Full text of "Peru of the twentieth century"

See other formats

Google

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on Hbrary shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project

to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject

to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books

are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the

publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at |http : //books . google . com/|

■''' /-^" ^^- u.

,'/■'•

DiailizodbyGOOgle

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

DiailizodbyGOOgle

■Hh ^^^^1

,cB>Google

PERU OF THE
TWENTIETH CENTURY

PERCY F. MARTIN, F.R.G.S.

WITH ILLDSTRATIONS

NEW YORK
LONGMANS, GREEN & CO.

LONDON ; EDWARD ARNOLD
igii

DiailizodbyGOOgle

SA ?8 3 f, //, /^

DiailizodbyGOOgle

A FOREWORD

Benjamin Disraeu once observed that the author
who speaks about his own books is ahnost as bad as
a mother who talks about her own children ; never-
theless, I am of opinion that something may and
shotild be said here — not 6B an advertisement, but
as a warning — respecting the nature and the purpose
of this voluma

I do not wish any expectation to be aroused which
cannot be realized ; and, therefore, let me at the outset
indicate to my readers what they will not find within
these pages. Firstly, they will seek in vatn for any
lengthy reference to " Ancient Peru." Other writers,
far more capable than I, have dealt with this fas>
cinating subject, and the list of works upon the Land of
the Incas is so ample that the market may be considered
as sufficiently, if not over, supplied. Secondly, I have
carefully refrained from indulging in political history
for two reasons : (1) I am inclined to agree with the
dear old pessimist, Voltaire, that " history being little
else than a picture of human crimes and misfortunes,"
it would be out of place in a book which is pri-
marily intended to be useful to the traveller, the
merchant, and the financier ; (2) I consider it little
lees than " an international impertinence," as Bismarck
designated the Monroe Doctrine, for foreigners to
discuss and comment upon the internal afiairs of the
countries in which they may happen to find them
selves, either temporarily or permanently, located.

Digitized byGOOgle

vi A FOREWORD

I have not hesitated to comment, on the other hand,
upoD our own politics, so far as they relate to our
commercial relations with Peru and other South
American countries ; because I have found that there
are conditions confronting us as a nation which cannot,
and should not, be passed by without some reference.
I know neither politics nor prejudices ; but I have
a country — a country of which I am not only very
fond, but very proud. I want to see that country
maintain her place in the front rank of the com-
mercial and industrial world ; to march always as
leader, and not as a humble follower.

My anxiety is to awaken some interest among the
thinkers in Great Britain, by showing to them — as
far as my modest abilities will permit — some of the
many diplomatic errors which our responsible rulers,
of both political parties alike, have committed, and
to assist in urging the demand that these errors be
no longer perpetuated.

For the rest, I leave my book to speak for itself.
I trust that it may be deemed not so bad, but that
something good may be found in it.

The Republic of Peru to-day is upon the eve of
a great development, in comparison with which all
previous commercial movements in this part of the
world will probably appear insignificant. A recently
completed, long and interesting tour through the
principal agricultural, mining, and manufacturing
districts of the country convinces me that the
Republic, now that internal and external peace is
secured, is bound to advance to the very front rank
among the Latin-American States as a productive and
commercial factor.

Not alone is it possessed of practically every kind of
mineral, of vast agricultural territories and of immense
natural forests, but it is endowed with a climate which

D.g.zicCyGoOgIC

A FOREWORD vii

ia, generally speaking, bo mild sind equitable in most of
the districts that human existence is both exhilarated
and beneBted by being passed in it.

Of the immensity of Peru's resources in other
directions there can be no more question, and day
by day will doubtless offer opportunities for their
more intelligent and systematic development. Already,
some $35,000,000 (£7,000,000) of North American
capital has found its way to Pern, while British capital
nmy be put conservatively at another £20,000,000.
Uf French and German, Italian and Spanish capital
there exists also a considerable amount ; wiUi a
himdred times as much to follow when the oppor-
tunity arrives.

The foreign commerce of any nation is usually
accepted as a fair and convincing proof of its industrial
progress, and in this respect Peru has offered a striking
example of national prosperity. In the year 1897,
for instance, the imports of the Republic were
$8,000,000 and the exports about $14,000,000. Con-
sidering the immense territory which is comprised in
the Republic, even when shorn of her chief provinces,
Tacna and Arica, now owned by Chile, its population
and its resources, a return like this is small enough. As
soon as foreign capital commenced to come into the
country, which synchronised with the introduction
of monetary reform, both the imports and exports
advanced, until, in 1906, we find them standing at the
much more convincing figures of $25,000,000 of im-
ports and $28,500,000 for exports. During this period
the United States exports increased from $1,000,000 to
nearly $5,000,000, and the imports from $700,000 to
nearly $2,500,000. In 1907, out of a total import
trade amounting to £6,235,550, Great Britain secured
£1,634,129, while the United States came an excellent
second with £1,184,668. Germany actually showed a

Digitized byGOOgle

vtii A FOREWORD

diminution in her trading figures, those for 1907 being
£893,434, as against £914,239 for 1906. It is thus
clear that it is the United States that we have most
to fear as competitors in Peru, and these statistics are
all the more important to British manufacturers, since
they really form the " handwriting on the wall,"
serving to show in eloquently convincing language what
the results of this trading will be when once the
Panama Canal is opened, and the United States are
brought many thousands of miles nearer by direct
transportation with the Latin-American States.

In the following pages I have endeavoured to show
the Republic as it is to-day — "The Twentieth Century
Peru"; also the commercial and industrial Peru as it
may be expected to appear a few years hence, when
some of the many natural resources of the country have
been developed more fiilly, and when a few of the
numerous opportunities which the Repubhc offers to
capitalists, merchants, and settlers have been put to
the test. The country is proceeding slowly, but very
surely, upon the road to progress. "To climb steep
bills requires slow pace at first."

In one important particular Peru has always made
a plucky attempt to keep pace with the rest of the
civilized world, and that is by means of its internal
and coastal transportation. Various successive Govern-
ments have taken up the task of railway-building with
equal avidity, and no political question however acute,
no financial restriction however severe, baa been per-
mitted to interfere with the carrying-out of a prc^amme
which has been recognized by all parties alike as the
one and only means destined to bring Peru into line
with its South American sister-Republics. No one
who has failed to visit this part of the globe can form
any accurate idea of the physical difficulties with
which railway constructors are laced; and none but

Digitized byGOOgle

A FOREWORD iz

ID are acoustoim^ to meet with and to over-
come diffictilt engineering^ obetaclefl would bo luclmed
to persevere when coiifronUKj with the ap|jareiitly
itnponible problems of surntountitig KtupMndoua moun-
tains, bridging; UDOontrollablu rivers, and piercing end-
leas rocky faatoessee. The Republic claims, with good
reason, to have been the fimt State in South Ainoriea
to have a steam tramway. Chile would rob her of
this claim, as she has taken from ber tbe valuable
guano dLtpoKits and the stilt more precioas nitrate
fiulda : but I think that the qneetion at issue can best
be docidtid by the foUowing specific details : Pern
built and opened for traffic the Lima-Callao steam
iway in the year 1848, wbereas the 6rat tramway
Cbile. ^rom Caldera to CopiapiS, was opeoed on
ly 29, 1851.

The 6at portion of Peru is inngnificantly aroall in J
oomparison with the rooantainous regions ; but, never^
tbeleaa, the territory of the Republic is moderately |
well supplied with railroads, built almost entirely with
British capital loanetl to the Peruvian Government.
I have not htwitated to devote a considerable portion
of my Bpaoe — in fact, three entire chapters — to the
question of transportation in Peru. It is the key tt
futore eoooomic situation.

total length of railway track in the Republic
.y is about 1,560 mtlos (roughly speaking). a[)art
'eral private lines, wbicb are the pniperty of
diflisrant mining and industrial ooaipanies. fhe three
prtndpal qratema, aside from tbe many private ooo-
oems and short coast lines, to all of which ~

raferanee has been made in the following chapters, i
the Suuthtnn Railway, tbe Oeiitral Railway, and ihtt|
Gaaqui-lji Pax Hnilway. These lines are under th*i
_ ment of t)ie Peruvian Corporation, UmitedfJ
tisb joint-stock company which, as repr es entor!

built
^^^»m'

oomp
tbelo
Weill
Britii
Iha>
of m;,
I ^ueRtic

X A FOREWORD ^^H

tlve of the holders of bonds of the former foreign
debt of Peru, in 1 900 took over the control of
the lines until 1956. Although the smallest of the
three groups, the Guaqul-La Paz Railway is one of
the most important, not alone because of its forming
the connecting link between the Southern Railway,
on the coast, and the Bolivian capital of La Paz,
14,000 feet above the level of the sea, but also on
account of its being at present one of the two lines of
railroad which bring the Capital of the latter-named
Republic into communication with the sea.

Neither the Southern nor the Antofogasta-Bolivia
Railway will be long left in possession of this monopoly,
since the Ar(ca-La Paz Railway, now in construction,
is destined to prove an important factor in future
competition.

Like most of the other South American States,
Peru has been heavily handicapped in the past by the
absence of good roads, or, indeed, of any roads at all,
When the Spanish Conquerors came, so history relates,
they found a number of excellent paved highways
running from a common centre, like the spokes of a
wheel, to practically every part of the Inca Empire,
and traces of them are to be found in many parts of
the country to-day. But the Spanish, in their greedy
search for gold and in their merciless persecution of
the unfortunate Lidians, seem to have overlooked the
primary duty of all pioneers, which is to open up
and to maintain the arteries of internal communication.
Even after Spanish rule came to an end in Latin-
America, the newly-emancipated States were too
closely engaged upon making war with one another
and in settling their own numerous internal troubles
to think of improving their highways; so that it was
nearly forty years after the throwing-off of the Spanish
yoke, when the Latin-American States seriously com-

A FOREWORD xi

menced to coostnict roads into the interior of their
vast domaioa

AmoDg the most backward has been Peru, and the
Republic is suffering from the oversight to-day. Beads
there are, and some remarkably good ones ; but in
comparison to the size of the country the BepuUic
is sadly deficient in internal transportation fiuulities.
Those which she enjoys are almost entirely the result
of foreign enterprise and capital, but it is satisfitotoiy
to know, at least, that the present Government is alive
to the importance of improving both its ooast-roeds and
its nulway communications, and that every effort is
being made to open up the country by these means.

Day by day shows something in this direction either
to have been accomplished or commenced ; and ainoe,
as Gibbon tells us, the oirilization of a country may
be best judged by the number and condition of its
roads, Peru will during the present century have
earned a high place among enoh civilised States.

P. F. M.

OetAir, 1911.

Digitized byGOOgle

DiailizodbyGOOgle

CONTENTS

CHAPTEB I

PbjaiMl fMMuw— Tha cohUI Uiw— Port* tod lurfacnin— Diffaruit
ragtoM— The ri«T»— The monU&t— Lake TilioM*— Euth-
qnftkM— Bivan — AmuoD — Navigktion — Vidcanora — MMi —
PoTcaU— FrodnetiTa traaa— Robber— OUve— Flora— Fakna—
/>ue««-AbnUerfl7-hiuiMr'a|«ndiae 1—10

CHAPTER n

8 panUi ecwqaaa* of Pani— Baaorda of ernalty and opprcMioii- Inlar-
■MciM qDarrab- Frandaoo PUarro— War of Indapa&daDaa—
PaaM 0(UDpaot»-Froaliar delimlUtio&a— Qtuatloiuwith Bolivia,
Braill, and Coloiabia— Lorato dilate — BritUh otHean aa
refaraaa— EzpadiUoiu at work on trontier dal im iUtlo M - BriUah
aMTieea to Para— Nattra azplontton azpadidoo II—

CHAPTEB ITT

PnaUvl Angnato B. Lagvla— Dr. Qttaaa Lafnia y UwlfaMa—
Dr. Enfeolo Larrabnr* j DBanoa — Dr. Jnllo Enriqaa Ego-
Agnbra— Dr. Enriqua C. Baoadra— Hafior Don Enriqne Oymn-
goren— Dr. Edmuulo N. da HaUeh— Don Cartoa O. Carduoo
—Dr. Carloa Larrabora of Conaa — SeAor Edoardo Lembeke —
FaniTian Lagatian In LoDdan— BiMah Hinbtar to Para— Unbad
aialaa Htnlitar and CofMob— BrttUi OooaDlOanaial at Unw SS— S9

CHAPTEB IT

— PopakHeo— JndieiBl admtaitotoalioa— JwMtelioa of Conrti
— Cangma — IfhUatan* poftfoUoa — Loaal gorammaBt — Dapart-
aartri Boarda— Natt— 8tran|th in IVll-
1911— Franah UiUlarT HMtaa-An
-.FoD Ughtl^ altoagtb

Digitized byGOOgle

XIV CONTENTS

CHAPTER V
Government (oontirwei) — Suutor; orgonizatioii — MedioBl Board of
Health— Mariae Sanitary Serriee — Lima Board — Inolation at
ports — Telephoaee — -Telegraphs — Improvementa effected — Wire-
leas station— Postal servioes— Increase in mail-nittttBr— Peruvian
and Britiah methods contrasted— The carriage of newspapers and
other pablioations — Aviation encouragement M — 64

CHAPTER VI
Finance- Loans and their history — Period of prosperity followed by
severe reatrietion- Extravagance of former Govenunents—
Guano revenues — Restoration of Femviau credit — Recent
borrowings — Arrangements with British oreditors — Peruvian
Corporation- Municipal loans — Tax-collecting Agency— Revenue
and expenditure — Customs receipts- Foreign oommeroe—
Budget (or 1911-12 66—81

CHAPTER VII
Insurance — Native offices — Foreign agendes— Leading offices— Oom-
parative enrplnses— Dividends ptUd— Blmao figures for 1910 —
Banking — Principal banks — Bank of Peru and London — Savings
bonk (Cfqa de Ahorras)- Coinage — Hbtory— Monetary laws-
The National Mint - 82—93

CHAPTER Vin
Education — Lima University— Number of eohools- Native schools —
Commerce and agriculture — Arequipa University — English
schools — Peons as pupils — Literary societies — Lima Geographical
Society — Learned associations — Theatres — New Municipal
Theatre — Peruvian press— Notable journals— English news-
papers in South America—" Peru To-Day " - 98 — 106

CHAPTER IX
Lima, the Capital— Description of city— Climate— Earthquakes —
House decoration and architecture — Public places- Avenues-
Parks — Transportation — Charitable institutions — Hospit^ and
asylums— Suburbs — Miraflores — Chorillos — Bella vista — Destruc-
tion by Chilian troops— Bathing— Cmelties ol war - - 107—190

CHAPTER X
Cost of living— Rentals-Household expenditures- Wages- Domes-
tioB — Mary Anne's paradise— Native labourers — Japanese
competition — Austrian emigrants — Government ouoouragement
—Sport and amusement — Lima Jockey Club — Regatta Club-
Football's popularity— Lima Cricket Club • - 121— ISO

Digitized byGOOgle

CHAPTER XI

Pablio wonhip— Freedom gnnted — Intolerance of foreign mission'
kriw— Charity of Catholic prieita — FontioD of English Ohurob in
Pera — Late and preeent chaplain in Lima — Breaking away from
priesUy oontrol — Bishoprios and ooracies — Lima Cathedral
— Valuable Church posseMtons — Publio proceesioni — Beligioos
torrioe at Areqnipa — Reverent attitude of populace • 131 — 145

CRAFTEB Xn

Agriealtnre— Sugar hnabandrj— Proapeots of the indostry — Early
enlttvation and first factory — Beaaons given for retuning
aooient maehinery— Ty^cal mill described— Classea of rollers
luad— Process of manufacture— Type of maoUnery necessary—
Priadpal sngar estates on eoaat of Peru — Santa Barbara factory
— Eztnwts obtained— Various installations described - 146—160

CHAPTEB XIII

Agricoltnre (eonUtMed) — Sogar-oane onltnre — Climate and soil —
Ooano fertilization- Deposits — Ouano characteristics — Suitable
soil— InMct pests— Coast onltivation— Time for cutting— The
arenge yield — Experiments with nitrate manure — Uaehinery —
Antiquated plants and equipments — Opportunities for manufae-
turer* of sugar maehinery- Typical installation described-
Handling the bagasse and masseouite - 161 — 170

CHAPTER XIV

Agrioulture (contiruted) —Cotton — Classes cultivated — Comparison
between PeruvlaD and South Amerioan — Statistics, 1908-1909
— Cotton-seed oil- Wool-growing indnBtry-Hides— Coca -plant
— Coealna— Cocoa— Bioe onltivation and imports — Tobacco —
Wheat ooltivation — Samples tested — Barley — Maize — Rubber —
Ignorant method of collecting — Exports tor 1902 -1909 —
QoTemmeht enoouragement of cultivation - - 171 — 192

CHAPTER XV

Railways — Growth ol systems — Existing lines— Standard gauge-
Narrow gauge — New construction — Southern Bailroad — Cuzoo
divUon— Track— Bridges— Rolling - stock — Freight— Passengera
— Workshops — Management — Central Railroad — Oroya section
— RamaikaUe soenery—Boad-bed— Bridges — Tunnels^— Stations
—FM^t— Handicaps— Future pro^eote • - 198—911

Digitized byGOOgle

CHAPTER, XVI
Rulwajs (eowtiniwd)— Guaqui-Lft Paz Eailroad— Important aoqui-
HitioD— CoDtemplated developments — Lake Titioaoa Bervice —
RoUing-atock — StatiotiH — Workshops — Paita-Piura RMlway^
Pftcosmayo- Guadalupe line — Tmjillo branch— Chlinbote-Tab-
lonea link — General management — Prospects ot Peruvian
Corporation Railways— Great mineral developmenta - 212— 225

CHAPTER SVII
Railways (eontinued) — New conatructi on— Contemplated oitensiona
— Iiiuitos-Palta Railway — Importmce ae a transcontinental line
—Lima railwaja — Limn Light, Power, and Tramway Combina-
tion-North -Western RaUway ot Peru— Chimbote line 225—285

CHAPTER XVUI
Shipping — Principal ports— PanamA Canal effect — Steamship lines —
Improved foreign aervicee — Freight — Peruvian Steamsliip
Company lino— Rates in force — Further new routes— Coastal
serrices- Government anbaidies — Benefits from American railway
connection — British ahipping — Latest statistics^ Port ot Ctillao —
Iquitoa— Docks- RaUways— The town - - 236—251

CHAPTER XIX

Textile trade — Raw matoriala — Cotton production — Capital employed
— Woollen factories — Matches and flour — Japanese competition —
Striking enterprise —Lima Electrictvl Trust — Sugar machinery
— Copper-mines machinery ^Waterworks equipment — Taxation
ot commercial travellera — Correspondence between Birmingham
Chamber of Commerce and Foreign Office — Irrigation enterprise
and machinery .-.-.. 252—265

CHAPTER XX

Peruvian trade and Panami Canal— Probable effect — Preparation by
the United States and Germany — Britiab indifference — Trade-
marks torgeriea — Permian Government precautions — Oppor-
tunities tor protection — British Empire League aasiatance —
Foreign firms registered — Irrigation undertakings ^ Future
development ...-.- 266—272

CHAPTER XXI
Onano industry — Early history — Remarkable return— Nitrate com-
petition — Unworked deposits — Salt — Ajinual production —
Petroleum — Principal districts — Early discoveries — Lobitos
Oil-fields — Cocaine manufacture — Various processes followed —
Difficulties encountered . . - . - 278—282

^y^OOOl

C0NTEN1"S xvii

CHAPTER XXII

Uining— Spaoiab gTMd— Mineral diMricU— Siom region— Nnmben
of vUixiu— Worldng eotnpftoiM knd output— Labour eoaditiocs
— Hining code — Gold end eilver uiiaea — Copper depodta — C«na
de FuMO— Britub indiflerence — "Ophir of the Weit"— C«rTO
de Fmoo town— Varlou* minerftU (ound— Coftl— Uining for
fageigoere— L'noeBBMM-y Kue^wuTiiiig from United 8(«tee of
AmeriM 388— SW

CHAPTER XXIII
Cellao — Ewly hiatory — Physic^ BApeeta — Climete — Bubnrbe —
tUnim-j. iu) pro veuienta— Choi ica — L» I*ui)t> — The voloftno of
kfiMi— City of Arequip*- Earlj blitory- Ewibquakei — Hoe-
pitftliiy of the iuhAbitaute— Boildinge— Banks — Trsmwaye
— ElMUic«l e4uipuienle— life in Arequipft — Cusoo— Buioe —
Modem ciljr bfe - - - 096-900

CHAPTER XXIV
Foreign eotupuiiee—The Femnen CoiporetloD— BeUtlooe with the
Uovemment — lime Bellweye— PeiOTian Amazon Companjr —
Palumayo eoMideU — United ijtetee' reet^nition of Fern u
poeneeing lerritorj— Poution of the Conipenjr— LoUtoe Oil-
delda — Ueektu end Johneon Brewery — Peruvian Cotton Uann-
feeluilng Cooipauy— City o( Lim* t) per Cent. Boode - 807—317

AmnsiK 81B— S8T

Inu 888-84S

Digitized byGOOgIC

DiailizodbyGOOgle

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

linw '. Btfttne of Simon de DoUvar - - FnmtitpUct

L«ke TUiMM, the higbeat body of water in the world

Tho Conqneror of Peru : FrondKo Ffzairo -

H,B. iho FraaidaDt of (he Bepablis, S«&or Don Angoato B. Legnia

Unu : Colnmbna Avenue . - .

The OmiMT AdtninU Orau - • . •

Lima : School of Medicine and Health Inatitnte

lima : Bank of London and Pern

Near Ureoz, on the Cnxoo divudon of the Central BaHwa;

Uiati b; HoonU^t, ihowing the Hairud Obeerratory

lima: The BaTings Bank . . - .

Uma Oenaial Foat-OtBee ....

lima : La flaia .....

lima : Interior of Cathedral and Cemeter; -

Old Bpaaieh Stone Bridge over Bio Tiloaflete

lima : The Cathedral ....

Fort of Cerro Acnl, ahowing Pier of the B.S. Co., Ltd.

I«ke Titioaea : Steamer leaving Qnaqni, BoUvia, for Pnno,

Oiuao TaUey, abowing Southern Railway lime

SJBoapt, sorthem portion ....

City of Aieqnipa and Hiati Tdloano from Charehaui

Qlaeier oo Hoont VUeanita, Alpaeaa in foragronnd -

l^pleal Honntain Scenery near Uonnt VUeanita

Pneote de Chillon (Ancon-Lima Railway), 23 kilometrei

Pnente de Ftedro (Lima) ; boilt in one year -

Pnente de Chaufiohaea (Central Bailway), 117,600 kilometree

Saa Tieente, Capital of the Frovinoe of Caflete

Are^vipa : Bonlerard of City, with Hliti Volcano ia diatanoe

Pen

Digitized byGOOgle

« LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Bio Bknoo, showing BailwBj-Htatioa ua3 Smelter -

Lalie Soracooha (18,600 feet) from rniliray, 227 kilometreB

OltKiier oa Uount Vilcanita (16,000 feet)

Bond-duDes at La Jo;a ....

WavoB upon the Bock of a Sand-dune

Forts : Callao Docka ; and IqoitoB, with Biver Steamers

Bugai Factory, Cerro Aznl, property of B.S. Co., Ltd.

San Uiguel Copper-mine, Morooooha

Callao Dock Co. 6S. Ucayali, of the Pernrian SS. Co.

San Luis, from Caaa Blanca, with Santa Barbara and E

the distance - . . . .

Fort of MoUendo ; Old Wharf

Mole and Breakwater, Mollendo - '-

Mejla ; On the Flaza - - - - .

Embarking Femvian Troops on the Central Bailwaj
Cazoo : Buins of Inca Temple, ten Idlometrea from City
Cozoo : A Street, showing Masonry and Pillar of Spanish Portal
The City of Gnzoo (one half b only shown) -

Digitized byGOOgle

PERU OP THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY

CHAPTER I

Phyrieal featnrea — The ooutal line — Ports and huboora— Different
regionB — The derra — The montaiiB — L&ke Titieooa — Earthqnakea —
Bivers — Amazon — KavigaUon — VolcuioeB — Misti — Foresta — Pro-
dnotive treee — Bnbber— Olive— Flora — Fauna— PisceB— A butterfly-
hnnter'a paradise.

It would be interesting to know what were Francisco
Pizarro's exact thoughts as he approached the long
coast -line of Peru upon which, after many years' eager
ambition and deep scheming, he first cast eyes in the
month of January of 1520.

For long the ambitious Spaniard had determined to
try his luck south of Panama, where he had fought
and bled, but had gained small personal advantage ; he
had been one of Vasco Nuflez de Balboa's followers,
when, in 1509, that distinguished explorer discovered
the Pacific Ocean ; he had lent his good right arm and
his shrewd advice to the service of the Spanish King,
but throughout he had remained personally unrecog-
nized and unrewarded.

Then his subtle brain conceived the plan of an
expedition carried out upon his own account ; in con-
junction with the very unpriestly priest — Hernando de
Luque — and the soldier of fortune, Di^o de Almagro,
he set out in 1524 for Peru.

Digitized byGOOgle

S PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Pizarro actually reached the ahores, but could do no
more than look at them longingly from afar, since he
was devoid of equipment of any kind, iU in health and
accompanied by none but uncongenial and quarrelsome
companiona

So the future conqueror turned back to Panama ;
journeyed thence to Spain, and having there collected
some more and trusty followers in the persons of 200
Spanish soldiers, and being financed by the Spanish
King himself, he once again turned bis ship's prow
towards the land of the Incas — the existence and rich-
ness of which he now knew to be no &ble. For the
first time Pizarro landed upon its unprepossessing shores
in September, 1530, his disembarkation taking place at
Tumbes.

Approaching the shores from the more tropical and
scenically beautiful Panamanian coast, the Peruvian
country seems to the traveller both desolate and barren
to a degree. But it is neither one nor the other, for a
fiiirly considerable population inhabit these regions, as
in the early days of the Spanish Conquest, while a few
miles inland there abound numerous fertile valleys and
wooded ridges, which impart a wholly difierent physical
appearance to the country.

The exact geographical position of the Republic of
Peru is between the Equator and the Tropic of Capri-
corn, on the western coast of South America, between
the parallels of latitude 1° 29' north of the equatorial
line, and 19° 12' 30" of south; also between the
meridians 61* 54' 45' and 81° 18' 39" of longitude,
west of Greenwich. The superficial area of the country
is 500,000 square miles according to some geographers,
but the Peruvians themselves claim 1,322,000 square
kilometres, which would be equal to 713,675 square
miles, including various islands and lakes. To-day, the
coast-line measures over 1,200 miles in length, but

Digitized byGOOgle

PORTS AND RIVERS S

«fore the war in Chile it extended to 1,300 miles.
The physical regions of the country may be divided
into three separate groups — the coast, the nierra (or
mountain), and the forest {monlarla). The population
may be conservatively put at 4,500,000, or about
6'4 to the s(]uare mile.

Ports and harbours in Peru are many, but there are
few which can be classed as really good. In this respect
the country is not very fortunate, there being but few
protected anchorages, while the headlands are generally
abrupt and lofty. The islands which dot the coast are
barren and rocky ; but they afford excellent accommoda-
tion for the myriads of sea-birds who provide the
valuable guano deposits which are used for fertilizing.

The coastal region may be subdivided from north to
south into five different sections: (I) Piura ; (2) Lam-
bayeque and Tnixillo ; (3) Santa; (4) Lima to Nasca ;
(5) Arequipa and Tacna.

If the country Is not blessed with many good porta,
It Is extremely well provided with rivers, beautiful
SCenlcally and valuable commercially. There are some
forty-six of these in the Pacific system, apart from the
considerable number contaiueti in the Lake Titicaca
and the Amazon regions. Altogether, Peru can boast
of nearly 8,500 kilometres of navigable rivers ; and
even at low water they are open to traffic by means of
shallow-draught steamers. The Ucayali River alone
is navigable for 1,000 kilometres, iind the Amazon (in
the Peruvian zone) for GHO kilometres.

Usually speaking, the rivers flowing into the Pacific
rifle in the -lierra between the coast and the central
Andean ranges. The principal waterways are the
Tumbes, the Chira, the Piura, the Santa, and the
Rfmac, while nearly half a himdred other streams have
important influence upon the country through which
they course. Those rising in the part east of the

' Q""^

4 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

central Cordillera, are all tributaries, more or lees
remote, of the Amazon River. But the ultimate head
of that magTii6cent waterway rises iu the siet-ra in 11°
south latitude, having its source in the small lake, Lauri-
Cocha, and flowing north-west nearly parallel with the
Pacific Coast. It drains the western slope of the central
range, and after a course of 4,000 miles, it reaches the
Atlantic. The affluents of the Amazon, which is also
called the Marafion, constitute a vast system of inland
navigation-waterways in the forest region. There arc
the Peren^, the UcayaH, the Huallaga, the Paucar-
tambo and the Madera.

Of the famous and extensive body of water Lake
Titicaca much might be written, since it is not only
the largest but the highest of its kind in the world-
Its length is 120 miles, and its width 60 miles; it lies
in a basin 300 miles long and 100 miles wide, the eleva-
tion above sea-level being no less than 12,545 feet,
Naturally, the temperature can be very cold at times ;
and I have shivered on these waters as I have done
nowhere else, although the sun has been shining
brilliantly overhead. There is a regular service of
steamers running under the auspices of the Peruvian
Corporation, the embarking and disembarking points
being Guaqui and Puno, upon the Bolivian and Peru-
vian sides of the lake respectively. To anyone who had
the time to spare. Lake Titicaca offei'S great temptation
to exploration. It is so intimately associated with the
early Inca period, and it is so steeped in fascinating
tradition, that one might — were the spirit amenable —
devote many days and even weeks to studying this
unique sheet of water and its neighbourhood with both
profit and pleasure. One day I hope that this con-
genial and attractive task may be mine — at least in
part.

Nature has, to some extent, compensated Peru for

^^oogl^

(H UK

I those
^B»r tin:

^™There

OCEAN ClTftKKNTS 5

the abaenoe of any particularly fine harbour hy [»ro-

viding ao exoeptionally pacific sea, a comparativuly

rocklea coast, and a complete abeence of dangerous

and sunken reefs and invisible shoals. The movement

of the sen, if occasionally somewhat unpleasant for

those ships which must anchor outside for any length

time, on account of the swell which sometimes

les pronounced, is nevertheless very regular.

lere are no violent storms to be apprehended,

although the wind, during certain months of the year,

can prove very chilly and inhospitable. The ocean

curreut comra up from the South Pole, and the waves

have an average temperature of 7° in excess of that

of the sea itself, and it U this, no doubt, which con-

tributm to the cooling of the atmosphere. This

cunvut is known by various names — "Humboldt"

^aAer the utoinent German explorer, who is said to

tve ideatiBed it), the " Antarctic," and " Peruvian."

has a breadth of 150 miles and a velocity of

lies in the twenty-four hours, running up the

from south to north along the entire extent

ring the summer months there generally occurs

this wide stretch of even and very sinuous coast-

n ooean current running in an opposite direction

at alretuly mentioned, snd which is supposed

bo a [irotoDgation of the v<|\iatorial currunt, which,

the altitude of 5' south latitude, dividtw in the form

'edge into two brmnohes — namely, the greater

it of 1 50 miles width, and th« lener. which takes

ion of the north-west.

have referrul to the many large and small rocky

its which are found along the coast. I may odd

inhabited. The most suitable,

guano deposits which they

I some extent, contain, are

Lobos de Adontro, and the

6 PERU OP THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Guafiape Islands, on the Northern Coast ; the Chincha
Islands, consisting of three different groups — the
North, the Central, and the South, all in the Central
region ; San Lorenzo Island, about six miles to the
south-west of Callao, and a few unnamed rocky islets
scattered about up and down the long coast-line.

Were time and money to be devoted to the close
study of the larger Peruvian rivers, I am of opinion
that many of them might be converted into safer and
surer means for traDsportation ; and where steamers
can now proceed for hundreds of kilometres only, they
might be enabled to journey for thousanda Take, for
instance, the Amazon — or, as it is also called, the
Maraflon — the Putumayo, the Ucayali, the Punis, the
Igaraparani, the Lower Ucayali, Yavari, the Madre
de Dios, the Aquiri, the Morona, and the Napo.
Steamer and sailing-craft traffics are conducted here for
the greater part — say at least nine months — of the year ;
but with continual attention to dredging and some
engineering improvements, which, if costly, could easily
be effected, navigation might be carried on for the
whole of the twelve months.

Steamers of 6 millimetres (20 feet) draught can
proceed at high-water down the Lower Ucayali for at
least 1,400 kilometres: down the Maranon, as far as
the port of Limon, for 780 kilometres ; down the
Napo, as far as Aguarico, for 900 kilometres; down
the Puriis, from Labrea to the Catay, for 1,640 kilo-
metres ; and down the Putumayo, up-stream from the
Peruvian boundary, Igaraparani, for 330 kilometres.

Even at low water traffic is carried on upon the
Lower Ucayali, as far as Contamana, for 1,000
kilometres; fit)m Marailon to port Limon, for 780
kilometres ; and on the Amazon, for 680 kilometres.
Altogether the Peruvian rivers, during the low-water
season, will carry steamers of fivm 4 to 8 feet draugW.*^

.y Google

MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES 7

distaDce of 2,720 kilometres, and steamers
of from 2 to 4 feet, for 4,980 kilometres ; while the
smaller rivers are open at most times to canoes and
small row-boats.

Upon practically all of these waterways the scenery

is marvellously beautiful. Nature is seen here in her

most entrancing garb and most bewildering colouring

— such trees, such ferns, such flowers ; and, alas ! such

iquitoes and other creeping, crawling, stinging

Jigs!

_ ' It is in Peru that the superb Cordilleras of the

Andes are found in their most majestic forms, three

separate ranges, one more imposing than the other,

^tretching their chains around and across the country

I vast links, separating the various watercourses and

aking up the fertile lajids into valleys of unequal

length and width, but of uniform fairness, their own

peaks now soaring into the skies and again sinking

to considerably below the perpetual snow-Une, but

always impressive and frequently awe-inspiring.

Truly, as Ruskin has told us, " Mountains are the

leginuing and the end of all natural scenery," and no-

here does one realize this more fully than in the

iruviau Andes.

Of volcanoes the country may likewise claim a few
well-known specimens, such as Tutupaca, which ex-
hibits two fine peaks and one of which last erupted in
1802 ; Ubinas and Huaynaputina, which, with the first
named, are all in the Province of Moquegua, Then

R« are the magnificent Misti, overlooking and even
atening the city of Arequlpa : the Coropuna, which
not yet been correctly measured, but which is
ared by some geographere to be the highest of
tho Anilean peakR ; the Hachatayhua and the
darave. or Yacumani. All of these are in the
iTvritern Cordilleras; while the one exception is the

— such
^^MBosqu:
^■fcings
^V It
Andet
separi
^^jtretc
^^Kl vas
^Hbeak;
^^^engtf
peak
to c<
alwa'
Trulj
^^egic
^^H^er
^^»ru
^^ Of

8 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Apucanachuay, which is on the Eastern range, and has
a crater rising to the stupendous height of some 4,220
metres (about 13,000 feet). A superb view of this giant
can be obtained by traveUers passing along the road
near Tres Cruces, descending from the Department
of Cuzco to the valleys of the Paucartambo.

In a country so plentifully supplied with volcanoes,
it is not surprising to hear of frequent earthquakes,
with a record of some few bad ones among them.
Indeed, these visitations seem to have been of greater
violence in this part of the world than any other,
if one may judge of the awful destruction occasioned,
first at Callao and Lima in 1746, and subsequently
at Arequipa in 1868. The latest visitation of the
kind was experienced in May, 1877, when the whole
of the southern part of the Republic was more or less
affected.

The TnontaMa, or forest, region, which is abundantly
watered by periodical rains, is very extensive, and
here the young Bepuhlic is possessed of a totally
untouched reserve of timber wealth, which one day
will become a precious asset. The belt of forests — not
merely " woods," but dense, tropical forests, full of
magnificent trees, such as ebony, mahogany, cedar,
hardwood, and practically every tropical tree or plant
known in the botany of South America — stretches
from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera as far as the
frontiers of Bolivia and Brazil. It is estimated that
these same forest lands constitute fully two-thirds of
the total sur&ce of Peru. The most valuable trees
hitherto have been found in the rubber {caslilloa
eldslica) and the olive (olea europaea), both of which
will undoubtedly be much more generally cultivated in
the future.

It may not be out of place to mention here that
some sample olives grown in Peru were sent fronx

Digitized byGOOgle

FLORA, FAUNA, PISCES 9

Ilo to the Paris ElxhibitioD, and were there awarded a
gold medal. Much might be done in the direction
of both growing the tree and using the oil for com-
mercial purpoees. There is a continual demand for
the article, but the Peruvians do not produce any-
thing like enough for their own requirements, and
it must be, therefore, many years before olive-oil can
figure in the list of foreign exports to any extent.

But this is only one of numeroiis mdustries which
are in their infancy, and need but enterprise and the
necessary capital to convert them into permanently
proBtable undertakings. Fruit cultivation of all klndB
should pay those who pursue it intelligently ; for while
the Peruvians are great consumers of fruit, they put
themselves to very little trouble to cultivate it But
they will buy it eagerly from those who do.

With the exception, perhaps, of Colombia and Vene-
zuela, I know of no country in the world where a more
varied and beautiful /ora and^una can be found than
in Peru. The latter alone — according to the English-
man, William Mason, who was a traveller in the Re-
public some thirty years ago, and who is regarded
•till as the greatest authority upon the subject — con-
tained 40,000 different specimens, including many
birds of passage. This is, unfortunately, not the place
to enumerate them, even were it within my capacity to
do so ; but I have determined some day — Deo volente —
to return to Peru for the sole purpose of studying
its wealth oi flora, fauna, and pi^cet.

These latter may be found in a riot of abundance
in practically all the rivvrs, as well as along the coast-
line of 1,300 miles, such as the corbina, weighing
from six to ten pounds, and having a delicious flfsh ;
the skate, the sole, the plaice, the haddock, the cod,
tiw flounder, the smelt, the mackerel, in addition
to the lobster, the prawn, and the shrimp. I have

Digitized byGOOgle

10 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

seen BpecimenB of the latter weighing as much as
one pound each, not exactly the type of fish of which
Bayard Taylor sings, " Shrimps and the delicate peri-
winkle, such are the sea-fruits that the lasses love " ;
but, nevertheless, toothsome and palatable enough.

Then the butterflies, the gorgeous, glittering, and
gem-£aahing mynads of insects, some as large as
thrushes, which flit and flash through the air or which
whirl in clouds of crimson, of green, or of shimmering
yellow, over certain spots which contain the flowers of
which they are most fond. The forests are full of
them, as of strange beetles, bugs, and other creeping
things — things, moreover, whichsting and bite furiously,
and not infrequently impart death-dealing venom.
Truly a paradise for the entomologist, the zoologist,
the ornithologist, and all the other " iats," who make
the works of Creation their special study and interest,
is Peru.

Digitized byGOOgle

CHAPTER 11

eoaqncrt ot Parn^Reeordj of erueltjr uid oppresuon— loter-
■M«&a quarrela— Franeiico PiuuTO — Wkr ol Indepeadeuoe — PeM»
eomptu — Frontier delituiUilooi — Queitbna with Balivim, BncU,
sad Colombia— Lorelo diipute — DritUb otficen &• refereM'-£xp«dJ-
lion* M work on frontier deliiuitationa— firitiih MTvioM to Pent—
Kitiv* eiplontloo expoditiou.

Plan was the centre from which radiated all the
Spanish expeditions formed to reduce South America.
It was the one country which fought the most reso-
lutely, but quite uselessly, against the Conquerors, and
history teems with instances of the astonishing bravery
of these ancient Peruvians who wrestled, entirely
unarmed, the noblemen and chiefs combating with
their bare hands against the weapons of their enemies.
Naturally their losses were enormous, and the in-
vinciUe Pizarro was enabled to do precisely what
be pleased with them.

We learn of no more horrible instance of Spanish greed
and treachery than the capture and garotting of the Inca
Atahualpo. Pizarro secured him easily enough, by
treachery, and could have used him — as, in fact, be did
— for the purpose of putting an end to further re-
sistance ; but in spite of the three and a half millions
of gold coin ransom, demanded and paid for his life, no
•ooner had the Spaniards secured (and counted) the
amount of gold brought in, than they put the unfortu-
nate prince to a hideous death. The only parallel for
this shocking crime is the burning alive, by Ileman
n

Digitized byGOOgle

12 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Cortez, of the luckless Guatemoc, the noble Aztec King
of Mexico.

Prescott tells us all about thoae aud many other
terrible deeds done by these European barbarians iu their
ceaseless search for gold ; and all who would know the
details of the Spanish conquest of Peru, as well as
that of Mexico, may read with confidence, if with
feelings of disgust, this brilliant American historian's
accounts. It is little less than astonishing to remember
that during practically the whole of bis literary career
Prescott was compelled to employ the services of a
reader, since be was practically blind, as a consequence
of an accident which happened to him during his college
days at Harvard.

Even the quarrels among the Spaniards, and the
ultimate assassination of both Pizarro and Ahnagro,
did little to help the Peruvian natives, for their
earliest tyrants were succeeded by one even more
merciless — Pedro de la Gasca — and the rest of the
Spanish adventurers continued uninterruptedly to
spread themselves across the face of the country,
Gonzalo Pizarro proceeding to the East, where he lost
fully one-half of his men in an expedition, but which
resulted in his lieutenant, Orellana, making the first
voyage down the Amazon which was ever undertaken
by a white man ; Gongalo Jimenez de Quesada con-
quering the laud of the Chilchas Indians and forming
the kingdom of Granada ; while others went overland
to the mouth of the River Plate in order to forestall
the Portuguese, the Spanish King, Charles V., at the
same time encouraging bis other subjects — the Germans
— to occupy and exploit Venezuela.

The land of the Incas is said by no less an authority
than Sir Clements Markham, who has written upon
Peru and its interests for something like half a century,
to have been 250 miles in length by GO miles broad.

I zee GoOgl^

ANCIENT PERU 13

I have no idea how Sir CTlemeiita arrives at his con-
duMOiui, more especially as other geographers and
bistortans assert that ancient Peru consisted of the
whole of the vast stretch of territory now known as
the Republic of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and the lands
situated to the north of Chile and of the Argeutiiie
Bepublic. I thinic Sir Clements will agruu that this
area of land meosurL'S Komething morv tluin"250 milea '.
long by CO miles wide." While rjutetioning the
correctness of these computations, I have no hesitation
in recommending Sir Clemeota Markhaui's Ijook " The
Incas of Peru " to the considoratiun of readers who
desire to octiuaint themselves with an exhaustive and
painstaking study of Peruvian historj-. Even when
not quite accurate, Sir Clements is always readable.

The Incas— the very name oonjares up romantic
visionB and flings of profoundly melancholy int«re8t
— were generally regarded as mainly of Quechua
origin, with a pofisihli< Aymara admixture, but in some
of the tnt*)rior jiarts of Peru to-day one mtwts with
people who assun? one that the Incas came from far-olf
lands and "arrived by sea." Of course, they know
nothing about it. and merely repeat some of the many
Iqjends and traditiuna, of which they possess aa in-
exIiMustible supply, and ihoy rattle them off quite
glibly, with only a very little Rstount of cncourage-
meaL

It is to be much regretted that, for the meet part,
all that we possKSS in the way of records of ancient
Peru are a few paintings of the earlier inhabitants and
relics uf that Bi>ction of the population — known ns the
Yunga— of which the lt«st is known. No duubt thort'
ny valuable and iuteresting rvcords in exist-
I at the time of the Spauisli invadoa, but these I

bave been destroyed by the same vandati
1 eharacteriaed the treatment of eariy Tolt«c

and

U PERU OF ITIE nVENTIETH CENTURY

Aztec relics received at the hands of the Spaniards in
Mexico.

Blood and slaughter, slaughter and blood, are the
main incidents which strike the reader who attempts to
follow the arrival, the conquest, the defeat, and the
expulsion of the Spaniai-ds in Peru. Braver men never
lived ; greater brutes never breathed. One's feelings
are divided between admiration for the stirring, daring
deeds of valour accomplished and simple loathing for
the senseless butchery which followed. Treachery,
jealousy, conspiracy, and assassination confront one
upon every page of this astounding history, reminding
one forcibly of the poet Burns' lament : " Man's in-
humanity to man makes countless thousands mourn."

Francisco Pizarro. the base-born, illegitimate son of
a colonel of infantry, and himself as great a soldier, as
sound a statesmen, and as keen a politician as ever
any age produced — as we have seen in the previous
chapter— came to Peru in 1524. He came for a second
time in 1530; he fought practically every day there-
after until there were no more Indians to fight — at
least, no more who had any fight in them. He then
waged war against his own brothers-in-arms, and there
followed a long, cruel, and relentless civil war which
was carried on with all the ferocity and bestiality
of the Spaniards, Assassination followed execution,
and execution followed hideous torture. At last
Francisco Pizarro came into his own. Having executed
Diego de Almagro, his former lieutenant, Diego's
young son assassinated Pizarro as he sat at dinner in
his house at Lima, on June 2(i, 1541 — just twenty-one
years after he had first seen the golden shores of
Peru, and eleven years after he had descended upon
it like a scourge.

The sanguinary internecine war continued for long
after Pizarro's death, even the Viceroy, sent out by

INDEPESnENCE OF I^niN-AMKRICA

J Charlefl V. of Spain to restore order, being killed
hi battle waged by the King's own subjects. Rebellion
ran rife throughout New Spain, and the utter failure of
the Spaniards to justify their presence iu the country
ut all — if one except thuir own immense ennchnmnt—
wan continued right through the Colonial period and
up to the time of the War of ludependenoe. Did ,
matters improve at all then i Let us see.

It is a little more than a century — to be accoraitt i
it was in the year 1806 — since the first rumblings of a
political upbuaval, which was destined to free the
whole of the South and Central American Coloniea |
from the intolerable thnUdom of Spain, were beard.
Peni. although not tfiking the initiative, and being the
last of the various Colonies to break away, benefited.
One, Francisco Miraitda, organised an expedition in
New York, which was then, as now, the nest of much
of the turbulence and political conspiracy which have
troubled Latin- America ; the idea originally was little
■Bore than a filibustering escapade into Venezuela.

It was not only to the United States, boweTer, that
Miranda appealed, for, allured by the prospects ol
a WOT between England and Spain, this Venesuelaa
ruvulotionar)' camn over to lji>ndon and had several '
interviews with William Pitt the Younger. In the year
I8fu his relations with the British Prime Minister
I Twy iutinuite, in spite of the fact that some yean
' r (Svptember, 1701) wo find Pitt writing to
ating that " he cannot grant him the
tasked for nor the sum of I l.OUU " ; and that
* £500 (which prenumnhly he sent to bim) must suffice
fiir the expenacs incurre«l during his stay in I^odon."
It was to William Pitt that the daring adventurer
onJblded this original plan of revolutioiiixing Spanish
America. Pitt regarded him as a formidable weapon
irtio might be used agaiiut Spain ; but there is very

16 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

little reason to believe that the great Commoner cared
anything about the independence of the Spanish
American Republics.

The expedition failed ; but Miranda and most of his
American mercenaries escaped. But the match had
been laid, and fiora that time until complete separation
from Spain had been secured— that is to say, for some
thirty years — one long, continual, sanguinary conflict
was waged, in which thousands of men lost their lives,
others their reputations, and some few among them
forfeited both. This was the time when such giants
and heroes as Simon de Bolivar — the brave Argentine —
Boves, Mordles, Sucre, Paez, and San Martin fought
with a courage and determination almost incredible,
and conducted campaigns in a country which is about
the most difficult, from a physical point of view, for
carrying on a war of conquest as exists in any part of
the world.

The many peace compacts which were signed, first
with Spain itself, and then when the young States com-
menced to fly at each other's throats, were as so much
waste-paper. So far as Spain was concerned, she
abandoned, only with reluctance, the beautiful and
fertile laud of the Incas; and as late as 1866 we find
the Peruvians and the Spaniards at war, the last
encounter of all, which took place on May 2 of that
year, being commemorated by a handsome monument
erected in Lima, and standing some 70 feet in height.

Although divided into separate sovereign States, the
question of boundaries which arose caused continual
encounters, invasions, and outrages ; so that for nearly
half a century these young and silly countries were
disputing with one another, and have remained so
more or less — and rather more than less — almost until
to-day. It was only last year that a fresh encounter
was threatened between Peru and Ecuador over a

^^oog^

BOfNDABV DISPUTES

, Trail

iiidary dUpulc which haa lastod a full century.
Bat for tbe great good sense and admirable restraint
manifested by Preaident Augosto B. L^uia and his
advisers, nothing coutd have prBvent«d a clash of arms,
which would not only have ended with the defeat
of Ecuador — much the weaker of the two— but have
probably dragged in Chile and perhaps Bolivia, with
the resalt of a wboleeate South American entangle-
ment, in which all of the States muat have suSered
pecuniarily, financially, and morally.

In this matter diflTurent versions of the dispute must
inevitably oocur; but inasmuch as this oiakee do pre*
tenee of being a fwlitical publication, the details of tbe
oontroTersy must be sought eiaewhere than in these
pages. To those who are interested in the matter to
saeh an extent as to wish to study with closeness the
merits and demerits of the Peru-Ecuador Boundary
Question, I would suggest the [wrusal of tbe following
Treaties and Agreements which were entered into, and
ich Iiavii important bearings upon the mibjoct : The
,ty of Amity lietween Columbia and Peru of 1832;
le Agreement of the Delimitation Commission of
1830 ; The Demarcation Trwity of 1841 ; The Boundary
Trvaty of 1860; Tlte King of Spain's Arbttratiou
Award of 1 887 ; Tbe new Treaty of Boundaries of 1 890 ;
The Tripartite Treaty of 1894; The Convention of
IU05. A lengthy list of agreeuieuts in very truth,
ooropri»iug \-olumes of litigious history, most of which
have been valudeaa and barren of results.

At the time of writing, friendly — or at least diplo-
matic — relations have been restored between Peru and
Ecuador through the intenrention of mutual puaoa-
makisrs— tbe Goveniments of Argentina and Brazil —
and although Ecuador has stubbornly refused to submit
th« boundary qtustion in Peru to the arbitration of
tbtt Usgtte "nibaoaJ, tberv is rvoson to feel pleasure at

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUBV

Peru and Bolivia having decided to refer their differ-
ences, also arising over boundary questions, to the
Royal Geographical Society of London. I feel the
greater satisfaction in this recognition of the Society
by reason of the fact that I am, and have for some
years past been, a Fellow. Neither is it the first
occasion upon which the Society has been requisitioned
to act in disputes between two foreign countries upon
a matter of frontier delimitations. After the late
King's Award in respect to the boundaries between
Chile and Argentina, based upon the investigations
and reports made to his late Majesty by Colonel Sir
Thomas H. Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., C.B., a Vice-
President of the Royal Geographical Society, and
which Award was delivered in November, 1902, both
Brazil and Bolivia agreed to a treaty making important
changes on their common frontier, and providing that
any disagreement which might arise in the demarcation
of the new boundary, and which the two Governments
could not themselves settle, should be decided by the
Royal Geographical Society of London.

The same learned body obtained for Bolivia the
services of Major Fawcett, who was in Bolivia at the
same time that I was there last year (1910), in order
to define the boundaries between the neighbouring
RepubUcs, Bolivia and Peru. Major Fawcett had
already completed his preliminary reconnaissance, and
upon his decision to the efiect that further modifica-
tions would be necessary to define accurately the
delimitations of the common frontier, the Governments
of the two countries are acting.

This is a great compliment to British prestige, more
especially as the services were not volunteered.

It may be pointed out, however, by the impartial
critic that this boundary question differs materially
from usual squabbles of the kind in which the " honour

CLAIMANTS FOR I^RETO

[the* flag" and the "dif^nity of the nation" play
ninetit parts. Here there ia Involved a kHoub
■tton of territory — valuable territory — no less than
I d«nrable provinoe of Loreto. This large tract of
1 oovera an exteosivo region in the very centre of
nth America, and is divided into northern and
inthern eeotiona. Peru claims the northern section
1 Ecuador, and as this claim means the yielding up
f oboat one-fifth of the entire territory, it is not dlffi<
cult to uoderstaud Ecoador's objection to giving way.
In rvgard to the southern Mction, Peru has claims
Against both Bi'azU and Bolivia. Moreover, the
Republic of Columbia would also be involved, since in
daya gone by Ecuador ceded — for a sufficient oonsidera-
tioa — a portion of the disputed territory to Columbia,
and aboald Peru secure in its favour a judgment to its
posBBSsion, this portion would naturally have to be
giTen up also. The United States Government has
already recognized Peru as the legitimate ownera <^
this territory.

Pliny's axiom, f^'ihii enim anjue ffralum t»t adeptis,
tptam eoneupixmtibiu, does not spply to Lands ; for the
more oouatries have the mcve they want, and the mere
sense of possession, even though it be valueless from
an economic point of view, seems to afford satis&ctiou.
As I have observed, however, this is a dispute which
nHmna the loss, or the acquisition, of a territory un-
usually rich in timber, rubber, and mining possibilities,
and which any country would r^ard with feelings of
envy.

Several British officers have been supplied to the
Peruvian Oovemment, at the request of the Minister
in Loodou, for the purpose of carrying out tho de-
maroatioos of the newly accepted frontiers of Bolivia
wad Pent. The party formed con si sted of Colonel
J. Wuudtoffe, it£. (who bos bad previous ttx-

20 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

perience of Ixmndary - surveying in East Africa),
Captain H. S. Toppin, Lieutenant M. R. Naiison, and
Lieutenant C. G. Moores. They left England early
in January last, and they expect to be absent on
this mission for at least three years. Both Captain
Toppin and Lieut. Nanson are Fellows of the Royal
Geographical Society, and hold its diplomas for sur-
veying. Colonels Fawcett and Woodroffe joined forces
at Juliaca (Peru) last May, and proceeded via Tira-
pata to the Inambari and Madre de Dios Rivera,
where the Hurvey of the boundaries conimenced.

Not to be undone in the matter of expeditions,
and recognizing that since " the mountain will not
go to Mahommed, Mahommed must go to the
mountain," some North Americans have organized a
little undertaking to explore Peru on their own
account. One, Professor Hiram Bingham, was to
have left the U.S.A. on June 10 last, and to be ateent
until December next, donig " archjeological, geographi-
cal, and historical exploration." What the party
expected to accomplish of a practical character in six
short months, including the time spent upon the
journey there and back, it is difficult to imagine.

There have been several women travellers, writers,
and explorers, who have exploited Peru as a happy
hunting-ground from time to time, and some, I am
sorry to say, have left anything but a pleasant memory
or an enviable reputation behind them. There has
been one notorious female, of alleged American
nationality, who continually rode alx)ut the Republic
in man's attire, and whose general conduct created
no small amount of scandal wherever she bent her
footsteps. An intolerable nuisance to her all-unwilling
hosts and a disgrace to her own sex, this woman will
be readily recognized from this description among
those who had the misfortune to know her.

^gog

WOMEN THAVELLERS «

On the other hand, there have been several promi-
nent and weU-recommended ladies who have travelled
extensively in Peru, and who have astonished the
natives by their extraordinary powers of endurance
and physical pluck. Mrs. Uarie Kobinaon Wright,
who has written a considerable number of handsomely
produced volumes upon the Latin-American States,
will be remembered ; and her book on " Old and New
Peru " will have made her many warm friends in that
Ilepublic.

Another American lady who has left behind her
many pleasant memories is Mrs. Harriet Chalmers
Adams, the very handsome and accomplished wife of
Mr. Franklin Adams, Chief Clerk of the Pan-American
Union, and Editor of that excellent publication, "The
International Union of American Republics Bvdlettn."

Mrs. Adams, who has spent three years in the Latin-
American Republics, and has travelled 40,000 miles
therein, also visited Peru, and travelled it from end to
end. She not only made the usual and often very
fatiguing pilgrimages to Cuzco, Arequipa, Titicaca, and
other places, but she undertook a horseback trip, in
the oonipany of her husband, extending over 1,000
milee across the Andes, passing the height of 17,000
feet among the eternal snows. This intrepid young
lady then followed the down mountain-trail into the
savage and almost unknown montatia country, and at
the end of the road journey passed many days and
nights in a small and cramped canoe, and often
trudged through the dense forests on foot. Mrs.
Adams relates how, on these travels, she encountered
the wild Indians known as the Chunchos, as well as
numerous 6erce beasts, strange birds, and innumerable
deadly insects ; certainly, for a woman delicately and
luxuriously bred, her experiences may be deemed
almost, if not quite, uniquei

Digitized byGOOgle

99 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

In the meantime, the Peruvian Government is en-
couraging native explorers, several reliable partiee
having of late months started for the interior, assisted
by the authorities. Among them is Captain Juan
Manuel Ontaneda, Chief of the Hydrographic Office in
Lima, who is commissioned to make a comprehenBive
study of the geography of the Department of Loreta,
to trace the course of its rivers, and prepare for con-
sultation and reference the necessary maps and plans
relating thereto. Captain Ontaneda is being assisted
by Captain Carlos F. Garcia Kosele, and First-
Lieutenant Manuel A. Sotil, all three of whom are
practical experts.

As soon as the expedition has completed its labours,
and which are expected to occupy a considerable
amount of time, a full and detailed report will be
made to the Government, which will publish it for
distribution, the idea being to assist private persons
and public organizations who are interested in the de-
velopment of the very fertile and promising section
of Peru, wbo can thus avail themselves, and benefit
indirectly the country itself, of the bountiful resources
of this region. This is true and legitimate enterprise
upon the part of a Government, and sets an excellent
example to others.

CHAPTER III

rrMlilenI Anruta B. Lenlft— Dr. Oeniuui Lagnf* ; MkrtliiM— Dr.
EugBtilo Lvmburo j Ubuiiu — Dr. Julio Enriqna Ego-Agnlrr« —
Dr. Enriqna G. Baaadra — SeAor Doa Enriqoa OTansuran— Dr.
Edmando N. da Habieb — Don Carloa 0. (Vdamo— Dr. CMloa
lArrabnra j Corraa— Safior Edoardo Lembeka — Farurlan Lagation
io Loodon— BriUab Hinirtcr to Pam— UnlWd SUtoa Hioiater and
Conmlj — Britiah Conml-Qananl at T.tifia.

Ma!<y of the reigning Presidents of Latia-American
States are capable linguists, most of them speaking
French and some few English. The two Chief
Magistrates who shine most conspicuously in this
direction are the President of Peru, Seizor Don
Augusto B. Legufa, and the President of Costa Rica.
SeAor Dr. Ricardo Jimenez. The former might very
well pass for an Englishman, so admirably does he
express himself in our language and so free from accent
is his pronunciation.

Sei\or Don Augusto B. Legufa was bom at Lam>
biiye<{ue in 1863, so that he is still a comparatively
young man. His early education was conducted at
Val{>araiBo (Chile), and upon completing this he
came tiack to Uma, where he entered one of the
leading native commercial establishments. Although
obtaining speedy promotion, young Legufa resigned
his post in order to enlist as a private soldier during
the war bt^tween Peru and Chile ; and he then dis-
tinguished hioiself grvatly, and especially at the
memorable battle of Mirafloree.

Peace being proclaimed, the young soldier devoted
himself once again to mercantile pursuits, becoming
33

Digitized byGOOgle

21 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

special agent, and later General Manager, of the New
York Life Assurance Company in Peru, Ecuador,
and Bolivia. Later, the Company withdrew from this
part of South America, when Sefior Legula started
the now well-known office La Sud Aradrica, which
his great administrative ability soon established as a
popular and prosperous institution,

A short while afterwards there waa organized
another important enterprise, the British Sugar Co.,
Limited, which owned an extremely large area of
territory in the Cafiete and Nepafia valleys, estates
which have been pronounced to rank among the most
important and the most skilfully managed in Peru.
Senor Leguia remained as General Manager of this
Company up to the time that he was elected to the
Presidential Chair in September, 1908 ; and the same
ability which he had displayed in organizing and
controlling these and other great industrial under-
takings has served him in his more responsible position
as Chief Magistrate of the Republic.

Five years previously Sefior Legula had practically
commenced his political career. In 1903 his gi'eat
genius for finance had attracted the attention of
President Candamo, and, after much persuasion, he
served him as his Minister of Finance. How well
founded was the President's belief in his new adviser,
and how shrewdly he had gauged his ability was
speedily proved ; for from the time that the new
Minister took over the control of the finances of the
State they commenced to improve, and they have
consistently advanced since. In another part of this
volume, in speaking of the financial conditions of
the Republic, I have referred more fully to the
prominent part which Sefior Auguato B. Legula has
played in their reformation.

What the famous JoaiS Yves Limantour was to

[SBSOK Don A«..i;*to B. I.eihIa.]

DiailizodbyGOOgle

and '
I Gour

THV. TRESENT AND LATE MFNISTRY 27

From there he went to Ecuador, From his early
youth. Dr. Leguia y Martinez has been known as
a clever and vigorous writer, his contributions to
didactic literature being celebrated, indeed, beyond the
confines of his own country. He is a man of powerful
intellect, quJet and unobtrusive disposition, possessed
of great tact, and, in fact, he is as good an example
of a. cultured Latin- American diplomat as one can hope
to meet with. Dr. Leguia y Martinez's sympathetic
attitude towards foreigners and foreign enterprises, as
well as his courtly and dignified manner, render him a
distinct acquisition to a Cabinet already rich in cultured
and talented men. He is still on the sunny side of fifty.

Dr. Eugenio Larrabure y Unanue, first Vice-Presi-
dent of the Republic, is not only possessed of great
literary and scientific attainments, but he has travelled
considerably, his most recent visit to Europe having
taken place in December of last year. Dr. Larrabure
y Unanue represented his country as Special Ambas-
sador at Buenoe Aires, during the Centenary Cele-
brations of last year ; he has had many valuable oppor-
tunities of studying different countries and peoples,
of which he has always made the greatest use.

Dr. Julio Enrique Ego-Aguirre, ex-Ministro de
Fomento {Minister of Promotion), was born in 1862,
and waa considered one of the most brilliant students

Guadalupe College. Later on, he studied jurispru-

ice at Sail Carlos, and in 1885 he graduated as

lly qualified lawyer. The annals of the Peruvian

lurts contain no more remarkable records than that
of this clever young barrister's spirited and vigoi-oua
defence of the famous criminal Machiavelli, an oration
which is said to have both astonished and delighted his
auditors, and which succeeded in establishing an imme-
diat-e reputation for its author. Up to that time no
one ill Peru had heaid, nor had luiagined, a defence

IS (

PERU OF THE TA\T,NTIETH CENTITRY

Tweed upon the assumed irresponetbility of the accused ;
but since then the theme haa frequently been pleaded,
and is now cited as a common defence in all countries.
'he theories of Lombroso had then, however, made but
ittle stir, and certain it is that young Ego-Aguirre
lad not these, nor indeed any other theories, in his
mind at the time. In fact, he himself created a new
teaching, one which has since found general endorse-
ment and adoption. It may be added, that so powerful
was his defence of MachiavelH, that although the
criminal was actually convicted and condemned to
leath, the sentence was subsequently revoked.

For some years Dr. Ego-Aguirre resided in Oruro
and La Paz, in both of which places he distinguished
himself. In 1885 he went to Iquitos, where he
remained for a considerable time, having filled several
responsible positions in the administration of that city.
In 1907 he was elected Senator for the Department of
Loreto, which he continued to represent until his
ippointment to the Ministry of Promotion. He has a
and intimate acquaintance with the commercial
and industrial progress of other countries — European
and American alike ; and his broad sympathies with
foreigners generally have made him extremely popular
th residents in Peru. Under his directorship, the
inistry of Fomento has encouraged and promoted
many very valuable and useful undertakings, not the
least of which is the comprehensive library of works
dealing with the resources of the country and the
numerous opportunities which exist for adding to and
exploiting them. Dr. Julio Enrique Ego-Aguirre
is considered one of the most distinguished and
vanced men of his day, for whom further national
lonours are undoubtedly in reserve. He has recently
in paying a lengthy visit to Paris for the purpose of
eatablisbing in that Capital an Information Bureau in

THE I'KESENT AND LATE MrNISTHV 29

connection with the commercial and industrial progress
of Peru.

Dr. Enrique C. Baaadre, ex-Minister of Government,
was born in Tacna, in 1847. His education com-
menced in the English school of Valparaiso, Chile, and
waa continued at the National College of Guadaluiie,
Lima, fi-ora which he graduated to enter the National
College of Medicine, taking hia degree as physician and
Burgeon in 1873. The next four years were spent in
post-graduate work in Europe.

Dr. Basadre ranks among the foremost physicians In
Peru, and is known principally in connection with the
founding, in conjunction with Drs. Ganoza and Morales,
of the Bret institute of electrotherapy, and in relation
to his notable army and navy hospital work. As a

I student at the Medical College, he volunteered for

^^Hrrice and fought with such good eflect at the battle
^^H Dos de Mayo that he was specially mentioned
^^H^i^P^^^^ ^y Colonel Inclan, who was in command.
^^^B the commencement of the Pacific War he offered his
^^^Bvicee gratuitously, and was appointed physician of
^^tne frigate huieptiidencui. being, according to the
record, the last man to leave her decks when she was
destroyed at the battle of Punta Gruesa.

Upon his return to Lima after this disaster,

Dr. Basadre gave his serv'ices during the Callao bom-

bai-dment. Later, he took charge of a ward at the

Hospital of San Bartolom^, where he bad the good

I fortune to attend Dr. Cavero, President of the

■^tttauvian Cabiutjt, who was wounded at the battle of

^^^■nflores. Dr. Baaadre not only saved hia com-

P^PSbriot's life, but, in spite of contrary professional

' opinions at the time, be refused to amputate the left

onn which was ii^jured, and of which Dr. Cavero has

^^A^aod excelleat u§e to this day.

^^^HJpou tho Chtltau occupation, Dr. Basadre resigned

30 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

from the hospital, refufltng to work under the orders of
the enemy's surgeons. Dr. Basadre is a prominent
member of various commercial organizations, and also
the Government representative on the directorate of
the National Steamship Company. He is extremely
active in the Pro-Marine Association and in other
patriotic movements.

An ex-Minieter of Justice, Culture, and Education
is Dr. Antonio Flores, whose late administration of
this Department of Grovernment was attended with
the happiest results. At no time in the history of
the country has education been at a more advanced
stage than at present, and, as will be seen in Chap-
ter Yin., which is devoted to the consideration of
this section of the Government's work, the progress
effected is in every way gratifying and encouraging.
Dr. Antonio Flores is himself a man of considerable
attainments and of great culture, in every way quali-
fied to control a branch which, to use the words of
Horace Mann, in his famous " Lectures upon Educa-
tion," alone can "conduct us to that enjoyment
which is at once best in quality and in6nite in
quantity."

General JosA R. Pizarro, who bears a name famous
in Spanish military history, was until recently Minister
of War and Marine. He is a soldier of brilliant
record, and possessing a thorough knowledge of mili-
tary and naval matters, acquired both at home and
abroad. Both branches of the national defence have
of late years received careful and systematic atten-
tion at the hands of the Government, and this &ct
is freely explained in Chapter IV., which is devoted
to the description of the Army and Navy of the
Bepublic of Peru as they are found to-day. General
Job6 R Pizarro effected much to eonsohdate the good
work introduced by his predecessors in office. He was

Digitized byGOOgle

THE PRESENT AND LATE MINISTRY 91

a strict, but a kindly, disciplinarian, and he was as
much esteemed by the rank and file as be was liked
by his officers and appreciated by the Executive.

Seflor Don Elnrique Oyanguren, ex - Minister of
Finance and Commerce in the late Cabinet, brought to
this high and important post a wide experience in affairs
of State and commerce generally. His career may
be said to have commenced in 1883 as amanuensis
in the Department of Justice, where he successively
filled various positions, eventually becoming Director-
General While thus engaged, he had occasion to act
in connection with many important cases. This Depart-
ment, which has under its charge all public instruo-
tiou, is distinguished by the ability of its several officers,
and Se&or Oyanguren served as Visitor-General in this
l»«nch, and prepared the first statistical treatise on
education in Peru. In 1895, after declining the
appointment of Consul at Panama, he was made
Consul 'General at Valparaiso, where he remained
until IDOl. In that year he was entrusted with more
than one important and delicate commission in con-
nection with the provinces of Tacna and Arica, and in
relation to the military 8er\*ice of Peruvians resident in
Tarapactl, in carrying out which he achieved signal
success.

Iteeuming his consular office in Chile, he remained
in Vali>arai8o until 11)08, being then named Chai;g^
d'Affaires at Santiago. In 1909 he was appointed
Minister I'leniiwteutiary of Peru in Ecuador, a post
which he judged it prudent to decline, in view of the
attitude which lie had been compelled to adopt as
Churgi^ d'AffaireH, anil [Mirticularly his formal protest
to SfAor Agustin Edwards, then Minister of Foreign
adiiirs, and now the Chilian Minister at tlie Court of
St. James's, against the attempt to "Chilenixe" the
Peruvian Proviuoes of Tacua and Arica, and in oou-

DigmzcdbyGoOgle

32 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

sideration of the open incitement of Ecuador by Chile in
the attempt to make trouble for Peru.

Returning to Peru after renouncing the Ecuadorian
Mission, Seiior Oyanguren became Superintendent of
Customs, where he has had the opportunity of display-
ing the business abihty which had been acquired during
his diplomatic training. In many positions of trust
which he has held under and in the Government,
Senor Oyanguren has been most diligent to the
interests of Peru, and has proved himself a man of
great discretion and a generally competent judge.

That highly important Department known among
the Latin-American GJovemments as " Fomento " —
Promotion, as we should call it in our inadequate
and inexpressive language — has, besides a Minister, a
permanent Director. A distinguished occupant of
this post is Dr. Edmundo N. de Habich, a young
but very brilliant man, now in his thirtieth year.
Dr. Habich, who was born at Lima in 1882, was
educated at the University of San Marcos, the oldest
educational establishment in America, and he took
practically every learned degree which could be held,
until in 1903 be entered upon his subsequently dis-
tinguished diplomatic career. Like several other
Government officials, he selected the legal profession,
and soon, after qualifying, he was appointed Secretary
to the Minister of Fomento, and the same year to
the Superior Board of Health. In 1903 he was the
chief organizer of the Section of Agriculture and
Immigration, the year following becoming a member
of, and Secretary to, the Commission of Weights and
Measures, and subsequently special commissioner of
the Depai'tment in lea, Huancayo, Jauja, and Cerro
de Pasco. In 1907 he was promoted to be Director
of Fomento ad interim, being confirmed subsequently
in the post. His services here have been recognized

^m DR. C. LARaABURE V CY}RREA 3S

^Kextremely raluaUe, aad ondoabtedly they are both
^^^ ardaoos and rMponuble. As time goes od they
^Bl, uo doubt, become iiioreasiagly so ; but Dr.
^Hluch has already evuioed so much capability, and
^■0 dvnionKtmUKl fio concliusivcly hix HUimu for the
^^■ition which h<> holds, timt thure can be no question
nf his bein^ enabled to grapple with and to Batisfy
the dumands which will bo made upon him.

The appointment of Dr. Carlos Larraburo y Correa

to thv position of Chief of the Infurmalion Bureau in

Parts, uatablished early this year ( 1 'J 1 1 ), lias proved

^BJiappy Bulectioii. Ur. I.,arr&bur» y (^rrea bad been

^Hfe Acting MiaiflttT uf Promotion ("Fotnento") at

^Bana for some time, duriug the abseooe abroiul of

^H*. Matto, and be is himself a mau of wealth and

^BoeUeot &mily. He was born iu 1676. und at an

^Briy ag(> went to Spain, wheru biii fnthvr, who is at

^Be prespnt time First Vioe-I'rtvident of the Kepublic

Bpr Peru, was diplomntic representative. I>r. l^Arrabure

•tndiud at the College oftiuadAloupe. and later entered

the UniTorsity of Lima, taking the courses of Admiuis-

^Tjfttion, Political Science, and Jurisprudence, and ^fradu-

^■Dg in 1899, and in Political Saenoe in 1900. He

^HH entered tbe Government servioe in 1901 ■•

oeoreiary of the Ministry of FomenUx serving until

1903. AAerwards he became Chief of tbe Boundary

IJmita Sectifxn of tbe Ministry of Foreign Aflairs, and

Dinjctor of thi* MinisteHo of Fomento, which had I

founded hy his father. Dr. Lanabure is Profes

Political Kcounmy in the National School of Agnonl-l

ture, and he is the author of a great number

valuable publications — uotAbty a work, in eighteen''

volomes, upon tbe "Department of Loreto." He is

alao a member of the IJnin f ifngraphical Society, of

tbe Lims Atbeoeum, of tbe HisLortcul Institute uf

Peru, and tbe Wubington Geographical Society.

31 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The Republic of Peru is represented in Great
Britain by a Minister (who is resident in Paris), two
Secretaries, an Attache, a Charge d' Affaires and Consul-
General, a Coneul at Liverpool, and one each appointed
to Southampton and Glasgow.

Don Carlos y Candamo, the Minister, who is a
member of the famQy of a former President of Peru,
is but rarely seen in England, but he is a well-
known and eminently popular resident of the gay
city.

The resident representative of the Republic in
London is Senor Don Eduardo Lembcke, Charge
d' Affaires and Consul-General. The Legation is at
104, Victoria Street, S.W. Senor Don Lembcke is
a highly cultured and accomplished man, well vereed
in diplomatic matters, and both speaking and writing
English with great fluency and accuracy. Senor
Lembcke creates an immediately favourable and
sympathetic impression with all who have business
with the Legation, and his ability in dealing with the
complicated questions which not infrequently arise,
show him to be a thorough man of the world.

The Secretaries are Senor Don R. E. Lembcke and
Senor Don E. Leguia, the latter a younger brother of
the President of the Republic, and both being young
men of great charm of manner and distinction.

Senor Don Bernardino Codesido is the Consul at
Liverpool, Senor Carlos G. Est^enos at Southampton,
and Sefior Don M. D. Derteano at Glasgow.

The Legation and the Consular offices are usually
kept well informed in regard to commercial matters,
and since the establishment of the new Government
Information Bureau in Paris (to organize which the
ex-Minister of Fomento, Sefior Don Julio Enrique Ego-
Aguirre, stayed for some months in France), it is
possible to obtain comparatively recent statistics and

POHEIGN DIl'mMATS So

reports ooDcerDJiig the uidustriiil and comnit^rcial pro-
gnm of ibe couutry. This new ofHce will be of great
bonitfit to foreign tnulent in Eun)[H< genorally, and it
u to he hopiirl that. lat«r ou. thu Govorntnenl of thu
Republic may be induced U* open a branch in I^ondon
or Iaver|>ool, or even in both cities, the commercial
reUtious between the two countries thoroughly
warranting such an enterprise. (iSt-e Apj>cnduc.)

The Cuited States Minister Plenipotentiary to Pern
is Mr. Uern-y Clay Howai-d, Envoy Extraordinary.
He BUCceetliM) Mr. I^ie Combs on April '^4, i'^\\,
and is occupying the same building as the Legation—
Quinta IJeeren. .American interests are rapidly
augmenting in this Republic, and they will rvach
cousidcntble imjmrtauce so soon as the Panatna Canal
opens in Jiuuary, 1915.

The British Minister is Mr. Charles liouis des Graz,
the l>>gation being at Pasiki Colon, No. 346. He is
al>(>ut fifty>tw<> yeiire of age, having been bom in
March, I SCO. Educated at Uarrow, be took his B.A. J
at Trinity College, Cambriilge. In 1884 he wul
uominntixl Attachi}, and the same year he paoiKd a m
oompotitivo examination, when be was sunt to Con- 1
stautinoplo. Mr. des Gnir lias served at Athens, the n
Hague, St. Petersburg, Teheran, Rome, Celtinj^,
Bolivia, Ecuador, and linally Peru. He speaks
Russian, Persian, Turkish, and Spautsh quite fluently,
aod be is one of the most amiable and popular
diplomats who have come to Lima — a great impnive-

ut, indeed, upon bis prudeoeSBor, who displayed aa i
unding propetisity for rubbing people, and especialljrfl

kials, the wrong way. n

On the whole, the British Government has sent
thoroughly represnitativo men to Peru, the following
'aviug boon Hinisten nnoe 1850: In 1652 Sir

ward Harris, who, Uku his luaoessor, wu, uutil

. Cfrooa

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1906, also Consul-General ; in 1853 Mr. S. H. Sullivan,
who was aBsassinated in August, 1857 ; in 1857 Hon.
William G. S. Jerningham, and who served until 1872 ;
in 1874 Sir C. E. Mansfield ; in 1894 Captain H. M.
Jones, V.C. ; in 1898 Mr. William N. Beauclerk, who
served until March, 1908, when he died at his post.
He was raised from Minister Resident and Consul-
General to Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
potentiary, the post of Consul-General being made a
separate appointment.

Both the British and the United States are ex-
ceptionally well represented in the Consular Service, a
fact well worth recording, in view of the generally
unsatisfactory nature of our consular representatives
throughout Latin-America, a matter which has at-
tracted very serious attention, and upon which I have
commented at length during the past twenty years
and more.

Mr. Lucien Joseph Jerome, F.R.G.S., is the British
Consul-General at Lima, and has had a distin -
guished and useful career. Born in March, 1870, he
was at first employed in the Consulate at Nice, which
position he occupied from 1890 to 1897. He was then
placed in charge of the Vice-Consulate at Monaco, where
he remained but three months (July to October, 1897),
when he was removed to a similar position at Havana,
Cuba. He served as Acting Consul-General there from
July 6, 1898, to March 27, 1899, and during the
troublous times between the United States and Spain
Mr. Jerome was placed in charge of American interests
in Cuba, and continued to represent these during the
whole term of the American -Spanish War. So ad-
mirably did he perform his duties, that he was sub-
sequently made the recipient of the warm oflBcial
nks — conveyed in the form of an extremely graceful
—from the United States Government. Mr,

CONSULS 87

Jerome lefl an altogether excelleut Itnpreasion among
ihn large Ameiicnu population at Havana.

Pn>inot4Kl to hv Britisli Consul for the UiiittKl States
of Mexico (the States of Vera Cniz, YucatJiu, Cam-
peche, and Tabonoo excepted), Mr. Jerome left to reside
iti Mexico City in February, I8d!t. He was also
Acting CoittulUeneral of Port-au-Prioce (Haiti) from
August, 190.S, to January, 1906. A new CommiBsion
was issued to Mr. Jerome as Consul for the United
States of Mexico in January, 1906. The following
year, however (1907), he was promoted to be Consul-
Geoeiml fur Great Britain in Peru, and he was put
in (diarge of the Legation at Lima from March to
November, 1908.

Those manufacturers and trudera who would seek
inspiration from our Consular tradi* re{>orta must
•WDetimes aak themselves why so much divergence
of plain and easily aacortainahle Guts ahoald occur
in these usually meagre and IVequently misleading
pamphlets. In connection with Peru, for instance, we
eve the British CodsuI at Lima, in 1903, sending home
a piece of information which is flatly contradicted by
his sucoeasor in 1907. The extracts read as follvws :

CoiurLAM Rktoxt or Mr. L. J.
Jeiohi, No. 4,074, roa nti
TiAi 1007.
"Tba demand for bunga-
lowi doM not miat. . . .

" Oriaioly nowlwr* nro
hoosai cxttutmeted of ohaaper
matarial. . . ."

CoxtcrLAs RsKtar bt Us. St.

Jon, No. 8,683, Mt ras

Yau 1905.

"There nay be aoosMr or

lalar aa upeoiag (or iron bun-

galows and ottwr bnildin^ uf

varioos dMoriptioni. . . .

"BaUding in the chi*(
ooaat twwiuis«zp«wrB. . . ."

LVben these critics of foreign trade do by chance
w, it may be asmuned that thuir " unanimity is
iderfiil."

WUUaai Ueory Robertson, the United States

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Consul-Greneral at Callao, Js a son of a former Con-
federate General, and was educated in hia native
State of Virginia and in Charleston, South Carolina.
He entered the Consular Service when quite a young
man, hia fii-st foreign post being Hamburg, Germany.
After four and a half years there he was superseded
upon a change of political parties in the United
States, and it was not until 1900 that he found
another post. Meanwhile, he had travelled about
Europe and South America, and as a reward pre-
sumably for his services, lie was appointed by the
Republican President McKinley to a Canadian Con-
sulate, Rather a " rolling stone," however, Mr.
Robertson again left the Service to embark upon a
commercial career in New York. Tiring of this, he
entered upon an examination under the r6g[me of
Mr. Roosevelt, and finding encouragement as soon as
the Consular service was put upon a permanent basis,
he was appointed to Gothenburg, Sweden, where he
remained for one year. He was then promoted to
Tangier, in Morocco, continuing there until transferred
to Callao, Peru.

The United States Government consider that Peru
is well worth looking after from a trading point of
view. Both in New York and in the principal ports
of the Republic an exceptionally competent staff, con-
sisting of a Consul and a Vice-Consul, have been em-
ployed upon the business.

The Peruvian Consul- General at New York is Sefior
Don Eduardo Higginson, who was born at Callao,
in March, 1862, and educated at the University at
Lima. Although possessing an Anglican name, he
is a true Peruvian, and served in the war between
Chile and Peru from 1879 to 1881, attaining the
rank of Lieutenant in the National Guard. Senor
Higginson is not unknown in England, having been

CNITEI) STATES CONSULAH SEUVICF.

I'Oeucnil, ChaoouUor, Vioe-Cousul, iiud sub-
iquently Consul, at LomJon, Liverjiool, and South-
Upton. When here, he vras very saccessful In
treating interest in, and sympathy towards, Peru,
hftvini; oontributad many striking articles rt'lativo
to that country. As an instanou of Sellor Htgginsou's
Ot^rpriae, it is worthy of mention that he sent out to
; collection uf no fewer than 20,000 different
uniercial catalogues, iu order to stimulatti trade with
feurope. as well as publishing, at his own expeiwe,
dtatributiug some ten years ago, about 40,000
ipie> of a large coIgutimI tnap of Peru, bearing on
reverse complete iuformatioti of a practical
«ter in English, G(>rman, Dutch, and Swedish.
Pcniviaii Consular Offices in New York are in
! Exchange Buildings, 25, Brood Street.
, The Uiiitod Stated Government has so completely
,keoed to the importanoe of i(s Consular Ser^'ioe
mt it now de«pst«be8 ita reprtwentativtw ujron tht- ir
way with the same amount of ceremonial
DtioD that it bestows upon some of its fullv
lited Minist«^ Thus, when Mr. Charles C.
irrhardtt od« o( 6vd Consuls- at -Largo of the United
lattis of Ainerica, visited Pi>ru in the month of
October, I!) 10, be was brought to Callao in a U.S.
cruiser, the y'orlioim, and his arrival was greet4Mi
with a Biilute of ten guns. This almost re^al recoff-
~ ijiiou of a consular appointment compare* i
irith the furtive and secret manner in which
ritish Consuls sneak into their poets, such,
utce, Ml the arrival at Anttifagasta, Clitle, of
Godfrey Hewett, the British C>>nsut. who came
iom Pernambuco, and was sIIowimI to land mthout
pe singlt' Eiiglishinaii or Englishwoman out of tlte
Dtire ainHtdunible British Colony going down to
•vt him.

tovermnent — Departments — Provinces — Dialricta — Exocntive power —
Population— Judicial BdminiBt ration — Jurisdiction of Courta— Con-
grew — Minislera' portfolios — Local government — Departmental
Boards— Navy— Strength in 1911— Army— Strength in 1911— French
Military Mission ^ Armaments — Peruvian aoldiere — Full fighting
slreugtb.

The Republic of Peru is divided politically into
twenty-two different Divisions, known as " Depart-
ments," ea^h of which has its own local government
and its separate capital. They are differentiated
between by the appellations of "Department" and
"Littoral Prnvince," and these are subdivided into 101
minor provinces, which, yet again, are split up Into
districts. The Departments are under the control of
Prefects, who receive their instructions from, and
are subservient to, the Secretary of the Interior ;
the Provinces are controlled by Sub-Prefects and
the Districts by Governors.

The following are the Departments :

Amazonas, Ancachs, Apurimac, Arequipa, Ayacucho,
Cajaniarca, Cuzco, Callao, Huancavellca, Iluanuco,
lea, Junin, Lanibayeque, La Libertad, Lima, Loi-eto,
Moquegua, San Martin, Piuia, Tacna, Puno, and
Tumbes.

Of these the two Littoral Pmvinces are Moquegua
and Tumbes.

For purposes of readier reference, I give, opposite
the names of the different capitals, the smaller
provinces, and the districts, as well as the superficial

DEPAHTMENTS

, K J i . =• a| sis 1-5 fig
I ' I a .-I -s ii =x I I sSs at

sg" 8 5^" g" s" s'8"ss|S| I'sssss s ■"" s
li »■* s is' S s" ass"s'=!S 3Esi*s S- s

i lilfliijktlijlJ.^

DiailizodbyGOOgle

PERU or THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

area iu kilometres, with the estiraatetl population. In
regard to these, however, it is necessary to add that
no census has been taken in Peru since 1904, statistics
being furnished by the Lima Geographical Society,
and not being official. For all practical purposes, the
total population of the Republic may to-day be taken
at 4,600,000 — a figure which I believe to be below,
rather than above, the mark, especially if the Japanese
and Chinese immigrants are taken into considera-
tion.

In 1896 (ten years after the last census had been
taken) the Lima Geographical Society estimated the
total population of the Republic at 4,609.999, although
the previous census had placed it at only 2,657,853.
Of these inhabitants, it has been estimated that
57 per cent, are aborigines, 23 per cent, of mixed
blood— white and Indian or negro and Indian — the
remaining 20 per cent, being descendants of the
Spaniards, some 6,000 or 7,000 Europeans, 15,000
Chinese, and 900 Japanese. The Chinese are gradu-
ally dying out, the immigi-ation being now entirely
forbidden by the law of May 14,1909. (See Appendix.)
Up till now no really precise account has been kept
of the movement of population, but with the increased
attention which is being devoted to such matters
by the officials in Government employment, reliable
statistics and accurate reports may be obtainable
hereafter.

The administration of the law in Peru is in the
hands of a Supreme Court, which sits in Lima, and
nine Superior Courts, which have jurisdiction within
certain prescribed limits. For more facile reference,
I give the names of the various cities where these
Courts have their headquarters as well as of the
places within their particular jurisdictions :

.Google

COURTS AND JUSTICE

RMMtfllMWlMnUM

Huns The wholo of the Depulmest of Aneaolu.

Aj«qnip« The Department of that nune, the Littonl

Frovmce of Uoqnega*, uid the Provuieea

of Tmm Mid TuBta.
Aywoebo TheDeMrtmrulof that nune, that of Hatu-

eaTelioa, the ProTiDoe of Andahnaihw in

the Department of Aporimae.
Cttjamarca The Department of that name, and the

Department* of Amazona* and Loreto.
C«iM Tha Department of that name and the

Department of Aporimae except the Prov-

Inee of Andahuauaa.
LAlib«rt:>d The Department of 'that name and the

DepMtment of Lamhaveque.
Lima The Department of that name, the Depart-

menta of lea and Junin, the conetitntlonal

Province of Callao, and the Department

of Ho&nDCO.

Piura In the Department of that name eolelr.

Pono In the Department of that name lolely.

Up till tho war with Chile a Court sut at Taciia, but
since then it haa been suspended, all judicial matters
being transferred for decision to the Court sitting at
Arequipa. The Provinces, with but few exceptions,
have minor courts, where Judges of the First Instance
sit, as well as Justices of the Peace.

In civil cases which relate to sums of money not
exceeding 160 nc/^ (^16) i" value, and in minor
criminal cases, the Judges of the Primary Court have
jurisdiction. The Supreme Court is a court of appeal
also, and revises the decisions of the courts below, tho
decisions in this cose being final. It also hears claims
against the Government, and its delilffirations and
judgments are conducted with much decorum, and are
usually sound in law. The legal rights of foreigners
are strictly conserved. According to thf 132nd
Article of the Constitution, "The law of the land
protects e4|ually all persons, and the civil rights of
individuals are granted, invsjiective of station or
nationality." (See A]i|>endix.)

The Uovernment of the Itepublic is democratic and
repruseutativo, and is carried on under the Con-

Digitized byGOOgle

PERU or THE TWENTIETH CENTUKY

stitution of 1860. which is the last of eight different
Constitutions which have from time to time beea
promulgated. The Legislative, the Executive, and the
Judicial are the three maiu branches iuto which the
Administration is divided, and all three are carried on
independently of one another. Neither hereditary
nor prescriptive rights are recognized. Congress
alone Is privileged to impose taxes, while all public
servants, even those occupying the highest offices
under the Government, are amenable to the Courts.
The Coustitutioii grants freedom of the press,
immunity from arrest except upon direct order of
a Judge, the inviolability of all private correspondence,
the freedom of trade and industry, the sanctity of the
home, the right of assembly, and the privilege of
petition.

The Executive consists of a President, who is elected
for a period of four years by the general vote of the
nation ; two Vice-Presidents and six Secretaries of
State, or Ministei-s, each having charge of the fol-
lowing portfolios : Home Department, State Depart-
ment, Department of War and Marine, Depart-
ment of Finance and Commerce, Department of
Justice, Department of Public Works, and Fomento
(Promotion).

This last office is one which is found in aJl the
Latin-American States, and its equivalent is difficult
to define, because it really does not exist in any other
countries. Its object is to "promote" enterprise and
to encourage undertakings likely to be of some
advantage to the nation ; and the Government usually
construe the definition very liberally, extending a
helping band to, and supporting financially, many
schemes — as often as not the ventures of foreigners —
which may attract their approval and merit their
assistance.

' Power consists of two Houses,
he Senate and Deputies. Tim
f of repreeoutatives who are elected
r the Dwpftrtmanta, each returning from one to four
lembers, in proportion to the number of Provinces of
hicb it ooasistA. The Deputies are composed of
pneentatives sent up from ejich of the Provinces,
Tor each 15.000 to .30,000 iuhabitautfi. Both
I arf< elected for a period of six yearn. The
erobers must, however, be Peruvian -born, and, in
der to be eligible, must be over tweDty-tive years
Senators must have attained thirty-6ve

The local Government of the Republic is par*
ticularly well distributed, being in the hands uf
Municipal and Departmental Boards. The Municipal
Bovda oonsist of meml^ers elected by popular vote,
and are known as Provincial Councils and District
Oounols. The first-named serve tbo Provinces, and
the aecond the Districts. With the exci^ption of
educational maticra and control of the police, these
eils have a very free hand, and, as a general rule,
Hj oany out their functions both intelligently and
tly. All such ofUces are filled without remonera-
while the revenues are derived partly from
Butiici pat -owned property or enterprises, but [Hrin-
Uly from local taxes, known as arhitrioa. To
npose these, however, the sanction of the Executive
loTerament is necessary. The Provincial Councils
t as a kind of healthy check upon the proceedings
of the District Councils, and possess thu right of
rerising their decisions. And they very ol\en ito su.

Finally, there are the Departmeotal Boards, whose
dotiea consist in attending to pablio works, the
enetioo of bridgw, the eooatnetioa and maintenanee
of pablie roads, assiatiog at the oooduot of eduoatioo,

.Qui

|46 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUllY

and distributing charities. They can also revise and
overrule the acts of the Provincial Couucils.

During the disastrous Pacific War of 1879 to 1884,

when peace with Chile was proclaimed, and which has

since been kept, although sometimes with difficulty,

I the Peruvian Navy was completely destroyed. With

I the gradual revival of tiuaucial prosperity, the

I Government of the country has devoted its attention

I and as much of its revenues as could be safely spared,

I to a reconstruction of this maritime defence, and year

I ^y year sees introduced an addition here and a perfec-

Ition there. The Navy proper is composed of three

twin-cruisers, which hear the names of some of the

many heroes of the unfortunate war referred to,

such as Alndrante Grau, Coronet Bolot/ncsi, etc., and

three transports, etc., the whole number of vessels

, amounting to about fourteen. At the end of the

I current yeai- (1911) the Republic will have five

I auxiliaries to her naval power in the event of war,

I as the vessels of the Peruvian Steamship Co., all of

I the type of the Ucmjali, are now being subsidized as

I auxiliary ci-ulsers by the Peruvian Government,

I In regard to equipment, the Peruvian Navy is now

being gradually and effectively provided with all the

latest scientific inventions of value. For instance, a

complete wireless telegraphy outfit, devised and jier-

fected by Seiior Don Guillermo Wiese, of Callao, has

[ been installed on the cruiser Lima. The vessel is thus

' enabled to communicate with others carrying wireless

installations within a 100-mile radius. Professionals

are on the alert as to the outcome of Seiior Wiese 's

invention, which, according to those who have seen it

I in operation, is perfect and reliable in every way.

I The Government's decision to equip the Lima with

I his system should in a great measure serve as an

I eccouragemeut to the inventor, Seiior Wiese, who has

|iMl^=lMll2llH

S « go

" 1 3 1-1

I Is

si' £=

i» .11

u«n*<i

i is

i
I

El
if

,db, Google

■^ imssiot
^^fe Captaii

48 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

spent several years in studying and perfecting it.
During the visit of the United States battleship fleet
in 1909, the inventor, with the incomplete elements
of which he then disposed, established a wireless
Btatlon, and successfully communicated with several of
the vessels.

Historians have declared that had the ancient
Peruvians been a more warlike race the Spaniai-ds
would probably never have become so completely their
conquerors. Certain it is that the Incas established
so complete a peace throughout the land, and, by a
mai'vellous system of true socialistic government,
supplie^l the people with all their material wants,
that they lost the art of war, and this benevolent
despotism unmanned them.

That their descendents of to-day, however, have
regained whatever fighting propensity they may have
lost is proved by the heroism displayed by the Peruviana
during the last war with Chile, as well as during the
many previous struggles with Spain and among them-
selves. In all probability the Peruvian soldier of to-
day is the toughest, as he is unquestionably the most
amenable and malleable fighting, material In the New
World.

In the year 1896 the whole of thePeruvlan Army under-
went complete reorganization, the Government having,
under the newly-elected President Nicolas de Pierola,
enjoyed the services of a number of distinguished French
officers, known as the French Military Mission, to
carry out the reforms. This Mission consists of: The
Lieutenant-Colonel, who is the Head of the Mission ;
2 Cavalry Captains ; 2 Infantry Captains ; 2 Artillery
Captains ; 1 Engineer Corps Captain ; 1 Veterinary ;
I Farrier; 2 Gymnastic Instructors. The Head of the
Mission ranks in Peru as a Brigadier- General, the
Captains racking as Lieutenant-Colonels and the

, GoO'

ARMY 49

Ueutenants u Hajon, as does also the Vct«riimry.
No spetnal nwk is nvardeU to tiw Gyntnastio In-
fltniotora.

Every duferenoe U |inid to the Heiul of tho Htssioti,
his advice Wiiig solicited — aiid, what is more, prac-
tically always CoUowed — in mattura coniit.>cted with
instruction and thu organization of the Army. He
is Buhject, however, to the orders of the War De-
partnienL Ona of the Captains is in charge of
the MUitary Hi^^h School, while another acts in a
capttcity at thu Military- Academy at ChoriUos; the
similar either officers act ob Inspectors of Musketry.
The oflBoers wear French utiirorm, with the insignia
oorrespondmg with their rank in the Peruvian
Army.

According to the Army List of 1905, the Peruvian
Amy consisted of the following :

Qtntnlk oa tht Mtn Um

The rank and file are composed of the following :
Artiliety. — One r^uieut of mounted artillery, with
three gTt>u|Mi of three batterico, aud 500 men with a
detachment of n further ilH man at Lu«to.

Infantry. — Seven hnttalions, each consisting of four
companies ; a seetim of the line is for staff service, and
a detachment of SO men in the mountain section of

CUKCO.

A uxilitry Corfu. — General Army CommisMrtat,
Ordnance Store, Military Health Deportment,
Snpnme Military and Naval Council

^ Gjosle

50 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Armaments. — The infantry are armed with Mauser
riSes of 78 mm. calibre ; the cavalry and the mouDtain
artillery with the carbine of the same model; the
artillery with field batteries of the latest type of
Schneider- Canet make.

The new military law of December 27, 189G, seems
to have been a very drastic and complete ordinance,
entirely remodelling the rules of serving and also the
length of service. Up to that time there had been
no conscription in Peru, the fighting force of the
country being formed by recruiting almost entirely
from among the aborigines. The officers were obtained
by drawing from among the students of the old
Military Academy.

To-day, the standing army is formed of both
volunteers and conscripts. These latter are recruited
from each Department impartially, all boys of nineteen
years being eligible. They serve four years in the
artillery and cavalry, and three yeai's in the infantry.
Evasion of immediate military service can he arranged
by payment of 500 sols (£50). by securing immunity
from drawing lots ; the successful evader then passes to
what is known as the supernumerary list. To escape
immunity entirely is impossible. By a payment to
Government of 1,000 sols (£100), the young men who
would rather not join the regular army are placed in
the first reserve, the supernumeraries forming thus a
tangible and useful dei-nier ressort in the event of a
long and exhausting war.

The first reserve consists of ex-soldiers, up to thirty
years of age, and married men and the students from
the Universities or Technical Schools between nineteen
and thirty years of age. The second reserve is formed
of men between thirty and thirty-five years of age.
In conjunction, these two reserves are Departmentalized,
in each political division there being a battalion of

cyt^OO^Ie

ARMY 61

Bappera consisting of 448 men; in eleven of them,
cavalry squadrona of 169 men ; while Lima musters a
corps of each arm, the artillery being a mounted
section consisting of 650 men.

The National Guard is composed of men from thirty-
five to fifty years of age. In the event of casualties
occurring in the re^'ukr and permanent army, replace-
ments are drawn fii-stly from the volunteers, secondly
irom reserves, and thirdly from the conscripts.
Although Peru has a population of over 4,000,000,
every year provides 40,000 youths — or 10 per cent, of
the population — of nineteen years of age and upwards.
All these are subject to draw lots, but only about
1,500 or 1,600 are actually drawn.

Peni is divided into four military districts, which
are subdivided again into eleven conscription areas,
comprising the twenty-two pohtical Departments. The
capitals or headquarters of these districts are :
Northern, Piura ; Central, Lima ; Southern, Arequipa ;
Eastern, Iquitos.

The General Staff was further reorganized in 1904,
and is now placed upon the same footing with, and
analogous to, the staffs of all European Armies. The
Head, who is the Cliief of the French Military
Mission, has under him a Commander and an As-
sistant Commander, whose commands are subdivided
as follows : Organization and Instruction ; Tactical
and Statistical Studies ; Technical Studies ; Topo-
graphical and Geographical Studies,

To all who have seen the Peruvian soldier on the
march and in the field of manoeuvres, it must be
apparent that the instruction carried out by the
French Military Mission, under Colonel Clement and
other distinguished French officers, had been of the
utmost value to the country. Just as the naval
instructors from England transformed the navy of

Coid

52 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Chile into an admirably efficient arm, so has the
thorough training undertaken by the French officers
raised Peru to the position of one of the most
powerful fighting forces in South America. The
average peon does not, at first, afford the idea of
becoming a very promising addition to an organized
army. But in actual experience he makes an excellent
piece of fighting material. He is absolutely faithful to
his officers ; he is docile, amenable, contented with
little — and sometimes with nothing — to eat ; he is
accustomed to sleeping anywhere and anyhow ; he
can climb up mountains like a cat and slide down
precipices like a deer ; he does not know what phy-
sical fatigue means ; in the bivouac, on the march, or
in battle, he is always the same — perfectly serious,
wholly unemotional, and he fights like a man who
knows neither fear of death nor any scruple in dealing
it. Bravery and endurance are so conmion among the
Peruvians that they would not understand any praise
for possessing these virtues, nor could they compre-
hend any lack of them among the men of other
nationalities.

The first President of Peru who attempted to re-
organize the Army and Navy was neither a military
nor a naval man, but, on the contraiy, a stern opponent
of military dominance in the government of the
country. Seiior Manuel Pardo, who became Con-
stitutional President in 1872. established as a pre-
lirainaiy step the schools for Corporals and Sergeants,
as well as that for Midshipmen of the Navy ; the
School of Science and Art; the School of Engineera ;
the Faculty of Administrative and Political Economy,
and he reformed the Military and Naval Academies.
Unfortunately, from the very beginning of his
rdgirae, Pardo was confronted by the lack of money
and the practical banki-uptcy of the country (see

I zici.Goo^le

Chapter VI.). President Nicolas de Pierola added
some artillery barracks in 1897. The total mobiliza-
tion force of the Army is certainly nothing less than
24,000 men, quite apart from either the reserves or
the territorials.

The President (Don Augusto R L^ut'a), in his
speech to Congress delivereid at Uma on July 29,
1911, concluded as follows:

" I intend to continue acquiring war material.
Peru's policy will always be peaceful. Peru will
ofiund none, l>ut will not permit anyone to offend
her with impunity. I feel sure that my policy will
dissipate all clouds on the horizon. I hope a year
hence to transfer the presidency under conditions
of peace and order which will prove that Peru bos
advanced to full RepuUican stability."

Digitized byGOOgle

CHAPTER V

GoTcrnment (continued) — Samiaiy organization — Medieal Board of
Health — Marine Sanitary Service --Iiima Board— Isolation at porta
— Telephonea— TelegraphB — ImproTementa effected— 'Wireless station
— Postal services — InoTease in mail-matter — Femvian and Britiah
racthode contiaated^The carriage of newspapers and other publioa-
tione — Aviation enoonraftement.

With commendable good sense, the Government of
the Republic — no doubt inspired and encjouraged by
the excellent results which had attended the sanitary
purification of the once pestilential Panamd — have
devoted much time and more money to introducing a
very comprehensive and complete sanitary organiza-
tion throughout the country, and especially in the
Capital. The Republic, as a whole, is free from many
of the terrible tropical diseases which are prevalent
in these latitudes. Yellow fever, sleeping sickness,
and leprosy are almost unknown, and in any case
they have seldom attained any great headway among
the people. Other diseases are, perhaps, no worse
in their frequency nor more disastrous in their con-
sequences than those in any European country.

In 1903, signs of bubonic plague were observed, and
this was the first time that any appearance of the
much-dreaded disease had occurred. Immediately it
was detected a sanitary service was organized, and
a Board of Public Health was instituted. The most
competent and experienced among medical and scien-
tific men were invited to join it, and did so. The
disease was attacked promptly and scientifically, with

Digitized byGOOgle

SANITARY SERVICE U

lie result that not only was it preveDtcd from
ipreading, hot was soon oompleloly baoisbed. It
> not minoe recaired, except in one or two isolated
imported caseB.

AithoUKb far from attaining that completeness of
efficiency which will, no doubt, be achieved in course
^ time, the Medical Board of Health has proceeded
; and, in addition, there has been formed a Superior
lUnoil of Hygiene, composed of several celebrated
1 of seienoe, and notal^ members of the Faculty of
dioine and the National Academy.
Then iheiv is the Marine Sanitary Service, which lb
divided into three principal centres — one at Callao, the
principal port of the Republic ; one at Paita, a
northern port of only second importance ; and the
third at Ila Upon arriving at any of these ports
ships are subjected to a very careful and tliorougb
examination, no doubt n littl» Irksome to the oiHcere
and the piUMeng«m, but absolutely necessary under the
drcumatanoes. Each centre hag a properly qnalifitKl
medical staff, and only the most modem of equipment
is used for disinfecting the vessels. Other Ptnuvian
ports maintain medical officers, who are instructed to
keep a watchful eye upon all incoming vessels and to
make periodical rvports to one of the three principal
oentns. For the regular lines of coasting-vossals
caUing at Peruvian ports, tliere exists a special ssrvice
of sanitary inspectors, who continually travel up and
down the const on the ships, and maintJUn a keen
utlook for any sign of infection on board. The
iovemment reserves the right to detain and disinfect
ir ship if it is found to be neosasary.

iting to note that Peru was one of the

I oountrios which signed the Washing-

1 tor Intematiunal Sanitary Control, and

the Ooveniment regulations are in acoordonce with

PEHU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

I the rules and regulatious laid down by that Conven-
[ tion.

So far as the interior arrangements for sanitary
control are concerned, the cities and towns have their
own local bodies, which are composed of municipal
oiBcials under the supervision of the local medical
officere of each Province, who, on the other hand,
receive direct instructions from the Lima Board of
Health.

Isolation stations are established in Lima as well

as in other principal towns, where patients are re-

I ceived who may be detained upon their arrival from

I infected ports. Lima has also constructed a special

hospital for smallpox cases, a disease which at one

time was very frequently met with, but now is almost

exterminated. The National Institute for Vaccination,

in conjunction with the Local Vaccination Board, have

done much excellent work in the direction of eradi-

Ciiting this horrible disease.

b The telephone system has been installed throughout

I Peru ; but here, as elsewhere in South America {Buenos

Aires, Santiago de Chile, and Valparaiso excepted),

the system leaves something to be desired. Poor as it

is, however, in some parts of the Republic, I think

it less hopeless than the National and Post Office

[ systems of England — anything more aggravating or

I more inefficient than these one could hardly find in

I any big city the world over.

I The telephones in Lima are iu the hands of a
Company, which has a vast network of wires to
neighbouring towns and hamlets to deal with, and
numerous — mostly dissatisfied — subscribera. The main
cities, such as Arequipa, Cuzco, Trujillo, Piura,
Cajamarca, Cerro de Pasco, Huduuco, and lea, have
. theii' own systems. The total distance covered by the
■rfcelephone wires for public use in the whole Republic

TELEPHONES AND WIRELESS 57

1 2, OOO kilometreB, besidee the n amentus
ate installmtions.

Smaller CompAaies have been from time to time
formed — there being no pernicious monopoly in Pern
aa there is in "free" Elngland — along the coast, and
a fairlj complete instftllation now spreads from north
to south. For instance, a local Company eetabliahcd
in Los Andes has direct communication with another
at Pacumayo, and with yet another so far as Caja-
marca — a distance of 19G kiloint-tros. While, as 1
have said, it is o|>en to anyone and everj-onu to install
the telephone in Peru, the inspection and control of
ovitrb(»d wires repoan in the hands of the Government ;
that is to say, they are under the management of the
Pont and Telegraph Department By general consent
it is admitted that at no tmie within the economic

itflf}' of the country have these two services
bed a higher degree of efficiency than daring the
of tlie Leguia (Jovemment. Having had much
to avail myself of both, I fully endorse this
expressioD of ooramendation. ThemaiiypuUie servants
employed— both male and female — are noted for their
extreme politeoeas and aitentivetieas. How much
might some of our haughty and Impertinent officials
learn from them I

Wireless telegraphy, the apparatus for which has now
boun fitted to the Peniviao Navy vessels, was first intro-
duoed into Peru in oonnoction with an agreement with a
German Company— Telefunken • Gesellacbafl — which
erected experimental statkms at various pointa, and cn-
oooraged by the sttcoeis achieved Id some directions,
the Govenuneat determined to adopt the radiographic
■errioe, to operate in the extensive sone of the Amasonio
[>elta, a region which emboMses an area exceeding 200
kilooetras — namely, from Puerto Bermudec, on the
Biver Piefaii; to Mscisea, on the River Uoayali. Those

I uni ail'

I it is ad

^■Ustor>-
^■ptabed
^^«gimei

OOCHIOQ

,Gogi

58 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

were the earliest experiments which had been made
with radiography across a territory so completely
covered with dense tropical vegetation.

Ordinary telegraph wires erected in these regions
are not only subject to deterioration and ruin by the
damp atmosphere, which In any case has a very bad
effect upon them, but they are not infrequently
destroyed by falling trees or completely covered up
in their extraordinarily rapid and vigorous growths.

The first stations for the wireless Installations con-
sisted of three towers, each being 45 metres in height
(about 147 feet). The system was next extended
to Iquitos by means of intermediary stations ; and
subsequently to the montana.

It is interesting to recall that some years ago BrazU
attempted, but without success, to establish wireless
telegraphy through the dense forest i-eglons, and
which resulted only in a repetition of the failure
made by the Belgians in the Congo. While I was
in Rio de Janeiro last March (1911), the Minister of
Posts and Telegraphs kindly explained to me the
whole matter of installing wireless telegraphy through-
out the Republic, and mentioned incidentally that
SIgnor Marconi was very anxious to obtain the con-
tract, but his prices were so " unreasonably high " that
the Government had decided to pass by his tender,
and probably would award it to the De Forrest Wire-
less Telegi-aph Company Instead.

A new installation, including the erection of an
80-metre tower, is to be established on San Cristobal
Hill, which rises above the city of Lima to a
height of over 1,300 feet, and therefore admirably
suited to a wireless service. It is the intention of the
Government to use apparatus of sufficient power to
enable direct communication with Iquitos, which is
separated by a distance of 700 miles. If this should

Xooolt

TELEGRAPHS 59

pfOTO impracticable, on nccount of the great height of
the Andeau rauges, the lowest point of which is
15,000 feet, an intermtnliate station will be equipped,
and will doubtless prove effective.

Peru has seldom been far behind the rest of the
vorid, and very often in advance of it, in introducing
new inventions for public use. As we shall see later
00« it was tbe first of the South American countries
to build a steam tramway, as it was the flrst to intro-
Aaea tbe Telefunken system of wireless telegraphy.
The Republic may also lay claim to having erected
OOe of the earliest electric telegraph lines — iu 1864 —
Hba-i from Lima to Callao, separated only by a distance
of wven miles, it is true, but a fi«at in those days,
ooDndering that the electric telegraph had only been
niTeated and brought into use in Kurope {liondon)
in 1837. To-day there are over 5,500 kilometres of ,
Oovemment linos — the State took over the admiuia-
tration of the telegraphs in 1875 — while another 1,000
kUometns remain in the hands of private parties by
mrrangMnent with the State. In 1910 a further 696
kUometras were built, as against but 4.V2 in 1909.

Tbe admiuistratioii of the t^legniphs is divided up
into fUflferent lunes, each of which is under the sur-
Tmllaace of an Inspector, and all of whom are
responsible to, and controlled by, the Cieneral
Direction of the Senrioe at Lima. Altogether there
are some twenty-tbreu central offices, "31 local offioee,
twenty inspection districts, snd 10,288 kilometras of
line in operation. A staff of not fewer than 350
petBOUS is employed. The Government owns all the
with tbe exoeptiou of the rmilway telegraphs,
~ eae ore also available for public use.

rates charged to the public are not by any

I exoesiivfl, being 40 cents (about lOd.) for a

I up to ten vrords, inoloding tbe address and

_£oo2le

60 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Bignature, and 4 cents extra for every additional word.
Special press-rates are enjoyed, newspapers being
granted a reduction of 75 per cent, from the usual
charges. The telegraph system of the Republic joins
on to the lines of Ecuador and Bolivia, which, in their
turn, are worked in connection with those of Colombia,
the Argentine Republic, and Chile. With the rest of
the world cable communication is maintained by means
of the West Coast of America Telegraph Company and
the Central and South American Telegraph Company.

In conjunction with the other West Coast
countries (Colombia and Chile), Peru is linked on
to the European systems at St. Vincent, while the
Central and South American Company has also cables
from Noi'th America to Valparaiso, via Coldn (Panamd,),
or Vera Cruz and Salina Cruz (both in Mexico).

All those who have lived in Latin-American coun-
tries, and especially in Brazil, have experienced the
difference which a good and a bad postal service can
mean to pleasant and profitable residence ; and
whether he be merely a transient visitor, dependent
perhaps upon the mails for his future guidance, or
a permanent resident, who relies upon it to conduct
his business transactions, the regular and dependable
dispatch and distribution of the mails are of the
greatest importance.

In Peru no branch of the Peravian public service
has been more radically reformed than this, and
to-day the Postal Department is found to be among
the most efficient of any in the Republic. Not only
is correspondence faithfully and speedily delivered,
but it is absolutely, and at all times, safe from
pillering or suppression, which is seldom, I fear, found
to be the case in some of the smaller States, such as
those of Honduras, Nicaragua, and in at least one of
the larger — namely, that of Brazil.

CJoo'

POSTAL REVENUES

I extensive a territory as that of Peru, the
of a thoroaglily efHcient postal servioe
i matter retjuiring mucii care, patience, and
bat it lias be«u effected, aud the results are
lily satisiactory. Pace has boen kupt with the
I incn-use in the trade and population of the
ntry, and thiH expansion au^ents day by day.
^Although, by a special recitation of the Guvern-
he receipts of the Post Office do not God
1 in the General Revenue, in practice they are
nl to meet all the ordinary expenses, while for
the past five or ax yean they have yielded a con-
sideraUe surplus. For some time previously the
~ nvian OoremiiHmt had been iu debt to the Postal
lion in regard to its oontributioD ; but so well have
I afiaiis of the native postal arraogemeDts been
ndled of late that every ctntavo formerly in arrears
has long ago been deand off The steadily risiug
inoonw derived from the sole of stamps, fees on parcels,
extra postage upou oorrespondeoce, and commission
upon money-ordeni, dow enables the Post Office to
deal fiilly and without hesitation with all matters
of expenditure coming within its department.

From 1900 to 1^05 the total revenoe from these
different sources increased from £32.250 to £58,276,
ur an im[nx)vi!ment of £20,026. When we remember
that in 1S08 the whole revenue scarcely exceeded
£26,000, we aee that in some seven years the income
frMu these receipts has more than doubled. The total
increase of mail-matter carried within this period
(dating from 1M)1 to 1905 only) was over 7.850,000
itoms. For the past year (1910) a further substantial
inerasae has to be recorded, and the Govenmient has
bean abundantly rewarded by the results attending
itwtreased authorixed outlay upon the Postal

62 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Since July, 1910, more attention has been devoted
to issuing postal statistics, aod the department
charged with this work is now both well organized
and well maintained.

The administrative service is divided into different
districts, or " Prioclpal Post Officer," the most remote
being at Pala, in the north, and close to the frontier
of Ecuador. The most distant in the south are
Desaguadero and Sama, upon the frontiers of Bolivia
and Chile. In the east there is a principal post office
situated at Iquitos. There are now twenty-four prin-
cipal offices in all, while fifteen years ago there were
but seven for the whole of the Republic. Foreign
money-orders can be obtained for any of the European
countries, the United States of America, and prac-
tically for all of the Latin-American States.

The Head Post Office building in Lima is a mag-
nificent and ornamental structure of pure white stone,
with massive bronze railings to the windows, and
surmounted by imposing bronze statues. It is open
to the public day and night and every day of the
year, Sundays included. The clerks employed are
male and female, and the public are treated with the
utmost courtesy and consideration.

The Parcels Post organization in Lima {the central
office for all such Items) is particularly efficient, the
least possible trouble being given to those who either
Bend or receive parcels ; far different, indeed, to either
Rio de Janeiro or Buenos Aires, where dispatchers
or recipients of foreign parcels are regarded by the
officials almost in the light of criminals, and are
treated with about as much courtesy or consideration.

A great improvement In the Peruvian service was
effected by the establishment of the principal office
at Iquitos. It is now possible to conduct all business
from that office direct with foreign countriea, whereas

i^.OOQ,

AVUTION 68

fbrmerlj nvui^thiug had to pass, for the purposes of
Custoaui examiniition, thmtigh Limn.

The Government, with the increased revenue, has
oonstitently reduced the rates for posta^ and has not
sought to make the Postal Service a means of large
profit Such has been for many yoars the policy with
thu British Goverumunt. Another lihenJ and sensihle
principle — uni> which it would be illusive to BDp[>ose
our arobaio pontal authorities would ever adopt — is
to carry all new8)Mi[)er8, whether ]>olitical, sciontitio,
commercial, or literary, free of charge witliiii any
purtioii of the Republic. I believe that the same
regulations are adoptMl in Australia, Canada, nnd the
United States, the Government thus increasing i
utility of the press and nffbrding at the :
a valuahle impetus to local trade. So far from carryic _
trade publications frve iu Great Britain, our onlight«ned«
Goverameot actually penalizes the owners hy mskiugj
them pay at higher rates thou those clutrged upoD
ordinary oewspapers, and enforcing harsh and un-
reasonable restrictions as to the exact proportions
of readiug-nuitter uud advertising-matter, the hizm and
number of th<t supplements, et<:. — in a word, rendering
as difficult niid as onemus us possible the conducting
of a trade |>uhlioition, in contrast to the ben
and discriminating ]K>licy of Peru.

As may well he believed, the Govemment ^
not allow the study of aviation to lock support, mors
especially since the atteuttou of the wbdo worid was
but a year ago drawn tu the heroic Jorge Chaves-
Dortnell, the Pt.'ruvian uirmati, who was the tirst human
being tu cross the Alps on a 6ying- machine. The
Govummeut, ut the time of this young aviator's dnith,
■uhsorihed Xt.OOO towards the cost uf a monument,
which has just bueu erected at Lima, to hts memory ;
and now it has given its patronage to a Nationol'l

64 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

School of Aviation, the first establishment of ita kind
in South America.

The School has recently been opened at Lima, the
Director being Seiior Juan Bielovucich, and his assistant
Seizor Henri ChaiUey. The attendance is limited to
twelve pupils, and of these the Government is paying
the tuition of eight. The tuition-fee is X180, and the
pupils will be held responsible for all damage done by
them to the apparatus. The machines in use at
present are Yoisin biplanes, imported from France,
and equipped with Gnome motors.

There already exists one notable airman's club, the

' Peruvian Pro-Aviation League, which was organized

in the month of September, 1910. The President is

General Pedro E. Mufiiz. Societies have since been

organized at Lima, Callao, and other cities.

izcdbyGoOgle

CHAPTER VI

thi
I bei

lUt

hoi

inco — Loans and their history — Period of prosperity (oHowed by
severe restriction— Ertravaganoe of former QovernmentB — Guano
revenues — Restoration of Peruvian credit — Recent borrowings^
Arran^ments with British creditors — Peruvian Corporation —
UunJoipal loans —Tax -collecting Agency- -~Be venue and espeDditure
— Custoiue receipts — Foreign commerce— Budget for 1911-12.

Peru, in regard to itH national finances, has not
escaped the troubles and complications which have
been coramon to all the Latin-American States — and
most of the European — in their evolution of progress ;
but it differs from them in this respect — viz., it has
had to face most of its difficult economic problems as
a consequence of the several changes of administration
which came about during the early years of its in-
dependence. A special voltnne might be written upon
the development of the finances of Peru ; and it
becomes a matter of some difficulty to compress
ithin a single chapter anything like a comprehen-
Ive review of the country's past financial conditions.
The first loan raised by the young Republic was
for the sum of XI, 200,000 at 6 per cent,
interest. So little confidence did the English Issuing
house have in the financial stability of the young
country that they insisted upon deducting three
years' interest — that is to say, the sum of ^216,000 —
while, of the balance, less than one-half was handed
over in cash, the remainder being in the form of
lunitiona of wai* — quite the usual practices of the
As may be believed, this amount did not

,Gc>a<

66 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

last very long ; aud three 3'ear8 afterwards — namely.
1825 — a second loan was contracted in London, also
at G per cent, interest, and this time for the sum of
il, 500,000 ; but it was impossible to place more than
£716,516.

At this early period, then, Peru found itself in debt
to the extent of £2,700,000, plus £1,300,000 due to
Chile and Colombia, for the assistance they had
rendered during the War of Independence, or, a total
indebtedness of £4,000,000, representing considerably
over a capital of .£1 for every man, woman, and child
in the country. No mention is made here of the Home
Debt, which had also accumulated to a considerable
amount, but which was left unliquidated, and was
eventually permitted to die out naturally.

At this time (1825) the Government revenues con-
sisted of various taxes, of which the principal was the
tribute levied upon the natives, and which took the
place of the tax which had previously been levied
upon the Indians by Spain. Although estimated at
$2,000,000 • (£400,000), barely more than 75 per cent,
of this tax could bo collected, and such amount as was
rt^nlizwl, /ihis the Custom House dues, barely reached
the $2,000,000 hoped for. The total value of the
country's production did not exceed $11,000,000, nor
itfl exports much more than $8,000,000.

Shortly afterwai'ds (1830) a reorganization of the
country's tinances was attempted witli but poor results,
and Peru found itself unable to attend to the service
of its Foreign Debt, which still reached, including capital
witli accrued interest, £2,310,767, after making allow-
ance for the email amount which had already been
rt'imid. The country's Home Debt at the same time
amounted to nearly $18,000,000 (£3,600,000), so that,
in all, the public indebtedness amounted to £5,670,767-

• Tho Poruvifto doUw (or tol) haa been Mtimatea M worth 4s. —i.e.,
|6-£1. To-day, I eidi!m6c = 24a. w 10 eo/»=jEl.

FINANCES

Wow alow was the march of improvement in the
ontry's finances is seen from the fact thnt ten years
*r (18U)), the total amount of the puhlic revenii

not exceed $3,000,000, notwithstanding the i
at those of the Custom Uotise had more thl
luhled ; for it was from this time forward that the
duct and thu sales of ^uauo coumieQced to fi^uni
I a principal factor in the Government revenues, i

1 with this phase of Peru's industry in a separt
iApt«r.

At about this time (1840) a new loan was coutrad
Loitdoti for £3,736,400, which was to supen
1 eaucel tho two loans of 1822 and 1825. Owill|
I 6nancial improvement brought atx)Ut by the
I of tho guano sales, the country soon oom-
fco shake itself (me from its most pressing
lanoial troubles. The whole internal debt was
quidatod, l>eing consolidated in bonds bearing 3 per
ot interest

In 1850 wo find that the Public Debt of Peru was
) up as follows : —

UooM Dsbt, coiuollilktod in bonih U i p«v •

omit. bit«t«»l ... ^. ... &,tnfiOO

Farilttn IM>|

DetrtUChilo

gIMii

Tout

Now oommencod a period of recklem extravagance
lavish outlay, which, in spite of the industrial
I^WBalth which the country was pn>diicing, soon plunged
it oooe again iut^i Bnaiicial trouble. How much the
guano sales meant to the oouutry i» seen from the
(act that, for the tirat time in the financial history
of any independent State in tho world, Peru was able
_ to conduct tlie whole of its Crovenunvnt without
arse to privato taxation. Blinded by the visions
fuidimilod wealth ojieniDg U-fore it, the Govemmeut

mojMAjun

68 TEUU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

of that day failed lamentably to organize its finances
upon a sound and definite basis, but, on the other
hand, continued to borrow, heedless of consequences
and at usurious rates of interest. By 1860, the
annual expenditure exceeded $20,000,000 (^4,000,000),
a sum which amounted to more than double that had
been expended during the first years of independence.
At this period the revenue outside the guano sales
did not exceed $4,000,000 (£800,000), of which the
sale of stamp-paper contributed $500,000 (£100,000),
and Custom House dues $3,500,000 (.£700,000).

At length arose a wise man in Israel, who, foreseeing
the disaster which must inevitably occur to the country
fiom the financial imbroglio in which it was involved,
he — namely, Seflor Don Manuel Pardo, then Minister of
Finance— determined, as a preliminary measure, upon
forming upon a monetary system a conversion of the
debased Bolivian coins (which were then circulating in
Peru at par, although of a lower standard), and pro-
hibiting for the future the importation of any foreign
money which should not rank as " standard." In
order to carry out this programme, it was necessary
that the outstanding debt should be consolidated,
and the old foreign debts of Peru — the Anglo-
Peruvian, the Deferred Stocli, the so-called Urri-
barren Debt, and the Arica and Tacna Railway
Debt.

Once again the Government came to London to
borrow, and in 1862 contracted for a loan of
ig5, 500,000 at 4^ per cent, interest and 8 per cent,
annual amortization. The issue price was 93 per
cent. The security offered was the general guarantee
of all the Government revenues, including the product
of the sales of guano in the United Kingdom and
Bel^um. After the conversion of the old loans bad
been effected, the Government found itself in pos-

PUBI.ir LOANS

fiO

■ion of £2.400,000, of which About £l,OOD,000
irling wu reiDittod to Lima in the form of gold-
■UnL

Although the oxchiuige of the Bolivtati money to

that of Peru had Ikwd effected with ailvantage, and

as a ooaaeqacDoe the finances of the country had been

placed upon a somewhat bett«^ basis, troubles still

^watinned ; for while the expenditure bad reached

1,000,000 aob, the revenues only amounted to

(.000,000 Molt, leaving a deficit of 8,000,000 soU.

came more trouble in the form of a short

costly war with Spain, which country had

1 the Chincba Islands, these l>eing the principal

guano deposits, and oonseqnently the source uf Peru's

main financial revennea The Spanish War necvosi^

tattid a furtb«' loan being raisud, and fur the third

time within a few years Peru came to London to

borrow another £10,000,000 at 5 per cent, inttfrest

and 5 jter cent, amortization. Tb« new loan was

iuteoded to be a oonversion of the old fori'lgn

debts ; but only £7,000,000 of it were actually plnced.

this amount, after deducting all fxpenfies tind

■prting th») al»o%'«-mentione«l debt*, am) the [>ay-

tit of sundry urgent amounts due in Europe, there

lained £l,.100,0i>0 for the use of Peru.

, Political troiiblos lu the country broke out in 18^7,

, new ci>nstitutianal n'-gimo being

) new broom swept no cleaner than

I continued to spend recklessly and

sly. In IBi'.'j II further small loan fur

placed in Ixjudou nt 7t [ler cenL,

t at 5 per cent., fur the construction of

I Pisoo-Ioa railway. This was followed by another

Me in 1670, for the considerably incmased amount

£i:!,000.000 at (i per cent., iasued at 82^ |vr cenL

\ net amount reouired by the Ciovemmeut in this

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

case was £10,500,000. Two years afterwards (in
1872) a further loan for .€15,000,000 sterling at
5 per cent, was raised, the country by this time
having to find about £1,470,000 annually to pay
the interest on these varioua foreign debts.

Still UDsatisBed, the Government decided upon yet
further borrowing, and attempted to place a fresh loan
for £23,215,000. This eftbrt, however, ended in
disaster ; for whereas it was believed that it could
be placed at 77^ per cent., the actual price obtained
did not exceed " 6436 per cent.," so that out of the
whole sum of £23,215,000 relied upon, the Govern-
ment received no more than £13,000,000. The out-
standing foreign debt ofPeru at this time (1872) stood
at £35,000,000, requiring an annua! interest and
amortization of no lees than £2,700,000. This was
the precious legacy left by the well-meaning, but
financially disastrous, Giovernment of President Balta ;
and it now needed something like a financial genius
to arise and unravel the complicated muddle which
had been left behind.

The burden of setting right the finances of
the country was taken up energetically by the
new President, Senor Manuel Pardo, who found
a terrible state of aflUirs confi-onting him. The
annual expenditure had now reached nearly 21,875,000
sols (of 40d. ), while the entire receipts did not
exceed 8,677,000 wis, 6,000,000 sols of which were
derived from the Customs Houses. Over 31,000,000 sols
were due to the Government by Customs Houses,
which sum had never been paid during the days
of financial and political stress; while the Government
was indebted to dltFerent constructors of railways and
other public works for the sum of nearly 9,000,000
sols. The revenue from the guano deposits had fallen
to less tlian £2,000,000 sterling, while the service

FINANCIAL REFORMS 71

t different foreign loana required, as stated above,
tjfti!,700,000 uinimlly to uiuet the iiiUtrust.
"lent Ponlo ootumuiiced hid dmattc refonuatiou
f outting down the Budget, and «o effectually, that
deficit became reduced to 8.500.000 »oU He
Conned the tariff of the import duties ; be issued
r aa well as Home Debt bonds ; be estnbltsbed
^ Ctovcrnment monopoly on nitrate productii>n, and be
iQtroduc(?>d several other reforms. In spite of all these
fxpodieiits, however, the fiuances of the country con-
tinuwl to f^fo from bad to worse; and iti IS74 Peru
ibuud itself practically insolvent ami unjible to keep up
Jie Bervioo of ita fori-ign debts in Europe. Addwl to
! fiscal complicatiotui, however, the Oovemment had
litjunod loans at a heavy interest from some of
i local hanks, which, according to the laws in force
at that time, woro empowered to issue notes payable to
bearer at sigbt for three times the amount wluob tbey
held in actual cash in their treasory. With the diatrcas
> Government, the banks also came to grief ; and
wbote country was involved, more or lees, in
iietal adverwty. Finn aller firm collapsed, and boak
r bank closed ita doora. oidy a very few of the more
among tlie foreign bouaea ooiitinuitig to atand
liust tbu prenure.

In 1 B7*i th«i new Go%'eniment, under General Prado.
I had Buccetded SeAor Don Manuel Pardo, made
new arrangement with the banks, by virtue of
lich the latter granted the Govumraont a fresh loon
I enable it to meet some of its moat pruaaiug oUiga-
The State agreed to assume the whole reqiott-
bility for the banks' advances, the maximam of
was close upon 18,000,000 tuU. The Goi-em-
kbo took over the banks' unpaid paper, >o that it
9 converted into a Government Note.
Just when tbo country waa at length otnergiug

PEllU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

from its troubles occurred the war with Chile. As
history has shown, Fortune declared against Peru, and
at the end of the struggle with her revengeful neigh-
bour, a war which lasted from 1879 to 1883 or the
beginning of 1884, the Republic found itself despoiled
of the principal sources of its fiscal wealth. Both its
guano deposits and its nitrate-fields were confiscated,
and nothing remained in the way of assets except its
own 100,000,000 sols of paper money, which circulated
with difficulty at 10 per cent, of the face value.
Peru's foreign loans were quoted upon Europ?an
markets at sensational discounts, and the finances of
the country were now at about their lowest ebb.

The foreign debt being the most pressing, the
Government hit upon the expedient of cancelling the
large sums raised abroad, and which were nearly all
due to European bondholdei'S of the railways, by
handing over to them the whole of the railway lines
and other concessions, as well as making a substantial
annual payment. To deal with this large undertaking
a public body was formed, and It Is to-day known
as the Peruvian Corjwration, Limited.

By the very opportune adoption of the gold standard,
the Government now once again attracted the influx
of foreign capital Into the country, and from that time
forth it has continued to flow in considerable amounts.
From about this period (1885) also Peru baa not only
advanced materially in financial prosperity, but has
evinced so unmistakable a determination to regulate
her expenditure within reasonable limits, and so faith-
fully to maintain both her home and foreign obliga-
tions, that her financial position once more stands on a
par with that of any other Latin- American State.

This fact was proved by the facility with which in
1905 the Republic was able to raise a loan of £600,000
at 6 per cent, intereat and at 90 per cent., iaaued

PUBLIC DEBT 78

through the Gierman Transatlantic Bank, and which
has since been cancelled ; and still more recently —
namely. June, 1910. when £1,200,000 at 5^ per cent,
was floated in France, with the proceeds of which
the Republic paid off the bank's loan of £600,000
and the balance of another which had been receiving
from 6 per cent, to 8 per cent interest The French
loan will be amortized in twenty-eight and a half
yeare from December 11, 1909.

The foreign debt of the Republic stands to-day as
follows :

AnnniiiM to Uw F«niviui Corponlaon £80,000*

Fruwh Lo*D U 14 p« erat. l.SOO.OOO

£1,380.000

At the end of 1909 there had been an unofficial state-
ment current to the effect that a powerful French group
of financiers were about to effect a new loan for Peru,
the houses concerned being the Banque de Paris et
dts Pays-Biis, the Soci^ttS Gcnt^rale, and the Banque
Fnin<;ui8 pour le Commerce et ITodustrie. The first-
muiitiooed bank acted as intermediary in the settle-
ment of the difficulties between the Government and
its creditors in France over what is known as the
" Guano Affair," who claimed about 25,000,000 firanca
(i: 1,000,000). The Deutsche Bank at first competed
with the French banks for the loan, but drew out
on lM;ing guaninteed a share in the transaction. This
transaction would have had a twofold nature. In the
liret place, the French group would proceed to issue
a fii-st "lice of £ 1 ,200,000, bmring 5 per cent, interest,
di'Ktincd in {>art to liberate the salt monopoly, which
survt-d Its guarantee to the Peruvian loan of £600,000

* It U to b« obMrv*d that thb umtul mjumbI of £80,000 lo tli*
i'aniiian Corparslion wm WTUixed bj Um flovMniimnt of OwMfsl Cv*
MfM. BiiJ WM to eonliaua (or ih-njr jrtwa booi INS, w that Uw paj-
_... ■—« in 19118.

Digitized byGOOgle

74 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

issued by the Deutsche Bank. The balance of this
loan still uuredeemed amounted in 1910 to £450,000,
and there was a further debt to the Creusot 6rm
amounting to £300,000, both of which were to be paid
off out of the proceeds of the loan of £1,200,000.
Then the GuaDO affair was for settlement, which was
the principal object of the second loan.

Such a transaction would have a decided interest
for British holders of the Peruvian Six per Cent. Gold
Loan issued in 1906. The Government have had the
option of repaying this loan at par on sis months'
notice since the time of issue, and a confirmation of
its desire to get rid of it existed in the fact that an
extra drawing, outside the ordinary Sinking Fund
arrangement of 2 per cent, per annum, took place in
1908 to the extent of £32,350. At the commence-
ment of 1909 the amount outstanding was £524,450,
which has now been further reduced.

The ex-Minister of Finance and Commerce (Sefior
Enrique Oyanguren) had submitted to his colleagues
a very sound scheme for dealing with the Internal
Debt of the country. This amounts to a nominal sum
of £3,859,000, but its present market value is assessed
at £437,640.

There are two Internal Debt issues, authorized
respectively by the laws of June 12, 1889, and De-
cember 17, 1898. The first of these draws an annual
interest of 1 per cent. There remains yet a nominal
amount of £2,660,000, which at the present market
rate means an actual value of £359,100. The bonds
of the second draw no interest, but are amortized each
year by £25,000. The nominal value of these is
£1,190,000, which at the present market rate repre-
sents an actual value of £78,540.

In addition, there are the deficits of the years 1908,
1909, and 1910, respectively £126,000, £131,000, and

Digitized byGOOgle

nOME DEBT

ut £50,f>00. This latt4!r arooant of £50.000 is
leiri^ gradually paid off in accordance with thu law
nnceniing the hcjuidatioii of budgets. As to tbu
lelicit« of 1908 aud 1909, the Government will propose
I CoDgraM the iiegotJatiou of u tonu, and doubtlues
tey will he jmid in full before tlm expiraliou of the

lent year.
The total actual value of the ouUtanding Internal
~)ebt of Feni is :

Uw <d Jbm U, 1889 £ftM,I0O

Uw a< DmmbW 17, ins ... ... 70,640

DaSslU lMW-10 VnflOO

The ex-Mtoister proposed to make this up to a
nund luillton Bterting by issuing a further £362,800,
which an interest of 7 [>er cent, would be
The idea in, I urideratand, to adopt this as
> temjNiraiy neasura only, following it during the
; year with a 5 per cent Conversion loan, raised
illy. PenirtaDcredit now stands so high upon all
ngD markets that there will doubtless be some
npetitioD among hankers to place this new loan.

April (1911) the contract was sobmittod to

) Uuoioipal Council of Lima for a new bond-tasue

of £700,000, to be offered in £lOO

«mat of S^ pvf cent., ]>aynbte half

rtixniion Ijeing pro^'ided for. IwgiMuing

[ny 1, 1916, the bonds being retired on or before

lay I, 1950. The Bank of Feni and London would

i token, at 8t; per cent., an amount of £590,000 for

H>lvo8 and the London Kank of Mexico and Stmth

while the firm of W. R Grace and Company

ribv for £I10.(K)0 for themselves and

r Bonk of New York. The proposal.

i not carrii^ out ; but. as 1 write, it is

underatood that a loan of £OUO,OUO will be at no

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

distant date raised, and that it is likely to be offered
at 90 per cent., and bear interest at i> per cent. The
city of Lima is also to receive shortly the sum of
£100,000 in cash, which has been offered by the
Lima Water Company in consideration of the exten-
sion of theii- franchise for a further term of forty years.
It is highly probable that this offer will be accepted also.

The City of Lima Eight per Cent. Bonds, which were
issued to the amount of £300,000, in accordance with
a decree of October 8, 1903, offered a particularly
sound investment, in spite of the fact that the interest
(which is payable quarterly at Lima or in New York)
is subject to a Peruvian income-tax at 4 per cent.
The bonds, which were offered at 97, yield at that
price, after deducting income-tax and also Peruvian
income-tax at 4 per cent., about 7^ per cent, per
annum. The total redemption of the loan must bo
effected in a period not exceeding fifty years from
1903 and 1904. The security seems ample, inasmuch
as the revenues of the city of Lima, which has a
population of 150,000, is estimated to bring in easily
£100,000 per annum.

A stock company, with a capita] of £300,000, and
known as the National Tax Collecting Company, was
established at the most critical moment of the Republic's
financial affairs — namely, 1895- — and when national
bankruptcy was in the balance. The company, which is
the Sociedad Recaudadora de Impuestos remodelled,
has proved a most useful and beneficial means for both
organizing and collecting tlie considerable sums accruing
to the public exchequer, and at the same time regu-
lating the general finances of the country. Year by
year the functions of the institution have extended as
its value has been better realized, and most of the
important corporations iu Peru have hiul commercial
relations with It.

MUNICIPvVL DEBT 77

) tenna of the contract which was made with
B Qovemment, the Nfttional Tax Collecting Company
I to roceive all such revenues aa taxce u{>on apiritB
and tobacco, stamps and regiatration fees, le^^y
duties, tacome • tax, taxes u[>on matches, mining
licences, and, in fact, practically all the different legal
payments due to the Government.

"ntis corporation has been authorized to expend a sum
of £84,000, out of revenue which is collected annually.
upon the administration of the dilferent biTtnches which

Rduce the revenue, retaining for itself upon the net
idaetion, originally, a commission of 3 per cent.,
ioh. however, diminished annually by ^ per cent.
til the year 1900, when it fell to 1 [>or cent. This
I been the rate of commission in furcu until the end
the current year ( 1 'J 1 1 ), when the original contract
..-jieB to au end, although the Government had
reaerved to itoelf the right to cancel the agreement at
any time afler gi-anting it, by giving six months'
D<^ice in Mriting. So unusual a soui-ce for handling
the revenues of a Government in a country where
representative administration prevails, I should say,
oould exist only tn Peru.

The skilful manner in which the management has
been ooadaet«d is best seen from the figures for the
nine yeara from 1901 to 1909; which will be iband
b forth below.

Mn eighteen sources of i-evvnue — 1901, £418,871 ;

102, £433.310; 1903, £49.!.08G ; 1904, £687.960;

,£815,858: 1906, £895,479; 1907, £896,852;

. £886,848 ; 1909 (oatinuted), £866,530.

le respoDsible offioen of the National Tax Oc^eet-

j Company are all men of the highest int^rity and

^ sound financial reputation, neither party politics

penooal influence having anything to do with

> appointment or with their oontmL

CtOoq

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Apart from the revenues handed over to the Govern-
ment by the National Tax Collecting Company, there
are the Customs dues and some minor taxes, whicli are
paid direct to the National Treasury. How the
Republic's revenues have grown since 1899 is seen by
the following figures :

Revenues (all accounted for) In 1899— £1,370,137
1900,£l,312,57l; 1901, £1,535,136; 1902, £1,483,305
1903. £1,614,297; 1904, £1,990,568; 1905, £2,178,320
190S,£2,555,463; 1907, £2,830,324; 1908, £2,861,299
1909, £2,518,062; 1910,2,795,775.

Naturally the expenditures of the Government
I had increased proportionately, and for one of the last
years mentioned {1908) the outlay amounted to : Con-
gross, £101,732; Interior, £449,127; Foreign Affairs,
£52,793 ; Justice and Instruction, £416,096 ; Finance,
£406,609; War and Marine, £494,865; Fomento,
£204,919; Extraordinary Expenditui-e. £696,914, with,
Bay, a total of £2,823,055.

The total revenue derived from all somces iu 1910
amounted to £2,795,775, the principal items being;
Customs, £1,384,158; National Tax Collecting Com-
pany, £1,050,745 ; Peruvian Salt Company, £99,032.

The total expenditure figures ibr the same period,
which were estimated at £2,784,513, actually amounted
to £2,653,335. Foreign trade amounted to £11,039,562,
exports being £6,408,282, and imports £4,631,280.

The annual revenue of the Republic is appraximately
£2,800,000, and if, as some financial critics have stated,
it seems unlikely that for some time to come this sum
will be very much increased, it is certain that nothing
less is likely to be realized.

From the year 1884 to 1909 the public finances of
Peru have bad an average annual development of
£l00,3G8, while its imports and commerce during the
same period shows an average annual increase of

PUBUC EXPENDITUHE 79

£255,073, and, as reganls exports, an increase of
l'2(i8,C71. TherH has also been a subetaDtial aug-
mentation of deposits in banking and other economic
institutions. Based on these facts, Peru of to-day
possesses an economic capacity 6ve times greater than
Peru of 1884, and a financial potentiality sufficient to
yield to the public treasury not only £3,000,000 per
annum, but £4,000,000 if the tributary system be
reformed without augmenting the number of imposts.
Thu contemplated expenditure for the present year
(1911) is as follows:*

«87.77S

FonlgnAffkin

60,000

31S.479

FlnftDM kOd COQUDMM

400,809

Wk kod Umae

*fl7,9ai

Fonwoto (l>roaiotian) ...

218.466

l.MftOOS

Or t toul ot

... £2,8«wn

It may be pointed out that the " Extraordinary
Expenses" cannot be estimated with any accuracy,
since much depends upon the progress of legislation,
which, again, depends upon Coogrees. The annual
cost of If^lation has averaged £106,000.

In 1U09 the Customs receipts were £962,000, while
£48:^,000 was collected for the first half of 1910, or at
the rate of £9()4,000. It must be remembered that
the Customs revenues are always greater in the second
half of the year than during the first, so that the
Government authorities were looking for a revenue of a
round £1,000,000 from these sources for the whole of
1910. Then the taxes collected by the C(»npaflia
Nacioual de Itecaudaciuu (National Tax Collection
Com)Hiiiv), which amounted to £695,000 in the first

* Tha LrfpaUlura 4iapna*d Mora dafinluly kpprorliw lb* Bndgt for
IVll. Tb*M B(urM M« oal; eoojMtanl, baiiif bMM upco IMM for

Digitized byGOOgle

80 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

eleven months of 1 009, produced in the same period for
UMO, i;77i),000. The salt revenues up to November 30,
1910, came to £211,000 inclusive, as compaied with
^194,000 iu the same period for 1909.

The receipts of the principal Custom Houses of the
Republic for the first three months in 1911 show, in
every instance, an increase over the corresponding
period of 1910, as below (in pounds and thousandths) :

Port.

ISII.

1910.

16,41B.S66

10,363.571

Eten

9,350.420

6.426.443

FacAsmajo

5,452.888

4,255.922

9,016.713

8,106.887

186.aei.012

164.410.328

5,970.815

5.188.278

46,899.695

36,651.868

2,522.858

1,948.777

279,921.417

226,501.064

The total increase in the Pacific ports enumerated
above is, therefore, i:53,420.353. The statement from
the Atlantic [lort of Iquitos, on the Amazon River, has
been received only up to January, 1911, inclusive, the
income for the month being £15,519.309 as against
£10,431.394 in 1910, an improvement for the month of
£5,088.468.

It is somewhat surprising to find a number of
American and some British journals, in taking the
Peruvian official figures, entirely misunderstand the
meaning of the fractions which are usually expressed.
Thus a revenue of £1.017,488.657 is given in these
publications as " .tl, 017, 488, 657," which, for a young
country like Peiii, with a population of but 4,000,000,
would be simply absurd, the amount of its Customs due
being magnified thus 1,000 times. The last three
figures in the sum, of course, represent the fractions of

,GoO'

FOREIGN COMMERCE 81

the Peruvian £, which is made up of 1,000 centavos.
The total revenues of Buch countries as Argentina,
£22,466,000; Brazil, £28,917,000; Chile, £13.000.000,
would appear in8igni6cant in comparison, while even
France can only claim £167,423.000 and Germany
£149,G8»,000.

Continued improvement ts shown by the maritime
Customs House receipts at the various ports of the
Itepublic. Elsewhere I have directed attention to the
(idvunce nioile by the Port of Callao in this respect,
the total for 1910 coming to £797,867, as much as
£84,343 having been collected in the courBe of one
month, namely, last June (1911).

FOREIGN COMMEBCK OF PERU, 1M0-19OS.

I«lH>rt.

Gxpi>rt
£

Toul

IrtttO

3,12S,0I<)

8.8«I,M1

5,484,549

HKJO

a,817,lW

4,497.999

8,81&J90

IBOl

a.7I7.107

4.»18,776

7.0a5,8»4

IWi

8AMM»

8.708,971

7,IB2.aM

lUUil

S.TH8.880

S3S7,7SS

7,641,184

1001

4JUTJUt)

iM6jM»

8.438,978

loos

4M7.098

a,7S7,8W

10,1 15M7

1909

&A10,490

0,099.179

10,70fl,875

1907

6.»1».751

0,T44.M4

Il,!l84,a98

luoe

6^11,973

S,479,M1

10,790,914

1«0B

4.aoa.a70

M«.e«

10.791,397

1910

4,081,380 '

8.406.382

11.0B9,«a

DiailizodbyGOOgle

CHAPTER VII

Inmruioe— Native ofiBoes — Foreign ageaeies — heading offices — Com-
paratLTfi Burplosw— DiTideods pud'^-Blmae figures for 1910 — Bank-
mg--PriDoipal banks — Bonk of Peru and London — Savings bank
(Caja de Ahorras)— Coinage— History— Monetai; laws— Tlie National

Mint.

The business of insurance has been developed
considerably of late years in Peru — in fact, since
the passage of the law of 1901, which, at one
time, was supposed to "kill it." In the year 1895
laws had been passed, for the first time in the Re-
public, in connection with the carrying-on of insurance
business. Up to that time, it had been almost
entirely conducted by foreigners, and no native in-
surance companies any longer existed. The old Peru-
vian companies, known as La Lima and La Sud-
Americdna, had liquidated their affairs at the time
of the war between Chile and Peru. At this time, also,
there were fifteen agencies of different foreign in-
surance companies carrying-on business in the Capital,
and the majority of which charged a premium of about
100 per cent, more than what is paid by policy-holders
at the present time.

The new Decree passed by the Government was
liberal, and inte}' cUia required that a deposit of £3,000
should be made in order to enter upon the business,
that sum being exacted as a guarantee, through the
State, that foreign companies should carry out their
obligations to the public. In spite of the fact that the
agencies of these companies were making considerable

Digitized b^Google

INSURANCE 8S

profits, they decided to liquidate, which would lead
one to the conclusion that they r^^tted having to
tiiid a very reasonable amount of guarantee, and to
trade without any kind of supervision.

The withdrawal of the foreign companies, however,
may be partly accounted for by the subsequent
establishment of a strong native company, the Inter-
miciona). This office commenced its operations by
reducing by 50 per cent, the rates of premium then
in force, a jwlicy which at once secured for it con-
si<lc'riible support from the public. The Internacional
waH fuIlowe<l in 189C by La Italia and the Rimac
olKc«e ; in 1 902 by the Urbana ; in 1 903 by the Peru ;
and in 1904 by the Popular and the Nacional, the
capitals and surpluses of these companies being as
follows :

NameorCompMj.

C>|>*Ul. >

Sorrlw

''*

£ 1

InWmMioiMl

1H85

300,000 )

luli>

ItM 1

aoo^ooo '

41.101

ItfnMC ...

IMS

QSOMO '

63. 191

lrb«* ...

1009

loojno 1

S.(UO

l-eru

IW I

•UOJitOO

10.000

I'ofwUr ...

IMM '

aoo.0110

aipOio

NariMul ...

IWl

330,000

14.005

The muiimum paid-up capital with which any home
or foreign company may begin business is fixed at
£20,000. lialf of that amount to be invested in landed
property located in IVru, and the other half in bonds
of the I'ublic Debt, of the Municipalities and District
(^uncils, or of private institutions which are located in
IVni, and retained to serve as a guarantee to policy-
bulders. This stipulation seems to me so reasonable,
and in fact so neoessary, that it is difficult to under-
staud the foreigu companies having taken umbrage,

Digitized byGOOgle

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

aiid prefeiriug to regard the law as an imposition.
Probably they imagined that, by withdrawing, the law
would be annulled ; or fondly believed that no Peru-
vian could conduct insurance policies with success. But
they made a very great error, for the native companies
not only prospered, but increased in number, and the
opportunities which the foreign companies then
stupidly threw away have never recui-red.

The only three foreign companies still doing business
in Peru to-day are the Sun Life of Canada, La
Previsora of Buenos Ayres, and La Sud- America of
Brazil. Although nominally "foreign," they have
become practically native companies, for they have had to
comply with all the rules and regulations of the new law
of 1901. The Sun Life Insurance Company of Canada
was established in 1865, and is organized under strong
British laws, its capital exceeding £6,300,000 sterling,
while Its income Is over £1,550,000 per aimum from
all som'ces, and it has a surplus of £1,000,000. The
total business in force up to the end of last year
exceeded £38,000,000.

La Previsora was established in 1885, with an
original capital of 500,000 pesos (£50,000). Its assets
to-day ai'e estimated at upwards of £1,400,000, the
surijlus being £1,138,000, while its insurances in force
up to the end of last year amounted to over £4,000,000.
La Previsora is said to be the only company in Peru
which insures the lives of women as well as of men.

La Sud-America, which was founded as recently aa
1895 in Brazil, and which entered Peru in 1899,
showed a reserve up to the end of last year of over
£1,500,000. The insurances in force up to that period
amounted to £8,200.000, of which £550,000 were held
in Peru. The form of policy of which the company
has made a speciality is based upon the amortization
principle, 2 per cent, of the total policies in this claws

INSITRANCE OFPlCtS 85

hiHTig drawn by lot each VMir, the holders oftho winuing
nuraborB having onthing mare to [lay froin that time,
th? ojin{>any assuming fur Its own account the remain-
ing premiums.

La CompaAia Intemacional de Se^rae del Peru
was estAbltshed in 1S95, and baa bd authorized capital
of £500,000. the amount paid ap being £200,000,
and the roaerva ftiDd £60,000. The company baa
]iaid dividends amounting to aa much as 52 per cent.

La National, ustAUished in 1904, has an authnrizeil
capitAt of £200,000. Like the Intemacional, it has
agtMicie* in all thu princiiuU towns thit)Ughoat the
Itepublic; but while the first- mentioned unJertnkes
the iusurancuB of house, furniture, and mei-chandise
(including cargoes receiveil by steamers and sailing-
veosels for all parts of the worhl), the Nucional insures
against fires and maritime risks only.

La Popular, est&blished in the same year as the
abore <I904), has a paid-up capital of £200,000, and a
reserve of £2011,000. It insures building and fbr-
nitura against fire in Liiita, ChoriUiM, Harronco,
Miraflores, and MagdeMna at ver)' moderate; premiunui
— in fact, the lowest on tht« market, and apjiarently
too low to faring much profit to tbe cotfei-s of the
company. It has established stn'ontl ageticles in
diflerent parts of Pern.

I^ Italia. AS will be seen, ranks as n»t> of tbe oldent
of the native insurance companies, its paid-up capital
being £200,000, and the nnerve fund £41.101. It
has paid dividends amounting to 30 per cent

Ijn Urboiia is a firu unit maritime insurance COm-
[«ny, establifthMl in l9o2, with an uutburized capital
of £20<i,0on. a {laid-up capital of £UHt.0Oii, and a
rwservo fund excetxling £ 1 2.000. The offiee under-
takes insurancee of buildings and furniture, and carries
ua general iustiratioe buaioea^

86 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CKNTURY

La Compania de Segui'os Rimac, established in 1896,
iuaures against fire and maritime accidents ; it has a
paid-up capital of £250,000.

The Peru is a small but progressive office, which
declared its fii-st dividend in 1906, amounting to 5 per
cent. The following table will show how the different
compiinies prospered during the five yeais of their
existence fiom the passing of the new law of 1901 :

IB02.

1903.

1804.

1906.

1900.

ToUl
Diridands,

Biraao
Italia
LaUrbftna...

Peni

La Popular ...
La Naeional

Per Cent.
82
16
IB

PtrC*.
86
14
10
10

Per Cent.
24
14
10

PerCBut
85
25
24

Per Cent
52
28
80
15
5

Per Oeiit-
179
97
92
87
5

140

430

From this statement it would seem that " La
Popular" was "popular" in name only, since it had
paid no dividend since its introduction to the busln'
world in 1 904. Recent statistics are difficult to obtain,
and perhaps the office may have become more worthy
since 1906 of the title which it assumes.

That the insurance business generally in Peru con-
tinues to prosper is clear from the figures of other
offices for 1910, which aie, in part, obtainable. It is
ajiparent, for instance, that the Rfmac, which, as will
be seen above, dates from 1902, and baa distributed
total dividends for the first five years of its life
amounting to 97 per cent., during the last year men-
tioned (1910) succeeded in increasing its reserve
fund fiom .t;62,191 to £07,205, and paid a dividend
of 19 per cent., plus a previous dividend of 8 per cent,
making 27 per cent, for the yejir. The Internacional

cyGoOQ

BANKS

. It ti

also oonsideraUy iooreosed Its reaerve fund, and paid
1 per cent In dividend.

It took a gnat nmny years to plnce bunking upon a
' aud jienuaneut huais in Peru, and for a country

its Bixe iitid n*niBrkitl)lt* iiBtund wuattli the Inck of
lient facilities must liiivu ricttid an a great hitiidicap.
Previoiw to the oommenopinont of the mo%'enient in
favour of the establishment of the gold standanl, and
at tbe tJoio when pc^tical trouhio was still prevalent,
there existed but one banking institution — the Bank
nf Oallao. which was a branch of tho London ami
Mexico Bank of South America. Then; was one native
instituttoo, knoK'n as the Savings Bank, which was a
dependency of the Lima Public Benevolent Society.
In 1889 the Bunk of Italy was founded, and in 1897
the ColUo branch of the London and Mexico Bonk
of South America (a moat ciimbenioniu name) was
merged into the Bunk of Cnllao which had come
into existence, and from these two was born the
pment Bunk of Peru ajid Londoiu Sub«e<iuently, _
the Gennau Tnuiaatlantic Bank established branches j

tt both Oallso and Arei)ui|ia, and each of thi* three pr^ I
ly mentioned houses opened a st-paruto mortgagal
ion. To-day, by means of these eetabtiahmenti; T
bunking bowoess bus grmdually extended through*!
out the Republic, and the tnuuutioos curried on f
day to day have uHmmad considerable dimennon
In generul, the proBts r«rned have been deemed Mti*-^
foctory, although, by the Ia«-| of thf* Uepubllc whtflhJ
their o}icmtions, these iniitltutionN are deprived 1
id very wisely, in tins opinion of sound fiomoeiers
the rvaouroe c^ issuing notes puyuble to beurer
coin and at sight. Furthermore, the bunks mnsti
oonlribuU* b per cent, of their annual nutt pro6ta I
the coAers of the nation. The rvlatious which buTfl^
in times past existed between the bunks und the

tbe U
I utbot

^HDtioi
^^bo bo
out th
day t
IngM
foctory,

^^E»nd VI

^Vorthi

^^n coin

88 PERU OF THE TW'ENTIETH CENTURY

GovemmeDt are referred to with srane particularity
under Chapter TI.

The principal banks of the Republic at lima showed
the balances of their commercial accounts and deposits
to be as folloura at the end of December 31, 1910 :

lioadoB kod Pern Bank

Kalian Bank

iDtanutknutl Bank

Popular Bank

Oatquh TniTi latlafitiff Bulk ,**
Saving* Bank (CAJ&de Aiiorroe) ...
Bank of Depodta and Coniigiimeiit*

ToUl

These figures show an increase of £Pl,285,980.795
over those of the previous twelve months (1909).

The published profits of the different institutions
have been declared as follows :

172,519.928
8S4,945.1Be
1^1,466.483
457,996.009
206,815.491

£PS,680,625.S3B

1909.

IBia

£P.

London and Peni Bank

74,781

76,662

Italian Bank

19,389

30,600

7,655

9,040

Popular Bank

17,976

18,841

Saving* Bank

5,417

14,701

14,899

Tbe Bank of Peru and liOndon was founded in Lima
in June of 1897, its original capital being £200,000.
It is, as stated, a iiision between the Bank of Gallao
and the Bank of London, Mexico and South America ;
the London office is in Gracechurch Street, E.C.
A few years after its foundation the capital of the
bank was increased to £500,000, and the reserve fund
amounted to £275,000. The shares of the bank have
been quoted upon the London Stock Exchange since
1907 ; and, commencing with that year, the institution
liud established another bank in La Paz (Bolivia),

Digitized byGOOgle

^^^H FINANCES 89

aUH^ttie Bank of Bolivia- London, the capital of
which in £1,000,000. Aa will be observed from tho
illiutration which is given elsewbore, tho Bank of Peru
oocupitis an extremely bautlsoDte and conunodious
building — in fact, quite the most {Mdatial commercial
premises. Its doily buainesB amounts to something
like £100,000. The ofHctals, from the President down-
wanlfi. urv both enterprising and cuurtt-oiis, es{iocially
towards foreigners benring letters of introduction.

Pern has so re<x'nliy emerged rroni a stat^ of
monetary restriction that it would be liaitlly reasonable
Ut suppose that tbu people — by which I mean tba
working classes and labourers— even if they naturally
werH of u saving dispoKition, would be able to put by
anything of their earnings. Thus Savings Banks are
institutions which have but little vogue in the Re-
public. Nevertheless, there is one such bonk, Caja
de AhorTM, and it has met with a fair amount of
suooMS, if one may judge &om the fact that it has
establisbed one or two branches. We have in Fraooe
an example of the rapidity with which the peuaDt
class can ooi only recover from wars and revolutions,
bat rise superior to politicnl and economic crises.
The BRine has undoubtedly proved to be the case
with Peru.

Few oountries in the Old World or tho New hare
undergone more severe financial stress than Peru ; but
whersu misfortunes generally attend new oountrive
in the days of their juvenesoeuoe — tgueru, Meu, lubnca
muribiia itlaj ! — evil times couio to Peru when it vras
merging upon the sdull atagu ; and, therefore, perhapa
the lietter able to withstand the shock. However, out
of evil crmiKb good ; and the lessons which were
leontcd in those distressAU da>i have been taken
seriously to heart, with the result that Peru is to-day
finoiiciully stronger than ever it had been previously.

,CnO(,)£lc

90 PERU OF THE TW'ENTIETH CENTURY

When the indepecdence of the Republic was pro-
claimed in 1821, gold and silver coins were circulated
with full value as legal tendera, and in the following
year (1822) a new currency was coined both of gold
and silver, with the same fineness and weight as the
Spanish money. This coinage continued to circulate
as legal tender until 1836, when, by reason of the
Peru-Bolivian Confederation, Bolivian money, although
of inferior fineness, was admitted into Peru and accepted
as of the same value as the native currency. This
mistake was, as we have seen, one of the prime causes
of the subsequent heavy losses to trade and to the public
wealth in general.

In 1863 a further new law was passed, reforming the
monetary system, which included the establishment of
the decimal coinage and the double standard of gold
and silver. The silver sol was recognized as the
monetary unit. The coinage of the new system was
as follows :

Name of the Coini.

Weight

Diameter in

MilliniBtrei.

Value in
Cents.

Silver eoine :

Sol

100

Halfjoi

125

One-fifth .of

One-tenth lol (<Mnero) ...

2'5

dituro)

1-25

Oulil coins :

\ nXaein Sola.

Ooldio!

82.26804

Half gold Ml

16,12002

Quarter of «oI

8,9451

Tenth olfoi

8,2368

Twentieth of «oi

1,6129

In 1872 yet another law was passed altering the
gold coins, limiting the coinage to gold sols and fifths of
gold sola ; but as the law fixed uo legal value to the

cyGoOQ

COINAGE 91

gold coin, it became de faeto demonetized, so that
silver remained the only monetary standard, thus
abolishiug bimetallism and introducing monometallism
of silver. This condition lasted until 1897, when the
gold standard was implanted; and since then there has
txMMi but one alteration in the monetary system of the
country, which stands to-day as follows :

The Peruvian pound — and which is equal in all
reflpects to the English pound — is the monetary unit.
It consists of a gold coin, the diameter of which is
'I'l millimetres, with the weight of 7 grammes 988 mil-
li^Tiimmes, and a 6nene88 of 0'916f millesimals; the
hiilf-|>ound (equal in value and appearance to the
hajf-soven^ign) has the same fineness. By a law issued
in 1 906, the minting has been authorized of gold coins
e<|uivalent to the | part of a pound.

The old silver coins of Peru are used in the character
of an auxiliary currency as sub-multiples of the Peru-
vian pound — viz., the silver sol, with a weight of 25
grammes, and equal to 100 centesimals of the 8o{ ; the
tif\h of a 8ol, w^ith a weight of 5 grammes, equal to
*_*0 centesimals ; the tenth of a sol, with a weight of
'Z\ grammes, equal to 10 centesimals; and the twen-
tieth of a itof, with a weight of 1^ grammes, equal to 5
cent««imab The fineness of all these silver coins
is i^o-

Copper money, which is likewise only an auxiliary
currency, consists ofcoins of ^ ^ and lin parts of a sol,
and according to law is only legal tender up to the
sum of 1*0 cents.

The tirst piece of money coined in Peru was in 1 557.
It was an ugly and clumsy effort, irregular in shape,
and mnrked ujion **ach side with n cross, made
apparently hy shar]) blows from a hammer. In 15G5
the Hrst mint wui established on the sel&ame spot
which is occupied by the present edifice.

Digitized byGOOgle

PERU OF THE ITVENTIETH CENTURY

In 1572 the coiniug of money was transferred to
Potosi, the gi'eatest silver- producing mines in the world,
at that time ; but when the still more wealthy Cerro de
Pasco mines were found, Potosi was deemed unworthy
to retain the mint, so that it was again transfen'ed to
Lima. This structure was destroyed by the earthquake
of 1746, and rebuilt in 1753, and to-day it forms one
of the handsomest buildings in the Capital.

The number of silver coina stamped Id the mint
under the Viceroys, exceeded 400,000,000, and they
were always accepted throughout Spanish-America on
account of their exactness of both weight and fineness.
The gold and silver coins still turned out aie beautiful
specimens of the engraver's art.

During last year (1910) the National Mint of the
Republic coined the amount of £52,859, in units
and fifths as follows ; £47,076 (Libras Peruanas)
and 28,915 fifth-pounda (£5,783).

CHAPTER Vm

EdneMioa— Lima CniTMvJt;— Nnmbw of Mhoob— Native idiMl* — Cotn-
DMrM uid AsTKulture— Atequipa UnivBrailj — Eoglub lohooU —
Pwmi aa pupu«— LiUtwrj aodatiaa — Uma GaogTapUcal Sodatj —
Laanwd aMoeiationa— Tbeatraa— New Haaieip^ Theatre— PeraTian
praae — Notable journal* — EogUah newipapera in South Aioeriea —
■■PeruTo-Uaj."

Tas Department of Lima, from many pointa of view,
ia by far the most important, educationally speaking,
in the country. It has an area of nearly 35,000
square kilometres, and a population of some 300,000
inhabitants. Lima, the national capital, is also the
capital of the Department, and is the seat of the
University of Sau Marcos, the Engineering, Agri-
cultural, Industrial, and Normal Schools, and a
namber of coU«g«e of secondary instruction. The
Republic has four universities in all — IJma, Cuzco,
Arequipa, and Tnijillo.

The Department oontains some 250 primary schools,
which are supported and administered by the Govern-
ment. These schools are under the supervision of
fifly-eight district inspectors, six being provincial and
one departmental. The primary schools of the Con-
stitutional Province of Callao are also subject to the
control of the departmental inspector for Lima. The
appointment of the last- men tionetl for Lima and Callao
is one of the most important educational posts in the
oouotiy. This is true not only vith respect to tbe
reqwnslbilitie* which it ioTolves, but also with respect
to the opportunititis which it <^ers.

Digitized byGOOgle

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUHY

The Government has of late months transferred to
this position Mr. Joseph B. Lockey, from the Depart-
ment of La Lihertad. Mr. Lockey hegan teaching
when he was sixteen years of age, and has been
engaged in educational work continuously since. He
has occupied positions of some importance both in
primary and in secondary school work, and he lias
had valuable experience in educational administration
generally. He received the degree of B.A. from the
Peabody College, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A., and
the degi-ee of M.A. from Columbia University. He
holds also professional diplomas in education from
the Florida State Normal College, and from the
Teachers' College, Columbia University.

Peru claims, and with good reason, to possess the
oldest educational establishment In Latin- America.
San Marcos University was founded iu 1551, that is to
say, during the reign of Charles V. of Spain, who was
also, it will be remembered, the Emperor of Germany,
and the central figure in Europe during his eventful
life of nearly sixty years. To San Marcos were con-
ceded the same distinctive honours as those enjoyed
by the great Spanish University of Salamanca, held in
those days to be the most celebrated educational
establishment in Europe. The royal grant was made
to the priors of the Dominican Order, the original
lecture-halls having been installed in the Monastery of
Santo Domingo ; but some twenty years later, in the
time of Philip 11., an order was issued for the secu-
larization of the University and its complete separation
from the convent.

Law is the most important branch of study pursued
at this University, and it leads in the promotion of
liberal education. It is directed by a Council, consist-
ing of a rector, a vice-rector, a secretary, and a deau,
L and a delegate Ironi each Faculty. The present rector Is

CyGOO'

UNU'ERSITIKS 9JS

ded in 1905, r«p)aciiig

i UDiveraity, a Natiooal
CoU^B of Seoondary Instruction, a Normal Schocd for
women, and of a numlfcr of good private achools, as
well as of the Harvard UniverBity-Olaervatory. In
the vholn Province of Arequipa thore are about
•eventy-four public schools, which may Ijo considered
I Vfry fair i)ro]Jortion, considering the entire popula-
of the Departrnvnt amounts to no more than
||5,00O. The city of Aroqmpa has 70,000 inhabitants.
I The National Government has latterly npiminted
[ young American as inspector of all these educa-
mal establishments — )tr. Joseph P. McKnight,
has also under his supervision the primary
boots of the Province of Islay, of which the port of
Mellendo is the capital. Mr. McKnight claims to
have hod over twenty yearn' experience in txlucational
work, and he holds a master's diploma from the
Teuhera' College of New York. U.SJl.

It is noteworthy that in the very strongfaold of the
Incatt— the famous and boantlful Cusco^is established
one of the Republic's most imjxinaiit seats of learning,
the Cuzco Univereity. Its ancii-nt cloisters still re-
sound with the merry Uughter of " young Peru," as it
harries and clatters over the venerable tiles of its
Iftved courtyards, while the surrounding houses have
ded such notables of learning as Goralaso de la
«, the great historian ; Espinoza, Peres, Heros,
>o, Antonio Lorena, and, more recently, David
and Norciso Arestegui. A month's stay in
I to study its ruins and to visit its monuments
brds one of the most liberal educations in Peruvian
Itcny that one can hope to attain.
^ The TechnJca] School of Commeroe was the first
establishment of its kind in Pent, and dates back

,Q|)og

96 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUHY

about twelve yeara Many of the mo8t prominent
firniB and banks in Lima make a point of drawing
their clerks and assistants from this school, the usual
course of study being three years, after which the
pupils receive certificates, which often prove very
useful in their search for employment. The principal
ia Dr. Perla, and he seems to have introduced a highly
successful system of training the youthful mind in
the dii"ection of commercial utility.

The National School of Agriculture is the creation
of a former Miuiater of Fomento — Seflor Kugenio
LaiTabure y Unanue, who established it hi June of
1902. He is now the Vice-President of the Kepublic,
but continues to take the keenest interest in the
conduct of this excellent institution. The pupils are
otfered a sound theoietical and practical training in
all of the various branches of agriculture and veterinary
subjects. Fairly " stiff"" examinations are held, and
certificates and diplomas are granted.

The School is situated in the centre of a farm
oovering 600 acres, near the capital of Lima, and
the house is a fine two-storey building, capable of
accommodating 100 pupils aud their attendants.
There are many well-designed and efficieutly equipped
laboratories, a library containing many Knglish
volumes, as \\ell as several private cabinets and
recreation rooms. The Dnector is Mr. George Van-
dergehm, who has been in office since the foundation.
He is supported by a very capable teaching staff,
all classes of study — agronomical, engineering, botany,
zoology, chemistry, entomology, political economy,
and agriculture — having capable and expert mastera
to conduct them. The Knglish master is Mi-. J. C.
Frederic Blume. Much useful work is being done by
this academy, and some very brilliant pupils have
I been turned out by it.

cyGoO'

tJao raoeivQ w»ne of the pafHLi » bowdere in tbetr
own bouse.

There u an EInglish Commercial School Mtahliahed
in CoIIao, which waa fouitdod four yearn ago hy the
" Ceotro de la Juventuado Cat^SUca," of Lima. At
one time the number of pupils reAeh«d 320, bat
indifferent roaoageroent sufBoed to reduce the average
considerably. Latterly, howpver, a new direotion
aeems to have improved the oooditiona, and nnder
the sopervifflon of the HatisU, a brotherhood of
Christian edacatora, the pupils are increasing in
nnmbar and also in effideocy. Most of the taaoben
have been oonoeoted at some time or other with
education in England, the United States, FnuMo,
Italy, and Spain. Aboat one-half of the text-books
used are in English, and much attention is devoted
to teaching that Unguoge thoroughly.

Towards the middle of lost year (Juno, 1910), the
Government created a new educational eomminion,
composed of the ablest men in tbe country. At that
time DO fewer than five of the more important among
the United States were at work upon the codification
and preparation of new edaeational laws, and upon the
some principle in practice was based the relbrmation
of the Peruvian educational system. Tho existing
Organic School Law of Pern was enacted in 1901. A
second important decree was passed in 1 905. in
some strildiigly dnutiorefonna were oomprised.
provisions have, however, been dnoe fbnnd to be
dnatio in some respects and too defidunt in others
henoe the naoessity for a oomplete revinon of the
•ysten in foroo. All of the meahers of the Ckm-
are Pemvians, with tbf> exception of the

98 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Secretary, Dr. H. E. Bard, who is ao American, having
beeii a student of Administrative Sciences under
Professor Goodman, in Columbia University.

By an Executive decree of December 17, 1909, it is
provided that the English language shall be taught in
all the national schools of Peru.

That the average native is by no means as dull or
as stupid as some people imagine, nor as dense intel-
lectually as several writers upon Peru have audaciously
asserted, is proved by the statement made by Dr. Harry
E. Bard, the Director- General of Primary Education,
who has said : " I will take a Peruvian child of six
years of age, teach it for three years at the side of one
from the United States — who has naturally enjoyed
all the advantages over the former by reason of speak-
ing the language which it is learning — and by the end
of the time mentioned, I will have both upon the same
ftHitliig of preparation."

Among so cultui-ed a class aa the better-bred
Peruvians, it seems but natural to find a strong
literary and artistic element, and it is doubtftil whether
any Latin -Amencan city can offer more in this
direction than Lima. The race is a literary one ;
in fact, BO close has been the attention paid to study
mid cultui-e, that the Peruvians have by some his-
torians lHM>n doHcribed as elTeminate. It is a question
whether this characterl«tic has been derived from the
high-born and well-educated Sjianish ancestry or the
Queohuas" native blood ; perhaps it may be attributed
in part to both.

While Ihi' S]mniard8, as we know, represented all
that was bravo but cruel, all that was artistic and
elegant but callous of liunmn suHering, the Quechuas
were a thoughtful, melancholy race, much given to the
ornamtintation of their monuments and the elaboration
[ of thoir artiatio oooupations. Their deeceudauta tonjay

z^ccyGoQt^le

with
1^ Mt

LITERATURE 99

! Opportunities for indulging

: than unclur the tyrannical

nitioD of their Spanish cod-

Tbe PeruTt&ns, if they have not produced many
.bto oontributtons to Ut«rature, art- avid ruadero of
r Spanish, French, and otUin English publications,
t they ne%'ertht?le8s possess much ability as writers
liowu by the often striking and powerful articles
h appear in the daily and weekly press, while
ivian orators, even amongst the youngest of the
L — in fact, some who are mere bojrs — are frequently
met with. The Spanish Ut4:aagQ lends itself
lily to descriptions and expreanoos Tory much
DKiro omato and extreme than can be employed in the
Anglo-Saxon tongae; and the extravoganoo of the
diotioo used, although it may strike the Northerner as
somewhat absurd nt first, is, nevertheless, singularly
agreeable when the real beauties of the Latin tongue
become bettt^r appreciated by a closer acquaintance
with those who ipnak it.
Most of the daily papers published in Peru are
ingtiiahed for the moderation of their tone, the
lancy of their editorials, and the fulneas of tbeir
iblo and telegraphic services. Upon ooeamona per-
haps of extreme political excitement some of the
more " yellow " among the papers may break away
from the usual restraint, and emulate the tootios of
the — for instanoe — New Vork and Radical London
press ; but tbey never could, under any couoeivable
oiroumatanoes, equal either in personal vituperation
and inventive audacity.

There ta an iromenae quantity of sdonlific literature
iamed periodtoally in Lima, which may be oouudered
tbe literary oentre of Peru, but much of this never
timvels bejrond the confines of the Republic.

1.100 PERU OF THE -nVENTIETH CENTURV

Printing was first introduced into Peru in 1567,
Rat the time of the coming of the Jesuits — that is to
r Bay, some thirty-one years later than the first press
introduced into Mexico — namely, in 1 536. The
' famous University of San Marco, to which reference

is also made as a seat of learning, had already heen
established in 1551, ten years after the death of
k Francisco Plzarro. The spread of education was very

^^KbIow, being, indeed, suppressed, as was usual among
^^Hthe Spanish priests of those days. In spite of this
^^H fiict, libraries and scientific institutions were brought
r into being, if but very gradually, and to-day Lima

I boasts of many excellent institutions of this character.

^^H^The National Public Library was founded in 1822,
^^Hand still maintains its position as one of the most
^^Jeelebrated in South America. Unfortunately, the
I contents of this institution were greatly damaged

I by the vandalic conduct of the invading Chilian

^^^ armies in the years 1882-1884. These Goths not
^^Konly ruthlessly destroyed many valuable and priceless
^^Vvorks, but used the building as barracks !
^^^ A loyal Peruvian named Ricardo Palma endeav-
r cured to restore the library to something Uke its

I former position, but his efforts were only partially

successful, since nothing could be done to replace
the pnceless manuscripts and unique books which
, had been torn up and burned as fuel for the Chilians'
This was really a matter of history repeating
pitself, for the Chilians committed the same unpardon-
able outrage upon their Spanish cousins, and upon
posterity, as the fanatic Archbishop Zumarraga had,
BOme three centuries before, perpetrated upon the
rehivea left by the interestir^ Aztec race in
llfexico.
The capital possessee a Geographical Society, which
] done some highly impoitant work in the explora-

which M

plora-

cyGoOoB

80CIBTIB9

tion ud daaoription of the f

of the

rmooi temtonfls o
Pretideot of the Society thowed
tne a map that the Society then had in prap&r&UoD,
and which had been some yean already in hand.
It will doubtleas prove to be the most complete and
authentic map that has ever been pnbUshtid of
and the neighbouring Republics.

is abo an UiBiorical Institute, which investi-
and iasoea reports upon the enrly Inca and
Lymara eivilixatimu, of which so much nbundaiit
exists. Additionally, thvre are societius,
ig large and rvprveunutive membersbipa,
to medical, legal, engineering, music, mining,
iteratnre, agriculture, and other subjects. Many of
[tbese laanied societies have thcor own houses or rooms,
while others meet at the rooms of one another, or
at public halls. The Oovenunent does much to
encourage these aaaootatioDS. and, whenever any
fioaooial assiatapce is sought, it is bub seldom with-
In oonnection with the mora thorough ex-
ition of the ooontry, the Government baa been
particulurly interested, and the several individuals
wbo bavtt applied to it for guidance and aid have
been aUimlaiitly satis6ed with the response madeu
Tbe Lima AtbeniHim has exiatod unee 1877, when
was known as the " Literary Club," changing its
title to the broader one of " Athennum " ten years
Ut«r. It occupies handsome and oomibrtable premises,
and the Government oontribotes a subsidy to its
upkeep.

Tbe Teohoieal Board of Valuations ta outnposed of
a number of engineeis, architects, and laud*snrveyY)ni,
whose nanus are incorporated in an official rvgisti^r
of real estate. The Society has atringent rules as to
membership, and it has been the means of several
important estimates being made for pablio works

^^Hinembersl
^Bheiyimp

, Goo J

102 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

and valuations. The public may obtain, at reasonable
fees, expert information upon all such matters.

The Technical and InduBti'ial Institute of Peru was
established by the Government in 1896. It is com-
posed of the principal members selected from all the
other Societies of a technical or industrial character,
and it really constitutes a " Union " of these bodies.
The objects of the association are to protect and
encourage the development of the national wealth,
to act for the Government as a consultative board, and
to aid the public in regard to information and advice
upon most technical and industrial, but not com-
mercial, undertakings. The Government also makes
a contribution annually to the funds of this Society.

Among other associations are The Permanent
Exposition of Machinery and Manufactures, a kind
of Royal Agricultural Society without the " Agri-
culture "; The Lima Chamber of Commerce, The
Mercantile Exchange, and several smaller concerns
of a similar chai-acter.

A branch of the Young Men's Christian Association
has lately been established in Peru, mainlj' upon the
suggestion of the Peruvian Consul-General (Mr.
Higginson) at New York. The idea was at once
readily approved by President Leguia, the Rector
of the Univei-sity of Lima, and the Minister of
Fomento, as well as by a large number of other
prominent men. A capable General Secretary hEis
been appointed to develop the work, with Lima as
his headquarters.

In common with all members of the Latin-American
race, the Peruvians dearly love the theatre and the
opera. With their strong partiality for such forms
of amusements, it is strange to find the Capital possess-
ing for a great many years but one single theatre.
This hod been erected in the reign of one of the lust

D.g.tzcdCyGOO'

PLAYHOUSES 108

Vioeroyt, atul waa uaturklly devoid of all CDnvsoieuces,
and very de6cieat in aocoauaodatioo. Id the end it
found its grave in a fierce oouflagratiou, and few oonld
have regretted ita diaappeamnca. Then the Huni-
cipuUty put up a ttinipornry wooden Rtractura capable
of Beating alwut 1,600 ipectatora. To-day there are
aoveral DotaUa places of amusemeot in Lima, and othtirs
in different ettiM of the ItapubUe, while in practically
all Um towns one can spend hours at the cinemato-
graph shows which abound, and which have secured
the same remarkable bold over the paUic of Peru aa
thoae of the Argentine Republic, Uruguay, aod BnulL

Among the princi{Hil pluyhouaes are the Politeama,
which ia now the largest in Peru, holding over 2,000
people : El Olimpo, which, of smaller dimensions, seats
about 1,400; a Chinese theatre, where the children
of the Gnleatial Empire give their wetrd and frivolous
performaooea ; and a bull-ring holding eonly B.OOO
qiectatoTi. A oook-fightlng arena— or. as it ia called,
a AWw^tim— is very well patronised by the lower
classes, who always seem to find money enough to loM
in betting upon their bvourite birds. The Jockey
Club have built a bandaooie Hippodnxne upon a
pieoe of ground beloo^og to the School of Agncul-
tore, and here are held aoroe interesting meetings,
remuuaoeut of Hutiingham and Banelagfa.

The new Municipal ThoAtre, whit^ aooonunodatea
S,000 ^wotatoci, should be a great attraction, since
OHMt of the tnToIUng oompaniefl, dramatic and
operatie, which now make South America a part of
their r^nlar touring itinerary, shoukl visit Lima
daring nae ptirt of the year. No company oould
wi^ lor Bore discriminating or appreciative audieoceA.

No pnaa of South America baa been aooonled
greater or mora deaerved praiae than that of Pern.
Evan oriUca who totally disagree with thor political

oraed

Pern. Jl

litical H

104 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

opiDioQS — which is but natural in a country where free
expressions of thought are not only permitted, but
encouraged — agree, that for dignity of expression and
purity of motive the Peruvian newspapers are almost
unique in Latin-America.

I suppose that there must be something in the
gentle Elia's lament that " newspapers always excite
curiosity, and that no one ever lays one down without
a feeling of disappointment " ; but in regard to the
majority of the Peruvian news-sheets one certaiiJy
gets fiill value for the small coin which has to be
expended for their possession, if oiJy in regard to the
admirable cable service and the full and inland tele-
graphic news which they contain. The illustrated
papers, weekly and monthly, will compare most favour-
ably with the best of the English periodicals ; and in
most cases their literary contributions stand upon a
decidedly higher level of merit.

The oldest of the daily papers is El Comercio, which
was founded in the year 1839. It was this journal
which strongly advocated the abolition of slavery
in 1850-1855, and it required a great deal of moral
pluck to preach such a mission in Peru — or, indeed,
anywhere in South America — in those days. La Prensa
is another very powerful paper, both morning and
evening editions being issued. El Bieii Social is a
clerical organ, and very carefully edited. El Liberal,
whose opinions are expressed by its name, and Diuiio
Judicial, are both regarded as higb-cla-ss publications.
Of weekly papers there are a great variety, among the
best being Pnsma and Aclualidades. The foreign
colonies are partly represented by different weekly
editions ; but, as yet, no English weekly paper has
succeeded in maintaining any but a precarious exist-
ence. Of monthly organs there is also an immense
selection, practically every social institute having its

THK PRESS 105

own particular exponent. Thus, we have La Revisia
Pitn-Americana, El Bolctin y Registro Ofidal de
Fomento (a Government publication of great value
to those who would follow the commercial progress
of the Republic as officially portrayed) ; El Boletin
de la Sociedad Geogrdfica de Lima ; El Boletin del
Tnstituto Histdrica del Peru ; del Sociedad Nacional
de Mincrla ; del Sociedad de Agricultura ; del Sociedad
de la Indtistria ; del Academia Nacional de Medncina ;
La Cronica Midlca ; El Monitro Medico ; La Gazeta
Cientifica ; El Boletin Escolar ; La Gaceta Comercial ;
Bdetin de Minas ; La Reoista de Ciencias ; Boletin del
Cuerpo Ticnico de Trasadones, and numerous others.

El Callao is a dally of much Importauce cii'culating
in the Port of that name ; while in the Provinces the
following may be accepted as the leading organs of
their respective communities :

Cuzco, El Comercio (daily) and El Ouzco (weekly) ;
Huanuco, La Paz (weekly), Molkndo and El Puerto
(dailies) ; Arequipa, La Deber (daily) ; Huacho, El Eco
(weekly); Huaraz, £^ CoiTeode Ancacks, LaFedei-acidn,
and La Jmticia (all weeklies) ; Piura, La Nuera Era, La
Revista del Norte, La Iiidusti-ia and El Comercio (all
weeklies) ; Iquitos, Loj-eto Comercial (daily).

I have often asked which was the fii'st English
newspaper to be established in Latin-America, but
1 have never been able to find out with certainty, I
believe, however, that it would be correct to award the
palm — if, indeed, it is a " palm," and not a piUory,
which should be awarded to some of the discreditable
sheets which pass as " British newspapers " in Latin-
America — to a paper called The Cosmopolite, started
in Buenos Aires in 1825 by an American named
Hallett. Then, the following year came The British
Packet, a, much better name and an infinitely better
paper. The Commercial Times appeared in 1862. All

I Packet, e. i

paper. Ti

.Col

TOle

106 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

of these were Buenos Aires ventures. lu Panama, the
Star was issued in 1849. These sheets seem to have
l)een the earhest English publications ; at least, they
are the only ones which I have been enabled to trace.

Peru has been fortunate in late years in having
an eminently sound and literary newspaper — or rather
magazine — one which is as skilfully edited as it is
handsomely illustrated. Peru To-Day has now attained
an influential circulation, reaching far beyond the
condnes of the Republic. The editor is a cultured and
talented American, Mr. John Vavasour Noel, who has
been trained in a thoroughly practical school — a school
which " observes and thinks." The assistant-editor is
Mr. F. E. Ross, an equally capable and clever journalist.
There can be uo question that Pe>-u To-Day, which
is issued monthly in Lima, affords a reliable mirror of
the commercial and industrial progress of this Republic
from month to month ; and a file of this neat and
admirably printed publication — which misses nothing,
and neglects nothing which can be regarded as coming
within its particular scope — will be the best index that
could be found for future historians of Peru.

CHAPTER IX

LitDft, the Cs|dUl— DMeripdoo of dty— CUiiwIo— EwlhqwkM— Hoom
dacorktion uid arehiuetara — PuUie pUe«« — AveniiM — pMita —
TmupoTUlioo— Clwritehle iiwUtnlioin HoroiUl* uid ujlunw—
Saburb*— Mlraflon*— ChorUIoa— BellftvUt^— DaUrnetion by CbilUa
Iroopa—Buhing— CmalliM of wmr.

TiiBKB art) in South America three cities ia particular
where one can live, and live with every comfort and
convenience. These are Buenoe Aires, in Argentina ;
Santia^, in ChUi ; and Lima, in Peru. I think, were
I to be compelled to make my choice, I would select
tht? liwt-uamed, since it is, to roy mind at leaat, the most
restful and the best regulated, from a police and
municipal {>oint of view, of any city south of Panama.
It is, moreover, a remarkably beautiful city, on account
of the many old Moorish relics and well-preserved
buildings of the Spanish times. The number of its
official buildings and public parks to-day is excep-
tionally lai^>, and they must have been almost unique
in point of elegance in the olden days.

The oonBguration of the city of Lima, which dates
from January, 1 535, when it bora the name of " Ciudad
do 1(18 lieges " (the City of Kings), is very irregular,
and somewhat in the shape of a triangle ; the base
rests on the river, which divides it into two parts. The
origituU extent of Lima was 22 cuadra$ or squares,
fnim east to west, and 14 from north to south.
Its present area exceeds 15,000,000 siiuare Castilian
rrtra«,* and its aspect is somewhat changed from, say,

• r«r«-» na, Of pob-ft|7M4ii, or »|fMt.
107

Digitized byGOOgle

108 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

fifty years ago, when it was surrounded by strong
walls, which had been first erected in 1683, during the
Viceroyalty of the Duke de la Palata. The wall was
only demolished in 1870.

Although exposed to the winds from the south and
west, the city is well sheltered by the mountains on
the north and east. These latter are spurs of the
great chain of the Andes, which run nearly north and
south for twenty leagues to the east of the Capital.
Westward the city commands a view of the Pacific
Ocean ; to the south-west one can see the island of San
Lorenzo ; and to the south aje visible the Morro Solar
or Morro of Chorillos.

There are only two seasons recognized in Lima, and
these are clearly defined — the summer and the winter.
There blow here many, and sometimes very aggra-
vating, winds ; but it is a mistake to say, as some
chroniclers have done, that it "never rains" in the
city.

I believe it would be more correct to assert that
continuous rains are unknown, bub towards the end of
April or the beginning of May the garuas — a very fine
rain, resembling our Scotch mist — sets in, and con-
tinues until November, with more or less intermission.
It Is very disagreeable, and not sufficient to necessitate
the use of an umbrella, but quite capable of producing
a moist and sticky feeling about the face and hands.
During the rest of the year these precipitations occur
only at the changes of the moon. In summer real
rain falls, but in heavy showers of very brief duration.
It can be intensely hot and as intensely cold at times.

The visitor to Lima must he prepared for earth-
quakes. The statement looks alarming, but, as a
matter of feet, it has been many years since any serious
seismic disturbance took place — a fact which does not,
of course, render a repetition any the more improbable.

1(tS0, 1(187, ^Ur^, 180<t, and 1S48. Upon as

vrage there are eight "quakes" — mild visitatioDS of

little moment — in the year. The abocks usually

poas from Bouth to north, following the direction of the

chain of muuntaioa.

PerhapB one of the most charming aspect* of lama
is that which is afibrdecl by the exqnintely carved
Moori^ faaloonies, many of which still remain, and ar«
cweftilly maintained, even the poorest tborougfafiirea
powaaing their shans. One also seea many modem
houses with their old-time " bird-cage " windovrs ; but,
gntierally qwakbg, these have been replaoed by
modern glaxad windows. While the streets do not
run in the direction of the four oardinal points, tbey
mostly intersect each other at right angks, framing
quant blocks of houses, called mantanait. As in most
fRtln- American cities, the rows of buildings are almost
1 as regards the number of houses which they coa-
n, there bcdog from thirty to fifty doorways upon
her side of the street Were it not for the many '
roob — the small amount of ruinfull rendering
peaked roofs unneoeasary — the city wouM present a
very handsome appearance from an elevatetl |>oiat!on,
^ith its numeroos brightly-Uled church roofs and
wples, its many magnificent GoTemment edifices,
the several semi-tropical parks and open spaces
bich exist. A goodly proportion of the private
I aim have tlieir well-kept and bo-treed pation,
Uh inner gardens, which lend additional colour to

or modem, as of old, public buildings lima pos-
leases many beautiful specimens. The first edifices
which were eivoted by Pisarro consisted of the

Coog

no PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Cathedral, the Government Palace, the Archbishop's
Palace, and the City Hall. The handsome church,
much modified, still stands upon the same spot, and
contains the embalmed body of ita pious, but piratical,
founder. The Government building, modernized in
every particular, stands as an official edifice, and has
been occupied continuously from the year 1535. The
first tenant was the great conqueror Francisco
Pizarro himself, some forty-three Viceroys following
him, of whom the last was Don Jos(5 de Lacerna, who
capitulated in 1824 to the Republican Army after its
victory at Ayacucho.

The chronicler is tempted to tarry lovingly in
describing this, perhaps the most interesting of all the
South American capitals ; but, unfortunately, the
insistent limitations of space and more prosaic require-
ments of to-day forbid. One is inclined to commit the
error against which Tacitus warns us, Vetera e.TtoUimus
recvntium incurio'd. Let me, therefore, proceed —
though xinwUlingly, I admit — to speak of Lima as it is.

Peru's modern Capital boasts of a population ex-
ceeding 150,000 souls. Among the residents wdl be
found some of the handsomest and straigh test-built
men, and undoubtedly some of the most beautiful
women, to be found in South America. It is quite an
exception to meet a really plain Peruvian, and almost
as seldom does the traveller encounter a poor one.

The city is divided into five quarters, comprising
ten districts, which, again, are subdivided into forty-
sis barrios. Of these different districts, some four are
merely suburbs or outlying parishes, the principal
divisions of the city being sb follows ; San Sebastian,
San Mai-celo, El Sagi-ario, Los Huerfanos, Santa Ana,
and San Lazaro.

The streets of Lima are what we Europeans should
consider rather narrow, measuring some 30 to 35 feet

PUBUC 8QUiVR£S 111

, bat they afford pleasant shado from the hot
san, which was the une thlnf; which jirvnipted th«
Spaniards to tlios construct tbutn. Formerly, a
■urfiMse-draiuagu and aewerage rendered Lima any-
thing but pleasantly odoTDtta; but to^y there haa
been a ver}' good underground amrerage aystom intro-
duced, and with which all of the bouses within the
eaty boundaries are connected.

Id do South or Central American city will you Bnd
a haodsonier open qtaoe than the Fluza Mayor, which
oooupies the very centre of Lima. Flanking this
Hirge BquarH is the im[>06ing C-athodral. and which
Hboupied ninety years in the building. On the west
^Ue is the Municipal FaUoe, and on the north side
stand the ejtt«asiT<e range of buildings known an the
Oovemment— once the Vkeroy'ii — Pubicu. The fourth
side of the square is oocupltKl by private residences,
shops, and a buge club building, lUl of which are in
keeping with the main structures, and have in oolour
been mellowed by time into ono bomogeneous whole.
Magnifioeutly kept gardens, with a wealth of tn^ical
tiees and flowering-shrubs, occupy the centre of the
Plasa, and here, as in all I^tin-Americnn cities, fore-
gather, of an aflt-moon and evening, the " rank,
fuahion, and beauty " of tho Cajiital — in the case of
Lima ull three being adniinilily rfpreaented.

The space which was funuvrly occupied by the wide
and olmnsy-looking tuLtbt wall, built, as already
observed, in 1689, and demolished in 1870, is now
being utilised for some ha n dsome boulevards, which
will soon entirely surround the dty, and provide
tborough&rss for the use of riden, drivers^ and
pedestrians. Already some of these arteries have been
oomplet«d and opened to public traflio. tbe Bologpesi,
the Oraa. and othefs^ fonnbg a oootinaous pfuAt,
stretehing from tbe river and passing around the city.

,c;ou

112 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUHY

Yet another delightful driveway is the Avenida,
leading from the town of Magdalena to the city of
Lima, about three and a half miles in length. This
thoroughfare measures 125 feet across, and is shaded
by a quadruple row of palm-trees. Mention may be
made also of Avenida de los Descalzos {Barefooted
Friai's) which skirts the banks of the river and forms
a wide public walk ; this is adorned at intervals with
handsome statuary rei)resenting the twelve signs of
the Zodiac, the intermediate spaces being occupied by
graceful urns, marble benchea, well-kept flower-beds,
and brilliant green grass-plots. In length the avenue
is two-thirds of a mile, and it commences at the foot
of San Cristobal hill — altogether a very charming,
reposeful promenade at all times of the year.

Avenida Arco is a favourite " short-cut " leading
from the outlying districts to the city ; it extends
from the old stone bridge crossing the river to
the modern Balta bridge. The recently completed
Columbus Avenue is about one-third of a mile long,
125 feet wide, and it connects the Exhibition Square
with the Bolognesi Square, being built in the form of
the arc of a circle, and traversing the modern quarter
of Lima.

There are altogether some five-and-thirty public
squares to be found in Lima, which compare with the
sixty-seven churches. Of notable monuments there
are likewise a considerable nimiber, the most con-
spicuous being five which . are known throughout
South America, and have formed the subjects of
postal-cards which have probably been sent to every
quarter of the globe. I refer to the mighty Columbus
monument, built of pure marble, which represents the
Genoese discoverer raising from the ground a poor
Indian woman, one of the many, probably, that he
ruthlessly sold into slavei-y ; to the bronze and marble

PUBLIC SQUARES 113

>, the groat Lilicmtor;
[ay ") moimmtint, oom-
7 tho brave Peruviana
■gainit the Spani'anls fn 1 B66 ; the Bolognrai monu-
nxint, dedicated to the memory of Colonel Francisco
BologiMiei. who lost hb life id 1880 in the defeooe of
Arioa Motto against the Chilian forcea ; and, pwbapa
the moat beautiful of all, the San Martin statue, whidi
Awnn that great man proclaiming the independence of
PertL There are seTeral other moomneots, but there
an none more inspiring than thesa

Under a auparate chapter I have referred to the
ttansportation arrangementB in Lima, so far as the
tramways are conceniMl. There are likewise a great
number of well-«quip|>ed cabs and eaninguL The
fonner are not only plentiful, and obtainable at all
hotira of the day and at rooet houn of the night, hut
the &res are extremely reasoiuible, and the Jehus
generally are a poUte and an amiable class of public

For inatanoe, one may traTel all nxmd the dty, and
within its limit*, for 30 cents for either one or two
paaengers ; three may travel for 40 oenta, and tour
for SO eenta. or, aay, for a tout uf la Children undw
seven yeara of age travelling with an ndult are carnecl
free, other children being ctiarg»l for at lU centa, or,
aay. 3^. eaob. By the hour the charge is 1 mU (2& ), and
SO oenta for every additional quarter of an hour. After
1 1 p.m. the fares are raised SO per cent

The many beautiful public parks and gardens of
which Lima is poasMHd may be seen to be tenanted
at most hours of the day. Beakles the tropical trees
and Aowiring beds of the Plaxa Mayor, where military
bands oocne to play admir&bly at oartaiu bouts and
Qpoo nasi days of the week, tboe are the Zoological
Oaideus. where, in addition to a great variety of wild

114 PERU or THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

animals and birds, are found some magnificently kept
gardens ; the Botanical Gardens, containing specimens
of every tree, plant, and shrub known in Peru ; the
Parque Col6n, fronting the Avenida, and a fashionable
drive known as Paseo Col6n, and also as the "Avenida
9 de DIciembre," which leads from the Bolognesi
Circle or Exposition Park, and thus forms a link in
the system of wide boulevards encircling the city.

The Parque de la InquisicicSn, which, bearing as it
does a somewhat sinister name reminiscent of Spanish
religious brutality and senseless persecution, forms
nevertheless a beautiful rendezvous ; the Alameda de
los Descalzos, noted for its exceptionally fine monu-
ments and statuary ; the Alameda de Acho, the tree-
lined drive constructed by the Spaniards, and leading
to the famous Cerro de San CristtSbal.

While very carefully tended and as carefully policed,
all of these places, being dedicated as they are to the
use of the public, are accessible at all times ; and no
officious interference is observable upon the part of the
custodians, such as one meets with from the same
overbearing class of menial in England and the United
States. 1 have upon no occasion observed any ten-
dency upon the part of the public, on the other hand,
to abuse their privileges, and for the most of the
people it may be said that they seem to be as zealous
in preserving orderliness and maintaining spic-and-
span the appearance of their recreation-grounds as are
the Grovernment or the municipalities which control
them. There is less litter from discarded paper,
broken bottles, and empty raeat-tins than can be found
in any London or provincial pleasure-ground.

The Spanish -Americans are naturally a very hospit-
able and warm-hearted people, and they seldom decliDe
to support their charitable institutions, or to dispense
" trge.ise among their less fortunate brethren. In years

L r.r .GoOtj

CHARITIES 115

t of this public ctiarity was oooductvd througii
meiiUility of th» Church : and It is eveo so
^to n limited extent. But there exist many
btct'lloiit iiiatitutions which are entirely detached from
rutigioufl frattimity, and these are very well
MpportMl by both the Government and by private
dividtuln.

' In severml of the cities and towns there are found
ititutions which are conducted and entirely sup-
by private charity, and the«e under ordinary
'i^umstAOces, and in most countries, would be r>und
eititer under Govumroont or municipal management
There are, again, curtain charitable foundations whicli
are aasisted financially by the authonticfl, who also con-
trol — by means of an official representative — all the
recapta and tlie expenditurea.

The Uma Benevolent Society is an institution which
has effected wime great amount of good, and which
oompares most favourably with any other similar body
of philanthropiata in either hemisphere. The revenues
exoeed 9li'>(>')i<^0<) annually, and out of these the
Boeiety entirely supports the Seoood of May Hospital,
a modem institution which aeeomnwdatM 1 ,000 patients
r both sexes. 1 1 alao partially mMntains the Santa
I Hospital for Women, which was founded in 1549
I ^t Bishop of Lima, MonsigDW J. Geronimo
i Loaixa, while it ajaista with finances and coutmls
miutageawmt of the Mntemity Hospital, the
of Midwifery, and the Military Hospital of
San Bortolom^. The same society is resixinsiUe for
the managvmout of th» Insane Asylum, ns well as
I Oqihan Asylums— one fur fouiwUingn and thu
' i>r|>han Imys — who are given a mund oim-
and industrial education or put to some
I trade.
The tastitut« SeviUa, foimded from the funds derived

Good

116 PERC OF THE TWENTIETH CENTITRY

from tho legacy bequeathed by Sefior Jos6 SevIIla,
educiites and clothes 100 girls, aud teaches them occu-
pations likely to be found useful in after-life. The
School of Medicine, which Is mentioned more fully
in another part of this volume (see Chapter VIII.),
is another excellent institution which effects much
real benefit to the community.

Nowhere in Lima — and I am almost tempted to go
so far as to say, nowhere in the Republic of Peru — will
one come across the same kind of abject poverty and
the hopeless human misery that continually con-
I'ronts one In the streets of London or New York,
or, indeed, in any of the large commercial centres
of England and the United States.

The noble human emotion of chai'ity seems to be not
alone more common in this country, but its definition
to be more libei-ally construed. The philosopher may
tell you that indiscriminate alms-giving is the cause of
much mischief; that it directly encourages vagrancy,
deceit, and voluntary degradation ; that it weakens
self-reliance, and, by thus demoralizing, keeps the
recipient on the downward course of professional
poverty resulting in absolute pauperism. To address
such an argument to a warm-hearted Latin-American
would be fruitless — he or she would fail entirely to
comprehend such casuistry ; and in all probability
would reply that full inquiries in every case of appeal
are impossible, and that in giving alms to their poorer
brethren they consider that tbey cannot be held
responsible for ultimate economic effects, which, at the
best, are purely speculative aud the subject of widely
different views. You will never dissuade a Southerner
from seeking to help the poor ; and the Peruvians are
open-handed and warm-hearted to an unusual degi'ee.

Lima is particularly fortunate in the situation aud
chai-acter of its environs — possessing as It does a

L),9,:zocCyGoO'

ftt)

■ur

likewEge ito satollite. La Panta. Bat there are Mira-
flom — meaning " behold the flowers" — Borraoco, and
Cborilloa. The finit-iuuned ia n picturesque little place,
nttiat«d ia tbo centre of a Urge oove or iolet of the
ooaatt and reoeiving the AiU beneBt of the agreeable
breeaea which blow here for the greater part of the
year from the aea. The witula are from the south-
went, and, as a rule, they are far from vic^ot On
aome oocaatcms they beoomu tempwtuous.

ChoriUoa is the Brighton of Peru, and, like our own
"Qaeen of Watering- Plaoes," it rose from a homble
fishiitg village to the dignity of a &ahi(mable watering-
place. Its former bumble inhabitants — Indians — have
migrated from its now sacred preciucta, and congregate
in a small and struggling village, aome distance up the
mountain>side, and called " Alto *— or " B igh Pern."

The town of Cborilkw baa now about 1,200 or 1,300
readenta. Befiire the war with Chile it was oven
hotter patronized than it is to-day, some of the
hooaes, according to photos that I have aeen, being well
appointed and roost artistically built. But the Qiiliana
came as oooqaerors. and the same savage spirit which
prompted them to ruthlessly destroy the prioele«
HS3. in the National Library at Lima induced them
to bum and d«ittn>y Cborillos, no that not a single
bouse es ca p e d deetructton or mutilation.

The town of Barranoo straggles along the edge of
an unoven cliff, about 100 feet above ■e^level, and
a covered deoline leads down to the seo-beadi where

lightlnl aea-bathing can be had. Frcon the terrace,
(ch has been formed on the side of the cliff,

dear outlook to loa, and occasionally some beautifVil
suiuct f ffeota, can be enjoyed. There is also an h)-draulio

118 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

elevator, not unlike the Lynton and Lyumouth lift in
North Devon. Chorillos, however, is by no means a
cheap place to live in.

Anc6n is another agreeable small suburb, but
situated farther away from the Capital, being distant
Bome 38 kilometres. It is a bathing- place, and pos-
sesses some very smooth and even sands which stretch
away for several miles. The town itself is ugly and
straggling, and the surrounding country extremely
bare of vegetation. But the climate is health-giving,
and many individuals who suffer from pulmonary
complaints can live in Anc6n when they cannot do so
in Lima. It is infinitely better than La Punta in this
respect, the atmosphere in that place being found
somewhat damp and humid.

Bellavista is situated some 2 kilometres east of
Callao, and was founded as a kind of temporary place
of residence after Callao and Lima had been com-
^_ pletely destroyed by the earthquake in 174G. It was
^^H mainly occupied by shipping people ; and here also
^^H were deposited the great stores of wheat which were
^^H purchased from Chile to feed the starving people. The
^^H original buildings no longer exist ; but others of a
^^H more substantial character have been erected on the
W site, and are connected with Callao and Lima by a

I short branch of the railway belonging to private

^^H owners.

^^H Once there was a handsome and commodious Govern-

^^™ ment factory at Bellavista, but the Chilians destroyed
r this, as they destroyed so many other things belonging

\ to the Peruvians — acts of archaic savagery which

^^^ nothing could, or ever can, excuse.
^^^L The Chilians, in waging their horrible wars, seem to
^^^B cany out to the letter the inhuman doctrine of that
^^^f other American — but " North " this time — General
^^^^ Sheridan, who declaimed that " the maiu thing in true

cyGoO'

N(ti

will long for peaoe, and pnm their Gorernmeot to
make it. Nothing should be left to the people but
eyea to lament the wnr." Such n leisoa was that of
uiifortunnt^ Peru in 18BI-I884.

Municipal nfioira in Lima appear to be singularly
well-managed. The Mayor poaseiMoa a tjrpically
EngUih name, " William Billin^arBt,* and be b both
Tery popular and very enterprising in his offidal
capacity. He has been in office nnoe January, 1909,
and at the time c^ liis election he found the munici-
pality in debt to the extent of £410,103. By the
month of February !n the following year he bad
reduced this amount to £367,41-2, and this year (191 1)
it will be still further diminished.

NerertbdeiB, Mr. Billinghurst has been unable to
the overwhelming and i rrop ren s ible deatre u|x>n
part of all lAtin- Americans to build a " National
.tre," and some considerable amount of money ts
iw to be expended upon this object. The new place
amusement is to be erected upon the Plasa San
^uan de Dios, near to the terminus of the Lima-Callao
e l ec tt ie railway. The sum expended to acquire pro-
pertaea which are found to stand in the way of the
naw structure alone amounts to £30,000.

The rerenaes of Lima Municipality are approxi-
mately between £100,000 and £105,000 per annum,
and the expenses amount to about the Hune.

Mr. KUingburst's father was an Englishman, and be
himself was bom In Arica in July, IH5I. He w««
ited a Deputy in I B7H to repr«epnt Iquiquo. In 1 880
was appointed Comnussiooor of Defence, to study
River DeMguadero and the Andine plateaux. He
ighl in tbe battles of 1881-1885, and when peace

.CuH)^^[c

120 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

came he was appointed Consul-Qeneral of Peru at
Iquique (now Chilian). In 1895 he became Yice-
Fresident of the Republic and a Senator. He is a
distinguished author of scientific works, some of his
publications having achieved European fame. He
makes a most excellent Mayor.

Digitized byGOOgle

CHAPTER X

Cost of living — ReoUlH — Hoasohold eipenditures — WageB — Domestics —
Mary Anne's paradiee — Native labourers— Japan eeo competition-
AtuD^an emigr&nla— Qovernment encoiinseiiient — Sport and amu>ie-
ment— Lima Jockey Clab— Regatta Club— lootbairB popularity —
Linw Cricket Club.

I The cost of living in Peru, compared with prices pre-

I vailing in Europe, is found to be decidedly expensive,

I unless one knows one's "way about"; for here, as

elsewhere in the world, the stranger is frequently

exploited by the native or foreign shopkeeper, and the

still more enterprising landlord. Today the neces-

Baries of life have advanced to a very high standard,

[ and the tendency is, if anything, to increase rather

^an decrease. In Lima itself, hotel rates are from

fiO to 30 per cent, in excess of what one would pay for

fce same value of board and lodging in England or in

any European town — Paris and St. Petersburg, perhaps,

excepted.

Had any traveller come to Peru in 1908, and had he

up housekeeping on his own account, he would

liave found a condition of things in existence rather

encouraging, in spite of the fact that even then prices

I were some 15 to 20 percent, higher than they had

rlieen. At that time many of the shops were selling

oda at very low prices, since most of them

I'TPere overstocked, the wholesale warehouses being

Kkewise choked and congested with European and

)rth American merchandise of practically every

121

Goog

122 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

kind. House-rents, however, remained high, in spite of
many new buildings going up in different directions.

Then followed a commercial and financial collapse ;
trade suffered a general set-back. Imports, as a con-
sequence, were much restricted, and retail prices com-
menced to again mount as these fell off.

To-day residents and visitors alike are suffering
from the action and reaction, and the cost of living is
found exceedingly heavy. The prices of some few
articles which prevail in the towns and coastal stations
alike are as follows : Sugar, which is grown in the
I country, costs 24s. per quintal of 100 pounds, or, say,
I 2fd. a pound ; while In Liverpool the same article is
sold at 9s. per quintal, or, say, at a little more than
id. per pound. Fresh meat ia so expensive that only the
well-to-do can afford to buy it more than once a
day ; fresh fish is hardly less so. Even rice, potatoes,
beans, maize, etc., grown in the country, are high; but
these form the ordinary food of the peon-clsiaB, and
must be purchased. As I have shown elsewhere, wheat
has to be imported, and this commodity, due to heavy
shipping freights and railway transport to the interior,
is put up in price by the retailer by some 50 per cent.
Rentals are nearly 40 per cent, higher thisyear than they
were, in spite of many new residences having been built
and the cheaper transportation rates to the subm-bs. In
Lima a small apartment, consisting of two or three
rooms in a quiet and not too fashionable quarter, costs
£4 per month ; while a small separate house, containing
five rooms, a kitchen, and the usual domestic offices
(often without a bath-room), costs from £7 to £8 a
month. For anything more pretentious — say, a house
with from eight to ten rooms, a small garden, and the
usual modern conveniences — anything between £10
and £l2 per month must be paid. Property-owners
calculate upon a rental of 10 sols (20a) for each room,

a)ST OF LIVING 1«8

i of water rate, municipal rates, police rates,
pablic lighting, or eltictrtc light.

The following comparative table. Bhowing the
advance in living rates in Lima and most of the other
towna in the course of some nine years (the difference
is very slight between the one and the other), may be
finuid of iDterest :

Birodltm.

In IMS.

In ini.

HoBlUy tmult (taa kbm) ...
WafMlpwrnoiuh)

W>tn lu (per m«iill))

OmI (pw Mokol ISO Um.)

j-j-^*.,^,.. ...

OwMlMeh)

SSWr-^'::: :::

X4
Coola,iai.

4«.6d.
B*.7d.
UudSd.
0d.

^ed.

UftL

Cooki,B>.

si.sd.

Sa.U.

Other artict(«, such as bam, beer, win««, salt, coffra,
tea, lard, beans, butter, matches, chiclcptmi, lentils,
rioe, and oondimeotA, have advanoed proportionately
between 40 and 100 per cent. On an amrage of nioe
yoora, the merease ibowa an average of between 65
and 95 per cent.

Employment is oomporatively easy to obtain
Ihronghout Pern, and in Lima, Areqnipa, Cerro de
Pasco, and other towns where Earopeons or Ameriauui
ore found in any namber, domestic servants are nsoally
at a pnunium. In fact, Pern may be tenned "Hory
Ann's Paradioe," and sbe knows it too. Clean,
dooMstioated, and fiuthfol female aervonts are obtain-

KoU the some, for the j*eon-e]ium, from whom th4*y
partly recruited, are very susceptible to Itimlly
tment, and am usually as willing to enter the
aarvioe of a fon^nsr as that of a native. Having

124 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

already given the wages of this character of service, I
add the remuneration paid to other wage-earners.
Clerks and governesses, unless they are engaged upon
contracts in the Old Country, and have these contracts
duly vised by the British Consul immediately upon
arrival, are strongly cautioned to proceed with their
engagements very carefully. They stand but little
chance of finding casual employment, and even if they
do so, they cannot always feel certain of being
regularly paid.

The rates for clerks range irom £250 to £350 per
annum, but, in view of the excessively high cost of
living, even the larger amount seems to be small.
Governesses of European birth are poorly paid, and
generally find that after providing for their personal
expenses they have but little left over from their
meagre salaries. Some German governesses, however,
whom I have met have expressed themselves as satis-
fied with their experiences. These ladies manage to
live, and even to save, when women of no other
nationality could do either, and they appear for the
most part to be quite contented anywhere, provided it
is not in their own country. The German — male or
female — but seldom expresses any sentimental legreta
in leaving the Fatherland.

Carpenters make from 4b. 6d. to IDs. per diem ;
masons, from 68. to 12s. ; blacksmiths, from 98. to 20s. ;
mechanics, from 9s. to 12s,; paintei-s and decorators,
from 8s. to 15s.; coachmen and grooms, from 20s. to
35s. per month ; gardeners, from 258. to 50s. per month
(in both these latter cases board and lodging must be
found, or the value added to the wages) ; electric-car
drivers earn 68. per diem ; hotel porters, 5s. per diem
and their full board ; male servants in hotels or private
houses, fi-om SOs. to 50s. per month.

While the Japanese are gradually making their

JAPANESE LABOURERS ISS

indaeoee felt oommercialljr w moat parte of the world,
ibey aoem to h&ve had ft particular partiality for Peru ;
and these enterprising people have succeedul in estab-
lishing a sound trading connection with the Rupublic.
There is a Consul- General — Mr. Tsuneji Aibo— who
speaks Sjianish as fluently as he does English, which
is equivolimt to saying like his mothcr-toogue. Mr.
Aiba asserts that tliere ore over 7,000 of hts couutr}'-
men in Peru, nnd that every year the number shows
an appreciable increase.

It is only since 1899 that the influx commenced^
the great [voportlou — luUy 80 per cent. — being men.
The nkojority of the Japanese labourers find employ-
ment on the sugar estates, and I have seen many
of tbem at work in thmr plodding, serious way.
modentely reliable in regard to ponctuaUty and
attention to their duties, but nnopproaobablc and
forbidding from a social point of view. Few of tbem
will consent to undergo the privations and danger*
attendant upon the occupation (^ rubber-ooHooting or
cultivation ; but some few ore to be found working
upon the ootton-flelds.

The avenge rate of pay amounts to 1 sol (worth
28.), about I yen of their own money per diem, and out
of this meagre wage they manage, fay extreme frugality,
to save a soffioiant sum to take tbam back to JajNin in
a few years. If tbey would oonseot to work in the
mbbo' IbuBts tbey would reouve 5a. per diem. But
there many wookl die off very speedily. In Japan any
utdinary Ubounu- can earn his Is. 6d. per diem, and
the eost of living is intinitely cheaper; so that it is
rather diflicutt to undentatul why theae emigrants
should oome awny so lar from home.

Upon investigation, I laamed that the Japanese who
hod been imported into Pern were found vety intel-
Ugeiit workmsn, and there m aume competition among

1S6 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

employers upon sugar estates, farms, and rubber-lands
for their services. Japanese ai'e also employed as
domestic servants, restaurant waitei-s, carpenters, plas-
terers, masons (but they cannot compare in these
capacities with the Italians), road- repairers, boat-
men, gardeners, fishermen, dairymen, and laundry-
men.

In Lima there are over 800 Japanese so engaged,
and in Callao there are about 150. In these two
cities the general employment which is followed is that
of barbers, the Capital possessing some 160 men and 7
or 8 women, and Callao 42 men and 2 women, all
of whom are hair-cuttera and shavers. The Japanese
Consul-General gives me the following further parti-
culai-s of the different occupations followed by the
Japanese in Peru : Small traders, 77 ; restaurant
keepers, 68 ; grocers, 45 ; carpenters, 54 ; and coal-
vendors, 19. Of factory hands there are between
30 and 40.

While, as I have observed, there are many em-
ployers of labour who would not only like to see more
Japanese employed in Peru, but who have made every
effort to procure the necessary number of men from
the Land of the Chysanthemum, it appears that the
Japanese themselves are not as keen as they used to
be to sell their labour to Peruvian employers.

Many rubber-pickers have been biought from Japan ;
but the Government of that country have latterly
introduced so many restrictions and insist upon such
onerous contracts being entered into, that the em-
ployers are unable to continue the introduction of this
kind of labour with any profit to themselves. Addi-
tionally, they declare that the class of workers now
sent over are utterly without morality or rectitude,
I that they are bad pickers, that they desert rapidly,
lleaving the contractor with the cost of the importation

,GoO'

JAPANESE LABOURERS 117

and tery little luorativu work to show as a aet'O
■gainak bis heavy outlay.

Upon ioquiriug the roaaoa — if this rt-ally be the c
— why Boy uffbrt at all should tie tntule to lutrodace
Japoiicw UilKiur ta thu rubl)tfr foresta, I wtu iufurmed
that this casual laiwur was found even worst*, and the
Indian peims more dithcult to deal with, being " ner-
vous, suspicious, aad uowilling to travel far from their
own native villages."

With the oxperieoco of the harah and eniel treab- j
ment which sooiu of thtsae nnlbrtunat« beings have met 1
with at thu hands ol'ovrtain European employers, it ifj
scaroely surprising to hear of their *' Dervousness " and I
" suspicion." No doubt the labour question iu Pern
will be sc'ttltxl in course of timv, as it has been iu
South Africa, in the West IndieH, in the Malay Penin-
sula, and in Ceylon. If the employors uodonitood
and praotiaed the virtue of kindness a Utile more than
they do, much of the pment trouble would not have

In Pent, as dsewhere thronghout the Christian
world, the coming of the Japanese has not buea r^ J
ganled with much gratificaUon ; and there is reason to I
bdieve that a strong popular movement would arise if' 1
the immigration became very much more prooounoed.
Further introduction into Peru of the Chinaman — who
is ever a more tractable and a leas assertive individual
than the Jap. and wboae bare word is more to \x^ trusted
than the Jap'n l>ond — has bee-n already tabooed {see Ap-
pendix). Latin-Americans, who are not, perhaps, the
BMt energetic worktirs on the boe of the earth,
fcar more active oompotitioo upon the part of the
yellow nian,androsL-Dt his intruniou acconlingly. Some
patriots of Peru — and asp««ially those who cordially
dislike to work at alt, and who never peHbnn any kind
of labuor if they can powUy avoid it — have already j

128 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

raised the parrot cry, " Peru for the Peruvians \" and
" Down with cheap Chinese labour !" Among the
excitable and free-thinking populace, a battle-cry like
this would be certain to secure a certain number of
adherents ; and thus some trouble — not necessarily of
any great importance — might have ensued had Oriental
labour made any great advance, as it threatened to do
as soon as business became more pronounced with
the opening of the Panama Canal. But the wise
Executive Decree of May 14, 1909, prohibiting further
introduction of Chinese labour, effectually prevents
this from occurring.

A very much more desirable class of emigi-ants are
the Austrians. A citizen of that country, Herr Ritter
Othmar von Hauck, holds a concession from the Peru-
vian Government to colonize a large area of ground,
extending to over 6,000 hectares of forest-land, and
which he has bound himself to distribute among 300
Austrian families, allotting to each of them about
20 hectares. The Government pays the third-class
passage of these people from a port in Europe to
Yuriman, situated on the Huallaga, an affluent of
the Amazi'mas, or Maranon. The travelling expenses
incurred on behalf of the emigrants from the port to the
settlement are borne by the concessionaire ; but these
are of little moment, since the distance traversed is
very slight. The concessionaire, ou the other hand,
receives an advance of £20 for each family of at
least three persons, and he is bound to maintain,
during five years, the same number of families for
which he has received advances.

What the Government has done for this enterprising
Austrian, I feel Jt would be willing to do for any other
individual of any other nationality who presented an
equally acceptable proposition. The advantages of
such a concession ai-e obvious, for in return for a trivial

CtOO'

SPORTS 1C9

c*x|)endituro upou his part, an outlay which is covered
over and over agaio by the contributioa received from
the GovernmcDt, he becomes the virtual owner of a
amall principality, situated in a hecdthy aiid ex-
tremely fertile r^on, and capable of almost unlimited
expansion.

Where so many English people reside, there ia
certain to he some attention devoted to sport; and
I liHvu found throughout Latin-America that it needs
only the slightest impetus to instil into the people a
sincere liking for manly sport, and that they pursue
it for sjiort's sake.

In Limii many kinds of open-air pastimes are
indulginl in. The winter racing season is from July
to I>ecemlN.T, and many programmes are carried
through. The Jockey Club of Lima, which may be
a>m|>ared for im{x>rtance or atHuence with the Jockey
Club uf Buenus Airtis, is a well-organized and well-
conducted institution* supported by the leading reu-
dents, both native and foreign, the meetings being
Considered as great social events. The President and
many of the Cabinet Ministers usually attend, while
several of the members maintain stables and enter
horses for the princijml events.

The oblong track, situatvd near the Past.V> C0I60,
mittsurus 1,600 metres (about 4,900 feet), and the
gnmd stand, which is a modern erection, will aocom-
mudate several thousands of s[H<ctatorB. Belong is
carrii>d on ujH>n the I'ari-Mutuel system.

Thfre is likt^wise the Union Hegatta Club, which ia
nmkiiig mmw prognvs in |K>pulanty.

I was c«>nsidfrably amused to read, in connectioD
with this L'nion. » re)M>rt of the meeting which took
place in the month of June. Iil09, from the gifted pen
of a local critic — one W. Scott Lorrie, contributed to
an English pubUcation — which, «tber innocently or

Digitized byGOOgle

130 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

deliberately, printed the ticcount "a8 she wae wrote."
Here is a portion of Mr. W. Scott Lorrie's beautlfid
contribution :

"Want of space prevents a more detailed description of this
regatta, the likes ot which ought to he encouraged, not only
among the Peruvians themselves, but also among we foreign
residents who are such enthuaiaatical sportsmen,"

What a pity that "space prevented a more detailed
description " ! Conceive how amusing it might have
proved !

Football seems to have an altogether extraordinary
fascination for Latin-Americans, although it was a
game entirely unknown to them before it was intro-
duced from England. Lima and Callao are very
severely " bitten " with the mania for furious footbaU,
and during the months of October-May it is played
perpetually. Most enthusiastic are the players ; and,
moreover, they play extremely well. The Callao team
have a very competent captain in Mr. Joseph Dodds.

The Lima Cricket and FootbaU Club is another
well-patronized coterie of sport-loving men, and their
games are watched by considerable crowds of inter-
ested spectators composed of Ijoth sexes. Peru has
not yet witnessed the degrading spectacle of women-
footballers orwomen-cricketers; andwith the knowledge
cue has of the true femineity of Peruvian ladies, there
is no probability of their emulating the hoydens who
exhibit themselves to satisfy their own vanity and the
vulgar tastes of the ragamuffin class In England.

CHAPTEU XI

PoUk wortliip— Fnadom fnntad — tnlolanuM* ol bnlgn nuMionarM
— Cluriu of CatboUo priaaU— FtMitloo ot Engliih Cburah in Para—
Lau tad praMDt fhmplain in Uuw— BrMklog >w«t from nrlartljr
control — DbhopriM tod curaeiM — UmA CkUMdnl — VMwibU
Churcb pPMewloiM — TabUe procMiloM — lUligloiu MntlM at
Arcqolpk— lUvarant >U)Uid« of populaoe.

In Bpitc of the fact that a clause (Article 4) io the
Constitution of the Republic maiotains that " The
nation profeasi* the Apoetolic Roman CathoUo religion ;
the State protects it, and does not permit the public
worship of Any other," under no lAtin>American
Government is there greater freedom for, and licence
accorded to, alien religions than in Peru. This is all
the more remarkable in view of the fact that the
Peruvians still maintain the most complete adheuon
to Rome, and in spite of the wholly aggressive and
objectionable manner in which certain Protestant
missionaries have come to the country to stir up
revolt and rebellion among the poor and ignorant
Indians against the teaching and the influence of the
Church.

The attitude of scMne of these doubtless well-meaning,
Init quite tactless, people has been little less than
scandalous, and it speaks volumes for the good-natured
tolerance of the Peruvians generally, and of the eccle-
siastical authorities in particular, that persistent and
fanatical busybodies should have been left almost
entirely unmolested. When the Hormoni came to
England lately they were roundly denounced by the
ISl

Digitized byGOOgle

182 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

halfpenny London Press, and practically hounded out
of the country. This was done in the name of
" religion," nearly all of the most bitter opponents
being found among members of the clergy, certain
notoriety-loving Bishops and minor Church dignitaries
(who hope one day to become Bishops) joining in the
hue-and-cry, and forgetting all about their " Christian
charity" in the very human love of the pursuit of
rivals who seemed destined to become too successful.

What if the Peruvians had behaved similarly, and
had chased out of their country the noisy and meddle-
some male and female missionaries who, not content
with invading Peruvian religious territory and violating
the conditions under which they, as foreignera, were
permitted to reside in the country, resorted to anathe-
matizing and vilifying the Catholic priesthood in
special illustrated volumes and countless newspaper
articles, women, as usual, taking the lead in this
unworthy crusade.

How few of these fanatics, I wonder, ever remember
— how many of them ever knew of — Carlyle's words
upon the question of religion ? " It is unworthy of a
religious man to view an irreligious one either with
alarm or aversion, or with any other feeling than
regret and hope and brotherly commiseration." The
Protestant missionaries in Peru cannot even plead the
excuse of dealing with iiTeligious individuals, for the
poor Indians of that country are, of all people, the
most blindly devotetl to their faith, which forms,
indeed, the only sheet-anchor to which they can cUng
during their usually dull, featureless, and exceedingly
hard lives. And yet it is this consoling faith, this one
tangible, throbbing hope, of which the Protestant
missionaries would forcibly deprive them, offering
them in substitution nothing but a rhetorical confusion
of thought, a paralyzing doubt as to their ultimate

Digitized byGOOgle

MISSIONvVRIES 133

Bitlvatiun, and a veiled dtstnut of tbeir bust, their
only, friends — the jirleetB.

I ain nut a Catholic in belief, and have no religious
|in'judipcs whiitfviT. but I have Seen so much n-al good
WlV-clcd by (!iitholic prltiits among thi* very |>oor and
ignorant of tht! Indian races, and I have witnifwd so
nmiiyrrassfuilun-s among their rivals in the "Bjiiritual
tiUHintf»" to improve uiK>n their methods or to emulate
their di.siiiten-ste<) charity, that I cannot but regard
the iittempt to convert the Peruvian Indians from
(*iitholicism to PriiteHtantisni us an act of unmistakable
|m«uni|)ti(]n and stupidity. These self-apiHtinted
guanlians of other [uttple's souls u'ould eiideavuur to
inflict u|M>n their innocent pupils beliefs which they
citnnot understand, let alone accept ; we see the
same bigoted class of individuals expending other
|>eople's money u[x>i) the conversion of one Jew, who
is piiiljably starviug or demented by trouble, from the
fuith which his ancestors professed and practised
thduwinda of years ago, and which is the very founda-
tion of their i>wn omvictions. Well might Lucretius
excliiim ill bis "IK* Iterum Nutura" — TuHtum reliifio
fvluit nuiutert nuilorum.

Tliere can be no question that the English C'hurcb
ill Stuth Ainerioa la in a wry |iarlouH condition, and
Ro s<-ri<>iiH is itH state of ineHiciency and so pronounce<l
the lark i>f tunds that the BiHbop of the Falkland
Inhiiids, the [{igbt Itevtn-nd Dr. V. I>. Blair, in wh(«u
vast diocese in included Peiii, hits during the jiast few
months b«fn in England on a canviuising tour fiir the
pur|HiBe of exciting public intei-est— ami incidentally
c<ill*-cting funils — ftir his Mission. Tlie English schools
under his lonlship's widetipreitd jnriiwliction have long
tM-eii c|i«e«l for luck of fumlK to Aup|Mtrt them, and
llr. Blair thinks that for the puriNise of putting the
Church u|>un u thoroughly sound Hnunclal basis at least

Digitized byGOOgle

134 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

£100,000 is necessary. The Bishop has, at least,
backed his opinion by a notable contribution out of
his own by no means too large salary, heading the list

[ of donatious with a sum of £500, in the form of a
personal guarantee for the immediate discharge of the
most pressing debts. Having thus evinced his deter-
mination to carry out uigently the much-needed
reforms, it is sincerely to be hoped that British resi-
dents throughout the length and breadth of South
America will come to his aid, and show, in a similarly
practical form, their readiness to promote the welfare
of the English Church in South America. Nothing
which I have said regarding the methods of certain
missionaries carrying on propaganda in Peru bears
reference to the work performed by the English
Church in South America — work which has been the
means of spreading much moral and intellectual en-
lightenment without violating the laws of decency and
hospitality.

For some three years the Rev. A. Miles Moss acted
as Chaplain to the Anglo-American Church at Lima,
and although not ranking els an eloquent preacher, he
succeeded in thoroughly endearing himself to the
mixed congregation of British and Americans, who
were unfeignedly sorry to lose his services. Mr. Moss
was successfnl also as a photogi-apher, author, and
conversationalist, and he was generally esteemed as a
very pleasant companion.

' As a naturalist Mr. Miles Moss has discovered many
rare species of butterflies, and has, through some
readable articles, made known some hitherto unsus-
pected regions for travellers and entomologists.

Upon his departure from Lima in the early pai't of
last year (1910) his place was filled by the Rev. W.
Duncan Standfast, B.A. Oxou. {Jesus College), who is
the Resident Chaplain.

B>Good

ENGU8H CHURCH IN PERC IM

(ServicM atv held in tlw wull-built ami conifurtAble
tie cliui-ch, Bituated in the CtiUe Fuciii', Lima, on
«r}- Sundiiy at 10 a.tn. On the first niid third
SondayR in tliu month Holy Comniuniun is hdil aflur
Hatinn, on other Sundayi at 9.1^ a.in., and on SaJntA*
dayi and Httly tlayi at 8.30 a.m. Erenaong and
Sermon days are chosen on the second Sunday in the
month, and choral Evenaong, without sermon, on the
last Sunday ; while children's scrriooe take place orury
Sunday at twu in the atlemooo. Id Callao aervioes ore
' 1 under the audioes of the same incumbent every
inday. Holy Communion being at B ojn. and Even-
ng, with scnnou, at 8.15 [>.m.
The po«tion of the English Church in Peru is
peculiar. It ia t^Jorated, but not encourag«l, and
there seema ksa neceouty for any special attention
npoQ the port of the authorities on account of the
apathy shown by the English-speaking community
' 1 attendance at public worship or in support of the
Iturch's maintenance.

\ While the Church of Rome ooDtboes to hold the
fority of Peruvian women seeor^y within its folds,
while the attendance of such devotees at early
and both day and evening servioes is remarkably
eooonrtging to the priesthood, the men on the whole
have broken away from the control onoo exeroised over
them, and are inclined to argue upon the tenets of
Cbnstianity. even denying its Divine influence.

Some of tbem will t«ll you that it is quite easy to
ocoouut for Christ's appearance and eSiiCt upon the
mat of the world upon purely natural grounds ; that
He come at a time when the okler oiviluution of the
olosnool world was disintegrating ; when Rome, having
beoome the mistreM of Empires, was bang gradually
nined by her luxury ; when her Ave institutions,
Ispted to a city, bad proved inoompatiUi! with thu

136 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

demands of a military empire, and her religion had
melted before the wider couception of the brotherhood
of man as taught by the Stoic philosophy, when
philosophy itself was being lost in mysticism, and the
world was anxiously looking for some new religion.

All this, and much more, we have heard before, but
not from the lips of people still professing and practis-
ing the Roman Catholic faith. Thus one is struck by
the general feeling which seems to have spread among
the male population in South America generally, and
where attendance at Church celebrations, except upon
extraordinary occasions, is very meagre. Moreover,
the Peruvians have witnessed the many abuses which
their Church has committed in times gone by, and
with the growing education of the upper and middle
classes and the broadening of the mind by occJiSioaal
travel abroad, the Peruvians are commencing to think
for themaelvea, and to refuse to submit any longer to
the dictation of men in matters of conscientious belief.

But it is not only among the Catholic churches that
the attendance at Divine worship is falling off. In
practically all of the Latin-American States which I
have visited I have been informed by the Protestant
Chaplains (where there had been any) that it seemed
useless and hopeless to endeavour to inspire the
British residents with religious fervour or to induce
them to support their Church more generously, or if
they could not afford to contribute towards its main-
tenance, at least to encourage the priest in charge by
attending the services.

Except when there is the attraction of a travelling
Bishop or a memorial service, the attendance does not
usually exceed a score of worshippers, of whom more
than one-half are always composed of women. No
amount of argument or persuasion apparently influences
the absentees, You may tell them that attendance at

:yGood

ROMAN CATHOUCS AND THE CHURCH 187

Bome plnce of worship ia the only means, moral and
iDtellectual, of enlightenment, and by absenting them-
selves they influence others to do the same thing.
One Englishman to whom this argument was addressed
in my hearing replied that in his opinion " honesty
ought to be the first principle in every man's life " ; and
OS " he did not believe in the Christian religion, and
as liis wife was a Roman Catholic, he preferred to
remain away," more especially, he added, "since he
was always occupied during the week, and found
Sundays the only days upon which he cuuld obtain a
game of golf."

The South American Missionary Society, which has
an annual income of over £36,000, should be able to
do sumetliing in Peru without creating a hostile
feeling, and, in fact, it has effected a certain amount of
good ; but much remains to be accomplished, and
much that might bo avoided, especially in the way of
making fewer enemies among the Catholic priests,
which bad policy has resulted in so much bitter feeling
and opposition against Protestant missionaries.

Tim Ilepublic of Peru for religious purposes is
divided into nine Dioceses or Bishoprics : Lima, which
is the seat of an Archbishop ; C'hachapoyos ; Trujillo ;
Huaraz; IIuiinuc4>; Ayacucho ; Cukco ; Puno; and
ArtHiuifML The Bishoprics are again divided into
curacies, which are in charge of curate- vicars, the
t^ital number being Cl:i, distributed as follows :

Uioran. I'ancfaw.

Uma lAnbbbbowfe) flS

Cntco I Buboprk) ...

AfMiilp* (Bbbonrie)
TrojlUolBW -^

. ^iBIItbopri
llu&nueo iBUwpciel

TrajUlatBUMwk) ...
Aneuebo (Bbhoprk)
C'tMrtupojoa (Bkbopric)

ISino (Htabowie)
Uiwu (BMhoiirw) .

Digitized byGOOgle

'138 PEIIU OF THE TAVENTIETH CENTURY

With regard to the number of places of worahip
which are to be found in Peru, I have never been able to
meet with anyone who could tell me exactly or, indeed,
who had any very definite idea upon the subject. Pre-
sumably the ecclesiastical authorities could satisfy one's
curiosity ; but, as a rule, these gentlemen prefer to
" lie low," like Brer Rabbit, and to say as Httle about
the Church and its possessions as possible. They have

in or heard of results of the struggle between the

Ihurch and State in Mexico, in Chile, in France, and

Portugal ; and they have no desire to attract any

idue amount of attention, for fear that almost its

it stronghold in Latin-America — which is Peru —
lay be assailed and perhaps taken.

When one comes to remember that in Lima alone
ihere exist sixty-seven different churches, and that
each one of the many towns and villages possesses from
ten to twenty places of worship, it should not be a
difficult matter to Ibrm some estimate of the total
number of churches, and which may be put, conserva-
tively, at 1 ,700 — a sufficient supply, one would say, for
& jjopulation of a little more than 4,000,000 !

I have been privileged to view most of the famous
churches of the world, to study especially the histories
and constructional features of those of Spain, of
Portugal, of France, and of most of the Latin-American
States. It is a difficult task to decide which among
them all appeared to be most impressive or most
beautiful. Certainly, the Cathedral of Lima, hand-
some as it is, cannot be given the preference, since,
whatever may have been its architectural attractions

(before the great earthquake of 1746, its present aspect
fa somewhat prosaic, and even commonplace, compared
irith some of the noble religious edifices of the Old
World. Descriptions exist of the church as it
Dpeared in 1625, shortly afler it had been consecrated,

>Goo'

PLACES OF WORSHIP 199

r yeats bAvtng Uhui taken tu oooatruct it. No
loubt it was tbcn a Btrikiii^ and oMtly udiHou ; but
bctieally Dothuig was left of it after the awful
leUmic TiflitAtioD of 1746.

Till? church wna rebuilt on exactly the Bame Rito,
|ii*l wai unoe again aolemnly dtxlioated in 1758. It
now three navea, eaofa one ooosistiDg of nine
xhn, or raulta, the two aisles being f<Hined of ten
cupels, in one of which — close to the main ctitraiico
— arc exposed the mummied remains of FraiiciiKxi
PiEarro, its fuundur. The only really remarkable
Wdod-carving is that of the choir and stalls, made of
ctxhu- and mahogany ; bat there are, on the other
hand, several yery valuable paintings, ocm being by
If iniBob depleting La Veronica ; then is also a Bem-
bnuidt.

Tlie impreanon which is gatiwd after repeated
visits to the Cathedral is one of its great vastness —
emptineas ; for upon rare oecasioDa only have I seen
its huge ^Nioe completely occupied by worshippem.
The Corinthian stylo has predominat<^, aiid it may be
oliot<d in the many fluted columns with their capitals,
hitraves, and friezes deoorated with sculptures in
ni-rvlief ; in the second story, which is composed of
1 pilasten, and in the second and third parta of
wndiGBW main portals, the lower port being
Among the relics are "a piece of thu Tnie
Cross." sent by Pope Urban VIII., and of St Julian,
St. Sebastian. St Adrian, St Manna, St Satumines,
. Faostos, and of oumerous other martyrs.
Other Lima churches of note are the Segrario and
iap(d-of-Ease of the Orphans ; the pairiah choreh, eon-
taining elevvn altars and one Sue eluipcl-ofeoae : Sauta
Ana, fouuded iu 1572, with eleven altars and one in
the obapel-of-«aae ; San Sebastian, built in 1561 with
thirteen altan ; San Marcelo, alao with Uurtonn ; San

140 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Lizaro, founded in 1563, with a hoepital attached;
San Pedro, the Jesuits' Church, with some notable
wood-carvings ; San Francisco ; Santo Domingo ; San
Agustin ; and the church of the monks known as
Descalzos, or barefooted friars. I have insui£cient
space at my disposal to record even the names of the
many convents and monasteries which flourish, and
which are saJd to contain enormous wealth in the form
of gold and silver plate, bejewelled altars and costly
vestments. As a specimen of the riches which are
hidden away in some of these dark and little-visited
convents, I attach the inventory of but one — that of
the Sisterhood known as Nuestra Senora del Bosario
(Our Lady of the Rosary) — which information was
placed at my disposal by an obliging priest :

WEiaHT OF SILVER SEBVICE OF THE ALTAK.

MoTOa.'

Barrow far carrTiog relioa of aunts ...

. 1,002

Twelve lampi

782

Front olftlt&r

297

Virgin's throne

411

Colomns mtd fitting of tabernacle

887

Dooraofsama

241

Doow of Virgin's niche

103

Four high taper stands
Six smoUer taper-stands

223

. 150

Arches of the niohe

152

Twenty taper-huidles

. 202

Or, a total of

. 3.960

Or,s

. 89,600 ounces troy

But this was not the whole value of the precious
ornaments concealed in this one convent, for the
RemonstraDce contained :

1,804

Bnbies

622

Emeralds

1.029

Amethjais

Topazes

Pearb

121

* The marcQ of otuot— 10 oimoes troy.

>d by Google

CHURCH RICHES 141

wliUe the Virgin's crown, which was only placed upon
the head of the figure at high festivals, contained, I
wns assured by the same informant :

itoblM 103

EmanMa ISO

Dwdanu in briUiMita 8

Biogi in brUliuiU 39

Bin>iLll brilliuiU 4

The Lima churehvs celebrate annually 459 festivals,
while .19,607 Masses are said, of which 19,506 are paid
fttr by the ditlerent brotherhoods. The total number
uf |)ersons emjiloyed in religious services, or in taking
cire of the churches, is 1,836, including both monks
and nuiiB.

Public processions and other nationiil functions ID
South Ameriai vary but little from such ceremonials
which take place in most other countries, except that
they nearly always partake of a religious or semi-
rt-ligiuus character. No procession is cousidered com-
plete without some visible symbol of the Clu'istian
faith, borne aloft in the form of a highly-gilded figure
uf the Saviour or of some saint, or a simple crucifix
caiTi(.-«l with all the solemnity of a High-Church festival
iukI to accom[Minying slow music. The Latin people
l<ivu to witni^s, even if they do nut all firmly believe
in the sanctity of, a ffligiuiis procession ; and the fact
thul all the display of |>unip antl circumstance costs
nothing to see is, as with mot>t iiationalititv, a dt«ided
iiltractiou. Peru is still the home — one might say the
Ktronghohl -of the Catholic (.'hurch, and the priests
maintain the |)upulur interest in its proceeilings by
iirgMnizing fretjuent n-ligious proceasions and n-niiuding
th«^ |M>puluce of the existence of their places of worship
Ity the continual ringiug and clanging of the church-
liflls day and night, es[>ecially at night.

An njten-air function of this kind ia usually blessed
with the two iudispeuaable agents of spectacular

Digitized byGOOgle

142 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Buccess— a brilliant sunlight and a cloudless sky.
Let me describe one such scene. In Arequipa, the
second largest town in Peru, on a certain Sunday in
June, a contingent of troops is about to depart for the
frontier, there to defend, if may be, the encroachment
of the belligerent Ecuadorians. To-day they are to be
blessed by the Bishop outside the Cathedral, after the
celebration of an open-air Mass. There is, however, to
be observed but little " enthusiasm " as we Northerners
understand the term ; no tightening of the heartstrings
and contraction of the facial muscles as the military
companies come swinging by in — it must be admitted
— excellent order and in perfect step ; no nervous lump
arises in the throat from restrained emotion as the
solemn strains of martial music herald their approach ;
no feeling of sorrowful exultation as the flower of the
Republic's young manhood tramp stolidly along on the
probable road to death. The Peruvians, nevertheless,
are far from being an unemotional people ; only their
emotions do not show themselves as they do with us,
and they are not excited by similar causes.

The Arequipa PlAza is looking its loveliest in its
Spring garb of green grass and greener trees ; its flower-
beds are filled with brilliant-coloured semi-tropical
blossoms, its many stone statues and garden paths are
neatly trimmed and flagged with multi-coloured tiles.
Even the surrounding buildings, many still in the
state of semi-ruin in which they were left by the dis-
astrous earthquake of August, 1868, look less dilapi-
dated and forlorn in the scintillating sunshine ; and
with the decorations of red and white pennons and an
abundant display of the national flag, as well as with
the roofs loaded with groups of brightly- dressed women
and well-attired men watching the proceedings from
;this vantage ground, the scene is gay and attractive
inough.

cyGood

REUGIOrS CEREMONIES 143

Ewry poaublu iklaoe, indeed, » occii)>icd by aiglitsevrs,
but not a aound ia beard, and only the faiiiteat of
patriotic eothusiasm is to be obeervoiL Within th«
^)atbedral gates a great tbrong ban atrendy assembled.
BLn opoa-air altar has been erected, where snlemn Mass
Brill be said ; the back of the altar is draped with a
BbrofusioD of coloured |>aper Qoweniaiid gaudy streamere,
Brbile the front ts occupied by a iifo-sixe figure of the
^rgiu Mary carrying the Infant Saviour, the former
being dedced out lu sky-blue velvet, much Iacc, and a
crown with luany jewels upon her brow, while the
Utter is attired in orange aud green satin. Tlie whole
is surmounted by a caitopy of crimson velvet and gold
f embroideries, the altar table being, however, of ordinary
■^ik calico with a lace oovering used as tabledotb.
FThe tiled steps in front of the Cathedral have been
fumisbed with a carpet and many orimMia velvet chairs,
which are oooupiod by the adraooe-guard of tbe officia-
ting clergy, tbe contingent of white-habited Fathers,
and a number of white and red suqiUoed choIrbo}-8.

The mihtary staff now arrive to a sound of iusi>irtt-
iog martial strains, but they are lefl to find their
places H best tbey can upon ordinar}* cao»-bottonR>d
chairs. Tbey are followed by a procession of young
girb from eight to fifteen years of age attired in white
muslin frocks and with long, floating whit« tulle veils,
their eldur sisters being oostumod in Uaek, with black
iniintillas, liice mittens or kid gkive*. Each little girl
goes down on her knees, and remains there presumably
in prayer, but ra&lly busUy occupied in viewing her
novel Burrouodioga. Many top-hstted and fmck-ooated
geotlamen, and many more who are attii^l in tbe
ordinary lounge suit, crowd in until the whole of tbe
ooouponts of the railed-off portion of tbe Cathedral
approsoh are psoked ss clossly as are sardioaa in a box.
All are wwting lor "Boiw^iody,'' and the Somebody

^GootJ

144 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

tarries aggravatingly. Nine, half-past nine, ten and a
quarter-past ten are struck by the Cathedral clock,
and many intermittent outbursts of the jangling bells
and military calls from the massed bands lead to
expectation as to a commencement at length — only,
however, to end in further disappointment.

In the meantime, the PUza approaches and broad
roadways surrounding it have become more closely
packed with troops, the public being hemmed in more
and more towards the pavements, and forced into the
doorways of the shops and houses surrounding the
square. Finally, at 10.30, the strains of a solemn chant
are heard ai'ising from the military band and the choir-
boys, and then, all present uncovering, Monsignor,
habited in full episcopal raiment, jewelled mitre on
head and silver crozier in hand, emerges slowly from
the interior of the Cathedral, and the Blessing of the
troops and the coloura commences. The Mass itself Is
colourless, and only those in immediate proximity to
the Bishop can hear a single word of the service. To
all others the continual bobbing, bowing, and genuflec-
tions of the heavily-clad celebrant appear almost
pantomimic ; nevertheless, all are perfectly reverent,
and as one casts one's glance over that great silent
multitude of men and women worshippere, with un-
covered heads and on bended knees in the roadway,
prostrate on the hard flags of the PUza paths, on the
housetops and before the Cathedral itself, the scene
appeal's unquestionably impressive. The troo[)8 alone
remain standing and covered, their arms gleaming and
scintillating in the sunshine, their brown and bearded
faces all attention and of solemn expression.

The Mass at length is over ; the Benediction is due.
The whole congregation is once more on its knees, with
bowed heads in the bright, hot sunshine ; the silence is
intense. The episcopal voice is now almost resonant,

B.Goo'J

CHURCH CEREMONIES 145

and with bia face to the expectant maltitude the
Bishop's words sound loud and carry far. With one
hand grasping the croEier and the other uplifted with
the fingers separated, the Blessing is pontifieaUy be*
stowed ; the worshippers remain for one brief moment
in silent prayer, and then the ceremony is over.
Hunsignor turns his embroidered and bejewelled back,
awl departs with his clerical train ; the big Cathedral
doors engulf them speedily fztxn view. The crowd
u]K>n the Cathedral steps b^ns to thin and to melt
liway ; the military aasistauta at the choral effects
miirch off to a spirited air ; the sound of trumpet-calls
and the roll of drums proclaim the fomung of the
troo|i8 into companies, and these, too, swing off with
their officers, seated upon their prancing steeds, at
their head ; and preeently the Pliza is almost deserted.
The housetops are once more given up to the undis-
puted possession of the refuse-eating turkey-buzzard ;
the bells cease to deafen the air with their oUmoroos
tonguM, and the usual calm of Sunday — the same all
the world over, in the thronged city as in the kmdy
desert, unmistakable, inexplicable — reigns again on-
disturbed.

Digitized byGOOgle

AgncultQre — Snaar huebandrj — Frospects of the industry —Earl; onl'
UvatioD and Grst factory — Beasona given (or retaining ancient
moohinerj — Typical mill described — ClasseB of rollers DBed^Procesa
of maQutaotore— Type of machinery DecesEary — Principal Bugor
estates on coast of Peru — Santa Barbara factory —Extracts obtained —
VoriouB inatallalions deaoribed.

Little or nothing is known in England coDcerniog
the immense sugai' industry of this RepubHc — a fact
which ia not sui-priaing when, even in Peru itself, there
seems to be a paucity of information to be obtained
concerning either the extent of the sugar cultivation
or details as to its manufacture. It is necessary to
proceed fixim estate to estate and from individual to
individual in order to secure any reliable data, a
singular ignorance prevailing on the part of one pro-
prietor or manager concerning the doings of his nearest
neighbour or rival ; and yet it may be said that the
sugar industry is already one of the greatest supjrorts
of industrial Peni, and is destined to become a more
important factor still in its welfare, and this in the
immediate future.

It is interesting to note that while sugar-cane was
not known in Peni at the time of the conquest by the
Spaniards, the fii-st plantation was laid out in the year
1570, the cane used for the purpose being brought to
Lima from Mexico. It was in the beautifiil and fertile
valley of Hudnuco that the fii-st factory was estab-
lished, and it is told by the historian and man of
letters, Don Ricardo Palma, in his " Tradici^nes

SUGAR CULTIVATION

innas," that, finding his sognr ooukl not oompeteJ
1 that <>r Mi-xiai, the owner of the Iluiltiuoo fac
irU<(l lu a cIl-vlt stratagem, which was to send to^
n shi]t loaded with Huinuco Bogar. The
producers swallowud the bait, for they sup-
i'tfaat to Bend their HUgar to Peru whs lut much mi
1 " H^Murtia to BerlM-'ria," fur the {iroiluction
iabumlant then- and thu price Very low. FnMn
that day forward the Mexicans cwumI to send sugarJ
from Acnptilco, and t he sugar industry began
" "i iu Peru.

1 all prahability, the 6rflt oane that was brought

I Peru was from Jamaica, or some other of the West

lalands, aa the class chiefly grown at llw

lot time » known by the name of " Jamaica Cane."

oug the earliest relics uf the industry are two

r defeeatom, which were dog up ou a sugar estate

bw yeara ago, birring the dati* of " 1760." Cloao

I the Oipital of IJma there is a amall C()m{>act

ate, which has uninterruptedly produced cane

the }i«8t 170 years, and it is still oonmdered

) have the heat soil of any of the estates in that

lity.

The Itepubtio exporta its sugar to a number of

irkutA, UvLTpool taking about GO.OOO tons and Chile

nut lO.oOO t«iiia. whik' the nmi of the production is

xitiuted Ix'twfeii New York, San Francisoo, Japan,

Australia. Sugar is generally aold aboard
uvian (MM-la, and the pricca are ngnlated by Livai
Mtiona. Some marketa purcluuw on ] ' '
\ g^'nenUly puTchiutera denuuul the rendin
vian planter in well protected by his Gorem-'
Dt, which imposes a heavy tax on fw^ign sugar.
Bile agricultural machinery is permitted to enter frw
^ duly. On the other hand, the plantur dues nofc .■
escape taxation soot-froe, ainoe tbero is a heavy I

148 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

imposed upon white sugar, which is made and consumed
in the country.

In all probability, the West Coast of Peru, which at
present produces an annual output of 150,000 tons,
could, with proper management, raise this to at least
300,000 tons and aecondary outputs. In order to effect
this, however, It would be necessary to have a complete
rearrangement of the factories, the introduction of
modern crushing-plant and labour-saving devices,
tietter protection of the guano birds and animals,
increase in the water-supply in some sections, and the
further cultivation of lands by extensive irrigation. I
have but little doubt that most, or all, of these features
will be inti-oduced eventually, since the prevailing
spirit throughout the country is one of progress
tempered with caution, for the modern Peruvian, like
the ancient Greek, says : " Lltus ama : . . . altum alii
teneant."

The Government has done, and is doing, much to
foster the growth of the sugar industry, and among
excellent provisions has established an Experimental
Station at Santo Beatriz. where it occupies an area of
some 3 hectares = 7^ acres. Its primary object was
the study of the different valleys of the Republic, and
the conditions afforded by these for sugar-cane cultiva-
tion ; the diseases ; organizing experimental fields ; and
generally to do all and everything to improve the
industry and its commercial exploitation. The station
has some twenty-two varieties of foreign cane under
cultivation, and the present Director, Sefior Cesar
Bruggi, who took charge in 1909, is well satisfied with
the amount of progress made. The station is now five
yeai-8 old, having l)een established under the auspices
of Mr. Thomas F. Sedgwick, Its director, and SefSor Don
Josti Balttt, tho then Minister of Agi'iculture, in 1906.

Inquiiy among the various estate-owners why they

:yGood

SUGAR MAHIIXBRY 149

nted for 80 many years to introduce modem
y and equipment elicits the rt^ply : the indiiHtry
' cultivation and manufacture bos proved so
proGtable with tbu use of the old and tried appliaucee,
thnt they have not deemed it necessary to make any
outlay upon luldittonal equipment. Upon further
interroigation, I was informed thnt the fnctorien are
reooTering 75 per cent, of the juice of the cane as
ogunit over 90 par cent., which ta recovered in Cuba,
Brazil, Hawaii, Java, aod Louistaoa. Thus 25 per
oent of the produce has been wasted or burnt through
sheer ignorance or iDOompeteoce upon the port of the
management; and when it is remembered that some
£100,000 per annum baa been thrown away in tliis
manner, and that the necessary new equipment for the
whole of the mills would probably not have exceeded
£200,000, it can be appreciated how short-wghted bas
been the policy of the Peruvian maoa&cturera.

It is gratifying to know, however, that a gradual
change is coming over prosent ideas and nwthods, and
I can only repeat what I have said prevknuly, but with
additional empbasie — namely, that ao excellent oppor-
tunity exists in Peru at the present time for Britisfa
roann&ctoren of sugar machinery to extend their eoo-
neoUoQS to this field, unoe in oil probability, between
now and tbe end of the next five years, there will be
something like twenty to thirty new mills erected
u|K>n Peruvian plantations. If we omit the jrear 1905,
which proved altogether an exceptional one, tbe prioe
of sugar huH not ))f4>n lui hi^irh in Peru as it is Ut-dnv
for a long time, &nd it shtjulil be borne in mind that
tltis incrtosu in the stJliug figure — which, aa I write,
stands at £ 1 5 per ton —is not tl»e outcome of any
unusual or abnonnal conditions, but the result of the
I de m and, wliioh, moreover, is more likely to
•ugmeot thno to c"

150 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Before proceeding to point out the class of machinery
which is best suitable to the factories to be found in
Peru, it may be as well to give an outline of the plant
which is now to be found commonly in use ; and for this
purpose three or four different factories may be selected
at random. The first of these contains one three-
roller mill, with cylinders of the 32 x 66 type, which
type, as well as those of 32 x 78 and 34 x 84, are found
installed indiscriminately. The speed of the mills is 16
to 18 feet per minute, and there is no hydraulic process
employed. The extract of juice over the weight of
cane amounts to from 58 to 60, twelve men being
employed to unload the cane at the conductor. Upon
one other mill (the Santa Barbara) as many as twenty-
one men are continually thus employed, and a daily
wage of $1 (2s.) per diem each. A handsome com-
petence awaits the man who invents a practical
automatic cane-feeder to the crushing mill. The mill
grinds from 350 to 420 tons of cane per day, the mill-
men working from fifteen to twenty hours. The boilers
are fed upon this particular estate with dry bagasse by
hand, there being seven boilers, of which five are in use,
but some mills — such as the Santa Barbara — have
partly automatic bagasse feeders, necessitating only
three men in all to feed eight boilers (in pairs).

Only one tubular boiler exists upon another mill, but
it turns out from 35 to 40 tons of sugar per day. Yet
a fourth factory is fitted with a three-roller mill with
cylinders 34 x 84, the speed of the mill being 15 feet
per minute, and the motive power supplied by an
engine of the walking-beam type. This particular
mills grinds from 350 to 375 tons of cane per day, and
the extract of juice over the weight of cane amounts
to fi-om 57 to 60. Double-bottom copper defecators are
used, the capacity being 375 imperial gallons ; there
are two vacuum-pans — one copper and one iron — the

Digitized byGOOgle

SUGAR MACHINERY 151

capacity of the larger pan being 18 tona, of aeoood
•Qgar grained in pan, third boOed to atringB. There
are two batteriea of nrntrifiigaU rrnn being an ovei^
head pulley bottom -discharge 30-inch type; the other,
bottom pulley 40-iitch type. The revolutiotia of OL'ntn-
ftigalsnre 1,000 to 1,100 per minute In this factory
the ateani plant haa both the old type and tubulnr
boileni.

In rpgord to Another factory there is found one dry
douhli>>cnuthin); plant, with thnt' three-nJIer milla,
cylindvrB 3li x 7H, eoch mill U'ing pro[M'lU'd by a
aeparate engine of the walking-beam tyjie. The mtUa
are fitted with hydmulto preesan' iippaiatua, and a
r^iatoring balance ia used. About 500 tooa of cwie
are ground daily, SS tons |ier hour betng the average,
and the extraction amounts to 68.

It will be aeeu from the doaoription given abore that
the equipment* are nngolarly mixed aa to typea
and age, and many are defectire in completeooia
Thus there exista an abundant opportunity for im-
proviog the equipment, and so add at leaat 20 per
oent. to the output of the miUa. It would not
need a vury L-1oqui>nt aalearoap to impreas thia fiuit
upon the minds of the principal eatate owners and
manufncturt'rs in Peru ; moreover, oa they are at the
preaeut time in a very receptive and oomplaeeot mood,
having cnjuyvd an abundant harvvat in the laat six
moiithi, with the probability of an oven better six
months t<t fuUow.

In r^ard to the prevailing nyatem of mannfaoturo,
BTtiiiething may nlao be aaid ; but it is natutally difficult
til afford anything like a oomprehennve deaoription of
th*> general methods in vogue, owing to the variety of
ty|>ea ofmaohinery employed and the many deficieucioi
to which rereronoiia have been made. The i ' '
deaoriptMD of a typical mill may, however.

152 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

manufacturers of machinery at home some guidance as
to the kind of installation which will shortly be called
for, and it may well be worth the while of those among
the more enterprising of the sugar-machinery manu-
facturers to communicate with proprietors of the
estates, the addresses of some of whom will be found
at the end of this chapter, ofi'ering them such type
of installation as they may think most advisable.

I know that in suggesting to British manufacturers
that they take this step, they will probably hesitate,
doubting whether it is likely to be worth while to put
themselves to so much trouble and expense, when, in
some likelihood, no order may reward their enterprise.
It is this very hesitation which has spelled so heavy a
decline in the connection of the British manufacturer,
not only in South and Central America, l)ut throughout
the world, a condition which is gradually resulting
in his once-magnificent popularity among users of
machinery of practically all types and descriptions
falling away from him.

Manufacturers in other countries — such, for instance,
as the United States — do not for a moment pause
to consider the trumpery initial cost ; nor do they
fear the expense attendant of a few hours' trouble
in the production of blue prints and drawings, or upon
cablegrams when or wherever a good order is in
prospect.

Considering that each installation of a new mill and
its attendant equipment means the outlay by the
purchaser ofbetween 10,000 and 15,000 pounds sterling,
it is surely worth the expenditure of a few pounds to
participate in the mere chance of taking such an
order ? Certain it is that the British manufacturers
will not have this promising field to themselves for
very long, since already representatives of American
and French makers of sugar machinery are on the

SUGAR MACHINERY 153

tbo teiideucy of tlie Peruviarw u

wery iKjesiblc way coitimercinl rt'latiuuB

^^^^^^^^^^Bftin, tho fui^iDj^butwi^tm thetwo uatiotiB
being of the most friendly nnture, it b unnwionablH to
Muppoen thnt hard-heiul«l businesti men would fail to
graap at the first favourable offer which is made to
tham, no matter whonoe it omanattie: while it can
ruadiiy iw andoretood that the man on tbo ^mt is
likuly to take the order away from the applicant who
ini-rtity canvanei in the ftum of correspondraioe.

Upon a moderately well-eqaipped plant, the oane,
atler Iieing weighed, is run in the cars alongside of the
ctmduotor, and there it is fed to it by hand. It then
passes up to B dry double orushing-plout of two three-
rolter mills fittvd with hydrmullc preasura The
cyliudem may bu of the 32 x GG, or 32 x 76, or 34 x 64
type. Two nit>n at the end of tlie coaduotor regulate
the feed. The cane, after pastJDg through the Srat set
of three nilU, is run up to the second, passed through,
and the bagasse carried off in a bagasse conductor.
At the dischai^je of tlw second mill two labourers
{nek out the badly onisbed pieces of cane, azkd throw
them in to be rL-cnuihed. Tlie juice from the fifst
and second mills is then strained through a copper
netting. The bagasse that does not pass the mtsh is
collected and passed through the mill again. The
juices from the two mills are now led through pipes or
cement gutters to a tank, or vat, whore they mix.

The mills are propelled by separate eoginoa. In
stime eamM, as stated, these are still found of the
walking-beam type, wliervas a mod^TU iH|U)pinent
should have one engine to three mills iind a crusher,
the qMcial and most desimble fixture being tbo
strength of the gudgeons for the rollers. The speed
of the mills is about ^2 feet per minute for the first
mill, and 1 1 feet for the seoond.

154 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The bagasse is run out from the conductor, when
it ia dumped into carts and taken out to dry, or is
carried to the furnaces direct. The furnaces, fitted
with step-ladder gi-ating, are usually placed below the
ground surface, and are fed by hand. Carts and
wheelbarrows take the ashes to the dump, where they
are left, or they are conveyed to the fields for use as
a fertilizer. Both the old type and multitubular
boilera are being used. The large factories have from
eight to twelve boilei-s.

The juice from the wells is pumped up to the double-
bottom copper defecators, of a capacity of 400 to 500
gallons (in some factories it is first run through a
juice-heater). There it ia limed to the neutral or
slightly alkaline point, tempered dry lime— and not
lime milk — being used by some managements. The
amount of lime used for such defecators is from 8 to 10
pounds. After defecation, which requires from three-
quarters of an hour to an hour and a quarter, the juice
is drawn oflT, clarified, filtered, and run to the tank
feeding the upright triple efiect. (Some Peruvian
factories do not clarify after defecation, while others
do not filter the juices. No sand filters have been
noticed.) The deposits are delivered to the filter-
presses, and this filtered juice also goes to the triple-
effect tank. The press-cake is removed from the press
and thrown into the dump, where, upon some of the
estates, it is used as a combustible. In most other coun-
tries which I have visited it is used only as a manure.

The clarified juices are pumped up to the upright
triple-efiect tank, and, after evaporation, are dis-
charged at 24 to 30 BeauraiS into the eliminatore,
which are fitted -with copper serpentine coils. They
are there worked up, skimmed, allowed to settle, and
finally are drawn off to the tanks for feeding the
vacuum-pans.

GqoqI

SUGAR MACHINERY IM

' The Tncuum-paiiB. o(iKn of copper, have a capacity
r from ten t« tifl^Mi tons. Tln' syntp is drawn into
he pans, the grmins aro ■tart«d, Aud the itrike is
■Ixitled off, requiring from four to eight hours. The
uito ta discharged from the [>an at about
I BrU.

Tbo nuMoeuite is dischar)^! into nuuwcuitft-cars,
'ding aometbing over a ton. The cars are run out
I mils, and aro aJhtn-t-d lo coni from ton to twenty-
hours; they are tbun wvighi-d, hoisted by an
lex'stor to the floor above, run up over the mixer,
ad there duni|ied by a hand -dumper. The massecuite
through a grating into the reservoir, from
I it in fed to the ceutrifuguls. In the rentrifugnls
wrhead pulley of about ao-lnch tyjie) the
lite is ceutrifugalled from four to ten mioutes
i about 1 ,000 revolutions a minute.
The sugar is dischargiKl from lielow on to an apron
r suitable CMmduotor, on which it is mrried to a onp*
levator, whaoh takes it to the drying-room. Tba
ying proecas ootMlsta in allowing tliv sugar to romain
the floor for a number of days, with occasiooal
It is then shovelled into a shoot over the
;png-room. Bags are iille<l from bflow, weighed,
Kwi'd up, and loaded into cars fur shiptnent, or aiv
1noeJ in the storing-room.

Tlie molas0t« from the first sugar are coIlect«tl (Vom
lie centrifugals iu a guttvr Uick of the ceiitiifugala
prhicb Ittids to a molnHSL-s.wvlt, fn>m where it la
uiniMtt to tanks filt***! with Nteani-pipt*. llte-re it is
>nfu-<l, and then run U* thr t^liiriinivtuni.
The Sniita Harbarn Knotorv, which is situated in the
InAete Volley, formerly IwluiigMl to Mr. Henry
m-ayue, and probably dates back to the early sixties.
Vben aeqaind by the British Bugar Oampany,
utted, aoow tea yean ago, mora modem method*

156 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

were at once introduced, and the mill now turns out
some 16,000 tons of sugar per annum. Always liberal
in the matter of improving the plant, the company
will soon probably own the most modern milling
machinery in Peru, since, within the next few months,
a new mill by Messrs. John McNeil and Company,
Limited, of Govan, Scotland, will have been in-
stalled.

One of the features of primai-y importance in con-
nection with the sugar industry of Peru is the very
high percentage of sucrose contained in the canes, and
the very large proportion of which finds its way to
the furnaces. Concerns in other parts of the world
having canes with sucrose contents of about 13 per
cent., and working only four months a year, have been
forced, in the struggle which is continually going on
for existence, to adopt eleven and foui'teen-roUer
plants ; but Peru, more fortunately situated, has con-
tinued to burn tbousands of pounds' worth of sugar
which might have been saved, and has still made a
profit.

The average extraction of the total sucrose in the
cane probably does not exceed, in Peru, 73 per cent, of
the sucrose contained in the cane, and, in fact, in the
more poorly equipped factories, it is doubtfiil if even
this figure is reached. With a modern crushing-plant,
having a crusher in front and a nine-roller mill, the
extraction, as above pointed out, should certainly ex-
ceed 90 per cent, of sucrose in the cane. There is evi-
dently a wide field for sugar machinery manufacturers
in Peru.

The canes of Peru are exceptionally rich in sucrose,
as, owing to the absence of rainfall, the planter is able
to regulate the growth and richness of his canes almost
to a nicety. Fifteen per cent, of sucrose in canes is
given by some authorities as the average figure, but

SUGAR MANUFACTURE 157

TS per cent, aiid 17 per oeut. are not unkuowu. The
cliuiatic conditions of Puru also enablu a far larger
crop to be r^^a[xxl with quite a email factoiy, since
reaping can be carried on throughout the twelve
mouths, whereas in other countries the reaping season
cannot be depended upon for more than three or four
tnoDtha in the year. This mvsiis much less capital
hai to be invceted in sugar machinery, and that there
u a oonseqaent reduction of statT and in the amount
apoo fixed expenditure. Yields of forty, fifly, and
Bix^ tons of cane per acre are not iu&equent, and
many (oetonue claim that they can put sugar free on
board under £6 per ton.

The sugar crop for 1910 was the largeet over har-
vested in the Republic. Some fifty different planta-
tioos produced a total of 1 72,000 tons, or an iucreuse of
15,000 tons compared with 1909, when the figures
were 157,759 tons. The ex[iorta during thu past five
yeare have been : 1905, 134,234 tons ; I90<i, 136,729 ;
1907, 110,615; 1908. 124,891; 1909, 125.351. For
the first six months of 1910 the exports amounted to

r,000, or at the rate of 114,000, but the " fiitter"
' of the year bad yet to oome. In octua) value
exported sugar in 1907 worth £827,298. for
ElO,615 tons; and in 1909. £1.159,972, for 125.351

^ The home oonstunption may be pat as follow* : 1905,
7,506 tons; 1906. 32.659; 1907, 30,578; 1008,
1,402: 1909.32.408; 1910. 30.000.
[^ The following is a list of proauoant ragar estates
lated aloog the coast of Peru :

TaoMa, Oi^aHl, PenalM, TWi^e, Tokp*.

[ TtmAS.— Good donble-eruihtng mai^iiMry ; mill
I 34 iocbea diamoter ; modern evaporating plant

168 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTORY

and vacuum-pan ; battery of Babcock and Wilcox
bfiilera ; centrifugal capacity somewhat short. This
estate belongs to the family of Senor Paido, the late

I President of Peru.

I Cayalti. — This factory at present has only a single

P crushing-plant, and the owners do not extract more
than 60 per cent, of juice on weight of cane ; they liave
also to spread the bagasse to dry before burning in
furnaces of boilers. The mill is by Fawcett, Preston
and Co., Limited, of Liverpool. A new set of Babcock
and Wilcox boilers is in course of erection, and It is
proposed to put down a treble crushing- plant in the

1 near future. There is a distillery for utilizing the

I exhausted molasses.

f PoMALCA. — Has a double-crushing plant, with an

old mill by Manlove, Alliott and Co., and a modern
three-roller mill, about 34 inches diameter rollers, by
John McNeil and Co., N.B. A new battery of Bab-
cock and Wilcox boilers has been iostalled, and tho
factory is otherwise well supplied with machinery.

Patapo. — Here a new modern crushing- plant has
been put in recently. Three mills, the two last
by John McNeil and Co., driven by one engine.
Ihe factory is otherwise fairly well supplied with
machinery. Triple- effect evaporator by McCune,
Hai'vey and Co. ; two small vacuum-pans. There is
a distdlery in connection with the factory, which it
is proposed to enlarge shortly. This estate belongs to
a company having its headquarters in Chile, and is
managed by an Eiiglishraan— Mr. Biggs.

PucALA, — This estate is, at present, putting in an
eight-roller mill and sundry new machinery.

Shipping Fori. Factoriea &iid Efit&tes.

Salaverry Horns, Caan Grande, SansaJ, Han Antinio,

I Chicamita, Laredo, Cortavia, Nopea,

L PampuB, La Vinita, Chicquitoi, Chiclin.

^H 'bel

Chicquitoi, Cuiclin, and Roma. — These estates
"belong practically to one company, under a principal
proprietor, Senor Largo. Together they form, I believe,
'lie largest area under one interest in Peru. A railway

:yG00'

SUOAB ESTATES lOS

1 the wUUa aud the port of Hanchaca, wbera
tbf sii^r IK Kliipped.

CiiKXji'iToi. — The factory is (airly well equippMl, I
lun told I did not bare time to go through it

CHit'LiN. — This estate hnn no factory, luid th« cane
is cniahvd at ChicquitoL

ItoHA. — The machirii^ry hen? is worn and oat of datt*.
It cjoiisistsof aBinglccrtuiliiiig thri-v-rollur intll. :t--iiich
<lianiot«*r roUert, crfpw-r trijiIe-efTect evaporator, and
vacuiini-pon ; nnder-arlviin oentrifui^als. The whole
driven by an old battery of LancaBhir« Itotlt-ni. Moab \
of the maohinenr ii Kreiicb, or by Manlove, Alliott and ]
€^, Limited. 1 anderatarxl tliat the aljove estates am I
at pruwnt endeavouring to mina capital in order taJ
equip the factories with modem ntachinery. The
liaiMingB and offices are very imposing. Cultivation
apjHNirs ftiir.

Cma Graxpk. — This estate lioa a wu11-w|uinped
factury. It has thn<u milb, 3i:-iuch diameter rollers.
The hrat mill is new, by John McNeil aud Co. The
triple-effect eva|ioratur and vneuum-pau are of coptier
and are old; made by Fawcctt, Preston ami Ca.
limited. Six centrifugals, Wuston's typi< {American).
The boilem are Lancaaliire, and mecbauieally fed with
bagasM, dried by hot air. It is claimed that the
bouera only require 5u per cent of bagaae, and that
the mills cnun fifty tons of cane per hour. It is
intended to install a tmttery of Babcook and Wiloox
boileiB Portly. llitTv is a distillery lu connijction
with this factory.

Caktaviu. — 1 w&K unable to visit this estate, as the
bridges werv down, owing to floods. I have heard,
however, that this factory is well e<]uipped. It
managed by two Scotsmen fVom Demerara.

Sauhal. — U aitnated at the head of the ralley. At |
present the fiutory is poorly supplied with maoainery.j
One turbine-driven Inn-e-roUer mill, 3^ inches fagp i
7'2 inclK«{FawcQtt and Preston, 1671). Tnple^eflfi»a|.J
evaporators, Mc(_-i)n«-, Harvey and Co., and vacuiliB'
pan ; l^ncsshirc boilen. Bsgaasw has to be ^rvad to

160 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUKY

dry. It is at present proposed to increase plant to
treblb crushing capacity and install new evaporator.
Ttiia factory is kept in jjeifect and clean condition, and
appears to be very well organized.

Laredo. — This is a well-equipped factory. The
cane is fed to conductor by means of a crane, which
lifts the cane from cars and places it on an inclined
plate at side of conductor, whence it is fed to conductor
by, say, four or five men. There are two three-roller
mills, 30-inch diameter rollers, triple-eftect evaporators,
and large modern vacuum-pan by John McNeil and
Co. It is proposed to install a new treble crushing-
plant mill, 36 mches by 78 inches. Cultivation seems
good.

In the Chicama Valley the supply of water for
irrigation is somewhat short at certain seasons, and
causes friction between the estates. The Government
has had an American expert investigating the sources
of supply for two years, with a view to increasing
them.

All of the above estates seem to be fairly well
equipped with railways and rolling-stock, and in all
cases have railway communication from factory to
coast. In cultivation, the use of stcara-plougha is
fairly general.

Other sugar estates of some consequence are :

Shlpjimg Port.

... Lurifico.

Chimbote

... Tombo Re&l, VimoH. and Snchiman.

Samanco

... San Jacinto, San JobS.

Supe

... Huayto Paramgnga, San NiooUs.and Car-
re Wria.

Huiioho

Chanoay

... Falpa aod En&ndo.

Anoin

... Caadivilla. Cbuquitanta, Inf&ntoa, Bnv

chipa, NerTeriB,Naraiij&l,Chaora-Oerro,

and ChacTft-Grande.

CerroAauI

. . Aranii.

... Monte Rico, La Molina, La Estrella, Cara-

pongs. Ban Ju^, La Villa.

Tunbo de Mora ...

... San J mi de Chincha, Uran.

PUoo

... Caucnt6.

Cbtl*

iri«

... TomaBiri-

cGooQ

altnra (oonffnucii)— Gimate and boU— Sugar- cone culture — Guano
fartUization— Deposit*— Uuaao characterJBtics — Suitable eoil— Ineeot
pasts — Coast oallivatiou — Time for cutting — The aiveragu jield^Ei-
periments with nitrate manure — Mafhiuery — Antiquated plants and
equipments — Opportunities for mannfaoturers o( sugar maohiuery —
Topical inataltatioa described^Hondliog the bEigasee uid mosseeuite.

The whole coast of Peru is remarkable for the small-
ness of the rainfall. In some few sections there are
occasionally copious periodic rains ; the principal sugar-
piiiie-producing valleys, however, depend entirely upou
irrigation for their water-supply. Considering the ex-
tremely small amount ol' rainfall, one would naturally
expect to find a low relative humidity, but, as a
matter of fact, along the immediate coast it registers
moderately high — from 72" to 84°. Nevertheless, the
Peruvians consider that they possess a "dry climate."
The etfect cei-taiuly is not that of a humid atmosphere,
neither is it of a steamy or an enervating nature.
The dull grey skies, which last for weeks together
at Lima and its immediate neighlx>urhood, are very
depressing to the new-comer ; but they are scarcely
regarded by the inhabitants. It is decidedly interest-
ing to note in connection with this atmosphere that
one encounters, aud especially on the coast, the remaiua
of uuraerous early inhabitants naturally mummified,
the cloth in which their bodies were buried being
found still Iq a sUite of excellent preservation.

Irrigation is carried on in Peru under very
htvourable circumstances, especially iu connection
161 II

^^'"''ji

162 PEUU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

with the cane-fields, since there is an abundance
of water to be obtained, and nothing has to be paid
for it ; while the first cost of irrigating ditches is
very small, and the maintenance equally bo. The .
underground drainage in most of the valleys, where
sugar is grown, is excellent and complete ; in some
places, firom the cliffs bordering the sea, little rivulets
may be seen emptying their waters into the ocean —
seepage-waters from the valleys above. These vallej^
slope geutly toward the sea, and appear almost like a
level plain. They also slope eUghtly toward the
river-bed. The underground drainage strata varies in
depth ; in some of the lower lands seepage-water is
found within a few feet of the surface.

Flooding and drainage form the one thorough and '
permanent method of reclamation, if properly carried
out. As nearly all the coast-line of Peru consists of I
lands deeply impregnated with salts and alkali, irriga-
tion and flooding form the best possible treatment
for them. The process adopted is firet to reclaim and
then to irrigate, according to the usual methods ; but
it often happens that there is not a sufficient amount
of water for thorough washing, or that the young
cane already growing would not bear the addition of I
80 much water. The process of irrigation upon soma '
of the estates which 1 visited showed that the water
was run around and across the fields in ditches placed
at mathematical distances, and only very occasionally
over them. On other fields, however, it was found
that these were entirely flooded and allowed to absorb
the matter gradually. One expert stated to me that
if irrigation water has passed over a field badly in-
fected with alkali, the same water should not be used
for other fields ; and he suggested the throwing of a
layer of fine dirt over the in'igated furrow before the
water has completely evaporated. This hinders evapora- J

iBaii]r distncts of Pen, owtn||[ to the uufge funoiist of
Ikbour which it would require ; white, od the other
hand, the same efioct woiUd be pzodooed when the cane
was high enoagh for the leaves to thode the groood.
The Bocoeaa of inigatioD in Fbru, as in Egypt, has been
undoubted ; and, mdeed, but for that, cane-growing
there would never have attained the dimensions of
prosperity which it possesses to-day.

Both the soil and the cliniat« of Peru demaml a
considerable amount ol fertilization for the cane, by
artificial means; and, fortunately for the country, the
reaooroes an found immediately at hand. In soma
sections of the Republic the growth of cane is gradual,
requ irin g nther a longer time to mature than in other
ootmtries, although there are three or four months in
the year when the cane grows vigoroosly, quite out of
proportion, ixMJeod, to the gradual growth of the other
months. Provided the cane can be kept growing
gradually after this period, and that the change from
the rank of the gradual growth be not too sudden, this
vigoPDtts advance is found advantageous. It is supposed
that this change is not occasioned so much by any
marked lowering of temperature as by the shorter
days with oonsequently less sun, together with the
damp mists, which spread, like a chilling blanket, over
the lower portion o! the valleys, rolling in direct from
the sea. Inasmuch as thv soils are usually deep, con-
taining a large amount of lime-water and sodium salts,
fcrtiliaers an easily decomposed, and slow-acting
fcrtilixen undergo a more rapid dccompoeition ui three
soils than in many others.
The immense guano deposits which are found along
ft Peruvian coast fonu the beat kmd of fertiUiar that

^^^ The imm
^^(wPoruvii

Goog

164 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

can be used. Some of the nitrogen contained in these
guanos is in the fonn of free ammonia and other easily-
decomposable compounds. This ammonia is so strong
at times, that the fiunes given off from guano, stowed
in the holds of a ship, are almost insufferable. The
preservation of so much of the nitrogen is due to the
absence of rains, that would otherwise leach it out.
The dry, sheltered spots where the guano is found have
afforded almost perfect storehouses, where decompoBi-
tion can proceed and convert the fertilizing elements
in a reasonably available form, and yet conserve them.

After using guano with considerable advantage upon
its own cane-fields, Peru commenced to export it in the
year 1845, both Europe and the United States becoming
prompt and keen customers. Owing to the unfortunate
loss of its principal guano deposits as one out of the
many serious results of its war with Chile, between
1879 and 1884, Peru had been shorn of one of its most
prolific sources of natural fertilization ; but it still
possesses a number of islands, large and small, in the
sheltered coves and nooks of which sea-birds and seals
make their homes. At one time these nervous and
easily scared denizens took flight, and practically
deserted the Peruvian coast ; but, quite unexpectedly,
they came back one happy day, and have remained
constant to their habitations since. The Government
have now issued new regulations for preventing dis-
turbance of the birds during the breeding season, and
inspectors have been distributed along the coast to
see that these regulations are observed. The close
season is from October to March inclusive.

The guanos of Peru consist of three different classes :
those containing a higli percentage of phosphoric acid
and comparatively low nitrogen ; those containing a
fair percentage of phosphoric acid and high nitrogen ;
and those containing a fair amount of each. It is the

CANE MANITRINO

pnnef|Nii
nhmgen, maoh of the Pcni\'iaD soil being already well

ImppUed wiUi available pho^horio acid.
The Peruvian Corporation derived a net iooome of
£103,010 for the jrear 1909-10 from guano sales, as against
£140.850 for the prevkms twelve montiu. There were
23,000 tons shipped lew, but the average qualitjr of
the guano of the sale prices was mamtaiued. Freightn
ruled about 1 8. 9d. per too over those of tho Tear 1 908-09.
It is believed that the present year will be a very good
one for the tmde.

The goano which is exported is sold in acoordanoe
with an analysis, which takes into eoosideiatJon the
moistare, the sand, the silioa, the nitrogen, and the
phoqihorio acid. Several labomtoriee have been estab-
Uabed npoD the principal guano tsk&ds, and hero the
stufT a carehUly analysed. If qwoimens are not up
\ li} ihc standard, the qoantities are rejected, and are then

uiml lu redaoers for guano of ezttemely high grade.
While a good d<>al of the exported guano u not nnld
undft any ngcvoiiii-nt as to ^lecial quality, aomi- of the

I estates which posseai laboiatoriea insist upon a guano

of a more or less oertain analysis. The industry of
guano-oolleoting haa hem so long estabUsbed. and the
ooUaotors arc usually so experienced in the different
I nIsBWS and rharaoters of the composition, that they are

leadily enabled to distinguish the different quiUitioa
without the neoesuty of conducting a chemical analysis.
L Small ybshbIs piDoeed from island to idand gathering

I guano here and there, until the cargo is deemed solB-
I oicntly Urge. Some estate* collect and use as much
I as 2,600 tons per annum.
I During last year (1910) Peruvian agnculturalista

Gooj

166 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

used nearly 25,000 tons of guano for their various
cultivations. As has already been shown, the Peruvian
cane-fields are singularly fortunate in possessing natur-
ally rich and adaptable soils, as well as an abundance of
water supplied by irrigation, a congenial climate, and
a present sufficiency of labour. The only possible
drawback to Success which could be encountered, and
which has not been referred to, is the existence of pests,
and here, it may be said, the country is equally happily
situated. Where they are found they are easily ex-
tenninated, and experience shows that a cane-field
once cleared of an insect pest is seldom again visited.
An insect, known as the borer, is occasionally found,
while the canes are sometimes attacked by other insects.
In rare instances a species of fungus has been discovered
upon some of the canes that were grown on wet soil, and
had fallen. As a general rule, the natural conditions
of the country are not favourable to the increase of pests,
and a very small amount of care and attention will
suffice to keep the fields entirely free from any dangers
of this kind.

Many of the sugar estates in Peru are of large dimen-
sions, extending to as much as fifteen or twenty miles
square, and producing between 15,000 and 25,000 tons
of sugar each. The cane seems to grow in this country
with altogether unexampled facihty, and anything from
50 to 60 tons per acre fields of cane is a result which is
regarded as by no means unusually high.

The cultivation of sugar-cane has extended along
the entire coast of Peru. In the Andean regions the
cane is cultivated in the deep valleys which cross the
tablelands, and there are many sugar plantations to
be found in the region of the mordana ; but it is on the
coast, where I spent most of my time visiting the
estates, that they have reached their greatest develop-
ment.

CANE CULTIVATION

ICT

In ftll o£ this sone the cane ts cut and ground from
eighteen to twenty-two montlis after being planted,
and it usually produces from two to three crops from
one planting. To-day, however, the fields may bo aeca i
littered hero and there with hundreds of bags of guano, I
which arc brought from the adjacent Guano Islands ;
while in March, 1910, there arrived the first shipment
of Chilian nittate, which ia hereafter to be employed as
a manoring agent. The real value of the experiment
will be awaited with considerable interest, and in all
probability, aa a result there will be an increased tonnage
per acre, and the growth oonudcrably accelerated for
the present year (1911-12).

The cane, when cultivated, contains more than
14 per cent, of sugar, and yields an average of from
7,000 to 9,000 kilogrammes of sugar to each hectare,
and 16 per cent, and 17 per cent, of sucrose, as already
stated, 18 by no means exceptional. It is undeniable
that such retunui have never been surpaaaed by any
other sugai^prodncing country in the world ; but lBi;g8 -i
as it is, it can be increased by an improved systaa at |
ooltzratioQ of the cane, and by the employment of more I
powerful and perfected machinery. I

In oottveisation with one of the most experienced and
erpert sugar manufacturera, who, by-tli<vbye, gained
his experience in the sugar-producing districts of the
Island of Trinidad, he said that " Never, in all his Ufe,
had he come across such a wonderfully adaptable and j
productive soil for cane as exiita in Peru, and ospeciatly I
on the ooast." Although a canttooa and oanny Soot^
he permitted himself to wax enthosiastM upon the fntnre
of the partioolar district where is situated the estate of
which he is the manager, and this estate hitherto has J
fXHisidered itself very fortunate by being able to aeoon I

^^6 Id 80 per cent, of soorose over wugbt of oane. Mj .

^^■farmant, however, stated that this year, and in all

m^ ■.--- -i^'

168 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

future years, so far as human judgment and effort can
be depended upon, the return will not be less than
90 per cent., while the working expenses will be reduced
still further, so as to make the net proceeds more
valuable.

As a preliminary, a new mill equipment had been
ordered, to cost £12,000, and the entire cost of this will
be in all probability saved and paid for by the increase
in the first year's output. The estate is now fitted
with twenty-two miles of tramway line and equipment,
and this length is to be further extended to over thirty
miles, and a much heavier track introduced. There
can be no question that as soon as the neighbouring
estate-owners become aware of the economy in working
which will be effected by the introduction of new
machinery and improvements in the transportation
facilities, they will follow suit ; so that a new era of
prosperity, both for the sugar manufacturer and the
makers of modem machinery, is opening up in Peru —
a prosperity in which the British manufacturer might
easily participate if he displayed some little enterprise
and energy.

Naturally the ability of cane-mills to express juice
depends to a great extent upon the class of cane being
dealt with, and this in Peru, as in other countries,
varies considerably not only in size, but in quality, from
time to time upon the same estate. It is therefore
necessary to make careful inquiries and even tests
before being able to gauge the nature of the machinery
best adapted to the requirements of any particular
estate. Experience shows that rollers of small diameter
usually break up and disintegrate the cane to a much
greater extent than wider rollers, and yet the actual
squeeze administered and its effects are not always
productive of the best results.

Broadly speaking, the fast-ruuning mills afford the

..Gooj

RniXERS \m

, olthoo^ the appearance of the bagasso
periups, lead to thin conclusion ; but, all
I being equal, rollers of large diameter necm
to gtre improTed results on aocoont of their great mrface
speed.

Of the many important sugar estates which exist—
and there are between forty and fifty of t^ese — it is safe
to say tliat not one poflBcasee a complete and modem
milL Prom time to time new additions to the existing
maduDery are introdoocd— here a new defecator, there
MKue new pans ; now and again the type of boiler is
changed from the old to the tubular, no that many of
the mills present an accumulation of typen of various
~ fKis of rqui|>ment. Altvady one of the more go-ahead
ictorios has iiwtalletl dry daublft-cninhera, and although
lie milbi are, as previously stated, usually three-rollers
[ about the 32 x 66, 32 x 78, or 34 x M type, a new
I of mill has recently been introduced, such, for
tsUuice, as that ordered for the British Sugar Company's

cry, which is one of the eleven-roller type.

The bagasse is still, with very few exceptions, carried

> the furnaces in carts and fed to them by hand. A

' multi-tubular tmilera have been introduced, while

lie juice from the mills is more often run up dinwtly

1 the defecator. The upright triple effect Kecnm to b«

HMst suitable. There are a number of copper

still in use, and doing cxi-ellent work.

Ml— ecuite ts handled in diflervnt wa\ii in Ptrn. and

> as I ha\'fl witnessed in India, Egypt, Trinidml,

^ and Bartwdoes, for instance, where it is run into large

tanks and allowed in lonifl factories to cryataUiie,

afterwards being abovelled into boxes by band, and

Itmpticd into the oentrifoffUs ; while, in other factories,

'i is run into mssseonitB oais, an<t. alter l>eing allowed

ilo cool, ill dumped into a nservoir from which the oentri-

fu^ls an duu^ed.

170 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The advance in the augar export industiy can best be
understood by a glance at the accompanying figuiea :
For the year 1907, an amount of 110,615 tons=
£P827,298; for 1908, 124,891 ton8=£Pl,048,231 ; 1909,
125,350 tons=£Pl,159,897, including all classes— crys-
tallized, granulated, " mascabada " (inferior quality),
and crude. In 1910, the total amount reached 130,000
tons, in addition to Uie 30,000 consumed locally.

Digitized byGOOgle

[rioulture {eonliTmril) — Cotton — CIovmb cultivated — Corapar
between Peruvian and South American— Statistics, 1903 1909—
t!olton-secd oil — Wool-growing indnalrj — Hides — Cocft-pln'il —
Cooaina — Cocoa — Rice cultivation and importa^Tobaooo — Wheal
oaitivation — Samples loaleJ — Rarloy — Maize — Bubher — Ignorant
method of coUectliig — Eiports for 1902 - 1909 — OovemmenI
encouragement of cultivation.

Nest to sugar, cotton undoubtedly occupies the second
place in importance in Peru's agricultural exports.
Its cultivation dates from time immemorial, as is proved
by the many specimens of cotton cloths which have
been, and are still being, found in the tombs of the
earlier inhabitants of the country. In common with
sugar, cotton possesses many natural facilities and
advantages in Peru which are unknown in other countries,
not excepting Egypt, West Africa, and the United States.
Tlie classes cultivated are various, and may be enu-
merated as follows :

^^^L Peruvian cotton {Gossypium Peruvianum).

^^^1 Upland cotton (G. herbaceum).

^^^1 Sea Island and Mitafifi cotton {G. Barbadense),

^^^H Chanchamayo.

^^^" Pemvian cotton, or 0. Peruvianum, is grown on an
extensive scale, being found chiefly in the valleys of
Piura. The plant grows to a considerable height —
namely, from 9 to 15 feet — and its life is about sis
years, after which period the crops begin to diminish, and
the capsule, or boll, to contain more seed than cotton.
Vlthough the cotton-fields in Peru are irrigated in a
171

..Goog

172 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

similar manner to the cane-fields, the G. Peruvianum
can dispense with water to a very great extent, and
upon many of the good lands one watering is sufficient
to insure a heavy crop.

The Upland, or Egyptian, cotton, on the other hand,
gives a better result if frequently watered ; the same
may be said with regard to the Chanchamayo class.
As already stated, the department of Piura is the
principal centre of the cultivation of these classes of
cotton, the districts of Catacaos, Sechura, and La Chira
being those in which the best kinds are produced. Most
of these lands have been formed apparently by the
deposits from the rivers, and undoubtedly at one time
they were covered with forests of the Algarrobas, or
homey-mesquite, trees {Prosopis diilcis). The cotton-
plant is sown in small holes dug from 15 to 21 feet apart.
The ground is seldom touched by a plough, and is watered
by ditches upon the usual irrigation principle. I have
observed that those fields which belong to the native
peasantry— and a great number of such small holdings
exist^are allowed to fall into a veiy dirty and weedy
condition ; whereas those which are owned by foreign
corporations or the wealthier class of Peruvians are
usually kept well cleaned and carefidly trimmed. In
some cases the spaces which are left tree between the
cotton-plants are used for the growing of various
vegetables. The first crop, generally a small one, is
obtained after the first eighteen months ; but year by
year thereafter they increase until the sixth is attained,
when the production commences to fall off.

The fibre of Peruvian cotton is long, and frequently
exceeds 35 millimetres, but it is rough in texture, being
known upon the London and Liverpool markets aa
Full Rough Peruvian. The average annual amount
of this class, as well as of the Moderate Rough, is
between 1,700 and 1,750 tons of ginned and cleaned

:yGood

COTTON

173

It obtains a far higher price than Uie Elgyptian
Icottoii, on otTOtiionH ait much an 30 per cent, more for
he Full Rougli, and 15 per cent, for the Moderate
Bough. Great Dritab and the United States are the
rincipal purchaw-n.

The Sea laland and Hitafifi cottons come next in

value, but they are not grown so largely as the firet-

namod on account of their requiring special and rather

expensive machinciy for their ^uniug. The cultivation

is therefore limited to certain valleys, which are those

of Fativilca, Supc, and Hnacho. The Upland, or

Egyptian cotton, has become quite acclimatued in all

the valleys along the coast of Peru. It rarely reaches

in height more than 4} feet, and its life may be given

as of two yeazB. although in some districts it is prolonged

to three. The Cfaanchamayo variety is a spontaneous

~ it of tiw MonfaKa, or highland^ regianB, bat its

r IB not very high, and the eiqiorts an of au in-

wmally small ohatBcter.

One of the most convincing e\idencce of the progrcas

[ the cotton factories is afforded by the rapid growth

the home consumption, which has multiplied ten

Imeii while the exportation was tiebling. Tha vahie

T the 1909 crop of the Canete Valley was £76,332 ; oc_

[ the by-producta be included, such as the ootton-s

etc, the total poased £90,000. If the avi ~

ind now uitdei irrigation in this valley which is a

the purpose were also devoted to cotton -growing,

> production wouki probably amount to three times

I much as m the last year, lor which flgares have been

jKthcred, while a wider use ol conoentnit«d fertttiuES,

1 M 1 have indicated, and more parttculariy thoae

' 'i content, wnakl not only inctvase the pro-

r hectare, but further improve the quality of

The demand (or Peruvian cotton always

> the supply, causing the very satisfactory sitoa-

EyjGoQt;

174 PERU OF THE TVVENTEETH CENTURY

tion which exists in respect to prices. Certain varieties
cannot be obtained from other sources, notably those
which so closely resemble wool as to be detected only
by chemical analysis. Some interesting data are avail-
able in regard to the production of Canete, from which
the following table is condensed, the amounts being
given in kilogrammes :

Eiportcd.

t3oDaumed. ToUls.

1900

1908

1906

1900

510,081

804,648

1,106,660

1,496,582

111,179 621,360
408.885 1 1,207,988
466,627 1 1,577.469
1,046,900 2,544,482

For 1909, the figures representing cotton exported
were 21,305 ton8= £P1,206,988.

The exceptionally favourable conditions which pre-
vailed last year (1910) have led to the very reasonable
conclusion that the figures for 1911 will reach, and
may even exceed, 25,000 metric tons of cotton exported
from the Republic.

As will have been seen, the total amount of cotton
exported (exclusive of by-products) from Peru for 1909
was 21,305 tons, representmg a value of £P1,206,988.
This consisted of Upland, 13,715 tons = £P790,592 ;
Sea Island, 535 tons = £P36,452 ; and Native, 7,055
tons=£P399,644. The Republic's best customer was
England, which took 5,116 tons of native cotton, against
1,093 by the United States, 415 by Chile, 184 by France,
129 by Germany, and 102 by Panamd. England also
took 10,498 tons of Upland and 500 tons of Sea Island.
The quantities taken by other countries were very small
comparatively.

Much of the prosperity of the cotton industry is
due to the enterprbe of the Government, under the
auspices of the Department of Fomento. In 1909 the

otal Station wu cstabliabed, and it now
occupies a portion of the groonds of the Government
School of Agricultuie, at Santa Beatiiz, situated near
Lima, where 16 acres of its extensive area are devoted
exclusively to the cultivation of varieties of plants, claosi-
fication and selection of seeds, improvements of ^Mciesi
and to trials of ootton-machineiy.

With a view to experimenting upon yet a larger scale
in different mawm*!-* and methodj of cultivation, the
Experimental Station for cotton has established, at
Chaocay, some 90 aoies of experimental fields in which
the cotton-growers of that uei^bouiliood an partioi-
pating. The station is under the direction of SeBor
Don Qerordo Eiinge, who has made a long and careful
atwly in Peru of the whole industry, while he has also
travelled oonndeiably m other cotton-producing States —
in fact, as he mentioned to me, in most of the countries
of the world. Seuor Klinge entertained very optimiatia
iileas of the future of the cotton industry iu Peru, and
I am of opinion that such optimism is justified.

The cost o! producing the native cotton is estimated
at but 90-5^ per kilometre, while from 760 to
770 kUometres of cottoo per hectare ( - 2*4711 acres)
with a yield fA 35 per cent, of lint may be depended
upon.

The numofaotore of ootton-secd oil has lately attained
BonM dimeoriona, which is the natural result of the
increased area iu cotton cultivation. Some six or ei^t
plonta abeady exist for the treatment o< cotton-seod,
and othen arc in contemplation. Several of these
UeUmm arc to be found in the neighbooriiood of Lima,
while a modem central factory, known as the Esquivet,
citnated in the Valley of Chancay, is probably the Urgeet
and most peifoctly equipped. Another factory which
is worthy of mention is that located at Oerro Axul.
and belonging to the Prcsklout of the Republic, Don

I
I

r 176 PEUU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Auguato B. Legi'iia. It is fitted with both British !
American machinery. Messrs. Rose, Downs, and
Tliompson, Limited, of Hull, have supplied the oil-
presses, and the Brown Cotton Gin Company, of New
London, Connecticut, U.8.A., are responsible for
the ginning-plant. At this factory, also a common
quahty of soap, known as " Starita," is turned out ;
but for what purposes it is used I am unable to say.
The oil extracted from the cotton-seed is used chiefly
for lighting purposes in the mining districts, the lees
being employed for the manufacture of soap, while from
the residue, pressed into the form of an oily mass, the
oil-cakes, which are chiefly exported to the United
Kingdom, are made.

Cotton-seed was exported to the amount of 7,999 tons,
England again taking 80 per cent, of the amount —
namely, 6,107 tons.

The advance of the cotton industry can be traced
from the subjoined figures : Amount exported (including
both the product and by-product) in 1907 = 24,526 tons,
of a value of £P516,256 ; 1908 = 31,163 tons, of a value
of £P844,369; 1909 = 33,707 tons, of a value of
£P1,245,599.

The Government has secured from the United States
the services of Mr. C. H. E. Townsend, a specialist in
plant diseases, to combat the lice, which do much damage
to cotton in the department of Piura. He is experi-
menting with cultures of an insect from Italy, which
he used there successfully in similar cases.

The total exportation of cotton in 1909 was, as stated,
21,305 tons, and represented a value of £1,206,988.
The annual consumption of the several existing factories
turning out cotton goods may be calculated at 2,500,000
kilogrammes of ginned cotton fibre. The total produc-
tion, therefore, would stand at 23,870,256 kilogrammes
of fibre for the year. I would draw attention to the

COTTON

j oompAntive figuns in oider to demoostnto J
the oonddemble advanoe which has been made in i'
onltivation of cotton and the sale of by-produots ;

>ilV_»(IMI|.

IDvmanm).

van Bnuli aid

9,47Um-ilOS.M«
4.0CiA,Ma-«ITM40

7^1,M4-if79AM

Taking as a safe avenge of yield B88ifl poonds per
hootaie { - 2-471 acres) for the Rou^ Pemvian, 1,038
pounds of fibre per beotan for Sea Island, and 1^11
pounds of Upland cotton, the result of 56,313 heotarest
or 140,782 acres, is obtained for the area planted.!
The preparation of this vast extent of territory, thai
cultivation and harvesting, afford occupation to •om*l
30,000 labooiers, who live exduuvely upon lliis indttstiy«r
On the coast of Fexu, I found that the daily wage of tha 1
labourer varies from 30 cents to 60 orata (say from
Is. 3d. to 2s. Gd.). In the United Butcs, if I remember
correctly, the rates amount to $1.26 to Sl^ (say from i
5s. to 6s.). The harvesting expenses are more or teafl
the same. In the United Statea the worirer can, and!
nsually does, earn from 40 cents, to $1.00 (say froal
Is. Od. to 4s.) per 100 pounds, the usual rate paid betngl
about SO cents (2s.), and this sum abo is earned uponi
many of the coastal cotton-fields in Peru. In both |
countries the irteiest upon capital is about the i
being oonaidend as eqnal to 6 per oeot. Pent, as a 1
fact, gires a yield oonsiderably greater than any othecj
eotfcon'growing conntiy and thia k eipanding appreciably j
yearby ye&r.

Althon^ sheep-rearing had long been an industiy I
ptuBood with more or less thoron^ueas f
A»n*n'<*, especially in the Chilian sootioa known

178 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Magallanea, for many years, it was only some years
later that the first serious attempt at sheep-raising was
made in Peru.

In the year 1876 a few sheep were taken to Chile
from the Falkland Islands, by Senor Don Diego Duble
Almida, and these having proved far more profitable
than was anticipated, repeated consignments from tile
same place continued to be received in the Republic.
To-day, while sheep-raising has an undoubted future
in South America, it can be followed only to a limited
extent in Peru ; since there are many obstacles which
have to be encountered, some of whicli cannot be easily
overcome, such, for instance, as combating with the
various diseases to which sheep are subject in a country
of many physical peculiarities.

The principal districts in which sheep-farming is
carried on are : Cajamarca, Junin, Ayacucho, Canas,
La Libertad, Arequipa, Puno, Acomaya, and Cuzco.
Upon the extensive grassy meads to be met with in
these parts, large herds of cattle and sheep are seen
grazing the pasture of various wild grasses, including the
bromoSy grana, lafa, ickin, these being found especially
suitable to the particular breeds which are raised.
Sheep in Peru are bred principally for their wool, and
are divided into two classes — the native and the cross-
breed. The former are of small stature, somewhat
irregular in form, and long-legged, such as one would
expect to find in animals which have to travel long
distances. The fleece is rough and scanty, but it could,
no doubt, by the adoption of careful methods, be im-
proved. The half-breed are of a medium height, and
give a greater supply of wool than the native. These
animals are the result of the crossing of the Puna or
Hill sheep with the imported Merino.

Shearing takes place once a year, and produces an
average of from 2 to 3 pounds of wool per head, accord-

4
4

i of the aninul and the chanotn of the
pasture npon which it has been fed. Upon one estate
in Atocsayco the yield waa from 2 to 6| pounds per
head ; but upon some other estates the average pro-
durtion was only (roro 2 to 3 pounds per head. At the
first^Damed place the sheep are dipped reguUriy aa a
protection against acab, and to eliminate the numeroas
peata to which the onimala are mibject ; bat I believe
that thu is the only ranch in Peru where dipping ia
K^iularly practised. Shearing takes place m the inontha
of November and December, lambing occurring in the
prerions September and October.

The wool industry has maintained a somewhat on-
eveo oondition during the past thme yeara, aa may be
•een from the foUowing oompatmtive figorea : 1907,
S,806tocis.£P428.013; 1908, 3,058 tons - £P297,277 ;
1909, 3,798 tons-£P394,346. The cUases included
are, alpaca, llama, washed lamb's wool, unwashed hunb's
wool, and vicuSa.

New enei^ u being du^layed in connection with the
wool industry, and the country, where suitable for
Bhe>ep-breeding, undoubtedly could be made trebly aa
profitable an it is. At the present time the wool product
does not represent a more extenaivo annual value than
£600,000, or, in qaantity, a larger amount than from
400,000 to 600,000 tons. The wool-bearing animals of
Peru are sheep, alpacas, llamas and vicofiaa, while within
the post year or so Fatagonian sheep have been intro-
duced for croes-brveding, the eatapiiaoj I am told,
being in the hands of a British Syndicate which owns
a shoep-ranoh extending to over 130 square milea. It
is, perfaape. too early to speak with any definhe aasrtiance
as to the racoeas of this enterprise, since it is necessary
for the imported sheep to live (or several years in Uieir
new Bonaandiugi before it can be said that they an
aoclimattied ; bat 1 am aamred that ao far the tunova-

tit 1*

^Imt^mm^^^ali^

A «C tk eijratt tnfc
■iT»Hi, M. tk rtwi Aaw, Eke Uiok of tlie
JDtmhf), a » « W MMg l«nitt» ey . Far 1907, inclnd-
ufjwrtured, there were ex-
176; for 1908, 2,414 tons-
'. 2.508 tons - £P131,497.
it from CftlUo, which port
ill tiriheeiqwrfa. France
! tji« different con-

>n(«d ftt fkn umiu]
'^-hich, of ooone, is

HIDES

181

lot

very trivial considering the possibilities of the country ;
moreover, they show a declining tendency, having, for
instance, fallen from £157,987 in 1906 to £124,676 in
1907. Between the years 1902-1905, the average was
£154,596. For 1909, the exports amounted, as shown
on previous page, to £131,497, for 2,508 tons. The
United Kingdom and the United States are Peru's main
customers for hides and manufactures made from them.

There are five well-known woollen factories in the
Republic which give employment to a large number
of workmen and workwomen, something over 600,000
kilogrammes of manufactured wool being put upon the
local market annually. This output is, however, wholly
insufficient to meet the demand, and as a consequence
htbere is a large import trade carried on. Woollen goods

the value of £230,077 were imported in 1906, while
for the following year the figures swelled to £259,317.
The average for the three years 1902-1905 was £213,445.
The United Kingdom, Germany, and France, contributed
to the supply of such goods, but the United Kingdom
was far ahead (see Appendix).

A product which has also made remarkable headway
during the past few years is the coca-plant, which is a
native of the warm valleys of Peru and Bolivia, and the
leaves of which have been used by the Indians from time
immemorial, in a dried form, for chewing. In Peru the
plant is found growing in the form of a shrub, which
seldom exceeds 6 feet in height. It is largely cultivated
in the districts of Otuzco, Cuzco, Huanta, Tacna,
Huilnuco, and Huanachuco. The plant grows much
better in the valleys lying at a height of from 1,000 to
2,000 metres above the level of the sea, and where the
temperature does not fall below 18° nor rise above
30° Centigrade. Great care has to be taken in collecting
fud treatmg the leaves, but, unfortunately, 1 have not

''Lcient space to describe, as I should like to do, the

/C4H)d

N
^

1182 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

whole process of planting, garnering, and preparing for
the market the leaves of this plant. That the industry
is a highly-important one can be gathered from the fact
that, after supplying local consumption, the exports
in 1905 amounted to 341,000 kilogrammes in the form
of leaves, and 6,800 kilogrammes in cocaina, represent-
ing a total value of £200,000. In 1907 cocaine was
manufactured by twenty-four small factories, which
produced 5,914 kilogrammes worth £66,636. The
exports to Europe and the United States are made in
two forms, that in cocaina and that in dried leaves, not
only for the extraction of the alkaloid, but for the making
of wines, tonics, elixir, and other medicinal syrups.

There were 5,265 kilogrammes of cocaina exported in
1909, worth £60,287.

Readers must not confuse coca with " cocoa," which
latter product ia as yet but sparsely cultivated, although
both climate and soil are eminently favourable for its
production. I have seen vast tracts of low-lying land
in the Province of Ja6n, and in the Departments of
Amazona and San Martin, especially suited for the
development and growth of the cocoa-tree. It is in the
exuberant and extensive forests of the monlaha region
that the cocoa-tree grows spontaneously, that it is
principally cultivated. Outside of Peru the exquisite
taste and aroma of this particular cocoa is entirely un-
known ; the whole of the amount produced is not
consumed in the country, since exports are made to
Bolivia and Chile. I look for a further and fuller ex-
tension of the industry of cocoa-planting in the Tnonfaiia
zone, since it yields a considerable profit, and offers but
very little difficulty in handling.
Rice has been grown in Peru since the Colonial period,
" during the last few years much more land has come
ider cultivation, owing, no doubt, to the heavy
irotective import duties which have been introduced.

RICE

183

The northern coast districts, which are warm and other-
wise favourable, are the particular localities beat suited,
and experts assure me that in regard to the quality of
the rice raised, it ia equal to the best kinds, which are
produced in any other part of the world. The two
varieties cultivated are the " Carolina " and the
*' Jamaica." In the Department of Lambayeque, in
the Province of Pacasmayo, the best classes of rice are
obtained, and it is here also that they are found in the
greatest abundance. Unfortunately, it is impossible
to depend from year to year upon any regular crops,
the amounts of yield being entirely reliant upon the
abundance or the scarcity of water, a matter which is
not under the control of the agriculturist, but subject
entirely to the advance or delay in the waterflow of
the rivers. Thus the results of the crops must remain
uncertain until some scheme is introduced, as has been
effected in India, for instance, to regulate the supply of
the necessarj' irrigating waters.

The average amount of the annual rice-crop in Peru
may be put at 3,000 tons, with a corresponding value of
£450,000. In the year 1905 it reached but 2,641 tons.
Some of the more important estates have erected]|nxill3
for treating the rice, and for the general use of all tliose
who devote their attention to the cultivation of this
grain there are several central mills erected in the towns
situated round about the principal rice-producing valleys,
of which the most important are : Ferrenafe, Chiclayo,
Pacasmayo, and Eten, Practically all these mills are
fitted up with the latest type of machinery and plant,
but there are still others in process of erection, or
contemplated, which offer opportunities to manufac-
turers of this class of installation.

In spite of the native production referred to, Peru

imports a considerable amount of rice, the average value

■behig £60,000 ; but both in 1906 and 1907 this avenge

,GoO'

184 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

was far exceeded, the value being, for 1906, £107,222,
and for 1907, £205,904. The prmcipal imports of rice
came from China and Siam. On the other hand, the
Republic over the same period exported rice to the value
of £61,537 in 1906, and £18,737 in 1907, its cuBtomers
being found among the neighbouring Republica. In
1909 there were exported 651 ,000 kilogrammes = £59,908 ;
and imported to the value of £84,015.

In regard to tobacco, the manufacture of which has
been a Government monopoly since 1909, although in
Peru there are lands which are suitable, and a climate
which is favourable for the cultivation of the narcotic
leaf, its production has not increased to any appreciable
extent. The plant is grown in Jaen, Tumbes, Jeveros,
and Huancabamba. Personally I am no judge of
tobacco, since I am a non-smoker ; but I have been
informed by connoisseurs that while the leaf grown in
Peru is undoubtedly of superior quahty, and is much
preferred by the Peruvians themselves to any of the
imported tobaccos, it is of somewhat too strong and too
coarse a character ever to become very popular abroad.
This statement seems to be borne out by the fact that
some of the Peruvian tobacco is used for the purpose of
mixing with other milder tobaccos in the manufacture
of cigars and cigarettes ; but these are sold under
difierent marks and brands, and are consumed in the
country.

The Government has done something in the way of
experiment in tobacco-cultivation, but in many districts
the industry has been abandoned entirely, notably in
the District of Chanchamayo, in the Province of Con-
venci6n, and in the Department of Cuzco ; in all these
places it has been regarded as a failure. Probably,
were cultivation to have been pursued with more scien-
skill, and had the tobacco-planters been instructed
to prepare and how to fix up the leaf, the results

..GoO'

might liave been more encouraging. The total produc-
tion of the leaf at present does not exceed 950,000 to
1,000,000 kilogrammes, of which about one-fifth is
exported to the neighbouring Republics of Bolivia,
Chile, and Brazil. It is to be observed with regard to
the laatrnamed Republic, that preference is given to the

bacco from Loreto, while Bolivia prefers that of
'Jaen, Peru imports its tobacco, snuff, cigars, and
cigarettes from France, Germany, and Spain, the
average aimual value of such imports being between
£15,000 and £20,000. For 1909 the figures were £15,270.

By a Government decree of March, 1910, the price
if cigarettes is fixed at 1 cent each throughout tlie

public, and a company, locally financed, exists

,which exploits the tobacco industry under the super-

ision of the National Tax-Collecting Company. This

latter owns, by purchase, the cigarette factories located

at Lima and in other parts of the country.

Among the other industries which the Spaniards
introduced was the cultivation of wheat, but whereas,
up till 1687, it was grown exclusively on the coast,
repeated earthquakes and other climatic reasons induced
the cultivators to go farther inland ; so that to-day
practically all the important wheat-fields of the Republic
are found situated on the tableland area. Travelling
through the Andean region, one comes across many
isolated little patches of vigorous-looking, broad-eared
at, especially in the north of Peru ; but the industry
not by any means established itself firmly, and there

abundant opportunity for both improvement in

.ethod of cultivation and of area extension.

One of the reasons afforded for the small amount of
attention given to wheat-growing is the lack of the
necessary transport, a defect which will be overcome
gradually as the iron-rail makes its way, as it is finding
it gradually through the length and breadth of the

.Good

186 TERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Republic. Land and laboui are both available, and
with the placing of cheap transport at the disposal of the
cultivators, Peru ought easily to develop this agricul-
tural industry, and then the grain produced would find
markets in spite of ita several peculiar features.

With regard to these I may refer to certain samples
of wheat which were tested by one of my informants,
who pronounced them similar in appearance and
character — except that they contained more moisture —
to the Egyptian wheat, which has been imported into
various American countries, including the United States,
since the early seventies. Some of my readers may be
acquainted with the character of Egyptian wheat, and
in this event they will remember that the grain from the
Nile Valley is narrow and long in the berry, of a dirty-
white colour, and very dry and ricey. The Egyptian
wheat ia of a very poor quality, the gluten especially
being weak and valueless. The Peruvian wheats are
somewhat cleaner and broader in the berry, and contain
a little more moisture and flour than the Egyptian grain.
Of the four samples to which I have referred, the per-
centage of moisture in the dry wheats was rather high,
being aa follows :

Pur Cent

1. Siete Esbigfts (seven ears) 14-6

2. Chaiuora 16-2

8. Uarba Colorada (red beard) 14*4

4. Itodondoiround) 14-3

Wheat is usually sown in Peru from March to May,
and in the valleys it is irrigated occasionally, two crops
often being obtained during the year. On the lofty
plateaux the rains provide sufficient moisture without
irrigation being found necessary. The average pro-
duction per unit of area is ten times the quantity of
seed sown, although the yield is less bountiful where
the soil is not cultivated. The Peruvian millers mainly
use imported wheats for the production of flour, milling

,GoO'

^^^onlv

BARLEY AND MAIZE

187

' 1

mu
1 Dc

only a very small portion of native-grown grain. At
the present time the mills in Peru grind Australian
wheats, but Chile and the Pacific Coast ports of North
America sometimes supply a portion of the requirements.
The importations of wheat from California and Australia
exceed 400,000 tons annually. In 1906 the value of
";e imports was £266,517, and in 1907 £240,714, the

■erage between 1902-1905 being £206,827. In 1909,
wheat was imported to the amount of £269,067.

Barley is cultivated upon the lands where wheat is
grown, its principal use being food for horses and pack-
mules, the localities where it is mostly grown being the
Departments of Ancachs and Arequipa.

Maize, the cultivation of which cereal has made great

.vance during the past few years, can be found flourish-
■ing throughout the whole national territory, the only
part of the country in which it is not sown being the
cold and cheerless region of the upper plateau. Per-
haps the best quality is that which is produced iu the
Cuzco district, and some connoisseurs have pronounced
the grain which is produced here to have been the choicest
and most largely-yielding that they have seen. The well-
kno\^•n French agriculturist, M. Vilmorin, for instance,
has said that of all the known kinds of maize, that of
Cuzco is " the choicest and most vigorous grain, of the
size of a bean, with a very thin pellicle, and very
farinaceous." It is worthy of mention that at the
St. Louis Exposition (U.S.A.) the Peruvian ears of
maize, which were exhibited, obtained a gold medal,
formed a subject of lively discussion between the
iculturiets present, who desired to use them for seed,
poor people live almost entirely upon maize,

ilh rice, and I have seen them consuming both greedily,

rdly cooked, and before either was thoroughly ripe,
far the export of the grain is still in the incipient

Lge, bat recently some small lots were shipped to

Goo^

188 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Central America. With the advent of the Panama
Canal and the improvement m shipping facilities, which
will then be forthcoming, we may reasonably expect a
development of Peruvian maize export, the existing
figures being of little or no importance. In 1906 the
whole value amounted merely to £812, while for 1907
the figures dwindled to £680, the sole foreign customer
being Bolivia.

Although the existence of the rubber-tree has been
known in Peru for considerably over a century, the
industry of extracting the gum for commercial purposes
can only be said to have commenced in 1882, and the
systematic exploitation of the industry from 1885.
Throughout the extensive and beautiful timber regions,
teeming with the exuberance of perpetual spring, with
all its varied fertility and exquisite colouring, the rubber-
tree, producing the veritable CasiiUoa eldstica, is found
flourishing as in few parts of the world. Upon the banks
of all the rivers and rivulets which directly or indirectly
empty themselves into the Amazon, this handsome tree
is found yielding the precious caucko in abundance, and
of a quality as fine as any to be met with in Brazil or
the Far East.

Previous to 1886 the gum was obtained from the toresta
on the banks of the principal tributaries of the Maranon
River, chiefly the Tigre, the Morona, and the Pastaza.
From 1885 to 1897 the cauckeros (rubber-gatherers)
commenced to work, but in a very superficial manner,
the Valley of the Ucayali ; but here, as elsewhere, their
ignorance prompted them to cut down the trees instead
of " milking " them, their process being to fell the tree
close to a hole which they had previously made in the
ground in order to receive the milk, which then under-
went a rough process of coagulation by means of a
solution of soap and the juice of a native plant known
as velilia.

RUBBER

18!)

\y thia method (still considerably in vogue) each tree
furnishes upon an average of 20 kilogrammes of rubber,
which ia exported in the form of planks or cakes,

xh one of which weighs from 40 to 50 kilogrammes.
[t is needless to say that even with the immense supply
of rubber-trees of which Northern Peru is possessed,
if this clumsy and thriftless method of gathering the
caucho is persevered with, it is only a question of time
when the forests will be completely exhausted.

I have seen many varieties of rubber-producing trees
and plants in Peru, some of which are not even known
to botanists ; but the most common kind belongs to the
family etiforbacias, species fievea brasiliensis, from which
j'cie, the highest grade of Pari rubber, is obtamed. Thia
latter tree is found at its best in the humid river-lands
situated below the 300- feet level, and where it grows
to a height of from 60 to 75 feet. The casliUoa, belong-
ing to the family nlmaceas, and which is the rubber-tree
far excellence of both Central America and Mexico, ia
also found in Peru, usuahy in the drier lands, which are
situated higher up in the montafia.

If only the natives could be induced to adopt the
tapping process instead of felling the entire tree, infinitely
more lasting — if not such heavy first — results could be
lObtained. By periodically tapping, besides saving the
a prodnction of rubber of 10 kilogrammes per
urn, as against an immediate production of 20 to

kilogrammes by felling the tree, could be obtained ;

id since a rubber-tree, if not ill-used, will live for many
years, the practical advantages gained are obvious.

The last-named process I have seen pursued in the
Malay Peninsula, Ceylon, and Java, as well as in other
coimtries ; by its adoption the owners of the rubber-
estates enjoy a regular harvest which may be as firmly
depended upon as any ordinary crops of fruit or vege-
tables.

190 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Upon an average, three peons can work in a day a
square consisting of from 100 to 150 rubber-trees, which
will probably be found scattered indiscriminately over
an area of about 100 acres. The labourers engaged,
whether in felling or in tappiog the trees, receive no fixed
wages, their remuneration depending upon the quantity
of the crude latex which they can bring in. As a rule,
the labourer is paid something like 75 sols ( = £7 IDs.)
per guiiUa} (hundredweight), of jebe, and 40 sols ( = £4)
for sernamby, which is the residue or lower grade remain-
ing after the preparation of jebe.

Ahnost all of the rubber gathered m the Peruvian
Orient, comprising the larger portion of the country's
production, is exported from the Amazon port of
Iquitos, making its way thence down to Man&os, and,
later on, to Paid, both of which ports are in Brazil,
and thus it passes for " Best Para Rubber." Iquitos
lies some 2,653 miles up the river from the Atlantic
Ocean, but, nevertheless, it is a regular port of call for
lines of ocean steamers from New York, Liverpool, and
Hamburg. Practically all the rubber which is shipped
via the Pacific Ocean goes over the lines of the Southern
Railway from Madre de Dios, Inambari, and the liower
Urubamba country, and is exported from the port of
Mollendo. The export duty is 24 centavos per net
kilogramme, or £24 per metric ton. At the present time
there is a proposition before the Peruvian National
Congress to change this duty to one of 10 per cent, on
the London Market value, but it is doubtful whether fiiia
will be accepted, the Chamber of Deputies having
recommended the lower figure of 8 per cent.* I attach,
herewith, a table showing the amoimt of production of
rubber in Peru for the last eight years.

The Government sells tracks of virgin woodlands

* Since writing Ihe above, the tai bos been (May 10, 1911] deUnitely
fined 8 per cent., and eame into force July 1, 1911 (see Appeoduc).

,1 s i s

k s s- |- 1

s s s g

II i i i 1

ll III'

i| 1 1 1 1

il 1 1 1 1

l| 1 i" 1 '

<3>

to A ri ao

iS 1 S S 1
as i - s '

r 1 1 s 1

,1 1 s 1 1
Is s s 1 s

Inil

DiailizodbyGOOgle

192 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENl'URY

suitable for rubber exploitation, and situated in the
country " tcrrenos de montaSa," at the rate of 5 sols
(10s.) per hectare (equal to 2J acres), and also grants
concessions for the exploitation of the natural rubber-
lands under very liberal conditions — that is to say, either
by granting a rental of a specified number of hectares,
or by leasing groups which, in Peru, are called estradas,
of 150 trees each, on the condition that 2 sols (or 4s.)
be paid to the Government for every 46 kilogrammes of
rubber extracted. In either case the lessee or concession-
aire undertakes not to destroy the trees.* How reason-
able are the taxes demanded by the Peruvian Govern-
ment can be seen by comparing them with those prevailing
in Brazil, where the exportation of rubber is taxed with
the duty of 24 per cent, ad valorem, which represents
nearly 40 centavos per kilogramme, as against 8 cerUavos
in Peru upon jebe. In Bolivia the duty is as high as
16 centavos.

' See Appendix.

dlways — Qrowth of systems— Eiisting Uocb— Standard gauge-^NBrrow
gauge — New cod steaoti on— Southern Railrood— Cuico division — i
Track — Bridges— BoU in g-H toe k^ Freight— Paasengers—W otkahopa —
Miuuigement— Central Railroad — Oroya Bettion— Remarkable scenery '
— Road — Bridgea — Tunnels — Stations — Freight — Handicaps
— Fature prospects.

Tee comparatively small amount of iron-rail to be fomid
in Peru to-day occasions some surprise when one comes
to remember that it was in this country that the aecoud,
if, indeed, not the first, railway in South America, waa
built. I refer to the short line of 13'7 kilometres,
which connects the port of Callao with the capital of
Lima. During the last sixty years the !engt,h of line
constructed in national territory has not exceeded
3,000 kilometres (less than 2,000 miles). The gauges
are by no means uniform, ranging as they do from 0-60
to the extreme width of 1*45 millimetres.

Considering also the immense amount of revenue
which the Republic has enjoyed in years gone by from
its guano and nitrate deposits, as well as from other
sources, one might reasonably have expected Peru to
be possessed of the finest railway system of any South
American Republic. Different admmistrations of dif-
ferent periods have made spasmodic efforts to move in
this direction, but it would seem that when confronted
with the estimates of cost, and faced with the topo-
graphical difficulties with which the country literally
bristles, the programme was usually modified, and but
little of what was mtended actually done.

193 13

,Goo1

P94 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

It is to be admitted that Peru does not offer a temptai
field for railway construction, owing principally to the
immense distances which separate its different centres,
its modest population, and the many stupendous physical
obBtractions which have to be overcome. It is all the
more noteworthy perhaps to find this Republic possessed
» of a railway which, for sheer audacity of conception
land ingenuity in construction cannot be matched by
*' any country in the world. I refer to the famous Oroya
Railway section of the Central Railway of Peru, and
familiarly called the " Railway in the Clouds," which
cost the simi of nearly £5,000,000, on the greater portion
of which dividends never have been, and can never
possibly be earned.

The most earnest step taken by any President in
regard to transportation matters in Peru was that of
the late Senor Candamo, who, in 1904, promulgated
a new law regarding railways, by which the annual
amoimt of £200,000 was to be devoted to their con-
struction, such amount being the entire proceeds of the
tas on tobacco, and which is now a Government mono-
poly. Every Presidential programme since then has
contained eloquent promises with regard to the con-
struction of railways, while numerous and important
concessions are continually being granted by the Govern-
ment of Peru for the extension of existing and for the
construction of additional tracks, North American
capitalists being the most energetic to obtain these
concessions, and the most dilatory in carrying them
into execution. Several banking establishments in
Europe are at the present time negotiating with the
Grovemment, as they have at times past negotiated with

I its predecessors, to advance money for the construction
bf new railways ; and one important scheme, known as
Hie Amazon and Pacific Railway, has recently
lefore the attention of Congress, whose final deci

;ra as
be^^^d
lisifl^^H

RAILWAYS 195

to it and certain important modifications
demanded, is favourable to the project.

The national railway transportation of Peru is to-day
under the management of a British concern, known as
the Peruvian Corporation, Limited, with a total debenture
and share capital of £21,610,121, and which, some
twenty-one years ago, took over from the Government
all the railways with their lands, as well as other posses-
sions, as representative of the foreign bondholders
whose money for the most part had paid for them, and
in consideration of which the whole of the Foreign
Debt of the Republic of Peru was to be regarded as
cancelled. This Corporation manages altogether seven
railways, one line of lake-steamers, a large cotton-mill,
and a land colony. The railways are as follows : the
Southern, the Central, the Guaqui (Bolivia), the Trujillo-
Salaverry, the Pacasmayo-Guadahipe, the Paita-Piura,
the Chimbote-Tablones, and the Pisco to lea Railway.
The steamers are conducted in connection with " the
Lake Titicaca Service." The cotton-mill is that of the
Peruvian Cotton Manufacturing Company, Limited,
and the land colony is known as the Parent Colony,
and this is about the only present imremunerative asset
which the Corporation posses-ses.

While Mexico as well as Chile lay claim to having built
the " first railway-line in Spanish- America," Peru avers
that the first track to be laid upon the Southern Con-
tinent was that small section of line, already mentioned
above, running from the port of Callao to the capital
of Lima, in the year 1848, the length being precisely
13"7 kilometres (about 7 miles). To-day the system
has grown to nearly 3,000 kilometres ( = 1,825 miles),
which is still inconsiderable when compared to such
Jjatin-American States as Mexico, Argentina, Brazil,
1 Chile. The Peruvian railway systems arc made up

196 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Stamdakd Oauob Limxb.
Northern Seetion :

PbIu to PiOTA

EleD to FerrenAfe

ChicUjo to P6tepo

pMBmna^o to Gnadalape y Tooin
Central Section :

Limft to ChorilloB

Linw to Hwdftleiut del Mar

Lima to CaUM

Callao to La PonU ...

CalUo to BellaTiria ...

Lima to Anedn

Callao to Oroya

Tielio to Morococha ...

Oroya to Cerro do Paeoo

Cerro de Faaoo to Qollarisqii

Oroya to Hnari
Southern Section :

Piaoo to lea

MaU«ndo to Areqoipa

Areqnipa to Pimo

Joliaca to SkuanS

Sicuani to Checcocupe

AricatoTacaa
Electric Section

Uma to Callao y La Panta

Limn to ChorilloB

Lima to " La Herradora "

Total

Nakkow Oauok L

Nortltem Section :

Pinra to CataoaoB

Bayovar to BflTentaz6ii

Pimentel to Chidayo

Eten to CayalLl

SnlttvcrcvtoTmjiUa y Awope
HuBucfaaco to Trea P&iloa
Trujilloto Laredo y UentMmcho

ChicBJuato Pampas

Ctiinibate to TabloneB

Central Section

Snpr« (o Baxranoa y PatiTiloa

Sapre to Ban NIooUb

Bio PativilcA to Paramonga ...
Playa Chica to SaJinaB do Hoacbo
Chancay Co Palpa
Caaapatca b) El Cirmen

Southern Section :

Cerro Asnl to Caaete

Tambo de Mora to Chinoha Alta
Ejuenada to Pampa Blanoa ...

Total

EUmnetna
97100
4S-100
34-100
06-100

14-0S3
7-600

18-717
MOO
8-400

88-aoo

322-000
14-660

isaooo

48-000

20-660

74-000

173-300

861-760
197-600
41000
68-000

16176
18-160
17 000

10-650
48-480
34-140
86 873
76O00
67600
26-960
44-900

12-000
6-000
7-600
10«W
26-000
4-630

10000
11-920

sown

Or an avaragB of 1,684 milea, axolnsive of lome hnndreda of kilometr«g
whiou have Binoe boen aoqoired by parchaae.

Digitized byGOOgle

RAILWAYS

1»7

Tt ia to be obsereed that since thU list was compiled
several small and scattered sections have been com-
pleted, and are now in working, thus bringing up the
total mileage of P.C. lines to close upon 1,850 milea.
Additionally, I may mention that many of the above
enumerated lines, although of importance in a great or
less degree, are small, the number of stations varying
from twenty-two, as in the case of the Callao to Oroya
section, to only two, as on each of some sixteen sub-
branches or connections.

The amount of capital actually expended upon the
whole of the constructed lines and those under construc-
tion has exceeded to date £35,000,000. An immense
amoimt of rolling-stock of all descriptions has been pro-
vided, some of it, however, being antiquated and in-
efficient, while the condition of the tracks varies accord-
ing to the particular management in control. All the
State railways are under the control and manage-
ment of the Peruvian Corporation, and are well main-
tained, generally speaking. The other lines are the
respective properties of sugar-estate owners, min ing
companies, and private concerns, and these call for little
further comment.

The exact amount already expcndetl, the sums now
being laid out upon new construction, and the amount
in contemplation relating to an important new northern
line, will be found of service in the following table,
which is believed to be up-to-date :

£34,610,181

6.an.48s

^l.OSl.AlS

AddilbniU sections ksoponeiliiiiil in working. abont 018,864

Lines now under conHtracUon boloaging to the

Slats 1,866,088

IS for vhieh ooDMoioiia have btta granted ... 2,000,000

Z^^

198 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

In speaking of the Peruvian railways, it will be de-
sirable to refer to them in their respective groups or
systems, the most important of which are the Southern
and the Central.

The length of the Southern Railroad is 594'19 miles,
made up as follows : MoUendo to Puno, 325'1 miles ;
Guaqui to El Alto, 55*3 miles ; El Alto to La Paz,
5*6 miles ; Juliaca to Cuzco (branch), 209'9 miles. It
will be observed that I have included in this total of
594"19 miles the section from Guaqui to La Paz, which,
however, will be described in full in a later part of this
volume, my reason for so doing being that this section
now belongs entirely to the Southern system, and is an
integral part of its system. It may be remembered that
there is also a service of lake-steamers worked in con-
junction with this railway, the boats running from Puno,
on the Peruvian side of Lake Titicaca, to Guaqui, on
the Bolivian side, the distance across being 128 miles.
The total track of transportation, therefore, which is
managed by the Southern Railway of Pom, amounts to
722-9 miles.

There are two gauges found upon this system — that
between Molleudo and Puno, as well as that between
Juliaca and Cuzco, being 4 feet 8J inches ; while the
Guaqui to La Paz section is 3 feet 3| inches (metre
gauge). The road-bed of the MoUendo-Puno section is
16 feet on embankment, 18 feet in rock excavation,
and 20 feet in earth excavation, as a general rule. The
ballast used is river-shingle, gravel, sand, and broken
rock. On this division (MoUendo-Puno) the rails are
60 pounds laid on Oregon-pine sleepers, 6x6x8, the
same weight of rail being used upon the Puno-Cuzco
section ; while from Guaqui to El Alto the weight is
40 pounds, and from El Alto to La Paz 60 poimds.

Upon the " Mollendo division " — that is to say, from
Mollendo to Arequipa— there are a considerable number

SOUTHERN HAIUVAY 199

of stations, the firat-named place being the terminal and
at the same time the port of entry for all through-goods
and passengers carried by the Southern Railway. Un-
fortunately, MoUendo is anything but a good port, and
although the Peruvian Corporation have, in conjunction
with or upon behalf of the Government, expended a
large sum of money in building a breakwater and mole,
the actual position is but shghtly improved, and it is to
be feared that Mollendo will for long fail to merit the
distinction of providing even a moderately safe entrance.

The Southern Railway Company has erected a well-
designed station at MoUendo, and goods-sheda of ample
dimensions, the construction being carried out in cast-
iron, masonry, wood, and corrugated iron.

Arequipa Station is built of cast-iron, with wooden
sheathing and corrugated-iron roof, the administration
buildings, which are practically new, being constructed
of masonry with wooden floors. There are fifteen other
► etations on this division, all being built of masonry or
Iffood with corrugat«d-iron roofs.

The " Puno division " (from Arequipa to Puno) has
sixteen stations, exclusive of Puno terminal. Six of
these stations are of wood and corrugated iron, eight
are of masonry, and one ia of brick. At Puno both the
passenger and freight sheds are of masonry with comi-
gated-iron roofs. These structures are substantial and
neat, while there is an abundance of yard-room avail-
able both at Puno and at the mole.

The " Cuzco division " (from JuUaca to Cuzco) has
twenty-three stations, eight being of masonry, nine of
adobe (or sun-dried bricks), and six of wood, all alike
having corrugated-iron roofs. It is unfortunate that
this last section upon the railroad, which is the most
recent to have been opened, has hitherto proved some-
rwhat unsatisfactory from a freight and passenger
•frying point of view. The former has not come up to

GOOQ

SOO PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

expectations, but there seems some chance of its pros-
pects brightening. With regard to the passenger-
service, hitherto but an iinsatisfactory state of aSaira
has been met with. Upon occasions an entire train,
which is made up of passenger and freight cars, will fail
to carry more than four or five passengers ; and I under-
stand that the inhabitants have shown themselves abso-
lutely indifferent to the advantages which the railway
offers as a cheap and expeditious means of transporta-
tion. The Indians cling slavishly to their primitive
method of animal-traction (llamas and burros — i.e.,
donkeys), while even among the more wealthy Peruvians
the existence of the railway is persistently ignored.
Such experience is certainly not encouraging either to
the Government, who built the line, nor to the Company
which runs it ; and but for the tourist traffic, which is
carried at a certain time of the year, it is doubtful
whether the line to Cuzco would be able to justify itself.

In regard to the gradients on the main line between
MoUendo and Sumbay, the maxinium is 4 per cent. ;
from Sumbay to Santa Lucia, 3J per cent. ; and from
Santa Lucia to Puno it is but 1 per cent. On the Cuzco
branch, from Juliaca to Santa Rosa, the grade is 2 per
cent. ; from Santa Rosa to Araranca, 3 per cent. ; from
Araranca to Sicuani, 4 per cent. ; and from Sicuani to
Cuzco, If per cent. From Guaqui to El Alto the grade
is 2 per cent., and from El Alto to La Paz, 6 per cent.

There are several interesting bridges on the Southern
Railway, which may be described briefly as follows :
" Mollendo division," one deck-plate girder iron bridge,
100 feet span, crossing the Tingo Grande River ; " Puno
division," a new steel deck-plate girder bridge, consist-
ing of two spans of 65 feet, crossing the Chili River,
made by the American Bridge Company, and erected
in 1908. The same manufacturers are also responsible
for the bridge crossing the Sumbay River, which^waa

I sp.

Ri
de
Bi

Ba
1

^^ wit

SOUTHERN RAILWAY 201

finished as late as January of last year. It consists of
two spans of 65 feet, two spans of 41 feet, tower-apan
of 30 feet, and a central steel tower 130 feet in height,
upon concrete pillars. There are no other bridges upon
this section exceeding spans of 25 feet.

On the " Cuzco division " (Juliaca to Cuzco) there are
also a considerable number of bridges, of which the
following are the brief details : Rio Maravillas, cast-iron
bents on screw piles 450 feet in length, eighteen spans of
25 feet ; Rio Calapuja, same as the Rio Maravillas bridge,
twenty-four spans of 25 feet, 600 feet in length ; Tira-
pAta, single span of 180 feet, deck Fink truss ; kilo-
metre 80, cast-iron bents on screw piles, six spans of
20 feet, 120 feet in length ; kilometre 93, same as
kilometre 80, eight spans of 20 feet, 160 feet in length ;
Pulpera, single through Howe truss of 100 feet ; Rio
Vilcaneta, trestle 600 feet in length, constructed entirely
of old iron rails, thirty spans of 20 feet ; Rio Vilcaneta,
kilometre 216, cast-iron bents on screw piles, six spans
feet, 120 feet in length {erected 1907) ; Rio Cilca-
i4ta, kilometre 235, same as kilometre 216, fourteen
spans of 15 feet, 210 feet in length (also erected 1907) ;
Rio Vilcaneta, kilometre 239, two spans of 65 feet,
deck lattice-girder, and erected in 1909 by the American
Bridge Company ; Rio Huatanay, kilometre 306, single
span 50 feet, steel deck-plate ^rder, also erected the
same year by the Company.

The culverts, generally speaking, are of masonry,
with iron girders, but there are a number of atonc-arched

Iverta on the main line of the Cuzco branch, with

lans up to 13 feet. There is only one tunnel upon this
railway, and that occurs on the Puno division at Kilo-
metre 55, a little north of Arequipa ; it is 700 feet in length.

The remaining gradients are as follows ; " MoUendo
division" — Mollendo to Ensenada, level ; Tambo to
Pcsco, 3 per cent. ; Cahuintala, level ; Cachonde, J per

202 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTITRY

cent. ; Huagri, level ; La Joya, ^ per cent. ; San Jose
to Ramdl, level ; Viter, 3 per cent. ; Quishuarani to
Granite, level ; Tingo, 1 per cent. ; Desvie to Arequipa,
3 per cent. " Puno division " — Cantera, 3 per cent. ;
Yura to Uyuparapa, level ; Quisces, 3J per cent. ;
Ayrampal, 1 per cent. ; Pampa lie Arrierea, 3 per cent. ;
Abra, 2 per cent. ; Canaguas, 3 per cent. ; Sumbay,
level ; Puccacancha, 1 per cent. ; Vincecaya to Craoere
Alto, level ; Pariguanas, 2 per cent. ; Lagunlllas, level ;
Saracecha, 21 per cent. ; Santa Lucia, H per cent. ;
Maravillas to Piino, level. " Cuzco branch " — Cala-
piija to Chuquibambilla, level ; Santa Rosa, 1 per cent. ;
Araranca, 3 per cent. ; La Raya to Marangani, level ;
Sicuani, 1 percent. ; San Pablo to Chuquicahuana, level;
Cusipata, 1 per cent. ; Quiquijanas to San Jeronimo,
^ per cent. ; and to Cuzco, 2 per cent.

The rolling-stock on the Southern Railway is, owing
to the length and importance of the line as a freight-
carrier, both diversified in character and considerable
in amount. There are some fifty cars, including various
types, and made up as follows : Three sleeping-cars, one
saloon car, thirteen first-class coaches, two combination
coaches (first and second class), fourteen second-class
coaches, three combination cars (second-class and
baggage), thirteen baggage cars, and one first-class car.

In regard to freight-cars, the equipment at present
consists of 387 waggons, varying in carrying capacity
from 18,400 to 35,000 kilogrammes ; in length, from 25
to 35 feet ; in width, from 8 feet 4 inches to 9 feet ; and
height, from 4 to 7 feet. The types are mainly bos-
cars, of which there are 190, while there are 133 flat-
cars, 38 coal-cars, and 10 cattle-cars.

Considering its length of track, I know of few railways
which are better equipped with locomotives than the
Southern Railway of Peru. From first to last, there

SOITTHERN RAILWAY 90A

are ei^ty-eight engines, the oldest of which dates back
to 1871, and the most recent to 1907. Various makes
are represented, including Rogers, Danforth, and Bald-
win. The newest type (1907), which are al! of Rogers's
make, have cylinders 20 x 28 ; driving-wheels, 52 inches ;
boiler pressure, 180 ; the weight of engine being 73 tons,
t«nder 36 tons, or a total of 109 tons. Another type,
by the same manufacturers, has 58-inch driving-wheels,

boiler-pressure of 200 pounds, and a weight of engine

tons, tender 45 tons, or a total of 115 tons. There

eight locomotives of this latter type, and I am in-

!ormed that they have proved exceedingly good and

!r\'iceable engines.

The character of freight handled by the Southern
Railway of Peru Is principally foodstuffs, including flour
and sugar, alcohol, lumber, coal, and general goods for
Bolivia ; as well as flour and sugar, wines and spirits,
lumber and general supplies for Arequipa and the larger
districts which are ser\'ed by the line. There are also
considerable consignments of wool, minerals, borax,
rubber, hides, and cocoa carried by this Company,
while during the last two years a large quantity of con-
struction material for the new Arica-La Paz Railway
has been transported. These latter freights have been
naturally only of a temporary nature, and upon the
completion of the new railroad they will have ceased.
The contractors of the Arica-La Paz Railway now bring
in at least some of their own material and rolling-stock
through the port of Arica. While it lasted, however,
the increase of freights proved very profitable to the
Southern Railway — a fact which has been reflected in
the last annual report presented by the directors.

The workshops, which are established at Arequipa,
although somewhat small in dimensions, have been so
Well arranged and are so well managed that they arc
vcapable of doing all the repair and construction work

^^^1 Veil arrai
^^^■vCapable c

,GoO'

aot PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

which the railway calls for. Mr. W. Cockfield is in
charge of these shops, and surprising ia the amount of
excellent work which ia turned out under his super-
intendence. Since Mr. Cockfield came, the strictest
economy has been exercised, but the efficiency of these
Bhops has been practically doubled, and I am informed
that the Indians who are engaged in its various depart-
ments, such as the boiler-shops, carpenter-shops,
machine-shops, engine-shed, and foundry, are proving
themselves very capable and malleable.

The Southern RaUway of Peru affords another in-
stance of what capable management can effect in regard
to a line which, for years, had proved troublesome, and
even unprofitable. Under the management of Mr. H. A.
McCulloch, the line has made steady and consistent
progress, with the result that it is to-day in a strong
financial position ; and even if this position be somewhat
threatened, as those most concerned fear it is, by the
approaching completion of a new and powerful com-
petitor in the Arica-La Paz Railway, there is reason to
believe that the directors of the Southern Railway,
who have had plenty of opportunity for arranging its
business and preparing for the inevitable, will rise to
the occasion, and know both how to meet and compete
with the rivalry when it becomes an accomplished fact.

One of the features of the railway management under
the control of the Peruvian Corporation has been the
excellent relations which exist, and have for some years
existed, between the management and the public. In
connection with the local control and supervision of
the Southern Railway, it would be diificult to find a
more competent manager than Mr. H. A. McCulloch,
who is extremely popular in Arequipa (the headquarters
of the Southern Company) and throughout the entire
district through which the railway operates. It is only
those who have lived in Latin-America, and who(^know^,i

SOUTHERN RAILWAY

tiie people and the difficulties of handling them, who
can realize what a " popular manager " of a railway
with a long track to handle means in the operation of
the line. Mr. McCuUoch, who was with Mr. W. L.
Morkill in Mexico, is one of his most able and valued
assistants in Peru.

The Southern Railway, the second moat important
of the Corporation's transportation systems, comprises,
as we have seen, five lines in all, of which three are
mountain and two coastal railways. The three prin-
cipal sections are those from MoUendo to Arequipa —
172 kilometres ; Arequipa to Pimo — 351 kilometres ; and
Juliaca to Sicuani — 197 kilometres. The most recent
addition to the Corporation's railways is the extension
from Juliaca to Cuzco, and which, although up to the
present, as indicated above, this has proved disappoint-
ing in the amount of freight carried, gives promise of
developing in due time into an important and profit-
earning branch of the Southern System. It is proposed
to continue the railway from Cuzco to Santa Ana, and
in the event of this extension being built, it can hardly
fail to prove a valuable feeder to the system. A survey
for such a railway has already been made by the Peruvian
Corporation for account of the Peruvian Government.

While the gross receipts of the Southern Railway
actually declined in the year 1909-10, the working
expenses were so much reduced that the net receipts
resulted as follows :

iNCLUQiKa THE Cdzco Dinstoit.

lH9-ia

1M8-09.

Difleranoe.

PmOenL

Qrou receipts ...
WorkiDg eipeDses

e. «. d.

868,766 4 6
221366 10

ii«,aio 8 1

816.648 13 8

£ ■. d.
60,443 18 7

9G.283 11 10

-1413

-ao-10

NatPweipto

137.400 3 8

102,560 10 5

+S4,8S9 18 8

+88-96

^joog

906 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The Peruvian Central Railway, better known as the
" Oroya Huancayo Railroad," has been, not undeserv-
ingly, described as the most remarkable railway in the
world. Remarkable it is, firat, for the audacity of ita
conception ; secondly, for the extravagant manner in
which it has been constructed ; and thirdly, on account
of the unfortunate financial results with which it had
met.

Like the majority of the Peruvian railways, the
Central starts from the coast of the Pacific Ocean, at
Callao, and, after running for some kilometres through
wheat, cotton, and sugar estates, it reaches its first
narrow opening in the slopes of the Cordillera Moun-
tains, an opening which has been caused by the erosion
in the rocks effected by the furiously-running waters
making their way to the ocean.

Already, at a distance of 50 kilometres, the line has
ascended 1,000 metres above sea-level, and thereafter
it continues to creep higher and higher, through deep
cuts, across daring viaducts, through a multiplication
of tmmels, and round and about prodigious 2ig7ag8.
An ultimate height of nearly 16,000 feet is reached, the
track passing thence for hundreds of kilometres through
an absolutely desolate and barren snow-bound region,
devoid of every vestige of vegetation, and of so wild a
nature as to cause the traveller to marvel that a railway
in such a region should have ever been constructed.

The total length of the main line is as follows : Callao
to Huancayo, 208'44 miles ; Lima to Anc6n, 23' 56 miles ;
and Ticlio to Morococha, 8*49 miles, or a total of 240'49
miles.

In regard to any new construction, there is nothing at
the present time being attempted here, or contemplated,
so far as the Peruvian Corporation is concerned ; but
the Government is constructing an esteusion of the
main line from Huancayo to Ayacucho — a distance of

cyGooJ

rENTRAL RAttWAY MM

240 IdlometrM. At the time of my viat to this imihray
Bome 20 kilometres of road-bed wen mdy to reoeiwa
the track, bnt woik then was, and still is, 1 beUenbfl
SQspeaded. (See Map). I

The road-bed of the main line, from the ooast to Saftfl
Bartok>m£, is fonned mostly of gravel, which in Hmm
part of the country is called eatcajo. The gravel is oCl
a veiy coane nature, but it makes a very BoUd fonttd»>l
tioo, and one which is easily kept dry. Prom Son Ba>
tolomi, which is at kilometre 76, the road-bed is alniriet
solid in some pbu»^ since the tmvk is built upon the
rocky itide-hills, up which it climbs and creeps, cutting ,
oR poinln by many bridges and tunnels. This class olfl
road-bed is met with as far aa Casap&Ica, at kilometxu
154. From Casap&Ica onwards to Tanque Viacas, an
kilometre 160, it is not of bo good a quality ; and beiM
a clay soil is struck which is rather hard to dtain. CoBfi
ddering all things, however, the rood-bed keeps in birly
good condition, with the careful supervision and con-
tinual attention which it rsceivea.

From Tanque Viacas to Hoancayo, a auoajo forma-
tion is again encountered, and, as a oonseqnence, pro-
vides first-class road-bed. The mcnn width is 4*20
metres. The nature of the ballast used changes Cram
section to section over the whole lino. In most cases
it is tbrovm up from the side of the tracks, and in the
caacajo section it is very fair. On some sections then
u natural bruken-stooe ballast uard, which servea
the puipoee excellently. Upon the Aucon branch the
ballast is sand. The sleepers are of California red-
wood, 6x8x8, and the weight of tbc roils is 70 pounds
per yard. The gauge of the innin line is standard
( - 4 feet 8| inofaas). The gradients are as follows :
Ckllao-Lima, 1 '5 per cent. ; Lima-Cboslca, 2-Q per cent. ;
Choslca-Ticlio (summit), 4 per cent. ; Ticlio-Ororo. 4 per
Oroyo-HuoncAyo, 1*5 per cent. ; Ticlio-Moro-

:.Clt)t)d

808 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

c6cha, 4 per cent. ; and Lima-Anc6n, 2"75 per cent. As
will be noticed, the maximum grade is 4 per cent.

Considering the length of the line, the number of
stations is very small — a fact, however, which is quite
comprehensible after a journey between terminus and
terminus, and the opportunity afiorded of seeing the
paucity of population and the generally abandoned
character of the country through which much of the line
passes. Altogether, there are seven first-class, eighteen
second-class, and twelve third-class stations, the ter-
minals being — Callao, Montserr4te, Chosica, Oroya,
Huancd.yo, Ancon, and Moroc6cha.

Naturally, upon a line of such character as this, which
climbs from sea-level to nearly 16,000 feet above, there
are found a considerable number of bridges, many of
which are of great engineering importance, such, for
mstance, as that known as the Challipa, and that other
known as the Verrugas, both which are of world-wide
celebrity.

The following is a list of the bridges, the greater part
of which were built in the United States of America :
Anc6n branch — Chillon and La Palma, built in 1908 and
1891 respectively ; main line — Purhuay, kilometre 65
(1908), 71 feet ; Corcona, kilometre 66 (1872), 124 feet
4 inches; Veraguas, kilometre 84 (1890), 575 feet;
Puchuchana, kilometre 88 (1892), 70 feet ; Ucuta, kilo-
metre 93 (1908), 172 feet 10 inches ; San Juan, kilo-
metre 94 (1908), 88 feet 9 inches ; Challape, kilometre 99
(1908), 356 feet ; No Name, kilometre 109 (1874), 53 feet ;
Viso, kilometre 110 (1902) ; Chaupichaca, kilometre 117
(1908), 426 feet; Infiemillo, kilometre 130 (1908),
204 feet; Anche (1), kilometre 133 (1908), 300 feet
2 inches ; Rio Blanco (1), kilometre 134 (1908), 104 feet ;
Rio Blanco (3), kilometre 135 (1876), 75 feet; Rio
Blanco (4), kilometre 1357 (1903), 85 feet ; Copa, kilo-
metre 136 (1908), 275 feet ; Corcomado, kilometre 148

,GoO'

CENTRAL RAILWAY tOB

Oi feet; Van Bockljm, kilomelre
166 feet 4 inchcB ; Vucu, kilometre 174 (IB
3'0 incheH ; RamiohAco, Idlometn 188 (18
8 inches; pAohaduca, kilometre 203 (1893), 64 feet; ]
Huanciyo ezteoaiou, Pacbacayo, kilometre 40 (1908), I
97 feet ; HanUro, kiiouetrc 62 (1908), 230 feet ; Ataurt, J
kilometre 82 (1908), 130 feet ; San LormM, kik>aiotr« j
; (1908), 70 feet ; Matabuasi, kilometie 96 (1908), \
foet; and Coocepoite, kOometn 99 (1908),
I feet

addition to the above, there am a number nf
Her bridgea, which, mduding thoee in the Uuancaj
number about sixty-seven. Prom first i
i there are something like ei^ty tunnels, several <
which an enoonnteied ooe after the other, the train
passing from one, across a bridge, into the next in a
manner enooontared on no other railway in the woiid i
with which I am acquainted. Such a feataro is <
countered at the InBemlllo bridge, and the eOeot upott]
the ordinary traveller, who sees it for the fint and!
eroi for the second and third time, is remarkabljr i
impressive.

The ohaiaoter of the up-freight carried by the Central
Bailway is mostly lumber and machinery, together with
geneiml merchandise for the mines ; while the down-
fieigbt consists of ore, copper bars, and various forms ofl
treated ores.

The General Blanagor in Lima is Mr. J. U. Feehan^l
an extremely capable and experienced railway man,!
who has manifeirted cocu^icootts sldU in hawlling i'
somewhat complicated system undar his control
Mr. Page, the Traffic Msnager, the Conqtany [
an official of equal ability, and coe who has helped I
populanse the line considerably among all rlsuwis

The Oentral Railway has really never had a goodH
chance yet of showing what it can earn. Handicapped

.Good

210 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

at the outset with a gigantic capital, it has been, until
comparatively recently, but indifferently managed,
while several unfortunate accidents have transpired
which has thrown it back on the road of progress. The
most disastrous of all these occurrences was the tragedy
which occurred in February, 1909, at Chaupicbaca,
when a new bridge under reconstruction was partly
wrecked, and eleven employes were killed by a runaway
engine, which, being insufficiently protected by the
attendant waggon, which should have been, but was not,
attached, started down a steep curve, and, passing
entirely beyond the control of the driver, dashed into
a group of working men, and then hurled itself, together
with part of the bridge, into the foaming torrents
below.

This accident cost the Company no less than
£6,500, to say nothing of the losses incurred by a
complete suspension of through traffic for nearly three
months.

Another contretemps was the destruction by fire, in
the month of January following, of the station and
administration offices in Lima, known as Desam-
parados. The building was insured with the Peruvian
Corporation for the sum of 50,000 sols (£5,000), against
which had to be charged the cost of replacing furniture,
etc., and clearing the site, leaving the Company with
nearly 26,000 sols (£2,500) towards the cost of erecting a
new building, which is now in hand and almost com-
pleted.

The financial operations of the Central Railway, like
those of the Southern Railway, resulted for the last
year (1909-10) in an increase in the net receipts, in
spite of the fact that the gross receipts were smaller in
value. But the working expenses were also reduced in
even a greater degree, so that the results, so far as the
proprietors were concerned, proved eminently satis-

GoO'

CENTRAL RAILWAY Sll

factory. The statement for the working of the Central
Railway for the period mentioned is as follows :

IWM-IO. IMS ft. i DilTNMM.

PwCnt

1 £ L d' < a. d. £ •. d.
r.ro»rN«ipto ... «WI,Mai7 88W.MS IS 3 - iH&sa 17 11

Workiuft etpwiM |2M,«W 6 4300,011 IS 3 -M.MA 7 10

-- i6ia

NctrMwpu ... 1M;2H7 11 U 98.4M U +80,708 Oil

+ 82 Wl

DiailizodbyGOOgle

CHAPTER XVI

BaJIw&yi (eoatiniud} — Guaqoi-lA Tat Bailroad — Important ftcqiuZi
— CoDtempUtEil developments— I^ake Tilicaca serriee - BoUing-slock
— Stations — Workshops — Puta-Pinra Railwa^r — PacasiiiBjo-GaSid&-
lupe Use — Trujillo braiich — Cbimbote-TsblotiM link — Geaer«l
management — Prospects of Peruvian Corporation Batlwajn — Or«M
mineral developmenls.

The Guaqui and La Paz road has a length of 98 kilo-
metres of main line, 3 kilometres of branches, or a total
of 101 kilometres. Construction by the Bolivian Govern-
ment commenced in 1902. The road-bed is ballasted
with gravel, the rails being laid upon sleepers of red
Oregon pine 6x6 and 8x6. From Guaqui, which is
the port of Lake Titicaca, upon the Bohvian side, to
the station known as Alto de La Paz, or a distance of
88 kilometres, the rails are 40 pounds. From the Alto
to the city of La Paz, which is an electric-traction line,
9"4 kilometres in length, the rails are 60 pomids. There
are seven stations in the 97"4 kilometres, two of which,
are terminals. One of these, the La Paz station, con-
sists of a number of substantial modem buildmgs, and
contains the general offices of the railway. There are
two cargo-sheda of similar construction. The Alto
station is the connecting-point of the steam and electric
sections, and contains a station building of calamini and
stone construction. Here are, in addition to the station-
master's house, located drivers' houses, cargo-sheds,
and a running-shed, At this station there is a cross-
over Y.
The next most important station is that at Viocha,
212

GUAQIHLA PAZ aAn.WAY SID

vliich, hereafter, ts likely to berotnp a very busy oMitrc,
inaimucb as it wilt be tlie nice ting- [Miint uf three diffenoit
lines of railway, an<l perbaps of even four. Vtacbn in
the tenninul jwint of the Oruro-Viacbu section o( the
Aiitofogasta and Bolivia Kailway, ami the prvsent
tenuinal of the Arica-La Paz Railway. It conaistA of •
station -building, with Htation-maHter's hou5e of calamioii
and wood coniitniction, water-tank, »hed, etc. Capiri wi
a small atation containing a carctaker'H houae, and itl
has Btooe platfomiB ; Querqueta station oonaiita all
atation-bailding of stone and wood; Tiaguanaco ts al
station- building of atone, adobe, and calamini, including
Htation-nuiat«r's bouse and abed for ttxga. Ouaqot,
which has already been muitioned as the temunal point j
or port OD Lake Titicoca, includes the administntioa I
house and offices of the superintendent of stcamen, ^
These btiitdings are constructed of stone, adobe, and
calamini. Then arc four very commodious and well-
built oaqD-abeda, which are the property of the tailway,
but they are used by the railway and Custocn Houae
conjointly.

Tht gauge of the main line ia 1 metre {3 feet 3 j mcbea).

The tmck i» divided into a steam aeotion, from kih>-

netre 1 to kiktmetxo B6, and an eleotxic secUon, from

kiknuctre 68 to Idlometie 98. The marimum grade on J

the «t«am section ia 1*8 per cent., and om the brantuj

4*5 per cent. On the electric ■ection the grade it 1

6'2S per cent.

The number of bridges on the firat-named aection are

mmioiknn : One Fink tnisa, at kilometre 64, conwaHng j

^Bne qtan 13 metiea ; and twenty-nine bridge* foimaal

^^X beanw 16 inohce in depth, varying from 3 to lO'

Mstxea. Then an Bevent3--foDr culverts, fonned of iron

piping, varying from 3 feet to 10 inclicn in diami^irr.

On the etecttk section then k one bridge, conatHting of

three qiaos vf 10 metKs ; one q>an is (orutod o( 31-inch

814 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTXTRY

differdange I beams, supported upon abutments, and
two pillars fomied of iron rails. There is one bridge of
8 metres span, formed of 15-inch I beams, supported
on stone abutments ; and one biidge 10 metres span,
formed of 21-ineh differdange I beams, on stone abut-
ments. There are five culverts built of masonry, and
seven of iron tubes, 21 inches in diameter. There are
no tunnels. In regard to switches, apart from those for
sidings at stations, there is a crossing-siding at kilo-
metre 44, 250 metres in length; a second at Idlomette 87,
100 metres in length ; and a third on the electric section
at kilometre 5, 50 kilometres in length.

The rolling-stock on the Guaqui railway was, at the
time of my seeing it, far from being in its pristine per-
fection, and no doubt it has been necessary to renew
the greater part of it. This rolling-stock consisted o£
four freight and passenger locomotives, and one switch'
ing engine. Numbers 1, 2, and 3 were made by tha
Baldwin Locomotive Works, of Philadelphia, U.S.A.,
and weighed from 28 to 32 tons ; Number 1 had cylinders
18 X 13, with 38-inch wheels ; Numbers 2 and 3 had
cylinders 14 x 18, with 38-inch wheels ; Number 4 o£
Rogers's make ; while Number 5 (switching engine) waa
out of the shops of Peckett, of Bristol.

I am informed that seldom has a more satisfactory
piece of rolling-stock than this shunting engine been met
with in this pari; of the world, both the management
and engine-drivers speaking of it almost with affection,
crediting the engine with the best of all virtues on the
part of a locomotive — " reliability and perfection of
detail."

On the other hand, I understand that British loco-
motives, as a rule, are not found the best for these rail-
roads, on account of the manufacturers overlooking the
important fact that engines should not be too rigid in
their build for mountain railways. It seems tkat in

ApBit from tliis, the absence of standardization in
regatd to the puts is a Berious drawback, and compares
unfavoarably with the advantages possessed by the
American locomotives, especially those of Baldwin make,
all duplicate parta for which are easily obtained.

Weze British manufacturers to make a careful note of
theie facts, and adapt their engines more closely to the
requimnents of the particular country to which tbey are
to be despatched, there is no reason whatever why
British locomotives should not compete succeaafully with
thoee of the United States or any other country, and it
is equally ccrtab that they could bo imported just as
cheaply.

nieie are three fiist-class paaaenger ooaohMf mnd ona
mixed (first and woond) ; thxM seoond-olMB paasengar
coaches ; and one baggage-oar. On the electno saotioo,
there are three electric locomotives, weighing 15} tons
each, with 4'56 horse-power G.E. motors to each loco-
motive : and two firat and two seoond-clasa pasaenger
coaches, with 2*55 hone-power Q.E. moton on woh car.
All the rolling-stock ia fitted with Wettinghooae air-
brakea of an extn heavy design, adapted to bring the
cats down with safety on the 6 pei cent, grade of the
electric division. The freight rolling-etock is aimiUi4y
fitted, and oonsiBts of forty-two cars, with a capacity of
15 tona each, divided between box and flat cars.

I diaraoter of the frel^t handled ia of gmenl
handise, imported into Bolivia throu|^ Fera, bmn
xtpe, and from the United Statea, and Peravtan pro-
wls, snob as auj^ and kerosene. For export, the line
I caines copper and tin orea, hidea, ooooa, and the
fttoxal products of the oonntiy.
The woxkabc^ of the taOway an litaated in Qnaqni,

CnOO'

ai6 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUHV

and contain most of the asual machinery for running a
line of this character. Both British, French, and Ameri-
can machinery is to be foimd, the former including two
Premier gas-engines, made at Sandiacre, near Notting-
ham, and which are pronounced excellent specimens
of their kind, having yielded very good work from the
very first day they were started — that is to say, six
years ago. These engines are 400 developed horse-
power, 380 maximum. In the power-house the accumu-
lators, supplied by a London firm, cannot be declared
very satisfactory, however, and I am informed that they
have proved unsuitable and troublesome in the extreme.
The accumulator cells, 780 in number, have been sup-
plied three in parallel, making 260 complete cells,
whereas they should have been supplied in but one.
The cells are of a capacity of 450 ampere hour. The
dynamo is supplied by the Lancashire Dynamo Com-
pany, of Trafford Park, Manchester ; while the General
Electric Company, of the United States, is responsible
for the remainder of the equipment.

The electric cars which are used upon the short
section between the Alto and La Paz are made by Brills,
of Philadelphia, U.S.A., who are responsible for most of
the electric traction and horse-drawn tramcars all over
South and Central America, having practically no com-
petitors, the electric equipment being supplied by the
General Electric Company. So powerful is the electric
locomotive, which weighs 15i tons, that it possesses a
pushing capacity of 35 tons gross weight up a grade of
6J per cent., this weight being made up of three pas-
senger coaches, each weighing 10 tons, with passengers
and baggage weighing an additional T) tons. Many
engineers might be inclined to doubt whether a loco-
motive of this capacity could perform such work ; but
I am prepared to say that it can, for I have seen it done
under my own eyes.

OUAQUI-LA PAZ RAILWAY

I That the bumneas of the Quaqui-La Paz Raihraj ifl
ladily inoreasing. ospecially under tiie present manage-
nt, (-an readily be obBer\'iHl frnni the (oUowing ata-
itirs, for wbich I am indebted lo ihe General Manager
[r. Pierce Ho|>e). The traffic returns from January 1,
07, to Decembci 31, 1909, were as follows :

^HpTbe

^^Hren
H|»yabi

■sar

■Sx

imnary I, l«n,u>3vM 90. ivn ...

JuiaiTl. 190a.ulwt0.im ...
J^ 1, IMS, IB D«raib« n, 19oa ...
Janmrrl, l«(»,loJauMI,lfl09 ...
J.I7 1, itn, to PmiiiUi SI. IBW ...

ia>li

SMWIeo..
M.Mft ..
W.1U „
KKT „
AM ,
«,l» -

The Peruvian Corporation formerly held this railway
>r lease from the Bolivian Government, and by way
rental 90 per cent of the gross traffic receipta was
lyable to that Oovemment imtil June 30, 1911, after
the rental was to be increased to 40 per cent, of
the gnus reoeipta.

The same steady progress was shown tlirougbout the
full twelve months and was continued during the
following year, the figures for 1910 l>eing as follows :

l««*-lt

IM*.*.

wfc—. su

< .. 4.

ttfm • t

< . 4.

aa.<N 11 •

- ■I)MU ij-lt*

MmUf. ..

mim 1 1

Hmu 1

+lo,uo 10 o'+aror

The gtrat que«tii)n which wan being diacosicd while

I was in Bolivia, nut alone in that Republic, but by

who ore interesited in the Peruvian Corponi-

aud its boldingM in Peru, was the future uf the

i ami Ijk Vat Railway. Tixler oidinar}- ciirum-

, the lease granted to Uie Peruvian Corporation

..Got.^

218 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

expires in 1914; but, inasmuch as the Government ot
Bolivia was indebted to the Corporation for the amoant
of £220,000, representing money advanced by the bond-
holders for the construction of this line, it was considered
more than probable that the Government would consent
— as indeed it did — to cancel the indebtedness by selling
the railway out-and-out to the Corporation. With
regard to the question of the purchase price to be paid,
the Government proposed to ask the sum of £400,000,
and offered to transfer the railway for a sum in cash
and a cancellation of its indebtedness to the Corpora-
tion of the aforesaid sum of £220,000. Intrinsically,
perhaps, the Guaqui and La Paz Railroad might have
been at that time worth £400,000 ; but it was doubtful
whether the Corporation would be inclined to pay that
sum. That it would be prepared to ofier an amount not
very much less was, however, possible ; and, as a matter
of fact, it obtained it for the sum of £374,912 7s. 9d.,
and took over entire possession of the property on
July 15, 1910. The Corporation was in a very strong
position, since the Government of Bolivia could not,
and probably would not, try to manage the railway on
its own account, bearing, in fact, the view that native
attempts to both construct and manage railways have
hitherto proved expensive failures.

It was somewhat unfortunate that the relations be-
tween the Government and the Guaqui and La Paz
Railway management were not of the most friendly
nature, and, eliminating from consideration the purely
personal element, the Railway Company had had but
little reason to feel thankful to the Government for the
attitude which it had for long assumed towards them.
The hope is more in the future, however, and in the
person of the new President, who will come into office
in a very short while. Colonel Montes, who has already
served as President for one term, is likely to be tfae.new

GUAQUI-I^ l'.\Z RAILWAY «H1

^IfKt, and he is well known to eotertam etrong pre-
dilection!, not alone in favour of foreign niilivay enter
priM> in general, but towanlti th^ pcrsonnfl of the Guaqui
and Ui Pax Kajlwny nmnagemcnt in particntar.

There in one additional and no teas important fact to
remember, and that in : should the Penivian Corpora-
tion have failed to become possesaed of the Guaqui and
I^ Paz Railroad, it would of a certainty have been par-
chased by the Antofogaata and Bolivia Railway Com-
pany, which ia already a powerful factor in the trans-
portation anangements of this part of the world, while
it is likewise poawssed of an energy and capability in
regard to ite management wcond to none on the part of
•ny roilioad enteiprise in the workl.

The Pexuvion Gorpocation had all along been alive

the pOMibilities which would attend upon the

guiaition of the (juaqui and La Pax Railway, and now

lat the rorp<»ration hai proved to be the puicliaaer of

le line, a long-rontemplated era of new construction

ill commence. Not otJy will the line be relaid and re-

[uipped for a greater part of ita length, and, in all

ibability, the electxie-traotion section abolished in

fa\'our of steam traction, bat a new throufdi line will be

built around Lake Titicaca, which will (hen give this

railway an unintcmipted run from the port of UoUcndo

to the city of La Paz, without the nccesaity of any tiana-

yhipment such as has to be carried oat at present. The

' line for the oontempkted Like Titicaca sectioa

220 kilometres, and it is estimated that it

built for £5,000 per kilometre. No hopes an

in that this new section of the railway will

icdiately tcmuncrativo from a frvi^t point of

its value as a throu^ connecting-link has

already been demoostiated.

Under these oinnunitaiKiea, It will be possible for the
[Ui and Im Pitz Railway to btrodoce a schedule of

1^^^ Under
^^HBiuu)ui ai

S20 PERU OP THE TWENTIETH CENTUBY

freight rates which would compare favourably with any
which could be offered by either the Antofogasta and
Bolivia Railway, or the now being constructed Arica-La
Paz Railway. Should the latter line stop at Viacha,
and not go straight into La Paz, aa the contract calls
for (which is very improbable), the Guaqui and La Paz
Railroad would benefit materially, since it would carry,
although only over a short haul of 22 kilometres, all the
traffic of the new line from Viacha into the Bolivian
Capital. Such an arrangement would serve a double
purpose, inasmuch as while it would bring fresh grist to
the mill of the Guaqui and La Paz Railway, it would also
obviate the duplication of the hue from Viacha into the
Capital of Bolivia by the Arica-La Paz Railway. To effect
this, however, it would be necessary to obtain the mutual
consent of both the Bolivian and Chilian Governments.
Another of the Corporation's railways is that of
Paita-Piura. The previous year's business on this railway
was encouraging, showing an increase of almost 6 pet
cent, in passengers and 2 per cent, in goods carried.
With the settlement of the question between Peru and
Ecuador, the Corporation may reasonably look forward
to more traffic pouring over this line, the product of
most importance being cotton. While it is always diffi-
cult to forecast a crop of either cotton, sugar, maize, or
rice, so much — nay, everything — depending upon the
weather, judging from the new areas under cultivation,
there is good reason for indulging in the belief of a good
year. The following are the returns upon this railway
for the last year's trading :

1909-10.

1908-9.

Diffennce.

Per
Cent.

Oroaa receipts . . .
Working eipeoBea

i B, d
81,881 10 B
17,S»1 S 2

£ 9. d

80.668 4 5
17,617 10 8

£ ». d.
+ 1,-22S 6 10
- 226 7 4

+ 4-01
- IIM

Net receipts

14,490 7 1

ia.o;i5 18 11

+ I,4i54 18 2

■f-IJ-lS

( n(1(

RAILWAYS 2S1

There are three small linea managed fay the Corpoia-
I tkw — namely, Faita to Piara, 97 lulomutrai in lei^th ;
Balaverry to TrujiUo, 76 kilometres; and Facaamayo
to Guadalupe, 96 kilometres. Each of these Unee is
profit-eamiog, and each shows an increase in ita net
receipta over the figures of the premus year.

Faita posseeaeB special importance, in view of (he
oootemplated ooostiuotion of a third Trana-Andine Rail-
way, which is projected, to cross the northern region at
6" south latitude. According to this plan, this railway
would unite the port of Faita with a port on the River
Uarafion, thus placing the Facifio Ooean in direct com-
municalioo with the finest and most navigable river in
the world— the Amason— and at a pout from which
there is free and esiy navigation throughout the entire
year. In order to deal more expeditiously and mora
ecooomically with the shipment and discharge of freight
at Faita, the Corporation has now procured a motor tow-
boat, which has proved a very great success. The Cor-
omtion has also constructed a large irrigating canal in
~ e Cinn Valley on behalf of the Feruvian Government,
I is destined to have an important bearing upon
[tike whok of the teiritory round about, and which is
faerved by this railway. A high tribute has been paid
r the Peru>-ian Govenunent to the admirable manner
1 which the P«ruviao Corporatioa has admlnistored the
i-Fiura Railway, the regularity <^ service being one
of its main features.
Facasmayo is another port of the R^ublio which is
idergomg a groat tnnsformation in n^rd to develop*
: of the suiTonnding oountzy, and already an im-
ut extonsian of the Pacaamayo to Guadalupe
lailway has been cwried out — namely, that known as
B Chileto extension, which was only opened for txmtfio
rtowards the end of 1909. The cost was close on (o
£160.000. The new worii is justifying itself day by day.

rpkiu-l

.Gc^Qt^le

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

a greatly increased amount of business accruing to the
railway in consequence of the extension. It is interest-
ing to note that in the month of February, 1909, the
Peruvian Government granted to the Corporation a new
I lease of the Pacasmayo mole for a term of twenty-five
L years, at a rental for the first five years of 20 per cent.
of the gross receipts, the rental increasing in subsequent
I periods of five years to 23, 26, 29, and 32 per cent, re-
spectively, the Corporation undertaking, within the first
two and a half years of the term, to execute all necessary
repairs and alterations to the mole in accordance with
approved surveys. In return for this, the Corporation
is entitled to amortise the expense by the appropriation
quarterly of 1 per cent, of the Government's share of
the gross receipts, together with an interest at the rate
of 5 per cent, per annum.

A notable improvement, exceeding 100 per cent., was
recorded in connection with the working of the Pacas-
mayo and Guadalupe Railway. This is due to the longer
haul now possible to Chilete, the extension to which
point was an obligation imposed upon it by the Govern-
ment in the settlement of 1907. The most important
traflic over this system ia rice, of which the harvest was
last season more than ordinarily abundant. Other
freight which indicated an increase was composed of fire-
wood, sugar-cane, hay, and live-stock. The following
B figures show the movements effected :
On
Wo
Nel
The Trajillo Bailway is a sugar-carrying line, the last
two years proving particularly good ones from a Bugar-

1909-10.

1808-8. Diffewnoe.

Pm
Out.

(JroM receipt* ...
Working esp«n^0B

£ .. d.
10.235 9 5
12,044 1 2

£ 8. dJ £ s. d.
17,501 9 8|4-1,648 19 9
14,157 3 2 -2,113 2

+ 934
- 14-93

Net recaipti

7,191 8 3

8,434 6 6 +3,767 1 fl

+10910

,Goo'

I point of view, the railway obowing an appnciable
9 in ita net inoome. lie pnuot year being an
iqually, if not indeed a more ptomiaing ono for the
sugar indiutiy, the railway's ptofita an expeot«d to Im
even better. The net reoeipla for the year 190&-10 were
£19,362 &a. 7d., an improvement amoonting to
£1.402 13a. 6d., or an incieaae of 7'80 per oeat.

The diimbote to Tablones Railway is a Une of 57 kilo-
metres in length, which had hitherto been worked at
a lofls; it is decidedly improving, oven ii atowly. A
London Syndicate holds a oooceesion from the Peruvian
Uovemment for the oonstntctaon of a milway bom Uiis
port (Chimbote) to Cans and Becuay, whJoh, if canied
into o0ect, will remit in inoreaaed boaineaB for the Oor-
poratton's line (see p. 196).

Although not quite so prosperous as the Pacasmayo*
Guadalupe line, the Chimbote Railway still showed a
very eaioouraging amount of progreas for 1909-10. This
result was achieved in the face of both goods and pas-
■ennr tiaffia falling ofi to a oonsideiabla extent. The
nbjomed figuea show the poaitioa of the line :

1N»-1«.

lN*-fb

«..—

JS.

WoUvof— ^

< .. 4.

B^Tfl S
4,ll« U »

1 . d.
*m < >

- 11 10 «

- Ml

XMIMrffl. _ 1 fM V 9

<n u >

*itm 1 'tnm\

While all the mihrays under the muagemant of the
Corpontion are being maintained in an ooelleot state
of repair and eflicienoy, the very strioteat watch over
expenditure ia being exercised, with Uie result that there
is now no leakage and no extjavaganoe, every depart-
mtat being made reqioiisible, and the whole being under
the difwt sopervisioo ol Mr. W. U HoriuU b Pern,
and the directors in Loodon. U the figuies which

,c;oq

224 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

have latterly been presented to the shareholders are not
particularly encouraging, considering the immense in-
terests which the Corporation holds, there is every pro-
mise of improvement for this year {1911) ; and, pro-
vided peace in the country be maintained, for many
subsequent years. The amount of cotton and sugar
grown in the Republic is increasing steadily, if not sen-
sationally, and the revenue which is derived from these
sources shows a steady increase. Such traffic conduces
materially to the prosperity of these railways, but
another most important asset is the transportation of
minerals. By far the largest proportion of the businesa
done by the Central Railway is that of carrying the
copper ore from the Cerro de Pasco Mines on a long haul
of 220 kilometres. The output from these remarkable
mines is increasing annually, and it will probably not
be long before the Central Railway finds its resources
taxed to provide for the many mineral trains which it
has to run.

Although the price of copper is low at the present time,
so rich are the mines that they can afford to increase
their output, even at lower selling prices than those at
present in force. One thing, however, must be con-
sidered, and that is that as the Cerro de Pasco Company
is increasing its smelter plant, there will be less mineral
ore, if more copper bars, for the Central Railway to
carry ; but it will be a long time before any question can
arise of a cessation of copper ore being shipped, and the
railway is at present enjoying the fruits of a good con-
tract of 10,000 tons per month.

A satisfactory feature in connection with the Central
Railway is the reopening of the smelter at Rio Blanco
in combination with the development of some property
at Casalpaco and at Morococho. This smelter, which
has hardly been worked for more than two or three
I weeks since it was erected, has ao far been a dead and

RAILWAYS ttS

costly failure, a result which has proved as disappoint-
ing to its proprietors as to the Central Raihraj, which
at one time had hoped much from its construction. The
whole of the district round about is likely to undergo
<levelopment, for it is known to be rich in minerals, and
only needs the assistance of capital to develop them.
Tbis capital will surely be forthcoming when the invest-
ing public appreciate tho importance of Peru as a pro-
<lucing country, and when they have learned something
of the favourable opportunities which it offers.

The best piece of news which the shareholdeni in the
Ponivian Corporation will learn from the forthcoming
Annual Report, to be issued in December, is that Mr.
W. L. Morkill has entered into a further contract to
serve for five years as Representative in Peru. This
may be regarded as a most valuable asset, since Hr.
Morkill is not alone a highly SQCoeoaful manager, but
enjoys the esteem of everyone in Peru, from the Prendoit
downwards.

Digitized byGOOgle

Ta new nuhray omgtaiction progEamme at pasent id
hand IB a fairly conadeiable one, a&d, E^konld it be
bmogjit to fniition in its entiretr, will pve Peni
betveeo 2,000 and 2,500 miles of i&iiwsy hy the end of
the preaoit year (1911). Brajicfa tines already nin from
Lima to A110611, and from Oroya to Hnancuyo : and an
extenakm is almost completed to Ayacacho. From here
ooiraidB it is intended to extend to Cozco, thus linking
up the connection with the Southern Railway. The
whole of this part of the line runs high up in the elevated
valleyB of the Andes, several thousand feet above the
levd of the Bea ; and it will open up some well-known
ininetal districts, such as Hnancavelica, where some
vahiable cinnabar deposits have been located. This
portion of the line has necessitated very heavy rock-
worii and a large number of bridges being thrown across
deep gorges and low-running rivers. The rolling-stock
IK particulariy interesting on ac<iount of the fact that ojl-
buming locomotives, constructed upon American prin-
ciples, bull turned out from British shops, are employed.
Another railway enterprise is a link to the Ceno
de PaBc« line — which belongs to the mining com-
pany of that name — which will connect up the capital
witii the rich prm-inces of the Ancaza valleys, where are
the vast and practically untouched rabbet
226

vtuated

d rabbet ^B

nAILWAYS

of Iquitos. Tet another project, which might

in b« deacribcd as an alternative one, is an exten^^inn

the Peruvian Central Railway from Oroya to Tarnia,

thence to the Ucayali Rivet. Should such a line

con«tructed — and it would undoubtedly prove a very

icult and expensive one — it would give access to the

of the montaiia — in extent ahuost unlunit«d —

loe a supply of magnificent timber could be drawn

ir use in the mines, where, owing to the formation of

the country rock, an ininien^ amount of timbering has

to be carried out. At present all the timber for the

purpose is brought from Oregon, in the United Htatcs,

and, as may be believed, this proves of a very costly

nature by the time it is delivered at the mines.

Additional new railway construction proceeding in
Peru at the time of writing is the Uuacho extension to
Lima, and which is making so much progress that the
ooDteactors promise that it shall be ready for opening in
Janoaiy next (1912). The completion of this lino will
mean much for the surrounding districts and the pro*
ductive \-aUey8 of Sup^, Huara, Chancay, and Cam-
bylio, since it will bring them into connection with I
Metropolis and all tJie commensial centres of the counti
The Pemvian Corporation propose a line from Un
one of their stations on the Southern Railway near
Cazco, to the head of unobstructed navigation on the
Hadic de Dios River, which is one of the priiioijKil tribu-
taries of the Amajcon. The country through which I '
line woukl pawt ut believed to be extremely rich J
leraU, forests, and agrieultuml wealth ; mon
kf great rubber-producing zone would be brou^t inl
ich-ncodcd railway conununication. The Corpoiatid
hold the choice of oonstnioting this railway at any t'
within thxM ytm after th« oompletioa of th« i
and tin mtrvy haa not been made yet. bigineen i
however, now m route to undeitake it, and II

PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

that the Corporation will have the Ime built and in
running order before very long.

A railway is aho projected in connection with the
navigable waters of the Amazon Eiver, a preliminary
contract for which has been entered into with a German
syndicate, of which the well-known firm of Arthur
Koppel, Berlin, is the head. This construction may
BeiTe to regenerate the port of Paita, and would open
up the immense northern territory of Peru, which at
present is practically a desert, so far as population is
concerned.

The port of Paita (see previous Chapter) is the safest
of the Republic's ports on the West Coast. By connect-
ing it with the navigable River Maranon (otherwise the
Amazon), direct communication will be obtained with
Europe via Pari. The distance of the route from Paita
to Maranon will be about 700 kilometres. The sum of
£3,000,000 is mentioned as that which will be expended
upon the construction ; but I fancy that this will be
insufficient, and it may have to be augmented by
another 10 per cent.

The advantages arising to the trade of the Republic
from such a railway would include an additional outlet
for its European commerce, the easy transport of supplies
to Iquitos from the coast, and a journey to Liverpool
via Para of eighteen days' duration, instead of fifty
days ! Naturally, the Government is very desirous
of seeing such a rout« opened ; and the President, in
discussing the project with me upon more than one
occasion, evmced the liveliest interest in its completion,
which, if it merely depends upon His Excellency's wishes
and efforts, will undoubtedly be consummated.

In anticipation of the completion of the Panama
Canal in 1915, this railway, to be built from Iquitos, on V

I the Upper Amazon, to the northern Peruvian port of J

paita, has already been compared in importance to the I

Cape to Cairo RAitway, for it will andoabtcdly pnt the
rich nibber-growmg region of equatomJ South America
witbiu twelve days, via Panama, of Xcw York. Beodei
tbia, a vaat district u Upper Pern, a country destinfd to
be one great wbeat-field, will be opened up.

The Oovemment of the Bepubtio baa granted the
conceanoa, and guarantees interest at the rate <rf 6 per
cent annually on the capital invested, bestdea giving the
cooceeaionairea more than 3,000,000 acres of fertilo bud
on cither aide of the liiie. And a significant pobt is
that the new railway is to be built with Qennan capital,
the concessionaires being, as mentioned, of that nation-
ality. The entianoe of German capital into the field ol
railway inv e s ttnent m South America is an evidence of
a new policy, of a wider oulieaching. on the part of
Oermana, and doubtless they will continue to push
forward in various ways, bo^es trading, in the vast
southern continent.

When Ur. Henry Meiggs, the well-known American
railway engineer, buitt hu great and famous railway into
Andean Peru, his engincem performed some remarkable
worit, and took the line over an elevation of 16,000 feet.
The new railway will not have to go so bi{^, for it will
avail itaelt of a great depresuon in the Andes where the
highest point is about 7,000 feet ; and, if a tunnel
through the mountains is made, as is contemplated, the
elevation will be reduced to 0,000 feet.

The Department of Fomento have ivcently aottiorised
a Bun-cy of a new railway frotn the City of Ics, in the
Department of the same name, to the village of El
Molino.

The railway development of South America, consider-
able aa it ia in some regiwis, is really in its infancy, and
there remaina to be accomplished work that will keep
cngineeni and rapilalists busy for more than a omturh*.
The reward will be great, for a continent that will easily

Cnood

230 PERI' OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUHY

support 800,000,000 people, a continent of surpai
natural wealth, is to be exploited in the interest of pro-
gressive civilization. Railways in South America will,
moreover, make for political stability, which is always
an important consideration.

The Lima railways are among the oldeat-eatabliahed
foreign enterprises in Peru, the original Company
owning tJiem having been in existence for nearly fifty
years. The Company was registered in 1865 to acquire
and work two railways of about nine miles each, held
imder concessions from the Peruvian Government, the
term of the concession for one line being for ninety-
nine years, from 1851, after which it reverts to the
Government ; while for the other line it is held in per-
petuity, and there being no monetary guarantee at-
tached to either concession. Latterly the Company has
been realizing some portion of its possessions, having
disposed of its Encamacion property for the sum of
£30,730, of which £2,250 has been applied in purchasing
the redemption of debenture stock, leaving a balance of
£28,480 under the conditions of the trust deed for a
further redemption of stock. This redemption relieves
the net revenue account from the corresponding charge
of interest, and increases the amount available for
distribution on the shares.

I may point out that this Encamacion sale was only
ariived at after considerable difficulty, and its consum-
mation was at one time imperilled, owing to the unsettled
conditions prevailing in Peru, and the negotiations had
to be temporarily abandoned. The Company is still left
with the two sections of the railway which are leased
to the Associated Electrical Companies (Lima Light,
Power, and Tramways Company), under which arrange-
ment a sum of £15,000 is received per annum. The
Lima Railways Company has also been fortunate in
getting rid of a serious competitor upon the Chorillos

b the purchase of this competiag
1 Electrical Companies {its own

The gnm teceipta for the year ending June 6 last
were £15,900, while the expenses came to £2,077 in
Lima, and to £1,489 in Ixmdon. When all charges had
beendeduct«d, thu net profit amounted to £5,811 l8.6d.,
which, added to the fonner balance of £1,872 9s. id.,
left a nun avBtlable for dividend of £7,683 lOs. Alto-
gether, 3s. 6d. per sharp, Wing equivalent to 1 ] per cent. ,
was paid to the proprietors fntc of income tax, ami the
small sum of £683 1^. ban been carried forward. There
18 every chance of the present year proving sufSricntly
SDcoeiihil to enable the directors hereafter to derlaro
dmdend of 3 per cent— an earnest of better thingit to
come— all of which may be regarded as proof of an im-
proved condition of things. It may be accepted that
the prospects ol the Lima Railways are puticuUrly
bright at the present time.

The Lima IJg^t, Power, and Tramways Company
(Emprisaa Electricaa Asodidas) is a Company formed
tmder the laws of Peru, and it wnrlcs the following
group of lines : Ferrocarril Urb4no de Lima, which is
an electric tramway of about 33 kUometres of single
track, running through the principal streets of Lima—
the number of passengers cairied last year exceeding
_]7,000,000-and the Tnnvia Blectrica de Lima y
liorilloa, a light electric railway, about 25 Inlo-

^res of siuglo track, ninning in conjunction with the
Urban tmmway, and connecting the
nrbs, Miraflores and Bacimnca, with the
|ii( Chorilloa. Lost year it cArried over
8^0n,Oln pMsruttBni. The Feimcarnl Klectrico de
Lima y Callao, which Ia a light elcrtrii- niilwav of about
3 kilooietns of .linglu track ronnectmg Lima with
Callao, the principal port of the country, and nerving

93a PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

also the town of Callao and its small suburb La Punta
(the passengers carried last year exceeding 3,300,000),
is likewise comprised within the group ; as are also La
Conapaiiia Nueva Tranvia Electrica, which is a tramway
built to compete with the Tranvia Electrica de Lima y
Chorillos, but which, as stated above, was bought out
by the Empresas Electricas AsociMas — the number of
passengers carried last year exceeding 800,000 ; the Lima
Railway Company, Ltd., an English concern, which has
leased its business to the Lima Light, Power, and
Tramways Company, and which nms a line from Lima
to Chorillos ; and, finally, La Empresa Electrica de
Santa Rosa (Electric Light Company of Santa Rosa),
which owns the power-stations, supplying electric
current required for the tramways, railways, lighting,
etc., of Lima, Callao, and Chorillos, and their suburbs.

It will thus be seen that this Company has a solid and
valuable property, and, if I except the Lima Gas Com-
pany, it has no competitors. As a matter of fact, even
this latter concern cannot be recorded as a competitor,
since the greater part of the share capital is held by the
Lima Light, Power, and Tramways Company, who thus
control the charges made. In regard to the financial
condition of the enterprise, it may be said that the share-
capital outstanding amounts to £1,350,003, together
with an issue of £1,200,000 of 5J per cent, first mortgage
debenture stock.

The North- Western Railway of Peru holds a conces-
sion, dated December 12, 1906, for the construction of
a railway from Lima to Savan via Huacho, with branch
lines to the ports of Huacho and Chancay, both of
which are situated upon the Pacific Coast of Peru, in
the Province of Lima. There can be no doubt about the
ultimate value of such a railway, for the main line will
run from the capital to a rich and hitherto undeveloped
district. The total length of the main line, which is

tite main Kne br short branch Knes, tite length of tiist
to Cbancay being 12| kilometres, and that to Hu&cho
120 kilometns. At both those ports suitable statkto
acoonunodatMO ia to be provided (or the efficient
handling of the tzafiic Ooiurtiuction wotk was com-
menced towanU the end «f 1909, and by September 30,
1910. some 71 kiloiuutnti of tntthworks had been com-
pleted, including tbree-fifthB of the surface work of the
whole lino. 8ince then further conaidemble piogreas
has been made, while the bridge over the River Huacho
has been erected, as well as the bridge over the River
Chancaj. This hitter caostnictjon has eight wpuu of
16 metre* each, and is altogether an excellent piece of
work.

The capital of the Company is £600,000, divided mto
ordinary shares of £1 each, and there u a first mortgage
dobeotare issue amounting to £996,600. The Company
is in the enjoyment of an annual guarantee from the
Penirian Government for thirty yean of £49,830. The
Government has nut only cotiBrnted to pay this, and
which amount covers entirely the interest on the deben-
tutes, but has undertaken to make good losses incurred
during the thirty yvnn referred to in the working of the
nilway. I think this act may be regarded as a proof
of the abundant goodwill entertained by the Peru-
vian Government to foreign enterprises of a reputable
character.

The Cerro de Pasco Railway is a line constructed
primarily for the purposes of the important mining
company bearing the same name. It has a length of
8S miles, and croosea the famous Juan Pampa, or plain,
one of the most intereating spots in Soath America,
and, moiaover, of historic*! interest, inasmodi as it was

234 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

the battleground of Simon de Bolivar, where he and
army and the allied anny, composed of Peruvians and
all the various neighbouring coimtries, defeated the
Spaniards on August 6, 1824. A description of th«'
town of Cerro de Pasco will be found m Chapter XXIL

A railway from the Pacific Coast to the Ferrobamba*
mines may be constructed in the near future. The
London Company owning the mines, which are situated
in the Province of Cotobambas, Department of Apuii-
mac, came to loggerheads with the Southern Railwai
management, which has the only line running anywhi
near the mines, because they could not agree upon
terms under which the extension from the Cuzco
terminus and the mines at Ferrobamba should be built,
and the rates to be charged for carrying down the ore
to the coast (at MoUendo). Thus the Company, if it re-
mains in English hands, will build the line on it,s own
account. It is suggested that the starting-point shall
be at the port of Lomas, and that the Ime shall then
traverse the wild and desolate pampa of that name —
and where absolutely uothuig in the way of trafHc can
be expected^ — following along the left bank of the Acari
River to the Amato ranch, cross the river, and continue
to San Pedro, in the Province of Lucanas. Thence it
will pass through the Quilcota pampa. and proceed to
the town of Pampachirri, Province of Andahuaiias,
descending the canyon at that point, and touching at
Talavera on the Apurlmac River, again crossing the
river and reaching Ferrobamba. The entire distance
from Port Lomas to the mines would be about 10(^
leagues {300 miles), and the maximum grades
estimated at from 3 to 3J per cent.

Although, as indicated, passing through improducti
territory for a portion — the greater portion — of tl
route, the railway would, on the other hand, tom
near the coal deposits of San Pedro, San Juan, Chilques,

<-'""8

le '

the I

And flan Cristobal, all in the Province of Lncanaa.
Likewise it would pass through the gold, silver, and
copper mines of Qucrobamba. The estimated cost of ,
the railway is S6,000,000, say £600,000.

Should the strong American syndicate, which alreadj'
holds practical control of the Fermbamba mines, acquire
them eventually, the line will still be constructed.

An important new undertaking is the Peruvian
Pacific, or, as it is known locally, the Chimbote-Kectuiy
Railway, a length of about 168 niilea in connection with
an English Company — the Chimbote Coal and Harbour
Syndicate, Limited (see p. 223). The first section of the
line was to have been completed and opened by July,
1909, but for some reasons the work was stopped, and
the line is still incomplete. In this matter the Govom-'i
ment behaved uncommonly well, and much mocel
Ubenlfy than many — I mi^t even say, most — LatiA]
Oovemmentfl would have done under the same ctrciiin>|
•tuMM. As the t«nus of the contract were by no
means complied with, the ccnoeaaon ip$o facto bwame
null and void ; bat so far frmn acting apoa this advan-
tage, the Government not only continaed the <
■ion and renewed it from time to time, but tetamed I
the ccnceaBionaire, Mr. F. J. Shafer or his suooeiM
cctuddcrable portion of the amount which had
deposited as caution money. No doubt the line will I
finished by someone at some time, dnce its completioi
means openmg up some veiy rich ooalftelds, as well as aal
entirely new agricultaral and wheat-growing area of li

The three exteniioiis which the Pemvian Curporatia
have now in hand — via., the Sicunnl-Cutco. the Oroy
Huancayo, and the Yoaan>Chilete, to all of which i
have ahready made some refencwe— will be built, 1
understand, well within the estimated prices, which
lunted for the three andert&ldngs to something over
7,000. The estimated price was U,1.10.00O.

Ciood

CHAPTER XVIII

Shipping— Principal ports — PnDama Canal efTert — Sleamsbip tiaes^
Improved foreign services — Freight— Peruvian Steomahip Cocopwiy
lice — EatcB in force — Further new routes — Coftstol sarvicw —
OoTemmeDt Hubaidiea —Benefits front Ainerioitn railway conneeUon
— British shipping — Latest Btalistios— Port of C alloc — Iquitos —
Docks— Bail ways — The town.

In spite of its immense coastline, extending over 1,200
miles, the Republic of Peru cannot be said to be possessed
of more than three good ports, and these are rather
in the nature of open roadsteads — namely, Paita, Callao,
and Pisco. There are also the ports of Pacasmayo,
Tnijillo, Salaverry, and Eten, and a number of small
inlets at which vessels of a certain tonnage are in the
habit of calling at regular intervals.

The principal Pacific porta for the collection of cus-
toms dues are as follows : Paita, Eten, Pacasmayo,
Salaverry, Callao, Pisco, MoUendo, and Ilo.

The northern shores are mainly long and melancholy-
looking stretches of rocks and sand, while, in the
southern part, one sees high promontories rising ab-
ruptly from the shore, the waters of the numerous inlets
having an average depth of 100 to 120 metres. Owing
to the absence of good harbours, the large ocean-going
boats must lie outside, where tliere is an almost con-
tinual and sometimes aggravating swell, becoming upon
occasions so violent as to prevent the lighters and small
boats from approaching the vessels. Thus, it is most
desirable that there should be some substantial amount
of capital found for the construction of good harbours,
and I am glad to say that something practical is being
230

SHIPPING «S7

, and Iiy a British poncem, to improve tbf lutding
«rul loading farilitics at the important port of MoUendo.
Of thin enterprise 1 npeak more fully when I talk of the
undertakings connected with the Penivian Corporation
(eee p. 199).

There can be no question that, with the completion
of the Panama Canal, which event may reasonably be
looked for by the Alipulat«d lime — namely, January of
1910 — there will be an inimeiue inrrease in the South
American West Coast trade. All the ports from Panama
downwards will participate in this rcm'al of coastwise

tivity, and it is satisfactory to obser^-e that the more

Iclligent portion of the trading and shipping com-

r in Europe is fully alive to the possibilities which

1 up before them, with the result that arrange-

vwe being made to increase the number of vessels

f , as well as to improve the servioos generally.

Comparod to the existing Pacific services between
San Francisco and Panama, mainly tn the hands frf the
Pacific Hail Steamship Company, one of the most
autocratically managed and most deservedly unpopokir
lines to be found in the Southern Hemisphere, the lines
south of Panama are no doubt regarded as exceptionally
good. But if they be judged by any other standard of
merit 1 am afraid that some would be fotmd lamentably
wanting, both in regard to efficiency, punctoalily, and
the charges which the practical absenoe of competition
enables them to levy upon shippers and passenfsn
sUke. A change is now coming amt the situatioat
however, for wbiofa. as 1 have said, the impending open-
ing of tlie Isthmian Canal is directly rei^onsible.

The principal business men of Peru have also been
active in the matter of providing additional Ateamship
servioe, and of recent years a number of the most
prominent and wealthy among them formed a local
company known as the " Compa&ia Pem&na de Vapores

238 PERU OF THE TWENTrETH CENTURY

y Dique del Callao." The subscribed capital is £300,000,
but the Company had authority from the Supreme
Goveminent to issue bonds up to an additional £350,000,
all of which has been or will be expended upon building
a fleet of thoroughly up-to-date vessels, which will be
capable of meeting the present and prospective demand
of the coastwise traffic, and yet yielding a fair commercial
profit to its incorporators.

The Company are no longer working upon the basis
of the published tariffs of existing linos as a maximum
charge for passengers and freights, but are making their
own rates both for passengers and freight. No sooner
was the new Company formed than it met with the
cordial support of nearly all the commercial community,
as well as that large class of passengers who are con-
tinually passing up and down the coast, and most of whom
have at some time or other suffered from the rapacity
and incapacity of some of the existing steamship lines.

Early in August of this year (1911) the Company
proposed to establish a fortnightly fast service between
Panama and Valparaiso that will make the vo}
between Callao and Panama hi ten days, under the six-
day quarantine regulations now in force, and when a
four-day limit can be given them the Company propose
to reduce the time to eight days. About the be-
ginning of next year the Company hope to give a weekly
fast service. This will reduce the time between Val-
paraiso and New York to thirteen to fourteen days
either way. The new service will so reduce the time
between New York and Buenos Aires, via Valparaiso
and the Trausandine Railway, that all the mails for
Argentina will be forwarded via the Isthmus, Valparaiso,
etc., in sixteen to eighteen days, whereas at present the
quickest route, by the new " Highland Line," is one of
twenty-three days.

One of the first actions of the newly-formed Company

,Gooij

^^^H SHIPPING 330

P^^o order a floating iwtf-dnckinK dock, and, afa-r a

nood deal of competition between rontractnni iii Europe

^nd the United States for the eonstniction of it, thui

dock waa built by Meaars. Swan, Hunter. Wigbam,

RicbardaoD and Company, Limit«d, of Walbend-on-

^yne, England. The atormy voyage to South American

Bhtera baa gone down into history as ooe of the most

Hoiarkable on record, and it needs do further oomment

m teethnony to the solidity of the dock's construction.

The passage throu^ the Straits of Blagellao and its

evoitiial arrival at Callao on &Urch 2, 1909, would form

a subject for an interesting and exciting Clark Russell

romance. The dock is a conspicuous sucoew, and is

capable of lifting a abip weighing 7,000 tons in two hours.

The charges made for the sernces o( the floating dock

are as follows :

Steamers of 400 tons or over : fint day, 45 cents per
gross ton : for each of the following (our days, 33) cents
per ton ; for each subsequent day, 22) cents.

Sailing vessels of 400 tons and over : first day on dock,
27 cents per gross ton ; each ol the four (olknring days,
13| cents per ton ; and each subsequent day, 11 cents
per ton.

Tonnage m alt cases is grosa n^istend tonnage, and
is charged (or in accordance with " Lk>yd's Rcigist«r."
^•ectal rates ore in force (or docking wafvsssls,
steamers and sailers under 400 tons gross register.

The steamers built (or this Company, which enjoys
an annual subsidy from tli*^ Pemvian Government of
JC30.000 (or twenty-one yojirs (rom 1910, are adminbty
ituit4«d to the WcAt CViast trade. Thry weiv ori|pnaUy
mleuded to mak» the voyage from CoUao to Pananu
and vice ntrta under four days, but a quicker passage
is actually on record. At present there an sovesal
steamers, each 400 feet long over all, 46 (eet beam, and
23 (eet 9 indtes depth of hold, with gross toonags ol

,Go4Sij

240 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

3,800. The boilers have been constructed to bum oil
fuel, but these have not proved as satisfactory as was
hoped, and experiments with them are still being carried
on. The vessels are fitted with turbine engines of
sufficient power to give an average speed of 18 knots
at sea with loaded ship, and to carry 120 first-class and
100 second-class, together with the usual number of
deck passengers. I understand that as high a speed
as 21 knots has actually been attained, but the commer-
cial speed at which they will be run is 16 knots. The
biulders of these vessels are Messrs. Cammell, Laird and
Company, Limited, of Birkenhead.

This Company now possess the five fastest boats on
the West Coast of South America, the fleet bemg as
follows : Mantaro (put on the route in February, 1911),
Uriibaniba (put on in March), Pachilea {about June),
and the new Huallaga (in place of the vessel bearing the
same name, which was burnt in July, 1910), which is
expected to be on the line about the month of October
of this year. A fifth vessel belonghig to the same
Company is the Ucayali, which was one of the first to
be constructed. I may mention that the insurance
upon the Huallaga which was lost, and which was
covered for £105,000, was paid in full.

According to the latest agreement made by the
Government, a subsidy is to be paid annually to the
Peruvian Steamship Company for the use of the five
new boats which have been constructed, and which are
to be converted, as it may become necessary, into five
auxiliary cruisers, thus greatly increasing Peru's naval
power in the event of war.

The other principal steamship companies which are
doing business on the West Coast are the Pacific Steam
Navigation Company, Limited, of Liverpool (now
amalgamated with the Royal Mail Steam Packet Com-
pany), and the Compania Sud-America de Vapores, ol

cyGooJ

The«e concerns have long worked hand-iu-
band, ananging their sailings in mch a way as to nuka
alternative calls at uU the ports between Panama and
Caliao, and between Catlao and Vulpamiiio; wbilo the
vessels of the fint-nnniod Company pr(*ceed lo Europe

-augh the Strattii of Mag^-llan.

Anotlipr Wost Coaift lino is the Knunos Company, a
lemian cuDccm, but one which has for yrant pattt bnilt
(or itself a reputation for unpuncluality, which is
I than discreditable, the sailing tlutcn being a

ibjeot jnvr fire owing to frequent and vrratic changes.
Iters baa been practically no dependence to be pis

lOD the departure or arrival dates ol Kosmos boatu, i
^ lunch inconvenieDoe as w«U as oocaaiaiial |
kisses have been suffered bjr those who have had fmOe
de mieitx to nae them.

The amount of competition for frei^ts on the West
Coast was very keen before the advent of the Compa&ia
Pemina, and in the prew-nt Htat« of affairs there is
scarcely sufficient freight to go around. The frei^t
charges also nre still sufficiently hi^ to keep shippeni
from booking fipaco very much in advance, the hope
ahrays existing that rebates or rato-cntting of some kind
or other will be offered by one Company in order to
filch away the carrying buamoss frmn another. The
sanui kind of cut-throat oompethiou has been obsarred
in regard to the Central American porta, where the
Pacific Hail Steamship Company, the Hamburg-Ameri-
can Steamship Company, and the Kosmos Line are, and
for some jrears post have been, in keen oompetilioti.

There b yet another line of Oennan stoamshtps,
known ss the Rohukd, which, like those ol the Kosmos,
make monthly voyagM to Bmopaan poxts (Havre.
Antwerp, Hambaig, and Bnmsn), as well as to the
Straits of HageUan. These stoamecs make nans, more
or leM punctually, along the whole western coast u( the

243 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Pacific OceaD, proceeding northwards as far as San
Francisco, calling at Panama and the principal Central
American and Mexican ports. The steamers of the
Merchants' Liue also serve the Peruvian coast trade as
far as the eastern ports of the United States. The two
British Companies, the Booth Line and the Red Cross
Steamship Company, carry a good deal of the inter-
national trade for the Peruvian region of the Amazon
River, despatching one of their steamers monthly from
Liverpool and another from New York to the Peruvian
port of Iquitos. The Japanese Steamship Company,
" Toyo Kison Kaisha," and a Chinese Company conduct
the service from Callao direct to the principal ports of
Japan and China, carrying the nmils for the East.
There are several companies of minor importance
which carry on a more or less regular service with small
steamers up and down the coast of Peru.

The Lamport and Holt and Gulf Line steamers call
regularly at Callao from Liverpool and Cardiff, pro-
ceeding with cargo to Guayaquil, in Ecuador. The
Merchants' Line (or New York and Pacific Steamship
Company), owned by Messrs. Grace Brothers of London,
New York, Valparaiso, and Lima, as well as the Barber
Line, have a regular service from Chilian and Peruvian
ports to New York. Saihng vessels which arrive at
Callao generally bring grain or coal from Australia,
grain and lumber from Puget's Sound, and general cargo
from Europe ; but this class of craft is gradually diminish-
ing, and Callao is ceasing to be a sailing-ship port.

It is not without interest that shippers on the West
Coast of South America have heard of the proposed
new route with its connection at Buenos Aires and
overland to the Pacific, to be undertaken by the Pacific
Steam Navigation Company, which has determined
upon taking this bold step after about ten years'
meditation.

u yvtua ^H

in Ft
I •"■■■'

iThen an those iu Peru who remember oleartjr the
ion the east and west coasts of the South Ameri-
tinenta were Uterally " teas asunder," and while
•ome of these have not ri«t«d Europe from the day tl
arrived m Peru, some thirty and forty ^'cars ago, t
are none the leas interested in the promised evolution
of shipping arrangements in which they aiti likely to
participate to the fullest extcot, Tonlay the drills and
picks of the engineer have pieroed the Cordillena in
one direction, and are rapidly proceeding to pierce tfc in
another ; while, as I write, a scheme is being discussed
for the construction of a railway to mn from Iquttos,
in Peru, to the l*aci6c Coast by way of a tunnel throu^
Northern Andes.

uitoa is a Peruvian port nituuted some 2,600 miles
the River Amazon from the coast, but in the most
irtherly portion of this Republic. It has a popula-
tion of about 12,000, and its chiet eiq>ort is rubber.
Steamers, drawing up to 23 fe«t, make monthly tripe to
Iquitos from the Pari end, occupying nearly thirty days
between Par& and that port, most of the boats belonging
to the lately disbanded British concern known as the
A mason Steam Navigation Company, Limited.

In July last a new oaocem, called the Amason River
Steam Navigation Company, was registared, with a
capiul of £300,000, and which porehaaed from the oU
company a gnat part of its flotilla. None of tiie names
of direotors upon the old Board are found upon that of
the new ; consequently, one may assume that the butt-
mcntioaed enterprise is an entirely independent one.
The head office, instead of being in Londoo, will be in
PaiA, with a braneh office at Iquitos.

Iquitos then is a Boating mola, alooggnde which
shallow- bottom stem-wheel steamen pfying on the
r Amason can moor ; and it is now suggested that
t«rminus of the railway should be pboed hen and

244 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

the other at Guayaquil, the only sea-port of Ecuador.
If ever this scheme cornea to maturity — and, in view of
the now improved political relations existing between
Peru and Ecuador, it seems probable — the combined
rail and steamship service would shorten very consider-
ably the journey to Europe from Guayaquil and the
adjacent Pacific Coast territory.

Iquitos is by far the most important port north of
Callao which the Republic possesses, and of late years it
has developed amazingly. Its population can now be
barely less than 30,000, and although I have not lived
there for any length of time myself, I understand from,
those who have passed as many as from twenty to
thirty years at the port that existence la not only quite
" endurable," but, when the hot winds do not prevail,
" extremely pleasant."

The town, which is fully tropical, overlooks a broad
expanse of turquoise-blue water, often of an exquisite
topaz hue when seen in the brilliant sunlight, and pre-
senting the appearance of a small land-locked sea.
But it is merely the mouth of a river, although three
miles in breadth, and it possesses a charming little
island of its own. So deep is the water that ocean
steamers can come up and anchor at the port, the
depth available being 25 feet at low water, and twice
that amount in the summer (that is, the rainy) season.

Iquitos is the recognized centre — might one not say
the clearing-house ? — for all the rubber which finds ita
way down from the Peruvian forests to the European
and American markets ; while it is also the northern
Customs port for the Republic ; and hundreds oi
thousands of pounds' worth of valuable merchandise
pass annually through its Customs House. For last
January (1911) the receipts amounted to £15,519, as
against £10,431 for the same month in the previous
year. The whole of the commerce of the important

I
I

at of Loreto pasBee throng tiie Iqaitoa
Ciutonu, while a thriving trade is carried on between
the small river steamers bringing up consignmentfl of
rubber from, and taking back supplies to, ports as far
away as Pari in Brazil {a distance of nearly 2,650 miles).
Among the British lines of ateamiihips which travel here
aw the Booth Line, of Ltvprpool, bimonthly trips being
made between England and Peni ; the Iquitos St«amsliip
Company, Limited, of Liverpool ; the Red Cross Line,
which runs monthly steamers ; and some Now York
" tramps." All seem to do a flourishing trade.

The total tonnage of British shipping during 1909
amounted to 15,101 registered tons, as compared with
11,927 tons daring \9Q8. There were twelve steamers
of 13,668 tons for Liverpool and other European porta j
and two steamers of 1,236 tons for New York. The
exports from Iquitos consist of hides, vegetable ivory,
tobacco, Panama hats, and par exe^enoe robber. AIuh
gether for the year mentioned (the last figures offioiallj
certified as accurate) the export trade amounted to I
2,652,066 kilogrammes, as against 2,385,152 kilogrammes \
in 1906. The importance of Iquitoe as a Customs collect*
ing^tation may be seen from the foUowing figoies for 1909 :

ir>ite.

Tdw.

VMm.

■Ma

tmjm
tmjm

tnjm

When the railway — aln-s^ty conimrnred — to c^mnect
Uie Pacific CoAAt with the I'pper IVaj-nli River is ttnn-
pletcd, (he importance and prosperity of Iquiton will bo
doubled. Tlui line starts from Crrm de Pasco, to which
point a line already exists {see p. 226), and reaches the
river at Puoalpa, about (our days' journey above Iquitwt
by steamer. Vessels of about 200 to 300 tons, but of

f «46 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

light draught, can reach here at any time of the year.
The line should be open for traffic next year (1912).

As for public buildings, Iquitos has its unambitious
share. There are a capital public hospital, a college,
and a small but very comfortable little theatre, con-
structed of corrugated-iron sheets, and which will accom-
modate 1,000 people. I cannot, however, compliment
the Municipality upon the general condition of the
streets, which are always uneven and badly paved, and
frequently anything but clean. But with the growing
prosperity of the town these drawbacks will no doubt
disappear. Anyone who remembers Panama five years
ago, and who sees it now, will recognize what can be
done with a tropical town when the authorities are
willing and capable.

Another matter of importance in connection with the
Peruvian coastal service is a new weekly express itine-
rary, which has been established on the Southern Railway
between Mollendo and La Paz, which will eventually con-
nect with the steamships calling at Mollendo, and greatly
facilitate the arrival and departure of Atlantic-bound
vessels — an innovation which will work advantageously
for those firms having headquarters at Callao and Lima.
These, however, are not the only notable addi-
tions made or contemplated in connection with South
American transportation. The opening of the Panamd
Canal, and the termination of construction of the railway-
line down from New York along the East American
coast to Buenos Aires, are to have a rival in the Old
World itself in the contemplated line of railway down
the West Coast of North Africa, the completion of
which will be of incalculable advantage to South America,
bringing it within three days' journey of the Old World.
The new project, it is proposed, will have its origin
Gibraltar, where the European railway systems will,
means of a lO-mile car ferry, cross the Straits ol

,GoO'

SHIPPING

«47

DeiDf

OfoA

I nfttio

Qibtftltar and connect with new railnwd about to he
built, starting at that point in North Africa, and ex-
tending down along the coaat to either Bathuist or
Dakir, both of which porta would make a iiuitabl« ter-
minuii for the railway. The distance fmm Gibraltar to
Bathurst is less than 1,900 milee, and from Bathunt to
Sooth America acron the Atlantic is a further 1,500,
making a total o( 3,400 miles ; and the entire journey
wonld occupy from five to six days. The scheme is
being planned by a Spaniah company, and, on account
of national rivalry and jealousy, usual in undertakings o!
this description, it has be«n decided to give it an inter-
national aspect. The estimated cost to carry out the
tcmplated scheme will reach £27,000,000.

Owing to the deterrent facton which have already
referred to, the maritimo traffic carried on by Peru

r the last few yean has been decidedly unsatisfactor}* ;
and while, perhaps, showing a limited advance upon
that of the previous years, it falls far short of what oae
might expect of a country occupying so fine a coastal
position and with such magnificent prodnctiTe reaouroes.
There can be little questioii that in a few years' time the
arrivals and sailings from the port of Callao, which is
bound to feel the beneficial effecta of the Panama
Canal more than any other port in South America,
will mark a decided advance, and will ser\-e to probably
double the commercial and shipping figures of to^y.

Glancing at the statistics which were pro\-ided for
1905 and 1IK>6, it seems that Great Bnuin was at that
time far ahead of all other countries in reganl to the
toonage of the iteamers coming to Callao. In the latter
yft — namdy, 1906 — the arrivals showed for Great
Briuin 607,309 tona, and the sailings 502,876 tons, her
nearest competitor being Germany, with 173,063 tons
uri\-ab, and 182,606 tons sailings. Chile came third,
1^,273 tons arrivals, and 170.070 tons aailinp.

,, Aioo^^lc

2*8 PERU OP THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Both France and Norway showed considerably higher
results than the United States, which, indeed, marked a
most astonishing falling ofi in both arrivals and sailinj^.
In 1905 the United States recorded 9,450 tons arrivals,
and 8,708 tons sailings ; while in 1906 these fell away to
3,420 tons, and the sailings to 2,678 tons.

It is interesting to Britishers to know that the United
Kingdom still occupies the principal position in shipping,
the British vessels touching at the port of Callao amount-
ing to more than double those of any other country.
Of late years Germany has entered into keen competi-
tion with the coasting service of this port, Teutonic
boats making a fortnightly call from Valparaiso and
intermediate ports to Callao, and vice versa, and having
introduced a through service, with an inamediate cut of
50 per cent, on the old rates. The following figures will
give an idea of the shipping at Callao for the years 1908-09,
which, unfortunately, are the latest figures available.

1608.

1909.

NaHoiuJitr.

Vessels.

Tonnage.

Vessels.

Tonnsge.

British:

Steam

239

626,190

250

741,647

SuUdk

9,672

10,649

ChUliin :

Steam

106

186,654

109

194,680

Sailing

3,046

140

German:

Steam

269,887

286,441

Sailing

5,188

1,467

Frenoh, steam

82,242

84,097

Dutch, steam

2,688

Norwegiaa :

Steam

9,420

Sailing

977

6,833

Dnited States, •ailing...

6,476

4,187

Japanese, steam

8,442

10,164

Peru viui, coasting ...

6,719

8,246

Total

469

1,156,881

484

1,801,200

DiailizodbyGOOgle

SHIPPING

S40

For the year 1909 the Britiflh steam-vessels which
entered and cleared in the foreign trade of the port of
Callao were as follows :

Stkah Vkmkls Enterzd.

United Kingdoiii

I ArK'nlin*

I Chila

j i'hina

I Coloinlti*
I Kruador
I M«iloo

I PuiHU*

I L'niicd Sum ...
> Tol*l

Witt

Oup,

Tooiu«..

339^17
86,«»

14e,«73
8,333
9,«M

3s,m

•27
■i3

&K,I74

iJi

»IB,e5S

"T-

Tooiu^«.

180

380,447

B.ess

D0,3tltt

9,(HB

3,»I8

7,108

1W,H40

8,333

3.m

3S,SW

344

M,3tlT

6H.I74

31 34,198 345 US.IW

Those vessels which cleared during the same period
amounted to an aggregate of 209, representing 583,774
tons of ca^, of which the Unit«d Kingdom claimed
thirty vessels, with a tonnage of 121,699. Of the
vessels in ballast, and which amounted to an aggr^te
of thirty-six, with a tonnage of 59,153, there were no
British bottoms. Of the twenty-Sve sailing-veaseb
which entered, nine were of the United Kingdom, with
a tonnage of 14,287 ; and eleven were Australian, with
a tonnage of 15,319. Of sailing-vessels clearing with
cargo there was only one, and that belonged to native
owners.

I.xx>king at the comparative list of the sliipping of all
nationalities which entered and cleared in the foreign
trade of the [>ort of Callao, for the period mentioned
(1900). there were 224 British vessels out of a total of
4%, which repn>flented an aggregate of 618,953 out of
the total tonnage of 1,161.732.

Digitized byGOOgle

250 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The port of Callao, which is one of the most important
on the West Coast of South America, receives, on an
average, some 400 steamers and 1,020 sailing-ships in
the course of each year, in addition to an immense
number of native-owned smaller craft devoted to the
coasting trade. On balance, there are always anchored
in the port some twenty steamers and forty sailing-
vessels. The port is provided with a fine dock, which
at the same time serves as a wharf, and bears the name
of Muelle D4rsena. The inside measurements of this
wharf are 250 metres in length by 250 metres in width,
coveting a surface of more than 50,000 square metres.
One of its side-walls is projected a further 180 metres
in length, and provides an additional dock, while the
whole is connected with the shore by means of a bridge
constnicted upon iron rails, and extending 900 metres in
length. Previous to the arrival of the self-docking dock,
which I have described already, there had been in use a
floating dock, which admitted vessels of 25 feet draught
and 500 tons displacement, as against the new dock,
which will lift a vessel weighing 7,000 tons in two hours.

Next to Callao, the most important port for Briti^
vessels is Mollendo, and here, out of a total of 460 steam-
vessels, representing a tonnage of 275,339, the British
claimed 74,547 tons. In regard to sailing-vessels with
cargo, the British and the United States stood on a par
so far as the number of vessels was concerned ; but the
former represented a total tonnage of 10,549, as against
4,137 of the United States. The sailing-vessels clearing
fi-om this port were very few, numbering only four with
cargo, and twenty-two in ballast ; and out of these the
British claimed eight, with a tonnage of 15,481, and the
United States six, with a tonnage of 4,137.

The Customs receipts at this port in 1910 amoimted
to £797,867, the largest sums collected in one month
being £84,343 in June.

SHIPPING

C51

It ill from Mollcmln that pnirticaily all of the Peru-
vian rubber is shipped from the Pacific sidf, anrt the
commerce carried on is of great importance. For iht^
past jrear (1910) the shipments in this product alone
were as followa : Pemvian rubber, fine, 1,680 quiniaU
(1 qmntal - 100 pounds), or. say, about 84 tons ; Concho.
4,164 qvintaU, or about 208 totu; Bolivian rubber, of
all claues, 280 tAUs. The export trade fmm Molleudo,
which has been worked up with some energy in oppooi-
tion to the sfaipmraits via Iquitos and Pari to Europfl^J
is not likely to be benefited by the impoKitJon of the
import duty of 8 per cent, ad vaiorem which came into
force OQ July I last (1911) {see Appendix). Attempts
were made to induce the Government to mitdify this
tax, but unavailingly. No tax, however necessary, has
been imposed by any Government upon any single
arti«-le, but petitioners have been found to demand its^
witbdrawnl. Sydney Smith, the great wit and essoyisttf
was right when he declared that there are men " who
preferanyload of infamy, however gnat, to any prcssuns
of taxation, however light."

Tmprovcd shipping facilities at the coastal ports of
Peru comprise the construction of a new port in the
Mst&rami Bay, north of Islay, and a railroad connecting
it up with Hollendo, and thus with the UoUendo-Are-
quipa Railway branch of the Southern Railway. The
~~ avian Corporation have this matter in hand, and a
1 of thne years in which to carry it out. The port
iqnitoa is already experiencing much advantage from
■ently opened line fnini that port to Motonacochft,

kidentAlty. it niay be mcutionifd that thu line is c
I the most picturesque, and the Bt«tiun to which ift'
B of the moat popular in the vicinity of Iquitoa.

CHAPTER XIX

Teitile trade—Raw materiali — Cotton prodnction — Capital employed —
Woollen tftctories — Matches and flour — Japaneae competition —
Striking enterprise — Lima Electrical Truat— Sugar maciUDerf—
Copper-mincB machinery ^ Waterworks equipment — Taiation at
commercial travellers — Correspondence between Birmingham
Chamber of Commerce and Foreign Office — Irrigation enterprise and
machinery.

Although Peru has of late years undoubtedly made a
decided advance as a manufacturing country, it is
hardly likely for some years to do much more than use
up ita own raw materials ; but these it should be enabled
to turn out in fairly large quantities. I cannot see that
the Republic can ever become practically independent
of foreign manufactures, as, for instance, Mexico
becoming. The textile industry is, however, one of the
few exceptions, and already a considerable difference
in the amount of imports from Great Britain, Germany,
and the United States of America in regard to cotton,
linen, and woollen goods, is to be noticed. The raw
material is produced locally, both cotton and wool, and
the qualities are in moat cases quite equal to the best
American or Egyptian that I have seen. For some
hundreds of years wool and cotton stufEs of primitive
manufacture have been woven in the country, but the
introduction of modem looms has resulted, as it has
done in India, Mexico, and elsewhere, in the establish-
ment of a number of factories, most of which are doing
uncommonly well.

I believe that the first loom erected in Peru for the

weaving of cotton goods was in 1874, a woollen factoty,

252

, Gooy

MANUFACTURES 3.Vt

however, having preceded it by aome seven years.
To-day there are seven or eight manofactories of cotton
gDoda, five out of which arc CRtabliahed upon the out-
skirts of the capital, and the others at Arequipa. The
largest eatabliBbment la known aa the Foi^, and at the
pretient time it is making all classes of grey goods. The
same sort of stuff ia being produced by the Halatesta
Mill at lea, where there are 100 looms ; by the Pro-
gr^, with 200 looms ; the San Jacinto, with 100 looms ;
tlio Victoria, with thirty-thren looms ; the Vitartv, with
359 looms ; while the Inca Cotton Hill turns out, with
itA 4fiO looms, all kinds of bleached goods. There are
no printed cotton goods produced in the country,
owing to the expense of introducing the costly pattern-
rollers and the limitnl market for such classes of manu-
factures. The principal mippUcs of theae goods still
oomo from Manchester, which stands a long way up on
the Imports List. The United Statea, however, have
come forward in a remarkable manner as a producer «(
cheap and attractive-looking prints, the nativee of all
these I^tin-American countries preferring such articles
on account of their brilliant colourings and generally
prettier designs to those of any other country.

How greatly the cotton industry baa pro g r es sed in
Peru may be judged from the fact that but five yaan
ago the total trade amounted to between £250,000 and
£300,000, whereas for the past eighteen mootiui it has
reached £1,300,000 exportod.

From the figures which have been supplied to me,
but for the accuracy of which I do not vouch, there are
being produced m Peru to-day some 3S.00O,O00 yaida
of stoJl from the native looms, principally of grey
donieetics, which are in good denuutd, not ooly in the
roariteta of Peru, but also in those ol Bolivia, mainly
I aoooont of the raw material of whidi these goods are

de being of a much higher quality than that osoally

254 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

employed. The factories are also turning out in greatly
increased quantities ravens-duck, drills, cashmeres,
towelling, etc., but up till now there has been no attempt
to make madapoUams. As a consequence of this acti-
vity in native manufacturing circles, the importation
of grey domestics from Great Britain, Germany, and
the United States are diminishing proportionately. In
1909, cotton te.^iles were imported to the value of
£493,885, and woollen goods to the value of £201,624.

The total capital, much of which is foreign, invested
in these establishments may be placed conservatively at
£500,000. In all probability, thk sum will be materially
added to during the present coming years, since there
are several factories about to be erected in different
parts of the country. The machinery employed is
almost exclusively British, since it is recognized that
the cotton and woollen machinery from Manchester
and the neighbourhood is the best and most efficient
to be met with anywhere. Such firms as Brooks and
Doxey, Limited ; Hetheringtons ; Josiah Angove ; Bar-
low; and Piatt Brothers cannot be excelled. Their
looms and spindles may be seen installed in every part
of the world, from India to Japan, and from China to
Peru.

There are only four woollen factories at present in
the latter country, the most modem being the Santa
Catalina, in the Marangani District of Cuzco. Here are
also produced blankets and counterpanes of plain
colours, while plant and machinery exist for the turning
out of woollen shirtings, underclothing, etc. Some 800
employes find occupation here all the year round.

There is but one paper-making plant, and this limits
its production to brown paper and ordinary kinds. An
immense amount of such material is used here, especially
in the Government printing offices, which are continually
engaged upon official publications. I know of no Re-

MANUFACTURES JUO

DUcan State which turns oat such an amount of
URoiul oflicial literature as Peru ; and the existence of
an extraordinary number of ucwspapen, daily, weekly,
and monthly, causca the supply of paper often to run
very short. Paper ntanufacturen may take a note of
this fact, and, by avaihng ihcjnaelvea of this intimation,
form a new and important buaiaeas connection with Peru
for their manufacturee. The vahio of imported paper
in its different forms amounted in 1909 to £116,319.

There are two match factories, but the quality of the
matchoi produced is poor. The importations into the
country ihow very little diminution since the bietories
were established, the principal sufferer being the Blatch
Goapany of Chicago, under whose auspices the Lima
eatablialunent was founded. Vanoos soap and candle
factories exist in different ports of the country, the
demand for the hutrnamed articles being extremely
large, as in most Catholic countries. The candle in-
dustry is heavily protected. Perfumery is not made to
any extent, althou^ very generally used by both sexes,
the increase in imports under this head from the United
States. Germany, and France, with a small amount from
Oreat Britain, Moving up strongly. The value of tb»
perfumery imported in 1909 was £30.406, and nf ordinary
soaps £34,931.

Under the protectitm of differential duties, there have
been established in Peru several flour-mills, most of the
equipment coming from the United States, and some
from Heasra, Simons and Sons, of Manchester. Much
exosUsnt wheat is grown, and of late shipmenta of Pam-
vian wheat have been sent down the coast to Cliila.
But a oonaideiable importation is also beinf carried oa
— namely, from California and Australia. The Sanu
Rosa Hilb are about the best equipped in tliv country,
and ban are turned mt large quantities of flour of a
high class ; while the factory of Arthur Field and Com-

256 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

pany, another American enterprise, produces biscuits.
There are also lard manufactories, the annual consump-
tion amounting to some 5,000 tons, much coming from
the United States. All the same, over 30,000 fat hogs
are sacrificed annually towards this total consumption
of lard. Numerous tanneries are established, but the
processes employed are old and inefEective. There is
room for a thoroughly up-to-date establishment of this
kind. Of breweries there are also several, the principal
one being that of the Backus and Johnston Company,
which, originally started in 1879 by two enterprising
Americans, is now the property of an English Company.
The enterprise has been the scene of a wholesale, and
no doubt wholesome, clearing-out process, the entire
staff being given some few years ago the " order of the
boot," and a completely new one installed. The resiUta
have been eminently satisfactory, for, instead of losing
money, as was formerly the case, the brewery is now
coining it. The installation is practically all American,
but some modem boiling-vats and other machinery —
notably, the ice-making plant — are German.

In this Republic, as elsewhere in South America, old-
established houses are meeting with serious competition
from the enterprising and ubiquitous Japanese. A
notable instance of this is to be recorded in relation to
the Backus and Johnston Brewery above referred to.
Almost from the conmaencement of the Company's
career it had obtained its bottles from Germany, it being
impossible to manufacture glass in Peru owing to the
absence of the necessary sand and other ingredients.
Some two years ago the Company received an offer from
a Japanese factory to make any kind and number of
glass bottles suitable for the beer brewed by the firm,
and at a price which would " defy competition." The
Company somewhat sceptically invited the Japanese
submit samples and prices, and in the course of a

ae to^
vetjA

BREWERIES isl

r weeks theae latter arrived. They proved to be oot
only adminibly made, bat of such a novel dengn as to
ooable the bottlee U> be packed as cloMly as earduiM,
and in the Baniv manner- " head to tail." Tfaiu, break-
ages ore almost unknu«-D, ihe percentage, 1 unde^retand,
being 1«sa than one-quarter of 1 per L>eot. The glaw in
remarkably clear, tough, and smooth on the exterior.
The price works out, inclusive of all packing in stroog
wooden caaes, and as neatly made as the bottles them-
sehres, with freight from Yokohama to Lima, at just
20 per cent, lew than the German price, loaomuch as the
brewery is using, even in its stock saaaon, some 100,000
bottles a montJi, and in the ofHirse of the year uses over
2,000,000 bottles, the immense saving effected is clear.
The Japanese taotoiy has now received the entire bottle
custom of the Backus and Johnston Brewery Company,
notwithstanding the fact that the manager of the ooo-
cem is a Qerman, with the natural prejudice of all
Teutons in favour of his own coontrymou's manufac-
turea.
Perhaps one o{ the greatest fields of industry opening
> in Peru to-day b that in oonnectioo with electrici
1 here I foresee an immense opportunity for mai
nrers of electrical plant and equipment. Some t
or tlixee supply companies already exist, but they i
only be raided «s the pioneers of a commerotal i
industrial movement at present in it« infancy,
initial ODterpriae established here was the Santa E
with a well-equipped plant at about twenty-three e
from Lima, which city it supplies with li^t and po
The plant is capable of producing 10,000 kilowatta^J
which is equivalent to ll},500 horse-power, but not mud
mors than one ball of this amount is beiug supplied i
the time of writing. Practically the cntin plant I
been provided by the Oeneiol Electric Company,
Bcfaeneotody, New York. Th« some firm an respoostble

Cioo^i

258 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

for tlie equipment at the Cerro de Pasco Mines-
American enterprise — and I am given to understand
that several other important contracts are in contempla-
tion with the same Corporation.

The recent — or comparatively recent — formation of
the Electrical Trust in Lima spells a specially active
campaign in all matters of electrical traction and motive
power for factories, etc. The Trust is the outcome of a
combination — the Santa Rosa Company, the English
Railways Company, and the Lima Tramways Company
— all of which are now working under one central
management, instead of, as before, cuttmg one another's
throats in frantic competition. The total capital of this
concern is $21,000,000,* or, in English equivalent,
£2,100,000. It is to be hoped that the Trust, being
formed upon the same basis as the other United States
combinations, will carefully eschew all the bad, and
retain only the good, points of those unpopular institu-
tions. There is one thing certain, and that is the South
American public is not at all likely to submit tamely to
extortion or tyranny of any kind. It has a sharp but
effective way of dealing with impositions, whether they
emanate from their own rulers or from foreign capitalists.
The result of attempting any kind of bullying or arro-
gance upon the part of a public Company, as was wit-
nessed in Bogota, Colombia, when the United States-
owned tramway Company sought to play the tjTant,
is usually a " bad break " for that particular Company.
The Latin -Americans are not quite so tame in these
matters as are their northern brethren.

Manufacturers of sugar machinery, of mining equip-
ment, and of railway supplies, should keep a careful eye
upon the industrial development of Peru, which is
likely soon to be m the market for large quantities of
these as well as other supplies. The RepubUc is prac-

* 1 iol='2a., or 50 cents. (U.S.A.).

ELECTRICAL COMPANIES

ly ina from debt ; it« immoue Datai&l riches are
iting the attention of capitalists in both Europe
the United States, and the spirit of enterprise
among the people tbemseK-ee is awakening to an alto-
gether remarkable extent.

With regard to sugar machinery, I may reppat that
nut of the forty or fifty different coatttal pUntationa
which cxiat, and the majority of which arc doing ex-
tremely well, not one han an yet installed a t-omplete and
up-to-date mill. The largeat of these factorirs utill
retains machinery which bears the stamp of over Ihirty
yean ago, but the e>econd largest mill has of late sent
an order to Ohisgow (Messrs. J. McNeill anil Sons,
Limited) for a complete eleven-roller mill It is not too
mnch to say that at Inst oao-third of tlie remaimng
factories would be open to introduce moilem machinery
and plant if proper representations were mode on Un^
part of manufacturers, and if drawings, specifioationti |
prices for plants, delivered erected on the ground,
Bubmitt«tl. Peru, indeed, offers almost a virgin
for manufacturers of sugar machinery, and tho
ind for installations is growing as steadily as the
industry itaeU, which tthday is probably more pmqietoaft I
and iaor« stable tiiaa at any time of ita existcooe (see
pp. U9-irj6).
As 1 L«ve attempted to show in these pages, there am
^^Jar countries in the vorld more naturally adapted to
^^^kjar culture ihun I'eru, and the rircumstoncot of ita
^^^^Bufacture upon the scene of itA growth are naturally
^^^■th in ita favour. All the irrigation is artificial, which
^^^■ikewiao to some extent an advantage, cince, while
^^^KUtiooal labour and expense are involved, tho plants
' being watered or left dry as occasion and discteti
may diitate, it dov« away with all losses from an c
or otherwise of rain. For tliia muoa the cutting of tlw '
cane takes place in the ralleya on the coast without in-

part ol
^^dpr

^^o«nan'

igureiH
>f th^

260 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

terniption during the whole twelve months of the year.
Thus, the mills are continually ninuing, and, unlike the
case of Brazil, for instance, where the machiDery is
lying idle for nine out of the twelve months, there is
work all the year round. All classes of sugar are made
— molasses, brown, granulated, and white — the qualities
being, in my judgment, as fine as are to be found any-
where in the world. That the output has grown steadily
during the past few years can be seen from the fij
which are given on p. 157.

According to Mr. Caesar Broggi, the Director of
Governmental Experimental Station, the total produc-
tion for 1910-11 can be estimated at 165,000 tons
=£1,000,000.

It will be observed that serious and successful efEorts
are being made to increase the cultivation of sugar in
Peru, and there should be, therefore, an excellent oppor-
timity for those firms which make a speciality of sugar
machinery to extend the range of their business here.
Of the existing plants, many — indeed, I may say most —
are of an antiquated type, and a really animated and
energetic representative might succeed in inducing many
of the mill-owners to introduce more modem and effec-
tive machinery. Such firms as John Gordon, of London,
and John Mason, of New York, both of whose manw
factures are to be met with in all parts of Central Amerii
and in Brazil, are very little known out here, the bes1
patronized manufacturers seeming to be the Liverpi
firm of Fawcett, Preston, and Company, Limited, sonu
of whose sugar machinery I have seen working, after
being in constant use for between forty and fifty years.

But equally favourable opportunities exist in Peru In
connection with other industries. For uistauce,
Ferrobamba Copper Company, Limited, which owj
some remarkably rich copper deposits in the Province
Cotabambas, will in a short while be requiring a plai

on,
na-J

3StS

•oo^l

BRITISH OPPORTUNITIES

161

nble

Docnt vatued at £360.000, ami which will in-

nplete smcltitig plant, a powerful sU'am shovel,

i tnoHoQ, aDcl transportation eqaipment aad

material for a contemplated coostroction of soma

250 miles of nilroad from the mines to the coast. The

Gompanj ta, at the time of writing, a RritUh one. and

would, flo long aa it remained under entitv Bntlth control,

give preference, aa I undentand, to Brituih manufacturers

of all Icindfl of nupplie* and equipment. But it in poa-

nble that American control may come about hprcaft^r,

i which event, very naturally, all neceaaary equipment

', material would bo parchased in the United 8tfttaa I

. p. 2SI).

Another Peruvian undertaking which will shortly ba |
in the market for equipment and rappliefl will be tbo j
Arequipa Eleotrio Tramways Company, an entcrpriM
which ia about to be floated on a nifficient btit modest
capital (probably in Paris), to bring about the organiza-
tion and amalgamation of the present hone tramways,
electric- lighting plant, and telephones for the whole city
(the second Uirgest and nioHt important in the Republic)
and neighbourhood. It is intemlctl to equip the Bvstem
with the most modem type of caM. and to buy such in
^^^^ moat favourable markets. British manufacturers
^^BO have thus an opportimity of competing for a ooa-
^^Bct valued at some £380,000.

^^^Bet a further enterprise offering opportimtties for
^^^Btracloni and manu^cturem is the construction o(
^^Hfeerworks for tbe city of iVrequipa, as well as a com-
^^HIb system of diminage lor the town. For this, Britiah
^^^ptiactofB wonid be doubtfeas preferred to any othea*
^^Bm the principal South American Republics genenUy
I hava adopted British waterworks instalUtions, and in
all aoeh cases with complete success. Contractors may
latrongly urged to oommnnicate at once with Sei\or
nconi, of the Banco Italiono, Arequipa, Pcra, who

262 PERIT OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

is one of the principals concerned in all of the above-
mentioned Arequipa undeitakuigs, and who is personally
strongly in favour of employing British co-operation in
carrying out their development.

I may say also that there is an opening for light rail-
ways upon some of the existing sugar estates, of the
Decauville and Kerr-Stuart type. As more estates are
opened up and the planting area extended, as it is being
day by day, there will be a great deal of this light-
railway plant and equipment required.

Another branch of industrial progress which is to be
noted in Peru is the irrigation of the country, and here
there is a good chance of meeting with orders from the
Peruvian Goveniment and private corporations alike.
Wliile the country is possessed of a magnificent river
system, including as it does the incomparable Amazon,
Apurimac, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, the Maranon,
the Huallaga, the Madre de Dios, the Morona, the
Pastaza, and an extensive list of others, they are only
partly navigable and are of a torrential character,
nmning too swiftly and too deep down in their beds to
be of present use agriculturally. Thus, irrigation upon
an enormous scale is and will be hereafter resorted to.
Already I hear of a vast Government enterprise of this
nature, and which, if carried into effect, will necessitate
a considerable outlay upon pumping and distributing
machinery. The Government authorities are always open
to consider any scheme or suggestion dealing with such
matters, and manufacturers may take careful note of this.

Apart therefore from the opportunities to which I
have referred as existing with regard to the introduction
of modem machinery and equipment in sugar mills,
there is a imique chance to-day for manufacturers of
irrigation machinery and light railways, with their rolling-
stock equipment, suitable for various estates. There is a
pronounced demand for ploughs worked by a traction

^Google

S64

PERU OF THE T^VENTIETH CENTURY

cial travellers visiting that country, and a strong prol
was at once made by the Birmingham Chamber of Com-
merce, and which drew the attention of the Foreign
Office to the proposal, at the same time requesting that
an objection should be lodged by the British Govern-
ment.

Sir Edward Gfrey replied that the proposal, " as he
imderstood it," was to impose a special contribution ol
£50 (and not £100, as his correspondent put it) for six
months upon travellers representing firms not already
established in Peru ; and, he added : " The question of
addressing representations on the subject was under the
consideration of the British Government."

It is scarcely necessary, perhaps, to add that the
question never went beyond the unsatisfactory stage of
" consideration " ; and, as a matter of fact, it was never
raised diplomatically between the British Government
and the Government of Peru. A sequel may be found
in the following letter, which the Foreign Secretary
courteously addressed to me on July 1 last in reply
my inquiries on the subject :

Sis,

With reference to your lettev of the 24th ultimo,
asking for information as to the tax which it was proposed
last j'ear should be levied on foreign commercial travellers in
Peru, I am directed by Secretary Sir E. Grey to say that jour
Etatemeiit, "that he informed the Birmingham Chamber of
Commerce in November last that he was in communication
mth the Peruvian Government on the question," appears to
be based on a misapprehension , The only letter on the sub-
ject from thia office to the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce
waa dated May 14, 1610, and stated that, according to the
information in Sir E. Grey's possession, the tax had not been
imposed; though a Bill then before the Peruvian Congress
provided for the levying of a " special contribution "of
pounda for a period of alx months on commercial

om- 1

prep

INDtfSTHIAL OPENINGS SBS

Tbe reeulto of the several trinU which have
made already in this direction have, I understand,
'cd disappointing. The ditch-diggers which have
been introduced have also shown various ivsulta mote
or leM Mtislactory. Some of the planters ar« tismg
discs on their ploughs instead of rtheani, and ninny of
tlieni cUini to have iirhiovvd fnirlv gooil rcHuhH. Otheni
employ markers on the double-mould hoard plough,
which hiyit ofl the furrows, thus dtspensng with a man
and a team of oxen. What is also required very urgcnttv
upon Peruvian sugar estates is a successful weodcr, the
tvpo DOW employed being found very unsatisfactory.
Indeed, upon tbo majority of plantations there is needed
a completely new and np-to^te installation of agricul-
tunl implementa, such as may be found in other
countries for other crops. Oenenlly ^Maldag, however,
those sugarostatc eqoipmenta, when found, show a
preponderance m favour of Scottish mill niarhtnery.
'rican looomotivea and cane WRggon-i, with Britiiih
iigbs and wceders. The snuiller agricultural tmple-
ts, for the most part, come from the United States ;
and there are scveml prominent firms established in
Lima which act as agents for the American manufao-
Inren — such, for instance, an the houses of Duncan, Fox
and Company ; W. R. Grace and Company ; and B. Hum-
phreys and Company.

Although Pern must be regarded as a coontiy where
exceptional taxation is in force, on account of fintnritl
I, it will, upon comparison, be found leai seri-
liandiuipp«.<d in this respect than certain European
Italy, for instance. The economic oondi-
of the Kupuhlic demand imposts of some land,
leiever possible, these have bem made as little onei^
ty would permit,
the month of May last year (1910) the Gov
Peru proposed to Impoae a tax of tliO upon

•'enunsot^^

CHAPTER XX

Feravi&n Tnde and Panama Canal— Probable effeot— Preparation bj the
United Btalea and Germanj — British indiSerenc« — Trade tnarlu
forgeries — Peruvian QoTsmment precautions —' Opportunitiea for
protection —• British Empire League aesistanoe — Foreign fiime
registered^ Irrigation nndertakinga— Fatore development.

What effect will the completion and opening of the
Panama Canal have upon Peni and the five Central
American countries ? I have frequently been asked
this question, and perhaps this is as good a place as any
in which to answer it. That capital from North America
will flow more abundantly into Peru after the com-
pletion of the great oceanic waterway is a practical
certainty ; but I do not consider that there will be any
such augmentation of new industries, or that the differ-
ence in investments will be so prodigious in regard to
results, as some enthusiastic critics imagine. For many
years to come the United States, with ita great area and
its many undeveloped resources, will need more capital —
much more, indeed, than it can conveniently find from
among its own people ; that is to say, it will have to
borrow from Europe in addition to saving all that it can
on its own account. The old world has nowadays
fewer opportunities for industrial and commercial ex-
pansion ; money is comparatively cheap ; and all new-
countries on the other side of the Atlantic offer the
inducement of higher interest.

How much of this investment will be made with
purely American money ? The Yankees are certainly-
becoming more and more enthusiastic, and at the same

Digitized byGOOgle

FOREIGN CAPITAL

time more and more reckI«8K, in their forvign invMt-
nipntA, and ospocially in re^rd to Latin-AtiKTican
couiilrica. Nevertheless, they have a long way to gu
before in actual figures tbcy can in any way approach
Briiiah forf'ign invutmenta. In regard to the retumi
which their investmenta bring them alao, they have
on the whole proved (ar leas (ortunat«. In all prolMi-
bilit>' BriUah (oreigo holdiop in South and Central
America to-day are well near the mm of £500.000,000
($2,500,000,000). and upon this gigantic amount o(
capital they earn a (air average of 5| per cent per
annum, allowing for the higher and the lower rmtea of
intereat i>aid (and amounting to anything between the
2S and 36 per cent, on aome Und-aharea), down to the
modeat i\ and 4| per oeot. upon Railway Debenturee,
and reckoning alio the oaaes where no return is made
upon iuveetmenta.

I ahonld aay, on the other hand, that American foreign
investmenta do not amount in the aggiogat« to more
than £200.000,000 ($1,000,000,000), and of this at least
aeven-lentha are invested in the Bepubbc of Mexico
and two-tenths probably in Canada. American foreign
mvcatmenta are in a large measure tributary to those
great conoems located in the United States, whkh
maintain their agents in foreign coontries engaged upon
looking after their intcreata. From this conjddenble
nt it would be impoaaible to estimate a hi^er
I than between 2} and 3 per cent., (or while many
I the invaatmenta — anch as the Stondanl Oil mtenwts
: Mexico and the many banlung ooncema in Oiba,
nania, and other countrica — yield a aenaatkmol
ount of profit, ao much original capital baa been lost
nugh rank apeculation, and even more through dia-
ncat management, while so little judgment boa been
played in the matter of sound selixtion, that a con-
lerable portion of original capital luui been irretrievably

268 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

lost. This has been the case in the Sonora district of
Mexico (especially in the Cananea Copper Mines) ; in
the gold and silver mines of Guanajuato, and in con-
nection with the railways of Costa Rica, Guatemala, and
EcuadoT) so that what has been made on the one hand
has, to an appreciable extent, been ahnost entirely lost
on the other.

Thus I do not anticipate any very pronounced " rush "
of American capital into Peru or the neighbouring
Republics merely because the Panama Canal will have
become wn/ot( accompli. On the other hand, the United
States trade and commerce must derive an immediate and
lasting benefit from the speedier means of transport.
Already the United States control 30 per cent, in
Peruvian imports, 60'8 per cent, of the importations
into Mexico, and 89 per cent, into Panama ; something
over 70 per cent, into Costa Rica, and about 60 per cent,
(increasing year by year) into Guatemala. With the
active assistance of the Washington Government, in
conjunction with the compulsory financial " assistance "
forced upon them by the Morgan Syndicate, Honduras
will also shortly be receiving about 80 per cent, of United
States goods, as well as much United States capital.

It is, however, the Republics of Peru, Ecuador,
Bobvia, and Chile which will become better markets
for the United States through the medium of the Panama
Canal ; and while I was travelling recently upon the
West Coast of South America I observed the arrange-
ments which were being made to handle this anticipated
increase of trade with all efficiency and despatch.
North American agents were busy opening up new
branches or appointing local agents to handle the goods
intended to be consigned in increased quantities.
German houses, already established, were also rearranging
their branches and remodelling their order-books to
deal with the expected increase in North American

TRADE-MARKS iMB

■■, tH of wbich proved that a veiy substantial beU«(
I in the approacJuDg tiade " boom " consequeni
) the opening in 1916 of the Panama Canal
hat attention were or are British manufacturers
i British agents paying to this all-important question i
t questioQ is veiy easily answered — none /

) of the greatest difficulties which British manu-
arers have had to face in South and Cenlcal America
1 the wholesale fotgeiy of trade-marks, a piactice
1 has been going on for many years almost, if not
F«iitirely, unchecked. Upon several occasions and from
different partj) of Latin-America 1 have called the
attention of manufacturers, throu^ the medium of the
daily and weekly press, to the existing state of oflairs ;
but, beyond eiqwasaing a mild kind of indignation at
such prooeedlngs, thoee individuals most oonccntcd
seemed to have taken no steps whatever to prevent this
fraudulent practice.

Kot only are manufacturers seriously affected, but the
ptucbasing public are abo deceived and cheated by a
tiaage which has become as general as it has long b«en
discraditabb.

It was latiafactoxy, however, to find recently that at
length some efiort promised to put an end to this
long - existing abuse. It was gratifying to South
Ajuerican importers of British manufactures to learn of
the meeting which was held in London oo March 16
two yean ago to take steps to register a British Kmpire
tiade-mark. If the decision arrived at does not die
ip^nityH* (and 1 have not heard of any striking
a havmg attended the project), as is not improbable
r without pnsoedent for eOorta of this land, the st«pa
|oposed shoukl prove of great benefit to British tade,
' ' in South Americs, where many of the beat-
1 British-made artioiaa are continually being copied
and the best esUemad toda-marks forged.

S70 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

It speaks well for the Republic of Peru that as long
ago as two years, without any BUggestioa emanating
from outside sources, the Government of this Republic
took st^ps to protect both the selling and purchasing
public from the frequent imitation and falsification of
foreign brands and trade-marks. In a special message
the Supreme Government authorized all the Consulates
having offices in the capital to accept directly from the
owners of trade-marks applications for protection by
registration.

The importance of this movement principally appealed
to those firms who are without any direct representative
in Peru. The passing of the new decree enables them
to register their trade-marks without the intermediation
of any third party, and with but very little expense
and even less trouble. It may be mentioned that the
Ollice of Industries, which is a sub-department of the
Minister of Public Works, takes entire charge of the
matter of registration, and sees that the necessary
certificate, properly made out, can be handed over to
the applicant. There is but one other stipulation to be
observed, and that is that oppficants for registration
of trade-marks must make their requests written in
Spanish. Those manufacturers who are unacquainted
with the language can readily obtain from any transla-
tion agency a sufliciently accurate translation of their
application, and this need only be forwarded through
their Consulate Office to the Minister of Public Works
at Lima. The fees for the registration are moderate
enough, being as follows :

£ e. a.

For rcgia trail on, muluding certilivat« 2 10

For otlidiiJ publiculion in uewspapi^rs U 8 U

For noMisanry stamp paper U 1 7

or a total of a little less than £3. The various Consa-
lates are instructed to receive and to attend to all
claims and complaints arising from the imitation ot

,Goot

^^^^H TR.\I>£-M^VRKS 271

falsification of registered trade-marks. The Peruvian
Government undertakes to prosecute, and in the event
of a conviction being obtained, to punish all violators of
registered trade-marks and patents entirely at its own
cost, without calling upon the owners of such trade-
marks or patents for any contribution (see Appendix).

It would seem that the Executive Council of the
British Empire League, which was responsible for the
meeting above referred to held in London, had merely
in mind the protection of manufacturers within the
British Empire, and appeared to have left out of its
consideration the many hundreds of manufacturers
with houses in the Central and South American States,
or shippers who carry on an important export business
with these countries. If, as it was stated, it be eminently
desirable that " a working basis should be found on
which the Colonial manufacturers should share the
benefits of a British mark," is it not equally desirable
that foreign purchasers of goods, presumably British
made, should not be deceived and defrauded, as has been
the case for many years past ? It would surely be
within the province of the officers of the Register of
British Manufacturers to take under the wing of their
protection importers of British goods in the Latin-
Americas. That such a movement would meet with
the support and co-operation of all business men in
those countries I have not the slightest doubt ; and I
would further suggest that the heads of foreign houses
in these States be invited to co-operate, and some of
them might even be requested to join the General
Advisory Council, or act as corresponding members.

In any case, Peru is entitled to consideration and
recognition for having been the first among the South
American Republics to move in the direction of pro-
tection to foreign manufacturers doing business in this
State. Already a large number of foreign firms have

.Good

272 PERU OF TfTE TWENTIETH CENTLTRY

availed themselves ol the Government's suggestion, and
each monthly issue of the official Boletm de la Direccion
de Fotnenlo contains several pages of illustrated de-
scriptions, and applications for registration, of trade-
marks, together with some admirably printed photo-
graphic reproductions of firms' labels. These are
inserted entirely without charge to the owners. Amcmg
foreign firms who have availed themselves of this
protection are many American houses, a large number
of German firms, and several British houses. Among
the latest establishments which have taken out patent
registrations are the following : W. R. Grace and Co., of
Lima ; V. Rigaud, of Paris ; Cavallero Hermanos, of
Arequipa ; Campodonico and Ventura, of Lima ; L. L J.
Dittesheini, of Switzerland ; El Progreso, of Lima ;
Debemardi Hermanos, of Lima ; Manuel G. Masias, of
Lima ; Romeo Marchand and Co., of Lima ; Compania
Shinola, of New York ; Santos Cabrerizo, of Lima ; Juan
Silva y Denegri, of Lima ; The Cook and Berheimer Co.,
of New York ; Eley Brothers, Ltd., of Middleaei ;
American Gramophone Company, of Bridgeport ; Reckitt
and Son, Ltd., of London ; A. Dammert and Co., of Lima ;
A. W. Wills and Son, of Birmingham; Borden's Con-
densed Milk Co., of New York.

CHAPTER XXI

Guano ImJurtry^Early hiBtorj — ItemarkEible return — Nitrate competi-
tion — Un worked deposits— Salt — Annual production— Petroleum —
PriDcipal distriotB — Early diaooveriea — Lobitos Oil-fielda — Cocaine

manufacture — Various processes followed— Dilficulties encoimtered.

The history of the guano industry is interesting from
at least two pointsof view — one so faras it relates to its
influence upon the former opulence of Peru {before the
war of 1884 with Chile), and the other from the preaent
position of the trade which is carried on in it. Where
does the guano come from, and what does the name
mean ? " Guano," which is the Spanish rendering of
the Quechua word " huanu/' meaning excrement, is
collected from a group of small islands known as the
Chinchas, and which are located close to the coast of
Peru. They appear to have been first exploited about
1840 by a firm of Peruvian merchants, who, having tested
the substance as a fertilizer, sent a large consignment
of it to England. Two years later the new agricultural
assistant " caught on," and an immense trade soon
sprang up. The interest of the Government was then
aroused, and a special Commission was despatched to
examine the islands and find out how much of the
precious deposit existed.

I am informed by one who was — and still is — con-
siderably interested in the Peruvian guano trade, that
some of the islands which had apparently been inhabited
by penguins, divers, cormorants, cranes, gannets, flamin-
goes, and nimierous other seabirds, were at that time
over 200 feet deep in this material. The estimate
273 18

274 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURV I

formed of their possible jield was 12,376,100 effe(
tons. For sixty years they had continued to produce
ever - increasing supplies, and taking the Chincha
group in conjunction with other small detached groups,
several millions of tons of the stufi have been shipped to
Europe alone.

By 1877 it was estimated that fully 10.000,000 out of
the original 12,376,100 tons had been taken away, and
to-day the whole amount which Peru can collect and
export annually does not exceed 60,000 tons, while
perhaps half as much — 30,000 tons — are used locally
as manure. When first sent to Europe the guano
fertilizer was disposed of at a fixed price ; but later
on buyers demanded a certified analysis, and prices
depended upon the nature of this. The prevailing price
which it fetches may be put at 19s. each unit per cent,
per ton for the nitrogen, and 23. 4d. on the same basis
for the phosphoric acid. Some cargoes from Peru yield
up to II per cent, nitrogen.

The deposits are only worked for one-half of the year,
so as to leave the birds who provide it imdisturbed to
breed. The Government grants licences to work the
deposits from April to October inclusive, but the
exclusive right to export up to 2,000,000 tons has been
granted to the Peruvian Corporation, Limited, who
have enjoyed the privilege since the year 1890. During
the several years that the Corporation have been
working the islands they have exported about 1,100,000
tons of guano, each year showing a decline upon its
predecessor. Last year (1910) the Corporation sold
abroad 61,000 tons, which was less than the preyioos
year by 23,000 tons.

About two years ago a native Company was formed,
called La Compafiia Administradora del Guano, and
managed to secure permits from the Government to
work the deposits for the purpose of supplying local

GUANO TRADE

feqnmments ; but it soon came to loggeriieads witli the
Fenivian Corpontioo, and the Ooveminent was tben
forced to intervene, deciding, with Solomonic aagacify,
that the Corporation ahoukl be pririleged to woric allri
deposits north of Callao, and the Company aU deposits ^
■oiitb of that port, with the exception of the Balleetas.

Tbe Government, in order to encourage the consomp-
tion uf guano in the country's agricultural industry, and
to facilitate the delivery of the fertilizer to coiuramera
direct, and without the iiitervcntioti of middlemen,
authorixed the smtill local Comiuiny referred to.

The return! from the guano depooita commence to
figure in the Government'it revenue accounta from about
the year 1B40. In the first seven yean only about
289,000 tonB wan exported, the direct sale oi which
produced some 12,700,000. The resulta wen conwlered
tuuatiafaotoiy, so an arrangement was arrived at with
Heasn. Antony Oibba and Co., of London, ui January of
1847, to undertake the ule of the oonsigtunenta tax
•eooimt of the Government. Several other Euiopaaa I
oipttalitita came into the deal, and altogether the mle
wen soon run up to 250,000 tons. Year by year thai
quantity increased, and indirectly brought Peru into J
flp^twiial relations with some of the most prominent ,
ea|tttaliBt groups, who afterwards took a practical
interest b the country's monetary condition.

Between the yean 1B51 and 1864 the amount of ,
gnano exported amounted to 1.624,252 tons, which I
yielded the Government the sum of |I6,838,600. TlM']
annual sales now totalled 300,000 tons, thus U*ri
the revenue with sereial miUiona of doUan " to play J
with." by 1867 over 7.000,000 tons of guano had be«tt J
taken away, awl the Treomry was orer $230,000,000 j
in pocket All these millions, however, disappeared i
ncklesa extravagance, and not a little through dishonest ^
nt ; and even when tbe annual sales went up,

276 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

as they did in 1868, to 400,000 tooB, the country was
still plunged hopelessly in debt. Later on, as mentioned
above, the Giovemment, acting under legislative
sanction, sold a definitive block of 3,000,000 tons of
guano, granting to the purchasers (the Peruvian Coi^
poration) the exclusive privilege of selling the article.

In course of time came the discovery of the c»qaally
beneficial agricultural manure of nitrate, which proved
a formidable rival of the guano, the sales of which com-
menced to go steadily down. But more zoisfortoiu
remained, and it seemed as if Peru's lucky star had
indeed set. The war with Chile resulted in the loss d
both her nitrate and some of her most valuable guano
deposits. Since then other guano islands have been
exploited, and the country still finds the returns £rom
the exports of the manure acceptable ; but the cream
has gone, and only skimmed milk remains. Fortunately
for Peru, which perhaps does not know even yet what
extraordinary riches the territory contains, the Tninipg
wealth of the country is destined to prove an excellent
substitute for the vanislung guano revenues, and no
despoiler can come and rob her of that. The total value
of the guano exported in 1909, as recorded at the
Customs HouBCB, was £156,224.

The mining of salt is a monopoly, the business being
carried on by the National Salt Company. During the
last year (1910) this undertaking sold no less than
8,923,336 kilogrammes of salt, 1 kilogranmie being equal,
it may be remembered, to 2*204622 pounds. At present
the Company works about 100 different deposits
scattered about the country, the total value of the
output averaging between £90,000 and £95,000. The
following statistics will serve to show how the industry
has prospered during the past ten years : In 1903 the
value sold amounted to £38,044 ; in 1904, £53,462 ; in
1905, £61,294; in 1906, £64,726; m 1907, £81,223;

Digitized byGOOgle

in 1908, £86.694 ; in 1909, £87,294 ; and in 1910, £93,238.
For the first six months of the current year (1911) a
further considerable increase has taken place.

The exploitation of the whole of the salt-mines of Peru
meant, on the other hand, to the Government a revenue
of nearly £220,000 for the year 1910.

Among all the excitement which prevailed in London
about two years ago in connection with the " oil boom,"
few of tlie " boomers " seemed to be aware that in Peru
is found not only the finest quality, but probably what
will turn out to be one of the largest quantities of oil in
the world. The mineral is found in the three northern
districts of Tumbes, Piura, and Lambayeque, In nearly
all cases the discoveries have been made on or near the
sea-coast. The knowledge that the oil exists is certamly
not of recent date, for as far back as 1692 we read of the
Spanish Crown ceding the entire rights of working
certain petroleum deposits to one Grandino, a Captain
in His Catholic Majesty's Army. Apparently it was
worked with some excellent profit, for it seems to have
been handed down as an extremely valuable asset from
generation to generation until it reached the hands of
Senor Diego de Lama, who foimd it so profitable that
he eventually divided the property into thirteen different
parts among his children. One of these portions, cover-
ing the estates of Parinas and La Brea, became the
property of Mr. Herbert Tweddle in 1888, from whom it
was purchased by the London and Pacific Petroleum
Company.

The Nepitas, or Talara, Oil-fields were discovered
several years ago. They are situated about forty miles
from the coast, in the direction of Paita — considered to
be the best port on the West Coast — and they are now
the centre of some active operations, Talara has a
well-sheltered little harbour of its own, and is connected
therewith by a sixteen-mile narrow-gauge railway. Some

278 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY '

twenty-five miles inland is another very promising
mation, consisting of a black and extremely adhesive
material of an asphaltum nature. Very little has been
done with this as yet. The Zorritos field lies about
twenty-four miles to the south of Tumbes, and was dis-
covered by De Lama in 1862. For many years it proved
a costly failure, but the present owners seem to have
been more fortunate, or are more intelligent, in workbg
the deep sand, no fewer than fifty producing wells bemg
foimd there.

The production of crude oil amounts to 11,000 tons
annually ; 600,000 gallons of kerosene and 100,000 gallons
of gasoline were refined in 1910. This year, I nnderatand,
the owners expect to add at least 10 per cent, to their
output. The territory owned by the Company is an
extensive one, amounting to the original 750 acres at
Zorritos, and an additional 2,700 acres at Cabo Blanco,
just north of the property belonging to the Lobitos
Company.

The latter field was discovered in 1901 by the surveyors
sent out by the Peruvian Corporation, but it was only
some four years later that the property was found to be
payable. The Corporation sold out its interests to the
present owners, the Lobitos Oil-fields, Limited, who have
152 wells, including forty-two which were drilled at the
time that the transfer of the property took place. Of
these, ninety-two were producing oil at the end of last
year (1910). The total depth drilled over the same
period was 44,055 feet, giving an average of approxi-
mately I7i feet drilled per string per working day. The
year certainly was not a fortunate one for the Company,
the net results being 3,882 tons less than for the pre-
ceding year. Nevertheless, the net increase seems to
have been higher at 24s. lid. per ton, as against 203. 8d.
The net profits for the year amounted to £4,778.
Further and fuller reference to the Lobitos Oil-fiel*

COCAINE MANUFACTURK

der the httdm;: : 1
t XXIV.).

' remnnerath'p man if i^
carried on in the Republic, and the plant
is decocted is found in the environs of Cu
1 the Bton^ summit of Ceno de San Crist6baL
It is also cultivated extensively in the wild but
nwiBt climate of the Feravian Andes, at from 2,000 to j
5,000 feot above tlis sea.

The extraction of cocaine from the leaves of the tsoo^^
plant Bs carried out up-country in not by any meana
an up-to-date procetw. It in, however, the only method
available to the farmcm at the present time, as, owing
to the distance from any seaport or raihray-station, Huy
find it much the cheaper way to extract the ooctune at 1
the point at which it is gnnrn than to export the leavea j
in bulk. The only means of communication betweoa f
the various ports and raflwaya is by the paclc-mule, a
however crude the arrangement may seem, it is no doobft 4
the best way out of the difBruIty. When the means ot J
coouuunicalioD are improved, the method of the extno* |
will improve also. At the present ttmo to i
ire 1 kilogramme of cocaine, 300 kilogiaaunea i
leaves are requirvd. The extraction is carried c
in three operations : (1) Maceration, (2) intermediate
precipitation, and (3) final precipitation. The three
are carried out in the three parts of it, num-
I., H., ond in. respectively,
'ndor compartment No. I. there are {our tanks
ed. In thfM! the roca-teaves are placed. The pi
aciduUtorn in which water and snlpburio acid i
I in the proportion of 1 ,000 grammes to 6 gnunmsi, '
mixture is ran oH into one tank, sufficient of the
lion being admitted at a lime to crivrr the top of the
Here it is allowed to remain for twenty-four
hours, at the end of which time the liquid is run o^ into

.. coma
in It

280 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

another tank, and another supply of acidulated mixture
is admitted into the first tank. The mixture is again
allowed to remain for another twenty-four hours, when
this is again drawn ofE into a third tank, the contents of
the first being drawn ofi anew into the second one, and
again a fresh supply of acidulated mixture being ad-
mitted into the first tank. This process is repeated until
the first tincture at the end of four days is drawn ofi,
the first tank then being charged with a fresh quantity
of leaves ; the others each in turn. After the end of four
days the initial charge is ready, and every twenty-foux
hours thereafter whilst the plant is in operation the same
quantity will be available. After leaving the last tank,
the tincture is conveyed to a strainer, which takes away
all particles of dust, etc. From this strainer the
tincture is run ofi into cylinders. This ends the macera-
tion process. The tincture is now ready for the inter-
mediate precipitation.

This is carried out in another compartment. No. II. The
boilers contain a solution of carbonate of soda (salino-
meter, 60°), and are connected by a line of pipes con-
trolled by valves to the cylinders. The tinctiire now
being in the cylinders, the valves are opened and the
precipitation comniences. Tests are continually made
of this process. A small quantity of the mixture is
taken out and strained through a funnel, in which is
placed some filter-paper. The tincture filters through
and passes down into a receiver, leaving the cocaine on
the top of the paper. The liquid is then tested by the
addition of ammonia, which indicates if the slightest
trace of cocaine remains. If no cocaine is precipitated
it shows that the quantity of the carbonate is correct ;
but if there is, the proportion of carbonate is altered till
the desired result is obtained.

The precipitating operation completed, the next step
in the process is the addition of a certain quantity of

,GoO'

COCAINE MANOPACTURE «!

petrolenm. Aft«r this is added, the whole u slowly
stirred with a funoel-abspod beater having a per-
forated bottom. Great care has to be token that the
beater doea not rise above the oil. The stirring is
continued (or a period of from three to four hoars, ami
at a very rIow rate, ito that no bubbles are produced, th«
production of which would ranae a great deal of wasta.
The oil which now contains the cocaine is ran off into
the waaher, and is there washed with clean water— ab«o>
lately free from acids. This having been done satia-
hetatily the water is poured off, and a fixed peicentaga
of the oil is taken for test. To this is added varying
quantities of acidulated water b the proportion of
3 granunes of add to 1,000 grammea ol water. The
proportion which is found to pve the beat precipitation
is applied in the same prc^iortioa to the balk of the oil
in the washer. The oil and nciduUted water are Han
•tiiTed vigorously for fn^ni thirty to forty minutes, and
the mixture is then allowed to rest fifteen minntea.
The acidulated water, or liquid cocaine, is then drawn
off and poured into the TesseU.

In rompnrtment Ko. III. the final precipitation ia
rftocted. A lest is agam taken of the liquid in a simitar
manner to that previnuslydesrribed.'only in thii caao,
mitflad of the aod, use is made of carbonate of soda tn
varying proportioiu, so as to discover which pvea the
best results. After this has been aacertoincd, the whole
nf the liquid cocune is treated with carbonate takm
from the vessels. It is then left to settle for twelve
houn, at the end of which time it is passed throng^ a
strainT, with large quantities of di^tillrd water to wadl
away the residue of the carbonate, and it is then placed
in the press. Pressure being applied, all water is driven
off, the result bemg a white paste uf cocaine, which is
within 87 to 93 per cent, of purity. This opemtiou is
carried out daily, and an avenge of 1 Idlognimme

Gooi^lc.

282 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

( = 2'204622 pounds) is obtained every twenty-four
hours.

At times the cocaine, instead of being white, is of a
brownish colour. This shows an inferior quality of
leaf, and in this case a further operation is needed to
improve the colour and quality. The paste is dissolved
again in strong acidulated water in the proportion of
5 granunes of sulphuric acid to 100 grammes of water.
More water is added as the paste is dissolved, until a
proportion of 3 grammes of acid to 1,000 grammes of
water is obtained. It is again precipitated with car-
bonate, put back into the washer with oil, and stirred
for three hours, at the end of which time the water is
drawn off. A solution of acidulated water is again
added in proportion of 10 grammes of acid to 1,000 of
water. This is kept stirred for two minutes, and finally
removes the gums, which cause the brown colour ; but
at the same time a proportion of the cocaine is lost.
The cocaine is then treated as before. The colour is
improved, but the weight is decreased, which makes the
process wasteful.

The number of workmen in a plant of this size varies
from three to five. All the channels for tincture and
carbonates have open tops, owuig to the trouble that
would be caused by obstruction with closed pipes, the
carbonates and tinctures solidifying and causing stop-
The water used must in all cases be filtered.
The approximate cost of producing 1 kilogramme of
cocaine by this process is £11 — say £5 per pound. The
cost, however, varies with the price paid for the coca-
leaves, which is always changing.

Cocaine waa exported from Peru in 1909 to the value
of £60,287.

CHAPTER XXn

Mieing — Spanish grepcl^Minernl dUtriots— Sierrn region — Natnhers of
olnim* — Workinfi companieB and output— Labour conditions^ Mining
code — Gold and silver in inei^ Copper depositB — Corro do Paaco —
Britiah indifference — ''Ophir of Ihe West"— Cerro de PftMO town —
Various mioerals found— Coal^Mining (or foreignore^Dnnecessary
ec&re from United Slates of America.

There are many authorities — Professor Baron Hum-
boldt and Sir Arthur Helps among them— who aver that
the Spaniards were not led merely by a thirst for gold
in connection with their conquests of South America,
and who attribute their invasions at least equally to
the pious desire of spreading the Holy CathoUc faith I
I am afraid, however, that those who read the history
of the Conquestadores carefully will be unable to share
in the altruistic views of the two distinguished writers
whom I have mentioned. Whatever may have been the
original intention of the Spanish invasion of South
America, there cannot be any question that, once there,
the conquerors devoted the whole of their efforts and the
whole of their powerful resources to securing as much
treasure as they could steal from the poor natives or
themselves win from the earth ; and since they were, as
we know, religious fanatics of the worst kiiid, it seems
only fair to assume that the spreading of their own
religion among the native-s was practically throwing
" a sop to Cerberus," or, in other words, offering a tribute
or premium to the Almighty in order to obtain absolu-
ion for their hideous and wholly unnecessary crimes
humanity.

^^^on foi

281 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTITRY

Although the Spaniards were the first to pursue mini
in Peru with anything like a system, there is abundant-
evidence that the Incas knew well how to obtain the pure
gold from the auriferous rocks with which their country
abounded and still abounds ; but whence they learned and
how they practised the art of amalgamation and refining
the gold are not very clear. The immense quantities of
both gold and silver ornaments which they manufactured,
and numbers of which still exist, show, however, that if
much gold must have been lost in the process of treat-
ment, a vast amoimt of it was still preserved. Unfortu-
nately, space will not permit of my quoting in these
pages, as I feel greatly tempted to do, the records of
the discovery and working of the principal mining dis-
tricts under the Incas and the Viceroyalty, a subject
which forms a highly instructive and intensely interest-
ing chapter of the history of those periods. My present
and more prosaic task is to briefly consider the physical
features of the mining industry of this richly endow<
country.

As I have previously mentioned, there are three
tinct regions in Peru — the coastal, the mountain,
the forest. The first is an arid and wide-spreading zone
where little or no rain falls. There are no mines here, if
one excepts the petroleum deposits and the sulphur-
mines located upon the northern coastal plains. In the
forest region there are also but lew indications of an'
great mineral wealth, although here are found a
widely separated deposits of gold-bearing quartz
placer gravel on the border of the forest region in
southern part, of the country.

The great mineral wealth of Peru lies in the sierra or
mountain region, and, as is not unconmion with Nature
when she bestows great riches upon humanity, she has
placed them in almost inaccessible places, and has ren-
dered the task of gathering them as diflicult and

sicai
we<^^^

ano^^^
!one
•e, if
hur-
the
an^^^

sod

MINERAL WEALTH 9SS

u pcMsible. The most valuable mines in
Peru are tiiose ftituatod at an altitutlc <■( from 8,000 to
12,000 feet, and to roarh which, until the advent of the
railway, steep and tedioiu moontain trails had to be
onwaed, and every pound of equipment and machinery
carried laboriously and alowiy. packed in amall sections,
upon the backs of draught mules, to the mines, where
they were put together.

Some few yean ago, when the official list of mining
claims was iaaued, there were nearly 10,000 claims listed ;
and out of these nearly 1,200 were being worked by
160 different native and foreign-owned companies.

The mineral production of the Republic includes coal,
crude petroleum, gold, silver, copper, lead, bismuth,
ntrkel, m<Mrury, sulphur, iMinuc, antimony, molybdenum,
and salt, the working of the latter l>eing a monopoly of
the Peruvian Qovemment. According to such mineral
statistics as are available, there were at thia time in
operation twenty-four tixiviation plants, seventeen
amalgamation plants, thirtocn smett^^rs, three lead
smelters, three concentration plants not connected with
smetteiB, two smelting and beaaemerixiog of copper
plants, two petroleum refinerice, and one sulphur re-
finery. Of the smelting plants the more important are
the smelters of the Cerro de Paaoo Mining Oimpany,
which have a capacity of fiOO tons per day ; the Backus

LAod Johnaon smelter at Casapalca, with a capacity of
tons per day ; and the Huaracaca smelter, situated
the mad to Cerro de Pasco, which has, with conoentm-
and amalgamation, a capacity of 100 tons per day.
These different smeltem are all easily accessible on
account of the Central Railway almost passing their
doors ; but the tv aiv a number of smaller smelten which
are so far away from existing railwayit as to have proved
anything but successful ; with the advent of branch
lines, however, snob aa are contemplated, the majority,

280 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

if not the whole, of these furnaces would come actively
into operation.

Usually speaking, there is sufficient labour for the
mines available ; this is performed by Indians and the
mixed native races. They are found quite obedient
and docile, but usually very ignorant, and they are
prone to indulge too much in keeping their numerous
saints' days, to which they cling as tenaciously as the
Indians of Mexico, who celebrate as many as 200 saints*
days in the year. On the other hand, many of them
own small patches of land, and these they industrioiisly
cultivate ; at certain times of the year they will dis-
appear, generally without notice, in order to till or reap
according to the season ; but they almost invariably
return after these operations are completed.

The daily pay of a common kbourer ranges from
20 centavos to 1 sol (5d. to 2s.), while iu the smelting
and concentrating eheda it ranges from 60 cetUavos to
1 sol 20 centavos (Is. 3d. to 2s. 5d.), and in the ore-
packing sheds from 40 to 50 centavos (9d. to la.) per
ton per kilometre.*

The Peruvian Government has naturally done — and
is doing — much to foster the muiing industry, in view
of the substantial revenue which it obtains — and will in
a few years' time enjoy— from it. In 1876 the School
of Mines was established, and has proved usefid to the
industry, some exceptionally briUiant young students
having distinguished themselves, not only in the Re-
public, but in other parts of the world. In 1901 a new
Mining Code was promulgated, and this gave a fresh
impetus to the development of mining. The new Code
affords additional facilities for acquiring mining pro-
perties, ample liberty in working them, and absolute

* A good deal of iDfoTmatioD regarding tlie phjetcal features imd minin g
induslcj of Fecii may be [oimd in a pampljlet by Mr. George I. Adams, of
Washington, b.C. U.S.A., being extrncla from n. paper read before the
American Inatilute of Mining Eagineers, February, 1B03.

MINING

their poaaeBsion. The importatioti
uiarhinery, aa well as the fixtazes and tools lued
mining, is exempt from Customs duties, as are also c
timber, dynamite, quicksilver, and other materials
necessaiy (see Appendix).

The Peruvian Mininf; Code, which may be purchased
ID a complete form at a very reasonable price, declares
that any individual may acquire mining properties witli
the number of claims {pertenencias) desired from one to
sixty. A perfatefMM is the unit in mining properties,
as it is in Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, and other
Spaniah • speaking countries, and measures 200 x SCO
metres, and thus coven an area of 40,000 square
mettes in the case of coal, petroleum and gpkl placets,
platinum, tin, etc. ; but in all other mining properties
the perteneneia measures only 200x100 metres -
20.000 square metres. For every perlenencia the
owner must pay to the Qovermnent a tax of $15.00
(£1 10s.) each half-year, or £3 per annum.

The administration of all questions and the settlement
of all disputes in relation to the mining industry remain
in the hands ol ih.t Qovemmcnt, which is assisted in ita
decisions by a Superior Uioing Council and by " Delega-
cionea " and " Diputacionea," appointed by ibe mining
districts. The Department of Encouragement and
Public Works is the executive, having control of all
mining matters ; and it acts up to ita name admimbly,
litemlly " encouraging " in every possible and legiti-
mate manner both mining and other euterpriaes,
whether undertaken by natives or forsignem, which
can in any way redound to the advantage of the country
genenlly.

' Gold is found in veins of fvmiginutui quartx, ge!neimll]r
ompanied by other metaU, such as NilvtT and copper

Bt it is also found in the form of nuggets, ur in
alluvial d^Nwils and in the sand which is brought down

288 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

by the moDntain streamB darmg the fzeahets. Silva
is found in practicalfy every part of the vast Andean
tefpoo, and there is scarcely a single defile, however small,
in the whole of this enormous area in which veins of
silver more or less rich — ^bat frequently unworkable <mi
account of their remoteness from a railway and the diffi-
culties of mule transportation — cannot be found. The
white metal is generally encountered mixed with lead
or copper, and frequently with both. In Pern alone I
have seen the cnrious ore called cascajo, which, althou^
having no metallic bri^tness, owing to the oxide of
iron which it contains, is nevertheless freqnentfy found
to be very rich in silver, as well as in copper ores. It is
this chanicter of rock which is met with principally in
the mining districts of Cerro de Pasco.

The best-known mining ranges for production of silver
are : Hualgayoc ; Salpo ; Callejon de Huaylas, in the
north ; Cajatambo, Huarochiri, Tauli, Cerro de Pasco,
Hnallanca, and Castro- Virreina, in t^e centre ; Lucanas,
Puno, Lampa, Cialloma, in the south.

In no country will copper be found in greater quan-
tities, nor in more remarkable combinati<ms and forms,
than in Pern. The veins actually of copper contain this
metal with a onaU proportion of silver and a yet smaller
ratio of gold. Although it may be met with in Chimbote,
lea, and Lomas, it is at Cerro de Pasco that the red
metal is found in the greatest abundance and of the
greatest richness, the deposit being an accumulation of
copper, silver, gold, and lead ores, with various other
minerals in a lesser degree.

Early in 1902 a certain J. Haggim, with some others,
became interested in this region, and they acquired the
mines referred to at an extremely reasonable price,
which, however, did not prevent them from bringing
out a Company to work them with an authorized capital
of 160,000,000 (£12,000,000). Of this large but stUl

Digitized byGOOgle

^teewMuy sum nearly $30,000,000, (£6,000.000) bave
been alrettdj expcodod in the purchase of the mmcs*
ooagtntction of the railroad, smehcrs, office buildings,
■nd other devolopnicnt expenses. All these constrao< '
lions show evidence uf firstrclasB work, a remark which j
maj aUo be applied to the Bhaft-house, wazdionses, and 1
jranlfl ; while the Eaperanxa Club House, which has boea I
erected far the use of the many American employ^ j
engaged by the Company, is oae of the most comfortable I
edifices of its kind, and, indeed, it need be in view ot J
the abaolute lack of roereatioii or out«ide amnsementa '
and resources that the town of Cerro de Fasoo oSen.
The mining plant is one of tiie most complete and
efficient that can be seen in any part of the world, and
I regret that lack of space prevents me from describing
it in farther detail

How the British capitalist, through nervousness or
ignorance, and often through both, allows goklen oppor- J
tunity to slip from hb grasp, is shown in the cose of the ^
Cerxo de Pasco mines. Ilieee mines were offered by
their discoverer—a man named Bennett, now dead— to
the arm of N. M. RothschiU and Son, of New Court,
St. Swithin's Lane, and it seemed at one time as if they
were likely to take them. But the spirit of cautiousness,
so commendable upon some occasions and so dcplumble
upon other*, overcame the desiie to do a good stroke ot
bnsmeas ; and. the Rothsohikb withdrawing at the hut
moment, the Americans, ever ready to " smell " a good _
bargain, came in, and to-day the famous Oeno de Fasoo J
is a North-Ametican enterprise, managed by Amerioani,
equipped with American macbinory, and finding occupa-
tiaa for sevcml hundreds of American engineers and
employ^ And aU of this, but for poor judgment and
woBe timidity, mi^t have been British ! In 1907 C«rro
de Paaoo minea shipped 10,000 tons ; in 19(l(( they &bip]Nxl
15,000 tons ; and this yeu (1911-13) it is expected they ^

18 I

290 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTUBY

will ship something like 35,000 tons, and erentxu
50,000 tons per annum of copper ores.

But for the magnificent output from Cerro de Pasco
mines, it is very doubtful whether the Central Railway
of Peru — that stapendous enterprise known as the " rail-
way in the clouds," and which cost the British investor
the huge and unproductive sum of £5,000,000 to build
and equip — could be run at all ; for it3 mainstay b, and
always has been, the ore from the Cerro de Pasco mines ;
80 that if the British capitalist has lost the chance of
owning the mines, he has at least the consoling privilege
of carrying its output, or a part of it, until the Company
— as is possible — builds a railway of its own, |

Yet, if we have lost the chance of this splendid pro-
perty, there are others existing which are, in all prob-
ability, as desirable. The whole of this region of the
Andes is fabulously wealthy in all kinds of minerals,
the veins actually of copper containing this meta! with
a small proportion of silver and traces of gold. The
arsenical and antimonial salphurets are found in great
abundance in this district, as well as in others such as
Chimbote, lea, and Lomas, and they are at the present
time the object of considerable exploitation in these
mining centres. Copper, however, is but one out of
several minerals which are to be found — and found in
immense quantities — in this well-named " Ophir of the i
West." I

I have written nothing of the rich deposits of ala-
baster, porphyry, marble, and a jade which is better
than any to be foimd in the old temples of Rome and
Greece. I should say, from what I have seen and what
I have heard about the minerals of Peru, that there is
hardly one of the known kinds but can be found some-
where or other in this country. Upon looking at some
records made up within the past few years, I observe
that the metric tons mined in 1905 amount«d to 165,256,

MINING

891

bile in 1908 the amount bad beeo only 106,072 tons.
The commercial value had alao risen to $1,828,531, aa

^inst $1,382,080 for the same periods.

! preseut eondition of the mineral and metal in-

ItrieH of the Republic in indicated in th« Kuhjiiiued
:— Erporta: (1907) Iciki, .19.939.937. value

1.972.929; (1908) kilos. 47,4«2.M8, value £P1.601 ,227 ;
0) kilos, 40.809,037. value £PI .6:18,180.
' Uany of the ouning towns in Peru, as in Hexioo, <
preaent a gloomy, rather dilapidated, and othenriasJ
tinattractive appearance to the foreigner, who
accnatcmed to the brigbtneas of many other, and 1
especially North American, mining centres ; but Ceno i
do Pasoo certainly takes nuik as one of the most da- ]
pressing. The town itself was established some thraa J
centuries ago, and is one of the oldest mining towns in J
the New World, ita population being over 10,000, aodl
its elevation some 12,000 feet above the level of the saa.,!
It has, sinoe the seventeenth century, been a oentn ot
mining activity ; in fact, as the legend says. " si
shepherd found some curious metal b the bed of the
fire he had tit to protect himself from the cold and the.
damp." The town, althougli quaint in appearance, WM
decidedly unpleasant as a place of residence, owing toT
ita ondeanlineas and general decayed condition. Tl
inhabitanta seem to be among the less eanful
penonal appearance of any of the natives to be fooi
u Peru, and the various stenches which emanate from
the streets would put to the bhuh the " sevonty-two
different stinks " which are supposed to distiB
Cologne.

In fact, Coleridge's deacriptioo of that city migb
well have bean writton about Oerro de Paaoo :

" In Kola, a tMm of awaka uJ tiaii.

An4 ragp Mil Im« B^ UAm wwi

the
asco
ncofl

y 4

; of
line

292 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Nevertheless, that one may live there with safety
regard to one's health is proved by the fact that the
British Consul, Mr. Stone, has resided in Cerro de Pasco
for thirty years, and seems to all outward appearan<
to be as hale and hearty as ever.

Lead ores are abundant, being found freqviently
the veins of argentiferous galena. The most notob!
are the mines in Yaiili, Huarochiri, Chilet, Pallasoa,^
Huari, Canas, and Recuay.

Quicksilver deposits are found in the Department of
Huancavelica, notably in the famous and historical mine
of Santa Barbara, which was worked to great profit
the Colonial period.

Tin is not very often encountered, and where it
found the deposits are of no industrial importance.
Iron is more plentiful, but it has not hitherto been the
object of systematic industrial exploitation. It is found
in fairly large quantities in the districts of Galea and
Lares, where beds exist with a grade of 80 per cent.

Nickel is abundant in the district of San Miguel, in
the Province of La Mar. Sulphur is not only found in
all the extinct volcanoes, but also in the form of extensive
beds near to the sea.

Bismuth occurs in various parts of the country,
particularly in the Department of Junln, where a bed of
bismuth-ochre has been discovered with a grade of
40 per cent, of bismuth. Mica has recently been dis-
covered on the coast, in the Department of Piura.

Borax occurs in important beds in the Departments
Arequipa, Moquegua, Tacna, and Puno, and the Centi
Railway's line passes through a large bed of this mineral.
Molybdenum has been exploited for the past seven years
in the Province of Jauja, where the deposits contain, in
the form of sulphuret of molybdenum, from 20 to 30 per
cent, of the metal.

One day — and that day ia not far distant -the vi

lift-

ml™

MINING 293

o^o^fl of coal in Peru will be worked, and worked
profitably. Practically all the representatives of the
anthraconites are found — anthracite, pitcoal, lignite,
and peat ; while in Cuzco I have been shown some of the
coal-beds of Tonquini, which contained whole trunks of
trees perfectly carbonized. A private museum in Cuzco
which I also visited contained an extraordinary collec-
tion, comprising not only samples of coal, but specimens
of all the minerals found in Peru. The museum belonged
to an old Peruvian gentleman of eighty years of age, who
was willing to spend hours, and even days, with anyone
who cared to listen to him describing his treasures ; and
who would slowly toddle around Lis small room (measur-
ing 30 by 40 feet), which contained, however, exhibits —
so he assured me — worth nearly £100,000, with perfect
contentment.

Of the deposits of petroleum and salt I speak more
fully in another portion of this volume (see p. 376, 277).

I have observed from time to time in various publica-
tions, and especially in Consular Reports, that certain
writers consider Peru to be an unfavourable country for
emigration ; and some among them — the American
Consul-General at Callao, for esample^ — have expressly
warned foreigners from coming to the Republic, In
justification for the tendering of this advice a great many
so-called facts are set forth, which, although not untrue
in themselves, might well apply to almost every country
on the face of the earth, and more particularly to Great
Britain and the United States. The last-named
authority to whom I have above referred, for mstance,
says inter alia : " There is no work to be had for
Americans at Mollendo, nor in the interior, nor at the
mines, nor anywhere in the mining sections. If they
come without money they will have great difficulty in
^^ffetting away to some more profitable country, and

Gooale

294 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

From my own observations I am quite unable to
endorse these statements, my experience being that
when I required some very ordinary clerical assistance
in the form of a shorthand-writer and typist, I found it
practically impossible to obtain one, and discovered
subsequently that the demand for such assistance was
invariably larger than the supply. The same remark
applies to mining, different managers informing me that
they were generally very short of foreign labour, and that
any man who was worth his salt could readily find
employment. This was abundantly testified to by the
large number of young Americans who were employ«l
at the Cerro de Pasco and other mines, although their
Consul-General avers that " they can find no employ-
ment anywhere."

I thoroughly endorse the recommendation that it is'
inadvisable for anyone in mercantile, mining, in edu-
cational, clerical, or other lines of commercial life to
proceed to Peru without having previously secured a
guaranteed position in some respectable concern ; but
is not this a suggestion which might, and does, apply to
practically every other country 1 By issuing such a
scare-report as this the American Consul-General at
Callao is scarcely rendering good service either to his
own country or to the Republic to which he is accredited,
for it may serve to keep away a great many young and
enterprising men who would otherwise do extremely
well in a country just on the verge of its commercial and
industrial development. — one which offers exceptional,
guarantees for personal safety, which has an imdeniably
equitable climate, and where foreigners are made
especially welcome. Personally, I would far rather take
my chance of finding casual employment and a courteous
reception in applying for it here than in either New
York, Chicago, or London.

It would also be seen from perusing the following

gene

EMPLO\THENT AT MINES

it« how Htrongely the ohttervatioiui made by Mr.
Henry Robertmn, the zealous and well-meaning
it«d States Consul-Oeneral in Callao, compare with
some remarks expressed by Senor Don Felipe Pardo,
Envoy-Extraordinary and M mister-Plenipotentiary for
Peru to the United States, and by Professor David
Kinley, Director of the School of Commerce of the
University of Illinois, one of the delegates of the United
States to the last Pan-American Conference held at
Buenos Airra. Both are at least as r«8pDnsiblc authori-
ties u Mr. W. H. Robertson. SciiDr Felipe Pardo
observes : " Among the ootmtrics of South America,
Peru perhaps offers the best return for your capitaLiJ
Her ports are less than 1,000 miles from the Canal, her
waters are truly Pacific, her climate is temperate. . . .
American capital could be advantageoasly invested."
He also spoke eologistically of the mines, some of which,
worid iMtaoaa to-day, have been developed with American
ospilal. How could this have occurred bad the United
States Consul's recommendations to stay away prevailed
generally, and his warnings taken seriously by those to

'torn they were addressed ?

'"low let us see wliat Professor Duvid Kiult^y has to j
I deprecate our tack of knowledge and adapts f
:y to South American ways of doing buianeaa. Wa j
far too often send down meji who cannot speak Oat |
language. This ti a waste of time, money, and good I
temprr. You cannot do businesa with n man unless yoa i
talk to him. You may get all the interpreters you VOu, i

|t he will not catch your meaning, and you cannot catoli 1

CHAPTER XXin

CaUm— Eulj hiatcwy— HiysiwJ upeots— Climats— Sabnrbo — SMiiurr
■mprovementa — Chorioa — Ia Pimta — The voloaiio of Histi — City of
AreqmM— Early history— Euthqnakea— Hospitality ot the inhabi-
tants— Bnildioga — Banka — Tnmways — Electnoal eqnipments — Life
in Areqnipa — Coseo — Bnins — Hodon oity life.

There is probably no more genuinely interesting city
in Peru, nor one which is more ftimous for the romance
attaching to it, than Callao, which, historically speaking,
is as ancient as Lima itself. Having withstood many
sieges by pirates, in which encounters it came oS usually
by no means best, Callao was compelled to capitulate
to the earthquake of 174€, which was accompanied by
a tidal wave, the combination of disasters resulting in
the entire place being destroyed. It is recorded that
both the town and port disappeared from view, and
t^ete is nothing left to tell the tale but a few traditions
more or less to be relied upon. In 1867 Callao ex-
perienced a second seismic shock, which, although less
disastrous in its results, nevertheless proved bad enough.
Callao was founded in the year 1537, two years after
the foundation of the city of Lima, and in 1671 we read
of its population being " considerable," and, indeed, so
important was its trade that the title of " city " was
conferred upon it. For many years it remained the
centre of Spanish colonial commerce, and so much
wealth was piled up in its warehouses that the cupidity
of the famous British pirate Drake was excited, and in
1578 he descended upon the coast, seized several
merchant vessels in Callao Harbour, and appropriated
206

DignrcdbyGOOQlC

the booty. Then it was that the Viceroy, Count del
Villar, considered that it was high time to fortify the
place ; and forthwith he proceeded to do 30. How well
he succeeded is proved by the fact that when in 1624
the place was again attacked, this time by the Dutch
pirate, Heremati Clerck, with eleven ships, 240 guns,
and 1,600 men, the enemy was beaten off with compara-
tive ease. History records that Clerck took his defeat
so much to heart that he died of grief, but it is not
chronicled that the good people of Callao expressed any
r very deep regret nor that they went into mourning.

From this time onward Callao seemed to thrive and
pfructify ; its population increased, and many handsome
buildings, including one convent, seven temples, and 11
whole range of Government and commercial offices, went
up ; but unfortunately they also went down, for the
arthquake of 1746, as already observed, completely
Idestroyed the city, some 6,000 of its inhabitants perishing
' in the catastrophe at the same time. The survivors,
with that extraordinary pluck which characterizes the
Latin-Americans in the face of terrible seismic disasters,
at once proceeded to rebuild the city, and to fortify
the port with castles and bastions, provided with 160
pieces of artillery of different calibres. The military
garrisons played an important part in subsequent
political wars, and this fort was the last bulwark of
Spanish power in South America. When in 1826 Pern
was declared an independent State, Callao became its
principal port.

It cannot be said that the first impressions of C-allao are
particularly favourable. Landing at the Muclle Darsena
m small boats, tlie steamers usually taking up their
berths after passengers have been landed, one is con-
fronted by a maze of narrow and irregular streets, the
houses in which appear to be somewhat badly ventilated,
and the paths leading to them usually dusty or dirty.

I ,, , Goo;

Aoe a 1>^ open area
CB Wve been laid
ovk aft q ^ aa^ea. At posBt, howg vw. time Inve
bw arity wwJ ntr c^teea qarted iqwo Aem. An
OBilnft, tf Kit teo ffU|ft , otfTice of tzama nms
balnea GaDao aad I^na, a distaace of seven miles,
tfce timt oeea^wd oa tbe joaiaey bong from twenty to
imuIv aiiHHwai

Tbat CaDao it Bot Bcnaeing in popnlazitT aa & place
of zcBidoMe is pnmd bjr the la^ Domber of mercliants'
1 wbicil bave closed their doors, the occapants
J their dunidlea to lima. Scarcely a dozen
laomiiient finns now have separate offices at the port,
SQch aa there are being merely those which are nsed by
tally-clerks and for the ordinary business relating to
the receiving and discharpng of cargo. The tramcars
arn\'ing at Callao in the morning and leaving for Lima
in the evening are usually crowded to excess with clerks
and workpeople, reminding one forcibly of the appear-
ance o£ the " Tubes " in London, or of the " L " Railway
in New York daring the same hours of the day. At
night the street* of Callao are given up to the inevitable
prowling cat and the sleepy, bemuffled policeman.

When it is dull and hazy at Lima, and that ia for one-
half of tlio year, the sun nan always be reckoned upon
an nhining brilliantly at Chopica, situated at a distance
of but thirty miles from Lima. Beautifully located at
the foot of verdant and buslty hills, amid most fascinat-
ing scenery, this delightful little place is a favourite

CALLAO

1«)9

amoi
^^_ Saiia

retreat for the Limonians. The summer season syn-
chronizes with the hideous winter months of Europe and
the United States, and no greater comparison can be
drawn between beauty and desolation, between comfort
and discomfort, for residents than these difierent
localities situated at almost opposite extremities of the
world. There is a very pleasant but small hotel, and
also several handsome private residences. If I were
asked to recommend any particular place of residence
among them I should be inclined to mention the
Sanatorium, which, although possessing an unattractive
really a very agreeable place in which to pass a
iw days ; at any longer period I should hesitate.

To the left of the port of Callao, within a few minutes'
ride, there is the small and attractive suburb at present
of modest dimensions only, called La Punta, or " The
Point," an apt name, inasmuch as the land consists of a
small peninsula forming part of the bay, and facing the
island of San Lorenzo, The social season lasts from

!cember to May, during which months the place is
well patronized by the people of Lima, who can
La Punta by direct street-cars, which make the
run in twenty minut«s. A few new houses have been
erected this year in addition to the Eden Hotel, which,
if not elaborate in design, at least enjoys an attractive
Bca-view.

A new era of prosperity dawned for Callao in 1900,
upon the recommendation of the Institute of
ivil Engineers in London, Mr. E. J. Ruinsby, M.I.G.E.,

B sent out to Peru to make plans and give estimates
a complete system of water-supply and drainage.

spite of its being the second most Important city in
the HepubUc and having a population amounting to
nearly 35,000 inhabitants, Callao for many years had

:n left in a dirty, insanitary condition ; it is in some

,rtfi dirty still, but insanitary no longer.

birly i
fteach ]

■been

.Good

300 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The Saprone GoTenmient gave He ocmsent to the
deftnabg progzamme in 1901 ; the moo^ to build the
watenrotks, xnd later (» the drainage-works, amounting
to £12,000, was found, and the first part of the onder-
taldng was completed and put into use in 1901.

About twenty-foor miles of piping are laid down in
Csllao, the head worts of the water-supply being sitxiated
5 kilometres above the town at a place called Chivato,
from which there is a drop of considerable depth. The
main-supply pipes, made of cast-iron, are 21 inches in
diameter, diminishing gradually until they reach the
diameter of the street laterals (5 inches). The amount
of supply is 30 gallons per head per diem, for 50,000
people.

The static head in the town mains equals 80 feet,
afiording an average pressure of 38 pounds to the
square inch. Nearly the whole of the houses in Callao
have been connected up, and although the rates are
deemed rather high — there are many people who think
that they should be provided with water for nothing ! —
general satisfaction with the service is expressed.

The sewerage system forms the second part of the
scheme, and this is making such excellent headway that
in all probability it will be in full operation before these
lines are in the printer's hands. Mr. Rumsby, the
engineer in charge, has made provision for a population
of 60,000, or almost double that of which Callao boasts
to-day. The town is divided into three zones, the
sewerage system being so conducted that at all states
of the harbour tide the outlets of the discharge pipes
are completely submerged, thus assuring a thorough
diffusion into the sea. The works were commenced in
the month of February, 1907.

Arequipa is both the name of the Department and
that of the Capital. The former Ues along the Pacific
Coast from latitude 15° to 17" 20' south, the entire

nnyt"
citi«

AREQUIPA Ml

amonnting to about 200,000. A laige
volcanoes exitit bctv, Bome extinct, others
\y active, among the Utt«r being the beaatifal
Histi (also called " Arequipa "), wliicli reminds one in
appeacaace veiy much of Fujiama, in Japan. We see the
same perfectly shaped cone, the same majefitic propor-
tiona, and the same awful grandeur which it« cahn,
changoleas digni^ produces. Ita height is 20,320 feet
e the sea, and its head is ever under snow. The
emptkni took plaoe in 1839.
It would occupy several volumes to afford my readers
anything like a practical idea of what the chief Peruvian
cities are like, and I can only hope to say something very
' f of a few among them. Alreatly I have spoken in
earlier chapter of Lima and Callao ; I would now
.k, I fear but skct^hily, of Arequipa, the thinl most
uiporlant centre in Peru, and one of Uie seats of Spain's
great coloDization power.

The city of Arequipa ties at the foot of the superb
volcano, and buried in a fertile volley. It is divided into
separate districts — Santo Domingo, San Francisco, La
:, San Aguatin, and Hiraflorea. The population
biy ezoeeda 3B,000. The city is typically Spanish.
the streets bemg laid out at ri^t an^es ; the hoosea
mostly one-storied, whfa ugly fiat roofs— the best
of edifice no doubt for a pUce so often visited by
jnakee as Anquipa, which bad serious vtsitations
in 1582, 1609, 1784, nod 1868.

I have, however, seen some realty handsome houses

this city, but they were probably the rendenoes of the

grandees of those Colonial days, when all labour

foned, and most material either stolen or acquired

practically nothing. The principal material used

the walU is a wft magnesium limestone. The houses

ive several innpr-t^cnlrts, or potior, and the rooms have

handsome moulded ooilinp. Arequipa is a Univetiity

_£xx

90S PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

town ; it has a public library ; several academies ;
the seat of a bishopric, and it supports several news-
papers. Electric tramcars will soon be traversing its
streets, and already some very conunodioos and sub-
stantial public and private buildings have replaced the
old and unattractive houses of later Colonial days.
The Chief Depot of the Mollendo-Arequipa Railway
(Southern Railway Company) is here, and the general
manager, Mr. H. A. McCulloch, occupies one of the moat
pleasant residences in the city, he and his charming
wife being the moat popular, as they are certainly the
most hospitable, among the foreign residents.

Lima was not the first city in Peru to be founded bv
Francisco Pizarro, as so many historians tell us.
satisfied myself that at least one town dates fromj
earlier period — San Miguel de Piura, which was aci
commenced by the Spaniards in 1530. Even Trujilli
older than Lima, for whereas the latter was founded in
January, 1535, the former dates from 1534. Then came
Arequipa in 1540, Ayacucho, Huamanga, and Potosi in
1542, and the city of La Paz — both now comprised in
the Republic of Bolivia — in 1549. Cuzco, the beau
Inca capital which Pizarro occupied in 1534, of
had already existed some centuries before.

Arequipa seems to have been a place of some coi
queuce even in its earUest known days, since we read of
it sheltering, in 1553, Francisco Hernandez Giron, one
of Pizarro'a captains, who broke out into rebellion
against him, and collected a formidable army to resist
the Conqueror's authority. It is only those who have
made the long and tedious journey from MoUendo to
Arequipa and vice versa by train, who can realize and
appreciate the physical pluck and endurance of those
Spaniards who marched in their heavy, cumbersome
armour, and without any of the commissariat (so neces-
sary upon a journey of this kind) from Arequipa to

■T U

DiailizodbyGOOgle

306 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

its gruesome pyramid to the skies, now stand endless
church towers, some of them monstrosities of ugliness,
others types of beautiful Spanish-Moresque architecture.
I do not know precisely how many churches are owned
by Cuzco ; but they certainly cannot number fewer
than threescore.

It is the surrounding territory of the town, however,
which will claim the first attention and enrapture t^e
mind of the visitor who is at all interested in the history
of the wonderful people who, but four centuries ago,
inhabited this city. The numerous ruins which exist,
the curious formations of which often completely puzzle
the observer as to what particular use they were
originally devoted ; the remarkable character 6f the
architecture, solid and sensible, often composed of gigantic
slabs of rock so artfully welded together — and without
the use of a shred of mortar — as to present the appear-
ance from a short distance of a solid whole ; the huge
plazas, or public squares, in which the Incaic celebrations
took place — all of these impress the visitor as strongly,
and produce a feeling of melancholy as profound, as
the ruins of ancient Egypt, the remains of the Toltecs
in Mexico, and the vast deposits which have been left
by the former inhabitants of Anuradhapura and Folon-
naniwa in Ceylon.

To-day the electric light illumines the straight and
regular streets of Cuzco ; trams — primitive and uncom-
fortable, but still tramways — perambulate the thorou^-
fares ; a railway-station, located a mile or so from the
town, fills the quiet air with locomotive whistling, and
the shunting of heavy goods wagons can be heard
both night and day. The telegraph and the telephone,
fresh ^h and meat of the best quality, a profusion
of fruit, and the choice of many comfortable modem
dwellings make Cuzco a by no means unpleasant place
in which to reside occasionally.

f DigmzcdbyGoOgle

CHAPTBBXXIV

ForaigD eompMUM— TIm F«ni*lui Cofporation— BaUUoiu «ilb the
OoT«niiiwnl — LImk lUilwftTi — Pwnrisn *"■»»"" CoBBpMiy — Pnia-
nittjo MKudkb— UnitMl Bteta^ raoogpition of Pan >■ pnmwlnf
Mrrilorj— PodtloD of lh« Coaip«ii7--LoMt(M oil-flalda— B*ekiu aaa
JohiMOD Bnwerj — Paroviaii CoUoo UuinfMitiiiiiig CompMij.

The aggregate of foreign capital which has been from
fimc to time invested in Peru camiot be to^ay much
less than £60,000,000, if one considers the several large
and important undertakings which such an amount
represents. British, North American, Qerman, and a
small proportion of French capital has found its way bto
the Republic, which in the coming years is destined to
receive a considerable augmentation.

The Peruvian Corporation, Limited, is an institution
which is probably unique both tn regard to its origin and
its position, offering an example of a huge financial
association charged with the double trust of protecting
the interests of some thousands of foreign shareholders,
whose money is invested in Peru, and conducting the
management of a number of important transportation
and commercial enterprises in such a manner as to please
its shareholders, satisfy the public, and content the
National Government.

The difficulties, dangers, and disappointments atten-
dant upon such undertakings can well be understood,
and the necessity for steering a course which shall
satisfy all alike is apparent. How that course baa been
negotiated in the past and with what amount of soooMi,
the records of the Coipocatioa plainly show. That its

Digitized byGOOgle

308 PERU OF THE TWEVTIETH CENTURV

career has been a somewhat exacting, and at times
afanoet a discouraging one, may be admitted. Snch a
ddicate poettioo as that occnpied by the management
in Pera must command some sympathy, and the Cor-
potation's many critics are apt to overlook the inherent
difficoltiea which of a necessity exist.

It would be idle to deny that, some years ago, strained
relations existed, and continued for some time, between
successive Peruvian Governments and the Corporatiwi.
The latter had been charged in those turbulent days
with " showing a lack of clear-si^tedness, with ob-
stmctioD, and with displaying a want of sympathy, as
well as failing to realize the precise objects with which
it was originally formed." These were the complaints
lodged by certain Peru\Tan critics, at least ; and some
allowance must no doubt be made for the natural
irritation of those patriotic souls who find a masterful
and determined and extremely powerful foreign in-
stitution dominating the entire national transportation
arrangements of the Republic, and occupying the always
unpleasant and frequently dangerous position of usu-
fructuaries. The same irritation prevailed in Mexico
BO long as the Central Railway remained under North
American control, and ceased only — and even then not
entirely — when the National Government purchased
the principal interest and assumed the direction. Con-
sidering the extremely onerous situation in which
the Peruvian Corporation has been placed during the
long period of its existence, the wonder is not that there
should have been some, but that there should not have
been more, friction with the Giovemment and the
pubhc of Peru.

The progress of the Corporation during the past
twenty odd years may be gauged from the figures which
are available. From 1890 to 1891, for instance, the net
receipts in sterling amounted to £91,771 Us. 3d., while

let J

^^P PERUVIAN CORPORATION SW

^Tor 1891-92. tlie reoeipU went up to £137.816 I4a. 8d. In
the next Uiree years they slid hack, however, moontmg
again in 1895-96, only to fall back once more in 1897 ;
bat from that time onward the receipts seemed to havU
ahown a steady, if not a sensational, increase tmtfll
1908, when they amounted to £263,203 19s. 5d. Fot^
the year 1908-09 there was experienced a slight diminn-

I tion, partly due to a decrease in the guano income, and

Krtly to increased fixed charges, which, however, had J
m to oome extent counterbalanced by an increuM
the railway net receipts. For the periods menti<medl
I railways contributed not less than £228,247 Os. 3d^
against £105,745 14s. 9d., or an increase <h
!,501 lOs. 6d. ^

With the exception of their land colony, which showed
a small debit of a little over £6,000, the whole of the
undertakings in the hands of the Peruvian Corpomtioo
proved n'niunenitive for the year ending June 30, 1910,
a pnifit for thr twelve montlu of £285,177 being shown.
For the mitways and navigation there was an increaae in
net income of over £93,000, but, on the other hand, there
was a reduction of revenue from goano of nearly £38,000.
It it inletceting to compare statistics of this Corpota-
(km linoe 1890 with tbosc of pteacnt date, so far as net
receipts in sterling are concerned. From 181X^91 the.4e
receipts amounted lu £91 ,771 lis. 3d., while for 1909-10
tiey figured at £333,559, or over 200 ppr cmt. inrToase.
The net receipts for the last twelve months are the
hi^est in the history of the Corporation, but by no
^^^Hsna ao in regard to tho working expenses, which.
^^^■Dh three previoaa occaaons, at least, were greatly in
^^Ptom of but year's figures.

The qnettioD of the tmte of eichange has played a
momentous part in the C'urpcimtinn'fi proHpvrity. Some
twenty yean ago, when it fimt took over the different
important buiioeaMa wUeh it has cinoe oooduoted, the

310 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CEfTTUIlY

rate of exchange stood at 37 pence per tol, from which
it Bteadily declined to 22J pence for 1896-97, dating
from which period it crept slowly upwards ; but it has
never exceeded 24i pence, and now stands at about
24^ pence. There is no reason to suppose, with the im-
proving prospects of Pern, that the rate of exchange will
go any lower, but that, on the contrary, it may even
moderately advance. The railways, steamship services,
guano trade, and other enterprises which are conducted
wholly or partially by the Peruvian Corporation, are
referred to fully under the different chapters which deal
with these subjects.

Under these same chapters, which I have devoted"
to transportation matters, some account of the varioua
lines owned and the business done by the Lima Railways
Company, Limited, will also be found. The financial
conditions of the concern covering the transactions of
the past year (1910) call for further mention here. The
statement is favourable from a double point of view,
since it shows that not only have the receipta in
Peru augmented from £13,828 is. lid. in 1909 to
£15,905 17s. lOd. in 1910, but that the expenses
decUned from £2,287 19s. 4d. to £2,077 12s. lid., the
not inconsiderable saving of £210 6s. 5d. being thus
recorded — and the net receipts mounting from
£9,134 Is. 8d. to £13,828 4s. lid. It must be borne in
mind that the Company is quite a young one, and still
of but modest proportions ; but it possesses all the
elements for expansion, and a few years hence it should
have a verydiflereut kind of balance-sheet to put forward.
A dividend of 2 per cent, is not a magnificent one to
pay, it is true; but it may be accepted as an earnest of
what the future has in store. In the meantime let the
shareholders remember the advice of Horace : " Quid
sit futurum eras, fuge quserere : et quern fors dierom
cunque dabit, lucro appone."

:s dierom ^J

£ooJ

PERUVIAN AMAZON COMPANY

: wwe the revelations contained m

Jfcjftiy conditions prevailing at the

i> ti6tM (^ the Pemvian Amazon Company.

Limited, and seriously as they reflected upon the

conduct of oerlAJn of the Company's oflRriaU in whom

^^—there had been placed mnch mistaken confidence, three

^^BOteworthy facta have come to light. Firstly, every

^Hbedit must be given to the Editor of Truth for the

^^pboionghly earnest manner in which he attacked the

^Hpcandal, and for the efforts which he made — and made

^B*ic<^s8sfuUy— to put an end to the hideoits cnteltieit

perpetrated upon the Peruvian peons. Secondly, the

Bntiflh Government also, for once in a way, did bestir

itself, for Mr. (now Sir) Roger Casement, formerly

H.B.H. Consul at Par&, Brazil, was sent from Rio de

Janiero, where he is the Bntisb Consul-Qeneral, to report

upon the conditions of things. Although there haa been

no public issue of the report which he made to the

Foreign Office {and in connection with which servioo

he no doubt received his honour at the King's hand

last June), I am in a position to Htate that Sir Roger has

1 m almost every particular the terrible charges

were hrouglit against the local management of

vian Amazon Company, and which, therefore,

r vindicates Tntth in having been the means of

I the atrocities committed.

praise should not be withheld from the

DirMtors of the Company, who stood loyally by their

employes until they were completely satisfied of their

aworthineaB ; then they repudiated and dtsmiasod them

' Jiout heailation or compunction. Finally, the Pera-

bn OorenuneDt, immediately that their atteotioD

I called officially to the infamy in existence — and they

1 not int<rrfcro with a foivignowned and foraga-

concern until ao appealed to— mttituted

npt and vigoroiu tl«pa to ancBt and proaeeate those

312 PEHU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

who were responsible for the ofEences mentioned. Nor
have their efforts proved nuavailiog.

It has to be borne in mind that the position of the
Peruvian Government was a doubly difficnlt one.
Putmnayo, where the trouble arose, is in the most remote
and most inaccessible of the Departments of the Republic,
and the particular property of the Peruvian Amazon
Company, Limited, is so situated that it is practicallj
impossible for the central administration, located at
Lima, to maintain anything like a careful watch upon—
or, indeed, to have any official cognizance at all concern-
ing — what may be proceeding so many hundreds of
miles away in a wild and nntravelled virgin country.
The Government, moreover, have, as indicated, no le^
ri^t to interfere in the internal management of a foreign
corporation, imless and until their attention is drawn
through the usual diplomatic channels — as was done in
this case by the British Foreign Office — to what is com-
plained of. Immediately such notice was given, tins
necessary steps to bring about intervention were taken.
More than this could not have been asked.

But a second and more serious obstacle confronting
Y i| the Government of Peru was the outstanding question

1j 'i between the Republic and the sister State of Colombia

r : regarding the rightful ownership of the District in which

; the Company's lands are situated. For many years

i the question of ownership has been in debate, and

T ' obviously it would have been highly improper for Peru

' to have sent any armed force (even if it had been re-

'' 1 quested to do so) to a place which might — but certainly

T j does not — belong to Colombia.

In the month of December, 1909, the Oonsul-General
for Colombia in London (Senor Francisco Becerra)
made a public declamtion before a notary to the effect
that the " Republic of Colombia reserves its rights over
the region of the Putumayo, which belongs to it, and

Digitized byGOOgle

PEHUVLAN AMAZON COMPAQ'

818

Htt coiueqnently the lands (of the Peruvian Amazon
BDipaDy, Limited) cannot; be exploited uniil the for-
blitics prescribed in snch cases by Colombian I<aw
B fulfilled." The properly in question covers an area |
I about 12,000 square miles — that is, to-day it is lar]^ I
mn Belgiuni, which has bat 11,373 square miles, and is
bnt one tbirty-ninth part of the bim of the R«pabHc
P Colombia.

Tl»e Government of Peru have certainly no reason
o feel unytliinif but Katisfaction at the outcome of thilJ
loDg-stondii'gdijtpute, since they have been now formally
and irretrievably recognized by the United States of
America as the rightful proprietors of the Putumayo
If this recognition was not btentional or
«rate, it is none tbe leas definite and complete.
"ho oiroumstancea leading up to the dhunKmaU are
sblc as they are interesting. It was urged by the

nvian Amaxon Company, Limited, that the serious J
I brought against their management in Peru were
the outcome of malice upon the part of one W. C. Har-
denborg, who, failing to obtain from the Company the
triBing sum of £7,000, which he cluimed for " loss of
luggnge and penional inconveniences sus1aine<l while
travi^lling through their territor}'," conrniunicatetl tbe
sensational revelations to Tntt/i, and which, when pub-
lished, caused no nmrh comment.

Whatever rights Mr. Hardenlmrg may hare had —
and, in any case, a claim for " £7,000 " for lost lugp^i
Menu aboDt as tenable as the late himentcd Paul Kruger'aJ

1000,000 for " moral and intellectual damages " — the I
tapany declined to satisfy his request. Ho then ap>J
iiled through his Guvemmi-nt— the United States oC]
lerica — for assistance, reducing; his claim (I b«^tivve) I
]f4,<>00. still, it will be obser\-e«l, u ritnctly modiTstal
k I In the end, the Qovemmrat of Peru, which, be it
oUenred, was tbe aathori^ addmaed, and not the

B14 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Government of Colombia— met Mr. Hardenburg'a claim
by paying to him through the United States authorities
the sum of £500 in full compensation.

While the Government of Peru did not, and do not to
this day, in all probability, believe that Mr. Hardenburg
ever had in hia possession any luggage worth the sum of
" £500," nor, indeed, raised any question concerning the
real value of the property alleged to have been lost in
Putumayo, they very shrewdly — and, to my mind, very
diplomatically — paid the above - mentioned compensa-
tion ; and by so doing they received the official recogni-
tion of the United States Government (which counts in
a dispute of this kind) as the Sovereign owners of the
territory in question. The success of the movement is
unquestionable and the method of conducting it incon-
trovertible.

It is also significant that while a good deal of the
Chairman's (Mr. J. Russell Gubbins) attention was given
up at the shareholders' meeting (held on December 31,
of 1909) to the charges made in the newspaper referred
to, very little — and that little of less consequence — was
uttered about the matter in the course of the last pro-
ceedings (December 16, 1910), and we may therefore
believe that the " Devil's Paradise " and " A British-
owned Congo" — as the Company's estates were dubbed —
have either ceased to exist, or have been very considerably
improved in regard to the management.

What the shareholders were much more interested in
hearing was that the Company had made a profit of
£35,365, which, although not large enough to afford a
dividend, was better than the previous year, when
nothing whatever was earned. The shareholders have
not as yet been presented with those gulden thousands
which they were led to expect in the original prospectus.
If I remember rightly, the accountants declared that the
business being done " averaged profits for the year

,GoO'

LOBITOS OIL-FIEI.DS

(1906-07) about £61,000 " ; and the anticipated profits
for the year 1907-08 "were not Ukely to be less than

k £84,000." How very much lesa they actually proved
to be I have shown.
At an extraordinary general meeting held on Sep-
tember 13 last (1911), it was decided to liquidate
voluntarily, and to reconstruct the company.
Great hopes were at one time entertained with regard
to the Lobitos Oil-fields, to work which a London
company was formed at the end of 1908. Unfortu-
nately, progress has not been by any means rapid, nor
have the results achieved come up to expectations. For
the first year 42,653 tons of crude oil were produced, the
shipment being 36,131 for the same period ; for the aecond
year the production amounted to 57,226 tons, and ship-
ments to 52,789. For 1910, however, the amount of oil
produced was 3.882 tons less than the production for
1909, but, on the other hand, the " net operating in-
come," to use the curious verbiage employed in the
Directors' report, was £1 49. lid., as compared with
£1 Os. 8d. per ton for the previous year. This should
be considered a very excellent average per ton, as even
in East Virginia, where the best results are admittedly
obtained, the profit rarely exceeds £1 10s. per ton. For
the first six months of the current year, 1911, the output
ha.s been 23,995 tons, a decrease of 4,547 tons as com-
pared with the corresponding period in 1910. It seems to
me that expenses of working are altogether very high,
and that too much money is bemg spent upon unneces-
sary development.

A probable reason, moreover, for the decline in the
production in this Company's fields is the fact that the
attention of the management on the fields lias been too
much deflected from the production of oil from the
shallow wells to the work of sinking a number of deep
wells ; and, additionally, that the old, shallow wells,

816 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

I which have been worked for some time, are now becoming
exhausted.

The Backus and Johnson's BreweryCompany.Limited,
which has been in existence for about twenty yeara,
enjoyed a better twelve months for 1910 than it had
known for several years, the gross profits amounting to
£26,618 18s., and leaving the Directors with the sum of
over £20,000 for distribution in the shape of net profits.
It is not at all improbable that within a short time the
Directors may decide to pay off the 7 per cent. Income
Debenture Stock, which was raised at a time when
additional capital was very difficult to obtain, and when
the management of the concern at Lima was at its very
worst. The Income Debenture Stock can be redeemed
at any time at 105 per cent, by giving six months' notice.
There is only £57,000 worth of this stock issued, and as
it stands in the market to-day at 93-96, a purchase
would prove a very profitable enterprise, since the in-
vestor would obtain nearly 6 per cent, for his money,
and would realize a profit of £10 or £12 per share when
the Debentures were paid off. The financial position of
the Company is now so strong that the Directors would
be able to raise any further money they may require at
a considerably lower rate of interest than 7 per cent.

I At the end of July last (1911) the cash books, both in
London and in Lima, showed a balance in hand exceed-
ing £21,000, which proves that there is more money
available than is actually required for the running of the
bu,siness.
For many years the ordinary shareholders have not
received anything in the way of dividends, and there is
an accumulation of nearly 94 per cent. — equal to £102,575
in arrears. This year a beginning has been made in paying
off something of these, and 1 per cent. — not a particu-
larly large proportion — has been distributed among the
shareholders, who are entitled to receive — when earned

.Good

PEKUViAN cxyrroN company sit

— 7 per cent, per annum. The Founders' shares, of
which there are but 100, and which are entitled to a pro-
portion of the residue of profits, have received nothing
since 1891, and it will probably be some years before
they receive anything again.

The Peruvian Cotton lUanufacturing Company,
Limited, which is practically an offspring (or shall I say
frotegk, of the Peruvian Corporation ?), had a very suc-
cessful year for 1909-10, the dividend paid a few months
ago greatly exceeding that of any previous twelve
months. The nominal capital of the Company is
£100,000, and of which only £80,000 has been issued.
There are no debentures, and no other class of securities
than the Ordinary shares, while the Beserve Fund
amounts to £30,000. On the other hand, the Company,
which is also affiliated with the Inca Cotton Company,
have subscribed £20.000 out of the total of £55.000 of
Debentures raised for the purpose of providing ad-
ditional machinery for that Company. The Peruvian
Cotton Manufacturing Company has been enabled this
year to pay a dividend of 8 per cent, free of Income Tax,
and to carry forward over £2,300 to next account. The
net profit earned amounted to £13,662.

Digitized byGOOgle

APPENDIX

Immigration — Conoesdoas Nid oonoe«ioDkiiM — Colooiea uid aatUemant*
— lAnds (mODtana) and foreata — Civil rights of foreigners — Lkoded
property of foreigners— Property of deceased torainierB— Foreign
trsde-marki — Be^istratian of trade-marka — Mining (minmary) ex-
traote from oertam laws — Colonists arriviDg- " '■'■ — * — /inm

Ihuiqbation Lawb.
All foreigners (with the exception of the Chinese) have the
right of entry into Peru, and the; enjoy the same aeoority
and privileges as those granted to Peravian sabjeota, while
they have tall liberty to bay, sell, or transfer their goods
as they may think fit.

An Exeoative decree was issued on May 14, 1909, prohibit-
ing the entrance into Pera of Chinese immigrants having
less than £500 in cash. Chinese emigrants en route to Pera
at the time of or before the isaaance of the decree were
• ', excepted from the effects thereof. Towards the close of

{< j 1909, the Government pat into force mles by which the

promiscaooa entry of Chinese manoal labourers waa re-

I I strioted, and at the same time it passed laws for the aliena-

r ^ tion of public lands, so that the promotion of colonization

I and the stimulation of immigration into the country of a

J [ more desirable class of immigrants would be facilitated.

' Laws Rblatimo to Concbssiokubbs.

For the purpose of attracting capital to enterprise, and
also of removing it from abroad, the Government of Pera
has been accustomed to granting favourable concessions to
those who will undertake the development of works of pablic
improvement. These concessions carry with them an obliga-
' tion to build works and the right to enjoy the profits of

Digitized byGOOgle

^^them

CONCESSIONAIRE LAWS 319

ietn (mder certain conditiooB. The coniractor depoaite a bond
with the Govemment as a pledge of his iutention to pro-
ceed with the construction which is the subject ol the
agreement. Generally a coiiceasion, to be effective, mast be
ratified by a Constitutional Congress ; but that body has
clothed the Eiecutive with the right in certain cases to grant
conceeeione for the public benefit without first obtaining Con-
gresBional sanction. The Congress of 1891 authorized tho
Supreme Government to grant eoncessions in accordance with
the terms of certain contracts already made. This wise pro-
vision, especially in the interests of agriculture, promises to
Peru the highest form of development of which the country
is susceptible in that class of wealth which secures the most
stable fouudatiou to the State.

The development of the agriculture of the north has been con-
sidered so essential to the prosperity of Fern that some ex-
tremely advantageous provisions have been incorporated in the
concessions relating to these regions. Thus, where the work is
declared to be for the public weal and advantage, every
landowner whose land is accessible to the waters of irrigation
must pay the water-rent, whether he takes the water or not.
The land and crops, also all capital invested in the estate, are
made security for the payment of rents, and may be seized to
satisfy them. An equitable arrangement has been devised, by
which the fertile lands of the pampas may be " expropriated "
by paying a nominal price.

Colonies and Sbttlements.
The first legislative measure regarding the establishment of
Colonies or Settlements was enacted by the Peruvian Congress
in 1896, and was modified and improved by the laws of
1909 and UllO. By these Acts the Executive is authorized to
make use of certain vacant lands for colonization, either by
Peruvians or foreigners coming to the country with the
inl«ntton o( becoming residents, provided such foreign residents
follow a trade or industry. State lands may also be con-
ceded to individuals or corporations to encourage public
works, such as road-making, irrigation works, or railway
bailding. The coastal lands are largely privately-owned or
are in the hands of native commonities whose poBeession
dates back to the ancient Ghimn civilization, and was recog-

,Gooj

heee

the

320 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

uized in tarn by the Incas and tha Spanish conquerors ; thee^
oommunity lands r&rely change hands. State-lands of the
coaet region may be sold or granted upon terms based upon
the extent to which their use will benefit the country.

Montana Lands.

On May 29, 1908, the President of Peru issued a decree
abrogating all previous decrees and resolulions of a general
character concerning the eiploitation of leased lands in tha
" mootana " containing timber, rubber trees, and other similar
products, the improper exploitation of which had become
prejudicial to the interests of the nation. The decree re-
mained effective until the proposed law on the aahject
which pending the action of Congress, was enacted, and
the proper rules and regulations issued governing the oper-
ation of these lands. Concessions granted and contracts
entered into in accordance with the laws in force at the time
they were made were not affected by this decree. Money paid
into the Public Treasury on account of application under
cousideration at the time of the issue of the decree woe re-
funded to the parties interested.

Montana lands may be now obtained by the applicant
at the rale of 50 cents (U.S.) ( = 2s.) per hectare (1 hectare =
2'4711 acres), not over 1,000 hectares being granted to any
one person without special Legislative sanction. Such grants
are in perpetuity, depending, as in mining grants, solely opoa
the prompt payment of the annual tax, which in this case U
2^ cents ( = 5d.} per hectare. Non-payment for one yei
is sufficient cause to cancel the title.

Civil RmHTs fos Forbionkhb.
The legal condition of foreigners as regards civil rtgfata ^
Feru is the same as that of natives. The 32nd Article of 1
Constitution now in force says : " The laws protect and oblii
all persons equally, and the civil rights are independent of thi
quality of the citizen." This general and ample principle, '
liiid down in the fundamental chart of the Itepublic, proves
that in Peru the civil rights uf all persons are respected with-
out any distinction of nationality, and that all those '
inhabit the ooontry are under the protection of its laws.

LANDED PROPERTV Sft\

LutDBD PrOPEBTUB OP FoRKIONERS.

Any foreigDer cao acquire landed property in Peru, and can
dispose of it at will ; in general, everything concerning landed
property ia amply guaranteed by the Peruvian laws. Thus it
is that the 28th Article of the Constitution expressly declares
tbat every foreigner can acquire, in accordance with the laws,
landed property in the Bepablic, poBseaaing in everything
relating to tbat property the same rights as the Peruvians
anjoy. Thus foreigners can diapose of their property by all
the methods which the law permits, on the necessary celebra-
tion of any contracts permitted by the laws, witboat any farther
obligation than what is laid down in the Code and special laws.

Special dispositions expressly authorise foreigners to
deoouDce mines, obtain concessioas of mountain and rubber
lands upon the same conditions as Peruvians, subject, of
eourse, to the dispositions in force, wbicb affect the one
joat the same as the other.

In accordance with the dominant principle in the Peruvian
legislation, landed property in Fern is subject to the law of its
situation, whatever may be the nature and condition of the
owner. In order to guarantee the property and the consequent
tree disposal of it without fear of there ariuing, or of there
being put forward at any time, any special claims against a
property acquired in accordance with the law, there boa been
recently established in the Republic the liegistry of Landed
Property, in which this is inecribed with the name of the
actual owner, the manner in which it has been acquired, any
encumbrances which may exist, and any prescriptive rights
which may limit the free disposal of it.

pRorearv or Dkcbased Fobriokiiu).
The Cinl Code expressly recognizes on behalf of all foreigners
the right to dispose of their property by will. In the ease of
the death of a foreigner without having made a will, and t(
there be no legal heirs, the mode of procedure consists in
iinmudiately placing the property under the control of the
Consular representative of the nation to which the deceased
foreigner belongt-d. An inventory is then taken and the
proiMTty i* liquidated, the balance, it any, being handed aver
to the legnl heirs, throogh tba intarvaation of the represenla-

DigmzcdbyGoOgle

822 PERU OF THE TWEN'nETH CENTURY

tive or Conaul of the nation to which the deceased belonged.
It ifl worthy of note that no payment can be made to the hein
nntil the expiration of six months after the notice of the deaUi
has been given.

FoBBioN Tm pk-Markb,

In order to protect the frequent imitations and talBification
of foreign brands and trade-marks, and, at the same time, to
facilitate manofactorerB and dealers in foreign coontriei
secoring their goods by registering their brade-marka in Fern,
the Government has, in a recent Message, anthorized all ths
Coasnlates of certain importance to accept directly from
owners of trade-marks the " solicitade " (application) of same.
This is of more importance principally to those who lack any
connection in this coantry, as the passing of this new decree
will enable them to register their marks without intervention
of a third party and without the least troable, becaose both
the Consnlates and the Office of Industries, which is a depend-
ency of the Ministry of Public Works, will take charge of the
matter until the proper certificate can be handed over to the
applicant's solicitor. The only drawback, however, is found in
the fact that the " solicitudes " for the registering of trade-
marks mast be made out in Spanish ; but, fortunately,
nowadays, a translation is a matter that can be done praoti-
cally everywhere with no great difficulty.

The fees for the registration are quite moderate, and are ai
follows :

£i 10a. for registration, including certificate,
8b. for the publication in newspapers,
la. 7d. for stamped paper,

which makes a total of less than £3 for the whole service.

The Consulates will be also bonnd to receive and attend to
all claims and complaints in the event of imitations and falsi-
fications, and the Peruvian Government will prosecute and
punish all violators of the patents without charging anything
to the interested parties.

For the adequate protection of the proprietary rights in
trade-marks registered in Peru, the President of the Bepublio,
on September 10, 1909, formally decreed that —

On the last day of each month the Division of Industry

Digitized byGOOgle

TRADE-MARKS 3«S

of the Department of Fomento sball isBoe a statemeat cover-
ing aacb trade-marlu aa have become void through expiration
of the ten^year guarantee granted by Peruvian law. Hatd
trade-markB ahall not be renewed to other than the previous
owner in leas than three montbs from the publication of the
•tatement referred to, unleas bo requested by the proprietor.

Each mark reqoirea a separate registration, but slight
modifications of regiBtered marks may be permitted, pro-
Tiding publication of the same, with modifioationB, be made
tor five conaecutive days in El Ptntano.

It two requests for the registration of the same mark are
received at the same time, preference is to be given to the
foreign applicant who bad first made use of it In case it had
not been previously applied, the native owner shall have
preference. If both applicants are native or foreign, preference
shall be given to the one who first established the industry to
which the trade-mark refers.

For the presentation of a claim before the Hinistry of
Fomento in regard to falsification or imitation of a trade-
mark, it is not necessary that it be made by the manufacturer
himself. Any manufacturer or consumer who considers him
telt injured by the fslaification or imitation is empowered to
deoonnce and prosecute.

MiNiKO Laws.
The Mining Laws of Peru are well-planned and are fairly
administered. Very briefly pot, they provide that the owner
of the soil baa title to slates, sandstones, building stonea
generally, gypsum, aand-potter's earth, earth containing mag-
nesium and aluminium, and peat and pbospbatos. \Yhen
found on Government lands the Government may either work
them or iRsae a ooncession to work them. Ouano, salt
depoiitii, and salt-water wella are State property. Nitratea,
borates, and alkaline salt deposits of mineralized or fossilized
•ubstance can be acquired by {letition or denouncement, as
can also water, slags, or tailinKs. Mining property ia
irrevocable so long as the mining-tui is i>aid, and jwrpetual
as common property.

Digitized byGOOgle

S!U PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The onit of the mining claim, or the pertenencia of 100 hj
200 metrea, is 2 hectares of 4*94 acres, in the form of a
priBmatoidal solid of indefinite depth. In plaoers, coal and
petroleum depoaite, the pertenericia measures 200 x 200
metres, or 9*88 acres. A concession ma; embrace Dp to 60
pertenenciat. Prospecting and exploration conoesaiona are
granted in size from 60 to 600 pei-tenencias, bat one person
or company may obtain several sncb conceasiona. ITfaeBe
are granted for one year, bat the term may be extended
for another year. A small tax of 2a. per hectare per annnm
is paid OD prospecting grants. Mining oonceaaions pay £3
per pertetiencia per annam, payable half-yearly. Non-pay-
ment daring three sacceaeive half-years cancels the title, but
arrears may be paid before that time, nith 60 per cent fine
tor any part of a half-year overdae, and 100 per cent, for
that a fall year overdue. {See farther reference imder
Chapter IV.)

Any Peravian citizen or foreigner capable of owning
property in the Bepablic may acquire mining property,
excepting certain officials having to do with the iaane of titles
or local adminiatration, and also excepting employSa, who ore
not permitted to denoance mines aitaated within 10 kilo-
metrea of the nearest point to their employer's property. The
right exists of expropriation of sorface-area for necessary
buildings, ahafte, etc.

MlHIKQ GODB.

Until 1900 the old Spanish Code (the " Ordenanzas ") was
in force, greatly modified by several laws passed at different
periods. This Code, being antiquated, did not contemplate
the conditions met with in modem mining, and lacked onity
on account of the many alterotiona introduced. The actual
Mining Code is a decidedly liberal one, making the acquisition
of mines both an easy and an inexpensive matter. This Code,
which became effective January, 1901, comprises the follow*
ing chapters :

I., On Mining Property ; II., Prospecting and Exploration ;
III., Unit of Measure, Extension and Form of Mining Con-
cessions; rV., On Mining- Taxes; V., On Mining Administration
and Jurisdiction ; VI., On Persona Capable of Acquiring Mining
Property ; YIL, On the Proceedinga to be Observed in Petition of

Digitized byGOOgle

MINING CODE SS6

Claims ; VIII., On the ReUtions between the Conoessionure of
s Uiiw and the Owner of the Boil ; IX. , On the Belations between
Htoe-Ownera ; X., General Adits for Exploitation, Transport,
Drainage, and Ventilation ; XI.. Concessions for Reduction
Works, of Land for their Constraction, and of Water ; XII.,
On Rights ot Ways; XIII., Mining Companies; XIV., On
Mortgage and other Contracts ; XV., On Technical Function-
aries; XVI., Mining Lawsoita ; XVII., Expropriation and
Indemnification ; XVIIL, Transitory Dispositions. (Ste/urtker
rrftrence under Chapter VI.)

A short tnmtnary of the most important of the chapters
above referred to is given hereonder :

Chapter I. : On Miniitg Properti/. — This chapter specifies
what kind of mineral or foesilized aabstances may be obtained
in accordance with the aetnal Code ; those which belong ex-
elasively to the owner ot the soil; and those which are
not the sobject of petition.

The owner of the soil has exdosive title to all silicious
rocks, basalt, calcareoos soil and rooks, serpentine, marble,
alabaster, porphyry, jasper, and generally all analogona
boilding and ornamental materials ; gypsum, sand, marls,
kaolin, emery, argillaceoas and fullers' earth, earth-contain-
ing pyrites, ainmininm and magnesinm, steatite, calcareoos
phosphates and peat. All these substances are deemed to
be ot common profit when found on State or city coundl's
lands, the Government or those corporations being em-
powered to regulate their working or to issue special coooea-
liont.

Goano, salt deposits, and salt-water wells are eonsidered
State property.

Nitrates, borates, and alkaline salt deposits are sabjeeted to
special laws.

All other deposits of mineralized or fowilixed substane*
can be obtained by petition in accordance with the prooeed-
ings of the Code.

Water, slags, tailings, and waste can also be acquired by
petition.

Mining property legally aciioired is irrevocable, and as
perpetoal as common property. The only cause tor eaa-
eellation ot title u the non-payment of the mining-lu.
(CAopfrr IV.)

Digitized byGOOgle

826 PERU OF THE TWENTffiTH CENTURY I

CHiPTBE II.: Prospecting and Exploration. — Special con-"
cessions are granted for the purpose of prospecting and
exploring. Each conceBsion can embrace from 60 to 600
claims, and the same peison or company can obtain several
coDceBsions of that kind, so as to cover all the land required.
These concessions are only granted for one year, but the ]
period can be extended for another year. A small tax of J
1 sol Peruvian (28. or §0.50 gold) per hectare per annum has j
to be paid.

Chapter HI.: Unit of Measure, ExtensUin and Form of '
Mining Concessions. — The "claim," orpcWirncwcio, is theanitof
measure for mining concessions, and except in the cases men-
tioned later on, is considered as a prismatoidal solid of rect-
angular base with an extension of two hectares (approximately
five acres) having one side of 200 metres and the other of 100,
measured horizontally in any direction which the petitioner
may point out, and of indefinite depth in the vertical direction.

In placers, coal and petroleum deposits, and the analogous
ones of gold, platinum, tin, etc., a claim embraces 4 hectares
(approximately 10 acres), the base being a square with sidea
of 200 metres.

The mining concession applied for by the petitioner may j
embrace any number of claims up to sixty.

The other articles of this chapter deal with the grouping
of claims, and the spaces smaller than one claim (denuuiaa) i
remaining between concessions.

Chapter IV. : On Mining-Taj^es. — All mining concessions i
shall pay an annual tax of 30 sals (£3) for every claim
(pcrtenencia) included within their perimeter. The payment
shall be made in two equal parts, one every sis months,
the first term ending on June 30 and the second on De-
cember 31. The non-payment of the contribution during
three half-years causes the cancellatiou of the title to the
property, but before the expiration of those three half-years
the arrears may be paid with a surcharge of 50 per cent. I
for that part unpaid a half-year, 100 per cent, for part
unpaid for two half-years, and, of course, none for the third.

Chaptee V. : 0)1 ^fining Administration and Jurisdiction, —

The administrative and economical mining control corresponds : '

To the Executive power represented by the respective Do- J

L partment ; to the Superior Mining Council ; to the Territorial j

MINING CODE Sn

DepDtations ; and to the fanctionaries or aathorities who
may rapresent them.

There are Territorial Depatatioas or Delegates in all impor-
tant mioiDg districts, whilst in places where neither Depata-
tion nor Delegation exists, their attribntes are disoharged by
the judge of the lower court o( the province.

The territorial mining fosctionarieB above indicated, who
may be foreigners, decree and decide upon everything re-
specting concessions, possession, and measurement of mines
within their jurisdiction. They attend to the formation
and registration ol the titles of mining concessions, and act
AH superior mining police in the prevention of accidents.
They determine in a lower court, sitting with the powers
of a private judge, all mining litigation with respect to
concessions, measurements, etc., as well as disputes between
employer and labourer. They are assisted by a mining
engineer, surveyor, or an expert. From the decisions of the
territorial mining functionaries, appeal may be made to the
Bopreme Government or to the Supreme Court of Justice, as
the case may be.

Csipna VI. : On Penotu Capable nf Acquirintf Mining Pro-
ptrliet. — Any Peruvian citizen or foreigner capable ol owning
property in the Republic may acquire mines in the form
established under the present Code, excepting the function-
aries directly intervening in the formation of the mining-
titles or exercising local authority. Kmployi^s and mining
labourers cannot acquire mining property by means of
denouncement unless it be tor their employers, except in
places located at more than 10 kilometres' distance from the
neareift point to the latter's property.

Ckaptsii VII. : On tht I'ritceedingt to be OttrrifH in Mining
Pftitiona. — .\ny person or com[>any wishing to acquire a mine
in accordance with the Code shall apply in writing to the
Iteputation or Delegate, mentioning his name, his nationality,
and abode, an<l affording a description of the mine askod tor,
■o that it may be recognized with certainty at any moment ;
•dding the name he may wish to give it, the provisional
Dumber of claims whose assignment be desireti, and the name
of the neighboun or nearest contiKUOUtt mine-owners. lie
will pay the sum of 5 tol* ( - tOs.^ as rights uf denouncement
at the time of the presentation of bis petition.

Digitized byGOOgle

828 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The Deputy Delegate, or Secretary, inscribes the denoimee-
ment in the Register, and gives to the petitioner a certificate
oE the petition indicating all the particalars, as well as the
day and hoar apon which the said petition was sabmitted.
Within three days the Delegate shall iaaae a decree respecting
the denonncement, and shall cause the lespeetiTe advertiBe-
tnents and placards to be pahlished. The admission of
denonncement by the Delegate gives the right of oecapation
provisionally of the solicited claims from the date of their
inscription in the Delegation Register. No other denoonce-
ment respecting the same grotmd, water, slags, mine dompe,
or deposits will be admitted, ehoold no petition against the
oonoession have been presented.

Within thirty days following the official regiatration of the
petition, this is to be advertised by means of placards in the
Delegation's office doorway, and in the newspaper poblished
at the place of residence of the Delegation, as well aa in that
in the Capital of the Republic, designated for that porpose by
the Superior Mining Council.

Possession shall be applied tor after the expiration of the
third month and before the end of the fifth month. During
these five months objections can be made, examined, and
decided apon. The possession is given on the groimd by the
Delegate, assisted by the Secretary and the official engineer
or BQrveyor, who measures the land, stakes the claims, and
presents a report accompanied by a fall plan. The titles tbos
completed are sent to the Mining Department tor approval,
and after that the mine is inscribed in the General Mining
Register.

Articles 141, 142, 143 to 161 deal with the water-snpply
and concessions for generating power. They are extremely
reasonable, and there is no tax on these conceasions.

It is not deemed to be necessary to deal with any of the
other chapters of the Mining Code ; what has been set forth
previously is sufficient to demonstrate bow easily mines can
be acquired in the Bepablic of Peru in accordance with
prevailing terms of the Code.

The Supreme Government, through the Department of
Fomento (Promotion), directly superviBes the adjudication
of mining concessions of all classes, and the Minister of
Fomento has in his charge tiie formation of the "Padrdn

Digitized byGOOgle

MINING CODE 329

QeDeral de Hinu," vhieb is the official Begieter for tbe
inaoriptwD of All concesBionB.

Tbe importation of maehinery, BOppUeB, toota, etc., for use
in mining operatiooB, is exempt from CoBtom Honse dntiea,
and the same is tbe case in regard to coal, lamber, dynamite,
mereury, and all material neceesar; for the oonstmction and
maintenance of roads.

Id 1903 tbe Corpe of Mining Engineers was created for tbe
porpoee of tbe farther development of FaruTian mines by
exploring and making known, by means of CommisBions, new
mineral districts, describing also tbe geological formations
and magnitade of tbe lands explored. Tbe reenlts of these
important works are pnbliabed in special pamphlets profusely
illostrated with photographs and maps, and which may be
obtained, naoally withont charge, bat at any rate, at a very
■mall price, from the Government of the Bepablic at Lima,
Pern ; or by commonicating with the Bnreau d'lnformation
de la B^pnbliqne de Pera, 6, Boulevard de la Madeleine, Paris.

LlW BELlTtKO TO CoLOKtSTS ABRITlltQ.

A Presideotial Beeolatioo, dated June 17, 1910, was issued,
through the Ministry of Fomento (Promotion), concerning
■anitary measures for the protection of the health of those
who ooma as colonists. Tbe resolutioo states that in all oon-
traets of companies or individoals with the Go%'emment to
Mtablisfa colonies, the following regulations must be complied
with:

f'int, — Colonists, before embarking, must be examined by a
^jrsietan selected by tbe Peruvian Consul, who will give
health certificates, whicb the Consul will lejjalize tree of
eharga

Secontl. — Thoee who have passed tbis examination must then
be vaocinated.

T^inf.— The Peruvian maritime sanitary regulations must b«
complied with during the passage from port of origin to Peru.

Fourth. — On arrival, colonists will have to proHciit their
eertifieatea to the Medical Inspector boarding tbe vessel.

Fijih. — Tbe contractors are obliged to engage a physician and
to supply medicines, as their contract <leclarcB.

Articles ni-, Brren, ri^ht. and ninr refer In the location of the
eolwiiaU' booMa on dry land, with an ample running water-

Digitized byGOOgle

S30 PER0 OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

supply near by, and with doora and windows properly J
protected by wire-sereens.

Tenth. — A hospital, also wire-screened, mast be estsbltehed
in each colony, with a pharmacy, containing the necessa
drugs and remedies.

Eiet'eiiih. — The colony physician will not only have charged
those who are ill, but also oE the general hygiene of the col
munity ; the inspection of food and drink ; and the prevention
of infectious diseases, particularly ol those most freqaent In
tropical regions. He must be supplied with the necessary
medicines and apparatus, and also attend to Ihe Taccinatita
and re-vaccination of the colonists.

New Rubber Tax.

con^l
tion
t m
sary
tidH

By Executive Decree, dated May 10, 19U, a new l»^|
governing the exportation tax on crude rubber was promul-
gated. It provides that all rubber exported IJehefmo; aemambe
de jebe ; cauchii ; and sentamhe de caticho) shall pay an 8 per
cent, ad valurem tax, based on the quotation prevailing on the
Liverpool Market, Settlement of this tax may be effected in
exchange on London, Paris, and New York at ninety days'
sight at the rate of exchange ruling on the day of exporta-
tion.

Law in Connection with Accidbn'ts to Workmen,
Promulgated on Janoaby 20, 1911.

The employer is responsible for all accidents caused to ti
workmen and employees whilst performing their duLies i
respect of the following industries :

Production and transmission of electric, steam, gas, or otbflC
kind of power -producing mechanical energy ; electric or gae-
lighting services ; hsing, repairing, and dismantling of electric
or hghtning conductors ; fixing, maintenance, and repairing
of telegraph and telephone lines ; naval construction and
repairing ; construction, repairing, maintenance, and working
of railways, bridges, and roads; land-transportation and
water- transportation on the rivers or lakes, provided it is done
by mechanical tracLion ; agricultural work, where other than
human power is utilized, only in respect of the workmen
^■|h^ exposed to the danger of the engines ; loading and unloodingj

WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION 331

wharf-eompanies, with meebanical apparatas worked by other
khan human power ; mines, where more than thirty-fire men
are employed ; bailding, repairing, and demolition companiee ;
(aetories, workshops, and indostrial establishments. In works
carried out tor socount of the CK}T6mment the contractor will
bo the only person responsible.

This Law only refers to workmen and employees in receipt
of not more than £120 per annum.

All employers of any kind of indastry, and no matter what
the salary of the victim, are obliged to render medical aid to
their employees in regard to the accidents which may occur to
them.

When the accident eanaea death the employer ia obliged
to pay the funeral expenses, and deposit an amount equal to
two months' salary of the victim.

Indemnification .
The workmen and employees who have been the victims of
accidents have a right to the following indemnifications:
(1) If abeolately and permanently incapacitated, to a payment
tor life equal to S8 per cent, of the annnal salary ; (2) it
partially and permanently incapacitated, to a payment for
life equal to 33 per cent of the difference between the salary
which was paid prerious to the accident and the inferior
•alary which would be received on accoont of the accident :

(3) if abtolately and temporarily incapacitated, to a pa3went
equal to 38 per cent, of the salary he was in receipt of, at
the time of the accident, during the time that he cannot work;

(4) if partially and temporarily incapacitated, to a sum equal
to 60 per cent, of the difference between the salary previous
to the accident and the inferior salary he would receive until
completely cured ; (5) in the event of death the employer is
obliged to make certain payment* to the relatives of the
victim ; {G) the indemnities will be increased by 60 per cent, if
the accident is caused by the lack of the resjieetive protective
apparatus.

Imiiranre,

The employer may insure, individually or collecUvely. his
employees without making any deduction from their wagea,
instead of paying tb« indannifieations referred to, provided

Digitized byGOOgle

; 832 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

the amouDt which the victim receives is not less than that
stated in this law.

The Executive will form an Insurance Company, guarantee-
ing the interest of 6 per cent, per annam on a capital of
^20,000, to be employed exclusively in insuring against
accidents to workmen and employees.

Consular Regulations.

Packages must be plainly marked wiib either a stencil or a
brash.

Consular invoice, in quadruplicate, is necessary, and
' must be made in Spanish.

Goods may be consigned either tlin-cr or tu order.
Callao is the only port where explosives, firearms, revolvers,
etc., may be landed, unless special permit has been obtained
by consignee.
The Consul keeps one copy of the bills-of- lading and three
[ copies of the Consular invoice.

The gross weight, in kilogrammes, should be marked oa
I every package (I kilogramme = 22046 pouude), and most
I correspond with the gross weights stated in bills-of-lading
I and Consular invoices.

Pbbcvian CABmKT Chanors, September, 1911.

Upon the eve of going to press with the final pages of this
' volume, notification has been received of important changes
in the Peruvian Cabinet, and I am indebted to Sefior Don
Eduardo Lembcke, the Chargij d'Affaires of the Legation and
Consul- General for Peru in London, as well as to Sefior Don
Carlos Larrabure y Correa, Chief of the Oficina de Informa-
oi6ne8 Imigraciiin y Propoganda del Gobierno del Peru, at
Paris, for the following list of the new Ministry :

Prime Minister and Minister of Justice and Public Instruc*
tion : Sefior Dr. Agustin Ganoza.

Minister for Foreign Aifairs : Seiior Don German Legaia y
Martinez.

Minister of Home Affairs and Police : Sefior Dr. Juan da
Dies Salazar y Oyarzahal.

Minister of Finance and Commerce : Seuor Dr. Agustin
i^e La Torre Gonzales.

PERUVIAN CABINET 338

Hiniitor for War and Marina : Seflor Don Juan Manaet de
La Torre.

Ifinuter of Industry (" Fomento "]: Senor Dr. Daniel Caatillo.

Dr. Agastin Ganoia, President of the Cabinet and Minister
of Joatice and Pablic Instruction, was bom at Tmjillo, and
he had pravioasly serred ander President A. B. Legoia as
Htniater o( Government. He has also acted «itb great
distiDotion as President o( the Chamber ol Senators, wbere he
has sat as representative of the Department of La Libertad.

The eminent career of Seizor Don Garman Leguia 7
Martanes, Minister of Foreign Aflairs, has already been given
in the earlier pages of this volome (see pp. 26, 27, Chapter III.)-

Dr. Juan de Dies Salazar y Oyarzabal, Minister of Govem-
ment and Police (Minister for Home Affairs, etc.), is a
famous lawyer, and sits as Deputy in the House of Congress
for Jauja, wbere be was bom. He has filled several im-
portant poblic poeitioDs, and latterly was Secretary of the
Junta Electoral Nacional (National Electoral Council).

Dr. AgQStio de La Torre Gonzales, Minister of Finance
and Commerce, it also a prominent lawyer connected with
the Supreme Courts of Justice at Lima, and formerly acted
as Minister upon several occasions. He is also an ex-Preeident
of the High (>mrt of Eichequer.

Don Juan Manuel de La Torre was bom at Cusco, and
repreeente one of this Department's electoral divisions in
the House of Deputies. Ha has acted with conspicuous
ability as President of this last-nsmed Chamber during the
Preliminary Council sittings held this year.

Dr. Daniel Castillo, Minister of Industry (" Fomento "), is
a highly distinguished advocate, born in Lima, and sits in
the Uoose of Deputies as representative of the Province of
Pomabamlia.

ESTlUATEii FUB TIIK YEAR IVli.

IU<rrn(M £PH.1f».Vn

P.ipvndUun ifiVt.VU

Hurplg* U-£t,:Ua

The iCevenue is estimated as follDwi : Cuntomi* (maritime),
i.i'2l)l,5n3; Customs (riveni>, i;l'2IJO,O0U ; Contributions.
i;l'tiCU,r>SO ; mono|>olios, i.'l'tiOl ,*^5T ; fiscal wharfs and
piers, Xi'H,H5'J; vmrioos renlala. l'l*li(4.>iMlf ; telegraphs.

Digitized byGOOgle

SM PEHL' OF THE TWEVHETH CEVrTBT

£730,000; pasta, £F»;,eOO; CaiSabaaimB (FHnm),
XF12,000; Bamn o( DegoBta and Conggmiwpte, .£P6;5D0;
Cereal Depoeita at Bella Vnta, fPiaTOO; and itab
<P1110,000.

BfeSCMi OF PEBU-S COMMEBCE POE THE THBZE XKAB
lMe-l»10 ISCLCSITE.

jno.

19»-

IMS.

iP.
Expoito 8,408^82

Importo ; 4,681,280

• 4,2a8,«7

5.478^

1 11X69,963

10,791,aW7

10.;»,914

Y...

Vii Q,t AiDwm.

TiltheP^afc.

£P.

Ifl02

250,928

5,816.615

1908

298.28fi

4,»«i688

1904

670,688

4,808,954

1906

660,027

4,870^772

1906

8,797,689

1907

716,797

8,786,855

looe

871,270

8,485,096

1909

482012

8,177,855

Among attictea imported into Pern daring 1909, having a
valae in exooBa of £F10,000, were the following: Uioerals
and metalB, £P666J41 ; textiles (cotton), 498,885; steam-
boats, 274,248 ; wheat, 269,067 : textOea (woollen), 201,624 ;
mineral coal, 194,101 ; lumber, 192,502 ; machinei; and
parts, 171,953; drugs, 146,885; stones and earth, 183,825;
paper, etc., 116,819; flax and jute, 93,663; riee, 84,015;
unapeoified articles, 79,401 ; foodstuffs, 78,602 ; wines and
liquors, 76,998; petroleum, 58,929; textiles (silk), 67,858;
boots, 55,854 ; wax candles, 51,773 ; thread, 49,063 ; pre-
served and dry fish, 44,460; vegetables and vegetable snb-
stanoes, 41,387; hats, 89,270; cereals, 88,852; oil (other
than petroleum), 35,776 ; perfumer;, 80,406 ; preserved
butter, 80,124; arms and acceaaories, 29,518 ; Irnits, 29,108;
carriages, 27,692 ; inatrnments and apparatus, 27,654 ; pre-

DiailizodbyGOOgle

1911 STATisrnca 355

Mirad milk ud cream, 26,939 ; ordinary Boap, 24,981 ; fresh
and preaerred meat, 24,260; paints and varnish, 24,019;
rope, 28,799; d;es, 22,120; jevellery, 22,084 ; salt, 16.162 ;
biscaitfl, Ifi.OAU; tobacco, 16,270; eagar, 14,762 ; Bweeta and
eonteclionery, 10,611.

The CuBtoQU Bevenoe for 1909 amounted to X'P4,298,627,
U follow! :

ClUt«IIW HODM.

Vdne of Imporu.

rerOent.

£?.

CJUo 2,709.831

88-08

IlluiUM

UoUendo ..

477.4«e

1110

.. , 478.914

11-08

aaUverrr ..

.. 1 lHa,068

4-26

.. ' 184,791

814

.. 1 110.844

a-66

pMMnwjo ..

108.671

3-48

.. 1 86,«a«

a-ao

8.808

4.644

0-11

lliMuw VUU

3,009

OiH

Prom other Cutoma

.. 1 3.068

0-04

10000

4,-29«,flr?

It ia with oonfiderable aatiifaetion that Ijritiab readera will
obeerve that England ocflapies the premier place upon the
list of import! into the Bepablic. The fignres etand as follows:

CoontfT-

V.liH> of [n|«rt*.

r«c«L

EiwUnd

£1'.
.. 1 1.4a7.»9e

8047

Lnitod SIMM

... I H4a.l/7

19-73

o*™»»j

OHT.'iHS

IS-VH

I1«I)[>UIU

a4T.s-i:i

»-76

ftmnc*

193.BW7

4-68

(•hiU

itn:Mi

4-38

luly

130.711

8-SO

Au«ir>lia

117.Htt4

3-74

It..ni( Koitic

90,W|

'JI3

**P~n

MM9

l-'J3

Krii^lur

SS.9N3

0-71)

Kwl IndlM

81.MS

074

l-urtUK>l

an^B

0«7

thin»

■JD,J4«

0-47

... _

4Ajm

i«e

*»ijm "

lOIHW 1

DiailizodbyGOOgle

SSG PEItr OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

If the various totals of Peru's trade with Great Britain,
includiu}^ Eogland and her Colonies &nd India, be added, we
find that the considerable total of £P 1,808, 526— or, say,
42"07 per cent, of the whole of the Republic's foreign Import
Trade — is reached.

The principal imports from Great Britain have included:
Textiles of cotton, textiles of wool; coal; machinery and
accessories ; explosives ; hemp and jute and manufactares ;
drugs; stones and earth ; yarn and thread ; vegetable products;
boots and shoes ; hardware ; wines and Hqaors ; milk and
dairy pruducts ; paper and manufactures ; rice.

The principal imports from the United States have included :
Machinery ; wood ; vehicles ; tar, pitch, etc. ; drugs ; atones aod
earth ; lard ; paper and manufactures ; hardware ; arms and
ammunition ; oils ; textiles (cotton, wool, silk, and others) ;
meats ; breadstufTs, etc.

EXPORTS.

CostODlB HOUHD.

ValDB of EiporU.

Per Cent.

CalUo

Iqttitoi

MoUendo

PaitB

Salaverry

Hfloo

Eton

Tombo de Mora

Cerroiiul

Snpe

Haancbaco

Talara

Ageacin Aduanera ...

Huftoho

Chancay

Samuuio

Coama

PODO

Facounftyo

Mftdre de PioB
Santa

Lomas

Other Custouu fiooHi

£P,
1,516,009
1.029.708
581.693
461,881
456,27S
S71,G46
807.927
247.77a
188,719
185,544
169,-287
146.6-28
122,238
118,507
68,063
71,649
67,086
68,-244
51.382
61,159
40.724
82.686
28,524
23.770
60.657

28-85

15-83
9'12
711

7-oa

6-72
474
881
2-90

•ts&

2-60
9-2S
1-88
182

1'86
110
103
0-97
079
078
063
0-60
0-44
086
0-94

6,492,670

10000

1911 STATISTICS

3S7

As with the Imports, bo «itb Exports, does England Btand
Ant in the Republic's trade, bb the following analyBiB of the
eommeree tor 1909 ((be Uteet information which is available)
•ImtI; prores :

OounUT-

V.tn. or Export..

PnrCMit

£P.

uSasuui;'

8.672,640

4117

1,496.623

aa-04

ChU*

8S1.S44

18-11

PruiM

U0,1M

8-80

O«nn»oy

860,(»2

sao

BolivU

a08,OS8

8-18

Jtpui

1-82

Ml LdcU (B.W.I.)

: 70,866

1-08

Spd«

i «,8a8

0-68

B.I([lQm

, 42.103

0-64

1 187.447

214

! 6,4«r670

lOfrOO

The labjoined articles exported relate to values exceeding
£10,000 in each ease: Cotton, com, and cotton waste,
£Pl,246,59g; sugar, 1.169,099; rubber and resin, 1,134,567;
metals, 1,087,692; minerals, 600,688; wool, S94,S46; guano,
166,2*24 ; petroleum, 151,676 ; hides and dried hides, 131,497;
haU, 92,800 ; oocaine, 60,287 ; riee, 69,908 ; cotton goods,
86,850; vegetable planto, 81,701; vegetables and vegetable
sobstanees, 22,206; coffee, 16,067; live animals, 12,941;
anspeeifled articles, 12,897; manufactured metals, 10,654.

Digitized byGOOgle

INDEX

Aucidents lo workmen, 880-882
Acomayo, 41
Adsma, Fraaklm, 31
AdaiDB, Mrs. Harriet C, 21
Agricultural miuliinerj, 147, 368
Airicaltare, 146-192, 810

National School at, 88, 90, 103
Alniagro, Diego de, 1, 12, 14

Amazon and Pacific Bailwav, 194
River, 8. 4, 6, 12, 80, 128, 197,
221, 227, 228, 243, 262
Steam Navigation Com-
pany, 243
Amazaaaa, Department of, 40, 41,

182
Amorioan Bridge Company. 200
Amity, Treaty of, 17
Anoache, Department of, 40, 41,

187
Anefin. 118, 160, 206-208. 226
Aijc6n Railway, Lima, 96, 226
Andahuailaa, 41, 234
Andes, 3, 7, 226, 229. 248, 279, 288
A n^'lo- American Church, 1S4

School, 97
Anglo-PeraTian Debt, 66
AngovB, Joaiah, 204
Anta, 41, 180
Antimony, 285
Antofaga^ta - Bolivia Railway, s,

219, 220
Apucanachaay, 8

Apurfmac, Department of, 40, 41,
234
Biver, 2B4
Aquiri River, 6
Arbitration Award, King of Spain,

17
Area, superficial, 41, 42
Arequipa, Bishop ot. 187, 142, 144,
146. 802
Cathedral, 142-145, 802

.^.requipa, city o£. 7, 8, 21. 48^ 56,
123, 198, 199. 201. 208. 206,
261,263,292,300-305

Department of, 8, 40, 61, 179,
187,800

Electrical Company, 304

Tramway Companv, 804, 8Xi

Dniveraity. 93, 80l", 803
Argentina. 13, 17. 18, 60, HI. lOS,

180, 195, 240
Arica. vii, 81, 160
Ar(ca-La Pai Kailway, x, 208. 204
AHca and Tocna Kailway, 66
Armaments, 60
ArmB and accesBories, SS4
Army, 49-58

Army and Navy, SO, 46-58
Art and literature, 96-108
Assurance ooiapanieB, 24
Asylums, 115
Atahualpa, 11
Athenceum, Lima, 33, 101
AtocBayco, 179
Australia, 242
Australian wheat, 187
Aviation, 68, 64

League, 64

School of, 63, 64
Ayaoacho, city of. 803

Department of, 40, 41, 110,
178. 180
Aymara Indians, 13
Aztecs, 13, 14

Backus and Johnson's Brewerr,

266, 316
Balboa, Vasoo Nunez d^, 1
Baldwin Looomotive Works, 214
Balta, JoB^, 148
Balto, Presidenl, TO
Bank, Deutsche, 304
Bank, 0«mian Transatlanrio, 78,
87, B8, 803
Italian, 67, 88, 261,804

Buili. London, of Uaiico uid Sooth
America, IS. 87, 8e,80H,SM I
NatioMl Ciu. of Naw York, TS '
of I'eru tad Londoo, 7G, HT,
btt,B03
Bkiilii, Tl, TH. TS, 07, OH, 69, 301,
808.301
S*\-in|pi, tfi. m
ItanqtiB de r>riii, 73
&ui<|UF Ff«ii;«if, 78
Barber Stcatnaliip Coiai>nny, 'Hi
Bard, l>r. 11. E.,9(l
Rarli-r, 1H7
Harlow, 2M

IU.T*

I, 117

Bawiro, Dr. r:iiri'|ue C, % W,

■M
BfiuiH, 123

Jlcauclfrk. Williain N., M
B.«tl«i>. 10
liritriuiii. aaa. :u;
IhlU Villa. IIH
lli-ni-volcot Hocu-tv Lima. IIA
Ifan.iiuoni. S-'iior, •J6l
Itii lovueich, Jiiiui, M
llillinshanil, Wiiliaiii. 119, 120
ItiiiKhaiii. rrufcmur Hiram, 'JO
lliniiinKhniu <'liaiubvr of Cout-

tutrer, :l-*>4
Kixf uitH. -J.'>tl
ItKhop HUir, i:i:i, \i»
lli-h'iprirr 1^7
HiKMiuili, -JK-,, JVi
Illiiir. Ilichop. l.-i:i, 184
ltluiiir.J.< . F.,INI
Huarilol lltalih. 3-J, 04

Lima, iUt

Midiral. A%
of Vacriiiatliiii, •>•'■
Ifailitar, httuAn. Ii., lia.'iM
ll.>iiMit. N, |:i. 17. \H. 'M. 80. Ci.

iMi. iKi, I'M, iw. ii):!, an, j<w,

;i:t7
ltul»Kii<-iii, Colonrl. ill
lluuiti Slraiiiihip Conipany. MM

li..<ii.un.i>.H. 1ft

(V*ar, ll>t

X IT. In. ai. Ml. ]ui. iitt.

VMi. X'Si. liu. im

.--. -iM. :>■«

. rmUav, 'JUU. JUl.ja»-310.

Itritiitb capital, vil
Consul, >ill2
Consul General, M, 134, IflS,

311
loc(jitii>tiviTt>,214-ai6
[luinufncturi'r*, 141), 152, SM-
21fl,-2S4 259, 201, .MB
roglHter of, 271
British Tr,id.- J„uni,il, 366
llroftgi, Ca'wir. 2C0
Itrooks and Duiry. *22J
I'liboiik platcuc. ■'>4
r.uin^ Aires, Mi. fl

t:A (anv, lin
Cal'inHl, I'uruvian, :t:l:t-lia.[
('able companiea, 00
Cnjaiuarca, crity of, St, &7

]>epartmc[it of, 40, 17B. IHO
Ciilca. 2U-J

Calilaron. Dr. F. 0„ 95
Caldvrn. ii

<'»lifur<ian wlii'Ht, In"
i'allao. Hank of. 87

ItcpnrtiiK-ntot, 40

porlof. 6.S, .V>. (U,Hi'),!<l,117,

iiH. itH). 19H, ID."!, -joe-joa,

•£ta, :i:tH, ^9, -ill -ill. 1>47-
■IM. -iM-noo. ii:n, :i;i.-., :iM
<'bii»ii<'I1. Laird and Co.. 'IM
Cnnai, i'anaina, viil
VtiUK-t. I7H, INI
(.'aiHU-LO. I>uii Carlu4 v. IM
riin.l.tiiii>, l-rraideut. 'ii, W\
Caiiilarjvv. 7
raii.ltn. -."Jj. »H
Canu •'■K'ar cullivaliuii, 101, lOS,

ir.7
Cnpiial. liriliih, vii

li>rt>ii:n, vii

iiivoiir I in rail«a\*, 1V7
( apilnU. 41
('arab}llo.!r27
Carar, T£l

I'.ircvmi, freaideilt, 7il
faniilT. -Hi
C-i<alparM, •J-J4

<'aH)«lU Iwr. •il*o

Ca»'«ja, ■>**

lavfiiFnl, Sir Itop'r, nil

('••111!.). I>r lliuiirl, itjLt

''ffllll

• I.U-

Cathi-dral. Ar«M|uipA. M'J 1 l.'i

Lima, llo. i:i», l;iu
Calhr<lral.. 110, Vtf*. V.Pi. 1IM4.1
I'alUa, l'.\ IHU

Digitized byGOOgle

1 340 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

r Cmvero, Dr..29

Climate, 5, 108, 109. 129, 161, 168.

OeniTkl Ruilway, ix, 194, 195, 306-

186. 244. 298. 299

211, 234, 225, 227, 286, 290, 292,

Coal, 284, 285, 367, 293, 8«

SOS

Coastr-line, 1, 3, 6, 286

Carro AeuI, 160, 175, 386

Coca. 181, 182

Cerro de Pasco wines, 92, 224, 268,

Cocaine, 182. 279282, 836

2S5. 288-291

Cockfield, W.. 20*

Rulway, 226, 233. 245

Cocoa, 182. 215

town. 66, 121), 284, 291,

Code, mining, 286. 287. 328-880

202

Coffee, 837

ChtOlley, Henri, 64

Coinage, 90 92

ClialL 160

V Chtunber of Couuoeroe, Birming-

Colombia, 9. 17, 19. 60. 66. iMS,

268. 287, 312. 818

^ h»m. 264

ConsuJ-Generalof, Sia

LitOR, 102

Coldn, 60

Chancfty. 160. 176, 227. 232, 283,

Colonies and setilemenle, 319, 320

886

Colonists, laws ot. 329. 880

GhuiohKinEtjo, 184

Cbsrgo d'Affftircs and Consul -

OenenJ, 84

Charities. 115, 116

240

Charles V. of Spain, 12, 15, 94

Compaoiea, insurance. 83, M, 89,

Chaupiobaca, 210

CbaveE-Oiutnet, Jorge, 68

Concessionaire laws, 318, 319

Chiohajo, 41. 188

CoQoeBsions, mining, 824, 825

ChUohM Indians. 12

Conierecice, Pan-Amerioan, 295

Chile, vii. 13, 16, 23, 60, 62, 81,

Congress, 44, 75, 78, 79, 190, IM,

174, 180. 182, 184. 187, 196,

819820

242. 247, 248, 249. 25G. 268,

Conquerors, Spatusb. 11

886

Conquest of Peru, 1, 2

WW with, 28, 29, 43, 46, 48. 66,

100,117.118, 118,278

ChUote-Yonan Eaiiway, 286

reports. 37, 292

Chimbote Cool ajid Harboiir Syndi-

Consul. British. 292

cato, 285

CoiiBul-Oeneral. British, 86, 184,

Chiniboto-Bocuay Railway, 286

125. 811

Cbimbotc-TablouPB Railway, 195,

22S

Peruvian, New York. 88, 102

China, 184. S42, 249, 254

United States, 36, 298-395

Chmoha Islands, 69, 274

Contaniana, 6

Chineae,42. 128, 318

Convencidn, 41. 184

eiolusion o(, 128, 818

Ohira River, 8

Copiap6, ix

CborilloH, 117, 118, 230, 281

Copper, 216, 224

Chosira, 208, 298

Cordillera, 4, 7, 8

Chombivilcas, 180

Com, 336

ChnDchoB, 21

Church. Anglo- Amerioiui. 184

Corporation, Peru^-ian. \x

Enghsh, in Pt<ru, 184. litS

Corps ot Mining Engineera, 8S9

Churches, 110, 115, 131-145

Corlez Hernan, 12

riches of, 140, 141

Costa Rica. 268

Cigars and oigaretles, 186

President of, 23

Cinnabar. 22C

Cost ol Uving. 131. 122, 124

Civil Code, 321, 322

ColobaDibas, 284

righto ot [oreigners, 820. 821

Cotton, 126, 171, 1T8, 224, 3fia-aM,

C14ment.ColoDd, 61

336

Clerck, Heremati, 297

Exporimontal Station. 175

Coltoa-Med, 17S. 176
CoiiDcil, Superior Mining, S'ili '

Court litttniti, 43

Creuut, T4 ,

Cricket. 1%
Cuba. H9. !H7

Cuiktma HouM. ea-GH, 7M-R1, -J44,
2t.1. aso, 255. 270, 2M7. SW. 3!i:.,
KM
Cuico, City of. '21. SC, IM -■<», -JOJ,
905, «a. 227, aw. 293
Dep»rtiiient of. H, 4U, 17H, iHl,
IM, 1K7

I)*bt, Anglii-Poruviiui, tW

iiit«ni>l, 60. UT. 74. 75

public, ta. 74. Kl. I»5

Urribarren, Btj
iHUiuiution Cuiiiiuii'Mim, 17, ItP
DeiDBrcKtion Tn-aty, IT
Df-partiuentnl ItoMd*. 45
D-pwIuivnl. I'usUl. .'>T. iXt, ei.fl:!.

Ik'lHUrUtiBiiU. polilii-al, 4U, 41

DtputlM. 4S. im

Dca <lru, fhu-ln l^min, :i5

I>rulKh« lUiik. r.t. 74, :H>4

Ilevir* r.rtiaiv..-)l4

DiploiuAlie nprt-M-ntatUii, :M. »5,

l>iMrMea. 54. .'15. 5r.
Di'Uict Council!. 45, H»
Dintricta. 41

luililvy, 51

lumini;. 2X7, '>«h, Jiri

•hefp. I7(t
bork>. £19. 250. avT

l>.-lllr*lici>. I'JS

!>(>■ cle Ma>u. IIhuIk i>(. 20

Drnki', Franci>. aUS

I>nii;ii, XH

Ihiiicitn. Foi uid Co.. 2>ia

Korlh'ltiakM. M, IDM. Iw, UK I"-''
Kriia.l.ir. 1.1. Id. IT. lU. 21. ;il. «>.

riJ. a'.'H. 2IJ 214. JrtH. :ir»
(Murallon. Kl Wi. 'JT. W*

-. hr r;!. JT. -JH,

EmiRruitit, I'H, 13.'>, lafl. 137. 198.

lao

Empire. Ine», x, 13, lit
Kiuployineut, 12:1' 12G. I'/i
ICngliHh f oiuiiierciiil School, 97

Church in I'eru, VM, liU

laii(fUKKo> W
FHtiuifttea, :iUH, 334
KtcD, port of, 80, lH;l.2.W..kU,a36
Kuropean*, 42
' Kxchnnite. rate at. 309, HIO
f-UpL'mliturc, national, 7h, 79
l-Ixperiuiental Stnliun. Sujv. 14H,

a«o

Cotton. 175
Fxp]<irationpartii-B.m. 19.20,31.29
Kiptoror*. wotiicn, 211, 21
l'!iport8 and iifi|>ort>>, viii. HI, 147.

14H. 174, 17n. 177. IHl. 188. 191).

245, 374, -282, 2UU, .134 »U7

255

n.l.;.try. r.T.JUl. ;iOa

FactoriM. 17fl.lM1.2.-.
FiUklaiid Iiland. l^Kl, 17(t
Fauna, i

FawoGU. Colonel. 18

Fawcttt, I'reiitiin anJ Co.. \!i

159.260
1-Vvhan, J. H.. 2(19
PVrr.fiBff. IKI
F-rruUtiibft. 2.14. 2:L-.. 2iU
Filibuntvra. N.irtli .Vtix-ivsn, ir>
Financi' Miiiiilvr. :<1, 74, 7.'>. 7

:t:l2, XiS
Finamvu. il. 15H1. ^V
Fi.>h, 9. 122, 9At
Flai and jutv. 'XH
FUfrn. 9

Florfs. lir. Antonio, W
Hour. J.'..-.
FuMirnto trniinolion) IVpa -ui.-i

or. ui.!i;i. loa. it4. ».,<, 27

Nrini.l.T o(. :i'.*. .■I!'. Wi. 2 U. :«
M:ni*trv. 171. 229. H3:i. M
:i2U
FoodatiirT-. :U14
Fm-iUU 1.10

FuniKii ATlair*, Mini<l' t •'(. 2)1. .1
:t:i. :i:ij

crtiiitin'rc^. vii. HI
»H!ir»,aiH. art.'.. :112
tr fir inarka. :li-J. :tj:i

F<ir<'it(niT>' ritit nfih\; 43
pnipurlr uf Ji<iM>aai'>l. ;ij|

FllfMl*. -t. N. 10

PofKa. M...n.lS,.n.. :UU
Krwicr. fl, wT, 1T4. Wl. IV,. 2*
sun. XU. .tKi

Digitized byGOOgle

342 PEHU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Freights, 123. 100. 203, 209, 316,

820.2:24, 257
Frenoli Military Misdaii, 48
Fr«ah meal, 121, 385
Frontien, S, 16
Fruit, 9, 834

avios&. Dr., 29
OsaOKa, Dr. Agmtin, 832
Ooaco, Pedni de la. 12
Osugea, 198. 196. 193. 207, 213
Oeueral Electrio Compaoy (D.S.A.),

218, 257
Oeographical Society, Lima, 88, 42,
100
Ro;al, 18. 20
Wuhington, 38
OeriiianB, 12, 268
Oermon TranBttUanlic Bonks, 73,

87, 88. 803
Germans, ™,81, 174. 181.185,247,

248. 303, 385. 337
Oibbs, Antony, and Co., 275
Giron, Frnnciaco, 803. 808
Gold. 234, 284, 285, 200
QonzaJes. Dr. Agustin d^ La Torre,

882, 883
Gordon, Jolm. 260
Oovemment, 43, 44, 45

local, 46
Grace Brothera, 242
Grsoe. W. R., and Co. 75. 268. 272
Gradientf. 200, 201, 207, 213, 234
Granada, kingdom of, 12
Grau, Admiral, 111
Great Britain, vi, vii, 181. 803, 885,

887
Grey, Sir Edward. 264
Guadalupe Nation&l College, 29, 88
Ouafiape, 6
Quano, 8, G. 68, 148. 168-166, 270,

278-376, 323, 8-25, 388
"Guano Affair," 73, 74
Ouaqui, 4, 198
Guaqiii-La Paz Railway, is, \, 195,

312, 220
Guatemala, 268
GuatemoiT. 12
OuayHquil. 242, 244
Gubbinit, J. HuBseU, 814
Quit Line SteunHhip Company, 242

Habicb, Dr. Edmundo N. de. 32.

H a m b n r g - Amerieai)

Company, 241
Hards, Sir Edward, 35
Harvard UniTerslty Oboen

12,95
Haucb, Otloniar von, 128
Health, Board of, S2
Helps, Sir Artbor. 298
HetheringtooB, 264
Hidei, 180. 181, 21fi. 245, S36
HiggioBon, Don Edaardo, 86. 39, 103
Historical Inatitate, 33, 101
HogB, 236

Holdich, Sir T. H-, IS
Home Afbiis, Minister of, 44, 8L
and Police, MiDist«r of, I
HanduTas, 60, 208
Hope, Pierce, 217
Horse -racing, 139
Hospitality, 114. 802
Hospitals, 115, 380
Hotels, 121, 300
Hous^-renta, 122
Howard, Henry Clay. 85
Hnacho, 160, 227, 233, 283, ]
HuoUagn River, 4, 128, 262
Hiianaohuoo, 181
Huancabambo, 41, 184
Hu&ncavelica, Dep&rtmi

41.226

Hnancayo- Oroya Railway, 280 '
Huancayo Railway, IW, 107, T

207, 308, 209, 228
Huanoliaco, 830
Huanla, 181
Hu&nuco, city of, S6

Department of, 40, 41. 14^1
181 ^

Huira, 227
Huanney. 886
Huayoaputina, 7
Huggira, J-, 288
Humboldt, Baron von, 288
Uamphreys, E., and Co., 9
Hydrographic Office, 23

Ico, city of, 56, 258

Department of, 40, 41, 48, fl
288,290
Igaraparafia River, 6
Ilo, port oF, 9, 55, BO. 286, BSS, 8
JuimigraQlfl, 43
Immigration laws. 810
Imports and exports, viii, 81, I

148, 170, 181, 183, 184, 187, f

256, S84-SS7
Inambari River, 20, 190
Inoa Cotton Company, 817

Inw Bmpin, z, 13, IS

niiiu,806
Inolui, Colonel, 29
Independenoe, Wur of, 15, 66
Indisn raoM, 18
Information Bureau, Parit, 83, 84,

BS, 830
IiiMots, to
Iiutitiita, Historical, 88, 101

Teohniaal and Indaetrial, 102
Iiwanmoe, 82, 88, 64, B5, 86, 881,
889

oompaniu, 88, 84, 8S, 86
Inveatmenta, Britiah, 267, 280, SOT

United Slates, 2S6-268, 288, 807

Iqoitoa, port of, 61, 62, 80, 100. 227,

228, 248, 246, 251, 835, 886

Bteamship Companj, 345
Irrigation, 148. 161-168, 183, 186,

259, 262, 819
Islands, 8, 5, 6
lalay, Provinoe of, 95
Italian Buik, 88, 261. 804
Italy, 97, 176, 268, 803, 886. S87

;ra^n, 41, 182, 184, 186
Jamaica, 147

*apaii, 147, 242, 248, 249, 254, 887
Japanew, 42, 124, 125, 126, 127,
366,357
Cdunl-Oenera), 125
Steamuhip Company, 242
Janja, 41, 893

Jwningbam, Hon. W. O. S., 86
Jerome, Lnoien Joseph, 36, 87
Jevoroe, 184

Jimenes, Rrewdent Ricardo, 28
Jookej Clnb, 108, 120
Jones, V.C., Captaun fL H., 86
Jaliaoa, 20, 108 201
Jnain, Department of, 40. 178, 180,

202
Juatioa, Minister of, 80, 832

Kinct of Spam's Arbitration Atrard,

17
Einley, Frofeaeor, 295
Elinge, Oerardo, 175
Eoppel, Arthar, 32H
Koemoe Company, 241

Labare, S

Labour, 128, 177, 186, 190. 385, 386,

308, 818, 827, 8S0 S82
Lake TlHottea Servioe, 105. 106,

213, 319
t» libwtad, Departmsnl of, 40, »4,

178

EX »43

Lama, Diego de, 277, 37B

Lb Mar, 41, 292

Lambaysqiia, Department of, 8, 28,

40, 41, 188, 377
Lamport and Holt Steamship Com-
pany, 243
Laiioaahire Dynamo Company, 210
Land, 186, 192
Landed property, S31
Land law, 48, 818-820

registry of, 821
La Paz, iz, I, 108, 246
La Ptinta, 117, 118, 290
Lores, 293
Larrabnre y Correa, Dr. Carlos, 88,

882
Larrabnre y Unanuo, Dr. Eogenio,

37, 88, 06
La Torre, Don. J. M. de, 888
Lauri-Cooha Lake, 4
Law administration, 42, 48, 44
Laws, immigration, 42

mining. 828-880
Lead, 285, 292
Legation, British, 85

Peruvian, 84

Unitea States, 86
Leguia, President Au)>uato B., 17,

38-36, 84, 67, 103, 176, 238
Legnio, Don E-, 84
Legniay Martinez, Dr. aerman,36,

27, 882, S8S
Lembcke, Don Ednardo, 84, 882
Lembcke. Don R. E., 84
Library, National PubUc, 100, 117
Light railways, 262
Lima-Anc6n Bailway, 06, 336

AtheoKom, 33, iOl

Benevolent Sociutv, 115

Board of Health, 5J

Chamber of Commeree, 103

City of. 14, 16, 89. 62-64, 107-
120, 133. 146, 147, 193, 105.
206-308, 236, 282. 243, 367,
206

Department of, 40, 51, 03

eleetrio trains (ne«'), 333

Oas Company, 333

Geographical tjocicty, 88, 43

Light, Power, and Tramway!
Company, 230-232

Mayor of. 119, 120
Limantonr, Jos^ Y., 26
Lima Railway, 230, 810

sabnrb^ 116-118

Tramway iCompanj, 281. 383

Water Company, 76

Univarsty, 88, 98, 103

Digitized byGOOgle

^^* Lim6ii, port of, 6

Merohanta' Line, 342

r Literature and art, 98, lOS

Mercury, 286

Littoral ProvincBB, 40

MoiicD, 12, 60, 100. 14«, 1H9. IBS.

Liverpool, 147. 190, 228, 2fl. 245,

342, 207, 268, 386. 3.-I7, 291

260,830

Mica, 293

Loans, 65-76

Military Academy. 50, 52

Lohiloa 0U-fidd8. 278, 815. 816

Military diatriota, 61

LoboB de Adentro, 5

law, eo

Lobos de Afucm, 5

Mills, cotton, 252-264

Lookej, Joseph B., 94

sugar, 149-168
Minerda, 226, 227, 284-296

LoMtnotivcB, Britiah, 214-216

homu, diatrict o(, 388. 290

Mineral wealth, 288, 200-29S

port of, 284, 336

Mines, 227, 2S4, 236, 2S4.295

London, 294

School of, 286

Bank of Mexico and South

Mining Code, 286, 287. 828-880

Amerioft, 75. 87. S8, 308, 304

Council, auperior, 828

, Looms. 252, 268, 254

diatriete, 287, 288, 292

^^_ Loreto, Uepartmeut of, 19, 21, 88,

Engineers, Corps of, 329

^^K 40. 41, 185

laws, 823-3^0

^^H Los Andes. 57

luachinery. 258. 285, 8B4

^^H Lucanas. 41, 234, 235, 288

Minialer of Agriculture, 148

of Finance, 81,74, 75, 78

^^m MoCulloch. E.A., 204, 305, 302

of Foreign Affairs, 26, 81. 83

^^M MMhinery, 147, 149-156, 168. 169.

of Home Affairs and Pohc«, 44

^^M 175, 176, 188. IBT, 358, 259,

of JuBtioe. 3U

^^m 262, 263, 834

of Promotion \Fouieato). 92,

^^H agricultural, 147. 268, 334

33, 96

^^H cotton, 176, 176, SOli, 834

Ministry. 26-82, 44

^^1 187

Mint, National. 92

^^1 mining. 258, 285, 834

Miraaoree, BatUe of, 23. 28, 117

^^1 rice, 188, 884

Miranda. Francisco, 16, Ifl

^^1 Bugar, 149-166. 16S, 169. 268,

^^H 259, 262

Mission, French MUitary, 48

^^P MoKniglit, JoBepli P., 96

Misti volcano. UOl. 805

^^ McNeil. J., and Bona, 186, 16a- 160,

Mollendo, port of, 80. 96, 190,

' 259

198-201, 319, 284. 23fl, 237. 340,

Madera Biver, 4

260, 251, 393, 385. 336

Modre de Dios River. 6, 20, 190,

Molybdenum, 285, 292

227, 263

Monopolies, 27ft, 285

Magellan. Straits of, 28S, 241

Montoo Doctrine, v

MaiEfl, 123, 187

Montana, 8, 8, 10

Manchester, 254. 255

Montes. Colonel, 218

Mantaro Bivor, 262

Moquegua, Department of, 7, 40, 41,

214-216, 254, 269, 201

292

MarafioD River, 46, 128, 188, 221.

Morilos. Dr., 29

228, 262

Moriles. General. 16

Marine Sanitary Service. 55

Morgan Syndicate, 268
Mortal, W. L.. 205. 228. 226

Markham, Sir ClBments, 12. 18

Mason, John (New Yorli), 260

Morocooha, 206-208. 224

Matches, 356

Morona River. 6, 188, 262

Matto, Dr., 38

Moss, Rev. A. U., 184

Meat, 122

Mountain B, 7

Medical Board of Health. 65

Municipal Boards, 61

, Medicine, National College of, 29

CounoH. Lima, 75,76,119

^^_ School of, 116

^^^ Meiggs. Henry, 229

Hanson, Lieiitenani M. fi., 30

^^H UercanlUe Exchange. 102

Napo lUvor, 6

Nkrraw i^uge railwftji, tM
NatiofMl City B*nk ot Naw York,

Uint,B2

PubUo Uhnry, 100117

School of AKriculturc, 38, K-

108 I

T>\ Collectinfi Coinpanjr, 76,
77, 7B, 79. 1H5
NkvixBUon ot riven, 8, 6, 7
N*v, 4fl. 47. 4H, S7
Navy aod Anny, HO. 48, 47, *H
KapiiM, 'i77
>i*wBp»p«rm, 3aS

Kaw York, 100, 338, 342, 24S, 2flO, ,

394. :iW I

New Yorii uid I'eni SteMuahip '

Cotupanj, 343
NiokraKU*. BU
Nickel, 'Jti.\ !W3
Niinle«, 187, 378, B2J, 83.'.
NoRh-Wm lUilmy ol I'eru. 332,

388
Norway. 340

ObaFrvatory, Arpi(uipa, 'Mi

OcMM curraiiU, !i

Oil, 9, 17S. 377, 3TH. 884

raUoD aeed, 17S

Relda, 377, 374

olive, 9

OUvee. M

OnUnmU. Caplain J. M., 33

OralUnk. 13

Orfuil^ation. ••nitary. !tt, r>:i. Mi

Orova-IIuancayu Itailway, 3:i-'i

Oroya ItaUway, 194, 1U7. 'AJtt lOH,

338,337
Otacco, l8l
Oyanifurcti, Ihm Kiirii|uv, >'I1, 74.

75
Oyarcabal. I>r. luaii da !>■ H. y.

OMruav.i - liuadal-ii- Itatlway,
lu.^. iJl.-i'ii
port ul, ai, m. 1811. XM, »:»,

SWaiu Navii^iiuD Cotupanj,

lEX SiS

Paoi, IG

I'afip. Mr., 209

P&iU I'iura KaiUav. 19.>, 330, 321

port of, U. HU. 331, 238, JStC
377, 8SS, 386
PaIiua. Iticordo. lUO, 148
Paoaiiia, I, 2. 81, GO, 174,339,387-
•SVi. 341. 343, 340. 249. 30T

Cuinl. viii. ;U. 13M, 188, 387,
28H, 246, 386-388
Pan-AmericKii CunferenM, S96

Union, 21
Paper, 2M, 355
Pan's port of, 238, 348, 348, 811

rubber, 100
ParcelH Post, 83
Pardu. I'>lipe, 395
Pardo, l'rMidentMaauel,{b3,AH,T0,

71. iriM

Paria Inforiiulti.'Ti Duraaa, 88. 34,

85. 1139
IVkii, 107 109, 111-114
, Paiita/a Hivcr. 188, 262
I'aiieiiriaiiibo Itiver, 4. 8
! I'ecliFtt, Ilriiitol. 314
Vttine Coloay. 1U5
i'arfuiuery, 355, :i:t4
r«ruian<:ntKxpoMliono(MKlunery,

103
Pt-ru and I.andol^ Uatik ot, 75. k7.
8n. BU8
eoai[Uvkt of, 1. 3
Peruvian Aniazoiirompiny. 81 1-314
Cakini'I. 383'3:t.H
Corporaliuii, ii, 4, 73, 78
Cutlon Manufacturing ('oui-

pmny. ig.i. UI7
i'arilic Itailway. 335
Salt Cuiupany, TH
Slcaiuahip Cuiiipaiiy, 48, 387-
340
IVtrulfUii). 377, 378, 385, WA, 834.

83(1. 884
Pliyincal fnalume, 1-8
I'li-rola, I'rvudnnt Nirala* da. 48,

58
Pi*.-o. W>, IflO, 388, xa, iOO
Pwco lea iUilway. 89. 19a
Pitt. Wilhain, la
I'lura. i-itv of, M

IN-paVlnu-ni o(. 8. 40, 51. 176.

377. 3K1
IliTcr. 8
Piurtu. FrwiruM. 3. U. li, 14,

lUI. 109. 110. 18U, WU
Pt'arnt. (iumalu, |-J
Pi/am>. (Uo-ral Jm« K.. 80
I'latl llruthara. 354

Digitized byGOOgle

1 A*6 PERU OF THE TWEmiETH CENIXTIY ^|

1 Police. 114. 298. 382

BepresenlUina, Dinlociutie. 8<.^|

RMOuroee. mdustriol, vil ^H

^^m Poru <uid hurbonn, 8. 6. 8. S5. 57,

^^■^ m. 95. 160. 190, 108-301. 219,

834 ^B

221, 338, a94-2»7, 243, 245, 216,

Bioe,12:iL 182,188. IM. 886 ^H

aSl), 2S1, 277

machinery. 183 ^M

PorlugOMe, 12

Blmac RiTer, 8 ^M

Posul Depurtnient, 67, 60-63

Rio de Janeiro, 63 ^H

Rivers, 8, 4, 5. 6, 138 H

PoUMLOa

Prado. President, 71

Road-bed, 307 H

Preacotl, 12

Roods. x.ii H

Press, the, 60. 68. 88. 99, lOi-106

Robertson, ^Villiam Heary. 87, 4B^

Privule railways, 197

BoUinc-Btock. roilwBT, 160. aOi!.a(B,

214-216,226,861362.363

Pro-Marino Association, 30

Bosele. Captain C. F. Q.. 33

Promolion (PomCTiio). Depwtment

Rothschild, N. M., and Son. 389

of. 32, 33, 102, 174, 229,

Royal OeoRraphical Sooi«*T, 16,30

272

MaU Steam Packet Compaay,

MiniBtry of, 32, 83, 102,

240

174, 223, 229, 328, 329

Rubber, 8, 125. 126. lafrlBa. Mt.

Property, landed, 821

243, 244. 245 _^gHM

of decoosed foreigners, 821

production. 191 ^^^H

Province. 41

Ruins. Inca, 306 ^^^H

Littoral, 40

BuoiBby, E. J„ 299, SOD ^^^H

Public Debt. 65, 74. 68

Sailing vessels, 239, 248, 349

Works, Ministry of, 270, 387,

Solaverrv, 80, 236, 335. 330

8-23

Railway, 195

worship, 131145

Salt. 276, 277, 285, 30S, 838, S

Piino. Department of, 4. 40, 178. 160,

835

198. 288, 292

Salt Company, Nation»l, 78,276,;

Punta Oruesa. Battle of, 39

Salt revenues. 80

Pm'ils River, 6

Samanco, 160

Patumnyo RiTer, 6

Son Cri8t6bel, 2S5

rubber estates, 811.814

Ban Franoiseo, 237, 242

QoeohTia, 18
Quesada, Oonzalo, 13

329, 380
San Lorenzo Island, 6
San Marooo, University of, 83. M

94,100
San Martin, 16, 113

QuicksUver, 287, 292

Deportment of, 40^41. 18

Racing, horse-. 129

San Miguel district, 392

ItaOwny oonHiruotion, new, 226-286

Santa, 8, 334

Lima, 230

Bubara estate, 160, 1S6

RaUwavs, viii, i;i, i, 198-28S, 343

River, 3

Arloa and Tacna, 68

Savon, 232

capital invEHtfld in, 197

Sovings Bank. 87. 88

light. 262

Scenery, 7

Recuay. 228

School, Anglo-American, 97

Bud Cross 8 teamsbip Conip«u)y , 242,

EnKlish Commercial, 97

245

of Agriculture. Nfttronal, 88,

Registry of Iwided OTopertj, 821
Regulations, Consular, 882

103

of ConuncTce (Techuoal), fl

Reli'Kon.lSI 145, 288

of Medicine, 116

Rentals, 122

of Mine*, 266

Smkuw, 108, lOB, laO, lU, 168

Bawanga, CtJSao, 800
flhkf»r, P. J.. SSS
BfaMTing, 17B. 179
BbMp, m-179

dirtriou, 17S
BhipplnK, *. M, S5, 386-251
Bbopa, railwaj, 908
eUm. IM
Bl0«i>iil-Cui«o Bkilwky, !1SB

BHwr, 3U. 984, aaS, 386, MO

SiiiKMia uid Sona, 11BC

SnuUpoi, 06

Binali«s.aBa

Boap, 176, 18S, 306

8oU»ra, 48, 03

Sotil. Lieuunant, U.A., 33

Southern Railway, ii. x. 195, 108-

906. 937, 934. 340, 251, 903
Spain. 96. M, 100^ 886

mar with, 16, 18, 48, 89
Spanikrdi. 43, 180
Bpaniah eonqoerora. 11

Sporta, 139. 180

Siutdard xauRe raUwaya, 196

tiuuidfait, Bav. W. !>., 07. 184

State railwara. 197

Stationt, raUway. 199. 308. 313, 318

Stvaniahipa, 4. 46, 65, 286 951

Slornia, 6

Suhurhaol Lima, 116. 117. 118

Baera, lA

Bnpr, 133. 130, 130, 300, 88S, 886

enlliVatioo, I4A-149, 181-168
Mt*tM. 100^ 155. 167, 108, lOe,

160. 106, 197, 303, 388
EipMimanlBl Htallon, 148
rIpoltJ^ 147. 333, 218
ritnrtioii of, 160, 166
maehinrrr, U9-la^ 188, 189,

968, 369. 303
inilLi. 1411 lU

KuUivan. S. II.. 86

Sulphur. 3H.'>, -m

Supv. IflU. 937. JM

Kwaii. lluiilar. Wighain. and

Lr.l*..i:
Hwavnr Ilor

, 9W
r*. 166

Taena. Ih'parttnrni i-t. <

81.40.48. 1^1. -ivi
Tal».-., 377. :B6
Tautbu A,- Mun. 180
Twum, 33T

EX »47

Taiatioo, 147-190, 304, 360, 387,
820, 833, 898, 89^ 828, 880

Tax CoUecUng Company, National,
76-79, 186

TaL rubbMr, 880

Teohnical and Hiatorieal Institute,
103
Board of ValnaUoni, 103

Telegrtqth and poata, 67, 69, 60, 61,
89,88

Telegraphy, coat of, 69. 60
wirdoN, 46, 07, 08

Telephone eoropaniea, 66

Telepbonea, 66

Trmperatnre, 6

TeiUlea, 363-364. 884

Thoatrea, 103, 108

TieUo, 306, 307, 308

Timber, 397
, Tin. 316, 993
I Tirap*ta,30

Titicaca. Lake, 8, 31

Tobacco, 184, 186. 246, 386

TolWr, 18

Tooquini, 298

Tuppln, Captain H. 8 . X
' Track, TKilway, 198, 195, I9T. 198
; Tr«de-maika. 9tW, 979, 833. 838
I Tramway*. 361. 296, 809. 804, 800
I Trani-Andjne Railway, 'ijl

Traoaporu, 47

Treaty of Amity, 17
: Traea,8

Tr«i<'rorea. 8
[ Trujillo, a, C«. 386^ 809
I lUilway. 196. 933, 338

Univeraily, S8

Tumbea, Department of, 40, 41,
1»4,977
I RlTer, a

TunovU, 300. 348

Tnlnpaca, 7
' Twxldle. HarUn, 371

t'binaa, 7

I'cayali River, 8, 4, 6. lltt, 397. 340

tJnIled Kingdom, vi, vil, 1k|. 349.

363,364,360
L'nil«d Ktalae. vU. riil. 16. 19. 9H,
MX IM. 178, 174, 176, ITT. IM,
9I4-21B. 349, 948. 349, 364. 360,
390. 361, 368. 308, MXt. 818. 814,
8S8. 887
rniTvralj of Arvqulpa. 98
of Cufeo. BS, 90
of I Jma. 88. n. 94, lOi
of Su Uw«aa, at, 98, 94. IflO
alTk«jaio,9t

Digitized byGOOgle

348 PERU OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

UrOM, 237
Umburea Debt, 08
Unibamb* Bivar, 263
Umgiikj, 108

Yaooinftlioa Boud, 62

Nalioiul Institute, 66
VAlpaniso, 388, 241, 242
Vkliution, Teohniefti Board of, 102
Tiudnsehm, George, 90
VegetaUae, 884, 887
TenezoeU, 0, 12, 16, 287
YiMhk. 218, 220
ViUarAn, Dr. L. F.. 96
Villu, Coant del, 297
VilmOTin, M., 187
Voto&noea, 7

WKges, 123, 177, 294

Vfhr BQd Ukiine, Hinuter of, SO,

838
War of Independence, 16

Waterways, 8

Waterworks, Gallu, 209, 800

Wealth, mineral, 2SS. 290-395

Wheat, 186 187

Wieae, Don (hdllermo, 46

Winds, 5

Wireless telegraphy, 46. 67, 58

Women explorers, 20, 21

WoodrofEs, Colonel 0. J., 10, SO

Wool, 170, 180^ 252-264

Woollen faetories, 181

Wovkmeo, aoeidentB of, S...^

Wright, ItTB. Bobinaon, 21

YaTarl,e

Tonan-ChUete Railway, 2B5

Young Hen's Ohrirtian Aaaoeiation,

103
YuoQnutfu, 7
Yonga Indluie, IS

Digitized byGOOgle

DiailizodbyGOOgle

3 2044 018 931 162

The borrower must rciiini this ilcm on or before
the last date stamped below. If another user
places a recall for this item, the borrower will
be notified of the need for an earlier return.

Non-receipt of overdue notices does not exempt
the borrower from overdue fines.

Harvard College Widener Library
Cambridge, MA 02138 rT4ta«^5-2413

Please handle with care.

Thank you for helping lo presen'C
library collections at Harvard.

DiailizodbyGOOgle

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Peru of the twentieth century"

See other formats