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byGooglc
THE PETROL ENGINE
b, Google
BOOKS FOR MOTOR ENGINEERS.
Electrical Ignition for Internal Combustion Engines. By
M. A. Godd. 109 illus., i6j pp., cr. 8vo. ,^j. net.
Introduction— Principle o£ Electric Flow— Batteries — Switches —
Coils — Auto -Tremblers- — Lodge Ignition — Distributors — Magneto
• Ignition — High Tension Magnetos — Faults and Remedies — Mag-
neto Repairs — Induction Coil Design- — Index.
Dynamo Lighting for Motor Cars. By M. A. Codd, Author
of " Electrical Ignition for Internal Combustion Engines." 128
illus,, vi -I- q6 pp. 8vo. 2s. 6d. net.
Introduction and General Principles — Fitting the System — Wiring
the Car — Permanent Magnet System — Permanent and Electro -
Magnet System — Electro-Slagnetically Governed System — Electro-
Magnctically Controlled System — Mechanically Controlled System —
Hot Wire Controlled System — Some useful Accessories — Upkeep,
Maintenance, and Location of Faults — Index,
Englisli -French and French -English Dictionary of the
Motor Car, Cycle and Baat, By Frederick Lucas. 171 pp..
Motor Cycles, Side Cars and Cycle Cars, Construction,
Management and Repair. By V. W. Page, M.E. A comprehensive
non-technical treatise, defining all forms of the lighter self-propelled
vehicles, principles of operation, construction, and practical appli-
cation of component parts. 8vo, 344 illus., 550 pp. [New York.)
6s. 6d. net.
The Modern Gasolene Automobile, its Design, Construction,
Maintenance and Repair. By Victor W. Page, M.E,, late Tech-
nical Editor of the " Automobile Journal." 500 illus., 693 pp., 8vo.
(New Yorh-) izs. net-
Drawings for Medium Sized Repetition Work, with
Examples of Drawings for Motor-Car Parts. By R. D, Spinney,
A.M.I.Mech.E, 47 illus., 130 pp., 8vo. 3s, 6d. net.
Motor Body Building in all its branches. By C. W. Terry,
Organizer and Inspector of the City and Guilds of London Institute
With additional matter by Artliur Hall, Graduate member ol
"The Institute of British Carriage Manufacturers," 1st class certi
ficate in honours of the City and Guilds of Lozidon Institute, and
other awards ; Instructor in Motor Body Building, Municipal Tech
nical College, Brighton, etc., etc. Medium 8vo, 256 pp., 15 illus.
5 plates. 10s. 6d. net.
E. & F. N. 8P0N, LTD., 57 HAYMARKET, LONDON, 8.W.
D,a,i,z.:i by Google
The Petrol Engine
A Text- book dealiag with the Principles
of Design and Construction, with
a Special Chapter on the
Two-stroke Engine
By
FRANCIS JOHN KEAN
B.Sc. (LoND.); M.I.M.E.
Fint-Clasa Honourman in Engineering; Head of the Motor Car Engineering
Department of the Polytechnic School of Engineering, Regent Street,
London, W. ; Formerly Lecturer on Experimental Engineer-
ing at McGill University, Montreal, Canada
71 ILLUSTRATIONS
TLntibm
E. & F. N. SPON, Limited, 57 HAYMARKET
j@rtD gorfc
SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123 LIBERTY STREET
191 S
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^1
AS''
^K'b
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CONTENTS
LtST OF Ili,cstration3 ....
Preface .......
CHAPTER I
Generai, pBiNCiPi^a—
Exploaive Mixtures
The Meaning of Suction
The Meaning of Compression
The Meaning of a Stroko .
The Otto Cycle
CHAPTER It
Description of a Typical Petrol Enoine—
The Cylinder
CHAPTER III
Engine Details^
The Piston
The Connecting Rod ....
The Crankshaft , .
The Flywheel
CHAPTER IV
The Valves —
Poppet Valves .....
Sleeve Valves .....
The Camshafts and Ektcentrio Shafts .
The Timing Wheels ....
The Crankchamber ....
344604 ^ ,
Du,i„.db, Google
CHAPTER V
ThB CARBUBETrOB AND CARBlTRATlOfJ
The Float Chamber
The Petrol Jet and Choke Tube
The Mixing Chamber and Throttle Valve
Recent ImprovementB in Carburettors
Fresnure Feed and Gravity Feed
CHAPTER VI
Ignition and Ignition Devices —
The Sparking Plug .....
The High Tension Magneto
The Ignition Coil
Wiring Diagram for Magneto Ignition Syster
Wiring Diagram for a Coil Ignition System.
Timing the Ignition . . . . .
CHAPTER VII
Lubrication—
Properties ot Oils . . . . .
Splash System of Lubrication
Improved System of Splash Lubrication
Forced Lubrication . . . . .
CHAPTER VIII
Katural or Thermo-Syphon Circulation
Forced or Pump Circulation
CHAPTER IX
E Points op a Good Engine —
Choosing the Niunbor of CyLnders .... 75
The Question of the Valves ..... 77
Economy and Durability ...... 79
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER X
Two -STROKE Engines—
The Two-port Two-atroke Engine
The "Kean" Duplex Air Scavenging Engine
The Twin-cylinder Two-stroke Engine ,
HOBSB-POWEB
Work
Power
Brake Horee-power
Rated Horse.power
Indicated Horse- power
The Indicator Diagram
CHAPTER XI
; Indicatoh Diaobaim—
Liquid Fuels —
Petrol
CHAPTER XII
Benzol
Alcohol
Paraffin
Thermal Efficiency
APPENDIX
Engine TEOOBtEs
Timing the Ignition,
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Descbiption.
Diagram to explain the meaning of Svction
Diagram to explain the meaning of Compression.
Otto Cycle. The Suction Stroke
Otto Cycle. The Compression Stroke.
Otto Cycle. The Power Stroke ....
Otto Cycle. The Exhaiist Stroke
General arrangement of a Modern. Petrol Engine
Sectional Drawing of a T-headed Cylinder .
Outside View of a Water-jacketod Cylinder
Stud
Bolt
Setecrew .......
Motor-cycle Engine with air-cooled Cylinder
Aeroplane Engine Cylinder ....
Cast-iron Piston ......
Method of fixing Gudgeon Pin ....
Three forme of Piaton-head ....
Connecting Rod in the form of a Stamping
Connecting Rod turned from a solid Bar of Steel .
Cranltpin and Crankwebs .....
Four-throw Crankshaft .....
Motor-cycle Crankpin .....
Balanced Crank ......
Sketch showing the unbalanced portion of a Crank
Balanced Two-throw Crankshaft ....
Force acting on a Flywheel Rim
Built-up Steel Flywheel .....
Flywheel turned from a Steel Stamping
General arrangement of a Poppet Valve
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X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fio. Description, page
30. Sectional Drawing ot the Cylinder of a Sleevo-valve
Engine 31
31. Sectional Drawing of tho Cylinder of a Sleeve-valve
Engine ......... 32
32. Poppet Valve-head, showing Slot for Grinding-inpurposea 34
33. Inlet and Exhaust Valve Cams ..... 34
34 . Eccentric Sheave and Rod for a Sleeve Valve 36
35. A Pair of Timing Wheels 37
36. A Crank Chamber, outaide end view .... 39
37. A Crank Chamber, sectional view .... 39
38. General arrangement cf -the Carburetting Plant , 43
39. Sectional Drawing of a Carburettor of the Jet Type , 44
40. Plain Form of the Choke Tube 47
41. Petrol Jet for alcmising the Petrol ... .48
42. Compensated Petrol Jet ...... 48
43. Automatic Spring-controlled Extra-air Valve . . 49
44. Plan View of Automatic Extra-air Valve ... 49
45. Sectional Drawing of a Sparking Plug . .51
46. A Sparkii^ Plug .... .52
47. Outside View of a High-tension Magneto .52
48. View ot High Tension Magneto showing Distributor and
Contact Breaker ....... 63
49. E^d View of High Tension Magneto . . .54
50. An Ignition Coil ....... 56
61. An Ignition Coil Case 57
52. Low Tension Contact Breaker for Coil Ignition (Wipe
Form) 68
53. Wiring DiagTRm for Four Cylinder Engine with Magneto
Ignition (High Tension) ..... 60
64. Wiring Diagram for Four Cyhnder Engine with Trembler
Coil Ignition . .... .01
55, Improved Sj-stem of Splash Lubrication ... 04
66. Sectional View of Connecting Rod end, showing Scoop
and Oil Trough 65
67. Forced Lubrication System ..... 66
68, Sectional View ot Rotary Oil Piunp .... 67
69, A Rotary Oil Pump 67
60. Thermo-syphon Water Cooling System ... 69
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Description. p
Forced Water Circulation by mewis of a Pump .
Forms of Water Piping ......
Two-port Two-stroke Enginn with Crankchamber Com-
proBFion ...,,,..
Diagrammatic Sketch of a Duplex Two -stroke Air
Scavenging Engine
General Arrangement of the " Kean " Two-stroke
Engine .........
Twin -cylinder IVo- stroke Engine with Crank chamber
Petrol Engine Brake
Force-space or " Work " Diagram ....
Petrol Engine Indicator Diagram. Four-stroke Cycle .
Petrol Indicator Diagram tor a Two-stroke Engine
Diagram of Valve-setting ......
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PREFACE
This book deals with principles. There are many books
which give a descriptive account of existing types of engines,
but my object in writing this volume has been to assist the
reader to obtain thoroughly soimd notions of the principles
at design and construction which underlie all current prac-
tice. If a man understands, for example, the construction of
the elements of a carburettor and how they ought to perform
their several functions, he should have no difficulty in
■ understanding any special type of carburettor placed upon
the market. In dealing with the subject of ignition I have
purposely avoided any detailed explanation of the mamier
in which the spark discharge is produced, because I felt
that it introduces new ideas and probably causes the reader
to lose sight of the fact that the magneto is only, after all,
an accessory, although of course a most important one. I
hope that the accounts of my experiments with the two-
stroke win be of some service to inventors and others ; the
many extraordinary breakdowns, defects and adventures
encountered during this period of my career have not been
inserted because they would undoubtedly cause the reader
to forget, for the time being, his fundamental principles.
My colleague, Mr. Oliver Mitchell, who lectures at the
Polytechnic on " Motor Car Management and Inspection,"
has read through the proofs for me and very kindly sug-
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xiv PREFACE
gested aeveral small additions to the text, which I have
incorporated ; he also suggested the insertion of the valve-
setting diagram in the Appendix. My thanks are due
to Mr. Mitchell for his services and also to my wife for her
assistance in the preparation of the Index.
FRANCIS JOHN KEAN.
The Polytechnic School of Engineering,
Regent Street, London, W.
July, 1915.
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THE PETROL ENGINE
CHAPTER I
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Explosive Mixtures. — -If a small quantity of liquid
petrol or benzol be placed in an open vessel and exposed
to a current of air it will quickly disappear or evaporate.
We say that the liquid petrol has been vaporized or turned
into petrol vapour.
A mixture of air and
petrol vapour can be
ignited and burnt,
the rate of burning
being afEected by the
strength of the mix-
ture. The strength
of the mixture is
determined' by meas-
uring the respective
volumes of air and
petrol vapour present
in a known volume |
of the mixture. It is I
possible to form a
mixture of air and
petrol vapour in such
proportions that
when ignited by an
electric spark it will _
^ Fig. 1.— Diaqbam to Explain the
be completely burnt Mbaninq of "StrcrioN."
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■-TflE PETROL ENGINE
ttt-sflch a'tate tliatthe eombuetion is almost instantaneous,
i.e., it will explode. This mixture of air and petrol vapour
would then be referred to as an explosive mixture and woiJd
be suitable for supplying to the cylinder of a petrol engine.
The Mean-
ing of Suc-
tion. — ^Imagine
an iron cylinder
A (Fig. 1) held
down on a
rigid base C
and fitted with
a gas-tight
piston B. If
we pull the
piston down
sharply to the
position shown
in Fig. 2 we
will realize that
there is appar-
ently some
force inside the
cylinder which
is trying to
suck the piston
up again. The
^ fact that . the
piston in beine
Pia. 2.— DiAGBAM TO Explain the Meaning . , , ,
OP -CoMPKEssioN." withdrawn and
no more air or
gas admitted above it to fill up the volume it has displaced
on its descent causes a partial vacuum in the cyUnder. Now
if by means of a tap or valve of some kind we could put the
cylinder in communication with the atmosphere, air would
rush in and fill up the cylinder until the pressure of the gases
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES 3
in it became equal to atmospheric pressure, when no more
air could enter, because there would be no excess of pressure
to force it in. In technical language we would say, " the
piston has sucked in a charge of air " through the tap
or valve.
The Meaning
of Compression.
— Close the tap or
valve and push
the piston up
again sharply to
its original posi-
tion of Fig. 1.
You win now en-
counter consider-
able resistance and
experience a force
pushing down
against you be-
cause you are
reducing the vol-
ume of the gas
and thereby
increasing its
pressure ; that is
to say, you are
compressing the
gas, because you
are now making
an amount of gas
that recently occupied the whole cylinder fit itself into
the small space between the top of the cylinder and the
crown of the piston. In technical language you would say,
" the piston has now compressed the charge " of gas
within the cylinder.
The Meaning of a Stroke. — In an engine such as is
1. — Otto Cycle. The Suction Stroke.
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4 THE PETROL ENGINE
shown diagrammatically in Figs. 3 and 4, when the piston
P moves from its topmost position in the cylinder down
to its very lowest position we say it has completed a down-
stroke, and when it moves upwards from its lowest to its
highest position we say the piston has completed an
-~ up- stroke. The
length of the pis-
ton's stroke is
equal to twice the
length of the crank
radius R, and is
measured by ob-
serving the dis-
tance moved by
the piston in
travelling from its
highest position in
the cylinder to its
lowest or vice
versa. The space
existing above the
piston between it
and the cylinder
head when the
piston has reached
its highest position
in the cylinder is
called the clearance
space. It is also
referred to as the
combustion cham-
ber, or chamber in which the petrol gas is exjdoded. When
the piston is either at the top or bottom of its stroke the
crank radius R and connecting rod T are in one and the
same straight line ; under these conditions we say the
crank is on its inner or outer dead-centre .
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES 5
The Otto Cycle. — Most petrol engines operate on what
is known as the " Otto " cycle, in which the cycle of events
is completed once in every four strokes {or two revolutions)
made by the engine. The " Otto " cycle is therefore
usually referred to as the four-stroke cycle. In the accom-
p a n y i n g dia- «
grams (Figs. 3,
4, 5, and 6) we
show i n [^d i a-
grammatic form
the interior of a
petrol engine
cylinder fitted
with mushroom
type valves.
In st u d y i n g
the figures we
assume the
engine is being
cranked round
by hand in the
direction of the
arrow while we
view it from the
" flywheel " end
{i.e. the end
adjacent to the
driver's seat),
then A is the
pipe which leads ^^^ 5.— Otto Cycle. The Power Stroke.
the mixture of
air and petrol vapour from the carburettor to the cylinder
and is called the induction pipe. C is the cylinder,
P the piston, I the inlet valve, E the exhaust valve, T
the connecting rod, R the crank, and S the sparking
plug. The pipe B which leads the burnt gases from the
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6 THE PETROL ENGINE
exhaust valve to the silencer ia called the exhaust pipe.
The cycle of operations is as follows : —
(1) On the first down-stroke made by the piston a
suction effect or partial vacuum is produced in the cylinder ;
the air and petrol vapour in the induction pipe being at
_ atmospheric
pressure, which
is in excess of
that now exist-
ing in the cylin-
der, flow into
the cylinder as
soon as the
inlet valve I is
opened by the
engine mechan-
ism. At the
end of this, the
suction stroke,
the inlet valve
closes and traps
the charge of
exjdosive mix-
ture in the
engine cylinder.
This is shown
in Fig. 3.
(2) On^the
first u p -
^ ^ ^ ^. ... r^ <= Stroke made
Fia. 6.— Otto Cycle. The Exhaost Stroke.
by the piston
the charge of explosive mixture is compressed ready for
firing. Both valves are shut. This is shown in Pig. 4.
(3) On the second down-stroke made by the piston
the sparking plug S passes a spark which explodes the
charge at the very commencement of the downward move-
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES 7
ment of the piston. The force of the explosion drives the
piston downwards, doing useful work. Both valves are
shut. This is the power stroke, and sufficient power must be
developed on this stroke not only to do the work required
from the engine but also to tide it over the other three
idle strokes. On this stroke the piston drives the crank
by means of the connecting rod, but on the other three
strokes of the cycle the crank has to drive the piston by
means of the power or energy stored in the engine flywheel
on the power stroke. Towards the end of the power stroke
(or explosion stroke) the engine mechanism opens the
exhaust valve E and allows part of the burnt gases to
escape to the silencer along the exhaust pipe. This is
shown in Fig. 5,
(4) On the second up -stroke of the cycle the piston
pushes the remaining burnt gases out of the cylinder through
the exhaust valve. When the piston reaches the top of
its stroke the exhaust valve closes. This is shown in Fig.
6, The cycle of operations then begins again, giving one
power stroke and three idle strokes each time as already
described.
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CHAPTER II
DESCRIPTION OF A TYPICAL PETROL ENGINE
For the purpose of explaining the cycle of operations we
have considered only a diagrammatic sketch of an imaginary
motor-car engine, but in Fig. 7 we Illustrate an up-to-date
motor-car engine. In the first place we note the position
and arrangement of the four water-cooled cylinders. A,,
A„ Aj, A„ containing their pistons and mushroom type
valves. These are conveniently placed in a vertical position
and mounted on top of the crankchamber C, to the bottom
of which is attached the oil-base B. At the front of the
engine are shown the timing wheels in their casing E, and
at the rear end the flywheel F, The starting-handle con-
nexion is at S, the fan pidley being shown at M. The
high tension magneto which supplies the current to the
sparking plugs is shown at H, and I is the induction pipe
connected to the carburettor K. The water circulating
pump is on the off side of the engine and does not appear
in the illustration, but Li is the inlet water pipe leading
from the radiator {not shown) to the water pump, and L^ is
the delivery pipe from the pump to the respective cylinder
jackets, L, being the outlet water pipe. The exhaust pipe
is shown at D, and the oil pump at P. The valve springs,
valve tappets and guides can also be clearly seen. In
examining the several parts of the engine in detail we must
not lose sight of their respective positions in the general
arrangement view of Fig. 7.
The Cylinder. — Probably one of the most important
parts of an engine is the cylinder. As we have already
seen, it is inside the cylinder that the charge of petrol
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DESCRIPTION OF A TYPICAL PETROL ENGINE 9
vapour and air ia exploded and completely burnt. The heat
energy of the petrol mixture which ia liberated by the
explosion is immediately transformed into mechanical
work and propels the piston forward like a projectile from
a gun. But we must also notice that our present-day
arrangements (clever as they are) are by no means perfect,
and we cannot, even under the most favourable <
Fio. 7. — Obkbral Arbanobkeht of a Modern Petrol Enqinb.
stances, convert more than about one-third of the heat
energy of the petrol mixtiu^ into the mechanical energy
of the moving piston. Of the remaining two-thirds of the
heat, part is used up in heating the cylinder walls, the
piston and the valves, and the remainder goes out with the
exhaust gases to the silencer, finally escaping to the outside
air. Thus two important facts are brought to our notice : —
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10 THE PETROL ENGINE
(1) The reason why we use petrol to drive our motor-
cars is because petrol (and certain other liquid fuels such
as benzol, etc.) contains within itself a store of energy
which can be liberated as heat when the fuel Is burnt or
exploded in the presence of air in the engine cylinder,
2) At the present day, even with our most up-to-date
contrivances, we cannot make use of two-thirds of the avail-
able heat in our petrol. Instead of being able to turn this
heat into useful mechanical work, we are compelled to
throw it away — to waste it. Further than that, we have
to make special provision to ensure that it shall be wasted
as quickly as possible and as easily as possible. We take
out the greatest amount that we can possibly turn into
work and then hasten to dissipate the remaining two-thirds.
We cast hollow chambers on the outside of oxa cylinders
through which we circulate cold water to keep down the
heat in the cylinder walls ; if our cylinder walls and piston
get too hot our engine may seize up, therefore we must
cool them to ensure satisfactory running. Again we make
large exhaust valves and provide a free escape through the
silencer for the exhaust gases, bo that when we have snatched
our useful one-third of the heat supply we may throw the
remainder away into the atmosphere as rapidly as possible.
— this part is of no use to us, we cannot turn it into work,
then why let it stay here and heat our cylinder walls and
piston still further ?
It is a good plan to extend this hollow chamber, contain-
ing the water in circulation, at least round the whole of the
combustion chamber and all round the inlet and exhaust
valve passages and down the barrel of the cylinder as far
as the walls are likely to come into contact with the hot
gases from the explosions. We refer to this hollow chamber,
with its circulating water, as the water-jacket of the cylinder.
It is not absolutely essential to have our cylinder water-
jacketed, especially with small engines for motor-cycles
and engines for aeroplanes which have revolving cylinders,
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DESCRIPTION OF A TYPlCAi; PETROL ENGINE 11
but it IB practically essential in nearly all other cases.
Even in the special eases mentioned it is found necessary
to form special heat radiating fins on the outside of the
heated walls to assist in dissipating or getting rid of the
surplus heat and preventing seizure of the piston within
the cylinder. These fins are clearly seen on the cylinder
of the motor-cycle engine shown in Fig. 13.
Thus we may say that motor-car engine cylinders are
bound to be water-jacketed, i.e., to have a hollow space
round them containing water in circulation. The cylinders
themselves are nearly always made in the form of iron
castings and the jacket spaces form part of the cylinder
casting as a general rule, hut occasionally the water-jacket
space is formed by attaching plates or tubes to the cylinder
easting by means of bolts or screws — ^not an easy thing
to arrange auceessfully, as it requires water-tight joints.
The procedure for manufacturing a motor-car cylinder
is first of all to design and calculate the proportions of the
various parts and get out a set of working drawings. From
these drawings we get patterns and core-boxes made in wood.
The patterns are the exact shape of the finished cylinder
on the outside, and the core-boxes are the exact shape of the
inside of the finished cylinder (except in so far aa allowance
has to be made for parts which must afterwards be machined).
The patterns are pushed down into the moulding sand
in the foundry, and when withdrawn leave their impression,
thus forming moulds. The core-boxes are filled with sand,
which when withdrawn furnishes us with masses of sand that
are the counterpart of the interior of the cylinder in shape.
These cores are supported centrally in the mould (which
is usually in halves, or more than two parts), while the molten
iron is poured into the intervening space to form the iron
casting. When the casting has cooled down the sand can be
cleaned off quite easily. One set of patterns and core-
boxes will thus produce quite a number of cylinder castings,
each being similar in every respect to the other, the process
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12 THE PETROL ENGINE
being a quick and fairly cheap method of reproduction.
Later on the cylinder barrel has to be machined and bored
out true to very fine limits by the uae of boring tools and
some kind of boring machine or lathe. The flanges or flat
faces have to be planed true in a planing machine and the
valve stem guides and valve aeatings must be carefully
and truly machined to correct size and shape.
Figs. 8 and 9 show two views of a single motor-car
engine cylinder, the water-jacket forming part of the
cylinder casting. In the figures C is the cylinder barrel or
bore ; J the water-jacket ; I the inlet tor the jacket
water ; the outlet for the jacket water ; D is for the
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DESCRIPTION OF A TYPICAL PETROL ENGINE 13
compresaion tap; S for the sparking plug; Vi, V, are
the valve seats; G„ G, are the valve stem guides; Hj,
Hj are caps which may be removed when the valves are
being put in or taken out ; i„ f „ f >, f„ f» are called
flanges. The flange i^ is used for attaching the cylinder
Fia. 9. — Outside View ov a Water-Jacketed Cylikder.
to the crankchamber ; while it is quite true that the
force of the explosion within the cylinder drives the
piston downwards, it is equally true that it also tends
to force the cylinder head off or to blow the cylinder
casting upwards off the crankchamber, unless it is
securely fastened to it by means of screws or bolts
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THE PETROL ENGINE
Stud Bolt
Fig. 10. Fia. 11.
Set SCREW
°' ■ Fia 13.— MoToa-CYCLB Enoine
Valves both on
SIDE OF Cylinder.
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DESCRIPTION OF A TYPICAL PETROL ENGINK 15
passing through the flai^ fi. The flanges, f,, fj are
for the inlet and outlet water pipe attachments, and
fi, fg are for the induction pipe and exhaust pipe
connexions. Generally the pipes will have flanges and
be held tight against the flanges on the cylinder casting
by means of screws or studs. Figs. 10, 11, and 12 show
how two metal flanges are held in contact by means of
screws or studs or bolts, and they also show the packing
materials between the metal surfaces which keep the joint
tight and prevent water or gas leaking across the flanges
and escaping to the outside air, or air leaking in if the
internal pressure is below that of the atmosphere.
In Figs. 8 and 9 the valves are placed one on each
side of the cylinder, this form of cylinder being known as a
T-headed cylinder, but it is rather more usual here in
England to place both valves on the same aide of the cylinder
and next to each other as indicated in Fig. 13, this form
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16 THE PETROL ENGINE
of cylinder being known as an L-headed cylinder. The chief
object is of course to avoid the use of two valve shafts
and also to produce a neater looking engine, but the T-
headed design is better cleaned or scavenged by the passage
of the inlet and exhaust gases. When a motor-car engine
has two cylinders we frequently find them both in a single
casting, having a common water-jacket, and then we say
they are cast in pairs. A four-cylinder engine may thus
have: (1) Cylinder cast separately; (2) Cylinders cast in
pairs ; (3) Cylinders cast era bloc ; or all four in a single large
casting. The third method is cheapest in first cost, but
in the event of breakage will become the moat expensive.
The second method is a sound compromise.
An example of a built-up cylinder and water-jacket is
shown in Fig. 14, the cylinder barrel being of steel tube with
steel flanges, and the water-jacket being formed by copper
tube slipped over the outside of the steel cylinder. Its
great advantage lies in the reduction of weight, and it is
thus largely used for aeroplane work. The valves would
then be fitted in the top cover of the cylinder and driven
by overhead gearing.
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CHAPTER Hi
ENGINE DETAILS
The Piston is perhaps the most important detail to
consider, for it is on the piston that the force of the explosion
acts when the heat energy is converted into mechanical
energy. It must be made sufficiently strong to withstand
the bursting effect of successive explosions, and yet if we
make the metal too thick it will retain too much of the
ivaate heat and the piston may seize in the cylinder due to
expansion. - To understand why the piston is likely to
seize in the cylinder we have only to remember that when a
metal body is heated it gets larger in every direction, but
if cooled it returns to its original size. Now if we make the
metal of the piston too thick so that the waste heat cannot
pass quickly through it and dissipate itself at cooler parts
of the engine, then the bulk of this heat will be concentrated
in the piston head, causing it to expand and become a
t^ht fit in the cylinder, as the cylinder walls are fairly
thin and in contact with the jacket water which keeps
them fairly cool and prevents them expanding much
above their normal size. The actual amount of expansion
is very small of course, but there is very little clearance
between the piston and the cylinder walls, even when the
engine is all cold — ^perhaps five-thousandths of an inch.
The piston therefore must be strong, yet as l^ht as we can
make it, having regard to the necessity for its being amply
stiff and rigid and able to stand up to its work.
Generally it will be an iron casting in the form of a small
cylinder (see Fig. 15), having provision in it for the packing
rings P, and the gudgeon pin G, with its fastening screws
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18 THE PETROL ENGINE .
S„ Sj, The piston itself, as we have observed, must be a
nice sliding fit in the bore of the cylinder without any shake
or side play when there are no packing rings in the grooves.
The packing rings are turned to size so as to fit the cylinder
exactly and prevent any gaa leaking past the piston into J.he
crankchamber. These rings are very light, are made from
cast iron, and arranged to break joint, as indicated, by cutting
the middle ring in the opposite direction to the two outer
1 the inside of the piston and after-
P
P
P
Fjg. 16.— Two
wards bored out to receive the steel gudgeon pin or wrist
pin G. This pin is best made of plain parallel cylindrical
form ground true, and the bosses in the piston should be
reamered out to the exact size of the pin. When the pin
has been inserted the tapered screws are screwed hard up
by means of a special spanner and bear against the pin,
preventing it from coming loose or from shaking or knocking.
There are many other methods of fixing the gudgeon pin
which are not shown here ; each has some special point in
its favoijr, but the one illustrated is undoubtedly the best
and affords a positive adjustment for wear.
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ENGINE DETAILS 19
An enlarged view of one of the bosses, showing the taper
pin in detail and how the split pin Q prevents it from slacking
back by contact with the wall of the piston, is shown in
Fig. 16. Sometimes the lower part of the piston is made
lighter by drilling holes through the walls. It is very
important to reduce the we^ht of the piston as much as
possible, otherwise the
engine cannot attain a
high speed, so that it be-
comes essential to bear
this in mind when con-
structing engines for
racing purposes. Fre-
quently we find steel
pistons used, as they may
be made lighter for the
same strength, and then
steel piston rings may be
used ; they are not much
in favour for ordinary
motor-car engines because Fio. le— Mi^bod of pixino the
~ Gudgeon Pin which allows
the steel pistons expand roa Adjustment aftbb Wear.
at a greater rate than the
cast iron of the cylinder, so that there is more liability to
seizure. The crown of the piston is sometimes curved
upwards and at other times curved downwards, but more
often it is flat as shown in Fig. 17. The gudgeon pin is
Fia. 17. — Tbkei; forms of Piston Heai
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20 THE PETROL ENGINE
sometimes made of mild steel, and the surface is then case-
hardened in the centre where the connecting rod end bears.
FlO. 18.— X^ONNECTING ROO
Phosphor Bronze
At the present time it is quite as common to find gudgeon
pins made of special nickel steel or other steel alloys that
do not require case-hardening. On the whole these special
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ENGINE DETAILS 21
steels make the best gudgeon pins and stand the hardest
wear.
The Connecting Rod is another very important detail
of the engine mechanism, its function being to transmit the
force of the explosion from the piston to the crankshaft.
One end of the connecting rod moves up and down with
the piston and oscillates (or swings to and fro) on the
gudgeon pin,
while the other
end of the con-
n e c t i n g rod
travels in a
circle, being
pivoted at the
crankpin and
rotating in a
circle which has
for its centre
the centre line
of the engine
crankshaft .
This is clearly
indicated in
Fig. 18. On
the suction
stroke of the ^^<'- 18.— Steel Connectino Rod turned
engine the pis-
ton has to be pulled down, as we have abeady seen ; on the
explosion stroke the greatest pressure acts on the piston and
pushes the connecting rod down. Thus sometimes the con-
necting rod is being pulled and at other times it is being
pushed; in each case it has to overcome the resistance of the
engine and drive the ear. It is evident, therefore, that the
character of the load carried by a connecting rod is just
about as complex and dangerous as it is possible for a system
of loading to be, and great care has to be taken in the design
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22 THE PETROL ENGINE
of such rods to ensure adequate strength without undue
weight, as this would tend to keep down the maximum
speed of the engine. Another important consideration is
the cost of production, and for this reason one often finds it
in the form of a phosphor bronze stamping of I section,
although the ideal form is a round section of steel with a
straight taper from gudgeon pin to erankpin end, and having
a hole bored right up the centre to reduce the weight without
eacrifieing much strength. When the rod is made in the
FiQ. 20. — Crahkpin and Crankwebs.
form of a stamping between dies it is possible to turn out
great quantities at very low cost and at a very rapid rate,
whereas the round steel rods would require to be machined
from the solid bar to compete in price with the others.
When phosphor bronze is used it is only necessary to bore
out carefully and face the bearings at the two ends for the
gudgeon pin and erankpin ; the bearing at the erankpin
end is always formed with a removable cap to facilitate
fitting it nicely to the erankpin, journal and also to allow
for adjustment as the bearing wears. With steel rods it is
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ENGINE DETAILS 23
necessary to cast a white-metal lining In the crankpin
end and then bore it out to
form the bearing, but the
crosshead bearing is usually
formed by a phosphor
bronze bush. It is evident,
therefore, that the steel rods
are mora expensive, but they
make a splendid mechanical
job, A steel connecting rod
is shown complete in Fig. 19.
Stamped steel rods of I see- p
tion are also commonly used 3
and are much better and |
stronger than those made 3
entirely of phosphor bronze. ^
The Crankshaft, as its |
name implies, is a shaft with I
one or more cranks or right- |
angled bends in it. Its |
function is to convert the m
sliding motion of the piston 3
into the rotary motion of the
flywheel and revolving shaft.
A crankshaft with a single
throw (or single crank) is
shown in Fig. 20 ; a four-
throw crankshaft is shown
in Fig. 21 ; and Fig. 22
shows how an equivalent
motion can be obtained by
a single pin fixed into the
face of a flywheel. This
device (Fig. 22) is frequently
used for motor-cycle engines. Crankshafts are always made
of steel ; sometimes mild steel is used, but more usually
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24 THE PETROL ENGINE
special alloys of ateel con-
taining chrome, nickel,
vanadium, etc., are used.
The general practice at the
present time is to machine
the crankshaft direct out
of a solid bar of steel ;
this requires special jigs for
holding the work and special
tools for cutting the metal,
but is the quickest, cheapest,
and most satisfactory
method to adopt. A few
firms specialize in this class
of work with high-grade
steel and can supply crank-
shafts from stock.
It is easily seen by exam-
ining Fig. 18 that the crank-
shaft is being twisted in
overcoming the engine re-
sistance, while Fig. 20 shows that the crankshaft is being bent
under the push from the connecting rod, so that we say the
material of a crankshaft is subjected to combined bending and
twisting, and as such a combination is not easy to resist we see
now why special steel alloys are required for safety, combined
with economy in material and reduction of weight. In Fig.
20 the crankpin is shown at A, the crank cheeks or webs
at E„ Bj and the crankshaft proper at C. The portions of
the crankshaft C which work in the bearings Di, Dj are
termed journals. A crankshaft must be very stiff and not
bend or twist sensibly, otherwise the shaft will vibrate
when the engine runs up to speed — which would be very
undesirable. It must be perfectly true with all the bearings
absolutely in line and the journals well bedded down in
their respective brasses (or bearings), otherwise mechanical
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ENGINE DETAILS 25
troubles wiU arise.
Each crank with
its crankpin and
webs forms a lop-
sided or un-
balanced mass,
so that either { 1 )
each crank must
have its own
balance weight as
in Fie. 23, or (2)
^ Fig. 23. — Sketch of a Balanced Crank.
special balancmg
masses must be fitted at each end of the crankshaft. A
convenient method of balancing the crankshaft is to have
a fan pulley at one end and the flywheel at the opposite
end, so that by drilling holes in the faces of these discs
an amount of metal may be removed from them sufficient
to balance the excess weight of the respective crankpins
and webs. In Fig. 24 the shaded area indicates that por-
tion of the crank which constitutes an
unbalanced mass. Crankshafts for high-
speed engines have always to be very
carefully balanced, otherwise the engines
will never run satisfactorily, the want of
balance being greatly aggravated as the
speed of rotation increases. Fig. 25 shows
how the crankshaft of a two-cyUnder engine
may be balanced by drilling holes in the
flywheel and fan pulley respectively, but the
same effect may be produced by attaching
F I o . 2 4.— balancing masses— this latter method would,
Sketch however, be more inconvenient and expen-
T H B UN- sive. The crankpins and journals are
ground truly circular after being turned in
the lathe as true as possible.
The Flywheel. — We have already de-
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M
THE PETROL ENGINE
scribed how
the force
driving the
piston of a
motor-car
engine varies
during the
four strokes
of the cycle,
but we must note that it also varies considerably during
each individual stroke. Thus, on what is known as the
explosion stroke (or power stroke) of the cycle, the
pressure at the commencement of this stroke may be
exceedingly great and yet towards the end of the stroke
the gases have expanded and the exhaust valve has
been opened, so that the pressure acting on the piston
ia then very small. Again, on the compression, suction,
and exhaust strokes, the piston has to be pushed or
pulled by some means, as no power is being generated.
Therefore, if the engine is to be self-acting and run continu-
ously, some means must be provided for storing up the
great force of the explosions and giving it out again on
the idle strokes. The function of the flywheel is to store
any energy given to it over
and above that required to
drive the car and to give it
out again when required for
performing the functions of
compressing, exhausting,
and sucking in gas, as well
as to keep the car running
steadily. It is simply a
heavy wheel mounted on
the end of the crankshaft
which, when once started re-
volving at a high speed, is not
Fid. 26.— Sketch to itiUBTRATB
THE Forces acting on a Fly-
wheel Riu.
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ENGINE DETAILS 27
easily stopped, and which will give up part of ita energy each
time its speed is reduced owing to the demands of the engine ;
but when the engine is generating power the wheel will
speed up and store the excess — the mere fact that the wheel
is heavy causes these changes in speed to occur slowly,
and therefore on the whole the fivetuation of speed is not
great when a suitable flywheel is fitted. The flywheel does
not limit the maximum speed of the engine, as it could go on
slowly increasing in speed if no resistance was encountered
until the wheel finally hurst or flew to pieces. Thus the
Pia. 27. — A Flywhekl
Steel FoBOlKoa.
flywheel does not regulate the speed of the engine ; it merely
smooths out the inequalities in the several strokes of the
" cycle." Flywheels of motor-car engines are now always
made of steel, ao that they can be safely run at speeds up
to 3,000 revolutions per minute without fear of the rim
bursting. All parts of the rim tend to fly off radially
in the direction of the arrows as shown in Fig. 26 under the
action of centrijugal force, A built-up flywheel is shown in
Fig. 27, and one made from a single stamping of steel is
shown in Fig. 28. Generally speaking, when a coned clutch
is fitted one portion of it is formed on the inside of the
flywheel rim as indicated in these two figures. When the
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THE PETROL ENGINE
Fia. 28. — A Flywheel
Steel Stamping.
construction shown in Fig, 28 is adopted the lining would
be inserted after the clutch cone had been put into place ;
very often the lining is made up of sections which can be
readily inserted or withdrawn after the cone is in position.
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CHAPTER rV
THE VALVES
Poppet Yfllves.— Valves are provided for the purpose
of controlling the admission of the mixture to the cylinder
and also for controlling the exhaust or ejection of the burnt
gases at the end of the firing stroke. The most common
form of valve is the mushroom or poppet type of valve
shown in Fig. 29, in which A is the valve head, B is the
valve stem, C is the valve seating, and D is the cotter hole
for the cotter E. It wUl he seen that the general appear-
ance of the valve is a disc of steel with a fine stem to it
simiiar to a mushroom in general outline— hence its name.
The valve has a coned face which is kept pressed down
on a coned seating by means of the pressing of a powerful
spring F acting on the washer G, which bears against the
cotter E and thus presses down the valve stem. To ensure
that the valve shall always come down' correctly on its
seating and make a gas-tight joint, the valve stem guide M
is provided.
The cam H raises the valve off its seat at the required
instant when the motion of the camshaft brings the cam
under the roller R. The cam lifts the roller vertically
and with it the tappet or push rod K, which slides vertically
upwards in the guide P and lifts the valve. The tappet is
provided with an adjustable head S kept in position by
the locknut T. To adjust the clearance between the head
of the tappet and the underside of the valve stem the lock-
nut T must first be slackened back and then the head S
can be screwed up or down as desired, the best clearance
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30 THE PETROL ENGINE
being about ^^ of an
inch ; the locknut ia
then tightened down
again. During this
operation the valve
must be down on its
seat. Sometimes to
reduce the noise
arising from the
tappet 'striking the
valve stem, the head
of the tappet is
padded with some
material such as
hard vulcanite fibre,
but this wears down
more quickly than
steel and requires
frequent adjustment.
The latest device for
reducing the noise
arising from the
valve mechanism
consists in totally
enclosing the valve
gear and springs
either by metal
plates bolted to the
Fia. 29.— General Arrangement of a cylinder casting or
Poppet Valve (A) with Tappet (K) ^ y extending the
AND Cam (H). 1 1, I .
crankcnamber to
cover it all in, and then it is certain to be well lubri-
cated. The exhaust valve is always liable to give trouble
either from leakage or seizure or other causes due to
the great heat of the exhaust gases, so that the valves are
often made now of tungsten steel alloy which is not
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THE VALVES 31
much affected by heat. If a mushroom type valve
leaks it can be ground in and made a tight fit on its
seating, provision usually being made for this in the form
of a slot cut in the valve head, as shown in Fig. 32, for
the insertion of a screwdriver or special tool. To grind
in a valve, re- _
move the cap
Q by umorew-
ing it, raise the
spring F by
pushing up the
washer G and
then withdraw
the cotter E.
Lift out the
valve and
smear the
coned face with
fine emery
powder and oil
(or water ) .
Put the valve
back and turn
it to and fro
by means of the
screwdriver, pio. 3o.— Sectionai. Dbawinq t
keeping a firm 2,^ * Suo^ve Valvb Enq
^ " Ports uncovered.
pressure down
on it ; continue the operation until by examining the valve
you ascertain that it touches on the seating all the way
round, then couple up the spring again, after carefully
removing all traces of the emery powder.
Sleeve Valves.- — Another form of valve which has
come very much into favour is the sleeve valve, two views
of which are shown in Figs. 30 and 31. In this case the
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32 THE PETROL ENGINE
gases enter the cylinder through porta or slots P cut in the
cylindrical cast iron sleeves Si, Sj, which are placed between
the piston K and the walls of the water-jacketed cylinder
C. These sleeves are moved up and down inside the
cylinder, while the piston travels up and down inside the
inner sleeve S,
just as though it
constituted the
cylinder C. Some
engines have two
sleeves, as shown
in the figure, but
others have only
one sleeve, and
there is very little
to choose between
the two types on
the score of effi-
ciency. The great
claim made for the
sleeve valve is
thatt it is almost
noiseless in action
and gives very
much fuller open-
ings for inlet and
outlet of the gases.
Fig. 31. — Sectional Drawing of the The piston has the
Cylinder or a Slekvb Valve Engine, , , ,
WITH Biff., rsr Ports uNcovBRBi>. usual number of
packing rings to
keep it gas-tight, and there is also a deep packing ring
provided in the head of the cylinder H to keep the sleeve
Si gas-tight and prevent loss of compression pressure.
The head of the cylinder is usually detachable, and
has often separate water connexions in the form of
pipes leading from the cylinder jackets. The sleeves
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THE VALVES 33
receive their reciprocating motion from eccentrics and
rods attached to pins shown at the bottom right-hand
comer of each sleeve. It might be expected that the
sleeves would get very hot or very dry and seize up, or
the piston might seize, but in actual practice this has not
occurred to any great extent, and on the whole they have
been very successful. It is, however, necessary to keep
the engine well lubricated, especially when the sleeves get
worn, as the oil prevents loss of gas by leakage past the
sleeves and piston. In Fig. 31 the two sleeves have come
together in such a position that the ports coincide with
the exhaust ports cut in the cylinder walls and therefore
the exhaust is full open, and as the sleeves travel at times
in opposite directions quick opening and closing of the porta
is secured. The cylinder head is held down to the cylinder
casting by screws or bolts and can be readily detached
for cleaning or inspecting the interior of the cylinder. The
great objection raised against the sleeve valves is their
excessive weight and the unmechanical manner in which
they are operated.
The Camshafts and Eccentric Shafts. — These are
usually made from the same material as the crankshaft
and machined from the solid bar, the projecting cams or
eccentrics bemg afterwards cut to the correct shape. In
the case of a camshaft it is very important that the shape
of the cams should be such that they lift the valves quickly
off their seats to the full extent of their opening {or lift),
keep them open for as long a period as desirable, and then
allow them to close quickly but without shock. Cams
which have straight sides are more in favour than those
with curved sides, but if the action of the cams is to be
theoretically correct the side of the cam should be carved
in such a manner that the valve is lifted at first with a
uniformly increasing speed and afterwards with a uniformly
decreasmg speed, so that it wUl be at rest in its top position.
If this is not done the valve tappet may jump a little above
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34 THE PETROL ENGINE
the cam each time the valve is
liited. In Fig. 33 the cam A
is intended for the inkt valve
and the cam B for the exhaust
valve, the essential difFerence
being that the exhaust valve
must be kept open longer than
the inlet valve, and therefore
the exhaust valve cam is the
Fig. 32. — Sketch showing wider of the two. The timing
Slot in a Poppet Valve of the inlet and exhaust valves
Head fob Grindimo-in
PURPOSES. of an up-to-date engme may be
explained by considering the
crankpin circle as divided into 360 parts or degrees. If there
were no lag or lead in the opening of the valves, then they
would open when the crank was on its dead-centre and close
when the crank was on its dead-centre. The inlet valve would
open when the crank was on its top dead-centre and close
when it had reached its bottom dead-centre, this representing
Fig. 33.— Inlet (A)
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THE VALVES 35
the suction stroke of the engine. Then would follow com-
pression and explosion, giving two strokes or one revolu-
tion before the exhaust valve commenced to open. The
exhaust valve would then open when the crank was on
its bottom dead-centre and close when the crank reached
its top dead-centre corresponding to the completion of
the exhaust stroke. It is very important that the pres-
sure of the gases above the piston when it commences to
move upwards on the exhaust stroke should be as low as
possible, and this can only be secured by opening the ex-
haust valve towards the end of the explosion or power
stroke, thus allowing the bulk of the gases to escape and
leaving the piston with little resistance to encounter on
its upward exhaust stroke. Therefore we give the ex-
haust valve a lead of about 30 degrees, which means that
it begins to open when the engine crank is 30 degrees from
the bottom dead-centre on the downward explosion stroke,
and we give it a lag of about 5 degrees in closing. This
means that we keep the exhaust valve open until the crank
has moved 5 degrees over the top centre, so that we may
fully utilize the momeniu?n. of the gases to clear out the
cylinder or scavenge it. As the piston moves rapidly up
the cylinder on the exhaust stroke it pushes the gases in
front of it out through the exhaust opening, but when it
gets to the top of its stroke the piston stops and then comes
down again for the suction stroke, whereas the gases will
tend to keep on moving if they are not unduly restricted
in their passage through the exhaust system, so that we
can generally obtain some slight advantage by giving the
exhaust valve a small amount of lag in closing.
The pressure of the gases in the cylinder after the exhaust
valve closes will nearly alwayi be a little above atmospheric
pressure, and therefore nothing is gained by opening the
inlet valve immediately the exhaust closes — we generally.
allow an interval of 5 degrees, which means that the total
lag of the inlet valve is 10 degrees in opening, or the inlet
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36 THE PETROL ENGINE
valve does not begin to open until the crank has moved
10 degrees off ita top dead-centre on the downward suction
stroke. At the end of the suction stroke the piston will
again come to rest before moving up on the compression
stroke, but the gases will continue to rush into the cylinder
from the carburettor owing to their momentum if we leave
the inlet valve open a
little longer, hence we
generally give it a lag of
20 degrees in closing,
which means that the
inlet valve does not close .
untU the crank has moved
20 degrees up from the
bottom dead - centre on
the compression stroke.
The camshaft requires
to be well supported in
bearings to prevent it from
sagging or bending under
its load. If the shaft
and the cams are not
made from nickel steel or
high-grade steel alloy,
they require to be case-
hardened (hardened on
Fia. 34. — ^EccENTBic Sheave (A) AND the Surface) to prevent
EccKNTBic Bod (B) fob oper- .i j j
ATiNG A Sleeve Valve. wear on the surfaces due
to the pressure of the
valve springs, which is considerable and may reach 100 lb.
per valve easily ; the same applies to the rollers of the
tappets. When sleeve valves are fitt«d to the engine,
eccentric sheaves must be used instead of cams, as no
springs are employed. An eccentric sheave with its strap
and rod are shown in Pig. 34. The valve shaft or lay
shaft is shown at C, and the sheave with the hole bored
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THE VALVES
37
eccentrically is shown at A, and E is the combined eccentric
strap and rod. The pin D operates the sleeve valve,
giving it a reciprocating motion in a vertical direction,
the angular movement being taken up by the oscillation
of the rod about the pin D, which would be fixed
into the sleeve. Sometimes a groove is formed round
the periphery of the eccentric disc or sheave to keep the
strap in position and prevent end movement. As the
weight of the sleeves is very considerable, the pin D and
the eccentric rod must be well proportioned to prevent
Fio. 33. — A Pair of Tihiko Wheei^.
undue wear.
The Tim-
ing Wheels.
— ^As there is
only one suc-
tion stroke
and one ex-
haust stroke
in every two
revolutions of
the engine
crankshaft, it
will be clear
that the camshaft or eccentric shaft must be driven at Aa// (Ae
spcerf of the engine crankshaft. This may be done by the use
of two gear wheels or wheels having teeth cut on their peri-
phery, such wheels when used for this purpose being called
timing wheels, because the positions of the cams on the cam-
shaft (or the eccentrics on the eccentric shaft) relative to the
engine crankshaft when the teeth of the timii^ wheels
are put into mesh determines the timing of the inlet and
exhaust valves, i.e., the instant at which they will open or
close. A pair of timing wheels is shown in T'ig. 35. The
pinion A has twelve teeth and is keyed to the engine crank-
shaft, but the wheel B, which is keyed to the valve shaft,
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38 THE PETROL ENGINE
has twenty-four teeth, and hence the valve shaft runs at
half the speed of the crankshaft. The wheels shown are
spur gears, and the teeth run straight across the rim of the
wheel ; it is, however, quite common to find wheels with
curved or helical teeth, as these run quieter. Sometimes
when spur gearing is used, one of the wheels is made of
fibre and the other of steel, but when helical gears are
used the wheels are generally made from nickel steel of
high tensile strength. The finer the pitcJi of the teeth
(i.e. the distance between the centres of consecutive teeth)
the quieter the gears will run, but the question of -strength
and the cost of production must also be considered. The
latest practice is to use a silent chain drive ; this originated
with the introduction of the sleeve valve and eccentric
shaft. When chains are used for the timing wheels provi-
sion must be made for taking up slack in the chain owing
to stretching of the links, and as this cannot be done in
the usual manner (by sliding the sprocket wheels further
apart) owing to the centres of the crankshaft and the valve
shaft being rigidly fixed by the bearings, a small jockey
pulley (with teeth on it similar to those on the chain sproc-
ket wheels) is provided attached to a short shaft or spindle,
which can be raised or lowered at will, and thus keep the
correct tension on the chain. The chain drive must be
more expensive and require more attention; moreover, it
cannot be so very much quie'er in action than good well-cut
helical gearing.
TTie Crankchatnber. — The crankchamher, as its nam©
implies, is the receptacle which contains and supports
the crankshaft and also the camshaft. It is generally
an aluminium casting, but frequently for commercial vehicle
engines the top portion is made of cast iron and the bottom
portion of sheet steel. In either case brass or gunmetal
bearings, often lined with white metal, are fitted for the
shafts to revolve in, and the engine cylinders are mounted
on the top of the chamber. Provision should be made
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THE VALVES
39
on the sides and ends of the erankchamber for fitting the
magneto and oil pump and also the wjter pump, if required.
There must also be some form of housing or extension of
the chamber to enclose the timing wheels, and sometimes
the whole of the valve gear is contained within the crank-
chamber to ensure proper lubrication for it and stop any
noise from it
reaching the
outside world.
It is also im-
portant that
there should be
large inspection
openings fitt«d
with proper
oil-tight covers
and some pro-
vision for easily
pouring large
quantities o f
oil down into
the lower por-
tion of the
chamber. The
design of a
crankchamber
necessitates
careful fore-
thought to en-
sure ample
provision for all the necessary attachments and fittings
and to seciu-e the maximum accessibility of all parta.
One or two vent pipes, consisting of upwardly projecting
pipes having their outer end covered with wire gauze and
screened from dust should be provided to allow hot air
and gas to escape from the chamber.
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40 THE PETROL ENGINE
Two views of a crankchamber of modern design are shown
in Figs. 36 and 37, In these figures A ia the top half of
the crankchamber which rests upon the chassis or frame-
work of the car, being bolted to an underframe at B and C.
The cylinders are attached to the chamber at the flange H
by means of studs and nuts. This portion, the top half
of the crankchamber, requires to be very strong and stiff,
because the upward pressure of the explosions acts on
the crown of the cylinder and tends to tear the cylinder
off the flange H, while at the same time it exerts a great
force . on the piston, pushing it downwards and tending
to force the crankshaft down out of it« bearings. In the
best practice the whole weight of the crankshaft is sup-
ported from the top half of the crankchamber and is car-
ried on the bearing bolts as shown at S, so that they also
receive the downward thrust of the piston and in tBeir
turn transmit it to the main casting.
The bottom half of the crankchamber then becomes
merely an oil container, or reservoir, and dust cover ; it
should be so arranged ard situated that it may be readily
removed for inspection of shaft and bearings from under-
neath. Sometimes the crankchamber has long arms, which
can be attached directly to the side members of the chassis,
or it may be supported in the chassis by a tubular cross
member.
In Fig. 37 the camshaft is shown at T ; the magneto
would be carried on the bracket E and driven by gearing
from the crankshaft. The facing at G is for the water
pump, which, in this case, is intended to be mounted on
an extension of the camshaft T. The oil pump would be
fixed at F, preferably towards the rear of the engine, so as
to secure an adequate supply of oil for the pump when the
car is climbing a steep hill. The oil could be drawn off
and the reservoir emptied by unscrewing the large plug
shown in the centre of D in Fig. 37. The timing wheel
housing or casing is shown at Q ; the oil ducts and con-
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THE VALVES • 41
nexions for supplying the main bearings with oil are not
shown in these drawings, nor are the inspection openings
and covers. The upper half of the crankchamber frequently
becomes very hot, due to conduction of heat from the metal
of the cylinders, and for this reason it has from time to time
been proposed to draw the air supply of the carburettor
through the crankchamber to serve the dual purpose of
cooling the bearings and heating the air supply to the car-
burettor ; but the idea has not found favour, as there is
considerable risk of dust and grit finding its way into the
bearings and causing trouble due to abrasion.
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THE CARBURETTOR AND CARBURATION
A CABBURBTTOE is a Contrivance for supplying an explosive
mixture of air and petrol vapour to a petrol engine. Petrol,
although a liquid fuel, is a combination of carbon and
hydrogen which, when supplied with the necessary air, can
be burnt and thus evolve heat, which heat is turned into
work inside the engine cylinder. What we have to supply
to the engine is really a mixture of air and petrol vapour
in certain proportions, such a mixture being often spoken
of as carburetted air on account of the carbon contained
in it. About two parts of petrol vapour (by volume) are
required to every one hundred parts of mixture, or fifteen
pounds of air to every pound of petrol vapour (by weight).
This carburetted air must be of the required strength and
form a homogeneous mixture in the form of a vapour.
The problem of carburation consists in forming a mixture
of the correct strength and character. Air may be car-
buretted by peissing it over the surface of liquid petrol in
a surface carburettor, or by drawing it over or among wicks
saturated with liquid petrol as in the wick type, of carbur-
eltoT, but both these methods have been largely superseded
by the use of what is now known aa a jet or spray type of
carburettor, in which the petrol is sprayed from a fine jet
and mixes with air which is passing up rapidly round the
outside of the jet. In all cases, however, the liquid petrol
must be vaporized before entering the engine, and to do
this heat must be suppUed to the mixture, just as water
has to be heated before it can be vaporized and turned
into steam. Under ordinary circumstances sufficient heat
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THE CARBURETTOR AND CARBITRATION 43
can be obtained from the incoming air to effect vaporiza-
tion of the liquid petrol if it issues in the form of a very
finely divided apray, but when thfe demand for mixture,
from the engine,- is great the
air cannot supply the re-
quisite heat without its
temperature falling below
the vaporization point;
hence most carburettors of
up-to-date pattern are fitted
with a mixing chamber sur-
romided by a hot-water
jacket. The essential fea-
tures of the carburetting
plant are shown diagram-
matically in Kg, 38, in which
A is the petrol lank fitted
with the petrol tap G, to
which is coupled the petrol
pipe F. Some form of petrol
^^ter as indicated at B should
be placed between the tank
and the carburettor C. The
throttle valve of the car-
burettor is
shown at H,
the extra-air
valve at E, and
the engine in-
duction pipe at
D.
The carbur-
ettor proper
may be con-
structed in a variety of forms, but the elements of which
it is composed are: (1) the float chamber A, (2) the petrol
I
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U THE PETROL ENGIKE
jet B, (3) the choke tube C, (4) the mixing chamber D,
and (5) the throttle valve E, aa shown in Pig. 39.
The Float Chamber is generally cylindrical in form
Fig. 39. — Sectional Drawing op a Cahbubettor of the Jgr Type.
and the liquid enters at the bottom, the flow being regu-
lated by a pointed rod called a needle valve. A hollov^
metal float which can slide freely up and down the needle
valve stem operates two levers which are pivoted on the
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THE CARBURETTOR AND CARBURATION 45
float chamber cover. It is well known that when a body
is immersed in a liquid the liquid exerts an upward pres-
sure on the body equal to the weight of liquid displaced
by the body. The float being hollow and made of very
thin sheet metal, displaces a very large quantity of hquid
in proportion to its own weight, and is therefore very buoy-
ant. The buoyancy of the float will, of course, depend on
the density of the liquid in the float chamber, and it will
naturally sink deeper down into petrol than it would into
a heavier spirit such as paraffin or benzol. The action of
the float is as follows : — Supposing the petrol to be turned
off and the needle valve lifted up off its seating, then on
turning on the petrol supply the petrol will run into the
float chamber, and as the level of the liquid rises the float
will rise too, lifting up the outer enda of the levers and de-
pressing the needle valve down on to its seating by means
of the collar which is rigidly attached to the spindle of the
needle valve. If at any time the level of the liquid in
the chamber faUs, the float will fall also, thus allowing the
outer ends of the levers to drop and raise up the needle
valve from its seating ; this allows more petrol to enter
the chamber and raises the float again, thus keeping a con-
stant level in the chamber.
The height of the orifice in the top of the petrol jet above
the bottom of the float chamber determines the height at
which we require the liquid to stand in the chamber. As
a general rule the level of the liquid in the float chamber
should be slightly below the top of the jet orifice to prevent
the liquid oozing over and causing flooding or continuous
dripping of petrol from the jet, even when the engine is not
running. The height of the collar on the needle valve
spindle must be adjusted until the fioat closes the valve
down on its seating when the liquid has risen to the desired
he^ht in the float chamber. Hence, it a carburettor has
been adjusted to work with petrol, it will require to have
some alight extra weight added to the fioat when working
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46 THE PETROL ENGINE
with heavier spirits to cause it to 8ink to the required depth
in these denser spirits.
The Petrol Jet and Choke Tube— The petrol jet
generally consists of a short tube of fine bore, one end of
which contains a very small orifice for the purpose of spray-
ing the petrol into the choke tube. When the engine is at
rest it is easily seen that the presaure of the air in the choke
tube is atmospheric, and that the presaure above the liquid
in the float chamber is also atmospheric, but when the
engine is running it draws air up the choke tube at a very
high speed and thus causes a partial vacuum round the
petrol jet, and therefore the petrol spurts out of the jet
under the pressure difference which then exists and issues
in the form of a fine spray which is readily vaporized.
The choke tube is purposely made of rather small diameter,
in order to get a high air speed, which results in a low pres-
sure round the jet and ensures a good driving force to
spray the petrol out of the jet. The speed of the engine
is controlled by the position of the throttle valve or disc E,
which regulates the amount of air flowing up the choke
tube, and therefore incidentally checks the quantity of
petrol issuing from the jet by regulating the vacuum in
the neighbourhood of the jet orifice. At low engine speeds
there is very fittle suction or vacuum effect on the jet, but
at high engine speeds with full throttle opening the maxi-
mum suction of the engine is exerted upon the jet. Thus
at low speeds with this type of carburettor we do not get
enough petrol out of the jet, and at high speeds we get too
much, which results in too weak a mixture at low speeds
and too rich a mixture at high speeds. One reason for this
is that the air flows out of the ehoke tube faster than it
flows into it, owing to the fact that its volume increases
as the pressure decreases, and hence the pressure round
the jet falls very rapidly indeed as the air velocity increases
and causes too much petrol to issue from the jet in pro-
portion to the quantity of air flowing through the tube.
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THE CARBURETTOE AND CARBURATION 47
The choke tube is often a plain piece of pipe, as shown in
Fig. 40, instead of being tapered a^ in Fig. 39.
The Mixing Chamber and Throttle Valve.— The
throttle valve is usually a plain flat disc of metal mounted
on a spindle which can be rotated and thua regulate the
size of the air passage to the engine. It is placed above
the petrol jet and situated in the mixing chamber, which
is simply a short length of pipe {of the same bore as the
engine induction pipe) surrounded by a hot-water jacket,
the supply of hot water being drawn from the
engine cooling system. The heat from this
jacket should be sufficient to make up for the
fall in temperature that would otherwise result
due to the vaporization of the petrol as ex-
plained above.
Recent Improvements in Carburettors.
— Another defect of this simple type of car-
burettor becomes apparent in the larger sizes ^'"plaiI^
required for multi-cylinder engines. To pass form of
the requisite quantity of petrol to keep the Tube.
engine running at high speeds without creating
too great a suction effort and thereby hampering the engine,
necessitates the use of a jet of larger calibre, so that the
liquid is no longer sprayed but issues in the form of a
fine stream which is not readily vaporized. This has been
overcome by the use of multiple-jet carbureUors which have
several jets each surrounded by its own choke tube, but all
controlled by one throttle valve and supplied from one com-
mon float chamber. In this case the total cross -sectional area
of all the jet orifices together could be made sufficient to pass
the necessary quantity of fuel, but the bore of each indivi-
dual jet orifice would be comparatively small and spraying
would residt as before. Another very successful device
is shown in Fig. 41, in which A is the petrol jet which, in
this case, has no special orifice and is surrounded by a larger
tube B containing small holes for the inlet of air and out-
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48 THE PETROL ENGINE
flow of petrol. As the petrol issues from
the jet it strikes against the pointed cone
on the end of the screw C, and is thus very
successfully atomized and broken into small
particles which can be readily vaporized.
There are several devices for keeping
the strength of the mixture constant at
all engine speeds irrespective of the amount
of vacuum in the choke tube. One of the
best of these is illustrated in Fig. 42, and
consists in the use of a compensating jet.
The'main petrol jet A is of sufficient size
to supply the requirements of the engine
Fio. 41.— Petrol under full speed and with the resulting high
ALLY AH- vacuum; it is fed directly from the float
BANQBD FOR chamber in the usual manner. The com-
THB Petroi. pensating jet B surrounds the main jet and
is supplied with petrol through an orifice C,
so arranged that it offers a greater resistance to flow than
the passage up the centre
of the main jet. At all
engine speeds up to a
certain predetermined
maximum the compensa-
ting jet will supply most
of the petrol, but as the
demand increases the
main jet will also begin
to supply, and simul-
taneously the compensa-
ting jet will commence
to go out of action owing
to its supply of petrol
becoming partly or wholly
exhausted due to the re-
striction of the orifice C.
Fig.' 42. — Compbnsatbd Pbtboi. Jet.
A'. la THE Main Jbt and B thk
Compensating Jet supplied
; Orifice C.
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THE CARBURETTOR AND CARBURATION 49
The simple jet-in-tube car-
burettor has been greatly im-
proved by the addition of an
atttoTnatic extra-air ixilve, of
which a eimple form is shown
in Pigij. 43 and 44. It con-
sists of a small mushroom type
valve A, with its seating B so
arranged that it can be screwed
into the induction pipe of the «. u
engine. The valve is held up Pig- 43. — Automatic Spbino
, ., ,. , ,. ., CONTROI.I.BD EXTBA-AIB
agamst its seating by a light Valve,
spring C, so that at high engine
speeds when there is a good vacuum in the induction pipe
the pressure of the atmosphere will open the valve against
the tension of the spring and allow air to pass into the
induction pipe, thus reducing the amount of vacuum and
simultaneously weakening the mixture.
The points of a good carburettor : —
These may be set out in the following order —
(1) Complete atomization and vaporization of the liquid
fuel at all engine speeds.
(2) The supply of an adequate quantity of gas of the cor-
rect proportions with all throttle opening) and at
all temperatures.
(3) Sufficient mechanical strength
and durability to withstand
road shocks and to ensure
freedom from breakdowns
without undue weigM or
complications.
(4) Ability to continue working
correctly when the car is on
an incline or affected by
Fio. 44.— Plan View ot the camber of the highway.
Automatic Extra- air , o j
Valve. (5) Moderate first cost.
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50 THE PETROL ENGINE
Pressure Feed and Gravity Feed. — -In Fig. 38 we
showed a gravity-fed system or one in which the petrol
is fed from the tank to the float chamber of the carburettor
by the action of gravity only. For this system to be suc-
cessful at all times the carburettor must be placed low
down to obtain a good head for the flow of petrol in the
connecting pipes, as there is a practical limit to the height
at which the petrol tank can be fixed. Also the pipes must
have a continuous run down towards the float chamber
to prevent air-locks in them, and they must be kept away
from the hot exhaust system. When all these points can
be secured this system is perfect. An alternative system
is to force the petrol into the float chamber by maintaining
an air pressure {of 2 or 3 lb. per square inch) on the sur-
face of the liquid in the petrol tank. With this arrange-
ment the carburettor may, if desired, be situated above
the level of the petrol trank in a more accessible position,
but it necessitates the fitting of a small air pump on the
engine and the use of a hartd air pump for starting.
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CHAPTER VI
IGNITION AND IGNITION DEVICES
We have already stated that the charge of explosive mix-
ture is ignited in the cylinder at the end of the compres-
sion stroke by means of an electric spark. The electric
spark takes place aa the result of an electric discharge
across the gap between the electrodes of the sparking plug.
The Sparking Plug. — Two views of a typical sparking
plug are shown in Figs. 45 and A
46, in which A is the Mgh tmsUm
electrode which is periodically
charged with electricity at high
voltage (or electrical pressure)
from a high tension magneto or
a h^h tension coU, and B„ B,
are electrodes which, being in
metallic contact with the cylin-
ders and framework of the engine,
are thus at zero potential. The
electric discharge occurs across
the gap Ci, C, in the form of a ■*
spark or flash. The electrode A
is heavUy insulated from the metal
casing D of the sparking plug by
porcelain insulators E and F.
The locknuts G and H serve to
keep the plug gas-tight and hold
the several portions together ^' ^2
mechanically. The terminal K is ^'o- *5- — Sectionai,
used for clamping the wire (or Sparkino Pi,ua.
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THE PETROL ENGINE
lead) which brings the supply of high ten-
sion electricity. The high tension electric
current may be supplied either by (1) a
magneto machine or {2} a coil and accumu-
lator ignition system.
The High Tension Magneto. — In Figs.
47, 48 and 49 we show a modem high
tension magneto suitable for a foiu'- cylinder
engine. It consists of the stationary mag-
nets A, the driving spindle B, the high
tension electrode D, the high tension dis-
tributor C, and the low tension contact
breaker E. The armature, condenser, and
distributor gear wheels are not shown in the
drawings, but are situated inside the machine
in the space between the high tension elec-
trode!) and the low tension contact breaker
I E, As the spindle B is rotated by gearing
driven from the engine crankshaft the arraa-
Fio. 47. — Outside View of a Hior Tension Maqnbto.
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IGNITION AND IGNITION DEVICES
'fljf^fdi
ture attached
to it gener- Li
ates a high
teiiBioii cur-
rent and a
low tension
current.
The high
tension cur-
rent passes
to the high
tension elec-
trode D and
thence across
the machine
to the carbon
brush H of
the high
tension dis-
tributor C.
The low
tension cur-
rent passes
through the
platinum-
tipped con-
tact screws
P„ F, of the
low tension contact breaker . Twice during each revolution
of the armature these contacts are separated owing to the fibre
block attached to the bell crank lever G passing over the
stationary cams T„ Tj ; this constitutes the make-and-break
device for interrupting the primary current. The momentary
interruption of the primary current in this way causes a
very great increase in the electrical pressure (or voltage)
of the secondary or high tension current which is sufficient
—End View of a High Tension Maonbto,
a HiQH Tension Distributor and Low
Tension Contact Bee a KB r.
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THE PETROL ENGINE
armature and the engine crankshaft for any type of
engine. A four-stroke engine requires one spark in every
two revolutions made by the crankshaft, so that a four-
cylinder engine of this type requires two sparks per revo-
lution, and the magneto armature must run at crankshaft
speed. A six-cylinder engine working on the four-stroke
cycle would require three sparks per revolution, but the
armature of the magneto only supplies two, therefore it
must be driven at one-and-a-half times the crankshaft speed.
The high tension distributor consists of the carbon brush
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IGNITION AND IGNITION DEVICES 55
H driven by gearing from the magneto armature and the
metal segments M,, M„ M„ Mj, which are mounted in a block
of insulating fibre. There must be as many segments on
the distributor as there are cylindera on the engine, one
segment for each sparking plug ; but the armature cannot
supply more than two sparks per revolution, and therefore
if the distributor has four segments it must be driven at
half the armature speed, and if it has six segments it must
be driven at one-third of the armature speed. Each metal
segment is electrically connected to a sparking plug lead
such as L„ La, L,, L,. The high tension electrode D is
attached to a light carbon brush which presses on a gun-
metal collector ring at the high tension end of the armature
winding. A special terminal is provided at P, so that
when a wire is attached to it and connected to the frame
of the engine (usually through a switch) the low tension
windings are short-circuited or closed on themselves, and
the make-and-break has no effect, because there ia always
the path through the switch imtil it is opened again. Under
these circumstances the voltage of the high tension circuit
is not sufficient to cause the spark discharge, and the ignition
is then said to be smtcfied off. The instant at which the
spark occurs may be advanced or made earlier by moving
the rocker arm K, which carries the stationary cams Ti, T,
backwards, whereas if it is moved forward the ignition is
retarded and occurs later in the stroke. Normal ignition
occurs when the lever is midway in its range of movement
and corresponds to the position of the piston when the
crank is on the top dead-centre, whereas advanced ignition
occurs just before the piston has completed the compres-
sion stroke, and retarded ignition will take place after the
crank has passed the dead-centre and when the piston has
moved down a little on the power (or explosion) stroke.
Advancing the ignition increases the speed, and retarding
the ignition reduces the speed, except when the engine is
overloaded, and then it may pick up speed a little or run
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56
THE PETROL ENGINE
better if the ignition ia slightly retarded — but the exact
behaviour wiU depend on the temperature of the metal
walls and piston within the cylinder.
We have mentioned that normal ignition occurs when the
crank is exactly on the dead-centre and the pistonat the top of
its stroke. If we set the magneto when the engine is at rest so
that ignition ought to occur on dead-centre when the arm K
Fia. 50.— An Iqi
TitBMBLEB Mechanism.
is in its mid position the actual sparking will be late on
account of the time lag of the electric current. The current
takes time to flow and in that brief element of time the
crank has moved a few degrees off the dead-centre, at high
speeds. Hence the ignition must be advanced if the charge
is to be correctly fired when the engine is running fast.
If the ignition is too far advanced it will cause the engine
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IGKITION AND IGNITION DEVICES
57
to " knock," especiftlly under heavy loads. If the ignition
is retarded the charge is not fired at the commencement
of the stroke so that a portion of the power theoretically
available in the fuel is lost to exhaust at the end of the
stroke. Retarded ignition always causes overheating of
the exhaust system.
If the arm K is fixed mechanically in its mid position
Fio. 51. — Ignition Coil Case.
SO that the ignition can neither be advanced nor retarded,
we have what is known as /fcrerf ignition.
An Ignition Coil suitable for a single cylinder engine
is shown in Figs. 50 and 51, in which A and B are the low
tension terminals and C is the high tension terminal. The
trembler blade is shown at D, with the adjusting screw F
and the platinum-tipped contacts Gi, Gj. The iron core
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68 THE PETROL ENGINE
of the .coil projects a little above the case, as shown at E
in Fig. 50. The strength and character of the spark may
be varied considerably by slightly screwing F up or down.
When current la supplied to the low tension terminals of
the coil it flows through the primary winding and magne-
tizes the iron core, completing its circuit by passing across
the platinum contacts. When the trembler blade is at-
tracted to the iron core the primary circuit is broken by the
temporary separation of
the platinum contacts, and
therefore the magnetism
ceases, the trembler is
released, and the circuit
is completed again. Thus
the trembler blade is set
rapidly vibrating and
making and breaking the
primary circuit as long as
the roller attached to the
rotating arm H of the
low tension contact
breaker shown in Fig, 52
is in contact with the
metal segment K, and
this results in the pro-
duction of a succession of sparks at the sparking plug
which is connected to the terminal C of the high tension
winding. This is very useful especially when starting an
engine, but with modem high-speed engines the trembler
has only time to give one spark at high engine speeds, and
therefore the magneto has the advantage except for easy
starting. This" has led to the introduction of dual ignition
systems, and in particular to that system in which the main
ignition is by magneto, but there is a supplementary coil
fitted to supply high tension current to the ordinary high
tension magneto distributor when the engine is at rest,
Fig. 52. — Low Tension Contact
Breaker fob Single Cylinder
Coil Ignition System (Wipe
Contact).
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IGNITION AND IGNITION DEVICES 59
the coil being cot out after the engine has got up speed.
But this has been largely superseded by the use of electric
motors for starting the engine, although the magneto i%
still relied upon for the ignition of the charge in the cylinders.
The contact breaker and coil ju9t described would be very
suitable for a single cylinder petrol engine, or a non-frem-
bler coil might be used in conjunction with a contact breaker
of the quick break type used on magnetos and illustrated
in Fig. 48. In the case of a multi-cylinder engine having
coil ignition we may use separate coils without a high ten-
sion distributor, or a single coil and a high tension distribu-
tor haying as many segments as there are engine cylinders
and arranged similarly to the magneto distributor of Fig.
48, When no high tension distributor is fitted there must
be a separate coil for each cylinder, and the high tension
wire runs direct from the coil to the sparking plug, so that
the character of the spark as well as the exact instant at
which it occurs may not he the same in each of the cylinders.
If there is a high tension distributor it should be mounted
on the same driving spindle as the low tension contact
breaker, in order that the ignition may be synchronized, i.e.,
the spark wiU occur at the same point in the piston's stroke
for all the cylinders. The ignition may be advanced or
retarded by moving the casing of the low tension contact
breaker relative to the roller arm, thus causing it to make
contact either earlier or later in the revolution.
At one time it was thought that two-point ignition gave
increased power and efficiency. Two-point ignition means
simultaneous firing of the charge from more than one plug.
Sometimes two high tension leads were led from each dis-
tributor segment and connected to the two plugs in the
corresponding cylinder — -this constituted the parallel system.
Another system employed a special plug with both electrodes
insulated from the engine frame ; this was coupled in
series with an ordinary plug so that the spark jumped the
gaps in succession. It is quite evident, however, that if
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60
THE PETROL ENGINE
the gas is thoroughly mixed up and in a state of violent
agitation as the result of rapid compression, a single well-
placed spsiik will fire it successfully and so no gain reaults
from simultaneous ignition at another and less favoured
point.
Wiring Diagram for Magneto Ignition System. —
The electrical connexions are extremely simple in the case
of a high tension magneto ignition system. In Fig. 63
we show a four-
cylinder engine
fitted with high
> I — ......^ tension mag-
n^llh-N^ neto. The
I 1 only wires re-
quh^d are the
four high ten-
sion cables from
the high tension
distributor t o
the sparking
Fio. 53. — WiBiNQ Diagram for Four Cylinder „]„_, .„j fu.
Engine with High Tension Magneto P"^^ ^^'^ *^'*®
Ignition. earthing wire
leading from
theshortcircuitingterminalto the frame of the engine through
a switch as indicated. The firing order of the cylinders
may be either 1, 3, 1, 2 or 1, 2, 1, 3, as desu^d (provided
the cranks are arranged in the usual manner, that is, in
the order shown in Fig. 21). In determining the order of
firing of the respective cylinders the engine should be turned
round very slowly by hand and careful note made of the
order in which the firing strokes occur. To determine
the firing stroke the piston should be moving downwards
and the position of the valves noted ; if both valves are shut
then this is the firing stroke, but if the inlet valve is opening
it is the suction stroke.
Wiring Diagram for a Coil Ignition System. — The
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IGNITION AND IGNITION DEVICES
61
electrical connexions for a coil ignition system are slightly
more difficult to follow out ; they are shown in Fig. 54 for
the same engine illuBtrated in Fig. 53. In the diagram
we show four separate trembler pattern coils, each of which
can give a succession of sparks as long as contact is lieing
made on any one segment of the low tension contact breaker
connected to it. All the low tension t«rminals of the coils
are connected together to a common busbar, which is sup-
plied with current from the accumidator direct. The cur-
rent flows from the busbar through the low tension windings
of each of the coils in turn, as it comes into operation through
the engine-driven contact breaker, and returns to the bat-
tery through the frame of the engine. High tension cables
lead from the high tension terminal of each coil direct to
the sparking plugs, and therefore the ignition is not neces-
sarily synchronized.
When the switch in the low tension circuit is opened the
ignition is o^, because the current is then permanently
interrupted; when the switch is closed the ignition is on.
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62 THE PETROL ENGINE
To economize current a quick make-and-break device should
be used instead of the wipe form of contact breaker illus-
trated, and a non-trembler coil used. It is very important
to fully retard the ignition lever when starting an engine
having coil ignition, because it is very liable to backfire
and injure the operator's wrist ; with magneto ignition
this is less liable to happen.
Timing the Ignition. — ^Various instructions are given
from time to time for correctly timing magneto ignition,
but the following will be found to give satisfactory results.
First ascertain the firing order of the cylinders as explained
above, and then bringNo. 1 piston on to the top dead-centre.
Rotate the driving spindle of the magneto until the carbon
brush H of the high tension distributor makes contact on
the segment connected to the lead marked (1), If the
leads are not marked it will be necessary to determine
which is No. I by observing the direction of rotation of
the brush. Next adjust the position of the driving spindle
very carefully by turning it to and fro, so that when the
ignition lever K (see Fig. 48) is in its mid position the
platinum contacts F„ Fj are fully separated, the brush
H still being on segment No. 1. Then push the magneto
gear wheel into mesh with the engine gear wheel which is
to drive it, and firmly bolt down the magneto to its bracket.
Similar instructions may be followed out for the coil ignition
system.
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CHAPTER VII
LUBRICATION
Properties of Oils. — Owing to the very high speed at
which the modem petrol engine runs great attention must
be paid to lubricating the moving parts, otherwise undue
wear or even seizure will result. We must be very careful
to choose a suitable oil, one which is chemically pure and
retains its lubricating properties at high temperatures. A
considerable amount of oil finds its way into the cylinder,
where it comes into direct contact with the hot gases. If
an oil is heated a temperature will sooner or later be attained,
when the oil wUl give oft an inflammable vapour, i.e., one
which will burn. This temperature is called the flash point
of the oil. If the oil is likely to get into the cylinder of a
petrol engine it should have a very high flash point ; in fact,
most of these oils do not flash until well over 400° Fahren-
heit. Also when the oil is burnt it must not leave any
appreciable residue. Some oils are very defective in this
respect, and leave large quantities of carbon deposit on the
metal walls of the cylinder and the valves ; others again
are gummy or too viscous even at high temperatures.
Such oUs must be avoided equally with those which lose
their viscosity too much under heat.
Splash System of Lubrication. — One method of lubri-
cating the working parts is known as the splash system.
In this system oil is poured into the crankchamber and
the moving parts dip into it, splashing it all over the interior
of the crankcase and the lower portions of the cylinder
walls. Oil holes are drilled in such positions that as the
oil drops down again after being splashed upwards some of
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64
THE PETEOL ENGINE
it will fall into these holes and lubricate the bearings. This
is a very cheap method of lubrication in first cost, but very
wasteful and unsatiafactory in regular use, hence it has
practically died out. As the oil is used up a fresh supply
must be admitted by some form of continuous drip-feed
arrangement, the oil being forced over very often from a
small tank on the footboard by means of air pressure or
the pressure of the exhaust gaees from the engine. It is
veryfdifficult under these circumstances to estimate how
much oil is present in the crankehamber at any gtven in-
FiG. 65.— Impeoved System or Splash Lubrication.
stant, so that there was usually alternately too much or
too Uttle. Too little oil meant undue wear on bearings
(perhaps seizure), and too much oil meant a smoky exhaust
which became very obnoxious when the engine was suddenly
accelerated.
Improved System of Splash Lubrication. — ^This is
a combination of the splash system and the forced system,
and is shown in Figs. 55 and 56. In these figures Aj and A,
represent two of the main engine bearings which support
the crankshaft ; Ci, Cg, Cj are three of the crankpins ; F„ F„
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LUBRICATION 66
F, are oil troughs placed
under the crankpina ; D„
D, are oil feed pipea to the
main bearings. Generally
speaking, the oil is drawn
from the bottom of the
crankcase by means of a
pump, and this pump de-
livers the oil to some form
of indicator mounted on the
dashboard of the car. After ^ .„ „
Fio. 56. — Sectional view of End
passing through the indicator of Connecting Rod, showino
.1 „-i a„ 1 ,„ ■ Abbanoembnt op Scoop and
the oil flows by two mam q^^^ Though
pipes, one of which feeds the
main bearings by means of branches D^, D,, etc., and the
other feeds oil troughs by means of branches such as Gj.
When the troughs are fvU the oil overflows into the bottom
of the crankchamber, and so there is always a constant
depth of oil for the scoops attached to the connecting rod
ends to dip into, and one great drawback to the splash
system is overcome ; also the main bearings are always
sure of being amply supplied. The oil pump may be an
ordinary plunger type pump or a rotary pump.
Forced Lubrication.^One sjmtem of forced lubrication
is shown in Fig. 57. The general arrangement of the system
is very similar to the preceding one, except that there
are no troughs in the crankchamber and all the bearings
receive an ample supply of oil under pressure so that the
journals are supported in their bearings on a film of oil and
the metals never come in direct contact with each other.
After entering the main bearings the oil passes through holes
drilled in the crank -shaft and thus positively lubricates the
crankpin bearing, passing up the cormecting rod either inter-
nally as shown or by an external pipe it lubricates the gudgeon
pin and then falls down into the crankchamber. On its way
down it gets splashed about and thus lubricates the cylinder
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THE PETROL ENGINE
FiQ. 57. — PoBCED Lubrication System.
wdlls and piston ; sometimes these are positively lubricated
by leading the oil through the centre of the gudgeon pin
direct to the surface of the cylinder walls — ^but this often
gives an excess of oil and causes a smoky exhaust. In
Eigs, 58 and 59 we show two views of a very popular form
of oil pump for forced lubrication systems. It consists
of two gear wheels, one of which is driven by a spindle from
the engine crankshaft, and it drives the second wheel by
means of the projecting teeth. The oil is picked up by
the teeth and passed round from the suction to the delivery
side of the pump on the outer edge of the wheels ; no liquid
can pass direct across between the teeth which are in mesh,
and hence the direction of rotation is as shown by the
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LUBRICATION
The difficulty of secur-
ing a really good lubri-
cant for petrol engines
must be apparent from a
study of the prices of the
various oils. It will be
observed that they are
a 1 1 considerably more
expensive than petrol,
and therefore we must
economize in their use.
The old splash syBtem
was very wasteful and
consumed oil at the rate
of one gallon every hun-
dred mUes at least, but
a modem system of forced
lubrication will not re-
quire more than one
gallon of oil every thou-
sand miles. Perhaps an
for ordinary motor-car
engines would be one gallon every 250 miles. The pressure of
the oil in a forced feed system varies in different makes of
engines from 5 up to 40 pounds per square inch — a very
common figure, however, is 10 pounds per square inch. The
speed of the oil pump also varies considerably, and ranges
from 500 up to 2,000 revolutions per minute at normal engine
speed. Generally a small relief valve is fitted in the pump
casing, which returns oil to the crankchamber if the pressure
tends to rise above the desired limit due to the engine speed
increasing. We have mentioned already that the Sash
point is generally over 400° Fahrenheit when the oil is
new, but after it has been in the crankcase some time and
got used over and over again it is found that the petrol
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68 THE PETROL ENGINE
vapour leaking past the piston rings of the engine condenses
when the engine cools down after a run and drops into the
oil in the aump, thus lowering its viscosity and its flash point.
According to Mr. Morcom it may come down as low as
200° Fahrenheit (about), but if the oU is heated and the
petrol driven off the flash point goes up again. Therefore
it is a good plan with forced lubrication systems to empty
the old oil out periodically and fill up entirely with fresh
oil.
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CHAPTER VIII
COOLING
Wb have already explained the necessity for cooling the
cylinders of a petrol engine by means of a water-jacket,
and we now proceed to show how the circulation system
may be ar-
ranged. There
are two forms
of circulation
in use : { 1 )
Natural; (2)
Forced.
Natural or
Thermo-
Syphon Cir-
c u 1 a 1 1 o n .
— This system
is shown in Fig.
60, and may be
explained as
follows : — The
by the succes- ,
sive explosions
within the
cylinder causes the water at the top of the cylinder
jacket A to get hot. As a column of hot water is lighter
than one of cold water of equal height, the heated water
rkes up the pipe B and flows into the top of the radiator
D, while colder water from the bottom of the radiator flows
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70
THE PETROL ENGINE
up the pipe C and into the cylinder jacket A. It is impor-
tant that the height of the water in the radiator D should
be at such a level that the outlet from the pipe B is sub-
In the radiator the water falls through a series of tubes
E, having gills or fins on the outside for the purpose of dissi-
pating the heat. The cooling of the water is also assisted
by the fan F, which is driven from the fan pulley G and
Fio. 61. — FoBCBD Water CiRctrLATioN
Pump (P).
draws air past the radiator tubes at high speed. Some-
times the water in the radiator is made to fall through a
series of cells which are formed of cast aluminium ; such
a radiator is called a honeycomb radiator. It is important
that the pipe C should not have any sharp bends and it
should not rise very much in height, but the outlet pipe B
may have a considerable rise with advantage. Both the
inlet and outlet pipes should be of large diameter with
this system of circulation, and the radiator should be so
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COOLING 71
arranged that there is a good head of water above the
cylinders. In the drawings H is the front cross-member of
the chassis, K is the starting-handle clutch, and L is the
starting handle.
Forced or Pump Circulation.— With thia system the
water is positively circulated through the jackets ; it is drawn
from the bottom of the radiator by the pump P (Fig. 61),
which is mechanically driven from the valve shaft of the
engine, and delivered under pressure to the jacket A. The
outlet of the pipe B need not be drowned, and the pipe C
may be arranged in any way most convenient to the chas-
sis. Sometimes when a pump is fitted the pipes are arranged
so that the system may be operated as a thermo-syphon
in the event of a breakdown of the pump. It is not un-
common to experience trouble due to leakage at the pump
gland, which result* in gradual loss of water from the system,
and therefore the thermo-sj^hon or natural circulation
has much to recommend it. Also it may be said that the
pump represents an additional complication to the engine
and means increased first cost. Every moving part we
add to the engine is of course an additional potential source
of trouble, but the addition of a really first-class water
circulating pump of the type shown in Fig. 58 cannot be
said to be anything but a reasonable precaution. The
weight and size of every part of a motor-car engine and
chassis have been so much reduced recently, owing to com-
petition with American firms, that many manufacturers
who adopted the thermo-syphon principle experienced
great trouble with it owing to the small size of radiator
fitted, as well as faulty arrangement of the connexions.
Considering any one engine, it follows that if a certain size
of radiator and a given quantity of water in the circulating
system will keep the engine cool when a pump is used to
give a positive circulation, then a larger radiator and greater
quantity of water will be required for natural circulafcioui
Thermo-syphon circulation also means a high radiator and
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72 THE PETROL ENGINE
bonnet, which many people object to on the score of appear-
ance, without considering its utility. With natural circu-
lation greater care must be exercised to keep the radiator
well filled, but this often leads to other difficulties on bad
roads owing to the water splashing from the overflow pipe
and flnding it« way on to ignition appliances. Before starts
ing an engine it is always advisable to remove the radiator
filling cap and examine the water level ; if it should happen
that at any time while the engine ia ruiming the circulating
system runs quite dry, owing to a breakdown or leakage,
do not attempt to pour water into the radiator, but simply
raise both sides of the bonnet and leave the engine to cool
down first. Again, when filling the radiator for a forced
circulating system, it is desirable to give the engine a turn
or two with the starting handle occasionally to operate
the pump and prevent air locks ; very often the radiator
appears to be fuU, but aa soon as the engine commences to
run the water disappears owing to the system not being full,
due to the above-mentioned cause. In cold or frosty
weather all the water should be drained off from the circu-
lating system when the car ia in the garage, unless the
garage is heated or some anti-freezing solution is used.
Glycerine or alcohol added to the water will prevent it
freezing, but as an additional precaution in cold countries
one often sees travelling rugs strapped over the radiator
and bonnet.
Occasionally one gets trouble due to the water boiling
in the jackets, and on this account reasonable care should
always be exercised in unscrewing the radiator filling cap
if the presence of steam is suspected. An engine may have
been running well for a long time without trouble and
then develop symptoms of overheating in the circulation
system. This overheating may be either local or general.
Local overheating may result from some partial seizure
gf the piston in the cylinder due to dirt on the walls, or
from the presence of grease on the outside of the cylinder
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COOLING 73
walls, in the jacket space. If grease is suspected or there
is furring up in the passages of the jacket due to bad water
supply, the trouble may be cured by adding some common
washing soda to the water in the radiator and running the
engine with the car at standstill for half-an-hour or so.
After this drain off all the water and sludge, allow the
engine to cool down, and then fill up again with clean water.
General overheating may result from leaky pistons and
pistons rings, or from the use of too weak a mixture in the
carburettor, or from overloading the engine. If the mix-
ture supplied to the engine is very weak, the overheating
will be very marked on the exhaust side of the engine. Local
overheating causes the engine to " knock " badly.
In arranging the jackets and the pipes care must be
taken to arrange that a cock is placed at the lowest point
in the system, so that the whole may be completely emptied,
and the inlet pipe to the jacket should enter at the very
bottom of the jacket chamber for the same reason. It
may be thought that all that is necessary is to provide
plenty of space in the jackets round the cylinders and
plenty of water in the whole syBtem, but experience shows
that it is very important not to make the jacket space loo
large, so as to ensure positive circulation and avoid local
circulation in any one portion of the jacket. When cylin-
ders are east in pairs the back pair have a tendency to
discharge their hot water into the front pair and so back
to the inlet pipe again, hence this should be guarded against
in arranging the outlet pipes.
Pipes suitable for use with multi-cylinder engines are
shown in Fig. 62, in which (a) is an outlet pipe for a mono-
bloc casting, and (6) and (c) are inlet and outlet pipes re-
spectively for engines having separate cylinders. It is
advisable to modify the diameter of the branches by the
insertion of metal orifice plates at the fianges to ensure an
equitable distribution of the water among the several
cylinders.
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'^j=^—ruy
THE PETROL ENGINE
The weight of water car-
ried in the circulation
system for a fifteen horse-
power engine would be
about 30 lb. with pump
circulation, whereas 60 lb.
would be required for
thermo- syphon cooling. It
is not desirable to cool the
engine too much. The
jacket water temperature
may be allowed to reach
180° Fahrenheit at full load,
but if this is exceeded there
is liability to boiling. Given
two similar engines of equal
power and equally loaded,
j^. one of which was operated
with a jacket temperature of
Fio. 62. — FoBMa or Water ' '^
PiFiNo. 100° Fahrenheit and the
other at 180° Fahrenheit,
the hotter engine would show a gain in economy of from
five to ten per cent, in fuel consumption. In considering
the type of radiator to adopt, one woidd not recommend
the honeycomb variety (except for appearance) owing to
the difficulty of cleaning the passages after it has been in
use some time ; and the gilled tube would be more efficient
than the plain tube. The amount of tube required depends
of course on its diameter, but a rough approximation would
be twelve feet of gilled tube or eighteen feet of plain tube
(of half-inch diameter) per brake horse-power.
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CHAPTER IX
THE POINTS OF A GOOD ENGINE
Choosing the Number of Cylinders. — It is a very
difficult problem to select the best engine for a particular
purpose, as there are so many factors which influence one's
choice. A single cylinder engine would only be used for
a motor-cycle or a smaU car of low power ; the vibration
and noise resulting from the use of a single cylinder petrol
engine of even six horse-power are most objectionable, and
difficulties of starting and risk of engine unexpectedly
pulling up and stopping are greatly enhanced. The two-
cylinder engine ofifers better prospects, and was for some
time considered quite good enough for most purposes,
but owing to its comparatively bad balance and its low
torque it has fallen into disfavour. We liave seen how
the rotating parts of the engine can be balanced, but we
have not considered the reciprocating parts. To under-
stand this question of balancing we must talk about " iner-
tia forces." All bodies possess inertia, that is, they resent
changes in their state of rest or motion. If a body is mov-
ing uniformly it tends to keep on doing so, whereas if it
is at rest it tends to remain so. To start the body off
from rest, or to stop the body and bring it to rest, requires
a force to be exerted, and this force may be called the inertia
force. When a petrol engine is running at high speed the
piston has to be started and stopped at the top and bottom
of its stroke every time the crankshaft revolves once, and
to do this very large forces are needed, because it has to
be done so quickly. These inertia forces take the form
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76 THE PETROL ENGINE
of pushes or pulls on the shaft and framework of the engme,
and thus cause vibrations to be set up. If the periodicity
or frequency of these forced vibrations happens to coincide
with the natural period of vibration of the shaft material
the shaft will commence to whip, and may possibly break
under the excessive strain. In a two-cylinder engine with
cranks 180 degrees apart (or half a revolution) one
piston is moving upwards and the other piston is moving
downwards, both at very high speed ; and both have to
be brought to rest when the cranks come on their respec-
tive dead-centres. The piston which is moving up tends
to lift the shaft up with itj and the one which is moving
down tends to pidl the shaft down with it, because the
connecting rods check the progress of the pistons and bring
them to rest at the top and bottom of their strokes. If
these two pulls acted in line with each other they would
balance, but the cylinders are usually mounted side by side,
and then the two pulls vu^ually act at the ends of a bar
whose length is the longitudinal distance between the
vertical centre lines of the two cylinders. Thus these
two inertia forces tend to rotate the whole engine first in a
clockwise direction and then in a counter-clockwise direc-
tion, according to which piston is moving up or down. The
only way to balance these forces under these conditions
is to extend the crankshaft longitudinally and place another
pair of cylinders and cranks in line with the first, but so
arranged that the inertia forces tend to turn the engine
in the opposite direction to the first pair. This gives us
the well known four-cylinder arrangement so much in
evidence at the present time, the arrangement of cranks
being shown in Fig. 21. A six -cylinder engine gives perfect
balance if all the parts are of equal weight, and the cranks
at 120 degrees to each other in opposed pairs.
Again, a single -cyfinder engine gives one power stroke
hi every two revolutions of the shaft, a two-cylinder gives
a power stroke in every revolution, a four-cylinder gives
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THE POINTS OF A GOOD ENGINE 77
two power strokes, and s six-cylinder gives three power
strokes in every revolution.of the shaft. Hence a aix-eylin-
der engine is very ^ziWe (i.e., can accommodate itself easily
to varying loads), is perfectly balanced, and can be made
both powerful and economical. One objection to the use
of engines with multiple cylinders (exceeding, say, four
in number) is that the crankshaft is more liable to vibrate
and cause very harsh running at high sp^ds on account
of the fact that the periodicity of the power impulses imparted
to the shaft approaches the natural period of vibration of
the shaft. This effect arises from torsional oscillations and
is distinct from the periodicity due to inertia forces which
acts in the vertical plane. A four-cylinder engine is nearly
as good as a six-cylinder of equal power, and is of course
much cheaper in first cost, takes up less room, and weighs
less. A good four-cylinder engine will often prove more
economical in running costs than a six -cylinder, as it will
probably be numing a greater length of time at or near
its full output, and the work done on the idle strokes of the
cycle will be less owing to the smaller number of cylinders.
Another feature to consider is the arrangement of the
cylinder castings. A monobloe casting {cylinders aU in
one casting) gives a very short engine and reduces the
length of the crankshaft, but in the event of one cylinder
bore being damaged the advantage lies with the separate
cylinder construction.
The Question of the Valves. — The question as to which
is the better engine, the sleeve valve or the poppet valve,
cannot be said to have been definitely decided yet. The
great feature of the poppet valve used to be its very quick
opening and closing, but nowadays engines turn over so
fast that very strong springs are needed to close the valves
in a reasonable time. One complete revolution of the
engine means that the crank has turned through 360
degrees, and the inlet valve is open while the crank turns
through 190 degrees (on the average), but during part of
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78 THE PETROL ENGINE
this time it is being lifted or opened, and during an equal
period it is being dosed. The qwestion then is, " How long
does it remain fvMy open ? " The answer is — not more
than ten degrees at the most ! To keep the inlet valve
open longer than this would require excessively stiflE springs
and throw a great strain on the valve gear. Now this is
where the sleeve valve managed to get a look in — as one
might say. With two sleeves moving in opposite direc-
tions, or one sleeve receiving a special form of motion, we
can open and close the ports and keep them fully open
for just as long period or even longer than the poppet valve.
If it were not for the fact that sleeve valves are heavy and
not so easy to keep gas-tight as poppet valves, it is perfectly
obvious that the poppet valve would have disappeared
or taken second place long before this.
Another great advantage of the sleeve valve is that by
making large ports we can easily secure larger valve open-
ings than are possible, for practical reasons, with a poppet
valve. It is now claimed also that the interior of the cylin-
ders keeps free from carbon deposit much longer with sleeve
valves than with poppet valves, this carbon deposit being
due chiefly to the use of too rich a mixture which causes
the combustion to be imperfect and results in the deposit
of sohd carbon on the walls and sides of the combustion
chamber. Carbon deposit is also caused by using un-
suitable lubricating oil, but it principally arises from the
use of too rich a mixture for the purposes of securing quick
acceleration. Perfect combustion U only secured by the
use of a relatively weak mixture, which would prevent the
maximum power being developed and give rather a feeble
acceleration. Modem engines have to be very carefully
designed to reduce this nuisance of the carbon deposit to
a minimum, and also with a view to its speedy and efficient
removal when it does take place. I>etachable cylinder
heads have been introduced principally to allow of rapid
removal of carbon deposit from pistons and valves and
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THE POINTS OF A GOOD ENGINE 79
the combustion chamber. If the carbon deposit is allowed
to accumulate, pinking or sharp knookirg commences, due
to pre-ignition of the charge by red-hot particles of carbon.
This results in loss of power, and is first noticed by inabi'ity
to climb steep hills that were formerly negotiated with
ease. Mention must also be made of the great claim for
silence of running of sleeve valve engines, and this is thor-
oughly justified with MgTt-dass engines of the sleeve valve
type, provided they are in the hands of skilled drivers.
In unskilled hands one finds that the poppet valve is safer,
and will stand more knocking about without much in-
crease in nois6 resulting. Rotary valves have fallen into
disuse on account of the difficulty of keeping them gas-tight.
There is nothing to choose between poppet and sleeve valves
on the score of economy in running.
Economy and Durability,— A good modem petro'
engine of reasonable size — say over 3 in. bore^ — will ^ive
one brake horse-power for an hour from the consumption
of two-thirds of a pint of petrol. This means that an
engine giving 12J horse-power on the brake would use a
gallon of petrol every hour. But economy in petrol con-
sumption is not the only desirable feature of a petrol engine.
There must be economy in lubricating oil and in cost of
replacements or repairs. Nowadays the tendency with
high grade steel alloys and other modem metals of high
strength and durability is to cut everything down to its
minimum size with a view to reducing ike cost of ■production.
This often leads to many serious troubles in running on
the road. In choosing an engine one should carefully
examine such points as provision for wear and adjustment,
strength and rigidity, and whether the engine impresses
one with a sense of its duTobility and also its general accessi-
bility.
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CHAPTER X
TWO-STROKE ENGINES
In the two-stroke type of petrol engine the cycle of opera-
tions is completed in two working strokes of the piston
instead of the four required by the " Otto " cycle ; there is
thus one explosion or power stroke in every revolution of
the crankshaft. Theoretically this represents a great ad-
vance over the " Otto "cycle, but difficulties and complica-
tions arise in the practical carrying out of the cycle. The
cycle on which it is desired to operate the engine is ;
let stroke — Compression ; 2nd stroke — Explosion. The
charge would be introduced on the compression stroke and
exhausted towards the end of the explosion stroke.
Now the charge of gas required by the engine consists
of a mixture of petrol vapour and air, and it must either be
sucked in or pushed in under pressure. In the"Otto" cycle
the charge is suehed in, and in the two-stroke cycle it is
delivered to the cylinder under pressure ; hence in the two-
stroke cycle some form of pump is required which will suck
in the charge of air and gas, compress it a small amount,
and deliver it to the working cylinder at a pressure of 5 or
6 lb. per square inch above atmospheric pressure. This
is where the complications commence ; if we fit a separate
pump for each cylinder, which is what would generally be
done, or if we made one pump serve for two cylinders, we
have to provide pump cylinders," pistons, rods and valves,
and therefore there is practically no gain over the four-
stroke engine. Hence it is that inventors all try to avoid
the use of a separate charging pump and turn their atten-
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TWO-STROKE ENGINES
81
tion to the production of an engine in which one or more
of the existing portions ia made to serve as a pump for
charging the working cylinder or eylindere with gas. A
favourite and fairly aucceaaful device is to make the crank-
chamber gas-tight and use it as the cyHnder of the pump,
the underside of the engine piston then forming the pump
piston which
draws the
charge from
the carburettor
into the crank-
chamber on its
up-stroke and
compresses i t
on its down-
stroke, deliver-
ing it to the
working cylin-
der through the
inlet port as
soon as the
piston has im-
covered it by
i 1 8 downward
move ment .
There is no
exhaust valve,
as the piston
uncovers the
exhaust ports a little before the inlet ports are opened.
To prevent the new charge escaping directly across the
top of the piston from the inlet porta to the exhaust
ports, a deflector is iitted' on the top of the piston equal
in height to the height of the exhaust opening and situated
immediately in front of and facing the inlet ports.
A two-stroke engine of the type referred to is shown
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82 THE PETROL ENGINE
diagrammatieally in Fig. 63. E is the gaa-tight crank-
chamber, upon which the water-cooled cylinder A ia mounted
in the usual manner and fixed by studs or bolts. The
piston P carries the deflector H, which is equal in height
to the height of the exhaust opening G. The piston rings
are prevented from turning by pins so arranged that the
joint of the rings does not pass across the ports. The
connecting rod D is of usual form, and also the crankshaft
C. The carburettor, or induction pipe leading from the
carburettor, would be attached to the flange L, and the
automatic valve F controls the admission of gaseous
mixture from the carburettor to the crankchamber. The
inlet ports N are often only half the height of the exhaust
ports. On the upstroke of the piston a partial vacuum
will be formed in the air-tight crankchamber, which will
allow the atmospheric pressure to force open the valve F
against the pressure of the spring and enable the air to
flow into the crankchamber through the carburettor and
induction pipe, carrying the charge of petrol vapour with
it. We must note, however, that no vacuum can be formed
until the port N has been covered up by the piston, so that
a portion of the stroke is idle. On the downward stroke
of the piston the charge in the crankchamber is com-
pressed, and as soon as the piston uncovers the ports N
the chaise from the crankchamber flows up into the
working cylinder, displacing the burnt gases as it comes
into the cylinder. Exactly what happens next it is
difficult to say ; the probability is that this new charge
rises in the cylinder a short distance (but not a sufficient
amount to displace afl the dead gases from the top end
of the cylinder) and that some of it gets squeezed out of
the exhaust opening as the piston rises and before it has
\ had time to cover the exhaust ports. Thus, owing to the
idle portion of the stroke during admission to the
crankchamber and to the low compression pressure
adopted in the crankchamber, the pumping portion of
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TWO-STROKE ENGINES 83
the engine has what is termed a very low volumetric
ejflciency.
It can be proved that this type of engine which endeav-
ours to draw sufficient gas to fill its working cylinder into
the crankchamber by means of a piston having only the
same diameter as the diameter of the working cylinder
itself, and which cannot avoid some idle movement during
the operation together with further loss from the exhaust
opening, is incapable of retaining more than a little over
one-half a cylinder full of fresh combustible gas at the
instant when compression commences ; the remainder
of the contents must be dead exhaust gas. Thus, even
allowing for the double number of power impulses resulting
from the use of the two-stroke cycle, it is difficult to see
how this form of engine could ever give more than about
one and a q uarter times the _BOwer^of jijour-stroke engine
having the same bore and stroke even when the many
difficulties experienced in the practical working of two-
stroke engines have been overcome. To use a high com-
pression pressure in the crankchamber would increase
the volumetric efficiency, but would result in lost work
during the pumping process, besides being undesirable
at the delivery stage of the process ; it is much better for
the transfer of the gases to take place aa gently as possible.
If too high a delivery pressure is used the fresh gas will
enter in a sharp gust and get badly contaminated by mix-
ture with the foul exhaust products instead of gently dis- I
placing them in bulk. The use of a n automa -ticjr alve i s
very desirable for the gas inlet to the crankchamber, but
unfortunately it limits the speed of the engine and also \
its flexibility or ability to puU well at all speeds. An engine \
with an automatic valve runs best at that speed for which *
the tension of the spring is most suitable. If the spring
is weak the speed will be low. Tightening the tension on
the spring will allow the engine to speed up, but will pre-
vent it running well at low speeds. At high speeds and
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84 THE PETROL ENGINE
with correspondingly high tension the valve does not give
enough opening, and therefore limits the power of the engine .
It will, therefore, readily be seen that when a two-stroke
engine with automatic inlet valves is pitted against a four-
I stroke engine with mechanically-operated inlet valves,
the comparison ia unfair to the two-stroke cycle. With
I the position and arrangement of ports shown in the draw-
ings, one must have a deflector on the piston head to pre-
vent excessive loss of fresh gas through the exhaust open-
ing. After the engine has been running for some time
at a high speed this deflector becomes very hot, and as a
general rule the cooling effect of the incoming gases is not
sufficient to prevent it attaining a red heat on the com-
pression stroke, thus ignitii^ the charge before the piston
reaches the top of the stroke. This defect, which is caUed
pre-ignition, causes the ei^ine to knock, and resiilts in a loss
of power ; it may be partly overcome by admitting lubri-
cating oil with the charge, the oil then serving to cool the
deflector as the charge enters the cylinder. At high engine
speeds there is great risk of the hot exhaust gases in the
working cylinder setting fire to the incoming charge in
the inlet ports, thus causing backfiring into the crankcham-
ber. To avoid all possibility of backfire, some form of air
scavenging must be adopted, but the general arrangement
of this form of two-stroke engine does not lend itself to
such an addition — it would merely reduce still further the
quantity of gas reaching the cylinder.
A difficidty that is peculiar to multi-cylinder engines
of the two-stroke type arises from the use of open exhaust
ports. The several cylinders generally dischai^e their
exhaust gases into a common exhaust pipe or box, so that
if one cylinder happens to be missing fire the exhaust from
another cylinder may set fire to the wasted charge — this
is usually referred to as flashing-back from the exhaust
and results in irregular and spasmodic knocking. It will
be clear from the foregoing that this cycle of operations.
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TWO-STROKE ENGINES 85
which is 80 attractive from the theoretical point of view,
is not by any means bo encouraging from the practical
standpoint, as many inventors have discovered. The di£G-
culties and failures of the early inventors which were so
discouraging for them have only encouraged their suc-
cessors and spurred them on to further efEorts. After a
time the attempt to produce a simple two-stroke engine
was abandoned generally, and inventors turned their atten-
tion to improved forms of two-stroke engines, some of
which were very costly and compUcated, and none of which
have survived for motor-car purposes.
The writer of this volume became interested in the
problem of the two-stroke in connexion with one of these
inventions for an improved engine, and at a later stage
patent«d and designed an improved engine of the two-
stroke air scavenging variety, which by that time had become
a recc^ized type of two-stroke engine. This engine was
constructed and exhibited at one of the motor shows held
in London some years ago. A vast amount of experimen-
tal and research work was carried out on it by the writer,
but the work had to be abandoned when incomplete owing
to the Syndicate which financed the venture having ex-
liausted its resources. The promoters of the Syndicate
were anxious to produce an engine that would give double
the power of a four-stroke engine, but their early attempts
were not at all successful. One of their four-eylinder en-
gines, which would have been rated at 35 horse-power on
the four-stroke cycle, only gave 12 brake horse-power when
tested by the writer. The engine designed by the writer,
which we may call the Kean two-stroke engine, would have
been rated at 25 horse-power on the four-stroke cycle, and
gave approximately 35 brake horse-power. Although
this result was excellent, so much advance had been made
in the four-stroke engine that it did not quite come up
to the best results obtained on that system, and hence we
were unable to show any marked advantage to be gained
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86 THE PETROL ENGINE
from its adoption. My experiments clearly pointed out
the road to further success, but owing to the partial failure
of my attempt to beat the four-stroke engine we could
not influence sufficient capital to reorganize and recon-
struct the Syndicate. My engine had not been designed
to secure a high speed of rotation but rather for strength
and durability, but it exceeded my expectations by turn-
ing up to 1,500 revolutions per minute. The four -stroke
had, however, got well ahead of me by that time, and 2,000
was becoming common for it, hence I was heavily handi-
capped in the race for horse-power,
A description of my engine will probably prove of in-
terest. To understand the principle of thei engine we must
turn to the diagrammatic sectional view of Fig. 64. In-
stead of using (he crar^kchamber of the engine as a gai
pump, this type of engine has a duplex piston, and the pump
chamber is formed by an annular extension of the main
engine cylinder. At first sight one would aay this resulted
in a very high engine, but as a matter of fact the increase
in height is not more than about 25 per cent, in the cylin-
ders, and there is no difference in the crankehamber height
to that of a four-stroke engine. The outstanding feature
of the invention is the provision of a pump piston of larger
effective diameter than the main piston and the arrange-
ment of transfer pipes by which one pump feeds its ne^h-
bour's power cylinder, and vice versa. These are the basis
of the invention, and were beii^ used a long time before
the writer had even heard of this type of engine, but it was
left for him to seize upon their capabilities and correctly
proportion the area of the annuliis with respect to the main
engine piston. A careful study of the two-stroke problem
revealed the inherent defect of the low volumetric efftciencjf
and the tremendous possibilities of havii^ an unlimited
volume for the pump chamber by simply increasing the
area of th6 lower or annular piston. Then followed the
writer's attempt to tackle the outstanding practical diffi-
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TWO-STROKE ENGINES 87
culties enumerated above. The engines already employed
air scavenging, but could not really use it effectively until
proper proportions had been fixed upon for the respective
pipes, valves, and ports. The cycle of operations is as
follows :^0n the downstroke of No. 1 piston the annular
portion draws a charge of gas from the carburettor into
the annular chamber D, (Fig- 64) through the inlet valve
Bi, and at the same time pure air is drawn into the transfer
pipe by the valve A^. On the upstroke the charges of
air and gas are compressed into the transfer pipe, and a^
soon as the piston Pj uncovers the inlet ports the air and
gas enter the working cylmder. In my engine I used a
relatively high compression pressure for the transfer of
the charge and curved the inlet ports up towards the head
of the cylinder as shown. The head of cylinder I made
curved, and the exhaust ports were carefully rounded and
curved also. The deflector on the head of the piston I
inclined, to curl the gases back against the wall of the cylin-
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88 THE PETROL ENGINE
der, and I reduced the height of the deflector to that of
the inlet port {instead of the exhaust port). My ultimate
aim was to abolish the deflector entirely by suitably shap-
ing the inlet ports, and I estimated that the path of the
gases would be in the direction of the arrows. The object
of raising the compression pressure in the lower cylinder
was twofold. First of all I aimed at an increase of volu-
metric efficiency there, and secondly I hoped to propel
the scavenging air and the new charge right up to the
head of the cylinder and so clear out all the dead gases.
Then by suitably curving the head of the cylinder I ex-
pected to compel the scavenging air to keep going ahead
of the gaseous mixture and curl round and down, then
following the exhaust gases out of the exhaust port.
My efforts in this direction were very mifortunately
frustrated to a large extent by the fact that the cylinders
of my engine had already been cast before I fully realized
the tremendous importance of curving the cylinder head and
giving a very steep inclination to the inlet ports. We did
our best to rectify matters in the machining and finishing
stages, but any engineer will understand the limitations
now imposed upon us. It was impossible to get new
cylinders cast owing to lack of time and funds, as we were
intending to exhibit the completed engine. Thus I cannot
say that my ideas were ever given a really satisfactory
test ; the inlet ports were curved and inclined and the
cylinder head was rounded off, but not to such an extent
that I can feel certain no further improvement could ever
be made in those directions. Other improvements which
I introduced were an improved automatic inlet valve for
the gases, which was fitted inside the induction pipe and
whose spring tension could be adjusted while the engine
waa running without letting any air leak into the induction
pipe ; also an improved air scavenging valve, which could
be set to give the full amount of air to the engine and yet be
controlled from the dashboard of the car to give any desired
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TWO-STROKE ENGINES 89
quantity of scavenging air from no air up to full air. Very
large inlet valves were fitted, but when indicator diagrams
were eventually obtained from the engine they showed
that they were not nearly large enoug h and that the car-
burettor opening was too restricted, thus cutting down
the power (and very likely the speed) of the engine by
probably over 25 per cent. High tension magneto ignition
was fitted and thermo-syphon cooling. Arrangements
were made to carry 80 lb. of water in the system, so that
the engine never showed any tendency to boil even when
the car had been running for long periods on the low gear,
A pump was afterwards fitted, but it did not effect
the cooling of the water any better than the natural
I circulation, which was quite satisfactory. The range of
speed was from 150 revolutions per minute up to 1,500
revolutions per minute ; the lower figure is very good
indeed, and can be attributed to the large number of
impulses obtained due to the two-stroke cycle. At the
highest speed the crankshaft received 6,000 impulses
per minute, or equivalent to a four-stroke engine running
at 3,000 revolutions per minute. The e ffective pressure
in the cylinder was, however, only just o v er 40 pounda _Bfir
square inch, due to thn tlirA^.|,ljtig fl.t iniot ni«- a^ explained ;
In a four-stroke engine we would expect just double that
figiu^. The extraordinary thing about this was that,
under heavy load, when the speed was brought down to
about 300 revolutions per minute, the effective pressure
had risen to nearly 200 lb, per square inch, but this
appears to be due to imperfect scavenging (or cleansing)
of the cylinder under these conditions.
The question of silencing the exhaust from the engine
had caused me some difficulty in the earlier experiments,
- so that I now tackled this problem and designed a special
form of silencer in which the gases were first expanded to
remove their pressure and then afterwards their velocity
was taken up without shock. This answered so well that
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ft) THE PETROL ENGINE
a cut-out made no difference whatever, and on taking
diagrams with the optical indicator I discovered that the
exhausting process was divided into equal periods of slight
pressure and slight vacuum with an average of zero pressure
(just atmospheric). We have seen in the earlier part of
this chapter how the fitting of automatic inlet valves is
liable to hamper the engine and reduce its flexibility, and
this impressed me very much with the earlier engines so
that at one time I adopted dual springs for the inlet valves.
These springs were mounted one above the other, the lower
one being much stiffer than the upper one. The idea of
the invention was that the weak springs would serve for
slow running and all loads up to say half the lift of the
valve, and then the stiffer springs would seciffe correct
action at high speeds. Further than this, I had them all
coupled on a bar which was controlled from the driver's
seat, and by means of which I could cut out the weaker
springs or reduce their effect at will. It certainly answered
well in the older engines, but my new engine, shown in Fig. 65,
was so satisfactory that I abandoned the idea. About
five different systems of lubrication were experimented
with and many lubricating oils. Finally, forced lubrica-
tion was employed for all the bearings and a drip sight-feed
for the pistons.
I Much trouble was caused at one time in the new engine
by knocking of various kinds, and many hours were spent
in locating these troubles and curing them. The first
kind of knocking was most violent and almost made one
hold one's breath in anticipation of seeing parts of the
engine go skywards. This turned out to be partial seizure
of a piston owing to a hard spot in the cylinder. After
curing this, general knocking from all cylinders began,
and was found to result from worn gudgeon pins. These
had been mild steel and case-hardened ; they were dis-
carded for Ubas steel of slightly larger diameter, and this
trouble disappeared. Then pre-ignition was discovered.
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TWO-STROKE ENGINES
Fio. 65. — General asbanoement of the " Kean " FopB-cvLutDBft
HiQH Speed Hioh Comphession Duplex Two -stroke Engine
EMPLOYING Air Scavenoino. In this Engine there is so Crank-
chamber CoHFRBSSION.
When the magneto was switched oft the engine slowed
down and nearly stopped, then began to run on again, knock-
ing and hammering in a most diabolical manner. All
cylinders were taken ofE again, all parts ground up, and
corners well rounded off, but still it continued. At first
it seemed to be due to the deflectors, but on several very
careful examinations (which of course meant dismantling
the whole engine every time and removing the cylinders)
no trace of overheating or burning could be found on these
or anywhere else in the interior of the cylinder. Then
the trouble was traced to the electrodes of the sparking
plugs. This was followed by two or three weeks' eon-
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92 THE PETROL ENGINE
tinuous experiments on fitting different types of plugs, and
the same type of plug was tried in four different positions
inside the cylinder. Then the device of fitting the plugs,
to an adapter and so keeping them at the top of a small
hole instead of projecting into the cylinders was tried.
They still showed signs of overheating, snd strange to say
no loss of power or flexibility was noticeable. Finally,
I fitted a water tank on the dashboard and allowed the
engine to suck water into the induction pipe while it drew
its mixture from the carburettor in the usual manner. I
had previously fitted separate drip-feed of water to the air
scavenging valves with a view to effecting cooling of the
engine, but abandoned it owing to lack of results. Very
soon I discovered that for every gallon of petrol the engine
consumed I coidd let it take nearly half a gallon of water
into the induction pipe. The engine ran much quieter
and very smoothly, and for a time I thought I had succeeded,
" although the water gave me trouble in restarting if I hap-
pened to stop the engine while it was in use. It meant
that the water had to be shut off some minutes before the
engine was going to be stopped. The day after I thought
I had effected a cure for the pre-ignition intermittent knock-
ing began, and there was also general knocking always for
a second or two when accelerating quickly under load. After
much loss of time and the expenditure of a large sum of
money on experiments, I persuaded the Syndicate to let
me take some diagrams from the engine with an optical
indicator, and eventually after nine months they consented,
but they would not agree to my taking the engine out
of the chassis and putting it on the bench for a proper
power test. Therefore my diagrams were taken while
the engine was in the garage in its chassis, and the load
was applied by the propeller shaft brake, the shaft itself
being withdrawn. Anyone who has attempted even in
a well-equipped laboratory and with the aid of a proper
brake to take diagrams from a petrol engine when the
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TWO-STROKE ENGINES 93
indicator is driven by a flexible shaft, will understand and
appreciate my work in securing thirty photographic records
under as many conditions of load and speed. After care-
fully analyzing my diagrams, I came to the conclusion that
the intermittent knocking was undoubtedly flaahijig hack
from the exhaust, and the acceleration knocking was due
to a cushion of hot gas which accumulated in the head end
of the cylinder at times when the engine speed wa*s low
and the load on the engine was heavy.
Having explained these things to the Syndicate and
pointed out the need for still larger valves, they set about
attempting to raise fresh capital for the final attempt at
suoceas. They were not successful, and up to the present
nothing more has been done. The Syndicate was wound
up, the members drifted apart, and the patents were
allowed to lapse.
The engine and chassis were eventually sold, and are still
doing good service somewhere in the North of England.
Meantime the writer has not rested, but has steadily formu-
lated his ideas for the improvement of the engine, which
have residted in the securing of a fresh patent early this
year. In the new engine the charge enters at the head end
of the cylinder, there is a special transverse combustion
chamber, and many improvements are introduced in the
scavenging and flow of gases ; also there is no deflector at
all on the piston head. Funds have not yet been secured
to enable an experimental engine to be constructed, but
it is to be hoped they will be forthcoming, for the benefit of
the motor-car industry generally, as the future undoubtedly
lies with the two-stroke.
During the whole of this time the writer was engaged
as Chief Assistant in the Ei^neering Department of Leeds
University, being in chaise of the experimental work of
the students in the laboratories there. Many of the
drawings were made by students in their vacation, and
the writer is greatly indebted to his friend, Professor John
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94 THE PETROL ENGINE
Goodman, for so kindly allowing him the necessary freedom
during vacation times when there is often much miscel-
laneous work that requires attention.
Before closing this chapter one may add a few words
on carburation and ignitio:i for two-stroke engines. A
four-cylinder two -stroke engine should have cranks at
right angles to secure the maximum torque on the shaft.
Looked at in end view the cranks form the four arms of a
cross and thiis four impulses are given every revolution,
but as the ordinary magneto only gives two sparks in every
revolution it must be driven at twice the crankshaft speed.
This puts a great strain on the machine at top speed, and
also on the insulation of the windings and the plugs, so
that the plugs require constant attention. Magneto troubles
were found to be eliminated by the use of the special radng
pattern magneto supplied by some manufacturers and
the choice of high grade sparking plugs.
Carburation troubles were r.ot so easily dealt with, A
multi-cylinder two-stroke engine should undoubtedly have
a multiple jet carburettor and some form of hand-eon-
trolled extra-air inlet valve on the induction pipe ; also
the mixing chamber of the carburettor should be water-
jacketed by hot water. It was also found necessary to
fit a hot water-jacket round a portion of the induction
pipe, as the demand for petrol vapour was so great and the
rate of evaporation so high that frost readily formed on
the induction pipe unless the weather was very warm.
The two-stroke engine requires its petrol much faster than
the four -stroke, so that the float of the carburettor should
be delicately balanced and the height of the petrol in the
jet should be quite level with the top of the orifice, although
this often leads to flooding.
Reviewing the description of what we have designated
the Kean two-stroke engine, we may sum up the results
of these experiments by saying that the engine could
have developed considerably more power than it did
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TWO-STROKE ENGINES 95
had diagrams been taken from it in the first instance
and the severe throttling in the carburettor and auto-
matic inlet valves been discovered ; moreover, the flash-
ing back from the exhaust would have been located
much sooner and probably cured by a re-arrangement of
the exhaust manifold. If the exhaust manifold had been
arranged so that there was a separate branch for at least
each pair of cylinders, it would very likely have been stopped,
or at any rate greatly reduced. But what could not have
been altered was the acceleration knocking. It must not be
imagined because I have been very frank in the criticism
of my own work that the engine was a failure ; it was a
great svcccss, but not sufficiently successful to represent
an improvement on the best four-stroke practice. The
car ran well, was very reliable and efficient in petrol con-
sumption ; the engine was quiet and extremely flexible ;
but it had one very objectionable feature in that every
time you pressed the accelerator pedal down sharply, either
to put on a spurt for the purpose of passing slower traffic
or in rushing a short gradient, a peculiar knocking or ham-
mering arose from the engine cylinders — this is what I
describe as acceleration knocking and must not be con-
fused with the knocking or hammering of a four-stroke
engine when labouring on a gradient. My engine would
be full of life all the time it was knocking like this, and
gradually aa the speed increased the noise would ease-
off, even though no change of gear had been made.
The diagrams proved to me that this knocking was due
to pre-ignition caused by a cushion of hot gases remaining
in the top of the working cylinder, and in my opinion no
alteration of the ports or cylinder head would have influ-
enced this defect to any marked extent ; therefore I should
never attempt again to feed the new charge in at the bottom
end of the cylinder of a two-stroke engine if I wished to
obtain the maximum amount of power from it. It seems
to me that other people must also have been impressed
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96 THE PETROL ENGINE
with similar misgivings, for in one or two types of engine
using crankchamber compression we see a special attempt
made to overcome it, although the method adopted leads
to a rather undesirable arrangement of the engine mechan-
ism. In the type of engine I refer to the charge may be
drawn into the crankchamber in the usual manner, if de-
sired, but the working cylinder is a casting with two bores
having two separate pistons and a common combustion
chamber. The charge enters above one piston while the
crank is on its bottom dead- centre and is exhausted from
the space above the other piston simultaneously, and the
path of the gases is from the inlet port up to the top of No . ( 1 )
bore, then down to No. (2) bore, and out of the exhaust.
This ensures that there shall be no cushion of hot exhaust
gases left in the combustion chamber (or top end of the
cylinder).
These engines have given quite good results, and would
be much more extensively used but for the fact that there
is double compression to overcome in startii^, and their
running torque, due to the number of impulses given to
the crankshaft, is no better than a four-stroke engine. Fig.
66 shows the arrangement of the cylinders and the path
of the gases. A, and Aa are the twin pistons working in
the water-] acketed cylinder casting B, and having the com-
mon combustion chamber C. The connecting rods may
drive separate cranks in opposite directions or both be
coupled together and work a single crank. It wiU be seen
that in this type of engine the piston does not require
any deflector.
The simple two-stroke engine described at the beginning
of this chapter is often constructed in such a form that no
automatic inlet valve is required on the crankchamber.
Ill this case the induction pipe is connected to a third
set of ports just below and a little to one side of the inlet
ports to the working cylinder, and these are uncovered by
the piston towards the completion of its upstroke, thus
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TWO-STKOKE ENGINES
T\ U
[ Crankchaubbb
allowing the earburetted air to enter the crankchamber.
Such an arrangement constitutea a three-port two-etroke
engine, which is of courae leaa cedent than a two-port
engine with automatic valve, but has the great merit that
it is entirely valveless, and therefore extremely simple and
cheap to manufacture. It is much used for motor boat
work, both in this country and in America, on account
of its relatively low speed of rotation.
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CHAPTER XI
HORSE-POWER AND THE INDICATOR DIAGRAM
A BOOK on " The Petrol Engine " would hardly be com-
plete without some reference to horse-power and the indi-
cator diagram. The following definitions must be carefully
studied.
Work.— A force is said to do mechanical work when it
overcomes a resistance in its own line of action. The line
of action of a force is a line indicating the direction in which
the force acts. Engineers measure work in foot-pound
units. The product obtained when we multiply the magni-
tude of the force or resistance {in pounds) by the distance
through which it has acted or been overcome (expressed
in feet) gives the quantity of work done in foot-pounds.
. Example ;— A force of 50 lbs. is exerted in overcoming
a resistance through a distance of 12 feet. Find the work
done.
Work done = Force (in lbs.) x Distance (in ft.)
= 50 X 12 =600 ft. lbs.
Power. — The rate at which work is done is a measure
of the power exerted. One horse-power is exerted when
33,000 foot-pounds of work are done in one minute. The
work done per minute (in ft. lbs.) divided by 33,000 gives
the horse-power expended.
Example .■—To propel a motor-car along a level road
at a speed of 30 miles an hour requires a tractive effort
or puU of 70 lbs. if the vehicle weighs one ton. Find the
horse-power required, at the road surface.
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HORSE-POWER AM) INDICATOR DIAGRAM 99
XT Work done per minute in ft. lbs.
Horse-power = — —
*^ 33,000
Force {in lbs.) x Distance through
which it acts per minute (in ft),
^ 33,000 "
70 X 30 X 5280
60 7 X 264
33,000 330
= 5-6
Example : — If the car in the preceding example had to
climb a gradient which rose one foot for every four feet
traversed by the car, find the additional horse-power needed
to keep up a speed of 30 miles an hour while climbing the
gradient.
Here we have to raise a weight of 1 ton vertically upwards
through a height equal to one-fourth of the road surface
covered, every minute.
Additional Horse-power required
33,000
2240 X 660 . . o
Total Horse-power to climb the gradient of 1 in 4
at 30 miles an hour = 5-6 + 44-8 = 50-4
Brake Horse-Power. — The length of the circumfer-
ence or boundary line of a circle is 6-28 times the length
of the radius of the circle or 3- 14 times the length of its
diameter. Hence, if an engine exerts a pull of P lbs. at
the end of a brake arm of length R feet when it is main-
taining a speed of N revolutions per minute (we may imag-
ine the brake to be fitted round the rim of the flywheel),
we can calculate the brake horse-power thus -.-^
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100 THE PETROL ENGINE
Work done on the brake
' T> , TT T> D TT Tj P^c minutc in ft. lbs.
Brake Horse-Power or B.H.P. = ^ ^t of) i —
I PuU at the end of the I ("G^Stimes the radmsi
\ brake arm (in lbs.) I I of the arm (in feet) )
(the number of revolutions made by thei
hence 1 _ ^1 engine (in on e minute) j
B.H.P. I ~ 33;000
_ P X 6-28 X R X N
"^ 33;000
Example : — An engine being tested by a brake applied
to the flywheel as shown in the sketch {Fig. 67) exerts a
FlQ. 67. — Petrol Enoinb Bi
pull of 50 lbs. at a speed of 2,000 revolutions per minute.
If the length of brake arm is 30 inches, calculate the brake
horse-power developed.
Work done per minute -= 50 x 6 28 x X 2000ft. lbs.
50 X 6-28 X ?^ X 2000
B.H.P. = 12 =47-5
33,000
Rated Horse-Power, — For taxation purposes the
Treasury makes use of a formula for the rating of petrol
engines according to their probable horse -power. This
formula is based on a certain speed of the piston which
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HORSE-POWER AND INl3lCAT0R ' CIAmtAM 101
was regarded as a limiting value some years ago (when
the formula was first proposed) and on the attainment
of a certain effective pressure in the cylinder.
Horse-power from the Treasury formula = 0-4 d^n.
Where d = diameter of cylinder in inches.
n = number of cylinders.
With modem engines much greater horse-power ia ob-
tained, and a near approximation to the true output is
obtained by using what is now known as the Joint Com-
mittee's formula.
Brake Horse-Power -046 n (d -f s) (d-M8)
Where d= diameter of cylinder in inches.
s^length of piston's stroke in inches.
This formula is only to be used in an attempt to predict
the probable maximum horse-power which any engine will
give. It must not be confused with the ordinary brake
horse-power formula.
Example : — Find the probable maximum horse-power
of an engine having four cylinders each 3 in. bore and a
piston stroke of 4 in. What would be its horse-power for
taxation purposes ?
By Joint CommiUee's formula —
B.H.P.= 46x4 (3+4)(3-I18)^ I 84 x7 x 1-82 =23-35
By Treasury formula — -
B.H.P =0-4x3=x4 -0-4x9x4 =14-4
Indicated Horse-Power. — The horse-power which an
indicator would show as being developed inside the cylin-
der of a petrol engine, above the piston, would be called
the indicated horse-power, and should always work out a
greater number than the brake horse-power or power avail-
able at the engine flywheel, because some of the power
liberated from the combustion of the petrol within the
cylinder is lost in friction of the piston and bearings.
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102' ■.■'-■■ '■ '■ "'i:HE 'i>ETROL ENGINE
The Indicated Horse-Power or I.H.P. — - ^ - *'
Where Po = mean effective pressure from the diagram,
ia lbs. per sq. inch.
A = area of piston in square inches = 0-7854
(diameter of cylinder)'
L = length of stroke of piston, in feet.
Ne = number of power impulses per minute
delivered to the crankshaft.
Since a four-stroke engine gives one power impulse to
the crankshaft in every two revolutions, it follows that Ne
is equal to half the number of revolutions per minute for
a single-cylinder engine of that type, and twice the number
of revolutions for a four-cylinder engine. A four-cylinder
two-stroke engine might be arranged to give either two or
four impulses per revolution of the crankshaft — depending
upon the arrangement of the cranks.
Example :—A four-cylinder four-stroke engine runs at
a speed of 2,000 revolutions per minute and the mean-effec-
tive pressure in the cylinders is 75 lbs. per square inch.
Calculate the indicated horse-power if the cylinders are
4 in. X 4 in.
o . T M '5>« 0-7854 X4« X7ijX4001)
J TT p ^ Pe X A X L X Na ^ 12
■ ■ - -' 33^000 ^ 33,000
= "^5 X 12-56 X 4900 _ jg
99,000
The Indicator Diagram. — ^At the commencement of
this chapter we explained that the work done by a force
was measured by multiplying the number representing the
magnitude of the force (in pounds) by the distance through
which it had acted (measured in feet). This product gave
us the quantity of work done in foot-pound units. Thus
" grimntity of toork done " is really the product of two num-
bers, just as the area of a rectangular floor space is meas-
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HORSE-POWER AND INDICATOR DIAGRAM 103
ured by length times breadth. In symbols we write W =
F X S where F is the magnitude of the force or resistance in
pounds and S the distance through which it has acted, in
feet. It is interesting to contemplate this symbolical
expression W = F x S together with the expression
Area = Length X Breadth, because it gives us a new idea
for measuring work. Imagine a diagram of the kind shown
in Fig. 68, in which the curved line AB has been obtained
by plotting values of F and S for any imaginary case. The
diagram is supposed to represent pictorially how the par-
FlG. 08. FORCE-aPACE OB W}«K DlAOHAM.
tieular force under consideration has varied in magnitude
as it has traversed a space represented, to some scale, by
the length DC. It is clearly seen that the force has been
decreasing in an irregular manner from some large value
represented by the height DA to a small value represented
by the height CB. We now proceed to show that the
shaded area ABCD measures the total amount of work
done by this force.
Considering for a moment just the small strip cfdc of
the diagram we see that it is easy to find a rectangle abci
equal in area to it. Now the height of this rectangle will
be the average value of the force while it traversed the
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104 THE PETROL ENGINE
space cd, and hence the area of the rectangle ahcd gives the
work done by the force in passing from c to d. Similarly
by dividing up the whole diagram we would obtain a num-
ber of little rectangles each equal in area to the magnitude
of the work done from point to point. Thus the whole
area ABCD gives the whole work done. To measure the
work done in an engine cylinder we must use some form
of indicator. An indicator is an instrument which traces
out a diagram on which abscisscB {or horizontal distances)
represent displacements of the piston and orditiates (or
vertical distances) represent the pressures acting on the
piston.
Ordinary steam engine indicators with pencil motion and
paper drum are not suitable for use with fast running petrol
engines. The moving parts of these indicators are too
heavy and their springs too sluggish in action to keep cor-
rect time with these high speed engines. Again, there
is too much friction between the pencil and the paper drum,
as well as in the lever joints. Therefore special indicators
have to be used, in which the diagrana is traced out by a
beam of light reflected from a mirror on to a ground glass
screen or photographic plate. One corner of the mirror
is tilted in time with the movement of the engine piston
by means of a special reducing mechanism, and another
comer of the mirror is tilted in a direction at right angles
to the first by means of a very short thin rod kept in con-
tact with a metal diaphragm subjected to the pressure of
the gases in the engine cylinder, A beam of light is thrown
on to the mirror from a lamp, and after reflection traces
out the diagram on the screen or plate. Such an instru-
ment would generally be described as a manograph. An
indicator diagram from a four-stroke engine is shown in
Fig. 69. The line ABC represents the suction stroke of
the piston during which the pressure of the gases in the
cylinder falls a little below that of the atmosphere. At-
mospheric pressure is shown by the height of the line LL
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HORSE-POWER AND INDICATOR DIAGRAM 105
above the base, or line of zero pressure (perfect vacuum).
The inlet valve can be opened at B and closed at D after
the crank has turned the bottom dead-centre and begun
the compression stroke. The line CDE represents the
compression stroke of the engine, during which the gases
are compressed and their pressure rises. The height of
the point E above the line LL gives the compression pres-
sure to the scale of the diagram. Ignition occurs at E,
and results in an instantaneous rise of pressure to F due
—Petrol Engine Indicator Dia(
to the explosion, which is, however, quickly followed by
expansion to G. The exhaust valve opens at G, the gases
are released, and the pressure falls still further to point H,
The line HA represents the exhaust stroke of the piston,
and the exhaust valve would be closed after the crank
had passed its upper dead-centre and commenced the
suction stroke. The distance marked (x) on the diagram
measures the clearance volume (or volume of the space
above the piston containing the valves and referred to as
the combustion chamber) to the same scale that the length
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106 THE PETROL ENGINE
of the diagram measures the volumetric displacement of
the piston. The volume traced out by the piston during
any working stroke is meaaiu-ed by multiplying the area
( centimetres )
of the piston in square
inches
by the length
Fig. 70. — Indicator Diagr.^u
of the stroke in
( inches,
the product giving us
the capacity of the cylinder in cubic
f centimetres l
The
inches.
area of the diagram HEFG gives the work done during
one cycle of operations, and the area of the small diagram
ABCD gives the work lost in taking in and expelling the
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HORSE-POWER AND INDICATOR DIAGRAM 107
charge. The small area should be subtracted from the
large one to get the useful work done per cycle of opera-
tions. The area of the diagram HEFG may readily be
obtained by finding its vertical height at a number of equi-
distant points, and from these measurements ascertaining
the average or mean he^ht of the diagram. The average
height of the diagram (in inches) midtiplied by its length
(also in inches) gives the area in square inches.
The average or mean height of the diagram also gives
what we term the mean effective 'preaawre acting on the
piston, and constitutes the Pg of the indicated horse-power
formula above. The area ABCD is always small and
generally neglected with four-stroke engines. There are
two separate diagrams for a two-stroke engine. The dia-
gram for the working cylinder is AiBiCiDi in Fig. 70,
and that for the crankchamber is EiFiGiH,. The effec-
tive work done per cycle is measured by the difference in
the area of these two diagrams. The piston uncovers
the exhaust port at Bi and closes it again at C, ; it un-
covers the inlet port at Fi and covers it again at G,. From
F, to Gi the charge is being delivered from the crank-
chamber to the working cylinder. The area of the loop
EiFiGiHi is larger than the corresponding portion of the
four-stroke diagram and should not be neglected.
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CHAPTER XII
LIQUID FUELS
Important factors in the choice of a liquid fuel for use
in portable internal combustion engines are ; (1) low cost;
(2) ease and safety of transportation or storage ; (3) high
volatility, i.e., readily convertible into vapour ; (4) non-corro-
sive action on metals ; (5) high heat efficiency; (6) ability
to give satisfactory results in existing types of internal
combustion engine.
Petrol is a liquid fuel composed of carbon (C) and hydro-
gen (H) in chemical combination. The principal method
of producing petrol is by distillation of crude petroleum.
The best mixture to use in a petrol engine is one composed
of 2 cubic feet of petrol vapour to every 98 cubic feet of
air. Petrol does not require any heat to vaporize it
under ordinary atmospheric conditions. Pre-ignitioii of
the charge is liable to occur if the compression pressure
exceeds 100 lbs. per square inch. It does not corrode or
deteriorate metal parts, but leaves a black carbon deposit
if not properly burned. Its volatility is high and its
specific gi^vity is low, being about 0-7 1 . An average figure
for the calorific value of petrol would be 20,000 B. Th. U.
per lb. Petrol is very expensive and also needs care in
handling. Private motorists are not allowed to store petrol
or benzol.
Benzol is a liquid fuel containing more carbon (C) and
less hydrogen (H) than petrol. The principal method of
obtaining benzol is by distillation of coal tar. The strength
of the mixture should be such that a little more air is sup-
plied in proportion to the quantity of fuel used than is
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LIQUID FUELS 109
required for petrol. Generally, it may be said that when
an engine has been running on petrol and is changed over
to benzol the size of the carburettor jet orifice should be
slightly reduced and the weight of the float increased—
no other changes need be made anywhere. Benzol is
very volatUe and also highly dangerous to handle, on ac-
count of its low flash-point. It often contains impurities
which attack the metal parts of the engine and gum up
the valves. It is more liable to deposit carbon than petrol.
Benzol attacks rubber, and paint on coachwork. It is
as expensive aa petrol at the present time. The specific
gravity of benzol may be taken as 0-88 and its calorific
value as 19,000 B. Th. U. per lb. It may be compressed
above 100 lbs. per square inch without pre-igniting.
Alcohol is a liquid fuel composed of carbon (C), hydro-
gen (H), and oxygen (0). The principal method of ob-
taining alcohol is from the fermentation of vegetable matter,
such as potatoes, beetroot, etc. About 6 cubic feet of
vaporized alcohol to every 94 cubic feet of air should be
used. The volatility of alcohol is very poor compared
with petrol or benzol, and it generally contains some water
in suspension. It will stand double the compression pres-
sure of petrol without pre-igaiting. Alcohol is not so
liable to deposit carbon as petrol or benzol, but is very
liable to cause rust. It is not obtainable as a fuel in Great
Britain at present, owing to the high duty on it. Engines
for use with alcohol ought really to be specially constructed
for the purpose. Its calorific value is only 12,000 B, Th. U.
per lb., and its specific gravity is 0-82. Alcohol requires
to be heated before it will vaporize, this heat generally
being obtained from the exhaust gases after the engine has
been first started up. Alcohol is fairly safe to handle or
store.
Paraffin is obtained during the distillation of petrol
from crude'petroleum, and consists of carbon (C) and hydro-
gen (H) in almost the same proportions aa petrol. Its
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110 THE PETROL ENGINE
volatility is low, and it requires heat to vaporize it. The
heat required for vaporization is usually obtained from the
exhaust gases after the engine has been got running. In
starting up a lamp must be used for heating the vaporizer
of the carburettor. Paraffin will stand a little higher
compression than petrol before pre-igniting. The specific
gravity of paraffin may be taken as 0-80 and its calorific
value as 18,000 B. Th. U. per lb. It is much cheaper than
either petrol or benzol, being only about one-third of the
cost. The chief objections to its use are its smell and
the greasy character of the stain left by it on eoach-
work or clothes ; also the difficulty of having to heat the
vaporizing chamber of the carburettor. It is much
safer to handle and store than either petrol or benzol, and
requires about the same proportion of air to form an
explosive mixture as that given for petrol. The range
of variation of strength in the mixture which is permissible
with paraffin is much less than with either petrol, benzol,
or alcohol. Alcohol has the greatest range of variation
in mixtion strength. Paraffin is also very liable to depc^it
carbon, owing to the small range of variation permissible
in the strength of the mixture.
Thermal Efficiency. — In the foregoing notes we have
used certain terms which have not previously been ex-
plained, and therefore it is necessary to give one or two
definitions.
The Specific Gravity of a fuel is the ratio of the weight
of one gallon of the fuel to the weight of one gallon of water.
As a gallon of water weighs 10 lbs., it will be evident from
the above notes that a gallon of petrol only weighs 71 lbs.,
whereas a gallon of benzol will weigh 8-8 lbs. (approx.),
hence it is not surprising to learn that more mileage per
gallon is obtained with benzol than with petrol, even though
the calorific value of benzol, per lb., is less than that of
petrol. Sometimes the specific gravity is referred to as
the d&tsity of the fuel, but this is pnly correct when grammes
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LIQUID FUELS 111
and centimetres are being used. The density of any fuel
is the weight of 1 cubit foot expressed in pounds or, in
general terms, the mass of unit volume of the fuel. The
density of petrol in English units would be about 44 lbs.
per cubic foot.
One British Thermal Unit is the quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of water by 1 degree
(Fahrenheit scale) when the temperature of the water is
about 60°F.
The Calorific Value of any fuel (reckoned on the British
system of units}i8the amoimt of heat (expressed in Britiih.
Thermal Units) which will be given out by 1 lb. of the fuel
when it is completely burned. The liquid fuels we have
to deal with are hydrocarbon compounds, and when com-
pletely burned the whole of the carbon is burned to
carbon dioxide (COj) and the hydrogen to steam (HaO),
leaving no residue. By means of a calorimeter we can
experimentally determine the calorific value of any
fuel.
It has long been known that work can be turned into
heat, and the petrol engine is a good example of the reverse
process which consists in turning heat into work. In a
steam engine and boiler plant the heat of the fuel is liber-
ated under the boiler, and then a portion of it gets trans-
ferred to the water in the boiler and forms steam, which is
then taken to the engine and does work in the cylinder,
the whole being a wasteful process. The petrol engine is an
internal combustion engine, or one in which the fuel is burnt
inside the engine cylinder itself and converted directly
into work. From every British ' Thermal Unit of heat
liberated by the combustion of the fuel in the cylinder
we should be able to get 778 foot-pounds of work if the
thermal (or heat) efficiency of the engine was 100 per cent.
The thermal efficiency (7) of any engine may be defined
as the ratio which the heat equivalent of the work done
per minute by the engine bears to the heat which would
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112 THE PETROL ENGINE
be liberated by the complete combuation of the quantity
of fuel admitted to the cylinder per minute. Thus —
(Horse-power of the Engine x 33,000)^ 778
" ~ {Number of pounds of fuel consumed per minute)
X (Calorific Value of the fuel)
Example : — An engine developing 30 horse-power uses
050 lb. of benzol per minute. What is its thermal efficiency?
The calorific value of benzol may be taken as 19,000
B..Th. U. per lb.
30 X 33,000 -^ 778
0-50 X 19,000
= 0134, or 13-4 per cent.
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APPENDIX
ENGINE TROUBLES
Many of the troubles that are likely to arise have ab«ady been
referred to in previous chapt«rs, but the following additional
notes may be found useful.
1. Engine refuses to start.
Care must be taken to observe exactly what happens, and one
cannot do better than ask oneself mentally some of the following
questions.
(a) la the ignition " on " ?
If a magneto is fitted the earth connexion should be open,
but if a coil and accumulator are fitted the earth connexion
should be closed.
(6) Is the petrol reaching the atrbureitor jet ?
Before removing the jet for the purpose of examining and
cleaning it, it would be advisable to ascertain whether the petrol
was reaching the float chamber. Provided there is a reasonable
amount of petrol in the tank and the tap ia turned on, there
must be a stoppage either in the petrol filter, the petrol pipe,
or the bottom portion of the float chamber. Examine the filter
and float chamber before disconnecting any pipes.
(c) Is there a good compression in all the cylinders ?
If there does not appear to be any compression in any of the
cylinders, it is probable that the carburettor throttle ia closed
and no air or gaa can enter the cylinders. If there ia a good
comprcsaion in some cylinders and a poor one cr none at all in
others then —
(1) One or more of the valves may be held off its seat by dirt,
by diatortion, or by some derangement of the valve gear.
Examine the valve gear externally, turning the engine
slowly to watch its action. Afterwards remove valve
caps and inspect valves if necessary.
(2) One or more of the sparking plugs or valve eajs may bo
short of its washer. In this case the blow will be heard
as the engine is turned round by hand.
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114 THE PETROL ENGINE
(3) A piston may be cracked or broken or a cylinder cracked.
(4) A cylinder may have got badly worn and the rings on the
piston jammed so that they no longer keep it gas-tight.
{d) Is the engine very stiff to turn over f
Stiffness is due as a rule to lack of oil on the cylinder walls,
caused by absence of oil in crankchamber or the film of oil on
the cylinder walla having been washed ofE when priming the
engine with petrol in attempting to start it. If a connecting rod
is bent , or the crankshaft distorted or a piston ring broken, stiffness
will also be noted. Very often by removing the valve caps and
pourii^ a teaspoonful of oil or paraffin into each cylinder the
engine may be freed by vigorously turning the starting handle
by hand until the cylinders and pistons are well lubricated,
(e) Is there cny sign of an attempt to fire the charge such as an
occasional puff of smoke from the exhaust or inlet, or an occasional
jerk round of the engine as you turn the starting handle, or an
occasional " bang " in the exhaust bos 1
If the ignition is " on " and the carburettor jet clear, the
compression good and the engine quite free, yet there is no sign
of a " fire " from any of the cylinders, it is pceaible that air is
leaking into the induction pipe through a faulty joint or any one
of the following ignition troubles may have occurred ; —
{/) Defective sparking plug or plugs. This may arise from
water or oil or dirt between the plug points ; or from faulty
insulation in the body of the plug. To test whether the plugs
are at fault an easy method is to take a screw-driver with a wooden
handle and place the metal blade on the terminal of the plug,
letting the point come about one thirty-second of an inch from
the metal of the cylinder or any of the pipes ; when the engine
is turned by hand the spark will be seen to pass across this im-
provised gap if the magneto and leads are in order.
{g) Defective electrical connexions.
The high tension cables may be broken, or disconnected, or
short-eurcuited. The earth wire may be short-circuited (i.e.,
in electrical contact with some other wire or metal fitting). There
may be a short-circuit in the ignition switch.
(A) Defective magneto or coil.
The low tension contact breaker lever may be jammed so that
the make and break is inoperative, or one of the carbon brushes
may have got broken. Occasionally one. finds the magnets of
the machine have lost lieir power ; or there is some electrical
defect m the armature or condenser. The battery may have
become exhausted. The trembler blade may be stuck up.
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Water may have found its way on to the high tension electrode
or into the safety spark gap. '
2. Et^ne starts up fairly well, runs a little, and then
stops.
Take care to notice the manner in which the engine runs and
atopa. Note whether it runa regularly or irregularly and for .
how long a time.
If the engine runs regularly with all cylinders firing, then
probably the exhaust is choked or the petrol supply fails. Failure
of the petrol supply may be due to the use of too small a jet
in the carburettor, too low a level in the float chamber, or to
partial stoppage in the pipe line. Another cause of this trouble
of intermittent running would Hometimes be loss of battery power
when using coil ignition, i.e., batteries want recharging.
If the engine runs irregvlarly the trouble is probably due to too
much oil in the cylinders causing the plugs to misfire, the presence
of water or dirt in the petrol, a defective valve, a broken carbon
brush, or poor electrical contact somewhere in the magneto, the
low tension contact breaker (coil), or high tension distributor
(coU).
To ascertain whether the engine Is firing regularly on all cylin-
ders, or to detect which cylinder is misfiring, the best procedure
is to open the compression taps in turn while the engine is running
and in each case speed up the engine while you have the tap
open. Cylinders which are firing weU give a sharp crachifig
noise, those which are not firing merely give a hissing noise. If
no compression taps are provided, each plug must be short-cir-
cuited to tho frame in turn by the screw-driver method given
above. The short-circuiting process causes a reduction in engine
speed except on that plug which is already not firing. The
method is not so good as the compression tap process, because
the plugs often get oiled up during the short-circuiting process
and the difficulty is accentuated.
3. Timing the Ignition.
My colleague, Mr. Oliver Mitchell, has pointed out to me that
it is often impossible to tell directly when the piston is exactly
at the top of its stroke^ and he recommends a study of the accom-
panying Valve Setting Diagram (Figure 71). From this it will
be seen that it is sufficiently near to bring the engine first of all
to such a position that the exhaust valve has jxist closed ; then
make a chalk mark ou the flywheel and give the engine one
complete turn round ; tho piston will then be in the firing position
if the flywheel is turned a shade backwards. Another method
would be to retard the ignition fully and time it so that the spark
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116
THE PETROL ENGINE
occurred one cotnplete revolution after the inlet valve had fust
commenced to open. When either valve is closed its tappet can
be felt to be free, the amount of freedom depending upon the
clearance between the tappet head and valve Btem.
Fig. 71-- — PliORAM OF Vai.vk BBTTINa.
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INDEX
Acceleration, quick, 78
— under load, 92
Aooeeaibility, 39, 60
Acoumulator, 61
Adapter, 92
Adjustable tappet head, 29, 30
Adjusting screws, 19
Advanced ignition, 65, 66, 69
Aeroplane engine cylinder, 10, 16
Air, 1, 41, 42, 46, 87, 89, 114
— oarburetted, 42, 97
— lock, 72
— pump, 60
hand, 50
— scavenging, 16, 35, 84, 86, 87
— to petrol ratio, 42
— valve, automatic extra, 43, 49
— velocity, 46, 70
— volume of, relative to petrol
vapour, 42, 198
— weight of, relative to petrol
vapour, 42
Alcohol, properties of, 109
Anti-freezing solution, 72
Armature of magneto, 62, 64
■ — relative speeds of engine and
magneto, 64, 66
Atmoapherio pressure, 3, 90
Atomization of petrol, 48, 49
Automatic extra-air valve, 43, 49
— inlet valve, 82, 84, 88
Backfire, 62, 84
Balance, perfect, 76
— want of, 75„76
— weight, 26
Balancing the crankshaft, 36, 26, 76
Barrel of cylinder, 1 2
Base, oil, 8, 40, 65
Battery, 116
Bearings, main, 24, 64
Benzol, properties of, 46, !08
Blade, trembler, 57
Boiling of water in jackets, 72
Boxes, core, II
Brake, for petrol engine, 100
Brake horse-powev, 99
British ttiermal unit. 111
Brush, carbon, 53, 55, 116
Built-up cylinder, 16
— flywheel, 27
Buoyancy, 46
Burning, rate of, of mixture, 1, 57
— of deflector, 91
Bursting of flywheel rim, 27
Bush, phosphor bronze, 23
Cables, high tension, 61
Calorific values, 111
Cam, 30, 33
Camshafts, 29, 33, 40
Cams, stationary, for magneto, I
Capacity of cylinder, 106
Caps, valve, 13, 31
Carbon brush, 53, 66, 116
— deposit, 63, 78
Carburation, 42, 94
Oarburetted air, 42, 97
Carburettor, 6, 8, 42, 82
— jet type, 42
— multiple jet, 47, 94
— points of a good, 49
■ — recent improvements in, 47
— spray type, 42
— surface type, 42
— wick type, 42
Castings, cylinder, 11
byGoogle
Cast-in-pairs, cylinders, 16
Centrifugal force, 27
Chain drive, silent, 38
Chares, 3, 80
Charging pump, SO
*0, 71
Choke tube, 48, 47
Chrome ateel, 20, 36
Ciroulating water pump, 8, 71
Circulation, forced, 71
— local, 73
— pump, 71
— thermo-Byphon, 09
Clearance between piston and
cylinder walla, 17
— of valve tappet, 29
— apace, 4, 105, 107
Coil ignition, 37, 69, 61
■ system, wiring diagram for,
61
— non-trembler, 59
— aupplementary, tor starting, 68
— trembler pattern, 67, 81
Collector ring, 56
Combustion, 78
— chamber, 4, 96
Compensating jet, 48
Compression, meaning of, 3
— preaeure, »2, 83, 106
— stroke, 8, 80
Cone clutch, 27
Connecting rod, 4, 21, 96
forces acting on, 20
phosphor bronze, 20, 22
ateel, 23
Conauraption of fuel, 79
— of oil, 67
Contact breaker, low tension, 63
— — wipe form of, 58
— screws, platinum tipped, 63, 67
Cooling, 69
Core-boxes, 11
Core, iron, of ignition coil, 67
Cost of production, 22, 64, 79
Cotter, 29
Crank chamber, 8, 39
gastight, 81, 82, 96
— cheeks or weba, 24
~ motor-cycle, 23
~ pin, 24
— radius, 4
— shaft, 23, 28, 77, 89
Crank shaft, balancing the, 26, 76
vibration of, 76
whipping of, 76
Cushion of hot gas, 93, 96
Cut-out, 90
Cycle, four-stroke, 6
— motor, 10, 11
— Otto, 6
— two-stroke, 80
CyUnder, 5, 9
— aeroplane engine, IE, 16
— air-cooled, 11, 16
— barrel, 12
— built-up, 16
— castings, 11
— head, detachable, 32, 78
— jackets, 12, 16, 69
— L-headed, 16
— piimp, 87, 88, 107
— revolving, 10
— T-headed, 15
— water-cooled, 8, 32, 82, 96
— working, «1, 87, 107
Cylinders, cast en bloc, 16, 77
— cast in pairs, 18
— caat separately, 18
— choosing the number of, 75
— firing order of, 60
Dead c
re, 4, 116
Defective coil, 114, 116
— ignition system, 114
— magneto, 114, 118
— sparking plug, 113, 114
— valve, 113, 114, 116
Deflector, 81, 87, 93, 96
— overheating of, 84, 91
Density, 46, HI
Deposit of carbon, 63, 78
Description of a typical petrol
engine, 8
Detachable cylinder head, 32, 78
Devices, Ignition, 51
Diagram, indicator, 02, 102
— for four-stroke engine, 105
— tor two-stroke engine, 106
— for valve setting, 116
— work, 103
Difficulties in starting, 72,76, 92, 98,
113
by Google
Discharge, spark, SI, G4, 58
Distributor, high tension, 52, 63, 6S
Double sleeve engine, 32, 78
Down stroke, 4, SI, S2
Drawings, working, II, 93
Drip feed, 64, 90, 92
Drive, silent' chain, 38
Dual ignition, 68
— springs, 90
Ducts for oil, 41 . .
Duplex piston, 66
Durability, 49, 79
— rod, 33, 36
— sheaves, 33, 36
— straps, 33, 36
Economy and durability, 79
Efficiency, thermal, 110, 111
— volumetric, 83, 86, 88
Electric spark, 61, 54, 58
Electrodes of spEirking plug, 51,
91, 92
Engine, four cylinder, 9. 76, 77, 94-
— internal combustion. 111
— motor car, 9
— multi-cylinder, 77
— points of a good, 76
— single cylinder, 76
— six cylinder, 76, 77
— troubles, 113
— two cylinder, 76
— two-stroke, 80. 95
Evaporation, I
Exhaust pipe, 6
— ports, 81, 88
open, 81, 88, 96
— smoky, 66
— stroke, 7, 35
— system, overheating of the, 67
— valves, 5, 10, 37, 81
— valves, timing of the, 36, 37,
78, 116
Explosion stroke, 7, 21, 26, 35
Explosive mixtures, I. 108, 109,
110
Extra-air valve, 43, 49, 94
)EX 119
Feed, drip, 64, 90, 02
Fibre, tappet head, 30
— wWl, 38
Film of oil, 6e
Filter, petrol, 43
Fins, heat radiating, 70
Firing order of the cylinders, 60
— stroke. 60
Fixed ignition, 67
Flanges, 12, 13
Flaeh point of lubricating oils. 63,
67, 68
Flashiiig back from exhaust, 84,
92, 93, 96
Flexibility, 77, 83, 92
Float chamber, 43, 44, 94
Flooding. 46, 94
Fluctuation of engine speod, 27
Flywheel, 8, 26
— built-up, 27
— function of, 26
— rim, bursting of, 27
— single stamping of steel, 28
Force, 98
— centrifugal. 27
Forced circulation. 71
— lubrication, 66. 90
Forces, inertia, 76
— space diagram, 103
Four cylinder engine, 9, 76, 77, 94
— stroke cycle, 5
Frequency of vibrations, 76
Fuel, consumption of. 79
Fuels, liquid, 108
Furring of tubes and jacket spaces.
73
G
Fan, 70
— pulley, 8, 70
Gap of sparking plug. 51, 64
Qas, compressii^ the, 3
— pump, 80
— tight crankchamber, 81, 83, 9
Gearing, overhead, 16
Gears, helical, 38
— spur, 37, 38
General overheating, 72, 73
— principles. I
Oilled tube, 70, 74
Gills, 70
Gravity feed, 50
Grease in cylinder jackets, 72
Grinding in a valve, 31
by Google
Gudgeon pin, 17, IS
wear on, 19, 90
Guidee, valve stem, 8. 12, 13, 30
H
Hand air pump, SO
Handle, atarting. 71
Head, adjustable tappet, 30
Heat efSciency, 112
— energy of the petrol mixture,
9. 17. Ill
— radiating fins, 11, 70
— surplus, 9, 17
Helical teeth, 38
High tension cables, 61
— — distributor, 52, 54. 58
magneto, 8, 51, 52. 54, 89
terminals, 51, 67
Holes, cotter, 29
— oil, 63
Honeycomb radiator, 70, 74
Horse-power, 98
— brake, 99
— indicated, 101
— Joint Committee's formula, 101
Indicator, optical, 92
Induction pipe. 6, 3, 43, 82
Inertia forces, 75
Inflammable vapour. 63
Injection of water to cylinder, 92
Inlet ports, 81, 88
— valve, air, automatio, 43. 49, (
ic, for gaseous mi:
— — mechanically operated, 6, 3(
timing the, 34, 37, 78, llf
- water pipe, 8, 70, 73
- of CI
, 99
— Treasury formula, 101
Hot-water jacket, 43. 47. 9
Hydrogen, 108. 109
— coil, 67. 69. 61
— devices, 61
— dual, 58
— fixed, 57
— knock. 57. 84
— ■ normal, 56
— retarded, 55, 59, 62
— synchronized, 59, 61
— timing the, 60, 62, 116
— two-point, 59
Improved system of splssb lubri-
cation, 64
Improvements in carburettofs. re-
cent. 47
Indicated horse-power. 101
Indicator diagram, 92. 102
for tour-stroke engine, 105
for two-stroke engine, 106
Jacket, cylinder. 12. 15. 69
— hot water, 43, 47. 94
— space, too large, 73
— water, overheating of, 72
■ temperature of, 74
weight of. 74, 89
Jet. atomizing, 48
— compensating. 48
— petrol, 44, 46
Jet-in-tube carburettor, 42
Jigs. 24
Jockey pulley. 38
Joints, water-tight, 11, 16
Journals, 24
K
Kean's two-stroke engine, 85, 94
Knock ignition. 57, 73, 84
Knocking, acceleration, 92, 93, 96
— intermittent, 84, 92, 93
- — spasmodic, 84, 91
(—headed cylinders. IS
Lag in opening and closing valves.
114
Leaky pistons, 114
Liquid fuels, 108
— petrol. 108
Local circulation. 73
— overheating, 72
by Google
Lock, air, 72
Lock nuta, 29
Low tension contact breaker, 62
terminal, 57, 58
— torque, 76
Lubrication, forced, 66, BO
— improved syitem of Bplash, 64
— splash system of, 63
Magneto uraature, relative speeds
of, 64, 65, 94
— tor four cylinder engine, 62, 64,
60
— - for six cylinder engine, 64
— high tension, 8, 39, 40
— ignition B3ratem, wiring dia-
gram for, 60
— lacing pattern, 94
— tno-Btroke engine, 94
Hake and break, 53, 58, 62
Monograph. 104
Materials, packing, 16
Mean effective pressure, 89, 107
Mechanically operated valve, 30, 84
Metal aegments of distributor, 66
Mild steel, 23
Mileage per gallon, IIO
Misfiring. 84, 116
Mixii^ chamber, 43, 47
Mixture, explosive. 1, 108, 109. 110
— heat energy of the, 9, 17, 111
— strength of the 1, 42, 108, 109,
110
— too weak a, 46
— weakening the. 49, 73
Momentum, 36, 36
Monobloc casting, 77
Motor car engine,
— cycle, 10, 11
crank, 23
Moulds. 11
Multiple jet carburettor, 47, 94
Mushroom type valves, 5, 8, 30
N
Natural circulation, 69
Needle valve, 44
Nickel ateel. 20, 36
Noise from valves, 30, 39
Non-trembler coil, 69
Normal ignition, 66
Oil base, S, 40, 65
— consumption of, 67
— ducta, 41
~ film, 65
— holes, 63
^- pressure, 66, 67
— price of, 07
— properties of, 63
— pump, e, 39, 40, 66, 67
speed of, 67
— troughs, 66
Open exhaust port, SI, 88, 90
Optical indicator, 92
Orifiee. 46, 73
Osoillations, torsion^, of the crank-
shaft, 77
Otto cycle, 5
Outlet water pipe, 8, 70. 71, 73
Overflow pipe, 72
Overhead gearing, 16
Overheating of deflector, 84, 91
— of the exhaust system, 67
— general, 72. 73
— local, 72
Overloading the engine, 65, 89
Packing materials, 16
— rings, 17, 18, 81, 87, 97
Paraffin, properties of, 109
Partial aeiKure, IS, 33, 63, 64
I, valve, 10
Patterns, 11
Perfect balance, 76, 77
— combustion, 78
Periodicity, 76, 77
Petrol, consumption of, 79
— ermine, description of a
— Bltei, 43
^ jet. 44, 46
— mixture, heat energy of, (
111
— pipe, 43
— properties oE, 108
— supply, failure of, 113
— tank, 43
— tap, 43
— vapour, I, 42, 43, 8
oof a
'. 42
by Google
122
Phosphor bronze bush, 23
— ■ ■ — ■ connecling rod, 22
Knking, 7B
Pipe, ejihaast, 6, 8
— induction, 5, 8, 43, 82
— inlet water, 8, 70, 71, 73
— outlet water, 8, 70, 71, 73
— overflow, 72
— transfer, 86, 87
Piston, 4, 17. 32.
82,
96
— duplex, 88
— leaky. 73, 114
— ring, cast-iron,
18
, 82
steel, IS
— seizure ot the.
19,
33
— steel, 19
— weight of, 19
Pitch o£ the teeth
on
ft gear
wheel.
Plain tube radiator, 74
Platinum tipped contact screws
63, 57
Plug, sparking, 5, 8. 51. 91. 92
Points of a good carburettor, 49
good engine, 75
Poppet valve, 29, 77, 79
Ports, exhaust, 33, 78, 81. 88
— inlet, 33, 78, 81. 88
— open exhaust, 81. 88, 96
Power, 98
— stroke, 7, 60, 80
Pre-ignition, 84. 90, 92, 95, 108,
109. 110
Pressure, atmoepherio, 3, 90
— conipreBBion, 3, 80. 82, 83, 88,
106
^ teed, 60
— mean-eSective, 89, 107
— of oil, 65, 67
Prices of oils, 67
Primary winding, 53, 58
Production, cost of, 22, 64. 79
Properties of fuels. 108, 109, 110
— of oils, 63
Pulley, tan, 8, 70
— jockey, 38
Pump, ail. 60
— charging, 80
— circulating, B. 67. 71
— cylinder, 87, 88. 107
Racing pattern magneto, 94
Radiator, gilled tube. 69
— honeycomb, 70, 74
— size of, 71.72, 74, 89
Rate of burning, I, 57
Rated hotse-power, 101
Ratio ot air to petrol vapour, 42
Recent improvements in cuburet-
Relative speeds of engine and mag-
neto, 54, 94
Release of gases. 106
Relief valves, 67
Residue, 63
Retarded ignition, 56, 67, 59, 62
Revolving cylinders, 10
Ring, packing, 17, 18, 81, 87, 97
— steel piston, 19
Roller, 29, 58
Rotary valves, 79
Sagging ot camshaft. 36
16. 35, 84, 85, 87, 88,
Scoops, 65
Screws, adjusting, for gudgeon
pin, 18
— platinum tipped, for contact
breaker, 53, 57
Seat of valve, 13, 29
Segments, metal, of distributor, 56
Seizure of piston. 19, 33, 63, 84. 00
Shafts, eccentric, 33
Sheaves, eccentric, 33
Short-circuiting terminal, 56
Silence in running, 79, 92, 95
Silencer, 6, 89
by Google
Silent chain drive, 3S
Simple two-Btroke engine, 81, S6
Single cylinder engine, 75, 76
— sleeve valve engine, 32
— throw crankshaft, 23
Six cylinder engine, 76
-— — — magneto tor, 54
Sleeve valvee, 32, 77, 78
Sleeves, double, 32, 78
Slots, 32
Smoky exhaust, 66
.Spark, electric, SI, 54, GS
Sparking plug, 5, 8, 13, 61, 91, 92
Spasmodic knocking, 34, 91
Specific gravity of fuels, 108, 109,
110
Speed, fluctuation of engine. 27
— of oil pump, 67
Speeds of magneto armature and
distributor, 54, 55, 94
Splash system of lubrication. 63
- — - ■ improved, 64
Split pin, 19
Spray type of carburettor, 42
Springs, dual, for automatic valve,
90
— valve, 8, 29, 90
Sprocket wheels, 38
Spur gears, 38
Stampir^ for connecting rods, 22
Starting dilficulties, 72, 76, 92, 96
— handle, 8, 71
Stationary cams for magneto, 53
Steel, chrome nickel and chrome
vanadium, 20, 36
■ — flywheel, built-up, 27
single stamping, 28
— mild, 23
— pistons, 19
— tungsten, for valves, 30
— ubas, 90
Storage of petrol, 108
Strap, eccentric, 34
Strength and character of spark, 5S
— of mixture, 1, 42, 108, 109, 110
Stroke, meaning of, 3
— auction, 6, 21, 35, 60, 80
Suction, meaning of, 2
Supplementary coil, tor starting, 58
Surface carburettor, 42
Synchronized ignition, 69, 61
Tank, petrol, 43
Tap, compression, 13
— petrol, 43
Tappet head, 29, 30
— valve, 8, 2B
Teeth, hehcal, 38
— pitch of, 38
Temperature of jacket water, 74
Terminals, high tension, 51, 57
L, 67, 6
T-headed cylinder, 16
Thermal efficiency, 110, HI
— unit, British, 111
Thermo-syphon circulation, 69, 89
Three-port two-stroke engine, 97
Throttle valve, 44, 47
Time lag, 56
Timing the ignition, 60, 62, 116
— the inlet valve, 34, 37, 78, 116
— the exhaust valve, 36, 37, 78,
116
— wheels, 8, 37
Too rich a mixture, 46, 78
Too weak a mixture, 46, 73, 78
Torque, low, 75
Torsional oscillations of crank-
shaft, 77
Transfer pipe, 86, 87
Treasury rating for horse-power,
85, 101
Trembler blade, 67
— coil, 57, 61
Troughs, oil, 66
Tube, amount required tor radia-
tor, 74
— gilled, 74
— plain, 74
Tungsten-steel valves, 30
Twin piston two-stroke engine, 90
Two cylinder engine, 76
Two-point ignition, 69
Two-port two-stroke engine, 81,
86, 96
Two-stroke cycle, 80, 83, 87
— ■ engine, Kean, 86, 94
simple, 81, 86
twin piston, 96
two-port, 81, 86, 96
three-port, 97
valvelees, 97
by Google
108,
Ubaa steel, 00
Unbolaneed mass,
UnderfratQe, 40
Up-atroke, 4, 81
Vacuum, pEotial, 6, 46, 49, S2, 00
Valve, automatic inlet, 82, 84, 88
ejctra air. 43, 40, 88
— caps, 13, 31
— defective, 113, 114. 116
— exhaust, 5, 37, 81
— extra air, 43, 40, 04
— guides, 8
— head, 20
— inlet, 3, 5
— mechanically operated, 6, 30, 84
— mushroom type, 5, 8, 30
— needle, 44
— passages, 10
— relief, 67
— Beat, 13, 2fi
— aprings, 8, 20, 90
— atem guides, 8, 12, 13, 29
— tappet, 8, 20
— throttle, 44, 47
— - timing the exhaust, 35, 37, 78,
116
— — the inlet, 34, 37, 78, 116
— tungaten ateel, 30
Valves, noise from, 30, 39
— poppet, 20, 77, 70
— rotary, 79
— aleeve, 32, 77, 79
Valveless two-stroke engine, 97
Valve-setting diagram, 116
Vanadium steel, 20, 30
Vaporization, I, 46, 48, 49, 94
Vapour, inflammable, 63
— petrol, 1, 33, 42, 80
Velocity of air, 46, 70
Vent pipes, 39
Vibration of crankshaft, 76
VUcoBity, 63
Volatility, 108
Volume displaced by pist<
106, 107
— of clearance apace, 4, 106, 107
Volumetric efficiency, 83, 80, 88
Vulcanite fibre tappet head, 30
W
Washer. 29
Waste heat, 9, 17
Water boiling In jackets, 72
— circulating pump, 8, 67, 71
— cooled cylinder. 8, 32, 82. 98
- — cooling, internal, 02
— head of, 69, 71
— hot, for jacket, 43. 47, 94
— injection, 92
— jacket, 10, 12, 70, 72, 73. OS
— - pipe, inlet. 8, 69, 70, 71, 73
~ outlet, 8, 69. 70, 71, 73
— pump. 8, 30, 40, 72
Water-tight joint, 11, 16
Weakening the mixture, 49, 73
Wear on gudgeon pins. 19. 00
Webs, crank, 24
Weight of piston, 10
— of water in radiator, 74, 89
Weights, balance, 26
Wheels, fibre, for timing gear, 38
— sprocket, for chain, 38
— timing, 8, 34
Whipping of crankshaft, 76
Wick type of carburettor, 42
Winding, primary or low tenaion.
58
]ndary or high t
, 63,
Wipe form of contact breaker, 68
Wire, earthing, 00
Wiring diagram for coil ignition
By stem, 61
for magneto ignition sys-
tem, 60
Work, 98
— diagram. 103
Working cylinder, 81, 87, 107
Wrist pin. 18
by Google
SHORT TITLE LIST September, 1915
A SHORT LIST OF
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS
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TD
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BRIDGES, ARCHES, ROOFS, AND
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Retaining Walls in Theory and Practice. By T. E. Cole-
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Railway Tunnelling in Hea^ Ground. By C. Gripper.
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Levelling and Its General Application. By Thomas
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The Drainage of Fens and Low Lands by Gravitation and
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Stadia Surveying, the theory of Stadia Measurements. By
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Handbook on Tacheometrlcal Surveying. By C. Xydis.
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DICTIONARIES
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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. Edited
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Telephones : their Construction and Fitting. By F. C. All-
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Practical Construction of Electric Tramways. By W. R.
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Dynamo Lighting for Motor Gars. By M. A. Codd.
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Design and Construction of Induction Coils. By A. F.
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Electric Cables, their Construction and Cost. By D. Goyle
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Management of Electrical Machinery. By F. B. Groclcer
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Electric Lighting : A Practical Exposition of the Art. By
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80IBNTIPIC BOOKS. IB
The Care and Management of Ignition Accumolators.
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Elements o( Telephony. By A. Crotch. 51 illus., 90 pp.,
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Practical and Experimental Wireless Telegraphy. A Hand-
book for Operators, Students and Amateurs. By W. J.
Shaw, Member of the Wireless Society of London. 42
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Wireless Telephone Construction. By N. Harrison. 43
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Testing Telegraph Cables. By Colonel V. Hoskicer. Third
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Long Distance Electric Power Transmission. By R. W,
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Theory and Practice of Electric Wiring. By W. S. II)betson.
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Practical Electrical Engineering for Elementary Students.
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Form of Model General Conditions, recommended for use
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Telegraphy for Beginners. By W. H. Jones. 19 illus.,
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A Handbook of Electrical Testing. By H. R. Kempe.
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Electromagnets, their De^gn and Construction. By A. N.
Mansfield. 36 illus., 155 pp., i8mo, boards. Second ed.
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Telephone Construction, ■ Methods and Cost. By G.
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Practical Electrics : a Universal Handybook on Every D^
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Wiring Houses for the Electric Light. By N. H. Schneider.
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York. 1911.) IS. 6rf. net.
Induction Coils. By N. H. Schneider. 79 illus., 285 pp.,
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How to Install Electric Bells, Annunciators and Alarms.
By N. H. Schneider. Second edition. {1913.) 70 illus.,
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Modem Primary Batteries, their construction, use and main-
tenance. By N. H. Schneider, 54 illus., 94 pp., crown
8vo. (S. & C. Series, No. i.) (New York. 1910.) is. 6d. net.
Practical Engineers' Handbook on the Care and Manage-
ment o( Electric Power Plants. By N. H. Schneider.
203 illus., 274 pp., crown 8vo. {New York, 1906.) 5s. net.
Electrical Circuits and Diagrams, illustrated and explained.
By N. H. Schneider. 8vo. (S. & C. Series, Nos. 3 and 4.)
{New York.)
No. 3, Part i. Second edition. 217 illus., 72 pp. {New
York. 1914.) is.6d.aet.
No. 4, Part 2, 73 pp. Seconded, {1911.) js.6d.net.
Electrical Instruments and Testing. By N. H. Schneider
and J. Hargrave. Fourth edition, 133 illus., xxiv + 256
pp., cr. 8vo. {New York, 1913.) 4s. 6d. net.
Experimenting with Induction Colls. By N. H. Schneider.
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Study of Electricity for Beginners. By N. H. Schneider.
54illus., 88 pp., crown 8vo. (S.&C. Series, No. 6.) {New
York, 1910.) IS. 6d. net.
Wiring Houses (or the Electric Light : Low Voltage Battery
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25.) {New York. 1911.) is. 6d. net.
Low Voltage Electric Lighting with the Storage Battery.
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Dry Batteries : how to Make and Use them. By a Dry Battery
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30 illus., 59 pp., crown 8vo, {S. & C. Series, No. 7.) {New
York. 1910.) IS. 6d. net.
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The Diseases of Electrical Machinery. By E. Schulz.
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Electricity Simplified. ByT.O.Sloane. Thirteenth edition,
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How to become a Successful Electrician. By T. O. Sloane.
Fifteenth edition, 4 illus., 202 pp., crown 8vo, {New York,
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Electricity : its Theory, Sources and Applications. By J. T.
Sprague. Third edition, 109 illus., 658 pp., crown 8vo.
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Telegraphic ConnectiODS. By C. Thom and W. H. Jones.
20 plates, 59 pp., oblong 8vo. {New York, 1892.) 3s. 6d.
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Dynamo Electric Machinery. By Prof. S. P. Thompson.
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Design of Dynamos {Continuous Currents). By Prof. S. P.
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Curves of Magnetic Data for Various Materials. A reprint
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Electrical Tables and Memoranda. By Prof. S. P.
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Elements of Electro-Plating. By J. T. Sprague. Cr. 8vo,
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The Electromagnet. By C. R. Underbill. 67 illus., 159 pp.,
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Practical Guide to the Testing of Insulated Wires and
Gables. By H. L. Webb. Fifth edition, 38 illus., iiS
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Wiring Roles. With Extracts from the Board of Trade Regu-
lations and the Home Office Regulations for Factories and
Workshops. Issued by The Institution of Electrical
Engineers. Sixth edition, 42 pp., 8vo, sewed. (1911.)
6d. net.
FOREIGN EXCHANGE
EagUsb Prices with Russian EqalTftlents (at Fourteen
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English Prices wltb German Equivalents (at Seven Rates
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IS. net.
English Prices with French Equivalents (at Seven Rates
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gramme. By H. P. McCartney. 97 pp., 32mo. is. net.
Principles of Foreign Exchange. By E. Matheson.
Fourth edition, 54 pp. , 8vo, sewed. (1905.) ^. net.
GAS AND OIL ENGINES
The Theory of the Gas Engine. By D. Clerk. Edited by
F. £. Idell. Third edition, 19 illus., 180 pp.,iSmo, boards.
[New York, 1903.) 2s. net.
Electrical Ignition for Intenial Combustion Engines . By M .
A. Codd. 109 illus., 163 pp., crown 8vo. (1911.) 3s. net.
Design and Construction of Oil Engines, with full directions
for Erecting, Testing, Installing, Running and Repairing,
including descriptions of American and English Kerosene
Oil Engines, with an appendix on Marine Oil Engines. By
A. H. Goldingham, M.E., M.Am.S.M.E. Fourth edition,
137 illus., 299 pp. (New York. 1914.) 8s. td. net- Post-
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Gas Engine in Principle and Practice. By A. H. Golding-
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York. 1912.) 6s. 6d. net. ,
Practical Handbook on the Care and Management of
Gas Engines. By G. Lieckfeld. Third edition, square
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Elements of Gas Engine Design. By S. A. Moss. 197 pp.,
i8mo, boards. Seconded. {New York, 1907.) 2s. net.
Gas and Petroleum Engines. A Manual for Students and
Engineers.. By Prof. W. Robinson. (FlNSBURY Technical
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GAS LIGHTING
Transactions of the Institution of Gas Engineers. Edited
by Walter T. Dunn, Secretary. Published annually. 8vo.
los. 6d. net.
Gas Analyst's Manual. By J. Abady. 102 illus., 576 pp.,
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Gas Works : their Arrangement, Construction, . Plant and
Machinery. By F. Colyer. 31 folding plates, 134 pp.,
8vo. {1884.) 8s. 6d. net.
Lighting by Acetylene. By F. Dye. 75 illus., 200 pp.,
crown 8vo. {1902.) 6s. net.
A Comparison of the English and French Metbo.ds of
Ascertaining the Illuminating Power of Coal Gas. By
A. J. Van Eijndhoven. lUustrated, crown 8vo. {1897.) 4s.
Gas Lighting and Gas Fitting. By W. P. Gerhard. Third
edition, 190 pp., iSmo, boards. (New York, 1904.) zs. net,
A Treatise on the Comparative Commercial Values of
Gas Coais and Cannels. By D. A. Graham. 3 plates,
100 pp., 8vo. (1882.) 4s. 6d.
The Gas Engineer's Laboratory Handbook. By J. Horn-
by. Third edition, revised, 70 illus., 330 pp„ crown 8vo.
{1911.) 6s, net.
Electric Gas Lighting. By N. H. Schneider. 57 illus..
loi pp., crown 8vo. (S. & C. Series, No, 8.) {New York,
1901.) IS, ed. net.
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HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL
Extracts from the Private Letters of the late Sir William
Fotherglll Cooke, 1836-9, relating to the Invention' and
Development of the Electric Telegraph ; also a Memoir by
Latimer Clark. Edited by F. H. Webb, Sec.Inst.E.E.
8vo. [1895.) 3s.
A Chronology of Inland Navigation in Great Britain. By
H. R. De Sails. Crown 8vo. {1897.) 4s. 6d.
A History of Electric Telegraphy to the year 1837. By J.
J. Fable. 35 illus., 542 pp., crown 8vo, {1889.) 2S. net.
Life as an. Engineer : its Lights, Shades, and Prospects. By
J. W. 0. Haldane. New edition, 23 [dates, 390 pp;, crown
8vo. {1910.) 5s. net.
A Cornish Giant. Richard Trevethick, the father of the Loco-
motive Engine. By £. K. Harper. 12 iUus., including 2
plates, 60 pp., 8vo. sewed. {1913.) is. net.
Philipp Reis, Inventor of the Telephone : a Biographical
Sketch. By Prof. S. P. Thompson. 8vo, cloth. (1883.)
ys. 6d.
The Development of the Mercurial Air Pump. By Prof.
S.P.Thompson. 43 iUos,, 37 pp., royal 8vo, sewed. {1888.)
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HOROLOGY
Watch and Clock Maker's Handbook, Dictionary and
Guide. By F. J. Britten. Eleventh edition, 450 illus.,
492 pp., crown 8vo. {1915.) 5s. net.
Prize Essay on the Balance Spring and its Isochronal Adjust-
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HYDRAULICS AND HYDRAULIC
MACHINERY
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Hydraulics with Working Tables. By E. S. Bellasls.
Second edition, 160 illus., xii+311 pp., 8vo. {1911.) 12s.net.
Pumps ; Historically, Theoretically and Practically Considered.
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Pump Details. By P. R. BjQrUng. 278 iUus., 211 pp.,
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Pumps and Pump Motors ! A Manual for the use of Hydraulic
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Practical Handbook on Pump Construction. By P. R.
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Water or Hydraulic Motors. By P. R. Bjdrling. 206 illus..
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Hydraulic Machinery, with an Introduction to Hydraulics.
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Practiced Hydraulics. By T. Box. Fifteenth edition, 8
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Pumping and Water Power. By F. A. Bradley. 51 iUus.,
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Hydraulic, Steam, and Hand Power Lifting and Pressing
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Pumps end Pumping Machinery. By F. Colyer.
Vol. I. Second edition, 53 plates, 212 pp., 8vo. {1892.)
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Construction of Horizontal and Vertical Water-wheels.
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Donaldson's Poncelet Turbine and Water Pressure Engine
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Practical Hydrostatics and Hydrostatic FormulsB. By
E. S. Gould. 27 illus., 114 pp., i8mo, boards. {Neie York,
1903.) 2s.net.
Hydraulic and Other Tables for purposes of Sewerage and
Water Supply. By T. Hennell. Third edition, 70 pp.,
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Tables for Calculating the Discharge of Water in Pipes for
Water and Power Supplies. Indexed at side for ready refer-
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Simple Hydraulic Formnlie. By T. W. Ston«. g plates.
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A B C of Hydrodynamics. By Lieut.-Col. R. deVlllamll.
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Motion of Liquids. By Lieut.-Col. R. De Viilamll, R. Eng.
(Ret.). 8vo, xiv + 210 pp., 86 illus., 30 tables. {1914.)
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INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY AND
MANUFACTURES
Transactions of the American Institute of Chetnlcal En-
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Perfumes and Cosmetics, their Preparation and Manufacture,
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Brewing CalculationB, Gauging and Tabulation. By C. H.
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net.
A Pocket Book for Chemists, Chemical Manufacturers, Metal-
lurgists, Dyers, Distillers, etc. By T. Bayley. Seventh
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Practical Receipts for the Manufacturer, the Mechanic, and for
Home use. By Dr. H. R. Berkdey and W. M. Walker.
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A Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap and Candles,
Lubricants and Glycerine. By W.L. Carpenter and H.
Leask. Second edition, 104 illus., 456 pp., crown 8vo.
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A Text Book of Paper Making. By G. F. Cross and E. J.
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G.B.S. Standard Units and Standard Paper Tests. By C.
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23 pp., crown 4to. (1903.) 2S. 6d. net.
Pyrometry. By C. R. Darlii^. 60 illus., 200 pp., crown 8vo.
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Soda Fountain Requisites. A Practical Receipt Book for
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Spices and How to Know Them. By W. M. Gibbs. 47
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The Chemistry of Fire and Fire Prevention. By H. and H.
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Ice-making Machines. By M. Ledoux and others. Sixth
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Brewing with Raw Grain. By T. W. Lovlbond.' 75 pp.,
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The Chemistry, Properties, and Tests of Precious Stones.
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Sugar, a Handbook for Planters and Refiners. By the late
J. A. R. Newlands and B. E. R. Newlands. 236 illus.,
876 pp.. 8vo. (1909.) £1 5s. net.
Principles of Leather Manufacture. By Prof. H. R. Proc-
ter. Second edition in preparation.
Leather Industries Laboratory Handbook of Analytical and
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Leather Chemists' Pocket Book. A short compendium of
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Theoretical and Practical Ammonia Refrigeration. By
I. I. Redwood. Third edition; 15 illus., 146 pp., square
i6mo. {New York, 1914.) 4s. 6d. net. ,
Breweries and Maltioga. By G. Scammell and F. Colyer.
Second edition. 20 plates, 178 pp., 8vo. {18S0.) 6s. net.
Factory Glazes for Ceramic Engineers. By H. Rum-
Bellow. Folio. Series A, Leadless Sanitary Glazes.
{1908.) £2 2s. net.
Spons' Encyclopaedia of the Industrial Arts, Manufactures
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SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. 25
Tablea for the Quantitative Estimation of tiie Sugars. By
E. Wein and W. Frew. Crown 8vo, (1896.) 6s.
Tlie Puerlng, Bating and Drenching of Skins. By J. T.
Wood. 33 Ulus., XV + 300 pp., 8vo. (1912.) I2s.6e2.net.
Workshop Receipts. For the use of Manufacturers, Mechanics
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Edition, crown 8vo. . (1909.) 3s. each net.
Vol. I. Acetylene Lighting to Drying. 223 iUus.,
532 pp.
Vol, II. Dyeing to Japanning. 259 illus., 540 pp.
Vol. III. Jointing Pipes to Pumps. 256 illus., 528 pp.
Vol. IV. Rainwater Separators to Wire Rope
Splicing. 321 illus., 540 pp.
Practical Handbook on the Distillation of Alcohol from
Farm Products. By F. B. Wright. Second edition. 60
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INTEREST TABLES
The Wide Range Dividend and Interest Calculator, showing
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The Wide Range Income Tax Calculator, showing at a glance
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IRRIGATION
Irrigation Works. By E. S. Bellasis. 37 illus., viii + 174
pp., 8vo. {1913.) 8s. net.
Punjab Rivers and Works. By E. S. Bellasis. Second
edition, 47 illus.. 65 pp., folio. {1912.) 8s. net.
Irrigation Pocket Book, By R. B. Buckley, Second ed.,
80 illus., viii + 475 pp., cr. 8vo, leather, gilt edges. (1914.)
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The Design of Channels foi' Irrigation and Drainage. By
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The Irrigation Works of India. By R. B. BudOey. Second
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{1&05.) £2 2S. net.
Irrigated India. By Hon. Alfred Deakin. With Map, 322
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Indian Storage Reserroirs, with Earthen Dams. ByW.L.
Strange. Second ed., 16 plates, 59 illns., xziv + 442 pp.,
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The Irrigation of Mesopotamia. By Sir W. Willcocks.
2 vols., 46 plates, 136 pp. (Text super royal 8vo, plates
folio.) {1911.) £1 net.
Egyptian Irrigation. By Sir W. WiUcocks and J. I. .Craig.
In 2 Vols. Third edition, 81 plates, 183 iilus., 900 pp.,
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The Nile Reservoir Dam at Assuan, and After. By Sir
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The NUe In 1904. By Sir W. WillcockH. 30 plates, 200 pp.,
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LOGARITHM TABLES
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Weights and Money. On folding card. 4^. net. 20 copies,
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Four-Place Tables of Logarithms and Trigonometric
Functions. By E. V. Huntington. Ninth thousand,
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Short Logarithmic and other Tables. By W. C. Unwln.
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Logarithmic Land Measorement. By J. Wallace. 32
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ABC Five-figure Logarithms with Tables, for Chemists.
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ABC Five-flgure Logarithms for general use, with lateral
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MARINE ENGINEERING
AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE
Marine Propellers. By S. W. Bamaby. Fifth edition, 5
■ plates, 56 iUus., 185 pp., demy 8vo. (1908.) 10s. 6d. net.
The Suction Caused by Ships and the Olympic-Hawke
Collision. By E. S. Bellasls. I chart .and 5 illus. in
text, 26 pp., 8vo, sewed. (1912.) is. net.
Yachting Hints, Tables and Memoranda. By A. C. Franklin.
Waistcoat pocket size, 103 pp;, 64mo, roan, gilt edges.
IS. net.
Steamship Coefficients, Speeds and Powers. By C. F. A.
Fyte. 31 plates, 280 pp., fcap. 8vo, leather. (1907.)
los. 6d. net.
How to Build a Speed Launch. By £. W. Graef. 14 plates,
32 pp., quarto. (New York, 1903). 4s. 6d. net.
Steamships and Their Machinery, from iirst to last. By
J. W. G. Haldane. 120 iUus., 532 pp., 8vo. (1893.) 15s.
Structural Pesign of Warships. By William Hovgaard.
Professor Naval Design, Mass. Inst, of Technology; M.
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23 tables, 6 plates, and 186 illus. 3&( pp, [191S). 21s.
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Tables (or Constructing Ships' Lines. By A. Hogg. Third
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Tabulated Weights of Angle, Tee, Bulb, Round. Square, and
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Marine Transport of Petroleum. By H. Little. 66 illus.,
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Questions and Answers for Marine Engineers, with a Prac-
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1902.) 8s. net.
How to Build a Motor Launch. By C D. Mower. 49 illus.,
42 pp., 4to. {New York, 190i). 4s. 6d. net.
Reed's Engineers* Handbook to the Board of Trade
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358 illus., 696 pp., 8vo. 14s. nel.
Key to Reed's Handbook. 7s. 61^. net.
Reed's Marine Boilers. Third edition, 79 illus., 258 pp./
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Reed's Useful Hints to Sea-going Engineers. Fourth
edition, 8 plates, 50 illus., 312 pp., crown 8vo. (1903.)
3s. 6d. net.
How to Build a Three-horse Power Launch Engine. By
E. W. Roberts. 14 plates, 66 pp., folio. (New York, 1901).
los. 6i. net.
MATERIALS
Practical Treatise on the Strength of Materials. By T.
Box. Fourth edition, 27 plates, 536 pp., 8vo. {1902.)
I2S. 6d. net.
Solid Bitumens. By S. F. Peckham. 23 illus., 324 pp.,
8vo. {New York. 1909.) £l is. net.
Lubricants, Oils and Greases. By I. I. Redwood. 3
plates, ix + 54 pp., 8vo. {1898.) 6s. 6d. net.
Practical Treatise on Mlnersj Oils and their By-Products.
By I. I. Redwood. 76 illus., 336 pp., 8vo. {1914.)
JOS. 6d. net.
Sillco-Calcareous Sandstones, or Building Stones from
Quartz, Sand and Lime. By £. Stoffler. 5 plates, 8vo,
sewed. {1901.) 4s. net.
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SCIBNnpiC BOOKS. 29
Proceedings of the Fifth Coi^ess, Intematloiial Associa*
tloa for Testing Materials. EogUsh edition. 189 iUus.,
549 pp., 8vo. (1910.) 18s. net.
Proceedings of the Sixth Congress. {1913.) 30s. net.
MATHEMATICS
Imaginary Quantities , By M . Argand. Translated by
Prof. Hardy. i8mo, boards. {New York.) 1881. 2s.net.
Text-book of Practical Solid Geometry. By E. H. de V.
Atkinson. Revised by Major B. R. Ward, R.E. Second
edition, 17 plates, 134 pp., 8vo, {1913.) ys. 6d.
Quick and Easy Methods of Calculating, and the Theory
and Use of the Slide Rule. By R, G. Blaine. Fourth
edition, 6 illns., xti + iga pp., i6mo. {1912.) 2S. 6d. net.
Symbolic Algebra, or the Algebra of Algebraic Numbeis.
By W. Cain. 12 illus., 131 pp., i8mo, boards. {New
York. 1884.) zs. net.
Nautical Astronomy, By J. H. CoMn. 127 pp., crown 8vo.
{1901.) 2s. W. net.
Chemical Problems. By J. C. Foye. Fourth edition, 141
pp., i8mo, boards. {New York, 1898.) 2S. net.
Primer of the Calculus. By E. S. Gotild. Fifth ed., 24
illus., 122 pp., i^»o, boards. {New York, 1912. ] 25. net.
Elementary Treatise on the Calculus for Engineering Stu-
dents. ''By J. Graham. Fourth edition, 116 illus., xii
+ 355 PP-, cr. 8vo. (1914.) 5s. net.
Manual of the Slide Rale. By F. A. Halsey. Fourth edition,
31 illus,, 84 pp., i8mo, boards. {New York, 1907.) 2s. net.
Reform in Cltemlca] and Physical Calculations, By
C. J. T. Hanssen. 4to. {1897,) 6s. &d. net.
Algebra Self-Taught. By P. Hlggs. Third edition; 104
pp., crown 8vo. {1903.) 2s. td.
A Text-book on Graphic Statics. . By C. W. Malcolm.
155 illus., 316 pp., 8vo. {New York, 1909.) izs. 64. net.
Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically. By G. S.
Ohm. Translated by William Francis. 269 pp., .i8mo.
tx>ards. Second ed. {New York, 1995.) zs. net.
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Elemeatary Practical Mathematics. By M. T. Ormsby.
Second edition, tzS illus., xii + 410 PP-> medium 8vo,
{1911.) 5s. net.
Elementa of Graphic Statics. By K. Von Ott. Translated
byG.S. Clarke, gsillus., 128pp., crownSvo. (1901.) 55.
Figure of the Earth. By F. G. Roberts. 2 illus., 95 pp.,
i8mo, boards. {New York, 188S.) as. net.
Arithmetic of Electricity. By T. O'C. Sloane. Twentieth
ed., 5 illus., 162 pp., crown 8vo. {New York, 1909.)
4$. 6d. net.
Graphic Method for Solving certain Questions in Arith-
metic or Algebra. By G. L. Vose. Second edition,
28 illus., 62 pp., i8mo, boards. {New York, 1902.) 2s.net..
Problems In Electricity. A Graduated Collection comprising
all branches of Electrical Science. By R. Weber. Trans-
lated from the French by E. A. 0*Keefe. 34 illus.,
366 pp., crown 8vo. Third ed. {1902.) ys. (4. net
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Steam Engines and Boilers, etc.
Engineers* Sketch Book of Mechanical Movements. By
T. W. Barber. Fifth edition, 3,000 illus., 355 pp., 8vo.
{1906.) los. 6d. net.
The Repair and Maintenance of Macmnery. By T. W,
Barber. 417 illus., 476 pp., 8vo. {1895.) los. 6d.
The Science of Burnli^ Liquid Fuel. By William Newton
Best. 100 illus., 159 pp. 8vo. (1913.) gs. net.
Practical Treatise on MiU Gearing. By T, Box. Fifth
edition, 11 plates, 128 pp., crown 8vo. (1892.) js. 6d.
The Mechanical Engineer's Price Book. Edited by Geof-
frey Brooks, A.M.I. Mech.E. 182 pp., pocket size (64 by
3i ^y i 'ii*^l>) ■ Leather cloth with roundrf comers. Second ■
ed. [1914.) 4s. net. Postage gi.
Safety Valves. By R. H. Buell. Third edition, zo illus.,
100 pp., iftmo, boards. {New York, 1898.) 2s. net.
Machine Design. By Prof. W. L. Gathcart.
Part I. FASTBimiGS. ' 123 illus., 291 pp., demy 8vo.
{New York, 1903.) 12s. 6d. net.
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SCIHINTIFIC BOOKS. 31
Chimney Design and Theory. By W. W. Christie. Second
edition, 54 illus., 192 pp., crown 8vo. (New York, 1902.)
I2S, 6d. net.
Furnace Draft : its Production by Mechanical Methods. By
W. W. Christie. 5 illus., 80 pp., iSmo, boards. Second
edition. {Nem York, 1906.) zs. net.
The Stokers' Catechism. By W. J. Connor. 63 pp., limp.
{1914.) IS. net.
Treatise on the use of Belting for the Transmission of Power.
By J. H. Cooper. Fifth edition, 94 illus., 399 pp., demy
8vo. (New York, 1901.) 12s. 6d. net.
The Steam Engine considered as a Thermo-dynamlc
Machine. By J. H. CotteriU. Third edition, 39 dia-
grams, 444 pp., 8vo. {1896.) 15s.
Fireman's Guide, a Handbook on the Care of Boilers. By
K. P. Dahlstrom. Eleventh edition, fcap. 8vo. (S. & C.
Series, No. 16.} {New York, 1906'.) is. 6d. net.
Belt Driving. By G. Halliday. 3 folding plates, 100 pp.,
, 8vo. {1894.) 3s. 6d.
Worm and Spiral Gearing. By F. A. Halsey. 13 plates,
85 pp., i8mo. boards. Second ed. {New York, 1911.) zs. net.
Commercial EfiSciency of Steam Boilers. By A. Hanssen.
Large Svo, sewed. {1898.) 6d.
CorUss Engine. By J. T.Henthorn. Third edition, 23 iUus.,
95 pp., crown Svo. {S.&C. Series, No. 23.) {New York,
1910.) IS. 6<f. net.
Liquid Fuel for Mechanical and Industrial Purposes. By E. A,
Brayley Hodgetts. 106 illus., 129 pp., Svo. {1890.) $s.
Elementary Text-book on Steam Engines and Boilers.
By J. H. Einealy. Fourth edition, 106 illus,, 359 pp., Svo.
{New York, 1903.) 8s. 6d. net.
Centrifugal Fans. By J. H. Klnealy. 33 illus., 206 pp., fcap.
Svo. leather. (New York, 1905.) 12s. 6d. net.
Mechanical Draft. By J. H. KJnealy. 27 original tables
and 13 plates, 142 pp., crown Svo. {New York, 1908.)
8s. 6d. net.
The'A B Cof the Steam Engine, with a description of the
Automatic Governor. By J. P. Lisk. 6 plates, Svo.
(S. & C. Semes, No. 17.) {New York. 1910.) is. 6d. net.
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Valve Setting Record Book. By P. A. Low. 8vo, boards.
IS. 6d.
The Lay-out of Corliss Valve Gears. By S. A. Moaa.
Second edition, 3 plates, 108 pp., i8mo, boards. {New
York. J906.) 2s. net.
Steam Boilers, their Management and Working. By J.
Peattle. Fifth edition, 35 illus., 230 pp., crown 8vo.
(1906.) 4$. 6d. net.
Treatise on the Richards Steam Engine Indicator. By
C. T. Porter. Sixth edition, 3 plates and 73 diagrams,
285 pp., 8vo. [1902.) gs.
Practical Treatise on the Steam Et^lne. By A. Rlgg.
Second edition, 103 plates, 378 pp., demy 4to. (1894.)
Power and Its Transmission. A Practical Handbook for
the Factory and* Works Manag:er. By T. A. Smith.
76 pp., fcap. 8vo. {1910.) 2S. net.
SUde Valve Simply Explained. By W. J. Tennant. Re-
vised by J. H. Kinealy. 41 illus., 83 pp., crown 8vo. {New
York, 1899.) 2s. net.
Shaft Governors. By W. Trlnks and C. Hoosum. 27 illus.,
97 pp., iSmo, boards. {New York, 1906.) zs. net.
Treatise on the Design and Construction of MIU Buildings.
By H. G. Tyrrell. 652 illus., 490 pp., 8vo. {New York,
1911.) 17s. net.
Slide and Piston Valve Geared Steam Engines. By W. H.
Uhland. 47 plates and 314 illus., 155 pp. Two vols.,
folio, half morocco. {1882.) £1 i6s.
How ^o run Engines and Boilers. By E. P. Watson. Sixth
ed., 31 illus., 160 pp., 8vo. {New York, 1913.) 4s, 6d. net.
Position Diagram of Cylinder with Meyer Gut-off. By
W. H. Weightman. On card. {New York.) is. net.
Practical Method of Designing Slide Valve Gearing. By
E. J. Welch. 69 illus, 283 pp., crown 8vo. {1890.) 6s.
Elements of Mechanics. By T. W. Wright. Eighth edition,
215 illus., 382 pp., 8vo. {New York, 1909.) los. 6d. net.
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8CIEHTIFIC BOOKS. 33
METALLURGY
Iron and Steel Manufacture
Life of Railway Axles. By T. Andrews. Svo, sewed
(1895.) IS.
Microscopic Internal Flaws in Steel Rails and Propeller
Sliafts. By T. Andrews. Svo, sewed. {1896.) is.;.
Microscopic Internal Flaws, Inducing Fracture in Steel.
By T. Andrews. 8vo, sewed. {1896.) 2s.
Practical Alloying. A copqiendiuin of Alloys and Processes
for Brassfounders. Metal Workers, and Engineers. By
John F. Buchanan. 41 illus., 205 pp., Svo. {New York,
1911.) los. 6d. net.
Brassfounders' Alloys. By J. F. Buchanan. 23 illus.,
viii + 129 pp., crown Svo. [1905.) 4s. 6d. net.
The Moulder's Dictionary (Foundry Nomenclature). By
J. F. Buchanan. New impression, 26 illus., viii + 225 pp.,
crown Svo. {1912.) 3s. net.
American Standard Specifications tor Steel, By A, L.
Colby. Second edition, revised, 103 pp., crown Svo. [New
York. 1902.) 5s. net.
Galvanized Iron : its Manufacture and Uses. By J. Davies.
139 pp., Svo. [1914.) 5s. net.
Management of Steel. By G. Ede. Seventh edition, 216 pp.,
crown Svo. [1903.) 5s.
The Frodair Handbook for Ironfounders. 160 pp., i2ino.
[1910.) 2S. net.
Manufacture of Iron and Steel. By H. R. Hearson. 21
illus., xii + 103 pp., Svo. [1912.) 4s. 6d. net.
Cupola Furnace. By E. Kirk. Third edition, 106 illus., 484
pp., Svo. {New York, 1910.) 15s. net.
Practical Notes on Pipe Founding. By J. W. Macfarlane.
15 plates, 148 pp., Svo. [1888.) 12s. 6d.
Atlas of Designs concerning Blast Furnace Practice. By
M. A. Pavldff. 127 plates, 14 in. by loj in. oblong, sewed.
[1902.) £1 IS. net.
Album of Drawings relating to the Manufacture of Open
Hearth Steel. By M. A. Pavloff.
Part I. Open Heakth Furnaces. 52 plates, 14 in. by
loj in. oblong folio, in portfolio. {1904.) 12s. net.
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Metallography Applied to Siderurglc Products. By H.
Savoia. Translated by R. G. Corbet. 94 illus., iSo pp.,
croWD 8vo. (1910.) 45. 6d. net.
Modem Foundry Practice. By J. Sharp. Second edition,
new impression, 272 illus., 759 pp., 8vo. {1911.) £1 is.
net.
Roll Turning for Sections in Steel and Iron. By A. Spen-
cer. Second edition, 78 plates, 410. (1894.) £1 los.
METRIC TABLES
French Measure and English Equivalents. By J. Brook.
Second edition, 80 pp., fcap. 32mo, roan. is. net.
A Dictionary of Metric and other useful Measures. By
L. Clark. 113 pp., 8vo. 6s.
English Weights, with their Equivalents in kilogrammes.
By F. W. A. Logan. 96 pp., fcap. 32mo, roan. is. net.
Metric Weights with English Equivalents. By H. P.
McCartney. 84 pp., fcap. 32mo, roan. is. net.
Metric Tables. By Sir G. L. Molesworth. Fourth edition,
95 pp., royal 32mo. (1909.) 2S. net.
Metric -English and English -Metric Lengths. By G. A.
Rossetti. xii + 80 pp., ob. 32mo. is. net. Giving
equivalents in millimetres {to five significant figures) of all
English lengths from i^^th of an inch to 10 ft., advancing
by 64ths of an inch ; and equivalents to the nearest 64th
of an inch of all Metric lengtlis from i to 3,200 millimetres,
advancing by millimetres.
Tables for Setting out Curves from 200 metres to 4,000 metres
by tangential angles. By H. Williamson. 4ilJus., 60pp.,
i8mo. 2S. net.
MINERALOGY AND MINING
Rock Blasting. By G. G. Andre. 12 plates and 56 illus. in
text, 202 pp., 8vo. (1878.) 5s.
Practical Treatise on Hydraulic Minit^ in California. By
A. J. Bowie, Junr. Eleventh ed.,73 illus., 313 pp., royaJ
8vo. {New York, 1910.) £1 is. net.
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Tables for the Determinatioit of Common Rocks. By O.
Bowles. 64pp.. iSmo, boards. (New York, 19J0.) . 2s. net.
Fire Assaying. By E. W. Buskett. 69 illus., 105 pp., crown ,
8vo. (Neje York, 1907.) 4s. 6d. net.
Tin : Describing the Chief Methods of Miniog.Dressing, etc. By A.
G.Charleton. 15 plates, 83 pp., crown 8vo. {1884.) 12s. 6(i.
Gold Mining and Milling in Western Australia, with Notes
upon TeUuride Treatment, Costs and Mining Practice in
other Fields. By A. G. Charleton. 82 illus. and numerous
plans and tables, 648 pp., super royal 8vo. [1903.) 12s.6rf.net.
Miners* Geology and Prospectors' Guide. By G. A.
Gorder. 29 plates, 324 pp., crown 8vo. (1914.) $s. net.
Blasting of Rock in Mines, Quarries, Tunnels, etc. By
A. W. and Z. W. Daw, Second edition, 90 illus., 316 pp.,
demy 8vo. {1909.) 15s. net.
Gold Dredging. By C. T. Earl. 17 maps, 78 illus., xvi +
208 pp., 8vo. (1913.) 20S. net.
Handbook of Mineralogy ; determination and description of
Minerals found in the United States. By J. C. Foye.
180 pp., i8mo, boards. Fifth ed. {New York, 1907.) 2s.net.
Our Coal Resources at the End of the Nineteenth Century.
By Prof. E. Hull. 157 pp., demy 8vo. {1S97.) 6s.
Hydraulic Gold Miners' Manual. By T. S. G. Kirkpatrlck.
Second edition, 12 illus., 46 pp., crown 8vo. (1897.) 45.
Economic Mining. By G. G. W. Lock. 175 iljus., 680 pp.,
8vo. {1895.) los. td. net.
Gold Milling : Principles and Practice. By C. G. W. Lock.
200 illus., 850 pp., demy 8vo. {1901.) £1 is. net.
Mining and Ore-Dressing Machinery. By C. G. W. Lock.
639 illus., 466 pp., super royal 4to. {1890.) £1 5s.
Miners' Pocket Book. By C. G. W. Lock. Fifth edition,
233 illus., 624 pp., fcap, 8vo, leather, gilt edges. {1908.)
10s. 6d. net.
Chemistry, Properties and Tests of Precious Stones. By
J. Mastln, 114 pp., fcap. i6mo, limp leather, gilt top.
(1911.) 2s. 6d. net.
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Tests for Ores, Minerals and Metals of Commercial Value.
By R. L. McMechen. 152 pp., lamo. {New York, 1907.)
5s. 6d, net.
Practical Handbook for the Working Miner and Prospector,
and the Mining Investor. By J. A. Miller. 34 illus.,
234 pp., crown 8vo, (1897.) ys. 6d.
Theory and Practice of Centrifugal Ventilating Machines.
By D. Morgue. 7 iUus., 81 pp., 8vo. {1883^ $s.
Examples of Goal Mining Plant. By J. Povey-Harper.
Second edition, 40 plates, ^ in. by 20 in, (1895.) £4 4s, net.
Examples of Coal Mining Plant, Second Series. By J.
Povey-Harper. 10 plates, 26 in. by 20 in. (1902.)
£1 I2S. 6d. net.
MODELS AND MODEL MAKING
How to Build a Model Yacht. By H. Fisher. 45 illus.,
50 pp., 4to, (New York, 1902.) 4s. 6d. net.
Model Engines and Small Boats. By N. M. Hopkins. 50
illus., viii+74 pp., crown 8vo. (New York, 1898.) ^s.6d.att.
Theory and Practice of Model Aeroplaning. By V. E.
Johnson. 61 illus., xvi 4- 148 pp., crown 8vo. (1910.)
3s. 6d. net.
The Model Vaudeville Theatre. By N. H. Schneider. 34
illus., 90 pp., crown 8vo. (S. &C. Series, No. 15.) (New
York. 1910.) IS. 6d. net.
Electric Toy-Making. By T. O. Sloane. Twentieth ed., 70
illus., 183 pp., crown 8vo. (New York, 1914.) 4s. 6d. net.
Model Steam Engine Design. By R. M. De VIgnier. 34
illus., 94 pp., crown 8vo, limp. (S. &. C. Series, No. 9.)
(New York, 1907.) is. fd. net.
Small Engines and Boilers. By £. P. Watson. 33 illus.,
, ■ viii + loS pp„ crown 8vo. (Nm York, 1899.) 5s. td. net.
ORGANIZATION
' Accounts, Contracts and Management
Organization of Gold Mining Business, with Specimens of
• the Departmental Report Books and the Account Books.
By Nicol Brown. Second edition, 220 pp., fcap. folio.
(1903.) £1 5s. net.
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SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. ST
Cost Keeping and Management Engineering. A Treatise
for those engaged in Engineering Construction. By H. P.
Gillette and R. T. Dana. 184 iUus., 346 pp., 8vo. {New
York. 1909.) 15s. net.
Handbook on Railway Stores Management. By W, O.
Kempthorne. 268 pp., demy 8vo, (1907.) los. 6d. net.
Depreciation of Factories, Municipal, and Industrial Under-
takings, and their Valuation. By E. Matheson. Fourth
edition, 230 pp., 8vo. [1910.) los. 6rf, net.
Aid Book to Engineering Enterprise. By E. Matheson.
Third edition, 916 pp., 8vo, buckram. (1898.) £1 4s. ■ ■
Office Management. A handbook for Architects and Civil
Engineers. By W.Kaye Parry. New Edition in preparaiion.
Commercial Organization of Engineering Factories. By
H. Spencer. 92 illus., 221 pp., 8vo. [1914.) 10s. 6rf. net.
Colour, Heat and Experimental Science
The Entropy Diagram and its Applications. By M. J.
Boulvln. 38 illus., 82 pp., demy 8vo. (1914.) 55.
Physical Problems and their Solution. By A. Bour-
gougnon. 224 pp., i8mo, boards. Second ed. (New York,
1904.) 2S. net.
Heat for Engineers. By C. R. Darling. Second edition,
no illus,, 430 pp., 8vo. (FiNSBURY Technical Manual.)
(1912.) 12s. bd. net.
Beaum£ and Specific Gravity Tables for liquids lighter than
water. By Nat H. Freeman. 27 pp., cr. 8vo, (1914.)
zs. 6d. net. Post free, 2s. 8d.
Engineering Thermodynamics. By C. F. HIrschfeld. 22
illus., 157 pp., iSmo, boards. Second ed. {New York, 1910.)
2s. net.
Liquid Drops and Globules, their Formation and Movements.
By Chas. R. Darling. Assoc.R.C.S., Ireland ; F.I.C. ;
F.Ph. Socy. Lecturer at the City and Guilds Technical
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Edited by P. F. Rowell, Surttaiy,
Issued in quarto parts. The number of parts are from
12 to i6 annually. Annual Subscription, 46s., payable
in advance. Single numbers, 3s. gd. post free.
The Proceedings of the Institution of Municipal
and County Engineers.
Edited by Thomas Cole, Assoc,M.Inst,C.E., Secretary.
Issued in monthly parts (fortnightly during April, May, June
and July). Price is, gd., post free, each part.
Transactions of the Institution of Gas
Engineers.
Edited by Walter T. Dunn, Secretary.
Published Annually, 8vo. los. 6d. net.
ffoceedings of the International Association
for Testing Materials.
{English Edition.)
Proceedings of 5th Congress, i8s. net. Proceedings of 6th
Congress, 30s. net.
Transactions of the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers.
• Published Annually, 8vo. 30s. net,
Transactions of the Paint and Varnish Society.
Annual Subscription, Inland, 5s. i\d. ; Abroad, 5s. 8d., post free.
Bound Volumes, each, 5s. net. Issued Annually.
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AN INITIAL FINE OF 2S GENTS
.URE TO RETURN
WILL BE AS8KSSCO FOR P
THIS BOOK ON THE RATE DUC T
WILL INCREASe TO SO CENTS ON
DAY AND TO SI.OO ON THE SEVENTH
OVERDUE.
• N6V--23 the.-,
NOV 24 1933
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