Peru [a handbook]

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BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS,

WASHINGTON, U. S. A.

PERU.

BULLETIN NO. 60. 1892.

[Revised to May 1, 1895. J

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BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS,
NO. 2 LAFAYETTE SQUARE, WASHINGTON, 0. C, U. S. A.

Director. — Clinton Furbish.

\ While the utmost care is taken to insure accuracy in the publications of the Bureau of the American

Republics, no pecuniary responsibility is assumed on account of errors or inaccuracies which may occur
) therein.

(i By official notification to the United States Department of State in April, 1892, the Dominican Republic

t j became a party to the support of the Bureau of American Republics.

WASHINGTON D. C, U. S, A. :

Government Printing Office.
II

CONTENTS.

Page.
Chapter I. Geography, Geological Conditions, Meteorological Peculiarities,
Fluvial System, Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms, Phenomena
of the Coast Desert i

II. Historical Sketch 17

III. Financial Condition, Settlement with Foreign Bondholders, Rail-

ways and their Proposed Extension, Navigation Facilities, Lines
of Transportation, Oroya Railroad, Telegraph and Telephone
Systems 32

IV. Agricultural Condition, Sugar, Rum, Cotton, Ramie, Wines, Rice,

Domestic Animals, Alfalfa, Potatoes, Grain, Coca, Cacao, Hides
and Skins, Tobacco, Fruits and Vegetables, Coffee, Cinchona,
Rubber ; Woolen Manufactures 48

V. Minerals and Mines, Distribution of Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead,

Coal, Tin, and other Metals ; the Petroleum Wells 63

VI. Concessions for Public Works 80

VII. Political Divisions, Cities and Towns, Government and Consti-
tution, Weights and Measures, Currency 84

VIII. Total Commerce 107

Appendix No. 1. The Mining Laws of Peru 125

No. 2. Finances, Trade, Commerce, etc., of Peru 136

I ndex 143

ILLUSTRATIONS,

Pa**

Map of Peru Frontispiece.

Cowhide Bridge 3

Balsas on Lake Titicaca 5

"Village of Chiclay, on the Oroya Railroad, 12,200 feet above the sea 38

Loaded Llamas 41

Little " Infernillo" Bridge (Oroya Railroad), altitude 10,924 feet 43

Lima 87

111

Chapter I.

GEOGRAPHY — GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS — METEOROLOGICAL
PECULIARITIES— FLUVIAL SYSTEM— ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE
KINGDOMS— PHENOMENA OP THE COAST DESERT.

The traveler from New York to the capital of Peru, will be
interested in observing that in the entire voyage of about 3,200
miles he has little occasion to change his watch after the meridian
observation of each day on shipboard. And when at last he
reaches Lima he is barely 150 miles 10 minutes west of his start-
ing point. When his steamer has rounded Sandy Hook, on the
outward passage, her course will be due south to the east end of
Cuba, 1,200 miles distant, and so close to the island that he can
see the light keeper and his family on the sands watching the big
ship go by. On the port hand, 50 miles away, a clear day reveals
on the horizon the peaks of Haiti; then the steamer changes her
course to south by west, and in a run of 600 miles crosses the Carib
bean Sea to Colon. This is not an agreeable part of the trip. A
following wind, the northeast trade, blows only at about the ship's
rate, and the perspiring passenger feels himself in a calm of the
tropics, while on the clear reach of 600 miles the sea has been pil-
ing up behind him with constantly increasing swell, so that when
he has landed on the mole at Colon he is glad to have left the
pitching thing, with its scorching atmosphere ; the wind has shown
itself in the white caps of the ocean, but has blown him no breath
of comfort.

Now, in a railroad ride of 50 miles he has crossed the Isthmus
of Panama and enters the South Pacific Ocean. From this point

Bull. 60 — 1

2 PERU.

his course will be almost exactly that of Pizarro in 1531 to the
northern ports of Peru and nearly due south from Panama. After
a run of just about 1,000 miles he will enter the Guayaquil River
of Ecuador, and in a few hours later the river of Tumbez, on the
northern edge of Peru. Thus far he has seen cliffs and mountains
adorned with the foliage of tropical forests and the verdure of grassy
plains, but when he leaves the Tumbez to go south he loses all
that, for he enters the Zona Seca. This "dry zone" extends the
whole length of the Peruvian coast. Here and there, when passing
the valleys that open to the ocean, he discovers the forests of
algarrobos, plantations of sugar cane, or bright fields of maize and
alfalfa; a brilliant verdure almost impossible of existence among
the bleak, unpromising cliffs and arid deserts.

The first considerable port of Peru is Paita. You pass Cape
Blanco and round Parina, the westerly point of the South Ameri-
can continent, and enter one of the most perfect harbors in the
world for safety and good anchorage. As the steamers now run
you will have taken fourteen days to get there from New York.
But the distance, less than 2,900 miles, should be a delightful trip,
with its pleasant diversion of a railroad in the midst, of not more
than six or seven days. It is not as far to Lima from New York
as to San Francisco, across the continent. From Paita it is less
than 500 miles, which occupy two days' time under the present
schedules.*

From Cape Blanco the trend of the shore is southeast in its
whole extent to the limit of Chile, where the coast suddenly turns
due south and keeps that course to Cape Horn. In the north the
territory extends eastward 700 miles to the Amazon River, while

*The cost of a passage to Peru is by no means constant, varying with the
degree of competition between lines. Generally, $205 will cover the fare to
Paita, and $216 to Callao, the port of Lima, of which $100 must be reckoned
as fare between New York or San Francisco and Panama. In January, 1893, the
fare to Callao was only $97, but this was exceptional.

PERU. 3

at the confines in the south the Republic is barely 100 miles wide.
Measured on a meridian, from 3 30' to 18 south latitude, Peru
is about qoo miles long, but the shore line embraces nearly 2,000
miles. The extreme western point, Parina, is in longitude 81 ° 20'
west from Greenwich, while the southern extremity of its coast is
71 20'. Being 900 miles long, with an area of 464,000 square
miles, its width, extremely irregular, averages 500 miles. Pro-
ceeding eastward across the cordillera of the Andes, we find four
habitable zones, separated by the loftiest mountains of the hemi-
sphere, of which three distinct ranges traverse the whole length
of the Republic, giving it the singular fan-shape it possesses.
The accompanying profile is so clear a diagram of the grand topo-
graphical features of the territory that no difficulty will be felt in
understanding the references hereafter made to the different natural
divisions.

Peru is bounded on the north by Ecuador, from which it is
separated along 500 miles of the border by the Amazon River;
on the east by Brazil and Bolivia; on the south by Chile, and on
the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Fluvial system. — The rainless coast desert of Peru is traversed
by 50 rivers, only one of which is navigable — the Chira, in the
north. Generally, these streams are raging torrents for a part of
the year, following the mountain rains of February and March;
after that their waters sink away, entirely disappearing by June in
the sands. The Piura, in the north, is a navigable stream from the
season of February floods till the end of June, during which time
it contains from 3 to 1 5 feet of water, allowing the transportation
of freight as far as Piura, a distance of 100 miles.

The coast of Peru is indented with a few bays, forming well-
protected harbors, but the anchorage of the greater extent of the
coast commerce must be in open roadsteads, made possible by the
immunity of all the Zona Seca from storms. The bays of Paita,
Sechura, Chimbote, Samanco, Callao, and Norato afford excellent

4 PERU.

shelter, with good bottoms, but, with the exception of Paita and
Callao, are as yet but little used by navigators. All passengers and
cargo, whether in bay or roadstead, are moved between the shore
and ship in launches of 50 to 100 tons capacity, except in Callao,
where there are fine moles for the purpose.

Rivers flowing into the Pacific generally rise in the sierra
between the coast and central Andean ranges. They are the
Tumbez, Chira, Piura, Santa, Rimac, and nearly fifty smaller
streams, which are the reliance of the agriculture of the coast
desert. Those rising in the puna, east of the central cordillera,
are all tributaries, more or less remote, of the Amazon. But the
ultimate head of that great river rises in the sierra, in 1 1 ° south
latitude, having its source in the little lake Lauri-Cocha and flow-
ing northwest nearly parallel with the Pacific coast. It drains
the western slope of the central range to 5 south latitude, where
it turns abruptly to the east, and after a course of 4,000 miles,
reaches the Atlantic. The affluents of the Amazon (also called
the Maranon) constitute a vast system of inland navigation in the
forest region of Peru. They are the Perene, Ucayali, Huallaga,
Paucartambo, and Madera.

With the exception of the coast desert, all the territory of Peru
has its annual rainy season ; but no part of the Republic is so well
watered as the forest zone, known in the language of the country
as the "montana."

In the sierra the tiny lake Cono-Cocha is the source of the Rio
Santa; while also in the sierra, between the coast and central
range, is the lake Chinchay-Cono, 7 miles wide and 37 long, from
the northern edge of which rises the famous Cerro de Pasco. From
the Chinchay-Cocha, more than 1 0,000 feet above the level of the
sea, the Rio Jauja runs southward through a populous valley over
150 miles, and then, breaking through the cordillera, becomes an
affluent of the Ucayali.

The most famous lake of South America, and, indeed, of the
world, being at the greatest elevation of any water the subject of

PERU.

commerce, is the lake Titicaca, 1 20 miles long and 60 wide, lying
in a basin of the puna, 300 miles long and 100 wide, at an eleva-
tion of 12,545 feet above the level of the ocean, from which it is
150 miles distant. At this time its waters are navigated by three
steel steamboats, engaged in traffic between its ports, some of
which are in the territory of Bolivia. A stage line from La Paz,
the Bolivian capital, delivers mail and passengers to these steam-
ers, by which they are taken to Puno, the terminus of a railroad
that transports them to the Pacific coast at Mollendo, where they
may take steamer to any corner of the world.

The rivers of the montana are navigable to a distance of 3,000
or 4,000 miles from the Atlantic at Para, in northern Brazil.
The head of navigation on the Rio Perene is 1,000 feet above
sea level and 3,000 miles from the ocean, arid is to be connected
with the capital by a continuation of the Oroya line of railroad,
known now as the " Central of Peru."

Geology. — While the peaks of the Andes rise to a height of
more than 22,000 feet, there is no active volcano in all the terri-
tory. Occasionally vapor is seen to rise from Illimani and two or
three other magnificent snow-capped summits, but there is no
irruption. Illimani, Illampu, Misti, and Yunguay are all extinct,
but their indescribable beauty, rising with silvery luster in solemn
majesty above the grandest of their Andean neighbors, stills the
beholder to silent awe. The snow line of Peru is from 16,000
to 17,000 feet, according to the latitude.

The formation of the Andes is due to several causes operating
at distinct intervals of time. They consist of stratified material
which has been more or less altered. This material was deposited
at the bottom of a sea, so that at some former time the highest
portions were submerged, probably in consequence, to a certain
extent, of the subsidence of the sea bottom. Since the latest
deposits there have been upheaval and denudation. The range
has resulted from the accumulation of sediment on a subsiding

PERU.

area, from the subsequent upheaval of such deposits, which have
been increased in height by the ejection of volcanic products, and
from the operation of* denuding agents. As far as our present
knowledge goes, it appears probable that the Andes mark an area
on which sedimentary deposits have been accumulated to a greater
extent than on other portions of South America. It is further
demonstrable that these deposits belong to several geological eras,
the elevation having occurred at different periods, while their axes
extend in different directions.

The general disposition of the rocks is as follows : The oldest,
which are pre-silurian, possibly laurentian, form the outermost
rim of the continent, of which the northeast and southeast corners
have probably been swept away. These corners correspond with
the mouths of the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the Plata rivers.
Within this basin and following close upon these old rocks are
schists and quartzites, which are in all probability of silurian age.
These enter largely into the transverse ranges by which the cen-
tral hollow is divided into three basins. Within this again are
sandstones and limestones, usually referred to the carboniferous
period, which also form part of the transverse ridges. A band of
rocks of secondary age follow, some of which are believed to be
triassic, while others are identified as cretaceous. Tertiary beds,
some of miocene date, together with post-tertiary beds, cover
the largest part of the areas of the great river basins and the
hollows in the mountain ranges, and also occur on the seaward
flanks of the principal chains. The high ranges are granitic,
flanked on either side by gneiss and quartzite. Carboniferous
stratas, with seams and pockets of coal, occur in the coast range
and the high plains of the sierra. In the desert of Atacama and
far away to the north there is a considerable development of red
sandstone. After their deposition, and prior to that of the marls,
syenitic rocks were introduced, causing the sandstones and schists
to be converted into porphyries. This eruption was accompanied

PERU.

by and probably connected with the formation of auriferous veins,
the elevation of the strata, and the faulting of the veins. The
next period represented by strata is characterized by saliferous and
gypseous marls, which rest unconformably on the rocks beneath.
On the west side of the continent the pumiceous conglomerate is
formed from the trachytes, when the upheaval of the principal
chain of the Andes occurred. This elevation did not materially
change the extent of land west of the Andes, except to add to it
a strip some 30 miles in width. Farther east the change was
great, since the larger portion of the great central chain then
emerged. The eruption of the trachytes was accompanied by a
metamorphism distinct in character from those of earlier ages.
The rocks were then subjected not only to heat and water, but
also to acid vapors,. which changed the feldspar into sulphates of
alumina and iron, salt into anhydrous sulphate of soda, and,
probably by freeing the chlorine and iodine, originated the
chlorides and iodides, which are so abundant in the argentiferous
veins. Since the drift there has been a slight elevation along a
meridional axis.

As a result of these geological changes it transpires that Peru
is the richest territory of earth in its mineral deposits. The coast
is rich in petroleum, silver, gold, copper, coal, sulphur, salt, nitrate,
lime (carbonate and gypsum), magnesia, and borax. The sierra
is undoubtedly the region of greatest wealth in minerals and
precious metals; for there are found in the greatest abundance,
and of large range, silver, gold, copper, lead, cobalt, cinnabar,
antimony, coal, salt, iron, nickel, marble, arsenic, sulphur, alum,
and petroleum. In the montana gold washings and gold mining
are the special features; there also are found emeralds, rubies,
turquoises, and diamonds, the jewels with which the Incas adorned
their persons.

Meteorology. — All climates on the face of the earth, with all their
results, are illustrated in the climates of Peru, the modifying influ-

8 PERU.

ences being 15 of latitude and the differences in elevation above
the sea; the coast desert, rising gently above the shore line" to
the foothills ; the sierra, 4,000 to 9,000 feet higher ; the puna,
between the central and eastern cordillera, at an altitude above
ocean level of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, and then the montana, slop-
ing off to the east from an elevation of 10,000 feet at the foot of
the cordillera to only 1,000 at the falls of the Perene.

A superficial observer will be tempted to ask why no rain falls
in the Zona Seca, where there is a sea breeze all day long. It
is not difficult to explain. The trade winds, blowing from the
east over the Andes, leave in those hills the moisture they have
brought from the Atlantic Ocean, the montana getting the first
and most abundant supply. The clouds continue their flight
before the wind, leaving the greater part of their remaining rain in
the puna, while, nearly exhausted, they pass over the sierra, which
is only partially blessed with showers and barely escapes the con-
dition of the desert. When at last the air has reached the coast
desert the last drop of moisture has been wrung from it in the
condensations of the coast range. It now blows over the dry
desert plain and so on out to sea across the Pacific Ocean. But
the sunshine of the day has heated the desert and rarefied the
atmosphere, and to fill this partial vacuum air rushes in from the
ocean, which is cooler than the plain. But this influence extends
only from 50 to 100 miles off the shore, and the small* area of
vaporization, while furnishing soft temper to the wind, which has
been refrigerated in the snows of the mountains, is not sufficient
to furnish rain in the pampas, even if it ascended considerably
higher than it does. When, however, it reaches the coast range it
is condensed, and furnishes that range and a part of the great plain
of the sierra with its waters, assisting thus to supply those streams
that head in that zone.

The result of these conditions may thus be recognized. The
montana is a tropical forest in which the density of growth

PERU.

depends somewhat on the altitude above sea level, running from
open timber land in the upper districts to jungle in the lower.
All the montana is an excellent region for planting, without the
necessity of irrigation, once it is cleared. The puna is too high
and cold for any dense vegetation. It is a dreary region, with
cheerless atmosphere and leaden skies, giving sustenance to man
only in return for severe labor, but not demanding irrigation.
The sierra, on the contrary, possesses a charming climate, but
demands some irrigation, for which it makes an excellent return.
The coast desert yields no crop without irrigation, unless we
except the seasons in which the floods have saturated the river
banks, which are then the most productive lands in the country.
The region is visited by erratic clouds in years of excessive
abundance of rain in the cordillera, and then deliver upon the
thirsty plain from 3 to 5 inches of w T ater in as many showers,
-extending over a season of two months, from the middle of Feb-
ruary to the middle of April.

The only part of Peru in which a full tropical climate exists
comprises the eastern district of the montana. In the deserts of
the north, although near the equator, the temperature varies
from 70 to 77 F. In the towns as high as 85 has been
noted at 3 p. m. The relative humidity in the same region has
been as low as 45 per cent, but the average for the year is 63 per
cent, while it frequently reaches 75 per cent. The sea breeze in
the desert is delicious, beginning at a rate of about 1 2 kilometers
an hour and freshening to 20 at 7 in the evening, and sometimes
to 32. These elements of climatology give abundant reason for
the amount of ozone in the atmosphere, which measured on
Schonbein's register, of which the maximum is 10, from 3^ to 7
in the year in which continuous observations were made.

The climate of the sierra and the higher regions of the mon-
tana is agreeable to the habitue of the temperate zone. In the
city of Lima, the capital of the Republic, the mercury sometimes

10 PERU.

goes down to 40 F. in the midwinter month of July, although it is
but 13 degrees from the equator; and it sometimes rises to 90 in
January, but the heat is accompanied with such pleasant winds
from the sea that no inconvenience is felt in the hottest day of
the season. The garua of winter is the most disagreeable feature
of the Lima climate. While not amounting to rain, it creates a
raw, cold atmosphere that penetrates to the marrow and makes
an overcoat a comfortable garment. Some of the newer houses
are being provided with fireplaces, in spite of the prejudice of the
old Spaniard against "fuego artificial," who sees with surprise
that there are whole nations who indulge in such a luxury and.
still live.

Earthquakes have never been destructive in the north of Peru,
along the coast. Indeed, they are scarcely known there except as
ripples of a distant wave. In 1868 Arequipa was badly damaged
by one, which would have passed without great harm but for the
unfortunate style of building, a monument of Spanish domina-
tion. These houses were of stone, the roofs of which being
arched were easily tumbled about the heads of the residents, when
the lighter structures of the present day would have remained
unharmed. Sub-oceanic irruptions have been the most disastrous
to the country in modern times, having twice within a few years
wiped out the maritime city of Arica and destroyed much valu-
able property along the southern coast.

Animal and vegetable kingdoms. — The " fauna Peruviana," as cat-
alogued by the English naturalist William Mason, in 1881,
contained 40,000 different specimens, including many birds of
passage. The waters of the Pacific coast teem with excellent fish*
of which the corbina, not known in the northern temperate zone,
weighs from 6 to 10 pounds, and is of rare delicacy; skate, sole,
plaice, haddock, cod, flounders, smelts, and Spanish mackerel
abound in the sea, while in the streams are found shrimps and
prawns, these latter of enormous size, weighing not unfrequently

PERU. 1 I

a pound, and of excellent flavor. Lobsters are taken in the bays
wherever the shores are rocky.

The desert of the coast affords life to the iguana, a large lizard,
and numerous smaller ones; also to foxes, hares, and rabbits; while
in the valleys along the water courses are found deer and wild
hogs. The domestic animals are such as are found the world
over — the horse, donkey, mule, dog, goat, sheep, cat, and horned
cattle. In the desert are condors and vultures (turkey buzzard),
owls, and bats; also in the lower valleys the vampire bat. Game
birds abound — the partridge, pigeons, parrots, and cuaresmeros (a
kind of ruff). The singing birds are numerous and of beautiful
plumage. In the valley of the Chira is a superb oriole — the
chiroca — named from its habitation in that valley; a fine night-
ingale, called the rui senor, paroquets, and a variety of song birds
that fill the air with song and beauty. Domestic poultry is abun-
dant — turkeys, fowls, ducks, and geese. The more common sea
birds which haunt the islets and headlands in countless myriads,
are the Sula variegata^ or guano bird, a large gull, Larus modestus,
the Pelacanus thayus and the Sterna inca, a beautiful tern, with
curved white feathers on each side of the head. The rarest of all
the gulls is also found on the Peruvian coast, namely, the Zema
furcatum. The immense flocks of birds, as they fly along the
coast or rise in a body from the islands when disturbed by a pass-
ing steamer, appear like clouds. Sea lions {Otaria foster/) are
common on the rocky islands and promontories. These great
animals have favorite retiring places, where they go to breathe
their last, the aged and wounded being helped there by their
companions.

In the sierra and puna there are the tiger, bear, wolf, panther,
jaguar and many other wild beasts ; condors and other birds of
prey. Of wool-bearing animals in the same region are the vicuna,
huanaco, llama, and alpaca, with sheep and the other domestic
animals and horned cattle of the world. Domestic fowls are found
here, as in every other part of the country.

12 PERU.

In addition to the animals above named, all of which are found
in the montana, are also the nutria, chinchilla, and other fur-bear-
ing animals ; among birds are wild turkeys, ducks, pigeons, birds
of paradise, macaws, parrots of infinite variety, and a multitude of
humming birds, with game birds unknown in Europe or the
United States. Alligators and many reptiles are there, while the
rivers are alive with myriads of fishes of every variety that finds a
home in fresh water.

Of the vegetable kingdom nature has made generous allotment to
Peru. From there first came the potato, which to-day is so impor-
tant an article of food to a large part of the civilized world. In
its wild state it is a little bulb no bigger than a hazel nut, but
under the Incas it was cultivated to be as fine as the best system
of modern gardening has made it.

The valleys and irrigated lands of the coast desert produce sugar
cane, rice, cotton, tobacco, coffee, cacao (for chocolate), castor-oil
bean, maize, grapes, alfalfa, capsicum, gums, sarsaparilla, coca (the
base of cocaine), olives, tamarinds, potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas,
and beans, tropical fruits and vegetables for the table ; also the
yuca, a tubercle substitute for the potato and useful in the manu-
facture of starch.

In the sierra all the products of the temperate zone and many
of the torrid zone are raised ; but its great staples are the potato,
wheat, barley, oats, alfalfa, and maize. The latter grows everywhere
and in many places yields two crops a year. It is not only a
staple of life to all classes, but serves to make the national bever-
age, chicha. Here also are found in healthy growth yuca, ramie,
tobacco, coffee, cacao, cinchona, sugar cane, castor-oil bean, and a
variety of fruits, grains, and medicinal plants.

On the cold, bleak puna but few crops grow, although this was
the seat of Inca power and civilization. Here is the ichu, on
which the indigenous wool-bearing animals of the region feed;
barley, oats, quinia, olluca, yuca, and other indigenous roots
which the people use for food and medicinal purposes.

PERU. 13

The transandean region or montana is a virgin forest. There
are in the tract some towns and also detached plantations. Nature
is here exuberant, and everything is produced that is found in
the rich valleys of the coast. Here in luxuriance grow tobacco,
sugar cane, rubber, cotton, coffee, cocoa, vanila, sarsaparilla,
copaiba, the vine, oranges and many other fruits, herbs, and
plants, both medicinal and oleaginous, timber and woods of
every variety; here the rivers are navigable, and on the banks are
found the richest gold washings, the diamond, emerald, and ruby.

Probably the highest inhabited places in the world are in the
mountains of Peru. There is a community of about 200 souls
living at Galera, on the line of the Central Railroad, at an eleva-
tion of 15,565 feet above the level of the sea; also at Vicharayac,
15,950 feet, and Muscapata, 16,158 feet above the ocean, are
mining camps sustaining each about 200 miners. Recent surveys
by the engineers of the Inter- American Railroad project give the
following heights above sea level for the following named towns:
Cerro de Pasco, 14,293; Huancayo, 10,635; Ayacucho, 8,900;
Jauja, 11,145; Abancay, 7,853; Cuzco, 11,003.

Phenomena of the coast desert — The traveler who follows the
course of Pizarro in the steamers of the Pacific wonders when
he enters the Bay of Paita whence came the fruits and flowers
brought as presents by the aborigines to the vessels of the discov-
erer. Before him and all around the bay rise the naked walls of
the Barranca, 300 feet above the beach, from base to summit as
bald as any rock, a brown grey sand, utterly unpromising. Going
up to the plain above, he beholds only a treeless desert stretching
away to the foothills of the still more distant cordillera; no living
green thing, no blade of grass nor little shrub, gives rest to the
eye, wearied with the dreary waste of sand. For landmarks, some
sharp ledge of gypsum crosses the trails that lead out into the mesa
toward the towns of the Piura Valley and the Chira; an insignifi-
cant eminence, scarcely a hill, too hard baked in the sun to be

14 PERU.

blown away, forces the traveler to make a detour and so gets
unmerited notice because of its novelty in the widespread monot-
ony. Sometimes the skeleton of a mule or horse becomes a
monument to mark the otherwise blind trails. Occasionally the
traveler enters a belt of medanos, crescent-shaped sand dunes, look-
ing like small, detached fortifications, of which the material is
always afloat in the air, traveling to leeward in one eternal migra-
tion. In the early morning air you hear a peculiar minor music;
if there were trees at hand you might think it the sighing of the
wind in their branches; and then you note the flying glassy par-
ticles that roll up the slopes of the medanos and think in this
attrition you have found the source of the mournful cadence that
seems to fill the whole surrounding atmosphere. Profanity of
science! Be still and listen! It is one of the sad haravis of the
sierra; the spirits of departed Incas are chanting solemn dirges
over the lost children of the sun!

But once in seven years there comes a marvelous change over
all this scene. A shower — sometimes two or three showers —
wanders away from the mountains and is poured over the arid
land. Then what wealth of beauty leaps up under the wand of
nature! The hitherto lifeless earth springs into being; grass and
flowering plants appear on every hand, growing so tall the rider
ahorseback can not see over them. The brilliant yellow leaf of
the amancaes (Istnene amancaes), the red petals of the begonia
geranifolia, contrasting with the white inner sides ; valerians, the
beautiful bomerea ovata, innumerable varieties of oxalis; solanum,
crucifers, and amaranths that live on the nourishment drawn by
their long, penetrating roots from the lower soil and waiting all
these years to give the world the beauty of their bloom ; martynia
andaniseia; algaroba (Proserpis horidd)^ a stunted honey locust that
furnishes the horse feed of the country as it is cultivated along
the river banks, the undigested seed dropped by passing animals
in their journeys to sprout and root itself this once in seven years

PERU. 15

in the desert ; the caparis crotonoides ; colicodendrum scabridum,
called by the people the "dog's sapote," because the hungry curs
of the country go to the pampas when other sources of food fail
them and eat the fruit of this tree ; and more majestic cacti than
have ever been seen in any other land; salicornias and salscias —
all these and more appear in the desert in the year of rain.

Who but asks, "whence comes this brilliant life?" " How has
it slept in the ground these seven years ? " It lasts a week, and has
been known to continue a month; cattle and great herds of goats
wander out of the irrigated valleys across the living fields and
revel in the boundless joy. When they return you know the
beauty is departing and death is settling on the scene.

Twenty years ago an enterprising Peruvian built an inn mid-
road between the port of Paita and Piura, the capital of the depart-
ment. All his supplies of every kind were brought with toil of
donkeys from the valley of the Chira and from the port. Even
water and fuel were transported 7 leagues to that door. The inn-
keeper had done a good work for the people and looked only for
the gratitude and shekels of an appreciative world. What, then,
was his surprise when there appeared a planter from the nearest
hacienda on the Chira, demanding rent for the half acre of desert
that he had made a blessing to all the region. These lands were
supposed to be the property of the state and no mortal had ever
before made claim to any ownership in them. Now, however, the
record showed that Macacara held under a grant from the Spanish
Crown which conveyed a certain length "along the Rio Chira
and then toward the Orient as far as the goats would go before
they returned to the river for water." And it happens that in a
year of rain the goats pass the tambo of Congara and go clear out
to the foothills "before they return to the river for water."

The Zona Seca of the north of Peru, i. e., in the Department of
Piura, possesses a wonderful climate, making it the sanitarium of
all the South American coast accessible to its ports. Phthisis,

l6 PERU.

syphilis, and nervous prostration come here for recovery, sent by
physicians everywhere, between Panama and Chile. Even the
dead escape the ordinary process of putrefaction. An open coffin
in the cemetery contained the body of a deceased priest, as shown
by the purple shirt and white cotton drawers in which it was
dressed, lying out there in the light of the clear sun of Paita. A
scandalized traveler sought the curate of the parish to report the
outrage of this irreverent exposure. " Oh ! my dear sir," cried the
curate, "you do not understand; that is the body of my friend
which I have put out there to dry, so that I may send him to his
family in Guayaquil. May he rest in peace ! "

Wherever a grave is opened on the coast, some old mummy is
unearthed with huacas and various curios of the Inca days, and
hundreds of these are to be found in the United States. They
consist of mummified bodies, pieces of woven cloth buried with
them, earthen jars called huacas, which had been buried with the
traveler to the " Unknown," filled with the delicious chicha which
he loved so well on earth ; his fishing tackle or hunting gear, and
a variety of articles made sacred by his use of them in life.

Chapter II.

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

THE CONQUEST OF PERU GOVERNMENT OF THE VICEROYS WAR FOR

INDEPENDENCE HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC WAR WITH CHILE

TERMS OF PEACE.

When Pizarro discovered Peru, he found a great nation enjoy-
ing a second epoch in civilization. Of the first but little has been
told in the traditions of the Incas. Those inspired monarchs had
found and submerged it beneath the new and more refined religion
of the divine light, and the sublimely perfect communism they
brought with it. Constant employment of the people in system-
atic labor and organized recreation, without oppression or hurry;
with no rank of wealth, among a race too gentle to be ambitious,
too docile to be vicious, produced a state in which the Spanish
adventurer, who conquered the land, found industry, virtue, and
contentment. It was the highest type of civilization yet reached
on this hemisphere, and probably the highest of which the abo-
riginal American was capable.

It is impossible to reflect on the conquest of Peru without a
feeling deeper than simple sadness. Human blood boils with
indignation against the horrors perpetrated in the name of the
Prince of Peace, to convert a race which, after more than three
centuries and a half of subjugation, is not yet Christian, but
secretly meets to worship after the manner of the fathers; a race
which still wears emblems of mourning for the murdered Ata-
hualpa and expects with undoubting faith to see the Inca Messiah
return to redeem his people.

BuU. 60 — 2 17

l8 PERU.

The conquest of Peru was consummated by Pizarro's treach-
erous capture of Atahualpa in November, l 532, without a battle,
but with immense slaughter of the unsuspecting, unarmed retinue
of the Inca, who had come to welcome the strange visitors to his
dominions — a slaughter led by the priest Valerde. Atahualpa
was strangled on the square of Cajarmarca on the 29th of August,
1 533- I n *535 Valerde was made bishop of Cuzco, and Pizarro
was created a marquis of Spain.

On Monday, the 18th of January, 1535, Pizarro, with 60 of his
followers, laid the foundation of a city which he had determined
should be the capital of the new nation of his conquest, and called
it "The City of the Kings," in honor of the Spanish sovereigns,
Juana and Carlos V, her son. Later it became Lima, a corruption
of " Rimac," the name of the river on whose banks it stands, the
beautiful city that is to-day the capital of the Republic. Pizarro
laid out and began building the Plaza de Armas of Lima, just as
it has since been finished. The cathedral of which he laid the cor-
ner stone in 1535 was consecrated in 1625, just ninety years later.
The palace of government was built on the north and the munic-
ipal halls on the west, facing the cathedral and the archbishop's
palace, which are side by side. After founding the City of the
Kings, Pizarro laid out another city, midway between the capital
and that city in the north, which he had called San Miguel de
Piura. This new town he called Truxillo, for his birthplace in
Spain.

On the 26th of June, 154 1, Pizarro, then over 70 years of age,
was assassinated in his house in Lima by a revolutionary mob of
citizens. After his death, governors and viceroys were sent over
from Spain to govern the country, until 1824. The viceroys,
though chief magistrates, were not supreme. In legal matters
they had to consult the audiencia or council of judges; in finance,
the tribunal of accounts ; in other branches, the directors of gov-
ernment and war.

PERU.

l 9

In their legislation the Spanish kings and viceroys showed a
desire to protect their people from tyranny, but they were unable
to prevent the rapacity and lawlessness of distant officials. The
country was depopulated by the illegal method of enforcing the
mita^ by which a seventh part of the native population became the
constant involuntary laborers of the Spaniards, and an air of sad-
ness and desolation overspread the land which has never entirely
disappeared.

In the beginning of the present century, Peru had become the
center of Spanish power, and the viceroy had his strength concen-
trated at Lima. Consequently the more distant provinces of
Chile and Buenos Ayres were first able to throw off the Spanish
yoke. But the destruction of the viceroy's power was essential to
their continued independence. The conquest of the Peruvian
coast depended on the command of the sea. Accordingly, in
1818, a fleet consisting of six vessels was fitted out in Valparaiso
and sailed north, under the command of Lord Cochrane, a distin-
guished English naval officer. All the vessels were commanded
by Englishmen except one, the commander of which was an
American. It was two years before the invaders were able to
effect a landing on the coast of Peru, but in 1820 an army of
Argentine troops, with some Chileans, under the command of San
Martin, landed and marched on Lima, where they were enthusi-
astically received, and on the 28th of July, 1821, the viceroy
having escaped, the independence of Peru was declared. On the
22d of September, 1822, the military commander, San Martin,
withdrew, and the first Congress became the sovereign power of
the State. After a short period of government by a committee
of three the Congress elected, on the 26th of February, 1823, Don
Jose de la Riva Aguero to be the first President of Peru. The
second President was General Lamar, who had commanded at the
final battle for independence, fought at Ayacucho on the 9th of
December, 1824, resulting in the complete route of the viceroy

20 PERU.

and his army. General Gamarra was elected third President on
the 31st of August, 1829.

For fifteen years, till 1844, Peru was loyally feeling her way to
a right use of her independence. Political rivalries brought three
men to the fore, who had distinguished themselves in the battle of
Ayacucho; Generals Gamarra, Salavery, and Santa Cruz, who
became Presidents by force and were deposed by the people,
who were determined to maintain the guaranties of the constitution.

Statesmen, orators, and poets also appeared to defend the right
and protest against usurpation. Prominent among these the name
of Dr. Paulo de Gonzales Vijil stands forth with a luster born of
genius devoted to patriotism and liberal thought; a wise man,
virtuous and courageous, he has received the crown of a martyr,
illumined with the halo of a saint.

Peru had three new constitutions — in 1828, 1833, and 1839. In
1844 Gen. Ramon Castilla restored peace to the country, and was
elected President in 1845. Ten years of peace and increasing
prosperity followed, and in 1849 the re g u l ar payment of interest
on the public debt was begun; steamship communication along
the coast was established, and a railroad built from Lima to Callao,
its port. In 1851 Castilla retired from office and Echinique was
elected his successor; but after three years of successful adminis-
tration he became suspected of corruption in manipulating the
public credit and was deposed by a revolutionary movement led
by Castilla, at the end of a struggle that lasted six months. Cas-
tilla again became President in 1855, and reestablished order.
With the exception of a local insurrection, headed by Vivanco,
there was peace in Peru until the Chilean war broke out in 1879.

The present constitution of the nation was framed in 1856 and
revised by a commission in i860. Slavery and the Indian tribute
of the mita, only another name for slavery, were abolished by its
provisions.

PERU. 21

In 1862 Castilla was succeeded by his friend, the Grand Mar-
shal Miguel San Roman, who had been a captain in the battle
of Ayacucho and was distinguished for his military skill and exec-
utive ability. Unfortunately, the nation was early deprived of
his patriotic services by death, and the First Vice-President,
General Pezet, who was absent in Europe, returned and was
inaugurated in 1865. Pezet's administration was disturbed by
what is known as the "Question Talambo." Spain, having signed
a treaty acknowledging the independence of Peru in 1853, sou ght
to regain control of a land which had contributed magnificent
treasures to her wealth, and claimed $3,000,000 indemnity for
damages alleged to be due to certain Spanish immigrants who had
settled in the valley of Juequetepeque. President Pezet pru-
dently temporized with Spain while he was putting himself in a
position of defense. But his conduct was misunderstood by the
people, and he resigned the Presidency rather than be the cause
of civil war. Colonel Prado was declared Supreme Chief, and
made a treaty of defense with Chile that resulted in driving the
Spanish from the coast, which they left hurriedly on the 9th of
May, 1866, after a decisive battle fought on the 2d of that month;
a battle that created one of the most important holidays of the
Republic and has given a name to many institutions ; the " Dos
de Mayo" will forever live in the memory of Peruvians as a glory
in her history. Through the medium of the United States a
truce was arranged between the contending powers, and on the
14th of August, 1879, a definitive treaty of peace was signed
between Peru and Spain.

But the return of peace reminded all parties that Prado was
not a legally elected President of the Republic. Castilla, always
the loyal monitor of his country, initiated the movement of cor-
rection, but died before it was settled. Col. Jose Balta took up
his sword where Castilla had dropped it and forced the retirement
of Prado, after which he was elected constitutional President on
the 2d of August, 1868.

22 PERU.

At this time the public debt of Peru was only $22,000,000,
and the interest had been regularly paid since 1849. Under the
influence of an enterprising American, Mr. Henry Meiggs, of
California, who went to Peru at about the time of Balta's acces-
sion to power, an immense system of public works was projected,
to be paid for out of the proceeds of the sales of guano, of which
Peru was fortunate (or unfortunate) in being almost the exclusive
owner of the world's stock. The possession of this real wealth
and the manifestation of integrity in the payment of interest on
the hitherto small public debt gave Peru a name of rare value in
the money centers of Europe. The public debt was augmented
to reach the sum of $245,000,000, and the sales of guano were
insufficient to meet the interest.

President Balta was succeeded on the 2d of August, 1872, by
Don Manuel Pardo, one of the most distinguished men the coun-
try has produced, an honest and enlightened statesman, who did
all in his power to rescue the State from the financial embarrass-
ment into which it had fallen, a problem he found incapable of
solution. He struggled with it until 1876, when he found it
impossible to pay the interest on the bonds, and the country was
bankrupt.

Pardo was the first civilian who had ever been elected to the
office of President of Peru. Morally and intellectually he would
have been a man of mark in any country. He was popular as a
magistrate. But all he could do to alleviate the economic condi-
tion of his country was to curtail expenditure in every department
of the administration. As the price of guano had fallen to a non-
paying figure in European markets, he strove to obtain larger
returns from the nitrate deposits of Tarapaca; and in 1875 the
State was authorized to buy in all the nitrate works and establish
a monopoly.

Adjoining the Peruvian nitrate district was the Bolivian terri-
tory, also rich in similar deposits and being worked at that time by

PERU. 23

Chilean companies and English capital, having their headquarters
in Chile. The Peruvians and Bolivians believed they saw a dis-
position toward encroachment on the part of their southern neigh-
bors, and entered into a defensive alliance for mutual protection
against any attempt to seize their coasts. Neither really expected
war and neither was prepared for such an event. Meantime the
Chilean navy had been growing to formidable dimensions, and
when at last the war did come it found the combatants in the
unmatched condition that might have been expected, with the
obvious result of such conditions.

But the national disaster was not in the time of Pardo, who
devoted himself to promoting useful measures of reform in every
department of his Government. He organized a national corps of
engineers and architects, composed of native and foreign members
of these professions, who were divided into four classes according
to their experience. To these was added a corps of Peruvian
adjutants, also divided into four classes according to their qualifi-
cations, who were really the apprentices and students of the expe-
rienced men, whose places they were thus being qualified to take
in the future, furnishing by this method a corps of native-born
engineers and architects independent of all foreign element. Pres-
ident Pardo's principal adviser in this work was Don Eulogio
Delgado, a graduate of the Lawrence Scientific School of Massa-

chusetts, and of the Ecole Pblytechnique of Paris. Senor Delgado
is a member of one of the oldest families of Peru, and has been
foremost in leading his country in the true direction of national
prosperity, which he believes to lie in the development of indus-
tries rather than in speculation. To this end he established a
model farm near Lima to illustrate the possibilities of Peruvian
agriculture, considered the true basis of the country's wealth.
He has given a great deal of attention to the subject of irrigation
of the marvelously fertile deserts of northern Pe r u, and under the

24 PERU.

encouragement of Pardo made extensive surveys in the Depart-
ment of Piura for the formation of projects that might bring for-
eign capital to that interesting region.

Chinese immigration had become an important question for
treatment at the hands of Pardo. Chinamen first began to arrive
in Peru in 1849, an( ^ by 1 &53 nearly 3,000 had been landed.
They were coolies engaged under contracts made at Macao, from
which port they were shipped, and became on arrival the slaves
of those who bought them for a term of years, generally to work
on the sugar plantations of the coast, on the railroads, and in
the loading of guano. In 1856 the importation of Chinese was
prohibited by Congress, but again authorized in 1861, when the
liberation of negro slaves made a demand for more labor than the
freedmen were willing to furnish, and of more reliable character for
the valleys of the coast. In the years 1861-1872 nearly 60,000
Chinamen had arrived in the country. They were bound to serve
eight years and received $ 1 a month in silver, and their food, with a
stipulated amount of clothing*. By the influence of President
Pardo, the Portuguese at Macao abolished contract emigration in
1874 altogether, in order to secure direct emigration from Chinese
ports; and then Pardo set himself to arrange conditions with the
Chinese Government that would give Peru a better class of laborers
and destroy the infamous trade in coolies — in reality slaves — while
providing a regulation of justice by which the contract laborer
should be able to regain his liberty to make new contracts when
his stipulated term of service had expired; for under the old sys-
tem many men were being held to labor at the paltry pay of
coolies after their apprenticeship was ended.

A registry of coolie contracts was established at Lima, and the
officers see to it that when a man's contract expires he is so notified
and given his liberty to do what any other laborer may do. If his
employer fails to inform the man at the proper time he is subject to
a fine. If the Chinaman wishes to return to his own country, his

PERU. 25

introducer is bound to give him a free passage home. Two Asiatics,
acting as police and interpreter, are attached to the prefectura of
every department to see that their countrymen are not abused and
to secure them all the rights the treaty with China has conferred
on them. There are two important Chinese firms in Lima whose
members have served out terms as coolies. There are a Chinese
club and theater, and two Chinese benevolent societies in the
cities. Along the coast the chola women fall readily into the
arms of Chinese lovers, and if the church is not called in to sol-
emnize the union the omission does not seriously affect the social
life of the family. The Chinaman has proved a favorite in such
a relation because of his sobriety and gentle devotion to his mate.
In his negotiations with the Chinese Government the President
was served by a faithful friend and patriotic officer of the Peruvian
navy, Don Aurelio Garcia y Garcia, who conducted the business
with singular ability, attested by his success. President Pardo had
been educated in an English banking house, and was an excellent
statistician, which he turned to good account in his term of office.
During that time he made a census of the people of Peru, which
was really the first earnest attempt at such a work ; it showed a
population of 2,700,000 souls, exclusive of the aboriginal Indians
of the montana, estimated to amount to 300,000 more. He also
established a statistical department of the Government, divided
into branches for census, territory, archives, movement of popu-
lation, death rate, judicial and police, commerce and agricultural.
The first publication of the department was a work on the political
divisions of the Republic, with an enumeration of cities, towns, and
villages; also tracing the history of these divisions since the Con-
quest. A map of Peru was compiled under the direction of the
corps of engineers, assisted by the distinguished naturalist and
geographer, Antonio Raimondi. He also established a geograph-
ical society, and began the publication of Professor Raimondi's
great work on Peru. This distinguished scientist, a native of

26 PERU.

Milan, went to Peru in 1850 and visited every part of the country,
surveying, collecting, and annotating for several years. He first
published a volume on the Department of Ancachs, in 1873, and
followed it with three volumes on the natural history of Peru,
which are a splendid contribution to the scientific literature of the
world. They are equally an honor to Professor Raimondi and the
liberality of the Government, which showed a fine appreciation of
his work and made it possible for him to give it to the world in
creditable shape.

President Pardo also founded a fine-arts society, with the duty
of administering the buildings in the public garden of Lima,
which had been the site of a grand industrial exhibition. He
intended the salons of these beautiful edifices for the establish-
ment of a general museum, a school of painting and sculpture,
and a music hall. It is difficult to estimate what might have been
the ultimate results of this singularly wise administration. The
terrible war with Chile interrupted the progress of the country and
drew the attention of the people away from that higher civiliza-
tion toward which they were marching to be concentrated on the
more immediate duty of defense against foreign invasion.

Manuel Pardo's term of office ended on the 2d of August,
1876. He was succeeded by Gen. Mariano Ignacio Prado, dur-
ing whose administration the war with Chile occurred.

The unexpected declaration of war by her southern neighbor,
in April, 1879, found Peru wholly unprepared on land and sea for
such an emergency. The Chileans were successful, and after the
continuation of hostilities for five years, during which Peru exhib-
ited unexampled patriotism and devotion, a treaty of peace was
signed by Iglesias, at the time acting President of Peru.

During the war Prado had left Peru to visit Europe, leaving
the Government in the hands of the First Vice-President, Gen-
eral La Puerta. The departure of the President created an excite-
ment in Lima that ended in the retirement of the Vice-President

PERU. 27

This incident caused General Pierola, who had been a member of
Balta's Cabinet, to get possession of the Government, which he
assumed by tacit consent; but on his leaving the city, and the
appearance at its gates of the Chilean army, Dr. Garcia Calderon,
an eminent lawyer of the capital, was invited by leading citizens
to assume direction of affairs, His Government was recognized
by the United States, Switzerland, and the Central American
Republics. He attempted to arrange a peace with Chile, but
found that the demands of the latter were unacceptable, and asked
that the United States be invited to arbitrate the questions in dis-
pute. The proposition was refused, and Dr. Calderon was sent a
prisoner to Chile. The invaders then placed the Government of
Peru in the hands of Iglesias, and arranged with him for peace
under the following terms :

I. Relations of peace and amity are reestablished.

II. Tarapadi is ceded to Chile unconditionally and forever.

III. The territories of Tacna and Arica, as far as the river Sama, are to be
held by Chile for ten years, and it is then to be determined by a plebiscite
whether those territories are to belong to Peru or Chile. Whichever country
secures them is to pay to the other the sum of $10,000,000.

IV. By a decree of February 9, 1882, the Chilean Government ordered the
sale of 1,000,000 tons of guano, the net proceeds, after deducting expenses, to be
divided equally between the Chilean Government and the creditors of Peru, to
whom the entire proceeds had already been secured by contract, in the time of
Balta. When the sale is completed the Chilean Government will continue to
pay to the Peruvian creditors 50 per cent of the net proceeds of the guano
actually being worked, until such deposits are exhausted. The product of the
deposits that may hereafter be discovered in the ceded territory to be the prop-
erty of Chile.

V. If deposits of guano are hereafter discovered in territory belonging to
Peru, the two Governments will jointly determine as to the conditions to which
each must bind itself in disposing of the article, and this holds good as regards
the Lobos Islands when they are delivered over to Peru, the object being to
avoid competition between the two Governments.

VI. The Peruvian creditors referred to in Article IV must agree to the
registration of their documents and to the other regulation of the decree of
February 9, 1882.

28 PERU.

VII. The obligation of Chile under Article IV is to be observed whether the
guano be extracted by virtue of the contract for the sale of 1,000,000 tons, or
by any other contract, or on account of the Chilean Government itself.

VIII. The Chilean Government, as regards nitrate, does not recognize lien
of any nature whatever that can affect the territories acquired by this treaty.

IX. The Lobos Islands to be held by Chile until the exportation of the
1,000,000 tons of guano referred to in Articles IV and VII is completed, and
then to be restored to Peru.

X. The Chilean Government agrees to cede to Peru the 50 per cent of net
proceeds of Lobos Islands guano, corresponding to the said Government.

The treaty containing these provisions was ratified by an assem-
bly on the 8th of March, 1884. Meanwhile the constitutional
Congress of the Republic had met at Arequipa in March, 1883,
and elected Garcia Calderon the constitutional President, with
Admiral Montero and General Caceres First and Second Vice-
Presidents.

After peace had been signed by the Peruvian commissioners
and ratified by an assembly, the Chileans left the country, and
Caceres marched upon Lima to remove Iglesias. Having reached
the capital on the 1st of December, 1885, he sent an appeal to
Iglesias to join him in naming commissioners for the settlement
of differences and the restoration of constitutional government
without more bloodshed. "Let us remember," he said, "that we
are Peruvians and not enemies." Iglesias was in his power and
consented.

The patriotism of Caceres was of the highest order. His pru-
dent conduct secured the peace of his country. Patriotic citizens
emulated their General in the exhibition of fraternal spirit, and
past political offenses were cordially forgiven, so that men whose
ambition had led them into treasonable attitudes were invited to
return to their country and assist in raising it from the unhappy
condition to which the war had reduced it. Under the liberal
decree of a general amnesty exiled citizens returned to their
beloved country; among them came General Prado. Iglesias

/

PERU. 29

went back to his home in the mountain city of Caxamarca, and
Caceres had the satisfaction of seeing his country once more
restored to peace, after having fought its battles incessantly for six
years.

A constitutional Congress met at Lima on the 30th of May,
1886, and Caceres was unanimously elected President of the
Republic.

President Caceres was called to a most distressing task. The
country was utterly ruined ; the pall of death covered every house-
hold; the repeated massacre of Indians and the loss of the flower of
the country's manhood on the battlefield had greatly reduced the
population. The treasury was empty. The country had been
robbed of all visible means of recuperation. Only poverty seemed
to thrive, and it stalked abroad in sullen pride. Caceres began as
Pardo had done before him, reducing the expense of administer-
ing the Government to the lowest terms. Recognizing the impor-
tance of the Indian element in the population, he issued a circular
to the prefects, placing the Indians on an equal footing with the
Peruvians of Spanish descent, and securing them the same rights
and privileges.

The army was reduced to an effective force of 6 infantry battal-
ions, with 2,400 men ; 2 cavalry regiments, 600 men ; 2 brigades
of artillery, 500 men. For police there was a gendarmerie of
2,400 men. This small army, while ample for all the require-
ments of peace, was a smaller force than Pardo had thought neces-
sary. The navy was reduced to two small steamers, the Peru and
Santa Rosa. Both army and navy are in excellent hands, and form
a school for rising officers that has no superior in the world in the
practical ability and devotion of its professors, the patriotic offi-
cers who have already proven their public spirit in the battles ot a
terrible war.

Another duty falling to the new Government was the restora-
tion of the various institutions of learning and art, which had

30 PERU.

suffered much during the war. The public library, which had con-
tained nearly 60,000 volumes in 1880, including rare editions of
the Bible, Elzevir and Delphin editions of the classics; excellent
collections of philosophy, history, and science, and a very com-
plete assortment of works on American archaeology, almost all of
which were scattered to the winds, was partially restored by the
eminent Peruvian poet and author, Ricardo Palma, after many
months of severe labor, in which he was assisted by the loving
hands of many Peruvians, public-spirited men, who employed
themselves in gathering the scattered and flying leaves from the
streets. Spain, Argentina, the United States, and Ecuador came
forward with contributions of books, and on the 28th of July,
1884, the national library was solemnly reopened with 28,000
volumes.

Dr. Francisco Garcia Calderon, after suffering imprisonment
that greatly injured his health, returned to Lima to become the
president of the Senate and rector of the university.

The administration of General Caceres was a constant struggle
with adverse circumstances. But while it was not possible to so
much as meet the interest of the foreign debt, he succeeded in
restoring perfect order in all parts of the Republic and in every
department of the Government. During his administration the
famous Grace contract, by which Peru was relieved of the burden
of her vast foreign debt, was discussed in successive Congresses
and finally perfected to the satisfaction of her creditors and the

advantage of the country.

On the 10th of August, 1890, General Caceres surrendered the
office of President, which he had held the legal term of four years,
into the hands of his successor, Col. Remijio Morales Bermudez,
as constitutional President of Peru, while Caceres has been com-
plimented with the honorable position of minister to Great Britain
and France.

PERU. 31

Remijio Morales Bermudez, born September 30, 1836, became
at the age of 18 a sublieutenant under Castilla in a Tarapaca
regiment; and was made a major for meritorious service in 1862.
He served under Balta as commandante at Iquitos, on the head
waters of the Amazon, and Pardo had made him subprefect at
Truxillo. He did splendid duty for his country during the Chil-
ean war, and finally attached himself to General Caceres in the
movement against Iglesias. His administration has been like that
of his predecessor, one of patriotic devotion to his people. Peru,
under him, was in possession of a firm and stable government,
under the influence of prudent, far-sighted statesmen, who devoted
themselves to the material development of their country and the
elevation of the people.

Chapter III.

FINANCIAL CONDITION— SETTLEMENT WITH FOREIGN BOND-
HOLDERS—RAILWAYS AND THEIR PROPOSED EXTENSION-
NAVIGATION FACILITIES— LINES OF TRANSPORTATION— OROYA
RAILROAD— TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE SYSTEMS.

At the close of the Caceres administration the annual income
and outlay of the Peruvian Government were as follows :

INCOME.

Customs, amount actually received $4, 955, 944

Taxes on consumption of —

Tobacco , $276, 049

Alcohol 250, 476

Opium 233,430

Miscellaneous 154, 195

914, 150

Telegraphs 30, 651

Post-office 156, 352

Railroads 36, 306

Various 310, 022

Balance 513, 921

Total income in that year ... 6, 917, 346

In administering the Government Caceres has pursued the
policy that characterized the administration of Pardo, reducing
the expenditures to the lowest terms by the practice of honesty
and economy. These amounted, during the year for which the
income has been already stated, to $6,053,962, distributed * as fol-
lows, viz:

Salaries of members of Congress $253, 458

Civil departments 759, 533

Foreign affairs, missions, etc 220, 807

32

PERU. 33

Instruction, justice, ecclesiastical $412, 579

Finance and trade 1, 076, 632

Army and navy 2, 257, 976

Supplementary credits of former years 733, 916

Miscellaneous 339, 061

This statement shows a balance in favor of the Government
of $863,384, a considerable part of which has been applied to
paying the interest on the internal debt, the principal of which
amounts to $35,000,000.

As already stated, the foreign debt of Peru has been arranged
by the Government in agreement with the foreign bondholders,
represented by Mr. Michael P. Grace and Lord Donoughmore,
of London, who submitted a proposition to the administration
of General Caceres, which, after due discussion and amendment by
four successive Congresses, received the general approval of the
country and has become a contract between the parties.

The scheme was that the bondholders should form a corpora-
tion to receive from the Peruvian Government all the railroads
for a term of years, with mining privileges and grants of land for
immigration. In return the bondholders were to deliver over to
Peru one-half her obligations abroad and look to Chile for a
settlement of the other half. Chile protested, but the British
Government took such action to protect her subjects that on the
8th of January, 1890, a protocol was signed between Peru and
Chile that enabled General Caceres to close the contract with the
bondholders, by which the foreign debt is canceled with satisfac-
tion to the creditors and honor to Peru. Chile has ceded to
Peru, and Peru has transferred to the bondholders, the money
derived from the sale of guano, which was deposited in the Bank
of England, amounting to ,£558,565; 80 per cent of the sums
received by Chile for the sales of guano since the year 1882,
,£489,143, and the product of the guano deposits now being
worked, including those on the coast of Tarapaca, tor eight years,
which is estimated at 80,000 tons, yielding a revenue of ;£ 160,000
a year.

Bull. 60 — 3

34

PERU.

The debt which by the contract has been wiped out, amounted
in 1886 to ,£51,423,190. That instrument, as approved by
Congress, contains thirty-five clauses, of which the following is a
summary. The bondholders release Peru from all her foreign
obligations; in return, the Peruvian Government cedes to the
bondholders all the State railroads for sixty-six years; these are
the Mollendo to Puno, on Lake Titicaca; Callao to Chicla, to be
continued to Oroya, and Juliaca (on the Mollendo and Puno) to
Santa Rosa, to be continued to Cuzco. Of these there are the
following in operation :

Mollendo to Arequipa

Arequipa to Puno

Juliaca, near Puno, on the Arequipa and Puno line

Callao to Oroya

Pisco to lea

Lima to Ancon

Chimbote to Suchiman

Pacasmayo to Yonan and Guadelupe

Salavery to Truxillo and Ascope

Paita to Piura

Total

Cost.

(Soles.)
12, OOO, OOO
30, OOO, OOO

26, 600, OOO

2, OOO, OOO

2,000, OOO

It is not possible to state the cost from any known data, as
several are parts of incomplete contracts that the Grace contract
has undertaken to perfect, in which case the following extensions
will be made :

The Juliaca and Santa Rosa to Cuzco . .
The Chimbote and Suchiman to Recuay

The Salavery to be extended

Previous data brought down

Total

Cost.

(Soles)
$25, OOO, OOO
24, OOO, OOO

3, 400, 000
73, 200, 000

125,600,000

1 If they had been built and completed in accordance with the original contracts.

PERU. 35

In addition to these lines of railroads, the corporation of bond-
holders gets the free use of the moles and quays at Mollendo,
Pisco, Ancon, Chimbote, Pacasmayo, Paita, and Salavery.

The bondholders undertook to finish the line from Chicla to
Oroya in three years, and have already fulfilled the obligation.
They are to build from Santa Rosa towards Cuzco, as far as
Sicuani, within four years, and complete 160 kilometers within six
years on other lines, and are at this time actively engaged on the
work. They were to repair all the existing lines and have them
ready for traffic within two years. The Peruvian Government
also ceded to the bondholders the right of free navigation of Lake
Titicaca, the vessels to be commanded by Peruvians of the navy;
also 3,000,000 tons of guano, from all the deposits except that on
the Chincha Islands, which is to be retained by Peru for the use
of home agriculture. Peru also agrees to pay the bondholders
thirty annuities of ,£80,000 each, secured by hypothecating the
revenues of the Callao custom-house, making an aggregate sum
of $2,000,000, the payment of which will begin in October of the
year 1893. The bondholders are empowered to issue mortgage
bonds against their holdings, up to the sum of £"6,000,000. To
carry out the terms ofthis contract between the Peruvian Govern-
ment and the foreign creditors, a company was organized in Lon-
don in April, 1890, called the Peruvian Corporation, of which the
creditors became the stockholders by exchanging their 6 per cent
bonds for shares in the company, at the rate of a ^100 bond for a
share of preferred stock, worth £"24 at par, or for one of the ordi-
nary shares of ^30 par value. These terms have been accepted
by practically all the bondholders.

In the concessions made by Peru, whether in this " Grace con-
tract " or in those granted to other foreigners for the purpose of
developing the natural wealth of the country, that Government
has protected with patriotic care the interests of her own children
by specifications that secure them a share of employment on the

36 PERU.

various works. In the present case one-half of all the railroad
employees are to be Peruvians.

Peru is thus relieved of the burden of her foreign debt by the
honorable method of delivering to her creditors the works for
which their money was expended. While it can not be said that
her credit is reestablished, she is on the road to that desirable con-
dition; not only in having submitted willingly to the inevitable
sacrifices caused by the foreclosures, but by severe fidelity to
her obligations under the contracts, in which she has extended
every possible assistance to the concessionaires, who are largely
dependent on the national integrity for the good results of their
negotiations.

The interest on the internal debt of about $35,000,000 is pro-
vided for by the tax on alcohol, 5 per cent of the customs dues,
and some other taxes set apart for the purpose.

The great work passing into the hands of the " Peruvian Cor-
poration" is the celebrated Transandean Railroad, begun by Mr.
Henry Meiggs, nearly a quarter of a century ago, and paralyzed
in its course by the financial disasters of the country. This line,
originally suggested by Don Manuel Par do, long before he
became the President of the Republic, was designed to reach the
valley of the Oroya and bring into connection with the coast, and
therefore a market, the fertile region of the sierra ; also to open
up to the citizens of Lima a district famous for its salubrity of
climate.

The construction of the line would lead to the agricultural
development of the valley of the Jauja, celebrated for its wheat-
producing capacity and as a sanitarium for consumptive invalids.
But when the progress of the work led to further investigations
the possession of the Cerro de Pasco silver mines became the
grand objective. These mines had been worked by the Span-
iards early in their control of the territory, and had returned such
wonderful treasures for the rude methods employed that when they

PERU. 37

were drowned by floods which no known means could arrest, the
accident was reckoned a national calamity. Only in the day of
Mr. Meiggs, when boldness in engineering designs had become
the common thing in Peru, did it seem practicable to relieve the
mines of water by driving a tunnel from a point down the moun-
tain slope to the bottom of the mine and open a drainage channel
that should keep the silver drifts free from flood. The scheme
was first proposed to Mr. Meiggs by Mr. Ernest Mallinoski, the
chief engineer of the transandean line, and under his directions
surveys were undertaken which developed the practicability and
value of the project. The excavation of the tunnel was begun
in 1876, and in common with all other Peruvian enterprises aban-
doned when the country became hopelessly involved in financial
ruin. The Peruvian Government had given Meiggs a concession
for working these mines, and he had imported a heavy invoice of
machinery for its prosecution, comprising an 80-stamp mill, which
lay at a railroad station for many years, paralyzed like all other
instruments of progress in the country. The concession of Meiggs
lapsed by reason of failure to complete his contract, but in this
condition his executors transferred his rights to Grace, who in
his turn, after having it confirmed to him by the government of
Iglesias, transferred it to the " Peruvian Corporation."

Up to the present no agreement has been arrived at between
the Peruvian Corporation and the Government, which insists on
retaining a larger share of the proceeds of wealth sure to flow from
a development of the work in proper hands and with modern
machinery, than the Peruvian Corporation has been willing to
give.

Means of transportation. — While the Cerro de Pasco has been
the long-sought terminus, not yet attained, English enterprise
reaches still farther into the eastern provinces of Peru, and is seek-
ing a commercial outlet by the Atlantic through the Amazon
River. To this end surveys are now in progress from the termi-

38 PERU.

nus of the Central Railroad of Peru, as the transandean line is
called, that shall pass by Tarma to the head of steamboat naviga-
tion at the foot of the falls on the Perene, a principal tributary
of the Amazon. This point is 1,000 feet above the level of the
sea, from which it is about 4,000 miles distant.

There is already some navigation of the Amazon branch
which reaches the little port of Iquitos, where a steamer arrives
once a month. The principal traffic is in crude India rubber.

In addition to the Central Railroad, and other lines included
in the preceding table of "lines in operation," there are several
steamship lines on the coast, and three steel steamers engaged in
traffic on Lake Titicaca, the highest navigated water on the globe.
These vessels, formerly the property of the Peruvian Government,
have, in accordance with the terms of the contract, been turned
over to the Peruvian Corporation.

Two important steamship companies compete with each other
for the coast trade of the Southern Pacific, with Europe and the
United States. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company was
first inspired by the American, Wheelwright, who had been a con-
sul at Guayaquil (Ecuador) and saw the growing advantages of
South American commerce. His countrymen giving no heed
to his representations on the subject, he went to England with his
ideas and met a substantial welcome, of which the outcome has
been the most extensive fleet of commercial steamers in the posses-
sion of one company that the world has yet seen. They run one
set between Panama and Valparaiso, touching at the various ports
en route in such a manner that all the principal ports get weekly
service, while the minor ports are visited less frequently, and
smaller ships do the local freight traffic along the shore. The
whole business is shared by a Chilean line, La Compania Sud
Americana, owned by English capitalists and subsidized by Chile,
whose flag they fly, and to whom they are bound as national trans-
ports in the event of that power becoming involved in war. This

peru. 39

line is running some of the largest and finest ships in the world, as
to outfit. All the coast lines of steamers connect at Valparaiso
with a line to Liverpool owned by the Pacific Steam Navigation
Company. The passenger ships of all these lines are 450 feet
long, 49 feet breadth of beam, and 34 feet depth of hold, with a
freight-carrying capacity of 5,700 tons.

The freight and passenger rates on the Pacific Steam Naviga-
tion and South American companies' steamers are exorbitant, and
discriminate against the American shipper, who sends all his trade,
which does not take sailing vessel around the Horn, by way of
Panama. Thus the freight on live stock, which must necessarily
be sent by the most expeditious route, is about double the rates in
any other sea. From Panama to Callao the freight on a horse is
$38, American gold; on a cow or ox, $12; on a donkey, $21,
while the rate of passage is $160 for first class and $40 on deck.
The charges of the Pacific Mail between San Francisco or New
York and Panama are even worse, with inferior accommodations.

In addition to these regular lines the French and Germans have
freighting cruisers, with fair but limited accommodations for pas-
sengers, doing a semi-monthly service along the coast. The Ger-
mans have extended this traffic up the Central American coast and
into Mexico, whence they are shipping out the valuable dye and
cabinet woods with great celerity.

English speculators have reckoned largely on superseding the
Pacific routes with steamers plying between ports on the upper
Amazon and Liverpool via the Atlantic Ocean. When, however,
we reflect that from any port on the Peruvian Amazon to the
port of Callao will be only two days' travel by rail after the trans-
andean line is open for use, and that only 1,500 miles of the most
peaceful water on the face of the globe lies between Callao and
Panama; and further, that from the Amazon ports via the river to a
point in the stormy Atlantic as near Liverpool as Panama will
at present rates of travel require at least fourteen days for the out-

4-0 PERU.

ward trip and twenty for the inward, of which 3,000 miles will be
against the currents of the great river, we are enabled to understand
how much money there is lying around loose in European
markets waiting to be thrown upon the waste heap.

In the north of Peru is the River Chira, navigable for nearly 200
miles in the main stream and tributaries for steamers drawing in
the driest time 3 feet and in the full season from 6 to 10 feet.
The valley is well cultivated throughout its whole extent and has
no present means*of transportation save mules and donkeys, which
carry freight between the plantations and the Paita and Piura
Railroad, of which a short section of 20 miles runs along the side
of the valley. Stern-wheel steamers, suited to the carriage of pas-
sengers and freight, would find in this stream an excellent invest-
ment, as the river flows directly into the Bay of Paita, where
steamers of all classes make regular entries in traversing the coast.

There are no highway roads in Peru. In no section is the
freight of the country hauled on wheels or its passengers trans-
ported in stages, unless, indeed, we except the very limited dis-
trict in the valley of the Rimac, near Lima Everything in the
way of supplies and the export of produce is moved on the backs of
mules and donkeys; passengers travel in the saddle. The horses
being gentle, well-trained beasts, there is less difficulty in this
method of locomotion than one may at first view imagine. In
the sierra you will meet my lady mounted on her splendid saddle
mule, leading off for a trip of a day or two among the mountains,
followed by her cargo mule and servant.

The llama is still in use in the puna and somewhat in the
sierra. This remarkable little animal, which has been called the
camel of the Andes, was found by Pizarro among the Incas, who
had domesticated it to carry burdens, being the only beast so
employed on this continent before the introduction of European
civilization. An interesting feature of its domestication is the
fact that, while its docility has been so utilized, the creature will

PERU. 41

not permit abuse. It will carry almost exactly 100 pounds; if
more is put upon it you may kill it before you can make it move
a step. It shoots upon its human enemy a mass of filthy mucus
from its nostrils that is worse to endure than any kick of a
mule, but it is kind and loving when well treated. In the freight-
ing bands, which embrace from a score to 100 of these animals,
there is always a leader, an old fellow, decked out in ribbons and
scraps of colored cloth of various bright hues clear up to his ears,
and thus his decorated head is always in sight of his followers.

While English launches are in general use for the transhipment
of freight and passengers between the shore and ships in all the
ports in Peru, the balsa, just as Pizarro discovered it, a raft of
buoyant logs, is still a popular vessel for navigating the coast and
doing the work of launches in some of the northern ports, where
the balsa timber is easily procured from the rivers of Ecuador.
The caballico (pony) is a smaller raft than the balsa and is made
of fagots of straw or reeds, a foot in diameter, and laid side by
side from two to four bundles wide. The fagots are drawn to a
long point at each end and given an upward turn; they are a
contrivance of the Inca days, and are used both in the stormy
waters of the Titicaca and in riding the surf of the open road-
steads on the coast.

In addition to the lines and methods of transportation thus
named are several lines of street railway in Lima and other
cities. Twenty miles of this improvement are found in the
capital and suburbs, over which the fares are 10 cents, while
Arequipa, Truxillo, Piura, and the port of Paita all enjoy similar
advantages, and other cities are reaching out for the "tram."
There are but few private railroad lines in Peru. The oldest,
and so far the most prosperous, was built by Peruvian capital and
afterwards sold to an English corporation, which now controls it.
This line runs from the capital to its port of Callao, and is known
as the "English line," to distinguish it from the parallel built

42 PERU.

by Henry Meiggs and known as the "American line." The
English company afterwards extended their enterprise by the
construction of a line from Lima southward along the shore to
Chorillos, a fashionable watering place, passing through the
pretty villages of Miraflores and Barranca, a distance of 7 miles,
and accommodating the population who, having business in
Lima, prefer a suburban residence, or who in the summer, from
November to May, seek the comfort of delicious sea breezes or
the luxury of sea bathing.

A private corporation has built a railroad connecting the city of
Piura with Catacaos, a city of 25,000 inhabitants, 6 miles distant.
Other lines are generally subsidiary to. some special interest, prin-
cipally the sugar industry. Thus, in the valley of Chicama an
extensive system connects the sugar plantations with each other
and with the port of Salavery. The same is true of the Santa
Valley, where private lines connect the various trapiches and their
mansions with the railroad line from Recuay to the coast at
Chimbote Bay. Railroads also run from the ports of Eten and
Pimentel to the cities of Lambayeque and Chiclayo, and thence
into the rice-producing region of Ferenafe, a distance of 50 miles.

In the city of Lima and in Callao one may find carriages and
other classes of wheeled vehicles, but nowhere else in all the
Republic. There is a fine turnpike between the capital and its
port, but it is not much used for pleasure travel, though it makes
an important competition with the two railroads for moving
freight.

The Oroya Railroad, now known as the Central of Peru, to
which reference has already been made, was the conception of
Don Manuel Pardo while yet a private citizen; being the result
of a visit in search of health to that part of the sierra in which the
wonderful line has its terminus. H is report became a revelation
to the intelligence of Lima, which till then had but little appre-
ciation of the agricultural value of the region or its salubrity of

PERU. 43

climate. The interest of Pardo became general, and led to the
construction of a work which has come to be regarded as one of
the wonders of the world. It is a railroad of the first order in
every detail, being unsurpassed in the character of its bridges,
which are of iron; its masonry, which is all coursed with fine-cut
joints of bed and build; in the finish of tunnel approaches, which
enter each work under architectural designs of rare taste and
workmanship, and in the beauty of its station houses, which are
exquisite in design, permanent in character, and perfect in all
their appointments. This stupendous work, undertaken by Henry
Meiggs, was the grandest object of his life ; he determined that,
whether he made or lost money in it, he would make the most
perfect railroad in the world, although it was the most difficult
to build.

The Oroya Railroad leaves the port of Callao at 9 feet above
sea level, and in a distance of 106 miles surmounts an elevation
of 15,665 feet, where it passes, by a tunnel, under the summit of
Monte Meiggs — so named for the famous empresario — which
rises 2,000 feet higher. After leaving Callao the line passes four
stations in Lima, ascending with great uniformity 500 feet in a
distance of 7 miles along the left bank of the river Rimac,
through fields of eternal verdure produced by irrigation from the
waters of the stream. At Villegas, 2 miles above Callao, is the
tomb of Henry Meiggs, who lies by the side of his greatest work.
A mound and a cross are the simple marks of his resting place;
his monufhent is the Oroya Railroad.

Thirty three miles up the line is the station Chosica, 2,800 feet
above sea level, now a famous health resort and much sought in
both summer and winter for its delicious temperature, which is
blessed by cool winds in the hot months and by sunshine when
Lima lies under a chilling fog bank in July. Forty seven miles
from Callao, at 5,000 feet elevation, is San Bartolome, where an
extensive system of "switchbacks" and distance " development"

44 PERU.

begins, for the purpose of reducing grades. The train here is
pushed backwards up a steep ascent and then switched to the line
of its course, making three terraces along the mountain side and
rising in the following 5 miles 1,000 feet to a tunnel under the
Cuesta Blanca (White Hill), passing the celebrated Verrugas Via-
duct, a cantilever bridge nearly 300 feet above the bottom of a
ravine generally dry but a raging torrent during the floods of
every February. Throughout this portion of the Rimac's narrow
valley the mountains tower in imposing grandeur above the rail-
road works and the river. Utterly drear, bare, and unpromising
as they appear, they are still marked with the lines of those old
Inca terraces that testify their wealth-producing power under the
magic touch of irrigation. Here, too, some points of the railroad
are thrown into a remarkable vista. After leaving the main val-
ley and ascending a lateral ravine for the purpose of developing
distance, the line returns and crosses the Rimac to its right bank.
As the bridge is traversed a similar structure for returning to the
left bank and three tunnels, one above another on the mountain
side, come into view, all features in a single picture. At 63^
miles from Callao, and 8,000 feet above the sea, is Matucana,
which, like Chosica, has become famous on account of its excel-
lent hotel and the salubrity of its atmosphere.

The valley at Matucana is a wide bottom land supporting a
considerable town. Here come droves of the pretty little llamas,
from the inner sierra, with their burdens for the railroad ; and
here are seen pure specimens of the Quichuan from the sierra and
puna as well. These beings, always gentle but solemn and
taciturn, avoiding traffic with the whites, have never forgotten nor
forgiven the subjugation of their ancestors ; to this day the women
wear a garment in memory of their martyr Atahualpa, a long
black apron with a white border that passes under the left arm
fr om the middle of the person in front to the middle of the back.
From Matucana to Quebrada negra, 1 mile along the main valley,

PERU. 45

there is a rise of 700 feet accomplished by developing distance in
a lateral valley, while in the next 4 miles the road ascends 2,000
feet and crosses two bridges traversing the Rimac and two switch-
backs. San Mateo, yS% miles from Callao, is another important
mountain town, presenting much the same features of life that are
met in Matucana, while 2 miles beyond the line crosses the
Rimac in a narrow gorge, "the Infernillo" (hell), the cliffs of
which reach hundreds of feet toward the sky and shut out the
light of day. A half mile farther, at Cacray, the severity of the
ascent is such that a double switch back has been found necessary
to place the line at a height permitting its farther advance. Seven
miles beyond this point, at Chicla, 87 miles from Callao and
12,215 ^ eet above the sea, is the terminus of the Oroya Railroad, as
left by Henry Meiggs. Trains have been running to Chicla, and
no farther, since 1877, but the line had been graded to the oroya
in the time of Meiggs. The road has now been completed under
the Grace contract, and is in operation to the oroya, the limit of
the original contract. An "oroya" is a cable and boatswain's chair
used in Peru for crossing streams that can not be forded ; it is
used here to designate such a point on the Jauja River, that,,
flowing out of the little lake Chanchoycoc, and running 150
miles southeast, breaks through a deep canyon of the Central
Cordillera, where it joins the Apurimac and with it flows into the
upper Amazon. A settlement of exchange and barter, an Indian
market town, has grown up at the oroya, which is about 30 miles
south of the lake. Ninety-five miles from Callao and 13,606 feet
above sea level, is the railroad station of the Casapalca gold and
silver mines, worked by two enterprising Americans, who, having
built up a good manufacturing business in Lima, which they sold
for a snug fortune to an English syndicate, have now developed a
mining industry at Casapalca, and which by the completion of the
railroad line has become a profitable enterprise. Eleven miles
beyond Casapalca is the summit tunnel already mentioned, from

46 PERU.

which the line descends to the valley of the Jauja, reaching its
terminus, 12,178 feet above sea level, at the distance of 136$ miles
from the coast.

It is contemplated to continue the Oroya line to the Cerro de
Pasco mines at the northern end of Lake Chanchoycoc, and 70
miles northwest from the oroya. Surveys already mentioned
have also been made for the "Oriental Railroad" to the head
waters of the Amazon.

Telegraphs and telephones are in general use throughout Peru
for the transmission of news and business communications. The
long-distance telephone is almost exclusively used, and has largely
superseded the telegraph, having been introduced in the northern
department on the most extensive scale by Mr. Emilio Clark, of
Piura, where he has already put up 800 miles, and is extending
the ramifications in every direction, the advantage being keenly
appreciated by the planters of that favored district of the State,
who have thus put themselves into close communication with all
the rest of the country.

The coast of Peru is traversed by a submarine cable, which
connects every important port with the rest of the world.

The tariff of prices for the use of these various improvements,
keeping in mind that the Peruvian sol is worth 72 cents of the
gold dollar of the United States and is divided into 100 cents, is
as follows: on the railroads, first-class passage, 5 cents per mile
(Peruvian money) ; second, 2^ cents; freight, 16 cents per ton per
mile. Telegraph messages are sent for almost precisely the same
prices that obtain in the United States; telephone rates in Lima
and the south are also like those in the United States, while in the
north they are about one-half. Hacks in Lima cost less than in
the northern cities of the United States, but are not so cheap as
in England; fifty cents an hour is considered a fair price, but
one may make almost any bargain with a hackman, if he possesses
a fair allowance of savoir-faire. Rates of postage are still high,

PERU. 47

it costing 10 cents to send a letter to any part of the Republic
outside of the department in which it is mailed, and 5 cents
within said department, but Peru is in the Postal Union and
enjoys cheap foreign postage.

Owing to the exorbitant rates of railroad freight, a great deal of
the transportation of the country is still done with donkeys and
mules on trails alongside the steam lines. Until of late fuel for
steam locomotion has been very expensive, and at times difficult to
procure. But the successful development of petroleum wells has
solved the question of cheap fuel, and it is now being introduced
on the various lines of the Republic.

Lima is lighted by electricity, of which the plant, being of the
Thomson- Houston type, is the property of the gas company, which
has supplied to the streets of the city 50 arc lights and 3,000
incandescent lamps. The system has taken well among private
citizens for stores, theaters, halls, and private houses. Callao is
about adopting similar improvements.

Chapter IV.

AGRICULTURAL CONDITION — SUGAR, RUM, COTTON, RAMIE,
WINES, RICE, DOMESTIC ANIMALS, ALFALFA, POTATOES,
GRAIN, COCA, CACAO, HIDES AND SKINS, TOBACCO, FRUITS
AND VEGETABLES, COFFEE, CINCHONA, RUBBER, WOOLEN
MANUFACTURES.

When war broke out between Peru and Chile, Peru could
boast of possessing at Lurifico and Palo Seco the heaviest sugar-
producing plant in the world. Lurifico, being the property of an
American citizen who knew how to protect his rights in such a
way that even a pirate would find it expedient to respect them,
escaped destruction while the property of Palo Seco was laid in
ruins. Sugar is cultivated in all the valleys of the Zona Seca,
beginning at the extreme north of the Republic and extending
to the valley of the Chincha, south of Lima. The best sugar
machinery in the country was built at Philadelphia, but some has
been brought from Europe. All the sugar estates are connected
by railroads with the ports of the coast.

When Chile declared war against Peru the value of sugar
produced had risen from $432,000 in 1859, to $6,528,000, of
which by far the greater portion was taken by England. The
production was almost destroyed by the poverty resulting from
the war, but has already risen to a figure that promises for Peru
the position of being one of the foremost sugar-producing coun-
tries of the world, being at this time $6,000,000 and advancing.

Rum distillation follows naturally as an important industry of
the sugar estate. The product is used largely for cooking fuel in

a country where fuel is required for no other purpose.

48

peru. 49

Cotton is the principal article of export from the port of Paita
in the north, as Piura is the center of its production and prepara-
tion for the market. This industry has had a steady growth ever
since it began to attract serious attention in 1862, when 3,362
quintals were sent to Liverpool by way of experiment. The
American civil war created a demand for the article, and the price
rose to 38 cents a pound. In 1864 the exportation had risen to
more than 41,000 quintals, and has since then fluctuated with the
ability of the cotton region to produce a crop. This ability
depends on the occurrence of floods, which are expected once in
seven years, and irrigate a narrow section along the margin of the
River Piura, while they inundate the whole valley of the Chira
and the Tumbez farther north. These floods secure planting,
which bears a crop in the same year and two crops a year ior two
years thereafter; in all, five good crops, of which the first and fifth
are light, the second and fourth excellent, and the third of extraor-
dinary abundance.

All the cotton of the Department of Piura is classed as "rough
Peruvian," but in fact there is a considerable difference between
the character of cotton raised in the valley of the Rio Piura and
that raised in the other valleys. And this character can not be
produced nor preserved in other situations from the same seed for
reasons that seem to depend on the peculiarity of climate. The
Piura staple is long, like all the Peruvian article, but it has a
texture assimilating it so closely to wool that it has been called
" vegetable wool , " it is soiral and is used by the woolen man-
ufacturers in the manufacture of ladies' fine merino underwear
and fine hosiery. Its use has been extended in the American
market in proportion as it has been possible to procure it.

Up to 1884 the exports of this singular cotton had been con-
fined to the Liverpool market, although it had been shipped
thence to New York. But in 1885 Messrs. F. Hilbek & Co.

sent a small venture to New York, and the direct importation to
Bull. 60 i

$0 PERU.

this country has continually increased. So great has become the
demand for the article among our manufacturers that in spite of
the enormous cotton crop of our Southern States in 1890-91 we
imported 19,300 quintals of the Peruvian article, from Liverpool
in great part, although the production of that year in the Piura
Valley was only 15,000 quintals.

During the first three months of 1892 there were imported into
New York, direct from Piura, 8,886 quintals, and the importation
continues in an increasing ratio. The present prospect is that the
United States will soon require more than is produced. There is
good reason for this. The cotton of Piura does not enter into
competition with American cotton, since it is not used for any
purpose for which cotton is in demand, but to supersede the more
expensive article of wool. Nor can it be rated a deleterious com-
pound, since it adds to the luster of the goods, their strength, and
ability to resist shrinking, while it makes them softer and in every
sense more luxurious.

In the year ending June 30, 1891, the United States imported
from Liverpool 1,500,000 pounds of Peruvian cotton. It ranged
in price, where purchased, from 1 1 cents to 20 cents a pound. As
an illustration of comparative values of the various classes of cot-
ton in these importations we may take two shipments, noted in
the official report of Consul Sherman, March 16, 1892, forwarded
respectively by the houses named :

Cost per pound in Liverpool.

Bushby, Son & Beasley, sending — Cents.

Peruvian . 20

Brazilian 13

Red Sea i$}4

Chinese io)4

F. Zerega, sending —

Peruvian 18

Egyptian 14

Surat 5^

East Indian 5

PERU. jfl

The cotton plant of Peru is a beautiful object, containing, all
at one time, the flower, green boll, and open cotton ready for gath-
ering. It is not planted annually, like the cotton of the North
American States, but once put into the ground is left until a new
septennial flood brings a new inspiration of life, when the old plant
is . pulled out and a hole dug with a spade, into which the new seed
is dropped and left until in its own good time it is again ready for
picking. This seed has been taken to other regions which it was
thought offered better advantages of soil, but every attempt of the
kind to raise the extraordinary class of cotton peculiar to Piura
has proven only failure.

Within the year 1892 a new discovery in Peruvian cotton has
been developed. There had long grown in the valley of the
Piura River a unique variety of the article, supposed to be use-
less for exportation. It is a tan color of various shades, from a
light cafe au lait to a decided brown, rather dark, and always deli-
cate. Separated from the seed, the almost universal verdict would
declare the article to be a beautifully fine wool. Hitherto this
colored cotton has been used only by the lower class of native
Indians for the manufacture of their heavier ponchos. About a
year ago, however, an invoice was sent to Liverpool, and the result
has been extraordinary. An experimental shipment was also sent
to California and answer received that the woolen mills of that
State could absorb all that could be raised. It has created a
furore among woolen men, who find in it the most perfect imita-
tion of wool that has yet been produced, requiring no dyeing to
prepare it for a popular color in underwear and hosiery. In the
English market where it has been sold it has commanded 2
cents a pound more than other cottons, except the North Ameri-
can sea island. The Government of Peru has given a valuable
concession of irrigation rights to an American engineer, who made
the surveys of such a system several years ago, and who is now
engaged in the United States in raising capital for the construc-
tion of such a work, with fail prospect of success. Cotton of

$2 PERU.

other varieties are raised all along the coast of Peru. It is of a
longer staple than the ordinary fiber of the United States, but can
hardly be compared in length or fineness with the " sea-island "
cotton of the northern coast, which finds its principal use in the
adulteration of silks of French manufacture. The American cot-
ton gin is the favorite wherever cotton is raised in Peru.

Ramie has lately been made the subject of a successful experi-
ment in raising and preparation for market, by Senor Penillos, on
his hacienda of La Legua, in the vicinity of Lima. Forty acres
were first planted, with such results that in a second planting the
area has been doubled. The plant gives four or five crops a year
of 1 o tons clear fiber to the acre per annum, for which he was
offered ^28 to £§0 per ton. The preparation of the fiber was on
an imperfect machine of home manufacture, which is to be super-
seded by an imported affair of improved type. Mr. Clark, curator
of the Royal Botanic Garden of Ceylon, who examined the pro-
duction of Senor Penillos, says of it in his report to the Peruvian
Corporation of London: " It was the finest sample of this valua-
ble fiber plant that I have ever seen. It measured 9^ feet long,
and had the appearance of having been cut too soon for commer-
cial purposes."

The vine, at Moquegua and lea, produces a grape that ranks
among the finest in the world ; the wine of Moquegua is superb,
approaching fine port in its fruity bouquet, delicacy of taste, and
inspiring quality of life. The vine also prospers in all the region
below the puna, though best in the coast departments named.
There, also are made those famous liquors that have found high
favor of late years among the punch lovers of the United States,
the white brandies, known as Italia, Moscatel, and Pisco. These
liquors are packed in large earthen jars, in shape like an enormous
carrot, holding from an aroba (25 pounds) to a quintal. Red
wines are transported in the same way. White wines are exten-
sively made and are moved in bottles. Malt liquors are made

PERU. 53

and used in the country and will be treated of under the head of
manufactures. It seems expedient to allude to them in this place
since the reference to liquors will excite an inquiry for them.
The exports of wines and liquors during 1890 amounted to
$500,000.

Rice is raised in all the coast valleys from the extreme north
to 60 leagues south of Lima. But the most extensive rice fields
are in the valley of Ferrefiafe, at the north. Although the rice
crop of the country is enormous, the greater portion of it is con-
sumed at home, the exports of any one year not exceeding
$400,000, principally to Chile, Ecuador, and Colombia. It is a
staple article of diet with all classes of Peruvians, and finds vora-
cious consumors among the Chinese population.

The domestic animals of civilized Europe have been naturalized
in Peru. Horses, asses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, and
pigeons are found in abundance all over the country, the return
made by Philip II of Spain for the precious wealth of which he
had drained the colony and for the inestimable gifts of maize,
potatoes, tobacco, cassava, ipecacuanha, quinine, and many precious
trees and fruits. Horses came with the original conquerors, and
asses arrived at Cuzco in 1557, when the breeding of mules began.
Garcilaso de la Vega declares that he saw bullocks at the plow
near Cuzco as early as 1550, and in 1559 the price of cows had
fallen to 6 ducats. The other domestic animals were introduced
within twenty years after the Conquest, and rapidly multiplied
under the benign influence of the Peruvian climate.

Alfalfa is grown throughout the coast region where it is pos-
sible to procure water for irrigation. It bears four crops a year,
and with the bean of the algaroba constitutes the chief food of
the herbivorous domestic animals. Alfalfa is cut in the evening
and delivered in the early morning at the door of the customer in
the towns. It is also dried as hay and exported in bundles to
the capital from along the coast.

54 PERU.

Potatoes grow luxuriantly in all parts of the Republic and do
exceptionally well in the sierra, where they are indigenous, while
in the puna they are almost the sole crop that can be depended
on to sustain the life of people who inhabit those dreary regions.

Wheat is peculiarly the crop of the sierra, although the supply
of flour has never yet been sufficient for the home consumption,
owing to lack of transportation facilities. The method of treat-
ing the wheat crop illustrates the style of farming as well as the
cheapness of labor in the sierra. At the wheat farms in the moun-
tains the crop, after being made into sheaves, is carried to the great
house of the planter to be prepared for the mill. This preparation
consists of two operations, by the first of which the finest wheat is
separated, kernel by kernel, from the stalk by the men, women,
and children, peons of the farm, who do the work seated on thf
pavement of the courtyard around a great sheet of domestic cot-
ton cloth. After this the straw is trodden out by the feet of mules
or horses, and the remaining wheat thus freed is a second quality,
sold at a lower price than the carefully picked article. This is
thrashing wheat in the sierra, wher'e men receive two or three dol-
lars a month for wages, and live by borrowing enough from the
patron to keep them and their families alive and secure them to
the service of the planter, who has a claim on their bodies until
the debt is paid, which is never accomplished in this world.

Wheat was introduced into Peru by an accident, of which the
heroine was the first European woman who landed in the country.
Inez Munoz was the wife of Alcantara, half brother of Pizarro,
and shortly after her arrival received from friends in Spain a pres-
ent of a barrel of rice. One day while she was cleaning some to
make a pudding for her brother-in-law, the Marquis, she came
across a few grains of wheat, which she carefully laid aside and
afterwards planted in her little garden on the northwest corner of
the grand plaza of Lima. They yielded abundantly, and the
little crop was used as seed in a replanting. This was in 1535,

PERU. 55;

ana in 1539 the wheat had multiplied so rapidly that the first
flour mill in Peru was erected. In 1543 wheaten bread was sold
at 2% pounds the real, of 1 2% cents. Barley, oats, and alfalfa were
soon afterwards introduced. In 1 560 the same lady, having mean-
while become a widow, married a Spaniard who had brought over
some olive trees, which were planted in the same little garden,
but all of which died except two, one of which was stolen by a
Chilean and became the parent of all the olive trees in Chile,
while the other has similarly been the progenitor of all the olives
of Peru.

Barley is raised in the sierra, but never ripens.

Maize grows everywhere in Peru except in the higher parts of
the puna. In the valleys two crops a year are raised and constitute
the staple food of the Indian population, as well as the base for
the national drink, called chicha, which was offered to Pizarro in
golden goblets by the aboriginal natives in the Bay of Paita, when
he first entered Peruvian waters. The great chieftain drank the
beverage, smacked his lips over it, and saying " Es mui bueno," put
the golden goblet into his alforjas and rode smilingly away. There
are no more golden goblets ; the sparkling chicha is taken from a
little gourd and costs the most magnificent visitor a dime a drink.

Oats are cultivated to a very limited extent in the sierra for
fodder; they are not made use of as food for man.

Cocoa, for the manufacture of chocolate, is extensively cultivated,
the entire production being consumed at home, where it is regarded
as greatly superior to the imported article. It has not yet become
an article of export, since other products of the country yield so
much greater profit that cocoa is only raised in the vicinity of
towns that afford a ready market, with little cost of transportation.

Coca, the wonderful plant of which the drug cocaine is made,
grows wild in many parts of Peru, and is cultivated to some
extent. The exportations are yet small, amounting to about
15,000,000 pounds, principally to England and Germany. A

56 PERU.

favorite place for its cultivation is in the valleys of eastern Peru,
though it grows luxuriantly wherever it is planted on the Pacific
Coast, the truth being that, like cocoa, the superior returns of other
crops has left little encouragement for its cultivation in that region.

Wool is a principal object of industry in Peru, the exports
amounting to $5,000,000 a year, the main centers of production
being in the sierra, where sheep ranches contain 100,000 head.

Goatskins are annually exported from the northern department
to the amount of $300,000, all of which reach the United States.

Hides are raised in the foothills of the sierra, and are largely
taken by France, though a small part of the shipment finds a
market in the United States and England, the total exportation
being worth something more than $300,000.

The city of Lima is largely supplied with beef from this north-
ern department, the deficit being made up from plantations south
of the capital.

Tobacco is raised with great facility, but is not yet regarded as
of equal importance with sugar and cotton. All that is raised is
consumed in the country, and much is imported. The cigar
industry employs a good many men in the interior towns, the
tobacco being generally smoked in paper " cigaritos," which are
the constant companion of the Peruvian gentleman all over the
Republic.

Fruit and vegetables are annually exported to the amount of
about $200,000, and consist of paltas (alligator pears), oranges,
granadillas, chiramoyas, mangoes, camotes (sweet potatoes),
onions, and, indeed, every kind of fruit and vegetable known to
the tropics, which are generally sent to Lima. The historian
Markham declares the Peruvian fruit preserves to be the finest in
the world.

Coffee, which demands a high altitude in Central America and
on the Atlantic coast, grows of a superior quality on the lowlands

PERU. 57

of the Pacific coast of Peru, and on this account is an exception
to a general law. The reason for this, however, appears plain,
when we recall the conditions of climate previously mentioned in
treating of the causes of the mild atmosphere on that coast. It is
not tropical, but subtropical. The temperature is that of the lands
3,000 feet above the sea in Central America, and is saturated with
a similar amount of moisture. A difference in favor of the Peru-
vian situation is found in the superior dryness of the atmosphere
at night, which in Central America rather severely cools the plant,
retards its maturity, and prevents the full development of its
flavor. The coffee of the plantation Guadalupe, near Pacasmayo,
sells for $50 the quintal at the plantation. Mr. Blacker, the
English consul at Paita, planted coffee in the valley of the Chira,
where he could give it irrigation, and succeeded in raising an
excellent article, but his estate was carried away by a flood when
he had considered his experiment a success. In the valley of the
Piura River, which is about to receive the blessings of irrigation,
the ability to produce a superior article of coffee has created some
wonderful expectations on the part of* coffee planters who know
the region.

No coffee is exported from Peru, the supply not being equal
to the home demand.

Cinchona (Peruvian bark) is not now a considerable item in
the productions of Peru, though it is indigenous there. But the
neglect and abuse of trees in the effort for more rapid returns of
investment has allowed a promising industry, for which the soil
and climate are peculiarly fitted, to fall into decay, from which it
will be rescued only by the new blood of colonization which is
now turning to those favored shores.

Caoutchouc, or india rubber, as we call it, is the chief export from
the forests of the montana, whence it is carried by way of the
Amazon and its tributaries by the same path, and gathered by the
same class of labor, the Indians of the mountain forest.

58 PERU.

Sarsaparilla, ivory nuts, medical roots and dyewoods are
exported to Germany, France, and in lesser quantities to England,
with some small amount to the United States.

Manufacturing, as successful business enterprise, was found
impossible in Peru until the Government came to the protection
of capital with a high tariff on certain importations, with which
the country had been flooded from abroad, while abundantly able
to produce them.

Petroleum exists in immense deposits in all the coast districts,
but it was not possible to put on the market an article that in
fineness of quality would compete with the American importation,
because capital found fields in which the risk of -competition was
vastly less. Finally, however, at the urgent demand of the
struggling industry, a protective tax was put on the imported
article, which until then had been selling at the modest price of
$ 1 per gallon, but fell immediately to one-half that sum, to the
great dismay of the owners of the oil wells. But the oil was
there, and investigation showed that Peru possesses the reserve
deposits of the world. The attention of English capitalists was
called to the facts, and under a pledge that the protection should
be continued, a company was formed in England which has
invested a capital of $1,250,000 at Talara, in the extreme north
of Peru, and on the ocean beach, so that their tank ships can
anchor within 200 yards of the reservoirs for loading, and they are
now supplying the South American Pacific coast market with
kerosene of the highest grade. Their product is sold at retail in
the well-known square tin can of 5 gallons, at 25 cents (Peruvian,
or \S% cents American money) the gallon, while the American is
held at nearly double that sum. The result is the rapid disap-
pearance of the American article from the Peruvian market, where
indeed it has no reason to be.

Lard has recently been made the subject of governmental protec-
tion, for while the country is well adapted to its production, the

PERU. 59

•

United States, possessing the market, furnished the article at so
low a figure as to completely discourage the industry. In 1890 a
heavy duty was put upon imported lard, which it is hoped will
encourage the home manufacture. Lard is a staple article of diet
among the poor, and every poor man in the Republic, outside of
the larger cities, may raise his own pigs and make his own lard if
he desires.

Furniture is not extensively manufactured, although a good deal
of an expensive character is made in the country by small
mechanics, who work without machinery and in very hard woods.
The objection to the American material is the facility with which
the white ant goes through it. It is possible, however, to prepare
the softest woods so as to be offensive to the insect without
impairing their usefulness.

The question of cheap furniture is so intimately connected with
the progress of civilization as to merit more consideration than
has generally been given it, a fact recognized by some of the
most intelligent and philanthropic of Peru's citizens. At the
present time the poorer classes are almost entirely destitute of
everything that looks like furniture. The North American
mechanic and laborer can have comfortably furnished quarters at
trifling cost. A set of chamber furniture that cost $20 in the
United States, and makes a pretty room wherever it is placed,
can not be bought in Peru for less than $100 to $150. A black-
walnut table, worth $3, is appraised in the custom-house at $75,
and then an ad valorem duty of 33. per cent is applied to it. The
result is that no considerable market exists for such expensive goods.

Liquor manufacture is an important industry in Peru — alco-
hols, wines, brandies and malt liquors. An English company
has lately invested a large amount in a brewery in Lima, estab-
lished in 1880 by two Americans. Under the impulse of enlarged
capital it has developed an enormous traffic, and exports its famous
beer to all South American ports. It has been declared by com-

tX) PERU.

petent physicians to be better adapted to the climate than any of
the foreign makes.

Olive oil is made in great abundance in the vine-growing
districts, where the olive seems to be the companion of the
grape. It is shipped from Pisco, Mollendo, and other ports south
of Lima, to Callao, where it is decanted into small packages for
shipment abroad.

Alpaca wool was manufactured into cloth in the days of the
Spanish domination; when considerable factories existed for the
purpose, and in the ancient reign of the Incas the natives of Peru
dressed in garments of alpaca and vicuna wool, manufactured by
their own hands into yarns and fabrics of varying degrees of fine-
ness. Now, however, this class of wool is all exported, the first
shipment having been made in 1835, when a few bundles of alpaca
wool were sent to Liverpool as a sample. A Bradford manufac-
turer recognized the great value of the article, entered largely into
its importation, and made an immense fortune.

The alpaca is peculiar to Peru. It is a beautiful animal, stand-
ing 6 feet high, nearly half its height being made up of the long,
graceful neck. It has very large black eyes, and in color is black
or tan, and often of the two colors oddly mixed. When the
alpaca lamb is a year old the wool is a foot long, and soft and fine
as silk. The alpaca wool industry has never passed out of the
hands of the aboriginal Indians. They still have their flocks on
the pampas of Umabamba, along the eastern shore of Lake Titi-
caca, and sell directly to the merchants. What they do with the
immense sums of money they receive in this trade it is impossible
to guess.

Father Cabrera, a priest of Carabaya, succeeded in breeding a
cross of the alpaca with the beautiful vicuna, producing a delicate
animal with long, silken, white wool. At his death he wis pos-
sessor of a small flock of these pretty creatures, but they were
allowed to die out for want of attention.

PERU. 6 1

The alpaca wool exported from Peru in a single year amounts
to 4,000,000 pounds, worth about $2,000,000.

Straw hats are manufactured in the city of Catacaos and its
suburbs to the value of $800,000 a year. Lesser quantities are
made in Eten and some other towns. The truth is, however, that
no "straw" whatever enters into their make, but a marsh reed
imported from Ecuador. It is put up in small bundles, in which
the various sizes are kept distinct, so that the hat maker does no
culling. The coarser reeds make the ordinary " Panama hat,"
which may be bought for $5 in the New York market.

These hats receive their name from the fact that formerly they
were taken in small lots from the ports where they were bought by
steamboat officers and stewards, and sold by them to the mer-
chants of Panama, who shipped them to Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto
Rico, Colombia, and Chile. While in Peru this industry is largely
confined to Catacaos, it thrives in many parts of Ecuador and
Colombia. The purchasing merchant along the coast can tell by
inspection where any " Panama " hat was made by the local char-
acteristic of the plaiting. Some of the reeds are as fine as silk
thread, and are wrought into remarkably fine hats that sell in
England for fancy prices of from £10 to even ^100. The
Prince of Wales had one of these exquisitely fine hats, so flexible
it could be folded to carry in his vest pocket without injury.
Such a hat would be made by contract, as are all of the finer classes,
requiring the moonlight nights of three months, perhaps longer.
The reeds must not be exposed to the daylight, since it would
dry and harden them, destroying the flexibility so essential to
their beauty, nor must they be exposed to the light of lamp or
candle because of the presence of flying insects that would stain
or bite them.

Bridles and halters of great luxury, woven by the Indians of
the sierra, are much affected by riders who make any pretense to
elegance. They are of the finest goatskin, cut into shreds no

62 PERU.

larger than what is known as " fine mending yarn," and are plaited
around a small cord. Bands of silver, ornament the lines and
every part of the work at such intervals that a single well-made
bridle will contain 100 pieces. They are soft and pleasant to the
hand on account of their great flexibility and the consciousness
that you are holding pure silver between your fingers.

Saddles adapted to long rides in a desert or among steep moun-
tain trails are made in the country and very few of any sort are
imported from abroad, while none are exported, the affair being
solely adapted to Peru. The stirrups accompanying these saddles
are of wood, fanciful in shape, and ornate. In riding the saddle is
covered with an enormous rug, called a "colchon," the middle sec-
tion of which, made of leather, fits the seat of the saddle, while the
sides, covered with a long wool and more than two feet wide,
reaches to the stirrup ; they do certainly make a comfortable seat
for a long ride, but one is fain to suffer in sympathy with the ani-
mal which is carrying this extra load of 40 to 50 pounds, drenching
him in a reeking perspiration.

Miscellaneous manufactures are of various classes; thus, of
chemicals, drugs and dyestuffs Peru exports annually to the
amount of $7,500,000, of which by far the greater part is nearly
equally divided between France and England, while the little
trifle of $100,000 goes to the United States.

Metals in bars and ingots are exported annually, in great part
to Europe, generally to France and Germany ; of gold, to the
value of $20,000; of silver, $3,000,000; of lead, $20,000; of
copper, $1,600,000. None of this goes to the United States,
except as coin.

Chapter V.

MINERALS AND MINES— DISTRIBUTION OP GOLD, SILVER, COP-
PER, LEAD, COAL, TIN AND OTHER METALS— THE PETROLEUM
WELLS.

Ever since the world first heard the story of Peru the simple
mention of its name has been sufficient to conjure up visions of
gold and silver and precious stones and fragrant woods. The
ransom of Atahualpa, a large room piled with the most elaborately
wrought ornaments and utensils of gold and silver as high as a
man could reach, and the stories, not fabulous, of the immense
treasure sent to the Spanish monarchs, their share of the produc-
tions of that wonderful country, where the people were gentle and
beautiful, and fell readily into the manners of their conquerors;
the strange refinement of that ancient civilization, where the
divine light led every citizen into the paths of industry and vir-
tue, where there was no poverty and no man was richer than his
neighbor; every line, indeed, that has come to us of Peru has led
us to think of the country as the center of health, wealth, and
happiness, a little nearer paradise than any other land. Nor has
this wonderful dream passed away from the hopes and faith of
men. At the present time Peru is the object of more enterprise
and substantial investment for the purpose of developing its well-
proven natural resources than any other country on this Western
Continent.

Gold is found in every part of Peru. In the maritime Andes,

where the rocks are of a crystalline character, gold is found in

veins of quartz, which are intruded into the granite and syenite.

63

64 PERU.

This auriferous quartz is accompanied by oxide of iron and mica,
which present very considerable variations. It is also often
accompanied by other minerals, as carbonate of lime of a laminar
structure, and limonite of a resinous appearance. It is sometimes
discerned in copper minerals and in those mixed with chalk,
copper pyrites, malachite, alacamite and silicate of copper. In
the aqueous deposits of the sierra, veins of gold are found not
only in crystalline earths, but also in metamorphic rocks, such as
quartzite and slaty schist, intruding themselves into the sedi-
mentary and eruptive formations. In these veins the gold is in
a pure state, as well as in pyrites, sulphuret of iron, and other
metallic sulphurets, more or less auriferous, copper pyrites, pana-
base, bournonite, galena, jamesonite, etc. In all the Andean
ranges gold is found in veins and threads, and in the alluvial
districts of the puna in flakes and grains, deposits known in the
language of the country as "rebosaderos" (overflow pockets),
" aventaderos " (wind drifts), and "lavederos" (washing). In the
montana, gold is usually found in quartz veins injected into talc
and clay-slate by the upheaval of crystalline rocks. This quartz
is white, though occasionally exhibiting oxide of iron, but not in
the same abundance as in the coast district. It sometimes shows
grains of mispickel or arsenical pyrites. In the valleys of some
of the streams at the head of the Amazon a great number of
nuggets have been found.

The scope of this work will not allow a fully detailed state-
ment of the auriferous wealth of Peru. But beginning in the
extreme north and proceeding southward, a brief exhibit only is
presented of the gold deposits in the Republic.

Department of Loreto. — Several gold workings exist in the Prov-
ince of Alto Amazonas, between Pongo de Manseriche and the
Rio Huallaga. They have been worked more than two centuries,
with occasional interruptions from the savages, who in 1857
destroyed the villages.

PERU. 65

In 1867 Capt. Mariano Vargas visited these washings and
expressed his surprise at their marvelous richness ; many persons
are now engaged there in gold washing with great profit
Abundance of gold is carried down the Rio Napo, in the sands,
which the Indians wash in troughs.

Department ofAmazonas. — The principal gold field in this dis-
trict is in the province of Luya, 2 leagues south of the village
of St. Thomas and the town of Chachapoyas. The vein of the
"Chuyurco " hill is called the Reo, from its traversing the gorge of
that name, and is 2,500 feet long, varying from 1 to 6 inches in
thickness. Another vein, called the Hovaluena, is from 12 to 20
inches thick. The yield is variable in these lodes, running from
half an ounce to 5 ounces to the ton. There is a rich confluence of
the Rio Nieva and the Maranon, but being in possession of hostile
savages, they have not been much worked. At the mouth of a
gorge of the Maranon, in the vicinity of the village of Balsas, the
sands of the river contain gold of good quality.

Department of ' Piura. — The gold bed of Hualcarumi is in the
gorge of the stream, 3 leagues north of Ayabaca, the chief town of
the province of Ayabaca. It is in alluvial drift, resting on crystal-
line and porphyritic rock. Professor Oleachea says it is in fine
dust and grains the size of a small pea, and cleans up an ounce
to the ton. Another gold mine in the district of Frias, in the
province of Ayabaca, is a prolific vein intruded into syenite.

Department of Cajamarca. — In the province of Jaen, close to the
village of San Ignacio, is a rich deposit of gold which can not be
worked for want of water. Two leagues farther to the southwest
are the rich sands of the Rio Chicipe, not worked for want of
local conveniences in the way of roads, and chance for procuring
supplies. Near the village of Assuncion the gold bed of Capan
is found, with iron pyrites, pyrites of copper, and magnetic iron.
The pyrites show 5 to 13 ounces of gold per ton.

Bull. 60 — 5

66 PERU.

One league from Capan are the mines of Chirinpata, some of
which have been extensively worked. In these mines veins of
peroxide of iron alternate with carbonate of lime of laminar struc-
ture, with specks of pyrites, etc. These works have in times past
produced enormous quantities of the precious metal.

T>e par tment of Liber tad. — In the Cerro del Toro, near the town
of Huamachuco, are veins of talcose clay in which the presence of
gold is plainly discernible. Some of the workings here have
been remunerative. The richness of one mine gained for it the
name of San Francisco de California. Sulphuret of lead veins
are associated with the gold. In the province of Pataz, in the
southern districts, are some of the richest gold fields of Peru.
The towns of Pataz, Parcoy, and Tayabamba. are really built upon
gold beds, for after a heavy rain the mud deposits contain grains
of gold, called by the natives "astillas," and weighing a half
ounce. Mouths of shafts exist in the above, but they are almost
wholly in disuse. The gold is in quartz intruded into syenitic
rock. The slope of Jembonhalf, a league north of Pataz, is rich
in auriferous veins. The Polvadera has yielded as much as from
half an ounce to 18 ounces of gold to the ton. The vein is a
quartz and talcose clay. The ridge of Sarumilla, 1 league north
of Pataz, contains a number of veins, the gold being found in
peroxide of iron, which yields a half ounce of gold to the ton.
The town of Parcoy is in the midst of gold mines which have
fallen into disuse. Important gold deposits are those of the hill
of Puyhuanchito, half a league north-northeast of the town of
Parcoy; the ridge of Chinchal, north-northeast of the town of the
same name, and near by, in the Puyhan Grande, are the mines of
Gallinero and Corrito Blanco, both extremely productive. Near
these is the mine of Tajo, where the auriferous soil is thrown upon
a turf, in which, by washing, it deposits its gold, to be found every
fortnight by raising the turf. The mine of Gigante, also in the
same vicinity, is highly productive. As much as a pound of gold

PERU. 67

to 125 pounds of earth has been taken from this mine. At the
same place gold is found in pyrites at the rate of 3 ounces to the
ton. Gold is found at the mouth of the Rio Cajas in grains of
auriferous quartz mixed with ferruginous soil for a distance of 4
leagues along the right bank. In these deposits a nugget weigh-
ing 5 ounces has been found, while nuggets of 2 ounces are not
of rare occurrence. On the right bank of the Cajas several
streams fall into the river, bringing down sands of gold from the
slopes.

A gold field has recently been found in the interior, 3 leagues
from the port of Salavery, where the gold is found in quartz,
associated with oxide of iron, and has yielded, according to late
analyses, 3 ounces of gold to the ton, with 30 ounces of silver and
20 of lead. At the mines of Zalpo there are both gold and silver.
Gold is found in quartz, accompanied by chloride of silver, limon-
ite and oxide of manganese. Experiments show good results in
both gold and silver; in the district of Viru and province of
Truxillo are veins of auriferous quartz with limestone and talc,
producing a half ounce to the ton.

Department of Ancachs. — In the valley are auriferous sands,
where gold is found in small grains, much more plentiful below
the mouth of the Chsygoran tributary. A specimen from this
stream yielded 2 ounces to the ton. The mines of San Cristobal
de Uchusinga, northeast of the village of Uco, show one-quarter
ounce of gold to the ton. In the same district are other mines on
the other side of the ridge of San Cristobal, known as the Mina-
mayhua, Chinchuragra, and Pucaragra. The minerals are of allu-
vial origin, resting on calcareous deposits, with ammonites which
belong to the cretaceous formation; the gold is found in flake-
lets and nuggets. Near the mouth of the Rio Santa lie the mines
of Janca; the mineral is ferruginous quartz, and the ridge is
micaceous syenite; the gold is argentiferous, the yield contain-
ing ij£ ounces of gold and 3 of silver to the ton. Mines opened

68 PERU.

at Chuquia proved to be of little value and were abandoned. In
the district and province of Huaylas are several mines, not very
productive of the precious metal, though specimens vary from
one-quarter of an ounce to 2 ounces to the ton. The mine of
Quilla, near Casma, yields 2 ounces of gold to the ton. The
gold beds of Pamplona yield lead as well as gold. There are
many other mines in the department which produce gold in com-
bination with silver, lead, and copper.

Department of Huanuco. — The River Maranon divides the town
of Chuquibamba, which in times past has been known for its
gold washings ; they are now, however, abandoned by all but a
few Indians, whose washings produce but insignificant results.
Auriferous soil has been found on the left bank of the Maranon
at a spot called Rain ; as yet there has been no attempt to work
it. At the Boca del Sapo, near Huallanca, the yield from a
quartzose rock is an ounce to the ton. At Mamayaco the
veins are productive, and near by are veins containing copper
and gold. In Chinchas are mines not now being worked that
yield i% ounces to the ton. Important washings are to be found
in the gorge of the Cayumba, an affluent of the Huallaga; tra-
dition gives fabulous accounts of the riches of these deposits.
Auriferous mineral is universal in this department, the ore, com-
posed of pyrites, azurite, argentiferous panabase, etc., often yield-
ing as much as l £ ounces of gold to the ton.

Department of Junin. — The gold here is of vastly less impor-
tance than the silver; it exists in almost imperceptible quantities
in all the streams that flow into and form the Perene. The gold
mines of Cerro de Pasco yield gold averaging from l ounce to
ij£ ounces to the ton. In many of the mines the gold is so inti-
mately mixed with silver as to seriously impair its value. Aurif-
erous quartz is found in the province of Tarma; gold is found
in the argentiferous ore of the province of Yauli.

Department of Lima. — Gold is encountered in all the gorges of
this department, running down to the sea. In the immediate

PERU. 69

vicinity of the capital, gold has been found in many localities,
but the yield is not of any great account. Between Lima and
Ancon, also in the Province of Canta, gold has been found to
yield from one-tenth to a half ounce per ton. In the Province of
Chancay some mines were worked in former times, but are now
abandoned.

Department of lea. — Near the town of lea gold is found in vari-
ous minerals, compact iron ore, metamorphic slate, and hematite;
it is also found in the copper mines of lea.

Department of Huancavelica. — Though not an auriferous dis-
trict, gold is found in several localities. In the ridge of Poteoche,
near the town of Huancavelica, are mines of gold, silver, and
copper; the ore yields 1 ounce of gold to the ton. The mines
of Julcani are of silver, but high up in the central ridge lie the
gold deposits of Corihuacta, and gold is visible in porous quartz.
Gold is also found in the silver mines of Lircay, but only in the
higher parts of the ridge. What are known as the " gold mines
of Coris " have been but little explored, but the assays have given
promising results.

Department of Ayacucho. — Numerous gold mines, worked in
this department in former times, are now abandoned; of 41 old
mines only 2, those of Chaipi and the Luicho Hills, are now
in operation. The Chaipi mines, said by tradition to have
been 30 in number, show a proportion of a little more than
an ounce to the ton. The mines of this district have been
generally abandoned on account of the inundation of water, from
which no suitable means of freeing them has yet been devised.
The mines are so rich as to induce the belief that in the near
future they will be reached by the modern improvements in
machinery and once more add their wealth to the general store.
The climate is temperate and salubrious, and the mines are near
the port of Chala. The valleys of Simariba and Ancon, in prov-
inces of the same name, are auriferous, but the superstition of the

7<D PERU.

Indians, who believe that to take gold out of the ground would
ruin their crops, has thus far prevented their being worked.

Department of Cuzco. — The Province or Paucartambo is doubt-
less the region from which the Incas extracted their immense
stores of the precious metal. Gold here is almost always found
in quartz; small veins, often very rich, run through the slate,
which is the predominant rock. The rich Huiscapata mine has
been drowned out and abandoned after expensive attempts to save
its precious stores; it must wait the advent of the engineer.
The Carhuays gold mine, on the right bank of the Ocongate, near
the town of that name, is the only mine in the Paucartambo dis-
trict in permanent working order. The lode of auriferous quartz
runs almost horizontally in a northwest direction, and is from 8 to
10 inches thick. The works take care of only about 50 pounds
of ore daily, from which they secure 5 ounces of gold. Several
of these mines can not be worked on account of the infiltration
of water. At Uama are not only diggings but veins of aurifer-
ous quartz, which show gold of 23 carats. Gold has also been
found in the beds of the little streams falling into the Mapacho.
A mine in the^Clalca district, 4 leagues from Paucartambo, on the
bank of the Churo River, was opened under promising auspices,
but was shut by a landslip and the work abandoned. The gold
diggings of the Paucartambo montana are very rich so far as they
have been explored. The Indians work the sand in troughs, and
barter the proceeds for their supplies. The Cerro Carnante mines
have been practically stopped by reason of earthquakes and land-
slips. The gold mines of the Chumbivilcas Province are near the
Cordoray range, in the Colquemavaca district, from which 50
pounds of the purest metal have been washed in a twelvemonth.

Department of Apurimac. — Gold digging at Huayllaripa is car-
ried on in the most primitive and wasteful manner, and yet it is
the exclusive occupation of the .people. The gold is of a bright
yellow color and perfectly pure. The gold diggings of Ayahuaya,

PERU. 71

in the Province of Antobamba, have been only worked by a few
Indians, who take out about 250 ounces a year, a fact indicating
the results that would be gained by the application of modern
methods. Several streams roll down much auriferous sand, but
the region is uninhabited on account of severe cold, due to its great
altitude.

Department of Arequipa. — This is the richest department of
Peru, resting on an unbroken stratum of auriferous ore. The
Palamadera mines, less than a league from Huayllura, are ] 2,600
feet above sea level and yield about 5^ ounces of gold to the ton.
The Montesclaros gold mines are in the hands of a national
company, backed by English capital, and it is understood that
good results have been produced by the improved methods intro-
duced. Numerous other gold mines exist and are worked by
private enterprise, but little is known of their locality on account
of the difficulty of communication in an almost uninhabited
country. The Picha gold mine, on the right bank of the Cota-
huasi, 2 leagues from Chacana, gives 1^ ounces of gold and 20
of silver to the ton, lead being prevalent to the extent of 50 per
cent. The Huanzo mines, near Antobamba, in the Huaynacota
district, are abandoned on account of the landslides. But the
ore is limonite, containing native gold, almost pure, and when the
Indians venture near it is washed in troughs. An advance in
methods will bring these mines into use again. The Department
of Arequipa contains many other mines, nearly all of which are
now idle.

Department ofPuno. — Only two provinces, Carabaya and Sandia,
contain gold deposits of importance so far as known. They are
on the furthest southern boundary of Peru, and are separated from
the rest of the Republic by the high ridge of snow peaks, Illimani
and Sorata. The mines of Carabaya are declared by historians
to be the origin of the Inca riches, among which is mentioned a
nugget weighing 100 pounds, taken from the Inharaya ravine,

72 PERU.

while another, shaped like a man's head, was seen by the historian
Garcilaso. The gold mines of the Poto district, in the province
of Sandia, lie on the southern slope of the eastern cordillera.
They are near the village of Poto, and cover 3 leagues of ground.
No large nuggets have been found, and work is extremely difficult
on account of the scarcity of water, which has at last been procured
at great expense from two lagoons, connected by aqueduct. The
Ananea gold mines, in the same district, have been abandoned
because of inundations. The Aporomo mines are four in num-
ber, the value of which is attested by a costly road, constructed
through a difficult region, and an aqueduct 6 miles long through
the solid rock. They have ceased to be remunerative. The
Challuma diggings were discovered in 1859 by cascarilla hunters,
who found these deposits in the bed of the stream on whose
banks they were seeking the quinia tree. The news spread, and a
considerable community sprang up in the vicinity, and has now
become a prosperous settlement of commercial activity. Large
nuggets have been found in the valley of the Pusupunco. The
quality of the metal is very fine, ranging over 23 carats. On
assay, the proportions are : Gold, 96.40; silver, 240; copper, 0.03;
iron, 0.05; various, 0.22. In the Province of Carabaya the
superficial soil seems traversed by veins of gold. Jauta is famous
for the diggings of Mucumayo, where the nuggets attain consid-
erable size; one has been mentioned that weighed 49 pounds.
The Caasi district is unexplored, the Indians are very suspicious
and unfriendly, so that the gold hunter enters the region at the
peril of his life.

In conclusion, it may be said that the entire subsoil of Peru is
an almost unbroken network of auriferous lodes. The obstacles
to working them are in many places discouraging — want of water,
inaccessible peaks, severe climate, and want of roads.

Silver mining is the greatest industry of Peru. Like copper,
it is found in its greatest abundance in the maritime Andes, but

PERU. 73

requires for its development better roads than now exist. The
lack of this convenience and want of capital has led to the aban-
donment of many and important deposits, so that, while there are
really 2,000 silver mines already opened in Peru, a comparatively
small number are being worked. It is destined, however, to a
speedy advance, due to the opening of the Oroya line and the
attention directed toward the Cerro de Pasco mines. Those of
Hualguayoc, near Cajarmarca, have been made famous by Hum-
boldt's attention, who declares that they had yielded in thirty
years the value of 32,000,000 piasters, or more than $33,000,000.

Silver abounds in the valley of the Rio Santa, near Carhuaz,
Huaraz, and Recuay. A railroad had been built up this valley
a distance of 1 20 kilometers, when an unprecedented cataclysm
destroyed nearly every vestige of it. The coast section, communi-
cating with the port of Chimbote and four important sugar plan-
tations, has been put in operation, but beyond this 30 miles noth-
ing has been done to repair the line. It will bring coal and silver
mines into close connection with a market when it is opened
to Recuay.

Cerro de Pasco is a great mining district, with 360 silver mines
open and at work. The method of separating the precious metal
from its ore is still primitive, and the region awaits the arrival of
the railroad line connecting it with the port to introduce the
improved methods of modern art. Local railroad lines connect
the mines with each other and with the principal office of the
enterprises.

There is a famous mine at the Cerro de Pasco, from which the
Spanish conquerors secured great booty. It was drowned out and
abandoned. This mine was conceded to Mr. Henry Meiggs, and at
his death was left, with other contracts, to the charge of his executor,
Mr. Charles Watson, who, with the consent of President Iglesias,
transferred it to Mr. Grace, the agent of the Peruvian Corporation.
The concession had lapsed, however, by failure to complete within

74 PERU.

the designated limit of time, and when the constitutional Con-
gress took the matter in hand they declared it forfeited. Nego-
tiations have since been reopened, in which the Congress has
demanded a more liberal share of the proceeds for the use of the
Government than the Peruvian Corporation has yet been willing
to concede. To get any useful result from this mine it will be
necessary to run a tunnel from a point on ground lower than the
bottom of the drowned shaft. This tunnel had been pushed a
considerable distance when Mr. Meiggs died. The Peruvian
Congress claims the right under the original contract to enjoy the
advantage of what is thus far done. The concessionaire insists
that such treatment would be unfair. In 1877 ^ e Cerro de Pasco
mines produced 1,427,592 ounces of silver.

Farther south, at Yauli, there are 225 silver mines in operation, 1
of cinnabar, and 9 of coal. Still farther south, in the Province of
Huarochiri, there are 1 17 silver mines being worked. In Huanca-
velica and Castro Vireyna there are 54 silver mines, owned princi-
pally by parties who are operating the mines above named; also 4
cinnabar mines, which, after a season of abandonment, are once more
taken in hand. In Cialloma, a province of Arequipa, there are
24 silver mines in full swing of successful operation. The silver
mines of Puno have been famous ever since the days of Salcedo
and the viceroy, Count of Lemos. There are more than 50, among
them the old mine of Laycayota, the original discovery of Salcedo.
The mines of the Patara Silver-Lead Company furnish a fine
galena ore, which is found profitable to transport on mules to a
point in the Santa Valley, from whence it is transported more than
30 miles by railroad to the sea at Chimbote, after having been
brought from an elevation of 10,000 feet above the ocean level, in
the region of Macate, on the coast range. From the port this ore
is sent to Swansea for smelting. The enterprise has been prose-
cuted for more than twenty years.

Lead is of course a profitable industry where there is so much
silver. Some veins of galena contain silver enough to pay all

PERU. J$

the expenses of mining. The Patara mines, above named, are an
example of this; the lead, like the copper and tin produced, is
consumed in great part in the country, the exportation in bars,
being only about $20,000 a year in addition to the ore shipped
abroad for smelting.

Copper is found in Cajarmarca and Recuay. There are also
copper mines owned and worked by an American on the coast near
Acari. Cinnabar has been mentioned in treating of silver. It
exists in the sierra, and probably in Huancavelica and Ayacucho.
Pure quicksilver is brought into Paita by Indians for shipment to
Europe; but where it is found has not yet been learned by the
whites, as the Indians have thus far proved their superiors in tact
and secretiveness.

Tin is found in the gold deposits of Peru, but as yet in no
great amount. About $200,000 measures the annual value of
exportation in ore, and less than half that amount in bars and
other manufactures. Sulphur of extraordinary richness, analyz-
ing 99 per cent in purity, is found at Tumbez, in the northern
borders of the Republic, and at Arequipa, in the southern Cordil-
lera. It does not figure in the exports, being retained in the
country, where a considerable part of the production is consumed
in the manufacture of powder, an explosive which has been made
contraband because of the existence of its components, sulphur
and nitre, in the Republic; the Government holds the monopoly
of its manufacture.

Gypsum is found all over the coast desert of the northern
department of Peru, and is in universal demand for the outside
and inside finish of all classes of edifices, churches, theaters, private
residences, and walls inclosing gardens and cemeteries. Lime-
stone (carbonate of lime) is found all over the country in locali-
ties so near each other that no difficulty is experienced in
procuring whatever is required for the building purposes of the
population.

Jt PERU.

Coal is distributed generously in the coast range and in the
sierra. It has not yet been determined if any continuous vein
of commercial value exists, the truth being that the volcanic up-
heavals of the country have so disturbed the coal deposits that,
after sometimes working for several hundred feet what appears
a coal vein of excellent combustible quality, it suddenly dis-
appears, and only superhuman power can find it again. The
coal of the Santa Valley is called by the experts who have exam-
ined it "semi-anthracite." With the anthracite luster, it contains
a good deal of bitumen.

Salt is an important article of commerce and exportation. The
deposits of Huacho and Sechura are inexhaustible, since they are
in a continual state of re-formation by the percolations of saline
waters through a porous rock at some elevation above the level
of the sea, where the mineral is deposited in masses, and is taken
out in blocks about 1 5 inches square and 8 inches thick for trans-
portation. Wells sunk in the region about Piura will always
encounter strongly impregnated water at a depth of 25 to 30 feet,
even in close propinquity to the river. There is a well at the
Piura terminus of the Catacaos railroad, 26 feet deep, sunk to
secure water for the use of that line. Although but 100 feet
from the river bank, it has been necessary to abandon it and run a
pipe to and under the sands of that stream for the proper quality
of water. Mr. Emilio Clark, the enterprising American consul at
Piura, sunk a well in the grand plaza to obtain water for the plants
under his charge in that garden, and had the same experience at
the same depth; but driving down 100 meters, he found good,
potable water, which has risen each year nearer and nearer the sur-
face, until now he is able to raise it with an ordinary suction pump.
It is esteemed by citizens for domestic purposes.

Asphaltum has been mined for more than a century in the
region of Amotape, on the Rio Chira. Petroleum bids fair to be
a source of immense wealth to Peru, compensating for the loss

PERU. 77

of her guano and nitrate deposits, unless it should form a new
temptation to the greed of capitalists and lead to another con-
quest by which her extensive fields shall be taken from her as
were the nitrate beds.

The first experiments at refining petroleum were made on an arti-
cle taken from the asphaltum beds of Mancora and Zorritos. As a
result, a wealthy commercial house established extensive works at
Negritos, from the well of which the oil rose to a height of 70 feet
above the ground, the unexpected flow being lost for want of tanks
to hold it. The house of Thorne also made unsuccessful attempts
to develop the refining business, but encountered only disaster.
The industry was therefore abandoned for a time. In 1876 a
wealthy kerosene manufacturer of Pennsylvania arrived in Tumbez
and sunk a well 500 feet deep, from which the oil spouted forth in
great abundance. He asked for a concession of the entire petro-
leum district, and, on the refusal of the Peruvian Government to
grant his petition, abandoned the project.

So far as yet investigated, the petroleum beds of Piura cover an
area of 16,000 square miles; but, however, as there is an area of
30,000 square miles of precisely the same geological character, it
is easy to believe that petroleum will be found under that entire
area. In the southern part of the department, near Sechura,
the petroleum is found with natural gas, so that a new source of
wealth seems opening to that region, already the richest in agri-
cultural resources and minerals of Peru. Mr. Frederic Moreno,
of Lima, has published a pamphlet on the petroleum deposits of
Peru which is thoroughly exhaustive of the subject, and, more-
over, embraces a comparative analysis of the petroleum enterprises
and prospects of the world. The book is an invaluable cyclo-
pedia for alt students and for business men interested in petroleum.

The work of drilling wells in the Piura fields, according to
Engineer Warren, who was sent out to investigate the subject, is
easy, on account of the soft strata through which they pass,

78 PERU.

as follows: first, at the surface, a layer of sand from 1 to 4
meters thick ; then a layer of white sandstone, a half meter to 2
meters thick ; third, a layer of wet sand of 8 or 1 o meters ; fourth,
a conglomerate of decomposed carbonate of lime, formed by the
aggregation of sea shell ; fifth, slate impregnated with oil, through
the fissures of which the oil and gas escape.

The wells are from 200 to 500 feet deep, but rarely exceed
350 feet. Dr. Salathe, in a report dated at Titusville, March 31,
1885, sa y s: "The crude oil of Peru differs essentially from the
petroleum of Pennsylvania. All the light products that are dis-
tilled at a temperature of 10 to 15 degrees, Celsius, are distin-
guished by a very agreeable odor, while the light oils of Pennsyl-
vania have a detestable odor, making it necessary to deodorize them.
The precipitate that is formed when a sufficient quantity of acid
has been added is not black, as it is in our Pennsylvania oils. The
acid gives a reddish-brown color, proving that there is not the
same quantity of tar in Peruvian oils as exists in ours.

" The lubricating oils that I have separated are distinguished by
the absence of paraffin, which is never missing in the Pennsyl-
vania oils, a fact making it difficult to obtain good lubricating oils
from them. Samples have been exposed to a very low tempera-
ture without becoming solidified, merely acquiring the consistency
of sirup. Such a property gives a great value to these heavy oils,
assimilating them to the lubricating oils of Russia, which are
esteemed the best in the world for the purpose. After distillation
the residuum is like asphaltum, and may be used for the paving
of streets. If it is not desired to get asphaltum, the distillation
may be continued and there will result a coke, an excellent com-
bustible, leaving no ashes and giving a high temperature."

Dr. Rufus S. Merrill, of Boston, says the oil is the finest brilliant
petroleum he has ever seen. He calls the Negritos oil "an aro-
matic petroleum."

Two large plants have been established in that extensive
country for refining petroleum and producing kerosene, the greater

PERU. 79

part of which is consumed in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile.
Senor Faustino G. Piaggio, of Lima, was the first man to erect a
first-class establishment of this kind in South America; he was
also the first to defy the formidable competition of the North
American article, which till then had monopolized the Peruvian
market. His production at Zorritos, 20 miles south of Tumbez,
has received premiums at several European exhibitions and
the gold medal at the Exposition of Berlin in 1884. He
has sunk 11 wells and is provided with all the modern appa-
ratus for procuring and distilling the petroleum ; he sends 60,000
gallons a month to the markets of the coast. The other establish-
ment for refining petroleum is that of the London and Pacific
Petroleum Company, Limited, the refining works being located
at Talara, on the coast, known formerly as Parinas, a point 52
miles north of Paita. This company has an invested capital of
^250,000, and does the refining for the Negritos wells, of which
there are 1 1 at a distance from the parent plant of 7 miles ; they
send their crude oil through a pipe to Talara, where 3 stills are
now at work, having a capacity of 4,000 galjons a day, while
several more are in course of construction.

Kerosene has been successfully tested on the Oroya Railroad
line for locomotive fuel, and is being applied to all the engines of
the company. The large tank steamer of the Talara works is
run with this class of fuel, and when the total absence of wood
and the high price of coal is understood, it is not surprising that
a fuel so cheap and accessible should find a ready and extensive
market on the desert coast of the Zona Scca.

Peru is now manufacturing about 200,000 gallons of kerosene
per month, and is constantly increasing the capacity of manufacture.
The product is of superior quality, and is driving the American
article out of the markets of the Pacific.

Chapter VI.

CONCESSIONS FOR PUBLIC WORKS.

For the purpose of exciting capital to enterprise, and also of
attracting it from abroad, Peru has been accustomed to granting
favorable concessions to those willing to undertake the develop-
ment of works of public improvement. These concessions carry
with them an obligation to build the works and the right to enjoy
the profits of them under certain conditions. The contractor
deposits a bond with the Government as a pledge of his intention
to proceed with the construction which is the subject of the
agreement. Generally a concession, to be effective, must be rati-
fied by a constitutional congress; but that body has clothed the
Executive with the right in certain cases to grant concessions for
the public benefit. It has also established a code of mining laws,
compliance with which conveys all the privileges that a special
concession would confer. The Congress of 1891 authorized the
Supreme Government to make concessions in accordance with the
terms of certain contracts already made. This exceedingly wise
provision in the interest of agriculture promises to Peru the high-
est development of which the country is susceptible in the class
of wealth that gives the most stable foundation to the State.

Drinking water for the port of Paita has long been a desid-
eratum; in 1889 a concession was granted to Mr. Edward
Fowkes, an enterprising American living in Paita. The sup-
ply must be brought from the Rio Chira, a distance of 21

miles, across an almost level pampa, to which it will be raised

80

PERU. 8l

300 feet above the level of the sea, and, on reaching the edge of
the port will fall again to its level at the sea. By descending the
Chiraand going around the bluff the distance will be increased to
about 30 miles, but will be nearly a level route, making high
pumping unnecessary. There are about 5,000 people in Paita to
be supplied, who now pay by the gallon for every drop of water
they consume. A considerable source of revenue will be the
shipping of the port, which is the most important of Peru after
Callao, yielding one-third of all the revenues of the State from
commerce. Several large steamers enter Paita every week, and
will take in their water supply there on account of its quality
and the cheapness with which it can be sold. The failure of the
Barings paralyzed the enterprise, as it was being placed on the
London bourse.

Three separate concessions have been given to secure the bless-
ings of irrigation for the fertile valleys of the northern depart-
ment, the Tumbez, Chira, and the Piura.

The Tumbez is the most northern river on the Pacific. The
fertility of its lands may be judged by the fact that Pizarro found
them supporting a population of 80,000. The present system of
cultivation, without irrigation, is conducted by only 5, 000 people.
The valley is peculiarly adapted to tobacco, though sugar also does
well, but demands more capital. Irrigation will bring a large
territory under subjection that is now lying waste for want of the
water which flows by it in abundance to the sea, and is lost.

The Rio Chira is the second important stream on the coast,
and the one navigable river of Peru. The valley is much more
extensive than that of the Tumbez, and contains a population of
20,000. It is adapted to the cultivation of every nameable crop,
but those most in favor at present are cotton, sugar, and tobacco.
Some indigo and cochineal are also produced, while it is the garden
of all classes of fruits and vegetables that are demanded by the
tables of Lima. The Chira flows into the Bay of Paita, and is thus

Bull. 60 — 6

82

PERU.

accessible to all the shipping of the coast by water, while the
Paita and Piura railroad runs along the valley a distance of 20
miles.

The third river, counting from the north, is the Piura, the valley
of which was selected by Pizarro, as the site of his first capital,
which he called, on account of its pure atmosphere, the City of San
Miguel de Piura. The banks are too high to permit any extensive
inundation during the septennial floods, but where they have been
thus wet the result has been extraordinary in amount of produc-
tion. The population of the valley is 62,000, but when the
floods come, once in seven years, thousands of the younger men,
who have left the valley for work in the towns along the coast
and in Ecuador, return to the old home and devote themselves to
farming, the favorite pursuit of the Peruvian Indian. This
migratory element in the labor of the region has produced a very
independent class of laborers in northern Peru ; they bring money
into the district and an unusual degree of ingenuity, combined
with physical ability and industry.

The development of the agriculture of the north has been con-
sidered so essential to the prosperity of Peru that some extremely
advantageous provisions have been incorporated in the conces-
sions relating to the region. Thus the work is declared to be for the
public weal, and therefore every landowner whose land is acces-
sible to the waters of irrigation must pay the water rent, whether
he take the water or not. The land and crops, also all capital
invested in the estate, are made security for the payment of rents
and may be seized for it. An equitable arrangement has been
devised by which the fertile lands of the pampas may be " expro-
priated " by paying a nominal price.

The concession for the valley of the Piura contains a provision,
that when the water of that river has been exhausted the company
may take water from the Chira for reinforcing the former. It also
provides for water-supply systems for the cities. All the conces-

PERU. 83

sions provide for selling water for domestic purposes, railroads,
manufactures, and machinery ; also for the establishment of water-
supply systems in the different valleys.

These concessions are made by an act of Congress the base of
a general authorization to the President to grant similar privileges
to other parties.

A concession has been given for the construction of a railroad
from the city of Piura to Morropon, a distance of about 100 miles.
In this, as in all other concessions, the Government gives the
right to import those article? necessary to the construction of the
works without payment of custom-house duties.

Chapter VII.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS— CITIES AND TOWNS— GOVERNMENT AND
CONSTITUTION— WEIGHTS AND MEASURES— CURRENCY.

The prime political divisions of the Republic are departments
and littoral provinces. The departments are subdivided into prov-
inces; these and the littoral provinces into districts. The execu-
tive and police power of the various divisions emanate more or
less directly from the President of the Republic. Thus he
appoints the prefects, who govern the departments and littoral
provinces, and the subprefects, who, under the prefects, have charge
in the provinces. The districts are under governors, who are
nominated by the subprefects and appointed by the prefects, while
the lieutenant-governors are nominated by the governors and
appointed by the subprefects. All police functionaries charged
with the duty of maintaining public order hold directly from the
President.

There are eight departments and littoral provinces on the coast,
which generally extend across the sierra to the central range, and
contain the most important cities of the Republic. In addition
to these are ten interior departments.

The coast departments are Piura, with an area of 14,000 square
miles and a population of 136,000; Lambayeque, which covers
18,000 square miles and has a population of 86,000; Libertad,
16,000 square miles and a population of 148,000; Ancachs, 17,000
square miles and a population of 284,000 ; Lima, with the littoral
Province of Callao, 15,000 square miles, the former with a popu-
lation of 227,000, while Callao has 34,500; Arequipa, with an
84

PERU. 85

area of 28,000 square miles and a population of 160,000;
Moquegua, 22,500 square miles. and a population of 28,000.

The principal towns of the department of Piura are Tumbez,
with a population of 3,000; Paita, with 5,000, and Piura, capital
of the department, with a population of 12,000, all in provinces of
the same names; Catacaos, population, 25,000, in the province
of Ayabaca; Sechura, population, 8,500, and Sullana, 7,000, in
Huancabamba. In the eastern mountain district are the towns
Morropon, population, 5,000; Tambo Grande, population, 8,000,
and Chulucanas, population, 6,000.

Lambayeque is divided into three provinces, Lambayeque,
Chiclayo, and Pacasmayo, of which the principal towns are Lam-
bayeque, population, 6,000; Chiclayo, population, 14,000, and
Ferrinafe, population, 8,000.

Libertad contains four provinces, Truxillo, of which the capital
is Truxillo, population, 8,000; Otuzco, Huamachuco, and Pataz.

Ancachs embraces seven provinces, Santa, with the town of
Santa, population, 3,000; Pallasca, having Samanco, population,
2,000; Pomabamba, its town Huarmey, population, 1,500; Hua-
raz, with the town Huaraz, population, 8,000; Huaylas, its town
H uaylas, population, 6,000 ; H uari, and Cajartambo. In the sierra
are the important towns of Caraz, population, 6,000, and Carhuaz,
population, 5,000.

Lima contains the capital of the Republic, and is divided into
six provinces, Chancay, in which the town of Ancon has a popu-
lation of 3,000; Lima, in which is the capital, the city of Lima,
population, 102,000; also the towns of Chorillos, population,
15,000; Miraflores, population, 6,000, and Barranca, population,
5,000; all suburbs of the capital. The remaining provinces are
Canete, Canta, Huarochiri, and Jauja. The town of Huanca-
velica, in the sierra, has a population of 8,000.

Callao is a littoral province, embracing only the city of Callao,
with a population of 34,500.

86 PERU.

Ica is another littoral province of two provinces, Chincha and lea

Arequipa contains seven provinces, Arequipa, of which the
principal town has the same name and a population of 35,000;
Camana, I slay, Union, Caylloma, Condesuyos, and Castilla.

Moquegua is divided into three provinces, Moquegua, Tacna,
and Arica, of which the principal towns bear the same names, hav-
ing, respectively, populations of 6,000, 10,000, and 30,000. The
port of Arica is at present in the hands of the Chileans, in accord-
ance with the terms of the treaty of peace. Its ultimate lot is to
be determined by a plebiscite in 1894.

Besides these departments and provinces are the eight of the
interior, as follows:

Cajamarca, with an area of 14,000 square miles and a popu-
lation of 213,000, divided into seven provinces, Jaen, Chota,
Hualgayoc, Celendin, Cajamarca, Contumaza, and Cajabamba, the
principal towns being Cajamarca and Cajamarquilla, with popu-
lations, respectively, of 1 2,000 and 8,000.

Amazonas: Area, 14,000 square miles; population, 34,000. It
is in three provinces, Bongara, Luya, and Chachapoyas ; the prin-
cipal town, Chachapoyas, has a population of 6,000.

Loreto: Area, 33,000 square miles; population, 61,000, con-
tains four provinces, Alto-Amazonas, Bajo-Amazonas, Moya-
bamba, and Huallaga. The town Moyabamba has a population
of 1 0,000.

Huanuco and Junin have together an area of 34,000 square
miles; the population of Huanuco is 79,000, divided among three
provinces, Huamalies, Dos de Mayo, and Huanuco. Junin con-
tains a population of 210,000 in the provinces of Cerro de Pasco,
Tarma, Jauja, and Huancayo. The principal towns : Tarma, popu-
lation, 6,000 ; J auja, population, 15,000; Pasco, population, 15,000.

Huancavelica: Area, 1 1,000 square miles; population, 104,000;
contains the four provinces of Tayacaja, Huancavelica, Angares,
and C astro- Vireyna. The capital, Huancavelica, has a population
of 8,000.

PERU. 87

Ayacucho: Area, 24,000 square miles; population, 142,000,
contains six provinces, Huanta, La Mar, Ayacucho, Cangallo, Lu-
canas, and Parina-cochas. The capital, Ayacucho, has a population
of 20,000.

Apurimac: Area, 62,000 square miles; population, 120,000;
embraces five provinces, Andahuaylas, Abancay, Cotabambas,
Aymaraes, and Antabamba. The principal towns are Anda-
huaylas and Abancay.

Cuzco is the largest department of the Republic, having an
area of 96,000 square miles, with a population of 240,000. It
contains twelve provinces, Convencion, Urubamba, Talca, Paucar-
tamba, Anta, Cuzco, Quispicanchi, Paruro, Acomayo, Chumbivili-
cas, Canas, and Canchis. The capital, Cuzco, has a population
of 30,000.

Puno has an area of 40,000 square miles and a population of
260,000. It is divided into six provinces, Carabaya, Lampa,
Azangaro, Huancane, Puno, and Chucuito. The principal towns
are Puno, the capital, with a population of 6,000, and Chucuito,
population, 5,000.

Thus the whole Republic has an area of about 464,000 square
miles, and a population, according to the last census, of 2,622,000,
not counting the savages of the montana, who number to 300,000
more.

CITIES AND TOWNS.

Lima. — The foundation of the capital of Peru has already been
noticed in the History of the Conquest. It remains only to
sketch its present appearance and condition.

Few cities possess equal interest with Lima, the "City of the
Kings," which at one time had no rival in wealth or importance
in America except the City of Mexico. Its name is a corruption
of the name of the river on whose banks it is built, 500 feet above
sea level, and signifies "the noisy." The vulgarity of Pizarro
and his companions may be recognized in his resolving the initial

88 PERU.

44 R " into " L," a habit still existing among the lower classes of
Spaniards everywhere. Lima is popularly known as the Paris of
America. Its women are beautiful, graceful, and intelligent. They
have the singularly happy power of being both gay and dignified.
The men are among the best educated and most extensively trav-
eled on the continent Its rank in theater and opera is of the
highest order. Its diamonds are of the purest water, and it shares
with New York the claim of being the greatest diamond market
on the Western Hemisphere.

In architecture it is built on Moorish lines, decorated with the
Italian's art and pencil. In color it is bright and gives a cheerful
impression. It is as light as the sun, without being white. It is
not easy to realize that you are looking on adobe walls when you
are in a Lima street, but it is so. This style of construction
admits of great facility in molding, and there being no rain it is
enduring when covered with plaster of paris, with which the
country abounds.

The lower stories of Lima houses are solid adobe walls from 2
to 4 feet in thickness. When it is necessary to add another story,
which is not common with dwellings, the custom is to build with
the light bamboo of Guayaquil, or scantling from the northwest
coast of North America, which are treated with adobe and then
stuccoed over with plaster, presenting a handsome finish. What
appear to be massive towers are like bird cages, when robbed of
their outer coat; this system of construction has been evolved
from the experience with earthquakes. The massive wall answers
to a certain height, but after that it must be succeeded by the
lightest structure possible consistent with proper strength.

As in all Latin countries, the Lima house is built around a
courtyard (patio), and while presenting a neat outside, even occa-
sionally with some slight attempt at ornamentation, we must enter
within the great gate to see the beauty of its architecture. A
corridor and colonnade run around the patio and give excellent

PERU. 89

opportunity for effect. This inclosure is also adorned with beau-
tiful plants and occasionally a fountain.

The streets of Lima are generally paved with cobbles; but of
late several experiments have been made to ascertain what is best
for the climate and cash box. The sidewalks are too narrow for
the comfort of pedestrians, and must eventually force an improve-
ment more compatible with the demands of modern civilization.

According to a late census, Lima contained 102,000 inhabitants,
living in 4,500 houses, with 14,209 doors. The University of
San Marcos, founded in 1551, is the oldest college on the West-
ern Continent, its charter having been granted by Charles V. Its
curriculum includes jurisprudence, medicine, theology, and the
sciences. The Lima School of Mines has an excellent reputa-
tion for thoroughness in teaching; its faculty includes Peruvians,
French, and Germans.

There are in the Republic 1,177 primary schools, of which 813
are municipal, 333 private, and 31 are maintained by charitable
or religious societies. Forty-eight thousand five hundred boys
and 23,000 girls are enrolled on the lists, of whom more than
53,000 are in the public schools. The average attendance is 70
per cent of the enrollment ; one-fifth of whom may be allotted to
the capital.

Lima contains several valuable libraries; the National Library,
founded in 1822, immediately after the establishment of independ-
ence, contained in 1880 more than 60,000 printed volumes and
8,000 manuscripts; it was reckoned by literary men who had visited
it the best in Spanish America. When the Chileans had possession
of Lima they destroyed the library, and immediately upon their
evacuation of the capital the Peruvians set about its restoration.
It was re-dedicated on the 28th of July, 1884, with nearly 28,000
volumes, which number has since been increased to about 40,000.
The library of the University contains more than 20,000 vol-
umes. There may also be mentioned the valuable scientific

90 PERU.

library of the School of Mines, and the library of the national
corps of engineers and architects at the national palace.

Lima contains an excellent system of waterworks, devised by
a distinguished civil engineer, Mr. Ernest Mallinowski, who has
made Peru his home for the last thirty years. In this design he
availed of the sharp descent of the Rimac to go above the city
and build a series of filtering galleries in brick under the bottom
of the river, conducting the water in iron pipes by gravity to the
distributing system. The result is that Lima is better supplied
with baths and water-closets than Paris, while the system of
sewerage is perfect, a constant stream of fresh water flowing
through its whole extent.

The palace of Government and the cathedral have already
received attention in the sketch of Pizarro's career. The cathedral,
founded by the conqueror, cost $600,000 and was ninety years in
building. It is on the general plan that characterizes all Spanish
ecclesiastical architecture. Its fa9ade, like those of the other
churches of Lima, has challenged the approval of severe critics.

There are in Lima 76 ecclesiastical edifices, some of which have
been diverted from their original uses. Thus the railroad stations
of the two lines that connect the capital with its port are sup-
pressed convents. That used by the English company is the old
house of San Juan de Dios, while the station of the American line
is the Monastery of the Desamparados. Some of the nunneries
have been turned into hospitals, where women, members of relig-
ious orders, are doing useful work as nurses; others into public
buildings. The Government has enacted that any religious body
reduced to less than eight persons shall cease to occupy a separate
building and go into the house of some other order. The great
bell of the cathedral, La Cantabaria, weighs 30,000 pounds, and is
always tolled to sound the Trinity when an earthquake trembling
is approaching. It is one of the heaviest bells in the world, and
one may well imagine the solemnity of its awful tone in the

PERU. 91

middle of the night when aroused from sleep by the terror of
approaching destruction. The cathedral contains an original
Murillo — La Veronica — a painting of ineffable beauty. It has
also a chapel and altar devoted to Santa Rosa, the patron saint of
Peru, and the only American who has ever been canonized. She
was born and died in Lima.

The climate of Lima is not tropical, as one might suppose
from its being within the torrid zone, latitude 12° 2' 34" south,
and longitude 77 7' 36" west from Greenwich. The law that
was explained in connection with the northern part of the State
obtains here, as it does throughout the Zona Seca. The result is
an average temperature in summer (November to May) of 84° F.
and in winter (May to November) of 5*6° F. While there is no
rain during the winter months, there is a dense fog, known in the
language of the country as " garua," which contains so much water
as to make the streets muddy and the air uncomfortably raw and
chilly.

There are several public squares in Lima, but nothing approach-
ing a park as it is understood among North Americans, unless
the garden of the Exposition may be so termed. The plaza,
surrounded by the cathedral, the bishop's palace, the palace of
Government, the city hall, and the mercantile arcades, called
"portales," occupies, with the adjoining streets, about 9 acres. It
is ornamented with a central fountain in bronze, surmounted by a
statue of Fame, whose crown is 42 feet from the ground. The
four seasons are represented by marble statues inclosed in little
plats of plants that further illustrate the allegory. Twice a week
two bands play in the plaza for evening entertainment. The
ladies appear in evening dress, with their escorts, to enjoy the
promenade. The Plaza de la Constitution (formerly de la Inquisi-
tion) contains a statue of Simon Bolivar, 14 feet high, cast in
Munich, from a design by Adam Tadolini. The Paseo de los
Descalsos, on the right bank of the Rimac, lies along the edge of

92 PERU.

a suburban district, San Lizaro, and is 1,500 feet long; it is
planted with trees, ornamented with vases and statuary, and pro-
vided with seats. The Alameda del Acho, on the same side of
the Rimac, is a terrace along the river for half a mile or more,
with paved walks and rows of tall willows, making leafy aisles
that terminate in an open oval space, where is an allegorical monu-
ment to Columbus from the chisel of Salvatore Revelli, in which
America is represented as a crouching Indian girl receiving a cross
from the discoverer, while she drops an arrow, the symbol of
savage life.

A great beauty of Lima is to be found in its public garden,
which, although despoiled by the Chileans, remains the most
beautiful and elaborate pleasure ground in Spanish America. Its
principal gate is an exquisite work, and the grounds are made the
sites of various palaces and pavilions, while all the zones of earth
are represented in the flora. A magnificent conservatory of ferns
and orchids was spared by the enemy, who carried away the zoo-
logical collection. The place contains about 40 acres, in which
are pleasant shaded walks, seats, and gas lamps for evening enter-
tainments. A small fee, 1 real, is asked for admission. Mon-
tero's famous picture of the obsequies of Atahualpa is to be seen
in the principal palace, whence it was taken by the Chileans and
afterwards returned.

No market in New York bears comparison with the "Central
Market" of Lima, which is part of the suppressed convent of La
Concepcion; it is built around a central court, with exterior
shops and interior corridors. The courtyard is traversed by paths
radiating from a central fountain, forming a series of smaller
courts, appropriated to special products. The market is better
supplied with meats, vegetables, and fruits than any market in
England, and compares favorably with the markets of the United
States.

The carnal (abattoir), the great slaughterhouse of Lima, is just
outside and above the town, on the bank of the Rimac, where it

PERU. 93

was built in lS^. The method of slaughter is much more
humane than the system in general use in the United States.
The animals stand with their heads locked between two posts, as
cows are often placed for milking. Two rows of them face each
other and leave room for the butchers to pass along the aisles
between their heads. One carries a sharp, thin knife for his work ;
standing in front of the animal, with the knife upraised and care-
fully poised in exactly the true position, he suddenly, with a quick,
strong blow, plunges it into the neck at the base of the brain, sev-
ering the spinal cord at that point and producing instant insensi-
bility. The animal falls as if struck by lightning and immediately
stiffens out, while another expert severs the jugular.

There are several hospitals in Lima. Probably the favorite
among English-speaking foreigners is the French institution, under
the charge of French Sisters of Mercy. The price for a separate
room is 14 sols a week, equal to about $10, and includes medical
attendance, medicines, and food. The Refugio de San Jose is to
an American a curious institution. Here the married woman may
seek refuge from the cruel or wicked husband, and here the hus-
band, who can not afford the price of a dispensation for divorce,
may place his wayward or scolding and nagging wife, under a
sentence of the archbishop, for discipline and religious training to
improve her temper. Among the convents the principal are San
Francisco, Las Descalzas (barefooted), Recoleta de San Diego*
Santo Domingo, San Pedro, Nuestra Senora de la Merced, and
San Agustin. Among the lesser priories may be named as
important, the Monasterio de la Concepcion, Santa Clara, Capu-
chinas de Santa Maria, Nazarenas, and Trinitarias Descalzas.

The public institutions of Lima, the charities, general cemetery*
bull ring, cockpit, and lottery are all in charge of a society known
as the " Benificencia," established in 1825, whose duty it is to so
regulate them all as to best serve the popular demand and avoid
scandal. The Benificencia is entirely outside of politics, and is

94 PERU.

managed by the best citizens of the community. The Panteon
General (general cemetery) was founded in 1808, and is one of the
cemeteries in Spanish America that the civil power keeps in its
own hands. There is a French cemetery and also an English one
on the road between Callao and Lima, both of which are in excellent
condition and are maintained, with characteristic national pride
and taste, in monuments, foliage, and verdure. All the cemeteries
about Lima contain monuments evincing wealth and taste. In
the Peruvian cemetery it is not the general custom to put the body
into the earth. Vaults are built above the ground, four or five
stories high, and the coffins are slipped into them, being then sealed
up with a marble slab, on which is the customary legend. A
pretty chapel has been erected at the entrance of the Panteon
General.

The penitentiary is a model institution of its class, having been
designed by men of the highest character, after a visit to the best
prisons of the United States and an elaborate study of the many
systems of prison discipline. It is capacious, airy, clean, and
secure ; built on the principle established in the national constitu-
tion that imprisonment is not vindictive, but for reformation.

The shops of Lima are not so large as those of London or
New York, but are exceedingly well supplied with everything to
be found in the most luxurious marts. The jewelry shops are little
stalls, and contain rich assortments of precious goods, generally of
Parisian manufacture.

The newspaper press of Lima has always attracted the ambition
of men of letters. In no country, therefore, does the press possess
a more powerful influence and in no country is it more completely
free. These tacts account for each other. The principal dailies
are El Comercio, the leading commercial sheet of Lima; El
Nacional, El Constitutional, El Pais, and La Opinion Nacional.
El Peru Ilustrado is an excellent and popular illustrated weekly.

Lima has two good hotels, the Hotel de Francia y Ingleterra

PERU. 95

and the Hotel Maury, both of which are of cosmopolitan as well
as metropolitan character. These houses supply table d'hote and
meals by card, as is preferred. There are several houses where
rooms may be taken which do not supply meals ; also, there are
many excellent restaurants. Prices are reasonable; $2 to $3 a
day will give the guest a very good room and table. The country
towns of Peru make some provision for travelers, and where
there is no hotel there is always a hospitable curate of the parish
who may be relied on to save the stranger from discomfort and
. who will appreciate the visit of the agreeable passenger. In the
interior cities the Italians and Chinese have undertaken very
largely the office of boniface ; they cook well and are cleanly and
accommodating. They furnish clean beds and comfortable rooms.

Callao is the port of Lima, 7 miles distant, and is connected
therewith by two lines of railroad. Its citadel was the last
American possession to float the banner of Spain. The harbor
is an open roadstead, but as there is never a storm in this part of
the coast there is no need of further protection than is afforded by
the island of San Lorenzo, on the southwest side of the anchorage,
which serves as a breakwater against the swell of the ocean rolling
up from that direction all along the coast. On the seaward side
of San Lorenzo is a light-house.

Callao is in the sunshine when Lima is under a dense cloud of
fog, and has on that account a vastly more agreeable climate in
the winter than the capital, of which the temperature is io° lower
in that season. Callao is a handsome city of 30,000 people, and
possesses as perfect a system for handling the cargoes of shipping
as exists in the world. A mile of dock wall is traversed by 3
miles of railway track, provided with eighteen steam cranes, eight
hydrants for supplying water to shipping, a light-house, and cap
stans that give to shipping all the facilities it can demand.

The boatmen who infest the harbor of Callao are licensed with
the special privilege to pursue their calling, in return for which

96 PERU.

they constitute the naval reserve of the Republic, subject to the call
of their country at any hour. They are hardy, bold, industrious,,
and energetic in the pursuit of custom, in their clamor and push
for a job resembling the hackmen at American railroad stations.

The Callao of to-day is half a mile north of the old city, which
was submerged by a tidal wave in 1 746.

There are three Roman Catholic churches and a Protestant
chapel in the city, for, while the public teaching of Protestantism
is prohibited by the law, the influence of liberal intelligence in
the governing classes makes it a dead letter. Callao supports
two clubs, four banks, and a hospital, as also several newspapers,
of which the principal are El Callao and El Porvenir, this latter
being printed in both English and Spanish.

After the Chilean war the headquarters of the Pacific Steam
Navigation Company was transferred from Callao to Valparaiso*
where English influence is paramount, and thus a considerable
element of the prosperity of the port was lost. It meant the
removal of foundries, machine and carpenter shops, flour mills,
bakeries, and gas works, employing a large population of skilled
workmen besides the necessary common labor. It has still, how-
ever, a large floating dock, 300 feet long, in which can be accom-
modated ships of heavy tonnage. English, French, and German
steamers are engaged in the trade of the South Pacific, and enter
the port every week on voyages that extend from European ports
to Panama, and in the case of the Germans to Central America
and Mexico. Sixteen hundred vessels a year enter and clear from
Callao.

Paita, in the north, is the second port in importance in the
Republic, collecting one-third of all its revenues from the custom-
house duties. Its anchorage is excellent, in a perfectly landlocked
bay. There is at Paita an iron custom-house, and the shops of
the railroad connecting the port with Piura, the capital of the
department, is one of the best equipped on the Pacific Coast.

PERU.

97

The Government has contracted for an iron pier, which will be
ready for use in the near future.

Paita is a celebrated place of resort for the people of Ecuador,
especially from the sickly valley of the Guayaquil River, in the
warm months. The planters of the Tumbez Valley also come to
Paita in the same season. Its sea bathing is famed all over the
region as a tonic to which convalescents are sent for the recupera-
tion of their forces after the debilitating attacks of the pernicious
fevers of the valleys of the north. The market of Paita is of great
abundance in meats, fruits, and vegetables, for which purpose it is
eagerly sought by the navigators of the coast. The productions
of Piura, Catacaos, and Sechura, also of the upper valley of the
Rio Piura and the valley of the Chira, all find their principal
port of export and entrepot for supplies at Paita. Some idea of
the commerce of the port may be had by noting the exportations
in one year, as follows :

Articles.

Quantity.

Value.

Cotton quintals. *

Panama hats kilograms . .

Cotton seed do

Tobacco. . . . .do

Goatskins do. . . .

Green hides do

Coffee do

Firewood do

Charcoal do

Cotton canvas do. . . .

Cascarilla bark do. . . .

Condurango do

Algaroba quintals. .

Sechura salt

Fat beeves head. .

Asphaltum and other articles

Total value of Paita exports, including both coast-
wise and foreign •.

60,000

26, 205

1, 600,000

309. 34i

233. 173

54.590

20, 425

1, 262,000

3. 275, 553
4.172

29. 374
2,746

10,000

f 4, 000

$1, 200,

000

369,

092

33,

000

137, 443

257,

811

26,

323

10,

990

7.

773

50,

560

2,

495

23,

570

578

15,

000

150,

000

136,

000

150,

000

2, 570, 595

* At $34 each.

These articles are almost entirely from the valleys of the Chira
and Piura rivers. They do not, however, include all the pro-

Bull. 60-

98 PERU.

ductions of those regions, of which large shipments go from
the Bay of Sechura and the port of Tumbez, besides the land
exportations into Ecuador on the north. The business of the
Paita custom-house has grown with great uniformity since 1866,
when the collections amounted to $37,051, while in 1890 they
were $455,700. Paita has two churches, two hotels, and two clubs.

Piura, the capital of the department of the same name, is on
the Piura River, 42 miles inland and due east from its port. It
was the first permanent settlement made by Pizarro after two
unsuccessful attempts in the Tumbez and Chira, from both of
which he was driven by the insalubrious climates. It is a well-built
city of ] 2,000 people, a mercantile community, transacting the
business of the northern valleys and southern Ecuador, containing
a population of 150,000; the city has eight churches, one hos-
p'tal, two clubs, two hotels, and two theaters.

The Plaza Mayor, in the middle of the city, is a beautifully
cultivated garden, in the center of which is a marble statue of
Liberty, while on the west side is a monument to the memory
of Grau, the hero of the Huascar. On the south is the municipal
building, containing the barracks for the troops of the department
and a departmental prison. North of the plaza is the Iglesia
Matriz (original church), while on the east is the Hospital de
Belen. Piura is the great cotton mart of the north. Here repre-
sentatives of American, German, and English houses have their
establishments. There are several ginning houses in Piura and
the vicinity.

Truxillo was founded in 1535 by Pizarro, in commemoration
of his birthplace in Spain, for which it is named. It is a walled
town, midway between Piura and Lima, and is a well-built, hand-
some city, regularly laid out, with wide streets crossing each other
at right angles. The sewerage or open ditches run along the
streets, reeking with the filth of the town. It is in latitude 8°
south, and but little elevated above the sea, from which it is

PERU. 90

25 miles distant. It boasts of possessing the finest private resi-
dence in South America, It is a cathedral town, with but little
enterprise or life of any kind. The principal exports from Trux-
illo are rice and spices, and also the sugar of the Chicama Valley.
Its port is Salavery, an open and rough roadstead. The original
settlers of Truxillo were of very respectable Spanish families.
"Yo soy Truxillano" means "I am from no mean stock."

All freight and passengers at Salavery are conveyed between
the ship and shore in launches that carry from 50 to 100 tons at
a load. The passenger takes the chance of being well deluged
n going through the breakers. It is one of the most disagreeable
ports in all its appointments on the coast of Peru, although it is
the possessor of a fine iron mole.

Arequipa is the capital of the department of that name. It is
90 miles from the coast and 7,560 feet above sea level, with a
population of 3 £,000. It is a cathedral town, of great wealth and
nfluence. When built by the Spaniards the structures were of
the most massive character, the walls being of stone, and even the
roofs were stone arches; so that when a great earthquake shock
struck the town it was thrown into utter destruction. Between
4,000 and 5,000 structures were thrown down, among them the
cathedral and 21 other churches; it has been rebuilt in lighter
material. Arequipa lies in the fertile valley of the Chile, at the
foot of a snow-crowned volcano, the sublime Misti, which rises
nearly 19,000 feet above sea level. It has been the residence of
many very respectable statesmen of Peru and often the scene of
ambitious plans for securing the Government, but without success.
Its port is Mollendo, an open and disagreeable roadstead. It is
connected with the coast by rail, which passes on to Puno, on Lake
Titicaca.

Puno, capital of the Department of Puno, is on Lake Titicaca,
12,550 feet above sea level. It is a cathedral town, the sacred
edifice being the highest cathedral in the world. The town owes

lOO PERU.

its existence to the discovery of silver in the mountains of Con-
charami and Laycaycota, at whose feet it was built in 1660. The
mines now constitute but a small part of the industry of Puno,
which is a great wool center.

It is a dreary place, with low thatched houses; the streets made
more dreary still, if possible, by the noiseless tread of llamas and
the presence of the silent, melancholy Indians.

Cuzco, signifying umbilicus or navel, was so named to desig-
nate it as the center of the Inca power. It is situated at the con-
fluence of three rivers, the Rodadero, Huatenay, and Almodena,
and is built around the triangle made by their junction, in latitude
1 3° 3 1 ' sou th and longitude 72 2' west from Greenwich, at an
altitude of 11,500 feet above sea level. The climate is not as
cold as one might expect to find it after visiting other places in
the sierra and puna of the same elevation, but is mild, equable,
and salubrious. Wheat, barley, maize, and potatoes ripen in the
valley, also the strawberry and peach. Within 20 miles of Cuzco
are deep, hot valleys, where semitropical fruits abound. Cuzco is
now the most populous department of Peru, though only about
one-twelfth of its population is white, consisting of Government
officers, wealthy haciendados, and merchants. Thus the appearance
of the town is strikingly Indian. The stupendous ruins of the
Inca age will forever make the city famous. The Temple of the
Sun is probably the most imposing edifice in all America. Cuzco
has its alameda on the south side of the town, planted with wil-
lows and provided with seats. It terminates in an esplanade,
where are built a Grecian temple and colonnade. There are 60
churches in the city and 1 1 convents, of which several have been
suppressed. The sewage is carried away in open ditches laid
through the streets.

Caraz and Huaraz are important towns in the sierra, on the
head waters of the Rio Santa. They are fair types of all the towns
in that zone of the Republic — generally Indian in appearance,

PERU. lOl

with some slight admixture of whites to lead the enterprise of the
region and its merchants. The houses are all well built and neat
in external appearance, with smooth, whitened walls and spa-
cious patios. On Sunday mornings the Indians make it a special
duty to visit the snow mountains in their vicinity and bring down
great blocks of ice, transported in a blanket hung on poles between
two men or women. Recuay, farther up the valley, is the principal
objective of the Chimbote railroad on account of its famous
silver deposits.

Peru possesses settlements on the head waters of the Amazon,
the most important of which are Iquitos, Nauta and Yurimaguas,
this last being the port of the Italian colony, Moyabamba, a city
of 1,500 souls, six days to the southwest. Nauta is on the
Maranon, opposite the mouth of the Ucayali River. Iquitos is,
however, the most thriving of all the towns in the montana. It
is on an elevated plain on the left bank of the Maranon, 60 miles
above the mouth of the Napo. It has a population of 6,000 souls
and contains extensive Government works for the manufacture of
iron. Coal for the furnaces comes from England, the lignite on
the banks of the Maranon being unfit for the purpose. It has a
floating dock for vessels of 1,000 tons and is the military outpost
of Peru, having a prefect of its own.

GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION.

The government of Peru is popular and republican in its form.
The executive power is vested in a President, elected to serve four
years, with whom are elected also two Vice-Presidents, in the same
manner and for the same time. The President can not be re-elected
to serve two consecutive terms, but he may be re-elected when
four years have elapsed since the expiration of his former term.
The legislative power is vested in a Senate, and Chamber of
Deputies, with whom alternates are elected, the custom having
obtained in both bodies to give the alternates a chance in every

102 PERU.

session to demonstrate their skill in statesmanship and gather in
their share of glory, etc.

The judicial power is vested in a supreme court of justice, sit-
ting in the capital of the Republic; superior courts in the Depart-
ments, judges of first instance in the Provinces, and justices of
the peace in all the towns and villages. Judges of the supreme
court and the attorney-general are elected by Congress from names
submitted by the President, Judges and prosecuting attorneys
of the superior courts are appointed by the President from names
submitted by the supreme court. Judges of the first instance and
their prosecuting attorneys are appointed by the judges of the
superior courts in their respective departments. A vacancy occur-
ring in the supreme court during a recess of Congress can be filled
temporarily by the President.

All Peruvians, native or naturalized, who have attained the age
of 2 1 years, and all married men, whether they have attained that
age or not, enjoy the privileges of active citizenship. These exer-
cise the right of suffrage if they can read and write, or are at the
head of any workshops, or pay any public tax. The citizen is
temporarily disfranchised by bankruptcy, imprisonment for crime,
notorious gambling, vagrancy, or divorce by reason of his own fault.
The right of citizenship is lost by judicial sentence under the follow-
ing circumstances ; bankruptcy found to be fraudulent by the court;
acquiring citizenship in another country; accepting employment
from another Government, or any decoration without the consent
of Congress; by monastic profession, but recoverable on abai>
doning such profession; and slave dealing in any place whatever.

To be President one must be a Peruvian by birth ; an active
citizen, as above described ; 35 years of age, and domiciled ten
consecutive years in the Republic at the date of the election.
The President is elected by a Congress, chosen by the people for
that purpose; in the event of a tie vote in the Congress the
result is determined by lot.

PERU. IO3

To be a Senator one must be a Peruvian by birth ; an active
citizen, as above described ; 35 years of age ; have an income of
$1,000 per year or have a scientific profession.

To be a Deputy the candidate must be a Peruvian by birth ; an
active citizen, as above described ; a native of the department con-
taining the province he is to represent, or a resident of it for three
years; have an income of $500, or belong to a scientific profession.

Senators are allotted, four to each department containing eight
or more provinces; three to each department containing less than
eight provinces and more than four; two to each department con-
taining less than four provinces and more than one ; one to each
department of only one province, and also one to each littoral
province.

Deputies are allotted, one to every 30,000 inhabitants and every
fraction of that number exceeding 1 5,000 ; also one for each prov-
ince, although its population does not reach 15,000.

No clergyman of any rank, no judge, nor any military officer
can be elected a Senator or Deputy to represent the place where
he holds or exercises authority.

Congress meets annually on the 28th of July, the independence
day of Peru, and may remain in session ninety days. An extra
session of Congress must adjourn as soon as the subject for which
it was convoked is disposed of. It can not in any event remain in
session more than forty-five days. The Chambers of Congress are
renewed by thirds every two years, and both Senators and Deputies
are eligible to re-election.

For the installation of Congress two-thirds of each Chamber
must be present. Senators and Deputies are inviolable in the
exercise of their functions. They can not be accused nor arrested
for a month before or after the session of Congress unless taken
in flagrante delictu, in which case they must be immediately
placed at the disposition of their respective Chamber. The Presi-
dency of Congress, in joint session of the two Houses, alternates

104 PERU.

between the Presidents of the two Chambers. The impeachment
of high officers of the Government must originate in the Depu-
ties and be tried in the Senate. The Senate also decides ques-
tions that arise between the President and the supreme court and
between the supreme and superior courts.

Laws may be initiated in Congress by the President and
also by Senators and Deputies ; and in judicial matters, by the
judges of the supreme court. A law that has been vetoed by
the President can not be considered again until a subsequent ses-
sion of Congress.

Each Chamber elects its own presiding officer. The dispatch of
public administration is in the charge of ministers of the State,
who form the Cabinet of the President. Ministers must be Peru-
vians by birth and active citizens. The orders and decrees of
the President must be signed by the minister whose portfolio it
concerns, otherwise it is not to be executed. The meeting of
the ministers forms a council for the President. The President
and his ministers present to the Congress, when it meets, their
respective reports touching the affairs of the Republic. The
minister of finance also presents a report of the financial condition
of the previous two years and an estimate for the budget for the
ensuing two years. Ministers may present laws to Congress and
be present to assist in the discussion of them, but must retire
when the vote is taken. They may # be called on by either Cham-
ber to reply to interpellations.

Judges must conduct all trials of causes in public. They may
discuss in secret, but their decisions must be given in public and
be viva voce. Sentences and decisions must be accompanied with
the reasons and a statement of the law on which they are based.
Judgments by commission are forbidden. No power can transfer
a pending suit to another power or authority, nor revive completed
causes. Popular action may be taken against a judge for prevari-
cation, bribery, abbreviation or suspension of judicial forms, and
illegal proceedings against individual guaranties.

PERU. IO5

The nation professes the Roman Catholic faith and does not
permit the exercise of any other in public. It is protected and
its ministers are supported by the State.

The acts of any person usurping the duty of any public func-
tionary are null.

No person can be arrested without the written warrant of a com-
petent judge. All persons must be brought before the tribunal
within twenty-four hours after arrest.

Prisons are places of detention, not of punishment. All sever-
ity not essential to secure keeping is forbidden.

The nation guarantees the diffusion of primary instruction to
ail its people and the encouragement of public establishments of
science, art, piety and charity.

The introducers of a useful discovery or invention shall enjoy
the advantages of such introduction for a time the limit of which
shall be fixed by the proper authorities.

Naturalization of foreigners. — To become a citizen it is neces-
sary for a man to be 21 years of age, reside in the country in the
exercise of any office, industry, or profession, enter his name in
the civil register before the municipal authority where he resides,
and declare his intention to remain permanently a resident of the
Republic.

Any foreigner may properly acquire property in the Republic,
with the same rights and obligations as a Peruvian.

The domicile is inviolable, and can not be entered without the
written warrant of a competent judge, which must first be shown.

Amendments to the constitution may be sanctioned in any
ordinary Congress, but can not go into effect until they have been
sanctioned by the succeeding Congress.

Currency. — There is no legalized paper currency in Peru, and
therefore no banks of issue. The monetary unit is the silver sol,
weighing 25 grams, and coined with the same degree of fineness
(nine-tenths) that is observed in the silver coinage of the United

106 PERU.

»

States. It will be observed that the Peruvian sol is a trifle lighter
than the American silver dollar; this is due to the decimal sys-
tem of weights, in consequence of which the sol is made to weigh
an even fraction of 100 grams. As compared, the American dollar
weighs 412^ troy grains, while the 25 grams of the sol amount to
402 grains troy. The sol is divided into pesetas of 20 centavos
each, and decimally into 10 reals of 10 centavos each. Medio-
reals of 5 centavos are coined, as are also centavos, the last
being some in copper and some in nickel. Gold coin is but
little used in Peru; the gold inca, of 20 sols value, is a very
handsome coin.

Weights and measures. — The Government has adopted the
French metric system, but considerable use is still made of the
old Spanish denominations, although nothing is legal except the
metric system. Merchants of Lima buy by the meter, which is
3 inches longer than the English yard, and sell by the vara, which
is 3 inches shorter. As this is a transition period among systems,
there is apt to be confusion if the party interested fail to insist on
the legal statement of measurement, in which case he can secure
what he demands and is entitled to.

Chapter VIII.

TOTAL COMMERCE.

The riches of Peru have been the theme of fables. The name
of the country stood for centuries as a synonym for wealth and
extravagance, and in the pages of old romances, galleons were
always sailing away from her ports laden with ingots of gold and
silver to exchange for the luxuries of Europe and Cathay. But
all this magnificence has departed, and the riches of the Republic
proved to be the source of her greatest misfortune. First the
accumulated treasures of the Incas tempted the cupidity of the
Spanish Conquistadors ; then the output of the mines, gained by
the labor of the Indian, and the vast deposits of guano, gave the
people luxury without toil; when deprived of these sources of
wealth by the misfortunes of war, the country was left paralyzed
and impoverished, and the foreign commerce has for years been in
a condition of comparative stagnation.

The report of the commission that was sent from the United
States to South America in 1884 and 1885 gives an accurate
review of the condition of the commerce of the country, which
still holds good. That report says :

Peru shares in the general paralysis of trade. This bears the more heavily
since only a few years ago the output of the silver mines, notably Puno, Potosi,
and the Cerro del Pasco, stimulated every branch of business and social life ; and
when the inflowing water rendered much of Cerro del Pasco inaccessible, there
followed a larger source of revenue in the great guano deposits of the Chincha,

107

108 PERU.

Lobos, and Guanojos islands. At the former a sea captain told us he had often
seen 400 vessels at a time receiving cargo, and at the latter a naval officer
said he had frequently found a fleet of from 100 to 300 vessels taking in the
valuable freight. This bountiful accumulation of wealth has also been exhausted
to a great degree, and not a vessel now visits those once busy spots for cargo.
There is no accurate record of the amount Peru received from these guano
deposits, but it was very large. In 1874 we find the estimated value of the
guano of the country to be nearly ^£8 5,000,000, and in that year the export was
valued at $20,000,000. Following this item of income came the discovery of
nitrate of soda in the desert region in southern Peru, and from this a large
amount was derived until the Chilean invasion wrested it away. The country,
too, in a general way, prospered under its sugar industries, producing in 1877
over 80,000 tons, while now it has fallen below 30,000, and is still decreasing.
Peru also in times past exported large quantities of wool. Now, owing to
causes hereafter mentioned, none goes out of the country.

The appalling decrease of exportable wealth is due not only to the universal
blight upon commerce and manufactures everywhere, but also to several local
causes, each of which was more disastrous than the one common to all the
Pacific coast. The wealth coming from the immense sales of guano produced
both an inflation of values in the Republic and a diminution of other industries.
The revenue which flowed into the public coffers without toil or effort descended
in its paralyzing influence to all the occupations and economies of the State.
On its unceasing flow lavish expenditures were made, vast projects of internal
improvements were based, and a great public debt created, the interest of which
became an impossible burden as soon as the collapse of the guano and nitrate
interests came, which were pledged to its payment. But while the inflow of
revenue was so liberal, men thought it to be perennial, and so other and far less
remunerative sources of revenue — those that depend upon hard work, patient
cultivation, and careful hoarding — were neglected and fell into ruin. For a time
the production of nitrate of soda would have compensated for the exhaustion of
the guano deposits, but then came the war between Peru and Chile. The treaty
of peace left Peru prostrate, bleeding and well-nigh destroyed.

The commerce of Peru with the United States was formerly very large, but
it has now been reduced to a mere nominal account, including only those articles
which can not be purchased elsewhere. Before the late war with Chile large
imports of wheat, lumber, lard, kerosene, canned goods, trunks, clocks, sewing
machines, railway and street car supplies, household utensils, perfumery, patent
medicines, cordage, sail cloth, and other articles were made from the United
States. In linen, cotton, and woolen goods the United States has no hold on

PERU. IO9

Peruvian commerce, nor can our merchants obtain one until the business system
at home is modified to meet the requirements of this coast, the chief obstacle
being found in the matter of credits. English and continental importers,
through their agents and consignees in Peru, until the recent financial crisis,
gave credit to the purchasers, sometimes extending to eight, ten, and twelve
months, and naturally the purchaser prefers dealing with merchants granting
such privileges. This refers particularly to linen, woolen, cotton, and other
forms of wearing apparel with which the interior Peruvian markets are supplied
by merchants on the coast, who are compelled to give credit to their customers
and expect credit from those of whom they buy. Custom and habit also have
a great influence in Peru as in other Spanish-American countries. The purchaser
becomes accustomed to a certain class of goods with a peculiar trade-mark or
some special token or medal attached to the bale or parcel of goods, and on no
account will he invest in any other description of the material if the old one
can be had. This conservatism of the Peruvians, which is especially marked in
the interior, is at once apparent from the fact that they use the same implements
of agriculture and husbandry that were employed at the time of the Spanish
Conquest. American hardware and agricultural machinery might be pushed in
the interior by means of active agents and by paying attention to the form of
packing necessary for transportation on muleback.

From 1870 to 1880, before the war with Chile began, the exports from the
United States to Peru averaged nearly $2,000,000 annually ; but they have now
fallen off until the average is less than $500,000. In 1875, for example, which
was one of the average years, when Peru was at peace, she imported $2,480,000
worth of merchandise from the United States, consisting as follows : Iron and
steel, $1,100,000; lumber and furniture, $41 1,000; provisions, $200,000 ; petro-
leum, $105,000; breadstufFs, $75,000; cotton manufactures, $26,000; cordage,
$12,000; drugs, $27,000; tobacco, $15,000; and about a half million dollars'
worth of other merchandise. This trade has so far fallen off that in 1883 we
exported to Peru but $75,000 worth of iron and steel, $113,000 worth of lum-
ber and furniture, $83,000 worth of provisions, $46,000 worth of oil, $1 1,000
worth of drugs, $600 worth of tobacco, $60,000 worth of breadstuff's, $7,000
worth of cordage, and $42,000 worth of cotton goods.

The exports of Peru formerly were very large, amounting oftentimes to treble
her imports. Of the exports, the United States has had only a small proportion,
consisting of guano, nitrate of soda, hides, and sugar. From 1870 to 1880 the
exports of the United States averaged about a million and a half of dollars, of
which the greater part was nitrate of soda. The last official statistics obtain-
able (for 1877) show that the exports of that year to England amounted to

1 lO PERU.

20,189,054 sols; to France, 3,249,000 sols; to Germany, 1,477,000 sols; to the
United States, 484,178 sols. (Guano and nitrate of soda not included.) The
principal articles exported, outside of guano and nitrate, have been silver,
copper, and sugar, which have gone to England, France, and Germany. A little
cotton has been sent to France, England, and Chile; rice, to Chile and Panama;
cocoa, to France, Germany, and England; sarsaparilla, to England, France, and
Germany; chocolate, to England, France, and Germany; wool, to England
and France; tobacco, to Chile and Ecuador; drugs and dyestuffs, to Germany,
England, and France; while the United States has taken a greater part of the
hides and goatskins. During the year 1884 the exports to the United States
amounted, outside of nitrate and guano, to but $16,000, of which $9,000 was
in silver coin, $2,800 in old iron, $2,100 in goatskins, $1,500 in cocoa leaves,
and $610 in antiquities.

But of late the commerce of Peru shows signs of revival, and
it only requires the introduction of new capital and the applica-
tion of labor to restore to the country its former prosperity. The
natural riches still exist to a degree almost unequaled in any
other land, and they are both agricultural and mineral ; but they
can not be developed without industry, patience and prudent
business management. The people of Peru hereafter must suffer
the curse imposed upon the parents of all mankind, like those of
other nations, and earn their bread by the sweat of their brow.

The returns of the commerce of Peru are meager and inaccu-
rate, and reliable recent statistics can only be obtained from the
reports of the countries with which her trade is carried on. The
principal exports are nitrate of soda, sugar, raw cotton, the wool
of the sheep and alpaca goat, silver ore, hides and skins, cin-
chona bark and coca. The shipments of copper and tin have
increased rapidly of late years, and petroleum is becoming a very
important article of export.

Great Britain has the largest share of the Peruvian trade ; but
France receives a considerable amount of the exports, and the
shipments of coca and cinchona to Belgium are frequently very
large. The following table gives a comparison by articles of their
imports into Great Britain, France, and the United States, com-

PERU.

Ill

piled from the official statistics of the countries named, for the last
five years:

Imports from Peru, by principal articles.

Into the United States :

Nitrate of soda

Chemicals, drugs, etc.

(all other)

Hides and skins, other

than fur

Cotton, raw

Other merchandise

Total

Into the United Kingdom :

Nitrate of soda

Sugar

Raw cotton

Alpaca (wool)

Guano

Sheep and lambs' wool . .

Silver ore

Tin ore

All other articles

Total

Into France :

Nitrate of soda.

Hides and skins

Copper

Tin

Cotton, unmanufactured.

Guano

Wool, unmanufactured . .
All other articles

Total

1887.

Dollars.
224, 751

41, 872

177, Il6
4,044

13.043

461, 726

3. 125. 987
1, 358, 182

639, 190

946, 928

241, 612

399,209

399. 637
168, 464

702, 707

7,981,916

3, 890, 205

347, 807

"1,383

85, 033
70, 136

61,881

23, 155
204, 507

4, 794, 107

1888.

Dollars.

58, 373
28, 256

169, 641

3,088

49, 682

309, 040

4, 127, 668

1, 797, 534
996, 085

811,771
595, 290
269, 478
220, 107

175,759
547, 388

9, 541, 080

6, 534, 906

280, 284

573, 883

34,921

90.639

(*)
49,984

465,632

8, 030, 249

1889.

Dollars.
(*)

87,918

187, 262

3IO

38, 542

3U,032

175,914
2, 728, 155

936, 981
I, 152,056

166,960

43o, 554

242, 449

61,060

403, 010

6, 297, 139

1890.

Dollars.
(*)

43, 371

238, 519
50,390
19,415

351,695

2, 006, 195

1, 138, 265

928, 056

396. 766

139. 56i
31,004

487, 517

5, 127, 364

7, 160, 091
200, 211
264, 783
39, 482
95, 263
264, 529
165, 682
480, 790

8, 670, 831

7, 409, 250
209, 909

474, 775
81,832

112, 121

125,209
48, 027

413,672

1891.

Dollars.
16, 722

62, I37
233, 635

54, 754

19, 270

381,518

142, 029

1,451,852
768, 488

943, 439

78, 837

431. 790

405, 165

39, 3*2

458, 738

4, 719, 600

8, 874, 795

•Not stated.

The imports from Peru into the United States for the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1892, were as follows •

FREE OF DUTY.

Dollars.
Articles the growth, produce, and manufacture of the United States, returned. . i, 557

Chemicals, drugs, and dyes 21, 669

Cocoa, or cacao, crude, and leaves and shells of 7, 208

Coffee i, 838

1 12 PERU

Dollars.

Cotton, unmanufactured 267, 518.

Guano 21, 552

Furs and fur skins, undressed 18-

Hides and skins, other than fur skins:

Goatskins 211, 595

All other 20, 12&

Articles belonging to persons arriving from foreign Countries and of citizens

of the United States dying abroad 774

India rubber and gutta-percha, crude 1, 383

Ores, silver-bearing 217

Paper stock, crude 30

All other free articles 472

DUTIABLE.

Paintings in oil or water colors, and statuary 59.

Chemicals, dyes, drugs, and medicines 34, 508

China, porcelain, parian, and bisque ; earthen, stone, and crockery ware:

Not decorated or ornamented 10

Decorated or ornamented 71

Furs, and manufactures of 591

Oils, mineral 4

Provisions, meat products 7

Tobacco, leaf, suitable for cigar wrappers 58

Wools, unmanufactured 33

Total ! 591, 30a

THE IMPORTS OF PERU.

The imports of Peru are regulated by the purchasing power of
the people, which for the last twelve years, since the war with Chile
began, has been very limited. There is very little manufacturing
in the country, as has been stated, and the imports consist exclu-
sively of manufactured goods, cotton fabrics and other forms of
wearing apparel constituting nearly one-third of the whole. Great
Britain almost monopolizes the trade, and furnishes annually from
60 to 70 per cent of the merchandise brought into the country.

The following statement, compiled from the official statistics of
the countries named, shows the exports by principal articles from

PERU.

u 3

Great Britain France, and the United States, in United States
gold :

Domestic exports to Peru, by principal articles.

1887.

From the United States :

Iron and steel, and manu-
factures of

Wood, and manufactures
of

Cottons

Flax, hemp, etc., manu-
factures of

Provisions, meat, and
dairy products

Mineral oils, refined

Bread stuffs

Chemicals, drugs, dyes,
etc

All other articles

Total

From the United Kingdom :

Cottons

Woolens

Iron, wrought and ' un-

wrought

Coal, cinders, and fuel. . .
Machinery and millwork .
Bags and sacks, empty . .
Carriages, railway, and

parts thereof

Hardware and cutlery .

All other articles

Total

From France :

Manufactures of leather

and hides

Manufactures of wool . . .

Ready-made clothing

Felt hats

Wine

Manufactures of cotton. .
Manufactures of iron and

steel

All other articles

Total..

Dollars.
109, 438

94, 730
90,062

14,011

56,044

21,522

116,499

32, 887
182, 775

717,968

1,417,217
550. 502

358, 354

167, 252

140, 306

90, 960

77, 450

56, 758

631, 010

3, 489, 869

315, 300

174, 559
120, 978

77. 124
47. 697
46, 044

28, 189
245. 734

1,055,625

1888.

Dollars,
I20, 849

108, 560
174,811

20, 597

"4, 873
47, 761
46, 284

30, 370
201,055

865, 160

2, 383, OO7

743, 659

568, 646

379, 937
214, 107
181,633

90, 220

7o, 749

947, 757

5, 589, 715

164, 647

170, 832

161, 540

63, 224

60, 114

5i. 165

34, 263
366, 164

1889.

Dollars,
140, 497

114, 728

107, 103
26, 610

101, 553

57, 172

1,788

31. 188
192, 605

773, 244

i, 071, 949

1, 821, 741
604, 395

504, 559
169, 062

370, 905
64, 802

70, 107

97, 836

950, 155

4, 663, 562

165, 996
256, 166
212,917
36, 225
105, 827

23, 715

3i, 507
499. 737

1,332,090

1890.

Dollars.
408,215

204, 711
65, 7l6

46, 944

* 293, 660
38, 489
78, 726

37, 982
244, 118

1,418,561

2, 085, 164
629, 594

485, 263
224, 827

254, 693
30, 270

12, 765

66, 812
1, 677, 614

5, 467, 002

154,583
I9 6 » 35o
142, 653

34, 894
130, 842

46, 129

55, 930
723, 725

1,485, 106

1 891.

Dollars.
376, 539

225, 659
III, 126

42, 430

I30,2II

52,963
70, I06

52,598
334, 575

1, 396, 207

2, 019, 471
646, 334

802, 695

151,737

397, 452

30, 430

33, 671

74, 715
859, 640

5, 016, 145

Bull. 60 8

ii4

PERU

The following table gives a more detailed statement of the
imports of Peru, but the figures could not be obtained for the
same years from all the countries :

Exports to Peru, by principal articles.

Articles.

Breadstuff's

Carriages, carts, and
cars

Candles «. .

Chemicals, drugs,
dyes, etc ,

Coal

Copper, and manu-
factures of

Cotton, manufactures
of

Earthen, china, and
glass ware

Fancy articles

Fish

Flax, hemp, and jute
goods

Gunpowder and other
explosives

India rubber and
gutta-percha

Iron and steel, and
manufactures of . . . .

Jewelry, gold and
silver

Leather, and manu-
factures of

Malt liquors

Oils (vegetable)

Paints and painters'
colors

Paper and stationery . .

Provisions

Silk, manufactures of .

Vegetables

Wearing, apparel

Wine

Wood, and manufac-
tures of

Wool, manufactures of.

All other articles

Total

Domestic exports from —

The United
States,
1889-90.

The United

Kingdom,

1890.

Dollars.
78, 726

18,082

37, 982
1,429

9,760

65, 7l6

14. 383
23, 892

7,523
46, 944

3,941

5.383
408, 215

4,794

6, 702
2, 116

524

3,397
11,068

293, 660

(t)

142

244, 118

1,533
128, 801

1,418,561

Dollars.

70, IO7

29, 486
169, 062

18, 663

1,835,887
60,997

188,236
21,388

25, 569
I, 043, 242

44,451
14, 522
31, 087

44,H3

604, 395
462, 327

4, 663, 562

France, ,889. °^V.

Dollars.

33, 058

23,715

90,207
30, 816

57, 786

14, 695

165, 996

50, 349

212, 947
105, 827

292, 390
254, 334

Italy, x889. *$■».

Dollars.

II5,906

72,590

457, 198

36, 414
54, 026

24, 514
48, 076

6,188

77, 112

34, 748

60, 214
32, 844
16, 898

51,884
61, 404
82, no

25,704
288, 932

84, 252

1,332,090 1,631,014

Dollars. I Dollars,
4, 053

52, 303

9,°50

579

54, 812

*40. 337
2,316

39. 372

18, 528

2,509
36, 670

261, 129

112,133
2,509

25, 283

14, 861
10, 229

2, 123

3.281

193
6,948

193

2,316

13,317
12, 931

206,317

* Including books.

t Not specified.

PERU.

115

COMMERCE WITH THE UNITED STATES.

From 1870 to 1880, before the war with Chile began, the ex-
ports from the United States to Peru averaged nearly $2,000,000
annually; but they have now fallen off until the average is less
than $1,000,000. In 1875, for example, which was one of the
average years, when Peru was at peace, she imported $2,480,000
worth of merchandise from the United States, consisting of iron
and steel, $1,100,000; lumber and furniture, $411,000; provi-
sions, $200,000; petroleum, $105,000; breadstuffs, $75,000; cot-
ton manufactures, $26,000; cordage, $12,000; drugs, $27,000;
tobacco, $ 1 5,000, and about half a million dollars' worth of other
merchandise. This trade has so far fallen off that in 1891 we
exported to Peru but $376,539 worth of iron and steel, $225,659
worth of lumber and furniture, $130,211 worth of provisions,
$52,963 worth of oil, no drugs at all, no tobacco, $70,106 worth
of breadstuffs, no cordage, and $ 1 1 1 , 1 26 worth of cotton goods.

The following table shows the fluctuation of trade between the
United States and Peru from 1850 to 1890:

1850
i860
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872

1873
1874
1875

1876

1877
1878

1879
1880

1881
1882
1883
1884

Dollars.

275, 728

987, 672

1,215,835

1,730,914

1, 666, 355

1, 673, 445
1,974,167
2,381,005

4, 595. 403

2, 864, 945
1,914,871
2, 480, 941
1,032,898

1, 300. 552
1,005,638

1, 305, 362
918, 136

97. 530
544, 819

493, 894
1, 070, 528

Imports.

Total imports
and exports.

Dollars.

167, 503

308, 452

807, 238

I, 701, 987

I, 765, 397

1, 386, 310

2, 557, 833
4,731,430

1, 668, 983
1, 186, 161
1, 256, 286
1, 291, 235
1,426,043
I.479.5H
i,53L59i

1. 857, 859
361, 308
760, 556

3, 029, 676

2, 526, 918
2,077,645

Dollars.

443, 231

1, 296, 124
2, 023, 073
3,432,901

3.43L752
3,059,755
4, 532, 000

7,H2,435
6, 264, 386

4,051,106

3,171,157
3,772,176
2, 458, 941

2, 780, 063

2, 537, 229
3, 163, 221
1,279,444

858, 086

3. 574, 495
3, 020, 812

3, 148, :;3

n6

PERU.

1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890

Exports.

Dollars.
742, 105
813,697
722, 829
870, 171
78o, 835
1,427,301

Imports.

Dollars.

I, 764, 890

963, 480

461, 726

309, 040

314. 032
351,695

Total imports
and exports.

Dollars.
2, 506, 995

I. 777, 177
1. 184, 555
1, 179,211
1,094, 866

1,778,997

The exports to Peru in 1891 were $1,399,991. In 1892 they
were $1,007,035. The imports from Peru in 1891 were $386,-
518, and in 1892 they were $591,300. The total commerce for
the year 1891 was $1,786,509. In 1892 the total commerce was
$1,598,335. It is gratifying to see that there has been a decided
increase in the exports from the United States to Peru since the
movement to extend the commercial arrangements between the
American Republics began.

EXPORTS TO PERU.

The following statement shows the value of domestic mer-
chandise exported from the United States to the Republic of
Peru during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1885, compared with
the exports of similar merchandise for the fiscal year ending J une
30, 1891:

Articles.

Agricultural implements

Breadstuff's

Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and medicines

Cotton, manufactures of

Flax, hemp, and jute, manufactures of

Iron and steel, and manufactures of

Oils (mineral)

Provisions, comprising meat and dairy prod

ucts

Wood, and manufactures of

All other articles

Total

Fiscal year ending June 30 —

1885.

Dollars.
8,540
1,989
30, 899

U4.777
27. 548
92, 604

34, 453

155.379
96, 994

172, 796

735, 979

1 891.

Dollars.

15. 905
70, I06

52, 598
III, 126

42, 430

376, 539
52, 963

130,211
225, 659
318, 610

1, 396, 207

Increase (+)

or
decrease ( — ).

Dollars,

+ 7, 425
4- 68, 117
+ 21,699

— 3» 651
-f 14,882
+283, 935
+ 18,510

— 25, 168
+128,665

+ 145, 814

+660, 228

PERU. 117

The exports from the United States into Peru for the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1892, were as follows:

Agricultural implements : Dollars.

Mowers and reapers, and parts of 47

Plows and cultivators, and parts of 5, 932

All other, and parts of 2, 233

Art works, paintings, and statuary 362

Blacking 1, 540

Books, maps, engravings, etchings, and other printed matter 19, 208

Brass, and manufactures of 3, 924

Bread stuffs :

Bread and biscuit 1, 223

Corn 16

Wheat flour 4, 464

All other breadstuff's, and preparations of, used as food 467

Broom corn 47

Brooms and brushes 2, 334

Candles 336

Carriages and horse cars, and parts of. 9, 955

Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and medicines :

Dyes and dyestuffs 2, 434

Medicines, patent or proprietary 20, 530

All other 21, 424

Clocks and watches :

Clocks, and parts of 1, 612

Watches, and parts of 12, 521

Coal, anthracite 515

Copper, manufactures of 871

Cotton, manufactures of :

Cloths, colored 23, 883

Cloths, uncolored 85, 794

Wearing apparel 1, 999

All other manufactures of. 2, 356

Earthen and stone ware 172

Fish:

Herring, dried, smoked, or cured 3

Mackerel, pickled 18

Other pickled fish 9

Salmon, canned 4, 947

Canned fish, other than salmon 982

Shellfish :

Oysters 522

Other 538

Flax, hemp, and jute, manufactures of:

Cordage 32, 189

Twine 331

AM other 946

Il8 PERU.

Fruits, preserved . Dollars.

Canned 752

Other 157

All other green, ripe, or dried fruits 18

Glass and glass ware :

Window glass 35

All other 11, 328

Glue 322

Grease, grease scraps, and all soap stock 2, 935

Gunpowder 504

All other explosives 22, 870

Hair, and manufactures of 160

India rubber and gutta-percha, manufactures of:

Boots and shoes 160

All other 6, 653

Ink, printers' and other 755

Instruments and apparatus for scientific purposes, including telegraph, tele-
phone, and other electric 11, 659

Iron and steel, and manufactures of:

Car wheels 3, 505

Castings 451

Cutlery 1, 710

Firearms 9, 693

Locks, hinges, and other builders' hardware 16, 752

Machinery 54, 887

Nails and spikes:

Cut 436

Wire, wrought, horseshoe, and all other, including tacks 1, 674

Printing presses, and parts of 4, 689

Saws and tools 28, 840

Scales and balances 4, 629

Sewing machines, and parts of 31, 763

Steam engines, and parts of :

Stationary engines 5, 062

Boilers and parts of engines 2, 393

Stoves and ranges, and parts of 1, 441

Wire 2, 910

All other manufactures of iron and steel 27, 32

Jewelry and manufactures of gold and silver 2, 566

Lamps, chandeliers, and all devices and appliances for illuminating pur-
poses 7, 650

Lead, and manufactures of 6, 987

Leather, manufactures of :

Harness and saddles 2, 215

All other 2, 396

Lime and cement 30

PERU.

11 9

Dollars.

Malt liquors, in bottles 383

Marble and stone :

Unmanufactured *. ... 15

Manufactures of 714

Matches 274

Musical instruments :

Organs 458

Pianofortes 510

All other, and parts of 403

Naval stores :

Rosin 11, 378

Tar 274

Turpentine and pitch 153

Turpentine, spirits of 9, 450

Oils (animal) :

Lard 5, 419

Whale and fish 641

Other 172

Oils (mineral), refined or manufactured :

Naphthas, including all lighter products of distillation 146

Illuminating 26, 685

Lubricating and heavy paraffin oil 12, 160

Residuum, including tar and all other, from which the light bodies have

been distilled 49

Oils (vegetable) :

Linseed 381

All other 2, 153

Paints and painters' colors 3, 327

Paper, and manufactures of :

Paper hangings 1, 211

Writing paper and envelopes 2, 449

All other 4, 921

Perfumery and cosmetics 22, 192

Plated ware 6, 936

Provisions, comprising meat and dairy products :

Beef, canned 194

Beef, salted or pickled 1, 591

Tallow 9, 954

Bacon 522

Hams 4, 378

Pork, pickled 998

Lard 84, 357

All other meat products '. . 1, 076

Butter 3, 373

Cheese 188

Milk 879

1 20 PERU.

Dollars.

Seeds 55

Silk, manufactures of 50

Soap:

Toilet or fancy 1, 809

Other 3, 269

Spirits, distilled :

Alcohol, including pure, neutral, or cologne spirits 132

Bourbon 146

Rye 386

Starch 24

Stationery, except of paper 5, 727

Straw and palm leaf, manufactures of 7

Molasses and sirup 144

Candy and confectioner)' 1, 570

Tin, manufactures of 2, 093

Tobacco, and manufactures of :

Cigarettes 174

All other 635

Toys 155

Trunks, valises, and traveling bags 2, 638

Varnish 1, 361

Vegetables :

Beans and pease 8

Vegetables, canned 438

All other, including pickles 380

Vinegar 22

Wood, manufactures of :

Boards, deals, and planks 127, 403

Hoops and hoop poles 80

Palings, pickets, and bed slats 104

Shooks:

Box 4, 666

Other 500

Staves and headings 8, 605

All other lumber 30, 475

Moldings, trimmings, and other house finishings 3, 332

Household furniture 23, 023

Woodenware 2, 412

All other manufactures of wood 10, 868

Wool, manufactures of 317

Zinc, manufactures of 148

Manufactured articles not elsewhere specified 4, 466

Total 1,003,277

PERU.

121

The actual imports into the United States from Peru during
the years 1890, 1891, and 1892 were as follows:

Imports.

FREE OF DUTY.

Articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of

the United States, returned

Chemicals, drugs, and dyes

Cocoa, or cacao, crude, and leaves and shells of

Coffee

Cotton, unmanufactured

Fruits, all other

Hides and skins, other than fur skins:

Goatskins

All other

1890.

Dollars.
1.523

18, 393
13,026

Total

India rubber and gutta-percha, crude
All other free articles

Total free of duty.

DUTIABLE.

Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and medicines, all other . . .
Furs, dressed on the skin, and manufactures of fur.
Jewelry, and manufactures of gold and silver. . . .
Wool, unmanufactured: Carpet and other similar

wools

All other dutiable articles

Total dutiable

Total imports of merchandise.

50,390
38

218, 397
20, 122

1891.

Dollars.

143
61,851

1,714
3,200

54, 754

238, 519

3,734
230

325, 853

24, 978

40

500

268
56

25, 842

224, 246
9,389

233. 635

13, 895
153

369, 405

17,008

87

18

17, "3

351,695

386,518

1892.

Dollars.

1,557

21, 669

7, 208

1,838

267, 518

211, 595
20, 128

53L5I3

1,383
23,063

555,959

34, 508
59 1

33
209

35. 341

591, 300

The actual exports from the United States to Peru during the
years 1 890 and 1 89 1 were as follows :

Domestic

exports.

1890.

1891.

Agricultural implements

Dollars.
16, 150

Dollars.
15,965

Bread stuffs:

Wheat

77, 225
1,501

58, 80I
H,305

All other

Total

78, 726
37, 982

70, I06
52, 598

Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and mec

122

PERU.

Domestic exports.

Cotton, manufactures of:

Cloths, colored

Cloths, uncolored

All other

Total

Flax, hemp, and jute, manufactures of

Iron and steel, and manufactures of:

Castings, locks, hinges, and other builders' hardware

Cutlery, saws, and tools

Machinery:

Steam engines, and parts of

Sewing machines, and parts of

All other

Wire

All other

Total

Oils (mineral) :

Illuminating

Lubricating

Residuum

Total

Provisions, comprising meat and dairy products:

Lard

All other

Total

Wood, and manufactures of:

Boards, deals, and planks

Other lumber and timber. ...

Manufactures of

Total

All other articles

Total exports of domestic merchandise

Exports of foreign merchandise

Total exports of merchandise

1890.

Dollars.
20,596

39, 929
5,191

65, 716
46,944

14, 054
28, 432

25, 853

33,907
211,562

3,966
90,441

1, 427, 301

1891.

Dollars,
28, 865
78, 255
4,006

III, 126
42, 430

17,435

38, 587

48,196
36, IO5

143. 793

3
92,420

408,215

376, 539

24, 105

14, 368

16

37, 713
15, 250

38, 489

52,063

285, 190

8,470

117,712
12,499

293,660

130, 211

130, 903
40,665

33, 143

129, 948

43, 325
52, 386

204, 711
227, 968

225, 659
318, 610

1, 418, 561
8,740

1, 396, 207
3,784

1, 399, 991

The great obstacles which exist to the extension of trade
between the United States and Peru are, first, the lack of trans-
portation facilities and the difference in freight charges between
Peru and the United States, and Peru and the countries of
Europe. One can ship goods from Liverpool, Hamburg, or

PERU. ] 23

Havre to Callao or other Peruvian ports for a little more than
one-half the freight rates from New York to Peru by way of the
Isthmus, and it is always cheaper in sending goods by steamer to
Peru to ship them from New York via Hamburg, Liverpool, or
Havre. This is due to the fact that the Pacific Steam Naviga-
tion Company has practically a monopoly of transportation facilities
on the west coast of South America, and discriminates in favor of
European merchants against those of the United States.

Another cause for the high charges is the cost of transhipment
across the Isthmus of Panama. Most of the goods sent to Peru
from the United States are shipped by sailing vessels around the
Horn, and are often five or six months on the way. During all
this time the buyer in Peru has to pay insurance on the value
of the goods at a high marine rate; nor can he at any time
promise the delivery of purchased goods on any given date. On
the other hand, the British manufacturer can lay his goods down
in the Peruvian market within a few days of any given date, and
can usually promise their delivery within forty or fifty days after
purchase.

Another obstacle to the trade is the failure of the manufacturers
in the United States to understand the wants and tastes of the
people of Peru. They have never studied the market, which has
its peculiarities, governed by climatic and other conditions, which
are essentially different from those that prevail in the domestic
trade of the United States. Articles manufactured for the domes-
tic trade are in many cases totally unsuitable for the Peruvian
market, and the merchant in Peru could not dispose of them
even if they were given to him.

A gentleman who has spent much of his life in Peru says:

It is remarkable that nearly one-half of the exports from England to Peru con-
sists of cotton goods, while only a trifling portion of the American trade is in
fabrics. The reason for this condition becomes evident on observation, and it
is not confined to the trade in cottons, but is noted as well in other manufac-
tures. The American has persistently refused to manufacture for the market,

124 PERU.

insisting that the Peruvian shall wear the goods he chooses to make for him or
buy elsewhere. The cottons sent to the coast country of Peru by the English
are bogus goods, of which a large constituent is starch. They are thin, sleazy
fabrics, sold for an exceedingly low figure; but as a covering for the nakedness of
the body are all that is required ; they answer the purpose and find a swift mar-
ket. The American has sent his excellent goods to the northern markets and
offered them at a fair price in that warm region, to see them sneered at because
they were too dear and thicker than required. The English have also shrewdly
studied the taste of the cholo population in designing prints. The Indian and
mulatto of Peru, like these classes everywhere, are fond of gay colors and bright
designs. The Englishman has given them what they demand, and thereby sold
his goods.

The Americans have made similar mistakes in shoes. The Peruvian who
wears a shoe never puts on a brogan. No matter if he buys the cheapest, he
wants the pattern French. The heel must be high and in the middle of the
foot, while the toe is long and finely pointed. An invoice of fancy American
shoes sent to Piura a few years ago for children's wear lies in the show case
where it was first deposited, because the American manufacturer believed he
could force a people with an established taste to conform to the coarse utilita-
rian ideas of the Yankee, expressed in square toes and low, flat heels.

This difficulty can be overcome by the manufacturers of the
United States if they will send to Peru and to other countries
in South America intelligent agents for the purpose of studying
the requirements of the people, the manner in which goods should
be prepared for shipment, and the methods of doing business that
prevail there. Through such an agent the manufacturer of the
United States can establish agencies for the introduction and sale
of his goods, arrange for terms of credit, inquire into the financial
responsibilities of those with whom he desires to deal, make the
personal acquaintance of the importers, and arrange for permanent
agencies.

Appendix No. i.

THE MINING LAWS OF PERU,

In Bulletin No. 40, published by the Bureau of the American
Republics, under the title of "Mines and Mining Laws of Latin
America," the following was said :

Nothing to be said about the mineral wealth of Peru will be equal to its
immensity. It has been so well known and so well established for centuries
that it has become proverbial in almost all modern languages. In Spanish, at
least, the words " Peruvian " and " Peru " have become accepted synonyms of
rich and richness; and the fact is not doubted, either in the United States or
anywhere else, that, as stated by the South American Commission of 1884-85, 1
in their report of April 25, 1885, "upon the return of peace in that Republic
and by permitting the ordinary forces of nature and commerce to do their
work undisturbed * * * the mines of Peru would open up to a production
not rivaled in its palmiest days."

Even at the time in which this report was made the production of silver was
supplying annually to the mint for coinage about 1,200,000 sols, the chief
source being the celebrated mines of Cerro de Pasco.

Peru abounds in all classes of minerals. Gold, silver, quicksilver, and other
metals are plentifully found on its soil, and if recently the mining industry has
not received there as much attention as in colonial times the reason is to be
found in the facility of working the immense guano deposits which at one time
were profitable enough to supersede all other industry in the country, and the
not less valuable and abundant nitrate beds which are found in its territory.

How these two productions absorbed almost exclusively the attention of the
country can be easily explained. The exportation of guano, which commenced
in 1846, amounted, at the Chincha Island alone, in the nine years elapsed
between 1851 and i860 to 2,860,000 tons. In 1875 the guano exports

1 House Ex. Doc. No. 50, Forty-ninth Congress, first session, p. 234.

125

126 PERU.

amounted to 378,683 tons, valued at $20,000,000. As to the nitrate beds,
which have been worked in the Province of Tarapaca since 1830, the yield has
been in no lesser proportion. In 1875 the exports through Tarapaca and
Iquique amounted to 326,869 tons. In 1 878 from Tarapaca alone 269,327 tons
were exported. The Peruvian nitrate of soda imported into the United States
from 1869 to 1881 amounted to 425,827,093 pounds.

In 1880 the nitrate exports to Europe, the United States, and the West
Indies amounted to 481,200,600 pounds. In 1881 they were to the amount of
77 1,968,000 pounds, and in 1882 they reached the total of 1,070,302,600 pounds

Gold is found in many places, and nearly all the mountain streams carry it
with their sands. The mountains are interspersed with veins of gold and silver
ores and with copper and lead. The silver ore is particularly rich, yielding
from 5 to 50 per cent, and presents itself in all forms and combinations, from
the pure metal to the lead ore mixed with silver. The value of the silver pro-
duced between 1630 and 1803 amounted to $1,232,000,000. The mines of
Hualgayoc, Huantajaya, and Cerro de Pasco yielded $849,445,500. !

Petroleum has been discovered in many places, but the richest springs are found
principally in the Province of Paira, in the northern part of the Republic, and
in localities near the coast and connected with it by railroad. An interesting
book published in Lima in 1891 under the title of Petroleum in Peru from an
Industrial Point of View, and written by Senor Don Frederico Moreno, lately
the superior executive authority (prefectd) of the Province of Piura, shows that
petroleum is destined to be in Peru as large a source of wealth as guano or the
nitrates.

"Petroleum oil abounds through the entire coast length of the province,''
says Mr. W. Warren, a British mining engineer, in a report appended to the
book above mentioned, " and is found in great abundance over large areas from
the coast to 10 or 15 miles inland, from which there would appear to be ample
reserves to last for generations. * * * Some wells drilled at different
places yield 70 barrels per day. Other wells have given as much as 400 barrels.
The operation of well drilling is very easy, one good, productive well, 210 feet
deep, having been drilled in less than five days. Wells 345 feet deep can be
drilled in ten days."

The petroleum deposits of Paita comprise, according to Senor Moreno, an
area of 16,000 square miles. One of the districts of this province alone, named
the Negritos district, in which the area of the petroleum fields is 2 square miles,
will probably yield from 15,000,000 to 18,000,000 barrels, representing a value
of $15,000,000.

1 See Appleton's American Cyclopedia, in verbo Peru.

PERU.

12 7

A very interesting paper, prepared by Mr. A. D. Hodges, jr., mining
engineer, of Boston, Mass., under the title of " Notes on the topography and
geology of the Cerro de Pasco, Peru," was published in 1888 in the transactions
of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. All those desiring to have
full knowledge of the wonderful wealth of that celebrated hill must study this
exhaustive monograph.

MINING LAWS.

According to the excellent Dictionary of Peruvian Law (Dicaonario de Leg-
islacwn peruana), published by the learned jurist Don Francisco Garcia Cal-
der6n, a law was passed on the 27th of March, 1857, providing for the
appointment of a commission whose duty it should be to frame and report to
Congress a mining code. But although the commission was appointed and the
code was made and submitted for approval to the legislative body, it was never
enacted as a law. Consequently, up to the date in which Senor Garcia Cal-
der6n wrote (1879), the mining law in Peru consisted of the mining ordinances
of Spain, promulgated on the 22d of May, 1783, and of several decrees of the
Republic modifying or amending some of their provisions.

These royal ordinances are divided into 19 titles, and regulate the whole
subject of mines and mining business in the following way :

Title I, consisting of 28 sections, provides for the establishment of a royal
superior court of mines, and regulates in detail the duties and the powers of its
respective officials.

This tribunal existed in Peru until the 19th of October, 1821, when it was
abolished and superseded by what was called "Direcci6n General de Mineria. ,,
But by law of the Peruvian Congress, approved on February 6, 1875, this
Direccion was also abolished. Its executive authority was transferred to a
bureau or division of the treasury department, and its judicial functions were
devolved upon "territorial deputations," to be established in those localities
where mines are in existence.

Title II, consisting of 16 sections, provides for the creation of local courts of
mines, and also of diputaciones, or board of deputies, and the appointment of
inspectors of mines.

The provisions of this title have been thoroughly modified in Peru. The
mining courts, which retain the name of " Diputaci6n de Mineria," exercise judi-
cial as well as executive authority on the subject of mines.

By law of January 24, 1871, a diputacion was ordered to be established in
each province having more than fifteen miners.

In the department of Ancachs there are 4 diputaciones, 3 in Arequipa, 2 in
Ayacucho, 1 in Cajamarca, 1 in Cuzco, 3 in Junin, 4 in Libertad, 2 in Moque-
gua, and 2 in Puno.

1 28 PERU.

Title III, consisting of 37 sections, regulates the matter of jurisdiction in
matters of mines and the course of proceedings to be pursued in mining cases,
whether in the first, the second, or the third instance.

These provisions are all in force, except in such portions thereof as are
affected by the suppression of the superior court of mines and the substitution
therefor of diputaciones de mineria.

Only in those cases in which the provisions of this title prove to be insuffi-
cient, either to decide some question in a mining cause or to properly conduct
some proceedings in the same, is it permitted to resort to the code of civil pro-
ceedings, which then becomes the final law on the subject.

Title IV, containing only 4 sections, supplementary to a certain extent to
the preceding title, establishes what has to be done in the absence of the local
judge of mines or when a change of venue has been demanded.

Title V, "on the original ownership of the mines, the grants thereof in favor
of private parties, and the dues and taxes to be paid on that account," contains
only 3 sections, providing in substance, first, that the King (or his successor
in Peru, the Republic) is the owner of all the mines, and, secondly, that mines,
however, may be granted and allowed to become private property of an indi-
vidual or corporation upon certain terms and conditions, two of which are the
payment to the treasury of such a share of the yield as may be established by
law, and the working of the mine in strict compliance with the provisions of
these ordinances.

Title VI, which contains 32 sections, and Title VII, which contains only
6 sections, respectively, refer to the acquisition of the mines on the ground of
discovery or by denouncement, and to the persons who are allowed or forbidden
to make these discoveries or denouncements to own mining property or do
mining work of any kind.

Many of these provisions are obsolete, while others have been expressly
amended or modified by subsequent legislation in Peru. For this reason, the
matter being of such a great importance, it has seemed proper to translate from
the Dictionary of Senor Garcia Calder6n, in verbo, Denuncia de minus, the
following paragraphs :

" Mines which have not been the property of any private party may be
adjudicated to the discoverer. Those which have belonged to some private
individual or corporation may be denounced or adjudicated to the denouncer.

" The discoverer of a new mining ground or region wherein no mine or shaft
has ever been opened before shall be entitled to the concession of three mining
properties, to be surveyed as will be seen hereafter, either close to each other
or separate, as he may choose, on the principal vein or deposit discovered by
him, and to the additional concession of one mining property on each further

PERU. 129

vein or deposit he may have discovered in other places different from the main
vein or deposit above named. The designation of these additional properties
must be made within ten days. (Sec. 1, Title VI.)

" The discoverer of a new vein in grounds or regions already known as
mineral and worked in some other parts shall be entitled only to two mining
properties, either close to each other or separate, on condition, however, that
they are designated within ten days. (Sec. 2, Title VI.)

" The privileges of a discoverer shall not be granted to any claimant of a
new mine when said mine is found on a vein already known and worked at
some place. (Sec. 3, Title VI.)

"Applicants on the ground of discovery must file their applications in writing
before the diputacion de mineria of their respective districts, or of the nearest
district if there is none in their own, setting forth their names and the names of
their associates, if they have any, the place of birth and residence of each one,
their respective occupations, and the full description of the hill, mountain,
ground, or vein whose discovery is claimed. The whole of this information
and the exact date, the day and the hour, of the filing of the application
shall be entered on a register to be kept by the clerk of the diputacion, and, this
being done, the application, together with the decree of the court or diputacion
directing it to be published, shall be returned to the applicant, with the proper
indorsement, for the security of his rights. The publication shall be made in
the usual form for ninety days, during which the applicant shall be permitted to
make a pit, \% yards in diameter and 10 yards deep, for the purpose of ena-
bling one of the members of the diputacion, delegated to that effect, the clerk
of the same diputacion, and the mining inspector, or some other expert of the
locality, all of whom must personally visit the place and inspect the work
done, to ascertain the nature and the course or direction of the vein, its size, its
inclination to the horizon, the degree of hardness of its material, and the greater
or lesser firmness of its bed. A minute record must be made of everything
noticed in this examination, and said record shall be transcribed in the register,
in continuation of the entry already made on it in reference to the subject.

"When the examination is completed and proves to be satisfactory, possession
of the mine shall be immediately given to the applicant, in the name of the nation.
The mining properties shall be measured, and their limits shall be marked by
estacas or poles.

"A further record shall be made and entered also on the register of the pro-
ceedings relative to this giving possession of the mine, and a full authenticated
copy of the whole record and entries, which shall be given to the applicant, will
constitute his title. (Sec. 4, Title VI.)
Ball. 60 9

\

130 PERU.

"If during the ninety days above referred to anyone appears and opposes
the claim of discovery made by the applicant, or claiming a preferential right, a
brief judicial hearing shall be given the opponent, and the proper decision shall
be rendered upon the proper evidence in favor of the party who best proves his
claim. But no opposition shall be listened to if made after the expiration of the
ninety days above mentioned. (Sec. 5, Title VI.)

" Restorers of old mines abandoned or left to go to ruin shall be entitled to
the same privileges as discoverers; and, under parity of circumstances, they, the
same as the discoverers, shall on all occasions and for all purposes be preferred
to all other persons. (Sec. 6, Title VI.)

"In case of doubt or dispute in determining who was the real original discov-
erer of the mine, preference shall be given to that claimant who proves to have
been first in finding metal in the vein, even if the other contending parties
had previously searched for it. If this can not be ascertained, the case shall be
decided in favor of the claimant who first had his application registered. (Sec. 7,
Title VI.)

"Whoever shall denounce, in the manner and form hereinafter described, any
mine which is claimed to have been abandoned shall set forth in his application
everything stated in section 4 of this title, and explain, furthermore, the position
of the denounced mine, the name of its last possessor, if known, and the names
of the owners or possessors of the neighboring mines, if there are such. A sum-
mons shall be served on all these people to appear before the diputacion within
ten days; and if they do not make their appearance, or oppose no objection, the
application for the concession of the denounced mine shall be published for three
consecutive Sundays. If this publication does not elicit any opposition or objec-
tion to the wishes of the applicant, notice shall be given the latter that he must
within sixty days make some work at the abandoned mine, of sufficient depth,
at least 10 yards vertically, and within the bed of the vein, in order to enable
the inspector of mines, or some mining expert in his place, to ascertain the
course and inclination of the said vein, and all the circumstances explained in
section 4. The said official or expert shall personally inspect, if possible, the
pits and other works of the mine, and see whether they are in a condition of
ruin, or have been caved in or flooded, and whether they have any draft, pit, or
adit, or admit of it. They must also see whether the said mine has any outer
court or galera, or whim, or machines, or dwelling houses, or stables, and a
record of all must be made and entered on the register. All of this being done,
the mining properties shall be surveyed, the boundaries thereof being marked by
poles, and possession of the mine shall be given the denouncer, all opposition to
its being so done notwithstanding.

PERU. 131

" No opposition shall be heard if not made within the sixty days above
named. But if made in due time the question shall be settled after a brief hear-
ing. (Sec. 8, Title VI.)

"Aliens not naturalized or domiciled in the country can not acquire the
ownership of mines. (Sec. 1, Title VII.)

" Members of the religious orders are also disqualified to denounce or acquire
or work mines. The same prohibition applies to all clergymen. (Sec. 2,
Title VII.)

"The mining authorities are likewise forbidden to acquire or work mines in
the districts in which they exercise jurisdiction." (Sec. 3, Title VII.)

Title VIII, which refers to " the mining properties, the spaces which are left
between them, and the manner of surveying or measuring the said properties,"
contains 17 sections, which, translated in full into English, read as follows:

"Section 1. Experience having shown that the equality of the mine measures
established on the surface can not be maintained underground, where in fact the
mines are chiefly valuable, it being certain that the greater or less inclination of
the vein upon the plane of the horizon must render the respective properties
in the mines greater or smaller, so that the true and effective impartiality which
it has been desired to show toward all subjects of equal merit has not been
preserved; but, on the contrary, it has often happened that when a miner, after
much expense and labor, begins at last to reach an abundant and rich ore he
is obliged to turn back, as having entered on the property of another, which
latter may have denounced the neighboring mine and thus stationed himself
with more art than industry. This being one of the greatest and most frequent
causes of litigation and dissension among the miners, and considering that the
limits established in the mines of these Kingdoms, and by which those of New
Spain have been hitherto regulated, are very confined in proportion to the
abundance, multitude, and richness of the metallic veins which it has pleased the
Creator, of his great bounty, to bestow on those regions, I order and command
that in the mines where new veins or veins unconnected with each other shall
be discovered the following measures shall in future be observed:

"Sec. 2. On the course and direction of the vein, whether of gold, silver, or
other metal, I grant to every miner, without any distinction in favor of the
discoverer, whose reward has been already specified, 200 yards (varas), called
measuring yards (varas de medir) taken on a level, as hitherto understood.

"Sec. 3. To make it what they call a square — that is, making a right angle
with the preceding measure, supposing the descent or inclination of the vein to
be sufficiently shown by the opening or shaft of 10 yards— the portion shall be
measured by the following rule :

132 PERU.

" Sec. 4. Where the vein is perpendicular to the horizon (a case which seldom
occurs) 100 level yards shall be measured on either side of the vein or divided
on both sides, as the miner may prefer.

"Sec. 5. But where the vein is in an inclined direction, which is the most
usual case, its greater or less degree of inclination shall be attended to in the
following manner :

" Sec 6. If to 1 yard perpendicular the inclination be from 3 fingers (dedos)
to 2 palms (palmos), the same hundred yards shall be allowed for the square (as
in the case of the vein being perpendicular).

" Sec 7. If to the said perpendicular yard there be an inclination of 2 palms
and 3 fingers, the square shall be of 112$ yards; 2 palms and 6 fingers, 125
yards; 2 palms and 9 fingers, 1 37% yards; 3 palms, 150 yards; 3 palms and
3 fingers, 162$ yards; 3 palms and 6 fingers, 175 yards; 3 palms and 9 fingers,
187$ yards; 4 palms, 200 yards.

"So that if to 1 perpendicular yard there corresponds an inclination of 4
palms, which are equal to a yard, the miner shall be allowed 200 yards on the
square on the declivity of the vein, and so on with the rest.

" Sec 8. And supposing that in the prescribed manner any miner should reach
the perpendicular depth of 200 yards without exceeding the limits of his portion,
by which he may commonly have much exhausted the vein, and that those
veins which have greater inclination than yard for yard — that is to say, of 45
degrees — are either barren or of little extent, it is my sovereign will that,
although the declivity may be greater than the above-mentioned measures, no
one shall exceed the square of 200 level yards ; so that the same shall be always
the breadth of the said veins extended over the length of the other two hun-
dreds, as declared above.

"Sec 9. However, if any mine owner, suspecting a vein to run in a contrary
direction to his own (which rarely happens), should choose to have some part
of his square in a direction opposite to that of his principal vein, it may be
granted to him, provided there shall be no injury or prejudice to a third person
thereby.

"Sec 10. With regard to the banks (placeres), beds ( rebosaderos), or any
other accidental depositories of silver or gold, I ordain that the portions and
measures shall be regulated by the respective territorial deputations of miners,
attention being paid to the extent and richness of the place and to the number
of applicants for the same, with distinction and preference only to the discov-
erers; but the said deputations must render an exact account thereof to the
royal tribunal general of Mexico, who will resolve on the measures which they,
in their judgment, may consider the most efficacious, in order to avoid all unfair
dealing in these matters.

PERU.

*33

€€

Sec. 11. The portions being regulated in the manner described above, the
denouncer shall have his share measured at the time of taking possession of the
mint, and he shall erect around his boundaries stakes or landmarks such as shall
be secure and easy to be distinguished, and enter into an obligation to keep and
observe them forever, without being able to change them, though he may allege
that his vein varied in course or direction (which is an unlikely circumstance),
but he must content himself with the lot which Providence has decreed him and
enjoy it without disturbing his neighbors. If, however, he should have no
neighbors, or if he can without injury to his neighbors make an improvement
by altering the stakes and boundaries, it may be permitted him in such case, with
the previous intervention, cognizance, and authority of the deputation of the
district, who shall cite and hear the parties and determine whether the causes
for such encroachment are legitimate.

"Sec. 12. In the mines already opened and worked the old measures of the
portion shall be retained, but they may be extended to the limits prescribed in
these ordinances, whenever such change can take place without prejudice to third
persons.

"Sec. 13. The immutability of the stakes or boundaries already defined in
section 1 1 of this chapter shall also be observed henceforward in those mines
which are in course of working, or which shall be denounced as deserted or lost,
the limits being ascertained in those cases where there are none at present, and
each being attended to in its order, beginning with the oldest ; and as to any
intermediate spaces (demasias), they shall be regulated according to the provisions
of section 13 of Chapter VI.

"Sec 14. As it has been found that the license or permission of following a
vein by working lower down and within the vein, and having enjoyment thereof,
until the owner himself has bored it, has been, and is the most fruitful cause of
bitter dissensions, litigations, and disturbances among the mine owners, and fur-
ther considering that such intrusion is more generally the result of fraud or
chance than of the merit and industry of the person so intruding, and that the
consequences thereof occasion, for the most part, nothing but serious detriment
to, or the total ruin of, the two mines and the two neighboring miners, to the
great prejudice of the public and of my royal treasury, I order and command
that no mine owner shall enter the property of another, even though merely by
continuing his own vein at a greater depth, but that everyone shall keep and
observe his own boundaries, unless he makes an agreement and stipulation with
his neighbor to be permitted to work in his property.

"Sec 15. But if a mine owner, pursuing his operations fairly, comes to the
property of another while in pursuit of a vein which he is working, or discovers
it at that time without the master of the property being aware of its existence,

i

134 PERU.

he shall be obliged to give such proprietor immediate notice thereof, and the
two neighbors shall thenceforward divide the cost and profits equally between
them (one for the merit of the discovery, and the other as owner of the
property), until there shall be a communication effected between the mines,
either by the principal vein, or a cross lode or in any manner that may be most
convenient; whereupon, after erecting a mutual boundary (guardaraya), each
proprietor shall remain within his own boundaries. But if anyone so discov-
ering and following a lode into the property of his neighbor fails to give im-
mediate notice thereof to such neighbor he shall not only lose his right to the
half of all the metal that may be extracted, but also shall pay double the value
of what he has already extracted, it being understood that before exacting this
penalty fraud and misconduct of persons so encroaching must be proved in the
plainest and most satisfactory manner.

" Sec. 16. And in case a mine owner shall have advanced so much in his sub-
terranean operations as to have passed beyond the limits of his own property,
whether in length or square measure, I declare that he shall not on this account
be obliged to turn back or suspend his work, provided .the ground he has entered
be unclaimed (terreno virgen) or within the limits of a deserted mine. He must,
however, denounce this new property, which shall be granted him, observing
always that such new portion must not exceed its former size, and that he must
move his boundary marks to his new limits in order that they may be generally
known.

"Sec. 17. The mine owner shall not only possess a portion of the principa
vein which he denounced, but likewise of all those which in any form or manner
whatever are to be found in his property; so that if a vein takes its rise in one
property and, passing on, terminates in another, each proprietor shall enjoy
that part of it which passes through his particular limits, and no one shall be
entitled to claim entire possession of a vein from having its source in his portion,
or on any other pretense whatever."

Title IX, consisting of 18 sections, provides for the preservation and safety
of the mines and of the miners, and makes rules to determine when a mine has
been really abandoned and becomes thereby again liable to denouncement.

Title X, containing 17 sections, provides for the proper drainage of the
mines.

Title XI, containing 1 2 sections, refers to the organization of mining compa-
nies and all matters pertaining to them.

Title XII, on "the laborers, both in the mines and in the reducing establish-
ments," regulates in detail, in 21 sections, everything relative to the protection
of the rights of the laborers and their duties and privileges.

PERU. 135

Title XIII, of 19 sections, refers to the necessity that mines should be prop-
erly supplied with water, as well as with provisions of all kinds for the laborers.

Title XIV, containing 13 sections regulates the subject of what the ordi-
nances call maquileros, or persons engaged in the reduction of ores for other
persons, and also of the purchasers of metals.

Titles XV and XVI, the former of 17 sections and the latter of 20, respec-
tively refer to " the contractors for supplying the mines with money and other
things necessary, and the dealers in gold and silver," and to the establishment of
a "supply fund" and a "bank of supplies."

Title XVII, on "the surveyors in mining matters," and title XVIII, on "the
mining education of young people," contain, respectively, 11 and 19 sections,
which almost exhaust the matter.

Title XIX, which is the last, contains 13 sections and refers especially to the
privileges granted to mines and miners intended to encourage and promote the
mining industry.

Appendix No. 2.

FINANCES, TRADE, COMMERCE, ETC., OF PERU.

[From the South American Journal, published in London, of December 30, 1893.3

The report of Sir C. E. Mansfield, our minister at Lima, to
our foreign office, on the finances, trade, commerce, etc., of Peru,
has been published. This document, covering the year 1891-92,
also furnishes some data of 1893, anc ^ fr° m it we make the fol-
lowing extracts :

INTRODUCTION.

In the year 1890 Sefior Delgado, then minister of finance, published in his
annual report to Congress a great deal of interesting information concerning
agriculture in Peru — products, industries, statistics, etc. — information which
formed the base of a report from this legation upon labor and agriculture in
the Republic. Since Seiior Delgado's report no information has emanated from
official sources upon agriculture, commerce, or industries. No general statistics
are forthcoming, and it is therefore to be presumed that such subjects afford
little or no interest to the public in Peru. Sefior Delgado lamented the insuffi-
ciency and incompleteness of his information, the data by no means corresponding
to the same years or periods. If, therefore, the minister of finance be unable
to command statistical information of a symmetrical character, it becomes evi-
dent that nobody else is in a position to do so.

FINANCES.

The receipts for 1891 amounted to 8,608,042 sols 87 centavos, including a
sum 342,540 sols 50 centavos derived from various sources not comprised in
the estimates, namely, advances upon future customs receipts, arrears of debts,
etc. The receipts from customs dues figure in the budget for 5,528,288 sols
66 centavos, exhibiting an increase of 531,791 sols 1 centavo upon the esti-
mated amount of 4,996,600 sols. Tobacco tax and excise produced 288,556
136

PERU.

l 37

sols 86 centavos, a diminution upon the estimate of 11,433 sols 14 centavos.
Excise on spirit monopoly produced 251,041 sols 70 centavos, showing a
diminution of 22,646 sols 7 centavos. The opium monopoly, estimated at
235,000 sols, yielded an excess of 16,041 sols 70 centavos. The expenditure
is stated to have been 8,179,981 sols 13 centavos, leaving a surplus of
428,061 sols 74 centavos; but on examining the items it is found that various
departments have been neglected altogether, others paid only in part, while
others have received sums over and above the estimates. The surplus of the
year 1891 exists, therefore, only upon paper.

The estimated revenue of the above year amounted to 7,104,423 sols 14
centavos; the actual receipts were 7,066,390 sols 38 centavos; the disburse-
ments authorized by the budget amounted to 6,572,927 sols 37 centavos, leav-
ing a balance not accounted for of 493,463 sols 1 centavo. In the above sum
of 6,572,927 sols 37 centavos is included the sum of 531,595 sols jj centavos,
which has been diverted from the objects to which it was assigned and paid to
other departments by Presidential decree.

If the financial condition of Peru was not very encouraging in 1891-92, what
shall be said of that of the first six months of the present year, where there is
a falling off of 40 per cent in the receipts of the custom-houses. The figures
are as follows:

Custom revenues (first six months),
Decrease in 1893 ,

Total

189a.

Sols.
2, 975. 993

1893.

Sols.
2,075,315
900,678

2, 975. 993

The return for 1893 * s inclusive of 50 per cent additional duty and 8 per cent
on other imports.

Converting the receipts into their sterling equivalents at the average rate of
exchange obtaining in the periods, viz, 32.84d. in the first six months of 1892
and 28. 5 2d. in the corresponding months of 1893, the comparative result is as
follows, viz: For 1892, ^407,215, and for 1893, ^246,616.

How much of the decline may be attributed to the receipts of the early months
of 1893 having been anticipated through the desire of importers to avoid the
higher rates of duty which came into operation in January, 1893, it is difficult
to estimate. The law imposing the extra duties was passed in the last days of
October, and there would not have been much time for the arrival of fresh con-
signments from abroad. On the other hand, the principal importers keep their

i3«

PERU.

stocks in the warehouses at Callao, and clear the goods according to require-
ment, and it would seem that the warehouses were pretty well emptied by the
end of December, 1892.

The decline in the customs receipts is mainly owing to the depreciation of
silver, a matter which will be treated further on under a separate head. Under
any circumstances it is to be apprehended that the gross deficiency of receipts in
the year will be some 30 per cent. Increased excise and duties would only check
an already failing consumption, and it is difficult to see how the Government of
the Republic is to deal with a diminution of revenue, which is not a matter of
opinion but a simple question of facts and figures.

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS.

To obtain information concerning exports and imports in Peru recourse must
be had to the statistics of other countries. Even then no exact or complete
information is attainable. Great Britain, France, and the United States give
such returns in money value, and Germany in weight. In 1891 the exports from
Peru to Chile amounted to the sum of 1,190,479 sols 12 centavos, while the
imports from Chile were to the value of 1,103,274 sols 1 centavo, exclusive of
wheat, which was roughly estimated at 2,000,000 sols. Excluding wheat, the
balance was in favor of Peru. Since the recent legislation in India touching the
rupee, Chinese rice is said to be supplanting Indian rice in Peruvian ports.

The value of imports and exports during the year 1891 were: Imports,
14,763,241 sols 18 centavos; exports, 11,616,716 sols 27 centavos; excess of
imports over exports, 3,146,524 sols 91 centavos.

The articles of export mentioned below were in 1891 valued as follows:

Sugar

Cotton

Silver in ore and bar
Silver specie

2, 953. 362

1, 214, 140

2, 201, 895
1, 479, 456

Centavos.

62

35
25
52

MINING.

The crisis in silver need not necessarily lead to any considerable closing of
silver mines in Peru. The average of Peruvian silver mines are, as is well known,
not of a high standard as compared with Bolivia. The rate of labor, however,
is so low that even with prices ranging below the present, silver workings in
Peru may still yield profit for some time to come.

PERU. I39

SUGAR.

Sugar is without doubt the most paying business in Peru. Estates, whether
owned by companies or individuals, when not weighted with excessive capital
or incumbrances, do extremely well, and probably the day is not far distant
when many sugar estates will pass into the hands of English companies, like the
Cartavio estate in the Chicama Valley, formerly owned by the Messrs. Grace
and now worked by an English limited liability company. In many cases the
Peruvian sugar producer has not been able to reap the full benefit consequent
upon the late high prices of sugar. Through deficiency of capital and other
causes there had been a considerable cessation in cane planting during the last
few years, while the long, chilly winter of 1892 prevented the cane from shoot-
ing up, and the crop was of an inferior quality, so that for many months during
the present year grinding was carried on to but a limited extent.

COTTON.

In the report from this legation, transmitted in the year 1890, upon labor
and agriculture in Peru, mention was made of plans for irrigating the great
northern cotton field in the vicinity of Piura from the waters of the River Chira.
The schemes are still in a state of gestation. Much is talked and written upon-
the subject, but it seems doubtful when any action will be initiated, unless,
indeed, the circumstance of the Peruvian Corporation taking over the Payta-
Piura Railway and introducing a better management of the line may give an
additional stimulus to the district, while it is also possible that the corporation
might materially give a helping hand to an undertaking which would assist in
increasing the receipts of the line. Peruvian cotton does not compete with that
of the United States, but a certain quantity finds its way to North America.

Peruvian cotton is almost exclusively used by manufacturers of woolen goods.
The mixing of this cotton with wool should not be termed adulteration ; in fact,,
in many cases the cotton is more valuable than the wool with which it is mixed.
It improves the woolen goods, reduces the tendency to shrinkage, makes them
more durable, adds often a better luster, and gives a superior finish. For dyed
goods it is equally suitable, and makes fast colors. Peruvian cotton might well
be designated as vegetable wool. When carded, the resemblance is so close and
its characteristics so similar to wool that it could be readily sold as such.
When woven with wool the cotton fibers can not be determined with certainty
except by special test.

140

PERU.

The quantity and value of cotton exported from Payta during the years
1888-1892 were as below:

1888
1889
1890
1891
1892

Quantity.

Boies.
73.500
63,306
5L508

16, 953
1,231,582

Value.

Sols.

I, 470, OOO

I, 266, I20

I, 215, 160

339,060

463, IOO

No returns seem to have been made public of the export of cotton from the
ports of Pisco and Huacho, which is very considerable. Several cotton mills
are in operation in Peru, and in a few years' time no foreign cottons, except
prints and the very finest sorts of white calico, should be imported from abroad.
The factory at Vitarte, near Lima, has been purchased and is being worked by
an English company. Another factory has been recently established at Pisco, a
center of cotton planting, and others will doubtless follow.

PETROLEUM.

The oil of the London and Pacific Petroleum Company is used by the major
part of the locomotives of the Peruvian Corporation, but, notwithstanding the
low price, has not succeeded in displacing the importation of kerosene from the
United States. The company possesses one small tank steamer, and the project
for such steamers to supply such markets as Japan and China, for the present
at least, does not appear to be a contingency in the immediate future. The
works at Zorritos, north of Talara, still furnish oil in the Lima market, oil
which is more particularly adapted for lubricating machinery. Various sinkings
have been effected in the petroleum district in the vicinity of Tumbez, but the
result has not been sufficiently favorable to warrant the establishment of works.

SILVER QUESTION.

Peru, a silver-producing country with an inconvertible silver currency and no
paper, is being materially affected by the silver question. The exchange of
the sol exactly follows the current price of silver at the ratio of about 1 i$d.
Thus if the ounce of silver stand at 34d., the rate in Peru of bills at three
months' sight rules at about 25^. to the silver sol. The depreciation of their
currency has been much discussed in political and business circles in Lima, as
well as by the press. A gold standard is advocated on all sides, but so agreeable

PERU. I4II

a solution is, however, distinctly impracticable in a country where the Govern-
ment has neither internal or external credit, whose finances are in a chronic
state of irregularity, with the revenue diminishing at an unprecedented ratio,
and where from various causes an alleged gold standard, if, as would be neces-
sary, accompanied by a corresponding moiety of paper, is recognized as likely in
the end to lead to the evils of a forced paper currency.

The producers of articles for foreign consumption, such as sugar, cotton, and
wool, are favored by the low price of silver. Ordinary wages in the interior
have not yet risen in proportion. The producer carries on his undertaking in
a depreciated currency, and is paid in gold. On the other hand, the community
at large is much pinched by the depreciation of the sol. Steamer and railway
charges have risen from 25 per cent to 30 per cent. Articles from abroad in
some cases have risen higher, even to 50 per cent. Some importers are almost
trading at a loss, as the community is unable to stand a rise upon high-priced
articles of luxury, foreign wines, etc.

The whole scale of living is becoming dearer, private incomes and salaries
remain stationary, and superfluities have to be suppressed — a state of things,
disagreeable to the individual and disastrous to the importer, who, it may be
remarked, for the most part is a foreigner. Even articles of native production,
market stuffs, etc., become gradually more expensive. The producer pays more,
for various matters and raises his prices. The consumer can not pay the
higher prices and does without. Less, in consequence, is produced, and that
less ranges again at higher prices from comparative scarcity and absence of
competition.

RATES OF EXCHANGE.

The rate of exchange at the various dates mentioned in this report have
varied to the extent of g%d. to the sol. In 1891 the sol was as high as 36d.,,
while the present quotation is z6%d. Three months since the sol was quoted
as low as two shillings.

MOLLENDO.

Mr. Vice-Consul Robilliard reports as follows : This year has been unevent-
ful. Business has not increased, as was hoped for, by the extension of the rail-
way in the direction of Cuzco, and traffic with Bolivia has greatly fallen off since
the opening of the Chilean Railway from Antofagasta to Oruro, referred to in
my last report. The mines at Caylloma have also given less this year, owing, in
a measure, to the difficulty to contend with in keeping the water from entering
and thus preventing work from going on.

The total amount received for imports by the customs this year is 695,309-
soles 63 centavos, which,' at an average exchange of 2s* 8d. to the silver sole*

l-J-2 PERU.

■equals ^92,707 18s. 2d., nearly ^15,000 less than last year, owing principally
to the fall of 3d. per sole in the average rate of exchange.

The approximate total value of the principal articles of export during the
year 1892 amounted to $4,928,586.76, equivalent in sterling at 3 2d. exchange
to ^657,144 18s., or about ^20,000 under last year. The export of anti-
mony has more than doubled. There is a mine being worked that yields 50 to
100 ^ons a month of ore that will give 70 per cent of pure antimony.

The prospects of trade with Bolivia are not very flattering. A steamer of
260 tons capacity, the Coya, has been taken up to Lake Titicaca, where it is at
present being reconstructed, the keel being laid on July 15 last, and will be
ready for traffic on the lake in March, 1893. Two dredgers are also being
put together at the mouth of the Desaguadero River to be used in making this
river navigable as far as Nusacara, a port distant about 5 leagues from Oruro,
to bring down the products from that city and Corocoro. With these improve-
ments something will have been done to counteract the competition via Anto-
fagasta, Chile ; but much valuable time has been lost, and the Chilean route has
the start and will keep it for some time.

Owing to a falling exchange, and the not very peaceful political prospects,
merchants have been very chary about importing more than was easily and
promptly disposable. The result is that stocks in the custom-houses were never
so low as at the end of the year. An extra 8 per cent on the duties to be levied
from January 1, in order to help the Government to meet its obligation to pay
the Peruvian Corporation Company ^80,000 per annum, will also have a
depressing effect on imports, and very little improvement in trade can be looked
for in 1893.

There has been nothing uone towara improving the port of Mollendo. Rather
the contrary, as, owing to a proposal made to and accepted by Congress in
August last, by two private individuals, to extend this railway to Islay, and no
steps having been taken toward carrying this out, all the building and improve-
ments that were being made here have been suspended until something definite can
be arranged. The opinion of many is that the proposal to extend the line was
only made as a speculation to try and induce the Peruvian Corporation Com-
pany to offer them some sum to desist from the undertaking ; but if this was the
object it has failed, and the only result has been to prejudice in a further degree
this port. Something should be done, either by the Peruvian Corporation Com-
pany or others, to make the landing and embarking here less dangerous and to
avoid so many days being lost in discharging vessels on account of the surf.
That this is feasible, though rather costly has been admitted by every engineer
who has surveyed the bav.

INDEX.

A.

Page.

Alfalfa 53

Aguero, Jose de la Riva 19

Alpaca wool 60

Animal kingdom 10

Animals, domestic 53

Army 29

Asphaltum 76

Atahualpa, ransom of 63

B.

Balta, Col. Jose 21

Barley 55

Battle of Ayacucho 19

Beasts of burden 40

Bermudez, President 30

Boundary limits 3

C.

Caceres, General 28

Calderon, Dr. Garcia 27

Callao, description of 95

Caoutchouc (India rubber) 57

Casapalca, tunnel of 45

Castilla, Gen. Ramon 20

Census, the first 25

Central Railroad of Peru 38, 42

Chile, treaty of peace with 27

Chinamen, first arrival of 24

Cinchona (Peruvian bark) 57

Cities and towns 87

Climate 7

Coal 76

Coast desert, phenomena of 13

Coca 55

Cochrane, Admiral Lord 19

Cocoa 55

Coffee 56

Page.

Commerce 136

report of the commission sent
from the United States in

1884 and 1885 107

total 107

with Great Britain no

with the United States 115

Concession for public works 80

for railroad ... 83

Conquest of Peru 17

Constitutional Congress, meeting of 29

Constitutions 20, 101

Copper 75

Cotton, production of 59

Cuesta Blanca, tunnel of 44

Currency 105

3D.

Department of —

Amazonas, mineral wealth in. . 65

Ancacho, mineral wealth in. . . 67

Apurimac, mineral wealth in.. 70

Arequipa, mineral wealth of . . 71

Ayacucho, mineral wealth in. . 69

Cajamarca, mineral wealth in. . 65

Cuzco, mineral wealth in 70

Huancavelica, mineral wealth

in 69

Huanuco, mineral wealth in. . . 68

lea, mineral wealth in 69

Junin, mineral wealth in 68

Libertad, mineral wealth in 66

Lima, mineral wealth in 68

Loreto, mineral wealth in 64

# Piura, mineral wealth in 65

Puno, mineral wealth in 71

Departments, area and population. 84

143

144

INDEX.

Page.

Domestic animals 53

Donoughmore, Lord 33

Dyewoods 58

HJ.

Earthquakes 10

Exports :

from the United States to Peru,

1890 and 1 891 121

from the United States to Peru

for the fiscal year ending June

30, 1892 117

to Peru, 1885-1891 116

to Peru, by countries, 1887-

1891 112

to Peru, by principal articles,

1888-1890 114

in.

Finances 136

Fruits 56

Furniture 59

G-.

Gamarra, President 20

Geology 5

Goatskins 56

Government and constitution 101

Grace contract 35

Grace, Michael P 33

Gypsum 75

Harness 61

Hides 56

Highest inhabited places in the

world 13

Highways 40

History of the Republic 17

I.

Iglesias, President 26

Imports:

from Peru, by countries, 1887- •

1891 in

into the United States from

Peru for 1890, 1891, 1892. . . . 121

Page.

Irrigation 8 1 , 82

Ivory nuts 5$

X.

Kerosene 79,

Lake Titicaca 4

Lamar, President 19

Lard 58

Lead 74

Lima, description of 87

lighted by electricity 47

Liquors, manufacture of 59

Llamas 41

Lurifico sugar mill 48

M.

Maize 55

Manufacturing 58

Means of transportation 37

Medical roots 58

Meiggs, Henry 36

Tomb of 43

Metals 62

Meteorology 7

Mineral wealth of Peru 63

Mining laws 125

Miscellaneous manufactures 62

National expenditures 32

income 32

Naturalization of foreigners 105

Navy 29

Nitrate deposits 22

O.

Oats 55

Obstacles to trade with the United

States 122

Olive oil 60

Oriental Railroad 46

Oroya Railroad (Central Railroad of

Peru) 34

Paita, port of 2

Panama Railroad 1

INDEX.

H5

Page.

Pardo, Don Manuel 22

Peruvian Corporation 35

Petroleum 58, 76

Pierola, President . . 27

Pizarro 18

Political divisions 84

Potatoes 54

Prado, Colonel 21

Public debt 22

Library 30

Q.

Quichuan Indians 44

R.

Railway, concession for 83

Oriental 46

Panama 1

State 34

Street 41

Transandean 36

Ramie, production of 52

Religion 105

Rice 53

Rivers 4, 40, 81

Rum 48

S.

Salt 76

San Martin, General 19

San Mateo, city of 45

Sarsaparilla 58

Settlement with foreign bondhold-
ers 33

Silver mines of Cerro de Pasco. ... 36

mining in Peru 72

State railroads 34

Steamship companies 38

Straw hats 61

Street railways 41

Submarine cable 46

Sugar, Lurifico mill 48

production of 48

T.

Tariff of prices of telegraphs and

telephones 46

Telegraphs and telephones 46

Terms of peace 17

Tin ... '. 75

Tobacco 56

Trade 136

Transandean railway 36

Treaty of peace with Chile 27

Transportation, means of 37

Vegetable kingdom 10

Vegetables 56

Viceroys, government of the . . 17

W.

War for independence 17

with Chile 17, 26

Waterworks for Paita 80

Wealth of Peru 107

Weights and measures 106

Wheat 54

Wine. 52

Wool 56

Z.

Zona Seca 2, 15

Bull. 60 10

v.

THE BORROWER WILL BE CHARGED
AN OVERDUE FEE If THIS BOOK 18
NOT RETURNED TO THE LIBRARY ON
OR BEFORE THE LAST DATE STAMPED
BELOW. NON-RECEIPT OF OVERDUE
NOTICES DOES NOT EXEMPT THE