  xi.  14.  £ph.  t.  29).  'Accord-  and  rose  higher  by  slow  degrees.  Jn  the 
ing  to  the  flesh '  means  '  as  to  one's  human  case  of  the  Hebrews,  we  cannot  aeconnt  for 
origin,'  *  by  natural  descent '  (Bom.  i.  8 ;  the  facts  just  mentioned,  except  on  two  sup- 
ix.  3,  5,  8.  1  Cor.  x.  18.  'Israel  after  the  positions; — namely,  that  the  Hebrew  Ian- 
flesh,'  that  is,  Israelites  by  birth,  comp.  Rom.  gnage,  as  it  now  lies  before  us,  presents  the 
ix.  6).  fra^entary  remains  of  a  lost  literature,  in 

CARPENTER  is  from  a  Latin  word  signi-  which  the  oldest  terms  related  to  the  inferior 

fying  a  chariot  or  waggon.  Hence  it  denoted,  processes  of  labour ;  or  that  its  language,  as 

in  £e  middle  ages,  a  maker  of  such  car-  found  in  the  Bibltf,  represents  a  state   of 

riages ;  and,  by  an  extension  of  meaning  foreign  and  adventitious  culture,  whence  it 

which  has  many  parallels,  a  worker  in  wood  took  those  yerbal  indications  of  high  art 

in  generaL  In  truth,  we  think  there  is  reason  to  hold 

Carpenter  is  one  of  the  renderings  ('  en-  both  these  suppositions  to  be  grounded  in 
graver/  Exod.  xxriii.  11 ;  *  craftsman,'  Deut  fact.  We  believe  that  the  descendants  of 
xxvii.  15;  'smith,'  1  Sam.  xiii.  19,  being  Abraham  were  possessed  of  no  mean  culture, 
some  of  them)  given  to  a  word  which  is  one  derived  from  a  widely  spread  pre-existent 
of  those  that  throw  light  on  the  early  history  state  of  civilisation,  comprising  a  literature, 
of  the  Israelites.  This  word,  Oharaah,  sig-  when,  under  an  overruling  Prudence,  they 
nifies  originally,  to  aU  into,  to  engrave,  were  led  to  go  down  into  Egypt,  where 
As  such,  it  denotes  skilled  labour,  the  work  they  found  a  very  high  condition  of  material 
of  the  artist  rather  than  the  artificer.  Ac-  and  outward  culture ;  no  inconsiderable 
eordingly,  in  its  earliest  Biblical  usage,  it  is  share  of  which  they  brought  with  them  into 
translated  'engraver'  (Exod.  xxviii.  11;  the  wilderness,  and  some  of  it  into  Pales- 
xzxv.  35 ;  xxxviii.  28).  That  the  work  here  tine.  Hence  the  artistic  skill  di^layed  in  the 
spoken  of  was  a  work  of  art,  is  clear  from  tabernacle  and  ito  accompanimente.  These 
the  subjeot-matter.  In  the  first  passage  it  considerations  tend  to  vindicate  the  antiquity 
relates  to  the  cutting,  in  onyx  stone,  of  the  of  the  Hebrews,  and  their  claims  to  our  re- 
names of  the  children  of  Israel,  to  form  the  two  spect.  The  Israelites,  even  in  their  earliest 
stones  which  Aaron  was  to  wear  on  his  shoul-  known  stages,  were  not  a  barbarous  people. 
der.  In  the  second  case,  it  is  used  of  Aho-  CART,  a  word  from  the  Teutonic  cyran 
liab,  who  was  divinely  '  filled  with  wisdom  (to  turn,  or  roll),  found  in  the  Latin  and 
of  heart  to  work  all  manner  of  work,  of  the  Greek  gyrus,  a  circle.  Cart  is  connected  in 
engraver,  and  of  the  cunning  workman,  and  derivation  and  meaning  with  car,  carriage, 
of  the  embroiderer,  and  of  the  weaver,  and  of  carter,  and  chariot.  Its  root-signification 
those  that  devised  cunning  work'  (Exod.  shows  that  it  properly  denotes  a  carriage 
XXXV.  34,  35).  In  the  third  instance,  it  with  wheels.  Similar  is  the  fact  in  the  He- 
refers  to  the  same  Aholiab,  as  '  an  engraver,  brew,  of  which  cart  is  a  translation :  Cfa- 
and  a  cunning  workman,  and  an  embroi-  galah  comes  i^m  a  root  that  signifies  to 
derer.'  roll,  and  the  vehicles  which  it  describes 

In  later  times  the  word  came  to  have  a  might  be  rendered  roUers.  Hence  they  must 
more  humble  import,  being  nearly  equivalent  have  been  wheel-carriages.  Wheels  are  also 
to  our  '  workman.'  In  order  to  designate  expressly  mentioned :  in  Isa.  xxviii.  27,  we 
what  kind  of  workmen  were  in  any  case  in-  find  '  a  cart-wheel,'  employed  apparently  in 
tended,  a  qualifying  word  was  subjoined  in  threshing ;  comp.  28.  In  Ezek.  xxiii.  24, 
the  originaL  Thus  we  have  '  workers  of  '  The  Babylonians  shall  come  with  chariots, 
wall,'  or  'stone,'  meaning  masons;  and  waggons,  and  wheels.'  (Seealso£ccles.xii.6. 
'workers  of  wood,'  meaning  carpenters;  Jer.xlriL3.  Ezek.  xxvi.  10.)  That  the  Egyp- 
'  workman  of  iron,'  that  is,  a  smith.  Now,  tians  possessed  wheel-carriages  is  clear  from 
the  nation  of  whom  these  facts  may  be  as-  the  monumente,  and  from  Exod.  xiv.  25, 
serted,  must,  in  ito  early  origin  as  a  nation,  where  Jehovah,  in  order  to  retard  their  pur- 
have  stood  high  in  material  culture.  At  the  suit  of  the  fl3ruig  Israelites,  is  said  to  have 
time  when  ite  language  was  formed,  as  that  taken  off  their  chariot  wheels.  The  cut  on 
language  now  existo,  the  nation  must  have  thelefthandofthefollowingpageisaBomaa 
excelled  in  art ;  otherwise  the  earlier  mean-  chariot,  from  Montfaucon.  That  on  the  right 
ing  of  this  and  other  terms  would  not  have  is  anEgyptiau  chariot,  from  an  original  paint- 
implied  high  culture,  and  the  derivative  and  ing  in  2Le  British  Museum.  The  dotted  line 
later  import  of  the  same  terms  denoted  or-  does  not  indicate  another  horse,  but  a  tint  of 
diuary  hand  labour.  With  the  English  red  found  in  the  original.  The  Hebrews  were 
nation,  just  the  reverse  is  the  fact  '  Work '  also  familiar  with  wheels  ( 1  Kings  vii.  30, 38 ), 
is  the  old  Saxon  term :  whence  'workman.'  as  employed  for  warlike  purposes  (Prov.  xz. 
'  Art,'  from  which  we  get  our  '  artificer,'  and  26).  Very  forcible  imagery  is  derived  from 
'  artist,'  is  a  comparatively  modem  Latin  the  wheel  of  the  war  chariot,  and  associated 


ot^MM:  —  'TIm  boIm  of  a  *bip,  ind  lh«  fttt  wkr-ohtriot*  with  iriieaU  n 

BoiM  of  die    rautbif  of   lAutb,   aad  of  Pileidne  ItMlf,  u  eulj  •■  As  diyt  of  tfaa 

llw  pnoatng  of  botMi,  md  of  tbi  iMpinf  JodgM;  for  the  a—'- — *  "' *-- 

Bhinott-  (NihnB  Ui  3). 


/IhISoltL!,  ru  bebn  tlH  Mhitdc  (3  Bam.  XT.  1.  IBiB. 

S,10,11,I4.   3Saiu.Tl.S.   lGhRn.xllLT,  Tiii.  U).    Fiom  9  KuMpcdiLll.il  ^pMia 

il  inuiilaUrl  by'vigjon'  In  Qan.  xhr.  19,  that,  aiapait  of  Ibe  pnrakDtwonlupof  ttu 

91,  97 ;  xlii.  0.  Namb.  vii.  S,  S,  7,  B  i  and  anu,  honea  aod  etiKiata  wen  dcdioaltd  to 

by  '  diariot,'  Fi.  xliL  9.    The  oidinacj  wrad  thai  li^inaij. 

tor    cluuiDt,   Merluuuh,   OMUia    baqnenllr  Palaatine  wai   too  hiSr  a    wnmtij    for 

(Qen.  iJL  dS.   1  Kings  viL  aS ;  x.  29 ;  xiL  whMlad  oani^aa  to   alwand  Ihsre.     Thia 

'    18  i  zi.  )3  i  ixii.  8S).    War-«haiiota  wan  mar  Bxplain  whj  Joaaph  anppliaa  hia  brelh- 

■mplofsd  bj  the  ■Doient  Caouaiwa  bafora  reo  wilta  wacgoaa  (Oau.  iIt.  19,  31,  37),  in 

Joabna'a  iUTaBiou  (Joah.  li.  B,  B).     Chuiata,  ordm  to  aoBT«T  into  S|7pt  Uicir  &th*i  and 

aa  wtictes  ol  hixurr,  wen  a  tokw  of  rojallj  hia  lamU;.    Ths  cot,  taken  from  ■  Thebu 

in  Paleatina ;  and  when  the  uonaKh  va*  in  monmnant,  cihibita  eana  of  the  Tokktti,  an 

hia  ahario^  •  Itoij  of  man,  ao  manj  aa  D&j,  Aaiali*  people,  ancnj  uf  the  Egrpliana. 


It  wiUba ,„__. 

■are  aolid  whaela.  In  Numb.  Til.  2,  ic;.  we 
fad  the  twelve  prineea  of  the  tribes  of 
Imw!  making  an  obladim  to  JeboTah,  of  ais 
•orend  waggona,  and  twelve  oxen,  intended 
to  bear  the  tabenade  wiien  taken  down. 
Whethor  theae  oarriagea  were  bion^t  imtof 
EgTpl,  or  made  in  the  desert,  we  haTe  no 
meana  of  determining.  Thiaia  notlheonly 
Instanee  in  whioh  a  emit  or  waggon  was  em- 
idoTed  for  aaered  pniposes;  for  in  1  Sun. 
tI.  7,wj.  weflndaeinexpreialT  eoDitmried 


Omss  enta  or  wagons  to  hear  the  ark.  Thia,  M  being  designed  for 
a  nligiona  nee,  was  a 'new  cart;' wheneeit 
becomes  probahle,  thai  ihs  waggons  giTen 
bj  the  heads  of  the  tribes  to  Mohs  wen 
alao  new ;  in  which  oaae,  Ihsy  jnnat  bars 
been  made  after  the  eiodns  from  Egypt 
We  hsTB  altead;  eeen,  that  eait-wheele  were 
nsed  for  the  pmposea  of  llinihing.  Another 
agricnltnral  aerriee  which  carts  r<uidend,*aa 
at  turrest-home : — '  Behold,  I  am  preased 

pressed'   (Amos  ii.  IB).    The   whip,  loo, 


CAR 

iU  primarr  metniDK,  to  go  tlnefy:  b«BM 
%  oDierad  coach,  or  a  titl«t.  The  cngnTing 
•.ilubita  an  BKjptim  liUei  or  pUui^uiii, 
bearing  a  miliury  chial,  vith  an  alMnilaal 
bsaiing  a  panaol  behind  blin. 


Tbe  word  rendend  'waggon'  in   Numb. 
Tii.  3,  U  tquiilaied  bj  ■  liMera '  in  I  la.  Iiti. 

20: — '  And  the;  ahall  bring  all  jonr  hrethnn 
oat  of  all  nations  apon  honss,  and  in  cba- 
rioU,  and  in  iillers  (margin,  'ooachei '),  and 
upon  molBi,  and  apou  sWilt  beaata.'  The 
word  (Tzahv),  bete  rendered  '  liUar,'  hai  for 


In  Sjrla,  at  the  praaant  imj, «  eovaieil 
litter,  catlad  a  laekttraeim,  la  awd  aa  a  itatd; 
mods  of  traTelling  bj  paahas  and  olhn  grast 
tneo.  Indeed,  tnTsUing  ia  now  geo^id^' 
jierfonnad  on  the  baoka  of  mnlea  or  hofM*, 
eioept  in  die  denrt  and  ita  oonflaaa,  when 
ounela  itt  nwd.  Wlieal-«arria(tga  ai«  ua- 
knows,  and  ruelj  ia  there  a  eart  (o  be  aaeai 
in  the  whole  oonntry.  The  taakterawan  ia 
also  used  for  ladies  and  children,  when  Ihaj 
baie  a  long  jonme;  M  "  ' 


In  AcU  tjI.  15,  ihe  term '  carriage '  ia  uaed 
in  a  eense,  not  now  preTilent,  aa  denoting 
Ihiiigi  to  bi  carried.  Tbe  original  ^mplj 
aaja,  thai  Panl  packed  np  his  thinge,  clothea, 
b:.  as  for  travelling ;  and  might  be  rendered, 
'  made  oureelTee  read;.'  E.  Taylor  rendera 
— ■ '  We  took  np  our  baggage.' 

CARVINQ,  with  ita  related  words  '  earre,' 
'  earred  imagea,'  &c.  is  represented  in  the 
Hebrew  b;  (wo  or  three  words,  a  knowledge 
of  whoae  signification  iriU  open  to  the  reader 
die  beta  eooneciedwilb  aanJptiire  aa  il  exiated 
among  the  laraelilea.  I.  Qhanuh,  denoting 
to  enl  into,  hence  to  engrave,  is  ai^lied  in 
Eiod.  xuL  S  to  the  'eaning  of  timber,' 
in  connection  with  Beialeel,  who  is  sel  forth 
as  '  filled  with  the  apirit  of  Qod,  in  wiadom, 
and  in  nnderstanding,  and  in  knowledge,  and 
In  all  manner  of  workmanship ;   lo  de*ise 


cnnning  wotka,  lo  work  In  gold,  and  in  ail- 
ver,  and  In  braiB,  and  in  cutting  of  stonea  to 
set  them,  and  in  caning  of  timber,  to  work 
in  all  manner  of  workmanship.'  Whence  it 
is  dear,  that  the  carriug  here  implied  was 
artiatig  and  ornamental  {comp.  £iad.  xxiv. 
80,  teq.).  II.  Kahlag,  the  esaential  letten 
in  whioh  are  hM ;  whence  we  see  the  con- 
nection of  the  word  with  the  Greek  koilein, 
and  the  Latin  cuiaie,  both  with  (heir  He- 
brew root  aigni^ing '  to  hollow '  oi  stuJptore. 
It  ia  tued  of  riah  decorations  made  bj  Solo- 
mon in  the  temple  which  ha  boilt,  when  'he 
cortKiJ  all  the  walle  of  the  house  ronnd  abont 
with  (he  engrsTinga  of  carred  figures  of 
ehembiro,  and  palm-trees,  and  open  flowers, 
within  and  wilhoal'  (1  KingB1i.^e,8^,S0)■ 
III.  Qhahtae,  to  ent  or  hew,  is  applied  to 
the  hewn  or  poliehed  stone   emplojred  in 


CAR 


300 


CA  R 


•reedng  mansions  or  palaces  (Ps.  oxliv.  12), 
as  well  as  to  oarred  articles  of  ftunitore  (Ptoy. 
Yii.  16  ) .  IV.  Pitovagh,  which  is  the  word  ren- 
dered '  engrav'mgt  *  just  aboTs,  and  appears 
to  denote  the  figures  themselves ;  while  ihe 
word, '  oarred  figures/  may  denote  ihe  nature 
of  the  workmanship,  equal  to  *  engravings 
of  carved  work/  In  2  Chron.  iL  7,  where 
this  last  word  is  used,  we  find  Solomon  re- 
questing Hnram,  king  of  Tjre,  to  send  him 
'  a  man  cunning  to  work  in  gold,  and  in  sil- 
ver, and  that  can  skUl  to  grave  gravings, 
with  the  cunning  men  that  are  with  me  in 
Judah  and  Jerusalem,  whom  my  fkiher  David 
did  provide ; '  who,  from  1  Chron.  xxiL  15, 
appear  to  have  been  found  in  abimdance  in 
Jerusalem, '  all  manner  of  cunning  men,  for 
every  manner  of  work.'  The  carved  work 
which  probably  these  artists  profiisely  exe- 
cuted in  the  temple  (1  Kings  vL  18,  29,  32, 
85),  siter  the  manner  in  which  our  beau- 
tiful cathedrals  and  pariah  ehurches  were 
bait>arouBly  mutilated,  despoiled,  and  dis- 
figured in  the  civil  wars,  was  broken  down  and 
laid  waste  by  some  foreign  enemy,  <  wiih  axes 
and  hammers'  (Ps.  Isdv.  6).  The  same 
word  is  used,  in  Zech.  iii  0,  of  carvings  or 
sculpture  in  stone.  The  execution  of  the 
seven  symbolical  eyes  here  spoken  of  must 
have  required  no  mean  skill.  Y.  Pak$al 
means  to  eui  away,  and  so  toforman  image. 
The  word  is  specially  applied  to  idols.  Thus, 
in  Exod.  xx.  4,  —  *  Thou  shalt  not  make  unto 
thee  any  graven  image/  Pehul,  idol,  that  is, 
as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Lev.  xxvi.  1, 
— '  Ye  shall  make  no  idols,  nor  graven  image, 
neither  rear  you  up  a  standing  image,  neither 
shall  ye  set  up  any  image  of  stone  in  your 
land  to  bow  down  to  it ;  for  I  am  Jehovah 
your  Ood.'    The  rendering  in  Exod.  xx.  4, 


'  graven  image/  is  too  wide  and  lax.  As  the 
text  stands,  It  forbids  all  graven  images,  and 
so  sets  Scripture  in  contndictton  widi  itself; 
fbr  Moses  was  expressly  commanded  to  form 
the  cherubim  which  were  placed  over  the 
mercy-seat  (Exod.  xxv.  18;  xxvL  1). 

From  this  particular  examination,  we  leain 
that  the  ancient  Hebrews  had  no  fewer  than 
five  words  by  which  they  denoted  graving 
or  sculpture.  Doubtless  these  words  had 
each  something  special  in  their  original  ap- 
plication. They  may  also  have  varied  in 
point  of  age.  But  the  facts  show,  that  the 
art  of  sculpture  was  at  different  periods  in 
no  mean  condition.  These  periods  varied 
in  artistic  character.  On  leaving  Egypt,  the 
Hebrews  possessed,  at  least,  some  of  the 
skill  with  which  they  had  there  become  fami- 
liar. This  they  partly  lost  in  the  troubled 
and  warlike  ages  which  ensued.  When,  how- 
ever, David's  suocess  in  arms,  and  encourage- 
ment of  the  arts  of  peace,  had  given  scope 
and  impulse  to  skilled  industry  and  enter- 
prise, and  when  Solomon's  luxury  had 
fostered  its  exeroise,  then  native  artists  were 
found  ready  to  execute  works  of  high  merit; 
in  which,  however,  it  was  judged  advisable 
to  procure  the  aid  of  the  superior  talent  and 
taste  of  the  renowned,  opulent,  and  com- 
mercial Tyre. 

The  astonishing  remains  of  ancient  Egypt, 
in  the  ruins  of  temples,  and  palaces,  and 
tombs,  give  us  peculiar  opportunities  for 
approaching  in  some  degree  to  the  artistic 
effects  produced  by  the  ancient  Hebrews 
when  in  their  happiest  condition;  for  a  very 
large  portion  of  these  remains  were  In  exist- 
ence long  before  even  Joseph  was  carried 
down  into  that  land  of  wonders. 


CAR  » 

Ctrring  in  wood  dott  not  tppfu  lo  hiTs 
been  >o  common  in  Egypt  u  xnlpton 
on  itone,  u  wood  wu  bj  no  meuiB  abaii- 
dtnl  in  the  Eonntrj.  Still  it  «u  piftotiKd. 
Boxei,  ohun,  tableg,  aofu,  and  other  pieces 
of  fUmiloie,  were  fnqaeatl;  mule  of  ebony, 
inleidwith  iTory.     Syeunc  '         ' 

nneend  with  thin  Uyen,  c 
ovnd  devices  of  nm  wood,  ryipUed  ot  lei 
tnia  them. 

The  preoeding  cat  repiesente  a  nnill 
wooden  peotonl  plMe,  with  the  enbjaol 
Mrred  in  ondine.  inlaid  with  bloe  painL  It 
eihibiti  amonuchttaDdinginmohuiolwilh 
two  honea,  which  are  iJorned  with  Ihe 
plnmea  end  bousing  Ihst  they  eppear  bearing 
in  martial  ecenes.  The  oelestiat  ann  is  OTer 
Ihe  monsrch'a  head.  In  the  eenlre  !■  aline 
of  hiaroglyphlcB,  eiprasaing  the  lord  of  dia- 
detna,  Anrannopih.  The  ouving  waa  found 
at  Thebes,  and,  relating  to  Amenopb  I.  maj 
bkn  foi  its  date  1663,  A.C. 


1  CAR 

been  scalptnred  on  the  temple.  We  theielbre 
subjoin  oDe,  exhibiting  Selk  or  HeaTea 
(fi-minine  with  Ihe  Egyptians),  In  the  ahi^M 
of  a  homan  being  saiToiuided  with  etars, 
the  body  bending  with  down-spread  arms, 
BO  u  to  OTersbadow  and  encompass  tbe  earth, 
te  vault  of  heaven  reaching 
from  line  side  of  the  boriion  to  the  other. 
In  this  poBlore,  Selk  encloses  the  Zo.tiics. 
as  at  Eeneh  and  Denderah.  The  nppermost 
pan  of  the  compartments  sculptured  on 
Egyptian  monuments  ia  generally  orowned 
niOi  the  emblem  of  thie  divinitj. 


The  reader  here  beholda  a  apeeimen  of 
Egyptisn  art,  wbieh  may  throw  tome  li^^t 
on  Ihe  chembimlcal  figures  which  Solomon 
had  cut  on  the  wslls  of  the  temple.  The 
figure  presents  the  side  of  a  nsos  or  small 
poruble  lample,  having  sealptured  in  alone 
the  deily  Chnonphis,  ram-beaded,  sealed, 
and  holding  in  his  hand  an  emblem  of  life. 
Before  and  behind  him  are  female  fignrea, 
having  wings  like  cherubim.  Tbe  probable 
date  of  the  original  i>  1610,  A.O.  Possibly 
emblematical  representatione  ma;  also  bftve 


It  was  in  mund  acnlptare  that  the  Egyp- 
tiaos  were  oUiefly  rioh ;  and  of  their  pro- 
ductiona  of  this  nature,  we  havB  the  most 
abundant  nmaina.  Marches,  battles,  sieges, 
and  triompha,  form  Ihe  ordinary  snbjecle 
of  the  mural  aenlptnrea  on  the  ancient  edi- 
fioee.  Such  acenea  were  at  onee  exacUy 
adapted  for  deooratlve  seulplnie,  and  flattered 
the  vanity  of  Ihe  aovereign  and  Ihe  nation. 
Some  of  thaae  grand  pictures  eonlain  aereral 
hundred  fignree.  Tour  eye  ia  first  attracted 
by  the  eoloasal  beio :  erect  in  his  ehariot,  his 
arrow  drawn  lo  the  head,  he  drivcB  furiously 
on  against  the  foe ;  hie  horaea,  magniflcenlly 
caparisoned,  with  hi^  arched  neck,  and 
pawing  hoof,  seem  to  smeU  the  battle  bom 
afkr.  Compact  linea  of  war-cars  advanoe, 
and  put  the  enemy  to  HL^L  Homer,  no 
doubt,  drew  fhim  similar  originals }  and  Ihe 
general  action  and  etoij  of  these  composi- 
tioDi  etnnot  be  belter  described  than  by  one 
of  hla  tempeetnouB  batUe-scenee :  — 
'  Tbe  gates,  nntaldbig,  pour  fOrtli  all  tli  A  Infai  i 

Boiu3niai  on  s^Dsdroni  eland  Um  dnsky  plain ; 

Hen,  steeds,  and  cbarlota,  shake  tbe  trembUog 

TlHUnnilt'ttakh«ii,aBdCbeBktesraai)mid. 
And  DDW  irtth  sboDta  the  sboeklnw  amlia  eloeed, 
To  Unxa,  Uaoe%  shleUs  to  iUMda  opiKiBed ; 
Hott  sfiinBl  b«t  wttli  shadowy  leglonB  drew. 


til  shadowy  leglonB  i 
-I  Da  soDnonw  nana  tn  tron  lempeato  Sew , 
VletoiB  end  nni|BMied)oln  promtscBons  oli^ 
Trinmiitiant  abonia  and  d^tng  groan*  arlia. 

Theae  scenes  were  strielly  hisloricd :  no- 
thing was  sacrificed  to  aitislio  embellWi- 
ment  Diflirent  nations  are  distinguished 
bj  their  reapeelive  habits,  coatnme,  arms. 


aaS  phjilogfuoniul  shuaoleiiMicf.  ForU 
u«  iiicn  lomniiided  bj  Ihsir  fouM,  and 
IhMe  likTUwed  b;  bridgM.  The  upieDt 
Egrptiin  amp  ii  dnwn  with  islaniUng 


Wilbin  are  sMii  ineoiiAuioB 
shaitota,  plwiaira,  (iillvn,  loow  honsB,  oieo, 
and  tlia  Qwil  taken  from  the  eiiem;.  Cun- 
paigna  an  rapraeenlad  bj  auoaeHire  pio- 
buM.  The  annr  leavaa  Egjrpt,  meeti  and 
nmta  Ihs  enemy,  eaptnna  thcii  IoHm,  and  H 
kogtb  ntoma  wilb  briamplul  pageanby  U 
Tbebat,  when  (be  mwkanih  praaenia  his  q(- 
teriagt  lo  the  goda,  and  raceirei  theii  oon- 
gratnlationa. 

Some  of  the  most  inlereeting  of  Ihaaa 
tMD«a  an  at  the  Hemnonimn,  and  eonune- 
monte  the  exploits  of  Bameaes  II.  or  Seaoi- 
tria.  On  one  wing  of  die  propjlon,  the 
taking  of  teTera]  lownl  le  npnevotad,  with 
detaila  of  barbarity.  On  the  eatt  wall  of  the 
teeood  ooart,  there  ia  a  grand  batfla-eaene  ; 
Iha  «DBmy  fiy  in  diiordei'  lo  a  fortifled  ettj, 
eoiTouiided  by  a  riftr.  Soma  an  aeen 
plnngvd  in  the  water,  contending  with  tbs 
BbeMn ;  olhare,  almoel  eihanaod,  an  drawn 
est  by  Ihair  Menda  os  die  oppoalte  bank. 
Another  of  these  langninaiy  loenes,  within 
the  hall  of  eohimns,  lepfMenti  (he  stonming 
ota&it  —  a  detached  csaatlfl  In  two  sloriea, 
on  (he  snnunit  of  a  oonicil  roek,  batde- 


■I  oorai  of  theii  taatwliw 
or  laige  oaDc^ying  ahielda,  hare  adtanoed 
to  the  G)ot  of  the  (ottfMS ;  othM**  niaed  on 
Um  top  (tf  the  testodoa,  bw«  ^aotad  a  eeal- 
iog.ladda  againat  the  waU,  Mid  gaSsntly 
faraed  ihair  wsj  op  the  steep,  in  faee  of  the 
pikes  of  the  enamy.  The  be^sgei*  appear  i 
the  top  behind  Oier'" —.—..- 


reeorda  ct  the  fcniga  eenqiweU  of  fiameaes 
lU.  the  eaUempansy  o(  Iha  lanaliUsh  hero 
0ideoB.    On  the  eitaier,  In  a  stdet  of  eodi 


r  CAB 

saiL  A  Ggoie  is  penhed  at  the  top  of  ttie 
short  maat,  perfaqia  lo  direot  the  motw- 
menU  of  the  men,  or  to  pink  off  the  aSaan 
of  tlia  enemy  with  the  aling.  Tlw  Egypdaa 
gatleye,  known  by  the  lion's  head  al  the  pnw, 
alTanoe  in  regular  line ;  the  bowmen  dia- 
charge  their  arrows,  and  the  enemy  era 
thrown  into  eonfOsion.  Many  an  already 
taken  [sieoiiwa  and  bandonflMU  The  iiBg, 
standing  on  MTeral  piostnte  eaptiTaa  (Joah. 
X.  3i.),  shoots  hia  airtrwi  froin  the  sham. 
Wilhia  the  palaoe,  on  the  walls  of  the  Oaijit- 
tie  qiutdrangie,  la  represented  a  grand  pa> 
geant  —  a  triomidi.OT,  aa  haebeeaeoppoaed, 
a  wflBialian.  The  king,  ualed  am  a  ean*- 
pied  ohalr  of  etate,  is  bame  along  on  iha 
ahonlders  of  twelTS  princes.  A  her^d,  read- 
ing from  an  open  lofl,  mirehes  bsfcte,  imt 
proclaims  perhaps  his  eiploila,  oi  hia  cteinu 
to  BoTsnignty.  Priests,  oflnn,  and  ranai- 
elsni,  preeede  and  tbUow ;  and  eome,  al  the 
side  of  the  king,  bsar  fans  or  flahella.  la 
adTuice,  the  god  Ehem,  erect  on  a  laUe  or 
platfbnn,  is  borne  in  etate  by  aUendanls. 
The  king  is-appean  in  another  part  of  the 
picture,  now  wsaiteg  the  doable  crown,  er 
pshrat;  alonglrainof  fanedonarieeadranee 
towards  him  with  offerings  and  ensjgne,  and 
gome  carry  statutes  of  hie  aneestors  on  their 
ehoolders ;  (oar  birds  an  llberaled  as  though 
to  carry  important  intelUganoa  lo  die  four 
qnarters  of  ttie  globe. 

Another  pietore  in  dils  conri  tvpneenla 
what  may  luve  been  an  ordinary  aoene  after 
a  Tiotory.  Ths  king  is  lealed  in  his  war- 
oar  ;  his  plumed  and  richly  eapariaoned 
steeds  are  held  by  attendants.  The  prisoners 
are  led  ap  lo  hini  in  fllea,  their  arms  tied 
together  at  the  elbow  over  their  beads,  and 
in  other  attitodee  of  loram.  An  oBcer  then 
connta  down  in  heaps  before  the  king  As 
hands  of  Ihe  alaln ;  and  another  enten  Ifa^ 
nombers,  amoondng  to  some  tiionaands,  hi 
a  roU.  The  eat  on  the  next  page,  taksB 
from  a  Bcolptured  &fade  of  an  Egjptiaa 
temple,  exhibits  a  monanh  sli^ng  his 
enemies  in  battle,  and  ia  eraUamaileal  of 
regs]  power  in  eoafliot  wiA  naliDaal  tbea. 
The  original  ii  a  (aTonnbb  ■ 
Egyptian  art. 


CAS 


303 


CAS 


ioicription  on  the  rerene,  wbloh  mafcet     m  eKhiUftiiig  ft  tpMimeii  of  Ef^ptiaii  iloiit* 

mention  of  But,  Athor,  and  Akori  ^  one  of     engraTing. 
ihe  EgjptUn  Triads.    Tlie  stone  is  coriousy 


CASEMENT  (from  the  Latin  cuipfa,  Eng- 
lish ease),  a  window;  windows  being  in  old 
times  a  sort  of  case,  snoh  as  what  are  called 
oriel  windows.  The  Hebrew  word  of  which 
casement  is  a  renderhig  (Pror.  yii.  6),  sig- 
nifies to  knU  or  Jam  together,  and  is  best 
represented  by  the  word  lattiee,  which  stands 
in  the  English  BiUe  for  it,  in  the  only  other 
place  (Judg.  T.  28)  in  which  it  is  fonnd; 
and  where,  from  the  usages  of  Hebrew  poetry, 
it  is  obTionsly  synonymous  with  *  window.' 
The  word  rendered  *  window '  in  this  place, 
denotes  a  bow-window,  firom  a  rooi  signify- 
ing to  Mfs  oHf,— to  be  rotmd.  Another 
word  flnr  window,  Arobah  (Oen.  ▼&  11; 
vuL  a.  d  Kings  TiL  2.  EoeL  zO.  8),  seems 
also  to  imply  a  Und  of  lattioe,  as  it  oomss 
from  a  root  which  primarily  means  to 
weme.  'Whidows,'  in  Isa.  lir.  12,  should 
be  pinnades  or  battlements.  The  window, 
Tzohar,  which  Nosh  was  directed  to  make  in 
the  ark  (Gen.  tI.  16),  was  elesrly  soch,  be* 
ing  —  from  the  meaning  of  the  tenn,  whiohy 
fh>m  a  root  signiiying  to  time,  is  generally 
rendend  'noon,*  'noonday'— intended,  be 
ynad  a  qoestion,  to  givv  UJ/bit 


A  word  of  much  lafer  date,  Kaveem,  fbnnd 
in  Dan.  yL  10,  may,  flrom  a  root  signifying 
to  hoUow  or  open,  mean  'windows,'  especially 
snch  as  are  Uke  folding  doors,  which,  when 
drawn  back,  give  a  riew  ont  hito  ihe  open 
country.  The  last  word  rendered '  window'  is 
Shekephf  whose  root  is  found  in  our  adopted 
word,  jAi^c,  being  a  term  common  to  the 
Indian  and  Shemitic  languages.  This  word 
properly  means  to  look,  to  took  narrowly, 
and,  according  to  Jewish  tradition,  denotes  a 
small  window,  through  which  one  might  look 
without  being  seen.  It  is  used  of  Uie  win- 
dows that  Solomon  made  in  the  tsmple,  'and 
for  the  house  he  made  windows  of  nanmr 
lists' (I  Kings ^4;  eemp.  Sssk.  zL  16 ; 
zlL  16),  probshly  beesnse  bs  pseflonpsd  lbs 
'dim  ndigions  Uf^'  which  such  would  allbid, 
to  the  blase  and  gkra  whicii,  in  a  Pales- 
tinian atmospheie,  Istge  windows  would  have 
caused. 

These  Terbal  iuTestigations  have  shown 
that  the  Hetosws  had  ssverid  kinds  of  oase- 
menls  or  windows,  perhi^s  most  of  tiie  kinds 
which  have  been  known  in  BMra  reeem  days; 
from  tibs  lattice  or  simple  strneture  of  Mossed 


CAS  « 

Ulhi,  Ibmagh  the  oriel  window  ol  the  omk- 
menuJ  >Iyie  of  Ihe  middle  ages,  to  Ibe  fold- 
ing or  gftrdon  windowB  of  morr  modom 
laxarT-  Thai  lonia  of  tfaesa  were  of  giaai, 
i*  biglilj  probable.  Olasa  wm  known  to  the 
E^Tptians,  aod  eilensiTelj  aied  bj  them 
in  rarlj  perioda:  ibe  Hebrewa  lonld  not 
have  bflCD  iguanol  of  it,  though  ita  oleai 
bright  tranaparenej  woold  be  againat  ita  aer- 
Tice  in  giTiDg  light,  both  In  Egjp'  and  In 
Palestine. 

CASLDOHIH[E.),— a  people  deMended 
(Mm  MJraim,  or  Egjpt,  who  are  lappoaed 
to  hare  migraiad  heaoe,  and  leltlad  on  the 
eoaat  of  Sjria,  between  Pbiliatia  and  EgjpL 
'Berlhean  eoniideia  Ihe  Caalnebim  and  Caph- 
torim  a*  two  clana  of  the  Mme  tribe  or  peo- 
ple. The  Caaiaohim  appear  to  bare  aeKted 
in  ColehiB  before  thetr  mignUion  into  B jri*. 
Herodotna  (IL  IM)  mahaa  the  Cotohiana  to 
be  of  Egyptian  oiigiiL 

CAB81A  ia  Ihe  En^ih  randering  of  two 
Hebrew  worda  {KUetgoUi,  Pa.  iIt.  8 ;  and 
ITiddak,  Eiod.  xxi.  H.  Eiak.  iniL  10); 
which  rcpreaent  two  uomatio  anbatanms 
mentionMl  In  Seriptora,  with  other  odori- 
feioiu  harba,  and  emplojed  among  the 
'  ipieea '  fat  making  '  the  bolj  ointment  i ' 
also  u  Boanla  for  the  penon.    Tbeae  two 


(  CAS 

kind*  of  eaaaia,  and  thai  which  bear*  the 
pame  cinnamon,  were  rtrj  similar,  and  can 
now  be  with  diffleolty  dialingoiahed-  Id 
general  ihej  grew  in  ludia,  eepeciallj  in  Ihe 
isle  of  Ceylon,  eonsiated  of  the  bark  ot 
Ihe  correaponding  trees,  and  were  conrejed 
fo  Faleathie,  up  the  Hed  Bea.  '  Cinnamon' 
(Kiod.  III.  as.  ProT.  TiL17.  CanLiT.  U), 
from  a  Hebrew  word  of  the  aame  fonn,  may 
haxe  been  Ihe  generis  term.  The  three 
worda  would  then  represent  lbr<M  different 
ipeoiea  of  Ihe  same  aweet  ameUIug  wood. 
Of  these,  Ihe  Kiddah  appears  to  haTe  been 
Ihe  leaal  Taluable,  and  bore  the  name  latla 
among  the  Oreeke,  whose  writers  discingaiah 
three  kinda  of  cassia  or  cinnamon.  At  pre- 
aent  sereral  sorts  an  known  in  cmnmerce, 
the  best  being  imported  from  Ceylon :  as  in- 
ferior kind  comes  from  the  Indian  peniusida. 
Cassia  batk  is  so  mnch  like  that  of  ciima- 
mon,  aa  often,  though  inferior,  to  bs  sold 
for  iL  Out  enta  itpresent  two  speoiea  of 
oinnamou,  of  which  the  general  resamblano* 
will  be  obiioDB  to  Ihe  reader. 

The  baik,  which  containa  lbs  frvgranoe,  ia 
peeled  iff  when  the  plaula  are  about  sii  or 
seven  years  old,  and  exported  in  bundles  of 
quill -ah^ed  pieces. 


CASTAWAY  (T.),  — a  laim  which  Panl 
■u«>  in  [elation  to  bimseif,  '  Lest  I  myself 
should  become  a  castaway '  (1  Cor.  ix.  27). 
The  word  here  rendered  '  castaway,'  ia  adeii- 
moi,  which  ia  made  up  of  a,  not,  and  dokimoa, 
appnetd.  In  order  thai  the  reader  may  cor- 
rectly undemtand  the  meaning  of  Ibe  term 
*  caauway,'  he  moat  be  put  into  possesaion 
of  Ihe  import.  Ant  oTdokimos,  and  Iben  of 
ita  oppoaite,  odokimoa.  Dolrimot  is  a  term 
borrowed  from  the  an  of  aaaaying  or  proring 
metala;  of  trying,  by  certain  testa  or  snn- 
dards,  whether  they  are  genuine,  and  wbelher 
they  are  of  IhB  proper  weight.    A  piece  of 


ooin  that  endored  the  ^iplied  teat 
dokimoti  one  that  failed  in  the  trial  was 
termed  aJohmot.  Hence  the  aenral  aceep- 
tationa  of  Ihe  words.  Ihikimol,  therefore, 
signifies  Uffiraueil  and  accepleiJ.  lulCbroo. 
nil.  1,  tbe  Hebrew  word  translated  into 
Enghsh  by  'refined'  {'rtjbui  silrsr'),  is 
rendered  by  the  Onek  Septoaginl,  ioiamm 
(aee  also  Qcn.  xiiiL  Ifl.  S  Cbron.  ii.  IT). 
Paul  uses  the  word  of  a  /aiil^/Mt  aeriant  of 
Christ — '  approiwd  of  men '  (Bom.  lir.  18); 
also  in  the  sense  of  fffuiiw,  Irw  (1  Cor.  xl. 
IS.  2Cor.i.iej  xiii.7).  He  Ihas  chano- 
'.eriaes  Apellss  as  '  the  ^proTed  in  Cbriatj* 


CAS  305  CAS 

that  is,  the  proved  and  well-known  disciple  noting  a  tnuUl  camp  or  fini^icaium :  henoe, 

of  Jesus.    Adokimos  is  the  re-rerse  of  doki'  a  fortified  house  or  residence ;  a  chateau. 

mo8 :  hence  it  means,  not  approved,  adul-  In  the  present  state  of  the  English  language, 

terate,  bad  (if  money),  and   so  rejected  (2  'castle'  is  applied  only  to  a  large  pile  of 

Cor.  xiii.  5,  6,  7.   2  Tim.  iii  8),  '  reprohate  fortified  and  embattled  buildings.    It  may 

concerning  the  faith,'  that  is,  disapproTcd  as  be  doubted  if  the  word  has  exactly  this  im- 

not  genuine.    In  1  Cor.  ix.  27,  howeyer,  a  port  in  Scripture;  for  castles,  in  this  sense  of 

different  allusion  seems  to  have  been  in  the  the  term,  came  in  conjointly  with  the  feudal 

apostle*8  mind.    He  is  there  speaking  with  ages;  though  fortresses,  towers,  strong  holds, 

aUusion  to  the  contests  at  the  F^rthian  g^ames  and  fortified  cities,  are  mentioned  in  the 

held  on  the  Corinthian  isthmus.    If  we  sup-  Bible.    In  some  instances,  the  word  *  castle' 

pose  him,  while  so  speaking,  to  haye  thought  seems  equivalent  to  the  classic  name  aero- 

of  assaying  metals  in  using  the  word  adoki-  poU$,  which  signifies  a  fortified  hill  or  end- 

ma,  we  make  him  chargeable  with  a  mixed  nence,  the  origina]  settlement  and  cradle  of 

metaphor.     Now,  these  games  of  which  he  a  city  (1  Chron.  xi.  A,  7).    The  castle  in  the 

speaks,  had  their  trials   or  examinations:  Sacred  Writings,  with  which  it  is  important 

I.  A  trial  to  determine  whether  a  person  was  that  the  student  should  be  acquainted,  is 

duly  prepared,  had  gone  through  the  required  that  into  which  Paul  was  carried  by   the 

self-discipline,  so  as  to  be  fit  to  engage  in  the  Bomans,  when  rescued  firom  the  toxj  of  his 

contest  without  disgrace  to  the  occasion  and  excited  countrymen  (Acts  xxi.  84,  87 ;  xxii 

to  himself:  if  it  is  in  this  sense  the  apostle  24;  xxiii.  10).    This  was  the  Fort  Antonia, 

uses  the  term  adokimos,  then  'cast  away,'  so  named  in  honour  of  Mark  Antony,  by 

or  'rejected,'  that  is,  'refused  permission  King  Herod,  who  constructed  it  out  of  an 

to  contend,'  is  the  appropriate  rendering,  eariier  stronghold,  erected  for  the  protection 

But,  II.  The  contest  itself  was  a  trial,  and  of  the  temple  by  John  Hyrcanus  (185,  A.C.). 

the  great  trial;   and  since  Paul  represents  It  stood  at  the  north-western  angle  of  the 

himselfas  having  actually  engaged  in  the  race  temple,  and,  from  its  position,  must  have 

(26, 27),  he  appears  to  have  referred  to  this  been  intended  to  guard  against  internal  com- 

proof,  and  accordingly  meant  by  adokimos,  motion  rather  than  external  violence*   Here, 

*  unworthy  of  the  prize.'    His  words  may  be  accordingly,  was  it  that  the  Boman  guard 

rendered, '  Lest  when  I  have  acted  the  part  of  had  their  head  quarters,  in  the  times  of  the 

herald  to  others  (in  preparing  them  for,  and  New  Testament.   From  the  era  of  Hyrcanus, 

urging  them  to,  the  great  Christian  contest),  here  had  the  oflBcial  vestments  of  the  high 

I  should  lose  the  prize  myself.'  priests,  the  Jewish  regalia,  been  preserv^ 

Two  instances  of  rejection  are  spoken  of  as  in  a  place  of  safety ;  which,  however,  the 

in  (he  Bible.    The  rejection  or  reprobation  Jews,  under  the  Boman  sway,  found  could 

of  God's  chosen  people,  —  the  Jews ;  who,  be  converted  into  a  place  of  detention.    They 

being  found  adulterate  or  unfaithfti],  were  therefore  employed  constant  efforts  until  they 

oast  away  of  Ood,  so  that  now  they—-  regained  the  custody  of  them  in  the  days  of 

« Outeasts  of  earth,  and  rtproMe  of  heavBD,  ^^  President  Vitellius.     '  The  tower  of  An- 

Tbroogfa  the  wide  earth  In  friendless  exile  stray,  tonia,  —  says  Josephus, — '  was  situated  at 

Remorse  and  shame  sole  comrades  of  their  way ;  the  comer  of  two  cloistCTS  of  the  oourt  of  the 

^a,a«awBioi7,om7Qanii«rKOia.  ^^  ^^^^  j^  ^^  erected  upon  a  rock. 
Yet  this  rejection  is  not  final.  The  Israel-  fifty  cubits  in  height,  and  was  on  a  great 
ites  were  *  weighed  in  the  bakmce,  found  precipice.  Before  you  come  to  the  tower 
wanting,'  and  cast  away.  But  when  at  length  itself,  there  was  a  wall  three  cubits  high : 
they  shall  have  been  purified  in  the  furnace  within  that  wall,  all  the  space  of  the  tower 
of  affliction,  they  wUl  be  received  of  God,  and  Antonia  itself  was  built  upon,  to  the  height 
so '  all  Israel  shall  be  saved'  (Bom.  xi.  26).  of  forty  cubits.  The  inward  parts  had  the 
The  other  instance  of  rejection  appears  from  largeness  and  form  of  a  palace ;  it  being 
passages  to  which  reference  has  just  been  parted  into  all  kinds  of  rooms  and  other  con- 
made,  to  be  of  individuals,  and  not  of  a  na-  venienoes,  such  as  courts  and  places  for 
tion  or  a  class.  And  analogy,  as  well  as  the  bathing,  and  broad  places  for  eamps.  As 
essential  benignity  of  God,  and  the  remedial  the  entire  structure  resembled  a  tower,  it 
nature  of  his  government,  give  reason  to  contained  also  four  other  distinct  towers  at 
think,  that  neither  are  these  rejections  final  its  four  comers.  On  the  comer  where  it 
and  irreversible ;  for,  as  the  casting  away  of  joined  to  the  two  cloisters  of  the  temple, 
the  Jews  is  the  receiving  of  the  Gentiles,  it  had  pauage»  down  to  them  both,  through 
and  their  fall  the  enriching  of  the  world,  how  whieh  the  guard  (for  there  always  lay  in  this 
much  more  their  fulness?  (Bom.  xi.  12,  se^.)  tower  a  Boman  legion)  went  several  ways 
when  at  length,  under  the  benign  providence  among  the  cloisters  with  their  arms  on  Jew- 
of  an  Almighty  Father,  the  last  enemy  shall  ish  festivals,  in  order  to  watch  the  people, 
be  destroyed,  and  God  be  all  in  all  (1  Cor  that  they  might  not  there  attempt  to  make 
zv.  26,  28).  any  innovations;  for  the  temple  was  a  for- 
CASTLE  (L.),  a  diminutive  of  eaxtra,  de-  tress  that  guarded  the  city,  as  was  the  tow«t 

U 


CAS                      906  CAS 

of  Aiiioni*  a  guard  to  tihe  tanple'   (Jaw.  aqoal  aeeordance  ia  it,  that  when  tha  ha* 

War,  T.  5.  8. )  rangne  was  finished,  the  oaptain  ordered  Paul 

The  last  woida  are  a  striking  oomment  on  to  he  brought  into  the  castle ;  the  apostle  heing 

the  record  in  which  Paol's  apprehension  is  already  on  or  near  the  top  of  '  the  stairs,' 

nairated.    There  we  find  the  Boman  gaaid  where  only  coold  he  have  hoped  to  address 

making  its  appearanoe  on  a  jnnotue  of  the  the  raging  multitade  in  safe^.    Another  in- 

▼eiy  khid  spoken  of  hy  the  Jewish  historian*  stance  is  found  (xzii.  30),  where  Paol  is 

Tetms,  too,  sre  osed  in  the  Acts,  whioh  have  '  hrmiffht  down'  to  he  set  before  the  Jewish 

a  pecoliar  propriety.    The  fori  is  spoken  of  Sanhedrim.    And  when  a  great  dissension 

simply  as  '  the  Castle,'— its  ordinaiy  name,  arose  in  this  grave  council,  '  the  chief  cap- 

the  nsme  by  whioh  it  was  generally  known«  tain,  fearing  Paol  should  have  been  pulled  in 

A  description  of  so  well  known  a  place  waa  piecea  of  them,  commanded  the  soldiers  to 

not  needfhl;  — but  in  what  dronmstanoca  yo  ifeim,  snd  bring  him  into  thecastle.'    To 

not  needfol  ?    Josephns,  in  writing  his  his-  say  nothing  of  the  faithful  picture  here  given 

toiy.  Judged  a  description  needfiil,  and  gave  of  the  explosive  turbulence  of  priest  and 

one.    Let  the  reader  maik  the  difference  people,  we  ask  whether  these  veibal  coinci- 

betwean  the  historian  of  the  Book  of  Acta  denoes  are  not  very  remarkable  f    Whether 

and  the  historian  of  the  Jewiah  War.    The  it  is  likely  they  would  have  existed,  had  not 

latter  wrote  for  the  Bomans,  and  when  Jem-  the  author  written  i^m  a  knowledge  of  actual 

salem  had  been  levelled  to  the  ground.    On  facts  f    One,  or  even  two  such,  might  have 

these  accounts  a  description  was  necessaiy.  been  ascribed  to  accident    Those  which  we 

Besides,JoaephQs  was,so  to  8peak,aprofea-  have  indicated  are  too  numerous  and  too 

sional   historian,  having  such  models  as  maiked  not  to  prove  that  Luke's  narrative 

Thueydides  and  Livy  before  his  eyes.    Luke  emanated  from  an  eye-witness :  not  impro- 

was  a  simple  ehxoiuoler,  recording  facta  with  bably,  that  eye-witoess  was   the  prisoner 

no  other  aim  than  to  say  the  simple  truth  in  himaelf,  who  had  had  good  reason  to  be 

the  feweat  words.    But  had  even  so  inartifl-  minutely  acquainted  with  the  localities,  and 

dal  an  author  written  when  the  Jewish  whose  Isngosge,  in  describing  the  evento, 

temple  and  polity  had  oome  to  an  end*  or  would  undeaiguedly  take  ite  shape  from  the 

written  with  a  view  to  '  stnagera  and  foreign-  peculiar  features  of  the  several  places, 

crs,'  he  would  searoely  have  fuled  to  add,  CASTOB  avd  POLLUX,  the  Latin  names 

after  the  manner  of  Josephns,  some  ezpla-  of  the  two  brothers,  sons  probably  of  Leda 

natoiy  details.  A  writer  in  these  days^  speak-  and  Tyndareus,  king  of  Lacedemon,  where 

ing  of  London,  and  in  the  main  to  citiiena  ^e  worship  of  these  divinities  seems  to  have 

of  the  metropolis,  might  with  propriety  talk  had  ite  origin.     As  children  of  Leda  and 

of  *  the  Tower/  wiOioat  risk  it  being  mia*  Tyndareus,  Castor  and  Pollux  were  brothers 

understood ;  but  if  the  city  and  the  tower  lay  of  the  famous  Helen,  who  is  fabled  to  have 

in  ruins,  snd  if  he  had  in  view  readers  who  caused  the  Trojsn  war.    From  their  fether 

were  personally  unacquainted  with  ite  looaU-  they  received  the  patronymic  of  Tyndarids. 

Ilea  and  struetares,  he  would  then  be  drawn  They  also  bore  the  name  of  Dioscouroi,  that 

to  enter  into  a  doMription  of  '  the  Tower,'  is,  sons  of  Zeus  (Jupiter).    Castor  was  dis- 

ahonld  he  have  ooeaslon  to  mention  it  tinguished  as  a  horseman,  Pollux  ss  a  boxer. 

This  is  a  conoboration  of  the  eredibility  Their  character  was  essentislly  warlike,  and 

of  *  The  Acte  of  the  Apostles/  on  a  minute,  their  appearance  that  of  two  young  men 

unobvions,  and  therefore  important  point  on  horseback,  with  spesrs  in  their  hands. 

But  the  oonoboration  goea  yet  ferther.    The  wearing  hebnete  of  the  ahape  of  an  egg,  and 

aeoount  in  Josephus  shows  that  the  fort  lay  crowned  with  stars. 

on  an  eminence,  and  had  a  communication  Omitting  the  genersl  and  somewhat  eon- 
with  the  courts  of  the  temple  by  an  ascent  tradictozy  accounts  which  we  find  respecting 
In  the  temple  it  was  diat  the  uproar  against  the  Dioscouroi  in  classical  mythology,  we 
Paul  began.  His  enemies  dragged  him  from  shall  confine  ourselves  to  a  few  leading  par- 
Che  temple  into  ite  cloisters,  or  &»  immediate  ticolars,  which  bear  directly  on  the  elucida- 
vicinity.  Hither  came  the  Boman  guard,  and  tion  of  Scripture.  Li  a  war  between  the 
bore  Paul  away.  These  particulars  are  con-  Dioscouroi  uid  the  sons  of  Aphareus,  which 
gruous  with  themselves,  and  widi  Uie  record  was  carried  on  in  Laconia,  Castor  was  slain, 
in  both  histeciank  Bntthe  wends,  *  Tidimg$  Pollux,  after  the  heat  of  the  battle  was  over, 
ooMc  unto  the  chief  captain/  conceal  snothev  finding  his  brother  on  the  point  of  death, 
point  of  agreement  with  Iset  In  the  origi-  was  so  overcome  with  brotherly  regard,  that 
nal,  it  is  *  a  report  went  np.*  On  receiving  he  entreated  Zeus  for  permission  to  die  with 
this  report,  the  soldiers  'ran  down  unto  his  brother.  The  answer  was — he  mi^t 
(Uteraliy,  npon)  them.'  So  also  in  xxi.  35,  live  in  heaven  as  the  immortal  son  of  ite 
we  find,  '  When  he  (Paul)  came  upon  the  king ;  but  if  he  chose  to  share  his  brother's 
ttain,'  flight  of  steps,  or  ascent,  leading  uf^  fate,  then  nothing  more  could  be  granted, 
into  the  castle.  Paul's  position,  too  (ver.  40),  than  that  they  should  alternatively  live,  one 
'  0»  (or  on  the  top  of)  the  etttin^  while  ad-  day  in  Olympus,  and  another  in  the  in- 
dnsaing  the  people,  is  thus  explained.    In  femal  regions.     The  latter   was  Castor's 


CAT  .•)( 

eholoe.  Flcmud  with  tbis  frMunal  pletj, 
Zeai  mad*  them  two  brillianl  Btars  (iueida 
ridera)  id  the  akisB.  HanOTSi,  PoMidon 
(Meptons)  ugnified  his  approval  of  thstr 
brolherlT  Iotb,  bj  giriiig  tiiem  power  OTer 
the  wind!  aad  tha  oocan,  ao  that  tbc^  weM 
RbletobeariddtoHamgnmditlKS*.  Owing 
to  thew  etovBOMMDMS,  Abj  wen  ie«lidsd  M 
'  dirina  aarioim.'  end  leoeiTed  wonhip  ee  Am 
frieods  and  proleoton  or  all  traTellen,  bst 
especiallT  at  marinen.  Being  the  kind  and 
protecting  drriniliee  of  the  ooeui,  their  flgorei 
were  natorallj  taken  aa  (he  eign  md  tha 
name  of  ihipi.  And  as  ws  denominate  a 
man-otwai  '  Tha  Nelaon,'  beeuM*  Helson 
ia  lesownad  for  Tietorioa  on  the  deep,  and 
place  on  the  prow  of  the  ship  a  figore  of 
that  hero,  ao  with  a  nmilar  '  baro-WM^iip ' 
the  Oreeka  and  Bomaiu  pot  on  tha  prowa  of 
tbaii  (hipi  earred  images  of  the  Diowoaroi; 


7  CAT 

Ihoa  hopli^  to  place  the  Tesael  which  bora 
these  taleluj  dliinicics  ondei  their  shelter- 
ing power.  In  aeeordanee  with  this  onstom, 
'  Uie  ihip  of  Alexandria,'  in  which  Fanl  em- 
barked at  the  ialud  of  Malta,  when  on  hie 
wKj  to  Some,  bore  the  sign  ■  Castor  and  Pol- 
hiz;'  in  die  original,  DioBoonroi  (Acts  nriii. 
11).  The  agreement  which  we  hare  findwith 
a  onitom  prerdenl  in  the  apoetle'R  daja,  is 
Striking  and  foniUe  in  proportiDn  as  It 
la  minnla.  There  are  many  Inatanees  oi 
similar  agreement  in  the  New  Testament 
narrsliTes.  Taken  leparalaly,  fhej  maj  ap- 
pear small,  bnt  not  CTcn  then  are  Ihej  inoon- 
stderable ;  bnt  when  Tiewed  aa  a  wbcdc,  Staj 
beeome  ezeeedinglj  important,  and  gire  a 
weD-groimded  aaanrance  that  these  books 
haTS  aTslid  hislortoat  oharaeter,  and  speak 
' — ' '  part  of  aotnal  evMltl. 


0AT3  (T.)-  —  Thon^  tama  cata  are  not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  Ihej  ean  hardly  hare 
failed  t»  be  tMmd  In  Palestine,  the  rather 
beeanae  th^  wen  nnBeione  hi  Egypt,  wonld 
be  highly  oaetal  fte  the  destnutlon  of  -rer- 
miniu  aeon-gn>wiageomitCT,aiid«Miaen- 
tioned  In  the  wiifiags  of  An  Jewish  doetora. 
Wild  eata  hava  been  finmd  by  Boohart  and 
other  aattioritieB  in  die  'wild  beaata  of  the 
datrrt;  ZUm,  epoken  of  In  laa.  xjii.  31; 
ixxiT.  14.  Jer.  L  39. 

In  Egypti  be  cat  waa  eaerad  la  Paahl  or 
Bnbaatis,  the  Diana  of  that  ooimtrjr,  iriio  is 
hers  exhibited  aa  cat-headed,  bran  an  Egyp- 
tian staloe  in  the  Payne  Knight  oollection. 
The  eat  was  ^ao  taomd  to  the  sim.  The 
'eatof  Uieaim  '  is  leprsaented  aal^ing  hold 
at  &e  r^tile  fo^,  irtiile  inserlpdoni  men- 
tion'die  CM  detMiing  the  abominabUrMj' 
aUoding  pr^MUy  to  the  snTiee  which  the 
instinelB  of  the  animal  prompt  her  to  rsndei 

TberMpeelwtfiLwhIohUie  cat  was  treated  In 
Egypt  was  anoh  ae  few  of  the  eaci«d  animals 
e^eiienccd.     Its  mnahip 


prcTBlenl  thronghottt  the  eonntry';  and  it  be- 
came, ai  oni  ent  ahowa,  a  t^pa  of  a  diiinily. 
'  Nerer,'  s^s  Cicero, '  did  any  one  hear  t^ 
of  a  oat  being  killed  by  an  Egyptian.'  So 
bigoted  were  Uie  EgyptUns  in  Inelr  venera- 
tion fi>r  this  animal,  Oiat  neither  the  inflnence 
of  their  own  magistrales,  nor  the  dread  of 
the  Boman  name,  could  prevent  the  populace 
from  sacrificing  to  (heir  vengeance  an  un- 
tbrtnnate  Boman  who  had  accidentally  killed 
a  oat.  When  a  oat  died  a  natural  death,  all 
tha  inmates  of  the  honae  shaTed  their  eye- 
brows in  token  of  mourning ;  and,  having 
embalmed  the  body,  they  buried  it  with  gnat 
pomp.  Those  which  died  in  the  vicinily  of 
BntiBBtla  were  sent  to  that  city  to  repose 
within  the  precincts  of  tbs  place  particolariy 
devoted  to  their  worship.  Olhen  were  de- 
posited in  oartain  oc«eeorated  spots  set  qiart 
for  fl»  pnipose,  near  the  town  iriiera  they 
had  lived.  In  all  cases,  the  expenee  of  (he 
ftmer^  ritea  depended  on  the  donations  oi 
pioDS  individuals,  or  on  the  peculiar  hononn 
paid  to  the  goddess  of  whloh  they  were  the 
emblenih     Those  eats  whioh,  dnitog  lilb* 


CAT 


808 


CAU 


Hmt,  htd  been  wtmhippsd  In  Ibe  lemplt  of 
Puht,  *■  Ihe  liTing  type  of  ihit  goddvH, 
wtra  boried  in  ■■peeUllT  aamptnona  muuiet. 
Attn  ibowiog  how  pioliUc  Egjpt  wm  in 
domHtifl  uiim«l»,  HerodoWi  (iL  6fl),  »ft«r 
hU  mumer.  blending  f»l>le  with  bM,  men- 
ticHu  »  pecnliirig  of  otu,  bj  which  he 
■Moniiti  (or  iheir  nnmber*  not  iiicrB««iig  to 
th«  ciunt  ibej  DiherwiK  woDld.  He  lelti 
»,  Ihu,  whtD  t  hoaw  cmnght  Sn,  the  only 
thought  of  the  EgjrpiiHu  wu  to  ptOMtre  the 
U*M  of  diaii  cttM.  Bulging  thenuelvm, 
Ifasnton,  in  bodliM  round  the  hoaw,  Iher 
•ndenonnd  to  tmco*  theee  uudmiIs  from  the 
flauiai,  totallT  dianguding  tlw  daatiuotioii 
of  the  ptopertj  iualf  i  bal,  notwithatMiding 
ftU  their  precuition*,  the  oUa,  leaping  orei 
tfaa  heada  and  gliding  between  the  legs  of  the 
byatandera,  nulled  into  the  flamei,  —  '" — 
palled  by  di»iii«  agoiicj  I 
Thia  BUnj  maj.  howeter. 


Upper  and  Lowet  ^gjpL  The  leg*  an 
bound  up  with  Iha  bodj.  and  the  hea^  ahna 
led  in  ita  real  ah^ie.  Thia,  from  the  ean 
and  painted  face,  raadflr  indiealai  t&a  ani- 
mal within  the  baudagaa,  whieh  an  aonw- 
timaa  of  ratloaa  oolonra,  arranged  in  deriee* 
ofdilbrentfnimi.  CM  mammiea  wan  aoma- 
timea  depoaitad  in  wooden  hoxsB  or  eolBna ; 
I  ^107  were  wr^ped  In  linaa 


0  aelf'deatruction. 


lebnw  ItaiUh, 


The  origin  of  dte  wonhip  of  the  eat  ii  (o 
be  foimd  in  the  Taloable  aerrioea  rendered 
lij  ihe  animal  in  eneh  a  eounljj  aa  EgjpL 
11m  fabh,  boweiar,  iriklsh  denied  file  wor- 
ahip  of  inimala  from  the  aunmptioa  of  their 
variona  ihapea  bj  the  gods,  when  ftriring  to 
elodg  the  pDianit  of  Trjpbo,  referred  the 
rererenoa  paid  to  thia  eieature  to  the  alleged 
f^t,  lluC  Diana  took  the  form  of  a  eat: 
Fil<  KtroT  FhtAi  -^     Orid.  Met.  t.  S23,  Kf . 

CAUSEWAY  ia  a  perrerted  form  of  the 
Francb  ckatatt,  which  ii  from  Oie  Latin  eal- 
core  (call  in  Latin,  heel;  didtu,  a  ahoe),(« 
Irani  uftm ;  hut,  immedUlelj,  c^aati  ia  de- 
rived from  a  Latin  word  of  the  middle  agei, 
ttieta,  that  ia,  anai(nila,alinmedorp*Ted 
road.  TbewMd'oaoMW^'Daedta' 


HaFnneh  ori^naL  The 
of  wbieh  'oBOMwaj'  ia  i 
1  CbroB.  ixvl.  16,  eomea  I 


raid ;  and  thai  foim  a  liigkwKj,  by  whioh 
word  Ihe  original  teim  i*  generaUr  trani-. 
laled  (Nnmb.  xz.  19.  Jadg.  ez,  81,  Sa,  4S ; 
Hi.  10.  laa.  il.  S).  Thai  aniaed  way  wai 
intended  m^  be  intened  from  Tea.  bdi.  10 
—  'Prepare  ye  Ihe  way  of  the  people;  e*tt 
^,  east  up  Ihe  highway.'  Luge  portiona 
of  Paleatine  would  stand  the  leaa  in  need  of 
artificial  bigbwaya,  in  conaeqoenee  of  die 
hard  rooky  aatoie  of  the  wartva,  irtiich 
wonld  only  require  to  be  worn  away  by  eon- 
•tant  treading,  in  niita  to  aflbrd  aaeh  of  the 
'   I  toad  ai  woold  aatlaiy  ila 


tage  of  beeoming  lUppeiy  by  eontiniial  naa, 
md  its  direction  wonld  be  detennined  under 
gnldanea  derired  from  eonaideratloBa  of  the 


~  Id  Aa  EMt,  lAere  trarellingi*  performed 
mofdy  on  eome  beact  of  bBrdan,  oertain 
traolB  were  at  a  rery  earij  period  onrtcmiaiilj 
pnraned;  and  that  Ae  rather,  at,  bum  re- 
Cata  are  aUU  nnmeKiaa  and  wdl  tnated  mote  age*,  oommeree  and  travening  went  on 
in  EgypL  Thia  aiiwa  from  their  ntili^  in  by  mean*  of  cararan*,  nndai  &  eactain  die- 
freeing  bonaee  from  nl*  and  leptlle*,  by  elpline,  and  aftnding  mntnal  proteetion  in 
which  they  are  infeaM.  Such  fa*ourile»  beir  paaaage  from  city  to  city,  and  from 
era  ihey,  that,  while  Ihe  doc  i*  looked  npon  land  to  land.  Now,  whererer  aueh  ■  band 
^,."'  °™'?  "inial.  iriioae  tooeh  i*  oare-  of  men  and  aninuhi  had  onoe  tratellod,  they 
fcllyaToid.dbyiheMo*leni*,ihecati*oft»n  would  fOrro  a  track,  wbieh,  e«p«!i*Uy  in 
""'"^'""■"^"'•'-^didiwithili     oonntrie*  whe«  it  i*  eaay  fbr  «  tniTriler  to 


•llowad  to  pailake  otjhe  *, 


C  A  u                 ao9  C  A  u 

not  takm  ubitrarily,  bat  beoaoie  it  led  to  *  Solomon  did  not  neglect  the  ewe  of  the 

the  first  oities  in  each  pertiotilaT  district  of  wsys ;  but  he  laid  «  caaseway  of  black  stone 

oonntry.    And  thus,  at  a  Teiy  early  period,  (basalt)  along  the  roads  that  led  to  Jemsa- 

were  marked  out  on  the  surface    of  the  lem,  both  to  render  them  easy  to  trayellers, 

globe,  lines  of  intereommmiication,  ronning  and  to  manifest  the  grandeur  of  his  riches/ 

from  land  to  land,  and  in  some  sort  binding  Winer,  indeed,  remarks  ihat  Josephus's  roads 

distant  nations  together.      These,  in  the  find  no  support  in  the  Bible.    But  although 

earliest  times,  lay  in  the  direetion  of  east  these  particular  roads  may  not  be  mentioned, 

to  west;  that  being  the  line  on  which  the  it  does  not  henoe  follow  that  they  did  not 

trade  and  the  ciTiliBation  of  the  earth  first  exist    Mention,  however,  is  made,  as  we 

ran.  haye  seen,  of  ways  and  highways  in  the 

The  purposes  of  war  seem,  howerer,  to  Scriptural  authorities.  To  the  Bomans,  how- 

have  fhmished  the  first  inducement  to  made  erer,  Palestine  was  greatiy  indebted  for  its 

or  artificial  roads.    War,  we  know,  afforded  roads.    On  this  subject,  Reland  ('Palestina') 

to  the  Bomans  the  motive  under  which  they  has  supplied  useful  information.     In  the 

formed  their  roads;  and,  doubtiess,  they  found  East  generally,  and  Palestine  in  particular, 

them  not  only  to  facilitate  conquest,  but  also  the  Biomans  formed  roads,  and  set  up  mUe- 

to  ensure  the  holding  of  tiie  lands  they  stones,  in  imitation  of  what  they  had  done 

had  subdued :   the  remains  of  their  roads  in  Italy. 

wliich  we  have  under  our  own  eyes  in  this  The  Phcenieians,  as  a  mercantile  people, 

island,  show  us  with  what  skill  they  laid  out  maintained  a  connection,  not  only  with  the 

a  country,  and  formed  lines  of  communicar  West  by  sea,  but  also  overland  with  the  East 

tion.    To  the  Bomans  chiefly  was  Palestine  They  had  two  great  commercial  highways, 

indebted  for  such  roads.  One  came  out  of  Arabia  Felix,  through  Petra: 

There  seems,  as  appears  above,  to  have  tiie  other  struck  firom  the  northern  extre- 

been  roads  of  some  kind  in  Palestine  at  an  mity  of  the  Persian  Oulf,  through  Palestine 

earlier  period.    Language  is  employed  which  to  Tyre. 

supposes  the  existence  of  artificial  roads  The  first  road  which  we  mention  in  Pales- 
In  Isa.  xL  8  are  these  words — '  Prepare  ye  tine,  ran  from  Ptolemais,  on  the  coast  of  the 
the  way  of  the  Lord ;  make  straight  in  the  Meditezranean,  to  Damascus.  This  road  re- 
desert  a  hifj^way  for  our  God.  Every  valley  mains  to  the  present  day.  Beginning  at 
shall  be  esdted,  and  every  mountain  and  hill  Ptolemais  (Acco),  it  ran  southward  to  Nasa* 
shall  be  made  low ;  and  tiie  crooked  shall  be  reth,  and,  continuing  south  and  east,  passed 
made  straight,  and  the  rough  places  plain.'  tiie  plain  of  Esdraelon  on  the  north ;  alter 
There  cannot  be  a  more  graphic  description  which,  turning  north  and  east,  it  came  to 
of  the  operations  and  results  connected  with  Tiberias,  where,  running  along  the  Sea  of 
the  formation  of  a  long  and  important  road.  Galilee,  it  reached  Capernaum,  and  having 
That  this  is  the  langaage  of  prophetic  in-  passed  the  Jordan  somewhat  above  the  last 
spiration,  affords  no  objection,  but  rather  place,  it  went  over  a  spur  of  the  Antiliba- 
confirms  our  view ;  for  poetry,  as  being  an  nns  (Jebel  Heish),  and,  keeping  straight  for- 
appeal  to  widely  spread  feelings,  grounds  it-  ward  east  by  north,  came  to  Damascus.  This 
seif,  in  such  a  case  as  this,  on  fkct ;  nor  could  road  was  used  both  for  the  purposes  of  trade 
such  imageiy  as  we  find  here,  have  been  em-  and  war.  In  the  history  of  the  Crusades,  it 
ployed,  had  artificial  roads  been  unknown  in  bears  the  name  of  Via  Maris.  It  connected 
Palestine.  The  imagery,  moreover,  is  not  Europe  with  the  interior  of  Asia.  Troops 
-unusual:  comp.  Isa.  xL  16  ;  xix.  23 ;  xxxiii  coming  from  Asia  over  the  Euphrates,  passed 
8 ;  XXXV.  8 ;  xlix.  11 ;  Ixii.  10.  In  1  Sam.  along  tiiis  wi^  into  the  heart  of  Palestine, 
vi.  12,  we  read, — *  The  kine  went  along  on  Under  the  Bomans,  it  was  a  productive  source 
the  highway,  lowing  as  they  went,  and  turned  of  income.  It  was  on  this  road,  not  far  from 
not  aside  to  the  right  hand,  or  to  the  left.  Capernaum,  that  Jesus  saw  Matthew '  sitting 
In  Numbers,  also  (xx.  17),  —  'We  will  go  at  the  receipt  of  custom,'  and  gave  him  his 
by  the  king's  highway,*  ino.  (xxi  22.  Deut  call  to  the  aposUeship. 
ii.27.  Lev.  xxvi.  22).  Whether  or  not  these  Another  road  passed  along  the  Mediter- 
were  roads  in  the  modem  acceptation  of  the  ranean  coast,  southward  into  Egypt  Be- 
term,  we  know,  from  a  law  regarding  a  ft«e,  ginning  at  Ptolemais,  it  ran  first  to  Cesarea, 
open,  and  good  passage  to  the  cities  of  re-  thence  to  Diospolis,  and  so  on  through 
fdge  (Deut  xix.  8),  that  the  minds  of  the  Ascalon  and  Gaza,  down  into  Egypt  This 
Israeliteswereearlyfamiliarisedwith  the  idea  was  also  a  great  line  of  communication, 
—  'Thou  shalt  prepare  thee  a  way,  &c.;  that  passing,  as  it  did,  through  cities  of  much 
every  slayer  may  flee  thither.'  Indeed,  it  is  importance,  running  along  the  coast,  and 
higUy  probable  that  the  Hebrews  had  be-  extending  into  Egypt  A  glance  at  the  map 
come  acquainted  with  roads  during  their  will  show  how  important  it  was  for  trade  by 
sojourn  in  Egypt  where,  in  the  Delta  especi-  land  and  by  sea,  as  weU  as  for  the  passage 
ally,  the  nature  of  the  country  would  require  of  troops.  A  branch  of  this  road  connected 
roads  to  be  thrown  up  and  maintained.  Jo-  the  sea  with  the  metropolis,  leading  frt>m  the 
sephns  (Antiq.  viii  7.  4),  expressly  says,  —  same  Caesarea,  through  Diospolis  to  Jerusi^- 


C  A  U                     310  C  A  V 

lam.    Down  tbii  biwieh,  Paul  was  sent  on  they  ini|^t  take  a  wetleily  dirMtion  on  to 

his  way  to  Felix  (Acts  xxiii.  dd,  2tf ).    The  Gaaa,  a  way  wfaieh  is  atiU  pvnaed,  and  is  of 

band  went  tfaron^  Antipatiia,  and  thenoe  on  two  days'  dnration.    The  ovdinary  way  ftom 

to  Cssaiea.  Jenisalem  appears,  in  the  Roman  period, 

A  third  line  of  load  eonneoted  Galilee  with  to  have  led  thraoi^  Skntheropolis  and 

JndBSy  running  threngh  the  intervening  8a-  Asealon. 

maria  (Lnke  xvii.  11.  John  iT.  4.  Joseph.  From   Gtan,  through  Bhinoeolnra  and 

Antiq.  zz.  6. 1.  Uib,  f  82).    The  Journey  Pelosinm,  was  the  nearest  road  down  into 

took  three  days.    Passing  idong  the  plain  of  Egypt  from  Jemsalem  (Antiq.  ztL  14,  3). 

Esdraelon,  the  traYeller  entered  Samaria  at  Along  this  road,  many  thousand  prisoners, 

Oinea  ( Jenin),  and  was  thenoe  conduoted  to  made  by  Vespasian  on  the  capture  of  Jem> 

Samaria  (Sebaste),  thenoe  to  Shechem  (Na-  salem,  were  sent  to  Alexandria,  in  order  to 

Uous),  whenoe  a  good  day's  travel  brought  be  sent  to  Borne.    Of  these  two  losds,  from 

him  to  Jeinsalem.    This  last  part  of  the  Jerasslem  to  Gasa,  one  went  westward  by 

Journey  has  been  described  by  Manndxell  Bamlah  and  Asealon ;  the  odier,  southward 

('  Journey,'  p.  80,  icf.)*  ^  Hebion.    This  last  load,  Biinmer  is  of 

Bobinson  oame  unsxpectedly  on  tnees  of  opinion,  was  that  whieh  was  taken  by  Philip 

an   old,  perhaps  militaiy  road,  which,  in  (Aota  iHL  fid,  $eq.),  partly  because,  tradition 

ancient  times  (as  now),  led  along  the  sum-  states^  the  eunueh  was  bsptized  in  the  vici- 

mlt  of  the  high  mountainoua  tract,  from  the  nity  c^Hebion;  and  this  road  bom  Jerusalem 

plain  of  Esdraelon,  throuj^  Neapolis  and  to  Hebion  runs  through  the '  desert'  Thekoa. 

Gophna,  to  the  Holy  City.    The  psTement  And  here  he  finds  the  reason  of  the  angel's 

still   remains   entire   ita    a   considerable  eommand  to  go  *  towards  the  south  f  for 

distanee.  Hebron  lay  south  of  Jerusalem;  vriMseas, 

In  the  tame  of  the  Bomans,  there  was  also  but  for  Ibis  diieoiion,Phflip  might  have  gone 

a  road  from  Jerusalem  to  the  lake  Genneaa-  westward  by  ^**f^^           \ 

reth,  throu^  Shechem  and   Scythopolis.  Theie  only  remains  Ibr  us  to  mendonwhal 

The  same  road  sent  a  branch  off  to  Soytfao-  Winer  reckons  as  the  third  of  the  three 

polls,  in  a  westerly  direction,  ihrou|^  £s-  great  roads  whieh  ran  fkum  Jerusalem.   This 

draelon  and  Csaarea;  and  another  branch  third  road  went  to  the  Medilerxanean  ut 

along  the  Jordan  to  Gadara,  on  to  Damascus,  Joppa  (JaAi),  a  way  whieh,  from  the  time 

along  which  line  of  country  there  stiU  lies  a  of  ti^e  Crusades,  has  been  taken  by  pilgrims 

road,  southward  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  to  the  prooeeding  to  the  Holy  City  from  Egypt  and 

same  celebrated  city.  Europe. 

There  were  three  chief  roads  running  firom  OAVES  (L.  Aottoiet),  both  natural  and 

Jerusalem.  One  passed  in  a  north-easterly  di-  artificial,  are  very  numerous  in  Palestine ;  the 

reotion  over  the  Mount  of  Olives,  by  Bethsny,  chalk  and  limestone  which  pieraO,  affNding 


through  openings  in  hills  and  winding  ways,  either  oaves  or  facilitieii  tor  their  Jbimation 

on  to  Jeiidio ;  near  which  the  Jordan  was  pas-  by  the  hand  of  man.    Carmel  is  celebrated 

sed  when  travellers  took  their  way  to  the  north,  tor  its  oaves,  of  whkh  tour  hundred  are  said 

if  they  wished  to  go  through  Persa;  which  to  be  found  in  one  part,  oalled  'Monk's 

was  the  road  the  Galilean  Jews,  in  coming  Cavern.'     The  high  landa  on  iht  east  of 

to  and  returning  from  the  festlTals  in  the  Jordan,  and  the  hill-country  of  Judah,  eon- 

capital,  were  accustomed  to  take,  thus  avoid-  tain  many  oaves,  as  well  as  the  neighbouring 

ing  the  unfiiendly  territory  of  Samaria;  or  district  of  Idumsa,  which  is  eelebraled  for 

travellers  turned  theirfaces  towards  the  south,  its  caves.    These  caTcs  are  in  some  cases 

if  they  intended  to  go  towards  tiie  Bed  Sea.  purely  the  work  of  nature;  in  others,  of  na- 

This  road  was  followed  by  the  Israelites,  tnre  aairiflted  by  art    Of  the  magnitude  of 

when  they  directed  their  steps  towards  Ca-  some  of  these  hollows,  the  reader  may  fonn 

naan.     Through  Pcr«a,  the  Syrian  and  As-  some  idea  firom  the  cave  of  Engedi,  near  the 

Syrian  armies  made  their  hostile  advances  on  Dead  Sea,  which  is  said  to  have,  on  (me  oc- 

larael  (3  Kings  viiL  28;  ix.  14;  x.  82.  teq,  cssion,  affbrded  shelter  for  thirty  thousand 

1  Chron.  t.  26).  persons. 

This  highway  the  Bomans  seem  to  have  The  cave  of  Khuzeitnn,  or  'the  labyrinth,' 

availed  themselves  of;  for  Bobinson,  on  the  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Frank  Mountain, 

plain  of  Jericho,  fell  in  with  the  remains  of  a  has  been  described  by  Irby  and  Mangles,  to 

regular  paved Boman  road,  which  he 'traced  whose  accuracy  Bobinson  bears  testimony, 

for  aeversl  rods,  in  a  direction  towards  the  Their  report  is  as  follows :  —  •  We  proceeded 

pass  leading  up  the  western  mountain  to  on  foot  by  the   side   of  the   cUSb  on  the 

Jerusalem.    It  was  a  mere  fragment,  entirely  southern   side  of  a  deep   and  picturesque 

^Tr.  t  w^  S^'^MS^^^  ^  ^^  '**"^«^y  "™*»'  **>  ^^  ^^^  of  L  cave.  whi<A  is 

"'T.^L'S'roMf^m  Jerusalem,  south.  :^rsl^' ll '^'S  T'^>i  """"  ^^S 

.M*^   ♦/>  TT<>Kron    whpnAA   t«.J!»iii2-  ^^^  smsll  natural  chambers  or  cavities  on 


C  AV 


311 


C  A  V 


sa^«,  leading  in  all  diractiona,  ooeaaionaDy 
Joined  by  otheia  at  rif^t  ang^a,  and  Ibnn- 
ing  a  peifeot  labyrinth,  wldflli  oar  gnidea 
aaanred  na  had  nsTer  been  thoroo^y  es- 
ploced,  the  people  being  afraid  of  loaing 
themaelTea.  The  pasaagea  were  generally 
fonr  feet  hi^,  by  three  feet  wide,  and  were 
all  on  the  aame  level.  We  aaw  bat  iSsw 
petrifiMtiona:  nerertheleaa,  the  grotto  was 
peijfoctly  dear,  and  the  air  pare  and  good. 
In  the  large  ehamber  we  foond  aome  broken 
pottaiy,  by  whieh  it  would  aeem  that  thia 
place  had  onee  been  inhabited:  probably  it 
had  aer? ed  aa  a  plaee  of  oonoealment' 

Thia  remarkable  casern  haa  been  regarded 
aa  the  oave  of  Adnllam,  in  whieh  Dafid  took 
reftige  after  leaymg  Gath.  <  Bat,'  aays  Bo- 
binson,  '  Adnllam  is  ennmerated  among  the 
eitiea  of  the  plain  of  Jodah,  and  Eaaebioa  and 
Jerome  plaoe  it  in  the  Tioinity  of  Elenthero- 
polia,  waat  of  the  moantainn ;'  whose  opinion, 
howerer,  is  diaiqpproTed  by  the  learned  and 
aoeorale  Winer. 

Oavema,  from  the  earliest  periods,  aifoided 
shelter,  by  night  and  daring  bad  weather,  to 
herdamen  and  their  flocks.  In  stiU  earlier 
times,  as  m  later  days,  they  were  made  nse 
of  for  ordinary  hnman  abodes.  Pliny  asserts 
that  the  first  habitations  were  simpty  oaves, 
with  which  Ovid,  in  his  accoont  of  the  sil- 
ter  age^  coincides  ^~ 

'Then  flnt^  men  dwelt  hi  hovMs :   their  honses 


^schylos  also,  in  his  Frometheos  Yinotas 
(460),  makes  a  similar  statement 

In  Uie  moontainona  regiona  of  Edam  there 
lived  a  tribe,  termed  by  the  Qreeks  Trog- 
lodytsB,  by  the  Hebrews  Horites ;  bodi  words 
meaning  dwellen  in  cavei,  whose  dwellings 
were  in  these  natural  hollows.  Traces  of 
the  settlements  of  such  cavern-dwellers  are 
foond  in  the  apot  where  Bobinson  places 
Elentheropolis,  lying  abont  midway  between 
Jerasalem  and  Gaaa,  at  what  is  now  called 
Beit  Jibrin.  We  subjoin  Bobinson's  account 
•f  these  wonderful  excavations :  — - '  Besides 
domes,  there  are  also  long  arched  rooms, 
with  the  walls  in  genend  ent  quite  smooth. 
One  of  these  was  nearly  a  hundred  fdet  in 
length;  having  along  its  sides,  ibout  ten 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  floor,  a  line  of 
ornamental  work  like  a  aort  of  cornice.  On 
one  aide  lower  do#n  were  two  niehea  at  aome 
distance  apart,  which  seemed  once  to  have  had 
images  standing  in  them;  but  the  stone  was 
too  much  decayed  to  detarminewith  certainty. 
These  apartmenta  are  all  Ughted  by  openinga 
from  above.  Inone  smaller  room  not  lighted, 
there  was  at  one  comer  what  looked  like  a 
aareophagua  hollowed  oat  of  the  same  rock. 
The  entrance  to  the  whole  range  of  caverns 
is  by  a  broad  arched  passage  of  some  eleva- 
tion ;  and  we  were  surprised  at  the  taste  and 
skill  displayed  in  the  workmanship. 


*  The  sheikh  took  as  across  the  same  valley 
to  other  clusters  of  caverns  on  the  northern 
hill;  more  extensive,  indeed,  than  the  for- 
mer, occupying  in  part  the  bowels  of  the 
whole  hill,  but  less  important  and  less  care- 
fhlly  wrought  These  consist  chiefly  of  bell- 
shaped  domes,  lighted  from  above ;  though 
some  are  merely  high  arched  chambera  ex- 
cavated on  the  Ikce  of  the  rock,  and  open  to 
the  day. 

*■  But  fte  most  remarkable  sj^ot  of  all  re- 
mained to  be  visited.     This  was  another 
series  cf  immense  excavations  on  the  south- 
ern end  of  the  same  hill.    Lighting  several 
candles,  we  entered  by  a  narrow  and  difll- 
cult  passage  from  a  pit  overgrown  with  bri- 
ers, and  found  ourselves  in  a  dark  labyrinth 
of  galleries  and  apartments,  all  cut  fit>m  the 
solid  rock,  and  occupying  the  bowels  of  the 
hill.    Here  were  some  dome-shaped  cham- 
bers as  before ;  others  were  extensive  rooms, 
with  roof  supported  by  columns  of  the  same 
rock  left  in  excavating;  and  aU  were  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  passages,  appa- 
rently  without  order  or  plan.    Several  other 
apartments  were  still  more  singular.    These 
were  also  in  the  form  of  small  domes,  twenty 
feet  or  more  in  diameter,  and  from  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  high :  they  were  entered  by  a  door 
near  the  top,  from  which  a  staircase,  cut  in 
the  same  rock,  wound  down  around  Uie  wall 
to  the  bottom.    We  descended  into  several 
of  these  rooms,  but  found  nothuig  at  the 
bottom,  and  no  appearance  of  any  otiber  door 
or  passage.    Near  by  were  aaid  to  be  other 
similar  oluatera'  (ii.  898). 

At  the  aouthem  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea 
ia  a  cavern,  which  was  visited  by  Bobinson 
(ii  485).  It  is  found  on  a  level  with  the 
ground,  beneath  a  precipice  of  salt  The 
mouth  is  of  an  irregular  form,  ten  or  twelve 
feet  high,  and  about  the  same  in  breadth. 
The  interior  soon  becomes  merely  a  small 
irregular  gallery  or  fissure  in  the  rock,  with 
a  water  course  at  the  bottom.  This  gallery 
extends  for  three  or  fonr  hundred  feet  into 
the  heart  of  the  mountain;  during  which 
distance,  Ate  sides,  roo^  and  floor  of  the 
eavem  are  solid  salt 

The  appearance  of  a  sarcophagus  in  one 
of  the  caverns  visited  by  Bobinson,  is  in 
agreement  with  the  well-known  fact,  that 
natural  caves  were  used  as  burial  places. 
The  cave  of  Machpelah  was  the  family  tomb 
of  Abraham  (Oen.  xxiii.  9 ;  1. 18).  Tradition 
makes  the  first  man's  body  to  have  been 
buried  in  a  cave,  in  the  heart  of  a  mountain 
situated  in  the  centre  of  tbe  world.  Sir  W. 
Ouseley,  writing  of  the  Takht-i  Jemshid, 
says :  '  We  beheld  two  recesses  excavated  in 
the  mountain:  these,  without  hesitation,  may 
be  styled  the  sepulchral  monuments  of  an- 
cient kings '  (ii.  284). 

Caverns  afforded  also  easy  and  convenient 
places  of  refuge.  Lot  and  hia  two  daughters, 
alter  the  destruction  of  the  cities  of  the 


C  E  D                       312  C  E  D 

plain,  esoi^ied  to  a  monntaini  and  dwelt  in  a  -Oars  U  a  plain  ooniBe,  and  no  less  safe  than 

oaye  (Gen.  xix.  17,  30).     The  history  of  easy.    That  there  was  in  Ancient  Palestine 

David  makes  mention  of  cares  in  the  Judeaa  a  tree  bearing  the  name  Ehrex,  eedar,  there 

hills,  which  gave  him  and  his  followers  shel-  ean  be  no  doubt     Under  the  general  denomi- 

ter  against  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiiL  6 ;  zxii.  1, 2).  nation,  more  than  one  species  may  have  been 

The  last  passage  speaks  of  the  cave  of  Adul-  included.    What  its  qualities  were,  is  made 

lam,  where  Dayid's  band  gathered  themselves  known  by  the  terms  in  whidi  it  is  spoken  of 

to  the  number  of  foui  hundred  men  (Comp.  an  the  Bible.  Nor,  if  it  is  really  a  fact  that  the 

2  Sam.  zxiii.  13).    In  Carmel,the  prophets  oedar-wood  of  modem  times  is  less  durable 

who  were  persecuted  by  Jeaebel,  queen  of  and  odoriferous  than  that  of  some  other  trees, 

Ahab,  hid  themselves  under  the  care   of  does  it  follow  that  any  doubt  rests  on  the 

Obadish,  in  two  eaves,  each  holding  fifty  per-  Scriptural  descriptions,  for  this,  if  for  no 

sons  (1  Kings  zviiL  4;  oomp.  Amos  iz.  3).  other  reason,  that  the  oedar  of  the  saered 

Of  this  band  of  patriots  were  El^ah  and  pages  was  as  a  mueh-Talued,  so  a  carefully 

Elisha,  who  were  wont  to  fluent  Caimel  cultivated  tree,  which  would,  of  necessity, 

(1  Kings  xviii.  4,  19-40.   2  Kings  ii.  25;  possess  higher  quaUUes  than  the  lingering 

iv.  25.   Comp.  1  Kings  xix.  19).     Carmel  remnants  of  distant  centuries,  or  their  im- 

still  retains  the  memory  of  Elijah:    *The  mature  progeny. 

friar' — say  Irby  and  Mangles — '  showed  us  According  to  the  Bible,  the  eedar  was  em- 

a  cave  cut  in  the  natural  rock,  where  the  pro-  ployed  for  such  purposes  as  imply  its  super- 

phet  £l\jth  had  his  altar  (1  Kings  xviii  32).  eminent  excellence  for  strength,  beauty,  and 

In  f^ont  of  this  are  the  remains  of  a  hand-  durability.    Hence  its  timber  was  preferred 

some  church,  built  by  the  Empress  Helena  for  constructing  buildings  of   note ;    and 

at  the  time  ^e  made  her  pilgrimage  to  Je-  hence  the  point  of  David's  remark,  when  he 

rusalem.'    In  war,  caverns  served  for  not  represented  to  Nathan  the  propriety  of  his 

only  places  of  refuge,  but  strongholds^  in  building  the  temple,  —  *  See  now,  I  dwell  in 

which  a  handfdl  of  men  might  stand  out  a  house  of  cedar,  but  the  ark  of  Ood  dwelleth 

against  a  large  number  (  Judg.  vi.  2.   Esek.  within  curtains '  (2  Sam.  viL  2) ;  a  passage 

zxziiL  27) ;  and  they  gave^ireat  facilities  for  whieh  shows  that  not  only  the  body  of  the 

ambush,  and  other  stratagems  of  hateful  war  palace  was  made  of  cedar,  but  also  its  visible 

(Judg.  zz.  38).    Oaves  were  used  also  as  and  ornamental  parts  (oomp.  Jer.  zxii.  15). 

places  of  retirement  for  those  who  wished  to  Solomon's  palace,  also,  had  much  cedar  in 

lead  a  solitary  life.    They  served  in  general  its  construction,  *  four  rows  of  cedar  pillars, 

for  hiding  places,  and  Carmel  was  famous  with  oedar  beams  upon  the  pillars,'  obviously 

for  the  facilities  which  It  afforded  in  this  for  strength  (I  Kings  viL  2);  but  the  canopy, 

particular  (Amos  iz.  3).   Peasants  used  cayes  or  throne  of  Jud^nent,  was  covered  widi 

as  stables  for  their  ciOtle ;  consequently  tra-  cedar,  which  here  performed  the  part  of  our 

dition  has  placed  the  i|in  and  Uie  manger  mahogany  (7).    The  house  of  Jehovsh,  or 

where  the  Saviour  was  bom  (Luke  ii  7)  in  temple  built  by  Solomon,  had  also  much 

a  cave  at  Bethlehem.   Caverns  were  account-  oedar   hi   its   stracture;   the  vault  beams, 

ed  sacred  in  most  of  the  mysteries ;  and  so  and  ceilings,  wainscoting,  and  the  Joist; 

great  a  reverence  was  entertained  for  them,  carved  work  for  decoration  also ;  the  body 

that  many  religious  impostors  took  advan-  of  the  altar,  &c.  (1  Kings  vi ;  comp.  Cant, 

tage  of  their  supposed  sanctity,  and  retired  i  17).    For  the  second  temple,  cedar-trees 

into  them  before  they  hazarded  the  promul-  were  brought  firom  Lebanon    to  the  sea^ 

gation  of  their  tenets  port  of  Joppa  (Ezra  iii  7).    These  facts 

CEDAB   (Kedrot)  is  a  Greek  word,  by  ehow,  moreover,  that  cedar  was  aocoaoted 

which  the  Septuagiiit  renders  (except  Esek.  a  sacred  wood.    Accordingly,  it  was  used  in 

zzvii.  24,  where  it  gives  cyprest)  the  Hebrew  the  making  of  idols   (Isa.  xliv.  14).      The 

EhreZf  which,  coming  fhnn  a  stem  signify-  cedsr  thus  became   a  favourite  source  of 

ing  to  be  deep  and  weU^ooUd,  indicates  the  poetic  imsgeiy  (Judg.  iz.  15.  2  Kings  ziv.  9) . 

firmness,  strength,  and  durability,  for  which  in  both  passages  the  cedar,  as  the  first  of 

qualities  the  cedar  is  distinguished.     The  trees,  is  put  in  contrast  with  the  meanest 

cedar,  and  especislly  that  of  Lebanon,  is,  for  shrabs,  the  brsmble  and  the  thistle.    The 


land.    Of  the  Jews,  some  enumerate  seven,  (Jer.  zzii.  7).    Ezekiel  has  given  a  striking 

others  ten,  others  twenty-four  species.    Some  portrait  of  the  tree  i  —  *  The  Assyrian  was  a 

persons  have  alleged  that  the  Ehrez  vras  a  cedar  hi  Lebanon,  with  fair  branches,  and 

general  name  for  pines,  to  the  exclusion  of  with  a  shadowing  shroud,  and  of  an  high 

cedar; — others,  again,  that  it  denotes  in  stature;  and  his  top  was  among  the  thick 

Senpture  different  species  of  eedar.    Again,  boughs.    The  waters  made  him  great ;  the 

d  ^  ^^^^Q  affirmed  that  the  wood  of  the  deep  set  him  up  on  high,  with  the  rivsra 

of  d  iT  ^^'^^u.    We  leave  these  questions  running  round  about  his  plants,  and    ent 

<>^hate  to  those  who  are  fond  of  them,  out  her  little  rivers  unto  all  the  trees  of  the 


C  E  D  313  C  E  D 

ileld.  Therefore  his  height  wm  exalted  &o.  exeeoted  fai  the  best  taste,  and,  in  sharp- 
above  all  the  trees  of  the  field,  and  his  ness  and  oolonr,  very  similar  to  box-wood, 
boughs  were  multiplied,  and  his  branches  For  ornamental  purposes,  cedar  was  also  im- 
beeame  long,  because  of  the  multitude  of  ported  into  Egypt,  by  whose  kings  it  was 
waters,  when  he  shot  forth.  All  the  fowls  employed,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
of  heayen  made  their  nests  in  his  boughs,  Pliny.  Bruee,  in  his  Travels  (iii.  318),  has 
and  under  his  branohes  did  all  the  beasts  of  these  words :  —  *  The  churches  (in  Abyssi- 
the  field  bring  forth  their  young,  and  under  nia)  are  always  placed  upon  the  top  of  some 
his  shadow  dwelt  all  great  nations.  Thus  beautiful  round  hill,  which  is  surrounded 
was  he  fair  in  his  greatness,  in  the  length  of  entirely  with  rows  of  the  oxy-cedru$,  or  Yir- 
his  branches ;  for  his  root  was  by  great  waters,  ginia  cedar,  which  grows  here  in  great  beauty 
The  fir-trees  were  not  like  his  boughs,  and  and  perfection,  and  is  called  arz.  There  is 
the  chesnut-trees  were  not  like  his  branches;  nothing  adds  so  much  to  the  beauty  of  the 
nor  any  tree  in  the  garden  of  Ood  was  like  country,  as  these  churches,  and  the  plant*- 
unto  him  in  his  beauty.  I  hare  made  him  tions  about  them.'  Cedars  still  adorn  Mount 
fair  in  the  multitude  of  his  branches ;  so  Lebanon.  One  group  has  long  attracted 
that  all  the  trees  of  Eden,  that  were  in  the  special  attention,  though  their  number  has 
garden  of  God,  envied  him '  (xxxL  8 — 0).  been  variously  reported. 
This  imagery  is  of  an  admirable  character.  In  the  older  writers,  an  impression  is  found 
not  surpassed  by  any  of  a  similar  kind,  that  it  was  impossible  to  count  these  famous 
found  in  classical  writers ;  describing,  as  it  trees  correctly.  The  variations  arose,  not 
does,  with  squal  propriety,  effect,  and  beauty,  from  any  supernatural  cause,  but  from  the 
the  cedar  and  &e  Assyrian  empire.     In  ttuot  that  some  of  the  trees  had  more  than 


briefer,  yet  emphatic  terms,  the  Psalmist  one  trunk  each.  They  seem  to  have  under- 
draws fhnn  the  tree  an  emblem  of  the  safety  gone  diminution  in  modem  times.  Purer, 
and  happiness  of  good  men: —  in  1565,  speaks  vaguely  of  about  twenty-five. 

•  The  rtfhfoo.  ShanHouridi  like  the  palm;  ^f^^  ?  l?^^.  '^"J*  ,*^7i?!".J?''* 

He  "hJi  grow  like  a  cedar  in  Lebanon/  stood  round  about  m  a  circle,  and  two  others 

.  whose  branches  were  decayed.    He  found 

To  cite  the  words  of  a  modem  poet,  whose  no  young  trees,  so  that  those  of  secon- 

idea  18  taken  from  the  same  source  —  ^aiy  growth,  which  now  exist,  are  not  three 

As  some  Mr  tree,  with  water  near  the  roots,  hundred  yeara  old.    Badxivil,  in  1588 ;  Bid- 


Whoee  boughs  bright  bods  and  blossoms  riohij  dulph,  about  the  commencement  of  the  six 

Re £^^ flourish, crownMwtthvlrtai^s fruits,  J««"^  "^^VaL^/"  ^^''v''  ^  ^**^'  ^* 

His  leal  no  wind  shaU  soatter  trom  the  stem.  Lithgow,  m  1613,  found  the  same  number, 

But  tempesta  o'er  nngodly  men  shall  lower,  twenty-four.  In  1630,  Fermanel  fbund  twenty- 

^'^■H.S*''fS??*??*»"45??>"»'***»f''Woom;  two,  and  one  lately  fallen,  which  some  shep. 

^  quitted  Palesune  m  1684,  mentions  twenty- 
The  cedsr  is  now  classed  smong  the  fire,  two,  and  two  others  lying  on  the  ground, 
of  which  there  are  four  natural  tribes;  of  not  rotten,  but  without  leaves,  and  faint 
the  flret  of  which,  the  silver  fir  is  given  as  La  Boque,  in  1688,  found  twenty ;  Mann- 
the  representative ;  of  the  second,  the  Nor-  drell,  in  1696,  only  sixteen.  Three  perished 
way  sprace ;  of  the  third,  the  Isrch ;  and  of  during  the  eighteenth  century.  Dr.  Po- 
the  fourth,  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  (abiet  cocke,  in  1745,  found  fifteen,  of  which  the 
cednui  pinu$  cedrus  of  Linnsus).  'Mount  soundest,  but  not  the  largest,  measured  in 
Lebanon,  and  the  range  of  Taurus,  are  the  girth  24  feet  Of  the  wood  he  reported 
native  spots  of  this  most  stately  and  magni-  Siat  it  did  not  diifer  from  white  deal  in  ap- 
fieent  tree,  which  compensates  for  its  want  pearance,  nor  did  it  seem  harder.  It  had  a 
of  height,  by  its  huge  wide-spreading  aims,  fine  smell,  but  was  not  so  fragrant  as  the 
esch  of  which  is  almost  a  tree  itself.  Its  Juniper  of  America.  Lamartine,  in  1832,  re- 
growth  is  not  so  slow  as  some  imagine '  ported  the  number  at  seven.  *  These,  how- 
(*  Penny  Cyclopedia,'  under  Fir),  Cedar-  ever,  i^m  their  sise  snd  general  appearance, 
wood  has  the  reputation  of  being  indeatrac-  may  be  fairly  presumed  to  have  existed  in 
tible.  Instances  have  been  named,  of  its  Bibliosl  times.  Around  these  ancient  wit- 
having  been  taken  firom  buildmgs  unii\jured,  nesses  of  ages  long  gone  by,  there  still  re- 
after  a  lapse  of  two  thousand  yean.  It  may,  mains  a  little  grove  of  yellow  cedare,  appearing 
however,  be  questioned  whether  these  beams  to  me  to  form  a  group  of  fh>m  four  to 
were  of  the  Lebanon  cedar,  and  not  rather  five  hundred  trees  or  shrubs.  Every  year, 
the  beautiful  hard,  deep-brown  timber  of  in  the  month  of  June,  the  inhabitanta  of  the 
Thvja  articulata,  or  Sandaric  tree.  The  fit-  neighbouring  valleys  climb  up  to  those  cedan, 
ness  of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  for  carved  or-  and  celebrate  mass  at  their  feet  How  many 
naments  may  be  learnt  from  the  success  with  prayen  have  reaounded  under  these  branches ! 
which  Mr.  Wilcox,  of  Warwick,  produced  and  what  more  beautiful  canopy  for  wonhip 
specimens  of  furniture  made  of  this  wood,  can  exist! '  <  It  is  gratiiying,'  says  Lord  Lind- 
adorned  with  carved  work,  in  flowers,  leaves,  say,  *  to  reflect  that  great  care  is  now  taken 


C  E  D                      314  C  E  D 

of  thMC  "lemnwiti  of  fli*  gluts.'     Tha  «f  spordonof  thaiibt):k,irtiiohtiuiiinh«d 

tiau  an  wwoimhid  iBsnid ;  mod  (bt  palrUnh  (he  dMk7  of  ths  reit.    BoMegar,  hmrarar, 

praftmu  a  aolamn  r»rif  mus  imdar  (liait  ii  inoliDed  to  admit  that  theaa  ttoaa  nuf 

(bade,  on  tfu  faait  of  die  Trauaflgontioii '  poaiibly  onnibai  aoma  two  ihooaand  j«ara ; 

(i.  368).    Bobimon  (ill.  UO)  laja  on  ih*  uklDg  into  oonaideratioD  thaii  aiia,  tliait 

anbjeet :  —  '  Tha  oglsbralcd  oedar-grova   of  girth,  Ifaa  sloiiT  aoU  ia  whiob  thay  gmw,  and 

LebaaoD  it  at  laail  two  daja'  Jaamaj  from  their  htltj  poailioa,  a^HMad  ao  maoh  to  tha 

Seinit,  n*«r  th«  northern,  and  iwdufa  hi^-  notanoe  of  the  wind*.    The;  wa,  bowvrar, 

•at  aaoinit  of  the  monntain,  tix  or  aicbl  among  the  Boat  adeloated  naatal  mean- 

honn  north  of  Jebal  8annin.    It  baa  tlutt  manta  cm  the  earth,    lungtnn,  poMi;,  aad 

bean,  and  ■offloiantlj,  deaarlbed  bj  traTsllara  hiaMnj,  hare  •goallT  eonaieratid  thnn.  Tha 

for  tha  last  three  oeutuiieB ;  but  thaj  all  diflkt  Arabiana  of  all  oreade  hare  atill  a  traditional 

•a  to  the  niuuber  of  the  oldeat  treea;  inaa-  Teneiatlon for Ibam.    Thar  hoU  that  anerli 

miuh  aa,  in  oooutiiig,  aoma  hare  inohided  tela  would  orMrtake  ai^  oo*  irtio  dkoold  dare 

more,  end  aoma  leaa,  of  the  TOOBgei  onaa.  to  laf  aaaril^ioiia  handa  oai  theee '  eainti,'  a> 

At  preaenttha  nnmbar  of  (foung)  treea  ap-  tberfcodljeldllbem.  Thay  attrfbnic  to  tham, 

peara  to  be  on  the  inoraaae,  and  amonnta  In  not  onljaT^etatiTetigovf  dutendowelbem 

all  to  acrarel  hundred.    Thia  groTe  waa  long  with  patpetael  exlateBoe,  bnt  alao  a  aonl 

bald  to  br  Iba  onlj  iramaat  of  the  endent  irtildi  aoaUae  Aam  to  exbiUt  eigne  of  m- 


diaoorared  two  olhai  grDrea  ofaqoel  eilantt     fram  inatinet  in  —'"-'-.  and  from  intalleat 

._j  ^.  . , '--^omerlaa,iDllaTelUag     in  man.    They  know  die  eeaaona  befiwe- 

I,  hare  finnd  menj    hand ;   the;  more  dieir  Tial  llmba ;   they 


jeet  heia,  diieOj  In  order  to  edd  tha  taatl-  to  die  hearena  or  bend  them  to  the  ruth, 
mot^  of  hiAaaor  Ehnoberg  to  the  eame  aooording  ae  the  anow  ia  about  to  till  or  to 
iMt.  Thia  dlatingniahed  nataraliat  apant  a  malL  The;  are  divine  beluga  onder  tha 
•onaldarabla  time  on  Labamm,  and  infOrma  fonn  of  treea.  The  very  air  of  the  eeder 
me  that  he  fnnid  the  aedar  growing  abon-  Imprtasea  one  with  the  idea  of  iu  eompara- 
daol^  in  tboae  perta  of  the  momtaina  lying  tire  immonalitj.  There  ii  a  fiimaeu  in  Iho 
north  of  the  row)  between  Baalbek  and  Trl-  bark,  and  ■  atabillty  in  the  trunk,  in  the  mode 
poll*.  The  toaM  w«  of  all  afaaa.  old  and  In  whioh  it  l^a  hold  of  the  gromid,  and  lu 
yomig,  bat  lume  ao  anelant  and  Tenarable  aa  die  form  of  the  branehea,  and  their  insertion 
thoaa  nanally  Tlaited.'  into  th«  imnk,  aeareely  found  in  any  oihat 

Tha  eelebraled  gme  atenda  on  a  grotip     tree. 
of  atony  knella,  about  three  qnaitara  of  a 
mile  in  eirenmATenoe,  and  ootuiBta  of  three  — 

or  four  bundiad  tieca,  partly  the  remaina  of 
a  tbraat,  that  onoe  perii^  filled  tha  whda 
lalley,  and  partly  Ifae  yonnger  progeny 
of  the  Tenerible  patriarche  among  them. 
The  younger  are  nnmerone.  They,  how- 
erar,  are  not  eo  <reiy  yonng.  Bniaeger 
llilnka  that  moit  of  the  treee  in  die  grora 
may  be  a  couple  of  aenturiee  old,  and  aereral 
betinen  the  agea  of  four  and  ei^t  hundred 
yeara.    There  an  aald  to  be  twelve  whoaa 


fgetlneireomfereBae.  Theee  glenta  «>e  more 
remarkable  tot  girth  than  ttalnre.  Their 
hei^thardlyeioeedaltf^ftet.  They  all  part 
into  seraral  lUma ;  but,  aa  thia  diviaiontdwa 
ploee  about  five  feet  from  Aa  root,  there  it 
not  muoh  diffloul^  in  asoertaiaing  their  true 
dimenjiana.  Their  age  ia  TBiionaly  esti- 
mated. Their  moat  eangnine  admireia  be- 
lieie  them  to  have  twoi  eoulempoiary  with 
Solomon ;  and  thongh  thia  drawa  rather  too 
stroDgly  on  our  Dredolity,  yet  there  la  no 
direct  eridenee  to  oontradiet  IL  The  mice  The  foliage,  too,  ia  anperior  to  that  of  any 
by  which  botinjsta  determine  the  age  of  treea  other  of  ^e  tribe,  each  braiwh  being  perfM 
are  aaid  not  to  be  qtpllcable  (o  these,  be-  in  ita  Ibrm ;  the  points  of  the  leavea  apread 
oanse  their  atama  hare  eeased  to  grow  in  upwards  into  beantifDl  little  tofla,  and  the 
i^nlar  ooneestrie  ringi ;  and  they  owe  their  whole  upper  snrbce  of  the  braneh  haa  Uta  »f' 
prolonged  exialenee  to  the  auperior  titality     pearanoeof  TelreL    The eolonr ia rioh  grcan. 


C  £  D  315  C  E  D 

winting  the  blniah  tint  of  the  pine  and  fir,  mexouB, — ^the  second-rate  would  form  a  noblt 

and  the  lurid  and  gloomy  hue  of  the  (Tpress.  wood  of  themselTes,  were  even  the  patriarchal 

'  The  cedar  is  an  erergreen.    The  finiit  re-  dynasty  quite  extinct    One  of  them,  by  no 

sembles  the  oone  of  the  pine.    The  wood  is  means  the  largest,  measures  nineteen  feet 

oompact,  and  of  a  beautifal  brown  tint'  and  a  quarter  in  oircomference ;  and,  in  re- 

These  are  the  words  of  JLamartine :  — '  And  peated  instances,  two,  three,  and  four  large 

though  its  lesistanoe  to  actual  wear  is  not  trunks  spring  from  a  single  root:  but  they 

equal  to  that  of  the  oak,  it  is  so  bitter  that  have  all  a  fresher  appearance  than  the  patri- 

no  insect  will  touch  it;  and  it  seems  proof  arohs,  and  stndghter  stems,  —  straight  as 

against  time  itself!     If  the  rapidity  of  its  young  palm-trees.    Of  the  giants,  there  were 

growth  were  at  all  correspondent  to  its  other  seven  standing  very  near  each  other,  all  on 

qualities,  it  would  be  the  most  Taluable  tree  the  same  hill ;  three  more,  a  little  further 

in  the  forest'  on,  nearly  in  a  line  with  them :  and  in  a 

Lord  Lindsay's  '  Letters  from  the  Holy  second  walk  of  discovery,  after  my  compani- 

Land '  supply  the  following  graphic  deserip-  ons  had  laid  down  to  rest,  I  had  the  pleasure 

tion  of  the  Lebanon  oedazs  and  their  locally  of  detecting  two  others  low  down  on  the 

(ii  210— 15)  •  northern  edge  of  the  groves-twelve,  therefore, 

*  All  the  trees  ceased  now,  except  a  species  in  all,  of  which  the  ninth  horn  the  south  is 
of  dwarf  cedar,  emitting  a  delicious  fragranoe,  the  smallest;  but  even  that  bears  tokens  of 
which  replaced  them,  and  continued,  thou^  antiquity  coeval  with  its  brethren.  I  mea- 
diminishing  in  number,  almost  to  the  sum*  sured  several  of  them :  De  Lamartine's  tree 
nut  The  rocky  slope  of  the  mountain  is  is  forty-nine  feet  in  eiroumferenoe,  and  the 
covered  with  yellow,  white,  red,  and  pink  largest  of  my  two,  on  the  northern  slope, 
flowers,  affording  delicious  food  to  the  bees  sixty-three,  —  following  the  sinuosities  of 
of  Lebanon  —  their  honey  is  excellent    We  the  bark. 

reached  an  immense  wreath  of  snow,  lying        *  The  stately  bearing  and  graceful  repose 

on  the  breast  of  the  mountain,  just  below  of  the  young  cedars  contrast  singularly  with 

ihb  summit;  and  from  that  summit,  five  the  wild  aspect  and  frantic  attitude  of  the 

minutes  afterwards,  what  a  prospect  opened  old  ones,  flinging  abroad  their  knotted  and 

before  us !     Two  vast  ridges  of  Lebanon,  muscular  limbs  like  so  many  Laocoons ; 

curving  westwards  from  tibie  central  spot  while  others,  broken  olB,  lie  rotting  at  their 

where  we  stood,  like  the  horns  of  a  bent  feet    But  life  is  strong  in  them  aU :  they 

bow,  or  the  wings  of  a  theatre,  ran  down  look  as  if  they  had  been  struggling  for  ex- 

towards  the  sea,  breaking  in  their  descent  istence  with  evil  spirits,  and  Ood  had  inter- 

into  a  hundred  minor  hills,  between  which,  posed  and  forbidden  the  war,  that  the  trees 

unseen,  unheard,  and  through  as  deep  and  he  had  planted  might  remain  Uying  witnesses 

dark  and  jagged  a  chasm  as  ever  yawned,  to  faitUess  men  of  that  ancient  **  glory  of 

the  Kadisha,  or  Sacred  River  of  Lebanon,  Lebanon  "-^Lebanon,  the  emblem  of  the 

rushes  down  to  the  Mediterranesn — ^the  blue  righteous--  which  departed  i^m  her  when 

and  boundless  Mediterranesn,  which,  far  on  Iwael  rejected  Christ:  her  vines  drooping, 

the  western  horison,  meets  and  mingles  with  her  trees  fiew,  that  a  child  may  numbw 

the  sky.  them,  she  stands  blighted. 

*  Our  eyes  coming  home  again,  after  roving  '  We  had  intended  proceeding  that  evening 
over  this  noble  view,  we  had  leisure  to  to  Pshertfe;  but  no, —  we  could  not  resolve 
observe  a  small  group  of  trees,  not  larger,  to  leave  those  glorious  trees  so  soon—- the 
apparently,thanaclumpinanEn{^i8h  park,  loveliest,  the  noblest,  the  holiest,  in  the 
at  the  very  foot  of  the  northern  wing  or  horn  whole  world.  The  tent  was  pitched,  and  we 
of  this  great  natural  theatre :  these  were  the  spent  the  rest  of  the  day  under  their  **  shsr 
far-fiuned  cedars.  We  were  an  hour  and  dowy  shroud."  Oh!  what  a  church  that 
twenty  minutes  roaching  them,  Uie  descent  grove  is !  Never  did  I  think  Solomon's 
being  very  precipitous  and  difllcult  As  we  Song  so  beautiful,  and  that  most  noble 
entered  the  grove,  the  air  was  quite  perftimed  chi^ter  of  Ezekiel,  tiie  thirty-first  I  had 
with  their  odour,  the  "  smell  of  Lebanon,"  read  it  on  the  heights  of  Syene,  Egypt  on 
so  celebrated  by  the  pen  of  inspiration  my  right  hand,  and  Ethiopia  on  my  lef^  with 
(Hos.  xiv.  6).  many   another  denunciation,  how  awfully 

'We  halted  under  one  of  the  largest  trees,  fulfilled !  of  desolation  against  Pathros,  and 

inscribed  with  De  Laborde's  name  on  one  side,  judgments  upon  No.   But  this  was  the  place 

and  Lamartine's  on  the  other.    But  do  not  to  eigoy  it,  lying  under  one  of  those  vast 

think  that  we  were  sacrilegious  enough  to  trees,  looking  up  every  now  and  then  into 

wound  these  glorious  trees :  there  are  fow  En-  its  tliick  boughs,  hearing  the  litde  birds 

glish  names  comparatively,  I  am  hiqipy  to  say:  warbling,  and  a  perpetual  hum  of  insect 

I  would  as  soon  cut  my  name  on  the  wall  of  life  pervading  the  air  with  its  drowsy  me- 

a  church.    Several  c^nerations  of  cedars,  all  lody.     Eden  is  close  by.     These  are  *'  the 

growingpromiscnously  together,  compose  this  trees  of  Eden,"  "  the  choiee  and  beet  of  Le- 

beantiftil  grove.    The  younger  are  very  nn  banon."    These  are  the  tiees — there  oaa 


C  E  D  316  C  E  D 

bi  Don*  noblar  wblch  Solomon   ipake  of,     Ths  p«lb  uid  bridge  an  od  >  Mmoa  built 
**  front  Ibl  tedu  of  LebuiDTi  to  the  hjuop     up  wroas  the  TftUaj.    The  bridp  hu  an 
Ml  tha  wall,'' — Ibeobjeclof  repealed  ■llnuon      areli.     The  bnadlh  of  the  Tiller  will  Vf" 
•od  Monptiuon  Ihronghont  lb  e  Bible,  —  Iba     bom  tbaae  mamiramaDta : — 
emblain  of  the  righleona  in  Darid'i  labbalh  jr^^ 

hjmn.  1.  Wrom  Karbae'i  OMa  to  Iba  brow  af  th* 

■  Oar  «ie>aipm«DtwMTerrpi(tiii«aqaa  that        _  *"™i '•"'- - '* 

nl^t,  the  ttro  throwing  *  alronj  lighlon  ttaa  ■■  fjal^^ 
oadarttialcnerrBiiopisdu.  Thow  enonuooa  a,  BrldKlv^ 
anna,  of  ghaallj  whileiieaa,  Mcmcd  almoit     i.  MoRb-wn 

■tin,  and  about  to  grau>  and  oatah  o»  op         -JiT-^-'.IX:::!: ';:;'*;; I^'—'ii^; — "  !u 

into  the  thick  datknia&ej  laaned  from.'  »- HorU.—- «««.  o#  dWo,       ditto IM 

CEDRON  (H.  Jark,  trvuUtd),  a  wialer  The  laal  thraa  nnmbera  gin  the  braadlh  of 
Mmnt  or  brook,  whioh  ran*  Ihrongii  a  lal-  the  proper  bottom  of  the  ntllar  at  ibia  apM, 
la;  or  al<A  of  the  laiDe  oama ;  alao  called  nanial;,  iSA  feet,  or  110  Tarda.  Fnrdiar 
from  an  eart;  period,  Ihoncfa  not  in  Sorip-  north  it  la  •omewhal  broader. 
tore,  the  vallaj  of  JeboahaphaL  Thia  water  Below  the  bridge,  the  lalle;  oontraeta  grS' 
ooniM  nina  on  Mo  aide*  of  Janualem,  the  duallj,  and  links  more  rapidlj.  The  Bat 
Dordl  and  the  eaat;  and,  oa  luTing  Ibe  oontiimona  tracai  of  a  water  eourae  eom- 
melTDpoU*,  lakea  a  lonth-eiitem  direotian  nunoa  at  the  bridge,  Ihoogh  indieadoni  at 
to  Ike  Dead  Hei.  The  bad  of  Ihii  bmeut  the  paaaage  of  water  oecor  likewiia,  at  inter, 
b^sa  near  Iha  tombi  of  the  Jadgea ;  on  Ibe  Tali,  higher  op.  Tbe  western  bill  become! 
nortfa-eailetn  lide  of  Ihe  ait;,  iboni  hilf  an  iteeper  and  more  eleTaled;  wblle,  on  the  eaal, 
hour  diatant  from  ita  northeni  gate.  The  the  Hoont  of  Olivea  riiei  much  higher,  bat 
tract  araond  the  ipot  ii  Tirj  rook; ;  and  the  i*  not  lo  ateep.  Al  the  diitance  of  a  thoa- 
roeka  bare  been  mnch  eat  awaf,  partly  in  land  feel  from  the  bridge,  on  a  oonrae  aonlb, 
qnaiTTiiig  building  atone,  and  pirtlj  in  Ihe  tea  degieea  west,  the  bottom  of  the  nUej 
bimatlon  of  iepnlchrea.  Tbe  region  is  frill  baa  baeoms  merelj  a  deepgnllT;  the  narrow 
•f  eioaTaled  tomba  ;  iritiob  sontinne  with  bed  of  a  torrent  t^m  which  the  billa  riaa  dl- 
KOre  or  lea*  fraqoansf  on  both  aidaa  of  tbe  recil;  on  each  aide.  Here  another  bridge  la 
Teller,  all  Ihe  wa;  down  to  Jemaalem.  The  thrown  aoroaa  It  on  an  arch,  and  partlj  on 
Tallej  mna  for  flflaan  miuntea  directly  u>-  tbeleflarethe  alleged  umbiatJehuahaphat, 
wardi  thsdrri  it  ii  here  ahallow  and  bioad,  Abialom,  and  olfaan;  alao  a  Jewiah  eemeter;. 
and  in  aome  parte  tilled,  fiiongfa  Tary  »totij. 
The  road  Ibllows  ilong  ita  bottom  to  dia 
aama  point  Then  the  Talley  toma  nearly 
eaat,  almoat  at  ■  light  angle,  and  pnaaea  to 
the  northward  of  Ihe  tomba  of  Ihe  kingi. 
Hara  it  ia  about  two  hondred  roda  diatant 
from  the  el^.  The  tract  between  II  ia  Mian, 
bly  lerel  gronnd,  planted  with  oliTe-treea. 
The  Nablooa  road  eroaaea  It  In  Ihia  part,  and 
aaaenda  a  hill  on  ^  north.  The  Talley  ia 
atill  ahallow,  and  mna  in  Ihe  lame  dine- 
tion  for  Bbont  ten  minntaa.  It  then  bendi 
again  to  the  aoath,and,  fbUowingthegenenl 
oonrae,  paaaat  between  tfie  eity  and  be 
Honni  of  OliTea.  Before  reaching  Ihe  eity, 
and  alao  oppoaile  ita  northern  part,  Ae  tiI- 
ley  apraadi  ont  into  a  baain  of  nime  breadth, 
irttieh  ia  tilled,  and  aontaina  plantationa  of 
olive  tod  other  frnil-beei.  In  iLie  part  it 
la  eroaaed  obliqnely  by  a  road  leading  from 
ttie  Dorth-aail  oomer  of  Jenualem,  acroaa 
the  northern  part  of  Ihe  HonnI  of  OliTia  to 
Anata.  Ita  aldea  are  ftall  of  eicBTated  tomba. 
Aa  Ihe  valley  deaoenda,  Ibe  eleep  aide  npon 
•he  right  beoomea  more  and  more  eleTited 
above  it,  unBJ.  at  the  gate  of  St.  Stephen, 

fte  height  of  thie  brow  is aboulone bnndrod      The  tdley  eontinnea  of  the  aame  cl 

fcet.    Her.  ap^wmda  down  from  thegMe     and  fblloi,  the  aame  oonrae  (8.  10*  W.)  fbr 

„n^,ith.hetombof...Vir^.a.*!     Sf •ri5t."'^'^on'^:  nrS^Trflf 
a  or  oiiTe-treea.     aU.    It  ia  here  a  mere  raTlne  between  bi^ 


C  E  D  317  C  E  D 

numnteiiu.    Tb«  soath-eMt  eorner  of  the  wmy  to  the  Dead  Sea.    At  the  angle  where  it 

aiea  of  the  motqae  overhangB  thia  part;  the  thus  bends  eaetward,  a  small  Wady  eomea  in 

oonier  of  the  widl  standing  on  the  reiy  brink  from  the  west,  from  behind  the  Hill  of  £Til 

of  the  declivitj,  at  an  eleration  of  a  hondred  CounseL    The  width  of  the  main  Talley  b»- 

and  fifty  feet    This  is  the  highest  point  low  the  well,  as  far  as  to  the  tnin,  ^ariea 

above  the  valley;  for, fturther  south,  the  nar-  from  fifty  to  a  hondred  yards:  it  is  fbll  of 

row  ridge  of  Ophel  slopes  down  as  rapidly  as  olive  and  fig-trees,  and  is  in  most  parts 

the  valley  itaell  plongfaed  and  sown  with  gndn.  Further  down. 

Below  flie  short  turn  above  mentioned,  a  it  takes  among  the  Arabs  the  name  of  Wady 

line  of  a  diousand  and  twenty-five  feet,  on  a  er-Bahib,  '  Monk's  Valley,'  from  the  eon- 

eonrse  sonth-west,  condncts  to  fhe  Fountain  vent  Saba,  sitaated  on  it,  and  stiU  nearer 

of  tiie  Viigin,  lying  deep  under  the  western  to  the  Dead  Sea :  it  is  eaUed  Wa^  en-Nar, 

hilL    The  valley  has  now  opened  a  little;  'Fire  Valley.' 

but  its  bottom  is  still  oeeupied  only  by  the  The  channel  of  the  brook  Kidron  is  the 
bed  of  the  toixent  From  here  a  course  bed  of  a  winter  tonrent,  expressly  so  deno- 
8.  dO*  W.  eanies  the  visitor  along  the  vO-  minated  by  Josephns  (Antiq.  vilL  1.  6 ;  also 
lage  of  SUoam  (Kefr  Selwan),  on  Ae  eastern  a  gnlley,  Antiq.  ix.  7,  8 ;  also  the  Seventy), 
side;  and  at  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  bearing  marks  of  being  occasiooally  swept 
seventy  feet,  he  is  opposite  the  month  of  the  over  by  a  large  volume  of  water. 
Tyrop<Bon  and  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  which  When  the  water  descends  from  the  neigh- 
lies  two  hundred  and  fifty-five  llBet  within  it.  bouring  hills,  the  stream  is  considerable  and 
The  month  of  this  valley  is  still  forty  or  fifty  rapid ;  but,  even  in  winter,  there  is  no  con- 
fwt  higher  than  the  bed  of  the  Kidron.  stant  flow.  Nor  is  there  any  evidence  that 
There  is  a  steep  descent  between  the  two,  there  was  anciently  more  water  in  it  than  at 
built  up  in  terraces ;  which,  as  well  as  the  present  Like  the  Wadys  of  tiie  desert,  the 
stripof  level  ground  below,  are  occupied  with  vale  of  Kidron  probably  served  ot  old,  as 
gardens  belonging  to  the  village  of  Siloam.  now,  to  dnun  off  the  waters  in  tiie  rainy 
These  are  inigated  by  the  waters  of  the  Pool  season. 

of  Siloam.    In  these  gardens  the  stones  have        This  vale  also,  according  to  Babbinical 

been  removed,  and  the  soil  is  a  fine  mould,  authority,  served  to  cany  off  the  blood  of  the 

They  ars  planted  with  fig  and  other  firuit-  victims  slaughtered  in  ssierifiee,  and  other 

trees,  and  fbmiah  also  vegetables  for  the  impurities,  by  a  sewer  whose  products  were 

city.    Elsewhere,  the  bottom  of  the  valley  employed  as  manure  Ibr  gardens.  The  brook, 

is  thickly  strewed  with  small  stones.  and  the  vale  in  which  it  lay,  are  mentioned  in 

Further  down,  the  valley  opens  more,  and  the  history  of  David :  '  The  king  also  him- 

is  tilled.    A  line  of  six  hundred  and  eighty-  self  passed  over  the  brook  Kidron,  and  all 

five  feet  on  the  same  course  (8.  20*  W.)  the  people  passed  over,  toward  the  way  of  the 

leads  to  a  rocky  point  of  the  eastern  hill,  wilderness'  (2  Sam.xv.  28.  Comp.  1  Kings 

here  called  the  Mount  of  Offence,  over  against  xv.  18.   2  Kings  xxiiL  4, 6, 12.  Neh.  iL  15). 

the   entrance  of  the  Valley  of  Hinnom.  A  passage  found  in  Job  (vi.  10, 16)  thxowa 

Thence,  to  the  well  of  Job  or  Nehemiah,  is  lif^t  on  the  character  and  the  import  of  the 

two  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  due  south,  name  of  this  brook.    Over  this  vale  our 

At  the  junction  of  the  two  valleys,  the  bottom  Lord  retired  with  his  disciples,  and  entered 

forms  an  oblong  plat,  exten<Ung  from  the  the  Garden  of  Oethsemane,  leaving  the  city 

gardens  above  mentioned  nearly  to  the  well  by  St  Stephen's  Gate.    Whether  or  not  a 

of  Nehemiah,  being  a  hondred  and  fifty  bridge  then  existed  as  now,  we  know  not; 

yards  or  more  in  breadth.    The  western  and  but  we  see  that  Jesus  might  have  passed 

north-western  parts  of  this  plat  are  in  like  without  such  an  aid.    His  finding  a  garden 

manner  occupied  with  gardens,  many  of  beyond  the  brook  is  agreeable  to  £e  present 

which  are  on  terraces,  and  receive  a  portion  condition  of  the  valley.    This  guden  was  a 

of  the  waters  of  Siloam.  favourite  resort  of  our  Lord.   On  the  eastern 

Below  the  well  of  Nehemiah,  the  valley  side  of  the  city,  then,  we  should  naturally 

continues  to  ran  south-west,  between  the  infer  he  was  oidinarily  found ;  and  on  the 

Mount  of  Oflimce  on  the  east,  and  the  Hill  eastern  side  of  the  city,   aecoidingly,  the 

of  Evil  Counsel  on  the  west    At  a  hundred  temple  stood.    There  is  a  difference  in  the 

and  thirty  feet  is  a  small  cavity  or  outlet  hy  speUing  of  the  name.  In  the  passages  given 

which  the  water  of  the  well  sometimes  runs  above  from  the  Old  Testament,  it  is  spelt 

off    At  about  one  thousand  two  hundred  JKdron ;  in  John,  it  is  C«dion.    The  iqiostle 

feet  or  four  hundred  yards  from  the  well,  is  followed  the  usage  of  both  the  Septnagint 

a  place  under  the  western  hill,  where,  in  the  and  of  Josephns.    We  prefer  the  spelling 

rainy  season,  water  flows  out  as  firom  a  foun-  Kidron,  becanse,  while  it  is  found  in  the 

tain.    At  about  one  thousand  five  hundred  passages  of  the  Old  Testament  and  thus  has 

foet  below  the  well,  the  valley  bends  ofl^  a  {durality  of  votes,  it  points  out  to  the 

8.  7ft*  £.  for  half  a  mile  or  more,  and  then  English  reader  the  proper  pronunciation  of 

turns  again  more  to  the  south,  pursuing  its  the  word,  which  '  Cedron '  leaves  in  doubt 


OBUJNQ,  u  iDdo-Ocinunio  word,  da- 
DDtiiig  nbmt  li  hollow  or  Taoltsd,  like  the 
Boim'ritf  of  henen.    It  haa  tiro  Hebrew 


•0),c 

hence,  aa  a  noon,  a  emertm  pact  at  ciiamotr 
(Pa.  liz.  0).  In  S  Cbron.  iii.  A,  Iha  uma 
word  In  flis  tanner  pait  of  flie  Tene  U  tnila- 
Utad  'eailed,'  whieh  ia  InnedlMdj  iftar 
Kndeied  'oreriatd.'  Id  thia  1h«  onlj  in- 
alanee  In  whieh  lb*  tenn  ii  tnuuUted 
'  ceiled,'  '  rooted '  would  probiMj  hsn  been 
better.  The  booae  «u  ooTcnd  with  cjpnM 
rallen,  in  amef  open  within;  and Ibeaa rat- 
tan wen  corned  with  (told. 

n.  Tbe  proper  word  to  danala  oeiUng  a>  ■ 
nnlMd  aomring  to  a  honaa  or  temple  la 
SopkdM,  from  a  root  whiob  rignifiea  to  oea- 
atmef  txfmmi,  aa  In  a  dome  or  Tanllad  root. 


Inf '  (1  Eingart.  16);  awordttom  theaame 
root,  and  of  aimilar  Ibnn,  eigniflea  a  'ehip' 
(Jonah  L  0),  irtiidt  la  Id  ehifte  an  inrertad 
dome.  In  the  En^iak  Bible,  the  word 
gy>»  ia  atrrarai  thnaw  tmi  —  " " 


a  tokan  of  waaUi  and  luntrj ;  ai^  we  ma; 
diaoan  Ik*  farea  «t  (fa*  cropbefB  laproaeh 
to  tha  Jaws,  lAo,  hning  ratonied  fhim  exile, 
dalt^ed,  tha  boildins  ol  tba  tuple,  while 
tlwf  tbMiaebM  i^abitvd  aplendid  reai- 
datieaa: — 'Thiapao^  aay.  The  time  ia  not 
o»ae,  A*  time  tint  Jrhorah'a  honaa  ihonid 
be  btUll.  Ia  it  time  tbr  jon,  O  J«, 
in  jo«uoaiMh0naaa,Bndlbiiliow«  waalet' 
(HafrLa,M 


Tanlled  eeflinga  and  domea  are  etill  enm- 
moD  to  man;  parta  of  the  Eaat.  JeniBalem 
itaelf  ie  eorered  with  tfaem.  It  was,  how- 
erer,  the  interior  of  the  Tanlled  or  domed 
hall  that  recelTcd  apeeial  ■tlentioio.    So  with 


CEN 


the  ancion        _.  . 

deooratians,  not  onlj  the  art  of  earring,  bnt 
alao  that  of  painting.  Of  their  aklll  in  dia 
latter,  oridencm  art  here  preiented. 

Tbe  eftet  of  the  EgTptian  cailinga  osi 
now  bfl  onlf  impeifCetlj  felt,  einoe  then  era 
none  bat  thoie  in  the  bnaba  that  hare  been 
tolenblj  welt  preserved.  Tbe  oeilings  wen 
laid  OQt  in  DcnnputmeDts,  each  hning  a 
pattam  with  an  ippiDpTlale  border,  in  mm; 
imtuocB  nminding  Ihe  ipeotabu  of  GInek 
laala.  Bmae  of  Ibeie  pattema  em  be  traced 
baek  to  the  eadj  data  of  1600  before  onr  era. 
Similar  deaigni  were  adopted  bj  the  Bonmu, 
aoma  of  whidi.haTingbesnfoimdin  the  bath* 
of  THaa,  gan  B^ihael  the  idea  of  hii  cele- 
brated Arabaqua.  The  painlinga  of  Pom- 
pell  make  na  aaqnainled  with  a  atill  greater 
Tarletj.  The  eetUnga  of  Turkish  palaeea, 
exeeated  h;  Oieek  sztisls,  sre  freqnendj  tcit 
handioBia,  dfsplajiog  gnat  eleiganoe  and 
taau.  That  the  Jewa  nnilad  painting  with 
archltBetnre  in  adoniing  Ibelr  eeilinge,  la 
eriden  from  Jer.  nii.  14, — '  A  wide  honae, 
ceflad  with  eedai,  nd  painted  with  vermilion.' 

CEM82B  (L.  to  bum),  aa  innniment  far 
binning  inennr.  Tha  Rebnw  tern  bjwliioh 
'  in  aUbnt  otw  plaae  (9  Chron.  nx. 
_  word  atiiotljr  mean* 
I  rendered,  ia  Mofhleit, 
from  a  root  meaning  (a  lalm :  henee,  I.  fa 
Ttctivtat  a  ee%-r;  and,  U.  lataUKMt/ 
a  Icnigt,  In  agreement  with  fliiB,  we  find 
Ihe  word  translated  bj '  ttraSm^ua '  (Eiod. 
xxt.  86)  ; '  fire-pans '  (Eiod.  mil.  8)  ;  mot* 
fMqnendj  b;  '  censer '  (Lot.  x.  1 ;  ztL  13. 
Hmnb.  ir.  U;  xrl.  0).     The  nae   of  tb* 


make  an  atonement '  (Hmnb.  xtL  46  ;  eomp. 
Lev.  iTi  12).  Tho  noeaadlT  tbr  arttdea 
aneh  aa  bBT«  now  boon  mentieotd,  aroaa 
(Mm  Qie  daily  praotiee  of  ndbring  boml  in- 
eonae  'before  Jehonh'  (6).  Aa  mii^ aa 
two  hnndnd  and  fifty  oensera  ware  set  on 
fin  b  J  the  <  prinoes  of  the  autemblj '  mgaged 
in  the  afbrs-uamed  riling.  Aaron  alao  kin- 
dled his  cenaer.  Fire  being  pnt  hito  them, 
and  inoense  laid  Ibereon,  thej  were  plaoed 
before  Jfhorah,  when  his  glorr  appeared  in 
sight  of  tte  whole  oongragalion  of  Israahlea 
aasembled  to  b«hold  the  nsnit,  deolaring,  in 
acme  mjitarions  bnt  disdnctfy  ncogmaed 
manner,  [he  diTine  disploanu*  against  the 
rebeli,  who  wore  afterwarda  ooflanmed  by  a 
Bn  from  JehoTah  (Hmnb.  xri.  6 — T,  It — 

aa.  ^^  42). 

It  is  probable  Oiat  tbie  is  dia  inatronuot 
which  the  writer  to  the  Hebrmn  intended, 
when,  in  eamnerating  the  things  that  wen  in 
the  tabemule  of  the  flnt  coTOnant,4ia  nun- 


tioni  Iha  galdiM  e«DMr  (Heb.  il.  4).  Our  Imd;'  on  Ihs  odiw  lida  ii  AMOt/a  rod 
sal  exhibit!  ■  u1t«  aliekel,  betring  on  one  wbieb  bnddcd,  ind  tha  imwif^aa '  Jenus- 
■ida  ■  genaer,  with  the  woida  '  ahakal  of     lam  tha  holy.' 


CENTDBION  la  ■  Latin  word,  whkh 
atristly  RguiflM  At  toMtmemitr  (/a  hwiitid 
mm  (Hut  ntil-H.  UaA  n.  80, 44, 4». 
Lnka  ndlL  4T) .  Tba  higheat  dsnomination 
in  tha  Bamui  tnaj  wm  Lagio,  Ufbm,  which 
Tuied  In  nmnbei  U  dillteaiit  pviiod*.  Aa 
fill  BonuD  eitiivna  ware  diTidad  fay  Bamalaa 
Into  IhtM  tribsa  and  thirty  onria,  »ad  ona 
tbonaand  foot  (one  hundred  oot  of  auh 
iitiria)  with  ona  handled  hone  wwe  taken 
ttoM  eaeh  tribe,  so  the  natoral  atroBtnM  of 
the  legion  eonilBt»dc#ainalhoDB«ad.  Thi* 
■uimlwf ,  however,  roae  to  mora  than  lb  thoa 
■and  men.  Under  ttia  empaion  with  whoM 
age  the  New  Teaiament  haa  to  do,  tbongh 
then  wta  no  Asad  and  tanariabU  nomber, 
flia  legion  ^pean  la  haxe  oompiiaed  *ix 
thousand  ona  handled  toot,  md  aeren  hnn- 
di»d  and  twentj-aii  hone  laldlet*,  divided 
into  ten  bodiea,  ealled  eohoota.   Of  Oieae  ten 


(_D^olarima),  both  of  whldt  w 
in  Alexandria.  The  famA  legion  (AcyUUea) 
WIS  •ml  into  Sjii^  1? '^ng'i*''!',  ahd  if  fbnod 
there  nnder  Ummidini  Qnedratna — AJ).  W, 
though  it  did  not  take  part  in  tho  final  anb- 
Jngation  of  tha  oonnliy.  Tha  aixlh  legtan 
( ArraJa)  were  ilao  qoertaied  In  Sjida,  and 
It  with  Oeatfo*  and   tha 


a   oontitumi 
Il  legion  (A>i 


.  not  long  befn*  tha  <ta«l  aobgnga* 
tioo,  beai^ed  Janmlem,  aMd  waa  baalap. 
The  aixOi,  ibongh  in  Sjrte,  was  not  engaged 
in  tha  demolitioa  of  tha  ol^. 

At  Om  liead  of  tha  annf  fbnned  of  &a 
iriwle  number  of  logiona,  waa  the  eomman- 


wilh  whom  ware  hia  fieid-manihala,  itgatj, 
genenli.  Nan  oaaa  die  liibimes,  MhMi 
tmlituM,  ooloTMla.  After  Iheia  wan  (be 
«a*nrlons  (from  mnImm,  a  handled),  oom- 


being  a  body  at  Aite  or  pieked  i 
had  diaige  of  the  eagle  oi  oolonre  of  the 
legion,  and  the  image  of  Aa  empeior:  It 
had  aleo  a  doidila  number  of  ntoB,  nanu 

M  handed  and  flva  Inikntiy, 


tahor*  mWimia,  'ibe  flwuaand-eohon.'  The  befaig 
leaond  eobort,  gubigtntaHa,  'flve-hnndred  — '  — 
Mbort,'  eontained  £*•  hundred  Mtd  fif^-Bn 
men  on  feat,  atid  als^r-aix  on  horaebaafc. 
Thi*  WM  tha  nombar  of  Ihe  lemainlng  eo- 
horM,  of  lAkh  lb*  tUid  and  fifth  wen 
'     *    nm  of  Med  hntnrj.    The 


Angnatne  had  ftre-and-twenty.  Of  theaa  tha 
fifth  {MaariBirim),  tenth  (fVetmeii),  and 
tDMUlh  (■^■allMTii),  woe  engaged  in  the 
eoeqaaal  of  Judea,  nnder  Teapaaian  and 
Titos.  The  fifth  was  sent  into  Bjri^  AJ). 
OS,  by  Nero.  The  tenth,  whose  twad-qaar- 
tera  lay  on  the  Euphratas,  were  coadoeted 
into  Jodea  l>y  Titns  himself.  Tha  flfteenA 
were  led  from  Armenia  tu  the  sseistanoe  of 
Teipsslan.  A  body  of  a  ttioDssnd  men  WM 
also  sent  to  Oie  war  by  the  third  ((^rmvnca), 
and  the  same  niunbn  by  tho  twenty-seeond 


.or  li^t-ansed  man, 
who  began  tha  battle,  n.  Prindpes,  dU^ 
(ma,  iriko  stood  higher  Am  the  Hastaii, 
befaig  men  adranoed  in  yean,  of  gNater  ex- 
periwus,  and  prored  oourage,  irtio,  efUt  tha 
onset  of  the  Ibimer,  made  the  gnat  attaek 
m  whMi  mainb  file  bis  of  Ilia  da^  depend- 
ed, m.  TbsTilarll,IAMnMil,abody  of 
Tetentas  held  in  reset  >a  to  give  suoeonr  aa 
ml^t  be  nseded,  and  lUl  on  Ae  enemy  whan 
the  ober  fones  had  IkUed  to  detbu  them. 
Thus  the  Triarii  stood  first  in  repute,  the 
Frinaipea  seeond,  and  the  Hastati  last  Ae- 
sordingly,  the  first  oentmion  of  tha  first 
company  of  the  Trlarii  (prisou  piJiu)  look 
rank  before  all  other  oentnrione.  As  a  sign 
of  his  aothority,  aaoh  of  the  oentnriona  boia 
a  etal^  fbnned  of  a  Tine  btanob.  The  prl' 
MM  film,  or  first  oentniion,  bad  ohai^  of 
the  eagle,  which  was  bona,  faowerer,  I^  the 
ssgle-bearer,  oftulf/n-.  Subaltern  otEoers 
bore  the  aaine  of  mbecnlurio  {lAtj,  Tiii.  0) 
sod  of^ona.    The  entln  lotion  formed  a 


C  E  R                      320  C  £  R 

■oitofannj,  —  what  the  French  term  cot^w  Holiness  oonsidered  is  belongmg  to  the 
darmike,  commanded   by  a  Legatus.    The  gode ;  and  then,  II.  Holy  feelings,  or  reye- 
carpi  Jtarmke  consisted  of  oohortes,  regi-  renoe  in  men.    III.  The  word  degenerated 
ments,  as  oommsnded  by  tribuni,  coUmeU,  into  the  meaning  of  observances  and  prae- 
The  oohortes  were  made  np  of  manipuli,  tioes,  which  were  thought  to  place  men  in.  a 
eompomiet,  oommanded  by  oentoriones,  cop-  state  of  acceptance  and  piiVilege  with  the 
iahu.  divinities.    Whence  we  learn  that  the  enr- 
We  have  already  intimated  that '  centniion'  rent  meaning  of  the  term  is  not  primary,  but 
is  a  word  of  Latin  origin.    The  existence  of  derivative.   *  Ceremony'  was  at  first  equivalent 
Latin  words  in  the  language  of  the  New  Testa-  to  sanctity  in  the  gods,  and  sanctity  in  their 
ment,  is  in  agreement  mSx  the  requirements  worshippers,  men ;  and  it  was  only  in  the 
of  history;  for  a  body  of  Roman  troops  could  lapse  of  ages,  and  under  the  influence  of 
not  have  been  stationed  at  Jerusalem,  without  false  ideas,  that  the  word  came  to  signify 
giving  some  words  to  the  current  language,  outward  observances, 
especially  as  it  was  employed  in  speaking  of  Not  wholly  disaimilar  in  import  is  the  He- 
military  aflairs.    The  part  which  the  centu-  brew  term  Mithpahl,  rendered  *  ceremonies ' 
rion  p^forms  in  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus ;  —  in  Numb.  ix.  8 ;  but  in  most  other  places 
his  superintending  that  crucifixion ;  his  bcdng  'judgments '  or  *  ordinances '  (Lev.  xviiL  4. 
oalled  on  by  Pflate  to  say  whether  or  not  Bent,  xi  I.  3  Kings  xvii  87).    The  root 
Jesus  was  dead,  when  his  corpse  was  re-  of  the  word  signifies,  primarily,  to  cut  or 
quested  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea;  and  the  eUavtf  hence  to  decuie  {c€tdo,I  cut),  ad- 
unhesitating  confidence  put  in  his  slllrma-  j^tg  which  acts  imply  a  rule,  and  so,  as 
tive  reply  by  the  governor,  notwithstanding  a  noun,  the  word  indicates  that  which  is  de- 
his  surprise,  are  facts  which  also  correspond  dded  according  to  ri|^t  or  justice,  judgment, 
with  the  position  held  by  the  Bomans  rela-  equity.    Hence  it  is  spplied  as  descriptive 
tively  to  &e  subject  Jews,  and  the  discipline  of  the  divine  conduct — *  Shall  not  the  Judge 
whidi  was  exerted  in  their  own  army.    There  of  all  the  earth  do  rufki  t*  (Oen.  xviii.  20 ;) 
thus  i^pears  to  exist  in  these  Mngt  an  snd  of  human  conduct — *Thoushalt  not 
evidenoe  in  Ikvour  of  the  reality  ct  the  wrest  the  judgment  of  thy  poor  in  his  cause' 
reoorded  events,  end  so  of  the  certainty  of  (Exod.  xxiii.  6).    By  an  easy  transition,  it 
our  primitive  Christian  history.    Not  alone  came  to  denote  the  requirements  and  ordi- 
and  unsupported,  therelore,  stands  the  verbal  nances  of  God,  especiiJly  those  which  were 
testimony  given  by  the  centurion  at  the  given  through  Moses.    The  passage  in  which 
cross  — '  Certainly  this  was  a  righteous  man '  the  word  is  rendered  by  *  ceremonies,'  refers 
(Luke  xxiii.  47).    *  Truly  this  man  was  a  to  the  Passover,  for  the  due  observance  of 
son  of  Ood'  (Mark  xv.89.  Matt  xxviL  64).  which  many  ordinances  were  set  forth:  — 
This  testimony  has  beem  well  brought  into  '  In  the  fourteenth  day  of  this  month,  be- 
relief  by  Bishop  Sheriock:  —  'Show  her  tween  the  evening,  they  shall  keep  it  (the 
[Natural  Beligion]  the  blessed  Jesus,  hum-  Passover),  accor^ng  to  all  the  rites  oif  it 
ble  and  meek,  doing  good  to  all  the  sons  of  (its  statutes),  and  according  to  all  the  cere- 
men.    Let  her  see  him  in  his  most  retired  monies  thereof'  (its  ordinsnces).     These 
privacies ;  let  her  follow  him  to  the  Mount,  statutes  snd  ordinances  may  be  read  in  Exod. 
and  hear  his  devotions  and  supplications  to  xii.  xiiL ;  a  reference  to  which  may  enable 
Ood.    Cany  her  to  view  his  poor  fiue,  and  os  to  suggest  the  right  view  to  be  entertained 
hear  his  heavenly  discourse.    Let  her  attend  of  the  Jewish  ceremonies, 
him  to  the  tribunal,  and  consider  the  patience  These  ceremonies  were  numerous,  —  they 
with  which  he  endured  the  scoifs  and  re-  were  burdensome,  —  they  were  eventually 
proaohes  of  his  enemies.    Lead  her  to  his  obstructive  of  vital  religion.    Viewed  at  a 
cross;  let  her  view  him  in  the  agony  of  death,  distance   and  in  a  mass,  they  wear  to  us 
and  hear  his  last  prayer  for  his  persecutors,  a  repulsive  aspect    Seen  through  the  repre- 
"  Father,  forgive  them ;  for  they  know  not  sentations  made  of  them  by  Paul,  they  ap- 
what  they  do."    When  Natural  Beligion  has  pear  as,  indeed,  '  beggarly  elements.'    And 
thus  viewed  both  [Mohammed  and  the  Lord  when,  with  the  aid  of  history,  we  leam  what 
Jesus  Christ],  ask  her  which  is  the  prophet  a  stem  opposition  they  occasioned  to  the 
of  Ood  *    But  her  answer  we  have  already  apostle's  exertions  and  influence,  we  are  al- 
had,  when  she  saw  part  of  this  scene,  through  most  prepared  to  pass  unqualified  condem* 
the  eyes  of  the  centurion  who  attended  at  the  nation  on  them,  and  that  the  rather  because 
oross.    By  him  she  spoke  and  said,  l^y  we  see  in  ^e  present  day  the  same  predomi- 
™; f""*  ^"  ^^  ^^  ^'  ^^*  ""^^^  ^  ^^  outward,  the  material,  and  the 
CEBEMONIES  (from  dere,  a  very  an-  ceremonial,  hindering  the  progress,  or  de 
went  city  of  Etruria).— We  have  here  a  word  stroying  the  life,  of  real,  practical,  heart-felt 
which  probably  the  Latins  borrowed  of  the  piety. 

Etruscans,  to  whom  the  former  owed  much  But  ours  is  not  the  point  of  view  from 

of  what  was  most  sacred  m  their  religion,  which  the  ceremonies  of  the  sncient  Hebrew 

In  conformity  with  Etruscan  usage,  Cere-  church  canbe  properiy  contemplated  or  jusUy 

moHta  designated  among  the  Bomans  — I.  appreciated.    A  j^  judgmentrequires  us 


CER 


321 


CER 


to  view  the  divine  statutes  and  ordinances  in 
relation  to  the  events  oak  of  which  they  grew, 
and  the  condition  of  the  people  for  whom 
they  were  intended.  The  snbjeck  is  a  very 
wide  one :  we  oan  offer  only  a  fbw  remarks. 
And  the  institution  of  the  Passover  affords  a 
favourable  subject. 

In  general,  the  Passover  was  a  religious  ob- 
servance, designed  to  commemorate  Uie  signal 
goodness  of  God  in  delivering  the  Israelites 
out  of  the  hands  of  their  Egyptian  tyrants. 
In  its  very  essence,  therefore,  it  was  a  com- 
memorative observance.  It  was  not  a  mere 
outward  act  —  opus  operahun  —  a  deed  the 
mere  performance  of  which  had  a  religions 
worth.  In  its  very  essence,  there  were  ele- 
meuts  of  religious  truth  and  sentiment  The 
deliverance  from  Egyptian  bondage  was  the 
Magna  Gharta  of  the  Hebrew  people.  It 
was  a  deliverance  achieved  against  all  expec- 
tation  and  hope,  by  the  signal  intervention 
of  almighty  power.  Hence  it  had  a  twofold 
character.  It  was  ihe  great  constitaent  event 
in  Hebrew  history.  It  was  that  which  raised 
a  horde  of  slaves  into  a  nation  of  fireemen. 
It  was  also  a  special  and  most  extraordinary 
token  of  divine  goodness.  Hence,  socially 
and  religiously,  was  it  most  desirable  to  keep 
alive  the  memory  of  the  event;  and  the 
institution  had  an  admirable  tendency  in 
connecting  for  ever,  in  the  minds  of  pious 
Israelites,  their  national  weal  with  the  mercy 
and  love  of  Ood. 

But  a  commemorative  observance  must  con- 
sist of  particulars.  Something  must  be  done 
in  order  to  transmit  incorporeid  feelings  and 
ideas.  Facts  teach  better  than  words,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  a  rude  people.  Accord- 
ingly, the  celebration  of  the  Paseevev  was  a 
collection  of  acts,  but  not  of  unmeaning  acts. 
Each  particular  observance  had  its  own  im- 
port, and  so  conspired  to  make  up  the  great 
and  important  symbolical  meaning  of  the 
general  institution.  We  will  mention  two 
or  three  particulars.  A  male  lamb  was  to 
be  slain,  blood  from  which  was  to  be  put  on 
the  door-posts ;  —  for  what  purpose  7  —  to 
sustain  the  recollection  of  the  fact,  that  when 
tlie  destroying  angel  slew  aU  the  first-born 
males  of  the  Egyptians,  he  passed  over  (hence 
the  name  Pass-over)  the  houses  of  the  He- 
brews, on  which  was  the  prescribed  blood. 
Thus  what  was  done  in  Egypt  was  repeated 
for  ever,  year  by  year,  in  each  Hebrew  family. 
The  lamb  thus  slain  was  to  be  eaten  entire, 
as  indicative  that  a  fugitive  people  could 
have  no  superfluity.  The  guests,  also,  had 
their  loins  girded,  their  sandals  on  their  feet, 
and  their  staff  in  their  hand.  The  meal  was 
to  be  eaten  in  haste.  Each  of  these  required 
a(^tions  is  an  epitomised  history:  they  all 
speak.  They  spoke  to  the  first  generation 
that  performed  them:  they  speak  the  same 
things  to  those  who  perform  Uiem  now. 

We  are  not,  in  these  remarks,  indulging 
in  mere  speculation.    The  emblem  is  real. 


It  was  also  a  designed  emblem.  In  proof, 
we   cite  words  from  verses  13  and  14, — 

*  And  the  blood  shall  be  to  you  for  a  token;* 

*  And  this  day  shall  be  unto  you  for  a  memo- 
rial ;  and  ye  shall  keep  it  a  feast  to  Jehovah 
throughout  your  generations ;  ye  shall  keep 
it  a  feast  by  an  ordinance  for  ever.'  As  the 
Passover  itself^  and  its  several  details,  were 
intended  to  be  commemorative  for  ever,  so 
were  the  Israelites  required  to  give  to  their 
children,  in  each  generation,  educational  ex- 
positions of  the  meaning  and  purport  of  these 
observances :  — '  And  it  shall  come  to  pass, 
when  your  children  shall  say  unto  you,  What 
mean  ye  by  this  service  ?  that  ye  shall  say. 
It  is  the  sacrifice  of  Jehovah's  passover,  who 
passed  over  the  houses  of  the  children  of 
Israel  in  Egypt,  when  he  smote  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  delivered  our  houses '  (Exod.  xiL 
26,  27). 

We  thus  see  that  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Israelites  present  us  with  a  great  body  of  in- 
stitutional history,  -^  of  history  that  is  writ- 
ten, not  merely  with  pen  and  ink,  but  in  the 
indelible  and  not  easUy  corrupted  characters 
of  actions  and  observances.  Such  history 
is  obviously  of  snpereminent  value.  These 
commemorative  performances  keep  alive  the 
original  events  to  which  they  refer,  and  go 
far  to  prevent  their  being  misunderstood  or 
corrupted.  In  this  particular,  the  Hebrew 
history  is  very  favourably  distinguished  from 
the  history  of  every  other  country.  Accor- 
dingly, no  other  country  has  a  history  either 
so  ancient  or  so  free  from  falsities  as  that  of 
the  Israelites.  Even  monuments  and  in- 
scriptions are  of  far  less  commemorative 
value  than  institutional  history.  Witness 
the  vast  monumental  ruins  of  Egypt,  from 
which  the  laborious  studies  of  two  thousand 
years  had  till  lately  elicited  but  little  light; 
while  the  books  and  the  usages  of  the  Jews 
have  been  open  to  all  nations,  and  have  ex- 
erted a  very  great  influence  on  human  destiny. 
Even  literary  history  would  be  benefited  by 
these  ordinances,  since  the  ordinance  would 
not  only  explain  the  history,  but  go  far  to 
prevent  its  being  tampered  with,  corrupted, 
or  destroyed. 

In  point  of  education,  too,  these  obser- 
vances had  sing^ar  value ;  and  to  their  opera- 
tion mainly  may  be  attributed  the  fact,  that, 
as  we  find  in  the  case  of  the  apostles  of  our 
Lord,  Jewish  peasants  were  wdl  acquainted 
with  the  institutions  of  their  country,  and 
the  contents  of  their  sacred  books.  The 
education  of  the  Jews,  even  down  to  the 
humblest  classes,  was  unparalleled  in  ancient 
times,  and  is  only  distantly  approached  in  the 
bulk  of  modem  civilised  nations.  The  rea- 
son was,  that  their  religion  was  one  great 
and  most  impressive  system  of  national  edu- 
cation, which  realised  in  practice,  hundreds 
of  years  before  Horace  made  the  discovery 
(*  Ars  Poetica,'  180),  and  thousands  before 
recent  improvements  in  education  began  lo 

X 


C  E  R                     822  C  £  R 

giTe  it  effect  anew,  that  (be  eye  if  « maeh  beC-  be  ebaneterised  and  jndged  by  Atbena  aa  it 

ter  medium  of  commanieation  with  the  mind  now  i8«    The  Jewa  h*Te  anffeied  e? esy  ape- 

than  the  ear,  and  that  the  Toice  and  the  act  are  oiea  of  ignomiaj  and  ii^natioe,  with  a  laifer 

leaehera  far  aaperior  to  the  doll  lifeleea  book  ahare  of  omeltf  than  any  other  people  has 

It  ia  the  faahion  with  aome  to  deapiae  the  endured.     Morally  degraded,  how,  if  they 

inatitntiona  of  Moaea.    Wiae  men  of  former  retain  any  form  of  rdigion,  can  they  do 

daya  did  not  conaider  it  unbecoming  to  ad*  otherwiae  than  cling  to  the  form  alone  ? 

miie  them.    And  the  writer,  in  hia  humble  It  by  no  meana  foUowa,  that  nothing  but 

way,  may  deolaie  that  the  more  he  8tndiea»  form  and  ceremony  oonatituted  their  rel^giiany 

and  the  more  thorou^y  he  knowa  them  in  when  they  aat  each  man  under  hia  own  Tine 

their  aim  and  apirit,  the  more  atrongly  ia  he  and  hia  own  fig-tree,  in  the  land  of  hia 

convinced  that  knowledge  ia  the  beat  cure  fathera.     And  aurely  a  nation  which  baa 

for  contempt  of  the  Moaaio  politj.    Much  performed  for  human  kind  tbeae  two  great 

ia  it  to  be  regretted  that  the  Hebrew  ayatem  aerricea  ia  not  deapioable,  nor  can  be  aaid  to 

baa  been  atudied  in  a  narrow  and  exi^ire  haye  had  no  vital  religion.    The  aenricea  are 

apirit,  and  treated  aa  a  thing  ant  gemtriB,  —  I.  ThepreaerTationandtranBmiaaion,nay, 

having  a  peculiar  character,  aomething  too  in  aome  acuae  the  communication  to  aU  nn> 

aacred  to  be  inveatigated,  and  too  remote  to  tiona,  of  the  great  idea  that  Ood  ia  one,  and 

find  illuatrationa  or  parallela  in  the  preaent  that  the  one  GKmI  created  the  univerae  which 

day.    If,  however,  they  were  religioua,  they  he  upholda,  govema,  and  bleaaea ;  II.  The 

were  alao  aocial  inatitntiona.    If  the  peraona  creation  and  the  beatowal  on  mankind  of  the 

to  wh(mi  they  belonged  were  Hebrewa,  they  book  of  Paahna,  the  world'a   prayer-book, 

were  alao  men.     If  their  commonwealth  the    world*a  paalter;  the  harp  of  David, 

flouriahed  nearly  three  thouaand  yeara  ago,  which  baa  inapired  and  ennoUed  ten  thou- 

tfaey  have  left  for  our  inatmction  an  ever-  aand  timea  ten  thouaand  aoula,  and  made  the 

living  hiatory,  and  a  literature  of  veiy  hi^  harpa  of  other  barda  in  ttie  moat  eiviliaed 

value.    And  ^erefors  may  we  bring  the  la-  nationa  thrill  with  the  living  emotion  of 

raelitea  and  their  polity  into  the  general  devout  and  loving  gmtitttde. 

aphere  of  aocial  life,  and  atndy  them  with  And  here  we  must  remark,  that  the  very 

the  aame  eyea,  under  the  aame  rulea,  and  in  the  peraistanoe  and  obatinacy  which  are  olgected 

aame  apirit,  aa  we  apply  to  the  hiatory  of  all  to  the  laraeUtea  have  a  fovouraUe  aide,  and 

other  eountriea.    Aa  a  general  rule,  we  may  are  intimately  connected  with  the  outward 

forget  for  a  moment  what  waa  peculiar  in  the  acta  of  their  religious  obaervancca.    But  for 

Hebrew  people,  in  order  to  bring  them  into  that  persistence,  Jerusalem,  indeed,  might 

comparison   with    other  civilised  nationa ;  not  have  fallen ;  but  it  ia  equally  eert^ 

provided  that,  when  we  have  atudied  Ac  that  Judaism  oould  not  have  borne  its  testi- 

bistory  of  the  former  in  this  large  apirit,  we  mony  to  Ood*a  own  truth,  and  promoted  hia 

do  aa  we  ahould  do  with  every  other  country,  divine  plana  beyond  any  other  ancient  peo- 

that  ia,  study  the  institutions  of  Moaea  alao  pie.    It  ia  to  their  obatinate  adherence  to 

lh>m  the  peculiar  point  of  view  in  which  their  law,  that  the  worid  owea  the  Bible  and 

their  condition  and  wanta  iq^ared  to  that  ita  monotheiam.   A  leaa  tenacious  graap  than 

great  and  wiae  lawgiver.  that  of  the  laraelites  would  have  let  go  ail* 

To  afikm  that  every  part  of  the  Moaaio  if  not  in  the  troubled  timea  of  the  Judgea, 

religion  waa  equally  aigniflcant  with  the  yet  during  the  exile ;  and,  if  not  then,  cer- 

Passover  and  ita  ordinancca,  might  be  sua-  tainly  when   Jerusalem  waa  raaed  to  the 

pected  of  exaggeration,  chiefly,  however,  be-  ground.    Need  we  add,  that  no  tenacity  but 

cauae  readers  in  gener«A  are  ignorant  of  the  fiieira  could  have  held  fast  the  religion  of 

symbolical  import  of  moat  of  them,  and  be-  their  fathers,  during  fifteen  hundred  yeara 

cause  also  the  best  informed  are  not,  and  of  Ohriatian  persecution  ?   To  that  inflexible 

cannot  eaaily  be,  in  a  condition  to  aaaign  oonatancy,  to  that  impaaaioned,  inveterate, 

the  reaaon  of  inatitntiona  which  are  now,  be-  and  ineradicable  attachment,  doea  the  world 

yond  a  doubt,  some  three  thousand  yeara  old ;  owe  the  wonderftd  testimony  which  the  Jews, 

and  the  moving  cauae  and  occasion  of  at  by  preserving  their  national  coherence  and 

leaat  some  of  which  are  loat  in  the  oonaue-  individuality  to  the  preaent  hour,  continue 

tudinary  laws  of  primitive,  nomadic,  and  to  bear  to  the  great  eventa  of  ancient  daya, 

eastern  racea.    We  have,  however,  probably  and  to  the  great  spiritual  trutha  of  their  pri- 

aaid  enon^  to  lead  the  atndent  to  make  in-  mitive  religion.    Mow  to  what  ia  thia  tenacity 

quiry  for  himself;  in  which  task  we  reeom-  owing  ?    In  the  main,  to  the  ceremoniea  of 

mend  to  hia  notice,  before  all  other  aourcee  the  Hebrew  fidth.    Ideaa,  aenthnenta,  opi« 

of  knowledge,  the  Biblical  books  themselves,  nions,  are  too  incorporeal  to  become,  unleaa 

No  email  portion  of  the  prevalent  misoon-  to  the  highly  cultured  few,  objects  of  vivid 

ception  of  the  hardening  and  even  iireligioua  appiehenaion,  and  strong,  permanent,  un- 

tendency  of  the  Jewish  ceremoniea  ia,  we  dying  attachment    It  is  to  thinga,  to  sights, 

think,  derived  ttom  observation  of  what  the  to  aounda,  that  people  in  general  give  their 

Jewa  and  their  religion  are  at  the  present  hearts,  and  find  their  bearta  cling.    Even 

day.    Almost  as  well  mi(|^t  Athens  of  old  the  educated  are  not  removed  from  the  em- 


C  £  R                      923  C  E  R 

pure  of  the  flenses.  The  oak  itself  finda  in  whieh  transeotion  eTen  Aazon  took  a  leading 
the  iry  an  embrace.  part,  oombine  to  show  that  any  less  sensu- 
The  low  state  of  culture  in  which  the  Is-  ous  snd  ceremonial  polity  would  have  fallen 
raelites  stood  at  their  departure  from  Egypt,  dead-bom  ;  and,  had  it  been  conceived  in 
necessitated,  on  the  part  of  their  legislator,  the  mind  of  Moses,  could  have  found  neither 
an  appeal  to  their  sensible  faculties,  in  order  acceptance  nor  residence  in  sny  other  mind, 
to  reach  and  win  fheir  hearts.  Theirs  was  a  The  very  qualities,  however,  in  the  Mosaic 
state  of  spiritual  childhood.  Abstract  ideas,  ordinances,  which  were  given  for  only  a  tern- 
unsymbolised  by  signs,  unrecommended  by  porary  purpose,  and  in  order  to  raise  the 
sounds,  unattended  with  deeds,  would  have  people  to  an  elevation  on  which  Ihey  should 
been  wholly  inoperative  on  their  minds,  be  prepared  for  '  the  spirit  and  truth '  of  the 
The  Almighty  must  have  his  tabernacle  and  the  gospel,  were  those  on  which  their  half- 
his  mercy-seat;  and  must  speak  to  fhem  tutored  minds  would  most  readily  seize,  in 
by  the  cloud  and  the  pillar  of  fire,  and  with  which  they  would  find  the  strongest  afSnity, 
an  uplifted  hand  and  an  outstretched  ann«  and  to  which,  in  consequence,  they  would 
His  service,  if  purely  spiritual,  a  pure  act  unthinkingly  cleave.  If  a  splendid  ritual 
of  the  mind,  woTdd  have  had  no  hold  on  their  tended  to  secure  their  constancy,  it  might 
heart,  even  if  it  found  an  access  to  it  Hence  also  be  abused  so  as  to  become  an  instrument 
was  it  of  necessity  a  system  of  ideas  clothed  of  spiritusl  depravation.  Thus,  ere  very  long, 
in  august  symbols ;  a  duster  of  feelings  the  sign  became  of  more  value  than  the  thing 
expressed  more  in  acts,  deeds,  and  obser-  signified.  The  symbol  was  lost  in  the  act 
vanoes,  than  in  words.  In  Egypt  the  cap-  Truth  was  smothered  under  its  own  clothing, 
tives  had  beheld  a  vast,  complicated,  grand.  Then  the  mind  became  not  only  content  with, 
and  imposing  ritual,  embodied  in  life ;  re-  but  enamoured  of^  the  external  and  the  sen- 
commended  by  all  that  the  highest  art  could  sible.  The  less  religion  spoke  to  the  heart, 
produce  in  sculpture,  statuary,  painting,  and  the  more  firmly  did  ceremony  rivet  its  obser- 
arohiteetoje ;  and  enforced  by  the  rewards  vanoes  on  the  life.  Spiritual  vitality  was 
and  the  grandeurs  presented  by  a  court  and  transferred  from  the  heart  to  the  surface  of 
a  nobility  full  of  pomp.  Every  sense  had  the  body,  which,  in  consequence,  had  '  only 
numerous  objects  appropriated  for  its  ezer-  a  name  to  live.' 

cise  and  gratifioation.  The  eye  was  dazzled.  This  is  true  of  all  the  ancient  religions, 
the  ear  waa  filled  and  charmed,  and  so  the  It  is  pre-eminently  true  of  the  Egyptian.  It 
heart  was  made  captive.  Devotion  waa  borne  is  true  also  of  the  Greek  and  the  Boman. 
into  the  soul  by  a  thoussnd  ministering  ob-  Originally,  their  fables  were  investments  of 
jects,  replete  with  wonder  and  delight  To  important  fusts  or  solemn  truths.  Butpriest- 
this  rich  snd  various  system  of  religious  sen-  cn^Tt,  science  falsely  so  called,  and  popular 
sualism  had  the  IsraeUtea  been  subject  for  misapprehension,  conspiring  with  a  natural 
many  generations.  Their  heart  could  not  tendency  in  symbols  to  lose  their  meaning, 
fail  to  have  drunk  into  its  intoxicating  spirit  converted  each  of  these  religions  into  a  vast 
In  truth,  it  had  subdued  and  mastered  them,  and  incongruous  mass  of  genealogies,  le- 
Now,  the  problem  that  Moses  had  to  solve  gends,  and  rites,  in  which  the  ordinary  eye 
was,  how  effectually  to  make  this  people  the  can  discern  no  great  spiritual  import,  on 
depositary  and  the  preserver  of  the  most  whatever  part  it  fixes  its  attention.  But 
purely  spiritusl  and  ^  most  sublime  of  all  symbols,  which,  having  lost  their  import^ 
ideas,— the  idea  of  Uieone  God,  the  Creator  have  degenerated  into  a  dead  letter,  a  dead 
of  the  universe ;  the  most  lofty  of  all  general-  act,  or  a  dead  picture,  cannot  satisfy  the  hu- 
isations,  the  most  abstract  of  all  abstraet  man  hearty  which  ever  and  anon  will  and 
conceptions.  Idle  would  have  been  an  at-  must  raise  itself  to  God.  Hence,  these  re- 
tempt  to  communicate  in  all  its  incoxporeality  Ugions,  paaaing  first  ttom  the  priest  to  the 
this  ethereal  and  lofty  thou^^t  As  well  poet,  and  ttom  the  poet  to  the  philosopher, 
might  he  have  bade  the  leprous  be  sound,  or  went  down  the  line  of  degradation  till  they 
the  palsied  hand  to  be  extended.  It  was  the  became  mythologies ;  and  firom  being,  in  each 
lame,  the  halt,  and  the  blind,  with  which  he  ease,  the  very  life  of  a  whole  people,  became 
had  to  do.  Beyond  all  things,  therefore,  mere  objects  of  learned  curiosity  snd  speeu- 
was  it  of  importance  that  he  ahonld  begin  lattou,  and  of  popular  contempt,  giving  place 
with  such  requirements  aa  they  were  capable  meanwhile  to  purer  and  loftier  dioughts,  — 
of.  Byasystsmofpureandabatraotthou^t,  the  natural  expreeaioiL  of  the  unsophisticated 
he  would  have  defeated  his  own  purposes,  heart  of  man. 

and  so  was  compelled  to  adopt  a  system  of  The  Hebrew  rdigiont  m«di  as  it  eon* 

rites  and  oeremonies.    This  system,  it  may  tained  of  the  ceremonial  and  outward,  waa 

be  safely  asserted,  waa  as  good,  as  spiritual,  saved  from  this  fall,  mainly,  we  believe, 

and  as  high,  aa  the  laraelites  could  endue,  by  three  things ;  first,  the  deep  and  strong 

Their  degeneration  after  the  death  of  Moaes,  spiritual  meaning  which  it   embodied,    a 

and  their  lapses  into  rebellion  and  idolatry  consequence  of  its  divine  origin ;  seoond- 

during   his  lifBthne,  especially  their  guilty  ly,  iu  religious  books,  which  were  as  the 

eonduct  in  setting  up  the  golden  calf,  in  record,  so  the  depositary  of  the  great  histo- 


C  E  R  324  C  H  A 

rieal  erentB  on  wbich  the  whole  wu  founded,  dheoted  all  the  foroe  of  their  minde.    Paul 

and  in  the  religions  ASBOcifttiona  oonneeted  espeoially  spoke  with  the  utmost  plainness 

with  which  lay  the  great  spiritoal  signifi-  on  the  point    His  language,  howerer,  will 

oanoe,  aim,   and  tendency  of  the  Mosaie  he  misunderstood  unless  it  is  distinctly  felt 

religion ;   and,  thirdly,  its  commemoratiTe  fliat  it  is  against  the  corruptions  of  the  law, 

observances,  which  gare  life,  reality,  and  pro-  not  the  law  itself,  that  his  anlmadyersions 

minenoe  to  the  ideas  that  the  ritnid  was  de-  are  mainly  designed  to  bear ;  and  unless 

signed  to  symbolise.  Certain,  however,  it  is,  also  kii  view  of  that  system  be  taken,  that 

that  this  religion  did  not  perish.    It  still  is,  as  <  a  schoolmaster,*  or  preparatory  eduea- 

sunrives  as  a  religion.    Nay,  it  gives  signs  tion,  to  bring  the  world  to  Christ  (Oal.iii  24) 

of  passing  into  a  new  and  higher  state  of  as  'a  shadow  of  good  things  to  come,'  which, 

development,  if  not  of  becoming  Christian,  standing '  in  meats  and  drinks,  divers  wash- 

Nor,  in  this  general  survey  of  the  ceremonial  ings,   and  carnal  ordinances,'   *  could  not 

system  of  Moses,  must  it  be  forgotten,  that,  make  him  that  did  the  service  perfect  as 

under  the  special  Providence  of  Almighty  pertaining  to  the  conscience;'  but,  being  'a 

Ood,  Judaism  begot  Christianity.     Jesus  figure '  and  a  discipline  *  for  the  time  then 

Christ  was  prophetioally  a  descendant  of  present,'  prepared  mankind  for  *the  time 

Moses,  and  lineally  sn  oibpring  of  David.  of  reformation'    (Heb.  ix.  9,  10;    x.  1). 

There  was  one  great  and  indispensable  Pity  is  it  that  those  who  were  honoured  as 
purpose  aimed  at  in  the  Hebrew  polity,  which  the  instruments  for  conveying  the  high  result 
oould  too  readily  be  changed  to  ill.  It  was  to  the  worid,  should  as  yet  have  but  very 
before  all  things  necessary  that  the  Israelites  partially  partaken  of  its  benefits.  And  not 
should  be  sundered  end  kept  i^art  from  all  less  is  it  to  be  regretted,  that  the  great  sub- 
idolatrous  nations.  In  justification  of  this  stance  of  these  prefiguring  shows  in  which 
remark  we  need  no  speculations.  We  point  '  coming  events  cast  their  shadows  before,' 
to  the  demoralising  effects  exerted  on  thepeo-  should  itself  have  retained  a  shade,  in  some 
pie  by  the  remnants  of  Canaanitish  nations  instances  a  very  dark  shade,  firom  that  which 
sttfferad  to  survive  and  continue  in  the  lend,  it  was  intended  to  supersede.  The  substance 
But,  in  order  to  effect  the  needed  separation,  is  not  yet  free  from  the  shadow.  The  sun 
walls  of  partition  had  to  be  erected,  and  very  of  righteousness  has  not  reached  his  meridian 
carefully  preserved.  How  could  this  be  altitude.  May  the  time  soon  sirive  when 
done,  unless  a  great  and  solemn  importance  there  shall  be  no  ceremony  but  that  of  the 
was  attached  to  them  ?  Hence,  the  mere  bended  knee,  and  no  service  save  the  service 
exterior  became  sacred.  The  act  of  ciroum-  of  the  contrite  and  adoring  heart !  The  true 
cision  distinguished  the  Israelite  from  every  worshippers  worship  the  Father  in  spirit 
other  man.  It  was  both  his  distinction  and  and  in  truth ;  for  the  Father  seeketh  such 
his  badge.  It  marked  him  out  as  one  of  to  worship  him  (John  iv.  28). 
God's  favoured  children.  It  was  a  token  CHAFED,  from  the  French  chauffer  (L. 
of  his  high  and  singular  state  of  privilege.  taUdiu),  *  to  warm,'  means  heaied  in  temper. 
It  kept  him  apart  from  others,  snd  so  he  The  Hebrew  original  Mar  is  rendered  in 
came  to  regard  it  as  a  reason  for  pride  and  every  instance  (Gen.  xxvii.  84.  Exod.  xv.  528. 
contempt  When  abused  by  his  own  low  Numb.  t.  18, 19,  28,  24,  &c.)  <  bitter,'  save 
passions,  it  ministered  to  dioee  passions,  one,  namely,  2  Sam.  xvii.  8,  *  Thou  knowest 
and  made  him  a  self-satisfied,  haughty,  and  thy  father  and  his  men,  that  they  be  mighty 
unsociable  being,  looking  on  his  feUow-men  men,  and  they  be  chafed  in  their  minds,  as 
with  scorn,  and  on  himself  with  oomplaoen-  a  bear  robbed  of  her  whelps  in  the  field.* 
cy;  and  so  he  became  prone  to  diaregaid  and  The  marginal  reading  is  a  lUeral  translation, 
lose  the  very  essence  A  religion,  in  venera>  *  bitter  of  soul.' 

tion  for  a  token  that  had  no  Tslue,  except  so        CHAIN  (L.  caUna),  connected  series  of 

far  as  it  served  great  moral  and  speeially  lings  or  links  forming  a  chain  made  of  gold, 

intended  purposes.  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  prevalent  ornaments 

In  a  not  dissimilar  manner,  every  one  of  and  insignia  of  oflSce  in  the  present  day, 

the  divine  ordinances  was  perverted.    The  appears  also  to  have  had  a  very  early  origin, 

whole  Mosaic  system  was,  in  consequence,  '  A  chain  of  gold  about  his  neck '  was  one  of 

fast  losing  its  religious  element,  when  our  the  distinctions  offered  by  Belshazsar  (Dan. 

Lord  appeared,  and  founded  a  church  on  a  v.  7),  and  gained  by  Daniel  (29).    Pharaoh 

purely  spiritual  basis,  which,  with  all  ita  de-  himself  put  a  gold  chain  about  the  neck  of 

feets  and  lapses,  has,  by  its  own  innate  and  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  42 ;  comp.  Ezek.  xvi.  11. 

immortal  power,  introduced  a  less  unspiritnal  Csat  i.  10).    Such  a  procedure  was  tanta- 

religion  into  the  civilised  world,  snd  had  mount  to  a  formal  appointment  to  the  high 

an  indirect  influence  on  Judaism,  so  as  to  position  which  Joseph  held.   Our  engraving, 

oounteract  its  self-degradation.    In  its  first  fimn  a  temple  at  Thebes,  offers  a  striking 

promulgation,  Christianity  directed  special  commentary  on  the  sacred  text    Here  yon 

attention  to  the  chief  corruption  of  the  Jew-  behold  the  investiture  of  a  person  to  the 

ish  church.    Against  it  the  Saviour  himself,  ofice  of  '  fan-bearer.* 
and  his  ambassadors  in  imitation  of  him,        It  will  be  noticed  that  the  chain  is  large, 


CHA  X 

•nd  of  beuitiful  waikmuuhip.  Tt  is  k1k>  oI 
two  kind!  —  one  AM  ind  vida  ;  tlia  othei 
WTMlhsd.  See  Eiod.  ixTiii.  11 ;  rmii.  17. 
Other  omunenU  of  ■  Blmilu-  kind  tie  eeeu 
tMtwMQ  the  figorei.  In  the  pIMe  whence 
Om  out  is  taken,  the  king  himself  ia  preaent, 
■DperintendiDg  the  mTestitnrs  ol  hii  sarrul ; 
which  ihni  Blanda  an  nact  ooanterput  of 
the  ceramon;  obaerVBd  on  the  uiBUUation 
of  Joaeph. 


CHA10EIiONY(0.ciafceA™),  the  name 
of  ■  g«in  thai  fonnad  one  of  the  preoiona 
Mono  which  gcmiihed  the  valla  of  'the  holy 
Jenualem,'  deaciibed  in  Bar.  ixi.  10  — 3T. 
Some  hold  it  lo  be  a  species  of  carbuncle,  of 
a  Rowing  srimMni  hnn.  Winer,  however, 
deaaribaa  it  as  semi-transparent  and  sky- 
eolonnd,  with  thadinga  of  other  hnea. 

CHALCOL  (H.n™ri«A«r),on8of  the  four 
■  aons  of  Bang,'  or  poets  (not  '  aoni  of  Ma- 
bol,'  aa  in  our  Tsraiou),  than  whom  Solomon 
is  declared  to  have  been  wiaer,  in  oonse- 
qnenee  of  hia  dinne  gifts  (1  Kings  it.  81). 
Who  Chalool  was,  we  oannot  sa;  with  cerlain- 
t; ;  bat  as  he  stands  oonneetad  with  Ethan, 
who  is  (he  repoled  aathor  of  Pa.  Imii.  and 
with  Heman,  to  whom  Ps.  ImTiii.  is  aserib- 
«d,  we  maj  consider  him  to  haye  been  ons 
of  four  eminent  poets,  contemporariea  of 
Solomon  (1  Chnin.  ii  6^ 

CHALD£A  (U.  Kiudeemah)  prsaents  > 
subject  which  contains  genealogical  ques- 
tions of  no  little  difflenlQ,  the  disoussion  of 
which  would  here  be  DDI  of  place.   Were  the 


15  CHA 

original  inhabitants  of  flie  land  Oushites,  or 
descendants  of  Shem  1  If  we  refer  to  Oen. 
xi.  28,  we  &nd  '  Ui  of  the  Cfaaldees '  inhabi- 
ted b;  the  Terahitss,  who  were  imdoubtedl; 
deriTed  from  Shem  ;  and  in  Oen.  xiii.  S3, 
mantiDnismadsot  C&«*tiJ.whomBy  be  pre- 
aumed  to  bs  the  progenitor  of  the  Chasdim 
or  Chaldeea;  and  Cheaed,  aa  a  son  of  Nabor, 
most  have  been  a  Shemita.  On  tha  other 
hand,  Nimrod,  the  founder  of  Babel  or  Baby- 
lon,  ia  aipresslj  said  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Onah ;  ao  that,  it  Chaldsa  and  Babjlonia  are 
the  same,  the  original  inhabitants  were  ot- 
the  great  family  of  Ham.  Qbrree,  in  hia 
recent  and  rsluable  work, '  DieVolkertafel  des 
Pentateuch,'  attempts  to  unite  the  two  stems 
in  dls  same  spot,  declaring  '  Chaadim  or 
Cbaldns  was  a  Cnshite  stale  in  the  midst  ot 
the  terntorr  of  the  posteii^  ot  Shem ;  the 
porUon  of  Shemilee  that  remained  in  it, 
teMlred  a  Cuahite  character;  and  therefore, 
aa  a  coltuviti  gentiiim,  formed  of  tha  dregs 
of  the  olhai  races,  it  waa  not  receiTed  into 
the  great  family  register'  (Gen.  i.). 

It  mnU  suffice  to  bsTe  indicated  the  dif- 
flcnlty.  We  proceed  to  anpply  an  ontUns  of 
anch  informatian  as  ^pean  least  imwonhy 
of  reliauoa. 

Chaldoa,  or  Ohaadim,  was  the  eonnUy  so 
named  from  its  inhabitants,  which  is  mora 
oommonly  known  aa  Babylonia,  from  Baby- 
Ion,  Its  msttnpolia.  Chaldna  may  be  descrii>- 
ed  as  the  wide,  ISTfll,  unbroken  plains  found 
in  the  soaih  of  Heaopotamia,  eileading 
from  the  point  where  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  ^proach  each  other,  Co  that  where 
thay  fall  into  the  Persian  Oolf,  oorreapondiug 
to  Iha  modem  Irak  Arabi.  The  two  namea 
are  aometimes  taken  In  different  sigui&ca- 
tiona: — Babylonia  oompriaes  in  a  more  ex- 
tended sense  all  the  lands  which  come 
imder  the  designation  Aasyria  in  its  largest 
acceptation ;  while  Chaldna  leia  compre- 
henslTely  betokens  the  south-western  part  of 
Babylonia,  between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Arabian  oosat.  Probably,  CbsJdaa  was  a 
prorinca  in  tha  Babylonian  empire,  which 
sometimes  took  its  name  from  that  portion, 
jnseqnenoe  of  its  importance ;    or  the 


Jews  may  have  lenoBd  Babylonia,  Chaldiea, 
becanse  the  latter  lay  nearest  to  their  own 
eonntry.  If,  however,  we  refer  to  the  origi- 
nal, we  find  apecoliarity  of  usage,  —  namely, 
that  the  writers  spsak  of  Babylon  (Babel). not 
Babylonians,  and  ot  Cbaldnans  (Chasdim), 
not  Chaldna.  This  is  their  all  bat  invari- 
able praetioa.  Whence  we  seem  to  be  war- 
ranted in  the  assartiDn,  that  Babylon  or 
Babel,  with  them,  was  the  name  of  the  coun- 
try ;  and  Clialdnans  or  Chasdim,  the  name 
of  its  inhabitants. 

Passing  over  a  few  early  paasagss,—  asn. 
I.  10;  zi.  9,  where  Babel  ia  spoken  tit,  and 


C  H  A  326  C  H  A 

kingdom  or  its  inhabitants  Intiodnced  in  the  Miotiier  ia  given :  -^*  Beiodach-baladan,  die 

Biblical  books.  Then  was  it  («ir.  678,  A.C.)  son  of  Baladan,  king  of  Babylon/  it  appears, 

that  the  eonqnering  arms  of  the  Meaopota-  *  sent  letters  and  a  present  onto  Hezekiah ; 

mian  monarchs  began  to  enslaye  the  Israel*  for  he  bad  heard  that  Hezekiah  had  been 

lies ;  and  then,  aeoordin^y,  was  it  that  the  sick.    And  Hezekiah  heaikened  onto  them, 

very  ancient  kingdom  of  Babylon,  alter  an  in-  and  showed  them  all  the  house  of  his  pre- 

terral  of  many  oentnries,  rises  as  from  silence  cions  ttings :  there  was  nothing  in  his  honse, 

and  the  grave,  to  perfonn  an  important  woik  nor  in  his  dominion,  that  Hezekiah  showed 

in  regard  to  God's  dealings  with  his  chosen  them  not'    On  becoming  acquainted  with 

peopto.   This  aingle  fact  may  sniBce  to  show,  this  fact,  the  prophet  Isaiah  announced  that 

that  it  is  not  a  universal  history  that  the  the  treasures  of  die  kingdom  would  be  plun- 

Biblioal  writers  undertook  to  set  forth,  but  dered,  snd  taken  to  Babylon  along  with  the 

that  their  main  olyject  was  to  give  an  account  descendants  of  Hezekiah,  who  were  to  be- 

of  the  course  which  their  own  nation  had,  come  eunuchs  in  the  palace  of  the  king  of 

mider  Divine  Providence,  been  conducted  Babylon.    The  iHen&y  act  which  passed 

through,  touching  on  other  peoples  only  as  between  these  two  kings  took  place  in  the 

they  entered  into  the  web  of  historical  fact  year  B.C.  718.   About  a  hundred  years  later, 

they  had  to  weave.  the  prophets  Jeremiah  and  Habakkok  speak 


About  the  period  Just  mentioned,  we  read  of  the  invasion  of  the  Ohaldtean  army. 
ihtA  the  king  of  As^rria  brought  men  fkom  Nebuchadnezzar  now  i^pears  in  the  histori- 
Babyion,  &c.  and  placed  them  in  the  cities  cal  books,  and,  in  Ezra  v.  12,  is  described  as 
of  Samaria  (2  Kings  zvii.  24).  Here  wc  '  the  king  of  Babylon,  the  Chaldean,  who 
find  Babylon  a  province  of  the  great  Assyrian  destroyed  this  house  (the  temple),  and  car- 
empire.  In  2  Kings  ndv.  1,  2,  we  read  ried  the  people  away  into  Babylon.'  How 
ihaX  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  sent  extensive  and  poweiftal  his  empire  was,  may 
bands  of  the  Chaldees  against  Jehoiakim ;  be  gathered  from  the  words  of  Jeremiah 
■ad,  when  in  xzv.  1  we  read  that  Nebuchad-  zxziv.  1 :  — '  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Baby- 
nezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  in  the  leign  of  Ion,  and  all  his  army,  and  all  the  kingdoms 
Zedekiah,  came,  he  and  all  his  host  against  of  the  earth  of  his  dominion,  and  all  the 
Jerusalem,  wc  learn  in  the  fourth  verse  that  people,  fou^t  against  Jerasalem.'  The  re- 
dds host  consisted  of  wiiat  are  temed  Chal-  suit  was,  that  the  city  was  suirendered,  and 
dees,  — '  Now  the  Chaldees  were  against  the  the  men  of  war  fled,  together  with  King 
city  round  about'  It,  besides  considering  Zedekiah,  but  were  overtaken  in  the  plains 
Chasdim  or  Chaldeans  as  the  name  of  the  of  Jericho,  and  completely  routed.  The 
inhabitants  of  Babylonia,  we  also  hold  thai  Israelitish  monarch  waa  oairied  before  Nebu- 
Babyion  was  now  the  mistress  of  all  Mesopo-  ohadnezzar,  who  ordered  his  eyes  to  be  put 
iamia,  now  a  vassal  kingdom  under  Nineveh,  out,  after  he  had  been  compeUed  to  witness 
and  again  the  seat  of  empiie  for  all  countriea  the  alaughter  of  his  sons :  he  was  then  bound 
within  and  near  the  Euphrates  and  Tigria,  in  fetters  of  brass,  and  conveyed  a  captive  to 
wa  shall  probably  be  not  far  from  the  trutli,  Babylon.  The  next  Chaldee  Babylonian 
sad  be  aided  in  understanding  the  language  monarch  given  in  the  Scriptures  is  the  son  of 
amployed  in  Holy  Writ  the  preceding,  Evil-merodach,  who  (2  Kings 

The  Chaldeana  had  at  one  time  a  repnta-  szv.  27)  began  hie  reign  (B.C.  062)  by  de- 
lion  for  militaiy  qualitiea  of  a  high  <»der.  livering  Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  after  tha 
la  Habakkuk  L  6-— 10,  they  are  thus  spoken  unfortunate  sovereign  had  endnred  captivity, 
of:  '  Lo,  I  raise  up  the  Chaldeana,  that  bitter  if  not  incarceration,  for  a  period  of  more 
and  hasty  nation,  which  shall  maich  through  thsa  aiz  and  thirty  yeara.  Circumstances 
the  breadth  of  the  land.  They  are  tenible  incidentally  recorded  in  connection  with  tiiis 
and  dreadftil ;  their  horses  also  are  swifter  event  serve  to  display  the  magnitnde  and 
than  leopards,  and  mors  fierce  than  evening  grandeur  of  the  empire ;  for  it  i^peara 
wolvea;  and  their  horsemen  shall  spread  (ver.  28)  that  there  were  other  captive  kings 
themselves ;  they  shall  fly  as  the  eagle  that  in  Babylon  besides  Jehoiachin,  and  that  each 
hastath  to  eat  They  shall  come  all  fbr  vio*  of  them  was  indulged  with  the  distinction  of 
lence ;  their  fooes  shall  sup  up  as  the  east  having  his  own  throne.  With  Belshaszar 
wind,  and  they  ahall  gather  the  captivity  as  (B.C.  588)  closes  the  line  of  Chaldean 
the  Band.  And  they  shall  scoif  at  kings,  and  monarchs.  In  the  seventeenth  year  of  his 
princes  shall  be  a  scorn  to  them :  they  shall  reign,  this  sovereign  was  put  to  death,  while 
deride  every  stronghold;  for  they  shall  heqi  engaged  with  all  his  court  in  high  revelry, 
dust,  and  take  it'  by  Cyrua,  when  he  took  the  city  of  Babylon 

Of  the  kmgdom  of  Babylon,  Nhnrod  (Oen.  in  the  night  aeaaoa  (Dan.  v.  80),  and  esta- 

z.  8, 9eq.)  was  the  founder  and  first  aove*  bliahed  in  the  city  and  its  dependencies  the 

reign.     The  next  name  of  a  Babylonian  rule  of  the  Mado-Persians. 
monarch  ia  found  in  Gen.  xiv.  1,  where        It  has  been  seen  from  the  foregoing  atate- 

'Amraphel,  king  of  Shinar,'   is  cursorily  meats,  diat  the  history  of  Babylon  aupplied 

mentioned.    Along  interval  occursriill  at  by  die  Scripture  is  brief,  impeifect,  and 

last,  in  2  Kings  xx.  12,  18,  the  name  of  fragmentaiy.    LitUe  additional  li|^  can  be 


C  H  A  82T  C  H  A 

borrowed  from  oilier  quartern,  in  lelatioii  to  in  Dan.  t.  8,  as  *  the  king's  wise  men.'    Iq 

the  period  comprised  within  ihe  Biblical  the  Greek  and   Roman  writers,   the   term 

a4)Coants.  Chaldaang  describes  the  whole  order  of  the 

The  kingdom  of  the  Chaldees  is  found  learned  men  of  Babylon.    In  later  periods 

among  the  fomr   'tibrones'    spoken  of  by  the  name  Chaldaa$u  seemsi  without  refer- 

Daniel  (tIL  8,  teq.),  and  is  set  forth  under  enoe  to  place  of  birth,  to  have  been  applied, 

the  symbol  of  a  lion  haring  eagle's  wings,  in  the  western  parts  of  the  world  to  persons 

The  government  was  despotic ;  and  the  i^  who  lived  by  imposing  on  the  credulity  of 

of  the  monarch,  who  bore  the  title  of  *  king  others,  going  from  place  to  place,  professing 

of  kings '  (Dan.  ii.  37),  was  supreme  law,  as  to  interpret  dreams  and  disclose  the  future, 

may  be  seen  in  Dan.  iii.  12 ;  iT.  22.    The  In  this  sense  the  word  is  obviously  used  by 

kings  lived  inaccessible  to  their  subjects  in  Josephus,  when  '  diviners  and  some  Chal- 

»  well-guarded  palace,  denominated,  as  with  d»ans '  are  said  to  have  been  called  in  by 

the  ancient  Persians,  '  the  gate  of  the  king '  Archelaus  to  expound  what  was  '  portended' 

(Dan.  iL  49,  oomp.  with  Esther  ii.  19,  21,  by  a  dream  he  had  had  when  he  *  seemed  Ujt 

and  iii.  2).    The  number  of  court  and  state  see  nine  ears  of  corn,  full  and  large,  but 

servants  was  not  small :  in  Dan.  vi.  1,  Darius  devoured  by  oxen.' 

is  said  to  have  set  over  the  whole  kingdom  CHAMBERLAIN  (L.  camera,  T.chambrt), 
no  fbwer  than  '  an  hundred  and  twenty  —  a  chamber  officer,  or  officer  of  the  bed- 
princes.*  The  chief  officers  seem  to  have  room ;  for  chamber  is  used  of  the  sleeping 
beenasoitof  mayor  of  the  palace,' or  prime  apartment:  hence,  a  chamberer  is  used  by 
minister,  to  which  high  office  Daniel  was  Shakspere  to  denote  one  who  indulges  in 
appointed  (ii.  49) ; '  a  master  of  the  eunuchs'  wanton  pleasures;  and '  chambering,'  in  Bom. 
(i.  8) ; '  a  captain  of  the  king's  guard'  (ii.  14) ;  xiii.  1 3,  represents  a  Greek  word  which  sig- 
and  *  a  master  of  the  magicians,'  or  president  nifies  lustftil  pleasures.  In  the  imperial 
of  the  magi  (iv.  9).  Distinct,  probably,  from  court,  whence  ^e  term  *  chamberlain '  comes 
ihe  foregoing  was  the  class  termed  (iii.  24,  to  us,  there  was  an  officer  who  was  desig- 
27)  <  the  king's  counsellors,'  who  seem  to  nated  prtBpotUut  cuhicuU,  or  lord  of  the 
have  formed  a  kind  of  *  privy  council,'  or  bed-chamber,  hence  *  chamberlain.'  This 
even  *  cabinet,'  for  advising  the  monarch,  and  officer  was  ^pointed  in  the  court  at  Con- 
governing  the  kingdom.  The  entire  em-  stantinople,  in  imitation  of  eastern  customs, 
pire  was  divided  into  several  provinces  (ii.  according  to  which  a  master  of  the  harem  is 
48 ;  iii.  1),  presided  over  by  officers  of  placed  over  the  monarch's  wives  and  concur 
various  ranks.  An  enumeration  of  several  bines,  who,  for  the  sake  of  security,  was 
kinds  may  be  found  in  Dan.  iii.  2,  8.  The  generally  a  eunuch ;  no  other  person  being 
administration  of  criminal  justice  was  rigor-  accounted  trustworthy  by  oriental  jealousy, 
ous  and  cruel ;  will  being  substituted  for  law,  We  may  see,  however,  by  the  reference 
and  human  life  and  human  suffering  being  made  to  the  imperial  court,  that  the  office 
totally  disregarded.  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  here  spoken  of  belongs  to  an  advanced  state 
ii.  5)  declares  to  the  college  of  the  magi —  of  material  civilisation;  for  it  was  in  the  de- 
*  If  ye  do  not  make  known  unto  me  the  dream,  dine  of  the  Boman  state  that  chamberlains 
with  the  interpretation  thereof^  ye  shall  be  were  instituted ;  and  though,  doubtless,  the 
out  in  pieces,  and  your  houses  shall  be  made  warmth  of  eastern  climes  causes  the  employ- 
a  dunghill.'  See  also  Dan.  iii.  19 ;  vi.  8.  ment  of  chamberlains  to  be  earlier  than  in 
Jer.  xxix.  22.  colder  regions,  still  they  may  be  considered 

The  religion  of  the  Chaldees  was,  as  with  as  indicating  a  long-established  and  complex, 

the  ancient  Arabians  and  Syrians,  the  wor-  ifnot  corrupt  system  of  government.  Whence 

ship  of  the  heavenly  bodies:   the  planets  we  acquire  a  reason  for  pronouncing  the 

Jupiter,  Mercury,  Venus,  were  honoured  as  civilisation  of  Egypt,  in  the  time  of  Joseph, 

Bd,  Nebo»  and  Meni,  besides  Saturn  and  to  be  of  long  standing.    It  is  of  Potiphar,  to 

Mars.    Astrology  was  naturally  connected  whom  Joseph  was  sold,  that  the  term  is  first 

with  this  worship  of  the  stars,  and  the  as-  used  in  the  Bible.    The  original  word  sig- 

tronomioal  observations  which  have  made  nifies  '  to  make,'  or  *  to  be  a  eunuch '  (Isa. 

the  Chaldiean  name  famous  were  thereby  Ivi.  8 — 6).      Potiphar,  however,  did    not 

guided  and  advanced.  exactly  correspond  with    ordinary  eastern 

The  term  ChtUdaans  represents  also  a  chamberlains;  for  he  had    a  wife   (Gen. 

branch  of  the  order  of  Babylonian  magi,  xxxix.  7).    Indeed,  the  Hebrew  term,  Sah- 

In  Dan.  ii.  2,  they  H^pear  among  <  the  magi-  reet,  is  used,  in  relation  to  Pharaoh's  court, 

oians,  and  ihe  astrologers,  and  the  soice-  of  the  chief  of  the  butlers,  and  the  chief  of 

rers,'  who  were  called  *  to  show  the  king  his  the  bakers,  being  rendered  '  officers '  (Gen. 

dream.'     In  the  tenth  verse  <rf  the  same  xl.  2,  7).    From  the  connection  in  2  Kings 

chapter,  they  are  represented  as  speaking  in  xxiv.  15  it  would  appear  that  eunuchs  were 

the  name  of  the  rest;  or  otherwise  theirs  was  employed  over  the  harem  in  the  royal  court 

a  general  designation  which  comprised  the  of  Jerusalem :  comp.  Jer.  xxix.  2 ;  xxxviii.  7. 

entire  class  (Dan.  iv.  7 ;  v.  7).    A  general  That  such  officers  existed  in  ancient  courts, 

deseriptian  of  diese  diSersnt  orders  is  found  is  placed  beyond  a  doubt  by  other  authoritie« 


C  II  A  328  C  n  A 

beaide  the  Scripture  (Im.  xxxiz.  7 ;  WL  8).  Inner  eonrt,  whenee  he  saw  idolmtrous  rites, 

The  poeition  which  such  an  officer  held  in  which  were  being  offered  in  the  outer  court, 

the  king^s  household  was  one  of  high  tnut,  '  the  seat  of  the  image  of  Jealousy,  which  pro^ 

and  necessarily  gare  great  power.    Accord-  TokethtojeaIouBy'(viiL8;  comp.Dentzzxii. 

ingly,  Joseph,  in  the  house  of  Potiphar,  was  16,  21).    Within  the  precincts  of  the  temple 

on  the  high  road  to  the  first  offices  in  the  of  Jehovah,  his  degenerate  people  had  erected 

state ;  and  in  Daniel,  we  find  the  master  of  an  idol,  and  worshipped  the  work  of  their  own 

the  eunuchs  possessed  of  power  next  to  that  hands !    Opinions  vary  as  to  what  diriuily 

of  the  soyereigu  (Dan.  i.  8,  10, 18).  this  was,  being  divided  between  Baal,  As- 

CHAMBERS  OF  IMAQERY,  the  name  tarte,  and  Thanunuz  (see  the  article).    As, 

giTen  in  Ezek.  viii.  12  to  the  rooms  in  which  however,  the  latter  is  distinotly  mentioned 

Egyptian  idolatry  was  practised  in  Jerusalem,  in  the  third  vision,  and  eaeh  of  the  three 

The  exact  phrase  is  *  the  chambers  of  his  waa  worse  than  its  predecessor,  we  think  it 

imagery,'  or  more  literally  <  in  his  chambers  unlikely  that  Thammuz  is  intended  here.  We 

with  images.'  incline  to  the  opinion  that  Baal  was  meant, 

The  event  here  referred  to  is  so  striking  since  the  idol  seems  to  be  represented  aa 

and  so  characteristic,  as  to  merit  some  spe>  standing  in  direct  opposition  to  Jehovah ; 

oial  attention.    Ezekiel   the  prophet,  of  a  and  the  worship  of  Baal,  more  than  that  ot 

distinguished  priestly  family,  had,  with  other  any  other  vanity,  divided  the  hearts  of  the 

eminent  men,  been  (ctr.  699,  A.C.)  carried  children  of  Israel  with  the  only  true  and 

away  captive  into  Mesopotamia.    There,  in  living  Qod. 

the  exercise  of  his  prophetic  office,  he  gained  The  next  was  an  insight  into  the  secret 
great  influence  with  his  companions  in  exile,  mysteries  which  the  Egyptian  party,  strange 
so  that  they  were  wont  to  apply  to  him  for  to  say,  had  succeeded  in  getting  practised,  not 
eonsultation  and  advice.  On  one  occasion  only  in  Jerusalem,  but  also  in  the  national 
the  elders  had  met  together  at  the  prophet's  sanctuary.  Idolatry  must  have  been  bold  as 
house,  when,  mourning  over  their  lot,  and  well  as  powerfhl.  As  an  indication  of  the 
wondering  at  the  sorrows  of  Jesusalem,  they  hidden  nature  of  these  Egyptian  abomina- 
began  to  speculate  as  to  the  causes  of  these  tions,  Ezekiel  is  represented  as  making  his 
calamities :  —  Why  their  deportation  ftt>m  way  to  survey  the  orgies,  through  a  wall  of 
home  ?  Why  was  Judah  an  oppressed  peo-  mud  ;  a  not  unusual  method  of  construction 
pie  ?  Why  was  the  fiitors  so  dark  ?  The  in  Palestine,  especially  when  haste  was  re- 
prophet  has  information  to  give.  At  the  quired.  And  when  at  length  the  prophet  had 
very  time  of  the  conference,  a  divine  form  penetrated  through  the  wall,  and  through 
atands  bef(ire  him,  carries  his  mind  to  the  a  secret  door,  he  beheld  what  smote  his  heart 
capital  of  his  native  land,  and  there  leads  with  surprise  and  grief;  —  *  Lo,  every  form 
him  to  see  those  idolatrous  abominations  of  creeping  things,  and  abominable  beasts, 
for  which  Ood  had  brought,  and  was  bring-  and  all  the  idols  of  the  house  of  Israel,  pour- 
ing, evil  on  his  revolted  people.  trayed  upon  the   wall  round  about'    And 

Ezekiel,  as  a  true  servant  of  God,  knew,  what  was  more  surprising,  —  there  in  the 

when  he  left  Judah,  how  corrupt  it  had  be-  midst  of  clouds  of  incense,  and  surrounded 

come.    Tet  was  he  not  prepared  for  the  de-  by  idolatrous  paintings,  there  in  this  secret 

gree  of  wickedness  of  which  he  was  now  to  place  stood  every  man  in  the  chambers  of  his 

be  informed.  In  the  interval,  however,  things  imagery,  and  with  his  censer  in  his  hand, 

had  grown  far  worse.    Untaught  and  un-  seventy  ancients  of  the  house  of  Israel,  at 

warned  by  actual  punishments,  the  priests  whose  head,  moreover,  was  Jaazaniah,  illus- 

and  the  people  had  given  loose  to  their  idola-  trious  by  birth,  now  also  forgetful  of  his 

trous  aod  immoral  propensities,  in  which  ancestry  and  his  God,  snd  presiding  over 

they  were  encouraged  by  the  regal  power  clandestine  rites,  which  had  mystery  alone 

(2  Kings  xxiv.).  for  their  recommendation  (Ezek.  xi.  1). 

The  aggravated  sin  of  Judah  was  to  be         The  description  given  in  the  sacred  record 

exhibited,  so  as  to  justify  the  continuance  of  is  very  characteristic.    It  is  the  transcript 

the  national  vassalage,  and  the  necessity  of  of  a  reality.    No  one  who  is  fsmiliar  with 

yet  more  severe  chastisements.    Ezekiel  is  Egyptisn  antiquities  can  fail  to  see  a  close 

accordingly  transported  in  vision  from  the  correspondence  between  the  description  of 

banks  of  the  Ghebar  (Ezek.  i.  1)  to  the  house  this  exotic  worship  in  Jerusalem,  and  the 

of  Jehovah,  in  Jerusalem.    Here  he  is  made  native  plant  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.    The 

to  witness  a  most  frightftd  desecration  of  wonderful  progress  made  of    late   in  the 

the  sanctuary.     The  very  place  that  was  set  knowledge  of  Eg^tian  antiquities,  has  done 

apart  for  the  sole  worship  of  the  Creator,  is  very  mu^  to  throw  light  on  the  pages  of  the 

defiled  by  the  actual  presence  of  the  worst  Bible,  confirming  as  well  as  illustrating  its 

idolatries.    The  ministers  and  guardians  of  statements ;  but  in  no  instance  are  the  iUus- 

the  altar  are  faithless  and  corrupt !  tration  and  confirmation  greater  than  in  the 

Carried  by  the  spirit  to  the  part  of  the  case  before  us.     Here,  however,  no  single 

outer  court  which  lay  to  the  north,  he  took  cut  can  bring  the  facts  under  the  reade/s 

a  position  at  the  entrance  of  the  door  of  the  eye.     He  must  make  himself  fiuniliar  with 


C  U  A                     329  C  H  A 

the  anliqnities  of  Egypt,  if  he  would  be  folly  was  stained  to  a  surprising  redness,  and,  as 
ttware  of  the  oonespondence  to  which  we  we  observed  in  trayelling,  had  discoloured 
have  referred.  A  general  and  yet  useltd  im-  the  sea,  a  great  way,  into  a  reddish  hue ;  oo- 
pression  may  be  gained  by  a  visit  to  the  casioned,  doubtless,  by  a  sort  of  minium  or 
Egyptian  gallery  of  the  British  Museum,  red  earth,  washed  into  the  river  by  the  vio- 
We  may,  however,  subjoin  one  or  two  facts,  lenoe  of  the  rain,  and  not  firom  any  stain 
Madden  (*  Travels,'  iL  212),  having  with  from  Adonis's  blood '  (46). 
C^at  difficulty,  and  in  a  manner  not  unlike  A  yet  deeper  guilt  remained  to  be  wit- 
that  taken  by  Ezekiel,  penetrated  into  the  nessed ;  for  '  in  the  inner  court  of  the  Lord's 
interior  of  the  temple  of  Edfou,  found  house,'  that  of  the  priests,  between  the  porch 
himself  in  a  splendid  apartment  of  great  and  the  altar,  Ezekiel  beheld  five  and  twenty 
magnitude,  adorned  with  an  incredible  pro^  men  who  had  turned  their  backs  on  the 
fbsion  of  saored  paintings.  Paintings  of  temple,  and  were  looking  and  praying  to- 
this  kind  adorn  the  walls  of  tombs,  piJaoes,  wards  the  east,  with  their  supplications  di- 
and  temples,  throughout  Egypt  The  sub-  rected  to  the  sun.  Here  was  a  creature,  —  a 
j«}cts  are  very  various.  Those,  however,  senseless  and  inanimate  creature,  adored  in 
which  are  of  a  sacred  kind,  offer  to  the  un-  the  inner  court  of  the  temple,  and  by  the 
initiated  eye,  combinations  the  most  absurd,  priests  of  the  Most  High,  who  had  thrown 
and  forms  the  most  ludicrous.  Salt  has  em-  off  their  allegiance  to  him,  and  openly  wor* 
ployed  his  intimate  and  personal  acquaint-  shipped  an  object  of  sight  Such  impiety 
ance  with  the  subject,  in  order  to  give  a  could  not  be  exceeded :  it  was  a  bold  and 
sketch  of  the  Egyptian  divinities :  —  open  defiance  of  Jehovah,  in  the  very  centre 

*The  wildest  Inugei,  unheard  of,  strange^  ^'  ^^  o"**^  house,  and  a  preferring  to  him. 

That  over  punled  antlaiiariaos*  brains :  not  of  the  mythological  gods  of  Egypt,  whose 

OenU  with  heads  of  Mrd0,towla,  ibis,  drakes  offensive    images  veiled  important   truths. 

Of  UoDS,  foxes,  oats,  fish,  frogs,  and  snakes;  y^^.    *  ^    viaihlA  mn   nsln&blA  to  aPtiAA  — - 

Bulls,  rams,  and  monkeys ;  hippopotami  Out  of  tue  viSiDJe  sun,  paipaDie  to  sense,  — 

With  knife  in  paw,  suspended  from  the  sky ;  a  thing, 

Oods  yennfnaftfng  men,  and  men  tam'dgod%  And  firom  these  four  visions  did  the  pro- 

v:in^^^ot^y^^b^VA'^''  P^«  »«f? .*«  ^^  "^  bre^llh  of  ai,  ini. 
From  ohaos  springing,  ^d  an  endless  field  quity  of  his  people,  and  the  justice  of  God 
Of  forms  grotesqne^  the  sphinx,  the  crocodile,  in  his  punishment  We  also  may  hence 
And  other  reptiles  from  the  slime  of  Nile.'  leam  the  degradation  to  which  the  Israelites 
The  scenes  painted  on  the  walls  of  tombs,  must  have  sunk,  when  the  idolatry  of  Syria, 
says  Wathen  (*  Arts  and  Antiq.  of  Eg^t,'  that  of  Chaldsa,  and  that  of  Egypt,  had  all 
360), '  relate  chiefly  to  death  and  the  future  found  a  home  around  and  in  the  holy  place 
state ;  funeral  processions,  mysterious  cere-  which  God  had  chosen  as  the  abode  of  bis 
monies,  the  mummy  laid  out  on  a  bier  and  own  majesty,  and  a  centre  whence  should 
attended  by  the  jackal-headed  Anubis,  the  go  forth  light  to  enlighten  the  world, 
final  judgment,  the  deceased  ushered  into  CHAMELEON. — This  word,  which  is  the 
the  presence  of  Osiris  and  his  four  atten-  Septuagint  rendering  of  a  Hebrew  term,  trans- 
dant  genii,  hideous  mythological  beings,  lated  in  every  other  instance  by 'strength,' or 
hawk-headed,  crocodile-headed,  snake-head-  some  synonyms,  is  found  in  Lev.  zi.  80, 
ed.  The  gods  of  Egypt  were  men  degraded,  with  appellations  of  other  animals  of  the 
not  deified ;  and  their  natures,  if  less  debased  lizard  tribe.  It  is  reckoned  among  unclean 
than  their  form,  were  wrapped  up  in  a  shroud  creeping  things.  This  is  nearly  all  that  can, 
of  allegoric  mystery,  which  it  was  sacrilege  with  confidence,  be  said  on  the  subject ;  for 
to  remove.  The  Egyptians,  with  a  singular  our  knowledge  of  the  natural  history  of 
perversity,  selected  £e  lowest  of  the  animals  Palestine  is  very  defective  and  imperfect 
for  their  deities — the  eat,  the  crocodile,  the  Perhaps  we  may,  however,  be  justified  in  de- 
ape.  Pliny  affirms  that  they  worshipped  daring  that  the  Hebrew  word  here  rendered 
even  onions  and  garlic,  and  Juvenal  ridicules  *  chameleon,'  does  not  indicate  that  singular 
them  for  it'  animal,  but  some  other  species  of  the  Sau- 
Greater  abominations  still  were  disclosed,  rian  order.  Kitto  holds  it  to  be  a  lizard 
than  even  these  chambers  of  imageiy  dis-  found  in  Arabia,  remarkable  for  the  readi- 
played.  Directed  to  turn  himself  towards  ness  with  which  it  forces  its  way  into  the 
the  north,  Ezekiel  looked,  and '  behold,  there  sand  when  pursued,  -^  an  evidence  of  its 
sat  women  weeping  for  Tammuz.'  This  was  strength,  as  implied  in  its  Hebrew  name, 
a  Syrian  idolatry;  Tammuz  or  Thammuz  be-  Koagh,  The  Greek  translators  appear  to 
ing  the  Syrian  Adonis,  whose  death,  caused  have  contemplated  a  large  powerftil  animal, 
by  a  wild  boar  on  the  mountains  near  Byb-  since  they  term  it  '  chameleon,'  or  '  ground- 
lus,  the  females  of  the  country  bewailed ;  lion.'  If  this  means  '  the  lion  among  rep- 
and  a  neighbouring  stream  was  supposed,  tiles,'  then  must  we  look  to  crocodiles  for 
at  a  certain  period  of  the  year,  to  run  with  the  animal  here  intended, 
blood,  in  sympathy  for  his  loss.  *  Some-  It  seems  probable,  that,  according  to  Bo- 
thing  like  this,'  we  quote  Manndrell,  *  we  chart,  the  chameleon  was  meant  in  a  word 
actually  saw  come  to  pass;  for  the  water  rendered  *swan'  (Lev.  zi.  18.    Deut  zlv. 


M  Um  word  31mA«M«U  dmialei  to  imittt,      Mnnn  ud  ainnlkr  oliHwUr      Pot   it   1. 
T''?^t!i^.^_  '^^""i'  "?'  ?«!"«.      Uwir  prm«ipl,T\dbm  lo  no  ewWa  reU^ 
gion  ;  bnl,  ohamelnm-Iikg,  ^uj  pat  o 


'  of  lla  soatiiiiuilf  giqiii^  toi  li 


■MNniDt  il  «u  ihooght  to  lire  oi 

bsBnilBiedtoifunUjof  Swirimni,  ihu  i>,  J«wi.  lli«  dim  tor  J^  ■  li^Z!fc  ST 

iiidEgjp.,whoiee«wnli.]ohuMlM,,r9—  to  dl«oT«  WhM  Jir.^^L»!!i™™  . 

LI. a.. to ., i^.t 4,,;.. 0, .lii  jj-.r  ir£fi''irt^.:^ 

pnhciuilc  Utlj  ind,  IT.  In  their  axwiuila  n.iT»\#ino   i.   j_   __■_.._  *■ .,  ' 


bauOs  [»il,'  U  mMint  Hut  thej  md  U;  hoU     lopa  1> 
of  uj  thing  bj  their  t«il.    Their  tongue  ii     BMimma 


greguioiu  ■nimal,  or  flit  otdar 

•■Ti.n»i.'  th.f  (.  ..„  1-  .i,_  .      .     ■    1  aawMmrta,  widely  iprMd  ia  the  EaM,  u- 

S;,roK;?5H^'' "  c^.»„^rdJSSirvr.s£ 

11   Tarmifonn,  or  of  a  woim-ltka  »b>pe.  an  ntusannii  i~-"' 

ulingmg  to  Ui*  bruchM  of  whioL,  their  or-  intended  in  Dent  liT.  B,  eannot  well  be  de- 

they  hem  wut  tor  mieote  which  eoneutau  hi.lory  of  the  Bible  ]>  Terr  imp*rfe«     -n.. 

their  food ;  m  e«Mhing  whioh,  tiiey  mie  pro-  ohMooie  ir  -^  ^'  unpeneci 

bibly  aidvd  bj  their  eztraDrdinur  f«eulqf  of  eleu   uii 

**■ '~~  "■"'■  colour,  »  M  to  be  able  to  doubtlna 

Thej  po««eH  eitt«».  uicilopea.  Inatead  of  entering  into  aoritini 
hiTsetigition  of  the  teime  ba  the  Tuletle* 
of  (hat  ftmilj,  whieh  oonld  lead  to  litde  pr«s 

„    ,      -      ,    .  ti"l  remit  in  •  «o(k  like  the  preaent,  we 

,l™rin».  ^^r^^^r"  "'?«"«"'  •kail  lopplT  meh   general   information  aa 

.loormg  matter,  placed  one  .bore  .a-  „„y    »pp^  ^,1,  \   ^    „,^   „j  ^, 

iniaJ  can  inflnenoe  bj  tererting.     WeUbelored,  in  hie  truelaCion, 

snigi»enft,t  the  pur-  thna  renden  the  «i«;  — -The  hart,  ud 

III  the  antilope,  and  the  faUow-deei,  and  the 
aqn,  and  the  diehon,  and  the  harta'beeai, 
double  it*  liie.  Thii  ia  dcnie 
bj  gentle  iiregnlar  efforts.  Chameleon*  an 
InolTeniiTe,  but  irauible  one  with  another. 

In  a  , tale  of  e«ilen«ml.  they  change  oolonr  'Z'^i^  oom-enlM^JTu^ 

grey:  when  quiea-  mdo name* thiooghont  »  tiio «ame animal*, 

lo  green,  purple,  or  By  tti*  hart  i«  probaUy  meMt  Uie  Mag  of 

I  UM  oonunon  Afti-  Pennanti  by  Oe  antilope,  ttw  antilope  dor- 


inging  their 
conceal  ihenueliei  ,  , 

dinarjpower  of  ibetaininf'ftiimrood.  Hen 
aroae  the  notion  thai  they  lited  on  air.    Tbatr 
P0^«'  "?  changing  colour  depend*  on  [here 

other,  whic^  [he  an 
meant  of  a  mechauiai 
pote,  to  at   to  produc 

long  i*  to  large,  that  [he  animal  bi_ 

power  of  fillii^  eiery  part  of  the  body  with 


rapidly,  dark,  yellow, 
cent,  diey  then  paa* 
blaok.  Our  oat  exhi 
oan  ipeeie*. 


f-^s^^ 


lame  genat,  i*  often  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
Antilopea  are  generally  nf  a  moat  elegant 
make,  of  a  reaileu  and  timid  diapoaitioD, 
gUremely  watchful,  of  great  riracity,  and  rc- 
maikably  iwift  Itt  lleelneei  wta  *uoh  aa  to 
beeome  prorerbial  (3  Sam.  ii.  18.  1  Chron 
xiL  8).  Borne  apeoiet  form  herdt  of  two  oi 
llae*  tbooaand,  while  olhera  keep  in  troopi 
offln  or  aiz.  They  generally  iwide  in  hilly 
ni..k_4    .        ~  oonnteiet,  thou^  mum  inhabit  plaint,  and 

ouDDOi  Btatee  that  he  bbw   near  Hebron,      oftan  browN  OD  tb«  tender  ehoola  of  tne*. 
."rZ-"'"?^?""'*™'^'*"^'"™'*"''     TheyfemanintemMdiatagennabttwetnth. 
u."'j    ,r?'-  goal  and  Aa  deer,  agreeing  wilh  the  fcnnar  in 

-jflT™  Z!  ■P°**"  "^  P«™w«  whoa*      flie  texture  of  the  homa,  and  with  Um  iMler 

SJIE!Lr*'^Sif"  '*'"'"  "''<^'^*»  *"  *•"  eleganoe  of  their  fmn,  and  gnat 
iii™.  r  v.  ,'„■?"  "  "*'  J™'  ettinot  swiflneat  (PeDnanl'*  •  Hiat.  of  Oatdrapedl,' 
AbowJebile.  (Oabal)  there  dweU  ap^      i  88— 70). 


CHA 

Tbs  uuiul  tbora  ttrand  '  fUlov-ilnr ' 
<?CDD.)  U  the  Cmmt  dmna  of  LluiutaB. 
Hwwlqniit  *■«  Iha  Iillow-deer  on  Hooiit 
Tibnr.     Thej  >bo(md  in  our  English  puki. 

Aqu  li  th«  HBbn>  word  pnt  into  English 
kaen,  u  it  ia  nnoartun  vfaat  putienlu 
inlmil  wu  intandcd.  Sotot  h»a  mppoMd 
it  to  b*  the  Otiii-Mi  or  ibex  I  bat  that  ui- 
m>l  it  fonnd  only  in  Alpine  ngions. 

JDiiboD,  In  Ihli  initknee  alio,  md  for  lbs 
Hme  muon,  th*  Hebmr  nuie,  ia  retained. 
It  mkf  have  baan  the  bnflUo,  Boi  babaliu 
(Linn.),  whioli  Inhablta  some  parte  of  Aaia; 
bat  it  la  Tery  doabttol.  Some,  with  onr 
oomman  Tersion,  anppou  it  lo  be  tha  pygarg-, 
AiUikrpfpyjarya,  Linn,  wblta-faced  antilape ; 
Mhan,  the  BpTin|[-bak. 

Harte-beeit,  Antiiope  buhaiU,  Linn. ;  (?«■• 
CBM  aHUlopt,  Penn.     It  is  fmmd  efaitflT  fa 

The  roe,  Oemu  eaprraJaw,  Linn.;  roe, 
Fana.  Fannant  deaeribea  this  dear  ai  fond 
otmoontunon*,  voodj  ooantriaa,  Tarj  astlTc, 
lifing  in  mull  familic a,  browsing  Tai7  mach, 
and,  daring  the  winter,  cuing  tha  joimg  mUox. 
ahoola  at  fir  and  baaoh.  This  lattar  habit 
seams  to  be  expressed  in  the  Hebrew  name. 
In  ths  English  Bible,  and  in  aoioa  other 
Tersiona,  it  is  eatlad  ihe  ehantoit ;  bnt  thla 
miinal  ia  found  only  on  the  iiigheat  monn- 
tains.  Some  bare  supposed  it  to  be  ths 
firaffi  or  camtkipard,  an  animal  of  great 
raritj,  and  Caimd  onlf  in  Africa.  The  '  fatri,' 
atet,  is,  saji  Wilkinson,  the  Drjij  leaving  it 
tmdetennined  whieli  of  tha  several  apecias. 

Colonel  Hamilton  Smith  aajra  £at  tha 
Jackmur  (Heb.)  is  not  the  tUlow-deei,  bnt 
the  Orgx  Itacoryj  of  tha  modems,  tha  trae 
'a  and  of  Niebnhr. 


Tbe  speeiea  of  On  oijx  are  sU  abont  the 
siie  of  Iha  stag  of  Gnrope,  or  larger.  Ths 
eareass  is  bnlkj,  compared  with  tha  legs, 
and  capable  of  snataining  great  action.  The 
Arabs  consider  these  aninialB  to  be  allied 
mora  nearlj  to  the  bovine  or  ox  ipeciei,  than 
to  (he  gaicUea  of  tha  country.  Similar 
notions  seem  to  hsTe  preTsiled  among  the 
Hebrews.  When  the  Scriptures  notice  wild 
oxen,  or  wild  cattle,  we  ate  often  to  under- 
atand  animals,  not  of  ths  oi,  but  the  anti- 
lope  kind. 

Another  group  of  antilopca  eome  nudel 

the  nuna  of  gaieUes,  of  which  probabl; 

more  than  one  species  still  Inhabit  the  up- 

jiCHHOB.  lands  and  deserts  of  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  the 

eastern  and  sonthsni  bordan  of  Palestine. 

The  animal  sbore,  rendered  harit-beeiit,  he     Tbeir  Qreek  name  is  Jorcat,  star,  or  brigbt- 

oonslders  to  be  the  Oryx  loo,  or  Nubian  orji,     ejed.    In  the  tranalatioQ  given  abore.  ihej 

either  •  qieciei  or  a  Tariet;  of  leitooryx.  stand  *a  ■  antilop*,'  tbe  ^nffiDjw  iJorcai  being 


CH  A  a 

meuit.  In  Ihli  mm,  Smith  and  W*Ilbc- 
lOTed  tgnt.  Of  theae  there  are  Mrenl 
■peelM,  of  wbioli  tba  lugrat  does  not 
meuun  mors  thui  two  feel  in  height 
at  th«  ibonlder ;  and  the  leut,  the  eortnna, 
not  more  than  aboat  Iweni;  inches.  They 
■re  gracefal  and  elegant  in  fonn,  with  Ilmba 
eicecdinglT  slender,  and  have  Urge  and  eoti 
ejes.  Tbeybeu'tlieHebrewnameoF  Tttbi; 
in  Arabic,  Tiabi;  Chaldee,  l^tbitha  (which 
eiplaiDi  Asti  ix.  88,  40).  One  or  other  of 
Iheaa  guelles  is  meant,  when,  In  the  aatho- 
riaed  version,  we  read  '  roeback '  (Deal  lii 
16,321  UT.O;  IT.  S3.  J  Kings  iT.33. 1  Ghron. 
xii.  8,  'loea ; '  so  Piot.  tL  5  and  Isa.  liiL  H). 


(2  cnA 

alowlj.  nwrheededmnottillwespproach- 
ed  near,  when  they  began  to  hold  np  their 
beaaliM  heads,  adorned  with  ilightlj  curved 
tapering  homs,  and  trotted  up  together; 
then,  seeing  us  sparring  onr  horaes  from  be- 
hind the  liule  btlloeks  all  aroimd  them,  tbej 
dashed  Ihiough  m  with  the  rsfiiditj  of  mind; 
Unoes  wen  thrown,  pistols  discharged,  bnt 
■11  in  vain ;  thej  qnieklj  distanced  the  fleet- 
est horae,  which  was  a  grej  Arab  mare,  and 
then  ■tan>ed,  Uimed  nnmd  ■ud  looked  at  na, 
and  then  look  to  their  heels  agun,  boimding 
over  the  ground  in  such  a  waj,  that  thej 
appeared  to  flj  rather  than  to  nm '  ('  Addi- 
son's Damascus  and  PalmjTa,'  ii.  310 :  oomp. 
laa.  liii  U). 

Gaiellet  aUnd  as  an  image  of  Icvelinesa 
and  grace,  aa  well  as  flaetness.  The  tbUow- 
ing  ia  rer;  graphie  (Cant.  ii.  8,  9,  IT; 
eomp.  iii.  6)  ;  — 

Tdoe  of  mf  baloTed  1 


Lor  taeoa 


'llTbe 


Mdllkas 


'  a  jVQBg  bart  t 


He  ga»th  at  tbe  vlndowa. 


The  beantr  of  eje  poasesaed  by  gaiellea 
has  supplied  oriental  poets  with  eipresaiTe 
imagaij :  hence  it  ia  a  high  oompliment  to 
a  female  to  aaj  '  ebe  has  Ibe  ejes  of  a  ga- 
■#lle.'  Their  speed  was  alao  drawn  on  bj 
the  poets,  whose  loftiest  metaphor  ou  the 
■nlfjaet  was,  •  swift  of  toot  aa  the  gaialle ' 
(S  Sam.  iL  18).  The  Qeah  of  the  gaaelle 
resembles  our  Tenison.  We  have  no  meana 
of  exactly  detennining  how  they  were  cap- 
tured, whether  iu  the  chase  or  the  snare, 
by  the  ancient  Hebrews  ;  but,  as  they  were 
allowed  for  fbod,  probably  both  methods 
were  employed.  They  were  certainly  not 
easy  to  take,  as  ma;  be  learned  from  the  fol- 
lowing: —  '  We  suddenly  eame  in  eight  of  a 
large  herd  of  aatilopes,  which  appeared  to 
be  of  the  species  called  by  tia  gaielle.    The 

Arabs  seiied  their  lances     —  " 

tots;  and,  distributing  oi 
mensecircle,welei' 


Our  own  poet  Byron  baa  oonstmcled  out 
of  materials  of  tbooght  derived  from  iliese 
lovely  and  interesting  animals,  an  ilegaii 
poem,  which,  as  bearing  on  our  sabjecl,  w 


CHA 


333 


CHA 


SeTenl  kinds  of  sntilopes  are  figored  on 
the  Egyptian  monuments.  In  Egypt,  they 
were  taken  by  spots  being  enclosed  in  the 
vicinity  of  water  brooks,  to  which  they  were 
in  the  habit  of  repairing  morning  and  even- 
ing  (Ps.  zlii.  1);  and,  having  awaited  the 
time  when  they  went  to  drink,  the  hnnters 
disposed  their  nets,  and,  occupying  places 
where  they  could  not  be  seen,  gradually 
closed  in  on  their  prey.  Such  scenes  are 
pourtrayed  in  the  Egyptian  paintings.  The 
Egyptians  also  kept  parks  and  preserves  of 
them  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  which  were 
properly  taken  care  of,  and  replenished  with 
young.    The  preceding  out  shows  this. 

Dogs  were  tdso  employed  to  hunt  the  game, 
and  the  noose  was  employed  to  catch  them. 


The  hunters  in  this  case  are  represented  on 
foot,  and  must  therefore  have  lain  in  am- 
bush. This  method  was  employed  when 
there  was  a  wish  to  take  the  animal  alive. 


When  taken  young,  gazelles  are  easily  do- 
mesticated. 

CHAMPAIGN  (L.  campus,  a  plain),  a 
large,  open,  level  piece  of  ground,  a  plain. 
Thus  Milton:  — 

'  All  night,  the  dreiUDesB  angel,  anpursaed. 
Through  heaven's  wide  dumjpoiign  held  Us  way.' 


Maundrell  uses  the  word  of  a  plain  near 
Tripoli:  — '  This  day  we  were  all  treated  by 
Mr.  Fisher,  on  the  Campagnia.  The  place 
where  we  dined  was  a  narrow,  pleasant  val- 
ley by  a  river^s  side,  distant  from  the  city 
about  a  mile  eastward'  (84). 

The  corresponding  Hebrew  word,  Ottrah- 
vah,  is  generally  rendered  *plam'  (Numb, 
zzli.  1.  Dent.  i.  1.  Jer.  zxxiz.  5).  The 
term  is  used  of  the  champaign  over  against 
Oilgal  (Josh.  xii.  28),  beside  the  plains  of 
Moreh  (that  is,  Sbechem,  Gen.  xii.  6 ;  zxxv.  4), 
in  which  was  the  lovely  and  fruitful  Mount 
Gerizim,  still  called  by  the  Samaritans  the 
mountain  of  blessing,  and  the  rough  un- 
productive  EbaL  Bobinson,  however,  pro- 
nounces both  mountains  sterile. 

This  champaign,  or  plain,  is  more  notable 
for  ita  historical  interest,  than  for  its  magni- 
tude, though,  in  cox^junotion  with  the  Wady 
Sahl,  which  stretches  out  northward,  it 
oovers  a  large  space  of  ground.  Bobinson 
thus  speaks  of  the  plain :  — '  Keeping  the 
road  along  its  northern  side,  we  passed  some 
high  mounds,  where,  all  at  once,  the  ground 
sinks  down  to  a  valley,  running  towards  the 
west,  with  a  soil  of  rich  black  vegetable 
mould.  Here  a  scene  of  luxuriant  and  al- 
most unparalleled  verdure  burst  upon  our 
view.  The  whole  valley  was  filled  with 
gardens  of  vegetables,  and  orchards  of  all 
kinds  of  fruits,  watered  by  several  fountains, 
which  burst  forth  in  various  parts,  and  flow 
westward  in  refreshing  streams.  It  came 
upon  us  suddenly,  like  a  scene  of  fairy  en- 
chantment We  saw  nothing  to  compare 
with  it  in  all  Palestine.  Here  beneath  the 
shade  of  an  immense  mulberry-tree,  by  the 
side  of  a  purling  rill,  we  pitched  our  tent ' 
(iii.  95). 

CHAMPION  —  (L.  campus,  a  plaui,  or 
battle-field) — one  that  fights  on  behalf  of 
another,  whether  that  other  be  a  single  per- 
son or  a  number.  '  Champion '  is  the  trans- 
lation, in  1  Sam.  xvii.  51,  of  a  Hebrew  word, 
CHbbokr,  which  signifies  strength  and  valour, 
and  is  ordinarily  rendered  *  mighty  men' 
(Gen.  vi.  4.  Josh.  L  14).  The  same  word 
is  rendered  *  mighty/  1  Chron.  xi.  10 ;  and 
V.  12,  we  TetA  of  *  the  three  mighties,'  and 
'these  three  mightiest,'  whose  exploita  of 
strength  may  be  perused  in  the  context.  In 
1  Sam.  xvii.  51,  referred  to  above, 'cham- 
pion '  is  appropriately  used  of  Goliath,  whom 

David  slew. 

CHANCELLOR  is  a  word  derived  firom 
the  Latin  caneelH,  denoting  Umits  or  ior- 
riers  ;  and  hence  the  divisions  by  which  the 
retired  part  of  a  court  of  justice,  or  a  place 
of  worship  (the  choir),  was  separated  fh>m 
the  larger  area  (the  nave  or  hall),  in  which 
the  people  generally  assembled.  The  devia- 
tion to  in£cato  the  chief  person  who  pre- 
sided within  these  limito  (the  screen  in  a 
cathedral  church)  is  easy,  and  according  to 
analogy.    A  chancellor,  therefore,  is  strictly 


CUA 


d34 


CHA 


one  iiIk>  tits  or  pmidM  within  eaMMUI,.in 
a  iepiuted  •pwtment—  a  ^eeiei  of  mho- 
toarj.  Bat,  in  gvooril  nae,  the  irard  etma 
to  denot*  the  ehi^  oiBeer  eitlier  in  a  einl  or 
■piritoal  oonrt  of  Urn, 

Maondiell,  ipeakfaHr  ^  »  OhriatiBa  plaeo 
ol  wondiip  near  Tripoli,  eaje  — 'Their  olia- 
pel  is  la^,  \mi  obaenre ;  and  the  altar  ia 
inelo^d  with  eanoeili,  ao  as  not  to  be  i^ 
proaefa'd  by  any  bat  the  prieat,  aeeording  to 
thefuhion  of  the  Omek  ehoiohea*  (86); 
and  apei^Ung  of  the  LordTa  Sapper, '  The 
biead  waa  eaiiied  into  die  eaneelli,  and,  be- 
ing there  eoddenly  broken  to  bito,  waa  again 
broaght  out  in  a  basket,  and  presented  to 
enreiy  onoin  die  aaaenbly'  (87) 

'Chancellor'  reprssento  a  Hebrew  word, 
whieh  is,  in  the  appUeation,  eooneeted  bat 
remotely  with  Jewish  afRdrs.  The  word  (the 
same  in  origin  as  Baal)  la  eommoaly  rtn* 
dered  '  owner '  (Exod.  zzL  88)  ;  *  hnsbsnd ' 
(Dent.  xxiL  28) ;  « master'  (Isa.  L  8) ;  bat 
is  foond  in  Esra  It.  8,  9, 17,  represented  by 
'  ehaneellor,*  where  it  is  nsed  of  *  Behom,  the 
ehaneellor'  of  Samaria  (17).  Literally, 
howerer,  the  original  is  *  master  of  eoonael,' 
or  deerees,  —  a  periphraaia  whieh  is  net 
badly  Engliahed  by  the  teim  ehaneellor. 

CHAFEL  appears  to  be  a  dIminatiTe  fern 
of  tapm,  a  ehest,  or  repodtoty;  irideh,  being 
used  originaUy  of  the  reeeptaeles  for  reli* 
gioas  and  odier  sasred  objeets,  oame  in 
eoorse  of  time  to  be  applied  to  the  interior 
and  saorod  apartment  in  whioh  these  tiea- 
sares  were  preserved ;  end  thenee  waa  ap- 
plied to  any  small  boflding  fonning  part  of 
a  ehareh,  boDt  often  by  indiridaals,  in  ho- 
nour of  oertain  sainte,  and  need  by  them  and 
theirs,  as,  in  eaeh  eaae,  the  femOy  oratoiy. 
From  this, '  ehnpel  *  came  to  aignify  a  sepa- 
rate place  of  worship. 

The  word  occurs  but  once  in  SeripCnnt 
Amos  Tu.  18 ;  ito  original  equindent  MiUtakt 
being  in  aU  other  instances  rendered  *  ssne- 
Inaiy'  (Exod.  xr.  17.  8  Chron.  xx.  8.  Isa. 
▼iiL  14).  In  the  passage  in  Amos,  the 
word  ie  nsed  of  Betibd,  where  Jeroboam, 
king  of  Israel,  had  eet  up  his  golden  ealTes, 
and  when  he  oflbred  his  spurious  woiahip. 

CHAPlT£E^(L.e«9ni<,head,  by  which 
name  it  is  also  known  in  Hebrew,  Exod. 
xxxtL  88)  —is  an  architectural  term,  more 
commonly  written  oopilai,  denoting  the  aa- 
aemblage  of  mouldings  or  omamente  abore 
the  shaft  of  a  column,  in  other  words  the 
head  of  the  column.  Like  other  nations, 
the  Hebrews  gare  great  attention  to  this 
portion  of  their  buildings,  stoce,  from  ite 
position,  it  displays  ornament  to  much  ad- 
rentage.  In  1  Kings  riL  16,  we  learn  that 
Solomon,  on  the  top  of  two  pillars  of  brass 
(designed  for  the  porch  of  his  temple), 
'  eighteen  enbito  high  a  piece,'  set '  two  eha> 
piters  of  molten  brass,  each  five  eubite  hi^, 
with  neta  of  eheeker  work,  and  wreaths  of 
diain  woric,'  adomed  also  with  lilies  and 


pomegranates  (8  Kinga  xxy.  17.  Jer.  liL 
88).  It  may  not  be  easy  to  underBtmd  the 
meaning  of  eaeh  member,  or  to  eoneeive  of 
the  genoal  effect  of  diis  ornamental  stme- 
tnre ;  but  it  obriously  waa  bold  in  style,  end 
bcantiAd  in  delBiL  mth  tfaciri^paidagM. 
ttoae  ptDara  could  not  be  less  than  fiifc?  feet 
in  height 

In  the  Egyptian  temples,  whose  mine  stiU 
rsmain  to  us,  we  probably  hare  the  model 
that  Solomon  fbUowed ;  for,  though  he  waa 
aidMl  by  Tyrian  art^  that  of  Egypt  posseeeed 
featnrea  of  so  decided  a  nature,  as  in  all  pro- 
bahjlilj  to  command  attention  in  all  Weetem 
Asia.  By  reference,  then,  to  the  Egyptian 
odHtann,  we  may  throw  light  on  that  of  Solo- 
mon. Series  of  srehitecture  ere  not  made, 
but  grow,  arising  out  of  objecte  familiar  to 
the  earliest  builders.  The  type  in  Egypt 
was  the  primitiTe  dwelling  formed  of  reeds, 
which  abounded  on  the  bsnks  of  tibe  Nile  (Isa. 
xix.  6 ) .  The  Egyptian  column,  accordingly, 
wee  a  bundle  of  reeds  encircled  with  ban- 
dages, bulging  out  in  the  middle,  and  curv- 
ing off  into  a  capitaL  In  some  eases,  the 
original  poet  of  reeds  almost  seems  to  have 
been  trsnslated  into  stone.  Ton  eee  the  dus- 
ter of  reeds,  the  bands  or  rings  by  which  they 
were  fastened  together, — every  detail,  even 
to  the  bulging  of  the  pliant  stems  under  the 
superinenmbeDt  srchitrave,  so  as  to  form 
the  capital  by  pressure.  This  bell-shaped 
capital  is  often  covered  widi  sculptured  foli- 
age. The  form  of  the  capital  may  have  been 
snggeeted  by  eome  plant  of  the  htua  kind. 
Hence  probddy  the  *  lilv  work '  which  was  on 
the  top  of  Solomon's  pillars  (1  Kings  vii.  82). 


Our  engraving  presente  an  Egyptian  column 
standing  on   a  cylindrical  block,  with   an 


CHA 


335 


CHA 


•bttoas  or  Bqnire  block  on  the  chapter,  on 
which  rests  the  EichitraTe,  scnlptond  with 
hleroglyphios :  it  is  taken  from  tfie  Memno- 
ninm,  and  of  a  date  not  less  than  1400  A.O. 

OHAPMAN  (from  the  German  Kauffimmf 
a  dealer  or  wterckmU)  is  the  translation 
(d  Ohxon.  is.  14)  of  a  word  which  is  also 
rendered  '  merchant-men '  (1  Kings  x.  10). 
See  the  article  Mbbohajtoisb. 

CHABOEB,  from  the  English  cbsrge,  a 
lead,  signifies  that  which  bears  any  thing; 
and  hence,  a  capaoioos  diah.  It  is  the  ren- 
dering of  a  Hebrew  word,  signifying  to  Aol- 
law,  or  be  coneave,  which  ia  translated  'dish ' 
in  Exod.  xxr.  20;  xxxriL  16.  In  the  Old 
Testament  it  is  used  of  the  *  sihrer  chargers' 
which  Uie  princes  of  Israel  ofibred  for  the 
serrioe  of  the  tabernacle.  The  weight  of 
these  was  Tciy  great  Each  head  of  the 
twelTc  tribes  offered  one,  making  twelve 
chargers;  which,  with  twelve  silver  bowls, 
making  up  in  sUTcr  vessels  two  thousand 
four  handled  shekels,  and  twelve  golden 
spoons,  weighing  in  all  a  hundred  and 
twenty  shekels,  display  an  amount  of  wealti^ 
in  the  precious  metals,  possessed  by  the  He- 
brew leaders  while  still  in  the  wilderness, 
that  is  truly  surprising  (Numb.  viL  12— €6). 

The  word  '  charger '  im  also  found  in  the 
New  Testament  (Matt.  xiv.  8, 11.  Mark  vi. 
25,  28.  Luke  xi.  89),  as  the  representative 
of  a  Greek  word,  jnna^,  which  signifies  a 
large,  flat,  tabular  vessel,  and  is  rendered  in 
ihe  passage  in  Luke  by  *  platter.' 

CHARITY  is  derived  from  a  Greek  word, 
which,  connected  with  the  Latin  came,  dear, 
referred  originally  to  physical  beauty  or  grace 
(the  Graces  were  called  Uie  Charities) ;  hence 
was  applied  to  the  pleasing  emotions  which 
moral  excellencies  excite  in  the  mind,  and 
finally  came  to  signify,  not  only  the  emotion, 
but  the  manifestation,  of  kindness,  aiFectlon, 
and  love.  The  history  of  the  word  is  more 
carious  still.  As  described  by  the  aposfle 
Paul  (1  Cor.  xiii.),  charity  is  tiie  most  com- 
prehensive and  noble  of  human  virtues :  as 
ordinarily  understood  in  these  days,  it  signi- 
fies either  mere  forbearance  with  diversities 
of  opinion,  a  ftivourable  interpretation  of 
motives,  or,  yet  more  narrow,  the  bestowal 
of  slms ;  and  so,  from  being  a  virtue  of  the 
highest  order,  it  sinks  to  represent  a  very 
questionable  practice.  Tet,  throughout  this 
range,  analysis  would  show  a  connecting 
thread,  uniting  the  several  parts  together, 
and  leading  back  to  the  primitiTe  sii^ufica- 
tion  of  female  loveliness. 

The  Greek  word,  of  which  <  charity '  is  a 
rendering,  in  Bom.  xiv.  15.  1  Cor.  viii.  1 ; 
xiii.  1,  eeq, ;  xiv.  1 ;  xvi.  14.  Col.  iii.  14. 
1  Pet  iv.  8,  is  agape,  which  is  in  general 
translated  *  love.'  And  it  may  serve  to  show 
the  great  space  occupied  in  the  gospel  by  the 
"Virtue  of  eharity  or  love,  if  we  state  that 
the  word  is  used  in  the  New  Testament  more 
than  a  hundred  times,  eiUier  in  expounding 


or  enforeing  the  sentiment,  and  the  dntisa 
connected  with  it  The  subject,  thus  opened, 
of  Christian  love,  is  of  very  high  importance, 
and  yet  very  imperfectly  understood. 

Love  has  been  degraded,  so  as  to  regard 
things.  In  its  proper  meanmg,  it  refers  to 
pcnons  only.  Equally  is  love  a  moral  foal- 
ing. True  love  has  its  seat  in  the  heart, 
and  is  called  into  action  Iff  moral  excel- 
lencies. We  at  least  have  here  to  speak 
exclusively  of  a  spiritaal  aifiMtion.  And 
generaliy  love  is  a  eomplaoent  setf-comnuni- 
eaSion.  It  consists  of  two  essential  particu- 
lars, —  high,  pleasing,  and  benevolently 
inclined  emotiona  towards  a  person  pos- 
sessed of  moral  loveliness,  and  the  manifes- 
tation of  these  emotions  by  some  outward 
act  The  definitioa  shows  likot  we  are  here 
engaged  in  a  lofty  sphere  of  thought,  and 
may  serve  to  raise  our  idea  of  that  religioa 
to  which  we  owe  the  impressions  we  enter- 
tain, and  the  progress  we  may  have  made  in 
Christian  love.  The  definition  also  shows 
that  we  have  to  do  with  no  mere  speculation, 
no  fjudnating  abstractions,  no  unreal  visions 
of  dreamy  thought ;  but  a  duty,  a  course  of 
conduct,  as  well  as  an  hsbitual  state  of  the 
heart  Love,  as  the  outward  expression  of 
complacency,  is  iha  opposite  of  selfieJmess, 
whose  essence  it  is  to  concentrate  every 
thing  on  one's  self;  and  so,  while  love,  of 
necessity,  expands,  enriches,  and  refines  the 
bosom,  selfishness  ever  tends  to  narrow,  har- 
den, and  degrade  it  Nothing  lower  than 
absolute  perfection  can  find  all  in  itself  or 
make  self  all  in  all ;  for,  to  imperfect  crea- 
tnrea,  the  aouroes  of  improvement  must  lie 
without,  in  the  ardent  contemplation  of  ex- 
cellence in  another,  even  a  perfect  being. 
Hence  love,  which  supposes  a  second  self 
possessed  of  high  and  desirable  qualities, 
has  an  edueatioxial  tendency.  It  is,  indeed, 
God's  great  educational  lever.  By  love  he 
raises  the  inferior  to  the  superior,  and  the 
superior  to  himselfl  Heaven  looks  down  on 
man  with  an  eye  of  love,  and  amiles  of  be- 
nignity ;  and,  awakening  correspondent  emo- 
tions in  homan  hearts,  lifts  us  upward  from 
one  platform  to  anotiber,  till  we  are  pre- 
pared for  intercourse  with  saints  in  li^^t 

Hence  it  is  dear  that  God  is  the  source 
of  love,  and  its  highest  object  In  one  sense, 
indeed,  God  is  as  the  primary  and  ever-flow- 
ing source^  so  the  only  proper  object  of 
love ;  and  aU  oUier  loves  are  right,  exda- 
sively,  as  they  spring  firom  and  lead  to  Him, 
the  great  unceasing  Fountain  of  aU  tiiat 
is  fiiir,  beantiftil,  good,  and  happy  in  the 
universe. 

This  at  once  brings  us  to  the  doctrine  of 
Scripture,  which  sets  forth  God's  love  as  the 
origin  of  all  good  to  man,  and  the  ground 
and  reason  of  our  duty  tolove  him,  l^  serv- 
ing one  another.  In  the  Bible,  God  is  not 
represented  in  his  essential  qualities,  so  much 
as  in  the  relations  which  he  bears  to  man. 


C  II  A                       336  C  II  A 

In  these  he  is  neceasarily  a  Creator  and  a  This  love  of  Ood  and  Christ  is  designed 

Benefactor.   Henoe  the  beaatiinl  description,  to  awaken  corresponding  love  in  onr  hearts. 

<Ood  is  love'  (IJohn  iv.  16).     Had  Ood  Love  not  only  demands,  bnt  evokes  love, 

been  termed  troth,  neither  his  creative  nor  If  we  really  feel  the  love  which  God  has 

his  benign  attributes  would  have  been  indi-  towards  as«  we  shall  be  conscious  also  of 

cated.    In  calling  him  love,  the  writer  in-  love  towards  him.    *  We  love  him  because 

eluded  both ;  Ibr  love  is  self-communieated  he  first  loved  us '  (1  John  iv.  19).    A  heart 

goodness:  it  is,  in  God,  a  holy  and  kind  af-  conscious  of  God's  love  must  be  grateful, 

fection,  manifested  by  the  power  of  an  omni-  trusting,  snd  obedient    And  what  is  love 

potent  wilL    Communication  is  of  its  very  towards  God,  but  grateful  trust  leading  to  a 

essence ;  and,  when  associated  widi  bound-  devout  acquiescence  in    his    will  ?      The 

less  power,  it  guarantees  the  fulfilment  of  essence  of  love  towsrds  a  fellow-creature 

its  own  benignant  purposes.    Hence  the  love  eonsists  in  such  pleasurable  snd  benign 

of  God  is  a  pledge  of  the  final  hi^piness  of  emotions  towards  him,  as  lead  us  to  make 

human  kind.  his  will  ours.   Love,  then,  blends  the  creature 

This  divine  love  has  been  manifested  at  with  the  Creator,  tending  to  make  God's  will 

Bimdry  times,  snd  in  divers  manners ;  now  one  with  man's     And  no  other  thing  has  the 

in  sunshine,  now  in  cloud,  now  in  tempest;  same  power  ibi  this  important  purpose ;  for 

but  like  the  sun«  whose  urns  of  light  it  filled  love  is  the  best  instractox  in  spiritual  con- 

and  ever  supplies,  it  still  shines  on  in  the  cems ;  it  establishes  a  sure  medium  of  inters 

pure  lustre  of  its  own  heaven,  —  a  beacon  oommunieation*  it  opens  the  eyes  of  oar 

for  humanity,  and  a  light  to  enlighten  and  mind,  it  purges  their  vision,  it  enlarges  the 

msrk  out  the  pathway  of  Almighty  Provi-  range  and  increases  the  penetration  of  that 

denee.    But  as  one  star  difiSBreUi  from  an-  vision;  while,  on  the  part  of  God,  it  lays 

other  star  in  glory,  and  the  brightness  of  one  open  to  us  designs  which  we  could  not 

day  outshines  that  of  another;  so  the  displays  otherwise  know,  and  explains  workings  which 

of  God's  love,  while  they  have  ever  been  the  would  else  be  a  profound  secret ;  dissipating 

same  in  kind,  have  difiered  greatly  in  degree,  clouds  and  darkness,  and  giving  us  strength 

The  highest  and  fisUest  manifestation  of  to  keep  straight  on  in  trust  and  hope,  under 

God's  love  was  in  the  sending  of  his  Son  trials  and  crosses  which  wear  the  appearance 

for  the  redemption  of  the  world  (Heb.  L 1, 2.  of  being  totally  adverse.    Indeed,  love  is  the 

John  iiL  16.  Bom.  v.  8.    1  John  iiL  11 ;  iv.  great  revealer  between  God  and  man.    It  is 

10).    This  love  of  God  to  the  world  had  a  the  source  of  light,  knowledge,  and  power, 

respect  primarily  to  the  Son  (John  v.  20 ;  We  csnnot  know,  till  we  have  come  to  love 

z.  17;  xviL  24),  since  it  oould  be  eommu-  God.    And  love  is  the  only  sure  handmaid 

nicaled  to  man,  only  through  a  being  who  of  trust    When  once  we  have  learned  to 

had  himself  been  the  object  of  the  divine  love,  love  God,  we  shall  need  no  exhortations  to  oon- 

and  had  become  filled  with  its  holy  and  be-  fide  in  him,  whether  for  time  or  eterni^. 

nign  influence.    Love  may  be  imparted,  but  But  knowledge  and  trust  strengthen  the  love 

cannot  be  taught    Ton  cannot  instruct  men  of  which  they  are  bom.    If  we  really  know 

in  love,  as  you  instruct  them  in  letters  or  God,  we  cannot  fail  to  love  him ;  for  <  God 

geometry.    A  loving  heart  is  the  only  pro*  is  love.'    And  when  the  love  of  God  in  Christ 

moter  of  love.     Affection  has  a  language  is  shed  abroad  in  the  heart,  all  the  graces 

of  its  own.     It  is   in  its  nature  enJiind-  and  excellencies  of  the  Christian  character 

ling.    Love  works  by  sympathy.    Therefore,  aboimd  therein,  making  their  possessor  per- 

Jesus  who  was  to  be  the  bearer  of  God's  fSsct  in  love.    This  high  state  of  privilege, 

love  to  man,  first  received  of  its  fulness,  the   Scripture    describes    as    'faith  which 

In  consequence  of  the  Father^s  loving  the  worketh  by  love '  (John  v.  42.   Gal.  v.  6 ; 

Son,  he  ^owed  him  all  things  that  him-  comp.  1  Tim.  i.  5;    and  see  John  v.  42. 

self  did;  for  love  establishes  sa  infaUible  Bom.  viiL  28.   1  Cor.  vuL  8.    1  John  iL  0). 

medium  of  communication  between  two  be-  Our  love  towards  God  must  be  supreme,  and 

ings ;  and  Jesus  was  fitted  for  his  high  office  in  its  kind  exclusive ;  for  God  is  absolute 

of  making  Gk>d  known  to  man,  in  conse-  perfection,  which  of  necessity  excludes  par- 

quence  of  being  in  his  Father's  bosom,  an  ticipation.    As  there  is  but  one  God,  so  moat 

object  of  his  special  complacency,  and  a  re-  our  highest  homage  be  directed  to  him  alone, 

cipient  of  his  choicest  gifts  (John  i.  18).  And  it  is  onr  highest  homsge  that  we  must 

The   Saviour,  when  thus  he  had  received  offer  to  him,  —  no  inferior,  no  partisl,  no 

the  spirit  without  measure,  was  furnished  shsred  affection.     The  highest  good  must 

with  all  requisite  means  for  being  a  faithful  be  loved  with  the  highest  homage,  and  the 

and  merciful  high  priest  to  man,  to  whom  highest  homsge   is  necessarily   undivided, 

he  could,  in  consequence,  communicate  the  Hence  the  sanctity  of  worship.     It  is  the 

divine  charities  of  his  own  breast   And  thus  holiest  feeling  of  the  soul,  known  to  none 

the  scheme  of  salvation  was  adapted  to  bring  but  its  divine  object    And  hence  its  perfect 

about  that  union  which  our  Lord  prayed  freedom ;  for  it  subsists  exclusively  between 

might  be  common  to  his  disciples,  his  Fa-  the  adorer  and  the  adored;  —  independent 

tfaer,  and  himself  (John  xviL  21 — 28).  of  all  visible  thmgs,  spart  from  all  hiunan 


C  H  A  8S7  0  H  A 

ooDtrol.  Henoe,  to<H  iIm  Banslitj  And  per-  manifest  itself  to  be.  The  love  of  Christ 
fee*  fteedom  of  all  real  religion ;  for  loire,  urill  give  rise  to  the  lore  of  Christians,  and 
worship,  and  faith,  are  only  naaes  for  tliat  tiie  lore  of  Chrtetians  will  pass  hito  the  lore 
great  reality.  A  troly  leligioas  so«l  alwijs  of  man.  This  transference  is  a  necessary 
believes,  always  loves,  always  trests,  always  resslt  Oennine  Christian  love  csnnot  be  a 
serves  God«  And  finally,  henee  Ihe  posser  naffow  aifection ;  for  it  bean  a  resemblance 
of  the  gospel  to  *  make  the  maa  of  God  pet-  to  the  love  of  Christ  who  died  for  all,  and  to 
feot;-  therottgiyy  Airttished  unto  every  good  the  love  of  God  who  is  the  Father  of  all. 
woirk;'  aince  his  love  is  the  lovie  of  the  Henee  hnmankind  becomes  afteiily,  of  which 
highest  goodness,  the  tsnderest  merey,  the  the  Gospel  is  the  eldest  son,  the  tnCor,  and 
most  comprehensive  benignity,  spotless  and  best  firisnd ;  snd  hence  &e  advancement  of 
oonsammate  holinees,  boundless  smd  inei^  the  flhareh  is  the  salvation  of  the  world, 
haostible  power.  The  love  (tf  such  attributes  Conversely,  whatevtv  enlightens  snd  im« 
transforms  man  into  ttie  image  oi  Christ  pA>ves  ttie  woild  is  so  much  done  fbr  Christ ; 
CMark  niL  28,  uq.y.  Ibr  it  prepares  the  way  before  him,  as  did 

Bot  this  perfection  has  to  be  wrought  out  ^Mm  die  Baptist  In  this  view,  the  Christian 
by  a  praotieal  manifestation  of  love:  — !•  philanthropist  finds  delight,  assured  that  all 
In  loving  the  Saviour ;  11.  In  imitating  hl»  tilings  are  working  together  for  the  ftirther- 
active  benevolence.  The  love  of  Jeaus  i«  smee  ef  the  glory  of  God  in  the  universal 
the  love  of  what  Jesus  wm  and  did;  th*    happiness  of  man. 

love  of  him  for  himself,  and  for  his  great        These  general  prfneiples  find  9A  easy  sp- 
sserifioe;  the  love  of  him  as  the  Son  of    pUoatloa  in  actual  Ufe,  and  are  aotnaliy 
God,  and  as  ths  Saviour  of  the  wosid.    Sueh    applied  and  enferced  in  many  parts  of  Holy 
love  makes  die  soul  honour,  reversnoe,  and    Writ      We  h«ve   not    space  for   partiou- 
serve  the  Son,  as,  under  God,  the  sathov    lare,  but  would  impress  it  en  the  readex'a 
and  giver  of  life  (Acts  iii.  19.    Heb,  v.  9 ;    mhid  that  no-  other  —  no  lower  standard 
lii.  2)<    But  aU  true  Christian  love  is  intfi*     dian  is  presented  in  the  life  and  death  of  the 
matoly  condeeted  with  action ;  so  ths  love    Lord  Jesus  hunself,  must  we  admit  as  our 
of  Christ  demanids  a  eonespondent  demeaan    guide  in  our  bearing  towards  diose  who  arer 
our.    Sometimee  the  demand  is  of  saaifloeSy    hi  and  those  who  are  out  of  the  Christisn 
—the  snmndev  of  every esrthly  good;  som^*    fold  (John  zv.  12, 18 ;  xili  84) r 
times  the  emoiftzion  of  sel^  requiring  us  to        We  conclude  with  one  or  two  xeifeedons. 
take  up  our  cross  and  fellow  him,  whethes    Love  is  the  essence  of  the  Christian  religion, 
by  mortil^ing  our  inferior  appetites,  or  re-     raeh  love  as  we  have  expounded,  the  love  of 
Bouncing  unworthy  pursuits,  or  enduring     €k>d,  Christ,  and  man,  -^  first  as  an  emotion, 
repzuadhy  ignominy,  torture,  sad  death  for     secondly  as  an  set     From  this  fact  we  may 
his  sake,  and  in  tetheraase  of  his  cause,     foam  the  position  which  Christianity  holds 
True  love  demands,  snd  has  pledges.    We     among  the  powers  of  ^is  worid.    Iliatposi* 
never  truly  love,  till  we  have  sufibrsd  fer  a     tion  is  obviously  the  highest,  -^  not  only  the 
loved  object    The  Chiisttan  who  has  never    highest  that  is  possible,  but  the  highest  that 
suffered  for  Christ  is  only  as  yet  a  babe  in    is  eoneeivable.    Nothing  can  transcend  the 
love.    Self-renuncialion  snters  as  an  eesen*     love  of  God  in  Christ  to  man ;  nothing  csn  lift 
tial  element  mto  all  true  religioa.    Until  we    man  into  a  loftier,  brighter,  or  holier  sphere, 
have  renounced  the  fledi,  we  cannot  be  filled     than  such  love  towards  God  as  God  requires, 
with  the  spirit    Until  we  ha»e  practically    and  the   gospel  empoweit   man   to   give. 
withdrawn  oar  affiBCtion  from  eai&i»  we  are    Wherefore,  fiie  gospel  is  ss  the  best,  so  the 
uaaUe  to  set  it  on  things  sibove.     Henee    last  gift  of  God  to  man.    Having  f^ven  us 
the  Saviour  himself  said,— «'  He  that  lov*    his  Son,  God  has  in  himgiven  us  all  things, 
eth  fether  or  mother  aior»  liaa  me,  is  not    Christisnity,  therefore,  cannot  grow  old,  can- 
wordiy  of  me '  (Matt  x.  87.  John  viiL  42*    not  be  surpassed,  cannot  be  superseded. 
CoL  ilL  2-^)  There  never  csn  be  sny  thing  higher,  better. 

But  what  love  is  that  which  allows  us  te  or  holier,  than  that  love  whidi  makes  at  once 
negleot  the  example,  and  disrsgard  the  com-  its  origin,  its  essence,  its  aim,  its  consum- 
mands,  of  him  whom  we  profess  to  love  7  Ge-  matlon, -*•  namely,  God's  love  in  Christ 
nuine  love  is  in  its  very  nature  imitative  and  toman,  and  man's  love  dirou||h  Christ  to 
transforming.    Like  the  aodon  of  the  rays     God. 

Off  die  sun  on  certain  prepared  substanoes,  It  took  ages,  however,  to  develops  the 
love  imprinta  an  image  of  itself  on  evei^  grand  and  ennobling  idea  of  which  we  have 
loving  heart;  and,  if  our  hearto  are  in  truth  spoken.  Hen  are  slow  learners  in  divine 
filled  with  the  love  of  Christ,  we  shall  spon-  things,  as  is  seen  in  the  fact,  that  even  after 
taneonsly  and  uneonseiously  reoeive  snd  the  idea  has  been  unfolded  and  presented  In 
wear  his  likeness.  And  that  likeness  was  a  living  form  in  the  Saviour  of  mankind,  so 
the  living  portraiture  of  the  warmest,  widest,  few  sre  able,  we  do  not  say  to  live  up  to  the 
most  tender,  and  most  sdf-denying  love  that  standard,  but  to  comprehend  its  nature,  and 
ever  visited  and  blest  die  esHh.  Similar  hi  feel  its  claims.  Nevertheless,  the  lift  of 
kindwiU  all  true  Ghsistian  love  giadually    Jestts  stands  to  aU  ages  a  monument  of  Chris^ 

Y 


CUA                      338  CHA 

tiftD  love.    Then  to  man,  unable,  for  the  The  word  properly  aigufles  fo  iffAMjwr,  and  to 

most  part,  to  rise  to  abatraotiona  in  the  Tery  communieaie  by  whuperingi  hence,  a  magical 

degree  in  which  they  are  pore  and  lofty,  is  charm,  formed  by  whispering  or  secret  oor- 

found  the  breathing  model  of  consummate  re8pondencewith8eipents(Ps.zli.7.  Eccles. 

and  unspotted  excellence.    There  is  light  z.  11.  Jer.  Tiii.  17). 

for  our  mind,  and  warmth  for  our  heart  From  the  preceding,  we  leam  tiie  view 
There  is  an  object  for  our  reverence,  there  which  Mosea  took  of  these  occult  practices, 
is  a  ground  for  our  trust;  an  object  and  a  He  eridently  regarded  them  aa  falsities  which 
ground  full  of  a  glowing  attractiveness,  which  were  irreligious,  as  well  as  socially  and 
gratifies  and  wins  the  heart  But  if  it  is  morally  wrong.  They  probably  appeared  to 
ever  aUowable  to  torn  from  the  living  image  him  in  their  true  character  as  deceptions, 
of  God  to  written  words,  we  dare  refer  to  the  Hence  the  severe  interdict  which  he  put 
writings  of  John,  the  apostle  of  love  (1  John  upon  theoL  That  interdict  seems  to  have 
iii.),  and  to  that  divine  passage  of  Paul,  in  been  effeotual;  for  in  the  Jewish  Scriptuns 
1  Cor.  xiiL,  as  means  of  especial  value,  to  there  are  only  allusions  to  these  daric  arts, 
enable  the  reader  to  form  a  complete  idea  of  and  these  aUnaiona  are  few.  If  they  show 
what  Christian  love  is ;  at  what  a  distance  Uiat  a  belief  in  the  reality  of  chaima  pos- 
it stands  beyond  the  love  inculcated  by  Moses  sessed  the  minds  of  the  people,  the  passage 
and  the  prophets,  and  how  immeasurably  given  above  proves  beyond  a  doubt,  that  the 
high  it  rises  above  any  thing  ftncied  or  whole  sphere  of*  the  Mack  art 'was  proscribed 
taught  by  Heathen  philoaophy.      lict  the  by  Moses. 

reader  not  leave  the  study,  however,  unim-  Moses,  not  long  before  promulgating  that 

pressed  by  those  words  of  the  great  Teacher,  law,  had  been  in  open  conflict  with  the  ma- 

— *  If  ye  know  these  things,  happy  are  ye  if  gieians  and  enchanters  of  Egypt,  who,  from 

ye  do  them '  (John  ziii.  17).    *  Her  sins,  the  Scriptural  narrative,  appear  to  have  poe- 

which  sze  msny,  are  forgiven ;  for  ahe  loved  sessed  much  skill,  vanquished  and  exposed 

much '  (Luke  viL  47).  though  they  were  by  that  great  man  (Exod. 

CHABMEB    (Arom    the    Latin    <»rmeii,  viL  viiL).    Egypt,  indeed,  rivalled  Babylon 

a  tong)  denotes  one  who  delighit  or  cKarm»,  in  its  dark  science  and  false  srts.    Hence 

primarily  by  singing,  and,  in  a  derivative  the  custom  of  wearing  charms,  as  preserva- 

sense,  by  any  other  means.    The  word  cAorm,  tives  against  evil,  was  widely  prevalent  Even 

denoting  a  ^>ell  or  source  of  power  over  other  the  god  Harpocrates  wore  a  charm.    These 

beings,  is  of  the  same  origin.     Similar,  too,  charms  were  of  gold  or  hard  stone ;  others, 

is  the  derivation  of  enckantmenl,  ftom  canto,  worn  by  the  poorer  classes,  were  made  of 

I  sing.     Cluarming  has  two  Hebrew  repre-  leather.    Sometimes  a  chsrm  consisted  of  a 

sentatives :  —  I.  Oketfer,  which  signifies  to  written  piece  of  papyrus,  ti^tly  rolled  up 

bindf  and  hence  to  bind  by  magical  rites  and  sewed  into  a  covering  of  linen  or  other 

and  incantations,  so  as  to  make  a  person  or  substance;  seversl  of  which  have  been  found 

animal  obey  the  eharmer^s  wilL    Charmers  at  Thebes.      Emblems  of  various  deities 

were  known  to  the  sncient  Israelites ;  and  it  wen  appended  to  necklaces  for  the  same 

is  among  the  proofii  of  the  superior  wisdom  purpose. 

and  great  power  of  Moses,  that  he  put  them  The   serpent  was   domesticated  by    the 

under  his  ban  with  other  traffickers  in  pre-  ancient  Egyptians,  and,  being  worshipped 

tended  srts  of  darkness.    '  When  thou  art  in  their  temples,  was  often  pampered  with 

oome  into  the  land,  there  shall  not  be  found  sugar  and  milk  by  the  prieats.    One  of  the 

among  yon  any  one  that  maketh  his  son  or  most  venomous  (Naia  Haje)  was  venerated 

Ilia  daughter  to  pass  through  the  fire,  or  that  as  the  emblem  of  Kneph,  or  the  good  deity, 

useth  divination,  or  an  observer  of  times,  or  probably  on  the  principle  which  hiduced  the 

an  enchanter,  or  a  witch,  or  a  charmer,  or  a  Greeks  to  call  the  Furies  the  Eumenides,  or 

consulter  with   familiar  spirits,  or   a  wis-  the  good-natured,  in  order,  by  an  honourable 

ard,  or  a  necromancer;    for  all    that  do  name,  to  avert  their  wrath,  and  conciliate 

these  things  are  an  abomination  unto  Jeho-  their  favour. 

vah '  (Deut  xviii.  .0 — 12).  In  Ps.  Iviii.  4, 5,  Some  means  must  have  been  possessed  by 
a  direct  referonce  is  made  to  the  practice  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  to  render  the  veno- 
charming  serpents :  — '  The  deaf  adder  thai  mous  snimals  innocuous.  They  may  have 
stoppeth  her  ear ;  which  will  not  hearken  to  deprived  them  of  their  poison  bags.  But 
the  voice  of  the  charmers,  be  the  charmer  very  much  may  be  effected  by  gentle  treat- 
never  so  skilfiil.'  Babylon,  as  in  his  time  ment,  when  commenced  with  the  young, 
the  great  centre  of  scientific  deceptions,  is  Colonel  Briggs,  in  speaking  of  India,  saya: 
threatened  with  ruin  by  Isaiah  — '  For  the  —  *  A  surprising  instance  of  the  effect  of 
multitude  of  thy  sorceries,  and  the  great  kind  treatment  in  aubduing  &e  most  irritable 
abundance  of  thine  enchantments'  or  charms  spirits  is  exemplified  in  these  creatures.  I 
(xlvii.  9, 12).  have  seen  them  come  out  of  the  holea  in  the 

n.  The  other  word  rendered  <  charmer,'  is  temples  when  a  pipe  has  been  played  to  them, 

Iiohghath,  used  in  the  above-cited  passage  and  feed  out  of  Uie  hand  as  tamely  as  any 

from  the  Psalms,  and  there  rendered  charmert,  domestic  animal.'    In  Modem  Egypt,  many 


CHE  339  CHE 

of  the  demshes  handle  with  impumty  live  its  source  &e  Ros  el  Ain,  which  flowing  on 

Tenomous  serpents  and  scorpions,  and  partly  till,  having  received  (he  eastern,  it  falls  into 

devour  them.    They  are  said  to  render  them  the  Euphrates,  is  properly  the  Chehar.    The 

incapable  of  doing  any  injury,  by  extracting  river,  which  is  said  to  be  supplied  by  at  least 

their  venomous  fangs.     Many  dervishes  ob-  nine  sources,  waters  a  large,  rich,  and  pro- 

tain  their  livelihood  by  going  about  to  charm  lific  country.    It  forms  the  boundary  line 

away  serpents  from  houses.    The  following  between  northern  and  southern  Mesopotamia. 

instance  is  extracted  from  Hoskins's  '  Visit        CH££SE    (from  the  German  kasen,  to 

to  the  Great  Oasis/  pp.  4,  6 :  —  curdle) ;  in  Hebrew,  Ohaiahv,  denoting  what 

*  The  Psylli,  or  Egyptian  serpent  charmers,  is  ftU,  and  is  generally  translated   '  milk ' 

oame  to  my  house  (in  Thebes),  one  day  when  (Gen.  xviii.  8.  Exod.  iii.  8) ;  but  in  1  Sam. 

I  was  absent,  and  apparently  succeeded  in  xvii.  18,  *  cheese,' — '  Cany  these  ten  cheeses 

attracting  a  serpent  and  two  scorpions  from  unto  the  captain ; '  in  the  margin,  *  cheeses 

their  hiding  places.    They  are  said  to  be  of  milk.'    Indeed,  another  word  is  found  here 

hidden  in  the  innermost  recesses  of  the  walls,  in  union  with  Ohaiahv,    This  other  word  is 

They  afterwards  went  to  a  tomb  where  Mr.  Ohareesh,  and   signifies  euUinffs  —  so  that 

Bonomi  resided,  and  seemed  to  charm  from  literally  the  two  together  mean  cuttingi  qf 

their  holes  another  serpent  and  some  scor-  milk ;  or,  the  Hebrew  idiom  being  put  into 

pions,  but  faQed  in  enticing  a  fine  serpent  English,  cut  milk ;  and  what  but  cheese  is 

which  Mr.  B.  kept  in  a  tin  case.    The  lid  of  milk  that  can  be  cut  ?    This  appears  to  have 

the  case  was,  on  this  occasion,  purposely  been  the  original  way  of  designating  cheese. 

kept  open  :  therefore,  had  their  incantations  At  a  later  period,  a  spedfio  name  came  into 

really  possessed  any  influence,  except  over  use,  Geveenah,  which,  from  a  root  signifying 

the  reptiles  which  had  been  trained  to  obey  to  be  convex  (^i^bous),  denotes  a  small  loaf, 

their  call,  this  homed  snake  would  most  like  a  cheese  (Job  x.  10). 

assuredly  have  made  its  appearance.    Many         The  Barbary  cheeses,  Shaw  tells  us  ('  Tra 

travellers  have  believed  in  the  power  of  these  vels,'  168),  are  Mrely  above  two  or  fliree 

jugglers,  because  they  have  not  succeeded  in  pounds  in  weight,  and  in  shape  and  size  like 

detecting  their  artifices.    I  do  not  pretend  our  penny  loaves.    Baskets  made  of  rushes, 

to  understand  their  tricks ;  but  it  seems  to  or  die  dwarf  pahn,  are  the  vats  in  which 

me  highly  probable  that  the  serpents  and  they  are  made.    Into  these  vats  they  put  the 

scorpions  which  they  profess  to  find,  are  only  curds,  and  press  them.    The  eastern  cheeses 

those  that  they  have  themselves  let  loose,  are  of  a  very  soft  consistence.    Instead  of 

and  which  have  been  previously  accustomed  mnnet,  they  turn  the  milk,  especially  in  the 

to  be  summoned  in  some  peculiar  manner  summer  season,  with  the  flowers  of  the  wild 

to  receive  their  food.    The  Psylli  engage,  for  artichoke.    Cheese  is  much  used  in  Pales- 

a  certain  sum  of  money,  to  initiate  others  tine,  as  might  be  expected  among  an  agri* 

into  their  secrets ;  that  is,  so  far  as  to  ren-  cultural  and  shephenl  people ;  since,  as  a 

der  them  insensible  to  poison.    They  mutter  large  part  of  their  property  consists  in  the 

over  them  in  Arabic  several  invocations  to  milk  given  by  their  catUe,  cheese,  as  coagu- 

prophets  and  saints,  no  one  ever  heard  of  lated  milk,  would  tend  to  preserve,  and  so 

before,  and  various  prayers  in  a  language  to   augment,  their  eatable  resources.      In 

which  has  certainly  no  acuity  to  any  other,  Jerusalem,  cheese-making  must  have  been  a 

and  which,  in  plain  terms,  would  be  called  considerable  business,  since  a  valley  bears 

gibberish.     They  administer  a  draught  of  the  name  of  Tyropcson,  or  cheete-maken^ 

water,  in  which  they  mix  a  powder,  and  ren-  vale, 

der  it  more  efficacious  by  spitting  into  it ;         CHEMABIMS,  —  a  Hebrew  word  found 

and  a  serpent,  which  they  apply  to  the  stran-  in  our  version  in  Zeph.    i.  4,  which,   in 

ger's  ear,  having  bitten  it  until  the  blood  2  Kings  xxiii.  5,  is  rendered  *  idolatrous 

flows,  he  is  then  declared  to  be  initiated  into  priests,'  and  in  Hos.  x.  5,  'priests.'    It  is 

the  mysteries  of  theii  craft,  and  ever  after  the  designation  of  the  priests  of  Baal,  and, 

safe  from  the  venom  of  serpents,  scorpions,  coming  from  a  root  which  signifies  to  be  hot, 

or  any  other  hurtful  reptfles.'  to  he  agitated  with  heat,  might  be  translated 

CHEBAB  —  termed   in   1  Chron.  v.  26,  'fire-priests,'  or  'fij^-worshippers;'  the  al- 

'  Habor '  (comp.  2  Kings  xvii.  6 ;  xviii.  11) ;  lusion  being  to  the  burning  sacrifices  offered 

in  Greek,  Chahoras — is  the  name  of  a  river,  to  Baal,  as  the  representative  of  the  sun,  or 

which,  rising  in  the  north  of  Mesopotamia,  the  fire-god. 

falls  into  the  Euphrates,  near  Carchemish.         CHEMOSH, — anidoloftheMoabitesand 

It  is  a  river  of  note,  if  for  no  other  reason  Amorites  (Numb,  xxi  29.  Judg.  xi  24),  for 

than  that  it  was  on  its  borders  that  the  Jews  whom  even  Solomon  built  a  high  place  '  in 

were  placed,  when  expatriated  by  their  As-  the  hill  that  is  before  Jerusalem'  (1  Kings 

Syrian  conquerors  (Ezek.  i.  1, 8 ;  iiL15, 28).  xi.  7.    2  Kings  xxiiL  13).     Some  account 

It  drains  a  wide  extent  of  country,  which  Chemosh  to  be  the  same  as  Baal  Peor.  Hyde, 
comprises  all  the  northern  and  middle  part  deriving  the  name  from  an  Arabic  word,  con- 
of  Mesopotamia.  It  has  two  chief  arms,  the  siders  Chemosh  identical  with  Beelzebul. 
western  and  the  eastern.    The  former  has  for     Hackmnn,   taking  another  Shemitic    root, 


boldi  ChBiDoah  to  be  the  wu-gnd  of  iht 
Hoibitei.  Ac«ohling  to  ■  Jswiali  tnditiDii, 
Uiia  '  tudtj '  wu  worgtiipped  under  the  ajm- 
bol  of  ■  bltok  nu.  Heaw,  Bsjer,  in  hii 
remkrki  on  Belden,  ooDjeotiiraB  that  Ohnoosli 
mi  Smtiim,  who  ia  known  lo  htvs  been 
wonhipped  among  tha  Arabiani  aa  a  atar  of 
eril  omeiL  Itiniy  makefbrtbiahypolheaia, 
dut  in  1  KingH  li.  T.  3  Kinga  xxiii.  l!l, 
Chemosh  ii  mentianed  in  eannsotion  with 
Holseh,  and  Hiloom ;  aaeh  of  which  ia  de- 
aoribed  aa  *  iba   abominatian  of  the   diil- 

CHBBITE  (H.  eMInff,  ehfl,  or  jor^i),  a 
brook  iTing  lo  the  aut  of  Samaria,  in  vhioh 
'El^Bh  the  Tlifabile'  via  direeted  of  Jebo- 
Tah  to  hide  himulf  (1  Kinga  iril.  S — 0). 
It  ta  deaeribed  aa  being  '  before  Jordan,'  and 
henoe  held  to  be  bejond  the  rim.  Tbe 
wordii,  howercr,  which  apeak  of  it  a*  being 
'before  Jordan,'  admit  of  ibi  lying  on  the 
west  of  the  riTBT,  H  ihej  da  not  eren  reqnlro 
it,  when  eonaidered  in  refknmoe  to  Samuia, 
irtieie  Ihej  were  ipoken.  This  appean  to 
hare  been  the  Tiew  of  Joaephna  (Antiq.  tUL 
IS.  T).  It  la  also  nippact«d  bj  Oen.  xrilL 
16  i  xit.  38 ;  and  Jndg.  ili.  8.  fiobinaon 
flitda  the  plaea  on  the  wot  of  Ihs  Jordan,  in 
Wadjr  Kelt  (aeeoidiag  to  him,  the  aame 
namei  with  a  not  nnnanal  Tailation  in  tbe 
apelling),  iriiloh  ia  the  great  drain  of  all 
the  Tallaja  betwem  Jeraialem  and  Deir 
Diwan.  The  Kelt,  tike  moat  other  bnmka 
in  Palestine,  driee  np  in  snmmer.  In  some 
part  of  the  nUej,  El^ab  oould  easily  hide 
hinueIC  '  And  the  taTcna  brought  Iiim 
bread  and  fleah  in  tbe  molning,  and  bread 
and  Aeall  in  the  srening ;  and  he  drink  of 
the  brook.  And  it  eajne  lo  pass  after  a 
while,  Uiat  the  brook  dried  op,  becanae  there 
bad  been  no  rain'  (6,7).  These  details, 
which  are  gixen  with  a  eaneiaenass  and  alm- 
plioiQ  which  are  nerer  fomid  in  &brlcaled 
marrela,  aland  in  atrict  agresmenl  wldi  the 
phyaieal  batnrca  of  iht  ooimtry,  aflbrding 
one  among  a  thonaand  am  ill,  but  sol  ineon- 
■iderable,eTidanoea  of  Iha  reality  of  the  seenea 
reeordfld  in  the  Bible. 

CHERBTSITEa, — men  who,  together 
wilh  the  Pelethites,  Ibrmed  Daiid'a  body- 
gnardoiJanlaaaalaa.  They  were  commanded 
by  Benalah,  the  aon  of  Jeboiada  (3  Sam. 
XT.  18 ;  K.  7.  I  King*  L  S8,  44).  '  Chere- 
Ihites '  ia  a  wold  which  ia  derired  from  a 
root  lignitying  (o  dealroy,  lo  UU.  Peledutea 
baa  for  in  root-meaning,  lo  ItatUn.  The 
names  aeem  lo  haTe  been  adopted  bam  the 
olBee  :  thoa,  tbe  seoond  were  Ihe  royal  eon- 
riers ;  tbe  flnt,  flie  oonrt  eieoationen.  The 
•ooriers  were  meaaengera  who  were  diipalch- 
•d  by  the  monarch  into  all  parts,  in  order 
to  bear  hia  oommands  (S  Chrmi.  xii.  S). 
Similar  offloera  are  atill  altuhed  lo  oriental 
eonrtt,  and  execnle  for  the  king  Ihe  fanctioiu 
of  our  poal.  Indeed,  royal  meeaengers  are 
•ran  yet  employed  by  lbs  Biiliab  monaieh. 


That  tbebody-gnard  (so  tanned  by  Joaephna, 
Antiq.  *ii.  S.  4)  had  to  carry  into  eAot  Ihs 
king's  senlence  of  death,  appears  ftom 
I  Kiiigs  iL  29, 34 ;  where  the  aame  Benaiah, 
oaptaiu  of  the  gaard,  slew,  at  David'a  oom- 
mand.  Josh,  sTen  at  Ihe  altar  where  he  had 
sought  proleolioiL.  The  earns  offloer  waa 
found  in  the  court  of  tbe  Pharoahs  (Oen. 
XxiTli.  36 ;  il.  3 ;  ili.  10),  and  at  Babjkn 
(Dan.  iL  14),  and  la  still  high  in  olBoe  at 
IbeForla. 

Many  modem  interpreters  hate  taken  Ihs 
ChsreOiileB  and  Pelelhitsa  for  originally  pro- 
per namea,  repreaenting  tribes  of  PhilLalinea ; 
and  langoage  in  Seriplure  aeema  to  require 
ns  to  hold,  that  there  were  oluia  with  that 
name  in  the  aoulh-weat  of  Falesline,  on  the 
aeaeoasl.  Thna  tbe  Cherethilca  menticsied  in 
1  Bam.  m.  14,  eiideDlly  lay  on  Ihe  aoudum 
border  of  Jadah-  And  in  Eiek.  zxr.  IS, 
the  same  people  are  mentioned  imder  the 
name  Cberethims)  as  ■  tribe  oS  Ihe  Fbilia- 
tines;  tbe  latter  u  neariy  Ihe  same  as  Pele- 
ftite^  being  in  tbe  Habrsw  Phililhilea. 
Still  mors  tbraible  is  the  language  of  Ze- 
phaniah  (il.O), when, speakingof  the  Philia- 
tlne  oitiea  of  Qaia,  Ashkelon,  Ashdod,  and 
Ekron,  he  adds —  ' Woe  onto  Ihe  inhabitinta 
of  Ihe  seaooasi,  ihe  nation  of  the  CherelhitM  I 
The  word  of  Jehotah  is  against  yon,  O  Ca- 
naan! die  land  of  the  Philialines.' 

CHERUB  —  in  the  plural,  Okrraiim  —  i* 
■  Hebrew  word  in  English  lettera,  which  ont 
tnuialators  thus  confessed  their  InabiU?  ta 


CHE 


341 


CHE 


traiiBlate,  and  yet  the  importance  of  under- 
standing whioh  may  be  infenred  from  two 
facts — namely,  that  the  word  occurs  in  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  nearly  a 
hundred  times,  and  the  figure  which  iit  re- 
presents is  connected  with  the  most  sacred 
objects  of  the  Hebrew  religion.  We  first 
find  cherubim  placed  at  the  east  of  the  Gar- 
den of  £den,  with  a  fisming  sword,  which 
turned  cTeiy  way  to  ^ep  the  tree  of  life 
(Oen.  iii.  34).  Moses  reoeired  the  divine 
command  to  make  two  cherubim  of  cunning 
work,  who  were  to  watch  over  the  ark  of  ibe 
covenant  (Ezod.  zxy.  18, 19).  It  here  de- 
serves notice  that  cherubim  are  spoken  of  as 
if  well  known,  no  description  being  given 
as  to  their  fioim  or  their  parts;  only  that 
they  should  be  of  beaten  gold,  and  be  placed 
at  the  two  extremities  of  the  mercy-seat. 
In  giving  directions  as  to  their  position  re- 
lative to  each  other,  the  writer  incidentally 
lets  us  know  that  they  had  faces  and  wings ! 
—  *  The  cherubim  shall  stretch  forth  their 
wingt  on  high,  covering  the  mercy-seat  with 
their  wings  and  their  Jaeea  one  lo  another ' 
So  sacred  was  this  symbol,  that  it  was  '  be- 
tween the  two  cherubim'  (the  Sbeohinab) 
that  the  Almighty  promised  to  commune  with 
Moses, '  of  all  which  I  wiU  give  thee  in  com- 
mandment unto  the  children  of  Israel' 
(Ezod.  zxv.  18,  teq,)»  Accordingly,  <  Je- 
hovah of  hosts '  is  described  ss  he  *  which 
dwelleth  between  the  cherubim/  or  more 
literally,  *  who  inhabiteth  the  cherubim ' 
(1  Sam.  iv.  4.  2  Sam.  vi.  3.  2  Kings  ziz. 
15).  And  in  David's  song  of  victory 
(found  in  2  Sam.  zzii.  11 ;  comp  Ps.  zviii. 
10),  Jehovah  is  set  forth  as  having  bowed 
tiie  heavens,  and  come  down  to  the  succour 
of  that  prince;  when,  of  the  former,  we 
read— - 

*  He  rode  upon  a  ehemb,  and  did  fly; 
And  be  was  aeeu  on  the  wings  of  the  wind.' 

Solomon,  when  he  built  his  temple,  within 
the  oracle  made  two  cherubim  of  olive-wood, 
each  ten  cubits  high  (at  least  fifteen  feet) : 
each  wing  was  five  cubits  broad.  He  over- 
laid the  cherubim  with  gold ;  and  he  carved 
all  the  walls  of  the  house  widi  carved  figures 
of  cherubim.  He  also  carved  on  the  leaves 
of  the  doors  figures  of  cherubim  (1  Kings 
vi.  23,  teq,).  On  the  borders  of  his  molten 
sea  were  cherubim,  as  well  as  ozen  and 
lions  (I  Kings  viL  29,  86).  The  ark  of  the 
covenant,  in  this  splendid  house  of  Jehovah, 
was  put  under  the  wings  of  the  cherubim 
(viiL  6,  7).  These  animals  are  found  in 
Ezekiel's  vision :  —  *  Then  I  looked,  and,  be- 
hold in  the  firmament  that  was  above  the 
head  of  the  cherubim,  there  appeared  over 
them  as  it  were  a  sapphire-stone,  as  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  likeness  of  a  throne '  (z.  1  : 
see  the  connection,  and  comp.  L  5,  »eq,).  In 
the  same  prophet  (zzviii.  14),  Tyre,  when 
in  prosperity,  is  described  as  '  the  anointed 
ehemb;'  but  having  proved  disobedient — 


'By  the  multitude  of  thy  merchandise,  they 
have  filled  the  midst  of  thee  with  violence, 
and  thou  hast  sinned :  therefore  I  will  cast 
ihee  as  profane  out  of  the  mountain  of  God, 
and  I  will  destroy  thee,  O  covering  (out- 
spread) cherub,  from  &e  midst  of  the  stones 
of  fire'  (zzviii.  14,  16 ;  see  also  zli.  18, 
20,  26). 

The  engraving  (ftom  Wilkinson)  repre- 
sents a  sacred  boat  or  ark,  bearing  the  sacred 
beetle  of  the  sun,  ovei^adowed  by  two 
figures  of  the  Egyptisn  goddess  Thmei, 
or  Truth.  The  outer  figures  represent 
the  king,  the  fonner  under  the  shape  of  a 
sphinz. 


SACBSO  AKX  eUABDKD  BT  OBKBUAUC. 

These  details  enable  us  to  state  that  the 
cherubim  were  animal  figures,  most  intimate- 
ly connected  with  the  Mosaic  religion,  well 
known  to  the  people  of  Israel,  from  the  ear- 
liest period  of  tfa^ir  national  history.  And 
unless  we  are  compelled  to  regard  the  record 
of  the  cherubim  at  Eden  as  made  at  a  late 
date,  and  i^pealing  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
nation,  widi  a  retrospective  reference  to 
the  period  of  the  fall,  we  are  Also  warranted 
in  declaring  that  cherubim  are  incoiporated 
with  earliest  historical  traditions  of  the  hu- 
man race.  Certainly  our  facts  lead  to  an 
earlier  period  than  Uie  ezodus,  and  a  prior 
state  of  knowledge  and  art  But  we  find 
this  knowledge  and  this  art  in  Egypt;  im- 
mediately on  their  departure  from  which, 
the  Israelites  are  found  so  familiar  with 
cherubim,  that,  when  their  leader  determined 
to  employ  them  in  *  the  holiest  of  all/  he 
had  only  to  command  cherubim  to  be  made, 
and  was  understood ;  restricting  his  specific 
directions  to  the  material  of  which,  and  the 
numner  in  which,  they  should  be  made,  to- 
gether with  their  relative  position.  It  ap- 
pears, however,  if  we  enter  into  particulars, 
that  the  cherubim  had  hands,  as  in  the  case 
of  those  of  Eden,  which  seem  to  have  been 
double,  wielding  one  sword,  and  possessing 
the  power  of  turning  in  every  direction. 
This  twofold  cherub  may  also  have  been 


C  II  K 


342 


CHE 


<*n'ct;  but  whether  standing  on  feet  wehtTo 
no  means  to  detennine.    Eyes,  howeyer,  he 
mast  have  had,  as  well  as  intelligence,  since 
his  duty  was  to  keep  watch  and  ward  orer 
the  tree  of  life.     Other  chembim  were  also 
winged,  and  had  faces.    They  in  some  way 
afforded  a  residence  for  JehoTah,  who  thence 
shone  forth  to  display  his  power,  and  used 
a  cherab  as  a  vehicle  for  descending  to  earth. 
Without  proceeding  farther,  we  are  warranted 
in  saying  that  the  chembim  possessed  facul- 
ties found  only  separate  in  nature,  uniting 
the  attributes  of  human  beings  with  the  higher 
endowments  of  the  animal  world,  particularly 
such  (wings)  as  might  fit  them  to  be  sym- 
bolical of  the  protecting  goodness  of  Jehovah, 
and  the  readiness  with  which  he  hastens  to 
succour  those  he  loves.    Hence  the  union 
of  incongruous  attributes  was  intended  to 
set  forth  the  greatness  and  comprehensive- 
ness of  the  divine  goodness.     It  was   an 
effort  to  disclose  to  men's  eyes  the  watchful 
and  ever-present  care  of  Almighty  power  and 
love.    And  the  affectionate  manner  in  which 
Tyre  is  spoken  of  as  an  *  anointed  cherub ' 
shows  that  much  tenderness  entered  into  the 
genera]   conception.     The   cherubim  were 
then  a  symbol  of  Almighty  Providence,  espe- 
cially as  concerned  for  die  safety  of  Israel. 
So  long  as  Jehovah  inhabited  the  cherubim 
in  his  own  sanctnary,  which  stood  in  their 
camp,  or  was  placed  in  their  temple,  they 
felt  that  God  was  in  the  midst  of  them,  and 
they  had  nothing  to  fear. 

It  ^us  seems  that  the  cherubim  were  in 
essence  a  union  of  the  attributes  of  several 
dissimilar  beings,  and  that  their  object  was 
to  betoken  the  divine  presence,  especially  in 
its  watchful  and  protecting  character.  We 
have,  therefore,  in  these  figures,  an  attempt 
to  aid  the  mind  of  a  people,  in  its  infancy 
and  childhood,  to  form  some  idea  of  divine 
power  and  goodness.  The  attempt  is  made 
by  sensible  objects.  Such  only  were  likely  to 
make  themselves  apprehended  in  the  mind, 
and  felt  in  the  heart,  of  the  primitive  races 
of  men.  Abstractions  would  have  found  no 
avenue  to  their  breasts.  Objects  and  events 
only  could  at  the  first  be  their  instructors. 
Belig^on  needed  to  be  made  palpable  and 
visible  ere  it  could  be  received  and  enter- 
tained. Men's  conception  required  to  be 
aided  by  sight,  sound,  and  touch.  Of  the 
suitableness  of  the  precise  forms  which 
Moses  adopted  for  this  purpose,  he  was  him- 
self the  best  judge.  But  the  forms  actuaUy 
taken  had  prescription  and  the  sanctity  of  age 
in  their  favour ;  carrying  with  them  some  of 
the  most  solemn,  as  well  as  most  ancient  and 
impressive,  associations  of  a  primeval  child- 
like religion.  Figures,  which  had  kept  guard 
over  paradise,  and  were  blended  with  the  ear- 
liest religious  emotions  of  the  world,  were  best 
suited  to  be  placed  in  custody  of  the  ark, 
the  token  of  the  then  new  covenant,  and  the 
palladium  of  the  Hebrew  nation. 


The  figures  were  also  familiar  to  the  minds 
of  the  generation  of  Israelites  with  whom 
Moses  had  primarily  to  deal.  Such  figures 
as  we  have  above  ascertained  the  cherubim 
to  be,  are  found  with  more  or  less  resem- 
blance throughout  the  system  of  Egyptian 
art  We  might  have  gone  farther,  and  de- 
clared that  they  are  connected  with  the 
earliest  manifestations  of  religion  and  civili- 
sation. The  word  *  cherub '  has  a  Sanscrit 
origin,  and,  referring  the  mind  back  to  In- 
dia, is  found  here  in  the  West  also  in  our 
word  ^ri^fi ;  having  for  its  fundamental  mean- 
ing, tibe  idea  of  taking  hold  (gripe,  grip), 
and  so  of  guarding  and  protecting.  Without 
probably  being  aware  of  the  intimate  genea- 
logical connection  there  is  between  the  He- 
brew Chervb  and  the  Greek  Grvpt  or  grifBn, 
Philo  compares  the  two  together,  and  takes 
into  the  same  category  the  Egyptian  sphinx, 
which  agrees  with  the  cherub  in  the  radical 
quality  of  being  a  union  of  attributes  lirom 
different  animals.  This  union  had,  we  know, 
in  Egypt,  and  we  may  infer  that  tlie  same 
was  ^e  case  in  other  countries,  this  impor- 
tant aim  in  view, — namely,  by  selecting 
and  grouping  together  those  qualities  for 
which  each  being  was  most  distinguished, 
to  present  a  filler  and  more  impressive  idea 
of  divine  power  and  goodness  than  could 
otherwise  have  been  formed. 


IBIS  raoTscmiv  bkv  BaomsB  osikib. 

Thus  the  cherubim  had  a  human  face,  and 
wings  of  a  bird;  the  second  for  fleetness, 
the  first  for  watching.  So  is  the  goddess 
Isis  represented  on  Egyptian  sculpmres 
The  cut  presents  her  as  covering  with  her 
wings  her  brother  Osiris. 

The  selection  of  animal  qualities  as  re- 
presentations of  divine  attributes,  has  a  pain- 


CHE  a 

hi  If  Dot  a  npoltin  feeling  to  IhoM  wbo 
•ee  metelj  the  oatward  form,  Dot  kncmmg 
OrfiirBsUiiigtbeSTnibaliaedmfluiiiig.  Hraoe 
ia  it  thM  Egjptiui  antiquities  are  apt,  on 
Bnt  aoqoainUnoe,  lo  eicite  a  ulrong  feeling 
of  the  Jodionina.  Sash  was  the  raae,  loo,  of 
old.  The  following  an  woidsmnalatedftDm 
Olemem  Aleiandriniu  (Pndagog.  UL  i) : 
— '  In  EgTptiui  lamplei,  tha  porlicoai,  vea- 
tibnlai,  and  groTea,  are  eooatmeud  with 
tplandonr;  the  halls  are  adorned  wilh  qd- 
maroql  oolonins;  the  walla  are  perfeotl; 
aplendid  wilh  ran  alonee  aod  brillianl  co- 
laon ;  the  sanclaaij  ahiuee  with  gold,  Bil*ar, 
and  amber,  and  with  varioiu  glittering  elonea 
from  India  or  Ethiopia;  and  the  adftiun 
(the  moat  bol]>  part)  is  hong  with  oartaini 
of  gold  llasne.  It  joa  enter  the  (sircQit  of 
the  bolj  place,  and  B«elc  the  statne  of  the 
deity,  one  of  the  prieets  eteps  forward  to  in- 
trodaoe  jod  to  the  otject  of  hie  wonhip, 
looking  apwarda  with  a  grave  and  reverent 
faoe,  aa  he  ohanls  the  Pnan  hTmn  in  hia 
DMiTe  tongue.  But  no  aooner  doee  he  draw 
aside  a  portion  of  the  veil  aa  if  to  ehow  a 
god,  than  700  find  ample  reason  for  smiling 
A  ihe   mjslerious  deitj.     For  the  god  job 


A  CHE 

of  ita  almllitnde  to  the  eherabim,  in  iritleh 
winged  aepa  (the  asp  waa  a  t<rpa  of  rojallj), 
bearing  the  crowns  of  Dpper  and  Lower 
^BTP'i  represent,  aa  the  good  genii  of  the  two 
oountriea,  the  watchful  care  over  the  whole 
land,  Goostantlj  exerted  bj  the  two  monanha. 


e,  but  B 


codile, 


or  a  native  aerpenl^  or  eome  such  animal, 
which  ia  more  auited  (o  a  cave  than  a  tem- 
ple ;  and  jon  behold  an  Egyptian  god  in  a 
beast  lying  before  jou  on  a  purple  carpet.' 
And  nndonbtedly  great  was  the  degradation 
Into  which  Ihia  lona  of  worship  sank  in 
Eg}pt,  when,  the  maaniug  of  the  sign  being 
loat  bom  popular  view,  the  nation  ofibred 
their  worship  to  the  symbolising  animal. 
The  danger,  however,  was  greater  in  the  ease 
of  tha  natural  figora  of  an  animal,  than  in  that 
which  waa  artifleiallr  formed  of  aareralpans 
of  different  animala  ;  ainee  the  very  inoon- 
gmi^  of  these  parte,  and  the  eonaeioaanesa 
that  no  aneh  being  existed  in  nature,  would 
carry  the  thought  to  the  Rifled  reality,  and 
the  divine  truth. 

With  great  efi^ct,  in  eome  instancea,  did 
Iheae  heterogeneona  figures  shadow  forth 
important  tuts,  aa  in  Ote  cnt,  ohoaen  beeanse 


The  qaestion  as  to  the  Moaaio  origin  of 
the  chembim  baa  bean  debated  as  much  aa 
every  other  thing  conneoled  with  them. 
Bpeneer,  in  his  learned  work  on  the  Hebrew 
Bitnal  (ii.  fS.  3),  ssserta  Uiat  thej  wen  taken 
from  the  Egyptian  sphinx.  The  opinion 
that  they  wen  eopied  firom  Egypt  haa  been 
very  geDeralty  entertained.  And  while  anf- 
ficient  sare  waa  taken  to  guard  these  viaible 
olgeotB  agunst  idolatroaa  abase,  we  can  nn- 
dentand  that  there  waa  a  propriety,  on  the 
part  of  Hoses,  in  tuning  them  to  accoimt 
for  his  own  good  pnrposea.  Theae  forma  the 
laraelitea  hsd  in  Egypt  seen  In  the  doaest 
alliance  wilh  its  most  saend  religions  idaaa. 
Now  they  wen  to  ace  them  associated  with 
their  oim.  Thua  the  images  which  had  be- 
fon  their  eyes  been  emblems  of  their  ^yranf  a 
greatness  and  power,  were  made  to  aerre  the 
benign  purposes  of  Jehovah  in  the  services 
rendered  l^  his  ransomed  children.  The 
oppreaaor's  insignia  became  the  consecrated 
banner  of  bia  ftigidve  slaves.  Even  the 
gods  of  Egypt  transferred  their  allegiance. 
Types  which  had  betokened  Fhaivah's  ma- 
jesty, now  mon  fitly  symbolised  the  protect- 
ing oare  of  Him  whose  watchful  eye  was  ever 
on  bia  chosen  people. 

Ws  do  not,  however,  limit  &t  Imitation 
to  thaEgyptianephinx.  The phnnii, which 
takes  ita  place  among  the  oldest  anil  most 
sacred  emblems,  was  found  in  the  Egyptian 
mythology,  as  may  qipear  from  these  m- 
gravings. 


CHE  344  CUB 

Tba  Jtaml-iamtMti  villi  tbe  ■rmbol  ii  th»  wbij*,  thaicAiE*,  we  laaai  JoMiAad  fai 
loU  bj  HmndataB,  in  Ul  XMoaai  of  £gjpl  dooluiug,  titu,  if  Uoua  look  tbe  idea  ot  hit 
(u.  T8),  to  the  eOiMt  llut  '  it  ms  •  bird  ehenibim  bam  Egjpt,  ha  did  oodiins  man 
whiok  viiUd  Egjpt  OQM  in  necj  fii«  iion-  (hm  oop;  thai  whiot  vu  ■  Biuv«rMil(f  le- 
dnd  jaui,  OD  the  dMih  of  hi*  fatbat,  vlioM  cognusd  ifsabol  af  diTiue  Prorideiice ;  whila 
bodf  lu  bon  Arom  Arabi*  tbitbar  lo  (be  U  SMf  wilh  Mtoe  feaubilitr  be  aUegeil,  thW 
tamp] B  of  the  sou.  This  iiorj  grew  tmtil  '  the  HaWam  were  Dot  DoaeqaaiDtad  wiib  i)m 
il  came  to  the  etatement  that  tbe  bird  erer  emblani  befaie  Ibej  fall  iDto  ExTpti*B  bon- 
■pnDj:  lo  Ufa  tram  hie  awn  uhea.  Clear,  daga,  b«t  had  dwiied  it  ttoai  Iheix  inutiedi- 
howBTer,  ii  it.  (bat  th*  phanji  waa  an  em-  ata  profsiitQn,  the  patriarchal  aires  of  lb* 
blem  of  life,  —  an  efibrt  to  repreaant  tbe  htunn  race.  If  the  lait  liaw  ataoold  b« 
eautaat  and  oeiMleBB  Bnooeaaian  of  eiiit-  aoooiuued  oorroat,  then  Maau  waa  a  reafami^ 
«IM«,  and  tbenee  to  toreahadow  the  hope  and  not  a  ef^iat,  purifying  and  refomainf 
{tat  which  potpoaa  It  wu  uaed  to  tbe  Chris-  a  atada  of  (Mtmotion  which  had  beeD-ooariS 
(iaa  sbftrak  at  «  *ac7  sari;  dar)  of  >  lature  with  the  ewUeat  genaratiMis  of  num. 
Md  aodlaaa  being.  Aeocmlisg  to  the  Orsek  caGSNUT'TREE  is  Ae  reBdcrinf,  Ib 
tnoidaior  of  Job  in  tbe  aeptuaui,  the  0«i.uk.8T.  Esaktzn.  8,  of  sword  which 
^uaais  it  OMUlieuotl  in  that  book  (xzix.  prob^y  denotes  tbe  oiiennl  plana-tiea,  one 
18):—  of  tka  tkoUaat  of  its  species.    Ibongh  not 

•nealBaU,Ii^dkta«v^at,  camnu,  it  i*  foud  In  Bjrta,  and  afibida  ■ 

A»4 1  tbt  nalUfii  iMgt  aa  laad ; '  BU)M  f't'iinfl  sheltar  to  Um  BaraUar. 

■dura  the  word  bwalalad 'aand' iamdnW 
mkmmbc.  This  WanalMif  a«|ceaa  with  ttw 
loMSe  ('OMt')  of  tha  jaaaict  rtiah  ■  sand' 
daatoDTi.  Il  also  ^naa  wbh  the  artjeot 
■pohsBot— Dainel7,lifk.  It,  BMininar,  Bade 
MppeK  in  Jswlah  •nlhoai^.  Tba  orifia  of 
the  woid,  whjoh  baa  baau  tuneh  debated, 
niv  also  probab^  ha  laond  in  tlia  naBa  of 
lb*  aooDtiT,  PAmleia,  in  wUofa  it  ii  qi4 
impOMdUa  thai  Iha  ajFinbol  fliat  took  its 
ll«*.  AadU;«ilbBihrCBjiBbalik,-LMl), 
*■  M8Md  tba  chefvhtm  planted  ai  tbe  fate 
of  Eden  «■  flgmad  anUen*  id  life,  lAaaa 
tn«  ihaj  ••(■  Mt  ■•  (Dsrd,  we  n^  ted  in 


•JMiltnt,  «tid  by  BO  means  the  leaat  aapiM- 
■i>a,  symbol  in  the  wodd.  Withonl,  how- 
en*,  gome  the  langtfa  of  asMrting  tbat  tbe 
healhan  Bythokfiaa  weio  panarted  ooplas 
and  detenerate  twasmlseiopi  of  dtraia  Bib- 
lical tmiha  (a  Tie*  wbioh  ia  not  m  yet 
saBaiantly  sopported  bj  soM  juslarical 
•Tidenea>,  w*  uaj,  aemtfaatais,  intimau  it 
«i*  prabajbla,  tbat  muob  of  lAM  we  And  ia 
Ear*  teHdiacc  Iba  fonu  «r  tbe  HafaMw 
cherubim  had  m  origin  eamata  vitfa  tbat 
of  limilar  oriental  representalioaa. 

The  eaaantial  qualiQ  in  tbe  cherabim,  ao 
for  BB  form  ia  coiieenied,  i*  Ibeir  DonaiBtiug 
of  parts  of  difl^Dt  h^aga.     Kow  lymboli-      Urqobart  ('  Spirit  of  the  Eaat,'  i.  118)  thai 

Daleompoiilionaorihiakii^exiBtedlhrough-      apeaks  of  il: 'The  plalaooB,  the  chtnar 

oat  the  East,  to  say  nolbing  ot  Waaleni  of  tba  Persian  poeta,  ia  a  tree  ao  elegant  in 
imitations.  In  great  abnnduiee  were  Ibey  ila  fonu,  ao  docile  in  iu  groRlb,  thatitglvea 
fonnd  among  the  Babylonians,  who  applied  beanty  to  aU  that  surroondB  It;  abooiJngDp 
tbem  (aa  did  tbe  ilebrewi)  in  (doming  the  like  tbe  poplar,  when  confined  ;  aprrading, 
aaored  coMains  employed  in  Ibeir  temples,  of  when  at  liberty,  like  the  oak  ;  and  drooping 
wW«b  practice  no  trsae  la  found  in  Egypt  like  the  weeping-willow  OTer  Btreama;  it 
(  Honler,  Rebgion  dar  Babjlooier').  Tbe  adqita  itaelf  to  erery  portion  of  eoil,  and 
nuDS  of  Peraepolia  show  that  the  Peraiana  asaimilaleB  itaclf  to  eirrj  portion  of  land- 
had  complei  flgnres  of  the  same  kind.  The  scape.  The  foliags,  by  Iba  broadccBs  of  ils 
planat-dititiities  of  tbe  Cbaldsaog  weie  Icaies,  and  llieir  apringing  at  (be  extremity 
■i^ii_^  Di'''™"  ^  Chineic  mylhology  of  the  branches,  ia  bold  and  masiiTe,  wilb- 
._j  .1..  Di,  «__  ennjpigg.     Among     oot  being  dense  or  heavy.     Vast  and    aiiy 

uEd.     Nor  were  tbe      yaulta   are    fonoed    within,    ejclnding   the 
orani  ot  them.    On    strong  light  and  tba  son's  iva  i  and  throng 


CHI                     345  CHI 

^eae  rva^kmi  doiMi.  the  imnd,  long,  naked  omit  Die  multkude  of  hit  eiifldKn  (Esth. 

boughs,  of  ft  AighHPK»B  luie  end  Telvety  ▼.!!);  md  ft  great  number  of  desoendants, 

texture,  meaoder  like  enMrmoiis  enakes/  eopecifJly  of  males,  was  esteemed  a  token 

CHZLDJEffiN  {T.),^li  is  one  of  the  of  proeperitj  and  good  fortune,  eepeoiaUy  as 
gieateet  merits  of  itbe  JCoaaie  religion,  that  oeeniiiig  the  transmission  of  the  family  pro- 
it  makes  Ood  the  beghiBing,  ocntre,  and  end  perty  and  name  (Pe.  czxnii.  3,  6.  Eccles 
of  all  things.  This  is  ooireet^heokgy.  This  tL  3).  The  loss  of  ohildren,  in  eonseqnenee 
is  the  highest  philosoi^oal  tnth.  This  is  nias  the  sorest  of  eslamiiies  ( Jsa.  tML  9 ; 
the  sole  eshihilion  of  leligMMi  nhirii  vfeen-  gdis.  21).  Ohildsen,  being  brought  into  the 
latiiwi  ean  aoqnieaee  in,  or  the  heart  of  man  world  with  the  aid  of  midwifes  (Gen.  zzzriii. 
approve.  And  in  tbia,  the  leading  Ibalnre  86.  Ezod.  1. 16),  who  sometinies,  in  these 
of  Moaaiam.  does  that  system  prove  xtaelf  to  eaily ages,  were notneeded  (Eaod.  i.  19 ) ,  were, 
be  a  soitahle  snhnnlwastnr  to  teing  men  tSBMBg  the  Hebrews,  washed  in  water,  nibbed 
to  Christ  (CfraL  uL  fUy,  and  to  laid  forward  with  aalt,  and  swaddled  (Eaek.  wrL  4.  Jdb 
the  great  oonaamnation  of  the  diviaM  plans,  zxsviiL  9) ;  after  ei|^  days  they  underwent 
whe«»  tJMTongh  tfaenwdialisw  of  hie  Bon,  Qod  oiKoaioiaion  (Litf[e  it.  81),  and  were  tar- 
shaU  be  sll  in  all,  and  the  nniTerse  bo  filled  nldied  iKth  a  name,  wbiefa,  in  the  earlier  pe- 
with  hdlia«ss  and  bliss.  xiods,  had  rofasenee  to  some  event  eonneeted 

If  tiie  coigin  and  end  of  aU  things  are  with  the  birth  (Qen.  ncv.  85).  They  were 
thw  beheld  in  Qod,  emphatieaUy  are  ehil"  onckled  by  their  own  modter  (1  fiam.  L  88. 
drcn  icpiesoiHwl  aa  itha  workmanship  and  1  Kings  iii  81).  In  royal  families  (8  Sam. 
immediate  gift  of  hia  poanr  and  love :  --^  iv.  i.  8  Kings  n.  8),  and  when  the  mother 
*  Lo,  childteBt  sn  heritage  of  Jehovah ;  the  was  dead  or  nnable,  the  oJBee  was  dfsoharged 
fruit  of  the  wonb,  his  lesnid '  (Ps.  ooBcvii.  3).  by  nurses,  who  were  held  in  high  esteem  by 
This  representation  of  the  dirlne  origin  of  their  nurslings  when  grown  up  (Oen.  zxiv. 
ohildren  is  the  more  important,  beoanse  09;  zxxv.  8).  On  ooeasion  of  weaidng  a 
parents  aae  too  apt  to  fegasdand  treat  their  ehild  (Oen.  xzi.  8),  which  sometimee  took 
ofliqiring  in  an  especial  eenoe  as  their  own ;  plaoe  as  late  as  three,  though  #ie  Babbina 
an  ioeligiotts  error  which  leads  in  some  iiztwo,year8afterlhe  birth,  there  was  made 
eaees  to  a  low  estimate  of  a  child's  monfl  an  offering  (1  Sam.  i.  84),  wiA  whi<Ai  a  joy- 
worth,  and  a  parentfa  sesponaibility ;  and,  in  ous  feast  was  eomieoted  (8& ;  €kn«  ni.  8). 
others,  to  an  undneaaoendeney  of  Ibe  human  During  the  early  period  of  their  lives,  boUi 
will,  uiiiah  tends  to  loosen  the  ties  that  bind  boys  and  gMs  received  education  from  their 
man  to  Qod,  at  (the  same  time  that  it  makep  mother,  in  the  harem  or  women's  apartment 
a  father  or  mother  act  capridonsly  and  (Prov.  zxzl.  1.  8  Tim.  i.  6).  When  the 
harshly,  if  not  with  positive  neglect  and  in-  males  were  grown  up,  th^  were,  in  wealthy 
juatiee,  towards  the  young.  BeUgion  afRsrda  houses,  consigned  to  the  csre  of  tutors 
the  proper  altitnds  from  which  to  take  a  (8  Kings  x.  1,  &.  1  Ohron.  zzvM.  88).  The 
oompi^nsive  and  joat  Tiew  of  domeetio  •chief  sobjeet  of  isetruction  was  doubtless 
obligations;  and  the  paient^e  mind  that  is  -the  law;  bwt  we  poeeess  few  particulars  re- 
not  enlightened,  sofkoied,  end  enriched  by  «peetfaig  Hebrew  education.  Josephus  has 
loving  obedience  towards  Ood,  is  little  fitted  an  hnportant  passage  bearing  on  the  sob- 
to  stand  in  ihe  atead  of  Qod  towards  die  jeot,  wiMt  runs  as  follows  (*  Against  Apion,' 
child.  ii«  17*  18) : — 'There  are  two  ways  of  com- 

From  regarding  oliikben  as  a  gift  from  ing  at  any  eort  of  learning,  and  a  moral 

heaven,  snd  from  viewing  them  through  the  conduct  of  life :  file  one  is  by  instvnction  in 

bright  but  simple  colourings  of  early  ages  words ;  the  ofiier,  by  practical  ezerctses.  Kow 

and  unsophisticated  manners,  flowed    the  other  lawgivers  have  separated  these  two 

ideas  entertained  on  the  subjeot  by  the  Bib-  ways  in  their  opinions,  and,  choosing  one  of 

liosl  writers.    Hence,  to  bear  diUdren  was  those  ways  of  instruction,  or  that  which  best 

accounted  an  honour;  religion  conspiring  pleaeed  every  one  of  them,  neglected  the 

with  natural  Jbeling  end  natural  reason,  to  other.    Thus  did  the  Lacedemonians  and 

show,  that  the  ftilfilment  of  fiie  intentions  fiie  Cretans  teach  by  practicsl  exercises,  but 

of  the  Creator  was  no  less  seemly  in  the  not  by  words;    while  the  Athenians,  and 

sight  of  man,  than  pleasing  befare  Qckl  afanoet  all  the  other  Grecians,  made  laws 

(Oen.  xziv.  60.  Ps.  cxiii.  9;  oixviii.  8,  6).  about  what  was  to  be  done,  or  left  undone, 

Aocordingly,  unfrnitfrrlness  was  considered  but  had  no  regard  to  the  exercising  them 

a  proof  of  the  divine  displeasure,  and  a  re-  thereto   in    practice.      But  for    our  legis- 


proach  (1  Sam.  i.  6.    Qm.  xvi.  8 ;   xxx.  1,  lator,  he  very  carefrdly  joined  these  two 

88.  Luke  i.  8&).    Hence,  in  ancient  times,  methods  of  instruction  together ;    for  he 

generally,  even  legal  privileges  were  eonfsr-  neither  left  these  practical  exercises  to  go 

red  on  tiioee  who  had  several  children,  since  on  witibout  verbal  instruction,  nor  did  he 

they  were  held  to  have  rendered  the  state  good  permit  the  bearing  of  the  law  to  proceed  with- 

service.  Generally  in  the  East,  chDdren  were  out  the  exercises  for  practice ;  but,  beginning 

deemed  a  treaaure:  hence,  Hamsn,  when  he  immediately  from  the  earliest  infancy,  and 

boasted  of  the  glory  of  his  ri<Aies,  did  not  the  appointment  of  every  one's  diet,  he  left 


CHI  346  C  n  I 

nothing  of  the  Teiy  smallest  eonseqoenoe  to  bines  either  to  the  purchaser  or  his  sons :  in 

be  done  at  the  pleasure  and  disposal  of  the  the  latter  case,  the  maiden  was  to  be  treated 

person  himself.  Accordingly,  he  made  a  fixed  as  a  daughter ;  and  if  the  master  failed  to 

law  as  to  what  sorts  of  food  they  should  ab-  accord  to  his  purchased  wife  in  ftdl,  her  food, 

stain  from,  and  what  sorts  they  should  make  her  raiment,  and  her  duty  of  mairiage,  then 

use  of,  as  also  what  communion  they  should  she  was  <  to  go  out  tree  without  money ' 

have  with  others ;  what  great  diligence  they  (Ezod.  zzL  7 — 11). 

shoTild  use  in  their  occupations,  and  what        The   general  spirit  of  the  Mosaic  code 

times  of  rest  should  be  interposed ;  that,  by  in  regard  to  children  is  mild,  considerate, 

liTing  under  that  law,  as  under  a  father  and  and  wise,  bearing  a  comparison  Tcry  fayour 

a  master,  we  might  be  guilty  of  no  sin,  nei-  able  for  itself  with  the  laws  and  usages  of 

ther  Toluntary,  nor  out  of  ignorance ;  for  he  other  ancient  nations ;  nor  can  its  excellence 

did  not  suffisr  the  sin  of  ignorance  to  go  on  be  aocoonted  for  on  the  supposition  that  the 

without  punishment,  but  demonstrated  the  Hebrews  stood  low  in  the  scale  of  civilisa- 

law  to  be  the  best,  and  the  most  necessaiy  tion,  nor  on  any  thing  which  excludes  the 

instruction  of  sU  others,  permitting  the  peo-  special  aid  of  the  great  Source  of  light  and 

pie  to  leave  off  their  other  employments,  and  goodness. 

to  assemble  together  for  hearing  of  the  law.'  The  tone  which  preyails  in  the  Biblical 
The  father  of  the  family  was  its  chief  in-  writings  respecting  the  happiness  of  hsTing 
struotor,  the  rather  because  instruction  lay  a  numerous  family,  has  for  its  support  and 
as  much  in  action  as  in  word ;  in  both  of  justification  essential  and  ineradicable  prlu- 
which,  each  suoeessiTe  master  of  a  family  re-  ciples  of  human  nature.  A  numerous  is 
oeived  instruction  firom  his  own  father  (Deut.  very  frequently  a  happy  ftmily.  A  single 
It.  10.  Prov.  i.  8 ;  It.  4).  Yet,  in  the  age  is  generally  a  selfish  child.  The  discipline 
of  the  Saviour,  there  were  schools,  at  least  of  home  is  best  conducted  on  a  somewhA 
for  young  men  of  eminent  families  (Joseph,  large  scale ;  and  if  much  striving  and  much 
Antiq.  xv.  10.  5),  which  were  distinct  i^m  self -denial  are  necessary  on  the  part,  espe- 
the  academies  of  the  Babbins  and  lawyers  oially  of  the  parents,  *  Verily,  verily,  I  say 
(xvii.  6.  2.  Acts  xxiL  8).  In  the  Biishna,  unto  you,  they  have  their  reward'  in  the 
treatise  '  Sabath'  (8),  mention  is  made  of  a  fresh  and  perennial  fountain  of  love  which 
teacher,  whose  business  it  obviously  was  to  every  successive  child  calls  up  in  the 
superintend  the  elementary  instruction  of  heart,  and  in  the  habits  of  self-commsnd, 
children,  and  mention  is  made  in  such  a  industry,  and  perseverance,  which  the  sup- 
way  as  to  show  that  the  practice  was  com-  ply  of  family  wants  can  scarcely  fail  to 
mon.  Maidens  lived  with  their  mothers  in  occasion.  A  most  unhappy  state  of  society 
a  very  retired  manner,  until  they  were  mar-  must  that  be,  which  makes  a  parentis  strength 
ried  (2  Msec.  iiL  19).  unequal  to  his  day,  and  converts  into  a  crush- 

The  respect  shown  to  the  sged  by  the  ing  burden  what  God  intended  to  be  the 
young  was  very  great,  as  was  the  power  of  sdlace  of  life  and  the  reward  of  virtue, 
parents  over  their  children,  which,  however,  In  the  Bible,  however,  we  find  a  state  of 
did  not  extend  to  dieir  lives ;  and  though  society  different  from  our  own,  in  regard 
there  are  no  express  laws  against  its  shuse,  to  the  mesns  of  subsistence.  The  popula- 
yet  any  excess  in  its  exercise  was  regarded  tion  in  Palestine  must,  indeed,  especially  at 
with  the  most  unqualified  aversion.  Indeed,  certain  eras,  have  been  very  abundant  But 
Moses  appears,  and  with  wisdom,  to  have  the  land  was  productive.  It  was  frilly  and 
trusted  parental  discipline  to  the  regulation  well  cultivated.  Its  riches  were  divided 
of  parental  judgment  and  affection.  Civil  with  some  regard  to  equality.  And  though 
rulers,  however,  might,  as  they  too  frequently  the  imposts  for  the  service  of  religion  were 
have  done,  involve  children  in  the  punish-  large,  yet  civil  taxation  was  light,  and  did 
ment  inflicted  on  parents.  Moses,  therefore,  not  dog  the  wheels  of  production ;  whUe  a 
expressly  declared  —  'The  father  shall  not  variety  of  laws  and  regulations  showed  espe- 
be  put  to  death  for  the  children,  neither  shall  cial  favour  to  the  poor.  Then,  less  food,  and 
the  children  be  put  to  death  for  ihe  fathers :  food  of  a  lighter  and  less  expensive  kind, 
every  man  shall  be  put  to  death  for  his  own  was  necessary.  The  same  was  true  of  doth- 
sin '  (Deut  xxiv.  16 ;  comp.  2  Kings  xiv.  0).  ing.  Nor  were  the  spontaneous  fruits  of  the 
A  custom,  unsanctioned  by  any  law  (for  earth  inconsiderable.  Under  these  circum- 
Lev.  XXV.  89  is  not  in  point),  came  into  stances,  the  bringing-up  of  a  numerous  off- 
existence  in  later  and  corrupt  periods,  which  spring  was  far  less  burdensome  than  it  is 
gave  the  creditor  power  to  take  as  bondmen  with  us.  We  may  find  in  Egypt  an  exempU- 
the  sons  of  his  insolvent  debtor  (2  Kings  fication  of  these  remarks,  where,  as  in  Pales- 
iv.  1.   Isa.  1.  1.  Neh.  v.  0.    Matt  xviii.  25).  tine,  the  mode  of  life  among  the  gr«at  body 

But  with  that  inferior  estimation  of  the  of  the  people  was  simple,  inartificial,  free 

female  sex,  which  is  an  oriental  falsity,  and  firom  the  lust  of  gain,  and  less  agitated  by 

above  which  Moses  could  not  wholly  raise  the  desire  to  rise  to  social  distinction, 
himself,  it  wss  permitted  for  daughters  to  be        The  dresses  of  children  of  the  lower  dasses 

sold  as  maid- servants,  who  became  concu-  in  that  country  were  very  simple,  and  the 


CHI  347  CHI 

expenses  inenrred  in  feeding  and  clothing  of  Tyre  words  which  agree  with  the  suppo- 
die  yonng  amounted  to  a  trifle.  *The7  sition  of  Chittim's  being  Cyprus:  —  'Daugh- 
feed  them/  says  Diodorus, '  Tery  lightJy,  and  ter  of  Zidon,  arise,  pass  oyer  to  Chittim/ 
at  incredibly  small  cost ;  giving  ihem  a  little  In  Jer.  ii.  10  are  these  words,  addressed  to 
meal  of  the  coarsest  and  cheapest  kind,  the  Israel,  — '  Pass  orer  (to)  the  isles  of  Chit- 
pith  of  the  papyrus,  baked  under  the  ashes,  tim,  and  see ; '  whence  we  might  infer  that 
with  the  roots  and  stalks  of  some  marsh-  Ghittim  was  an  island  lying  not  far  from  the 
weeds,  either  raw,  boiled,  or  roasted;  and  seaboard  of  Palestine.  Ezekiel  says  that  Tyre 
since  most  of  them  are  brought  up,  on  ac*  obtained  articles  of  ivory  from  the  isles  of 
count  of  the  mildness  of  the  climate,  with-  Ghittim  (zxvii.  6),  which  also  accords  with 
out  shoes,  and,  indeed,  without  any  other  the  idea  of  Chittim's  being  Cyprus.  In 
clothing,  the  whole  expense  does  not  exceed  Dan.  xi.  80,  it  is  said,  — '  The  ships  of  Chit- 
twenty  drachmn  (about  thirteen  shillings)  tim  shall  come  against  him.'  Whom  ?  Pro- 
each  ;  and  this  ihigality  is  the  true  reason  bably  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  of  Syria,  who 
of  the  populousness  of  Egypt'  had  seized  on  Egypt,  and   against  whom 

The  children  of  the  higher  orders  were  Popilins    Lenas,    with    forty    Macedonian 

often  dressed  like  grown  persons,  with  a  ships,  conquered  at  the  isle  of  Delos,  made 

loose  robe  reaching  to  the  ankles  and  san-  an  expedition.     Hence  some  have  been  led 

dais.    In&nts  do  not  appear  to  have  been  to  identiiy  Chittim  with  Macedonia.    But 

swaddled,  as  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  snd  the  data  are  very  uncertain.    We  might  as 

Romans.    When  too  young  to  walk,  if  taken  well  conclude  for  Italy.    In  the  Maccabees 

out  by  a  mother  or  nurse,  they  were  carried  in  (i.  1 ),  Alexander  the  Macedonian  is  expressly 

a  shawl  suspended  at  her  back  or  before  her ;  said  to  have  come  '  out  of  the  land  of  Chet- 

a  custom  still  retained  by  the  women  of  the  tim ; '  and  in  viii.  0,  Perseus  is  denominated 

Moghrebbin  Arabs;  and  in  Ethiopia,  they  '  kixig  of  the  Citims.'    These  passages  would 

were  carried  in  baskets  supported   at  the  seem  to  refer  Chittim  to  the  seacoast  of 

ffiother^s  back  by  a  band  passing  over  her  Macedon  or  Greece.  Josephus(Anti4.i.6.1), 

forehead.  however,  makes  Ghittim  die  same  as  Cyprus : 

CHIOS,  an  island  in  the  £gean  Sea,  or  *  Cethimas  possessed   the  island  Cethima: 

Arehipelago,  lying  offthe  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  it  is  now  called  Cyprus ;  and  from  that  it 

between  Samos  and  Lesbos,  now  termed  Scio,  is  &at  all  islands,  and  the  greatest  part  of 

and  by  the  Turks,  Saki.    It  is  hilly,  but  very  the  seacoast,  are  named  Cediim  by  the  He- 

fruitfril,  producing  wine  and  gum  mastic,  brews ;  and  one  city  there  is  in  Cyprus,  that 

It  is  slso  famous  for  its  marble.    It  had  a  has  been  able  to  preserve  its  denomination : 

city  of  the  same  name ;  one  of  the  seven  it  is  called  Citius  by  those  who  use  the  lan- 

which  claimed  to  have  been  the  birth-place  guage  of  the  Greeks,  and  has  not,  by  the  use 

of  Homer.     These  were  Smyrna,  Rhodes,  of  Uiat  dialect,  escaped  the  use  of  Cethim.' 

Colophon,  Salamis,  Chios,  Argos,  and  Athens.  This  passage  contains  what  we  are  disposed 

Some  make  nine  competitors :  thus  Bulwer  to  think  the  true  explanation,  and  what  will 

quotes —  equally  agree  with  the  intimations  in  all  the 

*  Nine  dtlesdaim  him  dead,  passages  bearing  on  the  point;  —  namely, 

ThroogbwhiohtheliTlngHomerbeggedhlsbread.*  that  fiie  name  Ghittim,  properly  denoting 

Pindar  derives  the  Homerids  fr^m  Scios ;  the  island  of  Cyprus,  was  extended  by  &e 

and  its  inhabitants  still  show,  not  far  from  Hebrews,  who  had  no  scientific  acquaintance 

the  sea,  Homer^s  school,  a  it>ck  that  has  with  the  western  world,  to  the  islands  and 

on  its  summit  a  circular  bench,  with  a  qua-  seacoast  of  the  northern  shores  of  the  Medi- 

drangular  stone  in  the  middle,  which  bears  terranean.    The  word  Chittim  came  to  be 

on  either  side  the  almost  effaced  image  of  with  them  the  representative  of  a  wide  inde- 

a  sphinx.     Among  the  celebrated  men  of  finite  western  country  lying  on  the  sea.    In 

Chios  are  Ion,  the  tragic  poet;  Theopompos,  a  not  dissimilar  manner,  Uie  negroes  of  St 

the  historian ;  Theocritos,  the  sophist;  and  Domingo  conceive  of  Hamburg  as  a  great 


possibly  Homer  (Acts  xx.  15).  and  powerful  European  land,  in  which  lie, 

CHITTIM  (H.),  a  western  coast  or  island,  among  others,  the  cities  Saxony,  Prussia, 

which  some  have  identified  with  Greece,  &o.  whose  inhabitants  speak  the  Hamburg 

others  wi^  Italy,  and  the  greater  number  tongue 

with  Cyprus.    In  the  table  of  nations  (Gen.  Cyprus  was  also  denominated    Gopher, 

X.  4.    1  Chron.  i.  7),  Kittim  is  mentioned  from  abounding  in  cypress-trees.    We  have 

among  the  sons  of  Javan,  in  which  word  no  means  of  determining  the  periods  when 

the  more   modem  Ionia  is  found,  and  is  the  one  denomination  or  Uie  other  prevailed 

associated  with  other  western  names,  such  Probably  Chittim  was  the  older  name.    Ci 

as  Tarshish  and  Dodanim.    Numb.  xxiv.  tiumwasoneof  the  towns  of  Cypress,  a  Phoo- 

24  presents  these  words :  — '  Ships  from  the  nician  colony.  ,  In  this  word  we  may  have 

eoast  of  Chittim  shall  afflict  Asshur.'   Isaiah  the  renmant  of  the  general  name  Chittim, 

(xxiii.  1)  connects  Chittim  with  Tarshish  originally  denoting  the  whole  island,  which, 

(the   south-western  parts  of  tbe  Mediter-  at  a  later  period,  came  to  be  designated  Go 

ranean).     In   the    twelfth  verse,  he  uses  pher  or  Cyprus. 


C  H  O  848  C  H  R 

CHIUN  (A.)i  a  word  which  ippetn  to  Matt  zIt.  84^  Mark  vi  40,  68;  and  John 

doaigiiata  the  god  Satiim.     It  ooours  in  tL  17,21.    In  this  Ticinity  our  Savioiir  spent 

Amoa  ▼.  96,  —  *  Ye  have  borne  the  tent  of  a  large  portion  of  the  time  doToted  to  hie 

your  king  and  Ohiun,  joor  image»  Ihe  atar  public  miniatiy,  but  without  oorreaponding 

of  your  god  whieh  ye  made  to  youraelTea.'  auooeaa.    Henoe  the  etmin  of  condemnatory 

Hitsig  considers  Ohiun  as  not  a  proper  name,  pity  which  he  poufs  forth  on  Chorasin,  Ca- 

bnt  an  appellatiTe,  translating  the  wofd  *  car-  pemanm»  and  Bethsaida  (Matt  zi.  21.  X<uke 

tlage/*tbe  carriage  of  your  images.'    But  z.  18). 

the  SeptuaglBt  legiuded  it  as  a  proper  name,        0HBI8T  (Q.  momiei),  the  Ornek  equiva- 

tendering  it  by  Bemphan  (see  Aots  wiL  48,  lent  for  Messiah.    Bee  Jasva  Chbist. 
«  passage  which  shows  that  the  tranalatum        CHBI8TIAK,  -^  a  Bame    derived   from 

of  the  Seventy  was  in  eommMi  ase  in  the  Okmhu^  Ohrist,  mm  nnivsfsally  iq^lied  to 

days  of  the  apostles),  which  is  said  to  be  tfaelbllowersof  oviioid.    In  the  Acts  of  the 

tile  Egyptian  name  of  Satan.    OMwiisthe  Apostles  (zL  26),  we  And  an  intimatiMi 

Hebrew  torn  of  the  Arabic  or  Persian  AToism,  thrown  incidentaUy  into  the  nanative,  ftxmi 

denoting  die  planet  Saturn,  irkdeh  the  an-  which  we  learn  that  the  diicsples  were  called 

oientArabianaworshippedasaneril  divinity;  '  Ohristians '  flmt  in  Antioeh.     The  stato- 

«  relie  of  which  worship  still  rsmains  in  our  ment  has  several  implieatiMM :  —I.  The 

Batnrday,  that  is,  Sstnm's  day.  name  which  Ohristiana  gave  tfaamaelTesy  and 

The  prophet,  in  die  papsage,  charges  on  by  which  fhey  were  known  in  the  ehwrah, 

ihe  people  of  Israel  die  iddslKms  woiahip  was '  disciples.'    il.  The  record  here  A>und 

of  ihib  atars,  which,  wider  the  name  of  8a-  was  made  after  die  name  * Chriatian'  had 

baiam,  was  sprsad  so  wid^  in  die  open  obtained  aome  preTalence.   III.  It  seems  to 

lysine  fif  Mesopotamia,  where  the  planets  have  been  given  in  consequence  of  the  teach- 

are  of  a  magnitude  and  brilliant  of  idiich  ings,  if  not  of  Paul  and  Bamabaa,  yet  of  die 

we,  In  diese  parts  of  die  world,  can  form  no  instmotora  of  the  chnndi  genendly,  and*  in 

conception.    The  im«ge  -of  Batain  or  Ohiun  eonsequenee,  is  m  testimony  aa  to  what  con- 

waa  borne  fn  a  tent  or  carnage  (see  cut,  stituted  the  substance  ot  that  teaching-— 

p.9&),  havingfiorits  emblem  aatar.    Such  a  namely,  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ.    IV.  Aa 

portable  temple  or •eanotnarywaa  convenient  it  waa  in  Antioeh— the   head-quartora  of 

for  «  nomad  people,  and  was  carried  Into  Christianity  to  the  Heathen — diat  the  name 

baAde  aa  a  means  of  protoodmi  snd  encour-  waa  given,  it  is  dear  that  the  Mesaiahahip  of 

agement    Similar  waa  the  Oarrocio,  of  which  Jesus  was  urged  on  the  GentUes  as  mell  aa 

Bismondi  speaka  (*  ItaL  Bepub.'  22),  as  «  on  the  Jews.    The  euatomsfy  Aj^ieUations, 

heavy  ear  drawn  by  osen,  and  covend  wilk  beeides  '  disciples,'  were  '  baUeven^'  *  hradi- 

iags  and  annorial  beaihigs  of   the  city,  ran,'  *  aainta,'  all  which  nmnes  indicate  the 

around  whidi  the  Italian  militia  fought  on  eharaeter  of  die  new  religion,  and  die  ohli- 

foot :  —  *  A  high  pole  rose  in  the  middle  of  gationa  and  privileges    of  ite    adherento. 

this  ear,  bearing  the  o(Aovan  and  a  Ohrist,  With  eqiecial  propriety  might  diey  be  termed 

which  seemed  to  bless  the  army  with  both  Ohristlans ;  for  dius  were  they  designated, 

arma  eztended.    A  priest  said  daily  maaa  at  not  as  the  foUowen  of  a  foUow-man,  but  as 

an  alter  placed  in  the  front  of  die  ear.    The  die  witnesses  of  a  great  truth ;  ao  dmtnei- 

trumpeters  of  the  community,  scaled  on  the  ther  die  name  of  Jesuites  (from  Jeans),  oor 

back  part,  aousded  die  <Akarge  and  these-  MaHuwnea(fromNaiareth),eouldaasuitshly 

treat.    It  was  Herlbert,  archbishop  of  Milan,  have  designated  dioae  who,  in  taking   on 

contemporary  of  Conrad  die  Salic,  who  in-  them  the  profeaaion  of  Ofaristianity,  declared 

vented  this  car  in  imitation  of  the  ark  of  by  the  act  diat  Ood  had  visited  his  children, 

allianoe,   and   caused   it  to  be  adopted  at  and  aant  them  light,  redemption,  sad  safety. 

Milan.    AH  the  free  cities  of  Italy  fallowed  The  name  Ohxiatian,  however,  did  not  arise 

die  example :  this  sacred  car,  intrusted  to  the  in  the  bosom  of  the  church,  ss  appears  from 

fuardiauship  of  the  militia,  gave  them  weight  the  passages  in  the  New  Testament  in  whSifih 

mid  confidence/  it  occurs,  and  from  the  exclusive  prefvalenoe 

CHOLEB  (G.  biie),  anger  whieh  waa  sup-  in  the  Chiisdan  coaununity  of  odier  i^pella- 

posed  to  result  from  the  rising  of  die  bile.  dona.    Nor  did  it  come  tnm  the  Jews,  idio 

Thus  Spencer  —  would  by  no  mesoa  give  so  holy  a  name  as 

«Tr«mblliurebroagbhastyn«e,wbcnckoIarfaibtei  one  derived  iaomediirtely  from  Chiiat  (Mea- 

sweird.'  aiah)  to  the  hated  sect  of  Nanarenes,  espe- 

The  original  of  which  *  choler '  is  a  trsnsla-  oially  aince,  by  so  doing,  diey  might  aftpear 

tion,  in  Dan.  viii.  7 ;  xi  11,  properly  aigni-  to  ooncede  the  great  question  of  the  day,  — 

flea  bUterneu,  and  is  so  rendered  in  Isa.  namely*  whedier  Jeaus  of  Nasareth  was  the 

zxxviii.  17.  ezpected  Messish.    We  must,  acoordingty, 

OHOBAZIN  (H.),  a  town  in  the  vicinity  look  to  pi^anism  for  die<»igin  of  thename; 

of  Bedisaida,  and,  according  to  Jerome,  two  and  its  Boman  form  auggeate  that  it  origi- 

Boman  miles  from  Capernaum,  on  die  wes-  nated  with  the  Bomans  yAko  dwelt  at  Antiooh. 

tern  ahore  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  and  pro-  The  magistrates  of  that  city  would  consider  it 

bably  in  die  plain  of  Oenesareth :  comp.  their  duty  to  keep  an  eye  on  the  new,  rising. 


G  H  R                     349  C  H  B 

tad  troablesome  sect  Henoe  fhe  neoessity  wa  bis  Lord  and  Master,  iu  things  pertainfiig 
of  a  nams  by  which  it  might  be  spoken  of.  to  God,  duty,  and  eternal  Ufe.  More  tbmn 
Its  adyoootes  were  always  diseoorsing  of  ^s  is  not  in  sabstanoe  implied  in  the  term, 
Jesus  as  the  Chriti,  '  Christian,'  therefore,  so  that  no  one  has  a  right  to  erect  his  Tiew 
came  to  be  the  denomination  employed  by  of  Christiauty  into  a  test  by  which  to  admit 
heathen  1^.  As  proceeding  from  Heathens,  or  rqeot  the  claims  of  otibers.  Less  than 
the  name  Christian  at  first  oonld  hardly  this  is  not  implied,  so  that  the  name  may 
faU  to  be  used  in  a  bad  sense.  Accordingly,  become  vagus  and  loose,  parting  with  all 
it  appears  to  be  with  a  tone  of  irony  ^at  distinctive  import,  and  ooTeriikg  under  ittf 
Agrippa  said  unto  Paul, -*-' Almost  thou  broad  shelter  eTe&  those  who,  calling  JeMS, 
persuadest  me  to  be  a  Christian '  (Acts  zxri.  *  Lord,  Lord,'  indeed,  either  do  not  the  thingg 
d8).  And  from  1  Pel  iv.  16,  it  is  obrious  which  he  commanded,  or  deny  his  authority 
that  fte  name  itself  was  an  ofi^noe  and  a  while  they  commend  his  spirit*  The  first 
dime,  —  <If  any  suffer  as  a  Chrwiian,  let  class  err  by  adding  to  Christianity  tbeir 
him  not  be  ashamed.'  But  the  appellation  own  inventioAs;  the  second  enr  by  **fc^g 
was  soon  adopted  by  the  disciples;  for,  though  aw«jr  its  divine  sanctions.  Those  err  by 
originally  opprobrious,  it  was  charaeteriatie  lowering  Jesus  Christ  to  thefr  own  level ; 
and  descriptive :  it  was  also  a  denomination,  tiisse,  by  placing  him  in  a  class  inth  Socrmtss 
of  which,  as  deduced  inmiediately  from  and  Zoroaster.  Both  divest  religion  of  its 
'  Christ,'  the  primitive  beliewrs  might  well  essential  dharaetsr,  which  Ues  in  the  taxfko^ 
be  proud.  It  did  not^  however,  come  into  lity,  and  therefore  in  the  power,  with  whiofr 
general  use,  till  after  the  period  covered  by  it  reproves  the  conscience,  stirs  the  heart, 
the  canonicalwritings  of  the  Hew  Testament  sustains  hope,  gives  pardon,  teaohes  duty, 
and  seems  in  some  measure  to  have  been  and  points  to  iimnortal  life, 
forced  on  the  church.  In  the  second  cen^  Similar  must  ompoonelusioii  be,  if  we  loolK 
tnry,  we  find  the  name  generally  cnirent  rather  more  deeply  at  the  inward  import  oi 
In  the  pages  of  the  earlier  Fathers,  it  has  the  words  <  Christian '  and  *  Christ'  A  Chris- 
lost  its  ofitosiveness,  and  not  seldom  occurs  tian  is  one  who  acknowledges  Jesus  as  the 
as  representing  high  moral  excellence.  Thus  Christ,  the  Messiah,  the  long-expeeted 
Theodoret  says,  — '  This  is  anew  name ;  for,  teacher  sent  firem  God,  who,  in  his  docttine 
after  the  advent  of  Christ,  it  was  given  to  and  life,  his  sufltofaigs  and  death,  his  nsur- 
those  who  believed.  Men  use  it  as  an  epi-  rection  and  ascension,  was  to  enlighten  and 
tome  of  all  praise ;  for,  when  they  wiA  to  redeem  the  world,  in  the  name,  and  as  the 
extol,  they,  after  many  landatmy  words,  are  representative  and  seniant,  of  the  Creator  of 
wont  to   conclude  with  '*  truly  Christian."  human  kind. 

And,  again,  when  tiiey  exhort,  they  say, "  Act  History  confirms  this  view ;  for  it  lies  on 
as  a  Christian ; "  **  Do  what  becomes  a  Chris-  the  surface ;  it  is  found  in  the  veir  word  of 
tian."  Thus  is  the  name  fbll  of  praise  and  which  we  treat,  that  the  disciples  were  called 
blessing.'  Hence,  martyrs  and  other  holy  Christians,  and  that  they  received  and  re- 
men,  when  interrogated  as  to  who  they  were,  tained  the  name,  because  they  had  been  led 
and  what  their  faith,  simply  replied  that  they  to  acknowledge  Jesus  of  Nazareth  to  be  the 
were  Christians,  though  the  avowal  of  the  Christ  of  God,  the  great  truth  which  occu- 
name  led  to  reproach,  8com>  torture,  and  pied  all  minds  in  the  first  century  of  our  era, 
death.  and  to  which  the  world  was  primarily  con- 
In  process  of  time,  the  appellation  was  verted.  But  if  the  primitive  believers  were 
associated  with  all  the  outward  advantages  properly  denominated  Christians  because  they 
that  ibllow  a  profession  of  Christianity  is  held  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  then  the 
a  nominally  Christian  country.  Whence  tiie  same  oonvietioB  justifies  him  who  holds  it 
word  has  come  to  be  a  token  of  honour.  As  now  in  taking  the  honourable  name;  but 
such,  its  application  to  themselves  is  eamest-  without  such  a  conviction,  htstoiy  seems  to 
ly  desired  by  most  persons.  This  desire  is  show  that  we  have  no  claim  to  the  titie. 
not  always  founded  on  personal  ezcellenoe»  OA  the  whole,  it  is  very  dear  that  certain 
nor  on  such  a  relation  to  Jesus  generally,  facts  and  conditions  are  connected  with  the 
as  would  justify  its  existence.  As  an  hon-  adoption  of  the  name,  which,  accordingly,  is 
curable  appellation,  the  name  has  been  with-  not  left  to  arbitrary  assumption,  tile  caprices 
held  by  some,  as  well  as  coveted  by  most,  of  self-will,  or  the  ceaseless  changes  of 
The  different  sects  aad  denominations  have  opinion  which  may  ensue  from  successively 
denied  to  each  other  the  right  of  bearing  rising  and  perishing  phOosophies.  These 
<fheholyname,'oftenwith  singular  iDjustice,  fruits  «id  conditions  we  have  here  endeavour- 
and  scarcely  ever  wiOiout  a  breach  of  that  ed  briefly  to  nofold.  Wthout  pretending 
charity  which  is  the  essence  of  tiie  gospsL  that  we  hai^  been  successful,  we  fM  justi- 

In  consequence,  it  becomes  important  to  dS'    fled  to  dedaie  one  tiling, namely,  tiiat 

fine  tiie  exact  meaning  of  tiiie  term.  history  has  determined  who  ought,  and  who 

If  we  look  to  tiie  derivation,  'Christian'  ought  not  to  bear  the  name.    Its  lessons 

obviously    denotes    a   follower   of  Christ  we  ourselves  may  not  have  rvad  correctly. 

Hence,  he  is  a  Christian  who  receives  Jesus  Let  others  make  a  more  successful  effort. 


CHR 


350 


CHR 


Bot  wa  oannot  think  any  one  wamntod  to 
Msame  the  name  who  dieregaida  the  hietorj, 
as  containing  the  essential  conditions;  or 
who  denies  it  as  being  a  tmstwoithy  record 
of  the  divine  mission  of  Jesns  Christ 

While,  howeyer,  we  state  our  own  yiews, 
we  jndge  no  man.  Let  every  one  be  ftilly  per- 
snaded  in  his  own  mind.  Yet  all  the  facts 
of  the  case  join  with  common  sense  in  de- 
claring it  wrong  for  any  one  to  assume  or 
bear  the  name,  who  declines  the  test  which 
history  presents;  and  who,  for  the  Christiani- 
ty of  Christ,  snbstitntes  a  system  of  his  own. 
CHHONICLES  (G.  chronos,  time)  is  the 
name  borne  in  onr  Bibles  by  two  connected 
books,  which  signifies  time-book,  or  atmata. 
The  term  *  annsls '  may  be  rendered  yaor- 
hooks ;  bat  the  Hebrew  designation  of  the 
Chronicles  is  day-books^  or  literally  wordt 
of  the  dayti  that  is,  an  account  or  history 
of  the  ages  or  periods.  This,  in  general, 
corresponds  with  the  contents  of  the  Chro- 
nicles; which,  beginning  with  the  earliest 
times,  narrate  the  leading  events  of  the  Is- 
raelite race,  down  to  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. The  Alexandrian  translators  termed 
the  work  ParaMj»oin«}ia,  or  Supplements  (by 
which  it  is  also  designated  in  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate), an  appellation  which  seems  to  have 
been  derived  fit>m  the  relation  in  which  the 
Chronicles  stand  to  other  historical  books,  in 
particular  to  those  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  by 
supplying  matter  which  they  do  not  contain, 
and  so  completing  the  line  of  historical 
events.  In  tiie  Arabic  translation,  the  Chro- 
nicles bear  the  name  the  Book  of  Adam,  be- 
cause they  begin  with  the  word  Adam.  The 
name  Chronicles  has  Jerome  for  its  author, 
who  says  of  the  Hebrew  designation, '  words 
of  the  days,'  *  which  we  may  more  eiqpressively 
term  **  a  Chronicle  of  the  whole  Sacred  His- 
tory.** '  And  originally  the  work  was  a  Chro- 
nicle, forming  only  one  continuous  narrative, 
as,  indeed,  is  still  the  case  in  Hebrew  MS8. 
The  Greek  translators  first  divided^  this 
Chronicle  into  two  parts.  They  were  followed 
by  the  Church  of  Home,  in  ihe  Vulgate,  by 
which  Bomberg,  in  his  numerous  editions, 
was  guided ;  so  that  now  the  division  is  found 
also  in  the  printed  text  of  Hebrew  Bibles. 
Thfl  Chronicles  belong  to  the  class  termed 
Hagiographa,or  Sacred  Writings, which  form 
the  last  division  ot  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures ;  inasmuch  as  they  had  for  their  author 
no  prophet  in  the  actual  exercise  of  the 
duties  of  his  oflBce.  With  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah,  tliey  are  the  last  book  of  the  canonical 
Scriptures  of  the  first  covenant 

The  contents  of  the  books  are  very  various. 
Of  the  first  book,  the  first  part  (i. — ix.)  con- 
tains genealogical  registers  of  ancient  and 
distinguished  races  or  familieg,  as  the  de- 
scendants of  Adam  down  to  Abraham  (i.  1 
— 28),  the  descendants  of  Abraham  and  Esau 
(i.  28^54),  ot  Jacob  »»*^  ^^*  ^^  Judah  (ii.), 
of  King  David  (Hi),  of  Judah  agam  (iy.  i 


—23),  of  Simeon  (iv.  24—43),  of  Beuben, 
Gad,  and  Manasseh,  with  some  historical 
notices  of  the  place  of  their  abode  (v.) ;  two 
registers  of  the  family  of  Levi  (vi  1---30), 
genealogies  of  Heman  and  Asaph  (vi  «SI 
—43),  genealogy  of  Merari  (vi.  44—48),  of 
Aaron,  with  information  regarding  the  dwell- 
ing-places of  the  Levites  (vL  49 — 81) ;  list 
of  the  sons  of  Issachar  (vii.  1 — 6),  of  Ben- 
jamin and  Naphtali  (vii.  6—13),  of  Manas- 
sah  (vii.  14 — 19),  of  Ephraim,  with  historical 
notices  (vii.  20—29),  of  the  sons  of  Asher 
(vii.  30--40),  a  second  list  of  the  posteri^ 
of  Benjamin,  with  Saul's  geneslogical  table 
(viii.),  a  list  of  the  families  dwelling  at 
Jerusslem,  and  of  the  tribes  to  which  they 
belonged  (ix.). 

After  these  genealogies  comes  a  connected 
history.  It  begins  with  the  last  unsuccess- 
ltd  war  of  Saul  against  the  Philistines,  in 
which  his  sons  perished,  and  he  himself  fell 
on  his  sword.  With  the  remark  that  this 
calamity  was  the  punishment  of  his  opposi- 
tion to  Jehovah,  and  his  taking  coimsel 
with  *a  familiar  spirit,'  the  writer  passes 
on  to  the  history  of  David,  which  occupies 
the  remainder  of  the  first  book  (x. — ^xzix.). 
The  first  nine  chapters  of  the  second  book 
contain  the  history  of  Solomon;  and  the  rest 
of  this  book  describes  the  history  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  to  the  omission  of  that 
of  &e  kingdom  of  Israel,  from  Hehoboam  to 
the  overtluvw  of  the  empire  by  the  Chal- 
deans; mentioning  in  the  two  concluding 
verses  the  decree  of  Gyrus,  which  permitted 
the  tribes  to  return  to  their  native  land. 

The  age  and  the  author  of  the  book  can 
be  ascertained  only  approximately.  That 
the  woik  was  not  written  before  the  exile, 
spears  from  its  narrating  the  transportation 
of  the  Israelites  to  Babylon,  and  the  permis- 
sion of  Cyrus  for  their  return  (2  Chron. 
xxxvL  22,  23).  This  permission  Winer 
dates  at  536,  A.C.  We  have  thus  obtained 
one  fixed  point  before  which  the  work  was 
not  composed.  How  long  after  this  ?  Here 
we  have  less  certainty.  The  first  days  after 
the  return  were  unfavourable  to  literary  pur- 
suits. The  exiles  had  to  secure  their  na- 
tional existence  in  the  midst  of  difficulty. 
Yet,  as  it  was  their  national  existence  they 
had  to  secure,  some  reference  to  history  was 
indispensable ;  for  a  period  of  seventy  years, 
two  generations,  must  have  done  something 
to  efface  lines  of  the  genuine  Hebrew  fea- 
tures; and  only  by  historical  aids  could 
Uiose  who  proposed  to  re-constitute  the 
Mosaic  polity,  hope  for  any  success.  A 
model  was  imperatively  required,  and  that 
model  could  be  found  only  in  the  national 
Sacred  Books.  Hence  a  recourse  to  them 
was  necessary.  But  if  a  recourse  to  them  was 
to  be  had  at  all,  then,  for  the  purpose  in  view, 
that  recourse  must  have  been  made  at  an 
early  period  after  the  return.  In  short,  so 
soon  as  the  exiles  had  had  breathing  time. 


C  H  R                     351  C  H  R 

and  began  to  think  of  eonstitniing  the  state  when  the  expatriated  Israelites  found  them- 

anew,  tibey  must  have  referred  to  their  na<  selves  once  ntore  in  the  land  of  their  peo- 

tional  records.     Hence  we  cannot  iix  the  pie,  and  had  determined  to  restore  the  civil 

date  of  these  books  long  after  the  return  and  religious  constitution,  they  would  of  ne- 

from  the  captivity  at  Babylon.    This,  indeed,  cessity  require  some  guide.    Where  was  the 

is  a  vague  conclusion,  and  we  have  already  model  to  be  found  f    In  the  Sacred  Books. 

intimated  that  some  latitude  must  be  sllowed.  But  they  were  numerous,  —  more  numerous 

Probably  the  reference  was  made  in  order  to  than  they  are  at  present.    Hence  an  epi- 

commence  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  (534,  tome  of  them  would  be  desirable.     This 

A.C.).    It  may  also  have  been  the  fact,  that  might  be  even  necessary,  if  the  character  in 

the  exiles  made  their  first  attempts  in  a  which  the  ancient  writings  existed  had  fal- 

hasty,  confused,  and  injudicious  manner;  be-  len  into  disuse;  for,  in  such  a  case,  they 

ing  led  only  by  experience,  taught  by  failure,  would  be  sealed  books,  at  least  to  the  prac- 

to  consult  the  divine  oracles,  and  proceed  tical  men  who  would  have  the  executive  part 

orderly  and  carefully  to  call  back  the  insti-  to  perform  in  the  great  '  restitution  of  all 

tutions  of  their  fathers.    But  whenever  the  things : '  but  not  only  had  the  old  characters 

Sacred  Books  were  consulted,  then  was  it,  fallen  into  disuse,  but  the  spoken  tongue 

we  think,  that  the  Chronicles  came  into  exis-  had  also  undergone  a  change ;  so  that  the 

tence.    This  conclusion  refers  us  to  the  days  sacred  text  was  gradually  passing  into  a  sort 

of  Ezra.    And  Jewish  and  Christian  tradi-  of  sacred   language.      Nothing,  therefore, 

tion,  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  was  more  natural  than  that  a  commission 

seventeenth  century,  when  an  earlier  date  should  be  appointed  to  examine  the  Holy 

was  asserted,  has  referred  the  Chronicles  for  Scriptures,  and  make  firom  them  such  a  re- 

their  age  to  the  days  of  Ezra,  and  for  their  port  as  would  enable  the  heads  of  the  nation 

origin    to  the  pen  of  that  great  religious  to  carry  with  them  at  least  the  most  influen- 

renovator.    The  first  who  assigned  them  to  tial  of  the  people,  in  their  restorations.    A 

a  later  period  was  Spinosa;  and  his  opinion  renovation  of  the  civil  and  religious  consti- 

ihat  they  originated  in  the  time  of  the  Mao-  tution,  after  the  model  supplied  in  the  Sacred 

cabees  (166,  AA).),  has  found  a  strenuous  Books,  was  in  itself  natural,  and  had  his- 

assertor  in  Gramberg,  to  whom  De  Wette  torical  precedents  to  reconmiend  it  (2  Chron. 

approaches.    But  indications  of  a  later  date  xvii.  7,  seq.;  xxxiv.  14k,  uq.).    Now,  in  what 

are  said  to  exist  in  the  books  themselves ;  spirit  would  the  task  of  compilation  be  un- 

for,  in  1  Chroa.  ilL  10 — 34,  a  genealogical  dertaken  f     In  the  first  place,  the  writer 

table  of   Zerubbabel    (contemporary    with  would  not  lose  sight  of  the  peculiar  posi- 

Ezra)  seems  to  go  down  to  the  age  of  Darius  tion  held  by  his  nation  in  the  history  of  the 

Ochus(etr.  350,A.C.).    The  genuineness  of  world.     A  wise  patriotism  would    dictate 

the  register,  however,  has  been  denied.    Nor  the  propriety  of  tracing  back  the  origin  of  the 

is  its  import  clear ;  but  it  is  only  so  far  as  Hebrews,  through  the  most  distinguished 

its  import  is   clear,  that  it  can  have  any  men  of  the  world  (for,  if  Egypt  had  her  glory 

weight    That  it  speaks  of  the  grandsons  of  in  monuments  of  stone,  Canaan  produced 

Zerubbabel,  there  is  no  doubt ;  but  with  the  great  characters),  to  Solomon,  David,  Moses, 

words  ( ver.  21), '  the  sons  of  Rephaiah,'  a  new  Abraham,  Adam.    This  task  is  accomplished, 

subject  is  unronnectedly  introduced,  and  no-  not  in  the  vagueness  of  declamation,  nor  the 

thing  said  of  ancestry  or  posteri^.      Be-  fading  lights  of  traditional  history,  but  by 

fore  the  passage  can  make  for  the  books  the  trustworthy  documents  of  genealogicid 

having  been  composed  so  late   as  above  registers,  which,  at  least  in  primitive  times, 

stated,  it  must  be  proved  that  Shechanish  men  do  not  invent    By  the  execution  of  this 

(21)  was  a  descendant  of  Zerubbabel.    We  part  of  his  o£Soe,  the  writer  showed  to  (he 

are  therefore  disposed  to  adhere  to  the  an-  yet  timid  and  wavering  exiles,  that  they  had 

cient  opinion  which  ascribes  the  composition  a  history^  —  a  noble  history,  and  so  raised 

of  Chronicles  to  the  times  of  Ezra,  though  their  courage,  and   filled  their  souls  with 

the  evidence  that  he  was  the  writer  of  the  great  thoughts.    But  that  history  had  one 

books  wants  corroboration.   If,  however,  they  most  marked  peculiarity.    It  was  avowedly 

were  not  compiled  by  Ezra,  they  probably  a  page  of  recoiled  Providence,  illustrative  of 

received  his  sanction,  and  may  have  been  the  great  truth, — '  Them  that  honour  me,  I 

written  by  some  one  high  in  station,  at  his  will  honour'  (1  Sam.  ii.  30).     And  never 

suggestion,  and  for  his  patriotic  purposes.  more  than  then,  was  it  important  that  the 

What  were   those  purposes?     In  other  nation  should  feel  the  truth  of  this;  and 

words.  What  was  the  aim  of  the  writer?  what  never,  certainly,  was  the  nation  more  alive  to 

the  object  of  his  book  ?    A  right  xmder-  that  great  truth.    Their  seventy  years'  capti- 

standing  on  this  point  is  in  the  present  case  ritj  had  softened  their  obdurate  hearts,  and 

of  special  importance,  as  it  of  itself  furnishes  for  ever  cured  them  of  idolatry.    This,  then, 

an  answer  to  the  objections  made  against  the  was  the  time  to  show,  by  multiplied  instances, 

Chronicles,  and  which   are  found  concen-  that  their  national  weal  depended  exclusively 

trated   in  the  Introduction   of   De    Wette  and  entirely  on  the  Divine  favour,  which 

(Parkei^s  Translation,  iL  p.  253,  seq,).    Now,  again  depended  on  their  obedience.    Accord 


C  H  R                     S52  C  H  B 

iiigly,  a  reKgi<m8  tim  is  obterrtble  throtigh-  Iho  priests'  ofSoe,  he  wu  smitten  wiA  lapioif, 
ont  the  Chronicles.    It  meets  yon  in  the  which,  to  the  day  of  his  desidi,  oat  him  <^ 
first  B«n«tiTe,-^it  continnes  widi  yon  to  from  his  royal  hononrs,  the  pleasnies  of 
tb<)  last    But  the  rsHgion  of  Moses  was  society,  and  the  comforts  of  religion.    8t01 
of  a  specifle  nature,  hsTing  eextafai  rites  more  striking  is  die  splendonr  which  follows 
and  obserranees,  and  requiring  Ae  support  the  nligions  seal  of  Hezekish ;  yet,  when 
of  a  nnmerOQS  hteratehy.    So  fhat  the  work  his  heart  was  lifted  np,  there  was  wrath  np- 
eonld  not  do  otherwise  than  bear  a  Letitfeal  on  him,  and  upon  Jndah  and  Jenisalem 
character.    Sneh  an  impress  it  has.    With-  (3  Ghron.  zzix.  xzx.  xxxi.  xodf.  26 ;  oomp. 
out  sveh  an  impress,  its  credibflitywmM  be  30).    The  general  and  the  designed  ten- 
qaesHoflable.    Tet  the  hypeiwiUcism  of  re«  deney  of  the  work  is  ibnnd  in  a  brief  sum- 
cent  times  baa  tried  to  torn  this  its  reoom*  mary  giten  near  the  end :  — ■*  Moreorer,  all 
mendation  to  our  aeeeptttnos,  into  a  seriotti  the  ehlef  of  the  priests,  and  the  people,  trans- 
objection  against  the  fKnk.  gressed  Tory  mneh,  after  all  the  abominations 
Experience  eonrinee*  its,  that  a  eareftd  of  the  Headien ;  and  polluted  the  honse  at 
snd  mibiassed  pemsal  of  the  ChronioliBS  win  the  Lord,  which  he  had  hallowed  in  Jerosa- 
jQstiiy  the  statement  of  the  idm  of  flieir  1cm.    And  the  lord  God  of  their  fiohera 
aatfaor  or  avthott  now  set  fbitfi,  sad  leare  a  sent  to  them,  \fj  his  messengen^  rising  np 
eonrictiott  of  the  good  faith  which  presided  tetfanes,  and  sending;  beeanse  he  had  com- 
at  their  eompflation,  and  the  general  eredi-  passion  on  his  people,  snd  on  his  dwelling- 
bility  of  their  contents,  iboogh  some  sUow-  place.    But  they  modced  die  messengers  of 
anoe  mayinstrfetjiutfoehaTe  tobe  made  tor  God,  and  despised  his  words,  and  misused 
the  mistidtos  of  a  late  age,  and  the  colonriags  his  prophets,  nntil  the  wrath  of  the  Lord 
of  a  special  sad  omeh-cSxerished  object  Any  arose  against  his  people,  till  there  was  no 
attempt  to  prote  by  aettud  instanees  that  flie  remedy.    Therefore  he  brought  upon  them 
Tiew  we  have  giten  is  corrset,  would  require  the  king  of  the  Chaldees '  (2  Chron.  xixvL 
this  historical   epitome  to   be  epitomised.  14— 81)r.     Of  this  remarkable  passage  we 
Leaving  the  proof,  thetefore,  to  the  books  hsTe  qaoted  so  much,  because  it  shows  thai 
themsehes,  we  allege  one  or  two  iOaatra-  the  woric  was  composed  in  a  trathftd  spirit 
tions.     The  registers,  eompaMd  with  those  If  an  improper  priestly  influence  had  dicUted 
in  the  older  books^  betf  rrldent  marks  of  the  composition,  we  should  have  found  no 
being  abstracts  and  compilations.    Histori*  such  stem  reproof  of  their  <diief  men  as  we 
cal  notices  appended  to  them  (1  Chron.  tL  have  here.    Other  instanees  mi^t  be  given. 
40,  54),  baring  mor9  or  less  a  raferenee  to  The  passage  relathig  to  the  leprosy  of  Asa, 
later  eveoti^  exhibit  the  dlligenoe  and  prao-  shows  that  ^ere  was  no  eoHusion  between 
tl0gl  sinis  ot  the  composer.    This  is  espe-  the  roysl  power  and  the  priesthood.    The 
elally  observable  in  the  redtal  made  of  the  same  conclusion  is  justified  by  the  reproof 
oitlas  of  refoge  (54,  to  the  end),  which  it  administered  to  the  priests  by  Heseklah 
,ras  Important  for  the  new  colonists  to  know  (3  ChrotL  zxiz.  5,  teq.). 
well,  if  the  old  eonstitotion  was  to  be  re*  It  has  been  rashly  assumed,  that  the 
9«oied  after  the  land  had  lain  waMe  tor  two  chie(    if  not   Ac   only,    sourees  whence 
generations;  and  when  rights  of  property  the  compilers  drew  &eir  materials,  wen 
bad  been  oblitetmied,  transf&rrod,  or  usurped,  tonnd  in  the  historical  worics  of  our  present 
There  was  somediing  approaehlng  to  castes'  canon,  which  preceded  the  Chronicles  in 
(though  not  the  reality  itself;  and  there-  point  of  time.    With  these  books  the  Chro- 
fore  not  its  evils)  in  the  Hebrew  polity,  nides  undoubtedly  have  mndi  in  common. 
When,  therefore,  that  polity  was  on  the  point  And  let  it  be  observed,  that  where  the 
of  being  brought  back,  claimants  tor  ofllees  of  latter  cite,  diey  also  anthentloato  the  former, 
all  kinds  would  appear.    Hence  the  neces^  -^  an  anifaentieation  which  is  of  die  mora 
sity  for  knowing  what  fimllies  had  of  old  oonseqnence,  because  it  took  place  at  the 
disdiarged    the   several   Amotions.      This  tfane  of  the  second  birth  of  the  nation,  when 
knowledge  is  supplied  In  a  very  msiEked  idolatry  and  its  corruptions  had  been  cast 
manner:  see  1  Ghron.  ir.  31, 28 ;  vi.  81,  teq, ;  df ;  when  religion  and  truth  had  gained  an 
ix.  17,  teq.    The  patriotic  aim  is  obvious  in  ascendency  in  the  heart ;  and  when  the  peo- 
tfie  large  share  of  the  woik  allotted  to  the  pie  were  free,  if  they  diose,  either  to  remain 
flourishing  reigns  of  David,  Solomon,  and  in  Penia,  or  to  discard  for  ever  the  institn- 
Hesekiah.     The  religious  urn  is  evident  tions  of  Moees.    The  solemn  act  of  the  na- 
throughont     Besides  these  instaaces    (1  tion  in  receiving,  as  of  divine  origin  and 
Chron.  xiii. ;  zIt.  3, 10, 14 ;  zr.  3 ;  xi<.  18;  authority,  the  Mosaic  faistitutlons,  much  as 
xzii.  18 ;  zxviii.  7.    3  Chron.  zii.  1,  sm.  ;  by  so  doing  they  brought  blame  on  them- 
xiiL  9 ;  zri.  9, 13 ;  xx.  87),  we  refor  to  ttiS  selves  as  the  sons  of  those  who  had  dls- 
historical  sketch  of  Ussiah  (3  Chron.  zxri.),  obeyed  God  and  slain  the  prophets,  wiH 
who,  though  a  minor  when  he  ascended  the  wei^  with  any  Impartisl  man,  in  favour  of 
throne,  enjoyed  the  most  brilliant  prosperity  the  valne  of  these  institutions^  their  suits- 
so  long  as  he  was  obedient  to  Jehovah ;  but  bleness  to  the  people,  and  the  sanotlotts  hy 
when,  in  the  pride  of  his  heart,  he  usurped  which  they  were  aoeompanied. 


CIIR 


353 


C  H  R 


But  a  far  more  Ample  literature  was  open 
to  the  eompilers  of  the  Chronicles,  than  Uiat 
whioh  ia  in  onr  hands.  The  following  works 
are  distinctly  mentioned :  — 

I.  The  words  (or  history)  of  SomneU  the  seer; 

the  words  of  Nathan,  the  prophet ;  and  the 

words  of  Oad,  the  seer  ( 1  Chron.  zxix.  S9). 
II.  The  words  of  Nathan,  the  prophet ;  the  pro. 

pheoy  of  A14Jah ;  and  the  history  of  Iddo 

1 8  Chron.  ix.  89). 

III.  The  hook  of  the  Kfaigs  of  Jndah  and  Israel 

\i  Chron.  zxr.  86;  xxriti.  86). 

IV.  The  hook  or  words  of  Jehu,  the  son  of  Ha- 

nani  (8  Chron.  zx.  34). 
V.  The  hook  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  (8  Chron. 

zx.  34;  TTTffl.  18). 
VI.  The  story  or  omnmentsiryof  the  book  of  the 

Kings  (8  Chron.  zxlr.  87). 
VII.  The  hook  of  BhemaSah,  the  prophet ;  and  of 
Iddo,  the  seer,  oonoemlng  genealogies  (8 
Chnm.  zH.  16). 
VIII.  The  acts  of  Usalah,  written  by  Isaiah,  the 
prophet,  the  son  ot  Amos  (8  Chron.  zztL 
88). 
fX.  The  Tialon  or  history  of  Issiah  (8  Chroa. 
zxztt.38). 

This  anffioes  to  show  that  the  Israelites 
were  a  literary  and  historioal  people ;  while, 
from  I  Chron.  zxrii.  S4,  we  find  reason  to 
state  that  like  the  Latins,  only  long  pre- 
Tionsly,  they  kept  what  were  literally  annals, 
noording  the  events  of  each  snocessive  year. 
To  what  remote  age  this  practice  extended 
hack,  we  oaanot  determine ;  hat  it  deserves 
notice,  that  the  references  made  in  Chro- 
nicles to  hooka  oeoor  for  the  most  part  in 
regard  to  the  later  periods  of  the  history. 
Lest,  however,  this  remark  should  mislead 
the  reader,  we  add  that  the  work  now  under 
consideration,  if,  as  we  have  seen  reason  to 
'believe,  it  was  composed  in  Ezra's  time,  per- 
haps hy  Esra  himself,  dates,  though  one  of 
the  latest  of  the  Biblical  histories,  fhll  fifty 
years  before  the  Father  of  profane  history, 
Herodotus,  began  his  immortal  work. 

The  general  tenor  of  this  essay  sufllces  to 
show,  that  the  conclusions  to  which  its  writer 
has  been  led  are  very  dissimilar  to  those 
whieh  De  Wette  has  put  forth,  and  which 
in  part  are  echoed  by  Norton,  in  his  note 
on  the  Old  Testament,  printed  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  work  on  the  '  Genuineness  of 
the  Gospels,'  pp.  88,  89.  The  substance  of 
Norton's  objections  is  found  in  the  following 
transcript:-^ 

'The  compiler  of  the  Chronicles,  espe- 
cially, seems  to  have  given  a  strong  colour- 
ing to  the  anoient  hiatory  of  his  nation, 
derived  from  the  feelings,  customs,  and  in- 
stitutions  of  his  own  age,  for  the  purpose  of 
recommending  the  Levitical  law  to  his  coun- 
trymen, by  the  supposed  example  and 
authority  of  their  ancestors.  His  work  ap- 
pears to  have  beeif  founded  principally  on 
the  books  of  Samuel  and  the  Khigs ;  or,  to 
say  ^e  least,  there  is  no  probability,  tha^  in 
the  portion  of  his  history  coineident  with 
what  is  contained  in  those  books,  he  had 
any  other  authentic  doeuments  than  what 
their  authors  possessed.    But,  in  comparing 


the  accounts  in  those  books  with  the  ac- 
counts in  the  Chronicles,  we  see  at  once  how 
much  the  author  of  this  later  work  has  added 
concerning  priests  and  Levites,  and  religious 
ceremonies.  As  a  single  illustration  of  the 
general  character  of  his  work,  we  may  take 
die  narrative  of  the  removal  of  the  ark  by 
David  to  Jerusalem,  in  chapters  xiii.  xv.  xvi. 
of  1  Chron.,  as  compared  with  the  account 
in  2  Sam.  chap.  vi.  In  the  Chronicles,  the 
priests  and  Levites  play  a  principal  part  In 
the  book  of  Samuel,  they  do  not  appear  at 
all.  The  ark  hi  not  borne  by  Levites,  as  it 
should  have  been  according  to  the  Levitical 
law ;  and,  contrary  to  that  law,  the  sacrifices 
are  offered,  not  by  priests,  but  by  David.' 

Here  the  chronicler  is  charged  with  hav- 
ing given  such  a  colouring  to  the  ancient 
history  of  his  nation,  as  to  render  his 
evidence  '  altogether  questionable.'  Let  us 
allow  that  some  colouring  was  given.  What, 
then  ?  Would  the  compilation  have  been 
made,  had  not  the  compiler  had  some  speci- 
fic object  ?  And  what  is  the  pursuit  of  a 
specific  object  unless  giving  a  colouring? 
So  that  the  objection  goes  to  say,  that  tihe 
compilation  should  never  have  been  under- 
taken. But  this  is  a  point  on  which  the 
compiler  was  a  better  judge  than  any  modem 
critic  can  be.  The  writer  haa  a  specific  ob- 
ject: we  have  endeavoured  to  set  it  forth. 
If  our  exposition  is  right,  it  is  one  of  which 
no  historian  need  be  ashamed.  But,  says 
Mr.  Norton,  he  has  added  to  the  history  that 
which  served  the  purposes  of  priests  and 
Levites.  Let  it  be  so.  It  does  not  follow 
that  the  additions  were  unwarranted;  still 
less,  that  his  general  statements  are  suspi- 
cious. But  no  authority  can  be  found  for 
them  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  the  Kings, 
his  chief,  if  not  his  sole  authorities.  The 
allegation  on  which  this  objection  rests, 
is  nothing  else  than  a  gratuitous  assump- 
tion. There  is  no  evidence  whatever,  that 
the  compiler  had  no  other  sources  at  his  com- 
mand, ^an  what  our  present  canon  affords. 
On  the  contrary,  we  Imow,  as  shown  above, 
that  he  had  other  sources.  This  fact,  so  ob- 
vious to  an  unprepossessed  mind,  the  im- 
pugners  of  the  Chronicles  have  endeavoured 
to  destroy.  The  titles  of  the  works  before 
given  are,  it  has  been  asserted,  only  different 
denominations  for  the  books  called  in  our 
Bible  by  the  name  of  Samuel  and  Kings. 
Here,  again,  we  have  a  gratuitous  assump- 
tion. This  answer  might  suffice.  But  the 
Hebrew  was  a  rich  literature.  In  Eccles. 
xii.  12,  we  have  evidence  of  this,  — '  Of 
making  many  booki  there  it  no  end,  snd  much 
study  is  a  we^uiness  of  the  flesh.'  Who  will 
believe  that  of  these  many  books,  none  save 
what  we  now  have  were  historical,  when  the 
historical  character  of  the  Hebrew  religion 
is  considered  T  But  the  passages  cited  above» 
show  that  historical  writers  were  numerous* 
'  The  words  of  Samuel,  of  Nalbsn,  and  of 


i 


C  II  R                     354  C  H  U 

Qsd,'  otfi  intimtte  nothing  less  than  thrM  CHBT80PRA8U8  (0.)«    «   tniMpmat 

tepsrste  historical  compositions.     Let  the  precious  stone,  mentioned  in  Ber.  xxL  S0» 

reader  go  over  the  list  (to  which  additions  of  a  pale  green  ootonr  passing  into  jtHlcm 

might  be  made),  and  he  will  find  reason  to  and  brown. 

think  that  it  contains  more  works  thsn,  our  CHUB,  —  the  name  of  a  land  oi   tribe 

eanon  presents.    Had  the  writer  meant  to  (Esek.  xzz.  0),  which  stands  in  connection 


refer  merely  to  our  books,  he  would  have  with  African    names,  and   maj  therefore 
iUsifled  himself;  for  the  allegation  is  that  h«fe  been  a  district  of  Africa.    Some  have 
his   statements  do  not  coincide  with  the  identHled  Chub  witii  Cobion,  which,  accord- 
statements  in  those  books.    Bot  of  soch  sn  ing  to  the  Greek  geogn^her  Ptolemy,  lay  on 
hallucination,  who  will  accuse  a  writer  ?  —  the  Lake  Mareods,  near  tfia  modem  Alezan- 
to  make  references  to  works  which  bore  wit-  diia;  others  have  prsfcrred  Cobe,  a  harbour 
ness  against  himselt    But  the  fact  of  the  onthaseacoast  of  Ethiopia.    There  is,  hew- 
references  being   made,  proves    not   only  erer,  reason  to  think  that  Am  reading  should 
the  existence  of  the  works  referred  to,  but  be  Nub,  which  wovld  signiiy  Nubia, 
that  they  contained  the  yenfication  sought  CHUBCH   (T.)  is  derived  from  an  old 
And  here  we  must  add,  that  this  same  fact  German  word,  whioh  wigniftirr  io   ehoo§e, 
proves  also  that   the  chronicler  had  to  do  Hence,  a  <  church'  is  a  ebosea  body  of  men, 
with,  not  an  ignorant  public,  not  credulous  agreeably  to  a  ftmdamental  idea  of  the  New 
men,  not  readers  of  implicit  frith,  bat  per-  Testament,  which  represents  Christians  as 
sons  who  required  evidence,  could  weigh  'eaUed  saints' (Bom.  L  7)«  or  parsons  taken 
evidence,  and  who  had  in  their  own  kanda  out  of  the  great  body  of  die  world,—  first, 
means  for  coming  to  a  sound  conclusion  on  lor  dieir  own  salvation ;  and  seoondly,  that, 
historical  questions.    Indeed,  the  legitimate  when  converted,  they  ak^mld  labour  for  tha 
inference  from  the  facts  of  the  ease  impar-  aalvation  of  mankind  (Luke  zzii.  83.  John 
tially  considered,  is,  that  the  chronicler  had  zxi  10,  teq.  James  v.  19).  The  Greek  word 
before  him  other  works  thsn  our  books  of  (tkAUaia),  of  whioh  oar  *  ehnrsh '  ia  a  trans- 
Samuel  and  the  Kings.    His  refrrenoes,  for  lation,  has,  according  to  its  etfmology,  a 
instance,  aie  found   in   the  histoiy  of  the  meaning  similar  to  that  of '  ehuvch ; '  denot- 
leign  of  King  Asa  (2  Chron.  zvL  11)  ;  Ama-  ing,  as  it  does»  a  number  of  paisona  called 
siah  (xxT.  26);  JoCham  (zzvii.  7);  Ahaz  out  of  a  yet  greater  body,  whioht  in  the  aetaal 
(zzviu.  26) ;  Hesekiah  (zzxii.  82)  ;  Josiah  case,  is  the  world  at  large.      Thua,  in  the 
(zxzT.27);  andJeboiakim(xzxvi.  8).   Now,  essential  meaning  of  the  tenn  'ehnroh,'  do 
in  all  these  oases,  the  work  referred  to  is  *  the  we  find  it  set  forth  aa  a  divinely  aelecled  in- 
book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Jndah.'  But  strument  f<w  the  fbrtheranee  of  the  great 
this  is  not  our  book  of  Kings,  for  this  sim-  purposes  of  Christ's  mission  and   death, 
pie  reason,  that  in  most  instanoea  the  Chro-  This,  of  all  puipoaea,  is  the  moat  benevolent 
nicies  contain  information  which  could  not  in  aim,  and  the  moat  benign  in  conaequenoea; 
be  derived  from  that  source,  since  there  it  comprehending  the  highest,  puiest»  largest, 
does  not  exist  and  moat  durable  good  which  tame  and  eter- 
Withont  pursuing  the  aubject  into  detaU  nity  can  give.    Hence  the  church  is  an  ez- 
( which  the  nature  of  this  work  does  not  ad-  presaion  of  tiie  divine  love,  as  well  as  the 
init),  we  offer  one  remark  more.    Aware  of  great  channel  of  the  divine  graoe,  and  ap- 
the  force  of  the  references  made  in  Chro-  pears  in  the  high  character  at  being  the 
nicies,  De  Wette  charged  the  author  with  appointed  instrument  for  bringing  home  to 
making  them  for  display;   as  if  any  thing  the  hearts  of  n»en  of  each  anoceaaive  gene- 
*h     u      ^*^^  ^7  referring  to  authorities  raUon  the  glad  tidings  of  great  joy  which 
that  had  no  existence,  save  the  diapiay  of  eonstitnte  the  essence  of  die  gospeL 
tne  writer's  folly.    This  imputation,  whioh  is  The  root-idaa,  we  have  intimated,  ia  that 
utterly  groundless,  was  sOently  dropped  in  of  sn  assembly  ealled  out  from  some  place 
me   fourth  edition    of  De    Wette's    work,  or  body.     Our  word,  'convocation*'  nearij 
Most  persons  will  think  that  it  should  never  approaches  to  the  mesning  of  the  original 
nave  been  thrown  out;  or,  having  been  pub-  Greek ;  only  that  ' convocation '  ia  meiely  n 
iiciy  made,  should  have  received  an  expreaa  calling  together,  without  bringing  into  pno- 
and  public  retractation.    Such  a  procedure,  minenoe  the  idee  of  choosing  or  aeleotion* 
nowever,  throws  light  on  the  spirit  which  that  is  involved  in  eccMa  (whence  the  £ng- 
nas  nsd  to  do  with  the  unsparing  hostiUty  lish  term  eccMostio),  or  chnroh.    Aa,  how- 
mwMiested  against  the  work  we  have  now  ever,  persona  may  be  aelected  and  convened 
^m^nV^*^;^        ..  '°'  ~">«"  pnrpoaee,  ao  ia  it  deairehle  to 
iv>n«HH,l            *^  /^'  ^"^  *'*^)'  *  «»™  ascertain  from  the   Scriptnrea   themselves 
N«w  TpI^^i  ""^/t?    ^ .  *^«««^  of  die  what  the  purpose  U  which  it  recognises.    In 
mT    B«^r  ^•?^'  "^  ^'  ^^'  ^^  A«*»  xix.  82faie  word  eccfcirTVendered 
2old.n  h^?^^^  w^n'IIir*!^  *?  ."•"  ■•**"•  •  '  *»>•  aeaembly;  and  is  used  of  the  tumultn- 
^n^^L^^^^L!^^'^'^''^^^'^  on.  meeting  Which  took  place  in  the  theatre 

SS  i  t^fnM  JS?£.d^^  ^  •^•*^*^-*^  at  Ephesuil:  at  the  instil  of  Demetrius, 

with  a  twofold  refraction,  j^  ^  ^^^^^^  ^^^    thTH^ww  term  KM, 


C  U  U  355  C  H  U 

'  congregation,'  is  employod  in  fl  Ghion.  xxx.  uncommon ;  for  he  lived  to  see  the  intention 

13,tef.  EecUaia  also  denotes  a  regularly  of  his  Master  to  a  great  extent  realieed 
eonstitated  civil  assembly,  as  is  Acts  xix.  89,     (1  Cor.  xix.  28 ;  xr.  9.    Oal.  i.  Id.    Eph.  i. 

where  the  randeiing  should  be  *$he  Uwfol  22;  iiL  21.    FhU.  iii  6).     In  Heb.  xu.  28, 

aasembly ; '  that  is,  the  proper  tribunal.    In  it  has  been  thought  to  denote  the  church  in 

this  sense  has  the  passage  in  SCatt.  xviii  heaven,  though  it  may  here,  too,  have  re- 

17,  $eq>.  been  understood.    The  term  cons-  ferenee  to  the  gensnd  Christian  communis 

sponding  to  '  church '  may  denote  an  sssem-  on  earth,  whose  high  and  holy  vocation  was 

bly,  witbont  say  q>eoifio  raferenee  to  the  way  so  to  walk,  and  so  to  labour,  as  to  obtain 

in  which  it  takes  plsoe,  as  in  Acts  vii.  88.  everlasting  life  in  the  presence  of  Qod,.  his 

Heb.  ii.  12;  or  the  speoifio  assembly  whieh  angels,  and  the  just  mads  perfect  (Deut 

statedly  met  for  the  performance  of  religious  xxxiii.  2.  Job  iv.  18). 
duties  (Ps.  xzvi.  12 ;  IxviiL  26 ;  comp.  £xod»        It  thus  appears  that  the  Scriptures  present 

xiL  6.    Numb.  xvL  8,  21).     In  its  more  two  oburoheB^  the  Jewish  and  the  Ghiistiau. 

strictly  Hebraic  use,  the  idea  of  seleetion  or  The  first*  generally  dwoounated  '  oongieg^- 

calling  out  has  a  different  reference,  since  tion,*  consisted  primarily  end  properly  of  the 

the  entire  nation  of  Israel  was  a  chosen  whole  nation  of  larsel ;  then  of  that  nation 

people.     Among  the  Jews  there  was   no  as  assembled  £»r  the  celAhration  of  its  reli- 

select  body,  as  smong  the  Gentiles.     The  gions  observances;   and,  thirdly,  the  idea 

church  and  the  nation  were  the  same.    Bui  seems  to  be  sometimes  restricted  to  those 

Christ  called  the  members  of  his  chui^out  persons  who  were  aetnally  engaged  in  the 

of   every  nation  under   heaven ;    and   so  solemnities  of  puldio  womhip  iu  the  national 

brought  into  existence  an  instrument  by  sanctuary.     Yfhen,    howevei^    synagogues 

which  his  principles  of  universal  love  might  came  into  use,  then  the  term  underwent 

be  made  co-extensure  in  their  operation  with  some  variatioii  of  meanings  and  denoted  the 

the  family  of  man.  collected  worshippers  of  Jehovsh,  whether 

The  genensl  idea  of  an  assembly  without  assembled  in  Jerusalem,  or  in  other  houses 

suy  qMcifio  reference,  seems  to  be  the  sig-  of  prayer. 

nifioation  intended  in  1  Cor.  xi  18,  —  *When  Our  Lord,  therefore,  ft>und  the  mind  of 
ye  come  together  in  the  church.'  There  is  his  countrymen  familiar  with  the  idea  of  a 
in  ^  Greek  no  word  to  justify  the  use  of  church ;  in  adopting  which,  he  made  such 
the  article, '  the.'  Literally,  Paul  says,  *  You  alteralions  as  were  necessary  to  bring  it  in- 
coming together  in  an  assembly,'  which  to  harmony  with  the  spirit  and  tendency  of 
means,  *  when  you  assemble.'  The  assem-  his  own  system.  WUh  a  eharacteristio  com- 
bly  may  have  been  the  church-assembly;  prehensiveness,  he  threw  down  eveiy middle 
but  the  words  used  by  the  aposUe,  just  wall  ai  partition,  commanding  his  doctrines 
cited,  do  not,  in  themselves,  convey  that  to  be  preached  indiscriminately  to  all  na- 
meaning;  ttans*    The  assembly  which  took  place  on 

Fxequeaitly,  however,  the  word  eccleaia,  the  day  o£  Pentecost^—- when  there  were  to- 

chiureh,  ie  used  as  denoting  an  assembly  of  gether  *  Parthians»  Medos,  Slamites,  dwellers 

Christians,  dwelling  in  or  near  one  place,  in  Mesi^otamia,  and  in  Judea,  Cappadocia, 

and  coming  together  to  celebrate  their  saend  Pontus,  and  Asia,  Phxygia,  and  Pam^ylia, 

rites.    Itisthusnssdof  theChristisnchuroh  iu  Egypt,  and  in  the  parte  of  Lyhia  about 

at  Jemsidem.    The  passage  in  Acte  ii.  47  Cyrene,  and  strsngars  of  Borne,  Jews  and 

ahows  that  die  term  *  church  *  was  at  a  veiy  proselytes,  Cretes  and  Arabians,'  — •  gives,  in 

early  period  applied  to  such  meetiogs  of  ito  miecellaneons  character,  an  appropriate 

Christian  believers:  comp.  Acte  v.  11;  viii.  type  of  what  the  new  church  was  even  im- 

1 ;  XL  22 ;  XV.  4,  22.     It  has  reference  to  mediately  to  be.    And  &e  presence  in  Jem- 

the  Christian  assembly  at  Antioeh  (Acte  xi.  salem,  at  this '  high  festivsl,'  of  persons  ih>m 

26 ;  xiiL  1 ).    It  is  used  also  of  other  Chris-  so  many  distant  parts,  shows  to  what  a  won- 

tian  communities  in  single  cities  and  pro-  deriul  extent  the  Jewish  prepared  the  way 

vinces  (Bom.  xvi.  1,  28.    1  Cor.  L  2.    Col.  for  the  Christisn  church ;  for  these  '  devout 

iv.  16.  Aeto  xiv. HB).  Sometimes  this  church  men,'  who  are  described  as  *  out  of  every  na- 

was  held  in  the  private  house  of  a  member  tion  under  heaven,'  and  certainly  were  Arom 

(Col.  iv.  15.    Bom.  xvL  &    1  Cor.  xvi  19.  nearly  aU  the  then  civilised  countries  of  the 

PhUem.  2).  world,  were  either  Jews,  or  proselytes  to  Ju- 

The  word  *  efanreh '  comprdiends  tfas  en-  daism;  the   first  owing  their  existence  to 

tire  Christian  community,  consisting  of  a  the  d^persion  of  Israelites  among  other 

number  oi  individual  members,  or  of  indi-  nations,  which  had  now  been  for  centuries 

vidoal  churshes.    In  this  sense  it  is  but  onse  proceeding ;  the  second  being  for  the  most 

nnquestionahly  used  in  the  Gospels  (Matt,  part  the  firnitof  this  scattered  seed  (Acteii  1, 

xvi.  18), — 'Upon  this  rock  I  will  build  sff.).    The  disseminstion  of  high  religions 

my  famish;'  i^ch,  however,  suffises  to  truth  was,  however,  now  to  take  a  freer  course, 

show  that  the  Sasioar  contemplated  the  for-  and  be  abundsntly  glorifisd.    Christ  came 

mation  of  a  efaureh  universal.     In  Paul's  into  the  place  of  Moses.    Paul  superseded 

writingB,  however,  this  iq»pUcatio&  is  not  Gamaliel     Monotheism  quitted  Judca,  to 


CUU                     356  CHU 

iMoome  the  religion  of  lh«  world.     Tb«  ter  of  the  New  TMtameotmastttkeMnnot 

temple  at  Jemealem  was  destroyed ;    bat  to  transfer  to  the  ordinary  that  whieh  be- 

a  temple  was  built  in  the  heart  of  man  irtiich  longs  to  the  extraordinary  ministration*  The 

will  never  perish.    The  ohorch  ot  the  world  first  era  had,  as  a  special  work,  ao  speeial 

took  the  place  of  the  Jewish  ohnreh  (Matt  qnaliiioations.    If  we  attempt  to  make  that 

xxriii.  19.   Mark  zri.  15.  John  i.  9).    These  general  which  God  has  nfsde  special,  m 

are  facts  whieh  the  friends  of  mere  ciTilisa-  shall  work  against  God,  and  be  involTcd  in 

tion  most  admit,  and  cannot  but  admire.  With  difflcnlty. 

Christians '  this  is  the  Lord's  doing,  and  it  is  We  give  these  as  general  principles,  leav- 

manrelloas  in  onr  eyes'  (Matt  zzi  42).  ing  the  application  of  them  to  &e  reader. 

The  chief  ideas  which  combine  to  f6rm  Bat,  as  a  specimen  of  their  qiplieation,  we 

his  conception  of  a  choroh,  onr  Lord  has  remark  that  those  paasages  whieh  give  to 

himself  expressed  after  his  own  manner,  the  ^^tles  the  large  powers  of  binding  and 

with  brevity,  precision,  and  fdlness,  in  the  loosing,  of  forgiving  sins,  generally  *  the 

words  foand  in  Mstt  xriiL  SO,  —  *  Where  two  power  of  the  keys,'  —  to  ose  an  ecclesiastical 

or  thiee  are  gadiered  together  in  my  name,  phrase  (Matt  xvi.  18, 19;  xviiL  18.  John 

there  am  I  in  the  midst  of  them.'    Here  we  xx.  22,  28),  are  to  be  understood  of  those 

learn  that  a  Christian  charch  is  —  I.  A  persons  exelusirely,  to  whom  exdasively  the 

gathering,  it  may  be  of  only  two  or  three  per-  needftil  qualifications  were  imparted,  and  the 

sons ;  who,  II.  are  assembled  in  the  name,  ofllce  was  specificslly  assigned.    The  right 

that  is,  for  the  purposes,  of  Christ;  and.  III.  to  establish  ordinances  in  Christ's  church 

who  have,  as  the  essentiaUy  constitnent  and  belongs  to  no  disciple  now,  any  more  than 

sanctiiying  element  of  a  chareh,  the  presence  the  ability  to  work  miracles. 

of  Jesus,  msniiiested,  lY.  by  the  granting  of  The  general  aim  of  the  Christian  church 

their  requests  (19),  in  the  communication  is  the  visible  establishment  of  the  kingdom 

of  '  the  fruit  of  the  spirit '  (GaL  v.  22—24.  of  God,  not  for  itself,  but  as  a  means  ior  the 

Eph.  V.  9.  Phil.  i.  11).  fhrtheranoe  of  the  Divine  will  in  the  salva- 

In  speaking  ofthe  church  as  being  founded  tion  of  mankind  through  Jesus  Christ    In 

by  Christ,  we  have  had  in  our  mind  the  gene-  other  words,  the  aim  is  the  realisation  in 

ral  influence,  whieh,  when  he  had  onee  the  soul  of  roan,  of  the  great  family  relation 

planted  his  noble  ideas  in  die  world,  and  which  God  has  been  pleased  to  assume  in 

been  seated  at  the  right  hand  of  power,  our  revealing  himself  in  Christ,  as  die  universal 

Lord  exerted  through  instruments  specially  Fadier  of  the  human  race.    Hence,  the  aim 

appointed  for  the  publication  of  the  gospel,  is  the  diiiusion  of  that  unity  of  heart  which 

In  an  inferior  sense,  it  was  these  instru-  befits  brethren,  and  that  ready,  tmstfal,  lov- 

menti,  the  apostles  of  Christ,  who  founded  ing,  end  devout  obedience  which  befits  chil- 

his  church  in  the  great  centres  of  civilisa-  dran.    Accordingly,  a  holy,  obedient,  and 

tion,  and  so  paved  the  way  lor  its  universal  loving,  is  essentially  a  Christian  heart  The 

spread.    Even  the  ^Mstles,  however,  did  same  fisct  is  also  set  forth  as  being  such  a 

not  complete  the  work ;  nor  can  the  work  be  reconciliation  of  soul  to  the  Divine  will,  as 

ever  ftilly  completed,  so  long  as  there  re-  may  make  that  will  supreme  in  the  intelli- 

mains  one  soul  unreconciled  to  God.    The  gent  universe,  cause  God's  laws  to  be  univer- 

New  Testament,  however,  continues  the  line  sally  honoured  and  obeyed,  and  effect  a  union 

of  influence  no  ftirther  than  the  termination  between  God  and  Christ  on  one  side,  and 

of  the  apostolic  ministry.    It  is,  hi  truth,  humsn  kind  on  the  other  (John  xviL  17, 

merely  a  fragmentary  history  of  the  first  »eq,    Ephes.  v.  25—27 ;  iL  1^—22.    CoL  L 

planting  of  the  gospeL    As  sudi,  it  is  a  re-  28,  29.  1  Pet  iL  5,  9,  se^.). 

cord  of  a  special  operation.    That  the  opera-  The  truth  and  genuineness  of  the  church 

tion  is  in  many  of  its  features  special,  appears  rests  on  the  recognition  of  Jesus  as  the 

from  the  natare  of  the  case,  and  from  dis-  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God  (Matt  xvi* 

tinct  Scriptural  testimonies.    *  The  signs  of  16,  §eq,  Mark  xvi.  16.  John  vi.  69 ;  xvii.  8. 

an  aposde '  were  in  not  only  *  patience,'  but  in  Acts  ii.  36 ;  viii.  87 ;  xvi  81.    1  Cor.  xii.  8. 

*  wonders  and  mighty  deeds '  (2  Cor.  xii.  12.  1  John  iv.  2).    This,  however,  which  is  an 

Mark  xvL  15-^18).     Paul's  eniigfatenment,  outward  test,  must,  in  the  si^t  of  God,  be 

specially  received  by  revelation  from  his  approved  and  manifested  by  corresponding 

Lord,  must  have  terminated  with  his  own  fruit;  for  without  that  charity  which  is  greater 

life.     Derivatively,  indeed,  all  Christians  than  even  faith  and  hope,  and  which  is  the 

partake  of  that  enlightenment,  since  results  essence  of  the  gospel  in  iU  practieal  opera- 

of  it  axe  left  in  his  writings.    But  ours  is  a  tion,  both  churches  and  individuals  are  as 

derivative  enlightenment,  and  ours  is  not  sounding  brass  or  tinkling  cymbals  (I  Cor. 

a  miraculously  confirmed  ministry.    Whence  xiiL).    Accordingly,  in  Christ  Jesus,  exter- 

it  is  obvious  that  the  dispensation  of  the  nals,  whatever  their  nature,  avail  nothing, 

gospel  is  twofold,  extraordinary  or  apostolic,  but  *  ftuth  whidi  worketh  by  love '  (Gal.  v.  6. 

ordinary  or  human.    In  the  history  of  the  I  Thess.  L  8.  Jsmes  ii  18). 

church,  these  two  ministrations  are  cleariy  The  means  which  the  Scripture  recognises 

marked.    This  being  the  case,  tlie  interpre-  and  sanctions  for  the  l^irtheranee  of  the  pur- 


C  H  U                     357  C  H  U 

pOMS  of  the  chnroh,  are  --^  I.  Pretohi&g  The  history  of  the  church  ot  Christ  can- 

Christ,  or  the  proclamation  of  the  gospe],  by  not,  in  a  dictionary  of  the  Bible,  be  carried 

which  faith  is  produced,  and  firom  which,  beyond  the  date  of  the  events  therein  re- 

nnder  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  salyation  corded;  nor  within  that  period  will  onr  spaee 

ensnes  (Matt  zxriii.  19.    Rom.  x.  18 — 18).  allow  more  than  a  general  sammary  to  be 

II.  Baptism,  as  the  symbol  of  faith  in  Christ,  giten.    That  history  properly  begins  with  the 

administered  originidly  to  persons  bom  of  first  meeting  of  the  apostles  after  the  resor- 

heathen  parents,  and  still  appropriate  in  its  reotion.      The  period    of   Christ's    public 

applieation  to  others  (Matt  zxYiii.  19.  John  ministiy  was  of  a  preparatory  nature.    The 

iii.  23;  comp.  It.  2.  Acts  ii.  38.  Eph.  ir.  5).  church  began  when  Jesus,  haTing  ascended 

m.  The  Loin's  sapper,  as  a  perpetual  memo-  to  the  right  hand  of  power,  became  a  spiri- 

xial  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  in  his  sufferings  and  tnal,  and  so  a  uniyersal  king,  and  commenced 

death  endured  for  man,  as  a  divinely  sano-  a  kingdom  in.  human  hearts,  which  shaU 

tioned  means  and  channel  of  grace  (1  Cor.  zi.  have  no  limits  on  earth,  and  no  end  in  the 

28,  se^.).    IV.  Prayer  in  the  name  of  Christ,  eternal  world. 

aa  an  appointment  of  the  Lord  Jesus  for  the  In  many  respects,  it  is  a  matter  of  con- 

sanetifieation  of  his  disciples  (Matt  yii.  7,  sequence  to  fix  the  date  of  the  ascension. 

teq.  John  xiT.  13, 14.  Acts  ii.  42 ;  Yi.  4).  Without  an  agreement  as  to  the  year  when 

These  means,  howeyer,  divine  as  they  are  the  first  foundation-stone  of  the  church  was 

in  their  origin,  effectual  as  they  have  proved,  laid,  it  is  impossible  to  come  to  an  exact  de- 

and  important  though  they  still  remain,  must  termination  as  to  the  date  of  other  subse- 

not  be  considered  as  the  sole  instruments  in  quent  erents.    For  instance,  the  years  when 

the  hands  of  Him  who  worketh  aa  he  will ;  nor  the  Letters  of  Paul  were  written  can  be  even 

need  the  ministry  of  the  church  be  restricted  approximately  ascertained,  only  after  some 

to  them :  but  it  may  receive  such  changes,  and  one  fixed  point  has  been  agreed  upon.    But 

undergo  such  modifications,  as  the  altered  the  date  of  the  death,  as  well  as  that  of  the 

eireumstances  of  the  age  seem  to  suggest  or  birth,  of  our  Lord,  has  been  variously  stated 

require  (John  iiL  8).  Still  less  ought  these  to  by  authorities  whose  diligence  and  learning 

be  ereoted  into  essentials ;  for,  provided  that  must  command  respect    This  will  be  seen 

fte  new  birth  take  place,which  is  the  great  re-  by  the  following  summary,  which  gives  a 

qnirementof  the  gospel,  instrumental  duties,  comparative  view,  according  to  ancient  and 

tfiough  by  no  means  to  be  lightly  esteemed,  modem  chronologists,  respecting  the  great 

fall  into  a  secondary  rank  (John  iii.  8,  5.  epochs   in  the  life  of  Jesus ;  namely,  his 

I  John  iii.  10, 14,  aeq.  /  iv.  13, 20 ;  v.  1,  aeq,).  birth,  baptism,  and  death :  — • 


MBM«<trtMCftro. 

nUoger.  Bkik.  Baptitm.  JTeoA. 

Eawbias %  A.C.    <tth  Jan 29,  A.D 33,  A.D. 

Jerome   3,  A.C.  SSth  Dec »,  A.D 8S,  A.D. 

Baronins 3,  A.C.  SSth  Dee 29,  A.D.  0th  Jan 3^  A.D.  in  liarefa. 

fiealiger  S^  A.C.  about  the  end  of  Feb S9,  A.D.  tth  Jan 33,  A.D.   3d  April. 

Lamy 4,A.C.  2Sth  Dec 30,  A.D.  8th  Nov 33,  A.D.   3d  April. 

Usher  6,  A.C.  25tb  Dec  30,  A.D „ 33,  A.D.   3d  April. 

PeUvtns S,  A.C.  2Sth  Dee.  89.  A.D 31,  A.D.  23d  Biar. 

Cslvtrins 3,  A.C.  begiiming  of  Dot 29,  A.D 33,  A.D.   3d  April. 

Bengel 4,  A.C.  2&ai  Dee 27,  A.D.  SthNov 30,  A.D.   7th  April. 

Hue 1,  A.C.  Feb 29»  A.D.  Feb. 

IdcJer 7,  A.C.  near  the  end  of  the  year  ...  25,  A.D.  near  the  end,  or  in 

the  heglnnlogpf  28,  A.D.  2^  A.D.  16{h  April. 

Fanlns 3^  A.C.  Feb 29,  A.D.  end  of  Feb.  or  be- 
ginning of  March   31,  A.D.  26th  April. 

Wleseier 4,  A.C.  Feb 27,  A.D.  Spring  or  Summer...  30,  A.D.   7th  April. 

Seyllkrth 2;  A.C.  26th  Dee 29^A.D S3,  A.D.  19th  Mar. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  on  a  discus*  divines  and  learned  men,  as  of  very  distant 

sion  of  the  yiews  involved  in  these  dates,  ages,  so  of  very  dissimilar  forms  of  religious 

We  give  them  aa  an  important  piece  of  in>  opinions,  embracing  the  creduloasEusebius 

formation,  which  may  prevent  the  reader  and  the  rationalistic  Paulus.    Hence  it  will 

from  undue  reliance  on  dates  connected  with  appear  that,  however  desirable  it  may  be  for 

the  commenoement  of  Christianity.    While,  critical  purposes  to  settle  which  of  these 

however,  die  table  presents  considerable  di-  claims  has  the   preference,  yet  practically 

varsities,  these  variations,  it  will  be  noticed,  we  cannot  go  far  wrong  if  we  follow  the  or- 

are  confined  within  narrow  limits.    Not  one  dinary  chronology  aa  given  in  Bibles  which 

of  our  authorities  places  the  birth  of  Christ  have  dates  in  the  margin, 

in  the  year  when  the  vulgar  era  is  commonly  According,  then,  to  this  authority,  —  that 

thought  to  begin;  but  they  vary  only  between  of  Archbishop  Usher, —  the  year  A.D    88 

one  year  and  seven  years  prior  to  that  epoch,  may  be  assigned  aa  that  in  which  the  church 

This  restricted  diversity  is  a  confirmation  was  first  founded  in  the  upper  room  in 

of  (he  general  correctness  of  the  ordinary  Jerusalem,  to  which  the  apostles  returned, 

elironology,  the  rather  that  our  list  presents  after   having  witnessed    the  ascension  qf 


C  H  U  358  C  H  U 

tfiefr  risen  Miwter.  This  oonlar  evidence  penoii,  misled  in  this,  sa  they  had  been  in 
of  the  risen  uid  Moended  Jesus  was  the  other  matters,  by  the  grosa  earthly  oonoep- 
great  qnalifieation  for  the  aposdeship  in  tions  of  their  minds,  whieh  with  dlAeoltj 
his  ohorch,  sinoe  it  eminently  prepared  its  entered  into  the  spiritoality  of  the  newly 
possessors  for  being  satisfactory  witnesses  founded  kingdom.  The  retnm  was,  as  they 
of  his  resnneotion  (Acts  L  22,  Afostls)  ;  held,  to  take  place  in  the  Jewiah  metropolla, 
and  therefore  most  naturally  waa  it  the  first  where  aoeordingly  they  waited  in  earnest 
aet  of  the  infant  church  to  fill  np  the  original  expectation.  Besidea,  the  goepel  was  in- 
number  of  twelve,  which  had  been  broken  in  tended,  as  they  beUeved,  for  the  lost  aheep 
upon  by  the  treachery  of  Judas,  in  order  of  the  house  of  larael ;  or,  if  ila  blettings 
tliat  there  might  be  a  full,  eompact,  and  were  to  be  extended  to  others,  it  waa  to  aueh 
nnanimooa  body  of  persons  engaged  in  only  as  came  to  Christ  throng  the  gates  of 
preaching  the  gospel,  who  'had  oompanied'     the  Mosaic  temple.     Their  new  iuth  wm 

with  each  other  and  with  Jeaoa  during  the  nothing  more  than  a  Christiaiiiaed  Judaism, 

entire  period  of  his  public  miniatiy  (Acts  It  was  not  ao  much  a  new  system  aa  aa  ad- 

L  22).  dition  to  the  old  one,  in  iriiieh  Aey  had  been 

The  cmeiflxion  of  Jestu  scattered   his  bom  and  educated.    Hence,  the  teaohers  of 
astounded  disciples  (Matt  xxrt.  66).    The     mankind  had  themselves  to  be  tau^it»  even 

lesuireotion  revived  their  hopes,  but  did  after  their  Master  hsd  for  ever  quitted  their 

not  immediately  put  an  end  to  every  doubt  earthly  soeie^.    The  divine  spirit,  however, 

Hope  and  fear,  belief  aud  mistrust,  were  operating  by  the  special  means  of  miraele, 

eonftisedly  mingled  in  their  bosoms.    They  and  the  ordinary  resources  of  PMvidenee 

found  no  safety  in  Jerusalem,  and  there-  under  Ibe  guidance  of  the  now-gloiified 

fore    repaired    to    their   distant   Galilean  Redeemer,  brought  about  such  an  enli^^ 

home,  and  resumed  their  several  callings  enment  of  mind,  and  such  an  enla^gsaent 

(John  xxi.).    Even  their  misgivings,  how-  of  heart,  as  qualified  the  disciples  for  the 

ever,  were  divinely  made  to  yield  an  attes-  work  of  their  great  ministry.    But  this  was 

tation  to  their  L<xrd,  in  occasioning  a  ftil-  a  work  of  years.    Mesnwhile  the  ehuieh  at 

fllment  of  his  prophetie  words,  that  they  Jerusalem  grew  in  numbers  as  well  as  in 

should  be  scattered  every  man  to  his  own  grace,  and  in  the  knowledge  of  its  Lord  and 

home  (John  xvL  82 ;  cnmp.  xx.  10).    Calm  Saviour.     At  length  outward  events  gnvs 

reflection,  however,  combined  with  recol-  occasion  to  an  essential  alteration.    A  new 

lections  of  Jesus,  with  which  Galilee,  and  and  very  wondeffnl  illustration  was  to  be 

especially  the  shores  of  its  lake,  were  found  given  of  the  truth,  tiiat,  in  God's  worid,  evil 

to  teem,  awakened  steadfast  conviction,  and  is  never  allowed  to  be  unaccompanied  by 

led  the  apostles,  after  a  brief  period,  to  go  good.    The  first  martyr-blood  was  sbed  when 

up  to  Jerusalem,  where  the  eleven  are  found  the  death  of  Stephen,  becoming  the  signal 

with   Matthias  to  make   the  full  number,  for  a  general  persecution  against  the  church, 

twelve,  on  the  feast  of  Pentecost    The  com-  caused  many  of  its  members  to  fly  in  varioua 

munlty  soon  reached  the  number  of  a  hun-  directions,  who,  as  they  went,  preached  the 

dred  and  twenty  persons,  when  took  place  word  of  the  gospel  (Acts  viLviii.).    Thesta- 

the  great  event,  which,  involving  the  efTu-  bility  of  the  oommunity  at  Jerusalem,  how- 

sion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  assembled  ever,  was  secured  by  the  heroic  oonduet  of  the 

church,  fulfilled  the  promise  made  by  Jesus,  apostles,  all  of  whom  remained  there,  and 

of  another  comforter,  advocate,  or  friend  bravedthe  storm  (viii.l).    AtHie  same  time, 

(John  xiv.  fl,  se^.)  ;  gave  the  true  interpre-  the  limits  of  the  church  were  extended ;  for, 

tation  of  the  most  unlooked-for  termination  wherever  the  fugitives  went,  they  were  led, 

of  the  labours  of  the  living  Jesus ;  evidenced  even  by  the  compulsion   of  the   enemies 

beyond  a  question  that  he  had  entered  into  of  their  faith,  to  state  and  defend  their  new 

his  c^ory;  and  so  in  deep,  warm,  and  lively  doctrines. 

faith,  as  well  as  in  the  power  of  speaking  This  advocacy  ended  in  the  oonversion  of 
various  tongues,  fitted  the  disciples  for  going  some  Samaritans  and  some  Heathens.  Now, 
fordi  to  the  world  as  successftil  heralds  of  then,  a  most  important  question  arose.  Were 
the  Word  of  divine  and  life-giving  truth.  It  Samaritans  and  Heathena  to  be  received  as 
wss,  however,  natural  and  proper  that  the  feDow-disciples  ?  The  qnestiim  brought  into 
mother-church  at  Jerusalem  should  be  first  activity,  in  the  Jewirii-Christlan  miad,  pre- 
atrengthened ;  and  that  the  rather,  because  judices  whose  strength  we  can  in  these  daya 
on  its  solidity  depended  the  entire  structure  by  no  means  estimate.  However,  thua  arose 
which  the  apostles  proposed  to  rear ;  and  the  the  first  Christian  church  out  of  Jerusalem, 
work,  moreover,  that  had  to  be  done  in  which,  after  some  time  and  no  slight  eon- 
Jerusalem,  demanded  and  engrossed  all  the  test,  was  recognised  by  the  parent  eommu- 
resouroes  of  the  yet  youthful  community,  nity.  The  influences  which  had  thus  come 
Two  other  feelings  conduced  to  restrict  the  into  collision,  remained  in  the  church  in 
woiling  of  the  earliest  church  within  the  a  decided  if  also  in  a  qualified  fom.  On 
walls  of  Jerusalem.  Its  members  expect-  the  one  side  was  there  a  strong  providen- 
ed  their  Lord  to  return  In  his  own  proper  tial  bearing,  whieh,  operating  on  not  un- 


C  I  R  359  C  I  R 

]pi«p«red  miadB,  wts  daily  extending  the  these  words:  —  'And  God  said  unto  Alra- 

boundaries,   and   enlarging   the   spirit,   of  ham,  Thon  shalt  keep  my  covenant,  thon, 

the  ehnroh.    On  the  other,  the  leayen  of  the  and  thy  seed  after  thee,  in  their  generations. 

old  ooTenant  withstood  these  liberal  tenden*  This  is  my  covenant,  which  ye  shall  keep, 

oies,  and  eonfonnded  the  cause  of  Ghristiani-  between  me  and  you,  and  thy  seed  after 

ty  with  that  of  a  certain  regenerated  Judaism,  thee :  Every  man-ohild  among  you  shall  be 

The  former  prevailed.    Happy  triumph  for  cufeumcised.    And  ye  shall  circumcise  the 

the  world!     But  the  latter  long  remained  flesh  of  your  foreskin;   and  it  shall  be  a 

powerfied,  oooasioning  dlseord  and  trouble  token  of  the  covenant  between  me  and  you. 

in  the  churches,  and  setting  itself  in  array  And  he  that  is  eight  days  old  shall  be  cir- 

against  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles.    Nor  oumeised  among  you,  every  man-child  in 

was  it  till  more  than  one  generation  had  your  generations,  he   that  is  bom  in  the 

passed  away,  that  these  two  were  united  in  house,  or  bought  with  money  of  any  stran- 

one  catholic  Christian  ohurch.    The  parti-  ger,  whieh  is  not  of  thy  seed.    He  that  is 

cnlars  connected  with  these  great  changes,  bom  in  thy  house,  and  he  that  is  bought 

and  with  the  farther  progress  of  the  apos-  with  thy  money,  must  needs  be  circumcised ; 

tolie  ehuveh,  will  be  found  set  forth  in  the  and  my  covenant  shall  be  in  your  flesh  for 

lives  of  Paul  and  Peter.  an  everlasting  covenant     And  the  anoir- 

CHURNING  (T.)  is  the  translation  of  a  eumcised  man-child,  whose  flesh   of   his 

Hebrew  word,  whose  radical  meaning  is  that  foreskin  is  not  circumcised,  that  soul  shall 

ofpresmre.    It  is  found  in  Prov.  xxx.  88 :  —  be  cut  off  from  his  people :  he  hath  broken 

'  Z%e  cAttrmii^  ^ milk  bringeth  forth  butter,  my  covenant'  (zvii.  0 — 14).    Circumcision 

and  the  wringing  o/tbe  nose  bringeth  forth  is  here  not  instituted,  but  referred  to ;  and, 

blood;    so  dte  forcing  of  wrath  bringeth  in  consequence,  must  have  existed  as  an 

forth  strife.'     The  force  of  the  original  is  observance,  before  it  was  sanctioned  as  a 

lost  in  this  version.    AH  the  words  printed  law  to  Abraham  and  his  descendants.    The 

m  Italics  are  in  the  original  represented  by  reader  may  become  aware  of  the  distinction 

the  same  term  MeeU;  and,  in  each  case,  we  have  made,  if  he   advert  to   the  law 

<  pressure '  should  have  been  used.    Strictly  touching  the  Passover  (Exod.  xii.),  where  a 

speaking,  therefore,  the  passage  does  not  new  rite  was  established,  and  where  all  the 

refer  to  ehuming,  ^e  essence  of  which  con-  particulars   requisite  in   such   a  case    are 

sists  not  in  pressure,  but  in  agitation.  given.    But  the  particulars  set  forth  above 

CILICIA,  the  south-eastern  province  of  regard  only  the  time  and  mode  of  practising 
Asia  Minor,  separated  13N>m  Syria  by  Mount  circumcision,  not  circumcision  itself.  That 
AmcRus.  In  consequence  of  its  proximity,  is  spoken  of  as  already  in  existence,  and  as 
it  is  often  mentioned  in  connection  witfi  well  known.  Had  circumcision  been  now 
Syria  (AcU  xv.  28,  41.  Gal.  i.  21).  It  was  for  the  first  time  instituted,  a  description 
dirided  Into  two  parts :  —  I.  Plain  Cilicia,  of  what  it  was,  of  the  operation,  would 
which  was  distinguished  for  its  iVuitftilness ;  have  been  given.  In  tratb,  we  seem  here 
and,  II.  Bugged  Cilicia,  which  afforded  good  to  have  one  of  those  consuetudinary  laws, 
downs  iot  pasturing  goats.  Hence  the  fa-  which,  being  long  prevalent,  and  associated 
atouB  Cilieian  hair,  taken  firom  these  goats,  with  the  respect  of  usage«  the  All-wise  saw 
which  was  made  into  tents,  and  rough  arti-  ilt  to  adopt  and  recommend  by  religious 
eles  of  clothing.  The  inhabitants,  according  sanctions.  We  refinr  to  *  the  bow  in  the 
to  Herodotus,  descended  from  the  Syrians  and  clouds,' selected  as  the  token  of  the  cove- 
FhcBuieians;  an  opinion  which  derives  sup-  nant  established  of  God  for  the  assurance 
port  from  legends  on  Cilieian  coins.  That  a  of  men  against  the  despair  which  they  other- 
Syrian  popnlation  dwelt  in  the  towns  can-  wise  must  have  felt  under  the  not  unnatural 
not  be  questioned,  and  the  Phosnician  navi-  fear  of  a  second  deluge  (Gen.  ix.  8 — 17). 
gators  would  not  delay  to  possess  themselves  As  the  rainbow,  so  circumcision  existed 
of  the  seacoast  From  the  time  of  Alexander  before  it  was  turned  to  religious  uses.  The 
the  Great,  &e  Grecian  element  was  predo-  passage  which  we  have  above  cited  at  length 
minant  in  Cilicia.  Then  Pompey,  having  does  not  inform  us  of  the  place  where  cir- 
subdued  its  horde  of  formidable  pirates,  cumcision  was  first  practised.  But  Abraham 
converted  it  into  a  Boman  province.  The  is  the  party  who  is  addressed  as  already 
inhabitants  of  the  hill-eountiy.  Bugged  Cili-  cognisant  of  the  facts.  To  Abraham,  there- 
cia,  retained  their  liberty,  and  were  governed  fore,  and  his  progenitors  must  we  look  for 
by  native  princes.  Many  Jews  were  set-  its  origin.  We  are  thus  referred  to  Meso- 
tled  in  Cilicia  (Acts  ri.  9).  Its  chief  city  potamia,  and  have  our  minds  drawn  east- 
was  Tarsus,  tiie  birdiplace  of  the  Apostle  ward  and  northward  in  &e  direction  of  those 
Paul.  countries  where  probably  the  human  race 

CIBCUMCI8I0N  (L.  cvtHng  round),  the  had  its  second  cradle  in  the  times  of  Noah, 

removal  of  the  foreskm  by  coUing.     T%e  if  not  its  first  with  Adam.     The  extreme 

eariiest  mention  of  circumcision  is  found  in  antiquity  of  the  rite  is  hence  deducible. 

(he  book  of  Genesis,  where  it  appears  as  And  if  the  observance  is  fiius  lost  in  the 

given  in  command  of  God  to  Abn^am,  in  shades  of  primeval  times,  we  seem  warrant 


cm  MO  c  I R 

ed  in  eon  eluding,  that  the  eautes  which  with  religious  veneration,  was  not  rigidly 
brought  it  into  use  were  strong,  and  closely  and  invariably  observed,  since  it  had  been 
connected  with  considerations  of  health,  omitted  in  a  family  of  such  eminence  as 
convenience,  or  necessity,  deeply  seated  in  that  of  Moses ;  —  an  omission  which  it 
the  nature  of  man,  as  developed  in  these  scarcely  to  be  explained,  unless  on  the  sup- 
eastern  climes  and  early  ages.  The  law,  position  of  some  laxity  on  the  part  both  of 
however,  thus  given  of  God  to  Abraham  Zipporah  and  her  husband, 
required  him  to  circumcise  all  his  house-  The  tendency  of  these  events  would  be  to 
hold,  including  Ishmael  and  Isaac,  bom  strengthen  in  die  mind  of  Moses  the  neces- 
afterwards.  The  rite  would  thus  pass  to  sity  of  circumcision,  and  make  him  regard 
the  Arabs  and  the  Jews,  commencing  its  it  with  a  personal  as  well  as  a  religious 
historical  existence  about  1941,  A.C.  Tet  feeling.  Perhaps  Moses  had  not  himself 
we  cannot  sayi  that  all  other  nations.  Hound  at  least  in  infancy,  undergone  the  rite ;  for 
observing  it  after  that  period,  borrowed  it  he  was  bom  in  servitude,  and  bereft  of 
flrom  these  two,  because  we  have  already  parental  eare  soon  alter  he  came  into  the 
had  reason  to  think,  that  the  observance  world.  If  so,  there  may  have  been  some 
itself  was  practised  before  the  days  of  Abra-  discipline,  such  as  we  have  now  adverted  to, 
ham.  Mow,  while  that  patrisreh  is  spoken  necessary  in  order  to  revive  and  strengthen 
to  as  knowing  wherein  the  rite  consisted,  the  endangered  sanction  of  the  rite  (Exod. 
the  language  used  also  implies   that  he  ii.  1 — 4). 

himself  was  not  circumcised   (xvii.  26).        In  the  twelfth  chapter  of  Exodus  (48 — 51), 

The  omission  may  have  been  owing  to  his  circumcision  appears  by  implication  as  a  test 

emigration  from  home.    Hence,  in  Uiis  and  of  Hebrew  nationality,  being  already  inexis- 

probably  in  other  things,  some  unintentional  tence,  and  to  be  performed  on  every  one  before 

neglect;  to  repair  which,  and  cure  or  pre-  he  could  partake  of  the  passover,  of  which, 

Tent  the  evil  consequences  that  might  en-  it  is  expressly  said, '  there  shall  no  stranger 

aue,  the  rite  was  enjoined  on  Abrsham,  and  eat  thereof.'    Accordingly,   foreigners  and 

enforced  by  the  strongest  sanctions.      It  hired  servants  were,  as  unoircumcised,  not 

is  worthy  of  notice,  that  the  adoption  took  to  join  in  the  passover,  and  purchased  slaves 

plaee  in  connection  with  the  promised  birth  were  to  be  admitted  to  its  rites  through  cir- 

cf  Isaac  (the  immediate  progenitor  of  the  cumcision.     Hence  it  appears,  that  such 

IsaacidA  or  Israelites),  of  a  wife  who  had  slaves  became  integral  members  of  the  state, 

liitherto  been  barren.  being  admitted  to  its  most  sacred  religious 

The  rite  now  passed  into  a  usage,  at  least  institutions.  Circumcision,  then,  may  be 
with  the  line  of  Abraham's  descendants  that  considered  as  the  established  and  character- 
sprung  from  Sarah,  as  we  find  assurance  of  istic  practice  of  the  Hebrew  people  at  the 
in  the  facts  recorded  in  connection  with  the  time  of  their  redemption  from  Egypt  Only 
rape  of  Dinah,  and  the  revenge  which  her  once  again  in  the  Pentateuch  is  it  mentioned, 
brothers  took.  In  (his  transaction  it  is  also  and  then  incidentally,  in  the  law  respecting 
clear,  that  certainly  the  Hivites  in  Canaan,  the  purification  of  a  woman  on  having  borne 
and  probably  the  rest  of  its  inhabitants,  had  a  male-child  (Lev.  xiL  8).  From  Josh.  v.  8, 
not  practised  circumcision  (Gen.  xxxiv).  »eq,  we  leam  that  circumcision  was  omitted 

After  a  considerable  interval,  we  meet  in  the  case  of  the  children  bom  during  the 

with  circumcision  again  in  the  history  of  forty  years  of  wandering;  on  which  account, 

Moses  (Exod.  iv.  24),  when  Zipporah,  his  Joshua,  at  the  express  commsnd  of  Jehovah, 

wife,  '  took  a  sharp  stone,  and  cut  off  the  circumcised  all  the  children  of  Israel  with 

foreskin  of  her  son.     Then  she   said,  A  knives  of  flint,  which  appear  to  have  become 

bloody  husband  thou  art  to  me,  because  of  a  sort  of  sacred  instrument  for  the  purpose, 

the  circumcision.'    The  rite  had  been  ne-  By  the  performance  of  this  rite,  the  covenant 

glected,  though  the  mother  as  an  Arabian,  with  God  was  renewed,  and  an  important 

and  the  father  as  one  of  the  Abrahamids,  distinction  established  between  the  Hebrews 

were  bound  to  its  performance.    Moses  fell  and  the  Philistines,  if  not  the  Ganaanites  in 

ill,  and  was  on  the  point  of  death,  when,  as  general  (1  Sam.  xviii.  25).    The  renewal  of 

we  may  conjecture  from  Zippomh's  reproach-  this  national  token  of  circumcision  is  said 

ftd  language,  with  a  religious  feeling  very  to  have 'rolled  away  the  reproach  of  Egypt;' 

natural  in  him,  he  found  the  cause  of  this  words  which  imply,  not  that  the  wearing  of 

sickness  in  the  child*s  not  being  circum-  the  foreskin  was  the  practice  of  the  Egyp- 

cised.    Impressed  with  this  feeling,  he  urged  tians,  but  rather  of  ike  Israelites  while  in 

on  Zipporah  the  necessity  of  circumcision,  bondage    to   them.      Unciroumcision   was, 

m  order  to  save  his  life.     She  seems  to  with  the  posterity  of  Abraham,  held  in  itself 

have  yielded  a  reluctant  assent,  and,  pro-  a  reproadi  (Gen.  xxxiv.  14). 
bably  to  diminish  the  pain  and  abate  the         This  act  on  the  part  of  Joshua  completed 

danger  to  her  boy,   administered  the  rite  among  the  Hebrews  the  establishment  of 

herseUl  the  rite,  which  went  quietly  on  as  a  regn- 

These  facts  seem,  however,  to  show,  that  lar  practice,  needing  no  law,  and  finding  no 

oiroumeision,  though  in  use  and  regarded  record. 


C  I  R                       3C1  C  I  R 

With  title  prophets  a  aew  phue  of  the  Colcbians  and  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians 

Mosaic  system  makes  itself  manifest ;  name-  practise  eiroamcision  from  the  beginning, 

ly,  the  moral  application  of  ritual  obser-  Bat  the  Phoonicians  and  the   Syrians   in 

Tances.     Accordingly,  we  find  the  phrase  Palestine  (that  is,  the  Jews)  confess  them- 

*  unoironmcised  ti»  heart '  as  applied   (ctr.  selves  that  they  learned  it  from  the  Egyp- 

000,  A.G.)  to  ihe  honse  of  Israel,  in  order  tians/    After  mentioning  some  others  who 

to  denote  their  indoeility  and  disobedience  used  circumcision,  he  gives  his  reasons  for 

(Jer.  ix.  26).    A  similar  moral  use  of  the  belieying  that  it  was  originsUy  an  Egyptian 

phrase  is  found  in  Dent  xi.  16 ;  izz.  6.  observsnoe   (ii.  104).     The  force  of  this 

The  latter  passage  is  very  striking:  —  'Je-  testimony  it  has  been  endeavoured  to  de- 

hovah  thy  God  will  circumcise  thine  heart,  stroy,  by  ihe  assertion  that  it  was  only  of 

and  the  heart  of  thy  seed,  to  love  Jehovah  the  priests  that  Herodotus  spoke.    This  is 

thy  God  with  all  thine  heart  and  with  all  thy  a  gratuitous  assumption.    His  language  is 

soul,  that  thou  mayest  live.'    These  words,  general,  comprising  the  nation   at   large, 

if  delivered  by  Moses  himself,  show  how  Besides,  if  what  he  says  is   true  of  the 

intimately  he  bound  np  religious  edification  priests,  still  the  Egyptians  practised  cireum- 

with    ceremonial    observances.     It  might,  eision  before  Abraham  and  his  offspring; 

however,  be  argued,  that  this  metaphorical  and  the  passage  in  the  original  contains 

Isnguage  could  hardly  have  been  addressed  words  which  undesignedly  carry  eircumoi- 

to  a  people  who,  as  we  have  seen  above,  had  sion  in  Egypt  back  to  the  days  of  that 

neglected  the  rite  for  many  years,  at  least  patriarch.    Herodotns  argues,  that  the  Col- 

widiout  celling  for  an  express  assertion  of  ohians,  who  in  his  time  lived  near  the  Black 

its  claims;   and  that  such  a  metephorical  Sea,  must  have  been  of  Egyptian  origin, 

application  seems,  according  to  analogy,  to  becanse  they  observed  eiroumcision.    These 

require  the  lapse  of  ages  ere  it  could  oome  Colchians,  who  thus  in  the  days  of  the  his- 

into  popular  use.  torian  continued  the   practice,  appear   to 

In  the  revivsl  of  the  law  which  took  place  have  been  a  colony  left  in  Pontue  by  the 

after  the  exile,  circumcision  also  received  a  celebrated  Egyptian   conqueror,   Sesostris. 

new  sanction.    It  would  appear  that  many  But  if  common  Egyptian  soldiers  were  cir- 

chUdren,  offspring  of  Jewish  fathers  and  cumcised,  then   may  we  affirm,    that,   in 

Babylonian  mothers,  had  been  left  uncir-  the  time  of  Sesostris  (ctr.  1840,  A.C.),  the 

cumcised;   and  yet,  on  the  return  of  the  Egyptians  generaUy  practised   the    obser- 

nation  to  Canaan,  they  were  admitted  to  vance.    Hence  we  may  safely  conclude,  that 

the  temple.    Hence  a  law  was  promulgated  the  rite  had  already  been  long  in  existence, 

to  the  effect,  that 'no  stranger  uncircumcised  The  conclusion  agrees  with  what,  in  the 

in  heart,  nor  unciroumcised  in  flesh,  shall  commencement  of  this  article,  has  been  said 

enter  into  my  sanctuary '  (Ezek.  xliv.  7 — 9 :  of  the   derivative  character  borne  by  the 

comp.  Ezra  x.  and  1  Mace.  1. 15,  16,  where  observance  in  the  earliest  Biblical  notices 

Epispasmus  is  meant).  of  it  that  we  possess.    Evidence  has  been 

While  speaking  of  the  Biblical  writers,  we  adduced  from  Uie  mummies,  that  the  Bgyp- 

may  advert  to  a  passage  or  two,  which  tends  tians,  in  at  least  the  earliest  end  best  pe- 

to  show  that  the  Egyptians  practised  cir-  riods  of  their  history,  practised  circumcision, 

cumcision.    The  prophet  Ezekiel  (cir.  588)  To  this  eflleot,  Kenrick  (' Herodotus,' p.  59) 

threatened    destruction    to    Egypt  by  the  cites  the  authority  of  the  French  commis- 

sword  of  Nebuchadnezzar.    In  the  language  sioners.    In  the  work  on  *  Egyptian  Anti- 

which  he  uses,  he  seems  to  imply    that  qulties'  which  forms  part  of  '  The  Library 

the  Egyptians  were  a  circumcised  people;  of  Usefril  Knowledge'  (ii.  110),  mention  is 

for  among  the  calamities  which  they  would  made  of  a  mummy, '  not  embalmed  in  the 

have  to  endure  were  overthrow  and  devasta-  best  style,'  on  which  '  the  operation  of  cir- 

tion  from  the  hands  of  uncircumcised  vie-  cumcision,  which  was  an  Egyptian  practice^ 

tors  (zxxi.  18;  xxxiL  19,  21,  24).     In  the  seemed  to  have  been  performed.'    The  tea- 

first  passage  are  found  words  — '  This  is  timony  of  Wilkinson  is  decisive :   it  is  to 

Pharaoh   and  all  his  multitude '  —  which  this  effect,  that  circumcision  was  practised 

appear  to  show,  that  it  is  of  no  peculiar  by  the  Egyptians  from  the  earliest  times: 

caste  or  rank  that  circumcision  is  here  im-  though  very  early  adopted,  no    one   was 

plicated,  but  of  the  nation  at  large.  compelled  to  oonfonn  to  the  rite,  unless 

This  leads  us  to  the  practice  of  circum-  initiated  into  the  mysteries,  or  belonging  to 

oision  among  non-Hebrew  nations.     And  the  priestly  order.    It  is  said  that  Pythago- 

here  we  must  pass  to  Heathen  authorities,  ras  submitted  to  it,  in  order  to  obtain  the 

the  first  of  whom,  Herodotus,  cannot  be  privileges  it  conferred.    The  omission  was 

dated  at  an  earlier  period  than  about  450,  a  reproach.    '  The  antiquity  of  its  institu- 

A.G.    He  speaks  on  the  siibject  in  two  pas-  tion  in  Egypt  is  fully  established  by  the 

sages :  —  '  Others  leave  their  privy  parts  monuments  of  the  upper  and  lower  country, 

as  produced  by  nature,  except  those  who  at  a  period  long  antecedent  to  the  exodus 

have  learned  from  the  Egyptians,  who  are  and  the  arrival  of  Joseph'  (v.  317,  818). 

eircumcised'  (ii.  36).     'Alone  of  all  the  The  same  authority  says,  —  *The  rite  is 


CIR 


302 


CIR 


practised  to  the  present  dnj  by  tlie  Moslems 
of  til  conotries,  aiid  by  the  Christians  of 
Abyssinia,  as  a  salutary  precaution  well 
«aited  to  a  bot  climate'  (v.  817). 

Among  the  Moslem  Egyptians,  ohnoomei- 
sion  is  performed  when  the  boy  is  aboot 
five  or  six  years  of  age,  Tbe  Copts,  wh<> 
may  be  considered  as  the  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  for  the  most  part 
circumcise  their  sons  —  (Lane's  *  Modem 
Egyptians,'  IL  813:  see  also  i.  89,  note). 
The  Abyssinians  practise  also  exeision  on 
their  women,  according  to  Bmce  (*  Tra^s,' 
iii.  841,  $eq.),  who  describes  the  manner  of 
eircnmcisfion,  and  states  that  the  Roman 
BiisBionaiies  were  defeated  in  an  attempt  to 
put  a&  end  to  the  female  rite ;  their  rais- 
sionary  college  being  obliged  to  gi^e  this 
permission,  *8i  modo  matrimonii  fmetus 
hnpeitiret,  id  omino  tollendum  esset' 

The  geographical  position  of  the  nationa 
deeUred  by  Herodotus  to  observe  this  rite 
is  not  without  interest  They  may  be  thus 
ranged:  —  Ethiopians  (Meroe  or  Sennar), 
Egyptians,  Israelites,  Phcsnicians,  Syrians 
ott  die  Tberaiodon  (Gappadocians  in  Asia 
Minor  lying  next  to  Syria),  the  Macro- 
nes,  and  Colchians.  These  nations  form 
two  groups ;  —  a  sonlhen,  to  which  belong 
the  Ediiopiaos  and  Egyptians ;  and  a  nor> 
them,  the  Gappadocians  and  Colchians. 
These  two  extremes  were  united  by  means 
of  die  PbcBuicians  and  Israelites,  who  lay 
between  them.  This  riew  exhibits  circum- 
cision as  taUng  the  course  which  many  eri- 
dencea  show  to  have  lain  in  lines  pursued 
by  human  culture  in  its  progress,  namely, 
from  south  to  north;  and  tends  to  show, 
tlist  the  rite,  in  its  journey  southward,  spread 
over  some  of  the  most  oirilised  parts  of  the 
worid  in  earliest  times. 

Later  writers,  who  speak  casually  on  the 
subject,  are  of  no  great  value  in  regard  to 
the  origin  of  cirenmeision.  But  it  deserves 
notice,  that  itte  rite  has  been  extensively 
praotlsed  in  modem  times.  That  this  is 
the  case  with  the  Jews  scattered  throughout 
the  world  is  well  known,  though  in  Germany 
a  strong  but  partial  feeling  has  been  grow- 
ing up  against  its  observance,  which  has 
induced  individuals  to  discontinue  it  Cir- 
cumcision in  die  case  of  males,  and  excision 
in  the  case  of  females,  have  been  found  to 
prevail  among  various  savage  or  imperfectly 
civilised  races.  The  rite  is  said  to  have 
been  practised  by  the  Mexicans,  v^en  die 
Spaniards  first  became  acqfuainted  with  diem. 
Cook  found  an  imperfect  species  of  circum- 
cision in  use  among  the  natives  of  the 
Friendly  IiAands.  Long  befora,  many  of 
the  old  voyagers  had  met  with  it  among  die 
islanders  of  the  Indian  Ardhiipelago,  the 
tribes  of  dte  wesi  coast  of  Africa,  and  else- 
where. While  the  Jews  perfoim  the  rite  on 
the  eighth  day  after  birth,  other  nations 
defftr  it  to  a  later  period.    Among  tlie  Mo- 


hammedans, it  is  commonly  performed  io 
the  thirteenth  year,  because  Ishmael,  the 
progenitCMT  of  the  Arabs,  was  of  that  age 
when  he  underwent  the  qperation  (Gen. 
xvii.  35).  Though  not  a  positive  ordinance 
of  the  Koran,  it  extended  itself  with  Islam- 
ism.  There  is,  however,  a  tradition,  said 
to  be  traceable  to  Mohammed,  whi<^  declares 
diat  circumcision  '  is  an  ordinance  for  men, 
and  honourable  in  women.' 

The  foot  of  the  existence  of  circumcision 
among  untotoied  and  half-civilised  tribes, 
to  which  we  have  just  alluded,  seems  to 
warrant  the  conclusion,  that  it  is  character- 
istic of  a  comparatively  low  stage  of  social 
culture.  Hence  we  may  fq^proximate  to  the 
condition  of  the  people  with  whom  it  first 
came  into  existence  in  ancient  times.  And 
if  die  nation  which  was  in  a  state  such  as 
to  give  birdi  to  circumcision,  must  have 
made  lltde  progress  in  civilisation,  Aeu  we 
are  also  justifted  in  going  back  for  its  date 
to  a  very  early  period  in  tibe  world's  history. 
These  conclusions,  though  only  of  a  general 
nature,  conespond  widi  others  to  which  we 
have  been  already  led,  and  combine  widi 
them  to  show,  that  tbe  rile  sprang  up  among 
an  oriental  people  which  had  not  risen  high 
in  the  scale  of  human  culture.  Once  intro- 
duced, it  would  easfly  be  extended  and  per- 
petuated. The  East  never  ^^anges.  The 
considerations  which  originated  would  pre- 
serve the  ordinance.  These  inducements 
must  have  had  utility  for  their  recommen- 
dation; and  religion  n«v«r  disdained,  in  the 
eariy  ages,  to  throw  her  powerfal  sanctions 
around  obrious  advantages  for  man.  The 
considerations,  as  originating  among  a  not 
gready  cultivated  peo^e,  may  not  have  been 
of  the  highest  nor  of  the  most  manifest  kind. 
Enough  that  they  were  approved  to  those 
whom  they  primarily  concerned.  They  may 
also  have  been  more  or  less  of  a  partial  and 
local  nature.  Usage  is  often  dictated  by 
oUme  and  country,  as  well  as  cultare.  Pe- 
culiarities of  conformation  also  may  have 
had  dieir  weight  The  person  who  has 
carefhlly  stadi^  the  ancient  world  expects 
to  find  states  of  mind  and  body,  and  there- 
fore customs  and  rites,  diffemit,  to  some 
extent,  from  th«t  of  which  his  own  mav  be 
considered  the  type. 

It  msy  be  impossible  now  to  seize  the 
exact  idea  out  of  which  circumcision  origi- 
nally sprang.  Herodotus  states,  Hiat  it  was 
performed  for  the  sake  of  purity  or  deanli* 
nesB.  In  order  to  a^ipreciate  the  motive 
here  intimated,  the  modem  reader  must  en- 
large his  notion  of  cleanliness  by  reference 
to  Eastern  notions  and  requiremente,  found 
in  the  Mosaic  laws.  When  die  touching  of 
a  corpse  and  the  invduntaiy  emission  of  die 
semen  were  held  to  be  defilements,  the  ac- 
cumulations around  the  penis  might  also  be 
easily  regarded  as  uncleanness;  and,  for 
their  removal  or  prevention,  epeciid  means 


CIR                      363  CIS 

W  taken;  and  that  the  niher,  if,  u  seema  CISTEfiN,  a  word  probably  of  the  sama 

probable,  ibej  wero  in  Eastern  conntriea  origin  as  our  'oheai'  {kkie  in  Qnek),  de* 

▼ery  eopions,  and  of  a  nature  to  become  noting  a  reec^taole  for  water;  at  present  an 

▼iralent,  and  detrimental  to  health.     The  artificial  resenroir  for  collecting  rain-water, 

ancient  Jewiah  writer,  Philo,  dietinotly  as*  bnt  in  older  English  anttiors  a  pool  of 

serfs  that  cireumcision  was  grounded  on  spring-water.     Thus  Wicli^  in  John  ▼.  7, 

eonsideratioQS  such  as  we  have  now  noticed,  has  *  cistern,'  where  Tyndale  has  *  pde,'  end 

It  had,  he  eaya,  a  prerentire  use  in  guarding  the  anthorised  Yersion  of  1611,  *  poole.'   The 

against  a  certain  disease,  termed  anthraK,  or  original  Hebrew  word,  Bohr,  denotes  gene- 

earbnnele.     His  feeoond  reason  ia  cleanh-  rally  a  holt  or  eovi/y,  and  is  acoordingly 

ness,  the  seenring  of  iHiieh  in  hot  dkimates  pnt  into  English  by  '  pit'  (Oen.  zxxriL  20), 

necessitates  special  care.    Accordingly, the  'dungeon'  (Oen.  xL  Id),  'well'   (I  Sam. 

Egyptian  priests  were  held  bound  to  puriiy  ziz.  22), '  oietem '  (2  Kings  zriiL  81.  Ptoy. 

thsmselTes  diligently,  and  to  wash  the  part  ▼.  15.  Eodes.  ziL  6). 

in  question.    We  find  this  reason  supported  Cisterns,  in  the  East*  are  of  two  kinds :  — 

by  Uie  testimoiiy  of  modem  trayeUers,  espe-  I.  Pools  or  wells  of  spiing-water,  called  in 


eially  by  that  of  Niebuhr,  Who  praises  etr-  Hebrew,  'living  water'  (comp.  John  iy.  10, 

cumeiBien  as  a  useful  practice  for  all  who  9eg.  imperfectly  rendered  'running  water' 

liye  in  the  East,  wfaeie  oarefol  washing  is  in  Ley.xiy.O;  xy.18.  Numb.ziK.17).    These 

neither  easy  nor  usual;  and  mentions  cases  cisterns  were  highly  yalued  in  countries 

in  which  uncireumoiaed  Europeans,  pursu-  subject  to  long  droaghts,   and  where  all 

ing  in  the  East  their  own  usages,  were  superficial  supplies  of  water  are  transient, 

afflicted  with  boils.    Philo  assigns  another  and  often  remoTcd  almost  as  suddenly  as 

ground  for  oircamcision,  affirming  that  tiie  Ihey  are  afforded.    Hence  the  force  of  the 

nations  that  practise  the  rite  are  more  froit*  imagery  in  Jer.  ii.  18,  — '  My  people  have 

ful  tlian  others;  —  a  statement,  howerer,  on  forsaken  me,  the  fountain  of  living  waters, 

whiohUttlestresscsn  be  laid,  until  it  has  been  and  hewed  them  out  cisterns,  broken  cis- 

satisfactorily  established  by  facts.     The  die*  terns,  that  can  hold  no  water.'    II.  Cisterns 

tiugnished  French  physiologist,  Lallemand,  or  reservoirs  were  also  employed  to  collect 

holds  that  die  rite  is  useful  in  preventing  in-  rain-water.    Of  this  kind,  says  Winer,  was 

voluntary  emissions ;  and  also  states,  that  a  Jacob's  well,  mentioned  in  John  iv.  6,  and 

recourse  to  it  has  been  successftil  in  cases  still  shown  as  lying  a  little  to  the  south  of 

of  dangerous  disease.    It  is  also  said  to  be  Nablons  (Sychar).    The  fact  of  this  being 

serviceable  in  preventing  self- pollution.  —  a  reservoir,  rather  than  what  we  mean  by  a 

Structural  reasons  exist  for  the  performance  well  or  fountain,  gives  a  point  to  our  LoM's 

of  the   rite   on   females  of  some  Afirican  comparison  of  the  living  or  ever-flowing 

tribes.     On  lihe  whole,  therefore,  we  may  water  he  had  to  give,  with  the  uncertain 

conclude,  that  there  existed  in  primitive  and  disappointing  supplies  aflSorded  even  by 

ages  considerations  of  utility  adequate  to  '  Jacob's  wdL' 

cause  such  a  rite  as  circumcision  to  be  intro-  Beservoirs  were  neceasitated  by  a  deft- 
duced.  cieney  of  springs,  under  which,  many  other 
Once  in  existence,  it  would  be  applicable  places  besides  Jerusalem,  thon^^  the  metro- 
for  purposes  still  more  important  Accord*  polis,  seems  to  have  snifered.  The  Foun- 
ing^,  it  is  set  forth  as  by  the  Divine  Being  for  tain  of  the  Virgin  is  the  only  spring  of  living 
a  token  of  his  covenant  with  Abraham  and  water  in  or  near  the  city ;  for  that  of  Siloam 
his  posterity,  and,  after  some  ages,  was  sue*  is  certainly,  and  one  that  exists  under  the 
eesslblly  sstablished.  Its  efficacy  in  sun*  Haram  (temple)  is  in  all  probability,  derived 
dering  a  race  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  is  from  the  same  sonioe.  Even  the  Fountain 
visible  in  the  history  of  the  Jewish  people,  of  the  Virgin  has  been  thought  to  be  sup- 
especially  in  the  preservation  of  their  into-  plied  ttam  Oihon,  on  the  western  side  of 
grity  as  a  nation  in  circumstances  most  Jerusalem.  It  is,  indeed,  posstUe  that 
fitted  to  destroy  it ;  and  the  roadiness  witii  some  ancient  feontains  hme  been  lost  or 
which  it  takes  a  moral  and  spiritual  import  dried  up ;  yet  in  a  region  like  that  around 
and  applieatioo,  appears  from  our  previous  Jerusalem,  where  springs  of  water,  if  they 
remarks  regarding  eurcumcision  of  the  heart  exist,  usually  burst  out  from  the  bases  cif 
This  bearing  of  the  rite  is,  as  might  be  the  mountains,  and  are  littie  exposed  to  be 
expected,  made  prominont  in  the  New  Tes-  covered  or  choked  up  by  earthy  Bccumnl»- 
tament  (John  vii.  28.  Born.  iL  25,  28,  20 ;  tions,  such  changes  are  not  likely  to  occur, 
iii.  1 ;  iv.  11.  Qal.  v.  6.  Phil.  iii.  8.  CoL  and  could  affect  none  but  weak  «id  inoon- 
ii.  11 ;  iii.  11).     In  Christianity,  however,  sidersUe  sources. 

this  ordinance,  and  all  others  of  a  simUarly  With  the  exception,  then,  of   a  single 

outward  kind,  having   accoBi|»lished   their  fonnuin,  and  that  not  very  copious,  J-eru- 

temporary  purpose,  are  for  ever  abolished:  salem  seems  alwi^s  to  have  been  defieadMit 

**  Neither  circumcision  availeth  any  thing,  upon  artificial  means  for  its  supplies  «f  wa  • 

nor  uncircumcision,  but  fsith  which  work-  ter.    These  consisted,  so  fsr  as  can  now  be 

cth  by  love'  (Gal.  v.  6 ;  vL  15).  ascertained,  of  the  Pools  of  Siloam,  bsfond 


CIS                      3C4  CIS 

Bethlehem,  with  the  aquedaet  which  brings  these  domesUe  preeeotians  tar  this  indii- 

their  beneficent  streams  to  the  oily,  and  of  pensable  article.    This  is  demonstrated  by 

a  great  nunber  of  reservoirs,  bo&  within  the  multitude  of  ancient  cisterns,  which, 

and  outside   of  the  walls,   for   collecting  indeed,  are  the  same  now  in  nse,  no  less 

rain-water,   of  which  the  upper  and  lower  than  by  the  inadequate  number  of  springs 

Pools  of  Gihon,   and    that  of   Hezekiah,  in  the  neighbouilrood.    This  natural  defi- 

were  probably  the  most  oonsiderable.    Very  eienoy  was  so  fhUy  remedied  by  art  and 

extenslTS  cisterns  are  also  understood  to  industry,  that  turn  plaees  seem  to  have  pos- 

exist  within  the  enclosure  about  the  Mosque  sessed  more  ample  supplies  of  water  IScir 

of  Omar  or  the  Haram,  which  are  suppUed  erery  purpose,  or  to  have  been  so  completely 

by  the  rain-water  coUeoted  fiom  the  roofs  seciued,  in  this  respect,  against  the  easnal- 

of  the  mosques,  as  well  as  from  the  aque-  ties  of  war.    Neither  violence  nor  stratagem 

duct,  and  it  may  be  by  the  subterranean  could  stop  or  dirert  tiie  fountains  which 

conneotion  with  Uie  ancient  Gihon.    Erery-  were  open  for  them  in  the  heavens,  and  the 

body  at  Jerusalem  speaks  of  these  reservoirs  dearth  which  reigned  beyond  the  vraUs  of 

as  weU  known ;  and  the  few  travellers  who  the  city  must  always  have  presented  very 

have    been    sllowed    to  explore  this  holy  serious  difflculties  in  the  way  of  a  besieging 

ground,  and  especially  the  extensive  sub-  army.    It  is  remarkable,  that,  in  the  nume- 

struotions  beneath,  eonfirm  the  current  opi-  reus  accounts  which  we  have  in  the  prophets 

nion.    The  ablutions  of  the  Mohammedan  and  historical  books  of  the  Bible,  of  the 

worship,  no  less  than  the  demands  of  the  suflbrings  and  desolations  produced  in  this 

ancient  temple  service,  render  Isrge  supplies  country  by  drought,  we  seldom  or  never 

of  water  indispensable.  hear  of  any  searcitjr  of  water  in  Jerusalem. 

Besides  these  more  public  establishments,  Some  difleulty  of  this  sort  is  sometimes, 
which  taken  together  ftimished  an  immense  though  randy,  experienced  in  very  dry  sea- 
quantity  of  water  for  ordinary  as  well  as  sons,  by  fsmilies  insufficiently  provided  with 
special  uses,  there  are  in  Jerusalem  a  vast  cisterns ;  and  water  is  then  brought  in  goat- 
number  of  private  cisterns,  with  which,  akin  boUles  from  a  fountain  a  few  miles  dis- 
indeed,  erery  family  above  the  condition  of  tant  from  the  city,  and  sold  at  a  low  price 
absolute  indigence  is  provided.  These  are  to  those  whose  reservoirs  are  exhausted,  or 
constructed  under  the  houses,  or  in  the  who  are  disposed  to  indulge  in  such  a  lux- 
eourts  and  gardens  belonging  to  them,  of  uiy  during  the  warm  weather, 
stones  laid  in  cement,  or,  where  the  moun-  The  whole  mountain  region,  extending 
tain-rock  rises  near  enough  to  the  surface,  from  Jerusalem  to  Hebron  and  the  borders 
by  excavations  in  the  solid  mass.  The  water  of  Edom,  is  very  sparingly  supplied  with 
is  condueted  into  them,  not  only  from  the  fountains ;  and  Olin  did  not  remember  to 
roofs  of  the  houses,  but  from  the  paved  have  seen  a  stream  ofwater,8maU  or  great,  in 
eourts,  which  ususlly  cover  a  oonsiderable  the  whole  distance.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
part  of  the  area  embraced  within  the  endo*  villages  and  open  country  are  dependant, 
sure  of  a  large  habitation.  Two,  three,  or  and  must  always  have  been  so,  upon  wells 
half  a  dozen  capacious  reservoirs  often  be-  and  cisterns.  From  these  they  obtained 
long  to  a  single  house  of  the  better  sort^  water  for  drinking  and  domestic  purposes, 
and  an  ample  supply  of  water  is  commonly  and  also  for  their  ilocks  and  the  irrigation 
seemed  during  the  rainy  season  to  last  the  of  their  fields.  They  are  stiU  found  exca- 
rsst  of  the  year.  It  is  only  the  poorest  dass  rated  in  the  rock,  or  constructed  of  solid 
of  persons  who  obtain  water  for  domestic  masonry  along  the  ancient  roads,  and  near 
uses  from  the  public  cisterns,  wliich  are  the  sites  of  the  ruined  towns  and  villages 
open,  and  much  exposed  to  dust  and  filth,  which  are  so  often  met  with  in  every  part  of 
little  care,  seems  to  be  bestowed  to  keep  the  country.  Cisterns  are  much  more  nu- 
tiiem  in  repair,  or  guard  them  against  abuse  merous  than  weUa,  which  usually  had  to  be 
and  impurities ;  and  the  water  is  commonly  sunk  to  a  great  depth ;  and  the  water  of 
disooloured,  and  of  an  unwholesome  appear-  which,  so  far  as  Olin  had  opportunity 
anoe.  '  That  in  the  reservoir  just  west  of  of  judging,  is  decidedly  inferior  in  quality 
iSbB  lower  pool,'  says  Dr.  Olin,  *  already  men-  to  that  which  falls  fit>m  the  douds.  Great 
tioned  as  derived,  through  the  ancient  sque-  pains  vrere  formeriy  taken  to  preserve  the 
duet,  from  Solomon's  Pools,  looked  the  best  rain-water  in  a  pure  state,  as  is  evident  from 
of  any  that  I  remember  to  have  seen  in  the  expensive  construction  of  the  cistemis 
the  public  establidunento.  The  water  of  which  were  not  only  built  with  solidity,  and 
SOoam,  and  that  of  the  Fountain  of  the  lined  with  cement,  but  in  many  instances 
Virgin,  is  tolerably  transparent,  but  not  very  covered  with  immense  arches  of  masonry, 
palatable.  The  rain-water  in  the  private  so  as  to  secure  them  against  dust  and  filth, 
eistems,  on  the  contrary,  so  fisr  as  I  had  and  to  exdude  the  rays  of  the  sun.  There 
opportunity  to  observe,  was  pure  and  fresh,  are  commonly  flighto  of  stone-steps,  extend- 
and  a^preeable  to  the  taste.'  ing  from  the  top  quite  to  the  bottom  of  the 

Ancient  Jemsslem  must,  like  the  modem  reservoirs,  which  gave  easy  access  to  Ae  wa- 

towDt  have   been  chiefly  dependant  upon  ter  in  all  ito  stages.     This,  in  the  rainy 


CIS                       365  CIS 

season,  flows  from  the  hills  and  inclined  enemy,  or  for  pniposes  of  revenge,  it  is  still 

planes  that    compose    the    whole  of  this  customary  to  dose  and  stop,  if  not  destroy 

moontainous  region,  to  the  lower  ground,  reservoirs  (Gen.  zzvi.  19.    2  Kings  iiL  2d. 

which  is  always   chosen  for  the  cisterns.  2  Chron.  zzziL  8.    Isa.  xv.  0).    To  nomad 

The  namber  and  magnitude  of  these  reoep-  tribea,  eistems  are  of  especial  value,  consti- 

taoles  afford  good  data  for  estimating  the  tuting  an  important  part  of  their  property, 

size  and  importance  of  ancient  places,  of  not  easfly  lent  to  others,  and  often  bearing 

which  they  are,  in  many  instances,  almost  the  name  of  the  tribe  or  person  to  whom 

the  only  remaining  memorials ;   and  they  they  owe  their  origin  (Dent  x.  6).    Hence, 

are  calculated  to  give  us  very  favourable  frequently  arise  disputes  (Gen.  zzi.  25 : 

ideas  of  the  industry  and  skill  of  the  ancient  xxvi.  10).    In  the  hot  season  of  the  year, 

Jews.    No  such  works  are  achieved  by  the  and  generally  when  destitute  of  water,  cis- 

present  inhabitants  of  this  country,  whose  terns  served  for  temporary  prisons  (Gen. 

resources  seem  unequal  to  the  task  of  keep-  xzzviL  22, 24.  Jer.  xzxviii.  6) ;  hence  poetl- 

ing  those  in  repair  which  have  been  be-  cal  imagery  (Ps.  zl.  2 ;  Ixiz.  15 ;  Ixxzvili. 

queathed  to  them  by  a  better  race  of  men,  6)  ;  also  as  places  of  reftige  (2  Sam.  xvii. 

and  a  happier  era.  9,  teq.), 

Robinson  reports  that  the  house  of  Ifr.  Fiequent  mention  of  eistems  is  made  in 
Lannean,  in  which  he  resided,  had  no  less  the  Talmud.  In  form  they  were  either 
than  four  cisterns,  the  largest  of  which  round  or  quadrangular,  and  covered  with  a 
is  thirty  feet  long,  thirty  broad,  and  twenty  preparation  of  lime  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
deep.  The  Latin  convent  is  so  well  tar-  the  water,  and  aid  in  preserving  it  sweet 
nished,  that,  in  seasons  of  drought,  it  is  They  were  either  covered  or  surrounded  with 
able  to  deal  out  a  sufficiency  for  all  the  a  barrier.  The  oourt-yard  of  great  houses 
Christian  inhabitants  of  the  city.  The  cis-  had  generally  each  a  cistern  (2  Sam.  xvii. 
terns  have  usually  merely  a  round  opening  18).  Such  are  stiU  found  in  Palestine,  some 
at  the  top,  sometimes  built  up  with  stone-  of  which  may  be  derived  from  ancient  times, 
work  above,  and  ftimished  with  a  curb  Cisterns  were  employed  for  watering  flocks 
and  a  wheel  for  the  bucket;  so  that  they  and  herds,  and  were  accordingly  the  ordi- 
have  externally  much  the  appearance  of  nary  place  of  resort  for  herdsmen  and  young 
an  ordinary  well.  The  water  is  conducted  people,  in  periods  when  a  shepherd's  life 
into  them  from  Che  roofs  of  the  houses  was  held  in  honour  (Gen.  xxiv.  11,  IS; 
during  the  rainy  season,  and,  with  proper  xxix.  8,  8.  1  Sam.  ix.  11);  and  young  maid- 
care,  remains  pure  and  sweet  during  sum-  ens  repaired  thither  to  draw  water  fordomes- 
mer  snd  autumn.  In  summer,  however,  tic  purposes.  Cisterns  and  weUs  would 
water,  as  a  matter  of  luxury  and  convenience^  natunlly  influence  the  march  and  encamp- 
is  brought  to  Jerusalem  in  considerable  ment  of  armies,  as  well  as  caravans  and 
quantities,  from  fountains  at  a  distance  frt>m  wandering  herds  (1  Sam.  xxix.  1.  2  Sam. 
the  city.    The  principal  of  these  is  Ain  Yalo,  ii.  18). 

in  Wady  el-WcM,  several  miles  south-west  of  Instances  of  individual  cisterns  are  nume> 

Jerusalem,  whence  being  transported  in  skins  rous  in  oriental  travellers.    Large  public 

on  the  backs  of  asses  and  mules,  it  is  sold  reservoirs  wero  built  in  and  around  most 

for  a  trifle  to  those  who  prefer  it  as  a  be-  cities  by  the  Jews,  for  public  use.     Such 

verage.  tanks  are  now  found  at  Hebron,  Bethel,  Gi- 

Cistems  in  the  desert  require  to  be  covered  beon,  Bireh,  &c. ;  sometimes  still  in  use,  as 

or  dosed  with  a  stone,  if  for  no  other  pur-  at  Hebron,  but  more  commonly  in  ruins 

pose,  to  protect  them  against  moving  sands.  They  are  built  up  mostly  of  massive  stones. 

Over  most  of  the  cisterns  that  are  found  at  and  are  situated  chiefly  in  valleys,  when  the 

Beni  Naim,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  hill-  rains  of  winter  could  easily  flow,  or  be  con- 

eountry  of  Judah,  is  laid  a  broad  and  thick  ducted.    These  reservoirs  form  one  of  the 

flat  stone,  with  a  round  hole  cut  in  the  mid-  least  doubtftil  vestiges  of  antiquity  in  all 

die,  forming  the  mouth  of  the  cistern.  This  Pslestine. 

hole  is  in  many  cases  covered  with  a  heavy  A  reservoir  is  mentioned  by  Robinson,  as 

stone,  which  it  would  require  two  or  three  found  in  an  interesting  spot  at  Kurmul,  near 

men  to  roll  away.    These  snd  other  cisterns  Hebron.    *  The  bottom  of  the  amphitheatre 

afford  illustrations  of  the  sacred  narrative,  is  a  beantiflil  grass-plat,  with  an  artificial 

in  Gen.  xxix.  2,  8,  —  'A  great  stone  was  reservoir  in  the  middle,  measuring  a  hundred 

upon  the  well's  mouth ;  and  thither  were  all  and  seventy  feet  long,  by  seventy-four  broad, 

the  flocks  gafliered;    and  they  rolled  the  The  spring  from  which  it  is  supplied  is  in 

stone  from  the  well's  month,  and  watered  the  rooks  on  the  north-west,  where  a  cham- 

the  sheep,  and  put  the  stone  sgain  upon  the  ber   has    been   excavated.     The  water  is 

well's  mouth  in  his  place.'  brought  out  by  an  under-ground  channel. 

These  coverings  the  Bedouins  are  very  first  to  a  small  basin  near  the  rodcs,  and  then 

skilful  in  making  very  exact,  and  so  manag-  five  or  six  rods  fturther  to  the  reservoir.' 

ing  that  a  stranger  cannot  easily  find  them  A  cistern,  fifteen  minutes  firom  SeUun,  was 

(2  Sam.  xvii.  19).    On  the  approach  of  an  visited  by  Robinson,  when  travelling  from 


CIS  3( 

JwaMltm  lo  Miblou  (UL  86).  The  witra, 
whioli  u  nccUeDt,  iuiMS  Ermn  the  roalig  in  ■ 
rloH  nll*^  Uling  fini  inlo  a  aorl  of  wti- 
Bdial  nell  eight  or  tsn  fMl  detp.  and  Ihono* 
lulo  a  nMrroii  lamai  dawn.  '  ittaj  flodka 
tud  bttda  wan  vaitmf  aroowL' 

But  iIm  moat  impoitaal  are  tba  Poola-ot 
Solimiia,  to  whidi  we  hart  ilnadj  mIutmI, 
wbioh,  Ijiof  DSai  Belblahen,  aant  their 
walar  ia  an  aqnedoal  10  JvnaalnD.  A  M- 
ftnoea  to  then  PMj  be  foaod  in  the  woida 
of  DMid,  idiea  he  'li>ii|*d>  and  aaid — Oh 
that  ODB  wo<dd  give  m»  irimk  a/  the  water 
ot  tha  wdl  of  BetJlMlam,  wfaieh  i>  by  die 
SUif   (3SMn.niU.U.  1  Chran.  iL  17.1 


ir  HebroD  hsM  a  paenlltr 
intartft  Tbej  are  thus  spoken  of  ij  Oliu  ; 
—  'A  large  baain,  fbitj-aexn  pace*  aqnare, 
suada  ontaida  the  gate.  It  ie  of  nrj  solid 
worknianihip.  aud  maybe  eighteen  or  twenty 
feel  deqi.  Thedeacent  iabyRighta  of  stain 
sttualed  M  die  haz  eornen,  )iy  whioh  the 
water  w  brought  np  in  Teaaela  and  ekina, 
and  ponied  into  tnn^i  for  tte  lloeka,  or 
earned  away  fbr  domestin  naea.    Thia  pool 


m  of  ihe  Talley. 

ler  of  imaJler  dimeasions  ocDopiea 

«nnd  on  the  Dorth  aide  of  llie  city. 

—-"'-«  are  filled  by  the  rains,  and 

1  with  nay  pennnial  fonntain. 

In  aaesnitiDg  a  bUl  aonth  of  tha  city,  I  came 
to  a  amaOer  pool,  aimalsd  imoag  aome  fine 
ali*e-ln(s,  afaeltered  by  an  ancient  areb,  with 
a  flight  of  alepe  leading  down  to  Ihe  water. 
'  '■ probably  oret  c         "   ■ 


the  mordei 
(3  Sam.  i 
the  large 


uKuij  vTFT  one  01  meae  an- 
™u  4  that  DaTid  caoaed  the  heads 
m  ot  Binutioa,  Baehab  and  BaaniJl, 
Iran  of  labboriMih,  to  be  expoaed 
T.  13).  I  happnied  to  stand  ue«r 
,  w«™ir  a  liw,  b^^  ,raBKt, 
Hooka  vt  abeep  aod  goata  were  de- 
fmta  tlie  nonntaina  which  aar- 
,ity,  and  aaaambling  in  immenae 


6  C  I  T 

niunbera  aionnd  Ihe  walla.  They  were  in  a 
fine  condition,  and  preseiited  a  beantihl  ipeo- 
taolei  which  euTled  bac^  the  thonghn  to 
foiniBi  daya,  when  Abraham  and  leaae  fed 
their  flocki  Dpon  the  game  hills,  broa^t 
them  down  by  the  same  paiha  into  '  Ihe 
plain  of  Uann,  wbidk  la  Hebron,  and  per- 
h^e  watered  Ifaiam  at  the  aame  fbimtaina ' 
(U.  U,  8S). 

Bahnberl  tbna  deaeiibea  fta  mettod  taken 
to  draw  water  from  Iheaa  walliarreaemiira: 
— '  We  came  to  a  wdlad  oistem,  which  our 
Bedonina  eallcd  Bir  Helech.  Hen  BQine 
pereona  were  drawing  water  in  the  bncketi, 
which  hang  with  their  rapea  on  long  poles, 
fielaned  at  tha  lower  end.  This  water  Ehey 
ponred  into  a  reierroir  tor  Ihe  cattle  to  drink, 
Flocka  of  lanbs,  sepsmled  one  from  another, 
eadh  herd  under  iti  own  keeper,  stood  near 

Candy  waiting  for  its  tnm.  Wbeu  the 
J  trongh  was  fall,  the  abcpherd  wfaose 
floek  oaine  next,  gave  a  sign  witii  his  staff 
and  hie  Toiee,  and  the  ram  ran  frolicking  to 
die  water,  followed  by  ttie  reat  When  one 
set  had  taken  their  fill,  Oiey  wi&drew,  and 
another  came  in  their  place.  We  were  re- 
minded of  many  interesting  paesages  of 
Serlpture,  by  these  dancing  and  frisking 
Iambs,  and  Iheirready  obedience  to  the  roice 
of  ihe  shepherd.  We  fancied  we  here  saw  a 
pietnn  of  one  portion  of  Ihe  patriarch's  life  * 

CITIES  OF  REPOOE  were  oertaln  plscea 
expresaly  appointed  by  ^e  law  of  Hoses,  aa 
S  nfnge  for  such  as  bad  commillcd  acciden- 
tal h<fbiicide,  being  a  wise  and  benevolent 
praeeeding  on  ttie  part  of  that  tral]-  great 
man  to  mitigate  the  erila  of  the  thh^t  for 
iBTrnge,  and  specially  of  the  eagerness  of 
the  blood-avenger  to  alaybim  who  had  slain 
his  kinaman,  which  prevailed  [hrooghonl 
Western  Asia,  and  sdli  in  anbslaiice  prevail 
in  the  teas  civilised  parts  of  the  world. 

Tbeee  eiliee,  six  in  number,  ehosan  out  of 
those  which  belonged  to  tbc  priests  or  the 
Levites,  lying  in  diiTcrent  parts  of  the  land, 
in  order  that  a  place  of  refogc  might  be 
fbnnd  in  every  district,  were  Bezer,  among 
the  Henbenires;  Bamolfa,  among  the  Oaditea; 
Oolan,  among  Ihe  children  of  Hanasseb; 
these  [fane  being  on  tbe  east  of  Jordan  ; 
while  on  its  western  aide  were  Kadeab,  in 
Naphtall;  Shcchem,  in  Ephraira ;  and  Kir- 
jalh-arba,  which  is  Hebron,  in  Jadah  (Dent. 
iv.  48.  Josh.  IX.  T).  The  right  of  asjliun 
extended  to  a  thousand  yards  nmnd  each 
city,  and  during  tha  period  of  the  oSIca  of  the 
high-prieat,  imder  whom  the  manslaughter 
was  committed.  If  tiie  homicide  left  Ihe  city 
before  the  expiration  of  that  lime,  or  ven- 
tured beyonif  ita  bounds,  he  exposed  him- 
self  to  the  fury  of  the  Gael,  or  avenger  of 
blood.  In  order  to  facilitale  Ihe  escape 
of  Ihe  innocent,  and  aeeura  from  momentary 


the  roads  leading  to  these  places  abonld  b« 


C  I  T  367  C  I  T 

kept  in  good  repair.    Jewish  traction  asserts  existed  in  what  is  termed  'the  benefit  of 

that,  at  every  tnm  in  the  road,  there  stood  clergy.'   ReAige,  also,  against  Tengeance,  and 

posts  bearing  the  direoting  and  warning  the  law  was  afforded  in  Christian  chnrches, 

word,  Refuge,  Befuge,    It  also  affirms  that  tnd  other  holy  placeSj  which  may  have  been 

the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  Aigitives  of  service  in  rude  and  barbarous  ages,  but 

were  studied  in  the  oities  of  reAige,  and  that  which,  as  landing  to  transfer  civil  power 

they  were  each  taught  some  trade,  or  so  from  the  magistrate^  to  the  priest,  and  to 

occupied  and  trained  as  to  possess  the  means  make  punishment  dependent  on  casualties, 

of  gaining  a  livelihood  when  the  period  of  has  in  modern  times  been  almost  univer- 

detention  had  elapsed.    But  the  immunity  tally  abrogated. 

could  be  gained  only  as  a  consequence  of  a        CITIZEN  (L.  cwU),  one  who  has  the 

formal  verdict  of  acquittal,  pronounced  after  rights  and  immooitiaa  that  belong  to  a  city; 

due  legal  inquiry,  in  which  the  exercise  of  which  may  be  either  of  the  city,  considered 

pity  was  forbidden,  and  no  preeuniazy  ran-  merely  in  itself  or  aa  forming  a  member  of 

som  allowed.   The  murderer  was  put  to  death  a  civil  organisation,  —  a  state  or  common- 

(Exod.  xxi.  Id.    Numb.  xxxv.  6,  teg.   Deut.  wealtb.    Abstract  ideas  are  not  common  in 

xix.  2,  uq,  Joseph.  Antiq.  iv.  7.  4).  the  literature  of  the  Hebrews ;  and,  aecord- 

This  right  of  asylum  was  an  extension  of  ingly,  though  there  was  *  the  commonwealth 

that  which  was  afforded,  fint  in  the  taber-  of  Israel,'  it  ramained  for  Paul,  under  the 

nade,  and  afterwards  in  the  temple  (Exod*  influence  of  a  more  artificial  culture,  to  ori- 

xxi.  14),  the  altar  in  whieh  afforded  a  place  ginate  this  designation  (Eph.  ii.  12).    The 

of  refuge  for  the  unintentional  homicide,  same  writer  has  also  used,  disguised  under 

from  the  shelter  of  which,  however,  the  mani-  '  freedom,'  the  word  '  citizenship/  by  which 

fest  murderer  might  be  dragged  and  put  to  the  privileges  of  a  citizen,  whether  municipal 

death;  a  permission  which  might  easily  be  or  national,  are  denoted  (Acts  xxii.  28). 

abused  for  purposes  of  private  or  party  re-  This  word  is  poUteia,  from  the  Greek  poli, 

venge  (Exod.  xxL  14.  1  Kings  L  &0 ;  ii.  28,  a  citv,  and  is  the  source  of  our  terms '  polity,' 

$eg.  2  Kings  xL  10).  *  policy,'  *  politic,'  *  politics!,'  ko. 

Wisdom  and  mercy  are  combined  in  this  Among  the  Hebrews,  citizenship  was  de> 
system  of  law.  Here  was  protection  for  the  rived  by  birth  of  Israelite  parents ;  yet  stran- 
innoceut  homicide ;  time  secured  for  a  legal  gers,  under  certain  limits,  could  attain  the 
investigation ;  personal  revenge  hindered  or  honour.  The  general  nature  of  the  rights 
counteracted,  yet  no  impunity  conceded  to  which  it  involved  may  be  gathered  from 
the  guilty ;  whUe,  in  order  to  uphold  a  sense  several  parts  of  this  work.  In  general,  it 
of  human  life,  and  prevent  carelessness,  the  may  suffice  to  remark,  tha^  in  the  best 
manslayer,  guiltless  though  he  might  be  of  periods  of  the  Israelite  polity,  no  sharply  de- 
actual  crime,  was  yet  properly  made  to  suffer  fined,  permanent,  and  invidious  distinctions 
loss  in  his  liberty,  and,  of  ooune,  in  his  en-  of  ruik  are  found.  The  descendants  of 
joyments.  Levi  were  chosen  for  the  sacred  order.    The 

The  wisest  legal  provisions  may  be  per-  rest  of  the  tribes  stood  on  a  footing  of  equa- 
verted.  That  the  ri^t  of  asylum  among  the  lity.  And  when  we  consider  the  strong  ten- 
Jews  was,  in  later  and  degenerate  periods,  so  dency  which  appears  in  oriental  nations  to 
extended  as  to  open  a  door  to  great  abuses,  divide  into  castes,  by  which  Ae  great  body 
may  be  inferred  from  1  Mace.  x.  48,  where  of  the  people  are  sunk  in  social  and  perso- 
Demetrius  proclaims,  — 'Whosoever  they  be  nal  degradation,  the  absence  of  such  an  evil 
that  flee  unto  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  or  in  the  Mosaic  institutions  is  a  merit  no  less 
be  within  the  liberties  hereof,  being  indebt-  satisfactory  than  it  is  striking, 
ed  unto  the  king,  or  for  any  other  matter,  A  general  equality  prevailed  in  the  original 
let  them  be  at  libierty,  and  all  that  they  have  constitution  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  arising 
in  my  realm.'  The  abuse,  however,  was  en-  out  of  the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
gendered  from  political  considerations  and  by  tribe,  family,  and  head.  Doubtless,  the 
pagan  influence.  Israelites  brought  property  into  the  country. 

Greek  and  Boman  antiqui^  knew  the  right  and  its  diversities  would  occasion  a  diffe 

of  asylum*  not  only  in  temples  and  holy  rence  of  condition  in  individuals  when  settled 

places,  but  also  in  cities.    It  was  established  in  Palestine.     Yet  great  inequalities   were 

for  insolvent  debtors,  for  slaves  against  the  guarded  against  both  by  the  general  bearing 

cruelty  of  their  masters,  and  for  murder.    A  of  the  Hebrew  polity,  and  the  special  pro- 

specially  distinguished  asylum  was  found  at  visions  established  in  favour  of  the  poor  and 

Daphne,  near  Antioch,  in  Syria  (2  Maco.  iv.  needy.    A  species  of  slavery  also  existed, 

38),  and  in  Diana's  temple   at  Ephesus.  but  of  a  mUd  and  lenient  character,  and 

The  abuses  of  the  right  of  asylum  were  very  qualified  so  as  not  to  be  a  perpetual  state  of 

great    Tiberius  found  himself  compelled  to  personal  bondage.     In  the  latter  periods 

diminish  the  number  of  places,  and  to  lessen  of  Jewish  history,  slavery  would  seem  to  have 

the  immunities^  disappeared.    General  civil  distinctions  also 

The  right  of  asylum  passed  into  Chris-  existed:  there  were  elders, captains, princes, 

tianity.    For  ages  something  of  the  kind  kings.    Still  a  practical  equality  prevailed, 


C  I  T  368  C  L  A 

not  nnlike  what  is  enjoyed  mider  the  British     children  ft>lIowed  the  mother,  being,  in  snrb 
coQstitation,  only  yet  more  liberal.    These     a  case,  considered  as  haying  in  a  legal  sense 
distinctions  were  founded  partly  on   age,     no  father.    II.  The  citizenship  was  also 
partly  on  merit,  and,  as  snch,  worked  for  Uie     conferred  as  a  reward  of  good  service,  fl  si 
advantage  of  the  goTcmed;  all  of  whom  had     by    kings,   then  the    people,    or   by       a- 
generally  an  opportnnity  to  rise  in  social     gistrates,   as   Marina,  Pompey,  Ccssar,   &e. 
esteem  and  position.    The  people  were  not     provided  they  had  received  authority  for  the 
oppressed  by  any  mling  caste ;  not  dwarfed     purpose.    The  emperors  possessed  the  power 
and  degraded  under  the  shadow  of  a  haughty     in  dieir  own  hsnds,  and  were  sometimes  very 
and  selfish  aristocracy ;   nor  employed  as  liberal,  at  others  very  sparing,  in  bestowing 
purchasable   tools  for  the    ftirtherance  of    the  right  of  citizenship.    In  the  period  of 
priestcraft  or  statecraft    The  government  regal  government,  those  only  received   the 
of  the  countiy,  whether  local  or  general,  was  franchise  who  removed  to    end  dwelt  at 
simple  in  its  nature,  inezpensive  and  libe-  Rome.    By  degrees,  otibers,  both  individuals 
ral.     In  proportion  as  the  religions  ordi-     and  corporations,  though  not  residing  in 
nances  of  Moses  were  observed,  coercion  was  Borne,  were  presented  with  the  liberti  s  of 
unnecessary;  and  their  genend  effect  was  such  citizenship.    The  citizens  who  lived   at    a 
as,  in  the  better  eras,  to  make  the  tone  of  distance  were  so  in  name  rather  than  in  sub- 
government  mild  and  patemaL  stance,  since  they  formed  part  of  no  tribe. 
In  the  New  Testament,  '  citizens  of  an-  and  could  ordinarily  exercise  no  civic  rights, 
other  country,'  namely,  Rome,  come  on  the  The  case  of  the  Apostle  Paul  is  in  point, 
scene ;  which  leads  us  to  add  a  few  words  though  it  shows  also  to  how  useftil  a  por- 
on  the  subject  of  Roman  citizenship.    Ac-  pose  the  honour  might  in  need  be  t  med. 
cording  to  the  Roman  idea,  freemen  were  States  and  nations  were  adopted  into  the 
those  who  lived  in  the  Roman  states,  whether  great  Roman  corporation,  as  Latium,  Italy, 
citizens  (ctvri)   or  foreigners    {peregrini).  Oaol.    In  the  provinces,  both  privat    per* 
Between  both  stood  the  Latins,  as  a  sort  of  sons  and  whole  states  were  presente "  with 
middle  class.    The  citizen,  as  such,  eigoyed  the   citizenship    by    the   Cesars.     Among 
several  high   rights  and  privileges,  which  others,   many  Jews  were  Roman   citizena 
came  gradually  into  existence  with  the  grow-  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xiv.  10.  16,  and  19). 
ing  importance  of  the  state.     Till  the  age         III.  The  favour  was  also  obtained  through 
of  Servius  Tullius,  the  patricians  alone  were  manumission,  by  which  a  master  set  a  slave 
properly  citizens ;   and   it  required  a  long  at  liberty  under  certain  prescribed  cond  tions 
time  and  much  effort  for  the  plebeians  to  gain  and  forms.      IV.   In  the  imperial   thnea, 
equsl  rights.    These  rights  (^  ctvitolif,  citi-  slaves  who  had  eigoyed  liberty  for  t  enty 
zenship)  are  I.  In  reference  to  public  life :  years  were,  in  virtue  of  that  fact,  free  men 
(ft)f  JM  ntgRragUj  the  right  of  voting  in  the  by  right    The  purchase  of  citisensh'p,  oi 
comitia,  or  public  assemblies ;  (b),  Jvi  ko-  which  an  instance  is  found  in  the  captain 
norum,  the  right  of  aspiring  to  magistracies  who  rescued  Paul  from  the  violence  of  the 
and  public  posts;  (c),  jut provocaiitmii^  Uie  Sanhedrim  (Acts  zxii.  28),  was  not  a  dia- 
right  of  appeal  from  magistrates  to  the  peo-  tinct  and  peculiar  manner  of  obtaining  the 
pie;  (d),  exemption  bm  all  dishonouring  immunities,  but  a  species  of  donation, 
punishments.    II.  In  regard  to  private  life:         The  most  important  for  the  Scriptural  tu- 
(a),  ccnrntbium,  the  right  of  forming  legal  mar-  dent  of  the  prerogatives  conferred  by  Roman 
riages ;  (b),  eommercium,  the  right  to  acquire  citizenship,  was  that  of  exemption  from     e- 
property,  and  to  sue  and  be  sued  at  law ;  ing  beaten  or  put  to  death  before  a  Rom  n 
on  which   all  property  in  a  civilised  stote  tribunal  (Acts  xvi.  87).      This  exempti  n 
depends.    The  Roman  civic  rif^ts  were  held  was  secured  by  the  Porcian  law,  which,  an- 
in  the  highest  estimation  during  the  times  der  heavy  penalties,  forbade  that  a  Roman 
of  the  republic ;  but  they  sank  in  value  and  citizen  should  be  beaten  or  put  to  death ;  an 
in  repute  as  imperial  power  gained  the  upper  enactment  which  was  sanctioned  and     n- 
hand.  forced  by  the  Sempronian  law ;  by  which  a 
As,  however,  the  arms  of  Rome  extended  Roman  citizen  was  not  to  be  put  to  death 
her  empire  over  the  world,  so  did  participa-  unless  by  the  authority  of  the  people.   These 
tion  in  her  citizenship  become  an  olgeot  of  laws,  indeed,  seem  to  have  had  a  wider  com- 
desire  as  a  ground  of  honour,  a  source  of  pro-  pass  of  influence,  so  as  generally  to  protect 
tection,  and  a  means  of  advancement    The  the  citizen  of  Rome  from  legal  injustice, 
right  was   variously  acquired,  by  descent,  though  some  allowance  may  have  to  be  made 
merit,  and  manumission :  —  I.  By  bfrth  from  for  oratorical  exaggeration  in  the  pass  gea 
parents  who  were  Roman  citizens,  thus  in  in  Cicero,  which  aie  the  chief  authorities  in 
the  Acts  (xxii.  26),— 'I  was  free  bom;»  the  case. 

the  rule  being,  that  citizens  beget  citizens,         CLAUDA  (L.),  a  very  small  island   ying 

but  only  in  moMtiwniMm  jttMtum,  or  where  near  the  south-western  shore  of  Crete    Acts 

both  parente  were  Romans;  for,  in  wofrimo-  xxvii.  16).    It  is  now  called  Gozzo. 
nium   H^usium,   mixed  marriages  between         CLAUDIUS  (L.),  the  fourth  emper  r  of 

Roman  oitiMmnm   and  foreign  females,  the  Rome.— See  CjtSAa 


CLE 


369 


CLE 


CLAT.  —  This  well-kuown  sabstanee,  be- 
sides being  in  ancient  times  employed  in 
making  bricks  and  pottery  ware,  served  the 
purpose  of  war,  to  receive  an  impression 
from  a  seal.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
famous  Babylonian  bricks,  and  cylinders  of 
paste,  the  characters  on  which  were  impressed 
by  a  mould  while  the  clay  was  yet  soft  (comp. 
Job  xxxriii.  14).  Olay  is  still  employed  in 
the  East  for  a  seal,  as,  for  instance,  on  the 
door  which  gives  entrance  to  a  room  where 
goods  are  deposited  (Matt  zzvii  66). 

GLEAN.  —  In  the  hot  dimate  of  the 
East,  want  of  cleanliness  is  both  more  com- 
mon and  more  detrimental  than  with  us. 
The  evidence  of  traveUers  to  this  efleet  is 
abundant  and  decisive.  At  the  present  day, 
vermin  prevails  in  Palestine  to  suioh  a  degree 
as  to  constitute  one  of  the  chief  annoyances 
to  which  a  traveller  is  subject  And  Uie  ab- 
sence of  cleanliness,  always  injurious  to 
health,  and  now  known  to  be  so,  far  more 
than  wa«  formerly  suspected,  tends  to  en- 
courage painM  diMrders,  especially  the 
leprosy,  which  is  at  once  so  deadly  and  so 
repulsive.  In  oriental  countries,  conse- 
quently, cleanliness  was  regarded  as  of  great 
moment:  in  order  to  secure  it,  practices 
were  consolidated  into  customs  and  usages, 
law  interposed  its  authority,  and  reli^on 
lent  its  very  powerfdl  sanction ;  and  if  some 
of  the  observances  which  hence  ensued,  and 
which  still  in  a  measure  retain  their  hold  on 
Easterns,  whatever  their  religious  opinions, 
appear  to  us  inexplicable,  or  even  absurd, 
we  must  call  to  mind  the  diiferenoe  of  our 
climate,  as  well  as  our  age,  the  great  power 
of  influences  derived  from  climate,  and  the 
difficulty  we  labour  under  of  rightly  conceiv- 
ing a  state  of  human  existence  so  dissi- 
milar to  our  own,  as  that,  for  instance,  of 
the  Hebrews  in  the  days  of  Moses. 

Begard  to  cleanliness  caused  among  the 
latter  the  frequent  use  of  the  bath,  especially 
when  a  risit  of  ceremony  had  to  be  paid 
(Buth  UL  8).  But  this  regard  affected  not 
merely  social  and  civil,  but  also  religious 
observances.  Hence  the  use  of  water  as  a 
symbol  of  purity,  and  the  minute  and  cere* 
monious  practices  of  the  Pharisees,  in  the 
rigid  observance  of  which,  the  spirit  of  reli- 
gion was  sometimes  totaDy  lost  (Matt  xv.  2. 
MarkviLS.  Lnkezi.88).  Tradition,  which, 
in  no  few  instances,  first  becomes  more 
powerfril  than  religion  its  parent,  and  then 
whoUy  supersedes  it,  made  it  a  law  among 
the  Jews,  that  no  one  should  appear  in  the 
temple  or  the  synagogue,  or  join  in  any  part 
of  Uie  sacred  service,  such  as  prayer  and 
oblations,  without  baring  preriously  washed 
himself,  or,  if  the  importance  of  the  occasion 
were  greater  than  ordinary,  without  having 
bathed  (1  Sam.  xvi.  5 ;  comp.  Josh,  iii  6. 
2  Chron.  XXX.  17.  Ezod.  xix.  10).  Unclean 
persons  were  not  allowed  to  enter  religious 


assemblies,  or  to  join  in  the  national  festi- 
vals. Leprous  persons  might,  indeed,  risit 
the  temple;  but  diey  were  confined  to  a  sepa- 
rate part  He  who  had  become  impure  be- 
fore the  Passover  must  travel  to  Jerusalem 
some  days  earlier,  in  order  to  purify  him- 
self before  its  advent  (John  xL  5d) ;  or  he 
had  to  wait  for  what  the  Talmudists  csll  *  the 
Lesser  Passover,'  which  took  place  a  month 
later,  and  was  designed  for  sudi  as,  through 
Leritical  impurity,  had  not  taken  part  in  the 
ftistival  itself. 

The  members  of  the  priestly  order  were 
specially  required  to  keep  themselves  desn, 
in  order  that  they  might  suiUbly  fiilfil  their 
duty  in  the  pubUc  worship  of  God.  They 
were,  accordini^y,  subjected  to  special  and 
symbolical  wadiings  when  they  first  entered 
on  their  office  (Exod.  xxix.  4.  Lev.  viii  6)  ; 
and,  in  the  discharge  of  their  obligations, 
were  required  to  '  purify  themsdves  from  all 
defilement;'  for  which  purpose,  water  was 
provided  in  the  outer  court  of  the  sanctuary. 
That  these  washings  originally  recognised 
the  intimate  connection  there  is  between 
cleanliness  of  body  and  purity  of  mind,  and 
that  the  outward  act  was  meant  to  symbolise 
auward  holiness,  appears  firom  a  remarkable 
passage  in  Dent  x^.  6. 9eq, — See  Ablutiov. 

But  the  notions  of  pure  and  impure  were 
carried  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  much 
farther  than  what  is  customary  in  these  days* 
In  the  legidation  of  Moses,  purity  and  im- 
purity were  predicated  of  bo^  thiikgt  and  per^' 
sons.  Generally  that  was  denominated  un- 
dean,  into  contact  with  which  an  Israelite 
was  not  to  come.  In  a  state  of  undeanness 
were — I.  Persons;  whose  bodies  were  in  cer- 
tain conditions,  as  lepers;  those  who  suf- 
liered  firom  an  issue  of  the  seed,  or  the  stop- 
page fhmn  the  natural  issue  (Lev.  xv.  2,  uq,  ; 
16) ;  women  in  childbirth  (Lev.  xii.) ;  wo- 
men during  the  menses  (Lev.  xv.  19) ;  per- 
sons who  had  perfbrmed  conjugd  rites  (Lev* 
XV.  18).  II.  Things;  among  which  we 
reckon  generally  certain  animds,  to  be  pre- 
sently specified ;  the  dead  bodies  of  unclean 
animals  in  sll  cases,  and  of  the  dean,  except 
they  had  been  dulyslanghtered  (see  Cobpsb) 
the  dead  bodies  of  human  beings  (Numb 
xix.  11,  teq,)\  houses,  and  garments,  in 
which  was  <tfae  plague  of  leprosy'  (Lev. 
xiii  47,  fe^. ;  xiv.  88,  m^.).  All  Uiese  ob- 
jects, with  the  exception  of  undean  animals, 
rendered  unclean  for  a  shorter  or  longer  time 
dl  who  touched  them,  which  impurity  might 
in  part  extend  to  things  without  life,  such 
as  ftimitnre  or  rooms  (Lev.  xv.  12;  xi.  82. 
Numb.  xix.  15).  Articles  of  wood,  having 
become  unclean,  were  washed;  artides  of 
earthenware  were  broken.  Of  metd  articles, 
no  express  mention  is  made:  they  appear 
to  have  been  merely  washed.  A  specid  kind 
of  undesnness  was  that  which  ensued  firom 
the  red  heifer,  and  the  water  of  sprinkling  or 

2A 


CLE                      370  CLE 

Mpantion  (Lev.  xy.)    A  partial  mioleaiiDeaa  binioal  works.    The  gi«al  MOie  of  dit  ttflcC 

was  contracted  by  the  persou  who  let  go  the  and  minnte  regolatioDs  giTcn  hi  the  law  in 

scape-goat  (Le¥.  xvi.  2i8).  regard  to  these  natoral  oeenrrenees  lay  in  a 

If  we  now  enter  a  little  more  into  particu-  notion  whioh  Pliny  exhibits  In  ftill  foiMy 

lars,  we  find  that  the  leprous  were  obliged  to  that  the  menstmoas  blood  aeqnired  a  ^peei- 

liye  apart  (IjCt.  xiii  46.    Numb.  ▼.  2,  aeq.  $  ally    iahetUMM,   virolent,    and    poisonous 

comp.  2  Kings  xr.  6).     If^  howerer,  a  leper  eharaeter. 

came  where  he  was  likely  to  be  tooohed  by  The  tonohing  of  a  coipse,  as  SMong  the 

others,  he  was  to  bear  evident  signs  of  warn-  Arabs  it  still  does,  made  ihe  person  nnelean, 

ing:  —  'His  elothes  shall  be  rent,  and  his  and  that  for  seren  days;  on  Ihs  first  snd 

head  bare ;  and  he  shall  put  a  ooTcring  npon  last  of  which,  the  andean  person  had,  under 

his  apper  lip,  and  shall  cry,  **  Unclean,  nn-  pain  of  death,  to  poriiy  himself  by  the  water 

elean!"'  (Lev.  xiii.  45.)  Aeoording  to  Bab-  of  sprmkling.     Impurity  aeeraed  also  to 

binical  audioiity,  eren  the  entranoe  of  a  leper  the  dwelling  wherein  a  eorpse  lay,  and  to  all 

into  a  house  rendered  it,  and  all  that  it  eon-  its  ftuniture.    He  who  entered  it  was  In  th« 

tained,  unclean.  It  was  the  special  ftmetion  same  way  unelean  for  seven  di^s  (Numb 

of  the  priests,  after  certain  strictly  qpecified  six.  II).    The  partaking  of  feasts  at  ham 

curative  measures,  to  pronounce  die  leprous  rals   involved   undeanness    (Hos.  Ix.  4) 

cleansed  (Lev.  xiv.).    He  who  had  a  itow  Those  were  andesn  who  tondied  a  grave, 

of  seed  communicated  of  his  own  undcan-  or  a  dead  man's  bone.    This  fact  gave  an 

ness  to  those  whom  he  touched,  and  to  what*  opportunity  for  a  display  of  ill-foding  on  tko 

ever  he  lay  or  sat  upon ;  and  those  that  part  of  the  Samaritans,  irho,  in  the  proe«r»- 

touched  sny  of  these  undean  objects  be*  toiship  of  Coponius,  threw,  during  the  Pass* 

came  undean  till  evening.    £ven  his  spittle  over,  dead  men's  bodies  into  the  doisters  of 

made  undean  those  on  whom  it  mi{^t  IdL  the  temple,  iHiieh,  in  consequence,  the  J«wa 

After  eight  days,  the  sick  person,  who,  ae*  could  not  enter  (Jossph.  Antiq.  xviii.  8.  8). 

cording  to  the  Babbins,  was  not  allowed  to  These  laws  and  observanoes  bad,  beyond  n 

come  hito  the  temple,  was  accounted  pure,  doubt,  for  their  olgeot  the  avoidanoe  of  in- 

and  had  to  make  a  epecid  offering  (Lev.  xv.  feetion  and  pollution  of  the  air  from  pntriiled 

2 — 10).    A  woman  who  had  been  put  to  matter,  leading,  as  they  did,  to  the  speedy 

bed  was  in  the  first  period,  that  is,  so  long  removd  and  inteiment  of  dead  bodies,  which 

as  the  lochia  ruhra  lasted,  accounted  unclean,  in  the  East  i»  of  fsr  greater  consequence 

The  duration  of  tlus  period  was  determined,  than  in  colder  dimates. 

in  the  case  of  a  son,  to  be  seven  days;  if  the  The  carcase  of  an  undean  animd  teought» 

child  were  a  dauf^ter,  fourteen  days,  —  a  untfl  the   evening,  undeanness  on   those 

difference  wliich  hid  its  reason  in  tiie  opi-  who  touched  it  (Lev.  xL24,fe^.).    The  car 

nion  held  dso  by  the  Greeks,  that  the  im-  ease  of  certain  small  animds,  as  Hsards  and 

mediate  consequences  of  lying-in  were  in  mice,  made  unclean,  till  the  evening,  dodies 

the  latter  instance  of  longer  duntion :  in  the  and  ftimitare  which  were  required  to  be 

aecond  period,  or  during  the  mitigated  fiow  washed.    If  a  carcase  of  such  sn  animd  fdl 

termed  iochia  alha,  she  was  to  remain  in  the  into  a  vessd,  the  vessel  had  to  be  broken, 

house,  if  her  olbpring  was  amde,  for  thirty-  and  ita  contento  became  unclean.    But  eis 

three  days ;  if  a  feoule,  for  sixty-six  dsys ;  terns  snd  reservoirs  were  not  thus  polluted, 

without,  however,  being  seconnted  legally  probably  because  the  bulk  of  the  water  was 

nnclesn.    At  the  close  of  this  time  of  sep»-  sufllcient  to  prevent  infection, 

ration,  an  olforing  of  purification  had  to  be  L^rons  houses  were  at  the  first  dosed  by 

made.    The  menstrun  of  fbmsles,  which,  In  the  priesto  for  seven  days;  then  the  stones 

the  East,  make  their  appearanoe  as  early  as  to  whidi  the  leprosy  had  attached  itself  were 

the  age  of  from  seven  to  nine  years,  and  last  taken  out,  and  replaced  by  others ;  but,  if  the 

in  hedthy  persons  for  seven  or  eight  dsys,  evil  was  not  thus  put  an  end  to,  the  entire 

rendered  a  female  undean  for  seven  days,  building  was  demoUsbed  (Lev.  xiv.  84, 9eq.)» 

during  which  she  was  not  allowed  to  enter  die  Leprous  clothes  were  shut  up  for  seven  days, 

temple.  If  <  the  issue  of  blood '  lasted  longer  If  the  leprosy  still  proceeded,  they  were  east 

than  usud,  or  took  place  irregularly,  it  was  into  the  fire ;  otherwise  they  were  wadied, 

accounted  a  disonler,  snd  a  femde  so  sfilicted  snd  again  laid  bj  for  a  week.    If,  however, 

was  undesn  during  the  whole  of  ite  dura-  the  stain  remained,  the  garment  was  burnt; 

tion ;  when  the  evil  was  oured,  she  was,  on  If  it  had  disappeared,  the  part  only  where 

the  eighth  day  afterwards,  to  oflwr  an  obla-  it  had  been  was  torn  out,  did  the  praetised 

tion  (Matt  ix.  20.  Luke  viil.  48).  The  im-  eye  of  the  priest  detect  even  a  suspicions 

purity  in  these  cases  communicated  itself  to  shade. 

place  and  seat,  as  well  as  to  those  persons  The  red  heiiisr  brought,  till  evening,  un- 
whose  bodies  osme  in  contact  therewith,  deanness  on  the  priest  who  killed  it,  on 
Many  refinemente  and  much  casuistry  him  who  burnt  it,  as  wdl  as  on  him  who  re- 
fastened  themselves  on  this  psrt  of  the  Mo-  moved  the  sshee  (Numb.  xix.  7).  He  who 
saic  ritual,  which  may  be  still  read  in  Bab-  touched  the  water  of  purification  made  from 


CLE  371  CLE 

thete  aahet,  or  who  with  that  water  cleuiBed  tain  species  were  pronounced  unclean.    The 

another,  waa  himself  unclean  till  the  even-  membierB  of  the  creepingkindmay  be  ranged 

ing,  and  made  unclean  whatever  he  touched  under  three  classes :  —  I.  Those  which  move 

(Numb.  xiz.  18,  9eq,)»  by  the  aid  of  the  under  part  of  the  stomach 

The  lightest  impuiity  was  that  which  ae-  and  belly,  as  serpents,    n.  Those  which, 

erued  from  coodncting  the  scape-goat  into  though   they  have  four  legs,  nevertheless 

the  wildemass,  and  from  the  carrying  out  move  like  reptiles,  as  lizards  and  moles. 

and  burning  the  pieces  of  flesh  of  the  two  III.  Those  which  move  by  short  and  almost 

ain-ofliBrings  on  the  day  of  atonement    This  imperceptible    feet,  as    caterpillars,   centl- 

unoleannesB  vaniahed  on  bathing,  and  wash*  pedes,  ke. 
ing  the  garments  (Lev.  zvi  26,  ieq,).  The  restrictions  imposed  upon  the  Hebrews 

The  impurity  which  any  one  had  brought  by  the  laws  of  Moses  were,  in  their  general 

on  himself  lasted,  according  to  the  above,  results,  as  follows :  —  With  the  exception  of 

for  cither  the  cnirent  day,  or  an  entire  week,  locusts,  the  whole  of  the  inveriebnUe  class 

In  both  cases,  after  the  undeanneaa  was  con-  of  animals  were  declared  unclean ;  of  the 

traoted,  a  washing  of  the  dotbes  (Lev.  zv.  d,  verUhraU,  the  whole  of  the  order  of  rep- 

tq,i  10,  uq*  Numb.  xiz.  31),  or  bathing  tiles;  of  the  orders  mammaUa  and  piscet, 

(Lev.  zv.  18,  21,  uq*    Numb.  xix.  19),  was  that  is,  quadrupeds  and  fishes,  a  classiflca- 

required.    In  certain  natural  states  of  im-  tion  is  made,  restricting  the  clean  quadru- 

purity  of  longer  duration,  purifying  obla-  peds  to  such  as  parted  the  hoof,  and  chewed 

tions  were  oidained  (Lev.  xiL  6— -8 ;   xv.  the  cud ;  and  the  clean  fishes,  to  such  as 

14,  weq, ;  20).  had  fins  and  scales.    These  definitions  are 

In  the  eleventh  chapter  of  Leviticus  it  may  so  precise   and  comprehpnsive,  that  there 

be  seen,  that  certain  living  animals  were  ao*  could  not  be  much  difficulty  in  detennining 

counted  dean,  which  might  be  eaten,  and  what  was  excluded  by  them.    They  permitted 

others  unclean,  which  might  not  be  eaten,  the  eating  of  only  a  few  of  the  graminivorous 

The  first  great  rule  of  distinction  laid  down  quadrupeds,  such  as  oxen,  deer,  and  sheep ; 

in  respect  of  quadrupeds  is  this, —  tliat  all  and  such  fishes,  whether  from  salt  and  fresh 

beaats  that  have  their  feet  completely  cloven,  water,  as  had  the  obvious  characteristics  of 

above  as  well  as  below,  and  at  the  same  time  fins  and  scales. 

chew  the  cud,  were  to  be  accounted  clean ;  Linnasus  divides  the  birds  (ares)  into 
those  which  had  neither,  or,  indeed,  were  seventy 'Cight  genera.  Not  more  than  eleven 
wanting  in  one  of  these  distinguishing  marks,  of  these  are  pronounced  unclean  by  Moses. 
were  to  be  held  unclean.  The  parting  of  the  The  sixty-seven  remaining  genera  include 
hoof  must  be  perfect.  A  division  of  the  hoof  the  whole  of  the  anaeres,  or  goose  and  duck 
contrary  to  that  required  is  to  be  seen  in  the  tribe ;  the  whole  of  the  gaUiMB,  or  grain- 
foot  of  the  dog,  the  cat,  and  the  lion,  where,  eating  tribe,  as  peacocks,  pheasants,  part- 
though  there  are  several  distinct  toes  or  claws  ridges,  quails,  and  common  fowls ;  the  whole 
on  the  upper  side,  yet  they  are  united  by  a  of  the  pat$erei,  comprising  doves,  pigeons, 
membrane  on  the  lower  side.  The  parting  and  numerous  genera  of  small  fruit  and  seed- 
is  not  perfect  Whereas,  in  the  foot  of  the  eating  birds.  It  is  well  known  also,  that 
ox,  the  sheep,  and  the  goat,  the  cleaving  ex-  geese,  ducks,  quails,  and  pigeons,  abound  in 
tends  quite  through  the  foot  Animals  of  Egypt  and  Palestine, 
hooft,  solid  and  nnparted,  as  the  horse,  were  The  distinction  of  dean  and  unclean,  in 
of  course  unclean.  —  See  Cambx..  regard  to  animds,  though  carried  to  a  very 

In  regfard  to  fishes,  dl  that  have  scales  great  extent  in  the  Mosaic  polity,  has,  it 

and  fine  were  to  be  accounted  dean ;  the  rest,  would  almost  seem,  a  foundation  in  nature ; 

unclean ;  —  a  distinction  equdly  dear,  sim-  for  few,  if  any,  persons  are  there,  who  are 

pie,  and  systematic.    Even  to  this  day,  fish  free  from  aversions  and  preferences  in  re- 

witii  fins  and  scdes  are  generally  regarded  spect  to  food- animds.    To  some  extent  our 

as  wholesome,  and  often  delicious;  whfle  modem  feelings  on  the  point  may  be  ascribed 

others,  that  difTer  in  these  particulars,  are  to  prescriptive  usage,  and  the  Jewish  law 

not  unusually  looked  upon  with  distaste  and  may  have  had  a  large  diare  in  their  forma- 

aversion.  tion.     Yet  this  cause  leaves  unexplained 

The  ordinance  respecting  birds  diiTers  from  some  undoubted  facts.    Prejudices  on  the 

the  others,  in  the  absence  of  any  particular  point  are  national.     An  animd  which  on 

distiuctiou  of  dean  and  unclean.    It  merely  one  side  the  English  channel  is  considered 

specifies,  for  the  sake  of  prohibiting  certain  a  luxury,  is  on  &e  other  regarded  with  dis- 

speeies  of  known  birds,  leaving  it  to  be  un-  gust    What,  from  our  ignorance  of  the  cause, 

derstood  that  dl  others  were  dlowed.  may  be  termed  accidentd  associations,  have 

Of  insects,  all  those  that  fly  and  creep,  such  obvioudy  had  an  influence  in  the  formation 

as  flies,  wasps,  and  bees,  together  with  dl  of  our  likings  and  dislikes.  Even  individuds 

that  leap,  were  declared  unclean,  save  the  have  tiieir  peculiar  feelings.     Eels,  which 

locuet  this  man  holds  to  be  a  delicacy,  another 

Among  animals  that  have  legs  so  short  views  with  unconquerable    distaste.      Nor 

that  they  appear  to  creep  on  the  earth,  ccr-  will  those  who  have  studied  the  subject  deny. 


CLE  372  CLE 

fhftt  tbe  appeuranee,  shape,  and  habits  of  ani-  fol  of  disBolving  inflttences,  preaenred  their 
mais  themselyes,  have  much  to  do  in  creat-  individuality ;  and,  if  their  eontinued  exist- 
mg  our  aversions.  How  far  influences  of  enee  to  the  present  hour  offers,  as  it  does, 
this  general  nature  may  have  lain  at  the  a  living  evidence  of  the  reality  of  their  an- 
bottom  of  the  Mosaic  ordinances,  it  is  now  cient  history  and  religion,  as  well  as  of  the 
far  too  late  to  inquire ;  but  their  existence  certainty  and  constant  operation  of  divine 
and  operation  can  scarcely  be  denied,  unless  Providence,  we  have,  in  that  existence  and 
on  the  assumption  that  human  nature  of  old  that  evidence,  another  effect,  and  another  ad- 
was  dissimilar  to  what  it  is  now.  We  seem,  vantage  of  the  distinction  established  be* 
therefore,  justified  in  believing,  that,  as  pre-  tween  clean  and  unclean  in  the  book  of 
ferences  and  dislikes  must  have  existed  long  Leviticus. 

before  Moses,  that  legislator  found  a  Iwge        The  time,  however,  came  when  this  dia- 

mass  of  consuetudinary  law,  whose  existence  tinction  was  to  give  way  befbre  the  liberal 

he  was  obliged  to  recognise,   and  whose  and  humanising  spirit  of  a  universal  religion. 


operation  and  influence  he  judged  it  proper  Among  the  means  for  accomplishing  the 

to  direct.    But  Moses  was  a  religious  law-  moval  of  the  distinction  was  the  vision  which 

giver :  therefore,  these  established  customs,  Peter  underwent  in  Joppa,  the  leason  taught 

being  modified  as  seemed  best,  received  from  by  which  was,  —  *  What  God  hath  cleanMd, 

him  a  religious  guidanee,  sanction,  and  ap-  call  not  thou  common '  (Acts  xi.).    Yet  the 

plication.  heads  of  the  primitive  church  saw  it  to  be 

Now,  since  '  deau '  and  *  unclean '  were  their  duty  to  require  its  members  to  *  abstain 

tantamount  to  what  may  and  what  may  not  from  meats  offered  to  idols,'  lest  they  should 

be  eaten,  Moses  saw  in  this  distinction  a  be  defiled,  or  even  seduced  by  idolatiy  (Acta 

favourable    opportunity   for  effecting    that  xv.20).    The  abolition  of  these  distinctiona 

severance  of  his  people  tnm  all  other  na-  in  food  occasioned  division  and  distuibanoe 

tions  which  was  indispensable  for  the  great  in  the  early  church  (Bom.  xir.),  and  has  not 

religious  objects  he  had  in  view.    Of  all  fisiled  to  leave  a  no  inconsiderable  remnant 

sundering  influences,  none  perhaps  are  so  in  the  usagea  of  the  Catholic  church,  whose 

strong  as  diverse  observances  hi   eating,  severance  firom  the  rest  of  professed  Cliria- 

This  la  exemplified  every  day  in  our  own  ttans  finds  therein  effectual  support 
homes.    Polite  usage  has  established  the        Moses  may  also  have  had  a  regard  to 

fork  as  a  distinction  of  good  breeding.    The  health  in  the  distinctions  of  food  which  he 

single  word  'vulgar'  is  a  wall  of  brass  in  recognised  and  sanctioned.  That  the  grounds 

social  life.    If,  then,  Moses  wished  to  keep  of  this  regard  should  in  many  instances  not 

his  people  fh>m  mingling  in  intercourse  with  appear  obvious  to  us,  in  no  way  makea 

the  idolatrous  Canaanites,  the  Levitical  laws  against  their  existence ;  for  the  lapse  of  cen- 

touching  food  were  most  effectuaL    When  tnries,  and  difference  of  climate,  may  well 

an  Israelite  saw  one  of  the  old  inhabitants  have  caused  his  reasons  to  be  tum  or  im- 

of  the  land  eating  of  that  which  he  held  to  perceptible  to  ua.     It  seems  to  be  admitted, 

be  unclean,  he  would  start  back  with  anti-  that  Uie  prohibition  of  swine's  flesh  may  be 

pathy,  or  even  horror.    That  Moses  had  such  accounted  for  on  dietetic  considerations,  in- 

an  object  is  dearly  intimated :  see  Lev.  xx.  asmuch  as  the  eating  of  it  has  a  strong  ten- 

25,  26.    On  this  point.  Dr.  Kitto's  testimony  denoy  to  produce  diseases  of  the  skin, 
is  as  decided  as  it  is  valuable :  —  while  in        Moral  considerations  may  have  had  some 

Asia,  '  he  had  almost  daily  occasion  to  be  weight  with  Moses.    The  habits  of  animals 

convinced  of  the  incalculable  efficacy  of  such  produce  a  corresponding  impression  on  the 

distinctions  in  keeping   men    apart   tcoia  human  mind.    Hence»  animals  come  to  have 

strangers.     A  Mohammedan,  for  instance,  a  symbolical  meaning.    The  tiger  ^ifies 

might  be  kind,  liberal,  and  indulgent;  but  rage  and  revenge;  the  lamb,  gendeness  and 

the  recurrence  of  a  meid,  or  any  eating,  threw  peace.    To  affix  the  epithet  '  unclean '  on 

him  back  upon  his  own  distinctive  practices  the  first,  and  '  dean  *  on  the  second,  was  an 

and  habits,  reminding  him  that  you  were  an  effectual  way  to  discourage  malevolent  and 

undean  person,  fit>m  your  habits  of  indul-  foster  kind  emotions.    Accordingly,  Leviti- 

genee  in  food  and  drinks  forbidden  to  him,  cus  (zi.)  presents,  on  the  good  and  peaceable 

and  that  his  own  purity  was  endangered  by  aide,  the  ox,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  the  lamb ; 

communication  with  yon.    Tour  own  per-  all  fishes  and  birds  whose  habits  are  agree- 

ception  of  this  feeling  in  him  is  not  to  you  able.     On  the  other  side,  we  find  the  dog, 

less  painful  and  discouraging  to  intercourse,  the  swine,  the  woll^  the  fox,  the  Hon,  the 

than  its  existence  is  to  him  who  entertains  tiger;  birds  of  prey;  the  serpent  tribe,  and 

it.    It  is   a  mutual  repulsion,  continually  insects  and  worms. 

operating ;  and  its  effect  may  be  estimated         These  ordinances  fiinally  conduced  to  form 
from  the  fact,  that  no  nation  in  which  a  dis-     and  keep  alive  in  the  mind  of  the  Israelitea 

tinction  of  meats  was  rigidly  enforced,  has  that  grand  idea  which  pervaded  the  whole  of 

ever  changed  its  religion.'    Doubtless  it  is,  their  religious  system,  but  which  received  ita 

in  no  small  degree,  owing  to  this  food-ritual,  ftill   development    only  in  Christianity, — 
that  the  Jews  have,  under  the  most  power-     namely,  that  Israel  was  a  holy  people,  and 


CLE                     373  C  L  O 

thftt  holiness  was  the  primary  aim  and  final  rapated  to  have  written  two  epistles  (still 

fesolt  of  all  religions  instruction  and  obsei^  extant)  to   the  Corinthians,  and  to  have 

Tances.    See  espeeiaUy  Ley.  xi.  44,  where  suffered    martyrdom    under    the    Emperor 

this  purpose  of  the  food-ritual  is  dedared  in  Tngau. 

▼eiy  emphatie  terms.  CLOTH,  CLOTHING,  ~ Teutonic  words, 

The  subject  over  which  we  have  now  gone  whose  cognates  may  be  found  in  clothe,  elad; 

presents  the  great  Hebrew  legislator  as  inti-  O.  kleid,  the  original  of  our  word  '  clothes : ' 

mately  acquainted  with  natural  history.   This  cloth  signifies  the  material  of  which  clothing 

acquaintance  he  doubtless  derived  in  part  or  garments  are  made.    'Cloth' is  the  repre- 

firom  predecessors;  but  the  laws  given  are  sentative  of  the  Hebrew  —  I.  Bthged,  from 

too  exact,  well  considered,  and  well  founded,  a  Semitico-Sanscrit  root,  meaning  to  cover : 

not  to  have  been  the  result  of  a  special  in-  hence,   'raiment'   (Oen.  xxiv.  M)  ;   *gar- 

quiry,  made  for  the  express  purpose.    To  ment'  (Gen.  xxxviii.  19) ;  'clothes'  (Gen. 

us  they  wear  the  appearance  of  comprising  xxxvlL  d9) ;  ' doth'  (1  Sam.  xix.  13);  * ap- 

a  digest  of  the  best  and  most  advanced  state  pard '  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  0).    IL  Simlah,  from 

of  knowledge  of  the  day.    The  beautifully  a  root,  meaning  to  cover,  or  veil;  whence  the 

simple  and  scientific  division  of  quadrupeds  Arabic  Samlah  denotes  a  large  flowing  gar- 

here  given,  is  one  which,  after  all  the  pro-  ment  with  which  the  body  is  enwrapped, 

gress  made  in  natural  history,  is  not  yet  be-  particularly  such  as  is  used  for  a  covering 

come    obsolete.      Miehaelis    dedares    this  by  night :  hence  it  is  rendered  in  our  ver- 

'  wonderftiL'     But  if  this  is  a  correct  de-  sion  by  'garment'  (Gen.  ix.  28)  ;  'clothes' 

scription,  then  how  eironeous  is  any  account  (Gen.  xliv.  18) ;  '  raiment'  (Gen.  xlv.  22) ; 

of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  which  sets  them  forth  'doth'  (Deut  xxii.  17).     It  is  used  of  a 

as  standing,  even  in  the  days  of  Moses,  low  woman's  garment,  in  Dent  xxiL   6.    III. 

in  the  scale  of  civilisatioit!    There  are,  it  is  Mad  (Lat.  metiii),  to  measure,  used  in  Lev. 

true,  many  animals  spoken  of  in  the  ritud  vi.  10,  of  the  priesf  s  linen  garment :  comp. 

which  we  cannot  now  identiiy  with  certainty.  Jer.  xiii.  25.     IV.  But  the  most  common 

This  our  ignorance  may  be  a  reason  against  word  for  '  clothes,'  in  generd,  is  Levooth, 

any  attempt  minutely  to  observe  the  law  in  signifying  to  cover ;  and  hence  a  '  covering,' 

these  latter  times,  and  so  may  be  of  service  'clothes,'    or    'raiment'    (Gen.    xlix.    11. 

in  helping  forward  its  find  abrogation  in  2  Kings  x.  22.  Job  xxxi.  10). 

the  conversion  of  Israel,  but  can  warrant,  on  As  to  the  materials  of  which  garments 

our  parts,  no  other  feeling  than  that  of  mo-  were  made  in  Pdestine,  our  information  is 

des^,  in  regard  to  its  origind  ddma  and  very  imperfect;  for  it  happens  in  this,  as  in 

merits.    In  a  case  where  our  knowledge  dis-  many  odier  questions  of  antiquarian  interest, 

doses  so  much  that  is  good,  and  even  some-  that  the  things  which  were  best  known  to 

thing  wonderful,  it  may  be  presumed,  that,  the  ancients  are  least  known  to  us,  partly 

were  our  knowledge  more  minute  and  exact,  firom  the  fact,  that,  being  well  known,  no  de- 

our  admiration  would  be  greater.  scription  of  them  was  ever  thought  of,  and 

The  entire  system  of  ordinances  of  which  partly  also  because,  being  things  and  not 
we  have  spoken,  has  been  abrogated.  Yet  ideas,  the  mere  mention  of  them  is  not  de- 
does  it  bear  a  divine  sanction.  Hence  it  is  seriptive,  unless  the  terms  speak  for  them- 
evident  that  Revdation  may  contain,  not  di-  selves,  which  is  rardy  found  to  be  the  case 
solute,  but  relative  truth ;  and  at  one  time  after  the  lapse  of  many  centuries.  In  the 
enjoin,  as  duties,  things  which  at  another  Scriptures  we  find  mention  of  linen,  wooUen, 
time  it  prohibits.  We  might  hence  infer  the  and  silk,  the  chief  substances  whence  rd- 
generd  truth,  that  Bevelation  bears  a  con-  ment  is  still  made ;  —  but  do  the  originds 
stant  relation  to  the  wants  of  successive  ages,  of  these  words  correspond  with  the  artides 
and  so  proves  an  effectud  educator  of  the  for  which  the  words  are  now  employed  ? 
human  race.  The  subject  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  in 

The    abrogation  spoken  of  took  place  Biblicd  antiquities,  and  can  here  be  only 

without  any  express  reped  of  the  ancient  glanced  over. 

ritud :  it  took  place,  in  the  main,  by  the  '  Silk '  is  the  rendering  of  two  Hebrew 

gradud  operation  of  the  higher  principles  words,   Mehthee   (Eiek.  xvi.  10,  18)   and 

and  nobler  sympathies  brought   into   the  Sheek  (Gen.  xli.  42,  margin)  ;  but  it  is  very 

world  by  its  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ    Thus  doubtfbl  if  silk  was  known  to  the  Hebrews 

dways  does  a  superior  extinguish  an  in-  in  the  more  ancient  periods  of  their  history, 

ferior  light,  and  ^e  greater  supersedes  the  In  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  Ptolemies,  silk, 

less.  whose  native  country  is  China  and  Thibet, 

CLEMENT    (L.    mere^vl), —  a    fdlow-  formed  a  very  important  artide  of  commerce 

labourer  of  the  Apostle  Paul  (Phil.  iv.  8).  in  the  hands  of  ^exandrian  merchants,  and 

In  church  history,  he  is  identified,  perhaps  was,  at  a  later  period,  accounted  worUi  its 

without  sufficient  reason  (for  the  name  of  weight  in  gold.    In  Isa.  xix.  0,  occurs  a 

Clement  was  common),  with  Clement,  ae-  word,  Shereekoth,  trandated  in  our  Bible 

counted  the  fourth  Bidiop  of  Rome,  who  is  '  fine  flax,'  but  which  has  been  thought  to 


CLO 


diDOla   ulk,  ttom 

oricDUl  ntme  tut  el\k,  Stnca. 

The  greU  difficulty,  hovcTM,  ii  to  dlMin- 
goub  bttweea  touoa  and  linen  cloth,  aiuce 
Ihej  are  Ijoth  Tcgouble  prodaou,  uid  man 
to  b«  df  lignued  M  leut  •omelimet  bj  the 
BMne  Oreek  word  bymot.  Cotton  —  anAim- 
bic  void  —  ii  I.  waoUj-looking  lubituuw, 
which  coTcn  the  seeds,  sod  is  oontained  with- 
in the  trait  ot  ths  cotton  plmt.  It  ii  pro- 
duoad  by  two  plsnta  —  1.  Onuypurm  herba- 
cnwt,  ot  the  eouon-ahrnb,  which  hss  spmd 
ttom  India,  westward,  as  hr  u  Aftica  ; 


i  CLO 

iDdeed,  long  before  ths  tims  implied  in  tk« 
book  of  Ealher,  a  oommiiraial  iateraoarsa 
ntieted  between  Eastern  and  Weslem  Asia. 
And  not  iinpnibat)lT,eottoaina;inTst7nuiT 
times  hiTS  be«n  grown  in  Syiia,  Egjpt,  or 
soms  nelghbanrlng  lands.  Winer,  after  Bo- 
senmbller,  £nd>  tor  cotton  a  name  of  a  ma  A 
eadier  (weatem)  origin  than  Karfot.  Tbim 
name  is  SkiA,  the  word  lendared  ■  silk '  la 
the  ma^in,  Oen.  xlL  ill.  Thia  word,  wlii<^ 
is  found  as  earlj  as  the  paaaags  jnst  rited,  is 
generallr  rendered  '  fine  linen.'  The  Shiih 
was  employed  for  the  onrtaina  of  the  taber- 
nacle, and  entered  into  the  fabris  of  the  hi^ 
prieaf  a  coat  and  mitre  (Eiod.  ZXT.  i ;  xzviii. 
8S;  xxiix.  aS).  Before  this,  howerer,  it 
was  used  in  E^pt  tor  Yealaree  of  eeremoBj 
(Gen.ili.  Hi).  The  nama  iymn  has  been 
recognised  in  the  Hebrew  Scwlz,  fcnnd  in 
1  Chron.  It.  SI ;  it,  27.  3  Chnn.  ii.  14  j 
iiL  Ii ;  T.  13.  Esther  L  6  i  TiiL  10.  Esek. 
zxTii.  IS ;  and  supposed  lo  be  a  later  desif- 
nation  for  tbs  same  enbatance,  entton  elolh 
of  some  kind  (oomp.  Lnke  xrl.  19). 


and  the  Oouyptum  orAoreiMt,  cotton-lree, 
which  is  aiao  a  native  of  India,  and  does  not 
dlSbi  eesentially  from  the  preceding.  Cot- 
ton, oiiginallj  grown  in  India,  »aa  also  in 
ancient  times  produced  in  Egypt  and  Cjrpras, 
as  w(U  as  in  Syria  and  FaleeuDC.  Northern 
Syria  now  prodncee  eottoo,  though,  being  an 
annual  plant,  the  eropi  are  exposed  to  great 
Tirissitndea.  The  quality,  though  generally 
fine,  is  of  a  short  staple.  The  enltiTsiion  of 
the  eotlOD-plant  is  the  chief  onmpation  of  the 
agricottnral  population  of  the  province  and 
plains  of  Adana.  The  districts  of  Nablona, 
Acre,  and  Jaffa,  piodnoe  eoiton.  The  ootton 
thna  produced  is  sither  made  into  ooaiee 
garments,  or  exported.  Tha  export  waa 
reported  (Bowring),  in  ISIO,  to  ha  of  the 
annual  Tains  of  £9^0,000. 

The  Indian  Dame  ot  cotton  ia  Karpat, 
whieh  has  been  foDod  in  the  similar  Hebrew 
term,  rendered  '  green '  in  Esther  L  6.  Tbe 
name,  as  well  as  the  snbitanee,  may  easily 
have  passed  trata  India  to  tha  Persian  ooort. 


TiAtth  (LeT.  ziiL  AT,  48,'53.'  Ksek.  zlir! 
IT,  IS),  which  ia  rendered 'flax'  in  Josh.  iL 
6.  Jodg.  IT.  IA.  ProT.  xnL  13.  lea.  lii.  9. 
Bos.  iL  a,  showing  that  linen  wu  made  of 
iai;  which  grows  in  Egypt,  eapeoisUy  in 
Ihs  Delta,  and  the  Ticinity  of  Felnsinm,  as 
well  as  in  Palestine.  Oanuenls  of  flsi  seem 
to  have  been  ancientty  in  common  wear 
in  the  latter  country.  FUi  was  wrought 
eapeeially  by  women  tProT.  mi.  18)  into 
garments  (see  passage  Jnst  giTOi),  girdlaa 
(Jer.  liiL  I),  lines  and  ropes  (Eiek.  xl.  3. 
Jndg.  IT.  13),  grave  clothes  or  ahmudi 
(Lake  HIT.  12.  John  lii.  40),  also  Bam 
beaox  or  torches  (laa.  iliL  8;  iliiL  IT). 

For  niment,  men  of  sobstsnoe  and  poei- 
lion  chose  the  finest  linen,  mentioned  ^wT* 
nnder  the  name  of  Sikge^,  which  seems  to 
have  been  chiefly  obtained  ft-om  Egypt.  Tha 
poor  wore  inferior  garments  ot  couae  llax. 

It  was  hoped  that  the  presenation  of  the 
cloth  in  which  the  mummies  are  eUTeloped 
would  haie  thrown  li^t  on  this  difficult 
anbjecl.  This  cloth  was  (ill  recently  held  to 
be  cotton;  but  a  microBcopiB  jnTestigatian  of 
it  by  Thomson,  of  Clitharo,  in  Lanraahire, 
ia  aaid  lo  have  proTed  its  subHtance  lo  be  flax. 
This  doth,  howcTer,  Heiwlotus  terms  byao» : 
hence,  tbe  iutcrenoe  baa  been  drawn,  thai 
whatever  doth  bears  the  name  tyssos  or 
tysnu  most  have  been  linea.  The  conda- 
aion  is  hasty,  and  tar  too  wide.  ByuM  may 
have  been  a  generic  aaase,  descripliTS,  not 
of  ths  material  ont  of  which  a  piece  ot  cloth 
was  made,  bat  its  general  qaility.  Tlins  onr 
Lord  speake  ot  Dives,  as  >  clotbnl  in  purple 
and  fine  linen,'  eTidenily  without  intending 
to  characterise  bis  ^parel  any  Ainher  IliaH 
that  it  was  aamptnous.  Our  modem  sdxf 
Ian  shonld  remeniber  that  ancient  writers 


S  CLO 

man  and  that  of  womsii,  thoogb  then  ma 
a  diatinotion  whioh  Hans  wjaolf  bid*  to  t< 
obMrred,  last  >  iivglMt  of  it  dionld  pn>n 
f&Toonble  to  Tlciona  indnlgeneei  (Dent 
zziL  0).  Femilt  Btdre  «H  diadii([nlsb«d 
bj  puticnlu  iTticlei  of  olothing,  and  b;  « 
^edal  ngud  to  omunent  Md  beui^,  u 
wall  u  to  cnsUmsM  ot  mkteriil. 

Tha  making  of  elotbes  iru  in  all  agea  tha 
bnalnasa  of  temalaB,  and  even  womni  of 
rank  did  Dot  deem  the  emploTmeat  beneatb 
them  (1  Sam.  ii.  19.  Ptot.  tt^j  83.  Acta 
iz.  Sg).  The  onl;  prabibitioii  lo  b«  obMrred 
waa,  diat  linen  and  woollen  should  not  entar 
Into  the  aama  gannecl  (Ler.  zix.  19) ;  b 
pnihibition  which  Jaaephaa  (Anliq.  iv.  6. 
JI)  aaja  vai  qipoinled  tor  the  priesli  only, 
bnt  vhicih  waa  analogoua  to  other  piOTiBion* 
in  tha  lav,  in  regud  lo  the  patljug  togBlluT 
-  things  (Ley.  lii.  18). 


CLO  87 

mia  leaa  Brittoal  than  thomaalna,  andwrola 
fk^nn  and  to  popular  impreiaiona. 

Linen,  however,  ia  tba  piodnet  of  On,  an 
annaal  i^ant  aultiTated  from  tha  oariieat 
petioda  for  in  fibres,  which  an  apon  iata 
thread,  and  woven  into  doth.  It  ha*  a  green 
Item,  from  a  fbol  and  a  half  to  two  faet  high, 
and  a  blna  flower,  which  ia  eoooeeded  bj  ■ 
sapaule  ocmlBiiiing  aaeda.  whenca  oil  la  ob- 
tained.   Flax  ia  tbmid  in  eveij  qoaiter  of 

Of  wooUen  garmenta  wa  Mcd  not  epaak. 
It  i«  obriou  that  TegaUble  aoraringa  and 
dried  akina  (Oen.  iii.  T,  Sl>  vronld  ba  tb* 
earliaat  hnman  olothing;  and,  lAan  aoelety 
had  made  aome  progreaa,  tha  fint  rmonreea 
tor  manataotaring  ginnanta  ware  tha  hair 
and  wool  aflbrdad  b;  flu  hidea  and  aUna  of 
alaoghtarad  animaii. 

Tba  clothing  of  Ibe  Hebrewa,  generally, 
aa  Ibe  climate  reqaired,  waa  looaa,  aaaj,  and 
flowing.  Of  the  exact  fotmadon  of  the  gii- 
menla,  notfabg  ia  tbaai  in  tha  Bible,  except 
BO  f ar  aa  relataa  to  ucrad  vestments.  Bnt 
fashion  icanselT  ever  obangea  among  Orien- 
tals. The  mode  of  one  gmaration  is  thai 
of  tha  enaaing ;  and  so  the  oidinsij  form  r 
lalmant  ia  kept  the  i         ' 


The  clothes  wbioh  w 
and  women  were  —  I.  An  ynder  gamnl; 
KoolHeth,ait  Greek  cAttim, translated  'coat' 

(Gen.  iii.  31;  imii.  3.  Eiod.  xiviii.  4. 
Ezra  ii.  09)  ;  which  waa  bald  together  bf 
the  girdle.  With  this  coat  waa  ■omeiimea 
worn  a  linen  shirt.  Sahdtm  (Jodg.  siv.  12, 
ma^n.  laa.  iiL  38.  Prov.  mi.  31).  The 
latter  was  worn  not  mcrelj  by  persona  of 
eminence,  hot  also  b;  worlimcD,  e.g.  fiaher- 
roen,  who  naed  it  in  order,  tor  freedom  in 
working,  to  be  able  to  throw  off  the  under 
garment  (John  ixi.  7,  'fisher's  coat,'  rather 
wkUt  eoat),  without  being  absolutely  naked. 
Yet,  in  the  phrascolngy  of  the  ancients,  the 
person  who  bad  on  only  the  under  garment 
waa  audtobenaked(ISam.iii.21.  3  9am. 
vi.  20.  Isa.  n.  S),  which  explains  the  pas- 
sage in  John  xii,  T.  It  was  dilTerent  when 
diatiagoiahed  pareona  or  traveUers  (oomp. 
Joseph.  Antii].  ivii.  6,  T)  wore  two  under  gar. 
ments,  of  which  the  upper,  always  longer  than 
le  under,  was  named  either  Mtgeel,  without 
aleeves  (1  Sam.  iviii.  4),  or  Maga&phBth, 
t-aiesune,  which  had  aleeves  (Tea.  iii.  32,  ■  mantles'). 
!  find  al-     But  iheenstom  appeaistohavebeenregarded 

muDL  siwrl  representations  of  the   ^parel     aa  Inxurious  (Hatt.  i.  10.   Luke  ii.  3).    II. 

vum  in  the  dajaof  Jesne,  Em,  David,  and     Atnipper garmatt  i  which  was  thrown  around 

rren  Hoaea.  the  peraoQ,  the  fiimJoA,  mentioned  before; 

There  did  not  exial  in  Palestine  that  de-    eapecially  in  the  Gaw>  of  females,  MUpahgaA 

eided  diflerenee  which  now  prevaHa  among      (Bulhiii.lA,  ■  vaiL'    Isa. iii. 32.  'wimples'). 

moat  civilised  peoplea,  batwean  the  drese  of    Tlieis  wm  sleo  the  Ad^tA  (Qen.  xiv.  2b> 


dress,  a  picture  ot  that  which  was  castomary 
flioniands  of  yeiriL  ago.    In  particular  ai 
the  Araba.Chenativepopulationof  Falei 
and  in  adjacent  countries,  m 


376 


CLO 


paeuliari;  xtL  10),  wiA  wbioh  ghQdnn  alko  mn  !>•- 
dacksd  (Om.  zixvii.  S) )  md  vhirJi,  beiiif 
in  put  0/  foraign  mdu,  were  ngirdsd  u 
DnaUioiul  and  lanriona  (Zeph.  L6).  The 
nuij-ocdoaTnl  robei  which  wire  m*da  of 
•nipiofololhofdii«rMhDM,wwad  li^lhet. 
m  atlU  mad  b j  p«noiu  of  diMinction  in  Iha 
EuL 

WhlU  gummta  of  linoi  ind  aotbm  w«n 
also  higU}  thoDght  of  (Loks  zziiL  II.  Jo- 
wph.  Jaw.  Wu,  iL  1.  ]  ).  Splcndoarin  dnn 
MUM  mnsli  into  Togo*  nudes  the  liter 
Ungi  (Jer.  It.  30.  Zapli.  L  8),  and  pra- 
Viiled  ini  tika  daj»  of  tha  apoatlea  (1  Tin. 
U.B.  1  Fat.  iil.  S).  TlwacribawanproTed 
'to  walk  inlongtobaa'  (Lakait.40;  comp. 


wcra  in  lii 
IB.  Ptot. 


laxea,  on  throwing  lliaiT  lug*  upper 
:r  the  laA  aciD,  made  of  ita  tolde  a 
eapaei^arecept^e  l«n»d  'bosom  ■         stocking,  were  worn  only  by  prieebi.  Both 

irilh  cqumade  lomelimea  of  leather  or  platea 
of  metal  (aae  Boirit),  Woman  wort  also 
hood>,&oiitleta,iadTeila.  Their  ahoea  maj 
mora  properly  be  teimed  aandala,  ainea  lliej 
eoDililedmeiely  of  Bolea  bound  oier  the  feet. 
Oloie*  were  not  unknown;  bat  thsy  ««re 
OMd,notfOromameut,bntiproleetioata  tha 
hand.  Changes  of  raiment  were  rendered 
deiiiablebjtheheMot  the  climate,  and  wen 
mnoh  ID  praetiea  as  tfaaj  are  at  the  preaent 
dajr  (Oen.  xll.  14.  1  Sam.  irriii.  S.  aSiiu. 
zii.aO).  Stmipluonselolhingwukeplready 
for  great  oeeaaiona,  sach  a*  appeuance  at 
ooQrt,  and  mairiage  festititiea;  rich  ward- 
robe* were  acquired  and  kept  up  by  the  great 
■nd  opulent,  out  of  which  dieir  Tisiton  were 
supplied  (laa.  iii.  t.  Job  nrii.  10.  Lake 
XT.  22) ;  and  whoie  treainres  aerred  for 
great  and  royal  penonagea  10  make  preientt 
ftom  (1  Sam.  xriiL  d.  2  Kingav.O.  Eather 
ii.  4;  tL  8,  11).  From  religions  considen- 
tioDB,  the  dodiei  wen  changed  when  a  per- 
son became  leritically  impure  (LeT.  n.  Jl, 
S7 1  iL  35 ;  IT.  13).  Hotuning  clothe*  con- 
sisted of  coarse  materials,  as  atiJl  in  the 
Esat,  sesnty,  and  withoat  slecTes.  Such 
dourad  and  embroidered  robe*  attire  wu  in  aome  cases  adopted  as  lymbo- 
;h  estimation  (2  Sam.  i.  Hi ;  liii.  Uoal  by  prophela  and  ascetics.  A  species  of 
""  82.    F.ather  Tiii.  10.    EicIl     unifbrm  w«a  woni  by  eoortien   and  cooit 


C  L  O  377  C  L  O 

offlcen  (1  Kings  x.  5.    Isa.  zxii.  21).    The  used  by  ike  Romans,  the  Arabs  Join  together 

dress  of  the  priests  was  peculiar.  with  thread,  or  with  a  wooden  bodkin,  the 

Of  Greek  and  Roman  articles  of  dress,  two  upper  oomers  of  this  gannent;  and,  after 

we  find  mention  made  of —  I.  The  ehlamys  having  placed  them  first  over  one  of  their 

(2  Maoc.  zii.  85, '  eoat')f  which  was  a  large  shoulders,  they  then  fold  the  rest  of  it  about 

cloak  or  upper  eorering,  worn  by  hunters,  their  bodies.     The  outer  fold  serves  them 

soldiers,  and  especially  horsemen.     U.  A  firequently  instead  of  an  apron,  wherein  they 

travellmg  coai  (2  Tim.  It.  18,  phenole$,  p«-  oarry  herbs,  loaves,  com,  &c. ;  which  prao- 

nula, '  cloak '),  which  the  Romans  wore  orer  tice  may  fllustrate   seversl  Scriptural  allu- 

their  tonic,  and  i^ieh  was  provided  with  a  aions,  as  (fathering  the  lap  fGll  of  wiM 

cape  for  sheltering  the  head.  And,  III.  The  gourds  (2  Kings  iv.  80),  rendering  seven- 

mflitaiy' purple  robe,*  cAZam^ibAittiie  (Matt,  fold,  giving  good  measure  into  the  bosom 

zxvii.  28),  a  woollen  scarlet-coloured  mantle,  (Ps.  Izziz.  12.    Luke  yl.  88),  and  shaking 

edged  with  purple,  which  the  Roman  gene-  the  lap  (Neh.  t.  18). 
rals  and  hi^  offleers  wore,  and,  before  Dio-        The  humoote,  which  answers  to  our  cloak, 

detian,  the  emperors  also.  is  often  for  warmth  worn  over  these  hykes. 

These  scanty  indications  of  Greek  and  This,  too,  is  another  great  branch  of  their 
Roman  Yestments  are  such  as  we  should  ex-  woollen  manufactory.  It  is  woTcn  in  one 
pect  to  find.  Had  there  been  none  in  the  piece,  with  a  cape  for  a  oover  to  the  head. 
Scriptures,  this  would  have  occasioned  diffi-  and  wide  below  like  a  doak.  Some  are 
culty,  under  the  oonsiderationof  the  influence  fringed  round  the  bottom.  If  we  except  the 
which  the  Graeco-Romsn  civilisation  pos-  cape  of  the  bumoo$e,  which  is  used  only  oc- 
sessed  throughout  the  East,  from  the  days  easionaUy,  and  during  a  shower  of  rain,  or 
of  Alexander.  Had  these  notiees  been  more  in  very  cold  weather,  Arabs  often  go  bare- 
direct,  they  might  hare  been  suspected  of  headed  all  the  year  long,  only  binding  their 
fabrication :  had  diey  been  more  numerous,  temples  with  a  narrow  fillet,  to  prevent  the 
they  would  have  occasioned  trouble  to  the  hsir  from  being  troublesome.  But  the  Moors 
sacred  expositor,  who  would  have  had  to  ex-  and  Turks,  wiUi  some  of  the  principal  Arabs, 
plain  how  the  dothing  of  colder  climes  could  wear  upon  the  crown  of  the  head  a  small 
force  itself  on  unchanging  Easterns.  hemispherical  cap  of  scarlet  doth,  another 

Shaw  has  given  an  account  of  the  general  great  branch  of  their  woollen  manufactory, 

dress  of  the  Arabs  ('  Travels,'  224,  seq,),  the  The  turban,  as  they  call  a  long  narrow  web 

substance  of  which  we  here  lay  before  the  of  linen,  silk,  or  muslin,  is  folded  round  the 

reader.    The  chief  branch  of  their  manufao-  bottom  of  these  caps ;  and,  by  the  number 

tnre  is  the  making  of  hyhes,  or  blankets  as  and  fadiion  of  the  folds,  distinguishes  the 

we  should  call  them.    In  this  work  are  em-  several  orders  and  degrees  of  soldiers,  and 

ployed  only  women,  who  do  not  use  the  sometimes  of  dtizens,  one  fhmi  another, 
shuttle,  but  conduct  erery  thread  of  the  woof        Under  the  hyke  some  wear  a  close-bodied 

with  their  fingers.    These  hyke$  are  of  dif-  frock  or  tunic  {AJillehba  they  call  it),  with 

ferent  sizes,  and  of  different  qualities  and  or  without  deeves.    This,  too,  no  less  than 

fineness.    The  usual  size  of  them  is  six  the  hyke,  is  to  be  girded  about  their  bodies, 

yards  long,  and  five  or  six  feet  broad,  serving  especoaUy  when  they  are  engaged  in  any  1»- 

for  a  complete  dress  in  the  day ;  and  as  they  hour,  exercise,  or  employment ;   at  which 

sleep  in  their  raiment,  as  the  Israelites  did  times  they  usually  throw  off  their  bumoatei 

of  old  (Deut  xxiv.  18),  it  serves  likewise  for  and  their  hyhes,  and  remain  only  in  these 

a  bed  and  eovering  by  night    It  is  a  loose  tunics.    And  of  this  kind  probably  was  the 

but  troublesome  garment,  being  f^quently  garment  wherewith  our  Saviour  might  stOl 

disoonoertedy  and  fUlxng  to  the  ground ;  so  be  clothed,  when  he  laid  aside  his  garments 

that  the  person  who  wears  it,  is  every  moment  {hyhe  and  humoose),  and  took  a  towel  and 

obliged  to  tuck  it  up,  and  fold  it  anew  about  girded  himself  (John  xiii.  4;  comp.  xxi.  7. 

his  body.    This  shows  the  great  use  there  Acts  xii.  8).    '  Now  the  hyke  or  bttrnoose,  or 

is  of  a  girdle,  whencTcr  the  Arabs  are  con-  both,  being  probably  at  that  time  the  proper 

eemed  in  any  active  employment ;  and,  in  dress  of  the  Eastern  nations,  when  a  person 

eonsequence,  the  force  of  the  Scripture  in-  had  taken  them  off,  he  might  be  said  to  be 

junction  of  having  our  loins  girded.    Ruth's  naked,' that  is,  according  to  the  import  of 

▼efl,  which  hdd  six  measures  of  bariey  (Ruth  the  word,  undressed.    The  convenient  and 

iii  15),  might  be  of  the  same  make,  as  were  uniform  shape  of  these  garments  may  illus- 

dso  the  dothes,  the  upper  garment  of  the  trate  avariety  of  expresdons  and  occurrences 

Israelites  (Exod.  xii.  84),  wherein  they  en-  in  Scripture.    Thus,  among  other  instances, 

wrapped  their  kneading  troughs :  the  Moors  we  read  that  the  goodly  raiment  of  Esau 

and  Arsbs  still  enfold  in  their  hyhes,  things  was  put  upon  Jacob ;  that  the  best  robe  was 

of   like    burden  and    incumbrance.     The  brought  out  and  put  upon  the  prodigd  son; 

plaid  of  the  highlanders  in  Scotland  is  of  and  that  raiment,  and  changes  of  raiment, 

the  same  nature.  are  often  given,  and  immediatdy  put  on. 

Instead  of  the  Jibula  (buckle),  that  was        Girdles  are  usudly  of  worsted,  very  artftilly 


CLO  378  CKI 

woren  into  •  ▼ariety  of  figures,  each  u  the  'the  powder  of  lead  ore/    And  m  this  is  per- 

rieh  girdles  may  be  supposed  to  have  been,  formed  by  first  dipping  into  the  powder  a 

mentioned  in  Prov.  xxxi  24.    They  are  made  small  wooden  bodkin,  of  the  thidkness  of 

to  fold  several  times  about  the  body,  one  end  a  quill,  and  then  drawing  it  throogh  the  eye- 

of  which,  being  doubled  back  and  sewed  along  lids,  over  the  ball  of  the  eye,  we  haye  a  lively 

the  edges,  serves  them  for  a  purse,  agreeable  image  of  what  the  prophet  ( Jer.  iv.  80, 

to  the  aceepUtion  of  the  word  zon€  (girdle)  '  Though  thon  rendest  thy  Uie%  wUh  painting.' 

in  the  Scriptures,  rendered  *  purse '  in  IdCatt.  or  *  lead  ore ')  intended  to  convey.   The  soolj 

X.  9.  Mark  vi.  8.    The  Turks  fix  their  knivea  eolour  which  is  thus  communicated  to  tiie 

and  poniards  in  the  girdle,  while  the  writers  eyes  is  thought  to  add  a  wonderful  graoeful- 

or  secretaries  suspend  on  them  their  ink-  ness  to  persons  of  all  complexions.    The 

horns,  a  custom  as  old  as  the  prophet  £se-  piaetiee  is  of  the  greatest  antiquity, 
kiel  (ix.  2).  The  ordinary  garments  of  Orientals  pio- 

It  is  customary  for  the  Turks  and  Moors  duoe  very  marked  effects,  especially  on  straa- 
to  wear  shirts  of  linen,  cotton,  or  gauze,  un-  gers.  The  following  is  the  description  of  a 
demeath  the  tunic ;  but  the  Arabs  wear  wool-  preacher  and  his  audience  in  the  Holy  8e- 
kn  only.  The  sleeves  of  these  shirts  are  pulohre :  —  *  The  scene  was  snoh  as  Bern- 
wide  and  open,  without  folds  at  the  neck  or  brandt  would  have  exulted  in,  and  such  as 
wrist  Those  of  the  women  are  often  of  the  Bembrandt  alone  could  have  paimted.  Tha 
richest  gaoze,  adorned  with  diiTerent-ooloiir-  lights  and  shadowa  east  by  the  nnmeroua 
ed  ribands,  interchangeably  sewed  to  each  torches  were  eqval  to  the  finest  efforts  of  his 
other.  imagination.    In  the  centre  stood  the  pro- 

Those  of  both  sexes  who  live  in  cities  wear  minent  figure  of  the  group,  the  preacher,  — 

drawers,espeeiallywhen  they  go  abroad  or  re-  a  tall,  handsome,  but  austere-looking  Spa- 

eeive  visits.    But  when  women  are  at  home,  niard,  whose  eyes,  of  the  darkeat  hue,  flashed 

•ad  in  private,  they  lay  aside  their  hfket,  and  fire  as  he  warmed  on  his  subject    EUs 

sometimes  their  tunics;  and,  instead  of  draw-  Franciscan  garb,  bound,  not  indeed  with  a 

ers,  they  bind  only  a  towel  about  their  loins,  leathern  girdle  about  his  loins,  but  with  tho 

When  females  appear  in  public,  they  al-  knotted  cord  of  his  order,  —  the  oriental 
ways  fold  themselves  up  so  closely  in  their  tongue  in  which  he  q»oke,  —  his  vehement^ 
AyMt,  that,  even  without  their  veils,  you  can  impassioned, but  not  ungraceful  action,  —  all 
diseover  very  httle  of  their  faces.  But  in  combined  to  bring  the  Baptist  riridly  before 
summer  monfiis,  when  ladies  retire  to  their  the  fancy.  His  audience,  too,  were  strictly  in 
country  seate,  Uiey  walk  abroad  with  less  keeping ;  and,  in  costume  and  i^ppearance, 
eantion ;  though  even  then,  on  the  approach  admirably  represented  those  who  flocked  to 
of  a  stranger,  they  always  veil  themselves,  hear  the  voice  of  him  that  cried  in  the  wii- 
as  Bebekah  did  on  sight  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxiv.  demess.  The  turbaaed  heads,  the  bearded 
6ft).  They  are  fond  of  having  their  hair  faces,  the  flowing  robes ;  the  wealthy  Maron- 
long,  extending  even  to  the  groimd :  it  is  the  Ite  and  Armenian,  in  garmento  of  fine  cloth 
great  object  of  their  pride  (Isa.  xxii.  12) :  and  rich  silks,  standing  beaide  the  wild  Arab 
collecting  it  into  one  lock,  they  bind  and  plait  in  his  simple  shirt  of  blue  cotton,  and  the 
it  with  ribands,  a  piece  of  ornament  disap-  fieroe-looldng  Bethlehemite,  clad  in  his  wool- 
proved  by  the  apostle  (I  Pet  iii.  8).  "When  len  buimoose,  alternately  striped  white  and 
nature  hiw  been  less  liberal,  the  defect  is  brown,  —  the  Greek  caloyer,  with  his  raven 
supplied  by  art,  foreign  hair  being  interwoven  locks  flowing  over  his  dhoulders  from  be- 
with  the  natural.  Absalom's  hair,  which  neath  a  quadrangular  black  cap,  and  a  noble 
was  sold  for  200  shekels,  might  have  been  beard ;  and  his  lay-countryman,  in  his  close 
applied  to  this  use  (2  Sam.  xiv.  26).  After  red  skull-cap,  omamealed  with  a  blue  ta»- 
the  hair  is  thus  plaited,  they  dress  their  sel,  surmounting  the  same  profusion  of  hair, 
heads  by  tying,  above  the  look,  a  triangular  richly  embroidcored  vest  and  jacket,  white 
piece  of  linen,  adorned  with  various  figures  petticoat,  and  scarlet  greaves,  still  the '  fiill- 
in  needle  work.  This,  among  persons  of  haired  and  well-greaved  Greeks/  with  various 
fashion,  is  covered  with  a  tannah  (a  word  others,  formed  a  group  at  once  diversified 
of  like  sound  with  that  rendered  *  round  and  harmonious,  with  which  our  angular 
tires  like  the  moon,'  in  Isa.  ilL  18),  which  and  scanty  European  habilimento  did  not 
is  made  in  the  same  triangular  shape,  of  at  all  assimilate '  ('  Three  Weeks  in  Pales- 
thin  flexible  plates  of  gold  or  silver,  artifi-  tine,'  pp.  27,  28). 

oiaUy  out  through,  and  engraven  in  imita-        CNIDUS,  —  a  peninsula  in  the  £gean 

tionoflaee.    A  handkerchief  of  crape,  gaoxe.  Sea  (the  Archipelago),  between  the  islands 

silk,  or  painted  linen,  bound  close  over  the  Cos  and  Bhodes,  fonoing  the  south-wes- 

sannaA,  and  falling  carelessly  on  the  favourite  torn  point  of  Caria,  and  having  a  chief 

lockof  hair,  completes  the  head-dress  of  the  city  of  the  same  name.     It  was  distin- 

Moorish  ladies.  gnished  for  the  worship  of  Venus.    Paul,  in 

But  the  personal  adornment  is  not  finished  his  voyage  to  Bome,  eame  near  to  Cnidna 

tin  the  eye-lids  are  tinged  with  al-kahol,  Le.  (Aoto  xxvii.  7). 


COA 


379 


COA 


COAL  is  a  word  which  miy  be  traced  in 
the  Hebrew  gehol,  the  Persian  ffhal,  fcho  San- 
scrit gwal,  the  Latin  calexe,  and  the  German 
kohUi  the  root-meaning  of  which  is  to  be 
hot ;  hence,  as  a  noun,  a  combustible.  When 
we  attempt  to  determine  what  kind  of  a  com- 
bustible was  intended,  we  find  oorselTes  in 
difficulty,  arising  from  a  want  of  materials 
for  forming  a  conclusion.  As  the  soienee 
of  fossil  botany,  and  of  fossils  in  general, 
is  of  modem  origin,  we  cannot  expect  to  find 
any  satisfactory  information  in  ancient  writ- 
ers, though  one  or  two  passages  have  been 
suggested  which  wear  some  appearance  of 
referring  to  mineral  ooaL  We  have  not, 
however,  met  with  any  facts  which  prove 
that  such  eoal  was  known  to  the  (Greeks  or 
Bomans.  In  this  island,  coal  is  said  to  have 
been  in  use  as  early  as  the  Boman  era;  for 
some  have  held  that  cinders  and  pieoes  of 
ooal  have  been  found  in  Boman  roads  and 
walls,  and  Boman  coins  in  beds  of  cinders. 
Similar  evidence  has  been  adduced  to  earry 
fossil  coal  back  to  the  age  of  our  British 
aborigines.  That  ooal  exists  in  Syria  was 
put  beyond  a  doubt  by  Bowring,  in  his  Be- 
port  on  that  country.  In  Lebanon  there  are 
many  indications  of  this  fossil.  Seams  of 
it  crop  out  in  various  parts.  We  give  an 
extract  from  the  valuable  document  to  which 
we  have  referred  (p.  20): — ^'I  visited  the 
coal-mines  on  Mount  Lebanon,  which  the 
Pacha  is  working.  The  difficulty  of  aocess, 
and  consequent  cost  of  transport,  must 
make  the  undertaking  one  of  very  doubtful 
result.  The  descent  is  long  and  precipitous 
from  the  village  of  Gomail,  and  the  mines 
appear  in  a  Tery  unsafe  state ;  for  our  can- 
dles were  frequently  extinguished,  and  the 
oppression  of  the  atmosphere  was  great 
The  galleries  enter  the  mountain  hori- 
zontally. The  quantity  of  eoal  is  consider- 
able, but  rather  of  a  sulphureous  quality. 
The  number  of  workmen  is  )  14.  The  ope- 
rations were  under  the  direction  of  an  En- 
glishman; but  he  has  been  superseded  by 
a  Turk,  who  appeared  to  have  but  little 
knowledge  or  experience  to  fit  him  for  the 
discharge  of  his  duties.  The  quantity  of 
eoal  extracted  in  1837  was  about  four  thou- 
sand tons.*  Bussiger  also,  in  his  extensive 
travels,  visited  the  coal-mine  near  ComaQ, 
and  another  at  Mar  Henna. 

It  cannot,  however,  be  safely  inferred  that 
mineral  coal  was  known  to  the  ancient  Sy- 
rians ;  and  if  it  were,  its  transport  down 
into  Palestine,  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be 
used  for  friel,  would  have  been  difficult. 
Wood,  indeed,  was  any  thing  but  abundant 
in  Palestine,  but  the  winter  was  short  and 
little  artificiiil  beat  was  needed.  As  fur  as 
our  knowledge  extends,  fhel  was  found,  not 
in  fossil  eoti,  but,  besides  wood  (Gen.  xxii. 
7.  1  Kings  zvin.  28.  Prov.  xxvi.  20),  m  dried 
grass  (Matt.  vi.  30.  Luke  xii.  28),  light  tc- 
getable  substances,  such  as  straw  and  chaff 


(Matt  iiL  12),  and  animal  dang  (Ezek.  iv. 
12,  15). 

We  will  now  advert  to  the  words  rendered 
<eoal'  in  the  common  version,  premising 
that  the  use  of  diat  term  does  not  prove 
that  the  mineral  so  called  is  Intended 
First,  pegakm,  whieh  Filerst,  deriving  it 
from  a  root  signifying  *  black,'  takes  to  mean 
ooal  in  general,  and  others  consider  to  be 
unignited  eoaL  The  passages  in  which  it 
occurs  do  not  seem  to  give  aid  in  deter- 
mining what  kind  of  coal  was  intended 
(PioT.  xxvi.  21.  Is.  xliy.  12;  liv.  16). 

In  1  Kings  xix.  6,  a  word  which  occurs  no- 
where else,  retutph,  translated  '  eoal,'  seems 
to  mean  a  heated  stone  for  baking  on,  still 
called  by  the  Arabs  by  a  similar  name  and 
nsed  for  a  similar  purpose. 

A  fourth  tiBina,re9hephj  is  translated ' eoals 
in  Oantioles  viii.  6.  Habbakuk  iiL  5,  where 
'flames*  would  be  more  eorreet  Finally, 
tkegor,  in  Lamentations  iv.  8,  is  rendered 
by  <  coal,'  which  may  probably  be  accounted 
eorreet 

In  John  xviiL  18,  oomp.  25,  a  word  is  em* 
ployed  (firom  the  Greek  aMhrax)  which  sig* 
nifiied  charcosl,  no  passage  having  been  pro- 
duced in  which  the  word  or  any  of  its  deri* 
vatives  necessarily  means  fossil  coal. 

The  word  most  freqaently  used  in  die 
Hebrew  is  one  derived  from  gehol,  which 
we  have  mentioned  above.  This  combusti- 
ble, we  find  from  Lev.  svi.  12,  was  used  in 
censers,  for  which  purpose  charcoal  would 
be  best  suited,  a  view  &ftt  is  supported  by 
Psalm  cxx.  4  (<  coals  of  juniper'  (broom). 
Other  passages,  however,  have  been  pointed 
out  where  some  have  thought  mineral  coal 
was  meant;  and  had  it  been  proved  that 
mineral  coal  was  anciently  known  in  Western 
Asia,  the  langpiage  might  be  understood  to 
refer  to  that  substance.  In  Ps.  xvilL  12,  we 
find  '  hafl  and  coals  of  fire '  put  together  in 
A  manner  that  is  accordant  with  the  suppo- 
sition of  fossil  coal  being  intended.  In 
2  Sam.  xiy.  7,  the  extinction  of  a  family  is 
likened  to  the  quenching  of  the  remains  of 
burning  coal — a  metaphor  the  expressive- 
ness of  which  may  in  part  depend  on  mine- 
ral coal  being  meant  The  same  may  be 
said  of  Job  xli.  21,  where,  with  great  boldness 
and  force  of  imagery,  the  breath  of  Leviathan 
is  made  to  set  on  ire  coals  (beds  of  coal  in 
situ  f    Comp.  Ps.  xviii.  8). 

<  His  breath  kSndleth  coals, 
And  a  flame  goeth  out  of  hit  month.' 

The  operations  of  the  smith  are  described 
by  Isaiah  so  as  to  bring  the  smithy  before 
the  eye,  and  in  terms  &at  are  compatible 
with  the  supposition  that  the  fhel  was  mine- 
ral coal : — *  The  smith  with  the  tongs  both 
worketh  in  the  coaU  and  fashioneth  it  with 
hammers,  and  worketh  it  with  the  strength  of 
his  arms'  (xliv.  12).  Again— '  Behold,  I  have 
created  the  smidi  that  bloweth  the  eoals  hi 


COC                      380  COC 

the  fii«,  uid  that  bringeth  torUk  an  instm-  Matthew  speaka  merely  of  the  oockcrowing; 
mentforhia  work' (Ut.  16).  Mark,  of  the  oook  erowinf  twice:  Luke 
000 K  (the  name  given  from  the  aoond^,  agreea  with  Matthew ;  ao  doea  John.  Mas- 
the  male  of  the  common  domeatio  fowl,  thew  predieta  that  Peter  ahonld  deny  Jems 
gaihu  gaUmaeeui.  Cockorowing  ia  men-  thrice  before  the  cock  crew,  and  recoida  a 
tioned  in  tile  New  Teatament  (Mark  ziii.  threefold  denial.  Mark's  worda  are,  'Beforw 
80):  —  *  Watch  ye,  therefore;  for  ye  know  the  cock  crow  twice,  ihon  ahalt  deny  mm 
not  when  the  master  of  the  liouae  cometh,  thrice : '  in  accordance  with  tfiia,  he  makes 
at  eren,  or  at  midnight,  or  at  the  cockcrow-  Peter  deny  thrice,  and  the  cock  crow  twioe. 
ing,  or  in  the  morning.'  Beference  ia  here  Lnke  has  only  one  denial  and  one  cock- 
made  to  the  four  watchea,  each  of  three  crowing.  John  has  two  deniala  and  oda 
honra,  into  which  the  Bomans  ~-  and,  when  cockorowing.  Now,  it  ia  easy  to  aee,  thai 
aulject  to  them,  the  Jewa  —  divided  the  Peter  woold  be  led  to  deny  his  Master  acre- 
twelve  hours  in  the  night,  from  aix  in  ral  timea;  and  aa,  whether  once  or  more 
the  evening  to  six  the  next  morning.  The  than  once,  be  still  denied  him, — so  a  writer 
watchea  would  run  thoa :  —  I.  6 — ^9;  II.  0 —  might  aay  either,  'Peter  denied  Chriat,'  or 
12 ;  III.  Id— a ;  IV.  8—6.  Theae  watchea  •  Peter  denied  Chriat  three  timea.'  There  is 
were  announced  by  the  blowing  of  military  no  diflculty  here.  But  Mark'a  narratiTe 
home.  The  cockcrowing,  then,  was  the  does  create  a  difficulty  in  the  alleged  two 
third  watch,  from  13—3.  We  are  now  in  a  crowings ;  for  a  second  cockcrowing  would 
condition  U>  understand  our  Lord's  predio-  not  occur  till  three  o'clock  in  the  mom- 
lion,  —  <  Thia  night,  before  the  cock  crow,  ing  of  the  next  day.  It  may,  indeed,  be 
thou  ahalt  deny  me  thrice'  (Matt  xxvL  84).  supposed,  but  with  little  probability,  that 
In  ver.  74,  the  fulfilment  is  recorded,  —  the  third  watch  was  introduced,  aa  well  as 

*  Immediately  the  cock  crew.'  The  predic-  terminated,  by  a  cockcrowing ;  that  ia,  a 
tion  in  efEeot  said,  that,  in  a  few  hours,  by  blast  of  trumpets,  announcing  the  watch 
daybreak,  Peter,  ao  confident,  ao  lavish  in  and  the  hour.  In  this  case,  there  would  be 
promises,  would  even  deny  Christ  two  crowings ;  one  at  twelve  o'clock,  or  mid* 

Thia  event  aeema  to  have  atrongly  im-  night,  and  the  other  at  three  o'doek  in  the 

preaaed  the  minda  of  the  evangelista,  as  morning.    But  we  cannot  easily  imagine, 

they  all  record  it  (Mai^  xiv.  80.  Luke  zxiL  that  the  bugle  at  or  near  midnight  could 

14.  John  xiiL  88).      And  undoubtedly  it  have  been  in  any  way  termed  cockcrowing; 

ia  striking  and  forcible.      It  had  alao  on  a  deaignation  which  obviously  originated  in 

ti&e  heart  of  Peter  very  marked  effecta.    The  the  early  riaing  and  crowing  of  the  cock, 

cockcrowing,  aa  announced  by  hia  Master,  Besides,  this  hypothesis  would  set  Mark  in 

happening   at   the   moment   that  he  had  oppoaition  to  himself;  for  he  very  distinctly 

thrice  denied  his  Lord ;  and  brought  to  hia  fizea  the  time  to  the  then  coming  day,  — 

eara,  and  echoed  in  hia  bosom,  by  the  horna  •  Thia  day,  in  this  ni^t '  (xiv.  80).    Milton 

of  the  Bomana,  announcing  the  change  of  has  well  defined  the  time  of  cockcrowing,  in 

guard  and  the  hour  of  the  night,  —  atartled  hia  '  Allegro : '  — 

and  ^ook  him,  and  occaaioned  a  deep-felt  « whOe  the  eock,  with  liTdy  dlii, 

conviction  of  hia  weakneaa,  treachery,  and  8oatt«n  fke  rear  <|^darfene»  fUi, 

guilt    Matthew  haa  recorded  the  conaeqnent  A^^  ^  f*^  Y'  *'^  bariMlocr, 

itate  of  hia  aoul  in  worda  which  are  charac  „     Btootty  strata  hit  d«nt«  b«tor«. 

teristic  of  Scriptural  brevity  and  point:—  ^^^^  ^^^  cucumstancea,  we  are  led  to 

•  And  he  went  out,  and  wept  bitterly  •  (75).  ^}^^  ^•^  J^ark's  text  haa  been  tampered 
The  recollection  of  that  moment  would  ne-  with,  —  probably  by  aome  m  a  Uter  age, 
▼er  leave  the  heart  of  Peter,  and  would  plead  ^l*®  ^  ignorance  took  the  cockcrowing  hte- 
very  poweifWly  in  the  perila,  dutiea,  and  rally,  and  thought  there  waa  point  and  force 
trials  of  after-life,  on  behalf  of  that  Saviour  ^  ^^  antotheUcal  « Before  the  cock  crow 
whom  he  had  baaely  denied;  and  the  nar-  *«««*»  *®"  ^^^  ^^9  "*•  thrice:  Certify 
rative  ot  the  event,  aa  it  paased  from  the  **»«  word  *  twice,'  dit,  is  omitted  in  some 
contrite  Peter's  Ups,  in  his  ministry  of  ^^^^  manuscripts,  among  which  ia  that  of 
the  word  of  life,  would  speak  with  etfoct  Beia,  of  high  authority,  end  writtm  as  eariy 
to  the  minda  and  hearts  of  his  auditors,  •■  ^^  seventh  century,  A.D.  The  manu- 
aiding  forward  his  great  purpose,  —  the  •«rip'  termed  JJ«y»«*,  about  the  aame  age, 
conversion  of  hia  brethren  to  Jesus  the  o""»  "'^  "^  corresponding  worda  —  'a 
Chriat  aeoond  time'  (ver.  72).    That  auperatition 

With  an  entire  agreement  as  to  substance,  ■©o"  1*^^  hold  of  the  event  here  spoken  of 

the  four  evangelical  narratora  exhibit  aome  "  evident  from  the  foct,  that,  ao  eariy  as  in 

variaUona  in  uneaaential  pointa,  thus  pre-  ^«  fomih  century,  cockcrowing  came  to  be 

aenting  an  instance  of  occurrence  not  un-  considered  as  of  power  to  dispel  evil  spirits; 

common,  not  only  in  the  Oospels,  but  other  fo»  Prudentius  thus  sang:  — 

historiea;   and  affording  us  an  evidence,  *f "?™*  ^*8;|°?"  *2"<~«* 

«         «                   « .  .         **                       •  ^       «  Lcetos  tenebris  noctitun. 

that  the  evangelists  were  not  copyists  of  GiJlo  eanente  exterrito! 

each   other,  but  independent  witnesses. —  Spsnimtiniereet  cedars.* 


'  They  sajr  that  wuideriiig  dcmone, 

deligbt  in  the  dukneis  of  nlgbl,  an  frigbt-     hai 

eaed  U  cackonnring,  uid  humedtj  ultc  la 

fli^L' 

Poultr;  «u  TBiy  oominon  in  Egypt,  where 
it  was  batched,  as  il  still  ia,  on  a  tbi;  luge 
BDsle,  by  artiBeial  meana.  But  there  is  lit- 
tle etidence  to  show,  that  Ihs  ordinaiy  do- 
mestic fowl  was  eommon  ia  Palestine.  And 
yet  it  could  not  be  onknowu.  aince  oar  Lord 
hence  deriTeil  a  metaphor  whose  pertineacj 
and  beanly  depended  on  the  habits  of  the 
hen  being  ander  the  eje  of  the  people 
(Luke  xiii.  U). 

COCKATRICE  is  a  word  said  to  be  com 
podndad  ot  two  words,  —  iock,  the  bird 
termed  cock,  and  otter,  an  adder  j   for  the 

eookatrica  was  bald  to  b«  a  eerpenl  gene      The  engranng  shows  one  with  deriet*. 

raledfromanegglaidb]>acock,andhatched  earred  in  rehef  and  dinded  mto  oells  abon 
nnderaserpenlCorload).  '  Many  opinions  ia  the  Ld  wbieh  slides  mlo  a  btootb  They 
says  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  in  his  '  Vulgar  are  frequently  of  eostly  mateiiala ;  and  Iheii 
Errors'  (lii.  fi),  'are  passant  coneeniing  forma  are  diTerse,  and  sometime*  groleaqne  ■ 
the  basilisk,  or  little  king  o(  serpenls,  oom-  a  gooae  is  represented,  ready  for  table,  or 
monly  called  Iha  cockatrice  ;  others  denying,  awimming  on  the  water,  and  plnming  itaair: 
moat  doubling,  the  relations  thereof  He  a  fish,  wilb  scales  and  fins,  holda  a  dish  ia 
then  proceeds  to  show  the  difference  betwMn  his  month.  The  oarred  dcTice*  represent  the 
the  basilisk  of  older  writers,  and  the  modem  fsTonrite  lotna-flower,  a  gazelle,  tax,  or  other 
cockatrice.  The  firat  was  in  all  respaols  a  animaL  Many  are  of  considerable  lengflL 
aerpeni :  the  other  is  generally  described 
with  legs,  winga,  a  serpentina  and  winding 
tall,  and  a  crest  or  oomb,  somewhat  like  a 
eork.     The  poison  of  the  cockatrice  was 

>  I  law  how  anTytt  did  rebut  sod  bear  Ibe  inaleit 
Te  trnUr  palson  Is  not  linml  wtthln  the  aocta. 

and  having  the  power  to  kill  at  a  distance,  by 
the  eye  andbypriority  of  lision  ;  so  that,  if  it 
got  the  first  look,  the  effect  was  instant  death. 

It  ie  not  easy  to  deleimios  what  panicniar 
apecies  of  the  serpent  tribe  is  intended  in 
the  passsgei  in  which  the  word  Ttihphag  is 
fonod  (Isa.  liT.  SQ;  see  also  ProT.  iiiii.  33. 
laa.  u.  8;  lii.  0.  Jer.  Tiu.  17).  The  lan- 
guage employed,  howerer,  makes  it  clear 
that  a  TenomoDB  and  dastruotiTf  serpent  is 
meant  From  the  roots  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected, the  name,  which  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily filed  on  any  identified  reptile,  de- 
notes to  AiB  when  in  an  extended  and  pio- 
troded  foiTO.  The  appellations  Biaiiak  and 
Xtgnbi*,  giTBit  to  the  animal,  afford  little 
aid,  except  in  showing  that  il  was  large  and 
imposing  in  iti  qipsaranoe.  In  works  on 
heraldry,  the  ooekatrice  ia  figured  with  a 
erast;  but  no  really  ueslcd  serpent  is  known 
to  exist. 

COFFEB  eomga  immediately  from  the 
French  CDHvrir,  and  is  oonneotad  with  coj^ 
and  Ri^i  '  Coffiir'  signifies  that  which 
coven  i  hence  a  onboard  (formed  under  a 
blsenotionfhim'MiffBr'.'  comp.cii-ofiperire), 
cAesI,  or  iox,  smployed  generally  tbrihe  safe 
kMping  of  article*  Ol  rslue.  Bm  1  Sam. 
li  S.  11,  IB. 


COL  382  C  O  L 

the  box  is  open.    This  coffer,  or  ease,  may  pereone,  in  rirtue  of  lair,  sent  from  Rome,  and 

have  onoe  oontained  eosmetics,  and  aided  settled  on  a  certain  inhabited  spot  of  a  oon« 

its  possessor  in  her  toUeUe,  qnered  land,  where,  in  their  constitution,  they 

COOITATJONS,  —  a  Latin  word,  from  imiuted  their  mother  city,  on  which  they 

eo^tto,  I  refleot,  ^  equiTalent  to  the  Saxon  remained  dependent     The  root-meaning  of 

term  *  thoughts '  or  '  musings.'     It  is  (in  the  term,  to  HU,  shows  that  Roman  colonists 

Dan.  Tii.  28)  the  representative  of  a  Chaldee  were  originally  tillers  or  eultivators  of  the 

word,  which,  in  other  passages  of  the  same  ground.    This  character,  however,  sank  in 

book  (ii.  29 ;  iv.  19),  is  rendered  '  thoughts.'  prominence,  as  the  boundaries  of  Italy  were 

The  same  term  is  also  translated  by  '  vexa-  passed,  and  the  limits  of  the  empire  began 

tion'  in  Eooles.  L  17 ;  ii.  22;  iv.  16.  to  be  extended  over  the  Uee  of  the  earth; 

COLLEGE  (L.  a  place  of  nutting)  is  the  when  colonies  came  to  be  desired  and  re- 
rendering  (in  2  Kings  xxii.  14,  and  2  Chron.  garded  as  ou^osts  and  means  of  defence,  as 
xxxiv.  22)  of  a  Hebrew  word,  MUhneh^  well  as  points  of  aggression.  The  militsxy 
which  is  generally  translated  *  second '  (G^en.  olgects  of  colonisation  soon  became  para- 
xlL  48.  2  Khigs  xxiiL  4) ;  while,  in  the  mount,  which  was  in  consequence  canied  on 
margin  of  2  Kings  xxIL  14,  we  read,  '  in  with  a  view  of  securing  subjugated  lands, 
the  second  part;'  and,  in  the  margin  of  adding  to  the  strength,  and  carrying  Ibr- 
2  Chron.  xjouv.  22,  we  read, '  in  the  sehoo!,  ward  Sie  bounds,  of  the  empire,  as  well  aa 
or  in  the  second  part'  Our  translators  rewarding  a  meritorious  soldiery.  Colon!- 
seem  to  have  had  the  idea,  thai  Mtahneh  sation  also  afforded  to  the  Roman  governors 
denoted  a  plaoe  of  edueation,  probably  a  a  way  for  relieving  the  city  and  the  state 
school  of  the  prophets.  That  the  word  from  a  troublesome  populace,  ready  in  their 
might  have  this  import  appears  probable  poverty  for  any  insurrectionary  movement, 
from  the  fact,  that  it  is  in  substance  the  same  and  by  no  means  indisposed  to  be  provided 
as  MitKHoh,  used  to  denote  the  oral  tradition  with  land  and  food  in  a  distant  yet  riigiUe  • 
taught  by  the  Jewish  doctors,  and  so  trans-  part  of  the  empire.  After  the  batUe  of  Phi- 
mitted  fitun  age  to  age.  As  the  teaching  Hppi,  that  city  received  an  inftision  of  Bo- 
was  oalled  MUhnah,  so  the  place  where  it  was  mans,  and  became  a  ccdony  of  Rome,  eigoyin^ 
tani^t  might  have  had  a  similar  name.  If  what  was  termed  the  Jut  IttJteum  ;  which, 
this  were  so,  we  should  then  possess  a  suf-  when  ftilly  shared,  erected  a  place  into  a 
fioient  reason  why  the  plaoe  where  '  Huldah  ftrse  municipal  corporation,  having  its  own 
the  prophetess'  abode  &ould  be  mentioned;  magistrates,  with  immunity  tnm  land  and 
for  it  would  enhance  her  anthority  if  she  poll  tax,  and  with  liberty  to  possess  and  col- 
were  thus  declared  to  be  one  of  a  recognised  tivate  the  soil. 

learned  dass.    We  are  not,  however,  aware        COLOSSiE  —  at  present  a  village  bear- 

of  any  independent  evidence  to  prove  the  ing  the  name  of  Khonos  —  was,  in  the  days 

existence  at  the  time  (ctr.  600,  A.C.)  of  any  of  Paul,  a  city  of  Phiygia,  to  iHioee  existence 

such  dass,  or  of  any  established  sdiool  or  and  name  coins  still  bear  wituess.    It  lay 

college,  in  Jerusalem ;   though,  at  a  later  near  the  source  of  the  Lycus,  somewhat  to 

period,  distinguished  rabbins  were  accus-  the  north-east  of  Laodieea,  having  Laodieea 

tomed  to  teach  in  the  courts  of  the  temple.  between  itself  and  the  famous  city  of  Ephe- 

The  word  MUhnehf  coming  from  a  root  tus,  which  was  on  the  seacoast  of  Lydia. 

which  signifies  repetUumf  generally  means  More  distinguished  in  ancient  times,  it  waa 

teeondg  and  is  here  understood  by  msny  to  still  in  the  first  oentuiy  a  flourishing  city ; 

indicate 'the  second  cily,' or  the '  imv  town  ;  owing  its  prosperity  to  its  hi^py  position  in  a 

that  is,  the  lower  cUf,  which  was  built  pos-  well-wateied  and  exceedini^y  fruitfiil  plain, 

terior  to  the  tf0p«rctQronMountZion.    But  The  rapid  Lyons,  which  sands  its  waters 

this  interpretation  is  open  to  the  olgection, —  into  the  Meander,  as  it  passes  on  between 

Why  should  such  an  insignificant  fact  be  Ephesns  and  Milstus,to  frdl  into  theiEgean 

mentioned  by  the  writer  of  the  Books  of  Sea,  flowed  tfa20U([^  CoIossb.    One  of  tlMse 

JCings,  and  repeated  in  the  Chronicles  f  highways,  marked  out  by  natore,  by  meana  of 

COLLOPS,  a  word  representing  the  He-  which  Ephesus  and  other  neighbomring  cities 

brew  Peemah,  in  Job  xv.  27,  — >  on  the  coast  were  oonneoted  with  the  interior 

'He  ooTOTStli  his fJMe  with  fSrtnesi,  of  Asia,  rsn  from  an  ancient  period  along 

And  maketh  coOopt  of  fU  on  his  flanlcs;'  the  Lyeus,  over  the  pi^i«  in  which  Colossss 

where  it  obviously  denotes  layert,  and  pro-  stood;  and  to  this  road,  aa  well  aa  to  the 


bably  thick  layert  of  fat.    The  word  is  found  natural  fertility  of  the  region,  Coloasssy  as 

in  our  old  writers  as  signiiying  tUcee  or  well  as  its  neighbouring  cities  Laodieea  and 

Uimpe  offaL    Diyden  has  these  words :  —  HierspoUs,  owed  bodi  their  cxistanoe  and 

*  To  Involve  the  lean  fat  oanla,  and  mend  the  lard,  their  proq^ty.     To  the  same  cause,  th 


Sweetbreadfl  and  eoOoipc  were  with  Skewen  pricked  cities,  under  divine  Providence,  were  indebted 

Abont  the  rides/  f^^  ^  f„  grater  blessing,  —  namely,  the 

COLONY  (L.), — an  epithet  given  to  Phi-  gospel.    As,  in  genersl,  it  was  in  the  chief 

Hppi,  in  Mseedonia  (Acts  xri.  12),  which,  in  centres  of  civilisation,  where  thought  was 

the  Boman  import,  signifies  a  community  of  most  active,  intercourse  with  distant  parte 


I  «eU  u 


had  produced  libendilj  of  mind, 
abunduice,  tb>t  Ghiiitiuiil7  Tonua  lu  e»r- 
liaM  wb1ooid«  ;  (o  in  Coloiw  wu  tbandcd, 
tl  >  Tei7  ekrif  period,  ■  ebnroli  ot  Cbri*l, 
conalBtiiig  of  bolb  ReUheii  and  Jswiih  oon- 
TartB.  Wethiuh«T>b«bninaonaontafni«iij 
eridaDMB,  that  Chiisduilj  Bought  tb«  light, 
and  wu  iMciTcd  b;  the  highir  intiUigvmw 
and  mora  adraioed  nnllnn,  of  the  dq ;  and 
aba  that,  within  Mme  twenty  or  thirty  fean 
after  the  death  of  iU  fonndar,  it  had  gained 
a  film  foothold  in  the  principal  eitiei  of  the 
(hen  eiTiliaed  world. 

Wa  have  no  leuon  to  think  that  Psnl  had 
Tlailad  Colosuei  the  ehmrh  at  wbJeh,  mij 
have  owed  ite  formation,  if  not  ite  existence, 
to  Kp^hTM  (CoL  L  T  ;  iL  1 ;  It.  13,  tej.)  ; 
Ihongh  we  ouinot  donbl  that  the  eeed  whiofa 
Ibe  apoetle  in  peiaon  aowad  in  thi*  diatrici 
of  Alia  Minor  had  »me  eonaidenibls  eBbct 
in  the  ci^  of  Coloaua. 

VeiT  ibortlr  after  tha  Chrlatiana  at  Co- 
leave  had  recaiTad  tha  Epiille  whioh  beara 
their  name,  the  sit]',  together  with  Hiera- 
polis  and  Laodicaa,  were  (A.D.  62)  deltcojed 
by  an  earthqoake ;  thai  ahowingtbatperaona 
who  are  moat  hij^y  f>TOiu«d  with  epiiitaal 
privilege  Bare  not  eiempled  ftum  thedeetnio- 
tira  working!  of  uainral  law*,  mi  giving  a 
miAed  wanting  to  thoca  who  are  apt  lo 
tann  judgmenta  Ifaoaa  miifOrtanea  that  tall 
on  worldly  or  wicked  man.  The  plaoe  waa 
aneiwarde  rebuilt,  and  waa  a  proipaniua 
town  in  the  twelfth  eantnrj. 

The  data  ot  the  aaithqnaka  marke  tha 
iBleat  limit  fbi  the  oompoiillon  ot  the  Epin- 
tie  lo  the  ColoBeiuB.  Before  A.D.  63,  inen, 
a  Chriatian  writing  was  in  ciiatanoe,  which 
hnplieaiae  ttie  great  taot*  on  whieh  Chria- 
tianlQ  la  bnilt.  and  the  great  tmtba  and 
noUe  Bjmpathiee  that  eoiMtltale  its  eaaenoe. 

Coloaan,  as  a  eommereial  eotrepAt,  and  a 
aantra  of  flie  mental  enlttue  of  the  day,  pre- 
aented  that  carlons  mixture  both  of  man  and 
of  opinioDB,  which  was  cbaracterislie  of  tha 
period.  Here  were  indlrldnali  from  veiy 
diilant  nations ;  here  wera  modea  of  thooght 
the  moal  heterogeneotu.  The  eerere  leani- 
log  of  Athene  wh  ■oftened  by  Aaistie 
reSnemenli ;  the  djadaintDl  valont  of  the 
Boman  eonqneror  wai  tempered,  and  avRi' 
tnallj  broken  down,  by  oriental  taaainationa. 
Even  JudalBm,  with  Ite  lofty  monothelBm, 
tamtd  aoeeptanee  here,  after  having  long 
been  treated  with  aeom  and  oontampt ;  while 
the  teeming  and  almost  groleaqne  fannies 
of  tba  remote  East,  eoming  into  contact  with 
wealeni  pbilaaophy,  boA  neelTad  and  gare 
an  influence  wbioh  diminiahed  what  ibey  had 
of  abenrd,  and  Inoenlaled  tha  disciples  of 
the  academy  with  Ibe  spirit  ot  a  system  no 
lesB  apernlalive,  bat  more  wild  and  capri- 
eiona,  than  their  own.  From  thesa  united 
elemante  arose  a  philosophy  at  Ibe  day,  wfal^ 
eomlnned  in  Hself  moat  of  tha  ideas  that 


■13  COL 

wonld  go  together  and  amBlgamatc,  whether 
produced  on  the  banks  of  the  Oangei,  the 
bordeiB  of  the  Nile,  or  in  the  gro>ee  of  Acs. 
damai.  ThiBcelecliclnn  set  itself  in  boatUe 
array  againal  the  gospel,  profesaing  to  laach 
a  speoles  ot  loftj  knowledge  wbicfa  solved 
the  gnat  questjona  respaeting  the  origin  and 
government  of  die  world.  It  had  two  aspects 
—  OQS  in  whieh  tha  Jewish,  the  olhei  in 
which  the phi]o>ophio,element  predominated. 
These  two  ioflaencae  made  common  cause 
against  Chrlstisnily ;  and  though  they  could 
not  hinder  men  bom  receiving  the  gospel, 
and  taking  the  name  of  Obrist,  they  had  bat 
loo  mnch  power  within  the  visible  church, 
in  adnltenling  it*  doctrines,  and  peneiting 


inOBOS,  TBI  UrciINT  cotossf. 

0OLO9SIAN8,  EPI8TLE  TO  THE.— 
To  any  one  who  is  acquainled  with  the  lead- 
ing events  in  the  history  of  Paul,  and  with 
his  general  manner  ot  thought  and  eiprea- 
sion,  than  would  be  no  difficulty  in  gaiher- 
ing  from  the  Letter  to  the  CoIosBiina  iualf, 
the  chief  tacts  whieh  it  eoneems  the  Biblical 
student  to  have  in  his  mind  regarding  iL 
That  the  letter  emanated  from  Paul,  is  attest, 
ad  in  the  last  lerae  by  his  own  averment,  — 
'  Tha  saluutlon  by  the  band  of  me,  Paul.' 
Ta^  thon^  there  Is  no  reason  to  doobi  (hat 
these  are  the  apostle's  words,  still,  words 
standing  In  thu  position  may  have  been 
i^pendad  by  a  later  band,  llie  doctrine, 
however,  ot  Ihe  Epiatlc  is  Paul's,  the  gene- 
Ts]  train  of  thougbl  is  Paul's,  iha  style  is 
Paul's.  These  are  points  on  which  sue- 
CBBsfU  talaifloation  is  u«ct  to  impossj 
Who  can  mistake   -       -     ■ 


COL  384  COL 

nes8,  the  deep  and  glowing  religious  feel-  of  theie  Epitttes.      CoIosmb  and  Eph4 
iug,  the  eminently  practical  hearing,  the  rapid  lay  near  each  oiher,  were  aimilarly  eiremii- 
and  abrapt  logic  of  the  Apostle  Paul  ?  —  all  ataneed,  and  must  hare  had  preTailin^  in 
which  are  fonnd  in  this  Epistle,  if  in  some-  them  similar  modes  of  thought  and  similsir 
what  a  subdued  and  softened  manner,  as  customs,  faults,  and  yioes  (comp.  Eph.  it.  2d 
though  age  had  now  tempered  the  writer's  with  CoL  iiL  9).    The  agnement  of  the  two 
emotions,  yet  in  a  way  which  is  as  decided  Letters  in  substance,  in  minute  trains  of 
as  it  is  engaging.    To  give  particulars,  in  thought,andinmanner,  is  a  quality  which  we 
order  to  show  that  in  doctrine  the  Epistle  should  have  antecedently  expected,  —  wlucb. 
corresponds  with  the  type  obserred  by  the  a  logician  might  have  required,  and  the  ab- 
iqpostle,  would  be  to  cite  a  large  portion  of  senoe  of  which  it  would  not  hare  been  eaey  to 
the  letter:  we  must  be  content  with  referring  account  for,  with  satisfaction.    When,  there- 
to other  parts  of  this  article,  and  to  the  fol-  fore,  we  find  so  dose  and  ao  constant  a  le- 
lowing  paasges :  —  L  20 — 27 ;  comp.  Bom.  semblance  as  we  have  here,  we  are  irresistihlj 
XTi.  25.    1  Cor.  iL  7.    Ephea.  iii2~ll;  led  to  think  that  the  aimilarity  aroae  natnnOlj 
specially  adverting,  however,  to  that  which  from  the  position  in  which  the  apostle  stood 
may,  in  a  peculiar  manner,  be  termed  a  to  the  two  neighbouring  churches. 
Pauline  doctrine,  —  namely,  the  extension        Dr.  Paley    ('Horn  Paul.')  has  saoeeas- 
of  the  grace  of  God  to  the  Oentiles,  accord-  fully  made  use  of  a  particular  instance  of 
Ing  to  an  original  but  hidden  determination  this  general  resemblance,   which    consists 
on  the  part  of  Ood,  for  the  publication  and  in  this,  thai;,  in  these  two   Epistles,   Paid. 
fhrtheranee  of  which  Paul  had  been  called  attributea    his    imprisonment,    not   to    his 
and  delegated  by  Jesus  himself.    Of  this  preaching  Christianity  in   general,   hat    to 
most  important  view,  the  carrying  of  which  hia  asaerting  the  ric^t  of  the  Gentiles  to  he 
into  eifect  renders  the  apostle  next  to  his  admitted  into  the  diurch  on  an  equal  Coot- 
Lord  the  greatest   benefactor  of  mankind,  Ingwith  the  Jews,  and  without  being  ohliged 
the  passage  just  referred  to  in  the  Ephesians  to  oonform  themaelves  to  the  Jevrish  law. 
(iii.  2 — ^9)  gives  a  very   ftill  and  distinct  This  was  the  doctrine  to   which   he    eon- 
statement,  corresponding  in  substance  with  sidered  himself  a  martyr.    Thns,  in  L  24,  he 
the  doctrine  of  the  Letter  in  question.    And  says, — '  Who  now  rqoioe  in  my  sufferings 
if  assuming  this  doctrine  as  essentislly  Paul's,  for  you*  (Gentiles):  comp.  IL  1,  and  £ph. 
the  reader  will  study  the  Epistle  to  the  Co-  iM.   1 ;   also  CoL  iv.  S,   with  Eph.  tL  20. 
lossians  generally,  he  will  find  that  the  seve-  Mow  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  ssme 
ral  views  which  it  gives,  and  the  implications  statement  occurs  (Acts  xxL  28 ;    zxiL  21» 
which  it  contains,  entirely  hsrmonise  with  22).    From  these  passages,  it  appears  that 
that  doctrine ;   and  so,  being  assured  that  the  oibnce  which  drew  down  on  Panl  the 
every  part  is  hi  accordance  with  the  keynote,  vengeance  of  his  countrymen  was  his  mis- 
both  of  the   Epistle  and  of  the  apoatle's  sion  to  the  Gentiles,  and  his  maintaining 
mmd,  he  will  be  led  to  the  conriction  that  the  that  they  were  to  be  admitted  to  the  privi- 
entire  Letter  is  Paul'a.  leges  of  salvation  on  the  same  terms  as  the 
There  is,  however,  a  special  resemblance  Jews.    This  resemblance.  Dr.  Paley  remarks, 
between  this  Letter  and  that  to  the  Ephesians.  is  too  close  to  be  accounted  for  fkom  aeoi- 
The  resemblsnce  is  greater  tfian  exists  be-  dent,  and  yet  too  indirect  and  latent  to  be 
tween  any  other  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  —  a  imputed  to  deaign,  and  is  one  which  cannot 
resemblance  which  relates  to  the  course  of  easily  be  resolved  into  any  other  souioe  than 
thought,  the  structure  of  the  argument,  the  truth. 

peculiar  teachings,  and  to  some  phrases        Indeed,  alter  perusing  the  Epistle,  it  is 

which  do  not  occur  elsewhere.     The  fol-  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  see  a  reason 

lowing  portions  of  the  two  Epiades  will  be  why  any  one  should  fabricate  sneh  a  eompoai* 

seen  to  conespond :  —  tion,  or  append  to  such  a  composition,  being 

srsasaAn.  ooLoasuiis.  kls  own  work,  the  name  of  the  Apostle  Pan!. 

L  1&— 19 ... .  with .    1.  »-.ii.  From  first  to  last,  the  Letter  is  free  tmn  every 


L  Jo""** "  ^  «»""*  *"*•  ®'  *  selfish  or  narrow  purpose.    No 

li.  i~io".'.".'"!.*!!"!*;  *  ;;""  };  JJl^jj  personal  ends  could  be  answered  by  its  com- 

HI.  7  .....................'  „  WW"  i]  15.  position.    No  fame  would  ensue,  no  honours 

g;  Jj"***  "  i.  «-n  would  be  gained,  no  power  acquired.    The 

It.  16,' 16 '.*.':::;::;:::::;  Z  ZZ  S;  li,  P"**  -*•  purely    a   religious    exhortation. 


tv.  » i    „    ;;;;;;  m.  9/  most  fitted  to  proceed  from  the  apostle  to 

&•  §~** » Mt  •,'  10.  the  GentUes,  but  which  could  in  no  way 

t!  i»,*»"!!!!!:::::::::    ;    «  JJ- ,,  ■*'^«  **»•  purposes  of  fraud,     it  is  equally 

T.  11;  vL  •-•  . —    .    ;;;;;;  j^^  iBL.i.  j^  1  difficult  to  believe,  that  an  impostor  could 

^-  \l »»    It.  5.       »     •   •  have  written  this  brief  EpisUe.      This  is 

▼f!  f  1  .\\\*.'.\'."!.\*.*.*."*;;;:    "    ; —  ^-  *•  not  the  tone,  these  are  not  the  sentiments. 

This  resemblance  ia  &  L J.  I  v,     -  ®'  *  fabricator.     Falsehood  and  truth  are 

which  spelS^sS^^lyVr  ^T^L'^*''  JT^^  dUtin(nushed,  like  night  «id  d" 

1-             ugiy  lor  tbe  genumeness  Deceit  must  always  have   a  oloak,  whidi 


COL  385  COL 

she  cannot  moke  so  thick,  bat  it  may  be  those  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesaa, 

■een  through.     Those  who  know  the  hn-  with  all  confidence,  no  man  forbidding  him/ 

man  heart,  will,   after  reading  the  Letter,  From  Uie  concluding  verses  of  the  Epistle 

acquit  the  writer  of  all  deceit ;  and  recognise  it  also  appears  that,  though  in  bonds,  the 

in  his  composition  a  truthful,  as  well  as  very  apostle  had  many  friends  about  him,  of  whom 

interesting  transcript  of  his  own  mind.    The  he  mentions  Tyehicus,  Ouesimus,  Aristar- 

Epistle  is  a  reality,  not  a  fabrication.    As  chus,  Marcus,  Jesus  Justus,  Epaphras,  Luke, 

evidence  of  this  assertion,  we  refer  to  the  and  Demas.    Hence,  his  was  not  in  this  ease 

Letter  itself;  holding  as  we  do,  that,  in  othar  a  strict  and  severe  bondage.    Nor  was  the 

eases  as  well  as  in  ti^s,  the  diligent  perusal  place  in  which  the  apostle  dwelt  small  or 

of  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament  is  a  obscure,  otherwise  so  many  fellow-believers 

very  sure  means  of  arriviDg  at  a  canvietion  of  eminence  would  not  have  been  found  with 

of  their  genuineness.  Paul.    Of  these,  Tychicus  waa  a  leDow-eer- 

The  Epistle  bears  tokens  also  of  the  eon-  vant;  Aristarchus,  a  fellow-prisoner;  and 

dition  in  which  the  apostle  was  when  he  others  were  fellow-workers, 
wrote  it.    There  is,  indeed,  no  express  men-        We  thus  learn  that  the  apostle  was,  while 

tion  made  of  that  condition.    But  we  find  in  bonds,  surrounded  by  oUier  distinguished 

that  whidi  for  our  pmpoae  is  much  better.  Christians,  who  were  with  him,  when  an  old 

An  express  statement  might  have  been  in-  man,  labouring  and  suffering  in  the  common 

tsrpolated.    Imi^ications,  wrought  into  the  cause  of  Christ    All  these  are  circumstances 

very  texture  of  the  Letter,  must  have  flowed  which  point  to  Rome  as  the  place  where, 

from  the  pen  by  whioh  it  was  written.  It  is  in  and  his  last  imprisonment  as  the  time  when, 

very  elear  implications  that  we  are  presented  the  Epistle  to  the  Colosaians  was  written  by 

with  evidence  of  the  apostle's  condition  at  PauL 

the  time  of  his  composing  this  Epistle.    In        It  may  serve  to  corroborate  this  eonclu* 
L  d4  we  find  the  writer  in  a  state  of  sufier-  sion,  which  has  been  drawn  from  consider- 
ing;   in  iv.  8,  '  in  bonds ; '   in  iv.  10,  '  a  ing  the  Epistle  itself  if  we  add  that  nearly 
prisoner ; '  in  iv.  18,  in  '  bonds.'    At  what  all  of  the  best  critics  place  the  Letter  to  the 
time  of  life  was  this  bondage  t    We  have  Colossians,  together  with  that  to  the  Ephe- 
alresdy  intimated,  that  the  Letter  bears  tokens  slans,  and  that  to  Philemon,  in  the  period 
of  die  mellowness  of  age.    This  opinion  is  during  which  the  apostle  was  a  prisoner  in 
confirmed  by  the  peculiar  language  used  in  Bome  for  the  cause  of  Christ,  ctr.  A.D.  60. 
L  24,  in  which  Paul  thus  speaks ;  we  translate        If  this  Epistle  did  not  bear  internal  evi- 
literally  firom  the  original :  —  *  How  I  rejoice  deuce  of  having  been  in  existence  within  the 
in  the  sufferings  (I  endure)  on  your  account,  first  oentory,  nay,  of  having  been  contem- 
aiid  fill  up  the  remainder  of  the  afflictions  of  poraneous  with  the  events  of  whioh  itspeaks, 
Christ  in  my  flesh  on  behalf  of  his  body,  — had  we  not  this  intamal  and  intrinsic  evi- 
which  is  the  church.'    The  verb,  rendered  dence  of  its  Pauline  origin,  which  is  the  best 
*fill  up,'  signifiea  to  anpply  a  deficiency,  eridence  we  can  have,  we  might  think  it 
to  make  good    something    wantmg    to    a  desirable  to  enlarge  on  the  testimony  to  its 
whole.    The  idea  seems  to  be,  that  there  was  age  and  authorship,  that  is  borne  by  Chris- 
a  certain  amount  of  suffering,  which,  in  the  tian  antiquity.    Under  the  circumstances, 
ordinations  of  Proridence,  the  apostle  had  to  it  is  enough  to  state,  that  it  is  expressly  men- 
pass  through,  of  whioh  he  was  now  enduring  tioned  as  Paul's ;  and  quotations  are  made 
the  residue.    This  implies  that  he  had  en-  from  it,  as  of  authority,  by  Irensus,  who 
duied  suffering  before,  and  that   he  had     livedintfaebeginningof  the  second  century, 
endured  the  greater  portion  of  his  suffsrings         The  occasion,  also,  on  which  the  Epistle 
before.    Consequently,  he  had  now  arrived  was  written,  may  be  learnt  from  its  contents. 
at  the  last  act  of  the  tragedy,  and  was  near        In  ii  1,  Paul  classes  the  Colossians  and 
both  the  end  of  his  sufferings,  and  of  his  the  Laodieeans  with  persons  whom  he  had 
days.  not   seen    in    the    flesh.    The  Colossians 
We  an  thus  directed  to  the  apostle's  im-  bad  not,  therefore,  ex^oyed  the  benefit  of 
|»iBonment  in  Bome,  in  which  the  termina-     his  personal  instructions.    On  this  account, 
tion  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  leaves  him.     while  absent  (0),  he  felt  the  more  deeply 
This  is  a  conclusion  that  is  confinned  by  concerned  for  their  spiritual  welfore.    They 
L  39,  in  which  we  find,  that,  though  a  pri-  had  indeed  been  tnSj  converted  to  Christ, 
soner,  die  apostle  was  not  preveoted  from,     probably  by  '  Epaphras,  our  dear  feUow-seP' 
carrying  forward  the  great  labour  of  his  life,     vant,  who  is  for  you  a  ftuthftd  minister  of 
—  'Whereunto  I  also  labour,  striving  ac-     Christ'  (1.  7),  who  was  now  with  Paul,  'la- 
cording  to  his  working,  who  woiketh  in  me     bonring  fervently  for  you  in  prayers,  that  ye 
mightily.'  Such  a  condition  was  that  in  which     may  stand  perfect  and  complete  in  all  the 
Paul  is  described  as  being,  in  Acts  xxviii.  80,     will  of  Ood'  (iv.  12).    From  Epaphras   the 
81 :  —  'And  Paul  ('bound  with  this  chain,'     apostle  had  received  a  very  ftivourable  report 
30)  dwelt  two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired     of  the  spiritual  condition  of  the  Colossiana 
house,  and  received  dl  that  came  unto  him ;     (i.  8, 9) ;  in  consequence  of  whioh,  Paul,  with 
preaching  the  kingdom  of  Ood,  and  teaehing     a  characteristic  boldness  of  imagery,  dedarss, 

2B 


COL  386  COL 

— >*I  Ain  with  yon  in  the  spirit,  joying  and  Not  only  was  this  Letter  sent  in  ooi 
beholding  your  order,  and  die  steadfutneis  qnenee    of  what  Paol  had  heard,   bat    in 
of  your  faith  in  Christ*  (iL  5).    Tet  did  the  order  also  to  leam  more  of  the  eondidon  of 
Information  which  he  reeeived,  indnee  him  to  the  Colossians,  as  well  as  to  comfort  tfaetr 
pen  this  Letter  in  order,  *  lest  any  man  should  hearu.    For  this  purpose,  it  was  entniate«i 
beguile  you  with  enticing  words '  ( ii  4) .  The  to  the  hands  of  Tychicus,  *  a  beloved  brotlier, 
errors,  to  guard  against  which  the  benero-  and  a  faithftil  minister  and  feUow-aerrant  In 
lent  and  watchfial  guardian  of  the  churches  the  Lord'  (ir.  7).     With  a  delicate  regard 
wrote  this  Letter,  seem  to  have  been  of  two  to  the  feelings  of  the  Colossians,  the  aposUe 
Unds  —  J.  '  Philosophy  and  vain  deceit  after  makes  the  more  prominent  reaaon  for  his 
the  tradition  of  men,  after  the  rudiments  of    sending  Tydiicns  to  Colossas,  to  lie  in  his 
the  world,  and  not  after  Christ'  (ii.  8 ;  eomp.  readiness  to  gratify  idiat  he  sapposes  to  be 
4,  18,  20,  23).    And,  II.  Doctrines  as  to  sa  earnest  wish  on  the  part  of  the  chnreh,— 
the  neeessity  of  circumcision,  and  the  ob-  who,  doubtless,  had  heard  of  his   bonds, 
■errance  of  outward  ordinances  (ii.  11 — ^17).  —  namely,  to  reoeiTe  information  respecting 
These  rso  classes  represent  the  errors  which  his  actual  eonditioii  (iv.  7). 
were  generally  prevalent  at  the  time,  and  were  With  Tyehicus,  the  apostle  states  thst  he 
found  to  oifer  eonstant  and  sometimes  very  sends  slso  Onesimus  (it.  9) ;  the  mention  of 
decided   opposition  to  the    existence    and  whom  aifords  us  an  opportimity  of  bringing 
spread  of  the  pure  gospel  of  Christ    The  into  relief  one  of  those  latent  evidences  of 
first  class  of  error  was  a  corrupt  compound  truth  iHiich  lie  far  too   deep  for  the  arts 
of  eastern  and  western  philosophy,  and  is  well  of  the  impostor.    Who  is  Onesimna  ?     The 
characterised  by  the  apostle  in  his  Letter.  Letter  to  the  Colossisns  merely  mentions  him 
This  system  eventuslly  led  to  the  brood  of  gnos*  as  a  member  of  the  chureh  at  Colossae,  and 
tic  liuioies  which  infested  the  chureh,  and  went  '  a  faithftil  and  beloved  brodier/     By  torn- 
far  in  many  cases  to  overlay  and  destroy  the  ing  to  the  Epistle  to  Philemon,  we  leam  that 
truth  in  its  infancy.    In  opposition  to  Uiese  he  was  a  slave  who  had  ran  away  fiom  his 
phantasms,  which  were  as  high  in  dieir  pre-  master,  Philemon,  a  prominent  member  of 
tensions  as   they  were   seductive  even   by  the  Colossian  chureh.    This  alave  Paul  had 
their  fancifiilness,  and  still  more  by  their  converted,  and  was  now  sending   back    to 
agreement  with  marked   tendencies  of  the  PbUemon,  in  the  fdll  confidence  that  Onesi- 
Aaiatic  mind,  Paul  asserts  the  all-sufilciency  mus  would  be  received, '  not  now  ma  s  aJave, 
of  Jesus  as  the  visible  representative  of  Ood,  but  as  a  brother  beloved '  (PhOem.  16).    The 
and  the  divinely  appointed  instrument  of  Letter,    then,   to  Philemon  waa   borne   by 
making  his  disciples  complete;  by  holding  Onesimus;  and  must,  in  consequence,  have 
fut  of  whom,  ss  the  head,  the  whole  body,  been  composed  at  the  same  time  as  the  Let- 
aoppiied  and  connected  by  means  of  joinu  ter  to  the  Colossisns.    We  have  already  seen 
and  ligaments,  increases  with  a  divine  in-  reason  to  think  that  the  Letter  was  written 
eceaae  (U  8,  19).    The  other  class  were  the  by  Paul  when  a  prisoner  at  Bcnne,  near  die 
exxors  of  the  Judaizers,  who  wished  to  sub-  end  of  his  days.    Mow,  mark,  the  snbatanoe 
jeet  the  Colossisns,  as  being  Gentiles,  to  cir-  of  this  deduction  is  expressly  stated  by  Panl 
enmciaion  and  other  Jewish  observances,  with  his  own  hand  (19),  in  his   I<etter  to 
against  whom  Panl  asserts  the  spirituslity  of  Philemon,  — <  Paul  the  aged,  and  now  also  a 
the  religion  ef  Christ ;  snd,  in  elTect,  ezhorU  prisoner  of  Jesus  Christ '  (9 ;  comp.  13). 
the  Colossians,  as  he  had  exhorted  die  Osla-  Another  confirmation  of   the   reality  of 
tiana,  to  stand  fiwt  in  the  liberty  wherewidi  these  things.  The  Letter  to  the  ehoreh  sends 
Christ  had  made  them  firee  (OaL  v.  1.   CoL  greetings  from  the  same  persons  as  the  Let- 
it  11,  9eq.).    Independently  of  the  general  ter  to  an  individual  member  of  that  ehnich. 
doctrinal  implications  thatpervadethe Letter,  These    persons    are    Aristarchos,    Marcoa. 
the  •po»«e  grounds  on  his  exposure  of  these  Epaphras,  Lucas,  Demas.     This  also  serves 
■peoific  enors  the  leading  doctrines  which  to  show  that  these  Letters  were  written  at 
he  wishes  to  eonvey,  so  making  his  confti-  the  same  time,  and  by  the  same  hand  •  for  the 
tadon  of  falsehood  conducive  to  the  esUb-  same  persons  were  with  die  aposde.  and  hia 
hshment  of  tenth.    These  doctrines  are  two,  position,  in  consequence,  waTwibetantiallT 
in  contradistinction  to  the  two  classes  of  eon-  the  same.                                      suoswnuauy 
demned  «ffors ;  namely,  the  suflioiency  and  Then  let  us  observe  how  these  T»enoi>« 
majesty  of  Christ,  and  the  spiritusl  equality  are  characterised     If  w«to«»!f!i.^T^?^ 

^  ?i"UM  ?"^"  .^\:r^?  »-^     *o  the ^St.  w"  ^d^^E^a^h^*  ^^ 
(L  lft.««7-(  "-ft.**?.;  iii.  10,  se^.).    And,     'our  dear  fellow'serr^  •  r «   ^f  T?^  ^    . 

JST;  t<»  ««oeI  taiAioh^exhorutlwS^     !^    ""^  inUi  thu  slight  dirersity  of  1m»- 

AteYStien  of  his  soul.  '  P^®  J**^  ,  Ep«phras  is  m  one  case  •  a  fbl- 

•■•^^  low.dave ; '  in  die  odier,  *  a  ifeUow-prisoMr.' 


COL                      387  COM 

Aristarchus,  too,  is  in  ColoBsians  {W,  10)  nnmeroas  cousideratlons,  to    weigh    their 

styled  '  my  fellow-prisouer/  and  in  Philemon  character,  to  consider  how  scattei^  are  the 

(24),  one  of  *  my  fellow-labourers/  elements  of  which  they  are  made  np,  and  yet 

We  must  point  ont  another  minnte  eoin-  how  clear  and  striking  is  the  eyidence  which 

eidenee.    From  Col.  ir.  15,  —  <  Salnte  Nym-  tliey  give, — and  then  to  say  whether  such  tes- 

phas,  and  the  church  which  is  in  his  house,'  timonies  could  exist,  were  the  Scriptures,  of 

we  should  infer  that  in  this  part  of  Asia  which  we  have  spoken,  any  thing  else  than 

a  bnild'mg  had  not  yet  been  obt&ined  of  genuine  documents.    Bui  if  one  Letter  ->-  if 

sofficient  size  to  allow  the  disciples  to  meet  ihe  Letter  to  the  Colossiaus  —  is  prored  to 

all  together  in  the  same  place ;  who,  in  con-  have  been  written  not  long  after  the  middle 

sequence,  were  wont  to  assemble  io  one  or  of  the  first  century,  and  by  the  hand  of  the 

more  private  houses.    By  referring  to  Phile-  apostle  Paul,  —  then  does  Christianity  rest 

mon  (2),  we  find  the  same  practice ;  for  it  on  a  solid  historical  foundation,  and  'we 

appears  that  a  church  was  held  in  Philemon's  have  not  followed  cunningly  devised  fables ' 

house.    This  coincidence  becomes  the  more  (2  Pet  i.  16). 

striking,  if,  as  is  possible,  Nymphas,  as  well  COMFOBTER  {contort,  M.  L.  cum  and 

as  Philemon,  was  a  member  of  the  general  fortU,  to  strengthen),  the  English  rendering 

ehurch  at  Golossas.  of  the  Greek  Paraclete,  which,  according  to 

There  is  yet  another  confirmatory  remark,  its  formation,  is  equivalent  to  the  Latin  advo- 

From  the  Letter  to  the  Colossians,  it  does  cahts,  our  '  advocate,'  —  one,  that  is,  who  is 

not  appear  why  Tychicus  was  chosen  aa  called  to  (give  aid);  hence,  an  assistant, 

bearer  of  the  Letter.    From  a  passage  in  the  helper,  or  defender,  —  one  who  stands  by 

Letter  to  the  Ephesians  (vi.  22),  we  might,  your  side  for  your  succour.    It  is  applied 

indeed,  have  inferred  that,  as  he  was  sent  by  by  the  apostle  John  (to  whom  the  use  of  the 

Paul  with  a  Letter  to  the  church  at  Ephesns,  term  is  confined),  —  I.  To  the  Lord  Jesus^ 

so  might  he  on  that  aocotmt  have  been  sent  being  translated  '  advocate '  (2  John  ii.  1), 

with  ti^e  Letter  intended  for  the  neighbour-  one  who  supplicates  the  Almighty  for  the 

ing  church  at  Golossn.    But  why  sent  to  pardon  of  sin.     II.  To  the  Holy  Spirit, 

Ephesus  t     The  reason  appears  from   the  promised  to  his  ai>ost]e8,  by  Jesus,  as  his 

Book  of  Acts  (zx.  4),  where  it  is  inciden-  substitute  (John  xiv.  16,26;  xv.26;  zvi.  7). 

tally  mentioned  that  he  was  of  Asia,  that  is  In  these  passages  some  explain  coniforter  as 

Asia  Minor.    With  good  reason  was  Tychi-  meaning  <eacAtfr,iii/tfr;nv<er,*  others,  as  simply 

eus  chosen.    He  was  a  fellow-countryman  helper.     Bretschneider  prefers  the  general 

with  the   Ephesians    and   the   Colossians.  signification  of  defender,  —  one  who  should 

They,  in  all  probability,  knew  him ;  and  from  conduct  the  cause  of  the  apostles,  by  in- 

him,  consequently,  could  they,  in  confidence  structing  them  what  to  do,  to  teach,  and  how 

and  in  safety,  receive  Letters  from  Paul.    At  to  defend  themselves   before  ecclesiastical 

Golossn  the  apostle  had  never  been ;  but,  in  and  civil  i>owers.     This  interpretation  is  not 

Tyohious,  the  disciples  there  had  a  neigh-  only  recommended  by  the  parallel  passages 

hour  who  came  directly  from  Paul,  to  deliver  in  the  other  Gospels  (Matt.  x.  19,  20.   Mark 

to  them  a  Letter  which  he  had  received  for  xiii.  11.  Luke  xii.  11,  seq.;  xxi.  19),  but 

them  from  the  great  teacher.    Good  reason,  also  by  the  use  at  the  word  among  the  rab- 

therefore,  had    they,  independently  of  its  bins  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  p.  1488),  who  translate 

contents,  to  reoeive  this  Epistle;  and  in  per-  the  correspondent  Hebrew  word  by  defender, 

ftct  security  might  they  lay  it  up  among  the  one  who  deprecates  (Job  xvi.  21;  xxxiii.  23). 

treasures  of  their  church.  COMPANIES  TBAYELLING  is  the  Eng- 

Bat  flie  Letter  was  not  to  be  hoarded.  Paul  lish  rendering  in  Isa.  xxi.  18  ('  0  ye  traveU- 

enjoins  that  their  neighbours,   the  Laodi-  ing  companies  of  Dedanim ')  of  a  Hebrew 

ceans,  should  be  permitted  to  read  the  Epia-  word  which  is  appropriately  represented  by 

tie,  after  it  had  been  read  in  the  church  the  Arabic  term  asravan  {Kar  revan  *  travell- 

meetings  of  the  Colossians  (iv.  16).    In  re-  ing  merchandise'),  or  large  bodies  of  men 

turn,  a  Letter,  which  had  been  sent  to  Laodi-  and  cattle  organised  under  certain  strict  re- 

cea  (some  think  this  was  our  Letter  to  the  gulations,   and  traveUing  for  commercial, 

Ephesians),  was  to  be  read  in  presence  of  religious,  and  other  purposes,  from  one  part 

the  Colossian  Christians.  And  thus  we  leam  of  the  east  to  another.      The  passage  in 

how  intimately  these  neighbouring  churches  Isaiah,  which  supplies  us  with  Uie  title  of 

were  united  together,  and  may  see  how  diffi-  this  article,  presents  a  lively  picture,  in  which 

cult  it  would  have  been  for  an  impostor  to  may  be  seen  a  collection  of  Arab  merchants, 

induce  them  to  receive  a  fabrication.     We  who,  travelling  through  the  woody  deserts  of 

are  also  taught,  that  thus  early  was  a  foun-  Arabia,  are  set  upon  by  a  horde  of  Arab  rob- 

dation  laid  for  a  collection  of  Christian  wri-  bers,  and  put  to  flight.    They  take  refage 

tings.     These  two  Epistles,  which  were  thus  in  a  neighbouring  village,  Tema,  where  they 

to  be  exchanged,  would  in  a  short  time  be  are  received  with  characteristic  hospitality; 

transcribed,  and  copies  of  both  be  preserved  shelter  being  given  to  the  fugitive,  water  to 

in  eaeh  of  Uiese  churches.  the  thirsty,   and  bread  to  the  famishing. 

We  ask  the  reader  to  put  together  these  Permanency  is  one  great  characteristic  «f 


COM                      888  COM 

the  Etit    The  scene  hen  depicted  ie  from  Tet,  though  tntrdling  genermlly  was  eom- 

time  to  time  still  enacted  in  the  countries  dacted  in  canTtns,  the  Seriptores  contain 

sorroonding  Palestine ;   and,  tUl  lately,  in  no  direct  information  on,  and  few  allnsions 

that  ooontzy  itseli;  onlj  there  on  a  smaller  to,  the  subject.    They  employ  langnage,  in- 

scale.  deed,  whidi  implies  the  ezistenoe  of  ear»- 

Jn  Qen.  xsxrii.  25,  mention  is  made  of  Tans;  and,  for  the  right  and  foil  nnderstandhfig 

another  caravan, — a  company  of  Ishmaelitea  of  which,  a  knowledge  of  this  mode  of  traTeU- 

engaged  in  the  spice  trade,  conveying  down  ing  is  neoessary :  bmt  they  give  no  prolbsaed 

into  Egypt '  apicery,  balm,  and  myrrh '  from  instruction  on  the  matter,  and  their  refeienee 

Oilead,  which,  being  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  to  it  is  only  incidental.     Here  was  a  whoila 

lay  on  a  great  commercial  highway  that  world  of  active  life,  by  which  oommeroe,  re- 

nnited  eastern  products  with  western  mar-  'ligion,  and  social  interoomrse,  were  ehieflj 

keta  (comp.  Oen.  1.  9.  Job  vi.  19.  2  Ghron.  sustained,  proceeding  under  the  eyes  of  the 

ix.  1.  Jer.  Tud.  8).      This  caravan  of  Be-  Biblical  writera,  without  theilr  doing  movo 

douins  dealt  in  slaves  as  well  as  in  aromatios;  than  allude  to  email  and  individual  portions 

and  they  accordingly  purchased  Joseph,  took  of  it,  in  the  most  casual  and  vague  manner, 

him  to  Egypt,  and  sold  him.  The  remark  is  made  in  order  to  aid  the 

The  term  caravan  is  applied  also  to  a  mi-  student  of  Holy  Writ  to  form  a  rig^t  eon* 

gratory  band  of  Arabs.      Thus  Bobinson,  caption  of  its  charaoter.    First,  it  does  not 

speaking  in  reference  to  the  northern  end  of  follow  that  a  thing  had  no  eidatenoe  in  the 

the  Gulf  of  Akabah :  ~- '  Just  at  this  point  ancient  times  of  Sacred  hiatoiy,  beeauae  ii 

we  met  a  large  caravan  of  the  Haweitat  com-  is  not  expressly  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 

ing  from  the  eastern  desert,  whence  they  Secondly,  the  objject  of  that  Saored  Volume 

had  been  driven  out  by  the  drought    They  was  clearly  not  of  a  soientifie  nature.    Ite 

were  now  wandering  towards  the  south  of  penmen  did  not  intend  to  eompoee  hiatoiy, 

Palestine,  and  had  with  them  about  seventy  or  describe  scenes,  or  oonatmet  treatises, 

camels  and  many  asses,  but  no  flocks.   These  They  simply  narrated  such  ev^Eits  ae  had  a 

were  real  Arabs  of  the  desert,  decorated  with  religious  impress  and  tendency.      And   in 

the  kefiyeh,  —  a  handkerchief  of  yellow  or  their  narrativea  they  were  either  oneonecioQB 

aome  glaring  colour, — thrown  over  the  head,  and  unassuming  chroniclers,   or    inspired 

and  bound  fast  with  a  skin  of  woollen  yam,  prophets;  concerned  alike^  in  both  efaaractera, 

—  the  comers  being  let  loose,  and  hanging  to  aidvanee  at  once  the  will  of  Ood*  and  the 

down  the  aides  of  d^e  face  and  neck.    They  good  of  man.    Speculation  and  dieqniaition 

were  wild  savage  hungry-looking  fellows.'  were  alien  to  their  habita,  and  remote  fkom 

In  caravans  was  most  of  the  travelling  their  thoughts.      If  ever  they  indulged  in 

done  In  the  times  of  the  Bible.    The  Mosaic  abstract  inquiries,  it  was  to  moralize;  on  re- 

jouraeyings  in  the  wilderness  and  to   the  ligion  and  Providence  only,  that  ie»  on  their 

borders  of  Palestine  were  performed  in  one  own  appropriate  subjects,  did  they  venture 

very  large  caravan.    It  was  in  caravans  that  to  rise  on  &e  wings  of  thought  and  medi- 

the  Jews  returned  from  their  exile  in  Assyria,  tation. 

By  caravans  the  staple  trades  of  ancient  days  The  use  of  'travelling  companiee'  arose 

were  carried  on  in  a  direction  from  east  to  firom  pecuUaritiea  of  Oriental  life,  which  have 

west     The  periodical  viaits  made  from  all  not  yet  come  to  a  period.    Cities  in  the  East, 

parts  of  the  Holy  Land,  on  the  great  festi-  the  great  marts  of  commerce,  lay  very  remote 

vals,  to  Jerusalem,  were  accomplised  in  lesser  from  each  other.    Nor  were  they  nnited  by 

caravans ;  and,  when  tne  reader  has  finished  any  artificial  roads.      To  go  firom   one  to 

this  article,  he  will  readily  see  how  easy  it  another,  the  traveller  had  to  pass  hundzeda 

was  for  the  child  Jesus  to  be  lost  from  the  or  thousands  of  miles,  through  sands  and 

eight  of  his  parents.    The  Galilean  caravan,  deserts,  over  hills  and  mountains,  aided  only 

mustering  on  the  north  side  of  the  metropo-  by  a  general  track  graduaUy  formed  by  his 

lis,  proceeded  homewards  without  Jesus ;  for  predecessors ;  exposed  constantly  to  ftna^kff 

all  was  bustle,  conftiaion,   and  joy.      The  from  predatory  hordes;   succoured   by  the 

first  da/s  journey  was,  in  all  cases,  short  hand  of  no  general  government;  welcomed. 

When  night&U  came,  the  tents  were  erected,  when  night  came,  by  no  refreshing  services ; 

•Ad  famiUes  assembled ;  then,  for  the  first  and,  in  a  word,  dependent  exclusively  on  his 

T    *'  1.**  7^  natural,  Jesus  was  missed,  own  resources.    Hence  the  foimation  of  a 

r^**A*i*^Jv«**  mother,  supposing  hun  to  be  '  travelling  company,'  which,  eonsiating  of 

J»on^  kteSSS*^    (cM^Tan),  sought  him  many  persons  under  proper  discipline  and 

IS^rShim  rtT    ^^    •cqnaintance.      Not  supervision,  could,  with  the  aid  of  the  boree 

Sm  •  imd^'.Sf/*^**'*?*^  ^  «*'•«•  ^"^^  "^  ^"^  ^•"«^  ^*^«y'  ^  ••'•«y  "^^  them- 

Sm  'day  f^  t^alS^**^^'  ^^T  *^*  «lTes,  merchandi^,,  food,  and  shelter ;  and. 

Mdem,  the  day  of  denarSTJf?  **""  •^*™*  under  the  care  of  a  few  professed  soldiers, 

Se),  they  fouSd  W^a^?*  ^^'^''^^  were  able  to  act  as  convoy  to  other.,-whether 

Ss  is  peifec^  in^.S„  J*  .^P»;-    All  they  were  bent  on  purposes  of  ceremony  «id 

Slow  otZJ^ds^^ :2tZ^  '«  P?*!?""'  **'  ^^^J'^^  ^^  Pio«  demin  of 

"««n  otner  sources.  visttmg  some  distant  sanctuary  of  religion. 


COM 


COM 


Bud  omTW*  van  nadet  Ou  mmdnot  of  etHu  PMMtar  from  AlexudiU  In  Egypt  In 

panoDi  mil   anqnuiilad  wilh   111*   fonoa-  thi  great  nligiou  matmpolii  of  th«  Jswi,  U 

tiaa  of   tlM    ooudBTi  uxl  ^    cn»tiipi»iy  giTau  in  '  Heloo'i  Filgiimige  toJoraMlcn' 

road.     HeUM,  HoM*  entreated  bl*  &thei-  (toL  L  19T,  Kf.).      The  piotnn,  tfaongh  a 

in-law,  Hobab, — ■  LeaT*  os  not,  I  prar  thee  t  auttom  of  the  aathoi't  own  mind,  hu  lb* 

fOrauauohu  thon  knowsvt  hmr  ««  an  to  Mtential  batomi  of  trnfli  and  nalll; ;  and  la 

•neamp  in  tha  wildameai,  and  tbon  nur«at  the  more  wonhj  to  b«  atndied,  baoanaa  It 

balo  ns  inatead  of  erea' (Kiunb.  I.  81}.  apaaks  of  iome  of  the  moral,  religioni,  tak 

The  annual  pilgriinagg*  to  Janualam  diew  political  aSketa,  whieh  theae  pariodieal  pQ- 

'    '   '  >  that  oitr-    A  vivid  da-  gnmagea  were  fitted  to  prodnoa. 
a,  tamlUng  4»  oaaaaion 


CtraTani  m  Iteqnenllj  in  tfaaea  daja  par- 
tial traraUing  for  infonnitlan,  cmioeitj,  or 
pleasure.  Sodi,  in  the  main,  waa  that  iriiieh 
Olin  thna  daaeribe*  (L  428),  namelj,  the 
oaralan  with  whieh  he  left  Mount  Sin^ : — 

'  Out  depaftnre  from  the  aonvent  ereilad  a 
•eene  of  bideaeribable  oonfosioii.  Sereral 
hondrad  Bedouins  wen  asaembled  balow  tha 
window  Ibrongh  which  w*  had  entered,  and 
hj  which  QUI  crunbrtiDS  baggage,  aa  well  aa 
OUT  peraoca,  must  b«  lowared  to  tha  earth. 
Tbii  amploTEd  the  greater  part  of  tha  daj. 
Some  miatakes  wonld  TmaToidablr  oocitr. 
Tmnks,  water.  See.  ware  placed  on  the  wrong 
aamala,  andntutbare-aaaorted,  and  properly 
distribnted  at  the  outaet.  On  aaoh  oeeaaiona, 
Ih*  Badoaina  are  filled  with  eioiteinent. 
They  do  not  apeak  to  eiplain,  inqnire,  or 
nmonatrata,  bnt  at  the  top  of  their  TOioea ; 
and  tbair  geatnrea  are  all  violent  and  area 
fhriou*.  I  waa  oompelled  to  plnnga  into 
the  midat  of  Am  throng,  in  order,  aa  far  aa 
poailble,  to  give  to  my  effbrta  the  right  di- 
reolion.    I  never  dwell  an  hour  In  the  midat 


than  I  did  when  I  moiuted  my  dromadaiy, 
after  having  seen  my  bagga^  made  fast  to 
the  paekaaddlea  with  ropes.  —  Onr  eneamp- 
ment  this  moining  (Hanh  19)  pieaanled  a 
vary  piatoresqiie  and  impoeing  aapeot.  Wa 
ware  reinforced  at  the  convent,  and  now 
number  eight  lenm,  and  aie  in  all  flfteeii 
tiavellera ;  of  whom  ail  are  English,  four 
Ameiioani,  three  AnatarlanB;  one  ia  Sooteh, 
and  one  a  Venetian.  Thia  ia  die  largeat 
party  of  Franka  who  have  ever  paaaed  tha 
deaerl  to  Petra. 

'  Our  lepoae  daring  Qie  night  had  bean 
diatnrbed  by  mnch  load  and  angry  debate  j 
and  now  a  fleree  ijaanel  aioae,  whlsh  thteat- 
ened  tha  moat  aeiionB  eonaequeneen.  After 
very  high  worda,  the  Bedouins  drew  Aeii 
Bworda;  and  1  vraa  drawn  out  of  my  tent, 
irtier*  I  eat  writhig,  by  die  claahing  of  we^- 
OBi.  Thia  waa  the  aignal  far  dioaa  who 
had  taken  no  part  in  the  qnarral,  and  ware 
attending  to  Oieir  camala  ontalde  of  the  eamp, 
or  aitting  nndar  tha  ahdving  roek  of  the 
Dunintains,  to  nidi  to  the  acena  of  aotion. 
They  ran  from  all  direetiona,  drawing  Oieir 
•worda  aa  they  advanoed;  and  the  law  whe 


COM                    390  COM 

had  none,  bnadiihed  hetfy  dubs.    I  nerer  day,  without  making  any  stop.    The  little 

saw  each  tarj  expressed  in  the  human  ooun-  refivshment  which  our  time  and  circum- 

tenanoe,  to  which  their  Tiolent  words  and  stances  allow  us,  is  taken  on  the  backs  of 

gestures  were  well  suited.    A  frightftil  con-  the  camda.      It   is  no    trifling  matter  to 

lliot    appeared    unavoidable.      The  matter  descend  firom  one  of  these  formal  and  awk- 

reached  its  crisis,  the  moment  the  oomba-  wardly-limbed  animals,  besides  the  disagree 

tants  had  assembled,  and  a  few  in  the  midst  able  jolting  occasioned  by  his  kneeling,  and 

of  the  crowd  had  crossed  their  swords.    I  by  the  abruptness,  and  even  Tiolenoe,  with, 

beliere  not  a  drop  of  blood  was  shed.    The  which  he  rises,  as  soon  as  he  feels  the  addi- 

clamour    gradually    subsided,   and  in  ten  tional  weight  upon  his  back.    To  avoid  these 

minutes  the  angry  multitude  was  again  dis-  inconveniencies,  as  well  as  loss  of  time,  the 

persed    through  the   valley.      Threatening  traveller  is  provided  with  a  small  leathern 

words  were  now  and  then  heard  from  small  bottle  of  water,  and,  if  his  taste  require  it, 

groups  of  three  or  four,  like  the  pattering  with  brandy  or  wine,  to  quench  his  thirst,  and 

that  follows  a  stoim ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  a  beg  or  basket  of  eatables.    Those  who 

ensuing  evening,  that  perfect  quietness  was  make  elaborate  provision  for  the  appetite, 

restored.  often  manifest  much  skill  and  good  taste  in 

'  When  every  thing  was  ready  for  our  de-  a  variety  of  fruite  and  viands,  and  in  their 
parture,  a  new  difficulty  arose  with  the  Be-  convenient  arrsngement  upon  the  cameL  I 
donins.  The  loading  of  the  camels  for  the  usually  walk  an  hour  or  two  in  the  morning, 
first  time,  at  the  beginning  of  a  journey,  and  again  before  stopping  for  the  night 
never  faUs  to  produce  a  scene  of  wrangling  This  is  a  great  relief  from  the  fatigue  of 
and  confusion.  Eveiy  guide  tries  to  get  incessant  riding;  and,  besides,  affords  inter- 
away  with  the  lightest  load  possible,  as  what  esting  opportunities  for  minute  and  leisurely 
he  now  consents  to  take  he  is  likely  to  be  observations.' 

required  to  cany  to  the  end  of  the  journey.  In  obedience  to  a  law  of  the  Korsn,  which 

Consequently,  before  one  third  of  the  custo-  requires  every  Mussulmsn  to  perform  a  pil> 

mary  burden  is  laid  on  his  camel,  he  begins  grimage  to  Mecca,  once  at  least  in  his  life, 

to  protest  against  receiving  another  pound,  vast  numbers  of  pilgrims  flock  thither  every 

and  declares  that  the  beast  will  never  be  year  firom  different  parte  of  the  world.    The 

able  to  rise  with  such  a  mountain  on  his  regulsr  pilgrim  caravans  are  six  or  seven 

back.    The  traveller  who  does  not  wish  to  in  number.    That  from  Syria,  which  used 

pay  for  half  a  dosen  useless  animals,  remon-  to  be  accompanied  by  the  caliphs  in  person, 

strates  as  well  as  he  can  in  broken  Arabic,  sete  out  from  Constantinople,  and  collects 

His  dragoman  (interpreter)  raves  and  threa-  the  pilgrims  fi^m  Northern  Asia,  until  it 

tens ;  and  probably  the  Bedouin,  in  a  soaring  reaches  Damascus.    During  the  whole  route, 

passion,  seizes  another  bag  or  bundle,  and  for  the  sake  of  safety  and  convenience,  it  is 

throws  it  with  violence  on  the  load,  protest-  attended  ftt>m  town  to  town  by  the  armed 

mg  that  nothing  shall  induce  him  to  take  force  of  the  district     From  Dsmascus  to 

any  more.    The  sheikh  must  now  be  sent  for,  Medina,  it  moves  with  great  pomp  across  the 

who  raises  another  louder  and  more  furious  desert,  a  journey  of  thirty  days.    The  Pacha 

tempest  of  words.  It  is  all  in  vain :  the  guide  of  Damascus,  or  one  of  his  principsl  officers, 

is  immoveable.     The  sheikh  or  dragoman,  always  attends  it,  and  gives  the  signal  for 

however,  lays  on  another  article  of  baggage  encamping  and  departing  by  firing  a  musket 

in  spite  of  him,  which  he  indignantly  seizes,  The  different  classes  of  pilgrims  know  their 

and  throws  on  the  ground.    Then  he  con-  exact  stetions,  and  always  place  their  tento 

aento  to  add  this  last  item  to  the  burden  of  according  to  their  town  or  province.    At 

his  slrsady  doomed  beast,  and  so  on  till,  at  every  stage  is  a  castle  or  storehouse  for  pio- 

the  end  of  sn  hour  or  more,  he  has  perhaps  visions,  with  a  small  garrison,  and  a  large 

got  a  reasonable  load.    The  next,  and  a  few  tank  at  which  the  camels  water.    These  sta- 

subsequent  mornings,  there  is  complsining  tions  are  seldom  farther  distant  from  each 

and  wrsngling  enough ;  but  no  serious  difil-  other,   than   a  march  of  eleven  or  twelve 

cnlty  is  experienced  after  the  initiatory  con-  hours.    The  usual  time  of  travelling  is  from 

troversy.'  three  o'dock  in  the  afternoon,  to  an  hour  or 

'We  are  now,'  says  the  same  author,  in  two  after  sunrise  next  day;  torches  being 

proceeding  to  pass  from  Suez  to  Sinai,  *  a  lighted  during  the  night 

large  caravan,  numbering  nearly  fifty  camels.  Among  the  pilgrims  are  to  be  found  der- 

and  about  as  many  Egyptian  servanto  and  vises  of  every  sect  and  order  in  the  Turkish 

Bedouin  guides.    Our  movemente  are  ren-  empire :  many  of  them  are  madmen,  or  at 

deredrather  more  tardy  by  the  length  of  our  least  assume  the  appearance  of  insanity; 

train ;  but  it  gives  additiond  interest  to  the  and  as  the  Mohammedans  regard  them  sa 

scene.    The  Bedouins  are  frill  of  glee  and  sainto  or  inspired  beings,  sent  as  a  blessing 

animation,  and  tdk,  sing,  and  quarrd  with  to  them  from  heaven,  they  are  much  respected 

inconceivable  vivacity.    Their  step  is  light  by  the  devotees,  who  scruple  not  to  fill  their 

and  elastic,  and  they  seem  utter  strsngers  to  pockete  with  money.    The  behaviour  of  some 

fetigne.    We  usually  travel  nine  hours  in  the  of  them  is  indecent,  and  so  violent  that  many 


COM                     391  COM 

wiUin^y  give  them  a  trifle  to  eeeape  from  Mecca  in  1231,  contained  twelve  tliousand 

their  importnnities.    Most  of  the  pilgrims  camels.    On  a  similar  occasion,  the  equi- 

that  arrive  in  detachments,  and  before  the  page  of  Uie  snltan  of  Egypt   consisted  of 

caravans,  are  professed  merchants,  who  oc-  fivehundred  camels,  used  solely  for  transport- 

copy  the  interval  very  pleasantly,  in  dis-  ing  sweetmeats  and  confectionary ;  two  hun- 

posing  of  their  wares,  praying,  smoking,  dred  and  eighty  for  pomegranates,  almonds, 

reading  the  Koran,  enjoying  the  gratifications  and  other  fruits :  his  travelling  larder  was 

of  sense,  and  anticipating  the  happiness  of  provided  with  one  thousand  geese,  and  three 

futurity.    Except  mepdioants,  almost  cTery  thousand  fowls. 

higi  or  pilgrim  oombines  with  his  religious  In  1814,  the  Syrian  caravan,  which  was 

duties  some  little  mercantile  adventure,  with  reckoned  small,  amounted  only  to  four  or 

A  view  to  lessen  his  expenses.    The  Mogreb-  five  thousand  persons,  and  was  attended  by 

bins,  for  example,  bring  their  red  bonnets  fifteen  thousand  camels.    The  Barbary  cara- 

and  woollen   cloaks;    5ie  western  Turks,  van   sometimes  contained    forty  thousand 

shoes  and  slippers,  hardware,  embroidered  men ;  but  of  late  it  has  not  exceeded  six  or 

stufls,  sweetmeats,  amber,  trinkets  of  Euro-  eight  thousand.    That  from  Egypt  used  to 

pean  manufacture,  Imit  silk  purses,  and  odier  be  extremely  numerous.    Barthema  states, 

small  wares ;  the  Anatolians  bring  carpets,  that,  when  he  was  at  Mecca,  it  had  sixty-four 

silks,  and  Angora  shawls;  the  Persians,  Cash-  thousand   camels.     In  1814,   it  consisted 

mere  shawls,  and  large  silk  handkerchiefs ;  principally  of  Mohammed  Ali*s  troops,  with 

the  Afghans,  tooth-brushes  made  of   the  very  few  pilgrims;   but  in  1816,  a  single 

spongy  boughs  of  a  tree  in  Bokhara,  yellow  grandee  of  Cairo  joined  the  hig,  with  a 

beads,  and  plain  coarse  shawls  of  their  own  hundred  and  ten  camels,  for  the  transport 

manufacture ;   the  Indians  import  the  nu-  of  his  baggage  and  retinue ;  and  his  travei- 

merous  productions  of  their  rich  and  exten-  ling  expenses  alone,  Burckhardt  supposes, 

siTe  regions ;  and  the  people  of  Yemen  bring  could  not  have  been  less  than  JS10,000.   The 

snakes  for  tibe  Persian  pipes,  sandals,  and  wife  of  All  had  a  truly  royal  equipage,  com- 

Tarious  articles  in  leather.  prehendlng  five  hundi^  beasts  of  burden. 

In  general,  the  regular  caravans  have  fixed  The  tents  of  the  public  women  and  dancing 

periods  for  their  arrivaL    Those  from  Syria  girls  were  among  the  most  splendid  in  this 

and  Egypt  unite  their  routes  at  Bedr,  whence  caravan.     FemiJes  are  not  excluded  from 

they  proceed  to  Mecca  at  a  short  distance  performing  the  pilgrimage ;  but  the  law  pre* 

from  each  other.      The   approach   of  the  scribes  that  they  shall  be  married  women, 

fbremost  is  announced  by  a  horseman,  who  and  accompanied  by  their  husbands,  or  some 

comes  galloping  through  the  town  to  die  very  near  relation. 

governor's  house;  —  a  prize  being  always  There  was  one  distinction  formerly  com- 

awarded  to  him  who  brings  the  first  tidings  mon  to  all  large  caravans,  but  now  used  only 

of  its  approach.    So  severe   are  the  efforts  by  the  Syrian  and  Egyptian.    Each  of  these 

made,  that  the  horse  has  been  known  to  has  its  holy  camel,  carrying  on  its  back  the 

drop  down  dead  the  moment  that  it  had  mahmal,  with  presents  for  the  Kaabah,  and 

reached  the  holy  place.  which  also  serves  the  purpose  of  a  sign  or 

The  pomp  and  magnificence  of  this  mov-  banner.    This  appendage  is  described  as  a 

ing  solemnity  are  stiU  considerable,  though  high,  hollow,  wooden  frame,  in  the  shape  of 

much  diminished  since  the  time  of   the  a  cone,  having  a  pyramidal  top  covered  widi 

caliphs,  both  in  point  of  splendour  and  at-  a  fine  silk  brocade,  and  adorned  with  ostrich 

tendance.     When  Solyman  performed  the  feathers.     A  smsJl  book   of  prayers  and 

pilgrimage  (A.D.  716),  nine  hundred  camels  charms  is  placed  in  the  middle,  wrapped  up 

were  employed  in  transporting  his  wardrobe  in  a  piece  of  silk. 

alone.    Mahadi,  besides  the  vast  sums  he  Kerbela,  which  lies  beyond  the  Euphrates, 

expended  in  presents,  buUt  fine  houses  at  a  holy  city  like  Mecca,  still  attracts  every 

every  station  between  Bagdad  and  Mecca,  year  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  thousand  pil- 

and  caused  them  to  be  splendidly  furnished,  grims,  among  whom  are  long  files  of  horse^ 

He  was  the  first  caliph  that  carried  snow-  men,  clad  in  picturesque  costume,  women 

water  with  him  to  cool  his  sherbet  on  the  hidden  beneath  their  thick  veils,  and  dervises 

road ;  a  luxury  in  which  he  was  imitated  by  of  every  shade,  mingled  with  the  Moukaris, 

many  of  his  successors.    iTaroun  al  Raschid,  who  conduct  the  famous  caravan  of  the  dead, 

who  performed  the  pilgrimage  nine  times.  The  corpses,  embalmed  with  camphor,  which 

spent  in  one  of  his  visits  nearly  a  million  is  the   sacred   scent  of  the  Persians,  are 

and  a  half  of  gold  dinars,  equal  to  iS69d,750,  wrapped  in  shrouds  covered  with  inscrip- 

in  presents ;   in  another,  he  and  his  wife  tions,  near  Bagdad.    They  are  then  laid  in 

Zobeide,   accomplished  the   journey   from  rude  cofiSns,  and  placed  on  mules.     '  A  Tur- 

Bagdad,  nearly  a  thousand  miles,  on  foot ;  koman,'  says  our  authority,  *  whom  I  ques- 

but  the  merit,  if  there  was  any,  was  lessened,  tioned,  said  he  had  been  on  his  journey  a 

as  the  whole  road  was  covered  daily  with  fine  hundred  and  ten  days.    He  came  from  Kok- 

carpets,  on  which  they  walked.    The  retinue  hand,  on  the  frontiers  of  Eastern  China. 

of  the  mother  of  Mostasem,  who  visited  Each  sectary  well-to-do  in  Persia  or  India, 


COM 


392 


CON 


leATes  a  portion  of  his  wealth  to  the 
Mosqaes  of  Kerbela,  that  his  body  may  be 
received  there/  There  is  a  tariff  regulated 
by  the  place  sought  to  be  oocnpied  by  the 
body ;  the  maximoxn  having  to  be  paid  by 
those  who  desire  to  He  near  the  tomb  of  the 
Imaum  Hussein.  The  air  of  Kerbela  is  very 
unwholesome,  owing  to  the  stagnant  waters, 
and  the  great  number  of  corpses  of  the  dead 
brought  thither  by  the  caravan. 

The  ensuing  is  from  Maundrel)  (p.  178): 
'  Very  early  this  morning,  we  went  to  see 
the  yearly  great  pomp  of  the  Hadgus,  setting 
out  on  iiBVt  pilgrimage  to  Mecca;  Ostan, 
basha  of  Tripoli,  being  appointed  their  emir 
or  conductor  for  this  year.  For  our  better 
security  from  the  hisolences  of  the  over* 
lealous  votaries,  ire  hired  a  shop  in  one  of 
the  baxaars  through  which  they  were  to  pass. 
In  this  famous  cavalcade,  there  oame  first 
Ibrty-six  dellees,  that  is,  religious  madmen, 
carrying  each  a  silk  streamer,  mixed  either 
of  red  and  green,  or  of  yeUow  and  green ; 
after  these  came  three  troops  of  segmen,  an 
order  of  soldiers  among  the  Turks;  and 
next  to  them,  some  troops  of  spahees,  an- 
oAer  order  of  soldiery.  These  were  followed 
by  eight  companies  of  mugrubines  (so  the 
Turks  call  the  Barbaroses)  on  foot:  these 
were  fellows  of  a  very  formidable  aspect, 
and  were  designed  to  be  left  in  a  garrison, 
maintained  by  the  Turks,  somewhere  in  the 
desert  of  Arabia,  and  relieved  every  year  with 
fresh  men.  In  the  midst  of  the  mugrubines, 
there  passed  six  small  pieces  of  ordinance. 
In  the  next  place  came  on  foot  the  soldiers 
of  the  castle  of  Damascus,  fantastically  armed 
with  coats  of  mail,  gauntlets,  and  other  pieces 
of  old  armour.  These  were  followed  by 
troops  of  Janizaries,  snd  their  aga,  all 
mounted.  Next  were  brought  the  basha's 
two  horse  taOs,  ushered  by  the  aga  of  the 
court ;  and  next  after  the  tails,  followed  six 
led  horses,  all  of  excellent  shape,  and  nobly 
famished.  Over  the  saddle  there  was  a  girt 
upon  each  led  horse,  and  a  large  silver  tsr- 
get,  gilded  with  gold.  After  these  horMS 
came  the  mahmal.  This  is  a  large  pavilion 
of  black  silk,  pitched  upon  the  back  of  a  very 
great  camel,  and  spreading  its  curtains  all 
round  about  the  beast,  down  to  die  ground. 
The  pavUion  is  adorned  at  top  with  a  gold 
ball,  and  with  gold  fringes  round  about 
The  camel  that  carries  it,  wants  not  also  his 
ornaments  of  large  ropes  of  beads,  fish>shells, 
fox- tails,  and  oUier  such  fantastical  finery 
hanged  upon  his  head,  neck,  and  legs.  All 
this  is  designed  for  the  Alcoran,  which 
is  placed  with  great  reverence  under  the 
pavilion,  where  it  rides  in  state  both  to  and 
frt>m  Mecca.  The  Alcoran  is  accompanied 
with  a  rich  new  carpet,  which  the  grand 
signieur  sends  every  year  for  the  covering  of 
Mahomet* 8  tomb,  having  the  old  one  brought 
oacK  m  return  for  it,  which  is  esteemed  of 
inestimable  value,  after  having  been  so  long 


next  neighbour  to  the  prophet^s  rotten 
The  beast  which  carries  this  aaersd  kMd 
has  the  privilege  to  be  dxisnpled  fnm  all 
odier  burdens  ever  after.  After  tke  mtHaoMA 
eame  another  troop,  and  with  tiiam  the  basha 
himself;  and  last  of  all,  twenty  loaded 
eamels,  with  whieh  the  train  ended,  having 
been  three  quarters  of  sn  hour  in  pasaiiif  .' 

CONCUBINE  (L.  firam  emu,  with,  and 
euHtut,  a  bed)  is  a  word  that  points  to  a 
praetioe  which  was,  and  stiU  to  a  great  ex- 
tent is,  universal  in  the  East— namely,  that 
at  polygamy,  of  which  oonoabinaga  is  an 
ahnost  neeeasaiy  attendant;  for  when  onea 
the  strict  oneness  of  sexual  iatsrsourse  ia 
interfered  with,  there  is  nothing  but  paaaioa 
to  set  limits  to  indulgence.  Thepassaga^ 
therefore,  especially  in  an  age  of  aemi-bar- 
barism,  from  polygamy  to  eonenbinagai  ia 
easy  and  rapid.  Among  the  Hebrews,  aa 
well  as  otherEastem  peoples,  every  husband 
might,  in  addition  to  one  wilb  or  aevarsl 
(2  Sam.  V.  IS.  I  Kings  xi.  8.  %  Ohnan.  xL 
21.  Cant  vi  8),  espeeiaUy  when  these  were 
childless  (Oen.  xvi.  8 ;  xxx.  8),  have  a  eon- 
eubine  or  conenbines,  whieh  wets  gmerally 
selected  fifom  his  own  slaves,  or  those  of  his 
wife  (Gen.  xxii.  24;  xxxvi.  IS.  Jndg.  viii. 
81.  2  Sam.  iii  7.  1  Chran.  i  82;  eoap. 
Exod.  xxi.  8).  The  sons  at  diese  ooneu' 
bines  stood  in  regard  to  the  patrimony,  after 
the  children  bom  of  the  wife  (Oen.  xxi.  10 ; 
xxiv.  86),  and  could  look  only  to  five^wiU 
presents  firom  the  fSMher  in  the  disposal  of 
his  property  (Oen.  xxv.  6).  But  while  thia 
extreme  Istitude  was  conceded  to  the  male^ 
the  female  concubine  was  restricted  to  her 
master  (Judg.  xix.  2.  2  Sam.  iiL  7.  Lct. 
xix.  20).  It  was  not  unusual  for  fothers  to 
give  to  an  unmairied  son  a  slave  aa  his  oon- 
cubine,  who  was  to  be  treated  as  a  child  of 
the  fsmily ;  snd,  in  the  event  of  the  son's 
marriage,  she  still  retained  her  rights  of  con- 
cubinage (Exod.  xxi.  9, 10).  But  if  a  son 
slept  with  his  father's  eoncubiae,  he  lost 
his  right  of  inheritance  (Oen.  xxxr.  22. 
1  Chron.  v.  1 ).  Some  Babbins  find  the  dis- 
tinction between  a  vrife  and  a  concubine,  in 
the  absence,  in  the  latter  ease,  of  espousals 
and  right  of  dower;  odiers,  only  in  the  want 
of  the  latter.  It  is  evident,  however,  that 
the  rank  and  position  ttom  which  the  two 
were  tsken,  were  very  dissimilar;  and  this 
dissimilsrity  of  rank,  and  of  (to  some  ex- 
tent) consequen^eulture,  would  aid  the  wife, 
on  whose  side  &e  advantage  lay,  in  main- 
taining her  position  as  mistress  of  the  family. 
At  the  same  time,  the  presence  of  more  then 
one  fomsle  in  a  flunily,  standing  in  the  most 
intimate  relation  to  its  head,  cannot  have 
conduced  to  any  thing  but  domestic  confd> 
sion,  though  custom  has  great  power  in  modi 
fying  social  influences,  and  iSm  necessity  of 
order  strongly  tends  to  produce  it. 

The  whole  sphere  of  thought  and  act,  into 
which  we  have  now  taken  a  glance,  is  very 


9  CON 

ro«k>,  utd  ba  of  guitla  and  tlmtd  luUU. 
The  Jsrbaa,  on  the  otliBrhuid,  whose  jump- 
ing mods  of  loefHBotion  oottespoDds  with 
the  Toot-BMUiuif  of  jSAop/tan,  uid  who  prt- 
kn  high  and  lockj  haonta,  ia  reporttd  to 
■  chaw  the  and,'  It  ii  alio  in  hTonr  of  Qiit 
view  diat  Jarama  eipluna  the  RBdaiing  of 
■he  Septuagint  bj  a  word  whieh  la  toond  l» 
Hgnitj  the  Jetboa.  Thia  ia  a  amall  animal, 
of  the  die  of  a  rat,  bat  rather  leasmbliDg  ■ 
hue  in  shape,  abora  aeien  inohea  long,  wiA 
a  broad  flat  head,  ahrat  itmnpT  not*,  and 
kng  bald  ean.  Tha  Ibra  Ibel,  wUdl  an 
abort,  are  planed  near  the  neck.  Tbafaindat 
feet  are  three  timea  their  leogfli,  and  half  aa 
long  ai  the  whole  bod;;  lo  that  the 
aninul  apringa  or  leapa  like  gnaahopperai 
and  with  great  awUBiau.  The  doIoot  of  the 
bead  and  back  ia  a  btjgtit  brown:  that  of 
the  bellj  and  aidea  ia  white.  The  tall,  aud 
to  lie  three  timet  the  length  of  the  whole 
animal,  ia  fnmiBhed  at  the  and  with  a  tafk 
of  hair,  and  serreB  ita  owner,  in  Jumping,  (be 


CON  S9 

foraigB  to  the  Tiewi  and  bablts  of  the  pre- 
aent  daf,  and  aeemi  to  aa  stHirl)i  inconaia- 
tent  widi  domeatlo  peao*  aad  high  peraooal 
onltare.  Whenoa  we  ma;  leani  the  impro- 
prial;  of  oonfoDDding  tha  Old  with  the  New 
Taatunant,  b;  whieh,  in  tenth,  wa  radnoe  the 
latter  to  the  lerel  of  the  former.  Ae  die  re- 
eotd  of  a  N?aalad  ajatam  of  rallgiona  politr, 
(ht  Old  Teitament  ia  of  ondeeiTing  valae; 
but  oar  raoralit;  moat  be  learned  from  Jeana 
Christ  esohiaiTal^ 

CONCOPIBCKNCE  (L.  oh  Mnwat  inin) 
ia  the  lepreaenlatlTe  of  a  Oreek  word  whioh 
deaolM  ■  vtlttmatt  imotiim,  b;  wlush  we  an 
iMme  OD  towarda  an  otjeet,  and  ia  henoe 
aqniTalent  to  ma  '  hmg  tot,'  or  '  Inat  altar.' 
TIm  original  ia  aaeordinglj  lendeted,  in  om 
nnion,  'loau'  (Mark  It.  19),  'dasin' 
(Lake  xxiL  1ft),  aa  wall  aa  '  oonaopiMMnoa  ' 
(lTbeaa.if.  (».    Col.  iii.  (i1. 

CONDOIT  (L.  eonpare  iMtuhut),  a  word 
whioh  oconra  in  the  English  Bible,  in  9  Kinga 
II.  20,  he. ;  and  ia  explained  bf  the  render- 
ing giTn  in  Job  xxxrlil.  36,  namel},  ivafrr- 

COKBY,  from  the  Latin  cmiailn,  a  rab- 
bit, atanda  for  tha  Hebrew  SItaphin,  whieh, 
aiguiQing  (0  leap,  denote*  the 
J,  or  Jerboa.  Some,  bowerer, 
prefer  undantanding  bjShophan  tbe  Syrax 
Syriacia,  or  Onaman,  ttom  wboae  fletb  tbe 
ifohammpdani  and  Eaalern  Cbnstiana  «b- 
■tain :  the  Shaphan  was  oluaed  among  tm- 
elean  animala  (Lnit.  xi.  0).  lu  olbar 
aharaeleriatiBe,  as  far  u  the j  are  made  known 
in  Seripture,  ma}  be  finnd  in  the  following 
paaaages,  Deut.  liT.  T.  Pi.  ci*.  IB.  FroT. 
HI.  SO  i  from  whieh  it  appean  that  coniei 
rommated,  freqaented  roek;  plaoea,  whieh 
wwe  their  ordinarr  abode,  and  were  ■  a  feeble 
folk.'  The  Bfrian  hjrai,  faowerer,  ia  aaid  to 
be  neither  rodent  like  rabbila,  nor  raminul. 


CONFECTION  la  a  word  of  Latin  origin. 
eqnJTalent  to  the  Siion  lenn  moii*;,  or 
aomething  made.  It  repreaenta  a  Hebrew 
word,  which  Bigniflea  to  oompound  or  put  to> 
gelher  aromatic  orhighlfseaaoned  materials, 
tarh  as  fragrant  herbs :  hence  come  (be 
tereral  meanings  aacribed  to  tbe  word  ( JCoA- 
iagh)  in  (he Bible,  as*  locompoimd'  (Exod. 
■xn.  aa);  'apotheear;'  (Eiod.  xxx.  20); 
'Bpice' (Ezek.  niT.  10) ;  'alntment' (Exod. 
m.  39);  'confection'  (Exod.  xxx.  80); 
•confectiaDariea'  (1  Sam.  TiiL  19).  Tha 
word  ■  eautcclion '  stands  for  the  hoi j  anoint- 
ing oil,  which  was  to  be  made  of  certain 
apeoiAe^  awcet  apices,  and  appropriated  ez- 
Tbe  fiilnre  of  identity  in  this  partiaiilar  elaslTelj  to  sacred  pnrpoaea  (Exod.  xxx.  Si, 
niakea  aerionsir  against  the  bjrai  Syriacns  tej.).  'Confection,'  in  Sherldsii's Dictionwj, 
being  the  animal  intruded  bf  ShapfutJi,  is  said  to  mean  a  aweelmeat ;  henee  our  ran- 
thou^  tha  hjiax  ma;  reside  in  clefts  of    .^liowr,  and  the  coirapt  word  eow^Ut. 


CON                      394  CON 

CONFEDERACY  (L.ciim,wlth,tiid/*ihi»,  C0N8OBTED  (L.  «"»•  J^^^j^t  *^ 

A  ttwkty).  An  Mreement  generally  for  politi-  lot),  is  the  wpreMntotiTe  of  a  0«ek  wowl 

eftl  panoses  (Gen.xiT.  18.   Ob»d.  7).    The  of  the  Mume  etymological  fonnatwn,  denofe- 

orii£isl  word  U  for  the  most  pert  rendered  ing  to  cart  m  oiw'*  to<  tptM  «m!»^' ^  J^ 

•  c^ensnf  (see  the  •rtide) ;  elio,  •  leegoe '  hoebend  in  wedlock  takes  hia  wife     for  bet- 
(aSam.  ilL  13;  ▼.  8).  ««  ^  worse,  for  richer  for  poor^     In  m, 

CONFIRMATION  (L.  cum,  and  JbrmuB,  sinular  manner,  some  beUevers  atXhesMlo- 

firm,  strong)  is  the  rendering  of  a  Greek  nica,  •  conaorted  wilh  Panl  and  8ilaa    {AetB 

word  of   similar    import,    which   signifies  xrii.  4).                       ,     .    .     .« 

Urengthenmg,  niablUhmg,  or  nU^ymg  (PhiL  CONVERSATION  (L.)  aigniflea,  ^  pre- 

j^  7    HebTri.  16).  ••»*»  verbal  eommmmemium  between  two  or 

CONFISCATION,  —  a  oomponnd  Latin  mare  genome}  bnt,  in  the  early  periods  of  our 
word,  which  means  the  taking  away  of  the  language,  its  meaning,  more  in  accordance 
property  of  a  person,  and  putting  it  into  with  the  deriyation  of  the  word  {cum,  mnA 
Uie  pubUc  treasury  {am  and  Jitcue).  It  vereor,  to  turn  or  haTC  interconne  with),  de- 
is  the  rendering,  in  Eara  vii.  26,  of  a  Hebrew  noted  the  general  bearmg  and  condud  qf  « 
woid,  Oanaik,  which,  in  other  passages,  is  pertan  wUk  kU  felhwmen.  Hence  it  came 
translated  by 'amerce'  (Deut  xxiL  19);  and  to  signify  *  manner  of  life.     It  la  used  m 

•  punish  •  (ProT.  xvu.  26).  this  import  by  Chancer,  in  these  words :  — 

CONFOUND  (L.  cum,  with,  and  fimdo,  « If  so  be  that  he  falle  into  thy  oompaignie, 

I  pour)  signifies  to  pour  together,  as  metaU  enquire  of  his  convereaUon  and  of  his  lif 

under  the  injhienee  qf  fire,  and  so,  to  miii^  befome.' 

conAisedly;  hence,  to  dtaorraive,  dtfoppoml,  •  CouTereation  *  is  once  (Ps.  zxxviL   14 


eomp.    K*     • 

enemies  of  the  Psalmist '  are  confounded,*  x.  0). 

iriiich  U  hnmediately  explained  by  the  words,  These  remarks  snfllce  to  show  the  mean- 

« for  they  are  brought  unto  shame '  (Ps.  Ixxi.  ing  to  be  attached  to  •  conversation,'  in  the 

24;  comp.  Jer.  xiv.  8,  4).  New  Testament  (Gal.  i.  18.    Eph.  It.  23, 

CONGEALED  (L.  cum,  with,  and  geht,  &c.).    But  there  is  one  passage  which  seems 

ftost),  hardened  a»  by  the  action  qf  frosi,  to  need  a  few  additional  words.     In  PhiL 

frozen.    The  epithet  is   applied  in  Exod.  iiL  20,  the  writer  says— 'Our  (Christian'a) 

XT.  8,  to  the  waten  of  the  Red  Sea,  made  conTersation  is  in  hearen.'    The  word  here 

solid  like  a  wall  on  either  side  of  the  Israelites,  employed,  poliieuma   (fh>m  polU,   a   city), 

in  their  passage,  when  flying  firom  Pharaoh,  might  with   more    propriety    be    rendered 

CONGREGATION    (L.   cum,  with,   and  *  citixenship,'  or  *  country,'  agreeably  to  the 

arex,  a  flock),  a  flocking  together,  a  meeting,  words  of  the  Sariour  himself,  who  declared 

or  ateemblg.    It  is  used  of  the  assembled  that  in  his  Father's  house  or  home  were 

Israelites,  as  church  is  the  appropriate  name  many  mansions  prepared  for  those  who  loTed 

for  an  assembly  of  Christians  (Numb.  x.  7.  and  served  him  (John  xiT.  2,  8). 

1   Kings  Tiii.  14).    The  original  is  some-  CONVERSION  (L.  a  turning)  is  found 

times  rendered  *  multitude '  (Gen.  xxviiL  8) ;  but  once  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts  xr.  8 ), 

*  assembly '  (Deut  t.  22) ;  and  sometimes  where  its  Greek  equivalent  is  employed  ef 

•company'  (Exek.xxiii.  46).  the  bringing  of  the  Gentiles  into  the  fold 

CONSCIENCE  (L.  aim,  with,  and  eeio,  of  Christ.     Though  the  word  ocean   but 

I  know),  according  to  its  etymology,  denotes  once,  the  thing  which  it  represents  is  the 

eelf-knowledge  ;  and  hence  the  feeling  of  our  great  instrumental  aim  of  the  gospel,  whose 

moral  condition,  which  self-contemplation  purpose  was  and  is  to  bring  men  into  union 

occasions.    This  feeling  is  accompanied  by  with  God  by  a  change  of  heart  and   life, 

approbation  or  disapprobation.    From  these  through  faith  in  his  '  dear  Son.'     This  great 

morsl  sentiments  comes  a  sense  of  merit  or  and  all  -  important  change,   without  which 

demerit,  or  right  and  wrong,  in  relation  to  there  can  be  neither  true  religion  nor  dura- 

our  feelings,  motives,  and  conduct     Hence,  ble  peace,  and  without  which  man's  "highest 

'conscience,'  in  its  more  general  import,  sig-  good  can  by  no  means  be  wrought  out,  is 

nifies  the  complex  feeling  we  have  of  right  frequently  spoken  of  in  Scripture  by  a  word 

and  wrong,  both  in  the  abstract,  or  as  mea-  (melaaoaa)  which  literally  signifies  *  a  change 

sored  by  some  ideal  standard,  and  relatively  of  mind,'  bat  is  invariably  rendered  in  our 

to  our  own  moral  condition  at  any  particular  venion  by  *  repentance '    (Matt  iii.  8,  11 ; 

moment     '  Conscience '  is  the  translation  of  is.  18.  Acts  v.  81 ;  xi.  18),  though  *  repent- 

A  Greek  word  of  a  similar  derivative  signifi-  ance'  is  only  an   early  stage   in    such   a 

cation  in  John  viU.  9.  Acta  xxiiL  1 ;  xxiv.  *  change  of  mind'  as  the  religion  of  Jesus 

^^'^^i^cil^lru^    •••».        A  "^™'-    "^^^  prevalence  of  the  word  •  re- 

CONSEl^KAit    (cjtm,  with,   and    eacer,  pentance'  tends   to   obscure   the   meaning 

sacred).  14>  e^proprtoie   to  taered  purpoeet.  and  impair  the   force  of  some   passam. 

Bee  A»ATB»iiA.  Thus  John's  mission  would,  lh>m  thTuse 


COR 


395 


COR 


of  th«  word  (Matt  iii.  11),  appear  to  htva 
eontemplated  nothing  more  than  repentanoe 
or  contrition,  —  an  important  feature,  and 
often  an  essential  condition,  in  a  true 
and  lasting  eonyersion;  bnt  in  tmth  he 
aimed  at  prodacing  *  a  diange  of  mind '  in 
his  oonntrymen,  in  order  that  they  might 
bring  willing  ears  and  docile  affections  to 
the  great  Teacher  himsell  Sometimes  the 
force  of  meUmaia  is  made  more  distinct  and 
emphatic  by  adjuncts,  —  as  in  Acts  xx.  21, 
'  Testifying  change  of  mind  (eonyersion) 
towards  Ood,  and  faith  towards  onr  Lord 
Jesas  Christ'  (comp.  2  Tun.  ii.  2&).  In 
Heb.  zii.  17,  the  term  appears  to  signify 
repentance  properly  so  called;  but  this  is 
oi^y  a  deriTatiye  and  secondsry  meaning  of 
metanoia. 

It  is  the  doctrine  of  Scripture,  that  the 
mode  of  eonyersion,  in  indiyidual  cases, 
Tariea  according  to  the  good  pleasure  of  its 
author,  God,  and  the  peculiar  circumstances 
and  condition  of  those  who  are  its  subjects 
(John  uL  8).  The  same  authority  places 
its  necessity  beyond  a  question  (John  iii.  3), 
and  assigns  as  the  test  of  its  genuineness 
that  'faith  which  worketh  by  loye'  (John 
iii  6 ;  xiii.  85). 

*  To  some  bath  Ood  bis  word  addresiTd 

'Mid  symbols  of  Us  Ire, 
And  made  his  presence  manifest 

In  whirlwind,  storm,  and  Are: 
Tracing,  with  bnrnfaiff  lines  of  uBme^ 
On  trembling  hearts  dIb  holy  name. 

To  some  the  solemn  Toioe  has  spoken 

In  life's  serene  retreat; 
Ifhere,  on  the  still  heart,  sounds  haye  broken 

As  flrom  the  meror-sei^ 
Swelling  in  the  soft  harmonies 
That  float  on  Evening's  tranquil  breeae.* 

CONVOCATION  (L.  cum  and  voco,  I  call), 
a  eaUmg  together  i  an  aaaembly  called  or  cot^ 
vened  by  proper  authority.  Such  is  the 
import  of  the  original  Hebrew  (Ezod.  zii. 
16.  Ley.  zziii.  2;  comp.  Isa.  L  18,  and 
iT.  5). 

COOS  (or  Cos),  a  small  island  in  the 
JEgean  Sea,  lying  off  the  coast  of  Caria,  to 
the  north-west  of  the  promontory  of  Cnidus. 
It  was  celebrated  for  its  wine,  its  fine  gauze- 
like yestments,  and  its  costly  ointment  Its 
chief  city,  of  the  same  name,  had  a  much- 
frequented  temple  of  Esculapius.  Hippo- 
crates was  a  natiye  of  the  island.  It  was 
Tisited  by  Paul  on  his  way  to  the  imperial 
city  (Acts  zxi.  1 ;  comp.  1  Maoc.  xy.  28). 

COPPER.  —  See  Mbtals. 

CORAL  (C.  ruhrum)  was  known  to  the 
ancients,  who  classed  it  among  precious 
stones.  Being  found  in  yarious  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea,  which  is 
said  to  haye  taken  its  name  fh>m  the  hue 
derived  firom  its  corals,  this  product  of 
nature  could  hardly  fail  to  be  known  to  the 
Israelites.  Tet  it  is  only  twice  that  the  word 
occurs  in  our  Bible,  aa  the  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew    Bahmoih    (Job  xxviii.  18.    Esek. 


TxnL  10).  lo  the  first  pas8age>  King 
James's  translators  appear  to  have  been 
uncertain  whether  they  had  given  a  correct 
rendering ;  for  they  place  the  original  word 
itself  in  the  margin ;  nor  is  it  aacertained 
what  species  of  precious  stone  the  word 
was  intended  to  denote. 

Coral  is  the  product  of  the  coral  insect, 
which,  either  by  a  division  of  its  own  sub- 
stance or  by  throwing  out  a  bud,  produces 
a  small  mass  of  gelatinous  substance,  stud- 
ded with  apertures,  inhabited  by  polypea  or 
worms.  This  substance  speedy  attaches 
itself  to  a  portion  of  rock,  on  which  it  grows, 
and  to  which  it  becomes  permanently  i^fflzed. 
The  worms  obtain  their  food  by  the  action 
of  their  cUia,  like  vibrating  hairs,  with 
which  they  agitate  the  water,  and  causa 
fresh  currents,  charged  with  animalcule, 
to  flow  towards  themselves.  The  minute 
mass  gradually  secretes  an  internal  nucleus 
or  skeleton  of  calcareous  matter ;  and  hav- 
ing, during  its  existence,  given  birth  to 
other  and  simflar  colonies  of  polypes,  the 
animal  portion  dies,  and  the  gelatinous  mat- 
ter, with  its  families  of  polypes  or  worms, 
perishes ;  but  the  stony  skeleton  is  left  to 
form,  by  continual  accumulations  of  this 
nature,  coral  reefs  and  islands. 

CORBAN,  a  Hebrew  word,  found  in  Mark 
vii.  11,  denoting  a  g\fl,  offering,  or  taerijice, 
dewUd  to  God  (Lev.  ii.  1 ;  vii.  88).  The 
word  occurs  in  a  passage  which  requires 
some  explanation,  and  which  may  be  thus 
freely  rendered :  —  *  But  ye  (Pharisees)  say. 
If  a  man  shsll  say  to  his  father  or  mother, 
Corban,  —  that  is,  a  gift,  which  I  desire  to 
offer  for  your  good,  —  ye  no  longer  require 
him  to  do  any  thing  for  his  faUier  or  mo- 
ther ;  *  that  is,  *  Te  teach  that,  if  a  son  shall 
have  once  made  an  oblation  for  the  welfare 
of  his  parents,  he  is  acqTiitted  of  aU  obliga- 
tion in  regard  to  them.'  In  other  words: 
'  Our  religious  offering  for  parents  stands  in 
place  of  a  course  of  pious  conduct  towards 
them '  (comp.  Matt  xv.  9,  6 ;  xzilL  18). 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  that  MatUiew  and 
Mark  refer  to  the  same  event,  and  quote 
the  same  observation.  They  do  so  with  a 
difference  that  merits  some  attention.  Mark 
uses  the  Hebrew  word  Corbtatf  and  imme« 
diately  explains  it  by  a  corresponding  Greek 
term.  Josephus  does  the  same  in  these 
words :  —  *  Such  also  as  dedicate  themselves 
to  Ood  as  a  corban,  which  denotes  what  the 
Greeks  call  a  gift'  (*  Antiq.'  iv.  4.  4).  The 
resemblance  is  striking.  Why  did  Josephus 
explain  the  Hebrew  term  7  Because  he  was 
writing  chiefly  for  pagan  —  Greek  and  Ro- 
man—  readers.  So  far,  then,  as  this  one 
pasMge  goes,  Mark  may  be  said  to  have  had 
in  view  heathen  readers ;  for  writers  of  the 
Hebrew  stock  would  no  more  require  a 
translation  of  Corban,  than  Englishmen 
would  need  to  have  the  term  g{fl  explained. 
But  the  term  Carbon  would  hardly  hava 


COB  390  COB 

Manmd    Ut  •  hMlfaui   wrUer.      Wlwno*         COBIHTH  (G.).  •  Mlabnted  sitr,  wUA 

njm  an  aignment  that  Hut  wu  •  Jvw.  Isr  a»  Uli  inhmaa  tbrnt  join*  (In  niaiii  laad 

MaldHW,  howmer,  don  Dot  on  Ihs  H»-  of  QnoM  wttb  Ihs  HoiMi   and,  frn^  iM 

bnwwoid,bat  dmp^  IbaOmk  mulatian,  potltloo  betwaan  iba  Bamniatw  Sinoa  aoii 

^MiM,  a  gift, —  a  Ant  wbieh  maid  agna  Alejontam  Xaia,  ««ia  fftoftiatttf  tii^ai 

wMi  (ba  rappovitiOD,  that  bi*  Ooapal,  aa  wt  MMrif,  oi '  batman  iT  .    _     .     . 


dinetlj  from  Kitiiaw  Into  Oraak,  or  that  Iha  anilad  Magaria  with  Aigolia.    Tha  ■> 

wiitar  of  It  had  In  hia  mind  pagan,  and  not  put  </  the  dialiiat  itimairta  of  a  uiais  cm 

Hebtav  nadara.  billa  with  ban  high  (opa,  daap  Tallaja,  and 

COEIAHDEB,  a  ganni  of  noballUaroaa  natnnr  alefte;  irtuali  ainka  giadnally  down 

planta,  Aa  O.  laHuaai  of  bataniata,  ia,  on  towwdi  a  plain,  In  vfaioh  Coiinth  -ta"iia. 

aomc  anthorilj,  baliavad  to  ba  tlia  pint  llin«lng   oat  ■  loftf  tnaolaled   hill,    tb^ 

intandad  bf  Iha  Hrbrvw  Oad,   wed  u  a  aoalalna  Iha  oiladel  at  aoopolia  of  tha  plaos. 

*nli)eel  of  ooB^Nuiaon  tor  mamiia,  wfaiidi  la  Fntn  the  plain  Iha  land  riaaa  again  nortb- 

daacrlbad   aa   '  Ifta  soriandar-aaad,  wfalla '  watda,  loininK  a  ranga  of  hilla  whkih  tbk 

(Eiod.  ztI  81.  Numb.  xL  T).    Soina  hara  np  into  Hagaria.    The  aharastai  oi  tha  dia- 

thongbt  the  naemldanea  to  lie  not  manly  triot  waa  Ihenfore  Taiiona.     EqoaUj  did  its 

in  the  eatooT,  bat  alao  In  tb«  indented  or  parte  diliar  in  regard  la  ftsilfbhiasa.     Tb« 

rat  appearance,  of  the  aiied :  tha  root  of  Oad  oBiinenoaB  were  bairan ;  the  valaa,  fiw  low- 

algniflea  to  nl  or  nub  •■  imctMiam,     Tha  land*,  eipaeiallT   the    aeaeoaat,   atrct^iBi 

ftalt(araeedB)iaaf lhBii»otapeppcr-«ani,  from  Corinth  to  Bicfon,   along  tha    fliaaa 

Bontaining   an   oil  whioh  haa  an  anmatio  CorlnthiaotUt  woe   aariohed    and    aiha  Had 

flaroir,  fsr  whloh  it  ia  hlghlf  priied  in  the  with  the  moat  lunriant  Tegetalion,  whiA 

Eaat,  and  need  a«  an  ingrodienl  in  cony-  oallad  lorlh  ham  du  aneicota  linmaaiiiiia 

powder.      Coriander   !■  eoaraon  in  Egypt  of  wonder  and  delight    And  atill.  anocadins 

■Dd  the  aooth  of  Emope  aa  well  aa  in  our  to  traTsllera,  Ihaae  parte  prodiuta  gnU  «t— - 

own  oDunliy      In  Etaei  It  ia  grown  tar  danee  without  the  baaloinl  of  niiuh  hanaaa 

dniggiala  and  diatUlera    Ila  leavea  are  aead  laboor  —  ao  rlah  u  the  atuj,  ao  gtmal  Ilia 

■a  condmimti  in  aonpa  Jko  eliBala 


The  c  tjot  Connlh  wa.  nfnated  on  the  ker  of  tha  Pelopouneana. 

■tcep   northero   deHcnl  o(  the  hill  whi-t.  ST'     i         ,  '""T"™""™- 

bora  ita  eitadeL  and  which  in  r-ri^J^"''  **  ?'•"•  "  "  "«""y  to  meke  •  durtm.- 

waa  inuloded  within  the  limit*  of  A.  /?!!  "^  Ixlwem  Corinth    before  and  Corinth 

itaeir.    From  ita  position.  Corinth  waa^  ^L^.^^^'  *-^-  """^  •*■"  "'^  ■" 

t  uiui  waa  th«  deatnijed  by  the  Bomana.     Of  the  old  ally 


COR  3! 

«•  know  littla :  tha  new  oitj  ii  minntal; 
daMribid  b;  ■naiant  wiiten.  Tst,  ot  iht 
wonhip,  art*,  oommerea,  aharactar,  uid 
manncn  of  (ha  inbabitanta  of  tlia  old  citj, 
onr  infonnation  ia  pailupa  e  '    -  -■    . . 

than  of  aBT  olhar  Or«iaii  oil] 


Corinlli,  aa  ■  Dorian 
ha  raligioa*  obligatioiu  tha  worahip  of 
Apatto  and  Diana.  ThU  of  IfiDerra  also 
waa  obaanad.  Bnt  in  an  aapecial  mannar 
vai  the  d^  addiotsd  to  the  Iieantiou  litea 
of  Vanna.  Acsording  to  >  local  tradition, 
Halio*  (the  Son),  to  whom,  in  hia  aoalaat 
wilh  Mepnma  for  the  poiaeaaion  of  the  land, 
the  beighta  ot  ABro^orinthna  (the  oitadal) 
had  tallea,  aaaignad  thaaa  to  Aphrodita 
(the  Qraak  name  foi  Tanua),  whose  oldeat 
and  moat  aaored  temple  ihiod  on  thia  bill. 
In  conaaquansa  ot  tha  conneolioQ  of  Corinlh 
with  trada  b;  Ha,  the  Phoanieian  idoUtrr 
exartad  a  tunetol  infloanea  on  tha  (in  itaalt) 
bad  and  eorrupting  natiTa  worahip  ot  Aphro- 
dite. Tb«  foddaaa  had  aoothar  lemide  at 
CruMani  in  Centduwe,  Ijing  at  the  nortb- 
•■M  of  Coring.  Ttiasa  templai  wara  aanad 
b;  joong  Ainalea,  iritoie  li*aa  were  a  aoena 
irf  liaanlioaa  degradation,  disgiaeefol  enongh 
to  OiemaelTe*,  bat  tar  more  diagracsftil  to 
(be  prieata  and  the  aptem  by  whish  flier 
wen  lad  In  offer  their  bodiea  and  their  aoida 
in  temples  of  loiL  These  aaarifioaa,  how- 
erer,  wan  regarded  irilh  a  Teiy  diJKinnt  ejre 
bj  the  onltore  of  eUssio  timea,  m  i^ipaars 
1^  ■  Tariet;  of  taota.  and  bj  ttiia,  that  an 
ancient  writer  (Snldas)  has  prtaerred  the 
namea  of  the  most  dialingmahad  of  thaae 
rtligioui  ooorteaaDa.  Tha  lieenlioiuneaa  of 
(he  place  beeame  prorerbial,  »o  that  the 
Teijr  name  Corinth  was  aynonymoiu  with 
the  praetiee  of  harlotrr. 

The  worship  of  raasT  other  heathen  dei- 
tiaa  prerailed  in  Ae  oilj,  ao  as  to  make  it 
one  Taal  but  decorated  aaena  of  idolatrj. 
The  Irmples  of  the  aaTeral  diTlniliea,  eape- 
tiiBj  Ifaosa  whioh  stood  on  the  Aacopolia, 


7  COR 

deatnietiozi  bj  the  fiomana :  manj,  howerar, 
bal<»kged  eiclnaJTelj  lo  the  new  cilj.  In 
the  serrise  of  these  religions  Institiitjona, 
art  amplojed  all  its  nwiiircea  ;  and  the  Co- 
rinlhiana  had  the  enTied  praise  of  aurpasa' 
Ing  the  rest  of  Greeoa,  in  the  akill,  taste, 
and  aninplaoaaneaa,  with  which  the;  deeo- 
rated  their  eitj  and  their  Innplai.  To  Ihem 
ia  anhitectme  indebted  tor  its  liohest  and 
most  highlj  omtmeutal  order.  EqnsUjr 
renowned  were  the;  for  anperioril;  in  tha 
prastisal  arte  of  life.  In  litaratnra,  how- 
erer,  the;  bU  below  the  ordinaiy  standard  j 


waa  not  wvnting.  Ila  energiss 
•mbsAed  In  trade  and  comi 
did  more  br  ita  substance  than  ita  morala. 
Its  position  between  two  seu  put  it  into 
immediate  cauneotion  wilh  the  best  maita 
of  tha  East  and  Weal;  while  its  trade  waa 
much  aogmentad  both  bj  the  ditBcol^  than 
expeiieneed  ot  oiretuauaTigating  the  Pelo- 
ptnineana,  and  the  ease  with  which  good* 
oonld  be  Iranqioitad  adoaa  the  nanow  ialb- 
mns  on  which  it  lay.  Aceoidinglj,  its  trade 
dated  back  to  the  beginnings  of  It*  oinlisk- 
tion,  and  ita  oldest  arisloeraej  owed  tbair 
eleralion  to  aaooeaa  in  trade.  It  beeame  a 
great  entrapM  (or  Teiy  remote  parta  of  the 
world.  Hera  war*  bioaght  the  nanual  or 
artiacial  prodncUons  of  all  lands :  —  Egjpt 
sent  ita  p*|i}Toa ;  Libya,  its  ivory ;  Bjria, 
Ikvokineenae  1  Phoaieia,  dalea;  Carthage, 
oaipela  ;  Sjraenae,  aom  ;  Eabcsa,  fmit ; 
Thaaa^y  and  Phiygia,  slaTei.  Then  stood 
ships  of  all  forma  and  Irom  all  natione :  an 
ita  eastem  side,  in  the  haiboor  of  Ceo- 
cbn«  1  on  ita  western  side,  in  the  harboor 
of  Leobvmn.  Banea,  eren  in  early  perioda, 
nrennea  far  the  atala,  ample  enough  to 
mpply  the  wants  and  aatia^  the  deaires  ot 
ita  rolar*.  Bnt  ocaunena  ia  fickle  in  (he 
hfours  it  baatows.  Alexaudila  arose,  and 
drew  off  mneh  of  the  trada  of  Corinth,  which 
■nflteed  alao  by  the  inaliy  of  Bhodea.  The 
opnienee  of  ita  oitiieiie  eonesponded  with 
fliair  enteipiisa,  aUn,  end  IndnBby.  The 
population  waa  large ;  the  munber  of  alaree, 
almoat  ineredibly  graM  (460.000).    Waaldi 


red  mord  o 


wDiahipa  of  (he  dlj,  anrriTad  in  part  ii 


mption,  in  which  the  pleasures  of  the  aanaa* 
gained  an  almoat  exeluslTe  sway.  Corialh 
had,  in  a  Lais  and  odiar  tbmales,  attraottani 
BO  powerfol,  that  it  waa  a^raaaij  riailad  Ibr 
gnillj  indolgenecBi  whioh,  howerer,  wen 
rninoni  to  all  bnt  lb*  leiy  Opulent  But 
Ihea*  enomone  moral  erila  were,  to  Ihe  (JM 
of  the  Corinthiani,  notdariienoogh  to  Ihrotr 
a  elond  oTcr  the  name  ot  a  eily  of  whieh 
they  ware  ptond,  and  wfaoaa  Ikme  waa  ifTsad 
duonghont  the  civilised  world. 
Of  the  history  at  Corindi  w«  mh  aaj  n» 


COR  398  COB 

mon  heie,  than  that  it  fell  to  die  ground,  raiting  questions  of  debate,  tlirastin^  the 

together  with  the  liberties  of  Greece,  under  intellect  into  disproportionate  prominenoe, 

the  strong  hand  of  the  half-ciTilised  Bo-  and  introdocing  the  mere  decisions  of  man 

mans;  being  eaptnred  and  laid  waste  by  as  explanatory  of  or  sopplementaiy  to  the 

Mommius,  146,  A.C.  when  the  greater  part  great  simple  doctrines  tought  by  reyelation, 

of  its  territory  fell  to  the  Sieyonians,  and  the  nniTerse,  and  the  human  heart.     The 

its  trade  passed  to  Delos.    For  the  spaee  of  influence  of  philosophy,  therefon,  is  neces- 

a  century,  Corinth  lay  waste:   only  some  sarily  both   anti-religions  and    disuniting^, 

temples,  and  the  edifices  on  the  Acropcdis,  An    undue   propensity  to  moot  questions 

surriyed  the  ruin.    In  the  year  AJ).  46,  the  leads  to  diyersity,  and  ends  in  disuni<Ki. 

dictator  Julius  Casar  determined  to  raise  Human  socie^  under  |diilosophy,  as  the 

up  the  fallen  citj,  which  he  carried  into  flowing  waters  under  frost,  is  first  made 

eifect,  peopling  it  with  TCteran  soldien,  and  hard  and  cold,  and  then  broken  into  pieces, 

descendants  ol  freedmen.    Quickly  did  the  Some  such  process  as  this  had  ensued  in 

place  attain  a  high  degree  of  prosperity,  the  Corinthian  church  from  the  preaching 

Under  the  Romans,  and  in  the  times  of  the  of  Apollos ;  who,  haying  had  the  great  fea- 

Mew  Testament,  it  was  the  chief  city  of  tures  of  his  mind  formed  in  Alexandria, 

the  Boman  province  of  Achaia.    Bestored  where   the  philosophies   of  the  East  and 

to  prosperity,  Corinth  again  called  forth  all  West  had   mixed   together  their  heteroge- 

the  resources  of  high  art  Ibr  its  own  em-  neons  materials  to  form  a  system  which 

bellishment.    Art,  howeyer,  may  daxsle  the  aifected  to  be  the  yery  height  of  true  wis- 

eye,  and  rofine  the  manners:    it  cannot  dom,  and  as  such  to  solye  all  the  great 

cleanse  the  soul,  or  siford  a  sufflcient  gui-  problems  of  matter,  mind,  duty,  and  immor- 

dance  for  lifk    Idolatry  was  a  hollow  thing,  tality,  was  led  eyen  unconscioudy  to  blend 

an  empty  form,  howeyer  elegant  and  glitter-  in  his  Christian  teachings  much  that  was, 

ing.    It  had  no  liying  dement,  —  no  source  howeyer  foreign  to  the  gospel,  striking  and 

of  moral  power.     It  might  fascinate  the  attractiye,  because  new,  ambitious,  and  weU 

imagination,  but  could  not  form,  raise,  or  spoken ;  and  so  to  gather  around  him  a  cir- 

flll  the  heart    Hence  Corinth  was  a  morally  cle  of  scholars,  who,  in  their  admiration  of 

abandoned  place.    Chrysostom  tenns  it  the  their  immediate  teadier,  forgot  their  father 

most  licentious  dty  of  all  that  were  or  had  in  Christ,  and  eyen  almost  lost  sight  of 

been.  Christ  himselt    This  was  a  state  of  things 

Commereid  prospects  had  cdlected  to-  most  adyerse  to  the  gospd ;  scarcely  less  so 

'gether  in  Corinth  a  Jewish  population,  who  because  it  seems  to  haye  arisen  without  any 

wen  numerous  enough  to  support  a  syna-  direct  intention  or  wish  of  Apollos,  from  the 

gogue   (Acts  xyiii.  4),  in  which  conyerts  natnrd  tendencies  of  his  own  mind,  and 

from  Heathenism  were  found  (7).    To  this  the  minds  of  those  to  whom  he  ministered, 

city  came  Paul  from  Athens,  during  his  As,  howeyer,  it  arose  incidentally,  and  Apol- 

second  misdonsry  tour.    Applying  himself  los  had  no  wish  to  form  a  party,  he  does 

first  to  the  instruction  of  Jews  and  Jewish  not  appear  to  haye  forfeited  the  good  opi- 

oonyerts,  he  had  the  satisfaction  to  conyert  nion  of  Paul,  and  may  probably  haye  kept 

Crispus,  the  diief  ruler  of  the  synagogue ;  himself  for  a  time  at  a  distance  from  the 

but,  finding  himself  ill  repdd  for  his  labour  Corinthians,  in  order  to  allow  the  apostle's 

among  his  countrymen,  most  of  whom  wen  nbukes  and  exhortations  to  take  full  effect 

eyen  bitteriy  opposed  to  him,  he  directed  his  in  restoring  the  church  to  Christian  sim- 

chief  exertions  for  some  two  yean  to  the  plicity  of  doctrine,  and  oneness  of  mind  and 

Gentiles,  and  was  nwarded  with  ample  sue-  heart  (1  Cor.  xyL  12). 
cess  (Acts  xyiiL  4,8, 10).  After  Paul,  accom-         A  Judaixing  influence  dso  manifested  it- 

panied  by  his  friends  Aqulla  and  Priscilla,  self  in  Corintib,  as  la  other  cities  when  Paul 

had  left  Corinth  (Acts  xyiii.  18),  that  city  preached,  haying  a  tendency  to  assert  the 

was  yisited  by  the  Alexandrian  Jew  Apollos,  yiews  held  by  Peter,  to  the  derogation  of 

<  an  eloquent  man,  and  mighty  in  the  Scrip-  the  authority  of  Paul  (2  Cor.  xi  5).     Teach- 

tuns,'  conyerted  to  Christ  from  the  school  ing,  in  oppodtion  to  the  latter  apostle,  the 

of  John  the  Baptist  by  the  same  Aquila  and  necessitj  of  mon  or  less  obserying  the  law  of 

his  wife,  and  commended  to  the  Corinthian  Moses,  they  appear  to  haye  recommended  their 

church  by  die  Ephesians.    Haying  arrived  docirinesby  appealing,  not  merely  to  Scriptun 

in  that  dtj,  he  applied  himself  with  dill-  and  reason,  but  dso  to  the  nationd  feelings 

gence  and  success  to  the  work  of  showing  of  their  countrymen^ — their  pride  as  citizens 

the  Jews  by  the  Scriptures,  that  Jesus  was  of  the  chosen  nation,  and  hein  of  the  grace 

Christ  (Acts  xyiii.  24 — ^28).    Apdlos,  as  a  promised  in  the  now-giyen  Messiah  (2  Cor. 

man  of  culture  and  eloquence,  and  espedaUy  y.  12 ;  xi.  22 ;  xii.  II).    Hence  then  arose 

as  furnished  with  the  nsourees  of  philo-  another  party,  haying  Peter  as  their  head 

sophy,  found  in  the  refined  Corinth  great  (I  Cor.  i.  12),  which,  if  less  numerous  and 

acceptance,  and  soon  won  an  influence  which  flourishing  than  that  which  followed  ApoUos, 

was  superior  eyen  to  that  of  Paul.    Philo-  was  not  less  actiye,  and  far  more  hostile 

sophy,  how«yer«  tends  to  impair  religion,  by  to  Paul,  —  haying  it  as  a  leading:  otgect^  to 


COR                     399  COR 

eoontenct,  and,  if  possible,  destroy  his  in-  having  to  trarel  with  Erastas  through  Maoe* 

fluence.  donia  (Acts  xix.  22),  was  delayed,  so  that 

The  eflbrts  of  this  Petrine  sohism  natnrally  this  Letter  came  into  their  hands  before  his 

awakened  eoonter-efforts  in  defence  of  the  arrifal  (1  Cor.  zyL  10). 

teachings  and  authority  of  Pan].    The  apos-  Another  inducement  which  the  apostle  had 

tie  was  not  present  to  arrest  this  attempt  in  for  writing  the  Epistle  before  us,  was  the 

its  first  beginnmgs.    In  consequence,  it  grew  receipt  of  a  letter  from  the  church  of  Corinth 

into  magnitude  and  importance,  the  rather  itself  (yii.  1),  deliyered  to  him  by  special 

because  it  seemed  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  messengers,  whose  influence  on  the  apostle 

made  it,  to  bo  a  becoming  and  laudable  was  of  a  gratifying  description  (xri.  17, 18). 

assertion  of  the  truth  of  the  gospel,  and  the  This  letter  sought  information  on  yarious 

rights  of  him  who  had  been,  in  the  hands  of  points  (viL  1 ;  yiiL  1 ;  zii.  1 ;  zy.  I ;  zyi.  1) ; 

Ood,  the  instrument  by  which  the  Corinthian  to  which  the  apostle  willingly  gaye  such  an- 

ehurch  had  been  led  to  Christ  swers  as  approved  themselyes  to  his  mind ; 

Thus  arose  three  parties  in  that  church,  adding,probably,ftirther  instructions  through 

—  the  party  of  Paul,  that  of  Apollos,  that  the  medium  of  the  deputies  from  OorinSi, 

of  Cephas.     Against  all  three,  Paul,  in  a  Stephanas,  Fortunatus,   and  Achaicus,  of 

truly  characteristic  and  praiseworthy  man-  whom  he  speaks  in  tenns  of  approbation, 

ner,  asserts  the  sole  au&ority  and  the  all-  and  whom  he  recommends  to  the  favour  of 

sufficiency  of  the  great  Head  of  the  church,  their   fellow-believers    in    the    Corinthian 

Jesus  Christ  himself.  church  (zvi.  15—18). 

Already  had  Paul  addressed  a  letter  to  the  CORINTHIANS,  FIBST  EPISTLE  TO. 

church  at  Corinth,  which  is  unfortunately  —  The  occasion  on  which  this  Letter  was 

lost;  for  the  two  Armenian  Epistles  (one  written  was  manifold,  as  wil]  have  been  learnt 

from  the  Corinthians  to  Paul,  and  one  from  from  the  details  into  which  we  have  entered 

Paul  to  the  Corinthians),  first  published  by  in  the  previous  article.    Oenerally,  it  may 

Masson,  are  apocryphal.    Whether  this  Let-  be  remarked  that  Paul  was  led  to  write  it,  by 

ter  contained  any  reference  to  the  parties  of  his  wish  to  maintain  the  gospel  against  cor- 

which  we  have  now  spoken,  we  possess  no  ruptors,  to  restore  the  unity  of  Uie  Corin- 

means  of  determining.    It  has  been  thought  thian  church,  to  answer  questions  proposed 

to  have  been  conveyed  by  Titus,  and  to  have  to  him  by  ^at  church,  and  especially  to 

had  s{)ecial  reference  to  the  collection  of  alms  call  to  account  one  wicked  member,   and 

for  the  poor  in  the  mother  church  at  Jerusa-  assert  the  indispensable  necessity  of  purity 

lem,  which  Paul  did  his  best  to  promote  in  of  body,  as  well  as  sanctity  of  mind,  in  the 

Oalatia  and  Macedonia ;  and  to  which  he,  professed  followers  of  Jesus, 

doubtless,  expected  the  wealthy  merchants  The  contents  of  the  Letter  are  as  various 

of  Corinth  to  make  liberal  contributions  as  its  subjects.    After  a  greeting  and  a  eon- 

(1  Cor.  zvi.  1.    2  Cor.  viii.  4 — ^17;  iz.  2;  ciliatory  introduction  (L  1 — 9),  the  apostle 

zii.  18).    This  Letter,  however,  spoke  also  enlarges  on  and  against  the  religions  parties 

on  a  subject  of  great  importance,  to  which  that  had  sprung  up  in  the  church,  with  a 

Paul  afterwards  found  it  necessary  to  give  justification  ofhis  own  teachings  (i.  10 — iv.). 

special  attention :  —  'I  wrote  to  you,  in  an  Then  he  passes  on  to  the  gross  immoralltjr 

epistle,  not  to  keep  company  with  fomiea-  of  a  particular  individual,  and  determines 

tors'  (1  Cor.  v.  9).    This  Corinthian  vice,  that  he  should  be  ezpelled  from  the  com- 

we  thus  see,  had  at  the  veiy  first  invaded  the  munity  (v.),  which  leads  him  to  speak  of 

church.    The  remedy  urged  by  the  apostle  the  impropriety  of  Christians  carrying  their 

did  not  prove  effectual.    Fornication,  of  un-  complaints  of  injustice  against  each  other, 

usual  criminality,  had  actually  been  com-  before  the  tribunals  of  &e  Heathen  (vi.). 

mitted  by  a  member  of  the  conmiunity,  as  He  proceeds,  after  this,  to  the  point  on  which 

Paul  had  learnt  on  credible  authority  (1  Cor.  the  Corinthians  had  ezpressly  solicited  his 

V.  1).    Against  such  an  enormity,  it  was  advice,  and  first  dilates  and  gives  a  variety 

imperative  on  the  apostle  to  protest  in  ^e  of  directions  on  marriage  (vii.).    He  then 

most  emphatic  manner.  treats  at  length  the  question  of  eating,  in  the 

Besides  these  reasons  for  composing  the  banquets  that  customarily  ensued,  fleili  which 

admirable  Letter  which  bears  in  our  collec-  had  been  offwed  to  idols  in  the  public  tem- 

tion  the  title  of  First  to  the  Corinthians,  there  pies  (viii. — ^zi.)  ;  making  a  digression  on 

were  one  or   two    special    considerations,  the  disinterested  manner  in  which  he  ezer- 

Members  of  the  family  of  CMoe  had  perso-  cised  his  apostolical  fonctions  (iz.).    Ani- 

nally  given  Paul  information  of  the  ezistenoe  madversions  follow  in  regard  to  praying, 

and  evil  working  of  contentions  and  schisms  with  or  without  the  head  being  covered,  and 

in  the  church,  which  demanded  the  interpo-  the  conduct  of  the  community  in  their  love 

sition  of  his  authority  (1  Cor. *i.l,M9.).    In  feasts  (zL).     Then   ensues   an  important 

order  to  meet  this  emergency,  Paul  dispatched  disquisition  on  spiritual  gifts  (zii — ziv.), 

Timothy  to  the  church  of  Coiinth,  and  inti-  which  leads  the  writer  to  that  eloquent  and 

mated  his  intention  of  shortly  paying  them  lofty  eulogy  on  Christian  love,  which  is 

a  visit  himself  (iv.  17,  aeq,)  ;  who,  however,  enough  to  make  his  name  immortal  (ziii.). 


COR                     400  COR 

Next  eoBMft  his  hmouM  argument  and  dis-  partore  and  nrvrti  at  Coriiitii,  the  Lettei^ 

quiflitioa  ngarding  death,  the  grave,  the  therefore,  was  composed.    This  mast  hmre 

lesumetion,  and  the  final  consummation  of  been  near  the  termination  of  Paul's  stay  at 

all  things  (xr.).    At  last  he  gives  his  orders  Ephesus ;  as,  indeed,  appears  also  from  the 

regarding  the  ooUsetion  for  Jerusalem,  and  Uet,  that,  when  he  sent  these  messengers,  he 

ends  with  various  intimations  and  greetings,  was  contemplating  his  own  departure  from 

The  entire  Epistle  shows  that  it  was  de-  that  oitj,  *  purposing,  when  he  had  passed 

signed  for  die  Corinthian  church,  without  through  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  to  go  to 

ezoepting  any  par^  in  it,  or  including  any  Jerusalem '  (Acts  xiz.  21 ;    comp.   1   Cor. 

other  persons.    This  appears  also  from  the  zvi.  8,  teq.).     It  must,  however,  have  been 

greetings  at  the  end.    A  different  opinion  written  some,  but  apparently  only  a  short, 

hss  been  drawn  from  Ae  introduetory  ad-  time  before  Pentecost  (1  Cor.  xvi  8 — 8). 

dress,  *  Unto  the  ehnreh  of  Ood,  whioh  is  at  But  Paul  left  Ephesus  in  the  yesr  AJ).  59 

Corinth,  to  them  that  are  sanctified  in  Christ  or  60.    So  that  we  maty  fix  tiie  spring  of  one 

Jesus,  called  to  be  saints,  with  all  that  in  of  these  years  as  the  time  when  the  Letter 

every  place  call  upon  the  name  of  Jesus  was  composed. 

Christ  our  Lord,  both  theirs  snd  ours '  (2) ;  A  note  at  the  end  states  the  Letter  to  have 

as  if  the  Letter  were  sent  to '  all  that  in  every  been  written  from  Philtppi;  an  error  whieh 

place,'  besides  the   Corinthian  Christians,  may  have  arisen  from  Paul's  words,  m  zvL  ft. 

If  this  view  were  correct,  the  Epistle  would  The  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  is  unquee- 

assume  the  character  of  a  general  Epistle,  tionable.    Numerous  snd  weighty  are  the 

Against  Ads  view,  militates  the  whole  sub-  evidences  which  show  that  its  author  was 

stanoe  of  the  Letter,  which,  in  an  especial  PauL    If  we  know  any  thing  of  die  hisloiy 

manner,  is  of  a  limited  and  partieular  apj^-  of  Paul,  of  his  manner  of  thinking  and  speak- 

eation,  being  directed  and  sydaptsd  to  meet  iug,  of  his  position,  adversaries,  and  influ- 


certain  peonliarities  then  ezisting  in  the  ence,  this  Letter   is   his;  for  it  is  fbU  of 

church  at  Corinlfa.    Nor  does  the  view  whieh  materials    congruent  with  the  entire  cast 

involves  this  error  necessarily  come  out  of  of  his  mind,  as  well  as  with  his  outward 

the  language  employed.    The  words  '  with  condition.    The  sulgect  is  fur  too  ample  to 

allt'  &e.  are  not  sulgoined  to  the  words '  unto  be  entered  upon  here.    The  reader  is  refsned 

the  church,'  but  to  the  words  '  called  to  be  to  a  few  general  remarks  n^eh  will  be  made 

saints.'    The  apostle  recognises  the  common  before  thk  artide  comes  to  a  dose, 

election  of  the  Corinthians  with  Christians  The  first  Letter  to  the  Corindiians^  from 

generslly.    They,  he  intimates,  had  received  its  value,  attraoted  attention  tt  a  very  early 

a  holy  calling  in  common  with  all  who  in-  period.    Hence,  we  find  the  apostolical  fr^ 

voked  the  name  of  the  one  and  sole  Lord,  ther,  Clemens  Bomanus,  probably  the  same 

Jesus  Christ  with  Clement,  one  of  Panl*s  fellow-labourers 

To  whatever  extent  the  churdi  at  Corinth  (Phil.  iv.  8),  in  his  authentic  Letter  to  this 

may  have  consisted  of  heathen  converts,  it  same  ehurch  at  Corinth,  saying  to  them,  -* 

is  clear  that  it  must  have  contained  many  <  Take  die  Letter  of  the  blessed  Psnl  the 

Jews  and  Jewish  proselytes.     This  appears  apostle ;  what,  first,  did  he  write  to  yon  in 

firom  several  parts  of  the  letter,  in  which  the  the  beginning  of  his  gospel  f     In   trndi, 

argument  snd  Ac  proof  imply,  on  the  pert  under  the  spirit,  he  gave  direetiDOs  to  yon 

of  its  readers,  sn  intimate  acquaintance  with  respecting  himselt  Cephas,  snd  ApoUos,  be- 

the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament:  see  cause  you  were  then  also  under  the  influence 

L  10;  iL  9»  16;  iii.  19, 20 ;  v.  7 ;  ix.  7,  0;  of  party  feelings.'    Alter  ^s  teetimony,  there 

&c.  can  be  no  need  to  occupy  our  space  with 

The  plsM  where,  and  the  time  when,  this  citations  from  later  writers.    The  paasags 

Epistle  was  composed,  are  more  easily  deter-  just  given  is  remarkable,  not  only  as  a  very 

mined  than  in  some  other  cases.    In  oh^>.  early  testimony  to   the  authenticity  of  our 

xvi  8,  we  read,  <  I  will  taiiy  at  Ephesus  Epistle,  but  also  as  showing  that  the  apoa-. 

until  Pentecost; '  snd  at  the  10th  verse,  *  The  tie's  writings  were,  from  the  first,  recognise^ 

churches  of  Asia  salute  yon.'    Whence  it  is  and  appealed  to  as  of  authority,  in  the  diureh 

clear  that  Paul  was,  when  he  wrote  it,  at  of  Christ  generally. 

Ephesus,  in  Asia  Minor;  whither  he  had  The  reaider  must  have  been  struck  with 

gone  from  Corinth,  snd  where  he  remained  the  marked  agreement  tihere  is  in  parts  of  the 

itesrly  three  years.    Towards  Ac  end  of  this  Epistle,  with  the  charaeter  and  condition  of 

period,  he  sent  into  Hsoedonia  two  of  them  the  eitiiens  of  Corinth.    We  refer  specially 

that  ministered  unto  him,  Timotheus  snd  to  dieir  dissolute  morals,  snd  to  their  pre- 

Erastus,  while  he  himself  yet  stayed  in  Asia  tensions  to  superior  knoiHedge  snd  reilne- 

for  a  time  (Acte  xix.  8, 10,  22).    Now  we  ment    Now,  tihese  two  topics  occupy  a  very 

find  that  TimoAy  reoeived  this  commission  Isrge  portion  of  Paul's  letter.    We  see  in 

before  the  Letter  was  written,  under  such  these  faete  a  correspondence  whieh  assures 

circumstances,  however,  as  would  not  allow  us  we  have  here  to  do  with  realities.    In 

him  to  reach  Corintii  till  it  had  been  delivered  regard  to  the  former  topic,  we  find  a  conflr- 

(1  Cor.  iv.  17;  xvi  10).    Between  his  de-  mation  of  the  Corinthian  propenaiiy  in  dm 


COR  401  COR 

Letter  of  Clemens  Romaans.     Now,  where     into  existence  in  the  second  century.    The 
was  A  case  of  such  enormity  as  that  men-     second  century  was  inteUectuaUy  a  period  of 
tioned  by  Paul  (v.),  so  likely  to  occur  as  in     decline.    This  Letter  is  written  in  all  the 
Corinth  f  or  where  could  the  exhortations     vigour  of  early  spiritual  manhood.    If  the 
found  in  Ti.  9,  ieq.  be  more  called  for,  yet     adolescence  of  Christianity  could  not  pro- 
at  the  same  time  be  more  likely  to  gire  of-     duce  a  Paul,  how  much  less  its  decay  and 
fence?    Nerertheless  the  needfiil  rebukes     decrepitude!    Besides,  if  the  cast  of  thought 
were  administered;  ibe  offensiye  implications     represented  by  ApoUos  grew  in  strength  uid 
were  made  ;   nay,  charges  of  the   grossest     prevalence,  that  which  Cephas    erooused 
vice  were  put  forward,  and  condign  punish-     declined  and  passed  ere  very  long  into  a 
ment  was  demanded.    Who  but  a  man  con-     general  exhibition  of  the  gospel,  in  which 
soious  of  mtegrity  would,  who  but  the  apostle     Paul  and  Peter  were  lost  in  Christ'   And  the 
Paul  —  Paul  with  his  brave,  firm,  noble     expectation  of  the  speedy  return  of  Jesus 
spirit,  nerved  and  braced  by  his  assurance     to  take  up  his  government  and  rule  in  glory' 
of  having  a  divine  commission  —  could  have     which  we  find  active  and  fresh  in  this  Epis- 
ventnred  to  take  a  position   which  must     tie,  entering  as  a  practical  element  into  men's 
have  been  perilous,  if  not  positively  destrue-     thoughts,  and  influencing  their  hearts  and 
tive,  to  a  pretender?    Then  Corinth  was  a  their  Uves  (i.  7,  8 ;  vii.  29),  graduaUy  died 
most  likely  place  for  the  existence  of  that     away;  being  corrected  by  time  and  Provi- 
wisdom  of  the  world  which  assumingly  pro-  dence,  till,  ere  the  first  century  closed  itirave 
fessed  to  conduct  men  up  into  the  heights,  place  to  a  spiritual  exposition  of  the  lan- 
and  down  into   the  depths,  of  mysterious  guage  on  which  the  personal  re-appearance 
knowledge  7    As  a  seaport,  Corinth  would  be  of  the  Saviour  rested, 
the   mart  of  new  ideas.      Thither  would         One  or  two  lesser  proprieties  we  must  not 
be  conducted  the  dark  and  turbid  modes  pass  unmentioned.    In  xvi  19,  Aquila  and 
of  Eastern  thought    Thither  would  Athens  Priscilla   are  represented  as  greeting  the 
send  her  lofty  intellectual  culture.    Corinth  Corinthians.    Taken  by  itself,  the  fact  bears 
itself  would  add  to   these  an   element  of  no  particular  significance.    Tet,  if  the  reader 
her  own,  —  one  generally  found  in  man-  reflect  a  moment,  he  may  be  led  to  suppose 
time  and  commercial  populations,  —  a  rough  that  Paul  had  some  good  reason  for  men- 
presumptuous  feeling,  which  would  sink  ti^e  tioning  them  in  this  special  maimer     The 
better  parts  of  philosophy,  and  make  its  Book  of  the  Acts  supplies  the  needed  liffht 
worse  prominent  and  offensive.    Hence  the  There  we  learn  that  in  Corinth  it  was  tiiat 
wisdom  of  the  world,  when  mtroduced  into  the  apostle  first  became  acquainted  with  this 
the  Christian  church,  would  unhesitatingly  worthy  pau-,  with  whom  he  formed  a  close 
seek  to  supplement  the  gospel,  and,  having  intimacy,  and  who  were  members   of  the 
supplied  its  deficiencies,  would  give  it  out  Corinthian  church  (xviii. !,««  )     But  how 
that  its  own  adherents  were  distinguished  then,  were  they  at  Ephesus'whenie  this  Enis- 
for  the  highest  spiritual  endowments,  in  com-  tie  was  sent  ?    This  U  also  explained  bv  the 
parison  with  which,  the  attainments  of  ordi-  same  historical  narrative ;   for   when  Paul 
nary  Christians  were  'beggarly  elements.'  left  Corinth,  he  was  accompanied  by  these 
That  such  a  state  of  feeling  existed  in  the  his  friends,  first  into  Syifa,  and   tiien  to 
Corinthian  church  is  evident  from  several  Epheaus  (xviii.  18,  19).    Paul  and  /   -'* 
parts  of  the  EpisUe  (iii.  31 ;  iv.  8).    And  are,  moreover,  spoken  of  in  the  EpisU 
thus  we  find  another  incidental  correspon-  way  which  leads  the  reader  to  infer  tha 


Aquila 

e  in  a 

that  they 


Hiu.  wc  *!««  mu^^^^  x..w».^^  v^,w«»^»-  w»jr  wiuca  leaas  me  reader  to  infer  that  they 

dence  between  the  Letter  and  facts  of  whose  were  of  a  zealous  and  devoted  spirit  •  for  it 

existence  we  are  hiformed  by  independent  appears  they  had  in  Ephesus  a  church  in 

witnesses.  their  own  house.    This  fiict,  thus  inciden- 

An  interesting  inquiry  is  suggested  by  tiie  taUy  mentioned,  is  in  keeping  witii  all  we 

variety  of  persons,  topics,  modes  of  thought  know  of  this  man  and  his  wife  and  sneciallv 

and  expression,  which  appear  in  this  Epistie  with  the  suooessfril  efibrts  Uiat  they  made  to 

—  namely,  is  it  possible  to  refer  the  date  of  brhig  the  eloquent  Apollos  out  of  Uie  school 

it  to  a  much  later  period  tiian  that  which  is  of  John  into  that  of  Christ  (Acts  xviii.  86 

commonly  assigned?      The  position  that  aeq,).    And  if,  as  was  tiie  flujt,  the  adherence 

there  is  extant  no  Christian  literature,  the  to  ApoUos  of  an  anti-Pauline  party  in  the 

origin  of  which  can  be  earned  into  tiie  first  Corintiiian  church  produced  no  alienation 

century,  is  one  of  those  bold  stotements  that  between  him  and  the  great  aposUe this 

may  startle  and  please  the  partially  informed,  may,  in  part  at  least,  be  referred  to  the  irood 

but  wUl  be  repudiated  without  a  moment's  ofiloes  which  tiieir  common  friends  Ann  n* 

delay  by  those  who  are  intimately  acquainted  and  Priscilla,  employed  between  the  'twn 
wiOi  Uie  mental  as  well  as  tiie  civil  history        Even  in  his  figures  of  speech  PaiJ  wHto- 

of  Uie  first  and  second  centuries.    The  Epis-  like  a  master  of  tiie  art  of  compoiition    Thi. 

tie  before  ns  is  all  over  alive  with  tiie  spirit  is  exempUfied  in  tiie  strikin/and  DPrtii^nt 

of  Paul,  and  tiie  spirit  produced  by  tiie  first  allusion  which  he  makes  ^  S  iU^J^  ?« 

planting  of  Christi«,ity  in  tiie  world.    We  the  Grecian   games.      0n^eisAm7s'S 

fear  not  to  say,  tiiat  it  could  not  have  come  Corintii,  games,  hence    termed   IsUimian 

Q  n 


COR  402  COB 

were  celebrated  in  honour  of  Neptune.  How  is  oerUin  that  Ptnl,  when  he  wrote  this  i 
appropriate  a  reference  to  them  on  the  part  Epistle,  was  aware  that  his  former  Letter  had 
of  one  who  was  writing  to  the  Corinthians,  given  pain,  if  not  oifimoe ;  and  this  know- 
before  whose  ejes  these  games  were  periodic  ledge  oould  hardly  here  been  eommnnieated 
eally  exhibited !  And  with  eren  yet  greater  by  Titos,  on  his  retam  to  Panl,  as  men- 
propriety  does  Panl  use  his  imagery,  when  tioned  in  the  second  Epistle,  8ino«)  the  news 
he  seeks  to  impress  on  the  Corinthian  Chris-  he  brought  calmed  the  apostle's  mind.  The 
tians  the  duties  of  continence  end  temperance,  known  iuetM  are  accordant  with  the  sapposi« 
from  the  consideration  that  all  who  contend-  tion,  that  Panl  having  leamt  (by  Timothy?) 
ed  for  a  prize  in  the  games  were  temperate  that  his  first  Letter  had  disturbed  the  Coiin- 
in  all  things.  Yet  the  latter  did  it  for  a  cor-  thians,  sent  Timottiy  with  a  view  to  compose 
ruptible  crown ;  for  the  chaplet  at  the  Isth-  their  minds,  niio,  succeeding  in  his  ministiy 
misn  games  was  merely  a  pine-garland,  of  peace,  brought  back  to  Panl  a  satisfiMtoiy 
whereas  the  reward  of  the  Christian  Tietor  report,  which  led  him  to  write  the  Letter 
was  immortal  life.  under  eonsideratton. 

J%«  Second  BpUUe  to  the  CoruUhiammM  The  main  olgect  which  ite  author  had  he- 
occasioned  by  information  received  by  ite  fore  him  was,  as  he  himself  stetes,  to  pvs- 
author  fh>m  Timothy  and  Titus  respecting  pare  the  minds  of  die  Corinthians  for  his 
that  church.  Paul,  as  we  have  already  leamt,  presence.  The  evils  which  he  had  reproved 
had  sent  Timothy  to  Corinth  (1  Cor.  iv.  17),  in  the  fiaraMr  Letter,  if  lessened,  were  not 
who,  he  intimated,  would  reach  fliem  not  till  removed.  Panl  suffered  pain  in  giving  them 
alter  they  had  received  the  former  letter  pain.  But  dnty  was  to  be  preferred  to  feel- 
(1  Cor.  zvi.  10) ;  and  from  whom  he  would  ing.  Henc6»  it  he  visited  them,  he  must 
expect  and  receive  news  respecting  the  effect  qiak  plainly,  and  eiert  his  i^ostolic  antho- 
produced  by  that  Epistle.  Now,  when  this  rity.  This,  however,  was  a  course  the  nn- 
second  Letter  was  written,  TimoOiy  was  with  pleasantness  of  whidi  he  would  fl^adly  be 
Paul ;  for  the  Letter  is  addressed  to  the  church  spared.  Probably  ite  necessity  might  be  at 
at  Corinth,  in  the  name  of  both  (2  Cor.  LI),  least  abated  by  another  Letter.  In  this  hope. 
Nothing,  indeed,  is  said  of  any  information  the  Epistle  befli»e  us  was  composed  (ii.  1 ; 
brought  by  Timothy ;  and  some  have  thought  ziL  20,  21 ;  ziiL  10).  In  order  dkat  the  Let- 
that,  owing  to  an  unknown  cause,  Timo-  ter  should  attain  ite  desired  end,  it  was 
thy  had  not  been  at  Corinth.  Yet,  as  he  necessary  that  ite  author  should  sssert,  eon- 
was  expressly  sent  thither,  as  the  Corinthians  firm,  and  justify  his  apostolic  anthority* 
were  led  to  expect  him,  and  as  this  so-called  which  had  been  assailed  at  Corinth.  If  tbia 
second  Letter  is  written  in  his  name,  it  seems  wen  established  beyond  a  question,  his  in* 
more  likely  that  Timothy  had  executed  his  fluence  also  would  be  on  a  firm  footings  and 
mission  before  he  returned  to  Paul,  especially  he  oould  speak  to  them  with  effect.  With 
since  the  latter  offers  no  explanation  to  the  this  o\^tot,  accordingly,  Paul  occupies  him- 
Corinthians  as  to  the  cause  why  his '  brother'  self  in  the  whole  Letter.  His  opponente  had 
had  not  paid  them  ^e  promised  visit  Nor  also  been  busy  in  exposing  certain  personal 
have  we  any  nason  to  expect  to  find  in  this  peculiarities,  well  knowing  that,  if  they  coaM 
second  Letter  a  distinct  notice  of  infoima-  weaken  the  respect  for  his  person,  they  would 
tion  brought  by  Timothy,  since  Timothy  is  succeed  in  undermining  his  authority  as  an 
one  of  the  two  persons  in  whose  name  the  i^stle.  On  these  pointo  the  apostle^  there- 
Letter  is  written :  whatever  Timothy  knew,  fore,  finds  it  necessary  to  speak.  And  he 
or  had  communicated  to  Panl,  would  be  in-  seems  to  have  handled  these  two  subjectoin 
duded  in  the  general  tenor  of  the  eomposi-  this  preparatoiy  Letter,  the  rather  because 
tion.  How  could  Paul  have  said  —  *  I  have  being  of  a  delicate,  yet  very  important  naturo, 
leamt  from  Timothy,*  when  the  Letter  runs,  tiiey  could  be  more  snoeessftally  treated  in 
Paul  and  Timothy,  <  we  would  not,  brethreuy'  such  a  way,  than  in  the  warm  debatings  snd 
and  so  forth  T  (L  8.)  hasardous  personalities  of  an  interview. 

Titus  also  had  brought  him  information.        The  oontentoof  the  Letter  correspond  with 

which  was  of  a  tranquilUsing  kind  (2  Cor.  ite  purpose.    They  divide  themselves  mto 

vii  6 — 16).     When  or  for  what  purpose  three  parte: — I.  After  the  expression  of  his 

Titus  was  sent  to  Corinth,  we  possess  no  good  feelings  towsrds  the  church,  end  an 

means  of  exactly  determining.     Thero  is  allusion  to  his  own  sufferings,  Panl  enters 

plausibility  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics  at  once  on  the  defence  of  his  apostolic  oha- 

(Eiohhom,  Neander,  de  Wette),  that  Paul  racter  and  conduct,  speaking  meanwhile  with 

commissioned  Titus  to  proceed  to  Corinth,  kindly  warmth  of  the  effect  produced  by  hia 

in  consequence  of  having  heard  that  his  for-  previous  communication,  and  ending  with  ez- 

mer  Letter,  by  ite  tone  of  severo  rebuke,  pressions  of  entreaty,  praise,  and  confidence 

had  produced  a  very  strong,  not  to  say  un-  (L--vii.).    The  collection  for  the  sainte  in 

happy,  effect  on  the  church  in  that  dty.  Jerusalem  next,  II.  ooenpiee  the  apostle's 

They  refer,  in  support  of  this  view,  to  one  attention  (viii.  ix.) ;  after  which,  resuming 

or  two  passages,  which  may  be  interpnted  on  the  sul^t  of  his  own  position  as  a  Chria^ 

the  assumption  of  ite  troth  (ii  12 ;  vii  5).  It  tian  teacher,  he,  IIL  engages  in  a  polemaeal 


COR                      403  COR 

J QtUftettion  of  his  apostolic  dignity,  against  is  of  slow  growth,  eHpecially  when,  as  in 
those  hy  whom  it  had  been  rudely  called  Paul's  case,  it  is  ▼ehemently  contested.    The 
in  question.    The  close  ensues.  particular  year  when  an  Epistle  or  a  Gospel 
Paul  had  left  Ephesus  when  he  wrote  this  was  produced,  we  think  a  ntatter  of  compa* 
Letter  (i  8).    He  had  also  passed  through  ratively  small  concern ;   but  it  is  of  great 
Troas,  and  gone  into  Macedonia  (ii.  12,  13 ;  consequence  to  trace  our  Christian  literature 
Til.  5;  TiiL  I;   comp.  Acts  zz.  1) ;  where  back  to  the  generation  of  men  who  were 
he  appears  to  have  actuaUy  been  at  die  time  contemporaneous  with  Jesus  and  his  apos- 
of  its  composition  (iz.  2,  4),  and  where  he  ties,  or  at  least  with  their  immediate  suoees* 
waa  joined  by  Titus  (viL  &,  6),  whom  he  had  sors;  and  this  can  be  done  by  marks  and 
ezpeoted  to  meet  at  Troas  (iL  18).    This  Let-  evidences  which  are  free  from  the  danger  of 
ter,  then,  would  appear  to  have  been  written  being  successfrilly  assailed. 
hi  the  same  year  as  the  previous  one.    That  The  unity  of  Uiis  Epistle  has  been  quea- 
was  composed  before  Easter.     Some  time  tioned.    Semler  divided  it  into  three  letters, 
must  have  elapsed.    We  may,  therefore,  ap-  Weber  held  it  was  originally  two.      The 
proximate  to  die  truth,  in  fi^dng  the  summer  grounds  for  this  proceeding  are  insuiBoient 
months  of  the  year  69  as  the  period  in  which  It  has  been  said  Uiat  there  is  a  want  of  unity 
this  second  Epistle  was  composed.    It  could  and  regular  arrangement,  and  also  that  die- 
not  weU  have  been  later.   Shortly  after  Easter,  similar  states  of  mind  are  manifest  in  it.  In 
Paul  left  Ephesus,  and  prooeeded  first  to  what  may  be  termed  outward  and  superficial 
Troas,  then  to  Macedonia,  and  then  to  Greece,  oneness  and  order,  the  Epistle  may  be  defi- 
Corinth  (Acts  zz.  2),  agreeably  to  his  pro-  cient    It  appears  to  have  been  composed  in 
mise  of  paying  its  believers  a  third  visit  haste,  and  is  an  outpouring  of  warm  personal 
(2  Cor.  ziii.  1).    These  events  could  not  feeling  on  topics  of  very  deep  interest    A 
have  oeeupied  a  long  time,  and  in  the  midst  mind  kindled,  as  was  the  writer^s,  does  not 
of  ^em  it  was  that  the  letter  was  written,  wait  to  find  an  artistically  constructed  ease 
Towards  the  end  of  the  year,  we  meet  with  in  which  to  deposit  its  thoughts  and  emo* 
the  apostle  in  the  house   of  Gains  (Rom.  tions,  but  hurries  on,  thinking  of  nothing 
zvL  23),  at  Corinth  (1  Cor.  i  14),  where  he  but  its  aim,  and  the  means  of  securing  it. 
spent  at  least  three  months,  awaiting  the  Hence,  as  we  find  in  the  Letter  before  us,  a 
season  of  spring,  in  order  to  sail  into  Syria  rapid,  perhaps  a  somewhat  turbid,  flow  of 
(Acts  zz.  2,  3) ;  which  voyage  the  apostle  thou^^t,  which  is  not  always  confined  within 
took,  reaching  Jerusalem  early  in  the  year  the  customary  banks,  but  which,  here  and 
00  (A.D.),  with  the  collection  made  for  the  there  growing  too  full  and  too  strong,  over* 
poor  in  that  city,  of  which  both  these  Epis-  flows  diem  in  digressions ;  after  which  the 
ties  to  the  Corinthians  spe'Uc.  current  of  thought  returns  to  the  proper 
Of  the  authenticity  of  diis  Letter,  there  has  channel.      Hence,  too,  a  topie  may  for  a 
never  been  a  doubt    It  bears  in  itself  the  while  be  dropped,  not  to  be  abandoned,  but 
dearest,  most  forcible,  and  numerous  evi-  taken  up  again,  when  die  immediate  pres* 
dences  of  having  proceeded  from  the  pen  of  sure  on  the  mind  has  fbund  relief  in  nt- 
the  apostle  Paul.    In  regard  to  eztemal  tes-  terance.     But,  combined  with  an  almost 
timony,  Clemens  Bomanus  seems  undeniably  total  disregard  to  form,  there  may  be  a  very 
to  make  a  reference  to  2  Cor.  zi.  24,  when  he  close  observance  of  unity  of  substance  and 
says  ( v.), '  Through  zeal,  Paul  obtained  the  of  purpose.  This  unity  we  find  in  the  second 
reward  of  patience,  when  he  had  seven  times  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  and  that  in  a  very 
worn  chains,  been  beaten,  and  stoned.*    Ire-  marked  degree.    This  unity  is  seen  in  the 
n»us  (from  120  to  140,  A.D.)  directly  quotes  entire  subserviency  of  the  Epistle  to  the  great 
it  in  these  words :  — '  As  to  what  they  allege  end  of  the  apostle  in  writing  it,  —  namely, 
that  Paul,  in  his  second  Letter  to  the  Corin-  to  establish  his  authority  in  the  church  at 
thians,  says.  In  whom  the  God  of  this  world  Corinth,  and  so  to  lead  to  a  resumption  of 
hath  blinded  the  minds  of  them  who  believe  those  pleasing,  friendly  relations  which  be- 
not'  (Adv.  Her.  iii.  7. 1;  comp.  2  Cor.  iv.  4).  came  the  position  in  which  he  stood  as  its 
And  in  the  iv.  28. 3,  —  *  For  the  apostle  also  founder,  and  as  the  representative  with  them 
says, in  the  second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  of  the  Lord  Jesus;  and  which,  when  properly 
For  we  are  unto  God  a  sweet  savour  of  Christ  established,  would  work  effectually  for  the 
in  them  that  are  saved,  and  in  them  that  removal  of  all  moral  lazity,  and  the  sancti- 
perish.    To  the  one  we  are  the  savour  of  fication  in  heart  and  life  of  his  beloved 
death  unto  death ;  and  to  the  other,  the  sa-  Corinthian  brethren.    It  may  also  be  granted, 
vour  of  lifti  unto  life'  (2  Cor.  ii.  15, 16).  that  the  tone  of  different  parts  of  the  Epis- 
These  two  passages  are  too  peculiar,  and  tie  varies.    What,  then  f    But  we  here  cite 
the  citation  by  Irensus  is  too  verbal,  to  leave  the  words  of  Hug :  —  *  It  is,  moreover,  ob- 
any  doubt  that  this  Letter  was  recognised  as  jected,  how  different  is  the  tone  of  the  first 
Paul's  in  die  commencement  of  the  second  part,  mOd,  amiable,  affectionate;  whereas  tlie 
oentury.    But  if  it  was  then  acknowledged  third  part  is  severe,  vehement,  and  indiscri- 
as  of  authority,  it  must  have  been  in  exist-  minately  eastigatory.    But  who,  on  this  ae- 
enoe  a  considerable  time  before.    Authority  count,  would  £vide  Demosthenes' oration  pro 


COR                     404  COR 

Conmd  into  two  putt,  beeanse,  in  the  more  where  he  was  preesed  out  of  meMare  above 
general  defence,  placidity  vad  oircnmtpec-  atrength,  insomuch  that  he  despaired  even 
tion  predominate ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  of  life,  haying  the  sentence  of  death  in  him- 
in  abusing  and  chastising  the  accuser,  in  self  (i.  8,  9).     His  trial  was   so  seveie, 
the  parallel  between  himself  and  jEschines,  that  he  describes  it  by  a  6gure  borrowed 
words  of  bitter  irony  gush  out  impetuously,  from  the  gladiatorial  fights  in  the  amphi- 
and  fall  like  rain  in  a  storm  ?  Every  kind  of  theatre,  with  which  the  Corinthians  were 
discourse  allows  a  flight ;  but,  in  sudi  a  case,  familiar,  declaring,  after  the  manner  of  men, 
can  the  speech  flow  on  as  mildly  and  softly  'I  haye  fought  with  beasts   at  Ephesns' 
as  in  the  calm  derelopment  of  motives  T  (1  Cor.  xv.  82).    Now,  if  we  turn  tram  these 
What  philologist  eould  require  of  Paul,  that  Letters  to  the  history,  we  find  that  the  last 
he  should  nosers  allow  to  himself  a  flight  period  of  the  apostle's  sojourn  in  Ephesns  was 
in  his  discourse,  under  the  penalty  that  such  troubled  by  a  popular  religious  tumult,  which 
a  part  of  it  should  be  sepsrated  from  the  rest  f  put  the  whole  city  into  confusion  and  alarm. 
All  that  can  reasonably  be  said  may  be  com-  and  jeopardised  the  liberty,  if  not  the  life, 
prised  in  this,  that  now  and  then,  in  the  of  the  apostle.    Yet,  in  the  midst  of  this 
first  chapters,  the  sentences  are  intricate ;  storm,  Paul  is  found  acting  with  a  boldness 
the  cause  of  which,  as  is  reasonable,  has  that    disregarded    personal    consequences. 
been  sought  in  the  apostle's  agitated  state  of  Already,  two  of  his  '  companions  in  trarel ' 
mind'  ('  Introduction,'  iL  892).  had    been    seised  by   the    enraged    multi- 
We  i^d,  that  if  proper  attention  had,  in  tnde,  when  Paul,  wishing  to  appease  men's 
the  study  of  this  Epistle,  been  paid  to  the  minds,  and  rescue  his  friends,  was  rushing 
general  qualities  of  the  apostle's  mind,  not  into  the  midst  of  the  mob.     His  disciples 
only  the  theoiy  now  spoken  of  would  never  catch  a  sight  of  him :  they  know  that  he  is 
have  been  propounded,  but  critics  would  hurrying  to  his  own  destruction.     They  hold 
hsve  seen,  in  Uie  very  foots  on  which  it  is  him  back,  and  remove  him  by  force.     So 
huiltf  indications  whidi,  under  the  circum-  great  is  his  peril,  that  even  men  of  high 
Stan  see,  are  most  natural  on  the  part  of  station,  certain  of  the  Asiarchs,  who  are  his 
Paul,  and  aigue,  as  one  suthor  and  one  men-  friends,  send  to  join  their  entreaties  to  the 
tal  elfort,  so  also  one  continuous  oomposi-  mild  compulsion  of  his  disciples.    His  ab- 
tiott.    And  teom  the  remariEs  which  have  sence  confounds  his  enemies;  they  know  not 
now  been  made,  the  reader  may  gather  sound  why  they  have  come  together ;  their  murder- 
evidence  of  the  Pauline  origin  of  the  Letter  ous  designs  are  frustrated,  and  the  apostle 
under  consideration.    We  Imow  not  that  it  is  sayed.    Surely  this  was  fighting  with  pas- 
would  be  an  exaggeration  to  say,  that  of  all  sions  as  ferocious  as  those  of  wild  beasts. 
Paul's  Letters  this  is  the  most  Pauline.    It  Why,  when  Alexander  attempted  a  oompnl- 
is  a  mirror  of  Paul's  very  soul.    It  is  an  sory  defence,  he  was  silenced  by  the  roaring 
ou^uring  of  his  very  heart.    Here  spesks  of  the  mob, '  who  with  one  voice,  about  the 
in  a  most  characteristic  manner,  if  now  and  space  of  two  hoars,  cried  out.  Great  is  Diana 
then  somewhat  darkly,  if  with  more  than  one  of  the  Ephesians !  *  (Acts  xix.  84.)   Ephesus, 
digression,  if  with  a  momentaiy  forgetftil-  however,  was  no  longer  safe  for  Paul.     To 
ness  of  the  topic  in  hand,  not  on  these  ae-  avoid  the  danger,  he  left  the  place  the  mo- 
counts  the  less  characteristically,  that  ardent  ment  the  storm  had  sunk.    But  in  what 
and  vigorous  mind,  whose  inteUect  was  so  condition  ?    Doubtless,  harassed  in  mind ; 
steeped  in  emotion,  that  all  its  thou^ts  infirm  of  body ;  little  fit  to  travel ;  still  in 
were  feelings ;  whose  feelings  were  as  tender  fear  of  pursuit;  and  possibly  under  some 
as  s  child's,  and  as  eAisive  and  gushing  as  legal  obligations,  in  relation  to  which  he 
a  woman's ;  whose  bosom  had  been  agitated  might  be  compromised  by  his  flight.     Yet 
aud  made  tremblingly  sensitive  by  manifold  must  he  accomplish  a  long  journey ;  for  Asia 
and  almost  unpsralleled  sulTering,  yet  whose  could  siTord  no  place  of  reftige.     He  there- 
unbending  conscience,  and  strong,  ceaseless,  fore  passed  into  Europe ;  but, '  when  we  were 
unconquerable    sense   of   duty,  bore    him  come  into  Macedonia,  our  flesh  had  no  rest, 
through,  and  e?en  above,  the  most  bitter  op-  but  we  were  troubled  on  every  side :  without 
position,  and  made  him  claim  his  rights  as  were  fightings,  within  were  fears'  (2  Cor. 
aa  apostle  in  a  manner  so  bold  snd  so  ener-  vii.  5). 

getio,  as  to  abash,  if  he  could  not  altogether  The  history  thus  supplies  the  comment 

^'  -J"  •fBaiUmts.  on  the  Epistle.    The  leader  can  now  enter 

Hi.nl**!*-***'**'^  ^  ™^*^  ''^^^  <***•  ^**"  ™^  ^*  peculiarly  strong  and   expressive 

mes^  mnS'iS***"    ^*  ^^*  ""*  ***  ^^  *®™"  ^*"**  ^*^  employs  in  writing,  at  thU 

Ti  ft  Mff  s  fT^  "^•w^  and  touching  pathos  very  juncture,  the  second  Letter  to  the  Co- 

—ll).    *Pi^*  oKT'*?^  •-^^»  ^-5   ^^  rinthians.      We  venture,  moreover,  to  ask 

pressure  of  heaw  •«•    •  ^'^^  '*"^®'  **  ^*™'  ^  "^  consecutive,  so  consistent  a  nar- 

had  recently  been  hTf  '*^^^^*     ^*****  ^***^  rative  could  have  been  compiled,  if  one  or 

image  had  even  yet  d^'^  ^'  ^^*'  ^  ^®  ^*'^  ^^  ^  ^^  authorities  had  been  a  fabrica- 

Xhis  trial  had  befall?*?^  (i.9;  v.l,«9.).  tion,  got  up  for  some  unworthy  purpose 

'«i^  him  chiefly  in  Asia,  long  after  the  events  in  question^  or  with- 


COR  405  COR 

out  having  any  erenta  whaterer  for  a  ground-  The  Septnagint  render  the  original  by  kaia 

work.  ractea,  or  cataract;  and  ao  give  us  to  nnder- 

It  seems  to  us  very  natural  in  the  circnm-  stand  a  bird  characterised  for  precipitating 

stances,  that  this  Letter  to  the  Corinthians  itself  on  its  prey.    Kow,  there  is  a  genus  of 

should  contain  allusions  to  the  apostle' sdis*  the  pelioanidsB,  which,  horn  their  habits,  are 

advantages  of  person.    These,  whatcTcr  they  tenned  dariert  (Plotus),    of   which    ^ere 

were,  are  repeatedly  referred  to  here,  and  in  are  three  or  four  species.    Colonel  H.  Smith, 

a  pointed  manner.     With  these  are  eon-  howeyer,  prefers  Uie  Caspian  tern,  which  he 

joined  intimations  that  the  apostle  was  re-  6ays  is  abundant  for  seyeral  months  in  the 

garded  in  Corinth  disrespectftilly,  if  not  year  on  the  coast  of  Palestine,  and  frequents 

contemptuously,  as  being  an  ignorant  foolish  lakes  and  pools  far  inland.    '  It  flies  with 

man,  who  had  ncTcr  risen  to  the  high  wis-  immense  Telocity,  darting  along  the  surface 

dom  of  philosophy,  but  was  always  tslking,  of  the  sea  to  snap  at  moUusca  or  small  fishes, 

after  the  manner  of  the  Athenian  Socrates*  or  wheeling  through  the  air  in  pursuit  of 

of  men  of  low  position,   such  as  fisher-  insects ;  and  in  calm  weather,  after  rising  to 

men,  and  especially  of  a  carpenter's  son*  a  great  height,  it  drops  perpendicularly  down 

who  had  been  crucified  in  Judea  for  bias-  to  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  never 

fhemy  and  sedition  (z.  1.  7, 10;  xL  1,  6,  alights  except  on  land.'    In  this  description, 

6;  xiL  6, 10,  11 ;  ziii.  3).    It  is  most  evi-  however,  we  do  not  find  the  sudden,  rapid, 

dent  that  his  opponents  had  made  exceed-  downward,  and  nearly  perpendicular  motion 

ingly  free  with  his  personal  defects,  and  implied  in  the  name  co tome/ and  dart^.  We 

endeavoured  to  throw  scorn  on  what  they  fear  that  any  certainty  in  fixing  on  the  bird 

held  his  low  breeding  and  doctrine.    But  meant  is  not  to  be  expected.    Both  the  cor- 

where  were  attempts  of  this  kind  more  likely  morant  and  the  'pelican'   are  classed  by 

to  be  made  or  received  favourably,  than  in  Moses  among  unclean  birds  (Lev.  xi.  17, 18). 
refined,  luxurious,  and  licentious  Corinth  ?         CORNELIUS  (L.),  a  centurion   of  the 

The  pride  of  intellectual  culture  and  of  out-  Italian  band,  residing  with  his  troops  at 

ward  glitter  would  there  be  supported  and  the  ordinaiy  head  quarters  at  Cssarea,  who 

vulgarised  by  the  pride  of  opulence ;  and  the  was  employed  by  divine  Providence  in  en- 

oombined  arrogance  would  take  pleasure  in  larging  the  mind  of  Peter,  and  opening  the 

casting  contempt  and  ridicule  on  this  Jewish  door  of  the  Christian  church  to  the  Gentiles, 

tentmaker,  who  presumed  to  be  wise  above  Cornelias  was  aman  of  piety  and  beneficence, 

the  wisest  philosophy,  andyeteould  scarcely  As  such,  he  was  prepared  for  the  reception 

address  an  audience  intelligibly,  and  whose  of  the  gospeL    Accordingly,  he  received  a 

veiy  aspect  showed  that  he  was  more  fit  to  divine  intimation  that  he  should  send  for 

be  laughed  at  than  to  be  reasoned  with.    So  Peter,  from  whose  month  he  was  to  hear  the 

said  the  wits  of  Corinth ;  the  Alexandrine  words  of  eternal  life.    Peter  was  at  Joppa, 

party  adoped  their  tone ;  and  even  the  Juda-  some  miles  distant  from  CsBsarea,  on  ihe 

izers  were  content  to  acquiesce  in  a  sarcasm  same  seaboard.    On  receiving  minute  in- 

against  their  own  nation,  provided  they  could  structions  where  the  apostle  was,  Cornelius 

meanwhile  damage  Paul ;  while  the  Sybarites  dispatched  three  trustworthy  persons,  who 

were  glad  that  this  stem  censor  was  him-  found  Peter,  and  acquainted  him  that  they 

self  not  inxulnerable.  had  come  from  Cornelius,  in  order  to  bring 

CORMORANT  is  the  rendering  of  two  Peter  to  that  devout  man.     Peter  imme* 

Hebrew  words :  —  I.  Hahath  (Isa.  xxxiv.  11.  diately  put  himself  under  their  guidance, 

Zeph.  ii.  14) ;  also  translated  by  'pelican'  came  to  CsBsarea,  and  completed  theconver- 

(Lev.  xi.  18.  Dent  xiv.  17.   Ps.  cii.  6).   The  sion  of  Cornelius,  on  whom,  and  on  some 

word  is  supposed  to  be  formed  from  Uie  act,  friends  of  his,  the  Holy  Spirit  was  poured 

and  to  signify  to  vomit,  because  the  pelican  down  in  attestation  of  what  had  been  done, 
brings  up  its  prey  from  the  pouch  in  which         The  description  given  of  Cornelius  would 

it  is  first  received.  answer  to  one  of  that  class  of  Jewish  con- 

If  we  refer  to  the  passages  above  given,  verts  who  were  termed  '  proselytes  of  the 

we  find  that  the  animal  is  represented  as  gate,' — persons  who  worshipped  Jehovah, 

frequenting  ruins  and  desolate  places.    The  and  observed  the  more  important  of  the 

Psidmist  declares  —  <  I  am  like  a  pelican  of  moral  laws  of  Moses ;  being  so  designated  in 

the  wilderness.'      But  the  neighbourhood  contradistinction  to  the 'proselytes  of  righte- 

of  rivers,  lakes,  and  seacoasts,  are  the  haunts  ousness,'  or  fiill  proselytes,  who,  receiving  the 

of  the  pelicans.    And  unless  we  are  to  un-  Abrshamie  token  of  covenant  with  God,  con- 

derstand  the  ruins  and  desolate  places  re-  formed  in  every  respect  to  the  Jewish  law. 

ferred  to  above,  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of  great  But  whether  Cornelius  was  aprofessed  convert 

bodies  of  water,  such  as  Uie  Mesopotamian  (Acts  x.  22),  or  only  a  man  held  in  deserved 

rivers  or  the  seacoasts,  we  do  not  see  how  the  repute  for  a  holy  and  beneficent  life,  we  see 

implied   habits  of  the   hahaik  correspond  in  him  a  striking  instance  of  die  efficacy  of 

wi&  what  is  known  of  the  pelican.    II.  The  Judaism  in  preparing  the  soil  for  Jesus,  and 

other  Hebrew  word,  rendered  *  cormorant,'  in  his  conversion  a  fact  which  must  have 

— namely,  <9AalaA  —  literally  signifies  ^r<^.  acted  very  beneficially  on  the  interests  of  ths 


COR  40 

j(I  fecbl*  intuil  ebnnh.  Tb*  tnuuitioa 
of  ■  Bomui  oScai  into  ihg  Chriiliui  cunp, 
known  (0  be  a  mui  of  high  irorth,  mm! 
hut  eiciwd  attention,  and  •Onak  mm; 
minds  with  iiupriH.  The  Jodaiien  of  tbi 
ohurohvoQldbeutonndsdlofind  thatiOflo- 
tile  had  niieiTad  the  HoljObosU  Thamon 
Ubenltj  miudiid  would  be  gratifiad  and  an- 
eooiaged.  Tba  Jewa  would  be  impalled  to 
think  and  talk  ot  CbrUb  Tha  Ointilaa 
would  begin  to  feel  that  hii  eaiue  wa*  not, 
after  all,  to  Tarj  eontemptible.  Bnt  Uie  moat 
intereiciDg  and  moat  important  Tiew  of  theaa 
beta,  we  find  in  the  relation  whieh  Corae- 
litu  bear*  to  Peter.  That  qnatla  had  just 
been  faioond  with  a  Terj  needM  lesson;  for 
at  Joppa  be  had  been  tughl  —  '  What  Qod 
hath  cleanied,  call  not  ihon  eommon.'  Tha 
lesson  wu  thrice  repealed.  Yet  its  jroport 
Peter  conld  not  wall  diTine.  Whiie  he  yet 
doubled,  facia  eune  to  his  aid ;  and  how  often 
are  Ood'a  facts  the  best  aipoeilora  ot  oui 
dulj  1  Peter,  in  hit  indeoiBian,  waa  sailed 
to  preach  tbe  gospel  Co  ConuUns.  Ha 
obeyed  the  beaTsol}  maaaage,  and  witneated, 
at  the  seal  of  hia  work,  the  etl^ision  of  the 
diiine  apirit.  Thns  ara  moral  relations  in- 
tertwioed  nnder  the  wise  and  benign  Prori- 
dence  of  an  almigh^  Father.  When  Peler 
wanted  light,  Comelioa  was  nadj  to  ba  the 
channel  of  oommnnioaling  it.  Whpn  Cor- 
nelioB  was  read;  far  oonTanion,  Pelar'a  mind 
was  far  euoogh  adTaneed  in  the  goepel-lmtta 
to  be  Ood's  iuttnunent  in  the  work.  Tbe 
two  were,  under  Ihs  divine  hand,  ministera 
c^  good  to  eaah  other,  and  both  oombined 
their  Inflnenee  br  the  forthcrtnae  of  Chria- 
tian  tmlh.  Withoat  Comslins,  Peter  might 
ioTalnhtiraaeeDhiaTlalon.  Without  Petar, 
Cornelias  woold  probabl;  hare  remained  on 
the  outaida  of  tha  fold  of  Christ.  The  re- 
mit which  both  eonipirod  to  bring  (boot  — 
namely,  the  entrans*  ot  a  Oeutile  into  lh« 
Chriatian  chnnh  —  Was  the  beginning  of  a 
newerain  thatohnrob, — the  flnt  of  a  sedM 
of  Ihiuga,  destined,  indeed,  to  oooasion  gnat 
agitationB  (a*  do  and  matt  allgleat  Bhangea) ; 
bnt  alao  to  make  the  Ohriatiaa  fbld  as  large 
at  (he  world,  and  ao  to  oonfsr  nnlold  bleat- 


«  COT 

proleiaioo.  Wonld  that  toch  woold  inqnirs 
whether  Ibejr  eonld  not  And  ■  better  employ- 
rosnt  of  Ihaii  powcn,  and  whether  war  in 
general  ean  be  roconciled  with  the  spirit  of 
the  Lord  Jeans  Christ! 

COHMEB-STONE,  or  head  (ohic^  atoaia 
of  tha  eoraer,  is  a  mstaphorieal  deaoription  i^ 
the  Lord  Jtms,  who,  as  a  lai^  alone  plaoecl 
at  the  point  where  two  walla  meet  at  ri^t 
angles,  joina  together  and  penninentlT 
Unitea  tha  two  great  diTisiona  of  the  hnman 
fainilj,  Jew  and  Gentila  (Halt.  iiL  43; 
camp.  Pa.  axriii.  SS.  Eph.  ii.  iiO).  Saeh 
a  time,  at  being  of  great  importanca  in  a 
boilding,  ahould  be  chosen  with  care,  and  it 
ot  high  nine.  Hence,  Peter,  in  hie  firM 
Epistle  (iLfl),  qnoting  from  laa.  uriii.  16,  m- 
presents  the  great  Uaaler  Bailder  aa  ipeaking 
of  hia  Bon, — 'Lo,  1  lay  in  Sion  a  chief  corner- 
stime,  elect  (chosen),  preoioui  ;  and  he  that 
belierelh  (tmstath)  on  him  sliall  neyer  be 
oonfaunded!'  Here  tbe  ideaof  retting  on  is 
implied  1  and  Ihou^  the  comer.stone  ia  not 
at  the  baaia,  yet  it  supports  all  that  is  aboni 
it,  and  ao  may  ba  aaid  to  serre  aa  i  founda- 
tion. It  was  from  Sion  —  tbe  temple  on 
Uonnt  Sion  —  that  this  metaphor  waa  taken. 
The  walls  of  the  temple  had  stones  of  Ter; 
large  ti».  Some  of  Iheae  remain  to  the 
present  day.  Olin  measured  some  ot  ttiem, 
whieh  he  found  nineteen  tttt  long,  bj  thrae 
and  a  half  In  thickneet.  Thess  immsnte 
bloekt  oompoaa  the  fbimdalions  of  what  wu 
the  temple  of  Solomon,  riaing  many  yarda 
above  the  satfaca  of  tbe  earth.  One  01  the 
stones  near  the  soulh-eaat  angle  of  the  wall 
ia  six  feet  wide,  by  twau^-fonr  in  length,  and 
three  in  thlckneas.  Tha  cnl  ahowa  ^a  large 
taaih.aaBt  angle  of  (he  temjde 


a  aoldisr,  and  war  in  aD  lit 
abapta  and  inllaenoes  mnstdisqipsaraaftat 
and  at  fkr  at  a  true,  hearttUI,  practioal  Chris- 
tianity gains  gronnd.    Aa  a  Cbriatian,  we 

mgard  war  with  pilf  ind  abhorrence.  But, 
while  we  condemn  a  ayttem,  let  as  not  oast 
ut^uat  cenanre  on  indiridnals.  Whether  or 
not  Cornelius,  on  becoming  a  Christian,  re- 
signed hia  post,  we,  in  the  aoantiaess  of  onr 
maleriala,  hare  no  means  ot  determining. 
But  it  it  clear  that  a  pursuit,  whose  general 
lendenoy  is  bad,  was  in  hia  ease  compatible 
with  enlargenient  and  sleTation  ot  mind. 


COTES  (T.),  the 


DoDbtlesa,  there  are  others  who  srs  Ch.ia-     wordcoiuge',sieii)^ng'oi™7HA«tfiH?-pk«, 
tiant  in  heart,  while  thej  are  toldiert  in    pmHemtaTls  for  aaimaji,  aa  a  'pigeon-cot«,' 


C  O  V                     407  C  O  V 

a '  flheep-eote/    In  this  last  applicmtioii,  it  the  seoeptanee  of  which  may,  with  the  oiler 

is  foon J  in  3  Chron.  xzxii.  28.  itself,  be  analogieally  teimed  a  covenanL  And 

COUCH,  from  the  French  eoueher,  which  this  is  the  modification  of  the  idea  which  we 

means  to  Ue  doum,  signifies  a  place  for  rtit  find  sanctioned  by  Holy  Writ ;  in  which  the 

4md  repoie.  —  See  Bid.    As  a  Terb,  eoneh  offers  of  merey  made  by  God  to  his  sinftil 

ienotes  to  lie  ^fter  the  numner  </  animali.  creatures,  with  the  accompanying  means  of 

Henoe,  in  Gen.  zliz.  9,  Jadsh  is  said  to  have  grace,  are  represented  nnder  the  image  of  a 

•  eonched  as  a  lion : '  comp.  Isa.  xiiL  21 ;  covenant,  though  such  a  figure  requires  for 

xriL  2.  its    strict  propriety  the   acceptance  of  the 

COULTEB  (L.  adier,  a  large  kniib)  has  boon  on  the  prescribed  conditions.    Whence 

for  its  Hebrew  original,  a  word  primarily  sig-  we  are  led  to  the  general  remark,  that  the 

niiying  to  cut,  which  is  rendered  '  coulter'  figuratiye  language  of  Scripture  should  be 

in  1  Sam.  ziii.  20,  21 ;  bat  in  Isa.  ii.  4.  expounded  with  caution,  and  not  be  pushed 

Joel  iiL   10.    Mace.  It.  8,  '  ploughshare.'  to  extremes. 

The  oonlter  of  a  plough  is  that  eurring  and  There  is  deep  and  important  truth  in  the 

sharpened  piece,  which,  being  fixed  in  the  figure  of  a  covenant,  when  understood  Scrip- 

beam,  before  the  point  of  the  share,  with  its  turaHy.  Both  the  Patriarchal  and  the  Mosaic, 

point  a  little  forward,  serres  to  cut  a  vertical  as  well  as  the  Christian  religion,  is  repre- 

eection  in  the  ground.  sented  as  a  covenant  between  God  and  man, 

COUNTEBYAIL  (L.  eomira,  against,  and  which,  emanating  fipom  the  first  in  the  form 

valeo,  I  am  strong)  Ib  to  he  of  equal  strength  of  a  law,  with  sanctions  of  good  and  ill,  is 

to  on  oppoeittg  party,  so  as  to  stop  and  put  received  by  the  latter  with  aU  its  advantages 

an  end  to  his  proceeidings.    In  Esther  vii.  4,  of  mercy,  guidance,  happiness,   and   final 

the  word  seems  to  be  employed  in  the  now  bliss,  on  condition  of  obedience,  or  '  faith 

unusual  sense  of  compensating  or  making  that  worketh  by  love'  (Gal.  v.  6).    Hence 

good.    The  root-meaning  of  the  original,  the  religion  of  the  Bible  is  of  divine,  not 

Shavahy  ia  to  he  or  make  equal ;  hence,  to  human,  origination.    It  came  from  God  to 

compare  and  eonqtensate  (Piov.  iiL  15.  Isa.  man.    It  is  light  from  its  great  source.    It 

xl.  25.  Esflter  v.  18).  is  law  trom  die  Supreme  Lawgiver.    It  is 

COUBTEOUS,  trom  court,  which  properly  mercy  fit>m  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth.    It 

denotes  an  open  area  before  or  around   a  is  aid  firom  Omnipotence.    It  is  goodness 

palace,  iriiere  kings  and  nobles  were  wont  to  from  the  infinite  Father.    It  is  sanctifica- 

give  andienee.    Hence  the  word,  in  Ihe  same  tion  from  the  God  of  holiness.    From  first 

manner  as  jwrie,  in  Turkey,  came  to  signify  to  last,  true  religion  is  of,  and  works  for  €rod. 

a  palace  itsel£    '  Courteous,'  ^erefore,  is  an  Such,  if  God  is,  mnst  be  the  origin  of  true 

epithet  properly  deseribing  such  demeanour  religion.    It  may  find  a  soil  on  the  earth ; 

and  manners  as  are  proper  and  becoming  at  but  its  source,  like  the  light,  the  rain,  and 

court  the  dews,  mnst  be  in  heaven  ;  for  who  but 

This  clnster  of  notions  is  much  infnior  God  can  make  known  what  God  is  and  wills, 

in  origin  and  charaeter  to  the  associations  or  on  what  conditions  he  will  accept  his 

which  the  original  Greek  of  the  Mew  Tea-  erring,  guilty  creatures  f     Who  but  God, 

tament   calls    up,  where  'conrteons'  and  theAlmightySoureeoflaw,  order,  and  happi- 

'oourteoualy'represent  words  which  signiiy  ness,  can  devise  or  give  effect  to  a  moral 

kind  and  gende  aflbotiona  (Acts  xxviii.  7.  instrumentality  which  shall  secure  the  tri- 

1  Pet  iii.  8).    One  of  these  words  is  the  nmph  and  prevalence  of  hoUness,  and,  with 

same  in  ori^n,  and  of  similar  import,  wiih  holiness,  of  spiritual  life  and  blessedness  T 

onr  word  phil<mihropie.  True  religion,  therefore,  mnst  have  Otod  for 

Christianity,  in  regard  to  manners,  as  well  its  anthor,  as  well  as  salvation  for  its  end. 
as  to  morals,  stands  hi|^  above  other  systems,  Bevelation,  inspiration,  miracle,  are  in  con- 
making  oourteousness  to  consist  in  that  sequence  necessary  parts  of  true  religion, 
which  gives  both  birth  and  value  to  all  The  idea  of  the  former  is  involved  in  the 
true  politeness, — a  large,  gentle,  and  loving  idea  of  the  latter,  distinguishing  true  religion 
heart  fit»m  false,  and  distinguishing  religion  in 

COVENANT  (L.  a  compact)  is  an  agree-  general  from  philosophy.  But  religion,  hav- 
ment  which  is  entered  into  between  two  ing  thus  its  source  in  some  great  and  divine 
parties  for  effecting  a  certain  otject,  under  reality,  outward  to  the  human  mind,  must 
certain  oonditions  and  formalities  which  cus-  objectively  consist  in  certain  great  truths, 
tom  may  suggest,  or  morals  render  desirable,  and  carry  in  its  bosom  certain  facts  and 
with  a  view  to  aot  as  sanctions,  |md  secure  symbols  as  the  media  of  communication  be- 
the  performance  of  the  intended  object  In  tween  him  who  gave  and  those  who  receive 
strictness  of  speech,  then,  some  approach  to  the  divine  law.  Hence  we  get  to  the  con- 
equality  should  exist  between  the  two  parties,  elusion,  that  every  system  which  is  spun  out 
since  an  agreement  implies  the  accordance  of  the  human  mind,  is  not  true  religion,  if, 
of  the  wills  of  the  two  who  enter  into  the  con-  in  any  proper  sense,  it  can  be  termed  reli- 
tract  And  yet  a  superior  may  offer  succour  gion  at  all ;  the  very  idea  and  essence  of 
or  mercy  to  an  inferior  on  certain  conditions;  which  consist  in  some  source  of  truth  and 


C  O  V                      408  C  O  V 

goodnett,  betidec  and  beyond  our  own  43,  teq.  Dent.  !▼.  18) :  the  ttk,  the  oentrml 
minds.  It  maj  be  affirmed  with  equal  truth,  point  of  the  Mosaic  religion,  reoeiTed  the 
that  a  system  which  retains  little  of  the  ob-  name  of '  the  aik  of  the  covenant  of  JehoTah' 
JeetiTe  and  divine  element  has  so  far  little  (Numb.  x.  83).  God  himself  is  described 
of  the  element  of  religion ;  and,  how  pleasing  as  one  who  *  keeper  covenant  and  mercy ' 
soever  the  colours  may  be  widi  which  it  is  (Deut.  vii.  9)  ;  and  the  Israelites  are  ezhoit- 
decked  out,  stands  to  the  meridian  light  and  ed  on  their  part  to  keep  the  provisionB  of 
heat  of  Christianity,  only  as  the  yet  faint  rays  the  covenant  (Dent  xxix.  9,  tea.).  For  the 
of  the  morning,  or  the  enfeebled  rays  of  the  furtherance  of  the  objects  of  this  covenant, 
evening,  stand  to  the  glorioos  power  of  Joehna  is  said  to  have  '  made  a  covenant 
the  midday  sun.  There  are  two  capital  errors  with  the  people,  and  set  them  a  statute  and 
in  the  world :  one  makes  religion  to  be  ex-  an  ordinance '  (Josh.  xziv.  20) ;  and  David, 
dnsively  of  heaven;  the  other  makes  it  to  be  even  in  Ae  midst  of  sin  and  sorrow,  found 
exclusively  of  earth.  In  reality,  it  is  of  both,  re/tige  and  comfort  in  the  conviction  thai 
Heavenly  in  its  origin,  the  child  of  God  is  God  had  <  made  with  him  an  everlasting  ooTe' 
nursed  in  human  hearts.  The  action  of  the  nant,  ordered  in  all  and  sure '  (2  Sam. 
latter  may  be  excluded  no  more  than  that  of  xxiii.  6).  After  the  same  manner,  Ezra, 
the  former.  What  God  has  joined  together,  and  the  other  great  restorers  of  the  Mosaic 
let  not  man  put  asunder.  If  heaven  finds  institutions  after  the  exile,  made  a  cove- 
seed,  sunshine,  and  rain,  the  earth  offers  a  nant  with  Jehovah,  in  order  to  seeure  the 
soil ;  which,  again,  was  divinely  prepared  for  observance  of  his  laws,  and  prevent  another 
the  woA  by  the  hand  that  made  die  universe,  li^tse  into  idolatry  (Ezra  x.  3.  Neh.  L  5, 0). 
Accordingly,  while  we  are  bid  to  '  work  out  This  covenant  with  the  Abrahamida  is 
our  own  salvation,'  we  are  assured  thst  *  God  termed  the  '  first  covenant,'  in  opposition  to 
worketh  in  us  both  to  will  and  to  do '  (PhU.  the  gospel,  to  which,  lY.  the  term  *  covenant,* 
iL  12, 13).  In  every  covenant  there  must  be  '  new  covenant'  is  applied  (Heb.  viL  22 ;  ix. 
two  parties.  Deny  the  supernatural  in  reli-  10 ;  xii.  24),  even  by  our  Lord  himself 
gion,  you  set  aside  one,  and  rednee  religion  (Matt.  xxvL  28),  who  is  the  mediator;  the 
to  morality.  On  the  other  hand,  if  yon  dis-  party  that  negociates  and  establishes  the  co- 
own  or  undervalue  the  part  which  man  bears  vensnt  or  compact  between  God  and  men 
in  the  covenant,  making  him  a  passive,  un-  (Heb.  vii.  22;  viii.  6),  and  who  ratified 
reasoning,  unchoosing  receptacle  of  divine  Uie  covenant  with  his  death  (Heb.  xilL 
grace,  you  destroy  the  very  idea  of  a  cove-  20 ;  comp.  ix.  20.  1  Cor.  xL  20.  jAtke 
nant,  1^  removing  or  incapacitating  one  of  xxiL  20). 

the  contracting  parties.  Holy  Scripture  sus-  A  covenant  implies  a  statement  of  points 

tains  as  well  as  gives  the  idea  of  a  covenant,  agreed  on :  such  a  statement  implies  writing, 

making  man  strong,  wise,  and  happy,  by  The  religion  of  the  Bible,  thus,  as  resting 

uniting  him  in  intimate  union  with  God.  on  definite  facts,  was  favourable  to  the  very 

The  human,  as  well  as  the  divine,  forms  a  early  formation  of  a  literature.    Letters  were 

part  of  true  religion.    If  so,  then  in  all  its  needful  for  its  purposes  in  its  earliest  periods, 

representations  and  views,  there  wUl  not  fail  True  religion  is  thus  found  to  be,  if  not  the 

to  be  a  human  element,  which,  however  true  inventress,  certainly  the  foster-parent,  of  writ- 

and  excellent  for  the  time  when  put  forth,  ing,  which  has  been  the  schoohnistiess  of 

must,  as  is  every  thing  humsn  and  earthly,  the  world.    Accordingly,  the  fragmentary  but 

be  more  or  less  imperfiec^  incoirec^  and  invaluable  notices  we  possess  of  the  antedi- 

transient  Invian  period  of  history,  bear  clear  traoes  of 

The  Hebrew  words  equivalent  to  '  make  a  the  very  early  practice  of  the  art  of  wiii- 

oovenant,'  *  establish  a  covenant,'  &c.  are  of  ing,  by  means  of  which  only  could  these 

veiy  frequent  occuixenoe  in  the  Scriptures  primitive  traditions  have  been  brought  down 

of  the  Old  Testament    They  are  found,  I.  in  the  state  in  which  thoy  are,  into  the  hands 

in  regard  to  the  exhibition  of  mercy  to  Noah  of  the  compiler  of  the  Pentateuch.    And  as 

and  his  family  (Gen.  vi  18).    II.  To  the  early  in  the    Mosaic   economy    as    Exod. 

rainbow,  selected  immediately  after  the  flood,  xxiv.  7,  we  find  already  in  existence  a  book, 

as  a  token  of  <  the  everlasting  covenant  which  spoken  of  as  received  and  well  known  nnder 

I  have  esteblished  between  me  and  every  liv-  the  remarkable  designation  *  the  book  of  the 

ing  creature,  that  the  waters  shall  no  more  covenant,'  which,  from  the  context,  ap]>ears 

become  a  flood  to  destroy  all  flesh '  (Gen.  iz.  to  have  contained  a  general  summary  of  the 

14,  $eq.).    III.   To  the   promise   made   to  divine  ordinations  for  the  establishment  of 

Abraham,  to  give  Canaan  as  a  possession  the  Mosaic  religion,  and  therefore  not  im- 

*^i>vH  w^^li? """.i^J'  "^^  i  *^™P-  "'•  ^^)'  probably  a  sketch  of  those  sntecedent  his- 

7^  ?^7~ j?™«?"^**'i*?u  ""^.^^  ^"^  ^'^  ^o°«  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  preceded  and  led  to  it. 

::'d*?he!:tsXr  .^^^^^^^  T^V'-?  -d-^.  'co--t'    appears 

•■  oA\     Thi.  «»«••«-«♦         i'aiesime  (£zod.  sometmies  m  our  version  as  « league.'  beinir 

'ie^Jioi^Kra  r^tssjL's'^'^,  yn*^  '^"^°"  y.  me,.i,  h„jSL'  ^^a 


GOV 


409 


C  R  A 


tion  of  the  religions  import  of '  oovenant,*  if 
he  refer  to  instaneea  in  which  the  two  con- 
tracting parties  were  human :  —  Abraham 
and  Abimelech  made  a  eovenant  (Oen.  zu. 
27) ;  Abimelech  and  Isaac  (Oen.  zzri.  28, 
ieq,) ;  Laban  and  Jacob  (Gen.  zzzL  44) ; 
JonaUian  and  David  (1  Sam.  zriii.  3). 

We  read  in  the  Bible  of  *  a  covenant  of 
salt'  (Lev.  ii.  13.  Namb.  xviiL  19) ;  and, 
flrom  the  connection,  it  is  evident  that  em- 
phasis and  sanctity  are  thus  given  to  the 
idea  of  covenant;  so  that  'a  covenant  of 
salt'  is  the  same  as  a  sacred  and  binding 
covenant,  —  a  covenant  of  special  obligation. 
It  is  not  so  clear  whence  ids  emphasis  is 
derived,  probably,  however,  from  the  pre- 
serving and  perpetuating  virtue  of  salt;  or 
it  may  have  come  from  the  fact,  that  salt 
was  accounted  an  indispensable  part  of  flesh 
offerings,  and,  from  this,  was  termed '  the 
salt  of  the  covenant  of  thy  God '  (Lev.  ii 
13):  whence  a 'covenant  of  salt'  may  de- 
note a  specially  religious  covenant,  —  one 
around  which  religion  had  thrown  its  power- 
fill  sanctions  and  holy  associations. 

GoveQants,  from  the  earliest  periods,  were 
formed  and  ratified  by  blood,  not  only  among 
the  Hebrews,  but  other  ancient  nations. 
The  animal  was  divided  in  two  parts,  between 
which  the  contracting  parties  walked ;  pro- 
bably to  intimate  their  wish,  that  he  who 
broke  the  agreement  should  meet  with  a 
similar  fate  (Gen.  xv.  9,  seq,  Jer.  xxziv.  18)« 
Hence  arose  the  phrase,  *  blood  of  the  cove- 
nant,' as  referring  to  the  slaughtered  viotim 
offered  in  ratification  of  £e  agreement 
(Ezod.  zxiv.  8.  Matt  xzvi.  28.  Heb.  iz.  20). 
Among  some  Asiatic  peoples,  —  ike  Ar- 
menians, the  Medes,  the  Lydians,  and  the 
Scythians,  —  it  was  the  custom  for  the  of- 
ferers to  draw  blood  from  each  other,  of 
which  they  mutually  drank,  in  order  to  give 
an  additional  sanction  to  their  bond  (Sallust 
Catilin.  22).  To  this  reprehensible  practice, 
reference  has  been  held  to  be  made  in  Ps. 
xvL  4.  A  meal  accompanied  the  solemn 
formation  of  a  covenant  (Gen.  xxvi.  30; 
zxxi.  54.  2  Sam.  iii.  20) ;  but  it  was  not 
made  from  the  slaughtered  animal,  which 
was  wholly  consumed  by  fire  in  token  of  the 
fate  which  awaited  the  transgressor. 

These  detaOs  serve  to  show,  that  much  of 
an  earthly  character  is  mixed  up  with  cove- 
nantal  observances.  The  fact  should  not 
surprise  but  rather  gratify  us,  as  being  in 
unison  with  the  very  idea  of  a  covenant  exist- 
ing between  God  and  man.  And  it  is  no 
little  remarkable,  —  and,  as  serving  to  show 
how  the  divine  element  kept  the  earthly  pure, 
no  little  satisfactory  to  the  friends  of  revealed 
religion,— that  the  lamentable  abuses,  which 
were  connected  with  sacrificial  covenants  in 
other  nations,  found  no  place  among  the 
men  or  the  institutions  that  eigoy  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  Bible. 

Under  the  gospel  each  believer  has  the 


privilege  of  entering  immediately,  and  in  his 
own  person,  into  a  covenant  with  the  Creator 
of  the  universe,  and  the  Father  of  mankind ; 
a  privilege  higher  than  the  loftiest  of  an  out- 
ward kind.  The  sanctions  of  this  covenant 
are  God's  law,  revealed  in  his  Son  and  felt 
in  the  heart;  and  its  results  are  sanctity  of 
life  and  immortal  blessedness. 

CRAFT  (T.)  is  in  origin  the  same  woid 
as  the  modem  (Hnnan  JTra/i,  strength ;  ex- 
emplifying the  aphorism,  that  *  knowlec^  is 
power.'  <  Crafr,'  origindly  denoting  tirenffth 
or  efficieneif,  eame  to  denote  that  sUll  whidi 
gives  a  person  control  over  outward  things ; 
hence  skill  in  a  particular  ai>plication,  and 
so  efficiency  in  skilled  labour.  From  this 
the  word  went  on  to  signify  skilled  labour 
itself,  and  was  iq[»pUed  to  such  trade  and 
business  as  demanded  knowledge  and  a 
lengthened  training.  Accordingly,  we  have 
the  phrase, '  trade,  or  craft.'  The  use  of  the 
term  in  a  bad  sense,  as  '  craftily'  for  ■  cun- 
ningly,' would  easily  result  firom  its  previous 
applications.  'Craft'  represents  two  very 
different  words  in  Hebrew,  —  one,  Okartuh, 
which  denotes  a  <  cunning'  or  skilled  work- 
man (Hos.  xiii.  2 ;  eomp.  Gen.  iv.  22.  Isa. 
xl.  19) ;  the  other,  Oohrem^  craftiness  (Job. 
V.  18 ;  comp.  Exod.  xxi.  14.  Josh.  ix.  4). 
The  term  cn^ftsman  stands  also  for  a  Greek 
word,  teckniU$i  which  may  be  rendered  artiit 
or  artificer.  See  Acts  xix.  24,  88.  Heb.  xL 
10  (*  buUder').   Bev.  xviiL  22. 

CRANE  is  the  rendering,  in  Isa.  xxxviii. 
14  and  Jer.  viiL  7,  of  the  word  8oa$  ;  denot- 
ing a  migratory  bird  that  utters  a  Sound 
termed  chattering,  which,  firom  the  6onneo- 
tion,  must  have  been  moumftil  and  tremu- 
lous. This  is  all  the  information  respecting 
the  bird  which  we  can  gather  from  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  crane  of  Europe,  whose  voice  is 
loud  and  clamorous,  could  not  have  been 
intended.  But  the  name  Soub  indicates  the 
expressive  sound  of  the  swallow's  voice;  and 
Bochart  considers  the  swallow  to  be  meant 
In  that  case,  the  other  bird  {Oahgoor),  con- 
nected with  the  8oo9  in  both  the  places  of 
Scripture  given  above,  may  be  the  crane,  so 
that  the  names  will  have  to  change  places ; 
but  not  the  European  eraue,  which  has  a  loud 
voice,  and  does  not  appear  in  Palestine.  Pro- 


NCMiniAK    CBANE. 


CUE                      410  C  R  E 

b«bly  Um  Nnmidiaa  erane  was  meant,  which  the  neeiYer  in  his  aotatl  condition.    Now, 

hai  a  feeble  Toioe ;  and,  ooming  from  oentral  aa  emanating  ftom  the  SotunM  of  tmth,  in- 

AMea,  arriyes  in  Palestine  in  the  spring,  spiiation  most  oonvey  light     lAf^t,  thetv- 

These  cranes  are  often  seen  on  the  monu-  fore,  is  an  essential  element  of  all  rerelmtioii. 

ments  of  Egjpt.  Full,  peifMst,  and  complete  light?      Such 

The  swallow,  by  whieh  word  Ae  Wnmidian  light  can  appertain  only  to  the  great  Sonroe 

crane  is  represented  in  the  aforecited  passages,  of  light  himself.    Hence  it  most  be  not  ftill» 

was  probably  denomhiatad  in  Hebrew />ifniAr  not  perfeet,  not  complete.      Consequently, 

(Ps.  Izzziv.  8.  Ptot.  zztl  3) ;  a  rendering  other  elements  mast  be  mingled  with  tho 

which  is  sapported  by  the  aaoient  rabbins,  troth  of  inspiration.      These  elements  we 

as  well  as  modnrn  aeholars  of  eminence,  disoofer  by  adterting  to  the  second  and  third 

among  whom  msf  be  named  De  Wette,  and  of  the  aforenamed  snlgeets,  —  the  receiTer 

Umbieit ;  thoai^  some  pidbr  translating  it  considered  first  generally,  and  aecond  with 

by  '  tnrtle-doTe.'  respect  to  his  actual  condition.    The  receiTer 

CREATION  is  a  Latin  wotd  oonnedsd  isman,  —  ailnitebeing;  inhisTcrynatorea 

with  a  root  irtiich  seems  to  indieats growtii ;  being  of  narrow  Tiew  and  limited  capacity; 

and  appears  to  have  had  its  origin  in  a  sy»-  a  being  confined  to  a  speck  of  ereation,  on 

tem  of  thought,  whieh  repnsentod  organised  which  he  has  been  placed,  in  order  that,  with 

and  animated  existence  as  springing  spon-  the  aid  of  the  Almighty,  he  may  work  out 

taneonsly  out  of  iriiat  were  termed 'primeral  his  own  salration  in  the  education  of  his 

elements;'  namely,  eaitii,    air,   fire,    and  faculties,  and  the  reeondliatiou  of  his  soul 

water.     Accordingly,  Lucretius  makes  all  to  Ood.    Such  a  being  can  receiTe  light  only 

beings  to  have  arisen  fiom  seeds  or  first  acoording  to  the  measure  of  his  capacity ; 

piinoiplea  pre-existant  in  nature :  —  and,  in  consequence,  is  incapable  of  seeing 

:  bow  emioos  nature  Jofaa  things  as  they  are,  which  Ib  a  ftinction  of 

liBoneouMseoDiMiMs  the  all-compnhending  mind  of  Ood.    Man 

'  ^ha^y^  sDVpUes  sees  phenomena,  not    actual    realities,  — 

kditrcugtb!'  things  as  they  appear,  rather  than  as  they 

The  Hebrew  word  BsAndk,  rendered  <  create,'  •»•   Thia  is  sn  essenUsl  condition  of  all  his 

has  a  Tsry  difibient  origin.    Haring  for  its  knowledge.    Appearancea  wiU,  m  process  of 

primary  meaning  the  idea  of  cutting,  sepa-  <>>>«>  "d^  ashispowers  improTs  and  expand, 

rating,  and  reducing  into  Bhqpe  and  form,  it  V^  ^^  realitiea  ;  but  the  tranaiuon   is 

lefers  the  mind  to  the  wisdom,  power,  and  nMMsarfly  tardy,  and,  untU  he  acquires  new 

mhiw  of  the  great  Workmaster  and  Andiitect  powers,  cannot  be  completed.    Indeed,  in 

of  the  UttiTerse,  and  atands  in  agreement  atriotnese  of  speech,  the  transition  esn  nerer 

with  the  doctrine  that  is  Tarioualy  taught  or  mmI*  ^^a  termination;  simply,  because  man 

impUad  Ihiougiiout  the  BiUe,  namely,  that  **>^  nerer  become  Ood.    Let  it  be  obserred, 

the  unifene  is  the  work  of  Almighty  Ood.  *l>o,  that  dda  is  a  eondition  which  attadbee 

Much  diflculty  has  been  ooeaaioned  to  ^  ^"^  ^  ^^*  sdentifie  equally  as  in  his 

some  persons  by  ths  notion,  that  the  Hebrew  nU«ioat  inquMea.    Abeolute  truth  bekmga 

word  denotea  *to  create  out  of  nothing;'  czclQ*i^y  to  Ood.    Science,  therefore,  mnal 

and  in  thia  Lueretiua  finda  support  for  his  ^oih%  raidily  set  in  array  against  revelatioin. 

attwtisHeal  views :  —  They  ere  bodi  in  one  aspect  human,  and 

•Ncthtavwssbythegoasofnothfaigniade.'  P«take  of  die  conditions  of  all  flnito  ^t. 

x<ownvw»i7w«|owaKiioiiui«ii»<w.  ^^     If  too  much  has  been  assumed  foT 

The  real  sipiifieation  of  the  tenn  is  the  re-  religion,  the  presumptions  of  science  hare 
verse  of  this;  inasmuch  as  it  neceeearily  been  aeareelyless  eztraragant  As  a  pro- 
impUes  materials  for  the  great '  Maker  and  duct  of  man's  mind,  science  must  consist  in 
Builder '  to  work  upon.  'Whence  those  m»-  reUtiTe  truth ;  end  the  history  of  science  — 
lerials,  philology  does  not  inform  us ;  but  whieh  has  in  no  two  generations  been.  In 
the  Scriptural  nairatiTe  evidently  supposes  regard  to  any  one  branch,  the  same  —  the 
their  pre-existence.  Before  we  speak  fiirther  history  of  science,  which  in  a  history  of  a 
on  this  point,  howe?er,  we  must  give  atten*  long  and  painfhl  straggle,  confirms  our  de- 
don  to  the  record  itsell  duction.  Science  end  reirelation  are  not 
In  what  light  is  it  to  be  regarded?  Thia  enemiea.  They  are  children  of  the  aame 
^  »^*f  •"■"^*^  question,  without  an  answer  great  Father.  Science,  howerer,  is  without 
to  idiich  we  cannot  expect  to  form  definite  that  dirine  element  which  constitutos  the 
*-**o??**'^  *^*"  respecting  its  con-  essence  of  rerelation;  while  revelation  has 
iS5!;«fctli^™*i»^  ^  •"  iaspired  book.'  slways  been  conditioned  on  the  actual  state 
5L«^^^*AkS?  *'*^*'.  ^*^  inspiration  of  science,  and  kept  pace  with  it  m  ite 
s^Mhi*^^^^'''^^^^^  ceaadess  growth,  purification,  and  piogrws. 
MtodexduriTely.  ^^f^^*>^«i»ita»te  Hence  we  come  to  the  third  subject;  namely, 
truth.  BelatiTe  to  what  ?  n?***'  ^  reUtiire  the  actual  condition,  mental  and  moral,  of  the 
subjecte:  — L  To  the  Oi,.  "^  ^  ^^'^  P***^  to  whom  a  rerdation  is  made.  And 
the  truth,  and  II   to  a^         ?'  Source  of  we  say  that  all  rcTclation  must  of  necessity 

"*•  '•©•iver;  HL  to  be  adapted  to  die  receiver.      You  cannot 


CRE                      411  CRE 

poor  into  a  vase  mora  than  the  mMsnra  nor  any  other,  but  the  then  onnent  meaninf  , 
of  ita  eapaeity.  Yon  cannot  poor  the  woold  be  that  in  the  light  of  which  the  ao- 
Hqnid  in  mora  rapidly  than  the  orifice  oonnt  was  read.  Henoe  the  neceaaity  of 
admita.  The  child  can  in  no  way  raceiTe  knowing  what  the  import  of  the  term  *  day' 
eren  ideaa  which  appear  like  intoitiona  to  then  was ;  and  henoe  the  impropriety  of  giv- 
the  adult  An  mitotored  peaaant  coold  ing  to  that  or  any  other  term  an  arbitrary 
make  nothing  of  the  demonstrable  propo«  signification,  deriTed  firom  later  knowledge 
aitions  of  the  *  Principia.'  Say  that  the  Mo<-  or  eheriahed  theoriea.  Bat  we  addace  this 
aaio  account  of  the  creation  emanated  from  instance  in  order  to  ezempUfy  the  fitct,  that 
the  dlTine  Mind,  —  could  it  be  a  deaeription  rerelation  bears  a  relation  to  pra-existent 
of  the  actual  twota  of  cnation  ?  The  work-  states  of  mind.  ETen  if  inspiration  consists 
ings  of  God  are  understood  only  by  Ood  in  God's  telling  man  certain  fMts  or  truths, 
himself.  The  account  muat  of  neceaaity  be  this  telling  can  be  made  inteUigible  only 
gi^n  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  understood  by  through  such  powers  and  auch  knowledge  as 
man,  —  by  untau^t,  unonltiTated  minds,  wen  possessed  by  those  to  whom  the  rave- 
Id  the  first  place,  human  language  muat  be  lation  was  made.  The  infinite  cannot  in  ita 
employed  as  a  medium  of  communication,  very  nature  communicate  wUetfio  the  finite. 
But  human  language  has  in  all  cases  a  refe-  To  do  so  would  be  to  lose  its  own  essential 
nnce  to  the  pre-ezistent  state  of  knowledge,  qnalitiee.  The  boundless  must  first  enter 
Had  you  spoken  to  an  ancient  Soman  of  within  bounds ;  and  He  that  filleth  all  in  all 
▼Irtue,  he  would  haTe  understood  you  to  must  be  nanrowed  to  the  petty  dimensiona 
speak  of  Tslour;  and  nothing  but  a  Tcry  of  a  mind  of  one  of  his  craaturas.  The 
long  training  could  hare  brought  him  to  communication  of  knowledge,  then,  from 
understand  by  *  Tirtue,'  aimple  obedience  God  to  man, — howerer  specific  and  direct 
to  the  will  of  God,  as  the  exprassion  of  in*  it  may  be, — cannot  be  God's  knowledge; 
finite  wisdom  and  lore.  Oreation  cannot  cannot  proceed  firom  God's  aU-embracing 
even  now  be  explained  to  the  moat  cultivated  view  ;  but  must  enter  the  human  mind 
intellects  of  the  nineteenth  century :  how  throu||^  its  narrow  portala,  peihaps  in  an 
much  leas  could  the  actual  nality  be  ra-  untutored  age.  Ton  cannot  UUt  u^ess  yon 
vealed  to  men  in  the  earlier  stages  of  cirili-  suit  your  ideas  to  the  ideas  of  the  scholar, 
aationt  Mind,  in  its  very  essence,  is  a  growth,  and  employ  the  language  which  he  uses. 
All  growth  is  slow  and  gradual.  And  the  And— -if  these  ideas  are  ibw,  narrow,  and 
mind  of  our  first  progenitors  could  hare  earthly,  and  that  language  inYolves,  for  the 
been  no  other  than  infantine ;  and,  as  such,  most  part,  only  terms  doriTsd  from  the  world 
incapable  of  reoeiTing  cTcn  the  Newtonian  of  sense  —  yon  can,  whaterer  your  own 
ideas  of  the  universe,  much  more,  concep-  knowledge,  impart  only  narrow  and  imper- 
tions  coincident  with  the  anhetypal  ideaa  of  feet  conceptions  of  divine  things.  But  these 
the  Infinite  Intelligence.  With  the  eariiest  remarka  acquire  additional  foree,  if;  discard- 
races  of  men,  creation  could  have  been  no-  ing  the  idea  of  a  direct,  verbal  communica- 
thing  more  than  the  simpler  transitions  and  tion,  we  regard  inspiration  as  a  general, 
changes  of  i^icfa  nature  is  fhll,  referred  to  divine  influence,  operating  to  quicken,  ele- 
some  great  Cause.  That  Oanse,  inspiration  Tate,  and  expand  man's  fumlties  in  one 
told  them,  was  one,  even  God,  —  the  Maker  specdal  direction,  and  on  one  particular  sub- 
of  heaven  and  earth,  which  to  them  was  the  ject  In  this  view,  revelation  —  it  is  too 
universe.  Bevelation  muat  necessarily  be  obvious  to  require  proof  or  illustration  — 
conditioned  on  actual  knowledge.  To  a  must  follow  the  general  order  of  Providence, 
being  that  knows  nothing,  nothing  can  be  and  so  proceed,  step  by  step,  with  the  pro- 
reveled.  What  is  known  is  the  vehicle  for  gress  of  civilisation,  being  aimilar  to,  yet 
the  conveyance  of  what  is  unknown.  Hence  not  identical  with,  either  Providence  or  civili- 
the  new  is  necessarily  modelled  on  the  old.  aation ;  but,  whfle  of  the  same  kind  with 
The  new  will  of  course  as  new  be  more  than  the  former,  and  leading  to  results  accordant 
the  old,  but  it  cannot  diflhr  in  kind.  If  the  with,  and  promotive  of,  the  latter,  being 
old  is  pwtiy  light,  partly  darkness ;  so  also  also  something  speeisl,  extraordinary,  dis- 
willbethe  new.  The  previoudy  unknown  tinguished, — yea,  even  peculiar,  if  not  indi- 
is  conditioned  on  the  previoudylmown;  and  viduaL  In  truth,  firom  theory  we  torn  to 
therefore  the  resultant  partakes  of  the  nature  frusta, — facta  recorded  in  the  Book  of  In- 
of  both.  The  pre-ezistent  meaning  <ff  spiration  itself:  we  find  tiiat  revelation  has 
words,  of  necessity,  modifies  new  disclosures,  consisted  in  the  raising-up  of  eminent  men 
The  word  '  day,'  found  in  the  Scriptural  firom  time  to  time,  who,  under  God,  became 
account  of  the  creation,  had  a  meaning  before  both  the  depositeries  and  the  heralds  of 
that  account  was  made  known,  or  it  never  great  and  important  truths, — truths  which 
could  in.  any  vray  have  been  undentood;  increased  in  number  and  in  brilliancy  as 
and  tiie  pre-existent  meaning  of '  day '  would  time  went  on,  till  from  Abraham,  the  father 
be  the  import  in  which  the  term,  as  found  of  the  ftuthfri],  we  are  led  gradually  to  the 
in  the  account,  waa  taken.  Not  our  signifi-  perfect  day  of  Christ  And  thus  tibe  grand 
cation  of  the  term  *  day,'  nor  the  prophetic,  discovery  made  in  the  opening  words  of  the 


C  R  E                      412  C  B  £ 

Bible  U  enlarged  and  expanded,  nndl  it  brighter.    What  it  haa,  derived  from  earth, 

isenee  in  the  far  grander  truth  ennneiated  abarea  in  the  deatiny  of  all  earthlj  things, 

hj,  and  exemplified  in,  the  life  of  the  Loid  and  deeaya  and  periahea. 

Jesus  Christ;  namely,  that  the  Creator  of  U;  now,  we  apply  these  general  lemailEs 

the  oniYcrse  ia  the  equal  Father  of  all  the  to  the  Biblical  aeoonnt  of  the  creation,  we 

raees  and  indiTidnala  of  the  one  great  finnUy  are  led  to  see,  that  the  nanratiTe  is  fruned 

of  oian.  aitor  the  manner  of  men  ~^  a  pietnze  taken 

From  these  eonsideratiottB  we  are  led  to  from  an  earthly  position — a  detail  in  which 

conclude,  that  all  true  Tevelation  moat  poe-  the  phenomenal  bears  a  moeh  larger  ahece 

aess  a  dtffc  as  well  as  a  bright,  a  hmnan  no  than  ths  actaal;  that  its  religien,  impottanf 

less  than  adiTine  aide;  ti&at,  in conseqoenee,  as  it  is,  and  erer  moat  be,  ia  leas  than  its 

absolute  infallibility,  in  all  particulars,  ia  science  —  the  sdenoe  of  the  di^.    It  is,  in- 

not  Co  be  expected  In  a  tme  rsrelation ;  that  deed,  not  mianamed  in  being  termed  the 

the  results  of  mere  human  inqniiy  must  of  Mfcmk  soconnt  of  the  creation ;   lor  it  nar- 

neeessity  be  mixed  up  with  the  pore  element  ratea  that  atnpendoos  event  aa  concciTed 

of  rerelation ;  which  reanlts,  as  in  their  na-  snd  represented  by  ttie  mind  of  an  ancient 

tnre  relating  to  what  is  tenned  science,  must  Hebrew,  or  Shem&e. 

be  sundered  from  the  religious  truth  which  In  sayingthia,  we  do  not  make  an  arbitrary 

came  fh>m  God  through  their  channel,  or,  atatement    Thia  ia  not  an  aasumption,  bat 

at  any  rate,  in  immediate  connection  with  a  fact     For  the  repreaentationa,  aa  to  the 

them ;  *-  and  that  theae  results,  wiiereter  detaila  of  creation,  lind  their  ooonteiparts  in 

found,  must  be  Judged  by  their  sceordance  the  later  hooka,  wlueh  exhibit  in  nomerona 

as  widi  the  inspired  religious  tmth,  so  also  particulars  the  Hebrew  mind,  and  specifi- 

with  the  later  and  better  aacertained  results  cslly  the  Hebrew  conception  of  the  physical 

of  scientific  inquiry.    If  the  physical  doc-  uniTcrse.      To  aaaert  that  thia  conception 

trines  Ibnnd  in  the  Bible  are  incompatible  was  deriTcd  ikom  rerelation  ia  to  aaaert  that 

with  the  unity,  wiadom,  apiritnality,  and  in-  which  requirea  to  be  proved ;   while  the  ob- 

finitnde  of  the  Creator  of  the  worid,  they  are  Tionaly  terrene  and  incorrect  character  of 

not  of  Ood,  who  cannot  deny  himself,  —  they  that  conception  rendeta  a  proof  to  diat  effect 

are  not  derived  from  that  inspiration  to  which  impossible. 

we  owe  our  idea  of  Ood ;  they  must  be  from  A  true  regard  for  the  Bible  indneea  men 

below,  and,  as  human  in  their  origin,  are  to  study  the  Bible  itatU,  in  order  to  learn  its 

amenable  to  a  human  tribunal,  before  which  claims  and  its  character.     Let  the  reader 

they  must  stand  or  fall.    And  so  fsr  is  reve-  ehow  his  leveience  for  the  divine  Word,  by 

Istion  from  being  brought  into  discredit  by  looking  canfhUy  into  the  narrative  of  the 

this  seversnce,  tiiat  it  is  honoured  in  bemg  creation,  in  order  that  he  may  see  whet  ia 

made  the  sole,  primaiy  fountain  of  religiona  the  real  character  of  that  narrative.     We 

truth,   and  the  great  quickener  of  man's  have  not  to  form  a  BiUe  for  oorselvea:   oar 

higher  nature;  and,  hi  the  last  appeal,  the  Bible  we  find  ready  formed  to  our  hands, 

judge  and  arbiter  even  of  alleged  acientific  So  precious  a  gift  of  divine  Providence  mast 

truth.  not  be  travesti^  by  vain  imaginationa.     Un- 

A  right  conception  of  theae  remarks  will  beUevers  have  dispUyed  an  unaeemly  joy  in 

acrve  also  to  show,  that  what  ia  called  science  exhibiting  what  they  considered  contradic- 

is  only  in  trath  a  knowledge  of  phenomena,  tions  snd  untruths  in  the  Mosaic  narrative, 

or  appearances.    Absolute  being  escapee  the  In  extenuation  of  their  fault,  it  may  be  re- 

****?  ?1  rl  ^""•^  facultiea,  when  anaa-  marked,  that  the  theory —  which  lay  at  the 

sisted  by  light  from  God,  the  Source  of  all  basis  of  their  objections,  namely,  that  what- 

existenoe.    He  alone  knows,  he  alone  can  ever  is  found  within  the  covers  of  that  Sacred 

reveal,  things  ss  they  are.    And  religion,  ao  Book  is  miaUible  and  everlasting  truth  — 

It  1  ;1    .   "S?"'  "  •****^*  •"  P"«*»  •»<*  l»d  it»  origin  in  the  gratoitooa  asaomptions 

S!i   iS*?  lJ»aosophy;  because  it  ia  of  and  erroneous  views  of  Christian  divines. 

2!f:J!r  ^^""^  r^^    ^•^  **^»  ^^  mow  enlarged  and  conect  views  of  the  claims 

fl*^J7/^"*^  !"**•  ^  '  finite  being,  who  of  the  Bible  deprive  these  objections  of  all 

S^^^STS!  P!?*»^^  ^  ^«^  ^«  point  and  effect     Without  the  human  ele- 

I^c^^  to  ^l^iT^'f  to  go  from  ment,  whence  unbelief  has  drawn  it.  weapona 

{riAufA^iSJ  *?Sf K^-^  J'^S  *^  ^^  ^^  ^^^"^^  reveUtion  would  want  one  eicn- 

Sfmmdof^i^«^^*r**?*^""°^^  tial  condition  of  divine  truth. 

various  rfemenTASSSfaim^  A- ^  "^  ^'^'^  •*''^™*  ""'  creation.     What  can  an 

appearwicee.      In  T^,*^^^«  f^«»  ?'  ^^t,  of  creation  be  but,  at  the  highest, 

Oc!^struth.a.behdrtor2^i«xiS^"  divme  truth  m  a  human  dress  ?     WheTthe 

man's  posiUon.    CoMeSue^Tv  u  «„.*^"  fif-^^ersc  of  Genesis  declares -•  In  the  be- 

withthechsngesof  iSSp^J;i     ^7,"?  *^*"v'??  ^*^  ^•^^^  ***«  *»«*^«i  *»d  the 

haa  of  a  divine  origin  rernidRs  uidestmVJ  J       '  **  ^'^^  *  statement  aa  much  removed 

and  changes  only  to  become    fuller    -«i  ^™  *  ™*"  human  concepUon  as  language 

me    ruuer    Mnd  can  convey.    At  the  same  time  it  sappUeTa 


C  R  £  413  C  B  E 

oriterion  by  which  the  deUils,  into  which  it  which  the  sacred  narrative  of  the  creation 

enters  itself,  may  be  judged.    If  these  de-  supplies. 

tails  accord  with  this  lofty  truth,  then  do         Creation  has  been  described  as  the  act  of 
they  partake  largely  of  the  diTine.     If  other-  God,  in  forming  the  world  out  of  nothing, 
wise,  they  must  obviously  be  for  the  most  But  this  '  out  of  nothing '  is  a  pure  human 
part  human.    The  opening  verse  exhibits,  assumption,  so  far  at  least  as  relates  to  the 
in  the  simplest  manner,  the  act  of  creation  Mosaic  narrative.    That  narrative  makes  no 
as  the  work  of  an  infinite  Mind.    The  essen-  such  declaration.    It  is  content  with   an- 
tial  characters  of  an  infinite  Mind  are  spiri-  nouncing    that   God    made    the  universe, 
tnality  and  immensity.    The  volitions  of  an  Whether  the  statement  in  the  first  verse  of 
infinite  Mind  are  deeds.    When,  then,  this  the  Book  of  Genesis  refers  to  the  original 
infinite  Mind  is  represented  as  employing  formation  of  the  world  or  not,  it  contains 
language,  and  commanding  light  into  being,  nothing  which  obliges  the  believer  to  hold, 
grand  as  the  conception  must  be  allowed  to  that  the  act  there  spoken  of  was  a  creating 
be,  it  cannot  be  taken  as  descriptive  of  a  of  the  heaven  and  the  earth  '  out  of  nothing.' 
literal  fact  Much  less  can  we,  widi  Scriptn-  Consequently,  the  account  may  have  refe- 
ral  ideas  of  God,  believe  that  he  took  coun-  rence  to  the  re-constitution  of  the  earth 
sel  in  the  formation  of  man,  or  literally  rested  which  took  place  in  what  may  be  termed  its 
from  his  labours.    The  prophet  Isaiah,  who,  latest  geological  and  first  historical  condi- 
beiiig  enlightened  by  the  Book  of  Genesis,  tion.    If  this  was  the  writers  intention,  then 
and  inspired  of  the  spirit  of  God«  had  formed  all  the  objections  faU  to  the  groimd,  which 
fbller  and  nobler  conceptions  of  his  opera-  geology  has  been  forced'  to  supply  against 
tions  than  those  which  are  implied  in  the  the  narrative.    What  took  place  before  the 
details  of  this  narrative,  has  forcibly  asked  commencement  of  the  actual  period  of  the 
(xl.  18, 14)  —  earth's  history,  the  writer  did  not  undertake 
•Who  hath  directed  the  spfaK  of  Jebovata»  to  describe;  for,  having  a  purely  religious 
Or.hlsooa]isell<»r,b«thtaagfathlm?  aim,  he  neither  indulged  in  speculations. 
With  whom  took  he  counsel?  •  nor  was  supematuraUy  supplied  with  light 
The  implied  consultation  was  well  fitted  in  regard  to  pre-existent  and  ante-human 
to  impress  the  mind  of  a  Hebrew  with  an  eras.     These  observations  remain  equally 
idea  of  the  importanoe  of  the  act  of  creating  valid,  if  the  reader  agree  in  the  not  impro- 
man,  but  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  literal  bable  representation  made  both  by  eminent 
truth,  any  more  than  the  representation,  that  divines  and  by  geologists,  —  that  the  act 
God  made  Eve  by  taking  for  that  purpose  mentioned  in  the  first  verse  is  intended  to 
one  of  Adam's  ribs.    Indeed,  the  entire  nar-  refer  to  the  original  volition  of  the  great 
rative  bears  evidence  of  being  a  human  view  creative  Mind ;  and  that,  in  consequence,  an 
of  the  great  truth  enunciated  in  the  first  interval  ensued  between  that  act  and  the 
verse.    The  mind  that  conceived  and  uttered  events  detailed  in  the  third  and  following 
the  account  was  on  earth,  and  not  in  heaven,  verses ;  an  interval,  during  which  proceeded 
The  painter  stood  in  Palestine,  or  some  the  great  ordinal  changes  in  the  structure  of 
neighbouring   land.     Accordingly,  he  de-  the  earth,  of  which  geology  gives  an  account, 
scribes  the  details  of  creation  as  tiliey  would  —  when  *  the  earth  was  without  form,  and 
appear  to  one  who  knew  little  or  nothing  of  void ;  and  darkness  was  upon  the  face  of  the 
the  geological  formation  of  the  earth,  or  the  deep ;   and  the  spirit  of  God  moved  upon 
infinitude  of  the  celestial  universe.    Hence  the  face  of  the  waters '  (2).  According  to  this 
it  is  that  he  speaks  of  light  as  made  on  the  view,  the  initial  verse  speaks  of  the  fintcrea- 
first  of  his  seven  days ;  whereas  light,  as  tive  fiat ;  the  following  one  paints  the  condi- 
essential  to  the  existence   and  growth  of  tion  of  the  earth,  prior  to  the  time  when  it  be- 
plants,  must  have  existed  in  the   earlier  oame  a  residence  for  man;  and  the  third  and 
periods  of  the  earth's  primal  history.    In  ensuingverses  are  meant  to  set  forth,  in  such 
the  same  way,  he  recounts  the  creation  of  a  way  as  to  be  comprehensible  by  undis- 
animals,  as  taking  place  some  six  thousand  ciplined  minds,  the  act  of  God  in  bringing 
years  since ;  while  animals  are  known  to  have  the  world  into  its  present  condition,  with  the 
lived  and  died,  thousands  of  years  prior  to  specific  design  of  laying  a  foundation  for 
the  period  when  the  globe  was  brought  by  those  ideas  of  duty,  obedience,  and  holiness, 
the  Creator  into  its  present  state.    In  what  which  constitute  tfie  essence  of  the  Biblical 
other  way  could  the  writer  have  spoken  7  revelation,  and  the  furtherance  of  which  was 
Had  his  narrative  been  conformed  to  geo-  the  great  tendency  and  purpose  of  the  Mo- 
logical  accuracy,  God  must,  by  revelation,  sale  and  the  Christian  revelations, 
have  anticipated  for  man  the  discoveries  of        That  the  second  and  following  verses  refer 
science,  which,  in  his  infinite  wisdom,  he  merely  to  the  present  historical  period  of  the 
did  not  see  fit  to  do.  eartii's  history,  seems  very  probable.    The 
Engaged,  as  we  thus  are,  in  making  the  earth  '  was  without  form,  and  void,'  either 
Bible  its  own  expositor,  to  the  supersession  before  or  alter  the  creative  act  spoken  of  in 
of  human  fancies,  we  may  usefolly  inquire  the  first  verse.    If  before  tiiat  act,  then  it 
a  littie  Airther  what  the  account  really  is  existed  anteriorly ;  and  the  whole  narrative^ 


C  R  E  414  C  R  E 

inclndixig  the  first  vene,  tpeakt  not  of  an  nnmeroiiB  and  tooeBMurtontedpointiagoiiL 
original  cnation,  bat  of  a  ra-fonnation  of  A  eompariaon  of  tho  eontents  of  theae  two 
the  earth.  If,  after  that  aet,  then  the  entire  narratiTee  would  tend  to  oonfirm  our  gene- 
process,  with  the  exception  of  what  took  ral  position,  that  the  namttre  Is  dmwn  up 
place  as  recorded  in  the  opening  words,  coo-  bj  a  human  being  from  his  own  point  of 
sisted,  so  fkr  as  the  earth  is  concerned,  in    tiew,  making  the  earth  the  centre  of  the  vni- 

bringing  pie-existent  elements  into  their  Terse,  and  the  heaTens  sabordinate  to  the 
actaal  condition.  service  of  man. 

Begarded  thns  as  a  moulding  of  origi-        All  views  of  the  histoiy  of  eieation  mnst 
nally  created  elements  into  the  state  hi  which  be  arbitrary  and  faneiM,  wfaidi  do  not  pro- 
we  now  ^^^  this  i^obe,  many  of  the  difBcnl-  eeed  on  the  aasonption,  thai  the  bosiness  of 
ties  disappear.    Geology  is  left  in  ftill  pos-  the  Seriptaral  expositor  is  primarily  to  aaoer- 
session  of  her  own  domain,  to  collect  her  tain  the  meaning  of  the  writer.    What  ideas 
fbots,  compose  her  system,  and  write  the  did  the  author  of  the  narrative  entertain  on 
earth's  history.    She  may  even  bear  evidence  the  subject?    What  ideas  did  he  intend  to 
in  illustration  of  the  record;  for  if  it  was  by  present  to  the  worid  ?    What  ideasdoes  his 
the  agency  of  water,  as  eminent  geologists  language,  viewed  as  die  expression  of  his 
hold,  that  the  earth  was  brought  out  of  the  thoughts,  convey  ?    These  are  the  first  quee- 
oondition  immediately  preceding  its  actual  tions  to  be  answered.    The  fiMta  or  truths 
one, — namely,  the  chaotic  state  of  being  which  may  hence  be  conveyed  to  us  are^ 
'  without  form,  and  .void,'  with  *  darkness  on  though  sn  important,  yet  a  different,  matter, 
the  face  of  the  deep,'  —  then  are  the  deduc-  In  order  to  ascertain  what  the  writer  intended^ 
tions  of  science,  and  the  statements  of  the  Bi-  we  have  endeavoured  to  leam  from  iriiat 
ble  (Ckn.  i.  3.  2  Pet  ilL  0)  found  to  agree,  point  of  view  his  nsirative  was  devised  and 
Nor  is  it  sny  objection  to  this  view,  that  the  constructed.    And  we  have  seen  that  though 
writer  speaks  of  the  creation  of  the  sun,  his  mind  was  specially  illumined  of  God,  yet, 
moon,  and  stars,  as  taking  place  at  the  same  in  the  entire  account,  he  speaks  as  fimn 
time  ;  for  such  a  re-formation  of  the  earth  earth.    In  so  doing,  he  employs  human  lan- 
and  of  the  atmosphere,  as  is  here  supposed,  guage,  and  of  course  employs  its  tenns  in 
would  cause  the  iqipearance  as  if  then  for  the  their  ordinary  acceptation,  that  is^  the  aocep- 
first  time  the  heavens  and  their  host  were  tation  in  which  they  were  cnncnt  in  his  own 
called  into  being.    And  that  the  account  is  day.    Hence  we  are  not  at  liberty  to  put  on 
one  given  as  by  an  earthly  spectator,  stands  his  words  a  meaning  which  had  its  origin 
on  evidence  already  adduced,  and  on  this  in  later  periods  of  history,  or  in  our  own 
fact,  besring  specifically  on  the  present  part  times.     Yet  what  else  has  been  done,  when 
of  the  subject,  —  namely,  that  &c  heavenly  some  expositors  have  aacribed  to  the  tenn 
bodies  are  described  solely  as  ordained  with  *  day,'  the  import  of  a  geologioel  period  con- 
«  view  to  the  service  they  were  to  render  to  sisting  of  thousands  of  yews.    The  writer, 
our  globe  :  — '  Let  them  (the  lights)  be  for  by  the  word  '  day,'  intended  what  was  gene- 
signs,  and  for  seasons,  and  for  days,  and  for  rally  signified  by  the  term.    If  not,  why  did 
years'  (Gen.   \L  14),  'to  give  li^t  upon  he  not  define  his  meaning?    He  has  given 
the  earth '  (17).    To  what  an  extent  this  is  no  special  definition,  and  therefore  intended 
a  mere  earthly  and  human  view  of  the  pur-  his  language  to  be  taken  in  this,  as  in  every 
poses  and  fonctions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  other  instance  in  its  ordinary  signification, 
may  be  learned  from  comparing  diis  account  Besides,  his  was  obviously  a  Hebrew  day, 
of  them  with  one  iHiich  would  be  given  by  one  which  not  only  consisted  of  forenoon 
an  enlightened  astronomer,  who  had  in  ima-  and  afternoon,  but  in  which  the  evening  took 
ginadon   placed  himself  in   some  remote  precedence  of  the  morning ;  for,  with  sn  in- 
point  of  space  where  he  might  behold  the  version  of  more  modem  usage,  he  declares 
numberless  suns  and  systems  that  make  up  — '  The  evening  and  the  morning  were  the 
the  universe,  revolving  hsimoniously  snd  in  first  day'  (0).    The  description,  too,  which 
mutual  dependence  around  the  central  throne  he  gives  of  day  and  night,  dbows  that  he  was 
of  Almighty  power.    It  is  man's  littleness,  speaking  under  impressions  derived  from  die 
and  not  God's  omniscience,  that  represents  actual  constitution  of  the  heavens  and  earth, 
the  mighty  and  innumerable  host  of  heaven  and  intended  what  we  mean  by  diese  words: 
as  created  for  the  purpose  of  ministering  to  — '  And  God  called  the  light  day,  snd  the 
the  inhabitants  of  this  inconsiderable  orb :  darkness  he  caUed  ni|^t'    The  license  of 

In  these  disquisitions  we  have  confined  '  Geschichte  der  Urwelt,'  1845),  who  takes 

ourselves  to  the  account  of  the  creation  as  the  term  *day'  In  the  sense  of  a  geological 

given  in  Gen.  i.  and  ii.  1—^.     With  the  period  in  regard  to  the  three  first  days  of  the 

fourth  verse  of  the  second  diapter,   there  creation,  but  in  its  ordinary  sense  in  regard 

commences  another  account.    That  this  is  to  the  three  latter;  and,  simply,  because  he 

another  account,  appears  from  its  dissimila-  could  not  otherwise  make  the  account  har- 

ritj  to  the  former.    The  discrepancies  are  too  monies  with  his  theory.     Into  so  arbitrary 


C  R  B  415  C  R  E 

and  unwiM  a  oonne  an  men  driTen,  when  bly  will  the  Ibroe  of  the  lesson  be  diminished, 

they  bring  to  the  Soriptnie  their  own  pre-  if  we  refer  to  one  or  two  other  points,  of  which 

ooneeptions,  and  are  not  satisfied  to  take  the  we  shall  speak  more  at  length  under  their 

aaered  record  as  it  is,  and  in  the  sense  whieh  appropriate  heads.    The  derivation  of  the 

its  writers  intended  it  to  convey.  entire  raee  of  man  ftom  one  pair  is  the  doc- 

I^  however,  unwise  friends  of  revelation  tine  of  Oenesis,  and  of  Seriptnre  in  general. 

have  injured  its  holy  oanse  by  undue  claims  With  ini^propriate  rashness,  the  possibility 

and  unfounded  assumptions,  seienoe  has,  In  of  such  derivation,  and  the  ftet  itself,  have 

the  hands  of  enemies,  been  made  to  east  on  been  eonfidently  denied  by  men  of  science; 

the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation  a  firown  and  yet  the  possibility  may  be  illustrated  by 

iriiich  facts  by  no  means  warrant    In  that  pertinent  and  undeniable  instances,  and  the 

account,  light  is  represented  as  being  in  fiict  may  be  made  probable  by  various  lines  of 

existence  befDre  the  sun.    Now  light,  ^eso  concurrent  evidence.    It  has  also  been  as- 

assailants  have  afiirmed,  has  the  sun  only  serted,  that  the  Book  of  Oenesis  wants  the 

Ibr  its  source.    Consequently,  the  Bible  is  historical  character,  and  falls  property  within 

hoe  in  direct  conflict  with  science.    If  the  fhcregionofthatmythologywhichisfoundto 

allegalion  is  true,  that  the  sun  is  the  sole  precede  real  history  in  sll  primitive  nationa. 

ftmntain  of  lifl^t,  then  is  there  ground,  in-  Here,  again,  the  tendency  of  recent  inqniriea 

deed,  for  the  imputation ;  for  before  the  Mo-  of  the  higheat  authority  is  greatly  in  favour  of 

saic  period  there  existed  vegetation,  to  which  the  Bible ;  and  we  expect  to  be  able  to  show 

the  presence  of  light  is  indispensable ;  and  in  its  proper  place,  that  an  historical  element 

Mi<iniii«,  whose  fossil  remains  are  imbedded  predominates  in  the  earliest  of  the  Hebrew 

in  the  rock,  deposits  ot  earlier  eras,  poe-  writings,  and  presents  us — in,  for  instance, 

•eased  eyes,  and  must,  in  consequence,  have  the  account  of  the  creation  —  a  true  picture 

lived  in  an  atmosphere  in  which  there  was  of  a  state  of  mind  whieh  is  eminently  of  an 

light    But  it  is  erroneous  to  say,  that  with-  historical  character,  and  is  in  general  fitted 

out  the  ann  there  could  not  be  li^^t    Light  to  conciliate  towards  itself  belief  as  well  as 

exists  at  present  apart  from  the  sun— why  respect 

not,  then,  of  old  7  We  find  in  various  olgects        We  farther  challenge  history  and  science 

a  species  of  latent  light,  which  needs  only  to  present  a  more  worthy  and  credible  ae- 

•ome  external    cause  to  make  it  visible,  count  of  the  great  fact  of  creation,  than  that 

Friction  or  collision  educes  light,  as  well  as  whieh  is  found  in  Oenesis.    Cosmogonies,  or 

heat,  from  certain  hard  bodies.    C(»nbustion  worlds  constructed  after  a  human  pattern, 

and  other  chemical  processes  bring  forth  are  by  no  means  wanting  either  in  ancient 

light    Electricity  causes  li^t    Even  pro-  or  in  modem  days.    Every  nation  has  had 

ceases  of  organic  lifo  itself  are  often  accom-  its  own  cosmogony.    We  ask  dispassionate 

psnied  by  the  evolution  of  lifl^t    A  yet  and  competent  scholars  to  point  out  one 

moire  striking  iUnatration  is  presented  in  Uie  which  can  be  considered  even  comparable 

results  of  Hersohers  inquiries,  as  given  in  with  the  Biblical  narrative.    We  here  put 

what  is  styled  '  the  nebular  theory,*  by  which  down  the  cosmogony  of  the  Phoenicians,  as 

we  are  led  to  hold  that  suns  and  stars  are  given  by  Sanchonialho,  stating  it  in  the  very 

now  being  fonned  out  of  What  we  may  term  words  of  the  narrator,  in  consequence  of  its 

light-clouds.     What  is  now  tsking  place,  greatantiqnity: — *The  beginning  of  all  things 


may  surely  have  taken  place  before  the  sun  was  a  dark  and  condensed  windy  air,  or  a 
was  formed.  Indeed,  the  diMoveries  of  breese  of  dark  air,  and  a  chaoa,  turbid  and 
Herschel  on  this  point  may  be  said  to  offer  indistinct  like  Erebus :  these  things  were 
an  instance  of  striking  agreement  between  infinite,  and  for  a  long  time  had  no  bound ; 
science  and  Scripture.  The  calling  forth  ot  but  when  this  wind  became  enamoured  of  its 
light,  spolen  of  in  the  words— -*  Let  li|^t  own  principles,  and  a  mixture  took  place, 
be/  was  the  development  and  expansion  &at  embrace  was  called  Desire ;  and  it  was 
of  the  primal  element  of  li|^t,  out  of  which  the  beginning  of  the  creation  of  all  thinga. 
the  several  light-bearers  (to  use  a  word  But  the  wind  knew  not  ita  own  production, 
which  corresponds  with  the  original  Hebrew)  Of  that  wind,  from  ita  embrsee,  was  begotten 
were  afterwarda  formed  by  a  process  known  M6t,  which  some  call  Mud,  others  the  putie- 
only  to  the  Creator  himaelf.  These  '  light-  liMtion  of  a  watery  mixture ;  and  firom  this 
bearers'  were  our  sun,  moon,  and  stars;  sprang  all  the  seed  of  the  creation,  and  the 
bodiea  consolidated  out  of  the  ethereal  at-  generation  of  the  universe.  But  there  were 
mosphere  of  light  created  originally  by  the  certain  animals  which  had  no  sense,  out  of 
will  of  the  Almighty.  which  proceeded  intelligent  animals ;  and 
When  science  is  thus  found  to  refote  her  they  were  called  Zophasemin,  that  is,  the  in- 
own  imputationa,  and,  at  a  later  period,  to  spectors  of  heaven ;  and  they  were  moulded 
establiah  principles  whieh  are  both  hostile  in  the  shape  of  an  egg;  and  M6t  shone  forth 
to  what  she  held  previously,  she  may  assur-  (and  became)  the  sun,  snd  the  moon,  the 
ediy  team  a  lesson  of  modesty,  and  ought  to  leaser  and  the  greater  stars.'  When  stripped, 
exhibit  in  regard  to  her  twin  sister  revcla-  indeed,  of  philosophical  mists,  or  grotesque 
tioB  none  butarespeetftil  spirit  Nor  proba-  investments  of  mythical  poetry,  these  cos- 


C  B  E  416  C  B  E 

MMgouin  oflar,  in  lome  iniUncea,  points  In  *u  >  brnti  mui,  oat  of  vhish  Iha  dMna 
which  Ibej  mon  or  le**  TcwmblB  llie  Ifo-  HiDd  pnidnced  ill  Ihingi.'  Tha  Chaldauu, 
■Mohj^toij;  giving  nM*on  to  think  Ihatthvy  ftooording  to  Berosoi,  Mid  that  at  firvtatatj 
vara  deritad  ailhar  from  that  aooonnl  ilaalf,  thing  iraa  darkneaa  and  water,  in  irtiidi 
(IT  from  aome  oonunon  aoona.  Yet,  at  tha  moUBlUB  of  all  kinda  dwelt,  luidar  the  ndiiic 
beat,  with  avei?  allowansa,  Ihaae  caamogooiet  goddau  Omarka,  who  ia  the  female  princi- 
ua  itTj  imperfect  and  diatarted  imagn  of  pie  at  the  Indian*.  Then  the  primal  tight, 
the  Diigioal,  and  are  ao  iuf«ii»  to  tha  Bib-  or  original  deitj,  Beloe  (the  eon),  aepanted 
lioal  acoooiit,  u  to  make  the  impartiBl  ata-  all  into  two  p«rta,  beaten  and  earth,  wfaan 
dent  wonder  liow,  without  ■  epHial  Prorl-  the  moniun  **nk  in  ehaot.  The  Egjptiaiu 
denc<,it  BonldhftTe  happened  that  a  people,  held,  that  the  oiiginal  dai^  enUed  the  worid 
iMotmiBd  among  the  loweM  of  enltitatBd  throng  his  wOTd,  Kneph,  iriiieb  had  pro- 
Dationa  in  aoeiiml  time*,  ehould  hate  po*-  Maded  from  liimad(  and  blooded  aroand  its 
ioued,  Mid  kept  in  ita  first  piuitjr,  Iha  beat,  primitiTe  form,  whilit  light  pound  itaelf 
moat  probable,  moat  hialorieal,  of  all  tradi-  forth  OTef  tha  tmamnged  maaa.  Between 
(ional  hiatoriea  of  the  creation  of  the  wnld.  flia  and  wslar  air  aulered,  whenee  besTCTi 
Aeoordiogtothe  atatementaof  theli^iana,  and  earth  aepuated:  in  heafen  ahoaa  the 
and  their  Bacr«d  booki  the  Vedas,  Brahma,  son  and  moon,  formed  bj  the  fin,  oolleeted 
'  "    '  togalbar,  which  dried  and  (armed  '  the  atead- 

fail  eaidi,'  while  the  water  waa  gstfaered  into 
the  dapQii  of  the  aea.  The  Oieeka,  aseoid- 
ing  to  HMii>d,  e^ained  the  enigma  of  ciea- 
lioil,  bju        -      ...  - 


Flooi  it  prooeaded  the  Midi  (Oea),  and  ont 
o(  itaelf  ereatad  heaven  (tJranoa)  and  the 
lomr  wodd  (Tiitaioa),  in  which  waa  tha 
•bodaof  abaoluteni^t(Erebot);  whilepar- 
Ual  nilAt  (Njx),  remained  (o  the  nppar 
wotld,  tod,  in  onion  with  Iha  fonner,  be^ 
li|^  or  d>ir  (Hamera),  and  the  hi^ier  air 
(£lhat).  The  earth  bore  of  herself  the  aea 
(Pontoa)  and  the  monnbdn*.  Eroa  (1otb> 
waa  the  pijnoipla  that  gave  rise  to  lib,  being, 
and  order.  The  Orphic  sjitein,  fcdlowing 
The  Menns  represent  Brahma  as  hsTing  the  doctrine  of  the  Chaldce  and  Egyptian 
apniDg  out  of  an  egg,  which  bunt  by  ita  own  sagea,  aaanmed  time  {Chronos).  whidi  waa 
intsinal  power,  and  of  wbieh  tha  upper  ha'f  repteaented  nndei  the  image  of  a  serpen^ 
formed  baaTsn, — the  lower,  earth;  wbaalthe  aa  flnt  of  all.  Time,  or  Cbronos,  created 
eonlenta  became  the  ether  and  the  aea,  on  boondleaa  Chaoa,  tha  liqoid  £ther,  daik 
which  Brahma  oreaUd  (ha  elements,  and  all     Ereboa,  and  in  the  latter,  an  egg,  ont  bl 

Ebitnal  being.  Hen  sprsngbom  his  son  which  proceeded  PLanaa,  and,  swimming  in 
mn.  Baddhism  apeaks  of  two  inditi-  £lher,ealledligbtmloeiiitence.  Inanolher 
dual  and  eternal  esaenees,  spirit  and  msttcr,  visw,  this  sfslem  act  forth  an  eternal,  end- 
snd  nprasents  the  latter  In  itaelf  witbont  less,  imereatsd  chaos,  which  in  time  became 
lifk,bDt  pla^  endless,  and  inTiaible,  as  aa  eg^  oat  of  which  all  the  fcoma  of  creation 
qnickaned  and  rerealed  to  si^t,  in  eonae-     aprang. 

qnenee  of  becoming  perraded  b  J  the  ttmner.  In  eomparison  with  these  idle    sprcnla- 

Wben  apirit  qnita  matter,  matter  falls  back  tioia  or  groas  perreraiona,  the  Moaaio  nar- 
into  Its  pieiioos  oouditlon.  If,  howeier,  ratife  ia  esaeniiallf  distinguished  for  aim- 
matter  is  again  animated  bj  spirit,  new  plicity,  cleameaa,  eleratiiHi,  (mtfa  ;  and  offera 
worlds  srise.  From  the  original  apirit  pro-  marked  aocordances  with  tbe  asoertajned  re- 
eeed  the  subordinate  spirits  who  gorem  the  snlts  of  naloial  philoaophj,  and  the  higher 
worid,  and  who  Bow  back  into  their  aoorcc,  dcdnctiona  of  refined  inli^gence.  While 
The  doctrine  of  Tibet  regarding  creation  ia,  the  riews  of  creation  of  otheraneieDlnations 
that  the  world  was  produced  bj  a  terrific  wear  the  appearance  of  faUea  or  apecnla- 
atorm,  whioh  rallied  throngh  the  aea,  formed  tioni,  [nooecding  trom  priestly  iDflneuee  or 
by  moat  eopions  rajns,  nntil  a  golden  bow  poetic  fancy,  disfigored  by  laJer  melapbyiii- 
was  prodnced,  onl  of  which  prooeedsd  the  cal  reteriea,  the  Biblical  aeeoimt  is,  to  a  great 
four  quarters  of  the  world.  Among  the  Hon-  extend  in  keeping  with  the  analogy  of  nature, 
goliana  are  bond  the  aarae  tradltians,  only  andwiihlhajudgmenMof  the  intellect, irtiich, 
with  mot«  ornamental  details.  Aeoinding  in  •!■  most  cnltiTaled  form,  diaowns  ibt  etar- 
to  tbe  doctrine  of  the  Fersisna,  Ormnad  nity  of  the  worid,  and  refers  all  Ihinga  to  tbe 
ereatad  the  world,  In  order  to  deitroy  the     creatiTe  act  of  one  only  Qod,  In  a  m 


CBE  il 

lag,  la  «•  think,  ■  yet  hi^er  ohanctei  la 
MDtaining  trathl  developed  bj  inspiruioii. 
ThB  raspect  wUah  we  TeGluie  to  cl4iin  fni: 
file  Boriptonl  nuntiTa  otaaox  foil  to  be  en- 
bmced.  If  the  mtder  will  take  the  puni  to 
nuke  himeelf  uqn^nted  with  the  theories  bj 
which  eonie  modem  epeenUlon  bxn  in  &D07 
fbnned  Ihii  worid.  We  eumot  spore  room 
in  this  work  for  mon  than  one  of  these  bo- 
mkndeTicea.  Letitba  OiefaiiDttionaf  mui 
u  Mt  forth  bf  Okeu  ('Isis,'  ISIS;  p.  HIT), 
who  speaks  on  the  subject  with  confidenre, 
u  if  he  hsd  been  *  spactator  of  the  prooeBt. 
■Without  doabi,'  be  Ufs, '  the  fint  manWH 
■D  embrfo;  tor  wbst  la  gmall  neaesauilj  pre- 
cedes whU  is  great.  Aa  ihingii  arise  now, 
•o  fliey  nose  at  Brat;  fiir  their  present  is 
onl;  in  imitation  or  oonticnaDee  of  their 
original  rise.  A  child  of  two  years  old  wool  d 
donbtless  be  in  a  eondiUon  to  enstain  its 
ejOBteoBe,  if  it  fonnd  near  it  nntrimenl,  as 
worms,  mails,  trait,  or  mioe,  goats,  kiae; 
Ibr  a  child  enoks  wtthoat  instmetion  ;  and 
about  lliia  age,  it  would  have  teeth,  and  could 
walJt  In  order,  then,  that  a  child  sbonld  ba> 
•ble  to  help  llsell  without  a  mother,  it  wonld 
be  nqniaite  that  it  ihotild  have  reeehed  llie 
•ge  of  two  jean.  Now,  if  ;on  suppose  Aal 
the  tetos  ripena  qnioUj,  whilst  its  mother 
was  of  a  siae  to  bear  and  bring  forth  a  ohild 
two  years  old,  then  the  inbnt  ot  that  age 
would  be  bom  in  poseeaiiOQ  of  teeth  and  of 
limbs,  which  it  eould  oae.  That  such  a 
child  eould  liTe,  is  beyond  all  doubt  The 
first  human  being  must  hare  been  developed 
in  a  womb  which  is  far  greater  than  what 


.7  CRE 

now  belong*  to  our  race.  That  womb  Is  die 
■ea.  Thai  all  living  things  came  ont  of 
tilt  aea,  is  a  tiulh  which  no  one  will  dispnle 
who  is  acquainted  with  natural  history  and 
philosophy.  The  sea  has  nutriment  tor  the 
foetus,  and  room  for  it  to  grow  even  beyond 
the  period  of  two  years.  Such  embiyoe, 
without  a  qaeation,  spring  op  in  the  sea  by 
thoosands.  Some  would  lie  cast  00  the 
shore  yet  nnrips,  and  perish ;  but  olhera, 
more  fully  developed,  being  thrown  on  the 
strand,  would  break  their  covering,  and  seiie 
their  food.  If  living  oysters  are  eaten  by  ue, 
why  not  by  theae  men  ot  the  sea?  Com- 
panions are  not  wanted ;  tbr  dozens  are  with 
him  on  the  same  spoL  Why  should  not  Ihie 
child  utter  certain  aoncds,  these  tmder  pain, 
those  under  joy  t  Who  oan  fbr  a  moment 
doubt  in  all  thisf  SpesDh  alsogrowaontof 
a  man,  as  the  man  himself  grows  out  of  tbe 
sea,  the  mother  of  the  human  race.  But 
how  came  these  embryoe  in  the  sea  t  Ob- 
viously not  from  without;  for  all  organic  be- 
ing must  ariaa  in  water.  They,  therefore, 
sprang  up  in  the  sea.  How  is  this  possiblef 
Without  doubt,  in  the  manner  in  wUcb  other 
animals  have  arisen,  and  still  do  arise,  in  the 
aea,  such  as  infusoria  and  medoue.' 

After  this  specimen  of  the  still  of  modem 
philosophy,  the  most  literal  interpretation  of 
the  atatement,  that  man  was  made  of  6od  out 
of  the  dust  of  the  earth,  and  woman  out  of 
one  of  man's  ribs,  acquires  a  high  degree 
of  probability;  forin^is  case  there  ia  at 
least  almighty  power  to  form,  and  infinite 
goodness  to  sustain,  the  first  human  pair 


This  engraving  eihililta  a  Hindoo  theory  turn  to  the  Scriptural  narrative  In  dieop<n< 
ot  the  origin  and  sustentation  of  the  world,  ing  chapters  of  Oenesia.  The  eonbiwt  wiH 
Let  the  nader  BtDdy  its  Import  and  then     ifftti  very  great.      The  plctore  eihlblM 


ORE  418  C  R  B 

mythology  m  the  nsnlt    of  ■peeolation :  Being,  with  nieh  rAot  ts  to  iiMhe  AstmMl 

Qenesit  pregents  history  as  the  result  of  important  doctrine  a  part  of  the  worM'smeB- 

knowledge.     The  mythology  may  oontahi  tal  inheritance. 

germs  of  troth ;  the  history  may  not  be  free  <8o  flv  into  the  heights  of  God  the  mind  of  man 

from  transient  conceptions ;  bat  the  prefera*  has  ransed. 


bleness  of  the  latter  OTcr  the  former  is  an  MlsjrajdiUojetocfcangelhaesrth— Mewry  aail 

undonbted  fru$t,  which  presupposes  the  en-  j^  iom?S^  bright  launigmre;  yet  atin  ths 
lightening  and    InTigorating   inflaeuoe    of  sprtegs  aidore,  ^  ^ 

iiwpiration :  otherwise,  how  did  the  simple-  *** JJJJ**i«2 illll?!"^  *"*  *•*••  ■*"'•  '*•" 
minded  Hebrews  surpass  in  simpiielly,  snh-  dooaioifceioet. 

limity,  and  truth,  the  wisdom  of  Hindostan  f  For  it  is  one  great  peouHari^  of  revelatioii 
In  the  cut  the  reader  sees  the  Aree  wodds  to  put  the  poor  and  the  rich  on  the  same 
of  the  Brahmins  resting  on  the  back  of  a  IcTel  in  regud  to  dirine  dilngs.  A  deelar»- 
lortoise,  while  the  tortoise  rests  upon  a  ser-  tion  like  that  contained  in  the  openings  Terse 
pent,  the  image  of  eternity.  Elephants  sup-  of  Genesis  anticipates  the  resultB  of  tardy 
port  the  second  and  the  third  worid.  We  diseoTery,  and  preyents  the  eliminations  of 
have  here  a  succession  of  mere  material  philosophical  reibiements.  Newton  and 
powers,  running  back  into  eteni^,  with  no  Dalton,  after  haying  surreyed  the  heavens 
adequate  canse  whatever;  the  solution  of  and  the  earth,  could  not  have  enunciated  a 
one  diifleulty  by  the  assumption  of  another,  more  comprehensive  or  a  more  solemn  trudi, 
and  the  support  of  the  whole  by  a  huge  than  has  there  stood  written  for  above  three 
impossibflity.  Wanting  the  agency  of  a  thousand  years ;  nor  can  any  transcendental 
ereative  mindf  this  pictured  hypothesis  is  peculations  dissolve  into  thin  air  the  solid 
worthless,  even  as  a  theory.  and  substantisl  facts  and  truths,  for  the  re- 
One  of  the  greatest  evUs  of  the  oriental  eord  of  which  we  are  indebted  to  the  leader 
doetrines  respecting  the  Originsl  of  creation  of  a  nation  of  fligitive  slaves.  Eren  the  gross 
was  their  tendency  to  run  into  pantheism,  anthropomorphism, — thatis,tfaeeonceptiott 
Standing  on  no  firm  ground  whatever,  whe-  and  representation  of  Ood  under  human 
tber  of  a  specific  revelation  or  of  ascertained  aspects, — which  oceasionafiy  wounds  piety, 
fricts,  they  to  a  great  extent  owed  their  exist-  and  supplies  weapons  of  assault  to  unbelief 
enoe  to  speculation,  and  by  speculation  were  has  its  good  in  communicating  and  preaeir- 
carried  into  heights  of  shetrsotion,  where  they  |ng  a  definite  and  distinct  idea  of  Ood  who 
were  lost  in  misty  clouds  of  seeming  light  is  spirit,  and  so  in  preventisg  the  verj 
God,  in  consequence,  who  had  no  other  hold  essence  of  religion  ttom  passing  off  in  the 
on  the  mind  than  what  the  mind's  own  flm-  alembic  of  delusive  abstractions, 
cies  gave,  was  evaporated  into  a  dender  in-  A  similar  kind  of  good  is  found  in  the 
appreoiable  eonception,  regarded  as  a  mere  implication  obvious  in  the  first  ehapter  of 
expression  for  the  animating  principle  of  the  Bible,  that  the  world  is  not  eternal,  aa 
the  universe,  which,  as  having  life  and  move-  Eastern  metaphyaiM  tvight,nor  the  olbpring 
ment,  must  have  also  the  souroe  of  both  in  of  dianee,  as  was  dreamed  in  the  philoao- 
and  through  itsell  Effectually  was  this  error  phieal  schools  of  the  West  Whatever  the 
guarded  against  in  the  Hebrew  religion*  by  mode  of  creation  may  have  been,  on  which 
the  existence  of  sueh  narratives  as  this  re-  the  Scriptnres  give  no  informaticm,  we  are 
specting  the  creation ;  where  Ood  is  intro-  enabled  by  them  to  assert  that  it  was  not  a 
dueed  as  separate  firom  and  independent  of  development  in  the  sense,  at  least,  of  an 
the  woiid,  which  he  calls  into  being  by  his  evolution  of  new  out  of  dd  forme,  by  the 
own  omnipotence,  and  on  which  he  acts  force  of  some  innate  material  power,  but  a 
according  to  his  sovereign  pleasure.  No  widely-^read  ordinal  change,  caused  by  the 
form  of  pantheism  ean  stimd  in  connection  act  of  the  great  primal  Intelligenoe  of  the  uni- 
with  the  Biblical  acoount  of  creation.  Here  verse,  within  what^  in  a  genml  wcjr,  we  may 
you  see  a  Creator,  a  self-sabsisting,  almighty  style  an  historical  period. 
Being,  the  Original  of  the  universe.  This  is  For  it  is  no  litUe  remaAable,  that  die  He- 
perhaps  the  greatest  advantage  which  the  brew  are  the  only  ancient  annals  that  do  not 
world  owes  to  the  religion  of  the  Hebrews,  mix  up  mythologieal  and  astronomical  with 
There  is  a  certain  tendency  in  the  human  chronological  periods.  If  you  turn,  for  in- 
mind  to  refine  its  ideaa  of  God,  until  they  stance,  to  the  earliest  history  of  one  of  the 
are  too  ethereal  to  be  grasped.  The  philo-  oldest  countries  in  the  world,  India,  yon 
sophy  of  religion  has,  in  all  ages  and  all  there  find,  indeed,  a  very  great  antiquily ; 
countries,  tended  towards  pantheinn ;  and  but  you  find  also  pretensions  which  are,  be- 
proofs  are  not  wanting,  that  this  mental  yond  a  doubt,  the  mere  transfer  of  figures 
disesse  may  slfeet  whole  populationa.  Let  given  by  astronomy  to  ages  of  history  which 
the  merit  of  the  Mosaic  religion  be  in  this  had  no  real  existence.  Is  it  not,  then,  in  the 
particular  acknowledged  to  be  great  It  is  supposition,  that  there  is  nothing  special  in 
singular  as  well  as  great  The  Bible  is  the  the  origin  of  the  BiUieal  reeord,  very  estra- 
oaly  book  which  has  taught  that  God  is  one  ordinary  that  its  dnta  ahonld  befreeflmnUi* 
aelf-eiistpnt»  all-creating,  and  all-pervading  admrsfffs  of  these  foreign  olTOaants  f     H 


C  R  E                      419  C  R  E 

must  also  be  mentioned  in  ihis  sninmary,  comprises  all  animated  beings,  from  man 

that  the  epoch  assigned  by  the  Bible  for  the  downwards  to  the  reptile.    His  view  is  as 

origin  of  the  world,  is  in  general  oonobo-  follows: — Without  making  any  reference  to 

rated  by  history  and  science.    On  this  point,  the  pre-Adamitie  races  of  Uring  creatores, 

a  few  hnndred  years  are  of  no  consequence ;  which  geology  in  recent  times  has  laid  open 

and  of  no  consequence,  therefore,  is  the  di»-  to  onr  Tiew,  he  eonceires  of  animated  exist* 

erepanoy  that  eiisto  between  the  chronology  enoe  generally  as  hating  been  prodoced  by 

of  the  Hebrew  text,  and  that  of  the  Septa*-  the  immediate  act  of  Ood,  in  operating, 

gint  translation.    The  researches  of  Lepsius,  by  means  of  his  command,  on  the  instm- 

Bonsen,  and  others,  seem,  indeed,  to  have  mental  elements  of  earth  and  water,  after 

added  mtmy  eentnries  to  the  Scriptural  chro-  doe  prorision  had  been  made  for  the  sns- 

nology.    Whatever  the  addition  may  in  the  tenanee  and  preservation  of  animal  life,  by 

end  prove  to  be,  if  we  may  judge  from  present  the  ereation  of  the  vegetable  world.    At  the 

appearances,  it  will  not  distorb  the  fiMst  that  head  of  living  creatures  or  sonls  stands  man, 

in  no  remote,  indefinite,  and  mihistorical  who,  in  eonseqaence  of  his  pre-eminence, 

era,  the  world  was  bron^  kito  its  aotaal  was  foimed  by  the  immediate  act  of  Ood,  was 

condition.    Speaking  in  general  terms,  we  made  in  the  divine  image,  and  invested  mih 

assign  less  than  ten  thousand  years  as  tbe  'dominion  over  all  the  earth.'  Under  him,  the 

age  of  the  present  oonstitution  of  things,  animated  world  stands  ranged  generally  in 

lids,  then,  is  a  young  world.    So  the  Bible  four  great  classes : — I.  Beasts  of  the  earth, 

declares.    So  slso  declare  both  geologj  and  II.  Fowls  of  the  air.  III.  Fish  of  the  sea.  lY. 

the  records  of  nations.  Greeping  things.    The  first  class  may  proba- 

FinaUy,  —  apart  from  the  religious  imptw-  bly  be  divided  mto  two  divisions,  —  1.  Cattle, 
tance  of  the  truths  disclosed  in  the  Mosuo  or  domestic  snimals.  2.  Beasts,  or  wild  anio 
account  of  the  creation^  which  it  is  impos*  mals  (Qen.  i.  26, 28 ;  ii.  7).  The  range,  then, 
sible  for  language  frilly  to  represent  and  of  living  souls,  according  to  this  view,  was 
which  can  be  appreciated  only  by  those  whose  firom  reptiles  up  to  man.  Such  was  flie  con* 
mind  and  soul  have  been  happily  brought  caption  of  tbe  writer.  It  may  be  remarked, 
into  union  with  ihe  great  Creator;  apart  that,  as  religion  was  designed  for  devotional 
from  these  blessed  and  everlasting  effBcts, —  and  practical,  not  scientific  purposes,  we 
the  mere  literary  exoellenoe  of  the  narrative  need  fisel  no  surprise  if  this  genendisation 
is  sn^  as  to  i&ow  in  the  writer  the  prevft-  does  not  oonespond  to  that  which  has  been 
lence  of  a  high  and  ennobling  ^irit,  which  formed  and  sanetioned  in  a  state  of  know- 
would  be  genius,  were  it  not  something  more  ledge  which  combines  the  results  of  inquiry 
elevated.  This  merit,  which  the  ancient  into  God's  worics,  oondueted  for  thousands 
heathen  critic,  Longinus,  acknowledged  in  of  years  after  the  Biblical  nsimtive  was 
no  niggard  terms,  is  of  so  lofty  and  decided  penned.  The  gieat  purpose  of  the  sacred 
a  description,  as  to  win  for  the  book  in  which  writer  was,  not  to  make  a  soientifie  dassf- 
it  is  found,  the  respect  of  every  cultivated  fieation  of  the  animal  world,  but  to  record 
mind,  whatlever  it»  religious  convictions  may  with  tneb.  details  as  might  impross  the  mind 
be.  For  ours^ves,  if  we  did  not  lettn  the  that  fisct  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all 
Bible  for  its  religioB,  we  should  admire  it  religion, — namely,  that  life  is  the  gift  of 
for  its  st^e ;  bnt^  as  we  both  revere  and  ad-  God;  and  that  the  living  things  of  earth,  air, 
mire  the  Sacred  Volume,  we  are  bold  to  ask,  and  water,  as  weU  as  ^ose  elements  them- 
Where  can  be  ibund  nobler  trntiis  expressed  selves,  came  into  existence  by  the  win  and 
in  a  purer,  more  simple,  more  migestic  man-  act  of  Almighty  God.  This  is  the  great 
ner,  than  we  find  in  the  introdnctoiy  verses,  religious  truth  which  he  intended  to  convey, 
and  in  very  many  odier  parts,  of  the  Bible  f  In  recording  and  communicating  this  ftmda- 
—  a  book  which  we  hold  to  be  the  greatest  mental  fitct,  he,  of  necessity,  frilowed  the 
among  an  the  treasures  of  man^s  earthly  in-  views,  and  employed  the  phrase<dogy,  that 
heritance.  were  current  in  his  day.    Had  it  been  pos- 

The  view  which  fiiis  article  has  set  forth,  sible  Ibr  him  to  have  in  any  way  anticipated 

though  not  suggested,  is  in  substsnoe  con-  the  discoveries  of  recent  times,  he  could  not 

firmed,  by  the  following  words  used  by  the  late  have  found  terms  to  mi^ke  fliem  known,  or 

learned  and  liberal  Dr.  Arnold :  —  <  If  we  take  minds  to  understand  l3iem.    Beligions  truth, 

the  account  of  the  creation  in  its  details,  as  a  if  it  ie  to  cease  to  be  a  mystery,  and  become 

piece  of  naftund  histoiy,  we  not  only  involve  knowledge,  must  clothe  itself  in  the  language 

onrselves  in  a  number  of  questions  frdl  of  dif-  of  the  day, — whether  that  day  be  one  or  six 

ficuhy,  but  we  lose  flie  proper  and  peculiar  thousand  years  ih>m  the  creation  of  the 

character  of  the  Scripture  as  a  revelation'  woild.    The  divine  can  be  made  known  to 

(<  Sennons  on  the  Inteipret  of  Scrip/  i.  2).  man  best,  if  not  exclusively,  in  a  human  form. 

CREATURE,  LIVING,  are  the  terms  by  If  God  speaks  to  men,  he  must  employ  their 

whioh  our  traadators  have  rendered  Hebrew  language.    If  he  conveys  truth  to  tiie  world 

words,  which  properiy  signify  'living  soul,'  by  a  human  agent,  his  truth  must  associate 

and  form  the  general  description  and  class  itself  with  the  views,  the  ideas,  the  words  of 

nndet  whidh  the  writer  of  the  book  of  Genesk  that  agent    In  shcHrt,  religion  to  be  received, 


C  R  E  420  C  R  E 

ondentood,  and  felt,  inoat  in  aU  oasei  enter  use  of  proper  means  woold  awaken,  in  tba 

into  alliance  with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  by  heart  deeper  wonder,  warmer  gratitade,  more 

means  of  which  only  can  it  exert  its  diyine  impulsive  love.    And  if  we  do  not  grow  in 

power  OTer  the  human  heart.     And  tlius,  grace  as  we  grow  in  knowledge,  we  have 

though  religion  must  in  consequence  always  little  reason  to  pride  ourseWes  on  our  sups- 

involve  some  enor,  inasmuch  as  it  cannot  rior  light ;  for  the  light  that  is  in  us  is  little 

fkil  to  have  a  human  element  in  it,  yet,  by  else  than  darkness  in  relation  to  the  great 

ito  refining  and  ennobling  efficacy,  it  gra-  purposes  and  issues  of  our  existence, 
dually  purifies  the  mind  of  man  from  this        In  one  respect,  the  Mosaic  soology  seems 

inferior  leaven,  lifts  him  to  a  higher  elevation,  to  hold  a  happy  medium  between  eonflicting 

prepares  him  for  loftier  and  less  incorrect  extremes.    Man,  say  some  naturalists,  is  bui 

sentiments,  to  which  it  never  fails  to  lead  an  improved  onran-ontang.  Man,  say  others, 

bim  in  due  time,  under  the  joint  influence  of  is  himself  a  distinct  genus.    According  to 

its  own  quickening  power,  end  the  constant  the  first,  man  is  little  above  the  lower  ani- 

advancea  of  a  progressive  civilization.    Beve-  male ;  acoording  to  the  second,  he  has  little, 

lation  and  reason  are  twin  sisters,  the  first  if  any  thing,  in  common  with  them.     The 

bora  of  Ood,  the  hif^est  of  his  ministering  Pentateuch  mskes  man  one  of  living  erea- 

spirite  to  man ;  who  have  accompanied  man  tures,  but  the  hif^est  in  such  a  degree,  that 

from  his  creation  to  the  present  day,  acting  be  is  their  lord ;  having,  in  reason  and  in 

in  concert,  and  most  benignly,  for  the  further-  speech,  fiienlties  which  empower  him  to  elas- 

ance  of  his  highest  good.    And  they  know  sifjr,  name,  and  govern  them  all. 
not  the  divine  spirit  hj  which  these  angels        While  the  Biblical  narrative  has  the  un- 

of  light  are  animated,  who  represent  the  one  speakable  advantage  and  very  high  merit  of 

as  in  any  way  hostile  to  the  other.  referring  the  origin  of  animal  life  to  the 

Under  the  feelings  which  these  sentimente  oreative  hand  of  the  Almighty,  it  does  not, 

inspire,  we  are  prepared  to  find  human  views  in  regard  to  ite  classification,  suiler  when 

blended  with  divine  truth  in  the  sacred  re-  eompared  vrith  the  opiniosis  tiiat  irere  pre- 

oord,  and  can,  without  risk,  fear,  or  snspi-  valent  in  the  most  enUghtoned  nations  and 

don,  investigate  ite  nanatives,  in  order  to  periods  of  the  aneient  worid.    The  subjeet 

learn  their  real  and  actual  import;   being  was  one  which  engaged  special  attention, 

saved  frt»m  the  danger  of  importing  our  ideas  both  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.    Yet 

into  ite  pages,  and  enoouraged  in  the  labour  neither  Aristotle  nor  Fliny  devised  a  system 

of  endeavouring  to  deduce  therefrom  the  more  comprehensive  or  more  eorrect.     And 

ideas  of  the  several  writers.  surely  it  is  no  small  praise  that  the  sacred 

It  deserves  remark,  that  the  Mosaic  ae-  penman  set  forth  views  which  survived  fior 
count  of  creation  says  nothing  of  '  living  many  eenturies,  and  were  not  smiwssed  by 
souls '  hi(^er  than  man.  If  it  is  defective  the  discoveries  of  the  highest  geniuses  of 
in  ite  summit,  it  equally  falls  short  in  ite  antiquity.  It  was  not,  indeed,  untQ  Lin- 
lowest  extreme;  for  the  microscopic  world  is  nsus,  in  compsratively  recent  times,  began 
left  unnoticed.    But  what  ia  ite  view  of  lifo,  the  study  of  nature  under  the  light  and  isk- 

—  the  most  general  idea  vrith  which,  under  pulse  aiforded  by  the  religi<m  which  grew 
Ood,  it  is  concerned  7  Life  is  restricted  to  out  of  these  old  Hebrew  influences,  that  a 
animal  existence.  Yet  the  vegeuble  lives  as  system  of  natural  history  was  eonstmeted, 
well  as  the  animsL  Life,  properly  speaking,  which  at  once  explodes  preceding  notions, 
is  not  confined  to  oonscious  existence ;  and  and,  resting  on  actnsl  views  of  nature  formed 
eonscionsness  may  descend  lower  in  the  scale  by  die  widest  and  deepest  inductions,  gives 
of  existence  than  is  commonly  thought  promise  of  remaining  in  aeceptanee,  or  of 
The  Mosaic  scale  of  being,  indeed,  comprises  passing  into  other,  yet  more  comprehensive 
only  one  department  of  the  animil  kingdom,  generalisations. 

—  the  vertebrate.  Nor  is  the  account  aught  The  great  naturalist  whom  we  bare  just 
else  than  of  a  popular  nature ;  not  depend-  named,  founding  his  inquiries  on  eompara- 
ing  on  minute  and  extensive  acquaintance  tive  anatomy,  that  is,  on  the  interaal  structure 
with  the  structure  of  animated  beings,  but  of  animals,  as  it  vsries  in  the  difliezeut  species 
being  such  as  the  careful  observation  of  na-  when  compared  together,  took  the  only  right 
tnre  could  not  fail  to  suggest  Yet  this  com-  path,  and  set  an  example  to  others  which 
paratively  superficial  knowledge  was  enough,  hss  been  diligently  and  profitably  pursued, 
in  these  early  times,  to  set  and  keep  in  mo-  He  divided  animals,  first,  according  to  their 
tion  warm  currents  of  reverence  and  love  in  blood,  whether  white  or  rod,  and  if  red,  who* 
human  hearte.  Pity  is  it,  that,  with  an  in-  ther  cold  or  warm.  With  the  red  and  eold- 
orease  of  our  knowledge,  there  should  be  a  blooded  animals,  he  distinguished  the  nature 
diminution  of  our  piety.  Good  and  impor-  of  the  breathing;  and  in  animalshaving  white 
tant  as  knowledge  is,  it  is  bought  very  dearly  blood,  the  external  form,  —  namely,  whether 
if  accompanied  by  the  loss  of  holy  and  devout  or  not  they  had  jointed  limbs  for  locomotion, 
affections.  An  acquaintance  with  God's  Thus  arose  his  six  classes :  —  I.  Msmmalia, 
works,  which  is  both  more  extensive  and  animals  that  suckle  their  young.  II.  Birds, 
more  minute,  ought  to  awaken,  and  in  the  III.  Amphibia,  Mitmf^if  living  on  land  and  is 


C  R  E                      421  C  R  E 

water.   IV.  Fishes.  V.  Insects.   VI.  Wonns.  divbion  is  separated  into  six  classes  of  an!- 

The  chief  merit  of  this  system,  the  resem*  msls,  partly  provided,  and  partly  nnproyided, 

blance  of  which  to  the  Mosaic,  will  be  ob-  with  shells ;  —  of  which,  1.  Cephahpoda  are 

Tions  to  the  reader,  was,  that  it  set  men  the  most  complete.    2.  Pteropoda,  and,  8. 

inquiring  in  the  proper  manner,  and  gave  Gasteropoda^  comprise  the  animals  ftimished 

them  a  classed  catalogue  in  which  they  might  with  spiral  diells.    4.  Aeephala^  0.  Brachio- 

enter  their  discoTcries,  and  so  be  aided  in  poda ;    and,    6.    Cirrhopoda,    contain    the 

their  progress  towards  a  less  exceptional  animals  with  flat  shells.    Some  species,  al- 

genenJisation.     It  was  not,  however,   till  together  unprovided  with  shells,  occur  in 

near  the  termination  of  the  last  century,  that,  each  of  these  classes, 

in  the  person  of  the  justly  celebrated  Guvier,  The  third  grand  division  of  the  animal 

a  Christian  philosopher  was  found  to  set  kingdom,  Cuvier  named  Abticulata.     The 

forth  in  dettdl  a  system  so  comprehensive,  nervous    system  in  animals  of  this  class 

well-founded,  and  exact,  as  to  present  a  well-  consists  of  two  long  strings,  which  lie  along 

digested  tabular  view  of  animated  existence,  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  and  which,  at 

Cuvier  imagined  that  the  whole  animal  regular  distances,  are  swollen  into  knots, 
kingdom  might  be  separated  into  four  great  The  first  of  these  knots,  which  lies  under 
divisions ;  eveiy  individual  animal  in  each  the  throat,  and  is  called  the  brain,  is  not 
of  these  divisions  having  a  peculiarity  in  larger  than  the  rest,  with  which  it  is  con- 
common  with  every  other  in  die  same  divi-  nected  by  threads,  surrounding  the  gullet  as 
sion,  and  being  ranked  with  it  on  that  a  baud.  The  covering  of  the  trunk  is  di- 
acoount  The  first  of  these  divisions  com-  vided  into  rings ;  and  to  this  covering,  which 
prebends  the  Vebtsbbata:  —  All  these  have  is  partly  hard  and  partly  soft,  the  muscles 
red  blood,  and  a  muscular  heart ;  a  mouth  are  attached  inwardly  on  every  side.  The 
with  two  jaws,  one  lying  over  the  other ;  dis-  trunk  oiten  carries  limbs  on  each  side;  but 
tinct  organs  of  sight,  hearing,  taste,  and  these  are  also  often  wanting.  Some  of  them 
smell;  and  never  more  than  four  limbs;  respire  through  gills,  others  through  narrow 
with  the  sexes  always  separate;  and  a  distri-  tubes  called  trachetB.  The  organs  of  taste 
bution  of  the  spinal  marrow,  and  principal  and  sight  are  most  conspicuous  in  them, 
branches  of  the  nervous  system,  which  is  This  division  is  separated  into  four  classes : 
nearly  the  same  in  all.  Tins  nervous  sys-  — 1.  Armelidaf  or  red-blooded  worms,  which 
tem  consists  for  the  most  part  in  a  brain  and  have  a  double  system  of  circulation,  through 
spinal  marrow,  enclosed  in  a  bony  column,  arteries  and  veins ;  a  body  divided  into  rings; 
composed  of  small  hollow  pieces  called  ver-  no  feet,  properly  so  called ;  and  a  system  of 
tebras.  To  the  sides  of  this  column  are  respiration,  acting  by  partly  internal,  and 
attached  the  ribs  and  extremities,  which  partly  external,  organs.  2.  Crustacea  re- 
together  form  the  skeleton.  The  muscles  ceive  their  name  from  the  hard  covering  of 
cover  the  bones  in  all  parts.  The  four  classes  their  bodies;  have  a  heart,  and  a  double 
into  which  the  vertebrated  animals  are  di-  circulatory  system ;  both  body  and  limbs 
vided,  are :  —  1.  Mammalia^  with  red  warm  articulated ;  they  have  white  blood,  and  re- 
blood,  who  bring  forth  their  young  alive,  spire  through  gills.  8.  Arachnida  respire 
and  suckle  them  when  bom.  2.  Aves  by  narrow  tracheae ;  have  always  articulated 
(birds),  also  with  red  warm  blood,  but  are  feet,  and  a  varying  number  of  eyes  in  the 
oviparous,  that  is,  bring  forth  their  young  head.  4.  Insecta  are  the  most  numerous 
in  eggs.  8.  EeptiUa  (reptiles),  with  red,  class  in  the  whole  animal  kingdom.  They 
but  cold  blood,  breathing,  at  least  when  ar-  undergo  transformation,  but,  in  a  perfect 
rived  at  maturity,  through  lungs.  4.  Pisces  state,  have  two  eyes,  and  two  antenns,  or 
(fishes),  with  red  cold  blood,  but  breathing  feelers,  in  the  head ;  six  articulated  feet,  and 
through  gills  only.  breathe  through  trachesB. 

In  the  second  grand  division,  which  Cuvier  The  fourth  grand  division  comprises  the 

called  MoLLUSCA,  the  skeleton  is  wanting,  animals  caDed  Badiata.    The  structure  of 

The  muscles  are  attached  to  the  skin  only ;  these  is  more  simple  than  any  of  the  other 

which,  in  its  common  covering,  encloses  both  divisions,  and,  in  some  species,  approaches 

nervous  system  and  intestines.     The  former  very  closely  to  that  of  plants.     The  nervous 

consists  of  many  scattered  masses,  bound  system  is  wholly  wanting  in  them ;  a  diffe- 

together  by  nervous  threads,  and  of  which  rence  of  sexes  is  not  observable ;  and  they 

the  most  important  is  termed  the  brain.     Of  have  no  organs  of  sight.    It  may  be  observed, 

the  four  senses  which  have  organs  peculiar  however,  ^at  our  knowledge  of  these  ani- 

to  themselves,  we  find  here  only  those  of  mals  is  very  imperfect,  and  that  every  day 

taste  and  sight:  even  these  are  sometimes  produces  new  discoveries.     They  are  divided 

wanting.     One  family  alone  possesses  the  into  five  classes:  —  1.   Schinodermata,  to 

organ  of  hearing.     There  is  a  true  circula-  which  belong  the  starfish,  and  animals  of 

tion  of  the  blood  ;  and  they  respire  partly  like  structure.    2.  EtUozoa,  which  have  long 

through  limgs,  and  partly  through  gills.   The  flat  bodies,  no  distinct  organs  of  respiration, 

organs  of  digestion  and  secretion  are  nearly  and  which  live,  as  their  name  implies,  in  the 

as  complicated  as  in  the  vertebrata.    This  bodies  of  other  animals.     8.  Acalepha  are 


C  B  E  42J  C  R  E 

gwenlly  tter  or  woM-tbapedi  lutTing  moslli  m  well  m  limple  internal  tlnietiiTe.    5.  iis- 

■sdyeot  in  one :  gelatinone,  and  swim  about  fuaoria;  of  wfaioh  so  liule  is  known,  that  aa 

in  die  sea,  nnattaehed  to  (Mbei  substances,  exact  definition  can  baidJy  be  giTsn.    New 

i.    Polypi  aie  mall  galatinoas    animals,  disooveries,  bowever,  id  great  extent  aiw 

wbieb  attaeb  tbemselTes  to  other  sabstaneee,  eontinnaDj  being  maie  in  diia  elaes.    W« 

and  baTo  Teiy  imperfect  locomotive  powen,  pwaent  die  irikoie  in  the  Mlowfag  taUe:^ 


WTiaxom,  oinAsn*.  ao.  ov  esoaas. 


■••■■••■ea 


YBRTBBRATA.    J  t.  ATat.. ......... « .............. _  ___ 

JVmr  C^amt,^ |  3.  &eptQia 4 tortoise,  Ftag 

'   *^         .....M.....»....M.f.................  9 Waiting  " 


Baooao  Dinaioa. 
M0LLU8CA. 


mm  USpOMflVOOa  ..•.........*...•••.•....#•...     I     ...........................    W— II 

%  PtCfOpoda  ...•••... .••.MM........M......  1  .M........*....*...*.....*  Clio 

3.  OM(CTopoda  ................M.M....M.M  9 .M...  Snail,  TJwipci 

ft.  BiaoUopoda ..............................  i  PV^ 


».....»........».». ... 


Tamo  Drnnov.      /  1.  Annelida  ..................................  3  ........................... 

ABTICULATA.     1  t.  Cnutacea 7 Onh 

Fom  Claaam.        1  3.  Aiaobnida t —  Bplder 

Twantjr-foar  Oidais.  \  4.  lasceta  ..^.................................It  ...........................  Bcitlcs 

w^n^'        1  »•  Aertepha t Aetinia 

Bleran  Orden.       ^  ^  inftisoria  . 3 . Moqaa 

Greatly  baa  oar  ai^naintanee  wilb  the  devout  joy,  in  tbe  aasunnee,  tfafU  tba  mow 

animal  world  been  extended  by  tbe  labonra  we  become  aoqnainted  with  creation,  ttie 

of  Cuvier.    Ltansaa,  in  the  last  edition  of  better  aball  we  know  the  Creator,  and  the  leas 

his  *  System  of  Natare,'  described  altogether  impeifect  will  be  the  homage  we  aball  ran- 

6000  species  of  animals.    Wheieaa  the  fol-  der  at  the  footatool  of  his  universal  throne, 
lowing  numbers  have  now  been  known  for  a        CBEATUBE,  NEW.  —  The  phrase,  *  new 

long  dme,  and  every  year  is  making  some  ereature/  ia  found  where  probably  tbe  more 

addition:  —  800    species    of   mammalia;  correct  rendering  would  be 'new  creation:' 

6000  birds;  1000  amphibia;  5000  to  6000  —  *If  any  man  be  in  Christ,  he  is  a  new 

fisbes;  15,000  to  20,000  concbylia;  80,000  creature'  (3  Cor.  v.  17;  eomp.  QaL  vi  15). 

insects ;  1500  to  2000  intestinal  worms ;  and  Tbe  word  here  rendered '  creature '  is  lepror 

6000  zoophytes,  of  which  600  are  infusoria,  sented  in  the  common  veraiou  by  '  creation' 

These  facts  suffice  to  show  how  rapidly  in  Mark  x.  6.  Bom.  viii.  22.  Bev.  iiL  14. 
man  has  of  late  proceeded  to  fblfil  the  com-  Revelation  dividea  itself  into  two  great 
mand  of  his  Creator,  in  acquiring  dominion  acts, —  die  creation  of  the  univerae,  and 
over  every  living  thing  (G-en.  L  ^) ;  for,  in  the  redemption  of  man;  of  which  tbe  first 
this  oaae  pre-eminently,  knowledge  is  power,  is  the  commencement,  the  second  the  com- 
And  thus  we  aze  led  to  see,  that  science  is  plotion,  of  the  sovereign  mercy  and  infinite 
the  bandmaid  of  religion;  while  religion,  grace  of  Ood.  Contemplated  thus  by  the 
when  viewed  in  its  great  bearings  and  ulti-  Biblical  writera,  redempti<m  ai^eaxed  aa  a 
mate  effects,  ia  an  effectual  promoter  of  new  creation ;  and  that  the  rather,  because 
science.  Let  not  unwise  professors  of  reU«  it  introduced  a  change  scarcely  less  marked, 
gion  seek  to  throw  bonds  on  science:  let  and  even  more  benign,  than  the  original 
not  proud  cultivatora  of  science  look  die-  formation  of  the  human  race;  and  as  the 
respectfully  on  religion.  Both,  when  pur-  former  dispensation  began  with  ita  creation, 
aued  in  a  spirit  of  meekness  and  love,  are  so  the  latter  dispensation  was  naturally  set 
feUow-workers  with  Qod  in  the  great  pro-  forth  as  being  in  itself  a  new  creation.  Thia 
cess  of  human  education.  If  there  is  piety  use  of  thephrase,*  new  creation,'  waa  prepared 
in  the  bean,  we  shall  love  Ood  more,  and  for  by  views  entertained  and  language  uttered 
aervc  him  better,  the  more  minute  and  ex-  by  propheta.  Holding,  as  they  did,  a  great 
tensive  ourknowledge  of  his  works  becomes;  moral  and  apiritusl  change  to  be  of  very 
and  in  the  aame  degree  shall  we  look  with  high  importance  and  an  ol^ect  of  deep  corn- 
filial  gratitude  on  the  past,  and  with  pro-  placency  with  God,  they  spoke  not  only  of 'a 
found  veueration  on  tbe  great  record  of  new  heart  and  a  new  spirit '(£«ek.xviii  81; 
God's  earlieat  dealings  with  man,  the  Bible,  oomp.  Ps.  li.  10),  but  of  a  new  creation  of 
And  when  the  religious  ^Sections  are  en-  heaven  and  eazth  (Isa.  Ixv.  17)  aa  indica- 
lightened,  disciplined,  and  guided  by  various  tive  of  a  state  of  holy  obedience  to  God 
knowledge,  they  will  prompt  their  possessor  (oomp.  Isa.  IL  16 ;  Ixvi  22.  2  Pet  tiL  18). 
to  hail  every  new  diseovaiy  of  science  with  licnce  the  effect  of  salvation  by  Christ  on 


C  R  E                     423  C  R  O 

Qm  individv*]  is  ft  'new creation;'  and  Paul  river  Caintoa  (henee  Krete),  lay  Gnoaeoa^ 

expressly  declares,  — •  *  We  are  his  woriunan-  the  ancient  ei^  of  Minos.    Here  may  be 

ship,  created  in  Jesos  Ohrist  onto  good  seen  the  eave  where  Jupiter  was  bom,  when 

works  *  (Eph.  ii.  10) ;  and  the  great  change  he  was  taken  under  the  shelter  of  the  Cure- 

eflfected  by  the  renovation  of  onr  ttfttare  the  tai  and  Oorybantes.    Crete  contained  of  old 

same  apostle  terms  '  the  new  man/  in  con*  other  distinguished  towns.    In  Acts  zxtU.  8, 

tradistinction  to  '  Ae  old  man'  (Eph.  iv.  mention  is  made  of  Lasea,  of  which  there  is 

22, 24).  This  renewal  in  the  spirit  of  msa'a  no  other  record.    The  same  may  be  said  of 

mind  (Eph.  It.  23)  is  brought  about  by  the  Phoenioe  (12).    Not  far  from  Lasea  was  the 

gospel,  whose  author,  the  Lord  Jesus,  la  port  denominated  <  Fair  Havens '  (8),  which 

accordingly  represented  as  the  instrument  is  recognised  in  a  bay  bearing  a  name  of 

of  God  in  this  new  creation  (Eph.  iii.  0»  the  same  import 

CoL  ilL  10.  Bev.  ilL  14).  Neither  the  Old  Crete  was  in  a  special  manner  favoured 
nor  the  New  Testament  can  be  rightly  by  nature.  Its  position  in  the  southern 
judged,  nor  can  their  speoiflo  merit  be  regions  of  the  temperate  aone  secured  it 
known,  unless  they  aze  regarded  as  the  many  advantages  over  hotter  climates  ;^- 
record  of  a  divindy-originated  system  for  while  sea-breeses,  and  cooling  winds  from 
redeeming  the  world  from  sin  and  its  con-  the  north,  qnalilied  its  natural  warmth,  and 
sequent  misery,  snd  for  reconciling  man  to  ita  bills  protected  the  island  ftt>m  the  de- 
God  in  the  rsnewal  of  his  souL  This  is  stmotive  sirocco.  In  ancient  it  was  more 
what  the  religion  of  the  Bible  professes  to  productive  than  it  is  in  modem  times, 
aim  at;  this  divine  result  is  carried  forward  These  blessings  were,  however,  abused; 
by  various  means,  from  the  days  of  Adam  for  the  Cretans  have  some  down  to  us  with 
to  those  of  'John  the  divine;'  and,  apart  some  discreditable  epithets  affixed  on  their 
horn  this,  the  avowed  purpose  of  God  in  the  character.  From  profane  authorities  we 
old  and  ihe  new  covenant,  there  can  be  no  learn,  that  the  Cretans  were  accounted  ava*  . 
Just  opinion  formed,  no  true  verdict  given,  ricious,  luxurious,  deceptive,  and  lying, 
of  the  Bible ;  nor  can  a  correct  view  eitiber  of  Hence  to  erHiae  was  used  as  signliying 
Christian  theology  or  the  Christian  religion  to  Ue.  These  facts  throw  light  on  the  pecu- 
be  formed.  This  is  the  proper  ground  on  liar  exhortations  given  of  Paul  to  Titus  in 
which  to  judge  of  the  Bible.  If  found  Crete,  and  particularly  on  the  apostle's 
wanting  here,  it  loses  its  claim  to  credence ;  assertion :  —  *  One  of  themselves,  a  prophet 
but  if,  on  the  contrary,  in  this  of  all  partiou-  of  their  own,  said,  The  Cretians  are  always 
lars  the  most  important,  it  is  found  worthy  liars,  evil  beasts,  slow  bellies '  (Tit  i.  12). 
of  all  acceptance,  then  to  stand  on  minor  This  < prophet*  was  the  poet  Epimenides  of 
objections,  and  make  much  of  difficulties  on  Gnossos,  hi  whose  piece,  entitled  *  On  Ora- 
unessential  points,  is  a  proceeding  which  is  des,'  Jerome  says  he  found  the  verse  cited 
condemned  alike  by  religion  and  common  by  PauL 
sense.  The  population  of  Crete  —  which,  in  the 

CBESCEN3  (L.),  a  Christian  and  firiend  apostle's  time,  formed  a  Boman  province 

of  the  apostle  Paul,  who,  when  Paul  was  at  under  a  proconsul  —  comprised  many  Jews, 

Borne,  went  to  Galatia,  —  whether  or  not  to  as  we  leam,  independently  of  the  New  Tes- 

preach  the  gospel  we  are  not  informed  —  tament,  from  Josephns  and  Philo. 

(2  Tim.  iv.  10).  OBISPUS,  president  of  the  Jewish  syna- 

CBETE  {Caphtor  in  Hebrew,  now  Can-  gogue  at  Corinth,  who,  believing  on  the 

<2ia),  one  of  the  three  great  islands  of  the  Lord  with  all  his  house,  was  baptised  by 

Mediterranean  Sea,  lying  at  nearly  the  same  Paul   (Aets  xviii.  8.  1  Cor.  L  14).     Tradi- 

distance  firom  each  of  the  three  quarters  of  tion  has  handed  him  down  as  bishop  of  the 

the  globe,  but  accounted  a  part  of  Europe,  island  of  Mgmti,  which  lies  off  the  coast  of 

whose  southern  point  it  may  be  considered.  Attica. 

It  was  celebrated  from  a  very  early  period.  CBOCODILE.  —  8ee  Lbtxatbait. 
Homer,  in  consequence  of  its  large  popula-  CB088  (L.  ervx,  but  immediately  £rom 
tion,  speaks  of  its  hundred  cities.  A  range  the  F.  croix),  an  instrament  of  torture  and 
of  mountains  stretching  east  and  west,  and  death,  similar  in  disgrace  to  the  modem 
sanding  out  spurs  nortli  and  south,  gives  to  gibbet,  consisting  of  two  beams  crossing 
the  surface  of  the  island  an  essentiaUy  hilly  each  other.  The  Greek  term  stauros  pro- 
character,  and  determines  its  leading  fea-  bablysignifies  that  which  is  set  up, — a  pole, 
tares  of  river,  valley,  and  plain.  The  high-  and  by  derivation  a  cross.  The  term  is 
est  point.  Mount  Ida,  which  in  some  parts  found  in  Matt  xxvii.  82,  40.  In  the  Scrip- 
is  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  lies  near  tnres,  the  term  'cross 'is  used  metaphor! • 
the  middle  of  the  island,  rising  from  its  cally  for  the  ffunishmeiU  of  the  cross  (Gal.  v. 
broadest  part  in  the  form  of  a  cone.  Souths  II.  Heb.  xii.  2).  With  a  yet  greater,  but 
ward  from  this  high  laud  extends,  for  many  vexy  natural  deviation, '  cross '  came  to  sig- 
miles,  the  most  important  plain  of  the  island,  nifj  Christ  crucified  (Gal.  vi.  12,  18) ;  also 
watered  by  the  Lethaios.  Here  lay  Gortyna^  the  redempHon  effected  by  the  death  of  Christ 
Its  oldest  city.    North-east  from  Ida,  on  the  (Phil,  iii  18);  the  doctrine  concerning  that 


CRO 


424 


CRO 


redamptioii  (1  Cor.  L  18) :  in  all  which  pss- 
MgM,  leferenoe  is  made  to  the  ignominy 
•od  disgrace  of  this  horrible  punishment. 
The  i^stle  Psol  seems  sometimes  to  nse 
the  term  *  eross '  ss  eqniTslent  to  ike  deaik 
of  CkriMt  (I  Cor.  i.  17.  Eph.  ii.  16).  The 
phrtse,  < blood  of  the  cross'  (CoL  i.  20), 
denotes  the  psinfbl  death  so  inflicted;  for 
the  mere  blood  lost  was  not  necessarily 
oopioos. 

As  the  ponishment  of  the  cross  was  prac- 
tised long  prior  to  the  craeiflxion  of  Jesns, 
so  crosses  were  in  existence  before  that  of 
our  Lord.  The  shape  of  these  woold  be 
determined  by  their  purpose.  Torture  and 
demh  could  be  eflbcted  by  almost  any  dis- 
position of  the  two  beams  which  compose 
the  cross.  The  most  obrious,  and  therefore 
probably  the  earliest,  was  thst  in  which  the 
transverse  beam  stood  on  the  top  of  the  per- 
pendicular one  like  our  X  (cnur eommma)\ 
or  the  transrerse  beam  might  cross  the 
perpendieulsr  one  at  some  distance  firom 
tiie  top,  as  seen  in  views  of  our  Saviour 
•inking  under  his  cioss.  This,  which  in  all 
probability  was  the  cross  on  which  Jesus 
snibred,  is  technically  called  crux  tiwitiB, 
or  eapUata,  Or  one  beam  might  cross  the 
other  in  the  middle,  like  an  X>  whidi  is 
teimed  St  Andrew's  cross  {crux  decuuala), 
because  Andrew  the  apostle  is  said  to  have 
suifered  on  a  eross  of  this  make. 

We  possess  not  the  information  requisite 
to  declare,  beyond  the  possibility  of  a  reply, 
what  was  the  exact  shape  of  die  cross  on 
which  the  Redeemer  snflered.  The  Scrip- 
tural narratives  supply  no  definite  informa- 
tion ;  and  the  ecclesiastical  historians,  who 
narrate  the  circumstances  connected  with 
the  alleged  finding  of  the  true  cross  by  the 
Empress  Helena,  give  no  description  of  its 
shape.  From  the  evangelists  we  may  gather 
a  few  particulars.  As  two  others  were  cru« 
oified  with  Jesus,  the  three  crosses  were 
probably  such  as  could  be  prepared  with 
the  greatest  ease  by  Boman  soldiers,  who 
would  be  inclined  to  show  no  preference  to 
one  crucified  for  sedition.  One  piece  of 
wood  nailed  to  another  would  really  form 
the  needftxl  instrument  That  the  cross 
was  large  and  heavy,  yet  neither  so  large  nor 
so  heavy  as  it  is  sometimes  described,  may 
be  inferred  from  the  sacred  narrative.  Above 
our  Lord's  head  was  a  small  boaid,  bearing 
an  inscription.  Whether  this  '  title'  rested 
on  the  top,  or  was  nailed  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  perpendicular  beam,  it  is  dii&cnlt  to 
determine  from  the  language  employed. 
We  mchne  to  the  former.  If  the  title  were 
on  the  top  of  the  beam,  then  probably  the 
cross  was  like  our  T.  which  would  strain 
the  body  more  than  the  crux  immma.  It 
was  not  unusual  for  there  to  be  a  sort  of 
smaU  resting-place,  on  which  the  body  could 
in  a  measure  sustain  itoell  We  haye  no 
evidence  to  show,  that  such  formed  a  pa^ 


of  the  cross  of  Christ  The  feet  vrere  also 
sometimes  sli^tly  sustained  beneath  them 
by  a  piece  of  wood,  to  wfaieh  they  were 
nailed.  Evidence  of  the  existence  of  this 
in  the  cross  of  Christ  is  not  altogether 
wanting;  for  thou|^  in  John  xx.  24 — 29, 
our  Lord  directs  Jhe  eyes  of  Thomas  to 
nothing  more  than  his  side  and  his  hasdi^ 
yet  in  Luke  xxiv.  89,  40,  he  ahows  to  the 
assembled  disciples  his  feet  as  well  as  his 
hands.  It  would  then  appear,  that  Jesua 
was  nailed  to  the  cross  by  his  hands  and 
his  feet,  and  consequently  that  die  whole 
weight  of  his  body  would  hang  (comp.  Luke 
xxiii.  89, '  hanged ')  without  support  on  his 
hands.  Such  a  method  of  execution  eonld 
scarcely  fail  to  cause  speedy  dissolution^ 
sad  must  have  been  attended  by  the  most 
exquisite  torture.  According  to  Ambroee 
(bom  AJ).  838),  the  tide  stood  on  the  top. 


forming  perhaps  a  eroes  of  diis  shape. 


f 


The  coins  of  Constantine,  and  the  simple 
inseripdons  found  in  the  catacombs  of  Bome 
and  other  places,  present  crosses  of  various 
shapes.  The  simplest  and  the  earliest  of 
these  are  here  shown,  of  which  Nos.  4  and  5 
are  made  up  of  the  Greek  CH  and  B,  which 
form  the  two  first  letters  in  the  name  CArist 
(ths  cA  is  in  Oreek  only  one  letter).  No.  3 
has  by  its  sides  A  and  O,  denoting  Alpha 
and  Omega,  '  the  first  and  the  last,'  which 
our  Lord  is  designated  in  Be  v.  it  8.  The 
fourth  specimen  is  decorated  with  palm- 
branches,  to  signify  the  victory  of  the  cross 
in  the  ascension  of  the  Sariour. 


m 

6 


CBOSSXS   FBOM   TBB    CATACOMBS. 

The  cross  thus  became  symbolicsl,  and,  as 
such,  had  a  history  to  relate  —  to  this  eflTeot, 
that  Christ  suffered  deadi  on  Bn  instrument 
or  cross,  somewhat  like  the  figure  in  point 
of  shape,  and,  having  suffered  at  the  hands  of 
wicked  men,  was  raised  by  his  Fadier  to  the 
right  hand  of  power.  This  is  sn  important 
change  in  die  history  of  the  cross,  on  which 
we  must  make  some  remarks  before  we  poi^ 
sue  the  subject  of  its  forms. 


CBO 


426 


CRO 


We  h«fe  alreaflly  seen,  that,  in  the  Scrip- 
ionl  period,  the  term  *ero88'  had  assumed 
a  flgnratiTe  import  Within  the  same  pe* 
riod,  another  great  change  was  at  least  pre- 
pared. The  cross,  which  was  originally  the 
token  of  disgrace  snd  infamy,  the  primitive 
belicTers  made  into  a  cause  of  rejoicing,  an 
object  of  honour,  and  a  sign  of  victory 
(Rom.  i.  16.  1  Cor.  1.  18 ;  xv.  2).  This 
feeling  the  apostle  Paul  carried  so  far,  that  he 
declared,  —  *  God  fbrbid  that  I  should  glory, 
save  in  the  cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ' 
(GsLtLU.  Phil.  iii.  7, 8).  With  Christians 
ihe  cross  thus  at  the  first  became  the  sym* 
bol  of  triumph  and  endless  life.  The  cross 
had  with  them  lost  its  offence^  and  assumed 
a  celestial  glory.  Reslising  the  great  truths 
of  the  gospel,  ihey  converted  its  deep  shame 
into  the  highest  honour.  This  they  effected, 
first  in  their  own  feelings,  and  afterwards  in 
the  heart  of  the  civilised  world. 

It  must  be  confessed,  that  this  is  a  very 
great  change.  Let  it  be  observed,  that  the 
transition  is  not  imaginary.  Its  existence 
is  evidenced  in  the  writings  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament The  volume  which  records  the 
disgrace  speaks  also  of  the  glory ;  and  both 
the  disgrace  and  the  glory  are  perfectly  na- 
tural, and  easy  to  be  understood,  if  you 
admit  the  great  outlines  there  drawn  of  the 
life,  death,  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ 
Deny  these,  and  the  change  is  inexplicable. 
How  was  it  that  a  frame  of  wood  which  be- 
tokened torture  and  iniiuny,  came,  within 
the  lapse  of  a  few  years,  to  denote  victory, 
life,  and  bliss  ?  Paul's  Epistles  reveal  the 
secret  Without  them  the  unquestionable 
fact  admits  of  no  explaoation.  We  hence 
infer,  that  the  new  ideas  which  clustered 
around  the  cross  found  their  origin  in  the 
alleged  event,  —  namely,  the  deadi  and  re- 
surrection of  Jesus  Christ 

Let  it  be  carefully  noted,  that  the  resur- 
rection is  involved  in  the  symbolical  import 
of  the  cross.  As  an  instrument  of  death, 
the  cross  implied  only  agony  and  disgrace. 
It  was  as  an  emblem  of  life  tiiat  it  gathered 
around  it  high  and  triumphsl  associations. 
The  symbolicsl  cross  points  upwards  to 
eternal  life,  as  surely  as  the  cross  of  wood 
points  to  the  sepulchre.  The  existence  of 
the  symbolical  cross  cannot  be  denied.  At 
a  very  early  period,  that  existence  may  be 
dated.  At  a  very  early  period,  therefore, 
did  a  vital  and  practical  belief  in  the  resur- 
rection of  Jesus  prevail.  We  see  the  cross 
pointing  to  the  ascending  Saviour  from  the 
hearts  of  the  first  community  of  Christians. 
The  direction  and  significance  which  it  then 
took,  it  never  afterwards  lost  From  these 
early  days  down  to  the  present,  the  cross 
may  be  traced  in  forms  and  uses  most  nu- 
merous and  various.  Indeed,  it  would  not 
be  difficult  to  write  the  history  of  Christianity 
in  the  history  of  the  cross.  The  history  of 
the  cross  presents  a  visible  evidence  of  the 


presence  and  operation  of  the  gospel,  firom 
the  earliest  ages  down  to  this.  The  student 
of  antiquity  sees  the  evidence  with  his  own 
eyes ;  and,  how  little  soever  he  studies  the 
import  of  that  evidence  and  the  testimony 
of  that  eross,  he  is  led  to  admit,  that  he  has 
here  a  line  of  proof,  which,  if  primarily  pe- 
culiar to  himself  may  be  readUy  communi- 
cated to  others,  and  which  is  no  less  striking 
than  it  is  cogent  Of  this  new  species  of 
what  we  may  term  monumental  evidence,  we 
here  give  such  a  notice  as  our  limited  space 
admits. 

The  feelings  of  pleasure,  admiration,  and 
triumph,  which  gathered  around  the  cross  in 
Scriptural  times,  lost  none  of  their  intensity 
in  the  age  whidi  ensued.  These  feelings 
were  for  a  period  content  with  warming  the 
heart,  and  influencing  the  conduct,  of  be- 
lievers. The  strict  monotheism  and  elevated 
spirituality  of  the  Christian  doctrine  con- 
spired with  the  worship  of  images,  so  pre- 
valent and  so  iiqurious  among  the  Heatben, 
to  make  the  eariy  disciples  averse  to  any 
outward  and  sensible  representation  of  reli- 
gious objects.  Hence  tiiey  at  first  confined 
themselves  to  the  entertainment  and  foster- 
ing of  those  pleasurable  and  saored  associa- 
tions which  the  great  fsets  and  doctrines  of 
their  system  had  thrown  around  Uie  cross. 

<In  the  crocs  of  Christ  I  glory, 

Towering  o'er  the  wreoks  <rf  time : 
AH  the  light  of  saored  story 
Gathers  round  Its  head  sublime.' 

Some  feeling  such  as  is  here  expressed 
was  theirs,  so  that  the  cross  became  to  them 
a  token  of  all  the  varied  and  inconceivable 
good  which  the  gospel  was  fitted  to  convey. 
Yet  the  feeling  took  no  visible  shape, — fixed 
itself  in  no  outward  form.  Sudi  a  result 
might  be  looked  for  by  those  who  know  the 
purity  and  intensity  of  primitive  Christian 
love  and  piety.  But  it  is  equally  obrious, 
that  ere  long  some  utterance  would  be  given 
to  these  strong  emotions.  That  utterance 
came  early  in  the  second  century,  first  in 
word  and  act,  and  not  long  after  in  visible 
forms.  Among  the  earliest  verbal  expres- 
sions, we  find  that  of  Justin  Martyr  ('  Dial, 
cum  Tryph.'  |  90),  in  whidi,  in  order  to  do 
away  with  the  disgrace  of  the  cross,  he 
argues  with  his  Jewish  opponent  that  the 
cross  was  prefigured  in  the  Old  Testament, 
not  only  in  the  brasen  serpent  (Numb, 
xxi.  8),  but  also  in  the  hands  of  Moses, 
sustained  in  the  fight  with  Amalek  (Exod. 
xrii.  12).  *  Moses,  by  the  tokens  which  he 
made,  was  the  first  to  set  forth  that  eross 
which  to  yon  appears  accursed.'  With  this 
allusion,  which  he  uses  more  thsn  once, 
and  with  others,  Justin  labours  to  remove 
the  ignominy  of  the  cross,  which  he  regarded 
as  the  true  '  wood  of  life,'  and  to  impart  to 
others  the  reverential  feelings  with  which  it 
was  now  regarded  In  the  church  as  the 
source. of  *  salvation  to  believers.'     Hence 


ORG  426  C  R  O 

1m  MMrts  Its  poww  M  ft  difioe  tyailM^  in  •  atifB  in  poUio  wonhfp  mmI  die  o1 

the  oooYenion  of  the  woild:  — '  That  whieh  vanoee  of  the  efamefa.    Aeoordingly,  distinel 

«e  now  behold  in  all  netione,  namely»  man  infoniiation  is  fbumd  in  Ohriatian  aDtaqni^ 

eooTcrted  by  this  myslerj  from  idolatij  to  as  to  the  use  of  the  eroaa  rnaHe  by  the  hand 

the  woxship  of  Ood'  (<DiaL'  f  91).     The  in  baptism,  oateehlainf,  eoDflnnttiion,  and 

pagana  he  addieaaed  aa  in  the  foOoving  Ae  Loid'a  supper.    In  general.  It  m^  be 

passage,  whieh  ahows   how  ftiH  was  his  stated  tfiat  its  use  eame  to  be  regaided.  In 

mind  of  honooring  aaaoeiationi  as  to  die  die  worship  both  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 

eroas:— '  Aa  the  prophet  ssid  sforetime,  ehtiroh,  aa  aomething  neeeaaaiy  and  faidla- 

the  endenoe  of  ita  (die  enee'a)  power  and  penaahle.    The  Chriatian  Fathers  seon  grew 

dominion  la  Terj  great,  aa  is  diown  from  eloquent  in  the  nses  whieh  they  aadgned  to 

those  thinga  which  fill  nnder  the  eye ;  for  this  praetiee: — *  The  etoea  yon  ahoold  oae 

observe  all  things  in  the  world,  and  eonsider  in  the  worahip  of  God,  in  order  eonatandy 

whether  they  are  earned  on,  or  ean  haTO  to  remind  yon  of  the  SaTionr ;  alao  to  ahow 

interooDuniinion,  apart  from    thia   ilgnre.  that  yon  plaee  all  your  hope  oThi^ineea  in 

The  eea  la  not  doVen,  imleaa  thia  traphy,  him,  nor  leea  to  make  known  yonr  readnuas 


bearing  the  name  of  a  sail,  rematna  on*  to  bear  your  eross  with  patienee/ 
hgmed  in  the  Yeeeel:    the  earth  ia  not         Soon,  however,  waa   a   magieal  power 

ptooghed  withoat  it;  delTen  do  not  per-  aaeribed  to  the  aign  of  the  eroea.    Tertollian, 

form  their  woA,  nor  artifieera  fheira,  nn-  in  hia  treatiae  to  hie  wife  (lib.  li),  speak- 


less  with  ittstraments  made  in  this  shspe.  ing  of  the  eondidon  of  a  Christisn  womsn 
The  hnman  form  diibra  from  that  of  hrotea  married  to  a  Heathen  hosbstid,  asks,  — 
In  nothing  else  then  in  being  ereet,  end  *  How  eoold  yon  eoneeal  from  his  enriosity 
having  the  power  of  extending  the  arms,  the  signs  of  the  eroes  lAich  you  imprint  on 
By  a  erosa-1^  flgue  in  his  ooontenanee,  your  M,  aa  well  aa  on  yonr  person?  how 
man  breathea  the  brtelh  of  lifo.  The  eroes  eoold  yon  escape  being  seen  when  yon  drive 
Is  set  forth  by  die  shspe  of  yoor  standsrds  away  with  yonr  breath  the  malignity  of  the 
and  tro|diiee  (aee  AnonniAVion),  with  which  evil  spirit,  or  when  yon  rise  daring  the  night 
yon  (Boman  ptinees)  proceed  into  pablie,  fur  prayer  f  And  in  his  dissuasion  trim 
and  aeeoont  die  ensigns  of  your  power  and  frequenting  the  theatre,  —  '  BjxppoBe,  vAile 
authority.  Nay,  you  eonsecrato  the  image  you  were  there,  a  dap  of  thunder  ahoold  ro- 
of yonr  emperora  when  dead  in  this  shape,  call  to  your  mind  the  terrors  of  the  Lord ; 
and  in  yonr  inaeripdona  name  them  gods '  you  are  alarmed ;  yon  carry  your  hand  to 
(*  ApoL'  i.  I  55).  your  forehead  to  make  on  it  the  sign  of  the 
Veneration  for  die  eross  begn  to  eonneet  eroee.  What  f  This  sign  of  holinees  and 
widi  itaelf  eome  tincture  of  superstition,  pngrsr,  —  this  sign  of  p^tenoe  and  morti- 
Bnt  here,  as  in  other  inataneee,  the  abuse  fieation,  condemns  you.  Had  yon  had  that 
of  oorreet  foelinga  haa  been  die  oceaaion  of  sign  on  your  heart,  you  would  nerer  have 
supplying  posterity  with  Cuts  that  have  a  been  diere.'  Here  are  seen  the  elemento  <tf 
testimonial  charaetar.  Thia  figure  —  found  diet  corruption  which,  in  later  times,  made 
in  great  evento  and  epochs  in  the  Old  Testsr-  the  eroes  itself  en  object  of  divine  honour, 
ment,  found  slso  impressed  in  every  part  of  The  sign  of  the  cross,  made  by  the  hand, 
nature  — eould  not,  it  waa  Judged,  be  withoat  led  to  the  introduction  of  painted  crosses, 
elBeaey  in  repelling  the  dangers  snd  evils  cf  and  crosses  ftibricated  of  wood,  stone,  metal, 
lifo :  at  least,  it  waa  grateful  to  the  fodings,  &e.  whoee  form  and  use  were  very  varioua. 
yet  probably  denied  the  sight  of  die  loved  For  eome  time  die  eariy  Christians  sempled 
snd  venerated  symbol,  to  imitsto  its  figure,  to  adopt  any  other  sign  of  die  cross  disn 
however  tongbly,  in  Tolnntary  movemente  of  each  aa  was  made  by  the  hand,  lest  they 
the  limbs.  Accordingly  we  find  that  the  figure  ahonld  thereby  betray  a  community  vrith  the 
of  die  eross,  formed  by  the  hand,  waa  In  use  Headien.  This  fear,  however,  di»qppeared, 
among  the  early  Christians,  at  least  in  Africa,  and  Christians  came  to  use  the  cross  aa  a 
Tertnllian(AJ).  230)  mentions  itas  an  already  geuerd  symbol  of  Christianity.  In  this 
eiiahU$kHi  practice.  His  words  are  ftill  and  q^^lication,  the  eross  served  pretty  much  the 
distinct  (*De  CoronA  Mil.'  lib.  zv.) :  —  'At  same  pnipose  aa  the  eresoent  in  Islamism. 
every  going  out,  and  at  every  movement ;  It  waa  introduced  in  a  variety  of  ways  In  con- 
when  we  drees,  and  when  we  put  on  our  nection  with  the  fine  arts,  aa  wdl  as  in  the 
dioes ;  at  prayer,  at  table,  in  kindling  a  light,  business  of  aetnd  life ;  being  cut  in  preoioua 
aa  we  go  to  bed,  when  we  dt  down,  —  in  atones,  painted  in  pictnres,  nsed  as  a  part 
ehort,  in  eveiy  diing  we  do,  we  make  the  of  the  ritnd  in  divine  worship,  adopted  in 
signo^g^^ose  on  ou  foreheads,'— >f«fifnn  arohiteetnre,  and  at  last  in  berddiy. 
cnM^  M^oculo  UrimmM.  No  reason  is  given  In  the  catacombs  under  the  city  of  Borne, 
for  this  usage;  but doubdeae  its  introduction  die  early  Christians  found,  among  the  re- 
had  been  « i<»st  faciUtated  by  die  headien  mains  of  die  dead,  shelter  from  their  perae- 
•^**^"*.?i«ni^  protecting  tdiamans  in  cuting  enemies;  snd  diere,  accordingly,  in 
^'^JhS^lt^^^^"^  ^®  practice  dins  rude  ondines,  and  scniptnied  tokens  of  the 
Mtahlasnea  m  pnvato  life  soon  paaaed  into  simplest  kind,  Oiey  left  memorials  of  dieir 


hllli  during  lib,  4ud  their  «onfld«lil  hops  in  of  povar,  bj  thai  Mori  Uttdtttt  gtaiag  om 
dcuh.  In  tluie  Mpolehnl  loknu  ««  find  llisarou.  TIiawardiaJWitklTMioQ.writleDM 
Uie  airllMl  Tiiilila  nttennM  of  Iha  pie**laat  tba  bottom,  ambodiMtlwinipon«flhe  whole. 
TSTeienoe  for  tlu  aioM.  Tha  praoiaa  d«U 
of  theae  aiprawl*a  iTmlmla  cannot  ba  taeer- 
tained;  bnl  tho  Miriieal  of  tliam  an  cloaal; 
eoDiiHted  in  time  with  TartoIUao,  and  olhra 
CluiMuu  writen  of  hit  age.  Wa  tbna  teo, 
that  tha  lina  of  •outlnnlt;  In  ow  hiMorieal 
akelah  ia  duly  pnaanad.  Tlia  plat*  giTen 
in  p.iaiabova  difliannt  onaaH  of  both  tha 
Qraek  and  Latin  tbnn  lakan  from  tba  cala- 
Mmba,  and  Taaohing  baok  lo  iha  Aiat  oantnriaa. 
Tba  ^mbolioal  elnnent  in  tb«n  eroaaw 
went  on  giadiial^  inmaaaing  fMr  aftai  jaar. 


UBLT    aTHBOUOAt    OlOat. 

The  dors,  a*  in  the  abon  flgnra,  vhioh  ia 
also  an  image  of  the  raanmetian,  — the  im- 
port being  darited  from  the  bird  which  an- 
nooDoed  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  eulh  to 
Noah,  —  ii  Ibnod,  as  well  aa  the  Ssb,  repre- 
KDting  OUT  Lord,  In  Tery  eailj  renialna  of 
tlu  catacombB,  which  probably  take  pr«a- 
den«  of  fignna  of  tha  cnna,  and  thm  ^d>  In 
preserring  a  coniinDoaa  line  of  aTmbolical 
writing  from  tha  first  jeara  of  (be  second 
oenlDiy  down  to  modem  timaa.  The  trlom- 
phaut  and  blissful  char&oler  of  the  oroai  la 
well  shown  In  Ihs  engming  that  followa,  of 
•  '  itain  eroaa,'  which  la  taken  from  ■  mo-' 
aaia  at  Baienna,  of  the  aizth  eenbiry :  — 


I  UBIT  irnBOLieu 


This  ntaj  be  eihibiled  In  the  anchor  etoaa  m 
giTen  in  the  cut.  in  whloh  an  old-aitahliahad 
•jmbol  ii  tiunsd  to  Christian  pnrpoaaaj  — > 
forming,  in  the  ah^ia  of  a  srosa,  a  kind  of 
twofold  amUani,  denoting  reftige  and  aafety. 
Thl*  eymbol  oesnrB,  in  the  eulieat  agea  of 
OUT  rdigion,  on  gnieatonea,  and,  at  a  later 
period,  on  gems;  aometimei,  aa  in  (he  in- 
Btanee  before  the  reader,  beaiing  the  name 
J(ma(7fcriit,  andbaTingaahere  twottaheB,or 
onl;  one.  The  flahea  are  undaralood  to  ba 
sjmbolieal  of  the  '  fiahei  of  men,'  and,  in- 
deed, of  Ohrialiana  generally,  who,  as  being 
immersed  in  water,  on  Mioming  die  Chris- 
tian name,  took  a  kind  of  plaaaore  in  play- 
ftaJljdeaeribingthsmatlTeaaa'fiah.'  Another 
Mason  assigned  fbr  the  adoption  of  tbia  em- 
blem ia,  that  the  Oreek  ward  for  Oah.  namely 
ichUuu,  Dontaina  Iha  initial  letlera  of  Jtni 
CItral,  —  Son  of  Qod,  —  SavimiT. 

The  power  of  eipreaaion  la  oarried  alill 
farther  in  the  eDBuing  specimen,  belonging 
to  the  first  ceutnriea,  in  which,  beeidea  other 
aymbels  already  eiplained,  the  oroaa  is  re- 
pmeuted  aa  haTing  eonqneivd  '  the  old  ser- 
pent,' who  ia  bound  to  its  tnmk,  and  who, 
yet  retaining  the  will  to  injure  the  human 
•oul  —  represented  by  the  doie,  ia  deprived 


Fl&oed  in  &a  midst  of  ths  stars  of  heaTm, 
tbia  orosB  reite  on  the  name  base,  tatut,  fol- 
lowed by  the  word  mtauii,  salTstion  of  the 
world.  Iti  outer  oirole  ia  aurronnded  by  k 
girele  of  resplendent  stones.  On  the  top  is 
the  Greek  word  whlhm,  meaning  our  Lord, 
which  ha*  been  reeently  tOnnd  on  a  ftaneral 
mubla,  with  the  word  zoniai  a^ioJned,  mak- 
ing the  entire  eqiiiTatent  to  Jma  Chritt,  Son 
o/Ood,  Savieur  ofUviag  (men). 

At  an  eariier  period,  howerer,  than  fliie, 
the  eroaa  had  become  the  emblem  of  Tiotor; ; 
being  adopted  by  Oonatantine,  aa  shown  by 
this  tiop}  of  a  medal,  atnok  in  the  day*  td 


CRO  4: 

that  tmpaioi.  Hitherto  ths  eriHa  hid  in  the 
milQ  preurred  iu  ipiriln*!  import.  Hen 
It  U  UMdaled  with  amilhlj  dominion,  M 
■ppetn  botn  the  motto,  glory  0/  Iht  army  : 
■Iu  lli>t  tliii  embltm  of  loffcring,  p«uT, 
and  rtcmol  blias,  ahoiild  «Tei  hare  besn  u 
with  dmda  of  blood  I 


«  CBO 

The  tenoa  of  lh«  minele  wai  eompMad 
bf  Lh«  ■ppeinnDe  lo  him  at  Dt^t,  in  a 
dream,  of  Jssni.  who,  vilh  a  erosa  in  hia 
hand,  of  the  ahape  alreadj  •«(□,  commaiidsd 
him  to  make  a  rofal  atuidard  of  a  ainiQar 
configaratioii.  Tbi*  vaj  aeconUn^j  dona ; 
and  banos  lh«  Labanun. 

We  an  not  hsn  mqaired  to  diaeoa*  Iha 
in«rlti  of  Ihla  atorj.  How  mneh  aoem  of 
the  lafendaij  or  even  of  the  Cclttjona  it  uar 
contain,  dooblleaa  an  oecaaion  then  wai  in 
tha  lifa  of  CooatantiiM,  whiah  lad  him  to 
adopt  the  CbfialiaD  nligion,  and,  with  that 
nligion,  iu  conaeerated  aymbol,  the  croaa. 
Did  thia  not  appear  (torn  lh«  face,  that  fic- 
tion and  legend!  have  an  hiilorinl  import, 
a*  well  aa  the  poreat  and  aimpteit  record  of 
facta,  Ibe  euuinK  Tiew  of  the  Labarnra, 
hafing  lha  image  of  the  emperor  on  the  ob- 
lerae,  would  kI  t' 


The  engraving  preienu,  between  two  Ro- 
man aoldien,  the  cniu  in  Oie  Bliape  of  the 
Labvmt,  and  indicalei  the  fact,  thai,  in  iia 
eaaqoiirinf  career,  the  croaa  had  now  beeoDM 
the  reeogniaed  and  >olemn  standard  of  tha 
Bomin  empire,  Eoeleaiutical  hiatorj  in- 
forma  ni,  that  Couaianline,  while  engaged  in 
•onten  ding  tor  Ihe  imperial  throne(cir.33U), 
began  to  reSeet  on  the  miaohancci  and 
tdluna  wbicb  bad  befaUen  hii  idolatroua 
predeccason;  while  hia  father,  who  had 
adored  one  onl;  God,  the  Creator  of  the 
unirerH.  had  been  eminentlj  aacecaatuL 
Hence  he  drew  tha  inference,  that  be  him- 
■elf  might  find  read;  aid  and  eOeatua]  anp- 
port  Id  adopting  the  now  rapidly  apreading 
faith  of  the  deapiaed  Naiaiene.  On  thia,  be 
GtU  on  hia  knees,  and  prayed  God  lo  gire  him 
light;  when,  aa  the  inn  wai  declining, there 
•nddeiilj  appeared  iu  the  beaTena  a  pillar  of 
light,  bearing  the  abiqw  of  a  eroia,  with  the 
worda  in  Qreek, '  By  Ihia  oonquer.' 


Thia  ia  taken  from  a  coin  of  Conitantinc'a, 
and  preaenta,  on  the  top  of  the  Laharam,  1h« 
monogrammaliB  nama  of  Christ ;  al  the  bot- 
tom of  the  croaa,  the  tanqniihed  aeipent; 
athwart  the  face,  the  woids  in  Latin,  Ikt  koft 
Iff  the  rtpublic.  From  this  time,  erosaea  be- 
came Teij  common.  When  Conaianline  had 
gained  the  empire,  the  senate  decreed  to  him 
a  golden  statne.oneband  of  which  held  along 
apear  in  Ibe  form  of  a  eroas.  The  croaa  began 
to  be  accompanied  bj  the  image  of  oar  Sa- 
Tionr;  and,  according  toEaaebJaa,theemp^ 
ror  not  onl;  cansed  aaeh  represeutationi  to 
be  placed  in  lha  moat  eonapicnona  pans  of 
the  ciiy,  bat,  aa  '  the  aign  of  onr  Lord'a  paa- 


Archilectnre  waa  now  to  undergo  modifi- 
cation from  the  ciose.  The  flgun  presents 
an  oniline  of  a  chnrch  of  eailj  data,  bnilt  in 
the  shape  of  what  ia  termed  the  Greek  cnwa. 
The  engraving  whence  onr  oopj  ia  made,  is 
itself  of  the  acTenlh  century.  Chrittian 
ehorchei.  generally,  soon  quitted  Iheir  ori- 
ginal model  in  ihe  Greek  Basilica,  and 
look  the  figure  of  Ibe  cross.  Cbunhea 
bnill  in  this  form  were  originally  termed 
cnisi-fkurcAri.  The  cburrh  built  by  Con- 
slantine  in  Conatantinople,  in  hononrof  the 
apoat]es,waaof  this  description.  This  form 
tha  emperor  ia  said  lo  have  pmlueed,  in. 


CRO 


429 


CRO 


order  to  nnite  in  the  Christian  temple  the 
magnificence  of  the  temples  of  the  preceding 
religion,  and  by  crossing  two  gnadrangnlar 
buildings. 


UtCHITBCTUBAL  CB088. 

To  the  cross  thus  formed,  is  to  be  aaoribed 
the  grand  discovery  of  imposing  a  dome  on 
arches,  since  the  snperstructure  of  the  roond 
temple  or  part  was  a  consequence  natoraUy 
ensuing  from  two  quadrangular  buildings 
orossing  each  other. 

The  alleged  dlseoTery  of  the  cross  on  which 
Jesus  suffered,  gare  an  impulse  to  supersti- 
tious feelings  aaid  practices.  Four  ecclesias- 
tical historians  concur  in  stating,  that  it  was 
found  by  the  Empress  Helena,  mother  of  Con- 
Btantine  the  Great  This  event  is  assigned  to 
A.D.  826.  The  statement  is,  that  this  prineest 
was  induced,  when  near  her  grsTC,  to  pay  a 
visit  of  pious  love  to  the  chief  place  which 
had  been  consecrated  by  the  presence  of  the 
Saviour  of  mankind*  Aided  by  a  Jew  who 
had  carefblly  preserved  the  memoiy  of  the 
■pot  where  Jesus  had  been  crucified,  Helena 
repaired  to  Mount  Calvary,  and,  after  diligent 
excavation,  found  three  crosses,  of  which  ahe 
ascertained  the  true  one  by  mirades  which 
it  wrought  Fable,  thus  begun,  was  not  slow 
to  increase.  Having  buOt  a  church  over  the 
q^t,  Helena  deposited  within  it  the  chief 
part  of  the  real  cross.  The  remainder  she 
conveyed  to  Constantinople,  a  part  of  which 
Constantine  inserted  in  Uie  head  of  a  statue 
of  himself;  the  other  part  was  sent  to  Borne, 
and  placed  in  the  church  of  Sta.  Croce  in 
Oerusalemme,  which  was  built  expressly  to 
receive  this  precious  relie.  When,  subse- 
quently, a  festival  to  eommemorate  the  dis- 
eovery  had  been  established,  the  bishop  of 
Jerusalem,  on  Easter  Sunday,  exhibited  to 
the  gratefil  eyes  of  eager  pilgrims  the  ob- 
ject to  see  which  they  had  travelled  so  Ur, 
and  endured  so  much.  Those  who  were 
persons  of  substanoe  were  ftirther  gratified 
by  being  permitted  to  purchase,  at  their  full 
value,  smaO  pieces  of  the  cross  set  in  gold 
and  gems ;  and,  that  wonder  might  not  pass 
into  incredulity,  the  proper  authorities  gave 


the  world  an  assurance  that  the  holy  wood 
possessed  the  power  of  self-multiplication, 
and,  notwithstanding  the  innumerable  pieces 
which  had  been  taken  from  it,  remained  in- 
tact and  entire  as  at  the  first 

The  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Persians, 
A.D.  614,  placed  the  remains  of  the  cross  in 
the  hands  of  Chosroes,  who  mockingly  con- 
veyed them  to  his  capital.  Fourteen  years 
after,  Heraolius  recovered  them,  and  had 
them  earned,  first  to  Constantinople,  and 
then  to  Jerusalem,  in  such  pomp,  that,  on 
his  arrival  before  the  latter  city,  he  found 
the  gates  barred,  and  entrance  forbidden.  In- 
structed as  to  the  cause  of  this  hinderance, 
the  emperor  laid  aside  the  trappings  of  his 
greatness,  and,  barefooted,  bore  on  his  own 
dioulders  the  sacred  relic  up  to  the  gates ; 
when  these  opened  of  themselves,  allowing 
him  to  enter,  and  to  place  his  charge  beneath 
the  dome  of  the  sepulchre.  From  this  time 
no  more  is  heard  of  the  true  cross. 

The  early  apologists  of  Christianity  en- 
deavoured to  repel  the  imputation  of  the 
disciples  being  worshippers  of  the  cross» 
which  was  brought  against  them  by  the 
Heathen,  and  even  by  Jidian.    Some  grounds 
there    must    undoubtedly    have    been    for 
Julian's  charge,  since  he  expressly   says, 
that  'the  Christians  prayed  to    a   wooden 
cross,  that  they  made  the  figure  of  the  same 
on  the  forehead,  plaeed  it  at  the  entrance  of 
their  houses,  and  that  they  Ibrsook  the  an- 
cient gods,  and  had  turned  to  the  dead  Jew.'< 
How  true  and  reasonable  soever  was  the  de- 
fence which  the  defenders  of  Christianity  put 
forth,  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  the 
fourth,  and  particularly  firom  the  fifth  century, 
a  reverence  for  the  cross  arose  which  bordered 
on  fanaticism,  and  was  accompanied  by  very 
superstitious  practices.    This  has  remained 
at  least  unmitigated  in  some  churches,  to 
the  great  detriment  of  the  true  purposes  of  the 
gospel.    Easy  would  it  be  to  cite  instanoet 
of  the  gross  credulity  and  low  superstition 
which  have  been  displayed  in  connection 
with  the  cross.    Nor  can  the  heads  of  the 
church  be  held  blameless.    In  their  desire 
to  enforce  the  claims  of  the  gospel,  they  were 
led  to  speak  of  the  virtues  of  &e  cross  in  a 
manner  false  and  extravagant  in  itself,  and 
which  .the  ignorant  would  easily  misunder- 
stand and  grossly  pervert      The  eloquent 
Chrysostom,  by  the  indulgence  which  he  gave 
to  his  feeliiDgs  and  imagination,  must  be 
held  to  no  small  extent  accountable  for  these 
evils.    Ephraem  the  Syrian  is  among  those 
who  have  spoken  most  extravagantly  on  the 
subj  ect    In  a  discourse,  he  declares, — '  The 
cross  is  the  hope  of  Christians,  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  the  staff  of  the  lame,  the 
comfort  of  the  poor,  the  charm  of  the  rich, 
the   stumbling-block  of  the  high-minded, 
and  triumph  over  the  demons.    The  cross 
is  the  teacher  of  virtue,  the  treasure  of  the 
destitute,  the  father  of  the  orphan,  the  conn* 


CRO 


430 


CRO 


mItloT  of  Aa  juiit,  lbs  irnudint  of  Ihvjotaig,  The  tti'Mm  of  oormption  ororflowrdm  the 

Um   brad  of  the  kdalE,  Iba  annni  of  th*  oialoni  afforti  of  the  cniuden,  somnieDCCiI 

•ged,  lh«  hop*  of  tba  deepwiiug,  Itw  helm  in  (he  deTenth  oentiuj,  for  the  reaoro;  a 

ofthe  amiOBr,  >ta»en  in  Mtmni,  andiwaU  JernsaUm  and   the   Holj   Luid    famn   die 

to  the  bMieged.     The  ««■  ia  ■  lifbt   to  hand*  of  the  Hohunmedane.       Then  wu 

tboae  who  lit  in  dwfciw,  the  oinament  of  Iha  emta  for  ft  long  eeriee  of  jeta  aeea 

kjngi,  the  ftsartoB  of  llavesi  the  wiadom  lleantingonlhebtfiaenofnnbatdadanues, 

of  maalan,  Ifaa  pbUoaofby  of  beAaiiani,  indbDmeonlfaeihotiiUlBnofTeliinthij^t*, 

Ae  lafetf  at  tti*  ^ob*.'    In  fliii  wtj  doea  «ho,  when  the;  aeme  haok  to  their  homes, 

b*  proeeed  to  (pMk  at  Inftb  of  the  orocai  wen  on  theii  itone  eiBgiM  placed  wiflt  their 

•mpIoTtnglaafrafewhiokhehiBnlf  mifU  lefi  aeroti,  to    demite   itiM  thef  had  in 

■nor*  or  liM  dieliMdj  toutd  m  Bgv9»  of  their  litethne  had  Ibe  high  moit  of  haiiog 

■p«<idi,bnl<Aieb,teeMileaM,atbacBiiithe  fboghl  under  the  enaiga  of  the  croai,  and 

lipm  of  tini*,  «ihI  wHh  A*  dttokaning  <tf  againU  that  ofthe  erviaeii. 
IbedvkihadM  tb*t  aeMaoTarmeB'emindi, 

voBld  bol  tD«  omttel;  emrert  into  MbMn-  •And  en  bbtreartaUoodl*  ohm  heboid 
tfrviMHtietmicURiawmtlW.  TUayra-  TlMtarmnabiMMetMiMif  Larl: 
.m    ... ^1.  __-_■> J  _^]n_  1^  For  ^hn—  aw^  m^  thmt  afarfiiM  ^^ft  be  9t 


MdeartMUiabiMMeeCMiMif  L< 
IT  lAsH  (WHt  mki  that  olfl^H  »^ 
id  deaO,  •■  U>li«  enr  b&  idned : 


a  of  eonrBpUaa  wedd  pneoed  nfidl;  ht 

pailodi  when  men  ware  gananttf  indined  M     Dpml^~BUeM  Oa  niawi , 

aanyraipeet  fcr  red  or  flla*  nllaat  M  the  ForanvaltabivawUohfahkhdrliahid.' 
•wfOl  aieaas  of  aaUng  AaM  otjeela  of  • 

•paoiea  of  wonhip.    Tba  aroas,  ■aasnUBglj,  The  Inflnenoe  ofthe  eioMon  theabapeof 

WM  Med  for  moMa  nd  Winuns.    Chtj-  cbtinheahaaalreadTbeeaapokm  of   Whei^ 

aoMoB  (Bom.  sL)  daelans,— 'TbM  vatj  am  Dtvidioal  monunanla  wan  bond,  they 

wood  on  whleb  the  aacaad  body  wm  Miatibid  ,,^f^  nppoaad  to  be  purified  tram  the  con- 

aitd  smolffed,  ii  longbl  lAi*  with  ioendiWe  iMiiaation  of  Heatbeninn,  hj  being  eamd 

nitmt.    Aeeordin^y,  many  panona  <a  bodl  wttb  Iba  ignre,  or  altered  in  the  mhepe,  of 

aaiM,proooringe*araomBeUa*plinterof  it,  the  eraaa.    In  En^and.  oroeaea  were  erected 

nMue  it  in  gold,  and  an^aDd  it  kom  thair  below  the  oonqneat,  prerioiu  to  »  battle  or 

neek.'  TDkaTaUaTa.lhaBiBaa&BTwotaiervad  — »■               •       ..  .-  ...t;^;.^!...^  .^A  .^u.. 


bonra.  Indead,  »iipwa«tlon  at  length  e<i 


aeaMKitiOlwald,  king  of  NoiAnmb^and.be- 
fora  b«  Cwght  with  Cadwallo,  let op  a  cTDia  of 
wood,  ■  aad  on  bii  knaaa  prayed  to  Sod  that 
be  wMid  ualit  hii  woribii^ar*  In  iheir 
■real  diaMaa.  It  la  fDidMr  tepoited,  tba^ 
Hu  eaoa*  bei^  m^a  In  haaia,  and  the  hole 
dag  in  wfaicb  it  wa«  to  be  fixed,  the  king. 


>f  il,t 


id  held 


Vritia^ 


of  du  olMnhjatd. 


CBVa*DiB'i  cBoaa. 


nadar  Ibe  following  beada  :  —  1. 

rwaiililin.  S.Haiketi  S-Wa^Jng;  d.amet; 

B.ManMiria];  O.LaBdnaik;  1.  BapulchnU; 

8.  Bi0iway;  0.  Entranee  to  ehorobei;  10. 

Attestation  of  peaee.    Of  preaching  eroaaea, 

St.  Paol's  la  an  iBataaea  f""'''"  to  eiety 

re^er  of  KngUab  hiatcoy.     Tboogh  often 

aboaad  la  aoiialar  andi,  it  was  eroded  for 

It  etoodoD  the  north 

waa  not  demoUabed 

.  whiob  Olanodon  has 

The  OrsalBebellion.'    Tbepie- 

•onai  leptaaentaiian  glTan  on  Ike  next  page 

ii  of  a  aaaaeanaeetedwilb  a  »«rj  important 

•rent  in  Hm  blatray  tf  OMBt  Britain,  namely, 

OMpnaablng  of  FanUwi*  (eir.  S20,  AJD.>, 

wfao  eonTeited  a  larga  part  of  the  North  of 

Bo^and  to  Obiialiaaity,  and  beoame  anb- 

Uahop  of  Totki    This  eroaa  is  one  of  three 

oonmumoraliTe  of  the  arant  now  mautloned, 

Iba  obnrcbyaid  of  Whallej. 


Hodebr  MotU'),  in  being  emied  to  W«^ 
miuUT,  n«Ud ;  u  *t  Stunfbid,  DniuUbl*, 
Bt.  Albuu,  Willhun,  Im. 


Weeping  eranu  mm  ihoM  b«fbra  irttich 
■  panuicc  ns  petfbnned.  A  enxi  of  Ihu 
kind,  B&lled  'lC*b'l  uroH,'  maj  ilillbt  leaa 
(Itia  ararj  [dtin  Mrai>tiii«)  in  >  liTMt  la 
Wlgm,  LnuuUn. 

HMkat  sionM  wtn  to  b«  foimd  in  most 
towni  potMMing  111*  priTilag*  of  ■  ma^Ft. 
Tha  lidU  of  thasa  maikau  ganerall;  tnlongad 


nel^boii 


inj;  ai 


re  eieotad  far  dM  bian,  a 
ai  a  token  cl  their  ri^t,  aa  for  the  eomeni- 
enoe  of  Iba  naigfabooibood.  A  beaaliftd 
■peclmen  ia  fonnd  in  (he  maiket  eroas  of 
Cbiolianei,  in  Bnaux,  whiiili  waa  built  bj 
Bi-muA  fitoiTi  who  waa  Itanalated  from  tba 
a*e  of  Cailiile  to  that  of  ChlcheaMr,  in  UTS. 
Cniaua  of  msmoTial  sommeniorBted  bat- 
tlea,  Borden,  and  Olhgr  areata  of  note.  In 
the  midat  of  Alpinaaoanerf  anoraaaeatobe 
aeen  act  up  on  apoU  «h««  iba  traTellei 
Deeds  tpaoial  aan  In  oriar  to  aroid  daoKer, 
or  wbere  the  loaa  of  life  haa  aliead;  ooenind. 
ThaM  oro*Ma  often  ohroniola  '  andden  and 
untbualf  daalli,'  and  an  in  part  deiigned 
to  aolieft  pwyara  fbrtha  aoola  at  the  nnfbrtn- 

Ciotaea  <it  nemorial  wera  bnilt  alaa  to 
mark  tha  apot  at  HbUb  Oie  bier  of  a  dMin- 
piidied  penon  reated  in  ita  paseaga  to  iha 
tomb.  The  'ElaaMr  woam'  ««re  designed 
In  honour  of  Eleanor,  wife  of  Sdward, '  in 
whoaa  Dnmorr  (laje  Baktr),  and  u  monn- 
menta  of  her  Tiitne  and  aftetion,  king  Ed- 
vaid  eaneed  (ISSO,  A.D.)  eroaaea  irilh  her 
Blatne  to  be  ercstcd  in  all  chist  places  where 
bar  ocspae  (she  is  believed  to  have  died  at 


CRO  i 

la  •ha  hiitotr  of  Chrbtiui  irt,  no  nMU 
pliM  ii  o«nipi«d  bf  the  crux  itatiimaliM,  or 
proMMionil  cnni,  wliioh  il  «M  nanal  lo 
etitj  U  Ihe  head  of  Hileiim  pnweMiona.  Tlis 
eroMa*  uwd  <m  theis  occuiona  bf  Ihc  Bo- 
iBuii  were  of  gnu  beauty,  mad*  of  aLlTei  or 
gold,  Ht  vilh  diunouda  and  preeiooa  atones, 
•nd  ottwrwiM  richly  omKintnted.  Tbs  pni- 
oeiiiDiial  orou,  which  on  hoiydaji  naoall; 
•lood  on  ibt  high  altar,  oron  tha  cibodnm 
of  the  alur,  waa  eonsidend  m  the  great 
treaaon  of  ■  cboreh,  not  for  ita  iutrinaio 
worth,  ao  mocb  u  for  its  anliqaitj,  and  the 
relica  which  ware  encloaed  wilhin  it. 

The  beaalifol  eroai  (the  two  unaller  are 
croaicra).  rrpreaented  in  the  aocompanjing 
cnt,  ia  alill  preaerred  in  the  town  of  Liaeiino, 
on  the  bordera  of  the  Adriatic  Bea.  It 
•leaped  the  rapuilj  of  the  Fienoh.when  Ihej 
had  poaaeaaion  of  the  (own  in  the  time  of  Na- 
poleon, hj  the  piouaconlriTaiice  of  (he  mOQka, 
who  built  it  np  in  a  receiB  in  [he  tower  of 
the  choieh  to  which  il  belouga.  It  alaoda 
abont  three  feet  high  independent  of  the 
•teiD,  and  ia  made  of  wood,  plaited  oter  with 
■ilrer,  emboaaed  or  chawd  and  gilL  The 
flfORa  an  in  rerj  high  telief,  and  ailvared. 


S  CRO 

In  order  to  oontrast  mon  UroB^j  widi  the 
gOt  ground  of  the  rroaa.  Iti  date  ia  about 
laeo.  The  atem  of  the  ctoia  ia  of  braai, 
gilt,  and  ia  mach  inferior  to  the  croaa  ilaelf 
in  deaicn  and  eiecntion.  The  Tiew  given 
the  front  of  the  croaa.  The  oma- 
the  hi^ad  ia  the  aaceniion ;  the  ri^ 
arm  it  the  Virgin,  with  the  other  two  Harji ; 
on  the  other  aide  are  Ihmof  thediacipleaaa 
monmera ;  and  at  the  foot  ii  a  repreaentatiom 
of  thediacipleacommiuingthe  body  of  Jeioa 
to  the  tomb.  In  the  oentre,  the  bod;  of  the 
SaTioDi  ia  ■iretohed  on  the  croaa.  After 
the  fall  of  Bonaparte,  and  the  conieqncnt 
leatoration  of  peace  to  Eorope,  this  croaa 
waa  taken  from  ita  hiding-place  ;  and  it  atiU 
continnea  to  be  oairied  in  proceaaion  (  Shaw'a 
'Dtesaea  and  Decoratioua  of  ibe  Middle 
Agei').  Froceaeional  or  itatianuj  croaaea 
afford  a  fall  pn»f  with  what  seal  the  Chrii' 
tiana  of  old  adorned  their  chnichea. 

The  eioti  was  alao  emplojed  for  Ihe  teach- 
ing and  enfbrcement  of  theological  opiniaiu. 
The  cat  exhibits  one  ws;  in  whieh,  in  tha 
middle  agea,  waa  tanghl  the  conuniinieBlion 
of  the  Bpiht  bj  tha  Father  lo  the  Sou. 


The  aaperatltioiiB  teverenee  for  Ihe  croaa 
which  prcrajled  in  their  daja,  altraeted  Ifae 
attention  of  the  earij  reformera,  who  either 
endeaionred  to  abate  the  eyil,  or  reaolTed  al- 
together to  diaaUow  the  UM  of  the  croaa,  both 
in  pnbliB  worahip,  and  in  prirat*  eieroieea 
of  pie^.  Ai  a  general  ajmbol  of  tha  Chria- 
tian  religion,  and  m  an  ediiying  memento 
of  the  anlftting  and  djing  SaTionr, — Lather, 
howcTar,  waa  willing  that  the  oioaa  ahoald 
be  retained;  and  althongb  the  conaeqaent 
tuagas  ban  bMn  eonatantly  growing  lea*. 


the;  hare  not  yet  entirelj  diaappearad.  In 
the  ETingelioal  Lutheran  ehnrcb,  Ihe  algn 
of  the  ORwa  ia  atill  naed  in  bt^tiam,  die 
Lord'a  aupper,  and  the  benediction.  Indeed, 
in  Lnlher'a  emalter  eatechiam  is  foand  an 
eipraaa  direction,  that  erery  one  ahould  maik 
himaelf  with  the  aign  of  die  biobb  at  morn- 
ing and  eTening  prajeia.  Lutheran  thcolo- 
giana  hare  made  the  snlgcct  one  of  some 
polemical  eonaaqnence.  In  En|4and,  the 
eioaaea  which  were  found  at  the  outbreak  of 
Ibe  Befarmation  in  the  chatchea  ooold  not 


CRO 


4a3 


CRO 


long  keep  Iheir  plaoes  against  the  hatred 
which  was  excited  against  every  thing  that 
had  heen  and  was  cnstomaiy  in  the  Boman 
Catholic  commnnion ;  and  fanatical  men  in 
the  times  of  the  commonwealth  cleared  the 
places  of  pnblio  worship  of  these  and  other 
artistic  ornaments. 

The  simple  form  of  the  cross  prepared  the 
way  for  the  cmciflz.  It  is  not  easy  to  fix 
the  time  when  cracifixes  were  introduced. 
Ohemnitius  (*  Exam.  Cone.  Trident'  p.  It. 
41 )  remarks :  —  <  It  is  to  be  obsenred,  that 
an  image  of  Christ  cnicified,  that  is,  as  the 
canon  speaks,  a  hnman  fignre  representing 
the  humiliation,  passion,  and  death  of  the 
Sariour,  began  to  be  nsed  and  placed  in 
churches  about  the  year  691.'  The  church 
does  not  appear  to  have  known  them  before 
the  end  of  the  seventh  century.  Prior  to 
this,  people  were  satisfied  with  the  figure  of 
a  lamb  standing  under  the  cross. 

The  artistic  skill  of  some  of  the  older  cru- 
cifixes is  of  Tcry  small  pretensions.  In  order 
to  describe  the  blood  of  Christ,  the  cross  was 
sometimes  painted  red.  Christ  is  represented 
Tariously  on  these  crucifixes,  —  sometimes 
hanging  on  the  cross  with  his  hands,  not 
nailed,  raised  up  as  in  prayer  (*  Borgia  de 
Cruce  Velitema,'  p.  188); — sometimes  fas- 
tened to  the  cross  with  four  nails,  and,  in 
the  older  crucifixes,  alive,  with  open  eyes ; 
but  in  later  crucifixes,  from  the  tenth  to  the 
eleventh  century,  more  often  dead.  As  these 
crucifixes  belong  to  no  very  early  period  in 
Christian  history,  they  aiford  little  light,  if 
any,  in  regard  to  the  sufferings  of  the  Saviour, 
since  the  tradition  which  they  follow  has  no 
historical  weight,  and,  indeed,  is  not  uniform 
and  consistent  In  the  middle  ages,  the 
crucifix  was  considered  as  an  indispensable 
accessary  to  churches  and  altars.  Crucifixes 
were  also  placed  at  the  entrance  of  cities, 
towns,  and  villages;  on  high  roads  and 
public  places ;  also  before  public  and  pri- 
vate dwellings.  The  smaller  crucifixes, 
made  of  the  precious  metals,  of  ivory,  &e. 
served  partly  for  adorning  the  articles  used 
in  public  worship ;  partly  for  an  ornament 
on  the  neeks  of  men,  women,  and  children ; 
partly,  like  the  Agnu$  Dei,  as  amulets  and 
charms.  Painted  crucifixes,  and,  indeed, 
some  worked  in  stone,  or  stamped  on  coins, 
are  often  surrounded  with  various  figures, 
mostly  of  angels,  with  all  kinds  of  emblems 
which  have  a  reference  to  redemption.  They 
sometimes  present  figures  of  animals,  par- 
tieulariy  lambs,  doves,  stags,  &c.  —  symbols 
whititk  speak  for  themselves.  The  most  fa- 
vourite representation  was  that  of  the  holy 
family  standing  beneath  the  cross.  Mary, 
John,  and  Mary  Magdalene,  are  also  seen  as 
in  the  ecclesiastical  canticle :  — 

<  Stabat  mater  dolorosa 
Jaxta  ornoem  laerfanoaa, 
Dum  pendetMt  fiUni,'  &e. 

In  this  protestant  country,  crucifixes  are 


by  no  means  a  oommon  sight;  and  such  as 
are  of  costly  materials  are  very  rare.  In  the 
Jesuits'  college  at  Btonyhurst,  in  the  north- 
east of  Lancashire,  there  are  in  the  museum 
several,  besides  those  which  are  commonly 
employed  in  worship,  of  considerable  elegance 
and  value.  One  of  great  beauty  ie  of  crystal, 
with  a  cluster  of  diamonds  at  the  intersection, 
fixed  in  a  square  base  inlaid  with  jewels. 
A  second  is  made  of  ebony,  with  an  ivory 
Christ,  exquisitely  carved,  believed  to  have 
belonged  to  Sir  Thomas  More.  The  feelings 
which  led  to  the  use  of  the  crucifix  have 
been  carried  to  excess ;  but,  in  themselves, 
they  are  such  as  must  be  riiared  by  every 
Christian. 


*  I  fly  to  Salem  and  to  Calvary ; 

And  there  for  sinful  man 

To  flniah  Ood's  high  plan, 
A  form  ot  heavenly  mould  hath  hraved  the  tree 

Hb  limbs  are  fidntlng  now. 

And  pain  la  on  his  hrow ; 
And  foea  are  tiiamphlng,  and  friends  are  few : 

Still,  through  the  darken'd  air. 

He  Itfta  the  godlike  prayer, 
**  Father,  forgive,  they  know  not  what  they  do  1 " 

But  'mid  the  awfkil  night, 

Bursta  a  fair  rav  of  Uffht, 
And  haiWB  around  him  Uke  a  Brooding  dove ;  — 

It  hovers  o'er  the  tree 

Of  ahame  and  agonr. 
And  sanetlflea  the  oroes  to  Hope  and  Love ! 

And  now  thou  apeakest  Joy, 

And  bliaa  without  alloy. 
To  them  that  bear  thee  in  their  Savionr'a  name. 

Pale  Fear,  and  shuddering  Dread, 

And  Agony  have  fled. 
And  holy  Hope  la  here  in  place  of  GOiame  I 

And  atin  in  Death's  dark  hour, 

The  holy  sign  hath  power, 
Even  when  Life's  sun  hath  set  in  <Um  ecdlpsa^ 

To  banish  dark  despair 

With  Tislons  bright  and  fair. 
And  spread  a  smile  fh>m  heaven  on  dying  lips  1 

Beneath  thy  fostering  care, 

Faith  pours  her  fervent  prayer, 
And  hears  feint  eehoes  of  the  heavenly  quire ; 

Thy  form,  in  aplandonr  drest, 

Sparkles  on  Beauty's  breast, 
And  glitters  from  the  "  starry  pointing  **  spire  t 

But  who  shall  dare  to  sing, 

Unpoised  on  Seraph's  wing. 
Thy  march  of  triumph  to  earth'a  farthest  abore  ? 

^  tongue  is  all  too  weak 

Thy  glorious  praise  to  speak  : 
I  bow  the  reverent  knee,  and  tmnbllns^y  adore  I ' 

The  Crosier  is  intimately  connected  with 
the  cross ;  for  doubtless  both  the  word  and 
the  thing  itself  are  derived  firom  it.  The 
crosier  was  borne  before  archbishops,  hi- 
shops,  abbots,  and  abbesses.  It  was  at  first 
a  simple  staff.  The  exact  shape  and  the 
degree  of  ornament  diflTer  in  every  country 
according  to  taste :  that  of  an  archbishop  is 
headed  with  a  cross,  exhibiting  the  cruci- 
fixion of  *  the  man  of  sorrows.'  One  of  the 
earliest  abbatical  staifs  is  probably  that  re- 
presented  on  the  tomb  of  Vitalis,  in  the 
cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey,  who  died  in 
LOBS.    Crosiers  in  wood,  in  ancient  times, 

2E 


C  R  O  434  C  R  U 

were  usaelly  buried  with  biahops  and  abbots  tmd  uaUd  at  the  right  hand  ofthttMiyetiy  om 

in  their  coffine :  such  a  one,  of  led  wood,  the  high.    The  Cacft  which,  within  a  few  years* 

top  oarved  into  the  rode  tono  of  a  ram's  head,  should  prove  sbls  to  oonyert  a  Tybam  into 

was  found  many  years  ago,  on  opening  the  a  spot  towards  which  the  glad  bui  teariol 

cofSn  of  Bishop  Grosteste,  at  Lincoln,  who  eyes  of  thousands  are  turned  with  all  the 

died  in  1253.    It  lay  across  the  body«  from  ardour  of  a  pure  religion,  must  be  not  only 

the  right  shoulder  to  the  left  foot    At  the  real  but  unusual,  not  only  "«"ff'v>J  but  eo- 

bottom  of  the  neck  of  this  staff,  on  a  brass  kindling,  and  so  enkindling  as  to  call  into 

plate,  was  this  inscription,  —  Per  haculifpr'  action  the  central  affections  of  the  humsa, 

mam,  prelaH  diicite  iMrrmom,— *'  by  Uie  fionn  soul. 

of  the  stafl;  leam  the  law  of  the  bishop;'-* a  CRUCIFIXION  (i;.  fixing  ea  a  crou),  a 
law  and  sway  which  seem  to  have  been  iToan-  cruel  and  di^gKeeeful  punishment  practised 
ed,  not  alter  the  spirit  of  the  good  ah^-  by  most  nations  of  antiquity,  but  not  by  the 
hwd,  but  the  low  and  gross  conceptions  of  Jews,  whose  laws  and  usages  wen  in  many 
a  darker  age.  From  the  excess  of  splendour  points  of  a  much  milder  character  than  gene- 
lavished  in  such  times  on  the  crosier,  occa-  rally  prevailed  of  old,  even  ages  after  the 
sion  was  given  for  the  following  satirical  death  of  their  great  Legislator.  Ancient 
lines :  —  writers,  with  one  voice,  speak  of  crocifixion 
•An temps i««6dnsieeled*or,  as  painful,  degrading,  and  servile.  It  was 
Crome  de  bote,  eveeqne  dfor :  emphatically  the  punishment  of  sUres ;  for. 


Mslntenwit  changent  les  toU,^  though  it  was  inflicted  on  free-bom  perscms 

Croew  d  or,  evewiiis  de  beta ;  -  ^^  ^^^  condition,  Boman  oitisens  could  not 

which  means,  that  while  of  old  the  crosier  be  crucified.     The  degradation  was  enhanced 

was  of  wood,  but  the  bishop  of  gold ;  now  by  crucifixion's  being  reserved  as  the  special 

we  have  wooden  biahops,  and  golden  crosiers,  punishment  of  heinous  crimes,  such  as  rob- 

We  have  thus  taken  a  cursory  view  over  bery,  piracy,  peijniy,  sedition,  treason,  and 

this  wide  field.  We  have  seen  the  cross  in  one  assassination. 

shape  or  another,  in  every  age  down  from  the        We  have  already  intimated,  that  cruci- 

days  when  Jesus  suffered.   Foronr  argument,  fizion  was  not  among  the  punishments  of 

the  abuses  answer  equally  well  with  Uie  uses  the  Hebrews,  who  received  it  from  the  Bo- 

of  the  cross;  for  the  two  combine  to  exhibit  mans  as  a  consequence  of  their  subjugation, 

a  symbolical  and  monumental  history  of  the  of  which  it  mi^  be  regarded  as  a  veiy  nn- 

gos]^l,beginning  with  the  time  when  the  lite-  worthy  token.    And  the  crucifying  of  oor 

ral  narratives  of  the  saered  penmen  come  to  Lord  after  he  had  been  condemned,  as  a  mere 

a  close.    Nor  let  it  be  thought,  that  the  sym*  matter  of  course,  requiring  no  speeifie  diree- 

boiical  and  monumental  is  less  significative  tion  or  legal  authori^,  shows  how  cMnpletely 

than  the  literal  and  written  history.    The  the  Jews  of  his  day  had  received  the  Boman 

former  addresses  the  eye  as  well  as  the  mind,  yoke,  and  exhibits  the  evangelists  in  harmo- 

It  has  a  language  of  its  own,  dear  and  de-  ny  with  what,  from  independent  historical 

finite  in  expression,  snd  less  liable  than  any  grounds,  mif^t  have  been  antic^ated  and 

written  word   to  be   altered  or  corrupted,  predicted. 

Additions,  indeed,  it  does  receive ;  but  fiiese  The  condemned,  sfter  having  been  soouig- 
additions  become  each  a  new  leaf  in  the  his-  ed,  had  to  bear  hds  cross  to  the  place  of 
tory.  And,  in  general,  we  know  not  well  how  execution,  which  was  generally  some  fre- 
any  one  that  has  even  a  slight  conception  of  quented  spot  on  the  outside  of  the  city, 
the  vsried  treasures  ofmde,  imperfect,  or  high  Airived  there,  be  was  supplied  with  an  in- 
art,  to  which,  in  successive  ages,  Christianity  tosicating  drink;  and,  having  been  stript  of 
gave  birth,  snd  of  which  destructive  time  his  clothing,  was  raised  and  fastened  to  the 
has  spared  a  veiy  large  portion,  can,  in  carry-  cross  by  nails  driven  into  his  hands,  and 
ing  his  eye  over  the  last  nineteen  hundred  sometimes  by  others  driven  into  his  feet  A 
years  along  the  line  marked  out  by  the  cross  small  tablet  or  title,  dedaring  the  crime.  Was 
alone,  hesitate  to  admit  that  there  is  here  sn  placed  on  the  top  of  the  cross.  The  body 
evidenoe  for  the  great  fret  of  the  reaunec-  found  some  little  support  from  a  kind,  of 
tion,  which  is  not  only  iqppreeiable  by  men  seat.  The  sufferer  died  under  the  most 
of  ordinary  understanding,  but  sound  in  frightful  tortures, — so  great  thaity  even  amid 
itseU;  and  satisfactory.  But  for  the  resur-  the  rsging  passions  of  war,  pity  was  some- 
reotion  of  the  suffering  Christ,  the  cross  times  excited.  Joeephus  ssys,  of  captiyes 
would  have  remained  an  instnunent  of  tor-  taken  by  the  Bomans  at  the  siege  of  Jerusa- 
tur6»  end  a  token  of  infamy.  It  became  a  lem,— .'They  were  first  stripped  and  tofw 
name  of  honour,  a  sign  of  triumph,  the  hope  mented,  snd  then  eracified  before  the  wall 
of  the  world.  This  revolution  of  opinion  of  the  dty.  This  miserable  pioeedare  made 
finds  Its  sole  explanation  ia  the  fast  which  Titus  gready  pity  them '  (*  Jewish  War/  v. 
tiiepnnutive  accompaniments  of  the  cross  11. 1).  In  some  eases  the  snfferingwas  shor- 
dsdare  to  the  ^telligent  mind  in  signs  as  tened  and  abated  by  breaking  the  legs  of  the 

*?J!!S!2r!^^'S^*'.**'^**^^*'^  crimind,  whidi,  howevf^dS^i  noTieem  to 

of  Sofiptoiw.— ^e  u  nta  here;  he  U  rieem,  have  hMlsnybeaevolAntaim,  bat  was  designed 


CRU 


435 


CRU 


to  mak0  bis  desth  certain.  After  deeth,  the 
body,  among  the  keathens,  commonly  re- 
mained on  the  eroes  tUI  il  wasted  away, 
or  was  dcToiiMd  by  birds  of  prey ;  a  military 
gnard  being  jAaoed  near  the  cross  to  preTent 
Uie  removal  of  the  eorpse  for  bmM;  the 
praetiee  being  founded  on  the  abeoMl  notion, 
that  the  exposure  of  exeented  criminals' has 
a  salatary  efleacy  kt  deterring  men  from  the 
commission  of  crime ;  whereas  lengthened 
experience  shows  that  snch  sights  tend  only 
to  degrade  and  bmtslise,  and  so  give  occa* 
sion  to  the  passions  from  which  crime 
arises.  Among  the  Jews,  howeyer,  the 
oorpse  was  enslomarily  islien  down  and 
buried ;  for  fheir  religions  obserrances  and 
feelings  were  too  powerfhl  and  too  elastio 
to  be  suppressed  by  the  load  of  pagan  domi- 
nation. Josephos  asserts  that  dte  Jews  were 
so  regardftil  of  the  rites  of  sepoltnre,  ftat 
they  bnried  even  those  who  were  cmcified 
before  sonset  of  the  day  on  which  they  snf' 
lered. 

The  reader  will  not  ftdl  to  hate  no- 
ticed how  entimly  these  statements,  which 
are  drawn  from  sonx^es  independent  of  the' 
evangelists)  aoeord  with  the  statements  and 
implications  of  tfieir  nsnratives ;  which  are 
thus  found  to  eome  reeommended  to  ns,  in 
the  matter  nnder  consideration,  by  their 
general  aoeordanee  with  history  and  fact, 
and  so  justity  the  eonclasion,  tfiat,  in  tesser 
points  where  snob  agreement  does  notappear, 
we  should  Itaid  that  It  actually  existed,  were 
our  knowledge  more  comprehensive,  minute, 
or  exact. 

There  was  a  bare  possibility,  in  some  cases, 
that  those  who  had  suffered  eruciflxion  might, 
under  medieal  treatment,  recover,  if  taken 
down  at' no  lengtti  of  time  alter  being  sus- 
pendedb  Shich  a  possibility  must  have  de- 
pended on  casual  circumstances,  such  asflie 
age,  natural  strength,  temperament,  and 
aemal  oonditioD  in  regard  to  fatigue  and 
exhaustioii,  of  the  sufferer ;  as-  well  as  on  the' 
degree  of  tortOM  and  extent  of  injury  inflic- 
ted by  his  executioners.  That  the  preser- 
vation of  life,  however,  after  crucifixion,  was 
not  impossible,  is  clear  froxn  Ae  express* 
statement  of  Josephus  ('Lift,'  70): — <I 
saw  many  eaptives  crucified,  and  remembered' 
three  of  tbem  as  my  former  acquaintance. 
X  was  very  sorry  at  ttds,  and  went  with  teanr 
ih  my  eyes  to  Titus,  who  immediately  com- 
maaded:  tbem  to  be  taken  down,  and  to  have 
the  greatest  care  taken  of  them  in  order  to 
their  reoovery ;  yet  two  of  them  died  under 
th0  phyvMa^i  hands,  while  the  third  re- 
covered.' 

The  punishment  continued  in  the  Bomsn 
empire  till  the  time  of  Gonstantine,  wheil  it 
was  abolished  through  the  influence  of  the 
Christian  religion.  Exsmples  of  it  are  found 
in  the  early  part  of  that  emperor^s  xieign ; 
but  the  reverence  which,  at  a  later  period, 
he  was  led  to  foe!  for  the  cross,  induced  him 


to  put  an  end  to  the  inhuman  practice.  Such 
was  a  most  worthy  effect  of  &e  cross,  which 
is  the  symbol  of  the  largest  philanthropy,  and 
the  truest  love.  Nor  would  it  be  difficult  to 
aecnmulate  instances  of  the  efllcacy  which 
the  sight  or  the  thought  of  the  cross  has  had 
in  putting  a  curb  on  human  wickedness,  or 
speaking  peace  to  troubled  hearts.  The  fol- 
lowing Unes  by  Felicia  Hemans  speak  beaa- 
tif^ly  on  the  point :  — 

'The  MSSMd  crcsi,  WherBon 
The  meek  Bedeemer  bowed  Ua  head  to  daatht 
Was  flruned  of  aspen-wood,  and  since  that  hour 
Throngh  all  its  race  the  pale  tree  bath  sent  down 
A  fhriuing  eonseloiuneas,  a  seeiM  awe, 
Maktog  them  tremoloos,  wten  not  a  hrestt 
Distnrbs  the  airy  thistI».down»  or  shakes 
The  light  lines  of  the  shining  gossamer. 
€%a8  (after apaoae).  DOstthoubelieTeitjfktherT' 
JWAer.  Nay,  my  Child, 

YKs  walk  la  dearer  Uflhfc.    Bus  yet,  eren  now. 
With  something  of  a  lingering  Ioto,  I  read 
The  characters,  by  that  mysterious  hour 
Stamp'd  on  the  rererential  soul  of  man 
In  Tidonary  dagra^aad  theaee  thrown  bade 
On  the  fisir  forma  of  nature.    Many  a  sign 
Of  the  great  sacrifloe  which  won  us  heaven. 
The  woodman  and  the  mountahieer  can  trace 
On  rode,  on  herb,  and  flower.    And  be  it  so ! 
ITtei^  do  not  wisely,  that  with  hurried  hand 
Would  pluck  these  salutarr  fandes  forth 
From  their  strorig  soil  wltnbi  the  peasant*s  breast, 
And  scatter  them  -^  ttr,  fhr,  too  fhst  t  —  away 
As  worthless  weeds  s — oh  I  little  do  we  know 
When  they  have  soothed,  when  saTsd.' 

The  import'ande  of  the  subject  has  indaoed 
us  to  seek  the  opinion  of  a  medical  man, 
which  will  be  found  in  the  ensuing  article, 
for  which  the  reader  is  indebted  to  Thomas 
Dorrington,  Esq.  M.R.G.S. 

CRUCIFTXION,  DEATH  BT  (physicaUy 
considered),  is  attributable  to  exhaustion  of 
the  vital  powers,  by  various  circumstancea 
connected  with  that  mode  of  punishment. 
Amongst  the  most  important  of  these  may 
be  named  —  the  shock  to  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, produced  by  the  painftil  operation  of 
driving  nails  through  the  hands  and  feet, 
—  the  suffering  subsequently  caused  by  their 
pressure  on  the  soft  parts,  which  they  had 
pierced  wedge-like,  —  die  local  inflamma- 
tion, ulceration,  and  mortification,  excited  in 
the  wounds  by  that  pressure,  and  aggravated 
by  exposure  to  the  air,  —  the  constitutional 
irritation  and  fbver  arising  from  the  local 
injury,  —  and,  lastly,  the  pain  caused  by  the 
pressure  of  tlie  cords  used  to  fix  the  limbs 
and  body  on  the  cross,  and  by  the  constrained 
position  of  the  sufferer. 

No  wounds  are  more  painfril  than  those 
inflicted  in  crucifixion.  They  are  at  once 
what  surgeons  term  punctured^  laceratedt 
and  contused,  which  are  the  three  most  seri- 
ous Varieties  of  that  species  of  injnry.  Jn- 
dependf  ntly  of  the  grave  nature  of  the  wounds 
themselves,  their  danger  is  much  increased 
when  they  occur  in  such  parts  as  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  or  the  sole  of  the  foot,  in  which 
bones, fasciae,  tendons,  and  their  sheaths,  pre- 
dominate ;  tissues  which,  when  so  iigured, 


C  R  U  436  C  B  U 

relleot  the  mischief  into  the  constitaiion  im-  nentlj  inereate  the  febrile  •ctiimy  and  de- 
medifttely  and  most  violently,  giving  rise  to  range  the  cerebral  ciroolation. 
aomanageable  traumatic  fever.  In  many  To  deteimine  the  probable  dnratioin  of 
very  sensitive  constitotions,  the  immediate  life  after  craeifixion  wonld  be  utterly  impoa* 
shock  of  the  act  of  emoifizion  itself  would  sible,  inasmuch  as  (his  would  depend  maCe- 
hardly  be  rallied  from.  If,  however,  the  vie-  rially  on  the  conskitntion  of  the  suiTerer,  die 
Urn  should  have  sufficient  constitutional  state  of  the  climate,  and  the  season  of  the  year, 
power  to  support  reaction,  the  intense  sgony  the  mode  in  which  the  operation  was  per- 
produced  by  the  weight  of  the  body  sus-  formed,  and  various  other  eirenmstaneea 
pended  on  Uie  raw  parts  in  oontaet  with  the  which  it  is  not  essy  to  appreciate  at  so  great 
nails  in  the  hand,  and  by  the  inflammatory  a  distsnce  of  time.  We  have  before  expressed 
■welling  of  the  palmar  and  plantar  ttosues  an  opinion,  tfiat  in  eertain  eases  the  imme- 
pressing  against  the  unyielding  iron,  com-  diate  shock  of  the  act  of  crucifixion  might 
bined  with  the  distressing  elbcts  of  the  prove  mortal,  as,  for  instance,  where  the 
cords,  and  the  position  of  the  body,  is  <hm  mind  or  body  had  been  previously  exhausted 
of  the  principal  agents  in  the  production  of  by  much  and  long-eontinued  suffsring,  or  in 
Ihat  exhaustion  which  terminates  the  fright-  persons  of  extremely  delicate  fibre,  or  hi^ily 
ftal  scene.  In  our  opinion,  this  view  of  the  sensitive  nervous  system,  as  oertain  femalea. 
subject  has  hardly  been  sufficiently  insisted  In  many  eases,  death  mi|^t  occur  within 
upon,  writers  having  attributed  deatfi  in  these  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours ;  in  others,  with- 
eases  rather  too  exclusively  to  the  fever  pro-  in  forty-eight  hours ;  and,  in  a  few  rare  in- 
duced by  the  injury,  forgetting  the  exhaust-  stanees,  Me  might  be  prolonged  for  days, 
ing  eflbot  of  kmg-eontinued  and  severe  pain.  In  the  case  of  Jesus  Christ,  it  is  remarkable 
This  fever,  whose  importance  we  would  not  that  death  took  plaoe  in  the  short  space  of 
be  supposed  to  under-estimate,  would  come  six  hours;  a  circumstance  which  may  be  ae- 
on in  a  very  short  time  after  the  infiicttoa  oounted  for,  when  we  reeolleet  the  extremely 
of  the  iigury,  a  few  hours  at  most  The  exhausted  sute  in  which  his  hi|^y  impres- 
parts  that  were  pierced  would  become  red,  siUe  nervous  system  must  have  been  at  the 
hot,  swollen,  and  painfril,  the  inflammation  time  of  the  crucifixion.    It  is  impossible  for 


extending  along  the  deep-seated  tissues  in  us  at  all  to  appreciate  the  depressing  and 

the  arms  and  legs ;  the  general  surface  of  the  exhausting  elTecte  of  the  mental  agony  with 

body  would  be  hot  and  dry ;  there  would  be  which  the  Saviour  of  the  worid  contemplated 

pulsating  headache,  dry  tongue,  unquencha-  the  awfhl  teimination  of  his  earthly  career ; 

ble  thirst,  watchfulness,  and  anxiety.    When  an  agony  of  which  we  have  unequivocal  evi- 

ihe  injured  parts,  after  ulcerating,  became  dence  in  the  aflfecting  scene  in  the  garden 

gangrenous,  which  in  most  cases  they  would  of  Gethsemane  the  previous  evening,  and  in 

do  if  the  sufferer  lived  many  hours,  great  his  last  cry  of  despair  on  Uie  cross.    Great 

general  depression  of  die  vital  powers  would  demands  were  msde  upon  his  bodily  and 

at  once  come  on,  with  hiccough  and  cold  mental  energies  during  the  last  days  of  his 

sweats ;  the  circulation  would  be  hurried  life,  and  his  feelings  were  wrought  upon  in 

and  feeble ;  the  breathing  short  and  frequent ;  the  highest  degree.    The  last  supper,  with 

and  the  pstient  would  rapidly  sink ;  the  feel-  ite  afiecting  associations, —  the  consciousness 

ingof  pain  being  nearly  annihilated,  but  the  of  his  impending  betrayal  by  Judas,  and 

sense  of  snxiety  and  prostration  augmented  desertion  by  Peter  and  his  other  disciples, — 

towards  the  last  the  effort  to  bear  up,  in  that  crisis  of  the 

In  other  eases,  where  deep-seated  suppu-  world's  history,  sgainst  an  iirevoeaUe  des- 

ration  in  the  arms  snd  legs  took  plsce,ratber  tiny ;  an  effort  so  trying,  that  at  ite  climax 

than  mortification,  the  fever  would  be  at  first  '  his  sweat  was  as  it  were  gnat  drops  of  blood 

more  of  the  hectic  chsracter ;  but  ultimately  frdling  down  to  die  ground ; ' — the  total  loss 

the  sinking  stage,  as  above  described,  would  of  that  rest  so  necessary  to  neire  the  body 

eome  on.    IVom  mere  hunger,  as  such,  the  the  night  before  his  trial, — the  emelties  and 

patient  would  suffer  little,  since  sll  desire  for  outrages  that  preceded  the  erudfixion, — and 

food  would  soon  cease ;  but,  of  course,  where  his  utter  separation  from  the  expression  of 

life  was  prolonged  for  days,  the  cessation  of  all   human  sympathy  and  encouragement 

the  process  of  nutrition  would  doubtless  ex-  after  his  Mature,  -^  all  acting  upon  a  nervous 

pedite  death.    From  the  privation  of  water,  system  the  most  finely  tempered  and  acutely 

so  eagerly  desired  to  quench  the  burning  sensitive  the  worid  ever  saw,  —  would  neoes- 

thirst,  the  sufferings  of  the  crucified  must  sarily  leave  him  in  a  state  of  prostration  in- 

have  been  awftil.    The  variations  of  tempo-  eapaUe  of  long  bearing  the  mortal  agoniea 

rature  in  the   atmosphere,   acting  on  the  of  the  cross. 

exposed  body  day  and  night,  had  unqnes-  It  i^pears  to  have  been  eustomaxy  to  ter- 
tionably  a  very  exhausting  influence.  The  minate  die  life  of  the  crucified,  in  certain 
eomparative  coldness  of  die  ni^t  air,  under  eases,  before  the  period  of  spontaneous  diseo- 
sueh  cireumstsnces,  would  be  very  depress-  luUon  had  arrived.  In  the  ease  of  the  thieves 
ing;  saddieverticalraysof  diesun  atnoon-  who  were  crucified  with  Jesus  Christ,  this 
day  on  the  bare  head  sad  body  would  emi-     was  effected  by  the  barbarous  proceeding  of 


C  R  U  437  C  R  U 

bMaking  the  legs ;  end  it  ie  probeUe  tlirt  tn  established  fact,  that  they  may  oceor  in 

the  throsUng  of  the  spear  into  the  side  of  a  perfectly  healthy  stmetore,  about  the  time 

Ghrist  was  done  with  something  of  the  same  of  death,  or  snbsequently,  and  so  have  be^ 

object,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  make  sure  that  there  named  cadaveric  or  pteudo-morbtd :  at  the 

was  no  life  in  him.    There  is  nothing  in  the  same  time,  they  nerer  thus  occur,  except 

mere  breaking  of  the  legs  that  would  cause  in  connection  with  deaih,  so  that  their  exist- 

death  in  a  iMalthy  snlirject;  but,  in  one  al*  ence    nnequiyocally  proves  that  this  has 

ready  near  the  point  of  death  from  emci-  taken  place.     The  fluid  thus  poured  out 

llxion,  this  act  would  doubtless  sooh  exhanst  hecessarily  gravitates  to  the  lower  part  of 

the  ebbing  life  of  the  victim,  by  the  excru-  the  eavity  containing  it ;  and  whether  we 

eiaUng  pain  which  it  would  create ;  for  the  consider  'the  water'  named  by  the  evaoge- 

legs  in  such  cases  could  not  be  broken,  with-  list  to  have  flowed  from  the  pericardium  or 

oat  the  iniliction  of  great  violence.  pleuritic  sac,  the  thrust  of  the  spear  must 

The  piercing  of  the  side  of  Jesus  is  a  very  have  been  below  the  fifth  or  sixth  rib,  —  a 

important  part  in  the  history  of  the  cruei-  situation  veiy  generally  assigned  to  it  in 

llxion,  inasmuch  as  the  cironmstsnoes  attend-  the  various  ancient  and  modem  paintings 

ing  it  preclude  the  possibility  of  his  having  of  the  crucifixion. 

been  removed  iirom  the  cross  before  death,        To  the  medical  reader,  the  mention  of  the 

and,  therefore,  of  his  having  been  resusci-  '  blood  and  water '  by  the  evsngelist  is  most 

tated,  —  a  natural  mode  of  explaining  the  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  his- 

resurrection,  which  has  been  broached.    It  tory ;  for  a  fact  is  thus  recorded,  which, 

Is  somewhat  curious  that  modem  patholo-  though  perfectly  natural  when  viewed  by  the 

gists  should  have  observed  facts  which  go  light  of  modem  science,  is  not  only  not 

to  prove,  that  the  flowing  out  of  blood  and  necessary  to  the  coherence  and  consistency 

water  from  the  side  was  a  natural  oecurrenoe  of  the  account,  but,  till  latterly,  would  have 

under  the  circumstances,  and  that  it  could  a  decided  tendency  to  cast  suspicion  upon 

have  taken  place  only  in  the  case  of  a  sab*  it,  owing  to  ito  being  inexplicable  by,  nay, 

Jeet  already  some  time  dead.  rather  inconsistent  with,  former  medical  ex- 

With  regard  to  the  blood,  it  was  in  sU  pro-  perience.  By  this  we  mean,  that,  as  serous 
bability  poured  out  by  the  veins  of  the  skin,  eflhsion  into  the  chest  was  looked  upon  by 
or  by  the  vein  running  along  the  under  edge  the  older  physicians  as  unequivocally  indi- 
of  one  of  the  ribs,  called  by  anatomists  the  eative  of  a  serious  malady  mriating  there 
intercostal  vein,  which  would  be  very  likely  before  death,  the  account  of  the  blood  and 
to  be  wounded  in  a  thrast  made  obliquely  water  by  John,  if  trae,  would  involve  the 
upwards  and  inwards  towards  the  centre  existence  of  such  an  amount  of  disease  dur- 
of  the  body,  in  which  direction  the  spear  ing  the  last  days  of  our  Saviour^s  life,  as 
must  pass,  if  aimed  at  the  side  from  below,  would  have  utterly  incapacitated  him  for 
It  is  no  objection  to  John's  account  of  the  taking  the  part  in  the  events  that  occurred, 
occurrence,  that  the  blood,  being  coagulated  which  he  is  represented  to  have  done, 
in  the  dead  body,  would  not  be  capable  of  In  conclusion,  we  may  be  allowed  to  re- 
flowing  from  an  injured  vessel,  since  it  is  mark  upon  another  circumstance  which 
well  known  to  pathologists,  that  the  blood  affords  important  internal  evidence  of  the 
is  by  no  means  unfrequenUy  in  a  fluid  state  truth  of  the  Scripture  narrative.  John  is 
in  die  veins  after  death.  The  water  named  the  only  evangelist  who  mentions  the  blood 
in  the  histoiy  came  either  from  the  bag  and  water  flowing  from  the  side  of  Jesus ; 
which  contains  the  heart,  called  by  anato-  and  it  is  to  be  remembered,  that  of  the  evan- 
mists  the  pericardium,  or  from  that  cavity  gelists  he  only  was  present  at  the  crucifixion. 
in  the  ehest  formed  by  the  reflection  of  the  Now  the  fact  of  the  blood  and  water  is  just 
covering  of  the  lung,  and  lying  between  such  a  circumstance  as,  trom  not  being 
the  lung  and  the  inside  of  the  ribs,  called  necessary  to  the  general  troth  of  the  story, 
the  cavity  of  the  pleura.  Modem  patholo-  might  easily  be  omitted  firom  Gospels  pro- 
gists  have  shown,  and  we  ourselves  have  ceedingfrom  persons  who  did  not  behold 
frequently  had  the  opportunity  of  veriiying  the  crucifixion  ;  while  it  is  just  the  kind  of 
the  statement,  that  it  often  happens  during  event  tfiat  an  eye-witness  like  John,  who 
the  agony  of  death,  or  after  tiiis  event  has  seems  to  have  hung  about  the  cross  of  his 
occurred,  that  the  thinner  parts  of  the  blood  Master  with  touching  fidelity,  would  note  at 
exude  through  the  sides  of  the  small  blood-  the  time,  and  commit  to  writing  afterwards, 
vessels  ramifying  on  the  membranes  consti-  This  diflbrence  between  the  synopticsl  and 
toting  shut  sacs,  as  the  lining  membrane  of  John's  Gospels  is  so  accordant  with  oar 
the  pericardium  or  pleuritic  cavity.  These  general  experience  of  the  manner  in  which 
exudations,  commonly  called  *  serous  eflb-  historical  narratives  of  the  same  event  come 
sions,'  have  very  much  the  appearance  of  to  differ,  as  to  afford  the  most  satisfactory 
water,  being  in  most  cases  pale  and  perfectly  kind  of  testimony  to  those  who  understand 
transparent.  They  were  formerly  supposed  the  general  nature  of  historical  evidence. 
never  to  occur,  except  as  the  product  of  CRUSE,  connected  with  cruet,  fh>m  the 
disease  existing  during  life ;  but  it  is  now  German  Krug,  French  cmche,  denotes  a  pit 


cue                     438  CUP 

dk«r  or  M*    It  it  to  old  word,  and  flome-  ilIt.  Id).    Instesd  of  oiiekoo»  aaa-giiU  htm 

times  spelt  aruiae  or  cretng.    Cowper  h«9  been  given  by  many  ealhorities.    Then  nte 

Ibese  lines,  in  which  emiee  is  eqaiTslent  to  other  ooigeotares  which  ere  not  worth  eaii. 

botUe :  < —  mereting;    The  simiile  truth  ii,  A«*«^iAf.»g 

•Sis  hevsofetadr  dosed  at  last,  is  known  <m  the  snljeeL 

iUldflllldM4hia^QMiser«|Ms^  CUCUMB£BS,  — a    wdl-faMVn    plfli^ 

Btoopied  his  onite,  replied  bis  book  «Bci«Dtly  prodopsd  on  •  large  eeate  in  Egyy^ 

Cnise  is  die  rendering  of  three  Hebrew  water  was  t  hand,  wwepae^liady  HsronraMa 

words  of  disaimUar  import:  —- 1.  Bakhook^  to  their  giwwlh.    The  Hebrew  wwi  «sinw 

which  appears  to  have  been  a  'bottle  of  fton^ftiDO^JTMy (the Arabic ^iCU),wluc^ 

earthenware'  (1  Kinga  sir.  3.  Jar.  six.  1, 10).  means  Is  ht  kmd,  hanee  Mmd  tf 

II.  Tzioh^ketth,  which  nuy  Bigniiy  *  '  dish,'  according  to  Fnerst,  who,  in  justiiliWtMn^ 

rather  than  a  'craae'  or  'bottle'  (2  Kingi  foalsa  fliny^s  dsasriptfon  of  ^wnmbers, 

ii.  S20).     lU.  Tz0ph§aH^  which  denotes  •  which  may  be  worth  the  Mtenlion  of  ttoa^ 

'  bottle '  or  *  jog'  (1  Sam.  zxri.  IJ,  IJ^,  10.  who  art  giiraii  to  indulge  their  appetiteawilib 

I  Kings  Tm.  12,  14,  16^  zix.  d).^8ee  this #ewd:-^' Whan •waUowed.thsjJNw in 

fiom.B  and  PiTonin.  the  stomaah  to  the  neat  dny,  snd  cannot  ba 

CBYSTAL  (O.)  is  generally  understood  rednead  into  food*'    GnenaibeBS  were  among 

to  mean,  now  as  of  old,  a  transparent  ▼ariety  the  Egypti«nattrMtiona,  the leasof  which  tlia 

of  qoAfts,  h«¥ing  the  appearance  of  glaaa,  eamal  Jaractiles  ngretted  in  the  wildemsaa 

and  termed  by  mineniogists  roeh-ayUoL  (Ntmh.  xi.  t).     Caenmbers  are  reckoned 

Pliny  makea  crystal  to  be  pcodnced  by  the  •  great  deliea^  in  the  Seat.    Henae  they 

oongeUtion  of  water,  and  hence  to  be  found  were  carefdUy  cnltiTttted  in  gardens  in  the 

only  in  cold  climates.    Thename  (in Greek,  neighboorfaood  of  water,    iind,  in  order  to 

tee),  as  well  aa  the  notion  jnst  mentioned,  preserre  the  enclosure  ftoan  derastation,  it 

originated  in  the  ice-like  appearance  of  ciys-  waa  (and  still  is)  cnstomary  to  set  a  person 

tal.    This  aflEbrds  one  among  many  proofs  to  to  watch  on  a  small  eovered  platform.    This 

show  how  snperficisl  were  the  notions  of  the  eustom  throws  light  on  the  meaning  of  the 

ancients  on  scientific  subjects.    False  no*  language  in  Isaiah  (L  8),  who  oomparas  <  tha 

tions  tsnd  to  falsify  facts  and  history.    So  danc^ter  of  Zion '  to  '  a  lodge  in  a  poden 

in  this  case.    Crystal  is  not  specially  the  of  cucumbers.' 

product  of  cold,  still  less  of  frosen  regions.  CUMBRANCE,  now  written  tfneumbnnoe. 

The  best  crystal  comes  from  India.      In  iriiich,  probably  from  the  Latin  cmmilMt,  a 

Cyprus  it  is  ploughed  up.    It  is  found  in  load  or  burden,  signiiiea  that  i^iieh  ia  bor- 

the  Alps,  and  on  the  Arabian  aide  of  the  denaome  (Dent  i.  12).)    The  Hdwpw  ori- 

Bed  Sea.  ginal,  2bAca^A,  is  transloled  also  by  <  trouble' 

Crystal  was  hi^y  Tslued  of  oM.    Pliny  (laa.  L  U). 

speaks  of  a  Soman  lady  who  gave  above  CUMMIN  is  •  word  which  is  inuaediately 

tweWe  thousand  pounds  lor  a  single  crystal  derived  from  the  Hebrew,  ezisthig  also  in 

basin.  the  Arabic,  Syriao,  and  Greek.    Thia  fact 

The  Hebrews  also  used  the  same  word  shows  that  the  plant  which  it  mpreoents  was 
(Ktn^h)  to  signify  '  ice  '  (Job  Ti.  16  ;  widely  cultivated  in  ancient  tiaoa,  aa  at  the 
jczxvii.  10:  comp.  xzxviii.  29.  Jer.  zzxvi.  SO) ;  present  day  it  is  grown  frtm  the  south  of 
and  *  crystal '  (Eaek.  L  22).  Another  word  England,  to  the  distant  ahores  of  India, 
of  similar  meaning  (  Qthttak,  rendered  in  our  Cummin  is  an  umbellifrrous  annual  plant, 
Tersion  'pearls')  is  employed  to  deuote  which  grows  wild  in  Egypt,  and  produoca 
*  crystal '  in  Job  zzviiL  18.  In  Ethiopio,  aeeds,  or  rather  fruit,  eonteining  an  oil  of  an 
crystal  is  termed  hail-stone.  The  passages  aromatic  flaroort  and  atimulating  and  car- 
referred  to  will  show  how  high  was  the  price  minatiye  properties  (Isa.  zxviii  26, 27).  In 
at  which  ciystal  was  valued,  being  compared  Matt,  zxiii.  28,  it  is  placed  by  our  Lord 
with  the  most  precious  stones.  Baraes,  in  among  the  things  for  which  the  Fharisaes 
his  notes  on  the  book  of  Job  (zxviii.  17),  wero  ready  to  pay  tithe,  while  they  *  omitted 
well  remarks,  —  *  It  csnnot  be  supposed  that  the  weightier  duties  of  the  law,  — judgment, 
the  relative  value  of  gema  was  then  under-  mercy,  and  faith.'    The  great  Teacher  h«e, 

•**!??T5t^  *•  °°^*'  ^^  •  characteriatic  propriety,  apoke  of  what 

CUBIT —  See  WnroHTS  and  Mbasvbss.  was  oustomaiy ;  ft>T  we  know  from  the  Bab- 

CUCKOO  is  the  English  rendering  of  a  bins,  that  eummin,  as  well  as  other  veoe* 


5l**  ''^fn!t"«  v""  ^***  •"  u'^*  ^  ^^  ^'^        CUPBEABEB  ia  the  translation,  in  1 


CUR                      439  C  U  8 

a  noon,  denotes  the  o0&6e  off  one  who  pre-  eorreei  popoltt  dehisfons,  bo  far  at  least 

sides  oTer  the  royal  beverage ;  and  henee  a  as  lo  deolare  that  *  ^e  curse  oaaseless  diall 

*  batler'  (Oen.  zl.  1),  or  cnpbeaier.  not  oome'  (I^or.  zzri.  d). 

CUBSE  is  the  opposite  of  bienmg  (see  CUSH,ihe  ridevt  son  of  Ham,  and  father 

the  artiole) ;  for  as  the  latter  stands  in  wish-  of  seven  HamiCio  tribes.    The  Word  is  slso 

iug  well  to  another,  so  the  former  oo&siste  used  as  desoripthre  of  a  taoe  of  men,  having 

in  uttering  against  him  wishes  of  ilL   Mete-  Cush  as  fhei^  prmnitor.    In  what  locality 

nymically, '  eurse '  means  ill  itseli;  either  as  that  race  was  fixed,  has  beeib  a  subject  of 

the  oonseqnenee  of  a  wish,  or  in  a  geii«ral  much  YUriety  of  opinion.     The  difficulty 

aooeptation.    In  the  Old  Soriptmres,  where  appears  te  bate  arisen  ftom  considering  it 

'ourse' and' oorsing' appear «o  often,  thesr  aeeessstry  te  admit  only  one  spot  as  the 

relate  to  merely  temporal  iU,  of  which  deatili  reeidenee  of  the  Otishitos.    &ence  Scriptore 

is  the  extreme    (Chn.  iL  17;  ilL  14-^0.  has  been  sltamed  In  order  ^at  the  several 

Deut  xxviii.) ;  while  after  deatii  llnre  is  no  passages  mi^t  wear  a  oertahi  imiformity, 

differenee  between  the  good  and  bad  (Job  for  which  lliere  is  no  good  independent  evi- 

iiL  17.  Isa.  xiv.  9).    In  the  New  Tastameal,  denee.    By  reftning  to  the  article  Dinsioa 

*  corse,'  and  words  of  similar  anport,  Mto  and  to  Ihe  map,  £e  reader  wiU  learn  the 
found,  which,  in  the  spirit  of  Ite  religioii,  |(ener«l  view  which  we  entertaih  on  the  snb- 
oomprise  more  or  less  the  Ihtnre  steto  df  }eet  That  view  supposes,  that  Gush  had 
being;  but,  according  to  the  same  ^Mrit,mnst  three  chief  settlemente :  —  I.  Persia ;  U. 
be  taken  in  a  qualified  sense ;  for  Jesus  en-  Arabia;  in.  Africa.  Oush,  like  other  Ha- 
joined  on  his  disciples  to  bless  and  eurse  mites,  took  the  outer  parte,  to  the  right  and 
not  (Matt  V.  44.  Luke  vL  28)  :  he  eame  to  to  the  left  (of  a  person  looking  to  the  south) 
relieve  man  from  cursing,  *  Hn  oorse  of  Ihte  of  &e  dominions  of  8hem  (the  country  ftom 
law'  (Gsl.  iii.  10, 13),  and  all  the  toonse^  the  Gtaeasns  to  the  Indian  Ocean),  and  so 
quenees  of  evil,  as  well  as  to  reveal  the  went  intb  Peraia  on  the  eastern  side,  into 
Greater  of  the  world,  and  the  Oovemor  and  Africa  on  the  west,  and  thence  passed  over 
Judgft  of  mankind,  as  their  Father.  TheM  the  Arabian  Qnlf  into  Ethiopia.  This  view 
are  general  principles,  which  lie  at  the  very  brings  the  Scriptural  aocounte  into  acoord- 
oentre  of  the  Ghristian  system,  and  most  be  anee,  without  force  or  difficulty 

allowed  to  give  a  hue  and  an  interpretation  The  direct  evidence  which  shows  that 
to  words  and  phrsae^  which,  being  bor-  Gurii  took  possession  of  Persia  is  found 
rowed  firom  temporary  and  merely  rodimen-  chiefiy  in  the  name  Susa  (Susiana),  which 
tal  religion,  can  but  relatively  and  tmpeifectly  G5rres  considers  the  same  as  Gush.  From 
expresa  the  great  truths  of  the  gospel.  The  this  spot  the  Gushites  intruded  into  the 
•ppropfiate  and  most  valued  ideas  and  foel-  province  of  Shem ;  and,  when  under  Nim- 
ings  of  the  Ghristian  are  those  which  are  rod,  a  son  of  Gush,  they  had  expelled  As- 
indicated  by  the  words,  'faith,  hope,  cha-  shur,  founded  Babel,  as  well  as  Eiech, 
rity ; '  and  the  beatitudes  pronounced  by  the  Accad,  and  Galneh,  in  the  land  of  Shinar 
great  Prince  of  peaoe  all  bear  in  fiivour  of  (Oen.  x.  7).  Here  Raamsh,  another  son  of 
love,  gentleness»  good-will,  forbearance,  and  Oush,  as  well  as  Raamah's  sons,  Sheba  and 
forgiveness  (Matt.  t.  Rom.  xiL  14.  1  Gor.  Dedau,  appear  to  have  borne  sway.  The 
iv.  12).  So  that  there  can  be  no  ^ueetion,  other  sons  of  Gush  —  namely,  Seba,  Havi- 
that  it  is  a  paramount  duty  with  the  Ghris-  lah,  Sabtah,  and  Sabtechah  —  passed  into 
lian  to  abstain  from  cursing  altogether,  and,  the  south  of  Arabia,  and  thence  crossed  over 
in  oonsequenoe,  to  abstain  fit>m  en^loying  into  Afirica,  where,  settling  along  the  coast 
any  language  having  snoh  a  charaeter;  as,  of  the  Arabian  Gulf  (perhaps  also  on  the 
for  instanoe,  the  teima  in  which  the  psalm-  opposite  coast  of  Arabia),  they  formed  a 
ist  sometimes  speaks  of  his  enemiei  (P«.  great  division  of  the  black  population  of 
xxviii.  4 ;  xxxv.  4,  s^.)*  conveying  ideas  and  Africa. 

wishes  that  must  be  eonaidered  as  disowned  There  is  evidence  to  show,  that  Gushites 

and  aboiiahed  by  *  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus'  tettled  in  Arabia.    We  must  premise,  that 

(£ph.  iv.  21.  Numb,  xxiii  8).  the  origins!  word  Ciuk  is  rendered  in  the 

A  eurse,  even  when  uttered  by  an  avowed  Bnglish  version  *  Bthiopia '  or  *  Ethiopians,* 

enemy,  was  anaoag  the  aneient  Hebrews  in  passages  where 'Arabia*  and 'Arabians' 

held  to  be  of  eifioacy  in  piudneing  the  wished*-  would  have  been  correct   Thus,  in  the  book 

for  mischief  (Gen.  xxvii.  13,  18.   1  Kinga  of  Numbers  (xii  1),  we  read  that  Miriam 

ii.  6) ;  -—  a  nodon  which  seems  to  have  hiid  and  Aaron  spake  against  Moses  because  of 

ite  origin  in  a  conviction  of  the  intrinsic  the  Ethiopian  (H.  Cushite)  whom  he  had 

powar  of  evil  to  bring  about  ite  appropriate  married.     But,  from  Exodus  (ii  IS — ^21), 

effecto.    Probably  the  state  of  high  excite-  we  learn  that  the  wife  of  Moses  was  a  Mi- 

ment  in  which  a  person  was  when  denoun-  dianitish  woman,  or  a  descendant  of  Abra- 

oing  a  curse,  had  a  sort  of  fttfoination,  which,  ham  by  Ketursh ;  and  it  is  equally  certain, 

unbracing  the  powers  of  the  party  cursed,  that  Median  or  Madian  was  a  city  and  coun- 

oondueed  to  ite  own  ftilfilment.    In  process  try  in  the  north-west  of  Arabia,  on  the  shore 

of  time,  however,  higher  wisdom  oame  to  of  the  Bed  Sea. 


C  U  S  440  CUT 


Dr.  Wells  (approved  hj  Forster)  adduoes  xxxyIL  9 ;  zviii.  1).  In  this  period,  Winer 
other  proofs  with  more  or  less  effect;  for  placet  the  eonqnest  of  Thebes  (Nah.  iii.  8). 
instance,  from  the  march  of  Tirhakah,  king  Then  a  large  portion  of  the  Egyptian  war- 
of  Cash,  against  Sennacherib,  king  of  As-  nor^oaste  migrated  into  Ethiopia,  and  erected 
Syria,  then  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Libnah,  a  state  of  their  own,  which  was  afterwards 
a  ci^  of  Palestine  (2  Kings  ziz.  9) ;  and  the  dominant  one.  These  statements  are  to 
from  the  expedition  of  Zerah  the  Cashite,  be  understood  of  the  coltiTated  part  of  Ethio- 
against  Asa,  king  of  Judah;  both  which  pia.  Many  other  tribes  of  the  widely  ex- 
passages,  he  thinks,  show  Arabia,  not  Ethio-  tended  conntiy  remained  at  large,  wandering, 
pia,  to  be  designed  by  the  name  Cosh;  warlike,  owning  no  government,  and  con- 
since  the  kings  and  armies  of  the  African  nected  with  their  neighbours  only  by  ocoa- 
Ethiopia  could  reach  Jndea,  only  alter  a  atonal  oommercialtranaaetionB.  When  Egypt 
long,  hazardous,  and  probably  hostile  march  had  frtUen  into  the  hands  of  Cambyses,  that 
through  the  interposing  kingdom  of  Egypt;  conqneior  made  his  way  into  Ethiopia  amid 
—  an  expedition  feasible  to  great  conquerors  the  givatest  piirations  and  dificnlties,  which 
only :  whereas  the  kings  and  warlike  tribes  Darwin  has  described:  — 

of  Arabia  lay  immediately  on  its  borders,  «Bk>w  as  they  pai^d.  the  faid^usnt  temples  fhwn'dt 

or  possessed  ready  access  to  Palestine.^  Low laases mwttenog from  the  vaolted grownd; 

Foster   CGeog.  of  Ar.l,U.'  i  16)   eu^  iS?^4JSi'5Xr^'lif!^ 
▼ours,   but  without   success,   to   carry  this  propheClewUspmtetMiaiedfromSpbiiUE'Btonini^ 
argument  still  farther,  referring  to  2  Chron.  And  Memaoo's  lyre  with  hollow  monnnrs  nmg; 
xiT.  14,  15.    Winer,  a  far  more  trustworthy  ?«7'i^"  •^  pyiamld  cxphtog  grom, 
authority,  says  that  Cush  denotes  the  south-  ^J^r'  "^^  '"'^  *  "^^  X«agtb«'d 
west  of  Ajsbia,  but  refers  only  to  Oen.  x.  7.  Day  ai|«r  dsj  their  desttaftil  rcmte  they  aleer,^ 
Niebuhr,  however,  found  in  Yemen  J^^iw  Lust  hi  the  tsD|  and  rspiae  in  the  reur.' 
Cushi,  descendants  of  Cush.     Ackermann        The  Persian  dominion  was  not  of  long 
{*  Bibel -Atlas,'  8)  —  referring  to  Hab.  iii  7  duration.    The  Ptolemies,  down  to  Ptolemy 
and  Herod.  '^.  60  —  is  of  (pinion  that  the  Euergetes,  appear  to  have  gained  no  political 
Cushites  passed  fit>m  Arabia  into  Africa,  influence  in  Ethiopia;    but  that  monarch 
and  settled  in  Ethiopia  or    the    Modem  made  himself  master  of  Upper  Ethiopia, 
Abyssinia.    What  Bitter  has  shown  is  wor-  about  22d,  A.C.    Near  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
thy  of  notice ;  namely,  that,  on  both  sides  we  find  the  Ethiopians  under  their  own 
of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  there  are  many  names  monarchs;  and  an  indepeodent  Ethiopian 
of  tribes  in  which  is  found  the  syllable  tab,  queen  is  mentioned  in  Acts  TiiL  27. 
which  enters  into  the  names  of  four  sons  of        These  African  Cushites  were  black  (Jer. 
Cush  (Oen.  x.  7).  ziii.  28),  of  large  statue,  long-lired,  and 
The  more  usual  meaning  assigned  to  great  prowess.     Indlvidnals  of  the  nation 
Cush,  however,  is  Ethiopia,  or  the  country  were  found  in  foreign  oriental  courts,  as 
of  Africa   above  Syene   (Ezek.  xxix.  10),  eunuchs  (Jer.  xxxriL  7). 
including  the  islands  belonging  thereto,  in        CUTHA,  a  district  of  Asia,  oat  of  whleh 
the  Arabian  Gulf  (Job  xxviii.  19),  and,  be-  Shalmaneser  transported  persons,  in  order 
sides  Ethiopia  proper,  also  the  modem  Nu-  to  colonise  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  which  he 
bia  and  Coj^ofan  (Zeph.  ii.  12.  Amos  ix.  7 :  had  destroyed  (2  Kings  xrii.  24 — 80).    By 
see  Bosenmuller).    During  the  period  of  the  the  intermixture  of  these  foreigners  with  the 
later  Jewish  kings,  the  Cushites  appear  in  native  population   arose  at  a  later  period 
connection  with  the  Egyptians  and  Lybians  the   Samaritans,  who  are  in  the  Talmud 
(Nah.  iii.  9.  Ps.  bnriii.  81.  Isa.xi.  11;  xx.  denominated    Cuthaites.      Josepbns    says, 
4;  xliiL  8;  xiv.  14.  Ezek.  xxix.  10;  xxx.4,  that  those  who  in  Hebrew  (Chaldee)  sre 
teq.  f   xxxviiL  d.    2  Chron.  xiL  8).     This  caDed  Cuthaites  are  in  Greek  called  Sama- 
alliance  depended  on  the  political  relations  ritans  ('Antiq.'  ix.  14.  8).     Josephus  fixes 
which  subsisted  between  Egypt  and  Ethio-  Cutha  in  Persia,  where,  he  says,  *  is  a  river 
pia.   Winer  finds  one  cause  of  it  tn  Ethiopia  of  the  same  name.'     The  Cuthaites  have 
having  (as  he  holds)  been  the  source  of  the  been  oonjecturally  identified  with  the  Cos- 
population  and  culture  of  Egypt    The  two  saei,  whom  Anian  and  Diodoms  Siculus 
peoples  were  certainly  similar  in  customs  place  in  Suaiana.  The  appellation  Cuthaites 
and  manners.    Ethiopia,  or  a  part  of  it,  was  or  Cutheans  became  a  term  of  reproach, 
also  politically  dependent  on  Egypt;   and  Josefdios  asserts,  that  they  were  in  number 
under  Shishak  (2  Chron.  xii.  2),  a  contem-  five  tribes ;  that  theybrou^t  their  own  gods 
porary  of  Jeroboam,  and  probably  the  Se-  into  Samaria;  that  they  were  punished  of 
socchis  of  the  twenty- second  dynasty,  Egypt  the  Almighty  by  a  plague  for  their  idolatix, 
(Upper  Egypt)   was    subject   to  Egyptian  and,  finding  no  cure  for  their  miseries,  sent 
princes ;  and  from  forty  to  forty-four  years,  undinr  the  advice  of  the  onude,  to  the  king 
till  the  time  of  Psammeticus,  an  Ethiopic  of  Assyria,  requesting  him  to  let  them  have 
dynasty  of  three  kings  —  namely,  Sabaoo,  some  of  the  priests  of  the  Israelites,  whom 
Sevechus  (So),  sad  Tarakos  (Tirhaka) —  he  had  taken  captive;  that  the  request  was 
ruled  in  Upper  Egypt  (2  Kings  xiz.  9.   Isa.  complied  with,  and  suitable  worship  esta- 


CUT  441  CUT 

blished  when  the  plftgae  ceMed ;  fend  that,  ever   have    found    enoonragement    in    the 

when  they  saw  the  Jews  in  prosperitj,  they  Christian  church. 

claimed  kindred  wiOi  them,  as  if  desoended        But  the  practice  we  speak  of  had  not  only 

from  a  common  ancestor,  Joseph ;  bnt,  when  a  genera],  bnt  a  specific  reference.     The 

they  saw  the  Jews  in  adversity,  they  dis-  cuttings  were  *  for  the  dead ; '  and,  as  such, 

owned  them,  asserting  their  own  origin  to  they  were  marks  of  griefl    Here  they  assume 

be  foreign.  a  less  offensiye  character,  forming  a  part  of 

CUTTINGS  IN  THE  FLESH  were  ex-  that  circle  of  usages  which  originated  in  the 
pressly  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  law,  among  desire,  on  the  part  of  surnYora,  not  only  to 
other  practices,  such  as  using  enchantment,  give  utterance  to  their  regrets,  but  to  mani- 
maklng  the  forehead  bald,  printing  marks  fest  their  regards  to  the  departed.  When 
on  the  person,  which  appear  to  have  been  suffering  deeply  under  a  bereavement,  we 
in  use  among  idolaters,  as  signs  of  contri-  are  not  only  physically  unfit  for  pleasure, 
tion  and  grief,  and  tokens  of  devotement  to  but  feel  all  gntefol  emotions  to  be  a  kind 
their  imaginary  deities  (Lev.  xix.  26 — 28 ;  of  injury  done  to  the  memory  of  the  dead, 
xxi.  6.  Dent.  xiv.  I)*  In  confirmation  of  It  seems  to  us  wrong  to  be  even  capable  of 
this  view,  we  find  the  sole  Godhead  of  Jeho-  any  enjoyment,  after  the  loss  we  have  under- 
vah  emphatically  declared  in  connection  gone;  and  so  long  as  the  image  of  our 
with  the  prohibitions.  We  slso  find  it  pro-  deceased  child  or  partner  remains  psominent 
claimed,  that  Israel  is  a  holy  people  to  Je-  before  our  minds'  eye,  and  the  memory  of 
hovah  (licv.  xxL  6) ;  and  this  proclamation  him  is  fresh  and  Tivid,  we  think  it  right  to 
may  serve  to  show  what  is  meant  by  Israel  indulge  grief;  we  feel  justified,  if  not  re- 
being  God's  chosen  and  peculiar  people,  quired,  to  welcome  privations ;  and  so  are 
The  Hebrews  were  taken  from  the  midst  of  easily  led  to  find  merit  in  self-inflicted  suf- 
an  idolatrous  world,  to  be  educated  in  the  ferings.  Such  feelings,  natural  as  they  may 
grand  doetrine  of  the  Divine  Unity.  As  be,  are  not  Christian ;  and,  if  justifiable  at 
tilius  ohosen  for  God's  own  gracious  pur-  all,  would  go  far  to  authorise  the  entire 
poses,  they  were  redeemed  ttom  all  idola-  system  of  self-mortification  which  Moses 
trous  service,  consequently  bound  to  abstain  has  so  properly  condemned,  and  which  can 
from  idolatrous  practices,  and  to  keep  their  prevail  only  in  religions  which  stand  flur 
homage  exclusively  for  Him  to  whom  they  below  the  gospel.  These  cuttings,  however, 
emphatically  belonged.  thus  originated  and  sanctioned,  passed  into 

These  cuttings  of  the  flesh  were  literal  a  general  observance.  The  practice  is  so 
incisions  made  on  the  person,  as  an  indica-  spoken  of  by  Jeremiah  (xvi  6 ;  xli.  6),  whose 
tion  of  grief,  and  a  means  of  conciliating  the  language  may  warrant  the  conclusion,  that 
favour  of  idol  divinities.  They  thus  form  a  the  prohibition  of  Moses  had  not  found  uni- 
part  of  that  system  of  self-mortification  versal  observance  among  his  professed  adhe- 
which  is  found  in  all  ages,  in  all  quarters  rents.  The  custom  still  exists  in  countries 
of  the  world,  as  apart  —  often  a  very  pro-  bordering  on  Pslestine.  Schubert  thus  speaks 
minent  part — of  systems  of  low  and  un-  of  it  as  exhibited  in  caravans  setting  off 
worthy  ideas  of  God.  Thus  the  votaries  of  from  Cairo  to  Mecca :  — '  Then  came  the 
Baal,  the  impious  rival  of  Jehovah  in  Syria,  herd  of  fanatical  and  wrapt  dervishes,  riding 
—  when,  in  conflict  with  Elijah,  they  could  on  wretched  camels,  and  proceeding  with 
not  make  their  deaf,  sleeping,  or  absent  god  wild  contortions  of  their  limbs.  Some  had 
hear  their  prayer,  —  *cnt  themselves,  after  pieces  of  iron  and  kniyes  struck  through 
their  manner,  with  knives  and  lancets,  till  their  arms  and  cheeks :  othen  were  encir- 
the  blood  gushed  out  upon  them'  (1  Kings  ded  by  serpents'  (ii.  214). 
xviii.  28).  The  general  idea  which  lies  at  Intimately  connected  with  these  lacera- 
the  bottom  of  these  practices  of  self-morti-  tions  stands  tatooing  (Lev. xix.  28),  —  'Nor 
fication  is,  that  the  gods  are  unfavourably  print  any  marks  upon  you,'  —  which  also  is 
disposed  to  man,  consequently  jealous  of  a  raligious  custom,  designed  to  signify  that 
his  happiness,  and  therefora  alien  from  him  the  person  belonged  to  the  master  or  idol- 
unless  when  enduring  voluntary  pain.  This  god,  whose  name  or  insignia  he  thus  bore, 
most  false  and  ii^urious  idea  is  found  in  the  This  has  been  a  very  general  observance, 
classic  nations,  as  well  as  among  barbarous  It  exists,  indeed,  wheraver  false  religious 
and  semi-barbarous  peoples.  But  in  true  views  prevail.  Most  extensively  practised 
religion  it  can  have  no  place ;  for  hera  the  among  the  South  Sea  islanders,  it  is  nearly 
ftmdamental  conception  is,  that  *  God  is  nnivenal  with  the  Bedouins.  In  Catholic 
love'  (1  John  iv.  8);  and  creation,  with  countries,  images  of  the  Virgin  ara  tatooed 
providence  and  grace,  only  an  expression  of  on  the  limbs ;  pilgrims  to  die  Holy  Land 
his  goodness.  Hence  Moses  forbade  these  have  commemorated  their  seal  by  imprint- 
cuttings  in  the  flesh.  And  much  to  be  ing  some  suitable  token  on  their  persona; 
regretted  is  it,  that  any  views  or  practices  and  few  English  sailon  are  wholly  free  from 
borrowed  from  a  sphere  of  thought  so  dis-  similar  specimens  of  picture-writing.  Mi- 
tant  frt>m  the  great  ideas  of  his  nligion,  ehaelis,  accordingly,  says  of  the  passage 
and  that  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  should  under  consideration :  — '  The  raferenoe  it 


C  Y  P  442  C  Y  P 

to  thi  eastom  of  Orientals  to  bom  on  tbeir  KuproB,  the  land  of  die  eyprees,  whiefa  the 

right  hand  memorials  of  various  sorts  witfi  Roroant   modBitiised    into    Oypni»»      The 

henna,  which  gires  an  unfading  ooloor ;  Fh«nioians  iMie  the  earileat  inhabitmts  of 

and  this  they  do  to  the  present  day.    They  the  ialaad,  iriiieh,  from  f la  woods  of  the  cy- 

•le  tenfaer  •oensts— ed  to  write  on  fAseee  of  peesa,  l^ey  tenned  the  Cfjntm-iakmd,  —  « 

doth,  which  tb^  wear  as  onMiients  en  name  whieh  was  pieeewed  in  die  nsages  of 


their  foieheMl,  ail  kinds  of  proteriM,  and  Western  nations,  after  it  had  passed  ont  of 

not  setdom  magioal  wordSt  whieh  wwe  held  siistsiiee  in  die  East 
to  he  piesetfatifss  sgainst  criL'     AflM»g        The  eommand  to  Noah  entlivly  eoira- 

other  snAorities,  ws   site    the  words   of  spowds  with  what  was  in  a  vsiy  eariy  period 

Maiindiell: — *  The  pilgrims  had  their  srms  eustoinsry  aMong   Ffaonielan   aatigators, 

marind  with  the  nsoal  ensigns  of  Jerasalem.  who  hoilt  wssels  of  gopher>wood,  whieh 

Ths  artisli  who  nndeitake  die  operation  do  grow  ahondandy  J«st  shore  their  coasts,  in 

it  in  this  aunnerr^Tlwy  have  stsmpe  in  die  rich  finosts  of  Lebsnon.    A  thousand 

wood  of  any  Agwio  that  yon  desire,  whieh  yesis  Ister,  Aleiander  had  his  sh^  hoUt  of 

they  first  print  off  opon  your  era  with  pow-  the  eypms,  snd  sensed  at  leest  the  more 

der  of  ehsreoal;  dun,  taking  two  Dory  fine  impoitant  parts  to  be  taioni^t  to  Thspsaons, 

needles  tied  eiose  together,  and   dipping  oiler  having  been  made  in  Cyprwe  snd  Phes 

thsm  often  Uks  a  pen  in  eeitala  ink,  cob-  nioia.     Before  Alexander,  the  H&euiieians 

pomdsd,  as  I  was  inlbrmsd,  of  gvnpowder  wsre  the  shipbnilders  fbr  die  PBtsiana,  under 

and  ox-gall,  they  make  with  them  smaH  Xanss,  in  his  expedition  against  Gteeee; 

ponetnres  all  shmg  the  lines  of  the  flgute  and  under  Osmbysee,  in  his  invasion  of 

which  they  have  printed ;  end  then,  wasfanf  Bgyp^t  m  ^m11  as  of  Pharaoh  Necbo,  in  his 

the  psrt  in  wine,  cendnde  thewotk.    Theee  eiieumnavigation  of  Africa;  snd,  sdll  ear- 

ponetoies  thsy  make  with  gssat  quiekness  lier,  of  Solomon,  for  his  voyage  to  Ophk. 
and  dextari^,  and  with  sians  any  smstl^        The  qualities  of  the  cypress  eansed  it  to 

seldom  pieteing  so  deep  as  to  draw  Mood*  be  empleyed  in  shipbnflding.     It  was  ao- 

(*  Journey  Ikom  Aleppo  to  leraaalem,'  100).  eoonted  veiy  AirahlS)  and  proof  against  die 

Bruee  msntioBs  a  eeremony,  called  *in>  rot  in  water,  mid  odier  eauaee  of  decay, 

risian,'  obssrvsd  by  the  Abyssinian  Jewish  Henoe  Thueydidee  etatee,  that  the  bodies  of 

womsn :  — '  As  soon  as  a  near  relation  dies,  persons  who  had  follen  in  deimee  of  their 

a  biother  or  parent,  cousin  or  lover,  every  country  were  borne  to  their  long  home  in 

woman  in  that  relation,  with  the  nails  of  oofllno  of  eypress  (iL  84).    Hence,  too,  it 

her  litde  fingers,  which  she  leaves  long  on  was,  as  we  lesm  from  various  authorities, 

purpose,  cuts  the  ekin  of  both  her  temples,  that  the  folding-doors  of  sneient  temples, — 

about  the  siae  of  a  sii^isnce ;  sad  therefore  for  instsnee,  diat  of  Diana  atEpheeus, — and 

you  see  either  a  wound  or  a  eear  in  every  other  saered  objects,  were  made  of  eypress- 

liiir  iboe  in  Abysshiia.'  wood,  particulariy  aa  it  resisted  the  attack 

CYMBALS.  —  SeeMvsio.  of  worms.     To  Jiqiiter  also  was  given  a 

CYPRESS  stands  for  duee  Hebrew  words,  cypress  sceptre,  in  order  to  indioaie  diat  his 

Chpker  (see  Cucphibi),  Bttcth  (Cant  L  dominion    was    indestmotible.     The   poet 

17),  nnah  (Isa.  xliv.  14).    Out  of  die  first  Martial  describee  the  eyprees  ss  deathless 

was  the  aik  eonstrueted  by  the  direction  of  (Spig.  78)  in  theee  words :  — 

JeDirineB^.    The  comnsnd--* Make  .pttpet«wi,iwmammorituraciip.«so.' 

diee  an  ark  of  gopher-wood  *  (Oen.  vL  14)  *^  * 

—  givee  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  qnesdon,  liadeed,  ftom  ito  qualities  the  cypress  as- 

what  that  wood  was;  snd,  since  the  subject  quhted  throu^ut  the  East  a  sssred  eharae- 

hss  been  treated  by  the  jusdy  oelebrated  ter.     We  need  refinr  only  to  the  opinion 

Karl  Bitter  (« Erdkunde,'  xi.  Theile,  p.  067,  lospeeting  it  held  in  Persia.    In  die  Zend- 

•ey.),  it  may  be  considered  as  ifaially  decided  Avesto  it  is  accounted  divine,  —  sacred  to 

in  fovour  of  the  cypress.    The  word,  indeed^  the  pure  li^t  of  Ormuxd,  whose  word  was 

occurs  but  ones  in  the  Bible,  —  in  the  pas-  first  carved  on  this  noble  trse.  The  writinga 

sage  to  which  we  have  just  referred ;  but,  as  of  die  Parsi  toll  of  a  cypeem-tTBe,  planted  in 

the  learned  Bochart  has  observed,  gopher  Kisehseer  by  Zerdnseht  (Zoroaster)  himself, 

and  cypress  (in  the  original  Greek,  kmpar)  which  grew  to  wondrous  dimensions.     In 

are  deady  the  same.    The  original  Shemitie  girth  it  was  so  large,  that  a  huntoi's  lino 

name  of  the  tree,  Oopher,  passed  with  such  could  not  endoee  it.    Its  top  was  adorned 

alight  variations  as  diversity  of  nation,  lo-  by  branches  so  wide,  that  Zerduscht  buOt 

oality,  and  culture,  occasioned,  through  die  beneath  its  eompaas  a  summer-house,  forty 

Phcsniciaas  to  the  Western  world ;  —  for  yards  high  and  forty  yards  broad.    When 

the  ships  of  those  traders  were  for  the  most  this  edifloe  was  finished,  die  great  teacher 

part  built  of  gopher*wood ;  and  the  island  eansed  proclamation  to  be  made,  — *  Where, 

at  a  later  period,  called  by  the  Hebrews  and  in  the  whole  world,  is  there  a  eypress  like 

PhoBnicians  JCittisi,  bscame  known  to  the  that  of  Kischmer  7    Ood  ssnt  it  out  of  Pa- 

Greeks    through    the    cypress-trees  which  radise,  and  said,  ''Bend  thy  top  towards 

fonned  ito  weshb,  snd  hence  was  named  Paradise,  and,  liirtirnirg  all  to  my  eoimsel* 


C  YP  4. 

nuke  K  inlgriinige  to  Ibg  foot  ^  Ifa*  cjpnu 
ol  Kiw^mer,  fblLiwiiig  the  foidaBcg  of  Zet- 
Aiscbli  and  tarn  joni  iMtcka  on  th*  idob 
of  THbin."  Tb*Hmntn«i>c«lebi>l«d  in 
the  xmgiof  Firdnii,  m  hniag  had  lla  <irigm 
inPandiN.  Bwnd  tnea, apnug tmn Pan- 
diM,  whkli  e^  to  mind  Ihs  t»a  ef  lib,  ud 
flia  tree  of  tha  knovledg*  at  goed  and  eTil, 
In  At  Oarden  of  Edan  (Cka.  H.  0),«enad- 
dnaud  in  prayer  bjrtlu  anaioil  Pani,  tbon^ 
thej  esohewed  [he  wonb^  <f  idali,  and 
hoTHKired  tte  nin  and  moon  onlj  at  tjai- 
boli.  Omniid  biBxelf  »  aet  fcrth  gmng 
diis  sommand;  — '  Qo,  O  ZomaMir!  u  the 
UrUig  tnei,  and  let  tti;  moalh  apeak  batm 
lliem  theae  words:—   "'  '"   "^ 


3  C  Y  P 

ortan  rlae>  to  luga  dimenaicni  and  alnifnlat 
baaatji  th«  nTereace  with  vbieb  it  was  tc- 
gaided  taats  oiigiDallj  on  [he  tsi;  ancient 
aupentitian  of  [he  people,  which — awigning 
to  dl  natual  ot^eou,  sic  and  water,  plania 
and  lrae>,  personal  attribatea,  either  muen- 


mtobe  anrprleed 


There  Is,  therefore,  no  reaic 
that  [he  erpresa,  a  tree  of  P 
ap  jramidal  form  like  flame,  ahonld  be  planted 
at  the  gales  of  the  most  sacred  Bre-tsmples, 
and,  bearing  the  Uw  inHribed  bj  Zoroutet, 
should  b«  the  sompanion  of  ererj  sanctaarj 
and  of  ereiT  rajal  abode  of  the  aerrants  of 
Onnud.  Thia  is  the  reason  whjseulpliired 
images  of  the  sfpreia  are  ao  mncfa  found  oD 
the  lemplea  and  palaeea  of  Penepolia ;  tor  the 
Ferriatt  kings  wne  serrants  of  Ormazd. 
Sacred  ujpiesiss,  like  th*  oak  of  the  Bmids 
and  of  Dodona,  wan  tDUod  also  on  (he  rerj 
ancient  lempla  of  Anuanr,  ihe  old  abode  of 
die  AnairidtB,  In  AtiopaleDe  (Aderbidjan), 
die  home  of  Zoroaiter  and  his  li^l-wonliip. 
The  oTpreaa,  Indeed,  diflbsed  abroad  OTer 
Persia,  was  tiannnitted  ae  a  eaned  tree  down 
bom  the  anolant  magi  to  the  Hosanlmans  of 
modem  St/st.     In  Perala,  where   the   tree 


>t  a  flOToe  or  a  tnild  ualiue 
—  regarded  trees  of  nnasual  qnalitles  as  the 
abodea  of  bolj  and  pioas  and  ctcd  celeatial 
ifiiiits.  Vit^  has  pnaerved  a  relio  of  [his 
•Daient  raapaDl  lor  Aie  cjpreas:  — 'And  near 
(waa)  la  anoieiit  ojpreas,  pnaerred  daring 
manj  jean  hj  the  religions  feelings  of  the 

Oie  lestimaniea,  both  from  ancient  and  mo- 
dcsn  writers,  which  apeak  of  Ihe  diatingolsbed 
bean^  of  Ihe  PenUn  ajpi^aa.  Delhi  Valla 
daiBfttiea,  with  great  Diinnteueas,  Dfpreis 
trees  of  siae  ao  large,  that  five  men  oould 
not  eneompaaa  the  tnink  of  one  of  them. 
Nearly  two  handled  jeata,  bum  his  time  la 
that  of  Bir  W.  Otiaele;,  had  caused  no  great 
cAanga  in  iheae  treee,  which  the  natiies 
■saertcd  to  be  a  [honsand  ;esia  old. 

Id  Palestine,  the  nane  gophtr,  which  had 
been  spread  orn  the  world,  twoame  obaoleta, 
being  fooDd  onlj  in  ttie  paasaga  regarding 
the  eonslmction  of  tJw  aik.  Another  name 
Mme  into  nse,  that  ia  &ra(A,  which  also 
was  nodcred  ■  cjpreaa'  b}  Qie  Greek  and 
BjTMD  translaIo^^  tboagh  in  the  English 
version  it  is  repraaented  by  the  word  'flr' 
<C«nt.i.  IT):  — 
'Tbe  beams  of  ooi  honse  are  aedar;  cur  walls. 

In  EecleeiasHcaa  toiT.  17),  Wisdom  ssys 


In  Ihe  description  of  Ilie  high  priest  Bimon, 
■on  of  Onias,  [hat dietingniBhsdmauia  com- 
pared (o  a  cypress-tree,  rising  to  a  great 
height,  aiomid  whom  hie  ministering  breih- 
ran  are  grouped  as  sedara  on  Lebanon  (Eoele- 
eiaaticaa  1.  11,  (ef.;  comp.Eid.xizL  8). 
Whence  we  may  learn  the  lofty  splendonr  (o 
which  the  cypiesa  attained  in  Paleatine,  where 
it  grew  wDd  in  ancient  times  (Ps.  oit,  17. 
I>a.ziv.e).  As  in  other  temples,  BO  in  Solo- 
mon's, doors  and  other  paita  were  mads  of 
npreae  (1  Kings  *L  10, 34).  Eiekiel  shows 
that  [be  Tyiians  emiJoyed  this  wood  in 
building  shops  and  houses  (nvii.  A).  Tbe 
hewing  down  of  the  finest  cypress-trees  and 
cedars  on  Lcbsnoa  is  made  dbb  of  by  Isaiah, 
as  a  figure  to  denote  tbe  eitiipaLion  of  idols- 
lious  worship  (Ita.  xixtii.  S4).  TheBeroth 
(or  Beroah)  appears  to  hare  comprised  three 
fcinrls  of  eypress,  —  Ctipre»»i«  ttrnpervimu, 
the  Tluro,  and  the  JuTiiperui  Bahina.  Be- 
roth  waa  also  die  name  of  Ihe  Phcenician 
TenoB,  the  goddess  of  Lebanon ;  (he  cypress, 
or  Cyprian  divinity.  It  also  gSTe  IIS  nsme 
to  (he  city  Beiroot,  celebrated  for  cypress 
groves,  as  lying  at  the  side  of  Lebanon. 


C  YP  4 

TiM  third  word  Ilntk  (Ii*.  xIIt.  11), 
tram  *  root  lignliying  hard,  prapar)]'  dniom 
tha  il«i  (QunvM  Utx),  ihangh  nndared  in 
iMiab  cfpnu. 

Oa  uccndiDg  Uonnt  8iiuJ,  Olio,  whila 
in  ihe  midBl  ol  but,  ragged,  and  lablima 
aceniry,  came  to  '  an  nuaipaalBd  aceua  of 
loTalinaaa.  Than  la  »  daap  *allaj,  bounded 
on  tht  right  and  left  bj  tall,  ban  clllb.  A 
Diagiiifli.'ent  and  grasetiil  cypnm,  wbith  ilaaa 
Uflu  iia  centre,  inrilea  tlu  wearj  pilgrim  (a 
npoae  id  ita  riiada,  and  a  wall  of  aioaUant 
water  offera  him  lla  walcont  raboahmaU' 
(L  587). 

In  order  to  prerant  an;  hbt  ImpraHion, 
we  remark,  that  ia  lh«  article  Cutraips, 
the  kophtr  ahrnb  i)  ipokvo  at  ander  the 
niBia  et/prta,  merelj  out  of  defaraiae  to 
'    It  usag*.     A*  than  alatad,  tha  kopho! 


Uben 


irlhe 


CYPBU8  (U.Sopln'),alai8aialaiid, pro- 
bably ao  sailed  ffom  abomtdliig  in  ajpnaa- 
tr«eB,  in  tha  If  editeiTanaan  8«a,  lying  aoma 
inllef  fMm  the  land,  oB  tha  eoaat  of  Bjri^ 
oppoaita  lb«  motuh  of  tha  Orontca.  It  wm 
•leaadin^  ftnitfnl,  abomuling  in  oom,  oil, 
and  wina ;  Sga,  honay,  te.  It  gave  same  to 
tofptr,  htnee  eaUad  ca  Cgprint,  Cjprian 
braaa.  Alao  manj  Unda  of  preciona  atonaa 
W«n  found  in  the  ialuuL  Abounding  in 
treoa  and  huboora.  It  waa  tamoaa  for  ahip- 
bnilding,  and  oaral  poraniu.  lie  puaitiim 
waa  Terr  hTonrable  for  commerce.  Ita 
ohicf  towDt  wan  Salamia,  Pqihoa,  Citimn, 


C  YP 


Amathaa,  AraJuoe. 
profane  litaratom  «•  early  aa  Homer.  It 
waa  aaerad  to  the  Ueanlioiu  wonhip  of 
Vraoa.  It  aaama  to  hare  laseiTod  ita  popn- 
Ution  from  the  neiB^kboniing  iborea  of 
Syria,  iMlng  eoloniaad  by  the  Phoueiana, 
who  era  aaid  to  haT«  introdaoed  hen  their 
naUooal  goda,  Iha  two  Cahiri,  Tholad  and 
Tholadia,  tha  mala  and  fenuja  imperaona- 
tiona  of  die  principle  of  generation.  Tha 
laland  fall  aaeMaairely  tmder  tha  power  of 
the  £gypliana,Paniana,  and  Greek*.  Cndei 
Asgnataa,  it  wu  a  Roman  prorinee,  baring 
baaii  mada  a  part  of  tha  empire  by  tha  aider 
Oato. 

In  the  tiinea  of  tha  Boman  republic,  Cy- 
pnu  via  ■  pnetorian,  not  ouoanlar  proTinae; 
being  aa  luch  goraraed,  not  by  prooonaala, 
bat  propiaton.  AngQatua,  howerer,  whan 
ha  had  obtained  BDprenu  powar,  dinded  tha 
proTineaa  inin  imperial,  »T*r  i^idk  propia- 
ton wan  plaeed,  and  aenaloiial,  that  ia,  tindar 
the  aonbol  itf  tha  aenata,whDa«nilera  bore  llw 
uuna  of  aMiup^oi,  or  liea^oonaola.  Now 
Cypraa  waa  made  by  Aagnatoa  a  aanatorial 
proTioea,  as  we  laun  &am  Die  CaaaiiiB. 
Hanea,  nndar  lha  eariy  ampanua,  the  proper 

deaignation  of  ita  goremor  w ' 

or  mnllHipmlct.      By  thia  n 

gonraot,  Sergioa  Panlna,  di 

xiil.  T  ;  and  ooiua  of  the  tima  to  whiah  the 

eranl  than  ipoken  of  retara,  bear  the  aanm 

WallatiotL    We  iQbjoin  a  col  of  aoch  a 

Min  bom  Horell. 


character   at  thair   teligiona    obacrnneet, 
eauaed   tha  pnralance   of  aalf-indolgence, 

luiory,  and  Uoentionnieaa,  ao  thai  the  Cj 


TTiia  ia  a  Tary  airiking  confirmation.    Had 

Iho  CTenta  apokan  of  by  Luke  taken  place  a 
few  jean  pieTionilj,  in  tha  earlier  part  of  lha 
nign  of  Angiutoi,  the  right  term,  according 
to  well-known  Boman  naage,  would  hare 
been  Propretor,  and  not  FnHionBuL  Tha 
exact  agreement  with  fuit  ahowa,  thai  in  Ihe 
Book  of  Acta  we  h>Te  to  do  with  realitiea. 
It  wonld  be  a  ourioua  apecnlation  to  inquin 
what  ohanca  Luke  had  of  being  right,  had  be 
been  peraoniJlj  unacquainted  with  thecrenta 
he  turrataa,  and  compiled  or  luTonted  them 
at  aoma  later  period. 

The  fruitfuIoasB  of  the  Island,  and  tha 
wealth  of  ita  inhabitania,  nor  lea*  the  ooa« 


pnin 


u  wan,  in  tha 


large  portion  of  it*  inhabitanti  w 
timea  of  ibr  New  Teilamant,  Jews,  who  had 
either  eome  hither  under  thoaa  genaral  in- 
flaenccB  which  canaad  the  diipenioD  of  thtir 
coanlrymeu,  or  Aed  from  Ihe  tyranny  of  ttw 
Syrian  klnga  in  Ae  Uacoabmm  wara,  wfaao 
the  island  balouged  to  the  Pt^emiea. 

In  Donaequence  of  tha  riehneaa  of  ita  aoil, 
the  beauty  of  Its  dimata,  and  lla  adTanUgeona 
poaiCion,  Oypnii  waa  apoken  of  in  tama  of 
high  praiae.  By  Horaca  it  ii,  for  inataaoa, 
termed  atatun  Cypniwt,  'Bleat  Cypnia.' 
But  fu-  rather  wonld  it  haTe  dnerred  Ihe 
appelladon,  had  ita  inhabitania  reeaiTed 
the  goapal   into  ^ad  heuta,   and  branght 


C  Y  R                       445  C  Y  R 

forth    corresponding    fruits.      How    mneh  under  Gyrene/  —  that  is,  which,  lying  near, 

wretchedness,  brought  on  them  by  bad  pas-  own  Gyrene  as  their  mistress.     Any  way  the 

sions  and  wicked  rulers  in  aitertimes,  would  e.orrespondence  is  well  worthy  of  notice ;  and 

ihey  have  been  spared,  and  how  much  bap-  as  die  writer  was.  not  aware  of  its  existence, 

piness,  no  less  perpetual  than  pure  and  till  he  had  his  materials  for  this  article  before 

lofty,  would  they  have  secured !  Gomp.  Lake  him,  he  may  add,  that  one  does  not  fell  on 

viii.  21.  minute  and  latent,  yet  marked  and  important 

GYBENE,  a  great  and  important  city  in  coincidences  of  this  kind  in  fabricated  writ- 

Lybia,  west  of  Egypt,  between  Marmoiloa  ings.    Luke's  exact  sgreement  wiUi  fact  and 

and  the  Syrtes,  whidi  lay  slong  the  coast  of  history  here  may,  with  other  instances  of  a 

the  Mediterranean.    It  was  tibe  capital  or  similar  kind,  give  us  an  assurance  that  he  ia 

chief  state  in  a  confederacy  of  five  cities,  right  in  others  in  which  his  accuracy  has 

hence   called  Pentapolis  Gyrenaica.      The  been  doubted  or  denied, 

country  was  distinguished  for  extraordinary  We  have  seen,  that  the  Jews  constituted  a 

fertility;  the  harvest  lasted  eight  months;  large  part  ot  the  population  of  Gyrenaica; 

since  first  the  fruits  of  the  plains  on  the  and,  in  Acts  vi.  9,  we  find  them  so  nume- 

coast,  then  those  of  the  hill  country,  and  rous  in  Jerusalem,  that  they  had  there  a 

last  diose  of  still  higher  places,  were  gathered  synagogue  of  their  own,  rendered  necessary 

in  succession.  In  081,  A.C.  Battos  led  hither  probably  by  such  a  diversity  in  tongue  as 

a  Grecian  colony.    In  the  fifth  century,  A.C.  would  arise  in  the  case  of  Jews,  whose  home 

Gyrene  received  a  republican  constitution,  was  on  the  borders  of  the  Lybian  desert, 

which   issued   in   despotism   and  anarchy.  The  existence  of  so  many  Jews  in  these  re* 

though,  meanwhile,  it  gave  occasion  to  great  mote  parts,  and  their  connection  with  their 

commercial  prosperity.    With  Alexander  the  mother  country,  show  how  widely  dissemi- 

Great,  the   Gyrenians  formed  an   alliance,  nated  had  been  the  seeds  of  a  purer  religion 

Gyrene  then  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ptole-  at  the  coming  of  Ghrist,  and  how  effectually 

mies,  from  whom  it  passed  to  the  Bomans ;  Judaism  worked  in  maintaining  a  spiritual 

who,  declaring  the  Pentapolis  free,  contented  unity  which  prepared  the  way  for  the  more 

themselves  with  a  sort  of  nominal  sove-  extended  and  libieral  unity  of  the  Ghristian 

reignty,  till  internal  strifes  induced  fliem  to  church. 

makcGyrenaica  into  a  Boman  province, which  Simon,  whom  the  Boman  officers  corn- 
was  united  with  Crete,  under  &e  government  pelled  to  bear  the  Saviour^s  cross,  was  a  man 
of  a  propmtor,  and  at  a  later  period  a  pro-  of  Gyrene  (Matt,  xxvii.  82). 
consul.  Under  Ptolemy  Lagi,  many  Jews  While  the  Gyrenian  Jews  in  Jerusalem 
settled  in  the  country,  who  became,  in  con-  were  actively  at  work  to  counteract  the  gos- 
sequence  of  favourable  treatment,  so  nume-  pel  (Acts  vi.  9),  Ghristianity  was  making 
rous,  that  they  aie  said  to  have  formed  a  rapid  progress  in  Gyrene  itself,  which  has 
fourth  part  of  the  population.  Under  the  the  honour  of  giving  to  the  world  some  of  the 
emperor  Tnyan,  the  Gyrenian  Jews  formed  first  preachers  of  &e  gospel  (Acts  xi.  20 ; 
a  conspiracy,  in  which  they  are  recorded  to  xiii.  1). 

have  slain  two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  GYBENIUS  (L.),  whose  name  in  fhll 
of  the  native  and  Boman  population,  and  runs  Publius  Snlpicius  Quirinus,  was  a  Bo- 
were  subdued  only  alter  a  finn  lesistanoe.  man  senator,  who,  having  reached  the  high 
The  inroads  thus  made  on  the  population  dignity  of  consul,  came  not  before  A.U.  758, 
laid  the  country  open  to  the  destructive  in-  A.D.  5,  into  Syria  as  its  president,  and,  after 
eursions  of  nomad  and  barbarous  hordes  the  banishment  (A.D.  6)  of  Archelans  (see 
from  the  interior  of  Africa ;  and  the  Saracens  the  article),  carried  into  effect  a  census  of  the 
eompleted  the  devastation  in  the  seventh  Jewish  people.  The  words  of  Josephus 
century.  At  present  many  superb  ruins  would  seem  to  imply,  that  he  was  sent  ex- 
mark  tiie  spot  where  Gyrene  stood.  pressly  with  a  view  to  take  the  census ;  for. 

The  notices  and  allusions  in  the  New  within  a  few  words,  he  twice  mentions  that 
Testament  harmonise  with  the  substance  he  was  sent  *  to  take  an  account  (valuation) 
of  diese  statements.  As,  at  the  feast  of  of  their  substance'  (Joseph.  *Antiq.'  xviiL 
Pentecost,  there  were  present  *  Jews  out  of  1. 1).  From  the  same  authority,  we  learn  that 
every  nation  under  heaven,'  so  also  from  the  though  the  Jews  had  with  indignation  re- 
distant  Gyrene.  The  terms  employed  are  eeived  the  news  of  the  intended  taxing,  yet 
strikingly  appropriate,  ihowing  in  the  writer  in  general  they  submitted  without  open  re- 
a  very  accurate  knowledge  of  geography,  —  sistanoe,  and  *  gave  an  account  of  their 
*  in  the  parts  of  Lybia  about  Gyrene '  (Acts  estates ; '  but  Judas  the  Gaulonite  raised  an 
ii.  10).  The  reader  is  aware,  that  Gyrene  insurrection,  by  asserting  that  sulgection  to 
was  the  chief  of  five  oonfederated  states.  In-  the  census,  and  the  payment  of  the  taxes 
deed,  these  words  may  be  considered  a  peri-  which  would  ensue,  was  a  forfeiture  of  the 
phrase  tot  the  classical  term  Cyrenaica.  national  f^edom  (*  Antiq.*  xx.  6.  2.  <  Jew. 
Perhaps  the  words  admitof  a  rendering  which  War,'  u.  8. 1). 

would  make  the  description  still  more  re-  This  census,  or  *  taxing,'  thus  held  by 

markable,  —  *  The  parts  of  Lybia  which  are  Gyrenins,  is  mentioned  by  Lnke  (Acts  v.  87) 


C  Y  R  446  C  Y  R 

in  tibcfe  ivoids :  — <  Bom  up  JoAtm  of  Osli-  good  rendesing  of  ti&e  nona  rendeied  (2.) 

lee  (or  the  Ganloaite)  in  the  days  of  the  'taxing;'   bnl  aometimea  (Acta  t.  87)  the 

tazmg,  and  drew  tewif  mneh  people  after  aame  no«n  {aptgraphS)  may  eomprise  tiie 

him.'    We  here  find  the  two  hiatoiiaaa  in  whole  prooeeding  of  the  eeaaoa;  thoogh 

complete  agreement  Thiaeenaoa  Lnlnnen-  tar  a  eeasne  eompriateg  the  levjing  of  a  tax, 

tions  as  *  the  taxing.'    He  also  dates  by  it^  another  WDid»  up&timem,  ia  the  appropriate 

—  *  in  the  days  of  the  tning.'  The  •vent  term.  Luke,  then,  declares  that,  Angnatoa 
was  then  well  known  by  himself  and  olhen^  hairingt  oidered  an  enrolment,  Joseph  and 
when  the  historian  wrote.  It  moat  also  ha;?*  Macywent  to  be  enrolled;  hot  Uie  enrol- 
been  tfie  only  census  Asct  had  tak«i  plaeo  ment  attoally  took  place  in  the  days  of  Gy- 
ibr  at  least  many  years ;  otherwise  tbssia  renins,  president  of  Syria. 

woold  have  been  no  propriety  in  the  woida        The  seoond  verse  (Lnke  iL)  wonld  oonTey 

—  <  in  the  days  of  the  taxing.'  Tet  ha«  it  to  the  EngUsh  reader  the  meaning  we  have 
been  supposed,  that  this  same  writer,  Lnke,  gnren»  if  his  mind  had  been  left  onpMoocn- 
makes  mention  of  another  taxing;  and  that,  pied :  >— '  The  enrohneut  waa  first  made 
too,  as  having  taken  plaoe  under  Cyrenias,  when  Gynnins  was  governor  of  Syria.'  Nor, 
atthetimeof  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  (Lnke  if  'emofanent'  is  substituted  for  'taxing,' 
ii.  1,  teq.).  Surely  the  comparison  of  the  db  we  Aink  the  translation  ean  be  mneh 
two  passages  is  sufficient  to  eonftite  a  snp-  improved.  In  the  original,  however,  *  firat' 
position  of  the  kind,  which  sets  the  sasrad  is  not  an  adverb^  but  an  a4iectave.  Hence 
penman  in  direct  opposition  to  hims^.  If  cxitios  hsive  taken  it  to  quality  *  taxing,'  and 
we  may  take  Luke  for  the  expositor  of  hi»  rendev  the  words  thus» — *  this  first  tuing,' 
own  language,  there  was  but  one  census,  so  inlying  that  there  was  a  seeond  census. 
'  the  taxing,'  which  took  place,  as  appears  Bat  the  Onek  does  not  convey  this  meaning, 
from  Josephus,  after  the    banishment   of  In  order  to  oonwy  it,  a  different  airangement 


Arofaelaus.    The  passage  in  die  Acts  ex-     of  the  woids  of  the  original  is  indispensable, 
plains  that  in  the  Ooipd,  and  shows  that    '  Fiist^'  in  the  Greek*  stauda  before  the  verb 


the  only  taxing  mentioned  took  place  some    '  was  made ; '  and  the  verb  it  was  intended  to 
years  after  the  birth  of  our  Lord.  qoalify,.not  the  noun*    If  this  were  the  place 


Is  this  view,  however,  compatible  with  the  for  a  eritioal  disquisition,  we  could  show  by 

words  employed  in  the  Oospd  f    We  believe  nsany  instanoesi  that  in  Gseek  an  a^ieotive, 

it  is.    We  tmderstand  the  Oospel  to  state,  and  e^aeially  the  adjective  Jinif  ftequently, 

that,  a  decree  having  been  issued  by  Angus-  but  in  wsU-defined  oases,  peiforms  a  pari 

tns,  emperor  of  Borne,  commanding  a  gene-  for  which,,  in  ordinaiy  EngUsh  usage,  an  ad- 

ral  census,  this  census  was  actually  ordersd  verb  ia  employed.    In  truth,  a^iectivea  and 

in  Judea,  so  that  Joseph  and  Maiy  proeeeded  advsibB  are  so  neariy  related  to  each  other, 

to  Bethlehem  in  obedience  to  the  decree,  fireqoently  both  in  form  and  aignifieationy 

which,  however,  was  not  carried  into  effect  Uiat  languages  abound  in  instances  in  nhich 

tUl  the  days  of  Cyrenius.    Thus  the  issuing  exactly  the  same  word  is  now  an  adveib,  and 

of  the  decree,  and  the  holding  of  the  census,  now  an  adjective :  — thus,  *  he  ran  well,'  *  I 

were  two  distinct  acts,  whidi  took  plaoe  years  am  wstf;'  •strike  At^'  *a  hifh  stroke;' 

apart    The  requirement  of  the  census  oc*  'vdien  he  went  to  London,  ha,;8r>foamehere»' 

casioned  the  visit  of  Joseph  and  Mary  to  '  ihojini  visit/ 

Bethlehem ;  and  for  this  reason  is  it  men-  OUier  allegations  advsme  to  the  credibility 

tioned,  not  as  affording  sny  fixed  date.    In  of  the  narrative  in  Luke  firaanate  from  aa- 

order  to  prevent  the  idea  dat  the  census  was  nunption  or  inauflioient  knowledge.    Thus 

then  held,  Luke  throws  in  a  remark  by  the  it  haa  been  said,  that,  aa  the  BooMm  oensua 

way,  to  the  effect,  that  it  first  took  plaoe  when  did  not  require  persona  to  gn  to  their  native 

Gyrenins  was  governor  of  Syria.    Luke  has,  ei^  to  be  emoUed,  and  as  Joseph  and  Mary 

indeed,  been  supposed  to   asseit,  that  the  went  to  theirs,  the  writer  is  convicted  of  an 

census  was  made  when  Joseph   and  Marj  inaccuracy.    But  in  the  text  nothing  is  said 

repaired  to  Jemsslem.    He  makes  no  state-  of  <  native  city.'    It  was  to  *  tho  city  of  David ' 

ment  of  the  kind,  confining  himself  to  the  Joeeph  and  Jeans  Went,  becanse  '  he  waa  of 

aasertion,  that  they  went  to  be  taxed.    Nay,  the  house  and  lineage  of  Bavid ; '  the  regu- 

we  understand  him  to  declare  the  reverse;  lation  obvionaly  being  one  of  tribe,  not  poa* 

for  he  says  that  the  taxing  was  carried  into  session  or  property.     It  ooold,  therefore, 

effect  by  Gyrenius,  when  he  was  president  of  tike  place  only  in  a  ooontiy  where  there 

Syria.    The  taxing,  or  census,  consisted  of  at  prevailed  the  division  into  (twelve)  tribes. 

least  two  distinct  acts :  —  I.  The  enrolment :  Consequently,  the  cenona^  though  Soman  in 

Uie  names,  residence,  end  amount  of  pro-  its  origin,  wns  Jewish  in  its  form  and  man- 

perty  were  entered  in  a  register,  which  was  ner.    And  what  else  could  it  be  ?    In  Italy 

done  sometimes  «m7A,  sometimes  wUhmtt,  a  the  Boman  method  would  prevail,  for  the 

reference  to— n.  die  Imposition  of  a  species  venr  reaaon  that  it  wonld  not  be  observed  in 

of  property  tax.    The  term  apographesthai,  Judea,  —  namely,  that  the  aoeial  frame-work 

employed  (1.)  by  Luke,  properly  signifies  was  them  Boman.    The  empeioi's  oificora 

to  be  enrolled}  and  enrolment  wonld  be  a  wonld  of  coarse  mdce  use  of  already  existing 


C  Y  R  447  C  Y  R 

OMgM  aad  iiMlitatioiui  in  Judea,  and  eyery  deseriba  aa  for  tke  most  part  a  work  of  the 

oihar  oomtry  wliara  they  had  to  take  a  can-  imaginatioa,  deai^iad  to  exhibit  an  ideal 

aas ;  the  rather  haoaoae  in  this  way  they  oonoeptioii  of  the  education  of  aa  oriental 

oould  employ  a  maehineiy  which  wouid  be  prince. 

leas  leToltiBg  to  tho  natxrea^  and  more  effeo-        No  ancient  hero  has  been  mors  fortnnate 

tnal  for  theit  own  poipoaea.    The  temper  in  his  biographers  than  Cyma.    If  Achillea 

of  the  Jews,  aa  appears  in  the  beginning  of  was  happy  in  having  Homer  for  the  herald 

this  article^  waa  such  aa  to  require  the  Bo«  of  hia  prowess,  Gyms  ei^joys  a  aingnlar  dis- 

man  commissionen  to  snoidaU  nnnecesaary  tinetion  in  ftumiahing  to  three  of  the  chief 

▼ezation ;  and  donbdeaa  they  men  desirona  Qreek  hialorians  a  snbjeet  not  unworthy  of 

to  gain  the  eo-operataon  of  the  Jewish  an-  their  pens.     And  these  three  biographers 

thorides,  as  well  aa  ihe  fisoilities  aflbrded  by  liyed  at  no  great  distance  from  the  eventa 

long-established  lawa  and  cnstoms.  which  they  mdertook  to  record ;  for  Cyras 

A  s^  mors  extraordinary  aUegatfon  is,  died  629 — 80,  A.C.    Herodotoa  came  in  the 

that  AngnstDs  had  not  the  powes  to  order  a  age  immediately  svoceeding  that  of  Gyros  ; 


census  in  Jodea.  Yet  the  relations  in  which  Ctesias  was  hia  junior,  only  by  a  few  years ; 

the  emperor  stood  to  Heiod  the  Great,  to  and  XenojdKA  was  bnt  little  younger  than 

Archelaus,  and  to  the  Jewish  nation  gene*  Ctesiaa.    The  evanta  also  with  which  they 

rally,  were,  beyond  a  doubt,  of  snch  a  kind  occupied  tfaemaalTaB  wem  acted  on  the  great 

that  he  could  command  and  eftot  whatever  theatre  of  the  world.    Cyma  fought  for  and 

he  pleased  and  judged  expedkmfc    And  Jo-  gained  Uie  empire  of  the  East^  which,  till 

sephua,  aa  we  have  alssady  seen,  eapreaaly  after  Ihe  Greeks  had  vanquiahed  their  Per- 

states,  that  Gyreniua  was  sant.  by  Auguaina  sian  iuTaders,  brought  widi  it  the  empire  of 

for  the  purpose,  among  other  things,  of  en-  the  West    I^  moreoter,  the  dispositioin  and 

rolling  tnd  taxing  the  Jewish  nation.    This  training  of  Herodotus  inclined  him  to  take 

was  only  the  last  link  of  the  chain  whieh,  his  materiala  with  too  ready  a  credence, 

for  a  long  seriee  of  years,  the  Bomans  had  Ctesiaa  assumed  the  character  of  a  critical 

been  forging  lor  that  imhappy  people.  hiatoiian ;  while  Xeni^on,  coming  after  the 

The  view  we  have  given  removes  another  two  others,  and  living  at  a  time  when.  witt> 

objection :  — « <  No  census  is  recorded  by  the  ing  had  become  an  art^  end  the  East  lay 

history  of  the  times.'    Gnnted  that  the  een*  open  to  the  diligent  investigation  of  Greek 

BUS  imagined- to  have  taken  place  at  Uie  birth  scholarship,  poasessed  the  means  of  giving 

of  Jesus  is  not  recorded.    But  the  reader  a  correct  as  well  as  ftill  account  of  the  life 

has  already  seen,  that  Joaephns  dedarea  of  his  famous  hero.     These  are  cireom- 

Cyrenius    did,  in    agrsemenS  with  Luke'a  ataneea  whieh  mrely  concur  in  the  biogra- 

words,  hold  a  censua  of  the  Jewiah  people  phy  of  aneient  or  even  modem  princea,  and 

not  long  after  he  undertook  the  govemment  aeem  to  aflbrd  a  guarantee  of  our  finding 

of  Syria.  accordant  materiala  for  a  complete  history 

GYRUS  (the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  of  Gyrus.    Yet  the  materials  which  are  thua 

JKbretik,  which  is  an  imitation  of  the  Persian  actually  fomiahsd  are  discordant  and  incom- 

Xkanchid,  denoting  the  ann),  ia  the  ordi*  patible;  and  diat  to  snch  an  extent,  that 

nary  i^peUation  of  the  odebnted  fonndar  Winer  gives  a  pnefeaenee  to  the  nazrativea 

of  the  Medo-Persian  empire.  of  Xsnophon,  beeanaa  he  agrees  with  the 

There  are  three  original  aourees  whenaa  statements  and  implieations  of  the  Bible, 

a  knowledge  of  the  life  of  Cyrus  may  be  Our  purpose  in  these  romarka  is  to  aiford 

drawn :  -^  I.  Herodotua,  the  oldest  of  diem  &e  unlearned  reader  aome  means  of  judging 

{tir,  400,  A.O.)  haa,  in  his  sketeh  of  univer«  for  himself  of  the  oomparative  value  of  the 

sal    histoiy,  given  details  respecting    the  Biblical  history.    For  instaaice,  various  di- 

leading  events ;  and,  as  the  .father  of  profane  versities  and  aUegsd  discsepaneies  have  been 

history,  must  be  allowed  to  be  a  reapeetsble  pointed  out  as  existing  in  the  narratives, 

anthority.    Indeed,  ttie  ganaral  credibility  givan  by  the  four  evangelists,  of  the  lifo  of 

of  his  narratives  has  in  lata  years  gained  onr  L<»d.     These  diversities  and  alleged 

much  ground.    II.  Otasiaa»  a  Greek  pfaysi*  diserspaiicieB  have  been  made  the  most  of, 

dan  at  the  court  of  Persia  (ctr.  400,  A^G.),  in  order  to  divest  the  evangelical  history 

wiote,fh>m  Persisn  sonroM^with  thaspseisl  of  sU  claim  to  credibility.    To  a  great  extent, 

purpoee  of  eommunicating  to  the  Gn^s  the  oldeotion  owea  its  force  to  a  dexterous, 

oorrect  notaona  of  the  Eaat^  and  especially  if  not  unsorupuloua  logic.    Butletthevaria- 

of  Persian  aflfedra,  a  detailed  history;  onr  tions  bs  as  marked,  as  numerous,  as  irreeon- 


knowledge  of  whieb,  however^  is  oonfined- to  dleable,  as  the  hardiest  assailant  may  please 

the  use  made  of  it  by  Photiu%  Diodoros  to  represent,— we  ask  if  they  approach  to 

Sieulus,  and-  others.     III.  Xenophon,  tha  the  broad  eontradietiona  found  in  tke  state- 

edebratedpupil  end  biognqiher  of  Socrates,  ments  given  by  Herodotus,  Ctesiaa,  and 

a  contemporary  of  Ctedaa,  has  given  us  an  Xenophon,  respecting  Gyrus.    We  challenge 

entire  piece,  in  whieh  he  prafessea  to^  d»-  comparison.    The  result  cannot  foil  to  bs 

scribe  die  life  of  Cyrus  foem  his  boyish  highly  fonronraUe  to  the  evangelicd  narra- 

days,  iHiidi  it  has  been  too  customary  to  tives.    W«  qMak  advisedly,  and  alter  some 


C  Y  R  448  C  Y  R 

inqaiiy,  when  we  tMnn  ihat  there  ie  no  aseribes  lo  the  king's  penwal  cvf  the  piop|ie« 

ancient  history  comparable  for  truth  with  cies  of  Isaiah.    The  passage  is  too  enrious 

that  of  the  Bible,  —  to  say  nothing  of  its  to  be  passed  oyst:  —  <  God  stirred  np  the 

inspiration ;  and  Uiat  Matthew,  Mark,  Lake,  mind  of  Cyras,  and  made  him  write  this 

and  John,  homble  in  the  world's  opinion  as  (the  deeree)  throoghont  all  Asia:   **  Thas 

they  comparatively  were,  hare  left  as  a  mors  saith  Gyms  the  king,  —  Sinee  Ood  Almighty 

consistent  history  of  Jesus  Christ —  a  his-  hath  appointed  me  to  be  king  of  the  habita- 

tory  combining  more  of  the  attributes  of  ble  eaith,  I  beliere  he  is  that  Ood  whom  the 

truth  —  than  the  three    historians    afore-  nation  of  the  Israelites  worship;  for  indeed 

mentioned  have  given  us  of  Gyros;   than  he  foretold  my  name  by  the  prophets,  and 

Plato  and  Xenophon  have  left  of  their  great  that  I  should  bnOd  htm  a  house  at  Jemsa- 

master  Soerates;  or  than  his  numerous  his-  lem,  in  the  coontry  of  Judea."     This  was 

lorians  wrote  of  Alexander  the  Great.  known  to  Cyras,  by  his  reading  the  book 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  be  in  some  whieh  Isaiah  left  behind  him  of  bis  prophe- 

measure  able  to  judge  for  himself,  we  shall  oies ;  for  this  prophet  said,  that  God  had 

set  down  a  few  facts ;  and  first  we  shall  sup-  spoken  thus  to  him  in  secret  vision :   "  My 

ply  a  general  outline  of  the  life  of  Cyrus,  as  irill  is,  that  Cyrus,  whom  I  have  appointed 

fornished  in  the  Cyiopttdia  of  Xenophon.  to  be  king  over  many  and  great  nations, 

Cyrus  was  the  son  of  Csmbyses,  king  of  send  back  my  people  to  their  own  land,  and 

Persia,  and  of  Mandane,  a  daughter  of  the  build  my  temple."    This  was  foretold  by 

Median  king  Astyages.    At  twelve  years  of  Isaiah  a  hundred  and  forty  years  before  the 

age,  he  repaired  to  the  oonrt  of  his  matemal  temple  was  demolished.    Aocordin|^y,  when 

grandfiuher;  and,  when  only  sixteen,  led  an  Cyrus  read  this,  and  admired  the  divinr 

amy  against  the  Assyrians  or  Babylonians,  power,  he  was  seised  with  an  earnest  desire 

and  then  retoined  to  Persia.   Hence  he  was  to  ftalfil  what  was  so  written '  (*  Antiq.'  xL  1. 

sent  to  assist  his  unele,  Cyazeres  IL  against  1  and  2).    Any  general  influence  tcom  simi- 

the  Babylonians;  received  from  him  the  sn-  larity  of  religion  as  between  Cyrus  and  the 

preme  command  over  all  the  Median  forces;  Jews,  we  have  no  grounds  for  supposing, 

defoated  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia;  and  soon  The  aversion  of  the  Persians  to  the  worship 

after,  overcoming  Nabonned  (Belahaaiar),  of  images  found  a  corresponding  feeling  in 

king  of  Babylon,  by  the  conquest  of  his  the  Jews,  and  may  have  had  some  weight 

coital,  put  an  end  to  the  Chaldean  domi-  with  the  king  (Esra  L  2, 8).    But^  if  there 

nion  (088  or  &80,  A.C.).    Cyaxeres  gave  him  is  any  reason  to  suspect  Joeephus  of  being 

his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  with  her  the  by  his  patriotism  led  to  throw  some  warmth 

succession  to  his  throne.    On  the  death  of  of  colouring  over  his  picture  of   CynuTs 

Cambyiies,  Cyrus  assumed  the  Persian  seep-  motives,  there  were  political  considerations 

tie,  and,  on  the  retirement  of  Cyaxeres,  that  which  would  weigh  with  so  prudent  a  mo- 

also  of  Uie  Medo-Babylonian  empire  (586  nareh,  who,  on  his  proud  and  lofty  seat, 

or  58&,  A.C.).    He  reigned  in  possession  of  contemplated  nothing  less  than  a  universal 

this  vast  power  till  020 — 80,  A.C.  when  he  empire.    For  Egypt  could  not  foil  to  disturi) 

died  of  the  decay  incident  to  old  age,  after  his  pleasing  dreams,  and  he  would  easily 

luving,  in  anticipation  of  his  death,  of  which  see  how  important  it  was  to  luive  a  strong 

he  had  received  a  divine  premonition,  offered  friendly  power  in  Palestine,  by  whose  means 

customary  sacrifices,  and  delivered  a  long  the  land  of  the  Nile  might  quietly  be  kept 

admonitory  address  to  his  sons.  in  cheek.    The  foroe  of  this  consideration 

As  the  Seriptursl  narrative  falls  n&  best  will  be  estimated,  when  the  reader  knows, 

with  the  account  of  Xenophon,  we  shall  sop-  that  only  eleven  years  elapsed  before  the 

ply  from  it  what  information  is  necessary,  Persians  achieved  die  conquest  of  Egypt, 


before  we  proceed  to  exhibit  the  diserepan-     and  the  neighbouring  countries  (520,  A.C.). 
dee  to  which  we  have  referred.  It  is  by  no  means  unreasonable  to  suppose, 


With  the  statement  made  above,  that  Cy-  that  distinguished  Jews  may  have  had  some 
rns  overthrew  the  empire  of  Babylon,  the  influence  on  ^e  mind  of  Cyius  even  indi- 
Scriptnre  accounts  are  in  ftill  accordance ;  reetly,  especially  when  we  call  to  mind  the 
and  that  important  event  they  not  only  men*  part  which  Daniel  had  taken,  if  not  in  pie- 
tion,  but  predict  Our  space  compels  us  to  paring  the  way  for,  certainly  in  foretelling, 
be  content  with  giving  references  (Isa.  xli.  the  overthrow  of  the  Chaldmoi  dynasty — 
2, 8, 25, 26 ;  xUv.  28,  where  Cyrus  is  named ;  (Dan.  iv.  v.  vi.  viL).  Not  impossibly,  Cyrus 
xlv.  1,  where  Cyrus  is  termed  the  Messiah  of  was  somewhat  afraid  of  having  in  his  em- 
Jehovah  ;xlvi  11;  xlvii  1,107.  ;xlviii  14,  sey.:  pin  M»  Itfge  a  body  of  (comparatively)  col- 
see  Bblshazzab  and  Babtlov).  Scarcely  tivated  men,  of  distinguished  ability  and 
had  the  conqueror  ascended  the  throne,  when  great  force  of  character,  detahied  there  as 
he  issued  a  decree,  giving  the  captive  Jews  captives,  and  longing  for  the  hills  of  Judea,. 
permission  to  return  to  their  loved  native  and  the  solemnities  of  the  temple.  He  may 
land,  and  to  rebuild  their  venerated  temple  have  seen,  what  their  whole  history  shows, 
(086,  A.C.  Esra  i.  1;  v.  18;  vi.  8.  Dan.  that  the  Jews  were  very  impatient  both  of 
1  21).     This  royal  indulgence    Josepbns  bondage  and  of  exile,  and  little  disposed  to 


C  Y  R  449  C  Y  R 

leave  untried  an  oppoitunity  of  reining  oame  to  a  decisive  engagement,  in  which, 

their  liberty,  should  one  be  presented  by  having  reigned  twenty-nine  years,  Cyras  fell 

the  absenee  of  the  monarch  on  any  enter-  with  the  greater  part  of  his  troops.    His 

prise  of  ambition.     Whatever  the  motives  vanquisher  put  his  head  into  a  basin  filled 

by  which  Cyrus  was  actuated,  a  monarch  with  blood,  in  order  that  it  might  quench  its 

such  as  he  was  obviously  the  person  likely  thirst. 

to  take  the  decided  step  of  sending  back  the        The  divergence  between  this  account  and 

captive  Israelites.  Uiat  of  Xenophon  is  very  apparent    Indeed, 

Not  without  due  reflection  did  Herodotus  there  is  only  such  a  degree  of  resemblance 

apply  himself  to  his  narrative  respecting  between  the  two,  as  to  let  the  reader  see  that 

Cyrus.    Of  four  ways  of  relating  his  history,  it  is  the  same  person  of  whom  the  two  his- 

which  prevaOed  in  the  time  of  Ihe  historian,  torians  speak. 

he  chose  that  one  which  rested  on  Persian        The  diversity  is  not  diminished,  if  we  bring 

authority,  and  seemed  to  him  least  charged  Ctesias  forwaid.    Agreeing  with  Herodotus, 

with  impressions  derived  from  the  magnify-  that  Cyrus  dethroned  Astyages,  he  declares 

ing  power  of  veneration.    The  history  thus  that  Cyrus  had  been  previously   connected 

carefully  chosen  is  briefly  as  follows :  —  The  with  Aatyages  in  such  a  manner,  that  he  had. 

Median  king  Astyages,  under  the  eflTect  of  a  as  a  conqueror,  mairied  Amytis  his  daugh- 

dieam  which  made  him  fear  that  a  grandson  ter,  on  which  Astyages  gained  dominion  over 

would  rob  him  of  his  throne,  was  induced  to  the  Bajrcoi,  and  lived  on  good  terms  with  his 

marry  his  daughter  Mandane  to  Cambyses,  son-in-law ;  but  at  a  later  period,  being  be- 

a  Persian  of  die  lower  ranks.    When  Man-  trayed  by  a  eunuch,  who,  at  the  command  of 

dane  had  borne  a  son,  Astyages  commanded  Cyrus,  accompanied  Astyages,  the  latter,  when 

his  trusty  servant  Harpagos  to  put  the  child  on  a  journey  to  visit  the  former,  was  allowed 

to  death.    An  accident  rescued  the  boy  from  to  perish  in  the  desert,  of  hunger  and  thirsL 

this  peril.    He  was,  under  the  name  of  Agra-  Nor  does  Ctesias  agree  with  Herodotus  or 

datos,  brought  up  by  a  shepherd,  but  in  his  Xenophon  as  to  the  death  of  Cyrus.     Ctesias 

tenth  year  recognised  as  a  grandson  of  the  makes  Cyrus  lead  an  army  against  AmoFBOS, 

king.    Astyages,  moved  by  the  magi,  sent  king  of  the  Derbikoi,  a  Scythian  tribe.    In- 

the  boy  back  to  his  parents,  and  punished  dians,  who  were  the  auxiliaries  of  the  Derbi- 

Harpagos  for  not  having  executed  his  fell  koi,  employing  their    elephants,   put    the 

design.  Harpagos,  meditating  revenge,  allied  Persian  cavsli^  to  flight;   in  which  route 

himself  with  die  chief  of  the  Medes,  who  Cyrus  stumbled,  and  received  from  an  Indian 

were  discontented  with  the  government  of  soldier  a  fatal  wound.    While  yet  living,  he 

Astyages,  and  induced  Cyrus,  then  grown  to  was  brought  into  the  camp,  where  he  acknow- 

man's  estate,  to  avail  himself  of  the  prevalent  ledged  as  his  successor  his  eldest  son  Cam- 

disaffiection,  and  to  enter  Media,  in  order  to  byses,  and  assigned   to  his  youngest  son, 

take    possession    of    the    entire  kingdom.  Tanyoxartes,  a  province  free  of  tribute.    He 

Cyrus  brought  the  Persians  into  the  plan,  died  on  the  third  day  after  he  had  been 

The  consequence  was,  that  Astyages  lost  the  wounded,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  his  reign, 
tbrone  (559,  A.C.),  after  he  had  reigned         To  refiise  credence  to  the  entire  history  of 

tbirty-fl  ve  years.    The  monarch  was  kept  in  Cyrus, — to  deny  his  conquest  of  Babylon, — to 

a  sort  of  honourable  bondage  till  he  died,  throw  doubts  on  his  existence, — to  account  for 

Cyrus  changed  but  little  in  the  constitution  the  divergent  narratives  by  alleging  fraud  or 

of  the  Medes,  and  his  Persians  soon  adopted  fiction, — would  be  accounted  harsh,  uujusti- 

the  customs  of  their  captives.    He  extended  fiable,  if  not  uigust;  betraying  a  sweeping 

the  limits  of  his  empire,  especially  by  the  spirit  of  condemnation,  which,  in  the  end, 

conquest  of  Crcssus.      Since  he  could  not  would  leave  ancient  history  a  blank.    But 

hold  possession  of  Asia  Minor  so  long  as  the  what  shall  be  said  of  the  same  process  when 

Babylonian  power  lasted,  and  as  its  monarch  applied   to  the  gospel  ?  —  especially   since 

Nabonnedus  was  an  aUy  of  Crossus,  he  led  in  this  case  the  variations  are  inconsiderable, 

an  army  against  Babylon.    He  conquered  and  have  no  other  appearance  than  such  as 

the  Babylonians  in  the  open  field,  but  had  must  always  ariae  when  well-informed  aud 

great  difficulty  in  overcoming  the  city,  of  credible   historians   write  independently  of 

which  he  made  himself  master  only  by  turn-  each  other. 

ing  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  and  entering  Cyrus  has  been  recognised  in  the  ram  that 
with  hia  troops  by  means  of  the  emptied  '  stood  before  the  river,  which  had  two  horns, 
channel  of  the  river.  Recognising  the  exist-  and  the  two  horns  were  high ;  but  one  was 
ence  of  a  variety  of  nairatives  respecting  the  higher  than  the  other,  and  the  higher  came 
end  of  Cyrus,  Herodotus  gives  that  which  he  up  last,'  —  seen  by  Daniel, — '  pushing  west- 
believed  most  entitled  to  credit, — namely,  ward,  and  northward,  and  southward,  so  that 
that  the  monarch  lost  his  life  in  battle  with  no  beasts  might  stand  before  him,  neither 
the  Massagetai,  a  warlike  nation  of  Soythia.  could  deliver  out  of  his  hand ;  but  he  did 
After  Cyrus  had  obtained  a  victory  by  craft,  according  to  his  will,  and  became  great' 
the  queen  Tomyris,  collecting  all  her  force,  (Dsn.  viiL  8,  4). 

3F 


DAL  450  DAM 


D. 

DABAREH  (H.)i  a  LeTitical  city  at  the  ke  preaehed  the  go^el  to  die  Di 

foot  of  Tabor,  on  whose  rains  now  stands  with  aeoeptanee  and  saeoeas. 

the  Tfllacfe  Dabwry  (Josh.  zxi.  38).    At  this  DAHABIS,  a  woman  of  Athena,  who  was 

flace,   the   events  recorded  in  Matt  xviL  eonverted  by  the  preaching  of  Paul  (Acta 

4 — 21,  are  beliered  to  have  taken  plaee.  zriL  84).     Some  have  ooiyectued,  that  Da- 

The  Christians  built  here  a  conmemorv  marie  should  be  written  Dama/ia,  which  is  a 

tive  church  on  the  site  of  the  house  into  common  female  name  among  the  Oreeka. 


which  Jesus  was  held  to  have  retired  after  As  no  deecriplive  ^itheta  an  employed  to 
the  perlbrmanee  of  the  miracle.  Of  thia  distinguish  he%  she  may  have  been  a  person 
church  there  are  still  some  remains.  They  of  note.  However,  she  owes  her  chief  dia- 
also  Aow,  in  the  vicinity  of  Tabor,  and  tinetion  to  her  keing  mentioned  by  the  apos- 
of  the  village  of  Dabury,  a  fountain,  named  tie.  Thus  even  a  slight  connection  with 
'  tiie  well  of  the  nine  aposties ; '  who  an  said  truly  great  men  conlers  earthly  immortality; 
to  have  there  awaited  the  descent  of  their  k«t  eternal  life  can  be  gained  only  by  inti- 
Master  from  the  Mount  of  TransAguratioa.  mate  alliance  with  Christ 
At  an  eariy  period  there  was,  on  tibe  same  DAMASCUS  lies  in  a  plain  in  the  north- 
spot,  a  chapel,  which  was  de^yeated  to  the  east  of  Syria,  being  from  six  to  ei^t  days' 
nine  aposties.  journey  from  Jerusalem,  and  ia  one  of  the 

DAOON  (H.  from  daff^  a  fish),  —  the  na-  oldest  cities  in  the  world ;  in  wIkwc  territory, 
tional  divinity  of  the  IliiliBtines  of  Ashdod  if  we  may  believe  tradition,  dwelt  Adam,  after 
and  Oasa  ( Judg.  xvi.  28.  1  Sam.  v.  1,  Beg,),  he  had  been  banished  from  Paradise.  About 
which  appears  to  have  had  the  head  and  half  a  day's  journey  firom  Dsmascus,  near 
hands  of  a  man  (I  Sam.  v.  4),  but  from  the  Abila,  is  a  lofty  hill  with  a  iUt  top^  covered 
navel  downwards  the  parts  of  a  fish ;  thongh  with  beautiftil  trees,  and  having  a  cavern, 
authorities  here  somewhat  difliBr,  and  Philo  Here  Cain  and  Abel  are  said  to  have  oflered 
makes  Dagon  to  be  exclusively  a  male  of  the  their  sacrifloea.  Damascus — called  in  He- 
human  form.  Dagon,  as  the  male,  waa  con-  brew  Dammaekf  in  Arabic  DtMoscAik,  in 
nected  with  Derceto  or  Atergatis,  the  female  Syriac  Darmttik,  and  by  the  modem  Araba 
fish-god  of  the  Philistines ;  and,  hereby,  with  Et  Seham  —  is,  as  the  last  name  indicates, 
Astsrte,  whose  worship  was  practised  by  the  the  capital  of  Syria.  According  to  Jo- 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  10).  The  position  sephua,  the  place  was  founded  by  Us,  a 
of  the  Philistines  on  the  coast,  and  the  food  grandson  of  Shem.  The  city  certainly 
which  they  drew  from  the  sea,  were  the  existed  in  the  days  of  Abraham ;  for  it  ia 
causes  which  led  them,  in  common  with  mentioned  as  the  native  plaee  of  Elieaer, 
other  maritime  peoples,  to  pay  religious  the  patriarch'a  steward ;  and,  from  the  style 
honours  to  the  fish.  In  Judg.  xvi.  26,  aeq,  of  the  narrative,  the  writer  evidentiy  held  it 
mention  is  made  of  a  temple  of  Dagon  which  to  be  an  ancient  place  (Gen.  xiv.  xv.  2).  Till 
Ssmson  destroyed.  The  building  appeara  the  time  of  David,  Damascus  appears  to  have 
to  have  resembled  a  modem  Turkish  kiosk,  been  an  independent  state.  In  the  reign  of 
which  consists  of  capadous  halla,  tiie  roof  that  monareh,  the  Syrians  of  Damascus  hav- 
of  which  is  in  the  fore  pait  supported  by  Ing  sent  succour  to  Hadadeier,  king  oi  Zo 
pillars.  Ontheroof  of  such  buildinge  intern-  bah,  against  whom  David  was  making  war, 
perate  pleasures  were  customarily  eigoyed.  suflfered  a  severe  defeat,  and  became  sulQect 
The  temple  of  Dagon  in  Ashdod  was  burnt  to  Israel  (2  Sam.viii.8 — 8).  The  subjection, 
by  Jonatiian  (1  Maec.  x.  84.  Joseph. *Antiq.*  however,  did  not  long  endure;  for,  near  the 
xiii.  4.  0).  end  of  Solomon's  reign,  Beion,  a  sulgect  of 

DALMANtJTHA  (C.  had  abode),  a  town  Hadadeier,  «venged  hie  sovereign  against 

or  village  beyond  Jordan,  in  the  eastern  part  the  Hebrews,  by  making  himself  a&aater  of  the 

of  the  tribe  Manassdb,  and  on  the  south-  city  ( 1  Kings  xL  28— *d6) ;  when  Damascus 

east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.    The  place  waa  became  the  seat  of  a  new  and  eneigetio 

Utterly   destroyed  by  the  Bomans   (Mark  government,  which  occasioned  trouble  and 

viii.  10).  danger  to  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judafa. 

DALMATIA — into  which  Titus  (2  Tim.  Jeroboam  II.  of  Isrdel  overcame  Damascus 

iv.  10)  is  reported  to  hate  gone  shortiy  be-  (2  Kings  xiv.  28),  which  was  accounted  a 

fore  Paul's  demise  — was  a  province  of  tile  Hebiew  tribntaiy;  but,  after  hie  death,  the 

Boman  IDyrieum,  lying  on  tiie  Adriatic  Sea,  city  recovered  ita  independence,  and  Besin 

between  the  rivers  Titius  and  Drinns,  south  became  its  sovereign.    He  united  with  Pekah, 

of  Libumia,  having  the  cities  Salona,  Epi-  king  of  Israel,  against  Judah,  whose  ruler 

daurus,  Lissus,  and  others.    The  incident  Ahas  sought  aid  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of 

recorded  of  Titus  gives  reason  to  think,  that  Assyria,  who  subdued  and  sacked  Damasooa 


DAM 


*5l 


DAM 


(liB.  TiiLV     Fiom  rhia  tune,  Dun ueuii,  uq-  honever,  an  agun  fOond  lord*  of  Dunaa 

able  to  iDppoTt  iUelf.  ihared  the  fate  of  the  oua ;  and,  under  (heir  emperor  Diodeliao,  it 

luDgdoma  on  whoia  It  waa  auoeaaeiialj  de-  roae  lo  emineiLea  and  aplendonr,  wbiob  it  hsi 

pendeDL     After  Cta«  (all  of  (be  Aaqrriui  bbI'  nsier  whoU;  lastj  for  that  monaroh  aaw  in 

pire,  it  tell  into  the  handi  of  tliB  Bab jloniuia.  DaniEwaa  a  dtj  bf  nhiali  effeonial  oppoal- 

TbeniHi  it  paiasd  to  make  a  part  of  the  Per-  tion  amid  be  giran  to  die  growing  pawtt  of 

aian  empire,  Qoder  whoaa  ■waj'  it  had  a  Iba  SanueMB.  and  tbnfora  not  <mlj  a*M-' 

period  of  great  praaperil;.    After  Ih*  iaath  follr  fortifled  It,  bat  pUoed  there  ^undanl 

of  Alexander  the  Qnat,  lAo  rabdoed  ths  wgaiinea,  and  eat  np  within  ita  wall*  a 

Fenian  monucbj,  Damaeooi  fi>nned  a  pait  mannbelotj  of  arma ;  ao  that,  from  lo  eailj 

of  the  Sjrian  empire,  under  the  SalenoidB.  «  period  aa  thii,  maj  probaUj  be  need  the 

Under  tbeae  kings,  Damaacua  loat  a  portion  Mill  awn*ing  bma  of  Iha  DamaaoDa  bladea. 

of  its  grealneaa,  by  being  uagleoled  of  ita  The  emperor  Jnlian  gare  this  oitr  a  piel^ 

maatera,  who  founded  new  eitiea  in  (he  nor-  anee  oter  all  others,  in  oonaequenos  ot  ita 

them  part  ot  their  kingdom,  since  the  Egn>~  magnitade  and  beantr,  aa  well  aa  tfaa  splen- 

liana  were  taking  pains  to  teing  S jria  under  donr  of  its  templea,  and  odisr  poblie  bnild- 

their  power.    Id  the  eonlest  ot  the  Itaoea-  ings.    On  (he  same  aeoonnt,  Ilie  ealiphs  in 

bees  against  the  Syrian  monsnihs,Dsinsw)as  the  serenlfa  oentoiy  made  it  for  some  time  the 

WBaprobablj(»nqneredbTJonathaa(lHBce.  metropolie  of  their  power.     Inthe  jeuIOlT, 

lii.  S3).     Abont  the  year  M,  A.C.  the  Bo-  it  was  aonqnerad  bf  the  saltan  Selim  ;  sinDe 

mans  brought  Damaacna  under  their  power,  wfaioh,  it  has  remained  under  the  dominion 

At  a  later  lime,  king  Aietaa,  ot  Arabia,  ap-  of  Iha  Turks,  who  ban  a  paeha  in  the  place, 

peais  to  hare  been  master  otQamaaena;  tor  It  is  at  the  present  daf  in  great  proaperitj, 

he  had  there  a  rspreaentatiTa,  who,  in  rader  owing  mainl;  to  the  fact,  thsttheehief  route 

to  gratis  die  Jewa,  endeaToored  to  seise  lbs  ruus  thiongh  i^  porsued  bj   eanTsns  on 

apoatle  Paul  (3  Cor  li  32).    The  Bomans  their  w*f  to  Heoea. 


The  ciij  haa  a  ilelighthl  position;  for  it  •bundanoe  of  water  rendera  the  soil  ler; 
spreads  ilaelf  out  over  a  brosd  and  beauiiM  prodaotiTe,  innuian^  and  beautiftil:  so  that, 
plain,  wbicb,  opening  towards  the  south  and  among  oilier  landalDtir  lenna,  the  Uoalsma 
the  east,  ia,  on  the  nonh  and  west,  enclosed  call  Damasena  one  of  Uie  foor  eastern  para- 
and  ghellered  ij  hills,  that  slope  down  to-  diaea.  Its  chief  distinotion,  howerer,  eon- 
wards  il  &om  the  lof^  Lebanon.  The  plain  sisla  in  being  acoonnled  bj  diean  a  bolj 
U  plent«>iulr  watered  by  Ihe  Barada,  of  old  cltr,  aiUM  in  il  Mohammed  was  to  make  his  - 
the  Ctirroorrhoss  (Ihe  Abans  ot  3  Kings  t.  deseent  ftom  the  ninth  hearen,  into  which 
13),  wbich,  dividing  and  subdiiiding  into  be  was  raised  thnn  Jemaalem,  in  order  to 
numerous  streams,  is  carried  bejond  ita  rceeiTe  the  Koran.  Dsinasnu.  too,  they 
natural   flow,    by    artificial    canals.     This  belisie  to  be  the  place  where  the  gmsnl 


DAM                      452  DAM 

judgment  will  be  held,  and  the  eternal  king-  ix.  8,  4).  In  the  ▼icinitj  of  this  grotto  tf 
dom  establiftfaed,  of  which  they  are  to  he  the  remains  of  a  eonvent 
chiefs.  A  very  large  portion  of  the  Ticinity  These  Testiges  of  ancient  tones  show  how 
is  ooeapied  with  gardens,  which  present  this  deep  was  the  impression  whieh  the  facts  of 
ntmost  loxoiianoe  and  beauty  of  oriental  the  gospel  made  on  the  minds  of  the  early 
Tegetation*  Pictoresque  as  the  city  appears  Christiana,  and  so  serre  to  reprodnee  its 
when  viewed  from  wiUioat, — with  its  leaden  form,  and  give  life  to  its  shadow,  as  ihey  ap- 
domes,  marble  minarets,  and  gilded  cres-  pear  before  onr  eyes,  rendered  doll  by  the 
cents,  —  the  interior  is  by  no  means  pleas-  lapse  of  ages ;  and  although  cases  there  pro- 
ing  to  the  eye.  Very  many  of  the  hoasas  hiblj  are  in  which  these  traditions  no  longer 
are  built  of  mud,  and,  externally,  present  a  report  the  truth,  or  report  more  than  die 
picture  of  filth  and  wretchedness.  Some  of  truth,  yet,  in  general,  they  could  not  have 
them,  however,  which  belong  to  the  rich  arisen  from  nothing,  nor  have  fixed  them- 
Aimenian  merchants,  are  fhmished  with  selves  on  fancies  or  fictions;  and  have, 
great  magnificence,  forming  a  strong  eon^  in  onr  opinion,  as  good  a  chance  of  being 
trast  with  the  neglected  state  of  their  outward  correct,  as  &e  opinions  of  modem  scepticism, 
appearance.  The  mosques  and  other  public  At  least,  they  form  a  part  of  the  poetic  ele- 
buJldingB  of  the  city,  are,  in  most  cases,  very  ment  of  sacred  antiquities,  which  no  wise- 
fine  and  imposing.  judging  man  would  willingly  part  with,  or 

Damascus  is  essentially  a  commercial  town.  *  let  die.' 
Lamartine  gives  the  population  at  800,000,  DAMNATION  — from  the  Latin  <ldMiman, 
of  whom  30,000  are  Christians.    M'Culloch  '  injury,'  connected  in  derivation  and  mean- 
estimates  itfrom  120,000  to  150,000,  of  whom  ing  with  the  words  damage  and  doom  —  sig- 
12,000  may  be  Christians,  and  as  many  Jews,  nifies  properly  the  act  of  eondemmmg,  or  the 
Notwithstanding  the  number  of  Christisns  stofe  of  being  eondemtud,  that  is,  adjudged 
who  inhabit  this  city,  it  was,  till  very  lately,  to  a  certain  loss,  injmy,  or  paalshmdnt,  as 
necessary  for  Europeans  to  assume  the  entire  being  found  guilty.     Hence  the  word  sets 
Turkish  costume,  in  order  to  protect  them-  forth  the  act  ofajudge  in  declaring  a  prisoner 
selves  from  the  fanaticism  of  the  population  guilty,  and  assigning  the  punishment  he  is 
of  Damascus  and  the 'surrounding  country,  to   undergo;   and,  derivatively,  may  mean 
Now,  however,  the  state  of  feeling  is  much  either  the  punishment  itself,  or  the  state  of 
improved,  though  it  would  not  be  prudent  privation  and  pain  which  punishment  super- 
for  Europeans  to  exhibit  themselves  in  hats  induces.    From  human,  the  word  passed  to 
and  coats  to  the  fanatics  who  accompany  the  divine  things;  in  which  its  import  is  simi- 
great  caravan  to  Mecca.  lar  to  that  already  indicated.    Before  we  go 
The  fanaticism  for  which  Damascus  was  on  to  review  the  passages  in  which  the  word 
notorious  made  it  a  suitable  place  for  the  occurs,  it  is  proper  to  remark  that '  damna- 
prosecution  which  Saul  intended  to  carry  on  tion '  originaUy  signified  what  is  now  meant 
there  (Acts  ix.).     From  the  raging  of  the  by  condimmatUm,  as  appears  fkom  the  state- 
spirit  which  he  intended  to  evoke,  Saul  him-  ment  above  given.     This  being  the  case, 
self,  when  he  had  joined  the  *  sect  every  the  term  itself  does  not  define  who  is  the 
where  spoken  against,'  had  no  small  diffi-  judge,  who  the  criminal,  or  what  the  punish- 
oulty  to  escape  (2  Cor.  xi.  82).     The  place  ment;  which  things  remain  to  be  learned 
retains  reminiscences  of  that  great  man.  from  the  Sacred  Scriptures.    We  make  this 
Among  its  buildings  is  *  the  convent  of  Paul's  remark  because,  by  degrees,  and  the  force  of 
conversion,'  and  *  Paul's  gate.'    In  the  vioi-  use,  a  specific  meaning  has  been  attached  to 
ni^  is  an  old  tower  with  a  window,  said  to  '  damnation,'  as  denoting  the  endless  pains 
be  that  from  which  his  friends  let  the  apostle  of  hell. 

down  in   the  hour  of  peril  (Acts  ix.  25.  'Damnation'standsas  the  English  of  three 

2  Cor.  xi.  83).     There  is  slso  to  be  seen  in  Greek  words :  —  I.  Of  apoleia,  which  signi- 

a  street  which  is  still  called  *  straight'  or  fiea  bm,  or  perdition.    It  is  rendered 'waste' 

narrow,  the  house  of  Judas,  in  which  *  Saul  in  Matt.  xxvL  8,  and  Mark  xiv.  4 ;  where 

of  Tarsus '  is  believed  to  have  dwelt  (Acts  strictly  it  signifies  nothing  more  than  mU- 

ix.  11).     Not  far  distant,  the   traveller  is  ofpUcation,  InMattviL13,itia  construed  by 

pointed  to  the  house  of  Ananias :  before  this  destruction,  and  is  spoken  of  those  who  enter 

is  a  well,  firom  which  the  water  is  alleged  to  the  wide  gate  and  the  broad  way.    In  John 

have  been  drawn,  that  was  used  in  the  bap-  xviL  12,  it  is  applied  to  Judas,  who  is  termed 

tism  of  Paul.    On  the  road  from  Damascus  *  the  son  ot  perdition:    In  2  Pet  iL  8,  we  find 

to  Jerusalem,  about  four  hours   from  the  the  word  'damnation'  itself.    The  nature, 

eity,  there  lies  a  grotto,  which  is  so  low  as  degree,  and  duration  of  the  evil  which  the 

scarcely  to  allow  a  person   to  stand  erect  term  implies,  are  not  determined  by  these 

InthisPaul  is  held  to  have  hid  himself  when  passages.    Hence  we  are  not  at  liberty  to 

he  fied  from  Damascus.    This,  also,  tradi-  assume,  that  it  means  either  annihilation  or 

tion  makes  to  be  the  spot  where  the  luetic,  eternal  torments.      The   first  it  docs  not 

on  his  journey  towards  the  city,  was  struck  necessarily  import,  since  it  may  signify  mere 

to  the  ground,  and  converted  to  Christ  (Acts  waste  or  misappUcaUon ;  and  the  assurop- 


k 


t\ 


>    X 


DAN                       453  PAN 

tloft  thai  mny  being  ever  ceases  to  exist,  is  on  the  east,  aud  Judah  with  Philistia  on  the 

•onlradicted  by  the  whole  analogy  of  nature,  south.     Their  territory,   however,   was   not 

in  which   a]l   things   change,  but  nothing  strictly  defined.     The  cities  which  fell  to  the 

perishes.     The  second  may  be  a  Scripturd  share  of  Dan  lay  for  the  most  part  in  the  land 

doctrine,  but  is  not  of  necessity  implied  in  a  of  the  Philistines,  and  we  do  not  know  to 

term  which  can  be  used  of  the  ointment  what  extent  they  succeeded  in  gaining  pos- 

poured  on  Jesus' head.     U.  'Damnation' is  session  of  these  hostile  places  (Josh.  xix. 

the  rendering  of  Artma  (Latin  mm«fi,  Eng-  40—48.  Judg.  zviiL  I).    Joppa  (Japho), 

lish  crime),  which  denotes  a  judicial  declara-  Timnath,  and  ^alon,  were  its  chief  towns. 

titm  or  tentence  i  and  hence  is  used  of  the  The  tribe,  at  one  time,  numbered  62,700, 

'Judgment'  of  Ood  in  this  world  (John  ix.  at  another  04,400,  men  above  twenty  years  of 

89),  and  of  *  judgment  to  come '  in  the  next  age, '  able  to  go  forth  to  war'  (Numb.  i.  88, 

(Acts  xxiv.  2d).    It  also  denotes  the  oonse-  89;  xxyi.  48). 

quence  of  a  judicial  sentence  or  punish-  DAN  —  a  town  in  Naphtali,  called  also 

ment,  as  in  Luke  xxiii.  40,  where,  being  Laish  and  Leshem,  and  forming  the  northern 

represented  by  the  word  *  condemnation,'  it  boundary  of  the  land  of  Israel.    The  name 

is  employed  of  the  crucifixion  of  one  of  the  was  changed  from  liOshem  to  Dan,  on  occa- 

malefactors  executed  together  with  our  Lord,  sion  of  a  conquest  of  the  land,  made  by  a 

That  the  word  krima  does  not  itself  carry  the  colony   of  Danites,   discontented  with   the 

idea  of  everlasting  torment,  appean  firom  limits  assigned   them  by  authority  (Josh, 

the  fact,  that  in  Heb.  tL  2,  the  epithet  *  eter-  xix.  47 ;  comp.  Judg.  xviii.  27).    The  place, 

nal'  is  prefixed  to  it  however,  is  denominated  Dan  as  early  as 

The  third  word  kriaia  (our  crisis)  is  nearly  Gen.  xiv.  14;  which  favours  the  idea,  that 

allied,  both  in  form  and  meaning,  to  the  Oenesis  was  revised  at  a  period  when  Dan 

last,  denoting  strictly  the  act  of  separating,  had  become  the  sole  customary  name  for 

selecting,  trying,  judging,  and  condemning,  Laish  (see  also  Deut.  xxxiv.  1). 

and  generally  the  whole  process  and  each  Dan,  as  the  northern  limit  of  Palestine, 

important    part   of   a  judicial    procedure,  had  Beenheba  for  its  southern  opposite; 

Krisis  is  translated  by  *  damnation '  in  Mark  whence  the  phrase,  *  from  Dan  to  Beenheba' 

iii.  29,  where  it  is  preceded  by  *  eternal;'  (Judg.  xx.  1.   I  Sam.  iii.  20).    It  was,  at  an 

and  by '  condemnation '  in  John  v.  24;  being,  early  period,  a  seat  of  image-worship  (Judg. 

however,   most  frequently    represented    by  xvili.  4,  uq,   1  Kings  xii.  28 — 80). 

*  judgment'   (Matt  v.  21;  x.  15).     Some-  Dan,  which   some  have  identified  with 

tmaes  by 'judgment,'  the  connection  shows  Paneas  (CsBsarea  Philippi),  is  by  Bobinson 

we  are  to  understand  a  judicial  inquiry  be-  placed  at  Tell  el-Kady,  which  lies  about  three 

fore  an  earthly  tribunal  (Matt  v.  22);  at  miles  from  Paneas,  in  a  course  a  little  south 

others,  an  opinion  or  judgment  of  the  mind  of  west,  over,  for  the  most  part,   a  plain 

I  John  V.  80).   From  these  less  important  ap-  densely  covered  with  oak  and  odier  trees, 

plications,  die  word  rises  to  aignifjf  justice  it-  and  a  thick  undergrowth  of  various  kinds  of 

self  (Isa.  V.  7) ;  sense  of  justice  (Matt  xxiii.  28.  bushes.     The  Tell,  or  hill,  is  elevated  about 

Luke  xi.  42)  ;  trial  under  divine  Providence  forty  or  fifty  feet ;   its  figure  is  oval.     One 

(John  xii.  81 ) ;  a  period  of  general  adjudica-  part  of  it  is  covered  with  oak-trees,  and  an- 

tiw  (Matt  X.  15.   Heb.  ix.  27.   2  Pet  ii.  9)  ;  other  with  thick  brushwood  and  briars.    It  is 

diifine  punishment  on  the  guilty  (Bev.  xiv.  7) ;  an  extinct  crater,  about  half  a  mile  in  circum- 

and  specifically  (Matt  xxiii.  88)  the  pumsh-  ferenoe.      On  the   south-western  side,   the 

ment  of  hell,  or  gehenna.  wall  of  this  crater  has  been  partly  carried 

The  *  judgment '  spoken  of  in  Matt.  ▼.  21,  away  by  the  action  of  a  fountain  which  gushes 
22,  refers,  in  contradistinction  from  the  San-  out  all  at  once,  a  beautiful  river  of  delicious 
hpdrim,  to  the  inferior  tribunal,  consisting  water.  The  fountain  fif  st  appears  in  the 
of  the  judges  or  magistrates  of  each  indi-  centre  of  die  crater.  The  great  body  of  water, 
vidual  city,  who  had  cognizance  of  lesser  however,glidesundemeath  the  lava-boulders, 
transgressions  or  misdemeanors,  and  were  and  rushes  out  at  the  bottom  of  the  TeU  on 
empowered  to  inflict  minor  punishments  the  west  But  a  considerable  stream  rises 
(Deut  xvi  18.  2  Chron.  xix.  5 ;  comp.  to  the  surface  within  the  crater,  and,  con- 
Joseph.  'Antiq.'  It.  8,  14.  'Jew.  War,' it  ducted  over  its  south-western  margin,  drives 
20.  5).  two  flour  mills  which  are  overshadowed  by 

A  specific  meaning  attaches  to  the  word  magnificent  oaks,   and   almost  buried  be- 

'  judgment,'  in  Matt  xii.  20,  — '  Till  (while)  neath  luxuriant  vegetation.    The  two  atreams 

he  send  forth  judgment  unto  victory.'     In  unite  below  the  miUs,  forming  a  river  forty 

tlie  original,  <  the'  is  prefixed  to  'judgment^*  or  fifty  feet  wide,  which  rushes  yery  rapidly 

and  the  meaning  seems  to  be  —  *  the  cause,'  down  into  the  marah  of  Hnleh.     Thomson 

or  '  his  cause,'  that  is,  the  gospel :  comp.  Isa.  saw  a  multitude  of  turtles  sunning  them- 

xlii.  1,  2.  —  See  Anathema.  selves  on  the  rocks  around. 

DAN  (H.  a  judge),  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  Tell  el-Kady,  or  Dan,  was  the  chief  place 

of  Israel,  who  had  their  abode  on  the  sea-  of  a  region  of  country,  which  is  accurately 

coast,  with  Ephraim  on  Uie  north,  Bexijamin  described  by  the  spies  in  Judg.  xviii.  8 — JO. 


DAN  454  DAN 

DANCING  was  in  every  period  a  lored  gaiety  of  a  simple  agricaltaral  and  unsophis- 
enjoyment  among  the  Hebrews  (Exod.  zr.  ticated  people.  Bat  contact  with  heathenism 
20.  Eeclesimstes  iii.  4.  Jer.zzzL  13),  which  broo^t  heathen  Tioes  with  heathen  recres^ 
the  yoong  had  a  share  in  (Job  xzL  11)  ;  tions  and  refinementSy  when  the  resonrces 
maidens  practised  (Jndg.  zzL  21.  Matt,  of  the  pantomimic  art  were  brought  in  to 
xiT.  6) ;  and  even  children  imitated  in  their  minister  to  a  palled  and  vitiated  appetite  for 
play  (Matt  xi.  17).  The  case  of  Herodias's  pleasure.  Interpreters  have  found  in  MatL 
daughter  shows,  Oiat  the  jmi  ietU,  in  which  xiv.  6,  a  reference  to  an  unworthy  scene  of 
there  is  only  one  dancer,  was  known  among  this  nature,  in  which  the  excitement  of  the 
the  Jews,  Not  only  private  festivities  (Luke  dance,  Joined  with  the  intoxication  of  wine 
XV.  25),  and  the  gathering  of  the  vintage  and  passion,  caused  the  destruction  of  John 
(Judg.  ix.  27),  but  public  rejoicings,  as  cde-     the  Bsptist 

brations  of  victory  (Exod.  xv.  20.    1  Sam.         Olin  thus  describes  a  dance  which  he  wit- 
zviii.  6),  triumpbid  processions  ( 1  Sam.  xxi.     nessed  in  Egypt :  — 

II),  and  religious  solemnities  (Judg.  xxi         '  We  stopped  for  the  night  on  the  western 
19),  were  occasionally  aeoompanied  and  en*     bank  of  the  river,  opposite  to  a  large  village 
livened  by  daneing.    We  find  dances  men-     at  the  distance  of  about  half  a  mile  from  the 
tioned  as  taking  plaee  around  idolatrous     bsnk.    The  delicious  softness  of  the  atmo- 
images  and  altars  (Exod.  xxxii  19.  1  Kings     sphere,  and  the  brilliant  moonlight,  tempted 
xviii.  26).     David  celebrated  the  bringing     us  to  walk  in  the  grove  of  palm-trees  that 
up  of  the  ark  into  the  ssnetuary  with  dances,     lies  between  the  village  and  the  landing-place. 
in  whieh  he  himself  took  part  (2  Sam.  vL  0,     Our  attention  was  soon  attracted  by  the  sound 
14) ;   and   after  the  captivity,  as  we  learn     of  music  and  loud  peals  of  merriment    We 
from  the  Babbins,  the  Israelites  eelebrated     directed  our  walk  towards  the  villsge^  and 
the  fisast  of  tabemaeles  with  a  torohnlanee,     approached  a  large  group  of  people  just  out- 
in  the  outer  court  of  the  temple.     When     side  of  the  gate.  There  were  perhaps  two  hun- 
fbmales  danced  alone  (Judg.  xi.  Si),  or  in  dred  persons,  consisting  of  men,  women,  and 
choirs  (Exod.  xv.  20.   1  Sam.  xviii.  6),  they  children,  most  of  whom  squatted  upon  the 
usually  beat  tambouiins  or  timbrels  (Jer.  ground  after  the  peculiar  manner  of  the  eoun- 
zxxi  4).    Song  was  often  conneeted  with  try.    A  few  of  i»  men  were  standing,  and 
these  danees  (1   Sam.  xviiL  7;   xxL  11),  all  were  deeply  engaged  in  looking  upon  a 
which  were   accompanied   by   stringed    as  dance  performed  by  two  young  females  in 
well  as  other  instruments  (2  Sam.  vL  6).  the  midst  of  the  crowd,  where  sn  area  was 
Seven  words  have  been  pointed  out  as  denot-  kept  vacant  for  the  purpose.    The  dress  of 
hig  the  different  kinds  <^  dancing  prevalent  tiie  dancers  was  loose  and  flowing,  of  very 
of  oki  among  the  Hebrews;  and  what  is  called  light  materials,  open  at  the  bosom,  and  so 
a  country  dance  (contiv-danse)  is  thought  adyusted  as  to  eschibit  the  form  snd  person 
to  be  mdicated  in  1  Sam.  xviii.  7.     That  it  as  fully  as  possible.    Their  head-dress,  which 
was  accounted  unbeooming  for  men,  or  Ibr  was  ornamented  with  shining  trinkets,  snd 
persons  of  rank,  to  dance,  cannot  be  eon-  not  unbeooming,  hung  down  behind  to  the 
eluded  firom  2  Sam.  vL  16.    In  this  ease,  waist.    They  wore  a  broad  girdle,  which  was 
daneing  in  general  is  not  rq»roved,  but  dan*  wound  many  times  around  the  body,  and 
eing  alone,  or  in  fh>nt  of  a  prooeesion ;  snd  covered  it  from  the  bosom  to  the  hips.    The 
in  verse  20,  the  point  of  blame  is  made  to  ankles  and  arms  were  adorned  with  bracelets, 
eonsist  in  David's  being '  uncovered,'  that  is,  with  which  they  kept  time  to  the  thrilling 
divestedof  his  robes  of  state  (see  Clothes),  music  made  by  two  rude  instruments ;  the 
The  nature  of  the  old  Hebrew  daneing  is  not  one  a  sort  of  esrthen  drum,  in  form  not  un- 
well known ;  but  female-daneing  was  most  like  a  ftmnel,  having  a  head  of  goat-skin ; 
probably  not  essentially  different  fh>m  that  the  other  a  wind  instrument,  two  or  three 
whieh  now  prevails  in  Eastern  countries ;  feet  long,  composed  of  two  reeds  of  unequal 
and,  agreeably  to  the  character  of  Orien*  length,  —  one  perforated  with  holes  for  the 
tals,  would  be  Aill  of  life  and  expression,  but  fingersj — and  bound  together,  so  as  lo  enable 
by  no  means  obscene.      Whether   public  the  pexfoimer  to  blow  in  both  at  the  same 
dancing-women  existed  among  the  Ismelifees  time.    The  dance  is  unlike  any  thing  seen 
is  uacertsin.    The  East,  in  the  present  dmy,  in  other  countries.    It  begins  with  slow  and 
abounds  in  them ;  but  they  are  generally  per-  measured  steps,  accompanied  by  (be  sound 
sons  of  doubtful  reputation,  or  known  conr-  of  some  brass  trinkets  or  cymbals,  which 
teaans.    That,  in  the  *  latter  days,'  J«widi  the  performers  hold  in  their  hands,  and 
ISunilies,  especially  those  of  princely  rank,  shake  briskly  above  and  around  their  heads; 
adopted  Grecian  danees,  is  not  improbable ;  at  the  same  time  throwing  their  bodies  for- 
which  Cicero  (' Pro  Murena,' 6)  has  described  ward  and  backward,  and  to  the  right  and 
as  being  in  his  time  among  the  Bomans  the  left,  with  great  violence.    This  seems  but  the 
last  resort  of  inebriated  conviviality,  and  a  introduction  to  the  dance,  in  which  the  feet 
disgrace  to  a  Boman  of  high  rank.      The  and  legs  remam  immoveable ;  the  hands  are 
truth  seems  to  be,  that  daneing  among  the  raised  on  high,  or  fall  in  unison  with  the 
Hebrews  originally  partook  of  Uie  innocent  voluptuous  sentiments  designed  to  be  ex- 


DAN 


4ko5 


DAN 


pNSMd  and  exoited.  The  chief  port  of  the 
perfonnanoe  oonsUts  in  a  miocessioii  of  atti- 
tadeSr  oootortions,  and  gestiizefl,  peifonned 
by  the  muscloB  of  the  thighs^  abdomen,  and 
loins.  The  pexfoimen  possess  a  perfect 
command  oTer  cTeiy  fibre  of  the  body ;  and 
those  parts  of  the  human  frame  which  am 
naturally  quite  incapable  of  Tolnntary  motion 
have  acquired  a  pliability  and  power  that 
seem  hardly  lees  than  sopematunJ.  They 
were  highly  exoited,  I  might  say  almost  fran- 
tic, under  the  influence  of  the  mnsio,  and  of 
their  own  exhausting  efforts.  The  spectators 
partook  of  the  same  intoxicating  influence. 
They  encouraged  the  dancers  with  occasional 
cheering,  and  swelled  the  hoarse  music  to  a 
deafening  note,  by  now  and  then  pouring 
upon  its  thrilling,  rapid  tide,  a  brief  loud 
chorus.  The  dancers  occasionally  stopped 
to  get  breath,  but,  by  repeating  their  evolu- 
tions, speedily  rose  again  to  the  state  of 
phrenaied  excitement,  which,  lor  the  mo- 
ment,  seemed  to  hare  subsided.  It  was  a 
'Wild  and  very  striking  scene.  I  was  not 
sorry  to  have  stumbled  upon  it,  though  it 
left  a  painful  impression  upon  my  feelings. 
The  motions  and  attitudes  of  the  dancers 
were  indecent  and  offensive  in  a  high  degree ; 
and  we  were  fain  to  turn  our  backs  upon  an 
exhibition  which,  from  its  singularity  and 
novelty,  we  had  witnessed  with  a  lively  in- 
terest'(1. 1S2,  <e</.). 

The  same  writer  gives  an  accoonl  of  a 
ftineral  dance :  — 

'  On  entering  the  village,  our  attention 
was  attracted  by  a  group  of  twenty  or  thirty 
females,  uttering  doleful  cries,  and  per- 
forming a  sort  of  dance  to  a  ahrill  and  dis- 
agreeable music.  Three  of  them  were  seated 
on  the  ground ;  one  beating  a  large  drum 
with  the  open  hand,  a  second  making  a 
noise  on  a  sort  of  shield  covered  with  the 
untanned  skin  of  a  sheep  or  goat,  while  a 
third  discoursed  music  with  a  rudely-con- 
structed instrument  The  strains  were  plain- 
tive and  melancholy.  The  rest  danced  in  a 
long  vaulting  step,  following  each  other  in 
a  circle  around  the  musicians.  They  were 
dressed  in  loose  tattered  robes,  in  the  usual 
style  of  the  female  peasantry.  They  threw 
their  hands  and  arms  around  and  aloft  in 
the  wildest  manner,  and  brandished  long, 
slender  spears,  all  accompanying  the  music 
with  loud  and  piteous  cries.  The  number 
of  performers  increased  during  our  stay,  and 
a  few  women  and  girls  seated  themselves  on 
the  ground  as  spectators,  though  no  men 
approached  or  gave  any  heed  to  the  perform- 
ance. We  halted  at  a  short  distance  to 
observe  this  singular  exhibition,  which  seem- 
ed at  ^rst  to  increase  their  excitement  and 
the  velocity  of  their  wild  gyrations.  In  a 
short  time,  however,  one  of  the  dancers 
sprung  forward,  and  snatched  the  instruments 
of  music  from  the  hands  of  the  women 
seated  within  the  circle^  which  in  an  instant 


put  an  end  to  the  performance;  and  the 
parties  approached,  and  asked  us  for  buck- 
sheesh.  We  learned,  on  inquiry,  that  a  per- 
son had  recently  died  in  the  house  before 
which  this  singular  ftmeral  ceremony  was 
performed  by  the  female  relatives.  We  pro- 
ceeded towards  the  temple,  and  soon  heard 
behind  us  a  renewal  of  this  melancholy 
dirge '  (i.  214). 

DANIEL  (H.  tny  judge  {U)  Qod,  A J(.  494S ; 
A.C.  600 ;  y.  (K)6),  a  Hebrew  prophet  in  the 
Chaldee-Perslan  period,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  the  race  of  David ;  who,  in  accordance 
with  &e  prophecy  in  Isa.  xxxix.  7,  was  in  the 
third  year  of  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  king  of 
Judah  (Dan.  i.  seq, ;  comp.  Jer.  xxv.  xxxvi.), 
transpcMrted,  while  yet  young,  to  Babylon,  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  after  the  conquest  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

In  company  with  three  companions  of  his 
own  nation,  he  underwent  an  educational 
discipline  of  three  years'  duration,  after,  in 
accordance  with  an  Eastern  custom  (Gen. 
xlL  40.  a  Chron.  xxxvL  4.  Esther  ii.  4),  he 
had  received  the  name  of  Belteshazzar,  — 
BePi  treasure-keeper  (Dan.  i.  7).  The  aim 
seems  to  have  been  to  convert  Daniel  to  the 
religion  of  the  Chaldnans ;  for  which  purpose 
he  was  provided  with  food,  the  eating  of 
which  would  have  been  a  breach  of  the  law 
of  his  fathers.  He,  in  consequence,  obtained, 
by  a  trial,  which  proved  that  simple  fare 
was  conducive  to  health,  permission  to  ad- 
hero  to  his  national  diet  This  act  of  self- 
denial  and  religious  principle  was,  as  such 
acts  always  are,  rewarded  of  Ood  with  gifts 
of  his  Holy  Spirit,  so  that  the  young  man 
made  marked  progress  in  wisdom  and  spiri- 
tual knowledge ;  and  the  king  found  in  him  a 
counsellor  far  superior  to  the  national  magi. 

An  occasion  soon  put  Daniel's  skill  to  Sue 
test  Nebuchadnezzar,  failing  to  obtain  the 
interpretation  of  a  dream  from  the  magi,  in 
whose  class  Daniel  seems  to  have  been  for- 
mally recognised,  was  on  the  point  of  exter- 
minating them  in  the  true  spirit  of  Eastern 
despotism,  when  the  prophet  offered  his 
assistance;  and,  having  received  enlighten- 
ment in  a  vision,  expounded  the  dream,  in 
the  name  of  *  the  God  of  heaven  that  re- 
vealeth  secrets.'  The  result  was,  that  the 
monarch  confessed,  —  *  Of  a  truth  your  God 
is  a  God  of  gods,  and  a  Lord  of  kings;* 
while  he  made  Daniel  'a  great  man,  and 
gave  him  many  great  gifts,  and  made  him 
ruler  over  the  whole  province  of  Babylon, 
and  chief  of  the  governors  over  all  the  wise 
men  of  Babylon;'  so  that  'he  sat  in  the 
gate  of  the  king,'  or  became  prime  vizier 
(ii.).  His  elevation  seems  to  have  aroused 
into  action  the  dormant  jealousy  of  the  Chal- 
dean  priesthood,  who  impelled  the  king  to 
take  a  step,  in  requiring  from  his  subjects 
the  worship  of  an  image  of  gold,  which  could 
not  fail  to  compromise  all  faithful  Jews,  and 
might,  at  least  in  its  consequences,  reach  the 


DAN 


456 


DAN 


obnoxioas  Hebrew  minister.  The  plan  wm 
defeated  by  tlie  fidelity  of '  three  senrants  of 
the  most  high  Ood/  whose  moral  courage 
aud  miraculous  preservation  confirmed  the 
monarch  in  his  predilection  towards  the  He- 
brew  race  (iii.)*  ^^^  ^^®  deliverance  of 
Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abeduego,  the  king 
had  another  dream  which  troubled  Daniel  as 
well  as  himself,  but  the  interpretation  of 
which,  given  bj  the  sage,  accompanied  with 
seasonable  advice,  found  complete  fulfilment; 
after  the  penalty  involved  in  which,  Nebu- 
chadnezzar declared,  — '  I  praise,  and  extol, 
and  honour  the  King  of  heaven,  all  whose 
works  are  truth,  and  his  ways  judgment; 
and  those  that  walk  in  pride,  he  is  able  to 
abase'  (iv.).  The  acknowledgment  may 
have  been  sincere,  but  wrought  no  viuJ 
change  in  the  monarch's  heart. 

The  book  which  bears  Daniel's  name,  or 
what  may  be  fragments  of  the  original  work, 
does  not  bring  the  prophet  on  the  stage  dur- 
ing the  followers  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  till 
the  last  day  of  the  reign  of  Belshazzar, 
when,  while  carousing  with  his  court,  and 
desecrating  the  sacred  utensils  of  the  Hebrew 
sanctuary,  that  despot  saw  a  handwriting  on 
the  wall,  which,  as  decyphered  by  Daniel, 
announced  his  immediate  downfall.  Ap- 
parently the  prophet,  in  the  midst  of  those 
sudden  and  sometimes  unaccountable  re- 
verses to  which  Oriental  countries  are  spe- 
cially liable,  had  fallen  into  neglect,  if  not 
disgrace ;  but  he  knew  from  the  prophecies 
of  IsaiflJi  what  was  at  hand,  and  already 
the  name  of  Cyrus  filled  Asia  with  its  renown. 
Hence  he  appeared  before  the  terrified  and 
half-inebriated  prince  with  a  confidence 
and  dignity  befitting  his  position;  and, 
making  mention  of  the  loss  of  reason  that 
had  been  inflicted  on  the  conqueror  of  Jeru- 
salem for  his  sins  and  foDy,  he  announced 
the  ruin  of  Belshazzar,  and  the  coming  do- 
minion of  the  Persians.  The  bearing  and 
the  message  of  tlie  prophet  impressed  the 
king  so  profoundly,  that,  perhaps  in  some 
vain  hope  of  escape  by  his  means,  he  lavished 
honours  on  his  Hebrew  slave  (v.). 

Under  Darius,  for  whom  Cyrus  had  cap- 
tured Babylon,  Daniel  was  the  first  of  three 
presidents,  in  whose  hands  was  the  entire 
government  of  that  mighty  empire.  So 
exalted  a  station  could  not  fail  to  excite 
envy,  and  envy  would  find  hope  of  revenge, 
especially  in  the  imperfectly  established  re- 
lations of  a  new  dynasty.  The  magian  caste 
employed  their  great  influence  wiUi  Darius, 
to  procure  a  decree,  forbidding  worship  to  be 
ofi'ered  within  thir^  days  to  any  being  save 
the  monarch  himself.  Daniel  knew  the  evil 
intent  of  these  men,  and  resolved,  as  became 
one  with  his  convictions  and  in  his  office, 
to  make  his  prayers  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  might  be  known  of  all.  The  conse- 
quence was,  that  Darius,  taking  Daniel's  con- 
duct as  a  wilful  and   open   breach  of  his 


commands,  and  even  as  an  insult  to  him- 
self, was  driven,  in  his  rage,  to  inflict  on  the 
prophet,  without  mitigation,  the  penalty 
threatened  against  disobedience.  Asiatio 
monarohs  were  wont  to  have  large  parks 
stocked  with  wild  animals,  which  served  at 
once  for  the  perilous  amusement  of  the  love* 
reign,  and  the  punishment  of  his  ofllending 
subjeots.  Into  such  an  enclosure  was  Daniel 
cast.  But  the  God  whom  he  served  so 
faithfully,  preserved  him  unharmed.  The 
sight  of  this  wonderftil  rescue  drew  fitnn 
Darius  a  confession  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  God  of  Daniel,  who  now  prospered  in 
his  reign,  and  in  that  of  his  successor  Cyras 
(vi).  That  prince  may  have  been  influ- 
enced by  the  advice  of  the  faithftil  Hebrew, 
in  the  act  of  liberality  he  performed,  when 
he  gave  the  Jews  permission  to  return  to 
their  native  land. 

This  is  the  last  historieal  notice  we  have 
of  Daniel ;  for  the  rest  of  the  book  is  made 
up  of  accounts  of  visions  and  prophecies  of 
various  dates,  during  his  long,  varied,  inte 
resting,  and  very  important  life. 

Daniel  appears  as  a  man  eminently  die- 
tingwshed  for  prudence,  wisdom,  and  piety* 
His  fame  was  great.  At  an  early  period,  he 
is  classed  with  the  sages  and  righteous  men, 
Noah  and  Job  (Ezek.  xiv.  14) ;  and  his  name 
became  proverbial  for  superior  knowledge 
(Ezek.  xxviiL  3).  He  was  recognised  as  a 
prophet  in  the  days  and  by  the  lips  of  Jesus 
Christ  (Matt.  zxiv.  10). 

In  Daniel  we  see  the  Hebrew  qualities  of 
mind  brought  out  in  a  superior  manner,  and 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  present  points 
of  great  excellence.  In  his  pie^,  he  may  be 
taken  as  a  representative  of  his  race :  their 
hardness  of  heart  and  indocility  he  did  not 
share ;  yet  had  he  enough  of  firmness  and 
persistence  to  withstand  the  most  powerftil 
blandishments,  as  well  as  the  most  unspar- 
ing opposition.  Placed  in  circumstances 
where  all  that  Oriental  pomp  and  opulence 
oould  give,  and  all  that  a  gorgeous  systsm  of 
religious  falsities  could  achieve  for  the  per- 
version of  his  heart,  he  was  found  faithftd  to 
the  depressed  religion  of  his  fkihers,  and  the 
cause  of  an  afllicted  people ;  and  so  gained 
a  high  rsnk  among  the  true  servants  of  God, 
and  became  distinguished  for  that  holiness 
which  made  the  descendants  of  Abraham  a 
peculiar  people,  and  characterises  the  mora- 
lity of  the  Bible. 

During  the  captivity,  Daniel  held  the  im- 
portant, yet  perilous  office  of  the  representa^ 
tive  of  his  people,  at  the  Chaldsean  court. 
For  any  thing  but  this,  was  he  destined  by 
those  who  nndertook  the  charge  of  his  edu- 
cation. His  own  force  of  character  and 
prevailing  piety  placed  him  at  once  high  in 
office  near  the  monarch,  and  made  him  the 
centre  of  his  nation's  hope  and  strength. 
Wisely  and  faithfully  did  he  acquit  himself 
of  the  duties  which  hence  arose.    Genius,  as 


DAN 


457 


DAN 


well  BB  piety,  wm  lequisite.  Daniel  proved 
eqaal  to  his  position.  In  all  ages,  slavee 
have  been  of  a  sudden  elevated  to  the  right 
hand  of  Eastern  despots.  The  rise  of  Daniel, 
as  well  as  that  of  Nehemiah,  is  in  keeping 
with  Eastern  customs.  But  ordinary  viziers 
fall  as  suddenly  as  they  rise ;  and  when  they 
fall,  they  perish.  Daniel  reached  a  very 
old  age  in  a  service,  of  all  the  most  dan- 
gerous. At  our  first  view,  we  see  him  under 
the  protection  of  the  devastator  of  his  native 
land :  our  last  presents  him  as  the  approved 
and  influential  servant  of  its  friend  and  re- 
storer. Viewed  in  this  light,  he  appears  an 
instrument  in  the  hand  of  God,  for  the  sup- 
port and  encouragement  of  captive  Israel, — 
a  support  and  encouragement  which  were 
indispensable,  if  that  people  were  ever  to  be 
again  located  in  their  native  soil ;  and  the 
miracles  recorded  in  connection  with  him 
have  an  object  and  a  reason  which  remove 
them  from  the  class  of  ordinary  wonder- work- 
ings, and  go  far  to  attest  tibieir  credibility. 

DANIEL,  THE  BOOK  OF,  contains,  be- 
sides the  particulars  already  stated,  which 
regard  the  life  of  the  prophet,  many  interest- 
ing details  touching  the  Chaldee  and  Medo- 
Persian  monarchy,  which  are  in  aooordance 
with  what,  from  other  sources,  is  known  on 
the  sul]gects ;  only  that  here,  in  Holy  Scripture, 
we  have  more  detailed,  life-like,  and  impres- 
sive accounts,  than  we  find  in  heathen  wri- 
ters (i. — ^vi.).  In  the  seventh  chapter,  the 
writer  narrates  a  dream  which,  in  the  first 
year  of  the  reign  of  Belshazzar,  he  had  re- 
garding four  kingdoms  prefigured  under  the 
image  of  four  beasts.  The  kingdoms  are 
described  in  ii.  81—45.  Chapter  the  eighth 
tells  how,  in  the  third  year  of  the  same  mo- 
narch's reign,  Daniel  saw  in  a  vision  a  ram 
with  two  horns,  which  was  assailed  and  sub- 
dued by  a  goat  with  *  a  notable  horn.'  The 
ram  denotes  the  king  of  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians ;  the  goat,  Alexander  the  Great.  The 
ninth  chi^ter  states,  that,  in  the  first  year 
of  Darius,  Daniel,  while  engaged  in  prayer 
for  the  speedy  termination  of  the  captivity, 
was  divinely  instructed,  that,  after  seventy 
weeks,  reconciliation  should  be  made  for 
iniquity,  and  everiasting  righteousness  be 
brought  in.  From  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth 
chapters,  information  is  given  of  the  fate  of 
the  Persian,  Macedonian,  and  Greek-Asiatio 
monarchies,  down  to  the  time  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes ;  of  the  persecution  of  the  Jews, 
and  the  establishment  on  earth  of  the  king- 
dom of  God. 

A  right  understanding  of  the  aim  and  pur- 
pose of  a  book  goes  far  to  establish  or  over- 
throw its  credibility.  This  position  is 
exemplified  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  and 
has  been  too  much  forgotten  in  critical  dis- 
cussions concerning  it  The  chief  aim  of 
the  work  we  take  to  be  the  exhibition  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  in  contrast  with  that  of 
the  magi.    In  the  prosecution  of  this  pur- 


pose, the  writer  sets  forth  various  facts  as 
bearing  on  his  leading  object,  —  facts  which 
were  within  his  own  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence. Hence,  at  the  very  first,  Daniel  ap- 
peared superior  to  the  sensual  attractions  of 
the  court,  and  proved  that  even  the  dietetical 
regulations  of  Moses  were  conducive  to  health. 
The  moral  courage  exhibited  on  this  occa« 
sion  created  a  favourable  impression  on 
behalf  of  the  young  man,  and  his  three  assa 
dates;  which  went  on  increasing  as  they 
advanced  in  knowledge  and  culture,  till  at 
length  the  interpretation  of  Nebuchadnexaar's 
dream  raised  Daniel  at  once  to  the  highest 
consideration.  The  presence  and  fame  of 
these  Hebrews  in  his  court  may  well  have 
made  that  monarch  reflect  on  the  possibility 
of  their  having  truth  on  their  side,  the  rather, 
probably,  because  he  knew  something  of  the 
falseness  and  deceptions  of  the  established 
religion.  Hence  he  may  have  resolved  to 
put  the  skill  and  pretensions  of  botli  parties 
to  the  test  His  dream  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity. Objectors  have  said,  that  he  was  not 
likely  to  require  the  magians  to  say  what 
was  the  substance,  as  well  as  the  import,  of 
the  dream,  as  if  any  stretch  of  caprice  and 
authority  were  too  great  for  an  Oriental 
tyrant  But  our  view  supplies  a  sufficient 
reason  for  this  command.  The  king  felt 
that  the  exposition  of  a  dream  lay  not  entirely 
beyond  human  power.  But,  in  ike  substance 
of  his  dream,  he  had  a  sure  test  in  his  own 
mind.  This  could  be  known  to  none  save 
himself  and  *  the  holy  gods.'  He  therefore 
made  this  the  prominent  point  The  result 
justified  the  course  he  took. 

Now  to  us  it  seems  all  but  impossible  that 
the  collision  here  implied  should  not  have 
arisen.  The  genius  of  the  two  religions  was 
essentialiy  dissimil  ar.  The  moment  Judaism 
came  into  contact  with  Magianism,  a  con- 
flict was  inevitable.  The  position  and  cele- 
brity of  Daniel  made  the  court  itself  the 
field  of  action.  And  thus  the  question  as- 
sumed a  vital  importance.  Nor,  apart  from 
some  influence  such  as  that  which  must  have 
resulted  from  the  success  with  which  Daniel 
maintained  his  righteous  cause,  can  we  well 
understand  how,  contrary  to  what  was  usual 
or  likely,  a  decree  should  have  been  issued 
peimittmg  the  captives  to  return  home. 
Viewed  in  the  light,  however,  in  which  we 
have  placed  the  book,  it  is  seen  to  record 
most  important  events ;  which,  in  their  issue, 
did  something  to  undermine  the  deceptive 
system  of  Chaldee  philosophy,  to  difftise  more 
correct  impressions  of  divine  power  and  pro  • 
vidence,  and  so  to  prepare  the  way  for  Christ 

In  this,  its  main  design  and  tendency,  the 
book  of  Daniel  had  a  yet  wider  and  still 
more  important  aim, — namely,  the  advance- 
ment of  that  kingdom  of  God,  of  righteous- 
ness, true  holiness,  and  eternal  life,  which 
Jesus  came  to  found,  and  of  which  Daniel 
had  a  foresight,  and  uttered  predictions* 


DAN                      458  DAN 

If  Umm  ftimt  are  bovno  sleadily  in  mind,  Syrian  Neoplttonict,  who  wrote  against  Chiia- 

objeetions  which  haTe  been  taken  to  the  tianity.    This  philosopher  maintained,  tiuit 

aathentioity  of  the  book  wiU  disappear  of  the  book  was  the  woih  of  a  deeeirer,  writ- 

themselyes.  ten  in  Greek*  in  the  days  of  Antioehiui 

Besides  the  csnonical  writings  whidi  bear  Epiphanes  {dr.  170,  A.C.)«     His  attacks, 

Daniel's  name,  there  are  extant   in  Greek,  however,  did  not  shake  the  prerdent  beliof 

others  which  wesr  the  fieatnres  of  spnrions-  in  its  authenticity.    The  celebrated  Spinosa 

ness,  snd  find  their  place  in  the  Apociypha.  published  doubts  respecting  its  five  first 

These  are  the  history  of  Susanna,  of  Bel  and  chapters,  whioh  regarded  not  the  credibility 

the  Dragon,  the  prayer  of  Asarias.  and  the  of  dieir  contents,  but  the  time  when  they 

song    of   the    three  children  in  the  fieiy  weie  united  with  the  rest 

fbrnace.  It  is  in  our  own  days,  however,  that  th« 

The  book  of  Daniel,  as  well  as  that  of  most  strenuous  and  aweeping  attacks  have 

Ezra,  is  peculiar,  in  beiog  written  in  two  been  made  on  the  book  of  Daniel.    Heael 

languages.    In  the  Hebrew  are  chapters  i.  threw  doubt  over  chapters  ij — vi. ;  Miehaelia 

ii.  3 ;   also  viiiw — ^zii. :  the  remaining  ii.  4  over  iiL — in, ;  and  Coirodi,  EidUiom,  Ber- 

— ^rii  are  written  in  Eastern  Aramaic^  or  tholdt,  de  Wette,  Bleek,  and  Kinns,  have 

Chaldee.  denied  that  Daniel  was  ite  author,  ascribing 

It  must  also  be  remarked,  that  the  first  ite  composition  to  some  Jew  living  in  the 

six  chapters  are  distinguished  from  the  six  time  ci  the  Maccabees,  with  a  view  to  en- 

ensuing  in  this,  that  in  the  former,  Daniel  courage  his  nation  in  their  straggle  for 

is  spoken  of  in  the  third  person,  while  in  the  liberty.    The  attacks  made  by  these  critics 

latter  he  himself  speaks  in  the  first  called  into  the  field  aUe  defenders  In  Luder- 

The  book  is  without  the  name  of  ite  an-  wald,  Stiiudlin,  Jahn,  Hengstenberg,  and 

thor,  though  the  latter  hidf  professes  to  be  Herbst    This  is  not  Uic  place  to  enter  into 

composed  by  DsnieL    It  is  worthy  of  notice,  so  purely  critical  a  question.    Yet  the  writer 

that  the  work  consiste  of  a  number  of  parte  must  be  permitted  to  say,  that  in  his  opinion 

more  or  leas  disconnected.    It  cannot,  how-  the  defence  has  been  fairly  and  ■uocessftally 

ever,  be  hence  inferred,  that  these  parte  conducted.    It  is  equally  dear,  that  the  im- 

proceeded  from  diflbrent  hands.    They  may  pulse  which  led  to  these  recent  questioaings 

be  pieces  written  at  different  periods  in  Da-  of  the  anthenticity  and|  credibility  of  our 

niel's  life,  and  put  together  after  ite  close,  author  had  for  ite  origin  and  support  a 

in  the  manner  of  a  c^lection  of  separately  deeply-rooted  predeteimination  against  those 

published    poems.      The  general    tone  of  displays  of  the  divine  power,  that  men  have 

thought,  and  the  deep,  rich,  oriental  colour-  designated  miracles.    Such  a  presumption 

ing ;   the   intimate  knowledge  displayed  of  renders  it  necessary  to  get  in  some  way  rid, 

the  manners  and  modes  of  action  in  Esstem  either  of  the  miraculous  in  a  book,  or  of  the 

courts ;  and  the  relations  in  which  the  Chal-  book  iteelf  .    But  this  is  a  state  of  mind  as 

daans  and  the  Jews,  especially  the  magi  and  most  alien  to  the  spirit  of  criticism,  so  most 

Daniel,  stand  to  each  other,  combine  to  make  adverse  to  a  just  judgment  respecting  the 

it  probable,  that  the  Daniel,  whose  history  authorship  of  a  Biblical  writing.    And  it  is 

the  book  relates,  is  ite  sndior ;  and  to  give  no  Kttle  curious,  yet  painftil,  to  remark  that 

us  an  assurance,  thst,  whoever  the  author  some  of  the  very  men  who  in  Gennany 

was,  we  have  here  a  reality,  —  a  transcript  have  moet  strongly  protested  sgainst  aU 

from  actual  lifs,  —  a  page  out  of  the  world's  assumptions  in   Uie  ^eologian,  and  have 

history.  carried  on  the  most  rigoioos  processes  of 

This,  however,  is  a  different  question  from  criticsl  investigation,  giving  therein  a  model 

that  which  asks,  whether  the  condition  in  well  worthy  of  imitation,  have  yet,  with  a 

which  the  book  now  lies  lies  before  us  is  lamentable  inoeaslstenoy,  entered  on  their 

that  in  which  ite  materials  proceeded  fkom  Scriptural  studies  with  a  most  decided  and 

the  prophet's  pen.    Evidences  there  are  in  unsparing  bias  sgainst  all  miracle,  derived 

the  work,  which  show  the  working  of  a  later  from  schools  of  modem  philosophy.     To 

hand.     It  appears  not  unlikely  that  some  persons  of  this  state  of  mind,  Daniel  and 

Israelite  gathered  together  the  several  pieces  other  books  may  wdl  appear  unanthentio 

which  Daniel  had  himself  put  forth,  adding  and  incredible ;  but  then  these  critacs  might 

to  them  such  biographical  notes  as  he  might  as  well  have  savsd  themselves  the  trouble 

think  desirable.    An  intimation  of  ano^er  of  entering  on  an  inquiry  which  could  have 

hand  is  found  so  early  as  chap.  i.  HI     Nor  only  one  issue.      Having  made  up  their 

was  it  likely  that  the  prophet  would  himeelf  minds  against  the  very  essence  of  the  books, 

have  written,  that  among  the  magi  none  not  to  say  of  revealed  religion,  they  would 

was  found  like  himself  (i.  19 ;  see  20,  and  have  acted  consistently  had    they   turned 

vi.  4).  their  talente  and  industry  into  some  other 

The  book  of  Daniel  was  held  in  high,  channel 

though  not  the  highest,  estimation  by  the  DAJUUS.  —  Properly,  like  our  word  sove- 

ancient  Jews;  but,  so  eariy  as  the  third  eon-  rvt^n,  Darius,   in  Persian  Darttwe$ht  is  a 

tuiy,  it  found  an  assailant  in  Porphyry,  the  regal   title ;    but  in  Greek  historians,  and 


DAK                       459  D  A  V 

otben  who  hare  foUowed  them,  it  is  the  heart,  —  evIlB  which  neoesiarily  ensue  one 

name  of  sereral  Persian  kings,  of  whom  from  another;  a  state  of  mind  which  inevi- 

three  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible :  —  I.  Da-  tably  brings  fbrth '  works  of  darkness '  (Bom. 

rins  the  Mede  (Dan.  zi.  1),  son  of  Ahasne-  xiii.  13),  confonnding  darkness  and  light 

ms   (Dan.  ix.  1),  eonqueror    of   Babylon  together,  or  putting  the  one  in  place  of  the 

(Dan.  t1.  1).     He   is  not  Artazerxes,  or  other  (Isa. '▼iii  20).    To  meet  the  oondi- 

Astyages,  still  less  Darins  Hystaapis ;  bat,  tion  of  those  nnhappy  beings  who  sat  and 

sines  in  yi.  29  he  appears  as  the  immediate  who  still  sit  in  darkness  and  in  the  shadow 

predeoessor  of  Gyms,  without  doubt  Cyaz>  of  death,  the  Lord  Jeans  appeared,  guiding 

eres  11.  son  of  Astyages,  who  followed  his  *  our  ftet  into  the  way  of  peaee '  (Luke  L 

Isther  in  the  goTemment ;  gained  the  em-  79 :  oomp.  John  i.  0 ;  iii.  19.  Eph.  t.  8, 11. 

pire  of  Babylon ;  but,  given  up  to  self-indul-  1  John  ii.  8,  9, 11 ). 

gence,  surrendered  nearly  all  power  into  'Darkness' is  used  tropioally  to  denote  — 
die  hands  of  his  nephew  and  son-in-law,  L  What  is  hidden,  secret,  or  private  (Matt 
Cyrus:  on  which  account,  Herodotus,  Ctesias,  z.  27) ;  II.  Death  and  the  grave  (Job  x.  21, 
and  other  later  historians,  pass  over  Cyrus  22 ;  xvii.  18) ;    III.  A,  if  not  the,  state  of 
as  a  Median  ruler,  and  begin  the  list  of  punishment  (Matt.  viii.  12 ;  xxii.  18 ;  xzv. 
Medo-Persian  kings  with  Gyms.     See  the  80) ;   and,  IV.  The  evil  powers  that  them 
article  Gtkus.  —  II.  Darius  Hystaspis,  or  hold  sway  (Luke  xxii.  68). 
son  of  Hystaspes  (Ezra  iv.  5 ;  r.  b.  Hag.  DAUOHTEB  (T.  TbcAter),  a  female  child 
i.  1;  ii.  1.  Zach.  i.  1),  ascended  the  Per-  (Oen.  xxxiv.  1),  and  generally  the  maidens 
sian  throne  after  the  magian  Bmerdis  (521  (xxxiv.  16.  Cant  v.  8)  or  women  (LukexxiiL 
or522,  A.G.).    In  the  second  year  of  his  28)  of  a  land.    'Thedaug^terof  Zion' (Isa. 
reign,  he  confirmed  the  favour  which  Gyrus  i.  8)  represents  *  Judah  and  Jerusalem'  (i.) 
had  granted  to  the  Jews,  permitting  them  under  the  figure  of  a  female  (Ezek.  xxvii.  6, 
to   rebuild   their    temple,   and    considers-  marg).  An  idiom  is  here  emploj^  which  has 
bly   augmented  his  dominions  by  several  flxtenaive  application  both  in  Hebrew  and 
fortunate  conquests.    He  died  after  a  reign  Arabic.    The  words  father,  mother,  son,  and 
of  thirty-six  years,  486,  A.C.  —  III.  Darius  daughter,  are  used  to  characterise  an  object  in 
the  Persian  (Neb.  xii.  22)  is  either  Darius  an  expressive  and  striking  manner,  when  it  is 
Kothus,  a  son  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  intended  to  represent  that  object  as  the  ori* 
who  (425,  A.G.)  ascended  the  throne  a  short  gin  or  ofbpring  of  another;  the  masculine 
time  after  his  brother  Xerxes  II.  and  died  or  feminine  being  preferred  according  to  the 
(405,  A.C.)  after  a  troubled  reign  of  nine-  nature  of  the  case,  or  the  usages  of  the  laa- 
teen  years ;  or,  as  Nehemish,  in  the  passage  guage.    Thus,  nin.  is  termed  *  the  father  of 
just  referred  to,  makes  Darius  the  Persian  a  Ufe ;'  vinegar, '  the  father  of  aeidi^; '  biead, 
contemporary  ot  the  high  priest  Jaddua,  who  '  the  father  o^  soundness ; '  wine,  *  the  mo- 
tived in  Jerusalem  at  the  time  when  it  was  ther  of  immorality;'  the  world,  *  ihe  mother 
entered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  this  third  of  sense ; '  a  wanderer,  *  son  of  the  road ; '  a 
Darius  has  been  held  by  Orotius  and  Le  robber,  '  son  of  the  mountain-gorge ; '  the 
Clerc  to  be  D.  Codomannus.    If  this  is  cor-  moon,  *  son  (masculine,  as  in  German)  of 
rect,  then  the  narrative  cannot  have  been  night;'  echo,  *  daughter  of  the  hill;'  speech, 
written  by  Nehemish.    With  Darius  Codo-  '  dan^ter  of  the  lips ; '  tears,  *  daughters  of 
mannus,  however,  the  Persian  kingdom  came  the  eyes.'    Horace  calls  a  ship  the  *  daugfa- 
to  an  end.    He  is  mentioned  in  Mace.  i.  1.  ter  of  a  wood*  {*  Car.'  lib.  i  14). 

DABKNESS  (T.)  is,  in  the  natural  worid.  The  usage  is  found  in  the  Scriptures.  A 
the  partial  or  totsl  absence  of  light ;  in  which  viaierwasthe  king's  father  (Gen.  xlv.  8);  *  sons 
sense  the  word  is  often  used  in  Scripture  of  power' (marg.)  are  mighty  warriors  (Deut 
(Matt  xxvii.  45).  God —  around  whom,  in  iii  18) ;  '  son  of  the  morning,'  the  morning- 
relation  to  mortal  sight,  is  thick  darkness  star,  or  dawn  of  day  (Isa.  xiv.  12) ;  '  daugh- 
(Deut  iv.  11.  2  Sam.  xxii.  12),  but  to  whom  ters  of  howling,'  ostriches  (Isa.  xiii.  21). 
dicre  is  no  darkness  at  all  (Ps.  cxzxix.  11,  Not  the  least  curious  is  *  mother  of  the  way' 
12.  Job  xxxiv.  22)  — divided  the  light  from  (Eaek.  xxi.  21),  for  the  ogen.  place  where 
darknesa,  in  creating  the  world  (Gen.  i.  4,  two  or  more  roada  meet,  and  where  they 
5, 18) ;  caused  darkness  to  prevail,  for  three  seem  to  take  their  origin, 
days,  over  the  land  of  Egypt  (Exod.  x.  21,  These  remarks  will  give  the  reader  some 
22) ;  and  placed  a  dark  cloud  between  the  meana  of  seeing  how  picturesque  is  the  He- 
Israelites  and  their  Egyptian  pursuers —  brew  tongue.  Very  beautifully  does  the 
(Exod.  xiv.  20.  Josh.xxiv.7).  But  the  ab-  phrase,  *  father  of  life,'  paint  the  rain  and 
sence  of  light  is,  of  uH  privations,  the  great-  its  lovely  consequences,  especially  to  those 
est  Hence  '  dsrkness '  came  to  signily  a  who  know  with  what  magical  speed  and  rich 
state  of  privation,  want,  distress,  and  cala-  luxuriance  the  tell  of  rain  calls  forth  veidnie^ 
mity  (Joel  iL  81.  Job  xxx.  26.  Eccl.  iv.  17).  and  all  die  treasure  of  the  spring,  in  Eastem 
Spiritual  darkness  (Isa.  xlix.  9 ;  1.  10)  con-  climes. 

slsts  in  a  disordered  and  conftised  under-  DAVID   (H.  a  favourite.     A.M.  4470; 

standi'jg,  a  corrupt  wiU,  and  a  troubled  A.C.  1073 ;  V.  1065),  the  youngset  son  of 


D  A  V  460  D  A  V 

Jesse,  ft  mui  of  property  residing  in  Beth-  and  amid  the  duties  which  he  discharged  to 
lehem,  and  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Sam.  his  flocks  and  herds.    Probably,  ooidd  the 
XTi  1,  11),  who  afterwards  became  the  se-  youth  have  seen  what  it  was  he  should  pass 
cond  Hebrew  king.      David's  early  years  into  the  possession  of,  on  leaving  the  sheep- 
were  spent  in  the  duties  of  husban^  (Ps.  fold,  and  the  open  downs,  and  the  solitudes 
Izzviii.  70),  which,  in  a  period  when  the  of  nature,  and  communings  with  his  own 
Israelites  were  subject  to  constant  attacks  glad  heart,  and  the  spontaneous  music  of 
from  their  idolatrous  neighbours,  and  were  his  self-trained  haxp,  —  he  would,  in  pro- 
more  than  once  compelled  to  endure  the  spect  of  the  turmoil,  peril,  distress,  sin,  sor- 
yoke  of  the  Philistines,  must  have  been  row,  and  debasement,  which  were  coming 
occasionally  interrupted  by  martial  under-  on,  have  refused  to  exchange  the  shepherd's 
takings,  especially  as  his  native  place  lay  at  crook  for  the  reversion  of  the  crown,  and 
no  great  distance  from  Philistia.    The  tran*  the  immediate  favour  of  his  country's  king, 
qui]  pursuits  of  the  shepherd  were,  in  con-        David,  however,  had  a  soul  too  high  to 
sequence,  often  suddenly  exchanged  for  the  remain  a  mere  oourt-musician.    In  a  time 
toils  and  perils  of  a  soldier^s  life.     But  of  peril,  such  as  that  in  which  Samuel's 
the  Philistines  had  so  far  prevailed  against  latter  days  were  spent,  Israel  demanded  his 
the  Israelites,  as  to  strip  them  of  their  wea-  services.    In  a  war  with  their  too  powerful 
pons,  leaving  them  to  such  means  of  defence  enemies,  the  Philistines,  the  Hebrews  were 
as  invention,  sharpened  by  necessity,  might  mockingly  defied  by  Goliath  of  Gath ;  and 
supply.    In  such  an  emergency,  the  sling,  such  was  the  dejection  of  the  national  mind, 
as  well  as  the  bow,  was  employed ;  and  the  that  the  challenge  which,  after  the  custom 
younger  men,  ashamed  of  their  country's  ot  the  age,  he  gave  to  contend  in  single 
degradation,  would  spare  no  effort  in  order  combat  widi  any  champion  of  Israel,  had 
to  make  up  by  skill  what  their  weapons  no  other  effect  than  that  of  augmenting  the 
wanted  in' e£|ciency.    In  the  several  engage-  prevalent  fear ;  till  David,  who  for  some  rea- 
mente  which  this  state  of  things  implies,  son  had  gone  back  perhaps  temporarily  to 
David,  rescued  probably  by  the  insecurity  his  pastoral  occupations,  chanced,  when  sent 
of  the  times  from  the  perversions  to  which  by  his  father  to  his  brotliers  in  the  army,  to 
the  youngest  child  is  often  subject,  appears  hear  Goliath's  taunte ;  and,  being  informed 
to  have  made  more  than  ordinary  proflcien-  that  much  wealth  and  the  king's  daughter 
oy ;  and,  being  gifted  with  fine  sensibilities,  had  been  offered  to  the  Israelite  that  should 
he  relieved  his  more  serious  pursuite  with  vanquish  the  boaster,  he  armed  himself  with 
the  recreations  of  the  lyre.    While  yet  in  the  a  few  chosen  pebbles  and  a  sling,  and  at 
prime  of  youth, '  ruddy,  and  of  a  beautiful  the  first  aim  brought  Goliath  to  the  ground, 
countenance,  and  gooflUy  to  look  to,'  he  was  and  then  with  his  own  sword  severed  the 
selected  and  anointed  to  be  the  king  of  Is-  Philistine's  head  from  his  body.    His  death 
rael  by  the  prophet  Samuel ;  who  had  been  occasioned  the  flight  of  the  army  of  the  un- 
directed to  make  choice  of  David,  because  circumcised,  and  proved  the  deliverance  of 
Saul,  the  reigning  monarch,  had  forfeited  the  Hebrews  (1  Sam.  xvii.). 
the  honourable  post  by  disobedience  ( 1  Sam.        The  victory  fixed  all  eyes  on  the  young  hero, 
3i:v.  11,  23 :  there  seem  to  be  two  accounte ;  and  gained  him  all  hearte.     In  the  national 
see  xiii.  13).     Saul,  however,   as  having  rejoicings  which  celebrated  his  achievemenu, 
been   anointed  to  his  office,  continued  to  his  deeds  were  extolled  throughout  tlie  land, 
hold  the  sceptre,  which  would  fsll  from  his  and  set  far  above  even  those  of  his  sove- 
hands  only  in  the  hour  of  death.    But  the  reign. 

loss  of  the  succession  so  deeply  afflicted  him,  '  Saul  hath  sUdn  his  thousands,' 

that  from  time  to  time  he  sank  into  a  pro-  sang  one  chorus  of  women,  with  tabrete  and 

found  melancholy.  The  darkness  of  his  mind  dancing;  but 
might  be  relieved  by  the  charms  of  music ;  '  David,  his  ten  thousands,* 

and  the  reputation  of  David  as  a  harper  was  answered  another  jubilant  band.    Again  the 

such,  that  the  young  man  was  sent  for  to  court,  evU  spirit  entered  the  king's  bosom.    These 

the  rather  beoause  he  was  *  a  mighty  valiant  praises  of  his  rival  he  could  not  endure ;  the 

man,  and  a  man  of  war,  and  prudent  in  mat-  less  because,  in  the  ardour  of  his  joy,  he 

ters,  and  acomely  person;  and  the  Lord  is  with  had,  in  reward  for  David's  prowess,  given 

him'  (1  Sam.  xvi.  18).     The  sweet  tones  of  him  a  high  rank  in  his  army.    His  jealousy 

David's  harp  charmed  away  the  dark  feelings  and   apprehension   drove  him  perhaps  to 

of  Saul,  who  formed  a  peculiar  attachment  feign  madness.     Certainly,  in  a  fit  of  pas- 

for  the  young  man,  and  gave  him  the  office  sion,  he  sought  to  smite  David  to  the  wall 

of  his  armour-bearer ;  so  that  he  was  con-  with  a  javelin,  while  the  latter  strove  to 

tinually  near  his  sovereign's  person.     This  traiiquillise  his  lord's  mind  with  the  music 

was  a  great  change  for  David ;  a  transition  of  his  lyre.    Failing  to  compass  his  death, 

into  a  new  life.     The  change  brought  its  Saul  put  David  away  from  court,  by  appoint- 

penalty,  in  the  forfeiture  of  £ose  pure  and  ing  him  *  captain  over  a  thousand,'  appa- 

simple  pleasures  which  he   had   hitherto  rently  in  the  hope,  that  some  occasion  would 

enjoyed  in  the  rustic  home  of  his  parento,  be  afforded  for  effecting  his  ru'«     On  the 


D  A  V                      461  D  A  V 

•ontraiy,  Da^id^s  prudent  course  increued  doubUess  knew  what  was  David's  real  posi' 
tbe  faTonr  in  which  he  stood  with  his  fellow-  tion  with  their  oonunon  master,  compelled 
ooantrymen.    Thus  foiled,  Saul  took  other  him  to  take  to  flight    There  being  no  safety 
measures.    Darid  had  receiTed  neither  the  for  him  in  Saul's  dominions,  he  tli^w  him- 
riches  nor  the  wife  offered  to  the  person  who  self  on  the  generosity  of  the  Philistines,  and 
should  Tsuquish  Goliath.   The  king  had  pro-  went  in  a  south-westerly  direction  to  Gath, 
bably  evaded  the  fulfilment  of  his  wor(^  in  whose  king,  Achiah,  received  him  with  mis- 
his  fear  to  make  his  rival  toopowerfuL    He  givings  and  suspicion;  which  induced  Da^ 
now,  however,  fancied  that  he  could  turn  the  vid  to  put  on  the  appearance  of  insanity, 
matter  to  his  own  account    David,  he  said,  The  guise  seems  to  have  been  seen  through, 
should  have  Michal  his  daughter,  provided  David  again  fled,  and,  fixing  his  head  quar- 
that,  instead  of  the  dowry  which  his  poverty  ters  in  tibe  cave  of  Adullam,  became  a  centre 
prevented  him  firom  paying,  the  youth  laid  of  union  for  lawless  freebooters,  to  the  num- 
before  tbe  king  a  hundred  foreskins  of  the  ber  of  four  hundred.    In  this   character, 
Philistines.    This,  he  felt  sure,  was  a  service  having  placed  his  parents  in  safety  under 
in  which  David  could  not  fail  to  perish.  The  the   care  of  the  king  of  Moab,  and  given 
accomplishment  of  it,  and  the  espousal  of  reftige  to  the  sole  priest  whom  Saul  had  left 
his  promised  bride,  only  made  the  king  more  alive  of  the  college  at  Nob,  —  for  he  slew  the 
jealous,  more  afraid,  and  more  hostile ;  so  rest  in  revenge  for  the  temporary  shelter  he 
that  he  gave  unreserved  utterance,  amidst  his  learned  from  Doeg  had  been  there  afforded 
eourtiers,  to  a  wish  that  some  one  would  to  his  rival,  —  David,  now  enabled  by  means 
take  David's  life  (xviii.).    David,  however,  of  Abiathar  to  consult  the  Lord,  assailed  and 
had  one  protector.     Jonathan,  Saul's  own  defeated  the  Philistines  at  Keilah ;  but,  find- 
son,  had  conceived  a  warm  friendship   for  ing  no  sufficient  protection,   took    refiige 
the  high-spirited  deliverer  of  Israel;   and,  against  Saul  in  thewildemess  which  stretches 
interposing  his  good  offices,  he  procured  a  along  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
promise  of  David's  safety,  under tilie  guaran-  Hither  was  he  followed  by  the  monarch; 
tee  of  an  oath.     David,  accordingly,  again  whose  life,  when  unexpectedly  in  David's 
stood  in  Saul's  presence.    A  second  war  with  power,  that  chieftain  generously  spared  (xx. 
the  Philistines  issued  in  new  triumphs,  and  —  xxiv).    While  thus  maintaining  his  supre- 
ocoasioned  to  David  new  perils ;  for,  in  his  macy  in  these  regions,  he,  after  the  manner 
jealous  rage,  the  king  again  sought  to  trans-  of  similar  sheikhs,  asked  a  supply  of  pro- 
fix  him  with   a  javelin.      Failing  in  his  visions  for  his  troops  from  Nabal,  a  weidthy 
attempt,  Saul  employed  assassins,  whose  pur-  proprietor  of  the  district    Contrary  to  what 
pose  was  defeated  by  Michal  at  her  own  was  ordinarily  judged  becoming  in  such  a 
I>eril.    David,  as  was  natural,  fled  to  the  case,  David  received  a  stem  refusal;  which  so 
prophet  Samuel,  at  Bamah.    This  was  the  enraged  him,  that  he  would  have  slain  Nabal 
last  place  where  Saul  would  have  had  him  to  but  for  the  entreaties  of  Abigail,  the  wife  of 
be.     Accordingly,  the  king  sent  messengers  the  latter.    With  her,  however,  David  was 
to  bring  him  back ;  but  they  were  seized  with  so  much  taken,  that  on  the  sudden  death  of 
an  enthusiasm  for  Ae  young  man,  kindred  Nabal  shortly  after,  he  made  her  his  wife, 
with  that  to  which  Samuel  and  his  company  About  the  same  time  he  mairied  also  Ahi- 
of  prophets  gave  expression,  as  Saul's  emis-  noam.    Michal,  however,  he  had  lost ;  for 
saries  approached.     Three  embassies  were  her  father  married  her  to  another, 
thus  sent  in  vain.    On  this,  Saul  himself  Saul  could  not  subdue  David.     David 
went ;  but  with  no  better  result    He  also,  could  not  trust    Saul.      David,   therefore, 
mastered  by  a  superior  power,  was  found  thought  it  best  to  evacuate  Saul's  dominions, 
'among  the  prophets'  (six.)    David,  how-  He  returned  to  Achish,  at  Gath ;  who,  at  his 
ever,  knowing  that  any  feeling  Saul  might  request,  gave  him  the  town  of  Ziklag;  which 
have  in  his  favour  was  only  superficial  and  place  David  made  a  point  whence  to  assault 
transitoiy,  again  sought  a  resource  in  the  many  of  the  old  ixihabitants  of  the  land ; 
favourable  dispositions  of  Jonathan;  who,  while  he  gave  Achish  to  understand,  that 
undertaking  to  ascertain  the  real  intentions  his  freebooting    excursions    were  directed 
of  the  king,  found  and  reported  them  to  his  against  his  own  countrymen  (xxvii.).    While 
friend  to  be  very  adverse.  David,  thus  finding  here,  the  Philistines  arose  against  Saul,  and 
it  expedient  to  flee,  took  an  affectionate  fare-  Achish  took  David  in  his  army ;  who,  how- 
well  of  Jonathan,  and  went  to  Nob,  which  lay  ever,  was  compelled,  through  Uie  distrust  of 
in  the  tribe  of  Bei^amin,  north  of  Jerusalem,  the  Philistine  lords,  to  retire.     Betuming 
Hither  he  seems  to  have  gone  with  a  view  of  home  to  Ziklag,  he  found  it  in  flames.    The 
getting  possession  of  Goliath's  sword,  which  Amalekites  had  taken  and  sacked  the  town, 
was  laid  up  as  a  sacred  trophy  in  the  care  of  earxying  away  its  inhabitants   as  captives, 
Ahimelech  the  priest    In  order  to  effect  his  among  whom  were  David's  wives.  Encouraged 
purpose,  David  made  false  representations  by  his  priestly  adviser,  David  pursued,  and, 
to  Ahimelech,  apparently  intending  to  make  defeating  his  foes,  rescued  all  thkt  tliey  had 
some  stay  at  Nob ;  but  the  unexpected  pre-  carried  off,  gaining  in  addition  very  large 
Mnce  of  Doeg,  Saul's  chief  herdsman,  who  booty,  which  he  judiciously  distributed  among 


D  A  V  462  D  A  V 

friends  ereo  in  SftnTs  oapital,  Hebron,  so  as     general  freedom.    After  having,  in  Hebrcm, 
to  aogment  his  inflnenee.  This  piece  of  good     reigned  over  Judah  for  aeven  years  and  six 
Ibrtane  was  followed  by  another.    The  Phi-     months,  David  was  thus,  at  the  early  age  of 
listinet  had  vanqniahed  Saol,  who,  at  his     thirty,  raised  to  undivided  empire  over  the 
own  request,  was  put  to  deaA  by  as  Amale-     Israelites,  whioh  he  continued  to  hold  for 
kite.    The  man  himself  bore  die  news  to     the  spaee  of  thirty  and  three  years.    In  his 
David,  who  gave  him  death  as  his  reward,     new  eharaeter,  he  felt  that  a  more  central 
on  the  ground  that  he  had  destroyed  the    position  lor  his  capital  was  desirable.    Jem- 
anointed  of  Jehovah.     Bat  Jonathan  had     sslem,  thou^^  it  lay  not  fiur  enough  to  the 
also  Ikllen.    His  loss  was  a  sore  trial  to  Da-    north,  possessed  singular  advantages  by  na 
▼id,  who  bewailed  him,  as  well  as  Sanl,  in    tnra.    It  was,  in  oonseqnenee,  tdcen  ih>m 
an  ode  of  great  beauty  and  moving  pathoa    the  Jebosites,  ths  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
(3  Sam.  L  17 — 97).  land,  made  the  seat  of  government,  and  care- 

Now,  however,  the  time  had  eome  Ibr  ftillyforttiled.  This  was  the  commencement 
David  to  make  a  stand  for  the  crown.  He  of  David's  regal  splendour.  By  the  aid  ot 
fepaired  to  the  ei^tal,  and  was  anointed  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre^  he  erected  a  palace, 
king  by  the  men  of  Judah.  While  seeking  •—  sought  strength  and  enjoyment  in  new 
to  gain  strength  beyond  the  Jordaa,  Ish-  matrimonial  alliances,  and  defeated  his  old 
bosheth,  BaQTs  son,  was  proclaimed  king  by  and  poweiftd  enemy  the  Philistines ;  who, 
Abner,  his  nephew,  and  commander  of  his  beeoming  jealous  of  his  growing  power,  ven- 
ftirees.  The  attempt  succeeded  so  well,  that  tnied  to  assail  him  twice,  even  under  the 
David's  sovereignty  was  limited  to  the  sin^^e  walls  of  his  eq^itsL  Beligious  oljects  also 
tribe  of  Judsh.  This  was  a  state  of  things  received  his  attention.  The  ark,  now  at  Kir- 
not  likely  to  last  Jeafeusies  and  enmities  JaA-jearim,  about  nine  miles  to  the  north- 
led  to  chanee  encounters,  and  those  to '  long  west  of  Jerusalem,  he  took  steps  for  bringing 
war ;'  till,  at  length,  Ishboshetii  having  dis-  into  that  eity  with  befitting  solemnities ;  but 
agreed  with  his  genend  Abner,  in  conse-  the  sudden  death  of  Uzzah,  smitten  for  ex- 
qnence  of  suspecting  fliat  he  aspired  to  the  tending  an  unbidden  hand  to  steady  it  as  it 
throne  (2  Sam.  ill.  7,  teq.),  the  latter  made  shook  in  the  carriage,  excited  the  monarch's 
a  tender  of  his  support  to  David.  alarm,  who  carried  it  aside  into  the  house  of 

The  latter  was  but  too  willing  to  receive  Obed-edom,  the  Oittite.  Bemaining  here 
aid  of  so  valuable  a  nature.  But  he  desired  three  months,  it  brought  blessings  on  the 
something  besides.  He  had,  in  addition  to  household.  David's  fears  were  in  oonse- 
his  former  wives,  married  Maaeah,  daughter  quence  dissipated,  and  he  proceeded  to  bring 
of  Talmai,  king  of  Oeshur;  also  Haggith,  into  Jerusalem  the  sacred  treasure;  before 
AHtal,  and  Eglah.  By  his  six  wives  he  had  which,  as  it  was  carried  along  in  procession^ 
six  sons,  bom  to  him  iHiile  he  reigned  in  the  king  himself,  humbly  dlivested  of  his 
Hebron.  He  wished,  moreover,  to  recover  royal  attire,  and  dad  in  a  priestly  robe, 
Michel,  married  though  she  was  to  another,  danoed,  we  may  presume,  one  ot  those  Ori- 
by  whom  she  was  tenderly  beloved.  He  ental  dances  whioh  are  symbolical  of  reli- 
therefore  set  one  condition  on  his  receiving  gious  ideas.  The  whole  was  obviously  a 
Abner,  —  namely,  fliat  he  should  bring  with  homage  rendered  to  the  Ood  of  IsraeL 
him  ICichal,  wfaO)  as  daughter  of  Sanl,  would  Michsl,  however,  who  had  never  witnessed 
add  much  to  David's  political  inflnenee.  niis  sneh  sn  exhibition  of  religious  fervour  in 
was  done^  and  Abner  busily  occupied  him-  her  fyhei's  court,  misunderstood  the  cere- 
edf  with  efforts  to  gain  over  to  David  the  mony ;  and,  probi^  little  satisfied  at  being 
remaining  tribes,  when  he  was  treaohoously  tom  from  Phaltiel,  reproached  David  with 
slain  through  jeilonsybyJoab,  David's  gene-  his  oondnot  in  dancing,  as  being  imworthy 
ral-in-ehief.  This  assassination  caused  Da-  a  king.  As  is  nsusl,  die  wife's  reproaches 
vid  great  pain,  the  rather  because  it  made  brought  a  reproachful  answer  from  the  hus- 
him  feel  that  Joab  was  more  powerful  than  band,  who  took  the  oocasion  to  let  Michal 
aBuljeet8houldbe(2Sam.iii.89).  Abnei's  know  that  he  owed  the  crown,  not  to  her 
death,  however,  was  the  signal  for  tbat  of  frmily,  but  to  the  choice  of  Jehovah.  The 
Ishbosheth ;  for  he  was  basely  murdered,  as  quarrel  ended  in  a  permanent  alienation  (vi.). 
he  lay  on  his  couch,  by  two  of  his  own  offloers.  The  handsome  abode  in  which  David  him  • 
who,  doubtless,  saw  thst  David's  supremacy  self  dwelt,  eontrasted  in  his  mind  painftilly 
]^  on  the  point  of  bemg  finally  asserted,  with  the  curtains  within  which  the  ark  still 
Those,  however,  who  assassinate  one  king  remained.  The  religious  monarch,  there- 
may  prove  dangerous  allies  to  another.  The  fore,  formed  the  design  of  erecting  a  suitable 
murderers,  when  they  brought  their  nK»-  temple  hi  honour  of  Jehovah.  His  intention 
narch  s  hesd  to  David,  were  forthwith  pnt  to  was  accepted :  he  received  a  promise  that 
^^'  ^  the  crown  should  remain  in  his  family,  but 

MOW  came  David's  elevation  to  empire  over  learned  at  die  same  time,  that  the  building 
•u  Hie  twelve  tribes;  who  offered  him  the  of  the  temple  was  reserved  for  his  successor, 
crown,  but  seemed  to  have  secured  certain  The  reason  assigned  for  this  prohibition 
guarantees  for  personal  advantages,  or  the     merito  attention,  as  containing  the    fore- 


D  A  V                       463  D  A  V 

•hadowing  of  an  important  truth,  whicb  eren  from  Uriah,  he  first  hoodwinked  the  miha|>py 

Christian  nations  are  now  only  beginning  to  man,  and  then  caused  him  to  be  slain, 

learn,  —  *  Thou  shalt  not  build  an  house  Bathsheba  was  added  to  his  already  ample 

tof  my  name,  heoauae  thou  hatl  been  a  man  harem. 

ofwar,andhaat$h€dhhHHl'{\Qh!nia,Jxwm.  There  was,  however,  in  Israel  one  who 

8).    This  disqualification  is  a  elear  proof,  feared  God  more  than  man.    The  prophet 

that  war  is  hateftd  in  the  sight  of  Ck>d ;  and     Nathan  aroused  David's  shunbering  mind, 

may  lead  us  to  see,  that  it  is  merely  a  human  planted  the  thorns  of  conscious  guilt  in  his 

fiew  which  in  any  case  makes  him  concerned  wofol,  and  denounced  as  his  punishment  that 

in,  or  pleased  with,  the  rianghter  of  his  diil-  his  family  should  not  cease  to  be  troubled 

dren.     Let  those,  too,  be  inatmeted,  how  with  strife  and  the  sword.    And  terribly  wera 

eRoneously  they  act,  who  are  wont  to  put  his  awfbl  words  fhlfilled.    The  fhiit  of  the 

together,  in  most  unseemly  union,  war  and  adultery  was  first  taken.    The  bereavement 

religion,  and  make  the  slaughter  of  their  deeply  afflicted  the  guilty  man ;  who,  how- 

feUow-men  a  subject  of  thanksgiving  to  the  ever,  heart-felt  and  deep  as  his  contrition 

eommon  Father.     And  were  &e  cause  of  was,  still  retained  in  his  palace  the  too  ao- 

David's  disqualification  careftaUy  pondered,  quiescent  Bathsheba,  of  whom  he  had  the 

the  martial  spirit  —  which  yet  so  painftfly  son  that  inherited  his  crown  (zii.). 

mars  our  civilisation,  and  lowers  individual  His  domestic  troubles  multiplied.  Amnon, 

character — could  not  fidl  to  receive  a  rebuke,  in  the  employment  of  guile  and  force,  dis- 

which  might  issue  in  practical  obedience  honoured  his  half-sister  Tamar,  whom  he 

to  the  command,  —  *  Love  your  enemies.'  forthwith  contemptuously  drove  from  him. 

It  is  grievous  to  find,  that  the  mind  of  Da*  This  ii^uiy  and  insult  Absalom,  after  nursing 

vid  was  in  no  way  permanently  benefited  by  his  wrath  for  more  than  two  years,  avenged, 

the  stem  lesson  he  had  received;  for  cruelties  by  having  Amnon  assassinated   at  a  feast 

have  now  to  be  added  to  the  ordinary  terrors  given  with  tokens  of  amity.    The  blow  af- 

of  war.   Having  at  length  brought  the  Philis-  flicted  the  king  grievously,  so  that  Absalom, 

tines  into  subjection,  he  smote  the  Moabites,  though  a  fiivourite  child,  did  not  dare  to 

who  had  afforded  a  refuge  to  his  parents  appear  in  his  presence,  but  took  reftige  in 

when  he  was  himself  a  fugitive ;  and,  with  a  the  territories  of  Talmai,  king  of  Geahur, 

most  arbitrary  as  well  as  cruel  proceeding,  in  Syria ;  whence,  after  an  exile  of  three 

he  divided  those  of  them  who  were  to  be  years,  the  young  man,  whose  absence  was 

spared,  from  those  who  were  to  be  slain,  by  deeply  regretted  by  David,  was  brought  back 

the  rough  expedient  of  a  measuring  line,  through  a  stratagem  devised  by  Joab.    The 

About  the  same  time,  he  extended  his  sway  pardon,  however,  was  incomplete :  Absalom, 

over  the  wide  desert  country  which  lies  be-  though  in  Jerusalem,  was  not  permitted  to 

yond  Jordan  and  Euphratea;  routing  and  see  David.    This  privation,  if  not  dishonour, 

slaying  the  Syrians  (viii.  x.),  and  houghing  he  imputed  to  Joab,  whom,  by  burning  a 

dieir  horses.    Then,  turning  his  steps  to-  field  of  his  wheat,  he  compeDed  to  intercede 

wards  the  south,  he  made  himself  master  of  with  his  father  for  his  restoration  to  court. 

Idumsa.      These  conquests  brought  Into  The  favour  was  granted ;  but  Absalom  had 

his  treasury  a  great  abundance  of  wealth ;  been  irreversibly  offended.      He  began  to 

out  of  which  sumptuous  presents  were  set  practise  arts  by  which  to  ingratiate  himself 

apart  for  the  serrice  of  the  intended  temple,  with  the  people,  and  bring  David  into  disre- 

His  court  was  subjected  to  strict  regulations,  pute.    He  could  not,  however,  aoeomplisfa 

and  a  kind  of  cabinet  wais  formed  for  the  his  purpose  while  he  was  in  the  capital,  and 

assistance  of  the  sovereign  In  the  govern-  his  fathei's  permission  was  essential  to  his 

ment  of  the  kingdom,    llie  monarchy  was  quitting  it     Leave  being  obtained,  he  re- 

at  first  of  a  limited  kind ;  the  king's  power  paired  to  Hebron,  and  there  set  up  the  stan- 

belng  not  only  guided  by  a  oouncfl,  but  dard  of  revolt  (xv.)    Awarensued,  inwhicfa 

modified,  if  not  restrained,  by  priests  and  the  rebellious  son  was  slain  (xvi. — ^zviii). 

prophets,  as  well  as  nobles.  The  victory,  purchased  at  such  a  price,  occa- 

The  time  had  come  when  David  could  with  sioned  David  bitter  grief ;  and  never  was  the 

safety  display  the  generous  feelings  which  loss  of  a  ehild  bewailed  by  a  ftither  in  accents 

made  a  part  of  his  nature.    One  son  of  SouTs  more  true  or  more  touching  (xix.  I — 8). 

remained,  the  lame  Mephibosheth.    He  was  The  alarm  and  confusion  which  Absalom's 

received  at  court,  and  presented  with  the  rebellion  spread  through  the  countiy,  and 

property  which  had  belonged  to  his  father  in  which  did  not  cease  till  some  time  after  his 

his  personal  capacity.  subdual,  show  that  David's  throne  rested  not 

Ilie  darkest  act  of  David's  life  now  pro-  on  the  most  solid  foundation  in  the  hearts 

sents  itself  for  notice.    In  a  moment  of  folly,  of  his  subjects.      Whilst  endeavouring  to 

he  fell  in  love  with  Bathsheba,  married  strengthen  himself  after  the  heavy  blow  by 
to  Uriah,  one  of  his  captains.    Besolved  to  .lenient  and  conciliatory  measures,  jealousies 

natiiy  his  guilty  passion,  he  took  her  by  broke  out  between  Judah  and  Israel,  which 

force ;  and,  when  the  consequences  of  his  had  for  result,  that  the  ten  tribes,  revolting, 

wickedness  could  no  longer  be  concealed  chose  for  themselves  a  new  king  in  Sheba, 


'I 


D  A  V                      464  D  A  V 

who,  without  much  diAooltj,  wm  OYercome  which  show  the  one,  hare  imparfctaUy  tetforth 

by  Joab  (xz.).  the  other.    Whateyer  exaggerated  clahna  on 

These  internal  diaeenBions  and  mutual  our  reverence  miaguided  adTocates  may  have 

slangbten  eaoaing  tillage  to  be  ueglected,  prefeired,  they  can  adduce  no  authority  from 

brought  on  a  protracted  fiunine,  of  which  Holy  Writ,  which  has  iaithfully  recorded 

David,  made  by  hii  late  perils  morbidly  David's  transgressions,  as  well  as  bis  good 

Jealous  of  rivais,  availed  himsell^  in  order  deeds.    A  degree  of  bitterness  has,  indeed, 

to  uproot  the  remainder  of  Saul's  house,  been  displayed  in  attacks  made  against  that 

aaving  the  lame  and  harmless  Mcphibosheth.  monarch.      It  is  equally  true,  that  even 

The  event  gave  occasion  to  a  display  of  ma-  Bayle,  through  ignorance  of  Oriental  usages, 

ternal  love,  so  bright  snd  so  engaging  as  adduced  charges  that  cannot  be  sustained, 

to  afford  some  relief  to  the  surrounding  dark-  or  exsggerated  misdeeds  which  must  not  be 

ness  (zxi).  denied.    Yet,  in  the  long  prevalent  custom 

Not  long  afterwarda,  a  plague  devastated  of  holding  up  David  as  a  model  of  perfect 

the   lend,  inflicted  in  punishment  of  the  virtue,  may  he  found  the  cause,  and  in  part 

folly  of  David,  which,  contrary  to  the  re-  the  excuse,  of  these  misrepresentations.    It 

monstrsnces  of  Joab,  he  showed  in  causing  is,  however,  with  facts  we  have  to  do;  and  so 

a  census  of  lus  people  to  be  made,  whether  long  as  these  facts  are  drawn  from  Scrip- 

with  feelings  of  ambition  and  conquest,  for  ture  and  fairly  set  forth,  the  representation, 

the  purposes  of  revenue,  or  for  what  other  whether  bright  or  daik,  may  plead  the  autho- 

obgect,  we  are  not  informed  (xxiv.   1  Chron.  rity  of  the  Bible.    The  misconstruction  of  a 

xxi.).  passsge  of  Scripture  has  led  many  to  prefer 

David  had  became  old,  and  was  stricken  unwarrantable  pretensions.  When  Samuel 
in  years.  Cold  in  body,  snd  unwarmed  in  set  Saul  aside,  he  said,  —  *  The  Lord  hath 
heart  by  true  domestic  love,  he  was  fain  to  sought  him  a  man  after  his  own  heart' 
employ  for  his  comfort  a  resource  which  (I  Sam.  xiii.  14).  Id  the  Psalms  we  thus 
excites  towsids  him  no  higher  feeling  than  read,  —  *  I  have  found  David,  my  servant ' 
that  of  pity  (I  Kings  L  1 — 4).  His  increas-  (Ps.  Ixxxix.  20).  Paul,  when  preaching  at 
ing  debility  gave  encouragement  to  new  at-  Antioch,  in  Pisidia,  put  these  two  passages 
tempts  against  his  sovereignty.  Adongah,  together,  thus, — 'I  have  found  David,  the  son 
the  son  of  his  wife  Haggith,  who  knew  that  of  Jesse,  a  man  after  my  own  heart' ( Acts  xiiL 
Absslom  had  had  a  fair  prospect  of  gaining  22).  The  words  were  used  exclusively  of  Da* 
the  crown,  set  up  to  be  king,  seducing  fh>m  vid,  as  a  faithful  successor  to  SauL  They  are 
their  duty  Joab,  the  military  head,  and  Abia-  taken  as  a  general  description  of  David's 
thar,  the  chief  priest  But  David  had  sworn  character,  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  ap- 
to  Balhsheba,  that  her  son  Solomon  should  pear  that  he  was  morally  a  perfect  msn. 
inherit  the  crown.  Supported  by  Nathan  the  What  an  exaggeration !  and  that,  too,  though 
prophet,  ahe  claimed  the  fdlfihnent  of  the  in  the  details  which  it  affords  of  David's  mis- 
promise  ;  and  Solomon,  proclaimed  king  by  deeds,  Scripture  supplies  every  necessary 
the  express  commands  of  David,  immediately  means  for  the  correct  apprehension  of  the 
begain  his  reign.  Adonysh  was  put  to  subject.  Indeed,  the  origins]  application  of 
death.  the  words  of  Paul  was  yet  more  restricted ; 

David's  last  hour  had  come.    His  sun  set  for  they  had  reference  to  the  recognition  of 

in  clouds.    At  the  age  of  seventy  he  died,  Jehovsh  as  the  only  Ood,  and  of  the  Hebrew 

alter  a  stormy,  but,  in  externals,  prosperous  priesthood  as  the  expounders  of  his  will.   In 

reign,  and  was  buried  in  Jerusalem.     His  this,  their  proper,   their  Scriptural  sense, 

dying  hours  were  darkened  by  revengeful  they  are  strictly  true ;  for  David  served  God, 

emotions.    Joab's  recent  defection  and  trea-  titer  his  appointed  manner,  with  '  a  perfect 

chery  he  could  not  overlook.     He  said  to  heart'  (1   Kings  xiv.  8,  9;  xv.  8,  0).      In 

Solomon,  —  *  Let  not  his  hoar  head  go  down  corroboration  of  this  view,  we  add,  that  ido- 

to  the  grave  in  peace.'  latry  and  disobedience   are  iu  the    Bible 

Bespecting  Shimei,  also,  he  gave  it  in  spoken  of  as  resulting  firom  men's  seeking  or 
command  to  his  son,  — '  Hold  him  not  guilt-  acting  after  their  own  hearts  (Numb.  xv.  39. 
less ;  but  his  hoar  head  bring  thou  down  to  1  Kings  xii.  33).  It  is  in  this  sense,  gene- 
the  grave  with  blood.'  These  darker  pas-  rslly,  that  David  is  so  often  mentioned  in  a 
sions  are  relieved  by  words  uttered  on  the  favourable  light  As  a  worshipper  of  the 
same  occasion,  —  *  Show  kindness  unto  the  true  God ;  as  holding  his  regal  power  in 
sons  of  Barzillai,  and  let  them  be  of  those  dependence  on  Jehovah,  the  true  King  of 
that  eat  at  thy  table;  for  they  came  to  me  Israel;  as  ruling  not  despoticslly,  but  con- 
when  I  fled,  because  of  Absalom  thy  brother'  sUtutionally;  faithfU  to  the  sacerdotal,  as 
(1  Kings  ii.  1 — 10).  ^ell  as  the  prophetic  elements  of  the  govem- 

David  left  behind  him  a  numerous  hsrem,  ment;    also  on  account  of  great  personal 

and  besides  sons  by  his  ten  concubines  (2  excelleucies,  he  was  deservedly  accounted  a 

**Sll  *^  ^^*  nineteen  sons  bom  of  his  wives,  model  king :  he  became  the  idol  of  the  na- 

The  character  ot  David  often  deep  con-  tion ;  the  symbol  of  national  weal ;  the  secret 

trasts  of  light  and  shade.    The  Scriptures  of  national  power ;  the  basis  of  hope  in  the 


D  A  V                       465  D  A  V 

days  of  the  Messiah,  who  was  to  spring  firom  also  high  merits.  If  the  degree  of  his  cri- 
his  loins.  To  show  that  there  was  solid  minality  is  somewhat  lessened  hy  the  dis- 
ground  for  these  feelings,  we  need  no  other  advantages  of  his  regal  position,  the  same 
evidence  than  what  is  found  in  the  miseries,  disadvantages  may  in  some  measnre  serve 
hondage,  and  captivity  into  which  the  idola-  to  enhance  his  merits.  As  none  hut  an 
try  of  sabseqaent  reigns  occasioned  the  peo-  Oriental  sovereign  conld  have  sinned  so 
pie  to  fall.  And  when  we  call  to  mind  that  awfnlly  as  David  did,  in  connection  with 
the  main  purpose  of  Jehovah  in  establishing  Uriali  and  his  wife ;  so  his  tender  wailing 
the  Israelites  in  Canaan  was  to  set  up  a  for  Absalom  was  the  more  meritorious,  fiom 
tabernacle  for  the  preservation  of  monothe-  the  peculiar  guilt  of  the  young  man,  in  lift- 
ism,  we  see  abundant  reason  for  high  eulogy  ing  up  his  hand  against  his  king  as  well  as 
being  bestowed  on  a  monarch,  who,  at  a  verf  his  father. 

disturbed  and  critical  period,  remained  en-  Without  engaging  in  the  painful  task  of 

tirely   faithful   to  that  great  doctrine,   and  passing   in  review  David's  misdeeds,    and 

achieved  so  much  for  its  ftirtherance.  having  no  desire  to  enter  into  a  detailed  ao- 

Let  it  be  also  observed,  that  David  was  an  count  of  his  excellencies,  we  conclude  with 

Oriental  sovereign.    As  a  sovereign,  he  had  a  few  general  remarks :  —  The  primary  ele- 

great  power ;  for  the  gratification  of  his  own  ments  of  David's  character  were  devotional 

will,  all  but  unlimited  power.    As  an  Eas-  feeling,  vividness  of  imagination,  and  strong 

tern,  his  passions  were  intense  and  burning,  domestic  sympathies.    His  intellect,  though 

Unlimited  power,  guided  by  impetuous  emo-  not  weak,  was  mastered  by  his  affections ; 

tions,  may  well  have  transgressed  the  bounds  and  his  affections,  after  having  thrown  a  soft 

of  ordinary  morality.    In  any  just  estimate  mellow  light  of  pure  joy  over  his  early  days, 

of  his  character,  the  temptations  peculiar  to  passed  in  manhood  into  passions  which,  full 

his  position  and  circumstances  must  be  taken  in   their  volume,  and  impetuous  in   their 

into  account    This  is  seen  at  once  in  re-  course,  bore  down  every  obstacle,  and  hur 

gard  to  his  observance  of  polygamy.    Here  ried  him  into  great  excesses.    If^  however, 

it  is  not  pretended  that  he  can  be  a  pattern  he  was  prone  to  evil,  he  was  not  insensible 

for  Christians.    But  if,  in  this,  his  example  to  good ;  but,  being  ardent  in  every  thing,  he 

is  to  be  excused  and  avoided,  why  is  he  not  shed  tears  of  the  bitterest  contrition,  and 

to  be  condenmed  in  unquestionable  moral  sought  pardon  of  God  in  accents  the  most 

transgressions  ?    And  if  the  usages  of  the  pathetic.    Nor,  so  long  as  his  odes  shall  find 

age  may,  in  regard  to  his  wives  and  concu-  an  echo  in  the  deepest  and  most  sacred  emo- 

bines,  be  justly  pleaded  in  extenuation,  as  tions  of  the  human  bosom,  can  it  be  denied 

little  is  he  to  be  inordinately  blamed,  if  he  that,  in  the  whole  compass  of  thought  and 

was  cruel  in  war,  or  revengeful  in  social  life,  feeling  comprehended  by  devotional  poetry. 

It  is  by  the  standard  of  his  own  age,  that  he  felt  and  sang  as  a  man,  a  saint,  and  a 

David,  as  well  as  every  other  man,  must  be  prophet.    His  last  were  his  worst  days.    In 

measured ;   and  should  the  general  result  youth,  he  was  forgiving ;  in  age,  vindictive. 

be  to  create  the  conviction,  tliat  there  is  on  Hie  passions  of  his  manhood  ebbed  as  his 

earth  none  perfect,  —  no,  not  one,  our  hearts  years  grew,  till  at  last  they  left  his  soul  dry 

will  only  be  the  more  forcibly  turned  towards  and  barren.    Political  troubles  and  domestic 

Him  who  '  did  no  sin,  neither  was  guile  griefs  threw  a  dark  shade  over  the  closing 

found  in  his  mouth ;  who,  when  he  reviled,  years  of  his  life.    The  primary  source  of 

reviled  not  again '  (1  Pet  ii.  23).  these  sorrows  is  to  be  found  in  his  harem ; 

These  remarks  are  made,  not  with  a  view  for  he  was  a  father,  without,  in  the  Christian 

to  throw  a  veil  over  any  part  of  David's  sense  of  the  term,  being  a  husband ;  and  a 

public  or  private  life,  bm  merely  to  indicate  king,  with  competitors  in  his  own  palace, 

what  appears  to  the  writer  the  manner  in  and  among  his  own  children.    In  a  word, 

which  it  should  be  studied.    We  are  com-  being  mastered  by  his  feelings,  and  led  by 

pelled  by  the  Scriptural  narrative  to  admit,  his  passions,  he  was,  in  mature  and  advanced 

that  he  was  in  some  oases  guilty  of  great  ag^,  more  noble  in  feeling  than  in  act,  able 

enormities.    There  are  certain  ftmdamental  to  rise  to  *  the  highest  heaven  of  invention ' 

laws  of  the  moral  worid,  which  are  of  nni-  in  sacred  song,  and  to  pour  forth,  at  the 

versal  prevalence  and  obligation.     Among  feet  of  the  Almighty,   strains   of  adoring 

these  are  truth,  mercy,  justice,  and  honour,  gratitude  *  worthy  an  immortal  lyre ; '   yet 

In  the  case  of  Bathsheba,  all  these  were  not  less  capable   of  descending  to   cruel- 

flagrantly  violated.     Other  instanees  of  high  ties  which  make  the  heart  shudder  to  read 

criminality  might  be  adduced.     Only  let  his  of  (2  Sam.  xii.  81),  and  to  a  sensualism  of 

conduct  be  weighed  in  an  even  balance  —  the  most  voluptuous  kind.    Extreme  in  every 

'Nothing  extenuate^  thing,  he  shows  how  low,  as  well  as  how 

Nor  aught  set  down  tn  maUoe; '  high,  man  may  be.    But  if  his  ill,  through 

and  then  what  is  blameworthy  must  receive  misapplication,  ever  taught  any  one  war  or  re- 

the  blame  which  it  deserves.  venge,  his  good  having  become  a  permanent 

It  must,  however,  be  admitted,  that  as  heritage  to  our  race,  has  been  a  distinguished 

David  had  serious  fralts,  so  did  he  possess  part  of  God's  plan  for  making  himself  known 

2G 


D  A  V  466  DAY 

to  the  worid,  and  a  means  of  support  to  trust,  fully,  that  they  did  not  i^pear  even  to  those 
hope,  love,  and  lofty,  enduring,  and  pleaau-  that  entered  into  their  monuments  ('  Andq.' 
rable  devotion.  vii.  15.  8).    The  Jewish  historian  subjoins, 

In  the  time  of  Amos  (vi.  5),  David's  name     that  Herod,  whose  visit  was  made  by  stealth, 
had  become  proverbial  for  skill  in  lyrioal     and  under  the  oover  of  night,  was  driven 
poetry.    The  words  would  seem  to  imply,     back ;  for  a  flame  burst  out,  and  slew  two  of 
that  the  royal  bard  had  not  confined  himself    his  guards  (' Antiq.'  xvi.  7.  1). 
to  religions  topics.    Whether  all  the  psalms         The  position  which  tradition  assigns  for 
that  bear  his  name  are  his,  or,  what  is  more     David*8  sepulchre,  on  the  southern  part  of 
probable,  only  a  part  of  Uiem,  evidenoe  ia     Mount  Zion,  is  thus  seen  to  be  in  the  main 
abundance  exists  to  show,  that  in  devotional     confirmed  by  Scripture  and  Josephus.    This 
poetry  he  attained  to  surpassing  exoellenoe ;     edifioe  consists  of  a  mosque,  which  was  once 
and  it  cannot  Ikil  to  excite  our  surprise,  that     a  convent  of  Franciscans,  and  an  ancient 
a  man,  whose  life  was  so  fall  of  movement,     church,  of  which  mention  is  made  in  the 
should  have  found  time  and  energy  for  cany-     fourth  century.    Within,  according  to  tra- 
ing  poetry  and  music  to  so  high  a  pitch  of    diUon,  is  found  in  an  empty  hall  the  room 
culture.    As  the  general  tone  of  his  eompo-     where  the  Lord's  supper  was  instituted,  and 
sitions  is  pre-eminently  of  a  religious  kind,     the  Holy  Spirit  poured  forth.    Beneath  this 
we  have  here  a  sure  evidence  that  religioua     room  is  the  alleged  sepulchre  of  David,  which 
thoughts  and  emotions  were  congenial  with     is  now  carefully  closed  againat  the  eyes  oi 
him.     Indeed,  they  appear  to  have  been  his     Christians.    The  placing  here  of  the  room 
resource  in  distress,  his  comfort  in  adversity,     of  the  Lord's  supper  and  effusion  of  the 
his  light  in  darkness ;  and  in  their  utterance     spirit,  we  take  to  be  the  work  of  ignorance 
he  found  not  only  a  fit  channel  fbr  his  eon-     and  credulousness.    It  may  have  arisen  from 
trition,  gratitude,  and  praise,  but  a  sacred     the  words  of  Peter,  — '  with  us,'  which,  in 
recreation  and  refreshment  amid  the  soliei-     the  Vulgate,  are  apud  not ;  words  that  may 
tildes  of  government,  and  the  agitations  of    be  rendered  '  at  our  house,'  which  would 
war.  easily  be  taken  for  '  in  this  house,'  or  build- 

DAVID,  CITY  OF,  the  stronghold  of  Zion,  ing.  But  removing  from  the  narratives  the 
on  the  south  of  Jerusalem,  which  received  wonderful,  whose  origin  is  easily  understood, 
the  appellation  from  its  being  taken  by  David  ve  are  disposed  to  admit  that  ^ey  correctly 
Itom  its  possessors,  the  Jebusites  (3  Sam.  describe  &e  locality  of  David's  sepulchie. 
V.  7,  9).  Hence  '  the  city  of  David'  came  The  rabbi  Bej]gamin,  of  Tudela,  reports  in 
to  signify  Jerusalem  generally  (Isa.  xxiL  9).  his  travels,  that  two  labourers  of  the  patriarch 
In  Luke  ii.  4,  11,  *  the  city  of  David '  means  of  Jerusalem,  while  getting  stone  for  repair- 
the  place  where  he  was  bom,  or  Bethlehem :  ing  a  wall  of  the  church  on  Zion,  came  to  an 
comp.  Matt.  ii.  1.  opening;  on  entering  which,  they  found  what 

DAVID'S  SEPULCHRE  was,  according  is  termed  a  palace,  supported  by  rich  marble 
to  Peter^s  testimony  on  the  day  of  Pentecoet,  pillars,  also  a  golden  sceptre  and  diadem, 
in  existence  in  the  days  of  the  apostles  (Acts  Similar  mcmuments  were  near.  A  strong 
ii.  29).  The  apostle  refers  to  it  in  order  to  wind  prevented  them  from  penetrating  fur- 
afford  a  visible  evidence  that  it  was,  not  in  ther.  The  rabbi  Abraliam,  on  hearing  their 
David,  but  in  Jesus,  that  the  promise  of  end<  report,  declared  the  place  to  be  the  sepulchre 
less  life  was  ftilfllled.  Should  its  existence  to  of  David  and  Solomon.  This  statement  is 
the  present  time  be  finally  established,  it  will  received  and  corroborated  by  Thenius,  who 
furnish  another  of  those  palpable  evidences,  has  devoted  an  essay  to  the  general  subject, 
which,  by  carrying  the  mind  back  to  the  first  It  is  not  improbable  that  excavations  and 
days  of  the  gospel,  serve  to  impress  it  with  researches  would  be  rewarded  with  important 
a  deep  feeling  of  the  reality  of  the  recorded     discoveries. 

evento.  DAT  (T.),  a  portion  of  time  comprising  a 

David's  sepulchre  is  to  be  sought,  not  in  night  and  a  day,  for  which  Paul  uses  one 
'  the  tombs  of  the  kings,*  on  the  north  of  word  in  the  original  {nuchthemennf  2  Cor. 
Jerusalem,  but  on  Mount  Zion ;  for  he  was  xi  25),  or  twenty-four  hours,  being  a  period 
buried  *in  the  city  of  David'  (1  Kings  ii.  derived  from  the  revolution  of  the  earth  on 
10.  2  Sam.  v.  7 ;  comp.  Neh.  iii.  16).  Jo-  ite  own  axis,  and  one  of  so  obvious  a  nature 
sephus  states,  that  David  was  buried  in  Jem-  as  to  have  been  observed  and  employed 
salem  with  great  magnificence,  and  that  im-  among  all  nations.  Some  placing  the  day 
mense  wealth  was  buried  with  him;  frcmi  before  the  night,  others  the  night  before 
which  Hyrcsnus  the  high  priest,  wishing  to  buy  the  day,  according  as  they  conceived  this 
off  Antiochns,  took  out  three  thousand  taleute  or  that  to  have  originally  had  precedence, 
found  in  one  room  of  the  sepulchre.  King  nave  measured  time  by  nighto  or  by  days. 
Herod,  he  adds,  took  out  of  another  room  a  Our  phrase,  *  this  day  se'nnight,'  for  a  week 
great  deal  of  money  (but  see  *  Antiq.'  xvi.  hence,  shows  the  usage  of  reckoning  by 
7.  1).  Tet  neither  of  them  came  at  the  nighte.  The  Hebrews,  holding  that  light 
oofRns  of  the  kings  themselves ;  for  their  arose  out  of  darkness,  reckoned  at  first  by 
bodies  were  buried  under  the  earth  so  ska-     nighte ;  their  civil  day  being  from  sunset  to 


DAY                      467  DAY 

sunset     Hence  we  read  in  Gen.  L  6,  'And  It.  10.  Col.  ii.  16).    Modem  Jews  gire pre* 

the  evening  and  the  morning  were  the  first  ferencs  to  the  second  and  fifth  day  of  the 

day.'    At  a  yery  early  period,  diey  recognised  week.    The  soperstLtion,  in  substance,  still 

the  natoial  divisions  of  the  day,  as  the  mom>  lingers  among  professed  Christians, 

ing  (Gen.  i.  6)»  noon  (Gen.  xliiL  16.  Dent  DATS  JOUBNEY,  — a  distance  which  is 

xxriii.  29),  evening  (Gen,  i.  6).     We  also  usually  trayelled  in  one  day  in  the  East, 

find  'the  heat  of  the  day'  (Gen.  xviii.  1).  where  even  now  erery  movement  takes  place 

During  the  exUe>  the  Jews  i^pear  to  have  under  definite  and  fixed  conditions,  and  pro- 

leamt  the  division  of  the  day  into  hoars  (Dan.  oeeds  century  after  century  in  one  constant 

iv.  19 ;  V.  6);  as,  according  to  Herodotus  and  changeless  manner.    A  day's  journey, 

(ii.  109),  die  Greeks  *  learnt  the  twelve  parts  therefore,  is  with  Orientals  a  somewhat  de- 

of  the  day  from  flie  Babylonians,'  who  had  terminate  measure  of  distance.    Accordingly, 

been  enabled  to  make  the  divisions  by  means  we  find  it  used  during  nearly  the  whole  period 

of  dieir  knowledge  of  astronomy  and  num-  embraced  in  the  Bible.    By  this  measure, 

bers.      These  'twelve  parts'  consider  the  distances  are  indicated  in  the  Pentateuch 

day  as  contrasted  with  the  night,  a  usage  (Gen.  xxz.  86;   xxxi.  29.    Ezod.   iii   18; 

which  was  known  also  to  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  v.  8.    Nimib.  x.  88;   xxxiii.  8.    Deut.  i.  2), 

i.  5.    Exod.  xxiii.  12) ;  and  were  recognised  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  Bible  (1  Kings 

under  the  designation  of  twelve  hours,  as  the  adx.  4.    2  Kings  iii.  9);  end  in  the  New 

artificial  division  of  the  day  by  the  Jews,  in  Testament  (Luke  ii.  44). 

the  time  of  our  Lord  (John  xi.  9),  though  This  measure  is  the  general  or  rather  the 

the  natural  day  in  Palestine  varies  ttam  14  only  (me  used  in  the  East -^  for  instance, 

hours,  12  minutes,  to  9  hours,  48  minutes ;  among  the  Arabs  and  the  Persians — to  indi- 

so  that  the  difibrenee  between  die  longest  and  cate  considerable  distances  in  travelling.    If 

the  shortest  day  in  the  year  is  by  no  means  so  we  enter  into  particulars,  we  cannot  aflSrm 

great  as  it  is  with  us,  being  little  more  than  that  the  measure  is  strictly  determinate  and 

four  hours.    The  hours  of  the  day  were  invariably  fixed.    There  is,  of  course,  a  dif* 

counted  from  sunrise,  or  what  we  should  ference  arising  from  the  mode  of  travelling, 

term  six  o'clock ;  so  that '  the  third  hour  of  — whether  on  foot,  on  camels,  or  on  horse- 

the  day '  (Matt  xx.  8.    Acts  ii.  15)  coire-  back ;  in  small  companies,  or  in  large  cara- 

sponds  witii  our  9,  a.v. ;  'die  sixth  hour'  vans.    Then  the  number  of  hours  causes 

(Mate  XX.  0.  John  xix.  14)  is  our  noon ;  variations.      Caravans  travel  from  six  to 

'  the  nhith  hour'  (Matt  xx.  6)  is  with  us  twelve  hours  a  day ;  but  the  average  is  about 


8  o'clock,  P.M. ;   and  '  about  the    eleventh  seven  hours.    A  day's  journey  is  ordinarily 

hour'  (Matt  XX.  6)  is  5  o'clock,  p.m.,  or  accounted  a  hundred  and  fifty  stadia.    The 

one  hour  short  of  the  elose  of  the  day.  stadium,  a  Grecian  measure,  has  a  hundred 

While  the  Egyptians  gore  to  their  days  the  and  twen^-five  geometrical  paces,  each  pace 

names  of  the  planets,  the  Hel»>6ws  numbered  containing  five  feet,  and  is  therefore  the 

their  days.  tenth  part  of  a  geographical  mile.    Acoord- 

*Day,'  or  'days,'  ismed  in  later  writers  to  ing  to  this,  a  day's  journey  would  be  about 

denote  a  longer  or  shorter  period  of  time  eighteen  English  miles.     A  Sabbath-day's 

(Isa.xxii.  6 ;  xxxiv.  8.  Hos.  ii.  18) ;  but  there  journey  (Exod.  xvL  29.    Matt  xxiv.  20)  is 

is  no  evidence  to  show,  diat  the  word  ever  fixed  by  the  rabbins  at  two  thousand  cubits 

designates  such  a  geological  series  of  cen-  or  short  paces,  or  a  thousand  long  paces;  by 

turies,  as  some  have  supposed  to  be  intended  Epiphanius,  at  six  stadia ;  and  probably  in 

in  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation.  the  Syrian  Peschito,  at  seven  stadia.    This 

'Day'  denotes  this  life  in  eontrast  with  the  would  make  it  about  two-thirds  of  a  mile, 

night  of  death  (John  ix.  4).  Bobinson  found  the  rate  of  travel,  or  ordi- 

By '  dsy,'  or  '  days,'  reference  is  made  to  nazy  camel's  walk  when  in  ftill  progress,  to 

the  times  of  the  Messiah  (Mai.  iii.  2.  Luke  be  two  miles  and  a  half  the  hour*    But  there 

xvii.  22.   Acts  iii.  24.   Heb.  v.  7.    John  viiL  are  always  little  delays :  sometimes  the  ani- 

66).    '  Day'  is  also  used  withoertain  epithets  male  browse  more  than  at  others ;  or  a  load 

to  denote  the  second  advent,  or  the  period  is  to  be  adjusted ;  or  an  observation  to  be 

Of  judgment  (Matt  vii.  22 ;  xxiv.  86 ;  xxv.  taken ;  so  that  two  miles  and  one-third  an 

18.    Luke  X.  18;   xxi.  84.    Acts  xvii.   81.  hour   is   a  nearer  approximation  to  fact 

1  Thess.  V.  2,  4.    2  Pet  iii  10.   Bom.  ii.  5.  The  rate  of  the  camel's  walk,  and  of  course 

1  Cor.  1.  8).  of  the  distance  passed  over,  varies  somewhat 

It  is  a  very  ancient  superstition,  that  cer-  According  to  the  nature  of  the  ground.    On 

tain  days  are  fortunate  or  holy,  and  certain  the  gravelly  plains  of  the  desert,  it  is  natu- 

others  unibrtunate  or  profane.    Hence  arose  rally  greater  than  in  mountainous  and  rocky 

observances  which  were  obstructive  of  the  districts.    Between  Suez  and  Hebron,  Bo< 

due  pursuit  of  duty,  and  contrary  to  a  just  binson's  mein  rate  of  travelling  was  2*019 

view  of  Divine  Providence.    We,  therefore^  miles  an  hour.    From  Cairo  to  Suez,  a  dis* 

find  in  Scripture,  eflbrts  made  against  these  tance  of  seventy^five  statute  miles,  he  tra- 

Ibnd  notions  (Lev.  xlx.  26, '  times,'  that  is,  veiled  in  seventy-one  hours  and  one-third,  or 

<fajfg;  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  6.  Bom.  xiv.  5.  Gal.  nearly  three  whole  days,  of  which  thirty-two 


DAY  468  D  E  A 

honn  Mid  one-fonrtb  were  bonra  of  xnAreh.  denotes  the  break  of  day,  the  dawn,  or  mom* 
The  same  distance  was  passed  by  ibe  Indian  ing  twilight,  from  a  root  signifying  to  be  of 
mail  in  twentj-two  hoars ;  and  the  pacha  of  a  dusky  hue.    The  use  of  tfie  term  '  dawn ' 
Egypt  is  said  to  hare  onoe  crossed  on  horse-  shows  the  contrast  which  is  found  in  the 
back  in  thirteen  hours,  by  haring  relays  of  original,  where  there  are  two  different  words 
horses  stationed  on  the  way.  The  rate  of  tra-  for  *  morning  '   and  *  day-spiing/      *  Day- 
felling  with  mnles  and  horses  in  Palestine  is  spring '  was  formerly  used  in  the  sense  of 
considerably  faster  than  was  that  of  Robinson  *  dawn,'  or  *  day-break,*  as  appears  firom  these 
by  camels.    It  is  nsnslly  assomed  at  three  words  of  Speede:  —  *Snchwere  the  Bomans 
English  miles  the  hour.    But  the  rate  is  far  in  this  island,  whose  deputies  at  the  day- 
more  Tsriable  than  with  camels  in  the  desert ;  tpring  almost  of  Christianitie  were  conrerted.' 
owing  partly  to  the  character  of  the  animals,  Job  is  asked  if  he  had  caused  day-break  to 
and  partly  to  the  state  of  the  roads,  and  die  know  its  place.    The  mention  of '  its  place ' 
uneven  nature  of  the  country.     The  average  seems  to  be  an  allusion  to  the  fact,  that  the 
may  be  about  two  English  miles  and  three-  day  does  not  always  break  at  the  same  point 
fourths.  Yet,  vary  as  it  may,  it  always  knows  its  place ; 

Lord  Lindssy,  on  his  journey  into  the  Hau-  for  its  appearance  is  gOTcmed  by  God's  own 

ran,  rode  on  horseback  genenJly  about  eight  unvarying  laws. 

or  nine  hours,  making  from  thirty  to  forty        'Day-spring'  is  found  in  Luke  i.  78,  as 

miles  a  day,  never  exceeding  a  quick  walk,  the  the  representative  of  a  Greek  word,  rendered 

usual  travelling  pace.    He  started  with  the  '  east '  in  Matt  ii.  1 ;  and,  in  Bev.  vii.  2,  is 

sun,  halted  at  mid-day  for  two  or  three  hours  Joined  with  a  word  which  determines  its  exact 

during  the  heat,   and  then  proceeded  till  import;  for  what  is  there  given  as 'east'  is 

sunset  literally  '  the  rising  of  the  sun.' 

It  may  add  to  the  illustration  of  the  sub-  DAY-8TAB  is  the  English  of  the  Greek 
ject,  to  cite  here  words  used  by  Dr.  Olin  (ii  PAofpAorot,  in  Latin  i!^ci/er,or*light-bringer,' 
409) :  —  *  A  young  woman,  who  eame  to  our  the  name  of  &e  planet  Venus  as  a  morning- 
camp,  said  it  was  but  one  pipe  to  Acbala,  the  star,  or  when,  being  to  the  west  of  the  sun, 
place  of  her  residence.  This  was  a  method  it  rises  snd  sets  before  him ;  but  when  it 
of  measuring  distance  which  I  had  not  heard  is  to  the  east  of  the  sun,  it  rises  and  sets 
of  before,  though  certainly  a  ve'7  convenient,  afker  him,  and  is  then  called  He$peniM,  The 
as  well  as  a  tolerably  aeourata  one,  in  a  pure  brilUanoy  of  this  planet,  especially  as 
eountrywhere  everybody  smokes  incesssntly.'  seen  in  the  east,  eansed  it  to  be  an  appro- 

DAYSMAN  is  an  old  English  word  denot-  prists  figure  for  expressing  the  dawn  of  the 

ing  OA  umpire,  employed  in  moderating  be-  gospel-day,  or  even  its  ftall  radiance,  since 

tween  two  contending  parties,  and  giving  a  Lucifer,  or  light-bringer,  ushered  in  the  sun 

final  award.     The  origin  of  the  term  is  not  himselt    The  word  is  found  in  2  Pet  L 19, 

very  dear ;  but  its  meaning  is  undoubted,  a  passage  which  South  thus  expounds :  — 

Thus  the  Bible  of  15dl  gives  for  a  transla-  '  This  is  called,  both  properly  snd  elegantly, 

tion  of  1  Sam.  ii.  25 :  —  *  If  one  man  synne  by  Peter,  the  day's  star  arising  in  our  hearts; 

agaynst  another,  dayseman  may  make  hys  that  is,  by  the  secret,  silent  workings  of  his 

peace ;  but  yf  a  man  sinne  agaynst  the  Lonl,  spirit,  he  illuminates  the  judgment,  bends 

who  can  be  hys  dayseman  f '    Our  version,  the  will  and  aflPeetions,  and  at  last  changes 

instead  of 'dayseman,'  has  'judge.'     The  the  whole  man' ('Sermons,' iii. 291).    The 

word  is  found  in  the  common  version,  in  Job  same  metaphor  is  applied  even  to  our  Lord 

ix.  33,  where  '  umpire'  is  given  in  the  mar-  himself,  who,  in  Bev.  xxii  16,  declares, — '  I 

gin.     This  is  the  coireet  meaning  of  the  am  the  bright  and  marHiii^-fter:' comp.  Bev. 

term ;  and  in  this  sense  is  the  wteaiUt^  me-  iL  28.  Mumb.  xxiv.  17.  John  viii.  12. 
diator,  of  the  Greek  Septuagint  version  to  be        DEACON,  a  Greek  word  in  English  letters, 

understood ;  which,  the  context  shows,  can  which,  in  the  original,  signifies  primarily 

have  no  reference  to  the  great '  Mediator  be-  a  dametiie  §erviaU  (Matt  xx.  20).    In  this 


tween  God  and  men,  the  man  Jesus  Christ'  psssage  our  translators  have  given  'minis- 

(1  Tim.  ii.  0);  whose  business  was  to  re-  ter;'  but,  in  a  corresponding  one  (MattxxiiL 

eoncile  men  to  God  (2  Cor.  v.  19),  not,  as  11), '  servant'  as  the  rendering  of  diakonos 

in  the  case  of  Job,  to '  lay  his  hand  upon  us  (Mark  ix.  85 ;  x.  48).    In  John  ii.  5 — 9,  it 

both,'  that  is,  to  arbitrate  between  the  two  is  used  of  domestics,  probably  slaves,  whose 

opposing  parties.  office  it  was  to  supply  the  guests  at  the  nup- 

D  AY-SPBING  represents  a  Hebrew  word  tial  feast  with  meat  and  drink.  The  original 
which  denotes,  and  is  frequently  rendered,  force  of  the  term  may  be  seen  in  the  verb : 
momtfi^  (Gen.  xix.  15.  Amos  iv.  18).  The  see  Matt  vilL  15.  Luke  iv.  89.  As  in  gene- 
word  occurs  in  the  sublime  passage  in  which  ral  it  signifies  sertmnt  (Latin,  tervut,  a  slave), 
the  Almighty  rebukes  Job  for  his  presump-  so  it  denotes  one  who  serves,  whatever  the 
tion: —  capacity  may  be.    In  Matt  xxii.  18,  it  is 

'  Hast  thou  ever  eommanded  the  mondiig,  employed  of  the  more  elevated  officers  who 

Or  eansed  the  day-spring  to  know  its  place  >'  stand  in  the  presence  of  kings  to  execute 

Tlie  original  word  for '  day-spring'  properly  their  orders.    Even  in  this  case,  however,  it 


DBA                    469  D  E  A 

does  not  of  necessity  lose  the  idea  of  slave*  does  it  appear,  from  the  testimony  of  these 

■erriee;  for,  in  the  East,  the  highest  officers  records,  that  mankind  suffered  greatly  from 

tie,  in  relation  to  the  monarch,  only  slaves,  famine  in  tlie  earliest  periods  of  which  we 

In  Rom.  xiii.  4,  the  civil  magistrate  is  desig-  have  any  account ;  and  the  Scriptural  histoiy 

nated  the  servant  (deacon)  of  God.     The  in  this,  as  in  other  particulars,  will  be  found 

word  also  describes  teachers  sent  from  Ood,  interesting  and  valuable  to  tine  economist 

servants,  whose  duty  it  is  to  conduct  well  ond  philosopher,  as  well  as  to  the  divine, 

and  faithfully  their  divine  Master's  business  In  truth,  famine  appears  to  depend,  not  on 

(1  Cor.  iii.  0.  2  Cor.  iii.  6 ;  vi.  4).    -Hence  the  extent  of  cultivable  or  of  cultivated  land, 

it  is  an  epithet  of  apostles,  and  generally  of  nor  on  the  proportion  which  such  land  bears 

teachers  in  the  Christian  church.    Paul  asks  to  the  actual  population ;  though,  doubtless, 

•- '  Are  ihey  ministers  of  Christ  ?    I  more :  both  these  elements  enter  into  the  influences 

{d  labours  more  abundant ;  in  stripes  above  which  determine  the  question  of  abundance  or 

tieasure;  in  prisons  more  frequent;  in  deaths  scanity;  but  rather  on  human  forethought 

oft'  (2  Cor.  xi.  28.  Ephes.  vi.  21.   CoL  i.  7,  and  thrift,  so  applied, as, in  the  actual  circum- 

25;  iv.  7).    It  is  also  used  of  the  servants  stances  whatever  they  are,  to  make  a  suitable 

of  Satan  (2  Cor.  zi.  16).    With  a  genitive  provision  in  all  cases  against  such  contingen- 

of  the  thing  after  it,  ibe  word  denotes  a  cies  as  may  occasion  dearth.    In  the  almost 

promoter  of  that  which  stands  in  the  geni*  entire  absence  of  this  forethought,  barbarous 

tive ;  as  when,  in  Rom.  xv.  8,  Jesus  Christ  is  snd  half-civilised  nations,  scanty  though  the 

called '  a  minister  of  the  circumcision  for  the  population  may  be  in  regard  to  the  tracts  of 

truth  of  God,  to  confirm  the  jfromises  made  land  over  which  they  roam,  have  been  found 

unto  the  fathers.'     So,  in  Gal.ii.  17,  *  minis-  to  be  most  frequently  on  tlie  verge  of  desti- 

ter  of  sin'  is  one  who  promotes  sin  (oomp.  tution,  and  not  seldom  to  suffer  the  greatest 

2  Cor.  xi.  15.    Ephes.  iii.  7.    Col.  i  28).  privations  from  dearth  or  famine.    Vain  is 

The  word  also  denotes  a  specific  officer  in  the  almost  unlimited  opportunity  which  na- 

the  primitive  ehnrch,  whose  business  origi-  tnre  spreads  around  them  for  the  supply  of 

nally  was  to  care  for  the  sick  and  needy,  their  animal  necessities,  since   they  want 

which  was  afterwards  extended  to  other  oon-  either  the  intelligence  and  skill  which  are 

eems  (Phil.  i.  1.    1  Tim.  iii.  8, 12 ;   iv.  6 :  necessary  to  turn  these  opportunities  to  ac- 

eomp.  Acts  vi.  1—4).    The  original  consti-  count,  or  the  moral  qualities  which  would 

tution  of  the  churoh  was  admirably  adapted  spare  something  from  actual  abundance,  in 

to  its  wants  and  duties.    There  are  in  every  order  to  provide  against  coming  want, 

church,  offices  which  can  best  be  performed  The  first  mention  of  a  dearth  which  occurs 

by  the  kind  hearts  and  soft  hands  of  female  in  Scripture  is  in  Gen.  xii.  10,  where  we  read, 

goodness.     Accordingly,  we  find  mention  that,  so  early  as  the  days  of  the  patriarch 

made  in  Bom.  xvi.  1,  of  Phebe,  a  female  Abraham,  '  there  was  a  famine  in  die  land/ 

deacon.    In  John  xii.  26,  diakonoi  seems  to  which  is  described  as  so  grievous,  as  to  com  - 

be  used  in  the  sense  of  foUower,  one  who  pel  the  father  of  the  faithful  to  quit  Canaan, 

faithfully  adheres  to  Jesus.  The  country  to  which  he  resorted  was,  as 

DEARTH,  a  noun  signifying   tcareittf,  we  might  expect,  the  land  of  Egypt,  the  early 

wttnt,/ami»e,  from  the  adjective  dear  (hence  and  lasting  fertility  of  which  is  a  well-known 

4iMimess  or  dearih) ,  which  may  have  come  in-  historical  fact    In  Gen.  xxvi.  I ,  this  famine 

to  English  through  the  French  cher,  from  the  is  designated  as  '  the  first,'  that  is,  the  first 

Latin  cams.    What  is  scarce  is  dear;  hence  known,  of  which  there  was  any  record.    The 

scaroity  and  dearth  are  the  same.    But  what  same  passage  informs  us  of  another  famine, 

is  scarce  is  also  ^nYCtous,  or  of  jmce,  of  value:  which  afflicted  'the  land'  in  the   days  of 

hence  *  dear '  comes  to  signify  '  precious '  or  Isaac,  who  seems   to   have    contemplated 

'  beloved.'  a  descent  into  Egypt ;  but  who,  being  in- 

*  Dearth '  is  the  rendering  of  two  Hebrew  stmoted  of  God,  removed  to  a  part  of  Ara- 

words: — I.  Batzohreth,  which  comes  from  bia  Petraea,  Gen.  xxvi.  17,  named  Gerar,  a 

a  root  signifying  to  enclose  and  restrain:  city  of   tbe  Philistines,  whose   monarch's 

hence  restraint  or  limitation  in  regard  to  name  was  Abimelech.    Even  Egypt,  however, 

meat  and  drink  (Jer.  xiv.  1 — 6 ;  xvii.  8).  was  not  exempt  from  the  desolations  of 

II.  Rahgaho,  which  is  the  appropriate  word  famine  (Gen.  xii.  80).     The  ordinary  cause 

for 'dearth*  (2  Kings  iv. 88),  and  signifying  of  dearth  in  Egypt  is  connected  with  the 

hunger,  is  generally  represented  by  our  word  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile.    If  the  rise  of 

*  famine '  (Gen.  xii.  10 ;  xxvi.  I ).  the  water  is  in  any  year  below  a  certain  stand - 

Considering  the  early  period  in  the  history  ard,  the  country  affords  scanty  supplies  of 

of  the  world  to  which  Uie  Biblical  records,  food,  and  may  for  the  greater  part  remain  a 

especiaUytheoldest  of  them,  refer, — and  con-  desert    But  mora  than  local  causes  must 

sidering  also  how  small  a  proportion  to  the  have  been  in  operation  m  the  case  before  us : 

world  at  large,  or  even  to  the  inhabited  part  for  we  are  told,  that  the  '  famine  was  sore  in 

of  it,  the  population  boro  in  the  primitive  all  lands,'  that  '  the  famine  was  over  all 

ages,  we  should  not  antecedently  expect  to  the  face  of  the  earth.'    By  the  foresight  and 

find  frequent  mention  of  dearth  of  food.  Yet  wisdom  of  Joseph,  however,  provision  against 


D  E  A                      470  D  E  A 

the  eTfl  hid  been  made  in  Egypt;  wbUe  other  who  may  claim  to  have  risen  somewhat  above 

eomitries  were  left  to  suffer  the  unmitigated  mere  barbarism,   we  are  not  autkarised   to 

oonsequencee  of  their  neglect.  insist  on  a  definition  which  does  not  oona- 

The  provision  made  by  Joseph  must  hate  spond  with  the  general  impression,  and  can 

been  of  a  most  abundant  nature,  since  the  be  supported  by  faot  only  so  far  as  iact  rests 

period  during  which  the  dearth  lasted  was  on  assumption.    If  we  sssume  that  there  is 

no  less  than  seven  years,  and  the  people  of  no  life  beyond  the  present,  or  that,  if  there 

other  parts  sought  and  received  suppUes  in  be  another  life,  it  consists  in  the  pure  re 

Egypt : — 'All  countries  oame  into  Egypt  to  newal  of  ezistenoe,  then  may  our  definition 

buy  com.'    Among  other  lands,  Canaan  suf-  be  justified.     But  such  an  assumption  is 

l!ered  fhmi  the  flunine ;  which  was  the  im-  itself  unwarrantable.    BCay  we  then  declare 

mediate  occasion  of  Jaoob's  sending  his  sons  death  to  be  the  cessation  of  our  actual  mode 

down  into  Egypt,  of  the  discovery  which  they  of  existence  ?    But  the  word  *  cessation '  ia 

made  of  their  lost  brother,  and  of  the  settle-  objectionable.    All  that  we  know  does  cease 

ment  in  that  land  of  the  descendants  of  Ab-  is  found  in  the  ordinary  ftmctions  of  our 

nham ;  an  event  of  the  highest  consequence  present  life.    The  heart  ceases  to  beat;  the 

in  the  sequel,  and  serving  to  illustrate  the  pulse  stops ;  consciousness,  such  at  least  as 

benignity  and  wisdom  of  divine  Providence,  it  was,  comes  to  a  termination.     But  this 

in  the  evils  with  which  the  world  is  ai&icted.  oessaticm  gives   rise   immediately  to  other 

This  famine  was  made  by  Joseph  the  oo-  functions  tibat  proceed  according  to  invaria> 

casion  of  one  of  the  greatest  social  revolu-  ble  laws.    This  we  know  in  regard  to  the 

tions  which  history  records.     The  details  msterial  elements  of  our  frame ;  and  this,  in 

may  be  found  in  the  book  of  Genesis ;  and  consequence,  we  are  justified  in  saying,  may 

it  is  enough  to  say  here,  that,  as  the  special  be  equally  true  in  regard  to  thought,  feeling, 

administrator  of  the  affairs  of  the  country,  and  consciousness.    At  least,  we  are  not  at 

Joseph  got  into  his  hands  all  the  property  of  liberty,  under  these  circumstances,  to  adopt 

the  kingdom,  indoding  the  land  (excepting  a  definition  which  implies  the  reverse.    Ces- 

that  which  belonged  to  the  priests),  and  gave  sation,  then,  would  hardly  seem  to  be  the 

the  same  back  to  the  people  as  tenants  at  proper  term ;  for  does  any  thing  properly 

will,  on  condition  of  their  paying  to  the  king  cea$e  f    Change,  transition,  do  accompany 

*  the  fifth,'  probably  oi  the  annual  produce.  deadi ;  and  perhaps,  after  all,  death  is  no- 

From  these  statements,  it  appears   &at  thing  more  Uian  a  change  in  our  mode  of 

three  successive  generations  were  in  these  life,  a  passage  out  of  one  state  of  conscious 

early  days  visited  by  famine.    The  Scriptural  being  into  another. 

narrative  (the  details  of  which  may  be  easily  We  have  made  these  preliminary  remarks, 
ascertained  by  the  help  of  a  concordance)  because  the  ordinary  idea  of  what  death  is, 
shows,   that   in    after   ages   funines   were  invests  assumptions  with  Ibe  attributes  of 
anciently    more    frequent    than    they    are  fact;  and  now  pass  on  to  set  before  the 
now ;   and  this  justifies  the  use  which  is  reader  the  leading  conceptions  on  the  sub- 
made  of  so  terrible  a  scourge  by  the  sacred  ject,  contained  in  Scripture.     The  immediate 
writers,  and  especially  the  prophets,  and  our  occasion  of  death  was  the  sin  of  Adam  (Gen. 
Lord  himself,  in  the  highly  figurative  Ian-  iiL  19;  comp.  iL  17) :  — 
guage  which  they  employ  in  their  righteous  « jj^.^  ^^  dlsobedtonoe,  and  the  fhrit 
endeavours  to  turn  wicked  men  and  wicked  Of  that  forUddBo  tne,  whose  mortal  taste 
nations  fh>m  the  evil  of  their  ways  (Eaek.  Bjx>agfat  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe^ 

Ti.n    M.«.«iT.7).   InAmo-TiiiH  £!2iiS^°'.S'Sii£S£?S£^S£' 

»eq.  a  heavier  woe  than  even  the  want  of 

bread  is  appropriately  spoken  of  under  the  This  representation  is  expressly  joined  with 

appeUation  of  a  famine:  —  *  Behold,  the  days  ^^  statement, —  «  For  dust  thou  art,  and 

come,  saith  the  Lord  God,  that  I  will  send  a  ^^to  dust  shslt  thou  return'  (Rom.  vi.  23. 

famine  in  the  land;  not  a  famine  of  bread,  Heb.  ii.  15);   whence  the  inference  seems 

nor  a  thirst  for  water,  but  of  hearing  the  inevitable,  that  naturally  man  is  mortal,  and 

word  of  the  Lord:    and  they  shall  wander  ^^^  the  conditional  immortality  implied  in 

ftrom  sea  to  ses,  and  from  the  north  even  to  ^®  account  of  the  fall  must  be  understood  as 

the  east ;  they  shall  run  to  and  fro  to  seek  ^'^  which  would  have  been  given  of  God,  the 

the  word  of  the  Lord,  and  shall  not  find  it:  g^e^t  Author  of  life,  had  Adam  observed  the 

in  that  day  shall   the  fair  virgins  and  the  Bivine  law.    Eternal  life,  however,  is  clearly 

young  men  frint  for  thirst.'     The  ensuing  »et  forth  as  the  gift  of  God  in  his  Son  Jesus 

verse  shows  that  idolatry  was  the  moving  Christ  (John  i.  4;  vi  35;  xL  25.   Col.  iiL  3. 

cause  of  this  heavy  punishment  ^  Tim.  iv.  8)  :  — 

DEATH  (T.),  the  extinction  of  life.     So  •  Who  oi^rtiTe  led  oaptirity, 

at  least  must  death  have  been  regarded  in  Who  robb'd  the  graye  of  victory, 

any  nation  which  had  not  an  expectation  of  '^^^  *^^^  ^^^  ■**°^  '^^  '**•''*• 

another  existence  beyond  the  tomb.    But  aa  This  is  the  constant  and  invariable  represen- 

it  may  be  questioned  whether  such  a  people  tation  of  the  New  Testament     The  extinction 

has  at  any  time  existed,  at  least  among  those  of  death  (1  Cor.  xv.  26,  53 — 57)  is  tlie  work 


DEA 


471 


DEA 


of  OhrUftk  who,  by  dying,  redeemed  raan  from 
death.  A  future  life,  therefore,  is  not  the 
prolongation  of  a  natural  deathlessness,  nor 
a  consequence  of  a  natural  immateriality. 
These  terms  involve  views  which  come  from 
other  spheres  of  thought  than  the  Scripture. 
Whether  they  contain  truth,  or  how  much  of 
truth  they  may  comprise,  we  have  not  here 
to  inquire ;  hut  it  is  our  duty  to  remark,  thai 
they  are  not  Scriptural  views  of  deaUi  and  life, 
and  should,  when  treated  of,  be  kept  distinct 
from  the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament. 
That  doctrine,  beyond  a  doubt,  is,  that  the 
life  which  Adam  forfeited  has  been  gained 
by  the  second  Adam, '  the  Lord  from  heaven,' 
who  gives  it  to  all  who  believe  in  his  name. 

As  a  consequence  of  these  views,  death 
sometimes  stands  in  strong  contrast  with 
life,  as  denoting,  spiritually,  two  opposite 
states ;  in  other  places  indicated  by  darkness 
and  light  Thus  our  Saviour,  —  <He  that 
heareth  my  word,  and  believeth  on  Him  that 
sent  me,  hath  everlasting  life,  and  shall  not 
come  into  condemnation,  but  is  passed  from 
death  unto  life'  (John  v.  d4  1  John  iii.  34. 
The  figurative  use  of  the  term  'death' 
(Rom.  vii.  2^  Ps.  cxvi.  8),  as  denoting 
he(wy  cakuniitf  or  moral  inaetuibiUty,  is  by  no 
means  unconmion  (Bom.  viii.  6.  James  L 
15.   1  Cor.  if.  9.   2  Cor.  i.  10). 

'  Death '  sometimes  implies,  not  a  natural 
departure  from  life,  but  capital  punishment 
(Exod.  xix.  12.  Lev.  xx.  II,  seq.).  That  the 
Mosaic  law  should  have  inflicted  death- 
punishmenta,  can  surprise  none  but  such  as 
unwisely  measure  the  past  by  the  most  ad- 
vanced ideas  of  the  present;  nor  will  an 
argument  in  favour  of  such  a  penalty  be 
hence  deduced  by  any  who  understand  the 
proper  uses  of  the  Bible,  which  are  found  as 
much  in  warnings  to  avoid,  as  examples  to 
imitate  (2  Tim.  iii.  16). 

The  punishment  of  death  must  abide  the 
test  which  an  enlightened  Christian  conscience 
supplies ;  before  which,  the  writer  is  of  opi- 
nion, it  cannot  fail  to  be  condemned.  In 
fact,  its  condemnation  is  already  pronounced 
by  the  voice  of  wise  and  good  men,  whose 
verdict  will  doubtless  ere  long  receive  the 
sanction  of  at  least  British  law  To  this 
most  desirable  result,  our  legislation  has 
long  been  tending ;  and  probably  nothing  can 
prevent  or  much  delay  the  complete  abolition 
of  capital  punishments,  but — which  God 
in  his  mercy  avert  —  a  protracted  and  san- 
guinary war ;  which,  by  diverting  men's  at- 
tention from  home-reforms,  and  lowering 
and  debasing  their  Christau  feelings,  might 
for  a  time  sustain  the  present  inhuman 
system. 

From  the  fact  that  Moses  held  out  in  his 
legislation  no  promise  of  a  future  life  as  an 
inducement  to  obedience,  Warburton  argued 
his  'Divine  Legation.'  Whether  the  argu- 
ment was  solid  or  not,  the  treatise  in  which 
it  was  set  forth  has  given  support  to  a  some 


what  too  readily  assumed  opinion,  —  namely, 
that  the  Israelites,  so  far  as  their  sentiments 
are  set  forth  in  the  Old  Scriptures,  did  not 
believe  in  a  hereafter.    It  is,  however,  very 
evident,  that  the  omission  by  Moses  in  his 
polity  of  such  considerations  as  a  ftiturity 
holds  out,  is  a  very  different  thing  from  the 
general  belief  of  the  Hebrew  people  on  the 
point.    The  first  may  be  allowed,  without 
in  any  way  prejudging  the  second.      And 
probably  a  careful  inquiry  as  to  the  popular 
impressions  on  the  subject  would  issue  in 
establishing  the  position,  that,  while  from  a 
very  early  period    they  were  not  without 
a  vague  and  flitting  notion  of  some  sort  of 
life  beyond  the  tomb,  after  the  Babylonish 
captivity  they  held  a  doctrine  which  was  the 
parent  of  the  common  idea  of  the  resurrec- 
tion ot  the  body.     That  the  doctrine  of  anas- 
tosif,  or  resurrection,  was  widely  prevalent 
before  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  state, 
is  very  evident  from  the  writings  of  Josephus. 
The  general  effect  of  the  high  moral  and 
warm  domestic  tone  of  the  Hebrew  institu- 
tions and  character  tended  to  invest  death 
with  solemn  associations,  and  to  soften  down 
its  harsher  features  to  survivors  and  friends 
(see  Bubial).     But  this  most  desirable  re- 
sult ensued  in  a  far  more  decided  manner, 
from  the  impression  made  by  Christianity 
on  the  human  heart.    In  the  simple,  short, 
and  touching  memorials  which  the  Roman 
catacombs  show  were  at  a  very  early  period 
cut  in  stone,  and  consecrated  to  loved  ones 
departed  this  life,  we  have  a  natural  and 
pleasing  utterance  of  the  soft,  gentle,  yet 
deeply  seated,  feeling  of  which  we   have 
spoken.    Death,  under  the  gospel,  is  only  a 
transition  to  life.      Yet,  though   excessive 
grief  on  those  of '  like  precious  faith '  is  un- 
seemly, the  gospel,  in  refining  and  enriching 
the  character,  and  in  softening  the  heart, 
makes  bereavement  a  heavier  stroke  than  it 
could  be  under  paganism.    Our  Lord,  whose 
soul  was  alive  with  every  fine  sympathy,  and 
who  therefore  touched  human  woes  with  a 
gentle  as  well  as  healing  hand,  admirably 
adapts  his  language   to  this  state  of  high 
moral  sensibility,  and  speaks  of  death  as 
'  sleep ; '  thus  throwing  around  *  the  king  of 
terrors '  a  veil  of  calm  and  tranquillising  asso- 
ciations which  has  never  yet  ceased  to  com- 
municate peace  to  the  moumet^s  heart  (John 
xi.  11,  seq.  Matt  ix.  24.  Acts  vii.  60.  1  Cor. 
XV.  18,  51).     Even  under  the  former  dis- 
pensation, a  regard  for  the  wounded  feelings 
of  bereaved  relatives  was  a  marked  feature. 
The  servants  of  David  feared  to  tell  him,  tliat 
the  child  he  had  by  Bathsheba  was  dead ; 
<  for  they  said.  Behold,  while  the  child  was 
yet  alive,  we  spake  unto  him,  and  he  would 
not  hearken  unto  our  voice ;  how  will  he  then 
vex  himself,  if  we  tell  him  that  the  child  is 
dead  ?   But  when  David  saw  that  his  servants 
whispered,  David  perceived  that  the  child  was 
dead '  (2  Sam.  xiL  18, 19).    This  is  a  touch- 


DEB                     472  DEB 

iug  picture  of  tnie  grii;f,  and  tme  reBpectfor  must  have  b^en  for  die  times  a  distiugiiis]!- 

grief.     But  a  yet  more  aflectiDg  instance  is  etl  seat  of  letters,  deuominated  as  it  was  a 

that  which  is  found  on  the  bearing  of  our  oi^  of  books,  of  wisdom,  and  of  oraeles. 

Lord,  on  occasion  of  die  death  of  hib  friend  There  was  a  propriety  in  appropriating  so 

Laxarus.    liow  much  kind  consideration  is  literary  a  place  to  the  learned  caste,  the 

there  in  the  one  word  *  sleep/  adopted  for  Levites. 

the  harsh  term  *  death ' !  Another  Debir  lay  near  Qilgal,  and  was 

In  Persia,  as  we  learn  from  Perkins  ('Re-  the  northern  botmdaiy    of  Judah    (Josh, 

sidence  among  the  Mestorians,'  424),  the  xr.  7). 

death  of  friends  is  at  the  present  day  often  D£BOBAH  (H.  a  bee),  the  well-known 
kept  studiously  concealed  as  long  as  possible.  Hebrew  prophetess,  wife  of  Lapidoth.  She 
*  The  goTemor  of  Oroomiah  once  returned  dwelt  under  the  palm-tree  of  Deborah,  be- 
from  a  journey,  three  months  after  the  death  tween  Bamab  and  Bethel,  in  Mount  Ephrmim. 
of  a  favourite  little  son.  After  being  greeted,  Deborah,  after  the  death  of  Ehud,  and  dnr- 
on  his  arrival,  by  the  rest  of  his  family,  he  ing  the  usurpation  of  Jahin,kingof  Canaan, 
inquired  for  his  little  boy,  and  a  violent  — a  period  of  confusion  and  despondency, — 
burst  of  grief  from  all  present  was  the  first  called  for  Barak  with  ten  thousand  men  of 
intimation  he  had  that  the  child  was  dead.  Naphtali  and  Zebnlnn,  and  so  encouraged 
On  asking  his  Meeraa,  who  had  regularly  and  aided  the  forces,  that  the  national  liberty 
written  him,  and  reported  his  family  as  well,  was  redeemed;  *  captivity '  being  *  led  captive' 
why  he  had  not  written  and  told  him  the  (Judg.v.l2).  The  victoiy  she  then  celebrated 
truth,  the  latter  replied  to  the  agonised  father,  in  a  triumphal  ode,  which  has  every  appear- 
that  he  was  reluctant  to  give  him  pain ;  and  anee  of  being  very  ancient  During  the 
the  benevolence  of  his  motive  ezoosed  him  fight,  a  storm,  probably  aeoompanied  by 
for  the  concealment'  thimder  and  lightning,  rendered  the  victory 

Similar  in  its  inducement  and  tendency,  less  difficult,  and  the  defeat  more  entire ; 

is  the  fact  recorded  by  the  same  writer,  to  especially  as  the  river  Kishon,   suddenly 

which,  however,  amiable  as  is  its  air,  we  swollen  with  the  torrents  of  rain,  overflowed 

cannot  give  our  approbation,  in  the  belief,  its  limits,  and  swept  away  in  its  couise  the  dis- 

that  truth,  gently  and  kindly  communicated,  oomiited  Canaanites.     This,  in  the  language 

is  in  every  respect  to  be  preferred :  — '  It  is  of  poetry,  is  set  forth  in  these  words  (20) : — 

often  very  affecting  to  witness  the  efforts  in  .They  foogbt  from  beaTso; 

Persia  to  keep  from  sick  friends  the  extent  The  stars  In  tbeir  ooorsea 

of  their  danger.     They  are  always  assured  Fought  i«ahist  Sisera.' 

that  they  are  in  a  fair  way  to  recover,  and  The   event,  thus  idealised  in  the  song  of 

are  lulled  in  security  until  the  lamp  of  life  triumph,  Josephus  has  incorporated  in  his 

acmally  expires,  when  a  scene  of  raving  history,  and  not  only  so,  but  represented  it 

lamentation  ensues  among  the  relatives  and  as  the  immediate  act  of  Ood  for  the  assist- 

connections,  that  proclaims  with  awful  em-  anoe  of  the  Israelites  (*  Antiq.'  v.  5. 4)  ;  thus 

phasis  the  entire  absence  of  that  hope  which  affording  an  instance  of  the  manner  in  which 

blunts  the  sting  of  death,  and  sheds  light  a  natural  phenomenon  may  be   converted 

and  solace  around  the  darkness  of  the  tomb.'  into  a  Divine  interposition :  oomp.  Josh.  x. 

DEBASE,  from  the  Greek  bans,  our  base,  H,  teq. 

meaning  that  which  we  tread  on  (6amo,  I  «The  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak '  is  truly 

tread,  walk),  signifies  to  make  low,  or  euck  national,  and  therefore  is  it  replete  with  the 

a$  to  be  trampUd  on.    Thus  MiJton,  in  his  feelings  of  a  recently  oppressed,  but  emanci- 

noble  poem,  the  Samson  Agonistes,  says  of  pated  people.     It  is  also  the  expression  of  the 

Delilah  (999)—  individual  feeling  of  Deborah,  whose  spirit 

*  So  let  her  go :  God  sent  her  to  dAaee  me^  called  forth  the  enthusiastic  rising,  and  of 

And  aggrayata  my  folly,  who  eommitted  Barak,  who  struck  the  suocessfbl  blow.    The 

'  and  not  in  the  light  of  a  mistaken  theology. 

The  root-idea  of  the  corresponding  Hebrew  which,  in  asserting  what  is  called  the  plenary 

word  is  similar,  Shapkel,  signifying  to  bring  inspiration  of  all  contained  within  the  two 

Uno  (Isa,  ii.  12),  to  be  humbled  (Isa.  v.  15).  covers  of  the  Bible,  requires  implicit  faith 

The  word  '  debase '  (*  abase*  in  Job  xl.  11)  from  the  Christian  in  many  things  which  are 

is  used  of  the  consequences  of  the  licentious  opposed  to  both  the  precepts  and  the  spirit 

abominations  of  idolatry  (Isa.  Ivii.  9).  of  his  divine  Master.     The  words  of  that 

DEBIR  (H.  tanctuary  or  oracle),  with  the  great  master  of  thought,  Coleridge,  are  well 

earlier  names  of  Kirjath-sepher  (Josh-  xv.  worthy  attention  on  the  point :  — *  Curse  ye 

15.  Judg.  L  11)  and  Kiijath-sannah  (Josh.  Meroz,  said  the  angel  of  the  Lord;    curse 

xv.49),wasaroyalCanaanitiahcity,assigned  ye  bitterly  the  inhahUants    thereof,  —  sang 

to  Judah,  Mid  then  set  apart  for  the  Levites  Deborah.    Was  it  that  she  called  to  mind 

(Jo8h.x.  38;   X11.13;   xv.  15,16;  xxi.  16.  any  personal  wrongs,  rapine,  or  insult  — 

^  XSf^"*,^*    -J'           .   .     ,  ^*^  ■*»«  o'  ^^  ^oo»«  of  Lapidoth  had  re- 

This  place,  if  we  may  judge  from  its  names,  ceived  from  Zabin  or  Sisera  ?    No :  she  had 


DEB                      473  DEB 

dwelt  nnder  her  pelm-treo,  in  the  depth  of  to  make  it  elear  how  antichristian  is  th« 

the  mountain.     But  she  was  a  mother  m  spirit  of  Deborah's  eurse :  — 

Israel ;  and  with  a  mother  s  heart,  and  with  .  ^^^  be  bis  borne  to  embers  red  f 

the  Tehemeucy  of  a  mother's  and  a  patriot^s  And  coned  be  tbe  meanest  abed 

love,  she  had  shot  the  light  of  love  from  her  T^  tfer  afaall  bide  tbe  bovseleuhead 

eyes,  ond  poured  the  blessings  of  love  from  ^"^  **»°*  ^  ~**  •"*  ^«» ' 

her  lips,  on  the  people  that  had  jeoparded  DEBTOB  (L.  debeo,  I  owe,  ought),  one 

their  Uvei  unto  the  death  against  the  oppres-  who,  in  return  or  in  exchange,  owes  some- 

sors ;    and   the  bitterness,   awakened    and  thing  to  another.    The  spirit  of  the  Mosaic 

borne  aloft  by  the  same  love,  she  preoipi-  law  was  mild  in  regard  U>  loans  and  their 

tated  in  ourses  on  the  selfish  and  coward  repayment,  as  well  as  generally  in  regard  to 

recreants  who  came  not  to  tfie  help  of  the  Lord,  debts ;  showing  that  Moses  reidised  one  fun- 

to  the  help  of  the  Lord^  against  Uie  mighty,  damental  idea  of  his  system, — namely,  that 

As  long  as  I  have  the  image  of  Deborah  be-  whieh  contemplated  the  nation  of  Israel  as 

fore  my  eyes,  and  while  I  throw  myself  back  a  community  of  brethren.    Persons  of  sub- 

into  the  age,  country,  circumstaneas  of  this  stance  were  expressly  required  to  be  liberal 

Hebrew  Bondnca  in  die  not  yet-tamed  chaos  in  their  loans  to  needy  Hebrews,  from  whom 

of  the  spiritual  creation ;  —  as  long  as  I  con-  no  interest  was  to  be  taken  (Deut.  xv.  7,  eeq. 

template  the  impassioned,  high-souled,  he-  Lev.  xxv.  85—87.  Deut.  xxiii.  20),  though, 

roie  woman,  in  all  the  prominence    and  for  loans  made  to  strangers,  interest  was 

individuality  of  will  and  character,  —  I  feel  legal  (Deut.  xxiii.  20).     The  right  of  re- 

as  if  I  were  among  the  first  fennents  of  the  eovery,  by  means  of  pledges  and  surety,  was 

great  affections,  Uie   proplastie   waves    of  put  under  restrictions.    The  creditor  was  for- 

tiie  microcosmio  chaos,  swelling  up  against  bidden  to  enter  his  debUn's  house  to  take 

—  and  yet  towards-^  the  outspread  wings ot  the  pledge,  but  was  required  to  wait  for  it 
the  dove  that  lies  brooding  on  the  troubled  on  die  outside  till  brought  to  him.  If  the 
waters.  So  long,  all  is  well,  —  all  x«plete  man  was  poor,  the  creditor  could  not  retain 
with  instruction  snd  example.  In  the  fierce  it  over  night,  at  least  in  the  case  where  the 
and  inordinate,  I  am  made  to  know  and  be  pledge  consisted  of  the  large  cloak  or  upper 
grateful  for  the  dearer  and  purer  radiance  garment,  used  for  a  covering  during  sleep 
which  shines  on  the  Christiftn's  paths,  neither  (Deut  xxiv.  10 — 13.  Exod.  xxii.  26,  27). 
blunted  by  the  preparatory  veil,  nor  crimsoned  The  taking  in  pledge  of  the  nether  or  the 
in  its  struggle  through  the  all-enwrapping  upper  millstone  was  expressly  forbidden,  as 
mist  of  the  world's  ignorance ;  whilst,  in  the  being  essential  for  household  purposes  (Deut. 
self-oblivion  of  these  heroes  of  the  Old  Tes-  xxiv.  6).  Yet  were  the  rights  of  the  creditor 
tament,  their  elevation  above  all  low  and  so  insisted  on,  that  the  debtor,  who  was 
individual  interests,  •—  above  all,  in  the  en-  unable  to  pay,  was  sometimes  compelled  to 
tire  and  vehement  devotion  of  their  total  surrender  his  liberty  to  his  creditor,  and 
being  to  the  service  of  their  divine  Master,  serve  him  as  a  hired  servant  tOl  the  year  of 

—  I  find  a  lesson  of  humility,  a  ground  of  jubilee,  when,  however,  he  was  to  go  forth 
humiliation,  and  a  shaming,  yet  rousing,  firee,  returning  to  the  possession  of  his 
example  of  faith  and  fealty.  But  let  me  fathers ;  and  meanwhile  to  be  treated  with 
once  be  persuaded,  that  all  these  heart-  lenity,  as  by  a  brother  who  feared  God  (Lev. 
awakening  utterances  of  human  hearts  —  of  xxv.  80,  teq,).  This  amounted  to  an  even- 
men  of  like  faculties  and  passions  with  my-  tual  remission  of  the  debt,  though,  in  the 
self,  mourning,  rejoicing,  suffering,  triumph-  interim,  service  was  rendered  by  die  debtor, 
ing  —  are  but  as  a  Diuina  Commedia  ot  a  At  the  end  of  every  seventh  year,  Israelites 
superhuman  —  0  bear  with  me  if  I  say  —  were  also  to  make  a  release ;  every  creditor 
ventriloquist ;  that  the  royal  harper,  to  whom  being  required  to  resign  what  he  had  lent 
I  have  so  often  submitted  myself  as  a  many-  (Deut  xv.  2,  seq.).  There  was  probably  this 
stringed  insirument  for  his  flre-tipt  fingers  to  difference  between  the  release  of  the  seventh 
traverse,  while  every  several  nerve  of  emo-  year,  and  the  release  of  the  jubilee,  —  that 
tion,  passion,  thought,  that  thrids  the  flesh  the  former  consisted  of  the  creditor's  renonn* 
and  blood  of  our  common  humanity,  eing  his  claim  to  loaned  money ;  the  latter, 
responded  to  the  touch,  —  that  this  sweet  in  his  restoring  the  mortgaged  possession, 
^o^'sf  of  Israel  was  himself  as  mere  an  and  freeing  the  person  of  his  debtor, 
instrument  as  his  harp,  an  automaton  poet.  Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  hard, 
mourner,  and  supplicant;  —  all  is  gone, —  exacting,  and  destructive  usages  and  laws 
all  sympathy,  at  least,  and  all  example.  I  which  prevailed  at  Rome,  regarding  debtor 
listen  in  awe  and  fear,  but  likewise  in  per-  and  creditor, — how  ready  and  efficient  an 
plexity  and  confusion  of  spirit'  ('Confes-  instrument  they  proved  in  the  hands  of 
sions  of  an  Inquiring  Spirit,'  p.  83).  The  patricians  for  the  oppression  of  the  people, 
words  which  have  occasioned  these  remarks  and  to  what  a  long  series  of  severe  and  peri- 
call  to  mind  *  the  cry  of  female  shriU,'  on  lous  contests  they  led, — will  admire  the  Wie- 
the raising  of  the  dans,  in  the  third  canto  dom  of  the  Jewish  legislator,  who,  long 
of  the  '  Lady  of  the  Lake,'  which  may  serve  before  the  foundation  of  *  the  eternal  city,' 


DEC  474  DEC 

had  givMi  birth  to  •  If^pUlation,  which,  iu  In  this  wwj  Oie  tmm  dearly  MmapirM  wtth 

this  snd  msoy  other  respeets,  holds  np  a  its  eonneetion,  in  TsiystiikinglysectiDg  forth 

worthy  ezanple  to  all  agea :  eomp.  Matt  Ti.  the  extent  and  minntenees  of  God's  know- 

12;  xTlu.  24.    LnksTiLil;  zvi  6.    Bom.  ledge,  as  well  as  the  uurersali^  (tf  his  Pro* 


i.  14.  Oal.  ▼.  8.  Tidenoe. 

DECAPOLIS  (G.  f0iictli«t),  the  district  DECISION— ftom  the  Latin  i^ and  c«io, 

of  ten  citiea,  whieh  a|^ar  to  have  been  '  I  art  down,'  in  which  dorivwCion  it  oone- 

nnited  in  some  kind  of  politieal  or  soaial  sponds  with  the  Hebrsw  original,  MoArviir, 

league ;  and  all  bat  one — namely,  Sejtho-  whieh  oomea  fkom  « looC  signiiying  to  cut-^ 

polls — if  not  all  absolntriy,  lay  on  the  eaatem  is  <he  tennination  of  a  doubting  or  debatiBg 

aide  of  the  aea  of  Genesavsdi.    They  wen  state  of  mind ;  and,  in  the  eariicr  periods  of 

iDond  north-east  of  Palestine,  on  the  borders  onr  language,  the  termination  of  a  atrife  or 

of  Syria  and  Galilee ;  and,  in  tiie  Bomaa  contest    In  this  last  sense  the  word  sppears 

ssnse,  were  eonaMbred  aa  belonging  to  tiie  to  be  used  by  our  tranalaton,  m  Joel  iiL14, 

latter.    They  lay  not  togedier,  but  in  diie-  where  reforenoe  ii  made  to  the  Tailey  of  Je- 

vent  parte,  each  baring  ita  owm  distriet  hoshiqphat  {Jekotmkf*  judfrnrml,  or  deeicioM), 

Bei^Meting  four,  Damasens,  Dioo,  Caaalfaay  apoken  of  in  reraee  2  and  12.    Hialed  by 

md  Rapbana,  different  opinions  prerail ;  but  language  found  in  this  ehi^ter,  dis  Jews,  aa 

all  agree  in  *«»<g"«'g  to  the  union  theae  six,  early  at  least  ss  the  time  of  Jerome,  dreamt 

>- namely,  Oadara,  Gerasa,  Hippoe,  Fella,  of  a  great  battle  that  was  (they  think  still 

Philadelphia,  and  Scythopolis.    The  last,  is)  to  be  fought  in  flie  ralley  of  Jehowbsphat 

Joeephua  terns  *  the  greatest  of  the  Deoa-  (aee  Cudboh),  in  whieh  Jehorah  would 

polis,*  whidi  seems  incompatible  with  Da-  judge,  that  i%  oondemn  snd  ▼anguish,  the 

maseus  belonging  to  it    Instead  of  which,  heathen,  immediately  prenous  to  his  reetor- 

Csaarea  Philippi  haa  been  aaugned.    Their  ing  lus  people  Israel  to  flieir  eily  and  tm- 

populatioa  had  but  few  Jews,  snd  consisted  pie ;  where,  in  great  pomp  and  glory,  they 

moetly  of  Gvoeka  and  Syriana.   Theyeiyoyed,  were  to  reign  Hov  a  UiouMnd  years  (hence 

under  the  Boman  government,  ^eeial  pri-  the  false  oonception  of  iStie  MillmmtHm), 

▼lieges.  Whatever  msy  be  thouf^t  of  the  ezpeetaiion, 

DECEASE  (L.  de  and  cedo,  I  depart),  to  the  loeaUty,  aa  in  Cedion,  is  arbilraiy;  for  it 

fmi  this  world,  die,  corresponds  with  the  is  only  in  later  timea  diat  this  Tslley  haa 

Greek  fitoilao,  *1  finish,  or  come  to  an  end;*  borne  the  name  of  Jehoshaphat;  while  its 

henee, '  I  die.'    It  is  found  in  Matt  xxiL  20.  narrowness,  and  the  'precipitous  and  rocky 

In  other  parts,  the  original  is  rendered  by  eharactar  of  its  aides  and  bed,  render  it 

<waa  dead'  (Matt  iL   19);   'die'   (Matt  wholly  unfit  for  a  struggle  on  so  grand  a 

XT.  4).      The  noon  deceo$e  represents  the  aoale  as  the  tradition  implies.    The  name, 

Greek  exodm,  signifying  a  defarture  (Heb.  '▼alleyofJehovah'a  judgment,' or 'decision,' 

XL  22) ;  and  thus,  by  an  historical  allnsiom,  may  be  borne  by  any  ▼alley,  in  which  a  de> 

represents  death  to  the  Christian  as  a  depar-  oisive  battle  was  gained  by  his  people,  so 

tnre  from  (Egyptisn)  earthly  bondage,  into  termed  in  that   theocratieal    sense  whic* 

the  f^dom  snd  independence  of  the  spiri-  has  gi^en  a  colouring  to  mueh  of  the  Old 

toal  land  of  promise  (Luke  ix.  31.    2  Pet  L  Testament  diction. 

16) ;    thus  conducing  to  soften  down  the  DECK,  from  the  Oermsn  docktn  (hence 

grim  featnrea  of  the  tyrant  death.  —  See  the  deck  of  a  ship),  to  cooer,  in  which  mean- 

DsATH.  ing,  the  English  agrees  with  the  Hebrew  ori- 

'Deeeaied'  is  also  the  translation  of  a  ginsl,G'aAia^  signifies  to  ottirttnomafMeiilai 

Hebrew  term   (Isa.  xxvi.  14),  Sephahoem,  gannent§,  or  deeaniU  the  peraon  (Job  xL  10. 

which,  in  Job  (xxW.  6)  and  other  places  Isa.  Ixi.  10.  Jer.  i^.  30). 

(Ps.  IxxxriiL  10.  Prov.  xxi.  16.  Isa.  xiv.  9),  DECBEE,  from  the  Latin  decemo  (whence 

is  rendered  by  '  dead.'     The  passage  in  Job  deeretam),  '  I  determine,'  signifies  a  deter- 

is  very  imperfectly  translated  in  the  commoa  minaUim  or  comtnand  put  forth  by  regal 

▼eraion.    It  ii  the  beginning  of  a  fine  de-  atUhorUy.     Not  fewer  than  twelve  Hebrew 

scription  ef  the  knowledge  snd  power  of  the  and  Chaldee  words  are  rendered  in  our  Bible 

Almighty,  and  seems  to  signify  '  The  shades  by  the  term  '  decree,'  —  a  fact  which  is  in 

of  the  dead  tremble,  or  are  in  angiuah,  before  complete  accordance  with  what  is  known  of 

Him.'    The  ancient  ▼ersions,  for  the  most  the  arbitrary  character  of  Oriental  monar- 

part,  render  the  Hebrew  word  by  pants,  chies,  the  will  of  whose  sovereign  was  iu  all 

according  to  the  notion,  that  the  shades  of  cases  law  (Dan.  vi.  7—15.    £zza  viL  13 ; 

the  departed  were  of  larger  size  than  the  liv-  oompared  with  Dan.  ii.  9, 18, 15). 

ing  peraon.     Beference  appears  to  be  made  DEDAN, — a  commercial  tribe  in  the  north 

to  the  shades  of  the  departed  as  in  ^/leo/,  the  of  Arabia,  not  far  from  Idumea,  of  the 

place  or  kingdom  of  the  dead.    It  has  been  famUy  of  Shem  and  the  tribe  of  Kcturah, 

proposed  to  correct  the  translation  given  in  Abraham's  wife  (Gen.  xxv.  3.    Isa.  xxL  13. 

our  Bihle,  thus :  —  jer.  j3lv.  23 ;  xlix.  8.  Eaek.  xxv.  13 ;  xxxriiL 

*The shadsB bsneath  txemble;  ^3)*    '^^^  name  < Dedan '  occurs  slso  among 

The  waters  and  tboinbiibitaou  thereof.'  the  Cushites  (Gen.  x.  7),  whom  Michaelis 


DEE                     475  D  £  G 

oonaidera  u  different  from  the  former,  and  Acts  zxTii.  27,  tranelsted  also  by  'lihink' 

places  on  the  north-west  of  the  Persian  Onl^  (Acts  xiii.  3d )  and  <  suppose'  (Acts  xzr.  18). 

partly  because,  in  Esek.  xxyii  15,  the  tribe  DEFAME— eonnected  with  the  Greek  dm§- 

13  mentioned  in  oonneotion  with  articles  of  pkemeim,  *  to  speak  ill  of — means  to  miwe' 

Indian  merohandise.     Winer  rafem   both  presentf  to  damder*    It  stands  for  a  Hebrew 

names  to  the  same  people^  and  alleges  a  woid  diet  is  rendered  'evil  report'  (Gten. 

dirersi^  in  the  namUiTes.  xxxvii.  2)  ;  *  sland»'  (Nomb.  xiv.  86) ;  'in- 

DEBICATED,  from  the  Latin  de  and  &my'   (Prov^  zz?»   10);    and  'defaming' 

dicare,  *  I  gxre,*  or '  oonaeerate,'  signifies  that  (Jer.  xx.  10). 

which  i»  $et  apaHy  or  appTopriatod  to  rett-  D£FILB— frem  on  Anglo-Saxon  root^ 

giom  uses  (see  Avatsbma).    The  Hebrew  mBtmiikgt  to  din^tt^dt polbUe  —  has  the  same 

Kohdahy  whence  '  dedicated*'  means  that  signification  in  EIngiiah.    It  is  the  represeu- 

which  is 'holy'  (Exod.  iii.  5),  or  '  hallowed'  tative  of  several  Hebrew  words  of  kindretl 

(Lot.  xii.  4) ;  and  hence  is  applied  to  things  import.  -^  See  Clbaw. 

exclusively  assigned  to  holy  purposes.  Thns  DEFRAUD  (L.    do   and  Jraudare,   '  to 

it  is  said  of  Asi^^-'He  brought  in  the  things  cheat'),  takmtf  mooff  any  thing  by  fraud  or 

which  his  lather  had  dedicated,  and  the  deceit,  stands  for  a  Hebrew  word,  Gahahak, 

things  whieh  he  himself  had  dedicated,  into  which  signifies  to  <  deceive '  (Lev.  vi.  4) ;  *  to 

the  house  of  Jehovah,  silver,  and  gold,  and  do  wrong  to'  (1  Chron.  xvL 21) ;  <  oppress' 

vessels '  (I  Kings  xv.  16).  (Deut  xxiv.  14).    In  the  Greek  of  the  New 

DEDICATION,  considered  as  the  setting  Testament,  it  has  two  representatives :  —  I. 

apart  of  an  olgect  for  sacred  purposes,  was  ^poftereo,  *  to  deprive '  (Mark  x.  19.  1  Cor. 

an  idea  familiar  to    the    Hebrew    mind.  vii.  6.   1  Tim.  vi.  &, 'destitute').    II.  P2eo- 

Hence  Solomon,  when  he  had  erected  the  nekteo,  *  to   over-reach,'  *  make  a  gain  of 

temple,   eelebrated   the  completion  of  hie  (2  Cor.  ii.  II;  vii.  2;  xii.  17). 

pious  design  by  a  solemn  dedication  of  it  DEFY,  firom  the  Latin  4iffand.;2<2M,' faith,' 

to  the  exclusive  service  of  Almighty  God  means  primarily  to  renoumce  faith  or  ajfi- 

(2  Chron.  v.  vi.  vii.).  once}  hence  to  claim  independence,  and  to 

In  the  same  spirit,  Ezra  held  a  public  dare  a  superior  to  the  assertion  of  his  claime. 

dedication  of  the  second  temple  (Ezra  vi.  Thus  Campbell,  in  his '  Last  Man : '  — 

16).     '  The  feast  of  dedication '  is  mentioned  « The  darkening  unlTCTse  d^ 

in  the  New  Testament  (John  x.  22),  fti  m-  To  qoeaeb  his  Immortality, 

iointo,  'the  renewal,' that  is,  a  festival  in  Or  shake  his  trust  to  Qod.' 

commemoration  of  tJie  renewal  or  restora-  It  stands  for  a  Hebrew  word,  Zahgam  (Nunb. 

tion,  —  most  probably  of  the  temple,  after  it  xxiiL  8),  the  essential  meaning  of  whieh  is 

had  been  profaned  by  AntiochusEpiphanes.  to  be  angry^    It  also  repreeente  the  term 

It  was  a  lustration  or  purification  of  the  sane-  Ghahraph  in  1  Sam.  xvii.  10,  2G,  96,  45, 

tuary  from  heathen  defilements,  effected  by  where  it  refers  to  the  defiance  hurled  against 

Judas  Maocabeeua   during  eight  di^s,  be-  the  army  of  Israel  by  Goliath.     Tills  word 

ginning  on 'the  five«and-twentieth  day  of  the  strictly  signifies  to  reproaehf  and  refers  to 

nine  month,  Chisleu,'  or  December  (1  Mace,  those  contumelious  speeches  which  warriors 

iv.  36,  eeq,).    Josephus  ('  Antiq.'  xii.  7.  7)  in  ancient  times  were  accustomed  to  throw 

makes  mention  of  ih\s  festival,  and  says  that  out  against  each  other  as  a  provoaotion  to 

the  Jews  called  it  '  lights,'  as  indicating  the  battle,  and  of  whidi  many  examples  may  be 

joy  e^[>erienced  at  the  liberty  gained,  and  of  found  in  the  Iliad  of  Homer, 

which  the  dedication  was  a  proof  and  an  DEGBEBS,  SONG  OF,  the  title  of  fifteen 

expression  (comp.  1  Mace.  iv.  50).    It  eer^  Psalms  —  nsmely,  from  120th  to  ld4tb,  in- 

tainly  was  a  joyous  occasion,  and  aasuoh  is  dnsive.    It  is  not  easy  to  see  what  these 

It  still  observed.  oomi>ositions  have  in  conmion,  to  have  caused 

Other  interpreters  prefer  cmdcrstanding  this  term  to  be  applied  to  them.  Bishop 
by '  the  ffeast  of  dedication,'  men  tioned  in  John  Lowth  terms  them  <  odes  of  ascension,'  hold* 
X.  22,  the  festival  which  the  Jews-  celebiated  ing  that  they  were  sung  as  the  people  went 
annually^  in  memory  of  the  restoration  of  the  up  to  Jerusalem  to  cdebrato  the  annual  fee- 
temple  by  Zembbabel,  and  of  its  reparation  tivals,  or  as  they  returned  from  the  captivity 
by  Herod,  on  the  third  day  of  the  month,  of  Babylon.  Doubtless,  the  ideas  which  some 
Adar,  or  March.  But  the  remaric,  '  it  was  of  them  contain  ore  oongruent  with  this  sup- 
winter'  (22),  speaks  strongly  in  favour  of  position;  and  the  now-known  elevated  po- 
the  former  view.  sition  of  the  metropolis  would  justify  the 

DEEM  (T.  I  thiHk)  means  to  have  tm  term '  degrees,'  or  rather  ascents.    Gesenius, 

opinion^  to  judge,  determine.    Hence  Milton,  however,  and  others,  have  held  that  the 

in  that  fine  pleading  for  spiritual  liberty  (P.  reference  in  the  title  is  to  the  movement  of 

L.  xii.  515,  eeq,) :  —  the  verse,  the  metre,  or  riiythm. 

'The  rest,  ftr  greater  part,  There  is  no  reason  to  believe,  that  this 

Will  deass  in  ootwardritss  and spedoofl  forms,  title,  any  more  tkian  other  titles,  was  pre* 

Religion  satlafted.'  ^^  ^  U^  author  or  authors  of  these 

*  Deem '  is  the  rendering  of  a  Greek  word,  in  sacred  odes. 


DEM                     476  DBS 

DEHAVITE8,  a  aadon,  or  rather  tribe,  the  demand  for  the  articles  of  their  mana- 
andcr  the  Persian  government,  colonists  from  faetore  begin  to  fall  ofll  They  speculate  as  to 
whom  were  settfed  in  Samaria  (Ezra  !▼.  9).  the  eanse.  Panl  sppeszs  in  Ephesns  itself, 
Winer  asserts  that  they  are  undoubtedly  the  teaching  the  doctrine,  diat  the  whole  system 
Dai,  Bahi,  or  Dah»,anomadraoeof  thePer-  of  Artemis,  her  temple,  her  shrines,  her 
sisn  empire,  whose  home  was  on  the  high  eunaeh-priests,  is  *  a  vanity  and  a  lie,'  a  no- 
lands  east  of  the  Caspian.  thing,  a  mere  hollow  pretence.    This  Paul 

DELECTABLE  —  fh)m  the  Latin  ieUcio,  teaches,  and  this  men  are  willing  to  believe. 

X  attract,'  '  allure,'   denoting  that   which  Here,  then,  is  the  oaose  why  the  trade  of  De- 


dkanmi  or  grai\fi€$ — is  the  rendering  in  Isa.  metrins  has  become  bad.    Seeing  this,  he  is 

zliv.  9,  of  a  word  Ohfokmad,  which  denotes  enraged,  and  resolves  to  resist  with  damonr 

*  to  desire'  (Isa.  L  29),  or  'have  delight  in'  and  tumult  what  he  cannot  stop  by  reason 

(Prov.  L  23).  and  truth.    He  succeeds  so  ftr  as  to  put 

DELICATE,  from  delieim,  in  Latin,  <  de-  Paul's  life  in  peril ;  but  he  csnnot  with- 

lights,'  *  gratification,'  or '  darling,'  means  that  stand  the  flowing  tide  of  the  new  doctrines, 

which  is  used  to  pleasures,  and  so  that  which  In  it  came  and  swept  awsy  Demetrius  and 

is  soft,  tender,  end  effeminate  (Jer.  li  84.  his  idle  goddess  too.    So  must  sU  untruth 

Dent,  zxviii.  64,  00.  Isa.  zlvii.  1).  perish,  supported  as  it  may  be  by  human 

DELILAH.  —  See  Samsov.  art,  interest,  and  passion.    It  is  in  vain  to 

DELUSION  (L.  iU  and  iudOf  <  I  play  with,'  cry,  *  Great  is  Diana  ot  the  Ephesians,'  when 

or '  cheat ')  is  cheating  by  false  appearances.  Ood,  spesking  to  man,  is  answered  by  pure, 

Its  Greek  original  signifies  to  mi^ead,  eauwe  snd  therefore  resistless,  human  sympathies. 

to  go  out  of  the  way,  or  wander  from  therighi  DENOUNCE — from  the  Latin  de  and  »«»• 

road,  and  is  construed  by  *  error'   (Matt  tuff,  a  messenger  —  signifies  to  declare,  or 

xzviL  64) ;  *  deceit'  (1  Thess.  ii.  8)  ;  and  amwunee.    So  is  the  word  used  in  Scripture 

'delusion'  (2  Thess.  iL  11).    *  Delusions'  (Deut  zzz.  18),  benig  on  other  occasions 


stands  in  the  English  Bible  for  Tah^ahleeimf  replaced  by  *  tell '  (Gen.  zlv.  18),  '  profess ' 

which,  in  the  margin  (Isa.  Izvi.  4)  is  tran-  (Deut  xxvi  8),  and  *  declare '  (Isa.  iii.  9). 

slated  'devioes;'    and,  in  Isa.  iii.  4,  by  Indeed,  the  harsh mesning  which 'denounce' 

'  babea.'    In  the  last  place,  *  tyrants '  would  now  conveys,  as  denoting  threatening  and 

be  a  better  rendering.    The  root-mesning  of  condemnation,  does  not  belong  to  the  Scrip- 

the  word  is  to  roUs  hence  to  be  versatile  or  tnral  use  of  the  word,  or  to  its  derivative 

Ihll  of  expedients,  and  to  guide  and  direct  import 

by  delusion.  DEPOSED  (L.  de,  *  down,'  and  porno,  *  I 

DEMAS,  a  companion  of  the  apostle  Psnl,  put')  signifies,  as  does  the  Hebrew  origi- 

vdio  was  with  him  during  his  imprisonment  nal, '  made  to  come  down,'  as  a  king  from 

in  Rome  (Col.  iv.  14.    Philemon  24) ;  but,  his  throne ;  being  used,  in  Dan.  v.  20,  of 

nnable  to  exert  the  aelf^denial  and  make  the  Nebuchadneszar,  who  was  stript  of  his  regal 

sacrifice  required,  forsook  the  apostle,  and  authority. 

went  to  Thessalonica.  The  tradition  of  the  DEPUTY  (L.  de  and  onto,  which,  in  bar- 
church  that  he  apostatised  from  Christianity,  barous  Latin,  means  /  delegaU),  one  who  is 
finds  corroboration  in  the  words  of  Paul,  —  appointed  to  be  and  act  in  place  of  another. 
*  having  loved  this  present  worid.'  The  love  It  is  used,  in  Acts  xiii.  7,  8, 12,  of  Sergius 
of  the  world  was  the  love  of  Heathenism,  and  Panlus,  who,  as  governor  of  the  senatorial 
an  attachment  to  4he  latter  was  incompatible  province  of  Cypms,  bore  the  title  of  anthu- 
with  a  retention  of  faith  in  Christ;  for,  in  patos,  or  proconsul,  a  word  which  our  trans- 
those  early  days,  and  with  the  broad  distinc-  lators  have  rendered  'deputy'  (see  CTPaus). 
tions  which  then  existed  between  the  world  In  Acts  xix.  88, '  deputies '  is  the  trsnslation 
and  the  church,  men  had  not  lesmed  the  of  the  same  word  in  the  plural.  The  mean- 
unhappy  art  so  much  practised  now,  of  uuit-  ing  here  seems  to  be  magistrates  or  attorneys, 
ing  a  heathen  morality  with  a  Christisn  pro-  DESCEND  {I4.de  and  ecando,  I  climb 
fession.  down)  mesns  to  eome  down,  as  does   the 

DEMETRIUS,  a  sflversmith  of  Ephesus  Hebrew,  of  which  it  is  a  rendering,  in  Exod. 

(Aou  xix.  2l,§eq.),    The  feme  of  Artemis,  xix.  18,  where  Jehovsh  is  said  to  have  de- 

and  her  sumptuous  temple,  drew  to  Ephesus  scended  on  Mount  Sinai  in  fire.    The  word 

from  most  parts  of  the  western  world,  super-  is  also  used  of  the  demxHt  ot  the  spirit  of 

stitious  people,  who,  wishing  to  perx»etnate  God  on  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  on  occasion  of 

the  holy  influence  obtained  by  worshipping  his  baptism  (Matt  iii.  16).     80  the  rain  is 

the  divinity,  purchased,  and  carried  with  said  to  have  descended,  in  Matt  vlL  25: 

them,  small  silver  shrines  representing  in  comp.  Luke  xix.  87.    Okgection  has  been 

outline  Ihe  temple  or  the  ssnctuary  within  tkken  against  this  language,  as  inappropriate 

it,  and  the  goddess  by  whose  favour  safety  to  the  actions  or  influences  of  God,  who, 

and  success  were  thus  insured.    Hence  there  being  everywhere  present,  cannot  be  said  to 

srose  a  prosperous  trade,  in  which  Demetrius  either  ascend  or  descend.    If  the  assumption 

appears  to  have  been  advantageously  engaged,  on  which  this  oljection  proceeds  were  eor- 

All  at  once  he  and  his  fellow-craftsmen  find  rect  and  well-founded,  it  would  render  reli- 


DES  477  DES 

giouB  iustruction  an  impossibility,  and  so     herbage,  not  unlike  our  downs,  only  mora 
undermine  religion  itself ;  for  if  we  speak  not     extensive.  Many  sueh  districts  are  still  found 
of  Ood  til]  we  can  speak  with  strict  correct-     in  the  East    The  largest  is  Arabia  Deserta. 
ness,  we  shall  never  speak  of  him  at  all.     There  were,  in  ancient  times,  deserts  in  which 
Equally  shall  we  never  even  think  of  him.  For     were  found  spots  suitable  for  oom-fields 
both  the  language  and  the  thoughts  of  mortal     (Joseph.  *  Antiq.'  ziL  4.  6),  and  even  inha- 
and  finite  creatures  can,  when  thinking  and     bited  cities   (Josh.  zr.  61.    Isa.  zlii.  11). 
speaking  of  the  infinite  Creator,  be  only  ana-     The  word,  then,  in  its  more  general  signifi- 
logical,  thtit  is,  *  after  the  manner  of  men.'  In     eation,  means  a  wide  open  upland,  unculti- 
itself,  therefore,  we  find  nothing  wrong  in     rated ;   but  not  of  necessi^  incapable  of 
representing  either  God  or  his  spirit  as  de-     eultivation,  nor  unproductive.    Sometimes, 
scending.    Nor  is  the  word  so  very  inaocu-     however,  it  signifies  a  desert  in  the  strict 
rate.    Whatever  comes  from  above  our  heads     and  proper  sense,  that  is,  waste  sterile  land 
may  properly  be  said  to  descend.    Thus  the     (Isa.  xzxv.  6 ;  zli.  18),  over  which  wild  ani- 
rain  comes  from  the  clouds,  and  therefore     mab  and  beasts  of  prey  roam,  though  for  such 
descends,  though  the  relation  of  up  and  down     places  other  terms  are  more  appropriate,  as 
changes  with  every  revolution  of  the  axis  of    in  Joel  ii.  8,  'a  desolate  wilderness,'  and 
the  earth.    In  the  same  manner  Ood  came     Joel    iii.    10.     In    these    deserts,    travel 
down  on  Sinai,  and  his  spirit  came  down  on     lers  are  often  encountered  by  a  hot  wind, 
Jesus  Christ ;  because  in  both  cases  there     which   Lord    Lindsay    experienced    when, 
was  a  descent  from  an  upper  region,  whatever     on  quitting  Egypt,  he  entered  on  the  desert 
position  that  region  bore  in  boundless spaoe.     of  Sues:  —  *Tbe  hot  kansinf  or  southerly 
Objections  of  this  kind  display  ignorance  or     wind,  which  blew  violently  all  day,  bringing 
hypercriticism.    So,  when  our  Lord  is  said     clouds  of  sand,  and  pelting  us  with  small 
to  have  brought  a  message  of  peace  from     pebbles,  which  made  our  Arabs  skip,  as 
God  to  man,  no  well-informed  Christian  sup-     they  rattled  against  their  naked  legs.    My 
poses  that  these  words  are  to  be  taken  in     lips  were  parched  and  chapped  for  several 
their  strictly  literal  import     Nevertheless,     days  alterwaids ;  and  a  book  in  my  pocket 
objectors  may  be  chsllenged  to  find  language     was  scorched,  as  if  it  had  been  held  to  the 
which  shall  be  at  once  equally  expressive  and     fire.' 

appropriate.  The  Bible,  more  than  any  In  the  desert,  plains  are  met  with  which 
other  book,  unites  objective  truth  with  popu-  oorrespond  with  the  words  of  Jeremiah:  — 
lar  impressiveness.  In  proof  of  this  asser-  '  He  shall  inhabit  parched  places  in  the  wil* 
tion,  we  refer  to  the  great  dlsdosure  of  the  demess,  in  a  salt  land,  and  not  inhabited ' 
Lord  Jesus;  namely,  that  God  is  <onr  Fa-  (xvii.6).  Irby  and  Mangles  passed  such  a 
ther,'  —  a  description  which  —  as  it  is  plain  when  nearing  Palestine,  on  their  route 
exemplified  in  his  Son  and  Image,  the  Lord  from  Cairo :  — <  A  plain  of  about  four  miles 
Jesus  himself  —  the  highest  philosophy  in  length,  covered  with  thick  hard  salt,  r«- 
never  did  and  never  could  equal.  sembling  in  appearance    sheets  of  firmly 

*  Descent '  is  also  used  in  our  version  of    frozen  snow.    The  surface  bore  the  weight 
Heb.  vii.  6  (comp.  8),  of  that  passing  down     of  our  animals  without  giving  way.' 
of  fathers  and  sons  one  after  the  other,  which        In  Palestine  lay  the  following  deserts :  — 
is  commonly  denoted  by  the  term  pedigree,       I.  The  wilderness  of  Judah,  a  rocky  district 
DESERT  (L.  deierOf  <  I  leave '),  a  place    in  the  eastern  part  of  the  province  of  Judah, 
/</}   or   abandoned  of  men,    of  course    in     on  towards  the  Dead  Sea,  with  the  town  En- 
consequence   of  its   unsuitableness  for    a     gedi  and  other  '  cities '  (Josh.  zv.  61,  §eq, 
human  abode;  hence,  an  unproductwe  and    Jndg.  L  16).    It  appears  to  have  extended 
Mterile  epot     But  sterility  is  more  or  less     from  the  right  bank  of  the  Cedron,  near 
entire;  and  what  are  waste  lands  atone  time     Tekoa,  to  the  south-east  end  of  the  Dead 
are  brought  under  cultivation  at  another.     Sea,  and  on  the  west  to  have  been  bordered 
Accordingly,  a  desert  is,  by  etymology,  not    by  the  hill  oountry  of  Judah.    In  the  nor- 
necessarUy  a  barren  wilderness.    The  word,     them  part,  near  the  convent  Sabas,  is  a  wild 
in  modem  English,  implies  a  greater  degree    banen  district,  formed  of  deep  vidleys  and 
of  sterility  than  do  some  of  the  Hebrew  terms     bare  rocks  frill  of  grottos.    The  country  re- 
for  which  it  stands.     Oarahvah  is  translated     tains  the  same  character  in  an  even  more 
*  desert'  in  Jer.  1.  12,  and  'wilderness'  in     marked  degree,  onwards  in  a  south  and  south- 
Isa.  xxxiii.  9,  but  in  other  places  *  plains,'     easterly  direction.    In  the  north-west,  the 
as  in  Numb,  xxii  1,  and  rather  sigxiifles  a    wilderness  of  Judah  was  connected  with  that 
steppe,  or  high  table-land  (Isa.  zzzv.  1).     of  Tekoa,  being  the  same  under  different 
The  more  common  word,  Attdbahr,  denotes    names.    Continuing  in  a  south  and  south- 
in  general  a  place  which  is  ordinarily  nei-     easteriy  direction,  you  come  to  the  wilder- 
ther  cultivated  nor  inhabited  (Job  zzzvilL     ness  of  En-gedi  (1  Sam.  zziv.  1),  to  that  of 
26.  Isa.  zxxii.  10.  Jer.  ii.  3),  but  in  many     Ziph  (1  Sam.  zziii  14),  to  that  of  Maon 
eases  serviceable  for  pasture  grounds  (Ps.     (1  Sam.  zziii.  25),  all  of  which  lay  along  the 
Izv.  12.    Jer.  ix.  10.    Luke  zv.  4) ;  mostly     western  side  of  Uie  Dead  Sea.    At  length, 
destitute  of   trees,  but  not  necessarily  of    going  more  south,  yon  reach  the  wilderness 


DES 


478 


DES 


of  Beenheba  (Oeu.  xxi.  14).    The  wilder- 
ness of  Tekoa  is  thus  deeeribed  hj  Jerome : 
— *  Beyond  Tekoa  there  is  no  hamlet  nor  eren 
huts ;  and,  as  it  is  dry  and  eandy,  die  deeen 
prodaees  no  fraits,  yet  all  its  parts  are  Mi 
of  shepherds.'    The  wilderness  of  Jndah  wae 
tbaX  in  which  John  die  Baptist  made  his  ap- 
pearance (Matt  iii. ;  eomp.  zi.  7).    Tradi- 
tion mentions  a  wildemeso  of  8t.  John  im 
the  hill-conntry  of  Jndah,  abont  two  home 
sonth-west  from  Bethlehem ;  bnt  this  indi- 
eates  the  plaee  where  he  was  brought  np 
(Lnke  i.  80);  and  the  term  <  desert'  oan 
here  apply  only  to  the  s<4itary  and  hennlt- 
llke  life  which  he  led ;  for  most  <rf  the  ooon- 
try  is  even  now  well  enltiTatsd,  and  of  a 
pleasing  aspect    11.  We  now  come  to  the 
wilderness  of  Jericho  (Josh.  zrl.  1),  wfaieh 
lay  between  that  place  and  Bethany, — a  dis- 
trict fiill  of  precipitous  rooks  and  deep  val- 
leys, which,  especially  beyond  the  eararan* 
serai  (see  Iinr),  whieh  is  now  called  the 
Khan  of  die  Samaritans  (comp.  Lnke  x.  80), 
abont  two  honrs  frt>m  Jerasalem,  becomes  a 
atony,  frightftd  waste.     From  this  deser^ 
a  journey  of  two  honm  takes  the  trayeltor 
orer  a  steep  acdiTity,  down  Into  the  plain  of 
Jericho.    Here,  on  the  nordiem  side  of  the 
plain,  rises  a  steep  limestone  monntsin,  dif- 
ficult of  ascent,  termed  Quarantania,  wherc^ 
in  the  times  of  Jerome,  was  a  fort  for  the 
protection  of  trsTellers.      The  hill  is  so 
termed,    because,    according   to    tradideo, 
Jesus  passed  in  one  of  its  numerous  eavena 
his  Ikst  of  forty  days.    III.  The  wilderness 
of  Gibeon,  in  die  Ticinity  of  diat  plaee,  lying 
north  of  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  it  94).    lY. 
The  wilderness  of  Bethaven  (Josh.  zriiL 
12),  on  the  north-western  border  of  Benja- 
min, towards  Sphraim.    V.  The  wddemesa 
of  Benben  (Dent  It.  48),  in  which  lay  the 
dty  Bezer,  probably  on  die  soudi-eastem 
limit  of  die  tribe,  and  so  bordering  on  the 
Arabian  Desert    VI.  The  desert  near  Beth- 
saida  (Luke  is.  10). 

Out  of  Palestine,  we  must  mention  the 
Desert  of  Arabia,  often  termed  the  *  deeert' 
by  pre-eminence,  that  is,  Arabia  BetSBa; 
also  what  was  properiy  Arabia  Desertai  now 
ealled  the  Syrian  Desert,  whieh  is  heie  and 
there  mentioned  under  the  name  oi  the 
desert  (1  Kings  is.  18 ;  xix.  10) ;  in  the  lat- 
ter passage, '  the  wilderness  of  Damasens.' 

Maundrell,  in  passing  from  Jerasalem  to 
Jeridio,  speaks  thus  of  the  scene  of  our 
Lord's  temptetion  :  — '  From  this  plaee 
(Foantab  of  die  apostles,  just  beyond  Bedi- 
9^7)*  you  proceed  in  an  intricate  way  amongst 
hills  and  yalleys,  faiterohangeaMy ;  all  of  a 
very  banen  aspiBot  at  present,  but  dieeorerw 
ing  erident  signs  of  die  labour  of  die  hoe- 
bandman  in  ancient  times.  Alter  some 
hours'  trarel  in  this  sort  of  road,  you  aniTe 
at  the  mountainous  desert  into  whieh  our 
blessed  Sayiour  was  led  by  the  Spirit,  to  be 
tempted  by  the  deril.    A  most  miserable,  dry, 


banren  plaee  it  is,  consisting  of  h^  roeky 
mountains,  so  torn  and  disordered,  as  if  the 
earth  had  here  soiTered  some  great  convul- 
aion,  in  whieh  its  very  bowels   had  been 
tuned  outward.    On  the  left  hand,  looking 
down  in  a  deep  Yalley,  as  we  passed  along, 
we  saw  some  ruins  of  small  cells  and  cot- 
tages, whieh,  they  told  us,  were  formeriy  the 
habitadona  of  hermits  retiring  hither  for 
penanoe  and  m<»tifioation.     And  certainly 
there  oould  not  be  found  in  the  whole  earth  a 
more  eomfordess  and  abandoned  plaee  for 
that  puipoee.    From  the  top  of  theee  hills 
of  desolation,  we  had,  however,  a  delightful 
prospect  of  the  mountains  of  Arabia,  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  the  plain  of  Jericho;  into 
which  last  plaee  we  deacended,  after  about 
five  hours'  mareh  from  Jerusalem.    As  soon 
aa  we  enteied  the  plain,  we  turned  up  on  the 
left  hand,  and,  going  about  one  hour  that 
way,  oame  to  the  foot  of  the  Quarantania ; 
which,  they  aay,  is  the  mountain  into  which 
the  devil  took  our  blessed  Saviour,  when  he 
tempted  him  with  that  visionary  scene  of  all 
the  kingdoms  and  glories  of  the  world.    It 
is,  as  St  Matdiew  styles  it,  an  exceeding 
high  mountain,  and  in  its  asoent  not  only 
difflcult,  but  dangerous.    It  has  a  small 
diiapel  at  the  top,  and  aneUier  half-way  up, 
founded  upon  a  prominent  part  of  the  rock : 
near  this  latter  are  several  caves  and  holes 
in  the  side  of  the  mountain,  made  use  of  an- 
ciendy  by  hermits,  and  by  some  at  this  day, 
for  places  to  keep  their  Lent  in,  in  imitation 
ot  thai  of  our  blessed  Saviour.    In  most  of 
these  grots  we  found  certain  Arabs  quartered 
with  fire-arms,  who  obstructed  our  ascent,  de» 
Banding  two  hundred  dollars  for  leave  to  go 
up  the  mountains.    So  we  departed  without 
liuther  trouble,  not  a  litUe  glad  to  have  so 
good  an  excuse  for  not  climbing  so  danger  • 
oua  a  precipice.' 

From  Tisehendorf  ('Beise,'  p.  72),  we 
laam  that  the  desert  in  which  John  was 
brought  up  'is  quite  solitary,  surrounded 
by  mountains  and  rooks :  bnt  it  is  not  widi- 
ont  verdure,  fountain,  or  trees ;  and  with  all 
these  it  is  more  charming  than  many  places 
in  the  promised  Isnd.  The  grotto  of  John, 
where  the  prophet  dwelt  when  he  was  pre- 
paring himself  for  his  ministry  in  the  desert, 
poeeesses  an  enchaining  magic :  it  had  it  so 
much  the  more  for  me,  because  I  entered  its 
eool  shades  at  the  mid-day  hour  of  repose. 
It  lies  in  the  midst  of  a  romantic  wild  rock, 
iriiioh  hangs  upon  the  hill,  and  projects  above 
Into  the  ruins  of  the  old  cloister  walls.  From 
Ihenee  I  overlooked  a  wide  extent  of  table- 
land, with  many  villages.  Under  the  grotto, 
the  entranoe  oi  which  is  beautif  oily  clothed 
with  a  hovraant  shade,  there  breaks  out  ttom 
the  aatunl  wall  of  rock  a  large  stream  of 
the  clearest  water:  it  rushes  down  into  a 
great  basin  sunounded  by  reeds.' 

DESOLATION  (L.  ds  and  sofos,  alone) 
is  the  act  of  rendering  a  place  #o/itary  or 


D  E  U  479  D  E  U 

waste,  or  the  stete  of  being  solittry  or  waste,  analysis  shows,  that  there  is  in  the  book  no 
When  a  phice  is  stripped  of  its  natural  pro-  effort  to  prodnoe  an  artificial  proportion, 
ductions  or  its  inhabitants,  it  is  desolate ;  either  between  its  several  parts,  or  the  inl- 
and when  a  human  being  is  deprived  of  his  portanee  of  the  subjeets,  and  the  length  of 
ordinary  companions,  pursuits,  and  plea-  their  treatment  The  eailiest  portions  are 
sures,  he  is  desolate.  Hence,  the  word,  in  the  least  ftill,  nor  does  the  writer  take  any 
genenJ,  means  being  de$ert,  UmeUneu,  dreari-  pains  to  supplement  his  historical  nairatiTea 
n^cfy  9^i^f  c^d  toasHng  qfrnhuL  with  mythological  or  cosmological  materials. 

The  word,  with  its  cognates,  is  of  fre*  or  to  <^er  explanations  as  to  the  scantiness 

quent  occurrence  in  Scripture,  which,  relating  of  his  earliest  notices.    He  pats  together 

to  countries  in  which  desert  and  solitary  such  materials  as  he  possessed  in  the  simple 

districts  are  of  great  extent  ond  constant  and  unconscious  manner  of  a  person  too 

occurrence,  draws  from  this  unlovely  feature  intent  on  a  righteous  object  to  think  of 

of  nature  some  of  its  most  striking  and  for-  possible  olgections.      The  history  of  the 

cible  imagery  (Jer.  xlix.  18.    Zeph.  i.  15;  patriarshs  is  given  in  some  considerable 

ii.  14.    Dan.  xL  31.    Matt  xxiv.  16 :  see  detail.      That  of  Abraham  oconpies  twelve 

ABOMniAXioir).    In  relation  to  the  two  last  chapters,  or  nearly  one-fburth  of  the  whole 

passages,  HaU  says  —  'The  taking  away  book.    In  this  pecuiiarity,  Genesis  proclaims 

of  the   daOy  sacrifice,  and  this  de$okUory  its  connection  with  the  four  ensuing  writings; 

abomination,  is  to  be  understood  of  the  last  the  general  aim  of  which  is  to  exhibit  how, 

destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus.'  under  the   divine  promise,  guidance,  and 

D£UTEBONOMY(G.tecoiui/<it9),  the  last  favour,  the  descendants  of  Abraham,  the 

of  what  are  generally  termed  the  five  books  father  of  the  faithful,  were  through  difllcul- 

of  Moses,  or  the  Pentateuch,  —  the  complet-  ties,  privations,  ond  struggles,  led  to  the 

ing  volume  of  the  great  work  which  com-  borders  of  the  land  of  Canaan ;  and  how  the 

prises  the  earliest  history  of  the  Hebrews,  way  was  prepared  for  the  establishment  in 

and  therein  the  earliest  notices  of  the  first  that  land  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  the 

ages  of  the  world.    A  work  of  such  a  charao-  only  true  Qod. 

ter  is  fitted  to  awaken  a  very  deep  interest,         The  second  book  of  the  Pentateuch  bears 

which  becomes  yet  more  profound,  when  we  the  name  of  JBxodM$,  from  a  Greek  word 

remember  that  these  documents  profess  to  which  signifies  ffcmg  oirt,  because  it  is  ooen- 

contain  a  record  also  of  God's  earliest  deal*  pied  with  an  account  of  dte  departure  of  the 

ings  with  the  human  race.    Hence  it  is  a  children  of  Israel  from  Egyptian  bondage, 

matter  of  great  moment  to  ascertain  the  The  Hebrews  term  the  writing  Schemothf 

real  character  of  these  pages,  and  to  receive  from  its  commencing  widii  the  words, '  these 

them  as  they  were  intended  to  be  received  by  are  the  names.'     The  chief  aim  of  the  work 

that  divine  Providenee  to  whose  agency  we  is  to  illustrate  the  ftilfihaent  of  the  promise 

owe  their  preservation.     The  subject  is  a  which  God  gave  to  Abraham :  —  *  Thy  seed 

very  wide  as  well  as  important  one,  and  shall  be  a  stranger  in  a  land  that  is  not  theirs, 

yet  can  hen  be  treated  only  in  two  or  three  and  shall  serve  them ;  and  they  shall  afflict 

of  ito  most  prominent  bearings.  them  four  hundred  years,  and  afterwards 

The  Pentateuch,  oxftve-foid  book,  a  deaig-  shall  they  come  out  with  great  sabstasee ' 

nation  known  at  least  as  early  as  Josephus,  (Gen.  xv.  13, 14).    The  book  embtaees  a 

opens  with  the  writing  which,  in  our  Bibles,  period  of  about  a  hnndrad  and  fifty  years; 

bears  the  Greek  name  of  OenetU  (creatioa  for  it  begins  with  the  increase  of  the  people 

or  production),  a  title  which  it  obtained  from  after  Joseph's  death,  and  terminates  wiUi  the 

commencing  with  an  account  of  the  forma-  erectioii  of  the  tabeniaele.    Iteoontentemay 

tion  of  the  worid.    Genesis  is  by  the  Jews  be  divided  into  three  leading  divisions :  •— 

termed  Beratchit,  which,  in  the  original  He*  First,  L-^xil.  An  aooount  of  what  took  place 

brew,  is  ite  ftnt  word.    The  book  divides  before  the  departure  from  Egypt    Second, 

itself  into  two  chief  parte :  —  I.  Containing  xiiL-— xviiL  The  history  of  that  deptfture. 

i. — viii.  Narrates  the  origin  of  the  world  and  lliird,  xix. — (xl.  The  history  of  the  giving  of 

of  the  human  race,  with  an  historical  outline  the  law,  and  of  that  which  haippened  till  the 

that  comes  down  to  the  end  of  the  deluge :  building  of  ibe  tebemade.    In  these  three 

II.  Comprising  ix. — ^L  Gives  the  history  of  portions,  the  following  is  contained: — a. 

Noah  and  his  descendanto  to  the  death  of  L  Abraham's  fimily  increases  in  Egypt  to 

Joseph.    In  the  latter  portion,  we  may  dis^  a  nomerous  people,  in  spite  of  all  attempts 

tinguish,  a.  ix. — ^xi  Narratives  regarding  the  to  the  contrary :  b,  ii.— iv.  History  of  Moses, 

life  of  Noah,  and  otiUer  evento,  reaching  to  embraoiB^^  his  birth  and  education,  his  flight 


the  time  of  Abraham ;  6.  xii. — ^xxv.  10,  The  into  Midian,  his  call  and  preparation  fbr  the 

history  of  Abraham,  the  progenitor  of  the  woifc  of  redeeming  the  Israelites,  in  eon- 

chosen pe(^le ;  c.  xxv.Il— -zxvii  The  life  of  junction  with  his  brother  Aaron;  and  the 

Isaac,  whose  death  is  not  mentioned  till  verification  of  their  divine  testimonials  be- 

XXXV.  37 — 29 ;  d,  xxviii. — ^xxxvi.  The  life  of  fore  the  elders  and  the  people :  c.  v. — ^xil. 

Jacob,  whose  death  is  given,  xlix.  83;    e.  Evente  in  Egypt  tQl  the  Exodus;  Moses  and 

xxxvii.—l.  The  life  and  death  of  Joseph.  This  Aaron  entreat  Pharoah  to  break  their  bon* 


D  E  U                     480  D  R  U 

dftge,  whieh  is  in  consequenee  made  mora  which  show  the  presence  and  agency  of  one 

aeyera;  whieh  leads  Mosea  to  lay  his  ease  who  was  an  actor  in  the  recorded  transactions. 

bef6re  Jehovah,  who  affords  him  support  and  Yet  this  falness  is  by  no  means  indiscrimi- 

eomfort ;  Moses  asserts  the  authority  of  his  nate.    Egypt,  in  which  Moses  was  bom  and 

mission  befon  Pbaroah,  by  miracles  which  educated,  and  in  which  the  descendants  ot 

are  then  narrated  in  detail,  with  their  effects,  Abraham  dwelt  so  long,  afforded  a  fertile 

being  in  all  ten  plagues ;  whose  efficacy  the  ground  to  the  historian,  into  immediate  eon- 

monaroh  in  vain  tried  to  eounteraet  by  means  neotion  with  which  the  writer  of  Exodus  was 

of  his  wise  men,  sorcerers,  and  magicians ;  brought    The  subject  was  tempting;  but  he 

the  time  of  deliverance,  however,  being  come,  abstains,  and  reserves  all  his  abundance  for 

the  Passover  is  instituted,  the  last  punish*  that  topic  which  he  had  taken  in  hand,  and 

ment  is  inflicted  on  Phaioah  in  tiie  destruc-  which  led  on  to  the  completion  of  his  plan, 

tion  of  the  first-bom,  and  Israel  goes  forth :  n  developing  the  measures  by  which  mono- 

d,  ziit. — ^zviiL  History  of  the  departure,  com-  theism  was  established  in  Canaan.  What- 
prising  ordinances  respecting  the  devotement  ever  information  respecting  Egypt,  Exodus 
of  die  first-bom,  and  the  observance  of  the  or  Genesis  presents,  it  is  only  casual  or  in> 
Passover ;  Pharoah's  pursuit  and  overthrow;  ferential.  The  centuries  that  Israel  remain- 
Israel  is  conducted  through  the  Red  Sea ;  ed  in  Egypt  must  have  been  ftill  of  a  general 
which  calls  forth  a  song  of  praise  from  Moses  interest,  and  of  interest  to  the  chosen  peo- 
and  his  people;  the  msrchdirougfa  the  wilder-  pie;  but  every  deviation  from  the  one  uar- 
ness  b^jins ;  they  come  to  Marah,  whose  row  path  is  rigidly  avoided.  How  brief  is 
watera  an  sweetened;  the  want  of  food  being  iJbe  narrative  in  tiie  long  and  important 
experienced,  quails  and  manna  are  given  of  period  that  intervened  between  the  burial  of 
Goid,  a  supply  of  water  alao  from  the  rock;  Jacob  (Gen.  1.  IS),  and  the  birth  of  Moses 
Amdek,  resisting  their  passage,  is  overcome ;  (Exod.  ii.  2).  More  than  a  century  is  passed 
Moses  meets  wilh  his  father-in-law,  Jethro,  over  in  one  page.  This  is  an  apparent  ano- 
trom  whom  he  receives  pradent  counsel :  maly  which  no  fabricator  would  have  per- 

e.  xix. — ^zxiv.  Arrived  at  Sinai,  Moses  com-  mitted  to  remain.  The  interval  of  almost 
mences  his  legislation,  in  order  to  bind  the  entire  silence  may  in  part  be  accounted  for 
peo^e  in  a  peipetual  covenant  with  God ;  by  the  indifference  and  dependency  whicn 
after  moat  impreasive  preparations,  the  ten  must  have  afflicted  the  people  towards  the 
eommandments  are  deliverad,  and  then  van-  latter  part  of  their  vassalage,  especially  when 
ous  other  laws,  which,  being  written  in  the  no  new  friend  arose  to  perfom  the  part  of 
book  of  the  covenant,  are  read  in  the  audi-  Joseph,  and  a  strange  and  hostile  dynasty 
ence  of  the  people,  who  promise  obedience  filled  the  throne.  Whatever  the  cause,  the 
(ixiv.  i,  7),  and  the  engagement  is  solemnly  stricmess  with  which  the  writer  keeps  to  his 
ratified :  /.  xxv. — ^zzxi.  Then  ensue  various  subject  is  a  strong  confirmation  of  his  trust- 
eommands  in  regard  to  the  constraction  of  worthiness.  Even  the  few  notices  he  has 
the  tabernacle,  and  the  oonaecration  of  the  left  us  in  this  interval  were  drawn  from  him 
priests :  g.  xzxil.— xxxiv.  The  natural  course  by.  the  necessities  of  his  narrative,  which 
of  events  is  interrupted  by  the  idolatrous  thus  preserves  a  unity  in  itself,  and  adds  an 
propenaities  of  the  people,  who  find  favour  harmonious  portion  to  tlie  general  unity  that 
in  their  ^wsteey  with  Aaron,  in  the  absence  eharaoterises  Uie  Pentateuch. 

of  Moses  during  forty  days  on  Mount  Sinai ;  LevUieu* — so  termed,  from  its  treating  in 

bis  return  axrests  &e  progress  of  the  idol»-  detail  of  things  concerning  the  Levites,  or 

trous  movement,  which  is  severely  punished,  priestly  order — is  the  third  book  of  the  Pen- 

aad  then  forgiven ;  after  varioua  disciplinary  tateuch.     It  is  denominated  by  the  Jews 

measures,  the  covenant  with  God  is  renewed,  Vajikra  ('  and  he  called ' ) ,  which  is  the  word 

and   the  Divine  presence  in  the  journey  '  with  whieh  the  book  opens.    Thecommence- 

towards   Palestine  is  graeiously  promised :  ment  in  this  case,  as  well  as  in  the  book  of 

A.  XXXV. — xL  We  have  hero  the  formation  of  Exodus,  gives  reason  to  think  that  no  proper 

the  tabernacle  and  its  varlona  implements,  division  was  intended,  and  that  in  trath  we 

with  the  manifestation  of  God'a  fttvour  and  have  in  these  throe  books  only  one  continued 

blessing  on  the  work.  composition.     The    entire   work    may    be 

The  narrative  is  not  pursued  in  a  regular,  divided  into  four  parts :  — First,  i. — ^vii.  Of 

unbroken  train;  but  laws  and  hlstoiy  are  offerings.      Second,    viii.— x.    Of  Priests, 

mingled  together,  i^arondy,  for  the  most  Thiid,  xi.— xv.  Of  purifications.    Fourth, 

part,  in  the  order  of  the  events,  and  in  the  xvL— xxviL  Ordinances  of   various  kinds, 

inanner  in  which  the  records  of  a  journal  are  These  may  again  be  subdivided :  —The  first 

ordmanly  made.    In  vi.  14,  the  narrative  is  division  into  a.  i.  Of  the  bumt-offering;  6. 

suddenly  mterrupted  to  introduce  some  short  ii.  Of  the  meat-offerings ;  e.  iii.  of  the  thank- 

genealo^al  notices,  which,  however  desira-  offering ;  d.  iv.  Of  the  sin-offering ;  e.  v.— vii. 

ble,  mjght  as  well  stand  in  any  other  place,  of  the  trespass-offering ;  /.  vi.  vii.  viii.  Repe- 

The  fulness  of  this  book  is  in  broad  con-  tiUon  and  farther  determinations  respectmg 

trast  with  the  earlier  portions  of  Genesis,  these  kinds  of  oblations.     The  second  di- 

presenting  m  lU  very  repetitions,  features  vision  into  a.  viiL  Consecration  of  priesto ; 


DEU                       481  DEU 

5t  is,  Aaron's  fintperfomiaaee  of  his  office;  issue  he  could  not  foresee — all  these  eonsi« 
e.  z.  1 — 7,  Nadab  and  Abihu  transgress  and  derations,  which  would  increase  in  power 
are  punished ;  d.  z.  8 — ^20,  Instructions  for  in  the  some  degree  that  indocility  gained 
the  priests.  The  third  diyision  into  a.  xi.  ground,  would  offer  great  and  neyer-ceasing 
Clean  distinguished  fh>m  unclean  animals;  difficulties  to  the  legislator,  which  would 
b,  xii.  Purification  of  women  after  child-  prove  insuperable  in  any  case  wherein  false- 
birth;  c.xiii.xiT.  The  cleansing  of  the  leper;  hood  had  a  share,  and  could  have  been 
d.  XT.  Cleansing  of  several  kinds  of  Leviti-  overcome  by  Moses  only  in  virtue  of  God's 
eal  impurities.  The  fourth  division  into  a.  aid,  and  the  aid  of  a  pure  purpose  and  a 
xvi.  llie  great  day  of  atonement;  h,  zviL  righteous  cause. 

1 — 7,  Unity  of  the  divine  service;  e.  &— 16,  This  brings  us  to  the  fourth  book  of 

Prohibition  to  eat  blood;  xviiL  Laws  relat-  Moses,  or  what  in  our  English  Bible  is  de- 

ing  to  marriage  and  ehastity;  d,  xix.  Sundry  signated  Number$f  because  in  the  beginning 

laws;  «.  XX.  Penal  laws,  particularly  against  it  relates  how  Moses  numbered  the  people, 

incest;  /.  xxi.  xxiL  16,  Laws  relating  to  Li  the  Hebrew,  the  book  bears  the  name 

priests;  ^.  xxli.  17 — 88,  Of  what  kind  the  Batnmidbar  ('in    the  wildeniess'),   which 

animals  sacrificed  must  be;  h,  xxiil.  Laws  occurs  immediately  after  the  introductoiy 

relating  to  festivals — the  Sabbath,  the  Pass-  phrase,  <  And  Jehovah  spake  unto  Moses.' 

over,  Pentecost,  Feast  of  Trumpets,  Atone-  Not  inappropriate  is  the  Hebrew  appeUation, 

ment,  Tabernacles ;  i.  xxiv.  1—^,  Of  lights  since  the  book  speaks  of  events  which  took 

and  the  shew-bread ;  10 — 03,  Punishment  place,  and  laws  that  were  given,  in  the  de- 

of  a  blasphemer,  and  other  penal  laws ;  j,  sert    From  the  concluding  verse  of  the  last 

XXV.  The  Sabbath  and  the  Year  of  Jubilee ;  chapter  of  Leviticus,  we  learn  that  the  for- 

k.  xxvL  1,   2,  Idolatry  forbidden ;  8—46,  mer  legislation  had  been  given  at  or  on  the 

Blessings  and  curses ;  L  xxvii.  Performance  way  to    Mount    Sinai   (comp.  xxvi.  46). 

of  vows.  Hence  we  can  form  a  generdk  idea  of  the 

The  character  of  Leviticus  is  peculiar,  duration  of  time  occupied  by  the  book  of 

It  is  a  book  of  minute  regulations  on  points  Numbers.    It  comprises  a  period  of  thirty- 

the  most  diverse.    It  enters  into  all  the  con-  eight  years  and  nine  months;  for  it  begins 

eems  of  life,  the  most  minute,  the  most  se-  with  the  address  of  Jehovah  to  Moses  in 

oret,  not  excepted,  and  aims  to  lay  down  '  the  wilderness  of  Sinai,  on  the  first  day  ot 

regulations  for  its  guidance.    We  are  not  Uie  second  month,  in  the  second  year  after 

aware  that  a  work  at  all  similar  to  it  is  to  be  they  were  come  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt' 

found  in  the  whole  of  literature.    Its  fabri-  (!•  i  ) ;  and  in  Deut.  i.  8,  the  first  day  of  Uie 

cation  is  to  us  inconceivable.    No  one  would  eleventh  month  in  the  fortieth  year,  is  given 

take  the  trouble  to  forge  a  work  of  the  kind,  as  the  commencing  point  of  the  events  there 

The  more  extraordinary  some  of  the  ordi-  narrated.    Between  these  two  dates  lies  the 

nances  may  appear,  the  more  unlikely  must  period   covered  by  the  book  of  Numbers, 

it  seem  that  the  work  can  have  originated  The  stations  of  the  great  Hebrew  caravan 

except  under  circumstances  similar  to  what  are  given  in  xxxUi.    In  the  desert  at  Sinai 

are  alleged.    The  fabrication  of  a  volume  they  remained  about  a  year.    What  is  said 

of  the  statutes  of  this  kingdom,  is  not  a  tnmk  xv. — ^xix.  took  place  in  the  last  months, 

more  absurd  theory  than  the  fabrication  of  Bespecting  all  that  happened  in  the  space  of 

Leviticus.    But  if  Leviticus  was  not  fabri-  thirty-seven  years,  from  the  beginning  of  the 

eated,  it  must  have  been  written  when  first  third  to  the  end  of  the  thirty-ninth  year,  the 

promnlged.    The  particularity  of  the  Mosaic  history  is  silent,  merely  mentioning  ^e  places 

law  of  ceremonies  proves  that  writing  was  em-  of  encampment  (xxxiiL  19 — 85 ;  comp.xiii.  1, 

ployed.    In  no  other  way  could  a  body  of  where  we  find  them  on  the  southern  borders 

such  minute  ordinances  have  been  either  put  of  Canaan,  in  the  wilderness  of   Paran ; 

forth,  received,  or  perpetuated.  In  one  point  comp.  also  xx.  1).    This  is  an  extraordinary 

of  view,  the  book  is  a  collection  of  chains  gap  in  the  history,  not  to  be  accounted  for 

and  fetters.    How  could  Moses  have  sue-  on  the    supposition  that  a  fabricator  was 

ceeded  in  leading  the  people    into  these  concerned  in  its  production ;  for  a  person  of 

shackles,  had  he  not  hiui  God  and  truth  such  a  character  would  have  left  no  difficulty 

on  his  side  f    It  was  anything  but  a  docile  of  the  kind,  but,  distributing  his  matter  over 

people  with  which  he  had  to  do ;  and  the  the  entire  period  of  forty  years,  would  have 

disposition  of  the  IsraeUtes  to  rebel,  their  produced  a  certain  uniformity,  to  which  the 

impatience  under  privation,  their  long,  toil-  comparatively  unarranged  and  unsystematic 

some,   and   fatal  wanderings,    their    plea-  form  of  the  actual  work  is  for  credibility  far 

snrable  recollections  of  Egypt,  the  certainty  preferable.    Art  is  too  nearly  allied  to  arti- 

that  none  of  the  existing  generation  would  fice  not  to  excite  suspicions  in  such  a  case ; 

receive  the  promised  rewarid,  and  the  con-  but  a  collection  of  scattered  leaves  such  as 

yiction  that  ere  any  one  could  possess  land  lie  before  us,  have  the  entire  air  of  nature 

in  Canaan  he  must,  in  addition  to  all  other  and  probability.     The  absence  of  informa- 

risks  and  troubles,  endure   the  hardships  tion  regarding  so  long  a  period  may  have 

and  encounter  the  perils  of  a  war  whose  been  occasioned  by  the  absence  of  events 

2H 


DEU  482  DEU 


either  eo  noTel  or  so  importaiit  ea  to  nqnire  In  zxL  li,  mention  is  made  of  a  lost  woiIe, 
to  be  reeorded.    Life  in  the  wilderness,  after  '  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah/  fhun 
the  excitement  of  the  first  months  had  sub-  whieh  a  short  quotation  in  Terse  is  sub- 
sided, must  have  been  uniform  and  monoto-  joined ;  in  17»  a  part  of  '  the  Song  of  the 
nous,  and,  as  such,  sfforded  few  or  no  mate-  Well*  is  given;  in  the  27th  of  the  same  ohiq^ 
rials  for  the  historian's  pen.    The  laws  had  ter,  is  found  a  small  poem;  sad  in  ^^i"  at 
been  given  so  far  as  circumstanees  demand-  18,  begins  a  longer  one^  whieh  in  zziv.  is 
ed,  or  a  wise  regard  to  the  ftiture  seemed  to  ibUowed  by  two  others, 
suggest.    The  work  onee  performed,  needed  DtuUrmumyp  the  fifth  sad  last  of  the  five 
not  to  be  repeated.    But  if  thers  was  no  ad-  books  bearing  Uie  name  of  Moses,  indieates 
ditional  legislation,  no  additional  record  was  by  its  nsme  that  it  was  undeistood  to  be  a 
required.    On  the  whole,  die  interval  was  kind  of  seeond  legislation,  or  a  repetition  of 
one  of  tranquillity;  and  therefore  was  it,  on  the  laws  already  given,  wiUi  sueh  efaanges  as 
the  part  of  the  historian,  one  also  of  sflenee.  sppeaied  requisite.  Hebrew  Bibles,  tak^g  its 
Three  principal  divisions  may  be  found  in  first  two  words,  denominate  the  book  £Usk 
the  book  of  Numbers — ^first,  i. — ^z.  10,  Prepa-  Hadtbmrim  (*  these  are  the  words').  The  open- 
rations  for  ftirther  Joumeyings  through  the  ing  ehi^ter  gives  the  reader  reason  to  think 
wilderness;  second,  x.  11 — ziz.  The  jour-  that  he  has  under  his  eyes  a  coUeetion  of 
ney  firom  Sinai  to  the  borders  of  Csnaan ;  summsiies,    rehearsals,    and   exhortations, 
third,  XX. — xxxvL  Events  from  the  route  back  The  contents  of  the  book  sre  divisible  into 
from  Ihese  borders  till  the  return  thither,  three  great  portions :  first,  i — iv.  48,  Moses 
thirty-seven  years  later.  In  fiiese  divisions  are  calls  to  miml  the  goodness  of  God  already 
aeveral  minor  portions— first,  a.  L  The  num-  experienced  as  a  mesas  of  prepsring  his 
bering  of  the  children  of  Israel,  and  duties  people's  minds  for  the  new  recital  of  the  law ; 
of  the  Levites ;  6.  ii.  Arrsngements  respecting  second,  iv.  4i — ^xzvi.  presents  that  recital, 
the  camp ;  c.  iii.  iv.  Number  and  oflloe  of  the  with  many  exhortations  to  obedience ;  third, 
Levites,  redemption  of  the  first-bom;  d.  v. —  xxvii.  80,  urges  various  inducements  to  the 
X.  Manifold  laws  and  regulations:  second,  observance  of  duty;  fourth,  xxxi. — ^xxxiv. 
a.  X.  xi.  The  people  leave  Sinai  and  resume  Moses*  departure  sad  death.    These  heads 
their  journey;  6.  xL — ^xiv.  Events   on  the  present  the  following  topics:  First,  a.  i. — iil. 
journey;  c.  xv.  Various  laws  sre  given ;  d,  Moses  calls  to  mind  the  events  at  Horeb,  at 
xvL — xix.  Rising  of  Korah,  Nathan,  and  Kadesh  Bamea,  on  the  passage  through  the 
Abiram :  third,  a.  xx.  xxi.  20,  Events  in  the  teiritory  of  tiie  Edomites,  Moabites,   and 
wilderness  of  Zin  and  at  Mount  Hor;  b.  Ammonites;  &e  victory  over  Sihon,  king  of 
xxi.  21 — ^xxvii.  Events  in  the  land  of  the  Heahbon,  and  that  over  Og,  king  of  Baahan; 
Amorites,  the  Moabites,  and  at  Shittim;  c.  the  division  of  tiie  oountiy  east  of  Jordan; 
xxviil. — XXX.  1,  Respecting  offerings;  d.  xxx.  Jehovah's  reftzsal  to  allow  him  to  pass  into 
3 — 16,  Ordinances  respecting  vows;  «.  xxxi.  the  promised  land;  6.  iv.  1--48,  on  the  pre- 
Victory  over  the  Midianites ;  /.  xxxii.  Inheri-  ceding,  Moses  grounds  his  exhortations  to  the 
tance  at  Reuben,  Oad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  people  to  obey  the  Divine  commands,  to  ahun 
Manasseh ;  g.  xxxiii.  1—40,  Stations ;   K  idolatry,  on  i»  assnrsnce  tfiat  evil  and  good 
xxxiii.  50--d6,  Commands  in  relation  to  the  depended  thereon ;  and  the  portion  ends  by 
expulsion  of  the  Canaanites ;  t.  xxxiv.  Boun-  an  account  of  the  appointment  by  Moses  of 
dsries  and  division  of  the  promised  lend ;  the  three  cities  of  refrige  on  the  east  side 
J.  XXXV.  Cities  of  the  Levites;  cities  of  reftige;  of  the  Jordan.     Second,  a.  iv.  44 — ^xi.  re- 
themanalayer;lc.xxxvi.  Respecting  heiresses,  cites  the  laws,  wi&  suitable  reminiscences 
It  thus  appears  that  the  contents  of  tbis  snd  exhortations ;  b.  xii.  xiii  treats  of  die 
book  are  very  miscellaneous.    Tbis  is  in  unity  of  divine  worship  and  the  avoidance 
part  owing  to  the  principle  on  which  the  of  idolatry;  c.  xiv. — ^xvi.  17,  gives  several 
Mosaic  writings  were  put  together — for  in  aD  ordinances  in  regard  to  oeremonial  observ- 
eases  they  are  a  number  of  fragments — ^bnt  saces;  d.  xvi  18 — ^xvii.  speaks  of  tiie  claims 
chiefly  to  the  fact  that  now  the  Mosaic  insti-  of  justice,  of  the  punishment  of  idolatry,  of 
toUons  received  a  kind  of  first  trial  in  actual  the  appointment  of  judges,  and  the  choice  of 
practice.    This  first  experiment  gave  ocea-  a  king;  «.  xviii.  xix.  gives  many  ordinances 
sion  not  only  to  events  of  a  painful  nature,  respecting  the  eeremonisi  and  civil  law;  f, 
but  also  to  modifications  and  repetitions  in  xx.  laws  of  war;  g.  xxL  xzii.  13,  recites  vaii- 
the  legislation;  serving,  among  other  things,  ous  laws,  most  of  them  of  a  mild  and  be- 
to  illustrate  the  fact,  that  the  books  of  the  nignsnt  kind;  k.  xxU.  18-^,  Uws  relsting 
Pentateuch  in  their  actual  condition  enable  to  modesty  (xxiv.  1—6) ;  i,  xxiiL— xxv.  otdi- 
us  to  see  the  Mosaic  institutions  in  their  nances  regarding  civil  life;  j.xxvi  first-fruits 
birth  snd  foimation,  and  so  aflTord  us  a  gua-  and  tithes ;  an  exhortation.    Third,  a.  xxviL 
rantee  of  tiieir  genuineness  which  could  be  observance  of  the  law;  *.  xrviii.  blessingt 
given  by  no  artistically  constructed  narrative.  (1—14),  curses  (16— «8) ;  c.  xxix.  xxx.  rs- 
The  miscellaneous  character  of  tixis  book  is  view,  and  earnest  exhortations  to  covenanted 
illustrated  in  the  fragments  and  portions  obedience  towards  the  gracious   Jehovsh. 
which  it  contains  tsken  from  other  sooreea  Fourth,  s.  »«^   Moses  qppointo  Joshua  his 


D  E  U                       483  D  E  U 

raceesBor;  and  giTOS  the  lav  into  the  handa  The  preralence  of  the  state  of  mind  here 

of  the  LeTites;  h,  xzzii.  1—47,  ccMmmemora*  indicated  corresponds  with  the  position  held 

tive  and  hortatorj  poem,  being  another  effort  by  this  book.    It  is  the  last  Yolnme  of  the 

toenaore  obedience;  cscdL  48 — 52,  Moaea  Pentateuch.    It  professes  to  contain  a  revi- 

ia  commanded  to  ascend  Mount  Nebo,  to  see  sion  of  the  Mosaic  laws.    It  is  Moses'  last 

the  land,  and  die ;  d.  xxxiiL  prophetic  bleaa-  word.     Now  age  and  experience  naturally 

ings  by  Moses ;  a.  zzxiy.  his  death.  end  in  making  men  more  practical  and  hu- 

This  book  presents  a  ^ery  important  por-  mane.    Youth  supplies  the  world  with  theo- 

tion  of  those  disciplinary  occurreneea  by  rista,  but  our  benefactors  and  philanthropists 

which  Jehevah,  through  the  handa  of  his  are  found  among  the  mature  and  the  aged, 

serrant  Moses,  endeaYoured  to  train  and  edu-  And  there  is  no  conviction  which  the  course 

cate  a  horde  of  ft^ptivea  into  a  nation  of  free-  of  a  long   religious  lifb   is  likely  to  im- 

men.    The  tone  of  the  document  shows  that  press  on  the  mind  more  deeply,  dian  that 

some  success  had  attended  the  effort    The  oeremonies,  forms,  and  creeds  have  their 

men  who  in  it  stand  on  the  borders  of  Ca-  chief  earthly  Talue  in  leading  to  the  posses- 

naan,are  much  superior  to  thoae  that  appeaf  sion  of  kind  and  generous  aff^tions,  and  to 

in  Exodua  at  the  first  entrance  on  the  wil-  the  diligent  practice  of  universal  love, 

demesa.    The  Israelitea  by  this  time  have  a  The  books  that  bear  the  name  of  Moses 

history  as  well  aa  a  Aitnre,  and  with  great  bring  before  us  history  in  its  cradle.    Here 

effect  doea  Moses  here  make  uae  of  both  for  we  are  in  the  midst  of  the  earliest  efforts 

the  fturtherance  of  his  pattf  otie  and  religious  made  by  man  to  transmit  to  posterity  a  record 

designs.    Beriews  of  ibe  past  combine  with  of  events.     In  the  view  of  its  writer,  the 

anticipations,  promiaea,  and  threatenings,  to  narrative  sets  forth  things  that  had  actually 

secure  that  obedience  which  was  the  india-  taken  place.    Immunity  firom  error  he  does 

pensable  precursor  of  the  establishment  of  a  not  claim;  but  he  bears  all  the  appearance 

monotheistic  religion  in  the  world.    And  aa  of  a  simple,  unoonseious,  honest  chronicler. 

Moses  thought  over  the  gracious  dealinga  of  He  relates  what  he  had  learnt ;  he  relates 

God  with  his  people ;  as  he  dimly  foresaw  the  what  he  believed ;  he  relates  what  he  knew, 

glory  that  lay  on  the  distant  horison  of  the  Sometimes,  the  substance  of  his  record  is 

nation ;  as  he  vividly  felt  the  perils  they  were  some  unworthy  act  performed  by  man ;  some- 

on  the  point  of  encountering  amidst  battle,  times,  it  is  the  process  of  creation.    Equally 

disorder,  and  idolatiy;  as  he  called  to  mind  m  the  humblest  and  the  most  sublime  to- 

that  in  a  few  days  he  himself  would  have  pica,  the  tone  is  calm    and  simple.     The 

breathed  his  last,  and  the  myriada  which  author  never  obtrudes  himself;  never  thinks 

stood  around  him  be  left  to  less  practised  of  &e  effect  likely  to  be  produced  by  what  he 

hands,  and  a  less  venerated  authority,  for  says;  has  no  apologies  to  urge,  no  claims  to 

guidance  and  support — so,  under  the  strong  make.  All  this  bears,  to  our  mind,  the  stamp 

emotions  that  filled  his  breast,  did  he  sum-  of  primttval  history.    The  record  of  events 

mon  to  his  aid  all  that  religion,  history,  must  have  been  an  after-thought.  Men  acted 

personal  influence,  and  poetry  could  afford,  long  before  they  wrote.   Oral  tradition  would, 

and  exhorted  and  implored  his  people  to  obey  indeed,  arise  within  the  bosom  of  the  first 

and  serve  the  Lord  God  of  tiieir  fSathers,  in  family ;  and,  having  arisen,  could  not  fail  to 

worda  which  for  earnestness,  pathos,  and  be  continued  from  generation  to  generation, 

force,  have  never  been  surpaased.    If  Israel  But  with  a  primitive  race  of  men,  oral  tradi- 

could  have  been  saved  fhun  captivity  and  tion  is  a  simple,  unpretending,  and  uncon- 

dispersion,  these  tender,  impressive,  and  I6r-  scious  transmission  of  events.     The  father 

cible  worda  must  have  sufficed.  narrates  to  the  son  what  he   finds    strik- 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  &at  this  book  eon-  ing,    important,   and  wonderfbl.     And    if^ 

tains  far  more  than  its  share  of  laws  and  accordingly,  the  imagination  has  its  share 

regulations  bearing  in  favour  of  a  mild  and  in  the  colourings  of  die  narrative,  the  per- 

benign  morality.    Luther  remarks,  that  as  verting  influence  of  falsehood  is  unknown, 

the  former  part  of  Deuteronomy  teaches  the  The  tradition  passes  into  a  record;  records 

love  of  God,  so  the  latter  enforces  the  ]ov«  are  multiplied;  different  means  are  taken  for 

of  man.    It  would  seem  that  age  and  expe-  regiatsring  the  same  event;  till  at  length 

rience  had  not  only  softened  and  mellowed  aome  superior  mind,  having  collected  and 

the  heart  of  Moses,  but  rendered  it  also  more  compared  these  records,  composes  a  narra 

practical.    He  beeame  less  of  a  Levite,  and  ttve  which  is  true  to  its  origin  and  its  age, 

more  of  a  man.     Bemoved  farther  from  being  a  simple  chronicle  of  primitive  obser- 

Egypt  and  nearer  to  Canaan,  he  had  lost  a  vations,  thoughts,  fselings,  beliefs,  and  ezpe- 

portion  of  that  fear  of  its  idolatry,  and  those  riences. 

precautionary  feelings  against  it  that  had  A  primitive  age  is  unversed  in  distino* 

dictated  his  ceremonial  law,  and  gained  more  tions.    It  knows  nothing  of  the  boundaries 

of  the  spirit  of  f^dom  and  humanity;  by  which  scholars  have  divided  human  know- 
which  made  him  feel  that  man's  love  of  his  ledge  into  different  provinces.  It  contem- 
neighbour  was  a  natural  result  sad  tiie  best    plates  the  universe  as  a  whole.    Human  life 

proof  of  his  love  of  God.  in  all  its  relations  is  seen  as  a  whole.    Itfr 

2H9 


DEU 


484 


DEU 


history,  therefore,  embraces  so  maoh  of  the 
uniyerse  as  falls  ander  its  eyes,  and  so  mach 
of  human  life  as  it  is  acquainted  with.  To 
it,  history  apart  from  religion  is  unknown, 
fur  its  religion  is  of  universal  prevalenoe. 
Religion,  therefore,  will  be  blended  with  its 
history.  Rather,  its  history  will  be  religious, 
pervaded  throughout  by  the  presence  of  God. 
As  the  work  of  his  hands  will  the  world  be 
presented.  In  their  relations  to  him  will 
men's  actions  be  described.  Not  that  thess 
primitive  historians  discourse  of  Ood  or  of 
human  duties;  but  their  minds,  being  im- 
bued  with  the  thought  of  his  constant 
agency,  and  of  man's  constant  dependence 
on  him,  throw  a  religious  hue  over  their 
record  of  events.  Hence  history  becomes  a 
compound  of  what  to  us  are  various  ele- 
ments, comprising  with  its  own  materials, 
biography,  natural  history,  natural  philoso- 
phy, and  religion*  Such,  we  say,  is  the  na- 
tural product  of  a  primitive  age,  so  soon  as 
it  becomes  historical.  As  a  natural,  so  is 
it  a  genuine  product  Whatever  its  absolute, 
its  relative  value  is  very  great  It  is  mani- 
festly the  transcript  of  a  real  state  of  mind. 
It  is  no  fancy  picture,  no  invention;  but  a 
record  of  what  fellow-beings  once  saw,  heard, 
did,  believed,  reported,  received  and  trans- 
mitted. Nor  is  there  in  this  compound  pro- 
duct any  incongruous  element  The  union 
of  history  and  religion  may  wear  a  suspi- 
cious aspect  to  minds  versed  in  the  details 
of  religious  imposture.  But  die  oo-existenoe 
of  religion  with  primeval  history  is  a.^a- 
rantee  of  the  genuineness  of  the  narrative. 
No  other  than  religious  history  could  at  the 
first  exist  Solely  those  states  of  mind  were 
in  operation  which  produce  religions  his- 
tory. Indeed,  the  religious  was  the  predo- 
minant element  As  soon  as  men  i^ipre- 
hended  the  idea  of  Deity,  that  idea  must 
have  filled  their  souls.  Everything  was  seen 
in  itB  light  And  when  history  received  its 
impress,  it  was  from  the  hands  of  religion. 
Such  is  the  kind  of  history  which  is  pre- 
sented to  us  in  the  book  of  Genesis.  Such 
is  the  kind  of  history  which  we  should  ex- 
pect to  receive  from  a  primitive  race.  The 
lisct  is  in  correspondence  with  the  probabfli- 
ties,  and  the  history  avonohes  its  own  genu- 
ineness. Doubtless  we  have  in  that  book  a 
true  picture  of  very  early  ages. 

Perhaps,  however,  in  this  compound,  one 
element  may  be  incompatible  with  another. 
If  infallibility  were  predicated  of  the  narra- 
tive, there  would  be  ground  for  this  suppo- 
sition. Absolute  truth  resides  only  in  the 
mind  of  God,  and  history  is  a  product  of 
human  minds.  The  fallible  and  the  infalli- 
ble cannot  oo-exist  in  relation  to  the  same 
thing  in  the  same  record.  But  there  is  no 
incompatibility  between  religion  and  history, 
for  both,  whatever  their  origin  and  source, 
•re  expressions  of  the  same  human  mind. 
So  far  from  being  incompatible,  they  may  be 


ancillary  to  each  other.  And  there  is  no 
extravagance  in  asserting,  that  the  primitiTc 
view  of  religion  in  which  it  pervaded  ana 
embraced  all  subjeots,  interests,  and  views 
was  philosophically  the  mors  correct,  as  wdi 
as  praetieally  the  more  seemly  and  proper 
If  there  is  an  advantage  in  contemplating 
an  object  in  one  single  aspect,  it  is  chiefly 
because  yon  are  thus  better  prepared  for 
viewing  it  as  a  whole;  and  religion,  which 
considers  olgeets  in  all  their  relations,  Is 
more  likely  to  ftamish  correct  views  than 
can  arise  from  the  most  penetrating  giance 
confined  to  a  single  point 

Hence  it  appears  that  in  prinMsral  his- 
tory the  religious  element  does  not,  of  neces- 
sity, exert  a  perverting  inflnence.  The  eo 
existence  of  religion  is  essential  as  mueh  to 
the  exeellenoe  as  it  is  to  our  conception  of 
primeval  history.  It  would  make  the  views 
oomprehensive.  It  would  move  the  intsUeet 
by  the  force  of  great  and  lofty  motives.  It 
would  fill  the  heart  with  the  elevating  and 
refining  emotions  of  adoration,  love,  grati- 
tude, and  pndse.  It  would  thus  raise  the 
entire  man  into  a  loftier  sphere,  and  bring 
him  into  contact  with  that  spirit  of  God 
whence  oomes  all  tme  light  for  the  mind, 
and  all  pure  impulse  for  tibe  heart  Primi- 
tive religion,  therefore,  was  akin  to  inspim- 
tion:  and  though,  when  we  come  to  the 
modes  of  the  Divine  action,  we  can  no  longer 
trace  the  links  which  buid  canse  and  effect 
together,  we  may  yet  declare  that  the  reli- 
gious element  is  the  point  at  which  the  di- 
vine and  the  human  are  oonnected  in  the 
biblical  records. 

That  there  is  a  divine  element  in  ihese 
reeords,  appears  i^om  their  contents.  The 
opening  page  of  the  Bible  suttees  to  esta- 
blish the  proposition.  The  account  there 
given  (i.  1,  ii.  9)  of  the  creation  breathes  a 
loftier  spirit  than  that  of  man.  Thevrriter's 
mind  had  evidently  been  raised  to  a  com- 
manding point  of  view.  The  nature  of  the 
Divine  operation  on  that  mind  it  is  vain  for 
man  to  attempt  to  describe.  The  existence 
of  that  operation  is  evidenoed  by  its  ellbcts. 
If  the  universe  manifests  itself  to  be  the 
work  of  God's  hands,  that  suUime  narrative 
betokens  the  Divine  influence.  Produced  in 
the  dawn  of  human  civilisation,  it  has  never 
yet  been  equalled.  Referring  the  universe  to 
the  creative  agency  ot  the  one  all-pervading 
Mind,  it  rose  at  once,  in  this  particular,  to 
the  last  great  deduction  of  seientifie  research, 
and  gave  utterance  to  a  tmfli  which  eternity 
as  well  as  time  will  only  conflxm  and  illus- 
trate. 

But  the  substance  must  not  be  oonfoonded 
with  the  form.  If  we  would  speak  with  pre- 
cinon  and  prednde  unanswerable  objections, 
we  must  separate  the  truth  of  flie  narrative 
from  its  accidental  investments.  Those  in- 
vestments were,  of  necessity,  sueh  as  fitted 
the  truth  for  reception  among  a  yet  half- 


D  E  U  485  D  E  U 

avilised  people.  The  ageney,  therefore,  of  narnUiTe  wm  translated  out  of  the  original, 
the  DiTine  mind  in  producing  the  creation,  for  the  picture  had- to  be  reduced  to  writing. 
is  set  forth  under  the  similitudes  of  motion,  Now,  in  its  least  imperfect  condition,  picture 
speech,  and  action,  all  of  which  bear  a  human  writing  employed  symbols,  the  import  of 
character.  And  although  we  must  admit  which,  when  transferred  to  narrative,  might 
that  no  act  of  man's  can  fittingly  body  forth  undergo  decided  modifications.  The  ser- 
the  Divine  operations,  we  must  at  the  same  pent,  for  instance,  wss  throughout  the  East 
time  allow  that  no  grander  representation  of  an  emblem  of  the  evil  principle — a  person!- 
his  creative  agency  can  be  given  than  is  fication  of  those  passions  and  adverse  iniiu- 
found  in  the  words — *  Let  light  be,  and  light  ences  which  seduce  men  into  sin,  and  entail 
was.*  To  speak  a  universe  into  being,  is  the  misery  on  them.  When,  then,  the  historian 
least  unworthy  mode  of  the  Divine  operation  set  down  in  his  picture-writing  the  obvious 
that  man  can  imagine.  To  say  in  efect  that  inference  that  the  disobedience  and  wietch- 
God*s  word  was  life,  is  not  only  to  refer  all  edness  which  he  saw  in  the  world  ensued 
things  to  Qod  as  dieir  cause,  but  to  set  from  the  sin  of  the  first  human  pair,  he 
forth,  in  a  manner  the  most  sublime  as  well  drew  a  serpent,  the  recognised  image  of  the 
as  the  most  impressive,  the  great  and  im*  power  of  temptation,  ofiering  to  '  the  weaker 
portant  fact,  that  the  universe  had  its  ori-  vessel'  a  delicious  fknit  Carrying  on  his 
gin  in  the  Divine  mind.  narrative  after  the  manner  of  which  so  many 
This  great  truth,  irtiich,  in  the  condition  instances  are  still  seen  in  the  Egyptian 
of  the  world,  could  not  have  had  an  earthly  monuments,  he  set  the  guilty  pair  before 
origin,  is  accompanied  in  its  statement  by  their  offended  Judge ;  and  again,  in  another 
details  that  wear  the  appearance  of  having  picture,  drove  them  from  Paradise,  and 
originated  in  those  religious  meditations  to  painted  the  cherubim,  the  received  guardian 
which  all  superior  minds  are  drawn,  and  in  of  goodness,  as  keeping  watch  and  ward 
which  the  minds  of  a  primitive  Eastern  race  over  the  happy  enclosure  whence  they  had 
could  not  ftul  to  be  engaged.  Besides  the  been  expeUed.  These  pictures  became  the 
fact  of  the  creation  by  the  Divine  agency,  the  narrative  recorded  in  Genesis, 
manner  in  which  the  universe  came  into  its  The  sudden  alternations  of  good  and  ill 
actual  state  would  engfage  the  earnest  at-  by  which  human  life  is  chequered,  occa- 
tention  of  inquirers,  and  lead  to  the  exist-  sioned  at  a  veiy  early  period  the  widely-spread 
ence  of  more  than  one  solution.  The  why  ?  inference,  that  the  Divine  Powers  were  grudg- 
and  the  how?  we  cannot  keep  out  of  our  ing  of  their  favours  and  jealous  of  human 
thoughts,  as  soon  as  we  contemplate  creation  happiness.  Hence  they  looked  with  an  evil 
in  an  earnest  mood.  Answers  to  these  ques-  eye  on  man's  prosperity  and  his  progress  in 
tions,  with  others  of  an  important  kind,  are  knowledge ;  which  they  were  ever  on  the 
found  in  the  early  part  of  the  book  of  Gene-  point  of  reversing  and  bringing  to  nought, 
sis.  The  reflections  which  thus  originated  lest,  if  his  career  were  undisturbed,  he  should 
passed,erelong,  into  a  page  of  history,  under  become  like  one  of  them.  An  influence 
the  latitude  allowed  by  oral  tradition,  and  from  this  speculation  may  be  traced  in  the 
the  universal  tendency  which  has  ever  pre-  prohibition  to  Adam  not  to  eat  of  the  tree  of 
vailed  in  the  East  for  all  the  products  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  (ii.  17;  iii.  5, 
mind  to  assume  the  fonn  of  narrative.  In  11,  22).  The  consideration  under  which 
the  transmission  of  these  narratives  from  God  is  recorded  to  have  expelled  Adam  and 
father  to  son,  some  changes  would  natn-  Eve  from  Paradise,  is  one  which  the  pious 
rally  be  introduced.  Hence  arose  different  mind  is  pleased  to  find  rather  in  human 
versions  of  the  same  account ;  one  preserved  misconstructions  of  God's  providence  than 
in  this,  another  in  that  line  of  trausmission.  in  the  actual  dealings  of  Him,  who,  having 
Accordingly,  at  least  two  narratives  of  the  made  his  children  capable  of  indefinite  pro- 
creation are  found  in  G^esis ;  the  first,  in  gress,  has  always  been  pleased  with  them  in 
which  the  Creator  is  designated  simply  God  iha  degree  in  which  they  have  realised  the 
(i.  iL — 3  ) ;  the  other,  in  which  he  is  spoken  higher  purpose  of  their  creation,  and, '  by  rea 
of  under  the  compound  appellation.  Lord  son  of  use,  have  their  senses  exercised  to 


God  (iL4 — ^iii).  These  two  differ  in  general  discern  both  good  and  evil'  (Heb.v.14);  so 

tone,  as  well  sa  in  the  names  given  to  the  that,  growing  in  knowledge  and  in  grace 

Deity ;   the  former  is  more  simple,  more  (Philipp.  i.  9, 10),  they  go  on  to  perfection 

purely  sublime,  more  strictly  historical,  than  (Heb.  vi.  1). 

the  latter ;  which,  accordingly,  contains  some  National  character  would  of  necessity  im- 

things,  such  as  Eve's  formation  out  of  one  print  itself  on  the  narrative.   With  an  Arab, 

of  Adam's  ribs,  that  unbelievers  have  made  dexterity  is  held  in  hi^  estimation,  espe- 

serviceable  in  their  warfare  against  revealed  cially  when  employed  in  overcoming  a  diffi- 

religion.  culty  or  extricating   a  person  from  peril. 

Alphabetic  sprang  from  picture  writing.  Nor  is  the  dexterity  the  less  commendable  if 

Our  record  is  in  alphabetic  writing.    Long,  accompanied  by  falsehood.    Thus,  Abraham 

therefore,  after  the  events  must  that  recoM  and  Isaac  both  declare  their  wives  to  be 

have  been  made.    When  it  was  made,  the  their  sisterswhen  afraid  lest,  in  a  foreign  land, 


DEU  486  DEU 

lh«ir  betnly  thonld  ooeasion  peril  to  them-  giet  of  individiuJi,  bat  also  ia  die  praaer- 

•elvee  (Gen.  zii.  12,  iff.;  zz.  d ;  zxtL  7,  teq.).  Tstion  of  tnlte  of  ohenetar,  domestie  inei^ 

jnitWi'm^  like  Iheee,  while  in  morals  they  dents,  end  funily  oonneetions,  wfaieh,  ia  a 

present  that- which  is  to  he  shonned,  afford  primitiTe  or  patriarehal  age,  woold  be  ao 

goarantees  that  these  narratiTes  arose  in  the  mnoh  historj.    And,  in  tiiith,  the  historioal 

stale  of  society  in  whieh  they  profess  to  have  AanatiTes  we  poaaesa  may  be  regarded  aa, 

had  their  origin,  and  ao  gire  an  aaanraaee  to  in  the  main,  die  hiatoiy  of  one  fiunily,  or 

the  man  of  well-inatmeted  mind,  that  in  tather  one  man,  Abraham,  oootinaedthroiigh 

leading  them  he  haa  to  do  with  realitiea.  a  long  line  of  poeteiity ;  whieli,  in  agreement 

The  imagination  has  a  Teiy  large  ahars  with  tfie  Dirine  piomiae,  ever  grew  broader 

of  influence  in  the  formation  of  the  oriental  aa  it  came  down  to  later  ages, 
easts  of  oharacter,  especially  in  a  primitive        Names,  if  not  all  nonna,  were  at  the  fimt 


age.  Hence  all  early  writings  mnst  be  fhll  deecriptlTe.  Each  name,  aa  being  deacrip- 
of  imagery;  and  a  writing  without  imagery  tiire,  waa  a  record.  It  transmitted  to  poa- 
may  safely  be  dated  at  a  late  period.  But  teri^  a  fust,  an  ercot,  an  impression,  or  a 
Imagination  haa  in  poetry  ita  appropriate  beliot  When  the  firat  man  waa  denominated 
etpression.  Men's  earliest  thoo^^ts  erabo-  Adam  (nd  mrtk),  a  rscoid  was  given  to  an 
di^  themaelTCS  in  a  poetic  form.  This  opinion  that  he  waa  formed  ttom  the  eoiL 
form  might  be  preeerred  from  age  to  age  in  When  his  wife  receiTed  the  name  of  Sve 
historical  and  eommemorative  poems,  or  it  (lifO»  '^^  ^^^  thereby  pointed  out  as  the 
might  be  resolved  into  prosaid  history.  In  first  mother,  the  primary  soores  of  homan 
either  eaae,  the  tranamisaion  of  erenta  would  existence.  The  earliest  poaaeaaion  whi^ 
find  a  vehicle  which  woolcL  admit  of  addi-  the  first  pair  eoold  be  properly  aaid  to  have 
tiona  and  coloiiringB  to  the  simple  and  on*  made,  waa  in  the  birth  of  their  eldeat  eon, 
varnished  fiMt.  In  the  earUest  portions  of  who  was  accordingly  denominated  Cain 
Oeneeia  are  traces  of  poetical  tradition  (iv.  (potutnon).  The  place  in  which  they  had 
6,  7,  28,  24).  thenreariiest  abode  waa  distingnisfaed  tor  love- 
The  history  from  the  creation  to  the  flood,  liness,  and  hence  waa  called  Eden  (btmtty). 
true  piety  will  not  presume  to  take  for  more  Cain,  after  the  murder  of  his.  brother,  be- 
than  it  profsaees  to  be.  The  lengthened  came  a  vagabond,  and  the  land,  in  conae- 
period  of  at  leaat  two  thonaand  years  ia  qnence,  into  whieh  he  waa  banished,  re- 
treated of  in  five  ch^ters,  consisting  in  all  ceived  the  name  of  Nod  (wndming).  In 
of  one  handled  and  thirty-eight  veraea,  of  aimilar  manner,  other  proper  namea  which 
which  a  large  proportion  ia  occapied  with  are  found  in  Hebrew  primarral  hiatoiy,  and 
genealogiea  and  the  accounts  of  the  creatioiL  of  which  the  etymology  ia  ezpreaaly  given 
The  anthor^s  materials  were  obviously  few.  (fiity-one  in  Oeneeia  alone),  or  which  can 
Thia  ia  a  aunple  ftust  which  Divine  Provi-  eaaily  be  ascertained,  are  an  undying  record 
denoe  has  seen  fit  to  plaee  in  the  BiUe,  and  aadmemorialofpecuiiaritiea,event8,aadoon- 
which  we,  therefore,  are  bound  reverently  to  vietiona  connected  with  persons  or  placee;  aa 
acknowledge.  It  is  a  fact  which  teaches,  in  Beth,  Noah,  Shem,  Ham,  Japhet,  Babel, 
among  other  things,  that  man  was  in  the  Ishmael,  Beer-lahai-roi  (Gen.  zvL  14),  Al»m- 
main  left  to  his  own  reeourees  for  his  know-  ham,  Zoar,  Moab,  Ammon,  Isaac,  Beersheba, 
ledge  of  Ihese  earliest  ages.  It  is  a  fact  Jacob,  Edom,  Esek  (zzvL  20),  Simah  (xxvL 
triiioh  stands  in  agrsement  with  what  we  21),Behoboth(zzvi22),Bediel(xzviii  !•). 
might  expect  to  find ;  for  the  first  races  oi  In  some  instances,  two  names  are  found, 
men  would  be  fisr  too  much  occupied  with  Here  the  commemorative  effort  becomes  the 
their  material  wants,  and  fu  too  little  ad-  more  marked  and  striking;  thus,  Abraham 


vanced  in  eiviliaation,  to  have  time,  thought,  waa  first  called  Abram ;  Israel,  Jacob ;  Joeeph 

knowledge,  or  skill  to  make  a  set  record  of  received  the  name  of   Zapfanath-paaneah 

events.  (xlL  45),  and  Shinar  that  of  BabeL   So  long 

Tet  the  immediate  connection  of  file  pri*  aa  fiw  Hebrew  remained  a  living  language, 

mhive  family  with  the  antediluvians,  their  theee  namea  would  be  ao  many  rMorda, 

oeparation  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  aeting  at  leaat  like  an  artificial  aid  to  the 

the  continued  preeervation  of  the  identity  of  memory,  and  enriching  the  materiala  for 

one  blanch  of  them  in  the  Abrahamlda,  history.    Tet  as  in  many  instaneea  the  mere 

would  afford  peculiar  opportunities  for  the  name,  however  diatin^y  aigaificative,  might 

transmission,  in  a  state  of  comparative  pu-  fail  to  describe  the  event  sufHeiently,  cx]^a- 

rity,  of  the  earliest  knowledge,  traditions,  natory  words  are  added.    For  instance.  Eve, 

aad  records  of  the  world,  down  to  reoMte  in  calling  her  first-bom  Cain,  said,  'I  have 

ages  and  ^at  may  be  termed  historic  pe-  gotten  a  man  from  Jehovah'  (iv.  1).    These 

nods.   With  the  deseendanto  of  Abraham  the  explanatory  words  bear,  in  genend,  the  ap- 

domestic  affections  were  possessed  of  extra-  pearance  of  having  been  contemporaneous 

ordinary  atrengtii.     The  predominance  of  with  the  eventa,  and  thus,  from  the  first, 

thia  influence  would  find  aa  exprsaaion,  not  would  aid  the  memory  in  handinff  down  ita 

only  in  the  diacovery,  transmission,  and  for-  treasuree  into  the  hands  of  the  duonider. 

mation  of  ftanily  registers  end  the  geuealo-  Other  aids  to  history  were  «nmdm  visible 


D  £  U  487  D  £  U 

mtmoiiali  of  twioiui  kindi :  ts  uunred  trees,  mAy  agee;  end,  eeoondly,  m  the  historian  of 

al  Mamre,  Moreh,  Beenheba,  Bethel  (Qen.  events  in  which  he  had  himself  had  a  veiy 

xzi.  83);  ancient  altars,  as  at  Bethel  (zzzv.  large  share,  and  with  whieh  he  was  inti- 

1);  hence  JehoTsh  was  denominated  'Qod  mately  aoqoainted.    These  two  relations  are 

of  Bethel'  (7) ;   also   stone  pillars   (Oen.  of  yerj  dissimilar  evidential  Tains.    In  his 

zxviii  18 ;  xzzv.  14),  which  served  as  boon-  first  relation,  Moses  oould  give  onlj  the  best 


daiy  marks  (xzxL  40,  My.)*  T^«  tenacity  materials  that  the  past  had  brought  down  to 
with  which  the  memory  of  these  places  was  his  hsnds,  which  could  be  nothing  more  than 
retained  Is  illustrated  in  the  fact,  that  they  the  best  accounts  that  men  of  previous  gene- 
became  permanent  objects  of  veneration,  to  rations  had  been  able  to  form  and  transmit 
such  an  extent  that  some  of  them,  in  later  This  statement  is  supported  by  the  whole 
and  degenerate  times,  were  centres  of  super-  character  of  the  book  of  Genesis,  which  never 
stitious  snd  idolatrous  worship.  lays  claim  to  any  sanction  beyond  that  of 

Commemorative  songs  also  fonned  a  part  the  credibility  of  its  own  narratives :  it  is  not 

of  the  materials  which  conduced  to  the  for-  a  divine  record  (if  such  a  phrase  has  sny 

mation  of  the  Hebrew  history.    These  were  meaning),  but  a  record  of  divine  things,  in 

not  only  transmitted  from  mouth  to  mouth,  which  much  that  is  human  is  everywhere 

bnt  taught  to  the  young  under  the  direction  found.  The  inspiration  is  not  in  the  record, 

of  eminent  poets  themselves;  for  such  is  the  but  in  certain  great  truths  snd  certain  lofty 

import  of  the  passage  in  2  Sam.  L 18,  where  characters  therein  exhibited. 
David  '  bade  them  teach  the  children  (not        The  fragmentary  chsracter  which  belongs 

'  the  use,*  but)  the  song  of  the  bow.'  to  Genesis  is  found,  only  in  a  less  degree, 

Proverbs  or  pithy  sayings,  for  which  the  in  the  rentaining  books  of  the  Pentateuch ; 

Hebrew  mind  and  language  were  eminently  for  it  was  in  substance,  rather  than  in  form, 

suited,  offered,  at  a  very  early  period,  contri-  that  histoiy  came  into  existence  under  the 

butions  to  history,  as  in  Gen.  x.  9 ;  1  Sam.  influence  of  the  exodus  from  Egypt    And 

X.  11.  though  this  fragmentary  character  may  have 

These  faoti,  which,  did  space  permit,  afforded  fincilities  for  the  interpolation  of 
might  be  set  forth  much  more  fully,  con*  matter  by  later  hands,  yet,  while  we  may 
spire  to  show  that  from  very  early  periods  owe  to  such  acts  information  and  evi- 
an  historical  effort  prevailed  among  ihe  peo-  denoe  that  we  should  not  have  otherwise 
pie  who  hold  prominence  in  the  Bible,  and  possessed,  the  obvious  naturalness  of  a  com- 
that  the  results  of  this  effort  was,  the  trans-  position  made  up  of  many  separate  pieces 
mission  to  later  ages  of  various  materials  and  fhigments,  in  the  actual  cirenmstancea 
ready  to  be  wrought  into  a  connected  narra-  of  the  Jewish  lawgiver,  affords  in  favour  of 
tive.  History,  however,  could  hardly  come  the  four  last  books  a  ground  of  conviction 
into  existence  except  under  the  influence  of  which  is  tenable  and  satisfactory,  and  will 
some  great  event,  and  in  the  hands  of  some  be  found  the  more  forcible  the  more  closely 
extraordinaiy  man.  Both  were  found  in  the  it  is  investigated  in  its  details.  lo  these 
deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  Egyptian  four  books,  however,  which  thus  appear  to 
bondage,  and  their  consequent  establidiment  have  arisen  gradnaUy  under  the  particular 
in  the  land  of  Canaan.  Here  was  a  topic  events  that  occasioned  the  memoranda  con- 
demanding  an  historian,  and  materials  in  stitutlng  the  body  of  the  work,  we  have,  on 
abundance  for  his  pen.  Who  so  fit  to  use  that  the  supposition  that  Moses  was  their  author, 
pen  as  he  who  had  been  personally  concerned  the  accounts  of  sn  eye-witness ;  of  one  who, 
in  these  stirring  events?  But  if  sny  account  in  consequence,  knew  the  truth,  and  could, 
was  to  be  given  of  the  redemption  of  the  so  far  as  we  can  see,  have  had  no  reason  for 
Israelites,  it  was  natund,  if  not  necessary,  concealing,  exaggerating,  or  perverting  it 
that  it  should  be  prefaoed  by  a  general  view  In  iriiat  sense,  however,  are  we  to  affirm 
of  the  circumstances  connected  with  their  that  Moses  wrote  the  four  last  books  of  the 
enslavement  Such  a  view,  however,  took  Pentateuch?  This,  on  which  much  has  of 
the  writer  back  to  the  days  of  the  patriarchs,  late  been  written  in  Germany,  we  think  oom- 
a  sketch  of  iriiose  history  oould  not  be  psratively  a  minor  question.  In  substsnce, 
satisfactorily  written,  unless  their  derivation  Moses  sppeare  to  us  snswerable  for  the  whole 
from  the  antediluvians,  and  tram  the  fint  Pentateuch,  though  in  different  degrees  and 
pair,  was  previously  set  forth.  Hence  the  to  dissimilar  results.  But  even  the  sanction 
writer  sought  for  materials  respecting  pre-  of  his  nsme  is  of  less  importsnce  than  the 
ceding  ages ;  and  such  materisls  as  he  could  sanction  which  the  books  ^emselves  bear  in 
procure,  he  put  together  without  subjecting  every  page.  Beyond  a  doubt,  they  present 
them  to  much  alteration,  aiming  chiefly  to  a  true  picture  of  the  ages  to  which  they  in 
give  a  narrative  which  foUowed  the  chrono-  different  parts  refer.  These  sre  true  human 
logical  order  of  events.  Hence  it  is  obvious  voices  out  of  the  depths  of  boar  antiquity, 
that  Moses  stands  to  us  in  a  twofold  rela-  These  are  genuine  nanratives  of  real  events, 
tion;  fint,  that  of  a  compiler  of  oral  tradi-  The  men,  women,  and  children  which  they 
tions  and  documentary  informatioD  received  place  before  us  are  our  brethren ;  their  affee- 
from  previous  snd,  in  some  instances,  very  tions,  passions,  and  interests  are  in  kind  our 


D  E  U                      488  D  E  U 

own;  their  modetof  life,  while  true  to  a  primi-  place;  and  the  whole  namUive  aeqiiiies  a 
tive  and  oriental  model,  bear  the  yet  deeper  aignificanee  and  a  credibility  which  it  cannot 
and  broader  lines  of  our  common  humanity,  poaseas  if  contemplated  in  its  several  parts 
Even  in  the  shades  of  the  pietnre  we  xecog-  merely,  or  diqoioed  ftom  its  natorsl  termi- 
niseoorselves;  weaknesses  to  which  we  hare  nation.  Not  withoat  grounds,  therefore, 
yielded,  sins  similar  to  those  that  we  have  com-  has  the  eminent  Hebraist,  Ewald,  appended 
mitted,  penalties  that  we  have  endued.  So  Joehna  to  the  Pentatench,  in  his  classifica- 
true,  indeed,  to  humsn  nature  is  the  picture  tion  of  the  Hebrew  historieal  writings,  which 
in  sll  its  parts,  that  any  one  who  is  at  all  is  as  follows: — I.  The  books  which  are  con- 
moderately  versed  in  oriental  manners  and  secrated  to  the  antiquity  of  the  nation,  the 
primitire  ages,  may  reproduce  the  scenes  in  period  that  elapsed  before  the  period  of  the 
his  own  mind,  as  in  succession  he  passes  Judges :  these  works  are,  the  Pentateuch  and 
down  from  the  call  of  Abraham  to  the  death  the  Book  of  Joshua,  which  properly,  he 
of  Bf  OSes.  thinks,  constitute  only  one  work,  and  may 

The  position,  however,  that  to  Moses  the  be  termed  the  great  book  of  original  docu- 

origination  of  tiie  substance  of  the  four  last  ments.    II.  The  books  which  describe  the 

books  is  to  be  ascribed,  is  compatible  with  times  of  the  Judges  and  the  Kings  up  to 

different  views  as  to  the  kind  and  degree  of  the  first  destruction  of  Jerusalem — ^that  is, 

influence  which  brought  these  books  into  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings — to  which  class 

the  condition  in  which  they  now  lie  before  belongs  the  narrative  that  bears  the  name  of 

us.    That  condition,  some  have  gone  so  far  Buth;  'all  these,'  says  Ewald,  'constitute 

as  to  say,  th^  did  not  assume  until  alter  also,  when  viewed  in  their  last  formation, 

the  Babylonish  captivity;  as  if  the  decline  of  but  one  work,  which  may  be  called  the  great 

a  state  and  the  depravation  consequent  on  Book  of  Kings.*    III.  The  third  class  cora- 

a  long  national  bondage,  were  a  period  at  all  prises  the  books  included  under  the  head  of 

likely  to  have  power  for  putting  the  finish-  Hagiographa  (sacred  writings),   which  he 

ing  hand  to  the  great  classics  of  Hebrew  holds  to  be  of  a  much  later  origin,  Chroni- 

literature — a  remark  which  ^tpltea  with  still  cles,  with  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  forming  the 

greater,  and  we  think  iizesistible,  force  to  great  books  of  general  history  reaching  to 

die  position  of  those  who  assert  that  these  Uie  Grecian  period. 

workjB  did  not  exist  till  alter  ths  exile,  at  We  will  now  examine  a  litde  more  closely 
least  in  anything  like  a  substantial  form,  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  in  order  to  see 
An  opinion  previils,  however,  among  Qer-  whether  or  not  they  bear  traces  of  genuine- 
man  critics,  that  evidences  of  a  later  hand  ness,  and  confirm  or  reverse  our  impres- 
are  found  in  the  books  constituting  the  Pen-  sion,  that  in  their  substance  they  had  Mo- 
tateuch ;  while  some  are  of  opinion  that  the  ses  for  their  author.  We  consider  first  the 
operation  of  two  or  three  hands  besides  that  second,  third  and  fourth  books,  or  the  law- 
of  the  original  compiler  may  be  traced,  in  giving,  which  is  distinguished  from  the  se- 
adding  supplementary  matter  which  either  cood,  found  in  the  fifOi  book,  or  Deutero- 
did  not,  or  even  could  not,  have  proceeded  nomy.  From  the  first  book  these  four  are, 
from  the  pen  of  Moses.  again,  distinguished  by  their  subject-matter. 

The  conviction  that  Moses  was  strictly  Indications  of  place  are  found  in  these  three 

and  exclusively  the  author  of  the  five  books  writings.  Now,  indications  of  place  are  very 

that  bear  his  name,  seems  to  have  occasioned  important  ss  means  of  testing  and  verifying 

the  somewhat  arbitrary  separation  of  them  alleged  events.  They  show  us  the  condition 

from  the   rest  of  the  Bible,  a  separation  of  the  persons  concerned   in  the  transac- 

which  may  have  been  facilitated  and  con-  tions ;  die  juncture  of  actual  circumstances, 

firmed   by  the  special  reverence  for  them  They  tend  to  remove  vagueness,  and  bring 

which  the  Jews  have  long  manifested.    If,  objects  to  a  point  where  they  may  be  dis* 

however,  the  course  of  events  were  allowed  tincUy  contemplated.    They  are,  therefore, 

a  fair  share  of  influence  in  our  dassifica-  adventurous  things  in  a  fabricator's  hands, 

tion,  the  ensuing  Book  of  Joshua  would  be  Let  a  person,  then,  open  these  books,  and, 

admitted  into  the  first  and  most  honourable  without  having  any  previous  knowledge  of 

rank ;  for  in  it  we  find  a  narrative  of  the  their  history,  he  would,  on  running  over 

completion,  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  of  their  contents,  be  inevitably  led  to  the  con- 

the  great  subject  that  more  or  less  imme-  elusion,  that  the  people  for  whom  these  laws 

diately  occupies  the  preceding  pages ;  and  were  designed  lived,  not  in  cities,  nor  in  any 

tliat  the  rather,  because  on  the  subjugation  fixed  and  secure  place  of  their  own,  but  in  a 

of  Canaan  were  also  fulfilled  the  promises  camp,  wandering  from  spot  to  spot     For 

given  to  the  fathers.    Thus  Uie  cycle  of  his-  instance,  in  Lev.  iv.  we  find  the  law  of  the 

tory  IS  made  complete.  Onegreatactinthena-  sin-offering  set  forth.    Where  was  the  ani 

tzonal  drama  18  performed.  The  unity  which  mal  to  be  slain?    At  the  door  of  the  taber 

runs  tiirough  Uie  Pentateuch,  binding  all  its  nade,  or  Unt  (4).    Where  was  it  to  be  burnt  ? 

parts  together,  uid  giving  reason  and  pro-  Without  tiie  camp  (12,  21).  The  same  facts 

pnety  to  each  chapter  in  succession,  is  here  are  observable  in  the  law  concemmg  lepers 

brought  to  a   completion  and    a   resting-  (Lev.  xiii.  xiv.),  and  other  cases  (xvL  27, 


D  E  U  489  D  E  U 

38 ;  xvii.  8;  zziT.  14,  23.  Numb.  zr.  85,  86;  them ;  that  tfie  land  whither  I  bring  yon  to 

ziz*)>  dwell  therein,  spne  yon  not  out' 

The  general  history  presents  the  lenelites        The  laws  regarding  the  sabbath  of  the 

as  wandering  for  many  years  in  the  wilder-  serenth  year,  and  the  jnbilee  in  the  fiftieth 

ness.    Its  ftmdamental  laws  bear  a  distinot  year,  giren  in  antic^Mtion  (LeT.  zxr.),  were 

inq^ress  of  sneh  wandering.     Did  we  not  so  peenliar  in  oharaoter  and  so  wide  in  ope- 

know  that  the  Israelites  had  long  been  In  ration,  that  they  nerer  oonld  have  been  in- 

the  desert,  we  oonld  hare  acquired  the  know-  trodneed  after  the  death  of  Moses,  as  having 

ledge  from  sneh  facts  as  we  have  now  set  emanated  from  him,  had  not  snch  been  the 

forth.  These  laws,  moreover,  were  obvioosly  ease.    Their  inteiferencewith  property  is  so 

given  in  the  wilderness.    The  ftitare  is  con-  marked  and  decided,  that  all  &e  propertied 

templated  in  some  of  these  laws ;  provision  classes  would  have  combined  to  prevent  any 

is  made  for  a  state  of  things  whidi  was  to  attempt  to  originate  them,  had  sneh  an  al- 

ezist  only  after  an  intervaL    The  whole  his-  tempt  been  made  by  others.  Here,  the  claim 

tory  shows  that  the  Hebrews,  even  from  of  the  sanction  of  Moses,  without  which  any 

Abraham,  had  a  fbtore  distinctly  set  before  eiTort  mnst  have  been  fruitless,  would  have 

them  by  the  God  whom  they  were  called  to  occasioned  the  detection  of  the  fhnd,  had 

serve.    In  the  promises  which  made  those  there  been  any  class  of  men  having  either 

fritore  objects,  lay  one  great  peculiarity  of  the  knowledge  or  the  power  requisite  even 

Ood's  dealing  with  the  nation,  and  one  chief  to  contemplate  such  a  revolution  in  sll  the 

source  of  their  power  to  renounce  idolatry,  relations  of  property  as  these  laws  involve, 

snd  honour  and  obey  the  Greater.  Any  esti-  If  the  whole  system  of  law  did  not  originate 

mate  of  their  writings  which  does  not  take  with  Moses,  ite  eiistence  is  inexplicable:  and 

this  into  account,  omite  an  essential  ele-  those  who  have  traced  how  wide  in  ite  ope- 

ment,  and  must  involve  erroneons  condU'  ration  that  system  was,  how  many  other  laws 

sions.    Before  the  Mosaic  legialation  can  be  must  have  been  required  by  it,  how  great  ite 

judged  by  rules  common  wi&  that  of  Solon  modii^ing  power  on  the  entire  social  polity, 

or  Justinian,  this  element  must  be  struck  will  be  aware  that  we  have  here  an  evidence 

out  of  the  Hebrew  history.  that,  in  substance,  the  laws  which  bear  his 

A  state  of  things,  however,  different  from  name  must  have  had  Moses  for  tfaeir  author, 
the    actual,    is    contemplated    and   provi-         The  regulations  concerning  the  tent  and 

ded  for  by  Moses ;  such  a  state  as  would  the  camp  imply  that  the  tent  and  the  camp 

ensue  on  a  wandering  being  exchanged  for  existed,  then,  when  those  regulations  were 

a  settled  mode  of  existence.  In  Lev.  xiv.  88,  given ;  and  the  existence  of  those  regulations 

ieq^  the  general  law  of  the  leper  is  modified  in  their  actual  condition  is  best  accounted 

so  as  to  meet  the  case  of  a  house  affected  for  by  supposing  that  they  were  committed 

with  the  leprosy,  snd  the  ordinances  are  in-  to  writing,  at  least,  not  long  after  they  were 

troduced  with  diese  words :  *  When  ye  be  issued.    These  laws  were  idso  given  before 

come  into  the  land  of  Canaan,  which  I  give  the  people  had  a  well-ordered  system  of 

yon  for  a  possession.'    Such  forethought  is  civil  life  and  lived  in  towns  and  villages, 

in  agreement  with  the  history.    Ite  absence  Had  they  originated  in  such  a  condition, 

woidd  occasion  dilBculty.    If  Moses  had  the  they  would  have  borne  marks  of  it,  not  of 

land  of  promise  in  view,  he  could  not  have  the  tent  and  the  camp.    But  the  wiLdemesa 

ftdled  to  prepare  his  people  for  ite  posses-  and  a  camp  were  the  places  in  which,  ae- 

sion.    His  and  their  actual  condition  was  cording  to  the  history,  the  Mosaic  laws  had 

merely  provisional.  Butwhat  is  provisional,  their  origin.    Thus  the  laws  to  which  we 

implies  two  kinds  of  regulations ;  one  for  have  alluded  bear  evidences  of  the  origin 

the  present,  another  for  the  ftiture.    Both  assigned  by  the  history, 
are    found  in  the   books   under  conside-         The  author  of  these  books  was  acquainted 

ration.      Hence  we   get   another  class   of  with  the  season,  the  year,  the  month,  and 

laws,  which,  speaking   generally,  we  have  the  day  of  many  namrted  events.    The  Is- 

reason  to  think,  were  delivered  in  die  wilder-  raelites  marched,  from  the  Bed  Sea,  three 

ness  by  the  mouth  of  Moses.    But  if  so  de-  days  in  the  wilderness  of  Shur,  before  they 

livered,  then  must  tfaey  have  been  committed  came  to  Marah  (Exod.  xv.  22).    On  the  fif- 

to  writing ;  else,  having  no  firm  hold  in  die  teenth  day  of  the  second  month  after  their 

memory,  the  recollections,  or  the  practice  departing  out  of  Egypt,  *  they  came  into  the 

of  the  people,  they  could  not  have  answered  wilderness  of  Sin,  which  is  between  Elim 

their  end.    The  purpose  which  dicteted,  re-  and  Sinai'  (xvi.  1).    On  the  first  day  of  the 

quired  them  to  be  written.     (Oomp.  Lev.  third  month,  they  encamped  at  the  foot  of 

xix.  23.  Numb.  xv.  2.)   That  it  was  not  one  Sinai  (xix.  1 — 3).    On  the  third  day  after 

or  two  individual  cases  thrown  out  by  chance,  the  descent  of  Moses  from  the  Mount,  the 

but  a  body  of  laws  constructed  expressly  for  mijesty  of  God  appeared  (16).    In  the  se- 

a  coming  state  of  social  life,  is  evident  from  cond  year,  on  the  first  day  of  the  first  month. 

Lev.  XX.  22:  <  Te,  therefore,  shall  keep  all  the  tabernacle  was  reared  (xl.  17).    On  the 

my  statutes  and  all  my  judgmentet  and  do  eighth  day  of  this  months  Aaron  offered  his 


D  £  U  490  D  £  U 

fknt  oblmtion  (Ley.  he  1,  tff.) ;  tad  on  Uit     There  being  no  law  piorided  in  the  eaae^ 
fourteenth  dej  of  the  BtoM  month  of  the     the  offender  wu  impriaoned.    Coaneel 


••me  yeer, '  at  even  an  the  wildenMec/  the  teken,  end  •  general  law  estebUahed  that  the 

first  paaMyrer  was  kept  (Nnmb.  is.  1^^).  •abbadi-breaker  ahoold  be  stoned  to  death 

On  the  twentieth  day  of  the  eeeond  month  withaui  tk§  eamp  (Nnmb.  xr.  82,  86.  EzodL 

In  the  eeeond  year,  the  elond  was  taken  np  sxzi.  14, 16).    A  similar  eaae  may  be  foond 

from  the  tabeinaole  of  testiniony,  when  Oie  in  Ley.  zxiT.  10,  tff.     Aeeording  to  eet*- 

ehildren  of  larael  left  Sinai  (s.  11).    Seven  bUshed  laws,  only  males  eonUL  inherit  pro- 

daysweie  they  detained  at  Haaeioth  (ziL  14).  per^.    IVhat  wa^  to  t^ke  {dace  in  the  erent 

Forty  days  were  spent  by  the  spies  in  their  of  timers  being  only  femele  deeoendanta,  was 

Tiait  to  Canaan  (ziii  25).  not  deteimined.    A  ease  gare  rise  to  the 

The  antfaor  ia  also  aegwainted  with  aeei-  law.     The  danghtets  of  Zelo^ehad  laid 

dental  eireamstanoes,  for  he  mentiona  than  before   Moses  &e  fiaet   that   tibeir  fkther 

in  relation  to  their  place,  name,  number,  had   left  no  son.     Moses    brought  their 

time,  the  peiaans  oonneeted  with  them,  their  ease  bcfors  the  Lord,  and  the  answer  waa— 

aez  and  tribe.    At  EUm  were  twelve  wells  '  Thon  ahalt  oanae  tilie  inheritanee  of  their 

of  water  and  aeventy  palm  trsea  (Ezod.  zv.  father  to  paaa  nnto  them.'    Then  enanea  a 

27).    He  givea  in  detail  the  circnmataneea  general  law  bearing  on  instaneea  of  thia  and 

of  the  deaeeration  committed  by  Nadab  and  of  a  aimilar  kind  (Nnmb.  zzriL  1 — II).  The 

Abihn,  and  the  names  and  relationahip  of  reader  will  do  well  to  obaenre  the  partiea- 

thoae  who  bore  the  wnrpaea  ont  of  the  aane-  larity  that  prevaila  in  thia  teief  nairative. 

tnary  (Lev.z.  1— 4).  Nnmbera  vii.  oontains  Zelophehad  is  described  'as  the  son  of 

a  long  oatalogne  of  the  prasente  made  by  Hepher,  the  son  of  Oilead,  the  son  of  Ma- 

the  chiefs  of  Israel  at  the  consecration  c^  ehir,  the  son  of  Manaaseh,  of  the  ikmilies 


the  tabemade;  ita  author  knew  the  name  of  Manaaeeh,  the  aon  of  Joseph! 
of  ereiy  prince,  and  the  name  of  hia  father  daughters'  namea  are  given— Mahlah,  Noah» 
and  tribe;  alao  the  natore,  number,  and  Hoglah,  MQeah,  and  Tinah.  The  young 
value  of  each  one'a  preaenta.  In  Numb.  zzv.  women  make  retoenee  in  their  plea  to  an 
1 — 17,  we  have  an  ezaot  aeeount  of  a  crime  earlier  event : '  Our  ladier  diad  m  tktwUdtr* 
eommitted  by  an  laraelite  'in  the  aigfat  of  mm,  and  he  waa  not  in  the  eompany  of  them 
the  oongregation,'  the  elBsota  of  that  misdeed  that  gathered  themaelvea  against  the  Lord 
on  the  pec^,  and  its  condign  puniahment.  in  the  eompany  of  Korah'  (Numb.  Xfi.). 
The  writer  knew  the  name  of  the  Israelito—  A  word  dropped  incidentally  by  theae  si^ 
'  Zimri,  the  son  of  Salu,  a  prince  of  a  chief  pllanta,  implka  that  the  Israelites  were  no 
house  among  the  Simeonites ;'  of  the  <  Mi*  longer  in  the  wildemess.  In  faet,  they  were 
dianitish  woman' — ^'Cosbi,  the  daughter  of  now  on  the  boiden  of  the  pnmiised  land. 
Znr,  head  over  a  people,  of  a  chief  houae  in  Theae  are  atnmg  tokens  of  reality.  They 
Midian  f  and  of  him  who  slew  them — ^<Phi-  eridence  the  hunA  of  one  who  is  writing 
nehas,  the  son  of  Eleaiar,  the  son  of  Aaron.'  from  what  he  aeea  and  knowa. 
So  intimate  a  knowledge  of  peraons  and  The  laat  eaae  goea  atill  further.  The  new 
their  Kdation  to  eventa,  of  attendant  circnm-  law  affected  the  righta  of  the  tribe.  <  The 
ataneea  and  even  feelinga,  cannot  have  been  aona  of  Joaeph,'  therefore,  aubmitted  to 
Itanamitted  by  tradition,  and  diadoae  the  Moaea,  that  if  the  daud^ters  of  Zelophehad 
raeoiding  hand  of  a  contemporary.  inherited  their  fitthei'a  property,  that  pro- 
Many  laws  set  down  in  &ese  books  had  party  mi|^t  be  subtracted  frran  the  lot  of  the 
their  origin  on  accidental  occasions.  The  taibe ;  ainee  the  damaels  might  many  mem- 
writer  well  knew  theae  oeeaaiona,  and  the  bera  of  other  tribea,  and  *  dieir  inheritance 
nameaandtribeaoftheperaona  in  connection  be  put  unto  the  inheritance  of  the  tribe 
with  whom  the  ordinanoea  were  made.  Aa  whereunto  they  are  received.'  Hence  the 
already  stated,  the  firat  paaaover  waa  oele-  law  waa  modified: '  only  to  the  frunily  of  the 
brated  *  on  the  fooritenth  day  of  the  first  tribe  of  their  father  shall  they  many.'  And 
month.'  But  certain  men  rendered  unclean  this  became  the  law  in  the  case  of  heireaaes 
by  touching  a  dead  body,  were,  in  conse-  (Numb,  zzzri). 

quenee,  inoapaeitated  lor  keeping  the  festi-  Theae  are  given  as  specimens  to  show 
val  on  the  proper  day.  They  made  an  ap-  that  the  greater  part  of  the  contenta  of  the 
peal  to  Moaea.  Henoe  aroae  the  law  that  per-  three  hooka,  Ezodua,  Leviticua,  and  Num- 
aona  who  were  unclean  by  reaaon  of  a  dead  hers,  beara  marks  of  the  place  and  time  in 
body, or  on  a  journey  afar  off,  should  keep  the  whieh  these  contents  were  occasioned,  and 
paaaover  a  month  later  (Numb.  iz.  6—12).  probably  committed  to  writing.  A  unity  of 
The  puniahment  for  a  breadi  of  the  law  manner  alao  piemuls  which  betdcens  a  sub- 
regarding  the  sabbath  had  not  been  i^  stsntial  unity  of  origin.  That  real  life  was 
P°*?*^ ,  ^  particular  oocaaion  cauaed  it  to  the  original  whence  theae  diingB  were  drawn, 
be  laid  down.  In  the  wildemeaa  at  Honnah,  aeema  indisputable.  The  real  life  waa  of  a 
a  man  collected  wood  on  the  aahbath.  He  peculiar  kind.  It  was  life  in  the  wildemeaa. 
waa    bionght   before    Moeea    and   Aaron.  Henoe  we  get  back  to  the  eadiest  period 


D  E  U  491  D  E  U 

for  the  time  when  theee  wridngs  oiiginftted.  zzzUL  ie  expressly  Mid  to  rest  on  the  antho- 
It  does  not,  indeed,  follow  that  the  books,  lity  of  Moses,  irho  *  wrote  iheir  goings  out 
in  the  condition  in  which  they  now  lie  according  to  iheir  Jotimeys  by  the  command- 
before  as,  were  formed  at  the  time  when  the  ment  of  Jdiordii'  (2).  In  Exod.  xxiv.  4,  it 
recorded  events  happened.  Enoogh,  that  is  said,  in  relation  to  the  ten  commandments, 
the  materials  of  which  tbey  are  composed  '  Moses  wrote  all  the  words  of  Jehovah ' 
had  their  origin  at  a  time  when  the  troth  (Exod.  xxiv.  4;  comp.  xx.  2,  Hq.), 
could  be  known,  and  when  there  was  The  last  book  of  the  Pentateuch  has  both 
no  reason  for  reporting  anything  but  the  in  form  and  contents  much  resemblance  to 
truth.  The  particular  form  may  have  more  the  three  by  which  it  is  preceded.  As  in 
than  once  changed:  the  substance  seems  to  these,  so  in  Deuteronomy,  the  laws  are  not 
have  remained  the  same.  That  substance  brought  forward  according  to  the  similarity 
bears  manifest  traces  of  an  origin  ooeval  of  their  contents,  but  lie  in  &e  book  without 
with  the  events.  It  is  also  a  matter  of  less  reference  to  each  other,  forming  a  kind  of 
consequence  whose  was  the  hand  that  legal  miscellany.  Succession  of  time  seems 
committed  these  memorials  to  the  ous-  to  be  the  only  thread  on  which  they  are  ar- 
tody  of  writing.  Men  have  allowed  them-  ranged.  It  is  also  the  same  people  to  whom 
selves,  in  questions  of  archeology,  to  these  laws  are  given — the  people  that  had 
be  unduly  influenced  by  great  names.  An  been  rescued  from  Egypt  by  the  strong  hand 
obviously  absurd  and  untrue  narrative  would  of  God,  and  had  the  intention  of  taking  pos- 
not  become  credible  by  bearing  the  name  of  session  of  Canaan,  the  land  given  to  Uieir 
Moses.  A  statement  or  a  book  which  carries  fathers.  The  observance  of  the  laws,  more- 
in  itself  evidences  of  truth  and  credibility,  over,  is  enforced  by  the  same  considerations, 
needs  not  the  corroboration  of  external  au  It  is  still  a  camp  in  which  the  leader  speaks 
thority.  If,  iadeed,  such  corroboration  can  to  his  people  (Deut  xxix.  9, 10). 
be  had,  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  rejected.  On  the  other  side,  many  diversities  have  to 
But  the  cause  of  revelation  incurs  a  loss,  be  acknowledged.  The  earlier  books  contain, 
instead  of  making  a  gain,  whenever  unsus-  along  with  laws,  narratives  of  various  events ; 
tainable  claims  are  preferred,  or  solid  evi-  this  book  contains  only  very  few  histori- 
dcnce  is  strained.  cal  accounts    Deuteronomy  offers  discourses 

That   Moses  was  concerned  in  writing  which  do  not  appear  in  die  earlier  books, 

down  at  least  most  of  these  incidents  and  such  as  addresses  to  the  people,  lengthened 

laws,  is  very  probable.   Of  the  art  of  writing  exhortations,  designed  to  lead  them  to  a 

he  could  not  be  ignorant     The  occasion  strict  obedience  to  the  laws,  whieh  are  set 

demanded  its  use.    Time  and  opportuni^  forth  as  slready  known.    The  deep,  fatherly, 

were  afforded  by  a  wandering  of  forty  years,  often  supplicatory  tone  of  these  liddresses, 

The  realisation  of  the  Divine  promises  jus*  the  repetition  of  them,  shows  that  feelings 

tified,  if  it  did  not  require,  systematic  care  of  a  peculiar  kind  had  been  awakened  in  the 

for  a  fttture  day  when  Israel  &ould  possess  speaker^s  bosom.    The  lawgiver  who  speaks 

Canaan.    And  if  a  record  was  to  be  kept,  in  this  book,  lived  at  a  later  time  than  he 

nothing  more  likely  than  that  it  shoi^d  whom  we  have  seen  working  in  the  earlier 

be  made  in  the  hand,  or  at  least  under  books;  he  pre-supposes  the  earlier  system 

the  eye  and   care    of    Moses,    the   great  of  legblation,  and  builds  on  it  as  a  founda- 

mind  and  the  great  actor  in  the  grand  dra-  tion.    The  people  are  still  in  a  camp,  but 

ma.    The  authorship  of  the  books  is  not,  they  are  on  the  point  of  exchanging  it  for 

indeed,  ascribed  to  Moses.    But  he  is  re-  villages  and  towns ;  for  there  is  sn  increase 

ported  to  have  committed  to  writing  much  in  those  laws  which  could  find  application 

that  now  forms  a  part  of  their  contents,  only  among  citizens  occupying  fixed  abodes. 

When,  on  his  journey  towards  Sinai,  Moses  Even  the  mode  of  thinking  among  the  peo- 

had  defeated  Amalek,  he  received  the  com-  pie  has  changed ;  the  leader  has  no  longer 

mand,  'Write  this  a  memorial  in  a  book,  and  to  deal  with  rough  hordes,  who  at  every  dif- 

rehearse  it  in  the  ears  of  Joshua '  (Exod.  ficnlty  long  to  return  lo  the  land  of  their 

xviL  14).    The  last  words  are  noticeable,  vassalage ;  he  has  a  new  race  before  him, 

Joshua  had  been  Moses*  general  on  the  occa-  who  have  loftier  views,  are  docile  to  law, 

sion.    The  account,  then,  was  to  be  read  to  and  more  open  to  human  sympathies, 
him  as  a  means  of  securing  perfect  accuracy.        Who,  then,  is  the  leader  of  this  genera* 

There  is  no  reason  to  think,  indeed,  that  the  tion^    Who  gave  these  laws  and  held  these 

narrative  thus  careftilly  framed  forms  a  part  speeches  t     The  book   nsmes  Moses,  the 

of  the  Pentateuch.    But  the  passage  is  still  ihuner  of  the  preceding  legislation.    Every 

very  important,  as  showing  that  carefully  leaf  names  Moses.    In  Deut.  xxix,  21,  a 

composed  documents  were  brought  into  ex-  book  is  spoken  of  which  was  obviously  a 

istence  contemporaneously  with  &ie  recorded  general  summary  of  the  laws,  if  it  was  not 

events,  and  form  the  basis  of  the  abstracts  Deuteronomy  itself.     In  xxxL  9 — ^12,  24, 

and  summaries  we  possess.  26,  it  is  expressly  said,  *  Moses  wrote  this 

The  List  of  encampments  and  'journeys  law* — *  Moses  msde  an  end  of  writing  the 

of  the  children  of  Israel '  found  in  Numb  words  of  this  law  in  a  book  until  they  were 


D  E  U                      492  D  E  U 

floished.'  He  alaod^liTerad 'thebookof  the  piMsion  of  his  laws  on  the  hearts  of  his 
law'  into  the  hands  of  the  priests,  with  the  in-  people ;  to  give  them  strenf^  eoorage,  and 
Junction  that  it  should  he  read  hefore  all  Israel  pioos  eonfidenoe;  to  make  them  feel  their 
eyeiy  seventh  year,  *  that  they  may  hear,  and  aingnlar  advantages,  especially  in  that  whii^ 
that  they  may  learn  and  fear  JehoTshyoorOod,  was  the  central  faet  of  >all,  namely,  their  in- 
and  obserre  to  do  all  th§  foordi  cf  thu  law/  timate  alliance  with  Jehovah,  whose  con- 
There  can,  then,  be  no  doabt  that  a  book  at  tinned  support  they  might  be  sue  to  reeeive 
least  similar  to  that  of  Deuteronomy  was  so  long  as  they  were  obedient  to  his  will  ? 
written  by  Moses,  accepted  by  the  people,  if  As  natural  was  it,  that  in  the  new  juncture, 
not  tranamitted  from  generation  to  genera-  and  after  a  long  and  very  varied  experience, 
lion.  We  are  here,  therefore,  on  a  solid  his-  Moses  should  both  modify  and  change  pre- 
torical  foundation.  Deuteronomy,  or  a  work  vious  commands,  and  promulgate  new  ones, 
the  same  in  substance,  was  written  by  him  All  this  he  does— all  this  he  was  likely  to 
who  oonld  best  supply,  and  received  by  do.  His  actual  conduct  is  vindicated  be- 
those  who  could  best  judge  and  veriiy,  its  oanse  it  is  required  by  his  position.  First, 
contents.  accordin^y,  he  shows  forth  the  goodness  of 

But  the  book  has  points  in  which  it  dif-  Jehovsh,  and  calls  to  mind  the  fulfilment 

fbrs  from  the  preceding  documents.    This  of  his  divine  promises  during  the  journey 

only  conflrms  its  credibility.    The  time  was  through  the  desert,  founding  thereon   the 

different;  the  circumstances  were  different  obligation  of  gratitude  and  fidelity  to  God 

Had  the  bo<^  been  without  these  features  of  (i. — ^iv.  41 ;  viii.  ix.  zi.).    Then  he  brings 

dissimilarity,  it  would  have  confuted  itsell  to  their  recollection  the  most  important  laws 

Even  an  these  points  of  difference,  how-  already  given,  and  sets  before  his  people  the 

ever,  there  are  tokens  of  the  same  mind  and  consequences  of  disobedience  (vi.  x.  12 ;  xi. 

traces  of  the  same  hand.     Deuteronomy  xii.).    Having  now  gained  a  more  distinct 

eontains  the  discourses  which  Moses  deli-  view  of  the  land,  and  seen  two  tribes  snd  a 

▼ered  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  month  of  half  in  something  like  actual  possession,  he 

the  fortieth  year  of  the  wandering.    The  chsnges  several  laws  given  at  an  earlier  pe- 

people  stood  on  the  verge  of  the  land  of  nod.    While  they  all  lived  together  in  one 

their  hope,  east  of  Jordan,  in  the  plains  of  camp,theireattleweretobeslaii^teredinthe 

Moab,  which  were  already  assigned  to  some  camp,  or,  if  out  of  the  camp,  were  in  all  cases 

of  them;  and  thence  surveyed  the  long«pro-  to  be  brought  to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle 

mised,  long-desired,  and  attraetive  country  (Lev.xvii.8,4).    Now  that  in  part  they  were 

which  they  were  about  to  occupy.    Let  us  in  already  spread  over  a  wide  extent  of  country, 

fancy  transport  ourselves  into  the  camp  of  and  the  law  had  become  impracticable,  a 

their  leader,  and,  endeavouring  to  enter  into  change  was  made  by  which  they  received 

his  feelings,  form  a  judgment  of  the  eontents  permission  to  kill  their  cattle  where  they 

of  Deuteronomy.  resided,  provided  they  were  not  intended  for 

Within  a  flBW  days,  the  Israelites  were  to  sacrifice  (Deut  xii.  13 — 15).    It  had  been 

take  possession  of  tlie  lend  for  which  they  forbidden  to  take  interest  (Exod.  xxii.  25; 

had  longed  during  forty  years.    With  this  Lev.  xzv.  36,  37).  A  simple  prohibition  was 

possession  would  their  domestic  and  social  sufficient  so   long  as  the  people  were  all 

relations  be  altogether  altered,  and  the  ordi-  Israelites.    Now,  the  law  wss  modified,  and 

nances  which  regarded  the  service  of  Jeho-  interest  might  be  taken  of  foreigners  (Deut 

vah  come  into  actual  observsnce.    But  pos-  xxiii.  19,  20).    The  law  respecting  asylum 

session  had  to  be  gained.    For  this,  a  long,  for  the  unintentional  manslayer,  strikingly 

hsrd,  if  not  doubtfril,  conflict  must  be  gone  exemplifies  the  manner  in  which  modifica- 

through.    The  inhabitants  who  were  to  be  tions  in  the  legislation  took  place  according 

driven    out  were    numerous,    strong,   and  to  circumstances.     First,  there  was  only  one 

brave.    They  were  also  prepared  to  offer  a  place  for  refuge,  the  altar  (Exod.  xxi.  13, 

determined  resistance.     The  conflict  indefi-  14)  ;  then  an  order  is  issued,  that  on  pos- 

nitely  postponed  the  completion  of  the  new  session  being  taken  of  Palestine,  six  cities 


social  system,  and  therein  the  observance  of  of  refuge  should  be  set  apart  (Numb. 

the  religions  ordinances.    During  this  time,  6).    Again,  we  find  an  injunction  that  when 

what  fear  was  there  that  seal  for  the  new  the  Israelites  were  settled  in  Csnaan,  they 

constitution  would  grow  cold ;  that  the  con-  should  sepsrate  three  cities  (Deut  xix.  2). 

ditions  of  the  possession  should  be  forgot-  There  were  to  be  three  cities  on  the  west  and 

ten;  that  religion  should  perish  amid  strife,  three  on  the  east  of  Jordan  (Numb.  xxxv. 

bloodshed,  and  idolatry!     The  worst  was,  14).    Now,  a  superficial  view  might  fancy 

that  the  leader  himself  was  to  leave  the  that  there  was  here  more  than  one  contra- 

worid,  and  so  be  denied   the  privilege   of  diction.    In   truth,  everything  is   in  strict 

superintending  the  realisation  of  his  own  agreement  with  the  position   of  affairs  at 

conceptions.   What,  theu,  more  natural  than  each  juncture.  When  the  law  was  first  given, 

that  Moses  should  employ  the  brief  interval  there  was  only  the  altar  that  could  afford  a 

in  earnest,  heartfelt,  and  repeated  exhorta-  refuge ;   the   appointment  of  cities  would 

tions,  designed  and  fitted  to  deepen  the  im-  have  been  premature  and  useless,  wheoi  tha 


D  £  U  493  D  £  U 

sabjeet  ^m  Tiewed  in  relation  to  Canun,  yid  did,  then  I  will  Isngtben  thy  days'  (tI. 
then  under  a  general  impression  six  cities  12 ;  ix.  6 ;  zL  88.  Amos  xi.  4  Mioah  vi.  0. 
were  ordered  to  be  appropriated  to  the  par-  7.  Is.  ▼.  24;  zzir.  5).  These  laws  wera 
pose.  At  a  later  period,  a  direction  was  nnmerons  and  Tslaabje,  but  they  were  de- 
giren  that  the  six  should  be  equally  dirided  spised  (Hos.  Tiii  12).  The  constant  refer- 
between  the  lands  on  the  west  and  those  on  enoe  to  them  shows  not  only  their  existenoe, 
the  east  of  Jordan.  Still  later,  an  order  is  but  the  estimation  in  which  they  were  held, 
Ipven  which  seems  to  reverse  the  ordinanee,  rendering  it  also  probable  that  they  existed 
for  three  cities  only  are  mentioned.  The  in  writing,  and  were  enshrined  in  the  heart 
explanation  is,  that  Moses  had  himself  al-  of  the  nation;  otherwise,  blame  for  their  neg- 
leady  ssTered  three  cities  on  this  side  Jordan,  leot,  if  once  entered  on,  wonld  scarcely  ba 
toward  the  stm-rising  (Dent  iv.  41 ;  comp.  repeated,  since  in  case  ihey  were  fonnded  on 
Josh.  XX.  8) ;  and  the  command  last  alluded  no  sure  basis  of  fact,  or  existed  only  in  tra- 
to  relates  exclusively  to  the  regions  west  of  dition,  the  answer  would  have  been  no  less 
the  Jordan.  Examples  of  new  ordinances,  eilbctaai  than  ready,  that  Uiey  were  mere  in- 
demanded  by  the  changed  condition  of  the  ventions,  or,  at  any  rate,  carried  with  them 
people,  and  occasioned  by  the  comparatiTe  no  sufficient  authority.  These  laws  were  in 
proximity  of  their  settlement  in  Canaan,  existence  at  a  very  early  period,  for  the  first 
may  be  found  in  Dent  xvi.  18;  xix.  14;  sovereigns  of  Israel  were  exhorted  to  ob- 
sui.  1 — 9 ;  xxvii.  17.  serve  them  strictly.  And  when  we  find  them 

If  we  find  a  new  mode  of  thought  and  thus  in  observance,  they  imply  an  antecedent 

representation  in  Deuteronomy,  we  only  find  atate  out  of  which  they  sprang,  and  so  eany 

that  which  we  had  reason  to  expect  All  the  us  back  to  yet  earlier  days.    Indeed,  if  we 

Israelites  who,  forty  years  before,  had  left  consider  the  peculiarities  of  the  political  and 

the  soil  of  Egypt,  bad,  with  a  very  few  ex-  religious  life  of  the  Hebrews,  we  find  that  its 

oeptions,  died  in  the  wilderness,  and  left  ideal,  and  much  of  its  actual,  are  in  aocord- 

their  claims  to  the  promised  land  to  their  ance  with  ihe  legal  provisions  of  the  four 

sons  and  grandsons.    These,  not  degraded  last  books  of  the  Pentateuch, 
by  subjection  to  a  foreign  yoke,  and  having        That  the  Israelites  for  some  eentories 

been  brought  up  under  the  ik^eriy  eye  of  had  no  king,  is  declared  by  their  history  as 

their  great  leader,  were  of  a  higher  elevation  plainly  as  &at  they  ought  not  to  have  had 

of  character,  and  better  prepared  for  moral  one.  When  the  crown  was  offered  to  Gideon, 

and  religious  progress.    For  this  new  gene-  he  answered — '  I  will  not  rule  over  you,  nei- 

ration  laws  of  a  higher  tone  were  desirable ;  iher  shall  my  son  rule  over  you ;  Jehovah 

and,  accordingly,  those  are  given,  which  may  ahall  rule  over  you '  (Judg.  viii.  28).    And 

be  found  in  Deut  xv.  7,  8 ;  xx.  5,  7,  19 ;  when  at  length  they  exacted  a  king  from 

xxi.  1,  My.;  xxiL  6, 10;  xxiv.  xxv.  5.    The  Samuel,  he  was  thus  comforted  by  Jehovah: 

general  character  of  the  book  of  Deutero-  '  They  have  not  rqected  thee,  but  they  have 

nomy  is,  then,  in  keeping  with  the  occasion  rqected  me,  that  I  should  not  reign  over 

that  called  it  forth.  In  repetitions  and  sum-  them'  (1  Sam.  viii.  7).    These  are  repre- 

maries,  in  addresses  and  exhortations,  in  sentations  little  likely  to  be  foand  in  the 

changes  and  additions,  it  is  what  anew  gene-  Bible,  had  Moeaism  been  a  late  invention 

ration  of  men,  about  to  enter  Canaan,  re-  of  kings  and  priests ;  for  the  former  would 

quired,  and  what  they  were  likety  to  receive  be  unwilling  to  strike  at  the  very  foundations 

from  the  lips  of  Moses,  who  was  on  the  of  their  authority,  and  the  latter  equally  in- 

point  of  surrendering  the  authority  he  had  disposed  U>  undermine  the  regal  power,  by 

wielded  so  long  and  so  wsU,  under  circum-  means  of  which,  in  part,  their  own  was  sua* 

stances,  certainly,  of  promise  end  hope,  but  tained.    Had  the  theocracy  been  first  oom- 

also  of  no  smsll  difficulty  and  some  peril.  mitted  to  writing  in  the  times  of  David,  it 

But  if  the  Pentateuch  in  substance  came  would  have  been  free  from  those  democratio 
into  existence  as  early  as  the  days  of  Moses,  and  anti-regal  features  of  which  we  find  it 
especiallyif  the  great  national  legislator  waa  possessed  in  books  still  in  existence,  and 
in  the  main  its  author,  then  shall  we  find  which,  if  oompoaed,  could  not  have  been  re- 
traces of  its  existence  and  influence  in  the  oeived  after  the  priesthood  and  the  monar- 
later  books  of  the  Bible.  This  is  what  we  ohy  had  formed  an  alliance.  Certain,  how- 
ahould  expeet;  this  is  actually  the  case.  The  ever,  it  is,  that  the  aversion  to  a  regal  go- 
lawB  given  in  the  Pentateuch  are  found  in  vemment  displayed  by  Gideon  and  Samuel, 
actual  observance  after  the  days  of  Moses,  is  in  keeping  with  the  Mosaic  law,  whose 
The  Israelites  possessed  laws  and  ordinances  theory  waa  that  Jehovah  only  should  be  kmg 
which  they  regarded  aa  having  emanated  in  Israel  (Exod.  xix.  8,  Mf .  Deut  xxxiiL  5). 
from  Jehovah.  To  these  reference  is  fke-  The  priests  and  servants  of  the  sanctuary 
quently  made:  the  infraction  of  them  is  were  taken  from  one  tribe, bearing  the  name 
reprobated;  their  observsnce  is  enjoined,  of  Levi  Now,  they  were  Levites  which  took 
Thus,  in  1  Kings  iiL  14:  <If  thou  (Solo*  charge  of  the  ark  at  Bethshemesh  (1  Sam. 
mon)  wilt  walk  in  my  ways,  to  keep  my  sta-  vL  15) :  they  also  bore  it  when  at  last  it  waa 
tatea  and  eommaadments,  as  thy  father  Da-  bioui^t  to  Jemaalem  (2  Sam.  xv.  24).    So 


D  £  U  494  D  £  U 

tulj  M  Ui0  days  of  Um  JiicifM,  we  find  Mi*  to  iliow  tfa«  contrary,  they  wouid  jatdy  exeito 

cah  dedaring,  — *Now  know  that  Jehovah  ampicion,  m>  long  aa  the  history  given  of 

will  do  me  good,  eeeing  I  have  a  Levite  to  the  condition  of  Palestine  in  Joshna  and 

my  priest'  (Jndg.  x^ii-  18  ;  see  the  con-  Jodges   is  received  as    trastworthy.     Tet^ 

neetlon).    In  the  book  of  the  law  we  sea  doubtless,  eiforts  would  be  made  to  act  in 

the  origin  of  these  opinions  and  praetioea  agreement  with    the   Moaaio    institntions. 

(Nnmb.  L  48 — &4;  iiL  14,  sff.;  viii.  14.  These  efforte  wovld  not  be  wholly  nogatorf. 

Dent  zviiLl— ^,  18).  Aecoxdingly,  so  eariy  And  hence  we  may  expect  to  finid  dim  and 

aa  the  days  of  Ssnl  the  Israelites  had  a  eon-  scattered  indications  of  the  opention  of  tha 

siderabls  body  of  priests ;  in  the  single  city  great  law-book  of  the  nation.    Aocording^y, 

of  Nob  were  dghty-five  prieats  slain  (1  Sam.  in  the  point  under  consideration,  we  learn 

xxiL  18, 19).    Thia  hieiarohy  posssased  in  that,  before  the  temple  had  come  ioto  exist- 

diair  own  exelnsive  right  certain  cities,  for  enee,  it  was  the  custom  of  Elksnsh  to  go  19 

this  same  Nob  is  characterised  as '  As  dty  '  out  of  his  city  yearly  to  worship  and  to 

of  the  priests.'    And  thus  we  find  the  law  sacrifice  unto  the  Lord  of  hosu,  in  Shiloh' 

(Numb.  XXXV.)  observed  in  Israel.  (1  Sam.  i.  8,  21).    This  was  in  agreement 

Our  space  does  not  allow  us  to  pursue  ths  with  the  provisions  of  the  law  (Exod.  xxiiL 

■nl^ect  &to  all  its  detsils.    The  following  is  14—17  ),  and  that  particolar  command  i^ch 

worthy  of  spscisl  nottee.    When,  after  the  forbad  sacrifices  to  be  offered  in  sny  other 

desth  of  Solomon,  tsn  tribes  revolted  to  place  than  that  where  was  the  sanctuary 

Jeroboam,  that  sovereign,  in  order  lo  sever  (Lev.  xviL  1 — 0.  Deut.  xiL  xvi.).     Other 

tiie  religious  bond  between  his  people  snd  instances,  tending  to  show  the  operation  of 

BehoboiuaB,  snd  to  prevent  ttieir  returning  to  the  Mosaic  laws  before  the  re^  govern- 

diair  former  allegianee, '  ordained  a  feaat  in  ment,  may  be  found  in  1  Sam.  xxviiL  6, 

tha  eighth  month,  on  the  fiAeenth  day  of  the  compared  with  Exod.   xxviii.  30.   Numb, 

month,  like  unto  the  feast  thst  is  in  Judah.'  xxvii.  21 ;  — 1  Sam.  xxi.  4,  compared  with 

Hera  we  have  an  intimation  as  fnm  an  Numb.  iv.  7.     Lav.  xxiv.  9;    Exod.  zxv. 

enemy,  that  a  aimilar  obaervsnoe  had  long  80; — 1  Sam.  xiv.  82,  compared  with  Oen. 

prevailed  in  Judah.    Thia  ftast  was  that  of  ix.  4.  Lev.  iiL  17 ; — 1  Sam.  xx.  26,  com- 

tabemaeles,  appointed  in  the  law  (Lev.  xziii.  pared  with  Lev.  xv.  16 — 18. 
84    48.  Deut  xvi  18 — 16)  on  the  same  day.        The  following  are  references  to  events  ve- 

buton  the  seventh  month;  the chsnge  to  the  ooided  in  the  Pentateuch.   In  Micah  vii.  20^ 

eighth  in  some  wi^  suited  Jerobosm's  pur-  we  read,  *  Thou  wilt  perform  the  truth  to 

poee.    His  eondnet  on  this  occaaion  lets  us  Jscob,  the  mercy  to  Abrsham,  which  thou 

aee  that  the  pracdee  eigoined  in  the  law  of  hast  sworn  unto  our  Cuhers  of  old.'    Tha 

resorting  to  Jerusalem  from  all  parts  of  the  nature  of  the  promises  here  referred  to,  the 

land,  was  then  hi  existsnce  (1  Kings  xu.  prophet  implies  to  be  well  known.     They 

27, 28).  This  custom  is  alleged  as  his  chief  are  expressly  mentioned  in  Oen.  xiL  2 ;  xv.  7, 

ground  for  setting  up  worship  in  his  own  Mf. ;  xvii  7,Mf.;  xxviiL  18,  aff.  Hoaea,  one 

dominions ;  snd,  indeed,  it  afbrds  a  sufl-  of  the  earliest  prophets,  in  speaking  against 

eicnt  explsnation  of  his  conduct;  for  unless  the  sins  of  the  people,  remaika  of  Jacob, 

his  male  aobjecfea  were  in  the  habit  of  per-  that  he  took  hia  brother  by  the  heel  in  the 

fanning  tiie  pilgrimage  to  Jemaalem  fre-  womb,  and  by  his  strengdi  he  had  power 

qucntty,  there  could,  hi  the  circumstances,  with  Ood  (xii  8,  4).    The  contemporaries 

have  been  little  danger  of  their  lUling  away  of  the  prophet  must,  as  i^pears  from  the 

from  the  monarch  whom  they  had  them-  merely  allnaive  character  of  the  worda,  have 

aelvea  chosen  as  the  patron  of  political  li-  been  acquainted  with  the  details  of  the  facta 

berty.    It  is  equally  dear  that  the  cuatom  to  which  he  refers.  Details  00  the  point  are 

was  one  whoee  origin  rsn  bsck  to  early  pe-  found  in  Oen.  xxv.  22— >-2ft;  xxxii.  2d— ^. 

riods,  betaig,  ss  it  waa,  weU  estabUshed,  not  It  is  diflioult  to  believe  thst  the  knowledge 

only  in  Oe  usages  but  the  affections  of  die  under  which  Hoeea  wrote,  and  that  which 

people.  he  supposes  to  have  existed  in  the  minds  of 

In  the  social  and  political  disturbsncea  his  readers,  had  not  a  common  origin  in  the 

which  ensued  during  the  long  wsrs  neces-  bookof  Oenesis.  The  same  prophet  appears 

aaiy  lor  the  aubjugation  of  the  land,  and  in  to  refer  to  the  book  of  Oenesis  when  (xiL 

the  vicissitudes  to  i^ch  the  Israelites  were  12)  he  says,  *  Jacob  fled  into  the  country  of 

tfien  snbjeeted,  we  csnnot  expect  to  find  Syria,  and  Israel  served  for  a  wife,  and  lor 

traoea  of  the  full  observances  of  the  Mosaic  a  wife  he  kept  sheep '  (Oen.  xxviiL  5 ;  xxix. 

laws.    Such  sn  observance  was  impossible.  18;  xxxL  41).   The  overthrow  of  Sodom  snd 

It  was  only  alter  a  length  of  time,  and  when  Oomonrah  lay  deeply  imbedded  m  the  na* 

the  Israelitea  began  to  have  a  firm  foothold  tional  mind ;  so  that  when  the  prophets 

m  Paleetina^^at  die  laws  ef  Moses  could  wished  to  annoonee  die  rvin  of  a  city,  diey 

ftilly  t^e  enact    Indeed,  prior  to  the  con-  found  in  the  recoided  event  a  souiee  of  lor- 

qnests  of  David,  there  waa  no  period  when  eible  imagery  (Amos.  iv.  11 ;  comp.  Oen.  xix. 

die  MoaaieoonsdtntioB  could  bs  reduced  to  24).    A  poet;  of  probably  DavidTa  dme,  pro* 

practice.    Did  patasges  exut  irideh  seemed  miaes  to  his  lord  and  king  dial  he  ahaH  bo 


D  E  U                      496  D  E  V 

•  priest  for  over,  alUr  the  order  of  Melebi-  toiy,  the  prophet  makes  referoiee  to  what 
■edek  (Pb.  ex.  4).  So  generally  known  was  had  ooenrred  *  from  Bhlttim  mito  Oilgal.' 
the  oireumatanoe  recorded  in  Oen.  zir.  18—  At  9hittim»  the  Israelites  allowed  tiiemseWes 
90»  that  he  considered  a  word  soffioient  to  to  he  led  away  to  the  serrice  of  Baal-peor ; 
make  his  meaning  known.  That  the  Israel-  and  at  Qilgal,  they  pat  their  feet  firmly  on 
ites  were  in  Egypt,  and  liTed  there  under  the  soil  of  die  promised  land  (Josh.  it.  20). 
an  oppressiTS  swsy,  from  whieh  Jehorah  re-  From  the  erldenee  now  addnced  we  are 
deemed  them,  leading  the  nation  throagh  jastified  In  saying,  that  at  no  TSiy  distant 
the  wilderness  into  Oanaan,  is  set  forth  as  period  alter  the  days  of  Moses,  there  was  in 
generally  known  hy  Samnel  (1  Sam.  zii.  6.  existence  a  body  of  obsemnees  which  wera 
Amos  11. 10;  ill.  1),  Hosea  (xL  1),  and  Mi-  e<mfonnable  to  those  enjoined  in  the  Penta- 
cah  (vi.  4).  Particulars  connected  with  the  tench.  Some  pn-existent  canse  of  this  state 
exodns  were  well  known  among  the  people,  of  things  there  most  hays  been.    The  books 

*  The  peatUence  after  the  manner  of  Egypt'  of  Exodns,  Nnmbers,  Leritiens,  and  Dente- 
is  mentioned  by  Amos  (iv.  10).  Micah  pro-  ronomy,  eiplain  that  eanse,  and  oflfer  as  the 
mises  manrellons  things,  *  according  to  the  elements  ont  of  which  grew  those  obserr- 
days  of  thy  coming  ont  of  the  land  of  Egyptf  aaees  and  the  obserrances  of  later  and  more 
(▼iL  Id).  Among  these  was  the  passage  over  tranquil  periods.  The  only  question  that 
the  Red  Sea  (Ps.  Ixriii  23),  and  the  won-  can  arise,  is—did  these  books  exist  at  the 
ders  at  Sinai  (8).  A  prophet  brought  Israel  first  in  exactly  the  same  form  as  that  in  whieh 
oat  of  Egypt  (Hos.  xii  18)  ;  that  prophet  they  lie  before  us,  and  in  which  they  are 
was  Moses,  aided  by  Aaron  and  Miriam  allowed  to  have  existed  for  veiy  many  een- 
(1  Sam.  xiL  6,  8.  Micah  Ti.  4).  Forty  years  tnriesf  We  see  no  Tslid  reason  against  the 
were  the  ehil^^n  of  Israd  in  ihe  wHdemess,  identity  of  the  present  with  the  original  Pen- 
bearing  a  tabernacle  and  in  the  eigoyment  tateuch.  We  belieye  that,  in  substance,  and 
of  the  Dirine  protection  (Amos  t.  2d).  AH  with  little  exception,  the  one  is  the  same 
these  things  sre  recorded  in  the  book  deno-  as  the  other.  At  least,  the  eridence  adduced 
minated  Exodus.  to  prove  the  two  to  be  separate  and  greatly 

Worthy  of  special  attention  is  a  transao-  dissimilar,  fails  in  its  designed  eifect  A  few 
tion  of  Jephtfaa's  with  the  king  of  the  Am-  things  must,  some  others  may  have  been, 
monites  (Judg.  xi.  12  —  28).  This  king  added  after  the  death  of  Moses.  Moses,  of 
endeavoured  to  justify  an  invasion  he  had  course,  did  not  give  an  aoeount  of  his  own 
made  ot  the  territory  of  Israel.  The  inva-  death.  The  bulk  of  chapter  xxziv.  of  Deute- 
lidity  of  the  excuse  is  shown  by  Jephtha  in  ronomy  was  written  by  some  one  who  wished 
referring  to  historical  facts  whidh  are  found  to  complete  the  history  by  bringing  it,  in  a 
nairated  neariy  word  for  word  in  Numb.  xx.  few  woi^s,  to  the  time  when  Joshua  assumed 
14;  xxL  18,  21.  Hosea  proves  the  faithless-  the  command;  and  rtnea  10,  11,  12,  were 
ness  of  the  fathers  of  Israel  by  refeiring  to  i^ppended  at  a  much  later  period.  But  how 
their  spostaoy  to  Baal-peor  (ix.  10);  the  event,  do  we  know  this,  unless  from  the  book  itself; 
to  which  the  prophet  makes  reference  in  one  which  probably  would  never  have  been  sub- 
single  word,  snd  which  must,  in  consequence,  jected  to  the  unfriendly  ordeal  through  which 
have  b^n  of  universal  notoriety,  is  found  in  it  has  passed,  had  it,  with  the  remidnder  of 
fbll  detail  in  Numb.  xxv.  the  Pentateuch,  been  allowed  to  tell  its  own 

When  Samuel  urged  Ssol  to  undertake  a  tale,  give  its  own  history,  snd  make  its  own 
war  against  the  Amalekites,  he  reminds  him  daims,  apart  from  the  exaggerated  preten- 
of  the  hostility  displayed  by  the  latter  to  the  sions  of  avowed  friends  whose  seal  fer  out- 
Hebrews,  when  on  iheit  road  from  Egypt  to  stripped  their  wisdom.  We,  therefore,  are 
Canaan  (1  Sam.  xv.  2).  Of  this  hostfle  bear-  prepared  to  give  an  assent  to  the  universal 
ing,  the  book  of  Exodus  (xvii.  8,  teq,)  sup-  Toice  of  sntiquity  whieh  ascribes  these  five 
plies  the  particulars.  Saul  obeyed  the  wishes  books  to  Moses.  We  think  it  veiy  proba- 
of  Samuel  Before,  however,  he  attacked  ble  that  the  bulk  of  their  contents  emanated 
the  Amalddtes,  he  gave  the  Kenites  leave  firom  or  passed  through  his  hands.  At  sll 
to  withdraw,  on  the  ground,  *  for  ye  showed  events,  we  find  the  most  satisfactory  evi- 
kindness  to  all  the  children  of  Israel  when  dence  that,  whoever  was  their  author,  the 
they  came  up  ont  of  Egypt'  (1  Sam.  xv.  6).  books  themselves  contain  a  true  hisloiy— a 
Saul  was  acquainted  with  what  is  recounted  narrative  of  actual  events, 
in  Numb.  x.  29 — 32 ;  comp.  xxiv.  21.  Judg.  DEVICE,  from  the  French  d#v>Mr,  signi- 
i  16 ;  iv.  11.  Among  proofs  of  the  Divine  f^ing  to  aim  at  or  againtt,  is  a  plan,  or  arti- 
fevour,  Micah  (vL  6)  speaks  of  what  Bslak  fice,  designed  to  ensnare,  and  so  ii^ure  or 
consulted  snd  what  Balaam  answered.  The  destroy.  This  is  the  ordinary  meaning  of 
intention  and  the  result  are  recorded  in  the  word.  But  in  2  Chron.  ii.  14,  the  man 
Numb.  xxiL — ^xxiv.  In  the  same  place,  with  whom  Huram  of  Tyre  sent  to  Solomon,  is 
an  extraordinary  degree  of  compression  that  described  as,  smong  other  qusUties,  able 
could  not  have  been  ventured  on  unless  he  '  to  find  out  every  device  iHiieh  shall  be  put 
was  aware  of  the  intimate  knowledge  pos-  to  him.'  The  word  here  emplojed  denotes 
sessed  by  his  country  of  their  national  his-  in  other  places,  'canning  works'  (Ex.  xx:d. 


D  E  V                      496  D  E  V 

4),  <  thonghU'  (Pb.  xcit.  11),  *  imaginationB  *  li^t  on  the  eonceptions  entertained  of  him: 

(ProT.  Ti.  18),  and  may  have  reference  to  as,  tA«  prinet  ef  tU  demons  (Matt  iz.  34) ; 

artistie  skill;  though  it  may  also  signify  an  the  wicked  being  (1  John  ii.  13.  2  These.  iiL 

enigma  or  riddle.  3)  ;  the  advenary  (1  Pet;  t.  8) ;  the  tempter 

DEVIL — from  the  Greek  diubdee,  an  ae-  (Matt  vr.  in. ;  1  Thess.  iii.  0)  ;  the  prince  at 
cuter  or  enemy;  in  Hebrew,  Satan,  opponent  ruUr  of  the  world  (John  zii.  81 ;  xir,  30; 
or  advenary — ^is,  aoeording  to  the  ordinaiy  xn.  U ) ; — ^whence  Paul  uses  epithets  of  si- 
view,  a  spirit  who  eame  good  from  the  hands  milar  import :  as,  the  prince  of  the  dominion 
of  his  Creator,  bnt  with  other  spirits,  of  whom  of  the  air  (Ephes.  ii.  3 ;  oomp.  vL  12) ;  and 
he  was  the  leader,  fell  into  sin,  and  so  be-  in  the  Apocalypse,  he  is  described  with  aa 
eame  a  wicked  and  malidons,  yet,  retaining  obvious  reference  to  the  fall  of  man  (xiL 
some  of  nis  original  qualities,  veiy  powerftil  3 — ^9 ;  ix.  11 ;  zvi  13 ;  zz.  2) ;  though  it 
being.  Deprared  in  his  affections  and  per-  may  be  doubted  whether,  in  some  of  these 
Terse  in  his  will,  he  aims  solely  to  cause  passsges,  the  words  are  more  then  implica- 
and  promote  evil ;  and  is,  in  consequence,  tive  and  allusory  in  regard  to  the  Deril,  being 
the  originator  and  joint  producer  of  sin,  intended  to  H^ply  to  the  Jewish  or  the  Roman 
which,  by  his  seduction  of  our  first  parents,  adversary  of  the  Church.  The  other  evil 
he  brought  into  the  world.  In  consequence,  spirits  are  subject  to  Satan  as  their  head 
mankind,  thus  having  apostatised  from  Ood,  (Matt  iz.  34),  and  are,  therefore,  denomi- 
are  given  over  for  punishment  into  the  hands  nated  (Matt  zzv.  41;  comp.  Bev.  iz.  14; 
of  liie  Devil,  who,  in  order  to  complete  his  xtL  7,  9)  his  angtU — that  is,  his  servsnts. 
wicked  purposes,  misleads  them  into  ell  In  order  to  prove  that  they  are  set  forth  aa 
manner  of  error,  heresy,  vice  and  sin ;  whom,  arranged  in  different  classes,  these  passages 
however,  Jesus  overcame,  invading  his  em-  -^1  Cor.  xv.  24,  end  £ph.  vi.  12 — have  been 
pire  and  delivering  its  captives ;  and  he  will,  at  adduced ;  but  here,  *  principalities  and  pow- 
the  last  day,  consign  this  great  enemy  of  man  ers '  may  mean  earthly  dignities;  though  Col. 
to  endless  torments  in  hell,  together  with  bis  ii.  15,  may  be  used  of  evil  spirits.  Respect- 
impious  adherents.  As  a  part  of  the  same  ing  their  number,  the  New  Testament  says 
system  of  opinions,  it  is  generally  held  that  nothing  definite ;  for  Msrk  v.  9 — 13,  Luke 
he  is  the  constant  tempter  of  Christians,  viii.  30,  contains  the  declaration  of  a  demon, 
even  the  wisest  and  the  best,  and  that  he  which  only  gives  utterance  to  the  common 
seduced  Adam  and  Eve  in  Uie  Harm  of  a  opinion  of  the  Jews.  In  regard  to  their  na- 
serpent  ture,  the  New  Testament  speaks  of  them  as 

The  ordinsry  name  with  which  the  New  tpiritt  (Matt  viiL  16 ;  z.  1.  Luke  z.  20) ; 

Testament  designates  evil  spirits  is  daimo-  though  by  this  may  not  be  meant  that  they 

nia,  daUnenet,  demons.    With  the  Greeks,  were  strictly  immaterial.   The  second  Coun- 

daimon  signifies,  now  the  gods,  now  the  in-  eU  of  Nice  decided  that  even  angels  were 

ferior  gods,  now  men  to  whom  divinity  had  not  purely  immaterial,  but  of  an  ethereal 

been  ascribed,  and  now  genii ;  not  conveying  and  fiery  nature;  that  is,  having  bodies  of  a 

the  idea  of  an  evil  spirit,  for  they  distin-  finer  mould  than  those  of  men.   Understand- 

guished  between  good  and  bad  spirits.    In  ing  snd  wisdom,  or  cunning,  are  ascribed  to 

this  Greek  sense  it  occurs  once  only  in  the  them    (Matt  iv.  1.  James  ii.  19 ;  iii.  16. 

New  Testament  (Acts  zviL  18),  where   it  2  Cor.  zi.  14) ;   great  power  and  activity 

stands  for  the  English  '  gods.'    See,  how-  (2  Thess.  ii.  9,  perhaps  only  by  allusion), 

ever,  1  Cor.  z.  20, 21.  Demons  are  termed  in  Whether  they,  as  the  angels,  were  created 

the  New  Testament— I.  unclean  tpiritt  (Matt  by  God,  the  scripture  says  nothing  expressly, 

z.  1),  aceording  to  the  view  of  the  Jews,  who  though  Heb.  ziL  9  has  been  adduced  in  the 

gave  demons  this  name  either  because  they  affirmative.    In  James  ii.  19,  they  appear  as 

held  that  demons  were  accustomed  to  abide  subject  to  the  Divine  power.   The  New  Tes-> 

in  tombs,  or  in  consequence  of  their  moral  tament,  however,  keein  clear  from  what  has 

corruption ;  II..  wiektd  or  evil  tpiritt  (Matt  been  held  the  diaracteristio  feature  in  the 

zii.  4d.  Luke  vii.  21 ) ;  III.  angelt  that  tinned  dualism  of  Zoroaster,  namely,  the  self-origi- 

(2  Pet  ii.  4) ;  IV.  probably,  also,  rulert  of  nation  of  evil  spirits,  by  which  they  would 

darkneti  •  that  is,  lords  of  the  unenlightened  be  independent  of  God,  possess  an  immor- 

Pagans  (Ephes.  vi.  12).    Their  chief  and  tality  as  well  as  an  empire  of  their  own,  and 

leader  bears  ordinsrily  the  name  of  Devil  have  evil  at  once  for  the  essence  and  tlio 

and  Satan  (Matt  zii  26),  bnt  is  also,  in  aim  of  their  being. 

some  places   (Matt  z.  25 — ^27 ;  zii.  24),  We  find  nothing  ezpressly  stated  in  the 

called  Beelzebul,  and,  in  2  Cor.  vi.  15,  Be-  New  Testament  as  to  the  epoch  when  de- 

lial,  or  rather,  according  to  Griesbach,  Be-  mons  fell  into  sin;  but  the  passages,  John 

liar  (worthless) ;   though  neither  of  these  viii.  44,  1  John  iiL  8,  speak  of  their  chief 

two  last  names  occurs  in  Jewish  writings,  as  being  involved   in  sin    firom   the    be- 

not  even  in  the  Tslmud ;  but  Beliar  is  used  ginning  of  the  world.    As  little  does  the 

of  Satan  in  the  so-called  Testament  of  the  same   authority  determine  whether  it  was 

Twelve  Patriarchs.  This  evil  being  is  spoken  suddenly,  by  one  offence,  or  by  degrees,  that 

of  under  other  appellations,  which  may  throw  they  fell  into  sin.    In  2  Pet  ii.  4,  and  Jude, 


DEV 


497 


DEV 


▼er.  6,  are,  indeed,  allasioAs  which  may  bear 
on  the  subject,  but  the  implications  are  not 
clear,  and  may  be  mere  accommodations  to 
the  popular  notions.     According  to  these 
opinions,  angels  were  the  assistants  of  God 
in  the  government  of  the  world ;  each  angel 
had  his  own  people,  whom  he  protected,  and 
his  own  land,  over  which  he  watched.  Their 
common  residence  was  heaven.     Some  an- 
gels, however,  neglected  their  office,  left  the 
posts  assigned  to  them,  quitted  heaven,  fell 
in  love  wiUi  the  fair  daughters  of  men,  and  be- 
gat the  giants  (Gen.  vi.  3.  Jude  6) ;  but  Jose- 
phus  considered  demons  not  as  fallen  angels, 
but  the  spirits  of  wicked  men  (Jew.  Wars, 
Til.  6,  3).    As  a  punishment  for  their  mis- 
deeds, they  were  hurled  out  of  heaven  into 
Ifae  darkness  of  the  lower  world,  where  they 
were  held  to  remain  in  chains  until  the  day 
of  judgment,  though  they  were  considered 
free  to  act  on  the  earth.    This  is  the  so- 
called  fall  of  the  angels,  which  not  only  the 
greater  part  of  the  Jews  in  our  Lord's  day, 
but  nearly  aU  the  oldest  fathers  of  the  church, 
set  forth,  in  substance,  the  same  as  we  have 
now  exhibited.    At  a  later  period,  eminent 
writers  rejected  this  view,  as  not  suitable  to 
the  nature  of  spiritual  beings,  and  main- 
tained that  the  sin  of  the  fallen  angels  was 
disobedience  to  God,  arising  from  pride  and 
ambition,  which  led  them  to  rebel  against 
Him,  under  the  leadership  of  Satan,  to  whom 
they  gave  their  allegiance.    This  opinion — • 
that  of  many  church-fathers,  as  Jerome  and 
Augustine,  and  of  modem  theologians — ^has 
been  supported  by  reference  to  1  Tim.  iiL 
0 ;  comp.  Matt  vii.  2.     Calvin  rightly  re- 
marks, that  it  is  foolish  curiosity  to  seek 
knowledge  on  the  point  when  the  Scripture 
contains  nothing  definite  thereon.  The  New 
Testament  also  determines  nothing  respect- 
ing the  way  and  manner  how  the  demons 
became  criminaL    An  entire  depravation  of 
nature  by  one  act  is  contrary  to  analogy. 
Nor  does  the  New  Testament  contradict  Uie 
theory  of  their  becoming  depraved  by  de- 
grees ;  and  hence  it  does  not  deny  the  possi- 
bility of  their  final  recovery. 

The  abode  of  the  demons  is  placed  by  2 
Peter  (U.  4)  and  Jude  (ver.  6),  in  the  dark- 
ness of  the  lower  world,  where  they  remain 
in  chains  '  unto  the  judgment  of  the  great 
day.  That  this  was  the  opinion  of  the  Jews 
is  certain,  and  appears  fh>m  the  expression 
of  the  demoniac  in  Luke  viii.  81 ;  for  '  deep,' 
abytt  in  the  original,  is  of  the  same  import 
as  'darkness'  in  Jude  (6).  These  passages, 
however,  cannot  determine  any  Christian 
doctrme.  Peter  (i.  5,  8)  and  Paul  describe 
Satan  as  unchained  and  roaming  abroad. 
There  was  another  old  Jewish  opinion,  which 
represented  demons  as  abiding  in  ruinous 
and  waste  places,  in  destroyed  cities  and 
waterless  deserts.  Reference  is  made  to  this 
notion  in  Matt  xiL  48 ;  comp.  Tob.  viii.  2, 3. 
In  other  passages  of  the  New  Testament 


seems  to  be  found  the  representation,  that 
the  abode  of  the  demons  is  not  in  the  inner 
parts  of  the  earth,  but  in  the  atmosphere  or 
region  of  the  clouds  (Ephes.  ii.  2;  vi.  12. 
Luke  X.  18.  Revel.  xiL  7—9 ;  xx.  10).    As 
to  their  condition,  they  are  in  darkness  re- 
served for  judgment  (2  Pet  ii.  4.    James 
iL  19).    Of  a  definite  punishment  one  sole 
passage  speaks  (Matt  xxv.  41—46),  where 
the  wicked  are  consigned  to  the  fire  of  Ge- 
henna, '  prepared  for  the  Devil  and  his  an- 
gels ;'  the  final  extinction  of  which,  as  being 
in  harmony  with  the  wisdom  and  goodness 
of  God,  has   found   advocates  in  Origen, 
Lavater,  Southwood  Smith,  and  many  others. 
In  regard  to  human  beings,  Satan  is  repre- 
sented as  from  primaeval  times  morally  cor- 
rupt, a  friend  of  error  and  vice,  an  enemy  of 
truth  and  goodness  (2  Cor.  iL  11.    Ephes. 
vL  11.    James  iii.  Hi,    1  John  iii.  8.    John 
viii.  44).    In  the  last  passage,  our  Lord,  in 
speaking  of  the  Devil  as  *  a  murderer,'  has 
been  thought  to  have  reference  to   Cain's 
slaughter  of  Abel,  who  was  held  to  be  actu- 
ated by  Satan  (1  John  iii.  12 ;  comp.  2  Cor. 
xi.  3).     Idolat37  especially  is  forwarded  by 
him.    In   consequence,   idolatrous   and  vi- 
cious men  are  the  subjects  of  his  kingdom 
(Eph.  ii.  2, 8.  Acts  xxvi.  18).   Hence,  Chris- 
tian salvation  is  deliverance  from  his  power 
(Coloss.  i.  18.  2  Tim.  ii.  26).   Satan,  there- 
fore, is  probably  called  '  the  god  of  this  (idol- 
atrous) world '(2  Cor.  iv.  4.  Ephes.  vi.  12). 
John  declares  Uiat  every  sinner  is  a  member 
of  Satan's  kingdom  (1  John  iii.  8) ;  and  the 
'darkness,'   the  'world,'  and  the   'wicked 
one '  of  ii.  9,  seq.  have  been  referred  to  the 
Devil  and  his  power  in  the  prevalent  Pagan 
idolatry.     Satan's  influence  is  represented 
as  consisting  in  blinding  the  mind  so  as  to 
prevent  conviction  (2  Cor.  iv.  4),  and  enslav- 
ing the  will  (2  Tim.  ii.  26).  A  regal  power  is 
ascribed  to  him  (Matt.  xii.  27.  Luke  xi.  18) 
which  stands  in  hostile  attitude  against  the 
kingdom  of  God  and  Christ   But  here,  pro- 
bably, nothing  more  is  meant  than  to  repre- 
sent the  influence  of  Satan  under  an  image 
which  was  forcible  in  itself  and  generally 
current     The  Christian  fathers  of  the  ear- 
liest times  regarded  Satan  and  the  demons 
as  the  originators  of  all  physical  ill,  and  es- 
pecially as  the  originators  and  promoters  of 
all  moral  ill,  or  idolatry,  the  rise  of  which 
they  derived  from  the  demons,  whom  they  with 
one  voice  represented  as  procuring  worship 
for  themselves  under  the  cover  and  the  name 
of  the  Pagan  idols.    In  consequence,  these 
church  authorities  considered  that  all  who 
took  part  in  any  of  the  heathen  ceremonies, 
had  in  the  act  apostatised  to  idolatry.    With 
the  unbaptised,  as  being  persons  who  had 
not  been  delivered  from  Satan's  power,  there 
prevailed  a  great  indisposition  to  have  inter  • 
course. 

The  New  Testament  also  sets  it  forth  that 
the  'Devil  and  his  angels,'  as  enemies  of 

21 


DEV 


498 


DEV 


God  and  Tirtae,  sought  to  praTent,  and, 
where  they  could  not  so  hi  siiooeed,  to  hin- 
der,  the  estabUshment  of  Christiaiiitj  (Matt 
ziii  88,  Btq,  Luke  Tiii.  13).  Even  our  Load 
himself  Satan  endcayouied  to  sedooe  (Matt 
ir.  1,  a§q.) ;  failing  here,  he  plotted  against 
the  Banour^s  life  (John  ziv.  db)»  to  destroy 
which  he  filled  the  heart  of  Judas  with  ma- 
fioe  (John  xiii.  2,  27),  and  endeaTOuied  to 
win  other  disciples  from  their  duty  (Luke 
jjoL  31),  succeeding  in  the  case  of  Ananias 
and  Sapphira  (Acts  ▼.2,  8).  Conspizing 
with  human  enemies  of  the  cross,  he  tried 
to  suppress  the  gospel  by  turning  its  profes- 
sors away  from  their  faith,  under  penaou- 
tions,  priTstJons,  and  deatib  (2  Oor.  ii.  9-— 
11.  1  Thees.  iiL  5.  Ephes.  tI.  10—19.  1  Pet 
▼.  8,  9).  With  the  same  purpose,  he  eaUed 
forth  false  teachers  (2  Cor.  xi.  18—15.  1 
Tim.  iv.  1.  Bom.ZTi.  17—20).  In  2  These, 
ii.  9,  some  have  thought  the  referenee  is  to 
Satan,  who,  by  lying  wonders,  ende«voured 
to  counteract  the  miracles  of  the  SaTiour. 
The  church-fathers  ascribe  all  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  Christians  to  the  demons,  who 
also  caused  the  death  of  Socrates  beeanse 
he  wished  to  lead  men  away  from  their  wor- 
ahip. 

By  Christianity,  howcTer,  is  the  dominion 
of  Satan  oTcreome  and  destroyed  (John  ziL 
31 ;  zri.  11) ;  the  effecting  of  which  was  one 
great  object  of  the  advent  of  Christ  (1  John 
iii.  8 ;  comp.  ii.  14),  whose  true  disciples 
are  fi«e  from  his  influence  (1  John  ilL  9; 
V.  18.  Jamee  iv.  7)  by  the  indwelling  power 
of  the  gospel  (1  John  It.  4) ;  so  that  Chris- 
tians, when  tempted,  are  tempted  by  their 
own  lust  (James  L  12 — 14). 

Certain  diseases  are  represented  in  the 
New  Testament  as  produced  not  merriy  by 
the  Devil,  but  also  by  demons.  These  sick- 
nesses are  such  as  took  away  the  free  use  of 
the  members  of  the  human  body  (dumb 
persons),  or  of  their  understanding  (lunatic 
and  insane),  or  drove  the  aflieted  to  inrolun- 
tary  and  painful  agitations  (epileptic) ;  and 
in  which,  consequently,  their  own  spirit 
seemed  to  have  lost  its  dominion,  and  ano- 
ther spirit  to  have  gained  it  Hence  they 
were  accounted  ponmed,  being  described  as 
demoniaei,  havm§  dflnons,  and  oppruaed  qf 
UuDtvU,  The  last  de«!ription  (Acts  z.  88), 
which  is  of  a  general  nature,  seems  to  shew 
that  there  is  no^  as  some  have  maintained, 
a  distinction  between  devils  and  demons— 
the  first,  with  Satan  at  their  head,  being 
iillen  angels ;  the  second,  under  Beeliebnl, 
being  the  souls  of  deceased  bad  men ;  the 
first  operating  chiefly  on  the  mind,  to  lead 
men  to  sin;  the  second,  on  the  body,  to  de- 
stroy its  powers  (Luke  xia  18). 

That  language  is  employed  which  may 
imply  the  reality  of  demoniacal  possession, 
cannot  be  questioned.  But  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  every  one  believes  in  it  who  em- 
ploys the  phrases  above  mentioned.    It  has 


been  asserted,  that '  to  have  a  devfl  and  *  ba 
mad'  (John  z.  20;  comp.  viii.  48,  52)  are 
equivalent;  but  die  second  may  have  bean 
regarded  as  the  consequence  of  the  firsts 
oonsidered  as  a  real  possession  (Mark  iiL 
21, 80).  It  has  also  been  urged  fliat  pos- 
session is  mentioned  smong  otiber  natard 
sicknesses  (Matt  iv.  28,  24.  Lake  zilL  11, 
•0f.).  If  so,  it  does  not  ensue  that  they 
were  all  ascribed  to  the  same  cause.  The 
statement  has  more  force  that  the  posseased 
were  in  reality  lunatics,  madmen,  and  epi- 
leptics, ftc  (Matt  zviil5,flff.;viiL88,ser.; 
zii  22.  Mark  i.  28 ;  iz.  17).  Still,  die  qaes- 
tion  before  us  is,  not  what  these  disorders 
really  were,  but  what  they  were  thought  to 
be.  That  is  the  first  pohit  to  be  settled. 
It  is  undeniable  that  all  the  nations  of  anti- 
quity, not  only  Jews,  but  Greeks  sad  Bo- 
mans,  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  certain 
spirits  those  diseases  in  which  the  si^  had 
lost  their  reason  or  power  over  their  own 
body,  and  so  had  become  enriaved  to  ano- 
ther power  vrhieh  had  gained  the  mastery 
over  Uiem.  That  the  Jews  of  our  Lord's  day 
entertained  this  opinion,  the  language  ii 
Joeephns  puts  beyond  a  donbt  These  ars 
his  words: — ^'Ood  also  enabled  hhn  (Solo- 
mon) to  lesm  that  skffl  whieh  expels  de- 
mons, iriiich  is  a  selenoe  ussftil  snd  sana- 
tive to  men.  And  he  left  behind  him  the 
manner  of  using  ezorcisms,  by  irtii^  they 
drive  away  demons  so  that  they  never  re- 
turn ;  and  this  method  of  cure  is  of  great 
force  unto  diia  day ;  for  I  have  seen  a  oen> 
tain  man  of  my  own  country,  whose  name 
was  Eleasar,  releasing  people  tiiat  were  de- 
moniacal, in  the  preeence  of  Vespasian.  He 
put  a  ring  to  the  nostrils  of  the  demoniac, 
and  drew  out  the  demon  through  them ;  and 
when  tiie  man  immediately  foil  down,  he 
aoQured  the  demon  to  return  into  him  no 
mors,  still  making  mention  of  Solomon,  and 
reciting  the  cantations  which  he  (Solomon) 
had  compoaed.  And  when  Eleasar  wonld 
demonstrate  to  the  spectators  that  he  had 
such  a  power,  he  set  a  cup  or  basin  a  little 
way  off,  sad  commended  the  demon  to  ovor- 
tnm  it  as  he  went  out,  and  thereby  to  let 
the  spectators  know  that  he  had  left  the 
man'  (Antiq.  viii.  2,  5).  It  is  dear  that 
this  opinion  did  prevail  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord,  from  many  passages  of  Scripture  alao 
(Matt  Tiii.  28 ;  iz.  82 ;  ZiL  48,  44.  Mark  t. 
1,  flff .  Luke  It.  85 ;  viiL  20 ;  zi.  14, 20.  Acts 
V.  10 ;  z.  88).  The  same  notion  was  held  by 
the  fothers  of  the  chureh,  who  found  in 
the  continued  power  of  healing  demoniacs 
through  the  name  of  Christ,  not  only  a 
proof  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  gospel,  bat 
a  reason  for  the  hate  which  the  demons  had 
against  Christianity,  and  the  pcrwentions 
which  they  in  consequence  occasioned. 

It  now  remains  to  be  asked,  whether  what 
Jesus  snd  his  apostles  say  of  these  demo- 
niacal possessions  is  to  be  nnderstood  as 


D  E  V  ADD  D  E  V 

oontainiiig  theif  views,  or  whether  they  which  he  could  Dok  oyeroome;  so  that,  on 
merely  used  current  language  wLtliout  shar-  the  whole,  his  beet  course  was  tiiat  wbich  he 
ing  in  the  common  opinion.  On  this  point,  followed,  in  healing  demoniacs  without  dis- 
names  of  great  respectability  might  be  ad-  turbing  current  opinions.  The  problem 
duced  for  either  side  of  this  altematiye.  which  he  had  to  solve  was  tliat  to  which 
Those  who  give  an  unconditional  affirma-  every  philanthropist  must  apply  himself, 
tive  to  the  question,  allege,  I.  The  testimony  namely,  to  achieve  within  a  limited  time  the 
of  the  demoniacs  themselves,  who  often  as«  greatest  amount  of  good.  To  attempt  every - 
sert  that  they  are  possessed  by  a  demon :  it  thing  often  issues  in  doing  nothing.  He 
is  replied,  that  they  of  course  held  the  re-  who  will  not  heal  a  lunatic  till  he  has  put 
ceived  notion,  and  can  have  no  authority  to  him  and  the  public  at  large  into  possession 
determine  au  article  of  Christian  faith.  II.  of  philosophical  notions,  and  made  them  use 
The  narratives  of  the  evangelists,  who  re-  philosophical  terms  respecting  lunacy,  is 
present  the  demons  as  speaking  by  the  lips  nearly  as  insane  as  the  patient  that  awaits 
of  the  demoniacs,  and  as  going  out  of  them  his  remedial  measures.  While,  however,  it  is 
when  cured ;  whence  it  is  argued  that,  in  certain  that  Jesus  gave  his  apostles  power 
truth,  demons  must  have  been  in  the  demo-  to  cast  oat  demons,  and  referred  to  his  own 
niaos :  on  the  contrary,  it  is  urged  that  the  power  as  a  proof  ^at  he  was  the  Messiali, 
evangelists  only  speak  in  the  language  of  in  agreement  with  the  popular  opinion  that 
common  life,  which  they  are  compeUed  to  the  Messiah  would  work  muSi  miracles 
do  if  they  wish  to  be  understood,  and  that  (Matt.  xii.  28),  and  while  some  of  his  fol- 
it  does  not  follow  that  they  intended  to  ap*  lowers  may  have  set  a  value  on  this  power 
prove  all  the  opinions  which  are  contained  as  making  them  equal  to  the  scholars  of  the 
or  Implied  in  that  language.  In  this  remark  rabbins,  who  professed  to  heal  demoniacs 
an  answer  has  been  found  to  the  Ilird  aver-  (Luke  xi.  19),  our  Lord  charged  his  disci- 
ment,  that  Jesus  himself  speaks  as  if  de-  pies  not  to  value  the  gilt  (Lulra  z.  20),  and 
mons  held  possession  of  demoniacs,  and  seems  to  have  led  them  to  the  entertainment 
were  expelled  by  his  power.  Jesus,  when  of  the  right  view  of  the  matter,  after  his  as- 
dealing  with  delirious  and  insane  persons,  cension  to  the  right  hand  of  God;  for  it  is 
found  it  necessary  to  adapt  his  language  deserving  of  special  notice,  that  neither 
to  their  notions,  in  order  to  effect  their  cure—  John,  Peter,  Paul,  nor  James,  brings  forward 
an  adaptation  which  is  more  or  less  prao-  the  doctrine  that  diseases  were  caused  by 
tised  in  all  remedial  measures  taken  in  be-  demoniacal  possession.  In  all  the  apostolic 
half  of  those  who  are  diseased  in  mind.  He  writings,  setting  aside  the  first  three  evan- 
would  have  had  no  power  for  their  relief  gelists,  there  are  only  thtte  passages  in  the 
had  he  not  entered  into  their  notions  and  Acts  wherein  demoniacal  sicknesses  arw 
employed  those  terms  which  only,  in  the  found,  namely,  x.  88,  in  which  Peter  speaks 
opinion  of  the  sick,  could  reach  and  remove  historically  of  the  cures  of  our  Lord,  in  the 
their  disorder.  The  astronomer,  in  imita*  way  in  which  they  were  generally  inter- 
tion  of  popular  language,  speaks  of  the  ris-  preled ;  and  v.  16,  xix.  12,  where  Luke 
ing  and  setting  of  the  sun,  knowing  mean-  himself  is  the  narrator  of  the  healing  of 
while  that  the  terms  do  not  correspond  to  penons  that  were  '  vexed  with  unclean  spi- 
the  fact  (Matt.  viii.  28,  teq,).  More  import-  rits.'  Certainly,  the  absence  of  this  opinion 
ant  is  the  allegation  that  Jesus  did  not  cor-  in  the  letters,  for  instance,  of  Paul,  gives 
rect  the  opinions  even  of  his  apostles  on  the  countenance  to  the  idea  that,  in  the  matter 
point,  but  rather  said  and  did  what  would  of  the  demoniacs,  we  have  to  do  with  no  point 
confirm  their  ideas  (Matt.xvii.  19,i«9.),  and  of  Christian  faith  or  doctrine,  but  merely 
expressly  gave  them  power  to  east  out  de-  with  one  of  those  transient  forms  of  opinion 
mons  (Matt  X.  1).  It  is  replied,  that  though  which  must  attach  themselves  to  erery  his- 
this  is  the  fact,  yet  Jesus  in  no  case  asserts  torioal  religion  in  its  rise,  and  are  equally 
the  correctness  of  the  prevalent  opinion,  and  sure  to  be  detached  Arom  it  in  the  progress 
leaves  that  opinion  untouched,  as  not  being  of  growing  knowledge  and  civilisation.  A 
within  the  range  of  his  commission,  or  re-  distinction  may  be  sustained  between  die 
quiring  for  its  rectification  a  knowledge  of  gospel  itself  and  the  forms  under  which  it 
physics,  medicine,  and  pneumatology,  which  has  appeared  in  different  ages.  These  forms 
was  not  possessed  by  Uie  people,  for  which  may,  to  some  extent,  be  the  outer  working  of 
they  had  no  susoeptibilitf,  and  which  could  its  own  inmost  power.  They  must  also  tidie 
arise  and  prevail  only  in  ^e  long  course  of  shape  and  pressure  from  Uie  several  ages 
ages  of  intellectual  improvement  and  provi-  through  which  Christianity  has  had  to  pass, 
dential  preparation.  And  had  our  Lord  at-  But  whencesoever  they  come,  or  whatever 
tempted  to  set  right  the  prevalent  opinions  of  they  are,  they  differ  from  the  essence  of  the 
the  Jews,  theywo^d  either  failed  to  undentand  gospel  itself,  which,  like  the  principle  of  life 
him,  or,  if  Oiey  nnderatood  him,  have  con-  in  Uie  germ  of  au  oak,  puts  out  first  almost* 
founded  him  with  the  ordinaiy  exoreists,  if  shapeless  buddings ;  but,  replacing  the  old 
they  had  not  even  interpreted  his  expla-  by  the  new,  the  less  by  the  more  perfect, 
notions  into  attempts  at  evading  diflSonlUes  evenlually  throws  into  existence  a  hundred 

212 


D  E  V  000  D  E  V 

strong  branches  and  ten  thousand  graceful  power  of  Saum's  kingdom  orer  that  wfaiefa 

leaves.     The  inward  and  genial  warmth  of  belongs  to  the  kingdom  of  Qod  has  been 

the  gospel  has  operated  on  its  own  forms  in  brought  to  a  termination,  and  because  the 

every  age,   and  seems  now  sending  forth  New  Testament  finds  the  caose  of  sin  in 


a  new  power  so  as  to  cast  off  the  time-wcm  men  themselves  (Rom.  i.  21 — 24 ;  viL 
investments  of  a  metaphysical  psychology  20.  Oal.  v.  19,  se^.).  History  confirms  the 
which  flourished  of  old,  and  to  set  forth  a  Christian  in  turning  aside  from  such  mat- 
form  of  itself  lovely  by  its  simplicity,  and,  tera  of  doubt  or  speculation  to  the  great 
by  the  same  simplicity,  suited  to  the  culture  doctrines  and  practical  duties  of  life,  while 
of  the  present  day.  Progress  is  thus  seen  it  sets  before  him  facts  which  betray  the 
to  be  an  essential  product  and  constant  at-  human  origin  and  growth  of  the  whole  claM 
tendant  of  Christianity ;  and  the  improve-  of  ideas  connected  with  our  present  subject, 
ment  of  its  outwazd  manifestations,  to  be  It  bears  strongly  on  the  subject  that  those 
an  essential  result  of  its  own  innate  power,  books  of  the  Old-Testament  oanon  which 
Consequently,  a  person  who  is  thoroughly  are  certainly  proved  to  have  existed  before 
imbued  and  actuated  by  the  high  culture  of  the  exile,  contain  nothing  of  Satan  and  his 
mind  and  heart  to  which  the  gospel  has  given  angels,  who  appear  for  the  first  time  in  books 
birth,  is,  by  the  Christian  light  within,  re*  written  after  that  period ;  that  opinions  of 
quired  and  authorised  to  disaUow  the  perish-  the  kind  were  prevalent  among  the  Egyp- 
ing  forms  in  which  its  light,  truth,  snd  power  tians  and  the  Persians,  from  whom  the  Jews, 
are  encased,  in  order  that  he  may  place  him-  during  the  captivity,  evidently  borrowed 
self  under  the  pure  light  of  heaven  as  reflected  them.  In  consequence, '  doctrines  of  devils ' 
from  the  face  of  the  Son  of  God.  The  Ju-  can  have  formed  no  part  of  the  Christian 
daical  embodiment  which  Christianity  re-  revelation,  having  been  in  the  world  and 
eeived  on  coming  into  the  world,  such  a  per-  among  the  Jews  long  before  the  advent  of 
son  consigns  to  its  native  dust,  and  so  brings  Christ  Vestiges,  indeed,  of  the  existence 
himself  into  that  communion  of  spirits  to  of  demons  have  by  some  been  found  in 
which  he  is  admitted  by  the  *  Light  of  the  the  Old  Testament  That  it  speaks  of 
world,'  who  was  a  ray  of  Ood's  glory  and  an  angels  there  can  be  no  doubt  (see  the  article ), 
express  image  of  his  perfections  (Heb.  L3).  but  it  is  equally  certain  that  it  makes  no 
Nor  was  there  any  one  foreign  element  more  statements  9,boui  falUn  angels.  Angels  are 
prevalent  or  more  operative  in  the  '  day  of  God's  messengers,  and  as  such  may  have 
visitation,'  than  the  doctrine  regarding  Satan  been  employed  in  punishments  as  well  as 
and  his  influence  on  human  beings.  This  in  giving  succour  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  49).  The 
element  has  left  of  itself  a  deep  impression  Satan  of  Job  is  not  necessarily  the  lost  and 
on  the  gospel  narratives,  which,  however  they  malicious  being  commonly  so  termed ;  for 
may  by  this  have  to  some  been  a  stumbling-  it  cannot  be  proved  that  he  did  not  belong 
block,  are  authenticated  to  us  as  the  produc-  to  Uie  class  of '  sons  of  God,'  or  good  spirits, 
tions  of  the  first  century,  and  of  simple,  un-  among  whom  he  appears  (i.  6).  In  Zecha- 
speculative  minds,  who  could  do  little  more  riah  iiL  1 — 9,  traoes  of  the  Persian  de- 
than  transmit  with  their  own  colourings  the  monology  may  be  found,  and  iu  1  Chron. 
light  which  fell  upon  them  ftom  the  effhlgent  xxi.  1.  A  comparison  of  the  last  passage  with 
mind  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  Some,  in-  2  Sam.  xxiv.  1,  will  show  this  very  clearly, 
deed,  may  wish  that  in  the  gospels  we  had  for  what  in  Chronicles  is  ascribed  to  Satan 
narratives  pure  firom  this  feature  of  Judaism,  is  in  Samuel  expressly  refened  to  God  in 
But  in  this,  as  in  all  other  cases,  God's  way  his  anger ;  in  agreement  with  the  orthodox 
is  wiser  than  man's ;  for  it  would  have  pre-  doctrine  of  sneient  Hebraism,  namely,  that 
•ented  an  objection  to  the  gospels  by  no  all  things  and  all  events,  good  and  evil, 
means  easy  to  ei^ain,  had  those  composi-  li^t  and  darkness,  emanate  firom  Jehovah, 
tions  contained  no  traces  of  demoniacal  pos-  who  is  the  sole  author  and  governor  of  the 
sessions,  while  sUeged  to  be  written  at  a  universe,  and  who  will,  in  aU  issues,  work 
time  when  there  prevailed  a  general  convic-  out  his  own  sovereign  pleasure,  and  effect 
tion  of  their  reality.  If  a  popular  work  con-  his  own  gracious  designs  —  a  doctrine 
tained  no  sllusion  to  chivalry,  or  the  cm-  which,  as  it  is  at  the  foundation  of  aU  true 
sades,  or  witchcraft,  prolbssing  to  have  come  religion  and  all  comet  theology,  is  utterly 
into  existenoe  when  either  of  these  formative  incompatible  with  any  view  whkdi  aseribes 
infiuenoes  predominated, — a  work  so  want-  evil  to  a  misehance,  to  a  superindueed  state 
ing  in  an  indispensable  attestation,  would  of  things,  to  Satan  or  Satanio  ministers 
be  rejected  as  counterfeit  and  spurious.  (Is.  xlv.  7.  Amos  iii  6).  The  <  devUs' 
The  faith  of  Christians  has,  therefore,  no  mentioned  in  Deut  xxxiL  17,  if  taken  as 
peoulisr  interest  in  the  *  doctrines  of  derils'  meanmg  demons  possessing  idol -gods, 
(1  Tim.  iv.  1),  regard  to  which  Paul  places  might  furnish  an  argument  fbr  the  late 
among  the  tokens  of  religious  deelension  oomposition  of  Ifaat  Tolume  of  the  Penta- 
and  a  period  of  apostacy :  the  rather  because  teach,  but  (from  a  root  signiiying  destroy* 
Jesus  and  his  apostles  tesch  (John  xiL  31 ;  ers)  may  be  understood  as  representing 
xvL  11.   IJohn  iii.  8—10),  that  all  the  the  destructive  moral  tendeney  of  idolatry. 


D  E  V 


501 


D  I  A 


The  passAgQ  in  1  Kings  xxii.  18 — ^28,  repre- 
sents no  reality  other  than  existed  in  the 
mind  of  the  prophet.  The  paucity  of  those 
passages  alleged  to  prove  that  ancient  Juda- 
ism had  a  deyil  and  demons,  would  suffice 
t3  make  the  impartial  mind  suspect  the  con- 
trary,  did  not  dieir  character  put  it  beyond 
a  question.  Certain,  however,  it  is,  that  it 
was  not  before  the  Persian  and  Chaldee 
demonology  had  exerted  its  influence  on 
the  Jewish  mind,  during  and  after  the  exile, 
that  the  system  of  thought  and  expression 
found  in  the  New  Testament  was  brought 
to  its  completion  on  the  soil  of  Judsa. 
It  is  true  Uiat  the  Jewish  differed  some- 
what firom  the  Mesopotamian  demonology ; 
and  in  this  principally,  that  Satan  was  in 
the  former  a  creature,  and  only  mediately 
the  author  of  evil;  while  in  the  latter  he 
was  a  rival  to  the  principle  of  good,  and  an 
independent  source  of  evil.  This  difference 
was  wrought  on  the  Chaldaic  system  of  de- 
mons by  the  strict  and  predominant  theism 
of  the  Jews,  who  held  Jehovah  their  God 
to  be  the  sole  author  and  controller  of  men 
and  angels.  But  this  difference,  thus  natu- 
rally accounted  for,  is  not  of  sufficient  weight 
to  destroy  the  historical  connection  of  the 
demonology  of  the  New  Testament  with 
that  of  Zoroaster  and  the  magi. 

In  truth,  this  whole  circle  of  ideas  seems 
to  have  sprung  up  in  a  soil  foreign  to  tlie 
religion  of  Moses,  who  knew  no  other  cause 
of  good  or  ill  (so  called)  than  God,  and  to 
have  arisen  in  uninspired  minds  from  specu- 
lations relating  to  the  origin  of  evil,  which, 
being  in  apparent  character  and  tendency  so 
unlike  good,  they  were  led  to  ascribe  to  a 
source  separate  and  distinct  from  the  author 
of  good.  Hence  a  dualism  which  stands  in 
contradiction  to  the  Mosaic  unity  of  God, 
divides  with  the  Creator  the  empire  of  both 
worlds,  and,  winnuig  from  him  a  part  of  his 
due  homage  here,  secures  for  his  great 
enemy  and  the  great  enemy  of  man  endless 
sway  over  the  largest  portion  of  the  intelli- 
gent universe.  Such  a  tree  is  not  one  of 
Christ*s  planting,  and,  bringing  forth  evil 
fruit,  will,  sooner  or  later,  be  rooted  up 
(Mattvii.  19).  Nor,  if  our  opinion  as  to 
the  origin  of  the  popular  notion  is  correct, 
namely,  tliat  it  is  the  offspring  of  a  specu- 
lative intellect,  can  a  warm  interest  on  the 
subject  be  accounted  indicative  of  that  re- 
ligious state  of  mind  which  finds  its  satis- 
faction and  desired  nutriment  in  love  and 
adoration.  Milton  was  morally  right  when 
he  thus  represented  the  devils  in  Pande- 
monium : 

*  Others  apart  sat  on  a  hill  retired. 
In  thoughts  more  elevate,  and  reason'd  high 
Of 'Providence,  foreknowledge,  will  and  fate ; 
Fix'd  fate,  free-will,  foreknowledge  absolute ; 
And  found  no  end,  in  wandtring  maxes  loMt, 
Otaood  and  evU,  much  they  argued  there. 
Of  happiness  and  final  misery, 
Passion  and  apathy,  and  glory  and  shame  : 
Fain  wisdom  ail  and  falte  philosophy  * 


DE  W  (T.  to  toaUr  or  distil) ,  the  moisture 
deposited  by  the  atmosphere  on  bodies  ren- 
dered colder  than  it  by  radiation  of  their 
warmth.  Dew  is  very  copious  in  eastern 
lands  generally  (Dan.  iv.  83)  ;  and  in  Pales- 
tine, during  the  months  of  April,  May,  Au- 
gust and  September,  at  night,  it  is  so  abun- 
dant as  to  resemble  a  '  gentle  shower ' 
(CantT.  2).  As  such,  it  serves  to  temper 
ttie  glowing  heat  of  day,  and  affords  refiresh- 
ment  and  nunition  to  plants  and  flowers, 
being  of  the  greater  consequence  because 
rain  never  falls,  unless  for  short  periods  and 
fixed  seasons.  Hence,  without  dew,  vegeta- 
tion and  firuitftilness  would  in  many  places 
be  impossible  (Gen.  zxvii.  28.  Zech.  viii. 
12.  Hagg.  i.  10.  Job  xxix.  19).  In  conse- 
quence, dew  is  mentioned  in  connection 
with  rain  (1  Kings  xvii.  1),  and  accounted 
one  of  the  greatest  blessings  of  heaven 
(Gen.xxvii.  28.  Deutxxxiii.  28).  It  also 
supplies  the  Hebrew  poets  with  many  ap- 
propriate and  pleasing  figures,  the  full  force 
of  which  can  hardly  be  appreciated  by  any 
but  orientals  (2  Sam.  xviL  12.  Ps.  ex.  8. 
Prov.xix.  12.  Hos.vi.  4;  xiv.  0).  In  Hos. 
xiii.  8,  a  beautiful  image  is  borrowed  fh>m 
the  quickness  with  which  the  morning  dew 
is  rarified  and  vanishes  under  the  rays  of  an 
eastern  sun. 

In  die  middle  of  summer,  dew  does  not 
fall  in  Palestine,  or  only  in  almost  insensible 
portions.  Indeed,  the  atmosphere  is  not 
then  in  a  condition  for  its  formation,  beiug 
too  dry  and  warm.  For  the  production  of 
dew,  on  a  large  scale,  the  atmosphere  must 
contain  much  moisture,  which,  being  in  an 
aeriform  state,  is  converted  into  a  fluid  by 
contact  with  bodies  colder  than  itself.  Tet 
the  comparatively  longer  nights  of  summer 
in  Palestine  must  occasion  a  degree  of  re- 
frigeration on  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
which  would  tend  to  condense  any  moisture 
which  the  air  during  the  heat  of  summer 
might  retain. 

DIADEM,  from  two  Greek  words  signify- 
ing to  bind  through  or  by,  denoted  pri- 
marily a  covering  for  the  head,  bound  to  it 
by  means  of  the  hair  (Pape,  Handworter- 
buch  der  G.  S.).  Then  it  came  to  mean  a 
bandage  round  the  turbans,  for  instance,  of 
the  Persian  kings.  Minshull  says,  *  pro- 
perly it  signifieth  a  wreathed  haX-band,  with 
which  ancient  kings  contented  themselves, 
as  thinking  the  crowne  only  belongs  to  their 
gods.'  From  this  application  diadem  came 
to  signi^  a  crown,  or  royal  head-dress.  It 
is  the  English  representative  of  three  Hebrew 
words  (Ezek.  xxi.  26 ;  oomp.  Exod.  xxviii.  4. 
Job  xxix.  14.  Is.  xxviii.  5)  which  are  ap- 
plied to  the  attire  of  a  distinguished  emir, 
like  Job,  or  the  bonnet  of  the  high-priest, 
as  well  as  to  royal  personages.  See  Bonhet, 
Clothbs,  andPnissT. 

DIAL  (L.  diea,  a  day),  an  instrument  for 
pointing  out  the  time  of  the  day  by  means 


DI  A 


502 


Dl  A 


of  tlie  Afaadow  cast  by  the  sun  from  a  body 
interposed  between  it  and  the  dial-plate, 
on  which  the  shadow  falls.  The  Hebrew 
word,  wta^aiak,  rendered  *  dial '  in  2  Kings 
XX.  11  and  Is.  xxxviii.  B,  is  in  the  same  con- 
nection and  in  other  places  translated  by  *  de- 
grees '  (Psalms  cxx.  cxxi,  &c.),  and  by  *  steps' 
(Exod.  XX.  20),  also  '  slaira'  (Eaek.  xl.  6). 

The  faets  in  connection  with  the  mention 
of  the  sun-dial  in  Scripture,  are  these : — 
Hexekiah  was,  through  the  gracious  hand 
of  Ood,  rescued  from  a  sickness  which  was 
likely  to  have  proved  fatal.  The  prophet 
Isaidi  announced  the  deliverance  from 
death ;  but  Hexekiah  required  a  sign  lor  the 
confirmation  of  his  faith.  A  sign  was  given 
— that  sign  which  the  king  desired;  the 
shadow,  and  as  the  shadow,  so  '  the  sun 
returned  ten  degrees'  (l8.xxxviii  8). 

The  writers  of  the  narratives  clearly  in- 
tended to  represent  this  as  a  miracle.  At- 
tempts at  some  explanation  on  natural 
causes  have  failed.  It  has  been  aUeged  that 
the  miracle  consisted  merely  in  the  retro- 
cession of  the  shadow  by  some  atmospheric 
influence.  Hexekiah  is,  however,  spoken  of 
as  believing  that  th4  am  had  '  returned  ten 
degrees ;'  for  thus  only  could  he  be  repre- 
sented to  have  gained  an  assurance  from 
fact  of  the  promised  prolongation  of  his 
life.  It,  however,  a  real  retrocession  took 
place,  the  entire  solar  system  would  have 
been  put  into  disorder ;  and  that  for  a  very 
inconsiderable  end.  In  truth,  the  passage 
in  2  Kings  xx.  8 — 11,  is  not  necessary  to 
the  sense  of  the  text,  and  wears  an  i^pear- 
ance  of  being  an  interpolation  by  a  later 
hand.  This  rises  to  more  than  bare  proba^ 
bility,  in  considering  that  verse  7  states  that 
Hexekiah  had  '  recovered,'  that  is,  before  he 
asked  for  a  sign.  Tet  in  verse  8  we  find 
him  asking  for  *  a  sign  that  the  Lord  toiU 
heal  BM.'  The  alleged  miracle  may  have 
arisen  from  a  poetie  version  of  the  event 
being  translated  at  a  later  time  into  prose. 
It  was  the  employment  of  obvious  imagery 
for  a  poet  or  a  prophet,  in  making  a  moral 
use  of  the  king's  recovery,  to  remark,  as 
we  say  a  man's  days  are  Ungthenedj  that 
Hexekiah's  shadow  (of  death)  had  gone 
back,  and  his  sun  (of  life)  had  more  years 
to  run  (Job  xi.  17).  Such  a  symbolical 
improvement  of  the  event,  when  put  into 
plain  prose  and  nutde  part  of  a  history,  as- 
sumed at  once  a  miraculous  character.  And 
yet  the  working  of  a  later  hand  is  seen  in 
the  want  of  correspondence  in  the  numbers ; 
for  whereas  the  king's  life  was  prolonged  for 
jyieen  yean  (6),  the  sun  went  back  only 
ten  degrees.  If,  according  to  some,  the 
announcement  of  Hexekiah's  recovery  took 
place  in  the  year  714»  and  he  died  in  699, 
A.  C,  the  event  corresponded  not  with  the 
alleged  ivtrocession,  but  with  Isaiah's  pre- 
diction. 

Of  the  nature  of  the  dial  here  mentioned 


nothing  is  known,  and  conjecture  is  useleao. 
As,  however,  the  word  denotes  a  flight  of 
steps,  so  the  chief  feature  of  the  *  dial,'  that 
is,  the  gnomon  or  pointer,  may  have  home 
some  such  shape.  Whatever  it  was,  the 
dial  was,  in  all  probability,  borrowed  from 
the  Babylonians,  who  had,  for  centuries 
before  these  events  (A.G.  cir.  718),  been 
distinguished  for  astronomical  knowledge; 
and  Herodotus  (ii.  109),  expressly  says  ti^ 
they  communicated  the  sun-dial  to  tha 
Greeks.  The  probability  of  the  Babylonish 
origin  of  this  dial  is  strengthened  by  its 
being  ascribed  to  Ahax,  who  had  formed  aa 
allianee  with  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  As- 
syria, which  took  him  to  Damaaeua,  whence 
his  love  of  novelty  led  him  to  transplant  to 
Jerusalem  die  pattern  of  an  altar  (2  Kings 
zvi.  7 — 16 ;  comp.  2  Ghron.  xxviii.  16,  m;.). 

DIAMOND  (O.  a, 'not,'  and  damdn,  'to 
subdue ;'  hence  atiomonl),  ahard,  transparent, 
glistening  mineral  body.  Pliny  declared  it 
to  be  incombustible ;  Newton,  however,  con- 
jectured, and  more  recent  investigators  have 
proved,  that  It  is  combustible,  and  has  the 
same  base  as  charcoal,  namely,  carbon. 

It  has  been  doubted  if  the  diamond  is 
really  mentioned  in  Scripture;  but  there 
seems  good  reason  to  recognise  it  in  the 
thamir  found  in  Jer.  xviL  1,  where  the  'point 
of  a  diamond'  is  spoken  of  as  employed  in 
writing,  and  we  know  from  Pliny  that  a  sty- 
lus tipped  with  a  diamond  was  used  by  the 
ancients  for  making  inscriptions.  So  hard 
a  substance  afforded  a  suitable  metaphor  for 
describing  the  obstinacy  of  the  Jewish  heart 
(Ezek.iii.  9.  Zech.  vii.  12).  In  Exod.  xxxix. 
11.  Esek.  xxviii.  18,  the  'diamond'  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  intended.  Most  of 
the  ancient  translators,  withJosephus,  under 
stand  the  onyx ;  Eichhom,  the  beryll ;  others, 
the  emerald. 

Yery  forcible  is  the  metaphor  employed 
by  Jeremiah  in  the  passage  (xvii.  1)  to  de- 
scribe the  deeply  inwrought  sinfulness  of 
the  Jews : 

'  The  tin  of  Judah  is  written  with  a  pen  of  iron. 
And  irith  the  point  of  a  diamond ; 
It  is  graven  npon  the  table  of  their  heart* 

There  is  a  similar  figure  in  Job  (xix.  23, 
24),  '  Oh  tliat  my  words  were  engraven  with 
an  iron  point  in  the  rock  forever!'  The 
idea  was  borrowed  from  the  practice  of  the 
Egyptians,  whose  writing  and  engraving, 
cut  in  their  stone  temples,  had  an  antiquity 
when  Jeremiah  and  Job  wrote,  and  have 
survived  to  the  present  day.  Yet  are  they 
in  part  defaced,  and  time  will  at  length  suc- 
ceed in  obliterating  them.  But  the  same 
sinful  propensities  with  which  Judah  was 
reproached,  still  live  in  fhll  force  in  human 
bosoms ;  nor  will  they  cease  to  operate  till 
Ihe  gospel  shall  have  re-created  human 
kind,  and  given  to  each  of  its  members  a 
new  heart 


DIA 


503 


DIA 


DIANA  (L.),  k  Bomu  goddau,  daugh-  the  ii  etllad  b]r  Horao*.  Din  ui/mmls.  E 

In  of  JnpiMi  bj  LatoDK,  and  ■iMer  of  Apollo;  nqnirad  to  bs  inrokcd  ihjM  timss  in  on 

lAo  hon  three  lelmtlonB,  u  Lud»,  thamoon  to  ba  piapitiona,  and  ii  Ihna  fipirad  iu  1 

in  hMTcn,  Diu»,  (he  hDUtnw  on  aarth,  ihme-fold  ebuaelar. 
•nd  HMile,  in  Iba  inbmal  ngiona.   Hbbm 


Diana  had  the  idiaale  and  daogeroo* 
offloe  of  presidiTig  over  the  birth  of  huniaa 
bainga,  and  so  the  Baman  diiinilj  preaeuta 
a  point  of  contaot  with  the  Greek,  or  ralhar 
Oraak-Aaiatio,  in  whiih  cUarastsr  iha  ban 
Iha  uasa  of  Artemi*.  and  in  the  original 
comaa  batore  Iha  rtadna  of  Ifae  New  Teat*- 
ment  ondei  that  ^ipetlatkm  in  Acta  la. 
31^—80.  Artemia  vm  a  peraonifigation  of 
(ha  po«ar  of  lafrodnolioK.  Heuoe  the  pe- 
enliai  ajmbola  whioh  aha  baa  on  lierpenon, 
aa  aaen  In  tha  <^oaile  figora,  tiian  whioh 
nothing  Ban  well  bs  mure  diaiimilar  to  the 
ordinal]  Itaags  given  of  Diana,  nhoaa  attri' 
bnteaaralliebaw,  tha  quiver,  tha  girt-up  robe, 
and  tfaa  bonnd ;  whoaa  person  ia  a  modal 
of  Cgmlnina  atrenph,  eaae,  and  grace ;  and 
whou  ehief  delight  waa  foand  inhuming. 
•  MoM^  In  Um  cban,  bat  ffgUen  fen.- 
The  flgnrea  whieh  the  auBients  hare 
tranamitled  to  na  of  AtlemiB  are  mors  or  leu 
full  In  Ihair  delaila ;  but  while  the  original 
image  of  the  goddess  waa  little  more  than 
an  almost  ahqwlesi  trunk,  said  to  hiTe 
fallen  from  haaven,  nnmerotis  altribates  ia 
eonrse  of  time  were  centred  in  the  idol,  de- 
rived probably  from  Tarlmii,  especiallj  norlh- 

leei  dirett  reference  to  her  nature  aa  a  per- 
■oniflcation  of  oonoeptian  and  birth.  Among 
her  altribnies  maj  be  mentioned  the  head 
with  a  turret,  resembling  Cjbele;  thenimbne 
Blretohing  from  the  turret  to  the  shonldera, 
representing  the  moon;  on  her  bosom  a 
wide  necklace,  exhibiting  the  lodiaeal  signs 
of  the  bull,  ibt  (wins,  snd  the  crab ;  be- 
low them  two  wreaths,  one  of  flowers,  one 
ofaeoms;  then  thiea  rows  of  bteaitt  with     would 


DI  A  I 

*sd  ntagi,  b«a.  tnd  dowcn,  idorn  the  lower 
parU ;  pnisuling  •JtoRBlhar  Ul  iuoongruouj 
medlej  of  imigii,  vbiFh  is  not  i  bid  t]^ 
of  the  dJTsrM  uid  heterogsneoiu  ch 
ef  llie  PigMiUm  with  whicb  Cbriaiiui 
Ul  deal — K  sjtWm  in  which,  M  tfaars  ' 
tnitfa,  ao  oat  slaiUr  ot  idtu,  umx. 
■ltd  gympaUiisg which  wu  held  uidchr 
with  ui  eaniBCt  pneliul  fulh>  all  (i 
raligioai  elnueuta  whrUeTer  wen  liiho  u- 
oepMbU,  ind  euilj  Uken  iolo  the  open 
pMiIliMiti  of  Ihg  populai  wonhip.  The  cut 
■nd  the  intiiect  maj  iflord  ■  weming  to 
ChriiLiuii,  lest  the;  alloir  theniBelTei  lo  be 
ouried  awi;  from  the  (olid  foimdUioDi  of 
the  gospel  (o  liewB  whioh,  making  ereij 
thing  of  a  enperior  kind  dirme,  bring)  iho 
diTiiie  down  into  the  ipben  of  moiulitj, 
and  moltipljing  diTtnitiei  wbild  it  deniea 
Ood,  girea  riae  to  a  beterogen«0lla  oomponnd 
of  uotiona,  inio  which  ererj  J3«w  hierophani 
calls  a  portion  from  the  arbitrary  determi- 
DalioDi  of  hii  own  teeming  brain. 

Around  Ihs  image  of  Irtamia  wai  ereetad 
a  large  and  splendid  temple,  which,  in  the 
sighl  when  Alexander  iraa  bora,  being  bonil 
down  by  Enloatratqa,  who  thtu  eoaj^t  to 
tranamit  hie  obseiiTe  name  to  poataritj,  WM 

from  reionroea  inpplied  bf  all  Alia  Uinor, 
and  with  a  ram  onion  ot  aitiatic  ikill.  The 
conception  and  general  exeention  of  the 
MDClou;  were  in  the  handa  of  the  cela> 
breled  arcbilect  Cbenipbron,  who,  finding 
bin  beat  powen  onequal  to  oiercoine  lome 
difflenltiea,  waa  on  the  point  ot  tenninating 
hii  exiatence  in  despair,  when  a  Tisit  from 
(he  goddeaa  herself  relieTed  him  from  hii 
perpleiit;.  The  altar  vm  the  work  of  Prai- 
iwlea.  The  famoo*  soulptoi  Scopai  cbiaelled 
one  of  the  oolomna.  Apelln,  a  natiie  of 
Efdiettia,  contribated  a  splendid  picture  ot 
Akiuulei  the  Great.  Under  tbeie  aoipices 
the  temple  earns  into  eiiiteuce,  to  be  the 
pride  of  Western  Aaia,  the  great  nuna  of  ill 
Idolatr;,  and  one  of  tho  WTsn  wondera  of  Ihi 
world.  Of  this  temple  '  the  silTer  ahrinea' 
(Acta  xii.  34),  made  b;  Demetrins,  maj 
hare  been  a  rrpreMntation. 


[Tied   about  aa  a  prcBerraliTe 


1  tntTel. 
ipenara  in  Dooaei  •■  b 
of  chann.  Indeed,  so  moch  w*m 
Aneiuis  honoared.that  she  beoame  a  haose- 
bold  diriniij.  From  tbeie  facts  we  nu^ 
Icam  how  deeplj-rooied  waa  the  Epheaiaa 
idolatT,  and  maj  infer  the  dirine  power 
of  that  word  which  bronght  it  to  rain. 

DIBON  [II.  amartk),  Ibe  modeni  Dai- 
ban,  on  (he  eaat  of  Jordan,  Ijing  lomeiriiM 
north  of  Amon,  In  the  plain  now  called  EI- 
kura,  which  oorresponda  to  the  plain  of 
Haab,  a  cilj  that  the  Hebiwwi  took  ban  the 
Amorilei,  and  which  (he  Oadilea  lebnilt 
(Nanib.xiiii.l~(»,U).  The  place,  in  eoo- 
•equence,  reaeired  the  name  of  Dibon-f 


i.  ta).     It  waa  anbuanentlj  ai 


giud 


r.B). 


DIET,  a  Oreek  word,  in  Engliah  letten 
denoting,  Brat,  the  waj  or  mannei  of  liring, 
and  then  the  snppart  <^  life  or  fbod,  is  fbsnd 
in  Jer.  liL  34,  as  the  tranilation  of  a  word 
which  in  2  Kings  IIT.  30,  is  nndared  ■  al- 
lowanes ;'  in  ProT.  zr.  17,  '  dinner ;'  and  in 
Jer.  xl.  e, 'Tictnila.' 

The  food  of  aneioit  PalaaUne  would  b« 
determined  bj  ita  piodoeliona.  ainee  it  rai  ■ 
ooimtiT  that  depended  for  the  sabstaotial 
thing*  of  lifi,  mainlr  at  least,  on  its  own 
raaonrces.  Now  it  aboimded  generally  in 
Ihiiti  of  the  earth,  the  rather  because  large 
portiona  of  its  sarfioe  were  exceedingly  pro- 
ductire,  and  ita  inhabitants  coldTated  a|tri- 
enltnie  almost  exdoaiTely.  Other  srticlea 
contain  a  aUlement  of  the  chief  tegetabto 
as  well  as  animal  prodncti  of  tlie  land, 
whioh,  aa  a  matter  of  oooree,  constitoled  the 
diet  of  ita  people.  The  fmiti  of  the  eaith 
vera  eaten  in  part  in  their  nataral  slate,  in 
part  after  being  cooked.  Bread  waa  the  MalT 
of  life  ;  tbr  the  diet  waa  chieSy  Tegelablo,  a^ 
Indeed,  It  ia  at  Ibe  present  day.  UJlk,  either 
in  a  pnre  or  coagolaled  atate,  boney,  which 
might  be  gatliered  from  the  cleft*  of  the 
rorki,  and  Tatioos  roots,  afforded  grateful 
and  salnbiiona  aancei  (Oen  iTiii.  B.  Jndg. 
T.  20).  Only  on  rare  and  fesliTe  occasions 
did  the  Iiraelitea  indulge  in  animal  faad, 
which  waa  originally  (1  Sam.  ii.  13}  roaaled, 
and  not  till  a  later  period  boiled  [Oen.  UTii. 
7.  Judg.  tL  10.  Eiod.  xii.  6,  S).  The  art 
of  cookery,  at  leaat  In  ita  practioil  details, 
woold  be  efTeclnally  langht,  at  any  rale,  by 
the  demands  made  for  ita  exercise  in  Ihe 
pablic  eerrices  of  religion.  Eiery  coonliy 
has  some  peculiarity  in  diet  The  Hebraws, 
with  other  orientals,  ate  locusU  prepared  in 
several  ways  (Lev.  xL  22).  DifTeienees  ot 
usage  in  regard  to  food  may  lerre  to  show 
that  men'a  lailes  an  arlifleial,  aiul  that.  cTes 
on  this  point,  nothing  bits  what  ia  poiaoiunu 
is 'common  or  nncleao.'  The  medicinal  nr- 
iDea  ot  sail  were,  as  a  mailer  of  del,  tnowa 
l;  Ihe  Biblical  Datians  at  a  rery  early  po- 


DIE  505  DIE 

nod,  and  its  use  entered  largely  into  tne  pre*  in    Christian   times   should,   be   his    own 

paration  and  consumption  of  their  food  (LeT.  priest 

ii.  18.  Job  Ti.  0).    The  fresh  and  vigorous        The  time  of  taking  meals  must  depend  so 

health  of  primitive  times  and  of  modes  of  much  on  local  and  peculiar  circumstances, 

life,  far  more  conformed  to  the  laws  of  our  that  it  is  not  easy  to  make,  regarding  those 

nature  than  are  those  observances  which  of  the  Israelites,  general  statements  that 

ensue  from  a  city  life  and  manufacturing  shall  be  quite  free  from  exception.  The  cool 

or  literary  pursuits,  caused  the  appetite  to  of  the  day,  especially  in  Eastern  countries, 

be  keen,  and  gave  a  relish  to  food  which  seems  to  be  the  most  appropriate,  if  not  also 

may  well  have  dispensed  with  high  season-  the  most  convenient  time  for  the  chief  meal, 

ings  and  artificial  condiments.  Tet  the  aged.  And  in  the  Roman  period,  late  dinners  (the 

the  sick,  and  the  young,  were  indulged  with  Roman  comsB)   appear  to  have   been  not 

more  savoury  or  more  simple  diet  (Gen.  uncommon  (Joseph.  '  Life,'  41).    But  with 

xxvii.  4,  19.  3  Sam.  ziii.  10.  1  Cor.  iii.  3).  a  simple  and  agricultural  people,  mid-day 

In  earliest  times  the  ordinary  drink  was  would  be  suitable  for  a  solid  meal,  especially 

water,  which,  to   the   arid  and  sometimes  as  the  heat  would  compel  a  cessation  from 

parched  mouth  of  an  oriental,  has  a  fresh-  labour  for  some  hours.  Here,  then,  we  may 

ness  and  sweetness  of  which  those  who  live  perhaps  fix  the  time  for  dinner :  comp.  1 

'  in  moister  climates  can  have  no  conception :  Kings  xix.  6.    In  the  morning,  a  meal  was 

•Amidst  the  runnhig  stieun  he  tlaket  his  thirst;  *?k«^  wiiirfi,  in  Luke  xiv.  12,  is  in  our  ver- 

•      •«•«•••  sion  called  '  a  dmner,   but  whose  correct 

And  If,  the  following  day,  he  chance  to  find  name  would  be  breakfast  (John  xxi.  12). 

^  '  part  of  good  morals  not  to  eat  anythmg  be- 
A  draught  of  fresh  milk  was  accounted  a  fore  the  first  prayer.  On  the  sabbath,  Jose- 
present  worthy  the  acceptance  of  a  prince,  phus  declares,  their  laws  required  the  Jews 
Among  the  acts  which  have  rendered  Jael  ^  dine  at  the  sixth  hour,  that  is,  twelve 
immortal,  is  the  presentation  of  a  bowl  of  ©'dock  at  noon  (Joseph.  'Life,'  64).  Two 
milk  and  what  is  caUed  butter  (Judg.  v.  25).  chief  meals  seem  to  have  been  accounted 
'He  asked  water;  she  gave  milk;  sufficient  The  time  of  taking  the  second 
She  brought  butter  in  a  lordly  dish.  would  in  a  measure  depend  on  the  hour  of 

Sherbet,  water  mixed  with  the  juice  of  breakfast 
lemons,  and  other  simple  beverages,  were.        The  ancient  Hebrews  sat  on  the  ground, 

as  they  continue  to  be,  much  m  use.    They  or  on  carpets,  while  taking  their  customary 

also  drank  wine  made  from  grapes,  dates,  food  (Gen.  xxvii.  19.    Judg.  xix.  6.    1  Sam. 

&c.  (see  Dbxsk),  either  pure  or  mixed  with  xx.  24,  25) ;  pretty  much  the  same  as  they 

water,  and  sometimes  aromatic  herbs,  which  do  at  the  present  time.    A  skin  is  placed  on 

more  or  less  had  an  inebriating  character  the  floor  of  the  tent,  or  soD,  around  which 

(Gen.  ix.  20 ;  xiv.  18.  Ps.  Ixxv.  8.  Is.  v.  22).  the  company  place  themselves,  with  the  food 

The  cup,  glass,  and  bowl,  were  used  for  in  the  middle.    Instead  of  a  skin,  a  table, 

drinking  vessels  (2  Sam.  xii.  3.  Ps.  xxiii.  5.  or  rather  large  stool,  is  in  some  instances 

Prov.  xxiii.  81.   Is.  11. 17.    Matt.  xxvi.  89).  employed.  According  as  convenience  serves, 

These,  if  we  may  judge  from  what  we  see  the  persons  either  content  themselves  with 

from  the  Egyptian  monuments,  were  of  va-  their  garments,  or  sit  on  skins  or  carpets, 

rious,  and  some  very  elegant,  shapes.    The  The  table  would,  of  course,  vary  with  the 

lily,  a  natural  ornament  in  Egypt,  seems  to  number  and  distinction  of  the 'members  of 

have  offered  a  type  at  once  beautiful  and  the  family.    When  required,  the  Israelites 

convenient  (1  Kings  vii.  26).  would  easily  find  in  Egypt  models  of  eon- 

Before  taking  food,  the  Hebrews,  espe-  venience,   elegance,  or   sumptuousness  in 

eially  in  later  times,  were  careful  to  wash  at  regard  to  ftimitnre  (1  Sam.  xx.  29.  2  Sam. 

least  their  hands  (Matt  xv.  2.  Luke  xL  38)  ix.  7, 11.  1  Kings  x.  5.  Luke  xxiL  21.  Acts 

— a  custom  generaUy  practised  in  the  Eas4  xvi.  84). 

and  rendered  the  more  necessary  in  conse-  When  Palestine  came  under  the  influence 
quenoe  of  the  heat  of  the  climate.  After  the  of  Greek  and  Roman  manners,  the  Jews  re- 
use of  purifying  water,  the  soul  was  raised  to  elined  on  cushions,  couches,  or  divans,  es- 
God  in  devout  acknowledgment  of  his  con-  pecially  on  extraordinary  and  festive  ooca- 
stent  goodness,  as  again  exemplified  in  the  sions  (comp.  Amos.  vi.  4 ;  iL  8).  Hence 
actual  supply  of  recurring  wants ;  a  practice  passages  in  the  New  Testament  which  are 
which,  when  observed  with  a  due  regard  to  translated  by  *  sit,'  give  a  false  impression, 
propriety,  is  both  becoming  and  uselU,  and  and  should  be  rendered  recline  (Matt  ix.  10 ; 
which,  having  the  express  sanction  of  the  xxvi.  7.  Luke  vii.  87).  This  custom  pre- 
Ouide  of  man  (Luke  ix.  16.  John  vi.  11.  Matt  vailed  so  much,  that  at  last  it  came  to  be 
xiv.  19;  XV.  36 ;  xxvi.  26 ;  comp.  1  Tim.  iv. 8),  usual  in  ordinary  life  (Luke  xvii.  7).  Each 
is  approved  by  the  heart,  and  tends  both  to  divan  was  fitted  to  accommodate  three  per- 
elevate  and  strengthen  the  domestic  aflbc-  sons,  and  was  hence  termed  a  tricUnimn. 
tions.   Every  head  of  a  family  may.  perhaps  In  the  preparatiou  of  these  conches  great 


DIE  506  DIE 

Inziiiy  wM  aometimefl  displayed    (Jofeph.  nUly  he  intiodiieed.    The  pletfimt  of  tfa« 

'Antiq.'  xt.  9,  8).      Three   triclinia  were  appetite  were  enjojed  hy  the  Hebrews,  baft 

sometimes  pat  together,  leaving  a  long  open  soareely  *  the  pleasures  of  tke  table.'    They 

■psM  for  the  table,  or  trays,  bearing  food,  were  noi  like  ihe  Bomans,  a  feastmg  people. 

From  the  ielati?e  position  of  the  guests,  an  Neither  the  art  of  eooking  nor  that  of  eating 

attempt  has  been  mede  to  explain  tibe  phrase  seems  ever  to  have  been  ayslematieaJly  stm- 

*leaning(thatis,ieelinJng)oaJec«i^boeom,'  died,  thoogb  Bomsn  domination  in  time 

applied  to  the  apostle  John  (John  ziii  S8 ;  bioai^t  Bomsn  vises.    A  leligioas  elwneiU 

xmL  90) ;  but  loo  little  definite  infonnatioii  prevailed  in  the  social  fostivities  of  the  sons 

on  the  positions  at  tsMe  is  in  oni  possission  ofAtanham,  and  kept  them  free  from  eosmp- 

to  allow  of  a  very  elear  notion  being  henee  tiofts,  a  resnlt  whieh  was  aided  by  the  pre- 

gained.    Nor  do  we  think  it  impiobable  thsl  valent  simplicity  of  manners.     Banqnete, 

Jesns  and  his  sssoeiates  eonfoimed  more  Id  therefore,  Uiey  esn  hardly  be  said  to  have 

the  old  Hebrew  than  Id  the  moden  Pagan  known.     Feasts,  however,  were  common, 

foshions,  thong^i  words  descriptive  of  the  These  took  place  as  a  part  of  and  imme- 

modeni  nsagee  are  employed.    At  any  xat%  diatdy  after  certain  religions  observmcee, 

the  Hebrew  literature  has  ttie  means  of  ex-  so  that  the  domestic  snd  the  religions  aliiBe- 

plaining  the  phrase,  *  lying  in  a  person's  lions  were  bron^t  into  intimate  imion  and 

bosom.*    Agreeably  to  the  warm  and  genial  enconraged  nnder  the  same  potent  inlhi- 

charader  of  the  Israelites,  it  seems  to  come  ences.    Tobit  (iL  1)  states,  that  at  the  end 

fttMn  the  most  intimate  of  all  relations,  and  of  the  feast  of  Pentecost  there  was  prepared 

so  to  convey,  in  the  case  of  John  snd  Jeans,  for  him  a  good  dinnar,  at  whi^  when  he 

a  degree  of  tenderness  which  heathen  man-  saw  abundance  of  meat,  he  bade  his  son  '  go 

nen  wonld  not  suggest  (Qen.  xvL  5.  DenL  and  bring  what  poor  man  soerer  thoa  shidt 

ziii.  6 ;  xxviii  50).    Nathan's  poor  man's  find  oat  of  onr  bretiiren  who  is  mindftd  of 

lamb  not  only  ale  of  his  own  meat  and  drank  the  Lord.'    This  vras  in  agreement  witii  die 

of  his  own  cop,  but  *  lay  in  his  bosom'  (2  ii^nnetionsofthe  law,  whidi  commanded  die 

Bern.  zii.  8 ;  comp.  1  Kings  iiL  20.  Prov.  r.  foast  of  (scren)  weeks  to  be  kept,  *rqiolcing 

20.    Is.  zl.  11.    Lam.  ii  12.    Lnke  zvi.  22.  before  the  Lord  diy  Ood,  thon,  and  Ihy  eon, 

John  L  18).    Vegetables  and  flesh-meat  cnt  and  thy  dan^ter,  and  thy  maid-servant,  and 

Into  pieces  were  set  in  large  dishes  before  the  Levite  that  is  within  thy  gales,  and  the 

the  company,  each  of  whom  helped  himself  strsnger,  snd  the  fatherless,  snd  the  widow, 

with  his  flngsra^  plseing  his  morsel  on  a  that  are  among  yon'  (Dent.  xvi.  d— 11; 

piece  of  bread,  which  he  ate,  unaided  by  comp.  ziL  12).    8o  also  at  die  foast  of  Tft- 

oar  modem  sccompaniments  of  knives  and  bemacles  (Dent  zvL  13 ;  comp.  1  Ssm.  iz. 

forks.    Persons  who  sat  near  each  other  18;  zvL  3).    Slaves  were  invited  (1  Kings 

look  their  food  horn  the  same  dish ;  and  as  iii.  15).    On  eztrsordinaiy  oecasiMis  foasts 

this  prozimity  waa  generally  occasioned  by  were  cnstomaiy  (1  Kings  L  9.  Zeph.  L  7), 

some  kind  of  intimacy,  so  *  to  dip  the  hand  such  as  important  agreements  (Gen.  mi. 

lalo  the  dish  with  a  person,'  was  a  token  of  54).     Family  cTcnts  were    celebrsted    by 

real  or  apparent  friendship  (John  ziii.  27).  foaste;  as,  the  wesning  of  children  (Oen. 

To  one  who  was  specially  beloved,  a  delicate  zzi.  8),  napdals  (Oen.  zziz.  22    Jndg.  ziT. 

mocsri  might  be  presented.  Hence  the  offer-  10.  John  ii.  i,aeq,),  birthdays  (Oen.  zL  20. 

ing  of  a '  sop'  to  a  person  cansed  him  to  be  Job  L  4  Matt  ziv.  6),  the  arrival  and  de- 

rked  and  distingnished  (John  ziii.  26).  psrtore  of  persons  endeared  by  friendship 


Soontimes,  however,  the  master  of  the  honse     or  love  (Oen.  zzzL  27.    2  Sam.  iiL  20.   2 
served  othen,  espeeisUy  when  it  was  in-     Kings  vi  28.  Lnke  zv.  28,  sey.),  ftmerale 


tended  to  show  speeisl  kindness  or  attention     (Hoeea  iz.  4),  sheep -shearing   (1  Sam 
Id  sny  one  (1  Sam.  i.  4;  comp.  John  ziii.     zzr.   2,  mq,    2  Sam.  ziii.  28),   and  die 


26).    The  pofftiotts  given  were  generally  of  vintage  (Jndg.  iz.  27).    The  gaeats  were 

a  choice  kind,  or  they  were  Isrger  than  an  invited  by  alaves  (Prov.  iz.  8.  Matt  zzii. 

ordinary  share  (Oen.  zliiL  82,  84.  Neh.  viiL  B,  4.  Lnke  ziv.  17)  even  a  second  time, 

10.  Esdier  iz.  10).    This  kind  of  attention  when,  from  respect  or  hesilatfon,  they  de- 

vras  observed  specislly  on  festive  occasions  layed  to  accept  the  invitation.     Among  the 

(Rev.  zL  10).    The  leg  and  the  shoulder  Bomans,  die  same  slaves  assignsd  to  the 

were  aooonnted  the  best  parts  of  an  animaL  gnests  their  respective  seats.    Whedier  this 

Mention  is  also  made  of  the  *  choice  bones,'  custom  prevailed  among  the  Palestinian,  as 

which  may  have  meant  the  loin  (Eaekid  it  did  among  die  Egyptian  Jews,  is  not  de- 

zzir.  4).    According  to  rebbinical  authority,  termined.    When  they  arrived  at  the  houses 

wine,  which  was  the  chief,  somctimee  the  they  were  admitted  atthe  portal  or  *  straight 

only  beverage    at  meals,  was  drunk  both  gate,'  whidi,  when  they  vrere  sested  attaUe, 

during  and  after  eating.    When  the  meal  was  closed,  so   as  to  ensure   security  and 

was  over,  a  prayer  was  sgain  made  and  the  peace  i^alnst  die  crowd  which,  on  festive 

hands  sgain  washed.  occasions,  would,  in  a  great  city,  be  likely  to 

On  special  and  festive  occasions,  devisr  assemble  before  the  house.     Those  who, 

tions  from  the  general  course  wonld  nalu-  baring  been  ioriled,  had  come  Ute,  after  the 


DIE                        507  D I S 

dosing  of  the   gate,  were  ihas  excluded ;  cent,  if  not  nsefali  may  degenerate  into  11- 

which  may  have  been  a  penalty  deserved  by  centiousness.    Sach  wen  those  social  meet- 

their  indifference,  tardiness,  or  delay  (Luke  ings  which  the  Oreelu  tanned  kaimoi,  and 

xiii.  24.  Matt  xxy.  10).  the  Latins  committaiiotmt  which  prevailed 

On  their  entrance,  the  gnests  were  greeted  too  much  in  the  days  of  the  apostles,  doing 

with  a  kiss  (Luke  vii.  45),  had  their  heads,  serious  i^jiuy  to  the  canse  of  the  gospel, 

beards,  often  their  clothes,  and  even  their  and  which  are  forbidden  and  reproved  under 

feet  (Luke  vii.  38.   John  xU.  8),  anointed  the  name  of  'rioting'  (Bom.  xiii.  18)  and 

with  perftimes  (Ps.  xziii.  5.   Amos  vi.  6.  'revellings'  (GsL  y.  21.  1  Pet  !▼.  3).     In 

Luke  vii.  88,  »eq,).     They  were  also  pre-  these  '  riotings,'  young  men,  availing  them 

sented    with    nosegays,    with  which   they  selves  of  some  domestic  festival,  or  under 

adorned  their  heads  (Is.  xxviii.  1).    In  the  the  incitement  of  a  love  of  excess,  assem 

Boman  period,  garlands  were  worn  (Joseph,  bled  together  for  banqueting  and  rereliy 

'Antiq.'xix.  9,  1).   Places  were  allotted  to  when,  under  tha  predominanee  of  wina,  they 

the  guests,  care  being  taken  to  give  the  best  broke  from  the  house  and  paraded  the  pub- 

to  the  most  eminent  (1  Sam.  ix.  22.    Luke  lie  streets,  harried  on,  like  baoahanals,  by 

xiv.  8.  Mark  xii.  30.  Joseph,  xv.  ii.  4).  AU  drink,  song,  and  music.    Luxury  and  excess 

received  equal  portions  from  the  host  (1  predominated  at  the  tables  of  Uie  Romans, 

Sam.  i.  4.   2  Sam.  vi.  19.   1  Ghron.  xvi.  3).  whom  wealthy  Jews  were  prone  to  imitate. 

The  regulation  of  tlie  festivities  was  in  later  Several  kinds  of  food  were  prohibited  by  the 

periods  in  the  hands  of  a  master  of  the  Mosaic  law. — Sea  the  article  Glbav. 

feast  (John  ii.  8),  commonly  a  friend  of  DIONYSIUS,as8essororjadge  in  the  court 

the  family,  on  occasions  when  the  number  of  Areopagus,  was  converted  by  the  apoatle 

of  the  gnests  or  the  importance  of  the  events  Paul  when  he  made  his  celebrated  speech  on 

may  have  been  considered  to  demand  such  Mars'  hill,  in  Athens  (Acta  xvii.  84).    Tra- 

a  coa(^utor ;   otherwise,  the  head  of   the  dition  has  been  busy  with  his  name,  having 

house   took   the  supervision.    As  the  Oil*  made  him  bishop  of  the  Christian  ohuroh  in 

entals  prided  diemselves  on  keeping  large  that  city,  and  very  inconsislently  confounded 

and   rich   wardrobes,    they   seem  to  have  him  with  the  first  bishop  of  the  Oauls,  who 

formed  ihe  custom,  at  least  in  families  of  lived  under  the  emperor  Becins.    The  writ* 

distinction,  and  when  the  guests  came  from  ings  extant  under  his  name  an  not  an^ 

a  distance,  of  presenting  each  with  a  dress,  thentic. 

which,  as  being  clean  and  handsome,  would  DIOTBEPHES  (O.  noftriahed  of  Jupi* 
be  suitable  for  the  festive  scene,  and  distin-  ter),  an  officer  in  the  primitive  church,  who 
(Hiish  those  who  were  the  honoured  visitors  received  not  the  writer  of  the  Third  Epistle 
from  any  possible  intruder,  wbo,  not  having  of  John.  This  rejection  arose  from  his  love 
received  an  invitation,  had  no  right  to  be  of  pre-eminence,  which  led  him  to  prate 
present  (Gen.  xlv.  22.  2  Kings  v.  2^ ;  x.  22.  against  the  author,  to  deny  church-fellow- 
Esth.  vi  8.  Matt  xxii  11.  Eccles.  ix.  8.  Bev.  ship  to  his  adherents,  and  to  excommunicate 
iii.  5).  The  sumptuousness  of  banquets  ap-  members  of  the  church  who  took  their  part 
peared  in  the  number  of  the  guests,  which  If  this  represents  a  state  of  things  so  early 
was  often  very  great  (Gen.  xxix.  22.  1  Sam.  as  the  last  quarter  of  the  first  century,  ire 
ix.  22),  in  the  costliness  of  te  dinner  ser-  have  here  a  lamentable  proofhow  soon  human 
vice  (Esth  i.  6,  sr?.),  especially  in  the  abun-  passions  perverted  the  gospel  and  troubled 
dance  and  excellence  of  the  fare  (Gen.  xxvii.  the  church.  The  character,  however,  ot 
9.  Is.  XXV.  6.  Job  xxxvi.  16.  Amos  vi  4).  Biotrephes  is  a  perfectly  natural  one ;  of 
Feasts  lasted  a  longer  time  than  is  custo-  which  few  modem  churches  have  probably 
mary  with  us ;  and  in  Persia,  certain  royal  been  long  without  proot  The  intense  self- 
ordinances  were  connected  with  the  table  love  and  self-estimation  which  lie  at  its  root, 
(Esther  i  3).  The  entertainments  were  en-  being  essentially  anti-christian,  can  produce 
livened  by  music  (Is.  v.  12.  Amos  vi.  5.  Ps.  none  but  bitter  fruits  in  a  community  where 
bdx.  12),  by  dancing  (Matt  xiv.  6),  by  jests  spiritual  equality  and  *a  meek  and  quiet 
and  riddles  (Judg.  xiv.  12).  On  Uie  depar-  spirit'  should  prevaiL 
tore  of  the  guests,  they  were  perfumed,  es-  DISALLOW  (L  cl»,  ad,  *  to,'  and  locuSf 
pecially  on  the  beard.  On  great  occasions,  —  he,  in  Saxon, '  an  enclosure '  probably), 
the  women  ate,  not  with  the  men,  but  in  a  signifies  to  '  refuse,'  *  deny,'  *  contradict  ;* 
separate  chamber  (Esth.  i.  9).  In  the  houses  originally,  '  to  allow '  may  have  been  the 
of  ordinary  citizens,  however,  among  the  same  as  to  alht,  used  of  place,  whence  oi* 
Jews,  the  sexes  mingled  together  (John  xii.  lodiaL  From  this  would  easily  be  derived 
3).  The  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  be  pre-  the  meaning  of  'permitting.'  The  force  of 
sent  at  the  meals  connected  with  the  heaUien  dU  being  to  reverse  the  signification,  dU' 
sacrifices,  as  this  in  its  consequences,  if  not  allow  comes  to  have  the  import  assigned 
in  itself,  would  have  been  little  less  than  above.  The  original  word  seems  to  have  for 
idolatry  (Exod.  xxxiv.  15.  1  Cor.  x.  28).  its  root  meaning  *  to  break'  (Numb.xxxii. 
Festivities,  which,  so  long  as  they  remain  7;  Ps.  czlid). 
within  the  bounds  of  moderation,  are  inno*  DISANNUL  (L    di»    adp   and  nikUum, 


D  I  S  .008  D  I  S 

*uodiiiig')i  is  'to  bring  to  nothing.*    The  avoid,  reject,  and  put  awaj.    Nor  does  dis- 

word  preaents  an  instance  of  two  negatives  cipleship  stand  in  any  mere  recital  af  the 

being  used  lor  the  sake  of  emphasis ;  for  words  or  adoption  of  the  ideas  of  Jesas ; 

properly  there  i»  no  occasion  for  the  dU ;  bat  rather  in  snch  an  intereommunion  of 

and  so  tamml  is  ftvqnently  nsed  with  pretty  mind  as  to  make  the  teacher  and  the  t«a^t 

mach  the  same  meaning  as  doannal.    The  one  in  spirit,  aim,  and  object,  so  that  the 

eorresponding    Hebrew  term  signifies    to  tme   disciple,  after  his  measure,  beccnnes 

break  oimtder  (Job  xvL  12),  so  to  make  void  like  his  divine  Master  (John  ziii.  35;  zv.  8 ; 

(Numb.  xzz.  12 ;  oomp.  Job  zL  8).  xvii.  21 ). 

DISCERN    (L.   dii  and  cemo,  'Isepa-        DISCIPLINE  (L.  diaeo,  'Ileam'),   in 

rale '),  aecording  to  its  etymology,  signifies  stmotion  (Job  xxzvi.  10.   Prov.  L  2).     The 

to  so  separate  as  to  distingnish  and  lience  original   mootahr    is   rendered    *  chasCifle- 

see  things,  which  can  be  known  only  by  ment'    (Dent   zL   2);    also  '  eorreetion  ' 

their  dilFerenees.    In  Hebrew,  the  faculty  of  (Jer.  v.  8).   We  are  thus  encouraged  to  hold 

discerning  is  ascribed  to  the  sense  ot  hear-  that  Ood's  chastisements,  being  promptad 

ing  (1  Kings  iii.  II),  as  well  as  to  that  of  by  his  love  and  guided  by  his  wisdom,  are 

sight  (KaL  iii.  18).     Sometimes  *to  dis-  corrective  and  remedial, 
oem'  means  'to  discriminate,'  that  is,  to        DISCLOSE  (L.  dii  tJid  ekatdo,' I  ahnt'), 

notioe  and  marie  wherein  things  differ,  by  to  open.     The  force  of  the  liu  is  to  leverse 

means  of  the  judgment  or  the  moral  sense  the  meaning  of  cUauto,  quasi,  to   smsAarf, 

(2 Sam. ziv.  17.  EccL  viu. 0.  1  Cor.ziL  10).  that  is,  to  *lay  open'  (Is. zzvi  21).     The 

DISCIPLE  (L.  diaeo,  *  I  learn '),  signifies,  Hebrew  is  the  same  as  that  which  is  traiiA- 

as  does  ite  Greek  original,  a  learner,  one  that  lated  *  discover '  (see  the  word), 
becomes  acquainted  with  the  doctrine  and        DISCOMFIT  (F.  deeot^,  *  to  rout  an 

discipline  of  another,  who  is  his  teacher;  army'),  as  in  Ezod.  ziv.  24.   Josh.  z.  10. 

thus  in  John  iz.  28,  the  Pharisees  declare  The  Hebrew  root  signifies  originally  '  to  de- 

themselves  to  be  '  Moses'  disciples'  (Matt  stroy '  (Ps.  czliv.  6) ;  so  *  discomfiture,'  thai 

z.  24, 25.   Luke  vi.  40).    In  the  New  Testa  is,  putting  to  flight  with  slanghter  (1  Sana, 

ment  the  term  is  iqtplied  to  the  scholars  or  ziv.  20),  comes  from  a  word  which  in  other 

adherento  of  John  the  Baptist  (Matt  iz.  14),  places  is  rendered  'destruction'  (Deat.TiL 

to  those  of  the  Pharisees  (Mattzzli  10),  28.    1  Sam.  v.  9). 

andtothoseof  Jesus  (Matt V.  1.  Markviii.  DISCOVER  (F.  de  and  covmr,  'to 
27.  Luke  viii.  9.  John  iil.  22).  Twelve  uncover'),  means  to  lay  open,  by  throwing 
disciples  were  chosen  by  our  Lord  from  the  off  that  which  conceals,  and  so  to  bring  to 
rest,  for  the  more  effectnsl  promotion  of  the  light  Hence  '  dieoover '  ptoperiy  signifies 
purposes  of  his  mission,  who  were  sfter-  to  mske  the  hidden  known,  implying  the 
waids  denominated  apostles  (Matt  z.  1 ;  ziL  previous  ezistonee  of  that  which  is  dis- 
1;  zz.  17.  Luke  iz.  1).  Seventy  disciples  oovered;  whereas  to  invtiU  is  to  bring  into 
slso  were  appointed,  with  a  view  to  the  same  being.  America  was  '  discovervd  *  as  well 
great  end  (Luke  z.  1,17,28).  When,  after  as  die  Oeorginm  Sidus;  but  the  steam- 
the  death  of  Christ,  the  disciples  became  engine  and  ttie  telescope  were  'invented.' 
very  numerous,  and  formed  a  community.  In  Hebrew,  cdUoA  means,  primarily,  to 
they  could  learn  of  him  no  longer  by  the  <  strip,' '  maW  nsked,'  and  hence  to  '  reveal* 
direct  influence  of  his  own  person,  but  only  (unveil),  that  is,  *  disclose  in  form '  (Lev. 
through  the  channel  supplied  by  others;  zz.  11.  1  Sam. iii.  21.  Jer.  ziii. 22). 
still,  as  Jesus  was  the  original  source  of  this  DISCREET  (L.  dis  and  cemo),  is  pro- 
water  of  life,  they  retained  the  appellation,  perly  '  diqoined ;'  hence  that  state  of  feeling 
which  now  became  equivalent  to  *  follower,'  which  can  distinguish  different  qualities, 
*  Christian,'  one  who  took  on  him  the  name  and  prompt  to  corresponding  actions,  which 
of  Christ  in  token  of  discipleship  and  obedi-  is  a  characteristic  of  a  discriminating,  wise 
ence.     Hence  there  arose  a  distinction  be-  and  prudent  mind.     A  discreet  man  is   in 


vi.  1, 2 ;  comp.  zi.  26).  L  7)  : — 

From  these   remarks  it  is  clear  that  a  «  But  woeftill  tody,  let  me  you  Intiete 

CnnsUan  la  a  disciple,  that  is,  a  learner  of  For  to  unfold  the  aagutoh  of  your  hart; 

Christ,  whose  teachings  he  is,  bv  his  profes-  Miihape  are  matotered  by  advice  ifiterete, 

aion,  bound  to  ascertain,  revere,  and  observe,  ^°*  counwll  mitigates  the  greatest  smart.* 

in  die  use  of  whatever  means  he  may  have         DISDAIN  (F.  dedaigiter,  from  the  LaUn 

^  u"  ^r^u.^,  I*^^^y  <>'  ^•^  «««'d  dedigman, '  to  think  unworthy ').  is  to  manL 

of  h*«  T«M^ci^s  doctrines,  life,  death,  and  fest  towards  another  a  haughty  feeUng--a 

•^"2!^^'   ^  !/r**v  ^  ^*  evangelical  feeling  which  shows  that  youTthhik  him  un- 

''•T^J^  reG^Lred  to  ^^  ^^^^  ***■  dis-  worthy  your  good  opinion ;   hence  to  die- 

^'^^^^^mh^tl!T\^^^^^''''^  esteem,  despiw.     The  Hebrew  *«Az«*,  of 

emanate  flromJimj,  It  isequaUyUieir  duty  to  which  Misdain'  is   a  translation  ri  Sam 


D  IS 


609 


DIS 


xrii.  42),  means  to  despite  (Numb.  xt.  31 ; 
Is.  liii.  3). 

DISEASES  (F.  dis  and  aise,  *  ease*), 
according  to  the  etymology,  are  disquietSf  the 
absence  of  bodily  ease,  and  consequent  pre- 
sence of  pain,  arising  out  of  a  dUordered 
state  of  the  frame. 

The  climate  of  Palestine  and  the  neigh- 
bouring lands  is  in  general  conducive  to 
health.  The  simple  manners  of  early  ages, 
and  the  out-of-door  living  of  an  agricultural 
people,  as  well  as  the  strict  sanitary  regular 
tions  of  the  Mosaic  law,  contributed  to  the 
health  of  the  Israelites,  and  made  the  dis- 
eases prevalent  among  them  few,  light,  and 
of  short  duration.  When,  however,  diseases 
did  come,  they,  like  all  other  weal  or  woe, 
were  referred,  by  the  all-pervading  piety  of 
the  Hebrew  mind,  to  the  immediate  act  of 
God  (Lev.  xxvL  16.  Deut  xxviii.  8.  John  iz. 
I,  9eq, ;  v.  14).  In  summer,  dysentery  pre- 
vails (Acts  xxviii.  8) ;  in  spring  and  in  an- 
tumn,  fever  (Matt.  viii.  14).  Palsy  also  oc- 
curs (1  Maocab.  ix.  55),  fatal  apoplexy,  and 
eoupi  de  toleU.  Of  the  latter  an  instance  is 
given  in  Judith  viii.  3,  where  it  is  said  of 
Manasses,  'as  he  stood  overseeing  them 
that  bound  sheaves  in  the  field,  the  heat 
came  upon  his  head,  and  he  fell  and  died.' 
Accounts,  too,  are  found  in  the  Scriptnres  of 
hypochondria,  or  lasting  dejection  of  spi- 
rits (1  Sam.  xviii.  10),  epilepsy,  paralysis, 
diseases  of  the  skin,  and  blindness.  The 
plague  raged  to  a  great  extent  Mental  dis- 
eases,— ^melancholy,  lunacy,  and  madness,-^ 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, not  beoanse  these  disorders  pre- 
vailed more  than  usually  in  the  days  of  our 
Lord,  but  because  the  idea  had  then  gained 
predominance,  that  mental  diseases  were 
caused  by  wicked  spirits  who  entered  the 
minds  of  the  sick,  and  held  there  supreme 
control;  and  beoanse  it  was  thought  that 
one  proof  of  the  advent  and  preienee  of  the 
Messiah  was  to  be  found  in  his  dispossess- 
ing demoniacs,  and  so  orerooming  the  king- 
dcKm  of  Satan. 

In  Lev.  zv.  8,  some  oommentatom  have 
found  the  gononrfaosa  virulenta.  Jehoram'a 
sickness  (3  Ghron.  xzi.  12,  sef.)  was  pro- 
bably a  severe  and  lasting  dysentery,  not 
unlike  the  modem  cholera. 

All  attempts  to  explain  the  healings  of  our 
Lord  by  mere  ordinary  means  must  fail ;  for 
nothing  can  be  dearer  than  that  his  histori- 
ans intended  to  represent  the  salutary  influ- 
ence as  extraordinary  or  miraoulons;  from 
the  admission  of  which  view  there  is  no  es- 
cape, unless  in  denying  the  credibility  or 
historical  value  of  the  evangelists.  That  in 
some  instances,  partieularly  in  disorders  of 
the  mind,  the  imagination  of  the  patient 
may  have  exerted  a  strong  co-operative  in- 
fluenee,  is  very  probable ;  but  neither  this 
nor  any  other  mere  ordinary  canae  sufllees 
to  aocount  for  the  alleged  effeets.   The  spe- 


cial eiforts  that  have  been  made  to  assign  to 
natural  causes  the  cures  effected  by  our 
Lord,  show,  by  their  total  failure,  how  futile 
such  methods  of  scriptural  interpretation 
are ;  which  in  truth  seems  to  us  to  involve 
greater  absurdity  than  even  the  entire  re- 
nunciation of  the  evangelical  narratives. 
The  woman  who  had  been  for  twelve  years 
diseased  with  an  issue  of  blood  (Matt  ix. 
20)  must  have  been  reduced  to  imminent 
danger  of  death,  and  could  have  been  healed 
neither  by  a  startled  imagination  (22),  as 
some  have  asserted,  nor  by  animal  magnet- 
ism, according  to  the  fancy  of  others.  Hers 
was  a  deeply-seated  bodily  disorder,  which 
could  not  have  yielded  to  any  known  action 
of  mind  on  mind,  or  to  any  sudden  opera- 
tion of  medicine  or  medical  skill.  The 
withered  hand  (Matt  xii.  10)  had  been 
caused  by  the  want  of  nutriment  in  the  dis- 
eased member,  being  a  species  of  local 
atrophy  or  wasting,  which,  again,  no  mere 
earthly  power  could  have  restored  to  sound- 
ness and  strength.  The  man  who  had  the 
dropsy  (Luke  xiv.  2)  was  forthwith  healed 
by  Jesus;  but  clearly  any  mere  professional 
treatment,  any  usual  or  unusual  medical 
applications,  are  out  of  the  question ;  the 
writer  did  not  intend  to  make  our  Lord  a 
clever  phjrsician,  and  all  the  resources  of 
the  heiding  art  fail  before  the  aUeged  cures. 
See  the  articles  Clbah,  Dbvil,  Phtsiciah. 

DISMAY  is  probably  derived  fh>m  dit, 
'  not,*  and  magen  or  mogtn,  the  root  of  our 
common  terms '  may,' '  might,'  denoting  power 
or  abUity;  so  that  'to  dismay'  is  to  rob  of 
power,  and  '  to  be  dismayed '  is  to  be  desti- 
tute of  power.  Fear  unnerves  men  and 
makes  them  powerless,  and  it  is  to  this  effect 
of  fear  that  reference  is  made  (2  Kings  xix. 
26.  Is.  XX.  5 ;  xxxi.  0). 

DISMISS  (L.  dis  and  mitto,  'I  send'), 
signifies  to  send  away,  and,  derivatively,  to 
aUow  to  go  or  depart ;  hence  also  to  break 
up  an  assembly  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  8.  Acts  xv. 
30;  xix.  41). 

DISPENSATION  (L.  dU  and  ptmfe,' I 
wvigh,'  that  is,  flrom  a  mass),  has  originally 
a  somewhat  similar  meaning  to  ^at  of 
ministration  or  distribution.  The  word 
'  dispensary,'  an  institution  to  ditperut  me- 
dicines, offers  the  etymological  import  of 
the  term.  The  original  Greek — the  same 
as  our '  economy'  {oikonomia) — signifies  the 
government  of  a  house,  housewifery,  do- 
mestic discipline  in  all  its  varied  particulars. 
What  these  were  in  a  Hebrew  family  may  in 
part  be  gathered  from  Prov.  xxxi.  10,  aeq. 
Accordingly,  ttie  word  is  Englished  by '  stew- 
ardship '  (Luke  xvL  2),  but  in  1  Cor.  ix.  17, 
by '  dispensation,'  where '  stewardship'  would 
not  be  unsuitable  (Ephes.  iii.  2).  In  Ephes. 
i.  10,  the  term  seems  to  have  reference  to 
Uiose  Providential  ordinations  by  which  the 
world  was  prspued  for  the  gospeL 

DISPEBSE  (L.  diit  *  in  different  dir«o- 


DIS                        510  DIV 

Uonty'  and  gpargo^  'I  throw  abroad/  as  a  when  ooireaponding  realitiei  an  wanting, 

husbandman  does  seed),  denotes  to  scatter.  The  Greek  (Gal.  iL  18.   Bom.  xii.  9)  is  the 

east  on  all  sides  (1  Kings  sir.  15.   £ie-  same  word  as  is  generally  rendered  hjrpo- 

kiel  V.    2;   comp.   'winnoweth'   in  Both  erisy  (Matt  xziii.  28),  whieh  is  itaelf  Oie 

iiL  2).  Tery  term  in  English  letters,  and  has  for  its 

DISPOSE  (L.  dit  and  fsno,  *  I  plaec '),  primitiTe  meaning  the  idea  of  acting  en  the 

is  to  set  in  different  places,  but  in  regular  « ttage.    Compare  '  dissemble '  in  Joah.  jnL 

order;  the  Hebrew  original  signifying  simply  11.  Gal.  ii.  13. 

to  set,  place,  or  make ;  hence  Job  (zuiT.  DISTAFF,  a  ataiT  round  whieh  the  tow  is 

13)  asks,  'Who  hath  dtipMed  the  whole  wound  for  spinning.    The  Hebrew /rrAlrcA, 

world  f  oomp.  zzzvii.  15.    The  participle  which  in  Pro?.  xzxL  10,  is  rendered  '  dia- 

'disposed'  (Acts  zviiL  27)  means  *deter-  taff,' is  in  2  Sam. iiL 29, Englished  by  < stidt' 

mined,'  or  '  inclined.'  Spindle  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 

The  passage  (Acta  vii.  53)  in  whieh  the  distaflT,  as  forming  instruments  of  employ- 
noun  '  disposition'  is  found,  should  probably  ment  on  the  part  of  the  Tirtnooa  woman, 
be  rendered  *  in  the  presence  of  angela  '  In  early  ages,  spinning  (hence  the  law  term 
(Exod.  xiz.  13, 16, 19),  or  *  by  the  ministiy  dpimtter  for  a  female  who  has  not  been  mar« 
of  angels'  (Joe^^  *Antiq.'  xr.  5,8.  GaL  ried)  was  a  part  of  the  household  duties  of 
iii.  10.  Heb.  iL  2).  women,  even  in  rich  and  distinguished  iSa- 

DISPUTE  (L.  diiindpiito,  <Ithink'),  miliea.    At  the  present  day,  the  Egyptian 

is,  according  to  its  etymology,  to  think  dif-  women  spend  their  leisure  hours  in  working 

ferently  from  ottiers,  and  hence  to  differ  in  with  the  needle,  particularly  in  embroidering 

language  in  debate.    The  love  of  dispnt*-  Teils,  hsndkerehiefs,  &e.,  with  coloured  silk 

tion  came  fkom  the  Greeks,  not  the  Hebrews,  and  gold,  in  which  they  cany  on  a  sort  of 

who  were  a  believing  and  devotiona]  people,  trafle  through  the  channel  of  a  female  bro- 

and  aeeordingly  had  but  one  word  rendered  ker.  In  ancient  Egypt,  the  yam  seema  all  to 

'  dispute,'  namely,  yoAdbagft  (Job  xziii.  7),  hare  been  spun  with  the  hand,  and  the  spin- 

which  in  other  eases  is  trsaalatsd  by  *  rea-  die  is  seen  in  all  tlie  pictures  reprsaenting 

son'  (Is.L  18),  'reprove'  (Gen.xzi.  35),  the  manufacture  of  doth,  as  well  as  hotii 

'chaaten'  (2  Sam.  viL  14),  and  'argue'  men  and  women  employed  in  themaaofne- 

(Job  vi.  25).    In   the  Grtek  of  the  New  tuie. 

Testament  there  are  five  words  whose  mean-  DISTIL  (L.  de, '  down/  and  iciilare,  <  to  fall 

ings  reaemble  that  of 'dispute,'  'disputation.'  in  drops')  signifies  to  form  teto  drupe  liko 

They  signify  to  discourse  with,  to  resson  the  dew,  or  to  fell  in  drops  UkeagMMlerate. 

with,  to  seek  (truth)  in  common,  distinguidi-  Such  is  also  the  import  of  the  Hebfvw,  nmk- 

ing  or  discriminating,  and  so  combine  to  *al  (Deut  zzzii.  2;  comp.  Job  zszvL  2S). 

show  that  it  is  not  in  disputation  itself;  but  DISTBACTED  (L.  die,  '  in  different  di- 

m  its  abuses,  that  we  i&ndwhat  is  reprefaen-  reetions,'  and  traho,  'I  draw')  is,  property, 

aible.    In  Bom.  xiv.  1,  '  doubtful  disputa-  dimwn  in  opposite  ways  by  pain  or  grief, 

tions '  is  a  phrase  which  has  no  meaning,  So  is  it  used  in  Ps.  Ixxxviii.  15,  '  I  benr  thy 

for  sU  disputations  are  more  or  leea  doubt-  terrors,  and  am  dkstnuted: 

fdl;  'nice  distinctions  of  opinion '  would,  DISTBIBUTE    (L.  dts   and   ttik^   'I 

perhaps,  be  better,  for  Paul  intends  to  warn  give,' '  astagn')  is  to  allot  a  share  or  portioiK 

the  Bomans  against  minute  inquisition  into  to  each  of  aeveral  parties.    This  alao  is  the 

the  conscientious  convictions  and  practices  meaning  of  the  corresponding  Hebrew  word 

of  others,  who  must  stand  or  fall  before  (Deut  iv.  19.  2  Chron.  xxiiL  ISw  Neh.  xlii. 

their  own  Master  (Bom.  xiv.  12,  22).  13). 

DISSENSION  (L.  dit,  '  diffSnently,'  and  DIVEB8  (L.  diMrnci,  'diilbrent'),  differ- 

fmtitf,  <  I  feel,  think'),  a  disagreement  from  ent  persons  or  thuigs ;  hence  several,  many 

diversity  of  opinions,  as  in  the  ease  of  the  (Judg.  v.  30.    Ueb«  L  1.    Matt  zziv.  7). 

Pharisees  and  Saddueees,  reoorded  in  Acts  Garments  of  divers  coloars  were  held  of 

xxiiL  10.  The  Greek  original,  ttam,  is  trans-  high  value  (2  Sam.  xiii.  18.  £xek.  zvi.  Id), 

lated  '  insurrection'  (Mark  zv.  7),  and  se-  DIVINATION  (L.  diWaui),  the  art  of  di- 

dition'  (LukezziiL  19).  Literally,  it  means  vining;  that  is,  of  rising  above  die  homun 

a  ttanding  (Heb.  iz.  8),  and  may  be  more  to  the  divine  hi  regard  to  knowledge.     That 

nearly  represented  by  our  term  rtnag;  a  knowledge  may  have  respect  to  things  past, 

rising  of  «iig«r  firom  opposition  in  debuts  present,  or  fiiture.    The  essential  eircnsa- 

(Acts  XV.  2;  xziU.  7),  or  in  pman  against  stance  is,  that  it  is  hidden.    The  ahn  of 

a  government,  as  in  sedition  and  insurree-  divination  is,  to  gahi  knowledge  hidden  to 

^^^Vo.oT«^  man  in  the  use  of  his  ordinaiy  powers. 

DISSIMULATION  (L.  dU  and  nuNdc,  'I  Such  an  ahn  is,  in  the  general,  clearly  In 

make  Uke,    or  '  feign ')  ia,  properly,  pre-  opposition  to  the  oourse  of  Providence,  who 

tence  by  concealment,  as  shnulation  is  pre-  has  given  us  faoulties  apptoiffiafee  tot  ao- 

tence  by  open  profession.     Dissimulstion  quiring  all  requisite  information,  but  haa  in 

cloaks  misdeeds  in  order  to  make  them  look  fact,  as  weU  as  in  word,  declai«d  that  '  ae- 

like  virtues;  simulation  assumes  appearances  cret  things  belong  to  God'  (Dent.  xzix.  29). 


DIV                       511  DIV 

'As  oontniy  to PioTidenoe,  divination  Im  otm-  in  Eftstem  conatries  is  of  great  power,  and 

trarj  to  the  will  of  God,  who,  how  mach  which  makes  men,  while  they  long  for  Imow- 

soever  pleased  that  his  creatures  should  gain  ledge,  seek  some  expeditions  method  of  ao- 

aU  the  knowledge  that  the  powers  and  op-  qnixing  it:  they  would  eat  the  bread,  without 

portanities  he  has  given  may  in  their  diU-  gathering  the  harvest  or  tilling  the  field, 

gent  use  afford,  cannot  but  bo  opposed  to  Hence  so  many  trials,  in  the  early  ages  of 

any  attempt  to  break  open  a  door  into  the  the  world,  to  wrest  from  Nature  the  myste- 

light -chambers  of  omniscience,  to  trench  lies  she  was  supposed  to  possess.    Hence, 

on  his  own  attributes,  to  transgress  his  laws,  too,  the  prohibitions  found  against  eating 

and  so  to  imply  and  teaeh  that  his  divine  of  the  tree  oi  life,  Aec.,  which  prohibitions 

economy  is  not  the  best  for  man  and  the  are  to  be  understood  as  directed  against  Ae 

universe.  Divination,  therefbre,  is  as  wrong  acquisition  of  only  such  knowle^^ie  as  did 

as  it  must  obviously  be  Ihtile.  The  moment  not  lie  open  to  the  industrious  researches 
you  acknowledge  God  to  be,  in  a  ftill  and  pro-  ^  of  the  human  mind.    In  heathen  countries, 

per  sense,  the  governor  as  well  as  framer  of  the   delusive   arts  of   divination   obtained 

the  world,  yon  discern  the  folly  and  the  im-  great  prevalence  and  credit ;  but,  as  being 

piety  of  all  efforts  designed  to  extort  secrets  of  earth,  earthy,  and  in  their  very  nature 

from  '  Nature ;'  and  nothing  but  the  preva-  impious,  they  were    forbidden   by  Moses 

lenoe  of  absurd  notions,  which  made  Nature  under  no  less  than  the  penalty  of  death 

a  sort  of  subordinate  and  dependant  divi-  (Lev.  xiz.  26,  31 ;  zz.  6.  Dent  xviiL  10, 

nity,  could  have  tolerated  the  illusion  that  teg.).  These  prohibitions  were  clearly  given 

man  can  force  his  way  beyond  the  limits  with  a  view  to '  the  abominations  of  those 

with  which  he  is  hec^ged  round  by  the  hand  nations*  (9),  among  whom  the  first  place 

of  Omnipotence.    If  in  any  case,  or  to  any  is  to  be  assigned  to  the  Egyptians,  who  have 

degree,  tiiose  limite  are  enlarged,  it  can  be  in  all  ages  been  given  to  the  practice  of 

done  only  by  Him  who  placed  them  where  dark  arts,  and  to  whose  descendants,  under 

they  are.  the  corrupted  name  of  gtfpiie$j  these  delu- 

Beligion  professes  to  widen  our  sphere  sions  are  new  almost  exclusively  confined, 
of  Tision.  It  raises  the  mind  to  God  in  though  of  course  the  existence  of  many 
order  that,  from  a  loftier  position,  it  may  cheats  implies  the  existence  also  of  very 
more  widely  and  fully  perceive  ite  duties,  many  dupes.  We  regard  it,  however,  as  a 
destinies,  and  hopes.  Hence  religion  in  ite  token  of  conscious  truth  on  the  part  of 
very  nature  is  a  revealer.  The  gift  of  hi|^er  Moses,  that  he  prohibited  practices  such  as 
knowledge  is  with  it  a  necessary  boon.  The  these,  with  which  his  people  must  have  been 
Christisn  religion  unveils  even  the  Aiture  familiar,  and  probably  were  in  a  measure 
world,  and  '  pointe  out  immortality  to  man.*  fascinated.  This  prohibition  is  the  act  of 
Not  unlikely,  therefore,  is  it  that  we  should  a  faithful  man,  who,  having  God  on  his 
find  in  revealed  religion  special  means  for  side,  would  neither  have  nor  allow  any  deal- 
disclosing  hidden  things.  Accordingly,  God  ings  with  the  false  and  deceptive  things  of 
made  known  his  will  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  earth.  As  such,  it  is  in  keeping  with  the 
by  the  Urim  and  Thummim  (see  the  article),  professed  aim  and  obvious  character  of  his 
and  the  month  of  his  prophets,  giving  spe-  religion,  which  sought  to  make  God  known 
cial  aid  under  circumstances  of  special  need,  to  man,  and  cause  his  will  to  be  obeyed,  to  the 
And  so  far  is  there  from  being  any  rational  supersession  of  aU  idol  vanities,  '  the  work 
ground  ot  presumption  against  these  peou-  of  men's  hands.'  Nevertheless,  Moses,  shar- 
liar  modes  of  revelation,  that,  being  obvi-  ing  in  the  common  fate  of  religious  reformers, 
ously  one  in  spirit  and  aim  with  revealed  failed  in  part  to  effect  all  he  wisely  designed, 
religion  itself,  and  so  forming  a  congruent,  His  people  remained  attached  to  measures 
if  not  necessary  element  in  it,  the  consistent  of  divination,  more  or  less,  in  all  periods  of 
theist  is  led  to  expect  sueh  channels  of  their  history,  but  particularly  under  the  fa- 
knowledge,  and  sees  in  them  a  merciful  your  of  idolatrous  rulers,  whUe  true  servants 
adaptation  to  the  wante  of  ignorant  and  fee-  of  God  laboured  from  time  to  time  to  put 
ble  man.  The  only  matter  of  consequence  away  these  superstitious  abominations  (1 
is,  to  discriminate  between  true  and  false  Sam.  xxviii.  8,  9.  3  Kings  xxi.  6 ;  xxiii.  24. 
means  of  disclosure— orades  that  set  forth  Is.viii.  19.  Mic.  iii.ll.  Jer.  xxix.  8.  Zech. 
God's  will,  and  those  that  make  known  x.  2),  which,  as  appears  from  these  passa- 
nothing  but  their  own  impotence.  And  in  ges,  were  as  hostile  to  the  good  of  the  people 
this  act  of  discrimination  he  is  aided  as  as  they  were  contrary  to  the  Divine  will.  And 
much  by  Holy  Scripture  as  by  the  great  and  though  the  Israelites  were  not  so  deeply 
good  efbcte  produced  by  revealed  truth,  in  contaminated  with  these  evils  as  the  sur- 
eontrast  with  the  miserable  delusions  of  rounding  nations,  yet  their  diviners,  wizards, 
divination.  and  withes,  to  whom  the  credulous  gave 

So  ardent  is  man's  thirst  for  knowledge,  their  money,  were  not  merely  foreigners 
that  divination  has  always  prevailed  most  (Acto  xvi  16.  Mic.  iii.  11).  The  neigh- 
in  days  of  the  greatest  ignorance.  With  this  bouring  Philistia  fbmished  these  delndcrs 
thirst  is  combined  the  love  of  ease,  which  (1  Sam.  vi.  2).    In  the  time  of  the  Cassars, 


DIV  512  DIV 

Jewish  diTinen,  botb  male  and  female,  tra-  geuoy,  employed  <  a  woman  having  a  fami- 
Tersed  the  West,  practising  propheoy  as  a  liar  spirit'  to  call  the  prophet  Samael  from 
trade.  the  shades  (1  Sam.  zxriiL  7,  asj.).     For 
The  art  of  the  diviner  oonsisted  in  an  in*  each  a  delusion  the  religion  of  Moses  is  in 
timation  of  a  sign  or  of  an  event  which  took  no  way  answerable,  since  it  expressly  forbids 
place  of  their  own  accord,  or  only  when  these  practices  (Lev.  six.  31 ;  xx.  6.    Dent, 
commanded,  or  occasioned  by  evoking  the  xviiL  11) ,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  demoniaes, 
dead,  who,  on  being  questioned,  disclosed  whatever  there  may  be  in  the  phraseology 
the  desired  secrets.    Sometimes  the  art  lay  which  may  seem  to  imply  tbe  reality  of 
in  uttering  truths  or  facts  made  known  to  these,  which  were  in  truth  fslsities,  is  to  be 
the  diviner  by  some  divinity.    In  the  Bible  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  popular  impres* 
we  find  different  kinds  of  divinations : — I.  sions.    A  law  repealing  penalties  against 
Oneiiomaney,  divination  by  dreams  (see  the  witchcraft,  or  foA)idding  witches  to  be  iJl 
article  Dbbams).    II.  Ophiomaney,  divina-  used,  rather  denies  than  admits  that  witch - 
tion  by  serpents ;  that  is,  fh>m  their  move-  craft  and  witches  are  real  existences,  though 
ments,  which  is  referred  to  by  the  word  '  en-  it  is  compelled,  by  popular  usage,  to  emploj 
chantment'  (Lev.  xix.  36.  Bent  xviii.  10.  words  that  may  appear  to  imply  oomspondin|[^ 
3  Kings  xviL  17),  and  was  carried  on  by  a  things.  The  meaning  of  a  lawgiver  must  be 
separate  class  of  proCMsional  adepts.    III.  inferred  rather  from  the  aim  and  spirit  of  his 
Bhabdomancy,  divination  by  the  wand,  or  laws  than  the  terms  in  which  they  are  express- 
by  the  arrow,  which  consisted  in  discover-  ed.  A  statute  making  provision  for  the  proper 
ing  the  unknown  by  the  fall  of  a  staff  dropped  care  of  issatios,  does  not  teach  that  its  origi- 
or  thrown  from   the  hand  (Hos.  iv.  12).  nator  held  the  theory  which  ascribes  their  af- 
*  The  divining  rod,'  which  was  not  many  fliction  to  the  moon  (Inna) ;  oomp.  Is.  viiL 
years  since  employed  in  this  country  to  dis-  19 ;  xxix.  4.   These  deceptions  were  probably 
cover  mineral  and  other  treasures,  comes  facilitated  by  skill  in  ventriloquism  (Joseph, 
under  this  head ;  to  which  also  belongs  Be-  '  Antiq.'  vL  14,  2 ;  and  consult  the  passages 
lomanoy,  divination  by  arrows ;  that  is,  their  in  Isaiah  to  whidi  reference  has  just  been 
fall  when  shot  from  the  bow.    A  divination  made).    VII.  Very  common  among  the  hea- 
of  this  sort  the  ancient  interpreters  found  in  then  was  divination  by  means  of  what  was 
Esek.  xxi.  21.     Jerome  describes  it  thus:  accounted  the  inspiring  deity;  that  is,  the 
After  the  manner  of  his  nation,  the  king  of  god  whose  oracle  was  consulted  was  held  to 
Babylon  consults  the  oracle ;  he  inscribes  fill  the  soul  of  the  consulting  priest,  or  pro- 
on  his  arrows  the  names  of  cities;   these  phet,   with  a  divine  afflatus,  or  influence, 
anows  he  puts  confhsedly  into  his  quiver,  whieh  agitated  the  bosom  till,  in  the  midst 
and  then  he  draws  out  one  of  them,  and  is  in-  of  eonv^sions  and  cries,  it  compelled  die 
stmclsd  which  city  he  is  to  assail  first  by  the  patient  to  break  forth  in  scattered  and  enig- 
name  which  the  arrow  bears.    IV.  Splanch-  matieal  words.    The  degree  of  inspiration 
nomaney,  or  Extispicinm,  divination  by  en-  was  measured  by  the  amount  of  agitation 
trails ;   that  is,  inspecting  the  entrails  of  and  violence  suffered  by  the  priestess,  for 
animals  slain  for  the  purpose  of  consulting  females  were  most  in  request,  as   being, 
the  gods.     In  this  art  the  liver  was  an  ob-  by  their  highly  sensitive  frame,  more  open 
ject  of  special  attention.    If  the  liver  was  to  tbe  in-brea&ing  and  in-coming  divinity, 
sound  and  natural,  the  omen  was  good ;  if  Some  natures,  having    sensibilities    more 
dry  and  shrivelled,  the  omen  was  bad  (Esek.  keen  than  ordiinaiy,  were  highly  valued,  as 
xxi.  21).    V.  The  observation  of  times —  if  more  richly  gifted.  Both  male  and  female 
that  is,  divination  by  the  clouds,  the  wea-  slaves  were  found  endued  with  peculiar  faci- 
ther,  and  generally  by  appearances  in  the  lities  for  suocessftil  practice  on  the  credu- 
skies — ^is  idso  found,  but  forbidden,  in  the  lous,  and  were,  in  consequence,  carried  by 
Bible  (Lev.  xix.  26.    Bent  xviii.  10,  14.  their  owners  from  place  to  place  in  the  way 
2  Kings  xxL  6.  Jer.  x.  2;  comp.  Luke  lii  of  trade;  for,  in   the  words   of  Sophocles 
06).    These  passages,  however,  may  possi*  (' Antig.'  1095),  'the  entire  race  of  diviners 
bly  be  considered  as  referring  to  astrolo-  are  greedy  of  g^ain.'    These  remarks  will  be 
gieal  practices   (see   Astboloobrs).    VI.  found  useful  for  the  exposition  of  the  case 
Necromancy,  or  evoking  the  dead,  who,  as  of  the  pythoness  mentioned  in  Acts  xvi.  16 : 
having  passed  into  another  world,  whether  a  and  Paul's  conduct  on  the  occasion  con- 
world  of  ftdl  and  happy  life,  or  of  the  sha-  spires  with  the  general  tenor  of  revelation, 
dowy  and  unreal  existence  of  Sheol,  were  ac-  as  now  developed,  to  prove  that  it  is  a  deadly 
counted  able  to  make  hidden  things  known,  hostOe  bearing  tiiat  true  religion  holds  in 
as  having  iu  some  sense  been  admitted  to  the  regard  to  these  fond  and  baneful  delusions, 
inner  secrets  of  the  universe.    This  species         DIVISION  (L.).    The    division   of  the 
of  self-deception,  which  was  practised  in  all  earth  among  its  various  inhabitants,  and  of 
parts  of  the  ancient  world,  and  still  prevails  the  land  of  Canaan  among  the  Israelites, 
in  semi-barbarous  countries,  found  observ-  are  points  of  great  importanoe.    Our  chief 
ance  among  the  ancient  Israelites,  as  appears  source  of  information  respecting  the  peo 
in  the  history  of  Saul,  who,  in  an  emer  pling  of  the  earth,  we  find  in  Genesis  (ii. 


D  I  V  513  D  I  V 

6—14;  z.),  eompared  with  many  other  pas-     in  an  im&voiirable  Inatanee.    Ham  it  ez- 
sages  of  sacred  writ    In  regard  to  these     pressly  said  to  be  the  father  of  Canaan,  be- 
soorees   of  infbnnation  we   are  to  expect,     fore  any  son  of  Shem  and  Japhet  is  nien- 
not  a  scientific,  but  a  popular  treatment  of    ttoned.    Why  is  this  f    To  prepare  the  way 
the  sabject ; — ^riews,  statements,  and  par-     for  the  cnrse  pronounced  on  Canaan.   And 
tieolars,  which  comprised  the  best  informs-    why  the  mention  of  that  corse,  with  itfe  causes 
tion  of  the  day,  but  which  were  also  con-     and  oonsequonees,  in  so  brief  a  narrative, 
formed  to  genenl  impressions.    It  was,  for    where  it  occupies   so  disproportionate    a 
instance,  an  establu&ed  conTlction  in  an-     space  7    Clearly  in  order  to  account  for  the 
oient  timeSy  that  the  earth  was  snnounded     erentnal  conquest  of  the  land  of  Canaan. 
by  a  mighty  river,  which  Homer  tenns  ofcs-     To  the  same  effect  is  the  long  list  of  the 
aiwt,  into  which  other  circumfluent  streams    sons  of  Canaan,  eleven  in  number ;  for  what 
were  held  to  flow.    This  idea  arose  in  men's    could  be  more  glorious  than  that  a  single 
mindsfromoonsideringthe  earth  as  a  widely-     descendant   of  Eber,  the  Shemite,  should 
extended  cireular  plain.  In  aocoidance  with    emeige  from  a  state  of  hard  bondage,  and, 
this  oonoeption,  we  find  the  Pison  repre-     after  wandering  forty  years,  vanquish  all 
sented  in  Oenesis  (iL  11)  as  '  encompassing    these  settled  and  partially  civilised  tribes  ? 
the  whole  landof  Havilah,'  and  theOihon  as        Of  the  table  of  nations  given  in  Oen.  z. 
<  encompassing  the  whole  land  of  Ethiopia.'    we  may  remark,  that  the  proper  names  are 
Now,  in  strictness  of  speech,  no  river  on     to  be  understood  originslly,  indeed,  of  indi- 
earth  encompasses  a  district;  for  whatever    viduals,  but  derivatively,  of  tribes,  peoples, 
windings  a  river  may  have,  its  general  course     and  nations.    This  table  is  repeated,  with  a 
is  forwards,  from  high  down  to  low  lands,    few  changes,  in  the  book  of  Chronicles  (i. 
•nd  thence  to  the  sea.  l)t  and  connects  itself  with  the  genealogy 

The  table  of  nations  has  been  regarded  as  fiK>m  Adam  to  Noah  given  in  (Genesis  ▼. 
ft  complete  register,  drawn  up  with  the  spe-  Among  theologians  of  a  certain  school  it 
cial  pnxpose  of  allocating  every  great  tribe  has  been  eustomsry  to  undervslue  the  great 
•nd  family  that  sprang  from  Noah.  But  family  register  (Qen.  z.).  A  more  just  and 
the  disproportion  of  the  several  parts  sufllces  correct  opinion  begins  to  prevaiL  If  it  is 
to  prove  that  the  compiler  did  no  more  than  difilcult  to  think  that  the  writer  cast  his  eye 
give  the  best  information  in  his  power,  with-  over  the  entire  earth  at  a  day  when  only  a 
out  pretending  to  absolute  completeness,  small  portion  of  ito  surface  was  known,  yet 
Here,  indeed,  as  in  every  other  part  of  the  he  may  with  correctness  have  given  the 
Bible,  the  writer  evidently  had  in  the  centre  centre  from  which  the  several  waves  of  popn- 
of  hi^  view  the  Hebrew  raoe,  to  deduce  latton  flowed,  and  the  directions  which  they 
whose  origin  from  the  favoured  and  highly-     severally  took. 

gifted  son  of  Nosh,  the  founder  of  human  It  is  the  doctrine  of  Scripture  (Gen.  z. 
society,  the  inventor  of  the  arte  of  life,  the  26),  that  the  earth  was  divided,  after  the 
high-priest  of  the  world,  was  his  primary  flood,amongthedesoendantoofNoah.  These 
purpose,  to  the  fulfilment  of  which  idl  other  descendanto  are  ezhibited  in  the  following 
aims  were  made  oonducive.  What  we  have  table,  with  such  of  the  ordinary  names  ap- 
thus  seen  in  a  fSsvoaiaUe,  may  be  seen  also    pended  m  an  of  most  importance. 


NOAH 

I.  8hxk  S.  Ham  8.  Jafkxt 

(Me$ojflamia  and  (Africa  and  Stmtkem  (JSturopeJ, 

Arabia).  AtiaJ. 

I.  8HEM 

1.  B&AX  S.  Assxvn  I.  Aaraixu)  4.  Lun  6.  AaAM 

(Btfmai$,im  (AM^griaJ,  (Ckaldtta),   •        (S.W.cfAHa  (Syri^J. 

Media),  ^-^^  Minor). 


LpMans  ( 1.  Us 

Cariam  J  t.  Hnl 


Mgiian*.  1 8.  Gether 

Meshech. 


§ 


Fdsg  Joktan 

(Htbmn).        (Araib§). 

1.  Almcdsd,    S.  Sheleph.   S.  Hasarmaveth.  4.  Jerah.   8.  Hsdonun.   8.  UsaL   T,  DiUah.  8.  ObaL 

».AMmaeL   10.8hel)a.   ILOpUr.   U.  HavUah.  lS.Jobab. 


DI  V 


514 


DTV 


II.   HAlf. 


I.   CUIH 


iSelMi 
Nimrod 
UavUah 


(Susa,  Peraia,  and 
Btkiopia). 
{Africa), 
(Nituotk) 


i.  Vwxn 
(S.  B.  of 
Arabia), 


Sabtah 


f  (Africa  and  the 

^  RaAmah  /  ( TkcSouik-  We*i- 

I  cm  Comer  of  the 

Sheba  '  Arabian  Pcnin- 

\  Dedan  \$uld\. 


i 


S.  MlSRAIM  (Bggpi), 

flAxmm  {Aif*9%nian$). 

Anamim 

Lehabim 

Naphtuhim 

Patiinuim 

Caphtorim  {Crete). 
VCaaluhim    {S.  B.  of  the 
I  ntack  Sm). 

Philiatim  {N,  W.  of  Co- 
naan\. 


4.  Caitaav  (^JralMi  ttcP<r»tea 

McdiUrTaneany. 
/SidoB 

Heth 

Jebusitet 

Amoritea 

Glrgaaitea 

HWitet 

ArUtM 

Sinitea 

Arvaditet 

Zemarites 
\Uamatbitcs 


in.  JAPHET. 


i 


i  I         I        I 1 

I.  GoMSK  {Ctmri^  N.      2.  Magoo      S.Madai  4.  Jatah  (Ionia,      S.TvuAt. 
I    W.ofSnrope).{S.W.ofAtia).  {Media),  )    Oreeee^S.B.  {Coickis). 

I  Ashkenas  {S.  of  ike  J   of  Bmrope). 


BiaekSeaand 
Netkerlande), 

Riphath  IHunfforii). 

Togannah  {N-ofAr^ 


•.  MBIHKCH  7.  TiJLAS 

{Westoftke    iTkreee). 
Caepian). 


By  the  diTision  of  the  earth  we  are  not  to 
consider  that  by  some  specific  act  of  the 
Almighty,  eertain  definite  portions  of  its 
surface  were  assigned  to  these  heads  of  na- 
tions. In  this  great  transaction,  as  he  does 
in  all  others,  God  followed  the  course  of  his 
own  laws,  operating  in  the  channels  which 
he  himself  had  iq[»pointed,  and  which  he 
actually  sustained.  Accordingly,  the  struc- 
tural features  of  the  earth's  surface  deter- 
mined aliie  the  primaiy  settlement  of  the 
human  family  and  their  gradi|al  dispersion 
orer  the  world.  It  is,  indeed,  hardly  oGrreot 
to  speak  of  the  earth  being  '  divided.'  The 
tenn  gives  the  idea  of  a  body  cut  or  eloven 
into  separate  and  independent  parts ;  where- 
as the  Hebrew  PtUg,  employed  in  the  case, 
denotes  continuous  diflhsion.  And  diffusion 
or  distribution  is  a  far  better  term  than 
division.  PtUgy  in  its  root-signification, 
means  to  flow,  and  is  used  to  doiote  a  river 
(Job  zxix.  6.  Ps.  i.  3).  The  earth  then 
was  peopled  by  streams  of  population.  It 
was  overflowed  rather  than  divided.  But 
streams  come  from  high  lands,  and  take 
natural  water- courses.  They  may  also  have 
a  common  centre.  The  several  ideas  here 
implied  seem  to  have  been  in  the  mind  of 
the  Biblical  writer  who  has  spoken  on  this 
matter.  He  contemplated  the  earth  as 
peopled  by  diflhsion  ftt>m  a  common  centre 
in  some  high  land,  from  which  its  several 
streams  ran,  pursuing  the  channels  which 
were  offlered  by  hill,  valley,  and  plain  This, 
we  say,  was  his  conception ;  and  this  we 
kam  from  his  employing  the  word  FeUg  to 
denote  the  operation.     It  is  at  once  ob- 


EUsha  {Blu), 
Tanhiab  {S.  W,  of 

Spain). 
Kittim  (/taiy,  Cf- 

prue'h 
Dodanim    {DodO' 

na), 

vious  that  such  a  view  has  probability  on 
its  side.    A  high  land  would  first  be  dry 
fh>m  the  waters  of  the  flood.    A  high  land, 
therefore,  would  be  the  first  portion  of  the 
earth  peopled  after  that  destructive  event. 
As  soon  as  population  began  to  swell  be- 
yond the  convenient  limits  of  its  esrliest 
site,  it  would  begin  to  pour  forth  gently  in 
several  directions,   taking  those  pathways 
which  rivers  and  valleys  supplied,  as  being 
the  easiest  Ux  passage,  and  affording  shelter 
and  nourishment,  in  water,  cultivable  soil, 
woods,   groves,   snd  forests.    Hence  it  is 
olear,  th«t  the  re-peopling  of  the  earth  took 
place  under  certain  conditions,  independent 
of  the  human  race,  and  originating  solely 
in  Ood,  the  Supreme  Governor  of  ttie  uni- 
verse.   There  were,  however,  other  condi- 
tions which  would,  more   or  less,  modiiy 
those  which  arose  irom  the  inequalities  in 
the  earth's  surface.     Such  conditions  we 
find  in  the  great  moving  powers  of  the  hu- 
man breast     These,  it  is  evident,  would,  at 
a  very  early  period,  impel  men  to  diffuse 
themselves  abroad.   A  ^epherd  race  would 
remove  to   another  spot  as  soon  as  their 
cattle  had  consumed  Uie  spontaneous  frnits 
of  that  which  they  occupied.    An  agricul- 
tural tribe  would  rather  seek  another  virgin 
soil  than  re-invigorate  by  tillage  one  that 
had  borne  a  crop.    Such,  we  know  from 
Tacitus,  was  the  custom  of  the  ancient  Ger- 
mans.   Migration,  then,  would  of  necessity 
ensue,    and   the    causes    which  prompted 
would  prolong  and  extend  it,  till  over  the 
wide  surface  of  the  earth  the  most  fruikfol 
spots  had  been  oceaiiied«  and  were  at  length 


DIV  515  DIV 

pertnanenilj  peopled.  But  tlie  spring  of  of  *  whom  was  the  whole  earth  overspread' 
this  migratory  impulse  woald  vary  in  de-  (Gen.  ix.  19).  Now,  in  the  ancient  record 
grees  of  strength  and  elasticity,  in  accord-  in  Genesis,  we  find  mention  made  of  two 
anoe  with  indindual  pecoliarities,  which  in  places,  which  are  allowed  on  all  sides  to  be 
progress  of  time  would  become  tribal  cha-  ascertained,  namely,  Ararat  and  Shinar.  On 
raeteristics.  Now,  the  stream  would  rash  Ararat  the  ark  settled.  In  the  plains  of 
forth  impetaoosly,  nor  rest  till  it  had  gained  Shinar  civilisation  first  displayed  marked 
a  distant  bed.  Now,  it  would  flow  gently  results.  From  Ararat,  then,  as  might  have 
forth,  and  oome  to  a  stop  in  some  neigh-  been  anticipated,  migration  took  place  in  a 
bouring  basin.  Pursuits,  too,  would  have  southerly  direction,  leaving  a  monntainoua 
their  influence.  Those  who  lived  by  hunt-  region  for  warm,  genial,  and  productive 
ing  would  firequent  the  hills  and  plains,  plains,  and  so  following  the  guidance  of  two 
The  tillers  of  the  soil  would  seek  a  home  in  noble  rivers,  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris. 
the  warm  bosom  of  vales,  and  on  slopes  These  several  notices  lead  us  from  tlie 
which  were  watered  and  enriched  by  softly-  plains  of  Mesopotamia  up  into  the  high 
flowing  streams.  The  love  of  home  at  first  lands  of  Armenia,  as  the  cradle  of  the  ac- 
operated  in  making  the  exiles  sigh  for  a  re-     tnal  races  of  men. 

turn,  which  would  sometimes  be  achieved.         We  may,  however,  be  met  by  the  state- 
More  frequently  each  new  settlement  would     ment  that  the  deluge  was  but  partial  in  its 
have  the  home-feeling  rise  as  a  consolidat-     operation,   destroying  only  that  portion  of 
ing  principle  within  its  own  bosom,  cement-     the  human  race  which  had  settled  in  the 
ing  together  its  several  parts,  and  making     peninsular  district  which  is  bounded  by  the 
them  put  forth  a  grace  and  beauty,  as  well     Caspian,  the  Euxine,  the  Mediterranean,  the 
as  strength,  the  union  of  which  caused  every     Bed  Sea,  and  tlie  Persian  Gulf.    We  will, 
spot  to  become  a  centre  of  civilisation  and     therefore,  go  back  to  the  earliest  spot  on  the 
peace.    And  soon  would  the  power  of  Ian-     surface  of  the  earth  held  by  human  beings. 
guage  oome  into  operation  to  sever  the  ties     This  bears  the  name  of  Eden  in  the  Bible. 
of  blood,  and  oonvert  these  families  into     Where  was  Eden?    The  subject  is  not  witli- 
elans,  these  dans  into  tribes,  these  tribes     out  its  difficulties.    The  destructive  opera- 
into  nations;   for  lingoistical  peculiarities     tions  of  at  least  six  thousand  years  must 
of  necessity  arose  with  every  variation  of    have  caused  changes  in  even  the  great  out- 
soil,  elevation,  climate,  culture  and  pursuit;     lines  of  the  earth's  features ;  and  the  histo- 
and  as  they  arose  they  acted  as  powers  of    rical  indications  we  find  in  the  Bible  (and 
mutual  repulsion  between  the   individual     it  is  useless  to  seek  for  any  other  source  of 
colonies,  interoepting  intereourse,  prevents     information)  are  scanty  and  indistinct   But 
ing  return,  and  urging  onward  the  ever-     with  these,  and  under  the  aid  of  the  general 
swelling  wave  of  population.  principles  laid  down  at  the  commencement. 

The  changes  and  movements  of  which  we     we  hope  to  be  able  to  make  some  approxi- 
have  given  a  sketch  must  have  taken  cen-     mation  to  the  truth. 

turies  for  their  completion.  The  last  stage  Now,  a  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that, 
seems  to  have  been  reached,  when  the  Bible  supposing  it  to  have  been  the  object  of  the 
takes  up  the  migratory  process  in  recording  Deity  to  people  the  whole  earth  by  the  de- 
the  confusion  of  tongues.  Prior  to  this,  the  scendants  of  one  pair  of  human  beings,  a 
whole  earth,  it  declares,  was  of  one  language  more  favourable  spot  could  not  have  been 
and  one  speech.  In  favour  of  this  view,  the  chosen  than  the  same  peninsula  to  which 
opinion  of  high  authorities  among  the  mo-  we  have  just  referred,  and  of  which  Arme- 
dems  might  be  adduced.  Philology  first  nia  may  be  considered  as  the  middle  point, 
concluded  that  all  known  languages  could  Population  springing  up  here  could  most 
be  traced  up  into  three  great  stems.  Then,  easily  spread  in  all  directions,  under  the  aid 
carrying  its  generalizations  still  higher,  it  and  guidance  of  rivers  which  flow  into  lakes, 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  these  three  bear  gulfs,  and  seas,  and  seas  which  unite  distant 
features  of  a  common  fkmily  likeness  so  de-  lands.  How  different  the  position  of  the 
cided  as  to  be  referrible  to  one  common  first  pair,  had  they  been  placed  in  the  deserts 
stock.  Becent  naturalists  of  distinguished  of  Siberia,  or  on  the  pampas  of  South  Ame- 
name,  as  Cuvier  and  Elenke,  refer  the  se-     rioa ! 

veral  branches  of  the  human  family  to  three  It  is  to  Armenia  that  the  considerations 
heads.  Klenke  describes  them  as,  I.  A  already  developed  point  Armenia  is  a  high 
solar  race,  with  white  complexion ;  II.  A.  land  built  upon  high  lands,  stretching  ui>- 
planetary  race,  with  black  complexion ;  and,  wards  l^m  dl  four  points  of  the  compass  to 
III.  A  transition  race,  of  a  brown  colour,  an  elevation  of  firom  six  to  seven  thousand 
Directing  the  reader  for  a  fuller  view  of  this  feet  Towards  the  east,  it  rest?  on  the  high 
point  tt  the  article  Man,  and  proceeding  on  land  of  Iran,  or  Persia ;  towards  the  west,  on 
the  Billioal  view,  we  ask,  Where  may  the  that  of  Asia  Minor;  in  a  southerly  direction, 
eommon  stock  be  looked  for  ?  Some  spot  it  is  borne  up  by  the  elevations  of  Meso- 
where  there  were  originally  settled  Noah  and  potamia,  which  sink  into  the  low-lands  of 
hi*  three  sons — Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet—     Chaldflsa ;  while  on  the  north,  it  has  Mount 

2K2 


DIV  516  DIV 

Gaaeasm  for  its  base  and  rapport  By  Eophratef.  Two  of  tlieae  an  admhted  to 
means  of  these  depressions,  it  sinks  grada-  be  identified,  the  Hiddekel  being  the  Tigris, 
ally  down  to  the  several  seas  we  have  named.  The  Hiddekel  is  described  as  flowing  east- 
The  central  mountains,  thos  thrown  np  and  ward  to  Assyria,  which  is  an  exact  deaenp- 
sostained,  are  intersected  by  a  net-work  of  tion  of  the  Tigris.  The  Euphrates  (pknd 
gorges,  clefts,  water-courses,  and  valleys,  by  in  Hebrew)  is  declared  by  its  name.  Be- 
which  it  is  drained,  and  in  whose  channels  specting  the  others  greal  diTersityof  opinion 
it  sends  its  waters  in  all  the  chief  directions  has  prevailed ;  but  if  we  keep  to  our  plan  of 
of  the  woild.  The  streams  and  rivers,  as  taking  the  eonntzy  itself  as  tiiie  basis  of  our 
they  flow  downwards  to  their  beds,  are  en-  statements,  we  may  be  justified  in  finding  the 
livened  and  made  beautiftil  by  vegetation,  in  Pison  in  the  Colohian  Phasis,  and  the  6ih<m 
whieh,  if  trees  are  comparatively  rare,  shrubs  in  the  Curarazes,  made  up  of  two  chief  rivers, 
of  all  kinds  make  compensation  by  their  theKurandtheAraxes.  The  number  of  these 
abundance ;  while  their  progress  is  accom-  rivers  is  the  result  of  the  form  of  the  ooun- 
panied  by  an  air  which  offers,  now  sepa-  try.  To  one  who  stands  on  the  Annenian 
rately  and  now  in  union,  the  genial  and  summits,  having  his  face  towards  the  south, 
soothing  warmth  of  soudiem  plains  with  the  Tigris  flows  on  his  left  hand,  and  eon- 
die  bradng  cold  of  northern  latitudes.  nects  him  with  South-Eastem  Asia,  Soodi- 
Armenia  is  the  eountzy  in  which  the  scrip-  em  Persia,  India,  and  the  islands  of  the 
tural  nairatives  place  the  first  created  pair,  Indian  Ocean;  the  Euphrates  flows  towards 
and  the  rescued  Noah  and  his  family.  Di-  his  right  hand,  bearing  his  mind  away  to- 
vided  into  many  valleys,  some  small,  some  wards  the  south-west— South-Westem  Asia, 
large,  it  would  tend  of  itself  to  eanse  sepa-  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Africa.  The  Qihon,  or 
ration  among  its  primitive  occupants,  and  Curarazes,  falling  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  is  a 
begin  those  insulations  which  in  process  of  bond  of  onion  to  him  with  the  highlands  of 
time  led  to  nations,  peoples,  and  tongues.  Upper  Asia  and  the  Western  Coast  of  Ame> 
And  here  might  the  young  and  tender  germ  rioa;  while  the  Pison,  or  Phasis,  forms  a 
of  human  life  and  culture  put  forth  its  infsnt  link  with  entire  Europe  and  Eastern  Ame- 
powers  in  safety,  protected  against  the  re-  rica.  These  four  rivers  conflbrm  to  the  Bib- 
turning  force  of  the  yet  lingering  waters,  licsl  account  in  haring  their  fountains  within 
the  riolence  of  degenerate  men,  or  the  at-  the  same  district  A  closer  eorrespondenee 
tacks  of  savage  beasts ;  for,  to  use  the  sllu-  between  the  actual  fticts  and  the  ancient  nar- 
sion  of  Bitter,  Armenia  is  a  natural  castle,  rative  is  not  to  be  expected,  after  the  great 
shut  up  round  about  and  well  guarded  by  ehaz^s  whidi  must  in  the  revolution  of 
nature.  ages  have  of  necessity  taken  place.    Thai 

When  the  stream  of  population  began  to  the  transforming  influence  of  volcanic  agency 

pour  forth,  it  would  of  necessity  take  those  has  been  actively  and  powerftilly  at  work  in 

courses  which  were  marked  out  by  the  es-  these  parts,  is  now  beyond  a  question ;  at 

sential  features  of  the  country ;  and  as  Ar-  what  period  we  do  not,  however,  possess  the 

meniais  a  high  central  group  which  radiates  means  of  determining.    Nowhere  has  this 

into  every  quarter,  and  is,  by  means  of  other  destructive    agency   raged  more   violently 

clusters  of  mountains,  connected  with  all  than  in  the  centre  of  the  district — in  the 

parts  of  the  globe,  so  its  primitive  occupants  present  vslley  of  the  Araxes,  there,  where 

would,  in  foUowing  the  paths  that  nature  may  have  stood  that  bed  of  water  whence, 

had  opened  before  their  feet,  be  in  the  lapse  according  to  Genesis,  the  four  rivers  flowed, 

of  ages  led  into  the  most  remote  and  widely-  Nine  craters  have   there   exhausted  their 

separated  regions,  untQ  they  had  multiplied  strength,  among  which  is  that  of  Mount 

and  replenished  the  earth,  in  obedience  to  Ararat 

the  Divine  command.  A  minute  inspection  Pursuing  the  direction  of  these  four  rivers, 
of  the  surface  of  the  world  would  lay  open  the  first  settlers  would  proceed  from  above 
before  the  student's  eye  the  routes  that  may  to  below,  in  a  backward  and  in  a  forward 
have  been  followed,  proving  to  him  that,  direction,  on  the  right  hand  and  on  the  left ; 
contrary  to  the  common  notion,  the  several  and  so  pursue  each  of  Hne  four  great  direo- 
provinces  of  the  earth  are  not  sundered  and  tions  indicated  by  the  points  of  the  compass, 
insulated  from  each  other,  but  intimately  The  first  emigration  seems  to  have  taken 
united  together,  and,  valley  opening  into  place  towards  tiie  south.  And  the  colonists^ 
valley,  mountain  ranges  breaking  down  into  having  already  experienced  the  sunderinc^ 
hills,  and  rising  again  into  lofty  heights  and  influences  to  which  they  were  subject,  en- 
huge  masses,  sheltering,  but  not  disconnect-  gaged  in  an  enterprise  designed  to  conn- 
ing, plains — so  combine  to  form  one  wide-  teract  them  and  serve  to  consolidate  Ac  union 
spread  whole,  having  a  common  centre  in  of  their  seversl  parts.  Their  plans  were  de- 
Armenia,  and  ramifications  everywhere.  feated  at  the  Tower  of  Babel,  and  hence- 

The  Bible  states,  that  out  of  Eden  went  a  forth  the  migratory  principle  came  into  ftill 

river  which  was  parted  into  four  heads :  the  operation.    Already  divided  into  three  great 

name  of  the  first  is  Pison ;  of  the  second,  families  whose  bond  of  union  in  flie  oom- 

Qihon ;  of  the  third,  Hiddekel;  of  the  fourth,  mon  ancestor,  Noah,  would,  in  these  eariy» 


D  1  V                       517  D  1  V 

mihistorio  periods,  fade  and  yanish, — ihej,  driven  to  the  right  and  to  the  left  of  Shom's 
when  their  plan  for  a  great  united  common-  dominions,  on  the  one  side  towards  inner 
wealth  had  been  defeated,  tamed  their  faces  Asia,  on  the  other  into  Africa.     Japhet, 
towards  different  points  of  the  compass,  and  gifted  by  nature  with  the  love  of  roaming — 
took  the  lines  of  route  which  hill  and  valley  a  wandering  shepherd,  whose   very  name 
pointed  and  opened  out  before  them.    A  indicates  iris  restless  disposition,  and  whose 
difference,  too,  already  existed  in  the  cha-  blessing  wat  to  be  wrought  out  by  yielding 
racters  of  the  ^ree  great  divisions.    An  act  to  his  innate  impulses,   spread  from  the 
of  gross  disregard  towards  his  father  brought  common  home  in  Armenia,  towards  the  west 
on  Ham  that  fsther's  eurse,  and  gave  ocea-  and  the  north-west,  and  so  became  the  pro- 
sion  to  the  pronooneing  of  his  blessing  on  genitor  of  the  European  family.  Ham(hut^, 
Shem  and  Japhet.    Acts  are  indications  of  whose  name  denotes  his  nature  and  the  na- 
moral  disposidons,  and  moral  dispositions  ture  of  the  climate  most  congenial  to  him, 
have  their  origin,  in  part,  in  original  apti-  sought  those  regions  in  which  heat  was  pre- 
tudes.   Hence  we  seem  justified  in  declaring  dominant    Where  the  tropical  sun,  pouring 
that  Ham's  nature  was  inferior,  and  that  of  down  its  fires  on  the  bosom  of  a  ridi  mould, 
Shem  and  Japhet  noble   and  lofty.    The  calls  forth  great  luxuriance  of  animal  and 
curse  and  the  blessing  of  Noah  were  conse-  vegetable  l^e,  there  Ham  found  himself  at 
quenees  of  corresponding  qualities  in  his  home,  and  all  his  instincts  came  freely  into 
Uiree  sons.    They  became  also  causes  of  si-  play.  These  conditions  are  fulfilled  nowhere 
milar  moral  qualities  which,  in  their  con-  more  than  at  the  foot  of  the  African  high 
tinued  operation,  would  degrade  Ham,  and  lands ;  and  thither,  in  consequence,  did  the 
raise  and  refine  Shem  and  Japhet    Hence  magnet  of  his  existence  direct  him.    There 
is  it  that  Shem  is  the  first  that  writes  his  he  found  all  that  was  needed  by  his  bum- 
name  in  the  history  of  the  world.    He  be-  ing,  yet  passive  nature ; — ^food  ready  at  his 
comes  the  world's  teacher  in  becoming  his  hands,  in  great  abundance ;   shelter,   also, 
own  historian.    Japhet,  too,  who  is  the  re-  prepared  by  nature ;  a  heat  essential  to  his 
presentative  of  European  civilisation,  if  it  comfort ;  with  no  necessity  for  exertion  of 
was  at  a  late  period  that  be  made  himself  any  kind.    In  such  circumstances  his  vege- 
distinguished,  has  amply  made  np  for  his  tative  life  received  full  development,  and  he 
tardiness  by  the  eminence  to  which  he  has  was  content,  knowing  no  desire  for  high  im- 
attained ;    while  Ham  has    risen  only  to  provement,  feeling  no  impulse  to  migra- 
a  low  altitude,  and  still,  for  the  most  part,  tory  enterprises ;  he  ate,  drank,  propagated 
is  the  slave  of  the  common  family.    These  his  species ;  and,  provided  he  was  left  in  un- 
maded  diversities  must  have  had  a  power-  disturbed  possession  of  his  liberty,  enjoyed 
fbl  effect  on  the  determination  of  the  parts  the  highest  happiness  of  which  his  being 
of  the  earth's  surface   severally  occupied  was  capable.  Such  a  nature,  however,  is  the 
and  permanently  retained  by  Noah's  sons,  stuff  out  of  which  slaves  are  made.    Ham, 
They  must  also  have  had  an  influence  on  firom  the  first,  resembled  the  trees  and  plants 
the  sacred  narrative,  and  may  serve  to  ex-  in  the  midst  of  which  he  lived.  .  He  was 
plain  the  fact  that  it  affords  most  light  re-  fixed  to  the  soil  (adscriptus  glebe),  which 
specting  Shem  and  his  posterity.     While,  gave  him  all  he  needed ;  and  when  a  more 
however.  Ham  was,  in   his  son   Canaan,  vigorous  race  eame  into  collision  with  him, 
cursed  and  doomed  to  slavery,  and  while  he  could  not  fail  to  fall  under  their  power, 
Shem  was  blessed,  together  widi  Japhet,  on  and  become  their  bondman.    Yet  he  was 
the  latter  a  special  word  was  spoken;  for  still  a  brother  of  both  Shem  and  Japhet 
he  was  (as  his  name  indicates)  to  be  'en-  As  such  he  merited  brotherly  treatment   As 
larged,'  spread  abroad ;  becoming,  as  his-  such  he  had  the  faculties  common  to  the 
tory,  especially  the  history  of  modem  days,  fiunily.    As  such  he  was  not  destitute  of  the 
most  strikingly  shows,  the  great  colonizer  principle  of  self-improvement  And  as  snch 
of  the  world,  spreading  into  all  its  parts,  he  would,  under  genial  culture,  rise  from  a 
and  carrying  wiih  him  the  culture  which  ha  passive,  vegetable,  and  animal  existence,  to 
received  from  Shem,  and  improved  and  aug-  high  moral  and  intellectual  excellence, 
mented  by  his  own  ceaseless  efforts.  Japhet,  however,   was  characterised  for 
These  remarks  have  already  given  inti-  effort,  ever  striving  outwards  and  forwards ; 
mations  of  the  direction  severally  taken  by  aiming  at  more  territory,  more  substance, 
Noah's  sons.    In  general,  they  may  be  said  more  knowledge,  more  dominion.   In  oppo- 
to  have  divided  the  world  among  them  thus :  sition  to  Ham,  Japhet^s  nature  was  essejiti- 
— Shem,  the  leader  in  the  first  emigration  ally  and  indestroctively  active,  knowing  no 
into  Shinar  —  Mesopotamia — ^fixed  himself  repose,  finding  happiness  only  in  movement, 
permanently  in  those  firuitftil  parts,  thus  progress,   and  conquest     Hence,  from   a 
occupying  lands  which  lay  in  Uie  middle,  shepherd  he  became  a  soldier,  figfhting  his 
and  were  therefore  propitious  for  culture,  as  way  over  the  parts  of  ^e  world  which  lay 
giving  the  means  of  deriving  advantage  from  before   him,   enslaving   the  Hamites,  and 
tribes  and  peoples  that  lay  on  different  sides  of  trenching  even  on  the  territories  of  Shem. 
)iis  territory.   Ham  seems  to  have  been  led  or  Against  his  vigorous  energy  no  difllculty  was 


D  I  V                         518  DI  V 

iiisurmoanuble.  Sess  were  passed,  moan-  without  leisure  and  fixedness,  there  eouM 
tains  were  climbed,  savage  beasts  were  over-  have  been  little  improvement;  without  oolo- 
powered  by  his  lofty  and  daring  spirit  Ham  nisation,  the  £ood  aeqoired  would  have  bfieii 
may  have  been  characteristically  contented  limited  to  a  few  seeluded  spots.  The  joint 
iu  low  lands;  Japhet's  aspiring  soul  im>  and  several  action  of  the  thi«e  great  eharae* 
pelled  him  to  the  alpine  heights  of  the  earth,  teristic  qualities  of  Noah's  sons,  were  need- 
where  he  breathed  in  freedom,  in  the  midst  fol  in  peopling  the  globe  and  edacating  its 
of  boundless  prospects  and  the  unclouded  rational  tenants.  And  when  the  power  of 
blae  of  heaven.  separate  action  had  folly  displ^ed  its  fotoe, 

Shem  stood  midway  between  his  brothers,  then  a  mixture  of  the  races  took  place,  vrhieh, 

midway  in  position  as  in  character.    With  like  a  mixture  of  diflbrent  soils,  improved 

a  sufficient  portion   of  Ham's  tranquillity  and   enriched  each,  to  the  augmentatioii 

to  keep  him  within  such  bounds  as  might  of  human   good,   and  the  advancement  of 

give  the  germs  of  high  culture  opportunity  the  benign  purposes  of  the   Great  Father 

fur  development,  he  possessed  also  a  large  of  all.    This  process,  though  it  has  been 

share  of  the  manly  spirit,  vigour,  high  soul,  long  in  operation,  is  now  only  beginning  to 

aad  stirring  impulse  by  which  Japhet  was  manifest  decided  results,  the  final  issue  of 

distinguished,  and  so  was  fully  competent  which,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  will  be  a 

to  work  out  for  himself  to  the  full,  the  ad-  general  assimilation  to  each  other  of  all 

yantages  which  lay  at  his  feet.    While  their  tribes,  kindreds,  and  families  of  the  earth, — 

respective  instincts  drove  Ham  towards  the  not  by  the  lowering  of  the  more  elevated, 

south,  to  occupy  the  low  countries  of  Africa  but  by  the  elevation  of  the  depressed,  the 

westwardly,  and  in  an  eastern  direction  to  enlightenment  of  the  ignorant,  the  emanci- 

extend  to  the  Australian  islands,  and  on  his  pation  of  the  enslaved,  the  invigoration  of 

side  caused  Japhet  to  bend  his  steps  in  a  the  quiescent,  the  taming  of  the  fierce,  and 

northerly  direction,   to   spread  two  ways,  the  transformation  of  a   merely  intellectual 

namely,  to  the  west  and  to  the  east,  becom-  into  a  lofty  and  permanent  religious  oolture. 

ing  possessor  of  £urope  on  the   one  side  If  at  the  present  moment  the  characteristics 

and  higher  Asia  on  the  other,  Shem  (whose  of  Japhet  are  most  actively  at  work,  those 

very  name  denotes  that  which  is  stationary)  ot  Shem  press  forward  to  contest  the  snpre- 

kept  the  Isnds  that  lay  between  the  two,  the  macy,  while  both  look  with  an  eye  of  bro- 

prolific  plains  of  Mesopotamia  and  <  Araby  therly  concern  on  the  yet  remaining  degra- 

the  blest ;'  being  prompted  by  his  nature  dations  of  their  brother  Ham,  having  been 

to  keep  what  he  had,  and  improve  what  he  taught  of  the  Saviour  of  the  world  that  it  is 

kept,  free  from  the  love  and  the  necessity  the  ignorant,  depressed,  abandoned,  and  lost, 

of  wandering,  f^ee  also  from  the  sluggish  that  they  ought  with  all  their  power  to  seek 

inermess  which  would  root  him  to  the  soil,  and  save. 

and   make  the  present  moment    his    all.  So  long  as  we  confine  ourselves  to  general 

Hence  Shem,  the  first  settled,  became  the  statements,  we  encounter  no  serions  dSliculty 

first  founder  of  human  society.    In  Shinar  in  thus  setting  forth  great  facts  oonnect- 

he  laid  the  foundation  of  all  the  high  ad-  ed  with  the  division  of  the  earth  among 

vantages  which  our  present  culture  gives.  Nosh's  three  sons.    But  when  we  enter  into 

Here  were  the  seeds  of  civilisation  sown ;  particulars,  in  the  midst  of  much  diversity 

here  religion  first  found  an  earthly  sanotu-  of  opinion,  and  in  the  consciousness,  after 

ary,  Jehovah  alone  being  worshipped ;  here  time  has  destroyed  so  many  monuments  of 

home  charities  first  smiled  on  man;  here  antiquity — obliterating  landmarks,  nsmes, 

letters  were  invented,  and  the  art  of  writing  and  records— of  not  possessing   materials 

brought  into  use ;  here  the  first  step  was  for  minute  and  accurate  description,  we  are 

taken  to  solve  the  great  problem  of  civil  obliged  to  confess  that,  in  regard  to  some 

government ;  here  the  earliest  homage  was  of  the  races  mentioned  in  the  table  of  na* 

paid  to  superior  knowledge,  and  the  first  tions,  we  can  attain  to  nothing  more  than 

victory  gained  over  brute  force,  priests  (then  varying  degrees  of  bare  probability,  accord- 

the  representatives  of  the  highest  culture)  ing  to  which,  the  hypothesis  of  one  learned 

being  invested  with  regal  power.  man  is  nearly  as  good  as  that  of  another. 

In  agreement  with  these  views,  Shem  ap-  To  gain  such  a  result,  room  cannot  be  spared 
pears  to  be  the  depository  and  guardian  of  in  tifiis  work.  We  must  be  satisfied  widi  de- 
religion,  Japhet  embodies  the  principle  of  veloping  general  principles,  and  setting  down 
diffusion,  and  Ham  that  of  servitude.  These  great  leading  facts.  And  for  the  general 
several  powers  constitute  the  elements  of  reader  this  is  sufficient,  if  at  the  same  time  we 
civilisation.  Originally  they  operated  sepa-  also  give,  without  discussion,  that  statement 
rately,  each  in  its  own  circle,  diverging  in  regard  to  the  several  particulars  which 
from  a  common  centre  in  order  to  occupy  in  each  case  may  appear  to  have  probability 
the  earth  and  subdue  it  under  the  dominion  in  its  favour. — ^SeeMap/OnioiNOvNATioxs.' 
of  man.  For  this  important  purpose  each  Let  it,  however,  be  observed,  in  order  to 
of  the  three  was  necessary.  Without  servi'  avoid  misapprehension,  that  the  three  great 
tude,   there  could  have  been  no  leisure ;  principles  represented  by  the  three  sons  of 


DIV 


519 


DIV 


Noahf  did  not  work  themselyes  out  in  setnal 
life  in  tihat  sharp  and  defined  manner  in  which 
the  ueoessitieB  of  language  have  made  na 
0et  them  forth  in  the  preceding  ohserrations. 
Some  degree  of  intermingling  must  from  the 
first  have  taken  place.  And  when  we  think 
of  one  of  these  fathers  of  mankind  as  haTing 
settled  himself  apart  fkom  his  own  tribe,  and 
in  the  territory  of  another,  we  think  of  the 
foundation  of  not  merely  a  dan,  but  a  peo- 
ple. For  instance,  Chaldea  (Chasdim)  has 
been  said  to  be  a  Cushite  colony  in  the  teni- 
tory  of  the  Shemites.  It  is  easy  to  conceiTe 
either  that  a  primsTal  Cushite  might  remain 
among  the  children  of  Shem,  in  the  more 
southern  parts  of  Mesopotamia,  and  so,  in 
progress  of  time,  become  the  founder  of  the 
race  and  authority  of  the  Chaldsans ;  or,  at 
a  later  period,  some  one  or  more  of  the  pos- 
terity of  Cush,  endowed  with  powers  supe- 
rior to  the  average  of  their  race,  might  suc- 
ceed in  gaining  a  settlement  on  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates  or  the  Tigris,  and  eyentu- 
ally  attain  to  eminence  and  social  power. 

Canaan,  at  the  time  of  the  patriarchs,  was 
in  possession  of  the  descendants  of  the  eleven 
sons  of  Noah  bearing  that  name.  A  refer- 
ence to  the  map,  with  the  remarks  found  in 
the  artiele  Camaam,  will  suiflce  for  the  read- 
er's information. 

When  Canaan  was  conquered  by  Joshua, 
it  was  divided  among  the  twelve  tribes  of 
IsraeL  We  refer  to  the  article  Cavaan,  and 
to  the  map.  Authorities  vary  in  regard  to 
some  minor  points  on  which  it  is  now  too 
late  to  expect  agreement 
.  Under  Uie  prosperous  reign  of  the  conquer- 
ing David,  who  exgoyed  the  bloom  of  the  na- 
tional vigour,  the  dominions  of  Israel,  yet 
retaining  its  former  divisions,  were  extended 
on  the  east  of  Jordan  to  Cazchemish  on  the 
Euphrates  ,*  on  the  south,  to  Elath ;  and  on 
the  west,  to  some  undetermined  distrirt  in 
the  desert  which  separates  Palestine  from 
Egypt 

On  the  death  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom 
was  under  Rehoboam  rent  in  two,  forming 
Jndah  in  the  south  and  Israel  in  die  north. 
The  former  comprised  merely  the  two  tribes 
of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  being  much  the 
smaller  of  the  two,  but  by  far  the  more  pow- 
erful, in  consequence  of  its  containing  Jem- 
salem,  the  civil  and  religious  metropolis  of 
the  whole  country  wfaDe  yet  undivided,  and 
in  consequence  of  its  higher  culture  and 
purer  religion.  In  the  days  of  the  Saviour, 
and  under  the  Romans,  the  country  west  of 
the  Jordan  was  divided  into  three  separate 
provinces — Galilee  in  the  north,  Judea  in 
the  south,  and  Samaria  between  the  two. 
This  division  is  found  as  early  as  the  Mac- 
cabees (1  Book  X.  80).  It  also  occurs  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (ix.  81).  Of  these 
three,  Galilee  only  is  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  probably  iit  the  same  sense  and 
comprehension  as  in  the  New  (Josh.  zx.  7. 


Is.  ix.  ].  Matt.  iv.  15).  The  country  on 
the  east  of  the  Jordan  was  designated  Per»a 
(Matt  iv.  15;  viiL  26),  which  commonly 
comprised  the  entire  land,  but  in  a  narrower 
sense  meant  the  district  bordered  by  Pella, 
the  Jordan,  and  Moab,  with  the  chief  city, 
Gadara  (OinkeU),  nearly  oonesponding  with 
the  ancient  Gilead.  A  highway  which  ran 
through  Per»a  connected  Petra  with  Damas- 
cus. As  provinces  on  the  east  of  Jordan, 
mention  is  made  in  the'  New  Testament  of 
Iturva,  TrachonitiB,  Abilene,  and  Decapolis 
(Matt.  iv.  25.  Mark  v.  20.  Lukeiii.  1).  Jo- 
sephns  speaks  also  of  Auranitis,  Gaulonitis, 
and  Batanssa ;  the  exact  limits  of  which  can- 
not be  laid  down  with  certainty.  Gaulonitis, 
of  which  Gamalitica  formed  a  part,  corre- 
sponds with  the  modem  Dscholau,  lying 
immediately  to  the  north-east  of  the  sea*  of 
Gennesareth.  Itunsa,  so  called  from  Jetur 
(Gen.  XXV.  15),  still  bears  the  similar  name 
of  Dschedur,  and  was  to  the  north-east  of 
Gaulonitis.  The  ancient  Trachonitis,  Ran- 
mer  distinguishes  from  the  Trachonitis  of 
the  middle  ages.  By  the  latter  is  under- 
stood the  entire  land  east  from  Gennesa- 
reth to  Anti- Lebanon,  and  to  the  Syro- 
Arabian  desert;  the  former  is  what  is  now 
termed  Ledscha.  Between  Ituraa  and  Tra- 
chonitis lay  Auranitis  (Hauran).  BatansBa 
is  placed  by  Raumer  south  of  Trachonitis, 
in  the  high  lands  of  Hauran.  The  Bashan 
of  Uie  Old  Testament  has  a  greater  extent 
than  the  Batanspa  of  Josephns.  The  former 
is  a  district  running  north  and  east  from 
Gilead,  and  the  name  Trachonitis  was,  in  a 
wider  application,  employed  to  denote  the 
same  region.  It  was  a  remarkable  district,  and 
as  the  north-eastern  limit  of  the  Jewish  terri- 
tory, of  no  small  importance.  In  greater  num- 
ber here  than  in  any  olher  part  of  the  coun- 
try, irere  found  caves,  grottoes,  subterranean 
passages,  and  clefts,  partly  natural,  partly 
artificial.  These  caverns,  in  the  times  of 
the  Romans,  served  as  the  haunts  of  bands 
of  robbers.  One  of  them  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained four  thousand  men.  Only  the  later 
emperors  succeeded  in  completdy  subjuga- 
ting the  district  It  is  destitute  of  trees, 
abounds  in  mineral  waters,  and  is  favour- 
able to  the  growth  of  the  vine.  Astaroth 
Kamaim,  famous  under  the  name  of  Boxra, 
raised  itself  to  a  new,  but  late  and  transient, 
distinction.  Abilene  was  a  district  near  Leba- 
non, whose  chief  place  bore  tbename  of  Abila. 
It  lay  eighteen  Roman  miles  north-west  of 
Damascus.  This  Abila  must  not  be  mis 
taken  for  an  Abila  in  the  Decapolis.  It  now 
lies  in  ruins.  Lysanias  is  mentioned  (Luke 
ill.  1)  as  tetrarch,  or  governor,  of  Abilene. 
Decapolis  was  a  district  comprising  the  con- 
federate cities,  of  which  the  greater  number 
lay  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  bad  hea- 
then inhabitants.  In  the  names  of  these 
cities  ancient  writers  do  not  agree.  The 
most  distinguished  among  ^lem  were  Phi- 


D  I  V  520  D  I  V 

laddphiA  (Babbath  Ammon),  Seythopolis,  rity  of  her  fonner  hasband.    A  wrftten  dP 

Oadara,  Hippos,  Oerasa  (DMherasoh),  Pella.  vorea  would  alao  tend  to  make  the  sepai*- 

Pella  is  deaeribed  as  abounding  in  water — a  tion  the  leaa  easy,  became  in  the  earlier  ages 

constant  sonroe  of  prosperity  in  the  East  of  the  Mosaic  polity,  writing  coold  haidlj 

It  became  the  place  of  refoge  for  the  disci-  hare  been  common  among  the  people ;  so 

pies  of  Christ  after  the  destmetion  of  Jera-  that  the  husband  would  have  to  seek  the  aid 

salem.  The  name  i9cy<Aopolis  calls  to  mind  of  a  scribe,  and  might  in  the  interral  aee 

an  incursion  of  the  ScyihiKOB  into  the  pro-  leason  to  change  his  mind.    These  ehecka 

mised  land,  of  which    Herodotas   speaks  to  the  fbeility  of  divorce  woold  hsTO  a  good 

(L  105),  and  to  which  Jeremiah  appears  to  moral  tendency.    The  dlToreed  wife  was  mt 

refer  (▼.  10 ;  tL  22,  23).  liberty  to  marry  a  second  hnsband  (Dent. 

In  the  middle  ages,  all  Palestine,  com-  zut.  2).    On  his  death,  or  if  he  divorced 

prising  the  east  as  wdl  as  the  west  of  the  Jor-  her,  she  was  not  allowed  to  retnm  to  her 

dan,  was  diyided  into  three  leading  diviaions  fonner  hnsband  (4 ;  comp.  Jer.  ill.  1).    On 

— ^Palastina  Prima,  P.  Seconda,  P.  Tertia,  her  part,  the  wife  might  leave,  bat  could  not 

or  Salntaris.     P.P.  comprised  Judca  and  divorce  her  husband  (JoseiA.Antiq.ZT.7, 10). 

Samaria;  P.S.,  Galilee  and  Baahan;  P.T.,  Consequently,  the  words  of  our  Lord  (Marie 

Idnmsa  and  Moabitis.  x.  12  )  which  imply  the  existence  of  this  power. 


On  die  division  of  the  Roman  empire  have  been  held  as  intended  to  meet  the 

(89d  A.  D.),  Palestine  fell  to  the  share  of  of  Pagans  converted  to  Christianity.    The 

tiie  Eastern  emperors.     In  the  Council  of  Lord  Jesus,  however,  corrects  the  Um  of 

Constantinople  (658  A.  D.),  Jerusalem  was  Moaes  in  regard  to  divorce,  wfaHe  he  decides 

erected  into  a  patriarchate,  under  which  disputes  thai  then  existed  in  the  Jewiah 

stood  Cssarea  Maritime,  the  metropolis  of  church  between  the  two  celebrated  schools 

Palestina  Prima;  Scythopolis,  of  P.  Secunda;  of  Hillel  and  Schamai,  determining  that  the 

Petra,  of  P.  Tertia;  and  lastly.  Bona,  of  marriage  tie  was  not  to  be  sundered  except 

Arabia.  Beeides  these  metropolitan  sees  and  in  cases  where  already  it  had  in  spirit  been 

the  clergy  subject  to  them,  there  were  twenty-  broken  by  adultery  (Matt  v.  81,  <•}. ;  xix.  8), 

five  independent  bishops,  who  were  imme*  and  intimating  that  at  the  first  there  did  not 

diately  under  the  Patrianh  of  Jerusalem.  exist  the  facility  of  divorce  which  Moses 

Under  the  Turks  of  the  present  day,  the  had  tolerated,  'beeause  of  the  hardness  of 

oountiy  has  no  name  of  its  own;  all  Syria  your  hearts'  (Matt  xix.  9).    The  doctrine 

is  divided  into  four  Pash alike,  of  which  the  of  Jesus  on  this  important  point  is  founded 

Pashalik  of  Damascus  comprises  the  Land  on  the  moral  and  spiritual  nature  of  wed- 

of  Promise.  look,  which  he  repreeents  as  in  essence  a 

After  the  downid  of  the  Christian  king-  union  of  mind  (Matt  xix.  8,  <•?.).  The 
dom  in  Palestine,  the  country  remained  a  dispute  alluded  to  above  tuned  on  the 
province  of  the  Egyptian  sultans  till,  hi  the  question,  For  what  cause  might  a  wife  be 
year  1517,  Sultan  Selim  L  subjected  all  divoroedf  Hillel  answered— <  any  cause,' 
Syria,  together  with  Egypt,  to  the  dominion  leaving  the  tie  dependant  on  the  husband's 
of  the  Turks  under  tibe  Osmanlee  sultans,  will  and  caprice.  Schamai  said — *  only  in 
He  divided  Syria  into  five  Pashaliks — ^Aleppo,  the  case  of  fornication/  It  thus  appears 
TripoUa,  Damascus,  Said,  afterwards  Acre,  with  what  a  natural  affinity  our  Lord  attached 
and  Palestine,  whose  metropolis  was  now  himself  to  what  was  true  and  right  in  the 
at  Oaxa,  now  at  Jerusalem.  This  dirision  sentiments  of  his  contemporaries.  Next  to 
remained  till  Ibrahim  Paaha  took  posseesioa  disdoeing  is  the  merit  it  adopting  truth, 
of  Syria,  in  1882.  Under  him  the  former  It  may  render  the  merit  more  noticeable  if 
division,  as  well  as  the  general  government  we  add,  that  the  Jewish  historian,  Joeephus, 
of  the  country,  was  changed,  and  the  whole  took,  both  in  theory  and  practice,  the  oppo- 
was  distribotsd  into  provinces,  which  were  site  view,  having  divorced  his  wife,  by  whom 
subdivided  into  districts ;  the  former  being  he  had  had  three  chfldren,  '  as  not  pleased 
under  governors  (muleslelim),  the  latter  with  her  behaviour;*  after  which  he  mar- 
under  presidents  (naxir).  ried  another  (Life,  76).    The  relaxation  of 

DIVORCE  (L.  divortUim^  'separation'),  the  marriage  bond  and  the  foeility  of  divoree 

the  sundering  of  the  marriage-bond.     The  have  ever  been  attended  by  corrupt  morals 

husband,  except  in  two  cases  (Dent  xxiL  and  domestic  infelicities.    Even  a  heathen 

19,  29),  was  permitted  by  the  Mosaic  law  to  poet  could  sing  the  praises  of  inviolable 

put  away  his  wife,  provided  he  gave  her  a  aifection : 

^!^  iT^*°*  ''^^ ,  "^   •  *"f^  /**""•  'TM**  l«PPy  V^  •»  they,  whose  wedded  Ufe 

Btalea  t&at  she  was  no  longer  his  (Deut  IioneuntookenieeiMoCooiutaiitfiith; 

xxiv.  1.  Is.  1. 1.  Matt.  xix.  7).     The  oUect  V^boee  peace  is  ne'er  dletnxbed  by  vezinc  wtsUtt, 

of  this  requirement  was,  that  the  act  of  di-  'Whoee  love  wiU  yield  Us  empire  but  todeath.' 

voroe  should  be  not  sudden,  but  formal,  and  It  is  strange  that  the  strong  domestic  feel- 

80  deliberate;  abo  that  the  woman  might  ings  of  the  Hebrew  race  should  not  before 

have  in  her  own  hands  an  unquestionable  Jesus,  who  in  this  also  performed  the  part  of  a 

evidence  of  her  being  free  from  the  autho-  true  and  perfect  man,  have  led  them  to  applj 


DOG                      521  DOB 

a  Temecly  to  the  disorden  whidh  most  ham  or  sflent  dogs  are  notunfireqiiently  eeen,  toch 

arisen  from  the  latitude  of  the  Mosaio  law.  as  Isaish  ailndes  to '  (Is.  WL  10) ;  whether 

That  law,  howeyer,  was  quite  in  keeping  or  not 'dumb  dogs' exist,  the  allusion  of  the 

with  the  oriental  spirit,  and  with  the  fiMt  prophet  is  dearly  to  dogs  who  eonld  both 

that  the  wife  was  purchased. — See  Dowbt.  wateh  and  bark,  bat  did  not    He  refers  to 

DOCTORS  (L.  doeto,  '1  teaeh'),  is  the  the  f else  prophets  whose  eyes  wera  eorend 

rendering  in  Loke  iL  4^,  of  a  Greek  word  whenthey  should  have  been  open,  end  whose 

whieh  signifies  (iodksr,  snd  whioh  is  gene*  tongues  were  tied  when  they  shovld  have 

rally  translated  maittr  (Matt  Tiii  19.  Msrk  sonnded  an  slsnn.    A  disgusting  hsbit  of 

z.  17) ;  bnt  in  John  iiL  2.  .1  Oor.  ziL  28,  &o.  dogs  is  refened  to  in  Pror.  nvi.  11,  whioh 

is  oQireotly  given  by  UadUr.  appesrs  to  have  passed  into  a  proverb,  de- 

DOCTRINE  (L.  doeeo,  <I  teaeh'),  pro-  noting  the  oertsin  reenrrenoe  of  a  wieked 

peily  signifies  teaching,  that  is,  the  subject  man  to  wiokedness  (2  Pet  iL  22). 

matter  taught  or  oommnnieated  by  a  teacher  The  tenor  of  these  remarks  will  have  pr^ 

(Matt  vii  28.  Eph.  It.  14).    A  referenoe  to  pared  the  reader  to  find  that  dogs,  with  the 

Uie  Scriptures  will  show  that  Jesus  was  emi*  Israelites,  were  both  sn  oljeet  and  sn  image 

nently  a  doctriD&l  preacher,  founding  all  his  of  contempt  (1  Sam.  zvii.  48;  zziv.  14), 

lessons  and  exhortations  on  the  solid  basis  whichwas  carried  to  the  utmost  extreme  when 

of  great  principles,  which  had  received  in  the  epithet  dtad  was  added  to  dog  (2  Sam.  ix. 

his  mind  a  divine  ssnction*    Morality  with  8 ;  xvL  9).  Hence  '  dog's  head'  was  a  most 

him  wss  religion  in  praetiee;  and  religion  opprobrious  phrase  (2  Sam.iii  8).    By  ttie 

was  God's  will  made  known  to  man,  che-  later  Jews,  the  heathen  were  ignominiouslv 

riahed  in  the  heart,  and  honoured  in  the  ob-  denominated  dogs  (Bev.xxiL  15.  Msrk  vdL 

servance.  27.  Philip.  iiL  2),  a  ussge  which  seems  to 

DODANIM,  a  tribe  mentioned  smong  the  have  been  already  established  in  the  popular 

descendants  of  Javan  (Gen.  x.  4),  and  is  language  in  the  days  of  the  apostles,  and 

therefore  to  be  looked  for  in  the  west    Le  fifom  the  influence  of  which  the  scriptural 

Clero  andMichaelis  find  a  relic  of  the  Doda-  writers  hardly  kept  themselves  i^e,  much 

nim,  in  Dodona,  in  Epirus.  tm  reprosohftil  terms  vrere  contrary  to  the 

DOEG. — See  David.  spirit  of  the  religion  which  they  had  to  <^lbr 

DOG,  the,  was  smong  the  Hebrews  an  to  the  world.  In  extenuation  it  may  be 
unclean  animal  (Deut  xxiii.  18.  Is.  Ixvi.  8.  fhrther  remarked,  that  the  provooation  re* 
Matt  Til.  6),  hdd  in  contempt,  and  only  oeived  i^m  the  pagans  wss  cruel  and  in- 
kept  for  gusrding  flocks  (Job  xxx.  1)  and  oessant  Dogs  have,  in  sll  ages,  hung  sbout 
houses,  but  scsrcely  for  pleasure.  Tet  we  Eastern  camps,  snd  they  now  form  a  part  of 
find  Tobias  had  a  dog,  which  was  his  com*  the  csrayans  idiich  go  firom  place  to  place 
panion  (Tobit  ▼.  16 ;  xL  4) ;  snd  from  Matt  on  purposes  of  business  or  religion. 
XV.  27,  it  appears  that  dogs  were  allowed  in  ' The  price  of  a  dog'  was  not  allovred  to 
the  house,  at  least  occasionally.  There  is  be  oflbred  in  sacrifice,  as  the  animal  was  un- 
one  species  of  dog  in  the  East  whidi  has  dean  (Dent  xxiiL  18),  and  because  heathen 
never  been  domesticated.  There  are  others  people  oflSnred  dogs,  especially  to  the  idols 
which,  whether  ever  tamed  or  not,  roam  which  had  a  dog's  head ;  comp.  2  Sam.  iii. 
about  as  fierce  as  wolves.  The  Eastern  towns  8.  It  has  also  been  thought,  firom  the  con* 
are  beset  with  herds  of  hungry  dogs,  which  nection  in  which  the  words  stsnd,  that  *  the 
are  almost  wild,  snd  live  on  offal  and  refuse,  price  of  a  dog,'  so  denominated  psrtly  from 
yet  affording  some  degree  of  protection,  in  eontempt,  psrtly  for  eonceslment,  was  the 
return  for  which  they  are  tolerated,  and  sum  given  for  the  camsl  abuse  of  boys  pre* 
sometimes  receive  food  (Mattxv.  26).  In  valent  in  the  sncient  world;  comp.  1  Ssm. 
practice  it  may  have  been  these  that  were  xvii.  48. 

accounted  unclean ;  for,  if  the  whole  race  DOB  (H.  a  dweUing),  an  andent  town 

were  so  considered,  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  lying  on  the  sea  coast,  a  few  hours  south  of 

they  could  have  been  suffered  in  houses,  or  ttie  promontory  of  Csimel,  in  the  modem 

employed  by  shepherds.    The  hslf-wild  sni*  province  of  Chaifa,  snd  at  the  extremity  of 

mals  of  which  we  have  spoken  acted  as  in  the  plain  of  Sharon.  It  was  a  royal  Canaan* 

some  sense  the  scavengers  of  ancient  towns  itish  city  (Josh.  xi.  2 ;  xii.  28),  given  to  Mar 

(Exod.  xxiL  81),  devouring  exposed  corpses  nasseh  (Josh.  zviL  11.  1  Ohron.  yii.  29).  It 

(1  Kings  xiy.  11.  2  Kings  ix.  86.  Luke  xvL  was,  however,  not  subjugated  (Judg.  i.  27)  » 

21 ).    Their  howllngs  in  or  near  a  dty,  es*  nor  does  it  appear  to  have  been  Israelitish 

pedally  at  night,  were  loud  and  offensive  till  the  days  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  iv.  11). 

(Ps.  lix.  6, 14).     Of  some  the  fierceness  In  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  it  was  a  strong* 

was  such  that  they  would  attack  even  men  hold,   and  beneged  by  Antiodius  Sidetes 

(PS.XXU.  16).  These  wild  or  half-wild  dogs  (1  Maoeab.  xv.  11).    At  a  Uter  day  it  was 

were  greedy,  as  being  pressed  with  hunger,  restored  by  Gabinins,  snd  its  harbour  im* 

butrarely  satisfied  (Is.  Ivi.  11).    Watching  proTcd.    In  the  first  Christian  centuries  it 

and  barking  are  characteristic  of  dogs ;  but  was  a  bishop's  see.    In  the  time  of  Jeroma 

Colond  Hamilton  Smith  states  that  '  dumb  it  lay  desert 


D  0  U  522  D  0  U 

In  the  wbole  neighbourhood  of  this  plaoe  enltare  wts  the  characteristie,  doubt  first 

ruins  are  still  found  whieh  show  that  these  sumed  its  proper  ezbtence.     Accotdingiy, 

parts  were  onoe  thiokly  peopled,  and  in  a  in  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  we  find 

high  state  of  culture.  three  words  rendered  d&ubt.    Of  these,  one, 

DORCAS  (G.  a  t^er,  or  gauUt ;  in  Syriae,  dittadMOf  signifies  to  be  divided  in  two,  to 

Tabitha),  a  pious  and  beneYolent  Christian  stand  equally  in  relation  ti>  two  opposites  ; 

woman  of  Joppa,  whom  Peter  restored  to  as  when  of  the  eleren  disciples  who  witnessed 

life.  His  aid  appears  to  have  been  requested  the  ascension  of  Jesus,  some,  believing,  wor- 

in  consequence  of  his  haying  restored  to  shipped  him,  but  some  also '  doubted '  (MiatC 

health  the  palsied  Eneas  of  the  neighbour'  zzyiii  17 ;  eomp.  Matt  xiT.  81).  Bomotimea 

ing  town  of  Lydda.     The  oonsequenoe  of  *  doubt'  is  used  in  a  wider  sense,  as  denot- 

these  wonders  wiM  a  great  increase  of  be-  ing  hesitation  or  perplexity  amid  seyeral 

lieyers  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  possible   cases.    To  describe  this  state  of 

Sea.  mind  another  word,  dtaporM,  is  employed 

The  picture  of  the  grief  occasioned  by  (Luke  ix.  7 ;   zxiy.  4.  Acts  iL  12 ;  t.  34 ; 

the  death  of  Dorcas  among  the  poor  widows  z.  17).    In  MattxzL  21,  we  find  a  third 

for  whom,  when  in  life,  she  had  busied  her-  term,  diakrino,  (whence  our  difcem),  signi^ 

self  in  making  garments,   is  natural  and  fying,  originally,  to  discriminate,  and  hence 

touching ;  while  it  affords  a  good  eridenoe  to  make  nice  dwtinctions,  so  that  it  comes 

that  their  benefactress  was  really  dead.  The  to  mean  what  we    signiiy  by  refinements, 

restoration  of  Dorcas  to  life  stands  in  inti-  hair-splitting,  hair's -breadth  distinctions^ 

mate  connection  with  the  ensuing  events,  hypercriticism,  a  certain  intellectual  fastidi- 

and  thus  dfords  a  guarantee  of  its  reality  oneness  which  robs  men  of  power  in  flatter- 

(Acts  ix.).  ing  them  with  being  umpires  of  taste.  These 

DOTHAN  (H.  ChsIoiii),  a  place  north  of  are  undesirable  qualities  of  mind  —  the 
Sichem,  near  the  great  plain,  not  far  from  '  wavering'  of  James  (Jas.i.  6),  eharacter- 
JesreelandBethsean^in  a narrowpass  through  istic  of  men  too  weak  to  form  or  hold  an 
hills,  a  little  south  of  the  Sea  of  Gennesa-  opinion,  and  therefore  blamed  by  Paul  as 
reth.  Here  Joseph  found  his  brethren  (Gen.  '  children  tossed  to  and  fro '  (Ephes.  iv.  14). 
xxxvii.  17),  and  the  prophet  smote  the  Such  an  unhappy  and  powerless  condition 
Syrians  wiih  blindness  (2  Kings  vL  18).  lies  under  the  disapproval  of  Jesus  Christ, 
Ettsebius  and  Jerome  place  it  twelve  miles  who  well  knew  that,  far  more  than  know- 
north  from  Samaria.  ledge,  '  faith  is  power  '  (Matthew  xzL  21. 

DOUBT  (L.  duo,  *  two '),  is  property  that  Mark  xL  28).    Most  remote,  however,  was 

state  of  mind  in  which  a  man  halts  or  hesi-  Jesus,  who  no  less  mildly  than  ceaselessly 

iates  between  two  opinions,  not  knowing  bore  with  the  ignorance,  distrust,  open  disbe- 

which  is  preferable.    Such  a  state  of  mind  lief  and  denial  of  his  immediate  fbllowere, 

is    not  ehaiacteristio   of  a  primitive  age,  from  blaming  that  uncertainty  of  mind  which 

where  simple  and  implicit  faith,  the  ready  a  faithful  use  of  the  means  of  information 

faith  of  childhood,  has  ever  prevailed ;  least  had  not  removed,  and  which,  in  its  inevi- 

of  all  is  it  likely  to  be  found  among  the  table  consequences  of  pain  and  weakness, 

early  Hebrews,  whose  kindling  imagination,  was  attended  by  severe  penalties.    As  little 

warm  heart,  and  devoutness  of  soul,  made  would  Paul  approve  of  the  use  which  is 

them  a  nation  of  believers.    Accordingly,  in  often  ignorandy  made  of  the  words,  '  He 

their  literature,  while  it  remained  pure,  no  that  doubts  is  damned,'  so  as  to  alarm  the 

word  signifying  'doubt'  presents  itsell    It  timid  inquirer,  make  the  bold  hesitate,  and 

is  not  till  we  come  to  the  times  treated  of  in  throw  around  a  certain  set  of   opinions, 

the  book  of  Daniel,  that  we  meet  with  a  '  framed  by  art  and  man's  device '  many  cen- 

term  (ketar)   translated  (Dan.  v.  12 — 16)  turies  ago,  and  in  ages  of  mental  tyranny 

'  doubts,'  the  original  meaning  of  whieh  is  and  darkness,  the  awful  and  terrific  ssnc- 

given  in  the  margin  as  knots ;  and  Daniel  is  tions  of  endless  burnings  or  immortal  bliss, 

there  characterised  as*adis8olverof  doubts,'  After  such  a  manner  Paul  had  not  learned 

the  phrase  literaBy  meaning  one  who  un-  Christ;  and  the  entire  chapter  whence  these 

does  or  unties  knots.    But  the  doubts  or  words  are  taken  (Rom.ziv.),  shows  that  the 

knots  were  '  knotty  points,*  *  hard  sentences,'  meaning  ordinarily  put  upon  them  is  a  per- 

a  species  of  riddle,  i^thegms  whose  import  version.    But,  indeed,  for  the  blameworthy 

was  perhaps  purposely  involved  in  darkness,  practice   of  quoting  words  frt>m  Scripture 

either  as  an  exereise  of  ingenuity,  or  as  a  i^art  from  their  connection,  the  abuse  could 

trial  of  skill.    Doubt,  signifying  a  state  of  never  have  prevailed ;    for    the    qualifying 

hesitancy  between  two  dissimilar  opinions  clause,  <  if  he  eat,'  shows  that  the  apostle 

or  views,  is  not  applicable  as  descriptive  ot  meant  that  if  a  man  eat  of  food  while  he 

a  condition  of  things  external  to  the  nund—  doubts  whether  he  ought  to  eat  of  that  food, 

problems,  whose  solution  must  be  attempted  he  is  condemned,  since  he  does  that  which 

in  a  variety  of  ways.  he  suspects  he  should  not  do.    The  text, 

The  intellect  is  the  souree  of  doubt ;  and  then,  does  not  condemn  doubting,  but  act- 

amoug   the  Greeks,   of  whom  intellectual  ing  contrary   to   our  convictions,  whether 


DOU 


523 


D  O  V 


more  or  less  clearly  formed.  Bat  we  incline 
strongly  to  some  such  import  as  that  given 
in  the  margin  — *  disoemeth  and  pntteth  a 
difference  between  meats/  To  discern  or 
discriminate  is,  as  we  have  said,  the  primary 
meaning  of  the  term  diakrino.  This  seems 
to  be  the  meaning  intended  here.  The  whole 
chapter  treats  of  distinctions  in  regard  to 
food  (1,  2) ;  and  the  apostle  concludes  a 
Tery  noble  and  comprehensiye  exhibition 
of  religious  liberty,  by  declaring  that  a  per- 
son who,  while  he  admitted  the  prevalent 
distinctions  of  meats,  ate  of  any  and  all,  as 
did  others  who  denied  these  distinctions, 
was  by  the  very  act  condemned ;  for  what- 
ever act  is  not  of  faith,  that  is,  approved  by 
conscience,  is  sinful. 

However  undesirable   a  state   of  mind, 
then,  doubt  may  be ;  how  important  soever 
it  is  that  faithftd  inquiry  should  lead  to  that 
full  conviction  which  may,  by  being  felt  in 
the  heart  and  acted  on  in  Uie  life,  become 
a  principle  of  action  and  a  source  of  moral 
power ;  and  though  doubt  does  sometimes 
spring  from '  an  evU  heart  of  imbelief '  (Heb. 
iii.  12),  and  may  perhaps  in  all  cases  de> 
note  a  low  spiritual  condition — for  the  high- 
est natures,  as  being  nearest  to  God,  have 
the  fuUest  and  the  most  loving  faith  in  Him 
and  in  all  goodness ; — ^yet  all  doubt  is  not 
to  be  held  blameworthy ;  for  to  doubt  '  the 
tradition  of  men'  may  lead  us  to  a  clear 
knowledge  of  *  the  commandments  of  God ' 
(Matt.  XV.  8,  teg.) ;   and  no  human  being 
has,  or  can  have,  a  right  so  to  identify  his 
opinions  with  absolute  truth,  as  to  be  war- 
ranted in  making  the  reception  of  them  a 
condition   of  everlasting   life.     There  are 
states  of  society  in  which  doubt  gives  evi- 
dence of  a  higher  and  purer  mental  power 
than  is  generally  prevalent.    There  are  with 
individuals   states  of  mind  in  which  doubt 
is  God's  way  out  of  darkness  into  marvel- 
lous light.  In  most  cases  of  real  conversion, 
doubt  must  precede  belief.    Doubt  is  to  the 
soul  what  pain  is  to  the  body.  It  shows  that 
there  is  something  wrong,  something  un- 
sound ;  and  by  the  uneasiness  which  it  oc- 
casions, it  urges  the  patient  to  seek  a  remedy. 
The  remedy  is  not  supplied  by  harsh  de- 
nunciations from   without,   or  gained  by 
self-condemnation ;  but  by  a  manly  course, 
by  fearless  inquiry  in  the  love  of  truth,  with 
prayer  for  light  to  its  merciful  Source,  and  in 
the  devout  confidence  that  nothing  can  be 
fatally  bad  but  seeming  to  believe  that  which 
you  doubt,  or  professing  with  the  lips  or  in 
the  conduct  that  which  in  your  heart  you 
deny.    No  one  who  knows  how  much  life 
needs  the  support  of  fixed  principles,  would 
invite  or  welcome  doubt ;  yet,  with  thousands, 
doubt  has  proved  the  portal  to  truth,  and 
the  most  assured  and  the  most  operative 
faith  has  grown  out  of  the  investigations 
and  the  discipline  of  heart  to  which  doubt 


gave  occasion.  Not,  then,  without  good  rea- 
son did  Wordsworth  say — 

'IraiM 
The  song  of  thanki  and  praise 
For  thoM  obstinate  questionings 
Of  sense  and  outward  tUngs, 
Fallings  from  as,  vanishings } 
Blank  misgivings  of  a  creature 
Hoving  about  in  worlds  not  realised. 
High  instincts  befoxe  which  our  mortal  nature 
Did  tremble  like  a  guilty  thing  suxprised  I ' 

DOVE  (T.  tmibe,  *a  dove,'  probably  con- 
nected with  tou/en, '  to  dip ;'  so  that  the  dove 
is  by  its  name  the  dipper),  a  general  name 
of  the  order  of  birds  scientifically  called  Co- 
lumbid^,  of  which  Palestine  is  known  to 
possess  eleven  or  twelve  species.  Egypt  now, 
as  did  the  Holy  Land  of  old,  abounds  in 
doves.  The  villages  of  Syria  and  the  neigh- 
bouring countries  present  dove«cotes  to  the 
eye  of  the  traveller  in  great  number,  and 
vast  flocks  of  wild  doves  make  their  appear- 
ance on  the  approach  of  harvest. 

Doves  were  the  only  birds  allowed  to  be 
offered  in  the  temple  saerifices,  the  ordi- 
nances respecting  which  seem  to  have  come 
down,  in  substance,  to  Moses  from  patri- 
archal times  (Gen.  xv.  9).  It  was  the  poor 
who  were  indulged  with  leave  to  offer  doves; 
a  provision,  the  considerate  benignity  of 
which  may  be  learnt  from  what  we  have  said 
of  their  multitudinousness  (Lev.  v.  7 ;  xii.  0. 
Luke  ii.  24).  In  order  to  fiimish  doves  for 
sacrifice,  dealers  in  them  sat  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  temple  (Matt  xxi.  12),  and  the  breed- 
ing of  doves  seems  to  have  been  practised 
irom  an  early  period  (Is.  Ix.  8),  though  there 
existed  in  Palestine  groves  of  wild  doves 
(Ezek.  rii.  16),  which  made  their  nests  in 
clefts  of  the  rocks  (Jer.  xlviii.  28.  Cant  ii. 
14),  or,  when  pursued,  sought  refhge  in  the 
mountains  (Ps.  xi.  1).  With  the  poets,  the 
dove  was  an  image  of  fleetness  (Ps.  Iv.  6. 
Hos.  xi.  11).  *  Doves*  eyes'  were  accounted 
very  beautiftil  (Cant  i.  10;  iv.  1).  Hence 
the  choice  imagery  in  Cant  v.  12 : 

■  His  eyes  as  of  doves  by  the  rivers  of  water. 
Washed  with  milk  and  fitly  set.' 

In  Psalm  Ixviii.  18,  we  find  the  sacred  poet 

speaking  of 

'  The  wings  of  a  dove  covered  with  silver. 
And  her  feathers  with  yellow  gold.' 

This  is  a  graceAil  allusion  to  the  silvery  and 
golden  hues  that  wild  doves  have  around 
the  neck,  and  which  irideseently  flash 
ih)m  their  shoulders.  The  cooing  of  the 
dove,  with  its  gentle  and  plaintive  tones, 
has  also  furnished  the  poets  with  appro- 
priate images  (Is.  xxxviii.  14 ;  hx.  11).  With 
our  Lord  Uie  dove  was  a  picture  of  innocence 
(Matt.  X.  16). 

In  the  general  character  of  the  dove  as 
thus  set  forth,  we  find  the  reason  why  the 
descent  of  the  spirit  on  our  Lord  should 
have  been  likened  to  a  dove  (Matt.  iii.  16. 
Mark  i.  iO.  Luke  iii.  22.  John  i.  32).  Luke 
expressly  states,  that  this  descent  was  *  in  a 


DOV 


3H 


DOW 


bodUr  ^ff  ""'   "••■  Intenaoa  protnblj  fotm,  ou«  (OTlRmed  with  toon  giaeehl  and 

*u,  (hu,  bMid«  Ihs  Dirino  Toine  tddnu-  Irmnqnilliwng  uwoUlioiu,   eoalH   not   bsT* 

iDg  lh(  Mr,  Ihm  (hoold  b«  «  bodUj  ibKpa  been  wl«tiid.     Thu  appMl  to  the  eye  ww 

addrauiofl  Ih*  aje  («.iiip.  John  t.  87,  nad-  Uken    Qp  by  uioient  Chilitiu    »«,    wi* 

ing  Iha  Uxor  part  of  ih*  tnm  u  m  IdIuto-  which  ths  doTi  beeuue  ths  ijnibol  of  lb* 

fUkn)  ;  and,  ecrUinli,  •  mora  appropiiau  Holj  Bpiril,  ai  locii  in  lh»  euL 


Tba  ilitor  art  of  Poatiy  hu  alao  aniled  i(- 
aalf  of  die  don  In  ordar  to  «ipoand  the  pni- 
■Diaa  of  the  Barionr — 'It  ia  expedient  for 
joD  ihM  I  go  awa} ;  fir  if  I  go  not  awaj,  the 
Comforter  wilt  not  eonie  unto  jon;  bat  if  I 
depait,  I  win  aend  him  onto  toq'  (John  XTi. 


'Orirth 


tlut*IUlBC 


Ts  win  tbee  Is  Oj  SarloBr'i  tide. 


>  had  dtln'd  wH 


riletp 


With  Clulat  In  iJchI,  tnndiic  mu  (*Io  to  Im.' 
In  order  (hat  (ha  reader  ma;  dnl;  appre- 
ciate the  folueaa  of  meaning  then  wee  in 
Iha  deioant  of  the  ipiiit  in  the  ehape  of  a 
don,  he  moat  be  ^ipriaed  that  the  dare  had 
in  Sjria,  from  nij  eariy  times,  been  an  ob- 
ject of  worahip,  of  which  faci  llie  endeaee 
i*  foil,  dear,  uid  deeiaiT*.  Here,  than,  on 
the  dedieados  of  Jeena  to  hie  high  ofloa, 
idolatry  ia  made  lo  pay  homage  to  the  Son 
of  Ood.  Probably  it  waa  for  a  not  diuhnilai 
pnrpoae  (hat  Hoaea  ulioae  the  dore  from  all 
other  birde  aa  an  offering  to  JehOTBh  ;  tor  no 


•n'Hi,  no  argomeni,  oouia  ne  iironger  luan 
waa  laade  to  Syrian  idolaten,  when  thej 
were  thne  made  to  aea  the  aaered  bird  alain, 
mod  tmn  eaten,  day  by  da),  onder  (heir  own 
eyoa.  In  ihe  ehoiea  of  the  dote  by  Noah, 
when  he  wJabed  to  aioertain  whether  tlia 
walen  of  the  flood  had  anbaLded,  we  eee  an 
endeuce  of  the  early  epread  of  that  Tenera- 
Hoo  for  the  dore  whieh  led  lo  ita  being  wor- 
chipped !  and  we  alio  dUcem  a  trace  of  the 
taat,  IhU  at  a  -mj  eariy  period  die  Eaatema 


wan  wqoainted  with  Ihe  inalinet  whid 
makaa  one  ipeelee  of  the  CaUaMdt  (tba 
Barrier-  pigeon)  lueAil  In  eonraying  intaUi- 
genoe  bom  one  part  to  mother  (Ocn.  viii. 
6,10;  eomp.  P>.  It.  T) 

DOWBX  (0.  ttom  a  root  aigniQring  'lo 
glTe'),  (omething  given  on  oeeaiioo  of  mar- 
riage. There  an  in  Eo^iih  twv  word*  the 
■ame  In  origin,  bnt  diaaimilar  in  meaning . 
I.  Dowry,  whieh  Ii  die  portion  that  the  wiA 
Mnge  her  hosband  in  marriage ;  II.  Dower, 
the  portion  whieh  a  widow  hu  of  tba  landa 
of  her  hiubend  after  hie  decaaaa. 

Among  the  laraelitet,  dower,  or  dowry,  waa 
a  price  paid  by  Ihe  basband  to  the  lUhar, 
or  a  eetllement  made  by  the  hnaband  on  the 
wife.  Thoe,  Jacob  lerred  Laban  aeTanyoarw 
for  Raehel  (Oen.  m.  IS.mj.;  emnp.  ixii.  41. 
I  Sam.xTiiLm.  3  8am.iiI.U}.  The  Oxing 
of  Ihe  priea  waa  aometlmae  in  the  hands 
of  the  father  (Qen.  xniT.  13;  eomp.  Eiod. 
nil.  39) :  aometimea  the  ram  waa  deter- 
mined by  law  (Deal,  xxii-  39}-  The  priee 
Taried  very  much  aooording  to  the  peeulla- 
riliea  of  the  ease,  or  the  condition  in  life  of 
the  partlee  (Hoa.  iiL  2) ;  bnt  in  a  certain 
initauoe,  fifty  ahnkela  of  lilTer  an  appoinled 
la  a  minimum  (Dent.  nii.  39)-  Mora  sel- 
dom wen  marriage  preaenta  made  hy  the 
father  to  hie  daughter  (1  Kingi  ii.  16. 
Joeh.  IT.  19).  In  Kiod.  uii.  IB,  IT,  we 
find  two  easea  put — one  in  whieh  the  wi&, 
Ihe  other  in  which  the  father,  waa  to  receire 
;omp- Tobit  TiL  14. 
of  purehaaiug  wiTee  ia  widely 
Eaat;  and  aa  it  implies  that 
women  an  in  a  low  condition,  ao  doea  it 
itrongly  opente  to  prerent  them  from  rising 
nnch  aboie  the  poaiUon  of  upper  slaTaa  lo 


BRA  a 

Ihgir  lordl;,  and  ottBn  tTTIiUlliial,  hiulMiids. 
A  itili  gnaler  abase  pniuli  in  some  orimul 
ludR,  in  wbieh  (uoilea  tie  nol  ontj  the 
mitorB,  bat  in  aoma  lenu  the  parnliiien. 
Then  leema  to  be  ui  Klluioit  to  this  niigs 
in  laaiafa  ir.  1. 

DHAQON  (0.)  praienlt  as  witb  ■  rabjeei 
ftom  vhioh  it  ia  not  euj  to  strip  the  niioia* 
•niolmeitla  of  hacj  and  bble,  uid  g«t  at 
tlw  nakad  tiath.  In  gmural,  s  dragon  ia  a 
kind  at  wingvd  anpsnt,  a  fabnluni  mouter, 
of  whoaa  exiatanee  tlia  ballaf  waa  ancientlf 
apnad  Ikr  and  wlda.  Tba  pmalant  eug- 
gantiona  ma;  bara  bad  for  tbeii  original 
aal^Mt  aoma  apaeiM  of  aaipent,  aash  aa 
graal  boas  and  pflhan-aaipaiti,  wliloh  grow 
to  an  aooimoita  aiw.  and  wboaa  dimen^ona 
and  foimidabla  qiulidaa  tuti  mmj  bat* 
Uigalj  amplifted.  In  dia  Eaat,  iMnrarar,  It 
la  oaitafn,  the  diagon  wai  hald  to  ba  a  moat 
fearful  monatar,  and,  aa  aneli,  neaiTBd  di- 
>1>M  hononia. 

Ooi  EngUib  teim  Rpreaaata  three  Habiaw 
voida  whieh  laem  to  be  onlr  rariationa  of  one 
1.  Wa  fliid  Ihia  flnt  in  Oen.  1. 21 , 

o'bia  NotM 


!5  DBE 

In  all  the  other  paaaagea  aare  twOi'UTe  word 
ii  tranalated  by' dragon;' »bowing,pjobably, 
that  our  tranalatota  look  it  to  mean,  aa  tfaaj 
ban  randend  it  in  on*  of  the  two  eueplad 
inatancea  (Lam.  iy.  8),  '•«»  raonitera.'  In 
Job  vii.  13,  tbe  term  ia  En^iahad  by  •  nbda.' 
Haider  flunka  tli*  croeodila  waa  meant,  aa 
doea  Haimer.  Another  fmm  (if  in  irtith 
oMlAar)  of  ilis  word  preaenta  noHona  irikioh 
do  not  comport  with  the  habita  of  either 
whalaa  or  oiooodilei,  lieing  aaaooialad  with 
owla  (Is.  iliii.  20)  fonnd  in  Jeraaalem  wlien 
laii  waale  (Jer.  iz.  II),  and  other  deiolala 
plaoaa ;  and  tepreaanted  aa  aniiiilng  op  the 
wind  (Jer.  zir.  6),  and  aa  wailing  (Hie.  i. 
8).  Thia  taim,  howarer,  Oeamina,  Dm- 
bteil,  and  Nojea,  tranalatejoeioJ.  The  ren- 
daring  aeema  to  anit  the  remarkable  paaaage 
In  lob  zxz.  39,  where  the  man  of  Ui  dt- 
aatlbea  himaelt  aa  being  akin  to  'diagona 
and  owU,'  by  reason  of  the  aad  noaninga 
wliieh  hla  grief  eatiaed  him  to  titter.  The 
dttb,  or  Jaakal,  ia  an  animal  batwaan  a  dog 
and  a  fox,  01  a  wolf  and  a  lbs,  which  ahoimde 
in  deaerta  and  aolitodea,  and  makes  a  dola- 
tuX  sryln  the  night.  Jukala  lire  in  hsrda  of 
two  to  three  bandied  atrong, 
tbcT  nab  by  night  down  oa 


kind.'     In  triiioh  troop* 


Tillagt*  In  March  of  food,  which  Ihey  Bnd  Satan  (see  the  artide  Detti.),  wliieh,  among 

ehleOy  in  cotpaea,  giving  good  rMaon  why  other  eril  and  aedDoti-te  aeta,  is  behend  to 

tomba  ahonld    be,  ■■  diey   *l«,  protected  altaok  the  moon  dating  an  eellpaa.    Here, 

againit  their  deinedatiana.    Hnmau  beinga,  peihapa,  ia  the  origin  of  the  aaipant  mea- 

nnleBB  auch  as  are  weak  and  defeiwiless,  tloned  in  Oen.  iii.  I.   It  ia,  in  all  probabili^, 

they  an  ahy  to  attack.  Like  foiea,  they  Utb  connected  with  <  the  gnat  dragon '  of  Bar. 

in  caTea,  pai^onlarty  among  mine ;  nenee,  lii.  9 ;  n.  S,  pasaagea  that  raoeiia  illoatn- 

to  aay  of  a  cily  that  il  shall  beoome  'a  den  tion  from  the  fact,  that  in  early  apocryphal 

at  dragons '  (Jer.  z.  93),  is  to  threaten  il  writing!  of  the  Chriatian  ohurch, '  dragon' 

with  dersalatioii.  ia  em^oyed  as  a  aynonym  for  '  devil. 

Colonel  B.  Bmith  makes  mention  of  a  ce-  DBEAJfB  (T.  trihnu,  '  dnama'),  atalM 

leatial  dragon  ioAtia,  generally  denomiaaied  of  mind  ezpeiteneaddtuing  sleep,  which  ar^ 


D  R  E  526  D  R  E 

mttended  by  the  feeling  that  the  dreamer  is  speakhigin  general  terms,  we  mayaiBnn  that 

awake.    In  early  ages  of  the  world  dreams  the  New-Testament  revelation  knows  little  of 

were  held  in  high  account,  as  giving  clear  and  dreams  as  a  channel  of  instmction  from  God 

tmstworthy  intimations  of  coming  events ;  it  to  man  (eomp.  Matt  i.  20 ;  ii.  12).   This  fact 

being  thought,  as  Homer  says,  that  they  were  relieyes  the  follower  of  Jesos  from  the  neoes- 

from  Jupiter.  Henee  in  Beripture  great  events  sity  of  being  solicitous  as  to  the  interptetmtion 

•re  made  to  turn  on  dreams  and  their  inter-  {mt  by  divines  on  the  dreams  recorded  in  the 

prstation.    The  dream  of  Joseph  occasioned  Old  Seriptorea,  since,  whatever  opinion  may 

hia  deportation  into  Egypt;  the  dreams  of  prevail,  it  cannot  enter  as  an  essential  ele- 

tfae  baker  and  the  butler,  interpreted  by  Jo-  ment  into  his  faith  as  a  Christian.    It  is, 

aeph,  prepared  the  way  for  his  exaltation  to  however,  beyond  a  question,  that  the  persona 

the  right  hand  of  Pharaoh,  whose  dreams  spoken  of  as  having  dreams,  and  the  nar- 

he  expounded  so  as  to  seoure  the  monarch's  rators  of  the  events,  held  the  reality  and 

flavour  and  receive  horn  him  a  commission  trustworthiness  of  this  method  of  instmc- 

which,  in  the  event,  saved  the  lives  of  thou-  tion.    And  in  an  early  and  simple  age,  before 

■aads,  and  effected  in  Egypt  a  complete  so-  superstition  had  begun  to  abuse  ^e  best 

eial  and  political  revolution  (Oen.  xxxvii.  things  and  debase  the  purest,  dreams  may 

zL  xli.).    Indeed,  the  whole  of  the  patri-  have  been  no  unsuitable  medium  of  com- 

arehal  history  hangs  on  the  dreams  of  Jo-  munication  between  Ood  and  man.     The 

seph  (eomp.  Judges  vii.  13.  Matt  xxviL  19).  solitude  and  deep  silenoe  of  night  have  ever 

Dreams  were  regarded  as  a  means  by  which  proved  conducive  to  aolemn  tiionght;  and 

Ood  made  known  hia  will  to  man  (Gen.  xz.  aolemn   thought  would   easily  body  itself 

8 ;  zxzL  10,  24.    1  Sam.  zxviiL  6.    1  Kings  forth  in  images,  words  and  acts,  which  would 

iiL  0).  This  instruction  is  set  forth  in  beau-  bear  the  deep  impress  of  reality,  especially 

tilbl  phraseology  in  Job  ■»»*«"'- 15,  ttq* :  to  a  mind  seeking  to  commune  with  God, 

•  In  a  dxMm,  In  a  vision  of  the  night,  ■"*  conscious  of  being  an  oljeet  of  the  Di- 

When  deep  tleep  fUIeth  upon  men,  .  vine  regards.  It  seems  an  essential  attribute 

In  ttambainga  upon  the  bod ;  of  revelation  that  it  should  be  spontaneous 

That  ho  may  tarn  man  ftom  his  pnipooo,  ^f  uie  mmd,  graven  as  by  the  direct  finger 

And  romovo  prido  from  man.  of  God,  iq[»art  fh>m  connection  with  previous 

AW  «•  uw  uwa  iP«»iiuHi  »/ ui»  •wuiu.  counccUon  whioh  makes    the   essence  of 

Dreams,  aeeompanied  by  visions,  were  em-  spontaneousness,  is  characteristic  of  dreams : 

ployed  for  the  enlifl^tenment  of  the  prophets  the  images  of  which  eome  and  go,  we  know 

(Numb.  xii.  6.  1.8am.  xxviiL  6.  Dan.  vii.  4).  not  how,  like  forms  east  by  a  magic  lantern. 

The  false  prophets  professed  to  have  re-  Hence  dieams  would  possess  an  easenUal 

eeived  divine  instructions  in  dreama  (Jer.  attribute  of  inspiration.    And  if  we  wish  to 

xxiii  25,  27);  but  their  dreams  were  either  know  how  these  dream-begotten  ideas  were 

false  (82)  or  unfaithfully  reported  (28).  Di-  in  accoidanoe  with  the  Divine  will,  we  have 

vine  dlsdosores  were,  however,  made  in  only  to  remember  that  the  visions  of  the 

dreama,  either  by  verbal  instructions,  warn-  night  are,  especially  on  great  and  exeiting 

ings,  and  prediotions  (Gen.  xx.  8,  6 ;  xxviii.  occasions,  a  repetition,  or  a  continuation, 

18.  1  Sam.  xxviU.  16),  or  by  images  and  in  a  higher  degree  of  intensity,  of  our  wak- 

symbols  (Gen.  xxviiL  12 ;  xxxvii.  7.    Judg.  ing  thoughts,  affections  and  desires ;  so  that 

VU.18).  In  the  latter  eaae,  the  dream  needed  the  prophet,  whose   soul  had  been  raised 

an  interpreter.    In  oonsequence,  expounders  and  enlightened  of  God,  would,  when  se- 

of  dreams,  who  translated  the  imagery  into  duded  by  night  and  darkness  from  the  world 

ordinaiy  thought  and  language  (Judg.  viL  of  sight  and  sense,  under  the  influence  of 
14),  were  much  in  request  and  highly  esti-  ,-- ^  ,      ^  ^  *.    -„^         ^    ^ 

mited  (Gen.  xU.   Dan!  i.  17).    Ofeieeial  •TbeBloiyandthofr«hBi*.«fad««n.' 

eelebri^  were  Chaldsan  dream -expositors  have  views  of  truth  both  more  dear,  bright, 

(Dan.  ii.  2 ;  iv.  8,  m^.),  but  they  were  sur-  full  and  impressive,  than  at  any  other  time, 

passed  by  Daniel  (v.  12,  teq,).     In  later  seeing  in  an  instant  images   and  events 

times,  the  Essence  possessed  high  skill  in  which  would  fill  days  or  years  of  ordinary 

this  art  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xvii.  18,  8).    The  time.    To  the  dreamer,  time  has  no  hours, 

writings  of  Josephus  show  that  in  his  day  space  no  bounds.      Hence  intensity  may 

superstition  on  the  anfajeot  of  dreams  had  characterise  his  visions, 
made  great  progress,  and  that  a  veiy  absurd        A  dream  brings  the  thoughts  and  afieo- 

importance  was  ascribed  to  them.    See  es-  tions  into  one  focus  of  burning  light    But 

peoially  Antiq.  xvii.  6,  4.  the  intensity  and  the  delight  by  which  it  is 

It  is  no  little  remarkable  that  at  a  time  accompanied  seem  too  high  for  earth,  and  to 

when  dreams  had  the  greatest  prevalence  have  the  very  attributes  of  the  divine.   Hence 

and  authority  in  the  Jewish  mind,  the  Scrip-  the  good  man's  dreams  are  a  realisation  of 

tnres  should  cease  to  supply  evidence  of  their  his  purest  thoughts  and  loftiest  aims ;  and 

being  employed  or  sanctioned  of  God;  for,  the  prophet's  dream  would  prove  true  pro- 


D  R  I                        527  D  R  I 

plieoy,  as  Mng  ilie  bright  image  of  his  beyerage  soon  added  to  that  which  n*- 
glowing  soul.  Hence,  too,  the  false  pro-  ture  supplies.  Even  barbarians  have  dis- 
phet  would  dream  false  things,  whose  an>  ooyered  the  art  by  which  an  intoxicating 
nounoementwould  convict  him  of  insincerity  quality  might  be  connected  with  the  pure, 
and  untrutli ;  for  the  images  of  a  dishonest  sweet  and  refreshing  gift  of  the  fountain 
soul  must  be  unreal  and  delusive.  The  and  the  river.  The  Hebrews  formed  no  ex- 
tenor  of  these  remarks  is  confirmed  by  the  oeption.  An  act  of  drunkenness  is  among 
following  passage  from  Bugald  Stewart  the  first  notioes  found  in  the  Biblical  record 
(*  Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human  of  the  days  which  immediately  followed  the 
Mind,'  chap.  v.  pt.  1,  sect  5).  *  There  are,  flood.  Noah  drank  wine,  and  *was  drunken.' 
probably,  few  mathematicians  who  have  not  This  misdeed  led  Noah  to  pronounce  a  curse 
dreamed  of  an  interesting  problem,  and  who  on  his  grandson  Canaan.  Another  instance 
have  not  even  fancied  that  they  were  prose-  of  inebriety  in  patriarchal  days  was  cha- 
cuting  the  investigation  of  it  with  much  sue-  racteristically  attended  by  disgusting  crimes 
cess«  They  whose  ambition  leads  them  to  (Oen.  xix.  8,  teq.).  The  wickedness  perpe- 
the  study  of  eloquence  are  frequently  con-  trated  on  these  occasions  was  oeeaaioned  by 
scious,  during  sleep,  of  a  renewal  of  their  wine — a  word  whose  origin  is  traceable  back 
daily  occupations,  and  sometimes  feel  them-  to  the  Hebrew  tongue  in  its  earliest  times, 
selves  possessed  of  a  fluency  of  speech  which  and  whose  evil  efTeots  can  be  compared  for 
they  never  experienced  before.  The  poet,  in  number  and  atrocity  only  with  those  of  the 
his  dreams,  is  transported  into  Elysium,  and  sword. 

leaves  the  vulgar  and  unsatisfactory  enjoy-  The  Hebrews,  howeyer,  had  a  peculiar 

ments  of  humanity,  to  dwell  in  those  regions  word,  thtker,  to  denote  '  strong  drink,'  for 

of  enchantment   and  rapture    which  have  'strong  drink'  undoubtedly  is  in   general 

been  created  by  the  divine  imaginations  of  not  an  incorrect  translation  of  the  term.  Ae- 

Virgil  and  Tassa  eording  to  Fiirst,  in  his  excellent  Hebrew 

f  A  A  VI*!.—  *#     V           *  ut  w  J--*  A Concordance,  the  root  of  the  word  is  fcer, 

•  And  hither  Morpheus  sent  hit  kindest  dreams,      «u«-u  .•-  :-  \.^^ j a-  _*  1 

Raising  a  world  of  gayer  tint  and  grace,  ^^«^  "  "*  ongm  and  meamng  connected 

O'er  which  were  shadowy  cast  Elysian  gleams,  with  the    Latin  cremare,   to  bum,  whence 

That  ptay'd,  in  waving  lights,  fttun  place  to  < strong    drink'   was    denominated    theker. 

And  rtS'a  roseate  smile  on  Nature's  fhce.  ^^f  J»  characteristic  qnaUty  of  bummg; 

Not  Titian's  pencil  e'er  could  so  array,  Mid  the  term  theker  signifies  all  drinks  hav- 

.  So  fleece  with  clouds  the  pure  etherod  space ;  ing  an  intoxicating  ^ect— specially  barley 

Ne  could  it  e'er  such  melting  forms  display,  wida    or  hupr    nalm   mxtA   artmm  win  a.     An. 

As  loose  on  flowery  beds  aUhmguishlngly  lay.  ^*     f    t        P"™,  "*"  ^^ -Z^?"       u 

'                 B     -**H»  /  «v  eordmgly,  Jerome,  whose  authonty,  smoe  he 

•  No,  fair  muttons  I  artfUl  phantoms,  no  1  ^yed  for  a  time  in  Palestine,  is  great,  defines 
My  muse  will  not  attempt  your  fairy  land :  q.,     «  •  r^t^x  <            »•    jV*:?  •  tA*.   ^ 
She  has  no  colours  that  iki  yours  tLa  glow ;  Sikera  (shMlMr),  *  every  kind  of  dnnk  that  can 

To  catch  your  vivid  scenes,  too  gross  her  hand.'  inebriate,  that  which  is  made  ftx>m  grain,  or 

of  the  juice  of  apples,  or  when  the  honey- 

DRINK  (T.).    The   usual  drink  of  the  comb  is  made  into  a  sweet  and  barbarous 

ancient  Hebrews,  as  might  be  expected  in  a  beyerage,  or  the  fhiit  of  the  palm  impressed 

primitive  people,  was  water,  which  the  lime-  into  a  liquor,  and  when  water  receives  a 

stone  rooks  of  Palestine  would  supply  in  colour   and    a   consistency  from  prepared 

purity  and  freshness,  yet   with   such  fin-  herbs.'    The  effects,  directly  or  by  impli- 

gality  as  to  make  its    acceptableness   and  cation,  ascribed  to  shekgr  in  the  Scriptures, 

value  very  great     In  the  less  fertile  and  put  its  intoxicating  qualities  beyond  a  qnes- 

rocky  parts  of  the  country  and  its  neigh-  tion.  Thus  Noah's  state  was  obviously  that 

bouring  lands,  water  is  both  more  rare  and  of  drunken  insensibility,  and  it  is  described 

more  precious  than  in  Judaa.    In  all  parts  by  ttuk&r  (Gen.  ix.  21).    In  Job  xii.  2d,  a 

of  Western  Asia,  the  dryness  and  heat  of  the  man  under  its  influence  is  said  to  stagger 

elimate   cause  water  to  be  eagerly  sought  (Ps.  cvii.  27.   Is.  xix.  14 ;   xxiv.  20 ;  comp. 

and  highly  prized.    Hence  *  a  oup  of  cold  Joel  i.  5).    Nabal  was  clearly  intoxicated  in 

water'  (Mattx.  42)  is  no  mean  gift,  espe-  'the  feast  which  he  held  like  the  feast  of 

cially  to  a  wayfaring  man    (Oen.  xxi.  14 ;  a  king,'  and  his  condition  is  described  by 

xxiv.  43.  Exod.  xziii.  25.  DeuL  viii.  7.  1  Sam.  theker  (1  Sam.  xxv.  86).     The  evidence  is 

XXV.  11).    The  water  of  the  Nile  has  always  multiform  and  decided.    We  deem  it  suifl- 

been   accounted  not   only   salubrious,  but  cient  to  make  one  or  two  more  references, 

gratefiil  to  the  taste :  whence  the  force  of  Is.  xxiv.  7 — 11,  20 ;  xxviii.  7, 8 ;  xxix.  8, 9. 

the  threat  uttered  by  Moses — to  the  effect  These  and  other  passages  prove  that  fes- 

that  the  waters  of  the  river  should  be  turned  tivities  among  the  Israelites  were  sometimes 

into  blood  (Exod.  vii.  17 — 19);  and  as  Egypt  carried  to  excess  and  rioting  by  strong  drink ; 

depends  exdusively  on  the  Nile  for  water,  yet  is  there  no  reason  to  think  that  they  were, 

the  calamity  which   infected  its   streams,  as  a  people,  addicted  to  intoxication ;  on  the 

canals,  and  pools,  must,  especially  in  so  hot  contrary,  they  appear,  in  relation  to  that  vice 

a  country,  have  been  terrible.  and  other  modem  vices,  to  have  been  emi- 

In  most  countries  we  find  some  other  nently  moral.    Their  faults  were  religions 


DBI  528  DUB 


ftudodli^  and  ii«nown«M  of  heart,  not  In-  JWuMete,  from  a  root  eignJiyiiig  'to  be  ahaip/ 

tempenaoe  or  ineonkinenoe.  and  hence  approprieiely  rendered  by  th« 

A  apeeies  of  sherbet  appears  to  hare  been  Greek  osot,  translated  '  yinegar '  in  Matthew 

nsed  as  a  refreshing  beverage  at  ayery  eady  zznL  84»  48.  Luke  xxiii.  8d.  John  zix.  20. 

period.    The  chief  bntler  in  the  Egyptian  The  passage  in  Mark  rr.  2d,  'And  thej 

cout  is  said  to  have  taken  the  grapes,  and  gave  (olbred)  him  to  drink  wine  mingled  witih 

pressed  them  into  Pharaoh's  enp.  The  jniee  njirh,'  has  been  adduced  as  oontradietofy 

of  the  gnqpe,  thus  obtained,  may  have  been  to  the  parallel  passages  in  the  other  eyango- 

aeoompaniedbysoBie  other  sabstanoe.  Sher-  lists,  on  the  ground  that  what  they  term 

bet  is  a  beverage  now  oomposed  chiefly  of  vinegar  he  deaignates  wine.    Onr  remaiks 

water,  Icmon-jmoe  and  sogar,  with  the  ad-  will  have  shown  that  there  is  no  contrariety, 

dition  of   other  ingredients  to  render  it  Mark's  words  are  a  translation  into  Ormk 

more  palatable,  ae  the  pnlp  of  fruits,  per-  of  the  Hebrew  (Ps.]ziz.  31),  iniriiidkAMBiiis 

fbrncd  cakes,  amber,  and  roee-waler.  Pttkina  is  need,  and  which  may  be  rendered  by  either 

reports  that  the  jniee  of  the  grape  is  need  ttie  (heek  mmet,  *  wine,'  or  esoe,  'vinegar;' 

t^iee  ways   in  Persia.    When  sinqdy  ez-  thonfl^  as  vinegar  is  now  i^iplied  to  a  liqvor 

pressed,  it  is  called  sweet,  that  is,  sweet  li-  diflhting  from  wine  in  having  undagoiie  a 

qnor.   It  is  not  drank  in  Uiat  stats,  nor  rs-  second  frtmentation,  we  prefer  the  lendsr- 

garded  as  fit  for  nse ;  nor  is  it  oven  caQed  ing  '  wine.' 

wine  until  it  is  frimented.  A  second  and  DROMEDABT  (G.  from  dmmtim,  *  to 
very  extensive  use  of  the  juice  of  the  gnp^  ran').  See  CikMBL. 
is  the  sjTup  made  from  boiling  it  in  this  DBUSILLA,  a  daughter  of  Herod  Agiqipa, 
sweet  state,  which  is  nsed  for  sweetening,  the  elder  (Acts  ziL  28),  by  Cyproe,  and  sister 
but  not  as  a  drink.  The  third  use  of  the  of  Agrippa  H.  She  had  been  promised  in 
juice  of  the  grape  is  the  distillation  of  it  mairiage  to  Antiochns  Epiphsnes,  prince  of 
into  anak,  or  Aaiatie  brandy.  The  wince  of  Oomagene,  in  Upper  Syria;  but  as  he  re- 
Persia  are  in  general  much  lighter  than  fkised  to  become  a  Jew,  she  married  Aziios, 
those  of  Europe,  but  they  are  still  always  prince  of  Emesa,  on  the  Orontes.  On  leceiv- 
intoxicating.  ('  Besidence  in  Persia,'  p.  286.)  Ing  proposals  of  marriage  from  Felix,  pro- 
The  juice  of  the  grape,  under  the  name  of  curator  of  Judsa,  through  the  magician 
dihiS  (honey),  is  still  nsed  in  Palestine  as  a  Simon,  she  left  her  husband,  and  became 
beverage  in  taking  food  (see  p.  209,  voL  i.).  the  wife  of  that  Boman  governor,  to  whom 
Dibs4  is  also,  according  to  Shaw,  made  bom  she  bore  a  son,  named  Agrippa,  who  lost  his 
what  is  termed  the  honey  or  juice  of  the  Ufe  in  an  eruption  of  Mount  Yesuvius.  It 
pslm-tree.  The  palm  wine  made  in  Egypt  at  was  probably  under  her  inflaenee  that  Fdiz 
the  present  day  is  simply  from  an  incision  sent  for  Paul  in  order  to  hear  him  concern- 
in  the  heart  of  the  tree.  The  modem  name  ing  the  fiuth  in  Christ  (Acts  xxiv.  24,  scf.). 
in  Lower  Egypt  is  hwbtfh;  in  flavour  it  BUEE  (L.  dux,  'a  leader').  The  original 
resembles  a  very  new,  lig^t  wine,  and  may  meaning  of  the  term  'dnkc'  is  not  an  in- 
be  drunk  in  great  quantity  when  taken  from  appropriate  representative  of  the  Hebrew 
the  tree ;  but  as  soon  as  fermentation  has  alioph,  which  is  the  name  of  the  first  letter 
commenced,  its  intoxicating  qualities  have  a  in  the  Hebrew  language,  and  in  general 
powerftU  and  qwedy  effect.  signifies  that  which  is  first  (Germant/Brst, 

Wine  mixed  with  water  was  in  the  time  of  'a  prince ;'  and  'prince'  is  fhnn  the  L^tin 

Isaiah  held  in  disrepute,  and  used  as  a  type  pnaceps,  prunus),  and  hence  a  ciqptain,  or 

of  degeneracy  (Is.  L  22).  head  of  a  troop,  an  army,  a  dan  or  tribe.  In. 

In  order  to  enhance  the  flavour,  and  per^*  Ps.  Iv.  18,  aio^  is  rendered  '  guide '  (Jer. 

hiqps  incresse  the  strength  of  wine,  it  was  iiL  4) ;  and  in  Zech.  ix.  7, '  governor.'  Hence 

drnok  with  spices  (Cant  viiL  2.  Prov.  ix.  2).  it  appears  that  chief  would  be  a  better  term 

Medicated  wines  were   given  to  suflbrers,  for  those  who  are  termed  dukes  in  Scripture 

and  especially  to  those  who  were  crucified,  (Gen.  xxxvL  15,  wj.),   because,  if  for  no 

in   order  to  diminish   their  sensibility  to  other  reason,  'dnkc'  is  likely  to  convey  to 

pain,  which  in  the  punishment  just  named  the  unleamed  reader  ideas  of  power  and 

was   very  exquisite,   canaing   the  keenest  dignity  which  the  original  does  not  imply, 

psngs  (Frov.xxxL  6.  MattxxviL  84).  DULCIMEB  (L.  diOeu,  'sweet').     See 

In  sll  wfaie  countries  sn  inferior  kind  of  Mvsio. 

wine  is  an  ordinary  drink.  This  wine,  as  is  DUBA,  a  plain  in  Babylonia,  probably  the 

seen  in  the  case  of  cider,  may  be  rather  of  same  as  that  in  which  Babylon  itself  lay. 

a  aharp,  pungent,  than  a  sweet  flavour.  The  Here  it  was  that  Ncbuchadnessar  erected  his 

Hebrews  had  in  common  use  (Nmnb.  vi  8.  golden  image  as  an  object  of  worship,  to 

Bnth  ii.  14.   Pclxix.  21)  a  wine  of  this  Hhom  Daniel  and  his  companions  manftilly 

Und,  which  was  also  drunk  by  the  soldiers  leftued  to  bow  down  (Dan.  iii  1)/ 
of  tfao  Boman  army.    Its  Hebrew  name  is 


EAGLE  (F.  aigU,  L.  ofuila)  u  ■  (psiiiA* 
ol  biids  whioh  ii  Dfleii  nMDtiaiud  bi  tba 
Bibla,  and  inppliu  Ihe  iMted  inrUan  wilk 
BtriJuiig  uid  foreiUa  imigra  (laa  aipMidlj 
Ewk.  iTii.  9,  tr;.)-  It  nuj  be  doubted  i/  in 
■11  aun>,  at  if  in  tb«  oaleteued  dsMription 
ia  Job  mil.  97,  m^^  the  aagls  was  dis- 
tioguufaed  fram  the  viiltiire.  Both  birds 
lun  Ibeii  homea  in  inuctwailile  pl4MS,  and 
oHi  nraly  b<  rewbed  bj  lb«  abttl  of  the 
hunliri  in  ooDUqaenoe,  we  need  not  be  iiir- 
ptised  it  tbe  Mo  ue  ooBlbanded,  eepeoiall; 
in  tn  ege  when  the  nolione  thel  prereiled 
wen  inoitl}  of  a  genera]  ehuaetei,  and  ad- 
cntifio  loologj  had  no  eiiatenoe. 

The  eagle  la  the  image  of  swiftneas  (2 
8am.  i.  S3.  Jer.  ir.  la  ;  kIyHL  40.  Lam.  Iv. 
IB).  With  the  r^iditf  otila  diaappeaianoe 
if  the  fleelneia  of  life  well  compared  (Job 
ii-  36),  and  (he  inaecurilj  of  ricbea  (Frov. 
uiii.  3),  alio  the  meh  of  an  adTanoing  boat 
(Dent  xnili.  4S).  lU  neat  on  tbe  loflieM 
pivoipioea  foniblj  aeli  fonh  what  ia  nnat- 
UioabU  (Jer.iliz.  16).  The  eu*  of  (he 
eagia  for  hw  fonng  (Tollsr  perenoptania) 
is  the  toaret  of  th*  trolj  ngal  metaphor 
fbnnd  in  Dent.  Knii.  11 ;  aomp.  Exod.  xix. 
4.  Atiatotle,  indsed,  aantibei  to  lb«  eagle 
a  mthleM  feeling  towardi  ber  young;  but 
^lim  aseerte  tlul  ihs  ja  fall  of  kindnese 
(0  them,  uid  with  him  other  uusient  wrilen 
agree.  Snida*  aaye  that  yiang  eagles,  when 
their  wing*  an  yet  nnlbrmed  and  weak, 
flutter  aionnd  tiw  old  ODaH.  and  leant  of 
Iham  to  H;.  In  unih,  the  parent  Uida  lake 
•rarj  owe  of  their  eallow  bnrad  ao  Img  •• 
they  naed  eaie,  but  no  loogar;  when  ih^ 
are  readjfer  flight,  th*  <Jd  wiM  eotttpel  then 
to  bare  flia  neat,  having  pniionttf  tMar- 
tainad  their  Abina  bj  manf  npoinuntal 
triab^  and  lopnpand  than  far  mljliig  on 
ttuir  own  indapmdwt  reMuees.  It  is  oven 
■aid  dal  the  imI*  a*^  anpporte  hia  jrotuig 
in  their  eaiUarelbMB,  antfl  at  length,  tan^t 
and  emooDraged,  Ibey  are  aide  and  willing  lo 
eaatthemaelieabeeljonthebownnoftha  air. 


•nd  aid*  them  to  aaeeDd  lo  more  lofty  emi- 
nenoea,  flying  under,  and  ao  eapponiDg, 
them  when  ehe  notioea  that  they  are  yet  un- 
able to  anauin  UumaelTea. 

The  Bibla  dir«su  attention  alao  to  the 
lottineaa  of  the  eagle'a  home  (ProT.iiiii  S- 
zzz.  19.  Jobiwii.27).  The  force  with 
which  the  eagle  ponneee  on  ita  prey  waa 
known  to  the  Hebrews  (Hoa.viii.  1.  Hab.L 
8)  ;  alao  ita  peonliar  facility  of  diseetning 
otgeda  at  a  grasl  distanoe  (Job  '^rU  29), 
■s  well  aa  iu  thirst  for  blood  (30),  and  the 
■agu  lore  of  iU  yoong  for  aoimd  food 
(ProT.xxx.1T).  ItB  dwelling  in  inaeceaeible 
rooka,  'on  the  a*t  of  the  rock,'  'in  the 
defta  of  the  rock,'  with  ile  nest '  amoDg  the 
stare,'  ia  well  pointed  odI  (Job  mix.  S7,  28. 
Jer.xlii.16.  Obad.  4).  In  MalUuiT.  38, 
we  read, '  Wheresoeter  the  ciroaae  is,  thero 
will  the  eagles  be  gathered  togelber.'  Comp. 
Job  mil.  80.  Uab.  L  B.  11,  howeier,  the 
opinion  of  some  natnrslists  ia  correct,  that 
the  eagle  atoids  dead  bodies,  we  most  here 
nndersland  the  Tolture,  either  the  mtlur 
ftrejitpitnu  of  Linnniis,  which  nearly  rs- 
lemblea  the  eaf^e,  or  the  nUtwr  iarlotw  of 
the  Mme  natnralial. 

In  Hieah  1.  IS,  we  read  of  ■  baldneaa  w 
the  eagle,'  where  the  Tnlntra  most  be  meant, 
the  front  of  whoaa  head  la  almost  bars.  Tbe 
bird  liraa  in  Soallum  Enrope,  in  Torkoy, 


Persia,  and  Atties,  on  high  rocka  and  preci- 
[doa*,  whence  it  takei  distant  viawa,  ia  about 
three  foel  long,  and  with  its  expanded  wings 
eight  or  nine  broad  (DenLxiT.  13.  la.xixii. 
16). 

As  (o  the  snake,  in  consequence  of  the 
casting  of  its  skin,  ao  lo  the  eagle  from 
changing  ita  foathera  (monlling),  a  renewal 
ofyODlh  ia  ssonbed  (Ib.xL8L  Pi.ciii.6). 
With  B  bordering  on  Ujc  province  of  poetry, 
the  rsTcna  of  the  brook  an  said  lo  pick 
a  L 


EAR 


530 


EAR 


oot,  ind  the  young  eaglet  ('  loiie  of  Uie 
eagle ')  to  eaC,  the  eye  of  him  that  mocketh 
at  his  father,  and  despiaeth  his  mother 
(PiOT.  m.  17). 

Aeoording  to  the  Moeaie  elaaiifleatiim,  the 
eagle  belongs  to  imolean  birds,  and  eonld 
not  be  eaten  (Ler.  xL  18).  This  obtained 
not  merely  of  the  oommon  eagle,  bat  pro- 
bably of  other  birds  belonging  to  the  same 
elass.  In  the  list  of  nnelean  birds  are  several 
which  may  be  so  described,  especially  the 
osaifrage  (aqnila  ossifhiga),  and  osprey 
(faleo  halistos)  mentioned  immediately  after 
the  eagle  in  the  passage  jost  cited.  Well- 
beloTcd,  in  his  Translation,  thus  renders  the 
names  in  Lct.  zi  18 — 10 :  '  the  eagle,  the 
oesifrage,  the  osprey,  the  Tnltnre,  the  kite, 
the  raven,  the  oetrieh  (strothio  camelos, 
in  the  Hebrew,  *the  daughter  of  scream- 
ing '),  the  techemes  (perhaps  a  species  of 
owl),  the  sh^  (see  Cuckoo),  the  hawk, 
the  ens  (the  bittern  according  to  Bochart), 
the  cormorant,  the  ibis  (sacred  with  the 
Egyptians),  the  swan,  the  pelican,  the  re- 
chem  (probably  the  king-flsher),  the  stork, 
the  anapha  (the  plover  t)  the  hoopoe  (apa- 
pa  epops,  Linn.),  the  bat* 

EAB  is  a  verb  connected  in  origin  end 
meaning  with  the  Latin  «ro,  *  I  plough' 
(oomp.  die  Greek  arvmrm,  *ploagbtd  land;* 
the  Egyptian  mrt  and  the  Arabic  hart  having 
the  same  import ;  also  the  Latin  avtrum, 
'  a  plough '),  end  signifying  to  plough,  as  in 
1  Sam.  viii.  19 ;  eomp.  Judg.  ziv.  18 ;  or  to 
till,  to  labour  the  ground,  as  in  Is.  zu.  24 ; 
eomp.  Ckn.  iL  0. 

EARNEST,  probably  lirom  car  (eomp. 
the  German  erndls,  *  harvest '),  to  plou^  or 
tiU,  and  so  denoting  that  which  is  (first) 
gained  by  tillage;  hence  the  flrst-frnits  of 
the  harvest  It  is  the  rendering  in  2  Cor.  i 
23 ;  V.  5.  Eph.  i.  14,  of  a  Hebrew  word  in 
Greek  letters,  amban^  which  in  Gen.  zzzviii. 
17,  is  rendered  '  pledge.' 

EARTH,  THE  (T.  erde,  Hebrew  threiM), 
To  the  narrative  of  the  creation  must  we  look 
for  the  earliest  conceptions  entertained  of 
the  earth  by  the  Hebrews.  There  we  learn 
as  follows :  The  earth  and  the  heaven  formed 
the  universe ;  the  earth,  at  the  time  to  which 
the  account  refers,  was  formless  snd  empty 
— a  huge  deep,  filled  with  water  and  covered 
with  daAness.  Light  having  been  called 
into  existence,  night  and  day  ensued.  Next, 
the  waters  wen  divided,  and  there  i^peared 
dry  land,  which  must,  in  consequence,  have 
had  a  prerious  existence ;  the  dry  land  was 
termed  earth,  snd  the  gathering  of  the  waters 
seas.  Here  we  are  led  to  a  second  meaning 
of  the  term  earth.  In  the  first  verse,  it  de- 
noted the  whole  earth,  whatever  that  was,  in 
ita  primeval  state ;  now.  it  denotes  the  dry 
land  as  contradistinguished  from  the  seas ; 
and  so  we  have  the  earth  divided  into  two 
parts,  sea  and  land. 

These  facts  show  that  the  writer  had  in  his 


mind,  not  aenatton  of  the  oardi  onl  of  aoliuBg* 
but  a  n-formation  of  it  The  exaet  Talne  of 
the  term  earth  in  his  conception,  we  have  jec 
found  nothing  to  determine.  It  is  a  pore  as- 
sumption whieh  makes  it  equivalent  widi 
the  idcA  now  oonveyed  by  the  term.  The 
true  comprehension  of  the  word  can  be  aa- 
eertained  only  from  the  opinions  shown  in 
the  Bible  to  have  been  prevalent  in  very  eaily 
days.  That  a  space  of  some  oonaidorabla 
extent  was  comprised  under  the  term,  ia  evi- 
dent from  Gen.  L  26,  28,  where  we  lead  that 
men  was  to  have  'dominion  over  all  the 
earth,'  and  *  nplenish  the  earth  and  subdae 
if 

A  slightly  diiBBKnt  view  is  given  in  the 
second  history  of  the  ereadon,  found  in 
Gen.  IL  4,  $eq.  Passing  the  diversities,  we 
are  led  to  the  information  that  in  the  earth 
was  Eden,  and  eastward  of  Eden  a  garden, 
which  was  watered  by  a  river  that  came  out 
of  Eden,  and  thence  was  parted  into  four 
heads,  whence  issued  as  many  streama,  of 
which  the  Pison  snd  the  Gihon  enoompaascd 
each  a  wide  extent  of  country,  and  the  re- 
maining two  watered  the  lands  extending 
frtun  i^menia  to  the  Persian  Gull  The 
names  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Hiddekel 
( the  Tigris)  at  once  direct  the  mind  to  the 
site  of  the  narrative ;  and  could  we  ascertain 
what  two  other  rivers  wen  intended,  we  shoold 
be  able  to  determine  the  extent  of  the  earth 
embraced  in  the  writer^s  view.  The  term 
'  encompasseth,'  however,  wfaidi  he  employs, 
shows  that  it  was  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  earth's  surfiMS,  while  it  also  shows  that 
his  knowledge  was  general  and  vague,  since 
no  river  property  *  encompasseth'  a  land ;  for 
all  riven,  whatever  curvea  they  may  take^ 
ran  in  their  great  bearings  from  hi^  to  low 
landa,  and  from  die  intorior  to  the  sea  (see 
Dinsiov).  The  earth,  however,  now  ap. 
pean  as  a  wide  extent  of  country,  stretch- 
ing out  tnmk  Armenia,  or  Babylonia,  having 
four  gnat  rivers,  with  Eden  for  their  centra. 

The  next  indication  we  find  in  the  histoiy 
of  Cain ;  it  is  that  of  the  land  of  Nod  (wmm-^ 
during  or  curttiig^,  east  of  Eden  (iv.  10) ; 
but  the  statement  is  too  ban  to  add  anything 
of  importance  to  our  informatiott.  In  vi«  ], 
we  nad  of  '  the  fae$  of  the  earth'  (eomp. 
vil.  4),  a  phrase  which  would  imply  that  the 
earth  was  regarded  as  a  large  plane  aurfiMe. 
Then  ensues  the  account  of  the  deluge. 
Here,  the  writer  speaks  only  of  the  line  of 
Adam's  posterity,  of  which  he  has  given  an 
account  in  the  previous  chapters,  and  obvi- 
ously knew  nothing  of  the  Western  hemi- 
sphere, or  any  regions  beyond  those  of  whieh 
he  had  spoken.  The  term  'earth,*  then, 
used  in  the  narrative  of  the  flood,  must  be 
undentood  as  representing  that  whieh  in 
these  remarks  it  has  been  already  found  to 
mean.  Over  this  earth  the  writer  held  the 
deluge  to  be  universal ;  but  this  hit  earth  was 
very  dissimilar  to  the  globe  which  is  now  in- 


EAR 


^31 


EAR 


dicated  by  the  tenn.  All,  then,  that  the  nar- 
rative aflirms  is,  tiiat  a  deluge  prevailed  over 
Western  Asia.  If  this  was  '  the  earth '  to 
the  writer,  this  is  all  he  could  intend. 
Doubtless,  he  believed  the  flood  to  have  co- 
vered *  the  whole  earth ;'  but  the  whole  earth 
to  him  was  only  a  part  of  the  globe.  If  the 
deluge  was  thus  only  partial,  partial  also  was 
aU  that  is  said  about  it  In  consequence, 
the  destruction  of  life  was  partial,  and  a  part 
only  of  the  living  creatures  of  the  earth  went 
into  or  came  out  of  the  ark;  though  it  must  be 
added,  that  it  is  from  other  sources  than  the 
Bible  that  we  are  led  to  hold  that  animal  life 
existed  two  thousand  years  after  the  re-forma- 
tion of  the  globe,  in  parts  of  the  earth  dis- 
tinct from  the  spots  where  the  sacred  narra- 
tive fixes  the  fint  races  of  men  and  animals. 
In  the  account  of  the  deluge,  we  first  read 
of  elevations  on  the  face  of  Uie  earth ;  for 
*  all  the  high  lulls '  and  <  the  mountains 
were  covered'  (vii.  19,  20).  Of  these,  Mount 
Ararat  is  mentioned  (viii.  4)  as  the  place 
on  which  the  ark  rested.  Hence,  wherever 
Edei)  was,  the  second  cradle  of  the  human 
race  is  to  be  looked  for  in  Armenia.  From 
this  high  land  as  a  centre,  the  descendants 
of  NofUi  are  represented  as  spreading  over 
the  earth  in  diree  main  divisions,  corre- 
sponding to  his  three  sons,  Shem,  Ham,  and 
Japhet  This  brings  us  to  the  table  of  na- 
tions (x.)  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  the 
article  Ditisioit.  The  exact  extent  of  coun- 
try here  comprised  it  is  by  no  means  easy 
to  determine,  since  in  speaking  on  the  sub- 
ject we  are  in  constant  danger  of  giving  to 
the  writers  words  significations  which  are 
of  comparatively  recent  origin,  and  ensue 
from  ourrent  geographical  views.  That  a  large 
portion  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere  was  more 
or  less  minutely  known  to  the  author  of  the 
register,  there  can  be  no  doubt;  equally  is  it 
certain  that  his  knowledge  in  its  general 
bearings  was  accurate.  If  the  table  may  be 
considered  as  emanating  from  Moses,  or  as 
corrected  down  to  his  time,  then  it  shows 
us  what  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  was 
known  some  fifteen  centuries  before  Christ 
That  portion  may  be  roughly  described  as 
comprising  those  parts  of  the  hemisphere 
which  lie  between  the  tenth  and  the  fortieth 
degree  of  North  latitude,  and  the  tenth  and 
the  seventieth  degree  of  Eastlongitnde.  From 
this,  however,  must  be  excepted  the  interior 
of  Africa;  while  in  regard  to  the  extremities 
on  the  South  and  West,  the  prevalent  concep- 
tions were  indeterminate. 

The  knowledge  of  the  surface  of  the  earth 
proceeded  step  by  step  with  the  increase  and 
spread  of  population.  But  at  a  time  when 
centralisation  had  scarcely  any  existence,  that 
knowledge  would  exist,  scattered  up  and  down 
in  individual  minds;  and  it  could  be  only 
after  the  lapse  of  centuries  that  any  one  could 
succeed  in  gaiberiog  these  scattered  rays 
into  a  focus.    Whence  appears  the  impro- 


priety of  any  attempt  to  determine,  in  a  given 
age,  the  condition  of  geographical  know- 
ledge by  the  actual  condition  of  civilised 
life.  Mesopotamia  and  the  vaiiey  of  the 
Nile  may  have  been  each  a  busy  and  flourish- 
ing hive  long  before  they  were  known  to  each 
other,  and  long  before  any  geographer  had 
put  them  together  in  his  mind  in  their  ac- 
tual and  relative  positions.  Hence  we  can- 
not affirm  that  the  rise  of  the  Babylonian  or 
any  other  Eastern  kingdom  indicates  the 
time  when  such  nation  entered  as  a  compo- 
nent part  into  the  domains  of  geography. 

If  these  remarks  tend  to  show  that  long 
before  the  time  of  Moses  the  knowledge  re- 
quisite for  the  formation  of  the  register  of 
nations  could  not  have  been  possessed  by 
any  one,  they  may  also  serve  to  display  the 
worth  of  that  register,  as,  in  all  probability, 
presenting  the  earliest  as  well  as  the  best 
summary  of  the  geographical  knowledge  of 
the  first  ages. 

In  process  of  time,  however,  kjaowledge,  like 
civilisation  in  general,  would  come  to  nearly 
the  same  level  in  all  nations.  As  the  East  gave 
information  to  the  West,  the  state  of  know- 
ledge in  the  West  may  be  taken  as,  to  some 
extent,  an  index  of  ttie  state  of  knowledge 
in  the  East    If,  therefore,  the  Egyptians  in 
the  reign  of  Pharaoh  Necho  {cir.  600  A.  C.) 
circumnavigated  Africa,  the  enterprise  must 
have  given  a  general  impulse  and  made  a 
great  augmentation  to  geographical  science, 
in  which  the  Biblical  writers  would  more 
or  less  fully  share.    And  geographical  no- 
tions found  in  Herodotus  and  other  profane 
authors,  help  us  in  forming  a  correct  concep- 
tion of  the  views  held  by  the  sacred  penmen. 
No  maps  have  come  into  our  hands  from  any 
period  of  Biblical  antiquity,  but  maps  have 
been  constructed  from  descriptions  found  in 
ancient  geographers,  which  furnish  illustra- 
tions of  the  views  prevailing  in  their  times. 
In  the  work,  De  Situ  Orbit,  of  the  oldest  Bo- 
man  geographer,  Mela  (A.  D.  54),  we  have 
these  views  set  forth.    The  earth  seems  to 
have  been  regarded  by  him  as  a  sort  of  cone, 
or  high  mountain,  raised  above  the  waters 
which  flowed  around  its  base.   Having  made 
a  vague  division  of  the  world  into  East, 
West,  and  North,  Mela  distributed  it  into 
five  zones — two  temperate,  one  torrid,  and 
two  frigid.    Only  the  first  two  were  habita- 
ble.    That  on  the  south  was  inaccessible  to 
man  on  account  of  the  torrid  regions  inter- 
vening.   There  was,  he  held,  on  that  side 
another  earth,  inhabited  by  people  whom  he 
calls  Antiohthones  (dwellers  opposite).   The 
form  and  boundaries  of  the  known  and  habi- 
table earth  are  thus  delineated: — the  Medi- 
terranean, with  its  branches  of  the  Straits, 
the  Euxine,  and  the  Palus  Moeotis;  its  great 
tributaries,  the  Nile  and  the  Tanais.    These 
combine  to  form  the  grand  line  by  which 
the  earth   is   divided.     The   Mediterranean 
separates  Europe  from  Africa.     These  con- 

3L2 


EAR                       532  EAR 

tinrata  tre  bonnded  on  the  East,  die  former  ment  of  heaven.     In  the  North  stanils  a 

by  the  Tanais,  the  latter  by  the  Nile;  all  be-  great  eone-ahaped  mountain,  behind  whi^ 

yond  or  to  the  eaat  of  these  limits  is  Asia,  the  son  hides  himself  in  the  erening,  and 

These  fiewa  are  in  part  found  in  Job  zzri  so  causes  darkness. 

10 :  The  earth,  oonsidered  in  relation  to  the 

*  He  hath  companad  the  water  with  bounda,  heavena,  had  fonr   cardinal  points,  which 

TUI  the  day  and  night  come  to  aa  and.'  ^  indicated  in  these  lines  ftom  the  Book 

The  earth  here  iM  regarded  as  a  circular  oi  Job  (zxiii.  8): 
plane  surrounded  by  waters,  snd  these  waters 

a«  eneompas^  with  perpstmd  night  ITju  'Jj.  I^^^^wjcdaOj^^lJ^^^ 

region  of  mght,  this  outer  hnut  of  the  world.  to  the  Nortk,  wh«a  He  ^ikech.  yet 

was  regarded  as  the  extreme  Terge  of  the  bdiold  Him ; 

celestial  hemisphere,  on  which  the  concave  Ha  Udath  Hhaaalf  is  the  Samlk,  that  I 

of  heaven  was  thought  to  rest.    In  the  7tfa  *"^' 

▼erse  of  the  same  chapter  we  read,  <  The  East'  is  in  the  origiaal  *  ISanraid,*  or 

•  Ha  ttntehea  the  North  over  the  empty  ptaea;  'before.'     The  oriental  geognq^bers  consi- 

Hangeth  the  earth  upon  BotUng.'  dered  themselves  as  facing  the  East,  instfaid 

The  word  North  has  been  considerad  to  <>^  *•  North,  after  our  custom.    Having  tiie 

denote  the  heavens  as  they  appear  to  revolve  ««  »  ^ont,  the  West  would  be  aft  their 

around  the  pole,  which  seemed  to  be  stretched  *«*.  the  South  on  their  rifl^t  hand,  and  the 

out  as  a  curtain.    The  earth  is  represented  North  on  their  left.  The  same  view  prevails 

as  sustained  solely  by  the  power  of  God ;  as  «mong  ^e  Hkidoos.    It  was  also  prevalent 

in  Milton,  among  the  ancient  Irish  and  the  Mongols 

-And  Earth,  ielf-lialaiiead.  ftom  bar  centre  hung,'  (Numb.  ii.  «.  Oen.  xiiL  9.  E«d.  xiv.  22). 
,  ••  .  ^  .  ^  C^  These  four  quarters  are  in  Zeehsnah  (i.  8 ; 
but  nothmg  is  said  to  detennme  the  shape  ^.  2,  sea.)  set  forth  by  four  horses  of  diflfer- 
or  sue  of  the  suspended  earth.  Other  pas-  «it  colours :  the  red  for  the  riowing  East, 
ssges  of  Scripture  seem  to  ^Mcribe  the  earth  g^  fo,  Uie  darkening  West,  black  for  the 
M  a  wide- extended  quadrangular  plane,  f^^  ^^  ^^ile  for  the  South.  In  ^ 
Henes  Job  (xxxviiL  18)  asks,  ,^^,  passsge,  the  tour  wmds  are  compared 
•HaatthoapaiealvedthalMMdthofthaaaithf'  to  four  chariots.  The  West  was  considered 
Compare  Job  xzxviL  8 ;  xxxviiL  18.  Is.  xxiv.  as  a  very  distant  and  unknown  quarter 
16,  where  the  phrase  '  the  ends,'  or  rather,  (Jonah  L  8.  Ps.  cxxxix.  0),  as  being  ocea- 
wingi  *  of  the  earth,'  gives  the  idea  of  its  pied  by  die  sea;  whence  the  sea,  that  is  the 
being  spread  out,  or  expanded,  like  the  Mediterranean,  denotes  the  West  (1  Kings 
wings  of  a  bird.  'Four  comen'  are  ex-  xviii.  48.  Ps.  IxxiL  8).  The  North,  as  the 
pressly  mentioned  in  Is.  xi.  12.  Esek.  vii  Hebrew  word  designates,  was  the  dsik  part, 
2.  llie  view  of  it,  however,  as  a  circular  whence  the  black  horse.  It  was  slso  eon- 
plane  finds  support  in  other  writen  besides  eeived  of  by  the  Hebrews  and  by  other  ancient 
Job ;  as  in  Is.  xl.  22,  where  the  Almighty  people  as  containing  the  hif^est  Isnd,  while 
is  represented  as  sitting  above  *  the  eireU  of  the  South  lay  low  and  tended  down  to  Hades. 
the  earth.'  According  to  Ps.  xxiv.  2,  the  Hence  it  beaune  customary  to  speak  of  going 
earth  rests  on  the  cirenmsmbient  ocean,  up  when  persons  travelled  towards  the  North, 
which  was  the  opinion  of  Mela;  comp.  Prov.  and  of  going  down  when  they  went  Sonth- 
viiL27.  In  the  middle  or  navel  of  the  earth,  ward  (Oen.  xii.  10.  Numb.  idM.  21).  In 
which  thus,  whether  square  or  circular  in  later  writings,  die  Hebrew  Olympus  found 
form,  lay  on  the  bosom  of  the  water  or  was  its  place  in  die  North  (Is.  xiv.  18),  where 
self-sustained,  there  stood  Jerusalem,  the  the  cherub  or  protecting  Power  had  his  seat 
central  and  sscred  city  (Exek.  v.  6;  xxxviiL  (Etek.  xxviiL  14).  Those  Isttar  eonceptioiis 
12 ;  comp.  Pa.  xlviii.  2).  may  have  had  an  Assyrian  origin.  When 
Views  of  this  kind  found  prevslence  far  they  had  obtained  prevalence  among  the 
down  into  the  middle  ages.  Among  the  Jews,  the  North  came  to  be  regarded  as  the 
early  Christians  also  were  they  prevalent  special  place  of  heaven  (Exek.  L  4).  In  the 
Kosmas  (eir.  500  A.  D.),  an  Egyptian  monk.  North,  too,  lay  Paradise  (Oen.  ii.  8,  itq.) ;  and 
baa  left  us  a  notion  of  their  topogrephical  In  Job,  gold  (not '  fair  weather,'  as  in  die  text ; 
system,  of  which  these  are  the  chief  fea-  see  the  margin)  came  specially  ftom  the 
tores:  The  earth  ia  a  four-cornered  plane,  North  (xxxvil.  22). 

watered  on  all  sides  by  the  ocean,  idiich  There  are  in  Hebrew  two  chief  words  which 

makes  four  incisions  into  the  land,  at  the  are  rendered  earth :  I.  Adahmak  (Adam),  in 

Arabian  and  Penian  Oulfa,  at  the  Medi-  Oen.  L  20,  is  often  translated  *  ground' (Oen. 

terranean  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  flow  ii.  0),  and  seems  property  to  denote  die  soil 

into  die  interior  by  subterranean  channels.  (Gen.  iv.2,  8.  Exod.xx.24).    II.  The  more 

Beyond  die  sea  that  washes  the  sides  of  die  appropriate  word  for  eardi  is  ekrett;  accord- 

eardi,  lies  a  line  of  countiy,  on  the  Eastern  in^y,  in  Oen.  i.  1,  *Ood  created  die  heaven 

part  of  which  is  Psradise.  on  whose  ends  and  the  earth;  it  stands  in  contrast  with 

riaee  a  huge  lofty  wall,  auatainmg  the  firma-  heaven,  as  one  (tf  the  two  component  parts 


EAR  533  EAR 

of  dM  univene  (ii  i),  but  is  10016111068  ran-  b6  6ipfes86d  in  agreement  with  its  cunosp* 

dered  '  land,'  denoting  a  distriet  of  the  earth  tions.    Bat  these  conceptions,  which  thus 

(ii.  11,  18;  It.  16;  x.  10;  zi  81) ;  and  in  become  the  Tchicle  of  gnat  spiritual  truths 

other  instanees  would  be  better  represented  and  great  providential  lessons,  are  tbem- 

by  *  land,'  or  <  country,'  than  earth  (Oen.  ii,  scItcs,  as  bdng  purely  human,  perishing  and 

12, 14;  Ti.  4).    The  interpreter  needs  great  transitory.    Them,  therefore,  the  student  of 

care  in  order  to  determine  when  land  or  ooun<  the  Bible  must  let  fall;  while  he  presenres 

try,  and  when  earth,  is  intended;  for  ques-  with  care  the  diyine  seed  which  they  eon- 

tiotts  ot  great  moment  are  connected  with  the  tain,  finds  for  that  seed  a  new  soil,  and  so 

decision  he  may  form  (Gen.zzTi  1— 4).    A  occasions  a  new  birth  of  spiritual  thoughts 

similar  ambiguity  is  found  in  the   eorre-  and  oonoeptions,  which,  after  the  spring  and 

■ponding  Greek  term  gt,  which  may  signify  summer  shall  have  passed  away,  will  in  their 

either,  I.  the  earth  at  large,  what  the  Latins  turn  give  place  to  other  forms  shaped  to  the 

termed  orbit  terrarum  (Matt  ▼.  18) ;  or,  U.  tjpe  of  another  generation, 
a  district  of  country  (zIt.  84).  III.  In  some        Dt,  Whewell  has  on  the  general  subject 

instances,  the  land  of  Judsea  is  meant  (Matt  used  these  words  :~-^  Science  is  constantly 

zxiiL  86) ;  in  others,  there  is  a  doubt  of  the  teaching  us  to  describe  known  fitots  in  new 

extent  of  its  signification  (Matt  ▼.  5 ;  comp.  language,  but  the  language  of  Scripture  is 

Ps.  zzxrii.  29).  always  the  same.    And  not  only  so,  but  the 

The  Talue  of  the  Onek  gt,  as  used  by  the  language  of  Scripture  is  necessarily  adapted 
New-Testament  writers  in  its  largeat  oompre-  to  the  common  state  of  roan's  intellectual 
hension,  is  eridently  greater  than  the  He-  deTclopment,  in  which  he  is  supposed  not  to 
brew  ehrett  of  any  part  of  the  Old  Testa^  be  possessed  of  science.  Hence  tbe  phrases 
ment  The  lapse  of  some  centuries  had  ren-  used  by  Scripture  are  precisely  those  which 
dered  the  meaning  of  the  term  earth  both  Science  sogn  teaches  man  to  consider  as  in- 
more  extensive  and  mors  definite.  The  accurate.  Yet  they  are  not  on  that  account 
captivity  did  much  to  extend  the  Israelitcfl^  the  less  fitted  for  their  proper  purpose ;  for 
knowledge  of  the  earth.  Still  more  to  the  if  any  terms  had  been  used,  adapted  to  a 
same  effect  was  done  when  the  Qreeks  first,  more  adtanced  state  of  knowledge,  they  must 
and  the  Bomans  afterwards,  came  into  eon-  have  been  unintelligible  among  those  to 
tact  with  the  Jews.  From  an  eariy  period,  whom  the  Scriptures  were  first  addressed* 
commerce  had  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  If  the  Jews  had  been  told  that  water  existed 
geography;  but  in  the  centuries  which  im-  in  the  clouds  in  small  drops,  they  would  have 
mediately  preceded  the  advent  of  Christ,  the  marvelled  that  it  did  not  instantly  descend' 
descendants  of  Abraham,  being  scattered  and  to  have  explained  the  reason  of  this 
widely  over  the  more  civilised  parts  of  the  would  be  to  teach  Atmology  in  the  sacred 
world,  greatly  augmented  the  geographical  writings.  If  they  had  read  in  the  Scripture 
knowledge  of  the  Jewish  nation ;  Uie  more  that  the  earth  was  a  sphere,  when  it  ap- 
so  because  they  maintained  with  their  mo-  peared  to  be  a  plane,  they  would  only  have 
ther  city,  Jerusalem,  a  constant  and,  for  the  been  disturbed  in  their  tiboughts,  or  driven 
most  part,  intimate  connectioii.  In  conse-  to  some  wild  and  baseless  imaginations,  by 
quenee,  Uie  geography  of  the  New  is  wider  a  declaration  to  them  so  strange.  If  the  Di- 
and  more  exact  than  that  of  the  Old  Testa-  vine  speaker,  instead  of  saying  that  he  would 
ment  The  Western  world  comes  into  pro-  set  his  bow  in  the  clouds,  had  been  made  to 
minence,  and  the  boundaries  of  the  Boman  declare  that  he  would  give  to  water  tbe  pro- 
empire  are  the  sole  limits  of  its  topogra-  perty  of  refracting  different  colours  at  differ- 
phical  sphere.  We  add,  in  conclusion,  tfiat  ent  anglea,  how  utterly  unmeaning  to  the 
whUe,  on  the  one  hand,  we  thus  find  the  hearers  would  the  words  have  been!  And  in 
spot  first  contemplated  in  Eden  expanded  these  cases,  the  expressions  being  unintelli- 
into  the  large  spaces  comprised  within  the  gible,  startling,  and  bewildering,  would  have 
central  parts  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere,-^  been  such  as  tended  to  unfit  the  sacred  nar- 
on  the  other,  the  Boman  empire  itself,  even  rative  for  its  place  in  the  providential  dis- 
in  its  widest  extent,  comprised  only  a  small  pensation  of  the  world'  (*  Indications  of  tbe 
portion  of  the  globe.  Creator,'  pp.  131,  182). 

The  view  taken  of  the  earth  in  Scripture        '  To  be  of  the  earth '  (John  iii.  31),  is  the 

does  not  correspond  with  that  which  is  for-  same  as  to  be  from  below,  in  contrast  to 

nished  by  modem  science.    For  this  discre-  being  from  above  (13) ;  and  '  to  speak  of 

pancy  those  will  be  prepared  who  have  en-  (from)  the  earth,'  stands  in  opposition  to 

tered  into  the  spirit  of  the  remarks  already  coming  from  heaven;  the  first  denoting  a 

made— as  in  the  articles  AnAX  snd  Cbba-  mere  earthly,  the  second  a  divine  origin  in 

Tiov.    Bevealed  relif^on  is  from  first  to  last  relation  to  the  gospel,  and  the  spirit  and 

a  system  of  accommodation.    As  designed  power  of  its  great  promulgators, 
to  meet,  hi  each  ease,  the  wants  of  the  age        EABTHQUAKES,  which  are  motions  pro- 

in  which  a  revelation  is  made,  the  reve-  duced  on  tbe  earth's  solid  surface  by  a  force 

lation  itself  and  the  record  of  it  must  be  originating  in  the  interior  of  the  globe,  and 

adapted  to  the  mind  of  the  age,  and  so  must  thence  acting  upward, — which,  occurring  to  a 


E  C  C  534  E  C  C 

greater  or  lets  extent  in  «U  eoontrieB,  are  Btnicting  the  people  (xii.O).  In  the  Latu  and 
more  frequent  near  the  sea,  and  vary  in  in-  in  other  languages,  abstract  are  sometinies 
tensitj  tiom  a  mere  transient  and  scareely  used  for  concrete  nouns.    Nor  can  it  occar- 
peroeptible  moTement,  to  concussions  and  sion  surprise  that  here  a  feminine  form  is 
subTersions  of  the  most  riolent  and  destmo-  employed  as  a  man's  name,  for  in  Hebrev 
tire  nature, — are  represented  both  in  Hebrew  we  find  instances  of  names  of  men  in  the 
and  Oreek  bywords  that  signify  *  shaking'  feminine    gender,    and   names   of  women 
or  '  trembling'  (Matt  viiL  24,  *  tempest'  is  in  the  masculine.    Examples  of  the  foimer 
literally  a  commotion  in  the  sea) ;  and  though  an  Ophrah  (1  Ghron.  It.  14),  and  Hananiah 
we  must  distinguish  between  poetic  descrip-  (1  Cbron.  TiiL  24) ;  examples  of  the  latter 
tions  of  the  presence  of  JehoTsh  (1  Kings  xix.  are  Abigail  (1  Sam.  xxt.  8),  Sarai  (Oen.  xi. 
11)  and  earthquakes,  properly  so  called,  yet  29).    Still,  it  may  be  asked,  what  is  the  ex- 
were  the  latter  by  no  means  unusual  in  Pales-  act  import  of  the  term  ?  The  Serenty  render 
tine ;  since  the  whole  channel  which  now  con-  the  Hebrew  by  the  word  £celniattes,  i^ch 
Btitutes  the  Tslley  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  dis-  Jerome  expounds  as  the  person  who  con- 
trict  of  the  Dead  Sea,  bear  dear  traces  of  toI-  Tenes  a  congregation, '  whom,'  he  says,  *  we 
canio  action.    Similar  tokens  are  found  in  may  term  coneianalor  (speaker  or  preadier), 
the  hot  springs  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  of  because  he  speaks  to  the  people,  and  his  dia- 
Tiberias,  in  the  marks  of  exhausted  Tolcanos  course  is  directed  not  specially  to  one,  but 
in  the  neigbbouihood  of  that  lake,  and  in  generally  to  all.'  Grotius  understands  the  word 
the  basaltic  rocks  lying  l>etween  it  and  the  to  mean  a  eoUectar,  that  is,  of  the  pithy  say- 
sea  of  Merom.    So  lately  as  Jan.  1,  1887,  a  ings  of  wise  men.  Doderlein  and  Nachtignll 
fearful  earthquake  directed  its  fury  along  the  take  kohiieth  in  the  sense  of  coUectUmj  that  ia, 
whole  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  of  sagea,  a  kind  of  college  under  the  presi> 
and  with  especial  violence  in  the  vicinity  of  denoy  of  Solomon,  whose  disputations  are 
the  sea  of  Tiberias.    Jerusalem,  in  the  days  written  down  in  the  book  so  doiominated. 
of  King  Ussiah,  was  visited  by  so  great  an        Among  these  and  other  opinions,  thai  is 
earthquake,  that  it  became  an  epoch  so  well  the  best  which  represents  the  word  to  mean 
known  aa  to  serve  for  dating  from  (Amos  i.  preacher  or  teacher  (xiL  0 — 12),  both  be- 
1.   Zech.  xiv.  b ;   see  Matt  xxiv.  7 1   xxvii.  eause  this  import  coTTeaponda  to  the  con- 
dl,  54).  tents  of  the  book,  and  beeaase  it  is  sup- 

EASTEB  (T.,  according  to  Bade,   from  ported  by  the  Alexandrine  truialatorBy  wlio 

EoBire,   a  goddess  specially  worshipped  in  probably,  in  giving  the  rendering  FrrinitnUit, 

the  spring),  is  the  translation,  in  Acta  xii.  4,  fixed  and  transmitted   an  established  trm- 

of  a  Hebrew  word  which  in  Greek  letters  is  dition. 

poMcha,  denoting  the  Jewish  festival  called         '  Vanity  of  vanities,  all  ia  vanity,* — thus 

the  Passover.    See  the  article.  the  book  opens,  and  thus  it  ends  (i.  2 ;  xiL 

EBAL  (H.  «  heap).    See  Gbrizim.  B).    The  whole  cirde  of  things  is  vanity. 

EBONY,  from  an  Eastern  root  similar  in  What  is,  vanishes ;  what  was,  re-appears ; 

form  and  meaning,  denotes  a  hard,  durable  what    happened,    happens  again;  there  ia 

black  wood,  ausceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  nothing  new  under  the  sun  (L  4 — 11).   Not 

which  was  much  valued  in  the  ancient  world,  more  durable  is  the  gain  fsom.  wisdom  which 

and  formed  an  article  of  luxury  and  com-  num  promises  himself^  for  in  much  wisdom 

merce  (Esek.  xxvii.  15).    It  is  still  used  as  is  grief,  and  he  that  increaseth  knowledge 

an  ornamental  wood  in  Mosaic  work.  increaseth  sorrow  (i.  12 — 18).    Neither  ia 

ECCLESIASTES,  or  the  Preacher,  is  the  there  any  real  gain  in  abundance  of  earthly 

name  of  one  of  the  poetical  books  of  the  possessions,  and  in  the  pleasures  of  sense  in 

Old-Testament  Canon,  which  in  our  English  union  with  wisdom ;  oue  fate  awaits  the  wise 

Bibles  stands  between  Proverbs  and  Solo-  man  and  the  fool;  both  die  and  are  forgotten; 

mon's   Song.    The    reflections   which   the  what  man  in  his  wisdom  acquires,  passes  to 

composition  contains,  profess  (i.  1)  to  be  another  who  has  bestowed  no  labour  on  ita 

'  the  words  of  the  Preacher,  the  son  of  David,  acquisition.    The  best  thing  appears  to  be 

king  in  Jerusalem  '(12).  The  term  *  preacher  *  to  ei^oy  what  the  Creator  bestows ;  yet  even 

is  in  the  original  kohelethf  an  abstract  noim  this    proves   vanity   (iL).     Changeful  and 

of  the  feminine  gender,  which  may  be  strictly  perishing  are  all  things ;  the  pains  which 

rendered  *  assemblage.'     This  would  appear  men  give  themselves  have  no  result    Man's 

to  describe  the  book  as  a  collection  of  dis-  highest  good  on  earth  is  the  enjoyment  of 

courses.    But  then  this   word  koheUth    is  the  pleasures  of  life,  which  are  to  be  regarded 

used  as  a  surname—'  the  words  of  Me  as-  as  the  gift  of  God.   Only  what  God  does  has 

semblage — the  son  of  David'  (i.  1).     This  permanence,  and  remains  for  ever  the  same 

sounds  harsh  to  an  English  ear.    But  Solo-  (iu.  1—15).    In  the  holy  place  of  judgment 

mon  is   under  special  circumstances   sur-  prevail  injustice  and  force.  The  fate  of  man 

named  Jedidah(<  beloved  of  Jehovah,' 2  Sam.  and  beast  is  the  same;  there  is  no  other 

xii.  25),  which  seems  to  show  that  koheleth  happiness  for  a  mortal  than  to  enjoy  himself 

may  equally  be  a  surname,  derived  from  his  in  his  deeds  (iii.  16—22).    Many  are  the 

employing  himself  in  addressing   and  in-  tears  of  the  unprotected  and  the  oppressed ; 


E  C  C                      ^35  E  C  C 

death  U  better  than  life ;  new  to  have  had  site  for  the  reception  of  Ghriatianity.    By  a 
existence  is  better  stilL  Vain  are  the  labonrs  Christian  standard,  therefore,  it  is  unfair  to 
and  striving^  of  men  (iv.)*   These  moomAil  Jadge  these  obserrations.    The  book  is  con- 
reflections  the  author  intermpts  by  certain  ceiTed,  and  mast  be  considered,  in  the  spirit 
moralisings  in  relation  to  the  serrice  of  Ood,  of  the  old  dispensation,  as   reflected  from 
▼ows,  oppression,  and  wealth  (?.  tL).    Pro-  the  mind  of  an  Eastern  potentate,  and  of  a 
▼erbs   on  varions  anbjeots  ensue,  and  the  Hebrew  monarch  who,  in  his  old  age,  f^U 
Preacher  declares  that  he  has  failed  to  find  under  the  Divine  displeasure  in  consequence 
a  truly  virtuous  woman  (viL),  and  diat  it  is  of  his  addictedness  to  his  harem,  and  to  the 
proper  and  wise  to  obey  kings  (viii.  1 — 0).  idolatrous  practices  which  some  of  its  in- 
Returning  to  the  tone  which  he  had  for  a  mates  encouraged  (1  Kings  xi.  1 — 8 ;  oomp. 
time  laid  aside,  he  states  himself  unable  to  Neh.  idlL  26).     The  objects  of  that  dis- 
understand  the  dealings  of  Providence ;  the  pleasure,  and  the  thoughts  and  feelings  con- 
righteous  man  is  unfortunate,  the  wicked  nected  with  them,  the  Christian  is  required 
prosperous ;   enjoyment  is  the  only   good  to  disapprove.    It  must,  however,  be  added, 
(viii.  6 — ^ix.  10).      Wisdom  surpasses  all  ihat  the  writer  need  not  be  considered  as 
earthly  things  yet  folly  often  receives  the  setting  his  seal  to  every  remark  made  in  the 
preference  (ix.  11 — ^x.  7).   Then  ensue  sen-  course  of  his  collection.  He  appears  to  have 
tences  touching  reverence  to  governors,  the  described  his  opinions  and  feelings  as  they 
advantages  of  the  wise  over  the  foolish,  and  were  at  successive  eras  of  his  life,  without 
the  pursuits  and  eousequences  of  beneficence  intending  to  intimate  that  each  one  accorded 
(x.  8~xL  6).    Let  man  e^joy  life,  and  re-  with  his  deliberate  and  final  judgment    In 
member  his  Creator,  before  evil  and  death  this  way  he  might  at  one  time  entertain  a 
arrive ; '  then  shaU  the  dust  return  to  the  earth  thought  which  he  afterwards  saw  reason  to 
as  it  was,  and  the  spirit  shall  return  unto  correct  and  disavow.  Accordingly,  sentences 
God,  who  gave  it'  (xL  7 — ^xii.  7).   The  con-  which  would  otherwise  bear  the  appearance 
elusion  of  the  whole  matter  is,  '  Fear  God  of  contradictions  (iv.  2, 3 ;  vii.  1 — 8 ;  comp. 
and  keep  his  commandments,  for  this  is  the  ix.  4 — 6),  may  be  expounded  as  different 
whole  duty  of  man ;   for  God  shall  bring  views,  entertained  at  different  times  and  in 
eveiy  work  into  judgment,  with  every  secret  dissimilar  states  of  mind.   If  the  passage  in 
thing,  whether  it  be  good,  or  whether  it  be  iii.  21  should  appear  to  represent  the  tormi- 
evil '  (xii.  8—14).  nation  of  existence  widi  man  to  be  the  same 
Ecolesiastes  is  aieries  of  tentative  disqtii-  as  it  is  with  the  hrute,  the  distinct  asseve- 
silions  on  that  subject  which  has  engaged  ration  towards  the  end  of  the  poem,  to  the 
the  earnest  attention  of  contemplative  minds  effect  that  while  the  dust  returns  to  the 
in  all  ages,  namely,  the  real  good  of  man.  earth,  the  spirit  returns  to  God,  who  gave  it 
These  disquisitions  are  not  set  forth  in  an  (xii.  7),  revokes  the  former  doubt,,  and  de- 
abstract  or  metaphysical  manner;  but,  accord-  dares  the  writei's  last  and  settled  conviction, 
ing  to  the  custom  of  4ia  East  and  the  analogy  To  such  variations  of  opinion  all  men  are 
of  the  Bible,  they  appear  in  a  practical  shape,  liable,  and  that  the  more,  the  greater  is  the 
as  so  many  experiences  through  which  tfie  degree  in  which  they  are  left  to  the  workings 
mind  of  the  writer  had  gone.    Arrived  at  of  their  own  minds  and  the  results  of  their 
the  season  of  his  decline,  he  calmly  under-  own  experience ;  and  it  merits  attention  in 
takes  a  review  of  the  past    All  that  a  man  our  estimate  of  the  book  before  us,  that  the 
and  a  king  could  know,  he  had  known.  The  writer  lays  no  claim  to  any  special  enligh ton- 
whole  circle  of  human  life  lay  open  to  his  ment  fh>m  the  great  source  of  spiritoal  truth, 
view ;  for  that  portion  of  it  whidi  he  had  not  The  experiences  of  a  mind  such  as  that  of 
known  by  experience,  he  knew  by  sight  and  Solomon  must  have  been  of  a  very  diverse 
contemplation.    This  circle,  therefbre,  with  character.    Light  and  shade  were  strangely 
ito  various  and  complicated  movements,  he  mingled  together.     Good  and  evil  existed 
undertakes  to  describe,  not  in  sketohes  and  there  in  measures  exceeding  ordinary  bounds, 
pictures,  but  in  proverbs   and  sententious  The  youth  who,  in  the  pure  native  ardour 
observations,  which  axe  strung  together  in  of  a  generous  and  untarnished  heart,  asked 
short  separate  clusters,  yet  are  united  by  the  of  God  wisdom  in  preference  to  opnlenocy 
thought  and  the  aim  that  run  through  the  rank  and  power  (1  Kings  iii  5,  se^.),  must 
whole.    That  thought  is  thevanity  of  all  hu-  have  had  feelings  the  very  reverse  of  those 
man  and  earthly  good.  That  aim  is  the  neces-  which  pervaded  the  mind  of  the  aged  king, 
sity  of  obedience  to  God.  broken  down  by  the  cares  of  state  and  the 
The  thought  is  variously  illustrated  and  pursuite  of  pleasure.    Tet  is  there  a  sober 
confirmed.  In  the  process  remarks  are  made  light  and  a  higher  wisdom  around  him  in 
which  wear  a  gloomy  aspect,  and  reflect  the  his  declining  days.    The  writer,  beginning 
shades  of  a  mind  worn  by  the  exercise  of  life  as  an  enthusiast,  may  have  become  a 
power,  and  darkened  by  sensual  indulgence,  voluptuary  in  ito  course,  and  as  such  denied 
in  a  stete  of  society  which  required  the  pre-  all  goodness,   even  that  of  woman's  heart 
paratory  discipline  of  many  centuries  in  order  *(  vii.  28 ) .  Tet,  under  the  influence  of  religion, 
to  bring  it  up  to  the  degree  of  culture  reqni-  however  misled  by  female  seductions,  he  did 


E  C  C  536  E  C  C 

not  fall  to  unite,  in  his  old  age,  at  a  great  an  opnlent  prince ;  of  a  sage  ISuned  for  hts 

•piritnal  tznili,  which  could  not  bat  exert  wisdom  thronghont  the  worid ;  ci  a  Tolapto- 

a  refining  and  elevating  power.    In  agree*  ary  and  an  idolater, — ^we  leam  that  all  mere 

ment  with  the  tenor  of  these  obserrations,  we  earthly  pleasure,  the  highest  and  the  moat 

find  in  the  latter  portions  of  koheUth  a  sn-  dswling,  is  Tsnitrof  Tanities;  and  that '  the 

perior  moral  tone,  a  porer  religious  elera-  whole  of  man/  dl  that  he  ou^t  to  do,  hu 

tion.    What  can  in  its  way  be  finer  or  more  highest  good,  his  sole  lasting  happiness,  is 

hnpressiTe  than  the  passage  which  extenda  fi>und  in  the  love  and  serrice  of  Ood. 
ftom  the  first  to  the  seventh  verse  of  the        It  thus  appears  that  the  aim  and  ooikeia> 

twelfth  chapter  f    The  eleventh  is  scareely  aion  of  Ecclesiastes  is  die  saoM  as  those 

inferior  either   in   thought  or  expression,  which  are  found  in  other  writings  ascribed 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  darkness  and  to  Solomon,  namely,  diat  wisdom  or  reli^ 


exhaustion  of  Solomon's  mind  in  his  later  gion,p!ractieal  leligioiis  wisdom,  or  *  die  fear 

years,  these  snd  other  passages  (iii.  1 — 8 ;  of  Ood,'  is '  the  prineipal  thing*  (Pror.  iv.  7). 

T.  1 — 0)  sufllee   to  show  that  there  were  It  was  in  this  view  of  wisdom,  that  is  in  a 

periods  when  his  feelings  rose  to  a  loftier  religious  light,  that  the  Preacher  undertook 

and  more  worthy  tone,  the  final  expression  to  sesieh  out  coneening  all  things  that  ars 

of  which  may  be  read  in  the  two  last  verses  done  underthesun  (L 13).  And  to  the  present 

of  the  last  chapter.   Here  the  writer  records  hour  the  Christian  must,  as  a  Christian,  be 

as  '  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter,'  so  prepsied  to  acquiesce  in  the  conclusion  to 

his  deliberate  and  settled  judgment  which  the  series  of  disquisitions  leads  their 

This  judgment  contains  the  aim  to  which  author.    Consult  Bom.  viii.  18.    2  Cor.  it. 

we  referred  above.    Here  is  the  purpose  for  17.  James  L  9,  «•}.;  iv.  14 ;  v.  1 — 8.   1  Pet. 

which  the  discourse  was  made,  the  propo-  i  32,  «•{. 

sition  it  was  designed  to  esUblish — the  great  We  have  spoken  on  the  supposition  that 
final  conclusion ;  the  verdict  after  the  evi-  Solomon  was  the  author  of  the  book  under 
dence  and  the  summing  up.  But  if  these  oonsideration.  Whether  this  is  or  is  not 
verses  exhibit  the  object  of  the  author  or  certain,  the  tenor  of  our  observationB  h<4ds 
teacher,  then  by  that  object  must  the  piece  good ;  for,  beyond  a  doubt,  the  writer  in- 
be  judged.  And  whatever  opinion  may  be  tended  to  set  forth  Solomon's  opinions.  The 
held  respecting  the  argument  and  its  illus-  discourse  is  eertainly  ascribed  to  '  the  son 
trative  accompaniments,  no  doubt  the  aim  of  David,  king  in  Jerusalem'  (L  1, 12).  Is 
was  good  and  pious,  and  the  result  no  less  Solomon  meant?  In  ita  general  efaanetpj 
useful  to  man  than  honourable  to  Ood.  That  this  poem  oomports  with  what  we  know  of 
men  should  fear  Ood  snd  keep  his  command-  Solomon's  position  and  views.  That  mo- 
ments, is  of  sU  truths  the  most  important,  naroh  was  fkmed  for  wisdom,  not  so  mneh 
Worthy  of  its  importance  is  the  represents-  in  its  theoretical  ss  in  its  practical  and  di- 
tion  of  it  as  <  the  whole  duty  of  man.'  And  dactio  relations.  Such  is  the  office  sos- 
the  enforcement  of  that  duty  on  the  ground  tained  by  *the  Preacher'  (xiL  9,  10).  He 
of  God's  jndlcisl  character,  applies  a  high,  was  a  sovereign,  snd  might  be  influenced  in 
true,  scriptural  and  influential  motive  to  a  his  teachings  by  a  wish  to  sustain  royalty, 
course  of  conduct,  the  observsnce  of  which.  Accordingly,  he  has  striven  to  enforce  its 
whether  with  the  light  of  Judaism  or  the  claims  (viiL  2,  ttq,;  x.  20)  ;  and  certainly  no 
better  light  of  the  Gospel,  would  lead  to  that  one  was  better  prepared  to  disoonrae  on  the 
holiness  of  life  in  which  are  displayed  God's  subject  here  treated  of  than  Solomon,  who 
will  and  man's  happiness.  had  partaken  of  all  earthly  good  even  to 

The  aim  and  result,  then,  of  the  book  of  satiety.    Tet  may  these  things  be  true  of  a 

Ecclesiastes,  is  the  furtherance  of  true  re-  composition  which,  intended  to  prodnoe  a 

ligion.    For  so  important  an  end  was  the  religious  result  in  *  the  eondnsion  of  the 

author  or  compiler  led  to  work  under  the  whole  matter,'  puts  into  the  mouth  of  a  w^- 

general  bearing  of  that  great  spiritual  pur-  known  sage  such  reflections  as  learning  and 

pose  of  the  Hebrew  religion,   namely,  the  experience  might  supply,  and  judgment  and 

promotion  of  holiness  as  the  sim  of  God,  the  taste  approve.  But  the  words,  *  I,  the  Preadier, 

duty  of  man,  and  the  harmony  of  the  world,  wot  king  in  Jerusalem'  (i.  13),  could  seaieely 

We  revere  the  religion  which  had  so  noble  have  been  used  by  Solomon  himself,  and 

an  aim,  and  exerted  so  desirable  a  tendency,  seem  to  betray  a  later  hand.     In   16,  the 

We  receive  *  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  mat-  Preacher  is  made  to  compare  himself  with 

ter   amved  at  by  Solomon,  with  gratitude  not  other  kings—'  all  that  have  been  before  me 

theiess  cordiaj,  because  the  aim  and  the  hi  Jerusalem ;' whereas  Solomon  had  but  two 

!Snf  nT.i??u*  **'  ^'^^  '^^'^  ^"^  ^•^  «*-  P«^e«Mor8,SaulandDavid;  comp.ii.9.  The 

Header  A««^^  ^.  "^^  ''^  '*^'*  •"*  indirect  manner  in  which*  the  Preiher' is  in- 

ttZThZ  ^oecnli  J  w  ^i!^n  ""S  ""^  *  *~^°^  -peaking  (L  2 ;  viL  27)  for  exsm- 

corded  is,  in  our  opiiiioti.  high  TS'^tbe  aT  iiiiT?*  "^^^  ^^  ^^^  ??  "^'T*  ¥~ 

thority  of  a  ki«g,  a^early  af solute  k/„g' ^^f  l^lf^'Z^Ti  Tf""^  ^\^^^^^  him- 

6 .  ui  sen  1^ Solomon),  but  of  one  who  made  use  of 


E  C  C                       537  E  D  E 

his  anthority  for  a  praiseworthy  purpose,  and  fortheestablishmenlofwhiehheimder- 
With  this  assumption  accords  the  fact,  that  took  the  task.  These  opinions,  in  the  form 
the  writer  ascribes  the  disquisitions  not  ex-  of  proverbs,  he  may  haTe  in  part  originated, 
pressly  to  Solomon,  bnt  to  some  one  who  in  part  collected  and  arranged.  It  is  thns 
was  king  over  Israel  in  Jemsalem ;  ihns  explained  how  it  is  that  in  some  passages 
avoiding  the  inTidiousness  of  direotly  making  we  find  rci^eetions  of  a  miseellaneoas  natore, 
Solomon  the  author  of  the  work.  Bat  the  and  bearing  bat  little  on  the  theme  or  the 
strongest  eridenee  against  that  monarch's  conclusion  of  the  book, 
being  the  author  is  found  in  peculiarities  Under  the  guidance  of  these  views  we  are 
of  diction.  We  here  borrow  the  words  of  enabled  to  account  for  the  chief  fSMts,  namely, 
Wellbeloved  in  his  Introduction  to  Ecolesi-  the  peculiar  designation  of  the  work,  its  ap- 
astes.  *  That  learned  and  sagacious  critic,  parent  connection  with  Solomon,  and  its 
Orotiua,  first  noticed  the  oocoirenee  of  some  Aramaic  phraseology, 
terms  in  the  work  foreign  to  the  Hebrew  This  book  of  Ecdesiastea,  which  Is  in 
language,  not  met  with  in  the  Book  of  Fro-  entire  harmony  with  the  proneness  of  the 
verbs,  or  in  any  Jewish  writing  prior  to  the  Hebrew  mind  to  moralise  on  religion,  life, 
Babylonish  captivity ;  and  the  number  of  and  duty,  seems  to  have  excited  mudi  at- 
tuch  terms  has  been  considerably  enlarged  tention,  and  led,  in  oonsequence,  to  imita- 
bj  modem  critics.  These  are  not  merely  tions.  Such  imitations  are  found  in  two 
words  occurring  only  once,  or  philosophical  apocryphal  works.  The  Wisdom  of  the  Son 
terms,  for  which  the  nature  of  the  work  of  Sirach,  or  EccknoMHcui,  and  I%e  Witdom 
might  account ;  they  are  such  as  are  found  of  Solomon, 

on^  in  Daniel  and  Ezra  and  the  Chaldee  EDEN  (H.  pUaturt),  the  delightfal  conn  • 
versions;  and  the  words  which  express  the  try  in  the  East  of  which  we  read  in  the  book 
philosophical  opinions  of  the  writer  are  pure  of  Genesis  thatOod  planted  a  garden,  wherein 
Hebrew.     They  are   also  words   borrowed  he  put  the  man  whom  he  had  created,  and 
from  the  Persians,  and   it  can  hardly  be  out  of  whose  soil  he  made  to  grow  every  tree 
imagined  that  such  could  be  known  to  Solo-  that  is  pleasant  to  the  sight  and  good  for 
mon'  (p.  6).  In  agreement  with  thia,  Herbtt,  food ;  where  he  formed  a  helpmeet  for  Adam 
a  Boman  Catholic  professor  of  theology,  says  in  Eve  his  wife  (Gen.  ii.). 
in  his  Emleitung  (iL  2, 249),  *If  we  examine  For  the  determination  of  the  exact  locality 
the  diction  of  the  Preacher,  we  find  not  only  of  Eden,  labour  has  been  unsparingly  be- 
that  it  has  nothing  in  common  with  that  of  stowed,  and  theories  advanced  in  profhsion. 
Solomon  or  that  of  his  age,  but  that  it  be-  The  most  probable  opinion  places  it  in  the 
longs  to  the  language  of  woiks  composed  high   lands   of  Armenia   (see  Drvisiov), 
siller  the  exile.  It  is  not  merely  that  we  find  though   in  truth   the   least   exceptionable 
here  and  there  a  Chaldaism,  but  the  lin-  theory  takes  for  granted  a  degree  of  acquaint- 
guistie  usages  of  the  book  are  from  first  to  ance  with  the  earth  on  the  part  of  the  sacred 
last  of  a  degenerate  and  foreign  kind,  and  writer,  which  the  Scriptures  neither  elaim 
even   approximate  to   the  Rabbinical.'    It  nor  justity  (see  Eabth%    The  narrative  in 
is  indeed  true  that  Ecclesiastes  has,  from  Genesis  is  obviously  conceived  by  one  whose 
very  early  times,  formed  a  part  of  the  Jewish  knowledge  of  the  globe  was,  for  the  most 
canon ;  yet  both  Jewish  and  Christian  critics  part,  restricted  to  Western  Asia ;  for  had  he 
have  questioned  its  authority.     Aeoording  been  acquainted  with  remote  eastern  or  rs- 
to  Jerome,  the  Hebrews  *  say  that  among  mote  northern  climes,  he  would  not,  as  above 
other  writings  of  Solomon  which  have  passed  we  see  he  did,  place  in  the  garden  of  Eden 
away,  this  book  also  ought  to  be  obliterated,  all  the  animal  and  vegetable  products  of  the 
because  it  asserts  that  the  creatures  of  God  earth ;  and,  in  consequence,   those   which 
are  vain,  holds  all  to  be  of  no  account,  and  flourish  only  in  high  northern  and  southern 
prefers  to  every  thing  else,  food,  drink,  and  latitudes,   or  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 
pleasure.    From  this  verse  only  it  gained  a  Ocean. 

title  to  be  placed  in  the  number  of  the  divine  The  truth  is,   that  the   modems   have 

books   (the  canon),  namely,  where  In  its  fastened  on  the  sacred  penman  their  own 

general  summary  it  declares  that  the  con-  conceptions  of  the  globe,  and  thus  mad^ 

elusion  to  which  its  discourses  lead,  is  most  him  say  that  of  which  he  had  not  the  remot* 

easy  of  obedience,  namely,  that  we  should  est  idea.  All  his  statements  should  be  taken 

fear  God,  and  do  his  commands.'  as  understood  by  himself,  and  the  measure  of 

It  is  not  unlikely  that,  as  Cicero  in  his  his  acquaintance  with  the  earth  is  the  limit 

Lgliusj  or  treatise  on  old  age,  with  a  view  to  of  his  teachings,  as  weU  as  the  key  to  the  opi« 

gain  attention  and  authority,  put  into  the  nlons  that  he  entertained.  Of  that  of  which  he 

month  of  Cato  such  sentiments  as  that  sage  knew,  he  could  say,  nothing ;  and  the  most 

might  have  uttered,  so  here  a  post-exilian  superficisl  knowledge  of  the  history  of  geo- 

writer  ascribed  to  Solomon  such  opinions  as  graphy  shows  that  even  in  the  days  of  Jesus 

he  thought  suitable  to  the  known  experience  and  his  apostles,  Uie  best-informed  writer 

of  that  sovereign,  and  fitted  to  illustrate  and  could  not  have  extended  his  thoughts  much 

enforce  the  conclusion  at  rhich  he  aimed,  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  empire. 


EDO  51 

The  latching,  howeror,  of  ihe  naiTMiTB  is, 
thU  EdcD  wu  tha  sourM  ol  HI  Ule,  inlel- 
ImhuI  m  w«11  w  ■nimiJ  ud  Tsgttable. 
B«D«,  bat  for  the  fill  uid  thf  eoTuequenl  n- 
pfUiion  af  the  first  pur  from  the  gmrden,  the 
•■nh  would  hue  remuned  unpeopled  and 
Diifuniihed — *  liftlsB*  desert,  erealad  for 
no  other  ^ipaicnt  poipoie  than  to  afford  ■ 
pleuaat  dwelluif  to  Adaa  and  Etc  ;  tor  u 
to  deseeniluti,  it  was  onlj  after  '  the  loaa  of 
Eden'  that  'Adam  knew  hii  wife'  (Qen.  jr. 
1).  Suoh  a  *iew  of  Ood'e  proTidenee  i*  not 
in  kceordanee  with  that  nnivertal  leaebing 
of  nature  ^tieb  abowa  that  eTSTj  thing  la 
made  for  n*a,  and  anawara  the  diTinelj- 
iBIonded  parpoie  j  and  Ibal  ccrtainlj  in 
oar  globe,  and  probablr  in  the  niiiTena, 
dm*  i«  no  dietriel,  no  put,  no  tinj  ipol, 
whieh  ii  not  filled  with  liring  ereatnrea  pa- 
enliarij  fitted  for  tha  sonditiana  ander  which 
tha;  lira,  andhaTing  eadi  a  apeeiea  of  happl- 
neta  that  tatii&es  die  denanda  of  their  na- 
ture, and  ao  mndneaa  lo  the  manifettadon 
of  Ood'i  glorj  and  the  iUoatratian  of  hi* 
goodaaia  (tee  CMiTlOa). 

EDIFICATION  (L.  ^a.  a  'bouae,'  and 
_/acH,  'I  nake')  propeii;  aignifiaa  a  building 
(HarkiiiL  1;  eonip.  1  Cor.  iii.  B);  andhesoe 
a  ipiritnal  edifloe,  spiritnal  growth,  or  pro- 
gTeaa(RaTn.iiT.18.SCor.x.B,Ephea.l*.lfl). 

EDOH  (a  rad,  or  d-r*-a>J«ir«il),  a  enr. 
name  of  Eaan,  gjnn  him  either  in  conae- 
qnenoa  of  liia  being  of  a  red  ooloni  when 
bom  (Sen.  iit.  ib),  or  ttom  hit  deiiiing 
red  Dottage  of  hia  brother  Jaeob,  when  be 
le  in  faint  from  Ihe  field  (.30).  From 


18  EDO 

maa,  which  bsiug  retaaed,  hs  waa  obliged 
to  take  a  circuit,  and,  placing  himaelf  on  tiM 
eael  of  Seir,  fallow  the  direction  of  thai 
moantain  towards  the  north  till  ha  arriTad 
nearly  opposite  Jericho  (Numb.  n.  14,  Mf.  ; 
ni.  4,  wf.).  In  the  time  of  Solomon,  va 
find  Eiion-geber  and  Eloth,  though  poe- 
aessed  b;  that  mouanh,  still  accounted  >  in 
the  landof  Edom'  (2Chron.  Tiii.  17).  At 
■  later  period,  at  the  time  of  the  exile,  Ihe 
Nabalhaana  had  spread  otst  Iheae  parta, 
and  the  Edomites  were  limited  lo  the  north- 
ern half  of  theregion  (rs.li.  7).  Thoanai- 
rowed  towarda  the  sonth,  tbej  cxiended 
their  ewa;  on  the  north,  eertainlj  oo  the 
weitem,  and  possibly  on  the  eaateni,  side  of 
the  Jordan ;  for  the  Maecaheea  oonlanded 
against  Item  in  the  territory  of  Judah,  and 
by  Joaephni  Hebron  is  reckoned  a  pan  of 
Idnmaw,  and  Gaia  is  deaoribad  aa  ennroned 

Edomia  ahi|^,iBOtmtainoDB  country,  with 
■leepa,  praeipieea,  clefts,  and  pictaresqne  Tal- 
leya.  Ita  r^ayi  ware  of  old  rendered  (hiit- 
fnl  by  eoltieation,  Ibr  want  oT  whieh  ther 
are  now,  for  the  moat  par^  a  prey  lo  the 
deeert  It  waa  in  relation  to  its  ralleys  that 
Jasob  described  Eaaa's  dwelling  as  '  tbt  fu- 
nesa  of  the  eaiUi  and  of  Ihe  dew  ofheaTen' 
(Oenesis  iiTii.  SO).  There  are  at  preaant 
Tales  which  bear  trees,  ahniba,  and  flowen, 
while  Ihe  higher  landt  towaida  the  East  ara 
eoltivaled  and  prododtiTe.  The  hilla  eootain 
many  natnral  caTsma,  and  the  aand-etODa 
of  which  they  are  eompoaad  mtkea  the  fbr- 
maiion  of  othera  (cry  eaay.    In  i 


pie,  d>e  Edomitaa  (kutI.  8,  m;.),  after  he 
had  aetlled  down  in  Hoaot  Beir,  which  bom 
hiM  bore  Ihe  name  of  the  land  of  Edom ; 
among  ihe  Oreeka  and  Bomana,  Idunuaa. 
Thia  ooonKy  lay  to  the  aoulh  of  Palestine, 
with  ita  north-wen  end  on  the  soolham  ei- 
traml^of  the  Dead  8ea,and  aoonlhesoatb- 
aaat  end  of  Ihe  larritoiyof  Jndah.  The  land 
ii  diatinftlitbad  by  Honnt  Seir,  a  eonlinua- 
lion  of  Mmmt  Oilead,  or  die  range  of  hilla 
whieh  na*  along  the  Jordan  on  the  eaateni 
aide,  and  atretehee  aonthward  till  it  reaches 
the  Elanitie  aim  of  the  Bed  fiea,  down  tlie 
eaaletn  aide  of  the  broad  tale  of  the  Arabah. 
Onlj  a  little  to  the  eaat  did  Edom  extend 
beyond  Moont  Seir,  while  its  eitremiliet,  the 
Elanitie  aim  of  the  Bed  Sea  and  the  soath- 
an  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  defined  the  natural 
length  of  the  eomitry.  Bnt  Ihe  bordeia  of  a 
wandering  end  plondering  horde  like  the 
Edomites  esnnot  be  laid  down  with  any 
BtrioBiBas,  for  they  easily  expand  or  contract 
IhamselTes  ma  eiieomstances  may  seem  to  re- 
quire. Accordin^y,  we  find  Edom  lo  hare 
been  master  orer  the  county  Ijing  immedi- 
ately tonth-east  of  Palestine.  Hence  it  waa 
thai  Hoaet,  on  drawing  near  ttom  the  wilder- 
luas  lo  the  land  of  promiae,  waa  compelled 
to  entreat  permiseioa  to  pass  thioagh  Idu- 


dweli  tha  Hoiiiea,  who**  name  daootea  dwall- 
en  in  caTes.aiid  the  later  abodaa  of  the  Edom' 
ites  were  in  part  hewn  ont  of  the  aolid  rock 
which  often  riees  perpendicnlaily  ttvm  the 
Talea.  Hence  Jeremiah  eomparea  their  dwell- 
ingi  lo  the  neat  of  the  eagle  '  rooating  in  die 


EDO                      539  E  G  Y 

clefts  of  the  rock '  (zlix.  16).  Even  yet  the  least  at  the  time  when  those  edifices  oame 
-traveller  contemplates  with  wonder  and  ad-  into  existence,  the  region  of  Mount  Seir  (the 
miration  the  triumphs  of  ancient  art  in  the  modem  Dschebal  and  Es-schera)  had  at- 
midst  of  wild,  torn,  and  precipitous  moun-  tained  to  a  high  degree  of  material  culture, 
tains,  especially  in  the  gorge  which  con-  This  development  of  external  grandeur  could 
tains  the  jnstly-celebrat^  remains  of  the  hardly  have  existed  i^art  from  a  general  in- 
ancient  Petra  (see  Bozba).  telleotual  superiority.    Accordingly,  in  Oba- 

Having  destroyed  or  expelled  the  ancient  diah  (8)  we  read  of  the  wise  men  of  Edom, 

inhabitants,  the  Edomites  took  possession  and  the  understanding  of  the  Mount  of  Esan; 

of  the  land,  through  which  they  reflised  a  pas-  and  in  Jer.  xlix.  7,  *  Concerning  Edom,  thus 

sage  to  their  brethren  the  Israelites,  who  from  saith  Jehovah :  Is  wisdom  no  more  in  Te- 

the   earliest  period  entertained  unfriendly  man?    Is  counsel  perished  from  the  pm> 

feelings  towaids  them.    Hence  ensued  hos-  dent?  is  their  wisdom  vanished?'  (8).  That 

tile  relations  which  for  ages  produced  evil  the  Edomites  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being 

effects  (Numb.  xx.  14,  teq. ;  xzi.  4.  Judg.  xi.  philosophical  thinkers,  maybe  inferred  from 

17).    The  ancient  enmity  led  Saul  to  invade  the  fact,  that  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Job 

the  Edomites  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47);  but  they  places  ttie  scene  of  his  drama  (like  the*  Sam - 

were  able  to  maintain  their  iudependence  son  Agonistes')  in  the  land  of  Uz,  which  in 

till  the  days  of  the  victorious  David,  who  Scripture  stands  connected  with  Edom  (Lam. 

subjugated  and  took  military  possession  of  iv.  21) ;  and  the  parties  who  dispute  with 

the  country  (2  Sam.  viii.  14).    The  Edom-  Job,  especially  the  chief  speaker,  Eliphas 

ites  remained  subject  to  the  Hebrews  until,  of  Teman,  belonged  to  the  part  of  Arabia 

in  the  days  of  Joram,  they  recovered  tlieir  which  we  have  now  surveyed, 

independence  (2  Kings  viii.  20,  $tq.) ;  and  EDBEI,  a  town  and  district  of  the  Hau- 

although  Amaziah  and  Uzziah  gained  ad  van-  ran  (Auranitis),  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan, 

tages  over  them  (2  Kings  xiv.  7.  2  Chron.  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Og,  king  of 

XXV.  II;  zxvi.  2),  yet  they  fireed  themselves  Bashaia,  who  was  near  the  place  defeated  by 

under   Ahai,    and  continued    independent  Moses  (Numb.  xxi.  8f3-^5.   Deut  i.  4 ;  iii. 

(2  Chron.  xxviii*  17).    On  the  invasion  of  1 — 8).    It  is  found  in  the  modem  Dera,  a 

tiie  Cluddttans,  under  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  village  now  in  ruins.    In  the  Christian  pe- 

Edomites  joined  his  ranks,  and  aided  him  nod,  Edrei  was  a  bishop's  see. 

in  the  overthrow  of  Jerasalem;  which  ac-  EFFEMINATE  {L,femma,  *  a  woman'), 

counts  for  the  glowing  hatred  against  Edom  which,  in  allusion  to  the  gentler  qualities 

found  in  the  prophets.    Henceforth  they  ap-  of  woman,  signifies,  in  relation  to  man,  what 

pear  bitter  enemies  of  the  Israelites  (Ezek.  is  weak  or  luxurious,  and  so  unbecoming, 

zxxv.  10.    1  Maccab.  v.  8,  65.   2  Maccab.  is  the  rendering  of  a  Greek  term  that  means 

X.  17,  teq, ;  xii.  82,  ieq.),  until,  being  van-  soft  (Matt  xi.  8),  and  is  applied,  in  1  Cor. 

qoished  by  John  Hyrcanus,  and  compelled  vi.  9,  to  an  unnatural  vice  very  common 

to  be  circumcised,  they  were  in  a  measure  among  the  ancient  heathen, 

incorporated  with  the  Jewish  nation.  Hence  EGLON,  a  royal  Canaanitish  city,  lying 

Herod,  aided  by  the  power  of  Borne,  though  between  Eleutheropolls  and  Gaza  (Josh.  x. 

an  Idumsaa  by  birth,  found  it  possible  to  8,  84,  86 ;  xii.  12).    It  afterwards  belonged 

become  king  of  the  Jews.  For  the  last  time,  to  Judah  (xv.  89).    It  is  identified  with  the 

the  name  of  Edomite,  as  descriptive  of  a  dis-  modem  Adschlan,  a  place  which  lies  on  a 

tinct  people,  occurs  in  Josephus,  when  he  low  round  elevation,  covered  with  scattered 

relates  that  20,000  Idumeans,  invited  to  houses  of  unhewn  stone, 

render  aid  agahist  Titus,  only  augmented  EGYPT,  in  Africa,  comprising  the  valley 

the  miseries  of  the  city,  which  they  aban-  of  the  Nile  between  N.  lat  24  deg.  6  min. 

doned  before  its  final  overthrow.  and  81  deg.  85  min.,  bounded  on  Uie  north 

The  Edomites  are  generally  represented  by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  east  by  the 
in  the  Jewish  writings  under  the  worse  fea-  Isthmus  of  Suez  and  the  Bed  Sea,  on  the 
tures  of  their  character,  as  a  rude,  violent,  south  by  Nubia,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
and  predatory  people.  Yet  they  were  not  des-  Lybian  desert,  is  a  country  famous  in  iJl  pe- 
titute  of  the  germs  of  Eastem  culture.  Es-  riods  of  civilisation  for  its  monuments,  arts, 
peciaUy  about  the  time  of  the  captivity  they  and  mysteries ;  which,  from  its  intimate  re- 
appear to  have  spread  in  an  easterly  direc-  lation  to  the  Hebrew  people,  and  its  bearing 
tion,  and  to  have  taken  part  in  the  com-  on  great  questions  regarding  the  prxmaBval 
merce  which  was  carried  on  between  India  history  of  man,  has  for  the  student  of  the 
and  the  Western  world,  for  which  their  har-  Bible  a  peculiar  interest  This  interest  the 
hours  in  the  Bed  Sea  afforded  peculiar  faci-  discoveries  of  the  last  half  century,  espe- 
litles.  At  least,  this  is  trae  of  the  Naba-  dally  those  of  ChampolUon,  Lepsius,  and 
th»ans,  an  Arab  race,  whose  name  extended  Bunsen,  have  raised  to  a  very  great  height 
itself  more  and  more  over  those  regions  (Lam.  The  name  Eg^t  owes  its  origin  to  the 
iv.2].  Ezek.zxv.  18).  The  existing  rains  of  Greeks,  and  is,  dierefore,  of  no  early  date. 
Petra  suffice  of  themselves  to  show  that,  at  In  Homer,  the  word  signifies  the  Nile ;  so 


E  G  Y                       540  E  G  Y 

that  Egypt  was  by  ibat  people,  and  not  with-  the  land  was  deseribed  by  its  northern  and 

out  reason,  termed  the  land  of  the  Nile,  soaihem  extremes  as  '  from  Migdol  (see  the 

After  the  same  manner,  it  was  deseribed  by  margin)  loSyeneuntodkebordo'ofEthiopiar 

them  as  '  the  gift  of  the  Nile,'  on  whose  wa-  (Esek.  zziz.  10;  xzz.  0).  This  makes  Egypt 

ters  the  fertility  of  the  eonntiy  end  the  eaisi-  to  extend  in  length  from  the  eataraets  to  the 

enee  of  its  inhabitants  have  ever  depended  Meditenranean,   for  Syene  was   the   most 

(eomp.Eiek.XTiL8;xxix.O).  The  Egyptians  soathem  city  of  the  land.    It  is  oommonly 

diemselves  named  the  ooontry  Chm§,  Ck§mi,  dirlded   into   Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  of 

or  Ktmi,    Aocordm^j,  in  the  poetie  diction  whieh  the  former  stretches  fhmi  the  Ethiopie 

of  the  Bible,  it  is  denominated  'the  land  of  boundary,  or  Syene,  to  die  point  where  the 

Ham'  (Ps.  Ixxriii.  51 ;  er.  28, 27;  evL  22).  Nile  divides  into  three  chief  branches,  that 

The  oommon  Hebrew  name  was  Mtsratm,  as  is,    to  the  neighboorfaood  of  the   ancient 

now,  among  the  Arabs,  it  is  called  Mtsr,  or  Memphis,  the  modem  Cairo  (Kahira).  Lowec 

Mitr,    Another  form  of  this  word  is  Momot,  Egypt  comprises  the  ooontey  embraced  by 

which  also  stands  for  Egypt  in  the  poetic  the  two  extreme  aims  of  the  rirer  end  the 

phraseology  of  the  BiMe,  thoogh  in  oar  Mediterranean,  being  called  the  Delta,  fkom 

translation  it  is  not  rendered  as  a  proper  its  resemblsnee  in  shape  to  the  Gbeek  letter, 

name,  bat  according  to  its  deriTstive  import,  A,  of  that  name.   What  we  have  here  teimed 

'  beaieged '  or '  fenceid  places  ;*  bat '  the  rivers  Upper  Egypt  is  sometimes  dirided  into  a 

of  besieged  places'  in  2  Kings  xiz.  24,  should  northern  and  soathem  part,  of  which  the 

be  translated, '  the  rivers  of  Egypt'    See  Is.  former  bears  the  name  of  Upper,  the  latter 

xix.  6 ;  xxxviL  20.  Mjcah  viL  1^,  where  '  for*  of  Middle  Egypt  Upper  Egypt  in  this  sense 

tified  cities'  should  be, '  cities  of  Egypt'  The  is  also  denominated  the  Thebais,  from  the 

land  also  bears  in  the  Bible  the  name  of  RaA«6  renowned  city  of  Thebes  (No  or  No-Ammon), 

(Is.  XXX.  7;  IL  9.  Ps.lxxxvu.  4;  Ixxxix.  10).  which  was  its  capital.     Middle   Egypt  la 

Over  the  north-east  of  Airioa  spreads  an  sometimes  termed  Heptanomis.    As  Egypt 

immense  desert,  which  extends  eastwaidly  is  strictly  the  lend  lying  along  the  bsnks  of 

far  into  Asia.    This  desert  is  cut  in  a  direc-  the  Nile,  so  is  it  a  flat  country,  flanked  on 

tion  tnm  sooth  to  north  by  two  parsUel  both  sides  by  a  nnge  of  lime-stone  hills, 

lines  of  hills,  the  valley  intervening  between  Lower  Egypt  is  a  continuous  plain,  broken 

which  is  watered  by  the  Nile,  and  forms  the  by  no  risings  of  the  ground,  which  is  only 

land  of  Egypt,  which  is  thus  seen  to  be  a  a  little  more  elevated  than  the  stream  itself, 

long  bed  or  csnal,  affording  another  instance  When  it  is  covered  with  its  Inxurisnt  vege- 

of  the   Uet,    that   civilisation  had  for  its  tation,  it  offers  to  the  stranger  a  most  efaaim- 

earliest  seats  warm  vales  sheltered  by  high  ing  prospect,  which  soon  becomes  monoto- 

lands,  and  watered  by  their  streams.    The  nous  and  wearying,  tnm  want  of  variety, 

length  of  Egypt  from  north  to  south  is  460  Its  low  position  and  the  proximity  of  the 

geographical  miles.     Its  breadth  is  small  hill  ranges,  which  receive,  reflect,  angment, 

but  various,  depending  on  the  approaching  and  hold  in  the  heat  of  the  sun,  canss  it  to 

or   receding   of  tbe    hills  by  which  it  is  be  an  extremely  hot  land,  showing  the  prv- 

bounded  and  defined,  and  which  only  in  the  priety  of  the  name  Ham  (hot).  This  is  true 

north  retire  so  far  as  to  give  space  for  the  chiefly  of  Upper  Egypt,  tiiie  rather  beeause 

river  to  expend  itself  into  several  arma,  all  it  is  unrefreshed  by  the  cool  breeses  from 

of  whieh  directly  or  indirectly  iiidl  into  the  the  sea  that  visit  the  Delta.    The  air  is  un- 

Mediterranean  Sea.   Though  the  valley  thus  commonly   dry,   for  rain  seldom   lUls    in 

funned  constituted  Egypt,  properly  so  called,  Egypt;  the  atmosphere  dear  and  shining, 

yet  the  dominion  of  the  country  extended,  though  often   loaded  with  sand  £rom   the 

both  on  the  west  and  the  eas^  over  lands  desert,  which  but  for  the  sheltering  hills 

which,  being  without  rivers,  cities,  or  other  would  have  made  a  country  that  has  teemed 

limits,  cannot  be  accurately  defined.    Tbe  with  human  beings,  snd  fostered  the  srts, 

Egyptians,  however,  possessed  the  countiy  a  waste  undistinifuishable  from  the  wilder- 

so  far  as  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Bed  ness  through  which  it  runs.    The  diyneas. 

Sea,  which  was  of  great  mercantile  import-  however,  of   its  sky,  snd  a  correipondin^ 

ance,  as  well  as  the  coast  of  the  Mediter-  dryness  of  its  sandy  soil,  have  been  the  oe- 

ranean,  on  towards  Palestine.  Hence  a  winter  casion  that  its  works  of  art  have  been  pre- 

•Ueam  which  lies  to  the  south  of  Gaza,  where  served  through  a  number  of  centuries  and 

afterwards  the  town  of  Bhinocolura  probably  in  a  degree  of  perfection  which  have   no 

lay,  may  have  received  the  name  of  '  river  parallels  in  the  history  of  the  worid.    But 

of  Egypt,'  because  the  Egyptians  extended  the  same  qualities  of  earth  and  air  diminish 

thither  their  power  along  die  north-eastern  the  healthfnlness  of  the  land,  which  fcM^ign- 

ooast  (Numb.  xzxLv.  5.  Joeh.  xv  4.  2  Kings  ers  can  inhabit  with  pleasure  only  in  the 

xxiv.  7.   Is.  zzvii.  12).    One  of  the  border  months  of  December,  Jsnuary,  and  Febru- 

towns  of  Egypt  towards  the  Arabian  desert  ary,  and  cause  diseases  of  the  eye  to  be  very 

was  Migdol,  in  tbe  vicinity  of  the  present  prevalent  among  the  natives.     The  water  of 

Sues  (Exod.  xiv.  2.  Jer.  xUv.  I).     Hence  the  Nile  is  not  every  one's  diink,  grateful 


EG  Y 


541 


EG  Y 


and  salnbrioas  as  it  maj  be  to  Egyptians, 
and  high  as  was  the  reverence  in  which  it 
was  held  in  ancient  times.  With  so  large  a 
portion  of  the  soil  of  a  moveable  nature, 
high  winds  are  verj  tronblesome.  The 
Chamsin,  a  hot  soath  wind,  which  fills  the 
air  with  fine  particles  of  sand,  so  that  the 
face  of  the  heavens  is  beclouded  and  the 
sun  loses  its  light,  becoming  a  violet-coloured 
disk,  is  banefi^,  and  even  dangerous,  espe- 
cially when  it  overtakes  the  traveller  unpre- 
pared. A  land  that  lies  so  low,  that  is  over- 
flowed with  water,  and  that  is  compelled,  for 
the  sake  of  vegetation,  to  retain  tiie  overflow 
which  must  often  become  stagnant,  if  not 
putrid,  can  hardly  fail  to  engender  an  abun- 
dance of  vermin,  as  well  as  diseases  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  Of  these  the  worst  is  the  plague, 
which,  though  not  f^quent  there,  is,  when 
it  comes,  very  destructive,  and  is  Uiought  to 
have  in  Egypt  its  proper  home ;  whence  it 
spreads  over  neighbouring  countries. 

To  the  diseases  and  natural  pests  which 
more  or  less  prevail  in  Egypt,  reference  has 
been  made  by  some  in  order  to  explain  the 
ten  plagues  with  which  God  smote  the  laud 
when  the  reigning  Pharaoh  refused  to  set 
the  Israelites  at  liberty  (Exod.  viii. — ^xi.). 
According  to  the  views  which  hence  arise, 
the  waters  of  the  Nile  were  turned  into  blood, 
in  so  fiur  as  such  an  appearance  might  ensue 
trozn  the  red  colour  which  the  stream,  in 
oon  sequence  of  the  earthy  matter  with  which 
it  is  loaded,  assumes  at  the  time  of  its  annual 
OTBvflow ;  the  frogs  and  the  lice  (properly 
gnats)  are  found  in  the  vermin  vdiich  at 
certain  seasons  swaim  in   the   land;    the 
blains  may  be  taken  to  be  the  common  dis> 
ease  of  the  skin  which  shows  itself  in  pus- 
tules, and  bears  the  name  of  Nile-seed, — a 
not  dangerous,  but  troublesome  disorder; 
flocks  of  looustB  are  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon ;  and  the  darkness  was  caused  by  the 
Chamsin.  But  the  nairative,  beyond  a  ques- 
tion, speaks  of  extraordinary  events.    Nor 
does  diis  hypothesis  explain  the  storm  of 
hail,  for  such  an  event  is  of  very  rare  occur- 
rence in  Egypt.    It  equally  leaves  the  death 
of' the  first-bom  unaccounted  for.    And  the 
Chamsin,  though  it  beclouds  the  face  of  the 
sky,  does  not  produce  daikness.  Nor  do  the 
evils  spoken  of  as  natural  to  the  countiy, 
occur  at  tifcie  same  time,  as  did  the  ten  plagues, 
stall  less  give  any  appearance  of  depending 
in  Ihelr  advent  on  the  will  or  tbe  word  of 
man.     Such  attempts  to  refer  the  miracu- 
lous to  merely  ordinary  causes,  pervert  in- 
stead of  expounding  tiie  Bible,  though  in 
their  remote  results  they  may  Ihmish  usefial 
materials  for  the  wise  expositor ;  and  in  the 
case  under  consideration,  suggest  the  remark 
that  the  miracles,  as  wrought  by  Moses, 
would  be  the  more  striking  and  impressive 
when  it  appeared  that  he  possessed  supreme 
power  over  the   ordinary  plagues   of  the 


country  which  came  and  went  at  his  bidding, 
not  merely  in  their  usual  manner,  but 
grouped  together  and  augmented  in  their 
power  of  destruction. 

The  Nile,    which  has    three  principal 
branches,  of  which  the  two  that  are  most 
important  bear  the  name  of  the  white  river, 
and  the  blue  river,  takes  its  rise  in  the  high 
lands  north  of  Uie  Equator.    At  17  deg. 
46  min.  N.  lat  it  joins  its  third  or  eastern 
branch,  whence  it  flows  in  a  course  1200 
geographical  miles  in  length  down  into  the 
Mediterranean.      Its   annual    overflow    is 
mainly  owing  to  the  periodical  rains  that 
fall  within  the  tropics.    About  the  end  of 
May  the  first  rise  of  the  river  is  seen  at  the 
Cataracts.   In  the  middle  of  June  a  gradual 
and  continuous  increase  may  be  witnessed 
as  low  as  Memphis.    In  the  beginning  of 
August  the  canals  were  in  old  times  peri- 
odically opened,  when  the  waters  overflowed 
the  plain.    As  the  Nile  rose,  the  peasants 
were  carefdl  to  remove  the  flocks  and  herds 
from  the  low  lands.    The  rich  alluvial  de- 
posits which  the  river  spread  over  Nubia 
and  Egypt,  were  mainly  derived  through 
the  blue  river ;  the  white  river,  or  longest 
stream,  bringing  nothing  of  the  kind.    The 
Nile  proceeds  in  its  current  uniformly  and 
quietly  at  the  rate  of  two  and  a  half  or  three 
miles    an  hour,  always    deep  enough  for 
navigation.    Its  water  is  usually  blue,  but 
it  becomes  of  a  deep  brick-red  during  the 
inundation. 

Whatever  Egypt  has  been«  it  owes  to  the 
Nile.  The  river  is  not  esq^ressly  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures,  so  little  did  their  writers 
aim  to  give  a  full  account  of  all  that  was 
nnder  their  eyes,  still  lees  a  detailed  history 
of  the  ancient  world.  But  the  Nile  is  meant 
when  the  sacred  text  speaks  of  '  th$  river ;' 
for  such,  to  the  Egyptians,  the  Nile  empha- 
tically was  (Oen.  xli.  1.  Exod.  i  22 ;  ii.  8 ; 
vii.  15).  To  it  were  the  Egyptians  indebted 
for  everything.  But  for  the  continuity  of  its 
flow,  the  country  would  have  been  a  mere 
desert  valley,  dry  and  barren,  except  in  the 
season  of  winter.  The  regular  overflow  of 
its  waters  spread  abroad  die  most  prolific 
fertility,  which  in  its  turn  gave  sustenance 
to  human  beings  and  was  the  occasion  of 
that  abundance  of  ibod  which  paved  the 
way  to  wealth,  and  aflbrded  a  fostering  en- 
couragement to  the  arts  and  refinements  of 
civilised  life.  The  natural  inundation  was 
much  extended  in  its  prevalence,  and  aug- 
mented in  its  benefits,  by  artificial  means, 
which  by  canals,  sluices,  sad  reservoirs,  car- 
ried its  fertilising  waters  over  the  surface  of 
Lower  Egypt  At  the  time  when  the  inunda* 
tion  was  at  its  highest  (in  September),  the 
land  had  the  i^pearance  of  a  widely-ex- 
tended sea,  the  surface  here  and  there  broken 
by  islands,  which  were  elevations  bearing  vil- 
lages  and  towns,  the  intercourse  between 


EGY  542  EGY 

which  WM  mafaitained  by  boats  and  rafts,     ▼ernmenl;  and  every  priast  and  noble  of  the 
Wbererer  die  waters  did  not  reaoh,  barren-     country  was  expected  to  use  his  otmoet  en- 
ness  prerafled ;  and  if  the  river  fiuled  to     deaTonrs  in  order  to  promote  the  indostry  of 
ytt^in  ita  ordinary  height,  the  oonntiy  was     the  agrieultoial  population.  Agricnltue  duia 
aflicted  with  dearth  and  famine.    The  oa-     pursued  enabled  so  confined  a  valley  to  otain- 
lamities  eonsequent  on  the  diminution  or     tain  a  population  of  seven  millions,  to  sup- 
iUlure  of  the  rich  suppliea  brought  by  the     ply  neighbouring  countries  with  com,  to  sup- 
Nile,  are  spoken  of  In  Isaiah  six.  5,  0,  and     port  at  one  time  an  army  of  410,000  men, 
Eiek.  xzz.  12;  eomp.  xxxiL  1^  Among  Ae     beaides  auxiliaries,  to  extend  ito  conquests 
means  employed  for  the  irrigation  of  the     into  the  heart  of  Asia,  end  to  exercise  for. 
country,  was  a  water-wheel  worked  by  the     ages  great  moral  influence  throughout    a 
foot,  which  conveyed  the  water  to   spoto     large  portion  of  Asia  and  Africa.    Indeed, 
whither  the  stream  did  not  ordinarily  reaoh,     Egypt  was  a  granary  where,  from  the  earliest 
or  where  the  constant  presence  of  water  was     times,  all  people  felt  sure  of  finding  a  plen- 
necessary  for  agricultural  purposes.     The     teous  store  of  com.    Some  idea  may  be 
process  of  working  this  marine,  which  i^     formed  of  its  productiveness  from  the  fact, 
pears  to  be  mentioned  by  the  Jew  Philo,  was     that  seven  years  of  plenty  afforded,  from  the 
very  laborious,  and  in  general  may  be  taken     superabundance  of  the  crops,  a  suflleiency 
as  sn  emblem  of  diffloulty  in  the  tillsge  of    of  com  to  supply  not  only  the  whole  popula- 
the  soil ;  whence  sppears  the  import  of  the     tion  during  seven  years  of  dearth,  but  *  all 
passage,  which  has  often  been  misunder-     countries'  which  sent  to  Egypt  to  buy  it, 
stood,  found  in  Dent  xi.  10, 11 : — *  For  the     when  the  reigning  Pharaoh,  by  the  advice  of 
land  whither  thou  goest  in  to  possess  it,  is    Joseph,  laid  up  the  annual  surplus  as  a  pn>- 
not  as  the  land  of  Egypt,  from  whence  ye     vision  for  coming  need  (Gen.  xii.  10 ;  xlL 
came  out,  where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed  and     29,  mj.;  xlii.  2,  Mf.). 
watendst  it  with  thy  /«oC,  as  a  garden  of        The  snccessfdl  prosecution  of  agriculture 
herbs ;  but  the  lend  is  a  land  of  hiUs  and     gave  birth  to  commerce.    The  advancement 
valleys,  and  drinketh  water  of  the  rain  of    of  civilisation  led  to  numerous  inventions, 
heaven.'    The  ensuing  passage  from  Per-     and  to  improvemento  in  the  ordinaiy  neces- 
kln^  'Persia'  (p.  420),  describes,  as  now     saries  of  life;  so  that  Egypt  at  length  be- 
practised,  usages  in  irrigation  well  known     came  the  first  of  nations  in  msnufrbetures, 
among  the  sncient  Egyptians : — *  All  crops     and  was  frmned  amongst  foreigners  for  the 
in  Persia  must  be  artificially  irrigated,  as    excellence  of  her  fine  linen,  her  cotton  and 
rain  seldom  ftdls  there  during  die  warm     woollen  stuffs,  cabinet  work,  porcelain,  glass, 
mondis  of  the  year.   The  fiuit  that  the  plains     snd  many  other  branches  of  industry.    In 
«e  nearly  level  facilitates  the  process.    Wa-     the  Bible  we  find  indications  of  skill  in  the 
ter  is  taken  by  cansls  from  the  small  rivers     art  of  weaving  (Is.  xix.  9).    'Fine  linen, 
that  roll  down  firom  the  mountains,  sad  eon-     with  embroidered  work,'  the  same  authority 
veyed  along  near  the  foot  of  the  declivities,     informs  us,  was  obtained  in  Egypt  by  the 
Smaller  canals,  leading  from  the  main  ones,     Tyrians  (Eaek.  zxvii  7).    As  early  as  the 
eany  it  down  to  prescribed  seetions  of  the     time  of  Joseph, '  vestures  of  fine  linen'  were 
plain ;  and  these  are  again  subdivided,  snd     in  use,  being  kept  by  the  monarch  as  en- 
eondnet  it  to  particular  fields  as  it  is  needed,     signs  of  dignity  for  favoured  members  of  his 
The  openings  firom  the  main  canals  are  rea-    court  (Gen.  xlL  42). 

dfly  closed  when  suflkient  water  is  taken  out  The  Nile,  beaides  the  vegetable  treasures 
for  a  given  field,  and  the  stream  then  passes  of  which  it  is  the  occasion,  supplies  sbun- 
on  to  cheer  and  fertilise  the  thirsty  soil  of  dance  of  fish  for  human  food ;  so  that  the 
the  next  nei^bour.  The  ease  with  which  Israelites,  when  on  their  toilsome  journey- 
the  gardener  changea  these  streams,  by  olos-  ings,  longed  for  '  the  fish  which  we  did  eat 
ing  or  opening  a  channel  with  his  spade,  or  in  Egypt  freely;*  also  <  the  cucumbers,  snd 
even  with  his  foot,  vividly  illustrates  the  the  melons,  and  the  leeks,  and  the  onions. 
Scripture  aUusion  to  the  Divine  sovereignty:  and  the  garlick'  (Numb.  xi.  0).  From  Is. 
'The  king's  heart  is  in  the  hand  of  the  xix.  8 — 10.  we  leam  that  the  number  of 
Lord,  B6  the  rivers  (rivuleto)  of  water;  those  who  gained  their  livelihood  by  fishing 
he  tnmeth  it  whithersoever  he  will'  (Prov.  was  considerable;  we  also  leam  some  of  the 
"!•  1)>  practices  by  which  they  exercised  their  skill, 

The  pursuite  of  husbsndry,  as  the  great  illustrations  of  which,  addressed  to  the  eye, 
source  of  the  wealth  of  the  country,  were  may  still  be  seen  on  the  snrriving  monu- 
held  in  specisl  honour  snd  encouraged  by  ments.  The  tillage  of  the  ground  proceeded 
various  mesns ;  so  that  the  soldiers,  a  class  in  ooigunction  with  grazing  and  pasturage, 
inferior  to  none  but  the  priesthood,  and  firom  Large  flocks  and  herds  formed  part  of  the 
which  only  tiie  king,  when  not  of  the  priestly  posMSsions  of  the  wealthy;  the  breed  of 
order,  could  be  chosen,  were  permitted,  and  honea  received  special  attention;  besides 
even  induced,  to  occupy  their  leisure  time  those  required  for  the  amy  snd  for  private 
in  the  tiUsge  of  lands  allotted  them  by  go-     use,    msny  were  sold    to    foreign  traders 


EGY  543  E  G  Y 

(Deut  zrii.  16.  1  Kings  z.  28,  29.  Is.  zxxi.  fixing  of  the  time  when  this  snspieioas  eTent 
1;  zzxtL  9).  might  be  looked  for,  became  an  object  of 
The  Tarions  processes  employed  for  waier^  great  social  consequence.  Experience  showed 
ing  the  land  gave  rise  to  skill  in  the  struc-  that  the  annual  retam  of  the  inondation  co« 
tore  of  machines,  which,  though  at  first  of  ineided  with  the  heliacal  rising  of  Sothis,  or 
a  simple  kind,  prepared  the  way  for  others,  the  Bog-star.  In  the  observations  and  calou- 
and  in  course  of  time  led  to  the  formation  lations  which  these  things  implied,  are  in- 
of  such  as  were  capable  of  rendering  efficient  Tolved  the  rise  and  growth  of  astronomy, 
aid  in  the  erection  of  vast  architectural  edi-  which  science,  as  well  as  that  of  geometry, 
fices.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that,  as  is  thus  found  to  be  referable  to  the  peeuli- 
the  inundation  subsided,  litigation  some-  arities  of  the  Nile,  and  must  have  been  sue- 
times  occurred  between  neighbours  respect-  cessftilly  cultivated  in  Egypt  at  veiy  early 
ing  the  limits  of  their  fields,  which  were  un-  periods.  To  these  we  may  also  attribute 
enclosed;andthefallof  a  portion  of  the  bank,  the  accurate  method  adopted  by  the  Egyp- 
carried  away  during  the  rise  of  the  Nile,  £re-  tians  in  the  regulation  of  the  year.  By  the 
quently  made  great  alterations  in  the  extent  seasons  so  definitely  marked  in  Egypt,  its 
of  land  near  the  river  side.  Hence  the  ne-  inhabitants  were  taught  to  correct  £ose  in* 
cessity  of  some  means  to  determine  the  accuracies  to  which,  at  first,  an  approximate 
quantity  which  belonged  to  each  person,  calculation  was  liable.  Their  year  may  oii* 
The  land-tax  also  called  for  the  resources  ginally  have  been  lunar,  but  it  was  soon 
of  practical  geometry.  The  science  of  men-  made  to  consist  of  twelve  months  of  thirty 
suration,  which  would  be  needed  in  the  ear-  days  each,  making  a  total  of  800  days.  Ero 
liest  settlement  of  property  in  the  hands  of  long,  it  was  discovered  that  the  seasons  wero 
individuals,  is  by  die  monumental  evidence  disturbed.  Five  additional  days  were,  there- 
carried  back  to  Uie  primaval  ages  of  Egyp-  fore,  introduced  at  the  end  of  die  last  month, 
tian  history.  Besides  the  measurement  of  Mesor^.  Still,  there  was  a  defect  to  which 
superficial  areas,  it  was  of  importance  to  a  people  who  were  annually  warned  by  the 
agriculture  to  distribute  the  benefits  of  the  rise  of  the  Nile,  could  not  long  remain  in- 
inundation  in  due  proportion  to  each  indi-  sensible ;  for  in  120  years  they  would  find 
vidual,  so  that  the  lands  which  were  low  that  they  had  lost  a  whole  month.  In  order 
might  not  enjoy  the  exclusive  advantages  of  to  remedy  this  evil,  they  added  a  quarter  of 
the  fertilising  water  by  constantly  draining  it  a  day,  by  making  every  fourth  year  to  con- 
firom  those  of  a  higher  level.    For  this  pur-  sist  of  866  days. 

pose,  it  was  necessary  to  ascertain  the  vari-  These  scientific  attainments  did  not  long 
ous  elevations  of  the  country,  and  to  con-  remain,  if,  indeed,  they  ever  existed,  in  a 
struct  accurately  levelled  canals  and  dykes ;  pure  state.  A  knowledge  of  the  resowrces 
and  if  it  is  true  that  Menes,  the  first  king,  of  nature  was  abused  in  the  formation  of 
turned  the  coune  of  the  Nile  into  a  new  pretended  arts,  by  which  man's  influence 
channel  that  he  had  caused  to  be  made,  we  over  external  things  might  be  augmented ; 
have  proof  that,  long  before  his  time,  the  the  result,  if  not  the  aim,  of  which  was,  the 
Egyptians  had  arriTcd  at  considerable  know-  domination  of  the  learned  few,  who,  as  priests, 
ledge  in  this  branch  of  science,  since  so  magicians,  and  astrologers,  held  the  people 
great  an  undertaking  could  have  been  the  in  complete  subjection.  Even  as  early  as 
result  only  of  long  experience.  The  pecu-  the  days  of  Moses,  we  find  dealen  in  the 
liar  character  of  the  river  led  to  minute  ob-  dark  punuits  of  credulity  and  imposture— 
servations  respecting  its  increase  during  the  a  distinct,  recognised,  and  influential  class, 
inundation;  nilometere,  for  measuring  its  near,  if  not  in,  the  court  of  the  monaroh 
gradual  rise  and  fall,  were  set  up  in  various  (Exod.  vii.  11) ;  and  as  the  simplicity  of 
parts  of  the  countiy,  and  persons  were  ap-  primitive  mannen  was  replaced  by  the  so- 
pointed  to  observe  each  daily  change,  and  to  phistieations  of  degenerate  days  and  deoUn- 
proclaim  tlie  facts.  On  their  reports  de-  ing  civilisation,  Egypt  became  famous  for 
pended  the  time  for  opening  the  canals,  occult  science,  and  degraded  by  gross  decep- 
whose  mouths  were  kept  closed  until  the  tions.  What,  in  relation  to  the  age  of  Moses, 
river  had  risen  to  a  certain  height;  on  which  may  liave  been  truly  characterised  as  '  the 
ooeasion,  grand  festivities  were  observed  wisdom  of  Egypt'  (Acts  TiL  22),  sank  by 
throughout  the  country,  in  order  that  every  degrees  into  dark  delusions  which  even  reli- 
penon  might  show  his  sense  of  the  great  gion  did  not  disdain  to  employ,  or  a  fu- 
beneiit  vouchsafed  by  the  gods  to  the  fa-  pentitions  adherence  to  established  usages 
Toured  land.  Superstition  added  to  the  seal  which  kept  the  nation  bound  hand  and  foot 
of  a  oredulous  people.  The  deity  of  the  to  '  old  wiveaT  fables.' 
river  was  propitiated  by  suitable  oblations.  In  architecture  it  was  that  the  science  of 
Seneca  states,  that  on  a  particular  festival  the  Egyptians  was  most  effectually  die- 
the  priests  threw  presents  of  gold  into  the  played.  Their  achievements  in  the  con- 
stream  near  Phil»,  at  a  place  called  '  the  stmction  of  edifices  even  now  presents  to 
Veins  of  the  Nile,'  where  flnt  they  were  wont  the  eye  of  the  wondering  and  gratified  tra- 
to  discern  the  rise  of  the  inundation.    The  Teller,  monuments  which,  for  magnitude, 


EGV 


514 


gnndtiiT  ud  dunbUitr.  bne  <>•*« 
■nrpaued.    The  bwiki  of  ths  Nil«  u 


EG  Y 


Ths 


Kolptonl  d 
■nrpaued.  The  bwiki  of  ths  Nil«  4n  on  tome  of  IhcM  iuumi  eioitcs  tna  mon 
both  lidci  wMtrred  wilh  the  nmuni  ot  wonder  than  thsit  treotion.  Solid  pjik 
EgjpUwi  uL  Bui  mX  Tbebai  Iher  V?""  (lowered  gate-wara)  ot  taoimaai  balk  an 
in  a  giaodeiu  which  lolitnda  Trader*  im-  broken  up  or  riren  in  twain.  Taat-bnill 
poiing  and  inbllma.  Tbe  mod  remartable  eolnmni  tnm  to  hare  been  dragged  frooi 
object  ia  the  lemple-palaee  of  Kamik,  of  their  toondalione  in  a  maea.  Arehitiwnea 
which  the  cQioing  eat  eibibita  the  chief  nunj  Ion*  in  weight,  wrenched  from  their 
entrance,  wilh  iu  two  obeliak*  (restored).  place,  now  impend  OTtr  the  alalea,  eiw- 
pendod  by  jtl  heaxier  maaeea,  whieh  hnT* 
paihi^it  been  thu*  nieelj  poiiing  them  tor 
agei.    One  ntighl  beliere  the  men  of  thoae 


'  Oiuti  of  Blflitj  bi 


F«baeniAenperfeetl  ThewaUa,NlnmDa, 
aichitruea,  eeilingi — everr  nrliue  •xpoaad 
(o  the  eye,  it  orer^read  widi  intaglio  aenlp- 
larei,  —  goda,  henM*,  and  hinogljphioa, 
painted  in  onee  Tind  oolonrw.  No  deearip- 
lion  can  eoniay  an  idea  of  it*  anblima  effect. 
What   muaiie  graadenr  in   ila  Tiatai  of 


wamdan,  it'u  filled  wilh  pietnia— rank  be- 
hind laiik — Tina  bayoud  riata.  Here  joor 
vf»  nuu  along  a  pillared  aTenne,  and  ml* 
upon  a  vaat  eolniDa  at  the  end,  tom  from 
ila  baai*  and  thrown  againat  the  next;  now 
it '  la  l*d  a  wanton  ohaae'  thion^  a  laby- 
rinth of  colnnuu  whieh,  from  another  point, 
bit  inte  regnUr  aoeeaaaioii.  All  the  re- 
aoorea*  c^  Egrptiao  anihitaetn~  •—  y—* 
dlaplejed    in  perfeetion;  —  i 


'   it*   rioh  pciTi 


Bnt  the  hall  of  eoluuw  WM  bol  a  fan  at 
ihi*  wondsrfU  bbrio.  Idubm  p]riia,half- 
bnried  qnadrao^e*,  md  ball*,  gnnilB  obe- 
liak*, and  Demiouloiiapilea  of  Ulen  tDaaonir, 
onee  feimed  a  rai^  of  bnadingi  1300  fwl 
in  Icagth.  The  chief  entraaoe  wu  duoo^ 
the  gate-war  of  the  veat  ftent,  aixty-thiee 
feel  high.  Beiidea  theer,  there  woe  other 
iaolated  md  tabeidinale  baildin|^  The 
iriiole  ^ipeei*  to  haTe  bcai  ufiantted  from 
the  din  of  the  eitf  by  an  outwud  endoaora 
of  nnbnmt  brick,  oomptiaing  an  area  of 
ahoot  080  yarda  in  iMigdt.  A  aoeoearion  of 
fnw  great  pjla  led  aeroaa  dii*  arak  to  tbt 
aide  of  the  ehief  (Onetare.  The  ootermcM 
pjloQ,  aa  it  waa  eipoaad  to  the  view  of  Ibl 
Bit; ,  and  flrat  nceivad  the  adTaneing  pn>- 
oeuiou,  waa  the  moM  magnifiorat    The** 


EGY  a 

fnnd  pjU  wen  (he  pMoliu  pride  of  TbtLci. 
Eaoh  moiurah  KiagLc  lo  abed  Initn  on  hii 

monament.  SapendtioD  ■eoondad  the  upi- 
ratioiu  foi  fuae,  uid  pn>*Bil  the  eoliiB 
patroQ  of  mhileclan.  Edifioei  ver*  alnj* 
■raolsd  to  hauoar  of  one  of  llu  god*.  Bat 
enrf  reign  eonid  not  produce  too  eotjn 
(ample ;  moet  lings,  therefore,  ountented 
IhemaelTee  with  edding  to  one  elreedy  built; 
uid  u  anj  nmnlMT  of  theee  pyl>  might  be 

1  ..   J  bnildlug  without  diKnrbing 

.'  ol  its  dcnga,  >  work  of  Ihia 
I  genaMllf  ohotm.  Thus  tfam 
nopetutoDe  monnniBnta  were  ao  mltiptied 
U  Thebee,  the!  Ihtj  beoune  4SM>eiated  with 
its  nij  iiarne ;  end  heuoe  tbs  well-kaown 
epithet  >  the  hundred-galed.'  An  veune  of 
oolatul  aphiciea  ^peera  to  hne  been  ood- 
tinaed  from  Lnior  up  lo  the  oater  preeiitat 
ot  E>mi]i.  The  few  of  them  ibet  dow  re- 
main tn  niutilUed  uid  helf-intened ;  bat 
haw  imposing  the  effect  of  Mieh  &  Tieti,  ex- 
lending  neerlf  e  mile  end  ■  halt  ORI  (be 
plain,  teimiuated  bf  the  great  facade  of 
Luiorl    All  theae  baildinga  foimed  parts  of 

one  magnifloent  whole.  AUi ■ ' 

of  gigantic  blooks,  and  ni< 


5  EGY 

with  aeolpwre.  In  eaoh  blook  t«  aeen  the 
ftnit  of  dare  or  woeke  of  labonr.  How  in- 
calcnlable,  then,  the  emonnl  of  loH  and  akiD 
here  expended  I  Paae  throng  the  aueeea- 
siTB  conrti  and  balla,  ascend  the  pyla,  and 
look  down  on  the  massea  beneslh;  acquaint 
youreelf  with  the  general  daaign  and  the 
decoratiTe  details ;  then  place  the  Sfmme- 
trio  whole  before  joor  mind's  eye  in  the 
ftret  glory  of  ita  Tarioaaly-paiated  decora- 
(iona,-— and  the  temple-palace  of  Kamak 
will  qipear '  the  eplendid  lie '  of  an  enchanter 
lather  tiian  a  reat  edifice,  the  alow  product 
of  honan  hands.  Yet  anch  was  (he  imperial 
abode  of  the  Pharaohs  when  Europe  was  yet 
In  prlmeral  barbarian ;  agee  before  Romulns 
took  hia  omen  on  the  Palatine  hilL 

The  mina  are  atrewed  in  ohaotio  eon- 
fhslonoTei'  a  aandyplatn  broken  Into  sh^e- 
less  monndB.  Here  profoand  silence  reigns. 
A  ftw  camels  about  to  jootney  oTer  the  de- 
sert are  reposing  peaeeftiliy  in  (he  area  of 
the  great  qaadrangle.  An  Arab  boy  may  be 
seen  stretohed  on  the  asaid  in  (he  rained 
eanctaary,  aleeping  away  the  naon-tide  heat, 
hie  meek-eyed  as  stamding  by  as  HMtionlea* 
as  die  atstaee  near  Mm.  The  monmltal 
ooolnga  of  onaem  dores  an  alone  heard  in 


halls  that  once  reionnded  with  Sgyptlsn     senlptora  seems  luddenly  endowed  iritfi  life. 


leponderoi  ^   _^  ._   ^ rj--- 

is  they  sit  mate  and  motionleas  imagine    an    ancient   praeesslon    defiling 

they  an  mistaken  for  hieraglyphic  figores;  tbioagh  its  portal,  the  eiOgen  and  the  mln- 

skonld  they  ehsnce  to  xaon,  the  sntiqns  atiels,  the  prisstesees   waring   aloft   llulr 


SOY                      546  E6Y 

■liln  (timbrali),  the   ttreaming  bumarf,  leription  on  the  exterior  elated  that  the  ek« 

the  oleng  of  trumpets,  end  the  acelemUioiit  pense  of  pxoTiding  them  with  onione  and 

of  the  Theban  multitude; — then  let  jour  other  roots  amoonted  to  16,000  talents.  CoL 

•je  glanioe  over  the  silent  rains  aioond  yoo,  Vyse  estimates  the  masonry  of  the  Oreai 

and  no  eloqaence  ooold  so  impresslTely  en*  Pyramid  at  6,816,000  tons.    Thongh  whole 

foroe  the  trite  lesson  of  the  transitoriness  of  moeqnes  hare  probably  been  bnilt  oot  of  its 

worldly  grandeur.  spoOs,  the  integrity  of  its  form  remains  vn- 

The  three  great  pyramids  of  Otaeh  are  the  impaired,  and  from  a  distanee  yon  pereeire 

chief  of  an  assemblage  of  sepolohral  woiks,  hardly  a  traoe  id  Tiolenoe  or  deeay.    The 

onoe  the  cemetery  for  the  rich  and  noble  present  entrance  is  a  small  opening  to  tho 

Memphis  (comp.  Hosea  is.  6),  which  lay  north  front,  abont  three  Ibet  and  a  half  wids^ 

about  ten  miles  to  the  sonth-eaat.    The  fw-  and  rather  more  dian  fonr  hi^.  This  is  the 

famed  group  are  based  on  a  ledge  of  rook  month  of  a  long  lowtnnnel,  of  the  same  eon- 

seTenty  or  eighty  feet  high,  rising  ont  of  a  traeted  dimensions,  descending  at  a  steep 

swell  in  an  arid  waste,  jnst  where  it  sinks  slope  into  the  heart  id  the  edifice.   Wadien 

into  ooltiTated  lands,  and  between  fiTe  and  has  thns  described  his  risit  to  the  interior: — 

six  miles  from  the  NUc.  'Two  peasants  accompanied  me;  one  leading 

On  learing  the  rillage  of  Oixeh,  on  the  the  way  with  lights,  and  anodier  following 

river  bank  opposite  Old  Cairo,  the  pjramids  in  the  rear  with  a  sopply  of  water,  without 

rise  before  yon,  nattering  white  against  the  which  yon  go  nowhere  in  this  thirsty  land, 

blue  sky ;  but  Uie  flatness  of  the  plain  and  As  we  proceeded,  the  glimmer  from  behind 

the  purity  of  the  atmosphere  deceive  the  eye  grew  fUnter  till  it  was  quite  lost    Now  de- 

as  to  their  distance  and  their  siie.    Ton  i^  seending,  now  ascending,  we  made  our  way 

pear  almost  at  their  base,  while  yet  serenU  tfarouf^  narrow  passages,  winding  commn- 

miles  interrene.    As  yon  adrance,  they  gra-  nieations,  and  gloomy,  bat-infested  eham- 

dually  unfold  their  gigantic  dimimai<ms ;  but  hers,  till  I  had  lost  all  due  to  our  real  posi^ 

you  must  hare  been  some  time  on  the  ipot —  tion.    Before  and  behind  was  black  dark- 

your  eye  must  hare  repeatedly  travelled  along  ness;  our  wax  li^ts  threw  a  fllftal  flicker 

the  Oreat  Pyramid's  740  feet  of  base,  and  up  upon  the  near  objects ;  and  as  we  moved  on, 

its  steep,  towering  angles — ^before  you  can  our  footsteps  and  voices  awoke  the  echoes 

frilly  understand  its  immensity,  and  the  un-  and  startled  the  genii  of  the  place.    At  last, 

told  amount  of  labour  involved  in  its  erco-  after  ascending  a  long  and  very  lofty  pas- 

tion.    Thousands  of  enonnous  stones,  all  sage,  we  came  to  the  central  sepnlchnl 

accurately  squared,  are  here  elevated  bun-  chamber,  the  inner  shrine  of  this  vast  man* 

dreds  of  feet  above  the  ground :  each  was  soleum.     Here,  walls,  floor  and  rooi;  are  al 

hoisted   step  by  step  up  the  sides  till  it  formed  with  massive  blocks  of  polished  red 

reached  its  bed.     One  ean  scarcely  view  granite,  reaching  from  floor  to  ceiling,  and 

these  buildings  without  the  conviction  that  stretching  tiom  wsll  to  walL    A  large  gra- 

they  are  the  work  of  an  enslaved  and  dri-  nite  sarcophagus  stood  at  one  end  of  the 

▼en  race.    In  their  erection,  little  else  was  apartment— its  sole  contents  being  rabbiah 

required  of  the  artificers  than  physical  ex-  and  dust,  not  a  single  hieroglyphic  upon  it 

ertion   and  obedience  to   the    taskmaster,  or  the  walls  of  the  chamber.    The  massive 

Yet  these  creations  exhibit  a  sublime  sim-  granite  floor  had  been  torn  up,  probably  by 

plicity  of  conception,  and  a  dauntless  hardi-  some  greedy  searcher  for  hidden  treasuies : 

hood  of  enteiprise,  which,  when  folly  q^re-  the  gloomy  waUs  were  blackened  with  innn- 

ciated,  tske  possession  of  the  soul.    The  merable  inscriptions.  Sudi  is  the  fate  of  the 

dimensions  of  the  Great  Pyramid  have  been  Jealously-gnarded  tomb  of  the  tyrant  Cheops! 

diflbrently  stated,  the  mounds  of  rabbtsh  --its  secret  chambers  the  abode  of  bats,  and 

round  the  base  rendering  it  difllcult  to  ob-  scrawled  with  the  names  of  strangers  of  all 

tain  accurate  measurements.    Those  taken  lands ;  the  era  of  its  foundation  and  the  in- 

during  Colonel  Vyse's  operations  in  1837,  tricacies  of  its  interior,  problems  for  the 

original  base,  feet,  764 ;   original  in-  chronologist  and  the  explonr.    How  admi- 


dined  height,  611.    The  original  perpen-  rably  adapted  would  have  been  these  myste- 

dieular  height,  therefore,  supposing  the  py-  rious  penetralia  to  the  puipoees  of  a  crafty 

ramid  to  have  been  carried  up  neariy  to  a  priesthood  in  imposing  on  the  credulity  of 

point,  was  about  480  feet,  or  43  more  than  superstitious  devotees !    How  exactly  fitted 

St  Peter's,  and  100  more  than  St  Paul's,  for  the  performance  of  their  initiatoiy  rites 

The  area  covered  was  almost  thirteen  acres  with  awe-inspiring  effect;  for  bodying  forth 

and  a  hall    The  mighty  mass  may  be  de-  the  allegoric  doctrines  of  their  mystic  fidth, 

■oribed  by  the  femOiar  illustration  of  a  solid  or  enacting  the  ftblea  ascribed  to  their  gods !' 

pile,  occuping  the  whole  srea  of  Lincoln's-  (Arts  and  Antiq.  of  Egypt,  p.  101.)   In  other 

Inn  Fields,  and  ascending  to  a  point  one  chambers.  Colonel  Vyse  discovered  a  few 

hundred  feet  higher  than  the  top  of  St  rough  hieroglyphics  on  the  walls,  which  were 

Paul's.    According  to  Pliny,  866,000  men  the  first  traces  of  writing  found  within  the 

were  employed  on  its  erection  for  twenty  pyramids.    Though  probably  nothing  mora 

years;  and  Herodotus  tells  us,  that  an  in-  than  the  chance  scribblings  of  Cheop^  ma 


EGY  M 

•ona.  ihsj  tie  Terj  inlewiliiig.  Amoiig  them 
•ppsared  tlie  name  of  Shofo.  who  is  held  u> 
be  the  SuphiB,  or  Cheope,  to  nbom  Minetho 
•nd  Herodoiu*  peipecliielj  Moribo  lli«  ereo- 
tion  ol  Ihia  ntnoidiuar;  struclore.  In  th« 
flkiid  pyrunid  >lsa,  CoI.Vjia  taaad  the  nune 
of  its  kUegid  builder,  nundj,  Hjoeriniu. 
Th<  UDonut  o(  UboDT  emplojed  in  the  eon- 
■tniDtioi)  of  the  pynmidi  ezueeds  all  imigi- 
oUion,  foi  the;  vers  numerooi  in  EgTpt- 
A  tabalar  Tie*  Ijinf  bebre  nt  g^TBB  deiuU  of 
Dot  tenet  thin  thirty-sight,  of  which  retaaini 
■till  eibl. 

Tha  pjnmidi  iboot  whote  pnrpou  and 
lua  H  mueh  hu  been  written,  were,  with 
other  lulalT  ediBeei,  daiigued  far  maaaole*. 
or  lomba,  the  aim  being  to  anahrine  the 
eorpBe  deep  within  tha  earth  or  mua  of 
muoiuj,  far  from  the  itir  of  the  living 
worid.  EgTpdan  tomba  an  neTer  found  in 
ooltivabla  oi  Inhabited  parta — aluiya  in  the 
deaert,  on  the  akins  of  tha  alluTial  plain. 
Inlhepfnmid*  tha  eepnlohnl  aputment  ia 
"■'-  - '-  -"- ^-  of  •he  aolid  building,  or 


EGY 

imoleat  part.  Ku  pains  wa« 
ireaa  the  eoncem  the  Egyf- 
)b  the  dead,  agreeably  to  the 
nent  which  Bophoclea  puu 
of  the  danghter  of  (Edlpiu : 


TtH  ]Umlmm,  BM  the  OriDf.    1  IliaU  ntt 

The  pjramidi  of  Oiiab,  bowaiar,  iU 
anawaied  the  porpoee  indicated  in  Ibeea 
linea.  '  The  tranea  of  the  two  oppniaon 
(Cheops  and  Chephren,  bnildera  of  the  flnt 
and  the  lecond),  who  for  two  generations,' 
wecileBimsea('£g7FleDa  Stelle.'ii.  118), 
■  toimanted  bnndieda  of  thooBanda  daj  after 
da;,  hiTe  bean  lorn  from  their  BcpoLchral 
ahambera,  which  were  destined  lo  defy  Ihg 
eorioaity  and  destractiieness  of  men,  and 
praaerra  their  bodies  fbr  eier  from  the  an- 
nihilation wfaieh  tbej  dreaded.  Nay,  Dio- 
doms  reUtea  an  Egyptian  tmHitioo,  aecord- 
ing  to  which  both  of  thaaa  kinga,  owing  to 
the  ippreheiuiona  which  were  entertained 
of  a  Tialent  outbreak  of  popular  tUry,  wars 
■ilsDtly  dapoaited  in  humble  gravea,  and 
neiar  occupied  the  pyramids.  But  the  good 
and  philsnthropie  king  (Mycerinas,  builder 
of  the  third),  who  put  an  end  to  the  ia- 
hnmin  oppression  of  the  people,  and  in 
consequenee  of  this  lived  in  poetry  and 
song,  even  lo  the  latest  times,  as  the  people'a 
darling,  has,  even  to  our  days,  although  hia 
coffin  has  been  broken  open,  remained  in 
his  own  pyramid,  and  baa  now,  rescued 
Emm  the  masa  of  mina,  fband  a  resting- 
plaM  worthy  of  him-  A  notable  destiny ! 
The  old  monanhy  of  thsPhanobs.Dfwhieh 
he  WM  the  eighteenth  ruler,  has  passed 
away ;  two  other  monsrehies  haTa  followed 
it,  and  the  destroyers  of  the  most  ancient 
bsTB  ilao  made  llieir  exit  from  tha  stage  of 
history.  Tha  goda  of  Egypt  hsTe  cmmblad 
into  dost;  '  sonof  tha  Fhsraoba' is  a  name 
of   teproaoh  in  the  Pharaohs'  Isnd;  eren 


than  it  did  6000  years  ago — in  the  world- 
mling  ialand  which  is  protected  by  the 
might  of  freedom  and  ciTiliaation,  s^  niom 
than  by  the  wnea  which  encircle  it — amid 


It  soblim 


in  the  rock  beneath  it  In  the  built  tombs 
near  the  Oiieh  pyramids,  a  deep  wall  waa 
sunk,  and  the  mnmmy  deposited  in  a  cell 
■I  the  bottom.  In  the  tombs  ofE'Sioui, 
nut  ooDteni  with  a  chamber  hollowed  out  of 
the  face  of  the  cliff,  Ihsy  aniik  ahafla,  and 
fanned  more  aeoluded  cells  within  the 
moontain.  For  the  royal  sepulchres  of 
Tbebaa  ihay  first  seleeled  the  loneliest  ra- 
Tine ;  for  each  tomb  they  carried  a  gallery 
deep   into  the   bill,   and  then  placed  the 


For  the  explanation  of  the  latter  part  of  this 
paaaagB  it  ia  necessary  to  add,  that  though 
the  aarcophagUB  of  the  good  Mycaiinaa,  dis- 
corered  by  Vjae  in  the  third  pyramid,  waa 
ilBclf  lost  off  the  coast  of  Spa^  on  its  Toy- 
age  to  England,  the  lid,  with  its  inscription, 
and  the  body  of  the  king,  are  now  in  the 
British  Huasum. 

The  Tiew  at  snn-riis  from  Ihs  minunil  ol 
the  Great  Pyramid  ia  striking  and  impres- 
siTc.  The  shadows  of  the  three  giganlia 
li«  stretched  beneath  oTsr  thi 
1IM9 


E  G  Y  548  E  G  Y 

mouldering   memorials  of  long  •  forgotten  into  Egypt,  it  much  too  short  to  have  ad- 
ages. Westward,  an  undulating  desert  plain  milted  of  this  deyelopraent  of  the  arta  and 
extends  to  the  white  hills,  whi(!h  from  this  resources  of  life,  whateyer  remains  of  former 
point  southward  shut  in  the  Egyptian  valley,  civilisation  we  may  suppose  to  have  smr- 
now  approaching  the  riyer,  now  sweeping  off  yived  the  submersion  of  the  earth ;  thon^, 
inland ;  the  eye  can  follow  no  further  west-  if  the  flood  was  in  reality  but  partial  in  its 
ward,  but  for  many  a  hundred  leagues  be-  preyalence,  the  argument  loses  some  of  its 
yond  stretch  the  silent  solitudes  of  the  great  force,  and  the  ordinary  chronology  is  not  so 
African  desert.  To  the  north-east  and  south  incapable  to  solve   great  problems  in  the 
you  look  down  on  the  fertile  fields  of  Egypt,  history  of  civilisation, 
here  emerging  from  its  long  narrow  vaUey,         The  original  of  the  Egyptian  people  is 
and  spreading  into  the  expanse  of  the  Delta,  also  attended  with  questions  which  it  is  not 
Through  the  midst  of  the  plain  '  prolific  easy  to  answer.    Whence  were  they  7    Did 
Nile  pours  along  his  earthy  tide,'  borne  from  they  descend  the  Nile  firam  the  southern 
the  far-off  regions  of  Central  Africa,   and  districts  of  Nubia  or  Abyssinia  T    Did  they 
now  soon  to  mingle  with  the  blue  waters  of  proceed  at  once  from  the  high  lands  of  Ar- 
the  Mediterranean.    Beyond  the  river,  and  menia  into  the  valley  of  the  Nile  ?     Did  the 
backed  by  the  Mocattam  hills,  are  seen  the  first  fathers  of  the  nation,  on  quitting  Ai- 
tall  minarets  of  the  modem  capital.    YU-  menia,  migrate  into  eastern  lands,  and  onfy 
lages  nestled  in  groves  of  palms  are  scat-  after  some  ages  return  towards  the  west,  and 
tared  over  the  plain,  or  during  the  inunda-  fix  themselves  in  the  longitudinal  basin  on 
tion  rise  like  islands  out  of  the  lakes.    To  the  eastern  limits  of  Africa  ?    To  which  of 
the  south-east,  the  pyramids  of  Sakkara  are  the  stems,  that  of  Shem  or  that  of  Ham, 
seen  glistening  in  Uie  sunshine.      Above  are  they   to  be  referred?     If,  originally, 
spreads  the  same  cloudless  azure  that  cano-  Egypt  was  settled  by  Hamites,  as  the  Scrip- 
pied  the  court  of  the  Pharaohs.    The  his-  tnre  clearly  impliea  (Gen.x.  fi),  may  not  an 
tone  recollections  of  the  scene  are  also  full  Asiatic  people,  descended  from  the  superior 
of  interest     Within  a  few  leagues  are  the  tribe  of  Shem,  have  taken  possession  of  the 
sites  of  Memphis,  the  second  metropolis  of  country,  expelling  or  destroying  its  aboriginal 
Egypt,  and  of  On  or  Heliopolis,  the  city  of  possessors  ?     These  are  points  into  which 
Joseph's  father-in-law,  Potipherah,  and,  it  our  space  forbids  us  to  enter.    We  may, 
may  be,  the  scene  of  his  temptation,  his  cap-  however,  remark  that  Bunsen  finds,  both  in 
tivity,  and  at  last  his   greatness.     It  was  the  religion  and  the  language  of  the  Egyp- 
through  the  defiles  of  the  mountains  to  the  tians,8uch  as  the  remains  of  their  civilisation 
east,  behind  Cairo,   that  the  vast  host  of  present  them  to  us,  evidences  that  they  had 
Hebrew  slaves  marched  out  with  a  high  their  origin  in  Asia,  if  not  in  the  high  landa 
hand  under  tbeir  enterprising  leader,  and  of  Caucasus  and  Armenia.    In  confirmation 
began  to  unfold  the  roll  of  dieir  national  of  this  opinion  may  be  quoted  the  authority 
destinies.  of  the  Quarterly  Beview  (cxlv.  p.  153 ),  which 
The  early  history  of  Egypt  Is  a  subject  says, — '  No  one  who  has  studied  Uie  sub- 
which  is  still  involved  in  difficulty,  though  ject,  can  doubt  that  the  Egyptian  language 
Bunsen  may  be  considered  as  having  ren-  may  claim  an  Asiatic,  and  indeed  a  Shemitio 
dered  it  probable  that  it  extends  much  far-  parentage.    We  are  disposed  to  go  fkuther 
ther  backwards  than  the  ordinary  chronology  in  this  opinion  than  M.  Bunsen ;  and  we 
allows.     One  of  the  most  forcible  of  Bun-  hold  that  the  Egyptian  language  was  not 
sen's  arguments,  namely,  that  the  earliest  only  Shemitic,  but  is  presented  to  us  in  the 
state  in  which  we  find  Egypt  as  made  known  same  condition  as  the  Hebrew, — ^perh^a 
by  the  monuments  and  other  sources  of  in-  somewhat  less  disorganised,  but  exhibiting 
formation,  implies  the  lapse  of  an  anterior  traces  of  the  same  original  mechanism,  de- 
period  of  considerable  duration,  since  such  faced  by  nearly  the  same  corruptions.' 
a  period  was  indispensable  as  a  precursor         Bunsen  divides  the  genend  history  of 
to  the  then  existing  state  of  civilisation,  is  Egypt  into  three  kingdoms — ^the  ancient,  the 
not  without  corroboration  in  the  sacred  re-  middle,  and  the  new.   Of  the  ancient,  Menes 
cord ;  for  in  the  earlier  days  of  Abraham  was  the  first  king,  who,  in  tbe  year  3648  A.C., 
(cir.  1920)  the  Scriptures  represent  Egypt  descending  the  NUe  from  This,  his  original 
as  already  the  granary  of  the  surrounding  settlement  in  the  Thebais,  became  the  founder 
countries,  and  in  possession  of  a  regularly-  of  Memphis  and  of  the  sole  monarchy.  The 
organised  government,  under  princes  and  a  dynasty  of  Menes  lasted  for  190  years ;  and 
monarch  who  had  his  harem,  which,  after  while  one  branch  of  his  family  continued 
the  manner  of  eastern  despots,  he  was  wont  the  succesaion  in  Upper  Egypt,  another,  the 
to  replenish  by  ajTbitfarilytakhig  the  beauties  third  dynasty  as  it  U  caUed,  reigned  for 
that  were  brought  under  his  notice,  and  who  224  years  at  Memphis,  and  carried  forward 
abounded  >^  such  wealth  as  '  cattle,  silver,  the  process  of  social  development  which 
and  gold    ^}f«^-  *"' .10,  teq.).    Now  tiie  Menes  had  begun,  introducing  a  symbolical 

^^  Ae  fl^'!^i''??'^~"*^^^«rP^^  ^^'^'P^  improving  the  system  of  writing, 

between  t»e  nooa  and  Abraham's  descent  and  founding  a  class-division  of  the  Egyu- 


EG  Y 


519 


EG  Y 


tIanB.  The  fourth  dynasty  also  reigned  at 
Memphia  150  years  oyer  the  united  king- 
dom. It  was  again  divided  between  an  Ele- 
phantine and  a  Memphite  dynasty  for  107 
3rean.  Two  Memphite  dynasties  sneoeeded, 
the  seventh  and  eighth,  and  a  Theban,  the 
eleventh,  for  166  years;  but  oontempora- 
neons  with  these  were  two  dynasties  of  He- 
raoleopolis  in  Lower  Egypt,  the  ninth  and 
tenth.  The  twelfth  was  Theban,  and  lasted 
147  years.  In  the  reign  of  the  third  king  of  the 
thirteenth  dynasty,  and  after  the  house  had 
mled  Egypt  87  years,  the  invasion  of  the  Hyk- 
•os  overtiiirew  die  old  monarchy  1076  years 
after  Menes,  and  3&68  years  A.  0.  The  oo- 
ezistenoe  of  two  sovereignties  in  the  same 
land  is,  however,  unsupported  by  any  doeu- 
mentaiy  evidence,  and  hardly  reooncileable 
with  the  jealousy  which  neighbouring  mo- 
nsrchs  are  apt  to  entertain.  But  if  ftiture 
inquiries  should  invalidate  this  theory,  the 
lengthened  chrondogioal  period  assigned  by 
Bunsen  must  lose  a  great  support,  and  can 
meanwhile  be  in  no  way  regttded  as  esta- 
blished irreversibly. 

The  domination  of  the  foreign  dynasties 
of  the  Hyksos  or  the  middle  monarchy,  ac- 
cording to  Chevalier  Bunsen,  terminated, 
after  a  period  of  929  years,  in  1689  A.  G. 
Who  the  Hyksos  were  (we  give  the  sub- 
stance of  Bunsen's  observations),  Manetho 
distinctly  declares.  They  were,  according  to 
him,  eiUier  Phoenicians  or  Arabs,  that  is 
shepherds,  who  pressed  into  the  country 
from  the  north  or  the  north-east.  The  hy- 
pothesis that  they  were  Scythian  herdsmen 
needs  no  serious  oonfutation.  They  were 
inhabitants  of  Canaan,  apparently  connected 
widi  North-Arabian  Bedouins. 

After  an  interval  of  nine  centuries,  the 
ancient  line  of  the  Pharaohs  issued  fh>m 
their  retreat  in  the  Thebais,  drove  the  Hyk- 
sos first  ttom  Memphis,  and  finally  firom  their 
stronghold  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  founded  the 
new  monarchy,  which  was  prolonged  through 
thirteen  dynasties.  The  Hyksos  Were  ex- 
pelled by  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  which 
reigned  for  229  years.  The  next  dynasty, 
which  ruled  Egypt  for  112  years,  is  distin- 
guished by  the  well-known  name  chT  Kameseii 
the  Great,  called  also  Sesostris.  In  regard 
to  the  new  monarchy  it  has  been  well  re- 
marked, '  the  names  of  flie  principal  mo- 
narohs,  and  the  great  facts  of  their  reigns, 
are  subject  to  no  doubt  We  still  see  the 
nations  of  the  earth  bearing  their  tribute  to 
the  third  Thothmes, — the  gold,  ivory  and 
ebony  of  the  south,  the  apes  of  Western 
Africa,  the  precious  vases  of  Sidonian 
workmanship,  the  horses  and  chariots,  it 
may  be,  of  Media.  We  see  Barneses  driving 
before  him  the  flying  hosts  of  his  enemies, 
trampling  them  under  the  feet  of  his  horses, 
or  crushhig  them  beneath  the  wheels  of  his 
oar ;  attacking  theb  fleets  and  storming 
their  towns.    We  can  even  follow  him  into 


the  recesses  of  his  harem,  and  distinguish 
the  game  with  which  he  amused  himself  in 
his  hours  of  relaxation.  Nor  is  it  the  sove- 
reigns only,  their  pompous  titles,  their  splen- 
did ceremonials,  their  victories  and  their 
sports,  that  the  imperishable  works  of  the 
Egyptians  have  preserved  to  us.  The  whole 
life  of  the  people  is  portrayed  in  the  paint- 
ings with  which  they  have  adorned  the  walls 
of  the  tombs,  which  they  regarded  as  tiieir 
everlastiDg  habitation '  (Prospective  Review, 
p.  28). 

With  Abraham  commence  the  scriptural 
notices  of  Egypt  Thither,  under  tiie  goad  of 
famine,  that  patriarch  descended,  and  there 
he  acquired  great  wealth  (Gen.  xii.  10,  $eq.). 
His  journey  implies  that  already  the  land 
and  its  characteristics  were  known  in  Pales- 
tine ;  and  one  consequence  of  his  visit  was, 
to  render  the  relations  of  the  two  coimtries 
more  intimate;  for  we  find  Sarah,  Abraham's 
wife,  in  possession  of  an  Egyptian  slave, 
whose  name  was  Hagar,  of  whom  the  ptp 
triarch  had  a  son,  Ishmael,  the  founder  of 
the  Arab  tribes.  The  possession  of  an  Egyp- 
tian slave  in  Abraham's  family  gives  reason 
to  think  that  the  Hebrews  were  at  this  time 
socially  superior  to  the  Egyptians ;  while  the 
fact  that  an  Egyptian  slave  became  his  con- 
cubine, renders  it  probable  that  there  was  no 
distinction  of  race,  perhaps  not  much  of 
conformation  or  colour,  between  the  two 
peoples. 

From  this  early  period  intercourse  was 
maintained  between  Egypt  and  Palestine, 
down  to  the  fall  of  the  Jewish  state.  Of  this 
intercourse  the  Bible,  referring  to  that  land 
more  than  two  hundred  times,  contains 
striking  and  important,  though  irregular 
and  unconnected  notices,  which,  in  a  more 
or  less  decided  degree,  accord  with  what  is 
known  of  the  country  and  its  history  from 
independent  sources.  A  more  minute  in- 
quiry than  can  be  here  instituted  would  end 
in  showing,  that  both  in  what  he  eiyotned 
and  what  he  forbad,  in  much  of  the  general 
tenor  of  his  legislation,  Moses  had  a  view  to 
things  to  be  learnt,  but  far  more  often  to 
tilings  to  be  avoided,  in  Egyptian  laws  and 
usages.  The  influence  of  Egypt  on  Pales* 
tine,  and  reciprocally  of  Palestine  on  Egypt, 
was  during  many  centuries  immediate  and 
considerable.  The  general  connection  of  the 
two  lands  with  (heir  inhabitants  and  institu- 
tions, as  that  connection  appears  in  the  sa- 
cred record,  is  in  harmony  with  what  other 
authorities  would  lead  us  to  expect  The 
unparalleled  discoveries  of  recent  days  have 
tended  to  corroborate  the  general  train  of  the 
Biblical  history,  and  to  throw  light  on  ita 
import  and  on  the  observances  of  the  peo- 
ple who  penned  its  narratives.  Had  not 
the  substance  of  the  sacred  record  been  his 
torically  correct,  the  disinterring  of  Egyptian 
life  which  has  of  late  taken  place  could  not 
have  failed  to  explode  its  pretensions ;  while 


EG  Y  550  EG  Y 

in  troth  th«  more  we  learn  of  Egypt,  the  the  eon  of  Solomon,  with  the  head  of  the 
more  we  know  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  more  twenty-second,  namely,  Schesonk-sesak.  All 
we  are  impressed  with  the  deep  and  ever-  these  Biblical  statements   accord  with   the 
endoring  realities  of  their  national  exist-  traditions  and  the  contemporaneoos  monn- 
enee.  menia  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  most  satis- 
Still  more    important,  in   an   historical  factory  manner'  (Bnusen,  i.  207). 
point  of  Tiew,  than  that  of  Abraham,  was  Jo-         Daring  the  agitated  period  wfaiidi  inter- 
seph's  visit  to  Egypt,  where,  under  peonliar  Tened  between  Joshua  and  David,  the  rebb- 
eircumstances,  he  became  prime  minister  of  tions  of  the  Israelites  with  Egypt,  if  tn  realitj 
the  country,  gave  shelter  to  his  aged  father,  they  were  of  importance,  could  scarcely  have 
and  secured  for  his  people  a  home  in  Goshen,  found  a  pen  to  record  them ;  but  as  soon  mm 
on  the  east  of  Memphis,  the  scene  of  Jo-  the  government  became  settled  in  the  hands 
seph's  distinction;  and  so  indirectly  paved  the  of  Solomon,  we  find  Egypt  again  appearing 
way  for  those  signal  events  which  secompa-  prominently  in  the  Scriptures,  for  that  mo- 
nied  the  exodus,  aud  led  on  to  the  establish-  naroh  '  made  affinity  witib  Pharaoh,  king  of 
ment  of  the  Israelites  in  Canaan.  Thisisapor-  Egypt,    and  took  Pharaoh's  dauf^ter*  (1 
tion  of  the  Hebrew  history  which  it  has  been  Kings  iii.  1,  teq.),  an  alliance  iriiich  added 
attempted,  both  in  ancient  and  in  modem  to  his  power  (ix.  16).     The  good  under- 
times, to  invalidate.     The  attempU  have  at-  standing  terminated  before  Solomon's  death ; 
terly  failed,  and  the  Biblical  narratives  con-  for  Jeroboam,  when  in  danger  of  losing  his 
neeted  with  it  exhibit,  in  a  general  picture  as  lifis  in  consequence  of  rebelling  against  his 
well  as  in  some  minute  features,  Uie  Egyp-  sovereign,  found  refuge  and  protection  with 
tian  monarchy  as  we  still  behold  it  in  the  <  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt*  (xL  40).    On  the 
paintings  and  sculptuxes  of  its  monumental  accession  of  Behoboam,  the  fugitive  received 
remains.  active  support  from  Shishak,  who  (070  A.  C. ) 
According  to  the  opinion  of  some  anthori-  took  and  plundered  Jerusalem  (xiv.  25) ;  and 
ties,  it  was  daring  the  residence  of  the  Is-  it  appears  probable  that  during  the  ninth 
iselites  in  Egypt  that  a  rude  nomadic  horde,  century  before  Christ,  Egypt,  in  conjunction 
named  Hyksos,  or  shepherds,  penetrated  by  vrith  Edom,  earned  on  hostilities  sgainst 
its  eastern  boundariea    into  Egypt,   being  Judah  (Joel  iii.  19).    At  a  later  time,  in  the 
attracted  by  the  fertile  plains  of  Uie  Delta,  reign  of  Hesekiah,  we  find  Egypt  alanned. 
Settling  after  some  lapse  of  time,  and  no  and  soon  assailed,  by  the  Assyrian  arms, 
small    struggle,   in  Memphis,  their  chiefiB  Then  an  influential  party  in  Judah  mani- 
made  that  city  dieir  capital,  where  they  ruled  fested  a  strong  inclination  to  an  alliance 
over  Lower  Egypt.    Governing  with  a  rod  of  with  Egypt,  in  order  to  withstand  the  com- 
iren,  they  spread  abroad  wasting  and  terror,  mon  foe  (Isaiah  xxx.  2,  Mf.;  xxxi.  1 ;  xxxvi. 
driving  the  native  princea   into  the  Upper  6 ;  comp.  xviii.  2).     An  alliance  ensued, 
country.    Either  one  of  these  Hyksos  mo-  though  the  prophets  raised  their  warning 
namhs  or  the  entire  dynasty,  historians  have  voices  against  it  Great  peril  was  the  conse- 
leoognised  in  *  the  new  king  over  Egypt  qnence  (2  Kings  xviii.  18,  Mf.).    A  change 
which  knew  not  Joseph'  (Exod.  i.  8) ;  and  in  the  councils  of  Judah  ensued;  for  we  find 
in  the  oensequenees  of  their  hostility,  the  its  monarch,  Josiah,  fighting,  on  the  side  of 
feelings  of    aversion  which   made   '  every  Assyria,  against  Pharaoh-Necho  (xxiii.  29). 
shepherd  an  abomination  unto  the  Egyp-  Judah  for  a  short  time  fell  under  Egyptian 
tians'  (Gen.  xlvi  8i).    The  fSacts  recorded  influence  (xxiiL  33),  until  the  Chaldsean  su- 
in  the  Scripture  respecting  these  early  pe-  premaoy  gained  prevalence  in  the  West   An 
riods  would  have  been  more  serviceable,  at  allianoe  of  the  last  king  of   Judah  vrith 
least  for  the  purposes  of  chronology,  had  Egypt  (Jer.  xliv.  30.  Ezek.xvii.  15)  brought 
the  proper  names  of  the  several  kings  been  ruin  on  that  kingdom.    Many  Jews  fled  into 
given ;  out  the  narrative  speaks  of  them  un-  Egypt  (Jer.  xlL  17 ;  xlii.  14,  seg.),  where  al- 
der the  general  appeUation  of  Pharaoh,  which  ready  were  a  considerable  numbtf  of  Israel- 
is a  name  of  office  equivalent  to  our  mo-  ites  (Zech.  x.  10). 

aareh.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  at  the  first  found 

About  five  centuries   after  Moses,   and  support  in  Egypt    A  closer  approximation 

nearly  a  thousand  years  before  Christ,  there  took  place  under  Hoshea,  when  the  latter, 

begins  a  series  of  contemporaneous  events,  being  tributary  to    Shalmaneser,  king   of 

of  which  evidence  is  found  both  in  the  Bi-  Assyria,  sought  alliance  with  <  So,  king  of 

ble  and  the  Egyptian  authorities  (Bunsen,  Egypt,'  and  was,  in  consequence,  captured 

*jEgyptens  Stclle,'  iii.  01).    On  tikis  point  and  imprisoned  by  tiie  former,  who  pro- 

the  learned  German    remarks,  *  Here  are  eeeded  to  enslave  the  whole  nation  (2  Kings 

found  manifold   and  interesting  points  of  xviL  8,  uq.  Hos.  v.  18;  viL  11). 
contact,  of  which  the  latest  is  the  contem-         In  the  progress  of  events  the  time  arrived 

poraneousness   of  Zedekiah  and  Jeremiah  when  Egypt,  having  for  centuries  held  sway 

with  Pharaoh-Hophra,  the   fourth  king  of  in  North-Eastem  Africa,   and  occasioually 

the  twenty-sixth  dynasty ;  and  the  roost  an-  competed  with  Assyria  for  influence   and 

eient,  the  contemporaneousness  of  Behoboam,  dominion,  was,  with  its  external  ^ory,  rather 


lU  undsr  llis 
powu  of  MKiqiuuxwi  who  for  >  ting  gaised 
Iha  soipin  at  tha  world.  Thai  Punune- 
nlttu,  ion  of  Amuis,  and  with  him  the  go- 
Ternmeut  ol  tha  oountrjr  bj  natlTe  prinoei, 
fell  before  the  arms  of  Cambyies,  moDuch 
of  the  neirij-aitebliahed  Mado-Peraiui  iing- 
dom.  Egjpl  ramained  a  Penlau  pronuce 
till  the  time  of  Aleiudei,  who  made  it  & 
pait  of  the  great  Haoedonlan  empire  (880 
A.O.).  After  Alexander'a  deuh,  Ptolemj, 
hie  genenil,  becune  ftrat  go'renior  aod  thim 
king  of  EgTpt-  To  hie  dominioa  alio  be- 
Ioi^imI  tha  greater  part  of  the  nirromidiiig 
laada,  and  amoDgtt  tham  PtleetiDe,  the  poa- 
aeaaion  of  whisb,  howerer,  waa  afterwards 
loeL  DDder  the  saeoeawira  of  Ptolarof, 
EgTpI  lemaiiiad  till  tha  jaar  80  A.  0.,  when 
it  became  ■  Boman  pronuiw.  In  (he  dlti- 
aioQ  of  the  Boman  dominion,  it  fell  lo  the 
Eaetem  empire  (SBit  A.D.) ;  and  about  840 
A.  D.  oomitig  into  tha  handi  of  the  Arabe, 
KgTpt  has  ainiM  remained  under  Hoham- 
mfdan  oanlrol. 

Daring  (he  Pb^maie  period  of  the  hie- 
lorj  of  Egypt,  that  ooonti;  became  a  place 
of  reti^  and  retort  (or  laraalilee,  lo  whom, 
eten  in  Aleiindiia,  Taluable  righla  and  im- 
monitlaa  were  eonoeded.  Under  Ptolemy 
Philopatar  (180  A.  0),  thej  built  at  Leou- 
topolii,  after  the  modd  of  the  honaa  of  Ood 
in  tfae  capital  of  llielr  nitiie  land,  a  aplendid 
temple,  in  which  thej  eilabliihad  a  oomplele 
ijelem  of  Jewiih  worahip,  to  aid  in  which 


the  Hebrew  Scrlptorea  were  tnualaled  into 
Greek,  whioh  waa  their  ordiuarj  tongue,  and 
had  now  beoome  the  language  of  the  ciiillaed 

The  nligioD  of  the  Egypliana  conaiatad 
eaeentiallT  in  the  worship  of  the  powera  ol 
nature,  whioh  being  eet  forth  bj  Tieible 
images,  after  the  general  manner  in  which 
the  native  teaohen  commonioaled  inatruo- 
tioDS  to  their  pupils  b;  appealing  lo  their 
aenae  ot  eight,  gsTe  rise  to  forms  in  whioh 
the  moat  dlTcna  and  heterogeneone  membera 
and  f^turea  were  united,  wbioh  originally 
were  ajmbolieal  of  ideas ;  but  in  process  of 
time,  and  the  growth  ot  corruption,  loaiog 
their  signifleancr  at  least  with  Uia  midti- 
tade,  came  to  be  blindly  end  miintelligentlj 
wordiipped  in  and  for  themaelias,  '  alocks 
and  itonei '  though  they  were.  The  aatem- 
blagfl  in  one  figure  of  emblematioal  features 
taken  from  dilferent  animals,  gaite  rise  to 
seulplored  and  paiuted  divinities  of  the  most 
grolmjue,  and  to  a  Ctuiiliau  mind  the  moat 
repulsiTs  nature  (aea  toI.  i.  aas,  329,  &ii.). 
In  eome  instanoea,  howeTer,  the  human 
form  is  not  only  preferred  as  the  image  of 
the  divinity,  but  kept  in  itself  l^ee  from  as- 
Bocialion  with  parts  borrowed  from  tha  brute 
crealion,  the  symbols  employed  being  at- 
tached to,  rather  than  incorporated  in  the 
figure  of  a  man  or  woman  (comp,  Eiek.  ivL 
IT),  as  in  this  ent,  representing  Chons-Hor, 
Haihor,  and  Bevek-BJi,  the  triple  divinity  of 
lite  Ombilio  nome  or  diatriet. 


M  EGY 

The  picnlcuM  of  Ihii  ijmbolied  vonUp 
Indiuui  a  (tatian  in  th(  progrew  of  eirili- 
ution  not  nflcimitj  adTancod  fcr  arano- 
tluUm.  Aa  a  low  and  »niiftnl  oondftum  of 
nund  radnMd  dlTins  fnttha  to  ontward  ijoi- 
bull,  and  nqnind  tfaa  ali  of  dioaa  ipnbola 
for  Iha  BD^ort  and  tiie  aipreaaion  of  U* 
piaQ,  10  on  in  aid*  did  du  aame  pietan 
raligion  keap  the  wortbippan  in  a  itatt  of 
popilaga  whioh,  waalinf  a  nllBiBnt  inter- 

, -idlsftwidi- 

pMilalnm- 
latioD,  soold  DM  and  did  not  dnalop  itaelf 
iulo  a  nli(ioaa  Minhimil.  bat  ladier  loat 
power,  Iweiiaw  aoilaMd  to  aElenial  imagea, 
and  gndmUy  daganwatad  into  the  grcwaeat 
of  all  JdoUuy.  Foi  tbe  wonhip  of  aniniJa, 
bo>fa  *U*a  and  dead,  «ao««dcd  6u  wonhip 
of  heUtofmaoQa  anfaaullnnns.  The  (jmliid 
paiud  frran  nun'a  oonaeiiMunaM.  Itaimpoit 
faniabed.  Tbe  intellMCnal,  tbe  moral,  and 
lb*  ipiritoal  aank  md  were  abaortad  in  Om 
lb*  ajmbol  man  animal  sitortoT,  which  aeooidinglT  was 
reguded  ai  the  proper  Dbject  vf  dhiiw  bo- 
maKB.  A  limiUr  aeoonut  might  ba  giren  of 
the  origin  of  the  wonhip  of  Tegetddea,  to 
wfaieh  aleo  the  Egrpliana  wan  addicted,  and 
for  which,  aa  wdl  aa  Ibi  the  wotahip  of 
bnilea,  tbay  ware  decided  bj  Boman  wriura, 
who  eonld  foal  the  abaordl^  of  the  aet  wlth- 
oal  baring  ejea  to  diaomi  the  religion  of 
wbleh  ifwaa  Uie  Tail 

The  iDotl  neent  work  on  Egypt  that  haa 
eome  into  our  huidi — 'Egypt,  her  Testi- 
mon;  ta  the  Truth  of  the  Bible,  b;  William 
Oebnm,  Jon,  Londoo,  lEMfl,' — containing 
little  that  ia  new  in  the  waj  of  pictorial  il- 
Inilrationi,  ofl^  of  aaeh  aa  are  gcnerallf 
known,  and  of  the  hido^jphioal  iiueiip- 
tiona  aeeompanjing  tbem,  inteipratationa 
and  Tiewi  which  throw  light  an  the  hiatorj 
otEgTpt  and  Paleitine,  and  mpply  an  ttke- 
toal  aniwer  to  ttaoae  irtio  bare  repmented 
the  Hebrewi  on  tbeir  etcape  from  I^araoh 
aa  in  a  low  and  degraded  eotiditioii,  im£t  to 
fonn  the  naoleni  of  a  itale,  and  to  eiccnte 
the  worka  ascribed  (o  them  In  the  Pcnta- 
lench.  With  refkrenm  to  the  latter  point, 
mocb  bad  alnadj  been  indinctlj  eflboted 
itj  WilkinBou  and  olhera.  lb.  Oebntn'a 
merit  cousiata  in  making  a  direet  nplication 
to  the  point  of  facta  atleated  bj  the  mona- 
menti ;  ihewing  that  the  udiona  of  Canaan, 
■a  the}  appear  in  eonflicl  with  EgTpti  **>* 
posaeated  of  great  akin,  not  tailf  in  the  naa- 
M,  bat  alao  the  ornamental  arte ;  for  which 
poipoee  be  eibjbite  pictured  lepreientatioaa 
of  their  coslnniBi,  wbiob  in  aomo  initanDea 
wen  rich  and  ihowy,  preaentiDg  mon  than 
oce'coatotman])  coloon;'  their*e^>onB  of 
war,  their  Taiei,  elegant  in  shape  ;  with  il- 
InatntiDne  of  the  state  of  tbe  aita  and  aoieneea 
In  EgTpl.  eapeciallj  in  telaliDn  to  woiUng  in 
melda,  spinning,  weaving,  tha  manntectnn 
of  (oniiEon,  instnunenta  of  music,  &e.  i 
which  pnl  il  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  Israel- 


E  H  U                      553  E  L  A 

itee  w0ie  able  to  ezaonte  what  wm  oigoined  under  whioh  they  had  been  for  eighteen 

tor  the  eonstniotion  and  the  aerrioes  of  the  yean.     Having  delivered  to  their  prince, 

tabemaele.      Baeeeeding,  moneoTer,    to  a  Eg^on,  a  present  whioh  was  a  mere  cover 

greater  extent  than  othe»  In  relation  to  Bib-  for  irtiat  was  to  follow,  he  obtained  a  pri- 

Ucal  words,  in  deciphering  the  hieroc^yphicB,  Tate  audience  of  that  mler,  whom  he  tfien 

the  author  has,  widi  more  or  less  distinct-  aMassinated.  Betizing  flrom  the  inner  eham- 

ness  and  success,  made  out  the  names  of  ber,  where  he  had  been  received  by  Eglon, 

the  chief  nations  of  Canaan,  so  as  to  exhibit  he  fastened  the  doors  by  their  ordinary  fu- 

the  kings  of  Egypt  in  aetual  eoniliet  with  tening,  a  bar  on  the  outside  (Judg.  zvi.  14), 

these  people ;  over  whom,  and  not,  as  is  thus  preventing  the  possibility  of  the  king's 

commonly  thought,  over  distant  and  power-  crawling  I6rth  to  procure  aid.  It  is  not  usual 

ful  empires,  the  former  gained  liie  victories  for  oriental  servants  to  enter  the  presence 

whioh  axe  blazoned  on  the  monuments,  in  of  their  master  unless  summoned.    Eglon's 

the  true  q»irit  of  Eastern  adulation.  servants  having  long  wondered  at  the  delay, 

The  religious  corruptions  of  the  Egyp-  at  last  opened  like  doors,  and  found  their 

tians  appear  to  have  sprung  from  their  pic-  master  dead.    Meanwhile,  Ehud,  having  es- 

ture-writing.    The  view  supposes  the  pre-  eaped,  ooUected  his  countrymen,  and,  after 

existence  of  a  better  system   of  religious  slan^tering  ten  thousand  Moabites,  achieved 

opinions  than  we  find  prevalent  in  any  period  Ibe  delivttance  of  Israel,  and  suligugated  her 

of  Egyptian  history.    A  cozruption  implies  oppressor  (Judg.  iii.  15,  $0q), 

something  better  than  itsell    Hence  it  ap-  How  sickening  are  these  details  of  vio- 

pears  probable  that  in  the  very  earliest  ages  lenoe  and  eamage— how  contrary  to  the  spi- 

a  purer  form  of  religion  prevailed.  Whence,  rit»  aims,  and  tendencies  of  the  gospel ! 

except  from  divine  revelation,   this  could  Ehud  stands  in  the  same  class  with  Brutus ; 

have  arisen,  it  seems  difficult  to  say.   Another  both  used  the  dagger  for  the  deliverance  of 

view  of  the  same  subject  leads  also  to  the  their  country.   Their  purpose  may  extenuate, 

belief  that  God  has  '  spoken  once,  yea  twice,'  but  cannot  justify  their  deed.  False  pretencee 

to  his  creature  man.    For  how  else  could  still  remain  deceit;  but  deceit  is  deceit,  and 

the  Hebrews  have  kept  or  made  themselves  blood  is  blood,  whatever  the  occasion  on 

tree  from  a  subjection  to  the  outward,  under  which  the  one  is  employed  or  the  other  shed, 

whioh   the   most  cultivated  people  of   the  EEBON,  the  most  northern  of  the  five 

ancient  world  is  now  seen  to  have  fallen  ?  royal  Philistine  oitiaa  forming  the  northern 

Out  of  some  stage  in  picture-writing  was  limit  of  Philistia  (Josh,  xiii  8).    At  first*  it 

an  alphabet  developed.    Alphabetic  writing  was  assigned  to  Judah  (xv.  46),  afterwards 

may  safely  be  pronounced  an  indispensable  to  Dan  (xix.  48) ;  but  it  was  not  effectually 

pre-requisito  for  the  recognition  and  pure  subdued,  since  it  long  remained  Philistian 

worship  of  one  Ood,  the  Creator  and  Gover-  (Judg.  i.  IS.  1  Sam.  vii  14;  oomp.  1  Sam. 

nor  of  the   world.     But   both  alphabetic  v.  10 ;  vL  17 ;  xvii.  02).    Here  was  the  wor- 

writing  and  monotheism  are  found  in  pos-  ship  of  '  Baal-iebub,  the  god  of  Ekron '  (9 

session  of  the  descendants  of  Abraham,  in  Kings  i.  2,  8).    Jonathan  Maccabeus  re- 

the  earliest  historical  times.    Their  ability  oeived  the  place  as  a  present  from  Alexander 

either  to  discover  or  retain  alphabetical  cha-  Bales.     Eusebius  and  Jerome  describe  it 

raoters,  implies  a  greater  advance  in  mental  as  a  large  village  inhabited  by  Jews,  lying 

power  and  abstraction  than  any  Uiing  of  the  between  Ashdod  and  Jamnia,  towards  the 

kind  indicated  in  the  contemporaneous  re-  east    Somewhat  east  of  Jebna  (the  ancient 

mains  of  Egyptian  life.    How  did  the  He-  Jamnia)  stands,  on  an  elevation,  a  village  of 

brews  attain  to  this  ability  T    How  did  they  considerable  size,  named  Akir,  which  tradi- 

keep  or  arrive  at  a  correct  notion  of  God  f  tion  identifiea  with  Ekron.  Bobinson  learnt 

Their  servitude  in  Egypt  could  have  had  on  that  remains,  such  as  oistoms,  millstones, 

their  mental  culture  no  other  than  a  bad  &c.,  were  occasionally  discovered  on  the  spot 

effect    Why,  lu  regard  to  the  highest  of  all  Ekron  is  remarkable  in  connection  with  the 

subjects,  religion,  Uie  most  abstract  as  well  capture  by  the  Philistines  of  the  ark,  which 

as  the  most  important  and  practical  of  all  was  sent  back  from  the  place  on  a  new  cart 

ideas,  the  idea  of  God — why,  in  regard  to  this,  drawn  by  two  milch-kine.    These  being  left 

is  Abraham  incomparably  superior  to  the  to  their  own  course,  took  the  straight  way  to 

men  diat  filled  Thebes  and  Memphis  with  Beth-shemeah,theneare8tpointofentranceto 

miracles  of  art  which  attract  the  wonder,  if  the  mountains  of  Judah  (1  Sam.  v.  10 — ^vi). 

they  do  not  surpass  theskill«  of  even  the  pre-  F.TiAH  (H.  an  oak),  die  fourth  monaroli 

sent  generation?    We  know  of  no  satiafac-  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  son  and  successor 

tory  answer  which  does  not  implicate  the  of  Baasha.    Having  reigned  not  two  frill 

special  aid  of  Divine  wisdom  and  goodness ;  years,  he  was,  while  carousing  *  in  the  house 

in  other  words,  revelation  (see  Uie  article  of  Araa,  steward  of  his  house,'  surprised  and 

CjOsJ,  and  comp.  Exod.  xiL  12 ;  xxxii.  1 — 6).  slain  by  '  Zimri,  captain  of  half  his  chariote,' 

EHUD  (H.,  A.  M.  4050,  A.  C.  1498,  V.  who  thus  gained  the  throne  (1  Kings  xvi.  8). 

1825),  second  judge  of  Israel,  who  redeemed  Several  persons  of  little  note  bore  the  same 

his  people  from  bondsge  to  the  Moabites,  name,  of  whom  the  father  of  Hoshea,  the  last 


E  L  A  554  ELD 

king  of  Iinel,  is  not  to  be  eo&lbimded  with  EUth  aloiig  this,  which  it  in  truth  a  hvgv 

the  eubjeet  of  this  notiee.  water-eonne,  having  its  issue  firom  the  south 

ElAM  lepiesents,  in  the  Bible,  tfie  region  in  the  Bead  Sea,  Moses  wandered  after  he 

named  by  the  Oreeks  Elymais,  which  on  the  had  left  Sinai  to  proceed  to  Canaan  (Deut 

soath  of  Assyria  stretched  along  the  eastern  ii  8,  'the  plain  from  Elath').     Elath  be- 

bank  of  the  Tigris  to  the  Persian  Qalf,  and  longed  properly  to  the  Edomites,  who  held 

eastwardly  to  Media  and  the  Persian  pro-  the  monntains  whieh  bordered  the  Arabah, 

Yinoe  of  Snsiana.    Hence  Elam  is  in  Oen.  till  they  were  subjected  by  Darid,  of  whooe 

X.  22,  mentioned  as  a  son  of  Shem  in  eon-  conquest  Solomon  avaOed  himself  in  order 

nection  with  Asshnr,  the  anoestor  of  the  As-  to  estabUsh  here  a  direct  commercial  inter- 

syrians ;  and  the  country  is  eonnected,  now  eourse  with  Ophir  (1  Kings  iz.  26.  2  Chron. 

with  Shinar  or  Babylonia  (Oen.  xiv.  l),now  Tiii.  17, 18).    The  same  trade  was  contem- 

with  Media  (Is.  zzL  2.  Acts  ii.9),and  in  Ezra  plated  by  Jehoshaphat  (1  Kings  zxiL  49). 

(iv.  9)  ^ypears  as  a  pronnee  of  the  Persian  Under  Jehorsm,Edom  freed  itsdf  from  Israel 

empire.  Itwas  only  a  Tague  notion  that  pre-  (2  Kings  Till  20) ;  but,  as  a  fortress,  was 

▼ailed  among  the  BibUeal  writers  respecting  built  or  repaired  by  Uniah,  and  restored  to 

the  boundaries  of  Elsm,  whieh  in  genersl  they  Judsh  (2  Kings  ziT.  22.   2  ChroD.  zzri.  2). 

seem  to  hsTe  regarded  as  a  country  on  the  east  Under  Ahai,  Besin  *  recovered  Elath  to  Sy- 

of  the  Lower  Tigris,  ineluding  Susiana,  and  ria,'  driving  out  the  Jews  (2  Kings  zri.  6), 

Serhsps  a  part  of  Persia.    It  may  sometimes  a  statement  which  it  is  not  easy  to  reconcile 

ave  been  taken  generally  for  the  country  of  with  history :  for  Syria  (Aram),  it  has  been 

Persia,  since  Elun  was  that  portion  <rf  it  proposed  to  read  Edom,  which  would  re- 

which  lay  nearest  to  the  Hebrews,  who  for  a  more  the  difieulty. 

long  tiuie  knew  no  other.  Thus  in  Ban.  viiL         From  the  time  of  Mohammed,  Elath  be- 

2»  tfie  eity  Susa  is  plaeed  in  Elam,  on  the  gan  to  decline,  and  it  has  for  centuries  been 

river  Ulai,  though  strietly  it  was  in  Sunana,  abandoned.    At  present,  only  ruins  mark  its 

whieh  the  Ulai  (EuUsus)   separates  from  place.    But  in  the  immediate  vicinity  stsnds 

Elam.     As  Greek  writen  sometimes  take  Fort  Aeabsh,  held  by  an  Egyptian  garri- 

Sosiana  in  a  wider  sense,  so  the  Hebrews  son,  around  which  a  few  Arab  families  have 

wmprtbif*^^  Susiana  under  Elam.     For  erected  dwellings. 

the  nations  with  iHueh  it  was  silled,  and  in        ELDAB  (H.  tooed  if  God),  was,  with  Me- 

particular  for  the  Persians,  Elam  appean  to  dad,  one  of  the  seventy  elden  appointed  by 

be  also  taken,  in  those  places  where  it  is  Moses  in  tfis  wUdemess  to  assist  him  in  tfie 

mentioned  smong  powerfhl  peoples,  as  in  dutiss  of  government  at  a  time  when  the 

Jer.  zlii.  80.  EieL  zzziL  24 ;  for  here  Ely-  rebellious  spirit  of  the  people  assumed  a 

mais  proper  can  hardly  be  undentood.  The  threatening  aspect    To  these  seventy  tiie 

same  ii  the  ease  when  Elam  is  mentioned  as  spirit  of  Jehovah  was  communicated,  and 

renowned  for  the  bow  (Is.  zxii.  6),  whieh  they  prophesied.     But  Eldad  and  Medad 

was  a  weapon  in  the  use  of  whieh  the  Peiw  had  not  been  present  with  the  rest  around 

■ians  enjoyed  a  high  celebrity.  the  tabernacle  when  the  spirit  was  eommuni- 

Soeariy  as  the  history  of  Abraham  mention  oated;  yet  had  they  received  it,  and  pro- 
is  made  of  a  king  of  Elam,  fhmi  dependence  phesied  in  the  midst  of  the  people.  Their 
on  whom  that  patriarch  freed  the  cities  on  the  exertions  were  reported  to  Moses,  in  the  ex- 
Bead  Sea.  ]^m  the  nature  of  this  petty  peetation  that  he  would  put  a  stop  to  them, 
war,  it  appears  that  this  so-cslled  king  was  On  the  contrary,  he  was  glad  that  God's 
only  the  head  of  an  Elamite  dan  who  was  work  was  being  done,  and  said, — '  Would 
on  a  plundering  excunion  on  the  west  of  the  God  that  sll  the  Lord's  people  were  prophets, 
Tigris.  In  Jer.  xlix.  84,  the  destruction  of  snd  that  the  Lord  would  put  his  spirit  upon 
Elam  is  foreibly  predicted,  with,  however,  them.'  This  is  the  speech  of  an  enlightened 
the  probable  reversion  of  a  better  fate.  And  mind.  O  that  the  spirit  under  which  it  was 
if  Belshaszar  (Ban.  viii.  2)  resided  in  Susa,  spoken  actuated  Christians  in  the  present 
we  msy  hsnoe  infer  that  Elam  and  Susiana  day ;  each  denomination  of  whom  are  too 
had  fdlen  into  his  hsnds.  When  the  Chsl-  apt  to  restrict,  if  not  the  mercies  of  God,  yet 
d«o •Babylonian  monarehy  was  supplanted  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  to  their  own  eom- 
by  the  Medo-Penian,  Elam  is  found  con-  munity !  Let  it,  however,  be  observed,  that 
nected  with  Media  (Is.  xxi.  2.  Jer.  xxv.  20).  it  was  the  spirit  of  Jehovah  that  was  actively 
ELATH,  or  ELOTH,  a  town  at  the  extre-  in  operation  in  tfie  heart  of  Moses  when  he 
ndty  of  the  eastern  srm  of  the  Bed  Sea,  which  pronounced  these  interesting  and  instructive 
from  it  (.file,  jElana)  was  cslled  the  JElsnitio  words  (Numb.  xi.  16 — 80).  Wherein  the  pro- 
or  Elanitic  Gulf.  From  this  point  begins  the  phetie  faculty  consisted  in  the  case  bdRora 
vale  or  extended  gorge  which  runs  to  the  south-  us,  the  cireumstsnces  make  very  dear.    Its 

em  end  of  the  Bead  Sea,  and  indeed,  in  its  Amction  was  the  authoritative  instruction  of 

general  character,  reaches  to  the  southern  the  people  in  their  duty  to  God  and  to  his 

extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Known  now  representative,  Moses,  in  regard  to  civil  aa 

by  tlie  name^  of  el-Ohor  (the  ohannd),  it  was  weD  as  religious  conceniB.     The  communi- 

in  ancient  times  catted  the  Arabah.    From  cated  inspiration,  of  course,  was  such  aa 


E  L  E  555  ELI 

fitted  them  for  the  office.  The  quality  of  titne  in  general  (1  Cor.  i.  27.  James  ii  0), 
that  inspiration,  and  its  designed  tendency,  were  chosen  of  Qod  for  the  flirtheranoe  oi 
may  be  gathered  from  its  aotaal  operation  his  glory,  that  by  becoming  the  channels  of 
and  effects.  Of  the  manner  in  which  it  was  the  Divine  love,  they  might  work  together 
giyen,  and  the  way  in  which  it  wrought  on  with  him  for  the  salvation  of  the  world  (John 
the  mind, nothing  is  said;  and  as  nothing  can     ▼.  17.    1  Cor.  xu.  6.    Ephes.  L  11.   PhiL  ii 

be  known,  specolation  is  nugatory,  and  may  18). 

be  detrimental.    8o  is  it  widi  inspiration  in  ELEMENTS  (L.  eUmmta,  the  nltliftttf  m*- 
general.    So  also  is  it  with  God's  working  terials,  or  principles,  of  which  things  are 
in  natore.    Their  reality  and  their  natore  composed),  is  a  word  which  stands  for  a 
are  made  known  by  their  results.   The  man-  Greek  term,  $toiehtia,  of  the  same  import  as 
ner  of  their  operation  is  one  of  those  secret  the  Latin  eUmtnta,  the  force  of  which  may 
things  that  belong  to  God.  be  the  better  apprehended  if  we  add  that 
ELDER  (T.  €ld, '  age,'  whence  cUerman,  '  elements '  is  put  for  the  alphabet,  or  the 
or  alderman).    See  A»b  and  Bishop.  letters  out  of  which  language   is  fozmed. 
ELEALEB  (H.),  a  town  in  the  territory  Hence  in  the  New  Testament  *  stoicheia,'  re- 
of  Reuben  (Numb,  xzzii.  8)  which  the  Reu-  talning  its  classic  import,  denotes  those  ele> 
benites,  among  other  places,  asked  of  Moses,  ments  or  principles  of  which  the  world  was 
and  which  they  found  in  existence ;  so  that  held  to  c<msist  (2  Pet  iii.  10, 12),  and  into 
when  they  are  said  (87)  to  have  'built,'  it  which  it  was  expected  to  be  resolved.  These, 
means  that  they  repaired  or  fortified  the  according  to  Seneca,  were  four — ^fire,  water, 
place.    At  a  later  time,  as  well  as  before  an-,  earth.   The  elementaiy  bodies  of  modem 
Reuben  held   it,    Elealeh  belonged  to  the  science,  that  is,  those  which  csnnot  be  re- 
Moabites,   and  therefore  is  it   among    the  solved  into  other  more  simple  bodies,  inde- 
Moabite  cities  which  Isaiah  threatens  with  pendently  of  light,  heat,  electricity,  and  mag- 
calamity  (XV.  4 ;  xvi.  9).    In  the  vicinity  of  netism,  which  operate  in  bodies  without  add- 
Hesbon  (Hushan)  travellers  have  discovered  ing  aught  to  their  ponderable  mass,  are  in 
ruins  bearing  the  name  of  EUl,  which  be-  number  aboat  fifty ;  by  whose  union  in  vari- 
token  the  spot  where  Elealeh  onoe  stood  ous  manners  the  almost  numberiess  bodies 
ELEAZAR  (H.  God  it  help),  a  name  ap-  we  see  around  us  are  composed  and  held  to- 
plied  among  the  Hebrews  to  several  persons,  gether.    The  word  stoicheia  is  also  used  of 
of  whom  we   mention    these : — I.  Aaron's  the  first  or  mdimental  principles  of  know- 
third  son  (Numb.  iii.  2),  who,  alter  his  two  ledge,  whence  ensues  an  elementary  or  im- 
elder  brothers,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  had  pe-  perfect  acquaintance  with   spirituiU   truth, 
rished  (Lev.  x.),  held  during  his  father's  life  (Gal.  iv.  8,  9.  Ooloss.  ii.  8, 20.  Heb.  v.  12). 
the  oversight  of  the  Levitical  order  (Numb.  ELI  (H.  my  God),  high-priest  over  the 
liL  82),  and  on  his  death  was  raised  to  the  sanctuary  at  Shiloh  (1  Sam.  L  8,  9)  imme- 
dignity  of  high-priest  (Numb.  xx.  28).   Ele-  diately  befora  the  age  of  SamueL   According 
azar  died  not  long  after  Joshua  (Jo^.  xxiv.  to  Josephns  (Antiq.  viii.  8,  1),  he  was  de- 
88),  but  the  high-priesthood  appears  to  have  soended  from  Aaron's  fourth  son,  Ithamar. 
remained  in  his  family  with  little  interruption  He  died  when  ninety -eight  yean  of  age,  hav- 
to  the  time  of  Herod.    II.  A  son  of  Abin*-  ing  judged  Israel  forty  years  (1  Sam.  iv.  10, 
dab,  of  Kiijath-Jearim,  who  was  sanctified  18).    His  death,  when  now  blind  and  weak 
in  order  to  keep  the  ark  of  God,  after  the  from  age,  was  caused  by  a  fall  from  a  seat 
Philistines  had  restored  it  to  the  Israelites  on  which  he  sat  by  the  way-side,  watching 
(lSam.vii.  1).    lU.  Son  of  Dodo,  one  of  the  issue  of  a  battle.    This  fall  was  occa- 
David's  three  mighty  men,  who  in  battle  (2  sioned  by  his  receiving  the  afflicting  iutelli- 
Sam.  xxHi.  9,  seq,)  smote  the  Philistines  gence  that  his  two  sons  had  been  slain,  and 
until  his  weary  hand  could  no  longer  wield  &at  the  ai^  was  in  the  hsnds  of  the  Philis- 
the  sword,  and  who,  with  two  others,  on  Da-  tines  (1  Sam.  iv.  17,18;  oomp.ii.  12 — 16,22). 
vid's  expressing  a  wish  for  a  draught  of  the  ElTs  latter  days  had  been  embittered,  and 
water  from  his  own  native  Bethlehem,  broke  his  oflicial  influence  sbated,  by  the  gross 
through  the  Philistine  forces  which  lay  be*  misconduct  of  these  sons,  whose  defeat  and 
fora  the  place,  and  brought  the  beverage  to  death  brought  his  life  to  a  sudden  teimina- 
his  longing  master  (1  Chron.  xL  12,  teq,).  tion.     The  union  of  civil  with  sacerdotal 
Lssarus  is  a  variation  of  the  name  Eleasar.  Amotions  observable  in  Eli's  history,  affords 
ELECT  (G.  ekUetot,  *  chosen'),  that  which,  an  exemplification  of  the  disordered  and  dis- 
for  certain  reasons,  is  chosen  from  othera  of  turbed  state  of  the  Hebrew  commonwealth 
a  similar  kind  (Matt.  xx.  16);  hence  that  at  .the  time.  And  the  sad  train  of  woes  which 
whicfti  is  in  itself  excellent  and  preferable,  beifet  Eli  and  his  fkmily,  and  through  them  af- 
So  in  I  Pet  ii  4, 6,  *  elect,'  or  *  chosen,'  is  con-  fected  the  community,  seem  to  have  had  their 
nected  with  *  precious.'  In  2  John  L  it  signi-  origin  in  the  insubordination  that  ensued 
fies  '  most  noble  ;*  the  word  hera  rendered  in  Eli's  house  from  indiscnet  indulgence  and 
'  lady,'  namely,  kuria,  may  be  a  proper  name,  the  want  of  a  due  enforcement  of  parental 
The  twelve  apostles  (Luke  vL  18)  and  our  authority  (1  Sam.  ii.  29).    There  have,  be- 
Lord  himself  (1  Pet  ii.  6),  as  well  as  Chris-  sides  Eli,  been  other  prieste  whose  children. 


ELI  556  ELI 

from  rtiA  wiDl  of  wiie,  gentle,  uid  well-stis-  the  rude,  stem,  and  unyielding  itrength  of  a 

teiaed  discipline,   hare  entailed  dishononr  Hebrew  prophet. 

on  their  Ikthers*  hooae  and  great  harm  to         Of  hia  personal  historj  we  know  searoely 

aoeiety— a  dishononr  the  greater,  a  harm  any  thing;  his  pnUic  serrioes,  even  so  tar 

the  mors  lamentable,  beeanse  both  had  their  as  Hmj  are  recorded,  restriot  themselTes  to 

origin  in  their  homes,  where,  in  a  special  a  few  signal  events.    Sneh  moral  strength, 

manner,the  pore  infloenoes  of  religion  should  unbending  determination,  and  great  infln- 

prerafl  (lTlm.iii.4).  Eli's  ftunily  troubles  enoe  as  El^ah  exerted,  while  they  show  a 

may  here  arisen  from  the  absorption  of  his  higher  source  than  any  thizig  merely  human, 

time  and  energy  in  the  complex  duties  of  imply  an  educational  training  of  the  moot 

priest  and  Jud^.    Ministers  in  diese  days  effsetnsl  kind,  and  gire  a  fitTourable  impres- 

are  sometimes  so  much  engrossed  in  public  aion  of  the  moral  grestncss  to  which  tlte 

engagements  that  diey  have  only  the  refuse  Mosaic  polity  could  raise  its  fSutfafdl  ad- 

of  their  minds  and  hearts  left  for  domestic  herenta.    And  as  El^ah  passed  through  the 


duties.    These  fbets  may  explain,  but  they  training  whence  he  became  what  he  was,  in 

do  not  excuse,  the  neglect  of  home,  whence  tiie  less  pure  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  in  an 

ensue  the  ctUs  of  which  we  hare  spoken.  idolatrous  period,  we  see  in  him  iHiat  could 

EUAB  (H.  my  God  (u)afathtr).  Da-  be  produeed  under  the  severe  lessons  of 

▼id's   eldest    brother,    whom   the  prophet  soirow  end  trial. 

Samuel,  when  sent  to  die  house  of  Jesse  to  The  prophets  embodied  not  only  the  pure 
appoint  firom  his  sons  a  ftituie  king  of  Israel,  nligious  element  of  the  times,  but  also  its 
was  disposed  to  select  on  account  of  the  patriotism.    This  fBatuie  is  seen  in  foil  pro- 
beauty  of  his  person.     But  Jehovah  said  minenoe  in  El^ah,  who  not  improbably  was 
unto  Samuel, '  Look  not  on  his  countenance,  the  centre  around  whom  gathered  the  patriots 
or  on  the  height  of  his  stature,  because  I  of  his  day,  and  in  whom  they  found  a  leader 
have  refhsed  him ;  for  Jehovah  seetfi  not  as  end  a  representative, 
man  seeth ;  for  man  looketh  on  the  outward  El^ah  appears  suddenly  on  the  scene,  an- 
appearance,   but  Jehovah   looketh  on  the  nouncing  to  Ahab  that,  as  a  punishment  for 
heart'  (ISam.xvi  6.  IGhron.  ii.  18).  his  subservience  to  Baal,  neither  dew  nor 
This  is  one  of  the  many  golden  sentences  rain  should  fsll  for  years,  until  he  announced 
of  the  Bible  that  make  its  value  literally  in-  the  change.   In  the  climate  and  over  the  soil 
estimable.    Even  the  wise  and  good  are,  as  of  Palestine  a  drought  was  a  terrible  calamity, 
was  Samuel,  prone  to  be  captivated  by  a  fkir  From  the  consequent  sufferings  Elijah  him- 
exterior.   Rarely,  however,  is  personal  beauty  self  was  in  part  preserved  by  taking  refuge 
united  with  excellent  gifts  of  mind ;  since  from  the  wrath  of  the  king  in  Wady  Cherith 
thoee  who  possess  the  fonner  are  too  apt  to  (see  the  article),  whoe  he  was  minculously 
disregard  and  neglect  the  latter.    True  wis-  supplied  with  food,  and  *  drank  of  the  brook.' 
dom,  however,  passing  by  the  outwsrd,  goes  Banger  probably  being  at  hand,  he  was  com- 
at  once  to  the  root  of  the  matter,  and  forms  manded  to  travel  to  the  north-west,  as  frir  as 
its  Judgment  and  makes  its  choice  accord-  Zarephath,  near  Zidon.    Exhausted  by  the 
ing  to  die  natural  and  acquired  dispositions  length  of  his  journey,  he  asks  succour  of  a 
of  the  heart  widow  whom  he  meets  with  on  the  outside 
The  inspiration  by  which  Samuel  was  on  of  the  city.    But  she  is  as  poor  as  himseH 
this  occasion  actuated,  was  obviously  that  El^ah,  however,  having  been  directed  to  her, 
hi^^er  wisdom  which  ensues  flmn  second  knows  that  her  wants  will  be  supplied,  snd 
thoughts  and  careful  reflection,  under  the  bida  her  make  a  smsll  provision  for  his  re- 
guidance  of  the  spirit  of  God.  fteshment.    She  complies,  and  has  her  re- 
ELUAH  (H.  my  God  (it)  J^t&9tA),  eir,  ward.  The  drought  continued ;  but  her  banel 
A.  M.  4053,  A.  C.  890,  V.  900,    a  prophet  of  meal  did  not  waste,  nor  her  cruise  of  oil 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  who  Iffed  under  fail.    Her  son  fell  sick,  it  may  have  been 
the  dominion  of  the  idolatrous  Ahab^  and  under  the  priTations  occasioned  by  the  want 
having  left  nothing  written,  is  known  te  ns  of  rain.    This  calamity  she  judged  to  have 
only  ij  some  very  striking  events  recorded  been  mflieted,  through  the  hands  of  the  pro- 
in  1  Kings  xviL  uq.    In  the  beginning  of  phe^  as  a  punishment  for  some  sin.    V^en 
that  chapter  he  is  designated  the  Tishbile^  he  was  at  the  point  of  death,  he  was  restored 
that   is,   a  native  of  the  city  of  Thisbe,  a  by  El^ah,  who  thus  convinced  her  that  he 
town  in  the  territory  of  Naphtali.    The  ad-  ws^  a  man  of  God. 

ditional  description  *  of  the  inhabitants  of  In  the  third  year  of  the  drought,  when 

Gilead'  leads  to  the  impression  that  he  had  there  was  a  sore  famine  in  Samaria,  Elijah 

removed  from  his  native  place,  and,  pass-  was  coounissioned  to  announce  to  Ahab  the 

ing  the  Jordan,  settled  in  Gilead,  of  course  speedy  coming  of  rain.    It  required,  how- 

without  being   incorporated  with  any  new  ever,  gnat  daring  to  go  into  the  presence  of 

tribe.  the  monareh;  for  he  had  employed  every 

Ely  ah  lived  in  a  period  of  religions  depra>  resource  in  older  to  apprehend  the  prophet, 

vation,  and  conducted  himself  in  a  most  to  whom  he  imputed  the  blame  of  the  national 

worthy  manner,  offering  a  noble  example  of  affliction.    While  proceeding  to  execute  the 


ELI  557  ELI 

Divine  command,  he  met  with  Obadiab,  go-  rights  of  pure  religion.  Ahaziah  the  king 
Temor  of  the  palace,  whom  Ahab  had  sent  was  iU,  and  Elgah  was  commissioned  to  sn- 
out in  order  to  sesreh  for  fodder.  His  good  nonnoe  that  the  sickness  would  end  in  death, 
oi&oes  Elijah  wished  to  employ  with  Ahab ;  as  a  punishment  for  his  idolatry.  The  king 
but  Obadiah,  though  he  had  found  shelter  wished  to  see  the  prophet,  and  sent  a  troop 
for  a  hundred  prophets  when  their  ordev  of  fifty  chosen  men  to  bring  him.  The  pio- 
was  persecuted  by  the  queen  Jezebel,  was  phet,  seated  on  an  eminence,  destroyed  them 
afhud  to  speak  to  the  king  respecting  the  by  fire  i^om  hesTen.  A  second  band  met 
hated  prophet.  Nothing  daunted,  El^ah  with  the  same  fate.  To  the  entreaties  of  a 
went  into  tiie  presence  of  the  monarch,  and  third  company  he  yielded,  and  going  with 
being  encountered  with  reproach,  boldly  de-  them  to  the  king,  told  him  is  person  that  his 
elared  that  it  was  the  king's  idolatry  which  idolatroos  practices  would  be  punished  with 
had  brought  the  Divine  anger  on  the  land,  immediate  dissolution.  His  words  came 
But  he  had  a  practical  object — nothing  less  true. 

than  a  trial  of  strength  with  the  priests  of        ElQah's  own  end  was  now  at  hand ;  but, 
Baal.    Of  them  there  were  400,  besides  400  unlike  that  of  idolatrous  and  uigust  kings, 
prophets   of  the    grove,    supported  at  the  the  servant  of  God  was  received  to  his  re- 
queen's  expense.    Ely  ah  alone  remained  of  ward  in  the  midst  of  honours.    Having  al- 
the  prophets  of  Jehovah.     He  challenged  ready  appointed  Elisha  to  succeed  him  in 
them  to  a  public  ordeal,  and  gave  the  chal-  the  prophetic  office,  he  invited  his  brother 
lenge  in  presence  of  the  king.    Mount  Car-  to  accompany  him  on  a  visit  to  the  school 
mel  was  the  chosen  spot,  and  there  the  Di-  of  the  prophets  at  Bethel.    Thence  he  was 
vine  will  was  declared  in  a  manner  so  mani-  sent  of  Jehovah  to  Jericho,  whither  he  went 
fest  and  decided,  that  the  people  acknow-  accompanied  by  Elisha.  Having  crossed  the 
ledged  Jehovah  as  the  only  God,  and  at  the  Jordan,  he  promised  Elisha,  in  compliance 
command  of  Elijah  hewed  all  the  idolatrous  with  the  lattef  s  request,  a  double  portion  of 
prophets  to  pieces.     Then  came  the  rain,  his  own  q>irit,  and  was  receiTed  up  into 
and  the  people  ate  and  drank.  heaven  l>y  a  whirlwind,  in  a  chariot  of  fire 
Jezebel,  however,  threatened  Elijah  with  drawn  by  horses  of  fire  (2  Kings  ii.  11), 
dire  vengeance.     The    Tishbite   knew  her  ttom  the  same  district  as  that  where  God 
natuie,  and  was  sure  that  there  was  safety  took  to  himself  the  spirit  of  that  distin- 
for  himself  only  in  flight  and  distance.   Not  gnished   legislator  for  the    Ihrtherance  of 
content,  therefore,  with  leaving  her  domi-  whose  purposes  he  had  laboured  in  a  simi- 
nions,  he  hastened  to  the  eztnme  southern  lar  spirit  of  disinterested  endurance, 
district  of  Judah,  and  came  to  Beersheba.         Elijah  appeared  once  more  on  earth,  in 
Not  even  here,  however,  did  he  find  himself  coi^  unction  with  his  great  master,  Moses, 
in  security.     Continuing  his  flight  south-  when,  on  Mount  Tabor,  those  two  repre- 
wards,  he  proceeded  a  day's  journey  into  the  sentatives  of  the  Old  Covenant  took  part  in 
wilderness  of  Paran,  where  sinking,  overcome  the  mysterious    events   accompanying    the 
with  fatigue  and  hunger,   he  was  miracu-  transfiguration  of  our  Lord.    Then  was  an 
lously  relieved,  as  Hagar  had  of  old  received  evidence  given  of  the  certainty  of  a  world 
succour  in  the  same  desolate  region.    Thus  of  spirits  and  an  immortal  life;  and  heaven 
refreshed,  he  went  on  till  he  readied  the  dis-  united  its  testimony  with  that  of  earth  for 
taat  Horeb,  where,  '  in  a  still  small  voice,'  the  glory  of  the  Saviour  and  fbr  the  salvation 
the  presence  of  God  was  manifested  to  him;  of  £e  world  (Matt  xvii.  1,  uq.    Mark  iz. 
which  relieved  his  dqeoted  spirits  and  re-  2,  teq,  Luke  ix.  28,  m?.). 
vived  his  courage.    Thus  restored  to  him-        The  miracles  ascribed  to  El^ah  are  more 
self,  he  received  an  iigunotion,  the  aim  and  in  unison  with  the  spirit  of  his  day  than  the 
tendency  of  which  wero  the  punishment  of  spirit  of  the  gospel.    As  such,  they  combine 
the  guilty  Ahab,  whose  downfal  soon  took  with  the  general  train  of  the  narrative  to 
place.    In  the  interval,  that  monaroh  had,  give  us  an  assurance  of  its  reality,  whence 
by  false  iritness  and  murder,  procured  the  we  infer  its  substantial  truth.    At  the  same 
possession  of  the  vineyard  of  Naboth.    To  time,  the  Christian,  on  perusing  the  parti- 
reprove  the  king  was  as  dangerous  as  to  re-  culars,  will  do  well  to  remembor  Uiat  one, 
sist  him.    No  one  dared  to  incur  tiie  peril,  and  one  only,  is  his  Master,  and  that  to 
ButEl^ah  wasfaithltd;  and  under  the  Di-  walk  by  the  less  when  he  possesses  the 
vine  directions  he  went  and  found  Ahab  in  greater  light,  even  *  the  light  of  the  world,' 
the  vineyard.    Alarmed  and  indignant,  the  is  to  forget  his  privileges,  if  not  to  *  do  de- 
had  man  exclaimed,—'  Hast  thou  found  me,  spite  to  the  spirit  of  grace.'    And  in  our 
O  mine  enemy  V    The  prophet  pronounced  charaoter  as  followers  of  the  meek  and  lowly 
sentence  on  the  transgressor,  whose  heart  Jesus,  we  must  imitate,  not  him  who  con- 
was   smitten.     He  gave  tokens  of  sincere  sumed  his  enemies,  but  him  who,  when  ex- 
contrition,  and  the  execution  of  the  penalty  pressly  entreated,  refused  to  call  down  fire 
was  postponed.  fh>m  heaven  on  the  inhospitable  Samaritans, 
The  next  reign,  which  soon  began,  found  and  ratiber  bore  sufferings  patiently  himself 
El^ah  true  to  his  oiBca  as  an  asserter  of  the  than  took  vengeance  on  his  persecutors. 


ELI  558  ELI 

The  spirit  of  Elyah,  seen  in  oontrMt  with     eribed  toElinha  «re  of  a  dissimilar  eharaeter 
that  of  Jesus,  affords  a  picture  of  the  geuius     to  the  miracles  of  him  who  only  is  their 
of  the  two  systems  of  which  l^ey  were  re-     Teaeher  and  Lord  (2  Kings  ii.  28,  teq.  ,*  tL 
•pectiyely  prophets.  As  mneh  as  Elijah  was     6 ;  zilL  21).    As  a  strenuous  enemy  of  ido- 
charaeterised  by  fleiy  seal,  Jesus  was  distin-     latry,  and  a  patriot  who  gathered  around 
goiahed  by  gentle  yet  energetic  love.    The     him  the  best  energies  of  the  nation,  and 
former  was  harsh  and  Tindietive ;  the  latter     employed  all  his  powers  for  the  mainte- 
was  ioigiYing»  gentle,  and  firm.  The  former    nance  of  tme  religion,  Elisha  is  worthy  of 
destroyed,  the  latter  saved  men's  lives.  Both     high  estimation ;  imd  that  by  no  means  the 
were  animated  by  a  deeply-felt  and  ceaseless     less  if  after  agea,  in  mistaken  views  of  ho- 
regard  to  the  will  of  Ood;  bat  El^ah's  piety    nour,  have  mingled  in  their  ineense  mate- 
was  narrowed  by  his  natiooalism,  that  of    rials  of  a  less  pore  and  nnhearenly  natnie. 
Jesns  was  enlarged  and  softened  by  his  phi*     In  conseqaenee  of  the  high  and  important 
lanthropy.     The  one  served  the  Ood  of  the     oiBoe  which  he  held,  at  a  time  when  a  pro- 
Jews  ;  the  other  promoted  the  will  of  the     phet  wielded  the  power  which  is  now  peen- 
Father  of  mankind.    Force  was  the  instm-     liar  to  Uteratnre,  raised  and  augmented  by 
mem  of  the  former ;  persuasion  and  genial     the  power  of  religion  in  its  ideal  state,  and 
goodness  that  of  the  latter.    Elijah  received     in  oonseqnence  also  of  the  strength  and 
a  needful  lesson  on  the  eflicacy  of  '  the  still     dignity  of  character  which  he  well  main- 
small  voioe'  of  conscience  immediately  after    tained,  Elisha  possessed  great  influence  both 
he  had  punished  idolatry  with   slaughter;     at  home  and  abroad  (2  £ng8  v.  1,  ieq.;  viL 
Jesus,  even  before  he  had  entered  on  his     1,  m^.  ;  viiL  7,  ssf.).    He  died  under  Joaah 
arduous  task,  was  declared  by  a  voice  firom     (xiii.  14).    Samaria  was  his  ordinary  place 
heaven  to  be  the  beloved  Son  of  Ood.     Eli-     of  abode,  though  he  dwelt  for  some  time  on 
jah  was  a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews;  Jesus,     MountGaimel(ii. 25;  iv.2&);inthis,aswell 
the  highest  type  of  humanity,  and  the  friend    as  in  some  other  incidents,  exhibiting  a  re- 
and  Saviour  of  the  entire  race.    Unbending     semblance  to  Elijah  which  has  to  some  borne 
force  of  character  was  the  chief  feature  of    features  of  imitation  (2  Kings  ii.  18 ;  eomp. 
the  Tishbite ;  the  Mazarene  had  the  mqesty     ii.  8.   2  Kings  viii.  1 ;  comp.  1  Kings  xvii. 
of  perfect  holiness  snd  the  grace  of  divine     2  Kings  viii.  10 ;  o(Mnp.  2  Kings  L  4;  2  Kings 
love.  iz.  7,  tsf.  1  Kings  zzi.  21.   2  Kings  iv.  2* 

Homage  is  rendered  to  Elgah  by  the  New     «sy. ;  comp.  1  Kings  zviL  14,  teq,    2  Kings 
Testament  as  well  as  the  Old.  Having  been     iv.  8,  uq*;  comp.  1  Kings  xvii.  17.  2  Kings 
a  bold  and  uncompromising  asserter  of  the     ii  28,  teq. ;  comp.  2  Kings  L  10). 
law  of  Moses,  he  came  to  be  regarded  by        The  water  mentioned  in  2  Kings  ii.  19, 
the  Jews  as  the  representative  of  national     is  still  pointed  out  near  Jericho,  and  said  to 
reform,    and  was  accordingly  expected  to     be  sweet  and  somewhat  overflowing.   On  the 
precede  the  Messish.    To  this  expectation     passage  found  in  28,  m^.,  we  may  remark, 
Malachi  (iv.  5;  comp.  John  i.  21)  gave  ex-     that  a  belief  prevaOed  in  ancient  times  diat  in- 
pression  in  words  which  close  the  canon  of    suits  to  the  aged  were  punished  with  sudden 
the  sncient  Scriptures.    Accordingly,  it  was     death,  and  that  curses  pronounced  by  such, 
in  something  like  the  same  rude  and  stem     or  by  priests  and  prophets,  wrought  their 
spirit  that  John  the  Baptist  laboured  as  the     own  fulfilment.    The  cause  of  the  death  of 
forerunner  of  Christ  (Luke  L  17  ;  comp.     the  boy  mentioned  in  2  Kings  iv.  18,  seems 
Matt  xi.  14).    Jesus  himself,  since  one  part     to  have  been  a  coup  dt  toleil ;  for  so  poweriul, 
of  his  ofllce  was  to  rebuke  spirimal  wicked-     at  times,  are  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  the  East, 
ness  in  high  places,  was  taken  for  the  Tish-     as  on  a  sudden  to  occasion  dangerous  sick- 
bite  (Matt  xvi.  14) ;  and  when  he  exclaimed     ness  or  even  immediate  death, 
on  the  cross,  *  Eloi,  Eloi !'  the  Jews,  affecting        It  deserves  notice,  that  Elisha  (Eliseus) 
to  believe  that  he  was  calling  on  Elijah,  took     is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament 
occasion  to  insult  the  dying  Redeemer  by     more  than  once,  in  Luke  iv.  27. 
saying,  *  Let  us  see  whether  Eliss  will  come         ELISHAH,  a  country  and  its  inhabitants 
to  save  him'  (Matt  xxvii  47.  Mark  xv.  84).     mentioned  in  connection  with  other  sons  of 
ELISHA  (H.  talvatiom  of  Ood}  A.  M.     Javan  (Ionia  or  Oreeee),  namely,  Tarahish, 
4659,  A.  C.  893,  V.  903),  son  of  Shaphat,  of    Kittim,  and  Dodanim ;  which  may,  therefore, 
Abel-meholah,  was,  whDe    ploughing  with     be  taken  for  a  land  lying  in  the  Mediterrm- 
twelve  yoke  of  oxen,  appointed  successor  to     nean  Sea,  to  the  west  of  Palestine  and  of 
El\jah  by  the  prophet  himself;  who  signified     Kittim,or  Cypnis.  Hence  Ells  has  been  fixed 
his  choice  by  casting  his   mantle  on  the     on,  the  rather  because  of  the  similarity  of 
young  man  (1  Kings  xix.  16).    Elisha  pro-     the  words  Elis  and  Eliahah.   In  Eaek.  xxviL 
phesied  under  the  Israelitish  kings  Joram,     7,  we  find  *  the  isles  (or  coasts)  of  Elishah,' 
Jehoahai,  and  Joash.    The  narrative  of  his     and  that  they  produced  •  blue  and  purple 
life  is  conceived  and  set  forth  in  a  spirit  of    garments/    Now,   the   eastern  snd  sooth- 
rigour  and  retaliation  which  diminish  its     eastern  coast    of   the    Peloponnesus   (the 
value  to  Christians,  who  in  the  perusal  can-     Morea)   was  celebrated   for  producing  the 
not  but  feel  that  some  of  the  wonders  as-     shell-fish  whence  the   famous  Tyrian  dye 


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was  obtained ;  from  whieh  we  may  infer  that 
by  Elishah  the  sea-eoast  of  Qieeee  generally 
was  intended.  In  the  general  yiew  taken 
of  so  distant  a  oonntzy  by  the  Hebrew  writer, 
he  appears  to  haye  conoeived  Elishah  as  a 
western  sea-eoast,  lying  beyond  Gypras. 

ELIZABETH  (H.  th  oath  <f  God),  of  the 
race  of  Aaron,  wife  of  Zaoharias,  had,  without 
beooming  a  mother,  arrlTed  at  old  age,  when, 
the  recoid  states,  nuder  DiTine  inflnenoe,  she 
gave  birth  to  a  son  who  afterwards  beeame  ce- 
lebrated under  the  name  ai  John  the  Baptist 
Daring  herpregnaaej  she  received  avisit  from 
her  oonsin  Mary,  on  receiving  whose  saluta- 
tion she  felt  a  token  which  a  mother  eannot 
misunderstand,  and  was  hence  led  to  break 
forth  in  a  joyous  strain.  The  conversation 
between  these  two  relatives,  who  bore  in 
their  persons  the  moral  and  religious  desti> 
nies  of  the  world,  is  characteristically  sim- 
ple and  very  touching.  It  may,  however, 
bear  a  trace  of  a  later  period  than  the  one  to 
which  the  narrative  refers;  for  Elizabeth 
speaks  of  Maiy  as  '  the  mother  of  my  Lord,* 
at  a  time  when  it  may  be  doubted  if  the  Mes- 
siahship  of  Mary's  son  vras  known  to  or 
acknowledged  by  any  human  being. 

ELYMAS .  (A.  magician),  a  word  which 
Luke  (Acts  loii.  8)  interprets  as  meaning 
*  the  sorcerer,'  or  magician,  and  which  may 
therefore  be  connected  with  the  Arabic  alimf 
whence  uUma,  the  name  of  the  clergy  or 
learned  body  among  the  Arabs  and  Turks. 
Alim  properly  signifles,  '  to  declare,'  '  to 
teach;'  and  hence,  as  a  noun,  a  mit*  man 
(witsen,  u»it,  toitch),  used  of  that  pretended 
wisdom  which  was  fabled  to  give  man  a  con- 
trol over  the  secrets  of  nature. 
,  Elymas  appears  in  the  Acts  as  another 
name  for  Bar-jesus,  who,  in  the  presence  ot 
Seqpus  Paulns; withstood. Piiul's  influence 
at  Salamis.  Elymas  represented  the  profes- 
sion of  Bar-jesus,  who  from  his  fame  was 
spoken  of  as  '  the  Sorcerer.' 

Pretensions  to  superior  wisdom  have  not 
to  the  present  hour  ceased  to  bewitch  and 
mislead  the  world,  who  would  rather  have 
illusions,  tricked  off  in  fine  drapery  and  the 
newest  fashion,  than  solid,  old-fashioned 
knowledge,  which  has  no  other  charm  than 
that  of  simple  truth. 

ELLASAB  was  the  country  of  a  king,  or 
petty  chief,  named  Arioch,  who  is  associated 
in  die  Bible  (Gen.  xiv.  1)  with  the  king  of 
Bhinar  and  odiers.  The  region  that  is  in- 
tended caxmot  be  ascertained  with  certainty, 
though  beyond  a  doubt  it  was  not  far  re- 
moved f^rom  Elymais  and  Babylon.  Ellasar 
has  been  conjecturally  identified  with  The- 
lassar  (2  Kings  xiz.  12.  Is.  xxzvii.  12),  and 
placed  in  Northern  Mesopotamia. 

EMBALMING  (*in'  and  'balsam/  pro- 
perly,  placing  in  balm  or  balsam),  was  an 
art  much  practised  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
with  the  view  of  preserving  dead  bodies 
from  corruption.    It  was  a  lengthened  and 


expensive  operation,  which  required  for  its 
completion  forty,  and  in  the  most  elaborate 
kind  not  less  than  seventy  days.    The  most 
esteemed  and  costly  process  required   the 
entire  extraction  of  the  brain,  whose  place 
was  occupied   by  odorous  and   antiseptic 
herbs.     The  entrails  also  were  taken  out, 
by  means  of  an  incision  made  in  the  body; 
and  the  cavity,  having  been  well  eleanssd, 
was  filled  with  '  sweet  spices.'    This  being 
done,   the  exterior  was   rubbed  with  aro- 
matics  and  saltpetre.     Finally,  the  body, 
having  been  washed,  was  girded  and  enve- 
loped mih  bandages  of  byssus,  which  were 
covered  over  with  gum  in  order  to  bind  them 
fast    The  second  kind  of  embalming  was  a 
simpler  process.   Cedar-oil  was  ixijected  into 
the  body,  which  destroyed  the  intestines,  so 
that  they  could  be  easily  extracted :  the  body 
was  also  laid  on  sal^tre,  which  dried  up 
the  juices  of  the  flesh  and  made  it  more  fit 
for  preservation.    The  least  expensive  me- 
thod consisted  in  the  ir^jection  of  suitable 
materials,   without   the    extraction  of  the 
contents  of  the  frame.     In  this  case  also 
the  body  was  subjected  to  the  operation  of 
saltpetre.    After  undergoing  one  of  these 
processes,  the  body  was  laid  in  a  sort  of 
chest  or  cofBn,  closely  corresponding  to  it 
in  shape,  and  made  of  mulberry  wood.   Cof- 
fins of  this  kind,  with  their  mummies,  have 
been  distributed  in  public  and  private  mu- 
seiuns  through  the  civilised  world,  by  the 
ardour  manifested  in  the  study  of  Egyptian 
antiquities  daring  the  last  half  century.  The 
process  of  embalming  was  in  Egypt  by  no 
means  confined  to  the  human  corpse.    The 
sacred   animals  generally  were  embalmed. 
Specimens  of  animal  mummies,  in  those  of 
the  ibis,  bull,  cat,  &c.,  may  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum.    Human  mummies  w«ra 
sometimes  kept  for  a  long  period  in  the 
dwellings  of  descendants,  placed  erect,  and 
held  among  the  best  treasures  of  the  family. 
The  features  of  the  deceased  were  firequently 
painted  on  the  head  ot  the  coffin,  which 
thus,  as  well  as  by  its  shape,  presented  a 
picture  of  the  departed  relative;  and  so  long 
as  it  was  retidned  in  the  house,  the  mummy 
case  served  the  purpose  of  a  statue,  acting 
as  a  perpetual  though  painfrd  memento. 

Jacob  was  embalmed  in  Egypt  (Gen.  L  2), 
but  probably  not  by  the  Jews,  who  left  their 
dead  bodies  to  see  corruption,  intending 
their  anointing  of  the  corpse  with  aromatics 
as  a  token  of  respect,  affection,  or  regard 
(2  Chron.  xvi.  14.  John  xix.  40.  Mark  zvi. 
1.  Luke  xxiv.  1).    See  Bubial. 

EMBROIDER  (F.  broder,  <to  work  with 
the  needle '),  is  represented  in  Hebrew  by 
two  words;  first,  rahkam,  whose  primary 
meaning  is  '  to  draw,  to  paint,'  and  hence  to 
paint  with  the  needle,  or  form  variegated 
stuffs — an  art  which,  according  to  Pliny,  is 
of  Phrygian  origin,  and  is  certainly  of  very 
ancient  date  (£.xod.xxvi.  80;   xxxviiu  29. 


EMM 


560 


EMU 


Eiak.  xxfiL  34) ;  the  word  is  alto  naed  oi 
the  formtUoD,  under  the  Divine  hand,  of  the 
hoDuoi  foBtoe  (PB.ezxziz.  10).  The  other 
term  is  thakoau,  whieh  sppereaUy  signifies 
*to  bedeofc  gsimsnts  like  tesselsted  psfe- 
ments,  to  gem'  (Ezod.  anriii.  89;  eomp. 
dO). 

The  sit  of  enhioideiy  wss  eommonlj 
practised  in  Egjpt  The  Heliiews»  on  leer* 
ing  the  ooontrj,  took  sdTsntsfe  of  the  know- 
ledge they  had  there  seqnired  to  make  a  rieh 
'  hnging  for  the  door  of  the  tent,  of  bine 
and  porple  and  seaiiet  and  fln»'twined  linen, 
wrought  with  needle-work;'  a  eoat  of  fine 
linen  was  embroidered  for  Aaron ;  sad  his 
girdle  wss  *  of  fine-twined  linen,  end  bine 
and  purple  and  sesrlet,  of  needle-work.'  Gold 
thread  slso  wss  employed  (Ezod.  zzziz.  dO ; 
eomp.  Esek.  xvi  10). 

EMERALD,  a  preeions  stone,  Uie  first  of 
the  seeond  row  in  the  breast-plats  ol  the 
high-priest  (Exod.  zxrliL  18 ;  eomp.  Bxek. 
zzTii.  16;  zzviii  18).  The  original  word 
is  nohphtdi,  whieh,  aeeording  to  Jossph  snd 
the  Seven^,  is  the  Greek  anthrsz  or  osfw 
bvnels  (see  the  artiele);  whieh  name  was 
given  by  the  aneients  to  ssTsral  stones  of  • 
led  ooloar,  from  tiieir  shining  like  fiie.  The 
most  Tsloed  oaibHMles  sppess  to  hnve  been 
Indisn  rabies. 

EMEB0D8,  ihe  pQes,  a  diasass  inflicted 
on  the  men  of  Ashdod  (1  Sam. y.  8,  9, 12; 
eomp.  Dent  zzTiil.  37),  who  made  golden 
images  of  tiie  tomows  as  a  tiespass-dfer- 
Ing  (1  Saos.  tL  4,  0, 11, 17). 

EMMANUEL  (God  with  m),  is  a  name 
originslly  given  by  his  mother  to  a  son  of 
tho  pNfdiet  Isaiah,  whom  hie  UOux  oalled 
Maher-shalal-hash-bu  (wiak$  tpotd  u  th* 
tpoil,  katUm  tk$  priy)  (Is.Tii.  viiL  3Kings 
ztL  1— -9).  In  eooseqnenoe  of  tfie  id<^ 
tatms  propensities  of  Ahai,  king  of  Jndah 
(cir,  743  A.  0.),  Beain,  king  of  Syria, 
and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  were  permit- 
ted to  eonspiie  againsC  him;  hs  sooght 
aid  in  tho  king  of  Assyris,  1^  whom  he 
was  liberated  from  fear,  for  the  king  oi 
Assyris  took  Damasens,  dis  ospital  of  Syria, 
and  stow  Beiin  In  order  to  restore  the 
eonrsge  of  Ahaa,  snd  indnce  him  to  rely  on 
Jehovah,  Isaiah  was  sent  to  that  monardi 
with  promise  of  helpu  At  the  ssbm  time  he 
gam  a  sign  to  Ahaa  as  sn  sssoranee  oi  the 
pvedieted  event  This  sign  was  the  birth  of 
a  ohild  of  <tfts  virgin'  (vii.  14)  weU  known 
to  the  king  as  'the  prophetess'  (viiL  8). 
The  time  of  deUveranoe  is  defined  by  the 
interval  whieh  most  natnrally  intervene  be- 
tween the  eonoeption  of  the  ohild  (viL  14) 
and  its  afrivii  u  the  earliest  use  of  its 
rational  fMolties  (viL  16 ;  ▼iii.  4).  The 
S?"'^^!!^  ^  ""^  •"  expressive  of 

^^^J^^T^'  -t'^p^k^srr'yon  ^ 

be  detostod.     That  given  by  his  wife. « God 


(i«)  with  OS,'  denotes  te  intsrvention  of 
Ood  lor  the  resene  of  Abas  and  his  domi- 
niotu  flnom  ths  hands  of  Beiin  and  Pekah. 
The  wind  EmsMnnrt  find*  e^mesponding 
foimatio0sinAmmsel,'Oed«i«AflM'  (Mnmb. 
ziii.  13.  SSsBk  is.  4),  and  Ammishaddirf, 
•tfts  Almighty  u  wUk  sis'  (Mnmb.  L  13; 
iL  30).  A  similar  instance  maybe  ibnnd  in 
Eaek.  zhriil.  80,  where  the  prophet,  foresee- 
ing the  pioos  obedienee  of  the  Jews  after 
their  restoration  from  M^tivily,  and  the  eon- 
sequent  isvoar  of  the  Ahni^ty,  dedsiea 
JenHslem  from  that  shall  be  J§k§mk  e*am- 
sMi^  *  Jehovsh  there,'  or  *  the  Lord  is  fliere/ 
As  Uie  word  Emmanuel  signifies  the  aeoord- 
anee  of  Divine  aid,  so  is  it  sfpHed  by  Mat- 
thew (L  38)  to  Oie  Savionr  <tf  mankmd,  in 
whom  God  '  visited  snd  redeemed  his  peo- 
ple' (Lake  i.  68,  78;  viL  18;  eomp.  Gen.  1. 
34.  Jer.zzix.10). 

EMMAUS  (H.  peopk  dt^itid),  a  vfflage 
Ijing  sixty  stadia,  or  abont  five  milss,  from 
Jerosalem  (Luke  zziv.  18).  It  has  been 
identified  with  el-Kubetbeh,  whieh  is  found 
on  the  mountains  south  of  Bedi-horon,  to 
the  noith-west  of  Jerusalem.  But  Enbetbdi 
is  too  remote  from  the  eitjr  to  be  Emmaus; 
snd  tfie  position  of  Emmaus,  aid  sB  correct 
tradition  respecting  it,  were  loet  before  liie 
time  of  Eusebins  snd  Jesoms,  who  confound 
the  village  with  another  plaee^  namely,  the 
city  EmmansL 

There  was  also  a  town  temed  Emmaus, 
or  at  a  later  period  If  icopolis,  whieh  lay  160 
stadia  neatly  weat  firom  Jerusalem,  on  the 
plain  Sephela,  where  ttie  mouniains  of  Judah 
begin  to  rise.  PUny,  who  pieces  it  nesr 
Lydda  (to  the  south-esst  of  whidi  it  isy) 
and  Joppa,  describes  it  ss  shounding  in 
fountsins. 

It  seems  rather  unlikely  that  there  should 
be  twoplaees  of  tfasssme  name,  aeity  and  avil- 
lege,  lying  near  each  other,  on  tiie  same  side 
of  Jerusstom.  0ns  is  tempted  to  think  tfiere 
could  hftve  been  but  one,  and  Ast  thenotion  of 
there  being  two  must  have  arisen  firom  some 
diversity  in  dstails.  H,  tor  instsnce,  Luke 
had  written  160  instead  of  60  stadia,  he 
would  then  be  understood  to  point  to  Mieo- 
polis.  Josephtts,  however,  mentions  a  place, 
Ammaus  (tiiie  same  word),  as  lying  sixty 
stadia  firom  Jerusalem ;  and  we  cannot  sup- 
pose thess  two  to  have  been  one,  ezeept  on 
the  supposition  that  both  Loks  and  Joee- 
phus  have  been  altsnd,  180  being  dunged 
into  60  stadin. 

Another  Anunsns -—spelt  by  Buaebius 
Emmaus — ^is  mentioned  by  Jose^us  (  Antiq. 
zviiL  8)  ss  situated  inthe  vicinity  of  Tiberias, 
on  the  western  sids  of  the  lake  at  GalOee, 
where  there  were  warm  baths. 

EMULATION  (L.  mmuku,  '  a  rival'), 
striving  to  outdo  snother,  an  act  whieh,  if  it 
has  the  elevation  of  adf  for  ito  aim,  cannot 
be  approved  in  Christian  morals,  and  is 
hence  placed  among  oondemned  qualities  of 


ENG  i 

mind  bf  FkoI  (0*1.  v.  30),  and  which,  eTen 
when  Ule  pnrpoM  i*  lh«  UlTuioeiDcnt  ol 
human  good  and  &t  (arlhemics  of  the  Di- 
f  ina  will,  nqniies  walchfnl  oan  leil  the  mo- 
tjTabMoma  impote,  otlhawil  oudne  (Sam. 
X.  19 1  oomF.xi.  11—14  Heb.z.  34).  The 
original  wOTd,  utat  (mv  (mI)>  decotiiiB  a, 
■tiong  and  ardent  hcling,  ia  lendaied  '  in. 
dignatioD'  (Aota  T.  IT),  •■»;'  (Aola  liii. 
10),  'isa]'  (Bom.E.  2),  <bmntnund'(9 
Cor.™.  7). 

ENOEDI  (H.  /ountaht  of  tin  ^ooft),  a 
wild,  open,  Kxkj  duUiot,  tenuad  ■  wilder- 
neas,  whiib  is  the  aiiena  of  importaot  eranta 
in  the  hiatoi;  of  David,  and  i*  to  be  foand 
on  the  vealem  aide  ol  the  Dead  Sea,  l^g 
bBtween  what  wm  the  wildemsg*  of  Judah 
andthatof  Ziph  (1  Bam.  iriT.).  There  waa 
hen  a  town  of  the  *ame  name  sailed  in 
anoient  timea  Haieion-tamar  (Oen.  iIt.  7; 
oomp.  2GhroD.  zx.  S),  which  belonged  to 
Jndidi  (JDah.zT.  02),  and  lay  on  the  Dead 
Sea  (Eiek.  ilTiL  10),  when  it  ia  placed  bj 
JoHphoa  (AnCiq.  iz.  1, 2),  in  a  diatrict  tall 


51  ENG 

of  hilli,  pnoipieea,  elifib  and  cavea,  hot  also 
abnndantlr  prodoetiTe  of  wine,  palma  and 
balsam  [ix.  1,  2).  In  the  daya  of  Eniebiaa 
and  Jerome,  Engedi  waa  atill  a  oonaideralil* 
village  on  the  margin  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Mia- 
led  by  a  Tsgiie  eipreaaion  of  Iheae  antboti- 
ties,  anoient  and  modem  geograpbera  haTa 
aasnmed  two  pluea  of  the  nam*.  Thia  enor 
Bobinaon  baa  aaaoBasfally  e^wsed.  Bnina 
of  Engedi  atill  remain,  nnder  the  name  of 
Ain-DschidL 

ENQINES  OF  WAR  an  mentioned  in 
Eiek.  iitL  e,  whan  the  writer  obTionalj  in- 
tended meana  of  aaaanlt  in  besii^ing  a  town. 
TheM  meaoa,  as  employed  by  the  kbg  of 
Babylon  againat  Jemaalem,  ^ipear  from  the 
Dontexl  to  hare  been  a  moreable  fort  and 
moond,  as  well  aa  battering-rama  or  inatm- 
meat*  for  demolishing  the  walla.  The  Egyp> 
tiana,  in  attacking  a  fortified  town,  adranoM 
under  ooTer  of  the  arrowa  and  bowmen,  and 
either  inatanlly  applied  the  aealing-laddar, 
or  undertook  the  roniine  of  a  regalar  aiege. 
In  the  latter  oaia,  they  threw  np  a  moimd 


with  breaal.woA,  from  which  they  might 
play  their  enginea(eomp.SClmn,xiri.  19), 
and  approach  to  imdermiae  the  walla,  or  aa- 
•ail  tlu  ganiaon  under  teatndinea, 


made  of  leather,  wood,  or  ahieida 
grlher.      Haring  plaaed  themaeli._ 
under  the  walla,  they  allied  the  battering- 


ENO 


062 


ENO 


Ha  'bmUgta,   on   thsir   lide,   defaniid  With  lh(  na^tit                    .       . 

IbMBMlTM  bj  duchu«iitg  MTOWB.     Tow«™  ikeleh  hmi  maoh  nsrit     Ton  mm  (he  hoHM 

MM  nlMd  In  wlf-def*DM  on  tlu  nils,  tnd  ot  lh«  Tictor,  (h«  routed  and  djiog  Cuim>- 

MB*  of  the  beiugad  hnitod  itonei  on  the  itei,  their  deta&ted  ud  woonded  king;  Om 

■MaUaoU  (Jnd«.  ii.  M.    8  Sam.  li.  81).  twotimofw«U-tnumBdrKDp»t«,wherBio»a 

K-    bomiu  pileh,  iad  nultMl  lead  •«•  itill  fight  uui  when™  olherm  (aU  ;  while  in  the 

alM  eankmd,  »her»wr  they  eooU  be  naed  eomer  a  herdunau.  Dni^jored  bat  in  great 

with  dbeL  whether  in  aaunlt  or  defeoea  alann,  dritea  off  Mi  oallle.     Thia  ali^t  in- 

(i-j,  ix.  49  03) :  and  whan  all  alat  tailed,  eident  in  the  pieCim  illnetratas  the  tmth  of 

iw|Siiiwiwa.r«dne*dbrr«nine(aKlngi  the  Beriptan;  tor  th.  AmotiWi(G^.  1. 18) 

Ti  M  •  iTiii  37)      In  aonie  eaaH,  the  a>-  poawaied  the  diitnot  of  Batban,  which  wtt 

aailwl'townnDen  Tentnred  to  draw  np  theii  notod  for  the  breedinf  at  oallle  (Pa.  sxiL 

fcnM  on  Un  oWaide  of  *eir  waUa.  to  giw  13).    The  •nmlnf  oat  ahowi  di*  Egjptiana 

iha  atiiilur'  battU.    An  initwoe  may  ba  itoiming  *  fart,  nndn  ahdter  M  teMadinea 

D  In  Oabnrrfa'EfjpC  (p.  64),  whleh  held  oo  dM  bask,  and  bj  nMUt  of  aeding 


ENaRAVE  (T.  ta  aa  biU).     Baa  Oia- 

ENHITT  (F.,  originallj  from  the  Ladn 
ta, 'not,'  audawnu,>a&iuid'),  iathaoppo- 
•its  of  rriendabip,  that  ia,  hoatiLQ,  and  that 
lo  whlob  hoatili^  leadi,  namely,  hatred. 
Haind  ii  the  urdinar)'  meaaing  otdie  Greek 
oriK<Qa1,MAlAra(LiiteiiiiL  12.Boin.TiiL7). 

ENOCH  (H.).  aaonorCaiD(aeii.iT.17), 
who  bnill  a  oi^  to  which  be  gave  hit  own 
name.  What  ia  hare  denominated  a  eil; 
would  b«  more  correctly  leimed  a  hamlat. 
The  paieage  aiinplj  impliea  that  Enoch  first 


Anoflier  Enodl  waa  the  aon  of  Jared,  and 
father  of  Methoielah.  Hanng  liTed  36A 
yean,  and  walked  with  Ood,  ba  wai  not,  for 
Ood  look  bim  ^Ocn.  t.  84).  In  the  oaie  of 
Enoob'*  predeeBiaora,  departon  ftom  lifo  ia 
deaoribed  bj  the  worde,  ■  and  be  died '  (Qen. 
<r.  fi,8,  II,  U,  n,ao):  so  that  the  writer, 
bj  thia  peenliar  phraae,  intended  to  aa;  thai 
^wah  did  not  proparij  die,  bat  paaaad  to  an 
;*(Heb.ii.  0). 


Ths  lanna  need  to  desoriba  Enoah'a  etaa- 
laaler  are  eiprenire  and  full  of  maaoing ; 
'be  walked  with  Ood;'  'he  plaaaad  Qod.' 
We  haTe  here  the  deeniption  of  a  eharactai 
who,  in  the  simpls  muralilj  of  a  primitiTS 
age,  WM  goidad  b;  the  will  and  animaCcd 
by  the  apitit  of  the  Cnator.  Thia  lifo  of 
praeliisal  religion  and  true  pis^  aDSoed  from 
two  great  eoQTiBtioDi — atieliedliat '  Oodia,' 
and  that '  he  is  the  rewarder  of  them  that 
diligentlf  aeak  him  '  (Heb.ii.O).  So  simple 
is  the  faith  which  enabled  Enoch  lo  gain  the 
DiTiae  fatoor.  Ia  that  favonrmore  difflcnlt 
to  obtain  ander  a  sj"''™  "^  K""  *'''^  n^J 
modifj,  bat  cannot  alter,  still  teas  eompli- 
eale  the  lerma  of  aoceptaDoe  with  Ood  I 

The  '  iranilatioa' of  Enoch  maybsTe  been 
designed  as  a  apecisl  exhibition  of  the  Di- 
Tine  power  exercised  in  teward  of  eminent 
goodneia,  and  so  proring  the  niatanoe,  ope- 


FroTidenee. 

Jade(U)nL .     .      , 

big  ot  EnMti,  witbool  Mating  wbanee  b« 
took  Iha  vorda.    It  vaa  known  OuX  in  lb* 


EPA                      563  EPH 

EPENETUS  (Q.  finriwi),  >  wcU-btlarad 
diMlple  otPuiI,  wu  llw  firat  iuhkbiluil  of 

qncitioiud,  Ihougb  to  lU  anlhari^  ftppeil  A*i«  Hinot  ihkt  RceiTsd  the  K>>*P*1-    Tha 

vu  ■omalimai  mads.     About  mtcdIj  yein  eommoa  Tanion,  with  aome    others,  ^Itm 

■inoe,  tbii  toat  book  vaa  brooghl  lo  Europe  Aduia  iiulaad  of  Atiu,  which  u  the  ni4iliiig 

in    4D  Ethiopio  tmialation.     The  paiaa^  of  Iha  beat  mmtuiiripla,  and  was  taken  into 

cited  in  Jade  ■■  there  (ouiid  in  the  com-  the  text  br  Tiiehetidarf  (1841).    OfAchtia 

neDDement.     The  work,  whiiih  ia  a  stilleo-  the  boiue  ofSlephuiaa  wai  the  SiatfrulU 

Hon  of  obHore  end  ioeohemnt  vlaioni,  hu  (ICor.iTL  10). 

so  elaim  lo  b*Te  proceeded  from  Enoch,  ia  EPHE308  (now  Aiaaalok),  one  of  the 

of  DDjmown  origin,  and  maj  bare  oome  into  tiralte  Ionian  citiaa  in  Asia  Mioor,  aoooid- 

eiiatanae  •  ahorl  tiine  before  ^e  Chriatian  lug  lo  Plinf,  '  the  ornament  of  Aaia,'  la; 

era.  npon  the  riTer  Cajiler,    not  fkr  bam  the 

ENON  (H.),the  name  of  a  pUee  al  whieh  learian  8ea.  Aboot  Iha  ttme  of  Iha  GbnatiHi 

John  biq>tiaed  (John  iiL  23).  Eaiebliuplaeea  -^ 
it  ei^l  Boman  miles  aoalh  from  Soflho- 
polia,  on  the  Jordan,  not  far  from  a  Tillage 
Billed  Salim. 

EMOS  (H.),  son  of  Setb,  and  grandaoD 
of  Adam ;  of  whom  il  ia  aaid  that  in  hit 
time  ■  began  men  to  sail  upon  the  name  of 
Jehorab'  (Oen.tT.  SO).  The  import  of  the 
declaration  is  donbtfdl.  Implying  that 
hitherto  men  had  not  etlled  on  Jdiovah, 
il  latij  mean  that  then  for  (he  flnt  time 
men  offered  wonbip  to  God  ;  or  oflkied  It  in 

common  and  in  puhlio ;  or  tliat,  having  be-  ,;c^_ 

(ore  warehipped  Elobini,diejnoiW  worshipped  „  "^ 
Jehoiafa,  baTing  attained  to  loftier  and  purer 
coaosptiona  of  the  Deitji,  and  passed  from 
idolalzy  to  the  familj  Ood  of  tlie  Adamites. 
The  conatraotion  of  the  words  which  impliea 

that  the  generation  of  £noa  were  Ihs  Aral  en  Ibis  ell;  was  still  rising  in  importanM, 

worshippers,  whether  in  private  or  in  pnblio,  while  all  otben  of  Aaia  If  inor  were  daolin- 

ia  opposed  by  the  earlier  part  of  the  rtoord,  iug.     Under  the  Bomana    il    beeama  the 

particulailj  by  the  oflaiinga  at  Oain    and  e^ilal  of  the  whole  proruiBs  of  Asis,  and, 

Abel,  whidi  an  not  mentioned  as  an;  thing  from  ita  faiouiable  position,  Oie  enporium 

nnoeoal.  of  all  the  coonti;  between  it  and  the  Tanma. 

EUeAHPLE  (F.),  anoUier  tbim  of  our  In  later  tlmaa  the  bishop  of  Ephasiu  pra- 

woid  txamplt,  standi  for  Qreek  terms  which  aided  orei  the  other  Asiatic  ohnrchea  with 

■re  traoslaled  'print'  (John  ii.  30),  'form'  the  ri^te  of  a  patriareh.    When  Paul  came 

(Bom.  Ti.  IT),    'eiample'  (John  xiii.  10.  loEphesna,  be  fiiimd  a  eonaiderablenimibar 

ITim.  iT,  12),  'pattern'  (TiL  ii.  T).  of  Jawa  thai*,  among  whom  he  ecdleetad  ■ 

ENBiON  (L.mr^H(a,'distinctions').  See  Christian  oommmii 9,  wbieb  afterwarda  be- 

B^miB.  earae  Iha  oentre  of  Chrlatlanitjr  in  Aaia  Uiniv. 

ENVIBON  (F.  la  fluirrli),  which  itgnl-  The  apoalla  left  TfaDothj  in  Epheana;  bat 

flea  10  garroand  (Joah-Tii.  0),  Is  atiU  00m-  afterwarda,  aooording  to  an  old  tradition,  we 

mon  in  the  noon  nKunnu,  that  is,  anbnrba.  And  John  lhei«,  and  that  ha  waa  bnried  in 

EPAPHKAS,  a  member  of  (he  church  of  that  eilj,  together  wllh  Mar;,  the  modier  of 

ColassK(Coloss.iT.  ]3),andateaeherinthe  oor  Lord. 

aame  comnmoit;  (L  7).    He  ahared  PaaTa  TheheathaneelebrUjofEphaaaa  laohiefl; 

imprisonment  In  Borne,  where  be  laboured  owing  lo  its  eommeroe  andopidenca,  as  wall 

for  the  diffoaion  of  the  gospel,  and  afforded  as  lo  the  goddeas  *  Diana  of  the  Epbealana ' 

comfort  to  the  mind  of  &e  aged  apoaUe.    Il  (ace  article). 

has,  perhaps  wilhont  reason,  been  supposed  As  the  greatest  eommerctal  all;  of  Aaia 

that  he  was   the  same  as  the  ensaing,  of  Ulnor,    Ej^esns    had    a  large  popnlation, 

whose  name  Epaphras  has  been  held  to  be  a  abonnded  in  wealth,  and  was  the  point  of 

contraction.  nnion  for  diTcrae  opinions  and  new  forma 

EPAPHB0DITU8,  a  Obrlallanwbom  Pant  of  IhooghL  The  oorrapl  noliDna  and  super- 
terms  his  oompanion  in  lahov  and  inarms,  atitiona  practices  of  the  tamotar  Eaat,  in 
who  being  aeni  with  peconiai;  aid  to  the  theirprogress  westward, fonnd  a  retting  and 
apostle  when  in  eastodjr  at  Borne,  fell  sick  a  fostering  spot  In  Epbesos.  The  oi^  aa- 
in  that  eitj,  acd  being  eameatlj  deaironi  of  eordingl;  became  the  haad-qoarters  of  bea- 
returning,  was  sent  back  by  the  Spoatla  with  then  magic,  which  here  more  than  any 
great  commntdalion-  (Plullpp.  U.  29  i  i».  where  else  oinied  on  its  deceptire  trade  t 
18)                                                                                 -^  -^ -'-'-  -'"' '■'-'■ 


EPn 


564 


EPH 


•eqaenee,  wm  also  a  great  promoter  of  the 
l>anefiil  delasion.  In  Epheaas,  aeoordingly, 
were  loroerera  and  magieiane  of  both  Pagan 
and  Jewish  origin,  who  with  their  dark  and 
injorioni  arts  gained  a  more  ready  reeeption 
from  the  faet  that  the  hearts  of  many,  left 
nnsadsfied  by  what  heathenism  gave,  grasped 
at  every  thing  new  with  not  less  eagerness, 
becanse,  being  mysterious,  it  aiforded  a  larger 
promise  of  good,  and  espeeiaUy  wore  the  ^h 
pearanee  of  solving  importunate  qaestions 
regarding  the  spiritaal  world  and  the  destiny 
of  man. 

The  books  mentioned,  Aets  six.  19,  were 
books  of  magie.  How  many  there  must  have 
been  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the 
priee  of  them  was  *  0000  pieces  of  sihrer.' 
The  '  Ephesian  letters  *  were  also  very  ode* 
brmted.  They  ^pear  to  have  been  eharms 
written  on  pieees  of  parchment,  and  fixed  to 
different  parts  of  the  body,  and  were  sup- 
posed to  render  their  possessor  viotorioos  in 
every  thing.  The  estimation  in  which  *  sci- 
ence falsely  so  called  *  was  held,  shows  how 
important  a  demonstration  of  the  progreas 
of  the  gospel  was  the  burning  of  these  books; 


and  how  *  mightily  grew  the  word  of  the 
Lord,  and  prevailed/ 

An  infcrenee  in  fovour  of  the  inflacnee  of 
Panl  as  a  highly-gifted  person,  if  not  of  the 
secret  prevalence  of  Christianity,  may  be 
found  in  the  fact,  that  when  his  life  wae  put 
iu  peril  by  the  Ephesian  mob,  he  found  pro- 
tecticm  at  the  hands  of  *  certain  chiefo  of 
Asia,'  for  theee  Asiarehs  were  opulent  and  of 
high  dignity. 

In  Acts  six.  8d,  we  find  it  declared  that  the 
eity  of  the  Ephesians  is  '  a  worshipper  of 
the  great  Diana.'  The  word  neokonm,  ren- 
dered *  worshipper '  is  peculiar,  literally  mean- 
ing 'temple-keeper;*  so  thatEphesus  was 
honourably  described  as  the  temple-keeper 
of  Disna.  This  ofllce  was  the  chief  piide 
of  tile  citiiens.  It  made  them  olijects  of 
respect  and  envy  to  other  less  favoured  wor- 
shippers of  the  goddess.  Indeed,  the  Ephe- 
sians hence  obtained  a  name,  being  denomi- 
nated meokaraif  or  warders  of  Diana's  temple. 
It  is  confirmatory  of  the  narrative  in  the 
Aets  diat  the  ensuing  coin  bears  this  enTied 
title.  The  ooin  shows  the  head  of  Nero^  and 
besides  a  view  of  die  iu-tun^A  temple«  has 


■■BO. 


the  words,  (Money)  ofihsSpheahsu  xboko 
Boi,  JEckmoelet  Aviokh  PnocoisuL.  It 
serves  another  purpose  in  the  word  pro- 
consul, anthvpaloi,  the  very  term  used  in 
Acts  xix.  88,  and  rendered  '  deputies ;'  for 
we  thus  learn  that  the  proconsular  authority 
was  established  at  Ephesus  in  the  reign  <^ 
Mcro  (A.  D.  64-— 67),  at  the  beginning  of 
which  the  recorded  events  occurred.  These 
minute  verbal  coincidences  could  hardly  be 
found  in  a  fabricated  narrative. 

The  ruins  of  Ephesus  are  two  ahort  dayi^ 
journey  fh>m  Smyrna,  in  a  south-easterly 
direction.  Some  shattered  walls  and  pil- 
lars— the  ruins  of  a  theatre  supposed  to  be 
the  one  in  which  Paul  preached,  and  a  splen- 
did eiiotts,  almost  entire,  are  all  that  remain 
of  the  once  magnificent  city  of  Ephesus. 

Of  <  the  seven  churches  of  Asia,'  Ephesus 
is,  in  the  Apocalypse,  addressed  the  first  (ii. 
6).  Distinguished,  originally,  for  Christian 
exoellcncc,  the  church  then  <left  its  first- 
love,  and  had  ito  candlestick  removed  out 
of  its  place.'  True,  faideed,  has  this  word 
of  warning  proved.  A  few  Christian  ftunilies 
livs  scattered  in  poor  huts  over  the  hiiiy^ 


SPHXSUS. 

but  Aiasaluk  itself  is  inhabited  by  disciples 
of  Mohammed. 

Paul  for  the  first  time  came  from  Corinth 
to  Ephesus  when  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem. 
His  stay  was  short     He  departed,  giving  s 
promise  to  return  (Actsxviii  19,  se^.).  This 
promise  he  kept ;  for  on  his  third  missionarj 
Journey,  coming  from  Oslatia  and  Phrygia, 
he  visited  the  city  (xix.  1),  in  which  at  first 
he  converted  twelve  disciples  of  John(l — 7), 
then  taught  for  three  months  in  the  Jewish 
synag(^ue,  and  when  its  worshippers  resisted 
the  gospel,  he  preached  it  for  the  space  of 
two  years  in  the  school  of  one  Tyrannns. 
Heathenism,  with  its  falsehoods,   received 
injury,  and  the  truth  of  Ood  was  dissemi- 
nated, not  in  Ephesus  only,  but  in  many 
parts  of  Asia  Minor  (8 — 20).  The  partisans 
of  error  and  deception  had  recourse  to  vio- 
lence, when  Paul  saved  his  life  by  fli|^t 
(21 — ^xL  1).    Nearly  three  years,  however, 
had  he  been  in  ihe  city,  there  had  he  dili- 
gently and  successftally  laboured;   so  that 
he  could  not  forget  the  place  and  all  its  im- 
portant interests.    When,  therefore,  shonly 
after,  he  was  in  .the  neighbouripg  city  of 


EPH  565  EPH 

IGleiiifi  on  his  last  journey  to  Jeni8ia«m,  he  letter  oondadet  with  a  general  exhortation 
cent  for  the  elders  of  the  Ephesian  churoh,  to  steadiiMtneas  in  Christian  fiuth,  love,  and 
and  addressed  them  in  m  most  earnest  and  holiness,  in  the  midst  of  snnonnding  dan- 
affecting  speech,  which  is  a  model  of  hor^  gers,  conflicts,  and  temptations  (11^20). 
Utory  eloquence,  a  token  of  the  aposde's  Tychichns,  a  native  of  Asia  ICinor  (Acts 
goodness  of  heart,  and  a  proof  of  the  depth  xx.4),heingsentto£phe8n8byPaal  (dXim. 
with  which  the  gospel  had  stmck  ito  roots  iv.  12),  was  the  beaier  of  this  epistle  (EiAes. 
in  his  soul.  These  are  the  relationsin  which  vL  21,  22),  being  at  the  same  time  coiunis- 
Paul  stood  to  that  church,  to  whom,  accord-  sioned  to  visit  Colosse(  Col.  iv.T).  Thewriter 
ing  to  onr  present  copies,  he  addressed  was  in  bondage  when  the  letter  was  written. 

Ephetiam,  the  EpitUe  to,  which  divides  Hisbondage  was  occasioned  by  his  advocacy 

itself  into  two    parts— first,  the  dogmatie,  of  the  oaose  of  the  Gentiles  (Eph.iiL  J ;  iv.l). 

second,  the  hortatory.  In  the  first,  the  apostle  He  was  also  endnxing  tribulations  (ill.  18). 

pours  forth  in  a  foil  and  lofty  strain  his  This  bondage  may  be  either  that  at  Cnsaiea 

thankfhlness  for  the  redemption  designed  of  or  that  in  Bome.  But  another  passage  seems 

old,  but  accomplisbed  in  the  death  of  Jesus  to  decide  in  favour  of  the  last  place ;  for  in 

Christ,  and  made  known  according  to  the  vL  19,  20,  Paul  requests  the  prayers  of  his 

Divine    intention  of   uniting   together,  by  rsaden,  that  he,  <  an  ambassador  in  bonds,' 

means  of  the  Saviour,  the  two  great  divi-  (rather*inachain')  might  preach  the  gospel 

sions  ot  the  human  famUy,  the  Jew  and  the  boldly.  Now  at  Cnsarea,  so  far  as  we  know, 

OentUe.  In  die  progress  of  his  remarks,  the  he  had  not,  but  at  Bome  (Aets  xxviii.  80) 

writer  is  led  to  speak  of  die  elevated  position  he  had,  an  opportunity  of  speaking  boldly 

of  that  great  and  holy  being  through  whom  *  to  make  known  the  mystery  of  the  gospel  ;* 

these  blessings  had  been  conveyed  to  the  and  the  description  ofhimself  as  <  in  a  chain' 

world  (i).   He  passes  on  to  the  participation  corresponds  with  his  known  condition:  for 

in  these  blessings  of  those  whom  he  ad-  he  was  bound  to  the  pratorian  soldier  in 

dresses,  setting  forth,  as  he  proceeds,  the  whose  custody  he  was.  Hence  we  seem  justi- 

gratuitons  and  unbought  love  whence  sal-  fled  in  declaring  that  the  letter  was  composed 

vation  flowed.    In  consequence  of  having  a  at  some  time  during  '  the  two  whole  years ' 

share  in  this  grace,  his  readers  have  been  re-  which  he  passed  at  Bome  in  his  own  hired 

deemed  out  of  a  state   of  alienation,  and  house,  preaching  the  kingdom  of  God. 
made  *  fellow-citizens  with  the  saints  and  of      But  to  whom  was  the  epistle  addressed?  To 

the  household  of  God '  (ii. )  •  For  the  further-  the  '  saints  which  are  at  Ephesns '  (i.  1 ).  Yet 

ance  of  God*s  benign  intentions,  Paul  him-  the  contents  do  not  correspond  with  this 

self  had  received  a  divine  commission,  which  statement;  for  while  the  relations  of  Paul  with 

bade  him  direct  his  efforts  to  the  conversion  the  Ephesian  Christians  were  of  an  intimate 

of  the  Gentiles ;  hence  he  is  led  earnestly  and  endearing  nature,  the  tenor  of  the  com- 

to  pray  that  they  might  abound  in  the  love  position  is  quite  general,  having  no  epecifle 

of  Christ,  and  so  grow  in  every  Christian  references,  no  personal  allusions,  no  greet- 

grace  (iiL).  ings;  though,  of  all  Paul's  letters,  circumt 

Having  thus  laid  a  solid  foundation,  the  stances  would  lead  us  to  expect  this  one  to 
anthorb^ns  to  urge  on  his  readers  specific  abound  most  in  such  tokens  of  aoquaint- 
Cbristian  duties.  Among  these  is  unity  of  ance,  regard,  and  friendship.  It  is  also 
mind,  founded  on  humility,  and  the  conside-  strange  that  die  iq^osde  speaks  of  the  faith 
rations  which  arise  from  a  common  faith  in  of  his  readers  as  known  to  him,  not  by  his 
one  God  and  one  Saviour.  This  unity  must  own  personal  knowledge,  though  he  had 
consist  with  diversity  of  gifts ;  for  these  are  spent  nearly  three  years  in  Ephesus,  but  by 
imparted  according  to  the  Divine  wisdom  in  communicadons  from  others  (i.  Id).  StiU 
Christ,  being  designed  to  employ  every  more  difficult  of  ezplanadon,  on  the  hypo- 
talent,  whatever  its  kind,  in  the  common  thesis  that  the  letter  was  sent  to  the  Ephe- 
service  of  the  church,  and  for  the  promotion  sians,  are  the  words  (iii.  1 — 8), '  If  ye  (you 
of  a  great  union  between  Grod,  Christ,  and  Gentiles)  have  heard  of  the  dispensation  of 
his  disciples.  Whence  the  necessity  of  the  grace  of  God,  how  that  by  revelation  he 
holiness  of  life,  founded  on  an  intimate  al-  made  known  unto  me  the  mystery,  as  I  wrote 
liance  with  the  Head  of  the  Church.  This  afore  in  few  words ;'  fbr  here  it  is  clearly 
holiness  implies  the  abandonment  of  the  implied  that  the  Ephesisns  had  not  received 
evil  courses  customary  among  the  heathen,  the  gospel  from  the  lips,  but  solely  from  the 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  peculiar  fruits  of  pen  of  the  aposde.  Had  the  letter  been  in- 
the  Christian  spirit  (iv.).  Accordingly,  vari-  tended  for  die  Ephesians,  Paul  must  have 
ous  precepts  and  injunctions  are  given,  referred  to  his  preaching,  and  no  doubt  could 
bearing  immediately  on  the  conduct  of  life,  have  existed  that  the  saints  at  Ephesus  knew 
and  having  special  reference  to  die  duties  ot  the  peculiar  mode  in  which  he  had  been 
the  domestic  circle,  showing  how  thoroughly  called  to  the  aposdeship.  Indeed,  the  lan- 
the  gospel  enters  into  onr  individual  and  guage  seems  to  imply  that  the  writer  was 
relative  duties  with  its  divine  authority  personslly  a  stranger  to  those  whom  he  was 
and  sanctifying  power  (v — ^vi.  10).     The  addressing — a  stranger  to  such  an  extent 


EPH                       566  EPH 

lliil  poMiUy  llMy  did  not  know,  or,  if  they  liyhttn  and  all  fM>w«r  to  Mvehit  dlae^lat;  so 

knew,  knew  on  the  anthority  of  othen,  thai  that  thoee  who  are  aeeking  abaolnte  knov- 

Panl  reeeiTed  his  mJeeion  to  the  Gentiles  ledge  and  eonplelo  redcmptioB  from  die 

*  hy  levelation.'  With  the  ezeeptian  of  he-  senses,  ihonld  torn  awaj  from  earthly  preten* 
leties,  snoh  ss  Msnton,  ttie  tsstimnny  of  sions  and  look  to  Christ  alone.  As  Ood 
the  anoienta  makee  the  letter  to  be  addressed  himself  has  revealed  this  wisdom,  man  most 
to  the  Ephesians.  Tet  die  Vatiean  Mann*  not  ventore  to  look  to  any  odier  sooroe  of 
seript,  written  before  the  middle  of  the  fonrih  knoiHedge,  ^rtiieh  ean  be  only  inferior,  if  not 
eentory,  omits   from  the  text  the  words,  irisionaryanddeeeptite;sinee  through  Christ 

*  whieh  sre  in  Ephesus.'  Other  anfhorities  there  has  been  giten  free  aeeeaa  to  Ood, 
of  leee  Talne  durow  doubt  on  theee  words.  man  needs  no  other  mediator ;  and  ainee 

Theee  facts  have  led  to  the  formation  of  Ohxist  is  the  head  of  the  entire  spiritoal 

two  hypotheaes ;  first,  aoeording  to  Grotins,  world,  eommnnion  with  him  is  sll  that  is 

Hammond,  Mill,  Palsy,  and  others,  that,  in  needibl,  in  order  to  die  attainment  of  spi- 

agreement  with  die  statement  of  Mareion,  ritual  peifoedon  and  felieity.    Henee  die 

the  epistle  was  addressed  to  die  Laodieeaas  knowledge  and  love  of  Christ  sre  the  Chris- 

(Coloss.  ir.  16),  to  whom  Paul  was  person-  dan's  great  duty,  as  eomprising  all  that  is 

ally  unknown  (U.  i) ;  but  in  Coloaa.  It.  16»  needftil  to  save  him  from  prevslent  errors 

ths  writer  speaks  ai  a  letter  from,  not  fo,  and  vises,  and  lead  him  to  da^,  Ood,  and 

Laodioea;  and  if  this  theory  is  not  sns-  eternal  lilSs. 

tained,  then,  eeeondly,  aeeording  to  Usher,  Till  die  puUieadon  of  Professor  Banr^s 
Benson,  Crednsr,  and  odien,  that  this  was  a  work,  endded,  Psnlnt,  dor  Apotiei  Jem 
kind  of  eireolar  letter  aent  generally  to  *  the  Ckriiti,  1640,  die  andientieity  of  this  episde, 
saints  and  to  die  foithftd  in  Christ  Jssus'  in  sgreement  with  the  uniform  opinion  of 
who  dwelt  in  Asia.  Some  are  of  opinion  Chiisdsn  antiquity,  was  oonsidered  unim- 
that,  as  ths  letter  wss  sent  to  individnsl  pesehable.  The  reoent  attaek  is  not  of  a 
ehnrehee,  so  were,  in  eseh  eaae,  anitable  nature  to  disprove  its  Pauline  origin,  and, 
words  iutrodneed---aa,  *who  are  in  Ephe-  like  thai  oi  Evaason,  will,  in  all  piobabUity, 
aus,' '  who  are  in  Laodiesa,'  &o. ;  while  Cred-  be  in  a  few  years  forgotten.  I>oubts  hsve 
ner  hcilds  that  the  episde,  going  first  to  the  been  raised  by  De  Wette  from  internal  oon- 
Ephesiana,  was  from  them  reeeived  by  other  sideradons  which  have  lltde,  if  any,  force, 
ehnichea,  and  so  was  oonsidered  to  have  at  For  instance,  the  ressmblanoe  of  diis  episde 
the  first  been  qieeificaUy  addressed  to  diem ;  to  the  epistle  addressed  to  the  Coloesians 
whence  the  words,  *  who  ars  in  Ephesns,'  (eee  i.  884),  is  pleaded  sgainst  iu  being 
same  into  the  text,  yet  not  with  entire  una-  written  by  Panl ;  as  if  a  writer  addresa- 
nimity.  A  word  found  in  vi  21,  seems  to  ing  the  same  state  of  mind,  and  aim- 
give  some  support  to  this  view:  'but  thai  ye  ing  to  produce  die  eame  result,  was  not 
mko  may  know.*  TUs  word  *  also*  has  mean-  likely  to  emfrfoy  the  same  arguments,  eq>e- 
ing,  if  we  suppose  that  ths  letter  passed  in  eiaUy  idien  the  dates  of  the  two  composi- 
tnm  to  several  chnrohes.  tions  are  nearly,  and  the  writer's  condition 

The  olgect  of  the  letter  eorresponds  with  precisely,  the  same.    Both  in  style,  thought, 
die  latter  hypotheais.    That  olgeet  is  in  the  and  structure,  the  epistle  entided  '  to  die 
main  of  a  general  kind.    No  specific  errors  Ephesisns  *  is  throughout  Pauline ;  and  if  its 
oeeaaioned  it ;  against  no  spedfic  errors  is  general  tenor  is  allowed  to  instruct  us  as  to 
it  direSled.    Yet  it  seems  cslculsted  to  meet  its  intsnt  snd  aim,  then  objections  to  its 
and  correct  a  certain  mental  tendency  which,  anthenticity  disappear, 
being  widely  spread  in  Aaia  Minor,  was  dan-  The  moral  tone  which  pervades  the  letter 
gerons  to  the  gospeL    The  letter,  in  eonse-  is  high,  sad  of  a  genuine  apostolic  ebarac- 
qoenee,  offers  Christian  truth  in  diat  form  ter.    The  imagery  employed  in  vL  10 — ^17, 
which  was  most  sd^ited  to  readers  who  were  is  striking,  forcible,  and  impropriate, 
strongly  inclined  to  a  kind  of  mystic  tran-  EPHOD  (H.  a  coverimg),  a  short  upper 
scendentalism,  which  professed  to  reveal  garment,  which  scaioely  covered  the  body 
great  spiritual  sscrets,  snd  r^ise  its  cnlti-  It  was  made  of  two  pieces  sewed  togetba 
vators  to  heighta  of  meti^hysical  krowledge  so  that  one  hung  down  the  breast,  the  other 
unapproachable  by  any  bat  the  initiated  (1  down  die  back.    Pictures  of  persons  wear- 
Tim.  L  8—0).    Aoeordini^y,  Panl  seta  forth  ing  aneh  a  garment  have  been  found  on  the 
the  gospel  ss  the  sum-total  of  ones  hidden  ruins  of  Persepolis,  snd,  what  is  more  wordiy 
but  now  divinely-revealed  wisdom,  a  ftill  of  notice,  two  ephods  have  been  discovered 
knowledge  of  which  leads  to  a  thorouf^  ac-  in  Egypt  which  are  yery  old,  for  the  modem 
quaintanoe  with  God  and  Providence,  eo  Egyptians  wear  nothing  of  the  kind.    Dur- 
•^'Va*^  ^^^  '°'  knowledge  may  be  ftilly  ing  die  great  French  expedition,  diey  were 
satisfied  at  die  fountain  of  die  gospel.    The  bron^t  to  General  Beynier  by  Arabs,  who 
Divme  wisdom  was  concentrated  and  exhi-  steted  that  they  had  found  them  in  a  cave 
bited  in  hU  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  ele-  filled  widi  sand.     These  are  each  diree  feet 
vated  above  all  human  persons  and  thiogs,  long,  and  quadrangnUr  in  form,  having  the 
eontaining  in  himself  ail  wisdom  to  en-  same  breadth  as  lengUi.  The  anna  are  about 


EPH  567  EPH 

sixteen  limhes  kmg.  On  the  riumlden  lad  poweiftil  Jndth  hud  eappUed  liie  next  mo- 
near  the  bottom  are  fastened  square  pieces  narch,  and  the  ark  was  fixed  in  Jerusalem, 
of  embroidery,  and  round  the  arms,  as  well  Ephndm  felt  that  its  position  was  eompro* 
as  down  both  sides  of  the  neck,  are  nar-  mised,  and  entered  into  a  formal  opposition 
row  embroidered  bands.  The  stuff  is  of  a  to  the  new  kingdom.  Probably  it  played  the 
yellow  colour,  the  embroidery  brown,  of  fine  chief  part  in  ihe  determination  with  which, 
linen;  the  embroidery  is  worked  with  the  alter  David's  eleetion,  the  bulk  of  Israel  ad- 
hair  of  an  animal.  bered  for  seven  years  to  Ishbosheth,  the  son 

The  ephod  wss  a  dress  essentially  pecn*  of  Saul :  and  when,  in  the  reign  of  Beho- 

liar  to  the  priestly  order  among  the  Hebrews  boam,  a  party  rose  against  the  tyranny  of 

(1  Samuel  ii  18,  28 ;  xxiL  18) ;  for  <  to  that  monarch,  Ephraim  was  at  its  head  (Is. 

wear  an  ephod,'  was  ^e  same  as  to  be  a  Tii.  17).    An  Ephndmite  prophet  took  the 

priest     Comp.  1  Sam.  xxiiL  6.  Hos.  iii  4.  first  step   (1  Kings  xL  29).     The  revolt 

Henee  the  ephod  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  broke  out  in  Sheehem,  an  Ephraimite  city, 

sacred  olngeot,  which  sometimes  received  di*  The    new  king,  Jeroboam,   was    also  an 

vine  homage  (Jndg.  viiL  27 ;  xvii.  5 ;  xviiL  Ephraimite  (1  Kings  xiL  25).  The  whole  was 

15).    Properly,  the  ephod  was,  aooording  to  a  plan  for  the  aggrandisement  of  Ephraim. 

Mosesf  law,  to  be  worn  only  by  the  high*  This  appears  from  the  use  of  the  name ;  for 

priest;  and  the  abuses  of  it  mentioned  in  Ephraim  frem  tfiis  time  signifies  the  king- 

the  passages  last  referred  to,  if  not  the  use  dom  of  Israel,  or  the  kingdom  of  the  ten 

of  it  by  Samuel  and  David,  may  be  consi-  tribes  under  ^e  guidance  of  Ephraim  (Is. 

dered  as  remnanto  of  old  usages,  which,  pre-  vii.  2, 9 ;  ix.  9 ;  xxviiL  1.  Hos.  iv.  17 ;  v.  8). 

vailing  ftom  the  eariiest  times  of  the  nation,  This  division  of  the  Hebrew  people  greatly 

disappeared  only  when  the  ritual  of  publio  weakened  their  power,  exposing  Uiem  to  in- 

worship  was  defined  and  completed  in  the  temal  broils,  and  rendering  ihem  an  easy 

service  of  the  temple.    The  description  of  prey  to  foreigners.     Still  more  were   the 

the  ephod  of  the  high-priest  may  be  found  nerves  of  the  nation  weakened  when  Beho- 

in  Exod.  xxviii.  6,  $eq,  boam,  for  political  purposes,  introduced  and 

EPHBAIM  (H.yriii(/W),  Joseph's  second  established  idolatrous  worship.  In  Ephraim 

son,  bom  of  Asenath,  the  daughter  of  Poti-  the  idolatry  found  aceeptanee  and  made  pro- 

pherah,  an  Egyptian  priest    With  his  elder  gress,  it  may  be,  the  more  readily  from  the 

brother,  Manasseh,  he  was  placed  by  Jacob  fact  that  Ephraim  was  descended  from  an 

in  the  same  condition  as  his    own  sons  Egyptian  mother  of  the  priestly  caste.    Ite 

(Gen.  xlviiL  5 ;  comp.  Josh,  xvii  14).    The  proximity  to  Judah  was  detrimental  to  the 

descendanto  of  Joseph's  second  son  formed  purity  of  the  temple  vrorship.    From  these 

the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  which  was  from  the  facte  we  may  learn  why  the  voice  of  faithfril 

first  one  of  the  most  considerable   (Gen.  propheto  was  so  earnest  in  rebuking  the 

xlviii.  19).    Joshua  was  an  Ephraimite.    In  defection,    apostaoy,    and    depravation    of 

the  division  of  Canaan,  a  fine  portion  lying  Ephraim. 

in  the  heart  of  the  country  fell  to  this  tribe,  Ephraim,  a  city  of  that  name,  described  in 
who,  though  the  scriptural  limito  are  by  no  John  xi.  04,  as  being  in  a  ooun^  near  to  the 
means  clear,  seem,  in  conjunction  with  the  wOdemess  whither  our  Lord  repaired  with  his 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  to  have  occupied  the  disciples,  after  the  raising  of  Laxarus  had 
district  which  stretehes  from  the  Jordan,  at  induced  the  Sanhedrim  to  form  the  deliberate 
a  point  north  of  Beigamin,  to  Dor,  in  the  resolve  to  put  him  to  death.  Ephraim,  Bo- 
vicinity  of  Carmel,  on  the  Mediterranean.  binson  (Harmony,  pp.  201 — ^204)  holds  to 

At  an  early  period,  Ephraim  gained  a  pre-  be  probably  identical  with  the  Ephrain  of 

dominant  influence ;  and  although  die  trans-  2  Cbron.  xiii.  19,  and  the  Ophrah  of  Josh. 

Jordanie  Israelites  disowned  ite  supremacy,  xviii.  28.    The  same  is  also,  he  holds,  the 

yet  it  exerted  a  species  of  control  over  the  Ephron  of  Eusebius  and  Jezome,  which  the 

weaker  members  of  the  Israelite  confederacy  latter  places  at  nearly  twenty  Boman  miles 

(Judg.  viii.  1,  seq. ;  xii.  1,  seq.).    Even  the  north  of  Jerusalem,  and  seven  mUes  beyond 

national    sanctuary    was    for    some    time  Bethel.    But  it  lay  *  near  to  the  wilderness/ 

at  the  Ephraimite  city  of  Shiloh,  which  ac-  The  only  wilderness  in  that  region  is  on  the 

cordiogly  became  the  centre  of  the  religious  east  of  Bethel,  namely,  the  desert  of  Judea, 

and  civil  relations  of  the  whole  people  (Josh,  lying  to  the  west  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the 

xviii,  I.  Judg.  xviii.  81.  1  Sam.  i  8;  iii.  21;  valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  extending  north- 

xiv.  8),  which  must  have  added  much  to  the  wards  as  far  as  to  the  parallel  of  Shiloh. 

influence  of  the  tribe.    Bethel,  too,  where  These  indications  point,  he  thinks,  to  the 

Samuel   had   one    of  his  judgment-seate,  lofty  site  of  the  modem  et-Taiyibeh,  sito- 

was   taken    by   the  Ephraimites   (1  Sam.  ated  two  hours  north-east  of  Bethel,  and  six 

vii.  16.  Judg.  L  22).    With  such  power  on  hours  twenty  minutes  north-north-east  of  Jo- 

their  side,  they  were  not  likely  to  look  with  rnsalem  (reckoning  three  Boman  miles  to  the 

favour  on  the  choice  of  a  king  in  Saul,  the  hour),  adjacent  to  and  overlooking  the  broad 

Benjamite,  though  his  tribe  was  too  weak  to  tract  of  desert  country  lying  between  it  and 

occasion  serious  apprehensions.    But  when  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.    This,  in  Bobin 


EPI 


dd6 


EPI 


■on't  opinion,  wm  the  Ephnim,  or  Epbionp 
of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

On  retoming  to  Jerasalem  for  the  last 
time,  Robinson  sapposes  that  Jesas,  aftar 
dwelling  some  time  at  Ephraim,  took  a  cir- 
enitons  route,  eroaaing  the  Talley  and  the 
Jordan,  and  then  proceeding  to  the  capital 
through  Jericho.  In  the  time  spent  in 
Ephraim  and  the  ensuing  tour,  Bobinson 
places  many  important  events  narrated  in 
the  gospels;  for  instance,  from  Luke  ziii. 
10  to  sis.  28. 

Ephraim,  the  northern  portion  of  the  high 
land  which  stietehes  frum  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon,  southward,  to  the  desert  et-Tih. 
This  ridge,  which  is  many  miles  in  breadth, 
attaina  its  greatest  eloTation  at  Hebron, 
where  it  is  about  8000  feet  aboTc  the  level 
of  the  sea ;  whilst  in  the  north,  towards  Si> 
ehem,  it  sinks  to  i7dl  feet,  and  at  last  falls 
down  to  the  plain  above  mentioned.  To- 
wards the  west,  it  gradually  loses  its  height 
by  means  of  successions  of  hills,  each  lower 
than  its  predecessor,  which  lie  between  the 
summit  and  the  plain  along  the  abore  of 
the  Mediterranean.  The  fall  on  the  eastern 
side  is  more  sudden  from  two  causes,  partly 
from  its  being  shorter,  partly  from  the  level 
of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea  being  much 
lower  than  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 
entire  range  is  a  high,  uneven  tableland, 
formed  of  a  mass  of  individual  groups,  of 
which  no  one  possesses  any  gnat  estension. 
It  is  intersected  by  many  deep  valleys  whieh 
run  eaat  and  west,  either  to  the  Mediterr»- 
nean  or  the  Jordan.  The  water-shed  for  the 
most  part  follows  the  elevations  of  the  land 
along  the  ridge,  yet  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  valleys  that  afterwards  take  dissimilar  di- 
rections, often  for  a  considerable  extent  run 
throng  each  other :  for  instance,a  valley  which 
sinks  towards  the  Jordan  has  its  beginning 
half  an  hour  or  more  westward  from  the  be- 
ginning of  other  valleys  whieh  run  towards 
the  Western  Sea.  These  valleys  are  all  water- 
courses, which  flow  or  not,  according  to  the 
•eason  of  the  year.  Along  the  range  lie 
several  well-known  hills,  such  sa  that  of 
Samaria,  Ebal,  Oeriaim,  Olivet,  Zion.  The 
whole  is  rich  in  com,  wine,  and  fruits ;  only 
the  hill  country  of  Judah  is  in  its  southern 
part,  especially  towards  the  Dead  Sea,  barren, 
and,  in  many  parts,  a  wilderness ;  yet  spots 
are  found  bearing  traces  of  ancient  culture 
and  frnitftilness. 

EPHRATH,  or  EPHBATAH  (H.  ahun- 
damce),  the  ancient  name  of  Bethlehem,  in 
Judah  (Gen.sssv.  16.  Buth  iv.  11),  where 
Bachel  died  in  child-birth  and  was  buried, 
and  where  David  and  Jesus  were  bom.  The 
two  names  *  Bethlehem  Ephratah '  are  united 
in  Mioah  v.  2.  Hence  natives  of  Bethle- 
hem were  denominated  Epbrathites  (Buth  i 
a.  1  Sam.  iviL  12). 

EPICUBUS  (O.  helper),  a  Grecian  phi- 
losopher, bom  342  A.  C.  at  Samoa,  whence. 


In  hit  eighteenth  year,  be  proceeded  to 
Athens ;  which  city,  however,  be  soon  quit- 
ted, and  repaired  to  Colophon,  wbero  his 
father,  Neoeles,  had  settled.  Leaving  this 
place,  he  visited  Mitylene  and  Lampsaoos^ 
where  he  taught  for  some  time.  In  807  A.C 
he  returned  to  Athens,  where,  purchsaing  a 
garden,  in  oompany  with  his  three  brotfaem 
and  numenma  acholars  and  frienda,  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  lifs  in  a  simple,  retired 
and  happy  intimacy,  aueh  as  that  foooa  of 
lusnry  and  art  had  notprevioualy  seen.  The 
natural  modesty  of  his  disposition,  his  love 
of  retirement,  uid  his  simple  pleasures,  ren- 
dered Epicurus  indisposed  to  take  part  in 
the  service  of  the  state,  though  he  felt  n 
warm  and  deep  interest  in  the  welfue  of  his 
adopted  country,  to  which  he  was  under 
deep  obligations.  So  far  aa  was  possible  he 
lived  in  concealment,  content  with  the  tran- 
quil pursuits  of  literature,  and  the  peaceful 
intercourses  of  friendship.  During  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  suiliered  much  from  bodily 
ailmenta,  which,  however,  he  bore  with  pa- 
tience, till,  having  reached  the  age  of  seventy- 
two,  he  died  in  peace  and  undisturbed  se- 
renity. A  will  that  he  left  bears  testimony  to 
the  mildness  of  his  character  and  the  friend- 
lineaa  of  his  disposition,  which,  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  ensuing  eulogium  by  his 
celebrated  pupil,  Lucretius,  gained  for  him 
a  degree  of  respect  little  short  of  adoration. 

'  Oh  who  with  mighty  mind  could  ftune  a  long 
Worthy  to  high  a  theme,  such  noUe  truths  t 
WhoM  wcrds  oonld  e'er  ezprete  the  mastec's 

pndie. 
Who  left  to  MM  the  lofty  ptixe  he  gafaied  f 
No  one — I  ween— endowed  with  mortal  frnn»— > 
For  if,  my  Memmlos,  as  the  theme  drmandi, 
Mj  tongue  miut  apeak  his  praise — he  was  agod, 
A  Terr  god — who  first  that  rule  of  life 
Pound  out,  which  later  men  call  wisdom.  He 
Gare  to  oar  lifo  a  cahn  and  tranquil  U^t, 
In  place  of  dartnnes  drsad  and  tossing  wavea.' 

EpicTirus  was  a  most  prolific  writer.  Not 
fewer  than  800  volumes,  on  very  diverse 
subjects,  bore  testimony  to  the  fertility  of 
his  mind  and  the  aaaiduous  occupation  of 
his  time. 

Ethics  waa  the  central  subject  around 
which  were  grouped  the  thoughta,  aifectiona 
and  strivings  of  this  philosopher ;  and  hia 
great  aim  waa  to  form  for  hiinaelf  such  a 
self-sufflcing  character  as  might  be  proof 
against  external  force,  and  independent  of 
outward  disturbanoea  Logic,  therefore,  he 
eatimated  from  its  tendency  to  aid  him  in 
the  formation  of  his  moral  philosophy,  and 
in  particular  as  famishing  a  criterion  by 
which  the  good  and  the  true  might  be  dis- 
tinguished from  their  opposites.  His  chief 
position  in  ethics  is  one  diat  opponents  have 
grossly  misrApresented;  though  in  the  hands 
of  pupils  of  later  days  it  became  veiy  olgeo- 
tionable.  That  position  is,  that  pleasure  ia 
the  higheat  happiness  and  the  great  end  of 
human  life.  Had  he  stopped  here,  he  would 


EPI                      669  EPl 

only  hvn  npeated  what  others  had  said  be-  These  geoersl  notfoes  will  serve  to  show 

fore  him.   He  went  farther,  and  in  the  de-  with  what  propriety  Paol  spoke,  when  being 

Telopment  and  ennobling  of  the  doctrine  lies  asked  by  certain  Epicurean  philosophers  for 

the  peculiarity  and  the  merit  of  his  philoso-  an  account  of  his  doetrine,  he  set  forth  in 

phy ;  for  he  maintained  that  the  pleasure  tenns  the  meet  explicit  and  impressire  the 

was  not  of  a  momentary  and  transient,  not  existence  and  eternal  proridenee  of  Almighty 

of  a  bodUy  or  sensuous  kind;  but  lasting,  Ood,  end  sought  to  turn  his  auditors  away 

imperishable,  lying  in  die  purer  and  nobler  alike  from  bootless  offerings  to  imsges  of 

enjoyments  of  the  soul ;  in  fkeedom  firom  gold,  silver,  and  stone,  and  from  specula- 

soUcitnde  and  trouble,  and  firom  all  infln«  tions  no  less  idle  than  aspiring,  to  the  simple 

ences  which  might  give  pain,  or  disturb  Uie  litcts,  the  great  truths,  and  the  noble  sympa- 

tranquillity  of  the  breast    In  this  internal  ihies  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.    This 

peace  he  found  the  purest  Helioity  and  the  laudable  aim  is  not  without  its  application, 

highest  good.  may  it  be  also  not  without  its  nmtad,  in  this 

Such  a  doctrine  may  have  been  pure  to  our  day. 

the  pure,  and  aided  persons  of  lofty  aims  EPISTLE  (O.  tomethmjf  went,  a  Utter), 

to  reach  a  high  degree  of  mental  ease.    But  The  relations  which  the  ehnrohes  planted 

it  contains  an  element   of  softness  which  by  the  ^K>stles  continued  to  hold  with  them, 

would  render  it  no  harsh  master  to  the  lux-  and  the  wants  of  those  churches  in  the  de- 

unously-disposed,   and  a  proneness  to  be  Telopment  of  their  Christian  life,  combined 

misconoeived  and  abused,  that  would  sllow  with  the  fact  that  an  apostle  whose  mission 

even   Roman  vices  to   shelter  themselves  comprehended  a  large  district  of  the  world, 

under  its  phUosophic  dosk.  and  in  one  sense  ell  the  peopled  earth,  could 

When  Paul  at  Athens  was  encountered  not  remain  long  with  any  one  community, 
by  members  at  the  Epicurean  sect,  the  bet-  gave  occasion  to  letters  sent  to  certain 
ter  parts  of  the  master^s  system  had  yielded  churches  by  the  flxst  preachers  of  the  word, 
predominance  to  the  worse,  whieh,  combined  and  so  set  the  earliest  step  in  the  formation 
with  the  metaphysical  errors  of  the  system,  of  our  New-Testament  Scriptures.  Paul  pro- 
rendered  most  of  those  who  bore  his  name  bably  began  this  important  service  to  Ghris- 
'  lovers  of  pleasure  more  than  lovers  of  tianity,  and  his  letters  have  from  the  first 
God '  (2  Tim.  iii.  4).  exerted  very  great  influence  on  the  church 

It  was,  however,  when  his  mind  ascended  and  the  world.  His  writings  were  letters  ad- 

to  superhuman   topics,   that  Epicurus  fell  dressed  to  churches  founded  by  him,  occa- 

into  ihe  worst  errors.     Adopting,  without  sioned  by  some  special  circumstances,  and 

improving,  the  atomical  theory  of  Democri-  having  a  special  aim.     In  this  kind  of 

to8,  he  taught  that  the  universe  consists  of  writing  he  is  a  great  master.    He  was  fol- 

atoms,   or  inconceivably  minute  particles,  lowed  by  other  apostles,  whose  prodnctiona 

From  this  category  he  did  not  except  the  have  less  of  the  strictly  epistols^  character, 

gods  themselves,  who,  he  said,  were  known  and  resemble  short  treatises, 

to  men  only  by  the  representations  of  them  The  preservation  of  Paul's  epistles  is  a 

which  their  images  wrought  on  the  mind,  striking  instance  of  the  superintendence  of 

This  system  of  gross  materialism  caused  Divine  Providence  over  the  church  of  Christ, 

him  to  be  regarded  even  in  his  own  days  as  That  comparatively  a  few  lines  (for  none  of 

an  atheist    Whether  or  not  the  imputation  those  epistles  are  long)  written  by  one  who, 

was  sustained  by  the  theory,  the  tendency  of  in  a  worldly  sense,  may  be  pronounced  an 

his  doctrine  was  of  an  atheistical  nature,  obscure  Jew,  to  a  few  persons  of  the  humbler 

since  his  ethics  led  him  to  hold  that  the  rank,  lost  smid  the  teeming  and  luxurious 

gods  found  their  happiness  in  entire  ease,  popolation  of  Bome  or  Corinth,  should  have 

troubling  themselves  neither  with  the  crea-  been  at  the  first  preserved  entire,  and  then 

tion  nor  the  government  of  the  world.  passed  firom  age  to  age,  in  manuscript,  for 

But  atheism  is  not  without  elements  of  fifteen  hundred  years,  is  a  fact  calculated  to 
superstition.  The  schoUrs  ofEpicurus,Uught  excite  both  wonder  and  gratitude.  These 
to  identify  the  highest  ease  with  the  highest  compositions,  too,  are  eminently  fitted^  to 
good,  and  having  their  minds  cast  back  to  give  sueh  an  insight  into  the  early  condition 
earth  from  the  mere  abstraotions  of  the  of  the  principal  Christian  ohurohes,  as  en- 
atomic  Olympus,  came  in  time  to  worship  ables  us  not  only  to  form  an  intimate  ao- 
their  master,  who,  to  their  eyes,  realised  far  quaintsnce  with  them,  but  gather  unde- 
more  than  any  other  being  the  serene  phi-  signed,  incidental,  minute,  and  therefore 
losophy  he  had  inculcated.  Hence  in  the  forcible  evidences  of  the  reality  of  the  gnat 
lines  given  above  he  is  termed  by  Lucretius  events,  and  the  certainty  of  the  great  truths, 
a  god.  Here,  as  in  every  form  of  atheism,  which  form  the  basis  of  Christianity, 
is  it  found  that  those  who  reftwe  to  adore  Till  recently,  the  epistles  current  under 
the  Creator  and  Upholder  of  the  universe,  Paul's  name  were,  with  doubts  in  regard  to 
are  led  to  pay  the  homage  of  their  souls  to  that  bearing  the  title  *  to  the  Hebrews,'  gene- 
man.  Self-worship  is  the  natural  antithesis  rally  admitted  to  have  emanated  from  the 
to  the  worship  of  Ood.  apostle.  In  Germany,  however,  the  authen* 


ESC                       570  EST 

twttj  of  dM  epbdM  lo  TiBotby  and  Tlftu  E8HCOL  (H.  frvptf),  •  biook,  or  viAf . 

has  been  denied,  and  ProfsMor  Banr,  of  Tn  vhidi  ttttmm  to  have  derived  its  naiM  from 

bingen,  has  lately  pat  forth  a  woik  {P^tOmg  the  gn^ea  whieh  it  ptodneed,  waa  aitoaled 

der  Ap€tik  Jems  CkrwH),  hiiriiieh  he  ad*  ia  the  aontfaam  part  of  Jvdah,  near  HeVioii, 

Bdta  as  ot  Paniine  origin  only  foar  of  the  and  waa  the  apoi  Tisitod  by  the  men  whom 

eommonly-rMeiired  lettera,  namely,  tfiat  to  Moeee  eent  to  anrwy  the  lend  of  pffomise 

the  Oalatiana,  thai  to  the  Bomana,  and  the  (Numb.  ziiLSS— 20).  In  duavaletfie  qpiet 

tvo  to  the  Corinthiena.     Without  by  any  eat  down  a  braneh  withoneeiaaterofgrqieai 

naanaaeeedingtohiariewBfWeieniaifcthai  viiidb,  partly   on  aeeooBt  of  iia  aiae,  and 

die  retention  ef  even  one  of  theee  woald  partly  to  sfoid  bmiaisg  the  froit,  they  boie 

aoAee  for  the  cipoaition,  eetaWiahmtnt  and  'between  two  on  n  atafL'     The  pUee  haa 

ptopagataon  of  Chiiatian  tralh^-flee  L  101,  been  reeognieed  in  on  inconaidetable  valley 

and  the  artiele  Lnrnn.  wfaidi,  at  a  email  dJetanwi  l^<em  Hebran, 

EBASTU8  (O.  kelovtd),  a  eonvert  who  rone  from  the  noetfa-oaat.     It  is  oofend 

ministered  to  Panl,  and  iriiom  the  apoalle  with  vine  and  olive  gardens,  and  piodoees 

aent  from  Epheeoa  into  Haeedonia  In  eom-  beaidea,  in  great  abwndanee,  figs,  sprioots, 

pany  with  Timothy  (Aets  xiz.  22).  In  Bom.  qoinose,  and  pomegnaates.    Its  vineyards 

xvL  23,  we  i&nd  Eraatna  designated  *  eham-  are  espfcially  ezeellent,  prodneing  the  fineet 

beriain,*  or  paymaeter,  *  of  the  eity.'    What  gn^tea  in  Palestino.     M  ariti  saw,  in  odier 

eity  ?   Thoee  to  whom  the  letter  waa  written  perts  of  Syria,  *  grapea  of  smeh  an  extraor- 

would  know,  and  the  emimion  of  the  in-  dinary  sias,  that  a  boaeh  of  them  would  be 

fbraution  we   need  waa,   in   the  etieam*  a  sulleient  burden  for  one  man.' 

staneea,  peifoedy  natursL    Had  sneh  been  ESPOUSALS  (F^    onginally  from  the 

given,  it  would  have  worn  the  eppearanee  of  Latin  tpammu,  *  promised  in  msiriage'),  sig- 

a  gloee  by  a  later  hand.  Bat  in2Tim.  iv.  90  niflea  betrothing,  or  plighting  tiodi  widi  a 

we  read,  *Eiastus  abode  atGoiinth;'whenoe  view  to  marriage  (Gent.  iii.  II.  Jer.  ii.  2). 

it  beoomee  probable  dmt  Ooiinth  was  the  See  Mabbiabb. 

habitual  nsidenee  of  ErmlBa.    Putting  theee  ESTIMATION  (L.   iifiiii  ,  'I  value'),  die 

eeattrred  hinta   togeAer,  we  may  aay  that  valuation,  wath,  or  poee  of  a  thing  (Lev. 

Efuatus,  having  been  eonvsrtsd  by  Paul,  gave  zzvii  2,  8,  des.). 

up  hie  oftee  in  the  eity  of  Corindi,  and  en-  ESTHEB,  or  Hadaaaah,  daughter  of  Abi 
gaged  in  eflbrta  for  the  promotion  of  the  had,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  waa,  after  the 
gospel,  but  in  the  latter  part  of  hla  life  death  of  her  parents,  adopted,  in  eoete- 
eetded  down  in  die  ci^  wliere  he  had  been  quenee  of  her  beauty,  by  her  eooein  M orde- 
bom,  a  second,  if  not  elso  the  first  time,  eai,  who  had  been  eerried  to  Babylon  by 
Now,  from  other  eonslderationa,  it  appeeis  Nebuehadnessar,  and  rose  to  be  the  favour- 
that  the  letter  to  the  Bomana  was  written  its  queen  ot  the  Peraisn  sovereign,  Xerxes 
fhMn  Corinth.  Here,  then,  is  sn  ineidfintsl  (Esdi.iL  6,  sag.).  The  detaila  of  her  life 
confirmation  of  the  epietle  to  the  Bo-mAoa,  will  appear  in  the  next  ertide. 
aa  well  as  of  die  history.  Our  mformadon  ESTHEB,  THE  BOOK  OF,  has  its  nsme 
is  but  friigmentary,  but  fhagmenta  are  to  be  ttom  the  chief  person  of  whom  it  speaks,  §nd 
expected  in  letters;  snd  in  the  actual  eaee  eompriaes  a  period  of  about  ten  years.  Its 
the  fragmente  are  accordant,  ao  as  to  show  eontente  meybe  divided  into  three  chief  por- 
thatthey  formed  a  port  of  one  whole ;  which  tiona: — a.  The  elevation  of  Esther,  in  the 
whole  is  the  history  of  Eraatna  and  his  re*  plsce  of  Vsshti,  to  be  queen  (L  11 ) ;  b.  The 
lations  to  Paul,  to  the  Christian  community,  destruction  of  the  Jews  plotted  by  Hsman 
and  to  the  churohea  of  Borne  and  Corinth.  (iii.  ir.) ;  c.  The  wonderfbl  preserration  of 

Another  alight  but  not  unimportant  coin-  die  Jewish  people  (v. — ^z.). 

eidence  is  observable.    The  Chriatiana  of  Ahasuerus  (Xeixes),  the  master  of  a  hon- 

Macedonia  and  Achaia  made  a  pecuniary  con-  died,  eeven^  and  eeven  lands,  reeching  from 

tribution  for  the  sid  of  their  needy  brethren  India  to  Ethiopia,  givee  to  hie  grandees,  in 

in  Palestine  (Bom.  zv.  26).    On  this  bnsi-  the  d&ird  yesr  of  his  reign,  a  sumptuous 

ness  Erastus  appears  to  have  been  eenU  foast,  on  the  last  dsy  of  whidi  he  bids  his 

Now,  his  civil  pursuits  must  have  rendered  queen,  Vaahti,  ahowher  beauty  to  hla  guests, 

him  specially  fit  for  such  an  office ;  and  our  The  queen  reftises,  and  the  king  is  enraged. 

Snding  him  actually  employed  in  the  peeo-  In  consequence,  the  beauties  of  his  kingdom 

niaiyafliunoftliecharch,satiafieeoareenae  are  bron^t  together  to  fomiah  him  widi 

of  propriety,  and  shows  ns  die  histoiy  in  die  meana  of  chooaing  anodier  mistress. 

h«mony  widi  itself.    The  concurrence  of  Esdier  haa  the  good  fortune  to  be  die  olgwt 

these  minute  probabilitiea  affoida  no  small  of  his  choice.     Her  undo  Mordocai,  who 

weight  of  eridence.  still  letaiua  his  infloenee  over  her,  dieeloeei, 

5f^5^^^^-    8«eAssTBii.  by  he/ means,  to  die  king  a  conspiracy  againet 

JSSCHEW  (T.  ecAeiioi,  *  to  snui.  |  comp.  his  life,  which  is  dins  defeated  (L  iL).    But 

s*y)  ugmfies  to  turn  away  or  abstain  from  Haman,  an  Agagite,  is  invested  widi  the 

(Job  1.1.  I  Pet.  iii  H ;  comp.  Job.  xxviii.  28 ;  highest  ciril  power,  and  receives  univeisel 

*'*'   ▼.  27).  homage  except  from  MoidecaL 


EST                       571  EST 

«i  this,  Htmuk  lesolTM  to  work  die  rain  itniigle  tht  wivtehed  ▼izter,  who  is  fortli- 
not  only  of  Monlecai,  bat  his  whole  netion.  with  enspended  firom  the  gallowe  intended 
In  the  twelfth  yew  of  Ahesaerne,  he  sno-  for  MordeceL    Hemen'e  property  is  giren 
oeeds  in  obtaining  firom  him  a  command  to  Esther*  who  obtains  the  revefsal  of  the 
that  all  Jews  should  be  put  to  death  through-  murderous  deoive  from  Xerxes,  and  he,  appa- 
ont  the  king's  dominions.    The  deeree  is  rently  uniequested,  gi?es  directions  fhfti  the 
published.    Mordeeai,  on  learning  the  iiut»  Jews  should  have  permission  for  one  day  to 
<  cried  with  a  loud  and  bitter  oiy,'  and  his  slay  their  enemies.    Moxdeoai  triumphs  and 
grief  spread  among  the  Jews  and  reaehed  becomes  prime  minister;  unifersal  rqoioing 
the  ears   of  Esther,  who  commanded  her  spreads  among  the  Jews,  who  are  now  hdd 
unde  to  be  brou^^t  to  her,  and  heard  firom  in  respect  and  fear  throughout  the  kingdom* 
him  the  dismal  intelligenoe.   Estiier  is  will-  Not  oonlsnt  witik  the  infliction  of  geueral 
ing   to  intercede  for  her  countrymen,  but  rcTcnge,  Esther,  alter  learning  that  fiTC  hnn- 
she  dares  not  approach  the  monarch  unhid-  dred  men  haye  been  alain  '  in  Shushan,  the 
den.    What  is  she  to  do?    She  bids  die  palace,'  among  whom  were   Haman's  ten 
Jews  ULSi ;  she  and  her  maidens  fast  also,  sons,  requests  that  these  young  men  may 
during  the  space  of  three  days,  in  order  to  also  be  hanged  upon  the  gallows.    Her  pe- 
gain  mental  courage  to  address  the  king,  tition  is  complied  widi.     Further,  at  the 
Having  thus  brou^t  her  mind  to  the  die-  request  of  Mordeeai,  tlie  day  of  their  deli- 
regard   of  danger,  which  is  expressed  in  Ttranoe  is  made  by  the  Jews  a  high  festiTal. 
these  words—*  If  I  perish,  I  perish' — she  This  was  the  origin  of  the  feast  Purim, 
places  herself^  arrayed  in  her  best  apparel,  loi$    do  called  because  Haman  *  had  cast 
within  sight  of  her  husband,  who  iuTites  Pur,  that  is,  the  lot,  to  consume  them  and  to 
her  to  draw  near,  and,  by  anticipation,  pro*  destroy  them'  (ix.  24 — ^26) — ^which  wascele- 
mises  her  what  ^e  wishes,  to  the  extent  of  brated  on  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  day 
half  his  kingdom.    Her  request  simply  is,  of  the  month  Adar,  and  was  intended  to 
that  die  king  and  Haman  may  come  that  keep  aliTC  the  remembrance  of  the  rescue 
day  to  a  banquet  which  she  has  prepared,  ftom   destruction ;  for  which  puipose  the 
They  are  both  present,  Haman  elated  at  his  book  of  Esdier  wss  publicly  read.  The  thir- 
joyous  position,  yet  still  toimented  at  Mor-  teentfa  was  a  UbX  day  (John  y.  1). 
decai's  withholding  die  preTalent  tokens  of  The  author  of  Esther  is  unknown.    The 
homage.   The  time  he  thinks  auspicious  for  book,  however,  bears  erident  tokens  of  being 
wreaking  his  Tcngeance  on  the  unbending  a  genuine  production ;  but  we  cannot  consi- 
Mordeeai,  and,  in  anticipation  of  the  success  der  it  in  any  other  light  than  a  well- written 
of  his  intended  application  to  Xerxes,  he  narratlTe  of  an  event  which  was  highly  gra- 
erects  for  Mordeeai  a  lofty  gallows.     But  tiiying  to  the  national  feelings  of  the  Jews,  but 
the  king  is  troubled  in  his  mind.     Perhaps  which  is  too  much  pervaded  by  artistic  won- 
he  has  reason  to  fear  another  conspiracy;  ders  to  be  regarded  as  a  simple  lUstory,  and  too 
and,  thinking  over  the  peril  by  night,  he  is  much,initslatterparts,daikenedby  vengeance 
reminded  that  the  discoverer  of  a  former  to  be  reverenced  as  a  religious  work.  No  men- 
plot  has  gone  unrewarded.    Search  is  made  tion  is  made  in  the  book  of  the  name  of  God, 
in  the  national  archives,  and  his  name  is  whose  ordinary  providence  acts  not  by  die 
found  to  be  Mordeeai.    Haman  appears  to  sudden  chances  therein  set  forth,  and  whose 
pay  his  court  to  the  king  and  demand  the  extraordinary  dealings  would  not  have  given 
death  of  Mordeeai.    *  What,'  asks  the  king,  a  sanction  to  the  indiscriminate  slaughter 
*  shall  be  done  to  the  man  whom  the  king  inflicted  by  Esther  and  Haman  in  their  thirst 
delighteth  to  honour  ?"  *  Surely,'  thinks  Ha-  for  revenge.  Tet  is  that  thirst  national ;  and 
man,  *  that  is  myself.'    A  splendid  reward  the  general  tone  of  the  book,  especially  in 
is  therefore  suggested.    '  Let  it  be  done,'  is  its  implied  descriptions  of  Xerxes  and  the 
the  royal  command,  '  to  Mordeeai,  the  Jew :  manners  of  his  court,  both  truly  charac- 
let  nothing  fail  of  all  thou  hast  spoken.'  teristic  and  very  striking.    Under  these  cir- 
The  honour  is  conferred,  but  Hsmau's  heart  cumstances,  the  Book  of  Esther  appeared  to 
has  sunk.    However,  the  banquet  is  before  be  a  religious  work  to  the  Jews,  who,  as 
him.    Thither  he  repairs.    On  the  second  such,  and  because  it  spoke  of  an  event  ho« 
day,  Xerxes  asks  Esther,  'What  is  thy  peti-  noorable  to  their  nation,  received  it  into 
tion  7*    *  The  life  of  my  people.'    '  Who  has  their  Canon ;  but  we  do  not  understand  what 
endangered  it  f    '  Haman.*    The  king  rises  peculiar  interest  the  Christian  has  in  stre- 
from   table  foil  of  wrath.     Haman,  thnn-  nnously  asserting  its  rig^t  to  stand  among 
derstruck,  throws  himself;  a  petitioner  for  divinely-inspired  writings.    Against  such  a 
his  own  life,  at  Esther^s  feet,  and,  in  his  ur-  pretension  modem  criticism  has  adduced 
gency,  approaches  the  divan  on  which  she  unanswerable  arguments, 
sits.    Then  said  the  king,  who,  after  a  mo-  Little  doubt,  if  any,  can  there  however  be, 
ment's  absence  for  relief,  had  returned  to  the  that  an  event  similar  in  kind  to  the  deliver- 
banquetting  hall, — *  will  he  force  die  queen  anee  of  the  captive  Jews  firom  irapendiug 
also  before  me  in  the  housed   The  attend-  ruin,  fiimished  the  leading  topic  of  the  book, 
ant  slaves  know  their  mastei^s  will,    and  and  gave  occasion  to  the  establishment  of 


r 


EUP  572  EUB 

flMfettlvalof  Pniim.  Yiewed  at  in  elabortle  fris,  in  a  MUllMm  dinetkniy  till*  hsving 

•od  omAto  namtiftt  of  toeh  an  evait,  tha  formed  a  junetkni  with  ita  eoBBpanion,  it 

woA  ia  of  Talae,  partieiilariy  aa  diaplaying  entara  tha  Paiaiaa  Onlf  onder  the  name  of 

the  mannera,  uaagea  and  lawa  of  the  Per-  Schatt^-Aiah,  afler  a  eonrae  of  1400  milea. 

aian  eoort,  and  throwing  lif^t  on  the  widely-  The  Enphntea  haa,  for  Iha  low  landa  <»f 

extended  deapotiam  of  ita  monareh.    That  MeaopoCamia  and  Babjlon,  the  aame  im- 

tfie  main  leatnrea  of  the  atory  were  pat  into  portanee  aa  the  Nile  haa  for  Egypt;   for, 

writing  at  no  great  *i»*«*"^  from  ttie  time  awoUen  by  the  anowa  melted  at  die  approaeh 

lefoned  to,  may  be  legitimately  infonedboth  of  aommer  on  the  moontaina  of  Armenia* 

from  the  fiTidneea  of  the  pieturea  it  pre-  the  river  periodieally  overflowa  ila  banks, 

aenta,  and  tfie  aeeotdanee  of  the  eharaeter  iriiieh  being  interaeeted  with  a  net-work  of 

given  of  Xetxea  with  that  whieh  he  beara  in  eanala,  earry  ita  water,  and  therawith  frnit- 

profiue  hiatovy,  aa  a  aelf-willed,  impetooua,  ftilneaa,  over  a  wide  anrfaee  of  eonntrj.    In 

OYerbearing  and  lurariona  tyranL  aneient  timea  thia  water-ayalem  waa  eomfdi* 

ETHANIM  (H.)>  Ae  aerenth  month  of  eated,  extenaive  and  efleient    At  present 

the  Hebrew  year,   aa  reekoned  before  the  many  of  the  eonraea  are  atopped,  and  tha 


exile,  in  whieh  took  plaee  the  dedieation  of    eanala  without  watw.    The  reader  may  here 
Solomon'a  temple.    The  month  ia  otfaerwiae     aee  the  foree  of  the  image  in  iriiieh  laaiah 


named  Tiari,  and  extended  firom  the  new  (viii.  7)  deeeribea  Jehorah  aa  bringing  op 

moon  in  October  to  tfiat  in  November,  at  over  the  land  of  Paleatine  *  the  water*  of  the 

whieh  time,  aa  die  meaning  of  the  word  inti-  river  atrong  and  many* — *  and  he  ahall  eome 

mates,  die  brooka  were  ftill  of  water.  np  over  all  hia  ehanniela  and  go  over  all  his 

EUNICE  (O.),  mother  of  Timothy;  of  banka.'    Thia  judgment  Jodah  ia  threatened 

Jewiah  origin.  She  waa  eonverted  to  Chriati-  with  beeanae  *  they  refkiae  the  watera  of  Shx- 

anity,  and  married  a  Greek,  who  waa  Timo-  loah,'  that  ia,  diaobey  the  Divine  will.  Com> 

thy^s  father.    Her  piety  ia  eommemorated  by  pare  Jar.  ii.  18. 

Paul,  and  to  ita  infloanee  we  may  aaeribe  It  waa  only  a  vagne  notion  that  the  Bibli- 

her  own  eonvcfaiim,  and  the  hi^  plaee  held  eal  writara  poaaeaaed  of  the  high  landa  cf 

in  the  Chriatian  ehnreh  by  her  eon,  who  may  Armenia,  whidi  therefore  they  ^eak  of  aa 

also  have  derived  aome  advantage  firom  the  being  the  aooree  of  foor  rivcra  {Qm.  iL  10 — 

more  liberal  manner  of  thinking  which  hia  14),  a  atatement  tfuU  now  at  leaat  ia  eonwec 

father  had  aoqnirad  in  hia  Orecian  edncation.  only  in  a  wide  and  genera]  aeeeptation.  The 

Thia  blending  together  of  two  diatinct  raoea  Enphratea   ia    mentioned    as   the   eaatem 

and  two  diaaimilar  atatea  of  mind  waa  an  boundary  of  the  Hebrew  dominions  (Oen. 

important  part  of  that  preparation  for  the  xv.  18.  Exod.  xxiiL  31.  DeuL  xi  24).  This, 

daya  of  die  Meaaiah  whkh  a  wiae  and  be*  in  a  general  aenae,  became  true  in  die  time 

nign  Providenee  had  long  been  engaged  in  of  Darid,  who  by  hia  renown  and  the  tenor 

bringing  about    The  Greek  and  the  Jew,  of  hia  anna  kept  die  Bedouin  p<qpn]ation  of 

having   parted  with   aome   of  their  moat  the  deaert  in  awe,  and  waa  in  reidity  master 

rigidly  distinctive  featniea,  united  together  aa  fur  aa  the  vicinity  of  the  river.    Acoord> 

to  form  the  Chriatian,  who  owea  to  the  former  ingly,  we  find  the  tribea  on  the  eaat  of  the 

freedom  and  activity  of  intelleet,  and  to  the  Jordan  paatoring  their  floeka  at  large,  *  nnto 

latter  devotional  feeling,  and  hia  aenae  of  the  entering  in  «f  the  wildemeaa  from  the 

mligiona  obligatioo.     What  God  haa  thua  river  Enphratea,  beeanae  their  cattle  were 

joined  together,  let  not  man  put  aannder.  multiplied  in  the  land  of  Gilead '  (1  Chron. 

EUNUCH  (G.)    See  Cham bbblaix.  v.  9 ;  oomp.  Numb.  xxxiL  1,  eag .). 

EUODIAS  and  STNTTCHE,  two  female  EUBOCLYDON  (G.),  the  wind  by  which 

diaciplea  in  the  Philippian  church,  who  aeem  Paul  waa  driven  on  die  ahore  of  Mahs, 

to  have  diilbred  in  opinion,  probably  regard-  alter  having  been  long  toaaed  about  in  the 

ing  the  claima  of  die  Moaaic  law,  and  whom  Adriatic  Sea,  on  hia  voyage  to  Rome.    The 

Puil  entreata  to  forget  their  differencea  in  a  lume  ia  compounded  of  two  worda :  one  aig- 

common  devotedness  to  Christ  nifles  the  eaat  wind ;  the  odier,  a  billow ; 

EUPHBATES,  the  Greek  name  of  the  thua  denodng  that  tliia  was  '  a  tempestuous 

river  denominated  by  the  Hebrewa  PAraf.  wind'  from  the  eaat,  or  rather  the  north-east 

As  it  waa  alao  the  largeat  atream  with  which  (oomp.  vers.  12 — 14  of  Acts  xxvii.).    This 

they  wers  acquainted,  the  latter  alao  named  ia  one  of  thoae  winda  which  Seneca  (Queat 

it  *  die  river' (Gen. xxxi.  21.  Ia.  riii  7),  alao  Nat,  5,  17)   aaya  are  peculiar  to   certain 

'the  great  river'  (Gen.xv.  18).    Thia  river  parte,   and  obtain  local  namea  from  their 

riaea  in  the  Armenian  mountaina.  Its  remot-  ehsrscter  and  eflecta.      The  Eums,  or  east 

est  aource  lies  some  mOes  north  lh>m  the  wind,  is  mentioned  by  Horace  aa   stormy 

modem  Erzernm.  Before  it  leaves  its  moun-  and  ahipwrecking  (Epod.  x.  5),  where  it  ia 

tain  home  It  has  slresdy  become  a  consider-  termed  black  from    the  storma  which    it 

SI®  ^L^iJJ^^^^'^^  ".^y  "'^"  ^«>«firtt»  Md  ia  associated  widi  die  nonh 

nTSmoaata,  it  run.  parallel  wioTtinS  3  Se^aU^^^ow^eSn*:' ii^^^^^ 


EUT                        573  EVA 

oommg  from  the  Lermt,  that  i»t  the  eastern  eident,  espeeially  hjr  its  happy  tefminalioa 

part  of  the  Mediterranean ;  hat  a '  Leranter,'  in  the  reyiva!  of  the  youth,  that  we  are  in* 

thongh  properly  an  east  wind,  shifts  ahout  dehted  for  the  passing  mention  made  of  the 

constant,  and  thus  ezoites  fearfal  tempests,  eircnmstance,  and  the  eorrohoration  of  the 

Sneh  a  wind  would  produce  precisely  the  gospel  history  that  hence  ensues, 

effects  recorded  in  the  passage  to  which  we  EYANOELISTS,  fxom  the  Greek  aumge- 

have  aboTe  referred  (comp.  Odyss.  ▼.  881).  Uon,  '  good  news/  is  a  word  denoting  heralds 

EUTTCHUS  (G.),  a  young  man  who,  of '  the  good  tidmgs  of  great  joy  which  is  to 

during  a  discourse  of  Paul's  at  Troas,  pro-  allpeople'(LukeiLlO).  Thus  the  angels  were 

longed  till  midnight,  was  oTertalren  by  sleep,  the  first  evangelists,  and  unirersal  salTstion 

and  in  consequence  fell  ftom  the  third  loft  the  burden  of  their  proclamatory  song.  Hence 

of  a  house,  and  was  taken  up  dead.    The  the  character  of  a  true  erangeUst  may  be  as- 

apostle,  immediately  descending  to  his  aid,  oertained,  and  we  may  gain  a  criterion  by 

recalled  his  departing  spirit;  and  when  he  which  to  '  tiy  the  spirits  whether  they  are 

left  the  place  the  next  morning,  he  enjoyed  of  God,  for  many  fdse  prophets  are  gone 

the  satisfaction  of  haring  the  youth  brought  out  into  the  world'  (1  John  if.  1). 

to  him  aliTC.  Inits  general  import,  then,  the  term  denotes 

In  this  incident,  the  narration  of  which  one  who  declares  the  gospel  made  known 

occupies  only  a  flow  lines,  there  is  eyidence  by  its  primary  source,  Jesus  Christ    Hence 

oorroboratiTe  of  the  reali^  oi  the  scene  and  the  four  who  have  given  a  record  of  his 

the  truth  of  the  gospel.  teachings  bear  the  name  of  Evangelists. 

The  assembly  seems  to  have  been  held  in  These  four  are  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and 
a  large  room  in  the  third  story.  The  address  John,  whose  lives  and  writings  will  be  spoken 
was  continued  till  midnight  The  andienoe  of  under  their  several  names.  On  the  sub- 
was  large.  Hence  lamps  were  necessary  jectof  there  being  more  than  one  evangelist, 
hence,  also,  the  windows  were  open  with  a  the  following  passage  l^om  Chrysostom  de- 
view  to  ventilation.  Seated  on  the  sill  of  serves  perusal :-— *  How  then  ?  Was  not  one 
one  of  these,  the  young  man,  overpowered  evangelist  sufficient  to  say  ill  f  Certainly,  one 
by  the  vitiated  atmosphere  and  lengthened  might  have  sufficed;  but  aa  there  are  four 
fatigue,  fell  from  his  dangerous  position  into  sudi  authors,  who  did  not  write  at  one  and 
the  quadrangle  forming  the  court  or  yard,  the  same  time,  nor  in  the  same  place ;  who 
which,  as  usual,  was  within  the  house.  The  neither  met  together  nor  acted  in  concert, 
accident  broke  up  the  meeting.  Paul  went  and  nevertheless  speak,  as  It  were,  out  of 
down  into  the  court,  and,  having  restored  one  mouth,  there  hence  arises  a  stronger 
the  young  man,  delivered  him  to  his  parents,  proof  of  their  credibility.  But  (it  is  replied) 
who,  probably  the  owners  of  the  house,  took  the  contrary  rather  took  place ;  many  pas- 
their  child,  and,  devoting  io  him  thehr  best  sages  convict  them  of  dissimilsrity  in  &eir 
attention  during  the  remaining  hours  of  accounts.  This  also  is  a  greater  proof  of 
night,  were  able  to  bring  him  alive  into  the  their  credibility;  for  if  they  agreed  minutely 
i^osUe's  presence  belbre  he  departed  in  the  in  all,  both  as  to  time,  place,  and  expression, 
morning.  their  opponents  would  never  believe  that 

Notwithstanding  the  fUl,  the  assembled  they  had  not  written  their  memoirs  by  agree- 

friends  did  not  leave  the  jjiipe.    The  young  ment  or  by  personal  understanding.    Such 

man  was  not  dead,  and  therefore  might  they  a  similarity  could  not  be  the  work  of  free' 

without  impropriety  resume  their  connection  wilL    But,  now,  the  apparent  contradiction 

with  the  apostle ;  and  being  eager  to  learn  in  minor  matters  firees  them  firom  such  a 

the  wonderful  things  concerning  the  king-  suspicion,  and  is  the  most  beautiftil  apology 

dom  of  God,  and,  probably,  to  have  certain  for  the  conduct  of  the  historians.     And  if 

difficulties  solved  and  certain  dark  points  they  detail  some  things  differently  as  fiu  as 

illustrated,  they  keep  Paul  in  conversation  it  regards  time  and  place,  this  also  is  with- 

'  a  long  while,  even  till  break  of  day.'  out  prejudice  an  argument  for  the  truth  of 

This  narrative  is  composed  from  hints  the  matter/    See  Gospbls. 

and  indications  in  the  Scripture,  which  here.  In  the  primitive  church,  the  name  evan- 

as  in  so  many  other  places,  supplies,  in  in-  gellst  was  borne  by  a  class  of  teachers  who 

cidental  and  fragmentary  notices,  evidences  were  distinct  fh>m  apostles,  prophets,  pas- 

the  most  satisfiactory  of  its  containing  a  ge-  tors,  and  teachers  (Ephes.  iv.  11).     Now, 

nuine  and  credible  record.    The  scene  here  Philip  is  expressly  termed  *  the  evangelist' 

set  forth  besrs  the  unmistakeable  impress  (Acts  xzi.  8) ;  but  Philip  preached  the  gos- 

of  reality.    It  is  in  every  respect  that  which  pel  (viii.  4,  26,  40),  yet,  as  would  appear 

we  should  naturally  have   expected   from  from  the  passages  last  referred  to,  only  with- 

the  relations  in  which  Paul  stood  to  the  in  a  certain  district     Philip's  district  was 

world.  bounded  by  Axotus  (on  the  Mediterranean) 

The  writer  evidently  regarded  ihe  restora-  on  the  south,  Jerusalem  on  the  east,  Sama^ 

tion  of  Eutychus  as  operated  by  miraculous  ria  on  the  north,  and  Cnsarea  on  the  nordi- 

power.    And  it  seems  to  be  owing  to  the  west    Hence  an  evangelist  was  a  district 

deep  and  lively  impression  made  by  the  ao-  preacher ;  one  who,  instead  of  travelling 


E  V I  574  E  X  C 

rtrim4,  nnMliMd  al  booM,  and  witfUn  *  gtrant,   and  his  Father  Uie   aupreaw  an 

oompaimtifaly  amall  eompaaa  eadeaTonrad  thori^,  it  ii  difleult  to  think  that  ain  or 

to  bring  men  ofar  to  iha  Lord  Jaana.  Comp.  anibiing  ean,  as  oltimata  isanea,  ramain.  U 

3  Tinu  IT.  6.  it  is  tha  will  of  Ood  ttiat  all  men  ahonld  bo 

EVIL  (T.)  aannot  be  pradieated  of  the  aarod  (lTioi.iL  4),  the  preTslenee  of  thai 

mttsrial  world  without  aaeribing  to  the  Cre-  will  moat  be  aniveraal  hi^ineaa,  i^ile  tlie 

ator  a  want  of  power,  of  wiadom,  or  of  good*  piedominaBea  of  the  will  of  man  mnat  hinder 

Beaa ;  and  in  the  eaae  of  a  being  ao  Aort-  and  retard  that  graateat  of  bleaaings.  It  thns 

signed  as  msttt  raaaon  would  anggeat  that  appeara  that  of  the  two  willa  in  the  nnhreme, 

•ay  appaaraaeea  of  evil  mi|^  reeeive  aaatis-  that  of  Ood  and  that  of  man,  the  former  in 

foelory  tTirlann*i^,  were  the  workinga,  tn-  for  good,  the  latter  for  evil.  In  sadi  an  iaaua 

deaeiea  aad  reaolta  of  the  great  whole  eoa-  we  have  aolid  gronada  for  thinking  that  the 

tMnlalefl  on  a  larger  leale.    Viewed  in  its  raanlt  wiU  be  in  fovonr  of  good.    The  ex- 

leletioa  to  Ood,  iriio,  as  in  part  we  know,  tinetion  of  evil  beeomea  a  qneation  of  powers 

edaeeth  good  oat  of  ill»  moral  evil  also  aad  if  Ood  is  in  trnth  almighty,  hie   '  ' 

Blight  grow  leas,  or  even  diaappear,eoald  we  oaa  wUlnMstftaallypmvaU. 

eom^ehenddie  remotar  iasaesof  the  gofvem^        la  agraemeat  wifli  theae  viewa,  the 

meatof  the  world.  Meaawhile, with  oorpra-  tnraa  lepreaaat  evil  as  eaacatially  hoatae  to 

aeaft  aarrow  viaioa,  we  eaa  do  ao  mora  Aan  the  wiU  of  Ood,  wfaoee  poxpoee  foom  the 

embraea  widi  fotth  vHiat  the  iatalleot  sag-  earlieat  agea,  and  apedally  by  hia  Son  Jeans 

geeta  aad  the  heart  ippravM;  andfoithmay  Chriat,  baa  beea  to  raeoneile  the  world  nnto 

And  weleome  sopport  alao  in  the  progreaa  himself  (CoL  I  20).    Maa  alao  ia  deseribed 

obeervable  la  the  general  history  of  flun,  as  set  in  eonfllot  by  the  operation  of  evQ, 

aad  speeiatty  ia  the  portioii  of  it  whioh  haa  whieh  atrngi^ea  agaiast  a  better  powerwithin 

«|apted  aiaee  the  revival  of  litHra;  but  (Boobvii.  18,  m;.),  to  which  better  power 

whether  that    progieis    will    for  ever  be  Otid'a  ipaeiona  aide  are  given  both  to  will 

bounded  by  the  limita  of  thns,  or  be  earried  aad  to  do  {VhSL  iL  12, 13).    Haaoe  we  are 

forward  nader  happier  aaspjeaa  la  aaother  eoafirmed  ia  the  oonolnaioB  that  good  will 

world,  aad  ao  lead  on  to  the  estiaetioB  of  eveataally  aabdae  evO,  aad  Ood  be '  all  In 

111  aad  the  aniversal  prevaleBee  of  good,  all'  (lOor.zv.  38).  Bee  the  ertiela  Dbvil. 

nasoa  eaa  la  ao  way  demmiae,  whatever        EVILlfEBODACH,  eon  aad  aneeeaaor  of 

pitatlng  vialoaa  hope  aad  deaira  may  eall  Nebnehadnenar,  king  of  Babylon,  reigned 


mto  being.    Henee  we  era  direetad  lo  reve-  aboat  the  year  06O  A.  C.    BeepeetiDg  the 

lation  for  the  aolottai  of  the  problem  of  length  of  hia  reigo,  aaeieat  hiatoriaaa  are 

evil,  oa  wbieh  the  giealaat  miada  have  ta  all  not  agraed,  it  beiag  variooaly  atated  at 

ageespeoalatad,  aad  for  the  BMMt  part  qpeea-  twelve,  eighteen,  and  two  yean.    The  laat 

lated  in  vain.    But  thoo^  the  qoeotlMi  of  aeema  the  moat  probable.    Daring  the  reat 

the  origin  and  final  iaaae  of  evil  aeema  to  of  one  of  the  two  odier  amigned  periods,  he 


beloag  in  a  ^eeial  maaaer  lo  ravelatloa*  aiay  have  exeietaed  die  eAoe  of  regent  in 
aiaee  aoae  bat  Ood  eaa  eiplsia  the  primary  eoaaeqaeaoe  of  the  meatal  iaeapaeity  of  his 
aad  nltimate  beaiiBga  of  the  moral  worl^  fother.  He  waa  alain  by  hia  brother-in-law 
revelation  eonfiaea  itaelf  to  a  fow  graat  foots  aad  aoeeeeaor,  Merigiiaaar.  The  Biblioal  nar- 
foUiag  widiia  the  brief  period  of  hnaiaa  lativee  an  liinitad  to  atating  that  Evilmeio- 
hialory ;  whioh,  however,  while  they  ean  by  daeh,  in  the  flrat  year  of  his  nign,  nleased 
ao  SMaas  aatisiy  the  apeealatist,  mmf  alford  Jehoiaehin,  aHer  an  ineaieeration  of  thirty- 
important  light  in  duty,  and  valaable  natri-  aevea  yeara,  and  raised  him  to  the  highest 
meat  to  foith.  The  origia  of  aioral  evil  die  poaltion  of  dependent  digni^  at  hia  eoort 
Bcriptnrea  plaee  In  man's  ficee  will  (Oen.  ilL  (Jer.  liL  81 — 84). 

Matt.  XV.  10.  Jamea  i.  10),  widiont  atating  EXAOTOBS  (L.  ejr,  'foorn,'  and  a$o,  *I 

how  it  waa  that  that  will  waa  ao  weak  as  drive  or  fone '),  persona  who  employ  com- 

to  yield  to  tamptation ;  for  though  we  ara  pulsion  for  an  obgeet,  and  qpeeifically  for 

told  that  the  enaton  waa  made  snloeet  to  enfoniag  tribute  or  impoata;  henee  dioee 

vanity  in  hope  (Bom.viiL  30,  21),  yet  we  who  hnpoee  or  gather  taxes    (Is.  Ix.  17; 

an  ftimished  with  no  e:q»lanation  why  a  eomp.  2  Kinga  xdii.  80,  and  Neh.  x.  81). 

hopefol  aulgeedon  to  evil  look  plaee,  or  what  EXCHANOEBS  an  thoee  who  barter  or 

will  be  iu  final  result;  unless  dis  paaaaga  give  eomething  in  ntom  for  what  Ifaey  take, 

to  which  we  have  juat  nferred  ahould  in  In  the  New  Testament  the  word  means  those 

reality  intimate  that  in  the  final  prevalenee  who  '  give  cktmge,*  or  deal  in  money  (Matt 

of  universal  and  unmingled  good  may  be  xxv.  37).  Theee  bmtken,  beoease  they  set  in 

found  both  the  resson  why  evtt  waa  origi-  public  plaeea,  such  aa  the  porticos  of  the 

nated,  and  the  ultimate  eondition  of  the  temple   (Matt.  xxL  13),  befon  a  table  or 

whole  human  fomily.    Thia  view  certainly  bench  (bank),   on  which  they  kept  their 

finda  support  in  the  benevolent  spirit  of  the  money,  and  transacted  their  business,  wen 

Saviour,  snd  in  the  disoioenn  which  he  msde  eslled  tmpezUm,  table-men  (Matt.  xxv.  37), 

that  Ood  is  '  our  Father;'  for  under  a  go-  also  koUmbuUdf  from  koUmbot,  a  small  cotai 

funmaat  of  which  Jesua  ia  die  gnat  vico>  (MatUxxL  12).    Their  oflce  aeema  to  have 


EYE 


575 


EYE 


been  two -fold;  fini,  to  giire  the  onnent 
money  of  Jadea  for  foreign  ooin ;  eeoondly, 
to  receive  and  pat  oat  money  on  interest 
(Lake  zix.  23). 

EXECBATION  (L.  ex,  <  oat  of/  and  sacra, 
'  sacred  things ')  is  properly  the  aet  of  pnt^ 
ting  a  person  beyond  die  protecting  power 
of  religion.  Hence  the  word  means  a  de- 
▼otement  or  corse,  or  a  devoted  and  a<^ 
oorsed  person  or  diing.  It  is  osed  of  the 
terrible  evils  which  the  Jews  wonld  bring  on 
themselves  if  Ihey  continaed  to  disobey 
Ood,  and  the  threatening  proved  awftally 
trne  ( Jer.  zlii.  18 ;  zliv.  13 ;  oomp.  Aets 
zziiL  13).   See  Axathjima. 

EXORCISTS  (a.  tf ,  '  oat  o^'  and  mium, 
'an  oath'),  persons  who  prstsnded  to  east 
oat  evil  spirits  by  an  oath  or  form  of  a4iu- 
ration  (Acts  six.  18;  eomp.  LnkexL  19). 
See  the  article  DnviL. 

EXPEDIENT  (L. ex,' from;  and  pei,  'a 
foot ')  is  that  whieh  clears  the  way,  and  so 
aids  as  in  oar  progress  and  parposes.  Ao- 
eordingly,  it  stands  (John  zL  60 ;  zvi.  7. 
1  Cor.  vi.  12)  for  a  Qieek  word,  whieh  signi- 
fies to  be  '  oseftal,'  or  '  advanUgeoos.'  The 
narrower  meaning,  by  which  what  is  expedi- 
ent is  set  in  opposition  to  what  is  right,  is 
of  modem  origin,  sod  finds  no  support  in 
Seiiptiire. 

EXTOBTION  (L.  ex, '  from,'  and  torpuo, 
*I  twist')  means  taking  by  videnee,  and 
is  ased  (Matt  zziii.  25)  for  a  Oreek  word, 
arpagt,  which  signifies  *  plnndering,'  or 
'  robbory.'    Comp.  Luke  xviiL  11. 

ETE,  the  organ  of  vision,  which  is  osed 
in  the  Scriptures  In  a  variety  of  metaphori- 
cal applications,  most  of  which  need  no 
special  illastiation.  In  Ps.  exxiiL  3,  the  ^ee 
of  servants  are  represented  as  directed  to 
the  hand  of  their  master  and  mistress.  In 
the  East,  orders  are  given  by  the  dapping  of 
the  hands,  and  travellers  speak  of  ^e  fbrad 
attention  with  whidi  domestics  watdi  the 
eyes  of  their  saperior,  in  order  to  leam  and 
ocecute  his  will. 

The  eyes  of  the  present  Egyptian  women 
are  eminently  beaatifiil ;  as,  if  we  may  judge 
fh>m  the  modems,  were  those  of  Judah's 
daughters  of  old.  This  beauty  the  Egyp- 
tians try  to  enhance,  partly  by  eonoealmg 
the  other  foatures  with  a  veU,  partly  1^ 
painting  or  blackening  the  edge  of  the  eye- 
lids, both  above  and  below  the  eye,  with  a 
Uaek  powder  called  '  kohL' 


The  same  practice  prevailed  among  the 
•ncient  Egyptians  and  Israelitee.  Thus  Je* 
sebel,  on  the  spproach  of  Jehu,  with  other 
means  of  inoreasing  her  attractions,  put  her 


eyes  in  pafaiting — so  does  the  original  run 
(3  Kings  ix.  80;  oomp.  Eaek.  xxiu.  40). 
This  kohl,  or  <  eye-saive'  (Bev.  iii.  18,  coUy- 
rion)  is  commonly  composed  of  the  smoke- 
Uack  produced  by  homing  a  kind  of '  liban,' 
an  aromatic  resin.  It  is  also  prepared  of 
the  smoke-black  produced  by  burning  the 
shells  of  almonds.  These  two  kinds,  though 
believed  to  be  beneficial  to  the  eyes,  are 
used  merely  for  omsment;  but  there  axe 
other  sorts  tiiat  are  employed  for  medicinal 
purposes,  particularly  the  powder  of  several 
kinds  of  lead-ore. 

The  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  firom  constant 
t^osuie  to  the  sun,  have  a  habit  of  half 
shutting  the  eyes.  Great  numbers  are  blind 
in  one  eye,  if  not  in  both.  Foundations  for 
diseasee  of  the  eye  are  eariy  laid  in  Egypt 
The  eyes  of  the  young  are  often  very  filthy. 
It  is  common  to  see  half-a-doaen  or  more 
flies  in  each  eye,  unheeded  and  unmolested. 
The  psrents  consider  it  iiyurious  to  wash 
the  eyes  when  they  disohsrge  that  acrid  hu- 
mour which  attracts  the  flies. 

The  fua  of  <tiie  evil  eye'— that  is,  of 
evil  from  some  evil  spirit,  eommunieated 
by  a  look — ^is  common  in  Western  Asia. 
It  prevails  in  Egypt  with  great  strength,  es- 
pecially in  regard  to  children,  who,  as  being 
great  blessings,  are  accounted  most  lia- 
ble to  the  /ascination.  Envy  is  supposed  to 
be  the  actuating  impulse  with  those  who 
exert  this  banefril  influenoe.  Hence,  in  order 
to  avoid  exciting  envy,  parents  let  their  chil- 
dren appear  in  dirt  arid  rags,  and  try  to  pass 
off  boys  as  girls.  'An  evil  eye*  in  Scripture 
means,  an  ungenerous  and  grudging  dispo- 
sition, qoalities  that  are  the  root  of  the  sup- 
posed *  evil  eye '  of  superstition  (Prov.  xxiii. 
6;  xxviU.23.  Matt  vL38;  xx.  16.  MaA 
vii.33). 

The  exaction  ordained  by  the  old  law, 
but  abolished  by  Jesus,  of  <  an  eye  for  an 
^e'  (Exod.  xxL  38—35.  Matt  ▼.  88),  stiU 
prevails  in  the  East;  we  fisar  we  may  add« 
that  in  nominally  Christian  lands  it  is  ho- 
noured in  observance,  though  disallowed  in 
pioliBSsion.  In  Egypt^  sometimes  a  fine  is 
accepted  instead  of  an  equivalent  in  kind. 
With  the  Bedouins,  the  law  of  the  avenging 
of  blood  is  tenihly  severe.  With  them,  any 
single  person  descended  from  flie  man- 
slayer,  or  firom  his  father,  grandf atiier,  greal 
grandfather,  or  great  grandlather^s  frUher, 
may  be  killed  by  any  of  such  relations  of 
the  person  murdned  or  slain  in  fight  But 
among  most  tribes  a  pecuniary  compensation 
is  often  accepted.  Oases  of  blood  revenge 
are  very  common  among  the  peasantry  of 
Egypt  The  relations  of  a  person  who  has 
been  killed  in  sn  Egyptian  village  generally 
zetaUato  with  their  own  hands  racier  than 
apply  to  the  government,  and  often  do  so 
with  diagusting  oraelty,  and  even  mangle  and 
insult  the  corpse  of  their  victim.  Even 
when  yetaliatkm  has  been  made,  animositj 


EYE 


576 


EZE 


flpaqoflsfly  MOtiniifM  between  hm  Ivo  pnnes 
Ibrnu&yyMn;  aDdoftm  a  mm  ofUood 
revoife  faiYolvM  die  inttWWiiiili  of  two  or 
more  TilbgM  ia  hootiUtiMy  whUb.  tie  le- 
iMwod  ftt  interrds  dmnng  Mtenl  geiiflnr 


for 


wrrNS88E8  of  dM  Lord  Jons 
tn  Um  fini  agM  W7 
tfaingi  were  not  done  in  a 
Imt  throQi^iooft  die  Imd,  espeeully  in  die 
diicUj-peopled  Galilee,  end  at  die  eoneonne 
of  Jews  from  all  parts  of  the  world  at  the 
national  feasts  in  Jemsalem.  From  Lake  L 
2,  we  lean  that  die  stgnmentatiTe  nanadca 
which  his  fo^  sopplies  depended  for  its 
oiiginal  soorees  on  eje-witnesses  No  one 
eoold  be  en  anoetle  in  the  hi^beat  sense  of 
the  tenn  who  nad  not  ssen  the  Lord  (1  Cor. 
iz.1).  Of  the  eranfeUeslnamlors,  Matthew 
sad  John  were  eje-witneaees ;  eomp^  1  John 
L  1.  The  thrm  graat  events  in  oar  LonTs 
historj— his  deadi,  fesmreetion,  and  aseoi- 
aioot  are  attested  byeys-witneeiss  (John  xiz. 
80, 8d.  MatLnvUL  AetsLS.  lCor.xr.4— 
8.  Aets  sdL  14).  These  fhets  show  diat  it 
is  on  a  solid  histnrieal  foondstinn  die  ehnrsh 
of  Christ  is  bniU. 
The  eonneetionof  dioee  iriio  wen  efs- 
of  the  Lovd  Jesns  with  die  eom- 
of  the  sseood  centoiy,  is  impor- 
tant* bodilo  aid  in  seeovndng  for  the  rapid 
spread  of  die  goepel,  espedally  In  Asia 
ICuioi^  as  hidieated  in  die  letter  of  Pliny 
(A.D.  107)  sddresssdtothe  enperarTki^isa 
(see  Besrd's  '  Yoiees  of  the  Chnreh  in  n^j 
to  Btrsnss,*  pw  42),  sad  siso  to  nnite  the 
dajs  of  Jesns  widi  those  of  eedeaiastieal 
histoiy,  whieh  in  Ireuras,  Jostin  Hsr^, 
snd  odiers,  mqr  be  said  to  eommenee  in 
die  middle  of  the  seeond  eentmy,  irtiile  by 
dear  impUeatton  mneh  of  dieir  testimony 
extends  at  least  half  a  eentniy  still  Ihrdier 
back.  For  instsnee,  the  citations  found  in 
Jnstin  pnt  it  beyond  a  donbt  tLat  a  spoken 
eoxrent  snd  written  p'spel,  if  u>t  the  very 
namtivee  whieh  we  possess  mader  the  name 
<  gospels,'  had  prersiled  In  die  Christisa 
worid  long  prior  to  the  time  when  he  wrote 
{dr.  A.  D.  180—170).  A  solBAient  gnarentee 
for  the  preserradon  of  this  go^el  free  from 
serioos  emxt  or  mythologiesl  depodsHon 
ezisted,  If  persons  snrrired  tin  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seeond  eentoiy,  who  either  had 
diemselTes  seen  the  Lord,  or  were  intimate 
widi  eye-witnesses.  Now,  from  1  Cor.  xt.  6, 
we  learn  dial  of  the  five  hundred  brethren 
who  had  seen  Christ,  the  greater  pert  re- 
mained when  Paol  wrote  that  letter.  InEphe- 
sns  snd  in  aoiim  smaDer  eities  of  Asia  Minor, 
there  had  in  die  second  hslf  of  the  first  cen- 
tury formed  itself  a  circle  of  Cbristisns  irho 
were  immcdiste  diwriples  of  Jesus  himself. 

.  S.S^v**i  **  *^«  «»•  of  John,  Andrew 
ttd  Phihp»  beUmged  to  the  bmdof  ti^ 

Sm  and  John  die  presbyter.  eioivedxSS 


die  q^oede,  wlw  did  not  die  till  the  end  of 
the  eentuiy,  and  were  atill  in  cfxistpnee  when 
Pspias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  in  Flirygin 
{dr.  A.  D.  118),  a  scholar  of  John  and  of 
Polyesip^  himsrtf  a  schdlsr  of  J<^m,  wrote 
his  ftvs  books  on  the  'Diseoursee  of  the 
LonL'  And  from  Eusebins  (iiL  82),  we 
learn  diat  in  die  time  of  Tngsa  (98— 11« 
A.D.),  Simeon,  a  aeholar  of  Jeans,  suiKeredl 
msrtyrdom,  being  120  yean  old.  Polycarp, 
triio  loot  hia  life  for  the  goepd  under  Mar- 
ens  Anrdins  (or.  185  A.  D.),  hsd,  seooidin^ 
to  his  pupil  Irensus,  intercourse  with  manj 
eye-witnesses  of  Jesus,  snd  was  made  bishop 
of  Smyrna  by  i^ootolie  hands.  In  dieso 
fhete  we  trsee  a  line  of  competent  witnesses 
from  the  time  of  the  puUic  ministiy  of  Jesns 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  second  centary, 
iHien  oar  eaered  books  are  known  to  have 
been  in  existence,  and  iHicn  the  gospel  had 
gained  pnralence  in  the  chief  parte  of  the 
eirilised  world. 

EZEKIEL  (H.  Ood  tffOI  jAro^Ofli),  the 
name  of  the  Hebrew  prophet  who  wrote  dm 
book  so  denominsted.  He  was  of  the  priealiy 
order,  end  son  of  Bnsi.  As  his  pisce  A 
sbode  eedeaisstkal  hisloiy  gives  Ssrera,  of 
irtiieb  then  is  no  mention  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Widi  Jehoiaehin,  kinf  of  Judah, 
Esekiel,  sad  many  of  the  chief  inhahitaate 
of  the  land,  were  by  Nebachadnenar  car- 
ried csptive  into  Meeopotamia,  eleven  yean 
before  the  destradimi  of  Jerusslem  (A.  C. 
509).  His  plsee  of  sbode  in  Babjlon  ean- 
not  be  spproodmated  to  more  aesriy  thsn  by 
saying  that  it  wee  on  the  Chebar,  which  folia 
into  die  Euphrates,  near  Carehemish  (L  1), 
though  from  iiL  15,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
he  resided  at  a  small  town  called  Td-ablb. 
He  possessed  a  house,  and  was  msrried,  but 
lost  his  wifo  (ilL  24;  viiL  1;  xziv.  18). 
What  sge  he  had  reached  at  the  time  of  h^ 
deportation  is  not  stated;  but  die  minute  a^ 
quaintenee  displayed  in  the  latter  pert  of  bis 
writings  with  die  locslities  snd  dimensiona 
of  the  temple,  makes  it  probsble  diai  be- 
fore he  went  into  cepdvitj  he  had  exercised 
the  ptiesdy  office,  which,  though  we  have 
not  certain  infonnataon,  could  scarody  have 
been  entered  on  before  the  sge  of  manhood. 
Churoh-fsthen  rdate  that  he  was  put  to 
death  by  one  of  his  foUow-exiles,  whom  he 
had  reproached  for  his  addietedness  to 
iddatiy.  In  the  middle  sges,  what  was 
called  his  tomb  was  shown  on  the  Euphretes, 
some  distsnce  from  Bagdad.  It  was  so 
much  an  object  of  reverence,  diat  Jews  of 
Media  and  Persia  used  to  make  pilgrimsges 
thither. 

Ezekid  begsn  his  prophetie  duties  in  die 
fifth  year  after  the  capture  of  Jehoiaehin 
(i.  2),  in  the  seventh  year  before  the  over- 
throw of  Jerasdem  by  Nebuchadnesssr,  snd 
continued  them  at  least  tilt  die  twenty- 
sevendi  yesr  of  his  banishment  (zziz.  17), 
that  is,  till  the  sixteenth  year  after  die  foU 


E  Z£ 


577 


EZE 


oi  Jwusalem,  or  during  a  period  of  two  and 
twenty  years.  He  discharged,  therefore,  the 
severe  and  perilous  dnties  of  a  prophet  firom 
the  year  504  A.  G.  to  the  year  572  A.  O., 
having  lived,  in  all,  not  less  than  seven  and 
twenty  years  in  exile.  He  was,  aooordingly, 
a  contemporary  of  Jeremiah. 

The  book  of  the  prophet  Eiekiel  divides 
itself  into  four  parts : — I.  The  introduetion, 
i — ^iii.  JI.  A  ooUeotion  of  oracles  referring 
to  native  subjects  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  iv. — ^zziv.  III.  A  collection  of 
oracles  relating  to  foreign  subjects,  xxv. — 
zxxii.  IV.  A  ooUeotion  of  oracles  touching 
native  subjects  alter  the  destruction  of  Je- 
rusalem, xixiii. — xlviiL 

The  commencement  contains  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  inauguration  of  the  prophet,  and 
bis  introduction  in  his  official  capacity  to  his 
fellow-captives. 

The  prophecies  on  native  subjects  which 
ensue,  are  addressed  to.  the  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem,   and  are  designed  to  meet  the 
peculiar  state  of  mind  of  its  inhabitjsnts  at 
the  particular  juncture  in  which  the  words 
werB.  spoken. ;  What  that  state  of  mind  was 
may  be  leamt  from  £zekiel  himself,  as  well 
as  from  his  feJlow-worker,  Jeremiah  (six.). 
They  both  aimed  to  disabuse  the  minds  of 
their  countrymen  of  the  iigurious  notion, 
that  notwithstanding    the    expatriation  of 
many  of  those  who  stood  highest  in  office 
and  estimation,  the  state  itself  would  not 
suflbr  overthrow.     The  extirpation  of  this 
error  was  the  more  needful,  because  it  seemed 
to  strike  its  roots  but  the  more  deeply  with 
the  progress  of  those  events  that  were  bring- 
ing ruin  on  Jerusslem,    and  the  polity  of 
which  it  was   the  centre;   and  because  it 
prevented  that  moral  and  spiritual  reforma- 
tion,  and   especially  that   renunciation  of 
idolatrous  worship,  which  were  indispensa- 
ble pre-requisites  to  the  restoration  of  the 
Divine  favour,  and  the  re-establishment  of 
individual  and  national  happiness.    But  the 
task  was  no  easy  one,  as  indeed  the  event 
showed ;  for  the  iniquity  continued,  and  the 
natiou  was  enslaved.      The  difficulty  was 
much  increased  by  false  prophets,  who  mis- 
led the  people  under  several  pretexts,  namely, 
that  God  would  not  give  over  to  ruin  the 
temple,  his  special  abode  (Jer.  vii  4) ;  that 
God  could  not  leave  his  promises  unful- 
filled (xviii.  5 — 10) ;  that  the  Jews  had  not 
deserved  the    threatened  punishment  (vii. 
21,  Mg.)  ;  and  that  they,  ought  not  to  suffer 
for  the  sins  of  their  fathers  (Ezek.  xviii.). 
These  misconceptions  it  was  Ezekiel's  chief 
aim  to  correct,  while  he  strove  to  make  his 
fellow-countrymen  sensible  of  their  wicked- 
ness, willing  to  renounce  all  hope  of  sup« 
port  in  human  aid,  and  ready  in  penitence 
and  trust  to  cast  themselves  on  the  mercy  of 
God.    Guided  by  this  aim,  he  handles  with 
special  attention  two  points : — I.  That  the 
Jewish  state  is  ruined  (iv.  v.  vii.  xii.  xv. 


xix.  xxi.  xxiii.  xxiv.).  II.  That  the  oa- 
lomity  is  a  consequence  of  the  unbounded 
wickedness  of  the  nation,  in  its  idolairous 
practices,  and  the  .moral  excesses  of  which 
their  idolatry  was  the  cause  (vi.  1 — 7 ;  viii. 
1—16 ;  xvi.  15—36 ;  xx.  30—39 ;  xxii.  xxiii. ) . 
In  the  prosecution  of  his  purpose,  the  pro- 
phet threatens  with  merited  punishment  the 
seducers  of  the  people,  the  false  prophets 
(xiu.;  xiv.  6—11;  xxu.  28).  Occasionally 
his  tone  grows  mild  when  he  is  drawn  on  to 
speak  of  a  coming  period  of  pure  religion 
and  social  peace  to  be  enjoyed  by  those  who 
honoured  God  (xi.  16—22;  xiv.  21—23;  xvi. 
53—56;  XX.  40— 45). 

The  prophecies  relating  to  foreign  nations 
are  directed  against  the  Ammonites,  Moab- 
ites,  Edomites,  Philistines,  Tynans,  Sido- 
nians,  and  Egyptians. 

The  native  prophecies  after  the  downfal 
of  Jerusalem  contain  at  the  first  reproofs 
and  threatenings  (xxxiii.  xxxiv.)>  but  after- 
wards consolations  and  promises  of  victory 
over  enemies  (xxxv.  xzxviii.  xxxix.)  ;  of 
the  restoration  of  the  state,  and  the  return 
of  the  repentant  and  reformed  (xxxvi. 
xxxvii) ;  of  the  renewal  of  the  temple,  and 
the  renovation  of  the  Mosaic  polity  (xl. — 
xlviii.). 

It  is  impossible  to  read  the  composition 
and  not  be  impressed  with  its  purely  He-, 
braic  character.  A  few  Aramaic  words  it 
may  contain,  which,  however,  only  confirm 
its  claims,  sioce  they  belong  to  the  period 
when  and  the  place  where  the  book  was 
written ;  but  in  its  general  complexion  the 
work  hi:e  the  deepest  Hebrew  hue,  harmo- 
nising with  the  general  aim,  purpose,  and 
tone  of  the  Mosaic  polity,  and  its  develop- 
ment in  the  classic  period  of  David  and 
Solomon,  and  seeking  its  purposes  by  the 
same  instrumentality  as  is  found  in  the  earlier 
canonical  writings  (xxx.  26 ;  xxxvi.  22).  Of 
the  writer  and  of  the  age  of  the  composition, 
explicit  statements  give  us  certain  informa^ 
tion  (i.  1 ;  xxiii.  31 ;  xxviii.  25),  did  not  its 
general  character  assure  us  that  it  was  com- 
posed during  the  Babylonish  captivity ;  for 
it  is  impossible  to  believe  that  any  one  writ- 
ing lung  after  the  events,  could  employ  in 
relation  to  that  exile,  its  causes,  its  du- 
ration, its  consequences  and  end^  the 
actual  feelings  of  the  people  at  more  con- 
junctures in  it  than  one,  and  their  relations 
to  the  entire  civilised  world,  that  true,  ear- 
nest, and  impassioned,  language,  that  CO' 
gency  of  argument,  that  boundless  fertiliQr 
of  imagination,  which  we  here  find.  Doubt- 
less, each  portion  was  written  and  uttered  in 
the  period  to  which  it  relates ;  and  signs  of 
time,  which  give  to  a  composition  the  air  of 
reality,  abound  in  this  collection  of  prophe- 
cies (i.  1 ;  viii.  1 ;  xx-Jt.  1 ;  xxxi.  1 ;  xxxii. 
1;  xxxiii.  21;  xl.  1).  Yet  it  would  appear 
as  if  the  writer,  when  arrived  at  the  deellM 
of  life,  sat  himself  down  calmly  to  review 

20 


EZE 


578 


£Z£ 


ukI  put  together  the  important  infttraetioiiB 
whien  he  had  ftvm  time  to  time  delivered ; 
for  thoo^  the  pieee  is  an  aeeemblage  of 
what  are  termed  nslona,  and  ia  ftill  of 
imagery,  faneiftil,  im]nre«fliTe»  or  grand,  yet 
is  it  one  of  the  moat  orderly  oompositiona  in 
the  Bible,  and  bears  eridenee  of  having  been 
diligently  eompoeed  and  carelhlly  revised. 

In  the  employment  of  the  highest  resonrees 
of  flga*atiTe  language,  the  book  may  be 
eqaaDed,  bat  learcely  aorpaaaed^by  any  other 
Biblical  writing;  bat  for  novelty  and  gor- 
geous splendonr  (i.  4—28),  for  painting  to 
the  eye  (iiL  1—3 ;  iv.  v. ;  zzzvii.  1 — 14), 
above  all,  for  boundless  yet  weJl-sostained 
daring, — a  daring  whieh,  whether  for  eon- 
eeption  or  execution,  haa  no  parallel  in  lite- 
rature (zvi.  eomp.  xziii.)* — ^the  book  of  Eae- 
kiel  has  peculiar  merits.  Tet,  while  the 
prophet  has  strength  of  wing  to  soar,  and  an 
intrepidity  which  ahrinks  not  before  meta- 
phon  more  expressive  then  delieale^  he 
knows  also  how  to  make  oae  of  allnaionB  of 
a  kind  so  appropriate,  that  they  evidenee 
the  minuteness  of  his  knowledge,  as  well  as 
the  elegance  of  his  taste.  WUh  what  efbot 
is  the  relianoe  on  Egypt  represented  under 
the  metaphor  of  a  reed  which  breaks  be- 
neath those  who  lean  on  it  (zziz.  7 ;  zzz. 
18,  teq.)i  for  the  banks  of  tfie  Nile  were 
covered  with  reeds  of  various  kinds,  all  more 
or  less  distinguished  for  beauty,  but  neariy 
all  devoid  of  strength.  Indeed,  it  ie  one 
characteristio  of  this  book  that  every  thing 
is  described  in  its  own  odioun;  for  as  the 
reader  sees  pass  rapidly  under  his  eyei  Je- 
rusalem, Samaria,  Edom,  Tyre,  Egypt,  As- 
syria, these  states  appear,  each  in  its  own 
appropriate  costume,  brilliantly  dnwn  and 
well  aeflned.  The  description  of  Tyre  in 
the  twenty-seventh  chapter  has  the  exactness 
of  a  bill  of  parcels  and  the  brillianey  of  a 
picture.  The  knowledge  of  the  writer  is  as 
remarkable  as  his  imagination.  All  the  chief 
cities  of  his  day  he  seems  to  have  intimately 
known,  with  their  peculiar  punuits  andcha- 
racteristicB ;  so  that  whether  he  discourses 
of  the  commercial  opulence  of  Tyre,  or  the 
natural  loxarianee  of  the  soU  of  Egypt,  he 
speaks  with  the  precision  of  a  native,  and  is 
equaUy  at  home  in  the  martial  detaUs  of 
armiea  ant  sieges,  and  the  humbler  but 
more  useiU  occupations  of  metallurgy  or 
agriculture  (xv.;  xxii.  20;  xxviii.  18).  In 
passing  OYtr  his  glowing  pages,  one  is  led 
to  exclaim,  '  If  this  is  not  prophecy,  it  is 
history  most  true  and  picturesque.' 

But  it  is  prophecy.  All  the  features  iHiich 
make  up  propnecy  are  here.  Prophecy  is 
commonly  misunderstood  as  signifying 
merely  skill  to  foretelL  Prediction  is  one 
feature  of  i^rophecy — a  very  important  one. 
And  in  this  the  book  of  Esekiel  contains 
most  insimctlTe  materials.  F<Mr  instsnoe, 
the  prophet  distlnotly  daims  as  charaoteristie 
of  his  office  the  power  to  foretell,  ascribing 


it  to  the  immediate  inflnenoe  of  Qod  on  hia 
mind  (xxxiii.  21,  ssf . ;  eomp.  88 ;  and  study 
xxi.  95;  xvit  19.  2Chrai.  xxxvi  11,  mf. 
Jer.  ML  4^  m;.).    Bat  the  general  tenor  and 
purpose  of  die  book  ahow  that  this  fefeukj 
of  prsdistien,  and  indeed  the  prophai  him- 
aelf,  especially  in  oertain  peculiar  nets  (xxiv. 
24;  It.  v.),  aetad  by  way  of  'aign,'  token, 
or  evidenee  of  the  Divine  pleasora,  and  an 
promotive  of  the  Divine  porpoaas  in  the 
oonvmeenient  and  refotmatioQ  of  the  people^ 
that,  taming  iVom  lying  vaaitiea  to  Jahovah 
their  God,  they  might  be  at  peace.    In  a 
word,  die  prophetic  oAee  had  for  its  imme- 
diate aim  the  instruction  of  the  people,  and 
that  instruction,  on  its  part,  waa  deaigned  to 
piomote  the  i^oiy  of  Ood  in  promoting  the 
welfere  of  hia  pao]^.  Henee  the  hig^  moral 
tame  which  parvadea  the  bo<A  of  Eaakiel, 
which  is  like  one  act  of  a  grand  drama, 
opening  in  eonfoaloa,  pmreeding  in  slaim, 
bat  aubaiding    at  laat    into 
when  the  people,  with  a  rigbt  mind 
new  heart,  had  leamt  obadienea  fhon 
anibrlnga,  and  were  rewarded  with  the  i 
ration  of  their  national  individnidity.    And 
in  the  piogwas  of  the  work,  die  prophet,  an 
a  high  tMsher  of  dnty  and  righteoosneas, 
administvs  Justlee  in  torn  to  the  nationa  of 
the  earth.    Jodah  ia  not  the  only  eity  dtat 
ondeigoea  reproofl     The  matmments  that 
Ood  employs  for  ita  poniahment  are  them* 
selves  Ihreatened  with  dire  retrihation;  nor 
are  thoae  apared  that  applanded  and  derided 
when  Ihey  stood  by,  and  saw  ita  sons  led 
with  dejected  eountaoances  snd  teaifiil  eyes 
into  a  strange  and  distant  land.    And  lofty, 
indeed,  is  die  idea  whieh*  in  paruaing  his 
pagea,  we  form  of  the  praphet,  who,  iriiile 
he  had  to  aet  hit  feea  aa  adamant  againat 
hia  own  people,  end  to  endure  reproaehea 
and  miatreatment   at  their  handa,  stands 
boldly  up,  and,  aa  die  representadva  of  the 
Most  High,  passea  wicked  nations  in  re- 
viewi  and  deliven  jodgment  on  their  iniq[oi- 
dee.    Such  a  aeene  is  to  be  witnessed  in  na 
literature  bat  that  of  the  Hebrews.     The 
reason  ia,  that  in  no  other  eoontiy  did  diere 
exist  a  class  of  populsr  instruetora  enlif^t- 
ened  snd  inspired  of  God,  and  filled  with 
die  noblest  of  all  purpoaea,  namely,  the  ear- 
nest determinadon  to  teaoh  man  the  Divine 
low,  and  ao  to  honour  the  Creator  of  heaven 
and  earth  (xxxiii)    In  the  earnestness  of 
purpose  and  ooneentradon  of  energy  whieh 
n*noe  ensued,  lay,  humanly  speakhig,  the 
chief  sonroe  of  Eaekiel's  power —  a  power 
which  made  him  eminentty  naeftil  in  hia 
own  times,  and  has,  down  to  the  present 
hour,  eauaed  him  to  be  hdd  in  admiradon, 
no  less  is  a  literary  dian  a  religious  point 
of  view.    His  independenee  and  originality, 
his  strength  of  inteUeet,  his  grasp  of  mind, 
his  brinisncy  of  imaginadon,  die  hi^  ftniah 
of  some  psra  of  his  writings,  and  die  happy 
union  of  line  poedcal  qualities  widi  vigoroua 


E  Z  R                        579  E  Z  R 

aiul  moat  luold  proM  (xviii.),  combiiM  to  th«  eiUMithment  of  Jadiism,  considered  as 

make  Ecekiai  ose  of  the  moet  engaging  and  a  modttoadon  of  Koeaism,  and  in  that  Joda- 

uupreaaiYe  of  writers;  and  were  Iba  grounds  Urn  the  reception  and  gradnal  expansion  ot 

on  which  Herd«r  called  ham  the  ^schyhu  oriental  ideas  regarding  spirits,  angels,  de- 

and  Shakspere  of  the  Hehrews ;  that  Schle-  mons,  and  the  origin  of  evU,  the  days  of 

gel  described  him,  Homer,  and  Qoethe,  as  flia  Hessiaib,  and  a  ftitare  life,  which,  in 

the  three  greatest  poets  of  all  ages ;   and  union  with  the  tradition  of  the  elders,  and 

that  Schillsr  preferred  the  reading  of  his  onder  the  sanction  of  its  anthoritj,  grew  in 

noble  descriptions  (xjiv.  8—14)  to  any  other  the  midst  of  philoeophiesl  tendencies  sod 

poetry.    If  miderstood  of  the  exquisite  skill  disputes,  of  probsibly  Oredan  origin,  into 

with  which  he  selects  and  manages  and  gives  the  complex  and  heterogeneoas  system  of 

utterance  to  his  figures,  rather  than  of  his  thought  and  forms  of  speedt  found  by  Jesus 

subject-matter,  in  which  tenor  predominates,  and  his  aposfles,  and  traceable  in  the  pages 

Ezekiel  may  be  described  in  his  own  words :  of  the  New  Testament    So  difficult  is  it  to 

'  Lo,  thou  art  unto  them  as  a  Tery  lorely  any  but  minds  of  high  eultiTation  to  hold 

song  of  one  that  hath  a  pleassnt  Toiee,  and  in  its  rigorous  purity  the  idea  of  one  sole 

can  play  weU  on  an  instrument'   (xxziii.  God,  the  creator  and  sustainer  of  the  uni- 

82).  Tiirse,  that  it  was  only  by  recelTing  the  Zoro- 

EZION-GAB£B,oneof  thehslting-plaost  astrisn  doctrine  of  angels— the  intermedi- 
off  the  children  of  Israel  on  their  route  to-  aries  between  Qod  and  man,  and  the  minis- 
wards  Canaan  (Numb,  xxxiii.  8&),  which,  ters  of  the  Dirine  will— ^at  the  Jews,  as 
from  Deut.  IL  8,  appears  to  have  lain  near  woidd  appear,  were  able  to  resign  and  for 
Elath,  and  which  1  Kings  ix.  96,  in  unison  CYcr  renounce  their  polytheistic  idolatries, 
with  Josephus,  shows  to  have  been  a  harbour  Ezra  is  designated  the  son  of  Seraiah 
'  beside  Eloth,  on  the  shore  of  the  Bed  Sea,  (tU.  1),  afsot  whi<^  aflTords  a  clear  instance 
in  the  land  of  £dom,'  and  which  lay  at  the  tiiat  '  son  '  may  signiiy  *  descendant,'  for 
end  of  theElanitie  aim  of  that  (so-called)  sea.  Seraiah,  the  chief  priest,  was  slain  by  Nebu- 
Here  Solomon  built  a  nvfj  of  ships  (1  Kings  chadnezzar  move  than  a  century  before  Ezra's 
ix.  26),  in  which,  according  to  2  Chron.  zx.  time  (2  Kings  xxv.  IS,  21).  As,  however, 
36,  he  was  followed  by  Jehoshapbat  the  oi&prhtg  of  that  high  priest,  Esra  was 

As  Edom  was  more  or  less  subject  to  the  recommended  by  strong  claims  to  the  respect 

Hebrew  sovereigne^  Esion-gaber  was  an  im-  of  his  people,  and  forms  an  important  link 

portant  port  for  them,  as  opening  a  channel  between  the   destroyed  and  the  renovated 

fbr  trade  with  South  Arabia,  India,  and  other  commonwealth. 

eastern  coasts;  and  if  we  may  believe  that  InthereignofArtaaerzes  (see  the  article), 
the  circumnavigation  of  Africa  was  then  Exra  led  a  colony  of  his  fellow-captives  into 
possible,  £zion*gaber  would  connect  Jemsa*  Jtidea,  where  the  new  state  was  still  en- 
lem  with  Tarahlsb,  or  Spain,  though  the  viroaed  by  many  difficulties.  Having  re- 
much  nearer  route  down  the  Mediterranean  ceived  fbll  authority  for  diat  purpose  from 
was  far  mors  likely  to  be  taken.  A^  Persian  monarsb,  he  applied  himself  to 

All  trace  of  Ezion-gaber  appears  to  be  ttis  arduous  task  of  settling  Judaism  on  a 

lost,  though  Burokhardt  heard  of  a  town  permanent  foundation;  and,  convinced  by 

called  Assyun,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  present  his  knowledge  of  tifte  history  of  his  country 

Ailah ;  and  Bobinson  found  somewhat  north  that  religion  ajforded  the  only  safe  and  suffl- 

of  Ailsh  a  wady  that  bore  the  name  of  Ohu-  eient  means — ^awsre  also   that  the    sacred 

dian,  probably  the  same  as  Ezion,  which  in  books,  with  which,  as  a  scribe,  he  was  flk 

the  Greek  translation  stands  as  Gasion.  miliar,  presented  erveiy  element  of  knowledge 

EZBA.  (H.  hdper),  the  great  restorer  of  and  power  fofrthe  guidance  of  the  nation,  he 

the  Mosaie  polity  alter  the  termination  of  wisely  dstermined  to  revert  to  the  Mosaie 

the  exile.    As  a  memiber  d  the  fsmily  of  polity,  and  by  judicious  and  weB-snstained 

Aaron,  he  received  the  highest  oultore  of  Jn-  vegidatione  succeeded  in  inspiring  the  yet 

daism  (Ezra  vii.  6,  11),  which  he  seems  to  feeble  colony  with  new  life,  and  tndning 

have  earefdUy  improved  by  such  means  as  he  them  to  become  a  prosperous  nation,  under 

fbund  in  Asia,  wnere,  probably  at  BabyUm,  the  shield  of  tbit  sole  King  of  heaven  and 

he  first  saw  the  light.    Under  the  conjoint  earth. 

influence  of  what  may  be  termed  western  For  an  account  of  the  measures  which  he 

and  eastern  ideas,  he  aequured  great  and  took,  we  must  look,  not  to  the  book  which 

varied  mental  power,  as  wdl  as  an  intimate  bears  his  name,  but  to  the  book  now  cnitent 

acquaintance  with  laws,  social  polity,  and  under  the  name   of  Kehemiah,  which  we 

religion,  wtuch  enabled  him  to  replace,  on  shall  therefore  consider  in  conjunction  with 

a  solid  basis  the  institutions  of  Moses,  his  the  writing  to  which  the  name  of  Ezra  is 

great  model.    The  times  of  Ezra  form,  in  prefixed.    Occupied  with  that  task,  namely, 

the  history  of  Israsl,  a  great  epoch,  of  which  Ae  nvival  and  re-constitution  of  religion, 

the  chief  distinctive  fsaturss  are  the  est*-  which,  as  contidning  the  elements  of  nation- 

blishment  of  a  pure  asonotheism,  ths  gene-  ality  and  patriotism,  as  well  as  of  the  true 

lal  invigorution  of  the  Mosaie  mstitutions,  worship  of  God,  demanded  precedence,  Ezra 

202 


EZR 


580 


EZR 


wtm  obliged  to  Imto  the  more  pwely  ciTil 
•irtngementM  uiuttended  to ;  when  the  eon- 
dition  of  JoniMlem,  whoee  walls  still  lay  m 
rains,  moved  the  noble  Nehemish,  son  of 
Hsehsliah,  who,  hsving  been  enp>besier  to 
Artsxerxes  Longimsnns,  was  by  that  monaieh 
pennitted  to  visit  Palestine,  with  fesoorees 
for  the  re-establiahment  of  its  polity,  and  who 
applied  all  the  means  his  happy  condition 
enabled  him  to  eonuiaiid  for  effecting  a  re- 
sult so  important  to  his  ooontry,  and  so  dear 
to  his  own  heart  (Neh.  i.  ii^  ss^.)*  After 
precautionary  measures  of  safety  had  been 
taken  in  common  by  these  two  patriotic  and 
religious  reformers,  Esra  at  last  came  for- 
ward to  proclaim  anew  the  law  of  Moses, 
and  presided  over  the  festivities  by  whieh 
its  revival  was  celebrated,  taking  snch  steps 
as  in  his  mature  wisdom  and  deep  religioos- 
ness  be  judged  most  suitable  to  ihe  peculiar 
eoudition  of  the  Jewish  people.  What  these 
measures  were,  will  in  the  main  appear  in 
the  ensuing  analysis  of  the  books. 

Ezra  has  shared  the  fate  of  all  the  dis- 
tinguished benef^tors  of  their  fisUow-eiea- 
tnres,  in  being  the  centre  sround  whieh  have 
grouped  themselves  many  onhistorical  and 
legendary  stories.  Babbinical  works  are  ftdl 
of  what  was  intended  to  be  his  eulogies. 
Much  dierein  found  is  of  no  real  vslue. 

Among  other  things,  Esra  is  said  to  have  pre- 
sided over  the  great  synagogue  (see  Cavov, 
i.  268),  which  took  in  band  the  ordering  of 
the  new  state  after  the  Mosaic  model,  and  the 
determination  of  the  Old-Testament  Canon. 
This  fable,  however,  like  many  others,  eon- 
tains  truth.  Doabtleas,  Esra  did  aeeomplish 
very  much  for  these  important  purposes. 
Certainly,  before  his  day  the  Mosaic  law  was 
never  so  fully  honoured  and  obeyed.  This 
was  to  no  small  extent  owing  to  the  measures 
adopted  by  Exra  for  making  its  demands, 
provisions,  aims  and  spirit  generally  known. 
And  while  there  is  so  much  shedding  of 
blood  in  the  Old  Testament,  at  which  the 
Christian's  heart  shudders,  how  gratifying 
is  it  to  contemplate  the  peaeeftd  revolution 
achieved  under  the  auspioes  of  Esra,  who 
can  be  placed  second  to  no  one  in  Hebrew 
history,  save  Moses.  And  the  ease,  peace- 
fulness  and  success  with  which  he  ^ected 
his  great  renovations,  strikingly  illustrate 
the  value  of  a  national  literature,  especially 
of  a  religious  kind,  snd  prove  biTond  a 
question,  that  though  the  Jews  had  too  often 
manifested  idolatrous  propensities,  they  had 
by  no  means  lost  sll  respect  for  the  name 
and  institutions  of  Moses.  Hsd  there  not, 
indeed,  been  at  the  bottom  of  the  nation's 
heart  a  deep  feeling  of  veneration  for  their 
great  legislator,  and  for  his  polity,  the  esta- 
blishment of  it  in  vigour  would  ha?e  been 
an  impossibility.  But  that  establishment 
was  hi  troth  a  restoration.  This  it  profassed 
to  be.  This  it  obviously  was  (Meh.viiL  2, 
0»8;  iz.1.29;  zU.i4,isf.;  zlii.  1).     We 


add,  this  and  nothing  else  it  must,  iu  the 
very  natnre  of  the  ease,  have  been.  Bat  if 
a  restoration,  then  in  substance  Moentsm 
had  a  long  previous  existence,  and  the  books 
employed  as  guides  and  anthorities  must, 
in  die  msin,  have  been  die  asms  as  they  are 
now,  as  well  as  deeply  sealed  in  the  strong- 
est sffMtions  of  the  people.  This  renovatioa 
of  the  Jewish  state  is  attended  by  cirenm- 
stanees  so  peeulisr  and  so  forcible,  that  to 
oar  mind  it  wears  the  same  relation  of  evi- 
dence to  the  Old  Covenant  that  the  Besnr- 
reetion  does  to  the  New.  In  both  instances, 
the  trunk  of  the  trse  hsd  been  sundered  nesr 
its  roots.  But  sneh  was  its  inheient  feroe 
of  vitality^  that  under  the  providence  of  God 
it  put  forth  shoots,  and  sprang  up  into  a 
nobler  fbrm  than  it  had  ever  displayed  be- 
fore. 

Uncertainty  prevails  tondiing  Esra's 
death.  Aecording  to  Josephus,  he  died  in 
Jerusalem,  at  the  advanced  age  of  120  years. 

EZBA,  THE  BOOK  OF,  has,  with  Nehe- 
mish,  these  contents.  Cyras  (036  A.  C), 
in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  sllows  the  cap- 
tive Jews  to  return  to  their  native  lend,  re- 
storing to  them  the  saend  vessels  which  had 
been  taken  fWmi-the  temple  (i.).  A  Ust  of 
those  who  availed  themeelves  of  this  offer 
(iL)  having  reached  Jerasalem,  they  take 
steps  to  restore  the  worship ;  build  an  altar 
for  sseriflce,  celebrate  the  fsast  of  uber- 
naoles,  and  lay  the  foundation  of  die  temple 
amid  the  songs  of  the  young  snd  the  tears 
of  thoee  who  had  seen  the  splendour  of  the 
former  boose  (iii.).  The  Samaritans  ex- 
press a  desirs  to  take  part  in  the  work,  but 
are  rsfhsed  by  the  Jewish  leaders;  i^ere- 
fore  they  use  their  influence  with  die  king 
of  Persia  in  order  to  interrupt  the  building. 
In  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  the  Jews, 
under  the  ezhortadons  of  their  prophets, 
continue  the  straeture  with  the  special  per- 
mission and  assistsnce  of  that  monarch. 
Accordingly,  they  bring  the  temple  to  a  com- 
pletion, dedicate  it,  and  celebrate  die  pass- 
over  (iv.— vi.).  Under  Artsxerxes  Longi- 
manus,  Esra  the  scribe  proceede  with  a  se- 
cond colony  to  Jerusslem,  having  in  his 
hands  a  letter  fh>m  the  king  (vii.);  there 
followe  a  list  of  the  persons  by  whom  he 
was  accompanied  (viii.) ;  finding  that  many 
Jews  had  formed  marriages  with  strsnge 
women,  Eira  is  filled  with  grief^  offers  to  Ood 
a  penitential  prayer,  and  takes  measures  for 
having  these  women  put  away  (ix.  x.). 

Nehemiah  receives  at  Susa  information 
of  the  lamentable  condition  of  die  land  of 
his  fathers,  which  makes  hun  so  sad  that 
his  dqeetion  excites  the  attention  of  the 
Persian  king,  who  on  inquiry  leans  the 
cause,  snd  gives  his  cup-bearer  leave  to  go 
to  Jerusslem  snd  re-build  ite  walls  (Neh. 
L  iL).  The  Jews  begin  die  work,  sadnot- 
withstsnding  hindranees  thrown  in  dieir 
way,  aeeomplish  thiirpiiiposs  (iiL  iv.).  The 


EZR  58]  EZR 

pcqple  oomplaln  of  their  poverty,  ind  of  the  exeellenee,   may  be   callea   ImperfeetioDe, 

opprestion  tnd  ueory  of  the  rich;  whieh  combine,  with  other  qoalities  in  Ena,  to 

leads  Nehemiah  to  apeak  of  hia  own  dis*  show  that  we  have  in  its  pages  a  verltabie 

interestednesB,  and  to  compel  the  opulent  and  tnistworthy  record.     The  fabrication  of 

-to  cease  trcm  their  evil  eonrseSy  and  restore  each  documents  can  scarcely  be  entertained 

the  property  taken  in  mortgage  (t.)-    The  as  a  possibility ;  the  probability  of  such  a 

^fortifications  of  Jerosalem  are,  in  spite  of  firand  is  too  small  to  be  taken  into  aoooant 

oppoeition,  at  length  completed ;  watehmen  Had  there  been  any  aim  at  artistic  exoel- 

are  appointed,  and  the  governorship  is  as-  lence,  we  could  have  recognised  some  slight 

signed   to    Mehemiah's  *  brother,  Haaani,  ground  for  possible  suspicion.  Bat  the  frag- 

and  to  Hananiah,  the  ruler  of  the  palace  f  mentary  character  of  the  book,  and  the  ab- 

then  fellows  a  list  of  those  who,  under  Uy-  sence  of  uniformity  in  the  mode  in  which  its 

rus,  had,  come  to  Jerusi^em  (vi.  vii).   Eira  materials  are  put  together,  are  such  as  to 

reads  to  the  people  the  book  of  the  law,  the  afford  very  strong  evidence  in  favour  of  its 

import  and  aippUcation  of  which  Is  expounded  genuineness. 

to  the  people,  in  the  Chaldee  tongue,  with         This  conclusion  is  corroborated  if  we  look 
which  aloiie  they  wen  now  familiar ;  observ-  a  little  more  closely  into  the  nature  of  the 
ance  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles ;  other  re-  pieces   of  which  Esra  and  Nehemiah  are 
ligions  services  fitted  to  express  contrition,  made  up.    In  no  other  Biblical  writing  do 
and  confirm  the  people  in  obedience  to  the  the  constituent  elements  appear  so  obvious, 
law  (viiL— X.).  The  covenant  thus  solemnly  nor  the  sources  whence  they  were  drawn, 
made  with  Qod   having  been  sealed,    the  The  part  that  bears  the  name  of  Ezra  con- 
names  are  given  of  those  who  sealed  it ;  slsts  of  two  subjects : — a.   Notices  of  the 
jthepopulationof  Jemsalon  being  too  smaU,  history  of  the  return  of  the  first  caravan, 
i$  jseplteliished  from  that  of  Ihe  country  (xi.) ;  and  of  the  erection  of  the  temple  (i. — ^vi.) ; 
th^n-foUows  a  list  of  those  priests  who  went  6.  Notices  of  the  history  of  &e  arrival  of 
up  with  Zerubbabel  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  Ezra  and  his  companions,  and  of  what  he 
succession   of  high  -priests;   certain  chief  did  for  the  good  of  the  colony  (viL — ^x.).  In 
Levites;   dedication  of  the  walls,  and  ap-  the  first  subject   there   are   these  original 
pointment  of  officers  (xii.) ;  the  reading  of  documents :  a.  the  decree  of  Cyrus  (i.  2 — 
the  law  leads  them  to  put  away  '  the  mixed  4) ;  b,  a  list  of  the  persons  and  families 
mnltitude'   of  Moabites   and  Ammonites;  who  returned  to  Judea  (ii.) ;  c.  a  secret  cor- 
Nehemiah  relates  what  he  has  done  for  the  respondence  between  the   Samaritans  and 
removal  of  what  was  wrong,  and  the  proper  the  Persian  court  regarding  the  erection  of 
organisation  of  church  and  state  (xiii.).  the  temple  (iv.  11 — 22) ;  d  correspondence 
.    Ezra  and  Nehemiah  are  not  two  distinct  between  the  Persian  governor  of  Judea  with 
works.     Originally   they  were    one ;   both  Darius  Hystaspis  on  the  same  point  (v.  5 ; 
bearing   the  name  of  Esra,    distinguished  vi.  12).     The  rest  of  this  part  wears  the  air 
only  as. the  first  and  seeoBd  book,  but  with-  of  having  been  written  by  an  eye-witness; 
oat  the  name  of  Nehemiah.  In  their  subject-  and  the  whole  shows  the  hand  of  Ezra,  or 
matter  they  are  manJfBStly  a  continuatioii  some  one  equally  conversant  with  the  facts, 
one  of  the  other.    But  they  form  no  com-  and  possessed  of  access  to  the  srchives  of 
piete  and  consecutive  narrative.    They  are  the   Persian   empire,   and    the  views  and 
rather  historical  pieces  thsn  history.    The  practices  of  the  Persian  court  (vi.  1). 
aim  was  not  to  bring  down  the  Jewish  his-        The  second  part  is  composed  of— a,  the 
tory  from  the  point  where  it  is  left  by  the  letter,  in  Chaldee,  of  Artaxerzes  to  Ezra  (vii. 
books  of  the  Kings,  but  to  narrate  the  chief  12 — 26)  ;   b.  historical  notices,    in  Ezra's 
events  that  accompanied  the  return  of  the  own  person   (vii.  27 — ^z.),  united  together 
exil«s,  especially  in  the  re-building  of  the  on  the  part  of  the  collector  by  information 
temple,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Mosaic  respecting  Ezra  himself  (vii.  1 — 11).  What, 
worship.    Like  all  the  other  writings  of  the  after  Origen,  may  be  termed  the  second  book 
Bible,  the  chief  design  and  tendency  of  the  of  Esra,  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  noti- 
book  are  of  a  religious  nature ;  and  what^er  oes  set  down  by  Nehemiah  himself  (i. — vii. 
it  has  of  history  is  only  incidental  and  eub-  x.  xL  xiii.).     At  the  same  time  there  can 
aidiary.    Therefore  we  find  no  attempt  to  be  no  question  that  traces  are  to  be  found 
give  a  continued  narrative.  The  events  that  of  a  later  hand,  as  in  xii.  1 — 9,  10 — 21, 
passed  from  the  liberation  of  Jehoiachin  22 — ^26,  44— 47;  viii. — ^x.  The  general  con- 
(2  Kings  XXV.  27)  to  the  first  year  of  Cyrus  dusion  which  these  facts  seem  to  warrant 
are  passed  over  in  silence ;  equally  is  silence  is,  that  the  first  part  came  mostly  from  the 
observed  respecting  the  condition  of  the  co-  pen  of  Ezra,  and  the  second  part  from  that 
lony  from  the  sixth  year  of  king  Darius  (Ezra  of  Nehemiah;   and    that   the    documents 
vi.  15 )»  and  the  seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes  which  these   great   men  left  behind  them 
(vii.  7).    There  is  also  a  considerable  inter-  were  put  together,  with  certain  additions,  by 
val  between  the  termination  of  the  book  of  a  person  or  persons  of  whom  history  says 
Esra  and  the  beginning  of  that  termed  Nehe-  nothing,  and  respecting  whom  coogecture  is 
miah.    These,  which,  in  regard  to  artistical  useless. 


£ZU  582  £ZR 

TtM  Utt  hand  luw  left  iadioAtioiii  of  iBf ,  beMoae  toiy  miante,  indieatioBB  of  i 

ItMir.     In  Noh.  ziL    10—22,    nnitioo  U  (U«  fonad  ia  Nah.Ti.  1,  uid  ziii.  «. 
mide  of  th0  high-priest  Jaddua  (22),  who        The  eompoaad  W9tk  wbkh  we  haTS 

lived  in  the  day*  of  Alexander  Ihe  Great  paaaed  in  review  is  of  great 

(Joeepb.  *  Aotiq.'  xi.  8,  4).    In  vene  22,  a  eiaee  it  giTes  na  a  akeidi  oi  Ike  fbnaalioa 


writer  epeake  of  the  reign  of  Darine  the     of  the  Jewish  ehmeh,  after  the 

Persian  as  of  a  past  event     This  Darina     of  the  captivitj,  and  theieia  of  the 

has  been  held  to  be  D.  Codomannus,  who     atiMHoB  of  the  theoeraef  oa  a  beaie  whiA, 


was  conquered  by  Alexander  (331  A.  0.).     not  involTiag  the  ragal  power,  BMre  aearly 
The   change  of  dynasty  thus  occasioaedt     reeeBMed  the  foim  oiigiiiaUyinteBdcd.   We 


a  pious  Isrselile,  may  have  eoaaidered  of  have  thne  before  as  lk»  fsnadarione  for 

sttffleient  importsnee  to  demand  a  record  later  history  of  the  Jews,  and  are  aided  ia 

in  the  sacred  books,  which  he  accordingly  tracing  that  history  down  to  the  days  of  oar 

made,  thos  bringing  to  a  natural  tenaination  Lord.    The  woik  also  Auaiahes  aasistaaea 

the  great  renovation  in  the  Jewish  polity  jar  the  aadsritand  ing  of  the  prophets  Haggai 

achieved  nnder  the  Persian  monarchs.  aad  Zeehariah,  who  lived  after  the  aqptivity. 

There  are  parts  of  this  work  which  must  as  well  as  ler  showing  the  faWlmeaf  of  the 

show  to  every  one  the  hand  of  aa  eye-wit-  worda  otf  earlier  pro^ets  alio  had  foretold 

nest.    We  would  especially  instance  Exra  the  retam  of  the  people  from  captivity  at 

iii.  10^13,  where  words  are  found  which  Babylon  (la.  zliv.  zlv.  Jer.  xzr.  zzix.). 
bring  the  scene  vividly  before  the  eye  of  the        The  work  is  not  wtthost  iaapoitaaee  for 

mind,  even  at  the  preeent  day ;  and  Neh.  iv.  Persian  hiatoiy,  as  it  shows  that  the  ensloai 

13—18.    In  Neh.  x.  28— 3»,  the   chaagM  prevailed  inBabjion  of  keeping  aalioaal  la- 

are  spoken  of  as  they  ooold  have  beea  by  oords,  and  of  naiag  Oem  as  legal  anthoritiea 

none  but  an  eya-witneia.    Things  also  are  (Esra  iv.  15 ;  ▼.  17 ;  vL  1,  ft).    Light  is 

mentioned  or  i^ded  to<*saeh  as  the  iaipro-  also  thrown  by  it  on  the  roaaona  whisk 

piie^  of  iatenaarriage  with  strange  woaien,  moved  the  Parian  monaasha  to  penait  and 

the  law  of  iirst  -  fraits,  &&— ia  a  manner  even  foeilitale  the  re-otgasiiBatioa  of  the 

whioh  impliee  not  only  that  the  anbjeela  ex-  Jewish  poli^  (Eara  vL  10;  viL  St—^T; 

iated  previoesly,  but  were  well  kaown  aa  eeeen-  viiL  82).    More  importaat  ia  it  etill  in  pat- 

tial  partt  of  theoiiginal Mosaic eonstimtion.  ting  beyond  a  doubt  the  foct,  Ihst  it  waa 

In  £sra  vi.  15, 10,  the  temple  is  deeoribed  undtr  the  guidance  of  the  Maaaie  vrUlnge 

as  '  TBis  home,*  words  which  could  have  that  the  gseat  reforma  wen  aadertaken  and 

ISsllen  firom  no  pereon  but  one  who,  at  the  eoaspleted.    Even  ia  the  letter  efArtazenea 

time  of  the  record's  being  made,  dwelt  m  to  Exra  (vii.  11),  wa  find  it  etated(14),  that 

Jerusalem,  had  the  house  before  his  eyae,  the  latter  had  a  oqpy  of  the  law  of  hia  Ood 

sad  knew  it  was  equally  well  iuniliar  to  his  in  his  hand  daring  hia  reaidenee  at  the  Per- 

readers.    In  a  similar  maimer  we  find  '  the  aian  eonit,  aecordhig  to  whaeh  die  iatended 

great  rain '  mentioned  in  F'ra  x.  9,  a  reoord  re-organlwafioii   had  obvioasly  baen  eoA- 

perfectly  natural  on  the  part  of  a  oonteaqMH  oaived;  eompate  N^i.ix.;  aad  ia  agieemeiH 

rary,  anid  of  the  mo#e  value  in  the  way  of  with  which  it  was  actually  canied  iato  eftet 

evideaoe  from  the  intended  reference  being  (Neh.  viii.  2,  5, 8 ;  x.  xii.  45, 0 ;  xiii.  1). 
dark  to  later  agee.    And  whatever  diMcn^y         The  book  of  Eara  exists  also  in  a  Oiaek 

there  may  be  in  the  chroaology  as  connected  translation,  whioh  «**^tnt"t  auay  addittnsia 

with  the  succession  of  the  Persian  monarohs,  from   the   Chronieks,   from  traditioa,  and 

this  diAoolty  may  be  in  part  ascribed  te  the  other  soovoee ;  and  aiace  the  book  of  Neho- 

flaot,  that  the  writer  felt  he  was  writing  for  miah  bears  alao  (in  the  Vulgate  and  the 

those  who  were  cognisant  of  the  chief  points  Arabic)  the   name  of  tke  eeennd  book  of 

of  that  sooocssion,  to  which,  therefore,  it  was  Enra,  this  tranaiatinn  ia  teemed  the  tiiM 

sufficient  for  him,  in  regard  to  time,  to  link  book  of  Eara.    Afoarth  book  of  Eara,  which 

his  events  by  distinct  referenoee,  such  as  we  exists    only  in  a  Latin  original, 

find  both  in  Ezra  L  1,  2 ;  ii.  1 ;  vi.  3 ;  vii.  much  that  is  manifosay  lnhidaaai 
1;viu.l,31;8ndNeh.i.l;u.L  Twostiik- 


F  A  I  583  F  A  I 


F. 

PABTiE  {L.for,  *  1  utter'),  is  properiy  •  to  make  us  ture.    Henoe  oTideiiee  is  implitd 

narrative.    Its  Greek  representative  in  ibe  in  faith.    If  we  trust  a  human  or  a  divine 

New  Testament,  mutkoi  (whence  mjth),  de-  friend,  we  have  reason  for  our  trust.    If  we 

notes,  in  its  primary  aeeeptation,  a  ooncep-  are  convinced  of  the  truth  of  a  proposition, 

tion  or  creation  of  &e  mind ;  and  secondly,  we  understand  the  terms  in  which  it  is  set 

%  narration,  diseourse,  or  tale  (firom  tell),  forth,  and  see  and  admit  the  connection  be- 

the  utterance  of  sueh  conception.  The  ward  tween  the  proof  and  the  point  to  be  esta- 

tfaen  came  to  signiiy  a  poetie  investment  of  blished.     Hence  assurance,  whether  it  be 

a  physieal,  monJ,  or  religious  truth,  or  an  trust  or  conviction,  implies  satisfactory  e?i- 

historieal  fact,  in  which  the  substance  was  dence.    That  evidence  Is  Yarious  in  kind ; 

held  to  be  real,  while  the  form  was  imagi-  for  it  may  address  the  intellect,  it  may  ad« 

naddwt.  If  that  form  vras  unconsciously  given,  dress  tfie  heart;  it  may  move  the  feelings, 

tiiMi  what  has  in  modem  days  been  termed  by  convincing  the  Judgment ;  it  may  gain 

a  myth,  was  produced ;  if  the  form  was  ex-  over  the  judgment,  by  arousing  the  feelings, 

pressly  deviseid,  then  there  ensued  a  fable  or  Its  essential  work,  however,  is  conviction, 

parable.  But  there  is  little  difference  between  Conviction  is  so  much  the  essence  of  faith, 

that  which  has  ft  feigned  dress  and  a  fiction,  that  f^quently  faith  means  conviction  gene- 

The  word,  therefore,  soon  denoted  fictitious  rally.     There  is,  therefore,  no  contrariety 

•toiies,    fmtme   notionsy    and  falsities    in  between  faith  and  reason;  for  Uie  second 

gmend.  aids  in  the  formation  of  the  first    But  they 

Fables  in  a  good  sense  (proverbs  or  para-  are  no  more  to  be  identified  than  the  process 

Mm)  were  employed  by  the  Jews  in  order  is  to  be  identified  with  the  result    Faith 

to  oonvey  instmetlon  and  admonition,  as  also  diifers  from  reason  in  this ;  that  while 

by  Jo<faam  regarding  Abimelech  ( Judg.  iz.  reason  is  often  used  in  contradistinction  to 

7—16),  and  Nathan  against  David  (2  Sam.  man's  spiritual  sense,  faith  is  the  appropri- 

ziL  1,  ssg.),  as  well  as  by  the  Lord  Jesus  in  ate  name  of  that  faculty,  and  embraces  all 

tiie  New  Testament    In  ft  bad  sense,  fables  man's  more  elevated  powers.    Faith  differs 

were  devised  In  the  eastern  and  western  ftom  knowledge  also,  because  knowledge  re- 

worid  in  ihe  eonveyanee  of  errors,  fantastic  lates  to  the  information  given  by  die  senses 

fielions,  and  iUse  doetrines,  against  which  and  the  deductions  hence  made ;  whereas 

Paul  often  warns  believers  (1  Tim.  i.  4 ;  iv.  faith  Is  f^om  first  to  last  concerned  with  in- 

7.  %  Thn.  iv.  4.  Tit  i.  14.  S  Pet  i.  16).  visible  things,  stotes  of  mind,  modes  of  spi- 

FAITH,  from  the  Latin /dci,  *  trust,'  has  ritual  being,  the  unseen  worid,  and  the  Eter 

for  its  representatives  in  the  Hebrew  and  nalGod. 

Oreek  languages,  which  of  course  embody        The  basis,  source,   and  justification  of 
the  Scriptural  ideas  inherent  in  faith,  words  faith  ars  found  in  those  faculties  of  mind 
signifying   trustworthiness,  assurance,  and  and  soul  with  which  man  has  been  endowed 
eoafidenee.    Faith  may  be  regarded  in  re-  of  God.    We  are  made  for  faith  as  much  as 
lation — 1,  to  God ;  and  2,  to  man.    In  re-  for  sleep  and  locomotion.    The  joint  action 
spset  Co  God,  he  is  the  object  of  faith,  inas-  of  faculties  which  belong  to  man,  and  of  the 
much  as  we  believe  that  he  is,  and  that  he  universe  by  which  'he  is  surrounded,  and 
is  the  righteous  Governor  of  the  uniTerse  from  whose  discipline  he  cannot  escape, 
(Heb.  xi.  6).     Ck>d  is  also   the  object  of  makes  him  a  religious  as  certainly  as  it 
fuch,becsHise  be  is  the  foundation  of  human  makes  him  a   social  being.     God  in  his 
trust  and  liope;  his  faithftdness  is  our 'shield  works,  his  providence^  and  his  word — in 
andbuokler' (Ps.xci.  4).  Truth  on  his  side  other  terms,  the  spirit  of  God,  operating 
begets  confidence  on  ours  (Heb.  xi.  8).  God  ceaselessly  on  ttie  woik  of  his  own  hands  in 
is  also  the  origin  or  source  of  faith  (Ephes.  the  human  soul — awakens,  fosters,  and  per- 
il. 6),   for  his  inspuration   gave  man  that  fects  therein  that  faith  which,  woriung  by 
nadeistanding  (Job  xxxii.  6),  whence  arise  love,  leads  to  the  entire  devotement  of  all 
all  those  hi^er  faculties  which  make  us  our  faculties  to  the  Great  Author  of  our 
■MMl  and  spiritual  beings,  allying  us  with  being,  and  raises  us  in  holmess,  gratitude, 
God  and  eternity ;  and  he  is  the  author  of  and  joy,  to  the  highest  style  of  man. 
•veiy  good  and  perfect  gift  (James  i.  17),        Faith,  then,  is  in  general  the  accounting 
alike  in  its  most  mdimental  and  in  its  most  for  true  that  which  does  not  fall  within  the 
■Mlnred  condition.    Faith,  viewed  in  regard  empire  of  the  senses ;  or,  in  the  words  of 
toman,  is  sueh  a  feeling  of  the  mind  as  im-  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  it 
plies  assurance.    Now,  assurance  may  have  is  the  substance  (or  mental  realisation)  of 
nspfCt  to  emotional  states,  and  is  then  trust;  things  entertained  by  hope,  and  the  evidence 
or  to  intellectual  states,  and  is  then  conric-  (rather,  firm  persuasion)  of  things  that  are 
tion.    Whether  the  atturance  relate  to  the  invisible.    It  is  the  firm  persuasion  which 
head  or  the  heart,  there  must  be  something  secures  the  mental  realisation  in  regard  to 


FAI 


584 


FAM 


muni,  •piiitiul,  and  etamal  things,  tad  so 
•uablei  men  to  aet  as  aeeiag  Ood,  who  is 
InTisible  (Hsb.  zL  27). 

Thase  statsmenta  wUl  be  eonflnned  if  we 
pass  in  nriew  the  Seriptoial  naea  of  the 
term  fiuth.  The  general  meaning  of  faith, 
as  denoting  a  jndj^ent  or  determination  of 
the  mind,  maj  be  found  in  Bom.  xiv.  22, 
where  *  Hast  thou  faith  V  is  eqoal  to  *  An 
thon  convinoed  that  it  is  lawful  or  proper  f 
In  2  Cor.  t.  7,  *We  walk  by  faith,  not  bj 
sight,'  carries  this  firm  persnaaion  beyond 
the  sensible  to  the  immaterial  and  inTisible 
world.  Comp.  Ueb.  xl  8.  1  Pet.  i.  5,  7.  The 
idea  of  eonfidenoe  by  which  we  are  led  to 
account  a  thing  true,  to  reoelTc  the  state- 
ments of  another,  or  to  take  a  person  at  his 
word,  is  introduced  In  2  Thess.  il.  19,  where 
*  belief  of  the  truth '  is  tantamount  to  '  re- 
ception of  the  true  doctrine.'  In  Heb.  tL  1, 
'  fkith  towards  God'  means,  belief  of  the  tes- 
timonies given  of  God  regarding  Jesus.  This 
assured  belief,  and  the  consequent  expecta- 
tions, give  strength  in  trial  and  temptation, 
which  will  be  justified,  by  the  result,  under 
tlie  special  or  extraordinary  providence  of 
Almighty  God ;  hence .  we  read  in  Heb. 
X.  38,  *  the  just  shall  Uve  by  faith.'  Smdy 
the  connectioi^  and  consult  the  passage  in 
Habb.  ii.  4,  whenee  these  words  are  taken, 
where  'faith,'  as  in  other  places  (Luke 
xviii.  8),  means  fidelity,  sincerity;  hence, 
'justification  by  faith'  is  justification,  that 
ia  forgiveneaa  and  grace,  in  consequence  of 
an  npric^t  intention,  a  dean  heart,  a  purs 
motive,  rather  than  any  outward  conformity 
or  ritual  obsenranoe  (Bom.  v.  1,  9).  The 
faith  of  the  New  Testament  has  a  special 
object — that  is,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ — and 
signifies,  I.  a  peranasion  that  Jesus  is  the 
Messiah  (Acts  xx.  21.  CoL  L  23 ;  u.  9,  7) ; 
and  especially,  II.  that  belief  in  Christ  by 
which  we  hold  him  to  be  the  Son  of  God 
and  the  author  of  eternal  aalyation,  and 
on  that  account  yield  to  his  authority,  fol- 
low him  as  our  Lord  and  Master,  and 
enjoy  the  benefits  of  his  death  (Rom.  iii.  22 
—90.  1  Cor.  XV.  14,  17.  Gal.  ii.  16.  Ephea. 
ii.  8;  iii.  12).  Under  these  general  ideas 
we  find  meanings  which,  relating  to  some 
one  feature  of  thia  great  and  comprehensive 
reality,  faith,  comprise  more  or  less  thsn 
what  haa  just  been  stated,  and  fix  the  mind 
now  on  some  part  of  the  process  by  which 
the  material  passes  into  the  spiritual,  and 
opinion  becomes  assured  and  confident  ex- 
pectation, now  on  some  one  or  all  of  the 
happy  consequences  that  ensue.  Accord- 
tngly>  there  sre  instances  in  which  faith 
seems  much  the  same  as  Christian  know- 
ledge (Bom.  xii.  3 ;  xiv.  1.  1  Cor.  xii.  9 ; 
and  in  the  Epistle  of  James,  where  faith  is 
opposed  to  works  generally,  ii.  17,  t«q.). 
Faith  sometimes  means  the  avowed  profes- 
sion of  Christianity,  or  the  gospel  iteelf 
(AcU  xiii.  6;  xiv.  22;  xv.  9;  xvi.  5.    1  Cor. 


xtL  18).    On  other  oeeasions,  it  aignifiea 
seal  for  the  religion  of  Jeaoa  in  general,  and 
for  its  personal  osea  and  bleaaingB  la  paixti- 
enlar  (Bom.  i.  8.    2  Cor.  TiiL  7).    It  also 
aignifiea  love,  apnmg  from  faid^  towards 
Christ  and  Christians  (Bom.  i.  12.  2  Then, 
i.  8,  4, 11.  2  Tim.  L  13.  PhUemon  0) ;  atoo 
Christian  discipline.   Christian   morale    (1 
Tim.  iv.  12) ;  and  oonstaney  in  the  belief^ 
avowal,  and  practice  of  the  gospel  (Ephes. 
i.  15).     There  are  ocoaaions  when  the  idaft 
of  trust  predominatea,  as  in  the  eaae  of  the 
sick  who  trusted  in  Christ  that  he  was  about 
to  heal  them  (Matt.  viiL  10;  ix.  2) ;  alao 
confidence  in  the  divine  power,  made  an 
indispensable  pre-requisite  to  tike  perfonn- 
ance  of  miraclea  by  tfie  apostles  (MatL  xviL 
20) ;   generally,  confidenoe  in  God   (Mark 
xi.  22.  John  xiv.  1),  that  firmneea  of  mind 
which  results  from  such  confidence  (Mark 
iv.  40),  and  that  high  moral  tone  which  is 
at  once  cause  and  consequence  of  fidelity  to 
conscience  (Matt  xxiii.  23),  which  moral 
exeellenoe  ia  in  its  perfect  atate  found  in 
God  (Bom.  iii.  3). 

An  attention  to  these  several  signifloations 
will  serve  to  show  that  they  are  only  modifi- 
cations of  the  same  idea,  being  all  traceable 
one  trom  the  other,  till  at  last  we  arrive  at 
the  parent  notion,  a  persuasion  of  th^  mind. 
But  though  these  meanings  are  connected 
together,  though  in  some  instancea  the  lines 
of  demarcation  are  not  strongly  marked,  yet 
in  others  the  divergence  fh>m  the  root-idea 
is  considerable,  and,  viewed  all  together,  the 
significations  are  numerous,  and  regard  to- 
pics of  the  highest  importance ;  iHienoe  we 
are  taught  the  impropriety  of  adhering  ecm- 
atantly  to  one  fixed  sense  of  this  word  (the 
same  is  true  of  other  terms),  and  forcing 
that  meaning  on  passsges  to  nhich  it  does 
not  naturally  belong.  It  is  not  in  a  rough 
and  careless-  manner  that  the  Scriptnrea 
alionld  be  read  and  expounded.  The  utmost 
care,  the  largest  views,  the  nicest  discri- 
niinatioo,  and,  before  all  things,  a  heart  im 
bned  and  warmed  with  the  love  of  the  truth 
and  the  love  of  him  who  came  to  bear  wit- 
ness to  it  (John  xviii.  37),  are  requiaite  for 
the  right  comprehension  and  the  just  expo- 
sition of  the  *  lively  oracles'  (Acta  vii.  38) 
which  testify  of  God  and  Christ 

FAMILIAB  SPIBIT— that  is,  according 
to  the  superstitions  of  the  middle  ages,  a 
demon  that  attended  on  a  favoured  person, 
or  that  person  considered  as  instructed  snd 
inspired  by  the  demon — ^is  the  rendering 
of  a  Hebrew  word,  tko,  which  signifies  one 
that  is  inflated,  and,  swelling  under  a  de- 
moniacal influence,  pours  forth  declarations 
touching  the  future ;  in  reality,  a  deceptive 
ventriloquist  Such  impostors  were  prohi- 
bited by  Moses  under  pain  of  death  (Lev. 
xix.  31 ;  XX.  27). 

FAMILY  (L.  fmmilia,  <a  household  of 
slaves').    The  fsmily  relation  was  developed 


F  A  M  585  F  A  M 

•mong  the  Hebrews  long  before  it  existed  inoieftsiiig  so  as  to  ieokide  what,  In  other 

in  other  parte  of  the  world..  Indeed^  to  them  eixonmstanees,  would  form  tlz  or  eight  fa- 

we  owe  ^e  proper  conception  of  a  family  as  miliea.' 

a  union  of  kinsmen  under  a  oommon  roof        A  more  agreeable  pietwe  Of  a  Syrian  ft- 

and  around  a  common  head,  who,  though  mfly  is  drawn  by  Warburton  :•— <  There  was 

supreme,  is  not  despotic ;  while  among  ti^e  a  Tery  old  woman,  wllh  a  eostmne  as  indts- 

Latins  and  other  Pagan  nationfe,  a  fionfly  tinguishable  in   its  various  wn^^gs  as 

consisted,  at  least  originally,  of  a  number  of  were  her  features  In  their  wrinKlefl.    This 

>Uves  and  others,  over  whom  its  master  held  old  Maronite  lady  had  three  daughters,  the 

the  power  of  life  and  death,  and  exereifled  eldest  of  whom  was  maitied  to  the  man  who 

an  arbitrary  sway.  .  So  early  as  the  time  of  farmed  the  orchard  and  the  grores.    She  was 

the  patriarohs,  the  true  condition  of  a  family  very  handsome,  and  industrious  moreover ; 

was  realised  in  Palestine^  which  never  de-  and  while  she  carried  a  merry  little  imp  at 

viated  from  the  original  type  so:  as  to  adopt  her  open :  bosom,  she  wus  perpetuaUy  spin, 

the  customs  of  more  Eastern  peoples: ;  au«i  ning  silk  on  a  spindle,  and  auperintending 

when  the  gospel  bad  brought,  to  con^pletion  the  eeonomy  ■  of  her  household.     Her  two 

what  was  good  and  datable  in:  the  ja^,  the  .sisters  were  ajso  very  handsome ;  indeed,  to 

family  relation  assumed  thai  high,  pure,  and  our  eyes,  so  long  accustomed  to  EgypITi 

.dMightful  ehar^fer  which  makes  it  God's  dusky  faces,  they  seemed  beautiftU.    Their 

best  instrument  on  earth  for  the  fartheranoe  large  dark  eyes  were  full  of  eiinression,  bul 

of  the  great  moral  and  religious  interests  of  had  none  of  that  sensational  look  so  univer- 

m«i«  sal  in  Egypt,  or  the  moumftilness  of  thos« 

In  a  Christian  family,  the  mother  is  the  of  Nubia :  their  complexion  was  not  so  d«lk 

source  of  the  greatest  and  best  influence,  as  that  of  a  thorough-bred  Italian,  and  there 

This  fact  was  practically  recognised  among  was  a  rich  glow  in  their  somewhat  sun-co* 

the.  Hebrews,  who  were  very  far  iW>m  imi-  loured  cheeks  that  told  of  health  and  fresh- 

tating  the  practice  of: the ^abfl  and. other  ness.    The  married  women  wore  an  extra- 

Orienlals  in  degrading  ^0^!^  into  the  head  ordikiary  omamenti  that  seems  peculiar  tf 

of  the  harem.    She  wis  .of;  one 'flesh  with,  them  and  to' the  unieom,  consistiug  of^ 

and  a  helpmeet : for,  her.  husband  (Gen.  ii.  horn,  from  one  to  two  feet  in  length,  pro- 

18^  23).    A  beautiful  picture  of  a  Hebrew  jecting    from    the   upper-  forehead  ;    thii 

wife  may  be  found  in  Proverbs. xxxi.   .  The  ornament,  Confined  strictly  to  the  matrons, 

reality  there  portrayed  could,  scarcely,  have  is    made  of  tin  or   silver,    according  to 

existed  in  a  state  of  grcMs  polyganiy^  to  which  the  wealth  of  the  wearer.    It  rests  upon  a 

we  have  reason  to  believe  iae.  leraelitea  in  pad,  and  is  never  taken  off,  even  at  nighb 

general  were  not  degraded,  whatever  may  At  a  little  distance  it  gives  a  migestie  and 

have  been  customary  in  bad  times,  or  with  imposing  character  to  the  figure,  and  a  vefl 

rich  and  powerful  men.    See  Caxtiolbs.  hangs  gracftfully  from  it  which  can  be  gi- 

The  predominance  of  the  domestic  aifee-  thered  round  the  shoulders,  and  enshrines 
tions  still  remains  a  marked  feature  in  the  the  wearer  as  in  a  tent    The  virgins  wore 
Hebrew  character;  but  for  proofs  we  must  their  hair  floating  in  exuberant  curls  over 
not  resort  to  Palestine,  where  only  a  dege-  their  shoulders.  Their  dress  is  indescribable 
nerate  raee  are  found,  and  where  even  Chris-  by  male  lips ;  all  I  can  say  of  it  is,  that  it  is 
tian  families  are  oiten  mastered,  by  the  sur-  very  graceful  and  pretty,  and  lavishly  open 
rounding  Orientalism,  as  appears  from  the  at  .tibe  bosom.    The  men,  Christians  as  well 
following  words,  used  by  Bobinson  in  regard  as-Moslems,  wore  turbans,  loose  drawers  tied 
to  a  Chiktian  househc^iA  Bamleh: — '  The  at  the  knee,  and  silk  waistcoats  buttoned  up 
household   entertainment. of  our  host  was  Jto  the  neck.    Over  this  was  wom,  on  Sun- 
large,  and  very  respectable  in  its  appoint-  days  add  holydays,  a  large  loose  robe,  which 
ments.    Of  the  many  females  it  contained  gave  to  groups  a  very  picturesque,  and  to 
we  saw  none  except  the  mother  of  the  family,  individuids  a  very  dignified  appearance.     I 
who  welcomed  us  at  our  entranoe,  and  the  speak  of  this  Syrian  family,  as  J  take  it  to 
Nubian  slave  who  washed  our  feet     In-  be  a  type  of  others.     The  household  were 
deed,  although  Christians,  the  customs  of  astir  at  the  first  light    The  comely  matron 
Oriental  life  seemed  to  prevail  here  in  some  first  gave  liberty  to  the  denizens  of  her  poul- 
force,  and  the  females  were  kept  sedulously  try-yard,  and  then  opened  and  shut  more 
out  of  view.    Whenever  we  passed  down  doors  than  I  thought  a  village  of  such  houses 
stairs  fi6m  our  upper  room,  word  was  given  could  contain.     Then  she  called  her  pretty 
:below,  in  order  that  they  might  get  out  of  sisters,  who  seemed  always  loath  to  leave 
the  way.    The  eldest  son  was  married,  and  their  beds;  and  then  the  screaming  of  chil' 
his  wife  lived  as  a  daughter  in  the  famfly.  dren,  the  crowing  of  cooks,  the  lowing  of 
This  is,  indeed,  the  usual  custom,  ihe  re-  cattle,  and  the  woman-talk,  announce  that 
mains  of  aucient  patriarchal  usage;  and  it  the  day  is  fairly  begun.     Michaele  is  inge* 
is  not  unfrequent  that  parents  thus  see  se-  nioosly  ploughing  the  ground  between^  the 
veral  children  and  many  grandohfldren  dus-  mulberry  trees  with  a  beautiful  little  pair  of 
taring  around  them,  and  their  household  milk-white  oxen;   Katarin   and  Dudu  ara 

N 
\ 


FAS  586  FAS 

picking  iDiilben7  leaves  for  Um  nlkwomi;  In  theu  eiMS  fSMti  wvn  frM-wUl 

tb«  old  woman  ia  oiooning  a  low  aong,  aa  aaoas,  wttathor  of  individttaU  or  of  oitias. 

ahe  aita  and  apina  in  tbe  early  sonalimt ;  Booh  tiiey  appear  to  have  been  in  th«ir  on- 

and  d^  little  ehiUnn  are  liaping  Arabia  re-  gin.    The  Moaaie  law,  with  one  exoeptlon, 

queataforfaonbonaandbaekahaaah;  away^  fealrioled  itaelf  to  the  reeognidon  of  Ihaia  aa 

fkrer  di? eifaa  Irom  the  path  to  light  hia  obeanraneea  which  it  ftiond  in  exiatenee  and 

pipe,  and  iw-lolda  hia  tuban  aa  he  iMonnta  Judged  it  deeirable  to  torn  to  its  own  righto- 

tha  newa ;  than  avoeeed  other  viaiton,  and  ona  porpoaea.     Bat  on  tiie  great  d^  of 

all  laeai  welooae,  and  aqnat  on  Am  gmond,  Atancnent  (eee  die  artiele)  it  i^pointed  na 

aadaone  danngi  the  hnaineaa diat  ia  going  anmud  faet  (Ut.  xri.  99,  mj.;  sdiL  27). 

OB.    Abont  noen,  the  lunilj  aaaenUea  fbr  a  Thia  waa  oboerred  on  the  tenth  day  of  flie 

lepaat  of  baaad,  alottad  milkt  eoeamberi,  aeventh  month,  Tiari,  wfaiflh  eorra^ondod 

aalety,  and  Mmie  aort  of  aoi^  redolent  of  wtth  our  Oetober.    Henee  ia  explained  tfte 

tomatoaa;  then  they  loiter  abont  in  the  plea-  paaaage  in  the  Aete  (xxrii  9)  wUeh  apeaks 

lant  ahade^  and  iMgh,  and  ecgoy  die  mere  of  the  Meditenanean  being  dangerooa  for 

•ostdonaneaa  of  Uring;  the  matron  amokea  aalUng,  'beeanae  the  fMt  waa  now  alrwady 

ber  naigileh,  the  man  hia  ehiboufue,  and  part;*  that  ia,  the  aeaaon  waa  Teigin^  to- 

Aen  Ihey  diapene  again  to  dieir  light  ii^  warda  winter. 

bonra,  unta  aanaet  reatorBa  them  to  their  After  the  exile,  annual  foate  among  the 

leianm  and  their  aapper.    Then  come  aome  Jewa   became  more  Ike^ent      Zediaiiafc 

men  of  vaziooa  agea,  and  gaily-dreiaed  giris  apeaka  of  the  faat  'of  die  fourdi  mondi,and 

from  the  ei^,  each  eax  airiTing  apart,  and  the  laat  of  the  fifth,  and  the  faat  of  die 

•nly  joining  company  in  praaence  of  their  aerendi,  and  die  faat  of  the  tendi'  (viiL  19), 

mutual  ftienda;  or  a  prieat  perhaps  paya  a  which  have  reference  to  impoitant  eroate  ia 

friendly  Yiait,  widi  hia  dark  robea  and  black  die  period  of  die  faU  of  die  kingdom.  Theae 

turban.    The  aimple  and  social  people  con-  iute  were  in  later  tfanee  incroaaed  in  nma- 

tittue  in  animflttd  talk  until  the  mueixin'a  ber,  though  all  were  not  observed  with  equal 

call  ftom  the  minarete  announoea  the  hour  atrieoieas.    Ere  long  a  higher  value  oame 

of  prayer  to  the  Moalem,  and  of  redxemenl  to  be  atteohed  to  private  Cists,  eqwcially  by 

to  these  Chriatiana.'  the  Pharisees,  widi  whom  such  obeervaneeu 

FAMIlfS   (L.  /aatei,  'hunger*).      See  degenerated  hito  mere  foimalism,  ao  that 

Dbauth.  one  of  them  ui  hia  puUie  preyers  gave  him- 

FAN  (L.sunmtf^,  a  winnowing  tnstrament,  aelf  credit  for  fimtfaig  twice  a  week  (Luke 

by  which  in  huabimdry  die  grain  ia  expoaed  xviii  19).   This  aame  boastfol  claaa  of  umb 

to  theaedon  of  die  air,  and  the  chaff  ia  aepar  took  paina  alee  to  draw  attendon  to  their 

Mtedfrom  die  wheat    Our  Lord  ia  aaid  to  fancied  merito   by  disfiguring  dieir  fsoea 

bave  hia  fiui  or  shovel  in  hia  hand,  to  denote  <Matt.vL16).    Aa  John  entered  but  Imperw 

kia  opemdon  in  aaparadng  dte  folae  from  fectly  into  the  spirituality  of  religion,  hia 

the  true,  du  sheep  ftom  the  goate,  in  the  diaciplea  also  fasted  often   (Matt  ix.  14. 

pramulgation  of  die  goapel  (Matt  iii.  12).  Mark  ii.  16).    Conformably  to  his  general 

FA8T8  (T.)*«idier  total  or  partial  abad^  purpoae  of  foUUling  all  righteouaness  (Matt 

■enee  fhun  food,  during  a  longer  or  shorter  UL  15),  the  Saviour  himself  (ICatt  iv.  S, 

period,  generally  aeconipanted  by  odier  aete  mq.)  faated  for  forty  days,  subsistkig,  pro- 

ef  self^emal,  nd  by  prsyer  and  leligioua  bably,  on  dte  scanty  supplies  aftnded  by 

ebaerraneea,  widi  a  vtew  to  die  expiation  of  die  apontaneooa  growth  of  the  wildemm. 

ain  and  dte  reeovery  of  the  Divine  fiavonr—  The  general  apirit,  however,  of  his  religion 

have  been  euatomaiy  in  many,  eepecially  is  usSiTourable  to  a  pracdoe  of  so  purely  sa 

Xastem  countries,  snd  find  thehr  origin  in  extemsl  nature;  end  aa  the  elaima  and  pri* 

tbe  idea  that  human  mortifieadon  te  (teaa-  vilegea  of  the  gospel  become  better  knowa 

iag  te  die  Deity,  and  in  dm   foelinga  of  and  more  deeply  felt,  so  will  obeervancea  ef 

grief  and  d^edon  which  evil  deeds  and  the  kind,  which  are  worthy  only  of  a  low 

auftring  oceaaion,  and  of  which  sdf-abaae-  atate  of  religien  and  general  culture,  paas 

moat  ia  the  natnnl  ezpieaaion  ( Jod  ii.  19.  into  diaeoteem  and  neglect    True  holineaa 

Jonahiu.  7—10).  Theeeviews  and  piucdces  is  in  the  heart,  and  a  holy  mind  produoea  a 

prevailed  widi  die  Hebrews,  who,  among  holy  life.    The  real  Chriadan  never  yieida 

their  external  observances,  pracdsed  faate  to  aelf-indtdgenoe,  and  therefore  needs  not 

in  order,  when  under  calamity,  to  aet  forth  aelf-denial.    With  him,  aa  eveiy  place  ia  a 

their  grief;  and,  when  under  the  eonseiooa-  houae  of  prayer,  ao  every  aeaaon  is  a  holy 

ncsa  of  guilt,  to  manifest  their  sorrow  and  day.   Faatiiig  is  the  penalty  of  intemperance 

rqpcntanee  (Judg.  ax.  96.  JotH  i.  14) ;  or,  and  die  virtue  of  childhood.     The  matnre 

u^*i****  ®^*  ^  *  ***•*  m»dertaking  for  ftuit  of  die  Ghrietian  character  are  joy  and 

which  they  desired  die  tvnm  of  God,  to  peace  bodi  in  a  holy  mind  and  a  pure  con- 

matoiMi  atonem^t  for  their  tranagwasiona  Wrsation.    The  worde  of  our  Lwd  in  WLatt^ 

«T  «^  w.  .«  i^.  ▼»«!., 91).    in  JoMh  ix.  14r-19,  when  righdy  undentood,  con- 

^^iJ^^^JZ^^J^  "^^  *  ''»«*>     ft™  «*««  ^^^'    He  diere  iodmatea  diat 
people  observed  a  solemn  fast  ♦*..  ^ia  ^^.^ .^  ..,^^1 «.!  .ith  tmadsut 


the  old  observancea  connected  with  faating 


FAT  587  I*'  A  T 

vest  uneon^miua  irith  «1m  Bpiril  of  hU  leli-  garni  WMtniM,  he  is  in  th«  goipel,  wiiMh  ii 
gioB,  tbougli  a  time  wm  ooming  when,  on  designed  to  make  Ood  known,  eenred,  adorad 
hie  removal  finm  their  eide,  hie  dieeiplM     and  loved  bjaU  men,  emi 


wovld  have  neeaoion  (not  litenlly  to  faa^  ae  *  the  Father/  on  the  groond  that  saoh  ie 

but)  to  mown.    Oomp.  1  Smn.  zxzi.  18 ;  2  his  a^ropriate  title,  and  ineh  his  i«al  and 

BaoL  i.  12.  nnehanging  ehsraeter  (Ephes.  ii  16 ;  iil.  14; 

FATHEB  (T.  sis««r),   tfis  name  of  the  iw.6;  it  28).    Henee  was  it  that  our Loid, 

■Mle  parent  o€hmnan  beings,  dunoting  pro*  in  his  model  prayer,  direeted  his  disoiples 

perly  the  immediate  progenitor,  hot  alsotbs  to  invoke  die  Deity  by  the  address,  *  Omr 

grandfiathor,  or  even  the  fonnder  of  a  tenily  Fotftsr'  (ICattvi.  9;   oomp.  zi.  25.  MaA 

(Dent  zzii.  10.  Gen.  xvlL  4).     It  denotes  ziv.  86.  Loks  xziu.  84).  Henee  (be  peeuliar 

also  one  who  seto  the  pert  of  a  finther,  by  titloof '  Son'  home  by  the  Lord  Jeeos;  and 

eomisel  and  kindnees  (Gen.  xlv.  8.  Jndgee  henee  the  Fadier  end  the  Son  are  boOi  en- 

zviii  19),  and  the  inventor  or  toaoher  of  gaged  in  aohisving  and  eonsommatiDg  the 

any  art  (Gen.  Iy.  20).  Bevesenee  for  paternal  redemption  of  the  woild  ( John  y.  17),  by 

aathntity  was  prevalent  and  strong  in  the  the  ageney  of  the  Spirit  (1  Cor.  zii.  4,  $eq.). 

East,  where  the  fsthei^s  will  was  Isw,  snd  These  tonm  deeoribe  the  ehsraeter  rather 

wfaese,  as  in  tile  ease  of  the  patriarehs,  arose  than  the  ossenee  of  God-»what  God  is  to 

that  paternal  ordomestie  govenment  whioh  man,  rather  than  what  he  is  in  himself.    Gf 

made  the  father  sapreme  master  in  his  own  the  essenes  of  Deit^  men  ean  know  nothing, 

fimily,  in  itmlf  nmneroas,  and  a  eentte  of  for  the  Unite  oannot  oomprehend  the  infinite, 

union    and  dependence   Ibr  many  others.  Ws  cannot  have  words,  even  if  we  had  ideas, 

Here,  probably,  is  the  origin  of  govermnent  by  which  God  eonld  be  known  in  the  depths 

Ont  of  fiuniliss  srose  kingdoms,  snd  a  mo-  of  his  own  essence.    Incomprehensibility  in 

naitth  is  a  ftthsr  on  a  large  seale;*Hi  view  relation  to  ns  belongs  to  his  vefy  nature 

iriiioh  ie  historioally  better  fbnnded,   and  (Job  zL  7.  Is.  zl.  28). 

leads  to  far  more  osefnl  and  benign  condo-  Among  the  tides  descriptlYe  of  God's  deal- 

sions,  than  any  theoiy  of  an  imaginaiy  social  ings  with  man,  none  are  so  important  to  ths 

ooDDapaot^  which,   as  being  nnreal,  cannot  Christian  as  that  whieh,  in  its  most  engsg- 

alTo^  so^  support  to  tnistwortfay  views  of  ing  fsatnres,  has  ite  origin  with  Christ,  who, 

the  relations   between  prince  and  people,  when  he  tenght  his  d^iples  to  call  God 

The  representation  of  the  fatherly  character  Father,  and  look  on  himself  as  ths  Son  of 

and  government  vdiieh  we  have  in  tiie  his-  that  Father,  oonftned  on  the  world  a  good 

torieal  notices  of  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jaoob,  of  which  etemity  only  ean  supply  the  mea- 

are  of  high  infteiest  and  great  moral  valne.  sue.    In  this  cimraeter  of  Fa&er,  the  Daity 

In  ths  paternal  eentimente  and  affections  of  unites  in  himself  ell  that  is  fitted  to  en- 

thess  patriarehs,  we  may  probably  find  a  lighten  the   mind  and  cheer  the  heart  of 

ehief  reason  why  Ihey  roee  to  more  just  snd  msn.  This  is  not  the  place  for  details.  We 

elevated  views  of  God  than  others  of  their  therefore  eay  that  all  those  qualities  whieh 

d«f,  sad  have,  inregaid  to  religion,  received  meet  together  in  the  iktfaerly  character  of 

the  honour  of  being  the  primary  instmetors  God,  msy  be  summed  up  in  one  feature : 

of  mankind.    Certainly,  it  ie  under  and  by  God  is  the  great  Educator  of  his  human 

the  aids  of  their  pastoral  tento  that  the  family.    Education  oomprising  the  care  of 

Creator  was  pleased  to  mske  those  spedal  the  body  and  the  strengthening  of  ite  parte; 

revsUtions  of  himself,  iriiieh,  enlarging  and  Ae  development  and  elevation  of  the  cha- 

brightening  with  the  progress  of  society,  raoter;  and  in  these  two  great  acta,  (he  un- 

have  long  been  the  best  possession  of  the  folding  of  the  natursl  capabilitieB  for  power 

world,  and  now  give  promiss  of  gaining  uni-  and  happmess,— education,  thus  understood, 

versal  prevaieoee,  and  conferring  on  man  ozpressee  the  chief  ftmction  and  ooanprises 

untold  blessings  alike  in  time  and  in  eter-  the  great  duty  of  an  earthly  father,  who, 

nity.    It  was  in  the  boeom  of  fav>i]ies  that  seen  in  whatever  light,  is,  so  long  as  he 

true  religion  was  bom,  fostered,  and  brought  provea  a  father  indeed,   tiie   educator  of 


to  maturity.    It  is  through  a  long  line  of  his  children.    When,   then,  Jesus  tought 

lathers  that  the  light  of  heaven  has  been  maiikind  to  regard  God  as  their  Heavenly 

tranamitted  from  the  earliest  down  to  modem  Father,  he   gave  them  sn  assurance  that 

days.  from  the  earliest  times  the  Deity  has  been 

Aoeordant  with  this  flaet  is  it  that  the  engaged  in  the  education  of  his  children ; 

Great  Being  who,  in  the  opening  chapters  and  that  the  education  begun  in  Eden,  con- 

of  Genesis,  is  rsvesled  ss  the  Creator  of  the  tinned  in  the  rich  plains  of  Mesopotamia, 

wodd,  and  soon  assumes  the  charaeter  of  carried  on  under  a  special  instrumentality 

Jehovah,  or  the  Sdf-ezistent  One,  becomes  in  the  green  slopes,  the  warm  uplands,  and 

at  a  later  period  known  as  the  Father  of  his  the  luxuriant  vales  of  Psiestine,  and  im- 

chosen  people  (Dent  xzzii.  6),  and  in  Christ  measurably  enhanced  and  promoted  by  tlio 

Jesus  as  tiis  Father  of  human  kind  (Acta  dark  scenes,  ths  tsnder  love,  and  the  deep, 

zvii.  28).    In  oonsequenoe  of  the  promi-  heart-moving  sympathies  of  Calvsxy,  is  still 

nenoe  of  this  paternal  relation  to  his  inteUi-  proceeding  under  the  eye  of  Paternal  Om- 


FEA 


588 


FEA 


0<pol0iiM  tbnm^oat  the  globe,  and  will, 
wHh  tTer-MignMintiiig  results,  go  forwent 
till  ein,  eonow,  end  deeUi,  era  known  no 
mora. 

FEAB  (eerser  In  Letin,  *I  feer'?),  the  ep- 
pieheneion  of  evil  or  enffermg,  is  en  emotion 
wfaioh  enters  lergely  into  ell  religiooe  in  pro- 
portion ee  they  reeede  from  those  nobler  tie  we 
of  Ood,  PioTidenee,  end  fitemity,  whieh  eve 
eet  forth  in  the  Bible.  Henoe,  in  their  elemen- 
teiy  etete,  primitive  raligieae  have  feer  for 
their  chief  element,  even  when  better  ideee  of 
God  pieTii] ;  yet  an  awakened  end  tender 
eonseieBoe,  eaeh  ae  troe  religion  must  give 
birt}i  to,  caoaes  feer  to  mingle;  in  no  inconet- 
deraUe  degree,  in  nun's  reUgioos  emotions ; 
nor  cen  a  mortal  and  sinful  being  ever  diveet 
himself  of  feer,  in  the  thought  of  a  holy  and 
omnipotent  Jodge. 

Ae  feer  is  so  hnportent  en  element,  espe- 
eially  in  the  religion  of  primitive  nettons, 
BO  in  the  Bible  *  the  fear  of  Jeboveh'  etands 
generelly  for  raligion,  for  its  practical  ob- 
eervence,  or  for  that  wide,  importent,  end 
inflnentiel  class  of  feelinge  which  we  de* 
nominate  *  piety'  (Ezod.  zs.  20.  Job  i.  0. 
Ps.ciiL  17.  ProT.  i.7.  Acta  iz.  81).  The 
gospel,  ae  the  prodemation  of  the  glad  tid- 
ings of  Qod'8  graoe  end  mercy,  end  the  dis- 
dosora  of  the  paternity  of  God,  brings  its 
troe  edherents  into  each  a  state  of  mind, 
that  they  era  no  longer  under  *  the  spirit  of 
bondege  to  fear'  (Bom.  viii.  10),  but  *  with- 
out fear'  (Luke  L  74),  and  serve  God,  who 
has  given  them  not  *  the  spirit  of  fear,  bat 
of  power,  end  of  love,  and  of  a  aonnd  mind ' 
(a  Tim.  i.  7). 

FEASTS  (F./Ite,  L.feitum,  *a  holiday'), 
or  festivals,  that  is,  seaeons  specielly  conse- 
ersded  to  raligioos  purposes,  have  been  ob- 
served among  all  civilised  nations,  and  natu- 
rally arise  from,  end  may  be  Justified  by,  the 
feeling  that  eet  and  epeoiel  occasions  for  the 
expreesion  and  encouragement  of  religious 
emotions  era  proper  in  ralation  to  Gk>d,  and 
needful  as  weU  as  becoming  on  the  pert  of 
men.  In  their  natura  these  festivsls  wen 
eeeentiaUy  nligious,  though  the  English  teim 
eeems  to  be  derived  from  the  llBesting  and 
festivities  which  eponteneously  arose  in  con- 
sequence of  the  lerge  number  of  persons 
which  the  nligious  rites  brought  together. 
Beligion,  in  such  cases,  was  tibe  parent  of 
hospitslity;  and  the  social  enjoyments  would 
be  graater  or  leas,  of  a  mora  lively  or  a  more 
sombra  character,  according,  in  each  case, 
to  the  geniue  of  the  religion  at  whose  bid- 
ding the  gathering  and  the  observances  took 
place. 

Among  the  Hebrews,  the  spirit  of  these 
fesfiyals  was  in  general  of  a  free,  Joyous,  and 
cordial  nature;  and  in  relation  to  their 
spirit,  the  character  and  tendency  of  the  as- 
sociated observances,  the  genuine  Mosaic 
festivals  appear  to  advantage  in  comparison 
with  those  of  any  other  country. 


The  Jewish  feetivele  may  be  anrnn^^  U 
twodassee: — I.  the  primary — tlia   SAblHaii, 
the  Passover,  Penteeoet,  the  Feaat  of  Trum- 
pets, the  Day  of  Atonement,  the    Fessi  ef 
Tabemades,    the  New  Moon ;  II.    tbe  ae- 
eondary— the  Feast  of  Lota  or  Puzun,  the 
Death  of  Holofemee,  ^e  DedlMrtion,   the 
Sacred  Fira,  the  Deatfi  of  Nicaaor.       Some 
minor  fasts  and  festivals  may  be  fouikd.  ao- 
tioed  in  Bro^n'e  AniiqwUim.of.  the  Jewa,  L 
086,  end  in  Sinion'e  DieH^tmaindt  U  Bihie, 
art.  F4tee. ..  The -more  important  of  StmtirmiM 
are  treated  of  under  the  a^iiBo^ate  beadsL 
We  here  put  down  a  fewpartioolan  respect- 
ing iboee  that  are  less  known,  and  make 
some  observatione  on  the  general  tendeo^ 
of  the  primary  or  Mosaic  feasts. 

The  slaughter  of  Holofemee  by  the  haad 
of  Judith,  ^e  consequent  defeat  of  the  Aaaj- 
rians,  and  the  liberation  of  the  Jew*,  iraee 
oommemorated  by  the  institution  of  a  Ibati- 
val  (Judith  ziv.  zv). 

The  feetival  *of  the  fire'  wae  iimtitoted 
by  Nehemiah  to  keep  in.  memory  die  mira- 
culous re-kindling  of  the  altai^-ftre.  .  Hie 
eirenmstanoes  era  narrated  in  2  Maee.  i.  18, 

The  defeat  of  the  Greeks  by  Judas  Macca- 
b»U8,  when  the  Jews  *  emote  off  Nicanoi's 
head  and  his  right  hand,  .which  he  stretebed 
out  so  proudly,  caused  the  people  to  rejoice 
graaily,  and  they  kept  that  day  a  day  of 
great  gladness ;  moreover,  they  ordait^ed  to 
keep  yearly  the  day,  being  the  thineehdi  of 
Adar,'  February  or  Manli  (1  Mace.  vii.  47). 

Of  the  original  festivala  there  were  three,  the 
observance  of  whieh  gathered  together  in  the 
capital  large  masses  <tf  people  from  every  p«t 
of  Paleetine,  and  in  the  latter  days  from  foreign 
lands.  A  strict  attsntion  to  the  requirements 
of  the  law  which  commanded  all  males  to 
visit  the  national  sanctuary  three  times  every 
year,  is  not  recorded  to  have  taken  place  be- 
fore the  captivity,  and  after  that  event  may 
have  had  some  ralazaCion,  idiile  it  would  in 
a  measure  interfaro  with  tiie  duties  of  hus- 
bandry, and  leave  the  land  ezpoeed  to  the  in- 
cunions  of  enemies.  These  probable  disad- 
vaotages,  however,  would  be  lessened  by  the 
abundant  productiveness  of  Palestine  of  old, 
the  comparative  ease  with  iriiieh  the  means 
of  livelihood  were  gained,  and  the  watchful 
eye  of  a  special  Firovidence  (Ezod.  zzziv. 
24) ;  for  the  firet  recorded  instance  of  the  in- 
vasion of  the  land  on  oecasion  of  a  festival, 
is  found  thirty-three  yean  after  the  nation 
had  withdrawn  itself  fr^om  the  Divine  pro- 
tection by  the  cmoifizion  of  the  Saviour  of 
the  world,  when  Cestius,  the  Boman  gene- 
ral, slew  fifty  of  the  people  of  Lydda,  while 
all  the  rest  were  gone  up  to  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  (Joseph.  J.  W.  ii.  10, 1) ;  and 
on  several  occasions  we  find  foreign  poten- 
tates according  favour  and  protection  at  the 
celebration  of  these  great  national  institutioiie 
CJosepb.  Autiq.  xiii.  2, 3 ;  J.  W.  ii.  12, 1>. 


F  E  A                      589  F  E  L 

t         At  these  leetivals  food  came  partly  from  per  modifications,  to  focial  and  nligioiu  par- 

k      hospitality,  a  splendid  example  of  which  may  poses,  in  virtue   of  express  adoption  and 

i'      be  found  in  2  Ghron.  zxxy.  7 — 9,  partly  positive  law. 

h      from  the  feasts  which  accompanied  the  sa-  Other  elements,  especially  those  of  a  poli- 
i      orifices  in  the  temple,  and  partly  also  horn  tieal  nature,  sre  mixed  in  these  festive  regv- 
I      provision  expressly  made  by  the  travellers  lations.    This  is  seen  in  reference  to  the 
I       themselves.    It  appears  that  the  pilgrims  to  commencement  of  the  year.    It  is  natural 
f       Meoca  carry  with  them  every  kind  of  food  to  reckon  a  lunar  year  fh>m  the  first  new 
t       that  they  need  except  flesh,  which  they  pro-  moon  after  the  vernal  equinox ;  but  accord- 
I        core  in  the  city  itself.    Lodging,  too,  was  ing  to  Exod.  xiL  1,  2,  Abib,  when  the  Pass- 
afiTorded  by  friends,  or  found  in  tents  erected  over  fell,  was  made  the  first  month,  in  oon- 
for  the  purpose  in  and  around  Jerusalem,  sequence  of  the  rescue  of  the  Israelites  from 
which,  especially  at  the  Passover,  resembled  Egyptian  bondage  (3).     The  feast  of  Ta- 
a  great  camp  fuU  of  joyous  animation  (He-  bemades  was  designed  to  commemorate  the 
Ion's  '  Pilgrimage').  dwelling   of   the  Israelites  in  the  Arabian 
Begarded  merely  in  a  sanitary  point  of  desert  (Lev.  xxiiL  43)  ;  the  Sabbath  was 
view,  these  great  national  holidays  were  of  oommemorative  of  their  bondage  in  Egypt 
great  value,  the  rather  because  they  brought  (Deut  v.  15);  and  the  requiring  of  all  males 
together  on  worthy  occasions  friends  and  to  appear  thrice  a  year  belbre  Jehovah  (£xo-> 
relatives,  and  were  observed  in  a  cheerftil  dus  xxiii.  14,^9.),  had  the  politicaLaimof 
and  genial  spirit.  .  The  feasts  which  formed  making  the  various  tribes  into  one  nation, 
a  part  of  them  opened  in  each  case  the  heart  The  number  seven,  especisily  under  the  form 
of  tile  entire  family  to  joy,  and  gave  a  wel-  of  a  period  of  time,  had  a  strong  influence 
oome  to  the  stranger,  the  fatherless,  and  the  in  these  arrangements;  for  we  find  a  sab- 
widow.    As  religious  observances,  they  were  bath  (seven  days),  seven  weeks,  the  seventh 
of  special  efficacy  in  cherishing  high  and  month,  the  seventh  year,  or  year  of  release, 
pun  emotions,  in  preserving  from  oormp-  and  the  seven-times-seventh  year,  or  jubilee, 
tion- the  ancient  institutions,  and  in  sustain-.  It  thus  appears  that  tiiese  observances 
ing  throu^out  the  land  a  strong  feeling  of  were  not  casual  in  their  origin  or  inoonsi- 
natiohsdity. '.  derable  in  their  character.    They  are  incor- 
These  festivals  in  their  origin  had  an  ob-  porated  with  ftmdamental  notions,  events, 
viouB  conniMstion  with  agriculture.  Passover  aud  usages.    They  seem  to  form  a  part  of 
saw  the  harvest  upon  the  soil,  at  Pentecost  the  national  existence..  If  so,  then  they  mnst 
it  was  ripe,  and  Tabernacles  was  the  feast  be  of  an  eiCrly: date;. and  if  they  are  of  an 
of  gratitude  fot  the  fruits  of  the  earUi.   The  early  date,  they. afford  a  wonderftil  instance 
first  was  a  natural  pause  after  the  labours  of  of  the  benign  tendency  of  the  Mosaic  polity 
the  field,  were  completed;  the  second  gave  and  of  the  workings  of  Almighty  Providence, 
rest  when  the  firstrfrnits  were  gathered ;  and  In  the  New  Dispensation  there  are  events 
the  third  ailbrded  a  time  of  rc^joicing  in  the  of  a  corresponding  but  far.  more  important 
fueling  that  the  Divine  bounty  had  crowned,  nature.   The  feast  of  Tabernacles,  some  have 
the  year  with  its  goodness.  Indeed,  the  year,  fixed  as  the  time  when  our  Saviour  was  bom, 
was  divided  and  marked  by  great  national  and  when  his  ministry  commenced;  at  the 
observances.      The    Sabbath    marked   the.  Passover  he  was  crucified ;  and  the  effhsion 
week,  the  New  Moon  the  month ;  in  the  mid-  of  the  Holy  Spirit  took  place  at  Pentecost 
die  of  the  first  month  of  the  year  fell  the  That  great  cardinal  occurrences  happened  on 
Passover,  which  an  interval  of  seven  weeks  iiestive  occasions,  shows  that  from  the  first 
united  with  Pentecost,  and  this  iu  its  turn,  Christianity  courted  publicity, 
on  the  first  day  of    the   seventh   month,  FEIGN  (L.  Jingo,  M  form,'  immediately 
gave  place  to '  a  Sabbath,  a  holy  convocation,'  from  the  F.  feindre),  is  to  devise  in  imita- 
accompanied  by  the  blowing  of  trumpets,  tion  of  something,  and  hence  to  pretend,  to 
This  first  month  of  the  second  half  of  the  year  act  a  false  pnn  (1  Kings  xiL  83, '  devised.' 
was  diatingoished  by  the  feast  of  Tabema-  1  Sam.  xxi.  13). 

des,  which  took  place  on  the  fifteenth  day»  FELIX  (L*  happy),  whose  name  in  fhll 
while  its  tenth  day  was  the  time  of  the  great  is  Claudius,  or,-  according  to  Tacitus,  Anto- 
national  expiation.  The  three  chief  festivals  nius  Felix,  a  fireedman  of  the  Boman  em- 
were  observed  during  the  dry  season;  the  peror  Claudius,  or  of  his  mother  Antonia, 
latter  rains  fell  before  the  Passover,  the  having,  as  was  customary  with  enfiranchised 
former  rains  after  the  feast  of  Tabernacles ;  slaves,  taken  the  name  of  his  owner,  was 
so  that  the  feasts  had  an  obvious  reference  the  fourth  Roman  governor  (procurator)  of 
to  the  weather  as  well  as  the  seasons.  These  Judea,  being  appointed  by  Claudius  as  sucr 
considerations  make  it  not  improbable  that  cessor  to  Ye^tidius  Cumanus  (52  or  53 
the  great  Hebrew  festivals  may  be  referred  A.D.).  His  ordinary  residence  was  at  Cassa- 
fi>r  their  origin  back  to  very  early,  perhaps  rea.  Having  been  much  indulged  by  the 
ante-Mosaic  periods ;  since  they  look  like  emperor,  and  being  a  slave  in  soul,  he  was 
consuetudinary  observances,  arising  out  of  arbitrary  tyrannical,  ambitious,  ui^nst,  and 
natural  phenomena,  but  applied,  under  p»>-  lustfiil ;  features  of  character  which  we  learn 


FER                       ^;90  FIG 

frooi  IIm  Boakm  hkloriant,  Tacitus  mcl  where  it  teemi  lo  mMa  'inlMM,*  *1 

Siwtoiiiiit.    White  in  the  ezeieiaa  of  hte  felt.' 

ofllee  OTer  the  Jewe,  he  enticed  DnuilU,  a  FS8TU8  (lujmnfui),  Peitias  FeetM,  tlw 

deadlier  of  Herod  Affippa»  to  tesre  her  Bomen   praeonior,   1^0  raeoeeded  Fdis 

hMbnd^  ead,  eostniy  to  the  Uwe  of  her  eboat   60  A.  D.     When  his  pi«de< 

eemtey,  to  heeome  hie  wife.    Of  the  ner*  quitted  hie  ofllee,  he  left  Paul  a 

fiage  A  SOB  was  bom.    Both  child  and  mo-  in  Caeawa.     As  sooo  as  FestOfS 

ttMf  perished  in  on  en^on  of  Mount  Veen-  PalestiBe,  dM  Jews  urged  bioi  to  paas 

▼ius.    FfOHi  sseh  a  peison  the  piopagators  diet  on  the  spostle.    Though  it  was  of 

of  the  gospel  had  nothing  to  hope.    Paul  potfanee  to  him  to    stand  well  with   Ibu 

having  been  consigned  to  Felix  by  Lysias»  priests,  he  stiU  refhsed  to  commit  an  ii^JMi 

leeeired  a  hearing  from  the  fenner,  who»  tice ;  yet  had  he  not  the  virtue  to  eet  the  no> 

though  obrionely  convinced  of  hie  inno-  cneed  at  liberty.    He  iherefMe  temporised ; 

eenee*  befbsu  which  he  cowered,  retained  till  Paul,  apparently  becanss  he  had  little 

the  qpoatte  for  two  years  in  prison,  in  hope  coofldence  in  the  integrity  of  FestoSrSppealed 

of  moeifing  a  bribe  for  his  dsiiTenmoe ;  till  to  the  emperoi's  courts  at  Borneo  and  mas 

•t  last,  beiiDg  for  misdemesneum  rsmofsd  sent  thither  (AcH  snr.  ziri.). 

ftom  his  post  (cir,  M  A.D.),  he,  willing  to  Festus,  when  he  entered  on  his  oflkud 

show  the  Jews  a  pleasure,  left  Paul  b<mnd  duties,  I6und  the  country  in  great  disorder; 

(Ads  zxiii.  88 — ^zzIt.).  robbery,  assawinsdon,  and  political  diacoiH 

The   mieeondnct   of  Feliz   contributed  tsnt  prcfailed  on  all  sides.    Theee  erils  the 

much  to  that  maee  of  discontsnt  and  die-  goremor  tried  in  vain  to  correct.  The  nation 

afcction  which  led  the  Jews  to  an  open  re-  was  fast  hastening  throui^  crime  and  aoviow 

volt  against  their  Boman  mastsrs,  and  gave  to  die  dey  of  ite  terrible  overthrow, 

oceaelon  to  tim  destrusthm  of  their  common*  FETTEB  (T./wt),  chams  for  Uxe  lege 

wealth.  (3  Sam.  iiL  84.  ICark  v.  4).    The  term  is 

FBLL0E8  (L.  eefoe,  'I  roll'),  signiflss  figuratively  used  for  great  distress  (Lam. 

die  oiieumference  or  outer  pert  of  a  wheel,  iil.  7,  *  chain'). 

in  1  Kinge  viL  88,  where,  probably, '  spokes '  FEVER  (L.  /eMs,  Oer.  /iter),  is  men- 
would  bs  more  correct.  tioned  among   the  diseaecs  of  tiie 


FELLOWSHIP  (T./e%sa,  <  I  follow 'r),  (Matt  viU.  14.  Acts  zzviii  8).    We  are  not 

the  condition  of  being  fWow,  or  on  equal  supplied  with  means  ibr  determining  wlint 

andintimaie  tsnne,  with  another.  The  Onek  kind  m  meant,  thou^  from  the  expieaaioiis 

word,  tetaciris,  gives  the  Idea  of  eomediinf  employed  we  may  infer  that  the  fevers  were 

in  common  between  two  or  more  beings,  of  an  inflammatory  natoie.     In  the  Old 

Hence  the  eariy  Chrtetians,  who  had  in  Testament  it  is  mieertain  whether  fevers, 

eoaamon  one  Ood,  one  Lord,  one  feith,  end  pmperiy  so  called,  are  intended  (sse  Lav 

one  hope,  contfained  hi  fellowship  with  each  xivi.  16.  Deut  izviii.  82). 
other  (Acts  iL  42) ;  sad  fh%  Corintiiisn  dis-        FIG  (L.>lcuf),  in  Hebrew  teemfc,  Amhte 

ciplee  sre  said  to  bs  celled  of  Ood  *  nnto  the  fem,  a  mucii  Taloed  fruit-  which,  though  of 

fellowship  of  his  Son'  (1  Cor.  L  9) ;  for  it  Bastem  migin,  te  now  cultivated  oren  in  the 

was  the  great  aim  of  the  Bedeemer  to  eeta-  southern  psrts  of  Bngland.     The  fig-tree 

bUsh  a  union,  a  great  spiritual  common-  (JSeus  mrim)  te  of  moderate  height  and 

wealth,  in  which  his  Fatiier,  himself,  end  large  five^pointsd  leeifes,  which,  when  the 

hte  diseiplee  should  be  one  (John  xvii.  31).  tree  te  of  a  eonsidsrabte  siae,  sfford  a  good 

The  word  koinonte  is  also  rendered  <  con-  shade  (1  Kings  ir.  20).    The  figs  appear  as 

tribntion'  {Boat,  zv.  M),  'communion'  (1  littie  knots  before  the  leaves  (Cant.ii.  18) ; 

Gor.  z.  10),  and  *  distribation'  (3  Cor.  bu  19).  when  ripe,  they  are  gathered  by  shsking  the 

FBBBET,  stands  errooeoudy  for  the  He-  tree  (Nah.  iii.  12),  or  tibey  fUl  of  their  own 

b«ew  andUbok,  tnm  a  root  which  signifies  accord  (Be v.  vL  18).    The  tree  is  common 

to  make  a  moumlbl  noiee    (Lev.  zi.  80;  in  Patesthie  (DeuCviii.  6),  end  its  iigaryor 

comp.  Ps.  ziL  0;   Izziz.  XI),   and  dsnoles  destruction  waa  aoeountsd  a  great  evil  (Ps. 

one  of  thenumetous  famflyof  the  lisards,  cv.  88.  Jer.v.  17.  Hoe.ii  13).    The  tree 

and  probably  the  geelce,  remarintbte  for  the  prodaoee  ripe  fruit  for  ten  months  in  the 

loud  grating  noise  which  it  utters  all  night  year  at  three  separate  timea,  namely,  at  the 

in  the  roofe  and  wsBe  of  houses.  The  particu-  end  of  June,  in  August*  and  in  winter.  The 

lar  species  meant  may  be  the  teemegeefcoof  figs  of  the  first  harvest  are  the  so-called 

Hasselquist,  from  the  sales  of  i^ose  feet  spring  figs,  which  am  the  sweetest;  on  which 

tiiere  ie  said  to  ezude  a  poisonous  humour,  aecount,  as  well  ss  becauee  timy  an  the  first 


that  inflamee  the  human  skin,  and  infecto  produce  of  the  year,  they  are  spoken  of  in 

food  trodden  on  by  the  animal.  tsrras  implying  weteome  and  pleasure  (Hos. 

FBBVBNT  (L./srsM,  *Ismhot'),e4Ui-  iz.  10.  Jer.zziv.  »).     On    scoount  of  its 

▼alent  to  the  Sazon  term  *  hot,'  te  the  En-  < sweetness'  snd  'good  fruit,'  the  fig 


gUsh  repreeentative  of  the  Oreek  §ktmmi    chosen  king  of  trees  in  the  perabte  ( Jodg. 
(1  Pet.  iv.  8),  which  aignifles  '  eumest,'  snd     iz.  10,  mf.).    The  tree  reqaiied  nrach  care, 


of  the  Oreek  tmergeuauni  (Jmnea  v.  16),     if  it  was  to  fionrish  (Prov.  zzvii.  18.  Inks 


J 


FIN  5§1  FIR 

xiii.   8).     The   Hebrews  ate  figs  firesUy  in  tliemselves  tre  of  litfle  Mrviee;  wlieiiM 

gathered,  or  diy  and  pressed  together.  They  they  beoome  s  figure  of  inert  and  invllgioas 

were  also  beaten  into  a  pulp,  of  whieh  cakes  nselessnees  (Matt  zxiiJ.  4).    '  Hie  finger^ 

were  made  (1  Sam.  zxy.  18).    In  this  state  God*  deseribes  his  aetife  power  (Ezod. Tiii. 

they  were  employed  medicinally  (2  Kings  10.  Lake  xL  SO). 

xz.  7).  Figs  were  an  article  of  oommerce,  FIBE  (T.,/RMr  in  Geimm),  inPalesffee 
and  were  set  in  comparison  with  the  vine,  was  not  needed  for  the  sake  of  the  artifloial 
The  tolerated  (Luke  xilL  0—9)  as  well  as  warmth  which  it  eonnnmiiesles  to  mtfi, 
the  accursed  (Mark  zL  13,  14)  fig-tree  was  since  the  elimate,  for  the  greater  portion  of 
an  image  of  the  Jewish  people,  and  of  all  who  the  year,  allbrds  heat  in  abundance.  When, 
delay  to  improve  their  spiritual  advantages,  however,  protection  against  the  o<Ad  of  winter 
The  wild  fig-tree  (sycamonu)  is  higher  was  sought,  it  was,  and  stitD  is,  by  meani  of 
and  stronger  than  the  common  fig»  but  its  brasiers  or  pans,  which  bear  burning  wmxI 
ihdt  is  less  agreeable  to  the  palate.  (John  zviiL  18).  Such  a  ehafing-disb  is 
The  tree  attains  the  magnitude  of  our  intended  by  the  word  *  hearth '  in  Jer.  zxxvL 
largest  oaks,  and  has  still  greater  longevity.  22.  For  cooking  it  was  nsnal  to  employ  as 
The  trunk  sometimes  measures  30  or  40  feet  ftiel  wood,  or,  if  that  was  rare,  straw,  leavis, 
round  or  more.  The  branches  begin  to  ez-  dried  manure,  and  dried  grass  (Matt  til. 
paud  at  a  height  of  10  or  20  feet  from  the  12 ;  vi.  80.  Ezek.  iv.  10).  Ohimneys,  pr>- 
earth,  the  lower  ones  spreading  horizontally  perly  so  called,  were  unknown.  A  hole, 
to  a  great  eztent,  and  those  above  them  covered  by  a  grUl,  served  instead.  This  ii 
grouping  themselves  into  conical  shapes,  so  what  is  meant  in  Hos.ziii.  d.  The  Mosaic 
that  the  tree,  seen  from  a  distance,  has  very  law  forbad  fire  to  be  kindled  for  oookinf 
much  the  look  of  our  beech.  Sycamores  during  the  Sabbath,  and  so  seeured  to  do- 
cast  their  hospitable  shadows  to  a  gieat  dis-  mestics  needful  repose  (Ezod.  zzzv.  8). 
tance  from  their  trunks,  and  fifty  or  sizty  Worthy  of  special  notice  is  the  sacred  fire 
camels  and  horses,  aod  as  many  Arabs,  may  in  the  temple,  which  the  priests  wers  not  io 
not  unfrequently  be  seen  encamped,  during  allow  to  go  out  (Lev.  vL  0,  12, 13).  No 
the  heat  of  the  day,  under  one  of  these  noble  strange  or  unoonseorated  fire  was  to  be  used 
trees.  The  coffins,  utensils,  &c.  of  the  ancient  (Lev.  z.  1,  ttq.), 

Egyptians,  at  the  present  hour  found  sound        Befors  the  transportion  to  Babylon,  the 

and  perfect,  were  made  of  the  sycamore,  priests  are  said  to  have  hidden  the  holy  &e  it 

(Kelly's  *  Syria,'  72).    Like  Zaccheus  of  old  a  dry  ebtem.  After  the  lapse  of  years,  nothing 

(Luke  zix.  4),  the  orientals  still  dimb  into  but  thick  water  was  there  found.    By  order 

sycamores,  where   they  sit  to  smoke  and  of  Nebemiah,  some  of  this  was  sprinkled 

talk.    Amos  designates  himself  '  a  gatherer  over  the  wood  which  had  been  plaeed  on  tie 

of  sycamore  fruit'  (viL  14).  newly-erected  sltar.     The  wood  thus  pB- 

FILLET  {F.fiUty  'abend'),  ordinarily  pared  was  enkindled  by  the  rays  of  the 

means  a  bandage  worn  as  an  ornament  round  sun.     Thus  arose  the  new  sacred  fire  '2 

the  head.    A  similar  import  is  borne  by  the  Maocab.  i  Id'-SC).    Many  offerings  wee 

word  in  Jer.  liL  21,  where  it   signifies  %  to  be  eonsuned  by  fire  (£zod.ziL  10).  l^e 

moulding  round  a  pfllar,  and  where  it  is  the  images  and  idol-groves  of  til*  Canaanitss 

rendering  of  a  word  that  means,  and  is  in  were  to  be  burnt  (Dent  vii.  0).    And  the 

our  version  translated,  'thread'  (Gen.  ziv.  Israelites  were  strongly  forbidden  to  aUow 

28),  or  '  cord '  (Ecc.  iv.  12).    In  other  parts  their  ohildrsn  to  pass  throof^  die  fire— tkat 

we  find  a  different  word,  ghahtkakyibom.  a  is,  to  pass  bars-foot  between  two  bumUig 

root  signifying  '  to  draw  out '),  which  Well-  ftunaces,  in  honour  of  Moloch,  of  whieh  most 

beloved  has  rendered  <  rods '  (Ezod.  zzviL  persons  died  (Deut  zviiL  10 ;   csomp.  lii. 

10,  11;   corop.  zzvii.  17).    But  in  Ezodus  81). 

zzzvili.  19,  the  term  is  closely  connected  Fire  was  an  emblem  of  the  prsatnee  of 
with  '  chapiters '  (see  the  article),  and  seems  the  Beity  (Ezod.  ziiL  21) ;  slso  of  his  favour 
to  have  a  strictly  scientific  meaning.  It  may  (Qen.  iv.  4.  Ezod.  ziz.  18.  2  Ghron.  vii.  1. 
dierefore  denote  the  fluting  of  the  columns.  Acts  iL  8,  4) ;  whenoe  the  sacredness  of 
In  architecture,  whence  our  translators  ap-  that  which  burned  on  the  altar  of  the  sane- 
pear  to  have  derived  their  terms,  a  fillet  is  tnary.  Fire  was  slso  an  instrument  and  an 
defined  as  *a  small  member,  consisting  of  image  of  the  Divine  punishments  (Gen.  ziz. 
two  planes  at  right  angles,  used  to  separate  24.  Is.  zzz.  88).  From  its  penetrating  and 
two  larger  mouldings,  or  to  form  a  cap  or  Vtti<ni«g  nature,  it  represents  the  word  or 
crowning  to  a  moulding,  or  sometimes  to  influence  of  God  (Jer.zziii.  29.  Mattiii.  11. 
terminate  a  member  or  series  of  members '  Luke  zii.  49).  Fire  of  Jehovah  means  light- 
(Nicholson  B  Arehitec.  Die.).  ning  (Ezod.  iz.  28.  Ps.  czlviii.'8).  Fire 
FINGERS  (T.),  as  the  instrument  by  gives  rise  to  peoulisr  forms  of  speech; 
which  the  mind  ezecutes  its  designs,  are  '  saved  as  by  fixe,'  that  is,  in  eztreml^  (1 
used  for  the  person  himself  considered  as  Cor.iii.  10;oomp.Zech.iiL2).  Fiei7(Mumb. 
endued  with  skill  (Is.  ii.  8 ;  zvii.  8).  As  zzL  0, 6)  may  mean  poisonous  serpents, 
means  of  canying  heavy  burdens,  the  fingers        FIBE  AND  BBIMSTONE  are  tenns  nasd 


FIR  592  FIR 


figiraliffly  to  signUy  Ood's  ponithsieiit  of  iU.  43,  47),  which  belonged  to  the 

thc-Aulty  (Esek.  nzYuL22;  eomp.  xui.  11.  Leri  (ilL  48).  It  was  the  pvents'dnty  to  ef- 

Deik.  7T**»-  28.   Ps.  zL  6.   It.  nz.  83).  feet  the  redemption  (Ezod.  zzuv.  80.    X<ak» 

FIBUAMENT  (L.>nM«,  *fltnMi«'),  whieh,  ii.  28»24).   In  obedienee  to  this  law,  the  I^ 

•ceoidinf  to  OenesU  L  6,  Ood  made  in  the  Tites  wen '  an  oilering  to  die  Lord"  CNamb. 

miiiftt  of  the  waters,  to  diYide  the  waters  Tiii  13),  *  instead  of  all  the  first-born  of  the 

above  fiom  the  waters  below.    This  fiima-  ehildren  of  Israel'  (Ifi),  wiio  in  tliis  fIciiaI 

meek,   or  *  expansion '  {imrgm),  the  Ue-  sense  beoome  Jehovah's,  in  eonseqwenee  of 

bra^  eottsidered  to  be   an  extended,  and  their  being  spared  when  the  first-born  ot  die 

probably  Taolted  expanse,  spread  out  on  all  Egyptians  were  slain  (17),  and  who  were 

Rtde^  alter  the  m*«"**'  of  an  immense  bra-  broo^t  into  this  intimate  and  sacred  eosi* 

sen  mirror  (Ps.  xix.  I ;  cL  1).  neetion  with  Jehorah,  we  may  presome,  in 


F^BT-BOBN  is»  in  ia  literal  sense,  ap-  order  to  wean  them  from  idolatry  and 

pUec  to  the  first  child  of  a  wedded  conple  them  his  in  heart 

(OexxxtL  21)      Aceonlinf  to  patriaiehal  The  first-bom  of  clean  animals  were  to  bo 

nsage,  the  first-bom  male  was  the  prcsnmp-  oflbred  and  eaten  before  JehoTah,  that  is,  ai 

tiTe  head  of  the  family  after  the  death  of  the  his  sanctoary ;  nnelean  animals  were  to  be 

fatter.    He  receiTed  a  doable  share  of  the  redeemed  (Exod.  xiiL  12, 13.  Ley.  xxviL  26. 

inheritance  (Dent.  xxi.  17);  had,  besides,  27.    Numb.  xriiL  Id — 19.  DenL  xr. 


Ysrioos  privileges  orer  his  brothers  and  sis-  21). 

Urs ;  and,  in  the  most  ancient  times,  exer-  FIBSTLING   (Ger.  entUng),  or  '  first- 

cised  in  the  paternal  house  the  functions  of  IHuls,'  the  first  and  best  of  its  kind  amon^ 

priest  (Komb.  iiL  12).  The  father  possessed  all   creaCoreo  or  conditions  ;    thus    Isaiah 

the  power  of  investing  with  the  rights  of  speaks  of  *  the  first-bom  of  the  poor '  (xir. 

piUnogenitare  the  first  son  of  the  favourite  30),  and  Job  of  *the  first-bom  of  death' 

wi5%  if  such  was  not  his  natural  position  (xvlii.  13).    in  regard  to  time,  those  who 

(Gen.  xlviiL  ft;  eomp.  1  Ghron.  v.  2) ;  but  precede,  die  first  (Rom.  xri.  0.   1  Cor.  ztL 

tlas  privilege  was  cj^iressly  disallowed  by  15) ;  where  '  the  first-fraits  of  Achaia,'  are 

Moaes  (Dent.  xxL  1ft— 17).    Generally,  the  the  eaifiest  Christians  in  that  oountzy.    Bat 

first-bom  of  a  king  succeeded  him  on  the  the  term  specially  denotes  the  first  prodoo- 

tkione  (2  Kings  iiL  27),  firam  whieh  rule  tions  of  animals,  fruits  and  inanimate  things; 

Eavid  departed  in  the  ease  of  Solomon,  these  were  not  only  consecrated  to  JehoTuh* 

Slowing  that  much  depended  on  the  will  of  by  individuals  (Exod.  xxii.  29 ;  xxiii.  19}, 

the  reigning  monarch  (1  Kings  L  11 — 13).'  but  were  slso,  at  the  end  of  the  harvest,  fes- 

Ssau  sold  his  rights  of  primogeniture  (Gen.  tively  ofiiBred  by  the  whole  people  of  Israol 

XIV.  30—84),  and  Reuben  lost  them  by  (Lev.  xxiiL  10,  ttq.),  before  which  the  enjoy- 

crime  (1  Chion.  ▼.  1,  2.   Gen.  xxzv.  22).  ment  of  them  by  man  was  not  allowed  (24). 

Primogeniture  is  a  mere  accident  of  birth.  From  every  new  fruit-tree  the  first  produce, 

sod  has  no  natural  daim  to  privileges.    It  in  the  fourth  year,  was  taken  for  Jehovah ; 

mty  have  been  occasioned  or  recommended  in  and  after  the  fifth  year,  the  firuit  belonged 

in  a  state    of  aodety  whose  security  do-  to  the  human'  proprietor  (Lev.  xix.  23 — ^29). 

peided  oa  each  fiunily's  having  an  aefcaow-  The  firstliiigs,  or  first-fruits,  served  for  the 

ledfed  head,  in  possession  of  a  strong  arm,  support  of  the  priests  (Ley.  ii.  12.   Numb. 

anc  in  command  of  an  obedient  band;  but  v.  9;  xviii  B— 14);  but  out  of  them  the  of- 

the  rule  of  law  and  the  equal  spirit  of  Chris-  fierers  prepared  and  enjoyed  in  the  sanctuary 

tiaaity  under  which  we  live,  neither  needs  a  festive  meal,  of  which  the  Levites  partook, 

not  idlows  such  preforeooes,  which,  aa  all  as  well  as  sons,  daughters,  men-servants,  end 

unfounded  advantages,  eneourage  on  the  one  maid-servants  (Deut.  xii.  6,  m;.). 

side,  opulence,  pride,  idleness,  and  luxury ;  Figuratively, '  the  fiist-friaits  of  the  spirit,' 

and  on  the  other,  poverty,  heartburnings,  snd  are  the  best  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  among 

degradation.  the  early  Christians  (Rom.  viiL  23)  ;  '  first- 

In  a  figurative  sense,  *  flrst-bom '  is  eqni-  firuits  of  his  creatures'  (James  L  18),  are  the 

vilent  to  '  specially  belored'  (Exod.  iv.  22.  first  disciples  of  Christ,  considered  as  the 

Jer.  xixL  9).    The  'first*bom  in  hearen'  most  beloved  and  favoured  of  God's  chil- 

(Heb.  xii.  23)  are   the  first-fruits  of  the  dren  (eomp.  1  Pet  ii.  9).    *  The  first-fruits 

Christian  church.   Theeame  term  is  applied  of  them  thiU  slept^  (1  Cor.  zv.  20),  indicates 

to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (Heb.  i.  6),  whom  Christ,  who,  'being  the  first-bom  among 

Paul  declares  to  be  <  the  first-bom  among  many  brethren,'  by  his  resurrection  gives 

maay  brethren '  (Rom.  viii.  29),  and  '  the  them  an  assurance  of  eternal  lifr  (23). 

first-bom  of  every  creature,'  or  the  whole  This  imagery  is  peculiar  to  Judaism,  and 

creation  (CoL  L  1ft).  its  prevalence  in  the  New  Testament  shows 

Ihe  first-born  male,  whether  of  man  or  how  intimate  is  the  connection  between  the 

r!^^  ^^"^**^  **  Hebrews  sacred  to  law  and  the  gospel.    The  latter  cannot  be 

^T?!  V  ^   ?      *4S^'  ^^-    Human  beings  weU  understood  apart  from  a  knowledge  of 

might  be  redeemed  (xiii.  13).    The  redemp-  the  former. 

tion  money  was  five  shekels  each  (Numb.  FIR-TREE  is  the  translation  of  the  He- 


FIT  593  F  0  0 

brew  b&nfih,  a  probably  Arameaa  form  of  eonneciion,  represents  an  object  different 

which  is  foand  in  berotheem  (Cant.  i.  17).  from  wheat,  barley,  cummin,  and  rjt,  or 

What  tree  the  berosh  was,  can  scarcely  be  spelt,  and  which  was  not  threshed  with  a 

considered  as  finally  determined.    English  threshing  instrament,  but  beaten  out  with  a 

commentators  nsuaUy  understand  the  pinus  staff.     Obviously,  some  inferior  plant — ^pro- 

abie*,  or  fir-tree,  which  is  an  evergreen  of  bably,  as  in  the  opinion  of  Ewald,  dill  ia 

beautiful  appearance,  whose  lofty  height  and  intended. 

dense  foliage  afford  spacious  shelter  and  FLAG,  a  water-plant  witb  a  broad,  blade- 
agreeable  shade.  Dr.  Buiuey,  in  his  *  His-  like  leaf,  like  the  bulrush  (see  the  article), 
tory  of  Music,*  referring  to  2  Sam.  vi.  0,  which  grew  in  great  numbers  on  the  banks 
speaks  of  the  wood  of  the  fir-tree  as  being  of  the  Kile  (Job.  viii.  11.  Ezod.  ii.  8). 
chosen,  in  ancient  and  modem  times,  for  FLAGON,  which  means  a  drinking  vessel, 
making  musical  instruments.  Some  writers  is  in  2  Sam.  vi.  19,  Cant.  ii.  5,  and  Hos.  iii. 
prefer  the  cypress  (see  the  article).  Smith  1,  the  rendering  of  a  word,  asheeshah,  the 
remarks  of  the  'eres  and  berosh,  so  con-  exact  meaning  of  which  cannot  be  deter- 
stantly  associated  in  Scripture,  the  former  mined.  From  the  passage  in  Hosea,  *  flagons 
may  indicate  the  cedar  (see  the  article)  with  of  grapes '  (literally),  it  would  appear  to  be 
the  wild  pine-tree,  while  the  latter  may  com-  something  made  from  grapes,  perhaps  what 
prehend  the  juniper  and  cypress  tribe.'  There  is  now  called  dibseh.  It  is  evident  that  it 
is  good  reason,  however,  for  acquiescing  in  had  refreshing  and  nourishing  qualities, 
the  opinion  of  Gesenius,  that  berosh  may  de-  Wellbeloved  gives  as  its  English  representa- 
note  several  similar  kinds  of  trees,  which  the  tive,  dried  grapes  i  others,  cordialt,  perfumes, 
ancients,  satisfied  with  general  resemblances,  or  syrup  of  raisins, 

did  not  nicely  discriminate ;  so  that,  in  mo-         FLAKES  are  substances  loosely  held  to- 

dem  times,  we  must  often  be  satisfied  with  gether.   In  the  Bible  (Job  xli.  23),  the  word 

determining  the  genus  of  trees  and  plants.  stands  for  a  Hebrew  term  whose  root  signi- 

The  general  qualities  which  the  Hebrews  fies  to  be  large  and  robust,  and  has  refer- 

classed  under  the  term  berosh,  may  be  found  ence  to  the  huge  masses  of  skin  and  flesh 

in  1  Kings  vi.  19.   Is.  xli  19 ;  Ix.  18.  Ezek.  belonging  to  the  animal  termed  Leviathan, 
zxvii.  0 ;  xxxi.  8.  Hos.  xiv.  8.  FLAX.    See  Clothes  and  Silk. 

FISH   (T.)  appear  to  have  been  a  fa-         FLOATS,  that  which  flows,  or  causes 

vourite  food  with    the  Hebrews.     Among  something  else  to  flow,  or  keep  on  the  sur- 

the  things  which  made  them,  when  in  the  face  of  the  water.    The  word  is  in  1  Kings 

wilderness,  look  back  with  regret  to  Egypt,  ▼.  9  (comp.  2Chron.ii.l6),  the  rendering 

was  the  want  of  fish,  which  they  had  Uiere  of  a  term  in  the  original,  which  has  for  its 

plentifully  enjoyed  (Numb,  xi  0).    In  the  primaiy   signification  the  idea  of  uniting 

time  of  Nehemiah,  fish  were  brought  from  and  combining  objects  in  a  regular  order. 
Phosnloia  to  Jerusalem ;  and  in  our  Lord's         FLUTE.     See  Musio. 
days,  dried  fish  were  among  the  ordinary         FLT  (T. — ^the  name  comes  firom  the  act 

provisions  used  on  journeys  (Matt  xiv.  17).  of  the  animal  in  always  flving)  is  the  trans- 

In  Egypt,  the  Israelites  dwelt  near  a  river  lation  of  a  word  (ububj,  which  signifies 

which  abounded  in  fish  (Exod.  viL  18) ;  and  one  of  the  larger  species  of  insects  termed 

in  Palestine  itself  the  Sea  of  GennesareUi,  by  flies,  perhaps  the  gad-fly.  It  was  certaioly  a 

means  of  its  fish,  gave  occasion  to  an  im-  formidable  animal  of  its  kind,  for  it  is  men- 

portant  trade  (Luke  v.  6.  John  xxi.  6,  seq.),  tioned  as  an  emblem  of  calamities  which  Je- 

The  sea  also  supplied  the  Hebrews  wi^  hovah  would  call  from  Egypt  (Is.  vii.  18 ; 

fish.    The  law  allowed  them  to  eat  tbose  see  EccL  x.  1).    Another  term,  chinnim,  has 

fish  only  which  had  fins  and  scales  (Lev.  been  held  to  mean  mosquitoes.    It  is  well 

xi.  9).     Fishing  was  carried  on  by  nets  known,  however,  that,  like  all  hot  and  moist 

(Habb.  i  Id) ;  but  the  line  was  known  to  oountries,  Egypt  abounded,   and  does  still 

^e  Israelites  (Is.  xix.  8)  as  well  as  to  the  abound,  in  flies,  fleas,  and  lice.    The  same 

£g]rptians,  on  whose  monuments  we  yet  see  was  the  case  with  Judea,  especially  the  low 

men  angling  and  dragging  for  fish.  southern  lands  lying   along  the  Mediter- 

The  fish,  as  a  symbol  of  fruitfulness,  was  ranean,  where,  in  Uie  FhilisUne  city  of  Ekron, 

worshipped  in  Syria.     A  trace  of  this  wor-  they  worshipped  the  fly-god  Beelzebub,  with 

ship  has  been  found  in  Nineveh ;  for  the  a  view  to  gain  shelter  from  the  annoyance 

word  is  said  to  signify  a  fish,  and  its  ruler,  and  injury  (2  Kings  i.  2). 
Semiramis,  is  held  to  be  allied  to  the  fish-        FOOD.    See  Dibt. 
goddess  Derceto. — See  Daook.  FOOT  (T.).    The  feet  were,  in  Palestine, 

FITCHES  are  a  small  kind  of  wild  pea.  protected  not  by  shoes,  properly  so  called. 

The  word  koosmeth,  so  rendered  in  Ezek.  iv.  but  sandals,  or  soles  bound  over  the  foot, 

9,  is  in  Exod.  ix.  82  translated  in  the  com-  in   which   elegant    appearance  was  much 

mon  version  *  rye,' but  by  Wellbeloved  <  spelt,'  studied  by  the  rich.    Females  of  the  same 

which  is  a  species  of  bearded  wheat    In  Is.  class  wore  as  ornaments  around  the  lower 

xxviii.  2d,  27,  fitches  stands  for  another  part  of  the  leg  anklets  which,  consisting  of 

word,  ketsaghf  which,  as  appears  from  the  a  metal  ring,  with  spangles  and  hangings, 

2P 


FOR  594  FOR 

made,  as  the  wearer  proceeded,  a  tinkling     81).  AH  wlu>  ireM  not  dsMended  fron  J^ftooft 
noise,  a»d  rather  impeded  the  gaft.    8uch  a     they  held  lo  be  flonigikers»  who  weva  ni 


noise  and  *  mincing '  carriage,  as  being  occa-     rous  in  Palwiinft,  for  the  Canaanites 
aioned  by  decorations  that  the  opulent  only     by  no  means  wholly  destroyed,  mad 
could  wear,  became  a  sign  of  social  distine-     ineree  broaght  into  it  many  stnngien ;  so 


tion  and  gentility  (Is.  ilL  16, 18,  20).    The  that  hi  ttn  time  of  fkAcmon  tuey 

eitcomstance  that  stockings  were  not  worn,  to  158,(K)0  {%  Ghion.  ii.  17),   and  te 

and  that  the  feet  were  'shod'  merely  with  period  of  the  Now  Testament  many  ivere 

sandals,    occasioned  mneh  impnrity,    and  found   in  the  land,   especially  in  Oalil«et 

feet- washing  became  so  important  and  re-  wfaenoe  tfie  phrase  *  Galilee  of  the  OOBtilea' 

freshing,  that  it  was  frequendy  done,  and  (Malt  It.  10).    Fonigners,  though  acriofly 

becsme  a  duty  of  hospitality  (Oen.  xriii.  i ;  exehided  ftom  die  civil  and  mljgfoaa  polity* 

zliii  24).    For  similar  reasons  the  priests  in  which  ttone  b«t  wonhippefB  of  JehorsJi 

were  required  to  waah  their  Iset  before  they  eould  property  share,  wore  yet  mder  tke 

entered  the  sancmary  (Ezod.  xxx.  IB — ^20).  riieher  of  the  law,  and  treated  with  leni^ 

The  washing  of  the  feet  of  guests  was,  as  a  (Exod.  zxm.  9.  h&w.tsK,  10;  zsr.  6.  Deat. 

humble  office,  genendly  performed  by  serr-  xxiT.  17,  le^.). 

ants ;  it  was,  therefore,  a  token  of  special  By  submiitiiig  to  etiwnnelaioii^  aad  ami- 
regard  when  the  head  of  the  house  (John  plying  witii  tbn  other  rsqoiaitioiis  of  the  law, 
xii.  8),  or  prsons  of  dittinetion  <xiiL  4),  a  stranger  put  himMlf  on  terns  of  ofualily 
undertook  the  duty.  with  an  Israelfie  (Ekod.  mSL  49),  tiboq^ 

To  faH  at  a  person's  feet  waa  a  sign  of  interest  migiit  be  tsken  from  fBti^Maii 

abject  obedience  (1  Sam.  xzr.  tU>,  tiie  idea  (Dent  rrtii.  IM)),  and  ha  the  year  of  wleaas 

being  borrowed  ihnn  tfie  practice  of  eon-  they  had  to  return  ptopeity  tfoerred  on  loan 

querors  in  setting  their  feet  on  the  nodes  of  (Deut  z?.  9).    Vet  this  may  be  tnM  only  of 

the  vanquished  ^osh.  x.  24).  sneh  as  remained  ioreigners  by  not  MbuH- 

FOOTMEN   (T.)  originally  oonstltnted  ting  to  the  Mosaie  ritual.    It  was*  howwer, 

the    sole   militsxy  foree  of  the    Hebrews  not  till  Che  third  geneiatioB  that  forsigiien 

(Numb.  zL  21;  18am.  iv.  10).     CaTtfiy  w«repeifectiynaitaralised(Deal.xxiii.7),Bad 

were  unknown  till  tiie  days  of  Solomon,  for  even  then  they  ^ers  probsbly  exehided  from 

(he  use  of  hones  was  forbidden,  lest  the  tlie  kin^  office  (Deut  xriL  10).    B«t  Am- 

people  should  trust  in  themselves  rather  monitss  and  Moabitoa  couU  not  be  nata- 

than  in  Jehovah,  and  lest,  probably,  they  ralised  (Dent  xziii.  9,  4.  Nek.  xiii.  1).    Of 

should  form  too  intimsto  a  conneetion  with  the  natofaUsalion  of  tlM  Oaaaanitoa  nothing 

idolatrous  Egypt  (Deut.  xvlL  16.  Ps.  xx.  7).  is  said ;  but  it  is  cppannt  that  many  of 

The  htUy  character  of  Canaan  was  uasuited  them  were  amalgawatoi  Irith  the  Israoliieo^ 

for  the  employment  of  horses.  who  thus  heeamo  proM  to  idolatiy.  In  Dijak 

FOOTSTOOLS  (T.)  are  employed  in  the  we  liave  «n  instance  of  a  HIttito  holdhig  a 

East  by  persons  of  the  higher  rank.   Solo-  high  rank  in  David's  onoay  (2  San.  xi  8). 

mon  had  a  footstool,  Mieeah,  of  gold  (2  After  the  iotamfrpmAMyiia,wiMMitiK  mono- 

Chron.  ix.  18).   The  aik  of  Ae  covenant,  as  tiwiatio  principte  had  grown  predominant, 

being  beneaUi  the  eheruMm,  the  abode  of  all  foreign  women  whom  the  Jews  had  maiw 

the  Divine  presenee,  was  aecovnted  Gk>d's  fied  (Esra  x.  2^  mq.),  and  all  atrangera,  *  the 

footstool  (1  Ohron.  xxviii.  2.  Ps.  xolx.  A),  mixed  nrahitade,'  ware  pot  w«.y  (Hah.  ix.  d, 

With  how  much  greater  foree  aid  propriety  xiii.  3). 

does  Isaiah,  bonowing  his  Imagery  firom        FOREST.   Paleatfuo  ia  not  at  die  preaent 

nature,   describe  heaven  as  God's  throne,  day  rich  in  wood,  if  wa  eseept  Batanaa 

and  earfli  his  footstool  (Is.lxvi.  1).    The  (Bashaa),  beyond  the  Jorini,  which  aboonda 

term  Is  employed  in  military  affidrs  to  de-  in  oaks  (eomp.  Zeeh.  zi.  2).    In  sneient 

note  complete  subjection  (Ps.  ex.  1 ;  oomp.  ttmea,  however,  diongfa  the  aoil  ia  not  vsiy 

Ephes.  i.  22).  favourable  far  their  growth,  treea  most  hnve 

FOBEIONEBS  (L.  Jbrm,  <  out  of  doors ' )  been  numenras,  for  the  ooosomption  of  wood 

are,  in  eontmdlstxnction  to  persons  dwelliBg  was  oonsideraUe.  Seven!  fonats,  or  woods, 

at  home,  those  who  dwell  abroad,  tiiat  ia,  are  mentioBod  in  Scripture,  «a  '  the  foreat 

beyond  the  house,  flie  city,  or  the  country,  of  Lebanon'  (1  Kinga  vii.  2),  *  the  wood 

Strangers  and  foreigners  have,  in  aU  ages  eountry ,*  whieh  at  the  time  of  the  Hebrew 

and  all  countries,  been  treated  wKh  harsh-  invasion  appeara  to  have  covered  the  higfa 

ness  in  proportion  to  the  ineivilisation  of  lands  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xviL  16,ief.;  oomp. 

those   among  whom   they  were  ;  whence  1  Sam.  xiv.  25),  the  wood  soar  Bethel  (2 

kindness  to  strangers  may  be    taken  as  a  Kings  ii.  24), 'AefeffestofHareth'(l  Sam, 

proof  of  culture.  The  Israelites  were  prompt-  xxii  6),  {uraMUy  in  tin  Math  of  Jmlah. 
ed  to  manifest  good-will  towarda  foreigners,        FORGIVENESS  (T.),  that  is,  of  sin,  is  « 

not  only  by  the  genius  of  their  reUgion,  but  subject  intimatdy  oeoBeeted  with  the  rela> 

by  leading  facts  in  their  own  history;  for  tions  whidithe  Sciiptuio  sate  fordi  aaexisl- 

in  Eg^t,  Arabia,  and  even  Canaan,  they  tag  between  Ood  mid  man,  and  wiiieh  every 

were  strangera  (Oen.  xii  10.  Exod.  xxii.  enligfatBned  <*^nfwnet   will   loeognise  as 


FOB 


595 


FOR 


90QU  M  it  bew9M  qiunkeved  wiA  fsUgious 
eiQotioii0.  yiewe4  in  vegard  to  God,  hm 
Creator,  Benefactor,  Lawgiver,  and  Jadg9» 
man  is  a  sinner.  Aa  auoh,  he  is  exposed  to 
the  penalties  which  God  has,  in  his  benign 
wisdom,  seen  fit  to  appoint  as  sanctions  to 
his  Imps.  From  these  penaltias  the  sinner, 
whUe  he  zemftins  so,  has  no  means  of  es- 
cape^ The  onholy  mnst  be  a  wretdhed  man, 
whether  in  time  or  in  eternity ;  and  while 
oi]4iward  splendour  oan  do  little  to  mitigate 
his  onhappiness,  it  oflken  makes  the  inner 
degradsi;ion  deeper,  «nd  so  does  biU  add  tp 
the  oanses  of  dia^zder,  darJkneas,  and  mor»l 
deaih  (  Bom.  i.  XB,  uq.  2  Theas.  ii.  10.  ;L 
Cor,  i.  16.  John  iiL  |^). 

Is  there,  thon*  JM  remedy  ?  Tas»  a  di- 
▼inely-pioTided  and  aUnsnlS^i^nt  oqa.  God* 
who  is  nch  in  meiey,  ior  his  great  lor^ 
wherewith  h»  loved  hia  child^so,  ew^  whisn 
thej  weie  d«ad  jn  aimb  Mas  by  his  gnsp 
ollbredmeai<sdeimption  and  aalv«tioatl)ro«gh 
laithinJeHMChi)at(^ph«^u.fh-*a).  Tfa^t 
faith  <4  neo^asity  implies  m^  pepsAtanee  i^ 
leads  to  the  ftnmMon  «/ ain.  And  oonae- 
qiie«t  9ut9Sfvi$Mm0  imd  lalth*  i^  Wi^Ya- 
ness. 

Focfiimeta lO^MWto  id  tvo-parVi:  I.  Tkfi 
vemisston  oi  sinp  ttiA>  are  pasti  tfirpogh  the 
forbeairanioe  of  Gpd«  vhifih  is  indicated  in 
the  New  Xeatament  by  the  term  paarmt 
(Bom. iii.  3d);  JI.  TheiiemoTal oCthe  oaoae 
of  ain,  that  is  guilt,  wiuch  ia  tuTw^dMipbmt 
(Matt.  xxvi.  128).  Xhefo0Beris>apaasi«g.by 
of  l^npBa  ains;  4h«  Utter,  ih^  nemoval  «f 
ainftitaieas.  Ttiat  aigoifias  tbs^«M#a»olding#f 
merited  pnniahment-^this,  the  eue  at  tiie 
mond  dipwrai&on.  The  tmo.tn  fswiM  in 
a  ipFaoioiia  systam  of  locgiveDaaas.  His  msire 
reiwMiiw  0i  a  penalty  migiKt  <^nooiwg!B  the 
pxaclioe  of  ain.  Xhe  ainlid  diapoaitioA  must 
be  eaadiamed  eie  gnoe  haa  had  iia  'paafoet 
workinthepardonoftraasgmaapra.  A-fiithar 
in  deoUning  -to  infliot  a  pmuahmentiiHriiiah 
Ilia  ahild  haa  xandeied  himaeftf  -liaUe,talw8 
pains  to  bdng  bis  ^Hd  into  «ioh  a  alate  af 
mind  as  may  lewder  the  repetition  of  the 
offence  impoaifibile.  Then  is  it,  when  this 
end  ia  aaawered,  that  hiafergiTeneaa  la  eon- 
plete.  Henoe  the  abandonment  of  sin  ia  the 
condition  of  forgiTeneas,  as  jeontinnanee  in 
it  is  the  eanae  of  pmiishment  (Is.1y.  7.  Esek. 
jCTiii.  80,  81 ;  nxiU.  11;  LokexiiL  6^^; 
sor.  John  viii  M). 


The  largiTeneaa  of  eaoh  otharj  on  the  part 
of  men^— in  other  wonA^,  the  eocooragement 
and  actiye  e^rcise  of  a  placable  disposition, 
is  among  a  Christian's  nrat  duties,  and  finds 
in  the  New  Testament  the  strongest  recom- 
mendations (Matt.  vL  13, 14, 15 ;  xviii.  85. 
Lake  xxiii.  34). 

FORNICATION (L./flriiif,  Uyanlt,'  'bro- 
thel'), stauda  for  a  Greek  term  which  signifies, 
I.  any  improper  sexual  connection  (Matt  xv. 
19)  ;  II.  adultery  (T.Sd.  Johnviu.  4L) ;  HI. 
incest,  or  rather,  incestoous  wedlock  (1  Cor. 
T.  X)'  In  Acts  zv.  20,  the  reference  is  to 
the  ll^aie  precepts  foimd  in  Le¥.  xyiiL  xx. 
10-0-38).  According  to  a  figure  common  in 
Hebrew  literature,  the  word  also  denotes,  IV. 
idolatry  (Bev.  ii.  31 ;  comp.  £zek.  xxiii.). 

The  g^oeral  erime  here  referred  to,  bane- 
Ail  as  it  always  is,  was  among  the  Hebrews 
especially  ii^jnrious,  because,  in  yitiating  the 
purity  of  families,  it  interfered  with  a  ^on- 
4ftmtf>tal  rogulation  of  the  social  sys^^p,  by 
which  it  was  provided  that  property  should 
nnintemptediy  descend  from  father  to  sga. 
Adnlt^ry  thus  aimed  a  blow  at  the  very  basi9 
of  the  Uebvaw  eonsliitatio|L  Henoe  is  seen 
the  force  of  th#it  figv^ye  application  wbieh, 
under  the  name  of  /owicAlicp*  deaoribea 
idolatry,  which  waa  a  pjijactical  denial  of  die 
sole  godhead  and  sovexeigi^ty  ^  Jehovah. 

F0BTBJBS3  ({«.>'^,  'atrong').  9trong. 
holds  ere  oooyaI  with  the  earliest  hegiiwin^B 
of  civilisation.;  ^ce  w^ian  Ibrqe  is  lapr,  «e- 
ourity  is  indiapfiigaNe  lo  impiwemei^  and 
aee^rily  ^m  be  obfaiiied  on^  i|i  ibigh  and 
fon^ed  plisM.  .94RBe  <he  word  ^arr,  em- 
ployed to  deqota  :tt>e  tet  n^ty  saoorded  to 
haw  been  bwH  (Gm*  ikv*  17),  properly  eig- 
nilMS  «  plaoB  ^mrsfwded  wiih  oralis  or  Iwr- 
ti^ealioiui.  -fwirasseaappeirtohMreofohl 
bMftf  im  MSMitial  -points,  /similar  to  what 
tbay-wa  aowf^-edificiafl,  ereeted  on  anitable 
spots,  eonaiiUAg  .of  high,  thick,  embattle- 
mented  «aUB,.wiith  towers  and  loephfllesi  and 
fiUSModad  by  nMmul  or  artifiewd  ditebes 
and  moata  (3  Chron.  viii.  6).  They  are 
onm  larwed  ^^o$j0i  eitiea  (3  Kings  iii. 
19). 

.Sieges,  before-the  4i4aovery  .of  gunpowder, 
were  Ipng  md  diiicnU.  Jh9  'besiegers  jwb- 
aanlted  the  eity  by  means  of  laalls,  monnds, 
and  batteiing-rame  <3fiim.  v.  15.  Lake 
ziK.  ^48),  labile  the  besieged  4steided  them- 
selves  jfith  anmra  -wmI  atones  (teig.  ix.  ^. 


3P3 


FRU 


596 


FUR 


J 


of  the  famous  wtlli  of  Babylon.  See  E  voiSBt. 


2  Chwm.  Trn.  15).    Fire  and  eombostiblef        FUGITIVE  (L.  /kgio, « I  llee  '>• 
were  employed  on  both  sides  (Judg.  «.  49,    hnrries  from  his  ordinary  abode,  — 
63).    Very  strong  plaees  eonld  be  redaoed    wanderer  (Oen.  iv.  12). 
only  by  famine  (2  Kings  tL  24,  wg.).  Strong-        FULLER  (T.  *  fuU/  or  *  fliiek'). 
holds  are  figuratively  spoken  of  as  places  of    siness  represented  by  (his  name  ■ 
moral  leftige  and   seeority  (Zech.  ix.  12.     tised  by  the  aneient  IsraeUtes.     It  codissii 
JoeL  iiL  16).    The  eats  are  two  Babylonian     chiefly  in  two  operations ;  first,  in   gtying  it  ] 
coins,  probably  representing  the  fortifications    new  elothes  the  requisite  thi^Aaess  and  ^— 
"       ~      ~        ~     ~  ness ;  and  secondly,  in  cleansing  warn 

ments,  in  order  to  restore  to  them  tlieir 
ginal  brightness.    The  latter  apermtioB  ■ 
tiie  more  frequent  in  its  appeanuiee  in  an- 
cient authors.    The  elothes  were 
water,  and  trampled  by  the  feet  or 
with  sticks.    The  process  of  drentiing 
promoted  by  sulphurous  Tapours,  ley.  eli^, 
marl,  and  cTcn  urine  (MaL  iiL  2).    The  gar- 
ments were  mostly  of  a  white  odour  (Mat 
ix.  8).    From  2  Kings  XTiiL  17,  and  Is.  viL 
8,  where  mention  is  made  of  n   *  taBtfw 
FOX.    See  Dbaoov.  field'  in  the  Tioinity  of  the  'upper  poo},'  it 

FBANKINCENSE,  the  original  name  of  has  not  improbably  been  inferred  that  the 
which  in  Hebrew  signifies  *  white,'  is  either  fullers  of  Jerusalem,  who  reqoired  much 
an  odorous  wood  or  the  resin  exuded  from  water,  had  there,  out  of  the  city,  a  place  xa 
an  odorous  wood,  and  has  its  oriental  name  iHiich  they  carried  on  their  bnaiaeas.  The 
from  the  fact  that  the  best  frankincense  was  spot  is  placed  by  Williams  at  the  point  where 
in  colour  white.  Common  frankincense  is  the  yalley  of  Jehoshsphat  bends  round  fton 
a  product  of  the  pimu  abiet  of  Linn»us— -  the  north  to  the  east  (Holy  City,  p.  998). 
common  spruce  fir.  What  tree  produced  FULNESS,  in  Greek  plenma,  is  origi- 
the  ancient  frankincense,  has  been  disputed  nally  that  wiUi  whieh  a  vessel  or  ofaieet  is 
both  in  ancient  and  modem  times.  Cole-  filled ;  henee  abundance  (1  Cor.  x.  96).  It 
brooke  held  it  to  be  the  BetwelUa  tKurifem  also  denotes  the  yessel  or  object  itself  cen- 
(frankinoense-bearing),  which  is  a  large  tim-  sideved  as  frill,  a  fidl  spaoe  or  body ;  thus, 
ber  tree  found  in  die  mountainous  parts  of  metaphorically,  Paul  oalls  a  Chzisiisn  tbt 
India,  and  yielding  a  most  fragrant  resin  fdfauss  of  Ood,  or  Christ,  beesose  his  mind 
horn  wounds  made  hi  the  haik.  It  seems  ought  to  be  fidl  of  their  spirit  (Ephes.  iiL 
not  unlikely,  howerer,  that  more  trees  than  19 ;  It.  18).  The  ehureh  also  Is  tanned '  d» 
one  supplied  the  ancient  worid  with  sweet-  folnsss  of  him  that  filleth  all  in  all*  (L  88). 
smelling  incense  for  burning  on  the  altar;  The  origin  of  this  expression  Is  to  be  fMmd 
and  Arabia  has  always  been  eelebrsted  ftir  in  those  passsges  of  the  Old  TsstsoMBt  in 
yielding  a  plentiful  supply.  From  thateoun*  which  God  Is  said  by  his  glory  to  IID  his 
try  the  Hebrews  obtained  the  frankincense  tabemaele,  that  is,  the  temple  (Esek.  xliii. 
which  they  termed  Uvottah  (la  Ix.  0.  Jer.  6.  la  tL  1) ;  and  the  idea  of  the  fulness,  or 
▼i.  20^,  though  the  article  may  have  been  pltromot  is  allied  to  that  of  the  Shekiaah. 
brought  from  India  to  Arabia  by  *  eommer-  According,  a  Christian  and  the  assembly  of 
cial  traTellers.'  Christians,  that  is,  '  the  ehnioh,'  are  each 

FRAT  (T.  fear)  is  the  tranalation.  In  not  merely  the  dwelling-place  of  God,  but, 
Deut  xxriiL  26,  of  a  word  (gharad)  signi-  under  the  new  dispensation,  the  speeial 
lying  to  make  afiraid,  or  drive  away  by  fear  residence  of  his  glory.  Plerwma  also  denotes 
(Ley.  xxri.  6 ;  comp.  1  Sam.  xiiL  7).  actively  the  Ihlfiillng,  in  a  moral  sense,  of 

FROGS,  which  would  naturally  abound  in     the  law  (Bom.  xiii.  10). 
such  a  land  as  Egypt,  where  they  are  of  an        '  Fulness  of  time*  is  a  phrase  used  by 
ash-grey  colour  with  green  spots,  served  as     Paul  (GaL  iv.  4.  Eph.  i  10)  of  that  epoch 


one  of  the  ten  plagues  (Exod.  viiL  2 — IB. 
Pa  cv.  80). 
FRONTLETS  (L.  /hnu,  <the  forehead') 


in  God's  providential  government  of  the 
world,  when  the  world  had  undeigone  that 
discipline  and  made   that  progress  whieh 


stands  fbr  a  Hebrew  word  which  signifies     prepared  it  to  receive  the  Messiah. 


a  bandage  tied  as  an  ornament  on  the  arm 
or  round  the  head,  and  is  used  of  the  phy- 
lacteries that  were  put  on   during  prayer 
(Exod.  xiu.  16). 
FRUSTRATE    (L.  Jrustra,  fiaudo,  the 


FURBISH  (F./arbe,  'colour')  is,  pro- 
perly, so  to  clean  and  polish  as  to  give  a 
(bright)  colour  to  an  olject  (1  Kings  vii. 
45.  Esek.  xxi.  10). 

FURNACE  (L.  fomax)  is  the  rendering, 


root-idea  being  *  to  disappoint')  has  for  iti  in  Gen.  xv.  17,  of  a  word,  teiuioof,  which  is 

Hebrew  original  a  word  meaning  *  to  break '  more  often  translated  *  oven'  (Exod.  viiL  8), 

iCkn.  xvii.  14),  and  hence  *  to  make  void'  and  is  still  used  in  that  signification  hj  the 

Numb.  xzx.  12 ;  comp.  8).  See  Is.  xliv.  2&.  native  inhabitants  of  Palsstme. 


GAD 


697 


GAD 


G. 


GABBATHA  (G.  back  or  elevation), 
a  raised  platfonn,  covered  with  marble, 
on  which  sat  the  Boman  goremors  of 
Judea  when  administering  justice  in  the 
capital.  On  this  *  payement '  was  Pilate 
when  he  condemned  oar  Lord  (John  xiz. 
18). 

GABRIEL  {U.  strength  of  God),  a  chief 
of  the  celestial  hierarchy,  who  does  not 
appear  in  the  Bible  till  die  Israelites  had 
come  nnder  the  influence  of  the  Persian 
philosophy.  By  the  direction  of  a  being 
who  is  spoken  of  in  these  terms, '  as  the 
appearance  of  a  man,'  Gabriel  made  Daniel 
understand  a  vision  which  the  latter  had 
seen  (Dan.  viii.  15,  teq,).  He  also  disclosed 
to  Daniel  the  import  of  the  seventy  weeks 
(ix.  21,  seq,).  Gabriel  is  in  this  connection 
termed  '  the  man,'  and  represented  as  com- 
ing to  Daniel  in  a  swift  flight,  as  well  as 
touching  him.  We  are  thus  reminded  of 
the  composite  beings  already  described  in 
the  article  Ohbbub.  It  deserves  remark 
that  Gabriel  is  introduced  in  the  book  of 
Daniel  in  a  manner  which  shows  that  the 
Jews  were  familiar  with  the  archangel,  his 
attributes  and  ftmctions.  Gabriel  also  an- 
nounced to  Zaoharias  the  birth  of  John  the 
Baptist,  and  to  Mary  the  conception  of 
Jesus  (Luke  i.  11,  teq. ;  26,  teq.).  In  these 
cases  he  is  represented  as  the  messenger  of 
God.  According  to  Jewish  tradition,  there 
were  seven  spirits  who  were  pre-  eminent  above 
other  angels  (Bev.  i  4).  Of  these  Gabriel 
and  Michael  (Jude  9)  are  mentioned  in  the 
Canonical  Scriptures,  and  Baphael  in  the 
Apocrypha  (Tobit  iii.  17).  Michael  and 
Gabriel  are  of  that  kind  of  celestial  spirits 
whom  the  Mussulmans  hold  to  be  nearest 
to  the  throne  of  God.  Gabriel  is  accounted 
the  special  friend  of  the  Mussulmans,  be- 
cause he  served  the  Messiah,  whom  they  re- 
vere, and  the  enemy  of  the  Jews,  who  re- 
jected him;  while  in  Michael  they  recog- 
nise the  patron  saint  of  the  Jews. 

GAD  (H.  a  troop),  was  a  son  of  Jacob  by 
Zilpah  (Gen.zxx.  9—11),  and  head  of  the 
tribe  of  the  same  name  which,  on  the  de- 
parture from  Egypt,  mustered  45,650  men 
of  war  (Numb.  i.  25),  and  at  the  entrance 
into  Canaan  40,500  (xxvi.  18).    The  tribe 
was  rich  as  well  as  warlike,  and  therefore 
took  the  lead  of  other  tribes,  and  was  well 
fitted  to  settle  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  where 
it  occupied  the  ancient  Gilead,  having  Reu- 
ben on  its  southern  frt>ntier,  and  extending 
from  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Dead 
Sea   to  the  southern  point  of  the  Sea  of 
GalUee  (Numb.xxzli.  Josh.  xiii.  24—28). 
Their  position  exposed  them  to  inroads  frt>m 
hostile  Bedouins,  whom  their  valour  enabled 


them  to  withstand  (1  Chron.  ▼.  18 — 22). 
The  aame  position  tended  to  alienate  them 
from  their  brethren  settled  on  the  west  of 
the  Jordan ;  the  more  readily,  because  their 
warlike  habits  made  them  somewhat  un- 
favourable to  the  forms  of  worship  observed 
by  their  brethren*  In  consequence  they,  in 
union  with  Reuben  and  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh,  erected  near  the  Jordan  an  altar 
of  ample  dimensions.  The  trans-Jordanio 
tribes  holding  this  to  be  a  token  of  apostacy, 
were  on  the  point  of  making  war  on  Gad 
and  its  associates,  when  they  received  and 
accepted  the  explanation  that  the  building 
was  only  commemorative,  and  was  designed 
to  perpetuate,  rather  than  to  weaken,  the 
national  alliance  (Josh.xxii.  10 — 34).  After 
the  expatriation  by  Assyria,  the  territory  of 
Gad  was  occupied  by  the  Ammonites  (Jer. 
xlix.  1). 

GAD,  a  true  prophet,  and  a  faithfid  ad- 
viser of  David  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5).  In  2  Sam. 
xxiv.  11  he  is  called  '  David's  seer.'  If  this 
relation  implied  any  dependence  on  the 
monarch,  it  did  not  close  tibe  prophet's 
mouth,  for  at  the  Divine  command  he  faith- 
folly  exposed  to  the  king  his  pride  and  folly 
in  numbering  the  people  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  11, 
ieq.).  Among  the  lost  works  of  the  Hebrew 
literatore  is  a  book  by  Gad  on  '  the  Acts  of 
David'  (1  Chron.  xxix.  29). 

GAD  AND  MENI,  names  of  an  idol  in 
Is.lxv.  11,  which  are  to  the  English  reader 
concealed  under  a  translation,  *  that  troop,' 
<  that  number.'  The  Latin  Yulgate  give  as 
the  rendering,  Fortuna,  and  probably  the 
god  of  good  fortune  is  intended.  The  idol 
was  honoured  by  oflbrings  of  meat  and  drink 
made  by  debased  Israelites,  who,  in  imita- 
tion of  a  pagan  custom  (lectistemia),  placed 
before  the  graven  image  tables  supplied  with 
costly  viands,  whose  consumption  was  well 
understood  by  the  priests,  and  gave  occasion 
to  great  excesses. 

GADARENES,  the  country  of,  that  is 
Gadara,  which  lay  on  the  south-east  of  the 
lake  of  Galilee  (Mark  v.  1,  m?.),  and  conse- 
quently, as  described  by  Luke  (viii.  26),  it 
was  'over  against  Galilee,'  that  is,  on  the 
east  of  the  Jordan,  in  Persea,  of  which  it 
was  the  capital.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city 
were  warm  baths,  which,  with  considerable 
ruins,  have  been  found  by  modem  travellers. 
The  remains  of  tombs  are  here  still  to  be 
seen,  which  are  generally  inhabited.  The 
inhabitants  now  are  said  to  be  as  inhospi- 
table as  they  were  in  the  time  of  our  Lord. 

What  Mark  and  Luke  (viiL  26)  caU  *  Oie 
country  of  the  Gadarenes,'  is  in  Matt,  viii 
28,  called  '  the  country  of  the  Gergesenes.' 
Doubtless,  the  same  vicinity  is  meant.    Orl- 


GAL  5 

gtn  ikfi  hat  ■  Ditjr  OrTgtt^  uicientlj  stood 
on  the  ewtent  tbora  at  the  Itke  of  TibcrUs. 
0*d>n  «u  ■  l*rg«  oiij,  whoM  diatiict,  n- 
teiidiDglollieUke,iDctuded(}ergeBa.  Usncs 
'Oadueneii '  oi '  QergCKueB'  mi^t  be  em- 
plojod.  In  MUL  Tiii.  93,  Bflholi,  howevn-, 
nadi  OadntDBi,  wd  k  Ui^dB  Ifie  Itnpleil 

The  mgnaitg  U  bon  k  mIq  sf  Oadan, 
wbich  Dime  k  btan,  nd  ebanra  ihu  ffaa 
people  «era  heMli«iis,  Iheli  tnteliiy  goddest 
being  ilftartr,  m  h«r*  flgwed,  boMIDg  « 
gwlud  tnd  •  Mitoiieo{rtB.  Tbe  obretM 
braH  ■  hrad  of  Utro,  mUb  M«  Baue. 


lo  nal  d[ffi- 
enltf .  I^e  leu  dMi  not  deu;  the  greater ; 
lh«  gteater  Itiolndet  the  lees.  IQ  the  jeU 
1834,  Lifi^lte,  uDoMpuiled  b]'  ble  eoa, 
vllited  lh«  tlnitdd  Slates,     tti  nWratSng  the 


Lai'ajtlte   Uotll:,   ud  Rnothet 
•Kilie  dilngk  to  LifsTelle  uid  hie  k>d. 

tlie  DbJatttoQ  tdken  to  out  Lord's  pei'- 
irtlltlug  die  (Ml  ap[rit  oT  the  deEDoniu:  to 
enter  the  ewine,  Uld  their  eoniequFot  de- 
etruillob,  Cah  hue  tatee  with  those  onlj 
«ha.  denying  hie  dlTine  iciaaloa  tod  tu- 
ihaHtf,  denj  him  idia  »  diserelionsry  em- 
ptnymntt  of  EieUI  for  th«ii  eatablishmeut 
or  diepUj. 

GALATIA  [0.1,  billed  also  O«llo-0r»c[«, 


in  Minor,  Ijing  ii 
1,  PonLus,  Csppsd 


midst  o(  I'kntlsgollii,  PonLus,  Cspp»di>cia, 
Ptirygi*.  snd  Dilhyni*.  haviag  for  its  chief 
cities,  Anejn,  Pessinas,  snd  Tiiinni.  It 
derived  Its  Bsme  from  the  Ganis,  In  Greek, 
GatalaS,  ■  liter  fonn  of  the  word  CfUa,  or 
Cells,  who,  in  ooojunction  with  k  Genn«n 
tribe,  Oifl  Teewsftges,  aftef  thej,  about  280 
A.  C,  bud  iQt&ded  MaCeilonia  and  Qreece, 
and  established  the  hingdom  oF  Tyle,  in 
Tbrtue,  proceeded  hence  Into  Asia,  where 
they  receiTed  from  the  Bithynian  king,  Ni- 
comedes,  at  S  reward  for  serricea  rendered 
la  war,  h  district  of  conutrj  which  thej 
soon  enlarged  bj  Mirauding  eipedilions, 
although  it  was  restricled  by  Atlalus,  Eing 
of  I'eigimus,  to  the  fhiitful  neighbourhood 
of  the  rivet  Halys.  The  consul  Cn.  MaOllus 
Vnlso  snhjeoled  to  the  Raman  power  this 
powerful  people,  strong  as  was  their  love  of 
liberty;  but  they  long  retained  their  own 
tetrarchs,  who  at  a  later  time  bore  the  title 
of  king,  the  last  of  whom,  Amyulos  (mur- 
dered 20  A.C.),  owed  it  to  the  favour  of 


98  GAL 

Antony  and  Augostai  that  Pisidia  and  parts 
of  Lycaonia,  as  well  as  Famphylia,  were 
added  to  his  dominiona.  In  the  year  28 
A.  C,  Oalalia,  with  the  eitension  which  it 
received  auder  Atnyniu,  was  niade  into  a 

On  the  gititind  of  the  extenitonof  eotilitij 
whieh  took  plaes  onder  AtDjntaa,  II  baa 
been  held  that  the  reader*  of  the  Episde  to 
lbs  QalaOans  were  not  airietly  Oalaliani, 
bnt  what  nay  be  tinned  New-Qalatisns,  that 
is,  Lyeaomans  (of  Deibe  and  Ljitia)  and 
Phridims.  But  this  is  opposed  by  the 
tbtaanilog}  employed  In  the  book  of  Acta 
(lit.  fl  ;  eonlp.  ivi.  8,  and  ivliL  33),  in 
which  are  fttolid  the  generally pretalent  and 
potmlar  aaluBa  thai  had  not  eDnrotmed  them- 
tefres  to  the  feeent  foftlgli  changes ;  to  (he 
witBt  efhet  is  the  circttmatance  Ihal  PanI 
(QU.  L  2],  b  the  Wotdi  'onto  the  ehnrehe* 
t)tdalaUa,'  «tpress«d  himselt  in  a  atrauge 
alid  IndeBnlle  manner.  If  he  did  not  inleDd 
OalatU  Proper,  Old  Qijatia.  Nor  hare  there 
been  fbtiiJd  In  profUe  writers  ua  paaaages 
In  which  diitrlets  of  Lycaonia  or  Fiaidia  an 
distinguished  by  the  Dame  Oalatia;  whenoa 
It  appears  that  the  Scriptural  usage  in  thia 
matter  ii  In  agreement  with  the  old-esta- 
blished cnstoiu  of  the  oountiy,  and  with  (ha 
general  practice  obserrad  In  the  llteralure 
of  the  times ,-  all  wbich  is  in  agreeuient 
with  what  might  have  been  antecedently 
expected  in  a  popular  writer  like  Paul,  ad- 
dregglng,  not  the  learned  few,  nor  the  citil 
or  legal  officers  of  the  aonntry,but  its  people, 
ihciudiag,  it  some  of  the  higher,  yet  for  the 
mo9t  part  the  hnroblcr  classes. 

Tlie  population  of  Oalatia  was  composed 
of  (liree  elements — the  old  original  Oreek, 
a  Celtic  anit  a  Tentonie  element  These 
llred  blended  together  j  whether  tbsed  so  as 
to    iioid  the  prejudices  and  aDtipalhles  of 

Two  languages,  howe»Br,  were  spoken — the 
Oreek,  the  language  of  the  aborigines,  which 
would  doubtless  be  also  the  language  of  civil 
life;  and  a  tongue  which  Jeioms  (bomAJ) 
330),  found  similar  lo  that  which  was  in  use 
in  Trier,  In  Germaoy,  and  which,  therefore, 
would  be  of  Teutonic  origin,  and  ma;  haie 
been  conBned  to  a  portion  of  the  population, 
if  not  have  sunk  to  the  lower  classes,  mas- 
tered by  its  more  powerful  rival,  the  Greek. 
In  addition  to  Iheae  elements  of  population, 
there  wai  also  a  portion  of  the  general  He- 
brew dispersion,  who  found  here  a  &ne  rich 
Country  and  ample  eommerce  (o  invite  and 
reward  their  enterprise,  aod  who,  with  a 
ebaracteiistic  leal,  had  snceesefiilly  em- 
ployed their  efforts  in  bringing  pagans  la 
recognise  and  receive,  either  wholly  or  in 
part,  the  laws  and  inatitutjoua  of  Hoaea, 
being  impelled  now  chiefly  by  the  prevalent 
conviction  that  the  Messiah  was  at  length 
near  at  hand. 

Calaliaru,  EpistU  te.    The  founder  of  Iho 


GAL                      599  GAL 

Oftlatian  churoheB  was  Paul  (Gal.i.  0—8 ;  tian  liberty,  but  not  to  misuse  it  (▼.)•  'HiIb 
It.  13).  On  his  secoud  missionary  tour  is  followed  by  other  general  exhortations 
(Aotsxyi.  6),  aecording  to  his  custom,  he  (vi.  1  — 10),  axi4  ^  comparison  between 
made  his  ^t  attempts  at  conversion  with  Paul  and  his  opponents  (vi  11 — ^16),  whioh 
the  Jews,  of  which  nation  there  were  many  leads  to  the  conclusion, 
settlers  in  Galatia  (1  Pet.  i.  1.  Joseph.  *  An-  The  prevailing  tone  of  the  letter  is  of  a 
tiq.'  xvi,  6,  2).  Yet  it  appe%r»  ftom  the  let-  oondemnatory  kind.  Paul  was  hurt  and 
ter  to  the  Galatiana  that  die  bulk  of  his  dis-  grieved  at  the  defection  of  his  Galatian  eon- 
oiples  were  of  pagan  origiq  (iv.  9).  It  hf^  verts.  It  was  in  no  secondary  matter  they 
indeed,  been  inferred,  that  the  afgunients  had  fallen  away,  but  one  which  constituted 
deduced  frpm  the  Old  Testament  and  the  the  very  essence  and  life  of  his  principles — 
I^bbinical  method  of  interpretation  found  in  his  great  distinguishing  doctrine,  a  Area 
(he  epIsUe,  prove  that  its  readers  were  He-  gospd  conditioned  on  fkith  only.  Hence  he 
brews  by  birth.  What,  however,  these  Uiiugs  was  grieved  and  hurt.  Their  fall  was  per- 
do  show,  is,  that  the  Galatians  were  ac-  aonal  to  himself  in  two  ways : — ^I.  tliat  Uiey 
quainted  with  the  modes  of  proof  employed  s  were  his  scholars ;  11.  that  they  had  swerved 
but  this  acquaintance  seems  to  have  been  from  his  fundamental  teaehing.  Hence, 
superinduced  b;  the  Jndaising  teachers  whatever  else  is  found  in  it,  dissatisfaction 
against  whose  influence  the  letter  is  chietfy  prevails  throughout  the  epistle.  In  accord- 
directed,  and  whom  it  was  indi^ensable  to  #noe  with  this  its  key-note,  is  the  style  with 
meet  and  withstand  on  their  own  grounds,  which  he  addresses  the  Galatians — simply 
If,  in  addition,  we  suppose  that  many  of  '  to  the  chnrehes  of  Galatia ;'  no  nearer  de> 
Paul's  dispiples  eame  immediately  fiv>m  the  scription,  no  recognition  of  them  as  children 
ranks  of  pagans  who  had  gone  over  tq  the  of  God,  or  beloved  fellow-believers.  The 
Jewish  ehufchf  we  can  well  understand  the  Thessalonians  are  addressed  as  *  the  church 
peculiar  way  in  which  the  apostle  writes,  in  God  our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ' 

On  his  first  visit  Paul  was  received  as  '  an  (1  These,  i.  1 ;  see  2  These,  i.  1).  The  Co- 
angel  of  God,  9»  Christ  Jesus,'  so  that  hfid  rjnthians  Panl  describes  as  *  the  church  of 
it  been  possible,  his  eonverts  would  have  God  which  is  at  Corinth,  them  that  are 
plueked  out  their  own  eyes,  and  given  them  sanctified  in  Christ  Jesuei  called  saints ' 
to  him  (Gal.  iv.  U,  Id);  bat  Jndaising  (l.Cor.i.  2;  eomp.  2Cor.i.  1).  The  Chris- 
teachers  (Aets  zv.  1)  entered  the  Galii^tian  tians  in  Rcwe  were  beloved  of  God,  called 
church  afteir  his  departure,  and  assailing  bia  saints  (Qom.  i  7).  The  Ephesian  Chris- 
claims  as  an  apostle  (Gal.  i.  1—11),  and  in-  tians  are  designated  'saints  which  are  in 
sisting  on  the  neeessity  of  circumeision  for  Ephesus,  faithful  in  Christ  Jesus'  (Eph.i. 
disciples  of  Christ  (v.  2,  11),  found  too  1)-  The  letter  to  the  Philippians  is  sent  to 
leady  a  hearing,  perverting  many  (L  fi ;  iii.  '  all  the  saints  in  Christ  Jesus  which  are  at 
1 ;  iv.  9,  8eq. ;  v.  8),  and  creating  mncb  Philippi,  with  the  bishops  and  deacons ' 
trouble  end  nneaainess  (v.  12).  The  sepimd  (Philipp.  i.  1) ;  that  to  the  Colossians,  *  to 
visit  of  the  fljpostie  to  die  G«J»tiai^  eburch,  the  saints  and  faithl^  breUiren  in  Christ 
made  during  ^9  third  missionary  tour  (Acta  which  are  at  Colosse'  (Coloss.  i.  2).  In 
xyiiL  23.  Oai.  iv.  13, 19),  tended  to  counter-  every  case  Paul  adds  some  descripjlive  and 
act  these  adverse  inflnenees,  but  not  with  re-  eulogistic  epjihet,  except  in  his  address  to 
9ullp  so  permanent  as  could  hAve  been  de-  the  Galatians.  He  does  not,  indeed,  con- 
sired  ;  for  alter  bis  departnre  tibe  Judaisers  aider  ihem  M  wholly  lost  to  Christ  He  still 
again  obUMnedlhe  upper  baud  (iv.  18).  The  calls  them  *  brethren,'  though  sparingly  (vi. 
prevalence  oi  their  doctrines  visible  in  the  1,  18).  This  tone  of  reserve  in  the  style  of 
general  texloAB  of  the  epistle,  induced  its  address  is,  under  the  circumstances,  a  sign 
an^or  to  compoee  and  send  it;  which  waa  of  a  consistent  and  a  truthful  mind :  tiie 
specially  intende4  to  assert  and  defend  his  more  striking  pud  forcible,  because  in  other 
lipostolio  auliioritgr,  and  to  bring  its  readers  cases,  whatever  blame  the  apostle  had  to 
to  a  firm  eonviction  that  Christians  were  ntter,  he  alweye  employs  in  his  address 
free  from  the  duty  of  circumcision,  and  words  of  kindness  or  recognition.  I|ere, 
(generally)  fkom  the  obligations  of  the  Mo-  howeTcr,  snch  epithets  would  have  been  out 
saic  law.  of  place,  would  have  been  discordant  with 

Us  ctontesbts,  ttieceiGMre,  divide  themselves  the  tenor  of  the  letter ;   and  here,  itccord- 

into  two  leading  divisions : — ^I.  The  delen-  ingly,  terms  of  the  kind  are  not  found.   We 

eive  and  doctrinal  part,  which  is  itself  two-  have  in  this  fact  one  of  tho«B  proprieties  of 

fold ;  the  maintenanee  of  Paul's  apostolic  style  which  indicate  reality,  and  whioh  are 

Antho^ity  (i.  11),  in  which  a  general  state-  beyond  the  reach  of  the  fabricator.  Had  this 

ment  is  m«de  of  Christian  liberty  (ii.  15—  letter  been  the  work  of  one  who  wished  to 

21),  and  the  proof  that  the  l(41ower  of  Jesus  pass  his  piece  off  as  being  Paul's,  he  would 

is  independent  oi  circumcision  and  the  Ho-  have  been  careful  to  imitate  Paul's  mfuiner 

saic  ritual  (iii  iv.).  Then  comes  the  second  of  address;  and  we  should  have  found  the 

general  division,  which  is  designed  to  ex-  Galadan   church,   who  had  rather  mixed 

hort  (he  leader  to  stand  fast  in  his  Chiis-  *  wood,  hay,  and  ntnbble '  with  Christianity, 


GAL  600  GAL 

thaa  nnoanced  it,  spoken  to  in  terms  which  poses  to  exist  between  the  <^mJLmix> 

u  least  recognised  their  position  in  the  PanI  are  such  as  are  in  themselves  higUf 

ehuieh  of  Christ    With  Pani  the  personal  probable.    The  style  of  authority'  wtudi  lit 

feeling — the  feeling  of  a  heart  wounded  at  letter  assomes  agrees  with  ^^mt  we  know  tf 

the  ready  declension  of  belored  pnpils — pre-  Paol's  position  and  character.    Pre-emineat 

dominated,  leading  him  to  withhold  terms  howcTcr,  is  the  oratorical  tone  of  tlie  letto; 

of  recognition  or  endearment  to  an  extent  which  is  a  finishied  pieee  of  rikefeorie.    Htm, 

which    the    bare    cireamstaaoes,  perhaps,  Paul's  genius  was  essentially  thsut  o/  an 

hardly  justified.  tor.    In  writing,  as  in  speaking,  be 

We  may  approximate  to  the  time  when  aa  orator.    Hence  Longinus  mentit 

the  letter  was  written  by  attention  to  Ga-  in  connection  with  the  most  renowned  (M«iwf 

latians  iT.  13,  compared  with  Acta  xri.  6 ;  of  Greece — ^Demosthenes,  Lysins,  ^fwhinfs 

ZYiii.  23.    From  the  words  in  GaL  it.  13,  Isocrates.    The  occasion,  too,  ms  bein^  to  a 

*  when  I  preached  the  gospel  to  yon  at  the  large  extent  of  a  personal  nature,  would  pet 
first,'  or  *  for  the  first  time/  it  appears  that  die  apostle's  oratorical  powers  into  aetiaB. 
the  writer  had  been  in  Galatia,  and  preadied  The  letter  is  no  less  an  apology  for  hisBelf 
there  twice,  when  he  wrote  the  letter.  This  than  a  reproof  of  the  Galatians.  SLemee  ibr 
places  die  time  of  its  composition  after  necessity  of  argument,  self-defenee,  hlAine— 
Paul's  third  missionary  journey.  Yet  it  could  topics  which  give  full  scope  to  the  resouiees 
not  have  been  long  afier  Paul's  second  visit ;  of  the  oratorical  art.  These  resoozees  sit 
for  in  Galatians  i.  6,  he  says, '  I  marvel  that  here  displayed  to  great  advanta^^  ;  and  so 
ye  are  so  sooh  removed  from  him  that  called  give  us  proof  that,  in  perusing  it,  we  haw 
you.'  8oon,  therefore,  after  Paul's  second  to  do  with  the  great  Christian  riietoriessa, 
visit  in  his  third  tour,  was  this  episde  writ-  PauL 

ten :  how  soon,  it  is  difficult  to  say.    The         There  is,  we  conceive,  a  trait  of  oratorieil 

ordinary  chronology  fixes  his  second  visit  skill  near  die  termination  of  the  letter:  'Ye 

in  the  year  A.  D.  &6 ;  whence  we  incline  to  see  how  large  a  letter  I  have  written  unto  yoe 

the  opinion  of  Meyer,  who  mentions  the  with  mine  own  hand' (vL  11).  Whether  Ihio 

year  06  or  57  as  the  time  when  the  episde  any  infirmity  in  his  hand,  or  from  w«nt  of  ikifi 

was  probably  composed  (oomp.  iv.  15— -20).  in  writing  the  Greek  letters,  the  epoatle  was 

The  place  where  it  was  written  may  have  accustomed  to  employ  an  amanuensis.  Indus 

been  Ephesus,  whither  Paul  repaired  imme-  ease,  however,  he  wrote  the  letter  bimseU^ 

diately  after  he  had  risited  Galatia  and  die  and  ^peals  to  the  fact,  probaUy,  as  a  tokea 

upper  coasts,  and  where  he  remained  nearty  of  the  regard  he  had  tot  his  Galsfian  disei- 

three  yesrs  (Acts  xix.  1,  10,  Mg.)*    This  pies.    This  effort  of  his  was  a  special  maik 

conclusion  as  to  place  substantially  agrees  of  the  love  he  bore  towards  them,  and  mii^t 

with  that  to  which  we  have  come  regarding  be  expected  to  have  some  weight  in  their 

time.  final  determinations. 

The  authenticity  of   the    episde   rests.        Who  conveyed  die  letter  to  Galatia,  is  one 

first,  on  extomal  evidence.    Justin  Martyr,  of  those  points  on  which  we  are,  in  the  case 

late  in   the   second  century,   cites  ftom  it  of  this  episde,  left  to  so  great  an  extent 

words  which  are  so  peculiar  as  to  show  that  widiont  information.     As  little  are  we  toM 

the  letter  was  in  existence  in  his  time,  and  what  the  effect  was  which  it  produced  on  tlw 

cited  as  well  as  known  by  him — *  Be  ye  Galadan  churoh.   Yet,  some  two  years  after, 

as  I  am,  fbr  I  am  as  ye  are '  (Cohort  ad  we  find  the  aposUe  mentioning  '  a  eoUectioB 

Graeo.  Gal.  iv.  12).    Irenesus  (120 — 140),  for  the  saints,' which,  by  his  order,  had  been 

however,  quotes  the  episde  several  times,  made  by  the  churches  of  Galatia  (1   Cor. 

and  ascribes  it  to  Paul  thus :  *  But  the  apos-  xvi.  1).    This  fact  seems  to  imply  that  the 

de  says,  Ye  did  service  unto  them  which  by  aposde's  audiority  had  been  restored,  his  io- 

nature  are  no  gods ;  but  now,  after  that  ye  flnenoe  established,  and  therefore  that  his 

have  known  God,  or  rather  are  known  of  opinions  were  generally  adopted.    It  has, 

God'  (Iren.  iii.  6,  5.  Gal.  iv.  8,  9).    Again:  however,  been  questioned  whether  this  re- 

*  And  this  is  die  seed  of  which  the  aposde  cognition  of  Paul's  claims  was  made  by 
speaks  in  tbe  Episde  to  the  Galatians — The  more  than  a  part  of  the  Galatiah  churches, 
law  was  added  because  of  transgressions,  since  not  long  after  we  find  the  Jewish 
nntil  the  seed  should  come  to  whom  the  Christians  of  Galatia  in  close  connection 
promise  was  made'  (Iren.  v.  21, 1.  GaL  iii.  with  Peter  (1  Pet.  i.  1),  which  may  probably 
19).  Similar  evidence  might  be  adduced  have  arisen  from  their  inclining  to  the  less 
fh>m  several  posterior  authorities.  But  the  comprehensive  and  philosophical  system  es- 
intemal  evidence  suffices  to  show  that  Paul  poused  by  that  aposde,  whose  leanings,  how- 
was  the  author  of  this  letter.  To  some  ex-  ever,  to  a  Judaical  form  of  Christiani^  may 
tent  it  is  a  species  of  autobiography,  the  easily  be  overrated. 

details  of  which  are  in  strict  oonforroiry        This  episde  exhibite  Paul  in  confiiet  widi 

with  what  we  know  of  Paul  from  other  the  Galatians  on  the  point  of  his  apostolic 

sources.    The  doctrine  of  the  episde  is  en-  claims.    We  think  it  highly  importsnt  diU 

tirely  Pauline.    The  relations  which  it  sup-  these  claims  were  brought  hito  dispute;  for 


GAL  601  6  a 

it  l«d  Ihe  apostle  to  give,  in  asseiting  them,  that  we  speak  only  of  ^ 
a  ftill  and  distinet  statement  of  the  grounds  Among  the  Israelites,  this 
on  wbioh  they  rested.    These  grounds  were  sons  bom  in  marriage  inhet. 
disenssed.      Their  yalidity  was   admitted,  property,  the  eldest  having  a  d 
For  this  admission  we  need  no  other  evi-  daughters  were  excluded  unlet, 
denee  than  the  preservation  of  the  apostle's  no  direet  male   descendant 
writings  and  anUiority  in  the  ohurch-— a  pre*  Bomans,  all  who  were  under  tL 
serration  which  would  have  been  impossible  power,  whether  children  by  birth  or 
had  not  his  claims  to  the  aposUeship  been  tion,  whether  male  or  female,  becam         .s 
satisfaotorily  made  out.    The  dispute  pre-  and  stood  on  equal  terms.    But  the  «atter 
vailed  chiefly  in  Galatia,  but  was  not  un-  custom  only  is  accordant  with  the  tenor  of 
known  in  other  parts  of  the  general  church.  Paul's  remarks — *  if  sons,  then  heirs.'  That 
The  Judaisers  were  as  active  and  determined  females  were  not  excluded  fit>m  the  inherit- 
as  tbey  were  embittered  against  Paul.    Full  ance  of  which  he  speaks,  i^pears  from  Gal. 
justice,  tfaoefore,  would  be  done  to  their  iiL  20—28.    Jesus,  too,  the  eldest  bom,  does 
side  of  the  argument.    Yet  the  apostle  to  not  receive  a  double  share,  but  is  first  among 
the  Gentiles  gained  the  victory.     One  man  equals  (Bom.  viii.  29.  2  Tim.  ii.  12).  Paul 
against  thousands;  one  man  against  the  Je-  was  a  Boman  citizen,  and  highly  esteemed 
msalem  church,  with  little  else  than  partial  his  privileges  as  such  (Acts  xxii.  20,  28). 
support,  at   the  best,  from  other  quarters.  Nor  was  he  likely  to  be  ignorant  of  Boman 
The  prevalence  of  a  universal  Christianity  law;  since  the  intimate  connection,  in  his 
under  these  disadvantages,  can  be  accounted  age,  of  the  Jews  with  their  Pagan  masters, 
for  only  by  the  soundness  of  Paul's  pre-  rendered  it  proper  that  even  the  schools  of 
tensions  to  a  special  appointment  in  the  the  former  should  communicate  instraction 
apostolie  office.  on  the  point    Besides,  the  apostle  is  con- 
In  this  epistle  the  writer  plainly  intimates  ducting,  both  in  the  letter  to  the  Galatians 
that  the  Spirit  had  been  communicated  to  and  that  to  the  Bomans,  a  popular  argument 
the  Galatians,  and  miracles  wrouf^t  among  which  was  intended  to  rouse  the  minds  and 
them  (iii.  0).    The  intimation  is  made  as  awaken  the  sympathies  of  his  readers — an 
part  of  his  argument  against  his  Jewish  as-  end  which  a  reference  to  customs  well  known 
sailants.    There  must,  therefore,  we  infer,  to  and  in  constant  observance  by  tbem  would 
have  been  among  the  Galatians  something  enable  him  effectually  to  secure,  but  which 
of  a  corresponding  nature.    Had  there  been  would  not  have  been  promoted,  in  the  ac- 
nothing  extraordinary — no  effiision  of  the  tual  oases,  by  allusions  to  mere  Hebraw 
Spirit,  no  working  of  miracle — ^it  is  not  to  usages  in  regard  to  the  devolution  of  pro- 
be supposed  that  Paul,  in  the  oircumstances,  perty. 

would  have  made  the  intimation,  especially  The  import  of  the  words,  'Brethren,  be  as 
M  a  part  of  his  srgumeut,  seeing  that  he  I,  for  I  as  ye'  (iv.  12),  appears  to  be  thi»— 
must  have  known  that  his  opponents  both  'be  ftee  in  Christ,  as  I  am ;  I  beseech  you, 
could  and  would  seize  on  any  weak  point  shice  I  was  in  bondage  to  the  law  as  ye  are, 
in  order  to  frustrate  his  purpose  and  pro-  and  therefore  know  the  weight  of  your  bur- 
mote  their  own.  den.' 

There  is  no  feature  of  this  letter  more        The  passage  found  in  iv.  21,  teq,^  is  an 

striking  than  its  faithfulness.    Paul  speaks  instance  of  the  forced  and  fkneifnl  method 

M  one  who  had  a  right  to  reprove,  and  was  of  interpreting  the  Scriptures  nit  the  Old  Tes- 

not  9Snxd.  of  the  consequences  of  free  speech,  tament  which  came  into  practice  among  the 

He  knew,  indeed,  what  be  hod  to  expect,  for  rabbins  about  the  time  of  the  advent  of  our 

he   had    already  forfeited    the    good   opi-  Lord.    The  intention  of  the  apostle  Paul  in 

nion  of  many  by  telliug  them  the  truth  (iv.  oonstraeting  this  argument  appears  to  have 

16).     Nevertheless,  the  trath  would  he  tell,  been,  to  fight  the  Judaisers  with  their  own 

and  add  to  it  blame  and  reproach,  where  he  weapons.    He  reasons  thus : — ^Abraham  had 

judged  them  necessary  (iii.  1 ;  iv.  9,  teq,),  two  sons,  one  of  a  slave,  Hagar,  whose  name 

This  is  not  the  conduct  of  a  man  who  was  was  Ishmael;  the  other  of  a  f^e  woman,  his 

conscious  of  standing  on  an  insecure  foun-  wife,  Sarah,  whose  name  was  Isaac,   and 

dation.     Paul's  faithftilness  evidences  his  whose  birth  had  been  expressly  promised  of 

sincerity,  and  his  sincerity  guarantees  the  God.    These  facts  may  be  allegorised  so  as 

certainty  of  the  Christian  religion.  to  represent  the  two  covenants;  that  is,  may 

Among  the  passages  in  this  epistle  that  be  so  set  forth  as  to  have  a  different  mean- 

require  illustration,  stands  that  in  which  the  ing  to  the  verbal.  Hagar  is  the  (provincial) 

writer  makes  reference  to  laws  of  inherit-  Arabic  name  of  Mount  Sinai,  and,  since  the 

ance,  iv.  7 — *  Wherefore  thou  art  no  more  law  was  given  there,  may  be  taken  to  repre- 

a  servant,  but  a  son ;  and  if  a  son,  then  an  sent  Jerusalem,  the  metropolis  of  Judaism ; 

heir  of  God  through  Christ'    Corap.  Bom.  which  thus  appears,  as  the  offspring  of  a 

viii.  17.    Had  Paul  in  his  mind  Hebrew  or  slave,  to  be  in  bondage.    The  old  covenant* 

Boman  laws  of  inheritance  ?  The  latter.  The  therefore,  is  alter  the  flesh,  and  a  source  of 

two  differed  much.     Let  it  be  first  remarked  servitude  to  its  adherents.    But  Jerusalem, 


GAL                       602  GAL 

b  iibofa,  spintaal  JeioMlrai,  is»  as  laige  nambai — ^became  ■»!«  cxltudod  «M 

Um  ofbprinf  of  tke  child  of  {iroMiae,  th«  aore  miilwd  ia  its  infloeiiM. 

•OB  of  the  frM  vaman,  tree  herself,  and,  as  !■  this  state  of  Mag»  va  see  ik» 

the  mother  of  all  the  oflspring  of  fidthlal  of  the  eontenpt  felt  by  the  Jew% 

Abiahaai,  the  ongin  and  cause  of  frredooi  the  Qalileaaa  (John  L  40;  rii  62  >•  Wkd  a 

to  her  children.    Bat  as  lahmael  peraeeated  justiAeation  of  the  ways  of  ProTidMMe  m 

Jmuc,  so  his  descendants*  the  Jitdaiscrs»  making  this  eenntry  tlie  ohicf  m»l  of  ^ 


etill  peieeeom  those  who  espoose  a  fiiee     goepel  in  its  origin  and  pnbUcntioii.     The 
gospeL    And  thus  the  apostle  not  only  sns*     ssrae  facts  explain  how  it  was  that  ion 


tains  his  eansa  agsinsft  the  sdroealee  of  the     leans,  in  addition  to  a  ecrtain   l|u«h  and 
law  by  modes  of  proof  of  whieh  they  warn     loagh  pronwiciation  of  their  nativo  toagna. 


fScmdt  bat  toraa  their  arms  dirsotly  against  natoral  to  monntaineera,  had  also  ai|  imps- 

their  own  bieasts*  showing  diat  Hhif  are  ritj  of  dialect  when  compared  with    ttw4 

tme  to  their  origin  and  nature  only  in  the  spoken  in  the  oapital  (Matt  xxfk  73.  Aeil 

bigoted  eonstanoy  with  whieh  they  withstand  IL  7,  8 ). 

his  eibrts  and  seek  his  overthrow.  Galilee  was  not  so  laige  m  Ja^oa»  h«| 

OAUBANUM  (H.)f  one  of  the  odorous  lather  larger  dian  Bamaria,  Its  lengilh  frqni 

ingredienta  that  combined  to  make  the  holy  north  to  aooth  was  about  ^fif  «Di]M»  ili 

oiL    It  is  a  gam  prodooed  by  eotttng  into  bnadth  abont  twen^-aeTin  milea.     Its  p^ 

a  tree  of  the  same  name,  which  giowa  in  polation  was  greater  than  in  propofiifliA  |a 

Abyssinia,  Arabia,  and  in  the  Syrian  Ama-  its  siae,  in  conseqnenee  of  its  gfMft  fu^UW^ 

nus.    This  tree,  whiob  can  be  Identified  as  To  numbers  the  Oalileens  added  wviSk* 

to  its  genus  only,  is  of  die  umbelliftifous  courage  and  a  spirit  of  independtneaa  whieli 

kind  (Ezod.  sxz.  84).  enabled  them  to  hold  their  positifn^  m  4ha 


OAULEE  (H.  goMt  'circle,'  or  'district^)  midst  of  the  foreign  nations  by  whm|»  ll^ 

is  a  very  aneient  name  of  the  northern  part  were  sunounded.    In  the  war  agaoHt  the 

of  Palestine.   Galilee  is  mentioDed  in  ioah,  Romans,  Josephus,  without  moiih  troabley 

az.  7,  where  it  eepedaUy  denotea  the  conn-  got  together  in  Galilee  an  army  of  100,000 

try  of  Naphtali.    Solomon  gave  to  Hiram  men. 

twenty  cities  in  this  land  (1  Kings  ix.  II).  The  province  was  divided  into  Upper  apd 


The  Phmnicians  establiriied  themselves  in  Lower  Galilee.  In  an|^iBnt  timee  it 
Galilee,  and  other  foreignere  fixed  their  re-  the  tribal  districts  of  Asher,  Naphlrii,  Zeb»- 
sidenee  in  the  north  of  Pslestine,  whieh  Ion,  and  a  part  of  Issaohar,  and  may  be  ep^^ 
ftom  early  times  formed  a  great  commercial  sidered  as  represented  by  the  preaent  pB»- 
route  between  eastern  and  western  parts  of  vinoes  of  Nazareth  and  Tiberias,  From  its 
the  world.  These  facts  occasioned  the  name  limestone  mountaiue  in  the  porth,  (^aliles 
of  *  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles'  (Is.  is.  1)  to  be  sinks  down  into  alaige  frnUM  plwitH«lM 
given  to  this  country.  and  flanked  by  hills  U^ftt  are  interaeetid  witl& 
Galilee  as  a  province  (see  Canaan)  was  roraantio  valea,  a0»rding  Que  land  ^  gpy^* 
of  larger  extent,  being  bounded  on  the  north  ing  and  tillage,  which,  in  the  d^s  of  ^ 
and  weet  by  liCbanon  and  Phonicis,  on  the  Saviour,  made  it  a  luxoriaot  and  thjakly- 
east  by  the  lake  of  Merom,  the  lake  of  Gen-  peopled  ooontiy.  Josephas  mentioi^  90i 
nessietb,  and  the  Jordan.  On  the  eouth,  its  towns  and  vlUagee,  the  smaller  of  which  con- 
limits  ran  from  the  sonlhem  extremity  of  tained  16,000  inh]u>itants  each.  The  most 
Cannel,  through  Ginea,  to  a  spot  on  the  populous  and  beet  oaltivat^d  parts  were  in 
Jordan  near  ScythopoUs.  Galilee  thus  com-  the  easW  on  the  slopes  and  vales  nesr  the 
prised  the  mountaias  of  Naphtali  and  the  sea  of  Gennesareth.  Here  the  ooontiy  is 
plain  of  JesreeL  At  the  part  where  the  traversed  by  Basalt,  irtiich  comes  from  the 
monntaine  approach  Cannel,  they  form  with  parts  beyond  the  lake.  The  two  most  ooni- 
it  the  defile  traversed  by  the  Kishon,  by  siderable  towns  were  Tiberias^  the  ancient 
which  the  inhabitanu  of  the  interior  had  capital  of  Galilee,  and  Sepphoris,  which  was 
a  communication  with  the  sea.  This  com-  its  chief  city  at  a  later  penod.  In  the  evam- 
munioation,  which  was  very  importent  for  gelical  hiaiozy,  Capernaum  and  Nazareth  are 
tile  province,  kept  it  in  connection  with  frequently  mentioned.  Through  the  middle 
Phflsnioja,  and,  through  that  stale,  with  the  of  the  land  ran  a  great  commercial  highway, 
active  movements  of  commerce  and  oivilisa-  called  *  the  way  of  the  sea'  in  Matt  iv.  15. 
tion.  The  relations  which  hence  ensued  The  Galilesns  had  a  strong  propensity  to 
exerted  a  marked  influence  on  the  character  insurrection,  which  Pilate's  sangoinaiy  mea- 
ot  the  Galileans,  who  accordingly  showed  sures  could  not  cure  (Luke  xiii.  1.  Acts  v. 
less  indisposition  than  the  natives  of  the  S7).  Their  country  was  singularly  favoured 
south  towards  foreign  ideas,  and  a  less  in  connection  with  the  Saviour  of  mankind, 
strong  attachment  to  the  Mosaic  institu-  for  he  spent  his  early  days  in  that  land, 
tions.  After  the  return  from  Babylon,  the  which  was,  therefore,  accounted  his  native 
connection  between  the  inhabitanu  of  Galilee  country  (Luke  i.  26 ;  ii.  39.  Matt.  zxi.  11). 
and  psgaas— Pb^nicians,  Syrians,  Arabs,  It  was  the  first  to  hear  his  snnouncemeut  of 
Sttd  even  Greeks,  who  were  settled  there  in  the  gospel  (])fatt.  iv.  12).    There  also,  ^fter 


8AL  60 

fae  bad  opnied  liii  connnissjan,  lie  spent 
BDch  Um«,  tr>T«lling  thcnee  M  tb«  npitil  and 
«tiHipms(H>U.rT.39;  lix.  I).  Muijdii- 
•i^B  ind  qH>«t]M  wcra  Oalilwii  (Hiiti.  it. 
18,21.  AiiHii.31).  Heuee,  in  put,  the  r«i- 
Mnirti;tlil*nMB««M  giTsnto  theprimidie 
CbrittUna  by  pigani,  who  ivsiled  them- 
•ri*«a  of  thB  oMUilte  amMlMlDna  roiiQeiiled 
with  11  bi  ordei  to  diiparage  tb«  gospel.  The 
tmfBtor  Julian  ««ii  xt  fu  u  lo  eim  our 
LonI '  the  OilDeui  god,'  and  is  reporKd  to 
IWTB  raililtiMd  on  dying,  '  Thou  haai  oon- 
qa«nd,  O  GillIaMi  r 

0AUL8E,  SEA  OF,  li  the  i 
JT.  le,  of  iheUaIn  CalilecoilhdinNnmb. 
mil.  ]1,  ihs  'aea  of  Chinnenib  ;'  in  Josh. 
xU.  8, '  the  aa«  of  Ohhmcrolh  f  and  in  John 


i.  1,  '  the  I 


aotT 


Itia 


nrapan 


■Ion  of  lb*  Jordan,  and  the  emTeDt  of  the 
riTBT  la  ililbl*  ta  Ibe  middle  of  tba  lake. 
Ita  dimetuiont  ha«  ool  been  preoiaely  si- 
•Mtalned.  Plinj  makes  It  to  ba  aliteen 
Kiilas  long  and  six  broad;  Olin  oonjec- 
torad  llM  iMtgtb  lo  be  cwelTe  miles,  and  its 
bxadlh  ail.  Both  stalemeiits  prababl]'  ex- 
«e«d  th*  realltj.     Wilh  a  undj  bottom,  it 


3  GAL 

on  In  the  lake,  bai  onl;  from  Ita  eborea. 
When,  a  few  jtun  since,  Tiaited  by  Olin,  it 
had  on  ita  vaiers  only  tvo  amall  boats.  We 
eite  tmm  thai  intelligent  trareller  (ii.  399)  : 
*  I  remained  sealed  upon  ona  of  Ihoaa  an- 
cient tombs  (or  half  an  hoot  or  more,  to 
enjoy  (be  lorely  and  magniScettl  pioapeot 
*hieh  it  afforded  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  and 
Oie  region  adjacent  It  was  fnnr  or  five 
hundred  feet  below  me,  its  snrhee  no 
smooth  ai  to  seem  coTered  with  oil,  and 
glltteiing  in  the  beama  of  a  bright  and 
'  Dg  snn,  tbongh  darkened  here  and 
with  the  moTicg  shadow  of  a  cinud. 
The  bigb  bold  shore  is  a  good  deal  de- 
preiaed  on  the  north  and  north  cut,  where 
tbe  Jordan  enters,  anil  it  oceuionally  de- 
clines a  little,  or  Is  broken  (brough  by  a 
narrow  TiUsy  in  aonie  otherplaoes  ;  but  with 
few  exceptiani  it  is  erery  where  a  moantaia 
Bteep,  naually  elolhed  with  graat,  shmbs 
and  amall  treea.  In  a  f^w  places,  where  Ibe 
alope  is  mora  gentle,  it  is  coiend  wiUt 
wheat  and  ploughed  fields.' 

The  ordinaiy  pFscetUnett  of  the  lake, 
whirh  JB  owing  lo  ita  lying  in  a  basin  formed 
of  hills  that  nm  np  on  sll  aides,  except  at 
tbe  namiw  entrance  and  oallet  ot  the  Jor- 
dan, is  occasionally  diatDrbed  by  endden 
goats  and  tempeats  cansed  by  winda  mah- 
iug  down  froic  ita  encompaaaing  moimtaina, 
which,  howSTCr,  aoon  abate  their  fory,  and 
leave  the  walera  in  their  UBtial  tranquillily, 
^mp.  Lake  viil.  S8,  wf. 

The  following   description   is  froni  aa 

Arabic  poem  of  die  tenth  csntnry,  A.  X). 

'  Bui  lot  Urn,  mn  of  IbnUsi,  I  would  not  qoM 

the  Lake  of  Tabula  whU*  tba  Ghcv  la  wana 

and  Ita  wan  cold. 

Tbs  water-tiidt  fl«t  on  Its  UOowa,  Hka  tks 

[M*n  ofblsck  bonia,  without  bildlM. 
Whan  tba  wlsda  laab  U,  yin  would  think  you 
uw  two  aimlss,  on*  IB  fflfU,  the  oibei  In 

Tbs  HMD  aksdi  hsi  ladliBCS  on  the  laka,  bat 


••■lidlatl 
ujoneh,  U 


fa««  trwpct  and  limpid  walera,  eontaining, 
espfoiall;  in  the  northern  parte,  abnndauee 
ef  flab.  Ita  enTirone  fbim  peibapa  Ihe  moat 
loTely  part  of  Palestine.  Their  inbabiliatB 
enjoy  tbs  temperature  ot  the  Iropiee,  and 
Bnrokhardt  slalea  thai  meiona  are  ripe  there 
a,  moBBi  earlier  than  at  Daraasens.  Tra- 
Vellsrs  sgree  In  speaking  wamly  of  the 
tieMity  of  At  eceaery,  wbiefa  was  of  old  de- 
scribed In  glowlngtennsby  Josephus  and  the 
TaliDiidiBta.  Pormerly,  Sonriahing  cities, 
■neb  as  Tiberias,  Bethaaida,  and  Ctper- 
naum,  enliTeneA  ila  ahores,  which  are  now 
■Dent  and  desolate,  bal  atill  besntihd.  The 
ealm  wbieb  ordinarily  prerailed  on  its  'bosom 
waa  rudely  broken  by  a  batHe  fought  there, 
in  Um  days  of  Tcspasian,  between  the  Ro- 
mane  and  llie  Jews.    Pishing  is  still  canied 


Tbs  Uida  warble  si 

Intiatattagudens. 
ItOaahes  UkearsimdnilnorwbsBthsTiIlUuit 


GALILEANS  were  inhabilanla  of  QaUee 
(MarkitT.  TO).  Hie  name  appean  alao  to 
indintta  a  pditlca]  party  who,  tmder  die 
leadership  of  Judas  of  Oalilee  (Acta  T.  37), 
raised  an  tnanrreellon  against  tbe  Bomau 
power,  aHeging  that  Ooi  only  waa  the  6oTe- 
nigD  of  the  Jews.  They  nay  be  refre- 
■ented  nnder  die  name  Hendians,  that  is. 
asssrten  of  (be  sola  authority  of  llerod,  as 
representatire  of  Jebonb,  and  holding,  in 
GOnseqaenee,  that  tribot*  Aoald  be  pud  to 


OAL  604  OAH 

S.)  ma  Lord  wtwOur  H  mu  UwM  to  gin         Roift  I*  han  trmalatBd  dMr,  >  bOa.'  »> 

raU  to  Caur,  or  nM ;  knowinc  thM  if  b*  lb«  Bewntj.     Camp.  HML  zxriL    S^     ami 

■niwncd  in  tlu  ■fflmutiTt,  ha  voold  ooov-  Huk  it.  2S,  irixn  it  i<  Mid  Ibeiv  was  j^ita 

promiM   hiniKlt  with  tfaa   puty  of  DUJTa  la  Jmoi  'niugir  mingM  witta   (■!!,'    aad 

pUrioU;  uid  if  he  replied  in  tha  negatiTa,  '  win*  minglad  widi  mjnh.'    Th*  wins   aad 

be  would  expoH  himHlf  lo  tlia  Tsngeanoe  of  Iba  Tincgw  da>aM  wilk  •■Attent  naanieaa 

dw  Bomuu ;  ■  ipaoimeD  of  wfaow  ttieritj  tb*  atnia  >eid  drink,  kod  Out  myiTb  and  ik 

ii  tbmid  in  Ibe  fua  of  ihoHOalileaniwhoni  gili  agree  in  ahowinf  tbat  tbara  was  in  Ab 

Klata  ale*  whila  enfragad  in  lliair  nligiona  barerage  a  deooetioa  of  aoma  biuar  l*nli». 

rltaa  (Lube  xiii.  I).  Probablr,  '  gall'  vaa  oaed  aa  a  gaueni  Mb^ 

OALL,    tbe    Horadon    gmarallj    called  for  an  uet«dinglT  bitter  Uqaid. 
'  bila.'     In  Job  iri.  13,  where  tbs  word  oa-        O1UJ.EBIE8,  from  a  Hebmr  wotd   dc- 

nin,  the  metaphor  ia  takan  bttm  Ibe  dia-  noting  '  winding,'  nfara,  in  Cant.  viL    9.  (d 

embowiiling  of  eaptond  aoinala.  and  ttia  what  wu  probablj  rowa  of  biaided    hair. 

phrase  ii  aqairalent  to '  ha  nlterlj  deatreyetb  naed  aa  otnamanta  on  the  bead  of  fliniafiia 
me' (oomp.  Job  xz.  20).    Tbe  pasaagw  n-         Another  taim  rendered  *  gaUeriea,' in  Eark. 

famd  10  make   it  clear  that  the  aoeienH  xlL  10,  16,  ntj  mean  oolonnndea,  or  raimm 

Boaaidprcd  Ibe  gall  aa  intimaielj  conneeled  of  pillan. 

with  Ibe  MM  and  fanotioai  of  life.  OALLET — from  thn  mmliiial  T  a(iii  jaalia. 

OALL.  Hebrew  roih  (I>eat.  T«in,  18),  a  a  long  Taaael  with  a  ahatp  prow;  sod  dua, 

planl  (Hen.  i.  i)  bearing  baniei  of  a  hitter  perbapa,  from  tbe  Latin  gatia,  a  hdmet  or 

tute  (DeuLixxii.  32).    Some  have  flied  on  defense — aigniflea  ■  apeein  of  ahip  drlr^ 

hemlock,  olhen  benbana,  and  olbera,  again,  bj  oaia  and  amplofed  in  wai.     Tbe  orifr™*' 

eenlani7,  whiuh  ia  need  in  medieina  on  ae-  word    (la.  xxiiii.  21)    laaTca    it   anserta£> 

eonnt  M  ite  bitter  and  lonie  piopertiea.     Jo  whether   or  not  a  ^ip  of  war  ia  iniiaiil. 

Pa.  liii.  21  are  the  words,  thoo^  the  tenor  of  tbe  paasage  inalinea  ta 

'The;  (an  me  Rail  tor  BIT  BWt.  the  afflimatire.    TheantrapTeeenta  an  E|7p- 

ADd  In  m  tlilnt  tlwT  fiTa  ma  TiMiar.*  tian  mael  of  war. 


OALLIO.  the   Koman  proconinl  of  the  Hebrewa,  the  gibbet  waa  naed  for  expoaura 

Greek  proTinee  of  Aohaia,  of  whidi  Corinth  merely,  or  for  the  deatrnelioD  of  life  aa  well, 

waa  the   eapilal;  before  him,    aocordinglj,  hu  been  a  BUbje«l  of  debate.     It  ma;   ba 

tbe  Jewi  laid  their  complaint  againat  Paul  that  the  fanner  poaition  has  the  prrponder- 

(AotaiTiii.  12).   Oaliiowaa  oolrbia  adopled  auce  of  probabililr- 

name.     Properlj,  he  waa  called  Harcaa  An-  GAMALIEL    (H.    Owfi  reeomfmct),     a 

Dana  Novatoa.     He  was  a  brother  of  the  celebrated  Jewiah  doctor,  of  the  sect  of  the 

renowned  Roman  phUoaopber  Seneca,  with  Fhariaeea,  and  a  teacher  of  ibe  apoatle  PanI 

whom  ha  waa  oondemnad  lo  aoffer  death  b;  (Acta  ixiL  8).     He  was  at  a  later  period  ■ 

the  tjranl  Neto.  memberot  the  Sanhedrim, 01  Jewish  aenate, 

Oallio'a  indifhTenee  to  raligiona  qneationa  at  a  meeting  of  which  he  gave  utterauee  ta 

( 13)  ia  characlerlalio  of  Ibe  apiril  of  Roman  mild  opinions,  and  procured  the  liberatjon 

philoaophy,  and  ia  now  not  without  lla  ooun-  of  tbe  aconaed  apostles  (i.  84,  sn.).     He  ia 

lerpart  even  among  proteaaed  fblloware  of  oommonlj  acooanted  tha   aame  aa  the  rv< 

bim  who  waa  bom,  auftred,  and  died,  to  nowned  rabbi  Oamaliel,  who  appears  to  bare 

bear  witness  lo  the  tmtb.    See  Aovii^  lired  at  the  same  time,  and  to  bare  been 

SALLOWS,  in  Esther  iL  i,  ia,  lilerallj  president  of  the  Sanhedrim. 
rendered,  a  poat  or  tree ;  eomp.  Oen.  iL  19,         aAUUABIUS,  the,  are  (Eiek.  xxrii.  II) 

and  Dent.  ui.  23.     Whether,  among  tbe  said  10  be  in  tha  wwenofTfre.  Ifiheword 


GAR  605  G  A  Z 

is  ft  proper  name,  we  ure  left  to  eonjectnie  orer ;  while  my  heart  beat  and  my  eyes  wei% 

what  people  is  meant.    If  it  is  not  a  proper  bathed  with  tears,  at  sneh  a  memorial  of 

name,  onr  position    is   not  mneh  better,  past  ages  amidst  sneh  a  soene  of  present 

Lather,  however,  following  the  Septoagint,  wretchedness.' 

rendered  the  word  *  watehmen.'  This  trans-  QARNEB  (L.  grtmarium,  a  '  granaiy,'  or 
lation  has  some  support  in  the  probable  '  bam,'  Matt  ilL  12 ;  comp.  Lake  ziL  24)  re- 
meaning  of  the  teim,  and  in  its  aocordanoe  presents  a  Greek  word,  apotheki,  signifying 
with  the  tenor  of  the  passage.  a  repository,  store,  or  shop,  fbond  in  oar 

GARDENS  (T.,  garten,  Ger.)  were  eom-  word  apotheetnj  (see  the  article),  and  is 

mon  in  Palestine  (Amos  ir.  9),  being  held  equivalent  to  the  more  common  term  bam, 

by  kings  and  private  individuals  for  their  by  which  the  original  is  sometimes  ren- 

▼egetable  productions  (1  Kings  xzL  2, 18)  dered  (Matt  vi.  26). 
and  for  purposes  of  pleasure  (2  Kings  ix.         GATH  (H.  a  preu),  a  Philistine  town  ly. 

27;  zzv.  4.  Jer.  zziz.  5),  which  was  contri-  ing  to  the  north  of  Gaza,  between  Ashdod 

buted  to  by  shady  trees,  flowers,  fruits,  and  and  Ekron  (I  Sam.  v.  8,  $8q,).    Hither  the 

odorous  plants  (Cant  iv.  12, 13, 16 ;  ▼.  1 ;  vi.  ark  was  conveyed  from  Ashdod.   Here  abode 

11),  produced  and  enhanced  in  value  by  arti-  Goliath  (1  Sam.  zvii.  4 ;  comp.  Josh.  zL  22). 

ficial  culture  and  irrigation  (Cant  iv.  15.  Jer.  To  it  king  David  fled  from  the  face  of  Saul 

zzzi.  12).  Gardens  furnished  spots  for  inter-  (1  Sam.  zzi.  10)  ;  afterwards,  he  conquered 

ment  (2  Kings  zzi.  18.  John  ziz.  41),  and  the  place  (1  Chron.  zviii.),  which  was  forti- 

were  abused  for  purposes  of  idolatry  (Is.  fled  by  Behoboam  (2  Chron.  zi.  8).    Under 

Izv.  8.  Ezek.  vi  18).    'A  watered  garden'  Jehoash,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  8y- 

is  an  image  of  a  flourishing  condition  (Is.  rians  (2  Kings  xii.  17),  from  whom  it  was 

IviiL  11);  'a  garden  that  hath  no  water'  recovered  by  the  same  monarch  (ziii.  25). 

(i.  80),  on  whose  presence  vegetation  is  in  It  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistines  in  the 

the  East  so  much  dependent,  vividly  beto-  time  of  Uzziah,  who  laid  the  place  in  ruins 

kens  want  and   unhappiness.    See  Gbth-  (2  Chron.  zzvi.  6).    From  diis  overthrow 

SBMAHB.    In  Aleppo,  gardens  cover  all  the  it  seems  not  to  have  recovered,  for  Amoa 

roofs  of  the  city,  so  that  it  is  easy  to  walk  (vi*  2)  speaks  of  it  as  fallen,  and  later  pro- 

from  one  end  of  it  to  the  other  over  the  phets  do  not  mention  it  together  with  the  four 

streets  and  over  the  houses.  other  chief  cities  of  the  Philistines  (Jer.  zzv. 

GARLANDS    (F.   guirlande,    'gird'?),  20.  Zeph.  ii.4.  Zech  iz.  5).    In  the  time  of 

wreaths  of  flowers  put  round  the  head,  are  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  nodiing  certain  was 

mentioned  in  Acts  ziv.  18,  where  the  priests  known  of  its  locality :  the  aame  is  the  case 

of  Jupiter  at  Lystra,  having  taken  Barnabas  af  the  present  day. 

and  Paul  for  gods,  bring  ozen  to  saeriAce  to        GAZA  (H.  ttnmg),  a  very  ancient  eit> 

the  apostles,  and  with  them  garlands — so-  (Gen.  z.  19)  in  the  land  of  Uie  Philistines, 

cording  to  Hsmmond,  to  put  on  the  heads  on  the  sea  coast,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Be- 

of  the  ozen  just  before  they  were  immolated,  aor.    It  was  the  capital  of  Philistia,  and 

Victims  ars  in  the  remains  of  ancient  art  famous  for  its  trade  and  its  fortificationa. 

seen  with  garlands,  thus  aifording  conflma-  After  David  had  conquered  the  place,  it  be- 

tion  of  the  Scripture.  longed  to  Simeon.    Here  was  a  celebrated 

GARMENTS  are  in  Matt,  zzi  8,  said  to  temple  of  Dagon,  and  here  Samson  per- 
have  been  spread  before  our  Lord  by  a  very  formed  his  memorable  deeds.  The  Persian 
great  multitude  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jerasa-  king,  Darius,  had  placed  here  laige  trea- 
lem,  who,  obviously  taking  him  for  the  Mes-  sures,  on  which  account  it  was  captured  by 
siah,  thus  rapturously  greeted  his  approach.  Alezander  the  Great  Simon  Maccabeus, 
The  custom  was  common  in  the  East,  and  that  valiant  defender  of  Jewish  liberty,  bav- 
in tended  to  show  special  honour  (2  Kings  ing  subdued  the  place,was  moved  by  the  tears 
iz.  18).  In  the  '  Agamemnon'  of  JBschylus,  of  its  inhabitants  so  as  not  to  lay  it  was^e 
Clytemnestra  causes  carpets  to  be  spread  out  with  fire  and  sword ;  but  he  purified  the 
before  her  returning  husband,  that  on  de-  city  from  idolatry,  and  restored  the  worship 
scending  from  his  chariot  he  may  place  his  of  Jehovah.  By  turns,  the  town  was  in  the 
foot '  on  a  purple  covered  path.'  When  Cato  hands  of  the  kings  of  Egypt  and  of  Syria, 
of  Utica  left  the  Macedonian  army,  the  sol-  Alezander  Janneus,  the  Asmonean,  victori- 
diers  spread  their  clothes  in  his  way.  In  ous  like  his  more  renowned  namesake,  like 
Palestine,  when,  owing  to  a  rebellion,  the  him  tarnished  the  glory  of  his  success  by 
inhabitants  of  Bethlehem  were  in  deep  dis-  the  infunous  barbarity  with  which  he  treated 
tress,  *  the  aged  people,'  says  Mr.  Farren,  the  valiant  garrison  he  had  subdued.  The 
then  English  consul  at  Damascus,  *  with  city  had  been  defended  with  ezemplary  cou- 
tears  and  lamentations,  came  out  and  met  rage  by  Aretas,  king  of  Northern  Arabia, 
me,  to  beseech  my  intercession  on  the  cruel  The  senators,  who,  to  the  number  of  five 
oppression  that  afflicted  them;  and,  1800  hundred,  had  taken  sanctuary  in  the  temple 
years  after  the  memorable  record  of  that  of  Apollo,  were  dragged  forth  and  mur- 
eustom,  they  strewed  their  garments  in  my  dered.  Nor  did  the  slaughter  cease  until 
path,  which,  with  my  suite,  I  literally  rode  all  the  population  had  perished.    The  wo- 


mm  aad  duMmi  *>n  put  to  ilu  nraid  pli  ia  lAick  «•■  «b  Uol,  — Hhi|T»J  i^iitm 

by  Oieir  ami  htubuda  and  fUkgn.  to  u>«  llu  aam*  af  Uami,  lAioh  gnJ—i«  p  — li 

Ihun  from  a  mora  snul  tila  M  (lu  huida  »t  to  b*  dMirofed.     Oa  Oa  tmam  at  tko  taBfIc 

the  nliatliu  Tieton.    Th»  town  wu  r^aill  a  Chriitil  abaMh  WM  wteloJ.     Ia    G«s> 

bj1>aUBwj;  »twr  irhista  it  goTBmad  itaslf,  utd  tbs  jieiai»f  Cliiuli*Bttr  VH    pfaaini 

Diiiw  tha  pcoMolioa  of  Ihs  Bsaani,  tucil  bj  Philip  (Aid  nii.  M,  W),  jvt  —''*"'-■' 

AnfoMni  gas*  i>  In  king  Hand.     Aftai  kk  puaMBOOt  ■Qiioui. 

daath,  it  fonncd  «  put  of  tlia  ptovliiM  of         The  (l*u  of  iba  pna^  dagr,  du   oMtf 

SniA.    Al  tha  lima  of  Ilia  hirUi  of  liia  Mn-  ^  of  &■  paorioM  of  Qm*,  liai  in  ■■  nn- 

_      ,    .       .,        -f,ta  Oauater-  ■—  *~:.'-i •-■= 


fardao.    Han  Aa  ar*  k  daUgbtcd  vHh  ■  Sibal  wn  an  meiaat  eHj, 

graal   pntaaton   of  Tvgglable   pradaotioni.  J«his^  plaoa  of  coDqnoM,   but  « 

(Hiraa,  figi,enng*a,<silroiia,  *hiH»ida,palit»,  tmnght  into  latgsctioD  to  Itii   lanelitea 

alao  abotmd.    Loid  Hagnit,  in  mrning  htna  <Jsah.  itiL  0),     Qebal  wia  eatled   bj  tha 

EgTpt,  aMand  to  dM  aovfti  of  Saa*  ■  npon  Oroaka  Bfbloa.    It  laj  betwean  Tripolii  and 

a  floa  phfa  ooTand  iritfi  nBumenhti,  aaa-  Baijtua.    It  vm  hald  to  be  tha  oldert  eitj 

mmw,  aaphodal,  and  wU  tBofaiaoMtt,  In  of  PhanioU,  and  na  ralebralad  tbr  the  woT' 

fall  blovra.'    Tha  naw  town,  whisfa  Uaa  on  iUp  of  Adoiii*.    TTndar  iha  nama  of  Disho- 

tmj  htU*  aome  diataoaa  ftwn  wfaua  atood  ball,  it  atOl  haa  a  oonaidcnble  popnlatioD. 

tfn  oM,  la  a  fnat  eonuii«Rdal  antnpM  ba-  II  moat  not  be  aonfoimded  with  Oabal  of 

tvsBB  Bgnt  anB  Bjria.  Pa.  IXKiiiL  T,  wfaidi  bom  the  eonneetioii 

OBBA  (H,  a  idlf),  a  «il7  in  Banjamln  appawa  to  dtnota  a  aontheni  p1ao«;  in  aO 

(1  Kinga  XT.  S9),  difcaBt  from,  j«t  ncs  to,  fvob^biHtj,  the  diaBriet  eallcd  hj  fta  Bo- 

Oflwah  (Joab.  xTia  31,  96.    Ia.  i.  »).     It  Bu  Oebalena  (now  Daehebal),  a  poctiam 

□mat  bam  atood  oeai  Iha  nortfadm  boon-  of  Edom,  bcptming  Deal  tbs  aonlhsm  aod 

dary  of  Benjamin,  •iooe  in  S  Sin^  niii.  6,  of  the  Dead  S«. 

*s  find  the  woi4a  from  '  Ovba  to  Bearaheba,'  OEDALdAH  (H.  Oodiia^^iviifiiaMl.the 

aa  deaertpIiTe  of  the  kingdom  of  Jodah  in  aonofAhikatn,  whom  Nebacbajtoe^ur  made 

Ita  eiMnl  fn>m  north  to  eoath.     Aflearding  gorcrnor  over  the  people  flitl  he  alloved  to 

),  It  by  aonth  of  a  paaa  whinh  ap-  tamain  in  Jndah.    Oedaliah,  taking  vp  bia 

a  paaaage  ftom  the  king-  aboila    at   Hiipd,  endeiTonrad  to  reaUra 

that  of  Jndafa;  on  whidi  tnnqnillitT  and   eooial    oonDilenae,    urging 

vaa  fortiaed  bj  A»a  (S  Ohnm.  the  lanelitea    ■  to  aarre    the    Obaldeana.' 

iTi.  6).  While  pDnoiog  theae   peaoafol    meaaares, 

OEBAL,  a  Tfrian  eitj,  diatlDgaiahed   in  he,  at  die  inalanor  of  fiaalia,  king  of  the 

the  art  of  Aip.bDiUing  (Eaek.  xxrii.  9),  AmmoBiIra,   waa    alain   bj  tdnnael,  a  de- 

and  for  olerer  wotkmen  in  wood  %ai  boo.  aeendant  of  the  Hebrew  kinga  (S  Kinga  xxj. 

From  Ml  place  men  were  seat  b;  Hiram  to  M,  itq.   Jer.  zl.  9,  teg.  dl.).      Oedaliah'a 

aid  Bolomon  in  erecting  the  temple  ( I  Kinga  friends  rallied  after  a  abort  time,  and  de- 

T^,  where  Oie  marglQal '  Oiblitaa'  ia  pre-  feated  Ishmael;  bnt,  foariny  the  iudiacrimi- 

MraUa  to  be  ■  ebuu-hewen'  in  the  ih().  nate  wratti  of  the  king  of  Dabflon,  du  ehia< 


GEN                      607  GEN 

nten  fled  into  Bgy^^  eontrtty  tothe  advice  of  eseee  to  whoiB  die  taheritOMe  pMn4  iMd 

Jeremish,  whota  they  compelled  to  go  with  ft  plaee  ^  the  tegiBtet,  fttoo  wmk  fenudes, 

them.    The  piophet^B  thfefttenikigB,  however,  moifeeM,  m  iretc  of  historieti  imporumce. 

^piroved  true ;  for  the  ChaMeaii  geneni],  Ne-  That  fsniele  TiMfiin  iv«re  not  iiiMKMnDon, 

bnzar-adan,  completed  the  captivity  of  the  fhlly  appean  from  tfM  paasage  in  Joee^ns 

Batzon  (Jer.  lii.  80).  just  referred  to,  where,  among  othar  Hifaiga, 

GENE ALOOY<d. a /utofitftftf),  denotes  it  ia  aaid  that  a  ptiest  taut  « lakA  bis 

« register  of  ancestral  names.  The  practice  of  ^wife's  genealogy  Ikom  the  anokatt  tables.' 

making  and  preserving  genealogiee  premila  Genealogies  wore  sometimes  drawn  np  with 

among  tiie  Arabs  at  the  present  day,  and  some  refersnoe  to  a  certain  ideal  exceHenoe, 

was  observed  in  ancient  times  by  Eastern  na-  regard  being  had  to  sacral  nvmbers  er  <he 

tions,  especially  among  the  Israelites,  whose  sisniktfity  of  periods^    The  gsnealogy  of  oar 

position  as  GodTs  chosen  people,  whose  civfl  Lord  in  Malt.  I.  17>  is  drawn  «p  te  diree 

constitotion,  the  very  foundations  of  whi<^  lonrteens.  This  regard  to  pM>porti<Ma  soae. 

were  laid  in  ftunilies  and  tribes,  and  whose  times  occaeionod  theomiaeioa  <Sf  names;  Ih^s 

religions  system,  consigned  exchisively  to  the  in  Hati.  i.  8,  between  JehMWA  «Dd  Ussiah, 

care  of  one  tribe,  conspired  to  make  them  three  kings  are  omitted.    See  d  Chion.  xzil. 

pay  special  attention  to  ibe  subject    Tlis  ^^nv ;  <xnnp.  Enra  vii.  1-^,  "witti  1  Chron. 

appropriate  Hebrew  appellation  was  *  book  Vi.  9^-^0.    In  sMse  instaaees,  nsaes  were 

of  generations,'  which  we  find  so  esarly  as  "omitted  in-ord^lo  shoflen  the  register;  in 

Oen.  V.  I,  used  in  relation  to  the  immediate  others,  b^eanse  ^Oie^  belonged  to  persons 

descendants  of  Adam.    Oomp.  Matt.  i.  I.  held  in  disrepiMe.    Persons,  too,  sf  pear  as 

Genealogies  were  at  first  preserved  by  die  sons,  who,  according  to  more  exact  state- 

msmory,  and  trimsmitted  byword  of  mouth,  nents,  were  gnmdsctas.    Oenipk  Bsra  v.  S, 

But  as  soon  as  writing  ^ras  employed  in  or-  <(nd  I  Chron.  iti.  19.    fTsngss  whiA  lay  in 

dhiai7  life,  it  was  used  to  aid  in  the  preser-  the  privacy  cf  dottiestle  9lfe,  and  are  now  fier 

vation  of  funily  registers,  as  being  the  es-  «^er  lost,  may  occasion  to  modem  exposi* 

sentisl  condition  of  securing  property  and  tors  of  the  Soriptme  difllculties  whidi  of  old 

preventing  taint  of  blood.    Here  was  the  had  no  existence.    Whttt  dtSevlties  wenld 

commencement  of  history,  i^tch  among  the  ^  experienced  by  a  futm^  'Wposilor  of  the 

Hebrews  retired  a  genealogical  character,  laws  of  descent  «ad  l^eritmoe  psemdest  fen 

Indeed,  the  term  '  book  of  genSrstions*  had  Ihe  history  of  ttie  Ettgfiifti  nation,  did  he 

a  wider  applioation,  as  may  be  se«n  in  its  ^^setos  no  mofe  dt  &e  remains  of  ma  Hts- 

being  used  to  denote  an  account  of  the  crea-  rature  than  we  have  of  that  of  the  ancient 

tion  (Gen.  v.  1).    Accordingly,  we  find  ge-  Israelites  I  The  genealogies  of  Jesus  Christ 

nealogies  wrought  into,  or  placed  before,  given  by  Matthew  and  Lilke  have  occasioned 

historical  narratives  in  the  Old  Testament  "gt^st  trouble  to  theologians,  chleflybesaose, 

(iv.  17,  $eq,  1  Cbron.  i).    Besides  genealo-  under  the  inflnimoe  of  a  Mse  Amiry,  they 

gies  ct  families  snd  tribes.  Genesis  Anrnishes  timed  at  bringing  thb  mro  itfis  a  «triot  ao- 

a  register  of  nations  (x.).    Of  special  im-  *sordance,  'never  Nmembeitog  thAt  a  some- 

portanoe  were  genealogies  of  priests  and  whaJt  difinrent  aim  in  eafeh  ease  would  give 

kings.    The  formerwere  found  immediately  ^rise  to  dlTersities.    On  the  other  hand,  they 

after  the  exile  (Ezra  ii.  62.  Neh.  vil  64),  h«fto  been  blame woillqr  wlio,  tnm  tba  ad- 

which  were  caieftilly  preserved.     Indeed,  mitted  diflculties>  hav^e  MuUy  dedmsd  in- 

those  who  then  claimed  to  be  priests  were  VeMnces  unftivonnble^'the  liisloffioalworflk 

obliged  to  submit  to  a  scrutiny;  and  if  they  of  the  ntffativss;  as  If  it  vrese  likely  that 

failed  to  establish  their  daim,  they  were  ex-  ftibricated  'gMiealogles  iMMdd  hatie  been  put 

eluded  firom  the  oiBce.    Josephus  (against  into  circulation  at  it  *lhne  wlien  their  enrors 

Apion,  i.  7)  speaks  in  strong  teims  of  &s  eouM -easily  be  exposed  'ttid  their  Intended 

care  taken  of  these  registers,  and  deeUtfes,  putpose  defeated.  The  wiFVival  of  the  gene- 

'  we  have  the  names  of  our  high  priesto,  tnra  slogies  and  -of  the  books  to  wbich  they  are 

father  to  son,  set  down  in  our  records  Hit  prefixed,  pvores  that  they  were  "at  tite  first 

two  thousand  years.'    Of  royal  genealogies,  recognised  as  of  liisteriesl  and  argumente- 

specimens  may  be  found  in  Buth  (iv.  17)  tive  value. 

and  the  Gospeis  (Matt  i.  Luke  ili.  S8,  mq.) ;  The  genealogy  fiven  In  Ifatthew  is  tfiat 

in  both  eases,  the  object  being  to  tnce  an  df  'Joseph,  the  husband  of  Mary'  (i  16). 

individual  back  to  David.    Comp.  Joseph.  Tlte  last  words  ptrvve  that  ite  object  was  to 

'  Life,'  L    The  Assyrian  captivity  may  have  trace,  not  the  lineal,  but  the  juridioal  connee- 

brought  conftision  into  the  genealogical  lists,  tion  of  Jesus  Christ  wi&  David  and  Abraham, 

but  from  rabbinical  authority  We  learn  that  Snd  so  to  shAw  his  tifiii  to  be  flie  (spiri- 

at  least  some  fbmiUes  preserved  their  regis-  tual)  suesessor  to  the  throne  of  Israel,  and 

tors  tOl  the  final  overcrow  of  the  state,  the  great  fhlfillsr  nf  '  the  premises  made  to 

Generally,  it  was  only  the  names  of  males  the  fathers'  (Bom.  xv.  6).  This,  the  aim  of 

fiiat  entered  into  genealogies;  since  on  their  the  genealo^,  shows  why  certain  names 

descent  the  property,  snd  on  tfieir  deeds  the  were  omitted  as  being  unworthy,  finom  their 

honour,  of  fnniiies  depended.    But  heir-  idolatrous  propensities,  to  stand  in  a  list  of 


6  £  B  608  6  £  R 

dM  pndMetton  of  'die  dnlat  of  (ML'    A  tain  Um  fmenllj  northwaida, 

•iBiUr  reMon  lad  the  eompiler  to  meatioii  8e<^»iis,  on  die  nortfa  of  die  city.     In  pte- 

ThMiier,  Beheb,   Both,  and  Bediaheb* —  ceeding  to  Oeriam,  Bobineon  peeseid  the 

neaea  hoiiooied  in  Hehiev  hiatofj,  and  wady  of  Jnfha  (Oopbna),  vhiefa,  as  vdl  ai 

theiefoie  anitable  anteeedents  to  'Mny,  of  the  aidea  of  the  moimtaina  aionnd,  be  de- 

whom  waa  bom  Jeaoa.'  acribea  aa  Teiy  ftiUy  eoltiTated,  and  aboond- 

The  genealogy  given  in  Lake  ia  probably  ing  in  oUvea,  vinea,  and  fig-trees.     Aimmd 

that  of  Maiy.    lliia  mi^  ^PpMr  ftom  the  the  Tillage  itaelf  are  also  nmneroiiB  sp^c, 

wonU  (iiL  23)  '  aa  waa  aappoaed/  or,  <  aa  pear,  fig,  pomegranate,  apricot,  and  some 

he  waa  aeeoonled,'  namely,  1^  law,  in  conae-  walnnt  treea.    The  landecape  on  erery  aide 

qnenee  of  Joeqph'a  being  BCaiy'a  hoaband.  ia  rich,  and  indicatea  a  hi^  degree  of  lier- 

The  Hew  ia  confirmed  by  the  hei  that  Heli  tili^  aind  dirift.     At  JilgiUa,  which  atanda 

ia  made  Joaeph'a  ftuher,  bat  in  Matthew  hia  near  the  weatein  brow  of  the  high  momUain 

Iktber  ia  aaid  to  be  Jacob  (L  16) ;  whence  it  tract,  there  ia  an  extenaive  Tiew  ower  the 

aeema  likely  that  Heli,  aa  the  lather  of  Mary,  great  lower  plain  and  the  aea,  and  the  moun- 

waa  Joaeph'a  father-in-law.     Comp.  Bath  L  taina  of  Gilead  maybe  seen  in  the  eaat.  Far 

8,  11,  13.    The  compiler  having  tbna  con-  in  the  north-eaat  ia  to  be  deaeried  s  lofty, 

nected  Jeaoa  with  HeU,  throogfa  Helfa  aon>  dark  blae  moontain,  which   ia  Jebel   es- 

in-Uw  and  the  legal  lyher  of  Jeaoa,  tracea  Sheikh,  the  Hennon  of  Scriptore.     Singil 

the  line  on  the  mother^a  aide  not  merely  op  oreriooka  a  broad  fertile  yalley,  whi^  to- 

to  Dand  and  Abraham,  but,  aince  he  waa  wards  the  eaat,  apreada  oat  into  a  rich  basin, 

writing  mainly  for  pagana,  ap  to  the  common  or  plain,  of  considerable  extent,  aarronnded 

progenitor  of  mankind,  and  to  the  author  of  by  fine  hilla.  The  great  Nabloaa  road  pssaea 

the  nniTerae  *»''»— '^   By  the  joint  operadon  throngh  the  Talley.  At  Seilan  (ShDoh),  yon, 

of  the  two  genealogies,  Jesas  Chriat  waa,  on   proceeding  to  Nablooa,  enter  wady  el> 

ihroo^  Joaeph,  hia  lepated  fiuher,  connected  Labban,  which  rana  in  a  rapid  deaeent  N.W. 

by  law  widi  Darid  and  the  patriareha,  and  by  N.,  and  then  tnms  W.,  where  it  beeomes 

alao,  by  personal  deaeent  throngh  his  mo-  level  and  fertile.    Bobinaon  found  (June  14) 

ther,  waa  ahown  to  be  deacended  from  the  fields  of  millet  green  and  beandfdl,  peiiuips 

aame  great  monarch,  and  even  from  the  firat  a  foot  high;  and  here,  for  the  first  and  only 

man,  being  through  Adam  a  aon  of  Ood.  time,  he  saw  people  at  work  weeding   the 

An  attempt  to  remove  minor  difilculties  is  millet  with  a  sort  cf  hoe,  bat  without  loosen- 
not  permitted  by  the  nanow  limita  of  this  ing  the  earth  around  the  planta.  Thia  Talley 
work.  lies  lower  than  that  by  SingiL    Yon  soon 

OENNE8ABET,  the  land  of  (Matt  ziv.  arrive  at  the  Khan  el-Lubban,  now  In  rnina, 

34.  Mark  vL  59),  was  a  small  territory  lying  lying  at  the  aoath  end  of  a  charming  little 

on  the  botdeiB  at  the  lake  of  OalHee,  which  oval  plain,  through  which  the  path  runs  in 

hence  took  one  of  its  ai^lladona.    It  ia  a  northern  direction,  where  you  frU  into  the 

apparently  the  amall  j^ain  which  rana  from  Jerusalem  road,  and  ahortly  arrive  opposite 

Magdala  to  die  nordi>weat  brink  of  the  lake,  the  riUage  of  Lubban  (Lebonah,  Jn4g.  xxL 

Thia  plain,  framed  by  the  retreating  of  the  19),  situated  in  the  N.W.  aedivitj,  consider- 

hilla  that  aanound  die  lake,  haa  a  very  ahel-  ably  above  the  plain.  At  the  N.  S.  eomer  of 

tered  poaitUm,  and,  eonaiating  of  a  fine  aUn-  the  plain  a  level  valley  eomea  in  from  the 

rial  and  well-watered  aoil,  ia  remarkable  for  eaat,  which,  expanding  more  and  more,  be- 

ptodnotiveneaa  and  beauty.    It  is  probably  eomea  an  open  plain.    Paaaing  die  village 

the  spot  in  which  stood  Capemanm.  Sawieh  and  that  of  Kubalan,  anrroonded  by 

OEBAB  (H.  pi^risMge),  the  chief  city  of  vineyards  and  large  grovea  ol  olivea  and  fig- 

a  Philiatian  kingdom  (Gen.  z.  19),  where  treea,  and  going  dbrough  a  deep  valley,  yon 

for  aome  time  dwelt  Abraham  and  Isaac  eome  to  a  steep  aacent,  on  the  tqp  of  which 

(zx.2;xxvi  I),  on  the  aouthem  border  of  you  have  a  riew   of    the  great  plain    of 

Palestine  (zz.  1.  2  Chron.  ziv.  18, 14).    It  Mokhna,  which  atretchea  along  for  several 

appeara  to  have  lain  in  a  wady,  or  vaDey,  hours  on  the  east  of  the  mountains  on  which 

iriiich  in  aeaaons  of  rain  was  a  water-courae  Nabloua  (Shechem,  or  Sychar)  is  situated. 

(Oeneais  zzvL  17).     It   is  mendoned  by  These  mountains  are  now  before  you  in  sD 

the  church  hiatorian  Sozomen,  and  can  be  their  beauty ;  Mount  Oerizim,  crowned  by 

acaroely  any  other  than  the  great  aoudiem  a  tomb  on  its  highest  point,  bearing  N.;  Jual 

^vady,  Scheriah.    Bobinson,  alter  the  moat  beyond  it,  the  entrance  of  the  valley  of  Na- 

dUigent  researches,  could  gahi  no  certahi  blous,  bearing  nearly  NN.E. ;  further  N.,  the 

^  ?i??T w  **  lo«^*J  <^  ^""f-  rugged  heights  of  Mount  Cbal ;  and  then  the 

Ui!.&IZIM  (H.  euiters),  a  mountain  of  fine  plain  extending  still  beyond,  towards 

jipnwim   over  agamst  Mount  Ebal,  from  die  NN.E.,  skirted  on  ita  eastern  aide,  in  its 

Z^i^iJlH  !I?Jf^*®**  ^  •  ^•"«y-    ^^  ^«  "^^^^  l«ngdi,  by  tracts  of  pictureaque  diough 

m^.^rS;'!  ?^  u"*^  •^  ^  ^'^^•^  *«'-  lower  hills.     This  is  a  very  ext^sive  plain. 

I!ZJ^?t?e  t.ieV.''''"'^^  """'  "  ^""*^'^-  ?r^  ^  "^L^tr  ^^-  ^'  *".  ^^-  ^ 

fhji  nr^ij  r,^  r         i  1^  prcscnts  a  beautilul  appearance  in  sum- 

Tne  road  from  Jerusalem  to  diis  moun-  mer,  being  every  wheie  cultivated.     In  June 


G  E  R                       e09  G  E  R 

it  is  eoyered  with  the  rich  green  of  miliet  hixorianee  and  beauty.  Olivea,  vinea,  ae*- 
ming^ed  with  the  yellow  of  the  ripe  grain,  eiae,  pomegranates,  figs,  mnlberriea,  and  ae- 
which  yon  may  see  the  peasants  harresting.  Tend  other  species  of  treea,  are  crowded  to- 
Pursuing  a  northern  direction,  you  come  gether  in  small  endosures,  farming  an  imper- 
to  the  little  hamlet  of  Kefr  KnUin,  on  the  vious  shade  as  well  as  impenetrable  thickets, 
aide  of  Mount  C^rizim.  Instead  of  keeping  and  yet  the  capabilities  of  the  soil  did  not 
along  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  to  the  seem  to  be  oyerburdened.  Each  separate  tree 
entrance  of  the  yalley  of  Nablous,  the  road  and  plant  thfires  to  admiration,  and  aeema 
ascends,  and  winds  round  the  N.E.  comer  rather  to  profit  than  suffer  from  the  thick 
of  Mount  Gerizim,  where  you  enter  the  val-  dark  canopy  of  branches  and  foliage  which 
ley  running  up  N.  W.  between  Gerizim  and  entirely  excludes  the  sun's  rays  from  the  tan- 
Ebal,  thus  leaving  behind  the  plain  which  gled  huddle  of  trunks  and  roots.  A  beauti- 
extends  still  further  N.  Below  you  on  the  fulmountam  stream  winds  through  the  midst 
light,  and  just  on  the  edge  of  a  plain,  are  of  this  forest  of  gardens,  and  the  water  often 
the  ruins  of  a  little  hamlet  called  Belat ;  rises  into  small  fountains  and  forma  aereral 
nearer  at  hand,  and  about  in  the  middle  cascades.  In  one  place,  it  is  collected  in  a 
of  the  mouth  of  the  nairow  Talley,  stands  large  reserroii  for  the  use  of  the  city,  from 
m  small  white  buildmg,  a  wely,  called  Jo-  which  it  flows  off  again  in  open  eonduits  to 
seph's  tomb;  while  stUl  nearer  to  the  foot  washerwomen,  who  were  plymg  their  art  in 
of  Qerizim  is  the  ancient  well,  known  considerable  numbers.  Higher  up  the  ra- 
sa that  of  Jacob.    Directly  opposite  to  the  vine  is  a  mill.' 

mouth  of  the  yalley,  among  the  eastern  Olin  has  thus  described  his  fieelings  on 
bills,  a  beautifril  smaller  plain  nms  up  approaching  this  interesting  locality: — 'Our 
eastward  from  the  larger  one ;  and  on  the  faces  were  now  turned  towards  Nablous,  still 
low  hills  near  its  entrance  on  the  north,  are  about  a  mile  distant,  in  the  deep  narrow  yale. 
seen  three  yillages.  After  turning  the  foot  On  our  left,  and  towering  perhaps  a  thou- 
of  the  mountain,  the  path  descends  a  little,  sand  feet  immediately  aboye  us,  was  Mount 
In  a  quarter  of  an  hour  you  come  out  on  Oerijom.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  open- 
ihe  bottom  of  the  narrow  valley,  near  a  fine  ing  ravine,  and  distant,  it  may  be,  half  a 
copious  fountain  in  its  middle,  fttmished  mUe,  was  Ebal,  the  mount  of  cursing,  only 
with  a  reservoir.  Below  the  fountain  towards  .a  little  less  elevated  than  (Gerizim.  A  few 
the  east,  a  tract  of  ground  of  three  or  four  rods  only  from  our  path,  and  close  to  the 
aoresy  Bobinson  found  enclosed  as  a  garden,  base  of  Gerizim,  was  Jacob's  well ;  and  near 
Above  this  point,  he  in  a  short  time  came  the  middle  of  the  interval  between  the  two 
to  olive  groves,  and  was  soon  opposite  the  mountains,  but  nearer  to  Ebal,  was  the  tomb 
eastern  end  of  the  long  narrow  town.  Keep-  of  the  patriarch  Josenh  (John  iv.  0.  Josh, 
ing  the  road  along  its  nordiem  side,  he  zxiv.  82).  Perhaps  tnere  is  no  spot  in  Pa- 
passed  some  high  mounds,  apparently  of  lestine,  out  of  Jerusalem,  richer  in  thrilling 
rabbish,  where  aU  at  once  the  ground  sinks  associations  than  that  on  which  we  now 
down  to  a  valley  running  towards  the  west,  stood.  Siohem,  or  Shecfaem,  was  the  first 
with  a  soil  of  rich  bladk  vegetable  mould,  place  in  the  land  of  Canaan  which  was  visit- 
'  Here  a  scene  of  luxuriant  and  almost  un-  ed  by  Abraham  after  hir  departure  from  Ha- 
paralleled  verdure  burst  upon  our  view.  The  ran  (Gen.  xiL  7).  In  this  beautifiil  plain 
whole  valley  was  filled  witn  gardens  of  vege-  '  before  Shechem,'  Jacob  bought  the  field  of 
tables,  and  orchards  of  all  kinds  of  fruits,  Hamor,  and  resided  till  his  sons,  in  revenge 
watered  by  several  fountains  which  burst  for  the  injury  done  their  sister  Dinah,  plun- 
forth  in  various  parts,  and  flow  westward  in  dered  and  destroyed  that  city,  which  the 
refreshing  streams.  It  came  upon  us  sud-  patriarch  thenceforward  claimed  as  his  con- 
denly  like  a  scene  of  fairy  enchantment  We  quest,  which  he  took  out  of  the  hand  of  the 
saw  nothing  to  compare  with  it  in  all  Pales-  Amorite  with  his  sword  and  his  bow  (Gen. 
tine.  Here,  beneath  the  shade  of  an  im-  zzxiii.  18,  19;  zlviiL  22).  The  territory 
mense  mulberry  tree,  by  the  side  of  a  purling  thus  acquired  by  war  and  purchase  seems 
rill,  we  pitched  our  tent'  (Robinson,  iii.  to  have  been  of  considerable  value  and  ex- 
06).  A  similar  account  is  given  by  Olin  tent,  as  Jacob  sent  out  his  flocks  from  He- 
(U.  850) : — *  Our  oourse  was  along  a  beau-  bron  to  graze  here  (Gen.  xxxviL  12).  It 
tifol  ravine  which  soon  opens  upon  the  city;  probably  embraced  a  large  portion  of  the 
in  the  mouth  of  which,  indeed,  the  city  is  wady  Sahl,  which  is  '  before '  or  east  of 
built  No  contrast  could  be  more  perfect  Shechem,  and  may  have  been  tilled  while 
and  delightful  that  that  which  unexpectedly  the  numerous  flocks  of  the  patriarch  found 
met  our  eyes  in  passing  from  the  dreary  pasturage  on  the  surrounding  hills.  It  was 
ruins  and  heights  of  Mount  Gerizim  into  on  Mount  Ebal  that  God  commanded  an 
this  charming  valley.  Upon  turning  an  angle  altar  to  be  reared,  and  a  pillar  inscribed 
in  the  steep  gorge,  we  found  ourselves,  as  with  the  law ;  and  the  tribes  were  to  be  as- 
if  by  enchantment,  in  the  midst  of  fruitful  aembled,  half  on  Ebal  and  half  on  Gerizim, 
gardens,  filled  with  vegetables,  flowers,  and  to  hear  the  feazftd  maledictions  pronounced 
fruit  trees,  all  in  the  highest  perfiection  of  by  the  Levites  on  all  who  should  violate  thi» 


mOw  him  <l]Fi»c  «JniniiHio—  (OraL  miL  pwipieM  immr4ii»ttj  tma  A*  two  ofpo- 
13.  Jotb.*iiLS8;  ni*.  JM).  ItwM  ftoa  liM  odM  rf  >  nUcr-  The  ndM  of  boA 
A*  top  «t  0«rtuBi  dtti  Jotkm  di"        '     "  .  .  _ 

kamMraMd  pnaUa  agaiaM  llw  ■ 
M  AUMMlMk  >^  the  flhiihMiWi  Mbn 
M*  1)^  M  Bwr.    WhM  giiw  ft*  high—*    MOiaii  down  eaouta  Iba  VMt  ml  of  Iha 
iBMim  to  aia  D««t  hMniM)  tsBalitr,  i^    lowB,  wfaiak  ■•  foil  o(  fcoatoiBa  and  b 
Am  It  wu  han  Aal  JaaaK  baiBK  wauiad     ta  oAar  laapaato  balk  toonBtoiDS  a>  ■ 
lato,«xeapt  d»al  a  fcw  oU**  traa*  ai 
— '  —  Iham.    The  oda  of  the  a     _ 
1.  Ebal,  ia  along  tha  bat  IW  of  «; 
■epnMuH.      Tha  aoMhaiB   ^dbb- 
M  t^  took '  Id  ha  lapnnad     toia  ia  now  sallsd  bj  tha  bhaUtaBta  Jabd 


Ttw  legend  la,  lit  XmpRvr    Ci 

■MU  iafiulw  Pnu;  that  on  tk 

■Honey  of  FUiia  NeapoUi,  of  Palanlne  in 
Sjiia." 

Uonnt  Qerfilin  derlTc*  iu  chief  intenal 
from  h»Ting  been  the  hM  of  the  SamaritiD 
wonhip  from  the  time  of  the  Babjloniih 
eutlTitj  Id  die  pnaeni  daj.  The  pagan 
eolaoiita  who  had  been  tnneplaiited  from 
■nowtamia  to  the  moDntaine  of  Ephrain), 
were  lad  to  the  adoption  of  the  Jevuh  nli- 
gloD ;  and  atUi  aoma  oTertnrei  to  obtain  ■ 
panlelpation  in  the  nalloiial  wotahip  In  J«- 
maalem, lAich  werer^eeted  bfthe  pnre  da- 
aeendantaof  Abnbain,thejereDled  a  temple 
on  Mount  Oeriiiin,  aboat  300  A.C.,  eatabliah' 
btg-independentnligiona  aerricea,  eonfbrmed 
In  an  reepecte  bnt  place  to  the  ini titnciona  of 
■loeea.  Arenagadeof  Oaaloek  of  Aaroobe- 
aama  thetr  prieat,aiKllhiu  gaira  the  (efaMaDoa 
of  *  legal  and  eren  diTine  anthoiitf  to  the 
naw  eMabliahnient.  The  ereetian  of  an  allai 
and  of  a  pillar  inacTibed  with  the  Uw.  aa 
wen  aa  Ihe  Tealdenee  of  the  ait  at  Sfaeebem, 
and  the  perfennuoe  of  that  moat  ImpTeiBiTa 
religlone  •xnmoaj  between  Ebal  and  Oeri- 
din  bj  Joahna,  had  giren  to  thia  plaee  aa 
eatlj  lepntation  for  aanetity,  which  made  ft 
the  mora  eaaj  to  aeenre  the  eonsqiTanee  of 
tta  people  In  this  bold  inooraiion.    Tbeaa 


one  of  tfiaedliliane  to  iriiidi  Qua  hoaliU 
(pint  g**a  riaa,  be  Mtnpla  on  OoiaiB  waa 
demoUahed  bj  the  Jawa,  note  ban  a  eea- 
tnrj  baliiK  Chriat  Chiiatiaaiq  waa  ^aatod 
among  diia  people  b;  the  Sarionr  hitBadf; 


aaet  in  raat  nsmbeia,  and  Ouj  aailr  mua- 
fnred  to  the  CbHatlana  a  portisD  of  Ibair 
hereditary  hatnd  u  tba  Jewa.  Tha  eiiaMMa 
of  a  ma^iifieent  ehmA  on  Hoont  Oeaixim, 
iriijch,  bom  ita  itjla  <d  anhlleataic,  moat 
bare  been  the  work  of  one  of  Iho  e«ly  Chria- 
~  '        eridanoe  td  tha 


enter  a  raTine,  abore  wfaloh  die  b 
ateep,  jet  not  aa  bnt  diat  one  might  lide  np 
widioot  diOenlly.  Twen^  minmaa  of  aa- 
eent  from  the  eily  la  d>a  dinetion  a.W.,  bd 
BoUnaon  to  tha  tap,  iriileh  la  a  Waet  o( 
high  table  land,  elMichlDg  off  lar  towuit 
the  W.  and  B.  W.  Twen^  minntea  moie  to- 
warda  tba  8.  E.,  along  a  lagolar  palb  on  the 
table  land,  btm^t  hbn  to  a  wClf ,  or  Ha- 
bommadan  tomb,  atandlBfl  on  a  ^uB  atol- 


G  £  R                       611  6  £  Z 

nenee  on  iha  eastern  brow  of  the  monntainy  dan  Tmllej.    Its  length  is  not  Aur  from  four 

and  OYerlooking  the  plain  on  the  east  and  hours ;  its  aTerago  braadth,  from  one  half- 

the  ooantry  round,  including  Hennon  in  hour  to  three  quarters  of  an  hoor.    The 

the   distance.      Here  is  the  holy  place  of  yalley  is  populoua  and  fruitfdl.     CnltiTa* 

the   Samaritans,    whither   they  still  come  tion  is  oairied  to  the  tops  of  the  mountains, 

up  four  times  a  year  to  worship.    The  spot  which  are  adorned  with  plantations  of  fruit 

where   they  sacrifice   the   Passover,    seven  trees  ;  while  every  level  spot  and   a  vast 

lambs  among  them  all,  is  just  below  the  number  of  small  fields,  supported  by  ter- 

wely.    It  is  marked  by  two  parallel  rows  of  races,  produce  wheat  Considerable  portions 

rough  stones  laid  upon  the  ground,  and  a  of  the  table  land  on  the  summit  of  Oerizim 

small  round  pit,  roughly  stoned  up,  in  which  itself  and  the  higher  parts  of  the  ravine  are 

the  flesh  is  roasted.    On  ascending  the  rise  subject  to  tillage. 

of  ground  beyond  this  spot,  the  first  object  OE6HUB  (H.  a  bridg9),  a  district  of 

which  presents  itself  are  the  ruins  of  an  im-  Aram,  or  Syria  (2  Samuel  zv.  8),  between 

mense  structure  of  hewn  stones,  bearing  Bashan  and  Maaoha  (Dent  iii.  18, 14),  and 

every  appearance  of  having  once  been  a  therefore  near  the  north-eastern  limits  of  P»> 

large  and  strong  fortress.    The  stranger  at  lestine.    The  teiritory,  though  comprised  in 

first  is  struck  with  the  idea  that  these  must  the  intended  conquest  of  Joshua,  remained 

be  the  remains  of  the  ancient  temple  of  the  in  the  hands  of  the  natives  (Josh.  xiiL  13) ; 

Samaritans ;  but  those  of  the  present  day  so  that  in  David's  time  we  find  Talmai,  king 

attach  no  sanctity  to  these  ruins,  snd  sim-  of  Geshur  (2  Ssm.  iii  8). 

ply  call  them  el-Kolah,  the  Castle.    They  OESHURITES,  the  inhabitants  of  a  dis- 

are  probably  the  remains  of  a  fortress  erected  trict  lying  on  the  southern  borders  of  Pales- 

by  Justinian.    Just  under  the  walls  of  the  tine  (Josh.  xiii.  2.   I  Sam.  zxviL  8). 

castle,  on  the  west  side,  are  a  few  flat  stones,  GETHSEMANE  (probably  oliv€  garden), 

of  which  it  is  difllcult  to  say  whether  they  a  garden  which  lay  over  the  brook  Kidron, 

were  laid  there  by  nature  or  by  man.  Under  on  the  way  from  Jerusalem  to  the  Mount  of 

these,  according  to  tradition,  are  the  twelve  Olives,  where  the  Saviour  of  the  world  was 

stones  brought  out  of  Jordan  by  the  Israel-  wont  to  resort  with  his  disciples,  where  he 

ites,  of  which  Benjamin  of  Tudela  asserts  suflTered  great  agony  of  mind,  and  where  he 

that  the  altar  of  the  Samaritans  on  Gerizim  was  apprehended  and  led  to  judgment  and 

was  built  In  their  actual  place  these  stones  death.    The  ehureh  tradition  places  Geth- 

are  to  remain  until  el-Muhdy  (the  Guide^,  semane  at  the  foot  of  Olivet,  on  its  western 

that  is,  the  Messiah,  shall  appear.    Soon  side,  dose  on  the  right  hand  of  the  bridge 

after  the  traveller  passes  the  castle,  he  finds  which  conducts  from  Jerusalem  over  the 

his  conductor  take  off  his  shoes,  stating  that  Kidron.    It  is  a  small  spot  of  level  land, 

it  is  holy  ground.    A  few  steps  more  bring  nearly  quadrangular,  and  surrounded  by  an 

him  to  a  large  naked  surface  of  rock,  inclin-  ordinary  stone  walL    Within  stand  eight 

ing  somewhat  towards  a  cistern  found  in  the  venerable  olive  trees.   '  Here,  or  at  least  not 

western  part    This  is  said  to  be  the  holiest  far  off,'  Bobinson  fixes  this,  the  darkest  spot 

spot — ^the  place  where  the  tabernacle  of  the  in  Christian  history.    There  is  no  reason  to 

Lord,  with  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  had  been  question  that  tradition  is  in  this  ease  to  be 

pitched.    Around  this  rock  are  slight  traces  implicitly  followed,  for  it  agrees,  at  least  in 

of  former  walls,  perhaps  of  the  ancient  tern-  substance,  with  Scripture.    The  smallness 

pie.    This  spot  is  the  Kibleh  of  the  Sama-  of  the  place  makes  nothing  against  its  iden- 

ritans.    On  whatever  side  of  it  they  may  be,  tity,  as  the  term  '  garden '  is  often  applied 

they  turn  their  faces  towards  it  in  prayer,  in  the  East  to  spots  as  smslL    The  olive 

Near  the  same  place  is  the  spot  where  it  is  trees  can  soareely  be  the  same,  but  they  are 

said  Abraham  was  commanded  to  sacrifice  much  older  than  their  neighbours,  and  may 

his  son.    All  around  the  eminence  are  ex-  have  sprung  from  the  roots  of  the  trees  un- 

tensive  foundations,  apparently  of  dwellings,  der  which  Jesus  endured  his  agony,  if  the 

as  if  the  ruins  of  a  former  city.    There  are  latter  were  afterwards  cut  down  by  ihe  Ro- 

also  many  cisterns  which  are  now  dry.    The  mans.    Beyond  a  doubt,  however,  it  may  be 

summit  of  Gerizim  affords  an  instance  of  said, 

the  close  prozimi^  of  Jewish,  Christian,  *  Then  It  a  spot  within  tUt  tacnd  dale 
and  Mohammedan  rites.    Here  is  the  spot  That  feU  thee  kneeling,  touched  thy  prostrate 
where  the  Passover  is  still  eaten — ^the  re-  ^   '^""'Tv        u » 
mains  of  a  splendid  church,  a  Mussuhnan  ""*  *'**•'  *™*^  "' 
cemetery,  Santon's  tomb  and  place  of  prayer.  GEZEB  (H.),  a  city  an  the  borders  of 
The  top  of  Gerizim  affords  a  commanding  Ephraim  and  Beigamin  (Josh.  zvi.  8),  ori- 
view  of  a  considerable  region,  chiefly  occu-  ginally  the  seat  of  a  petty  Canaanitish  prince 
pied  with  mountains  of  inferior  elevation,  (zii.  12).  Although  its  king,  Horam,  was  van- 
but  also  embracing  several  fruitful  valleys,  quished  by  Joshua  (z.  88),  and  the  city  was 
A  great  number  of  villages  are  seen  sll  along  appropriated  to  the  Levites,  yet  the  original 
its  eastern  side.    The  plain  of  Nablous  is  inhabitants  retained  possession  on  paying 
the  largest  of  all,  upon  the  high  tract  be-  tribute  to  the  Ephraimites  (Judg.  i.  29). 
tween  the  great  western  plain  and  the  Jor-  In  David's  time,  Gezer  was  inhabited  by 


01  A 


612 


GIB 


Phflistinet  (1  ChiatL  zz.  4).  Hsring  been 
teken  uid  Uid  waste  by  the  king  of  Egypt, 
it  WM  given  by  that  monareb  to  bit  danc^- 
ter,  miUTied  to  Solomon,  wbo  rebnilt  it  (1 
Kittga  iz.  16,  17).  It  was  atanding  alter  tbe 
exile,  when  it  was  fortified  by  Simon  Mae- 
eabana  (1  Maeo.  ziv.  84.   2  Maee.  x.  82). 

GHOST  (T.  gitit,  <  tbe  Uring  principle'), 
or  Spirit  (from  ibe  Latin  ipiritui,  *  breath'), 
■tandf  for  the  Hebrew  nthphnh,  signifying 
•bienth,'  or  'breathing*  (Job  zU.  21);  bnt 
as  tiie  breath  was  aoeoonted  a  eanse,  or  at 
least  token,  of  lifb  (Oen.  iL  7),  so  n^ph^tk 
signifies  life  eidier  of  a  hnmsn  being  (Ler. 
zziT.  17,  in  the  original,  M^e  of  a  man') 
or  of  a  beast  (18,  in  the  originsl, '  lifi  of  a 
beast  ;*  snd  instead  of  '  beast  for  beast,'  the 
original  has  <  life  for  life').  It  is  fteqnenUy 
rendered  *sonl'  (Oen.  snrii.  4)  and  'per- 
son' (zzzri.  8),  'ereatnre'  (Lev.  zi.  48), 
'seWes'  (zL  48),  'myself'  (Ps.  czzzL  2), 
'themselfes'  (Is.  zlviL  14),  •herself'  (Jer. 
iiL  11),  'youselTes'  (zriL  21),  'himself' 
(li.  14),  '  himself  (Amos  ii  14).  Henoe 
'  to  give  np  the  gbosV  is  '  to  ezpire'  (e,  'oaV 
and  tpif,  '  I  breathe'),  '  die'  (Job  zi  20) ; 
so  ghmvag,  wbieh  in  Nnmb.  zrii.  12  is  ren- 
dered by  '  die^,  is  in  Lam.  i.  19  translated, 
'  gare  up  the  ghost.'  Comp.  Oen.  zzr.  8, 17 ; 
zzzT.  20.  Job  iii.  11.  Rooagh  is  nsed  in 
the  older  Seriptnres  in  similar  aeeeptations 
(Oen.  iii.  8 ;  tL  17.  Job  zz.  8 ;  zzrii.  8 ; 
zzTiiL  10 ;  zzziiL  4).  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment, pntumm  is  of  kindred  import  (2  These. 
iL  8.  Bom.  z.  16.  Acts  xiz.  81). 

The  Holy  Ohoet  or  Spirit,  '  the  Spirit,' 
denotes — I.  God  himself  in  his  spiritoal  in- 
finenee,  or  the  Divine  Mind  in  its  relations 
to  man  in  proridenoe  and  redemption  (Gen. 
Ti.  8.  Ps.  ezzziz.  7—10.  1  Cor.  U.  10,  11. 
2  Pet  1,  21) ;  IL  The  Divine  inspiration 
(John  iiL  84.  Aets  z.  88.  John  zz.  22) ; 
III.  Spiritual  gifka  and  blessings  (Luke  zi. 
18 ;  eomp.  Matthew  viL  11)  ;  IV.  The  Com- 
forter (John  ziT.  16-- 26 ;  zv.  26  ;  ztL  7 — 
10.  Bom.  Tiii.  26,  27).  The  Artides  of  the 
Chnreh  of  England  declare  that  '  the  Holy 
Ohoet,  proceeding  fkom  the  Father  and  the 
Son,  is  of  one  snbatanee,  majesty,  and  glory 
with  the  FMher  and  the  Son,  very  and  eternal 
God.'  In  other  words,  the  Holy  Spirit  is 
aeeonnted  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity, 
whoee  operation  consists  in  the  practical 
application  to  the  sonl  of  the  benefits  of  die 
work  of  Christ  The  foUowuig  are  among  the 
chief  passages  alleged  for  tlM  separate  god- 
bead  of  the  Holy  Spirit:  Oen.L  2.  Ps.  zzziii.6. 
Mattiz.88;eomp.  AetoziiL2.  Matt  zzviiL 
10.  Acts  V.  8 ;  comp.  4.    1  Cor.  ziL  11). 

GIANTS  (G.  •artk^hom),  or  inditidnals 
of  eztraordinaiy  atatnre,  have  ezistsd  in  all 
ages  and  aU  nations,  and  may  baTC  given 
rise  to  the  notion  of  races  of  giants.  Pei^ 
sonal  qualities,  and  therefore  unusual  height, 
may,  indeed,  be  propagated  in  Ikmiliee.  bnt 
only  wi^  certain  limits;  nor  does  an  in- 
crease of  stature  bring  a  proportionate  in- 


erease  of  strength.  The  limits  both  of 
stature  and  strength  remain  still  prettj  humIi 
what  they  were  in  ancient  times,  mm  in  evi- 
denced by  tbe  Egyptian  mummies.     Tel  tlie 
measures  of  length  that  are  deriTed    fkom 
parts  of  die  human  body,  as  the  foot   and 
tbe  cubit,  seem  to  show  that  men  of  old 
were  of  larger  dimensions  than  they  are  now. 
If  this  were  the  case,  it  by  no  means  Ibllows 
tfiat  giants,  who  are  ezceptions  to  tiie  ge- 
neral rule,  were  in  ancient  times  more  com- 
mon than  they  an  in  ours.    As  we  leeede 
into  the  mists  of  eztnme  antiquity,  we  ISnd 
objects  assume  unusual  magnitude ;  and  we 
know  no  reason  why  this  should  not  be  tiie 
ease  smong  tbe  Hebrews  as  well  as  amon^ 
other  ancient  nations.    Tbe  religion  of  the 
Bible  must  ever  be  distinguished  fhmi  the 
historical  channel  in  which  it  has  been  con- 
veyed. 

In  Gen.  vL  4,  the  origin  of  giants  is  ftmnd 
In  the  union  of  the  sons  of  God  with  the 
daui^ten  of  the  children  of  men.  The  word 
here  rendered  giants,  fupkeleemf  found  also 
in  Numb.  ziii.  88,  from  a  root  meaning  Id 
'  knock  down,'  to  slay,  has  tiie  import  of 
<  men  of  violence.'  Tbe  Repkamu  (jnobably 
from  a  root  aigniiying  to  ezcite  fear  and 
trembling)  are  another  class  of  giants 
fDeut  iL  11,20);  though  in  Gen.  zit.  0, 
mey  appear  to  be  mentioned  as  an  ordinary 
people  or  dan.  When  the  Israelitea  drew  near 
to  Canaan,  the  Bephaims  dwelt  on  the  east 
of  Jordan  (Dent  iu.  11),  with  their  kindred 
the  Emims  (iL  10),  in  the  country  of  Moah ; 
while  anodier  tribe  of  gianta,  the  Zammm* 
mine,  occupied  the  territory  of  the  Ammon- 
ites. To  the  Bephaims  belonged,  in  the 
time  of  Moses,  Og,  the  king  of  Argob,  in  Be- 
shsn,  whom  the  Hebrews  eonquered  (Dent 
ii.  2—4.  Josh.  ziL  4 ;  ziiL  12),  and  whose 
bed,  or  coffin,  a  later  hand  described  as  nine 
cubits  in  length  and  four  in  breadth.  This 
race  gave  their  name  to  a  valley  near  Jeru- 
salem, called  the  valley  of  Bephaim  (2  Sam. 
V.  18),  which  the  Septoagint  renden  'the 
valley  of  the  Titans.'    See  Azak. 

GIBEAH  (H.  hill),  a  town  in  the  territoiy 
of  Benjamin,  on  which  account  it  was  called 
'Gibeah  of  Benjamin'  (1  Sam.  ziii.  2).  It 
was  the  home  of  king  Saul  (z.  26),  whence  it 
was  also  denominated  <  Gibeah  of  SauT  (la. 
z.  29).  It  lay  in  the  vicinity  of  Geba,  some- 
what nearer  to  Jemsdem,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Bamah  (Jodg.  zir.  12,  13.  Hos.  v.  8).  It 
seems  to  have  been  a  sacred  city  (1  Sam. 
z.  5).  Tbe  place  is  probably  fbnnd  in  die 
small  ruined  village,  Dscheba,  which  lies 
south-west  from  Mukhmas,  tiie  ancient 
Michmas  (1  Sam.  ziii.  11, 10),  where  then 
is  a  comprehensive  view  as  far  as  the  Jordsn 
and  the  Dead  Sea. 

The  Gibeah  mentioned  in  Josh.  zviiL  28 
is  probably  the  same  place,  as  well  as  that 
in  XV.  57. 

OIBEON,  a  large  and  powerfbl  oi^  of  flie 
Canaanites,  lying,  teeording  to  Josephns,  on 


GID 


613 


GIF 


ft  lifll  about  fita  miles  north  from  Jenualem 
and  three  from  Bethel.  It  waa  the  metro- 
polis of  a  political  confederaoy,  consisting, 
besides  itsell^  of  thiee  Gibeonite  cities, 
Ghephirah,  Beeroth,  and  Kiijath-jearim 
(Josh.  iz.  17 ;  x.  2).  The  Oibeonites,  who 
-were  of  the  race  of  Hiyites  (zi.  19),  yielded 
of  their  own  accord  to  the  rictorioas  Joshua 
(x.  6,  6),  and  in  the  division  of  the  land 
were  assigned  to  Bei^amin  (xviii.  25),  but 
afterwards  were  given  to  the  Levites  (xxi. 
17^.  In  Gibeon  for  years  the  ark  remained, 
surrounded  by  a  ceremonial  of  worship  (I 
Chron.  xvi.  89).  Thither  went  Solomon  to 
make  his  offerings  to  Jehovah  (I  Kings  iii. 
4),  and  was  there  favoured  with  special 
tokens  of  the  Divine  favour  (7 — 10).  Near 
the  spot  where  Gibeon  stood,  is  found  on  a 
hill  a  village  with  considerable  ruins,  called 
el-Dschib,  distant  about  an  hour  from  Jeru- 
salem, on  the  road  to  Jaffa,  by  Bethoron  and 
Lydda;  and  the  plain  before  it  (i.  e.  to  the 
east  of  it)  is  well  adapted  for  the  encamp- 
ment of  a  large  army  ('  The  Holy  City,'  by 
Williams,  p.  5). 

GIDEON  (H.  he  that  breaks  ;  A.M.  4197, 
A.  C.  1351,  V.  1240),  son  of  Joash  and  judge 
of  the  Israelites,  to  whom,  while  threshing 
wheat  by  the  wine-press,  there  appeared  an 
angel  of  Jehovah.  It  was  a  time  of  national 
distress.  The  Mldianites  and  other  Bedouin 
tribes  were  laying  the  country  waste,  when, 
near  Ophrah,  in  the  territory  of  Manasseh, 
the  Divine  message  came  commanding  Gi- 
deon to  rise  and  deliver  his  people.  After 
having  offered  sacrifices,  Gideon  proceeded 
to  destroy  the  altar  and  grove  of  Baal.  His 
conduct  so  enraged  '  the  men  of  the  city,' 
that  they  were  on  the  point  of  taking  Gide- 
on's life,  when  he  saved  himself  by  his  in- 
genuity. '  Why,'  said  he, '  are  you  so  ready 
to  plead  for  B&al  ?  If  Baal  is  a  god,  he  can 
take  care  of  his  own  cause.'  This  dexterous 
retort  procured  for  Gideon  the  surname  of 
Jerubbaal,  Ut  Baal  plead  (for  himself). 

Full  now  of  enthusiasm  for  the  national 
cause,  Gideon  gathered  around  him  a  nu- 
merous army,  with  which  he  defeated  the 
enemy  on  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  followed 
up  his  victory  by  the  extermination  of  the 
Midianites.  These  achievements  procured 
him  the  offer  of  a  crown.  Here  for  the  first 
time  we  see  the  germ  of  regal  govern- 
ment, to  which  the  Israelites  were  rendered 
disposed  by  their  previous  sufferings  and  by 
the  hope  ihai  Gideon's  prowess  had  awak- 
ened. The  hero,  true  to  the  constitution, 
which  made  Jehovah  the  sole  monarch,  re- 
plied in  terms  no  less  decisive  than  brief — 
I  will  not  rule  over  you,  neither  shall  my 
son  rule  over  you ;  the  Lord  shall  rule  over 
yea'  (Judg.  viii.  23).  In  order,  probably, 
to  confirm  the  religious  feeling  which  he 
had  aroused,  he  made  out  of  the  gold  taken 
from  the  Midianites  an  ephod,  which  he  set 
up  in  bis  native  city  of  Ophrah  as  the  cen- 
tre of  religious  worship.    This  was  an  in- 


frmotion  of  the  Mosaic  poU^,  and  tht  event 
proved  baneftd  to  '  Gideon  and  his  honss.' 
His  valour,  however,  kept  the  land,  during 
a  period  of  forty  yean,  free  from  hostile  in- 
vasions. He  had  many  wives,  begot  seventy 
sons,  and  died  in  a  good  old  age  ( Jndg.  vi 
— ix.  1  Sam.  xiL  11.  Heb.  xi  82).  See 
Abimxlbch. 

GIFTS  (T.  give),  or  presenti,  have  from 
the  earliest  times  been  eustomary  in  the 
East,  where  their  necessity  is  universally 
recognised,  and  where,  from  being  a  volun- 
tary expression  of  good-will,  they  have  been 
reduced  to  a  matter  of  necessity,  calculation, 
and  barter.  An  inferior  presented  a  gift  to 
his  superior;  one  who  wanted  a  favour,  to 
his  patron ;  friends  to  friends.  Gifts  wen 
made  at  meeting  and  at  parting.  A  gift  on 
the  one  side  necessitated  a  corresponding 
gift  on  the  other,  so  that  presents  became 
men  exchanges,  having  for  their  sole  value 
the  good-will  that  they  betokened  (Genesis 
xxxiL  13.  1  Sam.  ix.  7.  2  Chron.  xxL8.  Ps. 
IxxiL  10).  They  wen  sometimes  given  and 
taken  in  perversion  of  justice  (Is.  L  28.  Jer. 
xxii.  17),  contrary  to  die  express  commands 
of  the  law  (Dent  xvL  19). 

In  Egypt,  at  the  present  day,  'presents 
of  provisions  of  some  kind,  wax  candles, 
&c.,  are  sent  to  penons  about  to  celebrate 
any  festivity  by  those  who  an  to  be  his 
guests;  but  after  paying  a  mere  visit  of  cere* 
mony,  and  on  some  other  occasions,  only 
money  is  commonly  given  to  the  servants  at 
the  penon  visited.  In  either  case,  the  latter 
is  expected  to  return  the  compliment  on  a 
similar  occasion  by  presents  of  equal  value. 
To  reject  a  present  generally  gives  great  of* 
fence,  being  regarded  as  an  insult  to  him 
who  has  offered  it  When  a  person  arrives 
from  a  foreign  oountry,  he  generally  brings 
some  articles  of  the  produce  or  merdiandise 
of  the  country  as  presents  to  his  friends' 
(Poole's  *  Englishwoman  in  Egypt,  Second 
Series,'  ii.  197). 

According  to  Perkins,  similar  enstoms  pre* 
vail  in  Penia: — ^'On  journeys^  as  well  as  at 
our  home,  in  Penia,  we  i^requently  received 
presents,  for  which  an  extnvagant  sum  is 
always  expected  in  return.  When  the  bearer 
approaches  you,  he  will  almost  deluge  you 
widi  a  flood  of  fulsome  compliments  and  ex- 
pressions of  devoted  attachment,  as  a  token 
of  which  he  brings  you  the  present,  though 
he  had  never  seen  you  before ;  and  if  you 
meet  his  wishes  from  your  purse,  he  will 
leave  you  with  the  mellifluous  stream  still 
flowing,  though  a  little  checked,  because,  as 
he  tells  you,  you  have  so  mortified  him  by 
paying  him  any  thing,  that  he  can  no  longer 
look  you  in  the  face,  and  can  scarcely  utter 
a  word ;  whereas  if  you  offer  him  only  a  fair 
price  for  the  article,  he  will  manifest  the 
deepest  displeasure,  reject  with  disdain  the 
proffered  remuneration,  and  carry  away  his 
present,  loading  you  with  a  copious  measure 
of  at  least  secret  malediction.' 


GIL 


614 


GIL 


iUiiiidj«n  (p.  3J>)  shows  dM  sine  Uass 
lo  be  prsTslent  in  modem  Palestine :— '  It 
as  aeeoiinled  oneivil  to  risit  in  this  eoontry 
without  an  oflbrinf  in  hano.  All  great  men 
sxpeet  it,  as  A  kind  of  tribole  doe  to  their 
eharaeter  and  aatfaoiiij,  and  look  upon 
themielvsa  as  aftonlsd,  and  indeed  de- 
frauded, iriien  this  eompliment  is  omitted. 
Even  in  familiar  visits  amongst  inferior  peo- 
ple, joQ  shall  addom  hare  them  SMne  withont 
bringing  a  flower  or  an  orange,  or  some  other 
soeh  token  of  dieir  rsspeet,  to  the  person 
▼isited ;  die  Turks  in  this  point  keeping  ap 
the  Oriental  eostom  hinted,  1  Sam.  is.  7« — 
If  w$  go  (says  Saol),  what  tkall  wt  bring 
At  smu  ff  Godf  Thtrt  Untt  a  prtttmt,  ife^ 
whieh  words  ars  qoeacionless  to  be  onder- 
stood  in  eottlMmity  to  this  Eastern  custom, 
as  relating  to  a  token  of  nspset,  and  not  to 
a  priee  of  divination.' 

From  the  practiee  of  making  gilka,  espe- 
eialljr  as  observed  towsrds  the  great,  arose 
the  oflSnings  friiieh  formed  so  large  a  part 
of  the  Hebrew  religion  as  well  as  of  other 
Oriental  ajstems  of  worship  (Ezod.  xzviiL 
8a;zxzvi.3— «). 

*  Gills '  denotes  also  mental  endowments, 
iriiether  of  an  extraordinary  or  an  ordinary 
eharaeter  (I  Cor.  zii.  4.  Bom.  ziL  6 ;  eomp. 
ICatc  nv.  15.   I  Cor.  L  7). 

OIHON,  a  fountain  in  the  vicinity  of  Je- 
insalem,  near  whioh  Solomon  was  crowned 
(1  Kings  L  3d).  Opinions  an  divided  as 
to  the  original  locality  of  the  pooL  See  Jb- 
nusAf.nic,  and  eompars  2  Chron.  zzzii.  8, 4, 
aO.   2  Kings  n.  20). 

OILBOA  (IL  j^roffefiii^Aea^),  mountains 
which  lis  on  the  south-east  of  die  plain  Esdra^ 
eton,  being  a  continuation  of  the  mountains 
of  Ephraim,  from  which  Gilbou  is  separated 
by  an  arm,  or  olT-se^  of  the  great  plain  just 
mentioned,  which  runs  up  south-east  be- 
tween the  hills  of  Samaria  and  a  range  of 
naked  rocky  heighto  on  die  north.  From 
Jenin,  a  direct  road  to  Beisan  leads  obliquely 
up  this  srm  of  the  great  plain,  and  across 
this  northern  range  of  mountains ;  in  diis 
load,  and  on  these  monntsins,  lies  an  inha- 
bited village  called  Jelbon,  in  which  Bobin- 
aon  recofpiised  the  sncient  Oilboa.  This 
eiieumstance  serves  to  identify  diese  as  die 
mountains  of  Gilbo*  where  Saul  and  Jona- 
dian  were  slain,  and  on  iHiich,  according  to 
Eusebius  snd  Jerome,  a  large  village  of  the 
same  name  existed  in  dieir  day.  It  constitates 
a  mountainous  tract  with  several  ridges;  in 
all,  about  an  hour  in  breadth. 

GILEAD  (H.  k§ap  rf  iMtiusf,  Gen.  xxxi. 
48),  a  son  of  Maehir,  and  grandson  of  Ma- 
nassch,  the  progenitor  of  the  Gileadites 
(Numb,  zxvi  29) 

Gilead  was  also  the  name  of  a  mountain 
on  the  east  of  Jordan,  now  called  Didubel 
D$eh§Uutd  (Gen.  xxxi. 23),  whioh  runs  south 
fkom  the  river  Jabbok  (wady  Zerkah)  ana 
comprises  the  country  that  fell  to  the  ehmm 
ofGad(18am,xiiL7).    The  word  ia  oft« 


used  in  a  wider  sense,  as  daooting  tlw 
mountain  range  which  runs  between  Bmmhaxt 
and  Moab,  or  the  country  between  the  Jnbboh 
and  Amon ;  that  is,  die  territory  of  Beflibcn» 
Gad,  and  die  southern  part  oif  Mannsseh* 
Hence  *GQead  and  Baahan'  (Joahnn  zviL 
1)  denotee  Penea,  or  the  country  enst  of  Jor- 
dan. The  aame  meaning  is  to  be  aacvibed 
to  Gilead  and  Manasseh  (Ps.  Ix.  7),  for  the 
hslf  tribe  of  Msnassch  had  Baahan  far  its 
portion.  In  Deut  xxxiv.  I,  however,  Gilead 
itself  comprises  the  whole  of  Penan  '  unto 
Dsn'  (Laish),  as  well  aa  Baahan. 

Gilead  is  celebrated  in  the  Bible  lor  its 
good  psstnre  grounds  (Numb,  xxxii.  1.  Jer. 
L  19.  Csnt  iv.  1).  The  country  was  rieh 
in  medicinal  herbs  (Jer.  xlvL  II;  comp. 
viii  22,  and  Gen.  xxxriL  25).  It  comprised 
die  ancient  kingdom  of  Og,  king  of  Baahan, 
stretching  from  the  Jabiok  northwarda  to 
Hermon,  and  eastwards  to  Salchah ;  and  the 
kingdom  of  Sihon,  king  of  Heahboo,  whieh 
waa  bounded  by  the  Amon  on  the  aooth,  the 
lower  Jabbok  on  the  north,  and  the  T>e9d 
Sea  and  Jordan  on  die  weat  (Dent.  iii.  8 — 
10.  Josh.  xiL  2).  Along  this  land*  in  the 
earliest  times,  stretched  the  gigantic  rmeee 
mentioned  in  die  Bible.  See  Qiasts,  Bai*- 
SAM,  and  Bashax. 

Three  small  rivers,  the  Hieromaz,  the  Jab- 
bok, and  the  Amon,  running  in  deep  and  pre- 
cipitous ravines,  naturally  divide  the  coun- 
try into  four  high  lands,  which  on  the  east 
an  lost  in  the  desert,  snd  on  the  weat  sink 
suddenly  down  to  the  vale  of  the  Jordan ; 
in  the  northern  part,  the  Haoran.  In  el- 
Ledschah,  on  the  east  of  die  plain  of  the  Han- 
ran,  is  a  sombre  labyrinth  of  basalt  rocka. 
Seetsen  says  die  villages  of  Ledschah,  almost 
all  in  ruins,  are  situated  on  rocky  heigh  ta ;  and 
that  the  black  colour  of  the  basalt,  the  honaesy 
the  churches,  snd  the  fallen  towers,  the  want 
of  trees  and  bushes,  give  to  this  country  a 
savage  and  melancholy  air  which  makes  the 
traveUer  tremble.  Dschebel  Hanran,  on  the 
south-west  of  Ledschah,  is  covered  with  oak 
forests  interehanged  with  excellent  pasture 
grounds. 

GILGAL  (H.  to  roll.  Josh.  v.  9),  a  place, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Jericho,  where  the  Israel- 
ites, on  psssing  the  Jordsn,  pitohed  their 
first  camp  (Josh.  iv.  19;  v.  10),  opposite 
Abel  Shittim,  or  place  of  Aecaciaa  (Numb 
xxxiiL  49),  the  same  as  Shittim  (xxv.  1).  It 
was  for  some  years  die  head  quarters  of  the 
invading  army  (Josh.  x.  d),  where  probably 
die  sanctuary  remained  till  it  waa  removed 
to  Shiloh  (xviii.  1 ) ;  but  it  retained  a  aacred 
character  in  consequence  of  the  twelve  stones 
of  commemoration  there  set  up  (iv.  20.  Judg. 
ii.  1),  snd  became  a  recogniaed  place  of 
worship  (i  Sam.  x.  8;  xi.  19)  and  seat  of 
the  propheta  (2  Kings  iv.  38),  but  in  pro- 
cess of  time  waa  disgraced  by  unlawftd  reli* 
gious  rites  (Uos.  iv.  15.  Amos  iv.  4). 

Another  Gilgal  appears  to  be  intended  m 
Josh,  xii  23,  *  beside  die  eaka  of  Moi^' 


6LA 


_  _.       D  (D«u(.  xL  30),  ■  roj*!  ( 
mXJ,  l^ing  to  tlie  nortli-vat  of  3e 

QLA89  (L.fjaaa,'ii»'),  ubjPliQTBud 
to  luie  been  utcidenUll;  duoovered  nsM 
Ptolemau,  on  the  eowt  of  Fhceuku,  uid 
wu  in  kU  probabililf  known  t,t  Ma  eulj 
period  to  tbe  UebieirB;  for  if  Sjtie  ma; 
not  hare  been  its  binh-pUce,  thej  could 
not  hare  failed  to  become  ocqaunted  with  it 
in  EgTpt.  The  word  glue,  howeTw,  o«can 
in  the  English  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment onlj  in  Ii.  iii.  33,  where  oar  tranela- 
tora  appearlo  have  meant  looking-glaaaea,  bat 
where,  probably,  turbaiu  are  intended.  Comp. 
Ii.Tiit.  Jiiiiwliiah  passage  Ibe  same  Hebrew 
wordiiiendeTed'nilf.'BatithubeeDtbonght 
tbat  lererenoe  is  made  to  ^in  in  Dent  miii. 
Ifi.where  ilia  promised  that  Zebulon  shoold 
partake  of  'manures  hid  in  the  sand' — a 
deeeription  which  is  easily  explained  on  Iha 
snppoeilion  that  iba  manofactote  of  glass 
wskS  allnded  to,  which  i>  the  more  admissi- 
ble because  the  territory  of  Zebulnn  boideied 
on  Plolemais,  near  which  Fhceniaisn  dsti- 
gktors  ere  ssid  to  have  sccidentally  diseo- 
Tsred  the  mean*  of  making  glass.  The  tenn 
'  treaiores'  is  not  too  strong  to  be  applied  (o 
the  lesnlts  of  its  fabrication,  for  in  ancicnl 
timei  glass  was  vei;  oosllj  and  the  sooice 
of  large  gains.  Hanjr  critics,  following  Je- 
toiae,  hold  that  the  word  tchoochilh  (Job 
zzriii-  IT),  translated  in  the  commoD  Ter- 
■ioa  '  crystal,'  signiGes  glass,  since  it  seems 
to  denote  a  transparent  object,  and  glass  was 
probably  regarded  as  artlkcial  orystal  (see 
the  article).  The  dooble  sense  of  glass  and 
oryetal  is  held  by  the  word  hualm,  which  in 
the  New  Testament  (Apoc.  W.  6;  XT.  2)  is 
translated  '  glass.'  The  '  cap '  mentioned  in 
proT.  zxiii.  31  was  eridenlly  transparent, 
tnd  may  have  been  of  glasa.  '  Olass'  is  also 
the  rendering  of  a  word,  eioplron,  which  sig- 
nifies *  mirror  in  James  i.  33,  and  in  1  Cor. 
lijL  IS  talc,  of  which  window*  were  anciently 
msde,  and  which,  by  interfering  with  the  rays 
of  ljgbt>  eansed  bodies  seen  tbrongh  it  to 
appeal  dim,  if  not  in  a  measoie  distorted. 
This  gi^es  a  Tiew  of  the  words  '  tbiougb  t 
glass '  which  coiresponds  with  the  term 
darkly  i*  that  is,  aoDoidiog  10  the  otiginsl. 


n  nifsMj,  oi  tiddlef,  lli>  mMniog  b<tng 
darkened  I7  the  tDediom  through  which  the 
oljeet  is  oonlemplated.  Sneh  a  darkening 
mnal  enaoe  so  long  •■  epiiiatal  ihln^  are 

m  heldthU 
-  _  — ^nu.  Dis- 
Egypt  have  pni  Its  ezisteDce  at  a 
Toiy  early  data  beyond  a  qnaetion.  A  gtas* 
bead  is  in  existence  bearing  the  name  of  a 
monarch  who,  according  to  Wilkinson,  lived 
1000  years  A.  C.  The  proeesi  of  glua. 
blowing  is  lepressuted  in  paintinga  of  that, 
if  not  an  earUer  date,  and  ia  lepealed  on 
tombs  of  Tariona  epochs. 


Many  botllea  of  glass  and  otgect*  of  Tari- 
ooB  fbrma  hare  been  met  with  in  the  tombi 
of  Dpper  and  Lower  Egypt,  aome  of  Tery 
remote  antiquity,  and  glasa  vaaes  were  used 
Ibr  holding  wine  as  early  as  the  exodns,  1 1SO 
year*  before  our  era.  Sneh,  too,  was  the 
skill  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  maniifaenue  of 
glass,  and  in  the  mode  of  staining  it  of  va- 
rions  hoes,  that  Ihey  oaanlerfaited  with  sno- 
cess  the  amethyst  and  other  pneioiu  ■lotus. 
See  BoT»i. 

MirniiB  were  common  In  Egypt  Tliay 
were  of  mixed  metal,  ehicBy  copper,  most 
carefully  wrought  and  highly  poliahed.  Such 
were  the  looking-glasses  ont  of  whioh  Uose* 
made  the  Utci  of  biaal. 


O  O  A  616  6  O  A 

OLBAH  U  tnm  a  mcdisfal  Ltttin  vordt  wribad,  to  cniid  dM 

fcfMM,  of  vhieh  fffcM  and  f Icm  m  tonnM^  inttnumili.' 

y^o^^y  A  hcndlU,  ptftieolatj  of  Mn  of        ConoedBd  wilb  fliis  nilgoet  «o  hacw 

oom.     AeeordiBflj,  to  giMn  if  lo  gathtf  ftmuihod  with  the  foUowiDg  < ' 

(fo  the  Hebrew,  eee  Cent  tl  2)  nieh  hnd-  which  eqlein,  in  a  namer  no 

fcle  ear  hj  car  from  the  field  after  the  har-  torj  than  original,  a  peaeage  of  admittrt 
haa  been  earried.     The  Moaaie  law 


benevolently  referred  the  glaaalngf  of  the 

field  to  the  hnebandnian  (Ler.  ziz.  0.  Botfi     tetned  by  dw  marten  of  ■■■nnHiliM,  which 

iL2). 


giTCtt  fron  ow  ihepkcid.'— Xecte.  jdL  11 


OLOBT  (L.gleria),fUfenotiottf  of  wfaidi         Thia  Eaatem  meta|ihor,  intended  to  eon 
have  been  the  bane  of  t!»*"^'"*'i  and  etill     vey  the  import  that  '  the  worda  of  the 


eiert  a  moft  detrimental  infinenee,  is  in  a  inetigete  the  elnggish  to  energy,  eonvet  the 

Scr^toral  view  Ihit  epprobation  of  Ood,  and  diiobedient,  and  recall  the  wandering,'  may 

aoeh  BM>ral  qnalitiea  and  piooa  aetiona  aa  be  beat  clncidaled  by  rcforence  to  Eaatem 

aeenre  the  h^eat  of  all  good  thinga  (John  eoatoma. 

TiiL  50 ;  zrii.  24).    An  entirely  new  bat  ea-  In  Aaiatie  eonntriea,  generally  apeakin^ 

aentially  eoiraet  Tiew  of  glory  ia  giiren  in  the  the  land  ia  not  eneioeed  or  diyided  ezeept 

doctrine  and  hiatoiy  of  Jeaoa,  who  waa  ^o-  by  iandmaifca ;  henee,  '  Thoa  ahalt  not  re- 

rified  in  and  by  aoftring,  death,  and  hia  more  thy  neigfaboni'B  landmark,  which  they  of 

eonaeqnent  aaeenaion  (John  ziiL  Si.   Acta  old  time  have  aet  in  thy  inheritance '  (Dent 


iii.  18) ;  thoa  teadiing  the  world  that  tma  six.  14).  The  coltiTated  parte  are 
glory  eonaiata  in  patiently  bearing  and  faith-  qnenily  interapeiaed  among  plaina  or  com- 
finUy  eieenting  dm  will  of  Ood,  iq^art  fh>m  mona  (called  Mhrtdann  in  the  Hindostanee 
leCerenee  to  Mlf  (John  Tiii.  00).  '  Olory,'  and  Oordoo  languagea),  lattf  wooda  (Jon* 
which  ia  in  general  apecially  connected  with  ghnl),  braahwood  (Bban),  thorny  boahea 
martial  trinmpha,  and  therefore  with  blood-  (Jankhor),  fena  ormarabea  (Dhecarah),  Ac. 
ahed,  deraatation,  pain,  widowhood,  orphan-  8aeh  nncoltiTated  parts  are  eonaidered  and 
age,  and  woe,  ia  by  Cicero  defined  aa,  n^en  appropriated  to  public  paatme  (called  Cha- 
in ita  higfaeat  and  petiiect  atate,  eonaiating  of  rate)  for  cattle  in  general,  L  e.  camela!,  bofih- 
three  tUnga :  '  if  the  mnltitode  lovea  yon ;  loea,  oowa,  oxen,  ahcep,  and  goata. 
if  it  repoaea  confidenee  in  yon ;  if  with  a  From  time  immemorial,  the  cow  or  aheep- 
eertain  admiration  it  thinka  yon  worthy  of  herd  doea  not  driTe  the  herd  or  fioek  nnder 
hononr.'  The  breadth  of  chia  contraat  Ib  one  his  charge  to  feed  whither  he  wiUa;  but  fll 
meaanre  of  the  Talne  of  *  the  gferieiij  goapel  the  herdmen  in  the  nei^bonrhood,  or  be- 
of  the  Meaeed  God '  (1  Tim.  L  11).  longing  to  the  aame  Tillage,  fte.,  congregato 
OOAD,  a  long;  pointed  rod  or  atiek,  tipped  their  herda  or  flocka  (camela  excepted)  at 
with  iron,  need  in  the  Eaat  for  driring  cat-  aome  known  rendexToua,  each  aa  a  weO^ 
tie  (1  Sam.  xiii.  21),  which  eonld  on  ocea-  watering-place,  &e.,  aa  in  Gen.  xxix.  8 — 
aiona  be  employed  in  war  (Jodg.  liL  81) ;  'And  tfaidier  were  all  the  flocka  gathered.' 
whence  to  kick  againat  the  prieka  (goada.  From  aneh  rendesrona  the  herda  thna  eon- 
Acta  xxii.  14)  meana,  to  reaiat  an  inevitable  gregated  proceed  to  eeek  paatore  nnder  the 
impolee.  Manndrell  (149)  haa  on  the  aab-  general  aaperintendence  of  a  head  herd- 
Jeet  theee  worda : — '  In  ploughing,  they  need  man  (called  Gbooroo),  choeen  from  among 
goada  of  an  extraordinary  aise.  Upon  mea-  their  own  body,  and  whoae  antiiority  ia  ae- 
anring  of  aereral,  I  found  them  alwnt  eight  knowledged  by  common  consent  The  word 
foot  long,  and  at  the  bigger  end  six  inehea  Ghooroo  meana,  great  herdman  of  cattle  in 
in  eircumCBrenee.  They  were  armed  at  the  general,  in  the  sense  of  Gen.  xiiL  7,  '  There 
leaaer  end  with  a  ahaip  prickle  for  driving  waa  a  atrife  between  the  herdmen  of  Abram's 
the  oxen,  and  at  the  other  end  with  a  amaU  cattle  and  the  herdmen  of  Lotfa  cattle' — 
flpade  or  paddle  of  iron,  atrong  and  maaay,  diatingniahing  them  from  the  inlierior  cov- 
for  eleanaing  the  plough  from  the  clay  that  herdorabcpherd.  The  teim  Ghooroo  ia  also 
encumbera  it  in  working.  May  we  not  llrom  applied  to  the  expoundera  of  their  Serip- 
henee  conjecture  that  it  waa  with  aneh  a  toiea,  aa  we  alao  metaphoriMlly  term  oar 
goad  as  one  of  these  that  Bhamgar  made  apiritual  paatora  afaepberda. 
that  prodigious  slaughter  related  of  him,  Theae  large  aaaembliea  of  cattle  are  tended 
Judg.  iii.  81  f  I  am  confident  that  who-  during  gracing  houra  by  tfaia  company  of 
erer  ahoold  aee  one  of  thcae  inatrumenta,  cowherda  (called  Gwallah)  and  ahepherds 
would  judge  it  to  be  a  we^on  not  lees  fit,  coUectiTely,  under  the  direction  of  the  above 
peihapa  fitter,  than  a  eword  for  such  an  exe-  head  herdman.  By  thia  arrangement,  not 
cation.  Goada  of  thia  aort  I  aaw  alwaya  only  ia  greater  aeeurity  fh>m  plunder,  wild 
used  hereabouts,  and  alao  in  Syria ;  and  the  beaata,  &c.,  aiforded  to  the  cattle  themaelvcs* 
reaaott  ia,  because  the  same  single  person  but  alao  greater  aeeurity  to  the  cropa  in  col 
both  drivea  the  oxen  and  also  holds  and  tivation  from  damage ;  for  should  each  herd 
manages  the  ploo^,  which  makea  it  necea-  or  flock  feed  aeparately  and  independently,. 
aary  to  aae  auoh  a  goad  aa  la  above  de-  it  would    be    almoat  impoaaibla  ibr  the 


[f  of  neli  oTopa  to  ittx  uaj  damige  ot 
iMi  tbM  mH  h>Te  bMn  oommitlad, 
lar  had  or  flock ;  irhcnu  b; 
I  h«  Tcooven 


D  aaj  p«nloiilar  hi 


danug*  tmin  As  head  hoidiiiui,  who  Isries 
It  bom  the  ml  oStandcn. 

Etwj  eow  and  ihMp-haid  is  faimib«d 
with  a  goad,  as  npnaenled  by  fig.  1 ;  aveiy 
bnflUo-hard,  and  dis  head  faflrdman,  euriet 
a  goad,  M  fig.  2.  The  word  goad  in  the 
Hiodottanee,  Oordoo,  and  English  lan- 
guage*, pieeise]7  coireepouds  in  pronnnci- 
alicni ;  and,  aa  it  un  be  traced  to  times  ante- 
rior to  the  eiiilenoe  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, muBt  hare  been  borrowed  from  the 
Eait,  as  manj  othen  an.  The  goad  is  used 
to  urge  forward  cattle  that  lag  behind,  to 
panish  aneh  ai  fight  or  are  otherwiss  db- 
mlj,  and  to  recall  anj  that  may  alraj  into 
the  ealtiTated  apcta.  Shonld  inj  goada  be 
lost,  broken,  or  their  points  bent  or  blonted 
during  paatore  honrs,  the  head  berdman,  ai 
being  amallj  the  most  experienced  hand, 
having  most  leisure,  and  being  roost  iute- 
realed  in  the  good  condnct  of  the  herd,  re- 
plasee  each  dcflcicnoies,  repairs  the  broken, 
or  re-files  the  blantcd,  as  rcterrrd  to  1  Sam. 
liii.  ai— '  Yet  they  had  a  file  to  ahaipen  the 
goads' — and  when  ao  repaired,  eenda  or  dis- 
Iribatea  them  to  those  who  require  them,  and 
who  maj  be  at  a  considerable  distance,  bj 
the  hand  of  some  ihepherd  who  ma;  be 
neat  him  at  the  time. 


7  GOA 

b;  Iran  femiles.  Such  goadi  aa  ara  pnr- 
ohased  read;  made  have,  of  conrae,  regnlai 
■pikes;  bat  aa  repaired,  oi  leplaoed  when 
loat,  bj  the  head  herdman  in  the  fielde,  of 
made  when  new  bf  the  shepherde  themaelTea 
for  their  own  oae,  whish  ia  moatljr  the  cm*, 
these  epikes  are  made  ont  of  nails  or  part*  of 
nails ;  and  ninetr-nina  In  one  hnudred  ai* 
BO  made. 

The  staff  of  the  goad  Is  alao  aimed  with 
two  flatleathem  Ibongs  (not  plaited  together 
whip-wiBe),  eecnred  to  it  about  toor  inches 
from  the  upper  eilremilj,  which  are  about 
the  same  length  with  the  staff  and  need  •■ 
a  lash.  The  word  '  shepherd '  being  nsed 
in  the  text  in  couneetiou  with  the  goad, 
sbswB  that  the  cow  or  shepherd  goad,  fig  1, 
is  the  one  alluded  to. 

Ths  bulUo  goad,  fig.  2  (that  speeies  of 
cattle  being  mote  nnmansgeabic),  differs 
from  the  other  in  being  longer,  slionger, 
and  without  taah.  It  ie  osoallj  fire  feet 
long,  bound  round  between  srci;  joint  of 
the  bamboo  with  leather  ties,  and  aimed  at 
the  lower  or  thick  end  with  aereral  masaln 
Iron  rings,  from  three  to  fire  in  number,  and 
of  Tsrions  pattern  and  device ;  as  also,  at  the 
same  extremitf,  with  a  strong  iron  spike, 
sboDt  six  inches  long,  lecured  bj  an  iron 
ferrnlc.  This  instrament  is  sometimes  called 
goad  lattee,  and,  being  a  fonnldable  weapon, 
is  probablj  the  one  spoken  of,  Judges  ill. 
al_'  Shamgar,  the  son  of  Analh,  which 
slew  of  the  Philistines  six  hnndrad  men 
with  sa  01  goad.' 

The  writer  of  the  sboTs  (man;  jeiia  a  ra- 
■ident  In  Eastern  oouDliies,  and  autoptioaH; 
acquainted  with  the  instnnnenla  sod  eos- 
loms  alluded  to)  dadnoes  therefrom  the  fid- 
lowing  explanation  of  the  text  In  question ; 

'  The  words  ef  the  wiee  si*  *•  (oadi  sod  *•  Om 
■sill  &M*tMd  ikenla  by  the  msiten  (or  head  heid- 
nwo)  of  suembUe*  of  aitli,  wUeb  *i*  (iTsn  (is 
Utilbaled)  b;  cms  of  th*  ih^Axd*-' 

Or,   puaphrased  without  the  met^tor, 

'Tb*  werdaef  tb*  wiie,  commuileated  bTboUl 


m  tenanUj  ts  ethen,  •»  is  (oals 
leqo  tbe  lukewarm  and  iluf^sh.' 

OOAT9,  of  which  scleral  kinds  wen 
known  in  Western  Asis,  ons  of  whieh  bsan 
the  nam*  of  the  SyriBn  goat,  haring  pendu- 
loas  ears  and  long  hair,  wen  kept  in  floeks 
and  tended  b;  '^  paliiarehs  (Osu.  z*.  9; 
UTTJi  U),  as  lbs;  still  an  b;  the  Bedooiut, 
and  at  a  later  period  formed  on  aU  the  high 
lands  of  Palestine  an  important  member  of 
the  floek  (1  Sam-m.  3).  They  seired  for 
fiiod,  and  Iherefon  for  i^erings  (DeuL  xIt. 
t).  Their  milk  fDmiahed  nutriment  (Pror. 
-".«;  9T).  Their  hidea were  worn  aa  olosk* 
-"   mode  of 


The  goad,  fig.  1.  U  B.ualiy'made  of  the  by  prophet*  and  peraons  of  "wlo  mode  <* 
milTw&jbanlboo  (eaUci  Khnl  Bhnn-  StfJl*^,  ""^  Lf±^,llh.^T\ 
r.hi.„d  Is  stout  thiw  liet  long. having  a     Pl""*.^'™  ?"*2?.'?"A  E"^,^,V 


^^".SS;.  «S!.i     « -^  "  W-oloa.^  (I  flannel  xi 


60A 


618 


GOA 


AaoBf  thiir  MOttibvtkmi,  the  loMlitM  in 

the  vUteneee  gmve  pmt^  baix  which  wm 

Bpmi  by  voBMn  (Ezod.  anr.  4;  zzzv.  6,  33, 

26),  which  WM  pidbdUy  need  in  part  to 

BMke  ooide  fior  the  tent,  end  in  pert  wee 

mede  into  tenti  (izvi  7 — IS).    Sneh  cnr- 

teitte,or«e^  (in  Hebzvw  fftcic,  in  the  SeptoA- 

fint  lelrhoe    whenee  oar  tedk,  Aag,  tksggy), 

of  epnn  goel^  heir,  eeem  to  have  been  eom- 

Bonly  need  far  the  eotering  of  tonte.   Sedk- 

eloth,  or  a  heir  ihirt,  wbleh  wee  bleek  or 

dark  brown,  the  goala  of  Syria  and  Palee- 

Cine  being  ehiefly  of  theft  eoloar  ercn  to  the 

pneent  day,  ie  eflnded  to   in  Bot.  wL  lil 

(comp  Ie.  L  8),  and  wae  worn  to  «xpreee 

moorning  end  mortiAeetiott  (J<niah  iiL  ft^ 

8).    When  Herod  Agrippa  wae  eeiied  et 

Caeerea  with  a  mortal  dietamper  (Aete  zii. 

98),  tlie  people,  aeeotding  to  Joeepfane  (Ant 

six.  8, 2),  eat  down  on  aeek-eloth,  beeeechinf 

God  on  hie  behelf.    Henee  the  nee  of  hair- 

ehirta  worn  by  deroleee  in  more  reeent  timee. 

The  goet  ie  often  fonnd  in  oonneetion 

with  iheep.    Oeneral  terme  were  employed 

In  the  eneient  world  to  indnde  both  aheep 

and  goela.    Sheep  and  goala  were  oiKaed 

together  in  aamfloe.    Nomerooa  are  the  in- 

etaneea  foond  In  aneient  writere  in  which 

the  eeme  lock,  or  die  wealth  of  a  aingle  in- 

dindoal,  indoded  both  theee  esimale.    In 

Walpole'e  *  TraTela'  is  a  plate  taken  ftom  a 

toblet  dedicated  to  Pan,  in  which  goata  and 

aheep  meer  in  different  gioapeL    The  two 

kinde  of  enimele  were  generally  kept  apart 

To  thie  eireometence  idlaeion  ie  made  by 

onr  Savioar  in  hie  image  of  d&e  ahepberd 

dividing  the  eheep  fh>m  tfie  goata  (Matt 

82).     The  he*goat  was  employed  to 


lead  the  flock,  ae  the  ram  wae  emong  theep. 
The  following  paeeagee  of  Soriptiiie  aUnde 
to  thie  eostom :  Jer.  1.  8.    Zech*  z.  8. 


In  DflBid  vSIL  0b  i 
of  the  Meeedonien  enspiiw. 
aignedi%  diallCaee^ 
riode  ebowided  in  goats, 
head  ae  its  iB>igBia»  as 

coina.    In  Matt  zzr.  g ^ 

wiMf  are  rcgeeted  of  the  Ovent  JiM%a. 

The  pieeediag  engraving  le 
andcBt  gnat  hard.  hoJditig  Aa 
pipe,  in  hie  left  hand,  and  m 
hie  right 

&Bpe^ael,  in  Ae  Hriwww 
eolgeet  on  whieh  great  diveraii 
preTaiL  By  tfie  Bfldieal  aeeo^ 
weleam  that  on  the  d^  of 
ment  the  hi^-ptiea^  after 
acte^  took  two  goata,  and, 
them  to  Jahoirah,  eaat  k>ie  on 
lot  tot  Jehoreh,  and  die  other  loC  for  ^ 
scepe-goat;*  in  Ae  original  (aeo  tbe  fleevym) 
*  for  AsaaeL'  The  lot,  or  gon^  wlilaA  " 
to  Jehoreh,  the  piiMt  alew  nnd  oAbsi 
the  Almighty  aa  a  sin-oiffering.  Bui  die 
deajgnated  by  lot  for  Aaaael 

aliTo  before  Jehoreh,  to  make 

with  him,  to  aend  him  to  Aaaaol  intottie  vil- 
demeee  (we  haTe  literally  tranainted  tiitf  lOlb 
Yeree).  When  the  ritnal  of  alonfiiiMini  van 
eom^ted,  Aeran  laid  hie  hands  on  die  lieed 
of  the  Uto  goat,  and,  oonleesiBg  o^rer  lum 
all  the  iniqnitiea  of  the  children  of  larwel, 
patting  them  on  the  head  of  the  cont,  acat 
the  goat  by  a  fit  man  into  the  wildanesa? 
and  '  the  goat  ehall  bear  npon  him  all  their 
iniqnitiee  into  an  oninhabitad  land,'  where 
he  wae  eet  at  liberty  and  lost.  The  tranaae- 
tkm  ie  obTionaly  eymbolieal ;  J*>«Sg«*m^  ap- 
parenfly,  to  ahow  the  obliteration  of  the 
aine  of  the  people  by  the  inunedlataly  pee- 
eeding  expiatioas;  for  the  goet,  widi^the 
forgiven  sine  of  the  people  on  his  head,  waa 
led  into  the  wildemeea,  where,  with  aD  aboot 
him,  he  wae  loet  from  sight,  and  probably 
periehed.  Thie  eymbolieal  act  may  hn^e  been 
founded  on  an  old  heathen  notion,  namely, 
that  the  wildemeee  waa  inhabited  by  a«^^| 
end  odier  wicked  spirite  (comp.  Ler.  xviL  7. 
Dent  rr¥ii.  17  ),  to  whom  Tietima  were  oBenA. 
With  thie  deloeion  die  leraeUtes  were  donl^ 
iMe  acqtoainted,  especially  as  pionitiatorT 
offenngs  were  made  by  the  Kgyp^ans  to 
Typhon,  dieir  personification  of  eviL  Henee 
arose  the  notion^diet  to  aend  or  derote  to 
Aaa»d  (probably  from  ««.  power,  and  e*.  god. 
meamng  die  power  of  Ood,  or  Rreai  nower 

stroctioD.  In  process  of  time,  the  phrase 
•to  send  to  AzaaeV  came  to  ai^nifV  ^^ 
to  hand  over  to  obliWon,  widi«2riiy^^ 
enee  to  die  stqierstition  whence  it  hnd\S«L' 
In  due  sense  it  eecms  to  haye  been  ^S«S 
byMoees.  Simih.  oaagea^ofT^gSSTS 
fomid  among  other  nations.  -xStW^ 
the  crows  *  meant,  with  the  <lM«kV.  TL: 
sign  tonUn'-riiiU,  toihe  SSu^*?^* 


GOD                      619  GOD 

on  the  point  under  eonsidention;  bo  in  Oer-  tions  of  God,  are  others  in  llie  Bible  tot 
mail,  gth  Mum  htnktr.  which  neither  the  Hebivws  nor  Moaet  eea 
This  explanation  is  not  without  support  be  oonsidered  responsible,  and  niiose  origin 
from  analogy.    The  two  goat»*-one  offered  and  preTalenoe  are  to  be  sought  in  the  low 
in  Bftcrifiee  to  JehoTah,  the  other  giren  oTer  and  gross  ooneeptions  of  semi-barbaious 
to  perdition  and  forgetfblness — sre  similar  to  ages.     In  this  matter,  eontrary  to  the  gene- 
tbe  two  pigeons  employed  in  the  pnrifioation  nd  rule,  the  greater  does  not  indude  the 
of  the  leper,  one  of  whieh  is  saorifioed,  the  less;  sinoe  the  mind  that  eould  rise  to  the 
other  ilies  away  with  the  impurity  and  sin  oonoeption  of  God  giTen  in  the  iSnt  chapter 
(^l«eT.  xIt.  4-^7).    The  notion  that  a  saori-  of  Genesis,  was,  by  its  Tery  eleration,  inea- 
fice   to  Satan  was  here  intended  is  without  pable  of  holding  at  the  same  time  the  purely 
support    Such  an  impiety  is  immediately  material  notions  of  the  Deity  whicdi  are  found 
after  expressly  forbidden  (xrii.  7),  and  is  in  some  insulsted  passages.  These  passages 
wliolly  repugnant  to  the  principles  of  the  prore  nothing  but  the  possible  preralence 
MoBSuo  polity.  in  the  minds  of  the  speakers  of  unworthy 
Bruce,  in  his  Travels  (iiL  781),  relates  a  ideas  of  God,  leaving  the  Biblical  or  Mosaic' 
ceremony  as  praetised  by  an  ignorant  tribe  idea  to  be  deduced  ftom  language  expresslV 
of  Abyssinians,  which  is  eallcd  to  mind  by  designed  and  fitted  to  set  it  forth,  which  is 
facte   connected  with  the  scape-goat.    After  fbund  in  an  abundanee  and  varietf  that  cor- 
haTing  once  a  year,  on  the  first  appearance  respond  with  the  importance  of  the  sutjeet 
of  the  dog-star,  sacrificed  a  black  heifer  that  The  tenor  of  this  remark  may  throw  some 
never  bore  a  calf,  and  having,  at  the  end  of  light  on  a  notion  which  in  modem  times  has 
certain  ceremonies,  eaten  the  carcase  raw,  found  much  acceptance,  especially  among 
they  carry  the  bead,  dose  wrapt  from  sight  German  divines,  namely,  that  the  Biblical 
In  the  hide,  into  a  cavern  which  they  say  idea  of  God  was  graduaUy  dsTeloped,  rishig 
reaches  below  two  fountains,  where,  without  by  degrees  into  the  grand  thought  of  a  Uni- 
ioTches  or  other  artificial  light,  thoy  perform  versal  Greater,  firom  the  narrow  view  which 
their  worship,  which  all  the  natives  are  ssid  regarded  him  ss  the  God  first  of  the  ftunfly  of 
to  know,  but  no  one  to  reveal ;  neither  would  Abraham,  and  then  of  the  Jewish  people.  Thai 
any  one  report  what  became  of  the  head.  It  the  Deity  is  represented  under  these  eharaotert 
would  iq>pear  te  be  an  offering  to  the  spirit  there  ean  be  no  doubt  But  this  representa* 
whom  they  suppose  te  reside  in  the  river  tion  is  Justifisd  by  the  peculiarly  intimate 
^Ue,  whom  they  call  the  Everlasting  God  moral  relation  into  which  God,  for  his  own 
and  Father  of  the  universe.  gracious  purposes,  was  pleased  te  enter  with 
OOD  (T.  good),  the  great  creating,  sns*  tl^  patriarch  and  his  deseendsnts,  and  by 
taining,  and  governing  Mind  of  the  universe,  no  means  exeludes  that  wider  relation  which 
is  the  idea  around  which  revolves  the  entire  he  bore  te  mankind  and  the  universe,  ss  de- 
circle  of  thoughte  and  feelings  which  enter  dared  in  the  eaiUest  of  the  Biblical  records, 
ioto  and  oonstitnte  the  rdigion  of  the  Bible.  Even  if  it  could  be  proved  that  any  one  of 
In  the  clear,  ftill,  and  tmthftil  disdosures  the  patriarchs  or  Hebrew  wordiies  hdd  the 
whieh  that  truly  sacred  book  makes  regard*  Deity  te  be  exclusively  their  God,  it  by  no 
ing  Ood,  is  found  at  once  ite  chief  distino*  means  follows  that  the  Bible  is  answerable 
tion  and  ite  highest  merit;  for  here  we  find  for  so  Itmitsd  a  notion.    Indeed,  unless  it 
the  Bible  superio]r  to  all  the  sacred  books  ean  be  proved  tliat  Genesis,  instead  of  being 
of  other  nations,  since  in  it  the  idea  of  God,  the  oldest  book  in  the  Hebrew  Oanon,  is  one 
BO  far  as  human  conceptions  may  be  sup-  of  the  most  recent,  the  evidence  sflbrded  by 
posed  to  do,  corresponds  with  the  august  ite  op«ming  words  as  to  the  spirituality  A 
and  awfol  reality,  and  is  kept  tree  firom  the  the  Biblicd  conception  of  God,  must  be 
mythological  depravations  and  phUosophical  held  to  prove  that  the  purest  ideas  were, 
conceite  that  disfigure  the  representations  of  prevdent  in  the  earliest  ages.    This  being 
Deity  prevdent  in  other  ancient  writings.  The  the  fact,  it  follows  that  the  Biblicd  idea  (J 
simple  yet  sublime  account  given  in  Genesis  God  did  not  fdlow  the  ordinary  process  of 
of  the  creation  of  the  world,  is  sufficient  in  socid  progress  and  mord  development,  but 
itself  both  to  exhibit  the  Mosaic  oonoeption  was  an   antidpation  of  men's  knowledge 
of  God,  snd  to  prove  ite  inoompsrable  supe-  many  centuries  before,  in  the  natnrd  order 
riority  over  the  polytheistic  or  philosophicd  of  things,  such  knowledge  could  have  oome 
views  on  the  subject  which  prevailed  of  old.  into  existence.    Indeed,  the  Mosdc  or  Bib- 
With  the  extension  of  men's  knowledge  of  the  lied  conception  of  Deity  is  an  anticipation 
oniverse,  their  idea  of  God  must  in  modem  of  modem  discoveries;  for  in  troth  may  it 
times  have  become  more  oomprehendve,  but  be  said  that  p^osophy  has  never  yet  de- 
the  change  is  a  growth,  not  an  dteration;  the  vdoped  a  loilier  or  more  worthy  idea  of 
ground  idea  remains Uie  same:  Newton wor-  God  than  is  found  in  ths  first  diiqiter  of 
shipped  the  Being  whom  Moses  reveded,  Genesis.    But  what  is  such  an  antioipation, 
namely,  the  Great  Spirit  who  called  all  things  if  not  the  specid  act  of  God  in  making  him- 
into  existence.  sdf  known  to  msn  ?    Thus,  on  a  primitive 
Mingled  with  these  subh'me  representa-  revelation  rest  men's  conceptions  of  Qod 


GOD  620  GOD 

and  tlMir  bait  means  of  progreia.    The  hii-  present  hour  the  Israelite  repeata  In  hia 

toiy  of  man  has  a  re?eIation  for  its  starting-  prayer  morning  and  night^worda  which 

point    The  oradle  of  oar  race  was  watched  haye  often  aoeompanied  him  to  martyrdom, 

by  the  eye  of  Omnipotent  Goodness.  and  whieh  he  pionsly  prononncea  on  hia 

It  is  by  seyeral  namea  that  God  is  spoken  death-bed.    And  to  giTe  effect,  and,  in  the 

of  in  the  Sacred  Scriptorea.    These  names  final  issue,  nniversal  preralence  to  the  snb- 

are  not  unattended  with  diffienlty,  though  in  lime  doctrine  that  they  teach,  waa  the  grand 

general  they  oonflrm  the  statements  slnady  and  the  oommon  aim  of  the  law,  the  pp»- 

made.    One  eause  of  diffioolty  arises  when  phets,  and  the  gospel,  which  wiQ  then  only 

we  attempt  to  determine  the  earliest  eonoei»-  haye  their  main  purpose  fiilfilled  when  the 

tion  of  God  by  fixing  on  the  earliest  pre?»-  sole  Creator  of  heayen  and  earth  shall  be 

lent  appellation.    Here  it  is  more  easy  to  adored  and  obeyed  in  the  heart  and  life  of 

indulge  in  eonjeetnre  than  to  gain  accurate  eyery  intelligent  creature. 
knowledge.     Nor  is  the  question  of  great        In  Gen.  zyii.  1,  God  reyeals  himself  to 

importance ;  for  could  we  succeed  in  show-  Abraham  by  a  name,  $hady,  which  soma 

ing  what  idea  was  first  held  of  God  by  any  hold  to  be  the  most  ancient  appellation  of 

particular  man  or  olaas  of  men,  it-would  not  the  Deity,   and  which  signifiea  Almightf. 

fbllow  that  this  was  the  earliest  conception  Comp.  Exod.  yL  8. 

that  ezistsd,  much  less  would  the  ideaneces-         EM,  which,  according  to  Gesenius,  eumes 

aarily  haye  the  sanction  of  Mosee  or  the  re-  from  an  obsolete  root  signifying  '  strong,* 

ligton  of  the  Bible.    What  conception  of  *  powerful,'  ia  a  yery  oommon  appellation  of 

God  they  set  forth  is  made  evident  in  the  God  (Gen.  zxyiii.  8 ;  xzzy.  1) ;  which,  being 

first  page  of  that  diyine  book.  probably  deriyed  from  polytheism,  denotes. 

The  name  which  God  in  a  peculiar  aenae  as  the  Greek  thtot,  a  diyine  being,  and  ia 

yindieatea  to  himself  in  the  Old  Testament,  accordingly  applied  to  the  unaginaiy 


and  for  which  the  religion  of  Moses  is  an-  of  heathenism  (Dan.  xi.  86). 
swerable,  we  find  declared  in  Exod.  iiL  13—        EloAoA— whidi  some  hold  to  be  of  die 
10.    When  about  to  go  to  Pharaoh  in  order  same  root  and  signification  as  the  preced- 
to  demand  the  liberation  of  the  children  of  ing  name,  and  others,  denying  it  from  the 
Israel,  Moeea,  knowing  diat  the  Egyptian  Arabic,  deseribe  as  signifying  '  to  be  asto- 
piinoe  had  *  gods  many,'  aaked  by  what  name  nished,'  *  to  worriiip,'  and  hence  the  awfU 
he  ahould  apeak  to  Pharaoh  of  the  Creator?  Being  who  is  to  be  adored — ia  applied  to 
The  answer  bad  him  aay,  *  I  am  hath  sent  Jehoyah  in  the  later,  particularly  &e  poetih 
me  unto  yon.'  The  name,  Jehoyah,  may  haye  cal  books,  being,  as  a  general  denomination, 
been  ex^esely  chosen  beeanse,  at  least,  al-  found  in  the  plural  form  Elchtem,  This  plural 
lied  to  one  (Jee,  compare  the  Latin  Joois)  form  may  be  explained  either  as  the  plural 
with  which  there  is  reaaon  to  belieye  the  of  dignitjr,  according  to  a  rule  of  Hebrew 
Egyptians  ware  ao<inainted,  and  whieh  pro-  grammar  by  which  names  denoting  emi- 
bid>ly  was  the  denomination  of  a  deity  held  nence  are  put  in  the  plural  number,  or  by 
by  them  in  special  honour.    Howeyer  this  the  supposition  that  the  appellation  waa 
may  be,  'Jehoyah'  haa  for  its  essential  im-  borrowed  from  polytheistic  usages  of  laa- 
port  the  idea  of  emtMCi,  of  self  and  necea*  guage.    It  is  employed  as  a  general  term 
•ary  exiatence.    Acoordingly,  we  here  find  for  the  diyinity,  or  what  ia  diyine.    Hence 
God  deseribed  as  the  liying  one,  in  oontra-  are  explained  the  forme,  'Jehoyah  God*  (£(^ 
distinction  to  all  the  pretended  diyinities  of  kttm.  Gen.  iii.  1), '  Jehoyah  God  of  the  He- 
idol  worahip  (Dent  v.  26.  Dan.  yL  26),  the  brews'  (Exod.  iu.  18),  'Jehoyah  thy  God* 
eyer-axisting  source  of  life,  who  is,  and  who  (Deut  xxyiL  G,  6 ;  comp.  Deut.  yL  4).    Aa 
was,  and  who  is  to  come,   the  Almighty  tiie  radical  idea  of  the  word  ia  either  power 
(Ber.  L  8),  the  eternal  and  unchangeable  or  worship,  it  is  applied  to  rulers  and  frdae 
Creator.    The  name  of  the  Deity  thua  so-  gods  (Exod.  xxi.  6, '  judges.'    Ps.  xeyiL  7). 
lemnly  originated  or  adopted,  haa  eyer,  among  In  union  with  other  words,  it  sometimea  de- 
the  Jews,  continued  to  be  hdd  in  the  deepest  notes  whst  is  yery  great;  as  in  Gen.  xxx.  8, 
yeneration.    They  therefore,  lest  they  might  '  great  wrestlings'  are  in  the  Hebrew,  'wreat- 
profane  it,  instead  of  Jehoyah,  used  the  lings  of  Eloheem'  (Jonah  iiL  3). 
word  Adcmai,  or  Lord.    If,  now,  to  this  re-         There  are  some  indiyidual  deseriptions 
presentation  of  God  we  add  the  emphatic  of  God  which  merit  attention,  such  aa  '  the 
words  found  in  Deut  yi.  4 — ^  Hear,  O  Isrsel,  Judge  of  all  the  earth'  (Gen.  xyiiL  26),  *  the 
Jehoyah  our  God  is  one  Jehoyah,'  or, '  Jeho-  God  of  the  spirits  of  all  flesh'  (Numb.  xyL 
yah  is  our  God,  Jehoyah  ia  one'— we  leam  22),  'Jehoyah,  God  in  heayen  aboye  and  on 
that  Moeea  taught  his  people  the  sublime  the  earth  beneath ;  there  is  none  else*  (Dent 
dootrine  that  there  ia  one  s^-existent  Crea-  iy.  89 ;  oomp.  xxxiL  80,  ttq.).  The  union  of 
tor  and  Guardian  of  the  uniyerse,  who  alone  Gk>d's  uniyersal  dominion  with  his  special 
ia  to  be  worshipped,  seryed,  obeyed,  and  relation  towards  the  Israelites,  is  well  marked 
loved.    This  is  the  fhndamental  truth  of  the  in  Deut  x.  14—16.  The  continuation  of  the 
religion  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Mosaic  insti-  passage  displays  in  a  striking  manner  the 
totiona.    Bueh  are  the  words  iriiieh  to  the  moral  attributes  of  Jehoyah,  as  a  Being  'irbo 


GOD                      821  6  0  M 

vegardeth  not  persons  nor  taketh  reward ;  he  stanee,  power,  and  etenilty ;  the  Father,  the 

doth  exeonte  die  judgment  of  the  fatherless  Bon,  and  the  Holy  Qhost.'   The  last  sentence 

and  widow,  and  loveth  the  stranger  in  giving  contains  a  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the 

liim  food  and  raiment'  (17 — fl2).    No  Ian-  Trinity,  which  is  held  to  he  proved  by  these 

linage  contains  a  more  heaatiftil  description  and  other  passages :  Nnmb.  tL  24 — 26.   Is. 

of  God  in  his  moral  relatione  to  man  than  yi.  8.   Katt  iii.  16, 17 ;  xrviU.  19.  1  Cor.  ziL 

Dent  zxxii.  6,  teq,,  where  the  qualities  of  4 — 6.  2  Cor.  ziii.  14.  Bey.  L  4,  5. 

the  Father,  the  Sovereign,  and  the  Jadge,  GOG  AND  MAGOG  (H.).  The  latter  was 

are  strikingly  blended  together  (Ps.  zzzi.  a  descendant  of  Japheth  (Gen.  z.  2).    This 

19,  ttq,;  ciii.).  relation  would  refer  us  to  Europe  for  his 

The  fundamental  conceptions  of  God  place  of  settlement  In  Ezek.  zzxviii.  2,  8, 
which  prevailed  under  the  old  covenant,  we  find  Gog  described  as  the  land  of  Magog, 
passed  as  a  matter  of  course  into  the  new  and  this  Magog  is  the  chief  prince  of  Me- 
dispensation,  which  was  its  fulfilment  (Matt,  aheoh  and  Tubal,  and  as  a  poweifial  leader, 
zi.  2d.  John  y.  26 ;  viii.  04).  But  the  idea  having  under  his  command  Persia,  Ethiopia, 
of  God  was  more  completely  developed  by  and  Libya,  Gomer  and  all  his  bands,  as  well 
our  Lord  and  his  apostles  in  that  they  set  as  the  house  of  Togarmah  of  the  north  quar- 
him  forth  as  a  Spirit  (John  iv.  23,  24) ;  as  ters  (comp.  zzziz.  1,  6,  II,  16).  Such  a 
ma  invisible  Being  (i.  18) ;  as  the  '  Great  warlike  alliance  as  is  here  implied  seems  im* 
First  Cause,'  having  a  necessary  and  inde-  possible;  and  the  tenor  of  the  passages  sug- 
pendent  existence  (1  Tim.  vL  15, 16.  John  gests  that  the  prophet  under  these  names 
▼.  26) ;  as  absolute  perfection  (Matt  v.  48;  symbolised  idolatry,  having  Gog  and  Magog 
ziz.  17) ;  and  finally,  in  regard  to  his  deal-  as  its  head.  The  two  words,  fh>m  their 
ings  with  men,  as  a  Father,  not  so  much  in  agreement  in  sound,  appear  to  have  coal- 
the  Old-Testament  sense  of  a  master  of  a  esced,  being  employed  to  denote  the  power 
family,  as  in  relation  to  the  display  of  his  of  rude  force  employed  by  idolatry  against 
own  essential  goodness  (1  John  iv.  8)  in  the  kingdom  of  Qod  (comp.  Bev.  zz.  7,  8). 
the  redemption  of  the  world,  the  highest  Such  a  power  was  well  represented  by  Gog, 
proof  of  God*s  love  (I  John  iii.  1 ;  iv.  9.  or  the  little  known  and  barbarous  races  that 
John  iii.  16),  and  in  those  providential  ar-  inhabited  the  north  quarters  generally,  that 
rangements  by  which,  in  his  paternal  good-  is,  of  Asia  as  well  as  Europe.  Some  writers 
ness,  he  seeks  to  make  all  men  wise,  holy,  have  thought  that  the  Caucasianswere  meant, 
and  happy  (Matt  v.  45 ;  vi.  26,  $eq, ;  vii.  11.  and  found  some  resemblance  between  the 
liUke  zv.ll — 82.  1  Tim.  ii.  4).  names.  In  Syrian  and  Arabian  writers,  Gog 
Hence  it  i^pears  that  the  idea  of  God  and  Magog  appear  as  Oie  representative  <^ 
which  the  Scriptures  display  is  this — God  is  the  northern  peoples,  known  only  by  fable, 
the  self-existent,  eternal,  almighty,  and  mer-  After  the  same  manner,  the  name  Scythians 
«iftd  Spirit  who  made,  fills,  and  guides  the  was  employed  in  ancient  times,  and  that  of 
vniverse,  who  exercises  a  ceaseless  govern-  Tartars  in  the  middle  ages, 
ment  over  all  its  parts,  especiaUy  over  the  GOLAN  (H.),  a  city  and  district  in  Argob, 
intellectual  and  moral  world;  which  in  various  or  the  western  part  of  Bashan.  It  was  con- 
ways,  but  chiefly  by  his  Son,  he  is  engaged  quered  by  the  Israelites,  given  to  Manasseh, 
in  raising  into  union  with  himself,  and  so  and  afterwards  assigned  to  the  Levites  (Deut 
into  a  state  of  perfect  holiness  and  endless  iv.  48.  Josh,  xx.8 ;  zxL  27.  1  Chron.vi.71). 
hUss.  This  description  of  God  furnished  From  ^lis  city  came  the  name  OaukmUitt 
by  the  sacred  vrritings  is  their  complete  jus-  or  Gaulonititt  which  extended  firom  the  sea 
tification  and  their  highest  eulogy.  Books  of  Gennesareth  to  Hermon,  now  Dteholan, 
which  have  conveyed  to  the  world  so  grand  It  contained  the  west  of  the  plain  of  the 
a  conception  —  conveyed  it  as  their  chief  Hauran,  and  was  a  part  of  the  tetrarohy  of 
burden— conveyed  it,  not  in  bare  and  cold  Herod  Philip,  son  of  Herod  the  Great 
abstractions,  but  in  history,  biography,  poe-  GOLD  (T).  See  Iboh. 
try  and  fact,  in  living  and  most  touching  GOLDSMITH,  a  worker  in  gold,  stands 
examples,  before  all,  in  the  life,  teachings,  for  a  Hebrew  word,  tzaraph,  which,  signiiy- 
and  death  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ— can  ing  to  perform  the  operations  of  metallurgy, 
have  nothing  to  fear  from  small  objections  such  as  melting  or  founding  (Jer.  vi.  29), 
or  the  growth  of  mtellect,  since  they  confer  assaying  (Ps.  IxvL  10),  refining  (Zech.  xiii 
on  man  the  highest  and  noblest  boon  that  it  9),  also  to  gild  or  cover  with  gold  (Is.  xL 
is  possible  for  him  to  receive.  19),  shows  in  its  several  applications  that 

The  Church  of  England,  in  its  first  Arti-  the  Hebrews  were  familiar  with  the  science 

de,  thus  speaks  on  the  point  before  us  :  in  question.     Working  in  gold  became  a 

*  There  is  but  one  living  and  true  God,  ever-  trade  (Neh.  iiL  81),  which  was  encouraged 

lasting,  without  body,  parts,  or  passions ;  of  by  idolatry  (Is.  xlvi.  6).    See  CAmPEXTBB, 

infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness ;  the  GOLIATH.    See  David. 

Maker  and  Preserver  of  all  things,  both  visi-  GOMEB  (H.),  eldest  son  of  Japheth  and 

ble  and  invisible.  And  in  unity  of  this  God-  grandson  of  Noah,  is  acoounted  the  founder 

head  there  be  three  persons,  of  one  sob-  of  the  northern  nations,  the  CtmaisrtaDt 


600 


622 


60S 


(Oymri)  md  0«lt»,  plaoed  batipean  die  Bo 
lyithenas  (Dneiper)  and  the  Tuuue  (Don). 

OOMOBRAU  (H.  a  kmp),  a  city  in  ihe 
Tile  of  Siddim,li«fing  a  king  named  Binha 
(Oen.  zi?.  2),  lying  probably  sonth  from 
Sodom  (x.  19),  whoee  inhabitants  were  yery 
wicked  (ziii.  18),  end  whiefa,  with  foor  neigh 
booring  eitiet,  wae  destroyed  of  Ood,  proba- 
bly by  a  Toleanie  eruption  (jdz.  ii,  29). 
'  OoBorrah '  is  need  as  a  type  of  extreme 
goilt  and  an  example  of  the  Divine  punish- 
ments (Is.  L  9, 10;  ziii  19.  Amos  ir.  IL 
Matt  z.  IG). 

OOOD,  the  great  objeot  of  human  desiie, 
whieh  has  been  diligently  and  anxiously 
toof^t  in  all  ages  and  natioas,  now  with 
only  the  glimmerings  of  halfHiwakened  rea- 
son, now  with  all  the  resonroes  of  highly- 
enltured  philoeophy,  end  now  under  the 
guidanee  of  common  experience  and  prac- 
Ileal  good  aense,  is  in  the  Bible  set  forth, 
under  Tsrious  forms,  as  the  obeerranee  of 
Ood*8  holy  lawa,  and,  in  suoh  obserranoe, 
tiie  ftalfllment  of  the  great  puipoees  of 
our  being.  In  this,  the  eofreot  view  of 
food,  the  Sacred  Scriptures  present  an  ex- 
empUAcatioD  of  the  claim  to  our  rererence 
which  they  acquire  by  disclosing  the  true 
relations  in  which  man  stands  to  the  Maker 
«f  the  universe,  whoee  will  must  be  law  to 
all  orders  of  creatures,  and  obedience  to 
whoee  will  cannot  fail  to  ensure  their  high- 
est happiness.  The  question  then  ariaes. 
What  is  God's  will  ?  Here,  in  the  main, 
there  is  no  difflculty.  The  Universe,  Provi- 
dence, and  the  Scriptures,  our  own  frame 
and  capabilities,  our  actual  ccmdition  and 
our  prospects,  combine  to  mske  God's  will 
clear  to  every  faithful  learner.  Obedience, 
then,  to  God's  will  is  maafs  hi|^iest  good  as 
well  as  his  first  duty.  Thus  are  duty  and 
hi^piness  idedtified.  He  that  is  in  the  way 
of  duty  is  on  the  road  to  happiness.  But 
there  is  a  prominence  given  to  the  idea  and 
the  claims  of  duty  which  ahowa  that  we 
should  aeek  first,  not  good,  but  the  will  and 
fbvoor  of  God.  As  the  source  of  evil  is  found 
In  the  predominance  of  man's  passions  over 
his  Judgment  and  hia  will,  ao  the  source  of 
good  is  originaUy  in  Ood  himself,  and  deri- 
vattvely  in  the  soul  of  man  bronght  into  ac- 
eofdanoe  with  the  Divine  will  and  purposes. 
Hence  we  may  generally  declare  that  man's 
will  is  the  source  of  evil,  and  God's  will  the 
fountain  of  good.  Accordingly,  the  universal 
diffusion  of  happiness  is  made  coincident 
with  the  univernl  prevalence  of  the  will  and 
spirit  of  God.  The  citation  of  individual 
passagea  would  give  no  adequate  conception 
of  the  force  of  evidence  with  which  theae 
great  truths  are  act  forth  in  the  Bible.  We 
leave  them  as  general  deductions  from  the 
Scriptures,  for  the  reader  to  consider  and 
verify,  refeifing  merely  in  illustration  to  the 
following:  Gen.  iiL  3,  14.  Deut  zzviii.— > 
zxxL  Ps.  xix.  7,  Mf . 


GOSHEN,  ealled  alao  '  the  land  of 
see'  (Gen.  xlviL  11),  the  district  forming 
the  triangle  bounded  by  the  Medilerraoean, 
the  weatem  arm  of  the  Bed  Sea,  and  the 
eastern  or  Pelusiao  arm  of  the  Nile^ 
meneing  at  Heliopolis,  which  Joseph 
signed  to  his  father  for  sn  abode,  and  in 
which  the  family  of  Jacob  grew  into  a  nation 
(Gen.  xlv.  10;  xlvi.  28,  Mf.).  That  the 
country  whieh  they  actually  occupied  lay 
along  the  fertile  banks  of  the  Nile,  probably 
from  On  to  Pelusium,  may  be  infoired  from 
the  way  in  which  vegetable  luxuries  are 
spoksn  of  as  having  been  enjoyed  by  the 
Hebrews  (Numbers  xi.  0;  xx.  5) ;  end  the 
flocks  and  herds  i^iich  they  brought  with 
them  would  require  the  pasture  grounds  af- 
forded by  the  more  eastern  parte  bordering 
on  the  desert  A  union  of  rich  garden  soil 
with  downs  snd  uplands  would  be  afforded 
in  Goshen,  and  prove  for  the  Palestinian 
shepherds  '  tibe  best  of  the  land'  (Gen.  zlvii 
6),  while  it  would  have  the  additional  reeon- 
mendation  of  allowing  Jacob  (xlv.  10)  to  be 
near  his  dutiftil  son  Joseph,  whoee  habitual 
residence  waa  in  the  neighbouring  ci^  of 
Memphis.  The  proximity  of  tfiis  district  lo 
Pslestine,  which  led  to  hostile  movements 
between  Israelites  and  Philistines  (1  Chron. 
vii  21),  gives  an  assurance  that  we  have  in 
it  the  ancient  Goahen  (Exod.  xiiL  17,  18), 
a  conclusion  that  finds  support  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  the  opinion  of  whose  translators 
deserves  great  respect  in  whatevw  regards 
Egypt.  Moreover,  fkom  Ps.  IzzviiL  12,  48, 
it  sppears  that  Moses  wrought  his  miracles 
in  the  lend  of  Zoan,  that  is  Tanais,  whieh 
lay  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  district 
The  Arabic  translstion  sCm  renders  GoahcB 
by  S$dir,  the  name  of  a  village  which  lay  in 
the  vicinity  of  Belbeis,  near  whieh  may  still 
be  seen  remains  of  the  ancient  leraelitea  in 
mounds,  bearing  the  nsme  of  TMM-YAud, 
or  Jews'  hiUs  or  tombs. 

GOSPEL  (T.  God  ipeli,  *  God's  annomice- 
ment;'  virkum  Dei,  or  *a  proclamation  of 
good')  has  for  iUi  Greek  original  a  vrord, 
nMngtUom,  which  signifies  *the  glad  mes- 
sage,' that  is,  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in 
Christ  (Matt  iv.  23 ;  comp.  Luke  ii.  10),  <  Ihe 
goi^l  of  the  grace  of  God'  (Acts  xx.  24), 
Uic  great  cause  of  God  and  Christ  in  tbia 
dispensation  of  grace  (Mark  viii.  35;  comp. 
z.  29),  the  spiritual  iuFtmctions  thereby 
conveyed  (1  Pet  iv.  17.  2  Cor.  iv.  3).  The 
word  may  also  mean  an  account  of  the  pub- 
lication and  progress  of  this  good  nevra 
(Mark  L  1).  This  is  the  import  of  the  titles 
that  stand  at  the  head  of  what  we  term  the 
(four)  goepels,  which,  however,  did  not 
originate  with  die  authors  of  those  historieal 
arguments,  though  we  find  the  term  very 
early ;  thus  Justin  Martyr  uses  these  words 
— *  the  apostles  have  so  hsnded  down  in  the 
memoirs  that  are  called  gospels.'  *  Accord- 
ing to  my  gospel'  (Bom.  ii.  16)  probably 


O  0  S  023  0  0  8 

meuui,  *  looordlng  to  my  preaehing  of  the  Jesus,  is  0een«  known,  and  leported  by  hit 

gospel'  (ztL  20).    The  gospel  is  described  disciples. 

and  charaoterised  by  many  epithets — as  The  attempt  to  form  Harmonies  of  the 
*  God's  words '  (John  Tiii  47),  '  the  faithAil  four  gospels  has  proceeded  on  the  assnmp- 
word  of  instraction'  (Tit  i  9), '  the  word  of  tion  that  their  writers  nndertook,  under  the 
the  kingdom'  (Matt.  xiii.  19),  'his  (God's)  guidance  of  inspiration,  to  compose  in  each 
doctrine'  (1  Tim.  yi.  1),  *  the  words  of  this  ease  a  history  of  Jesus  the  Christ  Like 
life'  (Acts  T.  20), '  the  ministry  (word  rather)  other  assumptions,  of  which  there  an  so 
of  reconciliation '  (2  Cor.  t.  19),  aU  which  many  in  theology,  this  has  produced  a  plen- 
terms  serve  to  show  to  how  great  an  extent  tiftil  crop  of  errors.  It  may  not  be  easy  to 
recourse  was  at  the  first  had  to  preaching  determine  with  strict  accuracy  what  relation 
the  good  news^  or  the  announcement  of  it  the  four  oTangelists  bear  to  each  other,  but 
from  the  lips  and  from  the  heart  Other  the  only  way  in  which  we  can  hope  to  airiye 
deaoriptiye  terms  may  be  found  in  Acts  zrr.  at  the  truth  is  by  a  careful  perusal  of  the 
27.  Ephes.  iii.  2.  1  Tim.  iii.  9, 16.  records  tbemselTCS.  Such  a  perusal  giyes 
Much  penrerse  ingenuity  is  employed  by  no  countenance  to  the  assumption  to  whidi 
the  Christian  fathers  in  assigning  reasons  reference  has  just  been  made.  On  the 
why  the  gospels  are  in  number  four ;  for  in-  contrary,  there  are  evidences  which  show 
stance,  because  there  are  four  cardinal  Tir-  that  the  writers  had  sererally  their  own 
tnes,  four  quarters  of  the  world,  and  four  points  of  Yiew,  as  well  as  separate,  if  on  the 
elements.  Besides  the  four  recognised  by  whole  eonrergent,  aims.  In  general,  they 
the  church,  a  great  number  of  other  gospels  proposed  to  set  forth  in  evidence  the  claims 
were  put  forth  by  parties  in  order  to  sustain  of  Jesus  to  the  eredence  and  homage  of  the 
the  particularTiewswhioh  they sereraUy  held*  human  souL  But  in  pursuing  this  great 
Thus  Jerome  tells  us,  *  By  different  authors  purpose,  they  sought  also  to  gain  preralence 
were  put  forth  the  principles  of  different  for  that  particular  view  of  him  which  they 
heresies,  as  that  (gospel)  aoeording  to  the  had  been  led  to  form.  Accordingly,  Matthew, 
Egyptians,  and  Thomas,  and  Matthias^  and  who  wrote  first,  exhibits  the  conception  of 
Bartholomew,  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  and  Jesus  held  by  the  Jewish,  or  Petrine,  par^ 
of  Baailides,  and  Apelles,  and  the  rest,  whom  in  the  church.  In  reply  to  this  representation 
it  would  be  a  very  long  task  to  enumerate.'  of  Christianity,  Luke  exhibits  the  wider  and 
See  Apoobtpha.  nobler  views  entertained  by  Paul.  Mark 
Properly,  there  is  but  one  gospel ;  for,  as  steps  in  as  a  mediator  between  the  two,  and 
the  proclamation  of  divine  truth  by  Ihe  great  offers  the  gospel  in  a  later  state  of  develop- 
Messenger  of  the  covenant,  the  gospel  is  ment,  and  therefore  in  a  more  eoBm<^o]itan 
necessarily  one.  But  this  unity,  as  it  existed  form.  It  is,  however,  to  John,  who  did  net 
in  the  mind  of  Jesus  and  fell  from  his  lips,  write  tai  near  the  end  of  the  first  century,  that 
could  not  fail  to  undergo  modifications  on  we  must  look  for  ihe  highest  conception  of 
being  apprehended  by  ixiforior  minds  and  re-  the  mqesty  of  the  Lord  Jesus  and  the  spi- 
oorded  in  argumentative  narrations.  Hence  rituality  of  his  kingdom.  Under  these  cir- 
we  have  several  records  whence  to  learn  the  eomstances,  we  are  to  expect,  not  a  rigid  uni- 
one  gospel  of  salvation.  From  Luke  i  1 —  formity,  but  variations  and  diversity.  The 
4,  it  may  iqipear  that  in  the  first  days  there  gospels,  as  they  actually  are,  present  a  view 
were  curreot  in  the  church  many  nairatives  of  &e  existing  condition  of  the  church  aa 
of  '  those  thiugs  which  are  surely  beUeved.'  displayed  in  Uie  epistolary  writings.  That 
These,  however,  are  now  in  number  four,  condition  was  to  a  great  extent  one  of  inter- 
The  unity  thus  in  appearance  lost,  divines  nal  conflict  A  great  question  was  at  issue- 
have  endeavoured  to  restore  by  what  are  was  the  gospel  to  be  set  free  from  the  bonds 
called  Hannonies  (Greswell's,  Carpenter's,  of  its  Jewish  parentage  f  Did  justification 
Bobinson's),  but  with  little  success,  since  take  place  by  deeds  of  the  law,  as  the  Jn- 
they  have  aimed  at  more  than  the  foots  of  daizers  said,  or  by  faith  in  Christ,  as  Paul 
the  case  allow  to  be  attained.  maiutained  9  The  debate  which  proceeded 
An  analysis  of  the  four  gospels  would  in  every  part  of  the  ehurdi,  and  has  left  per- 
satisfy  the  reader  that  whatever  points  of  msnent  results  in  apostolic  letters,  could  not 
diversity  they  contain,  still  one  and  the  same  foil  to  find  utterance  in  gospels  or  argu- 
great  personage  is  ttieir  subject,  and  that  mentative  narrations.  Such  utterance  it  did 
tiieir  several  accounts  are  identical  in  the  find.  And  in  such  an  utterance  we  have 
chief  facts  of  his  history,  and  vaiy  only  in  the  best  guarantee  of  the  independenee  and 
accessories  and  eolooring.  The  approxima-  integrity  of  the  evangelists,  who,  writing  from 
r  tion  made  by  harmonisers  to  a  consecutive  their  own  indiridual  convictions,  have,  aa 
.1  and  uniform  synopsis  of  the  life  of  Christ  witnesses,  left  us  compositions  which  bear, 
t  has  at  least  this  merit,  namely,  that  it  shows  in  the  circumstances  under  which  they  were 
<  how  much  unity  prevails  in  the  four  narra-  written,  undeniable  attestations  to  the  good 
f  tives,  and  that  the  nanators  drew  their  ao-  faith  and  competency  of  their  authors.  For 
''            ooonts  from  the  same  source,  the  living  evidence,  instruction,  and  impression,  for  bq* 


6  0S  634  G  0  S 

perior  is  the  totiul  diTerfenoa  to  one  an-        The  general  diffeienoes  that  prarAil  in  Hm 

Inoken  and  ljiele«8  uniformity,  which,   as  gospels  haye  oansed  them  to  be  plaoed  in 

being  nnlike  any  thing  human,  would  ezeite  two  olssses :  I.  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Lnhe^ 

our  suspicions  rather  than  stir  our  hearts,  oalled  the  synoptical  (hanng  the  same  Tiew) 

As  things  are,  we  possess  the  testimony  of  gospels ;  II.  John,  whose  gospel  is  diatiii- 

Ibur  truly  independent  witnesses,  whose  very  guished  from  the  othen  by  its  reflective 


disagreement  attests  the  substantial  realigr  raoter.    The  ncorded  facts  had  passed  into 
of  what  they  report,  and  the  trustworthiness  the  mind  of  the  writer,  been  carefully  sm- 
of  the  recorded  testimony.   So  is  the  wisdom  died,  and,  when  at  length  fbUy  imbued  with 
of  Providence  justified  in  its  woAm  !  his  views,  mm  put  forth  in  such  forms  and 
The  exhibition  of  the  evidence  on  which  coloun  as,  in  the  use  of  the  best  means  be 
tests  this  view  of  the  mutual  relations  of  the  could  command,  had  approved  themselves  to 
evangelists  would  requira  a  volume,  and  we  his  judgment    The  synoptical  gospels  slso^ 
have  only  a  Hew  lines  at  our  disposaL  These  bearing  traces  of  the  minds  by  which  thej 
we  shall  oceupy  in  giving  an  instance  in  which  were  produced,  have  less  of  a  philosophical 
Luke  qualifies  the  statements  and  views  of  tone,  being,  to  some  extent,  unconscious  re- 
Matthew.    The  latter,  with  a  Jndaising  ten-  flections  of  the  image  of  Jesus  from  the  sur^ 
deney,  represents  Jesus,  who  with  him  is  the  free  of  minds  more  given  to  observe  and 
son  of  David  and  Abrsham  (LI),  and  king  report  than  reflect,  eeiutinise,  and  speculate, 
of  the  Jews  ( iL  2),  as  not  sent  but  to  the  lost  The  synoptical  gospels  confine  the  pablie 
■heep  of  the  house  of  Israel  (xv.  24),  who  history  of  Jesus  befora  his  sufferings  to  his 
are  seoordingly  the  children  of  the  kingdom  abode  in  Galilee,  while  John  includes  visits 
(viii  13),  whose  bread  it  is  not  meet  to  take  to  Jerusalem.    The  aeoordance  of  the  first 
•nd  east  to  the  dogs  (xv.  26 ;  oomp.  viL  0),  three  gospels  with  each  other  lies  not  merely 
on  which  account  the  apostles  wen  not  to  in  the  events,  bat  the  manner  of  writing,  and 
go  to  Samaritans  or  heathen  (x.  5),  and  even  the  words.    The  last  point  of  sgreesMnt 
tiie  ooming  of  the  Son  of  Man  ie  not  post*  has  occasioned  much  discussion  among  eri- 
poned  beyond  the  time  when  they  have  gone  ties,  who  desired  henee  to  ascertain  the  man- 
over  the  cities  of  Israel  (z.  28).     And  if  ner  in  which  the  three  gospels  came  into  ex- 
lonignera  ara  to  partake  in  the  gospel,  it  is  istenee.  Though  a  knowledge  of  the  original 
as  wmveits  to  a  Jewish  Christianity,  sitting  is  requisite  for  a  full  undentanding  of  the 
down  in  the  kingdom  with  Abraham,  Isaac,  facts,  yet  some  idea  may  be  formed  from  the 
and  Jaoob   (viiL  11);  and  only  then  ara  En^ish  vsrsion.     We  give  some  instanees, 
pagans  to  be  invited  to  the  supper  when  I.  of  a  verbal  agreement  between  the  three: 
those  who  have  been  bidden  prove  unworthy  Matt  ix.  10,  Mark  iL  20,  Luke  v.  85 ;  also 
(xxU.  5—10 ;  comp.  xxL  48).    In  the  final  Matt  zvi.  28,  Mark  ix.  1,  Luke  ix.  27 ;  IL 
regeneration,  however,  when  the  Son  of  Man  between  Matthew  and  Luke:  Melt  iv.  6, 
aits  on  the  throne  of  his  glory,  he  will  have  Luke  iv.  9 ;  Matt  iv.  10,  Luke  iv.  8 ;  Matt; 
nstored  Israel  in  all  its  twelve  tribes,  who  viL  5,  Luke  vL  42;  III.  between  Matthew 
will  be  governed  by  the  twelve  apostles  (six.  snd  Mark:  Matt  xv.  8,  Ma^  vii.  6  (both 
28,  29 ;  zzv.  81).    Luke  omits  the  passsges  taken  fhmi  the  Septuagint) ;  Matthew  xxvL 
that  restrict  the  mission  of  the  apostles  to  55,  Msrk  xiv.  48 ;  lY.  between  Mark  and 
Jews,  and  that  form  the  basis  of  Matthew's  Luke :   Mark   vL  41,  Luke  ix.  16  ;  Mark 
view.    In  opposition  to  which,  he  sets  forth  xiv.  15,  Luke  xxii.  12.    To  explain   this 
the  rich  man  (the  Jew)  reduced  to  misery,  relationship,  theee  theories  were  put  for- 
aadthebeggarLasarus  (the  heathen)  raised  ward:   I.   either  one  evangelist  borrowed 
to  Abraham's  bosom  (xvi.  19 — 31) ;  while  a  l^m  another;  II.  all  three  draw  fh>m  a 
preferance  is  given  to  Phcenicians  and  8y-  common  source ;  or.  III.  in  the  use  of  this 
rians  (iv.  26, 27),  which  immediately  follows  source  the  one  availed  himself  of  the  other, 
the  declaration  that  Jesus  is  sent  to  all  that  This  hypothesis,  which  took  iu  rise  with 
suifrr  (18),  agreeably  to  the  angelio  song  Herder  and  passed  through  the  hands  of 
which  proclaims  good-wiU  to  mtH  without  Eicbhom  and  Marah,  has  for  its  basis  an 
distinction  (iL  14),  and  to  Simeon's  decla-  unsupported  supposition  of  the  existence  of 
ration  that  Jesus  was  prepsred  befora  the  a  Hebrew  (Aramaic)  original  gospel,  trans - 
ISmc  of  all  people,  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gen-  lated  into  Greek,  and  led  to  a  degree  of  com 
tiles,  as  well  as  the  g^ory  of  Israel  (81,  82).  plexity'that  snfliced  to  expose  its  untenable 
In  consequence,  the  heathen  ara  set  forth  in  ness.   The  supposition  of  a  spoken  origmsl 
a  favourable  light;  for  instance,  the  eentn-  is  mora  in  agreement  with  the  condition  off 
rion  (viL  2,  $eq.;  comp.  Matt  viiL  5,  Mf.),  the  early  chureh.  The  gospel  was  originally 
Pilate  (xxiii.  4),  the  good  Samaritan  (x.  88,  preached,  not  written.    With  men  who  were 
Mf  Of  of  whose  race  lepera  ara  healed  by  Jesus  full  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  expected  the  im- 
(xviL  11,  Mf .;  see  16 — ^19),  snd  his  genea-  mediate  appearance  of  their  Lord,  writing  aft 
logy  is  traced  beyond  the  heads  of  the  Jewish  fint  was  not  likely  even  to  occur  as  sn  ides, 
nation  to  God  hhnself  (iiL  88 ;  comp.  Bom.  But  the  words  of  Christ  would  live  in  their 
zL  2  Cor.  iiL).  hearts  and  give  rise  to  a  two-fold  line  «f 


G  OS 


625 


G  OS 


tnnsmission ;  I.  Aramftio,  for  iuhabiUmtB  of 
Palestine  and  Syria ;  II.  Greek,  for  the  rest 
of  the  world.  With  the  progress  of  events 
the  second  gained  the  upper  hand,  till  it 
became  the  only  one,  for  in  Greek  did  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel  convert  the  world. 
Hence  there  arose  a  new  dialect,  made  up 
of  Jewish  and  Greek  influences,  and  employ- 
ing the  Greek  letters  or  tongue.  The  one- 
ness of  the  subject-matter  would  occasion 
uniformity  of  expression,  which  was  ren- 
dered the  more  easy,  if  not  judged  indispen- 
sable, in  consequence  of  the  sanctity  and  pre- 
dominating influence  of  the  Great  Master  s 
mind :  hence  there  arose  a  kind  of  stereo- 
typed sacred  language.  This  view  involves 
a  sufficient  degree  of  fixedness  in  the  origi- 
nal of  the  gospel  histories  to  be  one  cause 
of  the  actual  unity  and  agreement,  while  it 
allows  such  a  yieldingness  and  elasticity  as 
would  in  part  occasion  the  divergencies, 
which,  after  all  exaggerations  have  been  dis- 
allowed, are  still  considerable 

When,  however,  after  the  death  of  Christ, 
his  religion  began  to  spread,  and,  in  the 
delay  of  his  second  appearance,  there  arose 
a  feeing  of  want  for  sketches  of  the  life  and 
the  deeds  of  Jesus,  individuals,  most  proba- 
bly apostles,  made  such  outlines,  which  by 
degrees  came  into  circulation  among  be- 
lievers, being  communicated  from  fathers  to 
sons,  and  from  one  member  of  a  church  to 
another.  In  point  of  time,  probably  several 
of  these  were  produced  together ;  since  the 
feeling  was  general,  and  the  requisite  ability 
in  possession  of  many  persons.  When  thus 
published,  these  documents  were  subjected 
to  the  spontaneous  and  inevitable  criticism 
of  members  of  the  church  who  had  seen  the 
Lord  and  heard  the  gracious  words  that  fell 
from  his  lips.  Corrections  and  additions 
were  made,  till  at  length  a  certain  fixed  form 
of  both  doctrine  and  expression,  as  ema- 
nating from  Jesus,  and  a  certain  fixed  form 
of  narrating  events  performed  by  him,  came 
gradually  into  existence.  But  as  the  church 
spread,  and  since  in  these  days  interconmiu- 
nioation  was  difficult,  there  arose  in  different 
parts  different  modifications  of  the  common 
form,  which,  retaining  much  of  the  identity 
of  expression,  deviated  more  or  less  in  ao- 
oessory  oirenmstanoes. 

There  thus  in  early  days  arose  several 
narratives  belonging  to  a  common  family, 
each  received  in  particular  circles,  and, 
while  agreeing  in  the  main,  departing  from 
each  other  in  minor  details,  lliis  view  has 
solid  historical  support  in  the  prologue  to 
Luke's  gospel  (i.  1^-4),  where  we  find  that 
before  the  composition  of  Luke's  narrative, 
many,  tram  the  reports  of  oyoAoitnatn,  had 
drawn  up  declarations  of  the  events  accom- 
plished in  the  promulgation  of  the  gospeL 
The  passage  teaches  these  things,  namely, 
that  the  original  source  of  the  gospels  was 
Terbal  testimony,  which  gave  rise  to  several 


written  narratives ;  these  were  known  to 
Luke,  but  not  considering  any  one  of  them 
perfect,  that  evangelist  wrote  his  work,  after 
a  careful  study  and  comparison  of  these  and 
other  authorities.  Hence  in  kind  the  sources 
of  our  gospels  were  two,  in  number  many, 
yet  all  agreeing  in  substance.  Such  was  the 
state  of  the  gospel  history  from  the  days  of 
Christ  up  to  about  A.D.  70. 

It  may  not  be  easy  to  fix  the  exact  date  of 
the  gospels.     Two  extremes,  however,  may 
be  ascertained.    These  narratives  could  not 
have  come  into  existence  either  before  the 
middle  of  the  first  or  after  the  middle  of  the 
second  century.    This  being  established,  we 
ascertain  the  century  within  which  they  first 
appeared,  and  so  arrive  at  a  conclusion  which 
suffices  for  all  practically  important  purposes, 
and  can  declare  that  the  accounts  we  possess 
of  the  life  and  deeds  of  Jesus  appeared 
immediately  after  the  recorded  events  took 
place.     If,  now,  we  fix  the  crucifixion  at 
A.  D.  80,  we  have  at  one  extremity  of  our 
limit  twenty  years  to  account  for.   Consider- 
ing the  ideas  that  prevailed  in  the  infant 
church,  and  the  unliterary  character  of  its 
chief  members,  we  are  warranted  in  declar- 
ing that  this  period  was  of  a  character  to 
render  the  composition  of  any  thing  resem- 
bling history  all  but  impossible.    The  other 
extreme,  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
is  easily  determinable.    At  the  end  of  that 
eentury,  we  know  from  IrensBus  (bom  not 
later  than  140  A.D.)>  Clemens  of  Alexandria 
(flourished  dr.  180  A.D.),  and  TertuUian 
(bom  etr.  160),  that  our  gospels  were  gene- 
rally acknowledged  in  the  church.     Such 
acknowledgment  was  a  work  of  time,  espe- 
cially as  it  was  made  by  parties  of  diverse 
opinions,  not    excluding  those  whom  the 
church  branded  as  heretics.    But  there  are 
witnesses,  belonging  to  different  parts  of  the 
world  and  different  parties,  who  carry  the 
eanonical  gospels  back  into  the  first  century, 
and  place  them  at  least  near  the  apostles. 
Even  the  opponent  of  Christianity,  Celsus, 
and  the  heretics,  Marcion,  Valentinus,  Ba- 
siUdes  (140),  knew  our  gospels  and  did  not 
contest  their  genuineness,  but  merely  their 
credibility.  The  undesigned  evidence  of  Jus- 
tin Martyr  (bom  89,  died  180  A.D.)  is  of 
great  weight  (see  i.  277).    The  evidence  of 
Justin  is  the  more  forcible  because  he  did 
not  recognise  in  the  gospels  the  quality  of 
inspiration,  which  he  held  belonged  solely 
to  the  prophets ;  for  the  great  use  he  makes 
of  them  in  his  polemical  and  philosophical 
writings,   shows  their  prevalence  and  the 
high  estimation  in  which  they  were  held. 
The  way  in  which  Justin  speaks  of  the 
sources  of  his  information  is  so  remarkable, 
and  seems  to  us,  with  other  facts,  to  show 
BO  cleariy  that  these  sources  were  our  gos- 
pels, that  we  shall  here  put  down  a  literal 
translation  of  some  of  the  passages : — '  For 
the  apostles  have  so  handed  down  in  the 

2R 


60S  (06  60S 

MemorUto  prodoMd  bj  th«iii,  eaUed  foa-  tlet,  and  wore  aeparated  from  ukaany  odier 

pall :'  '  both  ifaa  memoriali  of  the  apoadaa  aimilar  prodnelioiis  as  aaihentie  reeords  of 

and  tha  wridags  of  the  piopheta  are  nad'  tha  life  of  Jesos.'    'Theae  aoeonnts  do  nee 

(in  the  choich  meetangfl),  '  as  thoaa  who  reaeh  ftuthar  back  than  the  third  or  Ibozlh 

hATe  written  in  memoira  idl  thinga  feapeei-  deeade  of  the  aeeond  oentarf/    Tot  8<noaaa 

ing oar  Sarioor  ha?e  tanght:'  *  whieh  tUnga  ivftisea  to  receiTe  the  goepeU.     Why  ?     In 

are  aUo  written  in  the  memoira  of  the  ^oa-  Irath,  from  being  led  by  a  ajatean  of  pan- 

tteer*  *  for  in  the  memoira  whieh  I  aflim  to  theiam  (see  Armiar)  to  believe  in  iiodiiag 

hsve  been  drawn  np  bj  hla  apoatlea  and  higher  tban  natme,  and,  eonaeqne&dj,  to  le- 

thoae  that  followed  them.'    Leaa  freqoently  gard  miraelea  as  an  impoaaibilitj,  nad  imt- 

does  he  apeak  of  a  ain|^  9Mp^  >  Huut,  *  in  rativea  of  miraelea  aa  aomething  far  wliiA 

the  gospel  it  is  written :'  '  the  commanda  in  an  earthly  origin  most  hara  existed  and  naaj 

what  is  sailed  the  gospeL'    The  nsoal  im-  with  eare  be  ffoimd.  Beginning  with  this  pte- 

port  of  the  term  aeema  to  be, '  the  ooUeetion  aomption  against  Christiani^,  he  finds  ewiy 

of  the  gospels/  aeeoont  which  has  a  miracnloaa  element  in- 

These  facts  are  of  great  importaaee.  They  credible  to  anch  an  extent,  that  this  eJlemmt 

ahow  OS  beyond  the  possibility  of  exception  by  itself  is  snffleient  to  sattsfy  him  of  its 

that,  in  substance,  the  facts  and  doetrinea  nnhistoric  character.    With  this  prriiminaiy 

of  the  go«pel  were  the  same  in  the  days  of  eonriction,  the  work  whieh  he  had  to  seeom- 

Jnstin  that  they  are  now.    There  nndoabt-  plish  was  this — to  aecoimt  for  the  rise  and 

edly  existed  in  his  time  a  sphere  of  gospel  spread  of  the  gospel  apart  from  miraeoloaa 

troth  whieh  was  generally  reeeiTed  by  those  assistance.     It  has  been  somewhat  anper* 

best  fitted  to  know  its  Talae,  on  which  the  fleially  declared  that  Stranss  had  dc»e  a  aer- 

infant  ehnrch  waa  fonnded  and  modcDed,  Tioe  to  Christianity  by  destroying  Bati<mslism. 

and  in  which  we  still  iind  the  sabstanoe  of  It  is,  however,  not  ftatioasliam,  bat  the  ra- 

oar  preeent  gospels.  This  gospel  was  recog*  tionalistie  mode  of   interpretation,  whieh, 

nised,  moreover,  as  having  an  spoatolic  ori-  while  admitting  tibe  miracoloas  narratives, 

gin ;  and  from  the  simple  fact  that  early  in  aonght  to  explain  tiie  miracnloaa  facts  front 

the  aeeond  eentary  it  waa  generally  received  purely  nataral  oaoses,  that  his  work  has  ef- 

and  appealed  to  as  of  antibority  in  doctrine  fectoally  exploded.    The  system  of  Stranas, 

and  morals,  it  most  for  many  years  have  especially  as   carried  to  its  frill  extent  bj 

existed  in  a  concrete  and  oniform  shape,  others,  is  a  pore  system  of  natarallsm,vrtiieh 

How  these  things  coald    have  been,  had  knows  in  the  universe  nothing  sapeiior  to 

not  Christianity  had  the  origin  ascribed  to  man,  and  teaches  no  hi|^er  religioo  than 

it  in  die  New  Testament,  we  are  nnaUe  to  the  deification  of  aelf  and  the  worship  of 

eonoeive.  The  beginning  of  the  second  cen-  genius. 

tnry  is  aa  early  aa  we  could  expect  theae        The  theory  which  Strauaa  has  advxnoed  hi 

written  memorials  to  have  gained  general  order  to  account  for  the  origin  of  die  goapeis 

acceptance;   and  the  eirramstsnoe  that  at  and  of  Christianity,  is  as  follows: — ^Then 

that  time,  in  the  midst  of  different  opinions  existed  in  the  time  of  die  emperior  Tiberias 

and  conflicting    interests,   they  were  very  a  Jew,  by  name  Jesus,  bom  at  Nassreth, 

widely  received,  suflkes  of  itself  to  vindicate  who,  having  for  some  time  lived  in  Galilee, 

the  historical  credibility  of  the  great  facts  of  became  a   scholar  of  John  the    Baptist, 

the  gospeL   Let  it  be  observed  diat  we  speak  When,  in  the  hazardous  work  of  preaching 

now  not  of  the  authora,  but  the  contents,  of  repentance,  John  had  been  cast  into  prison, 

our  evangelical  narratives,  and  rather  of  the  Jesus,  on  independent  grounds,  undertook  a 

substance  of  those  narratives  thsn  their  de-  similar  task,  aiming  to  produce  a  moral  refor> 

tails  and  accessories.    And  we  say  that  the  mation  among  the  people ;  and,  being  pos* 

substance  in  questiou  is  ascertained  and  sessed  with  the  superstitious  notions  of  the 

even  preserved  to  us  as  of  apostolic  origin  day  in  regard  to  miraculous  aids,  he  ex* 

and  as  of  historic  validity,  by  Justin  Martyr  pected  a  divine  interposition  by  which  la- 

and  writers  of  the  same  age.  reel  would  be  act  at  liberty  and  Darid'a 

This  point  is  of  so  much  consequence,  throne   restored.    This  view,  set  forth  by 

tibat  we   shall  here  put  down  admissions  Jesus,found  acceptance  in  the  long^cherished 

made  by  Strauss  in  his  celebrated  Ltben  Jem,  expectations  entertained  of  the  coming  of  ttie 

die  rather  because  we  shsll  immediately  Messiah,  so  that  at  last  the  question  arose 

have  to  recur  to  them  in  spesking  of  his  among  die  people  that  Jesus  might  himself 

theory,  which,  with  developments  made  by  be  the    Messiah.     To  this    notion  Jeans 

his  scholars,  is  the  last  form  in  which  infi-  was  at  first  opposed,  but  by  degrees  he  fell 

delity  has  assailed  the  gospel.   Strauss,  then,  in  with  the  popular  opinion.    Meanwhile, 

admits — *  We  learn  Ikom  the  works  of  Ire-  the  authorities  of  die  land  regsrdsd  him 

B«us,  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  and  of  Ter-  with  aversion  and  sought  to  compass  his 

tullian,  that  at  die  end  of  die  second  century  death.    Jesus  knew  their  fell  designs,  but 

after  Christ,  our  four  gospels  were  recog^  fiimnd  comfort  and  snpp<»t  in  the  suflfeiings 

nised  by  the  orthodox  ehurah  as  the  writings  of  prophets,  and,  after  their  example,  perae- 

of  die  apoadeaaod  the  diaeiplea of  die  iqpoa-  veied  in  hia  teaehmgs,  tiU  at  last  he  was 


GOS 


627 


GOS 


apprehended  and  pat  to  death.    As  soon, 
however,   as    his  disciples    had  recovered 
from  the  dismay  into  which  the  fate  of  their 
Master  had  cast  them,  they  set  about  at- 
tempting to  explain  the  contradiction  which 
presented  itself  between  their  conception  of 
Jesus  as  Uie  Messiah  and  the  termination 
of  his  career.    In  this  state  of  mind  they 
tamed  to  their  Scriptures,  and  found  that 
the  Messiah  was  to  suffer  and  die  before 
he  entered  into  his  glory.    Jesus  had  'been 
slain,  but  then  was  not  exiinet   He  had  en- 
tered into  his  glory  and  would  appear  again. 
With  these  ideas  working  in  their  minds, 
they  believed  that  they  actuaUy  saw  him,  the 
illusion  being  aided  by  the  excitable  imagi- 
nations of  females,  and  the  possible  appear- 
ance in  their  circle  of  some  unknown  per- 
son.   Thus  arose  a  conviction  that  Jesus 
had  risen  from  the  dead,  and  the  founda- 
tions of  the  church  were  laid.   For,  pursuing 
the  same  process  in  transferring  to  the  per- 
son of  Jesus  facts  and  passages  found  in  the 
Old  Testament  and  held  to  refer  to  the  Mes- 
siah, the  first  believers  unconsciously  made 
out  of  the  few  facts  which  constituted  his 
real  histoiy,  a  full,  detailed,  but  incongruous 
and,  being  fraught  with  miracle,  incredible 
history,  which,  growing  as  it  passed  from 
mouth  to  mouth,  was  at  length  set  down  in 
writing,  and,  somewhere  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,   took   a  permanent 
shape  in  our  and  other  gospels.  Christianity 
has  thus  an  historical  basis  and  a  mythicid 
development.     The  gospel,  as  now  found  in 
our  evangelical  narratives,  was  produced  by 
the  church  out  of  a  few  ordinary  facts,  the 
Jewish  Scriptures,  and  the  false  notions  of 
the  day,  by  the  action  of  the  minds  of  dis- 
ciples of  Christ,  familiar  with  those  Scrip- 
tures and  actuated  by  those  notions.    What- 
ever, according  to  the  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, they  conceived  the  Messiah  was  to  be 
and  do,  that  the  disciples  ascribed  to  Jesus; 
and  this  they  did  in  good  faith,  and  even  un- 
consciouely.     The  integrity,  however,  of  the 
first  Christians  thus  preserved  by  Strauss, 
others,  following  the  course  marked  out  by 
him,  have  not  hesitated  to  disallow;  and 
Bruno  Bauer,  a  theologian  of  Tubingen, 
whom,  in  the  Latin  Preface  prefixed  to  the 
English  translation  of  the  fourth  German 
edition  of  his  Leben  Jetu,  Strauss  speaks  of 
as  having  carried  forward  and  improved  his 
system,  regards  the  gospels  in  general  as 
mere  fictions,  thereby  making  their  compo- 
sers into  cheats. 

This  is  the  character,  and  this  the  result, 
of  what  has  been  termed  the  theory  of  myths, 
or  the  mythical  theory.  A  myth,  then,  is 
the  unconscious  formation  into  the  shape  of 
an  historical  narrative  of  heterogeneous 
eTements  supplied  by  a  veiy  small  portion 
of  fact,  social  anticipations,  and  religious 
recollections.  Such,  at  least  in  substanee, 
is  the  myth  which  Strauss  had  before  his 


mind ;  for  in  truth,  ihe  case  that  he  supposes 
cannot  be  made  general,  since  it  is  wholly 
without  a  parallel  In  the  history  of  mankindL 
And  this  at  once  famishes  a  strong  objec- 
tion to  his  theory.    The  reality  of  such  a 
state  of  things  and  such  a  process  as  he 
supposes,  he  cannot  find  in  any  nation,  an- 
cient or  modem.    If  it  ever  existed,  it  ex- 
isted alone  in  Judea.  His  method,  therefore, 
is  not  a  fact,  but  a  theoiy.    We  do  not  deny 
that  mythologies  have  arisen,  but  that  my- 
thologies have  arisen  of  a  similar  character, 
made  up  of  similar  elements,  In  a  similar 
age,  and  leading  to  similar  results.   This  de- 
nial is  unquestionable,  and  in  consequence 
the  theory  has  no  support  in  general  history, 
represents  no  actual  reality ;  and,  before  it 
can  be  applied  in  explaining  the  phenomena 
in  question,  should  be  proved,  which  is  im- 
possible, to  have  an  independent  existence. 
How  purely  it  is  a  thing  of  Strauss's  own 
mind,  is  sufficiently  shown  by  the  fact  that 
his  successors  have  mutilated  his  hypothesis 
by,  among  other  things,  denying  that  the 
idea  of  a  Messiah,  which  lies  at  the  founda- 
tion with  Strauss,  prevailed  in  the  mind  of 
the  Jewish  nation  at  the  advent  of  our  Lord. 
It  is  obvious  also  that  the  theory  is  not 
only  gratuitous,  but  arbitrary.     Look  at  its 
historical  element.     Why  so  much  of  the 
gospel-facts  taken,  and  only  so  much?   Why 
any,  if  not  all  ?     If  the  evangelists  are  true 
reporters,  their  report  is  in  general  to  be 
taken ;  if  false,  it  is  to  be  repudiated.    No 
one  has  a  logical  right  to  use  dieir  testimony 
only  so  far  as  suits  his  own  purpose.    As 
a  whole  their  narratives  must  be  taken  or 
rejected.  If  the  history  affords  a  solid  foun- 
dation for  the  Straussian  theoiy,  it  affords  a 
trustworthy  basis  for  much  more.      If  it 
proves  that    Jesus  lived   at   Nazareth,    it 
proves  also  that  he  arose  at  Calvary  and  as- 
cended at  Olivet    If  it  is  not  sufficient  to 
exhibit  him  as  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  nei- 
ther can  it  avail  to  satisfy  any  impartial  per- 
son that  he  was  a  rabbi,  a  reformer,  or  a 
self-deluded  Messiah. 

The  process  of  mind  which  the  theory 
imputes  to  the  disciples  is  not  only  unsup- 
ported by  actual  facts,  but  incompatible  with 
the  known  principles  of  human  nature  and 
the  moving  causes  of  great  social  and  reli- 
gious changes.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  in- 
dubitable that  no  such  change  ever  took  place 
apart  from  some  strong  and  well-defined  con- 
viction. Such  a  conviction  is  not  to  be  found 
in  this  theory.  It  was  only  towards  the  end 
of  his  brief  ministry  that  Jesus  himself 
came  to  think  himself  the  Messiah,  and  that 
thought  found  its  origin  and  support  rather 
without  than  within  his  own  mind.  From 
him,  when  once  entertained,  it  may  have 
been  communicated  to  others.  But  so  su- 
perficial and  feeble  was  it,  that  his  sppre- 
hension,  trial,  and  death,  bore  it  into  the  aur 
whence  it  had  come.    The  notion  was  gone. 


GOS 


628 


GOS 


FfteUlud  shown  its  falltcj.  The  dead  Jesus 
was  not  the  triumphant  conqueror.  Com* 
mon  sense  would  say  that  il  was  now  all 
orer  with  Jesus  and  his  cause.  People  who 
had  been  so  grossly  disappointed  were  little 
likely  to  practice  a  deceit  on  themselyes  in 
the  very  same  thing.  Yet  this — as  Strauss 
woald  have  us  believe — the  disciples  did. 
Knowing  Jesus  to  be  dead,  they  believed 
him  to  be  alive.  And  this  b«lief  in  him  as 
a  spiritual  head  they  drew  from  those  Scrip- 
tures which  to  them  set  the  Messiah  forth, 
whether  sulfering  or  triumphant,  still  as  a 
temporal  and  earthly  prince.  The  idea  of 
a  spiritual  Messiah  they  had  not  when  Je- 
sus was  with  them,  nor  when  he  was  laid  in 
the  tomb ;  but  some  way,  we  know  not  how, 
they  got  this  new  conception  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, against  which  their  nation  has  pro- 
tested for  nearly  2000  years,  all  of  a  sudden, 
without  any  earthly  cause,  and  with  only  such 
suggestions  as  the  cross  and  the  tomb  nught 
originate.  In  a  word,  the  disciples  had  to 
mdke  the  idea  without  any  suitable  elements 
of  thought.  This  they  could  not  do.  In  truth, 
Strauss  cannot,  with  his  theory,  give  the  dis- 
eiples  this  new  interpretation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, nor  in  the  minds  of  his  followers 
nise  Jesus  from  the  tomb.  And  unless  he 
can  effect  both  these  impossibilities,  he  has 
not  a  foot  of  ground  on  which  to  build  the 
infant  church.  In  something,  some  power, 
that  church  must  have  had  an  origin.  The 
mythical  theory  has  no  conviction  whatever 
to  offer,  out  of  which  it  could  have  sprung. 
In  truth,  according  to  that  theory,  the  disci- 
ples made  the  conviction,  rather  than  the 
conviction  the  disciples  ;  in  other  words, 
disciples  existed  when  there  was  nothing  to 
learn,  and  believers  began  to  preach  before 
they  had  aught  to  receive  or  propagate.  At 
the  best,  their  sole  warrants  were  tiieir  own 
narrow,  superstitious,  and  teeming  fancies. 
Out  of  misinterpreted  writings  and  bewil- 
dered imaginations  they  constructed  those 
convictions,  in  the  gratuitous  assertion  and 
support  of  which  they  left  their  homes, 
braved  persecution,  incurred  obloquy,  bore 
chains,  scourging,  hunger,  thirst,  and  toil, 
and  finally,  suffered  death.  And  yet,  all  the 
while  that  they  were  guilty  of  this  insane 
conduct,  they  preached  and  gave  to  the 
world  the  purest  and  highest  system  of  mo- 
ral wisdom  which  it  has  yet  received. 

We  need  say  no  more  to  show  the  untena- 
bleness  of  the  mythic  theoxy  in  regard  to  the 
origin  of  what  we  revere  and  love  as  *  the 
glorious  gospel  of  the  blessed  God.' 

Nor  is  the  theory  more  successftil  in  ex- 
plaining the  origin  of  the  evangelical  narra- 
tives ;  for  unless  these  are  substantially  his- 
torical, their  reception  at  tibe  period  defined 
by  Strauss  is  incredible.  That  period,  it  wiU 
be  remembered,  is  about  the  third  or  fourth 
decade  of  the  second  century,  say  A.D.  140. 
At  that  time  our  gospels  were  generaUy  re- 


ceived.   Now,  authority  is  of  slow  growth, 
especially  in  a  period  in  iriiich  eommanicA> 
tion  is  alow.  Many  years  must  have  eliqpaed 
before  ons  gospel  could  have  been  eren 
known  in  all  the  churches.    After  it  was  ge- 
nerally known,  a  longer  time  would  be  requi- 
site for  it  to  gain  acceptance.    The  process 
would  be  both  complicated  and  protracted 
when  four  gospels  had  to  acquire  anthoriiy 
in  the  Christian  worid  at  large,  especially  as 
other  writings  of  a  similar  chaiarter,  and 
bearing  the  same  title,  were  current.    Not 
easily  nor  soon  could  men's  minds  settle 
down  into  a  firm  conviction  that  these  four 
alone  were  to  be  received,  and  received  as  of 
authority.    At  the  very  least,  half  a  ccntoiy 
must  be  allowed  for  ^e  completion  of  this 
delicate  and  lengthened  process.    But  if  wre 
deduct  60  years  from  140,  we  have  90  left, 
and  thus  are  fairiy  brought  into  the  first 
century.  Now,  John  is  believed  to  have  lired 
till  A.D.  100 ;  and  so  long  as  any  one  lived 
who  had  seen  the  Lord  Jesus,  there  was  a 
sufficient   guarantee  afainst  the   oniveraal 
eorruption  of  the  books.    But  not  to  insist 
on  this  single  fact    Our  Lord's  crueifixioia 
may,  with  sufficient  sccuracy  for  our  present 
purpose,  be  fixed  at  A.D.  80.    Jt,  then,  we 
reckon  as  the  term  of  human  life  tfareeseore 
years  and  ten,  we  find  that  men  of  his  own 
age  would  be  alive  in  A.  D.  70,  and  children 
of  these  would  survive  the  century.  Consider- 
ing how  much  it  was  the  habit  widi  Jewish 
parents   to  communicate  to  tfieir  chfldren 
their  own  religious  knowledge  and  conrio- 
tions,  we  cannot  but  believe  Qiat  the  second 
generation  were  well  fitted  to  discriminate 
between  history  and  myths,  truth  and  fable, 
in  the  written  narratives  of  the  great  Teach- 
er's life.    It  is  also  inconceivable  that,  with 
the  ability,  they  should  not  also  have  the 
wUl,  to  put  away  and  explode  *  cvii3ttii^l5f- 
devised  fables,'  which  brought   them  onjy 
ignominy,  peril,  torture,  and  earthly  ruin. 
But  of  diose  who  saw  the  Lord,  some  were 
younger  than  himself.   At  twenty,  a  Jew  was 
judged  competent  for  the  ordinary  duties  of 
a  eitisen.   It  is,  therefore,  quite  possible  that 
many  who  had  seen  and  heard  Jesus  in  ^eir 
youth  lived  on  to  near  the  tennination  of  the 
century,  being  when  they  died  some  80  or 
00  years  of  age.    These  persons  were  con> 
temporaries  not  only  of  Jesus,  but  of  those 
who  composed  our  gospels,  which  we  have 
seen  most  have  been  in  existence,  at  the 
latest,  somewhere  about  A.  D.  80  or  90,  and 
their  authors  had  in  all  probability  spent 
years  in  the  requisite  inquiries,  investiga- 
tions, and  labours.    The  gospels  are  thus 
brought  into  the  apostolic  age,  and  even  car- 
ried back  to  the  times  of  Jesus  himself. 

The  men  of  whom  we  have  just  spoken, 
as  Christians,  believed  in  the  facta  before 
they  believed  in  the  record.  The  contents 
of  the  gospels,  therefore,  existed  before  the 
gospels  diemselves.  Hence,  considering  the 


G  0  U  629  G  R  A 

flnt  diseiples  m  witness  and  judge,  they  gave  the  ftnit  of  the  eacnrbits,  such  is  the  ttelon 
the  deposition,  attested  the  record,  and  pro-  and  pumpkin,  which  grow  luxuriantly  and 
nounced  it  true.    In  other  words,  the  facts  are  highly  valued  in  hot  climates.   In  Scrip- 
produced  believers,  belicTers  produced  testi-  ture  (Jonah  iv.  6,  10)  we  read  ot  a  gouxd, 
mony,  and  testimony  produced  the  gospels,  kikayon,  which  God  caused  to  spring  up  in  a 
And  the  whole  of  this  natural  and  satisfac-  night,  that  it  might  be  a  shadow  over  Jonah's 
tory  prooess  took  place  within  the  life  of  head ;  and  '  God  prepared  a  worm  when  the 
some  who  had  had  personal  intercourse  with  morning  rose  the  next  day,  and  it  smote  the 
Jesus,  or,  at  the  farthest,  with  the  children  gourd  that  it  withered.'    The  disputes  which 
of  the  generation  who  were  his  eontempo-  have  been  maintained  as  to  what  plant  this 
varies.    The  mythic  theory  requires  us,  on  was  might  have  been  spared,  had  it  been 
the  contrary,  to  hold  that  these  men  first  eonsideied  that,  as  being  in  its  whole  his- 
took  the   &ncifid  creations  of  their  own  tory  pretematura],  the   gourd  of  Jonah  is 
minds  for  facts  of  which  they  had  had  per-  not  to  be  looked  for  among  the  ordinary 
Bonal  experience ;  and  then,  having  deluded  productions  of  nature.    If,   however,   any 
Oiemselves,  recorded  the  delusion,  for  the  one  plant  may  be  considered  to  have  a  pre- 
misinformation  of  others  who  were  foolish  ference,  it  is  the  ricmus  communis,  or  palma 
enoagh  to  receive  the  incongruous  mass;  chriMii.      A    different   plant   is    meant   in 
while  both  deceivers  and  deceived  had  no-  d  Kings  iv.  89,  by  *  wild  gourds '  (rather, 
thing  to  gain,  but  all  to  lose,  and  actually  '  wild  cucumbers '),  the  produce  of  a  '  wild 
did^  lose  their  good  name,  their  property,  vine.'    Opinions  ^er,  but  the  more  proba- 
their  lives.    With  such  clouds  of  vapour  as  ble  makes  the  plant  to  be  the  cucumis  colo^ 
this,  according  to  Strauss,  was  hea&enism  eynthu,  which  bore  the  name  of  wild  vine 
overturned  and  Christianity  established.  fifom  the  shape  of  its  leaves  and  climbing  na- 

These  considerations  are  not  diminished  ture  of  its  stem.  It  seems,  however,  strange 
in  value  if  we  cast  back  a  glance  into  the  in-  that  Elisha's  servants  should  have  gathered 
tellectnal  eondition  of  the  church.  During  for  eating  a  vegetable  that  they  did  not  know 
the  greater  part  of  the  last  two-thirds  of  (39),  especially  when  it  appears  that  the 
the  first  century,  a  severe  controversy  was  car-  (probable)  fruit  of  this  vegetable  (in  the 
ried  on  in  the  bosom  of  the  church  between  original  paknoth)  was  employed  as  an  om*- 
two  parties,  the  Jacobian  or  Petrine  and  the  ment  in  the  cedar  carvings  of  Solomon's 
Pauline.  A  Judaleal  and  a  universal  Chris-  temple  (1  Kings  vi.  18). 
tianity  were  at  issue.  The  struggle,  which  GOZAN,  a  district  or  river  lying  in  the 
was  the  chief  source  of  Paul's  troubles  and  north  of  Mesopotamia,  whither  capttired  la- 
the occasion  of  his  imprisonments,  if  not  his  raelites  were  transported.  In  2  Kings  xviL 
death,  went  on  in  every  portion  of  the  infant  6,  xviii.  11,  the  places  are  named  as  '  Halah 
church.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  suffi-  and  Habor,  by  the  river  of  Gosan '  (Harah 
cient  degree  of  diversity  on  this  ftmdamental  is  added  in  1  Chron.  v.  26).  The  words  may 
point  existed  to  prevent  the  general  recep-  probably  be  rendered,  *  Halah  and  Habor, 
tion  of  gospels  which,  whether  intentionally  the  water  or  river  of  (Sozan ;'  making  Gozaa 
or  unintentionally,  were  in  substance  falsi-  a  district,  and  Habor  the  river  by  which  the 
fied.  Had  a  myUiical  gospel  originated  in  district  is  watered.  In  Is.  xxxviL  12,  Gozan 
Jerusalem,  it  would  have  fomid  no  accept-  is  mentioned  as  a  countiy,  confirming  the 
ance  at  Antioch,  still  less  at  Corinth.  The  view  we  have  given.  This  Gozan  some  find 
Greek  elements  in  the  church  which  favoured  in  the  modem  KoMtehanf  called  by  ancient 
the  liberal  view  of  Christianity,  would  look  geographers  OattzaniitM;  and  the  Habor  has 
with  extreme  jealousy  on  the  predominance  been  considered  another  form  nf  the  name 
in  any  writing  of  Jewish  influences,  and,  Chebar,  or  Chaboras  (Ezek.  i.  1,  8),  the 
with  all  the  argumentative  dexterity  of  the  modem  Ras  el-Ain,  a  river  which,  rising  in 
Greek  mind,  be  prompt  to  expose  pretensions  the  north-eastem  mountains  and  falling  into 
that  arose  out  of  Jewish  sympathies  and  the  Euphrates  at  Circesium,  waters  a  great 
misconceptions.  Indeed,  while  the  theory  extent  of  country,  and  divides  Korthem  from 
of  Strauss  fails  to  explain  how  the  Jews  Southem  Mesopotamia, 
could  succeed  in  duping  themselves,  it  has  GRACE  (L.  gratia,  *  favour*),  from  the 
not  a  word  to  offer  in  the  way  of  showing  by  Greek  charU  (hence  *  charity,'  see  the  arti- 
what  process  the  GentOes  were  converted  to  de)  signifies  that  quality  which  spontane- 
Christ,  or  how,  when  so  converted,  they  con-  ouidy  promotes  happiness,  and  hence  a  be- 
tinued  in  bondage  to  Jewish  fancies,  at  the  nign  disposition,  particularly  as  seen  in  the 
very  time  when,  under  the  leadership  of  an  bestowal  of  favours;  pure,  unprompted  good^ 
apostle,  they  were  manfUly  combating  Jew-  ness  and  love.  In  Luke  ii.  40  we  read, '  the 
ish  narrowness.  Compositions  which  came  grace  of  God  was  upon  the  child' Jesus;  im- 
out  of  such  a  strife  with  a  recognition  on  partingtohimwhat  Josephus(Antiq.ii.  9, 6) 
the  part  of  the  two  antagonists,  must  have  terms  *  child-like  grace,'  or  loveliness.  Simi« 
had,  and  must  still  retain,  valid  claims  to  lar  in  meaning  are  '  the  gracious  words'  (lite- 
historical  credibility.  rally, '  words  of  grace')  which  proceeded  out 

GOURD  (F.  from  the  Latin  cucurbiia),  of  his  mouth  when  the  child  had  become  a 


GBA 


690 


GBA 


mtm  (LalM  ir.  33;  aomp.  SphM  ir.  39,  and 
Col  iw.t).  BaDm^butKWUwbkHkianif 
quhtim  MMieiliat0  (Loke  L  80;  U.  ft3.  Acts 
iv.  88)v  sad  dM  dlspUy  of  ftvoor  to  otiian. 


Aeeofdinglx,  '  gnee '  dcnolM  die  lore  of 
Christ  to  msB  (3  Cor.  vUi  9) ;  tho  aopar- 
ohssod  beaignity  of  God  (1  Pst.  ▼.  10),  por- 
tievlsily  as  exliibitsd  in  the  ndoaiptioii  of 
dM  world  bj  his  8oa  (Sphes.  ii.  6.  Bom. 
in.  34) ;  ths  sjBtna  of  mntj  sad  psidon 
wfaieh  ths  grsos  of  Qod  estsMishH  in  Christ 
(Bom.  tL  15) ;  dia  hi^py  oondition  of  thorn 
who  tfljoy  iu  benedu  (OsL 7.4) ;  ths  beno- 
flts  dMmselYM,  or  die  gifts  of  die  Hdy  Spi- 
rit irorfcing  in  ths  homaa  sonl  (John  L  14, 
10),  '  grass  for  gnesT — nUfaer,  '  grsss  upon 
grses,' '  a  soessssioa  of  Itoroonr  (3  Cor.  is. 
14.  1  Pet.  if.  10) ;  sad  thsir  eoassqasnes  in 
•Tsriasting  sslTstion  (1  Pet  L  18;  iii  7). 

OBAPES.    Bee  Vna. 

OBAS8UOPPEB,  (T.),  *  epeeies  of  iaseet 
which  belongs  to  a  section  of  the  ^rtlu^ 
Urm,  denomiasted  by  Lstieille,  SmUmUrU, 
'Jompers,'  on  secoont  of  their  power  of 
leaping,  for  which  dieir  stroctore  fits  them. 
In  ths  Linnssa  system  diey  belong  to  die 
liuaily  QryDos,  wfaieh  contains  many  species, 
from  the  common  grasshopper  to  &e  ds- 
Tonring  loenst  of  ths  East  In  sll  stsges, 
from  the  IsTfv  to  the  perfect  insect,  locnsts 
are  herbiroroos,  snd  do  great  injory  to  ts- 
getaUon.  Without  gready  straining  the  ima- 
gination, thsy  may  be  considered  ss  resem- 
bling horsss  on  a  smsll  seals  CJoel  U.  4. 
Apoe.  is.  7).  Springing  forth,  eqpecisJly  in 
d^  seasons,  from  sggs  laid  in  the  earth 
(comp.  Amos.  TiL  1),  they  come  with  the 
wind  (comp.  Exod.  x.  18)  from  Arabia  into 
Syria  and  Palestine,  in  thick  dood-like 
swarms  (comp.  Jodg.  ri.  5.  Joel  i  0.  Jer. 
sItL  38),  which  at  a  distance  throw  a  yellow 
eokmr  on  the  hearens,  bat  when  they  draw 
near  eaose  darkness  (Joel  IL  10),  and  make 
a  Ibarftd  mah  (ii.  0.  Bev.  iz.  9).  They 
sannot  bs  hindered  ftx>m  alighting  where 
thsy  plsaae,  though  cren  soldiers  have  been 
employed  against  them  (8 ).  Often  they  lie  on 
sadi  other  yards  deep,  concealing  the  ground 
from  die  eye,  and  in  a  short  time  derour  with 
their  sharp  teedi  (Joel  L  6 )  erery  thing  green 
(4),  especially  leaTes  and  grapes,  bariung 
trees  (7),  and  eating,  this  kind  one  part, 
the  other  another  part,  of  the  yegetable  pro- 
ductions (4).  When  they  haye  conrerted  a 
garden  into  a  desolate  wilderness  (iL  8),  they 
depsrt,  leaving  behind  them  their  eggs  and 
ordure,  wfaieh  prove  frightfially  ofTenaive  (ii. 
30).  They  obsenre  when  on  the  wing  a  fixed 
order,  flying  in  diifersnt  columns,  only  by 
day;  in  die  evening  diey  alight,  but  fly 
away  hi  the  morning  (Nah.  ilL  17),  mosdy 
towsrds  the  north,  in  a  straight  course,  from 
which  nothing  ean  turn  them  aside,  for 
they  cUmb  walls  and  enter  houses  (Joel  ii 
7>  MfOi  consuming  even  the  wood-work,  as 


Pliny.    Thsir 
by  a  IM,  or  by  the  aaa,   oa 

onwDim  oatwith  lyui^  dmy 
pilch  as  if  OB  dry  gnraad.  They  an  then 
esstoa  die  shesa,  when  thsy  rot  and  mfeci 
dM  sir  ( Josl  U.  30).  Several  kiads  the  Hs- 
hrews  wsra  psviitsd  to  cat  (Lev.  ai.  23), 
tiioagh  they  do  aoi  sppear  to  hava  hFunmi 
a  fsfoarias  sitiels  of  food  (Matt  iu.  4). 
Odisr  oriental  aalioBs  of  aid  ais 
pan  sad  loeasls,  ss  do 
Esst  lAcn  sonM  sorts  an 
iato  Arabiaa  laaikets.  They 
nwlsd,  snd  eaten  with  bntier  and  aalt 
They  have  die  tests  of  crabs.  See  Casaav, 
p.  398.  Thoogh  so  formidsbls  in  a  bod;y, 
they  an  iadividnally  smsll,  sad  an  in 
seq[aenee  nssd  ss  a  type  of 
insignificsnee  (Is.  zL  33). 


V 


^ 


v>^ 


TBB   LOCC8T,   WMOM   TBBaBS. 

*nie  loeost  It  fierce,  sad  etnnig,  and  grim, 
AsdaasniMd  men  b  aftaad  of  him : 
He  eomea  like  e  winged  shine  of  dicad. 
With  his  shielded  hack  andhto  ennedh 
And  hk  doable  wingi  for  hesty  fiigfat 
And  e  keen,  nnweefyiaf  wpetite ; 
He  eomee  with  funine  ana  fear  aleng^ 
An  anny  a  miiUon  million  •troar ; 
Like  Eden  the  land  befoie  they  Ind, 
But  they  leave  it  a  deiolete 


Joel  speaks  (L  4,  seg.)  of  a  dreadful  visi- 
tation of  these  destructive  creatures,  employ- 
ing names  for  them  ^ich  it  is  now  difllcnit 
to  discriminate.  The  fourth  verse  is  thus 
rendered  by  Henderson  (Minor  Propheu) : 

'That  which  the  gnawing  locust  hath  left. 
The  swanning  locust  hi^  derouicd ; 
And  that  whieh  the  swanning  locoet  hath  left. 
The  lieklng  locust  hath  devoured ; 
And  that  which  the  Uekiiw  locust  hath  left, 
Tho  consuming  locust  hath  devouxed.' 

In  Ecd.  xiL  5,  the  grasshopper  is  men- 
dooed  ss  bsing  a  very  light  object,  yet,  light 
aa  it  ia,  proviag  a  buiden  to  the  weak  and 
brcAen-down  old  man. 

Tiachendoif  (Beise,  1846)  thus  speaks: — 
'Locusts  lay  in  numerous  litde  swsrms  upon 
the  bushes  of  the  desert,  and  fluttered  be- 
fors  our  eyes,  if  we  approached,  like  light 
clouds.  Those  which  I  saw  in  the  Arabian 
desert,  near  the  Bed  See,  wsre  probably  of 
that  species  which  Shaw  and  Morier  have 
described.  They  were  of  a  shining  yellow 
as  to  the  legs  and  body  (which  was  abooft 
thrae  inches  in  length),  and  they  had  brown- 
speckled  wings.  But  I  met,  in  Palestine  and 
Syris,  with  a  species  whieh  was  a  little 
smsller,  snd  of  a  grey  and  light  red  coloor. 
When  they  flew,  they  diiTused  with  their  under 
wings  a  reddish  ^Ummer.  They  did  not  al- 
low themselves  to  be  sasily  caught;  thay 


G  R  E  631  6  R  E 

were  itrong  and  nimble.  Jnst  letely^  for  the  ntnit,  now  tenned  Livedia ;  II.  the  Pelo 
first  time,  hu  Egypt  again  had  to  suffer  ponnesns,  obmprising  Corinth  and  Sicyon, 
from  a  plague  of  locusts.  Mohamed  All  Achaia,  Elis,  Messenia,  Laconia,  Areadia, 
offered  a  smell  sum  for  every  basket  which  and  Argolis;  the  present  Morea.  This  entire 
was  brought  filled  with  fliese  animals,  and  country  bore  the  nameof  Aehaia  (see  the  ar- 
this  proTed  an  excellent  remedy  for  the  CTil.  tide),  taken  from  the  most  northern  district 
The  visits  of  the  locusts  haye  also  an  agree-  of  the  Peloponnesus,  so  named  in  Acts  xix. 
able  point  of  view,  for  they  are  eaten  with  a  SI.  Bom.  xr.  26.  By  '  the  king  of  Greoia' 
relish  by  many  orientalists — for  example,  (Daniel  viii.  21)  is  meant  Alexander  the 
by  the  Arabe  and  tiie  Persians.  There  are  Great  8ee  Alxxaxdxb. 
many  ways  of  preparing  ihem.  They  are  Oretkt,  the  inhabitants  of  Greece,  who 
need  fiiesh  as  well  as  salted,  or  (as  is  most  were  at  an  early  period  brought  by  com- 
nsnal)  roasted.  When  roasted,  they  are  meroe  into  connection  with  Phosnicia  and 
sometimes  seasoned  with  salt  and  spices,  the  islands  lying  off  the  coast  of  Palestine, 
sometimes  mixed  with  rice  and  dates.  Their  which  had,  in  consequence,  a  Greek  as 
flavour  is  described  in  different  ways.  It  well  as  a  Phosnician  population.  Hence  the 
seems  most  to  resemble  that  of  the  lobster.  Greeks,  especially  those  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
Notwithstanding,  the  peasants  cannot  be  lonians  (Javan),  soon  became  known  to  the 
blamed  for  meeting  wiUi  noise  and  cries  a  Hebrews.  In  consequence  of  the  victories 
caravan  of  these  hostile  guests,  coming  on  of  Alexander,  persons  of  Greek  origin  were 
the  wings  of  the  east  wind  (which  Moses  diflUsed  through  Western  Asia,  into  which 
mentions  in  his  account  of  the  Egyptian  they  introduced  their  language,  customs,  and 
plague  of  locusts),  by  which  means  they  religion.  These,  as  belonging  to  a  conquering 
sometimes  prevent  their  settling  on  their  people,  gained  predominance,  causing  the 
gardens,  fields,  and  plains.  They  also  con-  names  Greeks  and  Grecian  to  be  applied  to 
sider  it  a  crime  to  catch  the  beautifril  gol-  the  Greek  settlers  in  Asia;  so  that  the  'king- 
den  yellow  bird  Samarmar,  which  eats  lo-  dom  of  the  Greeks,*  in  1  Mace.  i.  10  (comp. 
ousts  with  a  still  greater  relish  than  the  Arab.  Joel  iii.  6),  means  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleu- 
But  the  Lord  now,  as  in  Pharaoh's  time,  cids  (see  Ahtiochus)  ;  and  in  the  New 
sends  the  surest  and  strongest  destroyers  of  Testament,  when  religious  things  are  spoken 
these  animals  in  his  winds,  which  drive  the  of,  the  epithet  Greek  does  not  differ  much 
troublesome  swarms  into  the  sea ;  the  south  from  that  of  heathen  (Acts  xi.  20 ;  xix.  10), 
and  south-east  winds  particularly,  into  the  and  forms  the  ordinary  antithesis  to  Jews, 
Mediterranean.  And  in  swimming,  the  lo-  so  that  the  two  sometimes  signii^  men  in 
ousts  are  no  heroes.'  general  (Bom.  L 10.   1  Cor.  i.  22, 28 ;  xiL  IS, 

GBAVE   and    GBAYECLOTHES.     See  in  the  original,  not 'Gentiles,' bat 'Greeks/ 

BuBiAL.  Gal.  iv.  28).    This  contrast  had  a  more  re- 

GBAVE  —  GRAVEN  IMAGE,  stand  for  strioted  meaning,  for  Greek  was  a  name 

Hebrew  terms  meaning  to  cut  from,  hew  applied  to  one  who,  being  by  birth  a  Greek, 

(Exod.  xxxiv.  1),  carve,  or  work  widi  the  had  become  a  Jew  in  religion ;  also  to  Jews, 

ehisel  into  shape,  and  specifically  into  the  and  Christians  converted  from  Judaism,  who 

human  shape,  as  representative  of  the  Deity,  lived  in  Greek  cities,  and  had  more  or  less 

Such  impious  labour  the  Israelites  must  contracted  Greek  manners.    This  variation 

often  have  seen  in  Egypt,  where  carved  gods  in  its  import  makes  the  exposition  of  the 

were  numerous,  and  Uie  monuments  still  ex-  epithet  in  some  cases  difficult   '  Greek '  and 

hibit  sculptors  at  work.  'Grecian'  in  the  New  Testament  must  be 

But  Canaan  (Deut  vii.  0)  and  Babylon  distinguished.   The  first  represents  the  word 

(Jer.  li.  47),  as  well  as  Egypt,  worshipped  Hellen,  the  ordinary  term  for  Greek,  and  so 

graven  images,  a  practice  which  was  rigidly  rendered  in  John  xii.  20.  Acts  xvi.  1 ;  but 

interdicted  to  the  Israelites  (Exod.  xx.  4.  '  Gentiles '  in  John  vii.  85,  that  is,  prose- 


Lev,  xxvi.  I.  Deut  xxvii.  10).  lytes  to  Judaism  living  in  the  Greek  cities 

GBEECE,Gr»cia,Hellas,whence  Hellenes,  of  tbe  Boman  empire,  who  were  numerous 

the  name  by  which  the  Greeks  denominated  (Joseph.  J.  W.,  vii.  8, 2 ;  Against  Apion,  i.  7). 

themselves,  is  in  Hebrew  (Gen.  x.  2)  called  The  *  devout  Greeks'  of  Acts  xvii.  4,  were 

Javan,  which  may  probably  be  recognised  Greeks  converted  to  Judaism,  and  so  styled 

in  Ion  and  Ionia  (Is.  Ixvi.  19.  Esek.  xxvii.  'worshippers'  (of  God).    In  1  Cor.  L  22, 

18, 10.    Daniel  i.  20;  xi.  2.    Zeeh.  ix.  18).  the  name  'Greeks'  has  a  reference  to  the 

In  Elisha,  a  son  of  Javan,  has  been  recog-  intellectual  culture  for  which  Greece  was 

nised  the  representative   of  the  southern  famous.    Hence  the  antithesis  '  Greeks  and 

part  of  Greece,  particularly  the  Peloponne-  Barbarians' — an  antithesis  which  is  expound- 

sus.    The  borders  of  Greece  varied  at  dif-  ed  by  the  ensuing  words, '  wise  and  unwise ' 

ferent  periods.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  Greece  (Bom.  i.  14).    The  other  word, '  Grecian,' 

comprised,  I.  HeUas,  or  Middle  Greece,  that  stands  for  H^tfenisfes,  which  is  firom  a  Greek 

is,  the  countries  of  Megaiis,  Attica,  Bceotia,  term  meaning  to  imitate  what  is  Greek,  to 

PhoeiSv  Loeiis,  Doris,  JBtolia,  and  Acar-  jfreeite.    It  is  accordingly,  in  the  New  Tea- 


G  RO  632  GOV 

Umtol,  iu6d  of  foraign  Jewi  and  ptoMlytes  Bulim,  tli«  eormpondent  male  idol  ( Jiid^. 

from   the  OentUet  who  spoM  the  Onek  iiL  7),  on  el^Tated  pUee*  (1  Kings  ziv.  29), 

tongue,  as  opposed  to  Jewi  asing  the  He-  with  an  attendant  retmoe  of  priests  (xviiL 

brew  or  Aramaie  (Acts  yL  1 ;  ix.  28,  also  in  19). 

the  ordinary  Greek  Testaments,  in  xL  20,         OroTes  of  oak  are  sometiines  irerj  Inrge. 

where  Grieebseh  reads  HtlkmUt  *  Greeks').  Thomson,  missionary  in  Syria*  cnme,  on  the 

GBEETING  and  salating  have  their  im-  weetem  banks  of  the  Hasbauy»  to  a  lon^  o'val 

port  eonveyed  by  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  hill  eoTered  with  a  dense  forest  of  moon* 

terms  used  to   signiiy  the  sets  intended,  tsin  oak,  whose   deep  green  refireahed    the 

These  terms  are,  I.  $kfakal,  to  ssk,  that  is  eye  with  iu  bri|^t  and  lisppy  eomtrast  to  the 

peaee  (1  SaaiL  xzv.  5),  to  seek  good-will  from  bsrren  snd  bomt  district  sroond.     The  tm- 

one  whom  yoa  meet;  IL  tAsJUoAsi,  to  wish  Teller  skirted  the  base  of  this  oak-hill  tor 

pesee  to  one  in  whose  presence  yon  eome  abont  twenty  minotes,  and  then  entered  aa 

(Gen.  zliiL  23) ;  III.  bahrach,  to  bless  or  olive  grove  which  extended  Cor  abont  thi«e 

wish  good  to  (1  8am.  xiiL  10).    These  nt-  miles  to  the  sonth. 

terances  of  kindness  were  sceompsnied  by        OOYEBMOB  (T.  from  the  Latin  fmhermo, 

gestures,  such  as  inclining  the  head  or  up-  '  I  set  aa  pilot ')  stsnds  for  several  Hehiev 

per  pert  of  the  body,  or  even  ftlling  prostrate  words  of  kindred  meanings,  denoting^  ffene- 

at  the  liwt  of  another,  in  which  the  greater  raUy  persons  who  bear  rule  oTer  othera.     It 

the  depression  of  ths  person,  the  greater  waa  is  the  name  given  to  a  daas  of  oAeera  in 

the  homage  and  reverence  intended  to  be  the  Babylonian  (Dan.  iii.  2, 3)  or  Persian  em- 

psid.    WiUi  the  slow  and  forsMl  movements  ptre  (Esra  v.  8  ),  who  do  not  appear  to  have  in 

of  orientals,  greeting  may  occupy  some  time  all  cases  been  persons  of  much  eonseqnenee; 

and  be  incompatible  with  despatch,  on  which  for  in  the  coontriea  west  of  the  Frnphratos 

secount  our  Lord  bad  his  missionariss  *  to  there  were  several  of  them  (Neh.  ii.  7),  ^«d 

saints  no  msn  by  ths  way'  (Luke  x.  4;  ths  Jews,  who  ocenpied  but  a  small  teai- 

comp.  2  Kings  iv.  29).    GreetingB  have  al-  tory,  had  one  to   themselves,   of  Hehiev 

ways  been  very  frequent  in  the  East,  consti-  blood  (v.  14,  vi.  7). 

tnting  a  part  of  that  extreme  politeness  of       In  the  New  Testsment,  which  contemplates 
manner  wnich  is  ons  of  its  characteristies.  Jodea  aa  a  Boman  province,  the  reader  is  to 
Perkins  (319)  thus  speaks  of  salutations  in  understand  by  *  governor,'  Boman  ofleera,  to 
Persia : — *  As  I  wss  at  work  in  our  garden,  whom  was  aaaigned  the  government  of  sraa- 
the  boys  belonging  to  our  seminary  passed  rate  parts  and  «listrieta  of  the  Bomsn  empue. 
along  snd  saluted  me  in  their  common  pa-  A  distinction  must  be  made  between  two  sets 
trisrohsl    style,  AUaka-hMvet-yami^*  M.9,j  of  Boman  officers.    We  tske  as  iniitsnros, 
God  give  you  strength.'    When  two  persons  Cyrenius  in  Luke  ii.  2,  and  Pontius  Pilate 
meet,  they  mutually  salute  each  other  by  one  (If  att  xxvii.  2).    The  first  wss  the  snperior 
saying,  '  Peaee  be  with  you,'  and  the  other,  officer,  being  president  of  Syris;  die  — >iMmd 
'With  you  slso  be  pesce.'    When  one  enters  was  goveroor  solely  of  Jndea.     Cyrenina  go> 
the  house  of  the  other  he  says  the  same,  vemed  the  province  of  Syria,  Pilate  a  part 
*  Peace  be  with  you,'  and  the  other  refdies,  of  that  province.    Aa  might  be  expected  on 
'Your  coming  is  welcome.'    When  a  guest  the  part  oi  foreigners  unversed  in  the  die- 
leaves  a  house  he  saya, '  May  God  grant  you  tinctions  of  Boman  law,  and  ehielly  aensible 
jnerease;  msy  your  days  be  prosperous;' and  that  they  were  under  the  mle  of  a  «is^**mt 
the  other  replica,  'May  God  be  with  you.'  nation,  the  writers  of  the  New  Testsment 
And  these  salutsdons  are  repeated  as  often  speak  of  both  under  the  same  name— ^iroid 
as  persons  meet  or  enter  each  other^s  apart-  signifying  a  military  Issder  or  eommsnder. 
ment^  if  it  be  every  half-hour  of  the  day.*  This  in  die  actual  case  waa  a  correct  term] 

GBISLED,  from  « grisly,'  apeckled  with  and  one  likely  to  be  used  by  the  snl^ected 

black  and  white,   atands  in  four  paaaages  Jews.    We  have,  then,  in  these  &ets  a  oon- 

(Gen.  xxxi.  10, 12.  Zeoh.  vL  3, 6)  for  a  He-  firmation  of  the  historic  reality  of  the  even- 

brew  term  meaning  spotted  or  varicoloured,  gelical  narratives. 

GBOVES,  or  thickly-growing  trees,  were.        It  is  with  the  inferior  officer  that  the  resd- 

in  consequence  of  their  natural  stillness  and  ers  of  the  New  Testament  aie  ehielly  eon- 

'  dim  religious  light,'  the  esiliest  temples  oemed.    His  proper  sppcllation  vras  proea- 

lucd  by  man.    Abraham  planted  a  grove,  rator.    The  power  which  he  held,  though 

thMkek  m  Beersheba,  and  called  there  cm  dependent  on  that  of  hia  anperiiw  officer,  the 

flie  name  of  Jehovah  (Gen.  xxi.  33  ;  comp.  governor  of  the  province,  yet,  as  being  in 

i.S!^J?^ii  ^  Kings  xiv. 23).  The  word  essence  miUtaiy  and  supported  by  Ibree  of 

!If^l!^A!f'^*'*^**^™"<>*^"»  *****»«*»  ■«»»»  ^^  ^•'y  considerable,  involving  life 

?!«« '  JhS?*^*  occurrence  and  rendered  and  death,  and  great  questions  of  xiSt.  Ii- 

R?S?  ^i?nllP??'^y  ^  •■»«•«•  ^' **»  berty,  and  property.  ^^^ 

STSidteTSi^^*^  **'  ^^"^  <»~        We  subjoin  flrom'Greswell's  Dissertations 

wu«hippci•(2X^^7^toS*U:l^TJ|  oo^the  Harmony  of  the  Gospels;  these  teo 


QUE 


633 


GUE 


frttideHts  of  Syria.  A.  B. 

L.  y.  SatumioB ^ (dr.)  % 

P.  8.  Quiriiiiis 7 

Q.  C.  M.  C.  SUanuB  .^ U 

Cn.  Piso  (by  Tiberius)  17 

Cn.  Sentius 19 

L.  P.  F.  Grsecinus (clr.)  22 

L.  Vitellius  84 

P.  P.  TurpilUuiua  89 

y.  Manus  (by  Claudius) ^ 43 

C.  C.  Longinus (clr.)  44 

T.  U.  Quadratus    „  49 

Cn.  D.  Corbulo  (by  Nero) 60 

C.  C.  O.  Camerinus  (clr.)  68 

M.  L.  C.  Bfudanus    m. 67 

C.  Pstus  (by  Vespasian) 71 

M.  U.  Tn^anus ^ (elr.)  76 


GUESTCHAMBEB  is,  in  Mark  xiy.  14. 
Luke  xzii.  11,  the  English  rendering  of  a 
Greek  word,  kataluma,  which  in  Luke  ii  7 
is  Englished  by  '  inn/  hj  this  same  Qreek 
word  the  Septnagint  translate  the  correspond- 
ing Hebrew  term  TMhUn,  which  is  oonstmed 
'  inn' (Gen.  xliL  27.  Ezod.  iv.  24),  *  lodging 
place'  (Josh.  iy.  8),  and  '  lodgings'  (2  Kings 
ziz.  23).  In  Jer.  xiv.  8,  we  have  the  mean- 
ing of  the  terms  expounded — *  a  wayfaring 
man  tumeth  aside  to  tany  for  a  night ;' 
eomp.  Gen.  xliL  27.  Ezod.  iv.  24  The  ori- 
ginal terms,  then,  denote  a  place  where  tra- 
TcJlers  might  pass  the  night  and  take  need- 
ful repose  and  ref^hment  Inns,  in  the 
modem  sense  of  the  term,  that  is,  places 
where  lodging  and  food  are  supplied  at  a  cer- 
tain price,  did  not  exist  in  Scriptural  times. 
But  in  suitable  places  large  buildings  were 
erected,  under  which  shelter  might  be  had 
for  the  night,  and  where  travellers  in  ca- 
ravans, unpacking  supplies  that  they  car- 
ried with  them,  partook  of  refreshment,  and 
then,  on  the  same  spot,  gave  themselyes  to 
sleep.  In  towns,  houses  of  the  larger  size 
had  in  their  centre  an  open  court-yard,  in 
which  strangers  received  temporary  lodg- 
ings and  perhaps  entertainment — ^not  unlike 
the  large  open  areas,  with  galleries  on  each 
of  the  four  sides,  found  in  the  old  inns  (for- 
merly town  [in  the  city],  residences  of  the 
landed  gentry),  of  which  specimens  may 
still  be  seen  in  London.  But  hospitality 
was,  as  to  place,  not  limited  to  the  area  of 
the  open  court  In  Mark  ziv.  14,  a  '  guest- 
chamber,'  or  *  large  upper  room  furnished 
and  prepared,'  receiyes  Jesus  and  his  apos- 
tles (eomp.  Luke  xxiL  12.  Acts  xx.  8). 
Hence  the  term  g^estohamber,  or  inn,  de- 
notes hospitable  accommodation  in  a  pri- 
vate house,  in  which  sense  the  passage  in 
Luke  ii.  7,  speaking  of  the  birth  of  the  child 
Jesus,  is  to  be  understood. 

The  remarks  of  Maundrell  are  as  true  as 
they  are  quaint.  <It  must  here  be  noted, 
that  in  travelling  this  country,  a  man  does 
not  meet  with  a  market  town  and  inns  every 
night,  a«  in  England.  The  best  reception 
you  can  find  here,  is  either  under  your  own 
tent,  if  the  season  permit,  or  else  in  certain 
public  lodgments  founded  in  charity  for  the 


ProouraUm  9if  Jndm,  A.». 

Coponius  (by  Augoatus)  .........m.......  7 

M.  Ambirlus (dr.)  10 

A  Rufiu „  18 

y.  Giattts  (by  Ttberioa; 15 

Pontius  Pilatus  26 

Marcellus  (by  yitellius)  ...!,! ZS 

Maiyllus  (by  C.  Caligula) Z7 

Caplto /...'...(dr.)  88 

C.  >adus  (by  Claudius) ;. 44 

T.  Alexander ^ (dr.)  46 

y.  Cumanus   „  43 

A.  FcUx  „  80 

P.  Festua  (by  Nero)  38 

Albinus     .M 61 

G.  Floras , ^ 64 

M.  A.  Julianus (clr.)  70 

L.  Maximua „  72 

use  of  travellers.  These  are  called  by  the 
Turks  kanes,  and  are  seated  sometimes  in 
the  towns  and  villages,  sometimes  at  conve- 
nient distances  upon  tiie  open  road.  They 
are  built  in  fashion  of  a  cloister,  encom- 
passing a  court  of  thirty  or  forty  yards 
square,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  mea- 
sure of  the  founde/s  ability  or  charity.  At 
these  places  all  comers  are  free  to  take 
shelter,  paying  only  a  small  fee  to  the  kane- 
keeper,  and  very  often  without  that  acknow- 
ledgment But  you  must  expect  nothing 
here  but  bare  walls;  as  for  other  accom- 
modations of  meat,  drink,  bed,  fire,  pro- 
vender, with  these  it  must  be  every  one's 
care  to  ftimish  himself  (pp.  1,2).  He  men- 
tions a  very  large  and  handsome  khan  near 
the  Orontes,  far  exceeding  what  is  usually 
seen  in  this  sort  of  building^.  *  It  was 
founded  by  the  second  Guperli,  and  en- 
dowed with  a  competent  revenue,  for  sup- 
plying every  traveller  that  takes  up  his  quar- 
ters in  it  with  a  competent  portion  of  bread, 
broth,  and  flesh,  which  is  always  ready  for 
those  who  demand  i^  as  very  few  people  of 
the  country  fail  to  do.  There  is  annexed  to 
the  kane,  on  its  west  side,  another  quad- 
rangle, containing  apartments  for  a  certain 
number  of  almsmen.  The  kane  we  found 
at  our  arrival  crowded  with  a  great  number 
of  Turkish  pilgrims,  bound  for  Meecha' 
(4,  6). 

The  magnitude  of  some  of  these  inns  in 
former  days  may  be  judged  of  from  the  khan 
of  Hasbeiya,  near  CsBsarea  Philippi.  It  is 
a  large  and  very  ancient  caravansary,  in  form 
a  regular  quadrangle,  eighty  paces  square, 
with  an  eastern  and  western  entrance.  The 
eastern  entrance  was  originally  ornamented 
in  the  Saracenic  style.  It  still  bears  several 
Saracenic  inscriptions.  An  elegant  mosque 
was  once  attached  to  this  khan.  These  large 
and  expensive  buildings,  standing  alone  in 
the  desert,  and  by  the  side  of  almost  untrod- 
den paths,  add  the  sad  testimony  of  their 
now  almost  dilapidated  walls  and  unneces- 
sary accommodations  to  the  general  signs 
of  decay  and  desertion  which  meet  the  tra- 
veller at  every  step  of  his  pilgrimage  through 
Syria.  There  must  have  once  b(Ben  much 
more  wealth  to  construct,  and  more  travel 


QUE 


634 


QUE 


and  trade  to  Moommodata  and  protect,  than 
BOW,  or  these  estabUahmenta  would  never 
have  been  built 

In  modem  Paleatine,  something  like  onr 
Inns  maj  be  found  in  the  medqfkhf  a  sort 
of  public-house,  set  apart  for  the  reception 
of  trsTeUers.  Each  Tillage  in  Palestine  has 
one  or  more,  where  the  goests  take  refresh- 
ment and  sip  eolfee  out  of  small  cups  in  the 
oriental  stjle.  In  those  parts  of  the  coontrj 
not  yet  corrupted  by  the  Ikvqneney  of  foreign 
travellers,  the  stranger  is  hospitably  enter- 
tained by  the  inhabitants  without  the  expec- 
tation of  a  reward.  Of  such  liberality  Bobin* 
son  often  partook. 

The  accommodation  iSor  travellers  afforded 
even  in  the  middle  of  Paleetine  is  any  thing 
but  satisftMtory.  The  traveller  just  mention- 
ed thus  describes  a  night  he  passed  at  Tai- 
yibeh,  on  the  north-east  of  Jerusalem : — '  A 
place  was  now  selected  and  the  tent  pitched, 
and  we  obtained  a  supply  of  mats,  lights, 
and  eatables,  from  the  village.  We  took  this 
eoone  both  beeanse  we  preferred  our  tent 


to  the  small  and  nneomfoitable  dweUuags  of 
the  inhabitants,  infested  as  they  are  witfa 
vermin.  The  inhabitants  crowded  around 
ns,  with  their  sheik  and  three  priests,  nnul 
the  tent  was  completely  ftall,  beside  a  mnlti^ 
tude  standing  about  the  door.  It  was  only 
by  ordering  the  people  away  that  we  could 
get  room  to  eat,  and  it  was  quite  late  befova 
we  eould  even  think  of  aleep.  At  length, 
however,  we  made  ahilt  to  arrange  aur 
couches,  within  somewhat  narrow  limits, 
and  laid  onrsetves  down.  The  c^»tain,  or 
responsible  guard  of  the  village,  himself 
kept  watch  by  our  tent,  accompanied  by  two 
or  three  others;  and  to  beguile  the  nigBt 
and  keep  themselves  awake,  they  one  after 
another  repeated  tales  in  a  monotonoas  tone 
of  voice.  This  served  their  own  purpose,  and 
had  the  ftirther  effect  of  keeping  ns  awake ; 
so  that  with  the  voices  of  the  Arabe,  the 
barking  of  dogs,  the  crawling  of  fleas,  and 
the  hum  of  musquatoes,  we  were  none  of  ns 
able  to  get  much  sleep  all  night'  (see '  Com- 
paniea  Travelling'). 


END  OF  VOLUME  L 


C  Oxeen,  Printer,  Hackney. 


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