The perfect way in diet: A Treatise Advocating a Return to the Natural and Ancient Food of Our Race

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THE

PERFECT WAY IN DIET

4

THE

PERFECT WAY IN DIET

A TREATISE ADVOCATING A RETURN TO

THE NATURAL AND ANCIENT

FOOD OF OUR RACE

BY

ANNA KINGSFORD

DOCTOR OF MEDICINE OF THE FACULTY OF PARIS

• JAN 'fA2 ]

LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, & CO., t PATERNOSTER SQUARE

iSSi

i

/5I . . 5'%k.

{71k€ fights of translation aftd of reproduction are reserved)

INSCRIBED
TO THE MEMBERS OF

THE VEGETARIAN SOCIETY

BY
THEIR VICE-PRESIDENT

THE AUTHOR

%

PREFACE.

The following treatise is a translation, revised and
enlarged, of my * Th^se pour le Doctorat,* which,
under the title * De TAlimentation V^g^tale chez
r Homme,' I presented in the month of July, 1880,
at the Faculty de M^decine of Paris on completing
my medical studies and taking my degree.

The original thesis was published in Paris in
the French language, and subsequently translated
into German and issued with illustrative notes and
other additions by Dr. A. Aderholdt. Encouraged
by the success obtained by these two editions, and
by the favourable notices they elicited from various
foreign scientific and popular critics, I offer the
present work to English readers, confident of a
kindly welcome from the friends of the reform I
advocate, and hopeful of a serious axvd \w\rfXv^\?^.

viii PREFACE.

k

hearing from those who as yet are strangers to the
merits of that reform.

The French and German editions of this treatise
include an Appendix, containing short notices and
citations from the works of the chief exponents
and exemplars of the Pythagorean system of diet.
In the present volume this Appendix is suppressed
in favour of a forthcoming * Catena of Authorities
Denunciatory or Depreciatory of the Practice of
Flesh-Eating/ by a * Graduate of Cambridge ' ; an
excellent and ample compendium to which the
reader is referred.

That I have dwelt chiefly on the aspects, phy-
sical and social, of my subject, and touched but
lightly on those moral and philosophical, is not,
assuredly, because I regard these last as of lesser
importance, but because their abstruse and recon-
dite nature renders them unsuitable to a work
intended for general reading.

Finally, if any into whose hands this book may
fall, should be inclined to think me over-enthu-
siastic, or to stigmatise my views as * Utopian,'
I would ask him seriously to consider whether
* Utopia ' be not indeed within the realisation of all
who can imagine and love it, and whether, without

PREFACE. ix

enthusiasm, any great cause was ever yet won for
our race. Man is the master of the world, and may
make it what he will. Into his hands it is delivered
with all its mighty possibilities for good or evil,
for happiness or misery. Following the monitions
and devices of the sub-human, he may make of it
— what indeed for some gentle and tender souls it
has already become — a very hell ; working with
God and Nature, he may reconvert it into Paradise.

ANNA KINGSFORD, M.D.

II Chapel Street, Park Lane,
Michaelmas^ 1 88 1.

Ik

PROEM.

The king stood in his hall of offering,

On either hand the white-robed Brahmans ranged

Muttered their mantras, feeding still the fire

"Which roared upon the midmost altar. There

From scented woods flickered bright tongues of flame,

Hissing and curling as they licked the gifts

Of ghee and spices and the Soma juice,

The joy of Indra. Round about the pile

A slow, thick, scarlet streamlet smoked and ran,

Sucked by the sand, but ever rolling down.

The blood of bleating victims. One such lay,

A spotted goat, long-horned, its head bound back

With munja grass ; at its stretched throat the knife.

Pressed by a priest, who murmured, * This, dread gods

Of many yajnas, cometh as 'the crown

From Bimbasdra ; take ye joy to see

The spirted blood, and pleasure in the scent

Of rich flesh roasting *mid the fragrant flames ;

Let the king's sins be laid upon this goat,

And let the fire consume them burning it.

For now I strike.*

But Buddha softly said,

* Let him not strike, great king ! ' and therewith loosed

The victim's bonds, none staying him, so great

His presence was. Then, craving leave, he spake

Of life, which all can take but none can give.

Life, which all creatures love and strive to keep.

Wonderful, dear, and pleasant unto each.

Even to the meanest ; yea, a boon Xo «J\

xii PROEM,

Where pity is, for pity makes the world

Soft to the weak and noble for the strong.

Unto the dumb lips of the flock he lent

Sad, pleading words, showing how man, who prays

For mercy to the gods, is merciless,

Being as god to those ; albeit all life

Is linked and kin, and what we slay have given

Meek tribute of their milk and wool, and set

Fast trust upon the hands which murder them.

Also he spake of what the holy books

Do surely teach, how that at death some sink

To bird and beast, and these rise up to man

In wanderings of the spark which grows purged flame.

So were the sacrifice new sin, if so

The fated passage of a soul be stayed.

Nor, spake he, shall one wash his spirit clean

By blood ; nor gladden gods, being good, with blood ;

Nor bribe them, being evil ; nay, nor lay

Upon the brow of innocent bound beasts

One hair's weight of that answer all must give

For all things done amiss or wrongfully.

Alone, each for himself, reckoning with that

The fixed arithmic of the universe,

WTiich meteth good for good and ill for ill.

Measure for measure, unto deeds, words, thoughts ;

Watchful, aware, implacable, unmoved ;

Making all futures fruits of all the pasts.

Thus spake he, breathing words so piteous

With such high lordliness of ruth and right,

The priests drew back their garments o'er the hands

Crimsoned with slaughter, and the king came near,

Standing with clasped palms reverencing Buddh ;

While still our Lord went on, teaching how fair

This earth were if all living things be linked

In firiendliness and common use of foods,

Bloodless and pure ; the golden grain, bright fruits.

Sweet herbs which grow for all, the waters wan.

Sufficient drinks and meats. Which when these heard,

The might of gentleness so conquered them,

The priests themselves scattered their altar-flames

PROEM, riii

And flung away the steel of sacrifice ;
And through the land next day passed a decree
Proclaimed by criers, and in this wise graved
On rock and column : * Thus the king's ixnll is :
There hath been slaughter for the sacrifice
And slaying for the meaty but henceforth none
Shall spill the blood of life nor taste of fleshy
Seeing that knowledge growsy and life is one,
And mercy cometh to the merciful,^
So ran the edict, and from those days forth
Sweet peace hath spread between all living kind,
Man and the beasts which serve him, and the birds.
On all those banks of Gunga where our Lord
Taught with his saintly pity and soft speech.*

1 The Light of Asia \ being the Life and Teaching of Gautama,
Founder of Buddhism. By Edwin Arnold.

4

THE

PERFECT WAY IN DIET.

-•o*-

By what habits and mode of life has humanity in the past
attained its highest development, and what is the method
which modern science and philosophy indicate to us as
that best adapted to perfect our kind ?

In order to resolve this vast and important inquiry, it
will be necessary, in the first place, to refer to natural
history, and seek in the study of the comparative anatomy
of men and other animals for information regarding the
primitive habits of mankind, and the mode of living
which is indicated by their exterior conformation and by
the structure of their organs. In short, we must inquire
whether the human race is naturally carnivorous, her-
bivorous, omnivorous, or frugivorous.

Without accepting definitively the theories of
Lamarck, Darwin, and Haeckel, I think we may adopt,
without fear of any serious objection, the classification of
Linnaeus, which is generally admitted by scientists. This
classification distinguishes, under the name of Primates,
the highest order in the class of mammiferous animals,
and at its head is placed tjie human family and that of the
anthropoid apes. This last contains two species, one of

B

THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET

which, from an anatomical and physiological point of
view, resembles man very closely ; I mean the apes of
the Old World, among which we find the orang-outan
(wild man), the gorilla, and the chimpanzee. The
orang belongs to the tribe of the Simiadse, the gorilla
and the chimpanzee to the Troglodytes.

We ifvill examine as rapidly and shortly as possible the
characters which attach these creatures to man, and those
which separate them, as well as man, from certain other
orders or genera. Next we shall inquire what mode of
alimentation is proper to the animals most resembling the
human family, and thus we shall be enabled to judge
what ought to be, consistently with natural laws, the
habits and diet of the latter. We will begin our task by
an examination of the superior part of the skeleton, the
cranium, and the organs it contains.

The most superficial observation enables us to recog-
nise on the one hand the resemblance which exists
between the general conformation of the skull of man
and that of the ape, and on the other hand the differences
which establish a line of separation more or less marked
between the human cranium and that belonging to other
mammalia of no matter what order or species. Passing
by these familiar and superficial features of morphology,
we will devote ourselves to the study of those which
present a more scientific and less common interest.

The noblest and most important apparatus of the
animal economy is without doubt the nervous system,
which, dominating the functions of all the organs, pre-
sides over the harmony of their operations, regulates the
work of all other systems and tissues, repairs their lesions,
maintains their integrity, and is, as it were, preserver and
law-giver of the bodily kingdom. The animal in which
this system, and above all, the dominant part of this

AI^ATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

system, that is to say the brain, appears to resemble the
human type most closely, will therefore possess, ^ priori^
the right to be considered the most man-like among the
lower races. Moreover, it is to the perfection, more or
less accentuated, of the nervous system, and in particular
to that of its ganglionic centres — that is, to the more or
less perfect aggregation and complete composition of the
parts which constitute this system — that are due princi-
pally, we might almost say exclusively, the degree of
elevation of any given being in the animal scale, and the
characters which separate it more or less distinctly from
the vegetable kingdom. Now it is in man that we find
the supreme degree of this aggregation and ganglionic
development, and the animal which most closely imitates
him in this respect is the orang-outan. The height of
the brain in the orang is greater than in the chimpanzee,
the frontal lobe is more developed, the occipital smaller,
the temporal more horizontal and less flattened — charac-
teristics which well agree witli the exterior aspect of the
simians. Besides, the brain convolutions, which are
very rudimentary in the rodents and edentates, less
simple in the camassiers, and still less so in the rumi-
nants and solipedes, attain their greatest development in
the apes, and particularly in the orang. The disposition
of the cerebral mass in the carnivorous mammals, which
has been well studied by Leuret, shows only six convolu-
tions, varying in regularity and simplicity according to the
species, but remaining in all cases parallel to each other
and antero-posterior in direction. These convolutions
have been described by Professor Sappey under the name
of constant or primitive convolutions. It is not until we
reach the elephant, the lemur, and particularly the ape-
group, that we find certain new convolutions, or * folds
of perfectionment,' remarkable by their volume and by

B 2

J

THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

their perpendicular direction to the primitive convolu-
tions. * Add,' says M. Sappey, * to the antero-posterior
convolutions of the camivora and other inferior mammals,
two or three convolutions cutting them perpendicularly
in the middle, and the disposition proper to the highest
mammals, particularly man and the ape, will be
realised/

, Now in the brain of the orang we not only find the
antero-posterior convolutions lengthened, curved, and
anastomosed after the human t)rpe, but it is also in the
encephalon of the same animal that those additional con-
volutions or * folds of perfectionment ' noticed by Professor
Sappey appear the most distinctly, and offer consequently
the completest analogy with the disposition of the cerebral
organ in man. We are thus authorised to conclude, with
Professor Mivart,^ that the difference between the brain of
the orang and that of the human subject is one not of
kind, but of degree. The writings of the late Professor
Broca, whose careful studies in anthropology give special
weight to his statements, confirm this opinion, and assert
that the brain of the archencephalous animals — homin-
idse of Owen — differs so little from that of the superior
gyrencephglse that the only distinctive characters observ-
able in the latter are altogether secondary in importance.
* But,' says the professor, * these characters are not real
in their nature, and even if they were, even if the cerebral
hemispheres of the apes contained neither the ancyroid
cavity nor the small hippocaippus of man, even if we
should find their cerebrum not entirely covering the
cerebellum, these differences would be but slight, almost
accessory, and less important than those which we meet
with among animals belonging to the same order, so that

1 Man and Apes, p. 149.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

they must be held altogether insufficient for the establish- •
ment of two sub-classes.*

Having thus briefly traced the points of resemblance
between the human and the simian brain, and their
common divergence from the type presented by other
and lower races, we pass to the examination of the buccal
cavity, which ought to furnish us with valuable indica-
tions respecting the mode of life of the subject under
observation.

In the anthropoid animals the mouth is disposed
according to the human type. The lateral sacks, known
as cheek-pouches, are absent in this species ; the two
excretory canals of the sub-maxillary glands (Wharton's
ducts) open singly on the sides of the fraenum of the
tongue j the tongue itself resembles that of man ; in the
orang the circumvallate papillae present the V-shaped
disposition of the human type, their arrangement slightly
differing in the chimpanzee and assuming the form of a T.
The dental morphology and formula of the apes of the
old world (catarrhines) are identical with those of man ;
their cuspids are, however, longer, especially in the males,
and the wisdom teeth appear at an earlier age than in the
human subject. The apes of the New World (platyr-
rhines) differ from man by the absence of one molar in
each half-jaw, the place of this tooth being occupied by
an extra bicuspid. The surface of the molar teeth in the
human subject is characterised by the presence of an
irregular ramified depression dividing it into four or five
distinct tubercules. The same formation is met with in
the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla, as also is the
superficial disposition of the enamel, which substance, in
the herbivorous races, is quite otherwise distributed.
Among the latter, pachydermata, ruminants (which have
po incisors in the upper jaw), and rodents, the molar

THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET

K

teeth axe composed of alternate layers of dentine,
enamel, and cement, which penetrate into the interior
of the tooth, so that a transverse section of it, instead
of presenting an homogeneous substance surrounded
by a simple enamel stratum, as in man and the quad-
rumana, exhibits several undulating composite folds,
the dentine of which, being much less durable than
the enamel, wears down rapidly, and the tooth thus
acquires a rough unequal surface fitted to triturate the
woody substances which form part of the alimentation of
these animals. On the other hand, the camassiers
possess organs of mastication, which, according to Kiiss,
are hardly properly called teeth, but rather spike-like
instruments destined to tear in fragments the meat on
which they feed. Their incisives, six instead of four in
number in each jaw, are small, pointed, and uneven ; the
surface of the molar teeth exhibits the appearance of a
saw, and there usually exists but one on each side, the
last bicuspid or camassial tooth being especially charac-
teristic. This tooth, well developed in the tiger kind, is
composed of three sharp strong uneven prominences,
placed one behind the other and connected by jutting
ridges, the anterior prominence being doubled by an
accessory spine. Nothing of this sort is observable in
man or in the races which stand nearest to him. By the
side of the exclusively predatory mammals we place the
omnivorous types, such as the Alpine bear, the North
American bear {jirsus arctos\ the wild boar, and the hog
(sus scrofa, sus tibetanusy and sus ibericus). In the bear
the surface of the molars is flattened, but the incisives
number six as in the true carnivora, although they are
blunter and less accentuated than the corresponding
teeth of the latter. The cuspids are very long and
curved, and between them and the bicuspids a remark-

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

able interval generally exists. This character of dentition
resembles the carnivorous rather than the herbivorous
type, and, except that the enamel is superficially placed
upon the cheek teeth, has nothing in common with the
human and frugivorous morphology. The incisive teeth
of the wild boar and the hog are elongated, and project
forward in the direction of the axe of the maxillary bone ;
the cuspids, particularly those of the superior jaw, assume
a special character, and develop themselves in the shape
of tusks; in the lower jaw these teeth projecting outwards
cross the direction of the upper pair. The same interval
between the cuspids and the premolars, which we noted
in the bear, exists also in the boar and pig species.

Let us now pass to an examination of the zygomatic
arch and temporal region in the various orders of the
mammalia. This region is important to our subject,
because its disposition and aspect serve to indicate the
kind of food proper to the animal. It is to be remarked
that in man and in the apes the zygomatic arch is com-
paratively frail, slightly curved so as to present an upper
concave surface, and that the temporal and masseter
muscles are but little developed ; while in the ruminants,
although the temporal muscle does not attain any impor-
tant dimensions, the masseter on the contrary manifests
considerable development, and, passing beyond the zygo-
matic arch, attaches itself to nearly the whole of the
lateral surface of the superior maxillary. Moreover, the
inferior jaw of these latter animals possesses a lateral
movement, which is quite characteristic, and to produce
it the condyles are flattened and enabled to slide sideways
in their cavity of reception. Another type of condyle is
that of the rodents, which exhibits an increased diameter
in the antero-posterior sense, and has a glenoid cavity
similarly hollowed, ^

THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

But it is pre-eminently among the carnivorous quad-
rupeds that we meet with the most striking variation
from the human type in respect to the characters of the
temporal arch. The zygomatic arch in the flesh-eating
animals is extremely large, and is increased in strength
by its decided curve, the direction of which is the reverse
of that which we have noted in the frugivora ; for the
concavity is inferior in position and the upper surface is
strongly convex, the curve increasing with the ferocity of
the species. The dimensions, as well as the peculiar
form, of this bone, and its outward projection from the
skull, give strength precisely in the direction most
required, and augment enormously the tearing power.
Besides, the masseter and temporal muscles are strongly
developed, the thickness of the latter entirely filling the
large space between the zygomatic process and the
temporal bone ; while in height it attains the upper limit
of the skull. On the other hand the internal and
external pterygoidian muscles are very small, because
these quadrupeds possess no lateral mobility of the jaw.
This movement indeed is rendered impossible by the
disposition of the glenoid cavity, the great depth of
which prevents any change of position other than per-
pendicular opening and shutting. The omnivora differ
but very slightly from the carnassiers in these respects ;
and it is only among the apes and above all the simians
and troglodytes that we find a disposition and aspect of
this articulation and muscular region perfectly analogous
to those observable in man.

The classification which we have thus seen indicated
in regard to the brain, the buccal cavity, the teeth and
the temporo-maxillary articulation, will be confirmed by
a study of the digestive canal.

The human stomach is simple, consisting, that is,

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY,

of a single receptacle, as is that of all the primates.
Professor Broca kindly allowed me to see in his an-
thropological laboratory, some drawings and anatomical
preparations which demonstrated in a most striking
manner the identity of configuration which exists between
the digestive apparatus of man and that gf the superior
apes. Indeed it is at first sight barely possible to
distinguish between the two, though a close comparison
will show the human stomach to be smaller than that of
the ape. As for the intestine, the anthropoids do not
differ fi-om man in this respect ; their csecum, deprived of
mesentery, is fixed in the right iliac fossa by the peri-
toneum, the vermiform appendix exists in all animals of
the tribe, and the length of the entire tract accords with
the hiunan type. The liver of the orang (and gibbon) is
as simple as that of man ; in the chimpanzee this organ
seems less developed, for its ' lobule of Spigel ' is smaller
and the fissure of the inferior vena cava is reduced to a
mere depression. We may note that with regard to the
liver, as in some other respects, the anthropoids differ
considerably fi-om the last three families of the primates,
and do not differ in any sensible degree firom maa The
gall-bladder is always present in all the primates ; among
other mammals it is absent in the cetacea, sloths,
rhinoceri, elephants, camels, horses, and tapirs. The
peritoneum and the omenta of the orang are almost
identical in arrangement with the same membranes in
man, and we must remember that the peritoneal folds
have considerable importance, for their connexions and
complicated dispositions are the consequence of certain
alterations of position undergone by the abdominal
viscera during embryonic evolution. In one small
detail the chimpanzee differs fi-om man in this respect ;
the omentum of the former is attached to the upper part

lo THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET

of the ascending colon for a very limited distance. In
this animal, as in the gorilla and the orang, the ascending
colon, and the superior part of the caecum are fixed by
the peritoneum to the side of the vertebral column in the
same manner as in the human subject*

The stomach of the carnivorous quadrupeds differs
from the same organ in man in regard not only to its
relative dimensions, but to its form. Instead of being
subdivided, as in the fnigivorous races, into cardiac and
pyloric portions, the carnivorous stomach is formed like a
simple bag, elongated slightly in a transversal sense, and
is throughout of the same capacity. The length of the
digestive canal, compared with that of the whole body,
varies in the carnivorous races from three to six for one,
while in the apes and in man the proportion is from
seven to ten for one. The liver of the carnivora presents,
in respect of general conformation, a much more compli-
cated division than the human organ, being composed of
six distinct lobes or parts. There is usually no caecum ;
in those instances in which it exists it is always rudi-
mentary.

On the other hand, the stomach of the herb-eaters, es-
pecially that of the ruminants, possesses a very complicated
form, and even when a comparatively simple organ exists,
as in the horse, the caecum and colon present an ad-
vanced development which seems calculated to compen-
sate for the want of complexity presented by the stomach.
We find in the ruminants four distinct receptacles — the
rumen or paunch, the reticulum, the psalterium or many-
plies, and the abomasum or rennet; and the length of
the digestive canal, compared with that of the whole body,
varies from twelve to twenty-seven for one. Not to omit

* Broca, 'L'ordre des Primates,' Bulletins de la Sociiti SAnthro-
fologie, vol. iv.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, ii

the omnivoro?us quadrupeds, we will take the hog as a
fair specimen of the class. In this animal we find the
cardiac fundus dilated into a pouch, unlike the human
type, while two parallel folds conduct froni the oesophagus
to the pylorus.

The celebrated experiments of Dr. Beaumont upon
Alexis Saint Martin have demonstrated that the peristal-
tic movements of the human stomach take place in the
sense of a complete revolution ; in other words, that por-
tion of the alimentary mass which at any given moment
occupies the greater curvature, moves to the right towards
the pylorus, while that portion of the mass which occupies
the lesser curvature moves to the left towards the cardia.
There is then a continuous peristaltic movement on the
side of the greater curvature, and an anti-peristaltic move-
ment on the side of the lesser curvature.

Now it appears to be established that it is thus the
digestive movements of the stomach are produced in her-
bivorous animals, and without doubt it is thus also that
they take place in mammals of the order to which man
himself belongs ; but in the camivora there exists only a
simple action to-and-fro from left to right and from right
to left ^ It does not appear that any opportunity has
arisen of observing these movements in omnivorous
animals, but analogy leads to the belief that no dif-
ference in this respect would be found between the latter
and the true camassiers.

With regard to the comparative analysis of the dif-
ferent digestive juices of the economy, it is advisable to
make a few comments, i. The opportunities which pre-
sent themselves for the study of their composition in the
physiological, that is, in the healthy state, in the human
subject, are exceedingly rare ; and the same may be said

i B^clard and Schnltz.

12 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET

in the case of other animals ; for the preliminary opera-
tions necessary for the creation of fistula, etc., complicate
so greatly the conditions under which these juices are ob-
tained, that it is hardly possible to regard as conclusive
the results which their analysis affords. It is highly pro
bable that in the greater number of such cases, the secre-
tions are altered some time before the operator can suc-
ceed in isolating the constituent elements.

2. The secretions of the economy vary with the nature
of the alimentation, and it seems probable that were it
possible to compare the digestive juices of a person
habitually kreophagist with those of another habitually
vegetarian, a chemical difference would be distinctly
noticeable. It is in fact well known that the functions
and secretions of the organism accommodate themselves
with more or less ease and rapidity to the habits of life
and food of the individual Thus, in the carnivorous
animal, the quantity of saliva produced during a repast is
proportionately much less than in the herb-feeder, and
the kreophagist man secretes relatively but little. But
the same man, it appears, after becoming vegetarian,
experiences a notable increase in the secretion of his
salivary glands, which thus adapt their function to the
necessities of his new regimen ; and although it is un-
fortunate that we cannot refer to any comparative analysis
in such cases, one would logically be brought to suppose
that the chemical properties of the digestive juices would,
as readily as the mechanical process, adapt themselves
to new conditions of subsistence.

But notwithstanding these restrictive remarks, it
appears, according to Bernard, Lent, and others, that
the human saliva, even in the ordinary kreophagist
conditions, bears a stronger resemblance to that of the

bivorpus than to that of the camiyorous animals, for

^

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, 13

like the former it possesses the power of saccharification,
which has not been discovered in the corresponding
secretion of any of the camivora, the action assigned to
the saliva in these latter bearing exclusive relation to the
mechanics of mastication and deglutition. It has also
been demonstrated by the studies of Frerichs and Gorup-
Besanez ^ that the human bile presents the same com-
position as that of the herbivora.

In terminating this portion of our work, we may just
glance at the difference which exists with regard to the
disposition and extent of the sudoriparous glands between
the camassiers on the one hand and the anthropoids
and herbivora on the other, the alimentation of these
last giving rise naturally to the formation of an excess
of heat, and demanding therefore a more extensive
apparatus for its elimination. Man in this respect also
resembles the fruit and herb eaters.

If we have consecrated to this sketch of comparative
anatomy and physiology a paragraph which may seem
a little wearisome in detail, it is because it appears
necessary to combat certain erroneous impressions affect-
ing the structure of man which obtain credence, not only
in the vulgar world, but even among otherwise instructed
persons. How many times, for instance, have we not
heard people speak with all the authority of conviction
about the * canine teeth ' and * simple stomach ' of man,
as certain evidence of his natural adaptation for a flesh
diet ! At least we have demonstrated one fact ; that if
such arguments are valid, they apply with even greater
force to the anthropoid apes — whose ' canine ' teeth are
much longer and more powerful than those of man — and
the scientists must make haste therefore to announce a

^ Etudes sur des Suppllcih.

14 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET

rectification of their present division of the Animal King-
dom in order to class with the camivora and their proxi-
mate species, all those animals which now make up the
order of Primates. And yet, with the solitary exception
of man, there is not one of these last which does not in a
natural condition absolutely refuse to feed on flesh !^
M. Pouchet observes^ that all the details of the di-
gestive apparatus in man, as well as his dentition,
constitute *so many proofs of his frugivorous ori-
gin' — an opinion shared by Professor Owen, who re-
marks that the anthropoids and all the quadrumana de-
rive their alimentation from fruits, grains, and other suc-
culent and nutritive vegetable substances, and that the
strict analogy which exists between the structure of these
animals and that of man clearly demonstrates his frugi-
vorous nature. This is also the view taken by Cuvier,^
I-innjeus, Professor Lawrence,* Charles Bell,* Gassendi,
Flourens, and a great number of other eminent writers.
The last named scientist gives expression to his views
after the following manner : —

*Man is neither carnivorous nor herbivorous. He
has neither the teeth of the cud-chewers, nor their four
stomachs, nor their intestines. If we consider these
organs in man, we must conclude him to be by nature
and origin frugivorous, as is the ape.'

It may possibly be objected that since, according to
natural structure and propensities, man is a fruit and seed
eater, he ought not to partake of those leguminous plants
and roots which belong rather to the dietary of the herb-
eaters, whose organisation we have shown to differ in so

1 Broca, Mivart, Owen, etc.

^ Plurality de la race humaine, p. 39.

3 Eigne animal. ^ Lectures on Physiology.

5 Diseases of the Teeth.

COOKERY. 15

many details from that of man. It may be urged that
trouble is wasted in proving to what order man belongs
by nature, since with him, alone of all animals. Art has
superseded Nature, and has enabled him by means of fire,
condiments, and disguise, to eat and digest without dis-
gust, and even with relish, the food of the tiger, the wolf,
and the hyena.

Such objections are not without an air of reason ; and
I shall meet them first by the frank statement that the
most excellent and proper aliments of which our race can
make use consist of tree-fruits and seeds, ^ and not of the
plants themselves, whether foliage or roots. But through
a combination of natural and artificial causes, this best
mode of subsistence has become impossible to the ma-
jority of persons in certain parts of the globe, and it seems
therefore wise and consistent that they should increase the
variety and range of their food by recourse to cookery.
Fire can, however, be only used legitimately by man for
the preparation of those vegetables, herbaceous plants,
roots, and hard fruits, which he cannot properly masticate
when raw, and for the digestion of which, in that condi-
tion, the anatomy and physiology of his system are not
adapted. The true frugivora, of which he is a member,
do not refuse to eat produce of this kind when thus pre-
pared, even in countries where fruits are procurable ; and
it is well known that in the Jardin des Plantes (Paris) and
other menageries, the daily rations of the monkeys are
composed of bread, cooked potatoes, salad, and apples — a
dietary derived, therefore, from cereals, tubers, herbs, and
fruit. Such substances as these are not distasteful to fru-
givorous feeders ; on the contrary, their odours and their
aspect are alike inviting to the palate, and even in their
unprepared state they are agreeable to sight, smell, and

1 And these uncooked. jfl

i6 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET

idea. But for man, the choice between Nature and Art,
between the garden and the slaughter-house, involves far
larger issues and far deeper-reaching considerations than
can be held to touch the mere anthropoid. The culture,
harvesting, and preparation of all vegetable produce are
alike in harmony with the interests of morality, of indi-
vidual and of public health, of social and private economy,
and of that love of beauty, virtue, and consistent philoso-
phy which dominates the nature of all gentle and civilised
humanity. Each one of these interests, on the contrary,
is wounded, and that violently, as I am about to show, by
the abuse of the art of cookery in the hands of the man
who degrades himself by its means to the level of the
beast of prey.

Thus we have shown that mankind are naturally frugi-
vorous ; and we know that they can also become both
omnivorous and carnivorous. Let us proceed to inquire
therefore whether, from any point of view, such transfor-
mations of their nature are attended with advantage to
the race or individual.

Now the idea that attributes to man an organisation
which he does not possess is not more common than is
another belief equally false ; I mean the opinion that
flesh-food contains the elements of physical force, and
that to be strong, robust, and endowed with muscular
energy, it is necessary to partake largely of animal food.
This belief, Hke the former, finds partisans not only
among the general public, but in the world of medical
teachers and practitioners, who, for the most part, have
adopted the opinions and faith of the vulgar upon the
strength, not of scientific examination, but of accepted
custom. Nevertheless, we daily see in our fields and our
streets ample evidence that the strongest, the usefuUest,
and the most capable workers among the animals are

PHYSICAL FORCE. 17

»

precisely those which never taste flesh-meat. Their force
and their endurance are invincible, and surpass beyond
comparison that of their beef-fed masters. All the labour
of the world is performed by the herbivora — horses, oxen,
mules, elephants, camels \ by these our fields are
ploughed, our cities built, our battles fought, our journeys
accomplished, and to these is man largely indebted for
the existence of civilisation, commerce, and national
wealth. No carnivorous animal can boast the enormous
power of the herb-fed rhinoceros, who breaks with scarce
an effort trunks of trees, and grinds whole branches to
powder like so many wisps of hay ; no camassier ex-
hibits the endurance and stay of the horse, who toils
with hardly any rest from morning to night under the
weight of immense burdens, and whose strength has
passed into a proverb. Du Chaillu reports that he saw
a gorilla, nourished with simple fruits and nuts, break in
his hands, with no apparent effort, the gun accidentally
dropped by one of his pursuers ; and an eminent naturalist,
Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., assures us that this animal in his
native wilds is more than a match for the African lion.

The buffalo, the bison, the hippopotamus, the bull,
the zebra, the stag, are types of physical power and vast
bulk, or of splendid development of limb, built up, not
mediately from the flesh and blood of fellow organisms,
but from the original sources of strength itself — the wild
plants and fruit and herb of the field.

The camivora indeed possess one salient and terrible
quality, ferocity, allied to thirst for blood ; but power,
endurance,* courage, and intelligent capacity for toil,
belong to those animals who alone, since the world had
a history, have been associated with the fortunes, the
conquests, and the achievements of men.

And here we will take occasiotv lo cto^^x^^ ^^"^^

c

l8 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET

nations who have left to us the most superb monuments,
the most glorious records, the profoundest and the purest
thought, were not kreophagist nations. The opening
chapters of the Hebrew book of Genesis, the origin of
which is Egyptian, plainly declare what tradition this
great people — mother of all the arts and sciences in the
world — held with regard to the nature of man, and
of his food in the perfect state. And we are informed
by investigators of antiquarian records that the habits
and primitive religion of ancient Egypt, and of Ethiopia
— perhaps the oldest of all human colonies — ^absolutely
forbade the use of animal meats. ^

What would our athletes of to-day say to the regimen
of the Grecian wrestlers and pugilists of antiquity, whose
degenerated shadows they are? In the gymnasia or
palestrae, academies of the athletic profession, where
persons destined to the acquirement of the art were
trained from early youth, the masters subjected their
neophytes to those methods which they judged the most
efficacious for the production and augmentation of
physical strength and power of resistance to fatigue.
And one of the means employed for accomplishing this
object was the enforcement of a very severe and frugal
dietary, composed only of figs, nuts, cheese, and maize
bread, without wine.^ In the palmy days of Greece and
Rome, before intemperance and licentious living had
robbed those kingdoms of their glory and greatness, their
sons, who were not only soldiers but heroes, subsisted
on simple vegetable food, rye meal, fruits, and milk
The chief food of the Roman gladiator was barley cakes
and oil ; and this diet, Hippocrates says, is eminently
fitted to give muscular strength and endurance. The

1 See Samuel Sharpe's History of Egypt,
* R^llin's Ancient History ^ vol i.

NATIONAL HABITS, 19

daily rations of the Roman soldier were one pound of
barley, three ounces of oil, and a pint of thin wine. It
was no regimen of flesh that inspired the magnificent
courage of the Spartan patriots who defended the defiles
of Thermopylae, or that filled with indomitable valour
and enthusiasm the conquerors of Salamis and Marathon.
And even in these days it must not be forgotten that the
kreophagist nations constitute little more than a quarter
of the human race, and it is precisely among this fourth
part of mankind that the greatest amount of misery,
crime, and disease is found.

The Hindoos are divided into several castes or dis-
tinct orders, a division which dates from the remotest
antiquity. Of these orders the highest, which is that of
the Brahmins, attributes its origin to the head of the
Creator, while the lowest is figured as issuing from his
feet. The three superior castes, Brahmins, Kshattriyas,
and Vaisyas, are by their religious precepts forbidden the
use of animal meats ; for the practice of kreophagy is,
in the Hindoo mind, associated with ideas of pollution
and degradation, and a pure vegetable diet is regarded
as the first essential of sanctity. And we must remember
that this venerable and important race possesses a cultus,
a literature, and a religious system which many authors
deem to be of higher antiquity than those even of Egypt ;
and that consequently the national laws of Hindostan re-
flect the true image of the world's early instincts, and of
the primitive manners of the first civilised communities,
before the advent of that vital and moral decline which,
in later ages, luxury imported into the habits of our great
commercial centres.

The larger part of the population of China and Japan
consists of Buddhists, whose traditions are analogous
to those of the Brahmins. Buddha Sak^^xs^KVis^es.^ ^^

C2

20 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

Christ of their faith, absolutely condemned the use of
flesh-food among the elect ; and the pious Buddhist not
only avoids killing animals, but believes he performs a
meritorious act in succouring them or in showing them
kindness. The murder of a cow is punished by scourging,
and imprisonment during two months ; a repetition of
the offence entails banishment Conceive the horror
which would be felt by a Brahmin or Buddhist educated
in such sentiments and accustomed to such modes of
thought as these, were he to be brought face to face with
the spectacles which every moment confront us in our
Christian streets and markets ; imagine his astonishment
at the phenomenon presented by a religion whose prin-
cipal holy days are celebrated by the massacre of untold
multitudes of beasts and birds of t^^xy kind, and by
bloody repasts in which the most fervent devotees and
the priests themselves take eager part !

The following brief rhutnt of facts collected from
many various sources will enable the reader to see at a
glance how wide a range of climate and of race the
vegetarian question embraces, and how high under this
regimen has been and is the standard of human health
and physical strength.

Egypt. — Edwin de Leon, in a work entitled 'The
Khedive's Egypt,' 1877, writing of the Egyptian fellah or
peasant proprietor, says : * His living expenses are mira-
culously small Bread and vegetables are his food, Nile
water his drink.' ' In Egypt,' says another writer, * the
diet of the peasantry and labouring people is much the
same as in China. They use fish as a kind of relish
or condiment, but their nourishment is derived from
vegetable substances. Their food chiefly consists of
coarse bread made of wheat, millet, or maize, together
with cucumbers, melons,] gourds, onions, leeks, beans,

tTATlONAL tlABlT^. 21

•

chickpease, lupins, lentils, dates, etc. Most of these
vegetables they eat in a raw state.' ^

* It is indeed surprising to observe how simple and
poor is the diet of the Egyptian peasantry, and yet how
robust and healthy most of them are, and how severe is
the labour they undergo. The boatmen of the Nile are
mostly strong, muscular men, rowing, poling, and towing
continually; but very cheerful, and often the most so
when most occupied, for then they amuse themselves by
singing.' ^

* The Egyptian cultivators of the soil, who live on
coarse wheaten bread, Indian bread, lentils, and other
productions of the vegetable kingdom, are among the
finest people I have ever seen.' ^

India. — * From the earliest period the most general
food in India has been rice, which is still the most com-
mon food of nearly all the hottest countries in Asia. It
is not, however, so much used in the south of Hindostan
as formerly, and has been replaced by another grain
called rdgi.' ^

* The principal food of the people of Hindostan is
wheat, and in the Deckan, jowdr and bdjra ; rice, as a
general article of subsistence, is confined to Bengal and
part of Behdr, with the low country along the sea all
round the coast of the peninsula. In most parts of India
it is a luxury. In the southern part of the tableland of
the Deckan, the body of the people live on a small and
poor grain called rdgL . . . Pulse, roots, and fruits are
also largely eaten.' *

In Sir John Sinclair's time (1818), before modern
facilities had obviated the necessity of employing pedes-

1 Smith's Fruits and Farinacea, * Lane's Egypt,

3 Catherwood. * Buckle's History 0/ Civiiisation^

5 Elphinstone's History of India*

i

±± TkE perPect wa y In Diet,

_ - _ - ■ ■ - ___■_■_ - - I ■ ■TT ■'r- r

«

trian messengers, the Fattamar Hindoos, occupied in
carrying letters and despatches by land, performed
journeys almost incredible in the time allotted. Thus
from Calcutta to Bombay twenty-five days were allowed
(about sixty-two miles a day), from Madras to Bombay,
eighteen days ; from Surat to Bombay, three days and a
half. * These men,' says Sir John, *are generally tall,
being from five feet ten inches to six feet high. They
subsist on a little boiled rice.'

Mexico. — * The usual food of the labouring classes,
throughout such states as I visited, is the thin cake of
crushed maize, which I have described under the name
of tortilla ; and it is remarkable that, notwithstanding the
great abundance of cattle in many places, the traveller
can rarely obtain meat in the little huts which he finds
on his road. Chilis are eaten abundantly with the tor-
tillas, being stewed in a kind of sauce, into which the
cakes are dipped.' ^

' The Indians of new Spain generally attain to a
pretty advanced age. . . . They are accustomed to uni-
form nourishment of an almost entirely vegetable nature,
that of their maize and cereal gramina.' '

Chili. — ' It is usual for the copper-miners of Central
Chili to carry loads of ore of two hundred pounds
weight up eighty perpendicular yards twelve times a day.
When they reach the mouth of the pit they are in a state
of apparent fearful exhaustion, yet, after briefly resting,
they descend again. Their diet is entirely vegetable :
breakfast of figs and small loaves of bread ; dinner,
boiled beans ; supper, roasted wheat' *

Rio Saiada. — *The Spaniards of Rio Salada in

1 Lyon's Residence in Mexico^ 1828.

' Taylor's Selections from Humholdfs Works on Mexico, 1824.

^ Sir Francis Head; also Dr. Lyon PlayfeSi and Daxmii.

NATIONAL HABITS, 23

South America — ^who come down from the interior and
are employed in transporting goods overland — live wholly
on vegetable food. They are very robust and strong,
and bear prodigious burdens on their backs, such as
require three or four men to place upon them, in knap-
sacks made of green hides, travelling with a speed which
few men can equal without any encumbrance.' ^

Brazil, Rio Janeiro, Laguayra. — * The Brazil
slaves are a very strong and robust class of men, and of
temperate habits. Their food consists of rice, fruits,
and bread of coarse flour and the farrenia root. They
endure great hardships, and carry enormous burdens on
their heads a distance of a mile without resting. It is a
common thing to .see them in droves or companies,
moving on at a brisk trot, stimulated by the sound of a
bell in the hands of the leader, each man bearing upon
his head a bag of coffee weighing a hundred and eighty
pounds, apparently as if it were a light burden. . . .
They are seldom known to have a fever or any other
sickness. . . . The Congo slaves of Rio Janeiro subsist
on vegetable food, and are among the finest-looking men
in the world. They are six feet high, every way well
proportioned, and remarkably athletic. . . . The labourers
of Lagua)n:a eat no flesh, and are an uncommonly healthy
and hardy race. A single man will take a barrel of beef
or pork on his shoulders and walk with it from the
landing to the custom-house, which is situated on the
top of a hill, the ascent of which is too steep for car-
riages. Their soldiers likewise subsist on vegetable food,
and are remarkably fine-looking men.' '

Similar facts are related of the Peruvians, Tobaso
Indians, Kroomen, natives of the New Hebrides, Sand-

> Smith's Fruits and Farinactat 1850.
' Graham's Lectures.

24 7 HE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

wich Islands, coast clans of the Wamrima, Afighans,
Japanese, etc. etc.*

Cyprus. — * It was extraordinary to see the result of a
life-long diet of beans and barley bread in the persons
of the monks of Trooditissa, who very seldom indulge
in flesh. The actual head of the monastery is a hand-
some man of seventy, perfectly erect in figure, as though
fresh from military drill, and as strong as most men at
fifty. The younger priests were all good-looking, active,
healthy men, who thought nothing of a morning's walk
over the fatiguing rocky paths to Troodos and back —
twelve miles — to be refreshed on their return by an after-
noon's work in their gardens.' ^

* Under the mouldering walls in the recesses of sacred
courts, the Moslem cultivates his onion, sugar cane, and

fig. These dwellers in the plain are good for

more than growing pomegranates and smoking in the
shade. Brave, sober, faithful, they have the virtues of a
camp. Free of the sword and saddle from their cradles,
they are easily turned into good cavalry. No English
officer, I am told by experts, would desire a better com-
pany before him when he moved into line."

* The people in Cyprus fast more than a third of the
year rigorously, only eating bread and vegetables, no
milk or oil even. ... A house is considered extravagant
where cooking is done more than once in about eight
days. Meat and fish are looked upon as rare luxuries.
The people look healthy and well, and seem to find
enough subsistence in the fruit and herbs that this island
produces so plentifully.' *

' Sir John Sinclair, Graham, Pope, Cook, Burton, and Buckingham.

* Sir Samuel Baker's Cyprus in 1879.

5 Hepworth Dixon on the Island of Cyprus.

* Standard^ Article on Cyprus.

NATIONAL HABITS, 25

I I • _ _ _ - -

Arabia. — 'Few people surpass the Arabs for lon-
gevity, agility, and power of endurance. Yet they subsist
on dates and milk, and for months the Bedouin Arabs
consume nothing else. The Soumanlies, who inhabit
the country in the neighbourhood of Cape Guardafui and
Berberah, when on the war path, in which they pass half
their lives, live entirely on milk.' ^

Bolivia. — * The troopers of this country are fed on
maize com, cocoa, and water. Their strength is surpris-
ing and well known. They will perform marches of
eighteen, twenty, and twenty-five leagues a day, en-
cumbered with their baggage and without distress.' ^

Canary Islands. — *Mr. L. Jewett, of Portland,
Maine, says that one of his schooners came into Port-
land laden with barilla from the Canary Islands ; and
that he stood by while the cargo was being discharged,
and saw four stout American labourers attempt, in vain,
to lift one of the masses of barilla which the captain and
mate both solemnly affirmed was brought from the store-
house to the vessel by a single man — a native labourer
where they freighted; and he subsisted entirely on
coarse vegetable food and fmit.'^

Italy. — * The peasants here are a splendid hardy set,
living almost entirely upon cakes and porridge of chest-
nut flour, a little wheat bread, and, at this season, on
bread made of the gran turco (Indian corn). The
country wine is not very plentifiil in these parts, and
during the last two years the poverty has been too great
to admit any drink but water for many families.'*

Ceylon. — * The ordinary diet of the people consists of
rice seasoned with salt, the chief condiment of the East,

1 Lieutenant C. R. Low in the Food Journal, 1873.

* Panama Star and Herald, ' Smith's Fruits and Farinacea,

* Private letter from Lucca.

26 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET.

and a few vegetables, flavoured ^dth lemon juice and
pepper, from which they will make at any time a hearty
meal. ... It is considered anything but a reproach to
be sparing in diet.' *

Japan. — *The Japanese not only abstain from
animal food, but even from milk and its productions.
One of the laws which they most religiously observe is,
not to kill, nor to eat anything that is killed. Their
chief food consists of rice, pulse, fruits, roots, and herbs,
but mostly rice, which they have in great plenty and per-
fection ; and dress in so many different ways, and give
to it such variety of tastes, flavour, and colour, that a
stranger would hardly know what he was eating.' *

* Hot rice cakes are the standard food of the Japanese,
and are kept ready at all the inns, to be presented to the
traveller the moment he arrives, with tea, and occasionally
sacki or rice-beer. The Japanese are represented as
robust, well made, and active, remarkably healthy, long-
lived and intelligent' * Some writers, as in the following
extract, observe that the Japanese eat fish. This dis-
crepancy is probably owing to difference of religion, of
caste, or perhaps of locality.

'Fish and rice are the staple articles of Japanese
diet. The soil is fertile, and apparently vegetables grow
well here. Sweet potatoes, ordinary potatoes, turnips,
carrots, squashes or pumpkins, egg-plants, and peas are
grown, but do not enter largely into the people's diet
Beans are an important article, and from these is manu-
factured iofee — literally bean-cheese, an article largely
used by the poorer classes. Radishes are also grown,
and some varieties arc very large and not unlike

' Pridham's Ceylon, 1849.

* Mod, Univer. Hist, also SmiUi's Fruits and Farinacea,

» Smith.

NATIONAL HABITS. 27

beets. . . . The young bamboo is also eaten, and a
variety of mushrooms is used in making sauces and
relishes. . . . Cakes and unleavened bread of various
kinds are made from rice flour. ... Of fruits, oranges,
peaches, pears, apricots, plums, persimmons, raspberries,
mulberries, and currants are indigenous here . . . apples
and strawberries have been introduced. . . . The moisture
keeps the vegetation constantly green and beautiful' *

Sierra Leone. — * The natives, who live in a climate
said to be the worst on earth, are very temperate ; they
subsist entirely on small quantities of boiled rice, with
occasional supplies of fruit, and drink only water ; in
consequence they are strong and healthy, and live as
long as men in the most propitious climates.'^

Greece. — *The Greek boatmen are seen in great
numbers about the harbours, seeking employment. They
are exceedingly abstemious ; their food always consists of
a small quantity of black bread, made of unbolted rye
or wheat-meal, generally rye ; and a bunch of grapes or
raisins, or some figs. They are, nevertheless, astonish-
ingly athletic and powerful ; and the most nimble, active,
graceful, cheerful, and even merry people in the world.
At all hours they are singing ; blithesome, jovial, and
full of hilarity. The labourers in the ship-yards live in
the same abstemious and simple manner, and are equally
vigorous and active. They breakfast and dine on a
small quantity of their coarse bread, and figs, grapes, or
raisins. Their supper, if they take any, is still lighter,
though they more frequently take no supper, and eat
nothing from dinner to breakfast'^

Malta, — * The Maltese peasant at his best is a model

1 New York World, 1877. * Monthly Magazine^ 1815.

' Judge Woodruff of Connecticut.

28 THE PERFECT Vl^A Y IN DIET.

of thrift. Whether he rents a few acres and hires a few
hands to assist him in cultivating it, or whether he is
himself a hireling, his condition is about the same. He
and his family are astir before daybreak, and have not
only attended mass, but have also got through two or
three hours of hard work in the cool of the morning,
before they think about breaking their fast Then
another spell of work; and then an afternoon siesta,
followed by another turn in the fields and another frugal
meal. The system of farming is old-fashioned and
oriental, everything being done by handwork, but the
soil generally yields each year three crops. The people
manage to be strong and hardy on their scanty fare of
black bread and coarse macaroni, eked out by such
garden stuff as they cannot profitably dispose of in the
market, and only washed down on Sundays and saints'
days by a draught of the common Sicilian wine, for
which they pay twopence a pint The children who are
too young to do rougher work pick the weeds, and these
are saved for the goat that supplies them with milk' ^

Turkey. — * I observed, on a late journey to Con-
stantinople, that the boatmen or rowers of the caiques,
who are perhaps the best rowers in the world, drink
nothing but water ; and they drink that profusely during
the hot months of the summer. The boatmen and
water-carriers of Constantinople are decidedly, in my
opinion, the finest men in Europe, as regards their phy-
sical development, and they are all water-drinkers ; they
may take a littie sherbet at times. Their diet is chiefly
bread ; now and then a cucumber, with cherries, figs,
dates, mulberries, or other fruits which are abundant
there ; now and then a little fish.'^

1 One and All^ also Dietetic Reformer ^ i88o.

* Sir WiJliam Fairbaim's Report on Sanitary Conditions.

NATIONAL HABITS. 29

* From the day of his irruption into Europe the Turk
has always proved himself to be endowed with singularly
strong vitality and energy. As a member of a warlike
race, he is without equal in Europe in health and hardi-
ness. He can live and fight when soldiers of any other
nationality would starve. His excellent physique, his
simple habits, his abstinence from intoxicating liquors,
and his normal vegetarian diet, enable him to support
the greatest hardships, and to exist on the scantiest and
simplest food.' ^

' Low stature is the exception in the Ottoman army.
These men of herculean form are endowed with fabulous
sobriety ; they drink no intoxicating drinks, and seldom
touch meat.' ^

'Some of the men among the Turkish excavators were
remarkably adroit in throwing up the sand, which they
would cast up even as high as twelve feet Their food
was of the simplest kind ; coarse bread and a little
salt fish or olives, black raisins and some firuit occa-
sionally, accompanied by copious draughts of the best
water they could obtain, constituted their breakfast and
dinner. To their supper, as being the most sumptuous
meal, some delicacy, such as thistle-broth, boiled thistle-
stalks, snail-soup, dandelion, and other wild vegetables,
were often added. With this fingal diet their strength
was unusually great, as the fatigues which they endured,
in spite of the unhealthy climate, and the great weights
which they carried in their arms or on their backs, suffi-
ciently proved. The Turkish porters in Smyrna often
carry from four hundred to six hundred pounds weight
on their backs, and a merchant one day pointed out to
me one of his men who, he assured me, had carried an

> standard, 1877. » DaiVi News, i&in.

30 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET.

enormous bale of merchandise weighing eight himdred
pounds up an incline into an upper warehouse/ ^

' In Smyrna, where there are no carts or wheel-car-
riages, the carrying business falls upon the shoulders of the
porters, who are seen in great numbers about the wharves
and docks and in the streets near the water-side, where
they are employed in lading and unlading vessels. They
are stout, robust men, of great muscular strength, and
carry at one load, upon a pad fitted to their backs, firom
four hundred to eight hundred pounds. Mr. Langdon,
an American merchant residing there, pointed me to one
of them in his service, and told me that a short time
before, he carried at one load, from the warehouse to the
wharf, about twenty-five rods, a box of sugar weighing
four hundred pounds, and two sacks of coffee weighing
each two hundred pounds, and that, after walking a few
rods with a quick step, he stopped and requested that
another sack of coffee might be added to his load ; but
Mr. Langdon, apprehending danger from so great an
exertion, refused his request.'^

China. — *The perfection of the art of cooking is
nowhere more observable than in the monasteries of the
Buddhists. They have but the simplest elements of
food to deal with. No meat, no fish, no poultry are
allowed at their tables. No eggs, no lard, no butter, no
milk must be introduced into their confectionery. Vege-
tables alone are permitted, and yet by means of these
a dinner of surprising variety is served, and if the guest
judged only by appearances he would suppose that the
worthy abbot had forgotten the rigid rules of his mo-
nastic establishment, and was about to break his vow by
partaking of most heretical viands.' ^

1 Discoveries at Ephesus, by F. T. Wood, F.S.A., 1877.

* Judge WoodruflF.

^ /"ic/urfs o/ihe Chinese, by the Rev. R. H. Co\i\>o\d» lll.^u

NATIONAL HABITS, 31

Palestine. — *The Damascene artisan's or handi-
craftsman's diet consists of fniit, vegetables, rice, oil, and
bread. . . . The diet of both Christian and Moslem is
strictly vegetarian, . . . their food is of the most primi-
tive kind, . . . barley or pea bread, with fruit and
vegetables.' *

' The Fellahin, or modem Canaanites, live on sunple
food ; they rarely touch meat, but live on unleavened
bread dipped in oil, — reminding one of the poor widow of
Sarepta, — or rice, olives, dibs (grape treacle), scum (clari-
fied butter), with gourds, melons, marrows, and cucum-
bers, or, in times of scarcity, the kobberzah or mallow,
cooked in some milk or oil. To this frugal diet is due
probably the whiteness of their teeth, the strength of their
constitutions, and the rapidity with which their wounds
heal' 2

Algiers. — *It was a good beginning to have a
stately, barefooted Arab to shoulder our baggage from
the port, and wonderful to see the load he carried un-
assisted. As he winds his way through the narrow and
steep slippery streets it is well to see how nobly our
Arab bears his load, how beautifully balanced is his lithe
figure, and with what grace and ease he walks along.
It is generally admitted, we believe, that " a vegetable
diet will not produce heroes," and there is certainly a
prejudice in England about the value of beef for navvies
and others who put muscular power into their work. It
is an interesting fact to note, and one which we think
speaks volumes for the climate of Algeria, that this
gentleman lives almost entirely on fruit, rice, and Indian
com.' '

1 Official Report of Acting Consul.

« Tentwork in Palestine, by C. R. Conder, R.E., 1878.

5 Artists and Arads, by Henry Blackbume, 1868.

I

32 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET.

African Coast. — * The causeway at Suakin, on the
African coast, is the great highway to the interior, and
at this season it is daily threaded by long strings of
stately camels, with stalwart Hadendoa drivers. You
cannot wish to see stouter or better-made men than these
fellows, whose glossy skins and well-filled forms show
that their diet of dura or sorghum and milk agrees well
with them. These two elements compose the food of
the whole country side. Milk is in plenty ; and of a
forenoon in the outskirts of the town one is always meet-
ing a donkey laden with skins of it The dura^ which
is brought down from the more fertile inland, is not
ground in the mill, but by rubbing-stones.' ^

Poland. — *Our Polish Upper-Silesians are a very
frugal people. A mason who goes to work in the town,
distant five to eight English miles or more, must rise
in the morning by three o'clock if he will be punctual.
His diet for the whole day is the bread which he takes
from home in his pocket ... So with the field labourer.
As a soldier he is very enduring, and the Polish regi-
ments can always make long marches. The main articles
of diet of our Polish peasantry are bread and potatoes.' *

Russia. — *Eggs, black bread, milk, and tea — these
formed my ordinary articles of food during all my wan-
derings in Northern Russia. Occasionally potatoes
could be had, and afforded the possibility of varying the
bill of fare. The favourite materials employed in the
native cookery are sour cabbage, cucumbers, and kvass —
a kind of very small beer made from black bread.' '

* The people of Russia generally subsist on coarse
black rye-bread and garlics. ... I have often hired men

^ By the. Red Sea, Professor Robertson Smith.

* E. Wellshaenser.

' Dr. Mackenzie Wallace's Russia,

NATIONAL HABITS, 33

to labour for me in Russia, which they would do from
sixteen to eighteen hours for eight cents, a day. . . .
They would come on board in the morning with a piece
of their black bread weighing about a pound, and a
bunch of garlics as big as one's fist This was all their
nourishment for the day of sixteen or eighteen hoiu-s'
labour. They were astonishingly powerful and active,
and endured severe and protracted labour far beyond
any of my men. Some of these men were eighty and
even ninety years old, and yet these old men woidd do
more work than any of the middle-aged men belonging
to my ship. In handling and stowing away iron, and in
stowing away hemp with the jack-screw, they exhibited
most astonishing power. They were full of agility, viva-
city, and even hilarity, singing as they laboured.' *

* The Russian peasant is satisfied with the plainest
food. . . . The diet consists of pickled cucumbers, cab-
bages, mushrooms, with a piece of black bread. . . .
Unless in the largest towns, butcher's meat would appear
to be very little used. Even in such places as Toula
and Zaraisk a butcher's shop is never seen. . . . Vege-
tables and milk compose a great part of the diet in the
districts we have now reached.' ^

* Here were about 600 irregulars (Russian cavalry),
besides militia and regulars, all, especially the irregulars,
fine-looking men. The extraordinary thing was that the
resources of the country did not seem in any way over-
tasked to support them ; there was no scarcity of any-
thing. As an officer who had served in the French army
observed, there was not enough in the place in the way
of meat to satisfy two companies of English soldiers,
yet here were 3,000 to 4,000 men, many of them of the

1 Capt. C. S. Rowland, of New Bedford, Mass.
» Bremner's Excursions in (he Interior of £^ttssta«

D

34 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

upper classes. With a little millet boiled into a pudding
or '^ pasta/' some goat's milk, cheese, and onions, and a
goblet of " vin du pays," even the chiefs are quite con-
tented, while their retainers* make good cheer over cake
of Indian com flour, some curds, a piece of dried fish,
or a strip of tough beef among h^lf-a-dozen. The Rus-
sian soldier is happy with his lump of black bread and
glass of whisky or tumbler of weak tea, with, in the
evening, perhaps, a basin of weak soup, something like
the " black broth" of the Spartans.'*

Norway. — * The general food of the Norwegians is
rye-bread, milk, and cheese. As a particular luxury,
peasants eat sharke^ which are thin slices of salt himg-
meat, dried in the wind, but this indulgence in animal
food is very rare indeed. A common treat on high days
and holy days consists of a thick hasty-pudding or por-
ridge of oatmeal or ryemeal, seasoned by two or three
pickled herrings or salted mackerel. All the travellers
I have consulted agree in representing the people as
thriving on this fare, and in no part of the world are there
more instances of extreme longevity than in Norway.'

'Notwithstanding the poor fare of the inhabitants,
they are remarkably robust and healthy. Though in
many parts of Norway animal food is quite unknown,
they are generally tall and good-looking, with a manly
openness of manner and countenance, which increased
the farther north I proceeded. From this hardy way of
living, and being daily accustomed to climb the moun-
tains, they may be said to be in a constant state of train-
ing, and their activity is so great that they keep up with
ease by the side of your carriage at full speed for the
distance of ten or twelve miles.'^

* War Correfspondent of the Daily News, 1878.

* Dr. Capell Brooke and Mr. Twining.

NATIONAL HABITS, 35

Spain. — *With respect to the Moorish porters in
Spain, I have witnessed the exceedingly large loads they
are in the habit of carrying, and have been struck with
astonishment at their muscular powers. Others of the
labouring class, particularly those who are in the habit
of working on board of ships, and called " stevedores,"
are also very powerful men. I have seen two of these
men stow off a full cargo of wine in casks, after it was
hoisted on board and lowered into the hold, with ease.
They brought their food on board with them ; it con-
sisted of coarse, brown wheat bread and grapes/ ^

* Those who have penetrated into Spain have probably
witnessed to what a distance a Spanish attendant will
accompany on foot a traveller's mule or carriage, doing
forty or fifty miles a day on his fare of only raw onions
and bread.' ^

France. — ' The way of living in a French peasant's
house is this : In the morning the men eat soup, that soup
which Cobden praised as the source of French prosperity.
It is cheap enough to make. For twelve people two
handfuls of dry beans or peas, a few potatoes, a few ounces
of fried bacon to give it a taste, a good deal of hot water.
The twelve basins are then filled with thin slices of brown
bread, and the soup is poured on it Boiled rice, with
a little milk, is sometimes taken instead of soup. If
the soup is insufficient, the peasant finishes his meal
with a piece of dry bread. . . . The meal at noon is
composed invariably of potatoes, followed by a second
dish, which is either a pancake made with a great deal of
flour and water and few eggs, or a salad, or clotted milk.
No wine or meat is allowed except during the great
labours of haymaking and harvest. At these times a

1 Capt. C. F. Chase.

* Smith's Fruits and Farinacea.

36 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET

little wine is given round with the water drunk at dinner,
and a little piece of salted pork.' '

It is stated in a work published by Bertillon in 1874
that the vine gatherers of the department of Nifevre, of
Burgundy, etc, only eat meat once a year, the agricul-
tural labourers of the Maine department eat it twice a
year, the weavers of Sarthe on fHe days only, and the
Auvergnese about six times a year. The Breton labourers
never eat it, and even rich people in this province take
it only on fHe days.

Switzerland. — * The fare of the Swiss workmen is
very frugal. They rarely taste flesh, their food being
principally bread, cheese, potatoes, vegetables, and fruit ;
though in the towns the consumption of meat is some-
what greater. The middle classes fare pretty much as the
working classes, all consuming large quantities of milk,
and drinking coffee mixed with chicory and milk twice a
day.' >

A report upon the alimentation of agricultural la-
bourers in Europe, taken by the order of the English
Government, and cited in the * Anthropological Review '
for 1872, gives the following table of dietaries in use
among the working populations of various coimtries : —

Belgium. — Coffee, brown bread, vegetables, salted
bacon. A great number live on potatoes, bread, and
chicory plant.

PoMERANiA. — Meat (flesh) three times a week.

Prussia (Rhenish.) — Milk, soup, dry peas, potatoes,
meat on f§te days.

Saxony. — Bread, butter, cheese, soup, vegetables,
coffee, meat on fHe days.

Bavaria. — Soup made of flour and butter, milk,
cabbage, potatoes.

-' HamQriOTi& Round my House, 1^75. ■* Leisure Hour, 1873.

NATIONAL HABITS, 37

Italy. — Macaroni, bread, fruit, vegetables, wine.

Low Countries. — Black bread, butter, vegetables,
fish, coffee.

Russia. — ^Rye-bread, cabbage, mushroom soup, buck-
wheat baked with milk, oiL

Spain. — Bread, vegetables, chick peas ; meat is a
luxury.

Sweden. — Potatoes, rye, oats, barley, abundance of
milk, salted herrings, beer ; never any meat.

Switzerland. — Cheese, milk, coffee, vegetables,
soups, wine, rarely any meat They work about thirteen
hours a day.

Scotland. — Oatmeal bread, potatoes, milk, butter,
coffee, tea, bacon, rarely other meat

Ireland. — Oatmeal, potatoes, milk, a little lard. A
little whisky is also taken.

England. — Beef, pork, bacon, potatoes, vegetables,
cheese, tea, beer, cider. *

We see, then, by these examples, that even in our
own quarter of the globe, the peasantry and the agricul-
turists are almost wholly vegetarians in practice, if not by
profession and principle. In fact, it is only in England
that we find animal food forming part of the regular ali-

' Add to the above, that many religious communities in all climates
systematically abstain from flesh-meats. For instance, S. Benedict's
rule prohibits the flesh of quadrupeds to all except the feeble and sick.
The rule of S. Francis of Paula is severely vegetarian, forbidding even
eggs and milk. The Trappist monks, the religious of S. Dominic's
order (friar preachers), and of S. Basil's order, are all v^etarian-; and
among the orders of women, the rule of life of -the Poor Clares is
similar. Apart from religion, there exist also numerous bodies profess^
ing Pythagoreanism. To instance one or two of these only, the
Vegetarian Society of England, established in 1846, numbers over 3,000
members ; the Food Reform Society of London has a large following,
and there are several vegetarian restaurants in the metropolis. Vegetarian
societies exist also in Paris, Switzerland, Genwaco.>j, KxascvRaw, ^\r.,> es.»

38 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

mentation of the lower classes. It must not, however, be
thought that, even in England, the common use of a
mixed diet is equally prevalent in all counties. Mr.
}»rindley, canal engineer in this country, informs us that
* in the various works in which he has been engaged —
where the workmen, being paid by the piece, exerted
themselves to earn as much as possible — men from the
north of Lancashire and Yorkshire, who adhered to their
customary diet of oat-cake and hasty-pudding, with water
for their drink, sustained more labour and made larger
wages than those who lived on bacon, cheese, and beer —
the general diet of labourers in the south.' ' We are, how-
ever, aware that the superiority of the English navvies
over their French comrades is frequently cited as evi-
dence of the sustaining value of the beef and beer diet of
the former, a more meagre fare being, it is said, in use
among the Frenchmen. But, supposing the statement to
be in all respects correct, it does not appear to involve
any anomaly in natural law, for its explanation lies in the
fact that the Saxon workmen belong to a sturdier, a
hardier, and a more staying race than the Celts whose
most remarkable exploits are generally accomplished
under the influence of passing emotion or enthusiasm.
The Frenchman excels, not in physical power or muscular
development, but in agility and klan ; he is concentrated
in performance but quickly exhausted ; the Englishman,
on the contrary, is dogged, tenacious, and enduring. It
is much more likely that the English navvy owes his su-
perior working power to the hereditary gifts of his race
than to an accidental use of certain comestibles to which,
by the bye, his forefathers were strangers. But it is not
contended that stimulating substances, such as alcohol
and flesh, may not temporarily give rise to a display of ex-

^ Smith's FrvkiU and Farinacta,

NATIONAL HABITS. 39

cessive energy, and that under their influence a man may
not perform feats which would be well-nigh impossible to
him in an imexcited condition — as a person pursued by a
bull will leap a five-barred gate which, in cooler moments,
he would be forced to climb. And if any man affirm that
beef and beer enable him to accomplish labour other-
wise beyond his strength, the fact may be attributed, not
to increase of muscular force, or development of stamina,
but to quickened nervous action, or stimulation.

Formerly, indeed, the diet of the country labouring
classes was almost wholly innocent of flesh-meats and
strong drinks, and it must be borne in mind that it is to
this sober and temperate ancestry that the working powers
of the present generation are owing. The use of flesh as
daily food dates from hardly more than a quarter of a
century among the peasantry of most rural districts, and
already they are beginning to degenerate. The children
will have neither the health nor the constitution of their
fathers, nor their immunity from suffering. In Mr.
Smiles's * Life of George Moore,' we read that in old times
even the well-to-do country classes were strangers to the
taste of flesh, and that ' stalwart sons and comely maidens
were brought up on porridge, oatcakes, bannocks,
potato-pot and milk.'

A native of Maine (France) informs me that in his
grandfather's time the peasants of that department en-
joyed far longer life and more robust health than the
present generation who have exchanged the simple sus-
tenance of former years for a dietary consisting largely
of stimulating drinks and animal food. Examples of
this kind are not far to seek and might be indefinitely
multiplied, whether with regard to races, communities, or
families.

If from national generalities 'wep^c^^X.o >2w^ Q«tii\^^^.*

40 THE PERFECT WA V IN DIET,

tlon of individual experience of the Pythagorean system,
we are met by such an enormous mass of evidence as
would require volumes to chronicle it Let a few in-
stances, chosen from thousands, suffice \ the limits of this
little treatise preclude more numerous citations.

' The celebrated Lord Heathfield, who defended the
fortress of Gibraltar with consummate skill and persever-
ing fortitude, was well known for his hardy habits of
military discipline. He neither ate animal food nor
drank wine \ his constant diet being bread and vegetables,
and his drink, water.'

*My health,' says Mr. Jackson, a distinguished surgeon
in the British army, *has been tried in all ways and
climates ; and by the aid of temperance and hard work,
I have worn out two campaigns and probably could wear
out another. I eat no animal food, drink no wine, malt
liquors, nor spirits of any kind. I wear no flannel, and
regard neither wind nor rain, heat nor cold.'

' Professor Lawrence knew a lady who, having adopted
a vegetarian mode of life, was remarkable for her activity
and strength. She made nothing of walking ten miles,
and could with ease walk twenty. She had two children,
and nursed them for about twelve months each, during
which time she took only vegetables and fruit, with distilled
water as drink. Both children were fine and healthy.'

' Another lady (the wife of one of the founders of the
Vegetarian Society in England) abstained from flesh and
all intoxicants for thirty years, and during that time, gave
birth to fifteen children, fourteen of whom she nursed
herself, and yet remained young and active.'^

The celebrated reformer of the eighteenth century,
John Wesley, wrote to the Bishop of London in 1747,
that, following the advice of Dr. Cheyne, he had given up

1 Smith.

CHkMIStR K 41

the use of flesh-meat and wine, and that from that time,
* thanks to God,' he had been delivered from all physical
ills.

In the month of October, 1878, a Jewish rabbi named
Hirsch Guttman, died at Gross-Strehlitz at the advanced
age of 108 years. He had been a vegetarian for half
a century. Rabbi Guttman was presented to the Em-
peror of Germany, who, after a long conversation with the
old man, respectfully received his blessing.^

Since, then, we find that the exterior structure of man-
kind, their internal organism, their natural instincts and
the habits of the greatest ancient races, as well as the
modem experience of so many nations and communities
in every part of the globe, all plead in favour of an
alimentation derived immediately from the fruits and
seeds of the earth as the most nutritious and proper to
humanity, it would indeed be anomalous if the results
of chemical analysis were to show themselves less favour-
able to the same conclusion. Let us see, then, what
chemistry has to say on the subject.

All the various alimentary substances divide them-
selves naturally into two groups, organic and inorganic,
the organic group being subdivided into substances con-
taining nitrogen, and those which do not contain it.
These last again divide themselves into fatty bodies,
composed of carbon and hydrogen, combined with a
very small proportion only of oxygen ; and into carbo-
hydrates, which are also constituted by carbon united to
hydrogen and oxygen, but in which the two latter
elements always exist in the same proportion as they do
in water (H^^ O^). Such are the polymeric bodies,
gum, cellulose, dextrine, starch, etc. Glucose, which

^ Dietetic Refornur,

42 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIRT,

forms the solid and crystallisable part of honey, and
which exists in the greater number of dried fruits, on the
surface of which it forms efflorescences, is represented
by the formula, C^ H^o O^ + H^ O— that is to say, it is
the ultimate product of the transformation of cellulose,
and, more particularly, of starch. One molecule of
dextrine, in absorbing two molecules of water, gives two
molecules of glucose. Levulose, which is found in a
great number of fruits, and galactose, are isomeric with
glucose ; the formula of saccharose or cane-sugar and of
its isomeric body, lactose, or sugar of milk, is represented
by two molecules of glucose, less one of water.

There exist, however, some few substances which do
not find a place in this classification, such as alcohol,
pectine, and the vegetable acids. Alcohol occupies an
intermediate rank between the fatty bodies and the
carbo-hydrates, while the other substances mentioned
are still more highly oxydised than the carbo-hydrates.

Some chemists class together all the non-nitrogenised
substances, />. fatty bodies and hydrates of carbon, under
the general name of hydro-carbons ; but although this
classification may, from certain points of view, have the
merit of convenience, it is wanting in clearness and pre-
cision. All the carbo-hydrates are largely present in
vegetable and fruit produce, but, if we except sugar of
milk (lactine), and muscle-sugar (inosite), none of the
group belong to healthy animal tissue. On the contrary,
the true hydro-carbons^ consisting of a fatty acid in combina-
tion with a radical, occur equally in animal and in vegetable
matter. Of these fatty bodies, that known as * stearine * is
peculiar to animal substances, while both kingdoms are
rich in 'palmatine' and ' oleine,' the latter, as fluid fat,
being, however, chiefly present in vegetable products.^

1 Pavy.

CHEMISTRY, 43

It was formerly taught by Liebig that the destiny of
nitrogenised principles in the animal economy was quite
distinct from that of the non-nitrogenised principles.
According to this theory the first contributed to the
growth and nutrition of the elements of the animal
economy, and to the prod;iction of muscular and nervous
force, while the last served only as fabricants of heat, and
were accordingly named * respiratory ' elements of food.

It is now known that in making this classification
Liebig erred, and that neither is the action of nitro-
genised principles exclusively limited to nutrition, nor
that of fatty matters to the production of heat In fact
the latter, although particularly heat producers, take their
part also in the work of nutrition, and, far fi-om being
so restricted in their operation as was supposed, it is now
proved that the fatty bodies constitute the true source of
physical force, and that they may be fairly styled the
generators of motor power ; while to the nitrogenised
principles appears to be reserved the function of giving
birth to those elements which make part of the composi-
tion of the animal organism itself. Now, certain recent
and numerous experiments made, not on the lower
animals, but on man himself, and having therefore con-
siderable value, demonstrate that the production of
force is not due to the oxydation of the nitrogenised
element of the living tissues of the organism, as was
formerly believed by those who thought with Liebig, but,
on the contrary, to the oxydation of hydro-carbonated
substances. Therefore the production of mechanical
force, like that of heat, is the result of the oxydation of
the elements of carbon and hydrogen ; the energy set
free by chemical action manifesting itself under the form
of mechanical force. ^

1 The following observations occur in. iVve viotVs ol \3\. Y^xsx^'^x^

44 THE PERFECT WAV IN DIET

The fatty bodies, properly so called — stearine, palma-
tine, and oleine — fulfil, then, equally the part of force-
producers and that which Liebig assigned exclusively to
them, of producers of caloric. Now, the capacity to
produce heat depends . on the quantity of carbon and
hydrogen not already oxydised, which exists in any given
iSubstance, and this condition is, in a special degree,
realised in the composition of fatty bodies. It is from
this point of view that it is necessary to distinguish be-
tween the hydro-carbons— fatty bodies — and the carbo-

fessor of Physiology at the hospital of Bellevue, New York {Expert"
ments and Reflections upon Animal Heat, 1879). He remarks that the
calorific value of any article of food may be expressed by a definite
number of unities of caloric. Of these unities a certain proportion is con-
verted into force, which divides itself into muscular force and respiratory
and circulatory force. Professor Foster (Text-book of Physiology, 1877)
has calculated that a fifth or sixth part of the total value of any aliment
is employed under the form of muscular force, the other four-fifths or
five-sixths which remain being converted into heat. Now, according to
Joule, the imity of caloric (i.e. the quantity necessary to raise one
degree Fahrenheit a pound weight of water) equals the force necessary
to raise one foot in height 772 pounds ('Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat,' Philosophical Transactions, 1850). Therefore, muscular force
results from the transformation of the heat produced in the organism
after the appropriation of a quantity of caloric sufficient for the main-
tenance of the constant animal temperature. The oxydation of the
elements of carbon and hydrogen is a much more important factor of
calorification than that of nitrogen, for it is certain that the calorific
value of the oxydation of the first two, and the quantity of heat thus
produced, are much more considerable than in the case of the oxyda-
tion of nitrogen. It is probable, according to Dr. Flint (who does not,
however, altogether accept the conclusions of his authors), that a pro-
duction of caloric is always going on in the living organism, even in the
absence of any alimentation. The heat thus produced would be, ac-
cording to his experiments, the result of the oxydation of the hydrogen
forming water with the oxygen inspired into the lungs. Of this oxygen,
eighty-six parts in a hundred combine with carbon to form carbonic
acid. The value of the caloric thus obtained must be added to the
calorics obtained by the ingestion of food in order to arrive at a just
tion of the quantity of heat and dynamic force which the organism
fits disposal, under such or such condixioivs.

caionc

CHEMISTRY, 45

hydrates — starchy and sugary bodies — because these last
contain a proportion of oxygen sufficient in itself to
oxydise all the hydrogen contained in them, leaving the
carbon only unoxydised ; while in the fatty bodies, not
only the carbon, but the larger part of the hydrogen also,
remain unoxydised.

As regards the utilisation of the carbo-hydrates, it is
under the ultimate form of sugar that they all finally
enter the economy. It may be said that while the saliva
and the pancreatic juice play the first part in the con-
version of starch into sugar, it is the liver that takes the
initiative in the assimilation of the sugar, and this action
apparently gives birth to the amyloid, colloid, or non-
diffusible substance known as glycogen, a substance
which itself in its turn is converted into hydro-carbonated
or fatty matter. *

It is, then, under the final form of fatty matter that
starchy and sugary substances act as heat producers.
This transformation is probably attained by a giving off" of
carbonic acid and oxygen, which process would leave of
the composition of a carbo-hydrate the chemical formula
only of a fatty body : —

C>2H»«»0*-C0220 = C"H»«0.

It must be borne in mind that, as producers of force,
sugar, and its anterior forms, such as dextrine, gum, and
starch, possess only the value of the quantity of oxydisable
and non-oxydised substance which they contain.

Coming to the consideration of nitrogenised prin-
ciples, we find that they exist equally in animal and
vegetable articles of food, and that, whichever may be
their origin in nature, they are absolutely identical
Vegetable albumen is obtained most abundantly from
the cereals, and in smaller quantities from nuts and

1 Pavy.

46 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

leguminous plants ; vegetable fibrine is obtained
washing the flour of the cereals, in which it forms part
the substance known as crude gluten, and is separab
from the pure gluten by treatment with boiling alcoho
It exists also in grape juice, and in the majority of legu
minous plants. Vegetable caseine is found in great
cjuantity in all kinds of beans, peas, and other seeds, and
is often spoken of as legumine. It is present also with
albumen in almonds and other oily grains.

There remain yet two organic nitrogenised substances,
the source of which is exclusively animal, and which
form a separate group, readily distinguishable from that
just described, by the fact that they do not give proteine
by the action of heat and an alkali, as do the albumi-
nous, fibrinous, and caseinous substances. These prin-
ciples, gelatine and chondrine, are derived from bone
and fibrous animal tissues, cartilage, ligamentous and
tendonous material, and by them is constituted the jelly
of flesh-meat soups. ^ Their nutritive value has been
greatly disputed, and was the subject of a special inquiry
instituted by the Academy of Sciences of Paris, forty
years ago. The conclusions arrived at by the commis-
sion appointed to examine the question, tended to de-
monstrate that the food-value of gelatinous compounds,
if not absolutely «//, was at least extremely doubtful
Bischoff and Voit, however, more lately (1874) have
given an opinion that these substances may cover proteid
waste, and to some slight extent form a substitute, by
admixture, for other plastic matter.

The special action of the proteinous nitrogenised
principles is, as we have already seen, to furnish elements,
first for the development, and, secondly, for the renewal,

^ Fruit and vegetable jelly is formed by pectine and pectic acid, and
is therefore of a totally different nature from that yielded by bone
'stock, '

\

CHEMISTRY. 47

of the tissues of the animal organism. These proteinous
principles serve also in the production of the secretions
of the economy; and as the amount of the secretions
bears proportional relation to the vital activity, it is easy
to understand how necessary to the integrity of the
animal functions is the ingestion of such principles.

To complete our sketch of the nature and destiny of
the elements which enter into alimentary compounds, it
remains to say a few words on their inorganic con-
stituents. These, under the form of mineral salts and
watery are indispensable to the nutrition of living beings.
Of these substances the principal are the combinations
of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, iron, the chlorides, and
phosphoric, carbonic, and sulphuric acid, lime and the
phosphates being, perhaps, the most essential. The
part taken in the animal organism by water and saline
matters appears to consist chiefly in contributing to esta-
blish the conditions necessary to the production of the
chemical action, by the aid of which proteid and other
substances are assimilated, and in forming the liquid
part of the bodily humours. (The serum or water of the
blood, a slightly albuminous liquid, amounts in the
human body to about three litres in quantity.) Salts do
not appear to be themselves capable of acting as force
producers, but they form an essential part in the compo-
sition of all the humours and secretions, and exist in
combination with the organic principles in every animal
tissue. The various salts necessary to complete alimen-
tation are present alike in vegetables and in flesh. In
the vegetable kingdom the largest proportion of phos-
phates, chlorides, and potash is met with in the cereals ;
and it is worthy of remark that these salts, as well as the
nitrogenised elements, are present principally in the
tegument or exterior part of the grain, and, consequently,
ordinary white bread contains bul a eotw^ax^^xs^ 'SKcali^.

THE PERFECT WAV IN DIET.

proportion of them. In order to obtain the full value ol
flour, it should be eaten unbolted— 'ihsi. is to say, the meal
should be used entire, and not deprived, by dressing, ol
its tegumentaiy parts.

Water furnishes us with chloride of sodium, carbonate
of hme, and silex ; iron is largely present in peas, haricots,
and lentils j the herbs and leguminous vegetables are rich
in phosphates of lime.

By means of the following table, the composition ol
the various alimentary substances most in use, of both
vegetable and animal origin, and their comparative nutri-
tive values, may be readily perceived and understood.
The analyses given are those of Fresenius, Letheby,
Pavy, Church, Wolff, Knop, and Payen : —
In 100 Parts.

\i.ro

Hy,lro-

^^;;;

M«r^

Water

Lean beef .

'9-3

3 '6

5'i

72-0

Fal beef .

29-8

4'4

S'-o

Lean mutton

l8;3

4-9

4-8

72-0

Fat mutton .

311

3-5

53-0

Veal .

\l-\

'l'^

4-7

63-0

Fal pork .

9-8

4S-9

2-3

39-0

Dried ham ,

73 '3

29

15-0

Tripe .

13-3

16-4

2-4

68-Q

White fish .

iS-i

2-9

rs-o

Red fish (MJmon)

i6-i

s-s

14

77-0

Oysters

14-010

1-515

2-695

80-335

Mussels

1172

2-42

2-73

7574

White of egg

1-6

78-0

Yolk of egg .

^■0

30-7

""3

52-0

Cow's milk (Lactine 5-2)

4'i

3 '9

0-8

S6-0

Cream ( „ 2'S)

27

267

1-8

66 -o

Butter ....

83-0

15-0

si's

24-0

3-0

40-0

Roquefort „

26 'ji

30-H

5-07

34-55

Dutch

29-43

27 '54

36-10

Chester

25-99

26-34

4V6

35-92

P:irme5.in ,.

44 -oS

'5-95

572

27-56

Cheddar „

284

iv.

\ ^•'

y "iS-o

CHEMISTRY.

49

In 100 Parts.

Carbo*
hydrafes

Nitro-
genous
Matter

Hydro-

carSonate

Matter

Saline
Matter

Water

Beans .

55-36

30-8

20

3 -65

8-40

White haricots

557

25-5

2-8

3*2

9*9

Dried peas .

58-7

23-8

2*1

2-1

8-3

Lentils

560

252

2-6

2*3

11*5

Potatoes

21*9

2*50

o-ii

1-26

74-0

Black truffles

16 'O

8-775

0*560

2-070

72*0

Mushrooms .

3-0

4-680

0*396

0*458

91-010

Carrots

14-5

1*3

0'2

i-o

83-0

Sea-kale

2-8

2-4

• • •

(?)3o

93-3

Turnips

7-2

I'l

• • •

0-6

91*0

Cabbage

5-8

2-0

0-5

07

91-0

Garden beet .

13-5

•4

• • •

(?)i-o

82*2

Tomato

6'o

1-4

• • •

(?) -8

89-8

Sweet potato

26*25

1-50

•30

2-60

67-50

Water-cress .

3*2

1-7

• • •

(?) -7

93-1

Arrow-root .

820

• • •

• • •

• • •

180

Dry southern wheat

67'ii2

2275

2-6i

3-02

• • •

Dry common wheat

77-05

15-25

1-95

275

• • •

Oat-meal

63-8

12-6

5-6

30

15*0

Barley-meal .

74 3

^•3

2*4

2-0

150

Rye-meal

73*2

8-0

2*0

1*8

15-0

Dry maize .

71-55

12-50

8-80

1-25

• • •

Dry rice

8965

7-55

0-80

0*90

• • •

Buckwheat .

6490

13-10

30

2-50

13*0

Quinoa-meal

56-80

20 -o

5*0

(?)i*o

15-0

Dhoora-meal

74-0

9-0

2-6

2-3

• • •

Dried figs .

65-9

6-1

o'9

2*3

17-5

Dates .

65-3

6-6

0*2

1-6

20-8

Bananas

(?)i9-o

4-820

0-632

0-791

73-900

Walnuts (peeled) .

8-9

12*5

31*6

(?)i7

44*5

Filberts

ii'i

8-4

28-5

(?)i-5

48-0

Ground-nuts

(peeled) ,

11-7

24-5

50-0

(?)i*8

7-5

Cocoa-nut .

8-1

5-5

35 9

(?)i-o

46-6

Fresh chestnuts

(peeled) .

427

3-0

2-5

(?)i*8

49-2

Locust bean .

679

7-1

i-i

(?)2-9

14-6

Cocoa-nibs . \
Chocolate . }

IIIO

21-20

50-0

30

120

E

so THE PERFECT WA \ IN DIET.

Fresh fruits of the drupaceous, baccate, andpomaceous
classes — plums, peaches, olives, cherries, grapes, currants,
cranberries, gooseberries, oranges, citrons, apples, pears,
etc., etc. — contain a very large proportion of carbo-hy-
drates, vegetable acids, salts, and water.

We have it, then, clearly demonstrated by the fore-
going analysis, that not only do vegetable substances con-
tain all the elements necessary to nutrition and to the
production of force and heat, but that they contain pro-
portionately even more of these elements than are found
in animal substances. For instance, peas, beans, lentils,
and haricots contain from 23 to 30 per cent, of proteid
matter, 55 to 58 of starch, and about 3 of saline matter,
while animal food contains from 8 to 19 of proteid matter,
and no carbo-hydrates at all. Fatty matter, is, however,
present to a larger extetit in flesh meats than in ordinary
vegetable and grain produce, but the use of seed and nut
oils abundantly compensates for this deficiency. We
have it shown also, that not only are the nutritive and
dynamic values of vegetable foods, taken in their totality,
greater than those of animal foods, taken in their totality,
but that the former contain, besides, a whole class of
principles which do not exist in the composition of the
latter. These are the carbo-hydrates, the relative place
of which in human alimentation we shall presently see.
And if to vegetable produce proper, are added certain
other aliments, which, though of animal origin, may, with-
out inconsistency, be introduced into a Pythagorean regi-
men — such as milk, eggs, cream, butter, and cheese — we
have at our disposition the entire range of the very sub-
stances which, of all aliments known to nian, are richest
in nitrogen and hydro-carbons. I say ' without inconsis-
tency,' because (i), all animals of the order to which man
himself belongs, are nourished during their infancy by

CHEMISTRY, 51

milk, the derivatives of which cannot therefore be re-
garded as improper to their or his nutrition ; (2), because
all these substances, especially cheese and curds, habit-
ually formed part of the diet of the ancient phytivorous
peoples ; (3), because morality is in nowise outraged by
their use ; (4), because, as we shall see further on, their use
is not excluded by economical considerations.

As regards the proportional quantity of each principle
which should enter into the daily alimentation of man,
it varies according to sex, circumstances, and personal
habit. On the average, in a state of repose or with
moderate exercise, the proportion should be —

Oz.
Nitrogenous matter . . . 4*215
Hydro-carbons .... i*397
Carbo-hydrates .... 18*690
Salts 0714

During active exercise and prolonged work, as with
manual labourers, soldiers engaged in war, etc., the pro-
portion should be —

Oz.

Nitrogenous matter

. 5-41

Hydro-carbons

2*41

Carbo-hydrates

. 17-92

Salts ....

. 0-68

Let it be noticed that these dietaries, which are quoted
from Dr. Playfair, contain a large proportion of carbo-
hydrates — substances which, as we have seen, do not
exist in the food of carnivorous animals, for no animal tis-
sues in the healthy state contain them \ the few traces of
inosite in muscular fibre not being worth mention. They
are found principally in fresh fruits. The carbo-hydrates
are absolutely necessary to proper human alimentation \
they take the place which wouVd o\)[verms»^\i^ <:^^c^i:s^^&^

E2

52 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

by fatty matter, and their use prevents fatigue of the
digestive organs. Moreover, fruit acids possess certain
proper qualities which appear to exercise on the economy
a special influence — purifying, cooling, refreshing, correc-
tive, regulatory — such as no other substances are able to
supply.

But, if it is indisputably demonstrable that the ali-
mentation afforded by a vegetable diet is more efficacious,
more varied, richer in nutritive and ' dynamic principles
and more fitted to the requirements of man than flesh-
meats, the superiority of which, from all these points of
view, has been so long maintained, it is also possible to
adduce evidence of facts tending to prove that the use of
animal viands produces an effect analogous to that of
alcohol j that they stimulate and excite the nervous sys-
tem ; that they rapidly waste its elements, as also those of
all the organism ; and that they thus indirectly diminish
vital resistance and the term of natural life. And though
it might be deemed exaggeration to say that the use of
flesh-meats induces premature death, it is certainly true
that it hastens the arrival of old age, and the manifesta-
tion of diseases and diatheses, as much by its directly
baneful effects on the system, as by the habits it engen-
ders, such as alcoholism, unchastity, and excesses of all
kinds. Referring to the immediate effects on the nervous i
system of the ingestion of flesh-meats, Dr. Pavy says : —
* Animal food exerts a greater stimulating effect upon
the system than vegetable fare. Accounts are related of
the stimulant properties of animal food having sufficed, in
those accustomed only to a vegetable diet, to produce a
state resembling intoxication. Dr. Dundas Thompson *
quotes a narrative of the effects of a repast of meat on some

^ Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals.

STIMULATING EFFECTS OF FLESH-FOOD. 53

native Indians, whose customary fare, as is usual amongst
the tribe, had consisted only of vegetable food. They
dined most luxuriously, stuffing themselves as if they were
never to eat again. After an hour or two, to his great
surprise and amusement, the expression of their counte-
nances, their jabbering and gesticulations, showed clearly
that the feast had produced the same effect as any intoxi-
cating spirit or drug. The second treat was attended wi
the same result.'

Dr. Druitt, also,* describing the properties of a liquid
essence of beef prepared according to his instructions,
speaks of it as exerting a rapid and remarkable stimulat-
ing power over the brain, and introduces it to notice as an
auxiliary to, and partial substitute for, brandy, in all cases
of exhaustion or weakness, attended with cerebral depres-
sion or despondency. Correspondingly stimulating pro-
perties have been claimed as the effect of other similar
compounds. I myself once knew a young lady of ner-
vous temperament, who but very seldom ventured to par-
take of more than a single plate of animal viands at the
same meal, for fear of becoming surexcited. One day,
being very hungry, she transgressed her rule and ate two
mutton chops, and, as I happened to be seated beside her,
I witnessed the result of this excess, which soon avenged
itself in the shape of a fit of actual intoxication. It is
certain that the conduct even of beasts may be modified
by the character of their food. In the ' Lancet '^ Liebig
maintains that the ingestion of flesh produces in the car-
nivorous races the ferocious and quarrelsome disposition
which distinguishes them from the herb-eaters. A bear,
kept at the Anatomical Museum of Giessen, showed a
quiet gentle nature so long as he was fed exclusively on

* Transactions of the Obstetrical Society t 1861,
» Vol. i. 1869.

54 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET.

bread, but a few days' feeding on meat made him vicious
and even quite dangerous. It is well known that swine
grow irascible by having flesh-food given them, and under
such conditions will attack men \ and that dogs kept for
the purpose of protecting houses and other premises are
often fed upon flesh expressly to render them ferocious
and combative, and dangerous therefore to burglars.
Blood-hounds, fox-hounds, and indeed all animals used
for pursuit or attack are similarly fed, while the domestic
skye-terrier or pug, if he is to be gentle and * sweet ' both
physically and morally, must be nourished on a biscuit
and bread-and-milk diet. Examples of this kind are of
the commonest experience ; rather than multiply them it
is preferable to occupy ourselves with their explanation.

Dulong asserts that the quantity of oxygen * lost ' dur-
ing respiration — that is, the quantity not replaced by car-
bonic acid — constitutes in the herbivora about a tenth part
of the volume of the quantity utilised and replaced by
carbonic acid \ and in the carnivora he has found that
the quantity of oxygen thus * lost ' varies from a fifth to
half the whole quantity. And Drs. Fife and Spalding
have demonstrated by experiment that in the same indi-
vidual, a mixed diet necessitates a greater consumption of
oxygen than a vegetable diet, the respiratory movements
being more frequent in the former than in the latter case.
These facts prove, Dr. Craigie thinks,^ that flesh-food gives
rise to more violent and laborious pulmonary action than
alimentation by vegetable diet.

Again, in his ' Animal Chemistry,' Liebig calls atten-
tion to the restlessness and incessant movements of car-
nivorous animals, lions, tigers, hyenas, etc., in the me-
nageries, and observes that men who are habitually
kreophagist manifest similar irritability and want of re-

^ Elements of the Practice of Physic^ vol. ii.

STIMULATING EFFECTS OF FLESH-FOOD. 55

pose. This condition of high pressure in the vital pro-
cesses ought, doubtless, to be referred to the particular
manner in which the absorption of the elements of flesh-
food takes place, these elements, as we have seen, com-
prising no carbo-hydrates. In fact, the work of digestion
and assimilation appears to be much more rapid in the
case of animal alimentation, and consequently, as has
been already said, a proportional vital exhaustion and
break-up of organic tissue ensues. Now, the digestion of
flesh takes place principally in the stomach, while that of
the principles dominating in vegetable products occurs to
a great extent in the intestine. Therefore, digestion and
assimilation are more complex and less rapid processes in
the latter case, and the function of absorption is, so to
speak, more extended and generalised than it is when
dealing with animal food, which taxes the stomach almost
exclusively. It is chiefly to this rapid and precocious ab-
sorption of the nitrogenised principles predominant in
flesh, as well as to the lack of the moderating and regula-
tory effect of the carbo-hydrates, that I am disposed to
attribute that exciting influence of animal alimentation
which has been already mentioned ; an excitation, which,
like that produced by the ingestion of alcohol, passes
quickly away and impels to a renewal of the sensation so
soon as the stomach is emptied of its contents. Let us
be careful to distinguish between this condition of func-
tional excitement and true invigoration. How many per-
sons deceive themselves in this respect, and think they are
strengthened and reinforced when they are only stimu-
lated ! Who has not witnessed, particularly during the
convalescence following typhoid fever, the phenomenon
known 2&febris carnis, an ephemeral fever which shows
itself after the first flesh-meat meal administered to a
patient recovering from serious illness, and whlck k s.Q\fii<^-

56 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

times the occasion of a relapse ! This phenomenon is,
probably, due at least in great part to the rapid ab-
sorption of the proteinous principles of animal food,
though this may not be the exclusive cause of the distur-
bance ; but in the present state of our chemical knowledge
it is not possible to affirm that these principles them-
selves — globuline, myosine, syntonine, etc. — may be taken
to contain some subtle evanescent element capable of ex-
plaining more completely the stimulating and intoxicat-
ing eflfects to which attention has been called. However
this may be, it is certainly to the absence of this sensa-
tion of stimulation habitual to flesh-eaters, that must be
attributed the * sinking,' the languor, the weakness even,
which in the majority of cases is experienced by them
during the first few days following a change to vegetable
diet. Symptoms, precisely similar, are witnessed in per-
sons addicted to alcoholism, when deprived of their
spirituous drinks ; and in both cases, the sensations de-
scribed disappear more or less rapidly, according to cir-
cumstances and individuals, under persistent treatment
But many persons, misled by this passing feebleness, and
mistaking its nature, fancy that they are losing strength,
and after three or four days' abstinence fi:om flesh, return
to their former habits. In order to avoid this factitious
weakness, it is strongly urged on kreophagists, as well as
on alcohol-drinkers who desire to change their mode of
life, to wean themselves from it gradually and by progres-
sive steps, until little by little they arrive at the adoption
of an absolutely reformed regimen.

Allusion has already been made to the deplorable
indirect effects of flesh-eating. Of these alcoholism is
one of the commonest. An American reformer, who for
more than forty years has occupied himself in lecturing on
the subject of dipsomania, and who, since the commence-

ALCOHOLISM, 57

ment of his career, has carefully noted the causes of this
disease in an immense number of persons of all classes in
the many various countries and climates he has visited,
avers without reserve, that the use of flesh-foods, by the
excitation which it exercises on the nervous system, pre-
pares the way for habits of intemperance in drink, and
that, other things being equal, the more flesh is consumed
the greater is the temptation to make use of strong pun-
gent drinks, and the more serious is the danger of con-
firmed alcoholism. Many experienced physicians have
made, similar observations, and wisely act on them in their
treatment of dipsomaniacs.^

Dr. Austin Flint, of Harvard Medical College, is of
opinion that the use of flesh-meat ought always to be for-
bidden in all cases of acute or chronic gastritis, because
the stimulating properties of flesh are invariably ill-sup-
ported by a diseased and enfeebled stomach. Now we
know that chronic gastritis always, sooner or later, ac-
companies alcoholism, and that one of its symptoms is
excessive thirst, which in aggravated cases becomes well-
nigh continuous. There is in this state of things a regu-
lar circle of cause and effect. Animal viands keep up
the gastritis by over-stimulation and taxation of the
affected organ ; the gastritis excites thirst ; thirst perpet-
uates drunkenness. And, since we know that the domi-
nant principles of flesh are precisely those the digestion of
which is effected in the stomach, it will easily be under-
stood how injurious to a diseased or ailing organ, already
degenerated or enfeebled, must be the prolonged and
exclusive labour imposed upon it by a highly nitrogenised
regimen.

Dr. Jackson, senior physician of an asylum for in-

1 Vegetarianism the Radical Cure for Intemperance, H, B, Fowler.
New York. \

58 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

ebriates at Dansville (United States), observes that he
always found it impossible to benefit his patients per-
manently so long as they were permitted animal food,
the use of which he regards as an absolute barrier to a
radical cure. It is evident, he thinks, that flesh contains
some extra-alimentary principles, which excite the nervous
system to such a degree that it ends by exhausting and
degenerating it so as to deprive it of all vital power.
This condition of exhaustion, he adds, gives rise to a
paroxysm of craving for abnormal stimulus, and the de-
sire for alcohol is thus renewed and sustained. Every
patient who places himself under Dr. Jackson's care is
therefore required to conform to the rules of the asylum,
and to abstain entirely from animal viands of all kinds,
as well as from tea, coffee, and tobacco. Under these
conditions, says Dr. Jackson, a man cannot help be-
coming sober and regenerate, it being impossible for him
to live six months exclusively on unbolted meal bread,
vegetables, and ripe fruit, such as apples, pears, apricots,
peaches, etc., without entirely ridding himself of the fever
of alcoholism. Such a regimen completely renovates
the system and destroys the appetite for strong drinks ;
evidence of which facts, contmues Dr. Jackson, may be
witnessed at any time in the establishment of which he
has charge, the treatment there pursued excluding en-
tirely the use of drugs, and relying solely on the regu-
lation of diet and the use of baths.

Next, in regard to other allied excesses, it is cer-
tainly not difficult to understand that the stimulation
and irritation produced in the nervous centres by the
constant ingestion of highly nitrogenised and exciting
meats, influences the genital functions in a powerful de-
gree, and sets up a condition of pressing insatiability.
Not to dwell on the details of this part of our subject,

SLA UGHTER'HOUSES. 59

let it suffice to observe, in passing, that the deepest, truest,
and most general causes of prostitution in all great
cities must be looked for in the luxurious and intem-
perate habits of eating and drinking prevalent among
the rich and well-to-do. The chief element of this luxury
is the use of flesh and alcohol, which mistaken notions
of hygiene and therapeutics tend to press more and more
upon all classes of men and women. Abolish kreophagy
and its companion vice, alcoholism, and more, a thousand-
fold, will be done to abolish prostitution than can be
achieved by any other means soever as long as these two
evil influences flourish. The young man of the present
day, accustomed from childhood to frequent and copious
meals of flesh, and from early youth to the use of all
manner of fermented beverages and liqueurs, carries
about with him and fosters an increasingly disordered
appetite, which not infrequently assumes the character of
true disease, destroying all capacity for the duties and
the higher pleasures of intellectual and refined life.

And now, as belonging to the same class of evils
indirectly due to flesh-eating, we shall speak of the very
serious inconvenience and impediments to civilisation
caused by the existence of Slaughter-Houses. These
establishments, even when submitted to regular surveil-
lance, are apt to become sources of sickness and epidemic
complaints, particularly when they are placed in the
neighbourhood of large towns and during the hot sea-
son. In the * Times' of July 11, 1874, a correspondent
— Mr. Samuel A. Bamett — thus describes the dangers
and horrors of these disgusting institutions : —

* It is impossible for any but those who live and work
near here to understand all the suff'ering which the
Whitechapel and Aldgate slaughter-houses entail. To
reach these houses the cattle have to b^ dm^iv ^.\a\s.%^

6o THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET

Street crowded with trams, omnibuses, and general traffic.
The drivers are almost of necessity cruel, as they hasten
the brutes through such a thoroughfare ; the animals,
excited by shouts and blows, frequently make frantic
rushes, and endanger the lives of the foot-passengers.
From these slaughter-houses, too, the blood flows across
the pavement, and there arises a close smell which seems
to thicken the air and make breathing a pain. . . . We
know that life here is not vigorous ; the air has no re-
freshing power ; and we are well able to understand why
so many resort to drink. Dr. Liddle, our medical officer,
has spoken and written strongly on the harm done to the
health of our neighbourhood by means of these houses.
The medical officers of the Health Association have, I
think, agreed unanimously on the injurious effect of the
trade. Those who crowd our courts, the passers through
our streets, the little children who see the cruelty, the
cattle who suffer, all want a voice to tell their needs.
It is out of my power to do more than ask your help.
By your means the House of Lords may learn the mean-
ing of an Act which establishes slaughter-houses in the
City. I trust we may not have a law directly injurious
to health passed by a Government whose motto is sanitas
samtatumJ

Mr. Brooke Lambert, late Vicar of St. Mark's, White-
chapel, followed up the preceding letter with these cor-
roborative statements : —

* If any one wishes to know whether the nuisance be
real, let him turn out of the Whitechapel Road at the
entrance to the London and North- Western goods sta-
tion, and pass down the streets leading thence to Man-
sell Street He will then know what the smell of blood
is. And yet he will probably often boldly encounter the
sm^]] of blood in preference to the worse sights he will

SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS, 6i

risk in Whitechapel Road. The carts laden with fresh
skins, the pails full of blood and brains, are sights to
which a long experience does not harden one.'

Another correspondent, with a dash of keener insight
than the others seem to possess, writes : —

* I am quite convinced that all these disgusting sights
and sounds, from which no care can secure our poor
children, are inseparable from the thing itself,*

With this last expression of opinion all logically-
minded persons must concur. In whatever locality the
slaughter-house may be erected, there the noxious odours,
the revolting cruelty, the degrading sights, the unwhole-
some atmosphere, the pathetic cries, the perpetual blood-
shed, and all the attendant accumulation of sickening
horrors will inevitably abound. Nor have men of culture
and education any right to raise an outcry against the
conduct of a trade while daily sustaining themselves on
its produce. Picture the writer of any one of the fore-
going protests, after having despatched his letter to the
* Times ' office, sitting down complacently to enjoy his
slice of sirloin or of saddle of mutton !

And here we come face to face with a momentous
question, supremely interesting from the point of view of
human rights.

Is it morally lawful for cultivated and refined per-
sons to impose upon a whole class of the population a
disgusting, brutalising, and unwholesome occupation,
which is scientifically and experimentally demonstrable
to be not merely entirely needless, but absolutely inimical
to the best interests of the human race ?

Butchers are the Pariahs of the western world ; the
very name itself of their trade has become a synonym for
barbarity, and is used as a term of reproach in speaking
of persons notorious for brutality, coarsen^ss^ ot lo\^ <iC

62 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET.

bloodshed. The common exclamation, ' What a butcher
is So-and-so ! ' in reference to such men, betrays the
horror and reprobation with which are instinctively re-
garded the followers of a trade created and patronised
chiefly by the * refined ' classes !

In the report of a * diseased meat ' case given in the
* Leeds Mercury ' of March 6, 1880, the ensuing passage
occurs : —

* Mr. J. Ellis, President of the Leeds Butchers' Asso-
ciation, stated that there was no disease about the lungs
of the animal at all. Blood had probably been forced
into them by some person jumping on the animal's body
after it had been felled.

* Mr. Bruce : Is it a common practice when a beast is
dying for a person to jump upon it to force the blood out
of it ? Witness : Yes.'

In the course of the celebrated Tichbome case a
certain metropolitan butcher was called to testify to the
claimant's identity. This man averred that employks
in slaughter-houses habitually make use of clogs to avoid
soaking their feet in the pools of blood which continually
inundate the pavements of these places. Really, when
one thinks of these unfortunate and brutalised men,
thus condemned by modem * civilisation ' — Heaven save
the mark ! — to pass their days in the midst of spectacles
and practices so foul and loathsome, taking part daily
in wholesale massacres, and living only to take away life,
it is impossible not to conclude that such men are de-
prived of all chance of becoming themselves civilised,
and are consequently disinherited of their human rights,
and defrauded of their human dignity. And not only
the slaughterers themselves, but all those who are directly
or indirectly associated with this abominable traffic —
cattle-drivers and dealers, meat-salesmen, their appren-

SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS. 63

tices and clerks — all these live in familiar, if not exclu-
sive, contact with practices and sights of the vilest and
most hideous kind ; all these are condemned to the
degradation or suppression of the most characteristic fea-
tures of Humanity.

With people in general the very look and touch of
raw flesh excite a disgust which only a special education
can overcome. So that in the butcher and cook persons
are condemned to work which their employers deem
altogether repulsive. It is absurd to suppose that if
kreophagy were really natural to mankind, the senti-
ments in regard to butchers and their trade, to which
allusion has been made, would find such spontaneous
and universal expression among us. The true carnivora
and omnivora have no horror of dead bodies ; the sight
of blood, the smell of raw flesh, inspires them with no
manner of disgust If all of us, men and women alike,
were compelled to dispense with the offices of a paid
slaughterer and to immolate our victims with our own
hands, the penchant for flesh would not long survive
in polite society. It would be indeed hard to find a man
or woman of the upper or middle classes who would
willingly consent to undertake the butcher's duties, and
go to the cattle-yard armed with pole-axe or knife to fell
an ox or to slit the throat of a sheep or lamb, or even of
a rabbit, for the morrow's repast. On the other hand,
there is no one, however delicately bred or refined, who
would not readily take a basket and gather apples in an
orchard or peaches in a garden, or who, if need should
arise, would object to make a cake or an omelette.

It would, alas ! require many long pages to cite the
innumerable cruelties and sufferings which the gluttony
and luxury of flesh-eating man impose on the innocent
herb-feeders — sufferings which, whatever raac^j ^^'sajislxa

64 THE PERFECT WAY IN r^DIET.

the contrary, are absolutely inevitable and inseparable from
modem European habits of diet. Sufferings by sea and
land, in transit from different ports, by rail and by road,
sufferings in the live-stock markets, in the pens of the
slaughter-houses while waiting their turn for death, suf-
ferings by thirst, starvation, sickness, overcrowding, cold,
heat, mutilation, blows, terror, apprehension, exhaustion,
neglect, to say nothing of the wanton barbarity to which
they are too often subjected, such, under the present hate-
ful and unnatural system, is the woful lot of the patient,
gentle, laborious creatures who should be ploughing our
fields, and yielding us, not their flesh and blood, but
milk and wool and the fruits of their willing toil.

See these details, taken from the report of the
Veterinary Department of the Privy Council for the year
1879. The reporter draws attention to the enormous
losses of American cattle caused by the miseries of the
Transatlantic passage, and the same complaint is re-
iterated in the report for last year.

In 1879, 157 cargoes of Canadian cattle were shipped
for Bristol, Glasgow, Liverpool, and London, in which
total there were 25,185 oxen, 73,913 sheep, and 3,663
pigs. Out of this number 154 oxen, 1,623 sheep, and
249 pigs were thrown into the sea during the passage ; 21
oxen, 226 sheep, and 3 pigs were landed dead ; and 4
oxen and 61 sheep were so wounded and suffering on
arriving that they had to be slaughtered on the spot.

In the same year there were shipped from the United
States for the ports of Bristol, Cardiff, Glasgow, Grimsby,
Hartlepool, Hull, Leith, Liverpool, London, Newcastle-
on-Tyne, South Shields, and Southampton 535 cargoes
of animals, of which 76,117 were oxen, 119,350 sheep,
and 15,180 pigs. Out of this number 3,140 oxen, 5,915
sheep, and 2,943 pigs were cast into the sea during the

SUFFERINGS OF CATTLE. 65

transit ; 221 oxen, 386 sheep, and 392 pigs arrived dead
at the place of landing, and 93 oxen, 167 sheep, and 130
pigs were so mutilated that they had to be sacrificed on
the spot In r'esumty 14,024 animals were thrown into
the sea, 1,240 were landed dead, and 455 were slaughtered
on the quay to save them from dying of their wounds
and sufferings.

A clergyman writes ^ that being on board a vessel
bound from Madagascar with 160 cattle on deck and the
same number in the hold, a storm came on, and the deck
was cleared by throwing the animals into the sea.
Sharks crowded round, tearing the bullocks limb from
limb. The poor creatures charged the vessel in their
efforts to escape, and clambered as far as they were able
up the ship's side, only to fall back again bellowing and
panting into the waves. The sea was red with blood,
and the sight awful to witness. The hatches were
battened down, and all the cattle in the hold were suffo-
cated. Everyone on board was ill from the stench caused
by the corpses. * A friend to whom I told this,' says the
writer, * informed me that once coming from Hamburg
on a ship with 220 sheep on board, 200 were thrown
into the sea, and the remaining twenty were landed more
dead than alive.'

A recent paragraph in the * Daily Telegraph ' says : —
* If certain rumours respecting the intolerable sufferings
to which homed cattle are subjected during their trans-
port from America to this country be founded on fact,
it is high time that the Board of Trade turn its serious
attention to obtaining official protection for the unfortu-
nate creatures doomed to the horrors of a long sea
voyage with the shambles as its goal, in order that Eng-
lish tables may be plentifully supplied with fresh beef.

1 Dietetic Reformer^ 3^^^ i^^o.
F

66 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

Under favourable weather conditions a bullock passes its
time on board ship in a chronic condition of fear and
misery \ but when the winds blow and the vessel rolls
heavily, the agonies it suffers are such that their mere
contemplation might melt a heart of stone. That wilful
torture should be permitted to aggravate the already
unbearable torments to which a severe gale condemns
these wretched beasts appears incredible ; yet we have
been assured that expedients of such dire cruelty that
we forbear from shocking the public by describing them,
are mercilessly put in practice in order to compel oxen,
maddened by sheer physical paitiy to leap overboard when
the movement of the vessel is so violent as to preclude
the possibility of their being dealt with by the crew. It
is a significant fact that, within the last few days, a vessel
which left the shores of America with a cargo of 594
live bullocks arrived in the port of London with only
45 of its homed passengers, the other 549 having perished
in consequence of heavy weather ! '

And, of the land transit of cattle, Mr. Street, agent
of the American Humane Association, writes : —

'The official reports of the different railway com-
panies prove that thousands of animals arrive at
stations dead, and thousands more in a crippled and
tortured condition, with broken limbs and horns. We
have seen ten or twelve drays from morning to noon
hauling away the dead and maimed victims at a single
station. The hogs that have broken backs or limbs are
dragged by their ears and tails to be "loaded'* upon
trucks and hauled to the slaughter-houses. The cattle
in the cars, which cannot rise to their feet, yet are still
alive, are pulled out and left to lie upon the platform
until they are sold to men who buy dead and injured
animals. I have travelled more than 18,000 miles, and

SUFFERINGS OF CATTLE, 67

have visited 1,340 local stations where cattle are col-
lected and shipped. I saw at the Kansas station large
fine-looking oxen which the owner expected to seU for
exportation, that had been confined in small pens for
three days and nights continuously exposed to the hot
sun, and the cold, without food or water. The man in
charge said that he was instructed by the owner to give
them no food or water, as he expected, when tiiey
reached St Louis, to get one hundred pounds or more of
water into each before they were sold and weighed, A
large number of the shippers told us that they never
allowed their cattie to have food or water for at least
twenty-four hours before putting them in the cars, be-
cause cattie kept hungry and thirsty did not incline to
lie down. In the torment of hunger and thirst, however,
the larger beasts often turn restive, and the smaller fall
or lie down and are trampled to death by their fellows/

Mr. Edward Byron Nicholson, M.A., principal
Librarian and Superintendent of the London Institution,
has very lately published an * Essay on Ethics,' in which
the following passage occiu^ : —

* There is no need to see whether the slaughter of a
pig is swift and painless or not But I have watched the
slaughter of oxen and sheep. The animals were kept
waiting some time in a slaughter-house round which (at
least in the case of the sheep) were hung carcases and
skins of their fellows, so that they could hardly have
helped seeing what lay in store for them. The oxen had
to be hauled about with ropes fastened to their heads to
get them into the fit position. Each animal was then
felled with a poleaxe, which did not take away its feeling,
and, while it lay groaning, a piece of wood was worked
round in its brain, I think the sheep's throats were cut
without their being felled. OlVv^i ^'^^'^ ^^^ ^Xasx^issis^

F 2

i

68 THE PERFECT IVA Y IN DIET.

outside in the yard, seeing, and hearing through the wide-
open door the bleats of their dying mates. These are
not at all picked cases : I saw them in the slaughter-
house of one of the largest butchers in a good-sized
town within thirty miles of London.'

Lastly, to terminate evidence which might be almost
indefinitely multiplied, let the reader study the following
extract from the letter of a * Journeyman Butcher ' which
appeared in the * Staffordshu-e Daily Sentinel ' of June 1 7,
1879 : —

*The first lessons a butcher's apprentice generally
receives from the journeyman is how to torture the
animals which are to be slaughtered ; and they are fire-
quently allowed to use the axe before they are well able
to lift it, to the indescribable agony of the poor beast
Again, when a slaughterman is in a hurry to get away he
is not particular about skinning the animal before it is
dead. This I have seen occur daily, where there has
been a large amount of work to be done. I have seen
slaughtermen make bets which would first have five or
ten sheep (as the case might be) killed, skinned, and
hung up. You may depend they were not particular
about them being dead before they commenced to skin.
I have seen cows knocked down and their heads severed
firom the body almost immediately, while the muscles
and the flesh have been quivering. When an animal is
being driven into the slaughter-house it is generally very
restive, in consequence of the blood, etc., it sees about
Then it has to undergo a large amount of kicking on the
legs, tail-twisting, and stands a chance of getting a horn
knocked off. / have seen their eyes hurst and their tails
sawn before they could be got inside. There is another
species of cruelty of a different kind. Animals are fre-
quently brought from a distance and put in the " clemm-

SUFFERINGS OF CATTLE. 69

ing " house for perhaps a couple of days without water or
food, ... I could mention other cruelties that are
frequently practised, but I think this enough to show
the public what is daily occurring in our slaughter-houses.
The society with a long name' (Royal Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) * and the police are
almost powerless, as a deal of slaughtering is done very
early in the morning, and with closed doors, particularly
in the winter.'

The editor of the ' Sentinel ' adds by way of com-
mentary on this naive and rugged epistle : —

' Habit blunts the sensibilities of men who are not
naturally cruel ; and, besides, there are many people who
never realise the fact that " brute beasts " can be made
to suffer at all. People who would look with horror at
the torture of a man, complacently behold the sufiferings
of his poor relations. We are afraid that the pleasures
of the table would be greatly impaired if the guests
knew the whole history of the manner in whidi the
steaming joint or the daintily-served chicken even, had
been prepared for their use. Tis enough to make vege-
tarians of us all even to think of it*

No wonder that with the facts we have recounted
before his eyes, Dr. Richardson, of hygienic fame, at a
recent public congress, expressed his * sincere hope that
before the close of the century, not only would slaughter-
houses be abolished, but that all use of flesh as food
would be absolutely abandoned.' *

And again, in a paper read at a meeting of the
Sanitary Congress, the same well-known lecturer, describ-
ing his Utopian country, * Salut-land,' or *Hygeia,'
said : —

* In the midst of the towns the eye is struck with the

* Dundee Advertiser^ ^^79>

70 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

cultivation of fruit-trees that prevails. The towns of
Salut-land might be called, as ancient Norwich once
was called, the towns or cities of orchards. Throughout
all the country the land is under cultivation of the most
perfect kind for cereal produce and fruit and vegetables.
... A man, woman, or child who for wanton pleasure
should hunt down or torture one of the inferior creatures
would be cast out of society, while the idea of having
dumb animals killed and hung up in open shops to
bleed and be quartered and cooked for human beings
to live on, would be treated with disgust.'

And a * Parish Parson,' in a letter which appeared in
a serial publication for February 1881, siuns up the
butcher and slaughter-house question very fairly and con-
cisely in these words : —

* The moral considerations press us on two sides with
irresistible force. The aggregate of animal suffering in
the cause of the table is simply appalling, and there is
nothing for it but to shut our eyes and ears. The life
of an ox from the pasture to the butcher's shop will npt
bear telling. One night on a cattle-steamer would be
enough for most of us. The table . . . brutalises and
degrades a multitude of men whom society employs and
shuns. ... To the craftsman, the tiller, the market-
dealer any intelligence and virtue is possible. One
might live in a worse place than Covent Garden, and
the booksellers do not seem out of place there, nor chil-
dren in the way of much moral hurt. But the " meat
market 1 " And so all our ideas of life and its dignity
and significance suffer, and our relations to the animals
keep, and must keep, a depressed level. Of course, if
all this is inevitable, it »is. If all this suffering and de-
praving are essential to health and happiness, they must
go on. But of this creed believers dwindle and sceptics

DANGERS OF FLESH-EATING, 71

multiply. The "good dinner" seems likely to be at last
the "scientific frontier" of the question, and when it
comes to that it will be the beginning of the end/

And now let us quit this subject, so briefly glanced at,
of the indirect evils of kreophagy, to examine some of
those direct deplorable effects of the custom, which pre-
sent themselves under the form of various diseases and
cachectic bodily conditions.

These, in the first place, are due to a bad condition
of the flesh-tissue consumed. Now flesh may be ren-
dered bad, and dangerous to the eater, (i) by the exist-
ence in it of parasitic disease ; (2) by other diseases having
during life affected the animal from which it is taken ;
(3) ^y poisons ingested by the animal during life ; (4) by
decomposition of the flesh after death.

Flesh infested by parasites infects the eater of it
almost invariably. The cysticercus celluiosce of the pig
constitutes perhaps the commonest example of this kind
of infection. It appears to be very widespread among
Irish swine, for, according to Professor Gamgee,* from
three to five per cent, of these animals are found to be
infected with this particular malady. The cysticercus
of the bullock and calf is smaller than that of the pig,
and more difficult to discern. Flesh thus affected can-
not be rendered safe food by any process of salting or
smoking; and even the temperature of boiling water,
although it kills the parasite, is only effective when every
particle of the tissue throughout its entire thickness has
been submitted to an equal heat. In the digestive
organs of the man who has the misfortune to eat meat
thus infected, the cysticerci develop into the large tape-
like intestinal worms known as taenia. The cysticercus

1 Fifth Report of the Medical Officer to t\v& Pt\N'^ Cwsm;^»

72 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

of the pig produces the tcenia solium ; that of the ox and
the calf the tcenia medio-canellata.

Yet another form of parasitic disease, known as
trichina spiralis^ exists in butcher's meat, and is more
common in pork than in the flesh of other animals.
This terrible malady was in 1863 the cause of a disas-
trous event in Helstadt, Prussia. A hundred and three
persons, having at one meal partaken of a dish of sausages
made of infected pork, were attacked with trichinosis,
and more than twenty of the sufferers died within a
month. Trichinosis is not uncommon in countries where
pork is largely eaten, especially where it is eaten salted
or smoked. To destroy trichinae a temperature of at
least 212° (Fah.) is needed, and this heat, of course, must
penetrate every atom of the flesh-fibre. The manifesta-
tions of the disease are at first similar to those of t)^hoid
fever ; subsequently atrocious pains make themselves
felt in every muscle of the body ; the patient lies moaning
constantly and unable to extend the limbs on account of
the agony caused by the least movement ; and death
occurs in the midst of symptoms resembling those of
cholera, or of pneumonia or some other inflammatory
disorder. No case is known of a radical cure, for, even
if the unfortunate sufferer escape death, the parasites
encyst themselves, and thus remain indefinitely ijnprisoned
in calcareous envelopes in the muscular tissue.

Besides parasitical diseases, cattle may be affected
by acute malignant diseases, such as rinderpest, pleuro-
pneumonia, anthrax, and simpler inflammatory disorders.
Professor Gamgee's statistics in the report already cited
show that a fifth of the total quantity of flesh-meat con-
sumed is derived from animals killed in a state of
disease, malignant or chronic.

It has been affirmed that little danger attends the

DANGERS OF FLESH-EATING, 73

ingestion of the flesh of such diseased beasts, but a re-
markable case adduced by Mr. Simon in the report to the
Privy Council proves this assertion to be ill-founded. A
heifer on a farm in Aberdeenshire, being somewhat out
of health, was slaughtered by a ploughman and a black-
smith. Part of the animal's flesh was cooked next day
for the dinner of the family, consisting of eleven persons.
Nine of these partook of the meat, and were all soon
seized with such alarming symptoms of poisoning that a
medical man was at once called in. Two of the patients
died. A few days later both the ploughman and the
blacksmith were admitted to the Aberdeen Royal In-
firmary, suffiering from phlegmonous erysipelas of the
arm. The offal of the slaughtered heifer had been cast
on a dung-heap, to which two swine had access. They
ate freely of it, and both were seized with sickness and
died.

A similar case occurred in January 1878, and was
the subject of a coroner's inquiry in West Kent On
the 31st of that month a bullock belonging to a farmer
at Addington was observed lying down, apparently ill, in
its stall. The animal's throat was cut immediately, and
a butcher named Bell, assisted by another man, dressed
the carcase. Some days afterwards Bell complained of
pain in his right arm, which was considerably swollen,
and Dr. Booth, of Beckenham, pronounced the symp-
toms to be those of blood poisoning. Bell gradually
became worse, and died on February 12. It appeared
that at the time of dressing the carcase Bell had two
slight scratches, one on the hand, the other on the arm.
It was supposed that the bullock had been suffering from
cattle disease, and that the abrasions of his skin had
allowed some of the animal's vitiated blood to enter his
system. The bailiff" whp cut the bullock's throaty and in

74 THE PERFECT WAY- IN DIET,

I

doing so got some of its blood sprinkled over him, was
attacked about the same time as Bell with similar symp-
toms, but in his case medical treatment proved success-
ful. The man who had assisted Bell in flaying the car-
case was also affected with pain and indisposition. About
a week afterwards, a pig which had been in the farm-
yard was found dead, and it is thought it may have been
killed by eating the offal or blood of the dead bullock. Mr.
Hill, the owner of the animal, and his bailiff denied that pre-
viously to the bullock's death there had been any indi-
cation whatever of disease among the cattle on the farm.^

Sir Robert Christison, M.D., asserts positively that the
flesh and secretions (milk included) of animals affected
with carbuncular disease analogous to anthrax, are so
poisonous that those alike who handle and who partake
of them are apt to suffer severely, the disease taking the
form either of inflammation of the digestive canal, or of
an eruption of one or more large carbuncles. Dr. Living-
stone also, in his * Missionary Travels and Researches in
South Africa,' speaks of malignant carbuncle — anthrax —
occurring as a result of eating the flesh of diseased
animals.

In the spring of 1841, four members of a family, after
having partaken of a sheep affected with an ordinary
cattle disorder, were attacked with symptoms of severe
irritant poisoning, and one of them died in less than three
hours. A labourer at Horsham and two of his children
died in June 1844 from eating flesh similarly vitiated.
During the month of April 1879, a Zurich tribunal was
occupied for three days with a case in which a butcher
and an innkeeper were charged with the sale of veal from
calves suffering with typhus. The meat was consumed by
the members of a choral society, six of whom died, while

1 Daily Telegraph.

DANGERS OF FLESH-EATING. 75

six hundred and forty-three suffered more or less
severely.

Dr. A. Carpenter, speaking before the Sanitary Con-
gress already mentioned, said that he had heard an agent
of the police, Inspector of the Metropolitan Meat Market,
assert upon oath, that eigl^ty per cent, of the flesh meat
sent to the London market is affected with tubercular
disease ; and he added that to exclude such meat from
the trade would leave the public without a meat supply !

Again, ruminants, and still more often rabbits and
hares, may during life consume some vegetable or other
substance of a poisonous nature, and their flesh may thus
be rendered dangerous as food for man. It is worthy of
remark that certain animals may themselves eat with im-
punity herbs or fruits, and yet after death set up symptoms
of poisoning of a violent character in the human consumer
of their flesh. In the * Edinburgh Medical and Surgical
Journal* (July 1844) it is observed, that *in America
there are certain regions extending for many miles in
length and breadth, on the herbage of which, if an ani-
mal feeds, its milk and flesh acquire poisonous properties,
yet itself enjoying tolerable health.' The flesh of rodents
fed upon belladonna, or rhododendron chrysanthemum,
which these animals eat without injury to themselves, is
undoubtedly dangerous to the life of the consumer.

We come next to the disastrous effects produced by
the ingestion of flesh-meat in a tainted or partly decom-
posed condition ; effects which are frequently observed
and therefore well-known. Their symptomatology is that
of gastro-enteritis (inflammation of the stomach and in-
testine), often accompanied by fever and sometimes very
severe. * Death not infrequently terminates these cases.
In the brief space of d^ fortnight, occurring in the month

I Cbristison,

I

76 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET

of October 1879, the quantity of putrefied butcher's meat
seized by the police in the London Central Meat Market
amounted to seven and a half tons, besides three tons of
hams, bacon, and tongues also declared * unfit for human
food.' * If this be the state of affairs in one particuUr
market, the quantity of putrid flesh which finds its way
into the hands of consumers in places where no such
strict supervision is maintained, must,' says the * Edin-
burgh Evening News,' * be something enormous.' Statis-
tics on this subject are common in all the daily papers,
and it is not worth while to crowd these pages by repro-
ducing them.

Animal-meat may thus directly engender many pain-
ful, loathsome, and fatal disorders. Nor is it less demon-
strable that it is also in a less direct manner, the origin of
a vast number of maladies and pathological diatheses.
Scrofula itself, that fecund source of suffering, deformity,
and death, not improbably owes its origin to kreophagite
habits. It is curious that the root of the word scrofula is
scrofa—di sow. To say that a person is scrofulous is then
to say that he has the swings evil. We know how com-
mon is the use of pork among all classes of our popula-
tion, and especially among the poor. Bacon, sausages,
and lard are components of almost every meal of the
lower and middle classes, both in town and coimtry.^

Of all the ultimate manifestations of the strumous or
scrofulous diathesis — of which almost everybody in our
part of the world bears traces in some form — tubercidar
phthisis is at once the commonest and the deadliest. Dr.
Buchan observes that this malady, so prevalent in Eng-
land, appears to be due to the excessive use of animal

1 The Jews, according to Dr. Richardson, appear to enjoy remark-
ably fine and regular health ; the duration of life among them exceeds
by a fourth or fifth that of every E-utopean h^lUoil.

TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 77

food, and advises that * when there is a tendency to con-
sumption in the young, it should be counteracted by
strictly adhering to a diet of the farinacea and ripe fruits.
Animal food and fermented liquors ought to be rigidly
prohibited.' This opinion coincides exactly with that of
Dr. Lamb, who expresses his own views in almost identical
terms. Drs. Bannister (United States) and Pemberton
are also partisans of the treatment of scrofula, and all
strumous manifestations, by a diet of milk, farinacea, and
strict exclusion of all flesh-foods. The following case is
recorded by Dr. Knight, of Truro : —

*Two years ago I was applied to by Mrs. A

affected with scrofulous ulceration of the left breast. The
ulcer was then the size of a half-dollar, and discharging a
considerable quantity of imperfect pus. The axillary
glands were much enlarged, and, doubting the practic-
ability of operating with the knife in such cases, I told her
the danger of her complaint, and ordered her to subsist
upon bread and milk and fruit, to drink water, and keep the
body of as uniform a temperature as possible. I ordered
the sore to be kept clean by ablutions of tepid water. In
less than three months the ulcer was healed, and her
general health much improved. The axillary glands are
still enlarged, though less so than formerly ; she still lives
simply and enjoys good health, but tells me that if she
takes flesh-meat, it produces " twinging " in the old sore.'
In the * Lancet' for May 14, 1842, is recorded the fol-
lowing case of complete cure of severe strumous ulcera-
tion in a child three years of age, by Mr. Rowbotham of
Stockport : — ' The little son of Mr. Fielding of that town
had been ill eighteen months. He was covered from
head to foot with ulcers ; his eyes, nose, ears, mouth,
and, in fact, his whole head and face, were involved in
one complete mass of fetid running sores and ulcers \ and

78 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DTET^

the lower part of his body was in a similar condition, so>
that the thighs seemed almost separating from the body^
For more than twelve months the boy had been quite
blind ; and had never been able to sit down, eVen on a
pillow, but stood, and leaned with his elbow on his nurse,
except at times when he was able to kneel on a pillow ;
he had scarcely been able to lie in bed for the same
period. Eight of the most eminent medical men had
declared the case hopeless, and some thought that it was
not even capable of amelioration. " From certain views
which I held on the origin of disease," says Mr. Row-
botham, " I was induced to recommend a diet consist-
ing almost entirely of ripe fruits, and honey, sugar, or
treacle. The child commenced this diet on September
13, 1 841 ; he had stewed fruits, mixed with sugar or
honey, at all his meals, and was allowed frequently to eat
grapes, cherries, plums, apples, pears, and such other fruits
as could be obtained. On the i6th, the sores on his
back were beginning to heal ; on the 23rd he was sen-
sibly improved ; on the 30th one half of his face was clear ;
the lower parts of his body were much better, and he
could sit in a chair and lie comfortably in bed. He con-
tinued daily to improve, till at last his eyes opened, but
they were at first very weak, and he could scarcely see
anything; his sight however, gradually improved. On
January i, 1842, not a single ulcer remained on his body;
the skin became remarkably clear and fair ; and the fea-
tures — which, for twelve months, had been in such a state
that it was impossible to do more than guess at the posi-
tion of the nose and eyes — were restored to their wonted
appearance." ' ^

1 Dr. Abernethy, the celebrated Scotch surgeon of the last centiny,

gSLWc it as his opinion that all * animal substances become changed in

the economy into a putrid, abomma\Ae, ai^d acTv^L ^WxavaJwa.' "VN\«thfir

TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 79

Dr. Pavy ^ thinks that a regimen rich in carbo-
hydrates would be the most suitable in cases of tuber-
cular diathesis, and observes that the want of these
substances is probably a main cause of the development
of tubercle. Now, we know that the carbo-hydrates are
contained solely in the products of the vegetable kingdom,
and particularly in fruits. With regard to the action of
hydro-carbons (fatty bodies) in scrofula, Dr. Pavy inclines
to look on them as absolutely indispensable. Since
experience shows the beneficial eflfects of these sub-
stances, systematically .employed, in scrofulous and
tubercular diathesis, it is only reasonable to infer, says
Dr. Pavy, that a measure which proves efficacious in
removing an unhealthy condition would also tend to
prevent its development. Notwithstanding the plain
inference of such wise observation, we see daily in our
hospitals, and often in private practice, tuberculous
patients undergoing a disgusting and unwholesome
* treatment' by r^w meat^ on the pretext that this sub-
stance is more easily and rapidly assimilated than any
other kind of food. It is true that this is the case ; but
what is the reason and what the effect of this rapid
assimilation ?

The reason is that the dissolution of flesh takes place
wholly in the stomach, and consequently its digestion is
soon accomplished ; the effect is the production of that

this view be scientifically correct or not, it is incontestable that excre-
ments resulting from the ordinary mixed diet have a highly offensive
fcetor which, in the case of a purely vegetable alimentation, becomes a
hardly perceptible odour. It may be added that the strength of this
effluvium increases with the amount of animal food ingested. The
same remark, other things being equal, applies to the breath. How
often have I immediately diagnosed a great eater of flesh by no other
sign than the odour of the exhalation of his lungs !
1 Treatise on Food,

1

J

8o THE PERFECT IVA Y IM DIET,

condition * of general excitation peculiar to diffusible
stimulants, to which attention has already been called in
these pages — an excitation whose ultimate result can
only be to precipitate the manifestation of the hectic
fever which is the chief characteristic of tuberculous
cachexia, and which the physician ought, on the con-
trary, to combat as determinedly and as long as possible.*
Besides, in such cases, as Dr. Pavy well remarks, a
highly nitrogenised alimentation, once assimilated and
passed into the organism, becomes even more injurious
from another point of view. It gives rise, in fact, as we
shall presently see, to the formation of products which
require for their elimination a very considerable amount
of labour on the part of the kidneys — labour which ought,
in cases of inflammatory disease, to be avoided. The
carbo-hydrates and the fatty substances, on the contrary,
impose no work on these organs ; the products of their
utilisation, consisting of water and carbonic acid, leave
the organism by other channels. The now well-known
experiments of Lehmann on himself, and of Messrs.
Lawes and Gilbert upon cattle, show that the proportion
of urea in the urine is in direct ratio to the quantity of
nitrogenised food consumed.

While subsisting on an exclusively animal diet,
Lehmann eliminated in twenty-four hours 53*2 grammes
(820 grains) of urea ; on an exclusively vegetable diet,
2 2 '5 grammes (347 grains) of urea were eliminated; on
a mixed diet, 32*5 grammes (501 grains); and, finally,
upon a diet composed solely of non-nitrogenous sub-

1 Dr. Austin Flint {Experiments and Reflections upon Animal Heat)

thinks that if the excessive heat of fever be partly due to excessive oxy-

dation of hydrogen, the exhaustion and loss of substance thus caused

might be moderated by the ingestion of hydrogen under the form of

fatty, starchy, and sugary matters.

TREATMENT OF DISEASE, 8i

Stances — hydro-carbons and starchy matter — only 15-4
grammes (237 grains) of urea were eliminated in tiiie
twenty-four hours. These figures are calculated upon
an average of twelve observations in each case. Leh-
mann affirms that five-sixths of the nitrogen contained in
ingested aliments pass into the urine under the form of
urea. For instance, having absorbed 30*16 grammes of
nitrogen a day, 25 grammes of it were excreted in urea
during the twenty-four hours. According to these data
it follows that ingested nitrogenous matter must undergo
in the economy certain metamorphoses of which urea
represents the ultimate result. That these metamor-
phoses take place with great rapidity is demonstrated not
only by Lehmann's experience, but by analogous experi-
ments conducted by Dr. Parkes upon two soldiers.
Lehmann asserts further, that animal food raises the pro-
portion of fibrine contained in the blood, and we know
that during inflammatory processes this element exists in
it to a large extent, especially in acute rheumatism and
pneumonia, ten parts of fibrine per thousand having been
found in the blood in cases of the former, and six or
nine per thousand in cases of the latter malady — the
normal proportion being three per thousand parts. And
whenever, in the course of a disorder of another nature,
an inflammatory process is set up in any organ, the same
phenomenon is observable.*

It may perhaps be objected that as the residue of a
hydro-carbonaceous and carbo-hydraceous alimentation
(the ultimate action of the last being identically the same
as that of the fatty substances) is eliminated chiefly by
the skin, such a dietary might, by increasing the patho-
logical sweats, prove injurious in phthisical cases. Let
it be observed in reply that these sweatings are really due

* Andral and Gavarrel,
G

82 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

to the ingestion, not of hydro-carbons, but of nitrogenised
matter, for these last, by the rapidity with which their
assimilation is accomplished, and by the stimulating
action they set up, kindle and accelerate feverish action,
and that the febrile access ceases as soon as the sweats
appear, for by their agency Nature relieves herself of the
toxic element It is then by the skin that the fever is
eliminated, and a sweat not provoked by feverish process
cannot be dangerous to the consumptive patient, but
might rather, for rationale and mode of action, though
in a far milder degree, be compared to the Turkish
bath, to the beneficial effect of which in cases of tuber-
cular diathesis frequent testimony has been borne.

These facts explain also why the ordinary mixed
food is less suitable than a i4iilk and vegetable diet to the
treatment of chronic nephritis.

In the case of a mixed alimentation the greater por-
tion of the solid matter contained in the urine is com-
posed of the nitrogenised products of the flesh-substances
ingested. Now, when any particular organ of the body
is ailing, it appears reasonable to diminish as much as
possible the amount of work imposed on it, and, adopt-
ing this view, we may hope, by the use of a vegetable
regimen, avoiding of course all such strongly protein-
aceous food as beans, lentils, etc., to succeed in formu-
lating a wise dietary treatment of Bright's disease.
Semola, a physician of Naples, proscribes in this malady
all nitrogenous aliments, and advises an exclusively fecu-
lent regimen.* Besides, and from another point of view,
bearing in mind the relation between certain alimentary
compounds and the production of urea, we ought also in
Bright's disease to guard against the ingestion of nitro-
genous and quickly assimilable substances, which, by

^ Dr. Rendu's Etudes des Nephrites CAroniques, i88o.

TREATMENT OF DISEASE. 83

giving rise to copious and rapid formation of urea, may
hasten the manifestation of uraemia.

There is yet another diathesis, the most appropriate
and complete treatment of which consists in the prohi-
bition of all flesh-meats. I speak of gouty diathesis.
One of the effects of animal alimentation is to provoke
a condition of acidity of the urine, while the use of vege-
table diet renders it alkaline. The ordinary reaction
of human urine is acid, and it is customary to call this
the normal reaction, because it is that which is met with
almost exclusively among populations nourished on a
mixed diet. But the reaction becomes neutral or alka-
line when the use of animal food is abandoned, and with
the acidity disappear also the concretions, which, in
accumulating, constitute lithiasis.^ The quality of the
ingesta has then an enormous influence on the produc-
tion of gravel ; and we know that uric acid, the presence
of which in excess constitutes the essential character of
uric lithiasis and of gout, results from the imperfect
combustion of nitrogenous matters, for these, being in-
completely oxydised, form uric acid instead of the urea
which would be normally produced We must then
expect to find in persons addicted to the ingestion of
large quantities of animal food, an excess of uric acid,
and consequently a tendency to gout, calculi, and ne-
phretic colic. In order, therefore, to escape the develop-
ment of these disorders, so often hereditary, as well as to
treat them when already manifested, a vegetable diet is
distinctly indicated.^

1 Claude Bernard's experiments on himself.

' Dr. Prout goes still further ; he likens the lithiac diathesis to that
of scrofula, and alleges that both are the expression of the presence in
excess, or of the lack of power to assimilate, the nitrogenous element.
According to him, gouty concretions are but a modification of phthisic
tubercle.

G 2

84 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

Dr. Craigie, in his * Elements of the Practice of
Physic,' says : — * A diet consisting of bread and milk or
rice and milk, or the flour of farinaceous seeds and
milk, is quite adequate to prevent the formation of the
gouty diathesis, and to extinguish that diathesis, if al-
ready formed. Such diet is also adequate to prevent the
disease from appearing in its irregular form, and aflfecting
the brain and its membranes, or the heart and lungs.
If further arguments were required in proof of the posi-
tion that milk and grain diet (not in large quantity), or
diet of boiled vegetables and milk, while both necessary
and adequate to the cure of gout, is perfectly safe, and
much less injurious than diet of animal food, they may
be found in the facts observed in the physiological rela-
tion between the stomach on the one hand and the lungs
on the other.'

Dr. CuUen entertains the same opinion ; and Dr.
Cheyne informs us that the Prince of Condd was cured
of obstinate gout by the adoption of a regimen excluding
all forms of fish, flesh, and wine.

According to Dr. Cullen, not only gout, but rheuma-
tism^ should properly be treated by tlie same method,
for he adds that the cure of this latter malady requires
in the first place an antiphlogistic regimen, and particu-
larly total abstinence fi-om animal food — a statement
which seems reasonable enough when viewed in con-
nection with the facts noted by Lehmann in regard to
the increase in the quantity of fibrine in the blood under
an animal regimen, for we have seen that this element
tends to augment enormously in rheumatism.

Diabetes mellitus is a disease in the treatment of
which it has become classic to prescribe an almost exclu-
sively flesh-meat diet, as being the only one which con-
tains no carbo-hydrates. But it must be remembered

Treatment of disease. ^^

that, whatever regimen may be adopted, the urine of the
diabetic patient will continue to contain sugar — a fact
which in itself suffices to prove that the presence of
sugar in the urine is but a symptom of a disease having
its cause in a morbid condition which probably existed
a long time before its manifestation. In what then did
this morbid condition consist ? Here is a problem which
has never yet been satisfactorily solved. The origin of
diabetes has been thought to be associated with a
degenerescence, or an organic or functional alteration of
the pneumogastric nerves ; and it appears from observa-
tions made on diabetic patients that the first manifesta-
tion of the disease is preceded by gastric phenomena
indicating a pathological condition of the stomach, and
default or alteration of its digestive secretion. Now, as
we have seen, dyspepsia and gastritis constitute an
indication for the suspension of a stimulative and highly
nitrogenous diet ; and it is probable that the adoption of
treatment directed on this principle in the early stage of
the morbid condition, would suffice, particularly in cases
not hereditary in origin, to prevent serious results, al-
though it could not be hoped by such means to cure the
disease in an advanced state. But when already sugar
exists in large quantities in the urine, can a cure be ex-
pected by means of the exclusive use of flesh-food?
No ; whatever may be the course adopted, the patient
will die of his complaint sooner or later. Diabetes, once
passed into the cachectic stage, resembles all other
cachectic conditions, and it is only in the initial stages
of organic disease that science can really efficaciously
interfere. To prevent the manifestation of the diathesis,
or to arrest it before it becomes cachexia, these are the
real functions of medicine. It is powerless to arrest a pro-
cess of death already half accomigiV\s\v^^, ^>aX^'^ v:aS^^^

86 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

upon too late to treat the preliminary symptoms ; if our
aid be sought when already the ingestion of farinaceous
food and fruits would be injurious and even directly dan-
gerous, ought we, from a purely medical point of view,
to advise the use of lean flesh-meat, after the old classic
example ? No again, for only recently ' a more excellent
way ' has been provided by the researches and experience
of Dr. Donkin, and by others who have followed his theory
and practice. The diabetic patient dies of inanition \
he must therefore be nourished by some form of food
which is able to resist the morbid action of the liver.
This desideratum appears to have been found by Dr.
Donkin, and it consists of skimmed milL He reports
several cases of recovery obtained by means of its ex-
clusive use, in a few of which the disease had already
made no inconsiderable progress. Dr. Donkin demon-
strates that fatty albuminous matters are always incapable
of being assimilated in advanced diabetes, but that lac-
tose and the caseine of milk deprived of its creamy part
are not subject ta pathological alteration. Repeated ex-
perience, he says, has convinced him by conclusive proof
that the sugar, having, under a regimen of skimmed
milk totally disappeared from the urine, will show itself
afresh immediately after the ingestion of either flesh-meat
or cream. The nutritive principles of skimmed milk are
lactose and caseine. Caseine, itself a nitrogenised sub-
stance, is much less apt to be converted into sugar than
any other aliment of the same nature. Lactose never
lends itself to the action of diabetes. Those who, with
Dr. Davy, think that lactose must be injurious to diabetic
patients, because it constitutes a form of sugar, are not
aware of its real characteristics. The chemical proper-
ties and physiological relations of lactose differ entirely
from diabetic sugar, and from every other form of glu-

TREATMENT OF DISEASE, ' 87

cose. It does not undergo alcoholic fermentation; but
its lactic fermentation takes place in the stomach in the
presence of caseine. The amelioration of the health, the
restoration of the forces, and the fact that the sugar dis-
appears from the urine under Dr. Donkin's regimen,
suffice to prove that the constituent elements of skimmed
milk are well assimilated by diabetic patients. The
painful symptoms and the weakness begin to pass away
almost directly after the institution of the treatment ; and
in ordinary cases the sugar disappears from the urine
after about two weeks' observance of Dr. Donkin's regi-
men ; and in more refractory cases, after about six weeks*. ^
Abstinence from flesh-food has also been found an
extremely successful measure in dealing with the terrible
complaint called epilepsy. Many theories have from time
to time been suggested in explanation of the source and
rationale of epileptic seizures, and of these the most se-
ductive appears to be the recently formulated hypothesis
of Dr. Hughlings-Jackson, who regards the attack as
the result of nervous irritability suddenly exploded, so to
speak, by an agency acting either from within or without the
system, and, as by an instantaneous electric discharge,
occasioning the cry, the fell, and accompanying charac-
teristic phenomena of the disease. The fact that no
lesion of other than accidental nature is found in the
brains of epileptic patients, even when they have suc-
cumbed in the midst of an attack, seems evidence that
the disease is of a functional and not of an organic
nature ; and experience has amply demonstrated that
the nervous disturbance is liable to occur as the result of
any exciting or stimulating action in the system. Re-
gard for actual facts, as well as inductive reasoning, leads

' "^ Onthe Relation between Diabetes and Food, and its application to
the Treatment o/the Disease^ by Arthur ScoXX "DotCaixv, \^.\i.^ "^IV

88 ' THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

to the conviction that epilepsy, and its kindred disorders
usually classed under the wide-reaching term * hysteria,'
ought to be treated by an absolute privation of all stimu-
lating foods and drinks, and a persistent dietary of the
farinacea, milk, fruits, and the more easily digestible
vegetables, avoiding those of the ' stringy ' or fibrous
order.

Dr. North (U.S.) relates the case of a brother phy-
sician, who, being subject to severe attacks of epilepsy,
adopted a regimen excluding all fish, flesh, ani fowl for
two years and a half, and during that time remained free
fi:om any attack. Dr. Hayward (U.S.) gives, in his
lectures, the case of a young man who, suffering habitu-
ally from severe epilepsy, was persuaded to try a vegetable
diet, and was very shortly relieved of his malady. Some
time afterwards he ate freely of flesh-meat at a convivial
dinner, and was immediately thrown into a violent attack.
A strict adherence to a mild diet again brought immunity
fi:om seizures.

Dr. Cheyne also records a remarkable cure of epilepsy
in the case of Dr. Taylor, who was for a long time dread-
fully afflicted with this complaint. He consulted all the
most eminent of his medical confreres in and about
London, but obtained no relief. At last it occurred to
him to discontinue the use of all animal meats, and in
the course of a year or two he was, by this regimen,
completely cured of the disorder.

Only last year the following interesting, observations
on cases of the same complaint were published by Dr.
George Lade : —

'Miss A , aged twenty-three, had suffered for

nearly two years from slight epileptic attacks, accom-
panied by some uterine and hysterical symptoms, when
she was brought to me for advice. The epileptic

TREATMENT OF DISEASE, 89

seizures occurred about once a week, sometimes oftener,
mostly in the early part of the day. I prescribed such
remedies as appeared to me to be indicated, and changed
them from time to time as occasion, or as disappointment
at their inaction, demanded ; but eighteen months' per-
sistent pursuance of the treatment failed to effect any
notable impression upon the features of the case. I
then decided to abandon all medicines, and to try what
a complete change of diet would do. I advised the
patient to discontinue the use of fish and animal food,
and to live entirely upon fruits and vegetables, with a
moderate allowance of butter, eggs, and milk. For
breakfast I suggested fruit, oatmeal porridge, bread and
milk; for dinner, vegetables, fruit, brown bread, and
farinaceous puddings ; for supper a similar fare to that
of breakfast ; no beverage but water or milk-and-water.
A very decided improvement was manifested in a few
weeks, and went on steadily until the patient was con-
sidered cured The dietetic treatment was adopted
in October 1876, and at this date, November lo, 1877,
I am assured that the patient has continued free from all
epileptic symptoms for nearly five months. . . . Whether
she continues to enjoy immunity from her late trouble,
and still fiirther improve in her general health, remains
to be seen ; but, be the result what it may, she declares
she is fully resolved to adhere to the plain and unstimu-
lating dietary, which she finds both agreeable and satis-
fying.

* I lately placed a young man, suffering in a similar
way, upon a vegetable diet, and six weeks afterwards I
was informed that the attacks were less frequent.'

Before quitting this part of our subject a few words
should be said with regard to the disastrous influence
exercised directly and indireclly \s^ \5w^ \is»^ ^S. '«s^cs?KiJs.

90 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

food on all forms of disease of the liver. Nothing is
commoner to witness than attacks of catarrhal icterus,
or active liver congestion, in great meat-eaters ; and we
know that catarrh of the biliary passages brings about
hepatic colics by directly causing decomposition of the
cholate of soda contained in the bile, and thereby pre-
cipitating the cholesterine, which forms the greater part
of the pathologic concretions known as gall-stones. The
more or less grave affections of the liver, from which so
many Europeans suffer in India, China, etc, are due
quite as much to the stimulating and over-nitrogenised
character of their diet, as to the influence of climate.

It is necessary to allude only to the treatment of scurvy.

Strabo is the first author who mentions this disease,
which appears to have broken out for the first time in his
knowledge during the Roman decadence — a fact in itself
significative. The classic treatment in all cases of scor-
butic manifestations, whether sporadic or epidemic, con-
sists, as everybody knows, in the administration of firesh
fruits and vegetables.

It would be a never-ending task to cite all the in-
stances at my command of various cases of cure or of
amelioration of disease and morbid diatheses of all kinds
by the use of a vegetable and milk regimen. Perhaps, in
concluding this portion of my work it may be well to in-
form my readers that I present in my own person a suffi-
ciently striking example of the beneficial effects of the
Pythagorean system of diet, to which, indeed, I doubt not
that I owe my life, my health, and the vital force I con-
tinue to enjoy. While occupied in a laborious six years*
study of my profession at the £cole de Mtdedne of Paris, I
overcame many obstacles and trials, physical and moral,
rendered specially hard by the artificial disabilities of my
sex, and. by a variety of personal circumstances. Indeed,

TREATMENT OF DISEASE, gi

the difficulties in my case were such as would, I believe,
have proved insurmountable to most persons even of
robust health and physique. I, moreover, am not only bur-
dened with an hereditary tendency to phthisis, but have
been actually treated for a somewhat severe manifestation
of the disease, and am, besides, of an extremely sensi-
tive and nervous temperament. That under all these
adverse conditions I have been enabled to attain satis-
factorily the end of my student's course, I owe probably in
great part to the simple, pure, and unexciting diet which for
a period of ten years I have uninterruptedly maintained.

In the 'Univers lUustr^' of March 26, 1876, Dr.
Decaisne, writing on the subject of Lenten abstinence,
affirms that many maladies are attributable to the abuse
of flesh-food, and to the deplorable habits of diet to
which parents usually accustom their children. Quoting
Pdre Debreyne, physician to La Grande-Trappe, he states
that the regimen of the Trappist monks, erroneously be-
lieved to be detrimental to health and longevity, is, on
the contrary, most beneficial in its effects. During a
period of twenty-seven years, he has not, in this com-
munity, met with a single case of apoplexy, aneurism,
dropsy, gout, gravel, or cancer. Cholera has never en-
tered any house of the Order, even when the disease was
making great ravages in the immediate vicinity of the
monastery. It is notorious that no epidemic ever crosses
the Trappist threshold. ... * Is not this calm and peace-
ful life,' continues Dr. Decaisne, * a most striking con-
demnation of our sensuality, of our intemperance, our
disorders, and our passions, which destroy in us so often
the very principles of life ? '

And the hygienist Fonssagrives, of Montpellier, writes
as follows, on the same subject : —

* Are not our peasants of Corr^zc and Bretagne, Py-

92 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

thagoreans, of necessity, though not of conviction ? And
is their health less robust than that of their town compa-
triots, who, close by, gorge themselves with flesh-meat?
... * I have studied the effects of this Pythagorean
method of life upon the Trappists, and found them to
enjoy good health and uncommon length of life.'*

With regard to epidemic infection, innumerable sta-
tistics exist to prove the immunity from such visitations
enjoyed by habitual abstainers from flesh and its almost
invariable accompaniment, fermented drink. Among
many similar examples, we find the case of Dr. Rush,
cited in the * Medical and Surgical Journal' of Edin-
burgh. This gentleman, during a frightful epidemic of
yellow fever in Philadelphia, preserved his health and
energy unimpaired by confining himself to diet consisting
of vegetables, grain, and milk, excluding animal flesh in
every shape.

Nothing is more remarkable, from this point of view,
than the experience of the famous hygienist Sylvester
Graham, who, during the New York visitation of cholera
in the year 1832, persuaded a considerable number of the
citizens — in direct opposition to general medical advice —
to abstain rigorously from all flesh-meats and alcoholic
drinks, and to restrict themselves entirely to a vegetable
diet. * It is,' says Mr. Graham, * an important fact that
of all who followed the prescribed regimen, not one fell a
victim to the disease, and very few had the slightest
symptoms of an attack.'

Drs. Pollard, Rees, and Tappan, who also, during the
same epidemic, prescribed a similar dietary for their
clients, had the satisfaction to see all of them, without
exception, preserve excellent health in the midst of the
universal suffering and death which surrounded them.*

^ Z?/c^. * SmVlYia FruiU and Farinac<a.

J^CON'OMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. ' 93

We now approach a new aspect of our many-sided
subject, an aspect certainly not less interesting than those
already examined, and aflfecting on one hand the Nation,
on the other the Individual. I speak of. Economy.

Let us see first how it affects the Nation.

In the face of the ever rapidly increasing tide of
population, a population which doubles its numbers every
fifty-six years, no questions can be of greater interest to
the political economist than those relating to the nature
and cost of the national food-supply. Mr. Greg in his
* Enigmas of Life ' makes the following observations, which,
although involving the extreme hypothesis of a wholly
carnivorous diet as opposed to one wholly graminivor-
ous, are nevertheless thoroughly sensible and to the
purpose : —

* There is one mode in which the amount of human
existence sustainable on a given area, and therefore
throughout the chief portion of the habitable globe, may
be almost indefinitely increased, i,e, by a substitution of
vegetable for animal food. A given acreage of wheat will
feed at least ten times as many men as the same acreage
employed in growing mutton. It is usually calculated
that the consumption of wheat by an adult is about one
quarter per annum, and we know that good land pro-
duces four quarters. Let us even assume that a man
living on grain would require two quarters a year ; still
one acre would support two men. But a man living on
(flesh) meat would need three pounds a day, and it is
considered a liberal calculation if an acre spent in graz-
ing sheep and cattle yields in mutton or beef more than
fifty pounds on an average — the best farmer in Norfolk
having averaged ninety pounds ; but a great majority of
farms in Great Britain only reach twenty pounds. On
these data, it would require twenty-two acres of ^a&tvite

94 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

land to sustain one adult person living on meat (alone).
It is obvious that in view of the adoption of vegetable
diet, there lies the indication of a vast possible increase in
the population sustainable on a given area.'

Reflections such as these had begun to press on the
minds of politicians more than a century ago, about which
time we find the well-known theological essayist Dr.
Paley, writing thus in his ' Principles of Moral and Poli-
tical Philosophy : ' —

* So far as the state of population is governed and
limited by the quantity of provision, perhaps there is no
single cause that affects it so powerfully as the kind and
quality of food which chance or usage hath introduced
into a country. In England, notwithstanding the produce
of the soil has been of late considerably increased by the
enclosure of wastes, and the adoption, in many places, of
a more successful husbandry, yet we do not observe a
corresponding addition to the number of inhabitants, the
reason of which appears to me to be the more general
consumption of animal food amongst us. Many ranks of
people whose ordinary diet was, in the last century, pre-
pared almost entirely from milk, roots, and vegetables,
now require every day a considerable portion of the flesh
of animals. Hence a great fart of the richest lands of the
country are converted to pasturage. Much also of the
bread-corn, which went directly to the nourishment of
human bodies, now only contributes to it by fattening the
flesh of sheep and oxen. The mass and volume of provi-
sions are hereby diminished \ and what is gained in the
amelioration of the soil is lost in the quality of the
produce. This consideration teaches us that tillage, as an
object of national care and encouragement, is universally
preferable to pasturage, because the kind of provision
which it yields goes much faillvei m live sustentation of

ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 95

human life. Tillage is also recommended by this addi-
tional advantage, that it affords employment to a much
more numerous peasantry, ... If we measure the quan-
tity of provision by the number' of human bodies it will
support in due health and vigour, this quantity, the
extent and quality of the soil' from which it is raised
being given, will depend greatly upon the kind. For
instance, a piece of ground capable of supplying animal
food sufficient for the subsistence of ten persons, would
sustain at least the double of that number with grain, roots ,
and milk^

A paper entitled * Food Thrift,' from the pen of Dr.
Richardson in ' Modern Thought ' for July 1880, contains
the following words : —

* Under a mere bagatelle of pressure, less than such
an extreme pressure as is above suggested (hostile
blockade), England would in a short time be convulsed
politically, not from actual deficiency of supply, but from
the diflference of ability on the part of the consumers
to lay by stores of supply. A sharp demand, a panic, the
few rich would practically buy up the multitudinous poor,
and then, when the multitude hungered, or even fancied
it hungered, would come the crash. ... If produce be
shared unequally and savagely, some must die of want by
necessity. Shared equally and with love, none need die
of want anywhere, neither in the coldest nor most
unfruitful region, except by accident or self-disregard.'
Speaking of emigration. Dr. Richardson adds : — * It is the
fittest for work and for earning who leave our shores —
the unfittest for work, the luxurious, and the least powerful
remain. Thus the drain on the first processes of national
permanent prosperity is that which is opened by emigra-
tion, and is that which is exhausting the heart of the
Commonwealth. . . . We really ought to consider the

96 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET

question of utilising, on a large scale, all vegetables
which, in nutrient value, stand above animal products.
We have also to learn, as a first truth, the truth that the
oftener we go to the vegetable world for our food, the
oftener we go to the first, and, therefore, to the cheapest
source of supply. The commonly accepted notion that
when we eat animal flesh we are eating food at its prime
source cannot be too speedily dissipated, or too speedily
replaced by the knowledge that there i^ no primitive
form of food — albuminous, starchy, osseous — in the animal
world itself, and that all the processes of catching an
inferior animal, or of breeding it, rearing it, keeping it,
dressing it, and selling it, mean no more nor less than
entirely additional expenditure throughout for bringing
into what we have been taught to consider an acceptable
form of food the veritable food which the animal itself
found, without any such preparation, in the vegetable
world.'

Addressing the electors of Salford on February 20,
1879, Mr. Arthur Arnold said : —

*The green curtain which our land system has en-
couraged Nature to draw over the depopulation of
Ireland is now advancing from the west towards the east
of England. Where the ploughman was wont to whistle
over agriculture, the beast grazes, requiring nearly three
acres of pasture to produce the quantity of meat which
one acre would yield to suitable tillage.'

The old saying, * Where God sends mouths he sends
food,' is no mere superstitious pretext for recklessness.
By obeying the wholesome dictates of Nature, and lead-
ing in all particulars natural lives, we shall find the earth
yielding an abundance of all we require for the sustenance
of our offspring. Each child means not only a life to be
supported, but also a pair of hands to till the ground,

ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 97

and each pair of hands can produce in grain more than
is needed for the owner's support It is thus that in a
better distribution of the soil rather than in the practice
of ' Malthusianism,' the desired reformation ought to
be sought So far from siding with tlie chilling and
sordid doctrines advocated under this name, there is
surely something noble in that faith in Nature's capacity
which prompts our race to increase and multiply upon
the earth, trusting to the response which that earth is
ready to yield to industrious toil The essential selfish-
ness of Malthusianism is one of the strongest objections
that can be urged against its practice. By restricting the
production of offspring in the most highly developed
races, or in the most highly cultivated families of any
race, the future of the world is virtually abandoned to
the lowest types, and these would thus be enabled before
long completely to outnumber and suppress the higher.
The energy which prompts us to multiply is but part
of the same vis viva which leads us to appropriate and
colonise every available spot of the earth's surface. Had
the doctrines of Malthus been adopted by Britons during
the last three centuries, the whole continent of America
might at this moment have been in the hands of people
such as that now occupying its central States, a people
which must be reckoned among the least worthy of those
claiming to be civilised.

Professor Newman, writing in 'Eraser's Magazine,'
says : —

* That by living on vegetable food, a larger popula-
tion might be supported, Malthus was aware. It docs
not seem to have occurred to him to remark, that only
by consenting to become chiefly vegetarian has any
nation become populous ; that while the population is
sparse, nations have been comparatively baibaxou.^ \ ^.\xd

H

98 THE PERFECT WA V IN DIET.

that the adoption of vegetarian diet has been one con-
dition of civilisation and power. It is calculated, that to
produce the same quantity of human food (on a low
average) as a cultivated acre will )deld, three or four acres
of grazing land are needed for fleshrmeat ; and if the
most profitable crop be selected for comparison, six or
seven acres is nearer the truth. . . . We are told that
England is over-peopled \ we ask, " What is the proof? "
It is replied, " There is constant pressing distress.'' It is
wonderiful that this seems to any one a satisfactory reply.
If the population were at once cut down to what it was
when Malthus's first edition appeared, is it certain that
there would be no such distress ? Nay, there was then
such poverty that he assumed the country over-peopled.
Mere want and suffering, however constant, can never
prove that there is too much population ; to assume that it
does is a perpetual fallacy of our economists. Too much
vice, tifo much bad law, causing waste and disease, will
infallibly produce suffering and pauperism, whatever the
natural abundance and natural advantages for crops. In
187 1 it was computed that the yearly destruction of grain
to produce beer and spirits was such as would produce
1,050 million four-pound loaves ; besides this 61,792
acres of the best land are used for growing hops. Thus,
by ceasing to drink beer and spirits, there would be a
great increase to the available human food, to say nothing
of the vast over-eating and wc^te almost universal in our
rich towns. ^ What is more important still — if this one
vice of drunkenness were cut off, a prodigious mass of
misery would be removed, out of which spring pauperism
and new vice ; the greater part of violent crime would

1 We have already observed that kreophagy and alcoholism are, so
to speak, inseparable companions, whose steps keep pace one with the
other.

ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

99

vanish, and the vast waste of labour occasioned . . .
would be saved. No doubt when the people are kept
from the land, they cannot get food out of it . . . but for
that very reason, the question " Is the land over-peopled ? "
has never been put to any real test at all.'

According to Lance, Middleton, Rawson, Breton, and
other authorities, the estimated produce of an acre of
land in various kinds (excluding of covurse special con-
siderations with regard to soil, climate, season, etc.) is
the following : —

Produce

Per Year

Per Day

Mutton *
Beef> .

Wheat «

Barley

Oats .

Peas .

Beans .

Indian com (maize)

Rice .

Potatoes

Parsnips

Carrots

Yams .

Turnips

Beets .

lbs.
228
I82i

1,680
1,800
2,300
1,650
1,800
3,120

4,565
20,160

26,880

33,600

40,000

56,000

75,000

oz.
10

8

lbs.
4^

5
6

4i
5

I2|

55

74
92

no

154

205

If we suppose a third of the whole extent of land at
our disposal consecrated to the production of the cereals,
and of such leguminous plants as peas, beans, etc. ; a
third to that of potatoes, beets, turnips (tubers and roots),
and the remaining third to the culture of fruits, forests, and

1 These are Middleton's statements. In England the estimate of
Mr. Greg — ^less than one half the above — ^is probably more correct.

* Good land, especially under spade husbandry, will produce a great
deal more.

H2

loo THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET

pasturage for the rearing of oxen, cows, sheep, etc., whose
labour, milk, and wool would be utilised, we should, under
such conditions, be able to support, on the same area, a
population many times greater than the present.

There is a branch of farming which, in this country,
does not receive half the attention it deserves. I refer to
the cultivation of orchards and fruit-gardens. If the land
in England were cultivated more like a garden, our popu-
lation would be fully and profitably employed, and we
should want but little emigration and foreign supplies.
Many clay soils which are not remunerative under a com
crop, would be useful to their owners, and valuable to
the country, if planted with apple, pear, or plum trees.
And, with regard to the cost of building pits and forcing-
houses for the rearing of less hardy fruits — a proceeding
which the exigencies of our climate would necessitate —
the original outlay requisite on such structures and stock-
ing would not exceed, if indeed it would equal, the siuns
of money risked annually upon the purchase and breeding
of cattle, constantly subject to all manner of epidemics
and diseases. Moreover, it may not be generally known,
that, on the plea of assisting food supply. Parliament has
been pleased to help private individuals at the public ex;
pense. In 1861 inspectors were appointed to aid in the
promotion and extension of the Scotch salmon fisheries,
and this aid, originally enacted for three years, has been
aimually renewed to the fishery owners by successive
Governments. Why should not Parliament be equally
kind to fruit-growers and market-gardeners on the groimd
of concern for the national food supply ? * In the face of
the present agricultural depression,' says the * Nottingham
Evening Post,' * farmers might very advantageously direct
their attention to planting waste pieces of land with fruit
trees. Though the return for money expenditure in that

ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS, loi

way is not immediate, it is sure, if the work is properly
done. There is no doubt that were more public attention
directed to this question, a great impetus would be given
to the cultivation of fruit ; not only would there be more
trees planted, but the extra yield would be more than
proportionately increased, owing to improved methods of
cultivation. The home food supply would be consider-
ably greater, and the increase would be of that kind of
food which has an especially beneficial effect on the
human frame. The true wealth of our country would be
augmented, and the condition of those engaged in the
most wholesome and primary of English home industries
would be improved. Local flower and horticultural shows
do much towards the encouragement of horticulture and
fruit culture, but they have a very different effect from that
which would follow the appointment of a public inspector.
He who competes at a show aims at yrodMCingJine fruit
and vegetables, and it is for these that he has prizes
offered him. No direct encouragement is thus offered to
the occupier of waste plots of ground and hedge-rows to
plant them with fruit trees. There would be a far better
chance of such a desirable end being brought about if
Government were to take the matter in hand. This is
not a political matter, but an economical one. It is one
which must in time receive more public attention ; and,
in the meantime, those who believe with us will do well
to exert themselves individually to promote the fruit-
growing capacities of the country.'

With regard to the utilisation of land lying waste and
idle in and about towns or hamlets, it has been suggested
that the * labour test ' might be applied in this direction
with useful results, and that paupers, in return for the re-
lief afforded them out of the public rates, might be em-
ployed advantageously in many districts as dtairLets^tUks:^^

I02

THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

and agriculturists ; a measure which would not only lead
to increase in the value of the wastes so utilised, but would
conduce also in no small degree to sanitary improvement,
by draining off stagnant pools, appropriating to purposes
of manure innumerable rubbish heaps, rendering the
general atmosphere purer, and ridding the country of
some of its worst nuisances.

We have seen, thus briefly, in what manner the eco-
nomical question affects the country and the nation. Let
us now inquire how it affects the Individual.

According to Dr. Lyon Playfair, F.R.S., C.B., who for
several years directed a series of official investigations on
the subject of military rations in England, France, Prussia,
and Austria, an adult man in good health requires daily
four ounces of proteinaceous substances, and at least ten
and a half ounces daily of dynamic substances (hydro-
carbons and carbo-hydrates). In order to obtain this
proportion of proteinaceous matter it would be necessary
to consume weekly-

Price (about)

147 ounces

of butcher's meat .

. 6 I

or 93 ,,

cheese

• 3

orZA^ „

ordinary white bread .

. 2 8

or\^t^

oatmeal .

. I 4

or\2*] „

dried peas

. I 2

In order to obtain the necessaiy proportion of dyna-
mic or caloric-forming substance, it would be necessary to
consume weekly —

416 ounces of butcher's meat
or 224 ,, cheese
or 298 ,, ordinary bread
or 616 ,, potatoes .
or 221 ,, dried peas
^r j8j .. oatmeal

t9

Price (about)
J. d,

. 17 4

. 7 o

. 2 3

. 2 9

. I 10

. \

ECONOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

103

It will be seen, according to these tables, that the same
elements of nutrition are furnished by bread, cheese, oat-
meal, and peas at a price invariably less than half that of
butcher's meat, and that, if the cheese be excepted, the
difference of cost is much more remarkable.

Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S., who, in 1864, under the
direction of the Government, conducted certain inquiries
into the kind and quantity of food in use among the
poor classes, showed that at the same price — taking a
penny as imit— a man may have —

Bread

Barley

Oatmeal .

Wheatmeal

Rice

Maize

Peas

Milk

Beef

Mutton

Pork

Ham

Grains of Carbon

Grains of
Nitrogen

1-450

66

2-500

93

1-513

75

1-330

60

1-380

35

2-8oo

I2T

1-820

170

873

87

320

23

415

20

483

18

Sio

12

We have then in favour of a vegetable dietary a
quadruple economy.

In a paper read before the Manchester Statistical
Society, by Mr. W. Hoyle, the waste caused by the pre-
vailing dietetic habits of the population was thus epito-
mised : —

* There is not only much loss and waste by defective
agriculture and by waste of sewage, but also by an inju-
dicious use of food. ... It is proved that a shilling's
worth of flour or oatmeal, as well as fruit and other vege-
table goods, will give as muclaiio>\TO\vicv'e^\.^^^^'^K^^

164 THE PERPECT WA Y IN DIET.

lings* worth of flesh ; . . . and if we assume that, on
the average, the six million families of the United King-
dom reduced their consumption of animal food by only
one pound a week, it would give a saving of ten or
twelve million pounds sterling per annum.*

Elsewhere the same statistician observes that it is
possible to buy in vegetable food five times the quantity
of nutritive matter obtainable for the same price in
animal food, and that the sum necessary to support yearly
a single person living on the ordinary mixed fare would
suffice to sustain at least three or four vegetarians.

The average results of all these calculations, which it
would be easy but useless to multiply by further references,
and the examination of the comparative value of animal
and vegetable products, whether wholesale or retail, may
be thus resumed : —

I. A given area of ground, consecrated to the culture
of corn, vegetables, and fruit, and to pasturage sufficient
to meet the needs of a non-flesh-eating people, would yield
provision capable of sustaining a population about six
times greater than the same area as at present dis-
tributed,

a. A vegetable dietary, to which even cheese, butter,
and milk are added, costs per head three or four times
less tlian a mixed dietary of flesh and vegetables.

Hence the economy of iandy the economy of expense^
and consequently both national and private wealth and
prosperity would be enormously increased by a return
to the dietetic habits indicated as natural to man by his
physical structure and by his moral instincts. And in-
deed we feel it impossible to insist too strongly on the
value and importance of these economical considerations
when we reflect on the misery and suffering which
exist everywhere, especially in great cities. The extent

OVER-BREEDING, 105

and grossness of the ignorance of the poor on the sub-
ject of the physiological relation and chemical value
of foods cannot be gauged ; it is equalled only by their
general obstinacy and unwillingness to be instructed on
the subject. Yet there lies before them a Way to Para-
dise, simple enough and straight enough for all to take —
a way by following which the poor might all attain health,
happiness, ease, and the comfort of rearing children
without dread of famine, vice, or slavery.

If it be asked, * What then is to become of all the
animals? Shall we not be overrun by them?' the
answer to such questions is not far to seek. Cease to
breed beasts for purposes of food. Nature will know how
to right herself and recover the equilibrium which man
has violated. The breeding of cattle and game is far in
excess of nature. These creatures are multiplied inten-
tionally by human intervention, by selection, by importa-
tion, and by all imaginable contrivances. It must, how-
ever, be borne in mind that, with the increase of cul-
ture and tillage which is advocated by the reformed
system, a large number of oxen would be required to
aid in agricultural labour — ^their ancient and legitimate
service. As for rabbits, hares, and feathered game,
everyone knows that these animals are maintained in
excessive numbers for purposes of ' sport.' * That, for
the time being, artificial habits have disturbed the just
balance of nature is proved by the fact that those crea-
tures which are not used for food by man do not increase
to any appreciable, still less to any injurious, extent.
Do we risk being devoured or overrun by badgers,
beavers, squirrels, hedgehogs, donkeys, horses? Or of

I Not long ago rabbits were reported to have become so scarce in
Denmark that an agent of that country was commissioned to import
$0,000 of these animals from France to recruit the Danish warrens.

io6 THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET.

being pecked out of house and home by robins, star-
lings, or goldfinches ? Have we not even great difficulty
in obtaining horses and other beasts of burden at reason-
able prices, although these creatures are never killed for
food, save by a few eccentrics in Paris? Nature indeed,
unless man wilfully disarrange her laws, so regulates the
mutual relation of things as to prevent the undue multi-
plication of any one kind of animal

Again, it is in the last degree improbable that the
conversion of the world from its present habits to a purer
system will be other than very gradual. Therefore those
creatures which are now artificially increased will have
ample time to decrease gradually in number as the de-
mand for their flesh gradually lessens. Most of these
animals, too, let us recollect, are not indigenous to our
climate, but have been at a remote period imported
from distant parts of the globe ; the ox probably from
Oriental countries, the sheep from Africa. Among our
captive descendants of the wild kine there have been
so many changes wrought by the hand of man as strangely
to modify nature. Those enfeebled, indolent, sad-faced
animals which we see in our fields and streets are a de-
generate race, shaped by art and propagated merely to
pamper vicious appetites. Stand awhile in any pasture
and observe the sheep. He is a mere mass of flesh,
supported on four small straight legs, ill-fitted for carry-
ing such a burden. His movements are awkward and
slothful, he is easily fatigued, and frequently sinks under
the weight of his own corpulence. And in proportion to
the degree of the transformation to which human device
has subjected him and his ancestry, the creature becomes
more helpless, inert, and stupid. Oxen and sheep which
batten upon very fertile lands become fat and feeble to
an extraordinary degree, those tla2L\.\3tck Vorcv^^ci^ai^ \\sa

THE LEATHER QUESTION. 107

dullest and heaviest, while those whose fleeces are longest
and finest are most subject to disease.

In short, whatever changes have been wrought in
these doomed and unfortunate brutes by man, are en-
tirely calculated to bring them under the same curse of
disease and degradation as that which man has brought
upon himself. For the truth is, as has been said by the
poet Shelley, himself one of the apostles of our doctrine —

* Man, and the other animals whom he has depraved
by his dominion, are alone diseased. Wild creatures are
exempt fi'om malady, and die either by accident or from
mature old age. But the domestic hog, sheep, cow, and
dog are subject to an incredible variety of distempers,
and, like the corruptors of their nature, have physicians
who thrive upon their miseries. The supereminence of
man is the supereminence of pain.'

But, while on questions of economy, distribution, and
commerce, it is proper to say a word on some other
points which occur in connection with the traffic in and
consumption of flesh, the chief of which concern the in-
terests of the leather and fur trades, the use of animal
manure, and the practices of * sport ' and trapping.

With regard to the first two considerations, we may
safely rely on the time-proven axiom of commerce, that
demand creates supply. If, for instance, any large section
of the public should insist on having vegetable leather,
the article before long would be plentiful in the market,
and improvements in its manufacture would continuously
be announced. That already, even in the absence of
any great demand, it is in the market, is evident fi-om the
following, taken from the 'Leather Merchants' Almanac '
(1877):-

' Under the title of " Improvements in the Manufac-
ture ot Vegetable Leather" a paXexvX. \v^^ \^c^\^\i^^?jw

loS THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET

obtained in this country for an invention which promises
to utihse certain waste and cheap products. Fucusof
several species, and laminaria are well known sea-weeds,
as plentiful on the sea coast as grass in the fields, and
waste textile materials of vegetable origin are in sufficient
abundance to find profitable employment in the manu-
factiu^e of this leather. Sheets of carded wadding are
manufactured from cotton waste or from cotton itself
according to the quality required, of uniform thickness,
length, and widths These sheets are then placed on
polished zinc or other metal plates, and coated with a
concentrated decoction oi fucus crispm or pearl moss, or
other fucus or mucilaginous lichen, or with any similar
substance. The metal plates require to be kept hot in
order to allow the decoction to penetrate thoroughly into
the filaments of the cotton. The sheet is then dried
quickly, thus giving to the surface applied to the metal plate
a glazed or polished appearance, resembling the gloss of
ordinary leather, and, thus prepared, it is passed between
two heated cylinders or rollers perfectly polished, having
a space between them according to the thickness re-
quired. Great pressure is needed to press all the fila-
ments of cotton thoroughly together, and to render the
thickness imiform. It is then coated with boiled linseed
oil, and dried in the open air, or by artificial heat. When
dry, a coat of thin v^etable wax is applied, and the
sheet is softened by passing through heated fluted rollers;
it is then passed through other polished rollers according
to the quality required, either plain, morocco, embossed,
glazed, or otherwise, and is next bronzed, varnished, and
finished like ordinary leather. It is waterproof and easily
stamped.'

A similar leather has been introduced still more
recently into French commerce.

CRUELTY OF THE FUR-TRADE, 109

As for the furs, they are worn rather as a luxury and
ornament than as a necessity, and may easily be dis-
pensed with, even by the most delicate, and in our
northern climate, as I myself know by personal experi-
ence. Let the following short sketch of some of the
horrors of the fur trade suffice to give a faint idea of the
price we pay in blood and sulBfering for the furs which
decorate our women, and what cost to human nature,
which no gold can compensate, is involved by obedience
to the careless whims of fashion.

' Man desires hides, horns, feathers, ivory ; and con-
siders himself fully justified in satisfying these desires,
however extreme or whimsical, by the destruction of life.
The savage, in need of clothing and unable to manufac-
ture woollen garments, may indeed plead the necessity
of wrapping himself in furs ; but can civilised man, who
is well acquainted with the art of producing artificial
coverings, equal if not superior to furs, advance the same
plea ? He must urge in justification of his killing and
torturing in order to obtain furs and feathers, not his
necessities, but his luxuries, whims, and caprices. It
may be useful to glance at the sealskin trade as an
instance in point. Unfortunately for the seal and for
humanity, a method has been discovered of converting
the greyish hue of its fur into a rich lustrous brown.
Forthwith sealskins have become the rage, and find a
ready sale at high prices. To obtain them extensive
hunting expeditions are organised and conducted with
an amount of cruelty which is perhaps without parallel
in all the dealings of man towards the lower animals.
Seals are most readily captured at the time when they
have young cubs not yet capable of following their
mothers through the water. At this time they may be
found upon the shores of certain Arctic regions in great

no THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET.

numbers, and here accordingly they are attacked. The
mother seals are stunned with blows from clubs and then
flayed, often before dead, it being considered that the fur
is thus obtained in a more lustrous condition. The little
seals are left to perish of cold and hunger. The frightful
atrocity of this system will be more fully understood if
we remember that the seal stands high in the scale of
animal life, and possesses a large well-developed brain
and a delicate nervous system. All this cruelty is there-
fore perpetrated for the sake of " fashion," and to it all
wearers of sealskin jackets make themselves accessory.
It is true that some voices have been raised against this
system, and that some attempts have been made to'
mitigate its horrors by legislative enactments, but there
is every reason to fear that as long as the demand for
sealskin continues, the supply will be obtained sub-
stantially in the manner we have sketched.' *

The ' Daily Telegraph,' in an article on the same
subject, says : —

* The time chosen for the hunting is unfortunately the
very period that of all others ought to be kept close.
Except for a very short part of the year the seal lives to
all intents and purposes on the open sea. But the female,
when about to bring forth, seeks the shelter of the shore,
where she suckles and watches her cubs until they are
old enough to shift for themselves. At this time, wher-
ever there are seals along the coast, herds of them will
be found from a quarter to half a mile inland. The
proportions are very much those of a drove of deer. The
main body will consist of females, each with one or two
helpless little ones, while the males keep about the out-
skirts of the flock. ... As soon as a herd of this kind
is spied, the boats are manned, and the whole vessel's

^ American Journal^ ^^Tl*

CRUELTY OF THE FUR-TRADE. in

crew, armed with bludgeons and axes, starts upon a
" cutting-out expedition," at the horrors of which hu-
manity may well shudder. The only way to effectually
kill a seal with completeness and despatch is by a heavy
blow with a bludgeon, or a deep cut with an axe, so as
either to crush or sever the nasal bones ; and when the
boats' crews have got ashore, an indiscriminate slaughter
is commenced, the whole herd being often butchered
before a single one can reach the water's edge. . . . The
adult quarry is skinned with all possible haste, and as
often as not with the life still in it The cubs, who lie
moaning and whinnying by the side of their dams, are
knocked on the head if big enough to give their fur any
value, and if too small to be worth the skinning are left
without even the mercy of a coup de grdce. Old seal-
hunters tell us — ^and we can well believe it — that it takes
a man some time to get used to such cruel butchery, and
that the half-human wailing of the little seals, as they
climb and roll about the mangled carcase of their mother,
is a sound that, until he is hardened to the work, will make
a man's sleep uneasy at night'

Yet one more quotation on this subject, the ethics of
which are so homely, and so important to women, who
should be, above all things, merciful.

*If there be a specially unpleasant sight,' says the
* Birmingham Town Crier,' * it is to see a group of dirty
rascals prowling along the hedge-rows, intent on the mas-
sacre of small birds. The birds are the heralds of a better
time, but their low-bred and dirty assassins seem to be
the heralds of some dismal future, in which joy shall be
dead, admiration impossible, and gratitude unknown.
Vastly different are the dainty ladies who trip up and
down our streets and turn their gloom into gaiety. These
are nicely dressed, have smiling faces, wear fair colours.

112 THE PERFECT WAY 11/ DIET,

and are pleasant to see. . . . And yet there is one litde
bond of iinion between the fellow lurking behind the
hedge-row. and the dainty lady who has just stepped out
of some handsome caniage. The man has just wrung the
neck of a wounded thrush, and stuffed it into his pocket
to join the last shot blackbird ; and the woman has abiid's
bright wing snick on one side of her pretty hat ; and on the
other side a tiny humming bird, all gold, and bronze, and
green, and scarlet, nods at each movement of its wearer.
Yes, and we are authoritatively told that these adornments
of our women are torn from the birds while yet alive, that
the plumage may have its fuU brilliancy.

* Now women ought to know that they have literally
no excuse for indulging in these barbarities. They have
worn almost ever)- object that can possibly be fastened to
human dress. As a rule, whatever women wear seems to
become them, and they have no excuse for seeking out
strange devices, least of aU for encouraging bird slaughter,
out of the mere idleness of vanity, and for the sake of
fashion. There is not one man on the face of this earth,
who is not a knave or a fool, who will admire any woman
the more because she has some slaughtered bird's plu-
mage in her bonnet. We know that those things are
mere ornament They do not protect, they do not com-
fort ; their sole office is to adorn, and they are literally to
be ranked amongst the most brutal adornments that the
depravity of bad taste has ever hung about human crea-
tures. No woman who wears these things can know the
beauty of living birds ; can ever have watched them in
the long spring days, or have listened to them as daylight
lingers, and the air is heavy with fragrance, and glad with
music. The dainty goldfinch, clad in a livery which seems
as if it had been designed to unite grace with gaiety, and
to show how great glory can dwell with the smallest of

THE MANURE QUESTION. 113

this earth, asks but a few thistle seeds to live on. His
ways are charming, his colours are delightful, his music is
heavenly, and he is fast disappearing that women's hats
may be stuck over with wings torn from his living body.
So we might go through the catalogue, for no bird is
sacred from the harpies who in the secret dens of fashion
dress out their dolls and paint their idols, — idols as of old
that crave for life, and are as of old to be satisfied only
with living sacrifices.

' A little thought only is wanted ; a little reflection, and
the hand of the bird-assassin would be stayed, and his
hideous trade ended. Or is the example of our "highest "
too strong for us who are in lowly places ? Has the taint
of Hurlingham spread over the whole nation ? Is it too
late for the conscience of an outraged humanity to rise
against that tyranny of fashion which daily seeks to stain
its sports more deeply with blood, and to adorn its
women with the spoils of cruelty and pain ? *

Next, with regard to the question sometimes asked,
how the soil is to be manured for crops, if any consider-
able decrease should take place in the numbers of our
cattle. Professor Laws, who has made the study of
manures the work of his life, and who is the recognised
authority on this question all over the world, has written
as follows : —

'In all cases where artificial food is employed, or
where the consumption of food is not attended with profit,
it is better to restore the superabundance of green crops
directly to the soil for the after-growth of com, than to
pass it through the stomachs of animals. There is no
magical property in the black mass called dimg which does
not exist in the food, and the passage of straw or turnips
through the viscera of an animal, so far from adding to

I

1 14 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET.

the Txjae at dbese s n h tt awc s used as manme, abstracts a
Izrze pfoponkn of dior laliiable dementSL'

' It isaT be fcitber poinfeed out,' says a cofrespondent
of :be * Dietecic Rdbnner/ axnmentmg on the aboveex-
tizcx. ' that Me. Smith, the sacxxssfbl fsirmer of Woolston,
has nerter pot a bairowfnl of mamne on his land in his
life. He ploughs deeply in die aotnmn, and allows the
air to manure die groand dming the winter, before sow-
ing in the spring.'

Still more dosdy ccMmected with the rationale of
systematic kreophagy are the ediics, traditions, and
achievements of ' sport'

In his highest development man is not a banter, but a
gardener. The spirit of the Garden is incompatible with
that of the Chase, and the inevitable tendency of moral,
intellectual, and aesthetic progress is to eradicate in man
the desire to kill and to torment The destruction of life
for mere destruction's sake has never been, and cannot be,
a source of pleasure to any civilised human being ; and,
where such destruction is necessary, as in the clearing of
jungle-lands and other districts infested by camivora,
poisonous reptiles, and vermin, the work of extermination
should be undertaken rather as a duty than as a pastime,
precisely as righteous war is undertaken by the hero,
being neither shunned for selfish motives, nor compro-
mised with for convenience or comfort's sake, but in-
trepidly and conscientiously performed in the spirit of
the redeemer. For the true man is the redeemer, not the
tyrant of the earth.

Moved, perhaps, by such sentiments as these, Mon-
taigne, the celebrated French essapst of the sixteenth
century, who has aptly been called * the modem Plutarch,'
expresses himself thus on the subject of the chase, in his
days as popular as now : —

' sport: ^ IIS

* For my part I have never been able to see, without
displeasure, an innocent and defenceless animal, from
whom we receive no offence or harm, pursued and
slaughtered And when a deer, as commonly happens,
finding herself without breath and strength, without other,
resource, throws herself down and surrenders, as it were,
to her pursuers, begging for mercy by her tears,

Questuque cmentus
Atque imploranti similis,*

this has always appeared to me a very sad spectacle/

Yet so little way with the mass of people has been
made by the generous and manly spirit thus expressed,
during a period of more than two centuries, that week
after week in the ' sporting season ' our newspapers re-
cord the wholesale slaughter of hares, pheasants, grouse,
and other animals in the preserves of some illustrious
member of the Upper House ; and it is written for our
learning that his Royal Highness or his ducal grace
* bagged,' like any poulterer, so many head of game.
At Hurlingham and elsewhere, where the * nobility ' (save
the mark !) of the country accustom themselves to do
butcher's work on an incredible number of tame and de-
fenceless pigeons, it is forbidden by the laws of sport to
aim twice at the same bird. If, therefore, the shooter
should not be sufficiently dexterous to kill his victim at
first fire, the wretched bird falls wounded on the grass,
and pants away its life as best it may. And while the
poor dead and dying doves drop bleeding at their feet,
creatures with the forms and the faces of women sit by in
gala attire, laughing, chattering, and smiling their sweetest
on the slaughterers.

1 ' With plaintive cries, all covered with blood, and in the attitude
of a suppliant.* — Virgil's j^tieis^ viii.

I 2

Ii6 THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

Then we have the battues, which are perhaps even
more horrible and savage in their details than the
pigeon 'sport,' and these, too, are attended by ladies.
Long since the voice of this country condemned bear-
baiting, bull-fighting, and the sport of the cockpit But
the spirit of these barbarous games still survives at Hur-
lingham and in the park-preserves of many a noble peer.

One word in conclusion on the subject of trapping.
Farmers, owners of rabbit-warrens, gardeners, baiUfis of
large properties, and others are in the daily habit of
using for the destruction of ground vermin, gins so in-
geniously and hideously cruel that one can hardly read
the description of them without a shudder. These gins
are constructed with a spring which snaps violently on
the animal's leg, bruising, cutting, and often breaking it,
and very often completely separating the softer parts of
the limb from the bone. All the rabbits I have seen
taken from these traps had the feet more than half
severed, and the wounds inflamed by a struggle of many
hours' duration ; for the creatures are generally caught in
the gins overnight, and throughout the long interval
which supervenes until the keeper makes his morning
rounds, they hang torn, lacerated, and terrified on the
teeth of the vice, beating and rending their wounds in
their frantic efforts to escape. ' It is a grim reflection,'
as the 'Lancet' well observes, 'that all this suffering
is inflicted with no sufficient object. The only rational
explanation of the cruelty seems to be that those who set
traps of this class in their grounds are unaware of the
extent to which such engines maim and agonise the crea-
tures caught in them. It would in truth be difficult to
exaggerate the suffering they entail.'

As for the bird-traps, the captive taken in these is
seized generally by the feet and hangs head downwards

RECAPITULA TION. 1 1 7

for four or five days, till it dies of starvation or exhaustion
firom struggling.

These are matters which might be separately and
directly dealt with by the Legislature. They are named
here only because they bear a family relation and likeness
to that class of barbarisms, wastes, and blunders, of
which the shambles, the chase, the battue, and the vivi-
sector's laboratory are characteristic types, and *whose
spirit is inherently antagonistic to the needs, intuition,
and progress of civilised humanity.

It has now been shown — briefly indeed, but I trust
sufficiently — ^what support for the system advocated in
these pages is derived fi"om the facts of comparative
anatomy, physiology, history, chemistry, and political and
social economy ; what corroboration for its doctrines is
furnished by the actual experience of modem nations
and communities, by the testimony of experimental
medicine, and by the consideration of the moral duties
we owe to our own kind and to the races below us. In
regard to this last point, it must be remembered, no
social or philosophical system is scientific and complete
which omits fi-om its definition of humanity the moral
nature, since it is precisely the development of the senti-
ments — honour, love, justice, generosity — ^which distin-
guishes the human being from the brute, the civilised
•man fi'om the savage and the criminal.

And if, for the vindication of the views advanced
in these pages it be necessary or helpful to adduce autho-
rity, they have as advocates such a mighty array of names
ancient and modern as no other school which the world
has yet seen can boast To these illustrious names of
men who have thought as I think, and whose disciple
no one need be ashamed to be, I make appeal ; to Pytha-

iiS THE PERFECT WAY IN DIET,

goras and Gairrama Boddha, to Socrates, Seneca, and
nmaich, to PorpbyrT, and ApoUonius of Tyana, to
Oiigen, Chiysostom, and Fnnds Assisi, to Gassendi,
Gleixesy and SheDey — in shcHt, to all tbe most serious
and luminous minds of the ancient and modem world.

For with all these the first essential step towards per-
fectionment, whether of the individual or of the com-
munit}', was so to regulate life that its sustenance should
involve no shock to the moral conscience.

The doctrine, which is that of the modem school of
abstainers from flesh, was that of the Magi who initiated
Daniel ; of the Therapeuts, who drew their origin and
their knowledge from £g}'ptian adepts ; of the Buddhists,
an expression of whose beaudfiil teaching is prefixed to
this essay ; of the Nazarites, who coimted Jesus among
their number ; of the Essenes, who produced his fiiend
and companion, John the Baptist ; of the Ebionites and
Recluses ; of the exponents of the Christian * Gnosis,'
who kept alive and bequeathed to us through the Neo-
Platonists that spirit of understanding, that * seeing
eye' and * hearing ear' possible only in their complete-
ness to men of pure heart and life.

In extolling this pure heart, in advocating this clean
and blameless life, in indicating this perfect way, we
imitate the illuminati of all ages. May those who are
as yet unable wholly to endorse their practice and ours,
pardon at least the love which inspires a project of
emancipation from the tyranny of disease, luxury, injustice,
poverty, and melancholy, which, under the present sys-
tem, have attained such a height as to render existence
well-nigh insupportable 1

Thus, in the recoil from a pseudo-civilisation, the
mind reverts for the principles of a true civilisation to
times long past ; and this treatise, whose opening pages

CONCLUSION. 119

recount a passage in the ministry of Buddha, the Hindu
redeemer, cannot be more fitly closed than by the appeal
ascribed by Ovid to Pythagoras, the Samian sage.

Forbear, O mortals, to taint your bodies with forbidden food ;

Com have we ; the boughs bend under a load of fruit ;

Our vines abound in swelling grapes ; our fields with wholesome

herbs,
Whereof those of a cruder kind may be softened and mellowed by

tire.
Nor is milk denied us, nor honey smelling of the fragrant thyme ;
Earth is lavish of her riches, and teems with kindly stores,
Providing without slaughter or bloodshed for all manner of delights.
The savage beasts indeed allay their hunger with flesh,
But the wild horse, the flocks, the kine, subsist on grass :
They only of a fierce and ravenous nature —
Bears, wolves, Armenian tigers, and the angry brood of lions —
These delight in meats reeking with the red tide of life.
O impious custom, to bury entrails in entrails, to fatten a craving

body with the flesh of its .fellow.
Maintaining the life of one creature by the murderous death of

another !
Is it possible indeed that amidst the plenty which earth, the best of

parents, so bountifully bestows,
Nothing can delight you but to tear wounded flesh, and to renew

the barbarous Cyclopean feasts ?
Cannot the desires of your ravenous and unrighteous appetite be

appeased
Save by the destruction of the life of your fellows ?
But they of ancient times, justly called the Age of Gold,
Content with the fruit of their trees and the herbs of earth,

stained not their lips with blood ;
Then might the birds in safety traverse the airy expanse and the

hare rove fearless over field and moor,
Nor were even the credulous fish beguiled by the deceitful hook ;
Snares and treachery were unknown, no dread of fraud disturbed

the mind, all things were full of peace.
Then arose that impious contriver of innovations, who first envied

man his innocent repasts,

IJO THE PERFECT WA Y IN DIET

And, gofgiog his hisdal appetite with flesh, opened a door for

What ! have yoa merited to die^ O sheep ! pladd, inoffensive racCt

bom to bless and serre us^
\nio6e foil adders yidd sweet milk, whose fleeces clothe ns with

soft raiment,
ComfortiDg us moie bj your lives than by jonr deaths ?
And yoo, O oxen ! guileless and docile, mild and innocent, made

to laboor for man.
He indeed is onmindfol of your services, and all unworthy the gifts

of Ceres,
Who, having but now unyoked his gentle labourer from the plough,

can harden himself to shed his Uood !
To smite with an axe that neck worn in his service with toil, which

so often has renewed his else unfruitful fields.
Bringing him so many a rich and welcome harvest !
Nor is it enough that men commit such crimes as these,
They ascribe to the Gods their own wickedness, and pretend that

even the Divine Powers delight in innocent blood :
A victim without spot and of surpassing beauty — (as if to be perfect

were to deserve death) —
Such an one, adorned with garlands and with gold, they lead to the

votive altar ;
He hears the prayer of the priest, not knowing what it means.
And sees the com he helped to produce, laid between the horns on

his forehead,
Then, stmck by the sacrificial knife, he dyes with his lifeblood

the blade
Whose gleam perchance he beheld in the transparent fountain at

his feet.
Straightway the priest tears the entrails from his panting bosom.
Seeking to leara from these the mind of the high Gods !
Whence have men this lust for unlawful food ?
How, O mortal race, can you endure to eat of it ?
Refrain, I beseech you I g^ve heed to my precepts !
And, when you would feast on the limbs of the dismembered ox.
Know and reflect that it is the tiller of your fields you would de-
stroy 1

CONCLUSION. 121

How unholy a custom, how easy a way to human murder he makes

for himself
Who cuts the innocent throat of the calf, and hears unmoved its

mournful plaints !
And slaughters the little kid, whose cry is like the cry of a child,
Or devours the birds of the air which his own hands have fed !
Ah, how little is wanting to fill the cup of his wickedness !
What unrighteous deed is he not ready to commit !
Suffer the ox to plough, and impute his death to age and Nature's

hand.
Let the sheep continue to yield us sheltering wool, and the goats

the produce of their loaded udders,
Banish from among you nets and snares and painful artifices.
Conspire no longer against the birds, nor scare the meek deer, nor

hide with fraud the crooked hook ;
Make war on noxious creatures, and kill them only.
Bat let your mouths be empty of blood, and satisfied with pure and

natural repasts ! *

* Afetam,t lib. xv.

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